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Cayuga people

The Cayuga (Cayuga: Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫʼ, "People of the Great Swamp") are one of the five original constituents of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), a confederacy of Native Americans in New York. The Cayuga homeland lies in the Finger Lakes region along Cayuga Lake, between their league neighbors, the Onondaga to the east and the Seneca to the west. Today, Cayuga people belong to the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in Ontario, and the federally recognized Cayuga Nation of New York and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma.

History
Political relations between the Cayuga, the British, and the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution were complicated and variable, with Cayuga warriors fighting on both sides (as well as abstaining from war entirely). Most of the Iroquois nations allied with the British, in part hoping to end encroachment on their lands by colonists. In 1778, various Iroquois bands, oft allied with British-colonial loyalists (Tories) conducted a series of raids along the frontier from Connecticut to New York and into south-central Pennsylvania threatening much of the Susquehanna Valley. From the revolutionary government's point of view in Philadelphia, several of these were atrocities, and in the early summer that body proceeded to order Washington to send regiments to quell these disturbances.

Consequently, in 1779, General George Washington of the Continental Army appointed General John Sullivan and James Clinton to lead the Sullivan Expedition, a retaliatory military campaign designed to unseat the Iroquois Confederacy and prevent the nations from continuing to attack New York militias and the Continental Army. The campaign mobilized 6200 troops and devastated the Cayuga and other Iroquois homelands, destroying 40-50 villages. Those destroyed included major Cayuga villages such as Cayuga Castle and Chonodote (Peachtown). The expedition, with attacks from the spring through the fall, also destroyed the crops and winter stores of the Iroquois, to drive them out of the land. Survivors fled to other Iroquois tribes, or to Upper Canada. Some were granted land there by the British in recognition of their loyalty to the Crown.

Following the end of the war, the Central New York Military Tract was established in order to grant land bounties to veterans. The tract originally included a Cayuga reservation surrounding the north end of Cayuga Lake, but the reservation was given up a few years later in a treaty with the state.

Some Seneca and Cayuga had left the area earlier even as Tuscarora were migrating north in the early decades of the 1700s, going west of the Alleghenies to the long depopulated Ohio Country lands; settling in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Eastern Ohio. These tribes became known as the Mingo or "Black Mingo", for they had a bad reputation, so were able to take in their kin after that systematic bloodletting in 1779. After the Sullivan Campaign, more Cayuga joined them, as well as some other bands of Iroquois who left New York before the end of the Revolutionary War. As the American Revolution was nearing its end, settlers resumed trekking west of the Alleghenies in a trickle that by 1810, became a flood. Other eastern Amerindians, joined by eastward remnants of Susquehannock and large groups of Delaware peoples had also traveled the ancient trails through the gaps of the Allegheny to found settlements such as Kittanning (village) and others in the Ohio Valley. Only weakened cobbled together tribes, such as the Mingo, were in the land, which was still mostly empty; creating a situation drawing settlers west in increasing numbers. By 1831 those Indians left in the lands east of Ohio were encouraged by bigotry, and at times forcibly removed to the Indian Territory, in what became Oklahoma. Their remnants, consequently, the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma are a federally recognized tribe.

On November 11, 1794, the (New York) Cayuga Nation (along with the other Haudenosaunee nations) signed the Pickering Treaty with the United States, by which they ceded much of their lands in New York to the United States, forced to do so as allies of the defeated British. It was the second treaty the United States entered into. It recognized the rights of the Haudenosaunee as sovereign nations. The Pickering Treaty remains an operating legal document; the U.S. government continues to send the requisite gift of muslin fabric to the nations each year.

The state of New York made additional treaties with the tribes but failed to get them ratified by the Senate. As it lacked the constitutional authority to deal directly with the tribes, individual tribes have sued for land claims since the late 20th century, charging New York had no authority for their actions. The state rapidly arranged sales of more than 5 e6acre of former Iroquois lands at inexpensive prices to encourage development in the state. It also granted some western lands to war veterans in lieu of pay. Speculators bought up as much land as they could and resold it to new settlers. Land-hungry Yankees from New England flooded into New York in waves of new settlement, as did some settlers from the Mohawk Valley. Immigrants also came from the British Isles and France after the war.

Recognized bands

There are three Cayuga bands. The two largest, the Lower Cayuga and Upper Cayuga, still live in Ontario, both at Six Nations of the Grand River, a reserve recognized by the Canadian government. Two federally recognized tribes of Cayuga constitute the third band in the United States: the Cayuga Nation of New York in Seneca Falls, New York, and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma.

The Cayuga Nation of New York does not have a reservation. Members have lived among the Seneca Nation on their reservation. Since the late 20th century, they have acquired some land in their former homeland by purchase.

Land claims
The Cayuga Nation of New York filed an action on November 19, 1980, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York to pursue legislative and monetary restitution for land taken from it by the State of New York during the 18th and 19th centuries. New York had entered into land sales and leases with the Cayuga Nation after the signing of the Treaty of Canandaigua after the American Revolutionary War. Its failure to get approval of the United States Senate meant the transactions were illegal, as the state had no constitutional authority to deal directly with Indian nations. The Treaty of Canandaigua holds that only the United States government may enter into legal discussions with the Haudenosaunee.

In 1981, the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma was added as a plaintiff in the claim. Following many years of pre-trial motions, a jury trial on damages was held from January 18-February 17, 2000. The jury returned a verdict in favor of the Cayuga Indian Nation of New York and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma, finding current fair market value damages of $35 million and total fair rental value damages of $3.5 million. The jury gave the state a credit for the payments it had made to the Cayuga of about $1.6 million, leaving the total damages at approximately $36.9 million. On October 2, 2001, the court issued a decision and order which awarded a prejudgment interest award of $211 million and a total award of $247.9 million.

Both the plaintiffs and the defendants appealed this award. On June 28, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit rendered a decision that reversed the judgment of the trial court. It ruled in favor of the defendants, based on the doctrine of laches. Essentially the court ruled that the plaintiffs had taken too long to present their case, when it might have been equitably settled earlier.

The Cayuga Indian Nation of New York sought review of this decision by the Supreme Court of the United States, which was [ denied on May 15, 2006]. The time in which the Cayuga Indian Nation could ask the U.S. Supreme Court to rehear the case has passed.

The Nation reclaimed its first land on July 17, 1996, by purchasing 14 acre in Seneca Falls, within their 64,000 acre land claim area. On August 2, 1997 a dedication was held where members of all the Iroquois Confederacy nations were present. This purchase began the return of the Cayuga People to their ancestral homelands. They planted a pine tree at this dedication as a symbol that the Cayuga People are still alive and wanting to return. The elder women of the Cayuga Nation broke the ground and planted the pine tree to welcome the return of their people to their home territory.

In December 2005, the S.H.A.R.E. (Strengthening Haudenosaunee-American Relations through Education) Farm (including a house) was signed over to the Cayuga nation by United States citizens who had purchased and developed the 70 acre farm in Aurora, New York. This is the first property which the Cayuga Nation has owned since after being forced to cede its lands after the Revolutionary War. It is the first time they have lived within the borders of their ancestral homeland in more than 200 years. The Cayuga continue to debate having the Bureau of Indian Affairs take this land into trust for them. They have been developing projects featuring indigenous planting, cultivation of herbs and medicinal plants, wild plant collection and a seed saving program.

Current population
In 1995 there were nearly 450 Cayuga members in New York. In the 21st century, there are about 4,892 combined members of the Cayuga-Seneca Nation in Oklahoma.

The total number of Iroquois is difficult to establish. About 45,000 Iroquois lived in Canada in 1995, more than 39,000 in Ontario and the remainder in Quebec. Among the six nations and federally recognized units in the United States, total tribal enrollment in 1995 numbered about 30,000. In the 2000 US Census, 45,217 respondents identified solely as Iroquois (but this does not mean they were enrolled as members); and 80,822 as having Iroquois ancestry.

Notable Cayuga

 * George Edward Bomberry, Physician, first indigenous graduate of McGill University (M.D. C.M. 1875).
 * Jenna Clause, actress
 * Gary Farmer, actor
 * Annessa Hartman, American politician
 * Ourehouare, tribal leader
 * Robbie Robertson, Canadian musician and lead singer of The Band

title: Cayuga people


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Drug tolerance

Drug tolerance or drug insensitivity is a pharmacological concept describing subjects' reduced reaction to a drug following its repeated use. Increasing its dosage may re-amplify the drug's effects; however, this may accelerate tolerance, further reducing the drug's effects. Drug tolerance is indicative of drug use but is not necessarily associated with drug dependence or addiction. The process of tolerance development is reversible (e.g., through a drug holiday ) and can involve both physiological factors and psychological factors.

One may also develop drug tolerance to side effects, in which case tolerance is a desirable characteristic. A medical intervention that has an objective to increase tolerance (e.g., allergen immunotherapy, in which one is exposed to larger and larger amounts of allergen to decrease one's allergic reactions) is called drug desensitization.

The opposite concept to drug tolerance is reverse tolerance, in which case the subject's reaction or effect will increase following its repeated use. The two notions are not incompatible and tolerance may sometimes lead to reverse tolerance. For example, heavy drinkers initially develop tolerance to alcohol (requiring them to drink larger amounts to achieve a similar effect) but excessive drinking can cause liver damage, which then puts them at risk of intoxication when drinking even very small amounts of alcohol.

Drug tolerance should not be confused with drug tolerability, which refers to the degree to which overt adverse effects of a drug can be tolerated by a patient.

Tachyphylaxis
Tachyphylaxis is a subcategory of drug tolerance referring to cases of sudden, short-term onset of tolerance following the administration of a drug.

Pharmacodynamic tolerance
Pharmacodynamic tolerance begins when the cellular response to a substance is reduced with repeated use. A common cause of pharmacodynamic tolerance is high concentrations of a substance constantly binding with the receptor, desensitizing it through constant interaction. Other possibilities include a reduction in receptor density (usually associated with receptor agonists), other mechanisms leading to changes in action potential firing rate, or alterations in protein transcription among others adaptations. Pharmacodynamic tolerance to a receptor antagonist involves the reverse, i.e., increased receptor firing rate, an increase in receptor density, or other mechanisms.

While most occurrences of pharmacodynamic tolerance occur after sustained exposure to a drug, instances of acute or instant tolerance (tachyphylaxis) can occur.

Pharmacokinetic (metabolic) tolerance
Pharmacokinetics refers to the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs (ADME). All psychoactive drugs are first absorbed into the bloodstream, carried in the blood to various parts of the body including the site of action (distribution), broken down in some fashion (metabolism), and ultimately removed from the body (excretion). All of these factors are very important determinants of crucial pharmacological properties of a drug, including its potency, side effects, and duration of action.

Pharmacokinetic tolerance (dispositional tolerance) occurs because of a decreased quantity of the substance reaching the site it affects. This may be caused by an increase in induction of the enzymes required for degradation of the drug e.g. CYP450 enzymes. This is most commonly seen with substances such as ethanol.

This type of tolerance is most evident with oral ingestion, because other routes of drug administration bypass first-pass metabolism. Enzyme induction is partly responsible for the phenomenon of tolerance, in which repeated use of a drug leads to a reduction of the drug's effect. However, it is only one of several mechanisms leading to tolerance.

Behavioral tolerance
Behavioral tolerance occurs with the use of certain psychoactive drugs, where tolerance to a behavioral effect of a drug, such as increased motor activity by methamphetamine, occurs with repeated use. It may occur through drug-independent learning or as a form of pharmacodynamic tolerance in the brain; the former mechanism of behavioral tolerance occurs when one learns how to actively overcome drug-induced impairment through practice. Behavioral tolerance is often context-dependent, meaning tolerance depends on the environment in which the drug is administered, and not on the drug itself. Behavioral sensitization describes the opposite phenomenon.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Drug tolerance


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Affymetrix

Affymetrix is now Applied Biosystems, a brand of DNA microarray products sold by Thermo Fisher Scientific that originated with an American biotechnology research and development and manufacturing company of the same name. The Santa Clara, California-based Affymetrix, Inc. now a part of Thermo Fisher Scientific was co-founded by Alex Zaffaroni and Stephen Fodor. Stephen Fodor and his group, based on their earlier development of methods to fabricate DNA microarrays using semiconductor manufacturing techniques.

In 1994, the company's first product under the "GeneChip" Affymetrix trademark, an HIV genotyping chip was introduced, and the company went public in 1996.

After incorporation, Affymetrix grew in part by acquiring technologies from other companies, including Genetic MicroSystems (slide-based Microarrays and scanners) and Neomorphic (for bioinformatics) in 2000, ParAllele Bioscience (custom SNP genotyping), USB/Anatrace (biochemical reagents) in 2008, Panomics (low to mid-plex applications) in 2008, and eBioscience (flow cytometry) in 2012. Affymetrix spun off Perlegen Sciences, as a discrete business focusing  on wafer-scale genomics to characterize population-variance of genomic markers.

In January 2014, the Food and Drug Administration approved Affymetrix's postnatal blood test, CytoScan Dx Assay, looking at whole-genome correlates of congenital abnormalities and other causes of childhood developmental delay.

On January 8, 2016, Thermo Fisher Scientific announced its acquisition of Affymetrix for approximately $1.3 billion, which closed on March 31, 2016.

History
Affymetrix, Inc. was spun-off from Affymax Research Institute by Alex Zaffaroni in 1993, and was eventually based in Santa Clara, California, United States. It began as a unit in Affymax N.V. in 1991 under Fodor and his group. In the late 1980s, that group had developed methods for fabricating DNA microarrays, under the "GeneChip" Affymetrix trademark, using semiconductor manufacturing techniques. The company's first product, an HIV genotyping GeneChip, was introduced in 1994 and the company went public in 1996.

Description of products
Affymetrix, Inc. made glass chips for analysis of DNA Microarrays called GeneChip arrays, and sold mass-produced GeneChip arrays intended to match scientifically important parts of human and other animal genomes. Manufactured using photolithography, Affymetrix's GeneChip arrays assisted researchers in quickly scanning for the presence of particular genes in a biological sample. In this area, Affymetrix was focused on oligonucleotide microarrays, which could be used to address the presence of genes through detection of specific corresponding segments of mRNA. The single-use chips could be used to analyze thousands of genes in a single assay. The company also manufactured machinery for high speed analysis of biological samples, and its GeneChip Operating Software as a system for managing Affymetrix microarray data.

Affymetix's competitors in the DNA Microarray business include Illumina, GE Healthcare, Applied Biosystems, Beckman Coulter, Eppendorf Biochip Systems, and Agilent.

Acquisitions
Prior to its acquisition by Thermo Fisher, and its becoming a line of its products, Affymetrix, Inc. had acquired the technologies of a number of companies. It acquired Genetic MicroSystems for slide-based microarrays and scanners and Neomorphic for bioinformatics, both in 2000, ParAllele Bioscience for custom SNP genotyping, USB/Anatrace for biochemical reagents in 2008, eBioscience for flow cytometry in 2012, and Panomics in 2008 and True Materials to expand its offering of low to mid-plex applications. In 2000, Perlegen Sciences spun out from Affymetrix to focus on wafer-scale genomics for massive data creation and collection required for characterizing population variance of genomic markers and expression for the drug discovery process.

FDA test approval
In January 2014, the Food and Drug Administration cleared a first-of-a-kind whole-genome postnatal blood test that can aid physicians in identifying the underlying genetic cause of developmental delay, intellectual disability, congenital anomalies, or dysmorphic features in children, where it was noted that "[a]bout 2 to 3 percent of U.S. children have some sort of intellectual disability, according to the National Institutes of Health." The test, known as CytoScan Dx Assay, was designed to diagnose these disabilities earlier to expedite appropriate care and support.

title: Affymetrix


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Gudeg

Gudeg is a traditional Javanese dish from Yogyakarta, in Central Java, Indonesia. Gudeg is made from young, unripe jackfruit (gori, nangka muda) stewed for several hours with palm sugar and coconut milk. Additional spices include garlic, shallot, candlenut, coriander seed, galangal, bay leaves, and teak leaves, the latter gives a reddish-brown color to the dish. It is often described as "green jack fruit sweet stew".

Serving
Served on its own, gudeg can be considered as a vegetarian food, since it only consists of unripe jackfruit and coconut milk. However, gudeg is commonly served with egg or chicken. Gudeg is served with white steamed rice, chicken either as opor ayam (chicken in coconut milk) or ayam goreng (fried chicken), telur pindang, opor telur or just plain hard-boiled egg, tofu and/or tempeh, and sambel goreng krechek a stew made of crisp beef skins.

Variations
There are several types of gudeg; dry, wet, Yogyakarta style, Solo style and East Javanese style. Dry gudeg has only a bit of coconut milk and thus has little sauce. Wet gudeg includes more coconut milk. The most common gudeg comes from Yogyakarta, and is usually sweeter, drier and reddish in color because of the addition of teak leaves as coloring agent. Solo gudeg from the city of Surakarta is more watery and soupy, with much coconut milk, and is whitish in color because teak leaves are generally not added. Yogyakarta's gudeg is usually called "red gudeg", while Solo's gudeg is also called "white gudeg". The East Javanese style of gudeg has a spicier and hotter taste compared to the Yogyakarta style gudeg, which is sweeter.

Gudeg is traditionally associated with Yogyakarta, and Yogyakarta is sometimes nicknamed "Kota Gudeg" (city of gudeg). The center of Yogyakarta gudeg restaurants is in the Wijilan area to the east side of the Yogyakarta Sultanate palace.

Availability and packaging
Gudeg can be packed into a besek (box made from bamboo) or kendil (clay jar), or canned. Canned gudeg can last up to one year.

Warung and restaurants serving gudeg can be found throughout Indonesian cities, such as Greater Jakarta. It is a popular dish in Javanese restaurants, and can be found in neighboring countries, such as Singapore.

title: Gudeg


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Limited liability partnership

A limited liability partnership (LLP) is a partnership in which some or all partners (depending on the jurisdiction) have limited liabilities. It therefore can exhibit aspects of both partnerships and corporations. In an LLP, each partner is not responsible or liable for another partner's misconduct or negligence. This distinguishes an LLP from a traditional partnership under the UK Partnership Act 1890, in which each partner has joint (but not several) liability. In an LLP, some or all partners have a form of limited similar to that of the shareholders of a corporation. Depending on the jurisdiction, however, the limited liability may extend only to the negligence or misconduct of the other partners, and the partners may be personally liable for other liabilities of the firm or partners.

Unlike corporate shareholders, the partners have the power to manage the business directly. In contrast, corporate shareholders must elect a board of directors under the laws of various state charters. The board organizes itself (also under the laws of the various state charters) and hires corporate officers who then have as "corporate" individuals the legal responsibility to manage the corporation in the corporation's best interest. An

LLP also contains a different level of tax liability from that of a corporation.

The combination of the flexibility of the partnership structure with the protection from liability for the individual negligence or misconduct of other partners makes the structure attractive to professional-services firms with potentially large exposure to professional malpractice claims in the absence of limited liability. The form has thus historically been adopted most widely by law firms and accounting firms.

Effect of limited liability
Limited Liability Partnerships, as well as all forms of limited liability companies, offer alternatives to traditional company and corporate structures. Limited liability can enable opportunities for new business growth that were formerly accessible only to those who had access to large amounts of capital or other resources.

Depending on jurisdiction and industry, there can be negative consequences for stakeholders associated with limited liability. For some large accountancy firms in the UK, reorganizing as LLPs and LLCs has relieved them of owing the "duty of care" to individuals and clients who are adversely affected by audit failures. "Accountancy firm partners share the profits, but don't have to suffer the consequences of negligence by firm or fellow partners. Not content with lobbying and financing political parties to get their way, accountancy firms have hired entire governments to advance their interests. PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst &Young hired the legislature of Jersey to enact an LLP Bill, which they themselves had drafted. They awarded themselves protection from lawsuits, with little public accountability... Accounting is central to all calculations about institutionalised abuses, tax and responsibility avoidance."

In the U.S., the Delaware Supreme Court Chief Justice Myron Steele suggested that limited liability entities should not be held to common law standards of fiduciary principles (as applied to all other company and corporate structures). Instead, he argued that courts should use contractual analysis of the partnership agreement when assessing cases of improper corporate governance. This directly led to elimination of the "independent fiduciary duty of good faith" in Delaware corporate law in 2006.

Worldwide
Limited liability partnerships are distinct from limited partnerships in some countries, which may allow all LLP partners to have limited liability, while a limited partnership may require at least one unlimited partner and allow others to assume the role of a passive and limited liability investor. As a result, in these countries, the LLP is more suited for businesses in which all investors wish to take an active role in management.

In some countries, an LLP must have at least one person known as a "general partner", who has unlimited liability for the company.

There is considerable difference between LLPs as constituted in the U.S. and those introduced in the UK under the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000 and adopted elsewhere. The UK LLP is, despite its name, specifically legislated as a corporate body rather than as a partnership.

Australia
Partnerships are governed on a state-by-state basis in Australia. In Queensland, a limited liability partnership is composed of at least one general partner and one limited partner. It is thus similar to what is called a limited partnership in many countries.

Canada
All provinces and territories—except Yukon, Prince Edward Island, and Nunavut—permit LLPs for lawyers and accountants. In British Columbia, the Partnership Amendment Act, 2004 (Bill 35) permits LLPs for lawyers, accountants, and other professionals, as well as businesses.

China
In China, the LLP is known as a special general partnership (特殊普通合伙). The organizational form is restricted to knowledge-based professions and technical service industries. The structure shields co-partners from liabilities due to the willful misconduct or gross negligence of one partner or a group of partners.

France
There is no exact equivalent of a Limited Liability Partnership in France. A limited partnership is equivalent to the French law vehicle known as a fr:Société en Commandite. A partnership company can be an equity partnership, known as a fr:Société en Participation (SEP), of a general partnership known as a fr:Société en Nom Collectif (SNC).

Germany
The German Partnerschaftsgesellschaft or PartG is an association of non-commercial professionals, working together. Though not a corporate entity, it can sue and be sued, own property and act under the partnership's name. The partners, however, are jointly and severally liable for all the partnership's debts, except when only some partners' misconduct caused damages to another party — and then only if professional liability insurance is mandatory. Another exception, possible since 2012, is a Partnerschaftsgesellschaft mbB (mit beschränkter Berufshaftung) where all liabilities from professional misconduct are limited by the partnership's capital.

The Partnerschaftsgesellschaft is not subject to corporate or business tax, only its partners' respective income is taxed.

Greece
An LLP is an approximate equivalent to the Greek ΕΠΕ (Εταιρεία Περιορισμένης Ευθύνης Etería Periorizménis Evthínis) meaning Company of Limited Liability. In an ΕΠΕ the partners own personal shares that can be sold by a partner only when all other partners agree. The business management can be exercised either directly by the board of partners or by a General Manager. In the aspect of liability, an ΕΠΕ is identical to an LLP.

India
The Limited Liability Partnership Act 2008 was published in the official Gazette of India on 9 January 2009 and has been in effect since 31 March 2009. However, only limited sections of the Act have been ratified. Rules of the Act were published in the official Gazette on 1 April 2009 and amended in 2017. The first Limited liability partnership (LLP) was incorporated on 2 April 2009.

In India as in many other jurisdictions, an Limited liability partnership (LLP) is different from a Limited Partnership. A limited liability partnership (LLP) operates like a limited partnership, but in an Limited liability partnership (LLP), each member is protected from personal liability, except to the extent of their capital contribution in the LLP.

 * 1) In India, for all purposes of taxation (service tax or any other stipulated tax payment), an LLP is treated like any other Partnership firm.
 * 2) Liability is limited to each partners agreed upon contribution to the  Limited liability partnership (LLP).
 * 3) No partner is liable on account of the independent or unauthorized actions of other partners, thus allowing individual partners to be shielded from joint liability created by another partner's wrongful business decisions or misconduct.
 * 4) An  Limited liability partnership (LLP) shall be a body corporate and a legal entity separate from its partners. It will have perpetual succession. Indian Partnership Act, 1932 shall not be applicable to LLPs and there shall not be any upper limit on number of partners in an LLP unlike an ordinary partnership firm where the maximum number of partners can not exceed 20.
 * 5) The  Limited liability partnership (LLP) Act has a mandatory requirement that one of the partners in the LLP must be an Indian.
 * 6) Provisions have been made for corporate actions like mergers and acquisitions.
 * 7) While enabling provisions in respect of winding up and dissolution of LLPs have been made, detailed provisions in this regard would be provided by way of rules under the Act.
 * 8) The Registrar of Companies (RoC) shall register and control LLPs.
 * 9) The Act also provides rules for Limited Partnerships.

Characteristics

 * 1) Separate legal entity: Like a company, LLP also has a separate legal entity. So the partners and the  Limited liability partnership (LLP) in are distinct from each other. This is like a company where directors are different from the company.
 * 2) No requirement of minimum capital: In the case of companies there should be a minimum amount of capital that should be brought by the members or owners who want to form it. But to start an  Limited liability partnership (LLP) there is no requirement of minimum capital.
 * 3) Minimum number of members: To start a limited liability partnership at least two members are required initially. However, there is no limit on the maximum number of partners.
 * 4) No requirement of compulsory audit: All the companies, whether private or public, irrespective of their share capital, are required to get their accounts audited. But in case of  Limited liability partnership (LLP), there is no such mandatory requirement. A limited liability partnership is required to get the audit done only if:
 * the contributions of the LLP exceeds ₹ 25 lakhs or
 * the annual turnover of the LLP exceeds ₹ 40 lakhs

Benefits

 * 1) It is more flexible to organize the internal structure of LLP. Comparatively, it is complex to organize the internal structure of a company.
 * 2) There is no maximum limit for the number of partners in LLP. In the private limited company, shareholders are limited to the extent of 200 shareholders.
 * 3) Raising and utilization of funds depends on the partners will. Funds can be bought and utilized only as per the norms listed under the Companies Act, 2013.
 * 4)  Limited liability partnership (LLP) is exempt from Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT). In contrast, a company has to pay DDT on dividend distribution.
 * 5) Professionals like Chartered accountants, Cost Accountants (CMA), Advocates, engineers, and doctors may prefer to register as LLPs.
 * 6) No requirement of compulsory audit: All the companies, whether private or public, irrespective of their share capital, are required to get their accounts audited. But in case of  Limited liability partnership (LLP), there is no such mandatory requirement.

Disadvantages

 * 1) Any act of the partner without the other partner may bind the  Limited liability partnership (LLP).
 * 2)  Limited liability partnership (LLP) cannot raise money from the public.
 * 3) Angel investors and venture capital firms generally prefer not to invest in LLPs. Private Limited companies are preferred over LLPs.

Incorporation process

 * Obtain digital signature from the partners.
 * Apply for the Director Identification Number which is necessary to become a partner in the Limited liability partnership (LLP).
 * Apply for the name approval for the LLP (Limited liability partnership) Registration.
 * India Registrar of Companies issues the Certificate of Incorporation which is the proof for the registration.
 * File for a Permanent Account Number (PAN) from NSDL.
 * Execute an LLP agreement and file with the registrar within thirty days of the formation of the LLP.
 * Company details can be checked on the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Companies Master Data Website.

Ireland
Limited liability partnerships are permitted in Ireland under the Legal Services Regulation Act, 2015.

Japan
Limited liability partnerships (有限責任事業組合) were introduced to Japan in 2006 during a large-scale revamp of the country's laws governing business organizations. Japanese LLPs may be formed for any purpose (although the purpose must be clearly stated in the partnership agreement and cannot be general), have full limited liability and are treated as pass-through entities for tax purposes. However, each partner in an Limited liability partnership (LLP) must take an active role in the business, so the model is more suitable for joint ventures and small businesses than for companies in which investors plan to take passive roles.

Japanese LLPs may not be used by lawyers or accountants, as these professions are required to do business through an unlimited liability entity.

A Japanese Limited liability partnership (LLP) is not a corporation, (i.e. a separate legal entity from partners within the meaning of Anglo-American Law) but rather, exists as a contractual relationship between the partners, similar to an American  Limited liability partnership (LLP). Japan also has a type of corporation with a partnership-styled internal structure, called a godo kaisha, which is closer in form to a British Limited liability partnership (LLP) or American limited liability company.

Kazakhstan
The concept of LLP exists in Kazakhstan law. All partners in a Kazakhstan LLP have limited liability, and they are liable for the debts of the partnership to the extent of the value of their corresponding participatory interests in the partnership. The names for LLP in Kazakhstan are "ЖШС" (which stands for Жауапкершілігі шектеулі серіктестік Jauapkerşılıgı şekteulı serıktestık) in Kazakh and "ТОО" (which stands for Товарищество с ограниченной ответственностью Tovarishchestvo s ogranichennoy otvyetstvyennostʼyu) in Russian. This is the most popular business form in Kazakhstan. Almost any private business may be incorporated as an LLP (notable exceptions are banks, airlines, insurance companies, and mortgage companies, which must be incorporated in the form of a joint stock company).

An LLP in Kazakhstan is a corporate body, and in fact, is a Limited Liability Corporation (LLC). Partners cannot conduct business on their own, and it is the corporate body that conducts the business.

There is also a concept of "simple partnership" in Kazakhstan law, which corresponds more closely to the general concept of partnership, but it is not widely used and is not well developed in Kazakhstan.

Kenya
In Kenya, limited liability partnerships have a legal personality distinct from its member partners. The liability of the partners is limited to any amount that may remain unpaid over the capital of the partnership. However, partners may be deemed liable for omissions or actions done by themselves if they lacked the relevant authority from the partnership or the affected party knew that such partner lacked authority or had no reason to believe that such person was a partner in the partnership. Registration is what vests such legal personality upon the entity. Registration is done by the registrar of companies after meeting. The requirements are set out in the Limited Liability Partnership Act of 2011.

Nigeria
In Nigeria, limited liability partnerships (LLP) have legal personality. However, one must register a partnership first before it can gain the status of limited liability partnerships. Either way the liability of the partners are limited.

Poland
A close equivalent to limited liability partnerships under Polish law is the spółka partnerska, where all partners are jointly and severally liable for the partnership's debts apart from those arising from another partner's misconduct or negligence. This partnership type is only addressed to representatives of some "high risk" occupations, such as lawyers, medicine doctors, tax advisers, accountants, brokers, sworn translators etc.

Romania
An Limited liability partnership (LLP) is equivalent to the Romanian law vehicle known as a Societate civilă profesională cu răspundere limitată.

Singapore
LLPs are formed under the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2005. This legislation draws on both the US and UK models of LLP, and like the latter establishes the Limited liability partnership (LLP) as a body corporate. However, for tax purposes it is treated like a general partnership, so that the partners rather than the partnership are subject to tax (tax transparency).

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom LLPs are governed by the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000 (in Great Britain) and the Limited Liability Partnerships Act (Northern Ireland) 2002 in Northern Ireland, with the rules governing this scheme consolidated across the UK with the Companies Act 2006, the latter coming into effect in 2009. It was lobbied for by the Big Four auditing firms, all of which had converted by January 2003, limiting their liability for their audits. A UK limited liability partnership is a corporate body - that is to say, it has a continuing legal existence independent of its members, as compared to a partnership which may (in England and Wales, does not) have a legal existence dependent upon its membership.

A UK LLP's members have a collective ("joint") responsibility, to the extent that they may agree in an "LLP agreement", but no individual ("several") responsibility for each other's actions. As with a limited company or a corporation, members in an LLP cannot, in the absence of fraud or wrongful trading, lose more than they invest.

In relation to tax, however, a UK LLP is similar to a partnership, namely, it is tax-transparent. That is to say it pays no UK corporation tax or capital gains tax. Instead, LLP income and/or gains are distributed gross to partners as self-employed persons, rather than as PAYE employees. Partners receiving income and/or gains from an LLP are liable for their own taxation.

There is no requirement for the LLP agreement even to be in writing because simple partnership-based regulations apply by way of default provisions. It has been closely replicated by Japan, Dubai, and Qatar. It is perhaps closest in nature to a limited liability company in the United States of America although it may be distinguished from that entity by the fact that the LLC, while having a legal existence independent of its members, is not technically a corporate body because its legal existence is time limited and therefore not "continuing."

The LLP structure is commonly used by accountants to retain the tax structure of traditional partnerships whilst adding some limited liability protection. LLPs are also becoming more common among firms in the legal profession such as solicitors although they are permitted to use a limited company structure.

United States

In the United States, each individual state has its own law governing their formation. Limited liability partnerships emerged in the early 1990s: while only two states allowed LLPs in 1992, over forty had adopted LLP statutes by the time LLPs were added to the Uniform Partnership Act in 1996.

The limited liability partnership was formed in the aftermath of the collapse of real estate and energy prices in Texas in the 1980s. This collapse led to a large wave of bank and savings and loan failures. Because the amounts recoverable from the banks were small, efforts were made to recover assets from the lawyers and accountants that had advised the banks in the early 1980s. The reason was that partners in law and accounting firms were subject to the possibility of huge claims which would bankrupt them personally, and the first LLP laws were passed to shield innocent members of these partnerships from liability.

Although found in many business fields, the LLP is an especially popular form of organization among professionals, particularly lawyers, accountants, and architects. In some U.S. states, namely California, New York, Oregon, and Nevada, LLPs can only be formed for such professional uses. Formation of an LLP typically requires filing certificates with the county and state offices. Although specific rules vary from state to state, all states have passed variations of the Revised Uniform Partnership Act.

The liability of the partners varies from state to state. Section 306(c) of the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (1997) (RUPA), a standard statute adopted by a majority of the states, grants LLPs a form of limited liability similar to that of a corporation: "An obligation of a partnership incurred while the partnership is a limited liability partnership, whether arising in contract, tort, or otherwise, is solely the obligation of the partnership. A partner is not personally liable, directly or indirectly, by way of contribution or otherwise, for such an obligation solely by reason of being or so acting as a partner."

However, a sizable minority of states only extend such protection against negligence claims, meaning that partners in an LLP can be personally liable for contract and intentional tort claims brought against the LLP. While Tennessee and West Virginia have otherwise adopted RUPA, their respective adoptions of Section 306 depart from the uniform language, and only a partial liability shield is provided.

As in a partnership or Limited liability company (LLC), the profits of a Limited liability partnership (LLP) are allocated among the partners for tax purposes, avoiding the problem of "double taxation" often found in corporations.

Some US states have combined the LP and LLP forms to create limited liability limited partnerships.

title: Limited liability partnership


text:
Penta

Penta may refer to:

Places

 * , an Italian hamlet (frazione) of Fisciano, Salerno
 * Penta-di-Casinca, a French municipality of Corsica
 * Penta, Chhattisgarh, a town in Dantewada district of Chhattisgarh, India
 * , a small river in Lithuania

Other

 * Penta, a video game character in Antarctic Adventure
 * Penta Penguin, a video game character in the Crash Bandicoot series
 * Pena Transportes Aéreos, a defunct Brazilian airline
 * Penta engine, a piston engine design
 * Pentagón Jr., a luchador also called Penta El Zero Miedo
 * Penta Water, a brand of bottled water
 * Volvo Penta, a subsidiary of Volvo
 * Penta Investments, a Slovak private equity and investment group
 * The herbaceous vine Gynostemma pentaphyllum, or jiaogulan
 * penta-, Greek numeral prefix meaning "five"
 * Pentachlorophenol, a pesticide
 * Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, an explosive material
 * Penta, a section of the newspaper Barron's

title: Penta


text:
List of N-Gage games

The N-Gage is a PDA that combined features of a cell phone and a handheld game console developed and designed by Nokia, released on October 7, 2003. The following lists contains all of the known games released for the N-Gage, as well as unreleased games.

Originally announced on November 4, 2002, the N-Gage competed against its rival, the Game Boy Advance, by integrating mobile phone functionalities but it was unsuccessful due to the button layout that was primarily designed for a phone not being suitable for gaming and its resemblance to a taco when used for phone calls, leading to the origin of its mocking "Taco phone" nickname. On May 26, 2004, Nokia introduced the N-Gage QD as a redesign that fixed widely criticized issues and design problems of the original model, however, it was unable to make an impact. Both models were commercial failures, approximately selling only 3 million units combined and the platform was discontinued on November 26, 2005.

Only 58 of the games developed for the system received a North American retail release, with two retail releases being exclusive for PAL territories. However, a few titles only saw release through either digital distribution or bundles that came inside a MMC movie card. In addition, one more game came with the system on CD-ROM that was later made available for Symbian S60v2 cell phones.

Games
There are  officially released N-Gage games on this list.

Cancelled games
A number of games were either announced or already in development before ultimately being cancelled.

title: List of N-Gage games


text:
Port McNeill

Port McNeill is a town in the North Island region of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada on Vancouver Island's northeast shore, on Queen Charlotte Strait. Originally a base camp for loggers, it became a settlement in 1936. It was named after Captain William Henry McNeill of the Hudson's Bay Company.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population by Statistics Canada, Port McNeill's population was 2,356, living in 1,019 of its 1,111 total private dwellings, NaN% higher than its 2016 population of 2,337. With a land area of 13.77 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Religion
According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Port McNeill included:
 * Irreligion (1,545 persons or 65.9%)
 * Christianity (730 persons or 31.1%)
 * Buddhism (10 persons or 0.4%)

Tourism and location
Along with housing the headquarters of the Regional District of Mount Waddington, Port McNeill is a central hub for all of North Vancouver Island. It offers the only access to the villages of Alert Bay (Cormorant Island) and Sointula (Malcolm Island) via BC Ferries which run daily. Port McNeill Airport is five minutes to the south on highway 19.

The town is also a popular summer tourism destination. There is a large population of wildlife including black bear, cougar, elk and deer. The town has a museum and a history centred on the area's logging history.

Other information
Logging remains the primary employer in Port McNeill, accounting for 25.7% of the labour force and contributing about 8% of the total BC timber harvest. The main contractors are Western Forest Products and LeMare Lake Logging. Port McNeill is also the home of the world's largest burl.

Orca Sand & Gravel LP, the largest sand and gravel quarry in the northern hemisphere, opened here in February 2007. Material is shipped via 70,000 tonne container ships to ports in California and Hawaii and via 7000 tonne barges to Vancouver.

Kwagis Power, owned by Brookfield Renewable Power and the 'Namgis First Nation, built a 45-megawatt hydroelectric facility on the Kokish River near Port McNeill. The Steelhead Society of B.C. and the Western Canada Wilderness Committee opposed the project. The project was finished in early 2014.

Port McNeill is the hometown of Willie Mitchell, a former NHL defenceman, and the birthplace of former NHL defenceman Clayton Stoner. It is also the hometown of Thomas Symons, Canada's rookie representation at the 2022 STIHL World Timbersports Championship, which began May 27 in Vienna, Austria.

The first, second and fourth seasons of the History channel television show Alone were filmed in the forest outside Port McNeill. The third season filmed in Patagonia and featured local resident Megan Hanacek.

title: Port McNeill


text:
Battle of Zurich

The Battle of Zurich may refer to:
 * The siege of Zurich during the Old Zürich War (1443–1446)
 * Either of two battles during the war between revolutionary France and the Second Coalition (1798–1800):
 * First Battle of Zurich, (June 1799)
 * Second Battle of Zurich, (September 1799)
 * The Züriputsch (6 September 1839)

title: Battle of Zurich


text:
Buenos Ayres

Buenos Ayres is a village in Trinidad and Tobago. It is located in southwestern Trinidad, north of Erin and southeast of Point Fortin. Buenos Ayres is the hometown of the calypsonian Cro Cro. The Erin Savannas, one of the last remaining natural savannas in Trinidad and Tobago, is located just east of Buenos Ayres.

Climate
Area has a relatively rare tropical monsoon climate, occasionally also known as a tropical wet climate or tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Am" (tropical monsoon climate).

title: Buenos Ayres


text: User talk:66.123.252.135

title: User talk:66.123.252.135


text:
User talk:Baudelaire~enwiki

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. You might like to start by reading the tutorial and introducing yourself at the new users page. For ideas of what to put on your user page, see User page.

If you have any questions, you can ask at the help desk or on my talk page. Two useful tips are that you can sign your name using four tildes ( ~ ) and you can preview your changes before you save using the show preview button. You can regularly find new tips on the Community Portal. I look forward to reading your great articles and I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. :) Angela. 04:55, May 18, 2004 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
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Your account will be renamed
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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Baudelaire. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Baudelaire~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Baudelaire~enwiki


text:
User talk:Loopy

Portal:The Clash (9 November 2010)
Hi Loopy! As a member of The Clash WikiProject I thought I would let you know that The Clash portal went live today 9 November 2010. At the moment, the portal has 7 selected articles (Joe Strummer, Mick Jones, London Calling, Paul Simonon, Topper Headon, Rock the Casbah, and Should I Stay or Should I Go), some other articles are still in development and more will come in the future, 7 albums (London Calling, Combat Rock, Sandinista!, The Clash, Give 'Em Enough Rope, Super Black Market Clash, and Cut the Crap), 14 pictures (all covered by a free license; for the full list please check out this page), and 50 hooks for the DYK section (full list here). There are also sections on categories, topics, wikiproject, related portals, associated wikimedia, and more. Take a look when you have a second. Cheers. –p joe f (talk • contribs) 23:10, 9 November 2010 (UTC)

The Bugle: Issue LVI, October 2010
To stop receiving this newsletter, please list yourself in the appropriate section here. To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the newsroom. BrownBot (talk) 23:19, 21 November 2010 (UTC)

The Bugle: Issue LVII, November 2010
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The Bugle: Volume LVIX, January 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LX, February 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXI, March 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXII, April 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXIII, May 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXIV, June 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXV, July 2011
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Military Historian of the Year
Nominations for the "Military Historian of the Year" for 2011 are now open. If you would like to nominate an editor for this award, please do so here. Voting will open on 22 January and run for seven days. Thanks! On behalf of the coordinators, Nick-D (talk) and Ed [talk] [majestic titan] 23:39, 15 January 2012 (UTC) You were sent this message because you are a listed as a member of the Military history WikiProject.

Orphaned non-free image File:Combat rock cover.jpg
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Non-free rationale for File:Remote Control (The Clash single - cover art).jpg
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Military history coordinator election
The Military history WikiProject has started its 2012 project coordinator election process, where we will select a team of coordinators to organize the project over the coming year. If you would like to be considered as a candidate, please submit your nomination by 14 September. If you have any questions, do not hesitate to contact one of the current coordinators on their talk page. This message was delivered here because you are a member of the Military history WikiProject. – Military history coordinators (about the project • what coordinators do) 09:25, 10 September 2012 (UTC)

File:Wagons crossing Amatikulu drift on the way to Eshowe.jpg missing description details
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 * File:Wagons crossing Amatikulu drift on the way to Eshowe.jpg

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A kitten for you!
you are awesome I loved your aticle on Zulu nation

Edward collyer (talk) 05:11, 19 June 2014 (UTC)

A cheeseburger for you!
I love you — Preceding unsigned comment added by Edward collyer (talk • contribs) 02:31, 30 July 2014 (UTC)

WikiProject Military history coordinator election
Greetings from WikiProject Military history! As a member of the project, you are invited to take part in our annual project coordinator election, which will determine our coordinators for the next twelve months. If you wish to cast a vote, please do so on the election page by 23:59 (UTC) on 28 September! Ed [talk] [majestic titan] 22:15, 23 September 2014 (UTC)

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WikiProject Military history coordinator election
Greetings from WikiProject Military history! As a member of the project, you are invited to take part in our annual project coordinator election. If you wish to cast a vote, please do so on the election page by 23:59 (UTC) on 29 September. Yours, Ed [talk] [majestic titan] 05:22, 25 September 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:15, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

User group for Military Historians
Greetings,

"Military history" is one of the most important subjects when speak of sum of all human knowledge. To support contributors interested in the area over various language Wikipedias, we intend to form a user group. It also provides a platform to share the best practices between military historians, and various military related projects on Wikipedias. An initial discussion was has been done between the coordinators and members of WikiProject Military History on English Wikipedia. Now this discussion has been taken to Meta-Wiki. Contributors intrested in the area of military history are requested to share their feedback and give suggestions at Talk:Discussion to incubate a user group for Wikipedia Military Historians.

MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 11:29, 21 December 2017 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free image File:Deutsche Antarkitische Expedition, 1938-39 (badge).jpg
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Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in section F5 of the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 22:46, 22 March 2018 (UTC)

April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive
Hey y'all, the April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive begins at 00:01 UTC on April 1, 2021 and runs through 23:59 UTC on April 31, 2021. Points can be earned through reviewing articles on the AutoCheck report, reviewing articles listed at WP:MILHIST/ASSESS, reviewing MILHIST-tagged articles at WP:GAN or WP:FAC, and reviewing articles submitted at WP:MILHIST/ACR. Service awards and barnstars are given for set points thresholds, and the top three finishers will receive further awards. To participate, sign up at WikiProject_Military_History/April 2021 Reviewing Drive and create a worklist at WikiProject Military history/April 2021 Reviewing Drive/Worklists (examples are given). Further details can be found at the drive page. Questions can be asked at the drive talk page. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 17:22, 31 March 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Loopy


text:
Puyallup River

The Puyallup River is a river in the U.S. state of Washington. About 45 mi long, it is formed by glaciers on the west side of Mount Rainier. It flows generally northwest, emptying into Commencement Bay, part of Puget Sound. The river and its tributaries drain an area of about 948 mi2 in Pierce County and southern King County.

The river's watershed is the youngest in the Puget Sound region, having been formed from a series of lahars starting about 5,600 years ago. The valley's 150,000 residents are at risk from future lahars. For this reason, the United States Geological Survey has installed a lahar warning system.

Course
The Puyallup River begins in two forks, the North Puyallup River and the South Puyallup River. Both originate at glaciers on Mount Rainier. The North Puyallup River flows from the toe of Puyallup Glacier, while the South Puyallup River flows from Tahoma Glacier. The two streams flow through the western part of Mount Rainier National Park, joining just outside the park boundary and forming the Puyallup River proper.

The main Puyallup River flows north and northwest from Mount Rainier. The tributary Mowich River, which also flows from glaciers on Mount Rainier, joins the Puyallup from the east. Below the Mowich confluence, the Puyallup River flows through a rugged region of mountains and foothills. The river is dammed at Electron Diversion Dam shortly below the Mowich confluence. The dam diverts a portion of the Puyallup River into a long flume, which runs for several miles to Electron, where the water is passed through turbines in a hydroelectric powerhouse before being returned to the river. The Puyallup River passes through a steep and narrow gorge between Electron Dam and the powerhouse.

After Electron the river turns north and flows by the city of Orting, where it is joined by the Carbon River from the east. Like the Mowich, the Carbon River also originates at a glacier on Mount Rainier (the Carbon Glacier). The Puyallup continues its northernly course after Orting. At Sumner, the river is joined by the White River, another glacier-fed river. At the White River confluence, the Puyallup River turns northwest, flowing by the cities of Puyallup and Fife, and through the Puyallup Indian Reservation, before emptying into Commencement Bay at the Port of Tacoma, part of the city of Tacoma.

Natural history
The Puyallup River and its main tributaries originate in the glaciers of Mount Rainier. These glaciers continually provide sediment such as silt and gravel to the rivers, creating sand and gravel bars. The thick sediment deposits in the stream beds lower water capacity, which causes the river to meander and flood during periods of high streamflow. It also causes the rivers to become braided and meandering. During the summer glacial meltwater dominates the streamflow, turning the Puyallup River turbid. In addition, the glaciers delay the onset of spring-summer runoff, compared to unglaciated river basins.

Historically, these factors resulted in frequent flooding and extensive floodplain wetlands, and provided a rich and complex habitat for fish and other animals. In addition, the river's mouth at Commencement Bay occupied an extensive tidal flat and wetland estuary delta. Urbanization and an extensive system of flood control structures such as dams, levees, and culverts, have radically altered much of the Puyallup River and its tributaries. The estuary delta at the mouth of the Puyallup River has been almost completely replaced with the facilities of the Port of Tacoma, with less than 5% of the original estuarine habitat remaining.

A fall run of chinook salmon occurs on the river. coho, chum, and pink salmon are also found in the river, along with steelhead, sea-run coastal cutthroat trout, and a threatened species, bull trout. Sockeye salmon are considered indigenous to the basin, but are rarely seen today.

River modifications
The Puyallup River and its main tributary, the White River, have been subjected to major modifications during the 20th century. The Puyallup River between Sumner and its mouth at Tacoma was straightened. A diversion dam was built at Game Farm Park in 1914 to prevent the White River from flowing on its natural course into the Green River at Auburn; since then it has flowed into the Puyallup River instead of the Green River. Flood protection structures were built along many rivers in the basin, including extensive levees. A flood storage reservoir, Mud Mountain Lake, was created on the White River with the construction of Mud Mountain Dam. As part of the flood control efforts, river channels and embankments have been generally kept clear of debris such as gravel bars, large trees, logjams, and other woody debris. These modifications have radically altered the natural character of the rivers. River widths have been generally reduced. Water now fills nearly all of the land between river banks, instead of the historic pattern of braided meanders and wetlands.

History
The river is named for the Puyallup tribe, who lived throughout the river basin. After the Treaty of Medicine Creek and the Puget Sound War the Puyallup were granted a reservation on the lower Puyallup River. The Treaty of Medicine Creek recognized native fishing rights on the Puyallup River. These rights were ignored for decades until Bob Satiacum was arrested in 1954 for fishing illegally on the river. His legal case continued for years and resulted in the 1974 Boldt Decision, which granted half of all fishing rights in Washington state to native tribes.

The Puyallup tribe continues to maintain several buildings and properties on reservation lands near the mouth of the river. They are stakeholders in many issues about the river, such as the amount of water diverted at Electron Diversion Dam.

The first known European to explore the Puyallup River valley was William Fraser Tolmie, who in August 1833 made a journey to the Mount Rainier area via the Puyallup and Mowich river valleys. Two Native American guides accompanied Tolmie, Lachalet, a Nisqually Indian, and Nuckalkat, a Puyallup.

title: Puyallup River


text: User talk:68.35.75.162

title: User talk:68.35.75.162


text:
User talk:Romanika~enwiki

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

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Cyangugu

Cyangugu (formerly Shangugu) is a city and capital of the Rusizi District in Western Province, Rwanda. The city lies at the southern end of Lake Kivu, and is contiguous with Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, but separated from it by the Ruzizi River. Two bridges and a dam cross the river frontier.

The settlement has two main areas: Cyangugu itself is the low-density district on the lake shore, while Kamembe, the higher density industrial and transport centre is further inland and to the north. Kamembe Airport serves the city with flights 11 times a week to Kigali, operated by RwandAir.

The city lies near Nyungwe Forest, a popular tourist destination, being one of the last remaining forest areas of Rwanda and home to chimpanzees and many other species of primate.

In 2015 the city had a population of approximately 63,883.

title: Cyangugu


text: User talk:68.66.102.159

title: User talk:68.66.102.159


text: User talk:64.251.146.73

title: User talk:64.251.146.73


text:
The Mutants

The Mutants is the fourth serial of the ninth season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in six weekly parts on BBC1 from 8 April to 13 May 1972.

The serial is set on and high above the Earth colony world Solos in the 30th century. In the serial, the Marshal of Solos (Paul Whitsun-Jones) plots to change Solos' atmosphere to make it breathable for humans but not for the native Solonians. At the same time, the alien time traveller the Third Doctor (Jon Pertwee) delivers a set of tablets containing lost information about the Solonians' life cycle to the Solonian Ky (Garrick Hagon).

Plot
In the 30th century, the Earth Empire is contracting and plans are made to decolonise the planet of Solos. The militaristic and bigoted Marshal and other human soldiers, known as Overlords, rule it and the disunionised tribal Solonian people from Skybase One, an orbiting space station. The Marshal opposes the decolonisation plans outlined by an Earth Administrator, and is obsessed with eradicating the arthropod-like mutants or "Mutts" developing on the planet. The Solonians are split between those who actively oppose the occupation, and those who collaborate with the Overlords to eradicate the Mutants, believing them to be a disease. The Marshal and one Solonian, Varan, with his son, all ensure the Administrator is assassinated before he can confirm Solos' independence.

The Third Doctor and Jo arrive on Skybase, the Time Lords having transported the TARDIS there, with a pod which will only open for an intended recipient, which seems to be Ky, another Solonian framed for the Administrator's murder. Ky flees to the surface of Solos, abducting Jo as well. There, daylight-exposed atmosphere is poisonous to humans. With Ky's help, Jo survives. The Doctor learns that the Marshal and his chief scientist Jaeger plan to terraform Solos, to make the planet habitable for humans, but not for indigenous life. The Marshal betrays Varan by killing his son. In response, Stubbs and Cotton, the Marshal's most senior officers, secretly ally with the Doctor.

The now-fugitive Varan takes the Doctor hostage, fleeing to Solos' caverns, but is convinced to spare him. There, they encounter many mutants, who aren't animalistic as first assumed. The Doctor reunites with Ky and Jo, giving the pod to Ky. It opens to reveal ancient etched tablets that Ky cannot decipher. The Marshal fumigates the caves, but an outcast human scientist, Sondergaard, an expert in Solonian anthropology, saves the group, and later explains he tried to inform Earth Control of the corruption, but was silenced and fled in fear. The Doctor and Sondergaard interpret the tablets as a lengthy Solonian calendar. While investigating more of the caves, the Doctor also finds a lensing stone, which focuses and converts thaesium radiation. From both the calendar and stone, he deduces the Mutant phase is a natural part of the Solonian life-cycle.

Despite partly mutating, Varan leads an attack on Skybase which fails and results in his death with many of his warriors. The Marshal captures Jo, Ky, Stubbs and Cotton, with Stubbs killed in an escape attempt. The Doctor returns to Skybase – without Sondergaard, who seems weakened from radiation sickness in the caves. To look into the strange events, the Earth government has dispatched an Investigator. The Marshal's terraform attempt fails, instead poisoning the environment. To force the Doctor to rapidly decontaminate the planet with Jaeger's technology, the Marshal imprisons Jo and the rest in a soon-to-be-radioactive thaesium refueling bay. The Investigator arrives for an inquiry, but the Marshal gives more lies, supported by the Doctor under duress. Luckily, the prisoners escape their fate and arrive in time to help the Investigator see the truth of the situation. Sondergaard, now recovered, also arrives to offer testimony. Unfortunately, a Mutant accidentally scares the Investigator enough to reinstate the Marshal's command and recommendation to eradicate the creatures.

Now unbalanced from thoughts of ruling grandeur, The Marshal forces Sondergaard, Jo (whom the Doctor secretly passes the lensing stone to), Cotton, and Ky back into the refueling bay, holds the Investigator's entourage hostage to be the first forced citizens of New Earth (on Solos), and orders the terraforming process to be completed, but the Doctor's covert mechanical sabotage kills Jaeger. Meanwhile, Ky, with the lensing stone, absorbs the thaesium radiation and rapidly mutates, emerging as a radiant angel-like super-being and saving the prisoners. Dispensing justice, Ky vapourises the Marshal. Sondergaard and Cotton elect to stay to help see the other Solonians through their mutations, while Jo and the Doctor slip away, their mission from the Time Lords complete.

Production
Working titles for this story included Independence and The Emergents. Writers Bob Baker and Dave Martin, as well as producer Barry Letts, intended for The Mutants to have an anti-racist message. The basis of the story came from Letts, who had submitted the idea for Season 4 but it was rejected by script editor Gerry Davis for the 1966 story "The Mutant". Martin was highly concerned about the Apartheid system in South Africa, which was reflected in the script. The story of The Mutants was intended to be a metaphor for South Africa with the Earth Empire standing for the white supremacist government of South Africa and the Solonians for the black population of South Africa. Martin had become fascinated with South Africa after an incident where his neighbor in Bristol had told him that he was moving to South Africa "to be a kind of master" over non-white people, leading him to learn about the apartheid system, which led him to become active in the anti-apartheid movement.

The way that Solos descends into chaos on the verge of independence was inspired by the bloody riots that erupted during the partition of India in 1947 as the British colony of India was divided into the new nations of Pakistan and India. Over a million people killed during the partition of India with the violence being especially vicious in the Punjab. The script editor, Terrance Dicks, had long wanted to do a story that would be an analogy for the end of the British empire, and worked extensively on the script by Martin and Baker in late 1971. Dicks was opposed to the anti-imperialist views of Martin and Baker as he recalled: "They [Baker and Martin] wanted to do something on the evils of Empire, which I didn't necessarily agree with because I was rather pro-British Empire. My view was and I suppose still is to a some extent is that it would had been a lot better if it was still there, you know. If you have a look at Africa or Asia or the rest of the world if the Brits were still in charge, it would all be running smoothly." Dicks softened the anti-imperialist theme of the original script. but Martin and Baker were able to hold onto to their primary message. The Doctor's remarks about a "crumbled" empire which can not longer afford the costs of the imperial project are about the Earth Empire in the 30th century, but could have just as easily have been about the British empire circa 1972. Initially, the term used for the mutants of Solos was to be "munt" (an abbreviation for "mutant native"), which was a real derogatory term used by South African whites to describe South African blacks. The term was changed to "mutt" in the final script because "munt" sounds similar to "cunt".

The bombastic crazed militarist, the Marshal, was based upon Benito Mussolini. That the Marshal is opposed to Solos being granted independence as he wishes to displace the native population of Solos in order to make way for colonists from Earth was a reference to Rhodesia. The Marshal is so determined to hang onto Solos as a colony that he assassinates the Administrator sent out from Earth to grant independence to Solos. In 1965, Ian Smith, the prime minister of the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe) whose franchise was restricted to white settlers illegally declared unilateral independence rather than accept British plans to grant Southern Rhodesia independence on the basis of majority rule. The way the Marshal tries to keep the imperial project going in defiance of his own empire's wish to give up Solos in order to colonise it with millions of settlers from Earth was based on Rhodesia. The British critics Maura Grady and Celcia Hemstrom note that both the Administrator and the Marshal are caught up in imperial nostalgia as the Marshal wishes to turn Solos into a "new Earth" that will be colonised by settlers from Earth while the Administrator complains that Earth is now a toxic wasteland and the Earth Empire is economically "finished" owing to its ruined environment. The amoral German-accented scientist, Professor Jaeger, whose experiments are intended to exterminate the native population of Solos was based upon those German scientists who served the Nazi regime in devising every more efficient methods of killing people. The more benevolent scientist, Professor Sondergaard, is dressed in a hippie style, which seems to reflect some approval of hippies by the writers. The way that the Earth in the story was portrayed in the 30th century as being so hopelessly polluted as to be toxic for human beings to live in was an environmentalist message about what the future of humanity would be if measures were not taken to save the environment in the 20th century.

The opening shot of the story features a bedraggled, hermit-like bearded figure (Sidney Johnson) shambling out of the mist towards the camera. Both fans and Jon Pertwee alike have compared the scene to the "It's" man at the start of most episodes of Monty Python's Flying Circus.

The mines of Solos were filmed at Chislehurst Caves near Bromley. They also filmed at Bluewater Quarry which was the setting for the planet Solos, before it was a shopping centre and Stone House Farm Caves which was the entrance to Solos caves.

Cast notes
George Pravda had previously played Denes in The Enemy of the World (1968) and would later play Castellan Spandrell in The Deadly Assassin (1976).

Christopher Coll had previously played Technician Phipps opposite Patrick Troughton in the 1969 serial The Seeds of Death.

Geoffrey Palmer had previously played Masters in Doctor Who and the Silurians (1970) and would later play Captain Hardaker in the 2007 Christmas special "Voyage of the Damned".

Broadcast and reception
In 2009, Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times stated that the serial was "peculiarly variable", with uneven performances and quality; he wrote that "the first episode is surprisingly leaden and unengaging, whereas episode four is one of the most stimulating and creatively innovative under Barry Letts' stewardship". He praised the design of the Mutants and some of the cliffhangers. DVD Talk's John Sinnott gave the story two and a half out of five stars, calling it "terribly average" but "a solid adventure ... worth watching". He was critical of the acting, especially Rick James, and felt that overall it was too long and "a bit convoluted". IGN reviewer Arnold T. Blumburg gave the story a score of 7 out of 10, writing that there was more to be appreciated as an adult to see "its role as a hard-edged indictment of the culture in which it was created". Ian Berriman of SFX gave The Mutants three out of five stars, noting its ambition to tackle social issues but concluded that the execution was "bungled".

The British critics Maura Grady and Cecilia Hemstrom praised The Mutants was one of the stronger anti-imperialist stories in Dr. Who. Grady and Hemstrom noted in the story the environment of the Earth in the 30th century has been ruined by centuries of pollution, turning the entire Earth into a monstrous toxic wasteland, which has led to humans colonising other planets to replace the ruined Earth with no thought for any of the natives of those planets. Grady and Hemstrom further noted that the colonists from Earth have not only set about ruining the environment of Solos in the same manner that they ruined the Earth, but also destroyed the culture of the Solonians to such an extent that the Solonians can no longer read their ancient hieroglyphs. Cut off from their culture and history, the Solonians are thus are unaware of their 500-year life cycle. Neither the Solonians nor the humans can understand the mass mutations are merely part of the natural 500-year life cycle of the Solonians and the humans react to a development that that they do not understand by embarking on a genocide of the Solonians. Grady and Hemstron concluded that it not been for the colonialism the Solonians would have completed their life cycle without incident and that: "The episode is a fair warning that, no matter how well intended, interference with indigenous cultures can have dangerous and far-reaching consequences".

In print
A novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Target Books in September 1977.

Home media
This story was released on VHS in February 2003 and was the penultimate Jon Pertwee story to be released in this format. The story was released on DVD on 31 January 2011.

In March 2023, the story was released again in an upgraded format for Blu-ray, being included with the four other stories from Season 9 in the Doctor Who - The Collection Box Set.

The music from this serial was released as part of Doctor Who: Devils' Planets – The Music of Tristram Cary in 2003.

Target novelisation

 * On Target — Doctor Who and the Mutants
 * On Target — Doctor Who and the Mutants

title: The Mutants


text: User talk:129.116.47.180

title: User talk:129.116.47.180


text:
User talk:Maury~enwiki

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Maury. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Maury~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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title: User talk:Maury~enwiki


text:
Buzzer

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, train and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

Electromechanical
The electric buzzer was invented in 1831 by Joseph Henry. They were mainly used in early doorbells until they were phased out in the early 1930s in favor of musical chimes, which had a softer tone.

Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called, were invented by Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This advancement mainly came about because of cooperative efforts by Japanese manufacturing companies. In 1951, they established the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee, which allowed the companies to be "competitively cooperative" and bring about several piezoelectric innovations and inventions.

Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz (the contacts buzz at line frequency if powered by alternating current) Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.

Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer and they require drivers. Other examples of them are doorbells.

Piezoelectric
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic cavity resonance or Helmholtz resonance to produce an audible beep.

Modern applications
While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be impractical and undesirable, there are still instances in which buzzers and similar circuits may be used. Present day applications include:
 * Novelty uses
 * Judging panels
 * Educational purposes
 * Annunciator panels
 * Electronic metronomes
 * Game show lock-out device
 * Microwave ovens and other household appliances
 * Sporting events such as basketball games
 * Electrical alarms
 * Joy buzzer (mechanical buzzer used for pranks)

title: Buzzer


text:
User talk:Aheno

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

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User talk:Rdub8

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

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P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:Rdub8


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User talk:Noevalleyjeff

Talk is cheap
Noe Valley Jeff (talk) 19:11, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Noevalleyjeff


text:
Talk:Swords-and-sandals

This seems largely the same as the apparently-forgotten sword and sandal... Stan 05:06, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I have merged them. Smerdis of Tlön 05:58, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Swords-and-sandals