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Forest Whitaker

Forest Steven Whitaker (born July 15, 1961) is an American actor, producer and director. He is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a British Academy Film Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.

After making his film debut in Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), Whitaker went on to earn a reputation for intensive character study work for films, such as Platoon (1986), Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Bird (1988), The Crying Game (1992), Phenomenon (1996), Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai (1999), The Great Debaters (2007), The Butler (2013), Arrival (2016), and Respect (2021). He has also appeared in Panic Room (2002), Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016) as Saw Gerrera, and Black Panther (2018) as Zuri.

Whitaker won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in the historical drama The Last King of Scotland (2006). Whitaker made his directorial debut with the television film Strapped (1993), and directed the films Waiting to Exhale (1995), Hope Floats (1998), and First Daughter (2004). Since 2019, he has starred as Bumpy Johnson in the Epix crime drama series Godfather of Harlem.

He made his Broadway debut in the revival of Eugene O'Neill's Hughie (2016). Apart from his acting career, Whitaker is also known for his humanitarian work and activism. In 2011, he was inducted as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, later receiving a promotion to Special Envoy for Peace and Reconciliation, and serves as the CEO of Whitaker Peace and Development Initiative (WPDI), a non-profit outreach program.

Early life and education
Forest Steven Whitaker was born on July 15, 1961, in Longview, Texas, the son of Laura Francis (née Smith), a special education teacher and Forest E. Whitaker Jr., an insurance salesman. A DNA test has shown that his mother had Akan ancestry, while his father was of Igbo descent. When Whitaker was in elementary school, his family moved to Carson, California. He has two younger brothers and an older sister. His first role as an actor was the lead in Dylan Thomas's play Under Milk Wood.

Whitaker attended Palisades Charter High School, where he played on the football team and sang in the choir, graduating in 1979. He entered California State Polytechnic University, Pomona on a football scholarship, but a back injury made him change his major to music (singing). He toured England with the Cal Poly Chamber Singers in 1980. While still at Cal Poly, he briefly changed his major to drama. He later transferred to the Thornton School of Music at the University of Southern California to study opera as a tenor and was subsequently accepted into the university's Drama Conservatory. He graduated from USC with a BFA in acting in 1982. He then took a course at Drama Studio London at its now defunct California branch. He was pursuing a degree in "The Core of Conflict: Studies in Peace and Reconciliation" at New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study in 2004.

1982–1987: Rise to prominence
Whitaker has a long history of working with well-regarded film directors and actors. In his first onscreen performance of note, he had a supporting role playing a high school football player in the 1982 film version of Cameron Crowe's coming-of-age teen-retrospective Fast Times at Ridgemont High. In 1986, he appeared in Martin Scorsese's sports drama The Color of Money and Oliver Stone's Vietnam War drama film Platoon. The following year, he co-starred in the comedy Good Morning, Vietnam alongside Robin Williams.

After completing several films in the early 1980s, Whitaker gained additional roles in multiple television shows. On the series Diff'rent Strokes, he played a bully in the 1985 episode "Bully for Arnold". That same year, Whitaker also played the part of a comic book salesman in the Amazing Stories episode "Gather Ye Acorns". He appeared in the first and second parts of North and South in 1985 and 1986. Throughout the 1990s, Whitaker mainly had roles in television films which aired on HBO, including Criminal Justice, The Enemy Within, and Witness Protection.

1988–2006: Breakthrough and acclaim
In 1988, Whitaker appeared in the film Bloodsport and had his first lead role starring as jazz alto saxophonist Charlie "Bird" Parker in Clint Eastwood's Bird. To prepare himself for the part, Whitaker took saxophone lessons and sequestered himself in a loft with only a bed, couch, and an alto saxophone, having also conducted extensive research and talked to numerous people who knew Parker. His performance, which has been called "transcendent", earned him the Best Actor award at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and a Golden Globe nomination.

Whitaker continued to work with a number of well-known directors throughout the 1990s. He starred in the 1990 film Downtown and was cast in the pivotal role of Jody, a captive British soldier in the 1992 film The Crying Game, for which he used an English accent. Todd McCarthy of Variety described Whitaker's performance as "big-hearted", "hugely emotional", and "simply terrific". He was a member of the cast that won the first ever National Board of Review Award for Best Acting by an Ensemble for Robert Altman's film, Prêt-à-Porter, in 1994. In 1995, he gave a "characteristically emotional performance" in Wayne Wang and Paul Auster's Smoke, and appeared in the science-fiction film Species. In 1996, he played the role of a good-natured man in Phenomenon, alongside John Travolta and Robert Duvall, which earned him a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor – Drama, and was also nominated for NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture.

Whitaker branched out into producing and directing in the 1990s. He co-produced and co-starred in A Rage in Harlem in 1991. He made his directorial debut with a grim film about inner-city gun violence, Strapped, for HBO in 1993 – and won the International Critics' Award at the Toronto International Film Festival. In 1995, he directed his first theatrical feature, Waiting to Exhale, which was based on the Terry McMillan novel of the same name. Roger Ebert observed that the tone of the film resembled Whitaker's own acting style: "measured, serene, confident". Whitaker also directed co-star Whitney Houston's music video of the movie's theme song, "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)". Whitaker continued his directing career with the 1998 romantic comedy, Hope Floats, starring Sandra Bullock and Harry Connick Jr., which he also executive produced. He directed Katie Holmes in the romantic comedy First Daughter in 2004, while also serving as an executive producer on the film; he had previously co-starred with Holmes in Phone Booth in 2002. He gained experience as the executive producer of several made-for-television movies, most notably the 2002 Emmy-award-winning Door to Door, starring William H. Macy.

Whitaker played a serene, pigeon-raising, bushido-following, mob hit man in Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai, a 1999 film written and directed by Jim Jarmusch. Many consider this to have been a "definitive role" for Whitaker. In a manner similar to his preparation for Bird, he again immersed himself in his character's world—he studied Eastern philosophy and meditated for long hours "to hone his inner spiritual hitman". Jarmusch has told interviewers that he developed the title character with Whitaker in mind; The New York Times review of the film observed that "[I]t's hard to think of another actor who could play a cold-blooded killer with such warmth and humanity." From 2002 to 2003, Whitaker was the host and narrator of 44 new episodes of the Rod Serling classic The Twilight Zone, which lasted one season on UPN. After working in several film roles, he returned to television in 2006 when he joined the cast of FX's police serial The Shield, as Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh, who was determined to prove that the lead character, Vic Mackey (Michael Chiklis), is a dirty cop. As opposed to his previous character work, Whitaker stated that he merely had to draw on his childhood years growing up in South Central Los Angeles for the role. He received rave reviews for his performance—Variety called it a "crackling-good guest stint" —and he reprised the role in the show's 2007 season.

Whitaker next appeared in what has been called one of the worst films ever made, the 2000 production of Battlefield Earth, based on the novel of the same name by L. Ron Hubbard. The film was widely criticized as a notorious commercial and critical disaster. However, Whitaker's performance was lauded by the film's director, Roger Christian, who commented that, "Everybody's going to be very surprised" by Whitaker, who "found this huge voice and laugh." Battlefield Earth won seven Razzie Awards. Whitaker later expressed his regret for participating in the film.

In 2001, Whitaker had a small, uncredited role in the Wong Kar-wai-directed The Follow, one of five short films produced by BMW that year to promote its cars. He co-starred in Joel Schumacher's 2002 thriller Phone Booth with Kiefer Sutherland and Colin Farrell. That year, he also co-starred with Jodie Foster in Panic Room. His performance as the film's "bad guy" was described as "a subtle chemistry of aggression and empathy". In the fall of 2006, Whitaker started a multi-episode story arc on ER as Curtis Ames, a man who comes into the ER with a cough, but quickly faces the long-term consequences of a paralyzing stroke; he sues, then takes out his anger on Dr. Luka Kovač, who he blames for the strokes. Whitaker received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his performance in the series. Also in 2006, Whitaker appeared in T.I.'s music video "Live in the Sky" alongside Jamie Foxx.

Whitaker's 2006 portrayal of Idi Amin in the film The Last King of Scotland earned him positive reviews by critics as well as multiple awards and honors. To portray the dictator, Whitaker gained 50 pounds, learned to play the accordion, and immersed himself in research. He read books about Amin, watched news and documentary footage featuring Amin, and spent time in Uganda meeting with Amin's friends, relatives, generals, and victims; he also learned Swahili and mastered Amin's East African accent. His performance earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor, making him the fourth black actor in history to do so, joining the ranks of Sidney Poitier, Denzel Washington, and Jamie Foxx. In his acceptance speech, Whitaker said: "When I first started acting, it was because of my desire to connect to everyone, to that thing inside each of us, that light that I believe exists in all of us. Because acting for me is about believing in that connection; and it's a connection so strong, it's a connection so deep that we feel it and through our combined belief we can create a new reality." For that same role, he was also recognized with the British Academy Film Award, Golden Globe Award, National Board of Review Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, and accolades from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, London Film Critics' Circle Award, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, National Society of Film Critics, and New York Film Critics Circle among others. It's the only performance to have swept these awards.

2007–2018: Established actor
In 2007, Whitaker played Dr. James Farmer Sr. in The Great Debaters, for which he received an Image Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor. In 2008, Whitaker appeared in three films, first as a business man known only as Happiness, who likes butterflies, in the film The Air I Breathe. He also portrayed a rogue police captain in Street Kings, and a heroic tourist in Vantage Point. Whitaker was cast in the Criminal Minds spin-off Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior, that was subsequently cancelled by CBS on May 17, 2011. Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history. Whitaker appears in the Jamie Foxx featuring T-Pain 2008 music video "Blame It".

In 2013, after a small career slump where he starred in a few straight-to-video films, Whitaker has enjoyed a career resurgence, having played the lead role in Lee Daniels' The Butler, which has become one of his greatest critical and commercial successes to date. Whitaker won the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture for that film as well as nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role. Whitaker also starred in the film Black Nativity and co-starred in 2013's The Last Stand, playing an FBI agent chasing an escaped drug cartel leader.

Whitaker played Saw Gerrera in the 2016 film Rogue One: A Star Wars Story. In December 2016, it was announced that Whitaker would reprise his role as Saw Gerrera from Rogue One for the Star Wars Rebels animated series. That same year he made his Broadway debut in a revival of Eugene O'Neill's play Hughie at the Booth Theatre, directed by Michael Grandage. David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter wrote of Whitaker's performance, "With his sleepy eyes, soulful voice and fluttering hands, Whitaker is a superb actor who can wear sorrow like a baggy overcoat".

Whitaker portrayed Colonel Weber in the science fiction drama film Arrival (2016) and portrayed Archbishop Desmond Tutu in 2017's The Forgiven. In 2017 and 2018, Whitaker had an eleven-episode arc on Empire, which saw him reunited with Lee Daniels after their work together on The Butler. For his portrayal of Zuri in the Ryan Coogler directed Marvel Cinematic Universe action adventure film Black Panther (2018), Whitaker shared in winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.

2019–present
Whitaker's voice and likeness were used for Saw Gerrera in the 2019 video game Star Wars: Jedi Fallen Order. Since 2019, Whitaker has been starring as Bumpy Johnson in Godfather of Harlem, a series on EPIX which explores the intersection between the criminal underworld and civil rights movement in the 1960s. In 2020, Whitaker starred as Jeronicus Jangle in the Netflix Christmas musical Jingle Jangle: A Christmas Journey. He appeared as Reverend C. L. Franklin, the father of Aretha Franklin (played by Jennifer Hudson) in the film Respect, and is set to appear alongside Tom Hardy in Havoc. In 2023, Whitaker will portray boxing trainer Doc Broadus in Big George Foreman. Whitaker is set to appear in an episode of Extrapolations, an Apple TV anthology series that focuses on climate change. In 2024, Deadline announced he had been cast in the television series adaptation of the Stephen L. Carter novel The Emperor of Ocean Park. He joined Francis Ford Coppola's upcoming project Megalopolis.

Spirit Dance Entertainment
He produced numerous projects through his production company, Spirit Dance Entertainment, which he shut down in 2005 to concentrate on his acting career.

Significant Productions
Whitaker's current company, Significant Productions, is devoted to creating opportunities for underrepresented narratives and storytellers by championing films and television shows starring people of color, alongside diversified representation behind the camera. Whitaker and his partner Nina Yang Bongiovi produced Ryan Coogler's directorial debut Fruitvale Station, which won the Grand Jury Prize and the Audience Award for U.S. dramatic film at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, and won Prize of the Future at Cannes. They also launched the career of Chloé Zhao, with Songs My Brothers Taught Me (2015). Other producing highlights have included Repentance (2013), Dope (2015), Roxanne Roxanne (2017) and Sorry to Bother You (2018). In 2021, the company's latest film, Passing, debuted on Netflix.

Significant Productions also produced a documentary that was shot in the hospice at Angola prison in Louisiana, Serving Life (2011), which was produced for Oprah Winfrey as the first commission for OWN and Oprah's Doc Club. They produced A Kid from Coney Island, a documentary about basketball star Stephon Marbury. In 2020, Significant produced By Whatever Means Necessary: The Times of Godfather of Harlem.

JuntoBox films
Whitaker has played an active role as co-chair of JuntoBox Films since his initial involvement as co-chair with the collaborative film studio starting in March 2012. JuntoBox was developed as a social-media platform for filmmakers and fans to share ideas to create films and then collaborate to make them. Since Whitaker joined as co-chair, five projects have been greenlit for production.

Music producer
Whitaker worked closely with Babyface as the executive producer to the soundtrack for Waiting to Exhale, which Whitaker directed. The album received a total of eleven Grammy nominations in 1997, including Album of the Year and Song of the Year for "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)". Three songs were nominated for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. It won the Grammy for Best R&B Song for "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)", written by Babyface. Whitaker served as executive soundtrack producer on the soundtrack for Hope Floats, which he directed. Best known for Garth Brooks' rendition of "To Make You Feel My Love", the album went double-platinum and was Grammy-nominated. Whitaker also served as executive music producer and co-wrote eight songs for the soundtrack to First Daughter, which he directed. He also appears in the music video "In the Dark" by Bring Me the Horizon, released on October 21, 2019,

Charity work
Over the past decade, Whitaker has spent much of his time dedicated to humanitarian work. These pursuits were partially motivated by a core lesson his mother taught him: "You don't have to believe what I believe, but you have to believe in something," which Whitaker has discussed giving structure to much of his life.

He founded the Whitaker Peace & Development Initiative (WPDI), a non-governmental organization, in 2012. WPDI implements peace-building programs in conflict affected communities throughout the world, which are focused on training youths in conflict resolution and developing businesses in areas of conflict. WPDI's programs are currently operating throughout Africa, Mexico, and the United States.

Whitaker was inducted as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for Peace and Reconciliation, in a ceremony at UNESCO headquarters on June 21, 2011. As Goodwill Ambassador, Whitaker worked with UNESCO to support and develop initiatives that empower youths and keep them from entering or remaining in cycles of violence. At the induction ceremony, U.S. Ambassador to UNESCO David Killion described Whitaker as a "perfect choice as a Goodwill Ambassador... he has exemplified compassion in every area of his life, with humility and grace. He does this because it's the right thing to do." Following his increased work in conflict-impacted regions, Whitaker was then promoted to a UNESCO Special Envoy for Peace and Reconciliation, and was a member of President Obama's Committee on the Arts and the Humanities. He previously served on President Obama's Urban Policy Committee and started collaborating with the Office of the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict as an Advocate for Children Affected by War, a topic on which he was invited to speak before the UN Security Council in September 2014. Whitaker worked with elementary schools through the Turnaround Arts organization. Additionally, he is on the steering committee for the UN's work with the Reintegration of Child Soldiers after having served as an Advocate for Children Affected by War, and is an Advocate for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

He is also a supporter and public advocate for Hope North, a boarding school and vocational training center in northern Uganda for escaped child soldiers, orphans, and other young victims of the country's civil war.

Above all, Whitaker believes that ordinary people can and must come together to change the world. In his own words, "Even a seemingly small action can cause ripples that make an enormous impact."

Politics
In politics, Whitaker supported and spoke on behalf of Senator Barack Obama in his 2008 presidential campaign. On April 6, 2009, he was given a chieftaincy title in Imo State, Nigeria. Whitaker, who was named a chief among the Igbo community of Nkwerre, was given the title Nwannedinamba of Nkwerre, which means A Brother in a Foreign Land.

Whitaker co-founded the International Institute for Peace (IIP) at Rutgers University in Newark, New Jersey, where he is also a senior research scholar. Launched during the international Newark Peace Education Summit, IIP's mission is to develop programs and strategic partnerships to address issues such as increasing citizen security through community-building; the role of women and spiritual and religious leaders in peacebuilding; the impact of climate change; and the reduction of poverty. IIP operates under the auspices of UNESCO.

Personal life
In 1996, Whitaker married actress Keisha Nash (1972–2023), whom he met on the set of Blown Away. As a couple, they had four children: two daughters together (Sonnet and True), and his son (Ocean Alexander) and her daughter (Autumn) from their previous relationships. In December 2018, Whitaker filed for divorce from Nash, citing irreconcilable differences.

Whitaker studies yoga, has a black belt in kenpō and is a vegetarian. He also trains in eskrima, originally under Dan Inosanto and currently with Joe Jackson. In 2021, it was announced that he had joined NBA Africa as a minority owner and strategic investor.

Whitaker's left eye ptosis has been called "intriguing" by the critic Susan Wloszczyna, with the writer Stephanie Zacharek maintaining that it gives him "a sleepy, contemplative look". Whitaker has explained that the condition is hereditary and that he has considered having surgery to correct it, not for cosmetic reasons but because it affects his vision.

His ancestry has been traced to Nkwerre in Imo State of Nigeria, where he was made an honorary titled chief on April 5, 2009.

Acting credits and accolades
In addition to the numerous awards Whitaker won for his performance in The Last King of Scotland, he has also received several other honors. In 2005, the Deauville (France) Festival of American Film paid tribute to him. In September 2006, the 10th Annual Hollywood Film Festival presented him with its "Hollywood Actor of the Year Award", calling him "one of Hollywood's most accomplished actors". Whitaker received the Capri Legend Award in 2006, from the Capri Hollywood International Film Festival. He was honored at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival 2007, where he received the American Riviera Award. On April 16, 2007, Whitaker was the recipient of the 2,335th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion pictures industry at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard.

In 2004, Whitaker received an Honorary Doctorate from the North Carolina School of the Arts. In 2007, he received the Cinema for Peace Award for his ongoing advocacy for child soldiers and his work with inner-city youths. Whitaker then received the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from Xavier University of Louisiana in 2009 at the 82nd Commencement Ceremony. In 2009, he also received an Honorary Degree from Manhattanville College, where he delivered the commencement address. In 2012, in recognition of his contributions to the values embodied by the UN, he received the United Nations Correspondents Association's Advocate of the Year Award. In 2013, Whitaker received the Chevalier de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres from France's Minister of Culture, in recognition of his work serving those affected by conflicts and violence. That year, he was also named a Martin Luther King, Jr. Fellow by Boston University. Whitaker was the keynote speaker at Miami University's commencement in 2014. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from California State University, Dominguez Hills on May 16, 2015. In 2016, Whitaker received the Humanitarian Award from the World Childhood Foundation.

In 2017, Whitaker earned the Crystal Award at the World Economic Forum in Davos. That year, he also received the 4GameChanger Of The Year Award. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts from University of Southern California on May 11, 2018, at the 135th Commencement Ceremony. He received the Medal of Peace from the University of San Diego's Kroc School of Peace Studies in 2018, and received an Honorary Fellowship from SOAS University of London that same year. In 2019, he was also among the recipients of the 2019 Kennedy Center Award for the Human Spirit. In 2021, USC awarded him the Robert Redford Award for Engaged Artists. That year, he was also promoted to Commander of France's Order of Arts and Letters. In 2021, Whitaker also received an honorary German Sustainability Award. In 2022, he was awarded the International Peace Honors prize for his philanthropy and humanitarian service, as well as the SDG Vanguard Award by the UN Foundation, for his innovative championing of sustainability and resilience across a wide array of countries. He also received the Honorary Palme d'Or from the Cannes Film Festival.

title: Forest Whitaker


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Talk:1915

Year in topic
As far as I can see prior to 1915, "year in topic" is flagged in the box as on this page. After 1916 it always appears as a separate paragraph. I think the box is greater, but still seek opinions before making them the same. BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 13:49, 22 December 2006 (UTC)]

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Deaths
Notable 1915 deaths from the Netherlands: https://www.delpher.nl/nl/kranten/view?query=Hesse+schermmeester&page=1&maxperpage=50&sortfield=date&coll=ddd&identifier=ddd:010296203:mpeg21:a0182&resultsidentifier=ddd:010296203:mpeg21:a0182&rowid=40

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title: Talk:1915


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Helen MacInnes

Helen Clark MacInnes (October 7, 1907 – September 30, 1985) was a Scottish-American writer of espionage novels.

Life
She and her husband emigrated to the United States in 1937, when he took an academic position at Columbia University in New York, while retaining his role in the British MI6, for foreign espionage. MacInnes published her first novel during World War II, and her early novels are all based in that setting. Later she wrote more about characters within the context of the Cold War.

Early life
Helen Clark MacInnes was born on October 7, 1907, in Glasgow to Donald MacInnes and Jessica McDiarmid, and had a traditional Scots Presbyterian upbringing. MacInnes graduated from the University of Glasgow in Scotland in 1928 with an MA in French and German. MacInnes continued her studies at University College, London, where she received a diploma in librarianship in 1931.

While working as a librarian, MacInnes met the classics scholar Gilbert Highet. The pair married on September 22, 1932, and moved to New York City in 1937. The pair had one child, Keith Highet, who was born in 1933 and became an eminent international lawyer.

Career
In the early 1930s, MacInnes had collaborated with Highet to translate German literature, which helped finance their summer travels through Europe. These European excursions gave MacInnes exposure to locations that she used later as settings for her espionage thrillers.

MacInnes accepted an appointment as a special cataloguer for the Ferguson Collection at the University of Glasgow. She worked with the Dunbartonshire Education Authority to select books for county libraries. In 1932, Gilbert Highet accepted a classics teaching appointment at St John's College, Oxford. While in Oxford, MacInnes performed as an amateur actress with the Oxford University Dramatic Society and the Oxford Experimental Theatre.

One of MacInnes’ greatest inspirations in writing on foreign affairs and espionage was her honeymoon to the European mainland, Bavaria in particular. As she and Highet witnessed the oppression of the German totalitarian regime, she swore to write against the oppressive forces of the Nazi government. MacInnes even kept notes about the different governments she saw in her travels with Highet that she would refer back to when she began writing full-time.

Highet served as a British intelligence agent in MI6 in addition to working as a classical scholar. Highet continued his work with MI6 after he and MacInnes moved to the U.S. in 1937. That year he accepted an appointment as a professor and chairman of the department of classics (Latin and Greek) at Columbia University in New York City. When the couple moved there permanently, MacInnes began her writing career. Highet's work in intelligence, in addition to MacInnes's own research and traveling, influenced her writing. MacInnes and Highet produced two books together, translations of German works.

In 1939, the couple's son was taken to hospital with a ruptured appendix. During this episode, Highet came across MacInnes's notes and commentary on Hitler's rise to power, and other matters of contemporary politics. He encouraged her to use them as the basis for a novel.

During the following 45 years, MacInnes wrote 21 espionage thrillers, four of which were later adapted as films. Her early books were set during the Second World War, often featuring lay people who become spies or otherwise caught up in acting on behalf of the Allied war effort. MacInnes became a U.S. citizen in 1952.

MacInnes’ first novel, Above Suspicion, was published in 1941 and remains one of her most famous works. The plot was loosely tied to her travels with Highet and his work in particular with MI6. It follows the journey of newlywed English couple Frances and Richard Myles overseas as they are charged with going “above the suspicion” of the Nazi regime to seek out an undercover spy living in Austria to determine if his position as informant and his information is still valid. It was adapted into a film in 1943 by MGM director Richard Thorpe, and was promoted with the tagline “It happened on a honeymoon,” a parallel between MacInnes and Highet and the Myles couple. MacInnes's second novel, Assignment in Brittany (1942), was made required reading for Allied intelligence agents who were being sent to work with the French resistance against the Nazis. It was featured on the New York Times first fiction bestseller list, in 1942. Her 1944 book, The Unconquerable, gives such an accurate portrayal of the Polish resistance that some reviewers and readers thought she was using classified information given to her by her husband.

In her later books, MacInnes shifted her subject matter from World War II to the Cold War. The Venetian Affair, for example, was published in 1963, and set in Paris and Venice; it involved Soviet agents and sleeper cells, alluded to events unfolding in Algeria and Vietnam, and contained a conspiracy to assassinate Charles de Gaulle. She continued to produce about one book every two years until her final novel Ride a Pale Horse (1984).

MacInnes’ career was not dotted with many awards, although she did win the 1966 Iona University Columbia Prize for Literature. This is most directly related to her influence in the state of New York, seeing as her first sixteen novels (those written up to 1966) each spent time on the international best sellers’ list (according to a 1974 People Magazine article).

A review in The New York Times praised MacInnes' body of work for its "unfailing eye for vivid backgrounds, her deft control of complex story lines, and her clear-cut presentation of each important member of her casts. These common qualities have given her work a kind of grandeur, a romantic overtone suggesting knights in mortal combat." Many of MacInnes’ novels are continuing to be renewed for print, cementing her legacy as one of the trailblazing female international affairs novelists in the World War II and Cold War eras.

Her husband Gilbert Highet died in 1978. MacInnes died in New York City on September 30, 1985, at age 77, following a stroke she had suffered three weeks earlier.

MacInnes's writing reflects an affinity for Arthur Koestler and Rebecca West, as she strongly opposed any form of tyranny and totalitarianism.

Works

 * Above Suspicion (1941), made into a film of the same title
 * Assignment in Brittany (1942) made into a film of the same title (though both novel and film are sometimes referred to as  Cross Channel, the title of the novel in its serialized form)
 * The Unconquerable (1944), also called While Still We Live
 * Horizon (1945)
 * Friends and Lovers (1947)
 * Rest and Be Thankful (1949)
 * Neither Five Nor Three (1951)
 * I and My True Love (1953)
 * Pray for a Brave Heart (1955)
 * North from Rome (1958)
 * Decision at Delphi (1960)
 * The Venetian Affair (1963), made into a film of the same title
 * Home Is the Hunter (1964), subtitle: A Comedy in Two Acts
 * The Double Image (1966)
 * The Salzburg Connection (1968), made into a film of the same title
 * Message from Málaga (1971)
 * The Snare of the Hunter (1974)
 * Agent in Place (1976)
 * Prelude to Terror (1978)
 * The Hidden Target (1980)
 * Cloak of Darkness (1982)
 * Ride a Pale Horse (1984)

Helen MacInnes' backlist fiction titles have been republished by Titan Books.

As translator

 * Translated Sexual Life in Ancient Rome, together with Gilbert Highet 1934, from the work of Otto Kiefer, Routledge, 1934.
 * Translated Friedrich Engels: A Biography, together with Gilbert Highet 1939, from the work of Gustav Meyer, Chapman and Hall, 1934.

title: Helen MacInnes


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Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop

The Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop or Rock and Pop by Australian music journalist Ian McFarlane is a guide to Australian popular music from the 1950s to the late 1990s. The book has a similar title to the 1978 work by Noel McGrath, Australian Encyclopaedia of Rock and Pop, but is not otherwise related.

Publishers, Allen & Unwin described McFarlane's encyclopedia as containing over 870 entries and an "essential reference to the bands and artists who molded the shape of Australian popular music [...] in an A-to-Z encyclopedia format complete with biographical and historical details. Each entry also includes listings of original band lineups and subsequent changes, record releases, career highlights, and cross-references with related bands and artists."

The first edition is out of print, but was for a time available on the whammo.com.au online record store, and is still in the Internet Archive. In 2017 a second edition was published by Third Stone Press.

Reviews
The first edition was described in Australian Music Guide as "the most exhaustive and wide-ranging encyclopedia of Australian music from the 1950s onwards".

The second edition appeared in 2017 and was updated to 2016. Steven Carroll of The Sydney Morning Herald opined that "Any survey of Australian pop and rock that includes entries on such bands as Serious Young Insects (via Boom Crash Opera) is a serious tome. It's so easy to get lost in this revised edition: one band leading to another, and so on, until you're suddenly asking yourself what happened to the last hour."

title: Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop


text:
Talk:1916

Comparison to 1915 article
As far as I can see prior to 1915, "year in topic" is flagged in the box as on this page. After 1916 it always appears as a separate paragraph. I think the box is better but seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Armenian Genocide
Excuse me is this meant to be a chronological series of events of the year 1916 or a mothpiece for Armenian and Greek propaganda against the Turks? Can these biased and disputed statements please be sourced from objective and non-racial sources please BEFORE submitting here. I am sick and tired of racial minorities using Wkipedia as their mouthpiece. Go hijack your own website. 82.145.231.222 13:36, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

Zombie
I first came ot this article to find out what 1916 in the song Zombie referenced. Turns out it's the Easter Rising. Perhaps we could mention is somehow? - SkarmoryThePG 15:36, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

Format
[2006 - See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 13:47, 22 December 2006 (UTC)]

War of dots
Who are the article about the war of dots from 1916? It's about the writing for the blind by New York Point, American Braille and British Braille

Look there: http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000302.asp

Sorry about the language, i'm a german —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.72.55.138 (talk) 08:51, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Water Lilies
Monet started to paint his water lilly series in 1905. The painting reproduced was painted in 1920-1926. Nothing has anything to do with 1916.Afil (talk) 17:25, 17 September 2011 (UTC)

Images
IP address 124.106.250.6 keeps changing the images in the births section and I hadn't went to their talk page yet. I was wondering, should this be protected for a couple of days before this happens again? 206.45.9.182 (talk) 22:02, 19 August 2016 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. Community Tech bot (talk) 11:40, 18 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Harold Wilson Number 10 official.jpg

title: Talk:1916


text:
Robert Morrison MacIver

Robert Morrison MacIver (April 17, 1882 – June 15, 1970) was a sociologist and political scientist.

Early life and family
Robert Morrison MacIver was born in Stornoway, Isle of Lewis, Scotland on April 17, 1882, to Donald MacIver, a general merchant and tweed manufacturer, and Christina MacIver (née Morrison). His father was a Calvinist, specifically, Scottish Presbyterian. On 14 August 1911 he married Elizabeth Marion Peterkin. They had three children: Ian Tennant Morrison, Christina Elizabeth, and Donald Gordon.

Education
He received degrees from the University of Edinburgh (M.A. 1903; D.Ph. 1915), the University of Oxford (B.A. 1907), and Columbia University (Litt.E. 1929) and Harvard (1936). In his rather long period of formal education, he had never made any academically supervised study of sociology. His work in that field was distinguished by his acumen, his philosophical understanding, and extensive study of the major pioneering works of Durkheim, Levy-Bruhl, Simmel and others in the British Museum Library in London, while resident as a student in Oxford.

Career
He was a university Lecturer in Political Science (1907) and sociology (1911) at the University of Aberdeen. He left Aberdeen in 1915 for a post at the University of Toronto where he was Professor of Political Science and later Head of Department from 1922 to 1927. MacIver was vice chairman of the Canada War Labor Board from 1917 to 1918. In 1927 he accepted an invitation from Barnard College of Columbia University in New York City, where he became professor of Social Science from 1927 to 1936. He was subsequently named Lieber Professor of Political Science and Sociology at Columbia University and taught there from 1929 to 1950. He was president, beginning in 1963 until 1965, and then chancellor of The New School for Social Research from 1965 to 1966.

He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. He was a member of the American Sociological Society, and was elected as its 30th President in 1940. He was a member of the Institut International de Sociologie and of Phi Beta Kappa.

Activism
In the 1950s, MacIver was activist at Boris Gourevitch's the Union for the Protection of the Human Person. Among its activities, with Albert Simard, in 1955, the three signed a letter addressed to South Africa on equality.

title: Robert Morrison MacIver


text:
Social structure

In the social sciences, social structure is the aggregate of patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals. Likewise, society is believed to be grouped into structurally related groups or sets of roles, with different functions, meanings, or purposes. Examples of social structure include family, religion, law, economy, and class. It contrasts with "social system", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded. Thus, social structures significantly influence larger systems, such as economic systems, legal systems, political systems, cultural systems, etc. Social structure can also be said to be the framework upon which a society is established. It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.

Since the 1920s, the term has been in general use in social science, especially as a variable whose sub-components needed to be distinguished in relationship to other sociological variables, as well as in academic literature, as result of the rising influence of structuralism. The concept of "social stratification", for instance, uses the idea of social structure to explain that most societies are separated into different strata (levels), guided (if only partially) by the underlying structures in the social system. It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc. In this sense, structure is an important issue for management.

On the macro scale, social structure pertains to the system of socioeconomic stratification (most notably the class structure), social institutions, or other patterned relations between large social groups. On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations. On the micro scale, "social structure" includes the ways in which 'norms' shape the behavior of individuals within the social system. These scales are not always kept separate. For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., "structure" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss). Likewise, in ethnography, a recent study describes how indigenous social structure in the Republic of Panama changed macro social structures and impeded a planned Panama Canal expansion. Marxist sociology has also historically mixed different meanings of social structure, though doing so by simply treating the cultural aspects of social structure as phenomenal of its economic aspects.

Social norms are believed to influence social structure through relations between the majority and the minority. As those who align with the majority are considered 'normal', and those who align with the minority are considered 'abnormal', majority-minority relations create a hierarchical stratification within social structures that favors the majority in all aspects of society.

Early history
The early study of social structures has considerably informed the study of institutions, culture and agency, social interaction, and history.

Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term "social structure". Later, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber would all contribute to structural concepts in sociology. The latter, for example, investigated and analyzed the institutions of modern society: market, bureaucracy (private enterprise and public administration), and politics (e.g. democracy).

One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure). Marx argued that the economic base substantially determined the cultural and political superstructure of a society. Subsequent Marxist accounts, such as that of Louis Althusser, proposed a more complex relationship that asserted the relative autonomy of cultural and political institutions, and a general determination by economic factors only "in the last instance."

In 1905, German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies published his study The Present Problems of Social Structure, in which he argues that only the constitution of a multitude into a unity creates a "social structure", basing his approach on his concept of social will.

Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole. In this context, Durkheim distinguished two forms of structural relationship: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. The former describes structures that unite similar parts through a shared culture, while the latter describes differentiated parts united through social exchange and material interdependence.

As did Marx and Weber, Georg Simmel, more generally, developed a wide-ranging approach that provided observations and insights into domination and subordination; competition; division of labor; formation of parties; representation; inner solidarity and external exclusiveness; and many similar features of the state, religious communities, economic associations, art schools, and of family and kinship networks. However diverse the interests that give rise to these associations, the forms in which interests are realized may yet be identical.

Later developments
The notion of social structure was extensively developed in the 20th century with key contributions from structuralist perspectives drawing on theories of Claude Lévi-Strauss, as well as feminist, marxist, functionalist (e.g. those developed by Talcott Parsons and followers), and a variety of other analytic perspectives. Some follow Marx in trying to identify the basic dimensions of society that explain the other dimensions, most emphasizing either economic production or political power. Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures. Still others, notably Peter Blau, follow Simmel in attempting to base a formal theory of social structure on numerical patterns in relationships—analyzing, for example, the ways in which factors like group size shape intergroup relations.

The notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation of structure and agency. The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory. Giddens emphasizes the duality of structure and agency, in the sense that structures and agency cannot be conceived apart from one another. This permits him to argue that structures are neither independent of actors nor determining of their behavior, but rather sets of rules and competencies on which actors draw, and which, in the aggregate, they reproduce. Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism). Bourdieu's practice theory also seeks a more subtle account of social structure as embedded in, rather than determinative of, individual behavior.

Other recent work by Margaret Archer (morphogenesis theory), Tom R. Burns and Helena Flam (actor-system dynamics theory and social rule system theory), and Immanuel Wallerstein (World Systems Theory) provide elaborations and applications of the sociological classics in structural sociology.

Definitions and concepts
As noted above, social structure has been conceptualized as:
 * the relationship of definite entities or groups to each other;
 * the enduring patterns of behaviour by participants in a social system in relation to each other; and
 * the institutionalised norms or cognitive frameworks that structure the actions of actors in the social system.

Institutional vs Relational
Furthermore, Lopez and Scott (2000) distinguish between two types of structure:

 * Institutional structure: "social structure is seen as comprising those cultural or normative patterns that define the expectations of [sic] agents hold about each other's behaviour and that organize their enduring relations with each other."
 * Relational structure: "social structure is seen as comprising the relationships themselves, understood as patterns of causal interconnection and interdependence among agents and their actions, as well as the positions that they occupy."

Micro vs Macro
Social structure can also be divided into microstructure and macrostructure:

 * Microstructure: The pattern of relations between most basic elements of social life, that cannot be further divided and have no social structure of their own (e.g. pattern of relations between individuals in a group composed of individuals, where individuals have no social structure; or a structure of organizations as a pattern of relations between social positions or social roles, where those positions and roles have no structure by themselves).
 * Macrostructure: The pattern of relations between objects that have their own structure (e.g. a political social structure between political parties, as political parties have their own social structure).

Other types
Sociologists also distinguish between:

 * Normative structures: pattern of relations in a given structure (organization) between norms and modes of operations of people of varying social positions
 * Ideal structures: pattern of relations between beliefs and views of people of varying social positions
 * Interest structures: pattern of relations between goals and desires of people of varying social positions
 * Interaction structures: forms of communication of people of varying social positions

Modern sociologists sometimes differentiate between three types of social structures:

 * Relation structures: family or larger family-like clan structures
 * Communication structures: structures in which information is passed (e.g. in organizations)
 * Sociometric structures: structures of sympathy, antipathy, and indifference in organizations. This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.

Social rule system theory reduces the structures of (3) to particular rule system arrangements, i.e. the types of basic structures of (1 and 2). It shares with role theory, organizational and institutional sociology, and network analysis the concern with structural properties and developments and at the same time provides detailed conceptual tools needed to generate interesting, fruitful propositions and models and analyses.

Origin and development of structures
Some believe that social structure develops naturally, caused by larger systemic needs (e.g. the need for labour, management, professional, and military functions), or by conflicts between groups (e.g. competition among political parties or élites and masses). Others believe that structuring is not a result of natural processes, but of social construction. Research from scholars Nicole M. Stephens and Sarah Townsend demonstrated that the cultural mismatch between institutions' ideals of independence and the interdependence common among working-class individuals can hinder workers' opportunities to succeed. In this sense, social structure may be created by the power of élites who seek to retain their power, or by economic systems that place emphasis upon competition or upon cooperation.

Ethnography has contributed to understandings about social structure by revealing local practices and customs that differ from Western practices of hierarchy and economic power in its construction.

Social structures can be influenced by individuals, but individuals are often influenced by agents of socialization (e.g., the workplace, family, religion, and school). The way these agents of socialization influence individualism varies on each separate member of society; however, each agent is critical in the development of self-identity.

Critical implications
The notion of social structure may mask systematic biases, as it involves many identifiable sub-variables (e.g. gender). Some argue that men and women who have otherwise equal qualifications receive different treatment in the workplace because of their gender, which would be termed a "social structural" bias, but other variables (such as time on the job or hours worked) might be masked. Modern social structural analysis takes this into account through multivariate analysis and other techniques, but the analytic problem of how to combine various aspects of social life into a whole remains.

Development of Individualism
Sociologists such as Georges Palante have written on how social structures coerce our individuality and social groups by shaping the actions, thoughts, and beliefs of every individual human being. In terms of agents of socialization, social structures are slightly influenced by individuals but individuals are more greatly influenced by them. Some examples of these agents of socialization are the workplace, family, religion, and school. The way these agents of socialization influence your individualism varies on each one; however, they all play a big role in your self-identity development. Agents of socialization can also affect how you see yourself individually or as part of a collective. Our identities are constructed through social influences that we encounter in our daily lives. The way you are raised to view your individuality can hinder your ability to succeed by capping your abilities or it could become an obstacle in certain environments in which individuality is embraced like colleges or friend groups.

Related concepts

 * Agency (sociology)
 * Base and superstructure
 * Cognitive social structures
 * Conflict theory
 * Formative context
 * Morphological analysis
 * Norm (sociology)
 * Political structure
 * Power (social and political)
 * Socialization
 * Social Model
 * Social network
 * Social order
 * Social reproduction
 * Social space
 * Social structure of the United States
 * Sociotechnical systems theory
 * Structural functionalism
 * Structural violence
 * Structure and agency
 * Systems theory
 * Technological determinism
 * Theory of structuration
 * Values

Related theorists

 * Émile Durkheim
 * Anthony Giddens
 * Niklas Luhmann
 * Karl Marx
 * Robert K. Merton
 * George Murdock
 * Talcott Parsons
 * Ferdinand Tönnies
 * Eric Trist
 * Max Weber

title: Social structure


text:
Gaius Blossius

Gaius Blossius (2nd century BC) was, according to Plutarch, a philosopher and student of the Stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus, from the city of Cumae in Campania, Italy, who (along with the Greek rhetorician, Diophanes) instigated Roman tribune Tiberius Gracchus to pursue a land reform movement on behalf of the plebs. Tiberius was accused by his political opponents of attempting to provoke a popular uprising, and have himself crowned King. Eventually, he was assassinated, and his body thrown into the river Tiber.

After the death of Tiberius Gracchus, Blossius was interrogated by the consuls on the matter. Blossius freely admitted that he had done anything Tiberius had asked. The consuls asked "What? What would you do if Tiberius ordered you to burn the Capitol?" He answered that Tiberius would never have given such an order. Being pressed on the point, though, Blossius eventually stated that Tiberius would only have ordered such a thing, if it were in the true interests of the Roman people. After that, he was released. Blossius went to the province of Asia, where he took part in Aristonicus' popular uprising against Rome, aiding in the organization of the Heliopolis state. When the uprising was ultimately defeated, he killed himself.

In literature
Blossius is a sympathetic character in Steven Saylor's novel Roma. Saylor follows the known facts of Blossius' life, but adds a long-lasting love relationship between him and a Patrician Roman woman, which is not attested in historical sources.

title: Gaius Blossius


text:
Talk:1912

Year in topic
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1915 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 13:53, 22 December 2006 (UTC)] what happend to the febuary 1912 events? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.239.182.13 (talk) 17:00, 7 January 2012 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Grobermans Choice

Google brings up no evidence of this term being used. Could be a neologism or an out-and-out made-up term.

 * Delete. TB 11:05, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I tried a wider search of Groberman election to see if there was a story there, found nothing.  Also, user who created article has just this one submission.  Always suspicious. It's reminiscent of Hobson's choice. --bodnotbod 12:05, May 4, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Chris 73 | Talk 12:14, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I can't find any other reference to this term via Google or Teoma. Average Earthman 13:41, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Thought it may have some relevance, but with zilch on the search engines, delete. Alcarillo 14:42, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * substub? no hits? only submission? Delete. DJ Clayworth 15:04, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Cyrius|&#9998 15:36, May 4, 2004 (UTC)
 * I have a inkling that it may be a reference to a science fiction story (Asimov? Aldiss?) about a time when polling techniques have become so advanced that you only have to ask one person in order to predict the results of, for example, a presidential election. If I'm recalling it correctly (and my addled brain well not be), the main character (who gets to be "The Elector") is called Groberman. All of which may or may not be interesting, but bears little on my vote which is, delete. --ALargeElk 16:23, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Reminiscent of Secret of Monkey Island, too... "When there's only one candidate, there's only one choice." It was Asimov, in a Multivac story called Franchise, and AFAIK the voter was Normal Muller.  I vote delete. --Suitov 10:46, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Well remembered! I wonder where I was dragging Groberman up from. Still, at least I got the author right first time. --ALargeElk 10:53, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. john 03:55, 5 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Solsonès

There is a confusion: the county is Urgell (yet exist as a nobiliary title), Solsonès is a comarca (a type of Shire)

 * It's tricky, because the English-language equivalent to "comarca" is "county", even in countries like the US that never had counts. The US doesn't have "shires" (and a UK shire is simply a type of county). Since the article is written in US English, "county" is appropriate. But I will modify Comarques of Catalonia to clarify this issue. And maybe I need to rethink the boilerplate I've been using for the comarques, because (as an American) I didn't consider the possible implication by using the word "county" that they each woudl have had a count.-- Jmabel 21:41, 4 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Solsonès


text: User talk:81.225.179.134

title: User talk:81.225.179.134


text:
Talk:1919

Year in topic
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1915 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 17:14, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

Positioning the Treaty of Versailles signing before the ILO institution (28 June)
Positioning the Treaty of Versailles signing before the ILO institution (28 June)? Mormegil 87.19.76.71 (talk) 02:24, 10 June 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Tense consistency
Some entries in these date pages use the past tense while others use the historical present. I think the past is more appropriate, but whichever, it should be consistent. James Galloway (talk) 18:42, 30 October 2018 (UTC)

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Correct references
Sorry, -- I've removed the undefined references you've added and replaced them with a fact tag. You've added  to the article. But there is no definition for references named "encyclopediaofarkansas.net" or "ArkAssembly" anywhere else in the article. There's lots of help available for getting references right; maybe check out Help:Footnotes, or ask here if you've got a specific question and maybe somoene can help. -- Mikeblas (talk) 17:14, 4 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:1919


text:
Susan Kramer, Baroness Kramer

Susan Veronica Kramer, Baroness Kramer PC (née Richards; born 21 July 1950) is a British politician and life peer who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Richmond Park from 2005 to 2010. A member of the Liberal Democrats, she was their Treasury Spokesperson from 2015 to 2017 and 2017 to 2019.

Born in Holborn, Kramer was privately educated at St Paul's Girls' School before studying at St Hilda's College, University of Oxford and the University of Illinois. Prior to entering the House of Commons, she pursued a career in infrastructure finance and in 2000 was a candidate in the London mayoral election. She served as Minister of State for Transport in the Cameron–Clegg coalition.

Early life and career
Susan Veronica Richards was born in Holborn, London, on 22 July 1950. She was educated at St Paul's Girls' School, an independent school in London. She then read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at St Hilda's College, University of Oxford. She served as the President of the Oxford Union in 1971, the second woman ever to be elected to the position. She then earned her MBA at the University of Illinois in the United States. She began her career in finance, and rose to become a Vice-President of Citibank in Chicago. She and her husband then set up Infrastructure Capital Partners, a firm which advised on infrastructure projects, primarily in Central and Eastern Europe.

Early candidacies
Kramer contested Dulwich and West Norwood in 1997, coming third behind the Labour incumbent Tessa Jowell and the Conservative candidate Roger W. Gough. In 1999, she was on the Liberal Democrat party list for the London constituency at the European Parliament elections, though she was not elected. The following year, she stood as the Liberal Democrat candidate in the election for Mayor of London against Ken Livingstone, and other candidates. She finished fourth with 11.9% of the vote. In March 2003, she again sought the party's nomination for Mayor of London, but was beaten in a three-way race for the candidacy by Simon Hughes.

Member of Parliament
In September 2003, Kramer was selected as the prospective parliamentary candidate for the constituency of Richmond Park in South West London, following the decision of the sitting Liberal Democrat MP, Jenny Tonge, to stand down at the next election. Kramer was then elected as the MP for the constituency at the May 2005 general election. Kramer was appointed as the Liberal Democrat spokesperson on International Development by the new party leader, Sir Menzies Campbell, in March 2006. She succeeded Ed Davey as Trade & Industry spokesperson nine months later. In 2007 she became the party's Transport spokesperson. When Nick Clegg was appointed as Liberal Democrat Leader, Kramer received a demotion to a spokesperson for the Cabinet Office. She later regained the Transport post in a subsequent reshuffle. In January 2009, she resigned from the party's front bench to defend her seat from a renewed Conservative campaign to regain Richmond. Kramer was one of the contributors to the Orange Book (2004).

Kramer was involved in a breach of electoral rules when her son made four monthly donations of £332 between December 2008 and March 2009 to her campaign while not on the electoral register. A Liberal Democrat spokeswoman said to the press Jonathan Kramer was unaware his name had fallen off the register, and that the money was paid back once the error was pointed out.

Voting record and positions
Kramer rarely rebelled against Liberal Democrat policy in terms of voting. She has voted against the introduction of national ID cards, against the renewal of the Trident defence system, and for an elected House of Lords.

Kramer took a keen interest in London transport, in particular regarding high-speed rail and the Thameslink Programme. Despite her initial enthusiasm about the opening of High Speed 1, she became more mixed on the issue, citing in 2007 during a debate with a number of Labour MPs that "significant numbers of business customers in south-west London have been happy to make the easy journey by train to Waterloo, but that they simply jump in a cab to go to Gatwick or Heathrow. It is unfortunate, but their passenger business will largely be lost, as the journey to St Pancras will be more than an hour longer than the current journey to Waterloo." Kramer's district of Richmond Park is situated in an area served by South West Trains which provides service into Waterloo station rather than the newly opened St Pancras International station which replaced the former as the London terminus for Eurostar; she later argued for possible use of both stations.

In addition, she echoed her discontent with the management of the Thameslink Programme, originally meant to improve cross-Thames rail travel, claiming it failed to meet set targets and that its cash flow has been poorly managed. She consistently supported Crossrail and was a member of the Crossrail Bill Committee. Kramer voiced her opposition to the expansion of Heathrow Airport and submitted an early day motion that gained support from 54 MPs, 38 from her own party and 16 from the Labour Party. As early as her maiden speech, she opposed the airport's expansion. This opposition was one of her key goals as a Member of Parliament.

On civil rights, Kramer voted for amendments to the Equality Act 2006 that would ban discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender reassignment. Along with all other Liberal Democrat MPs, she voted to allow Gurkhas permanent settlement rights in the United Kingdom, overriding previous legislation which denied such rights.

Local issues
In early January 2009, Kramer stepped down from the Liberal Democrat Front Bench to focus on local issues impacting her constituency. The principal cause stated was to coordinate opposition to further development of Heathrow Airport, whose incoming aircraft routinely overfly the constituency on their landing approach to the airport.

After 2010
In 2010, Kramer faced a challenge from Conservative Zac Goldsmith, defending a notional majority of 3,649 (7.2%). with Goldsmith emerging victorious by 4,091 votes. In November 2010, she lost the election to become President of the Liberal Democrats to Tim Farron by 47% of votes to Farron's 53%.

Later in the month, it was announced that she would be made a life peer, and was created Baroness Kramer, of Richmond Park in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames on 22 December 2010. On 4 October 2012, she appeared as a panellist on BBC's Question Time. In October 2013, Kramer was appointed Minister of State at the Department for Transport. which she held until the May 2015 General Election.

Following the 2015 election she was appointed as the Liberal Democrat Treasury spokesperson under Tim Farron.

Personal life
She married an American banker, John Davis Kramer, in 1972, while working at Citibank. He died in September 2006. She has 2 children and 3 grandchildren. Kramer is a patron of the Friends of Richmond Park, as well as Home Start, the Suzy Lamplugh Trust, the Three Wings Trust and the Environment Trust.

She lives in Barnes, London.

title: Susan Kramer, Baroness Kramer


text:
Talk:1921

Year in topic
This page has what I think is the better of two competing layouts for "year in topic", in many places it is as a paragraph not box (e.g.g1916). I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Germany
The 1920 articles are missing- By Country: Germany Ksenon 05:00, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 17:13, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

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title: Talk:1921


text:
Talk:1923

Layout
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1921, 1922 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Yankee Stadium
The first game at Yankee Stadium was 18 April 1923, but on this page it is listed as March. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Spikewerks (talk • contribs) 23:13, 29 December 2023 (UTC)

Mount Etna
The Etna article lists the major erruption of this period as 1928, not 1923. Which one is right?

USSR
The USSR was establed on December 30, 1922, not in June of 1923.

Barcelona
"* February 29 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans." However, there was no such a leap day in 1923 as a common year.--Jusjih 14:46, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 16:54, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

What is Angora (April 24 event)
What is the "Angora" that was discovered? The Derbyshire article doesn't reference anything about "Angora", and the "Angora" link is to a disambiguation page, and none of the links I checked out point to Derbyshire. What does this mean? Stifynsemons 02:52, 14 September 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120127035141/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/88A6BF6F1BD82405852574CD006C457F to http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/88A6BF6F1BD82405852574CD006C457F

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Bob Dole entry in births list
Politician Bob Dole was born in July 2023, but his longstanding entry in the births section was removed on Dec 7th 2021 by a user referencing 2021 talk page. I see nothing here on the talk page so I am restoring the entry --Rye 212 (talk) 03:26, 12 December 2022 (UTC)
 * You mean 1923. Like most notable people, he's not internationally notable enough to have his birth & death listed in main year articles. There was a discussion on Talk:2021 about that. Jim Michael 2 (talk) 11:06, 20 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:1923


text:
Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre

Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre (1716-1778) is a fictional character created in 1978 by Kenneth Woolner of the University of Waterloo to justify the use of a capital L to denote litres.

The International System of Units usually only permits the use of a capital letter when a unit is named after a person. The lower-case character l might be difficult to distinguish from the upper-case character I or the digit 1 in certain fonts and styles, and therefore both the lower-case (l) and the upper-case (L) are allowed as the symbol for litre. The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology now recommends the use of the uppercase letter L, a practice that is also widely followed in Canada and Australia.

Woolner perpetrated the April Fools' Day hoax in the April 1978 issue of "CHEM 13 News", a newsletter concerned with chemistry for school teachers. According to the hoax, Claude Litre was born on 12 February 1716, the son of a manufacturer of wine bottles. During Litre's extremely distinguished fictional scientific career, he purportedly proposed a unit of volume measurement that was incorporated into the International System of Units after his death in 1778.

The hoax was mistakenly printed as fact in the IUPAC journal Chemistry International and subsequently retracted. In reality, the litre derives its name from the litron, an old French unit of dry volume.

title: Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre


text:
Talk:1925

Year in topic
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1921, 1922 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 16:52, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

Fair use rationale for Image:New Yorker cover.jpg
Image:New Yorker cover.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. BetacommandBot 02:35, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

Scotch Tape
It appears that perhaps Masking Tape was invented in 1925, while Scotch Tape was invented in 1930. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.167.241.154 (talk) 18:32, 8 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:1925


text:
Talk:1926

Layout
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1921, 1922 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 16:51, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

Hugh Hefner and contents
Why there's a Hugh Hefner's birth twice and why is Table of Contents at the end? Or is it just for me?

December
Does the Turkish adoption of the Gregorian calendar belong here? They adopted the calendar after using the Islamic calendar, not from the Julian as most of Europe did, so I don't think there should be the 13 day offset from the calendar adoption. I still corrected the new date to 1 Jan 1927, rather than 1 Jan 1926, as if the date change were correct. I'm leaving the item in place, but I think it should be deleted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.197.33.218 (talk) 18:12, 2 June 2009 (UTC)

Lionel Jeffries
I would like to request that Lionel Jeffries remains in the "births" section, as I feel that, considering the number of films he acted in, the fame of some of them and the fame of some of the films he directed, such as The Railway Children are enough to give him a mention. Grieferhate (talk) 10:48, 26 February 2010 (UTC)

Orphaned references in 1926
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of 1926's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "chronicle of the 20th c.": From January 1926:  From February 1926:  From December 1926:  From October 1926:  From March 1926:  From June 1926:  From April 1926:  From November 1926:

From May 1926:

From 1925:

From September 1926:

From August 1926:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 12:16, 3 January 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:1926


text:
Church of the Lutheran Confession

The Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) is a conservative Christian religious body theologically adhering to confessional Lutheran doctrine. Founded in 1960 in Minnesota, it has approximately 85 congregations in 24 U.S. states, and missions in Canada, India, Africa, Nepal, and Myanmar.

The CLC maintains its headquarters at its ministerial college; Immanuel Lutheran High School, College & Seminary in Eau Claire, Wisconsin.

Historical background
Various Lutheran congregations left their synods during the 1950s and were independent at first. They began meeting together in 1957. The Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) was formed around the time of the break-up of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America in 1963.

The CLC was created primarily (though not solely) from congregations that broke away from the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) and the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS) because of a doctrinal difference in the matter of church fellowship. The CLC maintained that the WELS and ELS did not follow scriptural principles (Romans 16:17-18) when they did not break with the Synodical Conference and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod after they had publicly recognized doctrinal error within those bodies.

While there were joint talks in the 1990s between the CLC and the WELS and ELS to resolve the dispute, no resolution was reached. More recently, the CLC has been in formal discussions with the WELS and ELS over doctrinal issues. The goal of these discussions has been to establish doctrinal unity. In 2015, the "Joint Statement Regarding the Termination of Fellowship" was drafted by those involved in the discussions. However, the 2017 CLC General Pastoral Conference recommended that the 2018 CLC Convention not adopt the "Joint Statement" as a resolution of the doctrinal difference in this matter, since it is unclear and contains some ambiguities.

Core beliefs
The CLC teaches that the Bible is the only authoritative source for doctrine. It subscribes to the Lutheran Confessions (the Book of Concord, 1580) as an accurate presentation of what Scripture teaches. It is strongly linked to the concept of sola scriptura—scripture alone, and its website states, "If it is not Scripture; it is not Lutheran."

Ecumenical relations
Fellowship between the CLC and other church groups is established only upon investigation and confirmation that both church groups hold complete unity in scriptural doctrine and practice.

The CLC is currently in fellowship with several worldwide synods, some founded through mission work by the CLC.

Publishing and publications
The CLC Bookhouse is the official publishing house for the CLC. It is devoted to publishing Christian literature and CLC related religious materials, as well as several CLC periodicals. The CLC Bookhouse also offers books and items from other publishing houses.

CLC periodicals include:
 * The Lutheran Spokesman — the CLC's monthly family magazine
 * Ministry by Mail — printed and online sermons for CLC members at a distance from their church
 * The Journal of Theology — a quarterly theological magazine
 * The Witness — an e-newsletter

CLC educational materials include:
 * God's Hand in our Lives — the CLC Sunday School Series
 * Learn From Me — an adult instruction manual

Presidents

 * Paul Albrecht 1961–1972
 * Robert Reim 1972–1974
 * Egbert Albrecht 1974–1982
 * Daniel Fleischer 1982–2002
 * John Schierenbeck 2002–2012
 * Michael Eichstadt 2012–2023
 * Michael Wilke 2023–present

title: Church of the Lutheran Confession


text:
Talk:1927

Year in topic
I think the page layout for "year in topic" in some places where it is flagged in the box as on this page 1921, 1922 is better. I seek opinions before making them all the same.

In the case of this page it would also mean deleting some of the creeping duplication under topic BozMo(talk)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 16:49, 16 December 2006 (UTC)]

Great Mississippi Flood of 1927
The statement that "The Great Mississippi Flood ... [was] the greatest national disaster in US history" needs qualification or revision. This assertion isn't made in the article, and other disasters have caused more deaths and monetary damage. Especially if we're calling it a "national" as opposed to "natural" disaster. Jbarrett (talk) 07:03, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

Pope Benedict XVI's birth
I've changed it, to match the other Papal births, listed at the other YEAR articles. GoodDay (talk) 14:52, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

Name of Great Britain
The entry for April 12th says: "The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 renames the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The change acknowledges that the Irish Free State is no longer part of the Kingdom." The entry for May 13th says: "George V proclaims the change of his title from King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to King of Great Britain and Ireland."

As a result, the country is a united kingdom consisting of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The monarch however is king of Great Britain and (apparantly) all of Ireland, merely dropping the term 'united kingdom'. Wouldn't it be expected that the countries name and the royal style would follow each other more closer than this? 193.176.235.94 (talk) 11:01, 19 May 2010 (UTC)

No flu epidemic in 1927
Hiya, I have removed the flu epidemic line as it was 1918-1919 NOT 1927 http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/worldwars_timeline_noflash.shtml Veryscarymary (talk) 19:16, 19 January 2015 (UTC)
 * It seems that there was an influenza epidemic in Britain in 1927; see, for example, these contemporary news reports, the third of which confirms the figure of a thousand deaths per week. Brunton (talk) 08:50, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:1927