text:
Eumenes

Eumenes (Εὐμένης; fl. 362–315BC) was a Greek general and satrap. He participated in the Wars of Alexander the Great, serving as both Alexander's personal secretary and as a battlefield commander. He later was a participant in the Wars of the Diadochi as a supporter of the Macedonian Argead royal house. He was executed after the Battle of Gabiene in the winter of 316–315BC.

Early career
Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese. At a very early age, he was employed as a private secretary by Philip II of Macedon and after Philip's death (336BC) by Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied into Asia. After Alexander's death (323BC), Eumenes took command of a large body of Macedonian and other Greek soldiers fighting in support of Alexander's son, Alexander IV.

Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323–319 BC)
In the ensuing division of the empire in the Partition of Babylon (323BC), Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to Eumenes; but as they were not yet subdued, Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and Antigonus, satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia, were charged by the regent Perdiccas with securing them for him. Antigonus, however, ignored the order, and Leonnatus vainly attempted to induce Eumenes to accompany him to Europe and share in his far-reaching designs. Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia.

Battle of the Hellespont (321 BC)
When Craterus and Antipater, having subdued Greece in the Lamian War, determined to pass into Asia and overthrow the power of Perdiccas, their first blow was aimed at Cappadocia. Craterus and Neoptolemus, the satrap of Armenia, were completely defeated by Eumenes in the Battle of the Hellespont in 321BC. Neoptolemus was killed, and Craterus died of his wounds.

After the death of Perdiccas
After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt by his own soldiers (320BC), the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, assigning Antipater and Antigonus as his executioners.

Eumenes first travelled to Mount Ida where there was a royal stable. Eumenes took a large number of horses to replenish his Cappadocian cavalry. He took the time to file an account with the overseers of the stables despite his outlaw status. Upon hearing this, Antipater was greatly amused, however, it is clear that Eumenes made this move to show that he was acting under the law and in the service of the Argead House.

Since he would be facing a force superior in infantry, Eumenes decided to travel to the plains of Sardis where his advantage in cavalry would be decisive. He had also hoped to win the support of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was present in the city at the time. Cleopatra and Eumenes had been friends since childhood, however, Cleopatra was not willing to back what seemed to be a losing cause and implored Eumenes to leave the area lest she incur the wrath of Antipater. Eumenes obliged her and moved north into Phrygia to winter.

Despite his superior military skills, Eumenes' Macedonian generals approached him about one of them taking overall command. Eumenes retorted that "formalities and technicalities would not protect them from death and destruction". To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners. This revenue was used to pay his soldiers.

After the Conference at Triparadisus
Following the Conference at Triparadisus, Antigonus first placed a bounty on the Greek general's head of 100 talents of gold. News of this came immediately after Eumenes' financial rewards, so his officers and men were outraged and redoubled their efforts to protect their leader, assigning a large bodyguard of 1000 men to protect him at all times. Eumenes was also granted the privilege of wearing a purple hat and cloak, an honour usually only granted to a Macedonian king.

In 319BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappodocia and engaged Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia. Here, Eumenes was defeated due to an unknown act of a traitor who Antigonus possibly bribed. Although defeated, Eumenes swiftly acted to chase down and execute this traitor, which restored the faith of his men.

Following this battle, Antigonus neglected to address the dead and immediately set off in pursuit for Eumenes. Determined to follow tradition, Eumenes made the bold and unexpected move to regain the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead. This action greatly impressed Antigonus.

Remainder of the campaign
The remainder of the campaign turned into a battle of manoeuvre, with Eumenes avoiding further battle with Antigonus. At one point, Eumenes was in a position to capture the baggage of Antigonus' forces. Eumenes knew that he would not be able to prevent his soldiers from plundering this loot if they found out about it and also that doing so would decrease the essential mobility of his forces. Eumenes dispatched a private message to his old friend, the general Menander, advising him to move the baggage uphill so that its capture would be impossible. Menander immediately followed this advice. He and his fellow officers were shocked by this move and thought Eumenes to be a paragon of virtue. Only Antigonus knew of Eumenes' real motives. This action is also ironic when compared to the steps Antigonus had to take to finally defeat Eumenes.

The following winter, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 500 cavalry and 200 heavy infantry and holed up in Nora, a strong fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Antigonus arrived shortly and decided to enter into negotiation with Eumenes instead of undergoing a lengthy siege.

Antigonus wanted to acquire Eumenes as his own officer and so first demanded that Eumenes address him as a superior officer, to which Eumenes replied "while I am able to wield a sword, I shall think no man greater than myself".

During negotiations, Eumenes was unable to secure a deal he thought fitting and so was willing to hold out longer for a more favourable position in the imperial hierarchy. Antigonus then departed with his army, leaving behind only forces sufficient to blockade Nora.

In the cramped city, Eumenes was forced to come up with novel solutions so that his men and horses remained in fighting shape including; emptying large rooms where men exercised on a set schedule, and creating a suspension device, likened to an ancient treadmill, on which horses could run.

Eumenes held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.

The Second War of the Diadochi
Antipater had left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, while Eumenes allied himself with Polyperchon. He was able to escape from Nora by tricking the Antigonid diplomat, his friend and countryman Hieronymus of Cardia, sent to negotiate his surrender, into having him swear an oath of loyalty to the two kings, Philip III and Alexander IV instead of Antigonus himself. By swearing an oath to an infant and a developmentally disabled man, this essentially gave Eumenes free rein to act in whatever manner he saw as in the best interest of the Argead Dynasty and, therefore, himself.

Eumenes acted quickly to muster his army and marched into Cilicia, where he allied with Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the famous Macedonian Silver Shields. Eumenes again demonstrated his cleverness and was able to secure control over these men by playing on their loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. He claimed that Alexander had visited him in a dream and told him that he would be present with them at every battle. Eumenes even went so far as to set up a tent for the late conqueror complete with a throne. He used the royal treasury at Kyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops.

In 317BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon. When it was ready, he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet of Eumenes changed sides.

Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies.

Eumenes in the East
Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.

Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men. Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies. Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east.

In the late summer of 316BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene. Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night. During the winter of 316–315BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persis by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard; unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents. A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. In addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken, and Eumenes' army wished to negotiate their return.

Teutamus, one of their commanders, sent the request to Antigonus, who responded by demanding they give him Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers, and handed them over. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to ponder his fate. Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council insisted that he execute Eumenes and so it was decided.

Death
Antigonus, according to Plutarch, starved Eumenes for three days but finally sent an executioner to dispatch him when the time came for him to move his camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends to be burnt with honour, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.

Legacy
Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia. Still, his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies. Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary. Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers.

Historie is a historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes.

Family
Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia, was his brother-in-law, as Eumenes married Artonis, the daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III.

"For Barsine, the daughter of Artabazus, who was the first lady Alexander took to his bed in Asia, and who brought him a son named Heracles, had two sisters; one of which, called Apame, he gave to Ptolemy; and the other, called Artonis, he gave to Eumenes, at the time when he was selecting Persian ladies as wives for his friends."

- Plutarch, The Life of Eumenes.

title: Eumenes


text:
False titles of nobility

False titles of nobility or royal title scams are claimed titles of social rank that have been fabricated or assumed by an individual or family without recognition by the authorities of a country in which titles of nobility exist or once existed. They have received an increasing amount of press attention, as more schemes that purport to confer or sell such honorifics are promoted on the internet. Concern about the use of titles which lack legal standing or a basis in tradition has prompted increased vigilance and denunciation, although under English common law a person may choose to be known by any name they see fit as long as it is not done to "commit fraud or evade an obligation".

Self-styled titles
Outside monarchies, a distinction is drawn between a legitimate historical title which may no longer be recognised by a successor state (such as a republic) but is borne or claimed by a hereditary heir, and an invented or falsely-attributed noble title that is claimed without any historical basis.

Self-assumption of a title is not necessarily illegal; it depends on the law of the place where the title is used. The bearers of some self-assumed titles do not claim that such titles have been recognized by any nation at any time. Where such titles have existed historically, the current bearer may make no claim that its use is pursuant to a hereditary grant to an ancestor by a fount of honor.

Some individuals, associations or corporations purport to grant or transmit a legal or official right to a title, honour, acknowledgement or membership in a self-styled order of chivalry simply in exchange for a payment.

British titles
The British peerage includes the titles of (in ascending order) baron, viscount, earl, marquess and duke. All of these titleholders, except dukes, are (if male) known by the honorific "Lord" (in Scotland the lowest rank in the peerage is "Lord (of Parliament)" rather than "Baron"). No peerage can be sold; such a transaction would be in breach of the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925. The British embassy in the United States informs that "the sale of British titles is prohibited".

Titles in the Scottish baronage are the only British nobility titles that may be passed to any person, of either sex, by inheritance or conveyance.

Baronetcies are hereditary titles granted by the Crown, but are not part of the peerage. Baronets are styled "Sir" with the suffix "Bt." or "Bart." after their surname. Baronetcies can no longer be purchased, and existing ones cannot be bought or sold.

Persons who have been enrolled in an order of chivalry or dubbed are knights or dames, and are thus entitled to the prefix of "Sir" or "Dame". These titles cannot be bought or sold either.

The holder of a peerage, baronetcy or knighthood may not lawfully transfer those titles or any title associated with them to another individual. If a peerage is renounced, it devolves automatically upon the heir-at-law, usually based upon primogeniture. The incumbent has no right to designate a successor to the title.

Laird
Several websites and Internet vendors on websites such as eBay sell Scottish lairdships along with small plots of land, known as souvenir plots. However, they create no legal right of ownership or legal right of heraldry in Scots law.

The Court of the Lord Lyon (the heraldic court tasked with the award and regulation of heraldry) considers souvenir plot titles to be meaningless as the registration of numerous "lairds" of a single estate would pose too great an administrative burden. The opinion of the Lord Lyon has been criticised as the UK government allows the usage of Manorial Titles in British passports of the form: "THE HOLDER IS THE LORD OF THE MANOR/LAIRD OF [X]" (brackets added). However, as a matter of Scots property law, souvenir plots cannot competently create a real right of ownership in Scots law. The Land Registration (Scotland) Act 2012 forbids the registration of deeds relating to souvenir plots in the Land Register of Scotland. This means that the Buyer obtains no legal right of or to ownership of the souvenir plot in any event, so the evidence threshold required by HM Passport Office to use the Manorial Title will be unlikely to be met. Evidence of ownership of property would typically be the production of a Title Sheet to the property or a formal and valid disposition, which the souvenir plot documents are unlikely to contain.

Richard Bridgeman, 7th Earl of Bradford, estimates these sellers having an income of US$2,918,520 per acre (about US$7.2 million per hectare) of poor land, which he suggests could probably be purchased for about US$100. Some of these sellers enclose with the invalid deed a coat of arms; this is not authorised by the Lord Lyon, and so it is unlawful in Scotland to use it. The most recent advice from the Lord Lyon specifically states that the award of a coat of arms is not appropriate to the owner of a souvenir plot, such as sold in these schemes.

Manorial lordships
The title lord of the manor is a feudal title of ownership and is legally capable of sale. The owner of a Lordship of the Manor is known as [personal name], Lord/Lady of the Manor of [place name]. According to the style guide Debrett's, a person owning a Scottish Barony title is afforded a particular style, but English lordships of the manor are not mentioned.

There are three elements to a manor:
 * lordship of the manor,
 * manorial land,
 * manorial rights.

These three elements may exist separately or be combined; however the lordship of a manor may be held in moieties and may not be subdivided; this is prohibited by the Statute of Quia Emptores 1290, preventing subinfeudation (except in Scotland, where feudal rights resulting from subinfeudation were extinguished only with the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000). However the second and third elements can be subdivided.

In many cases, the title of lord of the manor may no longer be connected to land or other rights. In such cases, the title is known as an "incorporeal hereditament". Before the Land Registration Act 2002 it was possible to register lordship titles; most did not seek to register. Since 13 October 2003 one cannot apply for first registration of a title of a manor; however, dealings in previously registered titles remain subject to compulsory registration with HM Land Registry. A frequent criticism of the lordships sold at auction is that statutory declarations are relied upon to substitute for missing historical deeds and transfer documents which would, in some cases, demonstrate that the manor in question either no longer exists, can no longer be identified definitively or is not available for sale.

According to John Martin Robinson, Maltravers Herald Extraordinary and co-author of The Oxford Guide to Heraldry, "Lordship of this or that manor is no more a title than Landlord of The Dog and Duck" ("The Dog and Duck" being a stereotypical name for a pub, with "landlord" being the usual term for someone who runs such an establishment). However, the journal Justice of the Peace & Local Government Law advises that the position is unclear as to whether a lordship of the manor is a title of honour or a dignity, as this is yet to be tested by the courts. Technically, lords of manors are barons, or freemen; however, they do not use the term as a title. John Selden, in Titles of Honour, wrote in 1672, "The word Baro (Latin for 'baron') hath been also so much communicated, that not only all Lords of Mannors have been from ancient time, and are at this day called sometimes Barons (as in the stile of their Court Barons, which is Curia Baronis, &c. And I have read hors de son Barony in a barr to an Avowry for hors de son fee) But also the Judges of the Exchequer have it from antient time fixed on them."

Some companies claim to be selling manorial lordships when in fact they are actually selling nothing more than a trademark. For this reason, careful legal advice should be sought before entering into any transaction purporting to be selling a lordship of a manor.

Channel Islands fiefs
The Channel Islands have a long and storied history, with human habitation tracing back thousands of years. In 911 AD, the Viking leader Rollo was granted lands around Rouen that later evolved into the Duchy of Normandy. In the resource-scarce 10th century, land was the primary means of rewarding loyal followers.

Much like in France, the Channel Islands were organised into a feudal, pyramidal structure - with the King/Duke at the top, seigneurs (lords) in the middle, and residents/serfs at the bottom. Seigneurs held significant political, social, and economic rights over the inhabitants of their fiefs (estates).

While most feudal institutions have disappeared in the 21st century, the Channel Islands' unique system of fiefs has endured. A "seigneur" is the title given to the male lord of a manor, while a "dame" is the equivalent title for a female fief holder or the wife of a male seigneur.

Purchasing a Channel Island fief is possible for anyone, regardless of nationality or citizenship. However, this occurs infrequently, as fiefs tend to pass down within families. Conveyance requires legal representation, approval by the Royal Court of Guernsey or Jersey, and registration with the Greffier (record keeper).

The number of extant fiefs is estimated at 116 in Jersey, 73 in Guernsey, and 1 on Sark. At least 37 have been acquired by the Crown over time. Seigneurs often hold multiple fiefs - in Guernsey, 46 fiefs are held by just 24 seigneurs.

Channel Island seigneurs maintain significant rights and roles in the modern era. They can defend manorial rights in court, attend Royal Court annually to pay homage, and host traditional dinners. Fief courts, presided over by officials like the Sénéschal and Prévôt, still function with legal authority.

While smaller than English manors or Scottish baronies, Channel Island fiefs can still be substantial, with the largest (Fief le Roi in Guernsey) comprising over 800 acres. Fiefs often consisted of non-contiguous parcels across multiple parishes.

One enduring feudal institution is the congè - a tax paid upon the transfer of fief land. This tax survived in Guernsey until 1985, when it was redirected to the island government rather than the seigneur. On Sark, the congè persisted until 2006. The continued existence of this tax represents de facto recognition of the seigneurial system by the Crown.

Changes of name
Some companies sell individuals a title when in fact they do no more than offer them the facility to change their name. Such an individual adopts the purported title, e.g. "Sir" or "Lord", as a forename rather than receiving any formal title. This practice is lawful so long as no claim of noble title, knighthood etc. is made as, in British law, a person may adopt any name provided its purpose is not fraudulent. HM Passport Office is aware of this practice and will place an official observation in the individual's passport stating that the purported title is a name rather than the person's title.

Continental European titles
All of Europe's monarchies, except Norway, recognise nobility and hereditary titles. Their royal and princely courts also allow their use as courtesy titles by persons entitled to them under former monarchical regimes, unless they are accredited (e.g., to the Court of St. James's) in a diplomatic capacity without the use of their historical titles. Such courtesies do not imply a legal right to any title in the titleholder's homeland, although foreign nobles may be incorporated into another realm's nobility with a variation of the family's original noble title upon being naturalised in some monarchies (Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Netherlands).

Many who choose to invent false titles of nobility take advantage of the pool of formerly genuine titles of nobility that derive from a time when a country, now a republic, was once a monarchy; for example Austria, Hungary and the many parts of Germany that once had princely rulers who granted noble titles. One advantage of assuming such a title, is that, contrary to the situation involving the British nobility, there is usually no longer any official arbitrator who can or will judge between two separate claimants to such a title. In some such countries, titles may nevertheless be protected by an appropriate law, such as France, or by an extension of copyright law, as in Portugal.

Austria
Titles were hereditary for all legal descendants in the male line, male and female; primogeniture was not usual. Austria, however, legally abolished its nobility and hereditary titles after World War I and bans the use of noble titles and nobiliary particles.

Finland
Finland became a republic in 1917, and issue of new titles and substantial privileges of the estates of the realm were abolished by 1920. However, the nobility was not abolished, and they retain exclusivity to their surnames by personal name laws. Claiming a false title of nobility for purposes of marriage remains a criminal offense.

France
Although France has been a Republic since 1870, titles are protected by law. The Departement of Justice maintains a register of titles and can deliver decrees of investiture to heirs of titles whose succession has been recognized. This investiture is needed to use a title legally, but many members of former noble families use so-called "courtesy title" without much sanction.

Germany
German royalty and nobility bore hereditary titles, noble titles being heritable to all legitimate descendants in the male line, male and female: primogeniture was not usual except in the Kingdom of Prussia. The German nobility lost its hereditary prerogatives, including rank, style and honorifics following the fall of the German Empire in 1918. Article 109 of the 1919 Weimar Constitution declared that "noble ranks are regarded as part of the (sur-)name only". Persons legally adopted by former nobles, like e.g. Frédéric Prinz von Anhalt, can acquire the surname (Prinz von Anhalt), but do not become members of the nobility (in this case, they do not become a prince, as such a thing has not legally existed for over a century).

Italy
Some vendors of fake titles claim to arrange for the customer to acquire an Italian title based on adoption or even through notarial acts ceding the titles to the customer. In Italy, where titles of nobility have not been officially recognised since 1948, and where nobility by feudal tenure was abolished in most regions during the years immediately before 1820, an adoptive child cannot succeed to his adoptive parent's title, and no legal act can serve to renounce a hereditary title. Claims to sell titles of nobility linked to ownership of a certain estate or castle are based on equally misguided misconceptions. No Italian publication or record, not even the Consulta Araldica's official registry (the Libro d'Oro now retained at the Central Archives of the State in Rome), is a truly complete record of Italy's nobles and armigers.

Several legitimate titles recognised in the pre-unitary Italian states (the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, the Papal States), as well as San Marino, were not recognised in the Kingdom of Italy between 1860 and 1948. In most cases, these were small baronies, minor lordships (signorie) or untitled ennoblements (patrizi and nobili). In connection with this, some Sicilian titles could devolve to female heiresses in the absence of close male kin, and in a few instances, there are claimants (in female lines) in Spain as well as Italy, the former looking to Two Sicilies (pre-1860) legislation and the latter citing Italian (post-1860) law. Most of the parallel claims (usually by Spanish citizens) were made after 1948 when the Consulta Araldica (Italy's heraldic authority) was suspended by the Italian constitution, which abolished recognition of titles of nobility.

With the advent of the republican constitution after the Second World War, Italy decided to include noble titles in the name. In the same constitution, in the "transitional and final provisions" the founding fathers decided to join the noble title to the name for living persons only and make it impossible to hand down the title even to natural children. Similar titles (such as "Knight of the Republic" or "Cavaliere del Lavoro") can be delivered on an exclusive, non-hereditary and symbolic basis only by the President of the Republic.

Norway
Recognition of Norwegian noble titles was gradually abolished by the Nobility Law of 1821. Persons who in 1821 possessed such titles were allowed to keep them for their lifetimes.

There exists no law that prohibits private use of noble titles. Such privately adopted titles lack official recognition.

Noble names enjoy no particular legal protection. In accordance with the Name Law's paragraph 3, any family name with 200 or fewer bearers is protected and may not, without all bearers' acceptance, be adopted by another.

Poland
Unlike other European states except Hungary, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its predecessor states did not have a noble class divided into dukes, counts, barons, etc. The privileged noble/gentleman class, the szlachta, were all theoretically equal to each other and made up 6–12% of the population. The problem of false claims to szlachta was widespread in the 16th century, Hieronim Nekanda Trepka denouncing such fakes in Liber generationis plebeanorium.

After the Partitions of Poland (1772–95) the Polish state ceased to exist. Some Polish notables received titles of Russian nobility, Prussian nobility or Austrian nobility.

Because there was no Polish state and a wide Polish diaspora, it became easy for Poles to claim to be exiled nobility, whether they had szlachta ancestors or not. The "fake Polish count" became a stock character in 19th- and 20th-century literature.

Fiction featuring fake Polish nobility includes: the novels The Idiot, The Green Face and The Whispering City, and the films Roberta (1935) and Victor/Victoria.

Real-life people who falsely claimed to be Polish nobles include:
 * Christoph Bienenfeld (Baron Hönig von Bienenfeld)
 * Roger de la Burde
 * Marek and Andrew Kasperski
 * Casimir Markievicz, who married the Irish leader Constance Gore-Booth. She continued to be known as "Countess Markievicz"
 * Paweł Strzelecki, although born into the szlachta, was called a "Count" in Australia, but it is not clear if he used the title himself.
 * Józef Boruwłaski, a Polish-born dwarf and musician who settled in Durham, England, and is buried in the Cathedral there. A portrait and his clothes survive in the Town hall, and a small folly by the river is named 'The Count's House' as he was erroneously thought to have lived there.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: False titles of nobility


text:
Talk:Fascism/Archive 10

Fascism vs. socialism
The relationship between Fascism and socialism is debatable with some academics believing that the two are so dissimilar that there is no relationship and others arguing that the similarities between the two are so striking that they are in effect the same thing.

Arguing the similarities
A number of important 20th century thinkers saw many striking similarities between fascism and socialism. These individuals saw that the similarities in the means as well as the ends of fascism and socialism were too compelling to ignore. In this context, Fascism’s attempt to mold society around an idealized version of man is similar to the concept of the scientific socialism argued my Marx.

The political origins of Benito Mussolini as well as most other early fascist thinkers drew heavily from Marxist political parties, and most early fascist movements were comprised primarily of left thinking individuals.

Ludwig von Mises wrote one of the first analysts arguing that fascism and socialism were nothing more than totalitarian collectivist systems which had far more in common with communism than with any other socioeconomic system. In Planned Chaos, von Mises argues that Italian Fascism and German Nazism were socialist dictatorships with both being committed to the Soviet principle of dictatorship and violent oppression of dissenters. Von Misses also points out that although fascism still allowed private ownership of property, productive control of that property still resided in the hands of the state, just as in socialist economies.

In the “The Road to Serfdom” by Friedrich August Hayek the violent conflict between fascism and socialism was not seen as a war between rival ideologies but rather a fight for power between two anti-democratic systems. Hayek believed the rise of Italian Fascism and German Nazism was not a reaction against the socialist trends of the preceding period but a necessary outcome of those tendencies. Fascism was seen by Hayek as a natural result of Marxism’s failure. The internationalist and democratic elements of Marxist thought made the creation of a socialist state unrealistic. Socialist activists like Benito Mussolini realized that in order to succeed, they would have to abandon those elements. The fusion of nationalism and socialism sowed the seeds for totalitarianism. Hayek also argued that Adolf Hitler’s National Socialism took this further by incorporating ideas of racial purity.

Hannah Arendt wrote “The Origins of Totalitarianism”, which attempted to trace the roots of communism and fascism and their link to anti-semitism..

More contemporary scholars such as Joshua Muravchik make many of these same arguments.

Highliting the contrasts
--- Much of what you suggest is already in the Totalitarianism article. That is the appropriate place for it. AndyL 17:27, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The fact that some of these arguments are in other articles is in itself no reason to not have it here, especially since there is a "fascism and socialism" section within this article. As I have been told on many occasions before, there are many articles which have overlapping and duplicate information as is relevant, and I hardly see how you can argue that this would not be relevant seeing as how "fascism and socialism" exists in the article.

 * I can assure you that a lack of cooperation on this issue will result in another much dreaded edit war and page protections. TDC 18:21, May 5, 2004 (UTC)

Totalitarianism is not related to fascism. Most theories of totalitarianism do not count Mussolini's regime as totalitarian, for instance (Certainly Arendt's does not). john 18:33, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

Moreover Arendt certainly does not claim fascism is a variety of socialism or that socialism itself is totalitarian. AndyL 18:47, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

"I can assure you that a lack of cooperation on this issue will result in another much dreaded edit war and page protections."

Are you threatening to engage in an edit war if people don't submit to your demands?AndyL 18:47, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Of course not (what would give you that idea), just stating the obvious conclusion to the complete rejection of all my contributions, that’s all. TDC 18:52, May 5, 2004 (UTC)

"what would give you that idea" Your words. AndyL 19:14, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

Origins of Fascism
I've moved the following paragraph by WHEELER here for discussion:

"Fascism was born in France amongst the turbelence produced by the French Revolution. It is born from the clashing ideas between revolution and stability, between bourgeoisie and proletariat bodies, between materialism and faith, between the rise of democracy and class warfare seen as destructive forces and nationalism as a source of preservation and between socialism and capitalism.   France was the birth place of syndicalism and anarchosyndicalism which in turn formed Italian Fascism."

The Doctrine of Fascism was written by Giovanni Gentile an idealist philosopher and who served as its official philosopher. Mussolini signed the article and it was officially attributed to him. In it, Frenchmen Georges Sorel, Charles Peguy, and Hubert Lagardelle were invoked as the sources of fascism. Sorel's ideas concerning syndicalism and violence are much in evidence in this document. It also quotes from the Frenchman Joseph Renan who it says had "prefascist intuitions". Both Sorel and Peguy were influenced by the Frenchman Henri Bergson. Bergson rejected scientism and mechanical evolution and materialism of Marxist ideology. Also, Bergson promoted an elan vital as an evolutionary process. Both of these elements of Bergeson appear in fascism. Mussolini states that fascism negates the doctrine of scientific and Marxian socialism and the doctrine of historic materialism. Hubert Lagardelle, an authoritative syndicalist writer, was influenced by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who is the inspirer of anarchosyndicalism

AndyL 17:35, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

I just finished reading the book Liberalism and the challenge of Fascism. It all came from there. It all came from France. I hope you read the rest of the paragraphs in the Fascist article you will realize that all the names in the Doctrine of Fascism are French.WHEELER 18:08, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

The paragraph above is the "Zeitgeist". One must understand the ideological and political currents the formed the original ideology. Zeitgeist is very important. Things do not just *appear*. There is no vacuum. They are formed by other basic material. I hope that this can be understood and seen.WHEELER 18:14, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

I have added the second paragraph above for context.WHEELER 18:43, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

WHEELER, does this book actually explicitly claim that fascism "originated" in France? If so plese post a quotation here where the author says something like "fascism originated in France" AndyL 18:47, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

"Like every other French thinker during the nineteenth century, Proudhon was keenly aware of the problem of the two Frances, between which yawned the chasm of the French revolution." pg 356

Proudhon hated democracy and attacked Rouseau. He promoted war as inherent in the very nature of man. He hated the bankers and the financiers but also hated the dumb workers. Proudhon hated socialists. he wasn't atheistic but was bitterly anti-Catholic.

"He it was who first sounded the fascist note of a revolutionary repudiation of democracy and of socialism." pg 366

"Proudhon was the intellectual spokesman of the French middle class...Like the fascists of our time, and unlike the Marxists of any time, he realized that there was a powerful class interest apart from capitalists and workingmen and hostile to both....Marx taunted Proudhon for being champion of the petty bourgeois." pg 366

"Fascist writers both in Germany and in France have not been slow to recognize Proudhon as the intellectual forerunner of of Fascism.  One of these writers, Willibald Schulze, hailed him as the Wegweiser of the Third Reich because he repudiated democracy, capitalism, and socialism." pg 368.

Prof. Schapiro goes on to mention Karl Heinz Bremer and an significant article in a Paris fascist journal, quoting "Proudhon welcomed into his 'people' the middle class, who are the brains of the body social, a class that Marx would have stood up against the wall and shot down." pg 369.

The French were tired of the killing. Marx wanted more killing. The middle Class was being squeezed from the bottom by the workers and the bourgeoisie were deathly afraid of more confiscations, and by the financiers who charged exorbiant interest rates. Proudhon touched this and promoted an ideology that fit them. This can only be seen in a France that was constantly split in two. First from 1793 to 1829 in the early part between aristocrats and the bourgeoisie. Then after 1830, until WWI it was between the bourgeoise and the proletariat. France never had a smooth history of transition. It was constantly in turmoil unlike England. England had a smooth transition.

Prof. Shapiro concludes that "In the powerful polemicist of the mid-ninteenth century, it is now possible to discern a herald of the great world evil of fascism....Proudhon is destined to have a new and more prominent place in intellectual history." pg 369

Look: Sorel, Renan, Peguy, Lagardelle, Bergson, Proudhon were all frenchmen. Mussolini and Gentile point in the Doctrine of Fascism to all French men and the first four point to Bergson and Proudhon. France was an idea blender much like a food blender. And this incestous thought processes all came together in Fascism in Italy. This is the origins. The Origin is France thru syndicalism.

pg 362, "According to authoritative syndicalist writers, notably Hubert Lagardelle, Proudhon was the inspirer of the anarchosyndicalist movement, which came prominently to the fore in France during the two decades before the First World War." pg 362.

I see it clear as a bell.

I need information of Henri De Man also but this is very interesting.WHEELER 00:16, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

nationalism was used to counter the destructiveness of Marxism. he tore everything down. and was willing to kill a lot of people. The French were tired of the killing. Marx promoted internationalism and so Nationalism was the antidote to all this.WHEELER 00:23, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

i labelled the section "Origins". This all falls under Origens. The birthing part. Mussolini took this with D'Annunzio and others and ran with it. Proudhon also liked dictatorships but of the "elite".WHEELER 00:26, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Chech out Syndicalism. WHEELER 00:33, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

you can't miss That Sorel had big input as a syndicalist. Lagardelle points to Proudhon. It's unbelievable connections.WHEELER 00:35, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Schapiro was writing when, in 1949? His suggestions have not been accepted by any other writers, have they? If Schapiro is suggesting that Proudhon's anarcho-syndicalism was the basis of fascism he is unique in that interpretation (and as Marxists are not fans of anarchism I don't think you can blame this on a Marxist bias in academia). It's one thing to say syndicalism had an influence on fascism, it's quite different to say that syndicalism and fascism are the same thing and that the founder of anarchosyndicalism was also the founder of fascism. Even if you are correct that syndicalism spawned fascism (and I find that claim dubious despite your use of the "appeal to authority" fallacy by saying that I can't dare disagree with a Leon Blum Professor of Politics let alone a Professor emeritus - emeritus really just means retired) to say Proudhon founded fascism would be like saying Moses founded Christianity. AndyL 00:49, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Prof Sternhell also has this throughout his book. The snythesis of syndicalism with nationalism.

Getting back to Pari' and the origin of Fascism in France:

"With his sense of theater, Marinetti knew that in order to strike the imagination of this contemporaries, this cry of rebellion had to come out of Paris. The mecca of arts and letters, an unequaled cultural center, Paris was also a major center of Italian culture where the most famous Italian writer of his period, the nationalist hero of the immediat postwar era, Gabriele D'Annunzio, lived and worked.  Marinetti and D'Annunzio often wrote in French and participated in the intellectual life of the French Capitol". The Birth of Fascist Ideology, pg 29.

Clear and convincing proof. Prof. Sternhell backs up Prof Schapiro.WHEELER 14:28, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Quote from Prof. Sternhell's book: "(Fascism) was not a reactionary or an antirevolutionary movement in the Maurrassian sense of the term. Fascism presented itself as a revolution of another kind, a revolution that sought to destroy the existing political order and to uproot its theoretical and moral foundations." pg 7.

I put this in the article, It was deleted by AndyL.

I quote from the Doctrine of Fascism: "It is not reactionary but revolutionary." AndyL knows more about Fascism than does Gentile and Mussolini.

Quote from Prof. Sternhell's book: "Futurism, thanks to Marinetti, became a political force in the strict sense of the term." pg 234 "Marinetti the Bergsonian futurist" pg239  Prof Sternhell writes: "To this combination of revoltuonary revisionism and integral nationalism was added, in about, l910, a third element, Futurism. pg 28.  Marinetti wrote a Futurist Manifesto. pg 28.  Lagardelle, writes of a new culture. pg 27

Andyl deletes my lines of futurism in the Fascist article.

I quote from the Doctrine of Fascism: "Activism: that is to say nationalism, futurism, fascism". Futurism is tied to Fascism.

I am sorry. but I cannot believe AndyL who doesn't know anything about Gentile, Lagardelle, Sorel, Peguy, Marinetti, D'Annunzio, Bergson, or Proudhon, and reverts edits that are found in the Doctrine of Fascism is qualified to do anything and has come to be the so-called "Fascist" and "Nazi" expert and Comissar of reverts. WHEELER 15:22, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

WHEELER, if you're going to be insulting I'm not going to bother discussing with you again. You may have noticed there's hardly anyone left who will bother talking to you. AndyL 17:55, 6 May 2004 (UTC)~

Because you have walked around here like a stomping elephant reverting anything you don't like. Many people have labelled me a troll. Well, I do my homework, maybe its time you to do your homework.

I was in the Military and on the construction sites. I got yelled at plenty and it made me a better man. Iron sharpens Iron. That is why they yell at boots at boot camp. WHEELER 19:16, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Theres actually a very good reason why people are shouted at in bootcamps. To break them down in order to rebuild them in a fashion acceptable to those running the camps. Iron sharpens iron? This actually sounds like fascism talking! Remember steel breaks iron.

Now the point under discussion seems to me to be whether or not fascism is a product of a French intellectual tradition, incorporated within syndicalism, and imported to Italy. Or not.

This misses the point entirely as fascism was not an intellectual movement in any case. The fact is that the fascist bands were carrying out their work throughout 1919 while Mussolinis friends sat in comfort constructing a post facto theoretical construct to justify actions already carried through.

And in that process they used anything they could lay their hands on borrowing from the French syndicalists like Sorel for certain. But in France Sorels theoretical syndicalism was never a major influence on the real actual working class syndicalism of the CGT whereas in Italy it was nothing but an intellectual cover to justify Mussolinis placing his alraea=dy existing movement at the service of the Italian bourgeoisie.

Fascism then originates in Italy as a movement regardless of its borrowing certain themes from Sorel and others.

 * Yes, I think this is what we've been trying to say for some time. WHEELER is not interested. john 03:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

Wheeler. I am glad you are adding to the debate I think you have something to contribute here. Using "Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815-1870), J. Salwyn Schapiro" as what seems to be your sole reference is not a good idea. While yes, this book substantiates your views, you should take into account that those views are in the minority of the historical community (which does not necessarily mean they are wrong). Much in the same way those views which you are advocating are in the minority here.

The idea of tracing fascism to a french intellectual movement is not a widely held viewpoint. Your passion, is I'm sure, well intentioned but you need to be able to persuade your opposition rather than continue to reference the same work over and over again. A work which once again is not as popular elsewhere as it is with you. Try to keep that in mind. GrazingshipIV 08:10, May 7, 2004 (UTC)

I quote Prof Schapiro who traces the fundamentals of fascist thought to France. It happened in France because of the split in France. Facsism if read is a hodge-podge of ideas a seemilgy inchorent form of ideas. That was produced in France. Only by understanding France and the turmoil there which Prof Schapiro lays out nicely, one can see the advent of Fascism. I have read Prof Sternhell who points to French Intellectual origins.

I quote from Prof Sternhell, "Sorel and the French Sorelians occupied a special place in Italian intellectual life. For the Italian revolutionary syndicalists, France provided a counterbalance tot he domination of German revisionism ovbr the the world of socialism." pg 154.WHEELER 15:41, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

2nd for wheeler
I just wanted you to know your not alone wheeler. I second what you've been saying, and can't understand why they are so unwilling to accept the facts, no matter how many references you provide. I reccomend you cite every addition you make, so that they don't have a leg left to stand on with these reverts. Sam Spade 07:53, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I havn't found it useful debating w andy BTW, he seems to focus on ad hominems. Sam Spade 07:55, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

It's interesting that Sam doesn't actually provide any argument for why he thinks WHEELER is right. AndyL 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Sam is being utterly unfair to Andy, who seldom -- if ever -- uses ad hominems and always uses reasoned arguments. Sam must chare WHEELER's naive understanding of what a historical fact is.  Wikipedia shouldn't. Slrubenstein

Arguments in Favor of WHEELER
Sam Spade 08:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) Cite your sources
 * 2) Verifiability

Neither of the items you cite are arguments in favour of WHEELER's position particularly as those items deal with facts not theories and opinions (which is really what we're dealing with here). Indeed, a lot of what is said in the verifiability article can be used against him. . I'd be interested in seeing any encyclopedia articles or reference books that state the claims WHEELER is making. Britannica? Americana? Any dictionaries of philosophy or political thought? If any mainstream dictionary or encyclopedia includes the arguments WHEELER is making I'll withdraw my opposition. As it is given that Schapiro was writing over a half century ago and his arguments have not had any impact whatsoever on subsequent literature I'd have to say his position has been rejected as unsound and/or insubstantial. AndyL 08:13, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

Andy's right on this
Look, I think it's legitimate to say that early fascist thinking echoed, expanded and may even have been in part inspired by some ideas put forward by Sorel, Bergeson, even Proudhon; but I don't think there is any reasonable way to say that fascism originated in France. To the extent that there was a coherent cluster of ideas that can be labelled "fascism" - and I think there was, but that remains somewhat controversial - its origins are clearly to be found in Italy. The etymology of the word alone placed the burden of proof on someone who wants to claim otherwise. There are quite large gaps between all the French thinkers that have been named here and the works of the early fascists.

The fascists happily cited a wide variety of 19th century intellectuals. That was part of Mussolini's schtick - fascism was a doctrine of brownshirts and know-nothings; Mussolini was a brownshirt and know-nothing, albeit far from stupid; many of the early fascists were desperate to be taken seriously. Citing Saint-Simon, Proudhon, Pareto, Hegel, god knows who else doesn't make any of those men fascists. He also cited Marx, Adam Smith, Locke and even Jesus Christ - they weren't fascists either.

Wheeler, look again at your quotes from Shapiro. "Proudhon [...] intellectual forerunner of of Fascism", "first sounded the fascist note", "a herald of the great world evil of fascism". He never says "Fascism started in France." He says that many of the ideas that it drew on, many ideas that were similar, many notions that came to be used by the fascists started in France, but he never, ever identifies a single one of those figures as "fascist". Nor does Sternhell - Sternhell idetifies the roots of fascism in the confluence of syndicalism and nationalism, both French doctrines, but unless fascism is redefined to include a broad swath of people traditionally considered non-fascist, it makes no sense to say it originated in France.

Sternhell's thesis remains controversial:

 * First, to apply fascism retrodictively to constellations of ideas current before 1914 is surely to underestimate the dramatic impact which the First World War had on compounds of organic nationalism with non-Marxist socialism. The war not only crystallized the sense of decadence and crisis of liberal capitalist civilization, and transformed internationalist socialism into a genuine threat to its hegemony, but through the mass mobilization of civilian populations, and the intensification of the state control of society which this necessitated, radicalized the populist, militaristic dimension of the revolt against the status quo without which fascism might never have emerged as an overtly anti-conservative and ritualistic movement of `people power'. The squadristi, the Freikorps, oceanic assemblies and vast rallies were the external manifestations of the unleashing of massified populist energies, signalling that something had burst upon the modern world which was qualitatively distinct from Boulangism or the Cercle Proudhon. A world of collective trauma and exhilaration separates the Camelots du Roi of the Action Française from the Sturmabteilung of the NSDAP. In this sense it is no coincidence that the term `fascism' is derived from a mass movement which combined party politics with extra-systemic violence in a way which has no parallel in pre-1914 France.

As far as I know, only Sternhell is advancing such a radical thesis and he does not enjoy widespread support for it. I would be willing to collaborate in a paragraph offering his interpretation as an alternative POV, but not as an established fact.

Fascism as a coherent thing came into being in Italy. There are respectable mainstream points of view that it never really was a coherent thing, so fascism can only mean the doctrines of Mussolini, Hitler and those who drew directly on them; or that it was a syncretic doctrine drawn from convenient bits of all sorts of thinkers. Either way, I don't see a case for a French origin to fascism unless fascism is redefined as something different than what most people mean by the word. A clearer discussion of the ideological roots of fascism might well name many French thinkers, but that's as far as it goes.

Diderot 08:38, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

Sources: same ones as Wheeler, plus

Also, Payne's A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 makes this point if you prefer a printed reference. Diderot 08:42, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

You also have to consider how Zev Sternhell's thesis was directed specifically towards French myths about Vichy. Redefining fascism to give it a pre WWI existence was simply a means towards his (IMO correct) denial of the "foreign fascism" myth. The myth is that French fascism was imposed on France from the outside and imported from Italy and Germany. Sternhell is quite right to identify fascism as a more transnational European entity than the myth allows. France had existing political movement that were quite prepared to join the fascist cause one it existed as a political option. This undermines some of France's claims of collective innocence in WWII. Consider that Sternhell's claim of particularly French roots to fascism is an argument in his effort to prove something else entirely. This makes his claims somewhat suspect.

To claim that French fascism was not without indigenous roots is not to claim that Italian or German fascism was imported from France. Compare Sternhell to Robert Souchy's book French Fascism: The First Wave, which also identifies a variety of post-1918, pre-1940 French political movements as fascist - in substance if not in name - in support of Sternhell's attack on French protestations of collective innocence. However, Souchy's definition of fascism is somewhat ideosycratic: nationalist, traditionalist and anti-democratic. He never claims that nationalism, traditionalism or opposition to democracy were unique to France in the interwar period. Like virtually all commentators on fascism, he identifies the movement's roots in the rise of industrial nationalism, a rearguard defense of tradition, an opposition to socialism, and in the horrors of WWI.

In the end, if you intend to attribute fascism to any pre-Mussolini movement you have to define fascism in a non-historical way. The article as it exists defines fascist by resemblance to Mussolini's government. A French origin is impossible on those terms, since Mussolini's government originated in Italy. The article implies the possibility of defining fascism in terms of a state-centric conception of ideology - that ideology exists only to serve the state - but by that standard Henry VIII was a fascist too. For that reason - because it makes many people fascist who no one would call fascist - few people hold such a definition.

We might expand the definition section to cover elements of nationalism, anti-democratic tendencies and traditionalism. There appears to be a real movement that defines fascism that way. (That would make Mussolini look a lot like George W Bush, but I don't have any problem with that. :^)

Diderot 10:24, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

Prof Sternhell is not alone on this, he mentions A. James Gregor in the first three pages of his work. Sternhell and Gregor and Schapiro, Herbert Hoover, Read Hoover. What did he see?????WHEELER 15:00, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Shapiro doesn't say it, Sternhell's judgement is motivated by other intentions and thus suspect without outside support, and Gregor is just plain nuts. As for Hoover, what precisely makes Hoover an expert on fascism?  Seems to me he spent the 30's and 40's rhetorically covering his ass for doing nothing when the American economy collapsed.  He wasn't in Europe, and he wasn't much of a historian.  I mean, he can't even quote Mussolini accurately.  Diderot 21:10, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fascism/Archive 10


text:
2575 Bulgaria

2575 Bulgaria, provisional designation, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 4 August 1970, by Russian astronomer Tamara Smirnova at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj, on the Crimean peninsula. It was named for country Bulgaria.

Classification and orbit
Bulgaria is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,225 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic.

Physical characteristics
In the SMASS taxonomy, Bulgaria has been classified as a Sr-type, which transitions from common S-type asteroids to the rather rare R-type asteroids.

Bulgaria has a rotation period of 8.6 hours and an albedo of 0.24, as assumed by the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link.

Naming
This minor planet was named after the European country Bulgaria. At the time of naming, it was the People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990), a former satellite state of the Soviet Union and member of the Warsaw Pact. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 July 1984 (M.P.C. 8912).

title: 2575 Bulgaria


text:
File:Did six million really die.jpg

Summary
Cover of Did Six Million Really Die?, a Holocaust denial booklet by Richard Verrall

title: File:Did six million really die.jpg


text:
Talk:Hausdorff paradox

Does anybody has any information on the history of the paradox and the reason for the name?Tosha 00:23, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

This page says 1914, Hausdorff proved something related. Charles Matthews 05:49, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

What does the term "SO(3)-paradoxical" mean? What is paradoxical about Hausdorff paradox? --Arnab Bose 03:46, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

The technical meaning of paradoxical intended is (presumably) that defined on this page: http://abel.math.umu.se/~frankw/articles/bt/node2.html.

Charles Matthews 09:18, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Ref
I found the original paper of Hausdorff on web:

http://134.76.163.65/servlet/digbib?template=view.html&id=28919&startpage=442&endpage=447&image-path=http://134.76.176.141/cgi-bin/letgifsfly.cgi&image-subpath=/1406&image-subpath=1406&pagenumber=442&imageset-id=1406

but it is so long that I can not add it to external link, or maybe it does not do it by some other reason, any way when you put it in [ ], it becomes something strange,  not a lnk at all. Could anyone help me? Tosha

 * Hmmm, this gave me a 404 (page not found) error when I tried it. If you can get it to work, copy the URL then visit www.tinyurl.com and follow the sinle instructions to create a shorter url.
 * -- Ornette (not signed in at the moment...)

Could someone who knows mention on the page whether the result depends on the Axiom of Choice? Warren Dew 20:10, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

Dicussion
I moved a part from Banach-Tarski paradox, needs some work...

BTW, the fact that S^1 can be divided ino countably many congruent subsets, is'nt it also Hausdorff paradox? Tosha

First paragraph
Tosha, why did you revert (most of) my changes to the first paragraph? Gadykozma 22:53, 22 Sep 2004 (UTC)

The first par, was bit misleading, HP is not about construction of not measurable set (althogh it has such a construction inside). In the first par one suppose to explain what HP roughly is and what you wrote did not answer this question. On the other hand your statements were covered later in the article so I simply removed it. Tosha

finitely additive
this term is used a few times, but some should perhaps be countably additive? -MarSch 14:36, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No Tosha 12:05, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

What's paradoxical about this?
Take a sphere. Remove the empty set, which is countable. Let A be the north hemisphere plus half of the equator (including one endpoint, and excluding the other). Let B be the south hemisphere and the rest of the equator, and C = B. Of course, A, B, C and B u C are congruent. Perhaps, it should read "the remainder can be divided into three disjoint subsets"? --Army1987 (talk) 13:08, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hausdorff paradox


text:
Oncorhynchus masou

The masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou), also known as masu (マス) or cherry trout (桜鱒 サクラマス) in Japan, is a species of salmonid belonging to the genus Oncorhynchus, found in the North Pacific along Northeast/East Asian coasts from the Russian Far East (Primorsky, Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin and Kuril Islands) to south through Korea, Japan and Taiwan. Although generally accepted as a salmon in the West, the fish is actually regarded as a trout in Japan (its most famous native range) as it is the most commonly seen freshwater salmonid in the Japanese archipelago.

A number of subspecies are known, including the widespread nominate subspecies yamame (O. m. masou), the critically endangered Formosan salmon (O. m. formosanus) in landlocked waters of Taiwan, the Biwa trout (O. m. rhodurus) endemic of Lake Biwa, and the anadromous amago (O. m. macrostomus) restricted to western Japan.

Appearance
A masu salmon which has reached sexual maturity has a darkened back, and the stripes on the body sides become bright red with crimson tinge to merge on the abdomen into one common longitudinal band of lighter color. For this reason, it was given the name cherry salmon.

As adults, masu salmon tend to weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg and measure roughly 50 cm in length. The maximum size that can be attained by this species (which is in the region of Primorsky Krai) is 71 cm long and 9 kg in weight.

Ecology
On average, this salmon prefers a temperate climate around the latitude of 65-58°N, and in the sea, it prefers a depth of 0 –.

Life cycle
Like other Pacific salmon, masu salmon’s biological life cycle is subdivided into freshwater and marine periods; in rivers, this species lives from 1 to 3 years and can form living freshwater forms. The sea lifecycle, depending on the age of the young, continues for 2.0 to 3.5 years. In the sea, the masu salmon feeds intensely on crustaceans, less often on young fish. On attaining sexual maturity, in its third to seventh years of life, it enters rivers to spawn. Its spawning run starts earlier than that of other salmon species.

After spawning, most passing fish die, and those that remain alive (preferentially dwarf males) participate in spawning the next year, too. Emerging from the nest, the young do not travel to the sea immediately, but remain in spawning areas, in the upper reaches of rivers, and on shallows with weak currents. The young move to pools and rolls of the river core to feed on chironomids, stone flies, and may fly larvae, and on airborne insects. The masu salmon travels to the ocean in its second, or occasionally even third year of life.

Economic importance
This salmon, like most others, is a highly commercial species caught in fisheries, raised for aquaculture, and sought after as a game fish. It is marketed fresh and frozen and is often eaten broiled or baked.

Subspecies and morphs

 * O. m. masou — Masu salmon, anadromous (sea-run) form; landlocked populations also called yamame (山女魚 ヤマメ)
 * O. m. ishikawae — Satsuki trout (皐月鱒 サツキマス), black-spotted form; landlocked populations also called amago (雨魚 アマゴ)
 * O. m. var. iwame — Iwame trout (岩女魚 イワメ), recessive spotless form
 * O. m. rhodurus — Biwa trout, in Lake Biwa of western Japan
 * O. m. macrostomus — Red-spotted masu salmon; endemic to western Japan
 * O. m. formosanus — Formosan salmon, Lishan trout or Slamaw trout (the Tayal name for Lishan), landlocked form endemic to mountainous central Taiwan

title: Oncorhynchus masou


text:
University of Louisiana at Lafayette

The University of Louisiana at Lafayette (UL Lafayette, University of Louisiana, ULL, or UL) is a public research university in Lafayette, Louisiana. It has the largest enrollment within the nine-campus University of Louisiana System and the second-largest enrollment in Louisiana, behind only Louisiana State University. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".

Founded in 1898 as an industrial school, the institution developed into a four-year university during the twentieth century and became known by its present name in 1999. It offers Louisiana's only Ph.D. in francophone studies, Louisiana's only master's of informatics, and Louisiana's only industrial design degree. The university has achieved several milestones in computer science, engineering and architecture. It is also home to a distinct College of the Arts.

History
On July 14, 1898, the Southwestern Louisiana Industrial Institute (SLII) was created through state legislation: Louisiana General Assembly, Act 162, introduced by Robert Martin of St. Martin Parish. The new school needed to be located within Louisiana's 13th State Senate district.

A number of communities sought the school, including Jeanerette and St. Martinville, but only three submitted formal bids—Lafayette, New Iberia, and Scott. Lafayette Parish voters approved a parish-wide tax of two mills for 10 years if either Lafayette or Scott was selected; neither Iberia Parish nor St. Martin Parish was able to do the same, instead passing only city-wide taxes. Lafayette's offer—the tax proceeds, $18,000 in cash, and 25 acres of land just outside the city limits, donated by Crow and Maxim Girard—beat out New Iberia's 5–2 in a board vote on January 5, 1900.

The first university president was Edwin Lewis Stephens. On September 18, 1901, the first buildings were opened—initially Martin Hall (named for Robert Martin), Foster Hall (named for Governor Murphy J. Foster), and a shop building. The first class was 100 students enrolled and 8 faculty, and by 1903 the first graduating class was 18 students.

By 1920, the school changed to a four-year course culminating with a bachelor of arts degree. The following year in 1921, the school was renamed Southwestern Louisiana Institute of Liberal and Technical Learning (SLI).

By 1960, the school was renamed University of Southwestern Louisiana (USL).

In 1974, the College of Sciences was officially formed. In 1984, following approval from the Board of Trustees for State Colleges and Universities (now UL System), USL officially changed its name to the University of Louisiana, which was overturned less than a month later by an act of the state legislature, although two schools had previously changed their names using the same technique without outside interference. The school was renamed in 1999, to the University of Louisiana at Lafayette (UL Lafayette).

Campus
The campus of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette is located in Lafayette, Louisiana, within the intrastate region of Acadiana.

Main campus
The historic main campus area originally consisted of only 25 acres, and its boundaries were Johnston Street, University Avenue, what is now Hebrard Blvd and to approximately Lee Hall in the Quad. By the 1930s the campus had more than doubled in size, to 60 acres, reaching to the newly constructed St Mary Street to its south, and McKinley Street to its east. This area includes such buildings/areas as: Martin Hall (Admin building), Girard Hall, Stephens Memorial, the Arcade, the Quadrangle (the Quad), Rose Garden dormitories, Judice-Rickles Halls, and Cypress Lake. Also, the two oldest extant buildings on campus are located in this area: Foster Hall (1902) and DeClouet Hall (1905).

The Quadrangle
The Quadrangle (Quad), which was completely renovated in 2015 (providing new walkways, landscaping and a fountain containing a 15-foot Fleur de Lis in its center), serves as the ‘heart’ of the university. It is surrounded by Martin Hall/FG Mouton Hall, as well as Moody, OK Allen, Lee, Broussard, Stephens, Mouton, M. Doucet, and Foster Halls. Some of the highlights of the Quad are:
 * Martin Hall: Originally called “the main building” was the first building constructed on campus, and was completed in September 1901. Now sometimes referred to as “Old" Martin Hall, it stood on campus until 1963, when it was demolished and replaced with the current “New" Martin Hall. It is where the university president and administrative staff for the university are located.
 * The Arcade: A covered, brick walkway that both surrounds and defines the quad. Built in 1940, and consisting of 415 brick arches, It also is where the “Walk of Honor” begins.
 * Walk of Honor: This feature honors every one of the undergraduates of the university, from 1903 onward, with a paver engraved with their name and year of graduation. Originally contained in the Arcade only, it now extends to the sidewalks within the Quad, continuing outside the Quad along Boucher Ave, and then turning onto McKinley. Future plans are that it will eventually turn onto St. Mary, heading towards Boucher Street.
 * The Fountain: Located in the center of the Quad is a circular fountain, with an aluminum, 15’ three-sided Fleur de Lis sculpture as its centerpiece. Designed by over 100 UL students over a five year period, the sculpture weighs over 3,000 pounds. Surrounded by benches it provides a popular gathering spot for students. Once the landscaping has fully matured, it is hoped that this will further give an oasis type feeling to the area.

Rose Garden Dormitory Complex
Located on the campus block bordered by Hebrard Blvd, University Ave and McKinley St, the original Rose Garden was surrounded by Baker-Huger, Randolph, Evangeline, and Bonin Halls, which were all female-only dormitories and designed by A. Hays Town and completed in 1950. In 2011 Baker-Huger, Evangeline and Bonin Halls were all demolished and were replaced with expanded/state of the art co-ed dormitories, named Coronna and Bonin Halls, now known as the Rose Garden complex.

Cypress Lake and Student Union Complex

 * Cypress Lake and Cypress Lake Plaza: One of the most beloved features on the campus, Cypress Lake is a university landmark that is also a habitat for native irises, alligators, turtles, birds and fish, as well as a hangout for students and a point of interest for tourists visiting Lafayette, Louisiana. Cypress Lake is casually called "The Swamp," which is also the nickname of the Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns football stadium, officially named Cajun Field. This ecosystem, located in the center of a university, it the only one of its kind in the United States. Many school traditions are held on/around the lake, especially during “Lagniappe Day.” Cypress Lake Plaza is a green space that was constructed in 2018-2019, following the removal of the former student union complex located along Hebrard Blvd. The new Plaza allows for more interaction between the students/faculty/alumni/public and Cypress Lake as well as allows Cypress Lake to be viewable from Hebrard Boulevard.
 * Student Union Complex: At 128K sq feet and completed in 2015 the new “U” was built to wrap around Cypress Lake, and includes numerous meeting spaces for students, as well several dining options (including the main dining room located on the second floor with floor to ceiling windows offering sweeping views of the lake), SGA offices, a post office, banquet space and a movie theater (the “Bayou Bijou.”)

Expansion, 1950–1980
The decades of the 1950–1970s saw tremendous growth, both in the city of Lafayette as well as the university. During that period the main campus again expanded: to the east (Taft St), west (Rex St), and south (Lewis St) bringing the total amount of acreage for the main campus to an approx. 125 acres. Many new academic buildings were located in this area including Dupre Library, HL Griffin Hall (Liberal Arts), Billeaud Hall (Biology), Madison Hall (Engineering), Wharton (Nursing), Angelle (Music), Fletcher (Art/Architecture).

In 2012, and as part of the selling of its “Horse Farm” property to the city of Lafayette, the university acquired an additional 20 acres along the Johnston/Lewis St corridor when the Youth Park/Dog Park was added to the main campus. In fall 2018, this area was being developed as housing for upperclassmen, and is called the “Heritage at Cajun Village.” With the addition of these 20 acres, the total acreage for the main campus is now at 145 acres.

Law enforcement services on the campus are provided by the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Police Department.

Fletcher Hall and Marais Press
The Marais Press began in the early 1990s, a printmaking shop featuring antique presses and located within Fletcher Hall and the Department of Fine Arts. The first project was a book featuring the work of the late Elemore Morgan Jr., a Louisiana artist who taught at the university and received international acclaim for his work as a painter and photographer. More than 200 visiting artists from around the world participate for a week-long residency to work on their projects at Marais Press, a teaching and research hub. Artists help train and mentor students, who get hands-on experience making lithographs, woodcuts, silkscreen, and etchings.

Marais Press is a separate entity from the UL Press, the publishing arm of UL Lafayette's Center for Louisiana Studies.

University Commons
Starting with the purchase of the Whittington Farm property in 1936, the university added ~175 acres just south of the main campus, along Johnston St. This area, now also consisting of the Athletic Complex and Research Park areas form a total contiguous area of over 391 acres, known today as “University Commons.”

Athletic Complex
Due to the continuing growth of the university during the 1950–70s, all of the main athletic facilities were relocated from the main campus to the University Commons area, which is bounded roughly by Reinhardt Dr, Bertrand St, Congress St and State St. The following is a list of major buildings in the complex:

Located along Coliseum Road, the complex consists of a newly constructed Field House, as well as ~20 lighted acres of grassy fields, and convenient parking. This space enables the university the ability to offer numerous sports/activities to the student population.

Research Park
Bounded by Cajundome Blvd, E. Landry Road, and Congress St, the Research Park was conceived and developed to be a stimulant for innovation and economic development that serves the region, state, and nation. The following is a list of major buildings located in the park:
 * University Research Park Hotel: Owned by the university, the hotel is a Hilton Garden Inn property. The 155-room hotel includes both classroom and faculty office accommodations and is collaboratively run with the UL Hospitality Management Program.
 * Lafayette Primary Care Center: LPCC is a joint effort among Ochsner Lafayette General Medical Center and the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. The facility is owned by the University, was paid for by Lafayette General Medical Center and Our Lady of Lourdes Regional Medical Center. It is operated by Ochsner Lafayette General Medical Center and its mission is to train medical residents in family practice.
 * CGI Group: CGI Group (more commonly known as CGI) is a Canadian global information technology company that offers many different IT-related services, including consulting, systems integration, outsourcing, and solutions. The company is headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Currently employing 400 full-time people in its Lafayette location, that number is expected to more than double in the near future.
 * Estuarine Habitats and Coastal Fisheries Center: Owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the center opened in 1998 and has numerous high-profile tenants, including: National Marine Fisheries Service, National Ocean Service, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Services, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, etc.
 * Louisiana Immersive Technologies Enterprise (LITE Center): A collaboration between UL and the Lafayette Economic Development Authority (LEDA), the LITE Center is housed in a $27 million, 70,000 square foot complex. The LITE Center is a comprehensive and tightly integrated data visualization and super-computing installation. The center's mission is to connect the most creative and dynamic academic minds with the most innovative and forward-looking industry visionaries.
 * National Wetlands Research Center: Opened in 1992, the NWRC is owned and operated by the U.S. Geological Survey whose mission is to provide national leadership in biological research and development related to protecting, restoring, and managing natural resources, with an emphasis on fish, wildlife, and wetlands in the South. It is currently focusing on wetland, forest, and animal ecology; spatial analysis; and information and technology transfer.
 * Photovoltaic Applied Research and Testing Laboratory: Located at the intersection of Cajundome Blvd and E. Landry road, the PART lab is a six acre solar array that is used to study the market’s newest alternative energy products and to provide a training ground for students. Additionally, the energy that is collected at this site provides for the majority of the University’s sports complex energy needs (1.1 megawatts out of the total average consumption of 1.2 megawatts of power.)
 * Cecil J. Picard Center for Child Development and Lifelong Learning: The Picard Center is a leading university-level research center that produces rigorous, innovative, and actionable knowledge in order to ensure that all children get a strong start and continuous support for excelling in school and life.

Other Research Centers

 * Cade Farm Labs: Located roughly 15 miles from the main campus, the 600-acre complex accommodates numerous facilities in an integrated array including: a working dairy, a Crawfish Research Center and an equestrian arena. The farm also includes production acreage for beef, sugar cane and specialty crops.
 * New Iberia Research Center: A 118-acre site located in New Iberia, La. and containing 24 buildings at a total of ~485,000 square feet, the NIRC is a diversified animal housing system that includes indoor/outdoor cages for small non-human primates in large family groups, outdoor corncrib/minicrib combinations for housing macaque and Cercopithecine species, and indoor single housing units for all non-human primate species in cage sizes recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture. Consisting of over 6,800 non-human primates, the NIRC is the largest primate center in the US.(See more detailed info of the NIRC in main article.)

Research
The university is a member of the Southeastern Universities Research Association and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". In 2023, the university posted a record-breaking amount of $181 million, exceeding the previous year's amount of $144 million and represents an astonishing 165% increase in R&D spending at UL in seven years. The 2019 amount placed UL among the top 23 percent of the 647 research universities; current rankings are not yet available. It is the stated mission of UL's Strategic Plan to reach Carnegie Classification Research 1 status and surpassing the $100 million threshold is a major step in that direction. The university receives more research money than all of the other ULS schools, combined, and is rated one of the top 100 public research universities in the nation according to a 2010 report by The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government. In 2012, it became the first Louisiana university designated as an NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center. The Center for Visual and Decision Informatics is the only NSF Center in the nation that focuses on data science, big data analytics, and visual analytics.

New Iberia Research Center
UL's New Iberia Research Center in New Iberia conducts basic and applied research on several species of non-human primates including macaques, grivets, capuchins and chimpanzees. Incorporated as the Gulf South Research Institute in 1965, the facility was transferred to UL in 1984. The Center houses over 6,800 non-human primates used for breeding and studies. The center is also a contract breeding and testing facility, selling animals to other laboratories and conducting experiments under contract with other parties.

In 2008, the Humane Society of the United States conducted an undercover investigation in the center which found monkeys being shot with sedation guns while in their cages, one monkey repeatedly hit by a worker in the teeth with a metal pole and another worker striking an infant monkey among other apparent AWA violations. In 2015, the U.S. Department of Agriculture cited the center for six potential violations of the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) which the government alleges lead to the death of one monkey, injuries to another and the escape of five from their enclosure.

In 2016, Project Chimps, a nonprofit organization, announced a partnership with NIRC to relocate 220 of the university's retired research chimpanzees to a sanctuary in northern Georgia.

Academics
UL Lafayette is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. All undergraduate programs at UL Lafayette that are eligible for accreditation by professional agencies are accredited. The University of Louisiana at Lafayette Honors Program is an active member of the Louisiana, Southern Regional, and National Honors Councils. The university graduates about 1,700 students each fall and spring.

The university offers more than 80 undergraduate degree programs, 27 master's degree programs, and 10 doctoral degree programs.

Rankings

 * In 2018, No. 24 U.S. News & World Report list of "Universities and Colleges Where Students Are Eager to Enroll"
 * In 2017, No. 9 Brookings Institution social mobility report "Ladders, labs, or laggards? Which public universities contribute most"
 * Department of Petroleum Engineering ranked No. 13 in the world – and No. 7 in the United States – CEOWORLD magazine "World's Best Universities for Oil, Gas, and Petroleum Engineering in 2017" list
 * In 2018, "Best 382 Colleges", by The Princeton Review
 * Named to the "2014 President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll."
 * No. 10 among research universities for percentage of research and development expenditures funded by business, National Science Foundation September 2013 Report.

Campus publishing
In the 1960s, a group of liberal arts professors at the University of Southwestern Louisiana began publishing their works on the state's history, culture, and politics under the imprint USL History Series. Then, in 1973, the Center for Louisiana Studies was established, and the organization took on the publication of these works, in addition to "publications drawn from research in the Center's Colonial Records Project, proceedings from historical associations and conferences, and works translated by Center staff".

Over the next few decades, the center's publications grew to include scholarship beyond the university as well as new genres, such as children's books, photography, poetry, and fiction. In 2009, its imprint was changed to the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, or UL Press for short. According to their website, the press "welcomes submissions of manuscripts pertaining to all facets of Louisiana’s history, culture, art, society, politics, economics, religion, ethnicities, and environment. It also welcomes high quality works of fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction".

Today, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press is the largest academic publisher of Louisiana-related works and one of the two largest academic publishers in the state. The press is an introductory member of the Association of University Presses.

Athletics

The Louisiana Ragin' Cajun teams participate in NCAA Division I (FBS for football) in the Sun Belt Conference. The Ragin' Cajuns compete in 16 NCAA sports teams (8 men's, 8 women's teams), including baseball, basketball (men's and women's), cross country (men's and women's), football, softball, women's soccer, women's volleyball, men's golf, tennis (men's and women's), and track and field (men's and women's, indoor and outdoor).

The athletic program formally began in 1904 with a track and field program. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the softball team has been among the most successful of all Ragin' Cajun teams, having won twenty-two regular season championships, seventeen conference tournament championships, and earning six appearances in the Women's College World Series. The baseball, men's tennis, men's basketball, and football teams have won conference championships.

In 2014, the Cajuns became the first in college football bowl history to win the same bowl game in four straight seasons. However, the university vacated all of its 2011 wins, including the New Orleans Bowl, two years later when the NCAA sanctioned the university because an assistant football coach conspired to "obtain fraudulent entrance exam scores" for five recruits from 2011 until 2013. The university dismissed the coach in 2014 and sued the testing company in 2016 for failing to adequately supervise their staff and testing procedures. The NCAA accepted the university's self-imposed penalties including a two-year probation, a small fine, a small reduction in football scholarships, and recruiting restrictions.

In recent years, Ragin' Cajuns football has been on the rise, becoming nationally ranked during the 2020 and 2021 seasons with Billy Napier at the helm of the program.

Student life
There are over 200 student organizations.

The Louisiana Center for Cultural & Eco-Tourism center's research division houses the world's largest collection of Cajun and Creole folklore, oral history, and folklife materials and some of the nation's largest microfilm collections of French and Spanish colonial records.

Residential life
Beginning in 2011 the university began a massive program to overhaul its residential options for students. Since that time, the majority of the school's former dormitories have been demolished and replaced with either apartment or suite style accommodations. The first phase of the initiative began in 2003, with the demolition of three of the male-only dorms: Caffery, Roy and McCullough. They were replaced with Legacy Park in 2004, an apartment-style complex that is also co-ed. (Another male-only dorm, Voorhies Hall, was also razed in 2003, but the Child Development complex was built in its place.) The final male-only dorm, Stokes Hall, was demolished in 2016, with the long-term plan of expanding Legacy Park into the area.

In 2011 the second phase of the project began when most of the traditional female-only dorms were demolished and replaced with suite-style, co-ed, units. The dorms demolished during this period included: Baker-Huger, Bonin, Evangeline, Denbo, and Bancroft. The two resulting areas are now known as the Rose Garden Complex (lower classmen), and the Taft Street Complex (upper classmen); 2018 saw the start of the third phase of the project when construction began on a new complex located at the corner of Johnston and Lewis streets. This area formerly consisted of a university-owned parking lot, as well the Youth/Dog Park, which the university acquired as part of the sale of the "Horse Farm" property to the City of Lafayette. Named "The Heritage at Cajun Village," the new complex is designated for married students/families and graduate students. Following the completion of the complex (fall 2019) the married/family complex "Cajun Village" has been planned for eventual demolition and replaced with suite-style living for upper classmen.

only three of the original dorms on campus remain standing: Randolph Hall (now functioning as a recreational center for residents), Agnes Edwards Hall (now co-ed/junior suite-style) and Harris Hall (now co-ed/traditional-style). Following the completion of Heritage, as well as Rose Garden and Taft Street complexes, the university could house close to 5,000 students on campus, achieving a goal set in the school's master plan as of 2020.

A listing of past & present offerings is as follows:

Greek life
The Greek community at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette is composed of 23 organizations, governed by four councils. In 2022, 6% of undergraduate men and 13% of undergraduate women were active in the UL's Greek system.

Notable firsts

 * 1954 – Within months of the Brown v. Board of Education decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, SLI admitted 70 African-American students, becoming the first all-white public college in the Deep South to desegregate
 * 1961 – Established the first university chapter of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) for students. It is named the ACM Alpha Student Chapter
 * 1962 – Offered the first Master of Science degree in computer science in the U.S.
 * 1994 – Created first francophone studies Ph.D. program in the Western hemisphere, and only the third in the world
 * 2007 – The Cajun Advanced Picosatellite Experiment (CAPE) successfully launches the State of Louisiana's first university student built satellite, CAPE-1
 * 2008 – Ray Paul Authement, the university president from 1974 to 2008, became the longest serving president of a public university in the United States
 * 2012 – Became the first Louisiana university designated as an NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center
 * 2017 – Approved to offer the first master's degree in informatics in the state of Louisiana, beginning Spring 2018
 * 2017 – Approved to offer the first master's degree in informatics in the state of Louisiana, beginning Spring 2018

title: University of Louisiana at Lafayette