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HGH controversies

Controversies regarding the use of human growth hormone (HGH) as treatment method have centered on the claims, products, and businesses related to the use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy. Most of these controversies fall into two categories:

 * 1) Claims of exaggerated, misleading, or unfounded assertions that growth hormone treatment safely and effectively slows or reverses the effects of aging.
 * 2) The sale of products that fraudulently or misleadingly purport to be growth hormone or to increase the user's own secretion of natural human growth hormone to a beneficial degree.

History
A study was published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 1990 by Rudman et al., which showed fat loss, muscle mass increase and maintenance of healthy skin from the administration of growth hormone in twelve elderly men. Despite the fact the authors at no time claimed that GH had reversed the aging process itself, their results were misinterpreted as indicating that GH is an effective anti-aging agent. This study, and others, has led to organizations such as the controversial American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine promoting the use of this hormone as an "anti-aging agent".

Additionally, companies selling dietary supplements have websites selling products that claim to be linked to GH in the advertising text, with medical-sounding names described as "HGH Releasers". Typical ingredients include amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and/or herbal extracts, the combination of which are described as causing the body to make more GH with corresponding beneficial effects. In the United States, because these products are marketed as dietary supplements it is illegal for them to contain GH, which is a drug. Also, under United States law, products sold as dietary supplements cannot have claims that the supplement treats or prevents any disease or condition, and the advertising material must contain a statement that the health claims are not approved by the FDA. The FTC and the FDA do enforce the law when they become aware of violations.

As a result of the reactions to the 1990 article and its frequent citation by proponents of HGH as any anti-aging agent, in 2003 the NEJM published two articles that came out strongly and clearly stating that there was insufficient medical and scientific evidence to support use of HGH as anti-aging drug. One article was written by the Journal's then-current editor in chief, Jeffrey M. Drazen, M.D. and was entitled, "Inappropriate Advertising of Dietary Supplements". It focused mostly on the advertising of dietary supplements. The other article was written by the editor-in-chief at the time the 1990 article was published, Mary Lee Vance, M.D., and was entitled, "Can Growth Hormone Prevent Aging?"; it focused more on the medical issues around whether there was sufficient evidence to use HGH as an anti-aging agent.

Research
There has never been an adequately large randomized controlled trial to prove definitively that HGH provides significant anti-aging benefits and that there are no significant adverse drug reactions; there have been many small studies which are described below.

Some scientific articles have demonstrated that HGH supplementation does not significantly increase muscle strength or aerobic exercise capacity in healthy individuals. While it is possible that there are some advantages, such as an increase in lean body mass, it is also evident that benefits are being exaggerated by some for commercial gain and ineffective products are being sold to unsuspecting consumers.

Some recent small clinical studies have shown that low-dose GH treatment for elderly patients with GH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters (i.e. decrease of LDL cholesterol), and affects the quality of life without significant side effects. It must be emphasized that these studies were small—only tens of patients—and the results were therefore stated tentatively; in the words of one of the cited sources: "Clearly more studies are needed before GH replacement for the elderly becomes established. Safety issues will require close scrutiny, but the data available so far are sufficiently positive to undertake large multicentre, placebo-controlled trials, particularly looking at endpoints associated with prevention of frailty and loss of independence."

Side-effects of high doses and long-term use
Some of the side effects reportedly seen in previously healthy mature patients after taking high HGH doses include:
 * Edema (retention of fluids) in extremities
 * Arthralgia (joint pain)
 * Carpal tunnel syndrome
 * Hypertension.
 * Diabetes and other glucose metabolism imbalances
 * Gynecomastia (enlargement of male mammary glands)

Chronic use of HGH is not well studied. However, in Europe a study called "SAGhE" was undertaken to study these long-term effects of HGH in children. It found that persons with certain kinds of short stature (idiopathic growth hormone deficiency and idiopathic or gestational short stature) who were treated with recombinant human growth hormone during childhood and who were followed over a long period of time, were at a small increased risk of death when compared to individuals in the general population of France. The FDA issued a Safety Alert reporting this result.

Law
In 1990, the US Congress passed an omnibus crime bill, the Crime Control Act of 1990, that amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, that classified anabolic steroids as controlled substances and added a new section which reads: Prohibited distribution of human growth hormone.

(1) Except as provided in paragraph (2), whoever knowingly distributes, or possesses with intent to distribute, human growth hormone for any use in humans other than the treatment of a disease or other recognized medical condition, where such use has been authorized by the Secretary of Health and Human Services under section 355 of this title and pursuant to the order of a physician, is guilty of an offense punishable by not more than 5 years in prison, such fines as are authorized by title 18, or both.

(2) Whoever commits any offense set forth in paragraph (1) and such offense involves an individual under 18 years of age is punishable by not more than 10 years imprisonment, such fines as are authorized by title 18, or both.

(3) Any conviction for a violation of paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection shall be considered a felony violation of the Controlled Substances Act [21 U.S.C. 801 et seq.] for the purposes of forfeiture under section 413 of such Act [21 U.S.C. 853].

(4) As used in this subsection the term “human growth hormone” means somatrem, somatropin, or an analogue of either of them.

(5) The Drug Enforcement Administration is authorized to investigate offenses punishable by this subsection.

This section has been taken by some, most notably the authors of a commentary article published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2005, as meaning that prescribing HGH off-label may be considered illegal. "Physicians and other health care professionals should be aware that current law explicitly prohibits the distribution of GH except for clearly and narrowly defined indications. Distribution for other uses, or off-label use, such as for antiaging, age-related conditions, and enhancing athletic performance, are illegal. Although GH is not a schedule III drug, section 303 [333] f(5) of the FDCA clearly provides the Drug Enforcement Administration with the responsibility of enforcing the laws governing human GH. Given the clinical concerns and the legal issues involved, we believe that physicians or other persons who currently market, distribute, or administer GH to their patients for any reason other than the well-defined approved (ie, legal) uses of the drug, should not do so."

The Drug Enforcement Administration of the US Department of Justice considers off-label prescribing of HGH to be illegal, and to be a key path for illicit distribution of HGH. The FDA, as recently as 2012, has issued alerts stating that "FDA-approved HGH can be legally prescribed for a limited number of conditions." The FDA and the Department of Justice have shut down companies and compounding pharmacies that have marketed HGH for off-label purposes – especially for bodybuilding and anti-aging uses. And some articles in the popular press, such as those criticizing the pharmaceutical industry for marketing drugs for off-label use (which is clearly illegal) have made strong statements about whether doctors can prescribe HGH off-label: "Unlike other prescription drugs, HGH may be prescribed only for specific uses. U.S. sales are limited by law to treat a rare growth defect in children and a handful of uncommon conditions like short bowel syndrome or Prader-Willi syndrome, a congenital disease that causes reduced muscle tone and a lack of hormones in sex glands."

At the same time, anti-aging clinics where doctors prescribe, administer, and sell HGH to people are big business. In a 2012 article in Vanity Fair, when asked how HGH prescriptions far exceed the number of adult patients far exceeds the estimates for HGH-deficiency, Dr. Dragos Roman, who leads a team at the FDA that reviews drugs in endocrinology, said "The F.D.A. doesn't regulate off-label uses of H.G.H. Sometimes it's used appropriately. Sometimes it's not."

title: HGH controversies


text:
Love Shine a Light

"Love Shine a Light" is a song by British rock band Katrina and the Waves written by Kimberley Rew. It in the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 held in Dublin, resulting in the country's fifth and most recent win at the contest. It was released as a single on 28 April 1997 and was later included on the band's ninth studio album, Walk on Water (1997), serving as the album's lead single.

The song was the group's biggest success since their 1985 hit "Walking on Sunshine". It peaked within the top five of the charts in Austria, Ireland, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. In 2022, it was named the best UK Eurovision entry by The Daily Telegraph.

Composition and Eurovision selection
The song was composed by the group's guitarist and regular songwriter Kimberley Rew following a request from the brother of the group's drummer Alex Cooper for an anthem for Samaritans in recognition of the thirtieth anniversary of the Swindon branch of that organization – Cooper's brother being a member of that branch. In a 1997 interview Katrina and the Waves lead vocalist Katrina Leskanich indicated that it was members of the Samaritans who opined that "Love Shine a Light" "was the type of song which would win the Eurovision Song Contest and [so] at the last minute, [Katrina and the Waves] submitted the song with our £250 [entrance fee]" for consideration to vie in the , the national preselection round organised by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) to select its song and performer for the of the Eurovision Song Contest.

It was also reported that Carmina Cooper, the manager of Katrina and the Waves and the wife of Alex Cooper, met up with BBC Radio Cambridgeshire's breakfast presenter (and Head of Music) Dan Chisholm to play the track for him: Chisholm's response was to urge that the number be entered in the Great British Song Contest, and after affording "Love Shine a Light" its radio airplay debut Chisholm declared it "the song which will win this year's Eurovision Song Contest".

In a 2010 interview Leskanich would state that Great British Song Contest executive producer Jonathan King had in fact initiated Katrina and the Waves involvement in the Great British Contest as he had contacted Leskanich to ask if her group had a song which might be a suitable contender to vie to become the UK entrant at Eurovision 1997. Leskanich would paraphrase her response to King as being: "Yes, we have this song called 'Love Shine A Light' which we’ve never put on a record because it's too cheesy, too ABBA, too Eurovision, so it would be perfect for you."

Leskanich stated in 2010 that the original plan was that an act other than Katrina and the Waves would be found to perform "Love Shine a Light" for Eurovision consideration but that Warner Bros. Records executive Steve Allan – who Leskanich describes as "a big Eurovision fan...it’s always been his dream to win it" – said: "Look, you guys have a name, we can still do business in Europe. All you need is a hit song, and we want you to do it. And if you do do it we’ll give you a record deal"; adds Leskanich: "So we couldn’t say no." Leskanich would also state that Kimberley Rew had said of Katrina and the Waves pursuing the Eurovision title with his composition: "I’m not having anything to do with it". The 9 March 1997 broadcast of the Great British Song Contest final featured a taped interview with Rew, in which he described Eurovision as "one of those great institutions of life"; he also accompanied Leskanich onstage to be congratulated for "Love Shine a Light"'s being announced as the for Eurovision 1997. However, he didn't perform on stage for this appearance or the Eurovision final held on 3 May 1997.

In a 2020 interview, Leskanich revealed that she was asked if she could "try and talk like an English person" as some people were not happy with the UK being represented at the Eurovision Song Contest by an American artist.

One of eight songs aired in the Great British Song Contest semi-final broadcast on BBC Radio 2 on 7 February 1997, "Love Shine a Light" was one of four songs advanced by televote to the Great British Song Contest final. The Great British Song Contest final was a live performance show broadcast by BBC TV on 9 March 1997, at the conclusion of which "Love Shine a Light" was announced as the 1997 UK entrant in Eurovision, the song having received 69,834 televotes – 11,138 more than the second-place finisher.

Eurovision performance
On 3 May 1997, the Eurovision Song Contest was held at the Point Theatre in Dublin hosted by Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ), and broadcast live throughout the continent. Katrina and the Waves performed "Love Shine a Light" twenty-fourth in a field of twenty-five songs being preceded by the entry "Probudi me" and followed with the  entry "Minn hinsti dans".

Leskanich would later state she'd supplied her own outfit for her performance on Eurovision: "the boys [ie. the Waves] were getting beautiful suits made by William Hunt and my outfit was an afterthought. They came [in] with five different designers and every single outfit made me look like a clown or a chair cover...I ended up wearing this green blouse I’d been wearing all week that I’d bought in the Cambridge market for £3 [with] a [dark velvet] jacket that my sister had sent me, which was a Donna Karan second and it only had one shoulder pad. So while I was doing the song, I had to remember to lift my left shoulder slightly to even it out with the other". She also wore black leather trousers and black high-heeled boots.

The Eurovision performance of "Love Shine a Light" was simply staged with Leskanich singing center stage fronting background vocalists Beverley Skeete and Miriam Stockley: Skeete and Stockley, respectively dark-haired and blonde and clad in long dark dresses, also provided accompaniment with tambourines and handclaps. Two of Leskanich's co-members in Katrina and the Waves: drummer, Alex Cooper, and bassist, Vince de la Cruz (on this occasion playing guitar), were positioned towards the right side of the stage, while Phil Nicholl played bass stage left. Phil Nicholl was not a permanent member of Katrina and the Waves being a substitute for the group's regular guitarist – and the song's composer – Kimberley Rew, who Leskanich would later state had disassociated himself from the group's participating with his song in Eurovision. Don Airey, who played as a session musician on the single recording of the song, arranged and conducted the live version for Katrina & The Waves. He added strings, brass and a vibrato flute, giving the song a more anthemic feel.

Eurovision scoring
In a pre-performance interview on the night of the Eurovision finale Leskanich had stated that Katrina and the Waves winning Eurovision was "more than a dream – it's probably going to be a reality. I mean we wouldn't come here unless we were intending to win...For Eurovision [success] you need a song with a universal message, lighters in the air, Coca-Cola, heartwarming positive 'all-unite' [message]...[Our] song has a universality about it that unites everyone and I think people are looking for that message in Eurovision...they want something uplifting and positive, and I think once in a while a song comes along that says Eurovision and I think that's what 'Love Shine a Light' says and I'm just lucky that I'm the one that gets to sing it."

"Love Shine a Light" did indeed win Eurovision 1997 easily: with its first 12-point score being awarded by Austria the fourth reporting jury "Love Shine a Light" assumed permanent possession of first place on the scoreboard with its final vote tally an unprecedented 227 points besting the second-place entrant, the entrant for, "Mysterious Woman", by 70 points. The final vote tally for "Love Shine a Light" set a record unsurpassed until, when the introduction of the semi-final greatly expanded the number of countries voting in the final (indeed, entire top three polled more than 227 points that year). It also received the maximum 12 points from ten countries, a feat not matched until and not beaten until.

By a more directly comparable measure, "Love Shine a Light" received an average of 9.458 points per country or 78.82% of total votes available, the third-highest in the history of the present voting system, behind only "Save Your Kisses for Me" by Brotherhood of Man in (9.647 points per jury, 80.39% of available points) and "Ein bißchen Frieden" by Nicole in  (9.470 votes per jury, 78.91% of available points). Furthermore, the song received maximum points from ten of twenty-four countries (41.7%), the fourth highest of all time behind "Euphoria" by Loreen in (which received 12 points from eighteen of forty-one countries, or 43.9%), "Non ho l'età" by Gigliola Cinquetti in  (receiving the then-maximum 5 points from eight of fifteen countries, or 53.3%) and "Ein bißchen Frieden" in 1982 (12 points from nine of seventeen countries, or 52.9%).

Katrina Leskanich commented that it was the second landslide of the week – the Labour Party led by Tony Blair had won the UK general election held two days earlier, on 1 May 1997.

Aftermath
In a 2009 interview Leskanich restated her opinion of "Love Shine a Light": "It was such a feel-good, lighters-in-the-air, cheesy number.", while adding: "Our song was quickly forgotten because we didn't have any sensational gimmick like Bucks Fizz". Leskanich also stated that Katrina and the Waves Eurovision victory boosted the group's profile on the European cabaret circuit at the expense of their rock band credibility which heavily factored into the band's 1999 breakup.

On 22 October 2005, Leskanich co-hosted the Eurovision fiftieth anniversary competition Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest, held in Copenhagen, alongside Renārs Kaupers and sang her winning song in the opening sequence of the show with flag holders of all the nations who ever participated in Eurovision. The hosts of the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 –Sakis Rouvas and Maria Menounos– closed the opening act of its semi-final singing the song. A remix of the song was performed during the UK selection process final of 2008, . In 2009, Leskanich performed it with the Dutch SuperVoices made up of 2000 Dutch choir singers. She also performed the song in UK's Eurovision selection process  aired on BBC Four in 2016.

On 15 December 2019, Leskanich performed the song during Het Grote Songfestivalfeest, a Dutch live television concert programme starring artists of the Eurovision Song Contest as a prelude to the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 that had been scheduled to be held in Rotterdam, the Netherlands in May 2020. Following the 2020 contest's cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the contest organisers subsequently organised the replacement show Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light, whose title was inspired by the song. The song itself was performed during the show as an orchestral rendition by the Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra, and again near the end of the show by all the artists set to take part in the cancelled contest (with the exception of Hooverphonic from Belgium), with Leskanich finishing.

Critical reception
British magazine Music Week rated "Love Shine a Light" three out of five, writing, "Though perfectly suited for Eurovision with its universal, everyone-come-together message, this anthemic-sounding song will require a decent competition performance to win over record buyers if it is to do anything chartwise."

Track listings

 * UK CD1
 * 1) "Love Shine a Light" (radio version) – 2:52
 * 2) "Love Shine a Light" (unplugged version) – 2:51
 * 3) "Spiderman" – 3:12

 * UK CD2 and Australian CD single
 * 1) "Love Shine a Light" (radio version) – 2:51
 * 2) "Spiderman" – 3:11
 * 3) "Love Shine a Light" (Xenomania club mix) – 7:09

 * UK cassette single
 * 1) "Love Shine a Light" (radio version) – 2:52
 * 2) "Spiderman" – 3:12

 * European CD single
 * 1) "Love Shine a Light" (radio version) – 2:52
 * 2) "Love Shine a Light" (unplugged version) – 2:51

Legacy

 * On the 1997 album Ett hus med många rum Kikki Danielssons orkester, featuring Kikki Danielsson on lead vocals, covered the song with lyrics in Swedish by Christer Lundh and Mikael Wendt, as Låt ett ljus få brinna (translated "Let a candle burn").
 * Heidi Kyrö recorded the song in 1998, the Finnish version of the name "Päivänvaloon".
 * Garry Hagger recorded the song as "Liefde brengt licht" for his 2014 album release 12 points which comprised Flemish renderings of Eurovision winners.
 * The Irish singer Lee Matthews released it as a charity single on 23 May 2014 with proceeds going to the Irish charity Join Our Boys Trust, a charity for those suffering from Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The single peaked at number 1 in Irish Country Charts and also charted at number 68 in the Irish Pop Charts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Love Shine a Light


text:
List of topics related to π

This is a list of topics related to pi (π), the fundamental mathematical constant.

 * 2π theorem
 * Approximations of π
 * Arithmetic–geometric mean
 * Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula
 * Basel problem
 * Borwein's algorithm
 * Buffon's needle
 * Cadaeic Cadenza
 * Chronology of computation of π
 * Circle
 * Euler's identity
 * Six nines in pi
 * Gauss–Legendre algorithm
 * Gaussian function
 * History of π
 * A History of Pi  (book)
 * Indiana Pi Bill
 * Leibniz formula for pi
 * Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem  (Proof that π is transcendental)
 * List of circle topics
 * List of formulae involving π
 * Liu Hui's π algorithm
 * Mathematical constant (sorted by continued fraction representation)
 * Mathematical constants and functions
 * Method of exhaustion
 * Milü
 * Pi
 * Pi (art project)
 * Pi (letter)
 * Pi Day
 * PiFast
 * PiHex
 * Pi in the Sky
 * Pilish
 * Pimania (computer game)
 * Piphilology
 * Proof that π is irrational
 * Proof that 22/7 exceeds π
 * Proof of Wallis product
 * Rabbi Nehemiah
 * Radian
 * Ramanujan–Sato series
 * Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
 * Salamin–Brent algorithm
 * Software for calculating π
 * Squaring the circle
 * Turn (geometry)
 * Viète's formula

title: List of topics related to π


text:
Creswellian culture

The Creswellian is a British Upper Palaeolithic culture named after the type site of Creswell Crags in Derbyshire by Dorothy Garrod in 1926. It is also known as the British Late Magdalenian. According to Andreas Maier: "In current research, the Creswellian and Hamburgian are considered to be independent but closely related entities which are rooted in the Magdalenian." The Creswellian is dated between 13,000 and 11,800 BP and was followed by the most recent ice age, the Younger Dryas, when Britain was at times unoccupied by humans.

History
The term Creswellian appeared for the first time in 1926 in Dorothy Garrod's The Upper Palaeolithic Age in Britain. This was the first academic publication by the woman who in 1939 became the first woman ever to be elected as a professor at Cambridge. It is also the first monograph about the Upper Paleolithic of Britain at the national level and it remained the only one on the subject for half a century. Garrod suggested that the British variant of the Magdalenian industry is different enough to create a specific name:

"'I propose tentatively 'Creswellian', since Creswell Crags is the station in which it is found in greatest abundance and variety.'"

The definition of Creswellian was refined since then and now refers exclusively, in the British context, to the Late Magdalenian-style industry.

Description
Diagnostic tools used to identify the period include trapezoidal backed blades called Cheddar points, variant forms known as Creswell points, and smaller bladelets. Other tool types include end scrapers made from long, straight blades. A special preparation technique was employed to remove blades from a core through striking in a single direction, leaving a distinct 'spur' on the platform. The tools were made using a soft hammerstone or an antler hammer.

Other finds include Baltic amber, mammoth ivory and animal teeth and bone. These were used to make harpoons, awls, beads and needles. Unusual bevelled ivory rods, known as sagaies have been found at Gough's Cave in Somerset and Kent's Cavern in Devon.

Twenty eight sites producing Cheddar points are known in England and Wales though none have so far been found in Scotland or Ireland, regions which it is thought were not colonised by humans until later. Most sites are caves but there is increasing evidence for open air activity and that preferred sources of flint were exploited and that tools travelled distances of up to 100 miles from their sources. Some of the flint at Gough's Cave came from the Vale of Pewsey in Wiltshire whilst non-local seashells and amber from the North Sea coast also indicate a highly mobile population. This matches evidence from the Magdelanian cultures elsewhere in Europe and may suggest that exchange of goods and the sending out of specialised expeditions seeking raw materials may have been practised. Analysis of debitage at occupation sites suggests that flint nodules were reduced in size at source and the lighter blades carried by Creswellian groups as 'toolkits' in order to reduce the weight carried.

Comparison of flint from Kent's Cavern and Creswell Crags has led some archaeologists to believe that they were made by the same group.

Food species eaten by Creswellian hunters focused on the wild horse (Equus ferus) or the red deer (Cervus elaphus), probably depending on the season, although the Arctic hare, reindeer, mammoth, Saiga antelope, wild cow, brown bear, lynx, Arctic fox and wolf were also exploited.

Highly fragmentary fossil bones were found in Gough's Cave at Cheddar. They had marks that suggested actions of skinning, dismembering, defleshing and marrow extraction. The excavations of 1986-1987 noted that human and animal remains were mixed, with no particular distribution or arrangement of the human bones. They also show the signs of the same treatments as the animal bones. These findings were interpreted in the sense of a nutritional cannibalism. However, slight differences from other sites in skull treatment leave open the possibility of elements of ritual cannibalism.

title: Creswellian culture


text:
LTL

LTL may refer to:
 * Learning through Landscapes, a United Kingdom school grounds charity supporting outdoor spaces for play and learning
 * Less than truckload, a freight industry term describing quantity
 * Less than lethal, weapons intended to cause bodily injury instead of death
 * Linear temporal logic, a field of mathematical logic
 * Littleborough railway station, with National Rail station code "LTL"
 * The ISO 4217 currency code for the Lithuanian litas, former currency of Lithuania
 * Loyal Temperance Legion, Woman's Christian Temperance Union branch encouraging substance abuse avoidance

title: LTL


text:
MTL

MTL may refer to:

 * An abbreviation and nickname for the city of Montréal, Quebec
 * The Montreal Canadiens, a National Hockey League (NHL) team based in Montreal, Quebec
 * C.F. Montréal, a Major League Soccer team based in Montréal.
 * The Montréal Alouettes, a Canadian Football League (CFL) team based in Montréal, Quebec.
 * An abbreviation of Mount Laurel Township, New Jersey
 * The official abbreviation for the Muldentalkreis district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany
 * The ISO 4217 code for the Maltese lira, the former currency of Malta
 * First language or mother tongue language
 * Master of Teaching and Learning postgraduate degree
 * Mary Todd Lincoln (1818–1882), wife of Abraham Lincoln and the First Lady of the United States
 * Maitland Airport in Australia
 * Mortlake railway station in London, England (National Rail station code)
 * RAF-Avia, ICAO code
 * An initialism for Military Training Leader
 * Marc Tessier-Lavigne, the 11th President of Stanford University

Science and technology

 * Machine translation, often abbreviated as "MTL"
 * Material Template Library, a 3D graphics format that describes the material(s) for an accompanying OBJ file
 * Matrix Template Library, a linear algebra library for C++ programs
 * Meteor Lake, a CPU lineup from Intel
 * Microsystems Technology Laboratories at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 * Model transformation language, a generic term for various languages to perform transformations on mathematical models
 * Monoidal t-norm logic, the logic of left-continuous t-norms
 * Japan Median Tectonic Line, Japan's largest seismic fault system
 * Medial temporal lobe, a brain region involved in learning and memory
 * Merged transistor logic
 * Metric temporal logic
 * Multi-task Learning
 * MTL Harbor Tugboats

Products and companies

 * Modern Terminals Limited, a container terminal operator in Hong Kong
 * MTL (transport company), a former Merseyside-based bus, coach and train operator in the United Kingdom
 * MTL Instruments Group

title: MTL


text:
Electronic benefit transfer

Electronic benefit transfer (EBT) is an electronic system that allows state welfare departments to issue benefits via a magnetically encoded payment card used in the United States. It reached nationwide operations in 2004. The average monthly EBT payout is $230 per participant as of 2022.

Benefits provided via EBT are of two types: food and cash. Food benefits are federally authorized benefits that can be used only to purchase food and non-alcoholic beverages. Food benefits are distributed through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly the Food Stamp Program. Cash benefits include state general assistance, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) benefits, and refugee benefits.

Usage
Through EBT, a recipient uses their EBT card at participating retailers to purchase food items authorized by the USDA's SNAP program. Cash benefits may be used to purchase any item at a participating retailer, as well as to obtain cash-back or make a cash withdrawal from a participating ATM.

State agencies work with contractors to procure their own EBT systems for delivery of SNAP and other state-administered benefit programs. In the United States, all SNAP benefits are now being issued via EBT.

For example, recipients apply for their benefits in the usual way, by filling out a form at their local food stamp office or online. Once eligibility and level of benefits have been determined, information is transferred to the state's EBT contractor. Once they are approved for benefits, an account is established in the recipient's name, and their SNAP benefits are deposited electronically in this account each month. A plastic debit card is issued and a personal identification number (PIN) is assigned or chosen by the recipient to control access to their account.

All states have systems that use magnetic stripe cards and "on-line" authorization of transactions. When paying for groceries, the SNAP customer's card is run through an electronic reader or a point of sale terminal (POS), and the recipient enters the PIN to access the food stamp account. Then, electronically, the processor verifies the PIN and the account balance, and sends an authorization or denial back to the retailer. The recipient's account is then debited for the amount of the purchase, and the retailer's account is credited. No physical money changes hands. Payment is made to the retailer through an ACH settlement process at the end of the business day. Most states' online EBT systems are interoperable through the Quest network, which is sponsored by the Electronic Benefits and Services Council (formerly the EBT Council) of NACHA.

Many states stagger the issuing of benefits to EBT SNAP accounts, with the particular day of the month determined for each recipient based on the case number, Social Security number, or date of birth. The states of Alaska, Idaho, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Vermont, along with Guam and the US Virgin Islands, credit accounts on the first of the month to all recipients, New Hampshire credits on the 5th, and South Dakota on the 10th.

For most of its history, the Food Stamp Program used paper denominated stamps or coupons worth US$1 (brown), $5 (blue), and $10 (green). In the late 1990s, the food-stamp program was revamped, and stamps were phased out in favor of a specialized debit-card system known as electronic benefit transfer (EBT) provided by private contractors. Many states merged the use of the EBT card for public-assistance welfare programs as well. The 2008 farm bill renamed the Food Stamp Program as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (as of October 2008), and replaced all references to "stamp" or "coupon" in federal law to "card" or "EBT."

Taxation
It is illegal for anyone to charge sales tax, surcharges or card processing fees from an EBT SNAP account, according to federal law and USDA SNAP Guidelines. New state and federal law grants new provisions to law enforcement and state agencies to investigate the criminal use, including taxation on EBT purchases, of state and federal benefits.

title: Electronic benefit transfer


text:
Linda Kasabian

Linda Darlene Kasabian (June 21, 1949 – January 21, 2023) was an American woman known for being a member of the Manson Family, a cult led by Charles Manson in late-1960s–early-1970s California. She was present at both the Tate and LaBianca murders committed by the cult in 1969, but received immunity for her testimony as a key witness in District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi's prosecution of Manson and his followers.

Early life
Linda Darlene Drouin was born in Biddeford, Maine, on June 21, 1949, and raised in the New England town of Milford, New Hampshire. Her father, Rosaire Drouin, was a construction worker of French-Canadian ancestry. Her mother, Joyce Taylor, was a homemaker. They struggled financially in a working-class home. Her parents often did not get along, and her father eventually left when she was still a young child. Both of her parents remarried a short time later, and her father moved to Miami, Florida. She was the eldest child, and her mother Joyce has remarked that with so many younger children and stepchildren to care for, she was not able to devote the necessary attention to her teenage daughter. "I didn't have time to listen to her problems. A lot of what has happened to Linda is my fault," she has admitted.

As a child, Kasabian was described by friends, neighbors, and teachers as intelligent, a good student but a "starry-eyed romantic". She was regarded as kind and shy but "forced to grow up too soon". She dropped out of high school and ran away from home at the age of sixteen due to conflict with her stepfather, Jake Byrd, whom she claimed mistreated both her and her mother. Kasabian traveled to the west coast, "looking for God". At the age of 16, she married Robert Peaslee, a high school classmate, but divorced a short time later. She briefly moved to Miami and tried to reconnect with her father, who was working as a bartender, but they again drifted apart before long.

She then traveled to Boston, remarried, and gave birth to a daughter in 1968. When her second marriage, to Armenian American Robert Kasabian, began to sour, Linda and her baby daughter Tanya returned to New Hampshire to live with her mother. Later, Robert Kasabian contacted Linda and invited her to meet him in Los Angeles. He wanted her to join him and a friend, Charles "Blackbeard" Melton, on a sailing trip to South America. Linda, who was hoping for a reconciliation with Robert, returned to Los Angeles to live with him in Topanga Canyon.

Introduction to the Manson family
By the time she became pregnant with her second child, Kasabian was feeling neglected by her husband Robert Kasabian, who had ultimately left her behind for the South American sailing trip. Through Melton she met Catherine Share, who told Kasabian about an idyllic ranch outside Los Angeles where a group of hippies were establishing a "hole in the earth" paradise to escape an anticipated race war which they referred to as "Helter Skelter." To Kasabian, the ranch situation sounded like the Hopi legends that she had read about as a girl, and she was intrigued. In early summer, 1969, she decided against attending a July 4 Malibu “love-in” and instead—daughter Tanya in tow—joined Share and traveled to the Spahn Ranch in the Chatsworth area outside Los Angeles, where she met Manson and soon became a member of his "Family".

Kasabian was welcomed by group members, who greeted her with professions of peace and love and assurances that she and her daughter would be cared for, provided she proved loyal. Kasabian became privy to various events and statements that later proved to be important to the criminal case. During her first night with the family, she met and had sexual relations with the high-ranking Manson follower Tex Watson. Both of them have described their initial encounter as very intense. Watson persuaded Kasabian to steal a sum of money from her ex-husband's friend, Charles Melton.

Kasabian was then introduced to Manson. According to Kasabian, she thought he looked magnificent in his buckskin clothing, and that he seemed to be Christ-like. Manson talked with her about why she had come to the ranch, and after "feeling her legs," he accepted her. That night, Manson and Kasabian had sex in a Spahn Ranch cave. She thought that Manson could "see right through her" and that he was perceptive of her issues with her stepfather and her feelings of being "disposable" to the people in her life and to the world in general, as recorded in her trial testimony:

"Q: 'What conversation did you have with Mr. Manson while you were making love?'

A: 'I don't recall the entire conversation but he told me I had a father hang-up.'

Q: 'Did this impress you when he said you had a father hang-up?'

A: 'Very much so.'

Q: 'Why?'

A: 'Because nobody ever said that to me, and I did have a father hang-up. I hated my stepfather.'"

Kasabian claimed she adopted the attitude toward Manson that the other ranch girls held: "We always wanted to do anything and everything for him." She began joining family members on their "creepy crawls," quietly sneaking into random homes in Los Angeles to steal money while the occupants slept. These and other criminal activities were the means by which the members of the family supported themselves, and Kasabian was willing to participate.

Involvement with murders
On August 8, 1969, Kasabian claimed Manson directed her to gather a knife, a change of clothing and her driver's license, then to accompany three other members of the family, Tex Watson, Susan Atkins, and Patricia Krenwinkel and do what Watson told her to. They drove to 10050 Cielo Drive. Kasabian stated she saw Watson shoot and kill Steven Parent, a teenager who had come to visit the caretaker, William Garettson. Watson then ordered Kasabian to remain outside the residence, and she stood by the car while Watson, Atkins, and Krenwinkel entered the house and killed Jay Sebring, Wojciech Frykowski, Abigail Folger, and the eight-months pregnant Sharon Tate.

Kasabian testified that at one point she heard the "horrible screams" of the victims and left the car. "I started to run toward the house, I wanted them to stop. I knew what they had done to that man [Parent], that they were killing these people. I wanted them to stop." Approaching the house from the driveway, Kasabian was met by Frykowski, who was running out the front door. Kasabian said in her testimony, "There was a man just coming out of the door and he had blood all over his face and he was standing by a post, and we looked into each other's eyes for a minute, and I said, 'Oh, God, I am so sorry. Please make it stop.' But then he just fell to the ground into the bushes." Then Watson repeatedly stabbed Frykowski and hit him in the head with a gun butt. Kasabian tried to stop the murderers by claiming that she heard "people coming" onto the Tate property, but Atkins insisted that it was "too late". According to Watson and Atkins, Kasabian stood rooted to the front lawn, watching with a horrified expression as her companions committed murder. Kasabian testified that, while in a state of shock, she ran toward the car, started it up, and considered driving away to get help, but then became concerned for her daughter back at the Spahn Ranch.

The next night, Manson, Leslie Van Houten, and Clem Grogan joined the quartet because, according to Kasabian, Manson felt the deed the night before had been performed sloppily. They drove to the LaBianca residence. Inside, Watson, Krenwinkel, and Van Houten murdered Leno and Rosemary LaBianca. When asked why she went out with the group again, knowing this time that murders would occur, Kasabian claimed that when Manson asked her to go with them she was "afraid to say no."

Witness for the prosecution
Several members of the "family" were arrested following a raid on the Spahn Ranch in October for car theft. The police were not aware at that time that those whom they were arresting for auto theft were the murderers of Sharon Tate and Leno and Rosemary LaBianca. The investigations of these were already in progress, along with the intensive news media coverage of the murders. After being informed that a warrant for her arrest had been issued, Kasabian turned herself in to New Hampshire authorities in early December. Kasabian was offered immunity from prosecution in exchange for turning state's evidence.

There have been reports that Kasabian wanted to tell her story to the prosecutors, with or without any kind of deal, to "get it out of my head," as chief prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi described it, but that her attorney, Gary Fleischman, insisted that she remain silent until the district attorney made an offer of immunity. Kasabian, who was then pregnant with her second child, agreed to the immunity offer.

However, though Kasabian had been an accomplice to the murders (their driver and lookout), and she had not prevented the crimes or contacted the police or the sheriff afterwards, she had not entered either residence nor was she thought to have physically participated in any of the murders. She had been described as reluctant and extremely upset during the events of both nights, even challenging Manson ("Charlie, I am not you, I cannot kill anybody." ) and she was the only member of the group to express remorse and sympathy for the victims. When taken back to the Tate residence to help reconstruct the crime there, Kasabian reportedly suffered an emotional breakdown.

Taking the witness stand, Kasabian was the chief witness for the prosecution, and she tearfully recounted the murders in vivid detail. She related to the trial jury all that she had seen and heard during her stay with the "family" and during the commission of the murders. Her testimony was considered to be the most dramatic segment of the very long trial, and it received an unprecedented amount of news media coverage. During the trial, unjailed members of the Manson "family" led a campaign of intimidation against Kasabian in an effort to prevent her from testifying. The actual defendants in the crime constantly disrupted her testimony with a blizzard of dramatic courtroom theatrics. Manson ran a finger across his throat, glaring at Kasabian as she testified, an act he repeated during the testimony of other prosecution witnesses.

Susan Atkins also repeatedly whispered to Kasabian across the courtroom, "You're killing us!" to which Kasabian responded, "I am not killing you, you have killed yourselves." Manson notoriously interrupted Kasabian's testimony by holding up a copy of the Los Angeles Times newspaper to the jury with the headline "Manson Guilty, Nixon Declares" referring to President Richard Nixon's statements to the press about the pre-verdict trial. He apparently hoped that this stunt would result in a mistrial, which the defense argued for but lost. Judge Charles H. Older refused to allow the defendants to legally benefit from the antics.

During Kasabian's cross-examination, Manson's defense lawyer Irving Kanarek showed her large color crime-scene photographs of the Tate murders. Kasabian's emotional reaction was in stark contrast to the other "family" members. Manson and Krenwinkel's defense attorney Paul Fitzgerald later asserted that Kanarek's tactic—meant to discredit Kasabian—was a grave error that completely backfired and exonerated the state's primary witness. Composing herself enough to look up from the color photo of the dead, bloodied Sharon Tate, Kasabian shot a look across the courtroom to the defendants. "How could you do that?" she asked. The female defendants laughed. Manson's defense attorney Kanarek asked Kasabian how she could be so certain, considering her LSD use, that she had not participated in the gruesome act. "Because I don't have that kind of thing in me, to do something so animalistic," she replied.

Although the Manson gang's murder trial lasted nine months, with testimony from numerous witnesses (including several other former "family" members), Kasabian's testimony more than anything else, according to Bugliosi, led to the convictions of Manson, Watson, Atkins, Krenwinkel, and Van Houten.

Penalty phase
On January 25, 1971, the defendants were found guilty on all counts by the jury, leading to the penalty phase of the trial, which decided the punishments of the convicted. Various female witnesses, including the defendants and other loyal "family" members (all of whom carved bloody Xs into their foreheads as a sign of their allegiance to Manson), testified that Kasabian, rather than Manson, had masterminded the crimes. The trial jury completely rejected their testimony. Over the years, these accusations have been publicly repudiated by many of the former "family" members who originally offered the tale, including Catherine Share (in 1997), Susan Atkins (in 1977), and particularly Tex Watson, who in 1978 described those allegations as "patently ridiculous."

Life after trial
The news media coverage of the Manson trial had made Linda Kasabian a well-known figure by the time the sentences had been handed down, with opinions about her ranging from sympathetic to hostile. Kasabian shortly returned to New Hampshire with her husband and her children, seeking to escape the glare of the media and raise her children quietly. She lived on a hippie commune for a time and later worked as a cook. Kasabian was called back to Los Angeles County several times after the first trial: she was a witness against Tex Watson in his separate trial in 1971 and also against Leslie Van Houten in her two retrials in 1977.

Kasabian was later detained for numerous traffic violations until an automobile accident left her partially disabled. Though she had severed all of her ties with the Manson "family," the Secret Service kept her under surveillance for a time after former Manson associate Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme attempted to assassinate President Gerald Ford. Kasabian was the target of scorn from the few remaining Manson "family" members.

Over the years, Kasabian avoided and refused most news media attention. Her only appearance between 1969 and 2008 was an interview with the syndicated American television program A Current Affair in 1988.

Later, Cineflix, a production company in the United Kingdom and Canada, produced a docu-drama called Manson, in which Kasabian appeared, telling her story in complete detail for the first time. This program was broadcast in the UK on August 10, 2009 and also in the United States on September 7, 2009 and again on July 20, 2013 on the History Channel. In this interview, Kasabian recounts her four weeks spent with the Manson "family."

In a September 2, 2009, live interview on CNN's Larry King Live, Kasabian recounted her memories of the murders at Sharon Tate's home. To help her maintain her now-quiet life, Kasabian wore a disguise provided by the program. She told Larry King during the interview that after the trial she had been in need of, but had never obtained, "psychological counseling" and that during the previous 12 years, she had been "on a path of healing and rehabilitation." When asked about the degree of remorse she felt for her participation in the crimes, Kasabian said she felt as though she took on all the guilt that "no one else [who was involved in the crimes] felt guilt for."

From the late 1980s, Kasabian lived in the Tacoma, Washington area, using the last name "Chiochios." In a 2016 Rolling Stone article on the current status of Manson Family members still living, it was said she had been "living in near-poverty." In his 2016 book Sharon Tate and the Manson Murders, author Greg King recounted an October 1996 police raid by the Tacoma, Washington police department where Kasabian and her daughter, Quanu, had been arrested after "rock cocaine and a large bundle of cash in a dresser drawer" were discovered along with a semi-automatic handgun and ammunition. According to King, Kasabian's daughter was tried and found guilty of possession of controlled substances and sentenced to serve time in a Washington state prison.

Kasabian died in Tacoma on January 21, 2023, at the age of 73.

title: Linda Kasabian


text:
Arni

Arni may refer to:

Municipalities

 * Aarani, Tiruvannamalai, a town in Tamil Nadu, India
 * Arni, Maharashtra, in Yavatmal district, Maharashtra State, India
 * Arni, Karditsa, a municipality in the Karditsa regional unit, Greece
 * Arni, Aargau, a municipality of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland
 * Arni, Bern, a municipality of the canton of Bern in Switzerland

Other uses

 * Árni, Icelandic given name
 * a nickname for Arnold
 * Arni, Clerodendrum phlomidis, a traditional Indian medicinal herb
 * Arni or arnee, the wild water buffalo, Bubalus arnee
 * Lake Arni or Arnisee
 * ARNI, angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor: Valsartan/sacubitril

title: Arni


text:
Circumpolar

Circumpolar may refer to:
 * Antarctic region
 * Antarctic Circle
 * the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
 * Subantarctic
 * List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands
 * Antarctic Convergence
 * Antarctic Circumpolar Wave
 * Antarctic Ocean
 * Arctic region
 * Arctic Circle
 * Subarctic
 * Circumpolar peoples
 * Arctic Cooperation and Politics
 * Arctic Ocean
 * List of islands in the Arctic Ocean
 * Circumpolar constellation, a constellation that never rises or sets from the perspective of a given latitude on Earth
 * Circumpolar star, a star that never rises or sets from the perspective of a given latitude on Earth
 * Polar front in meteorology
 * circumpolar navigation, a global circumnavigation which traverses both poles

title: Circumpolar


text:
SKK

SKK can refer to:

 * Slovak koruna, former Slovak currency
 * Shaktoolik Airport
 * Shaolin Kempo Karate, a martial art
 * SKK Kotwica Kołobrzeg, Polish basketball team
 * SKK Lighting company by Shiu-Kay Kan
 * Sotakorkeakoulu, the Finnish war college (1924-1992)

title: SKK


text:
Fixed stars

In astronomy, the fixed stars (stellae fixae) are the luminary points, mainly stars, that appear not to move relative to one another against the darkness of the night sky in the background. This is in contrast to those lights visible to naked eye, namely planets and comets, that appear to move slowly among those "fixed" stars.

The fixed stars includes all the stars visible to the naked eye other than the Sun, as well as the faint band of the Milky Way. Due to their star-like appearance when viewed with the naked eye, the few visible individual nebulae and other deep-sky objects also are counted among the fixed stars. Approximately 6,000 stars are visible to the naked eye under optimal conditions.

The term fixed stars is a misnomer because those celestial objects are not actually fixed with respect to one another or to Earth. Due to their immense distance from Earth, these objects appear to move so slowly in the sky that the change in their relative positions is nearly imperceptible on human timescales, except under careful examination with modern instruments, such as telescopes, that can reveal their proper motions. Hence, they can be considered to be "fixed" for many purposes, such as navigation, charting of stars, astrometry, and timekeeping.

Due to the large distances of astronomical objects, human vision is unable to perceive the three-dimensional depth of outer space, giving the impression that all stars and other extrasolar objects are equidistant from the observer. From Ancient Greece until the Copernican Revolution, in mainstream European and Islamic astronomy (but not e.g. Chinese astronomy), the fixed stars were believed to exist attached on a giant celestial sphere, or firmament, which revolves daily around Earth. This was known as the "sphere of fixed stars", which acted as the supposed limit of the whole universe. For many centuries, the term fixed stars was a synonym for that celestial sphere.

People in many cultures have imagined that the brightest stars form constellations, which are apparent pictures in the sky seeming to be persistent, being deemed also as fixed. That way, constellations have been used for centuries, and still are today, to identify regions of the night sky by both professional and amateur astronomers.

Pythagoreans
Pythagorean philosophers held a number of different views on the structure of the universe, but each included a sphere of fixed stars as its boundary. Philolaos (c. 5th cent. BCE) proposed a universe which had at its center a central fire, invisible to man. All of the planets, the Moon, Sun, and stars rotated about this central fire, with the Earth being the nearest object to it. In this system, the stars are contained in the furthest sphere, which also rotates, but too slowly for motion to be observed. The motion of the stars is instead explained by the motion of the Earth about the central fire.

Another Pythagorean, Ecphantos of Syracuse (c. 400 BCE) proposed a system quite similar to that of Philolaos, but without a central fire. Instead, this cosmos was centered on the Earth, which remained stationary but rotated on an axis, while the Moon, Sun, and planets revolved about it. This system's final boundary was a fixed sphere of stars, and the perceived motion of the stars was thought to be caused by the rotation of the Earth.

Plato
Plato's (c. 429-347 BCE) universe was centered on a completely stationary Earth, constructed with a series of concentric spheres. The outer sphere of this system consisted of fire and contained all of the planets (which according to Plato, included the Moon and Sun). The outermost portion of this sphere was the location of the stars. This sphere of fire rotated about the Earth, carrying the stars with it. The belief that the stars were fixed in their place in the sphere of fire was of great importance to all of Plato's system. The stars' position was used as a reference for all celestial motions and used to create Plato's ideas of planets possessing multiple motions.

Eudoxus of Cnidus
Eudoxus, a student of Plato, was born around 400 BC. A mathematician and an astronomer, he generated one of the earliest sphere-centric models of the planet systems, based on his background as a mathematician. Eudoxus's model was geocentric, with the Earth being a stationary sphere at the center of the system, surrounded by 27 rotating spheres. The farthest sphere carried stars, which he declared to be fixed within the sphere. Thus, though the stars were moved around the Earth by the sphere which they occupied, they themselves did not move and were therefore considered fixed.

Aristotle
Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC studied and published similar ideas to Plato, and based on the Eudoxus' system, but he improved on them through his books Metaphysics and On the Heavens written around 350 BC. He claimed that all things have some way of moving, (including "heavenly bodies," or planets,) but he denies that the movement could be caused by a vacuum, because then the objects would move much too fast and without sensible directions. He stated that everything was moved by something and started exploring a concept similar to gravity. He was one of the first to argue (and prove) that the Earth was round, drawing on observations of eclipses and the movements of the other planets relative to the Earth. He proceeded to conclude that most planets navigated in a circular motion.

His cosmos was geocentric, with the Earth at the center, surrounded by a layer of water and air, which was in turn surrounded by a layer of fire which filled the space until reaching the Moon. Aristotle also proposed a fifth element called "aether," which is purported to make up the Sun, the planets, and the stars. However, Aristotle believed that while the planets rotate, the stars still remain fixed. His argument was that if such a massive body was moving, there must surely be evidence that is noticeable from the Earth. However, one cannot hear the stars moving, nor can they really see their progress, so Aristotle concludes that while they may be shifted by the planets, they do not move themselves. He writes in On the Heavens, "If the bodies of the stars moved in a quantity either of air or of fire...the noise which they created would inevitably be tremendous, and this being so, it would reach and shatter things here on earth". His theory that the stars may be carried but were fixed and do not autonomously move or rotate was widely accepted for a time.

Aristarchus of Samos
Aristarchus (3rd cent. BCE), proposed an early heliocentric universe, which would later inspire the work of Copernicus. In his model, the Sun, entirely stationary, laid at the center, and all planets revolved around it. Beyond the planets was the sphere of fixed stars, also motionless. This system presented two more unique ideas in addition to being heliocentric: the Earth rotated daily to create day, night, and the perceived motions of the other heavenly bodies, and the sphere of fixed stars at its boundary were immensely distant from its center. This massive distance had to be assumed due to the fact that stars were observed to have no parallax, which can only be explained by geocentricity or immense distances which create a parallax too small to be measured.

Claudius Ptolemy
Ptolemy, 100-175 AD, summarized ideas about the cosmos through his mathematical models and his book Mathematical Syntaxis, much more commonly known as the Almagest. It was written around 150 AD, and Ptolemy declared that the stars' placement in relation to each other and distances apart remained unchanged by the rotation of the heavens. He utilized a method using eclipses to find the star distances and calculated the distance of the Moon based on parallax observations. Shortly after, he wrote a follow-up called Planetary Hypotheses.

Ptolemy used and wrote about the geocentric system, drawing greatly on traditional Aristotelian physics, but using more complicated devices, known as deferent and epicycles he borrowed from previous works by geometer Apollonius of Perga and astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea. He declared that the stars are fixed within their celestial spheres, but the spheres themselves are not fixed. The rotations of these spheres thus explain the subtle movements of the constellations throughout the year.

Martianus Capella
Martianus Capella (fl. c. 410–420) describes a modified geocentric model, in which the Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the Moon, the Sun, three planets and the stars, while Mercury and Venus circle the Sun, all surrounded by the sphere of fixed stars. His model was not widely accepted, despite his authority; he was one of the earliest developers of the system of the seven liberal arts, the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy), that structured early medieval education. Nonetheless, his single encyclopedic work, De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii ("On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury"), also called De septem disciplinis ("On the seven disciplines") was read, taught, and commented upon throughout the early Middle Ages and shaped European education during the early medieval period and the Carolingian Renaissance.

Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) created a heliocentric system composed of orbs carrying each of the heavenly bodies. The final orb in his model was that of the fixed stars. This final orb was the largest of his cosmos, in both diameter and thickness. This orb of stars is entirely fixed, as the stars are embedded in the sphere, and the sphere itself is immobile. The perceived motion of the stars, therefore, is created by the daily rotation of the Earth about its axis.

Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe's (1546-1601) system of the universe has been called "geo-heliocentric" due to its twofold structure. At its center lies the stationary Earth, which is orbited by the Moon and Sun. The planets then revolve about the Sun while it revolves about the Earth. Beyond all of these heavenly bodies lies a sphere of fixed stars. This sphere rotates about the stationary Earth, creating the perceived motion of the stars in the sky. This system has an interesting feature in that the Sun and planets cannot be contained in solid orbs (their orbs would collide), but yet the stars are represented as being contained in a fixed sphere at the boundary of the cosmos.

Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was a devoted Copernican, following Copernicus's models and ideas yet developing them. He was also an assistant of Tycho Brahe, and he could access his patron's accurate measurements in his observational database. Kepler's Mysterium cosmographicum (1596), a strong defense of the Copernican system, still pictures an image labelling the outmost celestial sphere as Sphaera Stellar Fixar, Latin for sphere of fixed stars, following the long-held belief in such sphere.

This view was later superseded in his book Astronomia nova (1609), where he established his laws of planetary motion, the mathematical basis for his own Rudolphine Tables, which are working tables from which planetary positions could be shown. Kepler's laws were the tipping point in finally disproving the old geocentric (or Ptolemaic) cosmic theories and models, what was backed by the first uses of telescope by his contemporary Galileo Galilei, also an advocate of Copernicus.

Estimated radius
First Greeks, as many other ancient cultures, thought of sky as it was a giant dome-like structure only a few meters above the highest mountains. The myth of Atlas tells that this Titan held the whole heavens on his shoulders.

Around 560 BCE, Anaximander was the first philosopher to consider the Sun as a huge object (larger than the land of Peloponnesus ), and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. But erroneously, he thought the stars were closer to Earth (about 9 to 10 times the Earth's size) than the Moon (18-19 times) and the Sun (27-28 times). Nonetheless, later Pythagorians as Philolaus around 400 BCE, also conceived a universe with orbiting bodies, thus assuming the fixed stars were, at least, a bit farther than the Moon, the Sun and the rest of the planets.

Meanwhile, circa 450 BCE Anaxagoras had suggested that the Moon is rocky, thus opaque, and closer to the Earth than the Sun, giving a correct explanation of eclipses. As far as the Sun and the Moon were conceived as spherical bodies, and as they do not collide at solar eclipses, this implies than the outer space should have some certain, indeterminate, depth.

Eudoxus of Cnidus, in around 380 BCE, devised a geometric-mathematical model for the movements of the planets based on (conceptual) concentric spheres centered on Earth, and by 360 BCE Plato claimed in his Timaeus that circles and spheres were the preferred shape of the universe, and that the Earth was at the centre and the stars forming the outermost shell, followed by planets, the Sun, and the Moon.

Around 350 BCE Aristotle modified Eudoxus' model by supposing the spheres were material and crystalline. He was able to articulate the spheres for most planets, however, the spheres for Jupiter and Saturn crossed each other. Aristotle solved this complication by introducing an unrolled sphere. By all these devices, and even assuming the planets were star-like, single points, the sphere of the fixed stars should implicitly be farther than previously thought.

Around 280 BCE, Aristarchus of Samos offered the first definite discussion of the possibility of a heliocentric cosmos, and by geometrical means he estimated the Moon's orbital radius at 60 Earth radii, and its physical radius as one-third that of the Earth. He made an inaccurate attempt to measure the distance to the Sun, but sufficient to assert that the Sun is much bigger than Earth and it is much further away than the Moon. So the minor body, the Earth, must orbit the major one, the Sun, and not the opposite. This reasoning led him to assert that, as stars do not show evident parallax viewed from Earth along a single year, they must be very, very far away from the terrestrial surface and, assuming they were all at the same distance from us, he gave a relative estimation.

Following the heliocentric ideas of Aristarcus (but not explicitly supporting them), around 250 BCE Archimedes in his work The Sand Reckoner computes the diameter of the universe centered around the Sun to be about $10 stadia$ (in modern units, about 2 light years, $18.93 km$, $11.76 mi$).

In Archimedes' own words:

"His [Aristarchus'] hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface."

Around 210 BCE, Apollonius of Perga shows the equivalence of two descriptions of the apparent retrograde motions of planets (assuming the geocentric model): one using eccentrics and another deferent and epicycles.

In the following century, measures of the sizes and distances of the Earth and the Moon improved. Around 200 BCE Eratosthenes determined that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6400 km. Circa 150 BCE Hipparchus uses parallax to determine that the distance to the Moon is roughly 380000 km, nearly matching Aristarchus. This imposed a minimum radius for the sphere of fixed stars at center-to-center Earth to Moon distance plus the Moon's radius (approx. 1/3 Earth radius), plus the width of the Sun (it being, at least, the same that the Moon), plus the indeterminate thickness of the planets' spheres (believed to be thin, anyway), for a total about 386400 km. This was around 24,500,000 times lower than Archimedes' computation.

Around 130 AD, Ptolemy adopted Apollonius' epicycles in his geocentric model. Epicycles are described as an orbit within an orbit. For example, looking at Venus, Ptolemy claimed that it orbits the Earth, and as it orbits the Earth, it also orbits the original orbit riding a second, minor local sphere. (Ptolemy emphasised that the epicycle motion does not apply to the Sun.) This device necessarily enlarges each of the celestial spheres, thus making the outer sphere of the fixed stars yet larger.

When scholars applied Ptolemy's epicycles, they presumed that each planetary sphere was exactly thick enough to accommodate them. By combining this nested sphere model with astronomical observations, scholars calculated what became generally accepted values at the time for the distances to the Sun: about 4 e6km, and to the edge of the universe: about 73 e6km, still around 130,000 times less than Archimedes.

Ptolemy's methods, written in his Almagest, were accurate enough to keep them largely undisputed for more than 1,500 years. But by the European Renaissance, the possibility that such a huge sphere could complete a single revolution of 360° around the Earth in only 24 hours was deemed improbable, and this point was one of the arguments of Nicholas Copernicus for leaving behind the centuries-old geocentric model.

The highest upper bound ever given was by Jewish astronomer Levi ben Gershon (Gersonides) who, circa 1300, estimated the distance to the fixed stars to be no less than 159,651,513,380,944 Earth radii, or about 100,000 light-years in modern units. This was an overestimate; although in the actual universe there are stars farther than that distance, both in the Milky Way (about three times wider) and all the external galaxies, the closest star from Earth (other than the Sun) is Proxima Centauri at about 4.25 light-years only.

In Nordic mythology
The attempts to explain the universe stem from observations of the objects found in the sky. Different cultures historically have various stories to provide an answer to the questions of what they are seeing. Norse mythology originates from northern Europe, around the geographical location of modern-day region of Scandinavia and northern Germany. The Norse mythology consists of tales and myths derived from Old Norse, which was a Northern German language from the Middle Ages. There is a series of manuscript texts written in Old Norse which contain a collection of [35] poems written from oral tradition. Among historians there seems to be speculation of the specific dates of the poems written, however, the estimated record of the texts is around the beginning of the thirteenth century. Although the oral tradition of passing down tales existed long before the advent of text manuscripts and print versions.

Among surviving texts there is mention of the mythological god, Odin. Scholars have recounted the tale of the Αesir Gods creation myth which includes the idea of fixed stars found within the teleology of the tale. Padaric Colum has written a book, The Children of Odin, which in much detail reiterates the story of how the Aesir gods brought the giant named Ymir to his demise and created the world from his body, affixing sparks from the fiery Muspelheim, or the fixed stars, to the dome of the sky, which was the skull of Ymir. The Norse creation myth is one of several cases which treated stars as being fixed to a sphere beyond the earth. Later scientific literature shows astronomical thought which kept a version of this idea until the seventeenth century.

Developing western astronomy
Western astronomical knowledge was based on the traditional thoughts from philosophical and observational inquiries of Greek Antiquity. Other cultures contributed to thought about the fixed stars including the Babylonians, who from the eighteenth to the sixth century BC constructed constellation maps. Maps of the stars and the idea of mythological stories to explain them were largely being acquired all over the world and in several cultures. One similarity between them all was the preliminary understanding that the stars were fixed and immobile in the universe.

This understanding was incorporated into theorized models and mathematical representations of the cosmos by philosophers like Anaximander and Aristotle from the Ancient Greeks. Anaximander proposed this original (and erroneous) order of the celestial objects above the Earth: first a nearest layer with the fixed stars plus planets, then another layer with the Moon, and finally an outer one with the Sun. To him, the stars, as well as the Sun and Moon, were apertures of "wheel-like condensations filled with fire". All other later models of the planetary system show a celestial sphere containing fixed stars on the outermost part of the universe, its edge, within it lie all the rest of the moving luminaires.

Plato, Aristotle and other like Greek thinkers of antiquity, and later the Ptolemaic model of the cosmos showed an Earth-centered universe. Ptolemy was influential with his heavily mathematical work, the Almagest, which attempts to explain the peculiarity of stars that moved. These "wandering stars", planets, moved across the background of fixed stars which were spread along a sphere surrounding encompassing the universe. This geocentric view was held through the Middle Ages, and was later countered by subsequent astronomers and mathematicians alike, such as Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, who challenged the long-standing view of geocentrism and constructed a Sun-centered universe, this being known as the heliocentric system. The tradition of thought which appears in all of these systems of the universe, even with their divergent mechanisms, is the presence of the sphere of fixed stars.

In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as Thomas Digges, Giordano Bruno and William Gilbert argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns, paving the way to deprecate the Aristotelian sphere of the fixed stars.

The studies of the heavens were revolutionized with the invention of the telescope. First developed in 1608, Galileo Galilei heard about it and made a telescope for himself. He immediately noticed that the planets were not, in fact, perfectly smooth, a theory formerly put forth by Aristotle. He continued to examine the skies and constellations and soon knew that the "fixed stars" which had been studied and mapped were only a tiny portion of the massive universe that lay beyond the reach of the naked eye. When in 1610 he aimed his telescope to the faint strip of the Milky Way, he found it resolves into countless white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves.

The development of Isaac Newton's laws, published in his work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687, raised further questions among theorists about the mechanisms of the heavens: the universal force of gravity suggested that stars could not simply be fixed or at rest, as their gravitational pulls cause "mutual attraction" and therefore cause them to move in relation to each other.

The term "Solar System" entered the English language by 1704, when John Locke used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets as a whole. By then it had been stablished beyond doubt that planets are other worlds, and stars are other distant suns, so the whole Solar System is actually only a small part of an immensely large universe, and definitively something distinct.

"Fixed stars" not fixed
Astronomers and natural philosophers before divided the lights in the sky into two groups. One group contained the fixed stars, which appear to rise and set but keep the same relative arrangement over time, and show no evident stellar parallax, which is a change in apparent position caused by the orbital motion of the Earth. The other group contained the naked eye planets, which they called wandering stars. (The Sun and Moon were sometimes called stars and planets as well.) The planets seem to move forward and back, changing their position over short periods of time (weeks or months). They always seem to move within the band of stars called the zodiac by Westerners. The planets can also be distinguished from fixed stars because stars tend to twinkle, while planets appear to shine with a steady light.

However, fixed stars show parallax. It can be used to find the distance to nearby stars. This motion is only apparent; it is the Earth that moves. This effect was small enough not to be accurately measured until the 19th century, but from about 1670 and onward, astronomers such as Jean Picard, Robert Hooke, John Flamsteed, and others began detecting motion from the stars and attempting measurements. These movements amounted to significant, if almost imperceptibly small, fractions. The first successful stellar parallax measurements were done by Thomas Henderson in Cape Town South Africa in 1832–1833, where he measured parallax of one of the closest stars ― alpha Centauri.

The fixed stars exhibit real motion as well, however. This motion may be viewed as having components that consist in part of motion of the galaxy to which the star belongs, in part of rotation of that galaxy, and in part of motion peculiar to the star itself within its galaxy. In the case of star systems or star clusters, the individual components even move with respect to each other in a non-linear manner.

Relative to the Solar System, this real motion of a star is divided into radial motion and proper motion, with "proper motion" being the component across the line of sight. In 1718 Edmund Halley announced his discovery that the fixed stars actually have proper motion. Proper motion was not noticed by ancient cultures because it requires precise measurements over long periods of time to notice. In fact, the night sky today looks very much as it did thousands of years ago, so much so that some modern constellations were first named by the Babylonians.

A typical method to determine proper motion is to measure the position of a star relative to a limited, selected set of very distant objects that exhibit no mutual movement, and that, because of their distance, are assumed to have very small proper motion. Another approach is to compare photographs of a star at different times against a large background of more distant objects. The star with the largest known proper motion is Barnard's Star.

Radial velocity of stars, and other deep-space objects, can be revealed spectroscopically thru the Doppler-Fizeau effect, by which the frequency of the received light decreases for objects that were receding (redshift) and increases for objects that were approaching (blueshift), when compared to the light emitted by a stationary object. William Huggins ventured in 1868 to estimate the radial velocity of Sirius with respect to the Sun, based on observed redshift of the star's light.

The phrase "fixed star" is technically incorrect, but nonetheless it is used in an historical context, and in classical mechanics. When used as a visual reference for observations, they usually are called background stars or simply distant stars, still retaining the intuitive meaning of they being "fixed" in some practical sense.

In classical mechanics
In Newton's time the fixed stars were invoked as a reference frame supposedly at rest relative to absolute space. In other reference frames either at rest with respect to the fixed stars or in uniform translation relative to these stars, Newton's laws of motion were supposed to hold. In contrast, in frames accelerating with respect to the fixed stars, in particular frames rotating relative to the fixed stars, the laws of motion did not hold in their simplest form, but had to be supplemented by the addition of fictitious forces, for example, the Coriolis force and the centrifugal force.

As we now know, the fixed stars are not fixed. The concept of inertial frames of reference is no longer tied to either the fixed stars or to absolute space. Rather, the identification of an inertial frame is based upon the simplicity of the laws of physics in the frame, in particular, the absence of fictitious forces.

Law of inertia holds for Galilean coordinate system which is a hypothetical system relative to which fixed stars remain fixed.

In relational mechanics

 * References for this section:

Fixed stars can be observed outside the view of classical mechanics and the view of relational mechanics. Relational quantum mechanics is a field theory that is a part of classical mechanics that dictates only the evolution of distances between particles and not their motion. The formation of this field theory gives solutions to the criticisms made by Leibniz and Mach of Newton's mechanics. As Newton relied on absolute space, relational mechanics does not. Describing fixed stars in terms of relational mechanics agrees with Newtonian mechanics.

The use of privileged frames (Newtonian Frame) allows for the observation of Keplerian orbits for the motion of the planets; however, the observation of individual evolutions does not hold value in relational mechanics. An individual evolution can be distorted by changing the frame to which the position and velocity of an individual evolution are considered not observable. The observables in relational mechanics are the distance between the particles and the angles of the straight lines that joins the particles. Relational equations deal with the evolution of observation variables because they are independent of frames and can calculate a given evolution of distances that individual evolutions can describe from different frames. This can only mean that gauge symmetry employs mechanics with the essential relational feature that Leibniz claimed.

Leibniz and Mach criticized the use of absolute space to validate Newtonian frames. Leibniz believed in the relation of the bodies as opposed to individual evolutions relative to metaphysically defined frames. Mach would criticize Newton's concept of absolute acceleration, stating that the shape of the water only proves the rotation with respect to the rest of the universe. Mach's criticism was later taken up by Einstein, stating "Mach's principle," the idea that inertia is determined by the interaction with the rest of the universe. Relational mechanics can be referred to as a Machian theory.

The reformation of mechanics in the 20th century was ripe with relational principles. The laws of mechanics combine potential and kinetic variables, which in this case, the potential is already relational because it contains distances between the particles. The Newtonian kinetic energy contained individual velocities that were attempted to be reformulated into relative velocities and the possibility of distances. However, these attempts led to many opposing concepts to inertia that were not supported, to which many agreed that the basic premise of Newtonian kinetic energy should be preserved.

The evolution of distances between particles does not require inertial frames to show themselves but instead uses them as coordinates for particles. The two different laws of mechanics are conceptually different. An example would be the isolation of a subsystem where Newton's law would describe its evolution in terms of absolute, initial, and final conditions. Relational mechanics would describe its evolution in terms of internal and external distances, so even if the system is "isolated," its evolution will always be described by the relation of the subsystem to the rest of the universe.

Literary references

 * Dante made the fixed stars the eighth of the ten heavens into which he divided his Paradiso.

title: Fixed stars


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User talk:Mark Millard

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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Dori | Talk 19:26, May 16, 2004 (UTC)

Macintosh
Hi. Please disambiguate "Macintosh" on your user page using Macintosh. Thanks. RedWolf 18:25, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

Done, thanks. Mark Millard 04:19, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mark Millard


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User:JulieADriver

I'm a 31 year-old woman born in Melrose, Massachusetts in the United States. In 2008, I immigrated to Canada. I'm a dual Canadian citizen and U.S. citizen.

Places I've lived in include: Wakefield, Massachusetts, Allenstown, New Hampshire, Saint Albans, Vermont, and Cornville, Arizona in the U.S., and Montreal, Quebec, Calgary, Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, and Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada. I currently live in Calgary.

I've studied computer technology, French, German, and psychology. I graduated with a diploma (known as an Associate's degree in the U.S.) in science in 2003 from Bunker Hill Community College in Boston, Massachusetts in Computer Technology, Visual Programming option. I have also studied French at the McGill University Centre for Continuing Education in Montreal, and French and psychology at Concordia University in Montreal, and I have also taken German courses at the Goethe-Institut in Montreal and at Mount Royal University in Calgary.

My work experience is currently divided into retail and office work. My retail experience was with Sears in the U.S., and Old Navy, The Home Depot, and Target Canada in Canada. I have since phased myself out of retail. My current occupation is office work, opting for temporary positions due to the flexibility it offers. All of my office experience has been in Canada, and with the exception of an assignment in Edmonton, all of my office experience has been in Calgary. Almost all of my office experience has been with an Alberta government health agency, although I have also had a short position with the Canadian federal government.

My goals for the future include a working holiday in Australia and a working holiday in New Zealand, as well as returning to school to pursue a more stable profession.

fr:Utilisateur:JulieADriver

title: User:JulieADriver


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Jeremy Taylor (singer)

Jeremy Taylor (born 24 November 1937 in Newbury, Berkshire) is a retired English folk singer and songwriter who has spent much of his life in South Africa, originally as a teacher of English at St. Martin's School, Rosettenville in southern Johannesburg. Since 1994, he has lived in Wales and France. After attending the University of Oxford, Taylor became a folk singer in South Africa, remembered for his single "Ag Pleez Deddy".

Much of his success came from songs that started in live performances, incorporating comedy. Taylor performed songs that questioned social problems in apartheid South Africa.

South Africa
Taylor began performing in clubs and coffee-bars such as the Cul de Sac in Hillbrow, Johannesburg in the 1960s, and succeeded with the comedic song "The Ballad of the Southern Suburbs" [of Johannesburg], also known as "Ag Pleez Deddy", in 1962. The song, written for the stage show Wait a Minim!, was a surprise hit. In performance in Chicago, he explained that while teaching South African children English, he was "enchanted" by their patois and their lust for American and European consumer products like Pepsi Cola, Canada Dry, Eskimo Pie, popcorn and chewing gum, and films like Tarzan.

Taylor mimicked their accent in the song, in which a child begs his father to take him to different places and buy these treats. It was frowned upon by parents and the government because the song mixed English and Afrikaans – a practice of which the Nationalist government disapproved, feeling all languages should be kept "pure". This was one reason Taylor was required to leave the country. This mixing of languages led to Taylor's songwriting being described as "doing for South African English what [David] Kramer was doing for Afrikaans".

However, it remained popular with children in South Africa, selling more than any Elvis Presley single in South Africa. Also in the early sixties he contributed to the successful musical revue Wait a Minim!, performing several of his own compositions. His archival material was donated to the Hidden Years Music Archive preserved by the Documentation Centre for Music, Stellenbosch University, in 2017.

Folk music
After returning to Britain in 1964 to perform in Wait a Minim! in the West End, he joined the British folk music circuit and appeared on television. Later in the 1960s, he taught at Eton College while a political exile.

Taylor had his own series of six folk-style shows entitled "Jeremy Taylor", supported by the house band Telephone Bill and the Smooth Operators, broadcast between 15 May and 19 June 1980 from the BBC Television Theatre, London. The guests included Barbara Dickson, Alan Price, Spike Milligan, Kenny Baker, Pam Ayres, Peter Skellern and Isla St Clair. After befriending folk-rock singer-songwriter Cat Stevens, and his friend and guitarist, Alun Davies, Taylor helped Stevens translate one of his songs, "O Caritas", into Latin for an album, Catch Bull at Four. One of Taylor's albums was produced by Davies. Davies guested on a couple of the songs, but was uncomfortable with playing two roles on another person's album, saying to Melody Maker, "You can't put yourself in two places at once and get the best results."

Popular work
Some of Taylor's popular songs are: "Jobsworth", "Huberta, the hippopotamus", "The Pot Song", "Mrs Harris" and "Prawns in the Game". His "Piece of Ground" was recorded in the United States by Miriam Makeba. However, his albums never reached most of the American music audience.

He was a long-term collaborator and performer with Spike Milligan, and recorded a live album with him entitled Spike Milligan and Jeremy Taylor: An Adult Entertainment. This was recorded at Cambridge University on 2 December 1973 and released as a double LP entitled Spike Milligan with Jeremy Taylor Live at Cambridge University. It was later re-issued as a two-CD set.

He continued to write songs and perform into the 21st century, in the United Kingdom, France and in the United States. In 2005 he recorded an album in Chicago, Live in Chicago.

Discography

 * Ag, Pleez Daddy (Ballad of the Southern Suburbs) (1962)
 * Always something new out of Africa (1966) with Andrew Tracey and Paul Tracey
 * His Songs (1968)
 * More of His Songs (1970)
 * Piece of Ground (1972)
 * Jobsworth (1973)
 * Done at a Flash – Recorded Live at the Cherry Trees Motel, Alcester (1978) with Alun Davies
 * Come to Blackpool (1974(?))
 * The Very Best of Jeremy Taylor (1996); Reissue in (2004)
 * Live in Chicago (2005)
 * Spike Milligan and Jeremy Taylor: An Adult Entertainment

Publications

 * (Now out of print)

title: Jeremy Taylor (singer)


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User talk:BarrySmethwick

G'day Barry

Welcome to Wikipedia!

I hope you like it here and stick around. If you want, you can drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself. Before you start doing a lot of editing, I strongly suggest you take the Tutorial. It gives all the basic info you'll need as you start contributing.

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If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Help desk. Or if I can help in any way, feel free to drop me a line on my talk page. Andrewa 19:26, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:BarrySmethwick