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Mount Garibaldi

Mount Garibaldi (known as Nch'ḵay̓,, to the indigenous Squamish people) is a dormant stratovolcano in the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It has a maximum elevation of 2678 m and rises above the surrounding landscape on the east side of the Cheakamus River in New Westminster Land District. In addition to the main peak, Mount Garibaldi has two named sub-peaks. Atwell Peak is a sharp, conical peak slightly higher than the more rounded peak of Dalton Dome. Both were volcanically active at different times throughout Mount Garibaldi's eruptive history. The northern and eastern flanks of Mount Garibaldi are obscured by the Garibaldi Névé, a large snowfield containing several radiating glaciers. Flowing from the steep western face of Mount Garibaldi is the Cheekye River, a tributary of the Cheakamus River. Opal Cone on the southeastern flank is a small volcanic cone from which a lengthy lava flow descends. The western face is a landslide feature that formed in a series of collapses between 12,800 and 11,500 years ago. These collapses resulted in the formation of a large debris flow deposit that fans out into the Squamish Valley.

Mount Garibaldi has been the focus of intermittent volcanic activity over the last 260,000 years. This activity produced mostly dacite, the main type of volcanic rock forming Mount Garibaldi. Volcanism between 260,000 and 220,000 years ago constructed an ancestral cone that was subsequently destroyed. Another growth period began with the eruption of Atwell Peak about 13,000 years ago when Mount Garibaldi was surrounded by an ice sheet during the last glacial period. The latest period of volcanic activity took place about 10,000 years ago with eruptions from Dalton Dome and Opal Cone after the ice sheet retreated. Although the mountain is not known to have been volcanically active since that time, it could erupt again, which could endanger the nearby populace. If this were to happen, relief efforts could be organized by teams such as the Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan who are prepared to notify people threatened by volcanic eruptions in Canada.

The area surrounding Mount Garibaldi has been inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. Their oral history includes a story of the mountain and a great flood. The non-indigenous name of the mountain was given by George Henry Richards in 1860 in honour of the Italian patriot and soldier Giuseppe Garibaldi. Several mountaineers had climbed Mount Garibaldi by the early 1900s, some of whom were members of mountaineering clubs. A plane operated by Pacific Western Airlines crashed on the slopes of Mount Garibaldi in 1953; all five people aboard were killed. The construction of a ski resort was begun in the late 1960s, but developments were halted in 1969 due to financial difficulties. Several climbing routes ascend the flanks of Mount Garibaldi and involve traversing glaciers, snow slopes or loose rock. Mountain climbing hazards include crevasses, avalanches and rockfalls. Access to Mount Garibaldi is via hiking trails from Alice Ridge, Brohm Ridge, and the Diamond Head parking lot at the end of Garibaldi Park Road.

Background
Mount Garibaldi is located on the east side of the Cheakamus River between Squamish and Whistler in New Westminster Land District. It lies within the Pacific Ranges Ecoregion, a mountainous region of the southern Coast Mountains characterized by high, steep and rugged mountains made of granitic rocks. Much of this ecoregion encompasses the Pacific Ranges in southwestern British Columbia, although it also includes the northwesternmost portion of the Cascade Range in Washington state. Several coastal islands, channels and fjords occur along the western margin of the Pacific Ranges Ecoregion. The Pacific Ranges Ecoregion is part of the Coast and Mountains Ecoprovince which forms part of the Humid Maritime and Highlands Ecodivision.

The Pacific Ranges Ecoregion is subdivided into seven ecosections, the Eastern Pacific Ranges Ecosection being the main ecosection at Mount Garibaldi. This ecosection is characterized by a rugged landscape of mountains that increase in elevation from south to north; the northern summits contain large icefields. A transitional climate between coastal maritime and interior continental climates dominates the Eastern Pacific Ranges Ecosection. It is characterized by little precipitation and mild temperatures due to air from the Pacific Ocean often passing over this area. During winter, cold Arctic air invades from the Central Interior, resulting in extreme cloud cover and snow. A number of other volcanoes are situated within the Eastern Pacific Ranges Ecosection. This includes Mount Cayley, which lies in the Squamish River watershed, and Mount Meager, which lies near the headwaters of the Lillooet River.

Several rivers flow through the Eastern Pacific Ranges Ecosection, including the Fraser and Coquihalla rivers on its eastern side, the Cheakamus, Squamish and Elaho rivers on its western side and the Lillooet River lying in the middle. Coastal western hemlock forests dominate nearly all the valleys and lower slopes of this ecosection, the upper slopes containing subalpine mountain hemlock forests and, to a lesser extent, Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir forests. Alpine vegetation lies just above the subalpine forests, which is normally overlain by barren rock. Wildlife such as grey jays, chipmunks, squirrels, flickers, Columbian black tailed deer, mountain goats, wolverines, cougars and grizzly and black bears are locally present. The communities of Whistler, Pemberton, Mount Currie, Hope and Yale are situated within the Eastern Pacific Ranges Ecosection, all of which are connected to the Lower Mainland by a network of highways.

Subfeatures
The northern and eastern flanks of Mount Garibaldi are covered by the Garibaldi Névé, the main glacial feature at the volcano. Several individually named outlet glaciers drain the Garibaldi Névé. These include Garibaldi Glacier northwest of Opal Cone, North Pitt Glacier on the northeastern face of Mount Garibaldi, South Pitt Glacier southeast of Glacier Pikes, Lava Glacier west of Mamquam Lake, Sentinel Glacier southeast of Garibaldi Lake, Warren Glacier at the headwaters of Culiton Creek, Bishop Glacier south of the head of the Pitt River, Phoenix Glacier south of Deception Peak and Pike Glacier east of Glacier Pikes. The Garibaldi and Lava glaciers issue from the south side of the Garibaldi Névé, sending their muddy waters to the Mamquam River. Immediately to the north of Mount Garibaldi and directly below its northern face, the Warren Glacier flows towards the Cheakamus River. The Garibaldi Névé and its outlet glaciers have a combined area of about 30 km2. Other glaciers on Mount Garibaldi include Cheekye Glacier south of the summit and Diamond Glacier between Atwell Peak and Diamond Head. Although the glaciers at times have seen surges reaching further down slope, a 2009 study published in the Global and Planetary Change journal found that they overall have been progressively retreating since the early 1900s. A study conducted by the University of British Columbia in 2015 determined that 70% of all the glacial ice in Canada would be melted away by the year 2100. However, observations of the nearby Helm Glacier and other glaciers throughout Canada in 2022 suggest that the 2015 estimate may be an underestimation.

Mount Garibaldi contains a number of individually named peaks. Atwell Peak is a conical plug dome 2620 m in elevation. It is named after Atwell Duncan Francis Joseph King, an ardent mountaineer who led the first ascent of Mount Garibaldi in 1907. Atwell Peak contains sharp and exposed ridges, as well as steep and loose faces that are prone to avalanching. Dalton Dome is a 2633 m blunt summit named after Arthur Tinniswood Dalton. Dalton was a Vancouver architect, city assessor and mountaineer who took part in the first ascent of Mount Garibaldi. The eastern side of Mount Garibaldi contains a peak known as The Tent. Opal Cone on the southeastern flank of Mount Garibaldi is a 1740 m parasitic cone near the south side of Garibaldi Glacier. A spur known as The Sharkin separates the Warren and North Pitt glaciers on the northeast side of Mount Garibaldi. Diamond Head is a subsidiary peak on the south side of Mount Garibaldi named for its resemblance to Diamond Head in Hawaii.

Mount Garibaldi lies within the Squamish River watershed. Its steep western face is the source of the Cheekye River which drains a small but steep catchment on its western flank that covers an area of 60 km2. The Cheekye River flows west into the Cheakamus River which flows south and southwest into the Squamish River. Cheekye is a Squamish name meaning "strong rushing water". Ring Creek originates from the Bishop and Diamond glaciers on Mount Garibaldi. It flows west and southwest into the Mamquam River which flows west and south into the mouth of the Squamish River. Zig Zag Creek drains Lava Glacier and flows southeast into Skookum Creek. The Pitt River also originates at Mount Garibaldi and flows southwest from the North Pitt and South Pitt glaciers into the Fraser River.

Geology
Mount Garibaldi is one of the three principal volcanoes in the southern segment of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, the other two being Mount Price and The Black Tusk. It represents the largest volcano in the combined Mount Garibaldi–Garibaldi Lake volcanic field, which encompasses 26 km3 of volcanic material. This volcanic field consists of at least twelve eruptive centres that are in the form of stratovolcanoes, lava domes, cinder cones and subglacial volcanoes. These include Mount Price, The Black Tusk, The Table, Cinder Cone and Round Mountain, all of which formed in the last 1.3 million years. The Mount Garibaldi–Garibaldi Lake volcanic field is normally separated into the Mount Garibaldi and Garibaldi Lake volcanic fields on the basis of differing magmatic chemistry. The Mount Garibaldi lavas are hypersthene-normative hawaiites and nepheline-normative mugearite with subordinate olivine tholeiites whereas the Garibaldi Lake lavas are calc-alkaline basaltic andesites through rhyolite.

Like other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, Mount Garibaldi formed as a result of subduction zone volcanism. As the Juan de Fuca Plate thrusts under the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone, it forms volcanoes and volcanic eruptions. Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench along the continental margin of Cascadia. There is also very little seismic evidence that the Juan de Fuca Plate is actively subducting. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates currently converge at a rate of 3 to 4 cm per year, only about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago. This slowed convergence likely accounts for reduced seismicity and the lack of an oceanic trench. The best evidence for ongoing subduction is the existence of active volcanism in the Cascade Volcanic Arc.

Structure
Mount Garibaldi is a moderately eroded stratovolcano overlooking the town of Squamish at the head of Howe Sound north of Vancouver. It is one of the three Cascade Arc volcanoes made exclusively of dacite, the other two being Glacier Peak and Mount Cayley. Rhyodacite is also a common volcanic rock at Mount Garibaldi and Mount Cayley, although high-silica rhyolite is uniquely present at Mount Garibaldi. Subordinate andesite erupted at all three volcanoes relatively early in their histories. At Mount Garibaldi, the total volume of volcanic rocks amount to 16 to 20 km3 and represent many episodes of activity spanning from about 670,000 years ago to the Holocene. Andesite-dacite lavas and their pyroclastic accompaniments from several vents initially filled paleovalleys glacially incised into the Coast Plutonic Complex basement. Several dacitic domes and derivative pyroclastic material then built the main volcanic edifice starting about 260,000 years ago. Much of the volcano was rebuilt in the last 50,000 years by a series of violent eruptions similar in character to the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée. The modern 6.5 km3 volcanic edifice is a supraglacial volcano, having been partially constructed over glacial ice during the Pleistocene epoch.

Like many other stratovolcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, Mount Garibaldi stands out by itself above the surrounding landscape. This is in contrast to most other volcanoes in the Coast Mountains, which are hidden within higher subranges. The mountain has a proximal relief of 1300 m, a draping relief of 2375 m, an elevation of 2678 m and a height of 700 m. With a length of 3 km and a width of 5 km, Mount Garibaldi is one of the larger volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. The western side of the mountain contains a 600 m scarp exposing its internal structure. This scarp formed as a result of collapse of the western flank which produced a debris flow deposit in the Squamish Valley called the Cheekye Fan. At the time of its formation, the Cheekye Fan extended across Howe Sound, resulting in the impoundment of a freshwater lake upstream of the fan. The Squamish River subsequently built a delta into this lake during the Holocene. It then filled in the lake with sediment over the last 3,300 years to create the Squamish River floodplain.

Mount Garibaldi is bounded by Brohm Ridge on the northwest and by Alice Ridge on the southwest. Extending from the southern flank of Mount Garibaldi is the unusually long Ring Creek lava flow. It is dacitic in composition, attains a length of approximately 15 km and contains well-defined levees along its margins. The emplacement of the Ring Creek lava flow altered drainage patterns along a valley bottom downstream, causing Skookum Creek and the Mamquam River to follow the southern margin of the lava flow and Ring Creek to follow along the northern margin. Sediments eroded from the Ring Creek lava flow form an alluvial fan at the Mamquam River and Skookum Creek confluence. The western slopes of Mount Garibaldi are underlain by sheared and altered quartz diorite, which has undergone stream and glacial erosion to form rugged topography with relief up to 1800 m.

Volcanic history
At least three stages of eruptive activity contributed to the formation of Mount Garibaldi. The initial Cheekye stage took place between 260,000 and 220,000 years ago with the eruption of dacite and breccia, resulting in the formation of a broad composite cone. Parts of this "proto-Garibaldi" or ancestral volcano are exposed on Mount Garibaldi's lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper 240 m of Brohm Ridge. Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located, several coalescing dacitic domes were constructed. Dacite from the western end of Alice Ridge, from Columnar Peak and from Mount Garibaldi have K–Ar ages of 260,000 ± 160,000 years, 220,000 ± 220,000 years and 260,000 ± 130,000 years, respectively. During the ensuing long period of dormancy, the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone's western flank which was later filled with the Fraser ice sheet.

After reaching its maximum extent, the Fraser ice sheet was covered with volcanic ash and fragmented debris from the Atwell Peak stage. This period of growth began about 13,000 years ago with the eruption of the Atwell Peak plug dome from a ridge surrounded by the ice sheet. As the plug dome rose, massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides. Several pyroclastic flows generated by Peléan eruptions accompanied these cooler avalanches, forming a fragmental cone with an overall slope of 12–15 degrees; erosion has since steepened this slope. Some of the glacial ice was melted by the eruptions, forming a small lake against Brohm Ridge's southern arm. The volcanic sandstones seen today atop Brohm Ridge were created by ash settling in this lake.

Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south. Subsequent melting of the ice sheet and its component glaciers removed support from the western flank of Mount Garibaldi, resulting in a series of landslides between 12,800 and 11,500 years ago that moved nearly half of the volcano's volume into the Squamish Valley. This catastrophic collapse produced the 25 km2 Cheekye Fan and the scarp exposing the internal structure of Mount Garibaldi. Soon before or after the buried ice had melted away, the Dalton Dome stage commenced with the eruption of dacite lava down Mount Garibaldi's north and northeastern flanks. Another dacite flow issued from Dalton Dome shortly after the ice sheet had receded, having travelled down the landslide scarp on Mount Garibaldi's western flank. Possibly contemporaneous volcanism occurred at Opal Cone with the eruption of the voluminous Ring Creek lava flow between 10,700 and 9,300 years ago. This represents the latest known eruptive event at Mount Garibaldi and the volcano is now considered to be dormant.

At least two debris flows in the order of 100000 m3 occurred at Mount Garibaldi in the 1930s and 1950s, both of which swept down the Cheekye River. The 1950s debris flow was caused by heavy rains and reached the Cheakamus River where it formed a 5 m temporary landslide dam. This is the latest debris flow to reach the Cheakamus River from the Cheekye basin. In contrast to Mount Cayley and Mount Meager, no hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area. However, there is evidence of anomalously high heat flow in Table Meadows and elsewhere. At least three seismic events have occurred at Mount Garibaldi since 1985, indicating that the volcano is potentially active and poses a significant hazard to the area.

Volcanic hazards
Mount Garibaldi is one of two volcanoes in Canada classified as a very high threat by Natural Resources Canada, the other volcano being Mount Meager 95 km to the northwest. Although Plinian eruptions have not been identified at Mount Garibaldi, Peléan eruptions can also produce large amounts of volcanic ash that could significantly affect the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish. Peléan eruptions might cause short and long term water supply problems for the city of Vancouver and most of the Lower Mainland. The catchment area for the Greater Vancouver watershed is downwind from Mount Garibaldi. An eruption producing floods and lahars could destroy parts of Highway 99, threaten communities such as Brackendale and endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake. Fisheries on the Pitt River would also be at risk. Mount Garibaldi is also close to a major air traffic route; volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure, as well as damage to other aircraft systems. These volcanic hazards become more serious as the Lower Mainland grows in population.

At the head of the Cheekye River are several fractures and linear scarps that face up-slope. These features, referred to as the Cheekye linears, occur in pyroclastic rocks and interbedded andesitic and dacitic flows on the slopes of Brohm and Alice ridges. They may have formed as a result of sliding of this volcanic sequence along its contact with the underlying basement rocks. As a result, the Cheekye linears pose potential landslide hazards to Brackendale and several Squamish Nation villages nearby. The danger of catastrophic landslides from Mount Garibaldi has restricted development on the Cheekye Fan. In 2018, a major development on the Cheekye Fan was approved by Squamish council. The project included 537 single-family units, 678 multi-unit dwellings and a $45 million debris flow barrier to prevent a large landslide from reaching the Cheekye Fan.

Because dacite is the main type of lava erupted from Mount Garibaldi, lava flows are a low to moderate hazard. Dacite is felsic in composition, containing 62–69% silica content. This high percentage in silica content increases the viscosity of dacitic melts relative to that of andesite or basalt, generally resulting in the formation of steep-sided lava domes and stubby lava flows. An exception is the 15 km Ring Creek dacite flow from Opal Cone, a length that is normally attained by basaltic lava flows.

Monitoring
Like other volcanoes in Canada, Mount Garibaldi is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain its activity level. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide an accurate indication of activity under the mountain. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if Mount Garibaldi becomes highly restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption; the system might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting. If Mount Garibaldi were to erupt, mechanisms exist to orchestrate relief efforts. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would respond to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that would affect Canada.

Indigenous peoples
To the Squamish people, the local indigenous people of this area, Mount Garibaldi is called Nch'ḵay̓. In their language it means "Dirty Place", referring to the muddy waters of the Cheekye River. Mount Garibaldi is considered sacred to the Squamish people as it is an important part of their history. In their oral history, they passed down a story of the great flood that covered their land after the last ice age. During the flood, Mount Garibaldi was only one of two mountains that peaked over the water. The Squamish people headed for Mount Garibaldi and latched their canoes to the mountain with a rope made from woven cedar bark in order to prevent being swept away. As the flood waters started to recede, a large lake was formed and the Squamish people returned to their home site in Squamish.

Mount Garibaldi is the largest volcano in Squamish Nation territory. An obsidian outcrop on the southeastern flank of Mount Garibaldi is said by the Squamish people to have been created by the thunderbird, a legendary creature in some North American indigenous peoples' history and culture. During battles, the thunderbird helped the Squamish people fight against evil by shooting lightning from its eyes and creating powerful winds and thunder with its wings. The obsidian outcrop is where lightning from the thunderbird's eyes struck ground. Garibaldi obsidian was used to create tools due to its ability to form sharp edges, but its quality is poor compared to other obsidian sources in British Columbia. Pieces of Garibaldi obsidian are distributed in the Strait of Georgia where they occur in archaeological sites as early as 4,500 years old.

Later history
Mount Garibaldi was witnessed by George Henry Richards in 1860 while surveying Howe Sound on board the Royal Navy ship HMS Plumper. Richards named the mountain that year after Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian patriot and soldier who in 1860 had succeeded in unifying Italy by patriating Sicily and Naples. The first ascent of Mount Garibaldi was made by Vancouver mountaineers Gordon B. Warren, Arthur Tinniswood Dalton, Tom C. Pattison, William Tinniswood Dalton, James John Trorey and Atwell Duncan King on August 11, 1907. This mountaineering party had recognized the volcanic origin of the mountain. Another party led by A. T. Dalton ascended the main peak and dome of Mount Garibaldi by a new and better route in 1908. This was followed by an ascent to the summit in 1910 by members of the Alpine Club of Canada and a local mountaineering club. Party members included A. Morkill, B. S. Darling, A. Cawdry, W. G. Barker, A. J. Armistead and Mr. Wedgwood. A party consisting of 13 members of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club ascended Mount Garibaldi from the southeast face on August 13, 1911. The first women to attain the summit of Mount Garibaldi were Vancouver climbers Pansy Munday and L. C. Hanafin on July 16, 1913. They ascended the west face of Mount Garibaldi by approaching from the southwest, which involved traversing along the Mamquam River and then climbing Round Mountain and The Gargoyles. Hanafin and Munday also climbed neighbouring Mamquam Mountain during the same expedition.

The first United States party to climb Mount Garibaldi consisted of 13 members of The Mountaineers in August 1923. It included Norman Huber of Saint Paul, Minnesota; Paul Hugdahl, Paul Gooding and C. A. Fisher of Bellingham, Washington; C. A. Garner, Amos Hard and A. H. Denman of Tacoma, Washington; Edmond S. Meany, George Hise, Lars Loveseth, Ben F. Mooers, Joseph T. Hazard and Fred Fenton of Seattle, Washington. The leader of the climbing party, Joseph T. Hazard, stated that "while a little less than 9,000 feet high, Mount Garibaldi is much more difficult of ascent than any of the major peaks of Washington". In 1927, Mount Garibaldi was incorporated into the newly formed, 195000 ha Garibaldi Provincial Park. This mountainous Class A provincial park was named after Mount Garibaldi and contains a number of other volcanoes, including Mount Price, Cinder Cone, The Black Tusk and The Table. Despite being the namesake of Garibaldi Provincial Park, Mount Garibaldi is not its highest mountain.

On October 19, 1953, a plane operated by Pacific Western Airlines crashed on the slopes of Mount Garibaldi, killing all five people aboard. The plane was on a mercy flight from Gunn Lake to Vancouver at the time of the accident. Passengers involved in the crash were Lawrence Hamilton of the Pioneer mines, Ernest Maple of Gold Bridge, nurse Lucille Warden, pilot Bob Drinkwater and stretcher passenger Joseph Neumeyer, the latter being an injured miner who was being rushed to a hospital in Vancouver. The smashed plane and deceased passengers were found by a ground search party on October 20. This was followed by removal of the passengers from the wreckage on October 21. Post-accident investigation could not determine the cause of the crash.

Vancouver teachers Christopher Clifford Harris, 33, and Margo Anne Fowler, 26, got married on the summit of Mount Garibaldi on April 14, 1973, to express their passion for mountain climbing. The couple managed to get to the nearly inaccessible, 12 x summit by helicopter. They wore traditional mountaineering garb for their wedding. According to Harris, "You can see snow and mountain tops forever. Even Mount Baker, and that's 100 miles away."

Ski resort development
A multi-million dollar ski resort, Mount Garibaldi Glacier Resorts, was to be built on Brohm Ridge in the late 1960s. It was designed by West Vancouver resident Adi Bauer in 1954 to feature a luxury lodge, three Swiss-style chalets and the world's longest gondola lift. Access to the ski resort was to be by helicopter or snowshoes in winter, although a rough road winding up the ridge to the ski resort lodge was to provide four-wheel drive access in summer. The ski resort was to open in the winter of 1970, but financial difficulties in 1969 halted all developments. In January 1970, the three Swiss-style chalets remained unfinished, the gondola lift consisted only of towers with no lift cables, and the gondola cars were stored in another building at the foot of Mount Garibaldi.

In 1978, the Government of British Columbia invited California-based developer Wolfgang Richter to salvage the failed Mount Garibaldi Glacier Resorts project. Richter's plans were postponed by the early 1980s recession and his proposal was denied by the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks in 1991, saying it "did not make economic sense". The ski resort proposed by Richter would have operated as a day-use area and would have featured an almost 1000 m vertical drop. Such a drop would have been greater than those of the Cypress, Manning and Mount Seymour provincial park ski resorts, but still 600 m shorter than the one in Whistler Blackcomb. A total of 15,000 skiers would have been spread across 400 ha of skiable terrain per day. Accommodation would have been provided by a mid-mountain village and an upper village at elevations of 1100 and 1300 m, respectively.

Recreation facilities
Overlooking the Tantalus Range is the Brohm Ridge Chalet, a three-story European-style lodge built in the 1960s as part of the attempted ski resort development. It is now operated by the Black Tusk Snowmobile Club, a non-profit organization founded in 1971 in the community of Squamish. The Brohm Ridge Chalet sleeps a total of 40 people whilst the nearby Black Tusk Snowmobile Clubhouse sleeps a further 14.

A BC Parks shelter at the Elfin Lakes offers overnight stays and can sleep up to 33 people. It is equipped with a propane heater, a wash sink, pit toilet facilities, propane lights, two propane hot plates and four picnic tables. The Elfin Lakes Campground offers a day-use shelter, hang storage facilities, pit toilet facilities, two outdoor picnic tables, four indoor picnic tables and 35 tent platforms.

The Rampart Ponds Campground, located 10 km northeast of the Elfin Lakes shelter, offers food storage facilities, pit toilet facilities and 12 tent platforms.

Accessibility
Mamquam Road, 4 km north of downtown Squamish, provides access to Mount Garibaldi from Highway 99. This easterly paved road traverses the Squamish Golf and Country Club and then heads north through Quest University. Mamquam Road then extends northeast and becomes Garibaldi Park Road. At the end of Garibaldi Park Road is the Diamond Head parking lot, which lies 16 km from Highway 99 at an elevation of 914 m. The 11 km Diamond Head hiking trail commences from the parking lot to the Elfin Lakes where Opal Cone, Columnar Peak, The Gargoyles and Mamquam Icefield can be viewed. A 6.5 km hiking trail extending from the Elfin Lakes leads down to Ring Creek then climbs Opal Cone where Mamquam Lake and the Garibaldi Névé can be viewed from its summit. The route to the Garibaldi Névé on Mount Garibaldi's eastern flank is marked by cairns.

An alternative approach to Mount Garibaldi is via Alice Ridge, which can be accessed from Highway 99 to Alice Lake Provincial Park where jeep roads switchback up onto the ridge. The saddle dividing Diamond Head and The Gargoyles is then traversed northeasterly on a trail to the Garibaldi Névé. It is also possible to access Mount Garibaldi from Brohm Ridge. An unmarked road just before Brohm Lake and north of the Alice Lake Provincial Park turnoff extends southward from Highway 99 towards Cat Lake. About 5 km down the road is a gate that is locked at 5 p.m. on Friday evenings and not reopened until Sunday evenings. After the gate has been passed, the road heads eastward and switchbacks up the southwestern slope of Brohm Ridge. It then passes the abandoned ski area on top of the ridge before terminating. From the road's end, Brohm Ridge is hiked to the Garibaldi Névé.

Climbing and skiing
Mountain climbing on Mount Garibaldi is done in winter when the loose volcanic rocks comprising the mountain are frozen in place by snow and ice. Most climbing routes are confined to the glaciers and snow slopes, which are abundant in winter and spring. They require climbers to possess some level of climbing skill; their grades and classes range from II-to-V and 2-to-5 on the Yosemite Decimal System, respectively. Ski camping on the Garibaldi Névé is common in winter, but high winds are not unusual. Therefore, most winter skiers and climbers wisely protect campsites by digging into the snow or constructing snow walls or igloos for shelter.

The Garibaldi Névé is a common ski destination, particularly in spring, and provides open access to many of the climbing routes. In later season, skiing across the névé is possible, but not much easier than walking. Skis are rarely used by June or July when most ascents are made. The glaciers and snow slopes of Mount Garibaldi become boggy and then normally melt away after June or July in most years. In contrast, the Garibaldi Névé provides open access to several climbing routes until late summer.

Dangers and accidents
Bergschrunds and other crevasses can pose difficulty and danger in late spring or summer when snow and ice has melted away. Rockfalls and loose rock are ever-present hazards at this time of the year; rocks regularly rumble down Mount Garibaldi's flanks without apparent provocation. For this reason, early-season, cold-weather snow ascents are recommended for most routes up Mount Garibaldi. However, at least some of these routes can have high avalanche danger in winter and spring, making rockfalls and avalanches ever-present hazards throughout the year.

In April 1950, Vancouver photographer Otto E. Landauer fractured a leg when a ski broke while skiing on Mount Garibaldi. It was Landauer's first accident as an expert skier, having occurred as the 46-year-old neared Diamond Head Lodge. Landauer was brought down Mount Garibaldi by a party of 25 holidayers at Diamond Head Lodge and then transferred to a light truck which took him to Squamish via logging road. The 46-hour rescue operation ended on April 11 when a speedboat waiting at Squamish brought Landauer to St. Paul's Hospital in Vancouver.

Frank de Bruyn, a 16-year-old mountain climber from Vancouver, was killed by a small avalanche near the snow-covered summit of Mount Garibaldi on July 19, 1961. De Bruyn was one of three youths climbing Mount Garibaldi, the other two being 18-year-olds James Hebden and James Fowler. Hebden got caught in the edge of the avalanche and was sent to the Squamish General Hospital after sustaining a lung injury. Fowler escaped injury, but underwent shock treatment the next day after stumbling down the mountainside with word of the accident.

Vancouver mountaineers Lloyd Williams, 26, Heinz Rostek, 22, and Don Hoover, 22, were trapped on Mount Garibaldi for four days in April 1963. The trio left the Diamond Head chalet on April 11 for a 19 km skiing trip around Mount Garibaldi to Garibaldi Lake where they were to meet another group of skiers on April 14. They became trapped by a blizzard on the 2300 m level of Mount Garibaldi on April 13 where the three men set up a camp. The trio remained at the camp until April 17 when the weather cleared. Fresh ski marks left by the three mountaineers were spotted that morning by ground searchers and a Royal Canadian Air Force helicopter found the trio at noon.

Garibaldi Peak routes
The normal route up Mount Garibaldi is the East Face Route (grade II and class 3–4). It is normally approached via Garibaldi Névé or Elfin Lakes, although it can also be approached via Alice Ridge. This route crosses the Garibaldi Névé and ascends toward the Garibaldi–Atwell saddle west of The Tent where crevasses in the icefall can sometimes make traversing difficult. There is also the danger of avalanches during ripe snow conditions. A more common and less crevassed approach is via Diamond Glacier to a saddle in the moraine ridge at the foot of Atwell Peak's southeast buttress. Once the saddle has been climbed by ascending a final steep slope, the rocky summit of Mount Garibaldi is reached by proceeding up Cheekye Glacier.

The Northeast Face Route (grade II and class 3–4) is a straightforward glacier ascent crossing the Warren Glacier. It ascends moderate snow and glacier slopes of the northeast face then approaches the headwall where a bergschrund is crossed with potential difficulty. Broken rock or snow is then ascended to the summit. This route is often traversed on skis by parties travelling over the Garibaldi Névé. The area below the summit pinnacle is exposed to rockfall and is moderately prone to avalanching.

Atwell Peak routes
Two considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous routes run up the northwest face of Atwell Peak. The first route, referred to as the Armenian Express (grade V and class 4–5), involves climbing the major couloir on the far right of the northwest face. This couloir is ascended until loose rock forces a traverse onto the south ridge just below the summit. The second route is the Siberian Express (grade V and class 4–5) and ascends the huge central couloir just north of the summit of Atwell Peak. It leads directly to the summit ridge over moderately sloping snow and ice with a very steep finish. Both the Armenian and Siberian expresses are exposed to rockfall and have high avalanche danger. For this reason, these routes are mainly climbed in winter when they are well-frozen and contain stable snow.

The normal route up Atwell Peak is the North Ridge Route (grade III and class 4–5). It is a straightforward ascent up the short, exposed and shattered ridge to Atwell's summit from the Garibaldi–Atwell saddle, which can be reached via the East Face Route. The north ridge is alpine in character, featuring steep slopes and very loose rock. Ascents are commonly made in winter when hazards such as avalanches and snow cornices exist all along the ridge.

The South Arête Route (grade IV and class 4–5) is a technical climbing route ascending a highly exposed arête that divides the southeast and southwest faces of Atwell Peak. It leads directly to Atwell's summit, climbing steep terrain throughout its entirety. The route is generally ascended during winter when in optimal condition. Hazards include snow cornices as well as unprotected climbing on loose rock and rime ice.

The Southeast Face Routes (grade II and class 3–4) are approached via Alice Ridge or Elfin Lakes to Diamond Glacier. They ascend couloirs in steep shattered rock, one of which offers a direct climb to a point immediately south of Atwell's summit. The routes offer a straightforward snow and ice climb in winter when the couloirs are covered with stable snow and iced over with rocks frozen in place. Hazards include snow cornices lining the summit ridge in winter, as well as avalanches and rockfalls in less than optimal conditions.

Dalton Dome routes
At least three routes run up Mount Garibaldi to Dalton Dome, none of which are commonly climbed due to extremely poor quality rock. The most direct independent summit route to Dalton Dome is the Northwest Shoulder Route (grade II and class 4), which is approached via Brohm Ridge to the base of Mount Garibaldi's northwest shoulder. It involves climbing snow or loose rock up the shoulder to the summit ridge.

The Southwest Ridge Route (grade III and class 3–4) is mainly climbed in winter when conditions are favorable. It is approached via a snow or scree traverse from Brohm Ridge below the west face of Mount Garibaldi where the southwest ridge is ascended to the summit.

Ascending the Warren Glacier headwall on the far right side is the North Face Route (grade III and class 4–5). It climbs steep snow and remarkably unstable rock to a small escarpment that gains the northwest shoulder, which then leads to Dalton Dome's summit.

title: Mount Garibaldi


text:
Copenhagen Business School

Copenhagen Business School (Danish: Handelshøjskolen i København) often abbreviated and referred to as CBS (also in Danish), is a public university situated in Copenhagen, Denmark and is considered one of the most prestigious business schools in Western Europe and the world.

CBS was established in 1917 by the Danish Society for the Advancement of Business Education and Research (FUHU); however, it was not until 1920 that accounting became the first full study programme at CBS. Today CBS has approximately 20,000 students and 2,000 employees, and offers a wide range of undergraduate and graduate programmes within business, typically with an interdisciplinary and international focus. CBS is accredited by EQUIS (European Quality Improvement System), AMBA (Association of MBAs), as well as AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business), thus making it one of the few schools worldwide to hold the "triple-crown" accreditation, and along with Aarhus BSS, the only two in Denmark.

The CBS campus is located in Frederiksberg, close to the center of Copenhagen, and centers on the school's main campus of Solbjerg Plads, completed in 2000. Since the Danish Universities Act of 2003, CBS has had a board of directors with an external majority. The Board of Directors appoints the President of CBS, who is currently Nikolaj Malchow-Møller. Most of the programs are taught in English, and more than half of the faculty is recruited from abroad, making CBS an international academic environment.

History
CBS was established in 1917 by the Danish Society for the Advancement of Business Education (now known as FUHU), which is a private educational institution. In 1965 the business school became integrated into the Danish educational system as an institution of higher education. Today, it is regulated by the Danish Universities Act of 2003.

Programme structure
CBS offers a comprehensive range of university degrees in economics and business administration. Other programmes combine business studies with social sciences and the humanities, offering education in the fields of IT, philosophy, politics, language, sociology, communication and others.

The selection of full-time programmes complies with the three levels:

 * 3-year bachelor's degree
 * 2-year master's degree
 * 3-year PhD

CBS also offers part-time and full-time programmes in continuing education:
 * Executive Master Programmes
 * Full-time MBA
 * Diploma programmes and short courses

Exchange programmes
CBS is the Danish member of CEMS - Global Alliance in Management Education and a member of Partnership in International Management (PIM), and focuses on double degree agreements with other top business schools. CBS has exchange and cooperation agreements with 390 universities and business schools around the world, half of which are European. 43% of CBS programmes are taught in English and CBS offers approximately 200 separate courses taught in English.

Rankings
Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking)

In 2020 Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as Shanghai Ranking, CBS ranks #8 in Europe and #30 in the world in the category 'Management'. The ranking is research-focused as it is solely based on refereed research publications and research awards.

QS World University Ranking

In the 2024 QS ranking of the world's top universities for business and management, Copenhagen Business School ranks #18 in the world. This ranking aims to assess institutions’ overall performance and reputation in the business and management field (at both undergraduate and graduate levels) and is headed by Harvard Business School, followed by INSEAD and London Business School.

Eduniversal

The French ratings agency Eduniversal ranked Copenhagen Business School the #1 business school in the world in 2014, ahead of London Business School and Harvard Business School. This ranking is based on the recommendations of deans and presidents of leading business schools from more than 150 countries. In 2023, Eduniversal ranked CBS as #4 business school in the world, behind of MIT Sloan School of Management, Harvard Business School, and London Business School.

Corporate Knights

In the 2015 Better World MBA Ranking, which is published by Corporate Knights, the Copenhagen Business School MBA program ranks #3 globally.

QS Global MBA

The QS Global 200 Business School Report 2014/15 ranked the Copenhagen Business School MBA program #12 in Europe. The same report ranked the Copenhagen Business School MBA program in the top cluster of MBA programs globally. The top cluster, of four clusters total, comprises 20 North American MBA programs, 14 European MBA programs, and 4 Asia Pacific MBA programs.

Bloomberg Businessweek

The Copenhagen Business School MBA program has been ranked #28 by Bloomberg Businessweek in its International Full-time MBA Ranking 2015. This ranking does not include the Business schools in the US.

Financial Times

The Financial Times ranked Copenhagen Business School #50 worldwide in its Masters in Management 2020 ranking. The Financial Times also ranked the CBS Executive MBA program #62 in the world and #31 in Europe in 2015. The Copenhagen Business School MBA program has been ranked in the Financial Times's list of Top 100 MBAs in 2021.

The Aspen Institute

The Aspen Institute's "Beyond Grey Pinstripes" bi-annual report ranked the Copenhagen Business School MBA program #43 globally (#7 in Europe) in its 2011-2012 report and #63 globally (#9 in Europe) in its 2009-2010 report.

Triple Crown of Accreditation

Copenhagen Business School is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the Association of MBAs, and the European Quality Improvement System. Copenhagen Business School and Aarhus University are the only two business schools in Denmark, and two of 57 business schools globally to earn Triple accreditation. Copenhagen Business School earned the AACSB accreditation in 2011, the AMBA accreditation in 2007 and the EQUIS accreditation in 2000. In 2015 CBS received the EQUIS seal of approval and thereby remains among the best 1% of business schools worldwide in terms of triple-crown accreditation.

Notable alumni and faculty
The university's notable alumni include:
 * Søren Skou, CEO of A.P Moller-Maersk
 * Jonas Deichmann, German adventurer and extreme athlete.
 * Lise Kingo, executive director of the United Nations Global Compact
 * Fritz Henrik Schur Junior, Chairman of Ørsted
 * David Heinemeier Hansson, creator of Ruby on Rails
 * Kasper Rørsted, CEO of Adidas
 * Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi, son of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi
 * Jacob Schram, CEO of Norwegian Air
 * Lars Dalgaard, founder of SuccessFactors

Prominent alumni also include Thor Haraldsson, Tarja Cronberg, Jakob Ellemann-Jensen, Sharmi Albrechtsen, Carl Frederik Waage Beck, Lene Børglum, Michael Brockenhuus-Schack, Soulaima Gourami, as well as several other entrepreneurs and Danish politicians. The school has also prominent faculty members such as Danish organization theorist Nicolai Foss.

CBS Campus
CBS is an urban university primarily located in four modern buildings in Frederiksberg, close to the center of Copenhagen. The main complex, Solbjerg Plads, was opened in 2000 and includes 34,000 m2 of student and office space surrounded by gardens and outdoor living space. Designed by Vilhelm Lauritzer Architects, the complex consists of interconnected concrete, glass and tile-sided buildings of varying heights that house student auditoriums, faculty office space, a cafeteria, the main library, a student bar and the campus bookstore.

Dalgas Have, opened in 1989 and designed by Henning Larsen Architects, is the oldest building currently in use. Owned by the Danish Pension Fund for Engineers and leased by CBS, the building includes 20,000 m2 of student classrooms, study space and offices distributed around a three-story 175 m long arcade. At the midpoint of the arcade a two-story semi-circular cafeteria sits below a semi-circular library.

Kilen (The Wedge) was opened in 2006 and includes 10,000 m2 of student classrooms, study spaces, and offices for research and administration. Designed by Lundgaard & Tranberg Architects, the four-story wedge-shaped building features a large oval-shaped atrium that extends the height of the building. The exterior is covered with full-story screens made of wood, matte glass or copper, which rotate in response to the Sun and weather. Kilen has been the recipient of numerous architecture and design awards such as a RIBA European Award in 2006.

Porcelænshaven, the fourth main building that comprises the CBS campus, is leased by CBS from the Danish Society for the Advancement of Business Education. Formerly the Royal Copenhagen Porcelain Factory, the factory has been converted into 20,000 m2 of student classrooms, study spaces, offices, and a student residence. A central feature of the building, a 1,000 m2 main hall used for large events, stands in the old location of the factory kiln hall. As part of the factory conversion, Henning Larsen Architects transformed the old raw material storage building into 3,800 m2 of modern study space.

CBS campus buildings reflect characteristic Scandinavian style and have been recognized by Frederiksberg Municipality earning an Award for Good and Beautiful Building in 2006 and 2009. The four main buildings are within walking distance and located along three consecutive stations on the Copenhagen Metro from Lindevang Station (Dalgas Have) to Frederiksberg Station (Solbjerg Plads).

MarketingLab
Founded in 2012, MarketingLab is an organization driven by students who all share a common interest for creative marketing. The mission of the organization is to create a bridge between students and the industry. The team consists of the most ambitious students working on a weekly basis with events, courses and consulting.

CBS Sport
CBS Sport is an independent sports organization belonging to CBS. Established in 2006, CBS Sport currently has 12 sports:

 * Badminton
 * Basketball (men and women)
 * Cricket
 * Floorball (men and women)
 * Football (men and women)
 * Handball (men and women)
 * Horseback Riding
 * Rugby (men and women)
 * Running
 * Skiing
 * Tennis
 * Volleyball (Mixed)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Copenhagen Business School


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Something Wicked This Way Comes (Iced Earth album)

Something Wicked This Way Comes is the fifth studio album by American heavy metal band Iced Earth. Released on June 22, 1998, it was the band's first album to feature bassist James MacDonough and guitarist Larry Tarnowski, and is the only Iced Earth album to be solely produced by Jim Morris, who has worked with the band since 1996's The Dark Saga.

Recorded in March 1998, Something Wicked This Way Comes introduced Jon Schaffer's fictional story Something Wicked Saga, which would be later expanded upon by the band. The song "Watching Over Me" was written as a tribute to Schaffer's deceased childhood friend Bill Blackmon, who inspired the name "Iced Earth". The album received mixed reviews; it was noted as significantly "heavier" than its predecessor, The Dark Saga. It charted in Germany and Austria. During the album's supporting tour, the band recorded their first live album, entitled Alive in Athens.

Background
As with the band's previous album, The Dark Saga, Iced Earth were again faced with line-up changes. Long-time guitarist Randall Shawver left the band prior to the recording of Something Wicked This Way Comes, as did drummer Brent Smedley, who was unable to play on the album for personal reasons. Because of these changes, only guitarist Jon Schaffer, vocalist Matt Barlow and bassist James MacDonough were credited as "Iced Earth", making Something Wicked This Way Comes the first of only two albums to feature a three-piece line-up of the band; the other one being The Crucible of Man.

Writing and recording
Musically, Something Wicked This Way Comes is significantly heavier than its predecessor The Dark Saga. According to Jon Schaffer, because many of Iced Earth's fans felt that The Dark Saga lacked in speed and heaviness, the band tried to have a more diverse collection of songs on Something Wicked This Way Comes. Even though some material had already been written prior to the actual writing process, Schaffer has admitted that he struggled writing the remaining songs, attributing these problems to growing stress. One of the songs written right after The Dark Saga was "Watching Over Me", which is about Schaffer's childhood friend Bill Blackmon, who died in a motorcycle accident just before Schaffer moved to Florida in 1984.

The album is the first to feature Jon Schaffer's Something Wicked Saga. Originally Schaffer had planned to have the entire record be a concept album on the "Something Wicked" storyline, but because some songs unrelated to the concept had already been written following The Dark Saga, the band decided to only have the last three tracks be connected to the storyline. The last three songs ("Prophecy", Birth of the Wicked" and "The Coming Curse") make up the "Something Wicked" trilogy, which introduces the central figure of the saga, Set Abominae (who also appears on the album's front cover).

Something Wicked This Way Comes was recorded in March 1998 at Morrisound Studios, in Tampa, Florida. It is the only Iced Earth studio album not to be co-produced by Jon Schaffer. Instead, Jim Morris (who has co-produced all of the band's albums from The Dark Saga onward) is the sole producer. Because Iced Earth didn't have a lead guitarist or a drummer, the band hired a number of guest musicians. Mark Prator, who had previously played on The Dark Saga, was recruited to play the drums, while Larry Tarnowski was hired as the lead guitarist (although some additional lead guitar parts were played by Jim Morris). Other guests featured on the album included Howard Helm (keyboards), Roger Hughes (mandolin) and Susan McQuinn (flute), among others.

Release
Something Wicked This Way Comes was released on July 7, 1998. For the album's supporting tour, drummer Brent Smedley rejoined the band, while guitarist Larry Tarnowski was hired as a full-time member as well. While on tour, a music video was shot for the track "Melancholy (Holy Martyr)" at Wacken Open Air, 1998. The band also recorded their first live album, Alive in Athens, in Athens, Greece on January 23 and 24, 1999.

Critical reception
Since its release, Something Wicked This Way Comes has had a polarized reaction from critics. Some have viewed the album as one of Iced Earth's strongest, while others have considered it one of their weakest.

Metal Storm gave the album a 9.5 out of 10 and called it "the most important release of Iced Earth", as well as "a must have". On the other hand, Chronicles of Chaos called the album "tried, tested and tired". Allmusic saw somewhat similarly, feeling that the album was "virtually replicating their previous effort, The Dark Saga, but with somewhat less inspired results".

Despite the criticism, several songs such as "Burning Times", "Stand Alone" and the "Something Wicked" trilogy received considerable praise. Metal Storm was impressed by the musicianship of "Stand Alone", and called the "Something Wicked" trilogy "the best piece of music that Iced Earth [have] ever played". Allmusic also felt that the band seemed most at home during the "Something Wicked" trilogy. "Burning Times" and "Stand Alone" were also some of Allmusic's track picks.

In 2019, Metal Hammer ranked Something Wicked This Way Comes as the 11th best power metal album of all time.

Track listing
All songs written by Jon Schaffer, except where noted.

Personnel

 * Iced Earth
 * Matt Barlow – vocals
 * Jon Schaffer – guitar
 * James MacDonough – bass guitar

Additional musicians
 * Howard Helm – piano (on track 13)
 * Roger Hughes – mandolin (on track 10)
 * Tracy Marie LaBarbera – backing vocals (on tracks 2, 4 and 7)
 * Susan McQuinn – flute (on track 9)
 * Jim Morris – keyboards, backing vocals, lead guitar (on track 4)
 * Mark Prator – drums
 * Larry Tarnowski – lead guitar (on all except track 4)

 * Other personnel
 * Jim Morris – producer, engineer
 * Greg Capullo – artwork
 * Travis Smith – artwork
 * Olga MacRae – photography
 * Michael Haynes – photography
 * Carsten Drescher – layout
 * Philipp Schulte – product coordination


text:
William Arveson

William B. Arveson (22 November 1934 – 15 November 2011) was a mathematician specializing in operator algebras who worked as a professor of Mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley.

Biography
Arveson obtained his Ph.D. from UCLA in 1964 with thesis advisor Henry Dye and thesis Prediction theory and group representations.

Of particular note is Arveson's work on completely positive maps. One of his earlier results in this area is an extension theorem for completely positive maps with values in the algebra of all bounded operators on a Hilbert space. This theorem led naturally to the question of injectivity of von-Neumann algebras in general, which culminated in work by Alain Connes relating injectivity to hyperfiniteness.

One of the major features of Arveson's work was the use of algebras of operators to elucidate single operator theory. In a series of papers in the 1960s and 1970s, Arveson introduced noncommutative analogues of several concepts from classical harmonic analysis including the Shilov and Choquet boundaries and used them very successfully in single operator theory.

In a highly cited paper, Arveson made a systematic study of commutative subspace lattices, which yield a large class of nonselfadjoint operator algebras and proved among other results, the theorem that a transitive algebra containing a maximal abelian von Neumann subalgebra in B(H) must be trivial.

In the late 80's and 90's, Arveson played a leading role in developing the theory of one-parameter semigroups of *-endomorphisms on von Neumann algebras - also known as E-semigroups. Among his achievements, he introduced product systems and proved that they are complete invariants of E-semigroups up to cocycle conjugacy.

Selected publications

 * Books

 * Papers

title: William Arveson


text:
Waihi

Waihi is a town in Hauraki District in the North Island of New Zealand, especially notable for its history as a gold mine town.

The town is at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula, close to the western end of the Bay of Plenty. The nearby resort town of Waihi Beach, ten kilometres to the east, is often regarded as the westernmost point of the Bay of Plenty region. To the west are the hills of the Kaimai Ranges. Road access from this direction is through the winding Karangahake Gorge road. Waihi has a warm and temperate climate but unusually high rainfall for New Zealand's east coast with an average annual rainfall of 2147 mm.

Demographics
Waihi covers 9.55 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Waihi had a smaller boundary, covering 9.40 km2. Using that boundary, Waihi had a population of 5,403 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 741 people (15.9%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 783 people (16.9%) since the 2006 census. There were 2,223 households, comprising 2,604 males and 2,790 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.93 males per female, with 930 people (17.2%) aged under 15 years, 729 (13.5%) aged 15 to 29, 2,196 (40.6%) aged 30 to 64, and 1,542 (28.5%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 82.7% European/Pākehā, 23.0% Māori, 3.7% Pacific peoples, 4.6% Asian, and 1.4% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 15.8, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 53.6% had no religion, 31.8% were Christian, 1.7% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.7% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.6% were Buddhist and 2.8% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 402 (9.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 1,320 (29.5%) people had no formal qualifications. 297 people (6.6%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,455 (32.5%) people were employed full-time, 690 (15.4%) were part-time, and 225 (5.0%) were unemployed.

Rural surrounds
Waihi Rural statistical area, which includes Waikino and Whiritoa, covers 375.57 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Waihi Rural had a larger boundary, covering 375.75 km2. Using that boundary, Waihi Rural had a population of 2,148 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 336 people (18.5%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 366 people (20.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 834 households, comprising 1,074 males and 1,077 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.0 males per female. The median age was 47.4 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 408 people (19.0%) aged under 15 years, 282 (13.1%) aged 15 to 29, 1,035 (48.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 426 (19.8%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 91.8% European/Pākehā, 15.9% Māori, 1.8% Pacific peoples, 2.0% Asian, and 2.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 15.1, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 58.0% had no religion, 31.8% were Christian, 0.1% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.4% were Hindu, 0.4% were Buddhist and 1.3% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 225 (12.9%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 390 (22.4%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $28,800, compared with $31,800 nationally. 246 people (14.1%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 789 (45.3%) people were employed full-time, 342 (19.7%) were part-time, and 66 (3.8%) were unemployed.

Mining township
Waihi is located in the Coromandel district, which was one of the great gold mining districts of the world. The township grew around the mining operations since the discovery of gold in 1878 by prospectors John McCombie and Robert Lee. The samples of rock they had sent to be assayed were not considered worthwhile, so they left the area.

Their claim was taken over by William Nicholl in 1879. He marked out 5 acre, calling his claim 'Martha' after a family member. Several smaller claims were later merged to form the Martha Company. By 1882 the first battery to break gold-bearing rock was in operation. The Martha Mine eventually grew into one of the world's most important gold and silver mines, after industrial cyanide processes made recovering gold from the low-grade ores easier. Waihi prospered with the mine, by 1908 being the fastest-growing town in the Auckland Province, three times the size of Hamilton.

Waihi was also a major centre of union unrest in New Zealand during the early years of the 20th century. The 1912 miners' strike led to violence, including the death of unionist Fred Evans in an incident which still causes some resentment in the town.

By 1952, when the mighty Martha Mine closed, around 5.6 million ounces (174,160 kg) of gold and 38.4 million ounces (1,193,180 kg) of silver had been produced from 11,932,000 tonnes of ore. Mining stopped in 1952 after a total of 160 km of tunnels had been driven into the quartz of Martha Hill, not because the Martha had run out of gold, but rather because of fixed gold prices, lack of manpower, and increasing costs. Mining in the Coromandel Peninsula had otherwise ceased by the 1980s.

However, mining later resumed, with some protests against it during the 1987 consent process. Plans to stop operations in the 2000s were eventually shelved as well, and the mines new owner OceanaGold is investing in extending the further economic life of the mine and the underground operations. As of 2009, the mine constituted 25–30% of the local economy.

The Golden Cross mine was a gold and silver mine in the neighbouring Waitekauri Valley. It first operated as an underground gold mine from 1895 to 1920. Gold and silver was mined by underground and open pit methods from 1991 to 1998.

Railways
In November 1905, a branch line railway was opened to Waihi from Paeroa; this eventually evolved into the East Coast Main Trunk Railway, which reached Taneatua in 1928. By the 1960s, traffic volumes for the port of Tauranga had outgrown the capacity of the circuitous line through Waihi and a deviation to the south was built, including the Kaimai Tunnel. It opened in 1978, making the line through Waihi redundant, but the Goldfields Railway was established to save the six kilometres of railway between Waihi and Waikino. The railway continues to operate today as Goldfields Railway and is a popular tourist attraction.

Counterculture era
In the 1970s Waihi saw a large influx of hippies in search of environmentally friendly alternative lifestyles settle there and around the Waikino area. These young counterculture proponents brought with them numerous cottage industries which helped supplement Waihi's economy. The Nambassa rock and alternative festivals were held around Waihi and Waikino between 1975 and 1982, increasing the population by around 10,000–75,000 for a few days each year and bringing revenue to the town. Temporary tent cities were established on the Northern end of Waihi on farms up Landlyst Rd at Golden Valley, to accommodate festival goers.

Recent history
In the late 1980s a new open pit started operations over the top of the old underground mine. This operation is nearing its completion, however recent plans to cutback the pit wall and recent underground mining have postponed the promised lake and recreational area. A new underground mine called Favona is in operation near the processing plant to the east of Waihi. The mining company have stated that it is impossible to create the lake while underground operations are occurring near the site because the low-level water table connects with the underground mine which has to be de-watered.

In the late 1990s several properties had to be condemned and roads such as Brickfield Road, Pipe Lane, Junction Road and parts of Bulltown Road, Hobson Street, Grey Street, Slevin Street, Newman Street, Barry Road, and main road Seddon Avenue permanently closed after the land under them subsided as a result of the collapse of old underground mine workings, with visible holes and cracks on the surface. In December 2001, a home adjacent to Martha Pit collapsed into historical workings, 14 neighbouring homes were affected, some never able to return to get personal belongings. Another 31 homes were also bought once more areas were identified to be at high, medium or low risk of collapse into historical workings adjacent to the pit. Today the mine's smoko room sits near this site. Noise, dust, blasting vibrations continue to cause stress for some residents as operations in the pit continue. The iconic Pumphouse has been moved to ensure its safety which also allows for the mine pit to be widened and more gold retrieved from the site the pumphouse was originally housed.

Mine management has received positive responses for its rigorous environmental effects control procedures and its commitment to the local community in terms of consultation and financial assistance. This has, amongst other things, led to the mine management company, Newmont Waihi Gold, receiving the 'Advanced Sustainable Business Award' from Environment Waikato, the Regional Council of the area. Despite all these attempts some of the mine's neighbours do not qualify for compensation for the mine's impact.

Mining remains the major employer in the area thanks to the company postponing the long promised mine closure and lake formation in 2007. OceanaGold will  stay until 2017 when consents expire, unless they find more resources when they will apply to stay. Until the electrical appliance industry was deregulated in New Zealand in the 1980s, Waihi had a television assembly plant operated first by Akrad then by Philips which employed 400 locally and 1500 nationwide.

Marae
Waihi has one marae, Waihi Community Marae.

 * Waihi Marae, with Tapeka meeting house, is near Tokaanu, and not affiliated nor even close, being down by Turangi, near Taupo..and is Tuwharetoa.

Waihi Town is part of Pare Hauraki area.

Current mining
OceanaGold currently operates the Favona, Trio and Correnso underground gold and silver mines under the eastern end of the Waihi township. The Correnso underground mine is the current active operation and is producing approximately 100,000 ounces of gold each year.

The Martha open pit is not currently active due to a slip on the north wall in April 2016, but continues to draw large tourist numbers visiting the pit and nearby Pumphouse at the top of Waihi's main street.

Education
Waihi College is a Year 7–13 secondary school with a roll of. The college was established as a District High School in 1932 and became a Forms 3–7 College in 1954. It moved to its current site in 1959. In 1976 it extended its roll to cover forms 1 and 2. Forms 1–7 are now known as years 7–13.

Waihi Central School is a contributing Year 1–6 primary school, school with a roll of.

Waihi East Primary School is a contributing Year 1–6 primary school, established in 1907, with a roll of.

St Joseph's Catholic School is a full Year 1–8 primary state integrated school with a roll of.

All these schools are coeducational. The roll numbers are as of

Renumbering project
In March 2016 a renumbering project was put into place by Hauraki District Council halving Waihi streets such as Union Street, Rosemont Road, Seddon Avenue and Toomey Street in order to meet demands by the NZ Post office making it easier to find addresses. New street names include Amaranth Street, Montrose Road and Park Lane. Parry Palm Avenue which begins at the entrance from Paeroa now expands to the Martin Road and Baber Street intersection while Kenny Street becomes Waihi's longest road beginning at the infamous 'Rocket Park' (Victoria Park) expanding to the Waihi/Whangamata road. The renumbering project affected 143 Waihi properties and 650 Waihi residents. Montrose Road was originally going to be named Nicholl Street in honour of William Nicholl who developed the Martha Mine, but was at fault due to a last minute change.

Cornish Pumphouse
The "Cornish Pumphouse" was originally built in a different location next to the Martha Mine in 1904 to accommodate a large Cornish steam engine designed to pump water out of the mine. The building's design originated from one used in tin mines in Cornwall, England.

The horizontal Cornish pump was used up to 1913 to raise water from a depth of around 400 metres (1,300 ft) via the adjacent No 5 shaft at a rate of over 400,000 litres per hour. After 1913, electric pumps were used to dewater the mine, but the pumphose was kept in working order until 1929 as a backup.

From the 1930s onwards, the building had been stripped of all machinery and left in an increasingly derelict state. In 1983, the building was registered as a Historic Place Category 1 with Heritage New Zealand due to its historical importance as one of the country's principal industrial monuments.

In 2001, the area surrounding the pumphouse was fenced off, following subsidence in nearby Barry Road. Investigations reached the conclusion that the only way to protect the building was to relocate it to a safer site. The operation to move the Cornish Pumphouse to a site 300 metres (980 ft) away was started in 2006 with the installation of internal steel bracing and the building of a relocation causeway.

Later in the year, the building, weighing 1,840 tonnes, was moved over the course of three months along teflon-coated concrete beams to its present location, which is easily accessible via a footpath from Seddon Street.

Some internal steel bracing remains installed in the building and it is able to be viewed by the public during daylight hours.

title: Waihi


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User talk:Wes s

Welcome to the Wikipedia, Wes; always nice to have people who know whereof they speak editing pages. I trust your sabbatical post will leave you plenty of time to contribute more! best wishes --Tagishsimon. Oh. And here's the cut & paste welcome bit:

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Always good to see people from Educationet coming over here - welcome aboard! Timrollpickering 09:07, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Wes s


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Aizuwakamatsu Castle

Tsuruga Castle (鶴ヶ城), also known as Aizuwakamatsu Castle (会津若松城 Aizu-Wakamatsu-jō) is a Japanese castle in northern Japan, at the center of the city of Aizuwakamatsu, in Fukushima Prefecture.

Background
Tsuruga Castle is located in the center of the Aizu basin and at crossroads to Kōriyama to the north and Yonezawa to the east and Murakami on the Sea of Japan coast. During the Nanboku-cho period, the area was ruled by the Ashina clan. Ashina Naomori built Kurokawa Castle (黒川城) within the Aizu basin in 1384. This castle was the predecessor of what later became Tsuruga Castle. It was ruled by Ashina Moriuji until 1561, when he turned his domain over to his son.

The Ashina clan also built Mukaihaguroyama Castle, a huge mountain castle 10 kilometers south of Aizuwakamatsu. However, by the Sengoku period, the power of the Ashina clan had weakened. Date Masamune, the greatest warlord of the Tōhoku area, who had struggled against the Ashina clan for years, and finally captured the castle in 1589 at the Siege of Kurokawa Castle. However, Masamune was in turn forced to pledge fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590, and were obliged to relocate north to Sendai. Aizu then came to be ruled by one of Hideyoshi's generals, Gamō Ujisato. Ujisato was expected to keep a close watch on Date Masamune, and thus rebuilt Kurokawa Castle into a modern castle in 1592, renaming it Tsuruga Castle, although the populace also referred to it as Aizu Castle or Wakamatsu Castle. He also built an unprecedentedly huge seven-story tenshu in 1593.

History
Ujisato died of illness at the age of 39, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi reassigned his vast domain to Uesugi Kagekatsu, whom he relocated from Echigo Province. Although Tsuruga Castle was already large, Uesugi Kagekatsu started to build another castle on the outskirts of Aizuwakamatsu town, but it was never completed. After having sided with the Toyotomi clan during the Sekigahara campaign, the Uesugi Clan was demoted in status and relocated to a much reduced Yonezawa Domain. The domain was then assigned to Katō Yoshiaki, who was noted for his bravery at the Battle of Shizugatake. Under the Katō, the castle was reformed and a new layout was imposed on the surrounding jōkamachi. However, during a great earthquake in 1611, the castle was severely damaged, and the tenshu was rebuilt into the current configuration. The Katō were dispossessed in 1643 and were replaced by Hoshina Masayuki, the illegitimate son of Shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada and thus half-brother of Tokugawa Iemitsu. He later served a regent to the underage Shōgun Tokugawa Ietsuna. Within Aizu, he developed commerce and agriculture, and established han school, the Nisshinkan. His successors were permitted to take the "Matsudaira" surname. Throughout the Edo period, Aizu Domain was an important Tokugawa stronghold in the Tōhoku region and was one of the strongest domains in terms of its military power.

During the Bakumatsu period, Matsudaira Katamori was one of the Shōgunate's most able and loyalist supporter. After the defeat of the Shōgunate at the Battle of Toba-Fushimi and the abdication of power by Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, Matsudaira Katamori become one of the leaders in the pro-Tokugawa alliance against the new Meiji government. During the Battle of Aizu in the Boshin War, Tsuruga Castle was besieged by the forces of the Satchō Alliance in October 1868. Although the castle was very strong by traditional standards, the new government army was equipped with western artillery, which was able to shell the castle from surrounding hills for over a month. Faced with the inevitable eventual defeat, Matsudaira Katamori surrendered the castle and his remaining forces in November. The surviving castle buildings, pockmarked by artillery during the siege and structurally unstable, were demolished by the new government in 1874. One yagura survived the destruction by being relocated to a Buddhist temple, Amida-ji, five-kilometers from the castle.

The castle site was mostly sold off to private landowners, with only the central portion (23 hectares) kept by the government for use by an Imperial Japanese Army garrison until 1908. This area forms the core of the modern National Historic Site. With the popularity of the Byakkotai story in pre-war Japan, a movement arose to preserve the site of the castle, and it was made into a public park. The National Historic Site status was granted in 1934, although the area still suffered from indignities, such as a velodrome operating in the inner bailey until 1957. In 1965, a reconstruction of the tenshu in concrete was completed as a symbol of the city. Currently there is a museum inside, and an observation gallery on top with panoramic views of the city. A gate was completed at the same time. In 1991, a yagura and a connecting corridor were also reconstructed.

The tea room, named Rinkaku, has been restored and is designated as an Fukushima Prefecture Important Cultural Property. It is open to the public, and at times tea ceremonies are held there.

Layout
The primary layout of the castle consists of an inner bailey and three secondary enclosures to the west, north and east. The southern face of the castle was protected by a river. The inner bailey is pentagonal, with length of approximately 200 meters, surrounded by deep moats and tall stone walls. The area is divided internally by walls and corridors, and the tenshu is in the northwest corner. The original tenshu under the Gamō clan was a massive seven-story structure with black walls and gold roof tiles, similar to Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Osaka Castle. The tenshu rebuilt by the by Katō clan was smaller and was painted white. The secondary enclosures of the castle had clay ramparts, with stonework used in the gate areas. In the north and west of the central area were large bastions.

The total size of the castle area was 600 by 400 meters, but the castle town itself was also guarded by an outer barrier and the river, enclosing a square kilometer.

title: Aizuwakamatsu Castle


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B. H. Roberts

Brigham Henry Roberts (March 13, 1857 – September 27, 1933) was a historian, politician, and leader in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). He edited the seven-volume History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and independently wrote the six-volume Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Roberts also wrote Studies of the Book of Mormon—published posthumously—which discussed the validity of the Book of Mormon as an ancient record. Roberts was denied a seat as a member of United States Congress because of his practice of polygamy.

Early life
Roberts was born in Warrington, Lancashire, England, the son of Benjamin Roberts, an alcoholic blacksmith and ship plater, and Ann Everington, a seamstress. In the year of his birth, both parents converted to the LDS Church. Benjamin Roberts then abandoned his family. Roberts later wrote, "My childhood was a nightmare; my boyhood a tragedy."

Assisted by the Perpetual Emigrating Fund, B. H. Roberts and a sister left England in April 1866. In Nebraska, they joined a wagon train and proceeded to walk—for much of the way barefoot—to Salt Lake City, where they were met by their mother, who had preceded them. In 1867, Roberts was baptized into the LDS Church by Seth Dustin, who two years later became his stepfather. Dustin eventually deserted his family, and "after several reappearances, he finally disappeared completely." Ann Dustin was granted a divorce in 1884. Upon coming to Utah Territory, Roberts settled in Bountiful, which he always from then on considered his home.

Roberts became a miner and participated in the gambling and drinking typical of that time and place. (He was once disciplined by a Salt Lake bishop, who warned him that alcohol "would not only beat him to his knees but to his elbows and chin.") But Roberts eventually learned to read, and, after a series of menial jobs, was apprenticed to a blacksmith while attending school. He then became a "voracious reader, devouring books of history, science, philosophy," especially the Book of Mormon and other Mormon religious texts. In 1878, Roberts married Sarah Louisa Smith, and, in the same year, he graduated first in his class from University of Deseret, the normal school precursor of the University of Utah. He and Sarah eventually had seven children.

Church service
After graduation (and the birth of his first child) Roberts was ordained a seventy in his local church branch and taught school to support his family. The LDS Church sent him on a mission to Iowa and Nebraska, "but because the cold weather was hard on his health, he was transferred to Tennessee in December of 1880." There he rose to prominence as the president of the Tennessee Conference of the Southern States Mission. On August 10, 1884, a mob in the small community of Cane Creek murdered two Mormon missionaries and two members of the Mormon congregation. (One of the latter had killed a member of the mob before he was in turn slain.) At some personal risk, Roberts disguised himself as a tramp and recovered the bodies of the two missionaries for their families in Utah Territory.

During a brief return to Utah, Roberts took a second wife, Celia Dibble, by whom he had eight children. From 1889 to 1894, Celia was exiled in Manassa, Colorado, to protect her husband from prosecution for unlawful cohabitation.

In December 1886, while serving as associate editor of the Salt Lake Herald, Roberts was arrested on the charge of unlawful cohabitation. He posted bond to appear in court the next day and that night left on a mission to England.

In England, Roberts served as assistant editor of the LDS Church publication the Millennial Star and completed his first book, the much reprinted The Gospel: An Exposition of Its First Principles (1888).

Returning to Salt Lake City in 1888, as full-time editor of The Contributor, he was chosen as one of the seven presidents of the First Council of the Seventy, the third-highest governing body in the LDS Church. "Tiring of evading federal authorities," Roberts surrendered in April 1889 and pleaded guilty to the charge of unlawful cohabitation. He was imprisoned in the Utah Territorial Prison for five months. Following his release, he moved his families to Colorado and married a third wife, Dr. Margaret Curtis Shipp, after church president Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto that prohibited solemnization of new plural marriages. (Roberts's third wife was seven years his senior and had obtained a degree in obstetrics. Roberts seemed to prefer Margaret's company, "and this created some trouble" with his other families—although Roberts continued to have children by his other wives. Roberts and Margaret had no children.) Roberts was pardoned in 1894 by U.S. President Grover Cleveland. He resigned as an editor of the Salt Lake Herald in 1896, giving his reason that the position that the paper had taken on the recent "Manifesto" was apt to place him in a false light.

Political and military career
During the transitional period following 1890, the LDS Church disbanded its People's Party and encouraged its membership to align with nationally organized Democrat and Republican parties instead. Roberts became a fervent Democrat and was elected Davis County Delegate to the Utah State Constitutional Convention in 1894. Roberts proved a vocal member of the Convention, particularly in his opposition to women's suffrage.

In 1895, Roberts was the losing Democratic candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives, and Roberts believed LDS Church leaders, who were predominantly Republicans, "had unfairly influenced the election by publicly reprimanding him and fellow Democrat Moses Thatcher for running for office without express permission of the Church."

The LDS Church then issued the "Political Manifesto of 1895," which forbade church officers from running for public office without the approval of the Church. Both Roberts and Thatcher refused to agree to the Political Manifesto and were suspended from their ecclesiastical offices. Roberts, believing such a requirement was a basic infringement of his civil rights, capitulated just hours before the deadline of March 24, 1896. He signed the manifesto, wrote a letter of apology to the First Presidency, and was reinstated. Thatcher was more stubborn: he refused to sign, was expelled from the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and barely evaded excommunication.

In 1898, Roberts was elected as a Democrat to the 56th Congress, but the House of Representatives refused to seat him because of his practice of polygamy. The prolonged battle that ensued to keep his seat, which was not successful, left Roberts bitter.

The governor of Utah had appointed Roberts a chaplain in the Utah National Guard; in 1917, when the United States declared war on Germany, Roberts volunteered to serve as a U.S. Army chaplain. The age limit of forty was waived—Roberts was then sixty—and Roberts became chaplain to the 145th Field Artillery, which arrived in France in September 1918 but did not see action before the Armistice was signed in November.

Career as a writer
Roberts wrote two biographies, a novel, eight historical narratives and compilations, and another dozen books about Mormon theology. In the late 1890s, he also helped establish the Improvement Era and became the de facto editor of this official periodical of the LDS Church. Roberts's six-volume History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Period I, History of Joseph Smith, the Prophet by Himself featured "critical notes, new documents, sidebar headings for most paragraphs, and extensive interpretive essays that introduced each volume. Unfortunately, Roberts continued the confusing structure of the original, where various documents were spliced together and inaccurately attributed to Joseph Smith." Roberts served as Assistant Church Historian from 1902 until his death in 1933.

Roberts wrote a novel Corianton (1889), published serially in The Contributor, and based on the story of Corianton, the son of Alma as told in the Book of Mormon. Though melodramatic and overly didactic, the novel has also been regarded as providing deep and useful portrayals of some of the characters. It was later adapted, along with Julia A. MacDonald's A Ship of Hagoth, into a play by Orestes Utah Bean, and it was the inspiration for the 1931 film Corianton: A Story of Unholy Love.

Roberts's most important work was a comprehensive treatment of Mormon history, which he began in 1909 as a series of monthly articles for a non-Mormon magazine. Roberts repeatedly (and for many years, unsuccessfully) asked church leaders to republish the articles as a multi-volume set. Finally, in 1930 the church agreed to publish it during its centennial celebration. The six-volume Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Century I (3,459 pages) covered for the first time many late-19th- and early-20th-century developments. Further, although its viewpoint was "unabashedly Mormon", Roberts "disdained ... faith promoting myths" and "was a partisan, not an unquestioning apologist."

Roberts "frequently took a broader view" of the place of the LDS Church "in the heavenly scheme of things than did some of his colleagues. In 1902 he told the Saints that 'while the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is given a prominent part in this great drama of the last days, it is not the only force nor the only means that the Lord has employed to bring to pass those things of which His prophets in ancient times have testified.'" Roberts' theology included belief in "the modern liberal doctrine of man and the optimism of the nineteenth century, and it required a bold, rebellious and spacious mind to grasp its full implication."

Roberts hoped that the church would publish his most elaborate theological treatise "The Truth, The Way, The Life", but his attempt to use contemporary scientific theory to bolster Mormon doctrine led, in 1930, to a conflict with Mormon apostle Joseph Fielding Smith, who had been influenced by the writings of young earth creationist George McCready Price. Smith publicly opposed Roberts's quasi-evolutionary views in deference to a literal reading of both the Bible and the Latter-day Saint scriptures. The controversy was debated before the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and it "declared a draw: Neither the existence nor the nonexistence of pre-Adamites would constitute church doctrine." "The Truth, The Way, The Life" was not published until 1994.

Studies of the Book of Mormon
Although Roberts continued to testify to the truth of the Book of Mormon, a foundational religious text in Mormonism, he also wrote three studies, unpublished until 1985, that wrestled with Book of Mormon problems. The first, "Book of Mormon Difficulties: A Study," was a 141-page manuscript written in response to a series of questions by an inquirer, referred to Roberts by church president Heber J. Grant. When Roberts confessed that he had no answer for some of the difficulties, and the General Authorities chose to ignore them, Roberts produced "A Book of Mormon Study," a treatise of more than 400 pages. In this work he compared the Book of Mormon to the View of the Hebrews (1823), written by Ethan Smith, which argued Native Americans were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Roberts found significant similarities between the two books. Finally, Roberts wrote "A Parallel," a condensed version of his larger study, which demonstrated eighteen points of similarity between the two books, and in which he reflected that the imaginative Joseph Smith might have written the Book of Mormon without divine assistance.

Mormon historians have debated whether the manuscript reflects Roberts's doubts or was a case of his playing the devil's advocate. When he presented "A Book of Mormon Study" to church leaders, he emphasized that he was "taking the position that our faith is not only unshaken but unshakable in the Book of Mormon, and therefore we can look without fear upon all that can be said against it." However, Roberts withheld some of his materials from the general authorities.

Roberts asserted that the authenticity of the Restoration must "stand or fall" on the truth of Joseph Smith's claim that the Book of Mormon was the history of an ancient people inscribed on a cache of gold plates; Roberts predicted that if church leaders did not address the historical problems of church origins and possible anachronisms in the Book of Mormon, these problems would eventually undermine "the faith of the Youth of the Church."

Roberts continued to affirm his faith in the divine origins of the Book of Mormon until his death in 1933; but as Terryl Givens has written, "a lively debate has emerged over whether his personal conviction really remained intact in the aftermath of his academic investigations." According to Richard and Joan Ostling, when Roberts's study became better known, especially after its publication by the University of Illinois Press in 1985, Mormon apologists "went into high gear" and "churned out responses" because "Roberts could not be dismissed as an outsider or an anti-Mormon."

Later years
From 1922 to 1927, Roberts was appointed president of the Eastern States Mission, and there he created an innovative "mission school" to teach Mormon missionaries the most effective ways to proselytize. Roberts also served for many years as a leader of the church's Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association. In 1923, Roberts, suffering from diabetes, collapsed at a conference "commemorating the Centennial anniversary of the revealed existence of the Book of Mormon." He was treated with the relatively new drug insulin. A year after the death of his third wife, his companion in New York, Roberts returned to Utah; he was senior president of the First Council of Seventy from 1924 to his death. Roberts died on September 27, 1933, from complications of diabetes. He was survived by thirteen children and by his second wife.

Regardless of his ultimate religious beliefs, most scholars would accept the judgment of Brigham Madsen that Roberts possessed a "deeply embedded integrity, and above all ... fearless willingness to follow wherever his reason led him. He could be abrasive in his defense of stubbornly held beliefs, but he had the capacity to change his views when confronted with new and persuasive evidence." To Leonard J. Arrington, Roberts was "the intellectual leader of the Mormon people in the era of Mormonism's finest intellectual attainment."

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title: B. H. Roberts