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Expansion draft

An expansion draft, in professional sports, occurs when a sports league decides to create one or more new expansion teams or franchises. This occurs mainly in North American sports and closed leagues. One of the ways of stocking the new team or teams is an expansion draft. Although how each league conducts them varies, and they vary from occasion to occasion, the system is usually something similar to the following:

Each existing team is told it can "protect" a certain number of its existing contracted players by furnishing their names to the league office on or before a certain date. The expansion team(s) then are allowed to select players not on the protected lists in a manner somewhat similar to an entry draft. There are generally a maximum number of players that can be selected from any one team, at least without the team losing the player receiving something in compensation such as a future entry draft pick.

Teams subject to losing players usually tend to put most if not all of the players they truly need to stay competitive on the protected list. This means that the expansion franchise is often left to choose among players who are old, injury prone, failing to develop as the teams had intended, or perhaps so highly compensated that a team wishes to remove them from the payroll. For this reason, expansion teams are often noncompetitive in their early years in a league, although the advent of the free agent system has modified this somewhat. Marc-André Fleury, who won three Stanley Cups with the Pittsburgh Penguins, is a notable exception of a star player in their prime being left exposed in an expansion draft, being made available for the Vegas Golden Knights in the 2017 NHL Expansion Draft after Fleury was made expendable due to the rise of Matt Murray at goaltender. The rules of the draft can be tweaked by the league to make the expansion team more competitive if that is the business objective of the league's expansion.

Most teams seem to try largely to make a team which will serve until it can begin to develop its own talent, although occasionally players discarded by their old teams benefit from the change in environment and become stars, either again or for the first time.

A similar process occurs when an existing franchise is disbanded and the players contracted to it become available to the remaining teams; this process is referred to as a dispersal draft.

American football

 * 1960 NFL expansion draft
 * 1961 NFL expansion draft
 * 1966 NFL expansion draft
 * 1967 NFL expansion draft
 * 1976 NFL expansion draft
 * 1995 NFL expansion draft
 * 1999 NFL expansion draft
 * 2002 NFL expansion draft

Australian rules football

 * 1986 VFL draft – one of the two expansion teams, the West Coast Eagles, was exempt from the draft until 1988 as part of their agreement to enter the VFL.
 * 1994 AFL draft
 * 1996 AFL draft – actually an expansion and dispersal draft, as Port Adelaide entered the AFL for the 1997 season, while the Brisbane Bears took over Fitzroy's playing operations at the end of the 1996 season.
 * 2010 AFL draft
 * 2011 AFL draft

Baseball
Baseball expansion was initially hastened by the threat of a competing league, known as the Continental League.
 * 1960 Major League Baseball expansion draft
 * 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft
 * 1968 Major League Baseball expansion draft
 * 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft
 * 1992 Major League Baseball expansion draft
 * 1997 Major League Baseball expansion draft

NBA
There have been 11 expansion drafts in National Basketball Association history. The most recent expansion draft was in 2004 when the Charlotte Bobcats (now Charlotte Hornets) joined the league as the 30th team.

NBA Development League

 * 2006 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2007 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2008 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2009 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2010 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2013 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2014 NBA Development League expansion draft
 * 2015 NBA Development League expansion draft

PBA

 * 1990 PBA Expansion Draft
 * 2000 PBA Expansion Draft
 * 2014 PBA Expansion Draft

Canadian football

 * 2002 CFL Expansion Draft
 * 2013 CFL Expansion Draft

Ice hockey
There have been 13 expansion drafts in the National Hockey League, including the 1979 draft following the NHL-WHA merger. The most recent draft was in 2021, involving the Seattle Kraken.

Soccer

 * 1997 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2004 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2006 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2007 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2008 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2009 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2010 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2011 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2014 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2016 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2017 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2018 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2019 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2020 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2021 MLS Expansion Draft
 * 2022 MLS Expansion Draft

title: Expansion draft


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User:Nick Boulevard

Hello and welcome to my user page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Nick Boulevard


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Lütschine

The Lütschine is a river in the Bernese Oberland region of Switzerland. The Lütschine proper runs from Zweilütschinen, where its two tribututaries join, to Lake Brienz at Bönigen. The Schwarze Lütschine, or Black Lütschine, flows from Grindelwald to Zweilütschinen. The Weisse Lütschine, or White Lütschine, flows from the Lauterbrunnen Valley to Zweilütschinen. The common stretch of the river has a length of 8.6 km, whilst the Schwarze Lütschine is 12.3 km long and the Weisse Lütschine is 13.1 km long.

Both branches of the Lütschine include a large number of mountain streams as tributaries. A notable tributary of the Schwarze Lütschine, emerging from the gorge of the Lower Grindelwald Glacier, is confusingly referred to as "Weisse Lütschine". The highest point of the drainage basin is the Jungfrau.

A story passed on by word of mouth showing friendly banter between villagers that lived on the two rivers is that the people on the Weisse Lütschine said the others "were so dirty it turned the river black" and the villagers on the Schwarze Lütschine claimed the others "never even washed so the other tributary remained perfectly white".

A modern observer standing at Zweilütschinen in winter might note that during the day the Schwarze Lütschine valley to the east is dark, shaded and cold, whereas the south facing Weisse Lütschine valley to the south (the Lauterbrunnen Valley) is sunny and light.

From Wilderswil to Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald, the banks of the Lütschine are closely followed by the tracks of the Berner Oberland Railway.

title: Lütschine


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Hugo de Vries

Hugo Marie de Vries (16 February 1848 – 21 May 1935) was a Dutch botanist and one of the first geneticists. He is known chiefly for suggesting the concept of genes, rediscovering the laws of heredity in the 1890s while apparently unaware of Gregor Mendel's work, for introducing the term "mutation", and for developing a mutation theory of evolution.

Early life
De Vries was born in 1848, the eldest son of Gerrit de Vries (1818–1900), a lawyer and deacon in the Mennonite congregation in Haarlem and later Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 1872 until 1874, and Maria Everardina Reuvens (1823–1914), daughter of a professor in archaeology at Leiden University. His father became a member of the Dutch Council of State in 1862 and moved his family over to The Hague. From an early age Hugo showed much interest in botany, winning several prizes for his herbariums while attending gymnasium in Haarlem and The Hague.

In 1866 he enrolled at the Leiden University to major in botany. He enthusiastically took part in W.F.R. Suringar's classes and excursions, but was mostly drawn to the experimental botany outlined in Julius von Sachs' 'Lehrbuch der Botanik' from 1868. He was also deeply impressed by Charles Darwin's evolution theory, despite Suringar's skepticism. He wrote a dissertation on the effect of heat on plant roots, including several statements by Darwin to provoke his professor, and graduated in 1870.

Early career
After a short period of teaching, de Vries left in September 1870 to take classes in chemistry and physics at the Heidelberg University and work in the laboratory of Wilhelm Hofmeister. In the second semester of that school year he joined the lab of the esteemed Julius Sachs in Würzburg to study plant growth. From September 1871 until 1875 he taught botany, zoology, and geology at schools in Amsterdam. During each vacation he returned to the lab in Heidelberg to continue his research.

In 1875, the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture offered de Vries a position as professor at the still to be constructed Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule ("Royal Agricultural College") in Berlin. In anticipation, he moved back to Würzburg, where he studied agricultural crops and collaborated with Sachs. By 1877, Berlin's College was still only a plan, and he briefly took up a position teaching at the University of Halle-Wittenberg. The same year he was offered a position as lecturer in plant physiology at the newly founded University of Amsterdam. He was made adjunct professor in 1878 and full professor on his birthday in 1881, partly to keep him from moving to the Berlin College, which finally opened that year. De Vries was also professor and director of Amsterdam's Botanical Institute and Garden from 1885 to 1918.

Definition of the gene
In 1889, de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin's theory of Pangenesis of 1868, he postulated that different characters have different hereditary carriers. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. He called these units pangenes, a term 20 years later to be shortened to genes by Wilhelm Johannsen.

Rediscovery of genetics
To support his theory of pangenes, which was not widely noticed at the time, de Vries conducted a series of experiments hybridising varieties of multiple plant species in the 1890s. Unaware of Mendel's work, de Vries used the laws of dominance and recessiveness, segregation, and independent assortment to explain the 3:1 ratio of phenotypes in the second generation. His observations also confirmed his hypothesis that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles.

He further speculated that genes could cross the species barrier, with the same gene being responsible for hairiness in two different species of flower. Although generally true in a sense (orthologous genes, inherited from a common ancestor of both species, tend to stay responsible for similar phenotypes), de Vries meant a physical cross between species. This actually also happens, though very rarely in higher organisms (see horizontal gene transfer). De Vries' work on genetics inspired the research of Jantina Tammes, who worked with him for a period in 1898.

In the late 1890s, de Vries became aware of Mendel's obscure paper of thirty years earlier and he altered some of his terminology to match. When he published the results of his experiments in the French journal Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences in 1900, he neglected to mention Mendel's work, but after criticism by Carl Correns he conceded Mendel's priority.

Correns and Erich von Tschermak now share credit for the rediscovery of Mendel's laws. Correns was a student of Nägeli, a renowned botanist with whom Mendel corresponded about his work with peas but who failed to understand its significance, while, coincidentally, Tschermak's grandfather taught Mendel botany during his student days in Vienna.

Mutation theory
In his own time, de Vries was best known for his mutation theory. In 1886, he had discovered new forms among a group of Oenothera lamarckiana, a species of evening primrose, growing wild in an abandoned potato field near Hilversum, having escaped a nearby garden. Taking seeds from these, he found that they produced many new varieties in his experimental gardens; he introduced the term mutations for these suddenly appearing variations. In his two-volume publication The Mutation Theory (1900–1903) he postulated that evolution, especially the origin of species, might occur more frequently with such large-scale changes than via Darwinian gradualism, basically suggesting a form of saltationism. De Vries's theory was one of the chief contenders for the explanation of how evolution worked, leading, for example, Thomas Hunt Morgan to study mutations in the fruit fly, until the modern evolutionary synthesis became the dominant model in the 1930s. During the early decades of the twentieth century, de Vries' theory was enormously influential and continued to fascinate non-biologists long after the scientific community had abandoned much of it (while retaining the idea of mutations as a crucial source of natural variation). The large-scale primrose variations turned out to be the result of various chromosomal abnormalities, including ring chromosomes, balanced lethals and chromosome duplications (polyploidy), while the term mutation now generally is restricted to discrete changes in the DNA sequence. However, the popular understanding of "mutation" as a sudden leap to a new species has remained a staple theme of science fiction, e.g. the X-Men movies (and the comic books that preceded them).

In a published lecture of 1903 (Befruchtung und Bastardierung, Veit, Leipzig), De Vries was also the first to suggest the occurrence of recombinations between homologous chromosomes, now known as chromosomal crossovers, within a year after chromosomes were implicated in Mendelian inheritance by Walter Sutton.

Botanist Daniel Trembly MacDougal attended his lectures in United States on Mutation Theory. In 1905 he helped published these lectures into a book Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation.

Honors and retirement
In 1878 de Vries became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1903 and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1904. In May 1905, de Vries was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society. In 1910, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1921, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was awarded the Darwin Medal in 1906 and the Linnean Medal in 1929.

He retired in 1918 from the University of Amsterdam and withdrew to his estate De Boeckhorst in Lunteren where he had large experimental gardens. He continued his studies with new forms until his death in 1935.

Books
His best known works are:
 * Intracellular Pangenesis (1889)
 * The Mutation Theory German edition Bd. 1-2 (1901–03), English edition Volume 2 (1909–10) Retrieved 2009-08-20
 * Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation (1905)
 * Plant Breeding (1907), German translation (1908)

title: Hugo de Vries


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Shape-memory alloy

In metallurgy, a shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that can be deformed when cold but returns to its pre-deformed ("remembered") shape when heated. It is also known in other names such as memory metal, memory alloy, smart metal, smart alloy, and muscle wire. The "memorized geometry" can be modified by fixating the desired geometry and subjecting it to a thermal treatment, for example a wire can be taught to memorize the shape of a coil spring.

Parts made of shape-memory alloys can be lightweight, solid-state alternatives to conventional actuators such as hydraulic, pneumatic, and motor-based systems. They can also be used to make hermetic joints in metal tubing, and it can also replace a sensor-actuator closed loop to control water temperature by governing hot and cold water flow ratio.

Overview
The two most prevalent shape-memory alloys are copper-aluminium-nickel and nickel-titanium (NiTi), but SMAs can also be created by alloying zinc, copper, gold and iron. Although iron-based and copper-based SMAs, such as Fe-Mn-Si, Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni, are commercially available and cheaper than NiTi, NiTi-based SMAs are preferable for most applications due to their stability and practicability  as well as their superior thermo-mechanical performance. SMAs can exist in two different phases, with three different crystal structures (i.e. twinned martensite, detwinned martensite, and austenite) and six possible transformations. The thermo-mechanic behavior of the SMAs is governed by a phase transformation between the austenite and the martensite.

NiTi alloys change from austenite to martensite upon cooling starting from a temperature below Ms; Mf is the temperature at which the transition to martensite completes upon cooling. Accordingly, during heating As and Af are the temperatures at which the transformation ts and finishes.

Applying a mechanical load to the martensite leads to a re-orientation of the crystals, referred to as “de-twinning”, which results in a deformation which is not recovered (remembered) after releasing the mechanical load. De-twinning starts at a certain stress σs and ends at σf above which martensite continue exhibiting only elastic behavior (as long as the load is below the yield stress). The memorized deformation from detwinning is recovered after heating to austenite.

The phase transformation from austenite to martensite can also occur at constant temperature by applying a mechanical load above a certain level. The transformation is reversed when the load is released.

The transition from the martensite phase to the austenite phase is only dependent on temperature and stress, not time, as most phase changes are, as there is no diffusion involved. Similarly, the austenite structure receives its name from steel alloys of a similar structure. It is the reversible diffusionless transition between these two phases that results in special properties. While martensite can be formed from austenite by rapidly cooling carbon-steel, this process is not reversible, so steel does not have shape-memory properties.

In this figure the vertical axis represents the martensite fraction. The difference between the heating transition and the cooling transition gives rise to hysteresis where some of the mechanical energy is lost in the process. The shape of the curve depends on the material properties of the shape-memory alloy, such as the alloy's composition and work hardening.

Shape memory effect
[[File:Shape_Memory_Effect_Animation.ogg|right|thumb|upright=1.5|This animation illustrates the full shape memory effect:1. Cooling from austenite to (twinned) martensite, which happens either at beginning of the SMA’s lifetime or at the end of a thermal cycle.

2. Applying a stress to detwin the martensite.

3. Heating the martensite to reform austenite, restoring the original shape.

4. Cooling the austenite back to twinned martensite.]] The shape memory effect (SME) occurs because a temperature-induced phase transformation reverses deformation, as shown in the previous hysteresis curve. Typically the martensitic phase is monoclinic or orthorhombic (B19' or B19). Since these crystal structures do not have enough slip systems for easy dislocation motion, they deform by twinning—or rather, detwinning.

Martensite is thermodynamically favored at lower temperatures, while austenite (B2 cubic) is thermodynamically favored at higher temperatures. Since these structures have different lattice sizes and symmetry, cooling austenite into martensite introduces internal strain energy in the martensitic phase. To reduce this energy, the martensitic phase forms many twins—this is called "self-accommodating twinning" and is the twinning version of geometrically necessary dislocations. Since the shape memory alloy will be manufactured from a higher temperature and is usually engineered so that the martensitic phase is dominant at operating temperature to take advantage of the shape memory effect, SMAs "start" highly twinned.

When the martensite is loaded, these self-accommodating twins provide an easy path for deformation. Applied stresses will detwin the martensite, but all of the atoms stay in the same position relative to the nearby atoms—no atomic bonds are broken or reformed (as they would be by dislocation motion). Thus, when the temperature is raised and austenite becomes thermodynamically favored, all of the atoms rearrange to the B2 structure which happens to be the same macroscopic shape as the B19' pre-deformation shape. This phase transformation happens extremely quickly and gives SMAs their distinctive "snap".

Repeated use of the shape-memory effect may lead to a shift of the characteristic transformation temperatures (this effect is known as functional fatigue, as it is closely related with a change of microstructural and functional properties of the material). The maximum temperature at which SMAs can no longer be stress induced is called Md, where the SMAs are permanently deformed.

One-way vs. two-way shape memory
Shape-memory alloys have different shape-memory effects. The two common effects are one-way SMA and two-way SMA. A schematic of the effects is shown below. The procedures are very similar: starting from martensite, adding a deformation, heating the sample and cooling it again.

One-way memory effect

When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state (below Mf), the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those shapes until heated above the transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its original. When the metal cools again, it will retain the shape, until deformed again.

With the one-way effect, cooling from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape change. A deformation is necessary to create the low-temperature shape. On heating, transformation starts at As and is completed at Af (typically 2 to 20 °C or hotter, depending on the alloy or the loading conditions). As is determined by the alloy type and composition and can vary between $-150 °C$ and $200 °C$.

Two way effect

The two-way shape-memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different shapes: one at low temperatures, and one at the high temperature. A material that shows a shape-memory effect during both heating and cooling is said to have two-way shape memory. This can also be obtained without the application of an external force (intrinsic two-way effect). The reason the material behaves so differently in these situations lies in training. Training implies that a shape memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under normal circumstances, a shape-memory alloy "remembers" its low-temperature shape, but upon heating to recover the high-temperature shape, immediately "forgets" the low-temperature shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to leave some reminders of the deformed low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases. One way of training the SMA consists in applying a cyclic thermal load under constant stress field. During this process, internal defects are introduced into the microstructure which generates internal permanent stresses that facilitate the orientation of the martensitic crystals. Therefore, while cooling a trained SMA in austenitic phase under no applied stress, the martensite is formed detwinned due to the internal stresses, which leads to the material shape change. And while heating back the SMA into austenite, it recovers its initial shape.

There are several ways of doing this. A shaped, trained object heated beyond a certain point will lose the two-way memory effect.

Pseudoelasticity
SMAs display a phenomenon sometimes called superelasticity, but is more accurately described as pseudoelasticity. “Superelasticity” implies that the atomic bonds between atoms stretch to an extreme length without incurring plastic deformation. Pseudoelasticity still achieves large, recoverable strains with little to no permanent deformation, but it relies on more complex mechanisms. SMAs exhibit at least 3 kinds of pseudoelasticty. The two less-studied kinds of pseudoelasticity are pseudo-twin formation and rubber-like behavior due to short range order.

The main pseudoelastic effect comes from a stress-induced phase transformation. The figure on the right exhibits how this process occurs.

Here a load is isothermally applied to a SMA above the austenite finish temperature, Af, but below the martensite deformation temperature, Md. The figure above illustrates how this is possible, by relating the pseudoelastic stress-induced phase transformation to the shape memory effect temperature induced phase transformation. For a particular point on Af, it is possible to choose a point on the Ms line with a higher temperature, as long as that point Md also has a higher stress. The material initially exhibits typical elastic-plastic behavior for metals. However, once the material reaches the martensitic stress, the austenite will transform to martensite and detwin. As previously discussed, this detwinning is reversible when transforming back from martensite to austenite. If large stresses are applied, plastic behavior such as detwinning and slip of the martensite will initiate at sites such as grain boundaries or inclusions. If the material is unloaded before plastic deformation occurs, it will revert to austenite once a critical stress for austenite is reached (σas). The material will recover nearly all strain that was induced from the structural change, and for some SMAs this can be strains greater than 10 percent. This hysteresis loop shows the work done for each cycle of the material between states of small and large deformations, which is important for many applications.

In a plot of strain versus temperature, the austenite and martensite start and finish lines run parallel. The SME and pseudoelasticity are actually different parts of the same phenomenon, as shown on the left.

The key to the large strain deformations is the difference in crystal structure between the two phases. Austenite generally has a cubic structure while martensite can be monoclinic or another structure different from the parent phase, typically with lower symmetry. For a monoclinic martensitic material such as Nitinol, the monoclinic phase has lower symmetry which is important as certain crystallographic orientations will accommodate higher strains compared to other orientations when under an applied stress. Thus it follows that the material will tend to form orientations that maximize the overall strain prior to any increase in applied stress. One mechanism that aids in this process is the twinning of the martensite phase. In crystallography, a twin boundary is a two-dimensional defect in which the stacking of atomic planes of the lattice are mirrored across the plane of the boundary. Depending on stress and temperature, these deformation processes will compete with permanent deformation such as slip.

σms is dependent on parameters such as temperature and the number of nucleation sites for phase nucleation. Interfaces and inclusions will provide general sites for the transformation to begin, and if these are great in number, it will increase the driving force for nucleation. A smaller σms will be needed than for homogeneous nucleation. Likewise, increasing temperature will reduce the driving force for the phase transformation, so a larger σms will be necessary. One can see that as you increase the operational temperature of the SMA, σms will be greater than the yield strength, σy, and superelasticity will no longer be observable.

History
The first reported steps towards the discovery of the shape-memory effect were taken in the 1930s. According to Otsuka and Wayman, Arne Ölander discovered the pseudoelastic behavior of the Au-Cd alloy in 1932. Greninger and Mooradian (1938) observed the formation and disappearance of a martensitic phase by decreasing and increasing the temperature of a Cu-Zn alloy. The basic phenomenon of the memory effect governed by the thermoelastic behavior of the martensite phase was widely reported a decade later by Kurdjumov and Khandros (1949) and also by Chang and Read (1951).

The nickel-titanium alloys were first developed in 1962–1963 by the United States Naval Ordnance Laboratory and commercialized under the trade name Nitinol (an acronym for Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratories). Their remarkable properties were discovered by accident. A sample that was bent out of shape many times was presented at a laboratory management meeting. One of the associate technical directors, Dr. David S. Muzzey, decided to see what would happen if the sample was subjected to heat and held his pipe lighter underneath it. To everyone's amazement the sample stretched back to its original shape.

There is another type of SMA, called a ferromagnetic shape-memory alloy (FSMA), that changes shape under strong magnetic fields. These materials are of particular interest as the magnetic response tends to be faster and more efficient than temperature-induced responses.

Metal alloys are not the only thermally-responsive materials; shape-memory polymers have also been developed, and became commercially available in the late 1990s.

Crystal structures
Many metals have several different crystal structures at the same composition, but most metals do not show this shape-memory effect. The special property that allows shape-memory alloys to revert to their original shape after heating is that their crystal transformation is fully reversible. In most crystal transformations, the atoms in the structure will travel through the metal by diffusion, changing the composition locally, even though the metal as a whole is made of the same atoms. A reversible transformation does not involve this diffusion of atoms, instead all the atoms shift at the same time to form a new structure, much in the way a parallelogram can be made out of a square by pushing on two opposing sides. At different temperatures, different structures are preferred and when the structure is cooled through the transition temperature, the martensitic structure forms from the austenitic phase.

Manufacture
Shape-memory alloys are typically made by casting, using vacuum arc melting or induction melting. These are specialist techniques used to keep impurities in the alloy to a minimum and ensure the metals are well mixed. The ingot is then hot rolled into longer sections and then drawn to turn it into wire.

The way in which the alloys are "trained" depends on the properties wanted. The "training" dictates the shape that the alloy will remember when it is heated. This occurs by heating the alloy so that the dislocations re-order into stable positions, but not so hot that the material recrystallizes. They are heated to between $400 °C$ and $500 °C$ for 30 minutes, shaped while hot, and then are cooled rapidly by quenching in water or by cooling with air.

Properties
The copper-based and NiTi-based shape-memory alloys are considered to be engineering materials. These compositions can be manufactured to almost any shape and size.

The yield strength of shape-memory alloys is lower than that of conventional steel, but some compositions have a higher yield strength than plastic or aluminum. The yield stress for Ni Ti can reach $500 MPa$. The high cost of the metal itself and the processing requirements make it difficult and expensive to implement SMAs into a design. As a result, these materials are used in applications where the super elastic properties or the shape-memory effect can be exploited. The most common application is in actuation.

One of the advantages to using shape-memory alloys is the high level of recoverable plastic strain that can be induced. The maximum recoverable strain these materials can hold without permanent damage is up to $%8$ for some alloys. This compares with a maximum strain $%0.5$ for conventional steels.

Practical limitations
SMA have many advantages over traditional actuators, but do suffer from a series of limitations that may impede practical application. In numerous studies, it was emphasised that only a few of patented shape memory alloy applications are commercially successful due to material limitations combined with a lack of material and design knowledge and associated tools, such as improper design approaches and techniques used. The challenges in designing SMA applications are to overcome their limitations, which include a relatively small usable strain, low actuation frequency, low controllability, low accuracy and low energy efficiency.

Response time and response symmetry
SMA actuators are typically actuated electrically, where an electric current results in Joule heating. Deactivation typically occurs by free convective heat transfer to the ambient environment. Consequently, SMA actuation is typically asymmetric, with a relatively fast actuation time and a slow deactuation time. A number of methods have been proposed to reduce SMA deactivation time, including forced convection, and lagging the SMA with a conductive material in order to manipulate the heat transfer rate.

Novel methods to enhance the feasibility of SMA actuators include the use of a conductive "lagging". this method uses a thermal paste to rapidly transfer heat from the SMA by conduction. This heat is then more readily transferred to the environment by convection as the outer radii (and heat transfer area) are significantly greater than for the bare wire. This method results in a significant reduction in deactivation time and a symmetric activation profile. As a consequence of the increased heat transfer rate, the required current to achieve a given actuation force is increased.

Structural fatigue and functional fatigue
SMA is subject to structural fatigue – a failure mode by which cyclic loading results in the initiation and propagation of a crack that eventually results in catastrophic loss of function by fracture. The physics behind this fatigue mode is accumulation of microstructural damage during cyclic loading. This failure mode is observed in most engineering materials, not just SMAs.

SMAs are also subject to functional fatigue, a failure mode not typical of most engineering materials, whereby the SMA does not fail structurally but loses its shape-memory/superelastic characteristics over time. As a result of cyclic loading (both mechanical and thermal), the material loses its ability to undergo a reversible phase transformation. For example, the working displacement in an actuator decreases with increasing cycle numbers. The physics behind this is gradual change in microstructure—more specifically, the buildup of accommodation slip dislocations. This is often accompanied by a significant change in transformation temperatures. Design of SMA actuators may also influence both structural and functional fatigue of SMA, such as the pulley configurations in SMA-Pulley system.

Unintended actuation
SMA actuators are typically actuated electrically by Joule heating. If the SMA is used in an environment where the ambient temperature is uncontrolled, unintentional actuation by ambient heating may occur.

Aircraft and spacecraft
Boeing, General Electric Aircraft Engines, Goodrich Corporation, NASA, Texas A&M University and All Nippon Airways developed the Variable Geometry Chevron using a NiTi SMA. Such a variable area fan nozzle (VAFN) design would allow for quieter and more efficient jet engines in the future. In 2005 and 2006, Boeing conducted successful flight testing of this technology.

SMAs are being explored as vibration dampers for launch vehicles and commercial jet engines. The large amount of hysteresis observed during the superelastic effect allow SMAs to dissipate energy and dampen vibrations. These materials show promise for reducing the high vibration loads on payloads during launch as well as on fan blades in commercial jet engines, allowing for more lightweight and efficient designs. SMAs also exhibit potential for other high shock applications such as ball bearings and landing gear.

There is also strong interest in using SMAs for a variety of actuator applications in commercial jet engines, which would significantly reduce their weight and boost efficiency. Further research needs to be conducted in this area, however, to increase the transformation temperatures and improve the mechanical properties of these materials before they can be successfully implemented. A review of recent advances in high-temperature shape-memory alloys (HTSMAs) is presented by Ma et al.

A variety of wing-morphing technologies are also being explored.

Automotive
The first high-volume product (> 5Mio actuators / year) is an automotive valve used to control low pressure pneumatic bladders in a car seat that adjust the contour of the lumbar support / bolsters. The overall benefits of SMA over traditionally-used solenoids in this application (lower noise/EMC/weight/form factor/power consumption) were the crucial factor in the decision to replace the old standard technology with SMA.

The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette became the first vehicle to incorporate SMA actuators, which replaced heavier motorized actuators to open and close the hatch vent that releases air from the trunk, making it easier to close. A variety of other applications are also being targeted, including electric generators to generate electricity from exhaust heat and on-demand air dams to optimize aerodynamics at various speeds.

Robotics
There have also been limited studies on using these materials in robotics, for example the hobbyist robot Stiquito (and "Roboterfrau Lara" ), as they make it possible to create very lightweight robots. Recently, a prosthetic hand was introduced by Loh et al. that can almost replicate the motions of a human hand [Loh2005]. Other biomimetic applications are also being explored. Weak points of the technology are energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.

Valves
SMAs are also used for actuating valves. The SMA valves are particularly compact in design.

Bio-engineered robotic hand
There is some SMA-based prototypes of robotic hand that using shape memory effect (SME) to move fingers.

Civil structures
SMAs find a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges and buildings. In the form of rebars or plates, they can be used for flexural, shear and seismic strengthening of concrete and steel structures. Another application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates SMA wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal micro-sized cracks. Also the active tuning of structural natural frequency using SMA wires to dampen vibrations is possible, as well as the usage of SMA fibers in concrete.

Piping
The first consumer commercial application was  a shape-memory coupling for piping, e.g. oil pipe lines, for industrial applications, water pipes and similar types of piping for consumer/commercial applications.

Smartphone cameras
Several smartphone companies have released handsets with optical image stabilisation (OIS) modules incorporating SMA actuators, manufactured under licence from Cambridge Mechatronics.

Medicine
Shape-memory alloys are applied in medicine, for example, as fixation devices for osteotomies in orthopaedic surgery, as the actuator in surgical tools; active steerable surgical needles for minimally invasive percutaneous cancer interventions in the surgical procedures such as biopsy and brachytherapy, in dental braces to exert constant tooth-moving forces on the teeth, in Capsule Endoscopy they can be used as a trigger for biopsy action.

The late 1980s saw the commercial introduction of Nitinol as an enabling technology in a number of minimally invasive endovascular medical applications. While more costly than stainless steel, the self expanding properties of Nitinol alloys manufactured to BTR (Body Temperature Response), have provided an attractive alternative to balloon expandable devices in stent grafts where it gives the ability to adapt to the shape of certain blood vessels when exposed to body temperature. On average, $%50$ of all peripheral vascular stents currently available on the worldwide market are manufactured with Nitinol.

Optometry
Eyeglass frames made from titanium-containing SMAs are marketed under the trademarks Flexon and TITANflex. These frames are usually made out of shape-memory alloys that have their transition temperature set below the expected room temperature. This allows the frames to undergo large deformation under stress, yet regain their intended shape once the metal is unloaded again. The very large apparently elastic strains are due to the stress-induced martensitic effect, where the crystal structure can transform under loading, allowing the shape to change temporarily under load. This means that eyeglasses made of shape-memory alloys are more robust against being accidentally damaged.

Orthopedic surgery
Memory metal has been utilized in orthopedic surgery as a fixation-compression device for osteotomies, typically for lower extremity procedures. The device, usually in the form of a large staple, is stored in a refrigerator in its malleable form and is implanted into pre-drilled holes in the bone across an osteotomy. As the staple warms it returns to its non-malleable state and compresses the bony surfaces together to promote bone union.

Dentistry
The range of applications for SMAs has grown over the years, a major area of development being dentistry. One example is the prevalence of dental braces using SMA technology to exert constant tooth-moving forces on the teeth; the nitinol archwire was developed in 1972 by orthodontist George Andreasen. This revolutionized clinical orthodontics. Andreasen's alloy has a patterned shape memory, expanding and contracting within given temperature ranges because of its geometric programming.

Harmeet D. Walia later utilized the alloy in the manufacture of root canal files for endodontics.

Essential tremor
Traditional active cancellation techniques for tremor reduction use electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems to actuate an object in the direction opposite to the disturbance. However, these systems are limited due to the large infrastructure required to produce large amplitudes of power at human tremor frequencies. SMAs have proven to be an effective method of actuation in hand-held applications, and have enabled a new class active tremor cancellation devices. One recent example of such device is the Liftware spoon, developed by Verily Life Sciences subsidiary Lift Labs.

Engines
Experimental solid state heat engines, operating from the relatively small temperature differences in cold and hot water reservoirs, have been developed since the 1970s, including the Banks Engine, developed by Ridgway Banks.

Crafts
Sold in small round lengths for use in affixment-free bracelets.

Heating and cooling
German scientists at Saarland University have produced a prototype machine that transfers heat using a nickel-titanium ("nitinol") alloy wire wrapped around a rotating cylinder. As the cylinder rotates, heat is absorbed on one side and released on the other, as the wire changes from its "superelastic" state to its unloaded state. According to a 2019 article released by Saarland University, the efficiency by which the heat is transferred appears to be higher than that of a typical heat pump or air conditioner.

Almost all air conditioners and heat pumps in use today employ vapor-compression of refrigerants. Over time, some of the refrigerants used in these systems leak into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming. If the new technology, which uses no refrigerants, proves economical and practical, it might offer a significant breakthrough in the effort to reduce climate change.

Materials
A variety of alloys exhibit the shape-memory effect. Alloying constituents can be adjusted to control the transformation temperatures of the SMA. Some common systems include the following (by no means an exhaustive list):

 * Ag-Cd 44/49 at.% Cd
 * Au-Cd 46.5/50 at.% Cd
 * Co-Ni-Al
 * Co-Ni-Ga
 * Cu-Al-Be-X(X:Zr, B, Cr, Gd)
 * Cu-Al-Ni 14/14.5 wt.% Al, 3/4.5 wt.% Ni
 * Cu-Al-Ni-Hf
 * Cu-Sn approx. 15 at.% Sn
 * Cu-Zn 38.5/41.5 wt.% Zn
 * Cu-Zn-X (X = Si, Al, Sn)
 * Fe-Mn-Si
 * Fe-Pt approx. 25 at.% Pt
 * Mn-Cu 5/35 at.% Cu
 * Ni-Fe-Ga
 * Ni-Ti approx. 55–60 wt.% Ni
 * Ni-Ti-Hf
 * Ni-Ti-Pd
 * Ni-Mn-Ga
 * Ni-Mn-Ga-Cu
 * Ni-Mn-Ga-Co
 * Ti-Nb

title: Shape-memory alloy


text:
User talk:Oliver Pereira/Archive 4

AAAAGH OLIVER!!! :-) I was about to delete Sheffield, but went back on my browser to check something. I came back to find Sheffield gone. I ended spluttering "but I didn't . . ." and trying to see was there a bug that had erased the article even though I had not hit the button. And all the time you had erased it. (I guess you and I were about to delete it at the same time!!!) lol FearÉIREANN 23:57 19 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Haha, beat you. :) -- Oliver P. 23:59 19 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I suppose I'll have to let you do then all on our onio. All hundreds and hundreds of pages. That way there is be no possible clashed. I'll head out for a late night pint instead. FearÉIREANN 00:03 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * No, no. I ' m off to bed now. You're quite free to carry on without fear of clashing wth me again tonight. :) -- Oliver P. 00:09 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Thank you for your edit at Talk:Catholicism -- see Annoying users for my comments on that issue. Also read New Imperialism (temp) (please please please) and compare it to New Imperialism -- be sure to read Talk:New Imperialism -- good night -- I too am an Uncle! Pizza Puzzle

 * Erm, yes, I saw Annoying users, but I'd rather not get involved in a fight right now, so I'll just urge you and Jtdirl to both practise WikiLove and not fight each other... :) I just put the section that Jtdirl removed on the talk page because that's what he said he was going to do himself. Perhaps he just didn't quite get round to it... :) As for New Imperialism and its associated pages, I gather that people have been arguing over that for pretty much the whole time I've been here, so it'll take me ages to get up to speed with what's going on. And it's not really a subject I know much about... Maybe I'll try, though, as it does look interesting. But another day... I'm thinking of going to bed soon myself... :) -- Oliver P. 05:16 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * THIS IS WHY YOU NEED TO LOOK AT IT Since you don't know anything about it -- read them - I guarantee you that 172s version is not something you are going to want to read through - mine is something you can get through. Pizza Puzzle

Thanks Oliver for putting the text onto the talk page when my system froze (I was listening to Sinatra on iTunes at the time and he froze on a note, then the computer told me "please switch off your computer and reboot" so I lost it all. BTW re Pizza Puzzle's comments. In the last week PP has started down some rather provocative things. Far from attacking him I left three messages on his talk page urging him to continue to act with the high standards he has been reaching up to now. I have not agreed with various people's request that he be banned. I have gone out on a limb to urge him as a colleague not to start reverting to past standards and to keep up the high standards he has practiced as PP. I told him how highly I regarded his ability. Yet (as in the past, *sigh*) he interprets constructive criticism as offensive attacks. After this I am not going to waste any time defending him, urging people clashing with him to ease off. I have had three contacts from people on AIM and ICQ asking me if I would support them if they proposed him for a ban. I said no. Next time I won't come to his rescue. FearÉIREANN 05:56 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Take your threats elsewhere, referring to a users contributions as "incoherent garbage" is not constructive criticism. Pizza Puzzle

From Colin Powell: As Secretary of State in the Bush administration, Powell is perceived as moderate, his pragmatism serving as a balance to more idealogy-driven hawks, such as the Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld and his colleagues Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle.

 * How could I not support the one bit of quasisanity in the Bush administration?

Also from Powell: critics condemned Powell as a company man who is never willing to confront uncomfortable realities or rock the boat.

 * As do I, notice that Erwin Rommel is on my list as well. I tend to support military officers who, despite the trend of all their peers, continue to resist fascism -- although, certainly, they could do more good, they most certainly could do far more evil. Pizza Puzzle

I saw your comment to 172 and restored King & Spalding. The ampersand did seem to be a problem - I was able to find the deleted version by replacing it in the URL with its hexadecimal equivalent (%26) Evercat 18:33 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Ah! very cunning. :) Thanks. -- Oliver P. 18:35 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Actually I think Anthere possibly beat me to it. There's no such thing as an undeletion conflict. :-) Evercat 18:36 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Oh, how confusing! In that case, thanks to Anthere as well, if she sees this... :) -- Oliver P. 18:45 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Just to say that I didn't do what I did to John Ford out of forgetfulness. As it was obvious that different people had worked on the different John Fords, there didn't seem much point in moving the page history to just one of them -- so I left it where it was.

BTW, the church roof has been repaired. Deb 19:53 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I just wanted to inform you that there is an actual vote going on at VfD regarding Daniel C. Boyer. MB 19:48, Jul 30, 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, the vote and much new talk has moved to Talk:Daniel C. Boyer. MB 21:10, Aug 6, 2003 (UTC)

AKFD
I wish to throw 'AIDS Kills Fags Dead' slogan to the wolves - see Talk:AKFD/redirect. You voted against that, so I'm contacting you (and the other two who voted the same way). User:MyRedDice

 * Okay, thanks for the note. I'll go there now. -- Oliver P. 21:02, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Hi. Yes, the article titles do look a bit small now, but perhaps it's like the Radio Times - you know, every time they change the typeface you think you'll never get used to it, but you soon do.

That's a good idea, about the disambiguation methodology. Having said that, I'm not sure how many people would be that desperate to follow back the history, especially of the talk page. Deb 22:13, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

No, it was entirely my fault - I take back the above comment. Engage brain! There, that ought to help. Deb 17:51, 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)

When you list a page on Votes for deletion you must say "Listed on Votes for deletion" on the page you are listing. Otherwise the page will not get deleted. --mav 23:34, 16 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Oh. Okay. Sorry. I didn't realise that was a definite rule now. There I was yesterday complaining to someone else about not following the deletion policy, and I wasn't even following it myself... -- Oliver P. 09:57, 17 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Oliver, wrt Luke Pebody, my concern on this is simple. Mr Pebody has published a couple of journal papers. We don't even have articles for most of the Nobel Prize winners. Even in computer science, where the Wikipedia is strong, we cover half the Turing award winners. So why are we writing about such relative nonentities as this guy?

If somebody turns does a search for combinatorics and turns up the biography of Mr Pebody, they will gain a misleading impression of his importance to this field - considering that to my knowledge we don't have articles on ANYBODY else in the field.

Not to mention that doing a biography on people of that kind of prominence without doing original research is going to be impossible anyway...--Robert Merkel

 * Thanks for your message. To answer your first point: all this says is that the Wikipedia is hopelessly incomplete. Well, we all know that... It's been true ever since the project started, and will be true for a long time to come. There are huge gaps all over the place, even amongst really famous people. So yes, I agree that coverage is really patchy at the moment. But the project is only two and a half years old, and it's expanding at an ever-increasing rate. If this pace continues, the gaps will eventually be filled. It's inevitable.

 * As for misleading impressions, even for those people who have articles, their articles are often very incomplete, and give a skewed impression of their lives. Anyone reading the Wikipedia will get a misleading impression about a lot of things. But this situation can always be improved by anyone with knowledge in the relevant area. If you come across an article which talks about a person who is fairly obscure but which doesn't make that fact clear, all you have to do is add a sentence saying that the person is fairly obscure. :) Although perhaps it could be phrased in a more NPOV way than that.

 * Anyway, it might be relevant that I'd heard of this chap before his article appeared, so he's not completely unheard of even outside the world of the professional mathematician... :)

 * As for your point about the research that would be needed to fill in all the biographical details, well, it's true that a lot of basic details will not be public knowledge. You have a point there. But a very incomplete article is still more informative than no article at all (half a loaf is better than no bread!), and it is at least arguable that that outweighs the negative effect of the unprofessional look of incomplete articles. I agree that they would look bad, though. I'll give the issue some more thought, anyway. -- Oliver P. 17:23, 17 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Deletion
I strongly disagree. The content was ''He is a funny man that has created Factory and the Hacienda. And, by the way, his wife is great.''

This is clearly covered by the deletion policy as patent nonsense. If someone wanted to create a sensible article about him, they could do so. The ridiculous content which I deleted would not help to create that article.

Angela

 * He did create Factory and the Hacienda. And by doing a Google search on those terms, I found quite a few pages that would help to create an article on him. QED. -- Oliver P. 19:24, 17 Aug 2003 (UTC)

The orignal article was still nonsense though. Sticking a fact in the middle of nonsense doesn't mean it should be kept. The original contributer was obviously not serious about adding to the article so I don't think keeping it is necessary. If you keep accusing people of over-hasty deletions, VfD is going to get very full. User:jimfbleak is now listing things which should have been deleted on sight, presumably as a result of what you said to him yesterday. Angela

 * Sticking a fact in the middle of nonsense makes it not entirely nonsense any more. I'm not arguing for the policy here; I'm just telling you what it says. (Actually, there do seem to be some internal contradictions in the policy page itself. Perhaps I should sort them out.) I said to both of you that you could argue for the policy to be changed at Wikipedia talk:Deletion policy. Oh, go on, arguing about policies is such fun... -- Oliver P. 19:44, 17 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I noticed you moved East Ruston, Norfolk to East Ruston. Is there a policy about place names of English villages? Since articles about North American municipalities all incorporate the state or province I added the county for East Ruston, but I had no idea whether that was the right thing to do. Trontonian

Thanks for the information. I'll go move Hoveton back now. Trontonian

Or I would have if you hadn't beaten me to it. User:Trontonian

 * Heh. :) -- Oliver P. 04:30, 21 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for reminding me that! Poor Yorick 16:00, 22 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Ooh, get you! Personally, I felt that Dr Michael Walker fell into both categories 3 and 4, as little of the content appeared to me to be meaningful. More to the point, I doubted the veracity of what was there. You must admit it did read like a child's attempt to get back at his headmaster for existing. These things are bound to be subjective -- which is, of course, why I didn't go ahead and delete it, I merely asked whether we really needed to wait. And you disagreed with me, which is your prerogative. Deb 16:59, 22 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Oliver, the heading on the bottom of Vfd is to make it easier to get to the bottom of the page via the table of contents. If you just click on the last date, you must still scroll through all of that day's additions to get to the newest one. I understand that the END key does the same thing, basically, but it can't really hurt to have another way of doing it. Besides, not everyone knows how to use the HOME and END keys, but the ToC is self explanatory. ;) --Dante Alighieri 03:13, 23 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Oh, I see! Well, that makes sense. Thanks for the explanation. -- Oliver P. 05:33, 26 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Hiya, chuck. Actually, Dr Walker sounds quite an interesting bloke - now that I know he exists! Deb 10:35, 23 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Cool. :) Sorry for overreacting about that, though. I become very protective towards some articles, for some reason... -- Oliver P. 05:33, 26 Aug 2003 (UTC)

No idea, but you're quite welcome. *grin* - Hephaestos 05:16, 26 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I strongly believe so but can't proove it. Some people seem to think anyone should be made sysop though which is what made me think things are getting stupid here. I don't know if it's a good reason to quit though. Perhaps I should just accept it. Angela

 * I sent you an e-mail. Angela

Sorry for the Kukes redirect thing, but I had no choice since the other page existed as well and I couldn't just move it. Also, initially I was confused as to whether I should use the english alphabet or the local spelling which is where the whole Kukes or Kukës naming conflict came from. Dori 21:50, 26 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for your e-mail. I'm going to stop being so paranoid and hope that you are right. I suppose it's not the end of the world even if it does turn out to be Lir. I still think everyone is mad though :)

Angela

How is the content of Eddie The Animal Lopez not patent nonsense? RickK 20:51, 20 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * Easy! Because it was written in almost perfect English. Please read the "Not to be confused with..." section. -- Oliver P. 21:04, 20 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Im onto you Lir. Pizza Puzzle

 * Oh no, damn, I've been found out. ;) -- Oliver P. 21:04, 20 Sep 2003 (UTC)

The link's right there. It's at Houston, Texas. RickK 03:51, 21 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * But is there any reason to force people to go via the Houston, Texas page, rather than allowing them to go straight there? -- Oliver P. 03:54, 21 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Yes, I coded a decryp algorithim which hacked into Jimbo's account, unbanned me, and then retrieved my password. I am running "amuck" (as Jtdirl would say) until I am "rumbled", at which point, BrionVibber will have to restart the database, delete the wiki, and everyone will start over from scratch without me. (yah, go see mailing list)LirQ

So it has to wait seven days from now rather than seven days from the 25th? That doesn't really make sense if people wanted it deleted for reasons other than copyvio anyway. I'm not too bothered, I just wondered why you moved it. Angela 02:20, 28 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * Hmm. Good point. Maybe it should be deleted seven days from its being listed on Vfd, if there is a consensus to do so. But I don't think there's any point in putting the effort into finding a consensus if the page has to be deleted on copyright grounds anyway. So in a sense I'm saying that the listing for possible copyright infringement "outranks" the listing for any other reason, and therefore we should list as a possible copyright infringement. And since that possible copyright infringement was only discovered today (as far as I can tell), I think it makes sense to list it under today. Generally, I think it's good to give people as much of a chance as possible to defend things, because gaining information is better than losing it. :) -- Oliver P. 02:34, 28 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * That would be because you are an m:inclusionist. I would move it to the 25th because I want everything deleted as soon as possible! :) -Angela

 * Ah, thanks for the link. But that essay is just far too non-NPOV. I might have to attack it later. :) By the way, we inclusionists will win. ;) -- Oliver P. 04:12, 28 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * Rotten boroughs -> Talk:Rotten borough

The term "unencyclopedic"
Discussion at encyclopedic

Yes, sir. At History of the Soviet Union you will find, in the first paragraph, that the Tsar was the leader of a regime. Examining the talk page you will find an argument by Jtdirl in which he argues that the Tsar had a regime because he was too stupid to create a "real government" (or so I interpreted his statements -- Im sure he will declare my view as a "gross misrepresentation" of his position -- stated as so: "[he] was not particularly intelligent"). LirQ

That is unfair. 1. The word regime is often used to describe pre-democratic governmental systems, eg, the Ancien Regime in France, Russia under the Old Regime by Pipes, etc. 2. I do not believe that Adam is "not particularly intelligent". I believe the exact opposite, that Adam is one of the most intelligent people on wiki. I only wish Adam would stop picking fights with people and start being constructive. I have made constant efforts to mend bridges, defending Pizza Puzzle from calls for his banning, being the first one to say Adam should be allowed back as Adam, etc. What more do I have to do? FearÉIREANN 18:42, 30 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Its not me you called stupid, its poor Nicholas whom you slandered. Lirath Q. Pynnor

Oliver, thanks for your comment on Frank Forde. I have now learned how to use the page moving thing. Incidentally the text at Frank Forde is all mine because I completely rewrote the article. Adam 06:25, 8 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Sorry. I'll keep it in mind. Evil saltine 06:55, 8 Oct 2003 (UTC)

A little confusion on my part about Varia - seemed odd to leave the VfD note in place even after the contents had been fixed up. Stan 23:55, 10 Oct 2003 (UTC)

In your war against the "Cut out everything that's 'unencyclopedic'!" meme, be sure to go to VfD and vote against the attempts to delete Bush's nickname list from Wikipedia. Yes, they put it on there AGAIN.

Hey Oliv: whats up? Good job on Frank Bruno! Basically all I know is about their careers, but you did an excellent job about his life. In view that he, Arnold Sawazzrhardlastname and so many others have been getting into politics Ive been thinking that maybe we should make a list of entertainers who have gone into politics, what do you think? Although this isnt new, cause of Ronald Regan, John Glenn, Shirley Temple, etc, in view that its catching on, maybe we should...

i JUST WANTED TO SAY YOU MIGHT NOTICE THAT these days my contributions have been minimized: not to worry, what happens is that Thursday night I was with Antonio Margarito, friday with Tim Conway and today Im going partying! We are staying until tomorrow at a 4 star hotel drinking and dancing. I met Margarito and Conway to get their autographs, was successful with both..LOL As soon as my schedule goes back to normal I will be doing my two normal pages per day.

Thanks for everythimg, bro, and God bless ya!

Take care, Your friend
 * Antonio Coco Loco Martin

Bear
Hahaha, I didn't really request the Prime Number Shitting Bear article, I think I just observed that we have Pi Day and Pi Approximation Day, but not that one (to go with the math jokes theme). I suppose a gap of some sort has now been filled :) Adam Bishop 18:50, 22 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Deletion
Hello. It seems that you accidentally deleted Oscar Jofre when it hadn't been on Votes for deletion for a week. But never fear, I have corrected the situation. (You might want to read Deletion policy again, by the way...) -- Oliver P. 23:51, 23 Oct 2003 (UTC)

No, Oliver, it was a standard delete of a delete on sight article. CVs are generally deleted on sight as they are seen as advertising. That one I had checked out by someone who speaks the language and yes it is simply a promotional CV that is impossible to wikify into an article even if translated. It is just bumpf of the sort that sysops automatically delete to avoid jamming up the VfD page, which is already almost unmanageable in size, with stuff that is unsalvageable, in the wrong language, unwikifiable, without any support and certain to be deleted in any case. There is no point making the VfD page unusable to people by clogging it up with stuff that has 0% support and 0% chance of being wikified and is bog standard delete on sight stuff, so taking up space that could be usefully filled by real articles. All you are doing in keeping it is clogging up the page with someone's CV in Spanish and the chances are the next sysop that spots it will ask 'what the hell is that doing there' and delete it automatically. (I've already got an AIM message from another sysop saying that I just deleted it ahead of him.) FearÉIREANN 00:17, 24 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Hmm... Did you take up my suggestion to read Deletion policy? See the section headed "Candidates for speedy deletion". There is nothing there that says that CVs can be deleted on sight. And for good reason - they may contain good information, and it is easier to turn a CV (even a Spanish one, if you speak Spanish) into prose than it is to write the prose from scratch. If you want to get the deletion policy changed, please take it up at Wikipedia talk:Deletion policy. Until it is changed, please follow the policy as set out on the policy page. Thanks. -- Oliver P. 00:30, 24 Oct 2003 (UTC)

I followed wiki policy perfectly and will continue to do so. The article is, according to policy, if listed anywhere supposed to be listed on a different page dealing with VfD pages needing translation. It is not supposed to be on the VfD page. It has 0% support, 0% encyclopædic content, it is a form of page that is regularly deleted by many sysops and will continue to be. Please, if you are so concerned about rules, try following them by listing pages where they are supposed to be listed and that page is not supposed to be listed on the english VfD, as the rules make clear. So please delete it from the VfD and follow the deletion policy rather than ignoring policy and then accusing everyone else of breaking rules you yourself don't follow. FearÉIREANN 00:39, 24 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Hello again. You say that you "followed wiki policy perfectly" in deleting a CV on sight. If you think there is a policy that says it's okay to delete CVs on sight, please could you point me to the policy page where this is stated? Because I haven't seen it. It is true that since the page in question was in Spanish, it should have been listed on Votes for deletion/foreign language rather than Votes for deletion, and so I apologise for putting the entry on the wrong page. (I simply forgot that there was a separate place for foreign language pages.) However, it is wrong of you to criticise me for not listing it there, because you didn't either. Camembert did so, after I had undeleted the page following your premature deletion of it. It is also wrong of you to say that I am accusing everyone else of breaking rules I myself don't follow. I have never deleted a page with non-trivial content without following the agreed deletion policy. -- Oliver P. 00:58, 24 Oct 2003 (UTC)

 * Dumping an entire conversation that took place at a number of locations onto one user's page, when you and not the person whose page you dumped the stuff on started the discussion, is such a gross abuse of wikipedia rules. Stuff is normally put on one location if the owner of the location is banned or if they have been asked if they mind having a chunk of their page filled with stuff moved from other people's pages. I couldn't care less where you dump the stuff but don't ever try to dump large chunks of text of a conversation you initiated onto my page like that again or it will be deleted on sight and a complaint made about your behaviour. That sort of antics is grossly unprofessional and against the spirit of wikipedia. FearÉIREANN 23:22, 25 Oct 2003 (UTC)

 * Trying to keep a conversation in one place is a gross abuse of Wikipedia rules? That's a good one. ;) Most conservations here take place on a single page. Splitting a single conservation over two pages just makes it hard to follow, which is contrary to the spirit of Wikipedia - you know, openness and all that. Admittedly, when people write to me on my talk page, I'm not very consistent about whether I reply here or on their talk page. Usually it doesn't much matter, because it's usually trivial stuff. Well, this was trivial stuff too, but since it was dragging on, I was starting to lose track, so I thought it best to consolidate it in one place. Since the conversation started on your talk page, and since it was in any case about something you did, it made perfect sense to keep it on your talk page. I don't mind it being here instead, but I should point out that your removal of it from your talk page without moving it here, and indeed without any comment at all, was very bad form. Since the discussion was about an alleged violation of deletion policy by yourself, blanking it without comment looks pretty sneaky. Do you have something to hide? -- Oliver P. 23:56, 25 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Get off your pulpit and stop being so paranoid. Dumping a large chunk of text on someone else's page is completely unwiki. And it is a bit rich being lectured on procedures by someone who ignored everyone else's opinion and tried to delete the new design from the new page, simply because you didn't like it. The words pot, kettle and black come to mind. I will delete stuff from my page that someone else chooses to dump on it without telling me when I want and it is none of your business whether I put a comment on or not. FearÉIREANN 00:44, 26 Oct 2003 (UTC)

-- You may want to add your voice to: Wikipedia talk:Don't include copies of primary sources --mav 07:21, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Cockney Rejects
I'd call it a sub stub but then I also think that articles consisting of nothing but a discography are not really encyclopedia material. Ymmv. Angela

Speedy deletion
re speedy deletion. The CV article was an unedited, unformatted CV of an unknown, which looks like junk to me, even if not copyright. If it had shown some indication of any attempt to make it a proper article I would have listed it on VfD. In any case, with the new system, it's much easier to reverse deletions than it used to be, so if you or anyone else want to write an article about this guy it would have been easy to reverse. This has happened more than once when I've deleted unarguable junk, and someone has picked up on the topic. jimfbleak 15:31, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

"Redundant" information?
There was a post made to the mailing list, which I strongly agree with, which argues that we should not include redundant information. Anybody who cares about Von Koch, will read his page and learn about him -- it is not relevant to the Koch curve whther Koch was swedish, or even that he was a "certified mathematician". Lirath Q. Pynnor

Hmm, please can you provide the URL of this post? :) I gave up trying to follow the mailing lists a few months ago, as it took so much time... I think that any article should give enough information to make it fairly self-contained, and shouldn't force readers to read other articles to understand the context. Nationality and profession are fairly basic things that people generally want to know about other people. Helge von Koch's being a mathematician is certainly useful to know when reading about his mathematics, and even his being Swedish might be of interest. Maybe the shape was influenced by the Swedish weather. ;) -- Oliver P. 01:02, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I would just like to thank you for restoring all those "year in Canada" articles. I'm sure many others would have balked at how many there were. - SimonP 21:33, Nov 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * No problem. :) -- Oliver P. 01:07, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I feel that my actions were perfectly in line with the policy of deleting bogus articles. RickK 01:39, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Thanks!
Thanks for adding the VfD note to Fluff! I just realized that I forgot to do it. Anthropos 03:31, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * No problem. :) -- Oliver P. 03:34, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Dear Ol; Whats up my ol' reliable? Thanks from letting me know aboout Melwyn Cedeno. All I know about him is that when I was young in Puerto Rico he used to participate a lot at stand-up comedy on the midday television shows there, and that he was the infamous Chevy, el Ponzonu. Problem is, I left my island before he became famous. However, I will see what kind of information I can find on him and add my limited (ex. his marriage with model Phaedra Michalwesky) knowledge of what he's done for the last 13 years.

Once again, thanks and God bless you!

Sincerely yours, your amigo forever, Antonio Ponzonu! Martin

Bonnie et al.
Which deletions are you referring to? I didn't delete Bonnie et al - that was daniel quinlan. Secretlondon 20:43, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Sorry, my mistake. - Oliver P. 22:19, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Why are you restoring those pages? It's a repeat vandal, maybe Michael, but I'm no expert in who is who with the vandalism thing. See documentation at Vandalism in Progress. Daniel Quinlan 20:45, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

Since you seem concerned, I thought I'd drop you a note: my summary deletions of the Bryleigh's Theorem, Jayne Bryleigh, and slope field (subsequently undeleted by you and redeleted by Daniel Quinlan) were explained on VfD; the post were later moved to Talk:Bonnie (second from bottom). I deleted them as simple vandalism (#3 on list of candidates for speedy deletion) of the "sneaky" variety (see Dealing with vandalism for definition). Cheers, Cyan 21:43, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the explanation. You have convinced me that the list of candidates for speedy deletion can be interpreted in a way that allows the speedy deletion of those sorts of articles. But I'm not convinced that the list was meant to be interpreted in that way. Dealing with vandalism says, "Here's how it works: First you detect that someone has vandalised a page, for example replacing the entire page with a reference to homosexuality. So you revert the page. Congratulations, you have just successfully dealt with vandalism!" and so on. So it's talking about bad edits to pages, not the creation of new pages. Perceived vandalism of existing articles can be dealt with boldly, because anyone can undo the edits if they disagree with them, without having to follow any laborious procedure beforehand. Perceived vandalism in the creation of articles should not be dealt with so boldly, because it is more difficult to reverse deletions. In the cases under discussion, the articles were certainly not simple vandalism. Some of them, at least, required some knowledge of the history of mathematics to detect their silliness. Articles which appear to make sense on the surface should definitely be up for discussion for the usual amount of time, in my opinion. I think the deletion policy needs clarifying... -- Oliver P. 22:19, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

lol, i wish, where are you from? i'm from australia, he is well known down here.. gock

Catherine Oxenberg
Since you want the illegible, ungrammatical version of this article, why don't you fix it? RickK 04:29, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Precisely what I'm in the process of doing. In future, please don't remove information just because you don't want to copy-edit it yourself. -- Oliver P. 04:32, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I see you've put a VfD notice on Daniel M. Lewin but not listed it on the votes for deletion page, was this an accident, as I can't see any reason for the page to be deleted. --Imran 16:18, 20 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Thank you for letting me know about the Anna Leonowens programme. Unfortunately, I was in work at the time - but I could have recorded it if I'd read my Radio Times properly. Was it any good? Deb 20:31, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)

M.R.M. Parrott
"It actually seems to me that there is no consensus to delete the page. (your comment from Talk:M.R.M. Parrott)
 * Do you think there is not enough of a rough consensus to delete the article? My view on reading the discussion without actually counting up the votes was that there was, combined with the fact it violates policies of verifiablility etc, I would have regarded it a candidate for deletion were it not for your comment above. Please could you clarify what you think should be done with it. Angela. 16:34, Jan 10, 2004 (UTC)

Thank you, Oliver. :) Martin

I've moved the discussion on Initial-stress-derived noun to Talk:Initial-stress-derived noun/Delete and delisted it from VfD due to the large number of votes to keep. You may still want to do the history merging you mentioned on VfD. Angela. 06:24, Jan 12, 2004 (UTC)

Please don't add VfD notices to pages in the MediaWiki namespace. As explained at Mediawiki talk:Legal, this makes the message appear on any article that uses the message, which would be very confusing for people who then try to find that article on VfD. Angela. 21:12, Jan 15, 2004 (UTC)

re: "I suppose the idea is now too firmly entrenched..."
 * I'm not sure that is the case. You could certainly argue that people should use rather than  . There has already been some dispute over this, so I expect you could push for the use of subst more than msg if you want. That way they do not appear as "meaningless-looking codes" after the article is saved. Angela. 07:41, Jan 20, 2004 (UTC)

I couldn't help but notice you've not been contributing recently. A shame for several reasons - your ability to grind out an article on pretty much any topic - your voice on things like VfD was extremely valuable. So whatever the reason for your current missing status, I hope its not permanent. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 13:13, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Metropolitan State Hospital
I've justed turned Metropolitan State Hospital into a disambig page. Fyi it still had the tag on it, even though you took it off vfd over a month ago. Just thought I'd let you know. -- Graham :) 13:34, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * No problem, glad to see you back. PS like the fish Graham  :) 00:46, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Not so, Oliver. It was 5 to 2. That's a consensus. Tannin

Vfd multiple articles in one listing
You wrote:

"Discussing several articles simultaneously has been tried on here before, and it always ends up a total mess."

A counter-example to this statement is the recent listing of Sterlingda's user subpages, which was quite straightforward. So, not "always", but "often". ;-) -- Cyan 03:03, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, all right. It was a bit of an exaggeration... -- Oliver P. 04:12, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Oliver Pereira/Archive 4


text:
Julie Bowen

Julie Bowen (born Julie Bowen Luetkemeyer; March 3, 1970) is an American actress. She is best known for starring as Claire Dunphy in the ABC sitcom Modern Family (2009–2020), for which she received widespread critical acclaim. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2011 and 2012.

Bowen also starred as Roxanne Please in the NBC medical drama series ER (1998–1999), Carol Vessey in the NBC comedy series Ed (2000–2004), Denise Bauer in the ABC legal drama series Boston Legal (2005–2007), and Sarah Shephard in the ABC drama series Lost (2005–2007).

Bowen has also appeared in the films Happy Gilmore (1996), Multiplicity (1996), Joe Somebody (2001), Horrible Bosses (2011), Hubie Halloween (2020), and The Fallout (2021).

Early life
Bowen was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the second of three daughters of Suzanne (née Frey) and John Alexander Luetkemeyer Jr., a commercial real estate developer. She is the sister of infectious disease specialist Annie Luetkemeyer and designer Molly Luetkemeyer. Bowen is of German descent.

Raised in suburban Ruxton-Riderwood, Maryland, Bowen first attended Calvert School, then Garrison Forest School, Roland Park Country School, and St. George's School in Middletown, Rhode Island. She attended Brown University, majoring in Italian Renaissance studies. She spent her junior year in Florence, Italy. During college, she had roles in Guys and Dolls, Stage Door, and Lemon Sky. Before graduating, she had the lead role in the independent film Five Spot Jewel. Bowen studied acting at the Actor's Institute, among other places.

Career
Bowen had a role in the soap opera Loving (1992) and an episode of the college drama Class of '96 (1993). She had the lead role in the television film Runaway Daughters (1994). She played the love interest of the title character in Happy Gilmore (1996). She appeared in the films Multiplicity (1996) and An American Werewolf in Paris (1997). She has had guest roles on television series such as Party of Five (1996) and Strange Luck (1996). As well as her role as Aunt Gwen in the drama series Dawson’s Creek (1999).

Bowen had a recurring role as Roxanne Please on ER (1998–99). She first gained prominence on the television series Ed (2000–04), where she played high school English teacher Carol Vessey. She then guest starred as Sarah Shephard in five episodes of Lost (2005–07). She also played attorney Denise Bauer on the series Boston Legal (2005–08), and had a recurring role on Weeds (2008). She was a spokesmodel for Neutrogena, most recently advertising the Pure Glow products. She appeared on an episode of Celebrity Jeopardy! on August 31, 2010, and again on December 4, 2022.

From 2009 to 2020, Bowen starred as Claire Dunphy on the ABC sitcom Modern Family. For her portrayal, she received six consecutive Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (2010–15), winning the award in 2011 and 2012. Bowen has said that winning an Emmy is like "German soldiers in the trenches of the World Wars" and that "when you win the award, it is like being pulled out of the trench." She also said, "as exciting and wonderful as it is not to be in the trench, and to be recognized for what you do, it also means everyone has got a clear shot at you and that is a very frightening prospect for most of us."

In November 2021, Bowen's production company, Bowen & Sons, entered a first-look deal at Universal Television.

In March 2023, Prom Pact, a movie produced by Bowen, was released on the Disney Channel and Disney+ in the United States

Personal life
Bowen suffers from the cardiovascular condition bradycardia: her regular heartbeat is below normal. As a result, she has had a pacemaker since her early twenties.

Bowen married Scott Phillips, a real estate investor and software developer, on September 9, 2004. They have three sons, the first born in April 2007, and twins born in May 2009, with whom she was visibly pregnant when shooting the pilot for Modern Family. She is a self-described "low Protestant." In February 2018, she filed for divorce from Phillips and cited irreconcilable differences as the reason for the divorce. It was finalized on September 13, 2018.

In 2016, Bowen appeared in "Fight Song", a Pitch Perfect-inspired music video shown at the Democratic National Convention in support of nominee Hillary Clinton.

title: Julie Bowen


text:
Magnetic shape-memory alloy

Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs), also called ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMA), are particular shape memory alloys which produce forces and deformations in response to a magnetic field. The thermal shape memory effect has been obtained in these materials, too.

Introduction
MSM alloys are ferromagnetic materials that can produce motion and forces under moderate magnetic fields. Typically, MSMAs are alloys of Nickel, Manganese and Gallium (Ni-Mn-Ga).

A magnetically induced deformation of about 0.2% was presented in 1996 by Dr. Kari Ullakko and co-workers at MIT. Since then, improvements on the production process and on the subsequent treatment of the alloys have led to deformations of up to 6% for commercially available single crystalline Ni-Mn-Ga MSM elements, as well as up to 10-12 % and 20% for new alloys in R&D stage.

The large magnetically induced strain, as well as the short response times make the MSM technology very attractive for the design of innovative actuators to be used in pneumatics, robotics, medical devices and mechatronics. MSM alloys change their magnetic properties depending on the deformation. This companion effect, which co-exist with the actuation, can be useful for the design of displacement, speed or force sensors and mechanical energy harvesters.

The magnetic shape memory effect occurs in the low temperature martensite phase of the alloy, where the elementary cells composing the alloy have tetragonal geometry. If the temperature is increased beyond the martensite–austenite transformation temperature, the alloy goes to the austenite phase where the elementary cells have cubic geometry. With such geometry the magnetic shape memory effect is lost.

The transition from martensite to austenite produces force and deformation. Therefore, MSM alloys can be also activated thermally, like thermal shape memory alloys (see, for instance, Nickel-Titanium (Ni-Ti) alloys).

The magnetic shape memory effect
The mechanism responsible for the large strain of MSM alloys is the so-called magnetically induced reorientation (MIR), and is sketched in the figure. Like other ferromagnetic materials, MSM alloys exhibit a macroscopic magnetization when subjected to an external magnetic field, emerging from the alignment of elementary magnetizations along the field direction. However, differently from standard ferromagnetic materials, the alignment is obtained by the geometric rotation of the elementary cells composing the alloy, and not by rotation of the magnetization vectors within the cells (like in magnetostriction).

A similar phenomenon occurs when the alloy is subjected to an external force. Macroscopically, the force acts like the magnetic field, favoring the rotation of the elementary cells and achieving elongation or contraction depending on its application within the reference coordinate system. The elongation and contraction processes are shown in the figure where, for example, the elongation is achieved magnetically and the contraction mechanically.

The rotation of the cells is a consequence of the large magnetic anisotropy of MSM alloys, and the high mobility of the internal regions. Simply speaking, an MSM element is composed by internal regions, each having a different orientation of the elementary cells (the regions are shown by the figure in green and blue colors). These regions are called twin-variants. The application of a magnetic field or of an external stress shifts the boundaries of the variants, called twin boundaries, and thus favors one variant or the other. When the element is completely contracted or completely elongated, it is formed by only one variant and it is said to be in a single variant state. The magnetization of the MSM element along a fixed direction differs if the element is in the contraction or in the elongation single variant state. The magnetic anisotropy is the difference between the energy required to magnetize the element in contraction single variant state and in elongation single variant state. The value of the anisotropy is related to the maximum work-output of the MSM alloy, and thus to the available strain and force that can be used for applications.

Properties
The main properties of the MSM effect for commercially available elements are summarized in (where other aspects of the technology and of the related applications are described):
 * Strain up to 6%
 * Max. generated stress up to 3 MPa
 * Minimum magnetic field for maximum strain: 500 kA/m
 * Full strain (6%) up to 2 MPa load
 * Workoutput per unit volume of about 150 kJ/m^3
 * Energetic efficiency (conversion between input magnetic energy and output mechanical work) about 90%
 * Internal friction stress of around 0.5 MPa
 * Magnetic and thermal activation
 * Operating temperatures between -40 and 60 °C
 * Change in magnetic permeability and electric resistivity during deformation

Fatigue Properties
The fatigue life of MSMAs is of particular interest for actuation applications due to the high frequency cycling, so improving the microstructure of these alloys has been of particular interest. Researchers have improved the fatigue life up to 2x109 cycles with a maximum stress of 2MPa, providing promising data to support real application of MSMAs in devices. Although high fatigue life has been demonstrated, this property has been found to be controlled by the internal twinning stress in the material, which is dependent on the crystal structure and twin boundaries. Additionally, inducing a fully strained (elongated or contracted) MSMA has been found to reduce fatigue life, so this must be taken into consideration when designing functional MSMA systems. In general, reducing defects such as surface roughness that cause stress concentration can increase the fatigue life and fracture resistance of MSMAs.

Development of the alloys
Standard alloys are Nickel-Manganese-Gallium (Ni-Mn-Ga) alloys, which are investigated since the first relevant MSM effect has been published in 1996. Other alloys under investigation are Iron-Palladium (Fe-Pd) alloys, Nickel-Iron-Gallium (Ni-Fe-Ga) alloys, and several derivates of the basic Ni-Mn-Ga alloy which further contain Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co) or Copper (Cu). The main motivation behind the continuous development and testing of new alloys is to achieve improved thermo-magneto-mechanical properties, such as a lower internal friction, a higher transformation temperature and a higher Curie temperature, which would allow the use of MSM alloys in several applications. In fact, the actual temperature range of standard alloys is up to 50 °C. Recently, an 80 °C alloy has been presented.

Due to the twin boundary motion mechanism required for the magnetic shape memory effect to occur, the highest performing MSMAs in terms of maximum induced strain have been single crystals. Additive manufacturing has been demonstrated as a technique to produce porous polycrystalline MSMAs. As opposed to fully dense polycrystalline MSMAs, porous structures allow more freedom of motion, which reduces the internal stress required to activate martensitic twin boundary motion. Additionally, post-process heat treatments such as sintering and annealing have been found to significantly increase the hardness and reduce the elastic moduli of Ni-Mn-Ga alloys.

Applications
MSM actuator elements can be used where fast and precise motion is required. They are of interest due to the faster actuation using magnetic field as compared to the heating/cooling cycles required for conventional shape memory alloys, which also promises higher fatigue lifetime. Possible application fields are robotics, manufacturing, medical surgery, valves, dampers, sorting. MSMAs have been of particular interest in the application of actuators (i.e. microfluidic pumps for lab-on-a-chip devices) since they are capable of large force and stroke outputs in relatively small spatial regions. Also, due to the high fatigue life and their ability to produce electromotive forces from a magnetic flux, MSMAs are of interest in energy harvesting applications.

The twinning stress, or internal frictional stress, of an MSMA determines the efficiency of actuation, so the operation design of MSM actuators is based on the mechanical and magnetic properties of a given alloy; for example, the magnetic permeability of an MSMA is a function of strain. The most common MSM actuator design consists of an MSM element controlled by permanent magnets producing a rotating magnetic field and a spring restoring a mechanical force during the shape memory cycling. Limitations on the magnetic shape memory effect due to crystal defects determine the efficiency of MSMAs in applications. Since the MSM effect is also temperature dependent, these alloys can be tailored to shift the transition temperature by controlling microstructure and composition.

title: Magnetic shape-memory alloy


text: Talk:The Tragically Hip (EP)

title: Talk:The Tragically Hip (EP)


text:
Bödeli

Bödeli (lit.: the Swiss German diminutive term for ground) is the tongue of land between Lake Thun and Lake Brienz in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland. Lake Thun and Lake Brienz were not yet separate after the last ice age. The rivers Lütschine from the south and the Lombach from the north brought enough debris to cause a partitioning over the millennia. Now Lake Brienz has a water level about 2 m higher than Lake Thun and the river Aare flows from one lake to the other through the Bödeli.

On the Bödeli are situated the villages and towns of Unterseen, Interlaken and Matten, which form a closed settlement area, and at the southern border are the villages of Wilderswil and Bönigen. From the south a hill range, the Ruuge, rises up.

Bödelibahn
Between 1870 and 1874 the Bödeli Railway (Bödelibahn) was constructed to link the steamer quay at Därligen on Lake Thun with the quay at Bönigen on Lake Brienz. The railway company cunningly arranged for the route to cross the Aare twice with bridges offering no headroom beneath for shipping, thus making it effectively impossible for a steamer company to compete with them.

title: Bödeli


text:
Talk:Up to Here

Fair use rationale for Image:Up to Here.jpg
Image:Up to Here.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 11:28, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Up to Here


text:
Talk:Road Apples (album)

Fair use rationale for Image:Road Apples.jpg
Image:Road Apples.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 04:27, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

"Another Roadside Attraction"
does not in fact refer to "Road Apples". As one drives through Canada (and of course the US) you are often beset by attractions of dubious nature by the roadside. Fruit stands, historical markers, and giant version mof various objects (Easter Egg, Dinosaur, Prarie Chicken (Sheho), Goose (Wawa), Lobster (Shediac). These are the roadside attractions referred to in the name of the festival name, meaning that the festival is just another thing to stop and look at in Canada.

Another note: the book of the same name by Tom Robbins contains a plot element that is indeed an attratcion as mentioned above.

Unless there's any objection, I'll remove this reference and change it as appropriate. Tsylos (talk) 19:20, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Road Apples (album)


text:
Talk:Fully Completely

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title: Talk:Fully Completely


text:
Rollerblade

Rollerblade is a brand of inline skates owned by Nordica, part of the Tecnica Group of Giavera del Montello, Treviso, Italy.

The company was started by Scott Olson (b. 1960), Brennan Olson (b. 1964) and Christopher Middlebrook in Minneapolis as Ole's Innovative Sports; when they sold the company, it became Rollerblade, Inc. and has changed hands over time between Nordica, Benetton Group and Tecnica.

Inline-skates had been used for many years by ice speed skaters before they became mainstream. For the first few years after Rollerblade was developed, Rollerblade, Inc. were the only manufacturer of in-line skates that had worldwide distribution. This allowed the company to capitalize and grab a huge percentage of the world market share and almost total dominance of the North American market with aggressive advertising campaigns and sponsored in-line-only sporting events.

Rollerblade, Inc. manufactures different types of skates, such as those for aggressive skating, fitness, or recreational use with removable "walkable" liners, as well as adjustable skates for younger users.

title: Rollerblade