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Sole proprietorship

A sole proprietorship, also known as a sole tradership, individual entrepreneurship or proprietorship, is a type of enterprise owned and run by only one person and in which there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business entity. A sole trader does not necessarily work alone and may employ other people.

The sole trader receives all profits (subject to taxation specific to the business) and has unlimited responsibility for all losses and debts. Every asset of the business is owned by the proprietor, and all debts of the business are that of the proprietor; the business is not a separate legal entity. The arrangement is a "sole" proprietorship in contrast with a partnership, which has at least two owners.

Sole proprietors may use a trade name or business name other than their legal name. They may have to trademark their business name legally if it differs from their own legal name, with the process varying depending upon country of residence.

Advantages and disadvantages
Registration of a business name for a sole proprietor is generally uncomplicated, unless it involves the selection of a name that is fictitious, or assumed. In many countries, the business owner is required to register with the appropriate local authorities, who will determine that the name submitted is not duplicated by another business entity.

The owner may hire employees and enlist the services of independent consultants. Although an employee or consultant may be requested by the owner to complete a specific project, or participate in the company's decision-making process, their contribution to the project or decision is considered a recommendation under the law. Under the legal doctrine respondeat superior (Latin: "let the master answer"), the legal liability for any business decision arising from such a contribution remains upon the owner and cannot be renounced or apportioned.

This is transposed by the unlimited liability attached to a sole proprietary business. The owner carries the financial responsibility for all debts and/or losses suffered by the business, to the extent of using personal or other assets to discharge any outstanding liabilities. Thus, the owner of a sole proprietorship may be forced to use his/her personal holdings, such as his/her car, to pay the debts. The owner is exclusively liable for all business activities conducted by the sole proprietorship and, accordingly, entitled to full control and all earnings associated with it.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, a sole trader is categorized as a "ZZPer", and must register with the Chamber of Commerce and get a VAT ID. Not all ZZPers are sole traders.

Ireland
In Ireland, a sole trader who wishes to trade using a business name other than their true surname must register that name with the Companies Registration Office (CRO).

Registration of sole proprietorships
In Malaysia, there are three laws governing the registration and administration of sole proprietors:- In West Malaysia, the registration of sole proprietors come under the purview of the Companies Commission of Malaysia (Suruhanjaya Syarikat Malaysia, abbreviated as SSM). In Sabah and Sarawak (with the exception of Kuching), the registrations of businesses are done at the local authorities (e.g. municipal councils or district offices), while in Kuching, sole proprietors are registered with the Kuching Office of the Malaysian Inland Revenue Board.
 * 1) West Malaysia and the Federal Territory of Labuan: Registration of Business Act 1956 (Act 197);
 * 2) Sarawak: Businesses, Professions and Trade Licensing Ordinance [Sarawak Chapter 33]; and Business Names Ordinance for the State of Sarawak [Sarawak Chapter 64] and
 * 3) Sabah: Trades Licensing Ordinance for the State of Sabah [Sabah Chapter 144].

Sole proprietors, which includes the self-employed, must register with the relevant authority within thirty days from the commencement of their business. Sole proprietors may register their business using one of two names: their legal name following the registrant's identity card or a trade name. Registration of a business lasts for either one or two years, and must be renewed thirty days before its expiry.

In the event of termination of business, the proprietor has thirty days from the termination date to file the notice with the relevant authority. If the termination is caused by the death of the proprietor, the administrators of the estate have four months from the death date to file a notice of termination.

Goods and services tax (GST)
Sole proprietors must register with the Royal Malaysian Customs Department to charge and collect goods and services tax (GST) once their taxable turnover within a 12 month-period exceeds RM500,000.

Sole proprietors as employers
Similar to other Common Law jurisdiction, proprietors may enter into contracts of employment and/or apprenticeship with their employees. Sole proprietors, as employers are responsible to:
 * Make contribution to their employees' Employees Provident Fund; and
 * Pay contribution to their employees' Social Security.

Online businesses
In 2016, the SSM took legal action against 478 online businesses that failed to register their businesses, whether as sole proprietors, partnerships, or private limited companies. As at May 12, 2017, a total of 50,882 online businesses have registered with the SSM since 2015.

New Zealand
Sole traders in New Zealand must notify the Inland Revenue Department that they are trading and must register for Goods and Services Tax purposes if their income exceeds $60,000 per year. Sole traders may obtain a unique New Zealand Business Number (NZBN), which any business in New Zealand can use to identify the business in commercial relationships and dealings with the government.

United Kingdom
A sole trader is the simplest type of business structure defined in UK law. It refers to an individual who owns their own business and retains all the profits from it. When starting up, sole traders must complete a straightforward registration with HM Revenue and Customs as self-employed for tax and National Insurance purposes. They are responsible for maintaining the business's records and submitting an annual tax return for all income from self-employment and other work. If revenue is expected to be more than £85,000 a year, they must also register for Value Added Tax. A sole trader can employ staff, but is personally responsible for any losses the business makes.

Advantages
Becoming a sole trader is relatively simple compared to other business structures. It can rapidly enable a business to begin trading; the requirements for record-keeping are far more straightforward than other business structures. Sole traders make all operational decisions and are solely responsible for raising business finance. They can invest their own capital into the business, or may be able to access business loans and/or overdrafts. Unlike limited companies or partnerships, it is not necessary to share decision-making or the profits.

Disadvantages
Unlike many other business entities, the sole proprietorship lacks a clear distinction between personal and business income. The business owner is personally liable for income tax and National Insurance contributions due on the business profits in each tax year. They are also personally liable for any debts the business incurs. Business analysts may advise sole traders to form a limited company in order to access greater levels of financing, for example for expansion plans. This can limit their personal liability, and business lenders may be more inclined to co-operate with a limited company. It can also be the case that within certain industries, it is easier to secure work if presenting potential business partners with a limited company structure.

United States
In the United States, there are no formalities that must be followed to start a sole proprietorship or commence business as a sole proprietor. However, depending upon the business activity of the sole proprietorship, sole proprietors may require licenses and permits in order to conduct business.

According to the Small Business Administration (SBA), a sole proprietor and their business are considered as one and the same; therefore, the business is not subjected to separate taxation and regarded as the direct income of the owner. Income, losses and expenses may be listed on a Schedule C, which is then transferred to the personal tax return of the owner. It is the responsibility of the owner to ensure all due income taxes and self-employment contributions are paid.

A permitted exception to the sole proprietor (single owner) stipulation is made by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) permitting the spouse of a sole proprietor to work for the business. They are not classified as partners in the enterprise, or an independent contractor, enabling the business to retain its sole proprietorship status and not be required to submit a partnership income tax return. If an individual elects to incorporate as a Limited liability company but elects to be taxed as a Corporation, the IRS no longer recognizes the individual as a sole proprietorship.

Foundation and development
The setting-up process of a sole proprietorship to comply with local laws and regulations, is obtainable from the Small Business Development Center (SBDC), using their locator facility. A sole proprietor must be prepared to devote their time, utilizing business methods towards establishing a sound and appropriate foundation. Doing so may contribute to increased turnover, profits, minimize taxes, and avoid other potential adversities.

Sole owners are engaged in many varieties of industry and commerce, and a comprehensive list of the primary categories is found in the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The selection of a business type, by a new sole proprietor, is in many instances, motivated by appropriate business experience in a particular field, especially those pertaining to enterprises involving the marketing and selling of defined products and services.

A crucial component of a sole proprietorship within a business plan is the provision of an inherent guideline, for actions that require implementing for a business to achieve growth. The business name and products are critical aspects in the founding of a sole proprietorship and once selected, should be protected. In the event of a determined brand name being legalized, information regarding trademark protection is available from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

Finances
For the sole proprietor, there are a variety of options in obtaining financial support for their business, including loan facilities available from the U.S. Small Business Administration. The loans are not originated by the SBA, but the administration does guarantee loans made by various independent lending institutions. The primary loan facility for small businesses offered by this agency is the 7(a) loan program, designed for general applications. Sole proprietors are able to finance legitimate operating expenses; for example, working capital, furniture, leasehold improvements and building renovations.

Many and varied private organizations and individuals seek opportunities to invest and fund a business that may not qualify for traditional financing from institutions, such as banks. For the sole proprietor, seeking to take advantage of this facility, there are various factors that must be understood and adhered to regarding the loan application.

The Small Business Administration (SBA) advises that there are traditionally two forms of financing: debt and equity. For any small business owner seeking funding, they must consider the debt-to-equity ratio of their enterprise. This means the inter-action between the sum of dollars borrowed and the financial dollars invested in the business. The mathematics are simple; greater the finance invested by sole proprietors in their business; easier the obtaining of finance! The SBA statistics show that the majority of small enterprises favor the use of limited equity financing; for example, friends and relatives.

According to the SBA, there are various private organizations prepared to fund sole proprietor business operations that do not qualify for traditional financing from banks. These private investors can provide loans, credit lines, leasing facilities for equipment, or other forms of capital, to sole proprietorship that have exhausted alternative financial resources. It is also possible for these owners to obtain financing by way of business partners or others, with cash to invest. Financial partners are frequently "silent" and although they do not participate in any business related decisions, they generally receive a percentage of the profits, generated by the business.

To assist sole proprietors, there are business grants available from the Federal Government or private organizations, providing certain criteria are met. To qualify for Federal grants, small businesses must comply with determined business size and income standards. For consideration regarding various grant opportunities, sole proprietors may apply for a grant in their capacity as an individual. Local governments and state economic development agencies, frequently make grants available, for businesses that stimulate their local economies.

For any sole proprietor applying for a loan, before starting the loan procedure, it is essential that their personal and business credit history is in order and up-to-date. A personal credit report should be obtained from a credit bureau; for example, Trans-Union, Equifax or Experian. This action should be initiated by a business owner well before starting the borrowing process.

The Small Business Administration specifies that all credit reports received from any source should be carefully reviewed to ensure that all relevant personal information is correct. Other content in the report should also be examined particularly that related to the past credit obtained, from sources such as, credit cards, mortgages, student loans, as well as details pertaining to how the credit was repaid.

Other countries
An exact equivalent of "sole proprietorship" is often absent, because the focus of the concept can change. An example is the Brazilian concept of "sole business" that was split into two main kinds of formal freelancer:
 * sole professional: with higher level academic certificate and regulations for formal control of autonomous exercise (e.g. sole doctor's office)
 * sole entrepreneur: "little entrepreneurs", such as a craftsman, autonomous taxi driver, and many others, that can be formal. An informal freelancer, through a simple process, can be formalized as sole microentrepreneur.

German and Austrian tax laws also differentiate between sole professionals and other sole proprietors.

title: Sole proprietorship


text:
Peter O. Knight Airport

Peter O. Knight Airport is an airport on Davis Islands, five minutes (3 NM ) from downtown Tampa, Florida. Built as a Works Progress Administration project, it was Tampa's main airport from 1935 to 1945, and is still used by general aviation operators today because of its proximity to the central city. The airport was named for prominent attorney and businessman Peter O. Knight, namesake of Holland & Knight.

The airport's original administration building was torn down in the 1960s and replaced by the current building. Although seaplanes aren't as popular anymore, the basin is still there at Davis Islands.

In June 2004, the local fixed-base operator (FBO) was sold by Tampa Flying Service and is now operated by Atlas Aviation.

The residents of Davis Island, where the airport is located, have complained about the noise and appearance of the facilities. The current plan is to extend the northeast end of the runway by 65 ft and add 175 ft to the south end of the runway. During a meeting on September 18, 2007, some residents voiced concerns about larger aircraft using the longer runway and any related increase in the volume of noise generated there.

Sound tests conducted by the Aviation Authority showed an increase of 3 dB or less over current usage at the closest residences, or an average of about 58 dB during run ups to take off. During the same tests, nearby lawn mowers, motorcycles, and automobiles frequently reached over 75 dB.

The extension of the northeast and southwest ends were completed in 2008 with no noticeable impact to the local area. The improvements to the runway have added to the safety of pilots utilizing this facility.

Events
Islands Fest is held in April. It first started in 2006. It is a joint venture located at the Seaplane Basin Park and Peter O. Knight Airport. Peter O. Knight has on display a variety of aircraft, car club participants, and other local sponsors. The 2013 Islands Fest featured several organizations devoted to animal welfare including shelters, animal adoption organizations and a pet contest. This year the event was held on airport property along the seawall adjacent to the approach end of runway 22.

Tampa's annual Gasparilla Pirate Fest- a Mardi Gras-like festival held in January, includes a Pirate Flotilla that sails up the channel into Tampa - the symbolic beginning of the Pirate's reign over the city. The flotilla passes directly alongside the airport, making the airport an ideal viewing area for this event.

Facilities and aircraft
Peter O. Knight Airport covers an area of 110 acre at an elevation of 8 ft above mean sea level. It has two asphalt paved runways: 4/22 measuring 3580 by and 18/36 measuring 2688 by. On January 13, 2011, the runway designations have been change due to a shift in the Earth's magnetic headings. Runway 3/21 has become 4/22 and runway 17/35 has become 18/36. As of mid 2009 UNICOM Frequency is 122.725

For the 12-month period ending June 8, 1999, the airport had 66,000 aircraft operations, an average of 180 per day: 99% general aviation and 1% air taxi. At that time there were 102 aircraft based at this airport: 82% single-engine, 11% multi-engine, 2% jet and 5% helicopter.

The Hillsborough Aviation Authority has authorized an expenditure of over $1.8 million to add the required runway extension completed in 2009, and to build additional hangar space on the east side of the runway, adjacent to Seddon Channel. Plans are for 13 new hangar spaces completed the end of 2009, and an additional 8 in 2011.

April 2011 a major redevelopment of the ramp area has completed. The ramp area was extended and the taxiway Bravo pushed further away from the ramp area, providing a safer transition from east to west and west to east on the airfield.

Incidents

 * On September 13, 1945, a Lockheed 18-50 Lodestar (NC33349) of National Airlines with 14 onboard, was landing on a flight from Miami while the runway was wet from rain; the plane could not decelerate, forcing the pilot to do a full left rudder and ground-loop. The plane went off the runway and the nose ended up in the water; there were no fatalities but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.
 * On February 20, 1975, professional wrestler Buddy Colt, while attempting to land in bad weather, crashed into Hillsborough Bay 200 yd short of the runway. Passenger Robert Shoenberger ("Bobby Shane") was killed.,
 * On June 12, 2006, a King Air 90 attempting to make an emergency landing at the airport skidded off a runway, through a retaining fence, and into the residence of a local business owner, causing complete destruction of the home. The pilot, Steve Huisman, was killed and the co-pilot, Sean Lauder, was hospitalized with serious injuries. Only one person was in the house at the time of impact, escaping without injury. The home was later demolished and rebuilt by ABC's Extreme Makeover: Home Edition.
 * On November 28, 2008, a local plastic surgeon and a 19-year-old man were injured when an Extra 300 single engine plane was making its final approach. It hit a 50 ft sailboat mast and hit the seawall before the runway. The plane flipped onto a grassy area short of the runway.
 * On July 20, 2012, a Boeing C-17 Globemaster III of the US Air Force's 305th Air Mobility Wing, from McGuire AFB, New Jersey mistakenly landed at Peter O. Knight Airport following an extended duration flight from Europe, to a location in Southwest Asia to embark military passengers, and then return to the United States.  There were no injuries and no damage to either the airfield's runway or to the aircraft itself. The aircraft took off a short time later with ease (although a large aircraft, it is designed for operation from airfields as short as 3,500 ft) and made the short flight to MacDill Air Force Base, the aircraft's original intended destination. With both airfields only a few miles apart and both of the main runways having the same magnetic heading, the Air Force blamed the mistaken landing on a combination of pilot error and fatigue.
 * On March 18, 2016, a twin-engine Cessna 340A crashed killing both the ATP rated pilot and private rated co-pilot. The 340 and a Cessna 172M took off on Runways 4 and 36 respectively. These two runways intersect at their northern section. The 172 had already begun its ascent as the 340 started its takeoff roll. The 340 attempted to avoid a collision and entered a steep left-hand bank and impacted the ground inverted. The aircraft was destroyed in the post-crash fire. The two aircraft did not collide and the 172 flew to its home airport of Tampa Executive.
 * On December 29, 2022, a helicopter crashed into Hillsborough Bay on approach to the airport. All four occupants were rescued safely by Tampa Bay Buccaneers quarterback Blaine Gabbert and his brothers, who transported them on jet skis to marine rescue boats.

World War II
During World War II, the airport was used as an auxiliary fighter landing field for several Army airfields including, Clearwater; Drew and MacDill fields supporting Third Air Force group and replacement training activities. The airport was also the original location of Coastal Patrol Base 13 of the Civil Air Patrol, before operations were moved to Sarasota.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Peter O. Knight Airport


text:
Talk:Slappy

Fair use rationale for Image:Slappycover.jpg
Image:Slappycover.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 05:51, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Slappy


text:
Talk:1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours

This Album
This album was comprised of early EPs and the 39/Smooth album - which was indeed released in 1990 - but THIS album was compiled and released on July 1st, 1991, despite what it says on the Green Day website (note - they're calling the album 39/Smooth, not the full title, hence your confusion). Here's the amazon link (which may not be valid for much longer since the 2004 re-issue is the common one now): http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00004W52K/qid=1119986427/sr=1-25/ref=sr_1_25/104-8177935-5774313?v=glance&s=music

Again, it was released July 1, 1991.

PetSounds 28 June 2005 19:31 (UTC)

PetSounds you are in correct. The album was released, copyrighted and published in 1990 (as printed on the CD and back cover, in-case you don't have it). If you continue changing it again, I have no other choice but to report you. As I told you on your talk page. -- Mike Garcia | talk 19:44, 28 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Compilation?
Should this be considered a compilation album? All of it was all older Material except for the final track, and International Superhits is also considered a compilation album and it has 3 non-LP songs.
 * I was looking at this talk page just to see if anyone else talked about this. My opinion is yes, it is a compilation. 39/Smooth was the official album, and this was the CD release of it, which included songs from other EPs. If it had the same title, it might be considered a rerelease of the original album, but with a new title, I think it's a compilation Joltman 17:15, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

pretty sure it is a compilation--Greenday21 (talk) 00:53, 20 April 2008 (UTC)Greenday21

Release date dispute
OK, let's try and sort this out. As far as I can tell Green Day released 39/Smooth in 1990 as stated on their official website. Later they released this album, which included material from 39/Smooth. However there are different dates given for this albums release.

Mike has pointed out these sources:, , , , , , in support of 1990 as the release date, plus claims the back cover has 1990 as the copyright date.

On the other hand Amazon, allmusic,, and   point to 1991 as the release date.

If anyone has any additional sources or insight please post them on this page. the wub  "?/!"  20:39, 9 July 2005 (UTC)

Here is my analysis of the twelve cited sources:
 * 1990 with no explanation: Lyrically Squared, MP3SEarch.RU, and Ginza Music.
 * 1990 Release: Rateyourmusic, Netphoria, and Yahoo Music.
 * January 1990 with no explanation: Lookout Records (the releasing label).
 * 1991 Release: Allmusic, who cite Dec 29, 1989–Jan 2, 1990.
 * 1991 with no explanation: Green Day Discography, Artist Direct.
 * April 1991 Release: Half.com
 * July 1, 1991 Release: Amazon.
 * My copy of the album says copyright 1990.

I think that we can safely assert that the tracks were recorded Dec 29, 1989–Jan 2, 1990. It seems unlikely to me that the CD was relaesed within one month of recording, so I suggest that Lookout Records are stating the creation date rather than the release date. This would be consistent with a copyright date of 1990. The disparity of sources makes all this argument moot. I suggest that someone who cares contacts Lookout to ask them for the specific date of release in the US. —Theo (Talk) 21:59, 9 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the reason it says 1990 on the back is because when they released it as a compilation they just changed the back cover of the original around a little to list the other songs and albums.

John Kiffmeyer
Why the heck does everyone spell John Kiffmeyer wrong? It says in the CD that it's K-I-F-F-M-E-Y-E-R! It is not Kiftmeyer for crying out loud! If people have such a big problem spelling that just call him Al Sobrante.

Al Sebrantay? 24.255.37.229 (talk) 04:56, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

Some Crazy F*cker
I Have the Album it is a very good album and they had this recorded by the time the were 18! That gives me hope because songs like AT THE LIBRARY and 409 IN YOUR COFFEEMAKER are great I'm 15 and I'm trying to write and record original music I don't think I'll be THAT good but I'm trying

Here's a list of the EP's in this album and release dates

EP               Tracks            Date

1,000 Hours          15-18            1989

39/Smooth             1-10            1990

Slappy              11-14            1991

 * Track 19 I Want to Be Alone was on the compilation THE BIG ONE by Lookout Records

I Own this album and most of my friends who claim to be Green Day fans don't even know it exists

-from Some crazy f*cker

Also see my review on Dookie

who is the girl?
seriously,who is the girl on the front cover of 1,039 smoothed out slappy hours?Is it Adrienne Armstrong? -Tamwyn alex

It's just some girl. Billie didn't even know Adrienne when this was released, he met her on the Kerplunk! tour (if I'm not mistaken). 24.255.39.128 (talk) 17:57, 18 February 2011 (UTC)

/\ That makes no sense,Adrienne served as inspiration for Kerplunk's "80". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.203.82.102 (talk) 20:30, 8 December 2016 (UTC)

The girl is named Dia Theodore and I believe she was just a friend of the band. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Itsnotrocketscientry (talk • contribs) 04:14, 7 July 2017 (UTC)

Dry Ice
I will contend that Dry Ice is the greatest song ever written. 74.129.72.122 (talk) 09:11, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

That and "Only of You" are tied for the best I think. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.11.174.161 (talk) 07:18, 15 February 2011 (UTC)

409 In Your Coffee Maker Dookie Recording
Before anyone removes the edit I put on the page about the Dookie version IT DOES EXSIST! Evidence: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6dTb6IXPj4 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.96.177.242 (talk) 14:34, 5 April 2009 (UTC)

So then why put the comment on here if it's about Dookie. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.11.174.161 (talk) 07:13, 15 February 2011 (UTC)

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.blender.com/guide/reissue/52045/1039smoothed-out-slappy-hours.html
 * In 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours on 2011-05-20 22:35:24, 404 Not Found
 * In 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours on 2011-05-23 01:50:42, 404 Not Found
 * In 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours on 2011-05-31 15:25:12, 404 Not Found

--JeffGBot (talk) 15:25, 31 May 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours


text: Talk:Kerplunk

title: Talk:Kerplunk


text:
Star-crossed

The terms "star-crossed" and "star-crossed lovers" refer to two people who are not able to be together for some reason. These terms also have other meanings, but originally mean that the pairing is being "thwarted by a malign star" or that the stars are working against the relationship. Astrological in origin, the phrase stems from the belief that the positions of the stars ruled over people's fates, and is best known from the play Romeo and Juliet by the Elizabethan playwright William Shakespeare. Such pairings are often said to be doomed from the start.

Definitions
The phrase was coined in the prologue of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet: "From forth the fatal loins of these two foes, A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life (5–6)."

It also refers to destiny and the inevitability of the two characters' paths crossing. It usually but not always refers to unlucky outcomes, since Romeo and Juliet's affair ended tragically. Further, it connotes that the lovers entered into their union without sufficient forethought or preparation; that the lovers may not have had adequate knowledge of each other or that they were not thinking rationally.

(The original texts of the prologue, Q1 and Q2, use the spelling "starre-crost", but the version "star-cross'd" is normally used in modern versions.)

Classical examples
Examples of famous star-crossed lovers vary in written work. Pyramus and Thisbe are usually regarded as the source for Romeo and Juliet, and is featured in A Midsummer Night's Dream. Wuthering Heights, considered to be one of the greatest love stories in literary works, is a tale of all-encompassing and passionate, yet thwarted, love between the star-crossed Catherine Earnshaw and Heathcliff, and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them.

In Virgil's Aeneid, the Trojan exile prince Aeneas and Dido, queen of Carthage, fall passionately in love – but the gods order Aeneas away to Italy and the spurned Dido commits suicide. Of course, Virgil's readers in Rome in the first century BC would know in advance that this love was doomed, since Aeneas' and Dido's progeny – respectively the Romans and the Carthagenians – would eventually become mortal enemies.

Lancelot, a trusted knight of King Arthur's Round Table, and Guinevere, the queen of Camelot and wife of Arthur, were involved in a star-crossed affair. In some versions of the tale, she is instantly smitten, and when they consummate their adulterous passion, it is an act which paves the way for the fall of Camelot and Arthur's death.

The legend of Tristan and Iseult (also known as Tristan and Isolde) is an influential romance and tragedy, retold in numerous sources with as many variations. The tragic story is of the adulterous love between the lovers. The narrative predates and most likely influenced the Arthurian romance of Lancelot and Guinevere, and has had a substantial impact on Western art and literature since it first appeared in the 12th century. While the details of the story differ from one author to another, the overall plot structure remains much the same.

Pedro of Portugal and Inês de Castro shared a true and tragic love in the Portuguese 14th century. The dramatic circumstances of their relationship, forbidden by Peter's father, King Afonso IV, Inês' murder at the orders of Afonso, Peter's bloody revenge on her killers and the legend of the coronation of her exhumed corpse by Peter, have turned their story into a frequent subject of art, music, and drama through the ages.

Hero and Leander is a Greek myth, relating the story of Hero (Greek: Ἡρώ), a priestess of Aphrodite who dwelt in a tower in Sestos, at the edge of the Hellespont, and Leander (Greek: Λέανδρος, Leandros), a young man from Abydos on the other side of the strait. Leander fell in love with Hero and would swim every night across the Hellespont to be with her. Hero would light a lamp at the top of her tower to guide his way.

Pelléas and Mélisande (French: Pelléas et Mélisande) is a Symbolist play by Maurice Maeterlinck about the forbidden, doomed love of the title characters. A classical myth, was a common subject for art during the Renaissance and Baroque eras.

Troilus and Cressida is a tragedy by Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1602. The play (also described as one of Shakespeare's problem plays) is not a conventional tragedy, since its protagonist (Troilus) does not die. The play ends instead on a very bleak note with the death of the noble Trojan Hector and destruction of the love between Troilus and Cressida.

Venus and Adonis is a classical myth during the Renaissance.

Heer Ranjha is one of the four popular tragic romances of the Punjab.

Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl refers to a number of mythical and folkloric explanations of the origins of the volcanoes Popocatépetl ("the Smoking Mountain") and Iztaccíhuatl ("white woman" in Nahuatl, sometimes called the Mujer Dormida "sleeping woman" in Spanish) which overlook the Valley of Mexico.

Layla and Majnun (by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi) is a classical Arabian love story. It is based on the real story of a young man called Qays ibn al-Mulawwah from the northern Arabian Peninsula, in the Umayyad era during the 7th century. There were two Arabic versions of the story at the time. In one version, he spent his youth together with Layla, tending their flocks. In the other version, upon seeing Layla he fell passionately in love with her. In both versions, however, he went mad when her father prevented him from marrying her; for that reason he came to be called Majnun Layla, which means "Driven mad by Layla". To him were attributed a variety of incredibly passionate romantic Arabic poems, considered among the foremost examples of the Udhari school.

The Butterfly Lovers is a Chinese legend about the tragic romance between two lovers, Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. The legend is sometimes regarded as the Chinese equivalent to Romeo and Juliet.

Other classic star-crossed lovers include Devdas and Paro (Parvati) in Devdas, Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta in The Iliad, Oedipus and Jocasta in Oedipus Rex, Mark Antony and Cleopatra during the time of the Roman Empire, Khosrow and Shirin during the time of Sassanid Persia, Heloise and Peter Abelard during the Middle Ages, and Emperor Jahangir and Anarkali, Cyrano and Roxane in Cyrano de Bergerac, Hagbard and Signy, and Maratha Peshwa (Prime Minister) Bajirao and Mastani during the peak of Maratha Empire.

Modern examples
Prime time television has had various star-crossed lovers labeled as notable and "unforgettable" love stories. IGN considers Buffy Summers and Angel from Buffy the Vampire Slayer to be one of the genre's most tragic and notable star-crossed pairings. The Doctor bidding farewell to his companion Rose Tyler in Doctor Who has been named one of the greatest love scenes in science fiction. Cole Turner and Phoebe Halliwell from Charmed, Michael and Nikita from La Femme Nikita, Kara Thrace and Lee Adama from Battlestar Galactica, Clark Kent and Lana Lang from Smallville, as well as Lucas Scott and Peyton Sawyer from One Tree Hill are other notable star-crossed couples from the genre. Commander Lexa and Clarke Griffin from the TV series The 100 are also considered star-crossed lovers, as well as Nancy and Ace in Nancy Drew.

With film or within modern novels and books, such star-crossed couples as Jack Dawson and Rose DeWitt Bukater from Titanic, Landon Carter and Jamie Sullivan from "A Walk to Remember", Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala and Kylo Ren and Rey from the Star Wars saga, Ennis Del Mar and Jack Twist from Brokeback Mountain, and Jake and Neytiri from Avatar have been included.

In soap opera, modern examples of star-crossed lovers have included couples such as Cliff Warner and Nina Cortlandt, JR Chandler and Babe Carey and Bianca Montgomery and Maggie Stone from All My Children. In 2008, a web-based reality soap opera was created based on the concept of being star-crossed. In Starcrossed, Fox News astrologer Greg Tufaro takes a couple in crisis and separates them for one cycle of the moon. Each is then set up with individuals who are a better match astrologically. The show puts the question "Is love written in the stars?" to the test with the couple deciding on the 28th day of their separation whether they will stay together or remain apart.

In comics, the decision of Marvel Comics to kill off Gwen Stacy, the girlfriend of Spider-Man, made the two of them into star-crossed lovers - though that was not the original intention.

Video games too have featured star-crossed couples across different genres, particularly role-playing video games: Cloud Strife and Aerith Gainsborough from Final Fantasy VII have been cited as a well-known star-crossed love story. Tidus and Yuna from Final Fantasy X have also been called star-crossed lovers. Zero and Iris from Mega Man X4 are another notable example.

title: Star-crossed


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User:Mneumisi

A meaningless word used by a certain individual as a user name.

Believe it or not, I am related to Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick.

I will now commence to produce more information regarding mneumisi through the power of Userboxes.

One thing I have found about the user boxes I don't like is the categories. I don't like being categorized...not that there is anything wrong with that.

I used to have a wiki-interest, such that I even wrote several articles. I don't really do that anymore.

title: User:Mneumisi


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Þingvellir

Þingvellir (, anglicised as Thingvellir ) was the site of the Alþing, the annual parliament of Iceland from the year 930 until the last session held at Þingvellir in 1798. Since 1881, the parliament has been located within Alþingishúsið in Reykjavík.

Þingvellir is now a national park in the municipality of Bláskógabyggð in southwestern Iceland, about 40 km (25 miles) northeast of Iceland's capital, Reykjavík. Þingvellir is a site of historical, cultural, and geological significance, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Iceland. The park lies in a rift valley that marks the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the boundary between the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates. To its south lies Þingvallavatn, the largest natural lake in Iceland.

Þingvellir National Park (þjóðgarðurinn á Þingvöllum ) was founded in 1930, marking the 1000th anniversary of the Althing. The park was later expanded to protect the diverse and natural phenomena in the surrounding area and was designated as a World Heritage Site in 2004.

Toponymy
The name Þingvellir is derived from the Old Norse Þingvǫllr, from þing (“thing, assembly”) and vǫllr (“field”), meaning assembly fields. Compare the English thing and weald (“Thingweald”) from Anglo-Saxon þing and weald. The site takes its name from Alþing (Althing), the national parliament of Iceland, which was founded at Þingvellir in 930 and held its sessions there until 1798. A thing was a form of governing assembly found in Germanic societies, and a tradition that endures to this day in one form or another across Northern Europe.

Although the name Þingvellir is plural, the older form Þingvǫllr is singular, and the modern singular form Þingvöllur can still be heard.

The name is most commonly anglicised as Thingvellir, and might appear as Tingvellir, Thingvalla or Tingvalla in other languages. The spelling Pingvellir is also seen, although the letter “p” does not correspond to the letter “þ” (thorn), which is pronounced, like the th in thirst.

Dingwall and Tingwall in Scotland, Thingwall in England, Tynwald on the Isle of Man, Dinklage in Germany, and Tingvoll in Norway bear names of the same root and meaning.

History
Þingvellir became a national park as a result of legislation passed in 1928 to protect the remains of the parliament site, thus creating the first national park in Iceland. The park was decreed "a protected national shrine for all Icelanders, the perpetual property of the Icelandic nation under the preservation of parliament, never to be sold or mortgaged."

Founding of Iceland's parliament
According to the Book of Settlements (Landnámabók), the settlement of Iceland began in 874, when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent Norwegian settler on the island. Over the next centuries, people of Norse and Celtic origin settled in Iceland. Early on, district assemblies were formed, but as the population grew, there was a need for a general assembly. The descendants of Ingólfur who dominated the region of southwest Iceland had become the most powerful family in the country, and other chieftains felt a need for a general assembly to limit their power.

Grímur Geitskör was allotted the role of rallying support and finding a suitable location for the assembly. At about the same time, the owner of Bláskógar (the contemporary name for the Þingvellir region) was found guilty of murder. His land was declared public, and then obligated to be used for assembly proceedings, and the building of temporary dwellings, and the forest to be used for kindling and the grazing of horses. The Þingvellir area was chosen for this reason and its accessibility to the most populous regions of the north, south, and west. The longest journey a goði (chieftain) had to travel was 17 days, from the easternmost part of the country where mountains and glacial rivers proved bothersome obstacles.

The foundation of the Icelandic parliament is said to be the founding of the nation of Iceland, and the first parliamentary proceedings in the summer of 930 laid the ground for a common cultural heritage and national identity. Þingvellir played a central role in the history of the country, and its history runs almost parallel with the history of the Icelandic Commonwealth.

From commonwealth to foreign rule
The Alþingi (assembly) at Þingvellir was Iceland's supreme legislative and judicial authority from its establishment in 930 until 1271. The Lögberg or Law Rock was the focal point of the Alþingi and a natural platform for holding speeches. The Lawspeaker, elected for three years at a time, presided over the assembly and recited the law of the land. Before the law was written down, he was expected to recite it from memory on the Lögberg throughout three summers along with the complete assembly procedures every summer. Inauguration and dissolution of the assembly took place at the Lögberg, where rulings made by the Law Council were announced, the calendar was confirmed, legal actions were brought and other announcements made which concerned the entire nation. Anyone attending the assembly was entitled to present his case on important issues from the Lögberg.

The Law Council served as both parliament and supreme court. Laws were passed and approved there, and rulings were made on points of law. The Law Council appointed members of the Fifth Court (a kind of appellate court) and the Lawspeaker and took part in the election of the bishop. Unlike the Alþingi, the Law Council was a closed body in which only certain people enjoyed full rights: chieftains who held the office of goði, their Þingmen and later also bishops. However, everyone at the assembly was entitled to watch and listen to the Law Council at work.

From the earliest times until the 15th century, the Law Council met at Neðri-Vellir on the east bank of Öxará, but when the river changed its course around 1500, the council was moved to an islet in the river. In 1594, the Law Council was relocated to the foot of the ancient Law Rock, where it remained until the Alþingi was finally transferred from it in 1798.

The Alþingi was Iceland's legislative and chief judicial authority for the duration of the Commonwealth, until 1271. Executive power was in the hands of the chieftains and parties to individual cases. This proved to be quite an adequate arrangement for as long as the balance of power remained, but flaws emerged when it was disrupted.

In the final decades of the Commonwealth, there were clashes between chieftain families, which resulted in Iceland coming under the Norwegian crown. Executive power was strengthened under this new order, while legislative and judicial authority at first remained in the hands of the Alþingi, but was gradually transferred to the Norwegian and later the Danish rulers, until in 1662 when the King of Denmark became the absolute monarch of Iceland.

Social centre
Þingvellir was the centre of Icelandic culture. Every year during the Commonwealth period, people would flock to Þingvellir from all over the country, sometimes numbering in the thousands.

They set up temporary dwellings (búð, pl. búðir ) with walls of turf and rock and temporary roofing of homespun cloth, and stayed in them for the two weeks of the assembly. There were no permanent buildings on Þingvellir apart from a farm and, later, two churches.

Although the duties of the assembly were the main reason for going there, ordinary people gathered at Þingvellir for a wide variety of reasons. Merchants, sword-sharpeners, and tanners would sell their goods and services, entertainers performed, and ale-makers brewed drinks for the assembly guests. News was told from distant parts; games and feasts were held. Young people met to make their plans, no less than leading national figures and experts in law. Itinerant farmhands looked for work and vagrants begged. Þingvellir was a meeting place for everyone in Iceland, laying the foundation for the language and literature that have been a prominent part of people's lives right up to the present day.

Nationalist symbol
During the 19th century, Þingvellir emerged as a nationalist symbol. According to Icelandic political scientist Birgir Hermannsson, "Thingvellir can be likened to a church or building which serves as a pilgrimage destination and as a site for the nation-state’s ritual ceremonies."

Geology
Þingvellir is notable for its unusual tectonic and volcanic environment in a rift valley.

The continental drift between the North American and Eurasian Plates can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults which traverse the region, the largest one, Almannagjá, being a veritable canyon. This also causes the often measurable earthquakes in the area.

Some of the rifts are full of clear water. One, Nikulásargjá, was bridged for the occasion of the visit of King Frederik VIII of Denmark in 1907. On this occasion, visitors began to throw coins from the bridge into the fissure, a tradition based on European legends. The bottom has become littered with sparkling coins, and the rift is now better known as Peningagjá, or "coin fissure".

Þingvellir is situated on the northern shore of Þingvallavatn, the largest natural lake of Iceland. The river Öxará traverses the national park and forms a waterfall at the Almannagjá, called Öxarárfoss. On the lake's northern shore, the Silfra fissure is a popular diving and snorkelling tour location.

Þingvellir was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site based on cultural criteria. It may also qualify on geological criteria in the future, as there has been ongoing discussion of a possible "serial transboundary nomination" for the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which would include other sites in the Atlantic such as Pico Island.

Together with the waterfall Gullfoss and the geysers of Haukadalur, Þingvellir is part of a group of the most famous sights of Iceland, the Golden Circle.

Art
Because of its natural environment, Þingvellir has been a subject in the works of several Icelandic painters, including Johannes Sveinsson Kjarval and Ásgrímur Jónsson. The National Gallery of Iceland owns more than 150 paintings by Ásgrímur Jónsson that have Þingvellir as their subject. Þingvellir grew popular among artists not only for its natural environment but also because it was close to the capital of Iceland, Reykjavík and thus relatively inexpensive to travel there.

Tourism
Þingvellir National Park is popular with tourists and is one of the three key attractions within the famous Golden Circle. There is a visitor centre, where visitors can obtain an interpretation of the history and nature of Þingvellir. There is an information centre near the camping grounds. There are hiking trails, such as the Execution Trail and the nearby Leggjabrjótur. Scuba diving has also become popular at Silfra Lake as the continental drift between the tectonic plates made it wide enough for divers to enjoy unparalleled visibility.

Things (assemblies)

 * Gulating, one of the first Norwegian legislative assemblies and one of the present-day law courts of western Norway.
 * Jamtamót, the historical legislative assembly of Jämtland.
 * Løgting, the parliament of the Faroe Islands and Tinganes, the site of the Faroese government.
 * Tynwald, the legislature of the Isle of Man. Tynwald shares the root and meaning of its name with Þingvellir.

Cognate toponyms

 * Dingwall, a royal burgh in the Scottish Highlands.
 * Thingwall, a village in Wirral, England.
 * Tingwall, a parish in Shetland.
 * Tingwall, a hamlet and harbour in Orkney.
 * Tingvoll, a town in Norway.
 * Thingvalla Township in the U.S. state of North Dakota, one of that state's earliest Icelandic settlements, was named in honor of Þingvellir.

Geologically related places

 * Gough and Inaccessible Islands in the South Atlantic.
 * Pico Island in the Azores.

Trivia

 * The Thingvalla Line, a Danish shipping company active between 1879 and 1898, was named after Þingvellir. At its peak, the company had ten ships in its fleet, one of which was named the S/S Thingvalla, launched in 1873. The company operated four other ships which bore Icelandic names, namely the S/S Geiser, S/S Island and two vessels named S/S Hekla.

title: Þingvellir


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Dick Butkus

Richard Marvin Butkus (December 9, 1942 – October 5, 2023) was an American football linebacker, sports commentator, and actor. He played football for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League (NFL) from 1965 to 1973. He was invited to eight Pro Bowls in nine seasons, named a first-team All-Pro five times, and was twice recognized by his peers as the NFL's Defensive Player of the Year. Butkus was renowned as a fierce tackler and for the relentless effort with which he played. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most intimidating linebackers in professional football history.

Butkus was born in Chicago and played his entire football career in his home state of Illinois, which began at Chicago Vocational High School. He was a linebacker and a center for the Illinois Fighting Illini. He was a twice consensus All-American, and he led the Illini to a Rose Bowl victory in 1963 and was deemed the most valuable player in the Big Ten Conference. Butkus was named college football's Lineman of the Year in 1964. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1983.

Butkus was selected by the Bears as the third overall pick in the 1965 NFL draft. He soon established himself as a ball hawk with his penchant for forcing turnovers. During his NFL career, he intercepted 22 passes and recovered 27 fumbles (a record when he retired), and he was responsible for causing many more fumbles with his jarring tackles. His tackling ability earned him both admiration and trepidation from opposing players. In 2009, the NFL Network named Butkus the most feared tackler of all time.

Butkus is credited with having defined the middle linebacker position and is still viewed as the "gold standard by which other middle linebackers are measured". In his honor, the Butkus Award recognizes American football's most outstanding linebacker. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979, and his No. 51 jersey was retired by the Bears. Following his playing career, Butkus worked in acting, sports commentary, and celebrity endorsement. He was active in philanthropy through the Butkus Foundation, which manages various charitable causes.

Early life
Butkus was born in Chicago, the youngest of eight children, and first to be born in a hospital. He was a very large baby, weighing 13 lb at birth. His father John, a Lithuanian immigrant to Ellis Island who spoke broken English, was an electrician and worked for the Pullman-Standard railroad car manufacturing company. His mother, Emma, worked 50 hours a week at a laundry. Butkus grew up in the Roseland neighborhood on Chicago's South Side. He was a fan of the Chicago Cardinals of the National Football League (NFL) and attended their games at Comiskey Park. His older brother Ron played football for three colleges and tried out for the Cardinals before quitting due to a bad knee. For four years starting at age 15, Butkus worked with his four brothers as a mover.

Butkus played high school football as a fullback, linebacker, punter, and placekicker for coach Bernie O'Brien at Chicago Vocational High School. He averaged five yards per carry as a fullback, but preferred playing linebacker, where he made 70 percent of his team's tackles. In Butkus's first year on the varsity team, Chicago Vocational surrendered only 55 points in eight games. In 1959, he was the first junior to be honored by the Chicago Sun-Times as Chicago's high school player of the year. Injuries limited his play as a senior, but he was still heavily recruited by colleges to play football.

In the summer of 1960, Butkus was the starting catcher on a Chicago Park District baseball team known as the Sundodgers. An article in the Daily Calumet credits Butkus with driving in all of the Sundodgers' runs in a loss by hitting a home run to center field.

College career
Butkus chose to attend the University of Illinois, and played center and linebacker from 1962 through 1964 for the Illinois Fighting Illini football team. He initially wanted to play for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, however the team frowned upon married players at the time. In his first year on the varsity team, he was named to the 1962 All-Big Ten Conference football team as the third-team center by the Associated Press (AP) and second-team center by United Press International (UPI). In 1963, Illinois compiled an 8–1–1 record and defeated Washington in the 1964 Rose Bowl. Butkus was named the team's most valuable player for the season, and was awarded the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Big Ten's most valuable player. He was a unanimous choice as a center for the 1963 College Football All-America Team, earning first-team honors from all seven major selectors.

As a senior in 1964, Butkus was named the team's co-captain along with safety George Donnelly. UPI deemed Butkus college football's Lineman of the Year for 1964, and he was named the player of the year by the American Football Coaches Association and The Sporting News. For the second consecutive season he was deemed the Illini's most valuable player. He was chosen for the 1964 All-America team by five of the six major selectors. In a cover story for Sports Illustrated that season, sportswriter Dan Jenkins remarked, "If every college football team had a linebacker like Dick Butkus of Illinois, all fullbacks soon would be three feet tall and sing soprano." Butkus also finished sixth in Heisman Trophy balloting in 1963 and third in 1964, rare results both for a lineman and a defensive player. According to statistics kept by the university, he completed his college career with 374 tackles: 97 in 1962, 145 in 1963, and 132 in 1964.

Professional career
Butkus was the third overall selection of the 1965 NFL draft, taken by the Chicago Bears, and also in the second round of the 1965 AFL draft by the Denver Broncos of the American Football League. After several days of recruiting by both the teams and leagues, his decision to sign with the Bears was viewed as a major victory for the NFL. Although the Bears offered him less money than the Broncos, playing for his hometown team and coach George Halas was more enticing. His rookie contract was worth $200,000. Along with fellow future Hall of Famer Gale Sayers (fourth overall), Butkus was one of three first-round picks for the Bears that NFL draft. The pick they used for Butkus had been acquired in a trade with the Pittsburgh Steelers.

1965–1970
Succeeding hall of famer Bill George at middle linebacker, Butkus made an immediate impact as a rookie in 1965. He established himself as a ball hawk by intercepting five passes and recovering six opponents' fumbles, and he was also credited unofficially with having forced six fumbles. Against the New York Giants on November 28, he intercepted a pass and recovered a fumble, and was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Week by the AP for the first of four times in his career.

He finished third in balloting for the AP's rookie of the year award, behind Sayers and Ken Willard of the San Francisco 49ers, with AP sportswriter Jack Hand remarking that Butkus would have certainly won if there was a separate award for defenders. He was named a first-team All-Pro by the AP and was invited to his first of eight straight Pro Bowls.

In 1966, Butkus was named the second-team middle linebacker on the All-Pro teams of the AP, UPI, Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA), and New York Daily News, with each selector placing him behind Ray Nitschke of the Green Bay Packers. He reclaimed the first-team spot on the UPI and NEA teams in 1967, the AP team in 1968, and the Daily News team in 1969, all of which he occupied through the 1970 season.

Butkus scored the first points of his career in 1969, when he tackled Steelers' quarterback Dick Shiner in the end zone for a safety on November 9. He also recorded 25 tackles in the game, and for his efforts was recognized as the NFL Defensive Player of the Week by the AP. That 38–7 win for the Bears was their only one of the season; they finished with a 1–13 record, which was the worst in franchise history. Additionally, Butkus's five-year contract had reached its end. A number of Bears players, including Butkus, expressed interest in being traded or cut by the team, but he signed a multi-year contract extension prior to the 1970 season to remain in Chicago. The contract raised his salary from $50,000 per year to around $80,000 to $100,000 per year.

Despite the ineptitude of the Bears as a team, Butkus developed a reputation around the league as one of its best players. In both 1969 and 1970, he was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Year by the NEA, which was voted on by NFL players. He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated in September 1970 with the caption, "The Most Feared Man in the Game". A panel of NFL coaches that year named Butkus the player they would most prefer to start a team with if they were building one from the ground up.

1971–1973
Prior to the 1971 season, Butkus underwent preventive surgery on his right knee; he had torn ligaments in high school, but was able to continue playing due to strong muscles compensating for the injury. In the Bears' first ever game at Soldier Field on September 19 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Butkus turned in a great performance. With the Bears down 15–3 in the 4th, Butkus picked off quarterback Terry Bradshaw twice. Butkus did intercept a pass from Bradshaw a third time but was called back by a penalty against the Bears. In the final minutes with the Bears down 15–10, Butkus forced a fumble on running back Warren Bankston which was recovered by Bears defensive end Ed O'Bradovich on the Steelers' 12-yard line. The turnover led the Bears to score and win 17–15. In 1971, he recorded 117 tackles and four interceptions, leading the Bears in both statistics. On November 14, he scored a point; in the closing minutes of a game against the Washington Redskins, the score was tied at 15 and the Bears had lined up to kick an extra point. The snap went over the head of holder Bobby Douglass, who then raced back to retrieve the ball and looked to pass it. Butkus, who was playing as a blocking back, ran into the end zone and leapt to receive the pass for the winning score. Butkus later called the play his favorite of his career. Despite the statistical output, for the first time since 1966 Butkus was not named to a major All-Pro first-team, instead earning second-team honors from the NEA and Pro Football Writers Association.

Butkus sparked controversy in 1972 with the release of Stop-Action, a memoir describing the final week of the 1971 season. The Bears had lost their final five games in 1971, and Butkus used the memoir as an outlet for his frustrations and grievances. In particular, he harshly criticized the Detroit Lions organization, saying, "I think they are a lot of jerks, from the owner, the general manager, the coach on down... If we were voting for a jerk team or organization they'd have my vote all the way." The Lions responded with a 38–24 win over the Bears in Week 3 of 1972. After the game Lions linebacker Mike Lucci, whom Butkus had labeled a "crybaby", denied that the book had any bearing on the game's outcome, but told reporters, "Butkus should just keep his mouth shut and play football." Butkus, who was notoriously surly with reporters, also denied any connection and accused the media of sensationalism. Bears teammate Gale Sayers later said he did not like the book, feeling Butkus was above such name-calling. The season as a whole was another productive one for Butkus, who reclaimed the first-team middle linebacker spot on the major All-Pro teams and was invited to his final Pro Bowl.

Early in the first quarter against the Houston Oilers in 1973, Butkus pounced on a fumble in the end zone for the only touchdown of his career. Houston tight end Mack Alston accused Butkus of intimidating the officials, saying he "grabbed the ball and started yelling 'touchdown, touchdown, after which "the officials looked at each other, shrugged their shoulders and called it a touchdown." His season was cut short after nine games by a lingering right knee injury, which he had been playing through for years, but was further aggravated after it gave out in Week 5 against the Atlanta Falcons. Prior to the 1974 season an orthopedic surgeon told him, "I don't know how a man in your shape can play football or why you would even want to." The injury ultimately forced him to retire in May 1974 at age 31.

Lawsuit against Bears
Butkus's retirement came with four years remaining on a five-year contract with the Bears, which was to pay him $115,000 per year through 1977. It came with a no-cut, no-trade clause, and was payable even if surgery was needed. The contract also promised necessary medical and hospital care which, according to Butkus, the Bears neglected to provide him, causing irreparable damage to his knee. The Bears then told him he would not be paid if he could not play. Butkus filed suit against the Bears' team doctor in May 1974 asking for $600,000 in compensatory damages and $1 million in punitive damages. It was eventually settled out of court when the Bears agreed to pay Butkus the full value of his contract. The episode caused a rift between Butkus and Bears owner George Halas, and the two did not speak for the next five years.

Profile and reputation
"Dick was an animal. I called him a maniac. A stone maniac. He was a well-conditioned animal, and every time he hit you, he tried to put you in the cemetery, not the hospital."

Standing 6 ft tall and weighing 245 lb, Butkus was a large linebacker for the era in which he played football. This size was a common trait in his family, as all four of his brothers and his father each stood over six feet tall and weighed over 200 pounds. He was also diligent with his conditioning. In high school he would push a car up and down a street to strengthen his legs, and in college he developed a routine of running at trees and dodging them to emulate avoiding blockers. Despite his size, he also had the speed and agility to make tackles from sideline to sideline and cover tight ends and running backs on pass plays.

Hall of Famer Bill George, whom Butkus succeeded as the Bears' middle linebacker, said, "The first time I saw Butkus, I started packing my gear. I knew my Bear days were numbered. There was no way that guy wasn't going to be great."

Consistently cited as one of football's meanest, toughest, and most feared players, Butkus was renowned for his intimidating profile and style of play. He was known to snarl at the opposition prior to plays. Quarterbacks would complain of Butkus biting them in pileups. Lions tight end Charlie Sanders recalled Butkus poking him in the eyes with his fingers through his face mask. He once intercepted a pass from Minnesota Vikings quarterback Fran Tarkenton near the goal line, and instead of taking the ball into the end zone for an easy touchdown, he took aim at Tarkenton to run him over. When asked by a reporter if he was as mean as the rumors suggested, Butkus replied, "I wouldn't ever go out to hurt anybody deliberately. Unless it was, you know, important—like a league game or something."

He played angry, often "manufacturing" things to make him mad, because he felt it gave him a competitive edge. After the Bears lost to the Lions in their first matchup of 1969, Lions rookie running back Altie Taylor told reporters that Butkus was overrated. The next time the teams played that season, Butkus responded by chasing Taylor out of bounds after a play and causing him to jump into the stands at Wrigley Field.

Butkus became most noted for his tackling ability, and the ferocity with which he tackled opponents. He was named the most feared tackler of all time by the NFL Network in 2009. Once during practice, he hit a metal football sled so hard that he crumpled it and left a piece of it dangling off. "Tackling wasn't good enough," recalled former Bears defensive end Ed O'Bradovich. "Just to hit people wasn't good enough", he continued. "He loved to crush people." Butkus is credited with 1,020 tackles in his NFL career.

Butkus recovered 27 fumbles in his career, an NFL record at the time of his retirement. One of his greatest strengths was his ability to rip the ball from a ball carrier's hands. Although not an official statistic at the time, it has been noted that Butkus would certainly be one of the all-time leaders in forced fumbles.

In spite of all he could do on defense, Butkus could not turn the Bears into a winner: during his time there, the team only won 48 games, lost 74, and tied 4.

Legacy and honors
USA Today called Butkus the "gold standard by which other middle linebackers are measured." Although not the creator of the middle linebacker position—which is credited to his predecessor Bill George—Butkus is recognized as having defined the role. He is also recognized for having set the benchmark for the success of Bears middle linebackers, which continued with Mike Singletary and Brian Urlacher. Hall of Fame running back Earl Campbell, known for his hard-hitting running style, cited Butkus as his hero growing up.

After his university years, Butkus continued to receive recognition for his college career. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1983. His No. 50 jersey is one of only two retired by the Illinois Fighting Illini football program, the other being the No. 77 of Red Grange, and he was an inaugural inductee into the Illinois Athletics Hall of Fame in 2016. Butkus was named to the Walter Camp Football Foundation's All-Century Team in 1999, compiled to honor the best college players of the 20th century. In November 2017, Illinois announced it would erect a statue of Butkus on campus to overlook a future football performance center.

Butkus was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979, his first year of eligibility. The Hall's voters also named him to the NFL's 1960s All-Decade Team and 1970s All-Decade Team, deeming him one of the best players of both decades. On October 31, 1994, the Bears retired Butkus's No. 51 jersey along with Sayers's No. 40 jersey during a ceremony at Soldier Field. In 2004, a sculpture featuring Butkus, Halas, and seven other former Bears greats was unveiled at Soldier Field.

Butkus has been repeatedly ranked among the top players in NFL history, being named the ninth-best player in NFL history by The Sporting News in 1999, the tenth-best by the NFL Network in its The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players series in 2010, and the eighth-best by the New York Daily News in 2014. In 2017, NFL senior analyst Gil Brandt ranked Butkus as the third greatest linebacker of all time, behind Derrick Thomas and Lawrence Taylor. He was also selected the 70th greatest athlete of the 20th century by ESPN. In 1994, he was named to the NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team, compiled to recognize the best players of the NFL's first 75 years as adjudged by NFL officials and media personnel. In 2019, Butkus was named to the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team.

Butkus was ranked No. 1 on NFL Top 10: Most Feared Tacklers when the episode aired in 2008.

Honoring his contributions to Chicago sports, Butkus was inducted into the Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame in 2008. On August 24, 2013, he was inducted into the National Lithuanian American Hall of Fame. In 2018 Butkus was inducted as a laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln, the state's highest honor, by the Governor of Illinois.

In 1985, the Downtown Athletic Club of Orlando, Florida, created the Butkus Award, which is given annually to the most outstanding linebacker at the high school, college, and professional levels as chosen by a nationwide panel of 51 coaches and sportswriters. Butkus sued the Downtown Athletic Club for rights to the award in 2007, which it relinquished after a yearlong court battle. It has since been presented by the Butkus Foundation.

As an homage, actor Sylvester Stallone named his pet Bullmastiff Butkus after the dog ate a security blanket. He decided to name him after "possibly the fiercest football player in history". The dog later starred alongside Stallone in the Rocky film series.

Film and television career
After his career as a player, Butkus became a celebrity endorser, broadcaster, and actor. He appeared in films such as The Longest Yard (1974), Cry, Onion! (1975), Mother, Jugs & Speed (1976), Gus (1976), Superdome (1978), Cracking Up (1983), Johnny Dangerously (1984), Hamburger: The Motion Picture (1986), The Stepford Children (1987), Spontaneous Combustion (1990), Gremlins 2: The New Batch (1990), Necessary Roughness (1991), and Any Given Sunday (1999), and as a regular character on TV shows such as Blue Thunder, My Two Dads, MacGyver, and Hang Time, as well as in a guest role on Murder, She Wrote. He portrayed himself in both the critically acclaimed TV movie Brian's Song (1971) and the 2002 comedy Teddy Bears' Picnic. Butkus portrayed Officer Alvin Dimsky in Cass Malloy, the 1982 CBS pilot for what later became the syndicated situation comedy She's the Sheriff, and also made cameo appearances in episodes of several television shows.

Butkus endorsed Prestone, a brand of antifreeze, in a commercial during Super Bowl IV in 1970. The ad marked the first highly successful celebrity endorsement in Super Bowl advertising. Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, Butkus appeared alongside fellow former NFL star (and later Blue Thunder co-star) Bubba Smith in a series of ads for Miller Lite, which were released to high acclaim. In 1985, he was a pitchman for Echo Tools, a producer of outdoor power equipment. In the 1990s, Butkus promoted the "Qwik-Cook Grill", a grill using newspaper as its main fuel.

Butkus returned to the Bears as a color analyst on radio broadcasts in 1985, teaming with first-year play-by-play man Wayne Larrivee and former St. Louis Cardinals quarterback Jim Hart. He was hired as the replacement for Jimmy "The Greek" Snyder on CBS's pregame show The NFL Today in 1988, serving as an analyst through 1989. He was named as head coach of the XFL's Chicago Enforcers franchise, but was replaced by coach Ron Meyer for the league's only season in 2001. Instead, Butkus served as the league's director of competition and, during the second half of the season, a color commentator for the league's regional telecasts.

In 2005, as part of the ESPN reality series Bound for Glory, Butkus served as head football coach of Montour High School in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. He coached the team to a 1–6 record before departing with two games remaining in the season, saying he had fulfilled his contract for the show.

Personal and later life
Butkus married his high school sweetheart, Helen Essenberg, in 1963 while they were students at the University of Illinois. After his retirement, Butkus moved to Florida, and later to Malibu, California. He was an avid fan and frequent media image for the Bears.

Butkus had three children: Ricky, Matt, and Nikki. Matt played college football for the USC Trojans as a defensive lineman, and joined his father in philanthropic activities. Butkus's nephew Luke Butkus has been an assistant coach in the NFL for the Bears, Seattle Seahawks, and Jacksonville Jaguars, he also coached for the University of Illinois, his alma mater, and as of 2023 is the offensive line coach for the Green Bay Packers. Butkus's grandson Ian Parish plays volleyball for the UCLA Bruins.

Injuries sustained during Butkus's playing career compounded with time. He had his knee replaced with a metal unit. An osteotomy left him with one leg 1.5 inches shorter than the other, which affected his hips, back, and neck. Around 2002, nerve damage in his spine caused him to develop foot drop. He lost strength in his hands, needing both to lift a coffee cup. Still, Butkus maintained that football had a largely positive impact on his life, and that its benefits should not be overlooked.

In August 2001, Butkus underwent quintuple bypass surgery to remove blockages in his arteries. After the surgery, he co-authored a book titled The OC Cure For Heart Disease with Lawrence J. Santora, the doctor who performed the procedure.

Butkus died in his sleep at his home in Malibu, California, on October 5, 2023, at the age of 80. The cause of death was a stroke, with atrial fibrillation, atherosclerosis, and hypercholesterolemia listed as underlying causes. His death came hours before the Bears were scheduled to play a Thursday Night Football game against the Washington Commanders. The Commanders held a moment of silence prior to the game.

Philanthropy
Through The Butkus Foundation, Butkus has supported many charitable causes. The foundation was formed to manage the receipt and disbursement of funds for his charitable causes. These include:
 * The Butkus Award, instituted in 1985, is one of the elite individual honors in football. The Butkus Foundation takes stewardship of the award recognizing athletic achievement and service to the community while honoring the nation's best high school, college, and professional linebackers. An independent selection committee is composed of 51 people, including professional, college, and high school scouts, and sports journalists.
 * The Dick Butkus Center for Cardiovascular Wellness is a nonprofit organization in Orange County, California, with a cardiac screening program that uses specialized testing to help identify those at risk of heart disease and sudden cardiac death.
 * The I Play Clean Campaign addresses the issue of steroids among high school athletes. The campaign educates and encourages high school athletes to train and eat well, without resorting to illegal steroids and performance-enhancing products.

title: Dick Butkus


text: User:MikeAssad

title: User:MikeAssad


text:
Coahuila y Tejas

Coahuila y Tejas, officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila y Tejas (lit. 'Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila and Texas'), was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution.

It had two capitals: first Saltillo (1822–1825) for petition of Miguel Ramos Arizpe, that changing the capital for dispute of political groups, but Monclova recovered primacy because it was the colonial capital since 1689; this action provoked a struggle between the residents of Saltillo and Monclova in 1838–1840, but the political actions of Santa Anna convinced the monclovitas to accept the final change of political powers to Saltillo. In the case of Tejas its territory was organized for administrative purposes, with the state being divided into three districts: Béxar, comprising the area covered by Texas; Monclova, comprising northern Coahuila; and Río Grande Saltillo, comprising southern Coahuila.

The state remained in existence until the adoption of the 1835 "Constitutional Bases", whereby the federal republic was converted into a unitary one, and the nation's states (estados) were turned into departments (departamentos). The State of Coahuila and Texas was split in two and became the Department of Coahuila and the Department of Texas.

Both Coahuila and Texas seceded from Mexico because Antonio López de Santa Anna attempted to collect taxes, end slavery, and centralize the government, and groups of rebels, led primarily by immigrants and slave-owners, were unwilling to obey the laws of the rest of Mexico. Texas eventually became the independent Republic of Texas, which in 1845 became a state of the United States of America. Coahuila joined with Nuevo León and Tamaulipas, to form the short-lived Republic of the Rio Grande.

Formation
In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence severed the control that Spain had exercised on its North American territories, and the new country of Mexico was formed from much of the lands that had comprised New Spain. In the early days of the country, there was much disagreement over whether Mexico should be a federal republic or a constitutional monarchy. In 1824, a new constitution restructured the country as a federal republic with nineteen states and four territories. One of the new states was Coahuila y Tejas, which combined the sparsely populated Spanish provinces of Texas and Coahuila. The poorest state in the Mexican federation, Coahuila y Tejas covered the boundaries of Spanish Texas but did not include the area around El Paso, which belonged to the state of Chihuahua and the area of Laredo, Texas, which became part of Tamaulipas.

Erasmo Seguin, Texas's representative to Congress during the constitutional deliberations, originally advocated for Texas to become a federal territory. He knew that Texas's small population and insufficient resources made the region ill-prepared to be an independent state, and that the federal government had an obligation to assist territories. Because Coahuila was more populous than Texas, he feared that in a combined state Coahuila would wield greater power in decision making. The representative from Coahuila, Miguel Ramos Arizpe, was likewise concerned that his region was ill-equipped to become an independent state. Ramos Arizpe was unwilling to join with other nearby states, as Coahuila compared unfavorably to those states in either population or economy and would thus be a weaker partner. To convince the Texans to join forces with Coahuila, Ramos Arizpe wrote to the ayuntamiento in Bexar to warn the political leaders that a territory would lose its ownership of public lands to the federal government. State governments retained ownership of public land. This was enough to persuade the Texans to drop their opposition to the merger.

Immigration and slavery
The federal government had little money to spare for the military, so settlers were empowered to create their own militias to help control hostile native tribes. The border region of Texas faced frequent raids by Apache and Comanche tribes. In the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the raids, the government liberalized its immigration policies, and settlers from the United States were permitted to move to Mexico.

States were responsible for implementing the General Colonization Law. Officials in Saltillo, the capital of Coahuila y Tejas, were soon besieged by foreign land speculators who wanted to claim land in Texas. The state passed its own colonization law in 1825. Approximately 3,420 land grant applications were submitted by immigrants and naturalized citizens, many of them Anglo-Americans. Only one of the twenty-four empresarios, Martín De León settled citizens from within Mexico; the others came primarily from the United States.

From the time Mexico became independent from Spain, there was public support for abolishing slavery. Fears of an economic crisis if all of the slaves were simultaneously freed led to a gradual emancipation policy. In 1823, Mexico forbade the sale or purchase of slaves, and required that the children of slaves be freed when they reached fourteen. Any slave introduced into Mexico by purchase or trade would also be freed. Many of the colonists in Texas, however, had already owned slaves and brought them to the new territory when they immigrated from the United States.

In 1827, the legislature of Coahuila y Tejas banned the admission of additional slaves into the state and granted freedom at birth to all children born to a slave. The new laws also stated that any slave brought into Texas should be freed within six months. Two years later, slavery was officially prohibited in Mexico. American settlers in Texas began to discuss revolt. The governor of Coahuila y Tejas, Jose Maria Viesca, wrote to the president to explain the importance of slavery to the east Texas economy, and the importance of the Texas economy to the development of the state. Texas was temporarily exempted from the slavery prohibition rule. By 1830, the state was ordered to comply in full with the emancipation law. Many colonists converted their slaves to indentured servants with 99-year terms, a practice which the state also banned in 1832.

Tensions
As the number of Americans living in Texas blossomed, Mexican authorities became apprehensive that the United States might wish to annex the area, possibly using force. On April 6, 1830, the Mexican government passed a series of laws restricting immigration from the United States into Texas. The laws also cancelled all unfilled empresario contracts and called for the first enforcement of customs duties. Implementation of the new laws angered colonists in Texas, and in June 1832 a group of armed settlers marched on the military base at Anahuac, and deposed the commander, Juan Davis Bradburn. A second group forced the surrender of another Mexican military commander at the Battle of Velasco. The small rebellion coincided with a revolt led by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna against the centralist policies of Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante. Texans aligned themselves with Santa Anna's federalist policies.

Settlers in Texas continued to press for changes in Mexican law. In 1833, they requested separate statehood, going so far as to draft a proposed state constitution.

In March 1833, the capital of the state was transferred from Saltillo to Monclova, which was closer to Tejas. Shortly thereafter, civil war erupted as the federal government moved away from federalism and towards a more centralized government. As fighting erupted, residents in Saltillo declared that Monclova had been illegally made the state capital and selected a new governor. Texans in Saltillo recommended establishing a provisional government in Bexar during the unrest to strengthen the autonomy of Texas. Juan Seguin, political chief of Bexar, called for a town meeting to create a government but was forced to postpone it when Mexican troops advanced in the direction of Texas.

Disestablishment
In 1835, President Santa Anna revoked the Constitution of 1824 and began consolidating his power. In various parts of the country federalists revolted, and in May 1835 Santa Anna brutally crushed a revolt in Zacatecas. The federalists, including Agustín Viesca, the governor of Coahuila y Tejas, were afraid that Santa Anna would march against Coahuila after subduing the rebels in Zacatecas, so they disbanded the state legislature on May 21, 1835, and authorized the governor to set up an office in a different part of the state. Viesca was arrested as he traveled to San Antonio. When Viesca escaped and reached Texas, no one recognized him as governor. In October 1835, Santa Anna abolished all state governments, replacing them with administrative divisions from Mexico City. Settlers in Texas revolted the same month, and, at the conclusion of the Texas Revolution in April 1836, Texas had become self-established as the independent Republic of Texas.

Government
Coahuila y Tejas was divided into several departments, each of which was governed by a political chief. Departments were further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by alcaldes, similar to a modern-day mayor. Each municipality also had an elected ayuntamiento, similar to a city council. Originally, all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar, while Coahuila comprised several departments. After many protests from residents of Texas, in early 1834 the region was divided into three departments, Béxar, Brazos, and Nacogdoches. At the same time, Texas was granted three representatives to the state legislature from the original two.

Laws were set by a state legislature. Ten of the 12 members were elected from Coahuila, with two coming from Texas. Legislators met at the state capital, originally Saltillo, Coahuila, later Monclova, Coahuila. The choice of capital city was controversial; Saltillo was located in the extreme south of the state, more than 300 leagues from the northernmost part of Texas.

Defense
The federal government recognized that border states required a different military model than other states. In 1826, Coahuila y Tejas and the nearby states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León were placed under a single military commandant general, who was stationed near Laredo. According to the regulations, each of the garrisons in Texas (at the Alamo Mission in Bexar and at Presidio La Bahia in Goliad) should have 107 soldiers, not including officers. By 1832 there were a combined 70 soldiers with guns (with an additional 70 who had no weapons). The federal government occasionally established other garrisons within Texas, but when the immediate threat was considered to be gone the garrisons were usually disbanded. The bulk of the rest of the army remained in Mexico City, in large part so its leaders could curry political favor.

The government had little money, and troops were often unpaid, with ammunition, guns, and food in short supply. In many cases townspeople were forced to provide food and other supplies to the soldiers. Few men volunteered for military service in the frontier, so many garrisons were composed of convicts or others forcibly recruited.

In 1828, Coahuila y Tejas passed legislation authorizing an official state militia. Texas had at least three militia units – at Bexar, Goliad, and in Stephen F. Austin's colony along the Brazos River.

Demographics
Despite the influx of settlers from the United States after the colonization laws were passed, the majority of settlers within Coahuila y Tejas were either Mexican citizens or Tejanos. Within Texas, however, by 1830 approximately 80% of the population was from the United States or Europe.

In the frontier areas of the state, similar to the rest of the Mexican frontier, there was more ethnic intermarriage than in the interior regions. Although both the federal and state constitutions established the Catholic Church as the official religion, the frontier areas often disobeyed the rule.

Economy
For the most part, only enough food was grown for use in the area; little was exported. This was partially due to labor shortages and partly due to raids from native tribes. Wild game was abundant, and many families survived by hunting, keeping a few head of livestock, and subsistence farming.

Within Texas, the economy depended heavily on the cultivation of cotton. In 1834, Texas exported over 7,000 bales of cotton. Ranching was also lucrative, and Texas exported over 5,000 head of cattle in 1834. Lumber was exported in small quantities, primarily to Matamoros. In the mid-1830s, Texas imported approximately $630,000 worth of goods. Exports amounted to only about $500,000. The trade deficit resulted in a lack of currency in Texas; in a report to his superiors Juan Almonte estimated that only about 10% of transactions within Texas were conducted with specie.

Much of the trade was run by recent immigrants; few Tejanos were involved in exporting or industry. The newcomers may have had increased access to capital markets and to transportation, and may have had closer ties with, or at least a better understanding of, foreign markets.

Many inhabitants of the Mexican frontier chafed at rules that limited trade with the United States. As these areas, including Texas, were far from federal – and often state – control, smuggling was rampant. Coahuila did not have a coastline, and thus could not import goods from other countries. From 1823 through 1830, Texas settlers had an exemption on tariffs for some goods. Tariffs could not be collected on other goods because there was no customs house to collect the duties. A customs house was established in Anahuac in 1830, but the soldiers were expelled by settlers in 1832. A similar incident occurred in 1835, again resulting in the closure of the customs house. Texas continued to serve as a smuggling haven, with some of the goods being sent into the Mexican interior and into the territory of New Mexico.

title: Coahuila y Tejas