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SABMiller

SABMiller plc was a South African multinational brewing and beverage company headquartered in Woking, England on the outskirts of London until 10 October 2016 when it was acquired by AB InBev. It was the world's second-largest brewer measured by revenues (after Anheuser-Busch InBev) and was also a major bottler of Coca-Cola. Its brands included Foster's, Miller, and Pilsner Urquell. It operated in 80 countries worldwide and in 2009 sold around 21 billion litres of beverages. Since 10 October 2016, SABMiller is a business division of AB InBev, a Belgian multinational corporation with headquarters in Leuven.

SABMiller was founded as South African Breweries in 1895 to serve a growing market of miners and prospectors in and around Johannesburg. Two years later, it became the first industrial company to list on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. From the early 1990s onwards, the company increasingly expanded internationally, making several acquisitions in both emerging and developed markets. In 1999, it formed a new UK-based holding company, SAB plc, and moved its primary listing to London. In May 2002, SAB plc acquired Miller Brewing, forming SABMiller plc.

The acquisition of SABMiller by Anheuser-Busch InBev on 10 October 2016 ended the corporate use of the name SABMiller; this entity became a business division of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV. Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV (abbreviated as AB InBev) began trading on the Brussels Stock Exchange as ABI, as BUD on the New York stock exchange and as ANH on the Johannesburg market. SABMiller ceased trading on global stock markets

The company divested itself of its interests in the MillerCoors beer company to Molson Coors. On 21 December 2016, the company agreed to sell the former SABMiller Ltd. business in Eastern Europe to Asahi Breweries. AB InBev had previously agreed to sell Grolsch Brewery, Peroni Brewery and Meantime Brewery to Asahi; that deal closed on 12 October 2016. On the same day, the sale of SABMiller's 49 per cent share in the world's largest volume beer brand, Snow beer to China Resources Enterprise was also closed.

Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV is also selling much of an SABMiller's subsidiary that was bottling and distributing Coca-Cola to the Coca-Cola Company. The affected regions include Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, El Salvador and Honduras.

Companies such as South African Breweries and Carlton & United Brewing that were subsidiaries of SABMiller, and were not sold after SABMiller was acquired by Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, are now subsidiaries of AB InBev. CUB was sold to Asahi in July 2020.

Pre-acquisition history
The origins of the company date back to the foundation of South African Breweries in 1895 in South Africa. For many decades, the operations of South African Breweries were mainly limited to southern Africa, where it had established a dominant position in the market during South African Apartheid, until 1990 when it began investing in Europe.

In 1999, after listing on the London Stock Exchange to raise capital for acquisitions, the group purchased the Miller Brewing Company in North America from the Altria Group in 2002, and changed its name to SABMiller.

Following this, the group's next major acquisition was of a major interest in Bavaria S. A., South America's second largest brewer and owner of the Aguila and Club Colombia brands in 2005.

In 2008, SABMiller and Molson Coors created MillerCoors, a joint venture to produce beverages in the United States.

The company became engaged in the hostile takeover of Fosters in August 2011, and in September 2011 the board of Foster's agreed to a takeover bid valuing the company at A$9.9bn (US$10.2bn; £6.5bn). The deal was completed by the end of 2011, but excluded the Foster's lager brand in the UK and Europe, where it is owned by Heineken.

In November 2011, SABMiller launched Impala Cervejas in Africa, the first commercially produced cassava beer, although Africans have been making cassava home brews for generations. The taste is described as "somewhat bitter, somewhat tangy, not sweet".

In 2013, the company joined leading alcohol producers as part of a producers' commitments to reducing harmful drinking.

In July 2014, the company announced it was divesting its 39.6 per cent stake in casino and hotel group Tsogo Sun Holdings Limited through institutional share placements and a partial buy-back from Tsogo Sun. SABMiller's stake at the time was valued at approximately ZAR11.7 billion (US$1.09 billion).

In September 2014, the company made an unsuccessful attempt to acquire a controlling stake in Dutch rival Heineken International, a move Bloomberg states was part of SABMiller's strategy to protect itself from a potential takeover bid from Anheuser-Busch InBev.

On 27 November 2014, it was announced that SABMiller, The Coca-Cola Company and Gutsche Family Investments had agreed to combine the bottling operations of their non-alcoholic ready-to-drink beverages businesses in southern and east Africa. The new bottler, Coca-Cola Beverages Africa, will serve 12 high-growth countries accounting for approximately 40 per cent of all Coca-Cola beverage volumes in Africa. SABMiller will hold 57 per cent shareholding in the proposed venture.

In May 2015, SABMiller announced it would acquire British brewery company Meantime Brewing for an undisclosed fee.

Acquired by Anheuser-Busch InBev
On 16 September 2015, Anheuser-Busch InBev made the acquisition bid for SABMiller that would unite the world's two biggest beermakers and control about half the industry's profit. The deal, however, would need to go through several regulatory hurdles which would require certain operations to be spun off the group. A tentative deal was announced on 13 October 2015.

The US$107 billion merger between AB InBev and SABMiller closed on 10 October 2016. The new company, Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV is now the world's largest beer company. The target annual sales for the new company is US$55 billion. During the merger discussions between Anheuser-Busch InBev and SABMiller in 2015, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) had agreed to proposed deal only on the basis that SABMiller "spins off all its MillerCoors holdings in the U.S. — which include both Miller- and Coors-held brands – along with its Miller brands outside the U.S." The entire ownership situation was complicated: "In the United States, Coors is majority owned by MillerCoors (a subsidiary of SABMiller) and minority owned by Molson Coors, though internationally it’s entirely owned by Molson Coors, and Miller is owned by SABMiller."

As per the agreement with the regulators, the former SABMiller sold to Molson Coors full ownership of the Miller brand portfolio outside of the U.S. and Puerto Rico for US$12 billion on 11 October 2016. Molson Coors also retained "the rights to all of the brands currently in the MillerCoors portfolio for the U.S. and Puerto Rico." The agreement made Molson Coors the world's third largest brewer.

In Canada, Molson Coors regained the right (from the former SABMiller) to make and market Miller Genuine Draft and Miller Lite.

The company agreed to sell the former SABMiller Ltd. business in Eastern Europe to Asahi Breweries. This deal closed on 21 December 2016. Anheuser-Busch InBev had previously agreed to sell Grolsch Brewery, Peroni Brewery and Meantime Brewery to Asahi; that deal closed on 12 October 2016. On the same day, the sale of SABMiller's 49 per cent share in Snow beer to China Resources Enterprise also closed.

In July 2020, ABI-InBev agreed to sell the former SABMiller business Carlton & United Brewing to Asahi.

Operations
SABMiller grew from its original South African base into a global company with operations in both developed markets and emerging economies such as Eastern Europe, China and India. It is one of the world's largest brewers, with brewing interests and distribution agreements across six continents.

In August 2016, after the plans for acquiring SABMiller had been established by Anheuser-Busch InBev, the company said it would close SABMiller's regional offices in Miami, Hong Kong and Beijing after the acquisition deal closed in October 2016. Plans had not yet been revealed for the operation in Zug, Switzerland which controlled SABMiller's central & eastern European beer brands. However, the subsequent sale of much of the business in such countries to Asahi Breweries may affect the Zug operation. The office in Woking (UK) was expected to remain open for a transitional period but the HQ in London's Stanhope Gate would close. The office in Johannesburg was expected to remain open for use by the Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV as its Africa hub.

Operations in some of the following regions may also be affected by the Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV owners in future.

Africa and Asia (incl. South Africa)
SABMiller's brewing operations in Africa spanned 31 countries. In China, the group's national brand, Snow beer, was produced in partnership with China Resources Enterprise Limited, with SABMiller owning 49 per cent; this is the leading brand by volume in China. Before acquiring SAB Miller, AB InBev had agreed to sell its interests in Snow to China Resources Beer (Holdings) Co for $1.6 billion to satisfy regulators. The deal closed on 12 October 2016.

SABMiller was the second-largest brewer in India and had joint ventures in Vietnam and Australia.

South Africa was SABMiller's most established market with brands including Castle Lager, Castle 1895, Castle Milk Stout, Hansa Marzen Gold, Hansa Pilsener, Carling Black Label, Carling Blue Label, Castle Lite, Redd's, Peroni, Brutal Fruit, Flying Fish, Liberado, and Carver's Weiss. The South African Breweries company is now a distinct entity, a direct subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV which had made commitments to the South African Competition Tribunal to maintain a stable employee level.

The soft drink division was a large producer of products for The Coca-Cola Company in Africa, although operations in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho were sold to the Coca-Cola Company in late 2016.

According to recent reports, Coca-Cola paid $3.15 billion to acquire AB InBev's stake (from the former SABMiller) in Coca-Cola Beverages Africa.

Australia
In September 2011, the board of Foster's Group agreed to a takeover bid by SABMiller, valuing the company at A$9.9bn (US$10.2bn; £6.5bn). The Foster's Group, now known as Carlton & United Brewing was a direct subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV until July 2020 when it was sold to Asahi Global.

Brands include:

Carlton Draught, Cascade Draught (see Cascade Brewery), Foster's Lager, Melbourne Bitter, Pure Blonde, Victoria Bitter, and the Matilda Bay Brewing Company portfolio.

Europe
As part of the agreements made with regulators before Anheuser-Busch InBev was allowed to acquire SABMiller, the company sold the Peroni, Meantime and Grolsch brands to Asahi Breweries of Japan on 13 October 2016.

After acquiring SABMiller, Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV agreed on 21 December 2016 to sell the former SABMiller Ltd. business in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania to Asahi for US$7.8 billion. The deal includes popular brands such as Pilsner Urquell, Tyskie, Lech, Dreher, Ursus, Timisoreana and Kozel. The breweries in the sale include Pilsner Urquell, Kompania Piwowarska, Ursus, Topvar and Dreher.

Latin America
SABMiller first entered the Latin American market with the acquisition of Cervecería La Constancia from El Salvador and Cervecería Hondureña in Honduras, making the company the first international brewer to enter Central America. Since then, the group has expanded its Latin American operations into six countries, including Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Peru.

Lager brands include:

Isenbeck (Argentina), Aguila, Club Colombia, Costeña, Poker, Pilsen (Colombia), Cristal, Pilsen Callao, Pilsen Trujillo, Cusqueña, Arequipeña (Peru), Pilsener, Club (Ecuador), Pilsener, Regia, Suprema, Golden Light (El Salvador), Port Royal, Salva Vida, Imperial, Barena (Honduras), Atlas (Panama), and Balboa (Panama).

North America
On 9 October 2007, SABMiller and Molson Coors announced a joint venture to be known as MillerCoors. US antitrust regulators approved the joint venture on 5 June 2008. The merger was completed on 30 June 2008 and MillerCoors began operation as a combined entity on 1 July 2008. The combined venture was headquartered in Chicago, Illinois.

Prior to the sale to Anheuser-Busch Inbev in October 2016, the brands included:

Miller Lite, Miller Genuine Draft, Olde English 800, Milwaukee's Best, Miller Chill, Hamm's, and Leinenkugel.

As per the agreement with the regulators prior to the 2016 sale, the company sold to Molson Coors full ownership of the Miller brand portfolio outside of the U.S. and Puerto Rico for US$12 billion. Molson Coors also retained "the rights to all of the brands currently in the MillerCoors portfolio for the U.S. and Puerto Rico."

Beverages

Before the acquisition by AB InBev on 10 October 2016, the SABMiller brands included some classified by the company as "global beers", which are the flagships of SAB Miller: Foster's made in Australia, Pilsner Urquell from the Czech Republic, Tyskie made in Poland and Miller Genuine Draft.

All of the Miller brands were sold to Molson Coors on 11 October 2016. Pilsner Urquell and Tyskie are among the brands being sold to Asahi Breweries.

SAB Miller also owned over 150 market-leading local brands. The company was one of the world's largest Coca-Cola bottlers and had carbonated soft-drink bottling operations in 14 markets. These were subsequently owned by the new Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV entity which is also a PepsiCo bottler. In December 2016, Coca-Cola Co. bought the Coca-Cola operations in Africa and in two Central American countries. The deal requires regulatory approval and should close by the end of 2017.

Environment
SABMiller runs a number of sustainable development initiatives across its companies and in the countries in which it operates. They use new lightweight bottles that use 30 per cent less glass. The lightweight bottles are designed to not only reduce the amount of waste materials but also cut down on energy used in production and distribution reducing the company's carbon emissions. SABMiller submits to a number of third party annual reports that review the company's environmental record. The corporation provides links to such reports on their own website.

Like many multinationals, SABMiller has attracted close scrutiny for its adherence to the corporate social responsibilities it espouses. One major study, undertaken by BioMed Central and published in 2013, examined the global CSR of three of the biggest manufacturers of alcohol - Pernod Ricard, SABMiller and AB InBev - and concluded it amounted to 'the illusion of righteousness'.

Taxation
In November 2010, the charity ActionAid published a report alleging that SABMiller has avoided paying a total of around £20 million of corporation tax in five African countries – Ghana, Mozambique, Tanzania, South Africa and Zambia – and in India. SABMiller has denied these allegations.

In October 2015, the Financial Times described the actions of SABMiller and other multinationals operating in Africa as "looters". The issue is transfer pricing, the transfer of goods or services to another arm of the group in a different country. In their 2015 annual report, SABMiller stated that its tax contribution in Africa is "substantial". It releases its tax contributions for four of the 17 African markets in which it operates.

Senior management and board of directors
Since SABMiller had been acquired on 10 October 2016, and became a wholly owned business division of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, there was no longer a need for a management team or board of directors for this former company. In August 2017, Anheuser Busch Inbev had announced that Mauricio Leyva, then the CEO of SAB South Africa, would be the only SABMiller executive to remain with Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV on the new entity's 18 member permanent board. Leyva would become zone president for Middle Americas at Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV. News reports indicated that "three ... SABMiller executive committee members - general counsel John Davidson, human resources head Johann Nel and Africa MD Mark Bowman - [would] stay on for a six-month transitional period only".

title: SABMiller


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John Towers (businessman)

John Towers  CBE (born 30 March 1948) is a British businessman, who was the owner and managing director of MG Rover Group from 2000 until the company entered administration in 2005. This followed a succession of senior appointments within Rover, which he had joined from Massey Ferguson in 1988.

Towers started his career in 1966 as a student apprentice with Perkins Engines of Peterborough, which by that time had become a subsidiary of Massey Ferguson. He rose within Perkins to become Director of Engineering before leaving in 1988 to join the Rover Group.

Together with Peter Beale, Nick Stephenson and John Edwards, Towers formed Phoenix Venture Holdings (PVH) which bought Rover Group for £10 in April 2000. In addition they also bought the Studley Castle, a conference hotel.

They subsequently purchased Midland Powertrain, MG Rover's engine plant from BMW for £20. Finally, for £50 along with an undisclosed sum from the Royal Bank of Scotland, they purchased Rover Capital, (now MG Rover Capital) a book of Rover car loans.

Kevin Howe was appointed MG Rover's Managing Director in July 2000.

In April 2005, MG Rover went into administration, following the collapse of takeover talks with Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC). Towers was heavily criticised for his role in the company's demise, and the Phoenix Consortium's conduct relating to Rover Group was initially referred to the Serious Fraud Office (SFO), although after initial investigations the SFO concluded that no further action would be taken. Following publication of a government report into the failure of MG Rover, Towers – along with the other directors of Phoenix – have been disqualified from holding any company office in the United Kingdom or have undertaken not to do so.

Towers ran MG Rover until 2005, when it collapsed with the loss of 6,500 jobs. PVH was found to have given management "unreasonably large" payouts, a government-commissioned report found, which were "out of all proportion". Towers awarded himself £8.958m whilst nearly all employees lost their jobs.

Nanjing Automobile subsequently brought MG out of administration, but have since moved production to China.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Towers (businessman)


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Shinzo Hamai

Shinzo Hamai (浜井 信三) was the first popularly elected Mayor of Hiroshima (served 1947-1955 and again 1959-1967). He created Hiroshima's image as a city of peace.

Life and career
In 1931, he graduated from the Law School of Tokyo Imperial University, and in 1935 became employed by Hiroshima Municipality.

He married Fumiko (born 1914), and they had one son and three daughters.

The circumstances of his rise to prominence result from the fact that following the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima, many municipal employees were killed or incapacitated, while Hamai was only slightly injured. At the time of the explosion, he was at his house located about 3.5 km from the epicenter. His house was partly damaged, but he was still able to walk. He immediately began relief work in cooperation with Japanese army authorities.

Mayor of Hiroshima
In October 1945, Shichirō Kihara was appointed the next Mayor of Hiroshima, and in December Hamai became his deputy. Following Kihara's dismissal from his duties in March 1947 by the Allied occupation authorities and the reforms conducted in Japan by General McArthur, first mayoral elections were held in Hiroshima in April 1947. In that election, Hamai ran against five other candidates, which included vice mayor Hisao Yamamoto and city council chairman Tsukasa Nitoguri. He won the election and became the first popularly elected mayor of Hiroshima.

As mayor of Hiroshima, he worked to rebuild his city as symbol for peace. As part of these efforts, he established a traditional annual speech delivered at the main memorial ceremony on August 6, known as Peace Declaration. The decision to that effect was to turn the anniversary into a festival of peace. He managed to get the support of the US occupation forces to that policy, as they hoped this would reduce criticism of the US government among the people of Hiroshima. In early 1948, several citizens' groups in Hiroshima were formed in order to convince the Japanese government to release former military land for civilian purposes, and together with Hamai decided to work for the enactment of a special legislation regarding the status of Hiroshima. To achieve that end, Hamai made numerous trips to the Japanese Diet in Tokyo along with his secretary Chimata Fujimoto and city council chairman Tsukasa Nitoguri. Following the parliamentary election of January 1949, he got the support of the ruling Liberal Party under Shigeru Yoshida for the initiative. These efforts led to the proclamation of Hiroshima as a city of peace under Japanese law. The law to that effect was passed in the Lower House on May 10, 1949, and in the Upper House to following day. In order for the law to become effective, it required approval by municipal referendum, which was held on July 7 ended with approval of the new law. The law went into effect on August 6, 1949.

In addition, Hamai worked to establish ties with foreign peace activists, such as Norman Cousins, who first visited Hiroshima in 1949. In June 1950 Hamai attended a conference in Caux, Switzerland, held by the Movement for Moral Re-Armament established by Frank N. D. Buchman. This was his first trip abroad as a mayor.

As part of his efforts to rebuild Hiroshima as a city of peace, he used the services of architect Kenzo Tange to build a monument to the victims in Hijiyama park, now officially named peace park. One venue of action taken by him was receiving monetary contributions for the reconstruction of his city. One such major source has been residents of Hawaii, especially of Japanese origin. He opposed the establishment by the US Army of the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission and tried to prevent the location of its facilities in Hijiyama park, but did not succeed in that. Despite being a hibakusha himself, Hamai did express in early 1955 some support for the notion of establishing nuclear power plants in Hiroshima.

During the mayoral election of April 1955, Hamai's popularity was in decline as rumors spread he was under investigation for financial irregularities. On April 28, just two days prior to election day, he was summoned for questioning by the Prosecutor's office, which probably led to his defeat at the polls. The charges were later dropped. He was defeated by mayoral candidate Tadao Watanabe, who became the mayor until 1959.

In April 1959 Hamai was reelected as mayor and served in that position until 1967. During this term, he had the opportunity to establish the first sister-city relations with another city, which was the city of Honolulu, Hawaii. These relations were established due to the large percentage of Hiroshima immigrants in Hawaii. In late 1966 and early 1967 he was at odds with the Japanese government over the preservation of the Atomic Bomb Dome, which the government in Tokyo refused to finance. He put pressure on the government by holding a fund-raising campaign in the streets of Tokyo, which led to the donation of 60 million Yen to that cause.

Following retirement in 1967, he published a book of his memoirs in the Japanese language. In 2010, the book was published in English translation made by his son Junso Hamai (born 1936).

He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.

Death
He died of a heart attack in February 1968.

In popular culture
Hamai has been extensively mentioned in the documentary book Children of the Ashes by Robert Jungk. One of the events mentioned in the book was a brief moment in April 1946, when he witnessed a small tree growing in Hiroshima, realizing that despite radioactivity, plants could grow. This episode is depicted in the poem "Shinzo Hamai: 1946" by George Bailin, published in 1988.

title: Shinzo Hamai


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Talk:Abiogenic petroleum origin

New research(er)
Vladimir Kutcherov from the Swedish Research Council, and this group has some credentials " Government agency in Sweden established in 2001, with the responsibility to support and develop basic scientific research. Its objective is for Sweden to be a leading nation in scientific research. " Their research published in Nature Geoscience.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090910084259.htm — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.20.110.57 (talk) 07:22, 26 March 2018 (UTC)

Abiotic methane different than abiotic petroleum
These two sentences from the lede do not seem right to me:

Scientific opinion on the origin of oil and gas is that all natural oil and gas deposits on Earth are fossil fuels, and are therefore not abiogenic in origin. There are a few abiogenic petroleum theories which are still subject to ongoing research and which typically seek to explain the existence of smaller quantities of oil and gas.

The second sentence directly contradicts the first. Is it all deposits, or just the majority? But in any event, it's not necessarily even the majority (or at least much less of one) for methane. It's accepted mainstream science that methane can be produced abiogenically and that's actually the prevailing explanation for the methane found on some of the other bodies in the solar system, with the biogenic theory being the minority in those cases (for obvious reasons.) This is even mentioned in other articles, and I think should be incorporated into a brief summary of the distinction between abiogenic theories for methane versus petroleum, since only the latter can really be said to be discredited, with the former being absorbed into a more complex standard theory involving different mechanisms all interacting, rather than actually being rejected.

From Serpentinite:

Abiotic methane production on Mars by serpentinization
The presence of traces of methane in the atmosphere of Mars has been hypothesized to be a possible evidence for life on Mars if methane was produced by bacterial activity. Serpentinization has been proposed as an alternative non-biological source for the observed methane traces.

Serpentinization on Enceladus
Using data from the Cassini probe flybys obtained in 2010–12, scientists were able to confirm that Saturn's moon Enceladus likely has a liquid water ocean beneath its frozen surface. A model suggests that Enceladus' ocean has an alkaline pH of 11–12. The high pH is interpreted to be a key consequence of serpentinization of chondritic rock, that leads to the generation of H2, a geochemical source of energy that can support both abiotic and biological synthesis of organic molecules.

New Study on abiogenic sources of methane
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2019/04/22/scientists-find-unusual-sources-of-methane/#.XL9C8-hKhHZ — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bgovern (talk • contribs) 17:07, 23 April 2019 (UTC)

Abiogenic petroleum origin as fringe science
Seems this topic qualifies as fringe science, considering the main sited proponent, Thomas Gold, is also a proponent of theories generally seen as nonsense (i.e. steady-state model and that alien space garbage is the origin of life Earth). The lead intro paragraph plainly states the idea is not well accepted and rejected by most authorities.

It's not fringe science. Maybe decades ago, but it is enjoying more and more support. We will almost certainly see acceptance of this theory in our lifetimes. It seems fallacious to characterize it as fringe science because one of its proponents had a couple of theories in his long and storied career that were a little bit controversial? Thornfield Hall (talk) 04:52, 4 May 2023 (UTC)Thornfield Hall
 * Every fringe science is enjoying more and more support according to its fans. You will need a reliable source for that. See WP:RS and WP:OR.
 * We will almost certainly see acceptance of this theory in our lifetimes. Wikipedia is not interested. See WP:CRYSTAL. --Hob Gadling (talk)

ELS
And see: in Reviews of Geophysics, paper by Vladimir Kutcherov et al, 2010, (https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008RG000270). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:602:9982:87e0:6d4f:d9fe:5d5a:71d6 (talk • contribs) 09:42, 17 November 2023 (UTC)

Topic prone to controversy
Should be perpetually semi-protected. Erkin Alp Güney 07:25, 1 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abiogenic petroleum origin


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July Revolt of 1927

The July Revolt of 1927 (also known as the Vienna Palace of Justice fire, Wiener Justizpalastbrand) was a major riot starting on 15 July 1927 in the Austrian capital, Vienna. The revolt was sparked by the acquittal of three nationalist paramilitary members for the killing of two social democratic Republikanischer Schutzbund members and culminated with police forces firing into the outraged crowd and killing 89 protesters, and five policemen died. More than 600 protestors and around 600 policemen were injured.

Background
The clash was the result of conflict between the Social Democratic Party of Austria and a right-wing alliance including wealthy industrialists and the Catholic Church. Many paramilitary forces had been formed in Austria during the early 1920s such as the nationalist Frontkämpfervereinigung Deutsch-Österreichs under Colonel Hermann Hiltl and the Social Democratic Republikanischer Schutzbund.

Schattendorf shooting
On 30 January 1927, a Republikanischer Schutzbund group held a demonstration in the town of Schattendorf, in Burgenland. After the demonstration had ended, the Frontkämpfervereinigung Deutsch-Österreichs attacked the Schutzbund members heading back to the train station and injured several and killed Matthias Csmarits, a World War I veteran, and Josef Grössing, an eight-year-old boy.

The shooting provoked significant controversy, with the funeral of the two victims on 2 February being attended by thousands and trade unions declaring a 15 min general strike throughout Austria to mark the funeral. Several months later, On 5 July, the trial of three Frontkämpfervereinigung members who were accused of the shooting began in Vienna. During the trial, the three, defended by the lawyer Walter Riehl, pleaded self-defence. After nine days, on 14 July, the jury acquitted them.

General strike
This "Schattendorf Verdict" led to a general strike, which had the aim of bringing down the government headed by Christian Social Party Chancellor Ignaz Seipel. Massive protests began on the morning of 15 July, when a furious crowd tried to storm the main building of the University of Vienna on the Ringstrasse. The protesters attacked and damaged a nearby police station and a newspaper building before they proceeded to the Austrian Parliament Building. Forced back by police, they arrived in the square in front of the Palace of Justice. Around noon, protesters entered the building by smashing the windows and then demolished the furnishings and began setting fire to files. Soon afterward, the building was ablaze. The fire spread quickly, as the Vienna fire brigade was attacked by several demonstrators, who cut the hoses and so prevented its being brought under control until the early morning.

The former (and later) Austrian Chancellor Johann Schober, who was then Vienna chief of police, suppressed the protests with force. He unsuccessfully urged Social Democratic Mayor Karl Seitz to call for the Austrian Armed Forces, which Seitz rejected. Schober attempted for the Christian Social Party Defence Minister Carl Vaugoin to do the same.

Finally, Schober supplied the police troops with army rifles and publicly announced that the premises would be cleared by force if the fire brigades could not work unhindered after Seitz and Schutzbund councillor Theodor Körner had attempted to persuade the crowd to surrender. The police opened fire and left 5 police officers and 89 demonstrators dead.

Significance and remembrance
The 20th-century philosopher, scholar and social commentator Karl Popper was 24 years old and living in Vienna during the unrest. In his 1976 autobiography, he recalled the event as foreshadowing extremism: “I began to expect the worst: that the democratic bastions of Central Europe would fall, and that a totalitarian Germany would start another war”.

A memorial to the victims was erected in the Vienna Zentralfriedhof. A plaque at the Palace of Justice was unveiled by President Heinz Fischer in 2007. Several artifacts such as fire-damaged court papers and Schutzbund and Frontkämpfer uniforms are on display at the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum.

title: July Revolt of 1927


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Wilhelm Filchner

Wilhelm Filchner (13 September 1877 – 7 May 1957) was a German army officer, scientist and explorer. He conducted several surveys and scientific investigations in China, Tibet and surrounding regions, and led the Second German Antarctic Expedition, 1911–13.

As a young military officer, Filchner gained an early reputation for dash and daring, following his travel exploits in Russia and the Pamir Mountains range. After further technical studies, he developed expertise in geography and geophysics, before leading a major scientific survey in Tibet and western China in 1903–05. In 1909 he was appointed to organise and lead the forthcoming German expedition to the Antarctic, with both scientific and geographical objectives involving extensive exploration of the continent's interior. During the expedition his ship became trapped in the Weddell Sea ice, drifting for eight months and preventing Filchner from establishing a land base, thus failing in its main objective. Although important scientific results were obtained, the expedition was disrupted by serious interpersonal disagreements and lasting animosities, which harmed Filchner's reputation as a leader and ended his polar career.

After service in the First World War he resumed his travels in Asia. He conducted two lengthy single-handed magnetic surveys in China and Tibet, often in difficult and sometimes dangerous conditions, and was continuing this work when the Second World War began, leaving him stranded in India. After years of internment, he returned to Europe and retired to Zürich, where he died in 1957. During his lifetime he received numerous honours, including the German National Prize for Art and Science in 1937, and several honorary doctorates. He is also commemorated in the Antarctic, where a number of geographical features bear his name.

Early life
Wilhelm Filchner was born on 13 September 1877, the son of Eduard and Rosine Filchner. Sources place his birth variously at Munich or Bayreuth; it appears that the family moved from Munich to Bayreuth shortly after Wilhelm's birth, but returned to Munich after his father's early death. As a boy, Wilhelm showed considerable artistic and musical talent, drawing inspiration from, amongst others, Franz von Lenbach, Franz Stuck, and Siegfried Wagner. He might have made his life in the arts, but family traditions drew him towards a military career, and at the age of 15 he was enrolled in the Prussian Military Academy.

Russia and the Pamirs
As a young officer in 1898, Filchner was given leave from the army to undertake a seven-week journey in Russia, but had to leave that country when he was suspected of acting as a spy. Two years later he made an expedition to the Pamir Mountains, which included a well-publicised horseback ride, travelling from Osh in the Fergana Valley to Murghab in Tajikistan, and returning by way of Kashgar in Sinkiang. During these travels, Filchner observed much Russian activity  and noted the differences between the Russians and the English in their interactions with the indigenous people: "The Russians manage, in their dealings with Asiatic peoples, to reach out to their hearts, whereas the English, in their relations with natives, make a show of their cultural superiority". Through these adventures, which he recounted in a popular book, Ein Ritt über den Pamir ("A Ride over the Pamirs"), Filchner gained an early reputation as a daring traveller.

China and Tibet, 1903–05
Back in Germany, Filcher developed his knowledge of geography and geophysics through courses at the Technical University of Munich and other institutions. Between 1900 and 1903, he formed contacts with some of the leading travelling scientists of the day, including the Swede Sven Hedin, and Ferdinand von Richthofen from the University of Berlin. In 1903, with von Richthofen's recommendation, the army gave him leave to assume the leadership of a major scientific survey in Tibet and western China, extending to the upper reaches of the Hwang Ho river. This was a potentially dangerous enterprise, and Filchner found it necessary at times to conceal his activities by disguising himself as a Muslim priest.

Filchner's principal scientific assistant on this journey was the geographer Albert Tafel, with whom relations were difficult and often strained. After the journey, Tafel missed few opportunities for insulting Filchner and undermining his authority as a leader, accusing him of cowardice and questioning the accuracy of his maps. Filchner's military background and formal manner contributed to the problem; as Cornelia Lüdecke puts it in a biographical essay on Filchner, as an officer he was  "trained to command and not to discuss". This was a trait that would also be apparent in Filchner's later expeditions.

Background, objectives and preparations
Filchner's interest in the Antarctic was sparked by the theories of Albrecht Penck of the University of Berlin, who considered that the then largely unexplored Antarctic continent comprised two separate landmasses, East and West Antarctica, divided by a strait connecting the Weddell and Ross Seas. Filchner wished to investigate this question, and in 1909, with the support of the Berlin Geographical Society, began preparations for an Antarctic expedition. He would not only test Penck's theory, but would combine geographical discovery with scientific inquiry. Filchner's original plan envisaged two ships, with shore parties advancing inland respectively from Weddell and Ross Sea bases, to meet in the vicinity of the Pole. This proved too costly, so Filchner had to adopt a more modest, single-ship strategy, confining his operations to the Weddell Sea area.

A ship, the Norwegian whaler Bjorn was acquired, and her name changed to Deutschland. Her captain was to be a naval officer, Richard Vahsel, who had previous Antarctic experience, but was by reputation a somewhat difficult and truculent character, "greedy for power and an out-and-out schemer". Unwisely, Filchner agreed to sail under the German naval flag, placing Deutschland and himself under naval regulations that gave the captain supreme decision-making authority on the ship. This created a situation of divided command, with serious consequences for Filchner's authority on the expedition.

Expedition

Deutschland sailed from Bremerhaven in early May 1911. The first stage involved a comprehensive oceanographic study of the Atlantic, covering more than 10000 nmi and extending over four months. After a break in Buenos Aires, the expedition departed for South Georgia, arriving late in October. While the ship was reprovisioned, Filchner conducted a survey of the island's coasts. On 11 December 1911 the heavily laden Deutschland began its journey south, to the Weddell Sea.

From the outset, progress was slow and uncertain. Brief periods of clear water were interspersed with spells of thick ice that impeded and sometimes prevented movement. However, by 29 January Deutschland had penetrated the Weddell Sea beyond James Weddell's most southerly point, reached in 1823, and the next day observed an ice-covered coast to the east. Filcher named this "Prinzregent Luitpold Land" (or "Luitpold Coast"), after the expedition's principal patron. Following the coastline, on 31 January, at 77°48'S, Deutschland reached a vast ice barrier, marking the southernmost extent of the Weddell Sea.

After much prevarication from the captain, Filchner agreed to establish his shore base in a small inlet which he christened Vahsel Bay. The site chosen by the captain was a berg attached to the barrier edge; Filchner was dubious, but Vahsel assured him that his ice pilot, Paul Björvik, had approved the site; Björvik would later deny giving any such advice. By 18 February building was nearly complete, but that night a violent tidal surge detached the berg containing the base and floated it away. A desperate salvage exercise saved all the personnel and most of the equipment and provisions, though some items were lost. Thereafter, Filchner tried for several more days to re-establish the base, but these efforts proved unavailing.

Drift

Deutschland began its return journey, intending to try again the following season. By 15 March, the ship was firmly beset in the ice, drifting slowly northwards, and clearly trapped for the winter. By this time the expedition's morale had largely collapsed as a result of the Vahsel Bay fiasco; the party had broken into factions, and hostility, recrimination and drunkenness, with threats of violence, became the norms. Nevertheless, Filchner still sought to continue the scientific work, in stations set up on the ice. On 10 August Vahsel died (of heart failure likely aggravated by the effects of syphilis) but the poisonous atmosphere continued under his replacement, first officer Wilhelm Lorenzen. The ship was not freed until 26 November 1912, and when she finally arrived in South Georgia on 19 December, the expedition disintegrated. The opposing factions were kept apart before being transferred back to Germany separately. Filchner hoped that the expedition could be reconstituted for another attempt, but his backers in Germany summoned him home.

In Germany a Court of Honour largely exonerated Filchner from blame for the debacle, but the experience had wearied him of the Antarctic, and he never returned. Instead, he decided he would resume his original field of work, in Central and East Asia.

Post First World War
During the First World War, Filchner served in the German army, mainly in military intelligence; in 1916 he was director of the marine interrogation service in Bergen, Norway. In the years immediately following the war he devoted himself to writing. In 1922 he published his account of the Antarctic expedition, Zum sechsten Erdteil: Die zweite deutsche Südpolar-Expedition ("To the Sixth Continent: The Second German South Polar Expedition"). In this book Filchner barely mentions the interpersonal difficulties that marred and ultimately overwhelmed the expedition, instead producing a relatively straightforward account of its activities and achievements. In the absence of rebuttal, criticisms from his enemies citing his lack of leadership and deficient exploring ability would continue, unanswered, for decades. In 1924 Filchner published a book, Sturm über Asien: Erlebnisse eines diplomatischen Geheimagenten ("Storm over Asia: Experiences of a Secret Diplomatic Agent"), covering the history of Central Asia since the beginning of the 20th century. This is not an account of personal experiences; it is a semi-fictionalised life of Zerempil, a Buryat monk from Urga. Filchner reissued the book in revised form in 1928, under the title Wetterleuchten im Osten ("Weather Lights in the East").

Central Asian survey, 1926–28
In 1926, Filchner resumed his prewar survey and observational work in Central Asia. Assisted by a small grant from the German Foreign Office, he set out in January of that year. After many delays and obstructions, he reached the Kumbum Monastery on the China–Tibetan border, where he spent the winter of 1926–27 in conditions of ill-health and poverty, while awaiting further funds and permission to proceed. In April 1927 he received letters of commendation allowing him to travel into Tibet, and in June he set out, his destination being the Northern Indian town of Leh. Despite further privations and hold-ups, he reached Leh on 5 March 1928, before completing his journey at Dehradun. His programme of work for the journey included the first major contribution to the magnetic survey of northern Tibet. He made many topographical measurements and produced detailed maps which transformed geographical knowledge of this region. To this information he added what he termed "cultural-political observations". Much of his work was carried out in secret, to avoid the attention of suspicious authorities. The journey became the subject of a film, Mönche, Tänzer und Soldaten ("Monks, Dancers and Soldiers"), a valuable documentary of monastic and other life of that time.

Second Asian survey, 1934–37
In the years 1934 to 1938, Filchner returned to the same region, this time following a route across northern Tibet from Lanzhou to Leh. Whereas on the earlier journey he had largely paid his own way, this time the costs of the expedition were met by the German government. Filchner was required to link his new measurements with those of the earlier journey. There may have been national and commercial dimensions to this second trip; the airline Deutsche Luft Hansa was planning to extend its services in the region. To navigate successfully, pilots would require accurate magnetic data in an area largely devoid of the natural geographical features that would enable navigation by sight. It is possible that Filchner was paid by the airline for this purpose.

In the course of his travels, Filchner crossed the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts, and arrived at Hotan in Xinjiang in December 1936. It was unsafe territory, with a civil war raging. Filcher did not possess the necessary papers; he was arrested and his passport confiscated. He was detained by the warlord Ma Hushan, in harsh conditions for seven months, before his passport was returned and he was allowed to proceed. He then had to navigate the so-called "route of death" over the Karakoram range. He arrived in Leh in September 1937, finishing his 3,500 km (2,175 miles) journey a month later in Srinigar. On his return, he learned that Adolf Hitler had awarded him the German National Prize for Art and Science. Filchner described this expedition in his book Bismillah (1938), translated into English as A Scientist in Tartary: From the Hoang-ho to the Indus (1939).

Second World War, retirement, death
In 1939 he planned to travel to Afghanistan and Northern Iran, to carry out magnetic work there, but decided instead to go to Nepal. He conducted magnetic surveys in the western and south-eastern regions of the country, although the British in India were suspicious of his presence there. When the Second World War broke out in September 1939, Filchner decided to remain in Nepal, but in December 1940 his health failed, requiring him to seek medical treatment in India, where he was promptly interned. The circumstances of his confinement in India were not harsh, and he was allowed to continue working and to travel to a limited extent. When the war ended, he lived in Poona before returning to Europe in 1949, settling in the Swiss city of Zürich. In Zürich he maintained his academic interests through contacts at ETH Zürich and the German Geodetic Commission at Munich. In 1956 he broke his long silence concerning the events of the Antarctic expedition, and prepared an exposé, Feststellungen ("Findings"), a response to his long-time critics. This revealed for the first time details of the expedition's travails, but at Filchner's insistence, remained unpublished until 1985. Filchner continued to live in Zurich until his death, on 7 May 1957, at the age of 79.

Assessment
Despite his outward formality of manner, Filchner demonstrated an imaginative and adventurous approach in the planning and execution of his various expeditions. In the course of his journeys he made important and lasting contributions to the cartography and magnetic measurements of Central Asia, and his Antarctic expedition, despite its circumstances, produced significant scientific and geographical results. Filchner's background and military training had instilled a somewhat inflexible attitude, not conducive to successful teamwork, and created difficulties with interpersonal relationships. These were exemplified by his falling-out with Tafel, and by his poor handling of the situation of divided command that arose on the Deutschland. Murphy describes Filchner as "a bit stiff, something of a cold fish", and lacking the sense of humour and common touch which marked leaders such as Shackleton. Lüdecke points out the marked successes of his later expeditions, which gained lavish praise from the Royal Geographical Society, when he worked alone without the constraint of maintaining a collegial approach.

Filchner's work was recognised in 1937 by his award of the German National Prize. He received honorary doctorates from the University of Königsberg (1911) and the Technical University of Munich (1938), and was appointed to an honorary professorship at the University of Berlin. He is commemorated in the various Antarctic features that bear his name: the Filchner Rocks in South Georgia; the Filchner Mountains in Queen Maud Land; Cape Filchner; the Filchner Trench in the Weddell Sea; and the Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf. The Filchner Station operated as a German scientific base on Berkner Island between 1982 and 1999.

Publications
As well as many volumes of scientific results and books of maps, derived from his various travels, Filchner published popular travel books and expedition accounts. These works included A Scientist in Tartary: from the Hoang Ho to the Indus (English translation 1939); a memoir, Ein Forscherleben ("A Researcher's Life") (1950); and, with Erich Przybyllok, Route-mapping and position-locating in unexplored regions (English translation 1957). An English translation by William Barr of Filchner's 1922 account of the 1911–13 Antarctic expedition, To the Sixth Continent, together with the 1985 exposé, was published in 1994.

title: Wilhelm Filchner


text:
Clifford Alexander Jr.

Clifford Leopold Alexander Jr. (September 21, 1933 – July 3, 2022) was an American lawyer, businessman and public servant from New York City. He first served on the National Security Council during the Kennedy administration, before becoming chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 1967. He was appointed Secretary of the Army a decade later, becoming the first African American to hold the position. He served in that role until 1981.

Early life and background
Alexander was born in Harlem on September 21, 1933. His father immigrated to the United States from Jamaica and managed the Riverton Houses; his mother, Edith (McAllister), was a community leader who was an adviser on civil rights to several mayors. Alexander attended the private Ethical Culture and Fieldston schools. He then studied government at Harvard College, graduating in 1955. He was the first African American to be elected president of its student council. He subsequently studied at Yale Law School. After graduating in 1958, he enlisted in the New York National Guard and served briefly with the 369th Field Artillery Battalion at Fort Dix, New Jersey.

Early years and National Security Council
After being admitted to the bar, Alexander served as an assistant district attorney for New York County under Frank Hogan from 1959 to 1961. He then became executive director of the Manhattanville Hamilton Grange Neighborhood Conservation Project, before serving as program and executive director of Harlem Youth Opportunities.

Alexander was first called to Washington, D.C. in 1963 to serve as a foreign affairs officer on the National Security Council staff, having been recommended to John F. Kennedy by McGeorge Bundy. He became the administration's unofficial adviser on race, with Kennedy asking him to observe the March on Washington. Alexander later served as deputy special assistant to Lyndon B. Johnson, associate special counsel, and deputy special counsel on the White House staff all during the span of 1964 to 1967.

Throughout Johnson's presidency, Alexander continued to act as his go-between with the African American community, notably in the aftermath of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. As a special representative of the President, Alexander headed the American delegation to ceremonies marking the independence of the Kingdom of Swaziland in 1968.

Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Alexander was appointed as the chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 1967. During his tenure he elevated the agency to play a significant role in fighting workplace discrimination. He resigned from the agency in 1969, after President Richard Nixon demoted him from chairman to commissioner.

Private practice
Alexander practiced law with the Washington firm of Arnold and Porter between 1969 and 1975. He eventually became its first Black partner, and successfully pressed the firm to employ graduates from Howard University School of Law. He also hosted a television talk show Cliff Alexander: Black on White from 1972 to 1976. He ran unsuccessfully in the 1974 Democratic primary for the first directly-elected mayor of the District of Columbia, losing by 4,000 votes (53%-47% total) to Walter Washington, who won the general election. He subsequently joined Verner, Lipfert, Bernhard, McPherson and Hand the following year. He also taught as a professor of law at Howard and Georgetown University Law Center.

Secretary of the Army
Alexander returned to public service as Secretary of the Army under the Carter Administration, serving from 1977 to 1981. He was the first African American appointed to this Cabinet position. During this time, he concentrated upon improving the all-volunteer Army, stressing programs to enhance professionalism, and emphasizing the award of contracts to minority businesses to fulfill the federal commitment to encourage diversity. He also sought to eliminate barriers to women and racial minorities being promoted to the rank of general. One of the beneficiaries of Alexander's efforts was Colin Powell, who finished second in his class at the Army Command and General Staff College. Alexander also endorsed the increases in salary for military personnel and military budget at the end of the Vietnam War, stating that it was "a quality Army" with members who "work hard [and] take their training and their missions seriously".

Later life
After his tenure as Secretary of the Army ended in 1981, Alexander formed the consulting firm of Alexander and Associates with his wife. In addition, he served on the boards of directors of several national corporations and was a member of the Board of Governors of the American Stock Exchange. He served as a political and campaign advisor to Barack Obama in 2008.

During an interview for the Koeppel report in the 1980, Alexander confessed that he expected to die before seeing an African-American Senator, President or head of a Fortune 500 company.

Alexander was outspoken in his opposition to the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy of the military, signed a statement in November 2008 calling for its repeal so that gays could serve openly. He also expressed his point of view on the matter in his interviews by Rachel Maddow on April 3 and May 11, 2009, as well as on June 28, 2013.

Personal life and death
Alexander married Adele Logan in 1959. She became a history professor at George Washington University. They remained married until his death. Together, they had two children: Elizabeth Alexander and Mark C. Alexander. Elizabeth wrote and recited the poem "Praise Song for the Day" at the first inauguration of Barack Obama in 2009. Mark is the first African American dean of the Villanova University School of Law.

Alexander was a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity. He relocated to Manhattan in 2013. He died on July 3, 2022, at his home in Manhattan. He was 88, and suffered from heart failure prior to his death.

title: Clifford Alexander Jr.


text:
User:Ratan203

I came across WikiPedia on 3rd May 2004 and from then onwards this has been my source of information for everything and anything. Contributing to this satisfies me. I'm planning to contribute for the India's Industrial Sector and about Indian Companies.

title: User:Ratan203


text:
Talk:Islamic Supreme Council of America

Cut from article:
 * The seven organizations who have instigated the vicious attacks and conspired a world-wide campaign against traditional Islam are: American Muslim Political Coordination Council (AMPCC), American Muslim Alliance (AMA), American Muslim Council (AMC), Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC), Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA), Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), & Muslim Students Association of USA & Canada (MSA).

The article needs either to:
 * 1) show that these organizations have "instigated" and "conspired"; or,
 * 2) quote a source who claims that they did this

Better yet, someone research the entire public relations issue:
 * American views of Islamic society
 * Christians' views of Muslims
 * Islamic cultural and religious values
 * Viewpoints on terrorism

This will be a lot of work, but making unsupported claims is no substitute. --Uncle Ed 12:47, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Size?
This appears to be an organization so small it could be just s a website and one man only. Google searches only show their quote condemning CAIR, and practically nothing else. We should make a mention of that, because it appears to be quite a shaky criticism of CAIR.

 * This is an excellent point. I have never been able to pull much up about this organization except for a few references. What steps should we take? Sdedeo (tips) 03:01, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

NPOV
It's pretty difficult to look at this article as anything other than an attack on this organization. Every description of this groups beliefs is then dismissed with a Salafist talking point. Gtbob12 (talk) 20:24, 29 April 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Islamic Supreme Council of America