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St Winefride's Well

St Winefride's Well (Ffynnon Wenffrewi) is a holy well and national shrine located in the Welsh town of Holywell in Flintshire. The patron saint of the well, St Winefride, was a 7th-century Catholic martyr who according to legend was decapitated by a lustful prince and then miraculously restored to life. The well is said to have sprung up at the spot where her head hit the ground. This story is first recorded in the 12th century, and since then St Winefride's Well has been a popular pilgrimage destination, known for its healing waters. The well is unique among Britain's sacred sites in that it retained a continuous pilgrimage tradition throughout the English Reformation.

During the Middle Ages, the well formed part of the estate of nearby Basingwerk Abbey. It was visited by several English monarchs, including Richard II and Henry IV. Following the establishment of the Church of England, attempts were made by the Protestant authorities to prevent Catholic pilgrimage to the well, but these attempts were unsuccessful. From the 18th century onwards, the well increasingly attracted secular tourism, and it was commonly believed that the well-water had natural healing properties by virtue of its mineral content. Two bath-houses were built on the site in 1869. In 1917, the well dried up as a result of mining operations in the Greenfield valley; to get it flowing again, water had to be diverted from a new underground source.

The chapel above the well was built in the 16th century. It is a grade I listed building and a scheduled ancient monument. It comprises two parts, the upper chapel and the well crypt. The upper chapel has seen a variety of uses, including service as a sessions house and a secular day school, but is presently used for religious worship. The well crypt contains a star-shaped basin that encloses the well-spring, and an 18th-century statue of St Winefride. Both sections of the chapel are under state guardianship and managed by Cadw.

The well complex is currently open to visitors, who may bathe in the water at certain times of day or fill water bottles from an outdoor tap. There is a visitors' centre and museum on the site. Organised group pilgrimages take place several times a year, and during the pilgrimage season, St Winefride's relic is venerated daily in the well crypt.

Legend of St Winefride

The story of St Winefride, the 7th-century martyr for whom the well is named, is told in two 12th-century Lives: one written by Robert Pennant, prior of Shrewsbury Abbey, and a shorter work of unknown authorship, known as the Vita Prima. Both works tell substantially the same story of the origin of the well.

Winefride is said to have been the daughter of Teuyth, a chieftain of Tegeingl, who had permitted St Beuno to establish a church within his territory. Beuno became Winefride's religious instructor (later iterations of the story make him Winefride's uncle), and at an early age she took a vow of chastity, intending to devote her life to God. One Sunday morning, while her parents were at Mass, a prince named Caradoc visited their home. Finding Winefride alone, he tried to convince her to sleep with him, threatening to take her by force if she refused. Winefride pretended to consent, only asking that she first be allowed to retire to her room to get changed. By this ruse she managed to escape the house and fled down the valley towards Beuno's church. As she reached it, Caradoc caught up with her and decapitated her with his sword. Her body fell outside the church door, but her head landed inside the threshold, and where it landed, a spring burst forth from the earth.

Beuno came forward and pronounced a curse on Caradoc, who was instantly struck dead. Then Beuno placed Winefride's head back onto her body and prayed for her revival. The prayer was granted and Winefride returned to life, the only trace of her injury being a thin white line around her neck. The two 12th-century sources give differing accounts of her later life, but both agree that she took command of an abbey in Gwytherin, where she eventually died and was buried.

Early history
It is not known how long the well has been associated with St Winefride. A fragment of a wooden reliquary from Gwytherin (known as the Arch Gwenfrewi) provides evidence that Winefride was venerated as a saint in the mid-8th century, but the earliest reference to a church in Holywell (which also marks the first time that the town is referred to by that name) is in a document dated 1093, in which the wife of the 1st Earl of Chester grants "the churche of Haliwel" to the monks of St Werburgh's Abbey. It appears that the cult of St Winefride had at this time not achieved any great notoriety, since the medieval historian Giraldus Cambrensis, who visited the area in 1188, does not mention Winefride or the well, and she is also not included in the 12th-century Calendar of Welsh Saints in Cotton Vespasian A.xiv. The grant of the church to St Werburgh's was confirmed by Richard d'Avranches, 2nd Earl of Chester, in 1119, but in 1135, the town and church of Holywell were given into the possession of the newly-established Basingwerk Abbey in Flintshire. The church was briefly transferred back to St Werbergh's between 1157 and 1196, but then reverted to Basingwerk.

During the late Middle Ages the fame of St Winefride began to spread, as the growth of Marian culture in Europe caused a surge of interest in female saints. One focal point of Winefride's cult was Shrewsbury Abbey, which had taken possession of the saint's remains in 1137, but Holywell also received large numbers of pilgrims, who came to offer their devotions and to take advantage of the reputed healing power of the water.

Among the pilgrims were several English monarchs. The first known royal visit to the well was that of Richard II in 1398. Richard appointed a chaplain to say regular masses at the well; the office came with an annual pension which was kept up by successive monarchs until the 16th century. Henry IV took a pilgrimage to the well in 1403, following his victory at the Battle of Shrewsbury, possibly in order to give thanks to Winefride for saving the life of his son, who had sustained an arrow wound during the battle. On the other hand, Henry's visit may have been politically motivated; by moving north he was positioning himself to head off a potential Welsh invasion, and his devotions at the well sent a message to the people of Cheshire (an area hostile to his rule) that the saint endorsed his victory. Henry seems to have established the first chapel over the well, which is described as having had three strong walls and a "great gate" on the fourth side.

Henry V may have made a pilgrimage from Shrewsbury to Holywell sometime around 1416, though the documentary evidence is ambiguous. The medieval Welsh poet Tudur Aled said of St Winefride's Well that "every earl used to go, every courtier, every king", and mentions a pilgrimage to the site by Edward IV. Though the poem gives no indication of the date of this pilgrimage, Edward was active in the area in 1461, around the time of his crowning; like Henry before him, he may have wished to secure a political advantage by showing that Winefride supported his cause.

The chapel built by Henry IV apparently did not survive for long, possibly because it was not sturdy enough to withstand the force of the water. The chapel that stands on the site today is traditionally said to have been built by Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII, shortly after the 1485 Battle of Bosworth, but there is no contemporary evidence to support this claim. A 16th-century poem by Siôn ap Hywel says that the funding for the chapel was provided by Abbot Thomas Pennant of Basingwerk in 1512, and modern historians consider this a more plausible account. Tree-ring dating of one of the building's principal rafters has shown that the roof timbers were likely put in place around 1525.

English Reformation
In 1534, Henry VIII officially rejected the authority of the Pope and established the Church of England, an act that dramatically altered the nation's religious landscape. Catholicism was outlawed, and traditional practices such as pilgrimage and the veneration of saints were condemned as heretical. Despite this, St Winefride's Well continued to attract large numbers of Catholic pilgrims throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The well's uninterrupted pilgrimage tradition makes it unique among the sacred sites of Britain.

Basingwerk Abbey was dissolved circa 1537. The abbey's possessions reverted to the Crown, and St Winefride's Well was leased out to a member of the royal household, who in turn leased it to one William Holcroft. The terms of the lease entitled Holcroft to receive all donations offered by pilgrims at the shrine, but he soon came into conflict with a group of local Catholics, who brought their own donation boxes to the well and urged the pilgrims not to give their money to a servant of the king. The zeal of the locals helped protect the well chapel from the organized iconoclasm of the following decades, and the income generated by the site gave the authorities good reason not to suppress its operation.

However, anti-Catholic laws were more rigorously enforced during the reign of Elizabeth I, after the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis commanded English Catholics to rebel against their monarch. Any large gathering of Catholics was henceforth considered a threat to national security; notwithstanding this, the well's popularity as a pilgrimage site was undiminished. In 1579, Elizabeth ordered that the water be tested to determine if it had any natural curative properties. If so, access was to be restricted only to "diseased persons"; if not, then the chapel was to be torn down. It is unknown what resulted from this order, but the chapel remained standing and pilgrimage continued. In 1590, the Society of Jesus dispatched John Bennett to minister to Catholics in Holywell, and the Jesuits maintained a presence in the town up until the 20th century.

17th century

In 1605, under the reign of James I, the Jesuit Henry Garnet led a pilgrimage from Enfield to St Winefride's Well, stopping along the way at the homes of several people who were later implicated in the Gunpowder Plot. Garnet was accused of using the pilgrimage as cover for a "conference of the conspirators", though modern historians consider this unlikely. The backlash against the failed plot resulted in even greater legal intolerance of Catholics and sharper punishments for recusancy (refusal to attend Anglican services). Catholics were required to take an Oath of Allegiance which denied the authority of the Pope over the king.

In 1617, Bishop Richard Parry made an effort to prevent the "superstitious flocking" of Catholics to St Winefride's Well by requiring "that the oath of supremacie and allegiance be ordered unto all such strangers (before they go to the Well) as shall refuse to come to church, by which reason whereof the great concourse is stopped". If Parry did succeed in keeping pilgrims from the well, his victory was short-lived. Just three years later, a Catholic source reported that the Bishop of Bangor, Lewis Bayly, "went in person to arrest the priests and Catholics" who were visiting the well around the time of Winefride's feast day, whereupon "the people from about the countryside rose up, even though most of them are heretics [Protestants] and seized the bishop and handled him roughly and then threw him into a ditch".

In 1626, Chief Justice of Chester John Bridgeman undertook to solve the problem of St Winefride's. He ordered local innkeepers to pass the names of their guests on to the authorities, and summoned all recusants to take the Oath of Allegiance in court. Before the year was out, he confidently reported that pilgrimage to the well had ceased. Once again, however, this success was only temporary. On 3 November 1629, a crowd of 1,400 "knights, ladies, gentlemen and gentlewomen of divers countries", along with an estimated 150 Catholic priests, gathered at the well to celebrate St Winefride's feast day. The Bishop of St Asaph, in his annual reports to the Archbishop of Canterbury, repeatedly complained about the number of people visiting the well, until in 1637 John Bridgeman returned to the fray. This time, he instituted more extreme measures to stem the tide of pilgrimage. All but two of the inns at Holywell were closed, the statue of Winefride in the shrine was disfigured, the iron posts around the spring for the support of the bathers were removed, and orders were given to report the names and addresses of every pilgrim. Bridgeman also suggested building a wall to block access to the well-basin; it is unknown whether he actually attempted this, but the columns of the basin exhibit signs of damage that may be consistent with such an attempt. Further damage to the chapel occurred during the English Civil War, possibly by the Parliamentary soldiers who passed through Holywell in November 1643.

Not all Protestants denied the efficacy of healing wells, though they did not believe the cures to be effected by any supernatural agency. Medicinal spas had become popular during the Elizabethan era, and 17th-century physicians sought to prove that certain springs could provide powerful health benefits on account of the mineral content of the water. There are many recorded visits to St Winefride's Well by Protestants, with at least one having received permission from his parish priest to make the journey. Contemporary Catholic sources report several miraculous cures and conversions of Protestants at the well.

The accession to the throne in 1685 of the Catholic James II brought a brief period of respite to the persecuted pilgrims. James's wife, Mary of Modena, settled a debate between the Jesuits and the secular clergy at Holywell by giving the well chapel into the sole possession of the Jesuits. James visited the well in August 1687 to pray for a son, and donated £30 for the repair of the upper chapel, which until that time was being used as a sessions house. The following year, however, James was deposed by William and Mary, and England once again became a Protestant country.

18th century to present

During the 18th century, St Winefride's Well was increasingly frequented not only by pilgrims but also by tourists and curiosity seekers. Travel was becoming easier, and newspapers and pamphlets were spreading the word about the well and its healing waters. The well became an essential stop on the tourist itinerary; among those who visited were Celia Fiennes, Daniel Defoe and Samuel Johnson. The secularization of holy wells continued, with cures being attributed to the chemical composition of the water rather than to the intervention of the patron saint. In 1722, the upper chapel was converted into a day school. In 1795, the antiquary Thomas Pennant noted that the number of Catholic pilgrims visiting the well had "considerably decreased".

This was to change in 1805, when a dramatic and heavily-publicized cure sparked a revival of interest. A young woman named Winefrid White, who for years had been paralyzed down the left side and unable to walk without a crutch, bathed in St Winefride's Well and made an immediate recovery. Bishop John Milner published an account of the incident, in which he collated the testimonies of multiple witnesses and described the event as an "evident miracle" which defied scientific explanation. This public affirmation of the miraculous power of the well, helped along by the growing Romantic fascination with medieval history, reignited Holywell's pilgrimage tradition. The upper chapel was once again used for religious services from 1841.

In 1859, it was discovered that the foundations of the chapel had eroded away, and the building was in a dangerous condition. The water was diverted for several days while workmen underpinned the well pool with ashlar stone and flagged the plunge bath. In 1869, work began on the construction of two new buildings in the vicinity of the well. The first, called the Well House, was a three-storey bath-house which doubled as the caretaker's residence; the second was a swimming pool called the Westminster Bath. These buildings were completed by April 1871. A turnstile was installed at the entrance to the well complex, and a fee was charged for admittance. In 1886, a statue of St Winefride was placed in the niche at the entrance to the well, which had stood empty since the 1630s.

On 5 January 1917, St Winefride's Well ran dry. The water supply had been tapped by a drainage tunnel that was under construction near Bagillt. It had already been observed in 1885 that the drainage schemes connected with the lead mining operations in the Greenfield valley were affecting the output of the well, but the concerns of Holywell residents had been overridden. After the well dried up completely, the search began for an alternative source. A disused mine shaft northwest of Holywell was converted into a pumping plant, which was used to raise an underground water supply and divert it along a drainage tunnel known as the Holway Level. Water was then piped from this tunnel into the well basin. The well began to flow again on 22 September, and there was no indication that the water had lost any of its curative powers.

In 1930, the first section of the stream that issues from the plunge bath was covered over, and the former brewery that stood beside the stream was demolished. The site was landscaped into a garden called St Winefride's Park. In the 1990s, the Well House was transformed into a museum and library, and the Westminster Bath into a visitors' centre. In 2010, the guardianship of the well crypt was transferred to Cadw (who had already been responsible for the maintenance of the upper chapel since the mid-20th century). Restoration work was carried out in the crypt which involved strengthening the masonry, replacing missing flooring slabs, and repairing damage caused by humidity, candle-smoke and fires. New gates and railings were also erected.

The site was designated a national shrine in November 2023.

Miracles
Numerous miracles have been attributed to the well, from the 12th century down to the present day. The two earliest Lives contain lengthy accounts of miraculous cures which came about through Winefride's intercession, and of punishments visited upon those who violated the sanctity of the site. A list of supposed miracles occurring in the 17th century was compiled by the Jesuit priest Philip Metcalf, and an account of 18th- and 19th-century miracles was provided by Charles De Smedt. A further update, including 20th-century cures, was written by Herbert Thurston in 1922. Until the 1960s, crutches and surgical boots left behind by pilgrims were arranged around the well or hung up on the walls; some of these crutches are now on display in the visitors' centre.

Devotional practices
St Winefride's Well remains a popular pilgrimage destination, and its long association with healing has earned Holywell the title of "the Lourdes of Wales". The traditional method of bathing in the well is to pass three times through the small pool adjacent to the spring while reciting one decade of the Rosary, and then to move into the outer pool and kneel on a submerged stone, known as St Beuno's stone, for as long as it takes to complete the prayer. 18th-century visitors also reported a tradition of ducking one's head under the water to kiss St Beuno's stone and make a wish. The ritual of the triple immersion has its origin in Robert of Shrewsbury's Life of Winefride, in which Beuno prophesies to Winefride as follows:

A 1670 drawing of the chapel shows a small structure to one side of the main spring, labelled "The Little Spring for the cure of sore eyes". Thomas Pennant, writing in 1796, described the ritual connected with this spring: "The patient made an offering to the nymph of the spring, of a crooked pin, and sent up at the same time a certain ejaculation, by way of charm: but the charm is forgotten, and the efficacy of the waters lost." The site of the Little Spring is now buried beneath the Well House.

Today, the well is open to the public, but bathing is permitted only at certain times. Filtered well-water is available from a tap; historically, the water has been thought to retain its potency even when removed from the site. The museum within the complex exhibits a piece of the True Cross along with the relics of various saints, including the surviving fragment of the Arch Gwenfrewi and a piece of bone believed to be Winefride's.

Organised group pilgrimages take place several times a year. The most popular of these is the June pilgrimage, which involves a procession from the nearby St Winefride's Church to the well, a Mass in the well garden given by the Bishop of Wrexham, and the veneration of Winefride's relic. During the pilgrimage season (from Pentecost to the last Sunday in September), there is a daily service in the well crypt.

Natural features
The spring feeding St Winefride's Well was once much stronger than it is today. In the late Medieval period, it was said that anything dropped into the well would be carried away downstream before it had time to sink. The poet John Taylor wrote in 1652 that the well "doth continually work and bubble with extreme violence, like a boiling cauldron or furnace". In 1731, a group of Anglican visitors measured the time it took for the well basin to fill, and concluded that the spring "raises more than one hundred tons of water in a minute". This estimate matches that recorded by Samuel Johnson in his diary when he passed through the area in 1774:

In 1859, the draining of the well basin for repair work gave another opportunity of measuring the power of the spring. On this occasion, the reported output was 22½ tons per minute. In the modern day, the spring is still said to yield an unusually large quantity of water. A pile of stones has been placed over its point of emergence to prevent it from becoming a fountain.

In former times the bed of the stream was littered with red stones, which according to legend were permanently stained with Winefride's blood. The actual cause of the stones' colour may have been natural iron deposits in the water, or the presence of a red-coloured algae, Trentepohlia jolithus, which can still be seen growing on the north wall today. The well was also known for its moss, which reportedly had a sweet smell and was referred to as "St Winefride's hair". The stones and the moss were commonly taken from the site by pilgrims, who treated them as charms or relics. One sceptical visitor, Celia Fiennes, claimed in 1698 that the well's custodians replenished the moss daily from a nearby hill.

Architecture of the chapel
The well chapel is a grade I listed building (designated 1951) and a scheduled ancient monument. It comprises two parts: the upper chapel, where church services are held, and the well crypt beneath it, which encloses the spring. The hillside has been cut away so that the crypt can be entered from the north, while the upper chapel is entered from the south.

The building is in the Perpendicular style. Its exterior walls are of coursed sandstone, which was imported from the Wirral towns of Storeton and Bebington. It has a low-pitched roof with a crenellated parapet. The upper chapel comprises a four-bay nave, a three-bay north aisle, and a semi-octagonal chancel, with window tracery featuring a mix of basket arches and ogee arches. There is a narrow stone bench around the chancel interior, and sockets in the stonework which suggest that a rood screen was once installed in the chancel arch. The roof is arch-braced and decorated with foliage bosses. The corbels supporting the braces and the arches of the north arcade are carved into a variety of figures, including animals, grotesques, and family emblems.

An external staircase at the west end of the chapel (now blocked) leads down into a gallery that overlooks the well crypt, and then down into the crypt itself through a spandrelled doorway that was once the principal entrance. There are two more doorways in the north wall of the crypt, surmounted by large unglazed windows. Another unglazed window, stretching nearly the entire height of the crypt, sits between them, looking out onto the plunge pool. A band of carved animals runs along the outer wall. The crypt's interior is centred around the star-shaped well basin, which supports a ring of stone columns. The columns were once linked by traceried screens, with basket-arched openings providing a view of the spring. Above the spring is a tierceron vault, with a pendant boss that displays six scenes from the life of St Winefride. The vaulted ceiling of the crypt contains many other carved bosses representing various subjects. In the northeast corner is a niche with a crocketed canopy, which holds a statue of St Winefride.

title: St Winefride's Well


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NZ Native Forests Restoration Trust

Founded in 1980, the NZ Native Forests Restoration Trust is an organisation involved in forest restoration.

The Trust acquires land to protect important species, restore their habitats and to improve the quality of waterways. It now has 28 reserves throughout the North Island and 2 in the South Island totalling over 7,000ha of protected native forests.

Sir Edmund Hillary was the foundation patron of the trust until his death in 2008. Sir Paul Reeves then became patron until his death in 2011.

The Trust publishes its Canopy newsletter twice a year.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: NZ Native Forests Restoration Trust


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In the Line of Fire

In the Line of Fire is a 1993 American political action thriller film directed by Wolfgang Petersen and starring Clint Eastwood, John Malkovich and Rene Russo. Written by Jeff Maguire, the film is about a disillusioned and obsessed former CIA agent who attempts to assassinate the President of the United States and the Secret Service agent who tracks him. Eastwood's character is the sole active-duty Secret Service agent who is still remaining from the detail that had guarded John F. Kennedy in Dallas, Texas, at the time of his assassination in 1963. The film also stars Dylan McDermott, Gary Cole, John Mahoney, and Fred Dalton Thompson.

In the Line of Fire was co-produced by Columbia Pictures and Castle Rock Entertainment, with Columbia handling distribution. The film was a critical and commercial success. It grossed $187 million against a $40 million production budget and earned three nominations at the 66th Academy Awards.

Plot
Frank Horrigan and Al D'Andrea meet with members of a counterfeiting group at a marina. The group's leader, Mendoza, tells Horrigan that he has identified D'Andrea as an undercover agent, and forces him to prove his loyalty by putting a gun to D'Andrea's head and pulling the trigger. When the gun just clicks, Horrigan then shoots and kills Mendoza's men, identifies himself as a United States Secret Service agent, and arrests Mendoza.

Horrigan investigates a complaint from a landlady about an apartment's absent tenant, Joseph McCrawley. He finds a collage of photographs and newspaper articles on famous assassinations, a model-building magazine, and a Time cover with the President's head circled. When Horrigan and partner D'Andrea return with a search warrant, only one photograph remains, which shows a much younger Horrigan standing behind John F. Kennedy in Dallas in 1963, on the day Kennedy was assassinated. Horrigan is the only remaining active agent who was guarding the President that day, and is wracked with guilt over his failure to react quickly enough to the first shot and shield Kennedy from the subsequent fatal bullet, which could have saved the President's life. The guilt drove Horrigan to drink excessively, and his family left him.

Horrigan receives a phone call from McCrawley, who calls himself "Booth". He tells Horrigan that, like John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald, he plans to kill the President of the United States, who is running for reelection and is making many public appearances around the country. Horrigan, despite his age, asks to return to the Presidential Protective Division, where he begins a relationship with fellow agent Lilly Raines.

Booth continues to call Horrigan as part of his "game", even though he knows that his calls are being traced. He mocks Horrigan's failure to protect Kennedy but calls him a "friend". Booth escapes Horrigan and D'Andrea after one such call from Lafayette Park, but inadvertently leaves a palm print on a passing car. The Federal Bureau of Investigation matches the print, but because the person's identity is classified, the agency cannot disclose it to the Secret Service. The FBI does notify the Central Intelligence Agency.

At a campaign event in Chicago, Booth pops a decorative balloon. Horrigan, who is groggy with the flu, mistakes the pop for a gunshot and over-reacts. Because of the error, he is removed from the protective detail by White House Chief of Staff Harry Sargent and head of security detail Bill Watts, but retains the Booth case. Horrigan and D'Andrea follow a lead from the model-building magazine to a Phoenix home belonging to Mitch Leary; upon entering, the two agents subdue an unknown individual, revealed to be a CIA agent working with Leary's associate. The CIA reveals that Leary is a former agency assassin who has suffered a mental breakdown and is now a "predator" seeking revenge on his former masters. Leary, who has already killed several people as he prepares for the assassination, uses his model-making skills to mould a zip gun out of composite material to evade metal detectors.

D'Andrea confides to Horrigan that he is going to retire immediately because of nightmares about the Mendoza incident, but Horrigan dissuades him from doing so. After Leary taunts Horrigan about the President facing danger in California, Horrigan and D' Andrea chase him across Washington rooftops, where Leary shoots and kills D'Andrea but saves Horrigan from falling to his death as he clings to the side of the building. Horrigan asks Raines to reassign him to the protective detail when the President visits Los Angeles, but a television crew films him mistaking a bellboy at the hotel for a security threat, and Watts and Sargent again force Horrigan to leave the detail.

Horrigan connects Leary to a bank employee's murder and determines that Leary, who has made several large campaign contributions, is among the guests at a campaign dinner at the hotel. He sees the President approaching Leary and jumps into the path of the assassin's bullet, saving the President's life. As the Secret Service quickly removes the President, Leary uses Horrigan—who is wearing a bulletproof vest—as a hostage to escape to the hotel's external elevator. Horrigan uses his earpiece to tell Raines and sharpshooters where to aim; although they miss Leary, Horrigan defeats him, leaving him hanging from the edge. Though Horrigan attempts to save him, Leary commits suicide by letting go and falling to his death.

Horrigan, now a hero, retires, as his fame makes it impossible for him to do his job. He and Raines find a farewell message from Leary on Horrigan's answering machine. Horrigan and Raines visit the Lincoln Memorial, the site of the first time they had gotten together off-duty.

Production

Producer Jeff Apple began developing In the Line of Fire in the mid-1980s. He had planned on making a movie about a Secret Service Agent on detail during the Kennedy assassination since his boyhood. Apple was inspired and intrigued by a vivid early childhood memory of meeting Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson in person, surrounded by Secret Service Agents with earpieces in dark suits and sunglasses. The concept later struck Apple as an adolescent watching televised replays of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. In 1991, writer Jeff Maguire came aboard and completed the script that would become the movie. In April 1992, Castle Rock Entertainment bought the script for $1.4 million.

Clint Eastwood and Wolfgang Petersen offered the role of Leary to Robert De Niro, who turned it down due to scheduling conflicts with A Bronx Tale.

Filming began in late 1992 in Washington, D.C. Scenes in the White House were filmed on an existing set, while an Air Force One interior set had to be built at a cost of $250,000. The film's climactic scenes were shot inside the lobby and elevators of the Los Angeles Bonaventure Hotel, while earlier scenes of Frank and Lilly sharing intimate moments were filmed in the nearby Los Angeles Biltmore Hotel.

A subplot of the film is the President's re-election campaign. For the scenes of campaign rallies, the filmmakers used digitally altered footage from the campaign events of President George H. W. Bush and then-Governor Bill Clinton.

The movie also inserted digitized images from 1960s Clint Eastwood movies into the Kennedy assassination scenes. As Jeff Apple described it to the Los Angeles Times, Eastwood "gets the world's first digital haircut".

In an interview with Larry King, President Bill Clinton praised the film. Unsure if this endorsement would help or hurt the film, Peterson decided against using his quotes to market the film.

Release
In the Line of Fire was released in United States theaters in July 1993. It was one of the first films to have a trailer for the film made available online. Offered via AOL, the trailer was downloaded 170 times in a week and a half.

Box office
The film earned $15 million in its opening weekend. It earned over $102 million in North America and $85 million in other territories, for a total of $187,343,874 worldwide, against a budget of approximately $40 million.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, In the Line of Fire has a 96% rating based on 73 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The site's consensus states: "A straightforward thriller of the highest order, In the Line of Fire benefits from Wolfgang Petersen's taut direction and charismatic performances from Clint Eastwood and John Malkovich." On Metacritic, it has a score of 74 out of 100 based on reviews from 16. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.

Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote: "It's movie making of the high, smooth, commercial order that Hollywood prides itself on but achieves with singular infrequency." Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half out of four, writing: "Most thrillers these days are about stunts and action. In the Line of Fire has a mind."

Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called the film "crisply entertaining". He praised the casting, "Malkovich’s insinuating, carefully thought out delivery is in the same way an ideal foil for Eastwood’s bluntly straightforward habits", and Eastwood "every part of this film trades so heavily on Eastwood’s presence that it is impossible to imagine it with anyone else in the starring role".

66th Academy Awards

 * Nominated: Best Supporting Actor (John Malkovich)
 * Nominated: Best Original Screenplay (Jeff Maguire)
 * Nominated: Best Film Editing (Anne V. Coates)

47th BAFTA Awards

 * Nominated: Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John Malkovich)
 * Nominated: Best Editing (Anne V. Coates)
 * Nominated: Best Original Screenplay (Jeff Maguire)

Other awards

 * 1994 Chicago Film Critics Association Award Nomination for Best Supporting Actor (John Malkovich)
 * 1994 Golden Globe Award Nomination for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role (John Malkovich)
 * 1994 MTV Movie Award Nomination for Best Villain (John Malkovich)
 * AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains (2003):
 * Mitch Leary – Nominated Villain

Novelization
A novelization of the film was published by Jove Books. Author Max Allan Collins wrote the book in nine days.

title: In the Line of Fire


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Macdonald Carey

Edward Macdonald Carey (March 15, 1913 – March 21, 1994) was an American actor, best known for his role as the patriarch Dr. Tom Horton on NBC's soap opera Days of Our Lives. For almost three decades, he was the show's central cast member.

He first made his career starring in various B-movies of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s (with a few A-picture exceptions like Hitchcock's Shadow of a Doubt). He was known in many Hollywood circles as "King of the Bs", sharing the throne with his "queen", Lucille Ball.

Early life
Born in Sioux City, Iowa, Carey graduated from the University of Iowa in Iowa City with a bachelor's degree in 1935, after attending the University of Wisconsin–Madison for a year where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi. He became involved with the drama school at the University of Iowa and decided to become an actor.

Radio and Broadway
Carey toured with the Globe Players. He began to work steadily on radio, including playing Dick Grosvenor on the soap opera Stella Dallas and Ridgeway Tearle in John's Other Wife, both in the early 1940s. He was also in Lights Out.

Carey was on Broadway in Lady in the Dark (1941) opposite Gertrude Lawrence, Danny Kaye and Victor Mature. His performance led to him receiving a contract offer from Paramount. He later recalled, "1941 was probably the greatest year of my life. I got my first big hit with Lady in the Dark, I got married and I signed with Paramount Pictures. I only wish I could remember it all better." The reason was his alcoholism.

Film appearances and World War II service
Carey made his film debut in Star Spangled Rhythm (1942). Paramount gave him the third lead in Take a Letter, Darling (1942), directed by Mitchell Leisen. He followed it with Dr. Broadway (1942), which was his first starring role. He had a leading part in Wake Island (1942), directed by John Farrow, a big hit.

Carey's career received a boost when borrowed by Alfred Hitchcock at Universal to play the romantic lead in Shadow of a Doubt (1943) with Joseph Cotten and Teresa Wright. However the momentum was halted when he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. He had two months before he left, which enabled him to star in a musical for Paramount, Salute for Three (1943). Carey received his commission in early 1944 and attended fighter director school at Camp Murphy in Orlando, Florida. After school he served with Air Warning Squadron 3 with stints on Espiritu Santo, Bougainville and Mindanao.

In 1947 Carey returned to Paramount. They put him back into leading roles: Suddenly, It's Spring (1947), directed by Leisen, co-starring Paulette Goddard; Hazard (1948), again with Goddard; and Dream Girl (1948), supporting Betty Hutton, directed by Leisen.

Carey played Cesare Borgia in Bride of Vengeance (1948) alongside Goddard, directed by Leisen, but it was a flop. More popular was a Western, Streets of Laredo (1949), but William Holden was the hero; Carey was the villain.

In 1949 he co-starred as "Nick Carraway" in Alan Ladd's version of The Great Gatsby. Carey followed this with Song of Surrender (1949), once again directed by Leisen.

Universal borrowed Carey for two films: a Western with Maureen O'Hara, Comanche Territory (1950), and South Sea Sinner (1950) with Shelley Winters.

Back at Paramount he was in a low budget film noir, The Lawless (1950) directed by Joseph Losey. Back at Paramount he was a villain to Ray Milland in Copper Canyon (1950), directed by John Farrow. At Paramount he was Jesse James in The Great Missouri Raid (1951) and was in Mystery Submarine (1950) at Universal.

Carey supported Red Skelton at MGM in Excuse My Dust (1951).

At 20th Century Fox Carey supported Betty Grable in Meet Me After the Show (1951) and Claudette Colbert in Let's Make It Legal (1951). He went back to Universal for Cave of Outlaws (1951)

He continued to appear in films like My Wife's Best Friend (1952), at Fox with Anne Baxter; Count the Hours (1953), with Teresa Wright at RKO; Hannah Lee (1953), a Western with John Ireland; It's Everybody's Business (1953), and Malaga (1954) with Maureen O'Hara.

Later films included Stranger at My Door (1956), a Western for Republic Pictures, and Odongo (1956) for Warwick Films.

Carey returned to Broadway in Anniversary Waltz (1954–55), directed by Moss Hart, which was a big hit and ran for two years.

Television
While still a featured player in films, Carey began appearing on television in episodes of The Christophers, Celanese Theatre, Hope Chest, and Lux Video Theatre. As time went on, Carey's work was increasingly on the small screen, including appearances on The Quiet Gun, Stage 7, Science Fiction Theatre, Hour of Stars, Celebrity Playhouse, and The 20th Century Fox Hour, where he appeared as Fred Gaily in a remake of the 1947 film classic, Miracle on 34th Street, starring Teresa Wright and Thomas Mitchell.

He was also featured on General Electric Theater, Screen Directors Playhouse, The Alcoa Hour, and Climax!. Carey managed a single, starring turn as a young professor traveling cross-country in the fifth season of Alfred Hitchcock Presents ("Coyote Moon") as well.

Dr. Christian
In 1956, Carey took over the role of the kindly small-town physician Dr. Christian, a character created in the late 1930s by actor Jean Hersholt on radio and in films. Carey portrayed Dr. Christian on syndicated television for one season.

Carey guested on The Kaiser Aluminium Hour, The Joseph Cotten Show, Jane Wyman Presents the Fireside Theatre, Zane Grey Theatre, Wagon Train, Studio One in Hollywood, Playhouse 90, The Frank Sinatra Show, Suspicion, Target, Pursuit, Schlitz Playhouse, The Dupont Show of the Month, and Rawhide.

Carey was in the Western film Man or Gun (1958), for Republic. and The Redeemer (1959). He played patriot Patrick Henry in John Paul Jones (1959), directed by John Farrow who had worked with Carey at Paramount. He appeared in Blue Denim (1959).

Lock Up
Carey starred as crusading Herb Maris in the 1950s syndicated series Lock-Up. A total of seventy-eight episodes were made between 1959 and 1961.

Carey guest starred on Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Moment of Fear, Thriller ("The Devil's Ticket"), The United States Steel Hour, Insight, Target, Checkmate and The Alfred Hitchcock Hour.

Carey went to England to make the films The Devil's Agent (1962) and The Damned (known as These Are the Damned in the US) (1963), for director Joseph Losey. He was also in Stranglehold (1962),

In the first season of The Outer Limits, Carey starred in the episode titled "The Special One". He was also in The Dick Powell Theatre, Kraft Mystery Theatre, and Arrest and Trial,

Carey supported Sandra Dee in Tammy and the Doctor (1963). He guest starred in the 1964–1965 sitcom The Bing Crosby Show on ABC. He appeared as Mr. Edwards in the 1963 episode "Pay the Two Dollars" of the NBC education drama series, Mr. Novak, starring James Franciscus. He could also be seen on Burke's Law, Branded, Kraft Suspense Theatre, Run for Your Life, Ben Casey, Lassie, and Bewitched.

Days of Our Lives
Carey played Tom Horton on Days of Our Lives from its first episode in 1965. Carey said he took the show "because I couldn't get a movie at the time". He continued as Tom Horton until his death from lung cancer in Beverly Hills, California, in 1994, six days after his 81st birthday.

During this time, Carey suffered from a drinking problem, and eventually joined Alcoholics Anonymous in 1982.

A longtime pipe smoker, he was seen in many films and early episodes of Days of Our Lives with it. He was ordered by his doctor to quit in September 1991 after having to take a leave of absence from Days in order to remove a cancerous tumor from one of his lungs. He returned to the show in November of that year.

He is most recognized today as the voice who recites the epigraph each day before the program begins: "Like sands through the hourglass, so are the Days of Our Lives." From 1966 to 1994 he would also intone, "This is Macdonald Carey, and these are the Days of Our Lives." (After Carey's death, the producers, out of respect for Carey's family, decided not to use the second part of the opening tagline.) At each intermission, his voice also says "We will return for the second half of Days of Our Lives in just a moment". Since the Horton family is still regarded as the core of Days of our Lives, his memory has been allowed to remain imprinted on the show by leaving the voice-overs intact. He also served as voice-over for the very first PBS ident, in which he said "This is PBS ... the Public Broadcasting Service."

Other appearances
Carey continued to act in other productions during his run on Days. He had roles in Gidget Gets Married (1972), The Magician, Ordeal (1973), Owen Marshall, Counsellor at Law, Who Is the Black Dahlia? (1975), McMillan & Wife, Police Story, Switch, The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, Fantasy Island and Buck Rogers in the 25th Century.

He later appeared in many all-star television miniseries, such as Roots, The Rebels, The Top of the Hill and Condominium.

He was in the films Foes (1977), End of the World (1977), and Summer of Fear (1978), and had a small part in American Gigolo (1980).

Carey was in the TV movie The Girl, the Gold Watch & Everything (1980) and the films Access Code (1984) and It's Alive III: Island of the Alive (1987). He guest starred on Finder of Lost Loves, and Murder, She Wrote. His last non-Days role was in A Message from Holly (1992).

Carey did the onstage introduction for the "Stars of the Days Of Our Lives" and musical artist/director Ricky Dee at the Greek Theatre (1992)

Published work
Carey wrote several books of poetry, and a 1991 autobiography, The Days of My Life. For his contribution to television, Carey has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6536 Hollywood Boulevard.

Personal life
Carey was married to Elizabeth Heckscher from 1943 until their divorce in 1969. They had six children: Lynn, Lisa, Stevens, Theresa, Edward Macdonald Jr., and Paul. Later, he dated Lois Kraines. The couple remained together from 1973 until Carey's death. His grandchildren include Ellie Diamond and Vytas and Aras Baskauskas. He has a godson, Maurice Heckscher.

Carey was a Roman Catholic, and a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California.

Selected filmography

 * Star Spangled Rhythm (1942) – Louie the Lug in Skit
 * Take a Letter, Darling (1942) – Jonathan Caldwell
 * Dr. Broadway (1942) – Dr. Timothy Kane aka Dr. Broadway
 * Wake Island (1942) – Lieutenant Bruce Cameron
 * Shadow of a Doubt (1943) – Detective Jack Graham
 * Salute for Three (1943) – Buzz McAllister
 * Suddenly, It's Spring (1947) – Jack Lindsay
 * Variety Girl (1947) – Himself
 * Hazard (1948) – J.D. Storm
 * Dream Girl (1948) – Clark Redfield
 * Bride of Vengeance (1949) – Cesare Borgia
 * Streets of Laredo (1949) – Lorn Reming
 * The Great Gatsby (1949) – Nicholas 'Nick' Carraway
 * Song of Surrender (1949) – Bruce Eldridge
 * Comanche Territory (1950) – James Bowie
 * The Lawless (1950) – Larry Wilder
 * South Sea Sinner (1950) – William Jacob 'Jake' Davis
 * Copper Canyon (1950) – Deputy Lane Travis
 * Mystery Submarine (1950) – Dr. Brett Young
 * The Great Missouri Raid (1951) – Jesse James
 * Excuse My Dust (1951) – Cyrus Random, Jr.
 * Meet Me After the Show (1951) – Jeff Ames
 * Let's Make It Legal (1951) – Hugh Halsworth
 * Cave of Outlaws (1951) – Pete Carver
 * Count the Hours (1953) – Doug Madison
 * Hannah Lee: An American Primitive (1953) – Bus Crow
 * Fire Over Africa (1954) – Van Logan
 * Stranger at My Door (1956) – Hollis Jarret
 * Odongo (1956) – Steve Stratton
 * Man or Gun (1958) – 'Maybe' Smith / Scott Yancey
 * Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1959) (Season 5 Episode 4: "Coyote Moon") as Professor
 * The Redeemer (1959) – Jesus Christ (voice)
 * John Paul Jones (1959) – Patrick Henry
 * Blue Denim (1959) – Major Malcolm Bartley, Retired
 * The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1962) (Season 1 Episode 8: "House Guest") as John Mitchell
 * The Devil's Agent (1962) – Mr. Smith
 * The Damned (1962) – Simon Wells
 * Stranglehold (1963) – Bill Morrison
 * Tammy and the Doctor (1963) – Dr. Wayne Bentley
 * Daniel Boone (1965) Henry Pitcairn
 * Who Is the Black Dahlia? (1975, TV Movie) – Captain Jack Donahoe
 * Foes (1977) – McCarey
 * Roots (1977, TV Mini-Series) – Squire James
 * End of the World (1977) – John Davis
 * Stranger in Our House (1978, TV Movie) – Professor Jarvis
 * The Rebels (1979, TV Movie) – Dr. Church
 * Condominium (1980, TV Movie) – Dr. Arthur Castor
 * American Gigolo (1980) – Lawyer
 * Access Code (1984) – Senator Williams
 * It's Alive III: Island of the Alive (1987) – Judge Watson

Awards

 * Daytime Emmy Awards
 * (1974) Daytime Emmy Outstanding Actor in a Daytime Drama Series for Days of Our Lives
 * (1975) Daytime Emmy Outstanding Actor in a Daytime Drama Series for Days of Our Lives
 * Soap Opera Digest Awards
 * (1984) Soap Opera Digest Award Outstanding Actor in a Mature Role in a Daytime Serial for Days of Our Lives
 * (1985) Soap Opera Digest Award Outstanding Actor in a Mature Role in a Daytime Serial for Days of Our Lives
 * (1990) Soap Opera Digest Editors Choice award

title: Macdonald Carey


text:
Council of Philippopolis

The Council of Philippopolis in 343, 344, or 347 was a result of Arian bishops from the Eastern Roman Empire leaving the Council of Sardica to form their own counter council. In Philippopolis, they anathemized the term homoousios, in effect excommunicating Pope Julius I as well as their rivals at the Council in Sardica, and introduced the term Anomoian and as a result, the Arian controversy was perpetuated, rather than resolved, as was the original intention of the Roman emperors Constans and Constantius.

Serdica is now called Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. Philippopolis is now called Plovdiv, Bulgaria's second largest city.

title: Council of Philippopolis


text:
Type 59 tank

The Type 59 (industrial designation: WZ-120) main battle tank is a Chinese-produced version of the Soviet T-54A tank, an early model of the ubiquitous T-54/55 series. The first vehicles were produced in 1958 and it was accepted into service in 1959, with serial production beginning in 1963. Over 9,500 of the tanks were produced by the time production ended in 1985 with approximately 5,500 serving with the Chinese armed forces. The tank formed the backbone of the Chinese People's Liberation Army armoured units until the early 2000s, with an estimated 5,000 of the later Type 59-I and Type 59-II variants in service in 2002.

The Type 59 was modified several times during its service. It was also the basis of several later Chinese tank designs including the Type 69 and Type 79 tanks.

Description
The Type 59 is almost identical to the early production Soviet T-54As, but there are some key differences. The Type 59 was not originally fitted with the infrared searchlight or main gun stabilization of the T-54.

The Type 59 has a conventional post-war layout with an engine compartment at the rear and a cast dome-shaped gun turret in the centre of the hull. The hull is welded steel varying in thickness between 99 mm on the front lower glacis to 20 mm on the hull floor. The turret varies in thickness from 39–100 mm.

The driver sits in the front left of the hull, and is provided with a hatch immediately above his seat, which opens to the left. The driver has two pop-up vision blocks which give coverage ahead and slightly to the right when buttoned up. The commander sits in the turret along with the gunner and loader. The commander's hatch is on the turret left, with the gunner sitting forward and below him. The loader sits on the right of the turret and has a hatch above him. The turret has a non-rotating floor, which complicated the crew's operations as they would not rotate with the turret.

The turret mounts a rifled 100 mm Type 59 cannon, for which 34 rounds are typically carried. A Type 59T 7.62 mm machine gun is mounted coaxially with the main gun. A Type 54 12.7 mm anti-aircraft machine gun (the Chinese copy of the Russian 12.7 mm M1938/46 DShKM heavy machine gun) is provided above the gunner's hatch for which 200 rounds are carried. A Type 59T 7.62 mm bow-mounted machine gun is fitted and is fired by the driver through a tiny hole in the center of the front glacis plate. 3,500 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition are normally carried.

The turret has a powered traverse mechanism that is probably comparable to the T-54 traverse mechanism which can rotate the turret through 360 degrees in 21 seconds. Very early models of the Type 59 gun had manual elevation gear, later replaced with a powered system which allowed the gun to be aimed at between +17 and −4 degrees (the average depression for Western tanks is -10, which allows for better usage of hull-down tactics). Later models added vertical stabilization to make firing on the move practical. An infrared searchlight-based night vision system was retrofitted to the tank with an infrared periscope for the commander gunner and driver.

The tank is powered by a Model 12150L V-12 liquid-cooled diesel engine, which develops 520 hp at 2,000 rpm. The engine feeds a manual gearbox with five forward and one reverse gear. A total of 815 litres of diesel can be carried internally in the tank, with a further 400 litres carried externally giving a maximum road range of 600 kilometers, or approximately 430 km using only internal fuel. The tank has five road wheels on each side with a prominent gap between the first and second road wheel. The track is driven by a drive sprocket at the rear, with an idler at the front. It is notable that there are no return rollers. The suspension is a torsion bar system. Engine exhaust is on the left fender.

Ammunition is stored inside the turret, which increases the odds of a catastrophic secondary explosion should the tank's interior be penetrated by enemy fire. Crew survivability is hence low.

History
After the signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, the Soviets agreed to assist China in building a tank manufacturing facility to manufacture the T-54A MBT in 1956. Initially, the tanks were assembled with Soviet-supplied parts, which were gradually replaced by Chinese-made components. The tank was accepted into service by the PLA in 1959, and given the designation Type 59. Over the years, the Type 59 design was enhanced with various domestically developed and western technologies; when the PLA captured a Soviet T-62 during the Sino-Soviet border conflict in 1969, improvements based on the T-62 were incorporated into the Type 59 design to become the Type 69 MBT. The Type 69 was further upgraded with Western technology and became the Type 79 MBT. The Type 59 was, therefore, the first in China's first generation of main battle tanks, the Type 79 being the last. The Type 79 was superseded by the Type 80 second-generation MBT.

The Type 59 MBT is also known as WZ-120 by its manufacturer. Over 10,000 were produced between 1959 and the mid-1980s. The Type 59 and its successor, the Type 69, were widely exported, with thousands sold overseas. Today an estimated 5,000 Type 59 MBTs remain in PLA inventory, but it's being supplanted by the more capable Type 96 and Type 99 MBTs.

Combat service

The first war involving the Type 59 was in Vietnam, where North Vietnam fielded at least several hundreds supplied directly from their Chinese ally against American tanks used by their South Vietnamese enemy, such as the M41 Walker Bulldog light tank and the M48 Patton main battle tank. Against the US tanks it faced in Vietnam, the Type 59, along with the similar T-54 tank of Soviet origin (also widely operated in the war by North Vietnam), achieved some success against enemy armour. Most of the losses of armour suffered by the US and South Vietnamese forces were to North Vietnamese infantry-based anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, rather than to North Vietnam's own tanks and other armour.

The Type 59 was also fielded during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, in the Battle of Longewala and Battle of Chamb, where Pakistani Type 59 tanks faced Indian T-54 and T-55 tanks.

Following the Vietnam War, the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979 was the next largest use of Type 59 tanks to date in modern Chinese military history. China committed nearly 300 Type 59, Type 62, and Type 63 tanks and armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) into the conflict against their former ally, with 48 of the total listed above lost to Vietnamese anti-tank action. The tanks of 42nd Corps, as the vanguard force responsible for cutting off the northern Vietnamese city of Cao Bằng, bore the brunt of the losses in armour and managed to advance only 30 km within 3 days. The poor performance of tanks and AFVs in this battle was attributed to the mountainous and hilly terrain in much of northern Vietnam that was inherently unsuitable for mechanized warfare, just like in Korea. The light armour on the Type 62 tank (a lighter version of the Type 59 which predominantly served as a combat-reconnaissance vehicle) also proved inadequate in protection against small and light anti-tank weapons, such as anti-tank grenades.

Iran received 300 Type 59 tanks from North Korea and China during the Iran–Iraq War. They were fielded by both the regular Artesh and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. The T-72 proved highly superior to the Chinese tank. On the other hand, Iraq received 1,000 Type 59s from China. The Iraqi Type 59 tanks were later used during the 1991 Gulf War.

The Sudan also used Type 59 tanks during the Second Sudanese Civil War. Five were lost to the Sudan People's Liberation Army near Yei in March 1997.

Type 59 tanks were involved in the Chinese government's violent crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, a column of which were obstructed in the Tank Man incident.

The Type 59s of the Zairian Special Presidential Division saw limited action in 1998 against the rebels of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo.

Domestic models

 * Type 59: The basic variant, a T-54A clone without an IR searchlight. Entered production in 1957. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59.

 * Type 59-I: Improved variant fitted with a Type 69-II 100 mm rifled gun, as well as a laser rangefinder, hydraulic servo-system, primitive fire-control system, automatic fire suppression system, and rubber track skirts. The Type 59-I includes several versions with different armour and fire control configurations. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59-I.

 * Type 59A: Intermediate variant between the Type 59-I and Type 59-II lacking a two-plane stabilizer and IR searchlight. The vehicle first entered production in 1984 and was designed to fill the gap while the Type 59-II was still in development. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59A.

 * Type 59-II: The Type 59-II (also known as WZ-120B) is an upgrade mounting a ZPL-81 105 mm rifled gun, a licence-built Royal Ordnance L7, and adding an image intensification/infrared night sight. Mass increased to 36.5 tonnes. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59-II.

 * Type 59-IIA: Although the Type 59-II was a very successful design, the tank still relied on the West to supply parts. As a result, the Type 59-IIA was developed. By the end of 1984, the China First Tractor Factory and other production facilities began to develop a further upgrade to the Type 59-II. A prototype was completed by October 1985, featuring an improved ZPL-81A with a thermal sleeve, new domestic light spot fire control system with a 2-axis stabiliser, and composite armour. The automatic fire suppression system and automatic fire extinguishing devices were improved so that they could be used while generating smoke or firing the onboard smoke grenade launchers. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59-IIA.

 * Type 59D1: The Type 59D1 (also known as WZ-120C) is an upgrade with explosive reactive armour, computerized stabilized fire-control system, the ZPL-83A 105 mm gun improved from the older Type 59-II, and a night vision system. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59D1.

 * Type 59D: Type 59D (also known as WZ-120D) is an upgrade of the Type 59D1. The Type 59D has a longer 105 mm gun at 62 caliber, known as the ZPL-94 or Type 94. The gun has a range of 2000 m, and may fire ATGMs out to 5500 m. A thermal sight is also available. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59D.

 * Type 59G: An upgrade of the Type 59, featuring a redesigned turret and armour. It uses a turret similar to that of the Type 96A, a 125 mm gun, modern fire control systems, arrow-shaped armour, spaced armour, and possibly third-generation subsystems. This vehicle is also known as the ZTZ59G.

 * Jaguar: The Jaguar was a prototype vehicle based on the Type 59 chassis that was jointly developed by the United States and China during 1980s, made possible by the US-Chinese détente of the 1970s. Planned to replace China's existing tank fleet, as well as for the export market, the tank featured improvements to the standard Type 59's engine, armament, armour, turret, optics, electronics, fire control and suspension. Following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, American-Chinese relations soured and the Chinese withdrew from the project. The Americans continued alone and successfully completed the design, however the end of the Cold War saw a glut in the international tank market and thus no orders were ever placed for the vehicle.

 * Type 62 Light Tank:

In the late 1950s, the PLA submitted requirements for a light tank more suitable for operations in China's southern region. Development on the new Type 62 tank began in 1958, which was a scaled-down Type 59 MBT with simplified equipment. The Type 62 light tank entered batch production in 1963, and approx. 800 were produced by 1978. The Type 62 light tank weights only 21 tons, and is equipped with a Type 62-85TC 85 mm rifled gun, and 3 machine guns. An improved Type 62-I version was produced with better FCS with laser rangefinder, and turret storage racks for added protection. Other versions based on the Type 62 include the Type 79 recovery vehicle (prototype only) and Type 82 earth-mover.

The PLA deployed the Type 62 light tank to Vietnam during the 1979 Sino-Vietnam conflict. They found that the thin armour of the Type 62 tank could be penetrated easily by hand-held anti-tank weapons, such as the 40 mm RPG. The Type 62 tank suffered severe losses during the conflict, which convinced the PLA to develop new second-generation MBTs. The Type 62 tank received a major upgrade in 2000, with new welded turret, vertically stabilised 105 mm rifled gun, fire-control system, night vision device, smoke grenade launchers, and explosive reactive armor (ERA) package. This vehicle is also known as the ZTQ62.

 * Type 69 / 79:

Improved Type 59 MBT built by 617 Factory (Inner Mongolia First Machine Group Co. Ltd). Only saw limited service in the PLA, but was an export success in the 1980s with more than 2,000 sold worldwide.

This armoured recovery vehicle is a Type 59 with its turret removed. The vehicle is armed with a single 12.7 mm machine gun. This armoured recovery vehicle is not believed to have a winch and is limited to towing operations.
 * Type 73:

The modernized HIFV model of Type 59 weighs around 40 tons (or around 35 tons, sources differ here) and can carry up to seven passengers. Modifications include moving the engine to the front of the vehicle chassis, increasing tank armour including explosive reactive armour on all sides, and installing a rear door for dismounting infantry. the VN11 uses a turret similar to the Type 86 turret.
 * Type 59 Heavy Infantry Fighting Vehicle

It is a modernised variant of the Type 59 using the tank's chassis similar to its Russian counterpart the BMPT Terminator. The vehicle was first appeared at the Zhuhai Air Show in China in November 2018, and is armed with four QN-502C anti-tank missiles, twenty QN-201 multi-purpose mini missiles, four S-570 loitering munitions, an unmanned 30 mm cannon, a 7.62 mm machine gun, six grenade launchers, and a quadcopter surveillance drone.
 * QN-506

Bangladesh

The Type 59 Durjoy is a highly modernized version of the Bangladesh Army. The Bangladesh Army's old Type 59 tanks were upgraded similar to Type 59G standard at 902 Central Workshop of the Bangladesh Machine Tools Factory with Chinese assistance. Bangladesh Army renamed the tank as Durjoy (দুর্জয়). Improvements includes: France
 * 125mm main gun with new turret (similar to that of the Type 96A turret) 28 rounds, Type-85 12.7×108mm Commander's machine gun (3,000 rounds), Co-axial 7.62mm gun (600 rounds), 81mm Smoke grenades.
 * The Durjoy's APFSDS round can penetrate over 500mm of RHA at 2 km
 * Chinese 3rd generation ERA on front, turret and side skirts. Modular Composite armour on turret front. Cage armour on back of turret to protect from RPG hits.
 * To enhance crew comfort the Durjoy is fitted with air-conditioning and complete NBC protection system
 * Collective Fire suppression system.
 * Laser warning receiver, Laser designator, Fire control system, Combat data link, Thermal imaging system.
 * 730 H.P. Diesel engine
 * Barrel launched ATGM firing capability.
 * Rubber padded tracks.
 * XDZ-1 SATCOM and VRC-2000L radio contact system.

France acquired a Type 59 to modify it to sell a new upgrade package made by Giat industry, to other countries, notably in the development of a new tank for Egypt which seeks a new tank based on the T-62 with western weaponry. the tank was called T59 and included a French 105mm gun, a new ballistic computer, new fire-control, French thermal, new sight, and a new fire-extinguisher system. The vehicle was presented in Satory 1987 but saw no success.

Pakistan
Pakistan operates Al-Zarrar – Heavy Industries Taxila of Pakistan has introduced the Al-Zarrar Main Battle Tank. The Al-Zarrar series was designed to improve and rebuild the Pakistani army's Type 59 tanks by way of more modern armament, fire control, defensive equipment, etc. Improvements include:
 * 125 mm smoothbore gun, firing APFSDS, HEAT-FS and HE-FS. Semi-automatic loading and image Stabilized fire control.
 * 730 hp Engine for improved mobility.
 * Improved suspension.
 * Improved defense with explosive reactive armour and anti-mine cover underneath.

Iran
Iran operates Type T-72Z - a modernized version.

North Korea
North Korea operates Kok'san – 170 mm artillery piece, based on the Type 59 chassis.

United Kingdom
Royal Ordnance designed variants with 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun as an upgrade package for owners of the Type 59. The upgrades incorporated 105 mm L7A3 gun with thermal sleeve and ammunition stowage of 34 rounds, British smoke grenade dischargers on both sides of the turret, Graviner fire-suppression system, Vickers Instruments L50 gunner's sight with laser-rangefinder, Avimo driver's sight night-vision device, Marconi's Centaur weapon system with digital FCS, Mantis commander's sight and solid-state drives. Another upgrade package also installed ROMOR-A reactive armour on the side hulls and ROMOR-B passive appliqué armour on the front hull and turret, along with the aforementioned upgrades. The Type 59 tanks used in the project were acquired from Pakistan, and the upgraded tanks were exhibited in British Army Equipment Exhibition 1984. No Type 59s served with British forces.

Marconi offered their Marksman anti-aircraft system as a conversion to operators of the Type 59. The Marksman consisted of a twin 35 mm autocannon system in a turret that could be fitted to almost any MBT.

Current operators

 * 🇧🇩 − 30 T-54 delivered by Egypt in 1975; later converted to use Type 59 parts with support from China. 36 Type 59s delivered by China in 1980–1981. 174 Type 59 and Type 59G Durjoy in service as of 2023
 * − 50 Type 59s in service as of 2023
 * − 14 ZTZ-59G in service as of 2023
 * 🇨🇳 − 600 ZTZ-59/-59II/-59D in service as of 2023
 * 🇨🇩 − Between 12 and 17 Type 59s as of 2023, but may be unserviceable
 * Republic of the Congo − ~15 delivered by China in 1978. 15 in service as of 2023
 * 🇮🇷 − ~300 Type 59s delivered by China from 1982–1984. Unknown number of Type 59 tanks and Safir 74 conversions in service as of 2023
 * − At least 300 Type-59D in service as of 2023.
 * 🇰🇵 − ~175 Type 59s delivered by China from 1973–1975. ~250 ZSU-57-2 turrets delivered by the Soviet Union in 1968–1977 and fitted to Type 59 hulls from China. 175 Type 59s in service as of 2005. Unknown number in service as of 2023
 * 🇵🇰 − ~200 Type 59s delivered by China from 1965–1966; ~550 Type 59s delivered from 1967–1970; ~100 Type 59s delivered as aid in 1972; ~825 delivered from 1978 to 1988. 1,200 in service in 2005, 600 ZTZ-59 in service as of 2023. Some were upgraded with a 105mm gun
 * 🇸🇩 − 50 Type 59s delivered by China in 1972; according to SIPRI, rebuilt to the Type-59D standard between 2010 and 2015. 50 were in service prior to the 2023 Sudan clashes
 * 🇹🇿 − ~30 Type 59s delivered by China from 1971–1973; according to SIPRI, these were rebuilt as Type 59Gs from 2011–2013. 15 Type-59Gs in service as of 2023
 * 🇻🇳 − 350 as of 2023
 * 🇿🇲 − 20 ZTZ-59 in service as of 2023
 * 🇿🇼 − ~22 delivered by China in 1985 and 1986. 30 in service in 2006; 30 in service as of 2023, but may be unserviceable.

Former operators

 * 🇦🇱 − ~721 Type 59 delivered by China in 1966–1975. 373 in service in 2005, 40 in service in 2008, 3 in 2010, none in 2015
 * 🇧🇦 − 71 in 2005, none in 2015
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq − 250-1,300 Type 59s delivered by China from 1982–1987, and ~1,500 Type 69-I and 69-IIs delivered from 1983–1987. ~3,000 T-54, T-55, Type 59 and Type 69s before the Gulf War. 1,000 T-54, T-55, T-72, Type 59 and Type 69s in service in 2003. All destroyed or scrapped after the 2003 invasion of Iraq
 * 🇱🇰 − ~25 Type 59 delivered by China in 1991. None in service by 2010
 * South Vietnam − Captured from People's Army of Vietnam

title: Type 59 tank


text:
Talk:Disciple (Christianity)

Untitled
''This page was listed on Votes for deletion in May, 2004. The result of that discussion was to keep the article. For an archive of the discussion, see Talk:Disciple/Delete.''

Old
I've tried to make this article more encyclopedic by clearly deliminating the various uses of the word disciple. I don't see this as an disambiguation page, but I found that structure very useful. --Acjelen 01:25, 19 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, this really doesn't seem to be a dab page, in my opinion either. Maybe we should remove the template? - grubber 17:45, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

There's no reason to delete it, and expanding on it is a good idea. For instance, a separate extensive definition of "Disciple" as a verb.

Added cleanup tag, removed disambig-cleanup.
I think that this page would work better focusing on the religious connotations and Jesus's disciples, even though this page becomes moderately misnamed then (though the disambig page I just created could then be moved here, and a "disciples of Jesus" page created). The dictionary definition stuff seems somewhat superfluous at the moment. SnowFire 05:40, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

 * On second thought, the amount of "disciple" related content that isn't Christianity-related on this page is pretty darn small, which reduces the argument for keeping this page as an encyclopedic overview of Christianity. Perhaps this page should be moved to Disciple (Christianity), and the disambig page I just created should come back here again.  Any thoughts?  SnowFire 13:25, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Wow. This article looks a lot better now. Anyway, I figured I'd bring this over here; I removed the following line-

 * This deepest sense of discipleship is espoused by writers such as Lee C. Camp in his book "Mere Discipleship".

This seems a bit hyperbolic, almost like an ad. Mr. Camp only gets around 430 hits on Google, so he doesn't seem that important, even if his book was good? Maybe I'm off, but just saying. SnowFire 00:47, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

The Great Commission
Odd that there is no mention (as of today) of the clause, "and make disciples of every nation" which is part of the Great Commission as recorded in Matthew 28:18-20. DFH 14:35, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Rectified in the new see also section. DFH 16:04, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I also made a connection in the discipleship section

Use of the word disciple in the book of Acts
Perhaps it is worth mentioning that the word disciple occurs numerous times in the book of Acts to denote the early followers of Jesus, i. e. Christians. See for example, Acts 11:26, part of which reads, And the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch. DFH 16:11, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * In my mind, a section covering both the Great Commission and "the disciples" in Acts would benefit this article. -Acjelen 20:24, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Discipleship Paradigm ?
The exact phrase "Discipleship Paradigm" only had 697 hits in Google. Such a low hit count would make me question whether the term should even be mentioned in this article, especially as no citation was given. DFH 16:18, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It seems to me that neither the subsection in which the phrase is mentioned, nor the following subsection meet Wikipedia's NPOV criteria. DFH 16:22, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I have therefore just removed both subsections. For details, look at the article's history. DFH 16:45, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Love one another
Acjelen, as for the link you reverted back into my edit (perhaps you did this by accident?), "Love your neighbor" is not the same topic as "Love one another". If you want to discuss why you want to replace it, please do so before replacing it again. I removed it from an initial anonymous edit for which there was no discussion of why it was added.
 * Um, Chrismon, I'm not sure what differences you mean between our last two edits. -Acjelen 02:11, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

The four
I've always been reluctant to have this article split the listing of apostles. Nonetheless, the gospels emphasize an initial calling of three to five apostles, so I can see a justification. I would like, however, the treatment to be brief. All of the apostles (and, in fact, all of the named disciples) have their own articles. -Acjelen 02:24, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Weasel Words
I debated whether to put up a NPOV dispute or a weasel words dispute, but decided that, in my opinion, most of the NPOV issues would be removed along with the weasel words. Things like "...the faith of all modern Christians worldwide." There are a fair amount of these things that I think need to be clarified in this article (ie: ALL Christians? Improbable to the point of untrue. Which ones specifically? Worldwide? Where worldwide?). Thank you Finn zee Fox 04:50, 19 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I'll admit that the Discipleship section is too flowery in its language, but are you suggesting that the Disciples are not the forebearers of the rest of Christianity? -Acjelen 18:17, 19 August 2007 (UTC)

You raise a good question against my wording. I really was just trying to point out the "flowery" language (as you so well put it) and perhaps I used a bad example. However, I do think that it's best to avoid vague, sweeping statements like "all" because I bet you could find at least one branch of Christianity that claims not to identify with the original disciples. Finn zee Fox 06:08, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

Perhaps you would consider putting up the dispute after discussing it instead of the other way around? Your only claim in its defense is that the words are "flowery", but you give no definition of what that means. One definition I've read of "flowery" is "Full of ornate or grandiloquent expressions; highly embellished: a flowery speech." I have edited, or even authored, a decent portion of the Discipleship section, and while I admit I try my best to give a good, historically hermeneutical description, to give a feel for the interplay of ideas and force that make a disciple different from someone who is not, I do not find terms like "socio-political" do be particularly "grandiloquent". As I read through it now for the first time in a while, I think I could concede that the phrase "the very heart of the ministry of Jesus" is a bit flowery. Changing "heart" to "center" (which I just did) might kill a few flowers :)  Other than that, however, I'll need your help in seeing this section as "flowery". As for Acjelen's comment, I agree with his inference.  In all my reading on historical theology, I have never come across a Christian sect that does not find the disciples as the pioneers of their sect.  Often, many sects (From Catholics and Orthodox to Baptists and even Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses) see themselves as some sort of directly authoritative, spiritual descendants of the original Disciples (particularly the Twelve) as part of their claim to legitimacy.  Chrismon 07:31, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Something else comes to mind, is the POV claim because the POV is Christian? Do you think it gives a particularly (christian) sectarian POV? I would submit that since this is the "Disciple(Christianity)" page, a Christian POV is appropriate.  If you think it is unduly sectarian, please explain.  In my contributions I tried my best to convey a literary and historical view of the text -- things which, in my studying, I have found to be generally agreed upon by biblical scholars/historians (though, not necesarily theologians). Chrismon 17:56, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

general information
Again with the picture of white Jesus. *sigh*. But seriously, I'll have to do a bit of looking to see what images can be found to represent this period in history; they all seem so similar and unrealistic based on what we know of the region. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.29.113.26 (talk) 03:16, 25 March 2011 (UTC)

I'm adding material to the lead and body. There's a lot of interesting stuff that can go on this page. It needs some citations, too. Like, where did this list of disciples come from? Leadwind (talk) 04:15, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Thanks for that. Further information that could be added:

Jesus summoned people to discipleship in his earthly ministry. Discipleship with Jesus is marked by specific characteristics.

 * Permanency Unlike rabbinic discipleship in which the disciple could change rabbi without changing orientation of study towards the Law, discipleship with Jesus was possible only with Jesus. Leaving Jesus meant taking a totally different direction.

 * Personal attachment Following Jesus was a matter of getting to know him more and not simply a matter of getting to know about him and his teaching. Jesus was more then a teacher, he did things. The multiplication of the bread, his walking on the water, his healing the sick, and his delivering the people from satanic oppression touched the heart and mind of his disciples and contributed to their building up as disciples. Personal attachment with Jesus is an important mark of Christian discipleship that culminates in Jesus' being the absolute men for all others and offering his life for the ransom of many. So that it is impossible to benefit from discipleship with Jesus without personally being attached not to any particular event of Jesus but to the totality of his personality.

 * Participation in Jesus' charism Seventy-two disciples were sent by Jesus to announce the Good news of the Kingdom of God. He gave them authority to heal the sick and over the evil spirits. The same ministry in which Jesus was engaged, was extended to these seventy two disciples - refer to Luke 10.

 * Participation in Jesus' destiny The kingdom of God proclaimed by Jesus is to be a kingdom enjoyed by his disciples for it is the sheep that belong to him that hear his voice and it is to them that Jesus gives eternal life (ref. John 10, 27). Further, Jesus ascends into heaven to 'prepare a place for his disciples (ref. John 14, 2).

The term Christian denotes discipleship with Christ.

Alan347 (talk) 07:49, 26 October 2010 (UTC)

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Undesirables
There is insufficient connection between the people mentioned in this section and the term "disciple" given. Either the "disciple" nature of these people should be more clearly evidenced, or the section should be removed. 144.138.35.48 (talk) 06:08, 9 July 2018 (UTC)

Very few called by name & qualified as disciples
hi. It is worth noting that in the vast majority of cases, the disciples are treted as a group (of 2 or 12), or a mass of people, without naming them specifically. This fact is worth mentioning, with an analysis of its significance. Who knows a reliable source?

I have checked on Biblegateway and searched for 'disciple', so this is OR, but quotable scholars must surely have noticed and discussed the issue. There are 265 hits from the New Testament. The vast majority refers to the disciples w/o naming them, as either The only exceptions are in John (by far the most), Acts (4), and one in Matthew. John is the most generous in this regard. In Acts, all 4 references are to otherwise unknown disciples. Mathew only mentions Joseph of Arimathea explicitly and nominally as a disciple. The Burial of Jesus: Matthew 27:57 — When it was evening, there came a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph, who was also a disciple of Jesus. John 19:38 — Joseph of Arimathea, who was a disciple of Jesus John 1:35, 40 — The next day John again was standing with two of his disciples... One of the two who heard John speak and followed him was Andrew, Simon Peter’s brother. John 6:8 — One of his disciples, Andrew, Simon Peter's brother... Acts 9:10 — Now there was a disciple in Damascus named Ananias. Acts 9:36 — ...a disciple whose name was Tabitha, which in Greek is Dorcas. Acts 16:1 — ...Lystra, where there was a disciple named Timothy... Acts 21:16 — ...Mnason of Cyprus, an early disciple... John 11:16 — Thomas...said to his fellow disciples... John 18:15 — Simon Peter and another disciple...
 * "my/your/his/the/twelve/two disciples", so in the plural, or as
 * "one disciple" or "the other disciple", so in the singular, but also without a proper name or other identification.
 * Joseph of Arimathea
 * Andrew:
 * Otherwise unknown disciples from Acts:
 * Indirectly: Thomas and Simon Peter
 * Without a name being mentioned

John 9:28 — A Man Born Blind Receives Sight: "You are his disciple...", but it comes as a direct quote of what the Pharisees are calling the healed man, not as what the evangelist sees him to be. John 19:26-27, 20:2, 21:7, 21:20+23 — "the disciple whom he/Jesus loved" Only in the end of the Gospel of John comes an explanation, itself slightly ambiguous, as it is both slightly indirect or possibly added by an editor (it comes at the end of the book, and it can be understood as either a conclusion or explanation to John 21:20-23, which deals with "the disciple whom Jesus loved"; or as a closing word for the entire book), and in the third person, not the first: John 21:24 — This is the disciple who is testifying to these things and has written them, and we know that his testimony is true. Arminden (talk) 15:55, 31 August 2021 (UTC)
 * "The disciple whom Jesus loved", apparently John the Evangelist

 * - there's a difference between disciples and apostles - disciples are students or dedicated followers - apostles are authorized to spread the teachings - cheers - Epinoia (talk) 16:07, 31 August 2021 (UTC)
 * hi. What does this have to do with anything I wrote? I am talking of the actual text of the NT. The evangelists didn't know the distinction. They probably didn't read the books you did ;) This is anyway completely outside the subject of this section. The point is: what does the Bible say? More exactly: why doesn't the NT usually identify disciples, even the more prominent ones who are carrying entire episodes, by calling them by their name? Btw, all the apostles started off as disciples, some not even of Jesus, but of John. Arminden (talk) 16:46, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

 * - more important to Wikipedia than what primary sources, such as the NT, say is what secondary sources say, WP:PSTS - "Wikipedia articles should be based on reliable, published secondary sources..." - also see [[WP:PRIMARYCARE, WP:SCHOLARSHIP, WP:NOR and other guidelines that cover the use of primary sources - cheers - Epinoia (talk) 19:11, 31 August 2021 (UTC)
 * , really, please read first before writing back. What is the only part of my posting which I highlighted in bold? "Who knows a reliable source?". So no need to comment again and again if it's not to the point. Thanks for considering. Arminden (talk) 13:21, 1 September 2021 (UTC)
 * - there's a guideline somewhere, but I can't find it right now, that says something like, "don't expect other editors to do your work for you" - it is up to you to provide reliable secondary sources, as per WP:BURDEN - and please don't tell me when I can or cannot comment - cheers - Epinoia (talk) 14:43, 1 September 2021 (UTC)

Does the term μαθητής come from the culture of craftsmen?
A teacher of mine claimed that the Greek word μαθητής, usually translated as "disciple" in English-language bibles, is specifically a word from the culture of skilled craftsmen (those who learned how to do their work by working, and usually living, with a master craftsman for a period of years, such as, in the bible, carpenters and fishermen), and should therefore be translated "apprentice" in preference of any other translation. Also that the word implies someone who is a good bit younger than the "master", usually a person in his teenage years. Can someone elucidate on that, if possible within the article. Thanks! -- 79.217.167.85 (talk) 11:42, 13 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Disciple (Christianity)