text:
Talk:Pashupati

Untitled
The Pashupati seal from Mojenjo-daro shows a male figure seated cross-legged in a meditative Yogic posture. His head, however, is surmounted not by stag's antlers (that's the Celtic Cernunnos!) but with large, arching waterbuffalo horns. -- Kalipadma — Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.236.252.58 (talk • contribs) 2004-05-03T22:03:51UTC

What's The Diff
Is there no difference between Pashupati and Bhava ?

(Lunarian 01:19, 24 February 2007 (UTC))

 * Although, out of various meanings, one of the meanings of Bhava is Shiva in general, this meaning is not relavant in the context of Pashupati seal found at Mohenjadaro, a site belonging to Indus Valley Civilisation.Rayabhari (talk)05:23, 27 June 2012 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Pashupati.jpg
Image:Pashupati.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 07:13, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

Title versus content
This article seems to have strayed far from the remit implied by its title. An article on "Pashupati" should surely be about Pashupati as a title and function of Shiva as "Lord or protector of Animals". This one has become a digressive article on the Mohenjo-daro seal known - in this article at least - as the "Pashupati seal". The article cites various sources which, taken as a whole, make clear that this identification is far from certain. It's speculative, disputed and in some sources, dismissed. If the seal's notable in its own right, it should have its own article, and any scholarly debate should be elucidated there. Here, it surely should have no more than a brief subsection or footnote, per WP:DUE. And what is implied, exactly, by the claimed resemblance of the figure on this seal to the so-called Cernunnos figure on the Gundestrup Cauldron? Haploidavey (talk) 12:25, 3 August 2012 (UTC)

The article history shows that most of these potentially misleading connections were made in the very first, uncited article version. We should either re-title using a redirect, or split. Haploidavey (talk) 12:49, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * The last para of the article, Pashupathas, some how makes no connection to the main article and I feel it is out of place or not relavant. Need to relook on last para?Rayabhari (talk) 14:30, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, it's an altogether odd assemblage, and the last section doesn't help. Doug seems to be on a roll, so I'll wait a bit. As far as I can tell, the article content - much improved by recent tightening, though not mine, I should add - boils down to an explication of the title Pashupati ("Lord of Animals," whether or not Shiva is meant). That both narrows things down, and opens them up. Difficult to say how it should go, but I think you're right about the last para; it probably belongs in Shiva's article. Haploidavey (talk) 14:46, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * On going through article history, it is clear that the article was started as Hindu god Shiva or Pashupathi with no mention of Indus seal, but later details of Indus seal are added - that is why such odd assemblage. As you observed, it is better we should re-title / rewrite the article, may be with emphasis to Indus Valley Civilisation.Rayabhari (talk) 15:11, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * We have an article on Indus script, to which Indus valley seals and scripts currently redirects. What would you say to removal of the redirect, and a new article on the seals? With so little writing, and so much iconography, they certainly seem to merit their own article. Haploidavey (talk) 15:51, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Sorry for delay. I think that would be better. Better to have a new article excl. for indus seals with title Indus valley seals and sealings (or similar). So much is written on seals in differrent articles, now in one place, it may come as a good article. Then, I think, Pashupathi article can concentrate on pashupathi-the god Shiva?Rayabhari (talk) 13:46, 4 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Thanks, and I'm sorry for a much longer delay than I intended. I've nothing immediate to offer (time and preoccupation forbid), but have found two, possibly three relevant scholarly sources for this and the eventual spin-off article. Probably more relevant to the spin-off, really. Will post journal-links here tomorrow The most thorough and promising seems to be: Doris Srinivasan, "The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment", Archives of Asian Art, Vol. 29 (1975/1976), pp. 47-58. I hope you've access. Haploidavey (talk) 21:48, 15 August 2012 (UTC)

Pashupati seal
Pashupati seal Does not shows seated ithyphallic. It shows animals surrounding a human. All of 24 tirthankararas are associated with 1 animal.For Example Lord Mahavir is associated with Lion, Pasarvnath with snake, Rishab with Bull, Shantinath with Deer. The striking feature is that, there is deer below the seat of human (Exactly this is the way jains put one animal as a symbol below the seat of their Tirthankaras). All tirthankars are shown sitting in lotus position/Yogic Mudra on a seat/throne. All tirthankars are nude but not ithyphallic like shiva. I saw similarities and some mistakes. Therefore i shared my knowledge. I think it is good to have others opinion. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 106.204.213.43 (talk) 00:00, 17 November 2013 (UTC) Jainism teaches tolerance to other religions but it also teaches to stand for truth. Hinduism and Jainism both originated from Indus civilization and both are as old as history can go. So, how can one say that there cannot be (or must not be) any Jain idol or picture in Indus valley? how can one say that there cannot be roots of Jainism in Indian history/Indus valley? Yes, Pashupati is one of the names of shiva. Hinduism is very popular in India. Can any one tell me if, Hindus place a small icon of animal under the seat/throne of Shiva exactly like this in picture?

As far as the name " pashupati seal is concerned, it was given by a british archaeologist. Probably because Hinduism was very popular and Shiva rides on bull. Also because pashupati is one of the names of shiva. But, this is a modern nomenclature, there is no such name as 'pashupati seal' in brahmi language. It is not the name written on the picture. Therefore i am sharing my knowledge of history. dissemination of knowledge is not a crime...why my posts are deleted with bias? Yes I have been to Kathmandu Pashupati Nath temple and i have seen the idol of shiva. It is different !Dr Prashanna Jain Gotani (talk) 00:41, 17 November 2013 (UTC)

I think Lord Shiva is also called as "Adinath Shiva" and he is associated with "OX/Bull". Many historians have quoted that "pashupati Seal" or " Proto Shiva" is sitting on "buffalo". However, "buffalo" is associated with 'god of Death' or 'Yama' not Shiva.Hence there is mistake while looking at the seal/picture. . In every picture of shiva there is snake in throat,crescent moon, matted hair, sacred ganges, mount kailash, trishul and damru missing in this picture.

I have decided to add some references on demand:

1) Picture of Tirthankara Shantinath in lotus/Yogi position on a seat with Deer engraving on his seat:, ,      http://www.ejainism.com/shantinathmaindes.htm, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shantinath,

2) Picture/Idols of 24 Jain Tirthankara in lotus/Yogi position on a seat with specific animal engraving below their seat:,   http://www.idjo.org/site/24_Jain_Tirthankars.aspx

3) Short biography and Picture of Tirthankara Shantinath with animals surrounding him., http://www.jainoutlook.com/shantinathprabhu.php

4) Short biography of Tirthankara "Adinath Rishaba" (aka 'Ri-Shiba')., , http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=74977, http://www.ejainism.com/rishabhamainevents.html,

5) Picture of Tirthankara Rishab dev with animals : Dr Prashanna Jain Gotani (talk) 13:48, 17 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Our articles can never be used as references. The websites all fail WP:RS. This is the English language Wikipedia so we use English titles, etc. And I'm sorry, but you still don't seem to have read WP:VERIFY, WP:RS, or WP:NOR despite being asked to read them. You don't understand how Wikipedia works. Dougweller (talk) 20:01, 17 November 2013 (UTC)

 * "Pashupati seal is a Jain icon" seems an WP:OR. For your kind information, there are portrayals of Shiva and other Hindu deities where the vahana is placed near the feet of the seated deity, at the bottom of the seat. However, though there are many theories connecting Shiva to the Pashupati seal, the Pashupati form discussed here is not the Shiva on the Pashupati seal. The Pashupati seal is an WP:UNDUE here. Redtigerxyz  Talk 04:38, 18 November 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pashupati


text:
Nick Oliveri

Nick Steven Oliveri (born October 21, 1971) is an American multi-instrumentalist, singer and songwriter. He is best known as a former bassist of Kyuss and later Queens of the Stone Age from 1998 to 2004. Oliveri is also a solo artist and frequent contributor to his friends' albums and tours, including Winnebago Deal, Masters of Reality, Turbonegro, Moistboyz, Svetlanas and Big Scenic Nowhere among many others. He is currently the frontman of his project, Mondo Generator, a punk and metal hybrid that he formed in 1997, and the co-founder of the stoner rock power trio, Stöner. He has also worked periodically with the Dwarves since 1993.

Early life
Nick Steven Oliveri was born in Los Angeles on October 21, 1971, and was then raised in Palm Springs at the age of 11. His first instrument was a guitar but he later moved to bass. His major influences were Kiss, Black Sabbath, Ramones, Rush and Van Halen. Oliveri was described by lifelong friend Brant Bjork as having a Spicoli-esque lifestyle growing up in his youth.

Kyuss
He began his career in 1987 as a guitarist, when he formed Katzenjammer with bandmates John Garcia, Josh Homme, Chris Cockrell and Brant Bjork. In early 1989, shortly after Oliveri's departure, the band changed its name to Sons of Kyuss, and after self-releasing an EP in 1990, the band re-recruited Oliveri on bass to replace Cockrell, and shortened their name to Kyuss.

Oliveri left the band following completion of Blues for the Red Sun and was replaced by Scott Reeder, who had been approached about joining Kyuss five to six months earlier during a West Coast tour with The Obsessed. Following his departure from Kyuss, Oliveri joined the Dwarves as an on and off again bassist under the moniker "Rex Everything".

Mondo Generator
Nick Oliveri (under the moniker "Rex Everything") formed Mondo Generator in 1997 and with friends Josh Homme, Brant Bjork, Rob Oswald, Karl Doyle and others, recorded the debut album, Cocaine Rodeo. The album wouldn't be released until three years later due to Oliveri and Homme being full-time members of Queens of the Stone Age. The album was released by cult-favorite Southern Lord Records in 2000. There was little support of the album by the way of live shows, and the band gained cult status among the most devoted Queens of the Stone Age fans.

As of April 2007, Mondo Generator was scheduled to appear on the 12th annual Ozzfest tour (otherwise known as the "FreeFest" tour), but officially dropped off the tour on July 26, 2007 after appearing at four Ozzfest dates. Oliveri stated, "This year it was free for the crowd, which was a great thing, but essentially the bands were playing for free too and we just couldn't afford to do that."

Queens of the Stone Age
Oliveri was a core contributor to Queens of the Stone Age from 1998 to 2004, playing bass and providing backup and lead vocals on two of the band's biggest albums, Rated R and Songs for the Deaf, in addition to co-writing most of the album's songs with bandmate Josh Homme. He first appeared on the band's self titled debut album in the form of a voicemail confirming his commitment to the band on the album's final song, "I Was a Teenage Hand Model".

Oliveri's lead singing can be heard on songs such as "Auto Pilot", "Tension Head" and "Quick and to the Pointless" from Rated R and "Another Love Song", "Gonna Leave You", "Six Shooter" and "You Think I Ain't Worth a Dollar but I Feel Like a Millionaire", from Songs for the Deaf.

In January 2004, following a string of dates touring in Australia, Oliveri was fired from the band, with reasoning at first being aggressive treatment of the band's fans, later being accusations of possible abuse to his girlfriend. Oliveri has said to have come to the conclusion himself that during a soundcheck at a show in Spain in 2003, he acted too aggressively to Josh Homme over his relationship with then-girlfriend Brody Dalle after getting too drunk on wine, raising tension between the two. In a 2005 interview with BBC Radio 1, Homme stated that he had approached Oliveri about the abuse rumors and told him, "If I ever find out that this is true, I can’t know you, man." He also revealed an incident that occurred in England involving Oliveri and vocalist Mark Lanegan where the former "almost didn't make it out of the country." Due to these domestic violence allegations, Oliveri is banned from entering Australia.

Post-Queens of the Stone Age
Since his firing from Queens of the Stone Age, Oliveri has recorded an acoustic LP entitled Demolition Day that was eventually released as a second disc in the limited edition of the Mondo Generator album, Dead Planet: SonicSlowMotionTrails. In September 2006, Oliveri stated "I feel that Queens is something I can contribute to and Josh Homme needs me to do it."

There was speculation that he would return in Queens of the Stone Age during their summer tour due to Josh Homme's dedication of "New Fang" to Nick for "new beginnings". However, this proved to be false. In March 2011, Oliveri stated: "The last time I saw them play was a benefit for Brian O'Connor in L.A., from the Eagles of Death Metal. I was down there and I mentioned to them, "Why don't I come up and do "Millionaire" or something, and sing it and not play bass?" [Josh] was like, "Nah, I don't think that's a good idea yet." It's kind of in his court for stuff like that. I don't think he wants to give anybody the wrong idea. I don't necessarily know if that would happen. And he's got a good band—he's taking the band in the direction he wants it to go."

In late November 2012, Oliveri contributed vocals on the track "If I Had a Tail" for his former band Queens of the Stone Age on their album …Like Clockwork. Upon hearing fellow former Queens member Dave Grohl would make a return to drums on the album, Oliveri inquired to Josh Homme if he could play bass: "I actually put in a request with Josh. I heard Dave was playing on the record, and I was like, 'Dude! I wanna play bass on it!' I'd be a fool not to ask. If Dave Grohl was playing drums, then I want in. He's an amazing drummer. I never had a better time in my life than when Dave was in the band." Homme instead opted for current bassist Michael Shuman.

In April 2014, Moistboyz opened for Queens of the Stone Age at a concert at the Keller Auditorium in Portland, Oregon. Oliveri then joined Queens of the Stone Age on stage for the first time in over a decade to sing "You Think I Ain't Worth a Dollar, But I Feel Like a Millionaire".

Kyuss Lives!
In June 2010, former Kyuss members Oliveri and Bjork joined Garcia onstage to perform "Green Machine" and "Gardenia" during a headlining appearance by "Garcia Plays Kyuss" at Hellfest in Clisson, France and they also appeared onstage with Garcia in other concerts on the tour.

In November 2010, Oliveri joined Kyuss Lives! with fellow ex band members Garcia and Bjork. The band initially toured Europe, Australian and New Zealand markets in early 2011, and later toured North America. A new studio album was also being planned following the tour. Due to Oliveri's ongoing legal problems resulting from a July 2011 incident, he was unable to leave the US and Scott Reeder filled in for him on several international dates. After touring domestically in the US with Kyuss Lives! during 2011, Oliveri decided to leave the band in favor of returning to working on Mondo Generator.

However, in March 2012, it was revealed that Josh Homme, after persuading bassist Scott Reeder to support him, had filed a federal lawsuit against John Garcia and Brant Bjork alleging "trademark infringement and consumer fraud" over the use of the Kyuss name despite the fact Brant Bjork had originally created the name. Nick Oliveri left Kyuss later that month after it was revealed that Garcia and Bjork had tried to take control of the Kyuss trademark.

In December 2012, he announced his return to Kyuss Lives!, however all touring and promotions since have not featured Oliveri. In August 2013, singer John Garcia said that the band "is a three-piece band with [himself], Brant [Bjork, drummer] and Bruno [Fevery, guitarist]. It always will be." and described Oliveri as "an honorary band member".

Stöner
In 2020, Oliveri formed the stoner rock trio Stöner, along with former Kyuss bandmate Brant Bjork and Ryan Güt, touring member for Bjork's live band. The band first appeared on Oliveri's solo album N.O. Hits at All Vol.666. Stöner performed on the fourth volume of the Live in the Mojave Desert concert film series and live albums later in the year.

In 2021, the band released their debut album, Stoners Rule and embarked on a US tour alongside Clutch.

In 2022, Stöner released their sophomore album Totally....

In 2023, the band released their debut EP, Boogie to Baja.

Additional projects and contributions
In 2005, Oliveri appeared on the Turbonegro album Party Animals as guest vocalist on the song "Final Warning". He joined the band on stage for performances of the song during their US tour in 2007, which included Mondo Generator as support.

In early 2008, Oliveri joined a West Coast offshoot of Moistboyz dubbed Dickie Moist OTC, on bass. In June 2008, he joined Los Angeles-based rock band, The Knives, on bass.

On August 7, 2008, Oliveri appeared on stage with Turbonegro at Øyafestivalen in Oslo to sing "Back to Dungaree High" and "Nervous Breakdown", the former being a song that Queens of the Stone Age had previously covered on the Turbonegro tribute album Alpha Motherfuckers and the latter a Black Flag cover. The band's performance at the festival was the 10th anniversary celebration of their album Apocalypse Dudes. On April 19, 2009, Oliveri again joined Turbonegro on stage for the song "Dungaree High" during their Coachella set.

In 2010, Oliveri appeared on Slash's debut solo album, Slash, contributing vocals to the track "Chains and Shackles" that was included on the Australian edition of the album.

Oliveri co-wrote the song "TNA (The Nihilistic Army)" with members of Turbonegro for their 2012 album Sexual Harassment.

In July 2013, while on tour in Alaska, Oliveri met members of Men With Guns, Lowell George Granath and Cody Kniceley, resulting in the formation of a band called The Situationalists and the recording of two demo tracks. An LP was planned, but did not materialize.

In late November 2013, Oliveri announced that he would be touring with, and playing bass for Moistboyz, the punk/rock project of Dean Ween, which featured then Mondo Generator drummer Hoss Wright, Guy Heller, and Stephen Haas. Oliveri later announced that he and Hoss were also providing the rhythm section for the reunited California thrash outfit Bl'ast!.

In 2015, Oliveri collaborated with Russian punk rock band Svetlanas and occasionally toured with the band. Their album, Naked Horse Rider, featured Oliveri and was recorded at Josh Homme's Pink Duck Studios in California. Oliveri later appeared on the following Svetlanas releases, This Is Moscow Not L.A. in 2017, and Disco Sucks in 2020. In November 2016, Oliveri announced the release of a series of compilations titled N.O. Hits at All, to be issued on Heavy Psych Sounds Records. Oliveri commented "...Now for the first time, all these songs and bands I've recorded with over the past 25 years are together and available to you to trip out on. So get your head right, put this record on and play it loud!" N.O. Hits at All Vol.1 was issued on January 27, 2017. N.O. Hits at All Vol.2 was issued on July 7, 2017. N.O. Hits at All Vol.3 was released on October 20, 2017, a day before Oliveri's birthday. N.O. Hits at All Vol.4 was released on February 23, 2018. N.O. Hits at All Vol.5 was released on October 12, 2018. N.O. Hits at All Vol.666 was released on March 6, 2020. N.O. Hits at All Vol.7 was released on July 2, 2021.

In 2019, Oliveri joined Desert Rock veterans Bob Balch (Fu Manchu) and Gary Arce (Yawning Man, Ten East) in the band Big Scenic Nowhere for the group's debut EP, Dying on the Mountain. He again played for the band on their debut full-length album, Vision Beyond Horizon.

In 2020, Oliveri collaborated with the Italian rock band Gunash for the recording of the single "Predators" which appeared on both N.O. Hits at All Vol. 7 and the Gunash album All You Can Hit. Gunash supported Nick Oliveri on his European "Death Acoustic Tour" and Mondo Generator on some dates in Italy and France.

Legal issues and controversy
On July 10, 1999, Oliveri and Josh Homme were involved in an altercation with English rock band Terrorvision while Queens of the Stone Age were on tour in London. Oliveri was arrested as a result, but was released several hours later without being charged.

On January 19, 2001, Oliveri was arrested after a performance at Rock in Rio III in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for performing nude on stage. He apologized for the incident and stated that he was not aware that it was a crime in Brazil.

On July 12, 2011, Oliveri was arrested for suspicion of felony domestic violence after a standoff with police SWAT team. He allowed his girlfriend to exit the house two hours into the standoff and two hours before the SWAT team made entry into the home and arrested Oliveri. Drugs and a loaded rifle were found in the home. In August 2012, Oliveri's lawyer reached a plea agreement with prosecutors in his case. His lawyer, Freddy Sayegh, told TMZ, "Oliveri agreed to plead to one count of possession of cocaine and a dismissal of the remaining six felony counts." Oliveri's record in the case will be expunged as long as he completes court-ordered community service, anger management, and remains out of trouble for six years.

Pseudonyms
Oliveri adopted the "Rex Everything" moniker after shattering a vase at a former Dwarves bassist's house, upon which he replied to Oliveri with "Rex Everything". The nickname "Rex" was originally given to Oliveri by Blag Dahlia, but a last name, which became Everything, was needed to go along with it.

"Pierre Pressure" was a nickname given to Oliveri by lifelong friend Josh Homme, to which Homme stated Oliveri pressures people into doing things they should not. "The Great French Manipulator" also came from Homme.

"Rock & Roll Komodo Dragon" originated from an interview with Revolver where Homme states that Oliveri's "a bit like a rock and roll komodo dragon, it's been that way for thousands of years".

"Nikolai Svetlana" was given during Oliveri's tenure with Svetlanas, as each band member uses the band name as their stage last name.

Studio albums

 * Demolition Day (2004, Tornado)
 * Death Acoustic (2009, Impedance)
 * Leave Me Alone (2014, Schnitzel) (released under the name "Nick Oliveri's Uncontrollable")

Compilation albums

 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.1 (2017, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.2 (2017, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.3 (2017, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.4 (2018, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.5 (2018, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.666 (2020, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.7 (2021, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.8 (2024, Heavy Psych Sounds)
 * N.O. Hits at All Vol.9 (2024, Heavy Psych Sounds)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nick Oliveri


text:
Grand Falls, New Brunswick

Grand Falls (Grand-Sault) is a town in northwestern New Brunswick, Canada, on the Saint John River. Its name comes from a waterfall created by a series of rock ledges over which the river drops 23 m.

On 1 January 2023, Grand Falls expanded to include Drummond, the rural community of Saint-André, the local service district of the parish of Grand Falls, and part of the LSD of the parish of Drummond. Revised census figures have not been released.

History
In 1686, Monsignor de Saint-Vallier (of Quebec) was the first known person to mention in writing the magnificent falls for which Grand Falls is named. His words describing the area can be found on a monument erected at the mouth of Davis Park in 1986. He recounts his trip to the region in 1686. He writes: "On May 16 we arrived at a place called Grand Sault St-Jean-Baptiste. Here the river falls madly from a height of 60 feet, forming a huge waterfall that thick fog envelops the tumult of the falls far warns mariners descended in canoes. It also notes the presence of some French settlers in the region. In 1695, the territory between Grand Falls and Médoctec was granted the manor in Sieur Rene D'Amours. The French missionaries, Récollets, visited Great Falls in 1691 and Antoine de Lamothe Cadillac mentioned the presence of a fort in 1693. The latter was used to supply the passengers, who became more numerous from the Seven Years' War.

In 1763, the region fully passed into British hands and its French population diminished due to the Expulsion of the Acadians. In 1783, the Loyalists settled in Acadia and the province of New Brunswick was created the next year. In 1785, the Acadians in Fredericton and nearby were evicted from their land and in June 1785, a group decided to establish the region of Grand Falls and the rest of Madawaska and this with the agreement of the Maliseet people.

In 1791, Thomas Carleton, then Governor of New Brunswick, built a fort at Grand Falls. The Madawaska region was then disputed between Quebec, New Brunswick and the United States. The War of 1812 showed that the area's roads were not safe and in 1875, the colonial government of New Brunswick decided to build a road from Woodstock to Grand Falls. In 1816, the government gave a grant to two settlers to settle between Grand Falls and Presque Isle. The territorial differences culminated in the Aroostook War in 1838 and Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842, gave Grand Falls to the province of New Brunswick. In 1838, James Brown and George Hayward visited Grand Falls and mentioned the presence of a sawmill owned by John Caldwell staffed by French Canadians and Acadians. In 1840, Lieutenant Cavalié Mercer, an Englishman stationed in Woodstock, made the first paintings of the city. In 1842, Grand Falls was included in Colebrook Township, named in honour of the Governor of New Brunswick, William MacBean George Colebrooke. The first survey was done for the British army in 1844 by the Deputy Gordon, while Colonel Beckwith designed the town plan. The survey was made from a large elm to the west, which has now disappeared. The lots were in turn divided into 1847 by the engineer C. Inches.

In 1904, Van Morrell, originally from the State of Maine, crossed the falls on a tightrope. The ring to which this rope was attached can still be found in O.B Davis Park

Geography
Grand Falls is located in the valley of the Saint John River, south of Madawaska, 55 kilometres southeast of Edmundston, on the Canada–United States border.

Grand Falls is located at the north-west of Victoria County. The eastern part of the town, located on the left bank of the river is actually in the county of Madawaska, not to be confused with the eponymous region. Aroostook County, Maine is located to the west. Grand Falls is adjacent to St. André to the north, and the parish of Drummond to the east.

Climate
Grand Falls has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with vast seasonal differences and being cold for the latitude.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Grand Falls had a population of $5,220$ living in $2,495$ of its $2,639$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $5,326$. With a land area of 18.04 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Religious make-up (2001)

Income (2015)

Mother tongue (2016)

Education (2016)

Grand Falls stands as the most bilingual town in Canada at 78.5% speaking English and French and is only one of two municipalities in Canada with an official bilingual name. The other is Greater Sudbury. (fr: Grand-Sudbury)

Economy
Three main industries reside in Grand Falls: potato farming, potato processing (The McCain frozen food plant) and tourism. The town is also a local commercial centre for Victoria County, catering to the surrounding communities of Plaster Rock, Perth Andover, Blue Bell, and New Denmark.

Tourism centres around the Saint John River’s falls and gorge located in the centre of town. Two tourist attractions line the river; the Malabeam Information Centre and La Rochelle. The Malabeam Centre faces the falls and is across the Grand Falls Farmers Market located on Madawaska Road. Through La Rochelle, you may access the 75-metre gorge via stairwell, which contains 401 steps. Near this location, you will find the Falls and Gorge Campground, which provides access to the Camel's back, an impressive rock formation. All of these sites can be visited by following a 1.6KM walking path with the option of a guided tour that can be scheduled with the Malabeam Information Centre.

The falls are also home to the Grand Falls Generating Station which provides electrical power by use of a hydro electric dam completed in 1931, and provides 66 MW of electricity through four Francis turbines.

Activities
Among the main activities located in Grand Falls, one can visit the Grand Falls Golf Course, the Grand Falls Marina, the Museum, the Farmer’s Market (summer), numerous camp grounds, and the Grand Falls Airport (www.grandfallsaviation.com). The town of Grand Falls has also acquired a new arena, the E & P Sénéchal Centre. The multi-purpose 1200+ heated seat arena opened in late August 2009. The town also has a cross-country ski club, Kahoutek Ski and Mountain Biking Club, with many kilometers of groomed trails adjacent to the Golf Club and the E.P. Senechal Centre.

There are many outdoor activities you can do in Grand Falls such as zip lining by the gorge and waterfalls, kayaking, canoeing, or boating along the Saint John river.

Most tourist-centric locations are only opened during the tourist season.

Culture
Every year the town celebrates its Regional Potato Festival. This event coincides with the end of June and beginning of July, during the Canada Day weekend. It includes a carnival, a Broadway block party, a bistro with live entertainment, the Miss Grand Falls Gala, fireworks, and several other events.

Education

 * John Caldwell School: K-12
 * École Polyvalente Thomas-Albert: Grade 7-12
 * École Élémentaire Sacré-Coeur: K-6
 * Centre of Excellence in Agricultural and Biotechnological Sciences (CESAB)
 * Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick (CCNB)
 * Grand Falls Public Library

The Grand Falls Public Library began as a small group of readers forming the Literary Club founded by Senator Muriel McQueen Fergusson. Members campaigned in 1948 to establish a formal library and the Grand Falls Public Library officially opened its doors for the first time on April 20, 1949. The library was housed in a small building located on Broadway Boulevard where now stands the Dari Delite Ice Cream Store and was once the old Post Office. In 1950, it then relocated further down the boulevard to the Anita Lagace building, which currently houses LP Godbout Insurance. In June 1972, the library moved a third time to the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission building. It also became incorporated into the Haut-Saint-Jean Library Region in the very same year. In August 1983, the library moved from Broadway Boulevard to the Masonic Hall on the corner of Sheriff and Church Street. Since January 1999, the Grand Falls Public Library has been located on Pleasant Street in the municipal building and it is still part of the Haut-Saint-Jean Library Region, one of the five regions of New Brunswick Public Library Service.

John Caldwell School's first building, a two-story structure, was built on the site of the John Caldwell School in 1909. In 1951, a brick building was built on the same lot. It housed the industrial shops, gymnasium and home economics facilities. It was named the Grand Falls Composite High School. A wing was built in 1966, and in 1969 the name was changed to the John Caldwell School. In 1982, the original wooden building was demolished leaving only the new structure. In 1971, the school became a Junior High School and in 1981 it became the Junior-Senior High School for the anglophone students of the area with Richard Michaud serving as principal from 1966 to 1991. Major expansion began in 1989 to include the English elementary students making it a K-12 facility. Kevin Harding is the current principal.

Media
Grand Falls is serviced by the French daily L'Acadie Nouvelle of Caraquet and the English-language daily Telegraph-Journal of Saint John. The weekly bilingual La Cataracte/Victoria Star is published in the town. The French bi-weekly publication Journal Le NordOuest is available on-line and distributed to more than 5000 members. The French weekly L'Étoile of Dieppe is also distributed, and Tri-Weekly Bugle-Observer and the weekly Carleton Free Press, both published in Woodstock.

Notable people

 * Gérard La Forest - former Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
 * Team Melissa McClure - 1998 Canadian Junior Curling and World Junior Curling Champions
 * Gerry 'Red' Ouellette - Canadian ice hockey player/coach
 * Ron Turcotte - Canadian jockey Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Champion with Secretariat.

title: Grand Falls, New Brunswick


text:
Polish Round Table Agreement

The Polish Round Table Talks took place in Warsaw, Poland from 6 February to 5 April 1989. The government initiated talks with the banned trade union Solidarność and other opposition groups in an attempt to defuse growing social unrest.

History
Following the factory strikes of the early 1980s and the subsequent formation of the (then still underground) Solidarity movement under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa, the political situation in Poland started relaxing somewhat. Despite an attempt by the government to crack down on trade unionism, the movement had gained too much momentum and it became impossible to hold off change anymore. In August 1988, the authorities of the Polish People’s Republic started a dialogue with the opposition under the influence of multiple internal and external factors. While the main reason were abundant social protests, lasting from May 1988 in different regions of Poland, the increasing crisis of the Polish economy, pressure of the Polish Catholic Church to begin negotiations with the opposition, support of the Western states for Solidarność, and simultaneous internal transformations of the USSR provoked by the politics of perestroika of Gorbaczev, ultimately decided about initiating the talks. Also the changes in the attitude of both ruling party and the opposition were vital to the process; the contemporary authorities knew that they need social permission to conduct required economic reforms, and for that reason they wanted to share the political responsibility with Solidarność, whereas the opposition prioritized the need to reorganize public life over continuation of resisting Polish United Workers Party (PZPR).

In September 1988, when a wave of strikes was coming to an end, a secret meeting was held which included Lech Wałęsa and Minister of Internal Affairs Czesław Kiszczak. They agreed on holding the so-called "Round Table" talks in the near future to plan out the course of action to be undertaken in the country. The Round Table talks began on 6 February 1989 at 14:23 CET. They included the "Solidarity" opposition side and the government (also referred to as the ruling coalition side, due to participation in the talks of PZPR's bloc parties, like United People's Party (ZSL), Alliance of Democrats (SD), and other PZPR-dependent organizations). The talks were held in the Council of Ministers Office. The meetings were co-chaired by Wałęsa and Kiszczak.

The Polish communists, led by General Jaruzelski, hoped to co-opt prominent opposition leaders into the ruling group without making major changes in the political power structure. In reality, the talks radically altered the shape of the Polish government and society. The events in Poland precipitated and gave momentum to the fall of the entire European communist bloc; the Yalta arrangement collapsed soon after the events in Poland.

Sessions
The sessions were divided into three main committees: Alongside main committees subcommittees and working groups were established:
 * Political reforms committee
 * Trade unions pluralism committee
 * Economy and social politics committee

 * Subcommittees:
 * Subcommittee on ecology
 * Subcommittee on mining
 * Subcommittee on housing policy
 * Subcommittee on youth affairs
 * Subcommittee on science, education and technical progress
 * Subcommittee on law and court reforms
 * Subcommittee on agriculture
 * Subcommittee on mass media
 * Subcommittee on associations and local government
 * Subcommittee on healthcare
 * Working groups:
 * Working group on wage and income indexation
 * Working group on property rights of trade unions
 * Working group on amending the Trade Union Act
 * Working group on local government
 * Working group on associations
 * Working group on assumptions for the draft act on the rights of certain employees to re-establish an employment relationship
 * Working group on the act on trade unions of individual farmers.

Specific issues were handled by these work groups, although meetings often ground to a halt. This was caused by a mutual distrust of the factions and an obvious unwillingness of the government faction to relinquish power. The most controversial questions were:
 * Pay raises and indexation
 * Future pluralist elections
 * The limit of the future president's competence
 * The limit of competence for the future parliament
 * The access to mass communication media by opposition forces

Main negotiators of the governing coalition and the opposition camp were chosen by their leaders; respectively Wojciech Jaruzelski (although he did not participate in the talks), Mieczysław Rakowski, Józef Czyrek and Stanisław Ciosek, and then Lech Wałęsa and Henryk Wujec. It is important to notice that both parties maintained a sense of high legitimacy during the conversations; Solidarność on the basis of representing the society and transparent informing the wider public about the course of the talks, whereas the authorities on the basis of holding the real power and belief that they still represent the interests of a vital part of the society. The most important topics of negotiations were future elections, the position of the president, Senate, practical reforms of the state’s structure, and bringing back free associations and unions.

A number of (radical) opposition organisations were quite opposed to the talks as they did not believe in the good intentions of the sitting government. Despite their fears a number of important documents were signed on 5 April, at the conclusion of the sessions. These documents became known as the Round Table Agreement.

Participants
Throughout talks almost 452 people participated in it. Many participants of the talks afterwards held important positions. Among them were three future presidents (Lech Wałęsa, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Lech Kaczyński), five prime ministers (Czesław Kiszczak, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Jan Olszewski, Leszek Miller, Jarosław Kaczyński), four deputy prime ministers, six marshals and deputy marshals of the Sejm and the Senate, over 75 ministers and deputy ministers, about 100 MPs and the First President of the Supreme Court (Adam Strzembosz).

== List of the plenary sessions participants ==

Ruling coalition:

 * Tomasz Adamczuk (ZSL)
 * Norbert Aleksiewicz (PZPR)
 * Stanisław Ciosek (PZPR)
 * Aleksander Gieysztor (independent)
 * Wiesław Gwiżdż (Polish Catholic and Social Association, PZKS)
 * Marek Hołdakowski (PZPR)
 * Jan Janowski (SD)
 * Janusz Jarliński (All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions, OPZZ)
 * Czesław Kiszczak (PZPR)
 * Zenon Komender (PAX Association)
 * Jan Karol Kostrzewski (independent)
 * Mikołaj Kozakiewicz (ZSL)
 * Bogdan Królewski (ZSL)
 * Aleksander Kwaśniewski (PZPR)
 * Maciej Manicki (OPZZ)
 * Harald Matuszewski (OPZZ)
 * Leszek Miller (PZPR)
 * Alfred Miodowicz (OPZZ)
 * Kazimierz Morawski (Christian Social Association, ChSS)
 * Jerzy Ozdowski (independent)
 * Anna Przecławska (independent)
 * Tadeusz Rączkiewicz (OPZZ)
 * Jan Rychlewski (PZPR)
 * Władysław Siła-Nowicki (Christian-Democratic Labour Party, ChDSP)
 * Zbigniew Sobotka (PZPR)
 * Romuald Sosnowski (OPZZ)
 * Stanisław Wiśniewski (OPZZ)
 * Jan Zaciura (PZPR)
 * Edward Zgłobicki (SD)

"Solidarity" opposition:

 * Stefan Bratkowski
 * Zbigniew Bujak
 * Władysław Findeisen
 * Władysław Frasyniuk
 * Bronisław Geremek
 * Mieczysław Gil
 * Aleksander Hall
 * Jacek Kuroń
 * Władysław Liwak
 * Tadeusz Mazowiecki
 * Jacek Merkel
 * Adam Michnik
 * Alojzy Pietrzyk
 * Edward Radziewicz
 * Henryk Samsonowicz
 * Grażyna Staniszewska
 * Andrzej Stelmachowski
 * Stanisław Stomma
 * Klemens Szaniawski
 * Jan Józef Szczepański
 * Edward Szwajkiewicz
 * Józef Ślisz
 * Witold Trzeciakowski
 * Jerzy Turowicz
 * Lech Wałęsa
 * Andrzej Wielowieyski

Church side observers

 * Bronisław Dembowski
 * Bishop of the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession Janusz Narzyński
 * Alojzy Orszulik

Spokemen

 * Janusz Onyszkiewicz (representing opposition)
 * Jerzy Urban (representing government)

Results
An agreement ("Round Table Agreement") was signed on 6 April 1989. The most important demands, including those reflected in the April Novelization, were:
 * Legalization of independent trade unions
 * The introduction of the office of President (thereby annulling the power of the Communist party general secretary), who would be elected to a 6-year term
 * The formation of a Senate

As a result, real political power was vested in a newly created bicameral legislature and in a president who would be the chief executive. Solidarność became a legitimate and legal political party. Free election to 35% of the seats in Sejm and an entirely free election to the Senate was assured.

The Round Table Agreement also brought more plurality in public media. It allowed for the creation of a first, fully independent journal ‘Gazeta Wyborcza’, whose first edition was published on the 8th of May, 1989. The politicians of the opposition were invited to the national public media, and the spots of Solidarność were released in public television. Simultaneously, Solidarność started to publish their own weekly newspaper ‘Tygodnik Solidarności’, whose editor-in-chief became Tadeusz Mazowiecki.

The election of 4 June 1989 brought a landslide victory to Solidarność: 99% of all the seats in the Senate and all of the 35% possible seats in Sejm. Jaruzelski, whose name was the only one the PZPR allowed on the ballot for the presidency, won by just one vote in the National Assembly. The 65–35 division was soon abolished as well, after the first truly free Sejm elections.

Criticism
Andrzej Gwiazda, who was one of the leaders of the so-called First Solidarity (August 1980 – December 1981), claims that the Round Table Agreement and the negotiations that took place before it at a Communist government's Ministry of the Interior and Administration (Poland) conference center (late 1988 and early 1989) in the village of Magdalenka had been arranged by Moscow. According to Gwiazda, who himself did not take part in the negotiations, the Soviets "carefully selected a group of opposition activists, who passed on as representatives of the whole [Polish] society, and made a deal with them".

This notion was supported by Anna Walentynowicz, who in an interview given in 2005 stated that the Agreement was a "success of the Communists, not of the nation". According to Walentynowicz, Czesław Kiszczak and Wojciech Jaruzelski, who initiated the negotiations, "safeguarded their own safety and (...) influence on the government". Walentynowicz claims that the talks were organized so that in the future, "no Communist criminal, murderer or thief would pay for their crimes".

Antoni Macierewicz regards the negotiations and the agreement as a "classic Soviet plot of the secret services". In his opinion, both Kiszczak and Jaruzelski were "at every stage controlled by their Soviet overseers (...) and their autonomy was minimal". As Macierewicz said in February 2009, the Round Table was a "tactical success of the parts of the elites, but from the point of view of national interests of Poland, it was a failure".

Piotr Bączek of Gazeta Polska weekly wrote that in the mid-1980s, the so-called Communist Team of three (Jerzy Urban, General Władysław Pożoga and Stanisław Ciosek), suggested that among opposition activists, "search for people, who are politically available" should be initiated, as "yesterday's opponent, drawn into the power, becomes a zealous ally". In June 1987 Mieczysław Rakowski, in a report handed to General Jaruzelski, wrote that a "change in the attitude towards the opposition must be initiated (...) Maybe, out of numerous oppositional fractions, one movement would be selected and allowed to participate in the governing", wrote Rakowski. Bączek's opinion is backed by Filip Musiał, a historian of Kraków's office of Institute of National Remembrance. In June 2008 Musiał stated that the Team of three was ordered to find a solution to a problem, which troubled Communist government of Poland. Economic situation of the country was worsening in the late 1980s, and the threat of social unrest was real. At the same time, the Communists did not want to relinquish power, so they prepared, in Musiał's words, "a political marketing operation".

Musiał says that General Czesław Kiszczak himself decided which oppositional activists were "politically available" – the condition was that the candidates had to be supportive of "evolution" of the system, not its "radical rejection". Therefore, most opposition activists, who took part in the negotiations, were those who at different points of their lives were close to the "Marxist doctrine" or belonged to the Communist party. Furthermore, all participants were carefully scrutinized by the secret services. As a result, Poland was "the first Eastern Europe country, in which talks were initiated, but the last, in which completely free elections were organized, in the fall of 1991". The first prime minister after this election, Jan Olszewski, said that "basic issues had been settled before [the talks], and the negotiations at the Round Table were about secondary matters".

title: Polish Round Table Agreement


text:
Pranayama

Pranayama (Sanskrit: प्राणायाम, "Prāṇāyāma") is the yogic practice of focusing on breath. In yoga, breath is associated with prana, thus, pranayama is a means to elevate the prana-shakti, or life energies. Pranayama is described in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Later in Hatha yoga texts, it meant the complete suspension of breathing. The pranayama practices in modern yoga as exercise are unlike those of the Hatha yoga tradition.

Etymology
Prāṇāyāma (Devanagari: प्राणायाम ) is a Sanskrit compound. It is defined variously by different authors.

Macdonell gives the etymology as prana (), breath, + āyāma and defines it as the suspension of breath.

Monier-Williams defines the compound ' as "of the three 'breath-exercises' performed during (See ', ', '".  This technical definition refers to a particular system of breath control with three processes as explained by Bhattacharyya: ' (to take the breath inside), ' (to retain it), and  (to discharge it). There are other processes of prāṇāyāma besides this three-step model.

V. S. Apte's definition of ' derives it from ' +  and provides several variant meanings for it when used in compounds. The first three meanings have to do with "length", "expansion, extension", and "stretching, extending", but in the specific case of use in the compound ' he defines ' as meaning "restrain, control, stopping".

Ramamurti Mishra gives the definition:

"Expansion of individual energy into cosmic energy is called ' (', energy +, expansion)."

Bhagavad Gītā
Pranayama is mentioned in verse 4.29 of the Bhagavad Gītā, which states "Still others, who are inclined to the process of breath restraint to remain in trance, practice by offering the movement of the outgoing breath into the incoming, and the incoming breath into the outgoing, and thus at last remain in trance, stopping all breathing. Others, curtailing the eating process, offer the outgoing breath into itself as a sacrifice."

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Pranayama is the fourth "limb" of the eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga, as mentioned in verse 2.29 of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali, a Rishi, discusses his specific approach to pranayama in verses 2.49 through 2.51, and devotes verses 2.52 and 2.53 to explaining the benefits of the practice. Patanjali does not fully elucidate the nature of prana, and the theory and practice of pranayama seem to have undergone significant development after him.

In verse 1.34, pranayama is introduced as a method aimed at stabilizing the mind. The practice involves two primary techniques: exhalation, known as pracchardana, which entails expelling air from the stomach through the nostrils, and retention, known as vidharana, which focuses on the controlled restraint of breath. Pranayama supports advanced practitioners in gaining control over the mind and complements meditation, aiding in achieving a light body and steady mind by regulating breath.

Yoga teachers including B. K. S. Iyengar have advised that pranayama should be part of an overall practice that includes the other limbs of Patanjali's Raja Yoga teachings, especially Yama, Niyama, and Asana.

Hatha yoga
The Indian tradition of Hatha yoga makes use of various pranayama techniques. The 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika is a key text of this tradition and includes various forms of pranayama such as Kumbhaka breath retention and various body locks (Bandhas). Other forms of pranayama breathing include the alternate nostril breathing of Nadi Shodhana, Ujjayi breath ("Victorious Breath"), Sitali (breathing through the rolled tongue), Bhastrika ("Bellows Breath"), Kapalabhati ("Skull-shining Breath", a Shatkarma purification), Surya Bhedana ("Sun-piercing Breath"), and the soothing Bhramari (buzzing like a bee). B. K. S. Iyengar cautions that pranayama should only be undertaken when one has a firmly established yoga practice and then only under the guidance of an experienced Guru.

According to Theos Bernard, the ultimate aim of pranayama is the suspension of breathing (kevala kumbhaka), "causing the mind to swoon". Paramahansa Yogananda writes, "The real meaning of Pranayama, according to Patanjali, the founder of Yoga philosophy, is the gradual cessation of breathing, the discontinuance of inhalation and exhalation".

Yoga as exercise
The yoga scholar Andrea Jain states that pranayama was "marginal to the most widely cited sources" before the 20th century, and that the breathing practices were "dramatically" unlike the modern ones. She writes that while pranayama in modern yoga as exercise consists of synchronising the breath with movements (between asanas), in texts like the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, pranayama meant "complete cessation of breathing", for which she cites Bronkhorst 2007.

Buddhism
According to the Pali Buddhist Canon, the Buddha prior to his enlightenment practiced a meditative technique which involved pressing the palate with the tongue and forcibly attempting to restrain the breath. This is described as both extremely painful and not conducive to enlightenment. In some Buddhist teachings or metaphors, breathing is said to stop with the fourth jhana, though this is a side-effect of the technique and does not come about as the result of purposeful effort.

The Buddha did incorporate moderate modulation of the length of breath as part of the preliminary tetrad in the Anapanasati Sutta. Its use there is preparation for concentration. According to commentarial literature, this is appropriate for beginners.

Indo-Tibetan tradition
Later Indo-Tibetan developments in Buddhist pranayama which are similar to Hindu forms can be seen as early as the 11th century, in the Buddhist text titled the Amṛtasiddhi, which teaches three bandhas in connection with yogic breathing (kumbakha).

Tibetan Buddhist breathing exercises such as the "nine breathings of purification" or the "Ninefold Expulsion of Stale Vital Energy" (rlung ro dgu shrugs), a form of alternate nostril breathing, commonly include visualizations. In the Nyingma tradition of Dzogchen these practices are collected in the textual cycle known as "The Oral Transmission of Vairotsana" (Vai ro snyan brgyud).

Effects
Yoga has positive effects on blood pressure, heart rate variability, and baroreflex sensitivity. In a systematic review of yoga breathing exercises and blood pressure, a moderate but statistically significant beneficial effect was found. A meta-analysis of "voluntary slow breathing", heart rate, and heart rate variability found that such breathing leads to an increase in the parasympathetic nervous control of the heart, and notes "By considering the importance of the parasympathetic nervous system for health-related issues, stimulating non-invasively the vagus nerve represents a valid target."

title: Pranayama


text:
Paley–Wiener theorem

In mathematics, a Paley–Wiener theorem is any theorem that relates decay properties of a function or distribution at infinity with analyticity of its Fourier transform. It is named after Raymond Paley (1907–1933) and Norbert Wiener (1894–1964) who, in 1934, introduced various versions of the theorem. The original theorems did not use the language of distributions, and instead applied to square-integrable functions. The first such theorem using distributions was due to Laurent Schwartz. These theorems heavily rely on the triangle inequality (to interchange the absolute value and integration).

The original work by Paley and Wiener is also used as a namesake in the fields of control theory and harmonic analysis; introducing the Paley–Wiener condition for spectral factorization and the Paley–Wiener criterion for non-harmonic Fourier series respectively. These are related mathematical concepts that place the decay properties of a function in context of stability problems.

Holomorphic Fourier transforms
The classical Paley–Wiener theorems make use of the holomorphic Fourier transform on classes of square-integrable functions supported on the real line. Formally, the idea is to take the integral defining the (inverse) Fourier transform

 * $$f(\zeta) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty F(x)e^{i x \zeta}\,dx$$

and allow $$\zeta$$ to be a complex number in the upper half-plane. One may then expect to differentiate under the integral in order to verify that the Cauchy–Riemann equations hold, and thus that $$f$$ defines an analytic function. However, this integral may not be well-defined, even for $$F$$ in $$L^2(\mathbb{R})$$; indeed, since $$\zeta$$ is in the upper half plane, the modulus of $$e^{ix\zeta}$$ grows exponentially as $$x \to -\infty$$; so differentiation under the integral sign is out of the question. One must impose further restrictions on $$F$$ in order to ensure that this integral is well-defined.

The first such restriction is that $$F$$ be supported on $$\mathbb{R}_+$$: that is, $$F\in L^2(\mathbb{R}_+)$$. The Paley–Wiener theorem now asserts the following: The holomorphic Fourier transform of $$F$$, defined by

 * $$f(\zeta) = \int_0^\infty F(x) e^{i x\zeta}\, dx$$

for $$\zeta$$ in the upper half-plane is a holomorphic function. Moreover, by Plancherel's theorem, one has

 * $$\int_{-\infty}^\infty \left |f(\xi+i\eta) \right|^2\, d\xi \le \int_0^\infty |F(x)|^2\, dx$$

and by dominated convergence,

 * $$\lim_{\eta\to 0^+}\int_{-\infty}^\infty \left|f(\xi+i\eta)-f(\xi) \right|^2\,d\xi = 0.$$

Conversely, if $$f$$ is a holomorphic function in the upper half-plane satisfying

 * $$\sup_{\eta>0} \int_{-\infty}^\infty \left |f(\xi+i\eta) \right|^2\,d\xi = C < \infty$$

then there exists $$F\in L^2(\mathbb{R}_+)$$ such that $$f$$ is the holomorphic Fourier transform of $$F$$.

In abstract terms, this version of the theorem explicitly describes the Hardy space $H^2(\mathbb{R})$. The theorem states that

 * $$ \mathcal{F}H^2(\mathbb{R})=L^2(\mathbb{R_+}).$$

This is a very useful result as it enables one to pass to the Fourier transform of a function in the Hardy space and perform calculations in the easily understood space $$L^2(\mathbb{R}_+)$$ of square-integrable functions supported on the positive axis.

By imposing the alternative restriction that $$F$$ be compactly supported, one obtains another Paley–Wiener theorem. Suppose that $$F$$ is supported in $$[-A,A]$$, so that $$F\in L^2(-A,A)$$. Then the holomorphic Fourier transform

 * $$f(\zeta) = \int_{-A}^A F(x)e^{i x\zeta}\,dx$$

is an entire function of exponential type $$A$$, meaning that there is a constant $$C$$ such that

 * $$|f(\zeta)|\le Ce^{A|\zeta|},$$

and moreover, $$f$$ is square-integrable over horizontal lines:

 * $$\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} |f(\xi+i\eta)|^2\,d\xi < \infty.$$

Conversely, any entire function of exponential type $$A$$ which is square-integrable over horizontal lines is the holomorphic Fourier transform of an $$L^2$$ function supported in $$[-A,A]$$.

Schwartz's Paley–Wiener theorem
Schwartz's Paley–Wiener theorem asserts that the Fourier transform of a distribution of compact support on $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ is an entire function on $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ and gives estimates on its growth at infinity. It was proven by Laurent Schwartz (1952). The formulation presented here is from.

Generally, the Fourier transform can be defined for any tempered distribution; moreover, any distribution of compact support $$v$$ is a tempered distribution. If $$v$$ is a distribution of compact support and $$f$$ is an infinitely differentiable function, the expression

 * $$ v(f) = v(x\mapsto f(x)) $$

is well defined.

It can be shown that the Fourier transform of $$v$$ is a function (as opposed to a general tempered distribution) given at the value $$s$$ by

 * $$ \hat{v}(s) = (2 \pi)^{-\frac{n}{2}} v\left(x\mapsto e^{-i \langle x, s\rangle}\right)$$

and that this function can be extended to values of $$s$$ in the complex space $$\mathbb{C}^n$$. This extension of the Fourier transform to the complex domain is called the Fourier–Laplace transform.

$$

Additional growth conditions on the entire function $$F$$ impose regularity properties on the distribution $$v$$. For instance:

$$

Sharper results giving good control over the singular support of $$v$$ have been formulated by. In particular, let $$K$$ be a convex compact set in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ with supporting function $$H$$, defined by

 * $$H(x) = \sup_{y\in K} \langle x,y\rangle.$$

Then the singular support of $$v$$ is contained in $$K$$ if and only if there is a constant $$N$$ and sequence of constants $$C_m$$ such that

 * $$|\hat{v}(\zeta)| \le C_m(1+|\zeta|)^Ne^{H(\mathrm{Im}(\zeta))}$$

for $$|\mathrm{Im}(\zeta)| \le m \log(| \zeta |+1).$$

title: Paley–Wiener theorem


text:
Blues rock

Blues rock is a fusion genre and form of rock music that relies on the chords/scales and instrumental improvisation of blues. It is mostly an electric ensemble-style music with instrumentation similar to electric blues and rock (electric guitar, electric bass guitar, and drums, sometimes with keyboards and harmonica). From its beginnings in the early to mid-1960s, blues rock has gone through several stylistic shifts and along the way it inspired and influenced hard rock, Southern rock, and early heavy metal.

Blues rock started with rock musicians in the United Kingdom and the United States performing American blues songs. They typically recreated electric Chicago blues songs, such as those by Willie Dixon, Muddy Waters, and Jimmy Reed, at faster tempos and with a more aggressive sound common to rock. In the UK, the style was popularized by groups such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals, who put several blues songs into the pop charts. In the US, Lonnie Mack, the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, and Canned Heat were among the earliest exponents. Some of these bands also played long, involved improvisations as were then commonplace on jazz records. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the style became more hard rock-oriented. In the US, Johnny Winter, the early Allman Brothers Band, and ZZ Top represented a hard rock trend, along with Led Zeppelin, Ten Years After, Savoy Brown, and Foghat in the UK.

In the 1980s, more traditional blues styles influenced blues rock, which continues into the 2000s, with more of a return to basics. Along with hard rock, blues rock songs became the core of the music played on album-oriented rock radio in the United States, and later the classic rock format established there during the 1980s.

Characteristics
Blues rock can be characterized by bluesy improvisation, extended boogie jams typically focused on electric guitar solos, and often a heavier, riff-oriented sound and feel to the songs than found in typical Chicago-style blues. Blues rock bands "borrow[ed] the idea of an instrumental combo and loud amplification from rock & roll". It is also often played at a fast tempo, again distinguishing it from the blues.

Blues rock songs often follow typical blues structures, such as twelve-bar blues, sixteen-bar blues, etc. They also use the I-IV-V progression, though there are exceptions, some pieces having a "B" section, while others remain on the I. The Allman Brothers Band's version of "Stormy Monday", which uses chord substitutions based on Bobby "Blue" Bland's 1961 rendition, adds a solo section where "the rhythm shifts effortlessly into an uptempo 6/8-time jazz feel". The key is usually major, but can also be minor, such as in "Black Magic Woman".

One notable difference is the frequent use of a straight eighth-note or rock rhythm instead of triplets usually found in blues. An example is Cream's "Crossroads". Although it was adapted from Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues", the bass "combines with drums to create and continually emphasize continuity in the regular metric drive".

1960s–1970s

Rock music uses driving rhythms and electric guitar techniques such as distortion and power chords already used by 1950s electric blues guitarists, particularly Memphis bluesmen such as Joe Hill Louis, Willie Johnson and Pat Hare. Characteristics that blues rock adopted from electric blues include its dense texture, basic blues band instrumentation, rough declamatory vocal style, heavy guitar riffs, string-bending blues-scale guitar solos, strong beat, thick riff-laden texture, and posturing performances. Precursors to blues rock included the Chicago blues musicians Elmore James, Albert King, and Freddie King, who began incorporating rock and roll elements into their blues music during the late 1950s to early 1960s.

1963 marked the appearance of American rock guitar soloist Lonnie Mack, whose idiosyncratic, fast-paced electric blues guitar style came to be identified with the advent of blues rock as a distinct genre. His instrumentals from that period were recognizable as blues or rhythm and blues tunes, but he relied heavily upon fast-picking techniques derived from traditional American country and bluegrass genres. The best-known of these are the 1963 Billboard hit singles "Memphis" and "Wham!". Around the same time, the Paul Butterfield Blues Band was formed. Fronted by blues harp player and singer Paul Butterfield, it included two members from Howlin' Wolf's touring band, bassist Jerome Arnold and drummer Sam Lay, and later two electric guitarists, Mike Bloomfield and Elvin Bishop. In 1965, its debut album, The Paul Butterfield Blues Band was released. AllMusic's Michael Erlewine commented, "Used to hearing blues covered by groups like the Rolling Stones, that first album had an enormous impact on young (and primarily White) rock players." The second album East West (1966) introduced extended soloing – the 13 minute instrumental title track included jazz and Indian raga influences – that served as a model for psychedelic and acid rock. In 1965, avid blues collectors Bob Hite and Alan Wilson formed Canned Heat. Their early recordings focused heavily on electric versions of Delta blues songs, but soon began exploring long musical improvisations ("jams") built around John Lee Hooker songs. Other popular mid-1960s groups, such as the Doors and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, also adapted songs by blues artists to include elements of rock. Butterfield, Canned Heat, and Joplin performed at the Monterey (1967) and Woodstock (1969) festivals.

In the UK, several musicians honed their skills in a handful of British blues bands, primarily those of Cyril Davies and Alexis Korner. While the early British rhythm and blues groups, such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals, incorporated American R&B, rock and roll, and pop, John Mayall took a more distinctly electric blues approach. In 1966, he released Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton, the first of several influential blues rock albums. When Eric Clapton left Mayall to form Cream, they created a hybrid style with blues, rock, and jazz improvisation, which was the most innovative to date. British band Fleetwood Mac initially played traditionally-oriented electric blues, but soon evolved. Their guitarist Peter Green, who was Clapton's replacement with Mayall, brought many innovations to their music. Chicken Shack, early Jethro Tull, Keef Hartley Band and Climax Blues Band recorded blues rock songs.

The electric guitar playing of Jimi Hendrix (a veteran of many American rhythm and blues and soul groups from the early-mid-1960s) and his power trios, the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Band of Gypsys, had a broad and lasting influence on the development of blues rock, especially for guitarists. Clapton continued to explore several musical styles and contributed to bringing blues rock into the mainstream. In the late 1960s, Jeff Beck, with his band the Jeff Beck Group, developed blues rock into a form of heavy rock. Jimmy Page, who replaced Beck in the Yardbirds, followed suit with Led Zeppelin and became a major force in the 1970s heavy metal scene. Other blues rock musicians in the 1970s include Dr. Feelgood, Rory Gallagher and Robin Trower.

Beginning in the early 1970s, American bands such as Aerosmith fused blues with a hard rock edge. Blues rock grew to include Southern rock bands, like the Allman Brothers Band, ZZ Top and Lynyrd Skynyrd, while the British scene, except for the advent of groups such as Status Quo and Foghat, became focused on heavy metal innovation.

1980s–present
While blues rock and hard rock shared many similarities in the early 1970s, more traditional blues styles influenced blues rock in the 1980s, when the Fabulous Thunderbirds, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Georgia Satellites and Robert Cray recorded their best-known works, and the 1990s, which saw guitarists Gary Moore, Jeff Healey, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd become popular concert attractions. Female blues singers such as Bonnie Raitt, Susan Tedeschi, Sue Foley, Joanne Shaw Taylor and Shannon Curfman recorded blues rock albums.

Groups such as the Jon Spencer Blues Explosion and the White Stripes brought an edgier, more diverse style into the 2000s, while the Black Keys returned to basics. Gary Clark Jr., known for his fusing of blues, rock and soul, has been classified as a blues rock artist, with Rolling Stone's Jonathan Bernstein referring to Clark's albums Blak and Blu (2012) and The Story of Sonny Boy Slim (2015) as "steeped in a sleek, modern blues-rock production style".

Formed in 2017, Bulls of Prey is a successful Hungarian band in this genre.

title: Blues rock


text:
Animal World (short story collection)

Animal World (Spanish original title: Mundo animal, 1953) is a collection of short stories written by Antonio di Benedetto, with hallucinatory animal transformations by the internationally acknowledged Argentine master.

Summary
Written in conversational and even intentionally awkward language, they present a confused and troubled narrator, who, tormented by mysterious gnawings of guilt, becomes involved in some obscure way with an animal or whole group of animals. They invade his soul, drive him to rage or deliver him from his obsession. Often the story hinges on a pun, a distorted folktale, or an illogical association. While not spectacular in itself, each story adds to the preceding to create a growing sense of doom. Thus story by story the reader becomes ensnared in a horrifying, hallucinatory realm of associations.

Editions

 * Translated from Spanish by H. E. Francis, with an Afterword by Jorge García-Gómez. Grand Terrace, CA: Xenos Books. ISBN 978-1-879378-17-9 (paper), 138 p. [With cover art by Peter Zokosky.]

title: Animal World (short story collection)


text:
Martensitic stainless steel

Martensitic stainless steel is a type of stainless steel alloy that has a martensite crystal structure. It can be hardened and tempered through aging and heat treatment. The other main types of stainless steel are austenitic, ferritic, duplex, and precipitation hardened.

History
In 1912, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times. Brearly applied for a U.S. patent during 1915. This was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in 1929 in London.

The characteristic body-centered tetragonal martensite microstructure was first observed by German microscopist Adolf Martens around 1890. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a U.S. patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy. This patent was not granted until 1919.

Overview
Martensitic stainless steels can be high- or low-carbon steels built around the composition of iron, 12% up to 17% chromium, carbon from 0.10% (Type 410) up to 1.2% (Type 440C):
 * Up to about 0.4%C they are used mostly for their mechanical properties in applications such as pumps, valves, and shafts.
 * Above 0.4%C they are used mostly for their wear resistance, such as in cutlery surgical blades, plastic injection molds, and nozzles.

They may contain some Ni (Type 431) which allows a higher Cr and/or Mo content, thereby improving corrosion resistance and as the carbon content is also lower, the toughness is improved. Grade EN 1.4313 (CA6NM) with a low C, 13%Cr and 4%Ni offers good mechanical properties, good castability, and good weldability. It is used for nearly all the hydroelectric turbines in the world, including those of the huge "Three Gorges" dam in China.

Additions of B, Co, Nb, Ti improve the high temperature properties, particularly creep resistance. This is used for heat exchangers in steam turbines.

A specific grade is Type 630 (also called 17-4 PH) which is martensitic and hardens by precipitation at 475 C.

Chemical compositions
There are many proprietary grades not listed in the standards, particularly for cutlery.

Mechanical Properties
They are hardenable by heat treatment (specifically by quenching and stress relieving, or by quenching and tempering (referred to as QT). The alloy composition, and the high cooling rate of quenching enable the formation of martensite.  Untempered martensite is low in toughness and therefore brittle.Tempered martensite gives steel good hardness and high toughness as can be seen below; used largely for medical tools (scalpels, razors and internal clamps).  In the heat treatment column, QT refers to Quenched and Tempered, P refers to Precipitation hardened

Processing
When formability, softness, etc. are required in fabrication, steel having 0.12% maximum carbon is often used in soft condition. With increasing carbon, it is possible by hardening and tempering to obtain tensile strength in the range of 600 to 900 MPa, combined with reasonable toughness and ductility. In this condition, these steels find many useful general applications where mild corrosion resistance is required. Also, with the higher carbon range in the hardened and lightly tempered condition, tensile strength of about 1600 MPa may be developed with lowered ductility.

A common example of a Martensitic stainless steel is X46Cr13.

Martensitic stainless steel can be nondestructively tested using the magnetic particle inspection method, unlike austenitic stainless steel.

Applications
Martensitic stainless steels, depending upon their carbon content are often used for their corrosion resistance and high strength in pumps, valves, and boat shafts.

They are also used for their wear resistance in, cutlery, medical tools (scalpels, razors and internal clamps), ball bearings, razor blades, injection molds for polymers, and brake disks for bicycles and motorbikes.

title: Martensitic stainless steel


text:
James Young (chemist)

James Young FRS FRSE FCS DL LLD (13 July 1811 – 13 May 1883) was a Scottish chemist best known for his method of distilling paraffin from coal and oil shales. He is often referred to as Paraffin Young.

Life
James Young was born in Shuttle Street in the Drygate area of Glasgow, the son of John Young, a cabinetmaker and joiner, and his wife Jean Wilson.

He became his father's apprentice at an early age, but educated himself at night school, attending evening classes in Chemistry at the nearby Anderson's College (now Strathclyde University) from the age of 19. At Anderson's College he met Thomas Graham, who had just been appointed as a lecturer on chemistry. In 1831 Young was appointed as Graham's assistant and occasionally took some of his lectures. While at Anderson's College he also met and befriended the explorer David Livingstone; this friendship continued until Livingstone's death in Africa many years later.

On 21 August 1838 he married Mary Young of Paisley middle parish; in 1839 they moved to Lancashire.

He died at Kelly House at Wemyss Bay in western Scotland on 13 May 1883. He is buried in Inverkip churchyard.

Career
In Young's first scientific paper, dated 4 January 1837, he described a modification of a voltaic battery invented by Michael Faraday. Later that same year he moved with Graham to University College, London where he helped him with experimental work.

Chemicals
In 1839 Young was appointed manager at James Muspratt's chemical works Newton-le-Willows, near St Helens, Merseyside, and in 1844 to Tennants, Clow & Co. at Manchester, for whom he devised a method of making sodium stannate directly from cassiterite.

Potato blight
In 1845 he served on a committee of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society for the investigation of potato blight, and suggested immersing the potatoes in dilute sulphuric acid as a means of combatting the disease; he was not elected a member of the Society until 19 October 1847. Finding the Manchester Guardian newspaper insufficiently liberal, he also began a movement for the establishment of the Manchester Examiner newspaper which was first published in 1846.

Oils
In 1847 Young had his attention called to a natural petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery.

In 1848 Young left Tennants', and in partnership with his friend and assistant Edward Meldrum, set up a small business refining the crude oil. The new oils were successful, but the supply of oil from the coal mine soon began to fail (eventually being exhausted in 1851). Young, noticing that the oil was dripping from the sandstone roof of the coal mine, theorised that it somehow originated from the action of heat on the coal seam and from this thought that it might be produced artificially.

Following up this idea, he tried many experiments and eventually succeeded in producing, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.

Patents
The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, lamosite, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856.

In 1852 Young left Manchester to live in Scotland and that same year took out a US patent for the production of paraffin oil by distillation of coal. Both the US and UK patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties. Torbanite was exceptionally rich, yielding 537 litres of petroleum spirit per tonne but it was a finite resource, which was completely exhausted by 1862. Geological surveys at the time showed the potential for similar sedimentary deposits in West Lothian, leading to the discovery of oil shales at Broxburn in 1858. The oil shales were less rich, typically yielding 150-180 litres per tonne, but the discovery meant that Young could extend his operations to West Lothian.

Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company

In 1865 Young bought out his business partners and built second and larger works at Addiewell, near West Calder. It was a substantial industrial complex, in its time one of the largest chemical works in Scotland. In 1866 Young sold the concern to Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company. Although Young remained in the company, he took no active part in it, instead withdrawing from business to occupy himself with yachting, travelling, scientific pursuits, and looking after the estates which he had purchased.

The company continued to grow and expanded its operations, selling paraffin oil and paraffin lamps all over the world and earning for its founder the nickname "Paraffin" Young. Addiewell remained the centre of operations for Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Co. Ltd.. By the 1900s nearly 2 million tons of shale were being extracted annually, employing 4,000 men. The West Lothian oil-shale industry peaked in around 1892 operating 120 oil shale works, but the end was approaching. Retorting the oil shale was energy intensive and expensive. Cheaper free-flowing petroleum from Russia and later the USA, effectively priced oil shales out of the market, causing the industry to almost collapse by 1919, long after Young himself had died. Young's refinery closed around 1921.

Other work

 * During the height of enthusiasm for the Volunteer movement, Young formed the 4th Linlithgowshire Rifle Volunteer Corps at Bathgate on 9 August 1862, mainly from employees of his chemical works, with Young himself as Captain in command until 1865. It later became D Company of the 8th Volunteer Battalion, Royal Scots.
 * Young made significant discoveries in rustproofing ships in 1872, which were later adopted by the Royal Navy. Noticing that bilge water was acidic, he suggested that quicklime could be used to prevent it corroding iron ships.
 * Young worked with Professor George Forbes on the speed of light around 1880, using an improved version of Hippolyte Fizeau's method.

Honours

 * In 1847 Young was elected to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
 * In 1861 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. (proposed by Lyon Playfair)
 * From 1868–1877 he was President of Anderson's College and founded the Young Chair of Technical Chemistry at the College.
 * In 1873 Young was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
 * In 1879 he was awarded an honorary doctorate (LLD) from St. Andrews University.
 * From 1879–1881 he was Vice-President of the Chemical Society.

Retirement and death
Young's wife died on 6 April 1868, and by 1871 he had moved with his children to Kelly House, near Wemyss Bay in the district of Inverkip. The 1881 census record shows him living with his son and daughter at this estate. Young died at the age of 71 in his home on 16 May 1883, in the presence of his son James. He was buried at Inverkip churchyard.

Legacy

 * Statues of his old professor, Thomas Graham, and of his fellow student and lifelong friend, David Livingstone, which stand respectively in George Square, Glasgow, and at Glasgow Cathedral, were erected by him.
 * From 1855 James 'Paraffin' Young lived at Limefield House, Polbeth. A sycamore tree which Livingstone planted in 1864 is still flourishing in the grounds of Limefield House.  There too one can see a miniature version of the "Victoria Falls", which the missionary discovered in the mid-19th century.  It was built, as a tribute to Livingstone, by Young on the little stream which runs through the estate.
 * Young had a lifelong friendship with David Livingstone, whom he had met at Anderson's College. He gave generously towards the expenses of Livingstone's African expeditions, and contributed to a search expedition, which proved too late to find Livingstone alive. He also had Livingstone's servants brought to England, and presented to Glasgow a statue to his memory, which was erected in George Square, Glasgow.
 * The James Young High School in Livingston, the streets James Young Road in Bathgate and James Young Avenue in Uphall Station, and the James Young Halls at the University of Strathclyde are all named after him.
 * In 2011 he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame.

title: James Young (chemist)


text:
Round Table Talks

The Round Table Talks were a series of negotiations that took place in several countries of the Eastern Bloc between Communists and the opposition. They were a key component in the collapse of the Communist regimes and the smooth transition to democracy.

 * The Polish Round Table Talks, February-April 1989
 * The Hungarian Round Table Talks, March-September 1989
 * The Czechoslovak Round Table Talks, November-December 1989
 * The East German Round Table Talks, December 1989-March 1990
 * The Bulgarian Round Table Talks, January-May 1990

Also:

 * The Congolese Round Table Talks, 1960

title: Round Table Talks


text: Talk:Money (Pink Floyd song)

title: Talk:Money (Pink Floyd song)


text:
Hevea brasiliensis

Hevea brasiliensis, the Pará rubber tree, sharinga tree, seringueira, or most commonly, rubber tree or rubber plant, is a flowering plant belonging to the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, originally native to the Amazon basin, but is now pantropical in distribution due to introductions. It is the most economically important member of the genus Hevea because the milky latex extracted from the tree is the primary source of natural rubber.

Description
Hevea brasiliensis is a tall deciduous tree growing to a height of up to 43 m in the wild. Cultivated trees are usually much smaller because drawing off the latex restricts their growth. The trunk is cylindrical and may have a swollen, bottle-shaped base. The bark is some shade of brown, and the inner bark oozes latex when damaged. The leaves have three leaflets and are spirally arranged. The inflorescences include separate male and female flowers. The flowers are pungent, creamy-yellow and have no petals. The fruit is a capsule that contains three large seeds; it opens explosively when ripe.

Rubber tree plantation

In the wild the tree can reach a height of up to 43 m. The white or yellow latex occurs in latex vessels in the bark, mostly outside the phloem. These vessels spiral up the tree in a right-handed helix which forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the horizontal, and can grow as high as 15 m.

In plantations the trees are generally smaller for two reasons: 1) trees grow more slowly when they are tapped for latex, and 2) trees are generally cut down after only 30 years, because latex production declines as trees age, and they are no longer economically productive. The tree requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of about 1,200 mm per year of rainfall, and no frost. If frost does occur, the results can be disastrous for production. One frost can cause the rubber from an entire plantation to become brittle and break once it has been refined.

Latex tapping
The rubber tree takes between seven and ten years to deliver the first harvest. Harvesters make incisions across the latex vessels, just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the latex is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Latex production is highly variable from tree to tree and across clone types.

Wood harvesting
As latex production declines with age, rubber trees are generally felled when they reach the age of 25 to 30 years. The earlier practice was to burn the trees, but in recent decades, the wood has been harvested for furniture making.

History
The South American rubber tree grew only in the Amazon rainforest, and increasing demand and the discovery of the vulcanization procedure in 1839 led to the rubber boom in that region, enriching the cities of Belém, Santarém, and Manaus in Brazil and Iquitos, Peru, from 1840 to 1913. In Brazil, before the name was changed to 'Seringueira' the initial name of the plant was 'pará rubber tree', derived from the name of the province of Grão-Pará. In Peru, the tree was called 'árbol del caucho', and the latex extracted from it was called 'caucho'. The tree was used to obtain rubber by the natives who inhabited its geographical distribution. The Olmec people of Mesoamerica extracted and produced similar forms of primitive rubber from analogous latex-producing trees such as Castilla elastica as early as 3,600 years ago. The rubber was used, among other things, to make the balls used in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Early attempts were made in 1873 to grow H. brasiliensis outside Brazil. After some effort, 12 seedlings were germinated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. These were sent to India for cultivation, but died. A second attempt was then made, some 70,000 seeds being smuggled to Kew in 1875, by Henry Wickham, in the service of the British Empire. About four percent of these germinated, and in 1876, about 2,000 seedlings were sent, in Wardian cases, to Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) and 22 were sent to the botanic gardens in Singapore.

Once established outside its native country, rubber was extensively propagated in the British colonies. Rubber trees were brought to the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg, Java, in 1883. By 1898, a rubber plantation had been established in Malaya, with imported Chinese field workers being the dominant work force in rubber production in the early 20th-century.

The cultivation of the tree in South America (Amazon) ended early in the 20th century because of indigenous blights that targeted the rubber tree. The blight, called South American leaf blight, is caused by the ascomycete Pseudocercospora ulei, also called Microcyclus ulei, or Dothidella ulei, which is endemic to the Amazon Basin. The blight was considered one of the five most aggressive diseases in commercial crops in South America. Rubber production then moved to parts of the world where it is not indigenous, and therefore not affected by local plant diseases. Today, most rubber tree plantations are in South and Southeast Asia, the top rubber producing countries in 2011 being Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Vietnam.

Environmental concerns
The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi has led to the heavy use of arsenic trioxide on rubber plantations, especially in Malaysia.

The majority of the rubber trees in Southeast Asia are clones of varieties highly susceptible to the South American leaf blight—Pseudocercospora ulei. For these reasons, environmental historian Charles C. Mann, in his 2011 book, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created, predicted that the Southeast Asian rubber plantations will be ravaged by the blight in the not-too-distant future, thus creating a potential calamity for international industry.

Secondary metabolites
Hevea brasiliensis produces cyanogenic glycosides (CGs) as a defense, concentrated in the seeds. (Although effective against other attackers, cyanogenic glycosides are not very effective against fungal pathogens. In rare cases, they are even detrimental. This is the case for the rubber tree, which actually suffers worse from Pseudocercospora ulei when it produces more cyanogenic glycosides. This may be because cyanide inhibits the production of other defensive metabolites. This results in significantly divergent subpopulations with selection for or against cyanogenic glycosides, depending on local likelihoods of fungal or non-fungal pest pressure.) The carbon and nitrogen in CGs are recycled for growth and latex production if needed, and the ease of doing so makes them an attractive nitrogen store - especially if the plant is light-deprived and storage in photosynthesis proteins would thus be unhelpful. The α-hydroxynitriles are likely contained in the cytoplasm. Linamarin is hydrolyzed by an accompanying linamarase, a β-glycosidase. Hevea brasiliensis linamarase does act upon linamarin because it is a monoglucoside, while it does not for linustatin because it is a diglucoside - in fact, the production of lovastatin inhibits linamarase cleavage of linamarin. This allows intra-plant, post-synthesis transport of linustatin without risking premature cleavage.

title: Hevea brasiliensis


text:
Ciao! Manhattan

'Ciao! Manhattan' is a 1972 American avant garde film starring Edie Sedgwick. A scripted drama in which most of the actors play themselves, it centers on a character very closely based on Sedgwick and deals with the pain of addiction and the lure of fame.

Overview
Written and directed by John Palmer and David Weisman, ''Ciao! Manhattan'' is the semi-biographical tale of 1960s counterculture icon Edie Sedgwick. The film follows young Susan Superstar (Sedgwick) through her tumultuous party years in Manhattan as one of Warhol's Superstars. Through actual audio recordings of Sedgwick's account of her time in Warhol's Factory in New York City, paired with clips from the original unfinished script started in 1967, Ciao! captures the complete deterioration of Sedgwick's fictional alter-ego. The striking similarities between Sedgwick and Susan's life story, especially when recounted by Sedgwick in the midst of drug-induced audio interviews, make the film's candid depiction of excess and celebrity especially haunting. The film is dedicated to the memory of Sedgwick and ends with the headlines announcing Sedgwick's (not Susan Superstar's) death, thus inseparably associating the fictional and the genuine figure.

Production
Production of ''Ciao! Manhattan'' began on March 26, 1967 as a project of Factory regulars John Palmer, David Weisman, Genevieve Charbin, Chuck Wein, Bob Margouleff, Gino Piserchio, with supplemental roles and tasks fulfilled by various other hangers-on. The film originally followed the excessively hip lives of Midtown scenesters Sedgwick and fellow Warhol Superstar Paul America as they lived life in the fast lane (literally speeding down the West Side Highway on massive amounts of amphetamine).

The project was riddled with budget problems and an unfinished, nonsensical script of debauchery, drug use and paranoia. Unreliable actors and rampant drug abuse behind the camera pushed shooting out of control as both Sedgwick and America went missing, putting production on hold. With barely any direction and no end in sight, the film's backers, Bob Margouleff's parents, lost faith in their son's project, and Palmer and Weisman were left with the fragments of an unpresentable film. To salvage these fragments, Palmer and Weisman decided to reshape the script to include the previously shot footage as flashback sequences to tell Sedgwick's tragic story through the persona of Susan Superstar.

In December 1970, they resumed filming on the dilapidated "Lucky" Baldwin estate in Arcadia, California. For a month, they shot Susan recounting her past through the dazed euphoria of perpetual substance abuse. The shooting lasted only a month and in 1971, Ciao! finally went into post-production. However, the excitement of the film's near completion was short-lived due to Sedgwick's death from acute barbiturate intoxication.

''Ciao! Manhattan'' was finally completed on May 25, 1972 and had its premiere in Amsterdam in July 1972 to critical acclaim, due in part to Sedgwick's onscreen presence and representation of a culture that she helped to define. The successful screenings continued in London, Germany, France, San Diego, Denver, and Tempe, Arizona, but then the film disappeared for nearly a decade until interest in Edie Sedgwick was sparked again by the best-selling book Edie: An American Biography by George Plimpton and Jean Stein in 1982.

DVD release on 30th anniversary
In the years since its original release, ''Ciao! Manhattan'' has become a cult classic, due in large part to the film being Edie Sedgwick's last starring vehicle. On July 19, 2002, exactly 30 years after its world premiere in Amsterdam, Ciao! opened at New York's Cinema Village. In October 2002, Plexifilm released a special edition DVD with additional 35mm outtake footage, rare pictures and interviews with the cast and crew of the film.

Soundtrack
On April 22, 2017, Light in the Attic Records released the film's official soundtrack on their Cinewax imprint, for the occasion of Record Store Day. The first vinyl pressing was limited to 3,000 copies, and it contains the prominent songs featured in the film (by Richie Havens, John Phillips, Kim Milford, and the duo of Skip Battin and Kim Fowley), in addition to most of the incidental electronic music performed by Gino Piserchio. Before this release, the film's soundtrack never had been released in any form. A CD version of the soundtrack is also available.

title: Ciao! Manhattan