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Talk:Winifred Burkle

Fred's Birth Date
--64.151.11.117 14:25, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)FRED!!

Where does the 1978 year of birth for Fred come from? It seems unlikely given that she was well into her physics studies when she was sucked into Pylea. Secretcurse 18:20, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

Season 6
CaveatLector removed unverified text:

"If there would had been a sixth season, it is believed that Willow would had arrived and used her powerful magic to bring Fred back to life, since she was killed by mystical forces."

If anyone finds a verifiable source that could be referenced it could be put back in the article. -- Buffyverse 02:35, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

However Its stated that fred soul was consumed by Ilyria, she was gone that was stated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.105.156.116 (talk) 22:19, August 27, 2007 (UTC)

 * They do allude to the possibility of restoring her through temporal manipulation, however. Does anyone know if that quote has a verified source? Onikage725 18:16, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

Picture
The picture of Amy Acker doesn't really seem to be "Fred"... the look is totally different. If I knew how to I'd get a better picture, but alas I'm wikiretarded. Can somebody fix? 70.176.240.53 17:59, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

http://www.moviepropking.com/ANGEL_S5_D1-2.jpg Here she is in a lab coat.

 * I'd recommend establishing a new image in the next 7 days to replace the current non-Fred one. I've tagged it as unsourced, which will probably result in its deletion, especially as the uploader seems to be a serial unsourced-image uploader. If uploading an image, please remember to identify the source from which you obtained it in additional to selecting an appropriate license tag. Don't just rip it off from some other website. ~ Jeff Q (talk) 02:12, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

I updated the picture... Hope it's good enough ;) --213.200.165.75 18:58, 24 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The picture needs to be changed... It's not a bad Fred picture, but it's way too dark to see clearly.--74.171.62.47 16:12, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I've fixed it, but as I have no account and really can't be bothered with remembering yet another password just for something of this low importance, I can't upload; if anyone with an account can do so for me, it's at http://img256.imageshack.us/img256/4679/amyackerwinifredburklerfj3.jpg --- brightness had to be increased by 400% until the levels looked right. Also tweaked the gamma value for better PC display. Didn't sharpen it though, as it's still supposed to be 'low resolution' :) 82.46.180.56 (talk) 20:45, 18 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The picture of Fred is outta sight! No, seriously it is literally out-of-sight, I can't see it.  The picture is too dark and it needs to be replaced.

 * 72.82.209.113 (talk) 10:17, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

 * It's even more out-of-sight now! It seems to have been regarded as inappropriate (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Files_for_deletion/2009_April_2#WinifredBurkle.jpg). Should we replace it with another picture of Amy Acker as Fred, use the picture of Amy Acker on her wiki page, or just not bother with a picure at all? AliasMe (talk) 08:14, 21 April 2009 (UTC)

Romance
"*Willow Rosenberg, Fred showed admiration for the strong confident Willow, with whom she shared many characteristics, being the socially awkward scientist. Eventually, Willow had to tell her she already had a girlfriend, much to Fred's confusion."

I removed the above section of text from the romantic relationships catagroey, neither Fred nor Willow felt any romantic attraction to the other, it was simply a humorous miscommunication. JBK405 07:28, 9 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Someone put it back, so I've removed it again. This does not belong in the Romantic Relationship discussion, JBK hit it right on the money.  Willow's initial curiosity was brief and not enough to warrant inclusion in this category.  Please discuss here before adding again to see what the consensus is.  CPitt76 15:44, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

Willow doesn't belong in the Romantic Relationships section. Fred never expressed romantic interest in Willow at all. And there was a whopping one line of dialog that implied Willow's possible interest in Fred. Putting "More of a joke than anything" in the entry doesn't make it's inclusion warranted. Please discuss here before putting it in again. CPitt76 01:38, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

It's back again, and it just looks awkward and out of place. I'm removing it again, since the consensus here (albeit old) seems to be that it does not belong. If there's a disagreement, let's revisit what current consensus is. For the record, here's what I'm removing: "Willow Rosenberg — Though not necessarily a romantic relationship, in "Orpheus", Willow mistakes Fred's peculiar behavior and over-excitability, for flirting. These awkward moments are dismissed when Willow tells Fred "I'm seeing someone", to which Fred gives a befuddled look. " Jclemens (talk) 01:47, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Date in LA
In the "Hole in the World" dialogue, Fred states that she's going to the graduate physics program at UCLA. That would imply that she already had an undergraduate degee before she left Texas. That would put her age when we first meet her in Pylea at perhaps 27: 18 typical high school + 4 undergraduate + "X" years in grad school - "Y" years of accelerated schooling + 5 years in Pylea. Jclemens 17:18, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

Last appearance
Why did somebody change the last appearens to "A Hole in the World)"? Yes, she died in that episode, but Fred appeared afterwards as a form of Illyria.

It's like changing Jenny Calendars last appearens from "Amends" where she appeared as a form of the first evil to "Passion" just because she died in that episode.

It's like changing Cassie Newtons last appearens from "Conversations with dead people" where she appeared as a form of the first evil to "Help" because she died in that episode.

Do you see where I'm going with this? Fred appeared in the Series Finale of Angel as a form of Illyria, so don't change it again! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 213.200.165.75 (talk) 17:29, 22 January 2007 (UTC).

She only assumes her form, a shapeshifter is not that person, i'm sorry but that wasn't jenny it was the first, if you don't understand a character is defined by who they are not who they look like, she wasn't fred, she was Ilyria thats why she lies to Wes, in his death scene. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.105.156.116 (talk) 22:23, August 27, 2007 (UTC)

 * Arguably, Fred's technical last appearance would be "Shells," as the episode ends with a flashback of her leaving her home in Texas. I'm not changing the article right now, but it's something to consider. Otherwise, since how much "Fredness" is left in Illyria is up to interpretation, it's probably wise to leave the last appearance as it is. DeathQuaker (talk) 14:32, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Actually, given the recent publication of After the Fall #5, I'm changing it to there for two reasons. First, it's clear from the reveal that Illyria is not in conscious control of the Fred manifestation. Second, the "Jenny Calendar" entry has been listed as Amends for well over a year. Jclemens (talk) 20:54, 30 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Given the appearances in Angel: After the Fall #5 and #6, I'm still in favor of her being listed as last appearing in AtF #5. I suppose #9 will resolve that question, but if there's general consensus that AtF #5 constitutes a legitimate appearance of Fred, my preference would be to list #5 as her last appearance until #9 comes out.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jclemens (talk • contribs) 00:09, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

Romance
The romantic relationships section is full of original research and redundancy and irrelevancies. Lots42 (talk) 05:40, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Winifred Burkle


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Sidney Coleman

Sidney Richard Coleman (7 March 1937 – 18 November 2007) was an American theoretical physicist noted for his research in high-energy physics.

Life and work
Sidney Coleman grew up on the Far North Side of Chicago. In 1957, he received his undergraduate degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology physics department.

Coleman received his Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology in 1962, where he was advised by Murray Gell-Mann. He moved to Harvard University that year, where he spent his entire career, meeting his wife Diana there in the late 1970s. They were married in 1982.

"He was a giant in a peculiar sense, because he's not known to the general populace," Nobel laureate Sheldon Glashow told the Boston Globe. "He's not a Stephen Hawking; he has virtually no visibility outside. But within the community of theoretical physicists, he's kind of a major god. He is the physicist's physicist."

In 1966, Antonino Zichichi recruited Coleman as a lecturer at the then-new summer school at International School for Subnuclear Physics in Erice, Sicily. A legendary figure at the school throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Coleman was awarded the title "Best Lecturer" on the occasion of the school's fifteenth anniversary (1979). His explanation of spontaneous symmetry breaking in terms of a little man living inside a ferromagnet has often been cited by later popularizers. The classic particle physics text Aspects of Symmetry (1985) is a collection of Coleman's lectures at Erice. A quote from his introduction to the book is worth sharing here: "I first came to Erice in 1966, to lecture at the fourth of the annual schools on subnuclear physics organized by Nino Zichichi. I was charmed by the beauty of Erice, fascinated by the thick layers of Sicilian culture and history, and terrified by the iron rule with which Nino kept the students and faculty in line. In a word, I was won over, and I returned to Erice every year or two thereafter, to talk of what was past, or passing, or to come, at least insofar as it touched on subnuclear theory…These lectures span fourteen years, from 1966 to 1979. This was a great time to be a high-energy theorist, the period of the famous triumph of quantum field theory. And what a triumph it was, in the old sense of the word: a glorious victory parade, full of wonderful things brought back from far places to make the spectator gasp with awe and laugh with joy. I hope some of that awe and joy has been captured here."

Coleman's lectures at Harvard were legendary. Students in one quantum field theory course created T-shirts bearing his image and a collection of his more noted quotations, among them: "Not only God knows, I know, and by the end of the semester, you will know." Despite this acclaim, he did not generally enjoy teaching or mentoring graduate students:

"I hate [teaching]. You do it as part of the job. Well, that's of course false ... or maybe more true than false when I say I hate it. ... But I certainly would be just as happy if I had no graduate students. ... Occasionally there is a graduate student who is a joy to collaborate with. Both David Politzer and Erick Weinberg were of this kind, but they were essentially almost mature physicists. They were very bright by the time they came to me. In general, working with a graduate student is like teaching a course. It's tedious, unpleasant work. A pain in the neck. You do it because you're paid to do it. If I weren't paid to do it I certainly would never do it."

In 1989, Coleman was awarded the NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing from the National Academy of Sciences. That award praised his "lucid, insightful, and influential reviews on partially conserved currents, gauge theories, instantons, and magnetic monopoles—subjects fundamental to theoretical physics." In 2005, Harvard University's physics department held the "SidneyFest", a conference on quantum field theory and quantum chromodynamics, organized in his honor.

Aside from his academic work, Coleman was a prominent science fiction enthusiast. He was one of the founders of Advent: Publishers and occasionally reviewed genre books for The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction.

He died after a long struggle with Lewy body disease.

Contributions to physics
Some of his best known works are
 * Bosonization
 * Coleman–Mandula theorem
 * Tadpoles
 * Coleman theorem
 * Equivalence of the Thirring model and the quantum sine-Gordon equation
 * Semiclassical analysis of the fate of a false vacuum
 * Coleman–Weinberg potential
 * Q-balls in the thin-wall limit
 * Lectures at Erice, some of which are preserved in his book Aspects of Symmetry (review and teaching)

Famous quotes

 * "In order to know the truth, it is necessary to imagine a thousand falsehoods."
 * "Quantum gravity is notoriously a subject where problems vastly outnumber results."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sidney Coleman


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Tadpole (physics)

In quantum field theory, a tadpole is a one-loop Feynman diagram with one external leg, giving a contribution to a one-point correlation function (i.e., the field's vacuum expectation value). One-loop diagrams with a propagator that connects back to its originating vertex are often also referred as tadpoles. For many massless theories, these graphs vanish in dimensional regularization (by dimensional analysis and the absence of any inherent mass scale in the loop integral). Tadpole corrections are needed if the corresponding external field has a non-zero vacuum expectation value, such as the Higgs field.

Tadpole diagrams were first used in the 1960s. An early example was published by Abdus Salam in 1961, though he did not take credit for the name. Physicists Sidney Coleman and Sheldon Glashow made an influential use of tadpole diagrams to explain symmetry breaking in the strong interaction in 1964.

In 1985 Coleman stated (perhaps as a joke) that Physical Review’s editors rejected the originally proposed name "spermion".

title: Tadpole (physics)


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User talk:Old Nol

Welcome
Hello Old Nol, welcome to Wikipedia.

Thanks for all the good work that you've been doing with China-related articles - especially the important but unglamorous cleaning up like your NPOVing of Yaohua High School.

You might find some of these links helpful in editing pages or creating new ones: How to edit a page, Tutorial, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should probably read our policies at some point too.

But don't feel you have to read every policy document before you do anything. Dive in, be bold in editing, and if you do anything wrong, someone will be quick to correct it and let you know (hopefully, politely!)

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Again, welcome! --   ALargeElk | Talk 14:33, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the encouragement.

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:16, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Old Nol


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Correlation function (quantum field theory)

In quantum field theory, correlation functions, often referred to as correlators or Green's functions, are vacuum expectation values of time-ordered products of field operators. They are a key object of study in quantum field theory where they can be used to calculate various observables such as S-matrix elements. They are closely related to correlation functions between random variables, although they are nonetheless different objects, being defined in Minkowski spacetime and on quantum operators.

Definition
For a scalar field theory with a single field $$\phi(x)$$ and a vacuum state $$|\Omega\rangle$$ at every event (x) in spacetime, the n-point correlation function is the vacuum expectation value of the time-ordered products of $$n$$ field operators in the Heisenberg picture $$ G_n(x_1,\dots, x_n) = \langle \Omega|T\{\mathcal \phi(x_1)\dots \mathcal \phi(x_n)\}|\Omega\rangle. $$

Here $$T\{\cdots \}$$ is the time-ordering operator for which orders the field operators so that earlier time field operators appear to the right of later time field operators. By transforming the fields and states into the interaction picture, this is rewritten as $$ G_n(x_1, \dots, x_n) = \frac{\langle 0|T\{\phi(x_1)\dots \phi(x_n)e^{iS[\phi]}\}|0\rangle}{\langle 0|e^{i S[\phi]}|0\rangle}, $$ where $$|0\rangle$$ is the ground state of the free theory and $$S[\phi]$$ is the action. Expanding $$e^{iS[\phi]}$$ using its Taylor series, the n-point correlation function becomes a sum of interaction picture correlation functions which can be evaluated using Wick's theorem. A diagrammatic way to represent the resulting sum is via Feynman diagrams, where each term can be evaluated using the position space Feynman rules.

The series of diagrams arising from $$\langle 0|e^{iS[\phi]}|0\rangle$$ is the set of all vacuum bubble diagrams, which are diagrams with no external legs. Meanwhile, $$\langle 0|\phi(x_1)\dots \phi(x_n)e^{iS[\phi]}|0\rangle$$ is given by the set of all possible diagrams with exactly $$n$$ external legs. Since this also includes disconnected diagrams with vacuum bubbles, the sum factorizes into "(sum over all bubble diagrams)$\times$(sum of all diagrams with no bubbles)."The first term then cancels with the normalization factor in the denominator meaning that the n-point correlation function is the sum of all Feynman diagrams excluding vacuum bubbles $$ G_n(x_1, \dots, x_n) = \langle 0|T\{\phi(x_1) \dots \phi(x_n)e^{iS[\phi]}\}|0\rangle_{\text{no bubbles}}. $$

While not including any vacuum bubbles, the sum does include disconnected diagrams, which are diagrams where at least one external leg is not connected to all other external legs through some connected path. Excluding these disconnected diagrams instead defines connected n-point correlation functions $$ G_n^c(x_1, \dots, x_n) = \langle 0| T\{\phi(x_1)\dots \phi(x_n) e^{iS[\phi]}\}|0\rangle_{\text{connected, no bubbles}} $$

It is often preferable to work directly with these as they contain all the information that the full correlation functions contain since any disconnected diagram is merely a product of connected diagrams. By excluding other sets of diagrams one can define other correlation functions such as one-particle irreducible correlation functions.

In the path integral formulation, n-point correlation functions are written as a functional average $$ G_n(x_1, \dots, x_n) = \frac{\int \mathcal D \phi \ \phi(x_1) \dots \phi(x_n) e^{iS[\phi]}}{\int \mathcal D \phi \ e^{iS[\phi]}}. $$

They can be evaluated using the partition functional $$Z[J]$$ which acts as a generating functional, with $$J$$ being a source-term, for the correlation functions $$ G_n(x_1, \dots, x_n) = (-i)^n \frac{1}{Z[J]} \left.\frac{\delta^n Z[J]}{\delta J(x_1) \dots \delta J(x_n)}\right|_{J=0}. $$

Similarly, connected correlation functions can be generated using $$W[J] = -i \ln Z[J]$$ as $$ G_n^c(x_1, \dots, x_n) = (-i)^{n-1} \left.\frac{\delta^n W[J]}{\delta J(x_1) \dots \delta J(x_n)}\right|_{J=0}. $$

Relation to the S-matrix
Scattering amplitudes can be calculated using correlation functions by relating them to the S-matrix through the LSZ reduction formula $$ \langle f|S|i\rangle = \left[i \int d^4 x_1 e^{-ip_1 x_1} \left(\partial^2_{x_1} + m^2\right)\right]\cdots \left[i \int d^4 x_n e^{ip_n x_n} \left(\partial_{x_n}^2 + m^2\right)\right] \langle \Omega |T\{\phi(x_1)\dots \phi(x_n)\}|\Omega\rangle. $$

Here the particles in the initial state $$|i\rangle$$ have a $$-i$$ sign in the exponential, while the particles in the final state $$|f\rangle$$ have a $$+i$$. All terms in the Feynman diagram expansion of the correlation function will have one propagator for each external leg, that is a propagators with one end at $$x_i$$ and the other at some internal vertex $$x$$. The significance of this formula becomes clear after the application of the Klein–Gordon operators to these external legs using $$ \left(\partial^2_{x_i} + m^2\right)\Delta_F(x_i,x) = -i\delta^4(x_i-x). $$

This is said to amputate the diagrams by removing the external leg propagators and putting the external states on-shell. All other off-shell contributions from the correlation function vanish. After integrating the resulting delta functions, what will remain of the LSZ reduction formula is merely a Fourier transformation operation where the integration is over the internal point positions $$x$$ that the external leg propagators were attached to. In this form the reduction formula shows that the S-matrix is the Fourier transform of the amputated correlation functions with on-shell external states.

It is common to directly deal with the momentum space correlation function $$\tilde G(q_1, \dots, q_n)$$, defined through the Fourier transformation of the correlation function $$ (2\pi)^4 \delta^{(4)}(q_1+\cdots + q_n) \tilde G_n(q_1, \dots, q_n) = \int d^4 x_1 \dots d^4 x_n \left(\prod^n_{i=1} e^{-i q_i x_i}\right) G_n(x_1, \dots, x_n), $$ where by convention the momenta are directed inwards into the diagram. A useful quantity to calculate when calculating scattering amplitudes is the matrix element $$\mathcal M$$ which is defined from the S-matrix via $$\langle f| S - 1 |i\rangle = i(2\pi)^4 \delta^4{\bigg(\sum_i p_i\bigg)} \mathcal M$$ where $$p_i$$ are the external momenta. From the LSZ reduction formula it then follows that the matrix element is equivalent to the amputated connected momentum space correlation function with properly orientated external momenta $$ i \mathcal M = \tilde G_n^c(p_1, \dots, -p_n)_{\text{amputated}}. $$

For non-scalar theories the reduction formula also introduces external state terms such as polarization vectors for photons or spinor states for fermions. The requirement of using the connected correlation functions arises from the cluster decomposition because scattering processes that occur at large separations do not interfere with each other so can be treated separately.


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Andrew Taylor Still

Andrew Taylor Still (August 6, 1828 – December 12, 1917) was the founder of osteopathic medicine. He was also a physician and surgeon, author, inventor and Kansas territorial and state legislator. He was one of the founders of Baker University, the oldest four-year college in the state of Kansas, and was the founder of the American School of Osteopathy (now A.T. Still University), the world's first osteopathic medical school, in Kirksville, Missouri.

Early life and interests
Still was the son of a Methodist minister and physician. At an early age, Still decided to follow in his father's footsteps as a physician. After studying medicine and serving an apprenticeship under his father, he entered the Civil War. He served as a hospital steward assigned to Company F of the Cass County Home Guard of the Missouri Cavalry (Union), but later stated in his autobiography that he served as a "de facto surgeon."

At the time, the hospital stewards of the Army had many responsibilities, including maintaining hospital stores, furniture, and supplies for the sick. Since pharmacists were not provided for the hospitals, the hospital stewards also filled prescriptions, and when the medical officers were not present, they took care of the patients. Hospital Stewards were sometimes rewarded with promotions to surgeon or assistant surgeon.

In his autobiography, Still says he served in the Civil War in Company F of the 9th Kansas Cavalry. His military service record for the Missouri regiment says that his company was transferred to the 9th Kansas Infantry, not cavalry, but that the transfer was made "without proper authority." The judge advocate general then orders that these men not be given credit for this unauthorized service.

After the Civil War and following the death of his wife, three of his children, and an adopted child from spinal meningitis in 1864, Still concluded that the orthodox medical practices of his day were frequently ineffective and sometimes harmful. The use of Calomel, also known as mercury chloride, was one such medical practice Still took particular issue with. At the time, there were no standardized dosages for the drug so practitioners of heroic medicine would often deliver dosages that were too large, resulting in mercury poisoning. Still devoted the next thirty years of his life to studying the human body and finding alternative ways to treat disease; his methods involved meticulous anatomical dissection to discover its structure and, therefore, function. This involved exhuming corpses which, while controversial, was a widespread practice among many medical schools in the United States and abroad during that time. During this period, he completed a short course in medicine at the new College of Physicians and Surgeons in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1870.

Still adopted the ideas of spiritualism sometime around 1867, and it "held a prominent and lasting place in his thinking."

Kansas territorial and state legislator
Still was active in the abolition movement and a friend and ally of the Free State leaders John Brown and James H. Lane. He became deeply embroiled in the fight over whether Kansas would be admitted to the Union as a slave state or a free state. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 provided that the settlers in those two territories would decide the question for themselves. Civil war raged in Kansas as both sides tried to gain control of the territorial government. In October 1857, Still was elected to represent Douglas and Johnson counties in the Kansas territorial legislature. Still and his brothers took up arms in the cause and participated in the Bleeding Kansas battles (between the pro and anti-slavery citizens). By August 1858, a free-state constitution had been passed; Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state on January 29, 1861.

Inventor and patents
Still was fascinated by machines, and whenever faced with a mechanical problem, his answer was always to devise a better approach. In the 1870s, he patented an improved butter churn. He made improvements to a mowing machine designed to harvest wheat and hay, but before a patent could be submitted, his idea was stolen by a visiting sales representative from the Wood Mowing Machine Co. In 1910, he patented a smokeless furnace burner but had "some difficulty producing a full-sized working model. Heartbroken after his wife, Mary Elvira's, death in May 1910, he did not have the will to pursue the matter further, and the invention was never successfully marketed."

Baker University
Still and his family were among the founders of Baker University in Baldwin City in 1858, the first four-year university in the state of Kansas. Still was involved in selecting the location for the site of Baker University's first building. Along with his brother, Still donated 640 acres of land for the university campus. While maintaining his medical practice, where he treated patients afflicted with small-pox and cholera, Still spent five years building the facilities.

Osteopathy

Still believed that osteopathy was a necessary discovery because the current medical practices of his day often caused significant harm and conventional medicine had failed to shed light on the etiology and effective treatment of disease. At the time Still practiced as a physician, medications, surgery and other traditional therapeutic regimens often caused more harm than good. Some of the medicines commonly given to patients during this time were arsenic, castor oil, whiskey and opium. Additionally, unsanitary surgical practices often resulted in more deaths than cures.

Still sought to reform existing 19th-century medical practices. Still investigated alternative treatments, such as hydropathy, diet, bonesetting, and magnetic healing. Still found appeal in the relatively tame side effects of those modalities and imagined that someday "rational medical therapy" would consist of manipulation of the musculoskeletal system, surgery and very sparing use of drugs, including anesthetics, antiseptics and antidotes. He invented the name osteopathy by blending two Greek roots osteon- for bone and -pathos for suffering in order to communicate his theory that disease and physiologic dysfunction were etiologically grounded in a disordered musculoskeletal system. Thus, by diagnosing and treating the musculoskeletal system, he believed that physicians could treat a variety of diseases and spare patients the negative side-effects of drugs.

Still founded the first school of osteopathy based on this new approach to medicine - the school was called the American School of Osteopathy (now A.T. Still University) in Kirksville, Missouri, in 1892.

Still was also one of the first physicians to promote the idea of preventive medicine and the philosophy that physicians should focus on treating the disease rather than just the symptoms.

Still defined osteopathy as: "that science which consists of such exact, exhaustive, and verifiable knowledge of the structure and function of the human mechanism, anatomical, physiological and psychological, including the chemistry and physics of its known elements, as has made discoverable certain organic laws and remedial resources, within the body itself, by which nature under the scientific treatment peculiar to osteopathic practice, apart from all ordinary methods of extraneous, artificial, or medicinal stimulation, and in harmonious accord with its own mechanical principles, molecular activities, and metabolic processes, may recover from displacements, disorganizations, derangements, and consequent disease, and regained its normal equilibrium of form and function in health and strength."

In a 1907 interview by the Topeka Daily Capital newspaper, A.T. Still's son, Charles Still, D.O., described his father's philosophy that the body would operate smoothly into old age, if properly maintained and that every living organism possessed the ability to produce all the necessary chemicals and materials to cure itself of ailments.

Publications
Still published four books during his life. His first book, published in 1897, was entitled Autobiography of Andrew Taylor Still with a History of the Discovery and Development of the Science of Osteopathy. A revised edition of the book was re-published in 1908 after a fire damaged the original printing plates. In 1899, Still published his second book, Philosophy of Osteopathy.

Still published his third book, The Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of Osteopathy, with publication date 1902, and copyright date 1892. He published Osteopathy Research and Practice, his fourth and final book in 1910.

title: Andrew Taylor Still


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Quantum vacuum state

In quantum field theory, the quantum vacuum state (also called the quantum vacuum or vacuum state) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles. The term zero-point field is sometimes used as a synonym for the vacuum state of a quantized field which is completely individual.

According to present-day understanding of what is called the vacuum state or the quantum vacuum, it is "by no means a simple empty space". According to quantum mechanics, the vacuum state is not truly empty but instead contains fleeting electromagnetic waves and particles that pop into and out of the quantum field.

The QED vacuum of quantum electrodynamics (or QED) was the first vacuum of quantum field theory to be developed. QED originated in the 1930s, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s, it was reformulated by Feynman, Tomonaga, and Schwinger, who jointly received the Nobel prize for this work in 1965. Today, the electromagnetic interactions and the weak interactions are unified (at very high energies only) in the theory of the electroweak interaction.

The Standard Model is a generalization of the QED work to include all the known elementary particles and their interactions (except gravity). Quantum chromodynamics (or QCD) is the portion of the Standard Model that deals with strong interactions, and QCD vacuum is the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics. It is the object of study in the Large Hadron Collider and the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, and is related to the so-called vacuum structure of strong interactions.

Non-zero expectation value

If the quantum field theory can be accurately described through perturbation theory, then the properties of the vacuum are analogous to the properties of the ground state of a quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator, or more accurately, the ground state of a measurement problem. In this case, the vacuum expectation value (VEV) of any field operator vanishes. For quantum field theories in which perturbation theory breaks down at low energies (for example, Quantum chromodynamics or the BCS theory of superconductivity), field operators may have non-vanishing vacuum expectation values called condensates. In the Standard Model, the non-zero vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field, arising from spontaneous symmetry breaking, is the mechanism by which the other fields in the theory acquire mass.

Energy
The vacuum state is associated with a zero-point energy, and this zero-point energy (equivalent to the lowest possible energy state) has measurable effects. It may be detected as the Casimir effect in the laboratory. In physical cosmology, the energy of the cosmological vacuum appears as the cosmological constant. The energy of a cubic centimeter of empty space has been calculated figuratively to be one trillionth of an erg (or 0.6 eV). An outstanding requirement imposed on a potential Theory of Everything is that the energy of the quantum vacuum state must explain the physically observed cosmological constant.

Symmetry
For a relativistic field theory, the vacuum is Poincaré invariant, which follows from Wightman axioms but can also be proved directly without these axioms. Poincaré invariance implies that only scalar combinations of field operators have non-vanishing VEV's. The VEV may break some of the internal symmetries of the Lagrangian of the field theory. In this case, the vacuum has less symmetry than the theory allows, and one says that spontaneous symmetry breaking has occurred. See Higgs mechanism, standard model.

Non-linear permittivity
Quantum corrections to Maxwell's equations are expected to result in a tiny nonlinear electric polarization term in the vacuum, resulting in a field-dependent electrical permittivity ε deviating from the nominal value ε0 of vacuum permittivity. These theoretical developments are described, for example, in Dittrich and Gies. The theory of quantum electrodynamics predicts that the QED vacuum should exhibit a slight nonlinearity so that in the presence of a very strong electric field, the permittivity is increased by a tiny amount with respect to ε0. Subject to ongoing experimental efforts is the possibility that a strong electric field would modify the effective permeability of free space, becoming anisotropic with a value slightly below  μ0 in the direction of the electric field and slightly exceeding   μ0 in the perpendicular direction. The quantum vacuum exposed to an electric field exhibits birefringence for an electromagnetic wave traveling in a direction other than the electric field. The effect is similar to the Kerr effect but without matter being present. This tiny nonlinearity can be interpreted in terms of virtual pair production A characteristic electric field strength for which the nonlinearities become sizable is predicted to be enormous, about $$1.32 \times 10^{18}$$V/m, known as the Schwinger limit; the equivalent Kerr constant has been estimated, being about 1020 times smaller than the Kerr constant of water. Explanations for dichroism from particle physics, outside quantum electrodynamics, also have been proposed. Experimentally measuring such an effect is challenging, and has not yet been successful.

Virtual particles
The presence of virtual particles can be rigorously based upon the non-commutation of the quantized electromagnetic fields. Non-commutation means that although the average values of the fields vanish in a quantum vacuum, their variances do not. The term "vacuum fluctuations" refers to the variance of the field strength in the minimal energy state, and is described picturesquely as evidence of "virtual particles". It is sometimes attempted to provide an intuitive picture of virtual particles, or variances, based upon the Heisenberg energy-time uncertainty principle: $$\Delta E \Delta t \ge \frac{\hbar}{2} \,, $$ (with ΔE and Δt being the energy and time variations respectively; ΔE is the accuracy in the measurement of energy and Δt is the time taken in the measurement, and $ħ$ is the Reduced Planck constant) arguing along the lines that the short lifetime of virtual particles allows the "borrowing" of large energies from the vacuum and thus permits particle generation for short times. Although the phenomenon of virtual particles is accepted, this interpretation of the energy-time uncertainty relation is not universal. One issue is the use of an uncertainty relation limiting measurement accuracy as though a time uncertainty Δt determines a "budget" for borrowing energy ΔE. Another issue is the meaning of "time" in this relation because energy and time (unlike position $q$ and momentum $p$, for example) do not satisfy a canonical commutation relation (such as $[q, p] = i ħ$). Various schemes have been advanced to construct an observable that has some kind of time interpretation, and yet does satisfy a canonical commutation relation with energy. Many approaches to the energy-time uncertainty principle are a long and continuing subject.

Physical nature of the quantum vacuum
According to Astrid Lambrecht (2002): "When one empties out a space of all matter and lowers the temperature to absolute zero, one produces in a Gedankenexperiment [thought experiment] the quantum vacuum state." According to Fowler & Guggenheim (1939/1965), the third law of thermodynamics may be precisely enunciated as follows: "It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce any assembly to the absolute zero in a finite number of operations. (See also. )"

Photon-photon interaction can occur only through interaction with the vacuum state of some other field, such as the Dirac electron-positron vacuum field; this is associated with the concept of vacuum polarization. According to Milonni (1994): "... all quantum fields have zero-point energies and vacuum fluctuations." This means that there is a component of the quantum vacuum respectively for each component field (considered in the conceptual absence of the other fields), such as the electromagnetic field, the Dirac electron-positron field, and so on. According to Milonni (1994), some of the effects attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field can have several physical interpretations, some more conventional than others. The Casimir attraction between uncharged conductive plates is often proposed as an example of an effect of the vacuum electromagnetic field. Schwinger, DeRaad, and Milton (1978) are cited by Milonni (1994) as validly, though unconventionally, explaining the Casimir effect with a model in which "the vacuum is regarded as truly a state with all physical properties equal to zero." In this model, the observed phenomena are explained as the effects of the electron motions on the electromagnetic field, called the source field effect. Milonni writes:

"The basic idea here will be that the Casimir force may be derived from the source fields alone even in completely conventional QED, ... Milonni provides detailed argument that the measurable physical effects usually attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field cannot be explained by that field alone, but require in addition a contribution from the self-energy of the electrons, or their radiation reaction. He writes: 'The radiation reaction and the vacuum fields are two aspects of the same thing when it comes to physical interpretations of various QED processes including the Lamb shift, van der Waals forces, and Casimir effects.'"

This point of view is also stated by Jaffe (2005): "The Casimir force can be calculated without reference to vacuum fluctuations, and like all other observable effects in QED, it vanishes as the fine structure constant, $α$, goes to zero."

Notations
The vacuum state is written as $$|0\rangle$$ or $$|\rangle$$. The vacuum expectation value (see also Expectation value) of any field $$\phi$$ should be written as $$\langle0|\phi|0\rangle$$.

title: Quantum vacuum state


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Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar

Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (14 March 1742 – 17 June 1797), also known by his regnal name of Agha Mohammad Shah (آغا محمد شاه, ), was the founder of the Qajar dynasty of Iran, ruling from 1789 to 1797 as Shah. Originally a chieftain of the Quwanlu branch of the Qajar tribe, Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned as the king of Iran in 1789, but was not officially crowned until March 1796, having deposed Lotf Ali Khan of the Zand dynasty in 1794. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar was famously the eunuch Monarch, being castrated as a toddler upon his capture by Adel Shah Afshar, and hence was childless. He was assassinated on 17 June 1797, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar.

Agha Mohammad Khan's reign is noted for the return of a centralized and unified Iran and for relocating the capital to Tehran, where it still stands today. He is noted for his cruel and rapacious behavior, particularly during his Georgia and Kerman campaigns. However, he is also viewed as a pragmatic, calculating, and shrewd military and political leader.

Family and youth
Agha Mohammad Khan was born in Astarabad around 1742. He belonged to the Quwanlu (also spelled Qawanlu) branch of the Qajar tribe. The Qajars were one of the original Turkoman Qizilbash tribes that emerged and spread in Asia Minor around the tenth and eleventh centuries. They later supplied power to the Safavids since the dynasty's earliest days. The tribe had several other branches, one of the most prominent ones being the Develu, which often fought against the Quwanlu. Agha Mohammad Khan was the eldest son of the chieftain of the Quwanlu clan, Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar, and the grandson of Fath-Ali Khan Qajar, a prominent aristocrat executed by the orders of Shah Tahmasp II (possibly compelled by Nader Qoli Beg, who came to be known as Nader Shah after usurping the throne of Iran in 1736, marking the foundation of the Afsharid dynasty). Agha Mohammad Khan had several half-brothers and full-brothers: Hossein Qoli Khan, Morteza Qoli Khan, Mostafa Qoli Khan, Reza Qoli Khan, Jafar Qoli Khan, Mehdi Qoli Khan, Abbas Qoli Khan and Ali Qoli Khan.

When Nader Shah died in 1747, the Afsharid rule of Iran fell apart, which gave Mohammad Hasan an opportunity to seize Astarabad for himself, leading Nader Shah's nephew Adel Shah to march from Mashhad to the city in order to capture him. Although he failed to capture Hasan, Adel Shah managed to capture Agha Mohammad Khan, whom he planned to kill. He later chose to spare Agha Mohammad Khan's life and instead had him castrated and thereafter freed. While the common spelling of "Agha" (آقا) is usually used as a title roughly translated to "Sir" or "Mister", Agha Mohammad Khan's title is differently spelled (آغا), which is a common one among eunuchs who served at the court.

Death of Mohammad Hasan
During the following ten years, Afsharid rule in Khorasan suffered heavily from war among rival chieftains and from invasions by the Durrani ruler of Qandahar, Ahmad Shah Durrani. During this period, Mohammad Hasan fought against the Pashtun military leader Azad Khan Afghan and the Zand ruler Karim Khan for suzerainty over the western part of Nader Shah's former empire. He was, however, defeated in 1759 by a Zand army. He was betrayed by his own followers and thereafter, killed by his old rival, Mohammad Khan of Savadkuh. Due to Agha Mohammad Khan's castration, his brother Hossein Qoli Khan was appointed as the new chieftain of the Quwanlu instead. Shortly thereafter Astarabad fell under the control of Karim Khan, who appointed a Develu named Hossein Khan Develu as its governor. Meanwhile, Agha Mohammad Khan and his brother Hossein Qoli Khan fled to the steppe. One year later, Agha Mohammad Khan made an incursion against Astarabad, but was forced to flee, chased by the city's governor. Agha Mohammad Khan managed to reach Ashraf, but was at last seized and sent as a hostage to Tehran, ruled by Karim Khan. Hossein Qoli Khan was also soon captured and sent to Karim Khan.

Life at court
During his stay, Agha Mohammad Khan was treated kindly and honorably by Karim Khan, who made him convince his kinsmen to lay down their arms, which they did. Karim Khan then settled them in Damghan. In 1763, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hossein Qoli Khan were sent to the Zand capital, Shiraz, where their paternal aunt Khadija Begum, who was part of Karim Khan's harem, lived. Agha Mohammad Khan's half-brothers Morteza Qoli Khan and Mostafa Qoli Khan were granted permission to live in Astarabad, due to their mother being the sister of the governor of the city. His remaining brothers were sent to Qazvin, where they were treated honorably.

Agha Mohammad Khan was looked upon more as a respected guest in Karim Khan's court than a captive. Furthermore, Karim Khan also acknowledged Agha Mohammad Khan's political knowledge and sought his advice on interests of the state. He called Agha Mohammad Khan his "Piran-e Viseh", referring to an intelligent counselor of the mythical Turanian king Afrasiab in the Shahnameh epic. Two of Agha Mohammad Khan's brothers who were at Qazvin were also sent to Shiraz during this period. In February 1769, Karim Khan appointed Hossein Qoli Khan as the governor of Damghan. When Hossein Qoli Khan reached Damghan, he immediately began a fierce conflict with the Develu and other tribes to avenge his father's death. He was, however, killed c. 1777 near Findarisk by some Turks from the Yamut tribe with whom he had clashed. On 1 March 1779, while Agha Mohammad Khan was hunting, he was informed by Khadija Begum that Karim Khan had died after six months of illness.

Conquest of Mazandaran and Gilan
Agha Mohammad Khan took with him a group of loyal followers and left for Tehran. Meanwhile, in Shiraz, people were fighting among themselves. In Tehran, Agha Mohammad Khan met the main chieftains of the Develu clan, with whom he made peace. He visited the shrine of Shah Abd al-Azim, where his father's skull was kept. He then travelled to the Mazandaran Province, where his first task was to set up his suzerainty among his Quwanlu brothers. This resulted in a clash with his brothers Reza Qoli and Morteza Qoli, whom he defeated on 2 April, conquering Mazandaran. Meanwhile, Morteza Qoli fled to Astarabad, where he fortified himself. Agha Mohammad Khan could not simply storm the city, since starting a war with Morteza Qoli would mean that his frail alliance with the Develu could fall apart—Morteza Qoli's mother was a Develu. At the same time, the Zand prince Ali-Morad Khan Zand sent an army of Zand and Afghan troops under Azad Khan Afghan's son Mahmud Khan to Mazandaran, which Agha Mohammad Khan's brother Jafar Qoli Khan managed to repel. Agha Mohammad Khan, together with Hossein Qoli Khan's sons Fath-Ali Qoli and Hosayn Qoli, was now in a firm position in Babol, the capital of Mazandaran.

In Autumn 1780 Reza Qoli invaded Babol with an army of men from Larijan, where he encircled Agha Mohammad Khan's house and captured him after a fight lasting several hours. When Morteza Qoli learned of this, he marched to Babol on 1 January 1781 with an army of Turkmens and released Agha Mohammad Khan. The three brothers tried to settle their differences; Agha Mohammad Khan and Reza Qoli succeeded, while Morteza Qoli was discontented and fled to Ali-Morad Khan in Isfahan, and then to Sadeq Khan Zand in Shiraz. He died in Khorasan. His former supporters then went to Agha Mohammad Khan and began serving him. At that time, Agha Mohammad Khan had once again become involved in a conflict with his brother Reza Qoli, whom he defeated in several battles, and thereafter established peace with him once more: Morteza Qoli was allowed as the de facto ruler of Astarabad and several districts in the region of Hezar Jarib.

Peace did not last long. Ali-Morad Khan soon invaded Mazandaran, which led Agha Mohammad Khan to march from Babol with an army of Mazandaranis and Qajars and attack Ali-Morad Khan, whom he managed to repel from the province. Agha Mohammad Khan then seized Qumis, Semnan, Damghan, Shahrud and Bastam. Furthermore, he also made Hedayat-Allah Khan, the ruler of Gilan, his vassal. He thereafter granted land in Semnan to his brother Ali Qoli as a reward for his help in the conquest of the cities.

First conflict with the Russians, dispute with Gilan, and the invasion of northern Persian Iraq
In 1781, the Russian Empire, which was interested in building a trade route with Iran in order to be able to trade with regions deep into Asia, sent an emissary under Marko Ivanovich Voinovich to the coast of Gorgan, where he arrived on August 10 and sought approval to build a trading-post at Ashraf. When Agha Mohammad Khan refused, Voinovich ignored his refusal and went on to establish an interim settlement on Ashurada island. With no ships, Agha Mohammad Khan was unable to retake the island. Instead, he tricked Voinovich and some of his men into meeting him at Astarabad for a banquet on December 26, where they were held as captives until Voinovich agreed to order his men to leave Ashurada on January 13, 1782.

A year later Agha Mohammad Khan invaded Gilan, because its ruler Hedayat-Allah had changed his allegiance to the Zand dynasty. Hedayat-Allah then sent two diplomats, Mirza Sadeq and Agha Sadeq Lahiji, to Agha Mohammad to make peace. As a precaution he went to Shirvan. The diplomats were unable to come to favorable terms with Agha Mohammad Khan, who raided Gilan's capital Rasht and seized its riches. Rejoicing in his victory, he sent his brother Jafar Qoli Khan to conquer the northern part of Persian Iraq. He defeated a Zand army in Ray (or Karaj), and thereafter seized Qazvin. He then marched to Zanjan, which he also seized.In autumn they returned to Mazandaran. In the spring of 1783, Agha Mohammad Khan besieged Tehran, a town under Zand control which had proved troublesome. During the siege, plague started spreading in the town, and thereafter to Agha Mohammad Khan's army camp outside the city, which forced him to lift the siege. He marched back to Ali Bolagh, a summer house near Damghan. Agha Mohammad Khan then returned to Mazandaran and spent the winter there.

Mazandaran's brief submission to the Zand dynasty
The next year Ali-Morad Khan, in retaliation for Agha Mohammad Khan's attack on Tehran the previous year sent a huge army reportedly numbering 60,000 to Mazandaran in June 1784, aiming to crush the Qajars once and for all. His 15-year-old son Sheikh Veis Khan was put in command of the army, with Ali Morad staying behind in Tehran. When the army arrived in Mazandaran, its people quickly surrendered to the Zands and the nobles defected. Agha Mohammad Khan and a few of his supporters fled to Astarabad, where he tried to fortify the city as much as possible. Meanwhile, Morteza Qoli changed his allegiance and began serving the Zand dynasty. Ali-Morad Khan then sent an army numbering 8,000 under his relative Mohammad Zahir Khan to Astarabad, and laid siege to the city. Agha Mohammad Khan had already stocked provisions in case of a siege. Every day his troops would try to lay waste to the countryside to limit the besiegers' provisions. This in the end made the besiegers' situation unsustainable, and allowed Agha Mohammad Khan to leave the city to attack them. Mohammad Zahir Khan fled towards the Karakum Desert, but was captured by Agha Mohammad Khan's Yomut allies and was brutally killed. Only a few of his men managed to survive. On 14 November Agha Mohammad marched from Astarabad into Mazandaran and defeated a Zand force at Ashraf. The Zands were unable to defend Sari and Sheikh Veis Khan fled to Tehran on November 23.

First war with Jafar Khan Zand
Meanwhile, Ali-Morad Khan had raised another group of Zand troops, which he sent to Mazandaran under the command of his cousin Rustam Khan Zand, only to be defeated by Agha Mohammad Khan. Ali-Morad Khan died on 11 February 1785. When Agha Mohammad Khan heard of his death, he went to Tehran to try to capture it. When he reached the city, the inhabitants quickly closed the gates, and told him that they would open the gate only for the king of Iran, who according to them was Jafar Khan Zand, who had succeeded Ali-Morad Khan. Thus Agha Mohammad Khan had to defeat Jafar Khan to be recognized as the king of Iran. He thereafter quickly marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Khan sent men to stop his advance towards the city, but they withdrew at Qom without putting up any resistance. Jafar Khan then sent an even larger Zand army towards Agha Mohammad Khan, who defeated the army near Kashan. Jafar Khan then fled to Shiraz. Agha Mohammad arrived at Isfahan on May 2, where he discovered what was left of the Zand treasure and Jafar Khan's harem. The Qajar troops then looted the city.

During the summer of 1785, Agha Mohammad Khan made the city his headquarters for his expeditions in Persian Iraq. He left Isfahan on July 7 on a campaign in which he managed to bring the Bakhtiari chieftains under his suzerainty. He then left for Tehran on September 2, appointing a former Zand commander to govern. When he arrived at Tehran, the town finally submitted to him. At the same time, his men captured Hamadan and forced many Kurdish and Turkic chieftains to submit to Qajar rule. On 12 March 1786, Agha Mohammad Khan made Tehran his capital. By then the city had a population of 15,000–30,000 people. It appears that during this period, Agha Mohammad Khan saw himself as the king of Iran, although he avoided using the title "shah".

Some time later, while Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar was campaigning against the Bakhtiaris, Jafar Khan quickly marched towards Isfahan and re-captured it (although the citadel of Tabrak held out for four months). He then sent troops towards Kashan and Qom, while he marched towards Hamadan in early January 1786. He was, however, defeated by local tribal chieftains, among them Khosrow Khan and Mohammad Hosayn Khan Qaragozlu. Jafar Khan then withdrew to Isfahan to deal with a rebellion by the chiefs of Jandaq, who marched towards the city. The chiefs were defeated and submitted to Jafar Khan. When Agha Mohammad Khan heard about the Zand invasion of Isfahan and its surroundings, he quickly moved towards the city, which made Jafar Khan retreat to Shiraz once again. Agha Mohammad Khan then appointed Jafar Qoli Khan as the city's governor. However, the governor of Zanjan revolted shortly afterward, which forced Agha Mohammad Khan to go back north, where he suppressed the latter's revolt and pardoned him.

Second invasion of Gilan
Agha Mohammad Khan now had to focus on Gilan because Hedayat-Allah Khan had returned to the province (allegedly with Russian help) since the Qajar invasion of the province in 1782. In Agha Mohammad Khan's eyes, the whole Caspian coast was under threat by Hedayat-Allah and the Russians. Agha Mohammad Khan and his men easily managed to enter Gilan. While he was marching towards Rasht, he was joined by a local ruler named Mehdi Beg Khalatbari and other people. Furthermore, the Russian consul in Gilan betrayed Hedayat-Allah by providing weapons to Agha Mohammad Khan. Hedayat-Allah once again tried to flee to Shirvan, but was captured by men sent by a local ruler named Agha Ali Shafti (or another local ruler according to some sources), who killed him to avenge the slaughter of his family a few years earlier. Gilan was now completely under Qajar rule. Besides the conquest of Gilan, the second most valuable thing for Agha Mohammad Khan was Hedayat-Allah's treasure.

Second war with Jafar Khan Zand and enthronement
Some time later a local ruler named Amir Mohammad Khan, who with another local ruler named Taqi Khan (the ruler of Yazd), had recently defeated Jafar Khan and seized many riches, invaded Qajar territory, and marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Qoli Khan, who was still the governor of Isfahan, left the city before Taqi Khan could reach it and defeated the latter. Agha Mohammad Khan then went southwards once again. He met Jafar Qoli Khan at Isfahan in 1788, and after some time, made Taqi Khan accept Qajar suzerainty, and thereafter punished some Qashqai tribes, who fled into the mountains. Agha Mohammad Khan then approached Shiraz, where he hoped to bait Jafar Khan out of the city, which was strongly fortified, making it very hard to besiege. Unfortunately for him, Jafar Khan remained in the city. Agha Mohammad Khan returned to Isfahan, where he appointed his brother Ali Qoli as its governor, succeeding Jafar Qoli Khan. He then left for Tehran.

With Agha Mohammad Khan once again in the north, in autumn Jafar Khan began raising an army to prepare another attack against Isfahan and its surroundings. Jafar left Shiraz on September 20 and marched towards Isfahan. When Ali Qoli learned of it he sent a group of tribesmen to Qumishah, a city south of Isfahan. However, Jafar Khan easily defeated them. Ali Qoli thereafter retreated to Kashan. Jafar Khan was then able to occupy Isfahan on October 20. Agha Mohammad Khan, learning of this, marched rapidly towards Isfahan, which led Jafar Khan withdraw to Shiraz once again and reached the city on November 30. Agha Mohammad Khan returned to Tehran rather than attacking Shiraz again. Jafar Khan was murdered on 23 January 1789, which started a four-month civil war between several Zand princes who fought for succession to the throne. In May Jafar Khan's son Lotf Ali Khan emerged the victor in this civil war. Lotf Ali Khan fled to Bushehr and managed to recruit the local chiefs of Dashestan to his side. Lotf Ali was able to march against Sayed Morad Khan on April 22 and enter Shiraz on May 8.

It was also during this period that Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned (however still not crowned) and named his nephew Baba Khan (who would later be known as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar) as his heir. Thus 1789 is marked as the start of his reign.

First attack on Shiraz and dispute with Jafar Qoli Khan Qajar
Now that the Zand dynasty was no longer under the rule of Jafar Khan Zand, Agha Mohammad Khan saw an opportunity to capture Shiraz once and for all. He marched towards the city, and as he neared it, was attacked by Lotf Ali Khan. A battle was fought on 25 June 1789, which ended in Lotf Ali Khan withdrawing to Shiraz while Agha Mohammad Khan followed him and besieged the city. The siege lasted until 7 September. He set up an encampment and returned to Tehran, where he stayed until the end of the ensuing Nowruz. On 17 May 1790, Agha Mohammad Khan once again marched towards Shiraz. When he reached Fars, the governor of Bihbahan acknowledged his authority. Lotf Ali Khan once again left Shiraz in order to stop Agha Mohammad Khan's advance, but the Qajar ruler withdrew to Qazvin and its surroundings, where he had to resolve some problems. Agha Mohammad Khan later quarreled with Jafar Qoli Khan, who saw himself as the best heir of the Qajar dynasty. Agha Mohammad had him executed, which he believed necessary having seen in the Zand family how quickly a dynasty could decline due to disputes over the throne.

Invasion of Azerbaijan
While Lotf Ali Khan was having problems with Kerman, Agha Mohammad Khan could thus freely focus on Azerbaijan. He appointed Baba Khan as the governor of Persian Iraq and marched into Azerbaijan in the spring of 1791. He stopped at Tarum, and sent his relative Suleiman Khan Quwanlu to make the Talysh Khanate acknowledge Qajar authority. Agha Mohammad Khan thereafter went to Sarab, where he forced the Sarab Khanate into submission. He then went to Ardabil, where he subdued the Ardabil Khanate and visited the city's shrine. He finally went to Qaradagh, where he brought an end to all resistance against him. He appointed the Donboli noble Hosayn Qoli Donboli as the governor of Khoy and Tabriz.

Conquest of Fars
While Agha Mohammad Khan was conquering Azerbaijan, Lotf Ali Khan used the opportunity to attack Isfahan. However Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi, the popular governor of Shiraz, used Lotf Ali Khan's absence from the city to stage a coup, while his brother Mohammad-Hosayn Shirazi, who was the Zand ruler's general, mutinied along with many other troops. Lotf Ali Khan rushed to Shiraz, but when he arrived at the city, its inhabitants refused to open the gates. He went into the mountains and raised an army large enough to capture Shiraz. Hajji Ebrahim then sent an emissary to Agha Mohammad Khan, asking him to become the ruler of Fars, offering to give him 3,000 mares if he accepted; he immediately did. When Agha Mohammad Khan arrived at Fars, he appointed Hajji Ebrahim as the governor of the whole province, and sent one of his men to take Lotf Ali Khan's family to Tehran, and take the possessions of the Zand family. Furthermore, he also ordered Baba Khan to establish a garrison in nearby Shiraz to be prepared to help Hajji Ebrahim if needed.

The Sheikh of Bushehr also took this opportunity to defect to the Qajars, although the reason for doing so is disputed. Sheikh Naser II managed to establish control over Dashtestan, Kharg and Bandar Rig. He also attempted to take Khesht from January to June 1792, but his attempt to capture it failed and he returned to Bushehr on June 27. In the meantime, Lotf Ali Khan had defeated the men sent by Hajji Ebrahim and had advanced towards the stronghold of Kazerun in late October and captured it. He then marched to the countryside outside Shiraz and prepared to starve the city. Some time later, the Qajar army from the nearby garrison attacked Lotf Ali Khan's men and were winning—until Lotf Ali Khan himself decided to participate in the battle, and the Qajar army was defeated. When Agha Mohammad Khan learned of this, he sent 7,000 horsemen to reinforce Hajji Ebrahim's forces, and also ordered the surviving Qajar forces from the nearby garrison to do the same.

Lotf Ali Khan let the reinforcements arrive to Shiraz, expecting that as soon as the forces of Hajji Ebrahim were strengthened, they would come out of Shiraz, and could be overwhelmed in open battle. He was correct in his prediction—a battle shortly took place to the west of Shiraz, where Lotf Ali Khan defeated the united forces of Hajji Ebrahim and his Qajar reinforcements. This took place in late 1791, or early 1792. The inhabitants of Shiraz now faced extreme hardship from the siege, and it was questionable if they would endure. Large parts of Fars were ravaged by warfare, and for three to four years a pandemic had spread around the landscape. Albeit Lotf Ali Khan's forces had gone through as much difficulty as the forces of Hajji Ebrahim whose forces had begun to desert to the Zands. Agha Mohammad Khan thus raised a large army and marched into Fars. On 5 June 1792, Lotf Ali Khan, with a small force of his men, made a bold night raid on Agha Mohammad Khan's encampment near Persepolis.

At first, this choice seemed to be in Lotf Ali Khan's favor—he was certain that the Qajars were routed. In his delight at this, he let his men spread out and rest for the night, only to discover at daybreak that Agha Mohammad Khan still held his ground. Lotf Ali Khan then fled to Tabas through Neyriz. Agha Mohammad Khan set foot in Shiraz on 21 July 1792, and stayed there for a month, maintaining his retinue in the Bagh-e Vakil. Before leaving Shiraz, he appointed Hajji Ebrahim as the governor of Fars, and had the body of Karim Khan Zand exhumed and reburied in Tehran, where he went after his stay in Shiraz. Forces were sent to Kerman, Sistan, and Bam (although Qajar rule was not solidified in the last two places).

Conquest of Kerman
Lotf Ali Khan had fled to Khorasan and received help from the chief of Tabas. With this help, he returned in September and marched towards Yazd. The governor of Yazd sent an army to defeat him, but near Ardakan they fled back to Yazd before an engagement even took place. Lotf Ali then captured Abarkuh and marched towards Bavanat in early October. The Qajar force sent against him wasted time besieging Abarkuh and Lotf Ali captured Stahbanat, Qir, and Neyriz. He marched on Darab and besieged the fortress but was soon informed of the Qajar army sent against him and fled back to Khorasan.

The Afghan chiefs of Bam invited Lotf Ali Khan to return and expel the Qajar yoke. With their help, Lotf Ali Khan returned to Kerman and captured the city on 30 March. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar quickly heard of this and marched towards Kerman on May 14. The siege lasted four months and took a toll on Kerman's population. The city fell on 24 October, and Lotf Ali Khan quickly fled to Bam. However, the chief of Bam gave Lotf Ali Khan to the Qajars and ordered Lotf Ali Khan to be killed. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar took revenge on the people of Kerman by ordering the eyes of 20,000 of the inhabitants. The city was brutally sacked and many beautiful buildings destroyed.

A year later, after the Battle of Krtsanisi brought eastern Georgia and the other principal territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus back within the Iranian domains, he proclaimed himself Shahanshah (King of Kings) on the Mughan plain, just as Nader Shah had done some sixty years earlier.

Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus
The country of Georgia had been under Iranian vassalage for the first time in the early modern era in 1502, and under intermittent Iranian rule and suzerainty since 1555, but had been de facto independent after the disintegration of the Iranian Afsharid dynasty.

For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. Like the Safavids and Nader Shah before him, he viewed the territories no differently than those in mainland Iran. Georgia was a province of Iran the same way Khorasan was. As the Cambridge History of Iran states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of Fars or Gilan. It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever was necessary in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands. This included putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the wali of Georgia.

Finding an interval of peace amid their own quarrels and with northern, western, and central Iran secure, the Iranians demanded the Georgian monarch Heraclius II renounce his treaty with Russia and re-accept Iranian suzerainty, in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized Iran's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries. Heraclius II appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, pleading for at least 3,000 Russian troops, but he was not listened to, leaving Georgia to fend off the Iranian threat alone. Nevertheless, Heraclius II still rejected the Khan's ultimatum.

In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with a 70,000-strong army. This force was divided in three: the left wing was sent in the direction of Erivan, the right one parallel to the Caspian Sea into the Mughan across the lower Aras towards Dagestan and Shirvan, while the Shah headed the centre force himself, advancing towards the fortress of Shusha in the Karabakh Khanate, which he besieged between 8 July and 9 August 1795. His right and left wing forced the Khans of Ganja and Erivan into an alliance. Having abandoned the siege of Shusha due to stiff resistance, which was further aided by Georgian crown prince Aleksandre, the Khan of Karabakh, Ibrahim Khan, eventually surrendered to Agha Mohammad Khan after discussions. He paid a regular tribute and surrendered hostages, though the Qajar forces were still denied entrance to Shusha. Since the main objective was Georgia, Agha Mohammad Khan was willing to have Karabakh secured by this agreement for now, for he and his army subsequently moved further. While at Ganja, having secured Shirvan, he was joined by Javad Khan Qajar and the rest of his right wing contingent. At Ganja, Mohammad Khan sent Heraclius II his last ultimatum, which he received in September 1795:

"Your Highness knows that for the past 100 generations you have been subject to Iran; now we deign to say with amazement that you have attached yourself to the Russians, who have no other business than to trade with Iran... Last year you forced me to destroy a number of Georgians, although we had no desire at all for our subjects to perish by our own hand...It is now our great will that you, an intelligent man, abandon such things... and break relations with the Russians. If you do not carry out this order, then we shall shortly carry out a campaign against Georgia, we will shed both Georgian and Russian blood and out of it will create rivers as big as the Kura...."

According to the author of the Fārsnāma-ye Nāṣeri, Ḥasan-e Fasāʼi, a contemporary Qajar era historian, Agha Mohammad Khan had declared in the letter:

"Shah Ismail I Safavi ruled over the province of Georgia. When in the days of the deceased king we were engaged in conquering the provinces of Iran, we did not proceed to this region. As most of the provinces of Iran have come into our possession now, you must, according to ancient law, consider Georgia (Gurjistan) part of the empire, and appear before our majesty. You have to conform your obedience; then you may remain in the possession of your governorship (wali) of Georgia. If you do not do this, you will be treated as the others."

His advisors divided, Heraclius II ignored the ultimatum but sent couriers to St.Petersburg. Gudovich, who sat in Georgievsk at the time, instructed Heraclius II to avoid "expense and fuss", while Heraclius II, together with Solomon II and some Imeretians headed southwards of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians. At the same time, Agha Mohammad Khan marched directly on Tbilisi, with half of the army he crossed the Aras river. Some estimate his army had 40,000 men instead of 35,000. They attacked the heavily fortified Georgian positions of Heraclius II and Solomon on the southwestern limits of the city. Abandoned by several of his nobles, Heraclius II managed to mobilize around 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 auxiliaries from the neighbouring Imereti under its King Solomon II, a member of the Georgian Bagrationi dynasty and thus distantly related to Heraclius II. The Georgians offered a desperate resistance and succeeded in rolling back a series of Iranian attacks on 9 and 10 September. After that, it is said that some traitors informed the Iranians that the Georgians had no more strength to fight and the Qajar army cancelled their plan of returning to Iran. Early on 11 September, Agha Mohammad Khan personally led an all-out offensive against the Georgians. Amid an artillery duel and a fierce cavalry charge, the Iranians managed to cross the Kura River and outflanked the decimated Georgian army. Heraclius II attempted to mount a counterattack, but he had to retreat to the last available positions in the outskirts of Tbilisi. By nightfall, the Georgian forces had been exhausted and almost completely destroyed. The last surviving Georgian artillery briefly held the advancing Iranians to allow Heraclius II and his retinue of some 150 men to escape through the city to the mountains. The fighting continued in the streets of Tbilisi and at the fortress of Narikala. In a few hours, Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital, which was then completely sacked and its population massacred. The Iranian army marched back laden with spoil and carrying off some 15,000 captives. The Georgians had lost 4,000 men in the battle, the Iranians 13,000; a third of their total force.

An eyewitness, having entered the city several days the bulk of the Iranian troops had withdrawn, described what he saw:

"I therefore pursued my way, paved as it were, with carcases, and entered Tiflis by the gate of Tapitag: but what was my consternation on finding here the bodies of women and children slaughtered by the sword of the enemy; to say nothing about the men, of whom I saw more than a thousand, as I should suppose, lying dead in one little tower! [...] The city was almost entirely consumed, and still continued to smoke in different places; and the stench from the putrefying, together with the heat which prevailed, was intolerable, and certainly infectious."

Conquest of Khorasan
Agha Mohammad Shah now focused on Khorasan, which was under the rule of Nader Shah's blind and old grandson Shahrokh Shah. He had earlier been a vassal of the Durrani ruler, Ahmad Shah, but after the latter's death in 1772 had become a pawn of the chieftains who had taken control of the surrounding cities and towns of the Afsharid capital of Mashhad. The most prominent of these chieftains was most likely Eshaq Khan, who preserved Torbat-e Heydarieh as his center of operations. In the eastern parts of the Alborz, Kurdish chieftains ruled over several fortresses, such as Bojnord and Quchan. Agha Mohammad Shah first marched to Astarabad, and penalized the Turkmens who had been pillaging the city and its surroundings. He then continued to Mashhad, where the local chieftains, who knew it was hopeless to resist, swiftly acknowledged his rule. Agha Mohammad Shah also demanded these local chieftains to dispatch him hostages, who were sent to Tehran. When Agha Mohammad Shah reached Mashhad, Shahrokh, along with a prominent mujtahid named Mirza Mehdi, went to the Qajar encampment. There they were warmly received by Agha Mohammad Shah's nephew Hossein Qoli Khan.

Shortly afterwards, Agha Mohammad Shah sent a force of 8,000 soldiers under Suleiman Khan Qajar, followed by Mirza Mehdi, to conquer Mashhad and affirm its citizens of the Shah's generosity. A day later, Agha Mohammad Shah, followed the customary of the famous Iranian shah Abbas I the Great, and entered Mashhad on May 14 by foot as a pilgrim to the Imam Reza shrine, whilst being teary eyed and kissing the ground. His pilgrimage continued for 23 days, where he seemed to be unaware of the politics of the country.

The torture of Shahrokh Shah
However, things quickly changed. Agha Mohammad Shah ordered the exhumation of Nader Shah's corpse, and had it sent to Tehran, where it was reburied alongside Karim Khan Zand's corpse. He then forced Shahrokh to give him any riches that originally belonged to Nader Shah. Shahrokh swore that he did not possess any more of Nader Shah's riches. Agha Mohammad Shah, ruthless and revengeful, and with a desire for treasure, did not believe him. He had Shahrokh Shah hurt severely to confess the hidden locations of the last gems that had passed down to him from his grandfather. Shahrokh, however, refused to speak. Agha Mohammad Shah was personally involved in the torture and on one occasion he had Shahrokh tied to a chair, his head shaved and a crown of thick paste built on his head. He then poured a jug of molten lead into the crown. A number of Shahrokh's servants, who were struck with misery for their previous monarch, sent an admired mullah of the city to make an emotional appeal to Agha Mohammad Shah in support of Shahrokh and Shahrokh was sent to Mazandaran with his family. Shahrokh died at Damghan due to the injuries he had suffered during his torture.

Rest of reign
Agha Mohammad Khan restored Iran to a unity it had not had since Karim Khan. He reunited the territory of contemporary Iran and the Caucasus region which had been part of the concept of Iran for centuries. He was, however, a man of extreme violence who killed almost all who could threaten his hold on power, a trait he showed in several of his campaigns. A year after Agha Mohammad Khan re-subjugated the Caucasus, he also captured Khorasan. Shah Rukh, ruler of Khorasan and grandson of Nader Shah, was tortured to death because Agha Mohammad Khan thought that he knew of Nadir's legendary treasures.

In 1786, Agha Mohammad Khan moved his capital from Sari in his home province of Mazandaran to Tehran. He was the first Iranian ruler to make Tehran—the successor to the great city of Ray—his capital, although both the Safavids and the Zands had expanded the town and built palaces there. One of the main reasons noted for moving the capital farther south was to remain in close reach of Azarbaijan and Iran's integral Caucasian territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus, at that time not yet ceded to Imperial Russia, their fate in the course of the 19th century. He was formally crowned in 1796 and founded the Qajar dynasty.

Although the Russians briefly took and occupied Derbent and Baku during the expedition of 1796 under the command of count Valerian Zubov, Agha Mohammad Khan successfully expanded Iranian influence into the Caucasus, reasserting Iranian sovereignty over its former dependencies in the region. He was, however, a notoriously cruel ruler, who reduced Tbilisi to ashes, while massacring and carrying away its Christian population, much as he had done with his Muslim subjects. He based his strength on tribal manpower like Genghis Khan, Timur and Nader Shah.

Assassination
Agha Mohammad's successful reign was short-lived, as he was assassinated in 1797 in his tent in the city of Shusha, the capital of the Karabakh Khanate, three days after he had taken the city, and less than three years after he had taken power. According to Hasan-e Fasa'i's' Farsnama-ye Naseri, during Agha Mohammad's stay in Shusha, one night a quarrel arose between a Georgian servant named Sadegh Gorji and the valet Khodadad Esfahani. They raised their voices to such a pitch that the shah became angry and ordered both to be executed. Sadeq Khan Shaqaqi, a prominent emir, interceded on their behalf, but was not listened to. The shah, however, ordered their execution to be postponed until Saturday, as this happened to be the evening of Friday (the Islamic holy day), and ordered them back to their duties in the royal pavilion, unfettered and unchained, awaiting their execution the next day. From experience, however, they knew that the King would keep to what he had ordered, and, having no hope, they turned to boldness. When the shah was sleeping, they were joined by the valet Abbas Mazandarani, who was in the plot with them, and the three invaded the royal pavilion and with dagger and knife murdered the shah.

His nephew, crowned as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, succeeded him.

Personality and appearance
Agha Mohammad Khan's castration at the age of six had left him permanently damaged, both physically and mentally. His body was sick and weak. He had epilepsy and fell unconscious for three days in 1790/91 due to a stroke. Regardless, he was a determined figure and attempted to hide his frailty. Due to his small stature, he could be mistaken for a young boy from a far enough distance. This seemingly annoyed him to a great extent, especially if a person kept looking at him.

He was interested in hunting and literature. During the night when Agha Mohammad Khan was on his bed, the Shahnameh would be read aloud to him.

The bureaucracy
The bureaucracy remained small during the reign of Agha Mohammad Shah—apart from the grand vizier, the leading figures of the administration were the chief revenue officer (mustaufī) and the muster-master (lashkarnevīs) of the army. Only one person occupied each post during Agha Mohammad Shah's reign; Hajji Ebrahim, who served as grand vizier; Mirza Ismail, who served as the chief revenue officer, and Mirza Asad-Allah Nuri, who served as muster-master. Since Agha Mohammad Shah was primarily busy with his military expeditions, his court was constantly his camp, and Hajji Ebrahim, along with other officials, usually participated in his campaigns.

Provincial administration
During Agha Mohammad Shah's reign, provincial administration followed the same model of the Safavid one; beglerbegis were appointed to govern provinces. A city was under the rule of a kalantar and darugha, while its quarters was under the rule of the kadkhuda. Governorship of provinces went for the most part to tribal chieftains—this was later changed by Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, who appointed many of his relatives as governors.

Military
Agha Mohammad Shah was more of a military leader than politician, and was known for his determined sovereignty, instead of a charismatic one. His military prowess was highly noticeable—Malcolm's evaluation, which was written some years after his death, says the following: "His army was inured to fatigue, and regularly paid; he had introduced excellent arrangement into all its Departments, and his known severity occasioned the utmost alacrity and promptness in the execution of orders, and had he lived a few more years, it is difficult to conjecture the progress of his arms."

The Scottish traveller James Baillie Fraser also says the following thing about him: "Agha Mohammad had likewise the talent of forming good and brave troops. His active and ambitious disposition kept his army constantly engaged; and they acquired a veteran hardihood and expertness, that rendered them superior to any other Asiatic troops."

Construction
Agha Mohammad Shah did not construct or repair much during his reign, due to the campaigns and battles which occupied his time. In Tehran, he ordered the creation of a mosque named the Masjid-e Shah (meaning "the Shah's mosque"), while in Mashhad he ordered the reparation of the Imam Reza shrine. In Astarabad, he repaired (or fortified) the walls, emptied the ditch, built several buildings, one of them being a palace for the governor. Furthermore, he also improved the overall condition of the city. He did something similar in Babol, Ashraf and Sari. Of all these constructions and reparations, his best and most lasting achievement is debatably making Tehran his capital, which to this day is the country's capital and largest city.

title: Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar


text:
Talk:Denbighshire

Untitled
Just changed the infobox field on the control of the County Council from "Multi-party" to "Non-party". As of 1999, 24 of the 47 councillors were independents, and this reflects the usual Welsh semi-rural practice of electing councillors on their own merits rather than by party label. I was just witnessing my Mum's postal vote last week, and observe that she cast her 3 votes for a Liberal Democrat and two independents, generally voting for candidates who came round to canvass for her vote! (Meanwhile in the European Parliament ballot, she voted Labour...). -- Arwel 14:40, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

School league table
I removed the 'league table' of school results because Estyn doesn't inspect schools annually, so the exam results cited won't necessarily be directly comparable. People may be aware that since 2001, the Assembly Government hasn't published individual school performance information. Information on individual schools is still available in prospectuses and governors’ annual reports, but adding them all together to produce a local league table may violate WP:SYNTH. Pondle (talk) 23:47, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Map needed
A map illustrating the new boundaries of Denbighshire (since 1996) and comparing them with the old boundaries of Denbighshire (pre 1974) and the neighbouring counties (labelled with their names) before and after the 1974 would be exceedingly useful to those of us who don't know Wales at all. --Oldontarian (talk) 12:00, 28 November 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Proposed infobox collage
Following the discussion resulting in WP:WLSCOUNTYCOLLAGE inline with UKGEO, and the expectation that multiple images would eventually be added to the infobox in a possible dispute. To get the ball rolling, I propose the following to be added in the infobox using multiple image.

Order: Change first image from Eglwyseg to Vale of Llangollen centred on Castell Dinas Brân. Why? Well Eglwyseg is a quite trapped area of Denbighshire (as a local) and opted for the general Dee Valley, but open to reinstate Eglwyseg.

General: Add Prestatyn sculpture to balance the need of a coastal image and a vertical one, but any better recommendations are appreciated, not entirely supportive of that choice. If there was a castle to represent, decided Rhuddlan, as it is on flatter inland terrain and the place of the Statute of Rhuddlan. But open for a church/cathedral instead of this.

Be free to suggest better quality images of the same landmarks, and would happly apply. Be free to also suggest using different criteria and landmarks and would happily discuss what is best to represent the county, although this one was difficult to balance geographically and topically, and unfortunately cut modern buildings out (there were no good images of seaside Rhyl with buildings that I could find ), so more open to other ideas.

''If no opposition is raised, I would boldly insert it on 19 December. Opted for a discussion, considering previous attempts led to a dispute.'' Pinging those I feel are connected to the discussion specifically on Denbighshire, however you do not need to respond.  Dank Jae  03:17, 12 December 2023 (UTC)

 * @A.D.Hope, just pinging again, as I am boldly proposing replacing the existing image. You don't need to discuss the other two, if you don't have the time.  Dank Jae  19:34, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I've been meaning to comment, don't worry! I don't have a strong preference on the top image; the current one is more focussed, but your proposal definitely conveys the idea that Denbighshire is very rural. I'd suggest finding an image of Rhuddlan Castle where the building is more prominent, and much like yourself I'm not entirely sold on the Prestatyn sculpture. The town has a 'sky tower' doesn't it, would that be any good? A.D.Hope (talk) 19:50, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * The Prestatyn image was chosen because it was vertical and showed the coast in some way, most images of the Sky tower are just the tower and the sky, and felt that the coast itself has to be represented. (although this waterfront image is alright when smaller). But yes, not convinced with the statue though, it is a bit non-notable, hopefully I can find a good vertical coastal image, I'll see.
 * While open to change the image of Rhuddlan, all the other images were quite dull colours or showed the ruined sides of the castle, so chose that one because it was bright, showed the main part of the castle (but yes from afar), while also avoiding the image Rhuddlan Castle uses, and it also shows the River Clwyd which flows through the centre of the county.
 * I am considering reverting back to Eglwyseg, because tbh I can use this proposed image for a potential Vale of Llangollen article or stick it onto Clwydian Range and Dee Valley, although if the national park goes ahead did consider sticking Eglwyseg onto that, I was debating between Eglwyseg and Moel y Gamelin hillside (current page preview) at Clwydian Range and Dee Valley initially.
 * Pinged you because you didn't reply at Flintshire (no one did), and being extra bold here so felt you deserved the voice.  Dank Jae  20:20, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Ta for the ping, I appreciate it.
 * I can tell why you chose each image and it's a decent selection of subjects. If you've got somewhere in mind for the Vale of Llangollen image I'd stick with Eglwyseg here – 'big hill' does read a bit better at infobox size than 'expansive panorama of valley'. The current Rhuddlan image isn't bad, and I sympathise with having limited choice! A.D.Hope (talk) 20:30, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Endless scrolling of Google (creative commons selected), Flickr and Geograph gets tiring, especially if a great image is very hidden, and doesn't automatically present itself when you type "Denbighshire". Happy to switch back to Eglwyseg. I'll try and find a better coastal image, but I do prefer this Rhuddlan one if that's alright.  Dank Jae  20:33, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Tell me about it. I can't tell you how long I've spent trying to find a better image of one of the Shropshire hills, that one of the Long Mynd is very saturated. I'm glad we've sorted Eglwyseg, and I reckon that image of Rhuddlan will be fine – if it were larger I'd suggest a slight crop, but it isn't so there's no point. A.D.Hope (talk) 20:44, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

here are all the coastal images, that are also vertical that I can find, any preferences? Couldn't find vertical ones of Prestatyn (aside the proposed statue), prefer the promenade as it shows the coast a bit, but open to any, or if you have an other suggestions.

Diolch  Dank Jae  01:46, 16 December 2023 (UTC)

 * I reckon it's between your original image and the raised Pont y Ddraig, what do you think? The latter is quite a striking image. A.D.Hope (talk) 22:09, 16 December 2023 (UTC)

, so these two options? Like the original is better coloured, while yes the latter is much more striking, no idea which to prefer.  Dank Jae  23:11, 16 December 2023 (UTC)

 * If the bridge image was better-coloured I'd go with that, but looking at the two proposals side-by-side the sculpture is better. I've taken the liberty of making a cropped version with the sculpture centred and bit larger, if you want to use it. You've probably looked this up already, but the piece is called Dechrau a diwedd (although apparently the locals call it the 'Polo Mint', no guesses why!) A.D.Hope (talk) 23:41, 16 December 2023 (UTC)
 * @A.D.Hope, yeah better with cropped. Yeah fully see the resemblance, also apparently marks the end of Offa's Dyke? So if you're fine with it and no other comments raised happy to add it on the 19th.  Dank Jae  23:49, 16 December 2023 (UTC)
 * at least the path.  Dank Jae  23:55, 16 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Yeah, it's a better landmark than it appears at first glance given the path connection. There's a sculpture at the end of the Coast to Coast cycle in Roker, Sunderland which has a simlar vibe. I'm happy for it to go up on the 19th, so long as nobody objects of course. A.D.Hope (talk) 01:06, 17 December 2023 (UTC)
 * added, no further comments raised. I forgot  Dank Jae  03:09, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Denbighshire


text:
Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics

The L. D. Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics (Институт теоретической физики имени Л. Д. Ландау (ИТФ)) of the Russian Academy of Sciences is a research institution, located in the small town of Chernogolovka near Moscow (there is also a subdivision in Moscow, on the territory of the P. L. Kapitza Institute for Physical Problems).

History
The Landau Institute was formed in 1964 to keep the Landau school alive after the tragic car accident of Lev D. Landau. Since its foundation, the institute grew rapidly to about one hundred scientists, becoming one of the worldwide best-known and leading institutes for theoretical physics.

Unlike many other scientific centers in Russia, the Landau Institute had the strength to cope with the crisis of the nineties in the last century. Although about one half of the scientists accepted positions at leading scientific centers and universities abroad, most of them kept ties with their home institute, forming a scientific network in the tradition of the Landau school and supporting young theoretical physicists in the Landau Institute.

Prominent members
Up to 1992, the institute was headed by Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, who was then replaced by Vladimir E. Zakharov. Its numerous prominent scientists, mathematicians as well as physicists, include the Nobel laureate Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov as well as Igor Dzyaloshinsky, Lev Gor'kov, Vladimir Gribov, Arkady Migdal, Anatoly Larkin, Sergei Novikov, Alexander Polyakov, Mark Azbel, Valery Pokrovsky, Emmanuel Rashba, Sergey Iordanskii, Ioshua Levinson, Alexei Starobinsky, Alexei Kitaev, Vadim Berezinskii (whose early death prevented him from sharing the Nobel Prize for the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless transition theory), Serguei Brazovskii, Konstantin Efetov, David Khmel'nitsky, Vladimir Mineev, Grigory Volovik, Paul Wiegmann, Leonid Levitov, Alexander Zamolodchikov, Vadim Knizhnik, Konstantin Khanin, and Yakov G. Sinai.

Fields of Research
The main fields of research are:

 * Mathematical physics
 * Computational physics
 * Nonlinear dynamics
 * Condensed matter theory
 * Nuclear and elementary particle physics
 * Quantum field theory


text:
Correlator

Correlator may refer to:

 * Correlation function (quantum field theory)
 * An optical correlator
 * A radio correlator
 * An apparatus for measuring second-order correlation function of electromagnetic field
 * A leak noise correlator
 * A correlation function (probability)

title: Correlator


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Swiss municipalities

Title
WikiProject Swiss municipalities

Scope
This WikiProject aims to automatically create stub articles for all 2866 Swiss municipalities.

Parentage

 * WikiProject Country subdivisions
 * WikiProject Switzerland

Descendant WikiProjects
This project has no descendants.

Similar WikiProjects

 * WikiProject French communes
 * Dutch municipalities task force (under WikiProject Netherlands)

[[Image:Nuvola apps kdmconfig.png|20px]] Participants

 * 1)  23 March 2008 (UTC) -I'll add a few images from time to time where possible
 * 2)  1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * 3) Schwiiz (talk) 14:31, 6 March 2017 (UTC) -I'll do my best to help
 * 1)  1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * 2) Schwiiz (talk) 14:31, 6 March 2017 (UTC) -I'll do my best to help
 * 1) Schwiiz (talk) 14:31, 6 March 2017 (UTC) -I'll do my best to help

Article titles

 * /Article title conventions
 * /List of title variations

Categories
The parent category is Category:Municipalities of Switzerland. Cantonal subcategories exist.

Cities should also go to Category:Cities in Switzerland, articles on villages that are not independent municipalities should either be merged with the article on their municipality, or put into Category:Villages in Switzerland.

WikiMedia

 * de:Wikipedia:WikiProjekt_Schweiz
 * de:Wikipedia:Formatvorlage_Ort_Schweiz
 * fr:Wikipédia:Projet, Communes suisses
 * Commons:Category:Cities_and_villages_in_Switzerland
 * Commons:Category:Flags_of_swiss_municipalities
 * Commons:Category:Coat_of_arms_of_swiss_municipalities

Other

 * http://www.swissgeo.ch postal_code
 * http://www.communal.ch population, district (Bezirk or Kreis?) and surface area, for all of Switzerland. With clickable maps (copyright unknown). More information for some municipalities, like altitude, economic classification, and website.
 * All existing communal homepages
 * http://www.lexhist.ch/externe/protect/deutsch.html Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (German, French or Italian)
 * Aargau
 * Appenzell Innerrhoden
 * Appenzell Ausserrhoden
 * Basel Stadt
 * Basel Landschaft : http://www.baselland.ch/docs/gemeinden/info/main-gem_info.htm Contains written text, altitude, ground usage, foreign population, ground prices, jobs, work force, number of houses, taxes, etc.
 * Bern
 * Fribourg/Freiburg
 * Geneve : http://www.geneve.ch/statistique/statistiques/communes/welcome.html man, woman, age, ground usage, tourism, unemployment, economy, more.
 * Graubünden/Grigun : http://www.graubuenden-online.ch/kanton/kanton.html Contains surface area, Bezirk, Kreis, population, height, surface area, jobs, work force, tourism, taxes and economic category.
 * Glarus : http://www.glarusnet.ch/gemeinde/index.htm
 * Jura : http://www.juranet.ch/cities/list.asp district, surface area, altitude, related web sites
 * Luzern
 * Neuchatel
 * Nidwalden
 * Obwalden
 * Schaffhausen
 * Schwyz
 * Solothurn
 * St. Gallen
 * Thurgau
 * Ticino
 * Uri
 * Valais/Wallis
 * Vaud
 * Zug
 * Zürich: detailed map

Information
Stub articles should contain as much information as possible.

Infoboxes
See Template talk:Infobox Switzerland municipality for details.

On the right, see Template:Infobox_Switzerland_municipality for Aarau.

Empty infobox template:

 * Navigation bars for all Swiss districts are available with . See Category:Swiss district templates,

Completed
All municipality stubs appear to have now been created, thanks to all those who participated. The next step would appear to be to finish the district articles.

Tools

 * Main tool page: toolserver.org

 * Reflinks - Edits bare references - adds title/dates etc. to bare references
 * Checklinks - Edit and repair external links
 * Dab solver - Quickly resolve ambiguous links.
 * Peer reviewer - Provides hints and suggestion to improving articles.