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Reinsurance

Reinsurance is insurance that an insurance company purchases from another insurance company to insulate itself (at least in part) from the risk of a major claims event. With reinsurance, the company passes on ("cedes") some part of its own insurance liabilities to the other insurance company. The company that purchases the reinsurance policy is referred to as the "ceding company" or "cedent". The company issuing the reinsurance policy is referred to as the "reinsurer". In the classic case, reinsurance allows insurance companies to remain solvent after major claims events, such as major disasters like hurricanes or wildfires. In addition to its basic role in risk management, reinsurance is sometimes used to reduce the ceding company's capital requirements, or for tax mitigation or other purposes.

The reinsurer may be either a specialist reinsurance company, which only undertakes reinsurance business, or another insurance company. Insurance companies that accept reinsurance refer to the business as "assumed reinsurance".

There are two basic methods of reinsurance:
 * 1) Facultative Reinsurance, which is negotiated separately for each insurance policy that is reinsured. Facultative reinsurance is normally purchased by ceding companies for individual risks not covered, or insufficiently covered, by their reinsurance treaties, for amounts in excess of the monetary limits of their reinsurance treaties and for unusual risks. Underwriting expenses, and in particular personnel costs, are higher for such business because each risk is individually underwritten and administered. However, as they can separately evaluate each risk reinsured, the reinsurer's underwriter can price the contract more accurately to reflect the risks involved. Ultimately, a facultative certificate is issued by the reinsurance company to the ceding company reinsuring that one policy, and is used for  high-value or hazardous risks.
 * 2) Treaty Reinsurance means that the ceding company and the reinsurer negotiate and execute a reinsurance contract under which the reinsurer covers the specified share of all the insurance policies issued by the ceding company which come within the scope of that contract. The reinsurance contract may obligate the reinsurer to accept reinsurance of all contracts within the scope (known as "obligatory" reinsurance), or it may allow the insurer to choose which risks it wants to cede, with the reinsurer obligated to accept such risks (known as "facultative-obligatory" or "fac oblig" reinsurance). These types of contracts are typically annual.

There are two main types of treaty reinsurance, 'proportional and non-proportional, which are detailed below. Under proportional reinsurance, the reinsurer's share of the risk is defined for each separate policy, while under non-proportional reinsurance the reinsurer's liability is based on the aggregate claims incurred by the ceding office. In the past 30 years there has been a major shift from proportional to non-proportional reinsurance in the property and casualty fields.

Functions
Almost all insurance companies have a reinsurance program. The ultimate goal of that program is to reduce their exposure to loss by passing part of the risk of loss to a reinsurer or a group of reinsurers.

Risk transfer
With reinsurance, the insurer can issue policies with higher limits than would otherwise be allowed, thus being able to take on more risk because some of that risk is now transferred to the re-insurer.

Income smoothing
Reinsurance can make an insurance company's results more predictable by absorbing large losses. This is likely to reduce the amount of capital needed to provide coverage. The risks are spread, with the reinsurer or reinsurers bearing some of the loss incurred by the insurance company. The income smoothing arises because the losses of the cedent are limited. This fosters stability in claim payouts and caps indemnification costs.

Surplus relief
Proportional Treaties (or "pro-rata" treaties) provide the cedent with "surplus relief"; surplus relief being the capacity to write more business and/or at larger limits.

Arbitrage
The insurance company may be motivated by arbitrage in purchasing reinsurance coverage at a lower rate than they charge the insured for the underlying risk, whatever the class of insurance.

In general, the reinsurer may be able to cover the risk at a lower premium than the insurer because:

 * The reinsurer may have some intrinsic cost advantage due to economies of scale or some other efficiency.
 * Reinsurers may operate under weaker regulation than their clients. This enables them to use less capital to cover any risk, and to make less conservative assumptions when valuing the risk.
 * Reinsurers may operate under a more favourable tax regime than their clients.
 * Reinsurers will often have better access to underwriting expertise and to claims experience data, enabling them to assess the risk more accurately and reduce the need for contingency margins in pricing the risk
 * Even if the regulatory standards are the same, the reinsurer may be able to hold smaller actuarial reserves than the cedent if it thinks the premiums charged by the cedent are excessively conservative.
 * The reinsurer may have a more diverse portfolio of assets and especially liabilities than the cedent. This may create opportunities for hedging that the cedent could not exploit alone. Depending on the regulations imposed on the reinsurer, this may mean they can hold fewer assets to cover the risk.
 * The reinsurer may have a greater risk appetite than the insurer.

Reinsurer's expertise
The insurance company may want to avail itself of the expertise of a reinsurer, or the reinsurer's ability to set an appropriate premium, in regard to a specific (specialised) risk. The reinsurer will also wish to apply this expertise to the underwriting in order to protect their own interests. This is especially the case in Facultative Reinsurance.

Creating a manageable and profitable portfolio of insured risks
By choosing a particular type of reinsurance method, the insurance company may be able to create a more balanced and homogeneous portfolio of insured risks. This would make its results more predictable on a net basis (i.e. allowing for the reinsurance). This is usually one of the objectives of reinsurance arrangements for the insurance companies.

Proportional
Under proportional reinsurance, one or more reinsurers take a stated percentage share of each policy that an insurer issues ("writes"). The reinsurer will then receive that stated percentage of the premiums and will pay the stated percentage of claims. In addition, the reinsurer will allow a "ceding commission" to the insurer to cover the costs incurred by the ceding insurer (mainly acquisition and administration, as well as the expected profit that the cedent is giving up).

The arrangement may be "quota share" or "surplus reinsurance" (also known as surplus of line or variable quota share treaty) or a combination of the two. Under a quota share arrangement, a fixed percentage (say 75%) of each insurance policy is reinsured. Under a surplus share arrangement, the ceding company decides on a "retention limit": say $100,000. The ceding company retains the full amount of each risk, up to a maximum of $100,000 per policy or per risk, and the excess over this retention limit is reinsured.

The ceding company may seek a quota share arrangement for several reasons. First, it may not have sufficient capital to prudently retain all of the business that it can sell. For example, it may only be able to offer a total of $100 million in coverage, but by reinsuring 75% of it, it can sell four times as much, and retain some of the profits on the additional business via the ceding commission.

The ceding company may seek surplus reinsurance to limit the losses it might incur from a small number of large claims as a result of random fluctuations in experience. In a 9 line surplus treaty the reinsurer would then accept up to $900,000 (9 lines). So if the insurance company issues a policy for $100,000, they would keep all of the premiums and losses from that policy. If they issue a $200,000 policy, they would give (cede) half of the premiums and losses to the reinsurer (1 line each). The maximum automatic underwriting capacity of the cedent would be $1,000,000 in this example. Any policy larger than this would require facultative reinsurance.

Non-proportional
Under non-proportional reinsurance the reinsurer only pays out if the total claim(s) suffered by the insurer exceed a stated amount, which is called the "retention" or "priority". For instance the insurer may be prepared to accept a total loss up to $1 million, and purchases a layer of reinsurance of $4 million in excess of this $1 million. If a loss of $3 million were then to occur, the insurer would bear $1 million of the loss and would recover $2 million from its reinsurer. In this example, the insurer also retains any loss over $5 million unless it has purchased a further excess layer of reinsurance.

The main forms of non-proportional reinsurance are excess of loss and stop loss.

Excess of loss reinsurance can have three forms - "Per Risk XL" (Working XL), "Per Occurrence or Per Event XL" (Catastrophe or Cat XL), and "Aggregate XL".

In per risk, the cedent's insurance policy limits are greater than the reinsurance retention. For example, an insurance company might insure commercial property risks with policy limits up to $10 million, and then buy per risk reinsurance of $5 million in excess of $5 million. In this case a loss of $6 million on that policy will result in the recovery of $1 million from the reinsurer. These contracts usually contain event limits to prevent their misuse as a substitute for Catastrophe XLs.

In catastrophe excess of loss, the cedent's retention is usually a multiple of the underlying policy limits, and the reinsurance contract usually contains a two risk warranty (i.e. they are designed to protect the cedent against catastrophic events that involve more than one policy, usually very many policies). For example, an insurance company issues homeowners' policies with limits of up to $500,000 and then buys catastrophe reinsurance of $22,000,000 in excess of $3,000,000. In that case, the insurance company would only recover from reinsurers in the event of multiple policy losses in one event (e.g., hurricane, earthquake, flood).

Aggregate XL affords a frequency protection to the reinsured. For instance if the company retains $1 million net any one vessel, $5 million annual aggregate limit in excess of $5m annual aggregate deductible, the cover would equate to 5 total losses (or more partial losses) in excess of 5 total losses (or more partial losses). Aggregate covers can also be linked to the cedent's gross premium income during a 12-month period, with limit and deductible expressed as percentages and amounts. Such covers are then known as "stop loss" contracts.

Risks attaching basis
A basis under which reinsurance is provided for claims arising from policies commencing during the period to which the reinsurance relates. The insurer knows there is coverage during the whole policy period even if claims are only discovered or made later on.

All claims from cedent underlying policies incepting during the period of the reinsurance contract are covered even if they occur after the expiration date of the reinsurance contract. Any claims from cedent underlying policies incepting outside the period of the reinsurance contract are not covered even if they occur during the period of the reinsurance contract.

Losses occurring basis
A Reinsurance treaty under which all claims occurring during the period of the contract, irrespective of when the underlying policies incepted, are covered. Any losses occurring after the contract expiration date are not covered.

As opposed to claims-made or risks attaching contracts. Insurance coverage is provided for losses occurring in the defined period. This is the usual basis of cover for short tail business.

Claims-made basis
A policy which covers all claims reported to an insurer within the policy period irrespective of when they occurred.

Contracts
Most of the above examples concern reinsurance contracts (treaty contracts) that cover more than one policy. Reinsurance can also be purchased on a per policy basis, in which case it is known as facultative reinsurance. Facultative reinsurance can be written on either a proportional or excess of loss basis. Facultative reinsurance contracts are commonly memorialized in relatively brief contracts known as facultative certificates and often are used for large or unusual risks that do not fit within standard reinsurance treaties due to their exclusions. The term of a facultative agreement coincides with the term of the policy. Facultative reinsurance is usually purchased by the insurance underwriter who underwrote the original insurance policy, whereas treaty reinsurance is typically purchased by an outwards reinsurance manager, or other senior executive at the insurance company.

The reinsurer's liability will usually cover the whole lifetime of the original insurance, once it is written. However the question arises of when either party can choose to cease the reinsurance in respect of future new business. Reinsurance treaties can either be written on a "continuous" or "term" basis. A continuous contract has no predetermined end date, but generally either party can give 90 days notice to cancel or amend the treaty for new business. A term agreement has a built-in expiration date. It is common for insurers and reinsurers to have long-term relationships that span many years. Reinsurance treaties are typically longer documents than facultative certificates, containing many of their own terms that are distinct from the terms of the direct insurance policies that they reinsure. However, even most reinsurance treaties are relatively short documents considering the number and variety of risks and lines of business that the treaties reinsure and the dollars involved in the transactions. They rely heavily on industry practice. There are not "standard" reinsurance contracts. However, many reinsurance contracts do include some commonly used provisions and provisions imbued with considerable industry common and practice.

Fronting
Sometimes insurance companies wish to offer insurance in jurisdictions where they are not licensed, or where it considers that local regulations are too onerous: for example, an insurer may wish to offer an insurance programme to a multinational company, to cover property and liability risks in many countries around the world. In such situations, the insurance company may find a local insurance company which is authorised in the relevant country, arrange for the local insurer to issue an insurance policy covering the risks in that country, and enter into a reinsurance contract with the local insurer to transfer the risks to itself. In the event of a loss, the policyholder would claim against the local insurer under the local insurance policy, the local insurer would pay the claim and would claim reimbursement under the reinsurance contract. Such an arrangement is called "fronting". Fronting is also sometimes used where an insurance buyer requires its insurers to have a certain financial strength rating and the prospective insurer does not satisfy that requirement: the prospective insurer may be able to persuade another insurer, with the requisite credit rating, to provide the coverage to the insurance buyer, and to take out reinsurance in respect of the risk. An insurer which acts as a "fronting insurer" receives a fronting fee for this service to cover administration and the potential default of the reinsurer. The fronting insurer is taking a risk in such transactions, because it has an obligation to pay its insurance claims even if the reinsurer becomes insolvent and fails to reimburse the claims.

Many reinsurance placements are not placed with a single reinsurer but are shared between a number of reinsurers. For example, a $30,000,000 excess of $20,000,000 layer may be shared by 30 or more reinsurers. The reinsurer who sets the terms (premium and contract conditions) for the reinsurance contract is called the lead reinsurer; the other companies subscribing to the contract are called following reinsurers. Alternatively, one reinsurer can accept the whole of the reinsurance and then retrocede it (pass it on in a further reinsurance arrangement) to other companies.

Using game-theoretic modeling, Professors Michael R. Powers (Temple University) and Martin Shubik (Yale University) have argued that the number of active reinsurers in a given national market should be approximately equal to the square-root of the number of primary insurers active in the same market. Econometric analysis has provided empirical support for the Powers-Shubik rule.

Ceding companies often choose their reinsurers with great care as they are exchanging insurance risk for credit risk. Risk managers monitor reinsurers' financial ratings (S&P, A.M. Best, etc.) and aggregated exposures regularly.

Because of the governance effect insurance/cedent companies can have on society, reinsurers can indirectly have societal impact as well, due to reinsurer underwriting and claims philosophies imposed on those underlying carriers which affects how the cedents offer coverage in the market. However, reinsurer governance is voluntarily accepted by cedents via contract to allow cedents the opportunity to rent reinsurer capital to expand cedent market share or limit their risk.

title: Reinsurance


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Communes of the Lot department

The following is a list of the 313 communes of the Lot department of France.

The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
 * Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Cahors
 * Communauté de communes du Causse de Labastide Murat
 * Communauté de communes Causses et Vallée de la Dordogne
 * Communauté de communes Cazals-Salviac
 * Communauté de communes Grand-Figeac
 * Communauté de communes Ouest Aveyron Communauté
 * Communauté de communes du Pays de Lalbenque-Limogne
 * Communauté de communes du Quercy Blanc
 * Communauté de communes Quercy-Bouriane
 * Communauté de communes de la Vallée du Lot et du Vignoble

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Communes of the Lot department


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Talk:San people

Images
i feel as if the images shown are a bit wonky and should be grouped into a whole thing. Because it covers up a lot of the page. Specifically the Society part  48JcL48  t  00:07, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:San people


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Edward Pierson Ramsay

Edward Pierson Ramsay FRSE FLS LLD (3 December 1842 – 16 December 1916) was an Australian zoologist who specialised in ornithology.

Early life
Ramsay was born in Dobroyd Estate, Long Cove, Sydney, and educated at St Mark's Collegiate School, The King's School, Parramatta. He studied medicine from 1863 to 1865 at the University of Sydney but did not graduate.

Career
Although he never had had any formal scientific training in zoology, Ramsay had a keen interest in natural history and published many papers. In 1863 he was treasurer of the Entomological Society of New South Wales, he contributed a paper on the "Oology of Australia" to the Philosophical Society in July 1865, and when this society was merged into the Royal Society of New South Wales, he was made a life member in recognition of the work he had done for the Philosophical Society.

In 1868 Ramsay joined with his brothers in a sugar-growing plantation in Queensland which, however, was not successful. Ramsay was one of the foundation members of the Linnean Society of New South Wales when it was formed in 1874, and a member of its council from the beginning until 1892. He became the first Australian-born Curator of the Australian Museum and built up a large variety of native weapons, dresses, utensils and ornaments illustrating the ethnology of Polynesia and Australia. From 1876 until 1894, when he had to resign due to his declining health, he published a Catalogue of the Australian Birds in the Australian Museum at Sydney in four parts.

In 1883 Ramsay traveled to London to attend the International Fisheries Exhibition. At that time he met Military Surgeon Francis Day who had collected fishes over several decades in India, Burma, Malaysia and other areas in southern Asia. Ramsay negotiated purchase a portion of Day's collection, including about 150 of Day's type specimens.

Presumably during the same trip to Britain he visited Edinburgh, as he was elected an Ordinary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (requiring his physical presence) in April 1884. His proposers were Sir John Murray, Sir William Turner, James Geikie and William Carmichael McIntosh.

Late life
After his resignation as Curator, Ramsay served the Australian Museum as "consulting ornithologist" until 1909. He died on 16 December 1916 because of carcinoma.

Taxa described by him
Among organisms Ramsay described are:
 * northern death adder (Acanthophis praelongus)
 * the pig-nosed turtle (Carettochelys insculpta)
 * the giant bandicoot (Peroryctes broadbenti)
 * the grey-headed robin (Heteromyias cinereifrons)
 * The freshwater anchovy (Thryssa scratchleyi)
 * Papuan king parrot (Alisterus chloropterus)

See Category:Taxa named by Edward Pierson Ramsay.

Taxa named in his honor
Ramsay is commemorated in the scientific names of two species of Australian snakes, Aspidites ramsayi and Austrelaps ramsayi.

The Spotted grubfish Parapercis ramsayi is believed to be named after him.

Ramsayornis is a meliphagid genus which is named after him. It contains two species:
 * Bar-breasted Honeyeater Ramsayornis fasciatus (Gould, 1843)
 * Brown-backed Honeyeater Ramsayornis modestus (Gray, GR, 1858)

title: Edward Pierson Ramsay


text: User talk:69.192.223.99

title: User talk:69.192.223.99


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Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department

The following is a list of the 591 communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department of France.

The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2022):
 * Métropole du Grand Nancy
 * Communauté d'agglomération Grand Longwy Agglomération
 * Communauté d'agglomération de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges (partly)
 * Communauté de communes du Bassin de Pompey
 * Communauté de communes du Bassin de Pont-à-Mousson
 * Communauté de communes Cœur du Pays-Haut (partly)
 * Communauté de communes Mad et Moselle (partly)
 * Communauté de communes Meurthe, Mortagne, Moselle
 * Communauté de communes Moselle et Madon
 * Communauté de communes Orne Lorraine Confluences
 * Communauté de communes du Pays de Colombey et du Sud Toulois (partly)
 * Communauté de communes du Pays Haut Val d'Alzette (partly)
 * Communauté de communes du Pays du Saintois
 * Communauté de communes du Pays du Sânon
 * Communauté de communes des Pays du Sel et du Vermois
 * Communauté de communes de Seille et Grand Couronné
 * Communauté de communes Terre Lorraine du Longuyonnais
 * Communauté de communes Terres Touloises
 * Communauté de communes du Territoire de Lunéville à Baccarat
 * Communauté de communes de Vezouze en Piémont


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Talk:Afghan Turkestan

Untitled
I've done some updating, though I'm hazy on the boundaries of the old provinces. The old province included at least some territory of the current provinces mentioned, but it may have included only part of each, and/or parts of others. Markalexander100 08:03, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

size?
The article currently states: However, the red area in this map is clearly not 2/9ths, more like 1/20th....Geo Swan 11:52, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

Note The map is WP:OR and unsourced. Please don't use it. --Wario-Man (talk) 09:09, 13 November 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Afghan Turkestan


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Rafael Núñez

Rafael Wenceslao Núñez Moledo (September 28, 1825 – September 18, 1894) was a Colombian author, lawyer, journalist and politician, who was elected president of Colombia in 1880 and in 1884. Núñez was the leader of the so-called "Regeneration" process which produced the Colombian Constitution of 1886 which was to remain until 1991.

Early life
Núñez was the first of three children of cousins Dolores García Moledo and Colonel Francisco Núñez García, who were married on October 6, 1824. At 15, he was accepted by General Francisco Carmona in the rebel troops to fight in the War of the Supremes.

Little is known about the early years of Núñez, but he certainly served as a Circuit Judge in Chiriquí, Panama in 1848.

Political career
It is known that Núñez participated as a 15 year old in the War of the Supremes (1840), the first of many Colombian civil wars, which was caused by the military uprising of a number of political leaders (the "Supremes") in the provinces in the South of the country against the centralist and conservative government of José Ignacio de Márquez. Núñez joined the revolutionary side and participated in the siege to his own hometown, Cartagena. Following the war, he entered college and obtained a degree in Law from the Universidad del Magdalena e Istmo in 1844. By 1848 Núñez had founded in Cartagena, Colombia, the newspaper La Democracia, with the intention of promoting the presidential election of General José María Obando, the leader of the insurrection in the War of the Supremes, as a successor to José Hilario López. The same year, Obando had been elected as governor of the Province of Cartagena and he appointed Núñez as Chief of Staff in Cartagena's government, thus beginning his political life. He would maintain the position until 1853, with Obando as president, when he decided to move to Bogotá to become a member of the Colombian Congress, and where he made a name for himself by fighting the federalist and socialist ideas of Manuel Murillo Toro. Following the coup against Obando in 1854 by José María Melo, Núñez went into hiding, but then was elected as governor of the department of Bolívar, which contributed to the defeat of Melo. The newly appointed president Manuel María Mallarino made Núñez, minister (secretary) of War in 1855, and then Minister of the Treasury. His excellent results as Minister of Treasury would bring him wide recognition. In 1855, he also published his first volume of political essays, under the name of La Federación.

Later, under the government of Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera, he served as Minister of the Treasury. After participating briefly in the Convention of Ríonegro which would produce the Constitution of Rionegro as a representative of the state of Panama, he decided to leave the country in 1863. He first lived in New York City for two years, writing for a number of newspapers both in Colombia and in Spain. Then, he was appointed consul of the United States of Colombia in Le Havre by president Murillo Toro, and later, he was appointed as the Colombian Consul in Liverpool.

He returned to Colombia in 1876 at the center of a political fight. He had been nominated as a candidate for the presidency that year but did not win the election. He was elected as a senator for the State of Bolívar, however. From 1878 to 1888, he wrote hundreds of influential articles related to the constitutional reform for the newspapers La Luz and La Nación of Bogota, and 'El Porvenir' and El Impulso of Cartagena. He also wrote the lyrics for the Colombian national anthem.

He was elected President of Colombia for the 1880–1882 presidential term. Again, in 1884, he was re-elected President of Colombia with the support of the Conservative Party, promoting a movement that he called the "Regeneration".

Third Presidential Term and the Constitution of 1886
He was the force behind La Regeneración (Regeneration) movement of 1884 and the new Constitution for Colombia of 1886. The Regeneration program advanced by Núñez opposed most liberal reforms established in the Constitution of Rionegro, and its victory changed the country from a decentralized federal system to a centralized system with a strong central presidency. Opposing the conservative and centralist tendencies in Núñez proposal, liberal leaders issued yet another civil war in 1884 and 1885. The conservative forces in favor of president Núñez finally surrendered the liberal troops in 1885, which led to Núñez' famous proclamation: "Sirs, the Constitution of 1863 is no more." Following this military victory, on September 10, 1885, Núñez summoned two representatives from each of the sovereign states to initiate the Constituent Assembly, which was installed on November 11 of the same year.

The constitutional reform of 1886, carried out with the collaboration of Miguel Antonio Caro, was possibly the most outstanding political feat of Núñez. This Colombian Constitution of 1886, with some later modifications, was in effect until the proclamation of a new one in 1991, and in addition to reestablishing a strong Centralist form of government, changing the name of the country from the United States of Colombia to that of Republic of Colombia, it also reestablished the links with the Vatican, and made Catholicism the official religion, leaving education in the hands of the Catholic church. The Constitution also changed the duration of presidential terms from two to six years, left the election of the president of the Republic to the Congress, and changed the old states into Departments which would be ruled by a governor appointed by the president of the Republic, hence giving a lot of power to the president.

He was again re-elected to be President of Colombia in 1886 and in 1892 but did not take office for his last term. He had moved back to Cartagena by then as his health deteriorated. Rather, his vice-president, Miguel Antonio Caro was sworn in as the de facto president for the presidential term of 1892-1898. While his contact with the central government was thus only indirect, Núñez remained an important political figure, and his letters and columns and essays were very influential. Moreover, many political figures of the time went to visit him constantly in Cartagena. His health continued worsening and he finally died on September 18, 1894, following a fever that left him in bed and speechless for a couple of days. Núñez died being officially appointed as president.

Legacy
In his first administration, Núñez restored peace and order, which brought him wide popularity. He allowed the Catholic bishops, who were in exile, to return to the country. He created the Military Academy and the National Academy of Music. He inaugurated the international telegraph service. He re-established diplomatic relationships with Spain, which had been severed since the War of Independence. Also, he signed international treaties of commerce and cultural exchange with France and the United Kingdom.

During his second administration, Núñez sponsored, championed and enacted a major and fundamental overhaul of the nation's political structure, which ended with the adoption and enactment of the new Constitution of the Republic of Colombia, which came to be known as the Colombian Constitution of 1886.

Literature
In 1874, while in Europe, he had many of his most important writings published.

Núñez was the author of the words to the national anthem of Colombia, ¡Oh Gloria Inmarcesible!.

Núñez is mentioned in Gabriel García Márquez's 1985 novel, Love in the Time of Cholera (Amor en los tiempos del cólera).

title: Rafael Núñez


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Ford Essex V4 engine

The Essex V4 is a V4 petrol engine manufactured by the Ford Motor Company from 1965 to 1977. The engine was available in both 1.7 L and 2.0 L capacities. Designed by Ford of Britain, the Essex V4 was produced at a plant in Dagenham, originally in the county of Essex, later part of east London. The engine was used in the Ford Corsair, Capri Mk I, Consul/Granada Mk I, Ford Zephyr Mk IV and the Ford Transit Mk I van.

History
Development of the Essex engine family began in 1961. While design of the new engine would be handled by engine design director Alan Worters and a team consisting of Alan Aitken, John Pask, and George Soule, a product planning team would also be involved. The first product strategy meeting was chaired by Ford product planning manager Terence Beckett. Philip Ives was manager of a new engine and transmissions planning department.

The project's goal was to produce an engine suitable for use in both passenger cars and work vans, with marine and industrial applications also under consideration. Right from the outset both high- and low-compression petrol versions were planned, as was a diesel version. For the van application, the product planners examined the features of the market-leading Volkswagen Transporter. While Ford would not duplicate the Volkswagen's rear-engined drivetrain, the advantages of its flat floor and unimpeded driver access led to the team proposing a vehicle with a V4 engine mounted ahead of the driver to free up cargo space. In the end both a V4 and V6 engine were approved, sharing a 60° included angle between the cylinder banks and an oversquare bore and stroke ratio. The resulting Essex V4 and Essex V6 engines share the same combustion chamber design and some internal dimensions and have many parts in common, including pistons, valves, and spark plugs.

While work was progressing in England on the van to be called the V-series, Ford of Germany was proceeding with a design for a new commercial van of their own to be called the Transit. Ford in Germany already had a V4 engine in production; the American-designed Ford Taunus V4 engine, and it was this engine that they proposed to use in their new vehicle. Both van projects were presented to management, who was already moving to consolidate both product lines and corporate divisions in Europe and Britain. The decision was made to approve a single body and chassis but allow England and Germany to use their own engines. The V-series name was also dropped in favour of the Transit name in England.

A £14 million investment in renovations to the Dagenham plant where the new engines would be produced was funded. The Essex V4 first appeared in 1965 in both the Ford Transit Mk1 van and the Ford Corsair saloon.

Technical details
The Essex V4 is a 60° V4 engine with a cast iron cylinder block and heads. The engine block was just 20 in long. The engine uses crossflow cylinder heads with 2 overhead valves per cylinder operated through pushrods and rocker arms by a single camshaft in the block. Inlet valves had a diameter of 41 mm, while exhaust valves were 37 mm.

All Essex V4s had the same 93.66 mm bore diameter, but the 1.7 L version had a stroke length of 60.35 mm and the 2.0 L version had a stroke length of 72.42 mm. Connecting rod lengths were the same, so the different displacements were achieved by changing the crankshaft throw lengths and the piston heights. The cylinder firing order was 1-3-2-4.

The 1.7 L and 2.0 L engines in the Transit van had a standard compression ratio of 7.7:1. A ratio of 9.1:1 was standard for 1.7 L engines in passenger cars, while 8.9:1 was standard for 2.0 L engines in passenger cars and was optional for the 2.0 L in the Transit. Power output varied from 73 hp for the low-compression 1.7 L engine to 93 hp for the high-compression 2.0 L engine, while torque ranged from 100 lbft to 123.5 lbft. With the Essex V4 engine's Heron cylinder head design and bowl-in-crown pistons, different compression ratios were achieved with different cylinder heads. Low-compression cylinder heads such as the ones fitted to Ford Transits had shallow combustion chambers in them while high-compression heads were completely flat.

To counteract the engine vibration inherent in a 60° V4, Ford added a balance shaft to the Essex V4. In the related Essex V6 these vibrations were less pronounced, so the V6 did not have a balance shaft. Even with the balance shaft, and notwithstanding Ford's promoting the V4-equipped Corsair as "The car that is seen and not heard", reviewers of V4-powered cars frequently commented on the engine's lack of smoothness.

For the 1967 release of the Corsair 2000E the 2.0 L engine received larger ports, a new camshaft, and a 2-bbl Weber 32DIF carburettor on a new intake manifold in place of the earlier 1-bbl Zenith Stromberg. These changes brought horsepower to 97 hp @ 5000 rpm, up from 88 hp. A revised clutch and flywheel were fitted in July 1968, and in October of the same year the oil pump was redesigned.

Between 1971 and 1972 the Essex V4 (and V6) engines were upgraded again. Power output increased by using a different camshaft, changing the shape of the inlet ports from an O shape to a D shape and increasing the compression ratio slightly from 8.9:1 to 9.0:1. Other changes included moving the oil dipstick from the front to the left side of the engine, and making the camshaft drive gear out of steel with fibre teeth.

The change to the camshaft drive gear was made to address a weakness in the engine. This timing gear was originally a fibre composite part that could break at high rpm or with age. Since the engine was an interference type, a failed timing gear made it possible for the pistons to contact any valves left open and do significant damage. Another weakness was in the oil pump drive. The camshaft drove the distributor (Ford or Lucas) through a skew gear, which in turn drove a hexagonal shaft that powered the oil pump. If the hex shaft rounded off it would no longer engage with the distributor drive and the oil pump would stop, starving the engine of oil.

Other problems experienced with early engines included leaking head gaskets, worn balance shaft bearings, and big-end or main bearing failures.

Applications
Released in 1965, the MK1 Transit with its flat front and short bonnet was designed for the Essex V4. Both 1.7 L and 2.0 L versions were available at the outset. The planned diesel version of the Essex did not reach production, so a Perkins inline-4 diesel engine was made available in Mk1 Transits, which required a longer "Bullnose" bonnet to clear the longer engine.

Also debuting in 1965, the Ford Corsair offered both the 1.7 L and 2.0 L versions of the engine. Coachbuilder Crayford Engineering produced their own Ford Corsair V4 GT Crayford Convertible with the 2.0 L V4 from 1966 to 1968. A V4-powered estate conversion was built by coachbuilder Abbott. A revised Essex V4 with a 2-bbl carburettor was fitted in the 2000E version of the Corsair. The most powerful factory version of the Essex V4 appeared in the Ford Corsair 2000E Deluxe and produced 103 hp.

The revised Zephyr Mk IV line debuted in 1966. The Zephyr 4 model was powered by the 2.0 L Essex. The model remained in production until 1972.

In 1969 the Capri 2000GT mounted a 2.0 L Essex V4 producing 92 hp @ 5500 rpm and 141 Nm of torque @ 3600 rpm. When the Capri II was released in 1974, the 2.0 L Essex V4 was replaced by either the 2.0 L OHC Pinto TL20 inline-4 or the 2.0 L Ford Cologne V6 engine.

The Mk1 Granada, released in March 1972 as the Corsair's replacement, was also available with the 2.0 L Essex V4. The Granada-based Ford Consul offered either the 1.7 L or 2.0 L displacements from 1972 to 1974.

The Essex V4 was used by Marcos sports cars in their Marcos 2 litre model. Released in 1969, this version remained in production until 1971; the company went into receivership one year later. When the Marcos GT was revived in component form in 1982 the Essex V4 was included in the list of supported engines. Total production of V4 Marcos cars is usually estimated to have been 78 units, although some references report as few as just 40 cars.

South Africa
The 2.0 L Essex V4 was also built in South Africa, where it was originally fitted to the Corsair. Due to local content laws, the South African motor had a more varied usage, uniquely being fitted to the Cortina TC and to the 17M (Taunus P7), as well as to the Capri. By the early seventies, a more refined version of the engine produced 76.6 kW SAE, or 64.7 kW net — similar to the DIN rating.

title: Ford Essex V4 engine


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Liner notes

Liner notes (also sleeve notes or album notes) are the writings found on the sleeves of LP record albums and in booklets that come inserted into the compact disc jewel case or cassette j-cards.

Origin
Liner notes are descended from the program notes for musical concerts, and developed into notes that were printed on the outer album jacket or the inner sleeve used to protect a traditional 12-inch vinyl record, i.e., long playing or gramophone record album. The term descends from the name "record liner" or "album liner". Album liner notes survived format changes from vinyl LP to cassette to CD. These notes can be sources of information about the contents of the recording as well as broader cultural topics.

Common material
Such notes often contained a mix of factual and anecdotal material, and occasionally a discography for the artist or the issuing record label. Liner notes were also an occasion for thoughtful signed essays on the artist by another party, often a sympathetic music journalist, a custom that has largely died out. However, the liner note essay has survived in reissues and retrospective compilations, particularly in box sets. It is also a tradition in Japan, especially for foreign artist releases. Liner notes often include complete song lyrics for the album.

Biographies
Liner notes now usually include information about the musician, lyrics, a personnel list, and other credits to people the musicians want to thank and people or companies involved in the production of the music. They also can give details on the extent of each musical piece, and sometimes place them in historical or social context. Liner notes for classical music recordings often provide information in several languages; if the piece includes vocal parts, they will often include a libretto, possibly also translated into several languages.

Label Copy
The factual information in liner notes comes from the Label Copy. Label Copy is the record label's official info sheet for the published release. It contains information that accompanies a musical work, including artist name, song title, song length, ISRC code, catalogue number, composer, publisher, rights holder, technical and artistic credits, A&R and producer credits, recording dates and locations. In digital music, the label copy is contained within what’s known as metadata.

Metadata
Liner notes sometimes provide metadata that can help when cataloguing private or public collections of sound recordings. However, the information provided on liner notes varies considerably depending on the studio or label which produced the record. It also varies how much of the metadata digital media services such as Spotify and iTunes make public. In 2018, Tidal launched official music credits supplied by distributors across their database of 90 million recordings. In 2019 Australian company Jaxsta launched a database of official music credits and liner notes. The database is made up of content-owner supplied metadata rather than crowd-sourced data, making previous hidden metadata more widely available to the music industry as well as the public domain. In 2019, French company Qobuz launched official music credits and digital liner notes booklets appearing in the player. Pandora also launched full credits within their player in 2019. Metadata credits are sent from official sources to all databases and streaming services using the DDEX ERN standard, however not all services display this data to the consumer.

Digital liner notes
Increasingly and due to the rise of digital downloads, a digital booklet is being introduced to compensate for the lack of a physical booklet. Apple Inc. also introduced iTunes LP which features interactive menus instead of simple pages. Spotify also has songwriter and producer credits available for individual tracks. Lyrics are also available on certain tracks, in collaboration with Genius. , it was estimated that up to 94% of recordings are now supplying the official music credits feed direct from the owners of the data to streaming services such as Spotify, Amazon, Google, Tidal, Pandora, Qobuz and more, as well as databases such as Gracenote, but not all services are displaying the data they are sent at this stage.

Awards
A Grammy Award for Best Album Notes has been given annually since the 6th Annual Grammy Awards, May 12, 1964.

title: Liner notes


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Transit of Mercury

A transit of Mercury across the Sun takes place when the planet Mercury passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet. During a transit, Mercury appears as a tiny black dot moving across the Sun as the planet obscures a small portion of the solar disk. Because of orbital alignments, transits viewed from Earth occur in May or November. The last four such transits occurred on May 7, 2003; November 8, 2006; May 9, 2016; and November 11, 2019. The next will occur on November 13, 2032. A typical transit lasts several hours. Mercury transits are much more frequent than transits of Venus, with about 13 or 14 per century, primarily because Mercury is closer to the Sun and orbits it more rapidly.

On June 3, 2014, the Mars rover Curiosity observed the planet Mercury transiting the Sun, marking the first time a planetary transit has been observed from a celestial body besides Earth.

Scientific investigation
The orbit of the planet Mercury lies interior to that of the Earth, and thus it can come into an inferior conjunction with the Sun. When Mercury is near the node of its orbit, it passes through the orbital plane of the Earth. If an inferior conjunction occurs as Mercury is passing through its orbital node, the planet can be seen to pass across the disk of the Sun in an event called a transit. Depending on the chord of the transit and the position of the planet Mercury in its orbit, the maximum length of this event is 7h 50m.

Transit events are useful for studying the planet and its orbit. Examples of the scientific investigations based on transits of Mercury are:
 * Measuring the scale of the Solar System.
 * Investigations of the variability of the Earth's rotation and of the tidal acceleration of the Moon.
 * Measuring the mass of Venus from secular variations in Mercury's orbit.
 * Looking for long term variations in the solar radius.
 * Investigating the black drop effect, including calling into question the purported discovery of the atmosphere of Venus during the 1761 transit.
 * Assessing the likely drop in light level in an exoplanet transit.

Occurrence
Transits of Mercury can only occur when the Earth is aligned with a node of Mercury's orbit. Currently that alignment occurs within a few days of May 8 (descending node) and November 10 (ascending node), with the angular diameter of Mercury being about 12″ for May transits, and 10″ for November transits. The average date for a transit increases over centuries as a result of Mercury's nodal precession and Earth's axial precession.

Transits of Mercury occur on a regular basis. As explained in 1882 by Newcomb, the interval between passages of Mercury through the ascending node of its orbit is 87.969 days, and the interval between the Earth's passage through that same longitude is 365.254 days. Using continued fraction approximations of the ratio of these values, it can be shown that Mercury will make an almost integral number of revolutions about the Sun over intervals of 6, 7, 13, 33, 46, and 217 years.

In 1894 Crommelin noted that at these intervals, the successive paths of Mercury relative to the Sun are consistently displaced northwards or southwards. He noted the displacements as:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Interval!! May transits !! November transits
 * +Displacements at subsequent transits
 * After 6 years|| 65′ 37″ S|| 31′ 35″ N
 * After 7 years|| 48′ 21″ N|| 23′ 16″ S
 * Hence after 13 years (6 + 7)|| 17′ 16″ S|| 8′ 19″ N
 * ... 20 years (6 + 2 × 7)|| 31′ 05″ N|| 14′ 57″ S
 * ... 33 years (2 × 6 + 3 × 7)|| 13′ 49″ N|| 6′ 38″ S
 * ... 46 years (3 × 13 + 7)|| 3′ 27″ S||  1′ 41″ N
 * ... 217 years (14 × 13 + 5 × 7)|| 0′ 17″ N || 0′ 14″ N
 * }
 * ... 33 years (2 × 6 + 3 × 7)|| 13′ 49″ N|| 6′ 38″ S
 * ... 46 years (3 × 13 + 7)|| 3′ 27″ S||  1′ 41″ N
 * ... 217 years (14 × 13 + 5 × 7)|| 0′ 17″ N || 0′ 14″ N
 * }
 * ... 217 years (14 × 13 + 5 × 7)|| 0′ 17″ N || 0′ 14″ N
 * }
 * }

Comparing these displacements with the solar diameter (about 31.7′ in May, and 32.4′ in November) the following may be deduced about the interval between transits:

 * For May transits, intervals of 6 and 7 years are not possible. For November transits, an interval of 6 years is possible but rare (the last such pair was 1993 and 1999, with both transits being very close to the solar limb), while an interval of 7 years is to be expected.
 * An interval of 13 years is to be expected for both May and November transits.
 * An interval of 20 years is possible but rare for a May transit, but is to be expected for November transits.
 * An interval of 33 years is to be expected for both May and November transits.
 * A transit having a similar path across the sun will occur 46 (and 171) years later – for both November and May transits.
 * A transit having an almost identical path across the Sun will occur 217 years later – for both November and May transits.

Transits that occur 46 years apart can be grouped into a series. For November transits each series includes about 20 transits over 874 years, with the path of Mercury across the Sun passing further north than for the previous transit. For May transits each series includes about 10 transits over 414 years, with the path of Mercury across the Sun passing further south than for the previous transit. Some authors have allocated a series number to transits on the basis of this 46-year grouping.

Similarly transits that occur 217 years apart can be grouped into a series. For November transits each series would include about 135 transits over 30,000 years. For May transits each series would include about 110 transits over 24,000 years. For both the May and November series, the path of Mercury across the Sun passes further north than for the previous transit. Series numbers have not been traditionally allocated on the basis of the 217 year grouping.

Predictions of transits of Mercury covering many years are available at NASA, SOLEX, and Fourmilab.

Observation
At inferior conjunction, the planet Mercury subtends an angle of $12 arcsecond$, which, during a transit, is too small to be seen without a telescope. A common observation made at a transit is recording the times when the disk of Mercury appears to be in contact with the limb of the Sun. Those contacts are traditionally referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th contacts – with the 2nd and 3rd contacts occurring when the disk of Mercury is fully on the disk of the sun. As a general rule, 1st and 4th contacts cannot be accurately detected, while 2nd and 3rd contacts are readily visible within the constraints of the Black Drop effect, irradiation, atmospheric conditions, and the quality of the optics being used.

Observed contact times for transits between 1677 and 1881 are given in S Newcomb's analysis of transits of Mercury. Observed 2nd and 3rd contacts times for transits between 1677 and 1973 are given in Royal Greenwich Observatory Bulletin No.181, 359-420 (1975).

Partial
Sometimes Mercury appears to only graze the Sun during a transit. There are two possible scenarios:

 * Firstly, it is possible for a transit to occur such that, at mid-transit, the disk of Mercury has fully entered the disk of the Sun as seen from some parts of the world, while as seen from other parts of the world the disk of Mercury has only partially entered the disk of the Sun. The transit of November 15, 1999 was such a transit,  with the transit being a full transit for most of the world, but only a partial transit for Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica. The previous such transit was on October 28, 743 and the next will be on May 11, 2391. While these events are very rare, two such transits will occur within $2 1/2$ years in December 6149 and June 6152.
 * Secondly, it is possible for a transit to occur in which, at mid-transit, the disk of Mercury has partially entered the disk of the Sun as seen from some parts of the world, while as seen from other parts of the world Mercury completely misses the Sun. Such a transit last occurred on May 11, 1937, when a partial transit occurred in southern Africa and southern Asia and no transit was visible from Europe and northern Asia. The previous such transit was on October 21, 1342 and the next will be on May 13, 2608.

The possibility that, at mid-transit, Mercury is seen to be fully on the solar disk from some parts of the world, and completely miss the Sun as seen from other parts of the world cannot occur.

History
The first observation of a Mercury transit was observed on November 7, 1631 by Pierre Gassendi. He was surprised by the small size of the planet compared to the Sun. Johannes Kepler had predicted the occurrence of transits of Mercury and Venus in his ephemerides published in 1630.

Images of the November 15, 1999 transit from the Transition Region and Coronal explorer (TRACE) satellite were on Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) on November 19. Three APODs featured the May 9, 2016 transit.

1832 event
The Shuckburgh telescope of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in London was used for the 1832 Mercury transit. It was equipped with a micrometer by Dollond and was used for a report of the events as seen through the small refractor. By observing the transit in combination with timing it and taking measures, a diameter for the planet was taken. They also reported the peculiar effects that they compared to pressing a coin into the Sun. The observer remarked:

1907 event
For the 1907 Mercury transit, telescopes used at the Paris Observatory included:

 * Foucault-Eichens reflector (40 cm aperture)
 * Foucault-Eichens reflector (20 cm aperture)
 * Martin-Eichens reflector (40 cm aperture)
 * Several small refractors

The telescopes were mobile and were placed on the terrace for the several observations.

Chronology
The table below includes all historical transits of Mercury from 1605 on:

title: Transit of Mercury


text:
Optical disc packaging

Optical disc packaging is the packaging that accompanies CDs, DVDs, and other formats of optical discs. Most packaging is rigid or semi-rigid and designed to protect the media from scratches and other types of exposure damage.

Jewel case

A jewel case is a compact disc case that has been used since the compact disc was first released in 1982. It is a three-piece plastic case, measuring 142 ×, a volume of 177.5 cm3, which usually contains a compact disc along with the liner notes and a back card. Two opposing transparent halves are hinged together to form the casing, the back half holding a media tray that grips the disc by its hole. All three parts are made of injection-moulded polystyrene.

Around 1993 there was a general shift to the rear jewel case being made of clear plastic instead of black or coloured.

The front lid contains two, four, or six tabs to keep any liner notes in place. The liner notes typically will be a 120 × booklet, or a single 242 × leaf folded in half. In addition, there is usually a back card, 150 ×, underneath the media tray and visible through the clear back, often listing the track names, studio, copyright data and other information. The back card is folded into a flattened "U" shape, with the sides being visible along the ends (often referred to as the spine) of the case. The ends usually have the name of the release and the artist, and often label or catalogue information printed on them, and are designed to be visible when the case is stored vertically, 'book-style', on shelves.

The rear media tray snaps into the back cover and is responsible for securing the CD. This is achieved by a central circular hub of spring-loaded teeth that grip and effectively suspend the disc above the tray surface, preventing the recording surface from being scratched.

The jewel case is the standard case used by the majority of manufacturers and it is the most common type of case found in record and movie stores. Jewel cases are occasionally used for DVDs, but generally not for those that contain major film releases. Blank Blu-ray Disc media is also most commonly sold in standard-width jewel cases.

Origin
According to Philips, the name "jewel case" reflects either the generally high quality of the case design compared to initial attempts, or its appearance. According to one publication, initial attempts at packaging CDs were unsatisfactory. When the new design, by Peter Doodson, was found to be "virtually perfect" it was dubbed the "jewel case". Another publication quotes Doodson describing that he "specified polished ribs as they pick up the light and shine" and states that the resulting appearance led to the name.

Strengths
The CD jewel case has a tight and firm grip of the CD because of the tray's "teeth" or "lock". Because of this, even if the CD jewel case is turned upside-down, left, or right, the CD is held in place. Flimsier cases may cause the CD to become loose, or even fall out. Also, since the jewel case is made of plastic, it is sturdier compared to cardboard, paper, or foams. When pressure is applied to the CD jewel case, the case will break first before the CD. If the case is made of thin cardboard, there is a greater chance that the CD would break or get damaged because the weight is directed onto it.

The type of material of the CD jewel case allows storage of CDs for decades without ruining the CDs. The same is not as true with other cases, since paper can stick to the CDs due to air, humidity, and other factors. The CD jewel case may also be preferred because it offers orderliness on a shelf. Since the CD jewel case has existed for decades, there are many CD shelves, racks, and other products in the market that are made for CD jewel cases.

The CD jewel case is designed to carry a booklet, as well as to have panel inserts. These may be used to display album artwork, lyrics, photos, thank-yous, messages, biography, etc.

Because the CD jewel case is the standard, most-commonly used CD case, it is much cheaper. The price of the CD jewel case usually ranges from $0.75 to $0.95. That is a few cents cheaper than digipaks and other CD wallets. However, if large quantities of cases are needed, the price difference may be hundreds or thousands of US dollars.

Weaknesses
There are a number of shortcomings with the jewel case. The case is hinged on two brittle plastic arms, which often break if the case receives shock or stress due to being dropped. The teeth of the hub holding the disc are also prone to failure by snapping. There is a problem with the tabs ("half-moons") which hold the liner notes in place; sometimes, especially with larger booklets, the tabs grip the booklet too tightly, leading to tearing. When replacing the booklet, it can get snagged and crumple or rip. As noted above, some CD releases have only two tabs, which allows the booklet to be more easily removed and replaced (with the disadvantage of the booklet sometimes falling out if held the wrong way). Replacement jewel cases can be purchased, to replace those that have broken plastic arms or hub teeth.

Variations
[[File:Packaging Jewelcase CDSingle Slimcase.jpg|thumb|Jewel case types: 1. Original jewel case

2. CD-single

3. Slimcase]] Double disc albums can either be packaged in standard-thickness jewel cases with hinged media trays which can be lifted to reveal the second disc (trays hinged on the left are known as "Smart Tray" format; those hinged on the right are known as "Brilliant Box" format) or in a chubby jewel case, sometimes called a multi-CD jewel case, which is slightly thicker than two normal jewel cases stacked on top of each other and can hold from 2 and up to 6 CDs. Chubby jewel cases do not fit in some CD racks, however, some racks have a few extra wide slots specifically to accommodate them.

Jewel cases for CDs released early in the format's life featured frosted top and bottom spines as opposed to the ridged ones more commonly used. As a result of their rarity, these types of jewel cases are fairly coveted among collectors.

"Super Jewel Box" is a more advanced design which offers amongst other improvements a greatly strengthened hinge area. The depth of the disc tray is also greater, allowing for two discs to be placed on top of each other. The super jewel box cannot be used as a direct replacement for the older jewel case design as its card insert for the back is slightly different in size and shape. The super jewel box was developed by Philips and it was intended to be successor to the original jewel case. Some CD manufacturers (for example the high-end company Linn) are supplying them. The super jewel box is the conventional case for Super Audio CD (SACD) releases; a taller "Plus" size, midway between CD and DVD-Video size, is the conventional case for DVD-Audio, and as of mid-2006, the case format for all albums released by the Universal Music Group in Europe.

Many alternatives to the standard jewel case may also be found, including larger DVD-style cases with a more book-like shape. It is not uncommon to find CDs housed in custom cases, tins and boxes of varying shapes and sizes. Slipcases and other envelope-type designs are also occasionally used.

Some DualDiscs are packaged in jewel cases of a somewhat different design from the CD version; the inside edge is rounded instead of flat, and the physical position of the disc is moved slightly toward the spine to make room for a latch mechanism. The overall dimensions of a DualDisc case are roughly the same as a standard CD case. However, the hinge mechanism is smaller and cannot be dismantled as easily as on a standard jewel case.

Smaller jewel cases are used for 8 cm CD and DVD media; similar cases without the hub are used for MiniDisc and (magnetic) Zip disk media.

Additionally, larger jewel cases that were around the size of VHS keep cases were used for North American releases of games for the Sega CD, all North American releases of Sega Saturn games, and games released early in the original PlayStation's life cycle. Because the larger thickness of these cases put the CDs inside at greater risk of being accidentally knocked out of their hubs, large foam bricks were placed on top of the discs when packaged to hold them in place.

Slimline jewel case

Slimline jewel cases first became popular for CD singles sold in Japan and Europe, and have become a common space-saving packaging for burned CDs. The cases used for CD singles sold in Japan and Europe are 7 mm thick, with a "J-card" type inlay, showing cover art through the front of the case, and also through both the spine and part of the back of the case. The CD itself is usually inserted "upside-down" in the case, so that the artwork on the disc itself shows through the transparent back of the case.

Most slim jewel cases sold for burned CDs use the measure 142 ×, which is roughly half the thickness of a standard CD jewel case, allowing twice as many CDs to be stored in the same space, and will generally fit two to a slot in a standard CD rack. They generally do not have room for a full package insert booklet, only a slip of paper for a track listing or cover art, showing only through the front of the case. Unlike the standard jewel cases, slimline cases are made of two pieces rather than three and do not have a place for a back label. However, with this design the "spine" is narrower, making the discs more difficult to identify when stored on edge on a shelf.

External marketing packaging
In the U.S. and Canada, the jewel box of a music CD was originally packaged for retail sale in a large cardboard box called a longbox in order to fit in store fixtures designed for vinyl records, offer larger space for display of artwork and marketing blurbs, and deter shoplifting. This packaging was much-criticized as environmentally wasteful, and was eventually dropped by most retailers in the mid-1990s.

Around 1994, the top wrap-around label sticker began to appear on most CDs, to make it easier to read what each CD was from the top without having to flip through them to see the front cover. These stickers were usually nothing more than informational labels and rarely would have any use in the marketing of the album. The wrap-around sticker also provided an extra seal, possibly as another theft deterrent.

A chiefly Japanese packaging addition is the inclusion of an obi strip, a J-card-esque paperboard slip wound around the left side of the case to show details such as the price, artist, etc.

Paper or Tyvek sleeve

The simplest, least expensive package is a paper envelope. More expensive versions add a transparent window to the envelope allowing the disc label to be seen. The envelope can also be made out of spunbonded polyethylene (trade-named Tyvek) which is stronger and lighter than paper and is resistant to moisture.

Q Pack
The Q Pack was developed by the Queens Group Inc. in the mid-1990s as an alternative to regular CD jewel cases. (The Queens Group was purchased by Shorewood Packaging, who are part of International Paper). The Q Pack does not have a snap-in tray like a regular jewel case. It is characterized by the corrugated raised area where the top hinges to the back. Since Q Pack cases are not transparent, generally cover art is applied as a decal to the cover. Decals can also be applied to the inside front, on the tray underneath the hub and the back cover. A slot for an insert booklet is found inside the front cover as on typical jewel cases.

Digipak/digipack

A digipak or digipack (generic term) is a rectangular cardboard package with one or more plastic trays capable of holding a disc attached to the inside. There are variations where the disc(s) sit on a hub or spindle inside and come in various sizes. A digipak/digipack-style case is a common alternative to the jewel case. The term digipak was once a trademarked name but is no longer active as of March 2020 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office.

FLPpak
Similar in concept to Digipak, an FLPpak consists of a wrap-around outer shell made of cardboard, bonded to a plastic CD tray. However, FLPpak differs in two significant ways:

First, while Digipak cases extend their cardboard shells taller than their trays to keep the tray as hidden as possible when closed, FLPpak packages extend their trays beyond the cardboard and incorporate top and bottom edges, sacrificing aesthetic flexibility for increased protection from shelf wear. (These end-caps are extended far enough that, when laying on a flat surface, the plastic top and bottom edges will suspend the front or back above it.)

Second, by incorporating a latching closure into the right edge of the tray, avoiding the need for an extra component such as a slip cover to keep the package from coming open.

Though now expired, the design was originally covered by and, held by the Ivy Hill Corporation. These numbers can be found moulded into the inner surface of the closure.

Packages of this type which were manufactured by Ivy Hill can also be identified by the FLP logo moulded into the bottom-left and top-right corners of the disc tray. This logo was covered by U.S. trademark number 74419766, cancelled as of August 13, 2005.

Digisleeve

A digisleeve consists of a rectangular cardboard package which differs from a digipak/digipack in that it does not have a tray, spindle or hub and the disc or discs slide into an outside pocket of the packaging.

Digifile
A digifile consists of a rectangular cardboard package that is similar to a digisleeve except that the disc or discs slide vertically (and in some cases diagonally) into a horizontal or diagonal slot inside the packaging.

Wallet
A wallet consists of a rectangular cardboard package that is similar to a digisleeve except that the disc or discs slide horizontally into a vertical slot inside the packaging.

Digibook/mediabook
A digibook/mediabook is a type of packaging that has a hard cover (like a hardbound book) and comes in various sizes. The disc can either slide into the package or sit on a spindle, hub or tray inside.

Artbook/earbook
An artbook/earbook is a type of packaging that has a hard cover (like a hardbound book) and is typically (but not always) around 11 1/4" to 11 1/2" square and contains a several-page booklet inside. Basically, it's an oversized deluxe digibook/mediabook.

Mini LP sleeve/paper sleeve
A mini LP sleeve/paper sleeve is a square cardboard package that looks like a miniaturized version of an LP jacket. The disc usually slides into an inner sleeve whose opening need not match the outer sleeve in the manner of actual LPs. Mini LP sleeves can either appear as single sleeves or gatefolds, identically to full-sized LP jackets, with both variants being used for a number of music releases.

While used in a somewhat limited capacity in the west, where the jewel case remains the most popular form of CD packaging, mini LP sleeves are common for reissues of older albums in Japan, with their typically high level of faithfulness to the original vinyl record packaging making them sought-after among collectors.

The downside to this format is that the disc can be easily scratched each time it is taken out for play; a more serious issue can also be that if the glue that keeps the sleeve that holds the CD closed on the side closest to the spine (on gatefold covers) weakens, it can get onto the CD, rendering it unplayable. For these reasons, mini LP releases— particularly Japanese ones— enclose the CD in a protective sleeve made from matted plastic or rice paper. Another disadvantage with mini LP sleeves is that, like digipaks, they are significantly more vulnerable to wear and other forms of damage compared to standard jewel cases and are more difficult to replace.

One advantage of mini LP sleeves is that album covers that were originally textured, such as Back in Black by AC/DC or Fear of Music by Talking Heads, can retain the texturing on the CD release, as well as being able to replicate other nuances of the vinyl packaging such as unusually shaped packaging or artwork intended to span the whole of a gatefold (e.g. Obscured by Clouds and The Dark Side of the Moon, respectively, by Pink Floyd). In addition, the packaging is more environmentally friendly due to the use of more easily recyclable and biodegradable cardboard (as opposed to the polystyrene used in jewel cases) and is significantly cheaper to produce than both jewel cases and digipaks, which has made them a more favorable option in markets where CD sales are declining.

Minipack
A minipack is a square cardboard package in which the disc sits on a spindle, hub or tray. In essence, it's a combination of a digipak/digipack and mini LP sleeve. This type of packaging is usually hand-made and is not seen very often.

JakeBox
JakeBox is a paperboard packaging concept designed in Sweden, featuring a pop-up "claw". The claw releases the CD when the cover is opened and locks it again when the cover is closed. This design makes the disc easily accessible and protects the CD once the case is closed.

Discbox slider
The discbox slider (also called DBS) is a disc packaging concept in 100% carton board, found both in CD and DVD sized packaging formats. The DBS is comparable with plastic jewel or amaray cases when it comes to size but holds more of the features of the LP style cases in terms of light weight and printability. The DBS case opens up from the side by moving the slider part (on which the disc is resting) from the sleeve. The discbox slider is 100% recyclable. Many covermount CDs released in British magazine Mixmag used to be packaged in a discbox slider, after replacing a standard jewel box, although the discbox slider itself was replaced by a simple cardboard sleeve.

Compac Plus
The Compac Plus or Compact Plus is a disc packaging which is similar in style to a digipak. However, it consists of two plastic CD trays which "clip" together like a normal slipcase. The packaging was introduced in the early 1990s. It was originally a brand which had their own logo, and was used by bands such as Blur, but as years progressed, many other artists started to use their own version of the packaging.

Keep case

A keep case is the most common type of DVD packaging and was created by Amaray. It is taller and thicker than a Jewel case, and is made of much softer, less brittle plastic (polypropylene rather than polystyrene), so it does not break as easily. They usually hold one or two discs, but are capable of holding up to six discs. Slimmer keep cases, so called "Slim-paks" or "Thinpaks" typically used for DVD box sets consisting of the thin keep cases stored in a paperboard box. The thin cases are half as thick and can generally only hold one disc as a result, but there are newer slim cases that have central disc holding teeth on both sides. The teeth are made in such a way that when the case is closed, they go between the gaps in between the teeth on the other side.

A standard DVD case is a single-piece plastic case with two creases, which folds around and snaps closed. It measures 135 mm × 190 mm × 14 mm (5.3 in × 7.48 in × 0.55 in). It is wrapped on the outside by a thin piece of transparent plastic which can hold a paper label. The label measures 284 mm × 184 mm (10.8 in × 7.25 in).

Some DVD releases have a paperboard outer sleeve around the shrinkwrap.

Beginning in 2007, prerecorded Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD titles ship in packages similar to but slightly smaller (18.5 mm shorter and 1 mm thinner: 135 mm × 171.5 mm × 13 mm.) than a standard DVD keep case, generally with the format logo prominently displayed in a horizontal stripe across the top of the case (red for HD DVD; and PlayStation 3 Greatest Hits Games, blue for Blu-ray, and clear for regular PlayStation 3 and Nintendo Switch cartridge games). Green cases of this variety were introduced to be used for titles released for the Xbox One gaming system, though with the space intended for placing the disc being on the left side of the inner case, while most other keep cases have it on the right.

Snap case

A snap case is a design for both CD and DVD packaging, and is made in the standard sizes for both. Each is made of a single-piece plastic tray and closure, which snaps over the right edge of the front flap. The printed flap is made of thin paperboard which wraps around the left edge and across the back of the tray, to which it is glued. It has largely been replaced with the DVD keep case and CD jewel case due to its flimsy design. Time Warner's two studios and their boutique labels (Warner Bros. Pictures and New Line Cinema) were the only major entities to utilize this case design for DVD packaging.

Soft case/green case
Soft cases, also known as earth cases or green cases, are soft-shell cases made from recycled optical discs. They are considerably more pliable than other style cases given that they are made from various mixes of plastics. They are sold by various companies as replacements for disc owners who are environmentally friendly and can be differentiated from other cases by their opaque appearance. The softness of the cases leads them to break less, though the safety of the enclosed disc may be somewhat sacrificed since the case can be bent end-to-end easily.

SteelBook
SteelBook is a trademarked name for a disc case constructed from durable metal to create a tin box-style package similar in size and shape to the keep case. It is used in memorabilia sets such as collector's editions, and commonly printed with full-color artwork, varnished, and embossed to provide additional visual dimensionality.

Eco pack
In 2006, Universal Music introduced the first completely paper-recyclable CD case, called the "eco pack". The sleeve is printed on recycled card, and the tray is made from International Paper's PaperFoam. Universal used this packaging for issues in its 20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection series after 2006.

Lift-lock case

Many gold CDs, including those from Mobile Fidelity, are packaged in lift-lock cases, a special type of case where the CD is lifted out of the case automatically and a latch unlocked when opened. The advantage of this design is that only the edges of the disc are handled when removing it from the case, and the disc is never subjected to any bending force while being removed. From the outside, they appear almost identical to a standard jewel case. They have the same dimensions as a standard jewel case, and use standard booklets and back cards.

Spindles and other bulk packaging

Blank CD and DVD media are often sold in bulk packages called spindles or, less formally, cake boxes. This type of packaging consists of a round, clear plastic cup that mates bayonet-style to a base with a central post that holds a stack of discs (both made from polypropylene); dummy discs made of clear polycarbonate with no recording surface are often packed on the ends of the stack to avoid scratches from contact with the hard plastic of the packages. Such packages have been designed to hold anywhere from ten up to 100 discs, and offer the user multiple options for packaging the finalized disc.

TDK and Memorex have begun selling some of their blank media in what they refer to as "Snap n' Save" cases, essentially polyethylene cases designed to hold up to ten discs in a package.

Finally, some bulk packages of blank media forgo a permanent container completely, instead using a simple blister pack for small numbers of media, or bundling large numbers of discs in shrink wrap to reduce waste.

Multi-disc albums
Record stores and consumer electronics stores sell albums or books that contain numerous soft plastic sleeves, which can be used to store CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, video game discs, and other discs. Some of the small books or albums can hold 12 discs. Some of the large albums or books can hold over 90 discs. The owner can either keep the original packaging (cases, booklets, etc.) or discard them.

title: Optical disc packaging


text:
Talk:United States congressional apportionment

Prisoners
Does anyone know if prisoners count towards the population of a state?

If so, does the original law, which included the phrase "including those bound to Service for a Term of Years", include prisoners with a life sentence as life sentences are not based on a term of years?
 * That quote refers to indentured servants, not prisoners, who are counted. -Rrius (talk) 22:23, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Prisoners do count toward represented population. "But when the right to vote ... is denied ... except for ... crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced ..." (14th Amendment)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:7:2200:9900:D0C4:E9CF:AC37:81DA (talk) 05:10, 26 February 2015 (UTC)

Massachusetts is the wrong color in the 2010 map
Unless I'm misunderstanding something, Massachusetts is the wrong color in the map at the top of this article page. Before the redistricting that arose from the 2010 census, Massachusetts had ten U.S. Representatives. With the redistricting stemming from the 2010 census, Massachusetts has lost a House seat: it now has nine seats. The map shows "9" for Massachusetts, but has the state colored orange, which represents "no change". In fact, there was a change, from 2000 to 2010, from ten to nine. Map needs correction. — President Lethe (talk) 00:42, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

Iowa's original representation
The list states that Iowa's admission to the Union added 2 representatives and increased the total number correspondingly. However, the citation given states that Iowa would only get a single representative. What is the basis for this claim? —Gordon P. Hemsley→ ✉ 18:28, 20 January 2013 (UTC)

 * The act of Aug 4, 1846 amended the statute you cite . See,, §3, in particular. --Foofighter20x (talk) 04:11, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Ah, thanks for the clarification, and for updating the article to reflect it! —Gordon P. Hemsley→ ✉ 22:51, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

1850
After the 1850 Census, there were 234 Representatives, yet the act cited for that provided that the size of the House would be 233 Representatives (in section 24). Where did the extra Representative come from? Was there a later amendment to that act? XinaNicole (talk) 19:26, 30 January 2013 (UTC)

 * There was a problem with collecting or tabulating the California census data (the number that did come in was interpreted as wildly low), so allowed California to maintain the 2 representatives it had originally be allotted upon entry to the Union. However, it is not clear to me why the total remained at 234 (plus additions) after the next census. —Gordon P. Hemsley→ ✉  16:53, 3 February 2013 (UTC)

Is there an optimal number of representatives?
The 2010 US population was over three times the population in 1913 when the number of representatives was fixed at 435. This means a combination of more work for representatives to keep in touch with their constituents and less contact for each constituent with their representative. Community meetings and advances such as electronic communication have helped, but to maintain contact with constituents representatives have had to resort to summaries by staff. The population of the US in the 1910 census (which yielded the 435 number of representatives) was 92.4 million. The 2020 census is expected to count over 330 million US residents.

A mathematical model that is over 50 years old balances the communication between representatives with the communication between each representative and the representative's constituents (for any organization). This calculation yields an "optimal" number of representatives as the 1/3 power of the population. This formula would have yielded 452 representatives for the 1910 census, a good match. A study in the early 1970's showed a good correlation between this formula and national populations at that time. The two largest outliers were China with 3000 representatives (around 3 times larger than expected) and the US with only 435 representatives in the House (around 1/3 smaller than expected).

A French 2007 study used a somewhat different measure of representatives (including both houses of a bicameral legislature). Log-Log regression analysis yielded an exponent of approximately 0.4. The authors had expected an exponent of 1/2 based on the Penrose Model. Drbits (talk) 08:26, 13 June 2017 (UTC)
 * the (U.S. Census of Legal Residents, U.S. Nationals, and U.S. Citizens)^(1/3) is probably the best number of electors, this number less the number of states x 2 and 2 for DC will probably work for apportionment/representation in the u.s. house of representatives (including the non voting DC person until statehood)... changing apportionment would only require a federal law as the apportionment act of 1929 was a federal law, Amendment XXIII only granted the presidential vote to DC and did not impact the apportionment of the actual house.  PerkinsC (talk) 16:42, 6 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Interesting question, and interesting article. The article, of course, assumes that nations in fact do this "efficiently". This may be true, but it's kind of hard to prove such a thing. Also, it seems to me that what is "optimal" is really likely to be a function of an awful lot of factors in society. For example:
 * I find it extraordinarily hard to believe that in the US, the optimal ratio of 1789, for example, would be the same as the optimal ratio now.
 * The optimum ratio in a country like Israel, where everyone runs on national lists (so that it's not exactly clear how to connect MKs to constituents) may not be the same as in a country where there are specific constituencies, like US or UK. (And anyone who has ever seen the Knesset in action knows that it's plenty chaotic with just 120 members.)
 * I also find it hard to believe that even after adjusting for population, the ratio in countries where the legislature does real work and countries where the legislature is nominal ought to be the same. (It's ironic that China's legislature has so many, and the US's so few, in that sense.)
 * The article certainly doesn't take into consideration many peculiarities in constitutional/legal systems in different countries. It's odd that the authors assume they should apply their findings in UK to Commons but not Lords, yet don't make the same allowance in the US. Constitutionally, the Senate is what it is, and my view would be that if one were to apply a formula like the one suggested here, it would be applied strictly to the House.
 * There's no Constitutional reason it couldn't be; the only actual restrictions on the House are (a) at least one representative per state, (b) no more than one representative per 30,000 people (I, 3) and apportioned by population (ibid. and Amendment XIV). It's a fine question whether that makes the legal minimum 50 Representatives, but it's clear that the legal maximum is a bit over 10,000 (based on 2010 Census). (Talk about chaos ...)
 * On the other hand, the bigger the House, the less important the small states' "extra two" Presidential electors become. So assume there would be political opposition from small states.
 * Remember, too, that the DC electoral vote is always the same as that of the state with the fewest Representatives. So DC would not be left behind, in that sense, if even Wyoming went up to two or three Representatives.
 * In The Federalist #10, and then in more detail ##55–58, Madison discusses this in some detail, of course. Still, all that Madison really says is "not so few that the body doesn't fairly represent the diversity of the population, not too many that the body itself becomes chaotic". If you've got a good, culture-specific way to prove either of those boundaries, I'd love to see it. StevenJ81 (talk) 17:17, 7 March 2019 (UTC)

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Admission of New Mexico and Arizona
This article and secondary sources indicate that New Mexico was granted 2 representatives upon its admission to the Union, increasing the total number of seats from 391 to 393. However, I cannot find a citation in the statutes that supports that. states the following: "That if the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico shall become States in the Union before the apportionment of Representatives under the next decennial census they shall have one Representative each, and if one of such Territories shall so become a State, such State shall have one Representative, which Representative or Representatives shall be in addition to the number four hundred and thirty-three, as provided in section one of this Act, and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this section are to that extent hereby repealed." This seems to me to be a redundant way to say "each state gets one Representative upon its respective admission to the Union", but perhaps I'm misreading it. Is there another source for New Mexico getting 2 seats? Is there a statute that encodes New Mexico's population between the 1910 census and the official 1913 apportionment? —Gordon P. Hemsley→ ✉ 20:24, 25 November 2017 (UTC)
 * It sure seems funky, but I can kind of trace it.
 * The source for two seats exists: it's the Enabling Act of 1910, 36 Stat. 557, Sec. 5 (actually on page 561). This was approved in June 1910.
 * The Apportionment Act of 1911 (37 Stat. 14, which you cited above), was approved Aug. 8, 1911.
 * The resolution that actually admitted New Mexico and Arizona, Pub. Res. 8, S.J. Res 57, was approved on August 21, 1911. The resolution explicitly states that the two states were to be admitted under the terms of the June 1910 Act.
 * New Mexico's Centennial Blue Book includes a section on New Mexico's Congressional history researched by UNM Prof. Emeritus Dan D. Chávez. It's a little odd, to be sure. First, it says that the Apportionment Act was enacted "later". Then, it says that New Mexico was permitted to seat two Representatives "nevertheless".
 * When you pull all that together, what you get, I think, is this:
 * The last of the bunch to be approved was the admission resolution, so its terms superseded anything previous. Because its terms incorporated the 1910 Act, and that Act explicitly stated that New Mexico was to elect two Representatives in its first election as a state, then New Mexico proceeded to elect two Representatives in its first election.
 * The admission resolution and the 1910 Act were both silent on subsequent elections. Accordingly, the 1911 Act governed, and New Mexico went back to one representative.
 * At least, this is what I think happened. StevenJ81 (talk) 18:57, 6 March 2019 (UTC)
 * I saw you just reworked the apportionment history table, which is a "Good Thing".(smile) It seems to me, though, that at least with respect to New Mexico, as points out, you can't really cite  as support for two representatives for New Mexico. Question I would ask, in light of the analysis I did just above, would be, do we use  or Pub. Res. 8 (don't know the USStat citation for that)? StevenJ81 (talk) 13:53, 18 March 2019 (UTC)
 * I see what you mean. I don't know.  It appears oddly vague. —GoldRingChip 14:07, 18 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Doesn't it? Still, on further research ...
 * On reading it further (actually at ), that statute was effective for the Congress entering in March 1913, not for the Congress elected in 1910 based on the 1900 census (and, plus Oklahoma). So it seems neither New Mexico's November 1911 election nor Arizona's January 1912 election were governed by the 1911 Act at all, in any way.
 * In both cases, it seems that the actual sources must be Pub. Res. 8, which gave substance to details outlined in the 1910 Act (36 Stat. 561, op. cit.), and both might need to be mentioned in the table.
 * Consequently, too, the following entry in the table (up to 435) needs to cite both §§1 and 2, since you need both together to get to 435 (instead of, say, 436). StevenJ81 (talk) 15:52, 18 March 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅ StevenJ81 (talk) 14:17, 21 March 2019 (UTC)

Slaves
Were slaves counted as population? I expect that the slave states wanted the slaves to count for the apportionment. Smiley.toerist (talk) 18:00, 24 April 2019 (UTC)
 * For the not-so-simple answer to that simple question, see Three-Fifths Compromise. StevenJ81 (talk) 19:54, 24 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks: I added this info to the article.Smiley.toerist (talk) 12:48, 25 April 2019 (UTC)
 * It was really already there, but I can see why you wanted an explicit statement. I just reworded what you wrote a little bit. I removed the second occurrence, because that was explicitly removed by the Fourteenth Amendment. StevenJ81 (talk) 13:49, 25 April 2019 (UTC)

"Past apportionments" section
I've just made this WP:BOLD edit to the table in this section. I'm not entirely happy with it but it seems an improvement. I'm inviting discussion here regarding that.

This grew out of a suggestion in Talk:United States Electoral College, and I have made a suggestion there which involves this the Past apportionments article section here. If there is discussion regarding that, please discuss it there. Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 10:29, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

"Past apportionments" section
Not sure I'm doing this right so feel free to correct it. In the Apportionment Methods section it states "The revised method was necessary in the context of the cap on the number of Representatives set in the Reapportionment Act of 1929." This is not true - the prior (Webster) method would work with a fixed number of representatives.24.8.46.212 (talk) 03:21, 9 March 2021 (UTC) dave@twinsprings.com

The highest priority number formula is wrong
In the Computing Apportionment section of the census website they explain the formula of Equal Proportions Method as

 * $$ A_{n} = \frac{P}{\sqrt{n(n-1)}} $$

Not

 * $$ A_{n} = \frac{P}{\sqrt{n(n+1)}} $$

how apportionment is calculated Ospination (talk) 00:24, 12 January 2022 (UTC)

Recent legislation
Have there been any recent bills to repeal Permanent Apportionment and expand the House? 107.115.207.41 (talk) 21:17, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

Chart revision data for 1789–1910
The chart at the top of the page House Seats by State 1789-2020 Census was discussed at https://junkcharts.typepad.com/junk_charts/2023/02/area-chart-is-not-the-solution.html. I'd be happy to make something similar to what is proposed as the better solution, but I need a source for the data. All I can find is https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/historical-apportionment-data-map.html, but that only goes back to 1910, not 1789. Vexations (talk) 22:43, 15 February 2023 (UTC)

The "Method of Equal Proportions" isn't.
Please read your 1st bibliography reference, Balinsky & Young !!

the lost first amendment

 * However, in the context of its original construction, the amendment may have instead outlined an iterative procedure for apportionment following a square root rule relative to the population (e.g. $Representatives \approx \sqrt{10000+Population/100} - 100$ ) that would still have called for a more than 1,600-member House following the same 2010 census.

If we're going to indulge conjecture— Supposing that the pattern of the clause were continued, it would go
 * … not less than sixteen hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every hundred ninety thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to seventeen hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than seventeen hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every two hundred thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to eighteen hundred

bringing today's count to 1700 exactly (because that number is between 331449281/200000 and 331449281/190000). —Tamfang (talk) 05:28, 29 September 2023 (UTC)

"Number of members" section
Should this section become its own article? Why or why not? Whether or not it should, how would one make it an article? Please let me know which articles within the Project namespace to refer to. Ss0jse (talk) 21:11, 8 July 2024 (UTC)


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