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Talk:History of antisemitism/Archive 2

In the light of the comment by User:Cautious above (NOTE. The "above" is now out of context. See history to view how User:Cautious butchered this page --Humus sapiens|Talk 19:58, 19 May 2004 (UTC)), I find it quite fascinating that he added: 1944, March 24 The tragedy in Markowa happenned. --Humus sapiens|Talk 22:19, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * (Moved from section the Poles vs. the Danes)
 * Your personal problem lies in black and white perception of the world. You must accept that there were people in history, who were not friendly toward Jews, but not motivated by Anti-Semitism. In this light this article is simply nonsense. Anti-Semitism should be clearly defined and attributed to racist ideology. Cautious 18:03, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Anything better than personal attack please. Anything on the subject? Racism is only one of many dimensions of A-S. There are many more, learn from the corresponding article, it is educational. --Humus sapiens|Talk 18:19, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I would agree on the article on condition that is renamed. I propose Unfortunate history of Jews. This is exactly what is the article about. Waiting for other proposals. Cautious 14:17, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I am against this loony POV "proposal". Jewish history is not defined by A-S. --Humus sapiens|Talk 19:58, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

 * What is about History of animosity against Jews? Cautious 09:05, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

It's the same. You have to learn, instead of demonstrating again your ignorance about the basics. BTW, what facts exactly are being contested here? --Humus sapiens|Talk 06:35, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

I am not talking about facts, since nobody is able to analyze huge material. Most of the staff before 1870 has nothing to do with AS. It was pretty normal in Middle Ages, that somebody was slaughtered. Do you know what was an avarage behaviour of any army in the foreign country or how religious minorities were treated? If you want, we can review period after period and I will tell you, what doesn't fit in History of AS. Do you like this solution? Cautious 08:03, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Welcome to wikipedia. FYI, this is not MY article. I suggest again, take some time and get familiar with the basics. So far you showed very little knowledge of the subject and lots of arrogance. Good luck. --Humus sapiens|Talk 08:49, 24 May 2004

(UTC)

Not much left after 4 second scrutiny. Where is your AS hidden? Please rename the article Bad events in history of Jews. Cautious 09:34, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

 * You misunderstand the basics: Anti-Semitism is the hatred and persecution of Jews as a group; not the hatred of persons who happen to be Jews, but rather the hatred of persons because they are Jews. It doesn't matter where it comes from: religious intolerance, political convenience, financial gain, economic competition, imperialism, socialism, the lack of "concept of martyrdom", etc. The process is the same: justify the hostility - ostracize - dehumanize - get rid of. The national-socialists could also claim "simply ignorance" or "only following the orders". These are mere excuses, what matters is the end result: hatred-motivated expulsions, pogroms and mass murder. --Humus sapiens|Talk 23:04, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The same steps were repeated during mass and especially state-orchestrated persecutions of Blacks, Gays, Gypsies, Christians in Muslim lands (Armenian genocide and more), Kosovo, Rwanda, etc. Time to turn this shameful history page, instead of looking for excuses. --Humus sapiens|Talk 01:54, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I found that you write at ease the round sentenced. Please prove in every individual case, that listed above events had something todo with AS. Can you prove that the Romans were worse against Jews then against Gauls, for example? You cannot close any history page based on false statements. I guess you are coming from SU, you must learned by now. Cautious 08:29, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

 * It doesn't matter. All the above are HISTORICAL FACTS, no matter what you or I will say today. If historic events satisfy some condition (such as definition of AS, or of classical music, etc), their development can & should be researched, analyzed, etc. Jews traditionally had high rate of literacy and were good at documenting history. You want to start a page about anti-Gaulism, go ahead. This page is about AS, so your attempts to switch to personalities or "Romans vs. Gauls" are offtopic. --Humus sapiens|Talk 17:59, 25 May 2004 (UTC)
 * In the header is written: "Here we note significant events in the history of anti-Semitism: as well as important anti-Semitic actions, we also give events in the history of anti-Semitic thought, actions taken to combat or relieve the effects of anti-Semitism, and events that affected the prevalence of anti-Semitism in later years." The problem is that absolut majority of events described in the article has nothing to do with anti-Semitism as I proved above on the small piece. The fact that Jews are traditionally good at documenting history ( but also are known for kind of reasoning that mostly covers the problem instead of solving it ) has nothing to do with writing biased encyclopedia articles. Cautious 21:42, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

Reread my text. You have proven nothing but lack of logic and decency. This your phrase: "Jews... are known for kind of reasoning that mostly covers the problem instead of solving it" is Antisemitism. Even if some were, accusing the entire people is racism. Moreover, you blame Jews - not their persecutors - for not "solving" "the problem" of antisemitism. --Humus sapiens|Talk 22:09, 26 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Your answer lacks logic. Have you ever heard about scholastic or talmudic reasononing? You are simply out of any reasonable points. The article is timeline of the selected events from the history of Jews. Cautious 22:16, 26 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I do not see your comments as related to our dispute. You haven't proved that the events I evaluated were related to anti-Semitism. They need to go and the history should focus on the history of anti-Semitism, starting in the second half of 19th century. In addition your comments about my person are complete nonsense and make you look hilarious. Cautious 22:36, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

I was asked for comments. I think that continuation of that personal discussion should stop (I am going to remove them to Archive) and we should focus on review of the listed entries in order to find out, what is their relations with the topic. Eon 22:39, 26 May 2004 (UTC) --- IMO attacks against Jews falls in 3 cathegories : 1. Anti-Semitism - as is its definition "hated of Jews as a group, religious or ethnic". 2. Being in the wrong place at the wrong time - as in "I want your land/money/people(as slaves)". This is NOT Anti-Semitism as the attacker didn't care of what religion or ethnicity was the target. 3. Fake Anti-Semitism - this is #2 useing #1 as an excuse (to give a moral excuse or just to increase the morale of the troops). MihaiC Jun 1st 2004

Kazimierz
I changed the paragraph a little bit. It suggested that there was some hidden agenda behind Krakow and Kazimierz staying as separate cities. IRL, the two main problems that stood in the way were lower taxes in the Kazimierz (the Jews would have to pay much higher taxes if they joined Krakow) and the Vistula river. It wasn't until 19th century when the river was regulated and moved. Until then, the river was wild and ran just in between the two towns. Halibutt 20:47, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

I removed that enry. Objections? --Humus sapiens|Talk 21:34, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

Disputed
I believe that the article cannot possibly be NPOV, since it attributes everything in history of Jews to Anti-Semitism. This is not fair. Most of historical nations experienced ups and downs. Jews experienced ups and downs + diaspora + anti-Semitism in last 2 centuries. Nevertheless, one can hardly attribute Roman invasion to Anti-Semitism. Cautious 17:59, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * One sober glance at Timeline of Jewish History will show that it is totally untrue. No one attributes Roman invasion to A-S. However, their attempts to wipe out Jewish people, religion and even erase Jewish names from the map definitely is. See talk in the corresponding articles before exposing your ignorance again. --Humus sapiens|Talk 20:12, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

The entries in question
c. 250 BCE Egyptian writer Manetho alleges that Moses was not a Jew, but an Egyptian renegade priest, and portrays the Exodus as the expulsion of a leper colony. No AS. Simply 2 historians disagreed over historical events and their interpretantions.

 * % This was a step toward delegitimization of the Jews. This ancient libel persisted throughout the millenia. Try google and see for yourself.
 * Not being Christian nor Jew, I have no reason to believe in the Holy Bible oops, Holy Exodus Book. Not being historian I have no idea whether Exodus was right source or maybe Manetho was right. I would assume, that sceptic historian doubts in Exodus. For example there is no reason to believe in Gods hand behind Moses activity. Logic conclusion is that having doubts in Exodus version is and was perfectly right. From point of view of Egypt, Jews were small tribe. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % of lepers?

175 BCE-165 BCE Antiochus Epiphanes sacks Jerusalem, calls Judaism "inimical to humanity", prohibits brit milah, confiscates copies of Torah and erects an altar to Zeus in the Second Temple after plundering it. He is eventually expelled by the Maccabees, who were led by Judas Maccabeus. Jews celebrate Hanukkah in commemoration of their victory. No AS. Simply Hellenic imperialism.

 * % He bans Judaism. Not Antisemitic enough?
 * It depends on the reason behind the action. Antiochus simply belived that everybody must be Zeus, not Jahwe, followers. He didn't care if Jews were Semitic or not. Proper name would have been paganic religious fanatism. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % read the definition. Does it say that if hostilities are caused by "paganic religious fanatism", it doesn't count?

2nd century BCE: Mnaseas of Patros, a Greek author, reports that the Jews worship a donkey's head in the Holy of Holies. This legend was repeated by Apollonius Molon, Democritus, Apion, and Plutarch.

No AS. Simply ignorance.

 * % Sorry, "simply ignorance" is no excuse. See the definition of the term, it doesn't absolve ignorants.
 * I am sure that Mnaseas tried to show the top knowledge, Greeks had about Jewish culture. Do you have a proov that he did it deliberately to spread hate against Jews? Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % The "donkey's head in the Holy of Holies" is a generally accepted AS myth. But you're entitled to your own POV.
 * % The donkeys head and the crucified donkey is true but they where refering to christians (they where refered to as Judeans) and it was later I think. Am I wrong? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Images_of_Jesus#Christian_images_of_Jesus

59 BCE Cicero denounces Judaism as barbara superstitio, describes Jews as people born to be slaves. No AS. Simply ignorance. Everyone except Romans were born to be slave, according to Romans (and vice versa).

 * % See above.
 * Normal in the era. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % Unlike other entries, I don't feel very strongly about Cicero.

66-73 Great Jewish Revolt against the Romans is crushed by Vespasian and Titus Flavius. Titus refuses to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". (Philostratus, Vita Apollonii). This notion would accompany Jews throughout centuries.

No AS. Vae Victis=loosers must have been foresaken by their God. Romans didn't get the concept of martyrdom yet.

 * % "people forsaken by their own God" was a step to delegitimize the people and the religion. See supersessionism. The "concept of martyrdom" excuse is as irrelevant as ignorance here.
 * No. It simply stated the fact, that Jews were loosers. Romans believed in military strength, if Jews lost, meant their God failed to deliver help and the conclusion is that God turned out of Jews. Where do you see anti-Semitism? Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % Did the notion of the "people forsaken by their own God" contribute to the subsequent hatred of Jews? It's a Y/N question.

1st century Fabrications of Apion in Alexandria, Egypt, including the first recorded blood libel. Juvenal writes anti-Jewish poetry. Josephus picks apart contemporary and old anti-Semitic myths in his work Against Apion. (e-text at Project Gutenberg)

Late 1st–early 2nd century: Tacitus writes anti-Jewish polemic in his Historia (book 5). He picks apart and rejects several myths of ancient anti-Semitism (including that of the donkey's head in the Holy of Holies); instead, his explanation for his view that Jews "regard the rest of mankind with all the hatred of enemies" turns on an analysis of the extreme differences between monotheistic Judaism and the polytheism common throughout the Roman world. No AS. It seems to me as an attempt to critical analyse foreign religion

 * % The Nazis & Commies "critically analyzed" foreign religions and races too. So what? BTW, anti-Semitism article (as well as ocean of other sources) mentions Tacitus too.
 * Tacitus makes an effort to understand Jews, but at the end he believed it is Romans and pagans that are right. He had right to draw such a conclusions. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % Not everyone mentioned here is an AS. It is important to trace the development of AS thought.

117-138 Roman emperor Hadrian bans Judaism and crushes the revolt lead by Bar Kokhba. Judea is wiped off the map, Jews are left dispersed and stateless. (See Hadrian in Judea). No AS. Imperialism

 * % He attempts to wipe out not only the nation and religion, but even the memory of Jews' existence from the map. Not Antisemitic enough?
 * If Jews hadn't fought, Romans would be much nicer. Romans were extremely cruel to their enemies. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * % I see. It is all the Jews' fault. They "shouldn't have fought". BTW, Hadrian began with ban on brit milah, a crucial rite in Judaism.

c. 170 Melito of Sardis accuses the Jews of deicide, publishing a sermon On the Passion, in which he blames the Jews for the persecution and death of Jesus, absolves Pontius Pilate and the Romans from guilt or responsibility and thus encourages them to convert to Christianity.

The continuation of this heated dispute is in /archive2

RFC interrupt
I was asked for comments. I think that continuation of that personal discussion should stop (I am going to remove them to Archive) and we should focus on review of the listed entries in order to find out, what is their relations with the topic. Eon 22:39, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I inserted my comments above, on the lines beginning with % sign. See also archives. The User:Cautious' theory that AS began only in the late 19th century doesn't hold water. Please name any serious historian who supports it. It is silly to mix up the term's etymology and it's semantics. --Humus sapiens|Talk 00:59, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * answered. Cautious 01:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * So, when did it start? --Humus sapiens|Talk 02:25, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

"Dhimmi" laws
"From the 9th century CE the Islamic world imposed dhimmi laws on both Christian and Jewish minorities."

I suggest "dhimmi" in this context is an anachronism and should be changed, since the word is of recent origin. Marshall46 22:28, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

1274 Thomas Aquinas
I moved this long and winding paragraph (the longest entry by far), full of POV to talk. Perhaps it may be salvaged in the separate page:
 * 1274 March. St. Thomas Aquinas writes in a letter to the Duchess of Brabant: "...in consequence of their sin, Jews were destined to perpetual servitude, so that sovereigns of state may treat Jewish goods as their own property, save for the sole proviso that they do not deprive them of all that is necessary to sustain life". Since this letter is not widely published, and then only in Latin, it is difficult to verify the authenticity of the quotation. In light of the fact that St. Thomas wrote over 6,000 pages of text in his Summa Theologica alone, one wonders why this obscure letter is used.  On the question of whether Jewish children should be baptized against the will of their parents, Aquinas writes in his Summa Theologica: "Injustice should be done to no man. Now it would be an injustice to Jews if their children were to be baptized against their will, since they would lose the rights of parental authority over their children as soon as these were Christians. Therefore these should not be baptized against their parents' will." It is doubtful that Aquinas was promoting the idea of punishment for deicide, as implied by the fragment of the letter to the Duchess, since he nowhere else, in his many volumes of writings, ever hints at such an idea. It is more likely that the context of the letter to the Duchess was in regard to the complex question of whether it is lawful to deprive someone of property acquired through unlawful practices, such as usury. Another theory is that Aquinas was writing in response to a generally held principle of Kammerknehtschaft, or "Jewish servitude", common throughout Europe at the time of the Crusades. Originally intended as a protective measure bny the Holy Roman emperors against mob violence directed at Jews, it came to mean possession in the feudal sense. The idea is said to have been granted  formal religious recognition by Pope Innocent III, who spoke frequently of the "eternal servitude" of the Jews, although no sources are cited. It is also proposed that the idea was apparently adopted in a moderated form by Aquinas, who cautioned the Ducchess to act in moderation regarding the Jews she possessed. --Humus sapiens|Talk 20:43, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

The so-called "pogroms" of 1018 and 1113 did not occur
A section that is now in dispute reads as follows:

"1113 First recorded anti-Jewish myatezh (riot) in Kiev occurred in short period between reigns of Svyatopolk II and Vladimir Monomakh. The Vladimir's council calls to expel all the Jews out of Kievan Rus. The records of big fire of 1124 in Jewish quarter suggest that this decision was not fully implemented."

The source text actually says rioters attacked Putyata's Palace and the Zhidove (Jewish) DISTRICT of Kiev, not Jews as individuals, and were also threatening to attack the boyars' residence, monasteries, and the palace of the centurions, and to return to do further damage to the Zhidove district as well. These were not members of "Vladimir's council" but, according to the text, just "the men of Kiev". Also, this was not an anti-Jewish action, and no expulsion of Jews from Kiev was either threatened or implemented in 12th-century Kiev. For full textual analysis of the original sources and modern history books that misinterpreted them, see Alexander Pereswetoff-Morath, _A Grin Without A Cat: Jews and Christians in Medieval Russia_ (Department of East and Central European Studies, Lund University, 2002), volume 2, pages 106-108. On the equally false contention of a pogrom in Kiev in the year 1018, based again on a misintrepretation of a text and a misquotation of Jan Dlugosz's chronicle, see Pereswetoff-Morath, volume 2, pages 105-106. Indeed, the existence of a district called "Jewish" in Kiev does suggest that Jews inhabited that part of Kiev at some point, though Pereswetoff-Morath notes that onomastic heritages like that can linger for a while after the original people have lived there. We know from the Kievan Letter that Jews lived in Kiev as early as the start of the 10th century, but this 1113 reference to Zhidove is two centuries later, as he notes. Jews may have still lived there but we cannot say for certain. (The 1124 reference to the fire again only speaks of Zhidove as a geographical term and not to "houses of Jews" for instance.) And the source document, I repeat, says nothing about anti-Jewish attitudes or activities. Hence I have removed the spurious entry for 1113 from the article, so we will not further perpetuate wrong information. - KAB (Kevin A. Brook)

 * In his 200 years together, Solzhenitsyn (not a big friend of Jews, I must say) quotes Vasily Tatishchev (1686-1750), Russian historiographer, ethnographer and the author of Russian History Dating Back to the Most Ancient Times and another famous Russian historian, Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766–1826), as well as old chronicles. He actually calls it a pogrom and writes that Svyatopolk II used Kiyevan Jews to extract taxes and loan interest (BTW, a typical practice throughout Europe). The reason of the hostilities was "лихоимство" (usury), so some Jews must have lived there at the time. It is also mentioned that they tried to defend themselves in a synagogue. Later, in addition to the decision to expel the Jews, Vladimir's council also prohibited excessive interest rates. By your theory, Jews did not live in the Jewish quarter (there were also Jewish gates at the time). Do your sources say: when, where to and why did they leave the capital city? Both Karamzin and Tatishchev say that the expulsion orders were executed.  ←Humus sapiens←Talk 09:34, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Pereswetoff-Morath analyzes the works of Tatishchev and Karamzin and proves (by looking at the original texts) that they invented and misinterpreted a lot of things. An invention or lie repeated many times does not suddenly become truth. We must rely on actual documents, not on false statements of Tatishchev and Karamzin. See especially pages 111 and 112 of "A Grin Without a Cat" vol. 2 on Tatishchev's unreliability due to his embellishment of chronicles and facts. The bit about Jews being allegedly persecuted for allegedly practicing usury in Kievan Rus is also baseless; see Pereswetoff-Morath page 115. Solzhenitsyn (I read his book that you cite) can say whatever he wants, but it doesn't make it true. He copied his information from the other "authorities". And so the lies perpetuate themselves. We did not say that Jews "did not live" in Kiev at the time of Vladimir Monomakh, only that we cannot prove it, so maybe they did, maybe they did not. - KAB (Kevin A. Brook)

 * I appreciate your acknowledgement "maybe they did, maybe they did not", it is quite a departure from the title of this section. Let's try to analyze and sort out what we do and don't know:
 * We know there was a Jewish community in Kiev before the described events: there was a Jewish quarter within the city walls, there was a synagogue and Jewish gates.
 * Once again, do you have any evidence better than T's & K's as to when and why this community got destroyed? If you think it wasn't destroyed and the Jews just left on their own, please name me any warm place that Jews (or any other group for that matter) left for no good reason. At the time, Kiev was already a capital city, well situated at the trade intersection of Europe and Asia and let me assure you: before Chernobyl, the climate there was close to perfect.
 * We don't know whether T's & K's chronicles about the 1113 events were indeed "false statements". We know that during Tatishchev times, Poland was not yet divided and Jews were officially forbidden to settle in Russia. Why would T. (or an earlier chronicler) make up stories to smear the founding fathers of Kievan Rus?
 * Of course, Solzhenitsyn's book is not the last authority, as a matter of fact it is full of absurdities. However in this case he provides a quote which sounds convincing. I prefer to doubt everything and don't see a good reason just to believe your book beyond doubts. We still haven't heard any arguments.  ←Humus sapiens←Talk 10:23, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Karamzin and Tatishchev artificially added to the storylines of several documents they worked with. That is why they cannot be trusted on this debate point - because the original document doesn't say what they claim it says. Now we know what the document really says. I did not say that Jews as a group left the city of Kiev voluntarily, and I understand the appeal of the city due to its climate, trade route connections, etc. Of course one of the problems that befell Kiev's Jewish community was the Mongol invasion of 1240, though a community was reconstituted shortly after that, and another problem came in 1655 when most of the Jews were expelled from Kiev for real (unlike the fantasy scenario of K. and T. from the 12th c.). I hope that you read the book under discussion because I am not going to reproduce all of its revelations and evaluations about K. and T. here except the one related to this direct point which I already spoke of. In short, I don't deny that Jews lived in various times in the Jewish districts of Kiev, but I am instead refuting that a pogrom happened in 1113 and that the events of that year were connected to anti-Jewish attitudes. - KAB (Kevin A. Brook)

1274 Yellow Badge in England
This article states that yellow badge requirements and usury prohibition was passed by Edward I of England in 1275. However, the yellow badge article states that this occurred in 1274. Could anybody check on this and resolve the discrepancy? Thanks. - Bryan is Bantman 23:37, May 22, 2005 (UTC)

New Zealand, 2004
I think some short description should stay here, especially since there's no standalone article with details. Pavel Vozenilek 19:51, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

Formatting note
Is there any significance to certain parts of the text being bolded? If it's being done for emphasis it's rather inconsistently applied. Extension 03:40, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I claim guilty. I've added it (long ago) in response to one particularly annoying editor. I agree, we can remove it. Thanks.  ←Humus sapiens←ну? 04:06, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

Emich/Emicho/Emico von what?
It is not clear why the notorious 1st Crusade leader Emicho should not be identified as Count Emicho von Leiningen the way most secondary writings describe him. Please see Talk. Myron 15:19, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Newer studies identify Emicho as an member of the Emichons (german: Emichonen) and not of the Leiningers; most sencondary writings use older literature and are 25 years or more behind the actual state of Diplomatics.
 * The Emichons were a house of counts in the Nahegau (along the river Nahe); the house of Leiningen seems to be related to this family, but there are no clear evidences. Toussaint attributes Emicho (the crusader) to Flonheim (a small village near Mainz) an not to the castle Altleiningen (build around 1110), which is about 60 km away.
 * If you understand german, I propose for further reading:
 * Ingo Toussaint: Die Grafen von Leiningen. Studien zur leiningischen Genealogie und Territorialgeschichte bis zur Teilung von 1317/18. Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen 1982. ISBN 3-7995-7017-9
 * --jergen 12:36, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Listed?
is there a list like list of Anti-Semitists/Anti-Judaists
 * Johannes Pfefferkorn
 * Luigi Chiarini
 * Johann Andreas Eisenmenger
 * Karl Lueger
 * Paulus de Heredia/Pablo de Heredia
 * Raymond Martini* (13c)
 * Sheynhertz 21:17, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I would vote against a list of anti-Semites. We do have Category:anti-Semitism though. ←Humus sapiens←ну? 11:34, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Can some one list the terrorism at Kenya (2003?)? (Sheynhertz) 00:15, 29 December 2005 (UTC)
 * murder at Paris, March, 2006 --Sheynhertzגעשׁ״ך 15:26, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

Unreferenced tag
What is unreferenced? There is entire section "References", and most entries are wikilinked, for example Nuremberg Laws. Is there a specific entry in question? ←Humus sapiens ну? 12:09, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for asking. Many of the events in every section are unreferenced and, thus, unverifiable. Consider just the first three entries. The first entry concerning Manetho has no references. The Wikipedia article on Manetho cannot be considered a reference because it makes no reference to the allegations against Manetho in this article. Even if it did there should be some external reference specifically regarding the allegations against Manetho. Likewise, the quote attributed to Antiochus Epiphanes does not appear in the Wikipedia article on him. There isn't even a Wikipedia article on Mnaseas of Patros, let alone a reference to the allegation against him.

 * You referred to the External Links and Books sections, according to the style guide for citing sources:

 * Sometimes — for example, when the article treats an uncontroversial or simple topic, and draws on a few, widely accepted general sources — it is sufficient to provide a "References" section at the end of the article, containing an alphabetized list of general references and authoritative overviews of a subject (such as textbooks and review articles). In other cases this is not enough, and in addition you should use in-line citations such as the Harvard references or footnotes described below.

 * Judging by the Talk on this article alone, it can in no way be said to treat "an uncontroversial or simple topic." IMO, each entry should be referenced separately unless the particular section is drawn from "widely accepted general sources" and then the section should so referenced. This will be a stronger article once it is properly sourced and referenced. I hope this helps explain why I added the tag.--DieWeibeRose 07:24, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

Unreferenced sections: "Expressions of attitudes to Jews in the New Testament," "Persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages," "Expulsions," "Eighteenth century," "Twentieth century," and much of the timeline. A few of the other sections contain references, but are missing some here and there.--Sefringle 03:55, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Saufleisch, Rindfleisch and other meals
Can someone please provide references for all these German knights called Rindfleisch etc who engage in anti-Jewish acts. No doubt, these are possibly names but the frequency with which they appear makes me suspicious. Str1977 (smile back) 10:04, 14 March 2006 (UTC)
 * It took me a second to find 1298 Rindfleisch ref. No idea about Saufleisch & co. ←Humus sapiens ну? 20:10, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Frankly, I'm appaled
For shame on such an organisation that promotes itself as an encyclopaedia, since there is a paragraph, may I say less than ten lines long, dedicated to Ancient Anti-semitism lacks the sort of detail necessary to create depth in Anti-semitism. All I could read of it was Egyptian anti-semitism, but clearly this is not enough...has everyone forgotten that Caligula and the Roman public in general were anti-semitic and amde no secret of it, but they are not mentioned, why is that? The answer is likely to be bias towards the Romans, but the point is that if Romans, who were Hellenistic pagans, were anti-semitic then that shows that there is more to it than the case of Christians killing Jews. Something should definitely be done about this.

RESPONSE!!! To the person who wrote the paragraph above. Thats why there are edit buttons. So you can add more information. So instead of being appauled. Add the information you know..thats the reason for this site.

You're not wrong! please, everyone remember to sign your posts with four tildes ~, which automagically adds your name (or your IP address if you don't have a name) and the date and time. Itsmejudith 18:03, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Change name to Timeline?
With the short paragraphs by date and division into centuries rather than periods, it is really a more like a timeline than a history. This is not a criticism BTW. Itsmejudith 18:18, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Agree. This article is now 105 kB long and consists out of two distinct parts: History and Timeline. Should it be split? ←Humus sapiens ну? 00:37, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, since there have been no objections, I'll proceed to split it now. Itsmejudith 18:03, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Error
Their are several articals that have been misplaced to the very end of the artical after bibliogrophy, if an Admin could set things right, the problem will be fixed the micplaced articalss include:

October
 * A nazi swastika was spray-painted to the side of Temple Beth El synagogue in Portland, Maine.

2005
 * A group of 15 members of the State Duma of Russia demands that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from the country. In June, 500 prominent Russians demand that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism. The investigation was launched, but halted among international outcry.

2005 December
 * Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad widens the hostility between Iran and Israel by denying the Holocaust during a speech in the Iranian city of Zahedan. He made the following comments on live television: "They have invented a myth that Jews were massacred and place this above God, religions and the prophets." Continuing, he suggested that if the Holocaust had occurred, that it was the responsibility of Europeans to offer up territory to Jews: "This is our proposal: give a part of your own land in Europe, the United States, Canada or Alaska to them [the Jews] so that the Jews can establish their country." See Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel

2006 February
 * A French Jew, Ilan Halimi is kidnapped and tortured to death for 23 days in what Paris police have officially declared an anti-Semitic act

 * This was corrected in the Timeline of antisemitism article. Itsmejudith 10:57, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

To-do list
I thought it would be a good idea to have such a list, but it may need amending and/or prioritising. Would be interested to read comments. Itsmejudith 14:01, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

Verification
This article has been tagged since Nov 2006 (Feb 2007 is just the date the bot found it unreferenced). There are also large sections I suspect of being WP:OR, such as in Expressions of attitudes to Jews in the New Testament. (Note, editors at WP cannot source claims about anti-semitism to New Testament-that's original research. Verses of the NT can be included as examples only if secondary published sources have used them as examples of anti-semitism, and those sources must be identified.)  The many claims in the article need to be more specifically sourced with footnotes, and the WP:weasel words "some say" etc should be replaced with their "who"s.Professor marginalia 14:06, 4 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Thank you. A key text would appear to be Paula Fredriksen and Adele Reinhartz (eds.), Jesus, Judaism, and Christian Anti-Judaism: Reading the New Testament after the Holocaust. Louisville, KY, and London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002. This article and related ones really should draw from this and the other recent related scholarship. If anyone has time to develop the article(s) in this way it would be much appreciated. Itsmejudith 20:26, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

Fathers of Racism By Jose Rivera-Molina
This work, published by Taino Independent Press (which does not seem to exist)[], was cited in this article. An editor of another article citing this worked removed a paragraph and the cite claiming this work was unreliable. I googled the book and found that the only two real hits for it were in Wikipedia itself. I concur with that editor's removal and have done the same here. If the book even exists (and it is not for sale anywhere on the internet) it certainly can't be cited due it containing original research.

Material lacking in Crusades section
I noticed the material detailing the pogroms against the Rhine valley Jews in 1096, but nothing is ever mentioned about the massacre of the Jews in Jerusalem. I am currently expanding the "First Crusade" section dealing with the massacre on the History of the Jews and the Crusades page. I will add info about them being ransomed later. What follows is a summary of the material I left on a user's talk pge in regards to their edit on Ashkelon:

"'There was actually a lot more that happened between the Crusaders and Ashkelon than what you added to the article. Jews and holy relics were held ransom by the Crusaders. Somehow, news of these captives reached Ashkelon and funds were raised thanks to the Jewish community of Alexandria in Egypt. Some modern scholarly sources suggest that some of the city's Jewish defenders or even Jewish civilians were able to travel to Ashkelon along with Jerusalem's governor and the remainder of his forces. The payment for the first captives did not take place until early 1100, well after the Battle of Ashkelon. They were only ransomed a few at a time because ancient letters have the Jews of Ashkelon writing to Alexandria for more funds. I think most of them allowed to be ransomed were so by the summer of 1100. Sources state the number of Jews ransomed must have been 'considerable' since even after all had been ransomed and some migrated to Egypt, at least 20 of the refugees remained in Ashkelon. Those who weren't ransomed (or killed while waiting to be ransomed) were sold into slavery. Some were taken to Antiochia, but most were taken to Southern Italy. A large portion of these never made it there as they were randomly beheaded or thrown into the sea along the way.'" --Ghostexorcist 22:48, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * This sounds extremely important. If you have access to good historical sources, could you add the necessary detail to the article, thanks. Itsmejudith 23:08, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

I got the material from the Journal of Jewish History and Volume three of the Crusades journal. I will gladly add the info to the page once I've completed adding it to the History of the Jews and the Crusades article. I already added info about the Jews supposedly being burned in their synagogue. --Ghostexorcist 23:17, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Anti-Semitism in the Greco-Roman world

 * Copied from Reference desk/Archives/Humanities/2007 September 10 for processing. --Ghirla-трёп- 21:11, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

Hi. I wonder if anyone can help me? I was watching Schindler's List on DVD recently and there is a scene in a restraunt early on in the movie where some SS officers are talking about actions against the Jewish people. One says to the other "They will weather the storm, that is what they have always done for thousands of years." The other replies "But this storm is not the Romans; this storm is the SS." This got me thinking, what was the attitude of the Greeks and the Romans towards the Jewish communities under their control? Did anti-Semitism exist in the sense we understand it today? Now, I know about the suppression of the Jewish Revolt in the first century of the CE and the suppression of the later Bar Kokhba revolt in the second century; but the Romans never treated rebels well, and I do not think their actions necessarily demonstrate anti-Semitism as such. I am looking for a more general set of beliefs that may have governed day-to-day attitudes. Sorry to be so wordy! Philo Alexander 11:48, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

Greco-Roman world, but there was much persecution of the Jews mainly for their religious beliefs. Because the Jews are monotheists this often put them in conflict with not only other religions but with the political system that required them to worship their rulers. You can read a good overview of societies relationship with Jews during that period in the Encyclopedia Britannica article on anti-semitism: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007807/anti-Semitism
 * Hi Philo Alexander, anti-semitism as we know it in the modern world did not exist in the
 * Hope this helps. Kate Librarians--Ask Us, We Answer! Find your local Library at http://lists.webjunction.org/libweb/Public_main.html Ktg2 13:35, 10 September 2007 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ktg2 (talk • contribs) 13:30, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually, something very like anti-Semitism existed among the inhabitants of late Hellenistic and early Roman Alexandria, where several large-scale riots occurred between Greeks and Jews living in the city, and there were authors such as Apion. See also the actions of Antiochus Epiphanes as detailed in the Books of Maccabees. AnonMoos 14:08, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

To begin with, Philo, you might care to consult Philo! I am thinking specifically here of The Embassy to Gaius and Against Flaccus, in which he details the suffering of the Jews of Alexandria at the hands of the local Greek population, supported by the Roman Prefect, Flaccus. Yet, still, we have to be careful here, because the 'anti-semitism' detailed by Philo is quite different from the anti-semitism of the modern world. It lacked systematic application; it was more based on inter-communal rivalry, on the issue of citizenship and exemption from taxation, more than anything else. There was no transcendent racial element. In the end it all seems to come down to one basic thing-incomprehension. Flaccus did not have approval for his lack of even-handedness in dealing with the problem; and although Caligula failed to act on Jewish complaints, Claudius did. Even the actions of Antiochus must be viewed from its particular dimension: his attack was on Judaism, not on Jews. The Maccabean Revolt was a political and cultural reaction against Antiochus' heavy-handed Hellenism.

At root it was the strict Jewish adherance to monotheism that so perplexed-and angered-first the Greeks and then the Romans. It was even suggested, rather absurdly, that the Jews were 'god-haters' and 'atheists' because of their single-minded rejection of the wider aspects of the Greek and Roman civic cult. It is important to remember that this was a time when loyalty was measured by the extent to which one acknowledged civic or imperial deities; it wasn't so much a question of strict belief; it was one of nominal acceptance. In refusing even to pay lip-service to the accepted practice the Jews were political, not just religious dissidents.

Failure to understand the nature of Jewish exclusivness gave rise to all sorts of absurd stories, including one by Apion that they practiced cannibalism-"They would kidnap a foreigner, fatten him up for a year, and then convey him to a wood, where they slew him, sacrificed his body with their customary ritual, partook of the flesh, and while immolating the Greek swore an oath of hostility to the Greeks.". The ignorance of Jewish life and ritual was so entrenched that it is even suggested by one source that the scriptures were composed by a "Hebrew woman named Moso". Josephus, the Jewish historian, took pains to challenge some of the more absurd stories in circulation. Of all of the 'barbarians' the Jews were the most resistant to the dominant tradition in the Greco-Roman world, and from this all else was to spring. For, as T. B. Macaulay put it, "The Greeks admired only themselves and the Romans admired only themselves and the Greeks." Clio the Muse 03:51, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

 * AnonMoos and Clio refer to the attacks by Antiochus Epiphanes on the Jews and their religion as examples of anti-Semitism in the Hellenic world, and the article also refers to it. This important event should certainly be included in the article, though it is arguably not a simple case of anti-Semitism as we understand it today.  The matter is discussed in Maccabees.  The politics of the period were complex and Judea was divided between traditional Jews that we would today describe as orthodox, and Hellenistic Jews, many of whom it seems wanted to reject the Torah altogether.  This conflict was played out in the selection of the High Priest of the Temple, some office-holders being Hellenizers and clients of the Seleucid Greeks.  Some modern scholars consider the reasons for Antiochus's banning of Jewish practice to be obscure, so I think it should not be described, without qualification, as an example of anti-Semitism.  Marshall46 (talk) 07:57, 11 June 2009 (UTC)

See also section
I removed a few links that are already linked, can we remove the others that are linked and also some per relevance? Ideally per WP:GTL, they should all be worked into the article or removed. Thanks, --Tom (talk) 22:12, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

Image content clarification
Pages from a purported copy of the birth certificate (Russian: свидетельство о рождении, lit.,Certification of Birth ) of Michael Lucas (Andrei Treivas, or Treyvas), showing information about his birth. It lists his mother's surname as "Treivas" (or "Treyvas") and his father's surname as "Bregman." Under Russian Soviet law, a child automatically inherited his father's surname so long as the father is known and married to the birth mother at the time of birth. This document proves conclusively that Michael Lucas' parents were not married as of the date of his birth.--72.76.96.51 (talk) 21:59, 11 March 2008 (UTC)
 * And is there any particular reason you're telling us this? --Steven J. Anderson (talk) 22:07, 11 March 2008 (UTC)

Racial and political anti-Semitism
The article does not explain the emergence of racial (as opposed to religious) anti-Semitism in the nineteenth centuries and the influence of the pseudo-scientific theories of Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, a serious omission. In the 21st century a new element has emerged, a political anti-Semitism based on hostility to the state of Israel. Distinguishing religious, racial and political anti-Semitism (for which numerous references exist) would give structure to the article, which at present is little more than a list. Marshall46 (talk) 10:23, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

Agreed. There is no discussion of political anti-Semitism in the modern Muslim world, and the relationship that this has to Israel/Palestine. Understanding of the attraction held by anti-Semitism is lost because of this omission. After reading this article, the reader is left feeling that anti-Semitism is a timeless beast, instead of reflecting contemporary culture. By omitting the historical setting, readers are left less able to deal with the most dangerous form of modern anti-Semitism.

Sorry to rant, but I've spent the morning explaining to my Muslim students that Israel≠Jews, that there is no Jewish conspiracy, and that instead the world system is a chaotic one with no-one in control. It is this opposition to Israel that is providing such a rich breeding ground for anti-Semitism, and to see it omitted from the article riles me. 83.67.15.237 (talk) 17:12, 14 May 2009 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg
The image Image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --06:36, 4 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Resolved Fair use rationale added. --Steven J. Anderson (talk) 08:50, 4 October 2008 (UTC)

where are the instances in places other than Europe?
I notice a strict emphasis on Europe, but anti-Semitism was rampant in the Islamic world. Jews were dhimmis. And don't give me this crap on the "Golden Age" and "Islam was tolerant" because that is a sugar coating myth, and this has been shattered.

 * This point is already made in the section on "Persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages". Marshall46 (talk) 07:04, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

Rewrite desperately needed
This article, if it can be called that, is a hopelessly confusing maze of repetitions, misinformation, unverified statements and mumbo jumbo which, if you can wade through it to the end without a meltdown, leaves one utterly bewildered and annoyed. It is truly a disservice to so serious and important a subject matter. Anyone out there who could come to the rescue? Drichter53 (talk) 02:42, 5 August 2009 (UTC)

Antisemitism outside of Christian/Islam world?
Are there signs of antisemitism in China or hinduist India? --88.212.6.39 (talk) 21:51, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

Dubious...
This extract from the article is highly dubious and unreferenced. If nobody can find any refs for it I propose that we delete it:
 * "Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in Soviet Russia,[original research?] starting from conflict between Stalin and Trotsky ("Jews are trotskists, trotskists are Jews") and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda.[citation needed] Departament IV of NKVD was called "Jewsekcia" for its activity in "cleansing" party structures from Jews." Colin4C (talk) 19:31, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

Copyedited
Richard asr (talk) 17:55, 30 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Very helpful, thank you. Itsmejudith (talk) 17:59, 30 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Pleased to be able to make a contribution. As an impartial copy editor, I found the article very interesting. Also very thought-provoking. I felt the introduction needed some expansion, so I had a stab at it myself – maybe if somebody looks at what I have done as a first draft and gives it a second go. Also, it might be nice to include a small section on an analysis or a summary of the  reasons for antisemitism from beginning to end in recorded history, since it seems to me from what I have read in the article that the situation has evolved, with each period building upon the last. Richard asr (talk) 18:43, 30 November 2010 (UTC)

Expulsions from France and England
The section of the expulsion of Jews from England is so biased as to be a libel. The Statute of Jewery of 1275 ordering Jews to cease Usury as per canon law (not as thought charging interest on loans, but charging EXCESSIVE or compound interest) was not observed and those Jews who had not taken the FIFTEEN Years grace to find other occupations were penalised. Restrictions on Jews acting as moneylenders related only to Usury and was implemented only after other occupations were opened up to them. However many Jews instead turned to counterfeiting, coin clipping, "Pledge-fraud" and highway robbery. The 300 Jews executed in the Tower were all criminals convicted of a capital crime--largely counterfeiting and coining, after due process, hundreds of other were aquitted or received lesser sentences. It may be POSSIBLE that hundreds were killed or drowned trying to leave the country--it is equally possible that hundreds were not. There is ONE recorded incident of a number of Jews disembarking from a grounded ship on a sandbank in the Thames and being trapped by an incoming tide. Whether it was the spite of the ship's master or an accident depends on who is telling the tale, but "The Jew's Eddy" and the sandbank are still there. A 13thC cog is unlikely to have held more than 30 people if everyone on board was a "London Jew".Gaptech (talk) 00:23, 2 March 2011 (UTC)

New antisemitism
The last sentence of the lead reads "The formation of the state of Israel in 1948 has created new antisemitic tensions in the Middle East." This wording suggests that the "new antisemitic tensions" exist only or, at least, primarily "in the Middle East". Of course, there are a lot of anti-Israeli and antisemitic feelings among the Arabs of the Middle East. However, the "new antisemitism" goes beyond this. Shouldn't the lead make some mention of that? --Pseudo-Richard (talk) 04:18, 26 July 2011 (UTC)

Traditional Muslim antisemitism?
1. Traditionally Muslims regard Jews and Christians the closest groups to the Muslim faith in comparison to say atheists. Calling this attitude antisemitism is stretching the word too much. Jews have lived between Muslim communities for centuries without much problem, definitely much less that they have experienced in Christian communities, at least till the creation of Israel.

2. It should be clarified that what is called "new antisemitism" is lots of the time a consequence of creation of the state of Israel in an area which was dominated by Muslim communities at that time. If without the state there wouldn't be these attitude then that would mean that this is not a hatred for Jews but a reaction to the creation of Israel. 174.113.85.56 (talk) 04:35, 19 December 2011 (UTC)

Doesn't exist - that's political artifice intend to explain and justifies political, military, social, etc. actions of Israel against Muslims and/or Arabs. I cant find such definition in this article, and hopefully it will stay that way --Santasa99 (talk) 10:27, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

Christians think...
Christians think that the Jews killed Jesus, and therefore the Christians hate the Jews. However, Orthodox Jews think that Christians hate them for a different reason. Orthodox Jews believe that the Christians changed the essence of God, for the reason being that they hate the One True God, and either consciously or subconsciously want to deny Him as being One (not three) and as being the God of the Jewish people. In fact, the Lutheran belief is that Jews, being the people of the devil, are the people who most hate God. Therefore, according to Orthodox Rabbi Benjamin Blech (Benjamin Blech), this belief in these untruths are the reason why there is antisemitism in the world today. 129.98.153.196 (talk) 20:49, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Although Luther appears to have fallen victim to base anti-semitism late in life, even great men fall (Solomon slipped into rampant idolatry late in life) - should we view all of Solomon's actions, deeds, and words as moot as well? Luther's failures also do not mean that you or anyone can make a blanket judgement about all Christians as anti-semites. Instead other than the crackpot minority, Christians don't blame Jews for Jesus' death - they rightfully see His death as a requirement of salvation. They also see the Jews as God's chosen people. Only idiots disparage Jews (or any other people group). So saying that Christians are the root of Anti-Semitism is as abjectly stupid as saying "Jews killed Jesus" - as if anyone could kill the son of God if He didn't allow it... Ckruschke (talk) 17:13, 11 July 2012 (UTC)Ckruschke
 * Remember, we aren't here to discuss the topic. Itsmejudith (talk) 18:12, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

Definition
How are you defining what is anti-Semitic and what is simply a usual hostility which would exist between two ethnic groups involved in strife with one another?

 * Simple. Hatred of Jews, for whatever justified or unjustified reason, by whomever, has its own special classification. They try to make it out as some sort of unique form of irrational hatred rather than the usual distrust and animosity that exists between people of different beliefs, especially those who have wronged each other in the past. In short, it's designed to divert attention from why this or that people dislikes the Jews (because then you might be curious as to the reason, and discover the Jews are again up to no good) and instead classify it all as one combined "persecution" on a "meek, innocent, peace loving" people (haha).

I wrote a bunch of stuff but decided to retract as I'm not satisfied with my comments. Too focused on Jewish people. I'd rather offend across the board. I need to revise a bit so I can say more accurately what I see and feel. I've been writing for the better part of a day and gonna repost again if anyone is remotely interested.

Classical antisemitism
The paragraph states things like "according to Feldman..." without explaining who Feldman is

RfC
An RfC: Which descriptor, if any, can be added in front of Southern Poverty Law Center when referenced in other articles? has been posted at the Southern Poverty Law Center talk page. Your participation is welcomed. – MrX 16:46, 22 September 2012 (UTC)

Eastern Europe after World War II
The article describes Poland but doesn't mention other East-European states and ethnicities.Xx236 (talk) 09:49, 30 October 2012 (UTC)

Nazism and the Holocaust misinforms
Jews in the East were shot rather than killed in gas chambers.Xx236 (talk) 09:54, 30 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Do you have a reference to this effect? This isn't what I've read... Ckruschke (talk) 18:20, 30 October 2012 (UTC)Ckruschke
 * Bloodlands by Timothy Snyder,Ordinary Men by Christopher Browning, Hitler's Willing Executioners by Daniel Goldhagen, Babi Yar and Ponary massacre quote many sources.Xx236 (talk) 07:04, 31 October 2012 (UTC)
 * The Pit (memorial) informs about 5 000 victims, but this source says 23 000 during one action.Xx236 (talk) 07:11, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

 * In the early years of the war there were mass shootings of Jews by the Einsatzgruppen and their collaborators, but gas chambers were introduced because this method of killing was considered inefficient and psychologically damaging to German soldiers. See: Rees, Laurence, The Nazis: A Warning From History, New York: New Press (1997) Pelarmian (talk) 09:11, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Yea. I'm obviously looking for a source that would back up Xx236's statement that the "Jews in the East were shot rather than gassed" which appears to me as a blanket, catch-all. If it was only early in the War/Holocaust or was "only" a certain portion of the total deaths, that would obviously be different and could certainly be put in as a modifier to this page. However, the page for the Ponary massacre (and other Holocaust Wiki pages) clearly shows that Eastern Jews were pipe-lined into Treblinka, Sobibor, and other concentration camps. So either all the historical research that these pages/maps show is wrong, or... Ckruschke (talk) 16:14, 31 October 2012 (UTC)Ckruschke
 * Do I have a different Ponary massacre page? My says about shooting in the forest, not about transporting to Treblinka. See also Ninth Fort.Xx236 (talk) 08:05, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * See the Holocaust and Einsatzgruppen pages. Pelarmian (talk) 08:58, 1 November 2012 (UTC)

 * What am I supposed to be seeing there? As I've said above, the Holocaust page you linked, as well as several others, all show that Eastern Jews pipe-lined in concentration camps and then killed in ways other than shooting. On the Eisensatzgruppen page, I pulled the following section: In conquered urban areas of eastern Europe, Einsatzcommando units would first kill many Jews in nearby locations, such as woods or buildings. The remaining Jews would be confined to ghettos. Death rates inside ghettos from disease and malnourishment were high; groups from the ghetto were periodically taken away and shot or deported to extermination camps. Jews in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas were concentrated in the Kovno Ghetto and sent, thousands at a time, to be slaughtered in the town's 7th and 9th forts (watch towers). So this again affirms what the other pages state - that Eastern Jews were shot, allowed to die in ghettos, or were sent to concentration camps. So again, as I said above, the sentence that Xx236 is discussing should probably be restated to reflect this - OR - left as is, but CLEARLY should not be changed to state that Eastern Jews were ONLY shot. But maybe I'm missing your point. If so, please clearly state it. Ckruschke (talk) 16:21, 1 November 2012 (UTC)Ckruschke

 * I was addressing Xx236. Those articles make it clear that Jews in eastern Europe were murdered by shooting and gassing. Pelarmian (talk) 09:52, 2 November 2012 (UTC)
 * So we aggree that Jews in eastern Europe were murdered by shooting and gassing not by gassing mainly. Now we go to Geography, Jews liwing near occupied Poland were transported to death camps, Jews living far from them were shot. The same regarding Romania nad Serbia. Xx236 (talk) 07:48, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * The source doesn't mention any Sevastopol Jew tranported to a death camp. I don't know general numbers but as far as I remeber Timothy Snyder discusses the subject and he seems to be more competent than Holocaust editors.Xx236 (talk) 07:57, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Maly Trostenets extermination camp - both shooting and (subsidiary) mobiie gas chambers.Xx236 (talk) 08:34, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * More than 40 000 Jewish workers died working for Eastern Front .Xx236 (talk) 08:40, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * German SS and police murdered nearly 2,700,000 Jews in the killing centers either by asphyxiation with poison gas or by shooting., so less than 50% of total were gassed. Xx236 (talk) 08:44, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * The same says The Holocaust: These seven camps thus accounted for half the total number of Jews killed in the entire Nazi Holocaust..Xx236 (talk) 08:53, 5 November 2012 (UTC)

The cult of Simon of Trent and Eastern Europe
The Pope and Trent aren't situated in Eastern Europe, so the phrase should be moved or the connection explained and sourced.Xx236 (talk) 08:00, 9 November 2012 (UTC)

United States
The most powerful nation of the world, the United States, didn't help Holocaust refugees until it was too late.Xx236 (talk) 08:18, 9 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia isn't a soapbox for people, who describe antisemites in Europe but not in the USA. The book The Abandonment of the Jews isn't quoted in this article.Xx236 (talk) 07:25, 12 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Please go ahead and add the pointItsmejudith (talk) 07:39, 12 November 2012 (UTC)
 * My English is poor.Xx236 (talk) 12:07, 12 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Antisemitism in the USA is rationalized in the article by This dramatic increase. Xx236 (talk) 07:42, 12 November 2012 (UTC)
 * There are many books that aren't quoted in this article. Wiki isn't designed to be encyclopedic. If you think something needs to be said, I think you need to go ahead and do it - none of us are your personal scribes. Ckruschke (talk) 20:02, 14 November 2012 (UTC)Ckruschke

"The horrors of the Nazi extermination camps"
What was committed during the Holocaust was certainly horrific, but the term "horrors" seems to me unnecessary and even inappropriate in this context, as "horrors" doesn't necessarily entail (human) agency, and seems to express the author's view (and my own, for that matter) of the Holocaust rather than describe the crimes committed by the Nazis. I suggest either removing it or replacing it with "atrocities" or "crimes". Transmogriff (talk) 18:44, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:3D Test of Antisemitism which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 10:30, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of antisemitism/Archive 2


text:
Mylo (disambiguation)

Mylo can refer to:

 * Mylo, North Dakota
 * mylo (Sony), a Sony portable, Skype-compliant, Wi-Fi messaging device

People

 * Mylo (musician) (born 1978), Scottish electronic musician
 * Mylo Hubert Vergara (born 1962), Filipino bishop
 * Justin Mylo (born 1995), Dutch DJ

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mylo (disambiguation)


text:
Gsteig (disambiguation)

Gsteig may refer to:

 * Gsteig, Germany in Ostallgäu, Bavaria
 * Gsteig bei Gstaad, a municipality in the district Saanen, Canton of Berne, Switzerland
 * The church Gsteig bei Interlaken (municipality of Gsteigwiler, Switzerland)

.

title: Gsteig (disambiguation)


text:
Singlet state

In quantum mechanics, a singlet state usually refers to a system in which all electrons are paired. The term 'singlet' originally meant a linked set of particles whose net angular momentum is zero, that is, whose overall spin quantum number $$s=0$$. As a result, there is only one spectral line of a singlet state. In contrast, a doublet state contains one unpaired electron and shows splitting of spectral lines into a doublet, and a triplet state has two unpaired electrons and shows threefold splitting of spectral lines.

History
Singlets and the related spin concepts of doublets and triplets occur frequently in atomic physics and nuclear physics, where one often needs to determine the total spin of a collection of particles. Since the only observed fundamental particle with zero spin is the extremely inaccessible Higgs boson, singlets in everyday physics are necessarily composed of sets of particles whose individual spins are non-zero, e.g. $1⁄2$ or 1.

The origin of the term "singlet" is that bound quantum systems with zero net angular momentum emit photons within a single spectral line, as opposed to double lines (doublet state) or triple lines (triplet state). The number of spectral lines $$n$$ in this singlet-style terminology has a simple relationship to the spin quantum number: $$n=2s+1$$, and $$s=(n-1)/2$$.

Singlet-style terminology is also used for systems whose mathematical properties are similar or identical to angular momentum spin states, even when traditional spin is not involved. In particular, the concept of isospin was developed early in the history of particle physics to address the remarkable similarities of protons and neutrons. Within atomic nuclei, protons and neutrons behave in many ways as if they were a single type of particle, the nucleon, with two states. The proton-neutron pair thus by analogy was referred to as a doublet, and the hypothesized underlying nucleon was assigned a spin-like doublet quantum number $$I_3=\tfrac{1}{2}$$ to differentiate between those two states. Thus the neutron became a nucleon with isospin $$I_3(n)=-\tfrac{1}{2}$$, and the proton a nucleon with $$I_3(p)=+\tfrac{1}{2}$$. The isospin doublet notably shares the same SU(2) mathematical structure as the $$s=\tfrac{1}{2}$$ angular momentum doublet. It should be mentioned that this early particle physics focus on nucleons was subsequently replaced by the more fundamental quark model, in which protons and neutrons are interpreted as bound systems of three quarks each. The isospin analogy also applies to quarks, and is the source of the names up (as in "isospin up") and down (as in "isospin down") for the quarks found in protons and neutrons.

While for angular momentum states the singlet-style terminology is seldom used beyond triplets (spin=1), it has proven historically useful for describing much larger particle groups and subgroups that share certain features and are distinguished from each other by quantum numbers beyond spin. An example of this broader use of singlet-style terminology is the nine-member "nonet" of the pseudoscalar mesons.

Examples
The simplest possible angular momentum singlet is a set (bound or unbound) of two spin-1/2 (fermion) particles that are oriented so that their spin directions ("up" and "down") oppose each other; that is, they are antiparallel.

The simplest possible bound particle pair capable of exhibiting the singlet state is positronium, which consists of an electron and positron (antielectron) bound by their opposite electric charges. The electron and positron in positronium can also have identical or parallel spin orientations, which results in an experimentally-distinct form of positronium with a spin 1 or triplet state.

An unbound singlet consists of a pair of entities small enough to exhibit quantum behavior (e.g. particles, atoms, or small molecules), not necessarily of the same type, for which four conditions hold:
 * 1) The spins of the two entities are of equal magnitude.
 * 2) The current spin values of both entities originated within a single well-defined quantum event (wave function) at some earlier location in classical space and time.
 * 3) The originating wave function relates the two entities in such a way that their net angular momentum must be zero, which in turn means that if and when they are detected experimentally, conservation of angular momentum will require their spins to be in full opposition (antiparallel).
 * 4) Their spin states have remained unperturbed since the originating quantum event – which is equivalent to asserting that there exists no classical information (observation) of their status anywhere within the universe.

Any spin value can be used for the pair, but the entanglement effect will be strongest both mathematically and experimentally if the spin magnitude is as small as possible, with the maximum possible effect occurring for entities with spin-1/2 (such as electrons and positrons). Early thought experiments for unbound singlets usually assumed the use of two antiparallel spin-1/2 electrons. However, actual experiments have tended to focus instead on using pairs of spin 1 photons. While the entanglement effect is somewhat less pronounced with such spin 1 particles, photons are easier to generate in correlated pairs and (usually) easier to keep in an unperturbed quantum state.

Mathematical representations
The ability of positronium to form both singlet and triplet states is described mathematically by saying that the product of two doublet representations (meaning the electron and positron, which are both spin-1/2 doublets) can be decomposed into the sum of an adjoint representation (the triplet or spin 1 state) and a trivial representation (the singlet or spin 0 state). While the particle interpretation of the positronium triplet and singlet states is arguably more intuitive, the mathematical description enables precise calculations of quantum states and probabilities.

This greater mathematical precision for example makes it possible to assess how singlets and doublets behave under rotation operations. Since a spin-1/2 electron transforms as a doublet under rotation, its experimental response to rotation can be predicted by using the fundamental representation of that doublet, specifically the Lie group SU(2). Applying the operator $$\vec{S}^2$$ to the spin state of the electron thus will always result in $\hbar^2 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right) \left(\frac{1}{2} + 1\right) = \left(\frac{3}{4}\right) \hbar^2$, or spin-1/2, since the spin-up and spin-down states are both eigenstates of the operator with the same eigenvalue.

Similarly, for a system of two electrons, it is possible to measure the total spin by applying $$\left(\vec{S}_1 + \vec{S}_2\right)^2$$, where $$\vec{S}_1$$ acts on electron 1 and $$\vec{S}_2$$ acts on electron 2. Since this system has two possible spins, it also has two possible eigenvalues and corresponding eigenstates for the total spin operator, corresponding to the spin 0 and spin 1 states.

Singlets and entangled states
Particles in singlet states do not need to be locally bound to each other. For example, when the spin states of two electrons are correlated by their emission from a single quantum event that conserves angular momentum, the resulting electrons remain in a shared singlet state even as their separation in space increases indefinitely over time, provided only that their angular momentum states remain unperturbed. In Dirac notation this distance-indifferent singlet state is usually represented as:

 * $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left( \left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle - \left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle\right).$$

The possibility of spatially extended unbound singlet states has considerable historical and even philosophical importance, since considering such states contributed importantly to the theoretical and experimental exploration and verification of what is now called quantum entanglement. Along with Podolsky and Rosen, Einstein proposed the EPR paradox thought experiment to help define his concerns with what he viewed as the non-locality of spatially separated entangled particles, using it in an argument that quantum mechanics was incomplete. In 1951 David Bohm formulated a version of the "paradox" using spin singlet states.

The difficulty captured by the EPR-Bohm thought experiment was that by measuring a spatial component of the angular momentum of either of two particles that have been prepared in a spatially distributed singlet state, the quantum state of the remaining particle, conditioned on the measurement result obtained, appears to be "instantaneously" altered, even if the two particles have over time become separated by light years of distance. Decades later, John Stewart Bell, who was a strong advocate of Einstein's locality-first perspective, proved Bell's theorem and showed that it could be used to assess the existence or non-existence of singlet entanglement experimentally. The irony was that instead of disproving entanglement, which was Bell's hope, subsequent experiments instead established the reality of entanglement. In fact, there now exist commercial quantum encryption devices whose operation depends fundamentally on the existence and behavior of spatially extended singlets.

A weaker form of Einstein's locality principle remains intact, which is this: Classical information cannot be transmitted faster than the speed of light c, not even by using quantum entanglement events. This form of locality is weaker than the notion of "Einstein locality" or "local realism" used in the EPR and Bell's Theorem papers, but is sufficient to prevent the emergence of causality paradoxes.

title: Singlet state


text:
French Football Federation

The French Football Federation (abbr. FFF and 3F; or Triple F Fédération Française de Football) is the governing body of football in France. It was formed in 1919 and is based in the capital, Paris. The FFF was a founding member of FIFA and is responsible for overseeing all aspects of the game of football in France, both professional and amateur. The French Football Federation is a founding member of UEFA and joined FIFA in 1907 after replacing the USFSA, who were founding members.

Background
Before the FFF was established, football, rugby union and others sports in France were regulated by the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA). Founded in November 1890, the USFSA was initially headquartered in Paris but its membership soon expanded to include sports clubs from throughout France.

In 1894 the USFSA also organised the first recognised French football championship. The first competition featured just four Paris teams and was organised on a knockout basis.

In 1900 the USFSA sent players from Parisian Club Français to represent France at the 1900 Summer Olympics. On 1 May 1904 the USFSA also selected the first official France national football team. The USFSA would be dissolved in 1919 after some disagreements with FIFA.

The FFF announced to file a complaint with FIFA over racist and discriminatory remarks made by Argentina players in post-match chants after their Copa América win. The incident involved Enzo Fernández, who posted a video where players appeared to sing about French players of African heritage. Wesley Fofana condemned the video as "uninhibited racism." Philippe Diallo condemned the remarks and planned to contact Argentina's soccer federation and FIFA. Gianni Infantino had previously committed to a zero tolerance approach to racism.

Formation and evolution
The Fédération Française de Football was formed on 7 April 1919 following the transformation of the Comité Français Interfédéral (CFI) into the Fédération Française de Football Association (FFFA). The CFI were seen as a rival organization to the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA) due to the organization's constantly disagreeing with each other, mainly due to the latter's opposition to professionalism in sport. Following the debacle at the 1908 Summer Olympics, in which France sent two teams, one controlled by the USFSA and another by FIFA, the CFI ruled that FIFA would now be responsible for the club's appearances in forthcoming Olympic Games and not the USFSA. Being a founding member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the USFSA disagreed with the ruling and, despite having three years to reach an agreement, the CFI and the USFSA failed to, which led to France not sending a football team to the 1912 Summer Olympics. The USFSA later developed friction with FIFA and the IOC, which led to disorganization and in 1913, became semi-affiliated with the CFI.

On 7 April 1919 the CFI transformed themselves into the Fédération Française de Football with Jules Rimet being installed as the federation's first president. Its legal status is placed under the French Association loi de 1901 jurisdiction (Voluntary association). The FFF has been affiliated to FIFA since 1907, when the CFI succeeded the USFSA as France's representative. Two years later after the CFI's transformation, the USFSA officially merged with the federation.

On 28 June 2010, the federation's current president, Jean-Pierre Escalettes, announced his resignation from his position effective 23 July. On 23 July, Fernand Duchaussoy was installed as the federation's interim president and, on 18 December, the title was removed making him the federation's 11th president in its history. On 18 June 2011, following as election, Nöel Le Graët was named as the federation's 12th president.

Activities
The French Football Federation describes itself in these four roles:

 * To organize, develop, and monitor the teachings and practices of football in all its forms on the mainland and in the overseas regions and territories.
 * To create and maintain a link between its individual members, affiliated clubs, and their respective districts and regional leagues of the Ligue du Football Amateur (LFA) and the Ligue de Football Professionnel (LFP).
 * To defend the moral and material interests of French football.
 * To maintain all appropriate relations with foreign associations affiliated with FIFA, as well as their sporting organizations and national governments.

The FFF sanctions all competitive football matches in France, either directly, beginning with the Championnat National on down, or indirectly through the Ligue de Football Professionnel, who manage Ligue 1 and Ligue 2, the first and second divisions of France, respectively, as well as the Coupe de la Ligue. The LFP, however, still operate under the authority of the federation. The federation is also responsible for appointing the management of the men's, women's and youth national football teams. In 2010, the FFF had 2,107,924 licenses, with over 1,800,000 registered players and 18,000 registered clubs. The federation unveiled its new crest (above right) in 2007.

The French Football Federation runs numerous competitions, the most famous of which is the annual Coupe de France. The Coupe de France is managed under the authority of the Federal Commission of the Coupe de France, which is directly attached to the Federal Council of the FFF. The federation also organizes the championships of the semi-professional and amateur leagues, such as the Championnat National, the Championnat de France amateur and Championnat de France amateur 2, and the regional and departmental leagues, as well as the latter's cup competitions.

The federation also governs youth leagues, such as the Championnat National of the under-19s and under-17s. The FFF also oversee the organization of the Coupe Gambardella and the Coupe Nationale for the under-15 and under-13 club teams. The federation organizes all three divisions of women's football in France and oversee the Challenge de France, the women's premier cup competition.

Regional associations
The FFF is divided into 20 regional associations, corresponding to the 18 regions of France (13 mainland and 5 overseas), plus two overseas collectivities (Saint Martin and Saint Pierre and Miquelon). Another overseas collectivity, Saint Barthélemy, has its own territorial committee but is recognized as a district of the Guadeloupe regional association. French Polynesia and New Caledonia are members of FIFA in their own right and do not have regional bodies within the FFF. Wallis and Futuna is the only inhabited territory of France to not have organized football at any level.

Regional associations are responsible for organizing all competitions below Level 5 in the French league system. The number of regional associations was reduced by nine after the 2016 redrawing of regions in France.

Academies
The French Football Force operates 14 élite academies throughout the country of France, the most famous being the INF Clairefontaine, which was created by former FFF president Fernand Sastre in 1976. Located 50 km southwest of Paris in Clairefontaine-en-Yvelines, INF Clairefontaine is arguably the finest football academy in the world. It has a high reputation of producing some of the most gifted French players including Nicolas Anelka, Louis Saha, William Gallas and former national team top scorer Thierry Henry.

Registration
Players selected to an academy must be at least 13 years of age, have French nationality (rule valid until 2010), and be living and playing within the region of the academy the player is registering for. Registration for new players at an academy normally begins in October the year before players enroll at the academy when prospective applicants are 12 years of age. Players have until December to register with their club for acceptance into the academy. The first set of trials are carried out by each district within its respective region. Each district selects a set number of players who will travel to the region's academy to attend a tryout, which is usually held over a three-day period. The dates of the tryouts vary depending on the academy. The Clairefontaine academy normally hold its tryouts during the Easter school holidays, however the academy in Châteauroux holds its tryouts in June. After the three days, the academy director and officials will convene to select a maximum of 22 players with three or four of the 22 being goalkeepers. The number of players selected also vary depending on the academy.

Training and accommodation
Players who are selected to attend an academy stay and train at the facilities from Monday through Friday. Players are given the weekend off to go and visit family and, also, to train and play with their parent clubs. They are given school holidays off, as well. Players are also required to meet educational criteria. For example, players age 13–15 training at Clairefontaine attend the Collège Catherine de Vivonne de Rambouilet in Rambouillet. After departing Rambouilet, players enroll at the nearby high school Lycée Louis Bascan de Rambouillet with hopes that they will earn their Baccalauréat. All costs required to attend an academy are borne by the federation and the Ligue Nationale de Football.

National football team
{|
 * valign=top|
 * valign=top|

Men

 * FIFA World Cup
 * Winner (2): 1998, 2018
 * Runners-up (2): 2006, 2022
 * Third place (2): 1958, 1986
 * Fourth place (1): 1982

 * UEFA European Championship
 * Winner (2):  1984, 2000
 * Runner-up (1): 2016
 * Semi-final (1): 1996
 * Fourth place (1): 1960

 * UEFA Nations League
 * Winner (1): 2020–21

 * Olympic Games
 * Gold Medal (1): 1984
 * Bronze Medal (1): 1900

 * Artemio Franchi Trophy (or Intercontinental Cup of Nations)
 * Winners: 1985

 * FIFA Confederations Cup
 * Winner (2):  2001, 2003

 * valign=top|

Women

 * FIFA Women's World Cup
 * Fourth place (1): 2011

 * UEFA Women's Championship
 * Semi-Final (1): 2022

 * Olympic Games
 * Fourth place (1): 2012

 * }

National youth teams
{|
 * valign=top|
 * valign=top|

Men

 * FIFA U-20 World Cup
 * Winner (1): 2013
 * Fourth place (1): 2011

 * FIFA U-17 World Cup
 * Winner (1): 2001
 * Third place (1): 2019

 * UEFA U-21 Championship
 * Winner (1): 1988
 * Runner-up (1): 2002
 * Third place (1): 1996
 * Fourth place (1): 1994
 * Semi-final (2): 2006, 2019

 * UEFA U-19/18 Championship (U-19 since 2002)
 * Winner (8): 1949, 1983, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2016
 * Runner-up (3): 1950, 1968, 2013
 * Third place (3): 1957, 1958, 1981
 * Fourth place (4): 1967, 1970, 1976, 1979
 * Semi-final (6): 2007, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2019

 * }

Sponsors

 * Nike, Inc.
 * Crédit Agricole
 * Électricité de France
 * Volkswagen
 * PMU
 * KFC
 * Accor Hotels
 * Carrefour

title: French Football Federation


text:
Gutenburg

Gutenburg may refer to:
 * Gutenburg, Switzerland, Canton of Bern

title: Gutenburg


text:
User:Lea Mai/SandStorm

Species Gorilla berengei berengei Matschie, 1903

The Mountain Gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) is one of three subspecies of Eastern Gorillas, along with the gorillas of Uganda's Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (subspecies unnamed) and the Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri). They are only found in the Virunga Volcanic mountains of Central Africa, within three national parks: Mgahinga, in south-west Uganda; Volcanoes, in north-west Rwanda; and Virunga, in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

A census taken in 2003 has shown a 17% increase in population size since 1989. There are now a total of 380 gorillas in 30 social groups ("Mountain Gorilla Census" 2004). However, Mountain Gorillas continue to be considered critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. They face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild due to habitat loss, poaching, human disease, and war (Butynski et al. 2003).

Description
Mountain Gorillas have longer and darker hair than other gorillas, enabling them to live at high altitudes and travel into areas where temperatures drop below freezing. They have adapted to a life on the ground more than any other non-human primate, and their feet most resemble those of humans. Gorillas can be identified by their unique nose prints. Researchers often use photographs and illustrations of noses in order to identify and monitor individuals.

Mountain Gorillas are highly sexually dimorphic, with males usually weighing twice as much as females. Adult males also have more pronounced bony crests on the top (sagittal) and back (nuchal) of their skulls, giving their heads a more conical shape. These crests anchor the massive muscles used to operate their large jaws and teeth. Adult females also have these crests, but they are much less pronounced (Smithsonian National Zoological Park [SNZP]).

Adult males are called silverbacks. When they reach sexual maturity, a saddle of gray or silver-colored hair develops on their backs. The hair on their backs is shorter than on most other body parts, and especially long on their arms. Upright, males reach 1.5–1.8 m (5–6 ft) in height, with an arm span of 2.25 m (7 ft 6 in) and weigh 204–227 kg (450–500 lb) (Knight 2003).

Mountain Gorillas are primarily terrestrial and quadrupedal. However, they will climb into fruiting trees if the branches can carry their weight, and they are capable of running bipedally up to 6 m (20 ft). Like all great apes, their arms are shorter than their legs. They move by knuckle-walking, supporting their weight on the backs of their curved fingers rather than their palms.

Mountain gorillas are diurnal, and they are most active between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Many of these hours are spent eating, as large quantities of food are needed to sustain their massive bulk. They forage in early morning, rest during the late morning and around midday, and in the afternoon they forage again before resting at night. Each gorilla builds a nest from surrounding vegetation to sleep in, constructing a new one every evening. Only infants sleep in the same nest as their mothers. They leave their sleeping sites when the sun rises at around 6 am, except when it is cold and overcast; then they often stay longer in their nests (Schaller, 1963).

Habitat & Diet
The Mountain Gorillas inhabit the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from 2225 to 4267 meters (7300-14000 ft). Most are found on the slopes of three of the dormant volcanoes: Karisimbi, Mikeno, and Visoke ("Mountain Gorillas," 2003). The vegetation is very dense at the bottom of the mountains, becoming increasingly less so at higher elevations, and the forests where the Mountain Gorillas live are often cloudy, misty and cold ("The Life of Mountain Gorillas" 2002).

Mountain Gorillas are primarily folivorous. The majority of their diet is composed of the leaves, shoots and stems (85.8%) of 142 plant species. They also feed on bark (6.9%), roots (3.3%), flowers (2.3%), and fruit (1.7%), as well as larvae, snails and ants (0.1%) (Fossey and Harcourt 1977). Adult males can eat up to 75 pounds of vegetation a day, while a female can eat as much as 40 pounds.

The home range size (the area used by one group of gorillas during one year) is influenced by the availability of food sources and usually includes several vegetation zones. George Schaller (1963) identified ten distinct zones, including: the bamboo forests at 2225–2804 m (7300–9200 ft); the Hagenia forests at 2804–3353 m (9200–1100 ft); and the giant senecio zone at 3444–4267 m (11300–14000 ft). Mountain Gorillas spend most of their time in the Hagenia forests, where gallium vines are found year-round. All parts of this vine are consumed: leaves, stems, flowers, and berries. They travel to the bamboo forests during the few months of the year fresh shoots are available, and they climb into subalpine regions to eat the soft centers of giant senecio trees ("Mountain Gorillas" 2003).

Reproduction
A newborn gorilla weighs about 1.8 kg (4 lb), and spends its first few months of life in constant physical contact with its mother. They begin to walk around four or five months, and start to put plant parts in their mouths between four and six months. At eight months they regularly ingest solid food (Watts 1985). Weaning occurs around three years of age, although juveniles may remain with their mothers for years after that (Lindsley & Sorin 2001).

Young male and female gorillas are considered infants from birth until three years of age, juvenile between the ages of about three and six, and subadult from six to about eight years old. Blackbacks are sexually immature males from around eight years until they have developed the silver saddle and large canines of maturity (Groves & Meder 2001). Females begin to ovulate at 7 or 8 years of age, and have their first infant between the ages of 10 and 12. Males, generally do not start breeding before the age of 15 (The International Gorilla Conservation Programme [IGCP]).

Mountain Gorillas have no mating season. Females usually initiate mating behavior. The length of their estrus cycle is about 28 days with 1-3 fertile days, and ovulation ceases for 3–5 years after reproducing. The length of gestation is eight and a half months. Females generally rear one infant every 6 to 8 years, and may leave only 2–6 offspring over a 40 year life span. Males that have a harems of 3–4 females increase their reproductive output by fathering 10-20 offspring over 50 years (Lindsley and Sorin 2001).

Social structure
Mountain gorillas are highly social, and live in relatively stable, cohesive groups held together by long-term bonds between adult males and females. Relationships among females are relatively weak (Stewart and Harcourt 1987). These groups are nonterritorial; the silverback generally defends his group rather than his territory. In the Virunga Mountain Gorillas, the average length of tenure for a dominant silverback is 4.7 years (Robbins 1995).

61% of groups are composed of one adult male and a number of females and 36% contain more than one adult male. The remaining gorillas are either loan males or exclusively male groups, usually made up of one mature male and a few younger males (Harcourt 1988). Group sizes vary from five to thirty, with an average of ten individuals. A typical group contains: one silverback, who is the group's undisputed leader; one or two blackbacks, who act as sentries; three to four sexually mature females, who are ordinarily bonded to the dominant silverback for life; and, from three to six juveniles and infants. (Fossey 1983)

Most males and about 60% of females leave their natal group. Males leave when they are about 11 years old, and often the separation process is slow: they spend more and more time on the edge of the group until they leave altogether (Lindsley and Sorin 2001). They may travel alone or with all-male group for 2-5 years before they can attract females to join them and form a new group. Females typically emigrate when they are about 8 years old, either transferring directly to an established group or beginning a new one with a lone male. Females often transfer to a new group several times before they settle down with a certain silverback male (Watts 1990).

The dominant silverback generally determines the movements of the group, leading them to appropriate feeding sites throughout the year. He also mediates conflicts within the group and protects them from external threats ("Life of Mountain Gorillas" 2002). Experienced silverbacks are capable of removing poachers' snares from the hands or feet of their group members (Berggorilla & Regenwald Direkthilfe [BRD]). He is the center of attention during rest sessions, and young animals frequently stay close to him and include him in their games. If a mother dies or leaves the group, the sliverback is usually the one who looks after his abandoned offspring, even allowing them to sleep in his nest (Stewart 2001).

When the dominant silverback dies or is killed by disease, accident, or poachers, the family group may be severely disrupted ("Mountain Gorillas," 2003). Unless he leaves behind a male descendant capable of taking over his position, the group will either split up or be taken over in its entirety by an unrelated male. When a new silverback takes control of a family group, he may kill all of the infants of the dead silverback (Fossey 1984). This practice of infanticide is an effective reproductive strategy in that the newly acquired females are then able to conceive the new male's offspring. Infanticide has not been observed in stable groups.

Behavior
Aggressive:  Severe aggression is rare in stable groups, but when two mountain gorilla groups meet, the leading silverbacks can sometimes engage in a fight to the death, using their canines to cause deep, gaping injuries (Fossey 1983). For this reason, conflicts are most often resolved by displays and other threat behaviors that are intended to intimidate without becoming physical. The ritualized charge display is unique to gorillas (SNZP). The entire sequence has nine steps: (1) hooting slow to fast, (2) symbolic feeding, (3) rising bipedally, (4) throwing vegetation, (5) chest-beating with cupped hands, (6) one leg kick, (7) sideways running, two-legged to four-legged, (8) slapping and tearing vegetation, and (9) thumping the ground with palms to end display (Maple and Hoff 1982).

Affiliative:  The midday rest period is an important time for establishing and reinforcing relationships within the group. Mutual grooming reinforces social bonds, and helps keep hair free from dirt and parasites. It is not as common among gorillas as in other primates, although females groom their offspring regularly. Young gorillas play often and are more arboreal than the large adults. Playing helps them learn how to communicate and behave within the group. Activities include wrestling, chasing and somersaults. The silverback and his females tolerate and even participate if encouraged (SNZP).

Vocalizations:  Twenty-five distinct vocalizations are recognized, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation. Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members (Harcourt et al. 1993). They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required. Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks. Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods. They are the most common form of intragroup communication (Fossey 1983).

Research
In October 1902, Captain Robert von Beringe (1865-1940) shot two large apes during an expedition to establish the boundaries of German East Africa (Schaller, 1964). One of the apes was recovered and sent to the Zoological Museum in Berlin, where Professor Paul Matschie (1861-1926) classified the animal as a new form of gorilla and named it Gorilla beringei after the man who discovered it (BRD). In 1925 Carl Akeley, a hunter from the American Museum of Natural History who wished to study the gorillas, convinced King Albert to establish the Albert National Park to protect the animals of the Virunga mountains (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund - UK [DFGFUK]).

George Schaller began his 20 month observation of the Mountain Gorillas in 1959, subsequently publishing two books: The Mountain Gorilla and The Year of the Gorilla. Little was known about the life of Mountain Gorillas before his research, which described their social organization, life history, and ecology (DFGFUK). Following Schaller, Dian Fossey began what would become a 13 year study in 1967. Fossey made new observations, completed the first accurate census, and established active conservation practices, such as anti-poaching patrols.

Conservation
Mountain Gorillas are threatened by poaching, loss of habitat, and human disease.

 * Poaching: Mountain Gorillas are not usually hunted for bushmeat, but they are frequently maimed or killed by traps and snares intended for other animals. They have been killed for their heads, hands, and feet, which are sold to collectors. Infants are sold to zoos, researchers, and people who want them as pets. The abduction of infants generally involves the loss of at least one adult, as members of a group will fight to the death to protect their young.
 * Habitat loss: The forests where Mountain Gorillas live are surrounded by rapidly increasing human settlement. The humans' need for land, food, and timber encroaches on the gorillas' habitat through roads, slash-and-burn agriculture, and logging. The resulting deforestation confines the gorillas to isolated forest islands. Some groups may raid crops for food, creating further animosity and retaliation.
 * Disease: Humans and gorillas are genetically similar enough that gorillas are vulnerable to many of the same diseases as humans. However, gorillas have not developed the immunities to resist human diseases, and infections could severely impact the population. Habituated groups that are visited by tourists have the greatest risk.

Conservation requires work at many levels, form local to international, and involves protection and law enforcement as well as research and education.

 * "Active conservation includes frequent patrols in wildlife areas to destroy poacher equipment and weapons, firm and prompt law enforcement, census counts in regions of breeding and ranging concentration, and strong safeguards for the limited habitat the animals occupy" (Fossey 1983).
 * "Theoretical conservation seeks to encourage growth in tourism by improving existing roads that circle the mountains, by renovating the park headquarters and tourists' lodging, and by the habituation of gorillas near the park boundaries for tourists to visit and photograph" (Fossey 1983).
 * Community-based conservation supports African ownership, provides education on the personal as well as environmental benefits of preserving protected areas, and encourages local people to take pride in and assume some of the responsibility for the protection of their parks (Fossey 1983).

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title: User:Lea Mai/SandStorm