text:
Newsday

Newsday is a daily newspaper in the United States primarily serving Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island, although it is also sold throughout the New York metropolitan area. The slogan of the newspaper is "Newsday, Your Eye on LI", and formerly it was "Newsday, the Long Island Newspaper". The newspaper's headquarters are located in Melville, New York.

Since its founding in 1940, Newsday has won 19 Pulitzer Prizes.

By January 2014, Newsday's total average circulation was 437,000 on weekdays, 434,000 on Saturdays and 495,000 on Sundays. As of 2019, the newspaper's weekday circulation of 250,000 was the eighth-largest in the nation, and the highest among suburban newspapers. In June 2022, the newspaper had an average print circulation of 97,182.

20th century
Founded by Alicia Patterson and her husband, Harry Guggenheim, the first edition of Newsday was September 3, 1940, published from Hempstead.

Until undergoing a major redesign in the 1970s, Newsday copied the Daily News format of short stories and numerous pictures. Patterson was fired as a writer at her father's Daily News in her early 20s, after getting the basic facts of a divorce wrong in a published report. Following Patterson's death in 1963, Guggenheim became publisher and editor.

In 1967, Guggenheim turned over the publisher position to Bill Moyers and continued as president and editor-in-chief. But Guggenheim was disappointed by the liberal drift of the newspaper under Moyers, criticizing what he called the "left-wing" coverage of the anti-Vietnam War protests.

The two ultimately split over the 1968 presidential election, with Guggenheim authoring an editorial supporting Richard Nixon when Moyers supported Hubert Humphrey.

Guggenheim sold his majority share to the then-conservative Times-Mirror Company over the attempt of newspaper employees to block the sale, even though Moyers offered $10 million more than the Times-Mirror purchase price; Moyers resigned a few days later. Guggenheim, who died a year later, had Moyers removed from his will.

After the competing Long Island Press (not to be confused with the alternative weekly of the same name) ceased publication in 1977, Newsday launched a separate Queens edition, followed by a New York City edition dubbed New York Newsday. In June 2000, Times Mirror merged with the Tribune Company, partnering Newsday with the New York City television station WPIX, also owned by Tribune.

With the Times Mirror-Tribune merger, the newspaper founded by Alicia Patterson was now owned by the company that was founded by her great-grandfather, Joseph Medill, who owned the Chicago Tribune and, until 1991, also owned her father's Daily News. Tribune sold the Daily News to British newspaper magnate Robert Maxwell.

Following Maxwell's death in 1992, Medill's publishing empire collapsed, and Mortimer Zuckerman purchased the Daily News, and Chicago real estate magnate Samuel Zell purchased the Tribune in 2007.

21st century
In April 2008, News Corporation, headed by CEO Rupert Murdoch, attempted to purchase Newsday for US$580 million. This was followed by a matching bid from Zuckerman and a $680 million bid from Cablevision.

In May 2008, News Corporation withdrew its bid, and on May 12, 2008, Newsday reported that Cablevision would purchase the paper for $650 million. The sale was completed July 29, 2008.

In 2016, Altice, a Netherlands-based multinational telecommunications company, acquired Cablevision, including Newsday and News 12. However, Altice then sold a majority (75%) stake in Newsday back to Cablevision's former owner Charles Dolan and his son Patrick, making Patrick the CEO of Newsday. Altice disposed of its remaining stake in Newsday at the end of July 2018, which, combined with Charles Dolan's transfer of shares to son Patrick, made Patrick the sole owner of Newsday.

In July 2020, Newsday received $10 million in federal government loans from Paycheck Protection Program during the COVID-19 pandemic to pay salaries for 500 employees.

In 2022, Don Hudson was named editor.

In March 2023, Newsday launched NewsdayTV, featuring former News 12 Networks anchor Elisa DiStefano. NewsdayTV is available online and through major streaming outlets. NewsdayTV takes a similar approach to news as other Long Island news outlets such as News12.

Editorial style
Despite having a tabloid format, Newsday is not known for being sensationalistic, as are other local daily tabloids, such as the New York Daily News and the New York Post. This causes Newsday to sometimes be referred to as "the respectable tabloid".

In 2004, the alternative weekly newspaper Long Island Press (which is not related to the defunct daily of the same name) wrote that Newsday has used its clout to influence local politics in Nassau and Suffolk Counties.

Bill Moyers briefly served as publisher. During the tenure of publisher Robert M. Johnson in the 1980s, Newsday made a major push into New York City. The paper's roster of columnists and critics has included Cathy Young, Jimmy Breslin, Barbara Garson, Normand Poirier, Murray Kempton, Gail Collins, Pete Hamill, Sydney Schanberg, Robert Reno (died 2012), Jim Dwyer, sportswriter Mike Lupica, music critic Tim Page, and television critic Marvin Kitman. The paper featured both advice columnists Ann Landers and Dear Abby for several years.

From 1985 to 2005, Michael Mandelbaum wrote a regular foreign affairs analysis column for Newsday. Writer and biographer Robert Caro was an investigative reporter. Its features section has included television reporters Verne Gay and Diane Werts, TV/film feature writer Frank Lovece, and film critic Rafer Guzman. Newsday carries the syndicated columnist Froma Harrop. Pulitzer Prize winner Walt Handelsman's editorial political cartoons animation are a nationally syndicated feature of Newsday. In the 1980s, a new design director, Robert Eisner, guided the transition into digital design and color printing.

Newsday created and sponsored a "Long Island at the Crossroads" advisory board in 1978, to recommend regional goals, supervise local government, and liaison with state and Federal officials. It lasted approximately a decade.

On March 21, 2011, Newsday redesigned its front page, scrapping the nameplate and font used since the 1960s in favor of a sans-serif wordmark.

Circulation
In 2004, a circulation scandal revealed that the paper's daily and Sunday circulation had been inflated by 16.9% and 14.5%, respectively, in the auditing period September 30, 2002 to September 30, 2003. The Audit Bureau of Circulation adjusted average weekday circulation to 481,816 from 579,599; average Saturday circulation to 392,649 from 416,830; and average Sunday circulation to 574,081 from 671,820, and instituted twice-yearly audits.

In 2008, Newsday was ranked 10th in terms of newspaper circulation in the United States. On October 28, 2009, Newsday changed its web site to a paid-subscriber only model. Newsday.com would open its front page, classified ads, movie listings, and school closings to all site visitors, but access beyond this content would require a weekly fee – US$5 as of 2010. This fee would be waived for subscribers of the print edition of the paper, as well as for subscribers to parent-company Cablevision's Internet service. Through its first three months only 35 non-Optimum, non-Newsday subscribers signed up for the paid website.

Pulitzer Prizes
Newsday has won 19 Pulitzer Prizes and has been a finalist for 20 additional (if no individual is listed, award is for Newsday staff):

 * 1954: Public Service (Winner)
 * 1970: Public Service (Winner)
 * 1970: Editorial Cartooning (Winner) — Thomas F. Darcy
 * 1974: Public Service (Winner)
 * 1974: Criticism (Winner) — Emily Genauer, Newsday Syndicate
 * 1980: Local Investigative Specialized Reporting (Finalist) — Carole E. Agus, Andrew V. Fetherston Jr., and Frederick J. Tuccillo
 * 1982: International Reporting (Finalist) — Bob Wyrick
 * 1982: Criticism (Finalist) — Marvin Kitman
 * 1984: Local General or Spot News Reporting (Winner)
 * 1984: International Reporting (Finalist) — Morris Thompson
 * 1984: Criticism (Finalist) — Dan Cryer
 * 1985: International Reporting (Winner) — Josh Friedman, Dennis Bell, and Ozier Muhammad
 * 1985: Commentary (Winner) — Murray Kempton
 * 1986: Feature Writing (Finalist) — Irene Virag
 * 1989: Investigative Reporting (Finalist) — Penny Loeb
 * 1990: Specialized Reporting (Finalist) – Jim Dwyer
 * 1991: Spot News Reporting (Finalist)
 * 1991: Spot News Photography (Finalist)
 * 1992: Spot News Reporting (Winner)
 * 1992: International Reporting (Winner) — Patrick J. Sloyan
 * 1993: International Reporting (Winner) — Roy Gutman
 * 1994: Explanatory Journalism (Finalist)
 * 1995: Investigative Reporting (Winner) — Brian Donovan and Stephanie Saul
 * 1995: Commentary (Winner) — Jim Dwyer
 * 1996: Explanatory Journalism (Winner) — Laurie Garrett
 * 1996: Beat Reporting (Winner) — Bob Keeler
 * 1996: International Reporting (Finalist) — Laurie Garrett
 * 1997: Spot News Reporting (Winner)
 * 1998: Beat Reporting (Finalist) — Laurie Garrett
 * 1999: Criticism (Finalist) — Justin Davidson
 * 1999: Editorial Writing (Finalist) — Lawrence C. Levy
 * 2002: Criticism (Winner) — Justin Davidson
 * 2004: Breaking News Reporting (Finalist)
 * 2005: International Reporting (Winner) — Dele Olojede
 * 2005: Explanatory Reporting (Finalist)
 * 2007: Editorial Cartooning (Winner) — Walt Handelsman
 * 2008: Public Service (Finalist) — Jennifer Barrios, Sophia Chang, Michael R. Ebert, Reid J. Epstein, Jennifer Sinco Kelleher, Eden Laikin, Herbert Lowe, Joseph Mallia, Jennifer Maloney, Luis Perez and Karla Schuster
 * 2013: Editorial Writing (Finalist) — Editorial Board staff
 * 2014: Public Service (Finalist)

In popular culture

 * 1969: The novel Naked Came the Stranger is written as a literary hoax poking fun at contemporary American culture. Although credited to "Penelope Ashe", it was in fact written by a group of 24 journalists led by Newsday columnist Mike McGrady, who intended to author a deliberately terrible book with a lot of sex to illustrate the point that popular American literary culture had become mindlessly vulgar. The book fulfilled the authors' expectations and became a bestseller in 1969; they revealed the hoax later that year, further spurring the book's popularity.
 * 1985: In the comedy/thriller Compromising Positions, the lead character, played by Susan Sarandon, is a former Newsday journalist who is trying reestablish her career by selling a freelance story to the publication.
 * 1986: In the Crocodile Dundee films, Linda Kozlowski's character, reporter Sue Charlton, works at Newsday.
 * 1996: The episode "The Homer They Fall" in season eight of The Simpsons quotes Newsday calling boxing "the cruelest sport".
 * 1996 to 2005: In the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond, the fictional character Ray Barone played by Ray Romano is employed by Newsday as a sportswriter.
 * 2016: In the documentary Three Identical Strangers, former editor Howard Schneider discusses Newsday 's coverage of three young men who discovered they were separated as infants.

title: Newsday


text:
Michael Onslow, 7th Earl of Onslow

Michael William Coplestone Dillon Onslow, 7th Earl of Onslow (28 February 1938 – 14 May 2011), styled Viscount Cranley from 1945 to 1971, was a British Conservative politician.

Background and education
Onslow was the only son of William Onslow, 6th Earl of Onslow, and his first wife, Pamela Dillon, daughter of Eric Dillon, 19th Viscount Dillon. He was educated at Eton and the Sorbonne.

Political career
Onslow succeeded his father in the earldom in 1971. He was far more colourful and unorthodox, publicly opposing apartheid and police racism, among other issues. He sat on the Conservative benches. He was a supporter of reform of the House of Lords, but not as proposed by Labour. When Tony Blair's Labour government proposed the House of Lords Bill in 1999 to strip voting rights from the mostly Conservative hereditary peers in the House of Lords, Onslow said that he was happy to force a division on every clause of the Scotland Bill; each division takes 20 minutes and there were more than 270 clauses. This was a move to ruin the government's legislative programme in protest at the removal. Onslow added he would "behave like a football hooligan" on this legislative programme, which he opposed. Ironically, he was one of the more than 90 hereditary peers elected to remain in the House of Lords after the House of Lords Act 1999. He criticised the decision by the Blair government to abolish the Lord Chancellor, stating Blair was: "playing Pooh sticks with 800 years of history." He supported a majority-elected upper house. He opposed the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011.

He was a member of the Joint Committee on Human Rights from July 2005 until his death, in which capacity he strongly criticised Jacqui Smith over the government's proposed extension to the detention of terror suspects to 42 days. He disapproved of modernising tendencies within the Church of England, stating on one occasion that "...one hundred years ago, the Church was in favour of fox hunting and against buggery. Now it is in favour of buggery and against fox hunting." On two occasions he appeared on Have I Got News for You in November 1999 and October 2003 respectively. He is the only hereditary peer to have ever appeared on that programme to date.

Death
Onslow died on 14 May 2011, aged 73, from cancer which consigned him to a wheelchair.

Family
In 1964, Onslow married Robin Lindsay Bullard, daughter of Robert Lee Bullard III, of Atlanta, Georgia, and Ann Lindsay Bullard (née Aymer), who in 1949 married Charles McLaren, 3rd Baron Aberconway.

Onslow and his wife had three children:
 * Rupert Charles William Bullard Onslow, 8th Earl of Onslow (b. 16 June 1967)
 * Lady Arabella Ann Teresa Onslow (b. 1970, m. 24 June 2016), a general practitioner.
 * Lady Charlotte Emma Dorothy Onslow (b. 1977)

In 2011 his daughter's wedding was accelerated so that the dying Onslow would be able to attend.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Michael Onslow, 7th Earl of Onslow


text:
Claudette Bradshaw

Claudette Bradshaw (April 8, 1949 – March 26, 2022) was a Canadian politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for the riding of Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe, New Brunswick. She was first elected on June 2, 1997, and served until the 2006 election. She was a member of the Liberal Party of Canada.

Claudette Bradshaw was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for International Cooperation and Minister Responsible for the Francophonie on June 10, 1997. On November 23, 1998, she was appointed to cabinet as Minister of Labour. After being re-elected in November 2000, she was re-appointed Minister of Labour on January 15, 2002, and again on December 12, 2003. From March 23, 1999, until July 20, 2004, she was the Federal Coordinator on Homelessness.

After the 2004 election, Prime Minister Paul Martin shuffled the cabinet, and demoted Bradshaw to the position of Minister of State (Human Resources Development). In November 2005, Bradshaw announced that she would not stand for re-election in the 2006 federal election.

Following her retirement from federal politics, there was some speculation that she would run for the provincial Liberals in the next New Brunswick election in the riding of Kent South. Bradshaw later announced she was not interested in re-entering electoral politics but was appointed special advisor to leader Shawn Graham for that election campaign.

In 2009, she was appointed a member of the Order of New Brunswick. In 2020, she was awarded the Human Rights Award of the Province of Brunswick.

Bradshaw died on March 26, 2022, at the age of 72 from cancer.

Lifetime work
In 1974, Claudette Bradshaw founded the Moncton Headstart Early Family Intervention Center.

title: Claudette Bradshaw


text:
Talk:1852

[Untitled]
I have made some year layout proposals which would affect this page: the year in topic paragraph would be replaced with a see also box.

If no-one flags where I have put the discussion on my talk page that they object in a month I will start making everything consistent. It may take some time... --BozMo 19:24, 6 May 2004 (UTC)(talk)

Roget's Thesaurus was published in 1852. Should that be added in this entry?

title: Talk:1852


text:
Talk:India

Lead
Hello fellow editors, I wanted to suggest a slight change to paragraph two, where I think this: "By, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest."

should be changed to this: "Between and, the Indo-Aryans migrated into India from the northwest, bringing with them an archaic form of Sanskrit."

I find it odd that there is no mention of Indo-Aryan migrations in the introductory paragraphs as they are pretty important in the Indian context. PadFoot2008 10:20, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Noticed a slightly more important point, the body does not actually support the current text, although it does mention the migrations. CMD (talk) 04:49, 19 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Hello @Chipmunkdavis, I'm a bit confused as to what you mean to say here. Are you saying that my suggested change is unsourced? And I know that rest of the article does mention the migrations, I am saying that instead of saying that "Sanskrit diffused into India" which sounds extremely odd and purposefully ambiguous, I think the migrations should be mentioned. PadFoot2008  16:08, 19 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm saying the article does not say Sanskrit diffused into India. Your change is supported by the body. CMD (talk) 17:10, 19 June 2024 (UTC)
 * @Chipmunkdavis, check paragraph 2 of the introduction. I'm suggesting a change to the introductory para 2, not the article body. PadFoot2008  02:30, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 20 June 2024
the driving side is given "left". change "left" to "right". Vaishnav Jayakumar (talk) 10:44, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: — DaxServer (t·m·e·c) 10:51, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * While India is indeed a left-side-of-the-road country, I occasionally run across mis-labeled videos like this https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7aSkJCUDAes showing the traffic clearly on the right, which may be what prompted this edit request. According to the comments, that's Ethiopia, not India as claimed in the title. ~Anachronist (talk) 20:18, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

Permission
Who is the owner (or gatekeeper) of this article? Fritz or whatever, ok, I'd ask for permission to add sourced content. Well, actually it is no one's property, but still some people have this unbelievable self-conceit. Ok, may I add sourced content? Cyanmax (talk) 19:09, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

 * It's not "gatekeeping" and no one here thinks they own the article per WP:FAOWN, most non-minor text additions, especially in a high-traffic long-standing Featured Article such as this one, should be discussed on the talk page. I, and other people who revert major additions or poorly-sourced content, aren't claiming ownership of the article, just trying to make sure it can maintain its featured article status. The article is also quite long as it is, so we shouldn't be adding too much more content at all besides relevant updates  most content can be put instead in child articles such as Economy of India, History of India, etc. The sentence you added seems mostly fine though. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 19:18, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Well, we're discussing it now. I have restored the sentence. Pollution is known to be an impactful socio-economic challenge. Increased health issues related to pollution translate to lower productivity and increased health-related costs. It's a reasonable point to make in that section. ~Anachronist (talk) 20:05, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes it is, and I never disagreed with the change; it was @The Herald who reverted it, I was just outlining why it is often right for people to revert content such as that. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 20:09, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Pollution is certainly a relevant topic for this article to cover; it is even mentioned in the lede and IMO should have a couple of sentences devoted to it in the body. However, this edit is not very good for a well-developed article because:
 * Since the article is about the country and not about urban India, the stat about the number of Indian cities in some global most-polluted cities ranking is not the most relevant one.
 * The sources are poor: basically two news articles (one of which is a deadlink to, afaict, a defunct news site of no repute) about a dated (2019) self-published report by a commercial enterprise selling air filters etc.
 * We can and should do better. For example, even this 2023 report produced by a unit at the University of Chicago would be an improvement in both relevance and source quality, although better sources are likely to available (ideally, ones that cover water pollution etc too). I suggest that we follow BRD and hammer out the exact sources and content to be added to the article here over the next few days. Welcome any suggestions about either. Abecedare (talk) 20:54, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 23 June 2024
I want to add the chief justice of India name and it's required please give me the permission 2000editor (talk) 09:05, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

 * It's not "required" and you didn't make any argument why we should list it in the infobox (where I assume you want to put it). You also are not be going to "given" the permission to edit this article; to edit extended-confirmed articles such as this one, you need an account age of 30 days and at least 500 edits. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 09:42, 23 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: Charliehdb (talk) 10:06, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

Emblem of India
The emblem of India was and is in its true form the golden version. Although not defined in any act or notified under any rules, specifically, has it not been the precedent that the Emblem in all of the letters by Prime minister and the President's office has always been yellow (golden) in colour and not black. It is merely a misconception that the emblem is black because of the use of monochromic printing in early days after independence. Black in Indian cultural context is inauspicious and the government of India through the national portal has uploaded three images of the emblem, blue, black and golden. Presumably black and blue are merely the result of the popularity both colours enjoyed in the field of printing or calligraphy but the original was carved out of sandstone and later on brass was used to mold, both of which resembled closer looks to the colour of yellow (dull shade) or gold (in case of chrome brass). FlaminMongrel (talk) 10:53, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 26 June 2024
I want to add our honourable chief justice name in the section please give me the permission 2000editor (talk) 12:21, 26 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: this is not the right page to request additional user rights. You may reopen this request with the specific changes to be made and someone may add them for you.   [[User:CanonNi ]]  (talk • contribs) 12:34, 26 June 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 27 June 2024
The emblem should be changed to the golden (coloured) version of the gazette. That is the official emblem originally made, black and brown being popular results of printing inks post independence, in all prime ministerial and presidential letters the original colour is gold and also the government of India website under the national emblem section posts the largest picture of gold with description of the emblem being carved out of a sandstone (closer to cream or very dull yellow) but more importantly the colour is representative of associated history with brass molding, black and blue are merely results of monochromatic printing. FlaminMongrel (talk) 19:08, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made, and provide a properly-licensed image you see is more appropriate as the emblem. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 23:01, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

Should WP:INDICSCRIPT apply here
I was wondering if WP:INDICSCRIPT should apply to this article. If I am not wrong, the decision to not use the scripts were made because it was unclear which script was actually used / should be used in a particular case and whether the spelling in the Indic script is correct was difficult to verify. However this doesn't appear to be an issue here as the spelling and the script are official and well-known. Thoughts? @Fowler&fowler, @Flemmish Nietzsche, @RegentsPark. PadFoot (talk) 13:37, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Well of course it applies to this article, but if it didn't what changes are you proposing? It is already stated in a comment in the infobox that translations and transliterations do not fall under WP:INDICSCRIPT; the main reason for INDICSCRIPT is due to the ambiguity over which translations in which Indic languages should be included in the various India-related articles. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 19:04, 7 July 2024 (UTC)
 * @Flemmish Nietzsche, had almost forgotten about this discussion, but I had meant to say that this ambiguity doesn't exist here, as we do know the official language and official script. So, should it apply to this article and should we be excluding the name in Devanagari script? PadFoot  (talk) 11:33, 10 July 2024 (UTC)
 * PadFoot2002, search the talkpage archives for the many proposals to add the country's name in one or more of the 22 scheduled languages. IIRC the endless and frivolous discussions on this topic at this article were part of the impetus for adopting WP:INDICSCRIPT in the first place. Don't see any reason to revive that mess by entertaining exceptions to INDICSCRIPT, which has saved so much valuable editorial time. Abecedare (talk) 13:29, 10 July 2024 (UTC)
 * @Abecedare, alright, there's no need for it here then. PadFoot  (talk) 15:11, 10 July 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 8 July 2024
Change the Spelling of Bhārata Gaṇarājya to Bhārat Gaṇarājya Depotadore (talk) 14:44, 8 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. The Herald (Benison) (talk) 15:10, 8 July 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ I have done so as the edit which added back the schwa was only yesterday and was not discussed here; this does not mean either one is "correct", just that the "Bharat" spelling is what has been standard usage in this article. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 18:21, 8 July 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 11 July 2024
Change opening sentence to "India, also called Bharat, officially the Republic of India (ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya), ...". The country has two official short names as per Article 1 of the Constitution of India, see Names for India source. 117.230.84.90 (talk) 09:49, 11 July 2024 (UTC)
 * ❌ This is the English language Wikipedia. For example, at Germany, we don't say Germany, also called Deutschland, officially the Federal Republic of Germany....  It is however mentioned in the infobox - as it is on this article as well. Black Kite (talk) 11:29, 11 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Then why a note is not added in this article as it is on Germany and Japan?--117.230.88.210 (talk) 07:46, 12 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: I'm not sure what you mean; the Germany article doesn't list the other official name, and neither does Japan, which doesn't say something like "Japan, also called Nihon,..."   [[User:CanonNi ]]  (talk • contribs) 07:51, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

Include the names of India in all languages as prescribed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India
like as is the case with European Union, or South Africa, this is a solution that will hopefully not piss anyone off, whilst enabling the use of indic scripts again KabirDH (talk) 21:06, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

 * And why should we do this? We have INDICSCRIPTS and no Indic languages in the article for a reason; you'd have to make a very strong case for why we should include these languages, as the past arguments over the translations in different languages are not just about which languages to include, but also the "correct" translation and other issues. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 21:41, 12 July 2024 (UTC)
 * past disagreements have been because people were edit warring over which language to use...that's why WP:NOINDICSCRIPTS even exists. it's because people were disagreeing in 2012 about what language to use in a page for a multiethnic Indian actor (see Rajnikanth)
 * But that was 12 years ago and technology has come far, this is an appropriate solution, just like the EU and South Africa pages I have linked.
 * why should it be done? well, it's done for every other community page, and on top of that we have a solution now
 * i don't see a problem with it at all KabirDH (talk) 06:35, 13 July 2024 (UTC)
 * The only official languages of the Indian Union, as has been discussed in uncountable discussions in the talk archives, are Hindi and English. Please note that the Scheduled languages are "recognised languages", not "official languages". PadFoot  (talk) 11:49, 13 July 2024 (UTC)
 * yes, so why don't we do that instead? KabirDH (talk) 12:14, 13 July 2024 (UTC)

Newly introduced changes
Discuss here please. Let's not enter the 3RR territory. — The Herald (Benison) (talk) 10:34, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I've left a post on Flemish Nietzsche's use talk page. Those of us who normally maintain the page have been away for a couple of months.  As you must know, editors here discuss even minor changes in the lead for weeks, indeed occasionally even months.  Restoring this article to a last consensus version has been done before in the article. The article are majorly rewritten for Gandhi's 150th on 2 October 2019.  (See the talk page discussion of the months preceding that date for a comparison with the casual discussions of the last month.) It had an FAR thereafter.  It is Wikipedia's oldest country FA, soon to be 20 years old. I'm strapped for time. Pinging   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  10:55, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * PS No one is more aware of 's excellent work here than I. Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  10:59, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm well aware why you are restoring to a consensus version, as I cite the same reasons when I have made reverts here in the past; however, as I have said I don't think mass-reverting many good edits is always necessary, as if someone doesn't work back in those good edits, the page quickly becomes out of date, which is what happened the last time you restored to a consensus version, ignoring many (now-archived) discussions where there was, in contrast to the Sanskrit edit discussion above, a proper discussion and consensus to make changes to avoid the page becoming out of date. The reason I reverted your recent edit so quickly was because I wrongly assumed it was a restoration to a much earlier version, (as in, before my and other's edits which updated the page) and any good minor edits since then have been worked back in to the article. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 11:18, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Perhaps in the future if substantial edits in India are being proposed in a discussion here, could some of us (e.g. the people I have pinged above) be pinged, even use-talk-page-messaged? Thanks. Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  11:19, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Sure. Flemmish Nietzsche (talk) 11:23, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks for resolving this amiably F&f and Flemmish Nietzsche! Just wanted to drop a quick note since the article is being reverted to (roughly) the June 20 version that I last edited, that that version itself may need a review and should not be taken to be the version preferred or attested by me. Frankly, as I believe has been discussed previously, the article could use a proper reread to check for drift and need for updates if/when someone has the time to start the process. Cheers. Abecedare (talk) 12:17, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * The article already received two WP:FARGIVEN and the (larger FA) community peer reviewed version is over 13 years old. Yes, we have discussions and consensus establishments over time, but a full fledged review is very imminent. I'd like to propose an article review soon which can analyse the article in depth and prevent it from the overhanging FAR. Thanks. The Herald (Benison) (talk) 12:54, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Not sure there is any overhanging FAR.
 * Two years ago, or thereabouts, when a notice for improvements (to head off an FAR) was given on the talk page, SandyGeorgia said that only a few things needed fixing, and we fixed them. Two paragraphs, climate change and energy, were added by two editors. Around that time an Education section was added by user:Rjensen and a Visual Arts section by user:Johnbod. Earlier, in preparation for the article's second TFA on October 2, 2019, I had rewritten the lead, and added two new sections: Cuisine and Clothing. You are probably looking at the talk page milestones not at the discussions.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:09, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Article reviews are useless. Who will bell the cat?  What is their expertise? Are they MOS-mavens or subject experts?  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:11, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * With the caveat that I haven't read the article in a long time, I believe that most of it (lede, history, biodiversity, arts) etc should be fine and only need to be checked for changes since the last "stable" version. A couple of sections (eg, Economy, and Politics) may need periodic updates though, while keeping WP:RECENTISM in mind. Cheers. Abecedare (talk) 13:22, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks Abecedare. Very well summarized and explained.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:35, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * In my experience piecemeal improvements are usually better than grand reviews. Speaking of piecemeal, there are some changes that are probably needed:
 * The first ten years of Modi's rule are now widely documented in the scholarly literature: economic growth, infra-structure development, but also back-sliding democracy, crony-capitalism, more assertive religious nationalism, increased economic inequality and rising unemployment. They deserve a distilled mention in the lead perhaps.
 * The excess mortality in India during COVID-19, by far the world's highest (according to the WHO, Lancet, Economist, ...), probably needs a mention, though not necessarily in the lead.
 * I think suggestions for changes, supported by scholarly sources (in order to meet WP:RS) and by tertiary sources (for due weight; see WP:TERTIARY) are usually better. As you will see from past discussions, even changing a sentence fragment can sometimes take weeks on this page.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:38, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Hello Rather than an article review, why don't you review one of the sections user:Abecedare has referred to above, or even a subsection.  For example: India.  Would you like to review it?  It would be really helpful.  Thanks.   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  14:15, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Fowler&fowler, Yea, I'll give it a go, if possible. Happy editing. — The Herald (Benison) (talk) 13:07, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you. Look forward.   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:14, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:India


text:
Talk:1851

[Untitled]
I have made some year layout proposals which would affect this page: the year in topic paragraph would be replaced with a see also box.

If no-one flags where I have put the discussion on my talk page that they object in a month I will start making everything consistent. It may take some time... --BozMo 19:24, 6 May 2004 (UTC)(talk)

I am a bit tempted to link these pages to some other archive pages on 1851 like 1851 Punch Cartoons but I guess I should see what other people think first

1851 UK census
According to Irish potato famine, there was an 1851 census in Canada too (see under Emigration), so was the UK census actually a UK and dominion census? EvocativeIntrigue TALK 19:32, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

Massive vandalism
In December 2008, an anon user 140.203.12.240 entered a massive amount of fake info into this page, some of which has been in place over 18 months. It is now removed. Green Cardamom (talk) 15:22, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:1851


text:
Talk:1850

[Untitled]
I have made some year layout proposals which would NOT affect this page: it is already conform.

If no-one flags where I have put the discussion on my talk page that they object in a month I will start making everything consistent. It may take some time... --BozMo 19:26, 6 May 2004 (UTC)(talk)

Format
30-December-2006 (updated 25Jan07): As of January 2007, each year has a different format, as people add events or special subhead categories: "World population" or "Ship events" and such. For example, year '1778' had 12 month-name subheads parallel to the "Events" subhead (which had un-dated events with no months). In the 1800s, Events have been divided into 4 quarters as subheaders: January-March, April-June, etc. For the 1700s, I subdivided Events by six-month periods: January-June, July-December, and Undated (same as 1650). It seems that unless month names are identified in subheaders, the un-dated events get added into scattered locations. For the years 1800-1879, I have used a typical series of edits, to shorten the Table of Contents and allow space for putting images in the Events section:

 * - at top, used "X" template: (in 16xx, use "C17YearInTopicX");
 * - in the lede intro, put "Year 18xx" to avoid starting a sentence with a numeral;
 * - put Roman numeral after year (1847 = "MDCCCXLVII");
 * - put "link will display the full calendar" (had been "see link for calendar");
 * - split Events as 5 groups (quarters+Undated): January-March, April-June, ... & Undated;
 * - put other-calendars box "" into the Births section;
 * - split Births 3 ways: January-June, July-December + "Unknown dates";
 * - split Deaths 3 ways: January-June, July-December + "Unknown dates";
 * - if no entries under "Unknown dates" put placeholder " * (none)" for now;
 * - used a break-line ( "" ) to separate subhead sections after images.

The above edits will generate a short Table-of-Contents (TOC) so that the text of the article can be seen shortly afterwards (some users have feared a larger TOC, listing 12-36 months, that pushed text too far down).

Editing has been by hand because various year-articles had sporadic groupings of months (such as "May-October") when grouping under Events, Births or Deaths (expect a hodge-podge of prior groupings).

The yearly articles have been undergoing various reformats since 2004 (a huge amount of editing). As with many Wiki articles, the format evolves, and multiple people must edit to maintain all 5 aspects: new facts, accurate facts, images, Wiki-format, and some consistency with related articles. It is too difficult to expect each person will master all 5 jobs, across the thousands of yearly articles. -Wikid77 20:22, 26 January 2007 (UTC)

 * NOTE (for text spacing): Prior to December 2006, for the year articles 1800-1999, the top navigation boxes had crowded the text: daily events had been listed (in many years) with only 5 words per line, due to crowding of text by navigation boxes.  Now, the edits listed above should allow over 11 words per line for entries in the "Events" section (on 800x600 PC screens).  Also, careful placement of the navigation boxes has allowed space for small thumbnail images to be mixed beside the Events text, to help illustrate events.  Thumbnail images can be added without crowding the text. -Wikid77 05:09, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

Images
30-December-2006: Prior to December 2006, many years didn't have event images. For the 420 yearly articles in "1500-1799" and "1880-1999", I have been able to add images beside the corresponding text under Events, but that required opening space, along the righthand-side, by moving the "Year-in-other-calendars" to the Births section (which is where it "appeared" to be in most years with few events, by automatic formatting). The new images now are near the corresponding Events text. I also had to separate some sections by adding a break-line template:

The break-line pushes the next subheader down, below any future Events images added above it. Images have been added in a similar manner to the 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1880s-1890s, 1900s-1980s, etc. Among those 400+ years, the various articles, originally, each had slightly different month-name groups and formats; a few articles had one large image, placed wherever it would fit. -Wikid77 01:34, 25 January 2007 (UTC)

Julian slower
16-Feb-2007 (revised 23Mar07): Many of the yearly articles from 1583-1899 have had the wrong weekday starting for the Julian calendar, which started as a "10-day slower" calendar, then lost a day each century, while other nations hadn't converted to the Gregorian calendar (such as Russia until 1919):

 * - in the 1600s, use "10-day slower" - in the 1700s, use "11-day"
 * - in the 1800s, use "12-day slower" - in the 1900s, use "13-day"

When a Julian year is 10-days slower, the weekday is 4 days behind (14 - 10), or 3 days ahead (7-4 = 3), of the Gregorian weekday, until a Julian leapday in 1700, 1800, or 1900 shifts an extra weekday. The Gregorian 1582 ended on Friday, while the Julian 1582 ended on Monday (3 weekdays ahead).

It is helpful to maintain day-shift rulers (Gregorian-to-Julian):

 * 10-day: Monday-Thu, Tue-Fri, Wed-Sat, Thu-Sun, Fri-Mon, Sat-Tue, Sun-Wed.
 * 10-day: (3-weekday ahead)
 * 11-day: Monday-Fri, Tue-Sat, Wed-Sun, Thu-Mon, Fri-Tue, Sat-Wed, Sun-Thu.
 * 11-day: (4-weekday ahead)
 * 12-day: Monday-Sat, Tue-Sun, Wed-Mon, Thu-Tue, Fri-Wed, Sat-Thu, Sun-Fri.
 * 12-day: (5-weekday ahead)

Because Russia avoided converting until 1919, the Julian calendar is notable well into the 20th century. -Wikid77 12:31, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

Hacked format
16-Feb-2007: The Wikipedia concept was warned, years ago, of the natural tendency toward rampant vandalism and hacking of articles, which advised that article-content should be controlled in some manner to avoid trashing thousands of hours of work. Indeed, within weeks of reformatting over 300 yearly articles (according to the repeated steps listed in "Talk:1550"), various other users began hacking sporadic articles into ad hoc formats, returning to the days where each year has a slightly different format from other years.

In general, as is the case in user-defined webpage-content, articles should evolve into semi-controlled sections, where only some parts of a page could be changed by random users, and protected sections would enforce standard formats and ensure that critical information is not vandalized or hacked. For example, for all years in one century, a standard format could be locked into all articles, but users might opt to expand information freely in related articles tied to "see-also" links.

Be not deceived, the problem is critical: in the "Hurricane Katrina" article, watched by dozens of people, the Mississippi landfall time (carefully recorded from footnote sources) got botched by several hours during a flurry of edits, and the mistake lasted for over 11 days, even though hundreds of people had edited the article. A controlled section for a hurricane article could lock-down the eye-path, wind-speed, and landfall details against tampering, while allowing a flurry of edits in other sections not critical to understanding the basic facts of Who, what, when, where, why, and how for an article. There are too many other subjects needing expanded articles, to expect editors to continually monitor older articles for sporadically botched key facts. -Wikid77 06:43, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

Mates comment:16 verás  ago
Nicolas Guzman Rosario 152.166.146.183 (talk) 03:13, 31 October 2023 (UTC)

Nicolas Guzman Rosario 152.166.146.183.
Bold(talk) 03.13.31.octubre 2023 (UTC) 152.166.146.183 (talk) 03:19, 31 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:1850


text:
Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the First Agricultural Revolution, was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period in Afro-Eurasia from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly large population possible. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants, learning how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants into crops.

Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various types of plants and animals happened in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene 11,700 years ago, after the end of the last Ice Age. It was the world's first historically verifiable transition to agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution greatly narrowed the diversity of foods available, resulting in a decrease in the quality of human nutrition compared with that obtained previously from foraging, but because food production became more efficient, it released humans to invest their efforts in other activities and was thus "ultimately necessary to the rise of modern civilization by creating the foundation for the later process of industrialization and sustained economic growth".

The Neolithic Revolution involved much more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing techniques. During the next millennia, it transformed the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (non-nomadic) societies based in built-up villages and towns. These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation, with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food. Other developments that are found very widely during this era are the domestication of animals, pottery, polished stone tools, and rectangular houses. In many regions, the adoption of agriculture by prehistoric societies caused episodes of rapid population growth, a phenomenon known as the Neolithic demographic transition.

These developments, sometimes called the Neolithic package, provided the basis for centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g. writing), densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, more trade, the development of non-portable art and architecture, and greater property ownership. The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (c. 6,500 BP); its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age.

The relationship of the aforementioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and their empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate. It is usually understood to vary from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution.

Background
Hunter-gatherers had different subsistence requirements and lifestyles from agriculturalists. Hunter-gatherers were often highly mobile and migratory, living in temporary shelters and in small tribal groups, and having limited contact with outsiders. Their diet was well-balanced though heavily dependent on what the environment could provide each season. In contrast, because the surplus and plannable supply of food provided by agriculture made it possible to support larger population groups, agriculturalists lived in more permanent dwellings in more densely populated settlements than what could be supported by a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The agricultural communities' seasonal need to plan and coordinate resource and manpower encouraged division of labour, which gradually led to specialization of labourers and complex societies. The subsequent development of trading networks to exchange surplus commodities and services brought agriculturalists into contact with outside groups, which promoted cultural exchanges that led to the rise of civilizations and technological evolutions.

However, population increase and food abundance did not necessarily correlate with improved health. Reliance on a very limited variety of staple crops can adversely affect health even while making it possible to feed more people. Maize is deficient in certain essential amino acids (lysine and tryptophan) and is a poor source of iron. The phytic acid it contains may inhibit nutrient absorption. Other factors that likely affected the health of early agriculturalists and their domesticated livestock would have been increased numbers of parasites and disease-bearing pests associated with human waste and contaminated food and water supplies. Fertilizers and irrigation may have increased crop yields but also would have promoted proliferation of insects and bacteria in the local environment while grain storage attracted additional insects and rodents.

Agricultural transition
The term 'neolithic revolution' was invented by V. Gordon Childe in his book Man Makes Himself (1936). Childe introduced it as the first in a series of agricultural revolutions in Middle Eastern history, calling it a "revolution" to denote its significance, the degree of change to communities adopting and refining agricultural practices.

The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent, and perhaps 8000 BCE in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Papua New Guinea in Melanesia. Everywhere, this transition is associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian one, with the domestication of various plant and animal species – depending on the species locally available, and influenced by local culture. Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions, such as the Southeast Asian peninsula, the transition from hunter-gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear, but region-specific.

The most prominent of several theories (not mutually exclusive) as to factors that caused populations to develop agriculture include:
 * The Oasis Theory, originally proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, popularized by V. Gordon Childe in 1928 and summarised in Childe's book Man Makes Himself. This theory maintains that as the climate got drier due to the Atlantic depressions shifting northward, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals, which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. However, this theory now has little support amongst archaeologists because subsequent climate data suggests that the region was getting wetter rather than drier.
 * The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert John Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros Mountains, where the climate was not drier as Childe had believed, and fertile land supported a variety of plants and animals amenable to domestication.
 * The Feasting model by Brian Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as giving feasts, to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food, which drove agricultural technology.
 * The Demographic theories proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery posit an increasingly sedentary population that expanded up to the carrying capacity of the local environment and required more food than could be gathered. Various social and economic factors helped drive the need for food.
 * The evolutionary/intentionality theory, developed by David Rindos and others, considers agriculture as an evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, it resulted specialization of location and then complete domestication.
 * Peter Richerson, Robert Boyd, and Robert Bettinger make a case for the development of agriculture coinciding with an increasingly stable climate at the beginning of the Holocene. Ronald Wright's book and Massey Lecture Series A Short History of Progress popularized this hypothesis.
 * Leonid Grinin argues that whatever plants were cultivated, the independent invention of agriculture always occurred in special natural environments (e.g., South-East Asia). It is supposed that the cultivation of cereals started somewhere in the Near East: in the hills of Israel or Egypt. So Grinin dates the beginning of the agricultural revolution within the interval 12,000 to 9,000 BP, though in some cases the first cultivated plants or domesticated animals' bones are even of a more ancient age of 14–15 thousand years ago.
 * Andrew Moore suggested that the Neolithic Revolution originated over long periods of development in the Levant, possibly beginning during the Epipaleolithic. In "A Reassessment of the Neolithic Revolution", Frank Hole further expanded the relationship between plant and animal domestication. He suggested the events could have occurred independently during different periods of time, in as yet unexplored locations. He noted that no transition site had been found documenting the shift from what he termed immediate and delayed return social systems. He noted that the full range of domesticated animals (goats, sheep, cattle and pigs) were not found until the sixth millennium at Tell Ramad. Hole concluded that "close attention should be paid in future investigations to the western margins of the Euphrates basin, perhaps as far south as the Arabian Peninsula, especially where wadis carrying Pleistocene rainfall runoff flowed."

Early harvesting of cereals (23,000 BP)
Use-wear analysis of five glossed flint blades found at Ohalo II, a 23,000-years-old fisher-hunter-gatherers' camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Northern Israel, provides the earliest evidence for the use of composite cereal harvesting tools. The Ohalo site is at the junction of the Upper Paleolithic and the Early Epipaleolithic, and has been attributed to both periods.

The wear traces indicate that tools were used for harvesting near-ripe semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains are ripe and disperse naturally. The studied tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted in a handle. The finds shed new light on cereal harvesting techniques some 8,000 years before the Natufian and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East. Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site and the use of stone-made grinding implements.

Domestication of plants
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BP, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that favoured greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste were seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; successive years of harvesting spontaneously selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer.

Daniel Zohary identified several plant species as "pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops. He highlighted the importance of wheat, barley and rye, and suggested that domestication of flax, peas, chickpeas, bitter vetch and lentils came a little later. Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxon that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the Fertile Crescent and later into Europe. Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with varieties of wild wheat to show that the process of domestication would have occurred over a relatively short period of between 20 and 200 years. Some of the pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned, sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands of years after the earliest agriculture. Wild lentils presented a different problem: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, appears in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and lentils quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley. The process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable in storage and more useful to the human population.

Selectively propagated figs, wild barley and wild oats were cultivated at the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I, where in 2006 archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata datable to c. 11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world.

Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques like irrigation (traced as far back as the 6th millennium BCE in Khuzistan ), their crops yielded surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter-gatherers could not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed specialized workers and more advanced tools.

The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different human populations in different regions in many different ways.

Spread of crops: the case of barley
One of the world's most important crops, barley, was domesticated in the Near East around 11,000 years ago (c. 9,000 BCE). Barley is a highly resilient crop, able to grow in varied and marginal environments, such as in regions of high altitude and latitude. Archaeobotanical evidence shows that barley had spread throughout Eurasia by 2,000 BCE. To further elucidate the routes by which barley cultivation was spread through Eurasia, genetic analysis was used to determine genetic diversity and population structure in extant barley taxa. Genetic analysis shows that cultivated barley spread through Eurasia via several different routes, which were most likely separated in both time and space.

Beginnings in the Levant

Agriculture appeared first in Southwest Asia about 2,000 years later, around 10,000–9,000 years ago. The region was the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea), and flax. Domestication was a slow process that unfolded across multiple regions, and was preceded by centuries if not millennia of pre-domestication cultivation.

Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the Epipalaeolithic site of Ohalo II, dating to around 19,400 BP, has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plants for food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption. Tell Aswad is the oldest site of agriculture, with domesticated emmer wheat dated to 10,800 BP. Soon after came hulled, two-row barley – found domesticated earliest at Jericho in the Jordan valley and at Iraq ed-Dubb in Jordan. Other sites in the Levantine corridor that show early evidence of agriculture include Wadi Faynan 16 and Netiv Hagdud. Jacques Cauvin noted that the settlers of Aswad did not domesticate on site, but "arrived, perhaps from the neighbouring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seed for planting". In the Eastern Fertile Crescent, evidence of cultivation of wild plants has been found in Choga Gholan in Iran dated to 12,000 BP, with domesticated emmer wheat appearing in 9,800 BP, suggesting there may have been multiple regions in the Fertile Crescent where cereal domestication evolved roughly contemporaneously. The Heavy Neolithic Qaraoun culture has been identified at around fifty sites in Lebanon around the source springs of the River Jordan, but never reliably dated.

In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that the vast continuous east–west stretch of temperate climatic zones of Eurasia and North Africa gave peoples living there a highly advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species. In areas where continents aligned north–south such as the Americas and Africa crops, and later domesticated animals, could not spread across tropical zones.

Europe
Archaeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in the Levantine region of southwest Asia at the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BCE, and developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BCE. Remains of food-producing societies in the Aegean have been carbon-dated to c. 6500 BCE at Knossos, Franchthi Cave, and a number of mainland sites in Thessaly. Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the Balkans and south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of southeastern Europe (the Balkans and the Aegean) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia and Anatolia (e.g., Çatalhöyük).

Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia. All Neolithic sites in Europe contain ceramics, and contain the plants and animals domesticated in Southwest Asia: einkorn, emmer, barley, lentils, pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle. Genetic data suggest that no independent domestication of animals took place in Neolithic Europe, and that all domesticated animals were originally domesticated in Southwest Asia. The only domesticate not from Southwest Asia was broomcorn millet, domesticated in East Asia.The earliest evidence of cheese-making dates to 5500 BCE in Kujawy, Poland.

The diffusion across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (8500–6000 BP). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later, around 5500 BP, and there was also a delay in settling the Pannonian plain. In general, colonization shows a "saltatory" pattern, as the Neolithic advanced from one patch of fertile alluvial soil to another, bypassing mountainous areas. Analysis of radiocarbon dates show clearly that Mesolithic and Neolithic populations lived side by side for as much as a millennium in many parts of Europe, especially in the Iberian peninsula and along the Atlantic coast.

Carbon 14 evidence
The spread of the Neolithic from the Near East Neolithic to Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of Carbon 14 age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available. Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), demonstrating that the Neolithic spread at an average speed of about 1 km/yr. More recent studies confirm these results and yield the speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr (at 95% confidence level).

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA
Since the original human expansions out of Africa 200,000 years ago, different prehistoric and historic migration events have taken place in Europe. Considering that the movement of the people implies a consequent movement of their genes, it is possible to estimate the impact of these migrations through the genetic analysis of human populations. Agricultural and husbandry practices originated 10,000 years ago in a region of the Near East known as the Fertile Crescent. According to the archaeological record this phenomenon, known as “Neolithic”, rapidly expanded from these territories into Europe. However, whether this diffusion was accompanied or not by human migrations is greatly debated. Mitochondrial DNA – a type of maternally inherited DNA located in the cell cytoplasm – was recovered from the remains of Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farmers in the Near East and then compared to available data from other Neolithic populations in Europe and also to modern populations from South Eastern Europe and the Near East. The obtained results show that substantial human migrations were involved in the Neolithic spread and suggest that the first Neolithic farmers entered Europe following a maritime route through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands.

South Asia
The earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia are Bhirrana in Haryana dated to, and Mehrgarh, dated to between 6500 and 5500 BP, in the Kachi plain of Balochistan, Pakistan; the site has evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats).

There is strong evidence for causal connections between the Near-Eastern Neolithic and that further east, up to the Indus Valley. There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent. The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE. Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh, but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey. A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia. Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites. The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at Ali Kosh in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran. Despite their scarcity, the 14C and archaeological age determinations for early Neolithic sites in Southern Asia exhibit remarkable continuity across the vast region from the Near East to the Indian Subcontinent, consistent with a systematic eastward spread at a speed of about 0.65 km/yr.

In East Asia

Agriculture in Neolithic China can be separated into two broad regions, Northern China and Southern China.

The agricultural centre in northern China is believed to be the homelands of the early Sino-Tibetan-speakers, associated with the Houli, Peiligang, Cishan, and Xinglongwa cultures, clustered around the Yellow River basin. It was the domestication centre for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), with early evidence of domestication approximately 8,000 years ago, and widespread cultivation 7,500 years ago. (Soybean was also domesticated in northern China 4,500 years ago. Orange and peach also originated in China, being cultivated c. 2500 BCE. ) The agricultural centres in southern China are clustered around the Yangtze River basin. Rice was domesticated in this region, together with the development of paddy field cultivation, between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago.

There are two possible centres of domestication for rice. The first is in the lower Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of pre-Austronesians and associated with the Kauhuqiao, Hemudu, Majiabang, and Songze cultures. It is characterized by typical pre-Austronesian features, including stilt houses, jade carving, and boat technologies. Their diet were also supplemented by acorns, water chestnuts, foxnuts, and pig domestication. The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien-speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan and Daxi cultures. Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to the west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China.

The millet and rice-farming cultures also first came into contact with each other at around 9,000 to 7,000 BP, resulting in a corridor between the millet and rice cultivation centres where both rice and millet were cultivated. At around 5,500 to 4,000 BP, there was increasing migration into Taiwan from the early Austronesian Dapenkeng culture, bringing rice and millet cultivation technology with them. During this period, there is evidence of large settlements and intensive rice cultivation in Taiwan and the Penghu Islands, which may have resulted in overexploitation. Bellwood (2011) proposes that this may have been the impetus of the Austronesian expansion which started with the migration of the Austronesian-speakers from Taiwan to the Philippines at around 5,000 BP.

Austronesians carried rice cultivation technology to Island Southeast Asia along with other domesticated species. The new tropical island environments also had new food plants that they exploited. They carried useful plants and animals during each colonization voyage, resulting in the rapid introduction of domesticated and semi-domesticated species throughout Oceania. They also came into contact with the early agricultural centres of Papuan-speaking populations of New Guinea as well as the Dravidian-speaking regions of South India and Sri Lanka by around 3,500 BP. They acquired further cultivated food plants like bananas and pepper from them, and in turn introduced Austronesian technologies like wetland cultivation and outrigger canoes. During the 1st millennium CE, they also colonized Madagascar and the Comoros, bringing Southeast Asian food plants, including rice, to East Africa.

In Africa

On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa. By contrast, Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent. Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop-based economy dating around 7,000 BP. Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn" to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian culture and Badarian culture and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East.

Bananas and plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa.

The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, khat, ensete, noog, teff and finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include sorghum and pearl millet. The kola nut was first domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, yams and the oil palm.

Agriculture spread to Central and Southern Africa in the Bantu expansion during the 1st millennium BCE to 1st millennium CE.

In the Americas
The term "Neolithic" is not customarily used in describing cultures in the Americas. However, a broad similarity exists between Eastern Hemisphere cultures of the Neolithic and cultures in the Americas. Maize (corn), beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica: squash as early as 6000 BCE, beans no later than 4000 BCE, and maize beginning about 7000 BCE. Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower, sumpweed and goosefoot c. 2500 BCE. In the highlands of central Mexico sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the "formative period" in the second millennium BCE.

In New Guinea
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea indicates cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP. Two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), have been identified dating at least to 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP). Further evidence of bananas and sugarcane dates to 6,950 to 6,440 BCE. This was at the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier. CSIRO has found evidence that taro was introduced into the Solomon Islands for human use, from 28,000 years ago, making taro cultivation the earliest crop in the world. It seems to have resulted in the spread of the Trans–New Guinea languages from New Guinea east into the Solomon Islands and west into Timor and adjacent areas of Indonesia. This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals", suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture.

Domestication of animals
When hunter-gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more efficient to keep animals close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders. The animals' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals. Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable. The animal's ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (East Asia, about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs.

Domestication of animals in the Middle East

The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated, such as sheep, goats and pigs. This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary. Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds. He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic, Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic. The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development. As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that later helped distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east–west axis of similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they cannot grow for reasons of light or rain changes. For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this east–west axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa, while it did not reach through the north–south axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. Similarly, the African Zebu of central Africa and the domesticated bovines of the fertile-crescent – separated by the dry sahara desert – were not introduced into each other's region.

Social change

Despite the significant technological advance and advancements in knowledge, arts and trade, the Neolithic revolution did not lead immediately to a rapid growth of population. Its benefits appear to have been offset by various adverse effects, mostly diseases and warfare.

The introduction of agriculture has not necessarily led to unequivocal progress. The nutritional standards of the growing Neolithic populations were inferior to that of hunter-gatherers. Several ethnological and archaeological studies conclude that the transition to cereal-based diets caused a reduction in life expectancy and stature, an increase in infant mortality and infectious diseases, the development of chronic, inflammatory or degenerative diseases (such as obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases) and multiple nutritional deficiencies, including vitamin deficiencies, iron deficiency anemia and mineral disorders affecting bones (such as osteoporosis and rickets) and teeth. Average height went down from 5'10" (178 cm) for men and 5'6" (168 cm) for women to 5'5" (165 cm) and 5'1" (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels.

The traditional view is that agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor. Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making. Nonetheless, larger societies made it more feasible for people to adopt diverse decision making and governance models. Jared Diamond (in The World Until Yesterday) identifies the availability of milk and cereal grains as permitting mothers to raise both an older (e.g. 3 or 4 year old) and a younger child concurrently. The result is that a population can increase more rapidly. Diamond, in agreement with feminist scholars such as V. Spike Peterson, points out that agriculture brought about deep social divisions and encouraged gender inequality. This social reshuffle is traced by historical theorists, like Veronica Strang, through developments in theological depictions. Strang supports her theory through a comparison of aquatic deities before and after the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution, most notably the Venus of Lespugue and the Greco-Roman deities such as Circe or Charybdis: the former venerated and respected, the latter dominated and conquered. The theory, supplemented by the widely accepted assumption from Parsons that “society is always the object of religious veneration”, argues that with the centralization of government and the dawn of the Anthropocene, roles within society became more restrictive and were rationalized through the conditioning effect of religion; a process that is crystallized in the progression from polytheism to monotheism.

Subsequent revolutions

Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears, were first domesticated purely as a source of meat. The Secondary Products Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided a number of other useful products. These included:
 * hides and skins (from undomesticated animals)
 * manure for soil conditioning (from all domesticated animals)
 * wool (from sheep, llamas, alpacas, and Angora goats)
 * milk (from goats, cattle, yaks, sheep, horses, and camels)
 * traction (from oxen, onagers, donkeys, horses, camels, and dogs)
 * guarding and herding assistance (dogs)

Sherratt argued that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel. Overgrazing of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts.

Diet and health
Compared to foragers, Neolithic farmers' diets were higher in carbohydrates but lower in fibre, micronutrients, and protein. This led to an increase in the frequency of carious teeth and slower growth in childhood and increased body fat, and studies have consistently found that populations around the world became shorter after the transition to agriculture. This trend may have been exacerbated by the greater seasonality of farming diets and with it the increased risk of famine due to crop failure.

Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population. Some examples of infectious diseases spread from animals to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. Ancient microbial genomics has shown that progenitors to human-adapted strains of Salmonella enterica infected up to 5,500 year old agro-pastoralists throughout Western Eurasia, providing molecular evidence for the hypothesis that the Neolithization process facilitated the emergence of Salmonella entericia. In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000 years of shared proximity with animals, such as cows, Eurasians and Africans became more resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered outside Eurasia and Africa. For instance, the population of most Caribbean and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. 90% or more of many populations of the Americas were wiped out by European and African diseases before recorded contact with European explorers or colonists. Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have a large domestic mammal, the llama, but llama milk was not drunk, nor did llamas live in a closed space with humans, so the risk of contagion was limited. According to bioarchaeological research, the effects of agriculture on dental health in Southeast Asian rice farming societies from 4000 to 1500 BP was not detrimental to the same extent as in other world regions.

Jonathan C. K. Wells and Jay T. Stock have argued that the dietary changes and increased pathogen exposure associated with agriculture profoundly altered human biology and life history, creating conditions where natural selection favoured the allocation of resources towards reproduction over somatic effort.

Archaeogenetics
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers. In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively. DNA studies have shown that agriculture was introduced in Europe by the expansion of the early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago.

title: Neolithic Revolution


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