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French Frigate Shoals

The French Frigate Shoals (Hawaiian: Kānemilohai) is the largest atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Its name commemorates French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, who nearly lost two frigates when attempting to navigate the shoals. It consists of a 20 mi crescent-shaped reef, twelve sandbars, and the 120 ft La Perouse Pinnacle, the only remnant of its volcanic origins. The total land area of the islets is 61.508 acre, while the total coral reef area of the shoals is over 232000 acre. Tern Island, with an area of 26.014 acre, has a landing strip and permanent habitations for a small number of people. It is maintained as a field station in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The French Frigate Shoals are about 487 nmi northwest of Honolulu. Among the shoals are Tern, which is unique in having an airstrip and is protected by a seawall, and La Perouse Pinnacle, a tall and rocky island in the center of the shoals. The two largest islands after Tern, East and Trig have mostly washed away, with East being about half the size from storms, but are famed as breeding grounds for turtles. East was also home to Coast Guard base in the late 20th century. The islands are surrounded by a coral reef, and the islands themselves are noted breeding ground for turtles, seals, and birds. Habitation is difficult with little vegetation and no fresh water. In the 20th century the French Frigate Shoals are also called Lalo as part of the marine nature reserve, and along with other islands are visited periodically for research. The highest point in the shoals is on La Perouse Pinnacle which is a volcanic rock that rises 122 ft above the surrounding lagoon.

In the 20th century, the shoals were used by the Imperial Japanese Navy as part of an operation to attack Hawaii. Afterwards, a small United States Navy base was established there to prevent it from being used again. After the war it was used by the United States Coast Guard for a LORAN radio navigation station. By the 21st century, it was primarily used for oceanographic and biological study as a nature reserve. Studies at the island helped establish the nature of plastic pollution, and in 2020 one island was designated as contaminated by plastic pollution from the ocean. The reefs are noted for having survived many Pacific storms, although these storms have damaged facilities, wildlife, and significantly reduced the area of some islands.

History

The island was discovered by the French in the late 18th century and was formally claimed by the United States in 1859 under the Guano Islands Act. The main focus of the USA was to administer it as a wildlife refuge, but it became involved in military events during WW2, and one island was transformed into an airbase. After World War II, the island was turned over to Hawaii, and it served several different purposes. The shoals were used by the Empire of Japan as a staging point for their surprise attack on the Hawaiian Islands, but were then occupied by U.S. forces. A few months later, it was again near the front lines in the battle of Midway. After that battle, one island, Tern, was made into an airstrip and base. In addition, East Island also had a base on it. After the war, the shoals were used for a radio location base called Loran, and the airstrip was used for fishing. A coast guard base was on the island until 1979, and then the Fish and Wildlife Service until 2012. One issue was the large Pacific storms that affected the islands. In the 21st century, the decayed Tern island seawall was partially repaired, and in 2018 East Island was nearly washed away. In the 2020s, the shoals are a noted nature reserve and routinely visited for research. Issues that are studied include marine life, including coral, sharks, fish, seals, sea turtles, and many types of birds. There is also marine archeology conducted on sea wrecks, and a rare whaling vessel wreck was discovered here.

Overview and early history
Although there is no evidence of extensive human activity or presence in the area, the earliest human visitors to the French Frigate Shoals probably came from the main Hawaiian Islands, which were settled by Polynesians between 1100 and 1300 AD.

The Hawaiian island chain lay outside the routes followed by early European explorers, and it was not until Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse's near-disastrous discovery that the shoals were known to the outside world. La Pérouse, aboard the frigate Boussole, was sailing westward from Monterey en route to Macau. During the night of 6 November 1786, sailors sighted breakers directly in their path, about a thousand feet ahead. Both the Boussole and her companion vessel, the frigate Astrolabe, were immediately brought about, passing within a few hundred feet of the breakers. At daybreak, the ships returned and mapped the southeastern half of the atoll, as well as finding the rock that would later be named after La Pérouse. La Pérouse named the shoals Basse des Frégates Françaises, the "Shoal of the French Frigates".

The expedition went on to discover the nearby Necker Island. His ships were L'Astrolabe (under command of Fleuriot de Langle) and the La Boussole. La Perouse was on a mission of exploration from the French Academy of Sciences, and they made many discoveries in across the Pacific. The expedition was lost at sea in 1788 while still on the expedition, but was able to send its logs home.

In 1823, the whaling ship Two Brothers sank near Shark island. This wreck was discovered in the early 21st century.

In 1841 the French Frigate Shoals were visited by the United States Exploring Expedition authorized by President Andrew Jackson. The shoals were visited by the sailing ships, brigs Oregon and Porpoise.

In 1859 the barque Gambia (a) and clipper Modern Times visited the French Frigate Shoals. That same year the whaler South Seaman wrecked on the shoals. About a dozen of its crew were rescued by another vessel in the area, but about 30 were left on the island until another ship could retrieve them. In December 1859 the brig Wanderer was also lost on the shoals, but the crew was rescued.

During the late 19th century American and European companies became interested in the possibility of mining guano in the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Navy Lieutenant John M. Brooke, sailing on the naval schooner USS Fenimore Cooper (1853), formally took possession of French Frigate Shoals for the United States on 14 January 1859, in accordance with the Guano Islands Act. In 1894, French Frigate Shoals, Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, and Pearl and Hermes Reef were leased for 25 years by the Republic of Hawaii to the North Pacific Phosphate and Fertilizer Company; however, guano and phosphate deposits at French Frigate Shoals were found to be impractical to mine. The Republic did not formally claim possession of the shoals until 13 July 1895.

French Frigate Shoals was included among the lands and waters acquired by the United States on 7 July 1898, when Hawaii became a United States territory. In 1909 it was made a part of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation.

In 1896 the seal hunting ship Mattie E. Dyer wrecked on the shoals, and the crew abandoned ship in whaleboats. There was no water on the island they landed on among the shoals so they sailed the boats to Hawaii.

Early 20th century
In 1902 the Albatross expedition visited the French Frigate Shoals and studied the birds. Several naturalists visited and published an ornithological report.

In 1903 the ship Connétable de Richemont wrecked on the shoals, but its crew escaped on boats to mainland Hawaii.

In 1909 the French Frigate Shoals became part of the Hawaiian Island Reservation and administered by the United States Department of Agriculture.

In 1917 the four-masted schooner Churchill wrecked on the French Frigate Shoals. The crew of 12 survived.

The Tanager Expedition visited the French Frigate Shoals in 1923 and did a survey of the islands.

The United States Revenue Cutter Service sent many patrols to this region in the early 20th century. The U.S. Revenue Cutter Service vessel USRC Thetis visited the French Frigate Shoals in 1912, 1914, 1915, and 1916. In 1918 the shoals were inspected by the United States Navy ship USS Hermes. Shoal inspections in the 1920s and 1930s include ones by USS Pelican (AM-27) in 1924, USRC Itasca in 1931 and 1934, and the United States Coast Guard vessel USCGC Reliance (WSC-150) in 1936.

In 1932, the minesweeper USS Quail (AM-15) visited the shoals, anchoring near East Island. A seaplane tendered from the ship took some of the first aerial photographs of the islands.

In 1936, the seaplane tender USS Wright (AV-1) came to the shoals, and established a base on East island to support a month of seaplane operations.

In 1937, a member of a USN seaplane crew died at the French Frigate Shoals while his PK-1 seaplane was moored there.

World War II
In March 1942, Imperial Japanese Navy planners took advantage of the shoal's isolation to use its protected waters as an anchorage and refueling point for the long-range flying boats employed in Operation K, a reconnaissance operation that aimed to disrupt salvage and repair operations following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The operation involved three IJN submarines and two Kawanishi H8K flying boats. The H8K flying boats stopped to refuel in the shoals from two of the submarines, JSUB I-15 and JSUB I-19. After the operation, United States Pacific Fleet Commander Chester W. Nimitz ordered a permanent United States Navy presence at the shoals. It was the combat debut of the H8K.

Some U.S. Navy ships that were stationed at the Shoals in 1942 were the seaplane tender USS Thornton (DD-270) and the mine warfare ship USS Preble (DD-345). Over twenty flying boats were operated from the French Frigate Shoals during World War II, typically flying reconnaissance missions.

After the Battle of Midway, the United States Navy built a naval air station on Tern Island, enlarging the island sufficiently to support a 3300 ft landing strip, increasing its land area to 26.014 acre. The station's main function was as an emergency landing site for planes flying between Hawaii and Midway Atoll. French Frigate Shoals Airport comprises what remains of the original naval air station.

The ship YHB-10 arrived at French Frigate Shoals in August 1942, carrying staff to help establish the naval base there. It was moored on the north side of Tern island and used as a floating barracks. On March 26, 1945, it was sunk as a torpedo practice target near the shoals.

United States Coast Guard station
The United States Coast Guard operated a LORAN navigation station on East Island until 1952, and Tern Island until 1979. At any one time, 15 to 20 military personnel were billeted to French Frigate Shoals. As with all Coast Guard isolated duty stations, the Service attempted to fill open billets with volunteers. If there were no volunteers for essential billets, the Coast Guard would at times fill open slots as a disciplinary measure.

The LORAN station commanding officer was typically a lieutenant junior grade officer, the executive officer a chief petty officer enlisted rank. The station was staffed with USCG enlisted specialists such as Radioman, Electronic Technician, Fireman, Boatswain's Mates, plus seaman or seaman apprentice nonrated service members (assigned to perform maintenance and other generalized duties).

The Coast Guard designated the French Frigate Shoals billet as "isolated duty," thereby entitling Coast Guard members serving at the station to additional monthly "isolated duty pay." Because of the billet's remoteness, a duty term was limited to one year.

In December 1969, a tsunami devastated the islands, forcing the crew on Tern Island to evacuate the station, which was destroyed. The station was off the air from 1 to 6 December. The USCGC Kukui (WAK-186) was sent to help support repairs.

Whale-Skate Island washed away in the 1990s.

21st century
A United States Fish and Wildlife Service field station was active at the island from 1979 to 2012. In 2000, the atoll became part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, which was incorporated into the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument in 2006. In 2009 the islands were evacuated during the approach of Hurricane Neki by landing a USCG C-130 on Tern's coral airstrip.

In 2000/1 the United States Congress approved US$10 million to repair the islands, one of the major issues being that the double-wall steel sea wall around Tern island had deteriorated and was trapping sea life such as seals. By 2004, Army Corps of Engineers, with additional funding from the Fish & Wild Life service conducted a 12 million dollar project to repair the seawall and conduct other maintenance. This project repaired 1200 feet of seawall. The project was managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. However, the budget was only enough for about half of what was needed thus leaving sections unrepaired.

In 2005, a wreck was found, possibly the wreck of the schooner Churchill, which ran aground at the French Frigate Shoals in 1917. Maritime archeologists returned in 2007 and 2008 to try and identify the wreck site, which included items like anchors and equipment.

In 2008 a shipwreck of a 19th-century whaling ship was found near Shark island. The wreck was identified in 2011 as the whaling sailing ship Two Brothers. The ship wrecked the night of February 11, 1823, under the command of Captain George Pollard Jr. (of Essex fame). The crew was able to be rescued by another whaling ship they were on the voyage with, Martha. Captain Pollard is noted for inspiring the novel Moby Dick when his sailing ship the Essex was rammed by a whale. The discovery was important in the field of maritime archeology for various reasons; there is only one surviving whaling ship from this period, and the wreck of the Two Brothers had been lost for nearly two centuries. The finding of the Two Brothers was the first discovery of a wrecked Nantucket whaling ship.

At least five other vessels are recorded to have wrecked on the French Frigate Shoals between 1859 and 1917.

In December 2012, five people were evacuated from the FFS in advance of a severe storm. They departed by boat from Tern island and travelled back to Honolulu. The storm caused damage to some of the facilities on the island including the barracks. The US Fish & Wildlife service closed its field station on Tern island at the end of 2012. Since then, the island has only been visited periodically.

In 2016, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ship conducted a 33-day survey expedition of the French Frigate Shoals, including reporting on the condition of the reefs.

In October 2018, Hurricane Walaka eroded away most of East Island, the second largest island of the French Frigate Shoals. About 11 acres of East Island were eliminated, which was thought to be caused by the large storm surge that Walaka caused in the area. The hurricane damaged many of the shoal's islands, and underwater many coral reefs were stripped of sea life. Following the destruction of East Island, researchers have been forced to make camp at the smaller Tern Island when conducting field work in the French Frigate Shoals.

In 2020, the Papahanaumokuakea Marine Debris Project, working in conjunction with government agencies, removed tens of thousands of pounds of debris from the region.

In the 2020s, concerns about the decaying seawall on Tern Island trapping turtles and seals were brought to light. The double steel wall on the island has not been maintained; as a result, holes have rusted out.

In 2023 the NOAA visited the island for a research expedition along with other islands of the chain. The researchers camped on Tern island and took trips to East Island where many turtle breeding grounds were located.

Geology and ecology
La Pèrouse Pinnacle, a rock outcrop in the center of the atoll, is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian chain. It stands 120 ft tall and is surrounded by coral reefs. Because of its shape, the pinnacle is often mistaken for a ship from a distance.

Whale-Skate Island is a submerged island in the French Frigate Shoals. These islands suffered considerably from erosion starting in the 1960s, and by the late 1990s, Whale-Skate Island was completely washed over.

The reef system at French Frigate Shoals supports 41 species of stony corals, including several species that are not found in the main Hawaiian Island chain. More than 600 species of marine invertebrates, many of which are endemic, are found there as well.

More than 150 species of algae live among the reefs. Especially diverse algal communities are found immediately adjacent to La Pèrouse Pinnacle. This has led to speculation that an influx of additional nutrients – in the form of guano – is responsible for the diversity and productivity of algae in this environment. The reef waters support large numbers of fish. The masked angelfish (Genicanthus personatus), endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, is relatively common there. Most of Hawaii's green sea turtles travel to the shoals to nest. The small islets of French Frigate Shoals provide refuge to the largest surviving population of Hawaiian monk seals, the second most endangered pinniped in the world.

The islands are also an important seabird colony. Eighteen species of seabird, the black-footed albatross, Laysan albatross, Bonin petrel, Bulwer's petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Christmas shearwater, Tristram's storm petrel, red-tailed tropicbird, masked booby, red-footed booby, brown booby, great frigatebird, spectacled tern, sooty tern, blue-gray noddy, brown noddy, black noddy and white tern nest on the islands, most of them (16) on Tern Island. Two species, the blue-gray noddy and the brown booby, nest only on La Pèrouse Pinnacle. The island also is the wintering ground for several species of shorebird.

After the Battle of Midway in WWII, Tern island was made into airstrip, nicknamed the "coral carrier" and would be between Midway Island and the main Hawaiin island. Tern was protected by thousands of feet of double wall steel sea wall, which has kept its stable in size. However, by 2000 the seawall was trapping marine life and Congress authorized some repair work. The seawall is noted for trapping seals and seals because there are holes where life gets into the gap between the two walls but cannot escape. In 2023, the entrapment of seals in the decayed seawall was noted during a visit to the island.

A three-week research mission in October 2006 by the NOAA led to the discovery of 100 species never seen in the area before, including many that were new to science. The French Frigate Shoals project was part of the Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Census of Marine Life. In addition to scientific analysis, a National Geographic photographer was also on board. The photographer noted the range of vibrant colors and shapes among the coral life. Jim Maragos, an expert on coral life in this region of ocean estimated they discovered 11 new species of coral.

The shark population and type was studied in 2009, and it was determined that some of the species in the area include galapagos sharks, gray reef sharks, and tiger sharks.

Whale-Skate and Trig islands were noted as monk seal pupping areas before they eroded away.

Coral
Coral species found in the French Frigate Shoals between 1907 and 2006, as reported in a 2011 paper by Brainard et al.:
 * Coral unidentified, sp.18
 * L. incrustans
 * P. eydouxi
 * Acropora cerealis
 * L. sp.22 cf. incrustans
 * P. sp.10 cf. laysanesis
 * Acropora gemmifera
 * L. mycetoseroides
 * P. ligulata
 * A. humilis
 * L. cf. papyracea sp19
 * Pocillopora meandrina
 * A. nasuta
 * L. cf. scabra sp17
 * P. molokensis
 * A. paniculata
 * Pavona duerdeni
 * P. sp.32 cf. verrucosa
 * A. sp.1 (prostrate)
 * P. maldivensis
 * P. sp.33 cf. zelli
 * A. sp.28 cf. retusa
 * P. varians
 * P. sp.11 cf. capitata
 * A. valida
 * Balanophyllia sp. (pink)
 * P. sp. 15 (paliform lobes)
 * A. sp.29 (table)
 * Cladopsammia eguchii
 * Porites brighami
 * A. sp.30 cf. palmerae
 * Tabastraea coccinea
 * Porites compressa
 * A. sp. 20 (neoplasia/tumor?)
 * Cyphastrea ocellina
 * P. sp.23 (arthritic fingers)
 * A. sp.26 cf. loripes
 * Leptastrea agassizi
 * P. duerdeni
 * Montipora capitata
 * 'L. bewickensis
 * P. evermanni
 * M. flabellate
 * L. purpurea
 * P. hawaiiensis
 * M. patula
 * L. pruinosa
 * Porites lobata
 * M. sp.4 cf. incrassate
 * L. sp.8 cf. ?
 * F. hawaiiensis
 * P. sp.21 cf. lobata
 * M. sp.7 (foliaceous)
 * Cycloseris tenuis
 * P. sp. 16 cf. lutea
 * M. tuberculosa
 * C. vaughani
 * P. sp.27 (columns)
 * M. sp.24 (irregular)
 * Diaseris distorta
 * P. sp.13 cf. solida
 * M. verrilli
 * Fungia scutaria
 * Psammocora nierstraszi
 * Leptoseris hawaiiensis
 * Pocillopora damicornis
 * P. stellate

Islands

The three biggest islands were Tern, East, and Trig island. However, by the 2020s both East and Trig Island had mostly washed away. Tern and East had been home to naval and/or coast guard bases in the late 20th century. Since 2012, Tern Island has not been occupied but is still routinely visited for trash cleanup and research. Tern is protected by a large steel seawall built during World War II. One island that also has remained constant is La Perouse Pinnacle, which is dense volcanic rock and is also the tallest point in the group. The islands have gone through several administrative changes in the 20th century shifting from hunting area for sea turtles, to military uses, then later on more of science and nature reserve. The largest remaining island is Tern, and the pinnacle is also fixed. Other islands can be washed away by storms.

1) Whale-Skate Island, currently a double island, is also listed in the census documents together as a block, with an area of 32020 m2. The shares of the islands are estimated 40% and 60%.

2) 1971 it was reported that Near Island, although recorded on maps, would be submerged at high tide.

3) Bare Island can be seen on satellite images but is not listed in the Census Tract. A 1971 publication says Bare Island has an area of 0.1 acre.

4) As of October 2018, East Island has mostly submerged.

5) Round and Mullet Islands in census documents found together as a block 1006, together with an area of 5540 m2. The shares are valued according to a report from 1971 (0.4 and 0.5 acre).

The two major islands of the French Frigate shoals were Tern Island and East Island, and there is also a tall rock pinnacle. Many of the smaller islands have been washed over, and finally in 2018 East Island was largely washed away. Tern Island is protected by a seawall that originates from when it was expanded in the 1940s to become a naval air base.

Islands known to have been notably washed away or reduced by 2018 include Whale-Skate, Trig, and East Island. In the 2020s East Island is reported to be about half its former size.

Trig Island
Trig Island is located at 23'52'N, 166'15', and is about 10 acres of area of which approximately 6 acre have vegetation. The island is about 1200 ft long and between 200 and 300 ft wide. However, the island is known to have weathered considerably between the 1930s and 1960s. It was surveyed several times in the 1920s and 1930s. In the early surveys it was noted as the highest of French Frigate Shoals' islands rising to 20 ft above sea level. By 2018 it was mostly washed away.

Whale-Skate Island
Whale-Skate Island used to be two separate islands but were combined by a sand bar in the 20th century. Whale-Skate Island was about 2100 ft long and 16.8 acre.

In 1923 they were surveyed as two separate islands, Whale Island and Skate Island. In the 1950s it was noted they had been connected by a sand bar several feet high.

In the 1980s, Whale-Skate Island was about 6.8 ha, and was noted as a pupping area for seals.

La Perouse Pinnacle
La Perouse Pinnacle is a volcanic pinnacle approximately 3 mi west southwest of East Island, Hawaii. It is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian Islands. La Pèrouse Pinnacle stands 122 ft tall. It is surrounded by coral reefs and a shorter, rocky islet about 5 – tall. Because of its distinct shape, the pinnacle can be mistaken for a ship from a distance.

It has been called a "volcanic rock islet" and is known for its central position in the French Frigate Shoals between north and south sides of atoll. The pinnacle is visible from a distance of about 8 miles (12.8 km) away at sea.

The rock is named for Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, who came across the shoals in 1786.

The pinnacle is composed mainly of very hard basalt rock, and the island is thought to be the remains of a volcano from millions of years ago.

In 1923 on the Tanager expedition it was visited and determined to be olivine basalt rock.

The pinnacle's resemblance to a sailing ship at distance nearly caused the wrecking of the sailing ship Rebecca in the 19th century. The whaling ship Rebecca sighted the pinnacle at nightfall, but mistook it for a sailing ship and tried to signal with it. When the signals were not returned the Rebecca headed towards the ship to investigate, but soon ran into the reef. The ship survived the encounter with shoals, and was able to ascertain the nature of the Pinnacle in the morning.

title: French Frigate Shoals


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Talk:Anthems to the Welkin at Dusk

coverart
this album needs a better version of the copy art! Spearhead 22:02, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Anthems to the Welkin at Dusk


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Iontophoresis

Old discussion from VfD
Discussion concluded and article kept on June 5, 2004

'Delete or Rewrite - Is this even a real topic? Burgundavia 06:39, May 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * It most assuredly is  The real question is "Is this an encyclopedia topic?"  To that I say it could be a good one, but it isn't yet...  rewrite/improve -- EmperorBMA|話す 06:48, 28 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Close to 25k google hits. Keep. Abigail 11:54, May 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * FDA says it's real, but that there's a bunch of flim-flam surrounding it . -- Cyrius|&#9998 07:05, May 28, 2004 (UTC)

It's a very real technology used by companies such as ALZA corp., 3M, Elan Corp, among others. I'm not very familiar with the subject matter, so I started a stub.

This process will have greater and greater effects as products such as ALZA's E-Trans Fentanyl system are launched. I'd love to have this rewritten by a capable person. Ix 07:54, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

Also, the FDA link is in regards to the muscle stimulation properties of Iontophoresis devices, not the pharmaceutical potentials. I concur whole-heartedly that the use of these devices in health-clubs does not have any scientifically proven benefits. Refer to [] (uh, sales propaganda, but the science is sound) Also see: []

I don't have my copy of United States Pharmacopeia handy at home, but I'm willing to cite relevant passages on Sunday if this topic is still in debate.

USP Electrophoresis (perhaps we should rename article 'Electrophoresis', due to USP referencing it as such). I would do that, but Electrophoresis redirects to 'gel electrophoresis', which does not describe the technology.Ix 01:43, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

You can electrophorise paper as well, not only gel. Dunc Harris | Talk 09:45, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

Keep. This is a real technique. Just no content yet. Keep it so that it gets expanded. Kd4ttc 19:45, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)


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Talk:Islamic republic

Inconsistent capitalization
Proper names, references to proper names, translations of proper names, suggested proper names, paraphrases of proper names, etc. should all be capitalized. "Republic" should only be lower case when referring to a type of government, not when referring to an actual government's name. A list of the proper names of countries with "Islamic" or "Islamic Republic" in their names -- next to a list of the proper names of countries considered to be "Islamic republics" without being properly named as such -- would seem to be a worthwhile addition to this page. The "considered to be" part is a flamewar which I will leave to others.

Terminology
Please just state the main pionts, ya add in a lot of bull that aren't really needed.

What's that supposed to mean? David.Monniaux 06:39, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Moved from the article, since it belongs on the talk page Nik42 05:59, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

There are some factual inaccuracies in description of Islamic Republic of Pakistan (IRP):- 1. IRP is neither democratic nor secular. Constitution explicitly states that sovreignity exclusively belongs to "Allah", and Islamic laws override the legislation done by Parliament. There is a mechanism through "Fedral Shariat Court" which can strike down any law found against Islam. As for democracy, it is more or less as much democratic as Islamic Republic of Iran is. The role of "shoora-i-nighaban" is carried by a council of military commanders. Though military commanders do it in blatant violation of constitution, whereas "shoora-i-nighaban" in Iran works through constitutional mechanism.

{My comment: The fact that Military rulers, when they interfere with civilian rule, are violating the constitution... is in of itself defeats your argument. Pakistani constitution envisages a democracy and does not provide for any subversion of the civilian authority. There is no council. General Musharraf had come to power through a coup and has since then tried to legitimise his position through constitutional amendments empowering him to keep two offices. However this again does not constitutionally establish the military's role... though in actual reality military plays a huge role.

We are concerned about what the constitutional concept of the state is and not the mess Pakistanis have made of the constitution. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is defined in the constitution as a federal democratic republic to be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The fundamental rights chapter establishes freedom of religion and equality of citizenship. Islamic Laws themselves are to be discussed and debated by an elected parliament on the basis of universal adult franchise. The head of the government i.e. the Prime Minister of Pakistan can be a Non-Muslim... though that is seemingly impossible. Personally I think the use of the prefix Islamic is superfluous.}

2. It is not true that governement documents are prepared under the name "Federation of Pakistan". "Islamic republic of Pakistan" is only acknowledged name of the country. Official documents, though also additionaly refer to "Federal Governement" of "Islamic Republic of Pakistan".

You obviously know very little. Pakistan has an elected government and a constitution that is mostly secular. Sure Islam is the state religion and the Head of State is supposed to be muslim, but the UK also has a state religion and the Queen must be a protestent.

The most influential jurist and judge in Pakistan's legal history was a christian, A. R. Cornelius. The present senior judge is a Hindu, Rana Bhagwandas.

The Federal Shariah Court is the Supreme Court sitting in a another capacity, all memebers of the Supreme Court, the only difference is that retired judges are also eligable to sit on it as well. Its judistriction is limited only to religious matters, and it can be overruled by the Supreme Court,as it was in the "Interest Cases." Sure the Supreme Court can overrule Parliamnetry Legislation if it is unconstitutional, as can the US Supreme Court.

As for the Federation and Islamic Republic issues, well both are used in the constitution and both are correct.The reason the Ferderation is used more often is simply because in most matters it is the Ferderation of the Provinces that is acting. So the a court case for example, "Federation of Pakistan v XYZ". It is just a convention nothing else.

Islamic republic -- A name with Contradiction
A state is Islamic (laws of Allah by Quran/Sunnah) and Republic ("In a broad definition a republic is a state or country that is led by people who do not base their political power on any principle beyond the control of the people of that state or country"). It is a big joke and nothing else. Secondly By changing name a state does not become Islamic. There is NO Islamic State exist, except Iran (may be) for Shias only. --- Faisal 22:37, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Nevertheless, "Islamic Republic" is still the name given in English to certain Muslim republics. That's just the way it is. According to the Afghanistan article, it too is an Islamic republic, and there are probably others. - THE GREAT GAVINI  {T-C} 11:37, 5 July 2006 (UTC)

what nonsense. A Republic is a state without a hereditary monarchy. An Islamic Republic is a Republic which bases its constitution on Islam. Having a state religion and being a republic isn't in any way contradictory. An Islamic Republic is a Republic constituted by Muslims just like the Roman Republic was a Republic constituted by people worshipping the Roman gods. --dab (𒁳) 09:47, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Your definition of republic could also define a monarchy, or an ologarchy. Ironic, that it also describes Pakistan and Iran.Fuzbaby (talk) 01:28, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

Citations and/or references
The article seems fine, but I'm a bit worried about WP:OR creeping in because it doesn't cite it's sources. <<-armon->> 21:56, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Sudan?
What about Sudan? Didn't it become an "Islamic Republic" some twenty-five years ago? bandishhh 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I can't find when Sudan became and unbecame an Islamic Republic online. --BoogaLouie (talk) 21:51, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

Tags on sources and need of expert
This article needs sources and some quotes by Islamists on how in an Islamic Republic, God and not citizens are soveriegn. --BoogaLouie (talk) 21:51, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

++_afghanistan==

Why can't I edit afghanistan when I been there- this is wank —Preceding unsigned comment added by Uksoldiersforhamas (talk • contribs) 18:49, 10 January 2009 (UTC)

Suggested solution
I've been thinking about the recent disagreement regarding the addition of Arabic Republics to this article and I've come up the the idea of renaming this article into "Republics in the Arab world." I see mostly an upside with this change suggestion. Thoughts/suggestions?  Jaakobou Chalk Talk  23:50, 27 June 2009 (UTC)
 * We don't need a solution when there isn't a problem. The title of this article is "Islamic Republic". The article is about states which designate themselves "Islamic Republic". The Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan are NOT part of the Arab world. No Islamic Republic describes itself as an "Arab republic". --Folantin (talk) 07:54, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * indeed. There is no "disagreement", there is only User:Jaakobou failing to admit they have no case. If you do want to make yourself useful, turn Arab_world into a clean table, including a column giving each country's full official name. --dab (𒁳) 09:41, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the suggestion dab, I may take up on it. Anyways the issue, IMHO, is that both "republics" are simply self described as such and only a handful of them could honestly be described as republics. The article's title is actually misleading and it is quite suggestive of false information as if "Islamic republic" is an established form of government with a clear structure (article makes a clear but ref-less argument that it doesn't). Anyways, I'm not insisting on connecting the two, but I am interested in further clarifications of the two widely different "republics" of both the self-described as Islamic Republic, and the self described as Arab Republic. I'd be interested in any suggestions that help bring this article to wikipedia standards of sourcing and helps bring along also the Arab Republic "gov. style". Thoughts/suggestions?  Jaakobou Chalk Talk  16:58, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * p.s. do let me know if you want me to tag a few places in the current article that are poorly structured and/or lack sourcing.  Jaakobou Chalk Talk  16:58, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * If you want to give the world your opinions on whether Islamic Republics are really "republics" or not, go to Blogspot. --Folantin (talk) 17:38, 28 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Ok. Now that I know your purpose here (hint: it doesn't include reading comments of others), I'll try working with others. Thanks for the clarification.  Jaakobou Chalk Talk  08:49, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Requested move
Islamic Republic → NewName — In keep with wikipedia guidelines,etc. Not a term in which the second word is by necessity capitalized. Ie., it's correct to write either " the Islamic Republic" or "the Islamic republic" unless it is used as part of "The Islamic Republic of Iran", etc. Pisharov (talk) 02:07, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Support Shouldn't really be controversial. Islamic republic should only be capitalised when used as part of a title. Skinsmoke (talk) 14:56, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Support per nom. —   AjaxSmack   20:20, 2 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Support, have requested db-move as seems uncontroversial. --Cybercobra (talk) 02:38, 10 August 2009 (UTC)

Ambiguous sentence
This sentence seems ambiguous: "Iran's Islamic republic is in contrast to the semi-secular state of the Republic of Pakistan (proclaimed as an Islamic Republic in 1956) where Islamic laws are technically considered to override laws of the state, though in reality their relative hierarchy is ambiguous."

which is it referring to, Iran or Pakistan? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.233.182.92 (talk) 21:25, 23 February 2010 (UTC)

Is Sudan an Islamic republic?
Sudan is a republic that employs a legal system based on Islamic law. Could Sudan be included in this article as an Islamic republic? 108.0.244.168 (talk) 05:30, 11 August 2013 (UTC)

Gambia
Just a quick note to announce that I have added Gambia to the map based on the Beeb article. Happy Christmas and holidays to all! - Thanks, Hoshie 23:00, 12 December 2015 (UTC)
 * No, it's not an Islamic republic, the move is unconstitutional. The constitution needs to be amended first. Just because the State House has decided to start using that designation, that does not overturn the country's written constitution. I have removed it, as in the The Gambia article. --B.Lameira (talk) 12:34, 16 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Information in more depth, here: --B.Lameira (talk) 12:52, 16 December 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Islamic republic


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fandangos dance

'Delete' - we already have Fandango (dance), so no need for this. And it is just a copy paste of the previous. Burgundavia 06:39, May 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * Redirect to Fandango (dance). It's not likely to be used, but a plural redirect isn't going to hurt anything. -- Cyrius|&#9998 07:01, May 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * Vote redirect, it appears to be the intention of the author to duplicate the other page (complete with copying & pasting the wiki messages). (StuartH 09:24, 28 May 2004 (UTC))


text:
User:Kamalov~enwiki

My Page

Kamalov Bakhadir

title: User:Kamalov~enwiki


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Top seeds for French Open 2004

Update: I count 7 to delete, 1 to keep, and 2 making suggestions who didn't specifically say keep or delete. I'll now delete Template:Top seeds for French Open 2004. Wile E. Heresiarch 21:23, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Is there going to be one of these for every Grand Slam in every year? By the end of the year, will there be four of these on the Serena Williams page with eighty names listed? At the end of five years, will there be twenty of them on her page? RickK 04:03, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree, this isn't going to be useful in the medium-term. Delete. -- Cyrius|&#9998 06:54, May 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. I agree that player's pages shouldn't be cluttered with tons of those boxes - but that's something that should be resolved by discussing the player pages, not by just deleting the message box. If it turns out it's better player pages don't get those message boxes, and no page uses it, it can always be deleted then. Abigail 11:48, May 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Again, this is more MediaWiki: footer nonsense run amok. People are creating MediaWiki: articles left and right without giving any thought of whether it's a good idea from an informational perspective.  Top seeds are constantly changing.  Either it ends up like RickK says and every single Grand Slam event every year gets placed in every tennis player's footer, or someone has to go around and delete this from every tennis player's page when they get bounced from the top ten.  Logistical nightmare and not useful informationally.  Delete.  R ADICAL B ENDER  ★  14:15, 28 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I doubt the organization of the French open is going to say next, "Let's change the seeding of last years tournament". The seeding of a particular tournament is not going to change after the tournament started. Now, unless you can show me that changing tournament seeds after a tournament has started is common practise, I'm not going to buy that argument. Abigail 14:23, May 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * I meant from year to year. Next year's seeds will not be this year's seeds.  R ADICAL B ENDER  ★  15:11, 28 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Next year's seed will not be called Top seeds for French Open 2004, but Top seeds for French Open 2005. But that's a different list, and has nothing to do with someone has to go around and delete this from every tennis player's page when they get bounced from the top ten. Anyone listed in the Top seeds for French Open 2004 will stay in that list forever. The fact that there will be another list next year is not more a logistical nightmare than updating the list of recent deaths, and the Deaths columns on the date pages. Or the winners of the Eurovision songcontest. Let me re-iterate, I do believe such message boxes shouldn't appear on player pages, but purely for clutter reasons. I don't buy the logistical argument. But I also believe such a discussion should be done at the appropriate place: the players pages, not by just deleting the page. Abigail 19:51, May 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't think you understand, Abigail. The MediaWiki box is being attached to every one of the people in the box's articles.  Are you planning on coming back in 2005 and deleting this box and creating a new one, or will you expect somebody else to do it, or are you expecting that this box will stay on attached to the players' articles in perpetuity?  As I said, what happens by 2009 when there are 20 boxes in Serena Williams's article? RickK 19:51, 29 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Which part of Let me re-iterate, I do believe such message boxes shouldn't appear on player pages do you fail to understand? Abigail 00:08, 30 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Well then, I'm totally confused. Why was this page ever created in the first place, if it wasn't going to be attached to the players' articles? RickK 21:13, 30 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't know, I don't care, and I don't think this the place, nor that I am the person to ask. My point is that if you have an issue with how tennis player pages look like, you should discuss that at the talk page(s) of tennis places, not at VfD. Besides, I think that the answer you got from Cantus pretty much makes this discussion moot. Abigail 23:47, 31 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - this shouldn't be a MediaWiki, as the data would appear in an unwieldy form on the player pages. Average Earthman 17:57, 28 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Agreed w/ RadicalBender. Wile E. Heresiarch 06:50, 31 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Totally short term content which does not belong in a MediaWiki box. If there is a list of all seeds of the French Open ever then this information would be useful, but it just clutters up the pages at the moment. David Newton 00:30, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. If this was really notable it would be in the article about French Open 2004. DJ Clayworth 21:28, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * SUGESTION: Substitute the message by a general TopSeeds Box, updated for every competition. In this way, one could navigate amongst the favorites of the current (or last) tournament, and, the articles are not crumpled with tons of boxes. This obviously requires maintenance that i am not volunteering to do because i even dont like tenis :) Muriel G 08:49, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I second this suggestion. Top seeds box, updated before/after every Grand Slam. Andris 17:48, Jun 2, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Yellow-billed shrike

The yellow-billed shrike (Lanius corvinus) is a large passerine bird in the shrike family. It is sometimes known as the long-tailed shrike, but this is to be discouraged, since it invites confusion with the long-tailed shrike, Lanius schach, of tropical southern Asia. The yellow-billed shrike is a common resident breeding bird in tropical Africa from Senegal eastwards to Uganda and locally in westernmost Kenya. It frequents forest and other habitats with trees.

Description
The yellow-billed shrike is 32 cm with a long, graduating tail and short wings. The adult has mottled brown upperparts and streaked buff underparts. It has a brown eye mask and a rufous wing patch, and the bill is yellow. Sexes are largely similar, but females have maroon patches on the flanks, while males have rufous parches; these patches are only visible when the bird is in flight, displaying, engaging in territorial disputes, or preening. Immature birds show buff fringes to the wing feathers. The legs and feet are black, and the beak is yellow, even in juveniles. It is a noisy bird, with harsh swee-swee and dreee-too calls.

Distribution
The species is resident in tropical Africa, south of the Sahara and north of the equator, but is not present in the Horn of Africa. It is present in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda. It makes localised movements, but these have been little studied.

Ecology
This is a conspicuous and gregarious bird and a cooperative breeder, always seen in groups, often lined up on telephone wires. The nest is a cup structure in a bush or tree into which four or five eggs are laid. Only one female in a group breeds at a given time, with other members providing protection and food.

The yellow-billed shrike feeds on insects, which it locates from prominent look-out perches in trees, wires, or posts. They also sometimes eat small frogs, reptiles, and mice, but are not known to eat other birds or to form larders.

Status
C. corvina is common in some areas and less so in others. No evidence has been found of any substantial decline in its populations, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of least concern.

title: Yellow-billed shrike


text:
Coronie District

Coronie is a district of Suriname, situated on the coast. Coronie's capital city is Totness. The district border the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Saramacca to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and the Surinamese district of Nickerie to the west. The district is served by the Totness Airstrip.

The district has a population of 3,391 and an area of 3,902 km2, making it the least-populated district of Suriname.

History
The first plantations were established from 1808 onwards by English and Scottish colonists. Coronie became an independent district in 1851. The oldest plantation in the district is Burnside. Coronie was isolated and it was not until the 1940s, that a road was built linking Totness with Paramaribo, which is nowadays part of the East-West Link.

In September 1965, four sounding rockets of Apache type with a maximum altitude of 205 km were launched. The rockets were launched as part as an investigation into the workings of the jet stream. The project was carried out by University of Utrecht and Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute. NASA provided the rockets.

Totness has been designated as a regional centre in the beginning of the 21st century, and is planned to be upgrade with a medium-sized hotel and a proper city centre. The area from Clyde to Burnside has no electricity, or telephone.

Economy
Coronie, as with most of Suriname, relies mostly upon agriculture for both its income and its food supply. The coastal environment made it a suitable are for coconut and rice plantations. In the late 20th century, rice became a major agricultural crop. The rice fields are suited in the south and along the East-West Link.

The flat and muddy coast with shallow waters prevented the construction of major harbors and large ships had to anchor miles off shores and transfer their passengers and cargo to little boats.

Resorts
Coronie is divided into 3 resorts (ressorten):
 * Johanna Maria
 * Totness
 * Welgelegen

Villages
Other villages in Coronie are:
 * Friendship
 * Jenny
 * Mary's Hope

Nature reserves
Coronie is home to three protected areas. The Peruvia Nature Reserve which was established in 1986 and covers 31,000 hectares, the Bigi Pan nature reserve which was established in 1987 and covers 67,000 hectares, and the Noord Coronie Managed Resource Protected Area protected area which was established in 1987 and covers 27,200 hectares.

title: Coronie District


text: Template:United States Men Basketball Squad 1992 Summer Olympics


text:
Ninhydrin

Ninhydrin (2,2-dihydroxyindane-1,3-dione) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4(CO)2C(OH)2. It is used to detect ammonia and amines. Upon reaction with these amines, ninhydrin gets converted into deep blue or purple derivatives, which are called Ruhemann's purple. Ninhydrin is most commonly used to detect fingerprints in forensic cases, as the terminal amines of lysine residues in peptides and proteins sloughed off in fingerprints react with ninhydrin.

Ninhydrin is a white solid that is soluble in ethanol and acetone. Ninhydrin can be considered as the hydrate of indane-1,2,3-trione.

History
Ninhydrin was discovered in 1910 by the German-English chemist Siegfried Ruhemann (1859–1943). In the same year, Ruhemann observed ninhydrin's reaction with amino acids. In 1954, Swedish investigators Oden and von Hofsten proposed that ninhydrin could be used to develop latent fingerprints.

Uses
Ninhydrin can be used in Kaiser test to monitor deprotection in solid phase peptide synthesis. The chain is linked via its C-terminus to the solid support, with the N-terminus extending off it. When that nitrogen is deprotected, a ninhydrin test yields blue. Amino-acid residues are attached with their N-terminus protected, so if the next residue has been successfully coupled onto the chain, the test gives a colorless or yellow result.

Ninhydrin is also used in qualitative analysis of proteins. Most of the amino acids, except proline, are hydrolyzed and react with ninhydrin. Also, certain amino acid chains are degraded. Therefore, separate analysis is required for identifying such amino acids that either react differently or do not react with ninhydrin at all. The rest of the amino acids are then quantified colorimetrically after separation by chromatography.

A solution suspected of containing the ammonium ion can be tested by ninhydrin by dotting it onto a solid support (such as silica gel); treatment with ninhydrin should result in a dramatic purple color if the solution contains this species. In the analysis of a chemical reaction by thin layer chromatography (TLC), the reagent can also be used (usually 0.2% solution in either n-butanol or in ethanol). It will detect, on the TLC plate, virtually all amines, carbamates and also, after vigorous heating, amides.

Upon reaction with ninhydrin, amino acids undergo decarboxylation. The released CO2 originates from the carboxyl carbon of the amino acid. This reaction has been used to release the carboxyl carbons of bone collagen from ancient bones for stable isotope analysis in order to help reconstruct the palaeodiet of cave bears. Release of the carboxyl carbon (via ninhydrin) from amino acids recovered from soil that has been treated with a labeled substrate demonstrates assimilation of that substrate into microbial protein. This approach was successfully used to reveal that some ammonium oxidizing bacteria, also called nitrifying bacteria use urea as a carbon source in soil.

Forensics
A ninhydrin solution is commonly used by forensic investigators in the analysis of latent fingerprints on porous surfaces such as paper. The amino acids present in the minute sweat secretions that gather on the finger's unique ridges transfer to surfaces that are touched. Exposure of the surface to ninhydrin converts the amino acids into visibly colored products and thus reveals the print. The test solutions suffer from poor long-term stability, especially if not kept cold.

To further enhance the ability of ninhydrin, a solution of 1,2-indandione and zinc chloride (IND-Zn) can be used prior to ninhydrin. This sequence leads to greater overall reaction of the amino acids, possibly by IND-Zn helping to release them from the surface for the subsequent ninhydrin reaction.

Reactivity
Ninhydrin exists in equilibrium with the triketone indane-1,2,3-trione, which reacts readily with nucleophiles (including water). Whereas for most carbonyl compounds, a carbonyl form is more stable than a product of water addition (hydrate), ninhydrin forms a stable hydrate of the central carbon because of the destabilizing effect of the adjacent carbonyl groups.

To generate the ninhydrin chromophore [2-(1,3-dioxoindan-2-yl)iminoindane-1,3-dione], the amine must condense to give a Schiff base. The reaction of ninhydrin with secondary amines gives an iminium salt, which is also coloured, generally being yellow–orange.

 * Ninhydrin Reaction Mechanism.svg

Effects on health
Ninhydrin may cause allergic, IgE-mediated rhinitis and asthma. A case has been described in which a 41 year old forensic laboratory worker working with Ninhydrin developed rhinitis and respiratory difficulty. Her specific IgE levels were found almost doubled.

authors: حسن علي البط

title: Ninhydrin


text:
Arthur Nebe

Arthur Nebe (13 November 1894 – 21 March 1945) was a German SS functionary who held key positions in the security and police apparatus of Nazi Germany and was, from 1941, a major perpetrator of the Holocaust.

Nebe rose through the ranks of the Prussian police force to become head of Nazi Germany's Criminal Police (Kriminalpolizei; Kripo) in 1936, which was amalgamated into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) in 1939. Before the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Nebe volunteered to serve as the commanding officer of Einsatzgruppe B, one of the four mobile death squads of the SS. The unit was deployed in the Army Group Centre Rear Area, in modern-day Belarus; it reported over 45,000 victims by November 1941. In late 1941, Nebe was posted back to Berlin and resumed his career with the RSHA. Nebe commanded the Kripo until he was denounced and executed after the failed attempt to kill Adolf Hitler in July 1944.

After the war, Nebe's career and involvement with the 20 July plot against Hitler were the subject of several apologetic accounts by surviving members of the plot, who portrayed him as a professional policeman and a dedicated anti-Nazi. These portrayals have since been discredited by historians who describe him as an opportunist and a mass murderer driven by racism and careerism.

Police career
Born in Berlin in 1894, the son of a school teacher, Nebe volunteered for military service during World War I and served with distinction. In 1920, he joined the Berlin detective force, the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo; Criminal Police). He attained the rank of police inspector in 1923 and police commissioner in 1924.

Nebe was a conservative nationalist, who embraced the shift of the country to right-wing rule in the 1930s. In July 1931, he joined the Nazi Party (party number 574,307) and the SS (SS number 280,152). Nebe became the Nazis' liaison in the criminal police in Berlin, with links to an early Berlin SS group led by Kurt Daluege. In early 1932, Nebe and other Nazi detectives formed the NS (National Socialist) Civil Service Society of the Berlin Police. In 1933, he came to know Hans Bernd Gisevius, then an official in the Berlin Police Headquarters; after the war, Gisevius produced an apologetic account of Nebe's Nazi era activities. In 1935, Nebe was appointed head of the Prussian Criminal Police. He obtained the rank of SS-Gruppenführer and Generalleutnant of Police on 9 November 1941.

Head of National Criminal Police

In July 1936, the Prussian Criminal Police became the central criminal investigation department for Germany, the Reichskriminalpolizeiamt (Reich Criminal Police Office or RKPA). It was amalgamated, along with the secret state police, the Geheime Staatspolizei (Gestapo), into the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo), with Reinhard Heydrich in overall command. Nebe was appointed head of the RKPA, reporting to Heydrich. The addition of the Kripo to Heydrich's control helped cement the foundations of the Nazi police state. It also led to an "overlap" of personnel from the SD, Gestapo and Kripo in leadership positions in the police and security forces in Germany.

On 27 September 1939, Himmler ordered the creation of the Reich Security Main Office (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or RSHA); the new organisation encompassed the intelligence service, security services, secret state and criminal police. The RSHA was divided into several main departments, including the Kripo, which became Department V of the RSHA. Kripo's stated mission, which Nebe embraced, was to "exterminate criminality". Under his leadership, equipped with arbitrary powers of arrest and detention, the Kripo acted more and more like the Gestapo, including the liberal use of so-called protective custody and large-scale roundups of "asocials".

In 1939, Nebe lent a commissioner of his Criminal Police Office, Christian Wirth of Stuttgart, to the Action T4, which ran the programme of involuntary euthanasia (murder) of the disabled. Also in 1939, as head of Kripo, he was involved in the discussions of the upcoming campaigns against the Sinti and Roma. Nebe wanted to include sending Berlin's "Gypsies" to the planned reservations for the Jews and others in the east. In October 1939, he ordered Adolf Eichmann to put Sinti and Roma with Jews on the transports to occupied Poland under the "Nisko Plan". In November, Nebe interrogated Georg Elser after Elser's failed assassination attempt on Hitler, concluding that Elser was telling the truth when he claimed that he was working alone.

Einsatzgruppe B
Just before the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, the Einsatzgruppen mobile death squads, which had previously operated in Poland, were reformed and placed once again under the overall command of Reinhard Heydrich. Nebe volunteered to command Einsatzgruppe B, an SS death squad that operated in the Army Group Center Rear Area as the invasion progressed. The unit's task was to exterminate Jews and other "undesirables", such as communists, "Gypsies", "Asiatics", the disabled, and psychiatric hospital patients in the territories that the Wehrmacht had overrun. The Einsatzgruppe also shot hostages and prisoners of war handed over by the army for execution.

Mass killing operations
Around 5 July 1941, Nebe consolidated Einsatzgruppe B near Minsk, establishing a headquarters and remaining there for two months. The murders progressed apace. In a 13 July Operational Situation Report, Nebe stated that 1,050 Jews had been killed in Minsk, also noting that the liquidation of the Jews was underway in Vilna where 500 Jews were shot daily. In the same report, Nebe remarked: "only 96 Jews were executed in Grodno and Lida during the first days. I gave orders to intensify these activities". He reported that the killings were being brought into smooth running order and that the shootings were carried out "at an increasing rate". The report also announced that his Einsatzgruppe was now killing non-Jews in Minsk.

In the 23 July report, Nebe advanced the idea of a "solution to the Jewish problem" being "impractical" in his assigned area of operation due to "the overwhelming number of the Jews"; i.e. there were too many Jews to be killed by too few men. By August 1941, Nebe came to realize that his Einsatzgruppe's resources were insufficient to meet the expanded mandate of the killing operations, resulting from the inclusion of Jewish women and children since that month.

New killing methods
In August 1941, Himmler, after a visit to Minsk, decided that alternative methods of killing should be found, instead of mass-shootings. He told Heydrich that he was concerned about the SS men's mental health. Himmler turned to Nebe to devise a more "convenient" method of killing, particularly one that would spare executioners elements of their grisly task. Murder with carbon monoxide gas, already in use in the Reich as part of the "euthanasia" program, was contemplated, but deemed too cumbersome for the mobile killing operations in the occupied Soviet Union.

Nebe decided to try experimenting by murdering Soviet psychiatric patients, first with explosives near Minsk, and then with automobile exhaust at Mogilev. The idea of using gas was partly inspired by an incident in Nebe's past. One night after a party, Nebe had driven home drunk, parked in his garage, and fallen asleep with the engine running, nearly dying of carbon monoxide poisoning from the exhaust fumes. To conduct the experiments, he ordered the SS chemist Albert Widmann, a member of the criminal-technical institute of the RKPA, to come to Minsk with 250 kg of explosives and exhaust hoses. The next day, Widmann, Nebe, and an explosives expert carried out their first experiment in prepared bunkers in the Minsk area. According to testimony presented at Widmann's postwar trial:

"One of the bunkers was loaded with explosives and 24 mental patients were put into it. Nebe gave the signal to detonate, but the resultant explosion failed to kill the patients. Several of them emerged from the bunker covered in blood and screaming loudly. Thereupon more explosives were brought up, the wounded patients were forced back into the bunker, and a second explosion finally finished the job. The bunker had become quiet and parts of bodies could be seen hanging from nearby trees."

Two days later, Nebe and Widmann carried out another killing experiment: five psychiatric patients from Mogilev were placed in a hermetically sealed room with pipes leading to the outside. At first, exhausts from a passenger vehicle were vented into the room, so that the carbon monoxide would kill those inside. This method failed to kill the patients, so a truck was added; the patients were dead within 15 minutes. Nebe and Widmann concluded that killing with explosives was impractical, while gassing "held promise", as vehicles were readily available and could be used as needed.

After these experimental killings, Nebe thought of remodelling a vehicle with a hermetically sealed cabin for killing. The carbon monoxide from the vehicle's exhaust would be channelled into the sealed cabin in which the victims stood. He discussed the idea's technical aspects with a specialist from Kripo's Technology Institute and together they brought the proposal to Heydrich, who approved it.

Mogilev conference and escalation of violence
The Wehrmacht's aggressive rear security doctrine and the use of the "security threat" to disguise genocidal policies resulted in a close cooperation between the army and the security apparatus behind the front lines. Nebe, as the Einsatzgruppe B commander, participated in a three-day field conference at Mogilev in late September 1941. Organised by General Max von Schenckendorff, chief of Army Group Centre's rear area, the conference was to serve as an "exchange of experiences" for the Wehrmacht rear unit commanders.

Participating officers were selected on the basis of their "achievements and experiences" in security operations already undertaken. In addition to Nebe, the speakers included Higher SS and Police Leader Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski; Max Montua, commander of Police Regiment Centre; Hermann Fegelein, commander of the SS Cavalry Brigade; and Gustav Lombard, commander of the 1st SS Cavalry Regiment in Fegelein's brigade. Nebe's talk focused on the SD's role in the common fight against "partisans" and "plunderers". He also covered the "Jewish question" and its connection to the suppression of resistance movements in occupied territories. After the conference, a 16-page executive summary was distributed to the Wehrmacht troops and Order Police battalions in the rear area. There was a dramatic increase in atrocities against Jews and other civilians in the last three months of 1941.

Under Nebe's command, Einsatzgruppe B committed public hangings to terrorise the local population. Nebe's report dated 9 October 1941 stated that, due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov, all male residents aged 15 to 55 were put in a camp to be screened. Seventeen people were identified as "partisans" and "Communists" and five were hanged in front of 400 local residents assembled to watch; the rest were shot. Through 14 November 1941, Einsatzgruppe B reported the killing of 45,467 people; thereafter, Nebe returned to Berlin and resumed his duties as head of the Kripo.

President of Interpol and Stalag Luft III murders
Following the 1942 assassination of Heydrich, Nebe assumed the additional post of President of the International Criminal Police Commission, the organization today known as Interpol, in June 1942. After the Anschluss in 1938, the organization had fallen under the control of Nazi Germany and was headed by Heydrich until his death. Nebe served in this capacity until June 1943, when he was replaced by Ernst Kaltenbrunner.

In March 1944, after the "Great Escape" from Stalag Luft III prisoner-of-war camp, Nebe was ordered by Heinrich Müller, Chief of the Gestapo, to select and kill 50 of the 73 recaptured prisoners in what became known as the "Stalag Luft III murders". Also in 1944, Nebe suggested that the Roma interned at Auschwitz would be good subjects for medical experiments at the Dachau concentration camp, after Himmler had asked Ernst-Robert Grawitz, a high-ranking SS physician, for advice.

1944 plot against Adolf Hitler
Nebe was involved in the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler; he was to lead a team of 12 policemen to kill Himmler, but the signal to act never reached him. After the failed assassination attempt, Nebe fled and went into hiding. He was arrested in January 1945 after a former mistress betrayed him. Nebe was sentenced to death by the People's Court on 2 March and, according to official records, was executed in Berlin at Plötzensee Prison on 21 March 1945 by being hanged with piano wire from a meat hook, in accordance with Hitler's order that the bomb plotters were to be "hanged like cattle".

Assessment
Historians have a negative view of Nebe and his motives, despite his participation in the 20 July plot. Robert Gellately writes that Nebe's views were virulently racist and antisemitic. Martin Kitchen casts Nebe as an opportunist, who saw the SS as the police force of the future, and as an "energetic and enthusiastic mass murderer, who seized every opportunity to undertake yet another massacre." Yet, according to Kitchen, he "was clearly unable to stand the strain and was posted back to Berlin."

Comprehensive reports filed by the Einsatzgruppen were analyzed by historian Ronald Headland in his 1992 book Messages of Murder. These documents provide insights into its leadership's worldview. Headland writes that the reports "bear witness to the fanatic commitment of the Einsatzgruppen leaders to their mission of extermination"; their ideology and racism are evident in the "constant debasement of the victims" and "ever present racial conceptions concerning Jews, Communists, Gypsies and other 'inferior' elements". Headland concludes that Nebe was an ambitious man who may have volunteered to lead an Einsatzgruppen unit for careerist reasons, to curry favor with Heydrich. Any misgivings he may have entertained as to the feasibility of the undertaking failed to prevent him from overseeing the murder of close to 50,000 people in the five months Nebe commanded his unit.

Gerald Reitlinger describes Nebe's reasons for joining the Einsatzgruppen as "placation" and a desire to hold on to his position in the Criminal Police Department, where, since 1934, Gestapo men were gaining influence, and which was later taken over by Heydrich. Reitlinger writes: "If Nebe did in fact retain his office till 1944, it was because of the five months he spent in Russia, or, as his friend Gisevius politely referred to, 'at the front'." Reitlinger calls Nebe a "very questionable member" of the German military resistance at the time of the 20 July bomb plot.

Alex J. Kay writes that "the role, character and motivation of those involved both in planning—and in some cases carrying out—mass murder and in the conspiracy against Hitler deserve to be investigated more closely". He places Nebe in this category, with Franz Halder, chief of staff of the Army High Command (OKH), and Georg Thomas, head of the Defence, Economy and Armament Office in the Armed Forces High Command (OKW).

Apologetics
Several apologetic accounts produced by the conspirators behind the 20 July plot described Nebe as a professional police officer and a dedicated member of the German resistance. In 1947, Hans Bernd Gisevius described Nebe's position at the head of Einsatzgruppe B as a "brief command at the front"; Gisevius changed his story in the 1960s, when Nebe's role with the Einsatzgruppen was exposed. In the 1966 work Wo ist Nebe? ("Where is Nebe?"), Gisevius claimed that Nebe was reluctant to accept the posting, but had been persuaded to take it by the opposition leaders Hans Oster and Ludwig Beck, who had allegedly wanted Nebe to retain a key role in Heydrich's apparatus. Gisevius also claimed that Nebe exaggerated the number of victims in reports to Berlin by adding a zero to the number of those killed. A Swedish police official active in Interpol during the war years, Harry Söderman, described Nebe and, a key RSHA figure responsible for persecution of the Roma, in his 1956 book as “professional policemen.... very mild Nazis”.

The historian Christian Gerlach, writing about the 20 July conspirators and their complicity in war crimes of the Wehrmacht, calls Nebe a "notorious mass murderer". He discusses the role of Henning von Tresckow and his adjutant, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, who were members of the military opposition to Hitler, and writes:

"Schlabrendorff claimed that he and Tresckow had convinced themselves that "under the mask of the SS leader lurked a committed anti-Nazi.... who invented pretexts for sabotaging Hitler's murderous orders. We succeeded in saving the lives of many Russians. The Russian population often expressed their thanks to us". [....] According to Schlabrendorff, Tresckow personally brought Nebe to the army group [of conspirators]. Nothing was said about the 45,467 murder victims of Einsatzgruppe B by November 1941, the point at which Nebe returned to Berlin."

Gerlach doubts that Nebe falsified Einsatzgruppe B reports and puts Schlabrendorff's claims in the context of bomb plotters' memoirs and the then-prevalent assessments of the opposition group within the high command of Army Group Center: "Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews, [it is said that] 'the SS' had deceived the officers by killing in secret, filing incomplete reports or none at all; if general staff officers protested, the SS threatened them." Gerlach concludes: "This is, of course, nonsense."

The historian Waitman Wade Beorn writes that "some have argued that [Nebe] deliberately inflated the numbers of Jews he reported killed; yet all evidence indicates that he was quite content to play his role in Nazi genocide and that his subsequent displeasure with the regime may have stemmed from the imminent Nazi defeat, but not opposition to the Holocaust". Bernhard Wehner, Nebe's former colleague at the Kripo stated that "Nebe was worried the Allies would punish him for his crimes" - his only reason for joining the resistance.

title: Arthur Nebe


text:
East Valley

East Valley may refer to a location in the United States:

 * East Valley (Phoenix metropolitan area), the east side of the Phoenix metropolitan area in Arizona
 * East Valley, Nevada, a census-designated place
 * East Valley School District (Spokane), a school district in Spokane, Washington
 * East Valley Township, Marshall County, Minnesota
 * East San Jose, a neighborhood in San Jose, California

title: East Valley


text:
Marowijne District

Marowijne is a district of Suriname, located on the north-east coast. Marowijne's capital city is Albina, with other towns including Moengo and Wanhatti. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south, and the Surinamese districts of Commewijne and Para to the west.

Marowijne's population is 18,294 and the district has an area of 4,627 km2.

History
Marowijne is also home to many Maroon palenques. The Maroons are descendants of slaves who escaped from their Dutch masters centuries ago, particularly slaves who escaped from Suriname's huge plantations during the 18th century. They established autonomy for their interior settlements by a 1760 peace treaty with the Netherlands, which was unable to conquer them.

Albina was founded on 13 December 1845 by August Kappler, and was named after his wife. Albina is located near the border with French Guiana. It is the main city, and the largest area which is not tribal.

During the early 20th century, bauxite was discovered in Marowijne district, leading to a boom in mining that significantly enriched the entire country. The bauxite industry resulted in the growth of Moengo which is as of 2020, the largest town in the district.

On 22 July 1986, the Surinamese Interior War started. That night, the Jungle Commando led by Ronnie Brunswijk, captured the check post near Stolkertsijver, and opened fire on the army barracks in Albina. The civil war which followed led to the massacre of Moiwana where 35 civilians including women and children were killed by the National Army led by Dési Bouterse, and large scale destruction in Albina and Moengo. The civil war also resulted in a refugee crisis into French Guiana.

The district also has a large tourism industry and is the location of ocean front resorts in Galibi, which is inhabited by an indigenous population.

The main road for Marowijne is the East-West Link. The distance between Paramaribo and Albina is about 150 km.

Health care
Four health cares centre are located in the District, and there is a regional medical centre in Albina which qualifies as a minor hospital, however specialised health care has to be performed in Paramaribo or French Guiana. In corporation with the French Development Agency and the Inter-American Development Bank a hospital is under construction in Albina.

Resorts
Marowijne is divided into six resorts (ressorten):
 * Albina (integral part of Suriname)
 * Galibi (indigenous area)
 * Moengo (Maroon autonomous area)
 * Moengotapoe (Maroon autonomous area)
 * Patamacca (Maroon autonomous area)
 * Wanhatti (Maroon autonomous area)

Villages

 * Alfonsdorp
 * Bigiston
 * Christiaankondre
 * Langamankondre
 * Lantiwei
 * Moiwana
 * Ovia Olo
 * Pikin Santi
 * Pinatjaimi
 * Ricanau Mofo
 * Tamarin

title: Marowijne District


text:
Olonets Karelia

Olonets Karelia (Aunuksen Karjala, shortened. Aunus; Anuksen Karjala, shortened. Anus; Олонецкая Карелия) is a historical and cultural region and the southern portion of East Karelia, which is part of Russia. Olonets Karelia is located between the other historical regions of Ladoga Karelia, to its west, White Karelia, to its north, the River Svir, to its south and Lake Onega on its eastern side. Olonets Karelia is home to its own dialect of the Karelian language, which is known as Livvi Karelian or sometimes as 'Olonets Karelian'. The largest city in the Olonets Karelia region is Petrozavodsk, followed by Kondopoga, Segezha and Medvezhyegorsk.

History
Olonets Karelia has largely belonged to Russians in its documented history, being under the control of the Novgorod Republic since the 1100s, and later falling under Muscovite control by around 1478. Olonets Karelia became a governate of the Russian Empire in 1801, being known as the Olonets Governorate.

Olonets Karelia fell under Finnish occupation during the Continuation War, however the region was retaken by the Soviet Red Army during the Vyborg-Petrozavodsk Offensive.

title: Olonets Karelia


text:
White Karelia

White Karelia (Беломо́рская Каре́лия; North Karelian and Vienan Karjala or simply Viena; Vitahavskarelen) is a historical region in Northern Europe, comprising the northernmost part of Karelia, and the Republic of Karelia in Russia. It is bordered by the White Sea to the east, Murmansk Oblast to the north, Finland (Kainuu and North Ostrobothnia) to the west, and the Muyezersky and Segezhsky Districts of the Republic of Karelia to the south.

The surface area of White Karelia is approximately 67000 km2, and it has a population of about 100,000. The area is largely undeveloped in terms of population centers and infrastructure, and much of it remains wilderness.

Finnish author Elias Lönnrot collected most of the poems and materials for the epic poem Kalevala from the White Karelian poetry villages, which collected Finno-Karelian folklore.

title: White Karelia


text: Template:United States Men Basketball Squad 1996 Summer Olympics


text:
Talk:Patrick White

Birthdate
According to this he was born on May 28, not May 18.

 * Thanks for pointing this out; his autobiography also mentions May 28. Fixed the article. Lupo 07:07, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, must've been a typo. Does anyone have a public domain picture of White? Ambivalenthysteria 08:48, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

Un-Australian?

 * his books were largely ignored in Australia (three of them having been called ‘un-Australian’ by critics

Which books? Citation?

Proudly un-Australian, Singkong2005 23:32, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

Dunno; does it matter? Unsure what the word really means, beyond its manipulative, nationalistic agenda. Tony 23:36, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

Articles needed
Unfortunate to see only two or three of his works have pages. Maybe we could get started on Tree of Man, Aun't Story, Fringe of Leaves sometime?

Oops,
Of course I didn't add Women Writers cat, I added Writers from NSW cat, but let wrong edit summary drop in! ... Sterry2607 13:43, 14 September 2007 (UTC)

infoblot
I propose that the infobox be removed. The information is (or should be) also in the main text. It compartmentalises information and creates POV over its prioriy ("Domestic partner" is a put-down term, and who are we to say that it's important enough to elevate to the very top of the article? Tony   (talk)  01:38, 30 November 2008 (UTC)

Twentieth anniversary of the great man's death is coming up
September 2010. I wonder whether there's any interest in working this up to featured status and applying for main-page exposure on the day? I'll post at other relevant pages, too. I could assist, but I'd do it only as a team-member. :-)  Tony   (talk)  04:18, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

pic of him
Well thank god someone has put one there. I'm not sure it will stick in copyright terms, but it certainly lifts the article and is important for the readers' understanding. I have had no success in getting the ABC or the Australian National Library to release or locate a copyright-free image of the man. The ABC, which runs the most comprehensive site on White, said fine, if an annual fee is paid (I'm not paying out of my own pocket). It's extraordinary that national cultural institutions are so unwilling to assist, given White's importance to Australian culture. Tony  (talk)  08:20, 24 March 2011 (UTC)

Order of Australia
Did Patrick receive the Order of Australia? Did he renounce the honour later on, when the government started to give out knighthoods in the Order? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 182.239.146.64 (talk) 13:19, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

 * There's no listing at It's an Honour for him. That in itself doesn't mean he didn't get an award, because some winners choose not to permit their awards to be listed there. Nor does it mean that he was offered one but declined it.  Or that he accepted one but later renounced it.  But there's no mention of anything like this in Marr's biography, and fwiw I've never heard of any awards even being offered, let alone declined.

 * All I can say is that it would be very surprising if a man of his stature wasn't at least offered an AC. Maybe one was offered and he said no, thanks but it's never made the news. He wasn't one for feeding the press with personal information.  --  ♬  Jack of Oz  ♬  [your turn]  20:04, 27 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Patrick White was awarded the Companion of the Order of Australia in 1975, but resigned from the Order the year after. He was also offered a knighthood prior to that. I don't know whether somebody is allowed to unilaterally renounce an Order of Australia award. If the Order of Australia is like the British orders (ie, Order the British Empire, etc), the recipient can't unilaterally renounce an award once it is granted and accepted by the recipient. So it might be correct to list an AC as his postnominal, even though he renounced it. The fact that there is no listing for him at It's an Honour would have no effect whether or not he still actually has the AC award, or the postnominal.

http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/white-patrick-victor-14925 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.90.200.150 (talk) 11:27, 11 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Both Patrick White & Nugget Coombs were in the group of 6 awarded the first civil (now called general) ACs in the Queen's Birthday Honours List 1975.
 * They both resigned from the order in 1976 when the AK was created - see
 * "Nugget" Coombs, Australian Academy of Science
 * Patrick White, Australian Dictionary of Biography
 * I haven't yet located the gazette entries for their resignations.
 * As they both resigned, from that point neither of them were ACs, and hence no-one else is entitled to call them ACs, and hence neither appear in "It's an Honour". Pdfpdf (talk) 10:00, 23 March 2014 (UTC)
 * As they both resigned, from that point neither of them were ACs, and hence no-one else is entitled to call them ACs, and hence neither appear in "It's an Honour". Pdfpdf (talk) 10:00, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Obviously I hadn't checked the Marr biography very well in May 2012 (above), because it's there alright: Around 1970 he'd declined the offer of a knighthood (p. 516).  Then in early 1975 he was invited to dinner at Jim McClelland's house, and Sir John Kerr was also there.  Earlier in the year, he'd been offered a Companion of the Order but had neither accepted nor rejected it at this time. At one point in the evening, Kerr took White aside and told him it was really important that such a notable figure should be associated with the Order from the outset.  That made White's mind up (p. 554).  Then he quit the Order some time after 11 November 1975 (p. 578).  Marr makes no mention of it having anything to do with the new level of knighthood that Fraser introduced. He's quoted as saying to Geoffrey Dutton at the time All such honours are bribes, and all honours are political ... Thinking as I do, I shall get on with my dreadful fate of being an Australian, but at least without the irrelevant baubles.  White attributed his change of heart to his disillusion over Whitlam's performance as PM, not to anything Fraser did.  --   Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  11:20, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Very interesting! It seems that finding the resignation dates of the two of them becomes more important, because
 * It indicates whether they did it in tandem or independently
 * It indicates what they did it in response to - i.e. the dismissal, the announcement of knighthoods, and/or other factors.
 * I find it interesting that Elizabeth Webby (who wrote the ADB entry and quotes Marr as a reference) presents a slightly different view to Marr.
 * Cheers, and thanks, Pdfpdf (talk) 12:56, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

 * It was reported on 11 June 1976 that Nugget Coombs had resigned from the Order on 3 June 1976, specifically because of the introduction of knighthoods. That is clear.
 * On 22 June 1976, Government House refused to comment on reports that Patrick White had resigned from the Order. I wouldn't normally place much store in this sort of thing, but it says he resigned on 18 June 1976, which would square nicely with the foregoing. As to the reason(s) for White's resignation, here are White's own words, containing no reference to knighthoods. It was solely about "the sacking of the elected government".

 * It seems to me that White unintentionally contributed to the confusion here. He resigned AFTER the introduction of knighthoods, but, according to his own words, not BECAUSE of the introduction of knighthoods.  He could have resigned months earlier, any time from 12 November 1975, but chose to wait for 7 months to manifest his outrage.  Because his resignation came at much the same time that Coombs resigned, commentators have generally made a link they weren't entitled to make, but an understandable one nonetheless, and they now say both men's reasons were the same.  But that seems not to be the case.

 * This, BTW, says that two other people resigned in 1976 after Fraser introduced knighthoods. I wonder who they were.  I'd be surprised if they were also Companions. --   Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  02:19, 24 March 2014 (UTC)

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Error in kindergarten sentence
'At the age of five, he attended kindergarten at Sandtoft in Woollahra, on Sydney's North Shore.[6]'. Could someone please check the reference [6]? Woollahra is in the Eastern Suburbs and not on the North Shore. North Shore suburbs beginning with W are Wahroonga, Warriewood, Wollstonecraft.... MargaretRDonald (talk) 23:45, 26 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Thank you for pointing out the error. As a former Sydney-sider, I can confirm Woollahra is where Sandtoft was located and Woollahra is in Sydney's eastern suburbs.--Chewings72 (talk) 00:07, 27 January 2018 (UTC)

Patrick White was gay?
According to this website, he was gay: http://thestockholmshelf.com/tag/gay-nobel-laureates/ If true, it should be mentioned in this article. It would mean he is the world's only gay Nobel laureate, ad of April 2018. Engineering Guy (talk) 21:30, 17 April 2018 (UTC) Engineering Guy (talk) 21:30, 17 April 2018 (UTC)
 * So you see "gay" and "straight" as binary labels? And you have a list of where each Nobel Laureate fell on some kind of spectrum? Tony (talk)  02:11, 18 April 2018 (UTC)

 * Search the article for words such as "sex", "gay" etc, and you'll find plenty of mentions of his sexual orientation. Plus his partner was a male, Manoly Lascaris.  Plus various LGBT categories.  It's all there.
 * About being the only gay Nobel laureate: I'd find that very difficult to believe, but maybe you can find a convincing source. --   Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  02:21, 18 April 2018 (UTC)

 * Just for the record, he was certainly not the only one. There are a couple more who are known to have been gay, such as Thomas Mann and André Gide.188.150.70.76 (talk) 23:03, 24 June 2019 (UTC)

Critical response
It is mentioned more than once in this article that critical response to White's writing in Australia was negative, while overseas he was acclaimed. Would it not improve this entry to include a section that sets out, with references, those criticisms, positive and negative? It could detail who made them, when, and in which publications, and reveal whether those critics changed their response over time. White was a controversial writer and his reception should be discussed here. Australian literature is not my area...an editor with expertise in that subject could make a valuable contribution here, particularly as there is now a significant body of scholarship on White's oeuvre. Jamesmcardle(talk) 06:40, 13 March 2022 (UTC)

Military stuff given such prominence?
I think White in his later life would have been appalled at the appearance of that military "allegiance" and what he called "flag-wagging" in the infobox. I'm minded to remove it. Tony (talk)  00:34, 7 October 2022 (UTC)

I'm inclined to agree. I don't so much mind White's personal objection (this is an encyclopedia, after all), but I looked at the pages of a few authors whom I know to have served - e.e. cummings, Barbara Pym, C.S. Lewis and J.D. Salinger - none of whom have that in their infobox. It's relevant to his overall life story but not in any way to his notability. The Cardigan Kid (talk) 06:11, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Patrick White


text:
East Windsor

East Windsor may refer to:

 * East Windsor, Connecticut, a town in Hartford County
 * East Windsor, Massachusetts, part of the town of Windsor in Berkshire County
 * East Windsor Township, New Jersey, a township in Mercer County
 * East Windsor, Ontario, Canada, the name of Ford City from 1928 until 1935 when it was amalgamated with Windsor

title: East Windsor


text: Template:United States Men Basketball Squad 2000 Summer Olympics


text:
Eastbrook

Eastbrook could refer to the following:

 * Eastbrook, Dagenham, a public house in London
 * Eastbrook, Maine, a town in Hancock County, Maine, USA
 * Eastbrook, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community in Lawrence County, Pennsylvania, USA
 * Eastbrook High School, a public high school in Marion, Indiana, USA
 * Eastbrook railway station, Dinas Powys, Wales
 * Eastbrook School, a secondary school in London

title: Eastbrook


text:
Eastchester

Eastchester may refer to:
 * Eastchester (town), New York
 * Eastchester, Bronx
 * Eastchester (CDP), New York
 * Eastchester High School
 * Eastchester Bay
 * East Chester, near Chester, Nova Scotia
 * Eastchester Historical Society
 * Eastchester Depot
 * Eastchester–Dyre Avenue (IRT Dyre Avenue Line)
 * East Chesterton

title: Eastchester


text:
Nickerie District

Nickerie is a district of Suriname, on the north-west coast. Nickerie's capital city is Nieuw-Nickerie. Another town is Wageningen. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Coronie to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and the region of East Berbice-Corentyne in Guyana to the west.

Nickerie has a population of 36.639 (2004) and an area of 5,353 km2. Nickerie's population includes East Indian, Javanese, Afro-Surinamese, Chinese, and Europeans.

Nickerie is bordered with Guyana. There is no bridge between the countries, but there is a ferry that sails between Molson Creek in Guyana and South Drain.

History
Nickerie District was originally settled by Amerindians. Near the Wonotobo Falls, a settlement was discovered which dates from the 1st century BC. Between the 6th and 16th century some terpen (artificial mounts) were built in the coastal area of which Hertenrits is the best known. In 1613, a tobacco plantation was established on the Courantyne River, however it disappeared without a trace.

In 1718, Dietzel became the first person to successfully settle in the area. In 1797, governor Jurriaan François de Friderici approved the first plantation in Nickerie. A large number of Scottish and English settlers arrived in the area during the British Occupation, and primarily grew cotton and coffee. The capital Nieuw Nickerie was built in 1879 after the former center of the district, Nieuw Rotterdam, was destroyed by floods.

The name Nickerie is probably based on Neekeari which was first reported by Teenstra in 1596 for an indigenous tribe living the area. The name also appears in Robert Dudley's The Voyage of Robert Dudley to the West-Indies, 1594-1595.

Nickerie had a poor connection to Paramaribo. It was not until 1960s when the East-West Link was constructed linking Nickerie with the rest of the country.

Resorts

 * Groot Henar
 * Nieuw Nickerie
 * Oostelijke Polders
 * Wageningen
 * Westelijke Polders

Villages

 * Cupido
 * Glasgow
 * Hamptoncourtpolder
 * Lokono Shikuabana
 * Manchester
 * Paradise
 * South Drain

Agriculture
During the 19th century, Nickerie became home to many plantation. The abolition of slavery, transformed the area in smaller scale farming. In the late 19 century, many plantations start to shift to balatá production whose latex was used for driving belts and isolation, but started to become obsolete in the early 20th century. In 1955, a project of poldering started, resulting in an increase of cultivatable land.

Bananas and rice are the main crops grown in Nickerie. Some rice had been grown previously, but during the 20th century, Nickerie became the centre of the rice in Suriname, mainly due to the East Indian and Javanese indentured laborers.

Tourism
Nieuw Nickerie is starting to develop as a tourist area. There are numerous hotels in the city, and the nearby Bigi Pan Nature Reserve opened opportunities for ecotourism. In 1972, the Hertenrits Nature Reserve was founded. In the reserve there are five terpen (artificial mounts). They were located in the middle of the swamp, and remains from the pre-Columbian era had been discovered in the mounts. Hertenrits has been incorporated into the Bigi Pan reserve.

title: Nickerie District