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William McChesney Martin

William McChesney Martin Jr. (December 17, 1906 – July 27, 1998) was an American business executive who served as the 9th chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1951 to 1970, making him the longest holder of that position. He was nominated to the post by President Harry S. Truman and reappointed by four of his successors. Martin, who once considered becoming a Presbyterian minister, was described by a Washington journalist as "the happy Puritan".

Early life
William McChesney Martin Jr. was born in St. Louis to William McChesney Martin Sr. and Rebecca Woods. Martin's connection to the Federal Reserve was forged through his family heritage. In 1913, Martin's father was summoned by President Woodrow Wilson and Senator Carter Glass to help write the Federal Reserve Act that would establish the Federal Reserve System on December 23 of that year. His father later served as a governor and then president of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.

Martin graduated from Yale University, where his formal education was in English and Latin rather than finance. However, he still maintained an intense interest in business through his father. His first job after graduation was at the St. Louis brokerage firm of A. G. Edwards & Sons, where he became a full partner after only two years. From there, Martin's rapid rise in the financial world landed him in 1931 a seat on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), just two years after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 at the outset of the Great Depression. Martin pursued graduate study in Economics at Columbia University from 1931 to 1937; however, he did not receive a degree. During the early part of that decade, Martin's work towards increasing regulation of the stock market led to his election to the NYSE's board of governors in 1935. There, he worked with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to reestablish confidence in the stock market and prevent future crashes. He eventually became president of the New York Stock Exchange at age 31, leading newspapers to label him the "boy wonder of Wall Street." Like his tenure as governor on the exchange, Martin's presidency focused on cooperating with the SEC to increase regulation of the exchange.

During World War II he was drafted into the United States Army as a private and rose to the rank of colonel. While in the service, he supervised the disposal of raw materials on the Munitions Allocation Board. He was also a liaison between the Army and Congress, as well as the supervisor of the lend-lease program with the Soviet Union.

Director of the Export-Import Bank
Martin's return to civilian life was also a return to the financial world, but this time it was in the Federal government. Harry S. Truman, a fellow Democrat, appointed Martin director of the Export-Import Bank, which he operated for three years (1946-1949). It was at this institution that he was publicly viewed as a "hard banker." He insisted that loans be sound, secure investments; on that principle he opposed the State Department on multiple occasions for making loans that he saw as being politically motivated. On those grounds he would not permit the Export-Import Bank to be used as a fund for international relief.

Martin left the Export-Import bank when he was summoned to the Treasury to serve as assistant secretary for monetary affairs. Martin served at the Treasury for about two years when its conflict with the Federal Reserve Board reached its climax. During the period immediately preceding the final negotiations with the Fed, Secretary of the Treasury John W. Snyder was hospitalized. In this situation, Martin became the chief negotiator for the Treasury. From the Treasury's perspective, Martin was a valuable representative, for he had a thorough understanding of the Federal Reserve System and of financial markets. Furthermore, he was viewed as an ally of Truman, who strongly opposed the Fed's independence. During negotiations, Martin re-established communication between the Treasury and Fed, which had been forbidden by Snyder.

Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board
With Robert Rouse, Woodlief Thomas, and Winfield Riefler of the Fed, Martin negotiated the 1951 Accord. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) and Secretary Snyder accepted the Accord, and it was approved by both institutions. The Chairman of the Board of Governors at the time of ratification was Thomas B. McCabe (1893–1982), who would officially resign from his position just six days after the statement of the Accord was released. The Truman Administration saw the resignation of McCabe as the perfect opportunity to regain control of the Fed almost immediately after it had supposedly become independent. Truman appointed Martin to serve as the next Chairman of the Board of Governors, and the Senate approved his appointment on March 21, 1951.

Contrary to Truman's expectations, however, Martin guarded the Fed's independence, not just through Truman's administration but also through the four succeeding administrations. To the present day, his term as chairman is the longest term in the history of the Fed. For nearly two decades, Martin would achieve global recognition as the world's most important central banker. He was able to pursue independent monetary policies while still paying heed to the desires of various presidential administrations. Although the objectives of Martin's monetary policy were low inflation and economic stability, he rejected the idea that the Fed could pursue its policies based on a single indicator (an example of oversimplification) and instead made policy decisions by examining a wide array of economic data. As chairman, he institutionalized this strategy in the proceedings of the FOMC, gathering the opinions of all governors and presidents within the System before making decisions. As a result, his decisions were often supported by unanimous votes on the FOMC. The task of the Federal Reserve, he famously said, is "to take away the punch bowl just as the party gets going," that is, raise interest rates just when the economy reaches peak activity after a recession.

Martin was selected administrator-designate of the Emergency Stabilization Agency, part of a secret group created by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1958 that would serve in the event of a national emergency, and that became known as the Eisenhower Ten.

After the presidential election of 1960, Republican Party candidate Richard Nixon blamed his defeat on Martin's tight-money policies.

Martin was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963 and the American Philosophical Society in 1972.

In 1966 he underwent successful prostate surgery.

Externally, Martin was perceived to be the dominant decision-maker at the Fed but this is only a perception. Throughout his tenure, he defended the right of the Fed to take actions that would sometimes conflict with presidential goals. He regularly asserted that the Fed is responsible to the US Congress and not to the White House. Lacking confidence in Martin, Richard Nixon expected him to resign at the outset of the new administration in 1969, but Martin chose to remain in his post. Pursuing a tight-money policy to suppress inflation, by mid-1969 Martin ran afoul of Nixon's concern that the Fed was in danger of pushing the nation into economic recession, a belief that had been publicly stated by conservative economist Milton Friedman. At a White House meeting on October 15, 1969, Nixon confronted Martin over his tight-money policy, but Martin declined to yield. Two days later, the White House announced that Arthur Burns would replace Martin as chairman of the Federal Reserve on Feb. 1, 1970.

Martin ended his tenure as Chairman of the Board of Governors on January 30, 1970. On that day, his career in public service ended, but he continued to work, holding a variety of directorships of corporations and nonprofit institutions, such as the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.

Martin was an avid tennis player who played tennis nearly every day on the tennis court located outside the Federal Reserve Board Building in Washington, D.C. Martin would go on to serve as president of the National Tennis Foundation and chair of the International Tennis Hall of Fame after retiring from the Federal Reserve.

He died of a heart attack at his home in Washington, D.C., on July 28, 1998, at the age of 91.

Legacy
The 1974 Federal Reserve Annex next to the Eccles Building is named for him.

title: William McChesney Martin


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George Scovell

General Sir George Scovell, (21 March 1774 – 17 January 1861) was a member of the quartermaster's staff of the British Army in Iberia during the Peninsular War.

Military career
Scovell's parents were George Scovell of Cirencester and the daughter of John Fielding. He was commissioned as cornet and adjutant in the 4th Queen's Own Dragoons in 1798.

He served as Deputy Assistant Quarter Master General at the 1809 Battle of Corunna. For his service in the Peninsular War, he received the gold cross with one clasp and the silver war medal with eight claps.

Scovell is most remembered for the crucial role he played in breaking the codes of the French forces during that war, their Grande Chiffre. A gifted linguist, he was put in charge of a motley crew of various nationalities recruited for their local knowledge and language skills and called the Army Guides. They developed a system for intercepting and deciphering French communiqués.

In the spring of 1811, the French began using a code based on a combination of 150 numbers known as the Army of Portugal Code. Scovell cracked the code within two days. At the end of 1811, a new code called the Great Paris Code was sent to all French army officers. It was based on 1400 numbers and derived from a mid-eighteenth century diplomatic code (Grande Chiffre) which added meaningless figures to the end of letters. By December 1812, when a letter from Joseph Bonaparte to Napoleon was intercepted, Scovell could decipher enough of it to read Joseph's explicit account of French operations and plans. The information gained proved vital to Wellington's victory over the French at Vitoria on 21 June 1813.

In 1813 Scovell was given the task of raising, then commanding, the Staff Corps of Cavalry, also known as the Staff Dragoons or the Corps of Gendarmerie. This formation, of four troops equipped as light dragoons (though in red uniforms), was the first formal unit of military police in the British army. The Staff Dragoons, in addition to their policing role, undertook escort and other staff-related duties and were also employed as combat cavalry on occasion.

For his service at Waterloo, he was awarded the 4th class of the Order of St Vladimir.

Scovell was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on 2 January 1815 and a Knight Grand Cross (GCB) on 18 May 1860. In later life, Scovell became Lieutenant-Governor (1829–1837) and then Governor (1837–1856) of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

Scovell retired from the British Army as a general.

He died at Henley Park, Guildford and was buried in the cemetery of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst (now the RMAS).

Family life
Scovell married the daughter of Samuel Clowes of Broughton, Lancashire in 1805.

Legacy
The Memorials to Governors in the Chapel of the present-day Royal Military Academy Sandhurst includes: ''In Memory of General Sir George Scovell, G.C.B., Colonel of the 4th Light Dragoons. Born 21st March 1774. Died 17th January 1861. He was on the Staff of the Duke of Wellington throughout the Peninsular War, and at Waterloo, and was Governor of this College from 1837 to 1856.''

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Scovell


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Borgarfjörður

Borgarfjörður is a fjord in the west of Iceland near the town of Borgarnes. Although the waters of Borgarfjörður appear calm, the fjord has significant undercurrents and shallows. The many flat islands lying in the fjord are for the most part uninhabited.

Near Borgarnes, the hringvegur (road no.1 or "ring road") passes over Borgarfjarðarbrú, a bridge of 0.5 km in length at the inland portion of the fjord.

The land around the fjord has been inhabited since the time of Icelandic settlement. Events in the Icelandic sagas such as that of Egill Skallagrímsson are situated here.

The name of the fjord seems to have come from the farm Borg, which according to the sagas was founded by Egill's father Skallagrímur, who took the land around the fjord and accordingly gave the fjord the name of Borgarfjörður.

While serving as a synonym for the various townships, farms, natural attractions and areas in the region, the various parts of Borgarfjörður are now generally referred to as Borgarbyggð, a name that in Icelandic denotes residential areas, populated places, such as Borgarnes, tourist resorts and attractions, and less populated farms and more remote natural areas. The name Borgafjorður refers to the actual fjord and surrounding beaches as a natural habitat.

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Ski warfare

Ski warfare is the use of ski-equipped troops in war.

Early
Ski warfare is first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. During the Battle of Oslo in 1161, Norwegian troops used skis for reconnoitering. They were also used in 1452 in Sweden, and in the 15th to 17th centuries by various other Scandinavian countries. Norwegian Captain Jens Emahusen wrote a military ski manual Skiloperegglement in 1733. In 1767, military ski competitions began. They evolved into the biathlon.

Napoleonic Wars
Denmark–Norway (though only Norwegian) ski troops were used against Sweden during the Gunboat War in the Napoleonic Wars.

World War I
Just prior and during World War I many combatants deployed ski troops as part of mountain infantry divisions. France created the Briançon military ski school in 1904. The Italian Army raised 88 Alpini Battalions. Their purpose was to fight summer and winter in the highest regions of the Alpine Arch. Most of the battalions were dissolved after World War I. Only nine Alpini regiments remain in service today, and only four still train every soldier in ski warfare: the 4th Alpini Parachutist Regiment, 5th Alpini Regiment, 6th Alpini Regiment and 7th Alpini Regiment. France's Chasseurs Alpins, created in 1888, consisted of 12 battalions. Currently three remain. Romanian Mountain Corps consisted of three battalions. The Austro-Hungarian Army had the Kaiserjäger. German Alpenkorps was founded in 1915 with two brigades.

World War II
Ski troops played a key role in the successes of the Finnish war effort against the Soviet Union during the Winter War in 1939. Forested, rural terrain with no roads was used by Finnish ski troops with great success against the advancing mechanized Soviet troops. In the Battle of Suomussalmi, two Soviet mechanized divisions (45,000 men) were annihilated by three Finnish regiments (11,000 men).

Italian ski troops included the Arditi Alpieri formation, the Monte Bianco formation, the Monte Cervino battalion, and the Monte Rosa battalion. They were deployed in France, the Balkans, and the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union deployed 11 ski battalions, among other troops, in November 1941 to reinforce their defenses in the Battle of Moscow.

The most common transportation for Norwegian soldiers during the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 was skis and sleds, and in Operation Gunnerside, paradropped Norwegian commandos covered a large distance using skis in order to reach and sabotage the heavy water plant Vemork at Rjukan in Telemark, Norway, which was being used by the Germans as part of their nuclear research programme.

Ski warfare even extended to the Middle East where the Australian Ski Corps were deployed against Vichy French forces in the mountains of Lebanon.

The United States Army 10th Mountain Division was established and trained for ski combat. They were deployed in Italy.

Contemporary usage
Swedish, Finnish and Norwegian defense forces use skis in cross country skiing but also by pulling squads of soldiers with tracked transport vehicles or snow mobiles. One or two ropes hang from the end of a tracked vehicle such as the famous Swedish Hägglunds Bandvagn 206 or the Finnish Sisu Nasu and troops hang onto the ropes with their hands and ski-poles.

Many nations train troops in skiing and winter warfare, including:
 * Austrian Army — Certain soldiers are trained in ski combat.
 * Danish Navy — Slædepatruljen Sirius (Sirius Arctic Patrol) patrols Northern and Eastern Greenland.
 * Estonian Army — Conscripts routinely receive training in skiing and other winter warfare skills.
 * Finnish Army — All soldiers are trained in ski combat, and skiing is a part of standard required training for conscripts.
 * French Army 27th Chasseurs Alpins Brigade
 * German Bundeswehr Gebirgsjäger
 * Hellenic Army — Greek Special Forces Command has a mountain ski warfare training center (ΚΕΟΑΧ) on Mount Olympus for Marines and Commandos.
 * Italian Army has the Alpini Corp with 16 Regiments.
 * Israel Defense Forces Has a Special Alpinist Unit.
 * Lebanese Armed Forces — Mountain Combat Company part of the Lebanese Commando Regiment
 * Netherlands' — Royal Netherlands Marine Corps, Korps Commandotroepen and the 11 Luchtmobiele Brigade - annual exercises taking place in the interior of Northern Norway
 * Norwegian Army — All soldiers are trained in ski combat.
 * Polish Army — 21st Podhale Rifles Brigade and elements of the 6th Paratroopers Brigade.
 * Romanian Land Forces — Vânători de Munte (Mountain Hunters), all soldiers are trained in ski combat.
 * Russian Navy — 80th Separate Arctic Motor Rifle Brigade is a specialized arctic warfare shore unit of the Northern Fleet, based in Alakurtti, Murmansk Oblast, is but one of the many similar units, where the ski combat is a part of the training.
 * Spain — "Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña Aragón I" (Mountain Light Infantry Brigade Aragón I), in Jaca (Huesca) with a specialized section "Compañía de Esquiadores-Escaladores" (Skiing-Climbing Company), in Jaca (Huesca).
 * Slovenian army — 132nd Mountain Battalion is trained in ski combat and mountain survival, Slovenian army is member of International Federation of Mountain Soldiers — IFMS. Slovenia is also a host nation for NATO's Multinational Centre of Excellence for Mountain Warfare.
 * Sweden — Majority of soldiers are trained in ski combat
 * Switzerland's — 3rd Mountain Army Corps (Corps d’armée de montagne 3)
 * United Kingdom — Members of the Royal Marines 3 Commando Brigade are trained in alpine and cold weather warfare at facilities in Norway.
 * United States — The United States Marine Corps through the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center in northern California; the US Army in Alaska at the Northern Warfare Training Center and the Army Mountain Warfare School in Jericho, Vermont and the US Navy also in Alaska at Naval Special Warfare Cold Weather Detachment Kodiak.

Other information

The Norwegian military have held skiing competitions since the 1670s. The sport of biathlon was developed from military skiing competitions.

The United States ski patrol plays a vital role in the plot to the book A Separate Peace.

title: Ski warfare


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User talk:Zoda

Dear Knut,

Wikipedia is not for vanity pages, that is why Knut Lyngar will be deleted unless you show that he is significant. However you may choose to become a Wikipedian, and have a biograhy on the page User:Zoda, see Welcome, newcomers Dunc Harris | Talk 12:53, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zoda


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Henry Ries

Henry Ries (September 22, 1917 – May 24, 2004) was a photographer who worked for New York Times. His most famous photo was of "The Berlin Air Lift" which was later made into a U.S. Postage Stamp commemorative.

Ries was born in Berlin and grew up in Germany, but sensed the impending doom of Hitler's political style and, as a Jew, emigrated to the United States in 1937. Immigration officials in New York sent him back to the Third Reich because of technical problems with his papers. Ries was permitted to enter America in January 1938, having crossed the Atlantic twice to do so.

When America entered World War II, Ries immediately joined the army and fought in the Asian Theater, humorously pointing out that he served in Asia due to his "good German" skills. He was stationed in India with an aerial reconnaissance unit. After the war, in August 1945, Ries, still a soldier, returned to Berlin. He soon resigned from the army in order to work for the OMGUS Observer as a photojournalist. Two years later, he begin to work for The New York Times as a European photographer, photographing many of the scenes of destroyed post-war Germany including the destruction and Berlin blockade which have become iconic images. In 1951, Ries returned to the US and eventually turned to commercial photography. In 1955, he opened his own studio in Manhattan.

When he returned to Berlin in 1945, he pronounced the city forever changed. In his book, Abschied meiner Generation, he said, "Seeing all this devastation and desperation, confronted with hunger and fear, cripples and black-marketers – and with no Nazi in sight anywhere – I realized how fundamentally the seven years between emigration and occupation had changed Germany's exterior and my own interior."

During his time with the Times, he met and photographed the famous and the infamous, such as artists Pablo Picasso and Pablo Casals, as well as Spanish General Francisco Franco.

In 2003 he was awarded Germany's Officer Cross of the Order of Merit, the highest award for citizens of other countries.

title: Henry Ries


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UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying

Qualification for the 2004 UEFA European Championship took place between September 2002 and November 2003.

Fifty teams were divided into ten groups, with each team playing the others in their group twice, once at home and once away. The top team in each group automatically qualified for Euro 2004, and the ten group runners-up were paired off against each other to determine another five places in the finals.

Portugal qualified automatically as hosts of the event.

Tiebreakers
If two or more teams were equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria were applied to determine the rankings:
 * 1) Higher number of points obtained in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 2) Superior goal difference from the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 3) Higher number of goals scored in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 4) Higher number of goals scored away from home in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 5) If two or more teams still had an equal ranking, criteria 1) to 4) would be reapplied. If this procedure did not lead to a decision, criteria 6) and 7) would apply.
 * 6) Results of all group matches: 1. Superior goal difference 2. Higher number of goals scored 3. Higher number of goals scored away from home 4. Fair play conduct.
 * 7) Drawing of lots.

Seedings
The draw occurred on 25 January 2002 in Santa Maria da Feira, Portugal. 50 teams were divided into five drawing pots based on the latest 2001-edition of the UEFA National Team Coefficient ranking, that had calculated an average of the team's points per game achieved combined in the Euro 2000 qualifiers and 2002 World Cup qualifiers. The seeding list was however subject to some few minor modifications:
 * France (ranked 11) were seeded first as the defending champions (title holders). Consequently, all teams ranked above them from 1 to 10 moved down one seeding place lower than their rankings.
 * Portugal (ranked 4) was not seeded, as they did not participate in the qualifying tournament due to already having qualified automatically for the final tournament as hosts. Consequently, all teams ranked below them moved up one seeding place higher than their ranking position.

Ten groups were formed by drawing one team from each of the five pots.

Note: The UEFA National Team Coefficient ranking automatically had taken into account in its ranking calculation, that some teams only played one of the two preceding qualification tournaments. Since Belgium and Netherlands qualified automatically for UEFA Euro 2000 as co-hosts, the coefficient factored only their 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying record. France had also qualified automatically for the 2002 FIFA World Cup as 1998 FIFA World Cup Champions, meaning the coefficient used only the UEFA Euro 2000 qualification record for France.

Summary
{{legend|#BBF3BB|Group winners qualified directly for UEFA Euro 2004}} {{legend|#BBF3FF|Group runners-up advanced to the play-offs}} {{legend||Other teams were eliminated after the qualifying group stage}}

title: UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying


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Selhurst Park

Selhurst Park is a football stadium in Selhurst, in the London Borough of Croydon, England, which is the home ground of Premier League club Crystal Palace. The stadium was designed by Archibald Leitch and opened in 1924. It has hosted international football, as well as games for the 1948 Summer Olympics; it was shared by Charlton Athletic from 1985 to 1991 and Wimbledon from 1991 to 2003. From 2020 it was used as the principal filming location for the fictional Premier League football team AFC Richmond (based on Crystal Palace FC) in the hit Apple TV series Ted Lasso.

History
In 1922, a former brickfield site was bought from the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Company for £2,750 by Crystal Palace F.C. The club had been pursuing a deal for the ground as early as 25 February 1919. The stadium designed by Scottish stadium architect Archibald Leitch, and was constructed by Humphreys of Kensington (a firm regularly used by Leitch) for around £30,000. It was officially opened by the Lord Mayor of London on 30 August 1924. There was then only one stand, the present Main Stand, but this was unfinished due to industrial action. Crystal Palace played The Wednesday and lost 0–1 in front of 25,000 fans.

Two years later, on St David's Day in 1926, England played Wales in an international match at the stadium. England amateur matches and various other finals were also staged there, as were other sports including boxing, bicycle polo (in the late 1940s), and cricket and music concerts (in the 1980s). In addition to this, it hosted two games for the 1948 Summer Olympics.

In 1953, the stadium's first floodlights were installed, consisting of numerous poles around the 3 sides of terracing and four roof-mounted installations on the Main Stand. They were replaced nine years later by floodlights mounted on pylons in each corner, and six installations on the Main Stand roof. Real Madrid marked the occasion by playing under the new set of bulbs – a real footballing coup at the time for third division Palace, as it was Real's first ever match in London.

The ground remained undeveloped until 1969, when Palace were promoted to Division One (then the highest tier of English football) for the first time. The Arthur Wait Stand was built, named after the club's long-serving chairman, who was a builder by trade and was often seen working on the site himself. Arthur Wait was notable for overseeing Palace's rise from the Fourth to the First Division, in the 1960s. The Whitehorse Lane end was given a new look when a "second tier" of terracing, brick-built refreshments and toilets were provided along the top.

The Safety of Grounds Act required the Holmesdale Road terrace (the preferred stand for the Crystal Palace supporters) to be split into three sections for safety reasons. The remaining poorer facilities were mainly where opposition supporters were situated. New facilities were subsequently built at the back of the Holmesdale Stand. In the summer of 1981, the Main Stand terraced enclosure was redesigned and refitted with seating. This year also saw Palace sell the back of the Whitehorse Lane terrace and adjacent land to supermarket retailer Sainsbury's for £2m, to help their financial problems. The size of the terrace at this end was effectively halved.

Charlton Athletic moved into the stadium as temporary tenants in 1985, and became with Palace the first league clubs in England to agree such a ground-sharing scheme. The following year, chairman Ron Noades purchased the stadium from the club as a means of raising revenue. In the summer of 1990, the lower half of the Arthur Wait Stand was converted into all-seater with the assistance of Football Trust Grant Aid, following the Taylor Report into the Hillsborough Disaster. Two rows of executive boxes (48 in total) were constructed above the Whitehorse Lane terrace (on the roof of Sainsbury's supermarket) in 1991 and this was subsequently roofed and made all-seater in the summer of 1993.

Charlton moved back to The Valley via West Ham's Boleyn Ground, and Wimbledon F.C. replaced them as tenants in 1991. The Holmesdale terrace was demolished in 1994 and replaced a year later with a two-tiered 8,500 capacity stand. The roof cladding of the main stand was also replaced, the previous one having started to leak. Some 25 years on, this remains the most recent major work to be carried out at Selhurst Park.

When Mark Goldberg bought Crystal Palace, he bought just the club. Former Palace chairman Ron Noades retained ownership of the Selhurst Park stadium, having purchased it from the club in 1986. Simon Jordan took out a ten-year lease on the stadium upon his purchase of Crystal Palace in 2000, and Noades received rent from the club. When Wimbledon relocated to Milton Keynes in 2003, a section of their fans had already decamped to the newly established AFC Wimbledon in protest, when the old club were given permission by the FA to move in 2002.

Palace chairman Jordan stated that he had completed a purchase of the freehold of Selhurst Park from Altonwood Limited (Ron Noades' company) for £12m in October 2006. However, Jordan never owned the freehold or had any interest in it and his reasons for claiming he had bought it are unknown. Ownership was in fact held by Selhurst Park Limited, a joint venture between HBOS and the Rock property empire owned by Paul Kemsley, a former director of Tottenham Hotspur. In April 2008, a 25-year lease was granted to Crystal Palace at an annual rent of £1.2m.

The Rock Group went into administration in June 2009, the management of the freehold was taken on by PwC acting on behalf of Lloyds Bank, which now own HBOS. PwC expected to sell it within two years. The club and Selhurst Park stadium were purchased by the CPFC 2010 consortium in June 2010, leading to the stadium and Football Club being united in a company for the first time since 1998.

January 2011 saw CPFC 2010 announce plans to redevelop the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, the club's original home, in five years' time. However, opposition from Crystal Palace residents and Bromley council have seen the plans become increasingly infeasible, resulting in suggestions that Selhurst Park should be redeveloped gradually similar to the Molineux stadium (home to Wolves).

In June 2012, Crystal Palace co-chairman Steve Parish approached Rugby Union team London Welsh about a possible ground-share. London Welsh's promotion to the English Premiership was in doubt, as their plans to play their matches at Kassam Stadium were deemed unsuitable by the RFU.

In 2018, the club announced that a £100m renovation of Selhurst Park was imminent, to bring it closer in terms of quality to modern Premier League grounds. Selhurst Park was used in the Apple TV+ series Ted Lasso as Nelson Road, the fictional home stadium of AFC Richmond.

Holmesdale Road Stand
Capacity of stand: 8,329

The Holmesdale is a double-tiered stand (Lower tier 5,510, Upper tier 2,819). Built in 1994, this is the newest stand in the stadium, replacing the previous terrace end. It forms the South East end of the stadium.

Arthur Wait Stand
Capacity of stand: 9,574

Part of this stand seats the away supporters (approx. 3,000). It was opened in 1969, and named after the then Palace chairman. It forms the North East side of the stadium.

Main Stand
Capacity of stand: 5,460 + Press Seats (63)

This original stand opened in 1924 forms the South West side of the stadium. It includes the Directors Box, and new offices/Main Entrance that were built at the rear of the stand during the 1990s. The exterior of the stand has been re-cladded in white replacing the old original blue painted corrugated iron. New seats were also installed during the summer of 2013, including several lounges/Bars and a restaurant situated within the stand. With new investment confirmed, the club put forward plans for this stand to be redeveloped into a three-tier structure, building over, then removing, the current stand. Plans for a new 13,500-seater Main Stand (extending overall stadium capacity to 34,000) were approved at a Croydon Council meeting on 19 April 2018. The new stand will feature an all-glass frontage, inspired by the original Crystal Palace. The club had planned for the work to start in summer 2019 with the new stand to be ready in time for the 2021–22 season, but as of today the work has still to commence.

Whitehorse Lane Stand
Capacity of stand: 2,219 + seating for executive boxes (480)

Originally built as a standing terrace, it was redeveloped in the early 1980s. It is also known as the Family Stand for Crystal Palace supporters. The stand includes 24 luxury Executive Boxes. It forms the North West end of the stadium.

Records
The record attendance at Selhurst Park was achieved in 1979, when 51,482 saw Crystal Palace defeat Burnley 2–0 to clinch the Football League Second Division championship title. The ground also holds the attendance record of 37,774 for a Division Four match (now League Two in the English football pyramid), when Crystal Palace played local rivals Millwall in 1961.

Selhurst Park recorded the lowest attendance for a Premier League game – 3,039 for Wimbledon v Everton on 26 January 1993.

title: Selhurst Park


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User:Mestric

contributed to folowing articles:

English:

 * Zadar, Pag, Trogir, Knin, Varaždin
 * Zadar county, Varaždin county
 * Čiovo
 * Mirko Racki, Ivan Duknovic

Croatian:

 * Novi Marof, Mirko Rački, Art Nouveau

hr:user:Mestric de:user:Mestric

title: User:Mestric


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Breiðafjörður

Breiðafjörður (, wide fjord) is a large shallow bay, about 50 km wide and 125 km long, in the west of Iceland. It separates the region of the Westfjords (Vestfirðir) from the Snæfellsnes peninsula to the south. Breiðafjörður is encircled by mountains, including Kirkjufell and the glacier Snæfellsjökull on the Snæfellsnes peninsula, and the Látrabjarg bird cliffs at the tip of the Westfjords. Numerous smaller fjords extend inland from Breiðafjörður, the largest being Hvammsfjörður at its southeastern corner. An interesting feature of the bay is that the land to the north was formed about 15 million years ago, whereas the land to the south was formed less than half that time ago.

Nature
Breiðafjörður has a spectacular land and seascape consisting of shallow seas, small fjords and bays, and intertidal areas, dotted with about 3,000 islands, islets and skerries. The area contains about half of Iceland's intertidal area and tides can be 6 m. The bedrock was formed during rift volcanism in the late Tertiary period. The area consists mainly of basaltic lava that was deeply eroded by glaciers during the quaternary age, creating a diverse landscape. There are several geothermal sites, some visible only at low tide.

Plants and animals
The big intertidal zone is high in biodiversity and productivity and has extensive algal forests and other important habitats for fish and invertebrates. The area supports 230 species of vascular plants and around 50 breeding bird species including the common shag, glaucous gull, white-tailed eagle, common eider, black guillemot and grey phalarope. The area is an important staging area for brent goose and red knot. The common seal and the grey seal have their main haul-out on the islands and skerries.

Several species of cetaceans are commonly found including the common porpoise, white-beaked dolphin, killer whale and minke whale.

Islands
The islands in Breiðafjörður have an unbroken history of human use, but now only Flatey is inhabited year-round. Many islands are used for summer residences and for harvesting of natural resources such as eiderdown. Some of the islands include: • Brokey

• Elliðaey

• Flatey

• Hergilsey

• Hvallátur

• Skáleyjar

• Svefneyjar

• Sviðnur

Economy and ecology
Fisheries, tourism and algal harvesting are other major uses of the area. South of Reykhólar, on a small island offshore, Norður & Co. manufactures sea salt obtained by evaporation of seawater using geothermal energy. The process was first used in this region in 1753 and was chosen by Soren Røsenkilde when he established Norður in 2012.

Breiðafjörður is the spawning ground for some of Iceland's most important economic fish species.

Transport
From the small port of Stykkishólmur on the Snæfellsnes peninsula, a ferry crosses Breiðafjörður to Brjánslækur in the Westfjords, stopping at the island of Flatey on the way. It is also possible to circle around Breiðafjörður overland, by car. If the weather is fine, it is possible to see the coastline of the Westfjords from the Snæfellsnes peninsula, at a distance of up to 40 km.

Culture and history
During the Middle Ages, especially in the 12th century, there was a monastery of Augustine monks on the island of Flatey which formed an important centre of Icelandic culture. The most extensive medieval manuscript, the Flateyjarbók was written there. Afterwards, the island was an important trading post and also home to a printing press.

title: Breiðafjörður


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Philadelphia Sphas

The Philadelphia Sphas, also stylized SPHAs or SPHAS, were an American basketball franchise that existed in professional, semi-professional, and exhibition forms. They played their home games in the ballroom of Philadelphia's Broadwood Hotel. The team's name is an acronym, derived from South Philadelphia Hebrew Association (the group that initially funded the team), and the team's players, at least in its earlier years, were primarily Jewish. Future Philadelphia Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb founded the team as an amateur group shortly after he and some close friends graduated from high school, and it later became a professional team. The Sphas played in many leagues around the Philadelphia area and the East Coast, most notably the Eastern Basketball League and the American Basketball League (ABL), between which the Sphas won 10 championships. The Sphas won a total of 12 championships, their first two coming from the early Philadelphia League and Philadelphia Basket Ball League.

Origins as YMHA
The Sphas' existence began in 1917 as an amateur team by neighborhood friends Eddie Gottlieb, Harry Passon, and Hughie Black, who wanted to keep their high school championship team together. The team's first season took place in the American League of Philadelphia, a minor league that comprised six area teams. They were sponsored by the Young Men's Hebrew Association of South Philadelphia and were called Philadelphia YMHA for that season. The team turned in a 4–11 record, tied for last in the league that year. After this season, each YMHA withdrew its support for the team, citing dissatisfaction with the game's violent nature.

Change to Sphas and "Wandering Jews" period
After losing their sponsorship from the YMHA, Gottlieb, Passon, and Black approached the South Philadelphia Hebrew Association about sponsoring the team. The association agreed to sponsor the men and provided funding for uniforms to the team. The new uniforms featured the acronym SPHA in Hebrew (ספהא) across the front. Again, their sponsorial relationship was short-lived, as the SPHA withdrew their sponsorship shortly after for an unspecified reason. The men had better financial solvency this time around, as they opened a sporting goods store, calling it P.G.B. Sporting Goods. With the store, they created new uniforms, but kept the Sphas moniker as a way of paying tribute to their upbringing. Douglas Stark, author of The SPHAS: The Life and Times of Basketball's Greatest Jewish Team, noted that "[f]or a number of years, the team was known as the Wandering Jews, because the team did not have its own home court."

The team continued to play in the American League of Philadelphia after losing their partnership with the SPHA, and played in two different leagues during 1922–23 season: The Manufacturer's League, containing teams from area companies, and the Philadelphia League, which consisted of teams from the greater Philadelphia area, a number of them religious. In their single season in the Manufacturer's League, the team (known as Philadelphia Passon, Gottlieb, Black since they competed through Passon and Black's sporting goods store) turned in an overall 8–6 record, finishing 3rd in the first half of that season and 6th (out of 8) in the second half. Their first season in the Philadelphia League was a disappointing one, turning in an 8–11 record and finishing 2nd in the first half of the season, but last in the second half at 1–8. The Sphas' next season in the Philadelphia League would prove more fruitful (due in part to the increased number of games), as the Sphas turned in a 25–15 record, overcoming a first-half slump of 14–13 (5th out of 8) to finish first in the second half of the season with an 11–3 record. They went on that year to defeat the Tri-Council Caseys 2–0 for their first championship.

Early championships, success against barnstorming teams, first ABL stint and name change
For the 1924–25 season, the Philadelphia League reconstituted itself as the Philadelphia Basket Ball League, dropping the number of teams in the league to six. The Sphas continued a strong spate of play, finishing 1st in the first half of the season, and third in the second half. They would go on to be repeat champions that season, winning 2–1 again over Tri-Council. Due to the success of the Sphas against teams in the Philadelphia area, and frustration with playing in the "poorly managed" Eastern League in 1924–25, owner Eddie Gottlieb set up games against professional teams from the newly-formed American Basketball League. The Sphas played a six-game stretch against the Brooklyn Arcadians, Fort Wayne Caseys, Cleveland Rosenblums, Washington Palace Five, and a team from New York's Metropolitan League, the Paterson Legionaires. The Sphas won five out of six games in this series, and Gottlieb subsequently scheduled games against two top barnstorming teams of the day, the Original Celtics and New York Renaissance. The Sphas defeated the Original Celtics 2–1 and swept the Rens, 2–0. The team's victories over these top barnstorming teams gave them increased notability in the burgeoning professional basketball community. Riding the wave of victories his team achieved against the ABL and barnstorming teams, Gottlieb entered the Sphas in the ABL, rechristening them the Philadelphia Warriors. During their two years in the ABL as the Warriors, the team performed moderately well, finishing third (14–7) and then fourth (10–11) in the 1926–27 season. For the 1927–28 season, the ABL split into two divisions (Eastern and Western). The Warriors played in the Eastern Division and finished third with a 30–21 record. This allowed them entry into the playoffs, where they lost to the New York Celtics 2–0.

Later years
With the 1946 advent of the Basketball Association of America, the immediate predecessor of the NBA, the ABL became a minor-league, and the Sphas would remain there as a semi-professional team until 1949. 1949 would be the last year the Sphas were affiliated with a league, but thanks to Gottlieb's friendship with Abe Saperstein, president and owner of the Harlem Globetrotters, the Sphas lived on as one of the exhibition teams that the Globetrotters would play, although they would retain only the franchise name, not the Jewish makeup of the team.

Despite popular wisdom, the Sphas did not directly evolve into the Washington Generals. Instead, Saperstein had asked Red Klotz to create a separate exhibition team because the Sphas had beaten the Globetrotters on more than one occasion. After creating the Generals, Klotz sold the Sphas to one of his players, Pete Monska, who coached the team "for a year or two until it disbanded [in October 1959.]" The Sphas played their last game as the original team on October 17, 1959, losing to the Globetrotters in a double-header exhibition game. The Sphas were then reconstituted as the Baltimore Rockets, another Globetrotters exhibition team.

title: Philadelphia Sphas


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Oberaudorf

Oberaudorf is a municipality in the district of Rosenheim in Bavaria, Germany. It lies on the river Inn.

Oberaudorf is the birthplace of the mother of German Pope Benedict XVI, of German politician Edmund Stoiber and footballer Bastian Schweinsteiger, who grew up there.

Notable people

 * Edmund Stoiber (born 1941), German politician
 * Bastian Schweinsteiger (born 1984), German football player and 2014 World Cup winner

title: Oberaudorf


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Ruslan Nigmatullin

Ruslan Karimovich Nigmatullin (Русла́н Кари́мович Нигмату́ллин, Руслан Кәрим улы Нигъмәтуллин; born 7 October 1974 in Kazan, Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, Soviet Union) is a retired association footballer of Volga Tatar ethnicity who played goalkeeper and is currently working as a DJ. He has appeared for the Russian national team 24 times (including 5 Olympic appearances) and was their starting keeper at the 2002 World Cup. He was voted Russian Player of the Year 2001 and is considered the best Russian goalkeeper of his period.

Also known as DJ after completing his football career.

Retirement
Despite officially retiring from football in February 2006, in September 2008, Nigmatullin decided to make a deal with FC SKA Rostov-on-Don, Russian club from First Division. After playing for another year for 3 clubs, he retired again in November 2009.

Time in Israel
Nigmatullin signed with Israeli club, Maccabi Ahi Nazareth for the 2009–10 season. His start was a shaky one but his performance improved over the weeks as he acclimated to Israel. Nevertheless, he requested to leave the club in November 2009.

Honours

 * Russian Premier League champion: 1996, 1997, 2004.
 * Russian Premier League runner-up: 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002.
 * Russian Premier League bronze: 1995, 1998.
 * Russian Cup winner: 2000, 2001.
 * Russian Cup finalist: 1998.

title: Ruslan Nigmatullin


text:
UEFA Euro 2004 squads

UEFA Euro 2004 was a football tournament that took place in Portugal between 12 June and 4 July 2004. The 16 teams that qualified for the competition were required to submit a final 23-man squad by 2 June 2004, although injured squad members could be replaced at any time up to 24 hours before their team's first match.

The players' ages, clubs and caps are accurate as of 12 June 2004, the tournament's opening day.

Greece
Manager: 🇩🇪 Otto Rehhagel

Greece named their final squad on 23 May 2004.

Portugal
Manager: 🇧🇷 Luiz Felipe Scolari

Portugal named their final squad on 18 May 2004.

Russia
Manager: Georgi Yartsev

Russia named their final squad on 2 June 2004. Aleksandr Mostovoi was sent home from the tournament on 15 June due to alleged attacks on the cohesion of the group. Caps include those for USSR, CIS, and Russia.

Spain
Manager: Iñaki Sáez

Spain named their initial 23-man squad on 20 May 2004. Real Madrid right-back Michel Salgado was originally named in the squad but suffered a torn thigh muscle and was replaced by Deportivo La Coruña full-back Joan Capdevila.

Croatia
Manager: Otto Barić

Croatia named their final squad on 2 June 2004. Goalkeeper Stipe Pletikosa sustained a thigh injury a few days before the beginning of the tournament, and so was withdrawn from the squad, with Vladimir Vasilj taking his place.

England
Manager: 🇸🇪 Sven-Göran Eriksson

England named their final squad on 17 May 2004.

France
Manager: Jacques Santini

France named their final squad on 18 May 2004. Midfielder Ludovic Giuly tore a groin muscle during the 2004 UEFA Champions League Final on 26 May and was replaced by striker Sidney Govou three days later.

Switzerland
Manager: Köbi Kuhn

Switzerland named an initial 26-man squad on 24 May 2004. Stéphane Grichting and Rémo Meyer were both cut from the final squad, while Marco Streller broke his left tibia and fibula and Léonard Thurre tore a calf muscle in training; they were replaced in the final 23-man squad by 18-year-old PSV Eindhoven forward Johan Vonlanthen.

On 6 June, midfielder Johann Lonfat was withdrawn from the squad after suffering a back injury; he was originally going to be replaced by Juventus forward Davide Chiumiento, but he declined the selection in favour of waiting for a call-up by Italy, meaning that Tranquillo Barnetta replaced Lonfat instead. Goalkeeper Fabrice Borer suffered a broken arm in training on 12 June and was replaced by Sébastien Roth before Switzerland's opening game against Croatia the next day.

Bulgaria
Manager: Plamen Markov

Bulgaria named their squad on 19 May 2004.

Denmark
Manager: Morten Olsen

Denmark named their squad on 1 June 2004.

Italy
Manager: Giovanni Trapattoni

Italy named their squad on 18 May 2004.

Sweden
Managers: Lars Lagerbäck & Tommy Söderberg

Sweden named their squad on 6 May 2004. Southampton full-back Michael Svensson was ruled out of the tournament on 26 May after failing to recover from a knee injury; he was replaced by Hammarby defender Alexander Östlund.

Czech Republic
Manager: Karel Brückner

The Czech Republic named an initial 24-man squad on 19 May 2004.

Germany
Manager: Rudi Völler

Germany named an initial 22-man squad on 24 May 2004, with coach Rudi Völler leaving one space open for an under-21 player. Hamburger SV defender Christian Rahn withdrew from the squad on 26 May and was replaced by left-back Christian Ziege, who had recently been released by Tottenham Hotspur. VfL Bochum winger Paul Freier was also ruled out on 29 May after damaging knee ligaments in a warm-up friendly against Malta on 27 May; his withdrawal allowed both early contenders for the 23rd place in the squad, Bastian Schweinsteiger and Lukas Podolski, to be selected.

Latvia
Manager: Aleksandrs Starkovs

Latvia named their squad on 29 May 2004.

Netherlands
Manager: Dick Advocaat

The Netherlands named their squad on 19 May 2004.

title: UEFA Euro 2004 squads


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Source (game engine)

Source is a 3D game engine developed by Valve. It debuted as the successor to GoldSrc in 2004 with the releases of Half-Life: Source, Counter-Strike: Source, and Half-Life 2. It is most well-known for its usage by Valve, but the engine has been used both by small teams and individuals to create modifications of Valve games, and other studios creating distinct games, notably Troika Games' title Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines. Valve continued to create incremental updates to the Source engine after its 2004 release, most of which coincided with games created by Valve. In the late 2010s, Valve created the Source 2 engine to replace Source, with it publicly debuting alongside Half-Life: Alyx. The Source engine is most well-known for its advancements in physics, AI, and graphics.

History
Source distantly originates from the GoldSrc engine, itself a heavily modified version of John Carmack's Quake engine with some code from the Quake II engine. Carmack commented on his blog in 2004 that "there are still bits of early Quake code in Half-Life 2". Valve employee Erik Johnson explained the engine's nomenclature on the Valve Developer Community:

"When we were getting very close to releasing Half-Life (less than a week or so), we found there were already some projects that we needed to start working on, but we couldn't risk checking in code to the shipping version of the game. At that point we forked off the code in VSS to be both and  . Over the next few years, we used these terms internally as 'Goldsource' and 'Source'. At least initially, the Goldsrc branch of code referred to the codebase that was currently released, and Src referred to the next set of more risky technology that we were working on. When it came down to show Half-Life 2 for the first time at E3, it was part of our internal communication to refer to the 'Source' engine vs. the 'Goldsource' engine, and the name stuck."

Source was developed part-by-part from this fork onwards, slowly replacing GoldSrc in Valve's internal projects and, in part, explaining the reasons behind its unusually modular nature. Valve's development of Source since has been a mixture of licensed middleware and in-house-developed code. Older versions of Source use Bink Video for video playback, however more recent releases of the Source engine use WebM videos for menu backgrounds, Full Motion Videos, and splash screens. .

Modularity and notable updates
Source was created to evolve incrementally with new technology, as opposed to the backward compatibility-breaking "version jumps" of its competitors. Different systems within Source are represented by separate modules which can be updated independently. With Steam, Valve can distribute these updates automatically among its many users. In practice, however, there have been occasional breaks in this chain of compatibility. The release of Half-Life 2: Episode One and The Orange Box both introduced new versions of the engine that could not be used to run older games or mods without the developers performing upgrades to code and, in some cases, content. Both cases required markedly less work to update its version than competing engines.

Source 2006

The Source 2006 branch was the term used for Valve's games using technology that culminated with the release of Half-Life 2: Episode One. HDR rendering and color correction were first implemented in 2005 using Day of Defeat: Source, which required the engine's shaders to be rewritten. The former, along with developer commentary tracks, were showcased in Half-Life 2: Lost Coast. Episode One introduced Phong shading and other smaller features. Image-based rendering technology had been in development for Half-Life 2, but was cut from the engine before its release. It was mentioned again by Gabe Newell in 2006 as a piece of technology he would like to add to Source to implement support for much larger scenes that are impossible with strictly polygonal objects.

Source 2007
The Source 2007 branch represented a full upgrade of the Source engine for the release of The Orange Box. An artist-driven, threaded particle system replaced previously hard-coded effects for all of the games within. An in-process tools framework was created to support it, which also supported the initial builds of Source Filmmaker. In addition, the facial animation system was made hardware-accelerated on modern video cards for "feature film and broadcast television" quality. The release of The Orange Box on multiple platforms allowed for a large code refactoring, which let the Source engine take advantage of multiple CPU cores. However, support on the PC was experimental and unstable until the release of Left 4 Dead. Multiprocessor support was later backported to Team Fortress 2 and Day of Defeat: Source. Valve created the Xbox 360 release of The Orange Box in-house, and support for the console is fully integrated into the main engine codeline. It includes asset converters, cross-platform play and Xbox Live integration. Program code can be ported from PC to Xbox 360 simply by recompiling it. The PlayStation 3 release was outsourced to Electronic Arts, and was plagued with issues throughout the process. Gabe Newell cited these issues when criticizing the console during the release of The Orange Box.

Left 4 Dead branch
The Left 4 Dead branch is an overhaul of many aspects of the Source engine through the development of the Left 4 Dead series. Multiprocessor support was further expanded, allowing for features like split screen multiplayer, additional post-processing effects, event scripting with Squirrel, and the highly-dynamic AI Director. The menu interface was re-implemented with a new layout designed to be more console-oriented. This branch later fueled the releases of Alien Swarm and Portal 2, the former released with source code outlining many of the changes made since the branch began. Portal 2, in addition, served as the result of Valve taking the problem of porting to PlayStation 3 in-house, and in combination with Steamworks integration creating what they called "the best console version of the game".

OS X, Linux, and Android support
In April 2010, Valve released all of their major Source games on OS X, coinciding with the release of the Steam client on the same platform. Valve announced that all their future games would be released simultaneously for Windows and Mac. The first of Valve's games to support Linux was Team Fortress 2, the port released in October 2012 along with the closed beta of the Linux version of Steam. Both the OS X and Linux ports of the engine take advantage of OpenGL and are powered by Simple DirectMedia Layer. During the process of porting, Valve rearranged most of the games released up to The Orange Box into separate, but parallel "singleplayer" and "multiplayer" branches. The game code to these branches was made public to mod developers in 2013, and they serve as the current stable release of Source designated for mods. Support for Valve's internal Steam Pipe distribution system as well as the Oculus Rift are included. In May 2014, Nvidia released ports of Portal and Half-Life 2 to their Tegra 4-based Android handheld game console Nvidia Shield.

Source 2
Source 2 was announced by Valve as the successor to Source at the Game Developers Conference in March 2015. There, Valve stated that it would be free to use for developers, with support for the Vulkan graphical API, as well as using a new in-house physics engine called Rubikon. In June 2015, Valve announced that Dota 2, originally made in the Source engine, would be ported over to Source 2 in an update called Dota 2 Reborn. Reborn was first released to the public as an opt-in beta update that same month before officially replacing the original client in September 2015, making it the first game to use the engine. The engine had succeeded Source by the late 2010s.

Source SDK
Source SDK is the software development kit for the Source engine, and contains many of the tools used by Valve to develop assets for their games. It comes with several command-line programs designed for special functions within the asset pipeline, as well as a few GUI-based programs designed for handling more complex functions. Source SDK was launched as a free standalone toolset through Steam, and required a Source game to be purchased on the same account. Since the release of Left 4 Dead in late 2008, Valve began releasing "Authoring Tools" for individual games, which constitute the same programs adapted for each game's engine build. After Team Fortress 2 became free-to-play, Source SDK was effectively made open to all Steam users. When some Source games were updated to Source 2013, the older Source SDKs were phased out. The three applications mentioned below are now included in the install of each game.

There are three applications packaged in the Source SDK: Hammer Editor, Model Viewer, and Face Poser. The Model Viewer is a program that allows users to view models and can be used for a variety of different purposes, including development. Developers may use the program to view models and their corresponding animations, attachment points, bones, and so on. Face Poser is the tool used to access facial animations and choreography systems. This tool allows one to edit facial expressions, gestures and movements for characters, lip sync speech, and sequence expressions and other acting cues and preview what the scene will look like in the game engine.

Hammer Editor
The Hammer Editor, the engine's official level editor, uses rendering and compiling tools included in the SDK to create maps using the binary space partitioning (BSP) method. Level geometry is created with 3D polygons called brushes; each face can be assigned a texture which also defines the properties of the surface such as the sounds used for footsteps. Faces can also be converted into a displacement allowing for more natural shapes such as hills to be created.

Scenery objects or complex geometry can be imported as separate 3D models from the game directory. These models can also be used as physics objects or interactive props. The editor also features an in-depth logic I/O system that can be used to create complex interactive elements. Signals to trigger different responses or change the state of an entity can be sent between entities such as buttons, NPCs, intangible trigger brushes, and map props.

Source Dedicated Server
The Source Dedicated Server (SRCDS) is a standalone launcher for the Source engine that runs multiplayer game sessions without requiring a client. It can be launched through Windows or Linux and can allow for custom levels and assets. Most third-party servers additionally run Metamod:Source and SourceMod, which together provide a framework on top of SRCDS for custom modification of gameplay on existing titles.

Source Filmmaker
Source Filmmaker (SFM) is a 3D animation application that was built from within the Source engine. Developed by Valve, the tool was originally used to create movies for Day of Defeat: Source and Team Fortress 2. It was also used to create some trailers for Source Engine games. SFM was released to the public in 2012.

Destinations Workshop Tools
In June 2016, Valve released the Destinations Workshop Tools, a set of free virtual reality (VR) creation tools running using the Source 2 SDK.

Valve Developer Community
In June 2005, Valve opened the Valve Developer Community wiki. It replaced Valve's static Source SDK documentation with a full MediaWiki-powered community site.

Academic papers
Valve staff have occasionally produced professional and/or academic papers for various events and publications, including SIGGRAPH, Game Developer Magazine and Game Developers Conference, explaining various aspects of Source engine's development.

Notable games using Source
Titanfall, Titanfall 2, and Apex Legends are not included because their engines, while originally based on the Source SDK, were modified to the point that they are effectively different engines.

title: Source (game engine)


text:
Alejandro Fernández

Alejandro Fernández Abarca (born 24 April 1971) is a Mexican singer. Born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, he is the son of the Mexican singer Vicente Fernández. Nicknamed as "El Potrillo" by the media and his fans, he has sold over 20 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling Latin music artists. He originally specialized in traditional, earthy forms of Mexican folk, such as mariachi and charro, until he successfully branched out into pop music. Over the course of his career, he has been awarded two Latin Grammy Awards and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Early years
Alejandro Fernández was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco. His first appearance in the spectacular presentation was in 1976; in one of his father's shows.

Fernández released his first album Alejandro Fernández under Sony Music. Its main hits were "Necesito olvidarla", "Brumas" and "Equivocadamente". With this material, Alejandro began a tour in Mexico and some cities of the United States. In 1993, he performed with his father in a concert at the Palacio de los Deportes, and he continued for a season at the Teatro Blanquita in Mexico City. The same year Alejandro released the successful Piel de Niña, produced by Pedro Ramírez. The songs "Piel de Niña", "A La Vera del Camino", and "Cascos Ligeros" were some of the main hits on the album. At the Lo Nuestro Awards of 1993 Fernández was nominated for Male Artist, New Artist and Regional Mexican Album of the Year for his debut album, winning none.

In 1994 he released the album Grandes Éxitos a la Manera de Alejandro Fernández, covering pieces from legendary composers such as Armando Manzanero, Luis Demetrio and Agustín Lara. At the 9th Lo Nuestro Awards, Fernández received a nomination for Regional Mexican Male Performer of the Year.

1995–1998: Que Seas Muy Feliz, Me Estoy Enamorando
In 1995, he released the album Que Seas Muy Feliz. The song "Como Quien Pierde Una Estrella" became his first international hit. It was heavily promoted on radio and television shows.

In 1996, his release Muy Dentro de Mi Corazón was an instant success. Songs like "Moño Negro", "Nube Viajera" and "Abrazame" became hits in Mexico and several countries in Latin America. That same year he recorded "Puedes Llegar", the theme song for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, with singers Gloria Estefan, Jon Secada and Ricky Martin, among others. In 1997, he recorded the album Me Estoy Enamorando, produced by Emilio Estefan, Jr. The album is a fusion of bolero, romantic ballad, orchestral arrangements and elements of Mexican mariachi that became popular in the Latin music sector. "Si Tú Supieras" was the most successful hit of that production, and it was chosen as the theme of the hit soap opera of the time, "Maria Isabel". It also conquered the U.S. market, lasting seven weeks at the top of Billboard Hot Latin Tracks. He became the first Latin singer to hold first place with three hits: "Si tu supieras" was followed by "En El Jardín" (with Gloria Estefan) and "No Sé Olvidar". Me Estoy Enamorando sold 2.2 million copies worldwide and was nominated for Best Latin Pop Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards. In December 1998, he recorded Christmas in Vienna VI with the tenor Plácido Domingo and Patricia Kaas. His performance was praised by critics but it did not achieve much popularity among the audience.

1999–2003: Mi Verdad, Entre Tus Brazos, Orígenes
With the album Mi Verdad of 1999, Fernández returned to ranchera music. Mi Verdad was nominated for Best Mexican-American performance at the 42nd annual Grammy Awards. "Si He Sabido Amor" became a big hit and was the theme of the hit soap opera Infierno en el Paraíso.

In 2000, he released the album Entre Tus Brazos, the eighth in his career and the second one with Emilio Estefan, Jr. as the producer. "Quiéreme" was the first single, a fast-tempo pop song that showed his musical versatility. For the first time in his career, he included a song from his own inspiration: "Entre Tus Brazos". The album contains mostly romantic ballads with energetic Latin rhythms. That same year, he and Julio Iglesias recorded the song "Dos Corazones, Dos Historias;" it appeared on Julio's album Noche de Cuatro Lunas.

In 2001, he recorded Orígenes. The single "Tantina Pena" (a flamenco-style mariachi bolero) became an international hit. In 2002, he launched his production Un Canto De México, which contains twenty-two classic ranchera songs. It was recorded live at the Palacio de Bellas Artes. In 2003, Alejandro began a Latin American tour with his father Vicente, and recorded the show called "En Vivo: Juntos Por Ultima Vez", which was witnessed by thousands of fans, culminating in Mexico City at the Foro Sol, with over five hours of music in front of nearly 60,000 spectators. That same year he recorded his next album Niña amada mía. The title song became a hit and the theme of a popular soap opera of the same name. That same year, Alejandro toured Latin America and the United States. Later he participated in the Christmas special En mi país, recorded in Puerto Rico and broadcast by Telemundo. Fernández and Ednita Nazario performed a duet of "Triste Navidad" ("Sad Christmas").

2004–2006: A Corazón Abierto, México – Madrid
In 2004, he played the lead role in Zapata: El sueño del héroe, a movie about the Mexican revolutionary hero Emiliano Zapata by filmmaker Alfonso Arau. That same year, A Corazón Abierto reunited Alejandro with Grammy-winning producer and songwriter Kike Santander, who penned his greatest hits from Me Estoy Enamorando. He also recruited multiple talented younger songwriters, including Gian Marco, Leonel García (of pop duo Sin Bandera), Reyli Barba (former member of pop band Elefante) and Mexican group Tres De Copas.

"Romanticism is something that will never die", declared Alejandro Fernández, explaining his choice of songs on A Corazón Abierto, his breakthrough recording about lost love, love that is never forgotten and the capacity to always love again. "I'm super, ultra passionate. We're releasing an album that's an x-ray of myself. That's why it's titled "A Corazón Abierto" ("In Open Heart"). It was something very honest. Not naked, but something deeper than that". The album released the singles: "¿Que voy a hacer con mi amor?", "Qué lastima", "Me dediqué a perderte" and the smash hit "Canta corazón".

In 2005, Alejandro released México - Madrid: En Directo Y Sin Escalas (Mexico – Madrid: Nonstop), featuring 13 tracks including one new song. Produced by Aureo Baquiero and filmed in front of a live audience at Spain's "Palacio de Congresos IFEMA", the production features Fernández performing some of his biggest hits accompanied by a 28-piece orchestra and some of Spain's most important voices on three of the songs: Amaia Montero from La Oreja de Van Gogh joins him on "Me dediqué a perderte"; Malú duets with him on "Contigo aprendí", and with flamenco star Diego El Cigala perform a fast-tempo version of "Como quien pierde una estrella", accompanied on cajón by famed flamenco guitarist Niño Josele. That same year, Alejandro was chosen to sing along with the tenors José Carreras and Plácido Domingo in a special concert celebrating the opening of the "Forum Internacional de las Culturas" in Monterrey. At first his father Vicente was invited but he turned it down. Alejandro showed his skilled vocals and operatic tenor range, singing pieces of opera such as "Granada"; his performance was praised by the audience. He also recorded a duet with the tenor Mario Frangoulis called "Hay más" from the album Follow Your Heart. After that, Alejandro went on tour with two Latin American stars: Marc Anthony and Chayanne, passing through several major U.S. cities. On 2 December 2005, Los Angeles, gave him a star on the legendary Hollywood Walk of Fame on Hollywood Boulevard.

2007–2010: Viento a Favor, Dos Mundos
In 2007, he released Viento A Favor featuring tunes written by Leonel García and Noel Schajris (better known as emotive Latin-pop duo Sin Bandera) and Mexican singer Reyli Barba. The first two singles were "Te Voy A Perder", and "Amor Gitano", a duet with Beyoncé. After that "Cuando Estamos Juntos" and "No Se Me Hace Fácil", became hits; "Eres" was the last single of the album.

In 2008, Alejandro started a tour in Spain, covering cities such as Madrid, Valencia and A Coruña. He released the album De Noche: Clásicos A Mi Manera; it features classic romantic ballads and boleros such as "El Reloj" and "Regálame esta noche", songs that he recorded previously but never released.

In 2009, his voice was the theme of Mañana es para siempre, the most successful Mexican soap opera of the year. The Grammy-winning singer, composer and producer Nelly Furtado invited Alejandro to perform in a duet for her album Mi Plan. The song "Sueños" was recorded in Miami.

Dos Mundos (Two Worlds), is a double production, releasing two albums simultaneously: Dos Mundos: Evolución + Tradición. One of them is pop, produced by Aureo Baqueiro, and the other is ranchera and mariachi, produced by Joan Sebastian. No Latin artist had done anything similar before. On 11 November 2009 he simultaneously released the videos of the singles "Estuve" and "Se Me Va la Voz". He released the videos of the singles "Me Hace Tanto Bien" and "Bandida". On 22 November 2010, Alejandro released the live album Dos Mundos: Revolución that includes live versions of songs from his album  Dos mundos: Evolución / Dos mundos: Tradición, two unreleased tracks "Tu Sabes Quien", "Felicidades" and the song "Vamos a darnos tiempo" originally performed by the iconic singer José José.

2011–2017: "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", Confidencias, Rompiendo Fronteras
Between June and August 2011, he went on his Dos Mundos: Revolucion Tour. On 1 August 2011, Alejandro released the song "El mismo sol", which was released as the theme of the 2011 Pan American Games. He toured Latin America along with fellow singer Marc Anthony in a series of concerts named Dos Mundos, un Concierto (Two Worlds, one Concert). Alejandro collaborated with Christina Aguilera on a cover of the song "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", released as the theme song for the soap opera "La tempestad". After only 17 days, the song was certified platinum in Mexico, with 65,000 sales from digital downloads. On 27 August 2013, he released the album Confidencias. It includes the duet with Christina Aguilera, along with duets with Vicente Fernández and Rod Stewart. In 2014, his song "Te Amare" was released as the theme song for the soap opera "Hasta el fin del mundo" replacing the original theme of Pedro Fernández. In 2015, Alejandro collaborated with Alejandro Sanz on a cover of the song "A que no me dejas", released as the theme song for the soap opera A que no me dejas. In 2016, Fernández was inducted into the Billboard Latin Music Hall of Fame. In February 2017, he released the album Rompiendo Fronteras and the single "Sé que te duele" became an instant hit.

2023: Amor y Patria
In 2023 Fernandez announced the tour named "Amor y Patria" (Love and Country in Spanish). His tour started in California, and included performances in Texas.

Sony Music controversy
The international record label Sony Music was sued by Alejandro Fernández after they tried to release an album with some of his unreleased songs after his contract with the label had ended. Federal Police arrived at the Sony headquarters in Mexico City and seized about 6,000 copies of the album. The song "Diferente", was released on the internet as the first single of the album.

Artistry
Following the steps of his father, Fernández began his musical career focusing on ranchera music. Since his 1997 album Me Estoy Enamorando he has branched out successfully into pop music. In his live presentations, he begins the show with his ranchera repertoire, then removes his charro outfit to perform pop songs.

Fernández has a baritone tessitura. His vocal ability and versatility have allowed him to perform romantic ballads, pop and ranchera music simultaneously. He has performed with artists such as Plácido Domingo, Marc Anthony, José Carreras, Chayanne, Amaia Montero, Joan Sebastian, Gloria Estefan, Malú, Ha*Ash, Julio Iglesias, Patricia Kaas, Miguel Bosé, Mario Frangoulis, Ednita Nazario, Yuri, Franco De Vita, Diego El Cigala, Nelly Furtado, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera, Rod Stewart, Morat, Los Tigres Del Norte, Sebastián Yatra, David Bisbal, Christian Nodal, Héctor Acosta, Calibre 50, Mon Laferte as well as family members; his father Vincente Fernández, his daughter Camila Fernández, and his son Alex Fernández.

Personal life
Fernández was born in Mexico City and raised in Guadalajara. He studied to become an architect, but turned to singing in 1991 with the encouragement of his father. He is the youngest son of his family. He has two older brothers, Vicente, Jr., and Gerardo, and a sister, Alejandra. He and his brothers are known in Mexico as "Los tres potrillos" (The three colts).

In the late 1990s, Fernández's older brother Vicente, Jr., was kidnapped by a band of organized crime. The kidnappers cut off two of his fingers and sent it to his father as a warning. After Vicente Fernández allegedly paid a large sum of money, Vicente, Jr., was released. The exact amount was never announced.

Fernández is co-owner of a shopping center in Guadalajara called "Unicenter", containing various businesses and employing around 170 people. He collaborated with his family in the construction of Arena VFG, with a capacity for 11,000 people. The arena hosts mainly musical performances and charreria competitions. Fernández is an expert in horse riding and charreria. He is a supporter of the Mexican football team Atlas, and is good friends with iconic footballer Rafael Márquez.

Fernández has five children: three (Alejandro, Jr. and the twin girls América and Camila) with his ex-wife América Guinart, and two (Emiliano and Valentina) with Colombian model Ximena Díaz. In the mid-2000s, he claimed to have undergone a vasectomy.

Studio albums

 * 1992: Alejandro Fernández
 * 1993: Piel de Niña
 * 1994: Grandes Éxitos a la Manera de Alejandro Fernández
 * 1995: Que Seas Muy Feliz
 * 1996: Muy Dentro de Mi Corazón
 * 1997: Me Estoy Enamorando
 * 1999: Mi Verdad
 * 2000: Entre tus brazos
 * 2001: Orígenes
 * 2003: Niña Amada Mía
 * 2004: A Corazón Abierto
 * 2007: Viento a Favor
 * 2009: Dos Mundos: Evolución + Tradición
 * 2013: Confidencias
 * 2017: Rompiendo Fronteras
 * 2020: Hecho en México
 * 2024: Te Llevo en la Sangre

Live albums

 * 1999: Christmas in Vienna VI
 * 2002: Un Canto de México
 * 2003: En Vivo: Juntos Por Ultima Vez
 * 2005: México — Madrid: En Directo y Sin Escalas
 * 2010: Dos Mundos: Revolución
 * 2014: Confidencias Reales
 * 2022: Live: In Concert

title: Alejandro Fernández


text:
Denis the Carthusian

Denis the Carthusian (1402–1471), also known as Denys van Leeuwen, Denis Ryckel, Dionysius van Rijkel, Denys le Chartreux (or other combinations of these terms), was a Roman Catholic theologian and mystic.

Life
Denis was born in 1402 in that part of the present-day Belgian Province of Limburg which was formerly comprised in the County of Hesbaye. His birthplace was Rijkel, a small village a few miles from Sint-Truiden, whence ancient writers have often surnamed him "Ryckel" or "à Ryckel". He first attended school at Sint-Truiden. In 1415 he went to another school at Zwolle (Overijssel), which was then of great repute and attracted many students from various parts of Germany. He there entered upon the study of philosophy and became acquainted with the principles and practice of religious life, which the rector, John Cele, himself taught. Shortly after the rector's death (1417) Denis returned home. By the age of 18 he had decided to become a monk. He applied to the Carthusian monastery at Roermond only to be told he could not be admitted until he reached the minimum age of 20. The Prior at Roermond urged him to enter the University of Cologne to study philosophy and theology for the next two years. Having earned his Master of Arts degree, he entered the Carthusian monastery at Roermond (Dutch Limburg) in 1424.

Believing that the most perfect life was a blend of contemplation and action, he divided his day into two, devoting the first part to prayer and the second to study and writing, and this remained his pattern for almost 50 years. He is said to have devoted eight hours a day to reciting prayer and receiving mass, while only allotting three hours each night for sleep.

Denis only twice left Roermond for a significant amount of time. For seven months in 1451 Denis accompanied Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in an attempt to reform the Church in Germany and to preach a crusade against the Turks. In July 1466, was appointed to superintend the building of a monastery at Hertogenbosch. A three-year struggle against the difficulties of the new foundation broke down his health, already impaired by work and privations, and he was obliged to return to Roermond in 1469.

Posterity has surnamed him Doctor ecstaticus. Fundamental to Denis the Carthusian's teachings is his theory on contemplation. He proposes a division of life and wisdom into three parts. In the purgative stage the Christian is occupied with overcoming sin and growing in virtue. This stage is associated with what he calls natural wisdom, naturally acquired. In the illuminative stage the Christian's mind is occupied with the contemplation of divine things. The illuminative stage concerns what Denis calls supernatural wisdom, naturally acquired, also known as scholastic theology. In the Unitive stage he experiences a vehement love from his contemplation of the divine. This type of experience can only come from supernatural wisdom, supernaturally bestowed. Denis the Carthusian was said to have reached the Unitive stage, being privileged to divine ecstatic experiences lasting hours at a time. While still a novice he had ecstasies which lasted two or three hours, and later on they lasted sometimes seven hours and more. During his ecstasies many things were revealed to him which he made known only when it could profit others, and the same may be said of what he learnt from the souls in purgatory, who appeared to him very frequently. In physical austerities, he was assisted by a strong constitution, for he was a man of athletic build and had, as he said, "an iron head and a brazen stomach".

During the last two years of his life he suffered intensely from paralysis, the stone, and other infirmities. He had been a monk for forty-eight years when he died at the age of sixty-nine.

Upon his remains being disinterred one hundred and thirty-seven years after, day for day (12 March 1608), his skull was said to have emitted a sweet perfume and the fingers he had most used in writing, i.e. the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, were apparently found in a perfect state of preservation. Although the cause of his beatification has never yet been introduced in accordance with the Carthusian tradition of not seeking such recognition, St. Francis de Sales, St. Alphonsus Liguori, and other writers style him "Blessed"; his life is in the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists (12 March), and his name is to be found in many martyrologies.

Works
The main contribution of Denis the Carthusian was to synthesize all previous doctrine on the spiritual life and then to make an evaluation of the various conclusions. He wrote over 150 works, now presented as 43 volumes, which include commentaries on the entire Bible and over 900 sermons. He began by commenting on the Psalms in 1434 and then went on to comment on the whole of the Old and the New Testament. After seeing one of his commentaries Pope Eugene IV exclaimed: "Let Mother Church rejoice to have such a son!"

He commented on also the works of Boethius, Peter Lombard, John Climacus, as well as those of, or attributed to, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. He also translated Cassian into easier Latin. He wrote theological treatises, such as his "Summa Fidei Orthodoxæ"; "Compendium Theologicum", "De Lumine Christianæ Theoriæ", "De Laudibus B. V. Mariæ", and "De Præconio B. V. Mariæ" (in both of which treatises he upholds the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception), "De quatuor Novissimis", etc.; philosophical treatises, such as his "Compendium philosophicum", "De venustate mundi et pulchritudine Dei" (a most remarkable æsthetic dissertation), "De ente et essentia", etc.; a great many treatises relating to morals, asceticism, church discipline, liturgy, etc.; sermons and homilies for all the Sundays and festivals of the year, etc.

As a theologian and a philosopher he belongs to no particular school. Although an admirer of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, he is neither an Aristotelian nor a Thomist in the usual sense of the words, but seems inclined rather to the Christian Platonism of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, St. Augustine, and St. Bonaventure. As a mystical writer he is akin to Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, St. Bonaventure, and the writers of the Windesheim School, and in his treatises may be found summed up the doctrine of the Fathers of the Church, especially of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, and of Meister Eckhart, Henry Suso, John van Ruysbroeck, and other writers of the German and Flemish Schools.

He has been called the last of the Schoolmen. He is so in the sense that he is the last important Scholastic writer, and that his works may be considered to form a vast encyclopedia, a complete summary of the Scholastic teaching of the Middle Ages; this is their primary characteristic and their chief merit.

He was consulted as an oracle by men of different social standing, from bishops and princes downwards; they flocked to his cell, and letters came to him from all parts of the Netherlands and Germany. The topic of such correspondence was often the grievous state of the Church in Europe, i.e. the evils ensuing from relaxed morals and discipline and from the invasion of Islam. Soon after the Fall of Constantinople (1453), impressed by revelations God made to him concerning the terrific woes threatening Christendom, he wrote a letter to all the princes of Europe, urging them to amend their lives, to cease their dissensions, and to join in war against their common enemy, the Turks. A general council being in his eyes the only means of procuring serious reform, he exhorted all prelates and others to unite their efforts to bring it about.

He wrote also a series of treatises, laying down rules of Christian living for churchmen and for laymen of every rank and profession. "De doctrina et regulis vitæ Christianæ", the most important of these treatises, was written at the request, and for the use, of the Franciscan preacher John Brugman. These and others which he wrote of a similar import, inveighing against the vices and abuses of the time, insisting on the need of a general reform, and showing how it was to be effected, give an insight into the customs, the state of society, and ecclesiastical life of that period.

His treatise De Meditatione was the last that he wrote, in 1469.

Latin editions

 * Commentary on Petrus Lombardus, 4 vols., Cologne 1534, Venice 1584
 * Commentary on Dionysius Areopagite, Cologne 1536, 1556
 * Opera omnia, ed. M. Leone, 42 vols., Montreuil-sur-mer, Tournai, Parkminster 1896–1935.
 * Kent Emery Jr, ed, Dionysii Carthusiensis Opera Selecta: Prolegomena, CCCM 121-121a, (Turnhout: Belgium, Brepols, 1991) [The critical edition to follow this two-volume preliminary work has yet to appear]

English translations

 * The Spiritual Writings of Denis the Carthusian: contemplation, meditation, prayer, the fountain of light and the paths of life, monastic profession, exhortation to novices, translated by Íde Ní Riain, with an introduction by Terence O'Reilly, (Dublin, Ireland; Portland, OR: Four Courts, 2005)
 * Commentary on the Psalms (in six volumes), translated by Andrew M. Greenwell, (Waterloo, ON: Arouca Press, 2020–2023) remaining volumes forthcoming
 * 1) Beatus Vir (Psalms 1–25)
 * 2) Dominus Illuminatio Mea (Psalms 26–50)
 * 3) Quid Gloriaris in Militia (Psalms 51–75)
 * 4) Voce Mea (Psalms 76–100)
 * 1) Voce Mea (Psalms 76–100)

title: Denis the Carthusian


text:
Sixth Amendment

Sixth Amendment may refer to:

 * Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, part of the Bill of Rights, which sets out rights of the accused in a criminal prosecution
 * Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India, 1956 amendment which empowered the central (federal) government to tax inter-state commerce
 * Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, ensured that certain adoption orders would not be found to be unconstitutional because they had not been made by a court
 * Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, which altered the structure of the judiciary and made a number of other technical changes
 * Sixth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, which altered the term and age limits on the judiciary

title: Sixth Amendment


text:
Lagan

Lagan may refer to:

Entertainment

 * Lagan (1941 film), Indian Bollywood film
 * Lagan (1955 film), a Bollywood film
 * Lagan (1971 film), Bollywood film
 * Lagaan, 2001 Indian epic sports-drama film
 * "Lagan", a song by the Afro Celt Sound System from the album Volume 3: Further in Time

Places

 * Lagan Valley (Assembly constituency), in the Northern Ireland Assembly
 * Lagan Valley (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency)
 * Lagan Valley (UK Parliament constituency)
 * Lagan Valley, valley in Northern Ireland
 * Lagan, County Armagh, a townland in County Armagh, Northern Ireland
 * Lagan, Iran, a village in Markazi Province, Iran
 * Lagan, Russia, a town in the Republic of Kalmykia, Russia
 * Lagan, Sweden, a locality in Ljungby Municipality, Sweden, named after the river

Other uses

 * Lagan, payment by lessee to the landlord in lieu of lease
 * Lagan College, the first integrated school in Northern Ireland
 * Lagan (Sweden), a river in southwestern Sweden
 * River Lagan, river in Northern Ireland
 * MS Stena Lagan, a ferry operating in the Irish Sea
 * Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict, shipwrecked goods

title: Lagan


text:
Skjálfandi

Skjálfandi (also known as Skjálfandaflói ) is a bay in northern Iceland, with some of the characteristics of a fjord. The Icelandic word Skjálfandi literally translates to trembling which may refer to earthquakes in the area.

The bay, originally created by glacial activity, has two major rivers flowing into it: Skjálfandafljót, which is a glacier river, and Laxá, which is a freshwater river. The river Laxá ("Salmon River") is famous for its salmon and part of the river is protected by the Ramsar Convention.

The only town in Skjálfandi Bay is Húsavík, facing the snow-covered Víknafjöll and Kinnarfjöll  mountain ranges on the other side of the bay. The highest point reaches around 1200 m.

The bay is known for its many different whale, dolphin and bird species.

There are two islands in Skjálfandi. The larger one is Flatey (flat island). It is situated close to the opposite side of the bay from Húsavík. There is a village on the island, no longer inhabited, composed of a few houses, a school and a church. There is no ferry serving Flatey. Skjálfandi's smaller island is called Lundey. Its name means island of the puffins because of the great colony of puffins living on its cliffs during the summer. Lundey is located 8.3 km north from Húsavík.

Garðar Svavarsson was one of the first Scandinavians to settle in Iceland, doing so around 860 CE. He built a house in Skjálfandi, but spent only the following winter months there before leaving Iceland. His slave Náttfari was left behind and continued to live on the farm but was chased away from it later by a Norse settler, forcing Náttfari to build a new farm on poorer land in Náttfaravík (Old Norse: ) by Skjálfandi.

title: Skjálfandi


text:
Gangotri

Gangotri is a town and a Nagar Panchayat (municipality) in Uttarkashi district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. It is 99 km from Uttarkashi, the main district headquarter. It is a Hindu pilgrim town on the banks of the river Bhagirathi – the origin of the river Ganges. The town is located on the Greater Himalayan Range, at a height of 3100 m. According to a popular Hindu legend, the goddess Ganga descended here when Shiva released the mighty river from the locks of his hair.

Ganga River
Gangotri is one of the four sites in the Chota Char Dham pilgrimage circuit. It is also the origin of the Ganges river and, per Hinduism, the seat of the goddess Ganga. The source of the Ganges river is the Bhagirathi River, originating from the Gangotri Glacier. Once the river confluences with the Alakananda River at a town called Devprayag it finally acquires the name Ganga.

Near the river is a stone where King Bhagiratha performed penance to Shiva in order to bring the Ganga down to earth and absolve the sins of his ancestors. According to another legend, Pandavas performed the great 'Deva Yajna' here to atone the deaths of their kinsmen in the epic battle of the Mahabharata. Hindus believe that performing the ancestral rites on the banks of Bhagirathi frees the spirit of the ancestor from the cycle of rebirth and a holy dip in its waters cleanses sins committed in the present also past births.

Gangotri Temple
The original Gangotri Temple was built by the Nepalese general Amar Singh Thapa and later restored in the 19th century. The temple is closed from Diwali day every year and is reopened on Akshaya Tritiya. During this time, the idol of the goddess is kept at Mukhba village, near Harsil. Ritual duties of the temple are supervised by the Semwal family of pujaris. These pujaris hail from Mukhba village.

Demographics
According to the 2011 census of India, there are total 47 families residing in Gangotri. The total population of Gangotri is 110 out of which 97 are males and 13 are females. The literacy rate of Gangotri is 99.1%. The entire population of Gangotri identifies as Hindu.

title: Gangotri


text:
Badrinath

Badrinath is a town and nagar panchayat in Chamoli district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. It is a Hindu holy place, and is one of the four sites in India's Char Dham pilgrimage. It is also part of India's Chota Char Dham pilgrimage circuit and gets its name from the Badrinath Temple.

Etymology
Badrinath derives from the Sanskrit compound Badarīnātha, consisting of the terms badarī (jujube tree) and nātha (lord), an epithet of Vishnu. It is also known as Badarikashrama.

History
In earlier days, pilgrims used to walk hundreds of miles to visit the Badrinath temple. The temple has been repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes and avalanches. As late as the First World War, the town consisted only of the 20-odd huts used by the temple's staff, but the site drew thousands each year and up to 50,000 on its duodecennial festivals (every twelve years). In recent years its popularity has increased still more, with an estimated 600,000 pilgrims visiting during the 2006 season, compared to 90,676 in 1961. The temple in Badrinath is also a sacred pilgrimage site for Vaishnavites. Badrinath is also gateway to several mountaineering expeditions headed to mountains like Nilkantha.

Temple
The Badrinath temple is the main attraction in the town. According to legend, Adi Shankaracharya discovered a black stone image of Lord Badrinarayan made of Shaligram stone in the Alaknanda River. He originally enshrined it in a cave near the Tapt Kund hot springs. In the sixteenth century, the King of Garhwal moved the murti to the present temple. The temple is approximately 50 ft (15 m) tall with a small cupola on top, covered with a gold gilt roof. The facade is built of stone, with arched windows. A broad stairway leads up to a tall arched gateway, which is the main entrance. The architecture resembles a Buddhist vihara (temple), with the brightly painted facade also more typical of Buddhist temples. Just inside is the mandapa, a large pillared hall that leads to the garbha grha, or main shrine area. The walls and pillars of the mandapa are covered with intricate carving.

Legend
According to the Bhagavata Purana, "There in Badrikashram, the supreme being (Vishnu), in his incarnation as the sages Nara and Narayana, had been undergoing great penance since time immemorial for the welfare of all living entities." (Bhagavata Purana 3.4.22)

The Badrinath area is referred to as Badari or Badarikaashram (बदरिकाश्रम) in Hindu scriptures. It is a place sacred to Vishnu, particularly in Vishnu's dual form of Nara-Narayana. Thus, in the Mahabharata, Krishna, addressing Arjuna, says, "Thou wast Nara in a former body, and, with Narayana for thy companion, didst perform dreadful austerity at Badari for many myriads of years."

As per one legend, when the goddess Ganga was requested to descend on earth to help the suffering humanity at the request of Bhagiratha, the earth was unable to withstand the force of her descent. Therefore, the mighty Ganga (Ganges) was split into two holy channels, with Alaknanda as one of them.

Another lore states that the area was full of Badri bushes and Vishnu meditated here. His beloved Lakshmi stood next to him, sheltering him from scorching sunlight and thus turned into a Badri herself called 'BADRI VISHAL' and her lord (Nath) became the BadriNath.

The mountains around Badrinath are mentioned in the Mahabharata, when the Pandavas were said to have died one by one, when ascending the slopes of a peak in western Garhwal called Swargarohini (literal meaning - the 'Ascent to Heaven'). The Pandavas passed through Badrinath and the town of Mana, 4 km north of Badrinath, on their way to Svarga (heaven). There is also a cave in Mana where Vyasa, according to legend, wrote the Mahabharata.

The area around Badrinath was celebrated in Padma Purana as abounding in spiritual treasures.

This place is considered holy in Jainism as well. In Jainism, Himalaya is also called Ashtapad because of its eight different mountain range Gaurishankar, Kailash, Badrinath, Nanda, Drongiri, Nara-Narayana and Trishuli. Rishabhanatha attained Nirvana on Mount Kailash situated in the Himalayan range and according to Jain faith (Nirvankand), from Badrinath numerous Jain Muni got Moksha by doing Tapsya. According to Shrimadbhagwat, at this place Rishabhdev's father Nabhirai and mother Marudevi had done hard Tapa after Rishabhdev's Rajyabhishek and taken Samadhi. Even today footprint of Nabhirai at Neelkanth mountain attracts everybody towards him.

Geography
Badrinath has an average elevation of 3,100 metres (10,170 feet). It is in the Garhwal Himalayas, on the banks of the Alaknanda River. The town lies between the Nar and Narayana mountain ranges 9 km east of Nilkantha peak (6,596m). Badrinath is located 62 km northwest of Nanda Devi peak and 301 km north of Rishikesh. From Gaurikund (near Kedarnath) to Badrinath by road is 233 km.

According to the Köppen climate system, Badrinath's climate is humid continental (Dfb) bordering a subtropical highland climate (Cfb).

Demographics
As of 2011 Indian Census, Badrinath had a total population of 2,438, of which 2,054 were males and 384 were females. Population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 68. The total number of literates in Badrinath was 2,265, which constituted 92.9% of the population with male literacy of 95.4% and female literacy of 79.7%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Badrinath was 95.6%, of which male literacy rate was 97.1% and female literacy rate was 86.9%. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes population was 113 and 22 respectively. Badrinath had 850 households in 2011.

title: Badrinath