text:
Talk:Nosology

-λογoς (-logos) or -λογία (-logia) ?
Is it: -λογoς (-logos) or -λογία (-logia) ?

Could you check it again, please?

Logia (Ancient Greek: λόγια, singular: λόγιον, logion), meaning „remarks“, „speeches“

93.212.80.178 (talk) 18:12, 12 January 2015 (UTC)

λογoς (logos) is a noun. -λογία (-logia) is a suffix. For details, see -logy and -λογία. Sondra.kinsey (talk) 00:23, 29 June 2016 (UTC)

Nosography
I added Nosography to redirect to here, as it is referenced in few articles. I did this based on the apparently identical definitions. The same question is raised at wiktionary for these terms. However, this isn't my area of expertise, so I would appreciate someone with more confidence to confirm both here and at wiktionary on these terms. You also might want to standardize all references to use "nosology" instead of "nosography" if they are strictly identical. I am not confident enough to say that is what should be done. Sondra.kinsey (talk) 00:07, 29 June 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nosology


text:
Talk:Laparoscopic surgery

The use of carbon dioxide to insufflate the abdomen.
Wouldn't this lead to acute post-operative acidosis? Carbon dioxide in the blood acts as an acid. Why not use a chemically inert gas like nitrogen or argon? The patient would risk venous embolism if they boarded a plane within 24 hours after the surgery, but it would otherwise be perfectly safe. --68.255.1.203 (talk) 08:55, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

I actually agree, I'm not sure why as well.Dr.Stiles (talk) 03:51, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Carbon Dioxide is indeed one of several gasses used to insufflate the abdominal cavity. Nitrous Oxide is another option.  Carbon Dioxide is preferred by some surgeons because it is easily absorbed by the tissues involved, reducing the incidence of post operative pain and discomfort.  Nitrogen gasses are not as easily absorbed, and therefore increase the risk of post operative complications.  Both gasses have similar embolism risks.  Peri and post operative acidosis is managed by keeping the gas pressure in the abdominal space under 15 mm mercury, and by hyperventilating the patient during surgery.  Flying in an airplane should not be undertaken by ANY one less than 48-96 hours post op, regardless of the type of procedure or methods used. Firedogbme (talk) 00:41, 10 September 2010 (UTC)

Bias?
Is it just me or is there a distinctive bias in this page? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.186.28.17 (talk) 05:50, 29 November 2009 (UTC)
 * A little more info on the percieved bias might help someone else spot it. How is it biased? 99.189.243.233 (talk) 18:28, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

"Dr. Eddie Joe Reddick of Nashville, TN was the pioneer of laparoscopic cholecystectomies in the U.S": outside the US there is life and there are human beeings! The first laparoscopic surgical procedure was performed by Hubert Manhès in Vichy (France) in 1973 for an ecopic pregnancy, and the first cholecystectomy by Philippe Mouret in Lyon (France) in 1987.

WRONG! The first laparoscopic surgery was in 1972.. as sited in the references (24) by Clarke and published in the Journal of Fertility / Sterility... Before that it was looking around and using cauterization. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 179.53.90.200 (talk) 19:58, 26 March 2015 (UTC)

Laparoscopy is therefore a very european (and non-english-speaking) history! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.115.3.64 (talk) 05:43, 9 June 2011 (UTC)

The german version states http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Jacobaeus performed the first internal operation that way on a human. 188.103.220.150 (talk) 18:00, 31 May 2014 (UTC)

WRONG! Hans Jacobaeus is always accredited as doing or inventing laparoscopy and using it as a diagnostic tool but never as performing laparascopic surgery. Reference the same lin107.167.211.211 (talk) 20:59, 19 October 2016 (UTC)k as above and the Journal of Endourology — Preceding unsigned comment added by 179.53.90.200 (talk) 20:05, 26 March 2015 (UTC)

Merger with Laparoscopy article
There is nothing in the Laparoscopy article that doesn't seem to be able to fit into this article. As the other article is so short and can't be expanded without further overlap, I think it should be probably merged. Joe S chmedley Talk 16:12, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Alternative to merger is renaming the Laparoscopy article to 'laparoscopy (diagnosis)' to distinguish it from 'laparoscopic surgery'. --VanBurenen (talk) 12:11, 26 February 2012 (UTC)

 * There could be a section in the Laparoscopy article named "Laparoscopic disgonosis". --Rudolf Hellmuth (talk) 16:40, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

 * As no action has been taken in two years, and these articles appear to be about different topics (laparoscopy - use of a laparascope for any purpose vs. laparoscopic surgery, use of a laparoscope for purpose of surgery), I have removed the merge tags without merging these two articles. LT90001 (talk) 13:06, 26 August 2013 (UTC)

 * I agree with the merge suggestion. Laparoscopic surgery is also known as a laparoscopy. The act of performing a laparoscopy for diagnosis or otherwise, is technically surgery. So all can be combined into one topic. --AslanEntropy (talk) 03:01, 3 January 2014 (UTC)

 * I merged them. Bakerstmd (talk) 15:49, 7 March 2014 (UTC)

 * I agree that they should be merged BakerStMD T|C 16:32, 13 January 2015 (UTC)

 * If it is merged, there should be mention of the difference between laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery. Readers will think the pioneers of laparoscopy were performing all sorts of ligations, hysterectomies, etc. which is not the case. Laparoscopy is a 'technique' while surgery is its application (even though laparoscopy involves puncture of the skin/abdominal cavity)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 179.53.90.200 (talk) 20:13, 26 March 2015 (UTC)

 * There could be a section in the Laparoscopy article named "Laparoscopic surgery". Actually, this section already exists, and it is redirecting to the "laparoscopic surgery" article. --Rudolf Hellmuth (talk) 16:40, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

 * If no one opposes until next week (Sat the 14th of Nov), I will merge this article into the section Laparoscopy section of the Laparoscopy article. I will also open a new section named "Laparoscopic diagnosis", as suggested by User:VanBuren. --Rudolf Hellmuth (talk) 16:40, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

 * Agree with merge, but note that laparoscopy is surgery - it is a surgical method - as it requires incisions, whether or not internal tissues are also incised or removed. As an example, just look at the first sentence of article: "Over the past 2 decades, laparoscopy has been established as a safe and superior technique in many general surgery procedures." Thus, "laparoscopy" and "laparoscopic surgery" are synonyms, and there should be no "surgery" subsection if "laparoscopy" is used as the article title. — soupvector (talk) 04:20, 17 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Agreed and ✅ Klbrain (talk) 23:43, 16 December 2017 (UTC)

Product Placement
"For example, TransEnterix of Durham, North Carolina received U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval in October 2009 for its SPIDER Surgical System ..." Sounds like disguised Product Placement to me. Even if it says "For example", the example should be more relevant, like one or more of the major players in the market (Intuitive, Titan, Accuray, Hansen), not a small obscure company. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 107.1.157.242 (talk) 16:19, 4 September 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Laparoscopic surgery


text:
Talk:Hepatology

classification
I proposed an organisation for hepatology diseases based on ICD-10. Comments? --Steven Fruitsmaak 19:50, 3 May 2006 (UTC) It's already in use at the alcoholic liver disease article.

Think diseases should be discussed in a separate page altogether. I would like to move them to a new page. Any different views?--Countincr 02:27, 25 March 2007 (UTC)

Moved them to Hepato-biliary diseases --Countincr( T@lk ) 10:21, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

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Tyrosine
The word Tyrosine mentioned with pancreatic juice seems to be misplaced. Can any experts confirm or refute this? Thanks.

title: Talk:Hepatology


text:
Talk:Andrology

Acetyl L-Carnitine
I believe it would be appropriate to mention that Acetyl L-Carnitine increases sperm motility in the Andrology article. Drrake (talk) 00:25, 29 May 2014 (UTC)

merge proposal
Men's health and andrology seem to be the same thing. At the moment both articles are short, covering different aspects of the field. (One the medical, one publicity for the field). Combining the perspectives might help grow this into a more full-fledged article. Zodon (talk) 10:11, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

Men's Health & Andrology are distinct. Men's Health covers a wide perspective, for example heart issues in men. Andrology is specific to the study of male reproductive system and its effects. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Opalmedical (talk • contribs) 02:25, 17 March 2009 (UTC)
 * I'll go further and say that andrology is a subset of men's health, just like gynaecology is a subset of women's health. Combining the articles so that andrology would redirect to men's health would be the only reasonable possibility, but I think there is enough material in andrology that it can stand alone -- it would probably have to be forked out of men's health anyway.  Accounting4Taste: talk 17:58, 8 February 2010 (UTC)

Order of occurrence
Thanks for listing the most important andrological disorders. We need to know the frequency of occurrence of those disorders to get a better pictures. Could someone please add the numbers.

THANKS. -- Michael Janich (talk) 10:06, 2 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Andrology


text:
Talk:Abdominal surgery

Difference between laparotomy and abdominal surgery?
it seems like the articles for laparotomy and abdominal surgery are very close in meaning. Perhaps they could be united? for your consideration — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kot8 (talk • contribs) 21:22, 20 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abdominal surgery


text:
Talk:Kilobyte

Conveniently, 99% of sections on this talk page are hidden behind archives.
A lot of them from decades ago show examples of: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Gaming_the_system   Not sure if anything of value was lost. Some of them show historical documentation of attempting to re-revise history, ironically, enough. That might be interesting. 47.221.237.206 (talk) 21:59, 19 June 2022 (UTC)

Nonsense
This revisionist derp trying to pretend a kilobyte is 1000 bytes is offensive ignorant nonsense. It should be deleted. 46.7.188.106 (talk) 01:00, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

 * I agree. I had added information how popular software such as Firefox and Chrome use 1024 B = 1 KB 1024 KB = 1 MB and someone deleted it. This is when we need level headed moderators since I added facts and someone just deletes it without giving his reason. Vmelkon (talk) 03:53, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kilobyte


text:
Theodemir (Visigoth)

Theodemir or Theudimer (died 743) was a Visigothic comes (count) prominent in the southeast of Carthaginensis (the region around Murcia ) during the last decades of the Visigothic kingdom and for several years after the Arab conquest. He ruled seven cities in southeastern Spain, mentioned in the Treaty of Orihuela that was preserved by the Andalusian historian Ibn Adarí in the thirteenth century: Orihuela, Valentila (possibly an equivalent for Valencia), Alicante, Mula, Bigastro, Eyya (probably Ojós), and Lorca.

Sometime probably during the joint reign of Egica and Wittiza, a Byzantine fleet raided the coasts of southern Iberia and was driven off by Theudimer. The dating of this event is disputed: it may have occurred as part of Leontios' expedition to relieve Carthage, under assault by the Arabs, in 697; perhaps later, around 702; or perhaps late in Wittiza's reign. What is almost universally accepted is that it was an isolated incident connected with other military activities (probably against the Arabs) and not an attempt to reestablish the province of Spania, lost in the 620s. As E. A. Thompson states, "We know nothing whatever of the context of this strange event."

After the defeat of king Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete in 711 or 712, Theudimer resisted the invading Arabs, but he was eventually defeated in pitched battle and made peace with the Muslim emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa. "The text of the treaty he signed has been preserved in at least three separate sources, including a fourteenth-century biographical dictionary, and is dated to 5 April 713 (4 Recheb 94 AH)." The treaty allowed that Christians who submitted to Muslim rule ("the patronage of God") would be spared their lives and allowed to continue living with their families according to their mores and practising their Catholic faith in their churches, but they were required to pay a tribute per capita and to turn over any enemies of the conquerors to the government. The tribute consisted of one dinar, four measures (or jugfuls) each of wheat, barley, grape juice, and vinegar, plus two of honey and oil; and half this for slaves. Theudimer retained his land and his local authority.

Theudimer later travelled to Damascus to have his treaty confirmed by the Umayyad Caliph. However, it is unknown how long this treaty lasted in practice, whether it continued until Theudimer's death (which is recorded in the Chronicle of 754) or after, or was cut short before his death. His prominence in the region is testified by the number of later Gothic nobles in the same region who tried to claim descent from him. The region itself was given the commemorative name Tudmir by the Arabs. Theudimer left a son, Athanagild, who was described as very wealthy by the Chronicle, but whether or not he was his successor is debated by scholars. If he did succeed, he would have done so around 740, but his fate is unknown and the region of Tudmir had lost its independence by the 780s.

In fiction
In the historical novel Amaya o los vascos en el siglo VIII (1879), the characters mention Teodomiro "duke of Aurariola and Baetica, general prevost of the army" as one of those who successfully resist Islamic dominance along with Pelayo of Asturias and García Jiménez of Navarre.

title: Theodemir (Visigoth)


text:
Fifth-rate

In the rating system of the Royal Navy used to categorise sailing warships, a fifth rate was the second-smallest class of warships in a hierarchical system of six "ratings" based on size and firepower.

Rating
The rating system in the Royal Navy as originally devised had just four rates, but early in the reign of Charles I, the original fourth rate (derived from the "Small Ships" category under his father, James I) was divided into new classifications of fourth, fifth, and sixth rates. While a fourth-rate ship was defined as a ship of the line, fifth and the smaller sixth-rate ships were never included among ships-of-the-line. Nevertheless, during the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century, fifth rates often found themselves involved among the battle fleet in major actions. Structurally, these were two-deckers, with a complete battery on the lower deck, and fewer guns on the upper deck (below the forecastle and quarter decks, usually with no guns in the waist on this deck).

The fifth rates at the start of the 18th century were small two-deckers, generally either 40-gun ships with a full battery on two decks, or "demi-batterie" ships, carrying a few heavy guns on their lower deck (which often used the rest of the lower deck for row ports) and a full battery of lesser guns on the upper deck. The former were gradually phased out, though, as the low freeboard (the height of the lower deck gunport sills above the waterline) meant that opening the lower deck gunports in rough weather was often impossible. The 40-gun (or later 44-gun) fifth rates continued to be built until the latter half of the 18th century (a large number were built during the American Revolutionary War). From mid-century, a new fifth-rate type was introduced - the classic frigate, with no gun ports on the lower deck, and the main battery of from 26 to 30 guns disposed solely on the upper deck, although smaller guns were mounted on the quarterdeck and forecastle.

Fifth-rate ships served as fast scouts or independent cruisers, and included a variety of gun arrangements. The fifth rates of the 1750s generally carried a main battery of twenty-six 12-pounders on the upper deck, with six 6-pounders on the quarterdeck and forecastle (a few carried extra 6-pounders on the quarterdeck) to give a total rating of 32 guns. Larger fifth rates introduced during the late 1770s carried a main battery of twenty-six or twenty-eight 18-pounders, also with smaller guns (6-pounders or 9-pounders) on the quarterdeck and forecastle. Displacement ranged from 700 to 1450 tons, with crews of 215 to 294 men.

To be posted aboard a fifth-rate ship was considered an attractive assignment. Fifth rates were often assigned to interdict enemy shipping, offering the prospect of prize money for the crew.

Fifth-rate frigates were considered useful for their combination of manoeuvrability and firepower, which, in theory, would allow them to outmanoeuvre an enemy of greater force and run down one of lesser force. For this reason, frigates of this sort were commonly used in patrol and to disrupt enemy shipping lanes much as heavy cruisers would later in history.

title: Fifth-rate


text:
Talk:Männlichen

This text is from the German Wikipedia, just poorly translated. What to do with it? - Sid 13:46, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Männlichen


text:
Rapid single flux quantum

In electronics, rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) is a digital electronic device that uses superconducting devices, namely Josephson junctions, to process digital signals. In RSFQ logic, information is stored in the form of magnetic flux quanta and transferred in the form of Single Flux Quantum (SFQ) voltage pulses. RSFQ is one family of superconducting or SFQ logic. Others include Reciprocal Quantum Logic (RQL), ERSFQ – energy-efficient RSFQ version that does not use bias resistors, etc. Josephson junctions are the active elements for RSFQ electronics, just as transistors are the active elements for semiconductor electronics. RSFQ is a classical digital, not quantum computing, technology.

RSFQ is very different from the CMOS transistor technology used in conventional computers:
 * Superconducting devices require cryogenic temperatures.
 * picosecond-duration SFQ voltage pulses produced by Josephson junctions are used to encode, process, and transport digital information instead of the voltage levels produced by transistors in semiconductor electronics.
 * SFQ voltage pulses travel on superconducting transmission lines which have very small, and usually negligible, dispersion if no spectral component of the pulse is above the frequency of the energy gap of the superconductor.
 * In the case of SFQ pulses of 1 ps, it is possible to clock the circuits at frequencies of the order of 100 GHz (one pulse every 10 picoseconds).

An SFQ pulse is produced when magnetic flux through a superconducting loop containing a Josephson junction changes by one flux quantum, Φ0 as a result of the junction switching. SFQ pulses have a quantized area ʃV(t)dt = Φ0 ≈ $2.07 Wb$ = 2.07 mV⋅ps = 2.07 mA⋅pH due to magnetic flux quantization, a fundamental property of superconductors. Depending on the parameters of the Josephson junctions, the pulses can be as narrow as 1 ps with an amplitude of about 2 mV, or broader (e.g., 5–10 ps) with correspondingly lower amplitude. The typical value of the pulse amplitude is approximately 2IcRn, where IcRn is the product of the junction critical current, Ic, and the junction damping resistor, Rn. For Nb-based junction technology IcRn is on the order of 1 mV.

Advantages

 * Interoperable with CMOS circuitry, microwave and infrared technology
 * Extremely fast operating frequency: from a few tens of gigahertz up to hundreds of gigahertz
 * Low power consumption: about 100,000 times lower than CMOS semiconductors circuits, without accounting for refrigeration
 * Existing chip manufacturing technology can be adapted to manufacture RSFQ circuitry
 * Good tolerance to manufacturing variations
 * RSFQ circuitry is essentially self clocking, making asynchronous designs much more practical.

Disadvantages

 * Requires cryogenic cooling. Traditionally this has been achieved using cryogenic liquids such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium.  More recently, closed-cycle cryocoolers, e.g.,  pulse tube refrigerators have gained considerable popularity as they eliminate cryogenic liquids which are both costly and require periodic refilling.  Cryogenic cooling is also an advantage since it reduces the working environment's thermal noise.
 * The cooling requirements can be relaxed through the use of high-temperature superconductors. However, only very-low-complexity RFSQ circuits have been achieved to date using high-Tc superconductors. It is believed that SFQ-based digital technologies become impractical at temperatures above ~ 20 K – 25 K because of the exponentially increasing bit error rates (thermally-induced junction switching) cause by decreasing of the parameter EJ/kBT with increasing temperature T, where EJ = IcΦ0/2π is the Josephson energy.
 * Static power dissipation that is typically 10–100 times larger than the dynamic power required to perform logic operations was one of the drawbacks. However, the static power dissipation was eliminated in ERSFQ version of RSFQ by using superconducting inductors and Josephson junctions instead of bias resistors, the source of the static power dissipation.

Applications

 * Optical and other high-speed network switching devices
 * Digital signal processing, up to X-band signals and beyond
 * Ultrafast routers
 * Software-defined radio (SDR)
 * High speed analog-to-digital converters
 * High performance cryogenic computers
 * Control circuitry for superconducting qubits and quantum circuits

Readings

 * Superconducting Technology Assessment, study of RSFQ for computing applications, by the NSA (2005).

title: Rapid single flux quantum


text:
Ballachulish

The village of Ballachulish ( or , from Scottish Gaelic Baile a' Chaolais ) in Lochaber, Highland, Scotland, is centred on former slate quarries. The name Ballachulish (Ballecheles, 1522 – Straits town) was more correctly applied to the area now called North Ballachulish, to the north of Loch Leven, but was usurped for the quarry villages at East Laroch and West Laroch, either side of the River Laroch, which were actually within Glencoe and South Ballachulish respectively.

Overview
The principal industry is now tourism.

The name Ballachulish (from Scottish Gaelic, Baile a' Chaolais) means "the Village by the Narrows". The narrows in question is Caolas Mhic Phàdraig – Peter or Patrick's son's narrows, at the mouth of Loch Leven.

As there was no road to the head of Loch Leven until 1927, the Ballachulish Ferry, established in 1733, and those at Invercoe/Callert and Caolas na Con were essential. The Ballachulish ferry closed in December 1975 when the Ballachulish Bridge finally opened.

The Ballachulish Hotel and Ballachulish House (until recently [2010] a country house hotel) are located near the narrows at (south) Ballachulish Ferry rather than in the "modern" village some 3 mi east. Ballachulish House was reputed to be haunted, and the drive leading to it was ridden by a headless horseman.

The hamlet of Glenachulish lies in Gleann a' Chaolais, the glen that runs down to the narrows. This is the subject of the Gaelic song, Gleann Bhaile Chaoil written by John Cameron (1865–1951) and known locally both as the Paisley Bard and by his local nickname Iain Cealaidh. He is often confused with another local bard also called John Cameron, known locally as Iain Rob (1822–1898). Gleann a' Chaolais is ringed by Beinn a' Bheithir, a massif which contains two munros - Sgorr Dhearg and Sgorr Dhonuill. In recent years a number of new houses have been built locally along with holiday chalets and an art gallery. Also the fields of Gleann a' Chaolais have been turned into the 9-hole Dragon's Tooth golf course.

Overlooking the narrows is the monument to James of the Glen, "hanged on this spot for a crime of which he was not guilty". Robert Louis Stevenson based his novel Kidnapped around the story of the Appin Murder. Whoever was the sniper who did kill The Red Fox (Colin Roy Campbell of Glenure) is still not known for a certainty.

In 2001, however, Amanda Penman, an 89-year-old descendant of the Scottish clan chiefs of the Stewarts of Appin, alleged the Appin murder had been planned, in retaliation for the Red Fox's role in the local Highland Clearances, by four young Stewart tacksmen without the sanction of James of the Glens. There was a shooting contest among them and the assassination was committed by the best marksman among the four, Donald Stewart of Ballachulish.

Shinty
Shinty is a popular local sport and the narrows is the traditional boundary of the north–south divide in shinty, with teams north of narrows playing in the North district's competitions and those South playing in their respective competitions. Ballachulish Camanachd Club play in the South Leagues. However, Ballachulish is still considerably far North in relation to most of Scotland. The club has won the Camanachd Cup four times.

Railway
In 1903, a branch of the Callander and Oban Railway, from Connel Ferry, was opened to Ballachulish. The site of the former railway halt of Ballachulish Ferry, the last stop on the line before the Laroch quarries, was next to Ballachulish House, some 1/2 mi inland from the ferry. Traces of the line, which closed in 1966, remain between here and Connel Ferry. The old terminus station at Laroch (Ballachulish) is now a doctor's surgery. The station, and stationmaster's house, at Duror, is now a private house and the station at Creagan, some 20 mi south, has been refurbished in its old traditional Caledonian Railway brown. The station at Kentallen (5 mi south of Ballachulish) included a pier. When the Oban-Ballachulish branch line closed, the station buildings were bought over by Scottie & Bridget Stewart who ran the renowned Kentallen Station Tearooms for more than 15 years until finally retiring in 1974. Afternoon tea served here was a spectacular feast according to visitors books from the day. This station has now been turned into The Holly Tree Hotel & Leisure Club. Much of the old railway line has been re-used as part of National Cycle Route 78, once again giving the beautiful views previously seen from the train.

Slate
Slate from the East Laroch quarries, established just two years after the infamous Glencoe Massacre of 1692, was used to provide the roofing slate for much of Edinburgh and Glasgow's skyline in the succeeding centuries. It is of good quality but one weakness is the presence of Iron Pyrite in the rock. These crystals quickly rust away when exposed to the weather, leaving clean square holes and a brown rusty streak. Over 75% of the slate cut from the quarries was unusable as roof covering for this and other reasons. In 1955 the quarries closed, leaving waste mountains for the abruptly unemployed and impoverished villagers to sort out.

Between 1902 and 1905 the Ballachulish community was badly affected by two protracted conflicts in the slate quarries. The first began in July 1902, involved a twelve months lockout, and lasted eighteen months. The workers objected to the summary dismissal of the medical officer Dr. Lachlan Grant from both his work in the quarries and his post as Medical Officer for the Parish Council District of Ballachulish. They also objected to the unsatisfactory labour contracts, inadequate wages and excessive charges for the powder, coals and other materials supplied by the company. The second dispute started in the summer of 1905 when members of a hostile crowd charged the quarry manager with autocratic, dictatorial and unfair behaviour towards both Dr. Grant and members of the quarrying labour force and the community. A new company was formed in December 1907 and quarrying continued at Ballachulish until 1955.

Local Highland Games
"On Saturday last these games were held under the most favourable auspices. The competitions were confined to local athletes - competitors from Ballachulish, Glencoe, Onich, Ardgour and Duror alone being eligible. This allowed a pleasant rivalry in feats of skill between youth of the neighbouring districts and encouraged a fondness for outdoor sports.

The Ballachulish Men excelled in throwing the hammer and putting the stone and the Glencoe men in leaping and racing, while the Lochaber (Onich) men carried off the place for vaulting with the pole, one of them clearing a height of 8 feet 8 inches and would have done more if required. The Glencoe lads are keener athletes than the Ballachulish ones. They stand almost unequalled at the game of shinty and on Saturday a plucky Glencoe lad was to be seen at every contest, no matter what his chances of winning might be. The Ballachulish lads are muscular and strong and should give a good account of themselves in any fray; but they do not show the same amount of Celtic fire for field sports as their neighbours of Carnoch (Glencoe).

Music was supplied by the pipe band of F Company (A.H.R.V.) and added greatly to the enjoyment of the day. The committee of judges were:- Messrs A. Beatson Bell, D. Campbell, J.B. Chinery Haldane, Major-Gen. Macpherson, D. McCalman, W.H.S. Napier, R. Philips and F.S. Robertson. The difficult duty of judging the dancing and pipe music was kindly and satisfactorily performed by Mrs. Robertson, Callart, and Major-Gen. Macpherson assisted by Mr. McIver, Callart House, in the latter case.

Events were - Hammer; Stone; High jump; Vaulting with pole; Long race; Boys' race; Short race; Sack race; Three-leg race; Pipe music; Highland Fling; Reels; Sword dance; Hornpipe."

"The contrast between the local informal competitions and the more formal 'arranged' games can be traced through to the second half of the century. Into the former category could be placed events such as the Ballachulish regatta 'got up by working men' at the slate quarries, which was accompanied by land sports. At these gatherings the traditional sports - throwing the hammer and the stone (both heavy and light), racing and leaping (high jump and long jump) - were pursued as 'trials of strength, swiftness and agility'...The caber seldom featured in local informal sports events arranged by local people as distinct from formal Highland Gatherings stage managed by non-locals."

Graveyard
The graveyard of the former St John's Episcopal Church has an "exceptional collection of 19th-century finely inscribed and carved" gravestones made from Ballachulish slate.

title: Ballachulish


text:
File talk:Xchat.png

Maybe you should have chosen a more neutral topic & discussion to include in the screenshot.. :-) ✏ Sverdrup 13:48, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I didnt choose any discussion, i just resized the window and took a screenshot, --Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason 19:22, 2004 May 20 (UTC)

title: File talk:Xchat.png


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SCADTA

Sociedad Colombo Alemana de Transportes Aéreos (Deutsch-Kolumbianische Luftverkehrsgesellschaft), or SCADTA, was the world's second airline, and the first airline in Latin America, operating from 1919 until World War II. After the war, SCADTA merged with Colombian regional carrier Colombian Air Service (Servicio Aéreo Colombiano), or SACO. Together, SCADTA and SACO formed Avianca - Aerovías Nacionales de Colombia, the Colombian flag-carrier. Avianca still operates to this day and claims SCADTA's history as its own, thus making it the world's second-oldest active airline, after KLM from the Netherlands.

History

SCADTA started out as a small airmail carrier using Junkers seaplanes capable of landing on Colombia's Magdalena River, mostly since there were very few suitable landing strips in Colombia at the time. The German nationality of some of SCADTA's owners motivated the United States government to subsidize Pan American World Airways' expansion in Latin America under the Hoover administration. SCADTA was barred from operating flights to the United States and the Panama Canal, although it continued to maintain a broad route network throughout the Andean region. The formation of Pan American-Grace Airways in the 1930s further eroded SCADTA's position in the market.

Prior to World War II, principal shareholder and Austrian industrialist Peter Paul von Bauer was forced by the US governments to sell his shares to the Pan American World Airways in an attempt to protect the airline from acquisition by Nazi Germany. Many of the airline's pilots, technicians, and key administrators were German or Austrian, even though most had lived in Colombia for several years, the United States was afraid that the SCADTA pilots were engaged in espionage, and could be plotting to convert civilian aircraft into bombers, in order to attack the Panama Canal.

The Colombian government was not concerned about SCADTA, though, and did not question the loyalty of the German pilots. However, restrictions were also placed on German pilots on how they could be utilized by an airline. For example, at least one pilot on every plane had to be Colombian.

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941, SCADTA was forced to cease operations and its assets were merged by the Colombian government with the state-owned airline SACO, forming the modern Colombian national carrier: Avianca.

title: SCADTA


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Bergen Woodwind Quintet

The Bergen Woodwind Quintet is a well-known woodwind quintet based in Bergen, Norway. The ensemble's members are the principal wind musicians of the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, also known as Harmonien, which was founded in 1765 and is one of the world's oldest orchestral institutions. The quintet often conducts worldwide tours, performing for live audiences, conducting radio broadcasts, and holding master classes for music students.

The ensemble's members are flutist Gro Sandvik, oboist Steinar Hannevold, clarinetist Fredrik Fors, American french hornist Ilene Chanon, and bassoonist Per Hannevold.

title: Bergen Woodwind Quintet


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Pan American-Grace Airways

Pan American-Grace Airways, also known as Panagra, and dubbed "The World's Friendliest Airline" was an airline formed as a joint venture between Pan American World Airways and Grace Shipping Company. On September 13, 1928, a small single-engine Fairchild airliner flew from Lima, Peru, to Talara, Peru, which marked not only the beginning of Pan American Grace Airways but also the inauguration of scheduled air transportation along the West Coast of South America. From this short flight in 1928 to nonstop flights from New York to South America with Douglas DC-8 Intercontinental Jets in 1966, Panagra became the standard-bearer for transportation between the US Mainland East Coast and the West Coast of South America for 39 years. The "World's Friendliest Airline" merged with Braniff International Airways in 1967, and the combined carrier became the largest US airline serving South America.

Formation of Pan American Grace Airways
In June 1928, Pan American Airways Corporation, originally known as Aviation Corporation of the Americas, was formed to obtain the necessary capital to enable its operating subsidiary, Pan American, to bid for various foreign airmail contracts to Latin America. These contracts were soon to be announced by the US Postmaster General pursuant to the Foreign Air Mail Act of 1928 and Pan American believed that it would be ultimately conducting operations under any contracts that might be awarded.

Pan American was correct and during May and July 1928, the new company had three foreign airmail contracts bestowed for service to Latin America. Specifically, Pan American was awarded the contract for Foreign Air Mail Route (FAM) No. 5 for service between Miami and Panama in the Canal Zone. Interestingly, Pan American had already strategically decided that if it received FAM 5 then it would ask for extension services beyond the Canal Zone to and along the Western Coast of South America. The New York-based airline had also promulgated operating rights into Colombia, Panama, Ecuador and Peru, and had also purchase sufficient aircraft to operate the route system.

Aviation Corporation of America's operating subsidiary, Pan American World Airways, operated only twelve aircraft with 100 employees, while AVCO's entire capitalization was only US$3,775,000, at the end of 1928. The developments of 1928 introduced the auspices for the formation of a new company formed under the laws of Delaware. Pan American entered into an agreement with W. R. Grace and Company to operate airline operations into Peru, which was outlined in two letters of intent dated August 31, 1928, and September 7, 1928. Under this agreement, both companies subscribed to US$25000 of new capital stock in the new Panagra company, which would jointly study the possibility of operating air carrier and mail services between the Canal Zone and Valparaiso, Chile. If AVCO were to determine that it would be beneficial to bid on a mail contract for this type of service then W. R. Grace's initial contribution would be treated as stock in the new company giving W. R. Grace the option to obtain an interest in the new venture not to exceed 50 percent of its capitalization.

Also, the agreement stated that Pan American would have full responsibility for the operation of the air carrier services, while W. R. Grace operations in cities along the proposed new route would act as agents for the new company, which was incorporated as Peruvian Airways Corporation. In September 1928, both companies contributed US$25,000 in capital to Peruvian Airways, forming a 50/50 partnership. On January 31, 1929, the US Postmaster General issued need for a contract for Foreign Air Mail Route No. 9, which would extend from Panama extending down the West Coast of South America to Santiago, Chile, with an option for the Postmaster General to offer extension services from Santiago across the lower belt of the Andes Mountains to Buenos Aires, Argentina, and beyond to Montevideo, Uruguay.

On February 21, 1929, Pan American World Airways and W. R. Grace and Company announced the formation of Pan American Grace Airways, Inc., to bid on the new airmail contract. The new company bid on the contract and both partners subscribed US$500,000 each to the capitalization of the new Pan American Grace company, which also included the original amounts subscribed to the original operating entity, Peruvian Airways Corporation.

First Scheduled Services
Pan American and W. R. Grace's new operating entity, Peruvian Airways Corporation, purchased its first aircraft on August 1, 1928. The new airliner, a Fairchild P-1 monoplane, featured a cabin for four passengers and was powered by a Wright Whirlwind engine with an output of 220 horsepower. Five weeks later on September 13, 1928, the new Fairchild P-1 inaugurated the first scheduled commercial flight along the West Coast of South America, with a nonstop flight from Lima, Peru, to Talara, Peru, carrying both passengers and mail.

The little Fairchild carried just a few letters and a full load of four passengers on the inaugural flight, which departed from a race track in Lima. Upon arrival in Talara, the legend-making airliner landed at an "airport" in Talara that was a soccer field. In spite of these drawbacks, Pan American Grace Airways first flight had been successfully completed without incident.

Award of Panagra's First Foreign Air Mail Contract
Armed with a new Foreign Air Mail Act of March 2, 1929, which modified the 1928 Act by allowing the US Postmaster General to pay air carriers for transportation from foreign countries to the United States in addition to the outbound direction and the Postmaster-General could further amend Foreign Air Mail contracts issued via the Act of 1928 with the same new provisions. On the same date, the Postmaster General awarded Pan American Grace with Foreign Air Mail Contract No. 9.

It was an interesting fact that several other carriers had also bid on the new Route 9 and several had bid lower than Panagra. However, the Postmaster General noted that it was his discretion as to what carrier is ultimately selected. The Postmaster General stated that Pan American's experience in the region put it well ahead of the other bidders and was therefore the lowest "responsible bidder" that could satisfactorily serve the needs of the government. It was found by the Postmaster-General that Pan American had spent two years in preparing for the new route down the West Coast of South America and the company's successful operation of service in the Caribbean as well as the significance of the infrastructure already in place along the proposed routes along the West Coast that were in operation and in place by W. R. Grace and finally the financial abilities of Pan American and W. R. Grace played an additional significant role in the award.

Inauguration of FAM Route 9
On July 12, 1929, Pan American Grace inaugurated its first service over FAM Route 9. However, until the end of 1929, Pan American operated the route as far south as Guayaquil, Ecuador, which included the use of PAA aircraft and personnel.

First Across the Andes
On October 12, 1929, only 13 months after its first history-making first flight, Panagra inaugurated successful commercial flight across the Andes Mountains. Pan American Grace's Ford Trimotor airliner departed Buenos Aires, Argentina, and headed toward Chile. The venerable Ford flew over the flat pampas and then landed at Mendoza, Argentina, where it refueled and prepared for the next leg of the trip.

Back in the air, the Trimotor crossed the Cordillera of the Andes and then through Uspallata Pass where it crossed at an unheard of altitude of 18,000 feet. Having left the Argentine capital city eight and one-half hours earlier, the aircraft landed at Santiago's Los Cerrillos Airport.

The Magna Carta of Aviation
Braniff Airways Cofounder and President Thomas Elmer Braniff called the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, the Magna Carta of Aviation because it revolutionized the entire industry into a cohesive whole that gave prominence to the air carriers in the United States. The Act, signed into law on June 23, 1938, transferred the responsibility of non-military aviation from the Bureau of Air Commerce to the newly formed Civil Aeronautics Agency to oversee the operation of all of the nation's airlines including for economic reasons as well as safety needs and requirements. Airlines were now required to be issued a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity to prove that their service was viable to the nation's air travel needs.

Upon enactment of the Act, it was immediately recommended that Pan American and Pan American Grace Airways be issued this certificate. Both carriers now operated a "circle" of service all the way around South America and their viability was more crucial than ever before. Pan American noted that the two carrier's services were meant to be complementary rather than competitive and in nearly every instance they were. Specifically, a large percentage of Pan American's traffic carried from the Canal Zone to the United States Mainland was as a result of flow-thru traffic from Pan American Grace destinations along the West Coast of South America to the Canal Zone and the same for Pan American Grace from Pan American's southbound operations to the Canal Zone. The certificates were issued almost immediately by the new CAA.

Flying from the US to Buenos Aires in 1939
Panagra's network stretched from Panama and the U.S.-controlled Panama Canal Zone to Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires. It was founded in 1929 to compete with SCADTA, a German-owned company, and held a quasi-monopoly over air travel in parts of Colombia and South America during the 1940s and 1950s.

In 1939, a passenger traveling from the U.S. to Buenos Aires would board a Pan Am Sikorsky S-42 flying boat at Miami and fly to Colon, Panama in the Canal Zone, stay overnight and then board a Panagra Douglas DC-2 or DC-3 and fly to Buenos Aires with overnight stops in Guayaquil, Arica and Santiago. This routing was a full day faster than the Pan Am service operated via the coast of Brazil. The one-way fare from Miami to Buenos Aires was US$550 .After World War II, airliners could operate at night over South America, and in 1947 Panagra Douglas DC-6s made scheduled flights from Miami to Buenos Aires in 20 hours and 25 minutes.

Pan Am crewed the DC-6 south across the Caribbean to Albrook Field, near Balboa, Panama where Panagra flight crews took over. In 1949, Panagra flights serving Panama shifted to Tocumen Airport. In 1955, Panagra Douglas DC-6Bs and DC-7Bs began serving Washington DC and New York City with these flights being operated by National Airlines crews north of Miami. In 1957, the Panagra DC-7B service via Lima was several hours faster from New York Idlewild Airport (later renamed JFK Airport) to Buenos Aires than the Pan Am DC-7B service operated via Rio de Janeiro.

Creating the Pan American Grace Juggernaut
Invariably, the admitted complementary services of Pan American and Pan American Grace would begin to create situations that were on the verge of triggering anti-trust violations. It was the era of the late 1940s and a series of agreements between Pan American and Panagra that set in motion a battle that would not end until Pan American Grace merged with Braniff Airways in February 1967. In 1946, Pan American proposed to the Civil Aeronautics Board (formed 1940 to take over airline economic and route cases) that certain Pan American Grace aircraft would be chartered to PAA and operated by PAA over certain routes north of the Panama Canal Zone and more specifically between there and the Miami, Florida gateway. What this created was a convenient thru-plane service for passengers traveling between PAA and Panagra routes.

This agreement, known as the Through-Flight Agreement was approved by the CAB in 1947. Another key part of this agreement also provided for the eventual extension of this agreement beyond Miami to New York City should Pan American ever be approved to operate this particular route segment. Accordingly, in 1949, Pan American and Panagra entered into an agreement with Miami-based National Airlines, Inc., which enabled Pan American Grace Airways aircraft to be chartered to National for operation over its route between Miami and New York, thereby creating single-plane service from Buenos Aires to New York. National Airlines decided to leave the agreement in 1950 and PAA and Panagra then entered into a similar agreement with Miami-based Eastern Airlines over the same Miami-New York route. It was placed before the CAB in 1951 but ultimately, an interchange agreement was awarded to Eastern and Braniff for flights between New York and South America.

The Panagra Road to Braniff Airways
Panagra had been Braniff's chief competitor along the South American West Coast since Braniff began serving the region in June 1948. Panagra's history dated back to 1928, the same year that Braniff was first founded. The Airline was formed by the merger of Peruvian Airways and Chilean Airways. The new company, Pan American Grace Airways, Inc., was jointly and equally owned by both Pan American World Airways, Inc., and W. R. Grace and Company, the largest shipping company in South America.

As early as 1953, the Civil Aeronautics Board had recommended that Pan Am divest itself of Panagra, because of Pan Am's decades-long control of air travel in the region and between US and Latin America. After years of failed negotiations between the two carriers, the mandate was finally fulfilled. Braniff President Charles Edmund Beard had negotiated an earlier agreement for Braniff to buy Panagra for US$22 million in 1964. Arrangements were made for Braniff to buy W. R. Grace's half of Panagra for US$11 million with negotiations to continue into early 1965, for the purchase of Pan Am's half of Panagra. A projected merger date was to have been late summer 1965 but Pan American's legendary Founder and President Juan Terry Trippe did not accept Braniff's offer. With the overhaul of Braniff's management team in April 1965, the merger was further delayed until additional evaluation could be completed by the new management group.

Pan Am had been under pressure from the Civil Aeronautics Board, which had requested that the Justice Department file charges against Pan Am, to remedy antitrust problems that the carrier had become involved in by limiting the northward expansion of Panagra. Panagra only operated as far north as Panama and extended south along the West Coast of South America to cities such as Cali, Colombia, Quito and Guayaquil, Ecuador, Lima, Peru, La Paz, Bolivia, Antofagasta and Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Pan Am operated scheduled passenger flights north from Panama to Miami.

A New York Federal Court ruled that Pan Am was in violation of the Sherman Anti Trust Act by its actions in regard to limiting Panagra's Northern expansion. The New York Court found that Panagra was not in violation of the antitrust act but that Pan Am was in violation and should divest itself of Panagra stock and its ownership. In 1963, the case was sent to the Supreme Court who ruled that the case fell under the jurisdiction of the CAB. In December 1965, Braniff International successfully negotiated the purchase of W. R. Grace and Company's 50-percent share in Panagra for US$15 million. Three months later on March 17, 1966, Braniff further completed an agreement to purchase Pan American World Airways's 50-percent share in Panagra for the same amount. The plan was forwarded to the Civil Aeronautics Board who approved the merger agreement in July 1966.

Panagra Merges with Braniff International
On February 1, 1967, Braniff International merged with Pan American Grace Airways, also known by the trade name Panagra. Braniff purchased the 39-year old South American West Coast airline for US$30 million from its two owners, W. R. Grace and Company and Pan American World Airways, Inc. Braniff Executive Vice President Charles Edward Acker presented a check for US$15 million to W. R. Grace and Company Assistant General Council Walter Morris a month earlier in January 1967, which signaled the historic finalization of the merger between the two carriers. Earlier, Braniff had presented a check for US$15 million to Pan American World Airways for their one-half share in Panagra. With the payments in place, the merger was allowed to commence.

Braniff paid a very nominal amount for Panagra, which included a fleet of DC-8-31 jets along with prepaid deposits of $27 million on 5 ordered DC-8-62 Intercontinental Jets that were delivered to Braniff beginning in the summer of 1967. At the time of the 1964 merger negotiation, Panagra had not ordered the five Super 62 jetliners. The new negotiation figure of US$30 million did include the new jets and their handsome deposits, whereas the 1964 figure of US$22 million included the DC-8-31s and an aging fleet of propeller aircraft.

President Lyndon Baines Johnson approved the merger in October 1966, and on January 19, 1967, Braniff International completed the purchase agreement. The two carriers merged on February 1, 1967, and the combined airline operated 30 flights a week to South America. Braniff also acquired Panagra's interest in the Peruvian airline Faucett.

Braniff Chairman of the Board of Directors Harding L. Lawrence held a press conference in New York City to announce the purchase of Panagra. "This is perhaps the most significant development in air transportation between North and South America, since the advent of the jet aircraft," Lawrence said. He further stated, "On February 1, Braniff will merge the Latin American operations of Panagra with Braniff and begin the first combined service under the Braniff International name."

Lawrence emphasized that a quick integration of the two carriers would occur as well as a major reorganization for both companies. Months of intensive planning were completed and in place to begin a smooth transition that would emphasize leadership, the delegation of responsibilities, and effective utilization of the 9918 combined employees as a result of the merger.

Service Highlights and Aircraft from the Merger
New service that resulted from combining the two carriers, featured the first through-flights from San Francisco and Los Angeles to Lima and La Paz and Lima and Santiago that eliminated the need for a change of planes at Panama City. New nonstop service was also inaugurated between Santiago, Chile, and Miami, Florida, for the first time.

Prior to the merger, many of Braniff's and Panagra's flights departed at the same time but would now be equally spaced to provide more fluid and convenient schedules for Braniff passengers. Five US Gateways would also be used for the first time and included New York, Miami, Houston, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, which would allow service to be provided to South America from each major section of the US Mainland.

Braniff acquired seven used aircraft and five new aircraft orders as a result of the merger. The Panagra fleet included two Douglas DC-7B's, one Douglas DC-8-55F (Freighter) Jet Trader, which was leased from Douglas in 1966, four Douglas DC-8-31s, and orders for five Douglas DC-8-62 Intercontinental Jets. The Douglas DC-7B's (N51703 and N51704) were quickly retired with only the four DC-8-31s and one Series -55 aircraft remaining in the Braniff system. The DC-8-31 aircraft were registered as N8274H, 8275H, 8276H, and N8277H with Panagra. Braniff reregistered N8274H as N1800, N8276H as N1801, and N8277H as N1802 with N8275 remaining as that registration during its service with Braniff.

Painting the Panagra Fleet in Flying Colors
The DC-8-55F Jet Trader was registered as N1590U and it was reregistered in Braniff's name using that N number. All five DC-8 aircraft were initially left in the Green and Yellow Panagra Color Scheme but black Alexander Girard Braniff International titles were added down both sides of the fuselage replacing the Pan American Grace titles. The Panagra Feather Logo on the tail was replaced with a large Alexander Girard BI Logo in Black.

After May 1967, four of the DC-8's were painted in the 1967 Alexander Girard/Harper and George Solid Color Scheme. N1800 was painted in Dark Panagra Green, N1801 in Orange, N1802 was painted in New Dark Blue, and the Jet Trader was painted in Orange. The DC-8-31 aircraft were quickly retired from the Braniff fleet as the new DC-8-62 Intercontinental Jets began delivery on August 22, 1967, through December 19, 1967. The Series -62 aircraft were never painted in a proposed Panagra Concept Color Scheme but were instead delivered in the updated 1967 Harper and George color palette for the Girard Solid Color Scheme. Harper and George used the Panagra DC-8 Concept Color Scheme Green and Yellow colors as inspiration for the Panagra Green and Panagra Yellow Solid colors.

First Jet Service in South America
Panagra entered the jet age in 1960 when it introduced new Douglas DC-8-31 jetliners.

According to the Panagra system timetable dated July 15, 1966, the airline was operating DC-8 "El Inter Americano" jet service between various destinations in Latin America and Los Angeles (Los Angeles International Airport), Miami (MIA), New York City (JFK) and San Francisco (San Francisco International Airport). Panagra was still cooperating with National Airlines and Pan American World Airways with regard to their service between the U.S. and Latin America at this time. This timetable listed the following destinations served by Panagra in Central and South America: Antofagasta, Chile; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cali, Colombia; Guayaquil, Ecuador; La Paz, Bolivia; Lima, Peru; Panama City, Panama; Quito, Ecuador; and Santiago, Chile.

Braniff's South America Routes after 1983
Panagra merged with Braniff International Airways in 1967. Braniff operated the former Panagra routes to South America until 1982 when Eastern Air Lines purchased Braniff's South American operations. Beginning in 1990, these routes were then operated by American Airlines which had acquired them from Eastern.

New Panagra Startup
The Panagra name was resurrected during the late 1990s when a new airline which billed itself as Panagra Airways operating Boeing 727-200 jetliners.

Pan American Grace Airways Intellectual Property
Pan American Grace Airways and Panagra's intellectual property is currently owned by Braniff Airways, Inc., and is administered by Braniff Airways Foundation, in Dallas, Texas. All Pan American Grace Airways posters were created by J. W. Thompson Agency at the Airline's Lima, Peru, offices. These posters, similar to Braniff's mid-century themed posters, which were also produced in South America, are not in the public domain but have undergone copyright restoration in the United States. The intellectual property rights to these posters are fully owned by Braniff Airways, Inc.

Accidents
February 3, 1931 - Fairchild FC-2 NC8023 - Operating a revenue flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina - The airliner crashed off the coast of Buenos Aires under unknown circumstances and the fate of the crew and passengers is unknown.

February 3, 1931 - Fairchild FC-2W2 NC8026 - Operating a revenue mail flight between Arauca, Colombia and Antofagasta, Chile - The Fairchild crashed into the sea at Piedra de las Montijitas, about 11 km north of Caleta Buena under unknown circumstances. There was a crew of two pilots, Captain C. Thompson and Copilot Luis Morales, and eight mail bags on board. There were no injuries and six of the eight mail bags were recovered along with the aircraft, which was then parked on a nearby pier. However, the aircraft was written off as a total loss.

February 7, 1931 - Sikorsky S-38B NC306N - The flight was operating as a revenue flight to Cristobal, Panama Canal Zone - The Sikorsky amphibian crashed on landing into Bay of Limon at Colon, Panama in the Canal Zone. There were no injuries.

April 1, 1931 - Ford Trimotor NC8418 - Operating a revenue flight to Ovalle, Chile - The aircraft crashed on landing at Ovalle Airport but the circumstances are unknown. All seven persons on board survived but the aircraft was a total loss.

July 16, 1932 - Ford Trimotor NC403H "San Jose" - Flying a revenue flight from Santiago, Chile, to Buenos Aires, Argentina, with an en-route stop at Mendoza, Argentina - The Ford was operating over the Andes Mountains east of Santiago when it encountered a heavy snowstorm and crashed into mountainous terrain near El Plomo. There were no survivors. Initially, the search did not find the accident site and was called off after a few days. However, twenty months later, the aircraft was found by ramblers.

March 11, 1933 - Fairchild FC-2W2 NC9723 - Flying a revenue flight at Mendoza, Argentina - The aircraft crashed under unknown circumstances. There were no casualties.

March 22, 1934 - Ford Trimotor NC407H - Flying a revenue flight from Lima, Peru - The flight departed Lima, Peru, and crashed shortly after departure from the runway due to engine failure. The two pilots and one passenger were killed but the other twelve passengers survived.

June 11, 1934 - Ford Trimotor NC8417 "San Pedro" - Flying a revenue flight from Mar del Plata, Argentina to Buenos Aires, Argentina - Lost at Mar Chiquita Lagoon in Argentina, during a heavy rain storm. Six of the seven persons on board were killed including all three crew members.

May 8, 1935 - Lockheed L-5A Vega NC9424 - Crashed at Lima, Peru - Circumstances of the accident are unknown.

January 22, 1943 - Douglas DC-3A - Flight 9 flying regular schedule between Santiago, Chile and Lima, Peru - One hour after leaving Arequipa Airport and then after 3 PM the crew reported via radio that it was flying over Ocoña River, the DC-3 crashed on the slopes of Guayuri Grande Hill in the province of Caraveli, Department of Arequipa, Peru. Ten passengers and three crew members on board were killed but one passenger survived.

August 23, 1937 - Douglas DC-2-118A NC14298 "Santa Elena" - Operating a revenue flight from Mendoza, Argentina to Cordoba, Argentina - The DC-2 crashed and burned and was a total loss. The accident occurred 20 miles north of San Luis, Argentina. There were the three crew members on board and they were killed in the accident.

June 19, 1938 - Douglas DC-2-118A NC14272 "Santa Lucia" - Flying a revenue flight from Santiago, Chile to Arica, Chile - The aircraft crashed in the Andes Mountains with all four persons on board lost. The aircraft was not found until February 1941 by native Indians.

June 26, 1941 - Sikorsky S-43 NC16928 - Operating a training flight at Rio de Janeiro Santos Dumont Airport - While on a training mission, the flight crashed into Guanabara Bay after the aircraft contacted the water in a nose-down attitude and then overturned and sank. The aircraft was a total loss but all four crew on board survived.

Unknown Date 1942 - Douglas DC-2-118A NC14292 "Santa Silvia" - Operating as a revenue flight between Arequipa, Peru, and Lima, Peru - The DC-2 crashed while en route but all five persons on board survived.

January 22, 1943 - Douglas DC-3A-399 NC33645 - Flying a revenue flight from Santiago, Chile to Arequipa, Peru to Lima, Peru - Fifty minutes after departing Arequipa, the DC-3 crashed into a 13,000-foot mountain peak in the Andes Mountains. The cause was continued flight into instrument conditions, which was against company procedures. There were four crew members that all died in the accident and 14 of the 15 passengers were also lost.

July 31, 1944 - Douglas DC-2-118A NC14268 "Santa Ana" - The DC-2 crashed at Arajuna, Ecuador under unknown circumstances. The number of occupants is unknown or if any were lost in the accident.

January 4, 1945 - Douglas DC-3A NC19470 - Operating an illegal flight from Limatambo Airport, Peru - Two mechanics and two unknown persons boarded the aircraft and departed Lima. The flight crashed 5 miles south of Chorrillos, Peru. All four occupants were killed.

October 29, 1962 - Douglas DC-7B N51702 - Flying a revenue flight from La Paz, Bolivia to Miami, Florida - The DC-7B crashed on takeoff from La Paz El Alto Airport. All 6 crew members and 36 passengers survived the incident but the aircraft was a total loss.

United States

 * Washington, DC
 * New York City, New York
 * Los Angeles, California
 * Miami, Florida
 * San Francisco, California

Panama Canal Zone

 * Balboa, Panama
 * Panama City, Panama
 * Cristobal, Panama

Argentina

 * Paso Internacional Los Libertadores, Christ the Redeemer of the Andes, Cristo Redentor Pass, Chile
 * Buenos Aires, Argentina
 * San Salvador de Jujuy, Argentina
 * Rufino, Argentina
 * Junin, Argentina
 * Salta, Argentina
 * Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina
 * Cordoba, Argentina
 * Mendoza, Argentina
 * Mar del Plata, Argentina
 * Morón, Buenos Aires

Bolivia

 * La Paz, Bolivia
 * Puerto Suarez, Bolivia
 * Robore, Bolivia
 * San Ignacio de Velasco, Bolivia
 * Concepcion, Bolivia
 * Santa Cruz, Bolivia
 * San Jose de Chiquitos, Bolivia
 * Cochabamba, Bolivia
 * Villazon, Bolivia
 * Uyuni, Bolivia
 * Oruro, Bolivia

Brazil

 * Santa Mariana, Brazil
 * Corumba, Brazil
 * Campo Grande, Brazil
 * Moquegua, Brazil

Chile

 * Santiago, Chile
 * Arica, Chile
 * San Gregorio, Chile
 * Antofagasta, Chile
 * Ovalle, Chile

Colombia

 * Barranquilla, Colombia
 * Cali, Colombia
 * Ipiales, Colombia
 * Tumaco, Colombia
 * Buenaventura, Colombia
 * Arauca, Colombia

Ecuador

 * Guayaquil, Ecuador
 * Loja, Ecuador
 * Salinas, Ecuador
 * Cuenca, Ecuador
 * Quito, Ecuador
 * Esmeraldas, Ecuador
 * Manta, Ecuador
 * Cuenca, Ecuador

Peru

 * Lima, Peru
 * Mollendo, Peru
 * Talara, Peru
 * Atico District, Peru
 * Arequipa, Peru
 * Chiclayo, Peru
 * Pimentel, Peru
 * Piura, Peru
 * Camana, Peru
 * Tacna, Peru
 * Moquegua, Peru
 * Juliaca, Peru
 * Cusco, Peru
 * Huancayo, Peru
 * Ica, Peru

Uruguay

 * Montevideo, Uruguay

Sikorsky Aircraft Company

 * Sikorsky S-38B
 * Sikorsky S-43

Fairchild Aircraft Company

 * Fairchild FC-2
 * Fairchild 71

Ford Motor Company

 * Ford Tri-Motor 5-AT

Lockheed Corporation

 * Lockheed Vega Model 5

Douglas Aircraft Company

 * Douglas DC-2
 * Douglas DC-3
 * Douglas DC-4
 * Douglas DC-6 and Douglas DC-6B
 * Douglas DC-7B
 * Douglas DC-8-31 Intercontinental Jet, the only jet aircraft type operated by Panagra
 * Douglas DC-8-62 Intercontinental Jet, five of this variant was ordered by Panagra in 1966 but this order was taken up by Braniff in the summer of 1967

title: Pan American-Grace Airways


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Lucky imaging

Lucky imaging (also called lucky exposures) is one form of speckle imaging used for astrophotography. Speckle imaging techniques use a high-speed camera with exposure times short enough (100 ms or less) so that the changes in the Earth's atmosphere during the exposure are minimal.

With lucky imaging, those optimum exposures least affected by the atmosphere (typically around 10%) are chosen and combined into a single image by shifting and adding the short exposures, yielding much higher angular resolution than would be possible with a single, longer exposure, which includes all the frames.

Explanation
Images taken with ground-based telescopes are subject to the blurring effect of atmospheric turbulence (seen to the eye as the stars twinkling). Many astronomical imaging programs require higher resolution than is possible without some correction of the images. Lucky imaging is one of several methods used to remove atmospheric blurring. Used at a 1% selection or less, lucky imaging can reach the diffraction limit of even 2.5 m aperture telescopes, a resolution improvement factor of at least five over standard imaging systems.

Demonstration of the principle
The sequence of images below shows how lucky imaging works. From a series of 50,000 images taken at a speed of almost 40 images per second, five different long exposure images have been created. Additionally, a single exposure with very low image quality and another single exposure with very high image quality are shown at the beginning of the demo sequence. The astronomical target shown has the 2MASS ID J03323578+2843554. North is up and East on the left.

The difference between the seeing limited image (third image from top) and the best 1% images selected result is quite remarkable: a triple system has been detected. The brightest component in the West is a V=14.9 magnitude M4V star. This component is the lucky imaging reference source. The weaker component consists of two stars of spectral classes M4.5 and M5.5. The distance of the system is about 45 parsecs (pc). Airy rings can be seen, which indicates that the diffraction limit of the Calar Alto Observatory's 2.2 m telescope was reached. The signal to noise ratio of the point sources increases with stronger selection. The seeing halo on the other side is more suppressed. The separation between the two brightest objects is around 0.53 arcsec and between the two faintest objects less than 0.16 arcsec. At a distance of 45 pc this corresponds to 7.2 times the distance between Earth and Sun, around 1 billion kilometers (109 km).

History

Lucky imaging methods were first used in the middle 20th century, and became popular for imaging planets in the 1950s and 1960s (using cine cameras, often with image intensifiers). For the most part it took 30 years for the separate imaging technologies to be perfected for this counter-intuitive imaging technology to become practical. The first numerical calculation of the probability of obtaining lucky exposures was an article by David L. Fried in 1978.

In early applications of lucky imaging, it was generally assumed that the atmosphere smeared-out or blurred the astronomical images. In that work, the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the blurring was estimated, and used to select exposures. Later studies took advantage of the fact that the atmosphere does not blur astronomical images, but generally produces multiple sharp copies of the image (the point spread function has speckles). New methods were used which took advantage of this to produce much higher quality images than had been obtained assuming the image to be smeared.

In the early years of the 21st century, it was realised that turbulent intermittency (and the fluctuations in astronomical seeing conditions it produced) could substantially increase the probability of obtaining a "lucky exposure" for given average astronomical seeing conditions.

Lucky imaging and adaptive optics hybrid systems
In 2007 astronomers at Caltech and the University of Cambridge announced the first results from a new hybrid lucky imaging and adaptive optics (AO) system. The new camera gave the first diffraction-limited resolutions on 5 m-class telescopes in visible light. The research was performed on the Mt. Palomar Hale Telescope of 200-inch-diameter aperture. The telescope, with lucky cam and adaptive optics, pushed it near its theoretical angular resolution, achieving up to 0.025 arc seconds for certain types of viewing. Compared to space telescopes like the 2.4 m Hubble, the system still has some drawbacks including a narrow field of view for crisp images (typically 10" to 20"), airglow, and electromagnetic frequencies blocked by the atmosphere.

When combined with an AO system, lucky imaging selects the periods when the turbulence the adaptive optics system must correct is reduced. In these periods, lasting a small fraction of a second, the correction given by the AO system is sufficient to give excellent resolution with visible light. The lucky imaging system averages the images taken during the excellent periods to produce a final image with much higher resolution than is possible with a conventional long-exposure AO camera.

This technique is applicable to getting very high resolution images of only relatively small astronomical objects, up to 10 arcseconds in diameter, as it is limited by the precision of the atmospheric turbulence correction. It also requires a relatively bright 14th-magnitude star in the field of view on which to guide. Being above the atmosphere, the Hubble Space Telescope is not limited by these concerns and so is capable of much wider-field high-resolution imaging.

Popularity of technique
Both amateur and professional astronomers have begun to use this technique. Modern webcams and camcorders have the ability to capture rapid short exposures with sufficient sensitivity for astrophotography, and these devices are used with a telescope and the shift-and-add method from speckle imaging (also known as image stacking) to achieve previously unattainable resolution. If some of the images are discarded, then this type of video astronomy is called lucky imaging.

Many methods exist for image selection, including the Strehl-selection method first suggested by John E. Baldwin from the Cambridge group and the image contrast selection used in the Selective Image Reconstruction method of Ron Dantowitz.

The development and availability of electron-multiplying CCDs (EMCCD, also known as LLLCCD, L3CCD, or low-light-level CCD) has allowed the first high-quality lucky imaging of faint objects.

On October 27, 2014, Google introduced a similar technique called HDR+. HDR+ takes a burst of shots with short exposures, selectively aligning the sharpest shots and averaging them using computational photography techniques. Short exposures avoid blurry images or blowing out highlights, and averaging multiple shots reduces noise. HDR+ is processed on hardware accelerators including the Qualcomm Hexagon DSPs and Pixel Visual Core.

Alternative methods
Other approaches that can yield resolving power exceeding the limits of atmospheric seeing include adaptive optics, interferometry, other forms of speckle imaging and space-based telescopes such as NASA's Hubble Space Telescope.

title: Lucky imaging


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2nd links
Matt, Sorry about that. I managed to miss the first links to both. Thanks for the clean up. ww 13:54, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

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Size of a word
PowerPC words are 32 bits (as used in in PPC assembly), while m68k words are 16 bits (in 68K assembly), and AFAIK, x86 words are also 16 bits (in x86 assembly), but everyone considers those architectures as 32-bit. Elektron 13:54, 2004 May 20 (UTC)

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