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Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or transit. Its specific name flavus derives from the Latin meaning yellow, a reference to the frequently observed colour of the spores. A. flavus infections can occur while hosts are still in the field (preharvest), but often show no symptoms (dormancy) until postharvest storage or transport.

In addition to causing preharvest and postharvest infections, many strains produce significant quantities of toxic compounds known as mycotoxins, which, when consumed, are toxic to mammals. A. flavus is also an opportunistic human and animal pathogen, causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals.

Hosts
Aspergillus flavus is found globally as a saprophyte in soils and causes disease on many important agriculture crops. Common hosts of the pathogen are cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Specifically, A. flavus infection causes ear rot in corn and yellow mold in peanuts either before or after harvest.

Infection can be present in the field, preharvest, postharvest, during storage, and during transit. It is common for the pathogen to originate while host crops are still in the field. However, symptoms and signs of the pathogen are often unseen. A. flavus has the potential to infect seedlings by sporulation on injured seeds.

In grains, the pathogen can invade seed embryos and cause infection, which decreases germination and can lead to infected seeds planted in the field. The pathogen can also discolor embryos, damage seedlings, and kill seedlings, which reduces grade and price of the grains. The incidence of A. flavus infection increases in the presence of insects and any type of stress on the host in the field as a result of damage. Stresses include stalk rot, drought, severe leaf damage, and/or less than ideal storage conditions.

Generally, excessive moisture conditions and high temperatures of storage grains and legumes increase the occurrence of A. flavus aflatoxin production. In mammals, the pathogen can cause liver cancer through consumption of contaminated feed or aspergillosis through invasive growth.

Morphology and pathology
Aspergillus flavus colonies are commonly powdery masses of yellowish-green spores on the upper surface and reddish-gold on the lower surface. In both grains and legumes, infection is minimized to small areas, and discoloration and dullness of affected areas is often seen. Growth is rapid and colonies appear powdery in texture.

Hyphal growth usually occurs by thread-like branching and produces mycelia. Hyphae are septate and hyaline. Once established, the mycelium secretes degradative enzymes or proteins which can break down complex nutrients (food). Individual hyphae strands are not typically seen by the unaided eye; however, conidia producing thick mycelial mats are often seen. The conidiospores are asexual spores produced by A. flavus during reproduction.

The conidiophores of A. flavus are rough and colorless. Phialides are both uniseriate (arranged in one row) and biseriate.

Recently, Petromyces was identified as the sexual reproductive stage of A. flavus, where the ascospores develop within sclerotia. The sexual state of this heterothallic fungus arises when strains of opposite mating type are cultured together. Sexual reproduction occurs between sexually compatible strains belonging to different vegetative compatibility groups.

Aspergillus flavus is complex in its morphology and can be classified into two groups based on the size of sclerotia produced. Group I consists of L strains with sclerotia greater than 400 μm in diameter. Group II consists of S strains with sclerotia less than 400 μm in diameter. Both L and S strains can produce the two most common aflatoxins (B1 and B2). Unique to the S strains is the production of aflatoxin G1 and G2 which typically are not produced by A. flavus. The L strain is more aggressive than the S strain, but produces less aflatoxin in culture. The L strain also has a more acidic homoeostatic point and produces less sclerotia than the S strain under more limiting conditions.

Disease cycle
Aspergillus flavus overwinters in the soil and appears as propagules on decaying matter, either as mycelia or sclerotia. Sclerotia germinate to produce additional hyphae and asexual spores called conidia. These conidia are said to be the primary inoculum for A. flavus. The propagules in the soil, which are now conidia, are dispersed by wind and insects, such as stink bugs or lygus bugs. The conidia can land on and infect either grains or legumes.

The spores enter the corn through the silks and thus infect the kernel. Conidiophores and conidia are produced in the spring from sclerotial surfaces. There is a secondary inoculum for A. flavus, which is conidia on leaf parts and leaves. A. flavus grows on leaves after damage by leaf-feeding insects. Insects are said to be a source of inoculum and promote inoculum production.

Environment
Aspergillus flavus is unique in that it is a thermotolerant fungus, so can survive at temperatures that other fungi cannot. A. flavus can contribute to the storage rots, especially when the plant material is stored at high moisture levels. A. flavus grows and thrives in hot and humid climates.

Temperature: A. flavus has a minimum growth temperature of 12 C and a maximum growth temperature of 48 C. Though the maximum growth temperature is around 48 C, the optimum growth temperature is 37 C. A. flavus had rapid growth at 30–55 C, slow growth at 12–15 C, and  almost ceases growth at 5–8 C.

Moisture: A. flavus growth occurs at different moisture levels for different crops. For starchy cereals, growth occurs at 13.0–13.2%. For soybeans, growth occurs at 11.5–11.8%. For other crops, growth occurs at 14%. A. flavus growth is prevalent in tropical countries. Minimum a$w$ (water activity) required for growth is inversely correlated with temperature in other words higher temperatures permit lower a$w$. This is known to range from a$w$ 0.78 at 33 C to 0.84 at 25 C. Gibson et al 1994 provides a model relating expected growth rate to a$w$ x temperature parameters.

Management
To ensure grains and legumes remain free of A. flavus infection, certain conditions must be incorporated before, during, and after harvest. Moisture levels should be kept below 11.5%. Temperature in storage units should be kept as low as possible since the pathogen is unable to grow below 5 °C. The low temperature facilitates slower respiration and prevents moisture increase. Fumigants are used to decrease the occurrence and persistence of insects and mites, which aids the rapid growth of the pathogen. Sanitary practices including, removing old and unripe seeds, exclusion of damaged and broken seeds, and overall cleanliness assist in minimizing the colonization and spread of the pathogen.

The most common management practice for grains and legumes is the use of aeration systems. Air is pushed through the storage bins at low flow rates, which removes excess moisture and heat. Regulation of air flow allows the moisture content in harvested products to remain at a constant level and decreases the temperature within the bins. Temperature levels can decrease enough so insects and mites are dormant, which reduces rapid growth of the pathogen.

Some environmental control practice have been explored to aid in the reduction of A. flavus infection. Resistant crop lines have shown little to no protection against unfavorable environmental conditions. However, good irrigation practices aid in the reduction of stress brought upon by drought, which in turn, reduces the likelihood of pathogen infection. Some research has been done in identifying particular plant proteins, both pathogen-related and drought-resistant proteins, that defend against A. flavus entry.

To protect tree nuts and corn plants affected by A. flavus, scientists of the Agricultural Research Service found that treating these plants with the yeast Pichia anomala reduced the growth of A. flavus. The study showed that treating pistachio trees with P. anomala inhibited the growth of A. flavus up to 97% when compared to untreated trees. The yeast successfully competes with A. flavus for space and nutrients, ultimately limiting its growth.

Essential oils of Glycyrrhiza glabra inhibit growth.

Aspergillus flavus AF36
Aspergillus flavus strain AF36 is noncarcinogenic and aflatoxin-free and is used as an active ingredient in pesticides. AF36 is a fungal antagonist and is applied as a commercial biocontrol to cotton and corn to reduce aflatoxin exposure. AF36 was initially isolated in Arizona and has also occurred in Texas. It is grown on sterile seeds which serve as the carrier and a source of nutrients. Following application and colonization and in the presence of high moisture, AF36 growing seeds outcompete aflatoxin-producing strains of A. flavus. Nonaflatoxin spore dispersal is aided by wind and insects.

Importance
Aspergillus flavus infections will not always reduce crop yields alone; however, postharvest disease can reduce the total crop yield by 10 to 30%, and in developing countries that produce perishable crops, total loss can be greater than 30%. In grains and legumes, postharvest disease results in the production of mycotoxins. The largest economic loss caused by this pathogen is a result of aflatoxin production. In the United States, annual economic loss estimations of peanuts, corn, cottonseed, walnuts, and almonds are less severe when compared to Asia and Africa.

After Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus is the second-leading cause of aspergillosis. Primary infection is caused by the inhalation of spores; bigger spores have a better chance of settling in the upper respiratory tract. The deposition of certain spore sizes could be a leading factor for why A. flavus is a common etiological cause of fungal sinusitis and cutaneous infections and noninvasive fungal pneumonia. Countries with dry weather, such as Saudi Arabia and most of Africa, are more prone to aspergillosis.

Two allergens have been characterized in A. flavus: Asp fl 13 and Asp fl 18. In tropical and warm climates, A. flavus has been shown to cause keratitis in about 80% of infections. A. flavus infection is typically treated with antifungal drugs such as amphotericin B, itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and caspofungin; however, some antifungal resistance has been shown in amphotericin B, itraconazole, and voriconazole.

Aflatoxin
In 1960 on an English farm, about 100,000 turkeys died. Investigation into the cause of death showed the primary food source, peanut meal, was infected with A. flavus. The culture was isolated, grown in pure culture, and a subset of healthy turkeys was infected. The pure culture isolate caused death in the healthy turkeys. Chemical investigation into the cause of death showed the production of four toxic chemicals, named aflatoxins after being discovered in A. flavus. Turkey necropsies showed aflatoxins targeted the liver and either completely killed the tissue cells or induced tumor formation. The discovery of aflatoxins led to substantial changes in agricultural practices and regulations on how grains and legumes were grown, harvested, and stored.

The amount of aflatoxins produced by A. flavus is affected by environmental factors. If other competitive fungal organisms are present on host plants, aflatoxin production is low. However, if noncompetitive fungal organisms are present on host plants, aflatoxin production can be quite high. The nature of the host is also an important factor in aflatoxin production. High A. flavus growth on soybean produces very little aflatoxin. High A. flavus growth aided by increased moisture content and warm temperatures on peanut, nutmeg, and peppers produces high concentrations of aflatoxins. A. flavus growth on spices produces low concentrations of aflatoxin as long as the spices remain dry.

Species sensitivity is highly variable when exposed to aflatoxins. Rainbow trout are highly sensitive at 20 ppb, causing liver tumor development in half the population. White rats develop liver cancer when exposed to 15 ppb. Young piglets, ducklings, and turkeys exposed to high doses of aflatoxin become sick and die. Pregnant cows, mature pigs, cattle, and sheep exposed to low doses of aflatoxin over long periods develop weakening, intestinal bleeding, debilitation, reduced growth, nausea, no appetite, and predisposition to other infections.

The four major aflatoxins produced are B1, B2, G1, and G2. The production of the major toxins is a result of particular strains of A. flavus. Aflatoxin B1 is the most toxic and potent hepatocarcinogenic natural compound characterized. A. flavus also produces other toxic compounds including sterigmatocystin, cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid, β-nitropropionic acid, aspertoxin, aflatrem, gliotoxin, and aspergillic acid.

In humans, A. flavus aflatoxin production can lead to acute hepatitis, immunosuppression, hepatocellular carcinoma, and neutropenia. The absence of any regulation of screening for the fungus in countries that also have a high prevalence of viral hepatitis highly increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. The deaths of ten conservationists present at the opening of a 15th century tomb in Kraków, Poland in the 1970s has been attributed to aflatoxins originating from A. flavus present in the tomb.

Possible link to deaths after tomb openings
After the premature death of several Polish scientists following the 1973 opening of the tomb of the 15th century Polish King (and Lithuanian Grand Duke) Casimir IV Jagiellon, microbiologist Bolesław Smyk identified the presence of the fungus Aspergillus flavus in samples taken from the tomb, and media reports have suggested that the likely cause of the deaths were the aflatoxins produced by this fungus.

It has since been suggested that it may also have contributed to some of the deaths following the 1922 discovery and subsequent opening of the tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun, particularly the deaths of Lord Carnarvon, George Jay Gould, and Arthur Mace, though the link has been disputed (at least in Carnarvon's case).

title: Aspergillus flavus


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Sopac

Sopac may refer to:

 * South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, an inter-governmental regional organisation
 * South Pacific Area (SOPAC), a multinational U.S.-led military command active during World War II
 * Southern Pacific Railroad (SoPac), a former American railroad (1865–1996)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sopac


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Russian Orthodoxy

Russian Orthodoxy (Русское православие) is the theology, religious traditions, and practices related to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Origin
Historically, the term "Greek Orthodox" has been used to describe all Eastern Orthodox churches, since the term "Greek" can refer to the heritage of the Byzantine Empire. However, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, as a center of power, will gradually lose a significant part of its authority in the eyes of Orthodox believers after the union with Rome in 1439. In December 1448, the Russian Orthodox Church de facto declared its autocephaly by instaling Jonas, a Russian bishop, as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia (with permanent residence in Moscow) without the approval of Patriarch Gregory III of Constantinople to replace the pro-union Isidore of Kiev. After the fall of Constantinople and the end of the Orthodox-Catholic union, internal problems regarding the status of the Russian Church will result in a division between Greek and Russian believers within Eastern Orthodoxy. Having lost its Christian basileus after the Turkish conquest, the Moscow rulers soon began to consider themselves real Tsars (this title was already used by Ivan III), and therefore, according to them, the center of the Eastern Orthodox Church should be located in Moscow, and thus the bishop of Moscow should become the head of Orthodoxy. With some Eastern Orthodox believers calling Moscow the "Third Rome", or the "New Rome", the Russian Church gained influence in the orthodox world outside the Ottoman Empire. After this event, a series of doctrinal and liturgical differences would emerge in the Slavic Orthodox world, being cut off from its Greek counterpart. In spite of the end of the schism in 1560, by the mid 17th century the religious practices of the Russian Orthodox Church were distinct from those of the Greek Orthodox Church. Eventually, Patriarch Nikon of Moscow would reform the church and bring most of its practices back into accommodation with the contemporary forms of Greek Orthodox worship. This change, however, was rejected by a large group of traditionalists, who would come to be known as Old Ritualists.

Literature

 * Русское православие: вехи истории / Науч. ред. А. И. Клибанов. — М.: Политиздат, 1989. — 719 с. — 200 000 экз. — ISBN 5-250-00246-3.
 * Гордиенко Н. С. Содержание и объём понятия «русское православие» // Вестник Ленинградского государственного университета им. А. С. Пушкина. — 2009. — No. 2. — С. 166–175.
 * Лексин В. Н. Русское православие сегодня // Контуры глобальных трансформаций: политика, экономика, право. — 2018. — No. 4. — doi:10.23932/2542-0240-2018-11-4-65-82.

title: Russian Orthodoxy


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Talk:Uncontrolled airspace

I believe airspace above FL660 is now class E airspace and is technically still controlled. - JoelKatz

 * I thought so but I found http://www.eurocontrol.int/asm-nav/Airspace-Table-GL-to-660-post-OI-1A-v2.pdf which shows FL660 as the limit of controlled airspace in many countries. But the US is not listed and this article seems to limit itself to US conventions. David Brooks 06:37, 29 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * But 14 CFR 71.71 says that class E exists in all airspace above FL600.

Class G doesn't exist above class E in the USA
I think that everything after "All airspace above a certain..." in the first paragraph should be removed. The United States does not have uncontrolled airspace above controlled airspace so the blanket statement that all countries do this is wrong and the example of FL660 in the United States is obviously wrong.

The FARs say "Class E Airspace consists of: ... the airspace above FL600" (with a few exceptions in Alaska and other places). This is also in the AIM.

--66.88.133.80 01:17, 15 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I'll change it for now as this appears correct to me; anyone else have any input? —Cleared as filed. 02:16, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Major changes
I've done some pretty drastic surgery to this page as it seemed to be getting out of hand and branching off into a variety of merely semi-related areas: this IMHO has caused the rewrite-context tag to be added.

I think the new version is more punchy, is internationalised and yet has a better context for non aviation folks. If you don't like it, feel free to rv.BaseTurnComplete 10:28, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Uncontrolled airspace


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Talk:Zofiabaatar

(This information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Basal Multituberculata, an internet directory. As that's my webpage, there are no issues of copyright.  Trevor Dykes)

title: Talk:Zofiabaatar


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SOPAC

SOPAC has the following meanings:
 * The Southern Pacific Railroad (SoPac)
 * The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission
 * Social OnLine Public Access Catalog
 * South Orange Performing Arts Center
 * Sydney Olympic Park Aquatic Centre
 * South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command
 * South Pacific Area

title: SOPAC


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Talk:Steel Panthers

Citations?
It's a good game: it've played it! but where are the citations? seriously! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 142.25.81.163 (talk) 22:10, 14 January 2010 (UTC)

I added a few lines showing SPCAMOS work on the steel Panthers game. It didn't seem balanced without it.

-Steve G.

Actually, not only the maximum firing can be set for a unit to stop it from firing on the opponent's turn in SPWW2 and SPMBT, but an unit weapon can be switched off by left clicking on it in the unit information screen.

Fair use rationale for Image:SPWAW shot 01.jpg
Image:SPWAW shot 01.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 17:08, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

Picking Nits
What is SPCAMOS? I'm not a diehard fan of the game, I'm considering whether I want to play it and the acronym should be spelled out somewhere. OOB should be spelled out the first time it's used, not the second. Yes, I'm being hypercritical but this is an encyclopedia. 173.184.17.16 (talk) 23:02, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

Source

 * https://web.archive.org/web/20010307084236/http://headline.gamespot.com/news/00_04/18_pc_steel/index.html
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20000307023232/http://headline.gamespot.com/news/98_01/26_strategy/index.html
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20010309065311/http://headline.gamespot.com/news/00_04/24_pc_ssifall/index.html

title: Talk:Steel Panthers


text: Category:LGBT

title: Category:LGBT


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Nô

Nô may refer to:

 * Noh, a form of Japanese musical drama
 * Nô (film), a 1998 film which uses Noh theatre as a dramatic device

title: Nô


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Indian Administrative Service

The Indian Administrative Service (IAS) is the administrative arm of the All India Services of Government of India. The IAS is one of the three All India Services along with the Indian Police Service and Indian Forest Service. Members of these three services serve the Government of India as well as the individual states. IAS officers are also deployed to various government establishments such as constitutional bodies, staff and line agencies, auxiliary bodies, public sector undertakings, regulatory bodies, statutory bodies and autonomous bodies.

As with other countries following the parliamentary system of government, the IAS is a part of the permanent bureaucracy of the nation; and is an inseparable part of the executive of the Government of India. As such, the bureaucracy remains politically neutral and guarantees administrative continuity to the ruling party or coalition.

Upon confirmation of service, an IAS officer serves a probationary period as a sub-divisional magistrate. Completion of this probation is followed by an executive administrative role in a district as a district magistrate and collector which lasts several years. After this tenure, an officer may be promoted to head a whole state administrative division as a divisional commissioner.

On attaining the higher scales of the pay matrix, IAS officers may lead government departments or ministries. In these roles, IAS officers represent the country at international level in bilateral and multilateral negotiations. If serving on a deputation, they may be employed in International organization such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, or the United Nations, or its agencies. IAS officers are also involved in conducting elections in India as mandated by the Election Commission of India.

History
During the East India Company period, the civil services were classified into three – covenanted, uncovenanted and special civil services. The covenanted civil service, or the Honourable East India Company's Civil Service (HEICCS), as it was called, largely comprised civil servants occupying the senior posts in the government. The uncovenanted civil service was introduced solely to facilitate the entry of Indians onto the lower rung of the administration. The special service comprised specialised departments, such as the Indian Forest Service, the Imperial Police and the Indian Political Department, whose ranks were drawn from either the covenanted civil service or the Indian Army. The Imperial Police included many Indian Army officers among its members, although after 1893 an annual exam was used to select its officers. In 1858 the HEICCS was replaced by the Indian Civil Service (ICS), which became the highest civil service in India between 1858 and 1947. The last appointments to the ICS were made in 1942.

With the passing of the Government of India Act 1919 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Indian civil services—under the general oversight of the Secretary of State for India—were split into two arms, the All India Services and the Central Services. The Indian Civil Service was one of the ten All India Services.

In 1946 at the Premier's Conference, the Central Cabinet decided to form the Indian Administrative Service, based on the Indian Civil Service; and the Indian Police Service, based on the Imperial Police.

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When India was partitioned following the departure of the British in 1947, the Indian Civil Service was divided between the new dominions of India and Pakistan. The Indian remnant of the ICS was named the Indian Administrative Service, while the Pakistani remnant was named the Pakistan Administrative Service. The modern Indian Administrative Service was created under Article 312(2) in part XIV of the Constitution of India, and the All India Services Act, 1951.

Indian Frontier Administrative Service
A special cadre was created in 1954 to administer NEFA (present day Arunachal Pradesh) and for later Some North Eastern Region. It was first mooted by then Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru. The services were placed under Ministry of External Affairs.

In 1968, IFAS was merged with IAS and has hence lost its relevance.

Recruitment
There are three modes of recruitment into the Indian Administrative Service. IAS officers may enter the IAS by passing the Civil Services Examination, which is conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). Officers recruited this way are called direct recruits. Some IAS officers are also recruited from the state civil services, and, in rare cases, selected from non-state civil service. The ratio between direct recruits and promotees is fixed at 2:1. All IAS officers, regardless of the mode of entry, are appointed by the President of India.

Only about 180 candidates out of over 1million applicants, who apply through CSE, are successful, a success rate of less than 0.02percent.

Unlike candidates appointed to other civil services, a successful IAS candidate is rendered ineligible to retake CSE. From 1951 to 1978, an IAS/IFS candidate was required to submit two additional papers along with three optional papers (instead of just the three optional papers like for other civil services) to be eligible for the Indian Administrative Service or the Indian Foreign Service. The two additional papers were postgraduate level submissions, compared to the graduate level of the optional papers, and it was this distinction that resulted in a higher status for the IAS and IFS. The two postgraduate level submissions were later removed, but this has not changed the perceived higher status of the IAS and IFS. After the selection process, the successful candidates undergo training at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, Uttarakhand.

Cadre allocation policy
The central government announced a new cadre allocation policy for the All India Services in August 2017, claiming it as being a policy to ensure national integration of the bureaucracy and to ensure an All India character of the services. The existing twenty sixcadres were to be divided into fivezones by the Department of Personnel and Training. Under the new policy, a candidate first selects their zones of preference, in descending order, then indicates a cadre preference from each preferred zone. The candidate indicates their second cadre preference for every preferred zone subsequently. The preference for the zones and cadres remains in the same order and no change is permitted.

Officers remain in their allocated cadre or are deputed to the Government of India.

Previous cadre allocation policies
Until 2008, there was no formal system that permitted the selection of a state cadre preferred by the candidate. If the candidate was not placed in a vacancy in their home state, they would be allocated to other states, which were selected from a roster in alphabetic order, starting from 'a', 'h', 'm' or 't', depending on the year. For example, if in a particular year the roster begins from 'a', then the first candidate on the roster will go to the Andhra Pradesh state cadre, the next one to Bihar, and then to Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and so on in alphabetical order. The next year the roster starts from 'h', for either Haryana or Himachal Pradesh (the two states alternate roster years). This system, practised since the mid-1980s, ensured that officers from different states were placed all over India.

The system of permanent state cadres resulted in wide disparities of professional exposure for officers when comparing those from developed versus less developed states. Changes in state cadres were only permitted on grounds of marriage to an All India Services officer of another state cadre or under other exceptional circumstances. The officers were allowed to go to their home state cadre on deputation for a limited period after which they would be required to return to their allocated cadre.

From 2008, IAS officers were assigned to state cadres at the beginning of their service. There was one cadre for each Indian state, except for twojoint cadres: Assam–Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh–Goa–Mizoram–Union Territories (AGMUT). The "insider-outsider ratio" (ratio of officers who were posted to their home states to those from other states) was maintained at 1:2, with one-third of the direct recruits being 'insiders' from the same state. The rest were posted as outsiders according to the state allocation roster in states other than their home states, as indicated by their preference.

Responsibilities of an IAS officer
The typical functions performed by an IAS officer are:
 * To collect revenue and function as court officials in matters of revenue (for the revenue courts), to maintain law and order, to implement union and state government policies at the grass-roots level when posted to field positions i.e. as Sub-divisional magistrate, Additional District Magistrate, District magistrate and Divisional commissioner, and to act as an agent of the government in the field, i.e. to act as an intermediary between the public and the government.
 * To handle the administration and daily proceedings of the government, including the formulation and implementation of policy in consultation with the minister-in-charge of a specific ministry or department.
 * To contribute to policy formulation, and to make a final decision in certain matters, with the agreement of the minister concerned or the council of ministers (depending upon the weight of the matter), when posted at the higher level in the Government of India as a joint secretary, additional secretary, special secretary or secretary equivalent, secretary and Cabinet Secretary, and in state governments as secretary, principal secretary, additional chief secretary or special chief secretary and chief secretary.

Career progression
At the beginning of their career, IAS officers receive district training with their home cadres followed by their first posting. Their initial role is as an assistant collector cum sub-divisional magistrate and they are placed in charge of a district sub-division. As assistant collector cum sub divisional magistrate, they are entrusted with maintaining law and order, as well as general administration and development work, of the sub-district.

Completion of probation is followed by an executive role in a district as a district collector cum district magistrate, which lasts several years. After this tenure as a district magistrate or district collector or deputy commissioner, IAS officers can be posted to various positions in the state government. These positions include secretary or principal secretary in different departments, director of a department, divisional commissioner, or chairman of a government corporation. The specific positions depend on the officer's seniority, experience, and performance. The highest positions that an IAS officer can attain include chief secretary of a state or cabinet secretary of the country.

In 2015 it was announced that a new designation of assistant secretary at the Central Secretariat had been created to enable new IAS officers to be posted to Delhi for a three-month assignment as part of their training regime. IAS officers were previously only permitted to go on a deputation once assigned to the Central Secretariat after nine years of service in their home cadre. It was observed that the experience of central functions was severely lacking among these deputations, resulting in this change in their training. As part of the new system, IAS assistant secretaries are supposed to work on projects—a new policy in their respective areas—and present it to their respective ministries; of all projects, 36 are selected to be presented before all secretaries of the Government of India; consequently, 16 are selected to be before the Cabinet Secretary and a final eight are selected for presentation before the Prime Minister.

As an IAS officer progresses in their career, they become eligible for important positions in the central government. These positions include joint secretary, additional secretary, and secretary in different ministries and departments. In these roles, IAS officers are involved in making policies, implementing them, and making important decisions at the national level. They can also be appointed as advisors to the central government or serve in autonomous bodies, commissions, and international organizations. These opportunities allow IAS officers to contribute to the development and governance of the country on a larger scale.

On attaining the apex scale, IAS officers may lead government departments or ministries. In these roles, IAS officers represent the country at the international level in bilateral and multilateral negotiations. If serving on a deputation, they may be employed in International organization such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund,  the Asian Development Bank,  the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,   and the United Nations or its agencies. IAS officers are also involved in the conduct of elections in India as mandated by the Election Commission of India.

Upon retirement, high ranking IAS officers have occupied constitutional posts such as the Chief Election Commissioner of India, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, and the chairperson of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). They have also become members of administrative tribunals, such as the National Green Tribunal and the Central Administrative Tribunal, as well as chiefs of regulators including the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, the Securities and Exchange Board of India, and the Reserve Bank of India. If a serving IAS officer is appointed to a constitutional post such as Comptroller and Auditor General of India, Chief Election Commissioner of India or chairperson of UPSC or as head of a statutory authority, such as the National Commission for Women or the Central Information Commission, he or she is deemed to have retired from service.

IAS officers can also be deputed to private organisations for a fixed tenure under Rule 6(2)(ii) of the Indian Administrative Service (Cadre) Rules, 1954.

Assessment of suitability for promotion and posting
The performance of IAS officers is assessed through a performance appraisal report (PAR). These are governed through the All India Services (Performance Appraisal Report) Rules 2007. The reports are reviewed to judge the suitability of an officer before a promotion or a posting in the union or state governments. The report is compiled annually and is initiated by the officers themselves, designated as the reporting officer, who list their achievements, completion of assigned activities and targets for the year. The report is then modified and commented on by the reviewing officer, usually the superior of the reporting officer. All the Reports are forwarded by the reviewing officer to the accepting authority, who conducts a final review of the report.

Public perception
In popular perception, the allure of pursuing a career in the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) lies in the associated privileges and benefits, which drive hundreds of thousands of candidates to compete for a limited number of positions each year. The position of an IAS officer is commonly regarded as a gateway to power, privilege, and elevated social status. Criticisms of the country's bureaucracy have persisted over time, with detractors highlighting its cumbersome nature, slow decision-making processes, inefficiency, and occasional instances of corruption. These deficiencies have become so widely acknowledged that the Indian bureaucracy often becomes the subject of relentless satirical portrayals in popular culture.

Shortage of officers
It was reported in 2017 that there is a shortage of about 1,700IAS officers in the country. Despite this, the government has stated that annual recruitment of IAS officers will not increase, to avoid impacting the career progression of existing officers and the overall structure of the service.

Lack of accountability
Critics argue that the IAS lacks adequate mechanisms for holding bureaucrats accountable for their actions. This can lead to a culture of impunity and inefficiency, as civil servants may not face consequences for poor performance or misconduct. Critics argue that bureaucracy can lead to a lack of accountability as unelected bureaucrats hold significant decision-making power. They argue that bureaucrats, who are not directly accountable to the public through elections, can wield significant influence over policies and implementation without facing direct consequences for their actions.

Centralization of power
The IAS is a highly centralized bureaucracy, with decision-making power concentrated at the higher levels of the hierarchy. This centralized structure can impede decentralization efforts and limit the involvement of lower-level administrators and local stakeholders in decision-making processes.

Resistance to change
The bureaucratic culture within the IAS can sometimes lead to resistance to change and a reluctance to adopt new ideas or reforms. This can hinder innovation and prevent the adoption of best practices, making it challenging to address emerging challenges effectively.

Lateral entry
Media personalities, some retired IAS officers and a few academics have argued in favour of lateral entry into the IAS to inject fresh blood into the service. They argue that it would help refresh the bureaucracy, offer competitiveness and bring in alternate perspectives. A counter-argument has been put forward that a lateral entry process could be manipulated due to corruption and cronyism. It is further argued that lateral entry would not lead to improvements in managerial performance or accountability, and while it may create synergy between the government and big businesses, it could also compromise the integrity of government. It has also been argued that it could weaken the bureaucracy instead. The union government has frequently ruled out lateral entry into the IAS.

Political influence
"The IAS is hamstrung by political interference, outdated personnel procedures, and a mixed record on policy implementation, and it is in need of urgent reform. The Indian government should reshape recruitment and promotion processes, improve performance-based assessment of individual officers, and adopt safeguards that promote accountability while protecting bureaucrats from political meddling." Several think tanks and media outlets have argued that the IAS is hamstrung by political influence within the service. It has been reported that many local political leaders have been seen to have interfered with IAS officers. Politicians have also exerted pressure on IAS officers by repeatedly transferring them,   suspending them,   beating them,   and, in some extreme cases, killing them.

While hearing T. S. R. Subramanian v. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India ruled that IAS officers – and other civil servants – were not required to act on oral instructions given by politicians as they 'undermined credibility'.

Corruption
Several academic papers have shown IAS to be a significant contributor to crony capitalism in India. In 2015, it was reported by the Government of India that a hundred IAS officers had come under scrutiny by the Central Bureau of Investigation for alleged corruption. In 2017 Government records showed that 379 IAS officers had deliberately failed to submit details of their immovable assets (IPR). Since 2007, a number of chief secretaries  and a principal secretary   have been arrested in cases of graft or money laundering. IAS officers have been found amassing disproportionate assets and wealth varying from inr 2000000000, to inr 8000000000. In 2016 it was reported that the Government would provide the means to prosecute corrupt IAS officers, with the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions agreeing to receive requests from private citizens seeking punitive measures against IAS officers even without supporting documentation.

In 2017, a Central Bureau of Investigation special court in Delhi sentenced a former Union Coal Secretary and two other IAS officers to two years in prison for their involvement in the coal allocation scam.

In 2017 it was reported by the Department of Personnel and Training, part of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, that, since 2014, one IAS officer was prematurely retired from service, ten IAS officers had been deemed to have resigned, five had their pensions cut, and a further eight IAS officers suffered a cut in remuneration.

In 2018 the Union Minister of State for Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Jitendra Singh, informed the Lok Sabha that disciplinary proceedings were underway against 36 IAS officers. In 2020, Central Bureau of Investigation arrested two district magistrates in connection with an illegal arms license distribution scandal in the then Jammu & Kashmir state.

During year 2020–21, 581 corruption charges were filed against IAS officers. Further, a total of 753 complaints were received against the IAS officers in 2019-20 and 643 in 2018–19.

Former IAS officer and RBI Governor, D. Subbarao said 25% IAS officers are corrupt, incompetent or inefficient; middle 50% started well but have become complacent and only 25% are truly delivering, while discussing his book with the media platforms.

Abandonment of service
In June 2015, The Telegraph reported that twelve IAS officers had gone missing, and had not reported to either the union or the state government for their allocated cadre. It was believed that they were working in foreign countries for companies such as Microsoft for more lucrative pay. The Asian Age later reported that the services of three of the twelve officers were likely to be terminated due to "prolonged absence from service".

Notable IAS officers

 * Naresh Chandra; a retired 1956 batch IAS officer of Rajasthan cadre, who served as the Cabinet Secretary of India, Defence Secretary of India, Home Secretary of India, Water Resource Secretary of India and Indian Ambassador to the United States.  He was awarded India's second-highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan, for civil service, in 2007.
 * Narinder Nath Vohra (N. N. Vohra); a retired 1959 batch IAS officer of Punjab cadre and the 12th Governor of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, Vohra was the first civilian Governor of Jammu and Kashmir in 18 years since Jagmohan. Vohra has also served as the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India, Home Secretary of India, Defence Secretary of India and Defence Production Secretary of India.  He was awarded India's second-highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan, for civil service, in 2007.
 * T. N. Seshan; a retired 1955 batch IAS officer of Tamil Nadu cadre, notable for enacting significant reforms to electoral oversight in India. He was the 10th Chief Election Commissioner of India (1990–96), who reformed elections by subduing electoral malpractice throughout the country and strengthened the image of the Election Commission of India.  He previously served as the 18th Cabinet Secretary of India in 1989, and later as a member of the Planning Commission. He was presented the Ramon Magsaysay Award for government service in 1996.
 * Vinod Rai; a retired 1972 batch IAS officer of Kerala cadre, who served as the 11th Comptroller and Auditor General of India. He is widely considered a symbol of the anti-corruption movement in India. He also served as the Financial Services Secretary of India. Rai was awarded India's third highest civilian honour, the Padma Bhushan, for civil service, in 2016.
 * Duvvuri Subbarao; a retired 1972 batch IAS officer of Andhra Pradesh cadre. He served as the 22nd Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). A former Finance Secretary of India, he also served as a member of the Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council, and as a senior economist in the World Bank. Subbarao's selection as RBI governor in 2008 was coincidental with the outbreak of the 2007–2008 financial crisis. His leadership is generally credited with safeguarding the Indian economy through the financial crisis.
 * Yogendra Narain; a retired 1965 batch IAS officer of Uttar Pradesh cadre. He is a former Secretary-General of Rajya Sabha, who also served as the Defence Secretary of India, Chief Secretary of Uttar Pradesh as well as Surface Transport Secretary of India.  He was awarded the Dean Paul H. Appleby Award, for distinguished civil service, in 2017.

title: Indian Administrative Service


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Category:Astronomers

This category includes both astronomers and astrophysicists. Where possible, individual astronomers have been categorized under their individual nationalities under "Astronomers by nationality".

title: Category:Astronomers


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Category:Astrophysics

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature, chemical composition) of astronomical objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions. The study of physical cosmology is theoretical astrophysics at its largest scale; conversely, since the energies involved in cosmology, especially the Big Bang, are the largest known, the observations of the cosmos also serve as the laboratory for physics at its smallest scales as well. See Astronomical_unit.

title: Category:Astrophysics


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Uji (disambiguation)

Uji (宇治) is a place in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan.

Uji or UJI may also refer to:
 * Uji (clan) (氏), a Japanese kin group system of the Kofun period
 * Uji (Being-Time) (有時), "Being-Time," a teaching of Zen master Dōgen
 * Jaume I University (Universitat Jaume I, Universidad Jaume I), a university in Castellón de la Plana, Spain
 * Uzi fly, or uji fly, any of a number of fly species that parasitize silkworms
 * Uji, a Kenyan variant of ogi which is a West African fermented porridge made of cereal grain

title: Uji (disambiguation)


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Universal call to holiness

The universal call to holiness is a teaching of the Roman Catholic Church that all people are called to be holy, and is based on Matthew 5:48: "Be you therefore perfect, as also your heavenly Father is perfect". In the first book of the Bible, the call to holiness is expressed in the Lord's words to Abraham: "Walk before me, and be blameless".

Description
Chapter V of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium discusses the Universal Call to Holiness:"...all the faithful of Christ of whatever rank or status, are called to the fullness of the Christian life and to the perfection of charity; ...They must follow in His footsteps and conform themselves to His image seeking the will of the Father in all things. They must devote themselves with all their being to the glory of God and the service of their neighbor."

Pope Benedict XVI spoke on the Universal Call to Holiness during his General Audience of Wednesday, 13 April 2011, saying: "...The saints expressed in various ways the powerful and transforming presence of the Risen One. They let Jesus so totally overwhelm their life that they could say with St Paul “it is no longer I who live, but Christ who lives in me” (Gal 2:20). Following their example, seeking their intercession, entering into communion with them, “brings us closer to Christ, so our companionship with the saints joins us to Christ, from whom as from their fountain and head issue every grace and the life of the People of God itself” (cf. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium, n. 50).

At the end of this series of Catecheses, therefore, I would like to offer some thoughts on what holiness is. What does it mean to be holy? Who is called to be holy? We are often led to think that holiness is a goal reserved for a few elect. St Paul, instead, speaks of God’s great plan and says: “even as he (God) chose us in him [Christ] before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and blameless before him” (Eph 1:4). And he was speaking about all of us. At the centre of the divine plan is Christ in whom God shows his Face, in accord with the favour of his will. The Mystery hidden in the centuries is revealed in its fullness in the Word made flesh. And Paul then says: “in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell” (Col 1:19)...

The Second Vatican Council, in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, speaks with clarity of the universal call to holiness, saying that no one is excluded: “The forms and tasks of life are many but holiness is one — that sanctity which is cultivated by all who act under God’s Spirit and… follow Christ, poor, humble and cross-bearing, that they may deserve to be partakers of his glory” (Lumen Gentium, n. 41)"

The universal call to holiness is rooted in baptism, and the Paschal Mystery, which configures a person to Jesus Christ who is truly God and truly man, thus uniting a person with the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, bringing him in communion with intra-trinitarian life.

Ben Sira taught about lay people that "without these cannot a city be inhabited," and "they will maintain the state of the world, and all their desire is in the work of their craft."

Since 1928, St. Josemaría Escrivá, the founder of Opus Dei, also preached the universal call to holiness especially for lay people living an everyday life and doing ordinary work: "There is something holy, something divine, hidden in the most ordinary situations, and it is up to each of you to discover it."

John Paul II states in his apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte, his apostolic letter for the new millennium, a "program for all times", that holiness is not only a state but a task, whereby Christians should strive for a full Christian life, imitating Christ, God the Son, who gave his life for God the Father and for his neighbor. This entails a "training in the art of prayer". According to the Pope, all pastoral initiatives have to be set in relation to holiness, as this has to be the topmost priority of the Church. The universal call to holiness is explained as more fundamental than the vocational discernment to particular ways of life such as priesthood, marriage, or virginity.

At the core of the spirituality of a Catholic is this call to perfection.

title: Universal call to holiness


text: User talk:67.127.149.5

title: User talk:67.127.149.5


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White-eyed vireo

The white-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus) is a small songbird of the family Vireonidae.

Distribution and habitat
It breeds in the eastern United States from New England west to northern Missouri and south to Texas and Florida, and also in eastern Mexico, northern Central America, Cuba and the Bahamas. Populations on the US Gulf Coast and further south are resident, but most North American birds migrate south in winter. This vireo frequents bushes and shrubs in abandoned cultivation or overgrown pastures.

Breeding
They nest near the ground in tangled thickets, they are made of weeds, leaves, grass, bark or any trash. The grass-lined nest is a neat cup shape, attached to a fork in a tree branch by spider webs. It lays 3–5 dark-spotted white eggs. Both the male and female incubate the eggs for 12–16 days. The young leave the nest 9–11 days after hatching.

Description
Measurements:

 * Length: 4.3-5.1 in (11-13 cm)
 * Weight: 0.3-0.5 oz (10-14 g)
 * Wingspan: 6.7 in (17 cm)

Its head and back are a greyish olive, and the underparts are white with yellow flanks. The wings and tail are dark, and there are two white wing bars on each wing. The eyes have white irises, and are surrounded by yellow spectacles. Sexes are similar.

Call
The white-eyed vireo's song is a variable and rapid six to seven note phrase, starting and ending with a sharp chick.

Diet
During the breeding season, the diet of this species consists almost exclusively of insects, primarily caterpillars. In the autumn and winter it supplements its diet of insects with berries.

Taxonomy
The white-eyed vireo was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1780 in his Histoire naturelle des oiseaux. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Tanagra grisea in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées. Buffon specified that his specimen had come from Louisiana, but in 1945 the type locality was restricted to New Orleans. The white-eyed vireo is now placed in the genus Vireo was introduced in 1808 by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot. The word vireo was used by Latin authors for a small green migratory bird, probably a Eurasian golden oriole but a European greenfinch has also been suggested. The specific epithet griseus is Medieval Latin for grey.

Six subspecies are recognised:
 * V. g. griseus (Boddaert, 1783) – central and east US (includes noveboracensis)
 * V. g. maynardi Brewster, 1887 – south Florida (southeast US)
 * V. g. bermudianus Bangs & Bradlee, 1901 – Bermuda
 * V. g. micrus Nelson, 1899 – south Texas (south US) and northeast Mexico
 * V. g. perquisitor Nelson, 1900 – east Mexico
 * V. g. marshalli Phillips, AR, 1991 – east central Mexico

The northern subspecies, V. g. noveboracensis, occupies most of the range of this species and is fully migratory. This sub-species is larger and has more brightly colored plumage than all other subspecies.

The resident southeastern coastal plain race, V. g. griseus is a slightly smaller and duller colored subspecies. It does not typically migrate out of its breeding range in the winter.

The resident Florida Keys race, V. g. maynardi, is greyer above and whiter below, and the south Texan V. g. micrus is like a smaller maynardi.

V. g. bermudianus is endemic to Bermuda, where it is known as the Chick of the Village. This has shorter wings and a duller plumage. Along with other endemic and native Bermudian birds, it was threatened with extinction following the loss of 8 million Bermuda cedar trees in the 1940s, and is now quite rare. This species is listed under the Bermuda Protected Species Act 2003.

title: White-eyed vireo


text: User talk:66.159.212.152

title: User talk:66.159.212.152


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Humboldt Sink

The Humboldt Sink is an intermittent dry lake bed, approximately 11 mi (18 km) long, and 4 mi (6 km) across, in northwestern Nevada in the United States. The body of water in the sink is known as Humboldt Lake. The sink and its surrounding area was a notorious and dreaded portion (called the Forty Mile Desert) of overland travel to California during the westward migrations of the mid-1800s, which were largely undertaken along the California Trail.

Humboldt Sink is located between the West Humboldt Range (to the southeast) and the Trinity Range (to the northwest), on the border between Pershing and Churchill counties, approximately 50 mi (80 km) northeast of Reno. It is fed from the northeast by the 330 miles (530 km) long Humboldt River, the second longest river in the Great Basin of North America (after the Bear River). Interstate 80 passes along the northwest side of the sink.

The sink has no natural outlet. A channel connecting it with the Carson Sink was cut by the Nevada Department of Transportation in 1984 to prevent Interstate 80 and the town of Lovelock from flooding after heavy snowfall in the preceding three years. As of 2004, this channel has been dry since 1986. The sink, along with the Carson Sink, is remnants of the larger prehistoric Lake Lahontan that existed at the end of the last ice age, approximately 13,000 years ago.

The sink is protected as part of the Humboldt Wildlife Management Area. Wetlands in and near the sink, such as the Humboldt Salt Marsh provide important nesting, foraging, and resting habitat to large numbers of migratory birds.

The sink has a long history of human habitation. In addition to Lovelock Cave, an outcrop in the West Humboldt Range in which 2000-year-old duck decoys have been found, there is also evidence of huts constructed in the bed of Lake Humboldt. Evidence from these important archaeological sites suggests that Native Americans hunted and fished in the Humboldt Sink during wetter climatic periods.

These landforms are named for the Humboldt River, which is in turn named after German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt.

title: Humboldt Sink


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Concerto Italiano

Concerto Italiano is an Italian early music ensemble well known for their interpretations of Monteverdi and Vivaldi, among others. The historically informed performance ensemble was formed by the harpsichordist Rinaldo Alessandrini, and made its Rome debut with Francesco Cavalli's La Calisto in 1984. Since then, Concerto Italiano has recorded Monteverdi madrigals, which have won numerous awards, including the Gramophone Award three times. Other major international awards garnered by this ensemble include Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik, Prix de la Nouivelle Académie du disque, Premio internationale del disco Antonio Vivaldi (Cini Foundation), and the Prix de l'Académie Charles Cros.

Concerto Italiano is under exclusive contract with OPUS 111, which is now under the umbrella of the large French label, Naïve. Most recently, with conjunction with the National University Library in Turin, Concerto Italiano has been recording all the operas and concertos of Vivaldi, many of which have not been performed for over 300 years. Highlights include Concerto Italiano's recordings of the opera L'Olimpiade, La Senna Festeggiante, Le Quattro Stagioni (hailed as one of the best versions of the work by Gramophone), Vespri Solenni per la Festa dell'Assunzione di Maria Vergine (a reconstruction of a possible Vespers for the Ascension of the Virgin Mary and 2004 Gramophone winner for Baroque Vocal), and in 2004, an entire CD devoted to Vivaldi's Concerti per Archi.

title: Concerto Italiano


text: Category:Dienes

title: Category:Dienes


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Category:Alkenes

Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

title: Category:Alkenes


text: Category:Polymers

title: Category:Polymers


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Category:Human rights instruments

Human rights instruments in force in the world for the protection of basic rights, and historically important human rights instruments.

title: Category:Human rights instruments


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Neoclassic (automobile)

A neoclassic, in automobile circles, is a relatively modern car that is made somewhat in the image of the classic cars of the 1920s and 1930s (as defined by, for example, the Classic Car Club of America) without being necessarily intended as a full replica. They are vehicles that hold the design prior to Ponton design, so they still keep the wheel arches separate from the bodywork.

The term originated with the Excalibur automobile in the 1960s in the United States, and has been applied to cars from a number of makes since then, including Panther, Zimmer, Clénet, Mitsuoka, Desande, Spartan and others. Currently there are more than 30 brands that produce Neoclassic cars.

title: Neoclassic (automobile)


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Talk:Cutting edge

I realise that this entry is dangerously close to being a definition only. user:mmj

title: Talk:Cutting edge


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Talk:Traveller aliens

What sci-fi universe is this? This better be a sci-fi universe. :) jengod 05:48, Jun 2, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Traveller aliens


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Category talk:Transgender

Untitled
Wouldn't simply "Transgender" be a better name for this category? The "-related topics" suffix seems redundant, considering that's what categories are all about. Bryan 05:51, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I did that in order to keep it in line with the Category:Gay-related topics first created, and to avoid deleting it outright. But I think your point is fairly pertinent - what do you suggest? Dysprosia 05:55, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Hm. I didn't see those categories before. My personal feeling is that all of the "-related topics" bits should be removed, but this isn't really my field so I'm not going to press for it. If that's what the consensus turns out to be, though, I'll offer to contribute some of my elbow grease changing links and such. Bryan 06:14, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Critique An Article

- This article is a very basic outline of what the term transgender is. The only true information found on the article page is the definition of "transgender" and then a bunch of links to sub-topics and other related pages.

- Almost all of the links to pages of sub-topics and related pages are relevant however I did find there to be multiple instances of superfluous additions. Therefore, not all of the links are relevant and do have the possibility to act as a distraction.

- The basic layout of the article allows for it to be neutral and not have any biased claims.

- Many of the links did work, but there were also a bunch that were not linked at all or brought you to a different page with no information on the topic meant to be researched

- I believe that much more information could be added onto this page. While all of the additional links to sub-topics are useful, I think that a lot of the information could be much more easily accessible if it was all formatted into the one page. I think that a history of transgender culture and prejudice would be very necessary to add, as well as the progress that the transgender community has made over time. I also think that it is very necessary to talk about current issues facing the transgender community, and how those who are transgender are viewed in different cultures and religions. These are all ideas that my team could possibly create and add as a part of this project.

1) How was the term 'transgender' coined? 2) Who was the first outwardly transgender person in history? Jannacorsetti (talk) 18:24, 22 November 2016 (UTC)

Deadnames
I think we should remove deadnames from the pages for trans people or make them more hidden. Information is important, but I don't see how much use deadnames have except enabling transphobia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.63.246.114 (talk) 02:10, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Transgender


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Húsafell

Húsafell is a sprawling farm and church estate and the former site of a rectory. It is the innermost farm in Borgarfjörður in the west county of Iceland, not far from Reykholt and Reykholtsdalur. Húsafell farm now serves as a hub of service for various types of tourists visiting and residing in its surrounding area. The Húsafell surrounding area thus includes a wide array of second homes, tent sites, holiday housing and short term lodgings. Among its amenities are a swimming pool and a golf course. The wider Borgarfjörður region is also renowned for its multitude of lakes where there is trout to be had and salmon to be lured in the many rivers where it is possible to go fishing.

The actual estate of Húsafell farm stretches all the way to the roots of Eiríksjökull and Langjökull, covering all in all an area of appr. 100 square kilometers. The farm itself is situated in the midst of Hallmundarhraun, and the Húsafell birch wood of Húsafellsskógur. Due to its sunny and warm summer climate and natural calmness of its surrounding stretch of lava, Húsafell and its surrounding area played host to Iceland's most popular outdoor music festivals during the 1960s and the 1970s.

In the near vicinity of Húsafell are the natural attractions of Barnafoss and Hraunfossar waterfalls as well as the caves of Víðgelmir and Surtshellir. There are also many exciting hiking trails to be experienced in the area, as well as the more organized tours on offer to see the glaciers Eiríksjökull or Langjökull, and excursions across the Arnarvatnsheiði highland or all the south across the Kaldidalur highland.

In the olden days, back when the main route from the northern part of Iceland to the south lay across Arnarvatnsheiði, Húsafell would find itself to be an oasis of food and lodgings for weary travellers making their way across this country highway. Húsafell was indeed a popular stopover for many overnight visitors in the not so distant past, and lately, the idea of laying a country highway from Húsafell and across Stórisandur up to the North Country has resurfaced, albeit with today's motorized vehicles in mind.

Natural features in the area include the Hraunfossar, where water comes out from a lava field over a length of about 1 km. They are placed in a setting of birch wood. The trees here grow up to 4 m. The caves of another lava field, Hallmundarhraun are also not too far away (e.g. the Surtshellir cave).

In the 19th century, there was a colony of artists living at Húsafell. One of these was the Icelandic painter Jóhannes S. Kjarval. Today, the sculptor Páll Guðmundsson, a descendant of the Húsafell, lives and works at creating interesting faces which he cuts out of local stone. The Húsafell Stone, a rock stored in a sheep pen built by pastor Snorri Björnsson, is a legendary lifting stone which has been used in international competitions.

title: Húsafell


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List of Icelandic visual artists

Art has existed in Iceland since the first settlements, but it was only at the beginning of the 20th century that Icelandic artists came to an international reputation. Mostly, they had studied in other countries, e.g. in Denmark.

The most important motifs for Icelandic painters were the nature of their home country and the human being, but they also used mythical and supernatural themes as well as socio-realistic motives.

Around 1960 the Swiss-German artist Dieter Roth moved to Iceland. His engagement with the Icelandic art scene was of great importance in introducing movements such as conceptual art, Fluxus, happenings, body art, life art and social sculpture, which since have formed a basis for Icelandic Contemporary Art.

Painters

 * Ásgrímur Jónsson (1876–1958)
 * Jóhannes Geir Jónsson (1927–2003)
 * Jóhannes Sveinsson Kjarval (1885–1972)
 * Þórarinn Þorláksson (1867–1924)
 * Jón Stefánsson (1881–1962)
 * Einar Jónsson (1863–1922)
 * Guðmundur Thorsteinsson (1891–1924)
 * Gunnlaugur Scheving (1904–1972)
 * Þorvaldur Skúlason (1906–1984)
 * Karl Kvaran (1924–1989)
 * Svavar Guðnason (1909–1988)
 * Nína Tryggvadóttir (1913–1968)
 * Louisa Matthíasdóttir (1917–2000)
 * Erró (Guðmundur Guðmundson, born 1932)
 * Bjarni Jónsson (artist) (1934–2008)
 * Haukur Halldórsson (born 1937)
 * Einar Hákonarson (born 1945)
 * Jón Óskar (born 1954)
 * Brian Pilkington (born 1950)

Contemporary artists

 * Heimir Björgúlfsson (born 1975)
 * Gabríela Fridriksdóttir (born 1971)
 * Kristján Guðmundsson (born 1941)
 * Gunnhildur Hauksdóttir (born 1972)
 * Ragnar Kjartansson (born 1976)
 * Steina Vasulka (born Steinunn Briem Bjarnadottir in 1940)
 * Hugleikur Dagsson (born in 1977)
 * Sigurður Guðjónsson (born 1975)
 * Erla S. Haraldsdóttir (born 1967)

Sculptors

 * Ólafur Elíasson (1967–), Danish–Icelandic
 * Johann Eyfells (1923–2019)
 * Gerður Helgadóttir (1928–1975)
 * Einar Jónsson | Einar Jónsson (1874–1954)
 * Gunnfríður Jónsdóttir (1889–1968)
 * Ríkharður Jónsson (1888–1977)
 * Páll Guðmundsson (born 1959)
 * Sigurjón Òlafsson (1908-1982)
 * Þorbjörg Pálsdóttir (1915–2009)
 * Nína Sæmundsson (1892–1965)
 * Katrín Sigurdardóttir (born 1967)
 * Ásmundur Sveinsson (1893–1982)
 * Steinunn Thorarinsdottir (born 1955)

Photographers

 * Ragnar Axelsson (RAX)
 * Sigfús Eymundsson (1837–1911)
 * Rebekka Guðleifsdóttir (born 1978)

Architects

 * Guðjón Samúelsson (1887–1950)
 * Gísli Halldórsson (1914–1998)

Actors

 * Anita Briem
 * Baltasar Kormákur
 * Edda Björgvinsdóttir
 * Heida Reed
 * Hera Hilmar
 * Hilmir Snær Guðnason
 * Ingvar E. Sigurðsson
 * Magnús Scheving
 * Stefán Karl Stefánsson
 * Steinunn Ólína Þorsteinsdóttir
 * Tómas Lemarquis

title: List of Icelandic visual artists


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User:Mimer

Yet another very happy user! :-)

title: User:Mimer


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Ann Dvorak

Ann Dvorak (born Anna McKim; August 2, 1911 – December 10, 1979) was an American stage and film actress.

Asked how to pronounce her adopted surname, she told The Literary Digest in 1936: "My fake name is properly pronounced vor'shack. The D remains silent. I have had quite a time with the name, having been called practically everything from Balzac to Bickelsrock."

Early years
Dvorak was the daughter and only child of silent film actress Anna Lehr and director Edwin McKim. While in New York, she attended St. Catherine's Convent. After moving to California, she attended Page School for Girls in Hollywood.

She made her film debut when she was five years old in the silent film version of Ramona (1916), credited as "Baby Anna Lehr." She continued in children's roles in The Man Hater (1917) and Five Dollar Plate (1920), but then stopped acting in films. Her parents separated in 1916 and divorced in 1920; she did not see her father again until 13 years later, when she made a public plea to the press to help her find him.

Career
In the late 1920s, Dvorak worked as an assistant choreographer to Sammy Lee at MGM and gradually began to appear on film uncredited usually as a chorus girl or in bit parts. Her friend, actress Karen Morley, introduced her to billionaire movie producer Howard Hughes, who groomed her as a dramatic actress. She was a success in such pre-Code films as Scarface (1932) as Paul Muni's sister; in Three on a Match (1932) with Bette Davis and Joan Blondell as the doomed, unstable Vivian; in The Crowd Roars (1932) with James Cagney; and in Sky Devils (1932) opposite Spencer Tracy. Known for her style and elegance, she was a popular leading lady for Warner Bros. during the 1930s, and appeared in numerous contemporary romances and melodramas.

At age 19, Dvorak eloped with Leslie Fenton, her English co-star from The Strange Love of Molly Louvain (1932), and they married on March 17, 1932. They left for a year-long honeymoon in spite of her contractual obligations to the studio, which led to a period of litigation and pay disputes during which she discovered she was making the same amount of money as the boy who played her son in Three on a Match. She completed her contract on permanent suspension, then worked as a freelancer. Although she worked regularly, the quality of her scripts declined sharply.

She appeared as secretary Della Street to Donald Woods' Perry Mason in The Case of the Stuttering Bishop (1937). With her then-husband, Leslie Fenton, Dvorak traveled to England where she supported the war effort by working as an ambulance driver and acted in several British films. She appeared as a saloon singer in Abilene Town with Randolph Scott and Edgar Buchanan, released in 1946. The following year she adeptly handled comedy by giving an assured performance in Out of the Blue (1947). In 1948, Dvorak gave her only performance on Broadway in The Respectful Prostitute.

Later years and death
Dvorak's marriage to Fenton ended in divorce in 1946. In 1947, she married Igor Dega, a Russian dancer who danced with her briefly in The Bachelor's Daughters. The marriage ended two years later.

Dvorak retired from the screen in 1952, when she married her third and last husband, Nicholas Wade, to whom she remained married until his death in 1975. She had no children. In 1959, she and her husband moved to Hawaii, which she had always loved.

Several weeks before her death, she suffered severe stomach pains. She was diagnosed with terminal cancer. She died on December 10, 1979, aged 68, in Honolulu. She was cremated and her ashes scattered off Waikiki Beach.

Legacy
Dvorak has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6321 Hollywood Boulevard for her contribution to motion pictures. It was dedicated February 8, 1960.

Short subjects

 * The Five Dollar Plate (1920)
 * The Doll Shop (1929) as One of the Dolls (uncredited)
 * Manhattan Serenade (1929) as Chorus Girl (uncredited)
 * The Song Writers' Revue (1930) as Member of the Chorus (uncredited)
 * The Flower Garden (1930) as Member of Chorus
 * Pirates (1930) as Chorus Girl (uncredited)
 * The Snappy Caballero (1931)
 * A Trip Thru a Hollywood Studio (1935) as Herself (uncredited)

title: Ann Dvorak


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Aronia

Aronia is a genus of deciduous shrubs, the chokeberries, in the family Rosaceae native to eastern North America and most commonly found in wet woods and swamps. The genus Aronia is considered to have 3 species. The most common and widely used is Aronia melanocarpa (black chokeberry) which emerged from Eastern North America. The lesser known Aronia arbutifolia (red chokeberry) and the hybrid form of the abovementioned species called Aronia prunifolia (purple chokeberry) were first cultivated in Central and Eastern North America. In the eighteenth century, the first shrubs of the best-known species Aronia melanocarpa reached Europe where they were first cultivated in Scandinavia and Russia.

Chokeberries are cultivated as an ornamental plant and as a food plant. The sour berries, or aronia berries, can be eaten fresh off the bush, but are more frequently processed. They can be used to make wine, jam, syrup, juice, soft spreads, tea, salsa, extracts, beer, ice cream, gummies, and tinctures. The name "chokeberry" comes from the astringency of the fruits, which create the sensation of making one's mouth pucker.

Chokeberries are often mistakenly called chokecherries, the common name for Prunus virginiana. Further adding to the ambiguity, a variety of Prunus virginiana is melanocarpa, and readily confused with black chokeberry because it is commonly referred to as "black chokeberry" or "aronia". Aronia berries and chokecherries both contain polyphenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, yet the two plants are only distantly related within the Rosaceae. Black chokeberry is grown as a common shrub in Central Europe where it is mainly used for food production.

Identification and taxonomy
The leaves are alternate, simple, and oblanceolate with crenate margins and pinnate venation; in autumn, the leaves turn a bold red color. Dark trichomes are present on the upper midrib surface. The flowers are small, with five petals and five sepals, and produced in corymbs of 10–25 together. The hypanthium is urn-shaped. The fruit is a small pome, with an astringent flavor.

Aronia has been thought to be closely related to Photinia, and has been included in that genus in some classifications, but botanist Cornelis Kalkman observed that a combined genus should be under the older name Aronia. The combined genus contains about 65 species. In 2004, Kalkman expressed doubt about the monophyly of the combined group, and new molecular studies confirm this. They do not place these two genera together or even near one another.

In eastern North America, two well-known species are named after their fruit color, red chokeberry and black chokeberry, plus a purple chokeberry whose origin is a natural hybrid of the two. What has been regarded as a fourth species, Aronia mitschurinii, that apparently originated in cultivation, is now treated as × Sorbaronia fallax.

Soil and climate requirements
The chokeberry is a characteristic shrub of the northern hemisphere. Its climatic requirements are temperate and cool temperatures. The shrubs are extremely winter hardy and can survive temperatures down to –30 °C without damage if they are in winter dormancy. After flowers form in late April/early May, the plants become sensitive to frost. Chokeberries are usually planted in early spring after thaw but autumn is also possible if the plantation is mulched or snow covered during frost.

The chokeberry has a shallow and compact root system and thrives in humus and nutrient rich soils that are frost free, unflooded and with a rather low groundwater level. While the plant is moisture-loving, it also tolerates dry periods. Depending on the timing and intensity, these dry periods are yield limiting. While the crop needs more than 500 mm of precipitation, good yields can be obtained at 700–800 mm. Furthermore, chokeberries are sun loving and usually thrive better under direct sunlight rather than in shade.

Seedbed requirements and sowing
Chokeberries grows on medium-heavy soils, which can be neutral to slightly acidic. Before planting, it is advisable to promote soil structure and humus formation, which can be enhanced by green manuring using organic fertilizers and deep tillage of the soil. Planting chokeberries in an existing grass plot is not recommended, due to the strong competition of weeds in the understock area. Commonly, two-to-three-year-old bare-root plants are set between October and November. Machine planting places about 3000 seedlings per hectare, each 20–25 cm deep into the soil. Plant distance is 60 cm and row distance is given by the harvest machine.

Crop sequence requirements
If chokeberries are planted directly after a previous cultivation of other Rosaceae, an intercrop such as cereals is recommended, as well as staggered row planting, since chokeberries might suffer from a replant disease (also: soil fatigue).

Cultivation management
For the first two years, much attention should be given to keeping the understock area clear during maintenance. The understock maintenance can be done by machine hacking or by using a string trimmer with protection. Covering the plant strip with mulch also helps to minimize weeds. When maintaining the alley, it is important to cut it every 3–4 weeks. The young plants are sensitive to drought stress, so proper watering should be guaranteed. At the beginning the plant needs to put its energy into vegetative growth, therefore it helps to remove flower buds. In order to achieve a balanced fruit quality in the long term, the plant, which grows as a shrub, should be trimmed regularly. Furthermore, uniform plant stands are easier to manage and harvest by machine. As a rule, chokeberry branches achieve the highest yields in the 5-6 year period, so cutting is not done again until the 7th year.

The aim of both the mechanical and the manual cutting system, is to let the shrubs grow into a closed hedge. While in the mechanical cutting the whole plant is cut back to a few centimeters above the ground every 6th year during the winter dormancy. The manual cutting removes the oldest shoots, the weak annual shoots and those shoots that are inside the cane slightly above the base of the cane in the winter dormancy. In the case of manual cutting, the ages of 1-6 year old shoots should be present in equal proportions after cutting, thus the chokeberry forms robust shoots and allows uniform harvests from year to year.

Fertilization requirements
For optimal fertilization, collecting soil samples before the planting of the seedlings is required. The soil analysis enables planning of effective fertilizer applications. In the first two years, after planting the seedlings, there must be enough nutrients in the soil so that the seedlings can grow optimally, including phosphate (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) and, therefore, they should be present at the beginning of vegetation period. When potassium levels in the soil are low, the nutrients can be supplied via cattle manure and cattle slurry. If the potassium content in the soil is high, it is better to use compost, since a too high potassium concentration inhibits the uptake of magnesium, calcium and ammonium. However, there is no need to be too sensitive about potassium levels in the first few years, since a high amount is basically needed. It is clear that nitrogen fertilization is necessary. Often, one half is applied at the beginning of vegetation period and the other half at flowering. Since the plant already has a greater growth potential in the second year, the amounts of fertilizer can be increased a little. From the third year on, the chokeberry has the full nutrient requirement. Depending on the vigor, wood maturity and yield, the fertilizer quantities can be slightly adjusted upwards or downwards. Through the targeted strip fertilization, the amount of fertilizer can be reduced by 1/3, which may be of economic interest to the cultivator.

Breeding
One part of the breeding efforts focuses on improving red chokeberries for their use as ornamental plants. Breeding goals include the reduction of the plants stature, reduction of its tendency towards legginess, increasing the fruit size and improving leaf retention for a longer lasting fall foliage. Breeding of the red chokeberry is difficult, because the available accessions are tetraploid plants and thus, are likely to produce apomictic seeds. Furthermore, the breeding of polyploids makes mutation breeding more challenging because the additional sets of chromosome can mask incomplete mutations. If breeders had access to a wild diploid A. arbutifolia breeding would arguably become more successful.

The breeding success of the black chokeberry for food production in Europe and Russia has been restricted because the genetic pool of the domesticated Russian plants is homogeneous. Breeding efforts aim to increase the content of polyphenol compounds while maintaining or increasing the fruit size. Further breeding targets are improvement of flavor.

Harvest and post-harvest treatment
The continuous monitoring of fruit development helps to determine the specific time of harvest. To monitor the fruit development about 200 berries per hectare are removed, mixed and pressed into juice. From this juice the sugar content can be measured, which should be between 15 and 20° Brix, because only then the sugar content is high enough to overtone the tannins in taste.

The harvest of the chokeberry takes place between the end of August and the beginning of September. In this time span, there are fruits of different ripeness on the shrub. While the upper part is often already ripe, the lower part is not yet edible. A recommended harvest time is when the upper berries begin to shrivel slightly, but do not yet show any weight loss. In this way, a large part can be harvested in an optimal ripening state while the other part can still post-ripen.

Harvesting is done by hand, especially for fresh sales and the production of dried berries, where the appearance of the berries is important. The majority of other harvesting is done by machine. In manual harvesting, cleanly harvested fruits are stored in bunches. Thus, about 7 kg can be picked by hand per working hour. It is important that the berries are processed the same day to keep the quality high. For mechanical harvesting, the bushes are pulled in sideways by the harvesting machine and the berries are knocked off with sticks. Machine harvesting requires three people and the machine can harvest one hectare in one day. In the case of mechanical harvesting, many berries are injured after harvesting and in any case should be processed the same day.

Yield
After growing chokeberries from seeds it takes between 3 and 5 years until the plants begin to yield fruits. However, from a parent plant up to 20 rooted plants can be derived which already start yielding after 2 to 3 years. After the plants are fully matured a well growing plantation can yield between 3 and 12 tonnes of chokeberry fruits per hectare.

Pests and diseases
Chokeberries have a low susceptibility to plant diseases and only little problems with pests. Their resistance makes chokeberries a well suited crop for organic agriculture. The high content of flavonoids in the fruits and their acidic taste are likely to protect the chokeberry against pathogens and pests.

Here is a list of some possible pests and diseases of chokeberries:

Pests

Also, birds, mice and deer might feed on different parts of the chokeberry and thereby damage the plant.
 * Aphids e.g., apple aphid (Aphis pomi), woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum)
 * Mites e.g., leaf blister mite (Eriophyes piri)
 * Drosophila suzukii – some studies found that Drosophila suzukii mainly infests damaged or destemmed fruits, while intact fruits are more resistant
 * Tooth-nose snout weevils (Rhynchitidae)
 * Wasps
 * Cockchafer grub
 * Codling moth

Fungal diseases

 * Dead arm disease (Phomopsis viticola)
 * Rusts (Pucciniales)
 * Powdry mildew (Erysiphales)

Bacterial diseases

 * Pseudomonas syringae
 * An infection with fire blight is theoretically possible, as chokeberries belong to the family of Rosaceae, but has so far not been observed.

The treatment methods for the different pests and diseases differ depending on the chosen agricultural practice (e.g. organic vs. conventional agriculture). Often mechanical measures can be taken such as ensuring sufficient sunlight and aeration between the plants or spanning nets as a protection against picking birds.

Products and uses
The chokeberries are attractive ornamental plants for gardens. They are naturally understory and woodland edge plants, and grow well when planted under trees. Chokeberries are resistant to drought, insects, pollution, and disease. A number of cultivars, including A. arbutifolia 'Brilliant' and A. melanocarpa 'Autumn magic', have been selected for their striking fall leaf color.

An aronia wine is made in Lithuania and Minnesota. In Poland, aronia berries are added to jams and juices or dried to make an herbal tea sometimes blended with other ingredients, such as blackcurrant. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the berries are sold fresh and frozen or made into juices, jams and teas. Aronia is also used as a flavoring or colorant for beverages or yogurts. Juice from the ripe berries is astringent, semi-sweet (moderate sugar content), sour (low pH), and contains a low level of vitamin C. The berries have a tart flavor and, in addition to juice, can be baked into breads. In the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, aronia juice concentrate is used in manufactured juice blends.

Polyphenols
A. melanocarpa (black chokeberry) has attracted scientific interest due to its deep purple, almost black pigmentation that arises from dense contents of polyphenols, especially anthocyanins. Total polyphenol content is 1752 mg per 100 g dry weight, anthocyanin content is 1480 mg per 100 g dry weight, and proanthocyanidin concentration is 664 mg per 100 g fresh weight. These values are among the highest measured in plants to date. The black aronia species contains higher levels of anthocyanins than purple (Aronia prunifolia) or red aronia (Aronia arbutifolia), whereas red and purple aronia are richer in phenolic acid and proanthocyanins.

The plant produces these pigments mainly in the leaves and skin of the berries to protect the pulp and seeds from constant exposure to ultraviolet radiation and production of free radicals. By absorbing UV rays in the blue-purple spectrum, leaf and skin pigments filter intense sunlight, serve antioxidant functions and thereby have a role assuring regeneration of the species. Brightly colorful pigmentation also attracts birds and other animals to consume the fruit and disperse the seeds in their droppings.

Analysis of polyphenols in chokeberries has identified the following individual chemicals (among hundreds known to exist in the plant kingdom): cyanidin-3-galactoside, cyanidin-3-arabinoside, quercetin-3-glycoside, epicatechin, caffeic acid, delphinidin, petunidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, and malvidin. All these except caffeic acid are members of the flavonoid category of phenolics.

For reference to phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and similar plant-derived phytochemicals, Wikipedia has a list of phytochemicals and foods in which they are prominent.

title: Aronia