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Lexus GS

The Lexus GS (Japanese: レクサス・GS) is an executive car (E-segment in Europe) manufactured and marketed by Lexus across four generations — launched in 1991 as the Toyota Aristo in Japan and as the Lexus GS for markets outside the Japanese market beginning in February 1993. It continued with the Toyota Aristo name for the Japanese market until January 2005.

Lexus marketed the GS as a performance sedan competing in the mid-luxury class, between its compact executive IS and large/flagship LS. The GS shared its chassis with one of Toyota's longest-running nameplates, the Toyota Crown premium sedans until 2011.

The GS featured six-cylinder engines and rear-wheel drive, with V8 engines offered for all generations. All-wheel drive and hybrid versions debuted in 2005. Previously, all-wheel drive versions were already made available in the Japanese-market S140 series Aristo. The first two generations had a Japanese market equivalent, the Toyota Aristo (aristo is Greek for "the best"), which was sold from 1991 until the Lexus marque's Japanese debut in 2005. Though largely identical in exterior and interior design, the GS and the Aristo differed in their engine and transmission combinations as well as equipment packages. The GS name stands for Grand Sedan. However, some Lexus importers use the backronymic name, Grand Sport.

The first generation Lexus GS began sales in the United States, Europe and selected Asian markets in 1993. It was originally introduced with an inline-six engine and exterior bodywork designed by Italdesign Giugiaro. The second generation model premiered in 1997, using a new platform, in-house styling, and adding a V8 version for the first time outside Japan. The third generation GS, which premiered globally for the 2006 model year, was produced in V6, V8, and hybrid versions, the latter known as the GS 450h. The third generation models were the first GS sedans to be badged as such in the Japanese market.

The fourth generation Lexus GS premiered in August 2011 at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, where models introduced included the V6-powered GS 350, hybrid GS 450h, and performance-tuned F Sport variants. A lower-displacement V6 model, the GS 250, premiered at the Auto Guangzhou Exhibition in November 2011, targeted at Asian and European markets. In some markets such as North America and Asia, the GS shares the mid-size sedan category in the Lexus lineup with the front-wheel drive ES, serving as its rear-wheel-drive counterpart.

The GS was replaced in Europe by the Lexus ES from December 2018. The seventh generation ES is the first to be sold in Europe, replacing the GS in spite of being a front-wheel drive car. It went on sale from September 2018 in Russia, Turkey and other CIS markets and from December 2018 in Western and Central Europe. Production ended in August 2020.

First generation (S140; 1991)
Italdesign Giugiaro began the first design drawings of the GS 300 in 1988. The design firm aimed to produce a deluxe sedan which did without the numerous exterior features and detailing found on existing Japanese premium sedans, in favor of a more simplified, European-style appearance. The vehicle's exterior styling blended elements of the then-current Lexus LS flagship and SC performance coupe in a rounded, aerodynamic wedge-like shape which featured a high rear decklid and longer and wider proportions than rival vehicles. The exterior produced a. Color schemes included single-tone bumper and body finishes, along with dual-tone schemes. Similarities with an Italdesign concept car which debuted in 1990, the Jaguar Kensington, led some observers to suggest that the GS 300 was derived from its design, though Italdesign said the GS 300 was developed earlier. Equipped with an independent, double-wishbone suspension setup at both front and rear ends, Italdesign's sedan design first appeared in Toyota Aristo form in Japan in October 1991.

Manufactured at Toyota's Tahara assembly plant in Japan, production of the Aristo involved more automation than previous vehicles built at the Tahara factory; robots performed 4,200 welds on each body, while only eight spot welds were performed by hand.

Toyota of Japan offered two straight-six engine options for the Japanese market Aristo—the 3.0Q and 3.0V. The 3.0Q (JZS147) featured the 2JZ-GE engine which produced 169 kW, while the Aristo 3.0V (JZS147) was equipped with a 24-valve twin-turbo 2JZ-GTE engine which produced 205 kW. The Aristo was available at Toyota Auto Store as the top-level luxury sedan, positioned above the Chaser and Toyota Vista Store above the Cresta. In 1992, a third model, the V8-powered 4.0Zi-Four (UZS143), joined the Aristo lineup. It came installed with iFour all-wheel drive and a 186 kW 1UZ-FE engine.

Production of the export Lexus GS 300 (JZS147) began on 22 February 1993. For Lexus, The GS was placed above the front-wheel drive ES luxury sedan with its superior drivetrain setup, power and available amenities. Lexus only offered the GS with the 3.0-liter 2JZ-GE straight-six, producing 169 kW and 210 lbft of torque.

For the interior, the GS 300 featured walnut wood trim on the center console, leather seating, an automatic tilt-and-telescoping steering wheel, and the option of a Nakamichi premium stereo system. Driver and front passenger airbags were standard. A moonroof, remote 12-CD auto changer, and traction control (TRAC – left hand drive vehicles only) were options.

The GS was intended to take the price position of the original LS 400 flagship, which had moved upmarket since its 1989 launch. By the time of the GS 300's debut, the US$35,000 initial base price of the LS in the United States had climbed to US$47,000, while the GS 300 at debut carried base price of US$38,000. However, sales of the GS 300 were modest, with 1993 seeing the greatest sales at 19,164 sold that year. Sales dropped in later years as the Japanese yen rose in value against the dollar and made the vehicle more expensive than its rivals. Additionally, more powerful V8 sport sedans provided strong competition. By 1997, the price of the GS 300 had risen to US$46,000 1997. Production of the first generation GS sedan ended in July 1997.

1997–2000
In 1993, after sales commenced for the first generation S140 series, development began on the successor under the internally known codenamed S160. The design process began under chief engineer Yasushi Nakagawa in May 1994 and by November 1995 after 18 months of design work, the final production design by Akihiro Nagaya was approved by the executive board. In January 1997, Lexus debuted the "High Performance Sedan" (HPS) concept at the Detroit Auto Show, previewing the design direction for the redesigned GS.

In August 1997, the second generation Toyota Aristo was launched in Japan, codenamed JZS160 (S300 version) for models with 2JZ-GE engines and JZS161 (V300 version) for those with 2JZ-GTE twin-turbocharged engines, remaining exclusive to the former Auto Store network that was combined with Vista Store and renamed Toyota Netz Store Japanese dealerships. VVT-i was now standard, resulting in an increase of torque. The twin-turbocharged version was available with electronic four-wheel steering, VSC electronic stability control and an automatic transmission with a manual sequential mode.

The second generation sedans used a new front-engine, rear-wheel drive midsize platform, also featured in the Japanese-market Toyota Crown. The new model's styling was produced in-house, and featured quadruple headlights (the interior two of which were elliptical) in a fashion similar to the Lexus SC coupe. It had a. Inside, electroluminescent Optitron gauges were offered for the first time, along with an upgraded stereo system. For export markets, the second generation GS began production in the JZS161 body style on 4 August 1997 and was officially launched in October 1997.

Lexus offered the GS 300 once again and featured a slightly revised version of the previous generation's 3.0-liter straight-six now producing 168 kW and 305 Nm of torque. Answering customer requests for more power, the American market GS 400 (UZS160) was equipped with the 4.0-liter 1UZ-FE V8 that produced 224 kW and 310 ftlb of torque. Both models featured a five-speed automatic transmission with the GS 400 receiving steering wheel shift buttons. As with the S140 series, no turbocharged variants were offered outside Japan. The 5.7 second 0 - 60 mph time of the GS 400 prompted Lexus marketing to claim that the GS was the world's fastest production sedan at its introduction in 1997.

Lexus promoted the arrival of the second generation GS sedan with the tagline, "Something Wicked This Way Comes". Compared to its predecessor, the second generation GS sedan was a much bigger success, with sales reaching 30,622 vehicles in its first year, increasing in the second, and stabilizing at 28,079 vehicles by 2000. Lexus would keep the second generation vehicle in its lineup for eight years, a longer duration than the prior generation. The U.S. base price for the GS 300 and GS 430 averaged approximately US$38,000 and US$47,000 respectively.

The GS was Motor Trend's Import Car of the Year for 1998. It also made Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 1998 through 2000. In IIHS frontal crash testing the 1999 and newer GS was given a "Good" overall score.

2000–2005
A facelift in 2000, for the 2001 model year was the only major design change of the second generation GS. There was a slightly revised grille, revised tail lights, and subtly tinted headlamps on the front end. Xenon headlamps became standard equipment with the V8 engine and optional on six-cylinder cars. More interior wood trim was added, and steering wheel shift buttons were added to the GS 300. The V8 engine also received a 0.3-liter increase in displacement, so the model designation changed to GS 430 (Toyota type code UZS161). Peak power was unchanged, but torque increased to 325 lbft. The GS 430 took 5.7 seconds to go from 0 - 60 mph.

SportDesign package
For the 2002 model year, Lexus offered a limited production GS 300 "SportDesign" package for North America; this performance/trim package offered the GS 300 the same firmly-tuned suspension and "L-tuned" steering ECU module that were both standard equipment on the GS 430, along with a rear lip spoiler and polished alloy wheels. Other features include special badging, titanium-like HID headlamps, and a chrome grille. The SportDesign package interior-wise added perforated leather upholstery, uniquely branded door sills along with brushed aluminum and dark stained walnut trim. A version of the SportDesign that included Navigation with a Mark Levinson sound system was also offered. The SportDesign trim package was offered from the 2002 through 2003 model years.

2005–2007
In 1999, development commenced on a successor to the S160 under chief engineer, Shigetoshi Miyoshi. Styling for both the exterior and interior was done under lead designer Yasuhide Hosoda between 2000 and 2002, during which L-finesse came to fruition in 2001. By 2002, a design was finalized, to be introduced the following year. In October 2003, Lexus debuted the LF-S (Lexus Future Sedan), a concept car which previewed the design of the upcoming GS. The design patent was filed by Toyota on 22 December 2003 in domestic Japanese patent offices, preceding an imminent public unveiling. The third generation GS first appeared as a pre-production vehicle at the 2004 North American International Auto Show on 5 January, riding on a then new architecture N platform, with the production version being shown at the same show in January 2005.

Production of the third generation began on 24 January 2005, without release of an equivalent Toyota Aristo, as Toyota had introduced the Lexus channel to Japan and sought to align all world markets using Lexus as their luxury brand worldwide. The third generation GS was the introductory Lexus model for the marque's new L-finesse design philosophy, indicating the future direction of the Lexus lineup; it featured a fastback profile, retained quad headlights, LED tailamps, and one-piece bumpers. This generation GS had a, and used a newly designed midsize platform later shared with the second generation IS.

In September 2005, the GS 350 (GRS191) and GS 430 (UZS190) went on sale in Japan; the GS 350 using a 3.5-liter 2GR-FSE engine with D4-S direct injection, while the GS 430 used the same 4.3-liter 3UZ-FE V8 engine used in the previous model. Sales in the US began in March 2006, with the initial lineup including the GS 300 (GRS190), featuring a ULEV certified 3.0-liter 3GR-FSE V6 engine, and the GS 430 featuring the 4.3-liter V8. All GS models at launch featured a new six-speed automatic sequential shift gearbox. An all-wheel drive system was made available in the GS 300.

Unveiled at the 2005 New York International Auto Show, the hybrid GS 450h (GWS191) joined the GS line in 2006 for the 2007 model year. GS Hybrid production started in February 2006. It was the first mass-production rear-wheel drive luxury hybrid car, featuring the naturally aspirated 3.5-liter 2GR-FSE V6 engine mated to two electric motors and a planetary type continuously variable transmission (CVT). This powertrain made use of the Lexus Hybrid Drive system of integrating electric and gasoline engine motors, giving the GS 450h a Super Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (SULEV) emissions rating, and total output of 253 kW, allowing the GS to accelerate 0 - 60 mph in 5.2 seconds, according to manufacturer data.

New to the GS line was an electric power steering (EPS) system, and both the V8 and hybrid models featured a variable gear ratio steering (VGRS) system and Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB) a type of brake-by-wire system. V8 and hybrid models also featured an adaptive suspension system that individually altered suspension damper firmness. Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) was standard on the GS 430, 460, and 450h models and coupled to VGRS, with which it could alter steering gear ratios.

Standard safety features on the GS ranged from multiple airbags, including knee airbags and front row side torso airbags, to adaptive headlights, anti-lock braking, electronic brakeforce distribution, brake assist and electronic stability control. The radar-based pre-collision system with an autonomous cruise control system was optional. The GS 450h was among the first vehicles to receive the infrared Driver Monitoring System for driver attentiveness. For the 2007 model year, the GS 350 replaced the GS 300 in the US and several other export markets.

The GS interior was available with leather bird's-eye maple or walnut trim. Major standard features ranged from a 10-way driver and front passenger power and heated seats with three-position Lexus Memory System, SmartAccess keyless system with push-button start, a driver-side hidden drop-down panel for infrequently used controls, standard 7 inch touchscreen display, and LED lighting in the cabin. Unique to the Lexus GS series was a three-pod instrument cluster with machined aluminum facings and an electrochromic feature. Optional features ranged from a power moonroof to a discrete 5.1 surround sound 14-speaker 330-watt Mark Levinson premium sound system, XM-satellite radio and DVD-based navigation with backup camera and Bluetooth technology. Competitors to the Lexus GS included the BMW 5 Series, Mercedes-Benz E-Class, Volvo S80, Audi A6, Jaguar XF, Infiniti M, and Acura RL.

2007–2011

The GS 460 (URS191) replaced the GS 430 in 2007 for the 2008 model year, featuring a new 4.6-liter 1UR-FE (Middle East) or a 1UR-FSE V8 engine with eight-speed automatic transmission generating 342 hp and 339 ftlb of torque. Lexus reported a 0 - 60 mph time of 5.4 seconds. Along with the hybrid GS 450h and previous GS 430 models, the V8-powered GS 460 offered the Active Stabilizer Suspension System for improved handling. The GS 450h retains its position as the most expensive in the GS lineup, and has faster acceleration than the GS 460, though the GS 460 is lighter and has a higher top speed. In 2010, the GS was outsold nearly two to one by the flagship LS.

Along with the introduction of the GS 460, the GS lineup received a mid-cycle styling refresh, including a revised front bumper, headlights and grille, turn signals added to the side mirrors, and new wheel options and exterior colors. The interior received a redesigned steering wheel, revised instrument cluster gauges, and different trim pieces.

2011–2015
In early 2007, development began on the L10 series GS under Yoshihiko Kanamori, with the design process finalizing under new president and CEO Akio Toyoda's direction in 2009. Design patents were filed in Japan on 6 October 2010 for the production model and a conceptual variant on 29 March 2011. In April 2011, Lexus showed the LF-Gh concept (Lexus Future Grand-Touring Hybrid) at that year's New York International Auto Show, previewing the stylistic direction of future Lexus models. The LF-Gh featured a large, spindle-shaped front grille, and press information further indicated that it had a new interior design which included an analog clock. The LF-Gh concept vehicle was taken by automotive journalists as an indication of what the fourth generation Lexus GS would look like.

The fourth generation GS had its world premiere at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance in California in August 2011. The vehicle was shown to have a more subtle version of the LF-Gh's spindle grille, while overall exterior dimensions are almost identical to the previous generation. L-shaped LED front daytime running lamps and rear LED tube lamps are a new design feature. The fourth generation GS was the centerpiece of Toyota chairman Akio Toyoda's initiative to restore passion to the Lexus brand and better compete with German luxury automakers that had been gaining market share in the United States. It was reported that Toyoda initially opposed the styling choices made for the new model, but later thanked the design team that persuaded him to greenlight the project. Unlike the first three generations, the fourth generation GS is not based on any Crown models as it is built on a separate New N platform.

At its debut, the fourth generation model was shown in rear-wheel drive GS 350 (GRL10) form, powered by a V6 engine linked with a six-speed automatic transmission. Three driving modes are featured, ranging from fuel-conserving Eco to Sport S and Sport S+ which facilitate more sporty transmission shifting and engine throttle settings, as well as suspension damper and steering adjustments. The chassis has been redesigned, and overall curb weight is reduced. To reduce unsprung mass the new GS utilizes aluminum for all its suspension components. The GS 350 F Sport adds a rear-wheel steering system for improved handling on rear wheel drive models. New larger 14-inch brakes come standard as well as 19-inch F Sport wheels, a new front bumper, rear spoiler, F Sport steering wheel, F Sport seats and a new suspension system with AVS adjustable dampers.

The redesigned interior gains the Lexus Remote Touch mouse controller system in place of the previous touchscreen, linked to a split-view 12.3 in widescreen dashboard display.

It also features a new technology, Save energy + airflow control (S-FLOW), which is the world's first system that sends air only to where vehicle occupants are seated in order to maintain and improve comfort while also improving fuel efficiency.

Other interior features include Mark Levinson surround sound system. Front 18-way power seats are available; 10-way power seats are equipped standard. Optional features further include a pre-collision system, Heads-Up Display, blind spot monitor, lane keep assist, and Driver Monitoring System.

Variants such as the GS 350 and GS 250, as well as their F Sport variants, began sales in Japan on 26 January 2012, followed by the GS 450h and the GS 450h F Sport on 19 March 2012. Sales for the fourth generation in the US began in February 2012 for models including the GS 350 and GS 350 F Sport, with the hybrid version following several months after. A smaller-displacement model, the GS 250 (GRL11), was shown at the 2011 Auto Guangzhou, targeted for sales in China, Japan, Australia and the UK, but not the US.

The GS 450h (GWL10), rated at 343 hp and now using an Atkinson cycle design, has a 35 percent improvement in fuel economy over the previous generation GS 450h, and has a higher combined EPA fuel efficiency rating (31 mpg) than the 306 horsepower GS 350 (23 mpg). Trunk space is improved both for the hybrid and standard models. The GS 450h features standard full LED headlamps and a bamboo trimmed interior. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.

For the 2014 model year, changes to GS 350 includes an eight-speed automatic transmission for rear-wheel drive (RWD) models, introduction of F SPORT package (optional Lexus Dynamic Handling system with dynamic rear steering (DRS), electric power steering, variable gear ratio steering (VGRS)), integrated Siri Eyes Free mode from Apple (compatible with iPhone 4S and newer), flush mounted sensors for available intuitive park assist, full color display added to the optional head-up display, available blind spot monitor adds rear cross traffic alert and power-folding mirrors, Luxury Package changes (LED foglamps, Superchrome finish for 18-inch wheels, and the rear armrest control panel display adds display option to view radio station and song title information), optional power trunk opener, Lexus Night View system discontinued.

The GS 300h hybrid model includes a 2.5-liter Atkinson cycle inline-four engine with a D-4S direct injection technology, derived from the third generation IS. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2013 Shanghai Motor Show. The vehicle went on sale in China, Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, but not in the US.

It is a version of Lexus GS 300h for European market, with 2.5-liter Atkinson cycle four-cylinder engine (181PS), two electric motors, a hard-drive navigation system with a 12.3-inch Monitor and Lexus Connected Services, Mark Levinson audio system, DVD player and rear-view camera with a monitor, among other features. The vehicle went on sale on 11 January 2014.

2015–2020
The revised GS debuted at Monterey Car Week in August 2015. Changes include a GS 200t variant equipped with the 2.0-liter 8AR-FTS turbocharged engine to replace the GS 250, and an update to the 3.5-liter V6, now upgraded to 2GR-FKS specification. that uses the Atkinson cycle and features founded on the previous 2GR-FSE motor. Additional changes include revised exterior elements (including front and rear trim, exterior lighting, wheels, and rocker panels), new active safety features, and a revised infotainment system. The GS 200t was renamed to GS 300 for the 2018 North American model year.

In 2018, Lexus discontinued the GS for European markets and replaced it with the front-wheel drive ES already sold in North America and some Asian countries. Lexus issued a press release saying that production of the GS will end.

GS F
The high performance "F" version of the GS, the GS F, was unveiled at the 2015 North American International Auto Show. It went on sale in the United States in November 2015 for the 2016 model year.

The GS F features a 5.0 L (4,969 cc) 2UR-GSE V8 engine with Atkinson cycle at cruising speeds, delivering a maximum output of 473 PS (467 bhp; 348 kW) at 7100 rpm and 389 lb⋅ft (527 N⋅m) of torque at 4800–5600 rpm. It is paired with a Toyota AA80E 8-speed transmission built by Aisin. The GS F is equipped with Brembo four-wheel power assisted disc brakes with anti-lock braking system (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and brake assist (BA), vertical G-sensor for VDIM, rear Torsen or Torque Vectoring Differential (TVD) with three operating modes (Standard, Slalom, or Track), monotube gas-filled shock absorbers and ball-jointed stabilizer bars, spindle grille with F-mesh pattern on the lower half, raised front hood, front cooling ducts, front fender ducts in the L shape, exclusive combination meters from LFA (a large centrally mounted tachometer that alters according to drive mode, digital and analog speedometer, differential torque vectoring monitor, G-force meter, oil and water temperature gauges, mileage information and a stopwatch), and an elliptical cross-section thick grip steering wheel.

Motorsport
The Lexus GS was used in Motorola Cup North American Street Stock Championship touring car series competition in 1998, beginning with two GS 400 race vehicles driven by Team Lexus in its inaugural season. For 1999, Team Lexus achieved its first victory with the GS 400 in its sixth race at Road Atlanta. The GS 400 was raced until 2001, when Team Lexus switched to the IS 300. In the mid-2000s, the GS 400 was entered in the V8Star Series touring car racing season, with Ronny Melkus competing in the V8 GS in 2003.

In 2006, Sigma Advanced Racing Development and Lexus entered a GS 450h performance hybrid sedan in the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in Hokkaido, Japan, the first time that a hybrid vehicle was introduced. In 2007, Lexus Canada also entered the GS 450h in the Targa Newfoundland event. In 2009, the GS 450h was used as a safety car at the Muscle Car Masters event held at Eastern Creek Raceway, Eastern Creek, New South Wales, Australia.

In 2008, Manabu "Max" Orido used a second generation JZS161 Aristo in Formula D competition. Orido has several second generation models with different equipment used for drifting events, some with prototype suspension, and fitted with parts from the export Lexus GS 300.

Sales and production
Sales data for Lexus GS generations are as follows. Sourced from manufacturer yearly data.

Awards

 * J.D. Power and Associates named the GS series the best midsize luxury car in initial quality for 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005.
 * AAA named the third generation GS 300 the best car in its class for 2005.
 * Consumer Reports awarded the Lexus GS as the highest ranked vehicle in predicted reliability in the luxury car class in 2005.
 * The GS 450h's Lexus Hybrid Drive system was the recipient of the annual Paul Pietsch Prize for Advanced Technology in 2007, awarded by technical editors of Auto Motor Und Sport publications.
 * The Lexus GS 450h was named the winner of the 2007 IF product design award from the International Forum Design group in Hannover, Germany.
 * German automotive magazine Auto Bild selected the GS 450h for its "Auto 1" award for best sedan in 2007.
 * Smart Money magazine named the Lexus GS the best luxury sedan for the 2003–2004 model year. In 2005, the magazine named the GS its Best New Car Value.
 * The GS series was named most appealing midsize luxury car by J.D. Power and Associates in 2001.
 * The first generation GS series was named to the Top Ten in Initial Quality list by J.D. Power and Associates in 1994.
 * Kelley Blue Book gave the GS series its Best to Hold Value Award in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001.
 * The second generation GS was named Import Car of the Year by Motor Trend in 1998.
 * Car and Driver named the second generation GS to its Ten Best list in 1998, 1999, and 2000.

title: Lexus GS


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Service à la française

Service à la française ("service in the French style") is the practice of serving various dishes of a meal at the same time, with the diners helping themselves from the serving dishes. That contrasts to service à la russe ("service in the Russian style") in which dishes are brought to the table sequentially and served individually, portioned by servants.

Formal dinners were served à la française from the Middle Ages to the 19th century, but in modern times it has been largely supplanted by service à la russe in restaurants. Service à la française still exists today in the form of the buffet, and remains popular for small and large gatherings in homes, companies, hotels, and other group settings. It is also similar to the Chinese style of serving large groups in many Chinese restaurants.

There was a less formal style known as service à l'anglaise ("English service") in France, with the hostess serving out the soup at one end of the table, and later the host carving a joint of meat at the other end then servants taking these to the diners, and the diners serving themselves with other dishes.

History
The formalized service à la française was a creation of the Baroque period, helped by the growth of published cookbooks setting out grand dining as it was practiced at the French court, led by François Pierre de la Varenne's Le Cuisinier françois (1651) and Le Pâtissier françois (1653). As in other matters of taste and fashion, France took over from Italy as the leader of Europe, and by the 18th century the French style was diffused across the rest of Europe, and those who could afford them hired French chefs.

Over the course of the 19th century, service à la française was replaced by service à la russe in grand dining. This had the advantage of making the food much hotter when it reached the diner, and reducing the huge number of dishes and condiments previously found on the table at the same time. It also ensured that everybody could taste everything they wanted, which in practice the old system often did not allow. On the other hand, the effect of magnificent profusion was reduced, and many more footmen and more tableware were required, making it an option only the rich could afford. It also reduced the time spent at the table, and the amount of food needed.

Organization of the meal
The meal was divided into two, three or four courses, "removes" or "services": soup and fish; meat entrées; and desserts, all with various side dishes. A supper, long after the main dinner, might just have one course, plus dessert. Each course included a variety of dishes, all set at the same time at the table. Guests served themselves and their neighbours; the men were generally supposed to help the ladies next to them. The table was set and the first remove placed on the table before the guests entered the dining room. The serving dishes might be removed after the first course of soup or fish, or not. They were always cleared after the entrées, before serving dessert, except for a period in the mid-18th century, when at grand meals the desserts were placed in the centre of the table from the start of the meal.

There was supposed, by the cookery books, to be a more or less fixed ratio of around four dishes per diner, all different. Unlike today, when doubling the number of diners from say 12 to 24 will normally mean doubling the quantity prepared of each type of food, service à la française doubled the number of different dishes of all types, to about 96. Therefore, in a large dinner, there was no chance for every diner to taste everything on the table, and two diners at different points around the table might well both have a hearty dinner, without tasting any of the same food, as with a large modern buffet. But whereas in the Middle Ages and Renaissance the best food was placed on the table with the most important diners, or the centre of a very large table, the lesser tables or edges of the main table doing rather less well, now the quality of food was even across the table. But now only diners accepted as more of less of the same status eat in the same room at all.

In practice, guests might not be aware of what all the many dishes on the table were, or be able to see or obtain them. The long account in a letter from a young American lady of a dinner for 18 people on New Year's Day 1852 at an aristocratic English country house, includes "I cannot tell you how many kinds of soup there were. Suffice it, that mine was most delicious".

In the Renaissance the dessert course might be served in a different room, or at the other end of a large room, sometimes in buffet style.

Service à la française sometimes required so much food to be set out that it was the custom of some hosts to have a second dinner party the following day, using what was left over for a slightly smaller number of less-important guests. William Makepeace Thackeray's character Major Pendennis (1850) is "indignant at being invited to a 'second-day dinner'".

Until about 1800, no glasses or drinks were on the table at the start of the meal. Footmen were beckoned and brought a salver with a glass of wine, and a decanter of water to dilute it if desired.

The “Classical Order” of table service
The “Classical Order” of table service emerged in France in the early 17th century and first appeared in print in 1651, in La Varenne’s Le Cuisinier françois. The Classical meal is composed of five stages, potage, entrée, roast, entremets, and dessert. Each stage is characterized by certain types of dishes largely unique to that stage, each distinguished from the other by their ingredients, cooking methods, and serving temperatures. The distinctions between the stages were at first loosely observed, or perhaps more accurately, the "rules" were in a formative stage for several decades. By the early 18th century, though, the stages of the meal were increasingly rigid.

Each stage could be presented in a separate course, or the stages could be grouped together to produce a meal of fewer courses. Regardless of the presentation on the table, the stages of the meal were consumed in the same order, known to those attending the meal but rarely evident in contemporaneous menus or descriptions of meals.

The meal consistently began with potages.

Entrées on meat days included butcher’s meat, furred and feathered game, and offal. Entrées were typically cooked in moist heat in preparations such as sautés, ragoûts, and fricassées. Meat or fowl might be roasted, but it was always finished in a sauce. Other common entrées were meat pies and fritters. On lean days, entrées of fish and eggs replaced meat and fowl. Vegetables were used only in the sauce or garnish; they were not served as a separate dish in the entrée stage of the meal, even on lean days. All entrées were served hot, which was a salient feature of entrées until the 19th century.

In the 18th century, the bouilli, a joint of boiled beef, was the first entrée consumed at the meal, immediately after the potages. By the 1820s, the bouilli was no longer routinely served at fine dinners.

Similarly, the relevé was in origin an entrée, a spit-roasted joint served in a sauce and consumed after the other entrées. By the late 18th century, relevés had come to be considered a distinct stage of the meal consisting of any large joint consumed after the other entrées. In the 19th century, relevés came to be served before the other entrées rather than after, essentially replacing the bouilli previously consumed at that point in the meal.

In the 18th century, hors d’œuvres were little extra dishes served alongside both entrées and entremets, typically consumed at the end of the given course. They were at first considered to be small entrées or entremets; but by the late 18th century, hors d’œuvre had come to be considered a distinct stage of the meal that was consumed immediately after the potages and before the relevés and entrées.

Roasts on meat days included domestic fowl, feathered game, and small furred game. Other meats were served only as entrées. The fowl and game were spit-roasted and nicely browned, served "dry" and not in a sauce or ragout, although sauces might be served separately. On lean days, whole fish replaced meat-day roasts, but the fish were poached or fried, not roasted. The fish was served "dry", although sauces might be served on the side, as for roasts on meat days.

Salads were served with the roast. Salads were often considered to be a sort of entremets, but they were usually mentioned separately from the other entremets.

Entremets were the last dishes served from the kitchen. They were a varied selection of chilled meats, hot vegetables, hot and cold sweet dishes, and other small dishes like vegetable fritters.

Dessert consisted of fruit, cheese, dry biscuits (cookies) and wafers, and other items "from the storeroom" (de l’office), not dishes prepared in the kitchen. For that reason, dessert is often not included on menus or in descriptions of meals, and the stated number of courses is thus often fewer by one than the actual number of courses served.

Beginning in the early 19th century, the meal often included a small glass of chilled spirits or frozen punch between courses at the midpoint of the meal. In a 4-course meal, it was typically served after the roast, and in a 3-course meal, before the roast. The drink, the coup du milieu, was not considered a distinct stage of the meal and was not often included on menus.

The stages of the meal could be presented in 5, 4, 3, or even 2 courses. Some meals, particularly meals other than dinner, were presented in a single course, a distinct type of service called an ambigu.

While there were many variations in the details, the following arrangements are characteristic of meals from the mid-17th century to the late 19th century. Note that hors d'œuvres and relevés in the descriptions were not distinct stages of the meal until the 18th century. Note also that relevés were increasingly served before the other entrées, not after them, in the 19th century.

Meals with five courses are attested from the mid-17th to the mid-18th century by La Varenne (1651), Pierre de Lune (1662), Louis Liger (1711), François Marin (1739), and Menon(1739).
 * 1) Potage + hors d'œuvre
 * 2) Entrée + relevé
 * 3) Roast + salad
 * 4) Entremets
 * 5) Dessert

Meals with four courses are attested from the mid-17th to the early-19th century by L.S.R (1674), Jean Ribou (1708), Menon(1739), Menon(1746), Dictionnaire portatif de cuisine, d’office, et de distillation (1767), and Grimod de La Reynière (1805).
 * 1) Potage + hors d’œuvre + entrée + relevé
 * 2) Roast + salad
 * 3) Entremets
 * 4) Dessert

Meals with three courses are attested from the mid-16th to the late-19th century by François Massialot (1691), Nicolas Audiger (1692), Menon (1746), Manuel de Gastronomie (1825), Urbain Dubois (1856), and Dictionnaire universel de la Vie pratique à la ville et à la campagne (1882). Beginning in the early 19th century, meals of three courses were the most common type of table service.
 * 1) Potage + hors d’œuvre + entrée + relevé
 * 2) Roast + salad + entremets
 * 3) Dessert

Modifications
A modified form of service à la française is known as "family-style" in less formal restaurants. This form of service replicates the way in which small family meals are sometimes served.

The buffet style is a variation of the French service in which all of the food is available, at the correct temperature, in a serving space other than the dining table, and guests serve themselves.

Buffets can vary from the informal (a gathering of friends in a home, or the serving of brunch at a hotel) to the formal setting of a wedding reception. The "buffet" format is preferred on occasions where a very large number of guests is to be accommodated efficiently by a small number of service personnel.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Service à la française


text:
Enniaunus

Enniaunus (Welsh: Einion mab Arthal) was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 293BC.

He was the son of King Archgallo and brother of Marganus II. According to Geoffrey, he ruled poorly and harshly causing him to be deposed due to tyranny. He was replaced with his cousin, Idvallo.

title: Enniaunus


text: User:Zocky/TOC Europe - Cities by country


text:
Idvallo

Idvallo (Welsh: Eidwal mab Owain) was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 287BC.

He was the son of King Ingenius and he replaced King Enniaunus. Idvallo is said by Geoffrey to have reigned righteously to mend the ills his cousin had brought. He was succeeded by his cousin, Runo.

title: Idvallo


text:
Schulze method

The Schulze method is a single winner ranked-choice voting rule developed by Markus Schulze. It is also known as the beatpath method. The Schulze method is a Condorcet method, which means it will elect a majority-choice candidate if one exists; in other words, if most people rank A above B, A will defeat B (whenever this is possible).

Schulze's method is based on the idea of breaking cyclic ties by using indirect victories. The idea is that if Alice beats Bob, and Bob beats Charlie, then Alice (indirectly) beats Charlie; this kind of indirect win is called a beatpath.

For proportional representation, a single transferable vote (STV) variant known as Schulze STV also exists. The Schulze method is used by several organizations including Debian, Ubuntu, Gentoo, Pirate Party political parties and many others. It was also used by Wikimedia prior to their adoption of score voting.

Description of the method

Schulze's method uses ranked ballots with equal ratings allowed. There are two common (equivalent) descriptions of Schulze's method.

Beatpath explanation
The idea behind Schulze's method is that if Alice defeats Bob, and Bob beats Charlie, then Alice "indirectly" defeats Charlie; this kind of indirect win is called a 'beatpath'.

Every beatpath is assigned a particular strength. The strength of a single-step beatpath from Alice to Bob is just the number of voters who rank Alice over Bob. For a longer beatpath, consisting of multiple "beats", the strength of a beatpath is as strong as its weakest link (i.e. the beat with the smallest number of winning votes).

We say Alice has a "beatpath-win" over Bob if her strongest beatpath to Bob is stronger than all of Bob's beatpaths to Alice. The winner is the candidate who has a beatpath-win over every other candidate.

Markus Schulze proved that this definition of a beatpath-win is transitive; in other words, if Alice has a beatpath-win over Bob, and Bob has a beatpath-win over Charlie, Alice has a beatpath-win over Charlie. As a result, the Schulze method is a Condorcet method, providing a full extension of the majority rule to any set of ballots.

Iterative description
The Schulze winner can also be constructed iteratively, using a defeat-dropping method: The winner is the only candidate left at the end of the procedure.
 * 1) Draw a directed graph with all the candidates as nodes; label the edges with the number of votes supporting the winner.
 * 2) If there is more than one candidate left:
 * 3) * Check if any candidates are tied (and if so, break the ties by random ballot).
 * 4) * Eliminate all candidates outside the majority-preferred set.
 * 5) * Delete the edge closest to being tied.

Example
In the following example 45 voters rank 5 candidates.

The pairwise preferences have to be computed first. For example, when comparing $A$ and $B$ pairwise, there are $5+5+3+7=20$ voters who prefer $A$ to $B$, and $8+2+7+8=25$ voters who prefer $B$ to $A$. So $$d[A, B] = 20$$ and $$d[B, A] = 25$$. The full set of pairwise preferences is:

The cells for d[X, Y] have a light green background if d[X, Y] > d[Y, X], otherwise the background is light red. There is no undisputed winner by only looking at the pairwise differences here.

Now the strongest paths have to be identified. To help visualize the strongest paths, the set of pairwise preferences is depicted in the diagram on the right in the form of a directed graph. An arrow from the node representing a candidate X to the one representing a candidate Y is labelled with d[X, Y]. To avoid cluttering the diagram, an arrow has only been drawn from X to Y when d[X, Y] > d[Y, X] (i.e. the table cells with light green background), omitting the one in the opposite direction (the table cells with light red background).

One example of computing the strongest path strength is p[B, D] = 33: the strongest path from B to D is the direct path (B, D) which has strength 33. But when computing p[A, C], the strongest path from A to C is not the direct path (A, C) of strength 26, rather the strongest path is the indirect path (A, D, C) which has strength min(30, 28) = 28. The strength of a path is the strength of its weakest link.

For each pair of candidates X and Y, the following table shows the strongest path from candidate X to candidate Y in red, with the weakest link underlined.

Now the output of the Schulze method can be determined. For example, when comparing $A$ and $B$, since $$(28 =) p[A,B] > p[B,A] (= 25)$$, for the Schulze method candidate $A$ is better than candidate $B$. Another example is that $$(31 =) p[E,D] > p[D,E] (= 24)$$, so candidate E is better than candidate D. Continuing in this way, the result is that the Schulze ranking is $$E > A > C > B > D$$, and $E$ wins. In other words, $E$ wins since $$p[E,X] \ge p[X,E]$$ for every other candidate X.

Implementation
The only difficult step in implementing the Schulze method is computing the strongest path strengths. However, this is a well-known problem in graph theory sometimes called the widest path problem. One simple way to compute the strengths, therefore, is a variant of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm. The following pseudocode illustrates the algorithm.

This algorithm is efficient and has running time O(C3) where C is the number of candidates.

Ties and alternative implementations
When allowing users to have ties in their preferences, the outcome of the Schulze method naturally depends on how these ties are interpreted in defining d[*,*]. Two natural choices are that d[A, B] represents either the number of voters who strictly prefer A to B (A>B), or the margin of (voters with A>B) minus (voters with B>A). But no matter how the ds are defined, the Schulze ranking has no cycles, and assuming the ds are unique it has no ties.

Although ties in the Schulze ranking are unlikely, they are possible. Schulze's original paper recommended breaking ties by random ballot.

There is another alternative way to demonstrate the winner of the Schulze method. This method is equivalent to the others described here, but the presentation is optimized for the significance of steps being visually apparent as a human goes through it, not for computation.
 * 1) Make the results table, called the "matrix of pairwise preferences", such as used above in the example. Then, every positive number is a pairwise win for the candidate on that row (and marked green), ties are zeroes, and losses are negative (marked red). Order the candidates by how long they last in elimination.
 * 2) If there is a candidate with no red on their line, they win.
 * 3) Otherwise, draw a square box around the Schwartz set in the upper left corner. It can be described as the minimal "winner's circle" of candidates who do not lose to anyone outside the circle. Note that to the right of the box there is no red, which means it is a winner's circle, and note that within the box there is no reordering possible that would produce a smaller winner's circle.
 * 4) Cut away every part of the table outside the box.
 * 5) If there is still no candidate with no red on their line, something needs to be compromised on; every candidate lost some race, and the loss we tolerate the best is the one where the loser obtained the most votes. So, take the red cell with the highest number (if going by margins, the least negative), make it green—or any color other than red—and go back step 2.

Here is a margins table made from the above example. Note the change of order used for demonstration purposes.

The first drop (A's loss to E by 1 vote) does not help shrink the Schwartz set. So we get straight to the second drop (E's loss to C by 3 votes), and that shows us the winner, E, with its clear row.

This method can also be used to calculate a result, if the table is remade in such a way that one can conveniently and reliably rearrange the order of the candidates on both the row and the column, with the same order used on both at all times.

Satisfied criteria
The Schulze method satisfies the following criteria:

 * Monotonicity criterion
 * Majority criterion
 * Majority loser criterion
 * Condorcet criterion
 * Condorcet loser criterion
 * Smith criterion
 * Independence of Smith-dominated alternatives
 * Mutual majority criterion
 * Independence of clones
 * Reversal symmetry
 * Mono-append
 * Mono-add-plump
 * Resolvability criterion
 * Polynomial runtime
 * prudence
 * MinMax sets
 * Woodall's plurality criterion if winning votes are used for d[X,Y]
 * Symmetric-completion if margins are used for d[X,Y]

Failed criteria
Since the Schulze method satisfies the Condorcet criterion, it automatically fails the following criteria:
 * Participation
 * Consistency
 * Invulnerability to burying
 * Later-no-harm

Likewise, since the Schulze method is not a dictatorship and is a ranked voting system (not rated), Arrow's Theorem implies it fails:

 * Independence of irrelevant alternatives

The Schulze method also fails
 * Peyton Young's criterion of Local Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives.

Comparison table
The following table compares the Schulze method with other single-winner election methods:

The main difference between the Schulze method and the ranked pairs method can be seen in this example:

Suppose the MinMax score of a set X of candidates is the strength of the strongest pairwise win of a candidate A ∉ X against a candidate B ∈ X. Then the Schulze method, but not Ranked Pairs, guarantees that the winner is always a candidate of the set with minimum MinMax score. So, in some sense, the Schulze method minimizes the largest majority that has to be reversed when determining the winner.

On the other hand, Ranked Pairs minimizes the largest majority that has to be reversed to determine the order of finish, in the MinLexMax sense. In other words, when Ranked Pairs and the Schulze method produce different orders of finish, for the majorities on which the two orders of finish disagree, the Schulze order reverses a larger majority than the Ranked Pairs order.

History
The Schulze method was developed by Markus Schulze in 1997. It was first discussed in public mailing lists in 1997–1998 and in 2000.

In 2011, Schulze published the method in the academic journal Social Choice and Welfare.

Government
The Schulze method is used by the city of Silla for all referendums. It is also used by the cities of Turin and San Donà di Piave and by the London Borough of Southwark through their use of the WeGovNow platform, which in turn uses the LiquidFeedback decision tool.

Political parties
Schulze was adopted by the Pirate Party of Sweden (2009), and the Pirate Party of Germany (2010). The newly formed Boise, Idaho, chapter of the Democratic Socialists of America in February chose this method for their first special election held in March 2018.

 * Five Star Movement of Campobasso, Fondi, Monte Compatri, Montemurlo, Pescara, and San Cesareo
 * Pirate Parties of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States
 * SustainableUnion
 * Volt Europe

Student government and associations

 * AEGEE – European Students' Forum
 * Club der Ehemaligen der Deutschen SchülerAkademien e. V.
 * Associated Student Government at École normale supérieure de Paris
 * Flemish Society of Engineering Students Leuven
 * Graduate Student Organization at the State University of New York: Computer Science (GSOCS)
 * Hillegass Parker House
 * Kingman Hall
 * Associated Students of Minerva Schools at KGI
 * Associated Student Government at Northwestern University
 * Associated Student Government at University of Freiburg
 * Associated Student Government at the Computer Sciences Department of the University of Kaiserslautern

Organizations
It is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, by the Association for Computing Machinery, and by USENIX through their use of the HotCRP decision tool.

Organizations which currently use the Schulze method include:

 * Annodex Association
 * Berufsverband der Kinder- und Jugendärzte (BVKJ)
 * BoardGameGeek
 * Cloud Foundry Foundation
 * County Highpointers
 * Dapr
 * Debian
 * EuroBillTracker
 * European Democratic Education Community (EUDEC)
 * FFmpeg
 * Free Geek
 * Free Hardware Foundation of Italy
 * Gentoo Foundation
 * GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG)
 * Haskell
 * Homebrew
 * Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) (until 2023)
 * Kanawha Valley Scrabble Club
 * KDE e.V.
 * Knight Foundation
 * Kubernetes
 * Kumoricon
 * League of Professional System Administrators (LOPSA)
 * LiquidFeedback
 * Madisonium
 * Metalab
 * MTV
 * Neo
 * Noisebridge
 * OpenEmbedded
 * Open Neural Network Exchange
 * OpenStack
 * OpenSwitch
 * RLLMUK
 * Squeak
 * Students for Free Culture
 * Sugar Labs
 * Sverok
 * TopCoder
 * Ubuntu
 * Vidya Gaem Awards
 * Wikimedia (2008)
 * Wikipedia in French,  Hebrew,  Hungarian, Russian, and Persian.

title: Schulze method


text:
King Runo

Runo (Welsh: Rhun map Peredyr) was a powerful legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 281BC.

He was the son of King Peredurus and was succeeded by his cousin Gerennus.

title: King Runo


text:
Gerennus

Gerennus (Welsh: Geraint map Elidyr) was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 275BC.

He was a son of King Elidurus and was succeeded by his son Catellus. According to Geoffrey, his descendants ruled Britain through the time of the Roman invasion of Britain.

title: Gerennus


text:
Torus bundle

A torus bundle, in the sub-field of geometric topology in mathematics, is a kind of surface bundle over the circle, which in turn is a class of three-manifolds.

Construction
To obtain a torus bundle: let $$f$$ be an orientation-preserving homeomorphism of the two-dimensional torus $$T$$ to itself. Then the three-manifold $$M(f)$$ is obtained by
 * taking the Cartesian product of $$T$$ and the unit interval and
 * gluing one component of the boundary of the resulting manifold to the other boundary component via the map $$f$$.

Then $$M(f)$$ is the torus bundle with monodromy $$f$$.

Examples
For example, if $$f$$ is the identity map (i.e., the map which fixes every point of the torus) then the resulting torus bundle $$M(f)$$ is the three-torus: the Cartesian product of three circles.

Seeing the possible kinds of torus bundles in more detail requires an understanding of William Thurston's geometrization program. Briefly, if $$f$$ is finite order, then the manifold $$M(f)$$ has Euclidean geometry. If $$f$$ is a power of a Dehn twist then $$M(f)$$ has Nil geometry. Finally, if $$f$$ is an Anosov map then the resulting three-manifold has Sol geometry.

These three cases exactly correspond to the three possibilities for the absolute value of the trace of the action of $$f$$ on the homology of the torus: either less than two, equal to two, or greater than two.

title: Torus bundle


text:
Mange

Mange is a type of skin disease caused by parasitic mites. Because various species of mites also infect plants, birds and reptiles, the term "mange", or colloquially "the mange", suggesting poor condition of the skin and fur due to the infection, is sometimes reserved for pathological mite-infestation of nonhuman mammals. Thus, mange includes mite-associated skin disease in domestic mammals (cats and dogs), in livestock (such as sheep scab), and in wild mammals (for example, foxes, coyotes, cougars and wombats ). Severe mange caused by mites has been observed in wild bears. Since mites belong to the arachnid subclass Acari (also called Acarina), another term for mite infestation is acariasis.

Parasitic mites that cause mange in mammals embed themselves in either skin or hair follicles in the animal, depending upon their genus. Sarcoptes spp. burrow into skin, while Demodex spp. live in follicles.

In humans, these two types of mite infections, which would be known as "mange" in furry mammals, are instead known respectively as scabies and demodicosis.

Demodectic mange

Also called demodicosis or red mange, demodectic mange is caused by a sensitivity to and overpopulation of Demodex spp. The two types of demodectic mange are localized and generalized. Localized consists of four spots or less. Demodex is not zoonotic and is not transferable across species. Each host species has its own species of Demodex. For example, dogs are hosts to Demodex canis and cats are hosts to Demodex cati. A type of demodectic infection in humans is known, but is less commonly symptomatic. See Demodex folliculorum.

Sarcoptic mange

Sarcoptic mange, also known as canine scabies, is a highly contagious infestation of Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis, a burrowing mite. The canine sarcoptic mite can also infest cats, pigs, horses, sheep, and various other species. The human analog of burrowing mite infection, due to a closely related species, is called scabies (the "seven-year itch").

Burrowing mites are in the family Sarcoptidae. They dig into and through the skin, causing intense itching from an allergic reaction to the mite's feces, and crusting that can quickly become infected. Hair loss and crusting frequently appear first on elbows and ears. Skin damage can occur from the dog's intense scratching and biting. Secondary skin infection is also common. Dogs with chronic sarcoptic mange are often in poor condition, and in both animals and humans, immune suppression from starvation or any other disease causes this type of mange to develop into a highly crusted form in which the burden of mites is far higher than in healthy specimens.

Diagnosis
Veterinarians usually attempt diagnosis with skin scrapings from multiple areas, which are then examined under a microscope for mites. Sarcoptes mites, because they may be present in relatively low numbers, and because they are often removed by dogs chewing at themselves, may be difficult to demonstrate. As a result, diagnosis in sarcoptic mange is often based on symptoms rather than actual confirmation of the presence of mites. A common and simple way of determining if a dog has mange is if it displays what is called a "pedal-pinna reflex", which is when the dog moves one of its hind legs in a scratching motion as the ear is being manipulated and scratched gently by the examiner; because the mites proliferate on the ear margins in nearly all cases at some point, this method works over 95% of the time. It is helpful in cases where all symptoms of mange are present but no mites are observed with a microscope. The test is also positive in animals with ear mites, an ear canal infection caused by a different but closely related mite (treatment is often the same). In some countries, an available serologic test may be useful in diagnosis.

Treatment
Affected dogs are sometimes isolated from other dogs and their bedding, and places they have occupied must be thoroughly cleaned. Other dogs in contact with a diagnosed case should be evaluated and treated. A number of parasitical treatments are useful in treating canine scabies. Sulfurated lime (a mixture of calcium polysulfides) rinses applied weekly or biweekly are effective (the concentrated form for use on plants as a fungicide must be diluted 1:16 or 1:32 for use on animal skin).

Selamectin is licensed for treatment in dogs by veterinary prescription in several countries; it is applied as a dose directly to the skin, once per month (the drug does not wash off). A related and older drug ivermectin is also effective and can be given by mouth for two to four weekly treatments or until two negative skin scrapings are achieved. Oral ivermectin is not safe to use on some collie-like herding dogs, however, due to possible homozygous MDR1 (P-glycoprotein) mutations that increase its toxicity by allowing it into the brain. Ivermectin injections are also effective and given either weekly or every two weeks in one to four doses, although the same MDR1 dog restrictions apply.

Affected cats can be treated with fipronil and milbemycin oxime.

Topical 0.01% ivermectin in oil (Acarexx) has been reported to be effective in humans, and all mite infections in many types of animals (especially in ear mite infections where the animal cannot lick the treated area), and is so poorly absorbed that systemic toxicity is less likely in these sites. Nevertheless, topical ivermectin has not been well enough tested to be approved for this use in dogs, and is theoretically much more dangerous in zones where the animal can potentially lick the treated area. Selamectin applied to the skin (topically) has some of the same theoretical problems in collies and MDR1 dogs as ivermectin, but it has nevertheless been approved for use for all dogs provided that the animal can be observed for eight hours after the first monthly treatment. Topical permethrin is also effective in both dogs and humans, but is toxic to cats.

Afoxolaner (oral treatment with a chewable tablet containing afoxolaner 2.27% w/w) has been shown to be efficient against both sarcoptic and demodectic mange in dogs.

Free-ranging wombats are commonly treated topically with moxidectin by wildlife carers in Australia, because it poses a low risk.

Sarcoptic mange is transmissible to humans who come into prolonged contact with infested animals, and is distinguished from human scabies by its distribution on skin surfaces covered by clothing. For treatment of sarcoptic infection in humans, see scabies. For demodetic infection in humans, which is not as severe as it is in animals with thicker coats (such as dogs), see Demodex folliculorum.

title: Mange


text:
Catellus

Catellus (Kadell map Geraint) was a legendary king of the Britons, as recounted in Geoffrey of Monmouth's work Historia Regum Britanniae. He came to power in 269BC.

According to Geoffrey, he was the son of King Gerennus and was succeeded by his son, Millus. In some versions of the Brut y Brenhinedd, a series of Welsh versions of Geoffrey's Historia, Catellus is succeeded by his son Coel, who is then succeeded by his own son Porrex II.

title: Catellus


text:
Millus

Millus was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. His father was King Catellus and was succeeded by his son, Porrex II.

title: Millus


text:
Porrex II

Porrex II was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. He came to power in 257BC.

He was the son of Coel and the grandson of Catellus; he was succeeded by his son, Cherin.

In some versions of the story, his father was King Millus.

title: Porrex II


text:
Cherin

Cherin was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. He came to power in 251BC.

His father was King Porrex II and he was succeeded by his three sons in turn, Fulgenius, Edadus, and Andragius.

title: Cherin


text:
Fort Zeelandia (Paramaribo)

Fort Zeelandia is a fortress in Paramaribo, Suriname. In 1640 the French built a wooden fort on the spot which, during British colonial period, was reinforced and became Fort Willoughby. It was taken by the Dutch in 1667 and renamed Fort Zeelandia.

History
Surinam, a small English colony, was established in 1650 by Major Anthony Rowse on behalf of the governor of Barbados, Francis Willoughby. In 1651 the English reinforced the abandoned French fort near present-day Paramaribo, calling it Fort Willoughby.

In 1667 the Dutch Admiral Abraham Crijnssen captured Fort Willoughby from forces under Lieutenant-Governor William Byam. The battle lasted only three hours before British munitions were exhausted. Crijnssen renamed the captured fort Fort Zeelandia, creating the Dutch colony of Surinam. Crijnssen also recaptured the Essequibo-Pomeroon Colony.

Over the years, it started to become obsolete as a military asset and, in 1772, there were even plans to tear it down.

After Surinamese independence in 1975, under the military government of Dési Bouterse in the 1980s, Fort Zeelandia was the location of the "December murders" of 1982 and was used to hold and torture political prisoners.

The Surinamese Museum is located in Fort Zeelandia. The museum has a large collection of ethnographica. Its collections contain archeology, visual arts, colonial furniture, textiles and historical photos.

The Nola Hatterman Art Academy is located in the former commander's house.

title: Fort Zeelandia (Paramaribo)


text:
Pocomoke River

The Pocomoke River stretches approximately 66 mi from southern Delaware through southeastern Maryland in the United States. At its mouth, the river is essentially an arm of Chesapeake Bay, whereas the upper river flows through a series of relatively inaccessible wetlands called the Great Cypress Swamp, largely populated by Loblolly Pine, Red Maple and Bald Cypress. The river is the easternmost river that flows into Chesapeake Bay. "Pocomoke", though traditionally interpreted as "dark (or black) water" by local residents, is now agreed by scholars of the Algonquian languages to be derived from the words for "broken (or pierced) ground."

Description
It rises in several forks in the Great Cypress Swamp in southern Sussex County, Delaware. From there, it flows south into Maryland, forming the boundary between Wicomico and Worcester counties and flowing through the swamps that are named for the river. At Porter's Crossing it turns southwest, broadening into a slow meandering river, flowing past the town of Snow Hill, and then through the Pocomoke River State Forest and past Pocomoke River State Park. It then flows past Pocomoke City, and enters Pocomoke Sound on the Chesapeake Bay on the state line between Maryland and Virginia.

It receives Nassawango Creek from the northwest approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) southwest of Snow Hill. It receives Dividing Creek from the north approximately 1 mile northeast of Pocomoke City.

The Pocomoke River is designated as a "Scenic" river by the State of Maryland.

History
In 1635 the mouth of the river was the scene of the first recorded battle in North America between Englishmen. The dispute was between the Virginia Company and Lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland Colony, over the rights to Kent Island at the mouth of the Chester River. The dispute was eventually resolved with a victory for the Maryland colonists.

During the colonial era, various landings grew up along the river, some of which became towns, while others faded into obscurity with the decline of water-borne transport. From the mouth of the river, they are (or were), on the right bank: the landings at Shelltown (called for many years Steamboat Landing) and Rehobeth (both in Somerset County), Puncheon Landing, Stevens Ferry, Cottinghams Ferry, Milburn Landing (now in the Milburn Landing section of the Pocomoke River State Park), and Adams Wharf, all in Worcester County. The landings on the left bank are (or were): Pitts Creek Landing in Accomack County, Virginia, Cedar Hall Landing, Stevens Landing (also called Stevens Ferry, which became in turn Newtown and then Pocomoke City), Cottinghams Ferry, Mattapony Landing (also known as Gibbs Ferry), and finally Snow Hill, at the head of navigation, also all in Worcester County.

In 1785, after years of disputes over fishing in Pocomoke Sound and on the Pocomoke River, Maryland and Virginia entered into an interstate compact that regulated fishing in the area, established a common and free waterway, and covered how criminal trials concerning each other's citizens should be handled. In Wharton v. Wise, 153 U.S. 155 (1894), the Supreme Court of the United States determined that Pocomoke Sound was not covered by this famous interstate compact.

In 1913, to provide better navigation, the mouth of the river was dredged by the United States Army Corps of Engineers.

In the 1990s, a microorganism outbreak on the lower river, possibly Pfiesteria piscicida, led to widespread fish kills and illness among the watermen who fish the river and Pocomoke Sound. The illnesses included lesions, respiratory problems, and memory loss. As a result, the lower river and Pocomoke Sound were closed to fishing, boating, and swimming. It is currently hypothesized that the microorganism was present before the outbreak but became toxic due to elevated concentrations of organic waste that had built up in this sprawling coastal plain river.

title: Pocomoke River


text:
Fulgenius

Fulgenius was a legendary king of the Britons, mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical Historia Regum Britanniae. He came to power in 245BC.

He was the first of the three sons of Cherin to succeed his father, and was followed by his brothers, first Edadus then Andragius.

title: Fulgenius


text:
Edadus

Edadus was a legendary king of the Britons as recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae. He came to power in 239BC.

He was the second son of King Cherin and succeeded by his brother Andragius.

title: Edadus


text:
Bejam

Bejam was a British frozen food supermarket chain founded by John Apthorp in 1968, based in Stanmore, London. The business grew to become the biggest frozen food retailer and largest seller of freezers and microwaves in Britain. The business was purchased by smaller rival, Iceland, in a hostile takeover in 1989.

History
The concept of selling only frozen foods was a novel idea in 1968. John Adthorp, worked for E. A. D. Apthorp, his family firm of potato merchants, who were bought out by the Ross Group in 1968. Adthorp did not like working within the larger organisation, so left and opened a single store in Edgware as Bejam Bulk Buying in 1968 selling frozen foods. The name, Bejam was an acronym for Brian, Eric, John and Milly and Marion, the names of the Apthorp family members. At the time Britain was behind continental Europe in freezer ownership with less than 1% of households owning one, but by 1973 it had grown to around 2 million homes. By 1973, Bejam had expanded to 72 stores, not just selling frozen food but also freezers themselves, a pioneer in the marketplace, while in the same year it became listed on the London Stock Exchange. The company had many subsidiaries supplying frozen food to the business, including the jointly owned Meatpak Hampshire. Bejam would also buy 50% of Smeets Diepvries, B.V., a Netherlands wholesale distributor of frozen foods in 1973, eventually opening three Bejam stores in the Netherlands. In 1974, the company opened a new jointly owned 3,300,000 sqft cold store in Milton Keynes with the National Freight Corporation.

The company grew very quickly during the 1970s, and by 1978 they had grown to 147 stores with 463,000 sqft of sales space making £2.34 million of profit on £44.23 million turnover. The appliances division joined up with Barclays Bank in 1976 to offer customers credit on fridges and freezers sold in store. Bejam continued to grow, and in 1979 announced record profits of £6.04 million, and had continued to grow in the interim profits report of 1980 to £4.1 million, with the company's share price sitting at 59p. The company diversified in 1979 by purchasing 38 restaurants from EMI for £4.78 million, mostly operating under Wimpy and Tennessee Pancake fascias, and announced plans to open a fast food chain called Trumps, with the first branch opening in Romford. However, the fast food experiment failed, with 22 of the branches sold in 1980, and in 1981 the business withdrew from the market with a write-down of £1.9 million. It didn't however affect the company's profits, with the company generating pre-tax profits of £9 million. On the freezer shop front, Bejam purchased seven supermarket sites from BAT for £1.37 million in 1980, and 16 freezer centres owned by Fine Fare.

By 1982, the company turnover had on food sales alond had grown to £208 million. In 1984, the company opened its 200th store in Woodley, Berkshire with a ceremony with Anne, Princess Royal and her then husband Mark Phillips. The firm went head to head with Iceland in 1985, to purchase twelve of the failed freezer food chain Orchard Foods, but lost out to a £910,000 bid by the rival chain which saw Iceland gain its first stores in Bejam's territory. By 1986, this had grown to 226 freezer centres, and this was further enhanced by the purchase of 45 Victor Value stores from Tesco in 1986. John Adthorp had contacted Malcolm Walker of Iceland, in 1986 about purchasing the business, which he still held 30% of shares, but nothing further happened after initial conversations. In 1987, the business expanded with the purchases of Lowfreeze, the freezer shop brand of Scottish supermarket chain, Wm Low, nine of the former Sainsbury's Freezer Centres and retailer Wizard Wine. The company's shares rose from 158p to 210p on rumours that both Iceland and Hazelwood Foods were lining up bids, and it was announced that John Adthorp had handed over day-to-day running of the business to Timothy How. The Iceland link was very true, with Adthorp and Walker agreeing a price of 230p per share, however the Bejam board could not agree on the deal and Adthorp would not guarantee to sell his shares to Iceland if he received a higher bid.

In 1988, Iceland made a hostile takeover bid for Bejam, initially in a share offer worth 123p a share at a total of £240 million. Adthorp had stated the offer was inadequate and substantially and undervalues Bejam, with Walker criticising Bejam for not issuing a profit forecast. Iceland then amended their offer to include part cash part share at 187p, but the market were failed to be impressed with Bejam's share price dropping to 170p, and Adthorp said he would not accept the offer. On the 30 December, Lloyd's Bank, the registrar for the share offer declared that 50.09% of the shareholders in Bejam had accepted the offer.

title: Bejam


text:
Andragius

Andragius was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 233BC.

He was the youngest son of King Cherin and succeeded by his son Urianus.

title: Andragius


text:
Urianus

Urianus was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 227BC.

He was the son of King Andragius and was succeeded by Eliud. Geoffrey may possibly have based the character on that of Urien Rheged (6th century), although there is no resemblance between them.

title: Urianus