text:
Talk:Cassoulet

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Untitled
"by tradition, at the start of World War II, there was an excellent cassoulet in a country restaurant in the departement of Lot that was then over a hundred years old."

What was that supposed to mean? David.Monniaux 20:14, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

That a hundred years earlier some restaurant had made a cassoulet in a (huge) pot and then gradually served it, added ingredients, recooked it, served some more, and ainsi de suite for the next hundred years. I've read the same thing about some sorts of meat stews in French restaurants and think it's more probable with the stews than the cassoulet.... Hayford Peirce 19:24, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Cassoulet
French colloquialism refering to the aroma and residue of an unwashed vagina. Napoleon Bonaparte is reputed to have asked Josephine not bathe while he was away at battle so that he would be able to enjoy her aroma or cassoulet upon his return.

I'm french and I have never heard anything about the colloquialism you speak about (???)

I'm removing this, as it's almost certainly vandalism (and would put anyone off their food). In the unlikely event of someone finding a reputable source, we can think about putting it back. Bbird 17:24, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

Does anyone have any history sources? I remember reading that the history of cassoulet is that it was made in winter when only preserved meats (confit, sausage) were available. Lhq (talk) 21:19, 12 August 2008 (UTC)

The word is "cassolette", used for this meaning in "She Comes First: The Thinking Man's Guide to Pleasuring a Woman" by Ian Kerner. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.35.50.8 (talk) 15:27, 23 September 2015 (UTC)

Confit
I've just read claims that the cassoulet of Castelnaudary uses only quadruped meat. That's not so. All recipes I've seen use both confit d'oie and a whole roast duck. I've updated the page accordingly. See my references at http://www.lemis.com/grog/recipes/cassoulet.html for discussion (but, alas, not a good recipe). Groogle 04:12, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

In the end, the true liturgy of cassoulet isn't in the recipe, but rather in the special  moment when friends gather around a large, steaming earthenware caçòla and a meal becomes Mass. "Cassoulet has such a religion around it because it's the plat de partage — the dish of sharing, When a cassoulet arrives at the table, bubbling with aromas, something magical happens — it's Communion around a dish —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.196.103.100 (talk) 13:48, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

The Joke section
The paragraph called "The Joke" about some obscure incident is completely irrelevant and distracting and should be removed. Please do it, someone. May 15, 2009 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.170.119.164 (talk) 01:15, 16 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I also have never heard of this, and I was glued to election and post-election coverage. It's surely exaggeration to say it had a "burst of unexpected fame." Therefore I will do as the anonymous commenter suggests and delete it. Cmprince (talk) 17:34, 6 August 2009 (UTC)

The video of the french show : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-doAmxrKouI —Preceding unsigned comment added by Messenjer (talk • contribs) 20:54, 8 November 2009 (UTC)

Problem with history
The article states that this dish goes back to 14th century France, and supports it with a link to a puff-piece article from "Dining Chicago" - hardly an authoritarian source, the article itself cites no sources whatsoever.

The big problem I have with this is that haricot beans - a defining ingredient in the recipe - are not native to Europe, and were only brought in after the discovery of the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. ( see the article on beans - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean )

Add in the fact that as far as I am aware there were no recipes until at least the 1600s that even vaguely resemble cassoulet, and I think the alleged origin is completely bogus. Unless someone has some stronger support for a medieval origin for cassoulet, I'll delete it. --Doc (talk) 18:03, 1 March 2010 (UTC)

Cassoulet and cholent: yet changes the meaning
Reverted an edit adding the word "yet" to the sentence ending "a definitive relationship has not been established". Sorry if my reverts were insulting to Irondome. I'll try to clarify. The way I read it, the word "yet" adds an implication to the claim that isn't supported by the rest of the article: namely that someone is trying to (or will) prove that cholent/solet and cassoulet are definitively related. That's really the only difference between "it has not been" and "it has not yet been". If some source is making the claim that cholent is the origin of cassoulet, or vice versa, that would be an interesting addition to the article. But until such a claim is sourced and added to this article, there's no reason to add "yet" except to imply something not in evidence. Richigi (talk) 19:44, 8 March 2013 (UTC)
 * I dont insult that easily. I would suggest adding "yet" as culinary research, as are all subjects, is in constant development. The above edit implies the case is closed, when we simply do not know. In any event, "yet" should therefore be a stimulus for editors, or even a new user to improve the article, if they are aware of a relevant source. Yet is good. Stop press. Actually there is a source which confirms that Cholent and Sholet are the same thing. See http://www.chew.hun/solet Irondome (talk) 19:51, 8 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Nice response. Even though I'm not sure I agree (since "has not been" does not imply "will never be"), I yield to your very positive view. It's cool that you found a source for cholent/solet relationship, but that goes in the cholent article, right?  Does it say anything about cassoulet? I think the link is actually http://www.chew.hu/solet (no "n"), but it's not coming up for me: looks like it's temporarily offline. Richigi (talk) 20:45, 8 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Thanks my friend. It seems to confirm their virtual interchangability, I got the site add from the solet google image list. The one on the left. Another site goes into more detail and mentions a Hungarian chef of note, who provides a reciepe here http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/05/17/2394842/rhapsodic_hungarian_recipes The Cholent article may need to be revisited. Irondome (talk) 20:54, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

Article image subtitle
"Cassoulet served in Carcassonne in cassole sized for single serving"

Well done to the person who crafted that superb sentence. 185.103.96.147 (talk) 11:16, 30 March 2017 (UTC)

Why I remove caçolet
Sorry my english is not very good.

I have changed caçolet in cassolet. To be transparent, sincere and honest: neither of the two spellings (cassolet and caçolet) are approved by every occitan speakers.

However, I don't understand who have created caçolet (and why) ? It's a totally ideological spelling, which deliberately departs from french and inadvertently from it sister catalan.

The word cassoulet come from the occitan word. French have ç like occitan and catalan. Why french would it write cassoulet with -ss if occitan spelling with -ç ? It's a non sense : Mistral (nobel prize) and Honnorat use the -ss form.

Certain person may come and change the page to reset caçolet. It's their right, but they won't be more right than me. They will cite organizations that have no legitimacy (neither elected nor appointed) to rule on the language. CLO, EIO... it has as much right to have an opinion as I do. --Biyo Dio (talk) 20:16, 19 March 2020 (UTC)
 * You claim that the spelling caçolet is ideologicaly motivated, but have no source to support this claim. Mistral and Honnorat are not exactly modern references and were both speaking a particular occitan dialect, thus not entirely representative. Gyrostat (talk) 21:37, 19 March 2020 (UTC)

Image discussion

 * no need for second, redundant image advertising a restaurant when infobox already has better photo

User:Eric, this is a fascinating argument. I’ve never heard anyone say that we should only use one image per article. Which guideline or policy are you deriving this line of reasoning from? They are not duplicate images, they display differences and variations based on preparation, display, and region, and appear appropriate in their uniqueness. What is your objection? Viriditas (talk) 04:25, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

 * , I don't see how I could further clarify what I wrote in the edit summary. The uploader seemed to be on a bit of a campaign to flood the project with her snapshots, which I thought might merit some mitigation. Now, when prompted by your comments, I take a closer look, I see that she has uploaded 500 of her photos to Commons since the end of November, and made over 3,000 edits there in that time period, most or all on her uploaded files. Could make some people wonder if her principal goal is to improve the project. Eric talk 15:08, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Why are you doubting their motive? If a person uploads a trove of photos that do improve the articles in which they're placed, then we thank them for their effort. The only reasons to remove their photos are the reasons that apply to a single photo uploaded and added to an article by a user. If there's a pattern of problem photos, then we provide more general guidance for the user on the issues that have arisen. Largoplazo (talk) 15:46, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I don't see the behavior as having the goal of improving the articles. Others may differ. In any case my edit on this article related only to the utility of the one photo. Eric talk 15:58, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * You've missed my main point. You have no business removing a photo solely because you have (unfounded) suspicions over the motivation behind it. If a user had uploaded only that photo and added it to an article and you would have left it in that scenario, if there was otherwise nothing wrong with it, then you should leave it when a user who's posted 500 photos adds it to the article, regardless of what you imagine their motivation to be. In addition, when you attribute improper motivations to another user without just cause, you're in breach of WP:AGF. If the user is improving the project, then without something more substantive than whether it "could make some people wonder if her principal goal is to improve the project", you're making an unwarranted leap to an ill-founded judgment and acting confrontationally on it. Largoplazo (talk) 20:18, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Moreover, your reaction is as though you'd come across a new user whose only activity on Wikipedia has been to upload 500 photos and display them, in which case you might toy with the idea that the person is using Wikipedia primarily as a personal photo album. Rather, Viriditas has been editing here for 19 years and has accumulated over 158,000 edits in that time. It's worth considering that Viriditas' focus is, as much as anybody's could be, on the improvement of Wikipedia. Largoplazo (talk) 20:35, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Re missing the point: Read the third sentence of my above post.
 * Re Viriditas' activity: Viriditas is not the uploader of the images in question. Given the concern you show in your comments, you might take a minute to follow the links I provided above. Eric talk 21:41, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * You haven't helped your case. Viriditas found images on Commons that would be useful in articles and inserted them. So: whoever uploaded them, we see that at least a couple have proven to be they're proving to be useful additions to Wikipedia (at least, this one is, as well as the one you removed at Jerusalem artichoke that Viriditas had also placed there)! Yet you reverted Viriditas' insertion of them because you had manufactured ulterior motives on the part of the uploader. That seems to me a non-sequitur.
 * Now that you've pointed out that Viriditas wasn't the uploader, let's see who that is: User:Missvain, who has been editing here since 2006 and has made over 234,000 edits, more than 50% again over the number made by Viriditas. She has created over 1,000 articles. I'd say she has amply demonstrated her dedication to improving Wikipedia and is not here purely out of self-interest. When you find her surge of uploads suspicious, is it because you think that only users who have uploaded fewer thanhow many photos? 100? 10? 3?to Commons are above suspicion? Your third sentence, to which you've directed my attention, reads Now, when prompted by your comments, I take a closer look, I see that she has uploaded 500 of her photos to Commons since the end of November, and made over 3,000 edits there. And? Why is the most suitable reaction to that not "Thank you for your enormous contribution!"? Largoplazo (talk) 22:53, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm also an admin and founded numerous projects here and trust me...I'm not an new hand. I've also made it my project in 2024 to get almost every photo off my phone that is of quality and usable for educational purposes onto Commons. Hence the growth in contributions recently.
 * I love that I'm being accused of having a weird promotional agenda. After almost 20 years of editing Wikipedia and 13 years, seven months and eight days (LOL) of contributing to Wikimedia Commons I've never been accused of my freely licensed images being promotional. I don't even know what to say. I'm a foodie and I eat and drink a lot. And honestly, our coverage of food and beverage stinks on Wikipedia and Commons. Having great photographs of food is important for the project.
 * I was taken aback when I saw I was being targeted for my photographs and the editors involved were not able to provide a policy-based reason for reverting my work.
 * Thanks User:Largoplazo – I appreciate you pinging me.
 * BTW, I'm the one who placed the Jerusalem artichoke article and it was reverted by User:Velella and then returned it and appears it was removed again and Viriditas returned it. I just added it back. We have no photographs of that vegetable being used as food aside from it cooking in a pot and looking not too appetizing. Just happens I ate at a French restaurant that made a nice looking bowl of soup and a cassoulet and I thought the photos were helpful and educational in value.
 * As Julia Child used to say... "Bon Appetit!" and happy editing!
 * Missvain (talk) 23:35, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * And in case anyone is dying to know I've uploaded over 15,000 photographs to Wikimedia Commons. You can find them all here. Missvain (talk) 23:42, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Beyond me to counter such compelling arguments. And I'm happy to learn that edit count is a measure of excellence. Eric talk 16:23, 11 January 2024 (UTC)
 * It's a measure of how thoroughly unfounded your suspicions were about Missvain and of your failure to abide by WP:AGF in publicizing them and acting on them when they were nothing but air. Largoplazo (talk) 17:29, 11 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cassoulet


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Baron Killyleagh

Baron Killyleagh is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 23 July 1986 by Queen Elizabeth II as a substantive title for her son Prince Andrew, Duke of York, for the occasion of his marriage to Sarah Ferguson. The couple were married at Westminster Abbey.

It is named after the village and civil parish of Killyleagh, County Down, Northern Ireland. It is best known for its 12th century Killyleagh Castle. On the same day, he was also created Duke of York and Earl of Inverness.

Traditionally, the monarch grants male members of the royal family at least one title on their wedding day.

Baron Killyleagh (1986)
House of Windsor 1986–present  also: Duke of York and Earl of Inverness (1986)  Buckingham Palace son of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 23 July 1986 – 30 May 1996 (divorce) 2 children now 64 years, 146 days old
 * Prince Andrew
 * Duke of York 2022 (cropped).jpg
 * 19 February 1960
 * Sarah Ferguson
 * }
 * }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baron Killyleagh


text:
Hawza

A hawza (حوزة) or ḥawzah ʿilmīyah (حوزة علمیة) is the collective term (plural hawzat) for a madrasa (i.e. seminary) where Shi'a Muslim scholars are educated.

The word ḥawzah is found in Arabic as well as the Persian language. In Arabic, the word means "to hold something firmly". Accordingly, ḥawzah ʿilmīyah would mean a place where the firm knowledge (of the Muslim religion) is acquired. In the Persian language, ḥawzah refers to the middle part of a place or an area. Ḥawzah ʿilmīyah in Persian, therefore, means "the place of knowledge". Another meaning of the word is "circle of knowledge".

Several senior Grand Ayatollahs constitute the hawza. The institutions in Najaf, Iraq and Qom, Iran, are the preeminent seminary centers for the education of Shi'a scholars. However, several smaller hawzas exist in other cities around the world, such as at Karbala, Iraq, Isfahan and Mashhad in Iran, Beirut, Lebanon, Lucknow, India, Lahore, Pakistan, Europe and North America.

In countries with sharia courts such as Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, a hawza also functions as a law school for those wanting to practice law in Islamic courts.

Hawza 'Ilmiyya Najaf
Hawza 'Ilmiyya in Najaf, Iraq was established in 430 AH (the 11th century AD) by Shaykh al-Tusi (385 AH/995 CE – 460 AH/1067 CE), and continued as a center of study until the establishment of modern Iraq in 1921. At present Ayatollah Sistani heads Hawza 'Ilmiyya Najaf, which includes two other Ayatollahs - Mohammad Ishaq Al-Fayyad and Bashir al-Najafi. After witnessing a peak of some 20,000 students in the 60s, then around 3000 because of the State repression, since 2003, the Najaf hawza has now more than 13,000 students, while the curriculum has been updated to include many modern subjects as well as inter faith and inter sectarian initiatives.

Hawza 'Ilmiyya Qom
Although large Shi'a academies existed in Qom dating back as early as 10th century CE, the hawza of the city became prominent at the time of the Safavids when Shi'a Islam became the official religion of Iran. The famous teachers of that era included Mulla Sadra and Shaykh Bahai. The modern Qom hawza (since 1340 AH/1921 CE) was revitalized by Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi and Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi and is barely a century old. As of 1975, major madrasas in Qom which offered religious education included traditional madrasas which incorporate some modern elements in the curricula include: Since the revolution of 1979 new madrasas have been founded in Qom, including
 * Ḥaqqānī (founded 1964),
 * the traditional Fayżīya,
 * Ḵān,
 * Ḥojjatīya, and
 * Rażawīya,
 * Dār al-tablīḡ (1965),
 * Golpāyegānī (1965), and
 * Imam Amīr-al-Moʾmenīn (1975),
 * MaʿṢūmīya and
 * Maktab-e Zahrā.

Hawza 'Ilmiyya Khwaharan (Women's Hawza)
There are also a number of women's hawza, mostly located in Iran. Already in the early 1800s, the Salehiyya madrasa in Qazvin ran a women's section where several female mujtahids were trained. In Qom, the earliest seminary for women was established by the grand ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, who in 1973 added a women's section to his hawza Dar al-Tabligh, called Dar al-Zahra. Next, the Haghani school opened a women's wing in 1974/75, called Maktab-e Tawhid.

Outside Qom, women's seminaries included Maktab-e Fatema of Fasa (opened in 1961), Maktab-e Zahra of Shiraz (opened in 1964), Maktab-e Fatimah of Isfahan (opened by Lady Amin in 1965), Zahra-i Athar of Tehran (opened in 1966), and Madrase-ye 'Elmīyya Narges of Mashhad (opened in 1966).

After the 1979 revolution in Iran, the state began to centralize the women's hawza system. The women's seminaries in Qom were centralized into one large school, the Jamiat al-Zahra. In Khorasan with its clerical center of Mashhad, the women's maktabs came under the aegis of the state-run Centre for Management of Women's Seminaries of Khorasan. In the rest of the country, women's seminaries were integrated into the Centre for Management of Women's Seminaries (Markaz-e Modiriat-e Ḥawzahā-ye ʿElmiyya Khwaharān). Since the mid-1990s the latter center has established more than 300 seminaries across Iran (before the revolution less than a dozen existed in the entire country).

Hawza 'Ilmiyya in the West
There are also a number of ḥawzah in the West particularly in the United Kingdom. One of longest established hawza in the UK is Al-Mahdi Institute (AMI). Founded in 1993 by Shaykh Arif Abdulhussain, who received ijāza of ijtihād from Ayatollah Hussain Amini and Ayatollah Professor Sayyid Mostafa Mohaghegh Damad, Al-Mahdi Institute began as an Islamic educational institute (hawza) with the objective of combining traditional seminarian scholarship with modern academic study approaches.

The Hawza Programme is at the core of AMI's educational offerings. Modeled on the curriculums of the ḥawzah of Qom and Najaf, it offers training in classical Islamic sciences, employing a critical and academic approach. Courses are primarily taught in English with Arabic language instruction. The programme culminates in eligibility for a Master's degree in Islamic Studies from the University of Birmingham. Additionally, AMI's 'Transfer Student Scheme' enables students from other Islamic institutions to also join the programme and pursue the MA degree.

Hawza subjects
Hawza students begin their studies by learning fiqh, kalam, hadith, tafsir, philosophy, natural and abstract sciences as well as Arabic and Arabic literature. Once these studies have been completed, they may begin preparation to become a mujtahid by studying advanced old textbooks known as sat'h, and research courses known as kharij.

Subjects studied at the hawza may include the following:

 * 1) Falsafa (Islamic philosophy)
 * 2) Fiqh (jurisprudence)
 * 3) 'Ilm al-Hadith (traditions)
 * 4) Ilm al-Kalam (theology)
 * 5) 'Ilm ar-Rijal (evaluation of biographies)
 * 6) 'Irfan (Islamic mysticism)
 * 7) Mantiq (Logic)
 * 8) Lugha (language studies)
 * 9) Tafsir al-Qur'an (interpretation of the Qur'an)
 * 10) Tarikh (history)
 * 11) 'Ulum al-Qur'an (Qur'an sciences)
 * 12) Usul al-Fiqh (principles of jurisprudence)

Advanced subjects
Once the basic studies have been completed, students may begin preparation to become a mujtahid by studying advanced ancient textbooks known as sat'h, and research courses known as kharij.

To be a mujtahid one has to excel in the advanced levels of the Hawza including Muqad'dim'maat, Sotooh, Sotooh 'Ulya,  'Uloom ukhra and Bahath Kharij.

Bahath e Kharij is the last level of hawzah and this level leads to Marja'iya, to become a marja' one has to teach dars e khaarij for considerable amount of time, publish collection of juridical edicts (risala 'amaliyya) and become recognised as one (by established Maraji).

title: Hawza


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County of Boulogne

The County of Boulogne was a county within the Kingdom of France during the 9th to 15th centuries, centred on the city of Boulogne-sur-Mer. It was ruled by the counts of Flanders in the 10th century, but a separate House of Boulogne emerged during the 11th century. It was annexed by Philip II of France in 1212, after which it was treated as part of the county of Artois until it was finally annexed into the royal domain in 1550.

History
Boulogne was already a pagus within the kingdom of the Franks (pagus Bononiensis), but there are few records prior to the 11th century. A proverbially wicked count named Herrequin is recorded for the 9th century, but he may be legendary (see Herla, Erlking). It seems to have come under the rule of the counts of Flanders in the late 9th or early 10th century. In 886, bishop Gauzlin of Paris asked count Erkenger of Boulogne to solicit German help against the Viking raids. Erkenger lost all his possessions in 896, as he remained loyal to Charles the Simple. It may have been at this point that Baldwin II, Count of Flanders, gained control over Boulogne.

Eustace II of Boulogne accompanied William the Conqueror's invasion in 1066. Boulogne was also a major participant in the First Crusade; Eustace III of Boulogne's brothers, Godfrey of Bouillon and Baldwin of Bouillon, both became kings of Jerusalem, and Eustace himself was offered but declined the title.

Count Renaud of Boulogne joined the imperial side at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, and he was defeated by Philip II of France.

Boulogne passed under nominal royal control in 1223 when it was given to Philip II's son Philip Hurepel. Hurepel revolted against Blanche of Castile when Louis VIII of France died in 1226. When Philip Hurepel died in 1235, Matilda continued to reign and in 1238 was married to Alphonse, second son of King Alfonso II of Portugal, and younger brother of King Sancho II of Portugal. Having become Afonso III of Portugal in 1248 and renounced his title of Count of Boulogne, Alfonse divorced her in 1253 due to her barrenness in favour of Beatrice of Castile.

Nevertheless, Matilda and Philip did have a son Alberic, and a daughter Joan who both survived. Alberic reportedly renounced his rights and went to England, for unknown reasons. Apparently he survived his mother and died in 1284, but presumably did not leave issue. Joan was married in 1236 to Gaucher de Châtillon, Count of Mortain (d. 1251). She predeceased her mother in 1252, and presumably left no surviving issue.

Consequently, after Matilda, her county of Boulogne then passed to Matilda's niece, Adelaide of Brabant and her husband William X of Auvergne.

Bertrand V de la Tour succeeded to the counties of Auvergne and of Boulogne in 1437. Through his son Bertrand VI de la Tour the County of Boulogne passed to his grandson, the last medieval count of Boulogne: Jean III de la Tour d'Auvergne. By his marriage to Jeanne of Bourbon-Vendôme, he left two daughters:
 * The eldest daughter, Anne of la Tour d'Auvergne, married John Stewart, Duke of Albany, however she died childless in 1524.
 * The youngest, Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne married Lorenzo II de' Medici and gave birth to Catherine de' Medici, who inherited both Auvergne and Boulogne due to the death of the childless Anne.

The representatives of the County joined in the Netherlands the Estates General of 1464 in Bruges. At the death of Charles the Bold the King of France claimed the end of the dependency of Boulogne from the County of Artois, causing new struggles against the Habsburg. The treaty of Senlis closed the problem: France lost Artois to the Empire, while the Habsburg renounced to Boulogne.

In 1477, Bertrand II dealed with Louis XI, exchanging the county of Boulogne with the county of Lauragais. Boulogne, so became part of the royal domain.

Boulogne was attacked numerous times during the Hundred Years' War and occupied numerous time by the English: the last time from 1544 to 1550. In 1550 the Peace of Boulogne ended the war between England and France and France bought back Boulogne for 400,000 crowns. (See also the Sieges of Boulogne (1544–46)).

title: County of Boulogne


text:
Native Hawaiians

Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians; kānaka, kānaka ʻōiwi, Kānaka Maoli, and Hawaiʻi maoli) are the Indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands.

Hawaii was settled at least 800 years ago by Polynesians who sailed from the Society Islands. The settlers gradually became detached from their homeland and developed a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity in their new home. They created new religious and cultural structures, in response to their new circumstances and to pass knowledge from one generation to the next. Hence, the Hawaiian religion focuses on ways to live and relate to the land and instills a sense of community.

The Hawaiian Kingdom was formed in 1795, when Kamehameha the Great, of the then-independent island of Hawaiʻi, conquered the independent islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi to form the kingdom. In 1810, Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the Kingdom, the last inhabited islands to do so. The Kingdom received many immigrants from the United States and Asia. The Hawaiian sovereignty movement seeks autonomy or independence for Hawaii.

In the 2010 U.S. census, people with Native Hawaiian ancestry were reported to be residents in all 50 of the U.S. states, as well as Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico. Within the U.S. in 2010 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ancestry alone, of which 135,422 lived in Hawaii. In the United States overall, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either alone or in combination with one or more other races. The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was one of the fastest-growing groups between 2000 and 2010.

History
The history of Kānaka Maoli, like the history of Hawaii, is commonly broken into four major periods:
 * the pre-unification period (before c. 1800)
 * the unified monarchy and republic period ( to 1898)
 * the U.S. territorial period (1898 to 1959)
 * the U.S. statehood period (1959 to present)

Origins
One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaii in the 3rd century from the Marquesas by travelling in groups of waka, and were followed by Tahitians in AD 1300, who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Evidence for Tahitian conquest include the legends of Hawaiiloa and the navigator-priest Paao, who is said to have made a voyage between Hawaii and the island of "Kahiki" (Tahiti) and introduced many customs. Early historians, such as Abraham Fornander and Martha Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, but later historians, such as Patrick Kirch, do not mention it. King Kalākaua claimed that Paao was from Samoa.

Some writers claim that earlier settlers in Hawaii were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians, although similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.

Demographics
At the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. This was the peak of the Native Hawaiian population. During the first century after contact, Kānaka Maoli were nearly wiped out by diseases brought by immigrants and visitors. Kānaka Maoli had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, among others. These diseases were similarly catastrophic to indigenous populations in the Americas.

The current 293,000 include dual lineage Native Hawaiian and mixed lineage/multi-racial people. This was the highest number of any Kānaka Maoli living on the island until 2014, a period of almost 226 years. This long spread was marked by an initial die-off of 1-in-17, which would gradually increase to almost 8–10 dying from contact to the low point in 1950.

The 1900 U.S. census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U.S. census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, showing a steady growth trend over the century.

Diaspora
Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of the Hawaiian Kingdom. For example, Harry Maitey became the first Hawaiian in Prussia.

The Native Hawaiian population has increased outside the state of Hawaii, with states such as California and Washington experiencing dramatic increases in total population. Due to a notable Hawaiian presence in Las Vegas, the city is sometimes called "the Ninth Island" in reference to the eight islands of Hawaii.

Culture and arts
Several cultural preservation societies and organizations were established. The largest is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. The museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.

The Polynesian Voyaging Society reignited interest in Polynesian sailing techniques, both in ship construction and in instrument-free navigation. The Society built multiple double-hulled canoes, beginning with Hōkūlea and followed by Makali'i, Alingano Maisu, and Mo‘okiha O Pi‘ilani. The canoes and their worldwide voyages contributed to the renewal and appreciation of Hawaiian culture.

Religion and society
Native Hawaiian culture grew from their Polynesian roots, creating a local religion and cultural practices. This new worship centered on the ideas of land (aina) and family (ohana). Land became a sacred part of life and family. Hawaiian religion is polytheistic, but mostly focuses on the gods Wākea and Papahānaumoku, the mother and father of the Hawaiian islands. Their stillborn child formed the deep roots of Hawaii, and whose second child, Hāloa, is the god from whom all Hawaiians originate.

Hawaiian culture is caste-oriented, with specific roles based on social standing. Caste roles are reflected in how land was controlled.

Land tenure
Each island was divided into moku, which were given to people of high standing and kept within the family. Each moku was split into smaller ahupua'a, each of which extended from the sea to the top of the nearest mountain. This was to ensure that each ahupua'a provided all necessary resources for survival, including hardwoods and food sources. Each ahupua'a was managed by managers, who were charged by the island chief to collect tributes from the residents. Splits of the ahupua'a were based on the level of tribute. The major subdivisions were  'Ili. Each  'Ili gave a tribute to the chief of the ahupua'a and another to the island chief. In contrast to the European system of feudalism, Hawaiian peasants were never bound to the land and were free to move as they chose.

Kānaka Maoli refer to themselves as kama'aina, a word meaning "people of the land", because of their connection to and stewardship of the land. It was also part of the spiritual belief system that attributes their origin to the land itself. This is reinforced by the cultivation of taro, a plant that is said to be the manifestation of Hāloa. The represents the deep roots that tether Hawaiians to the islands, as well as symbolizing the branching networks that Hawaiian people created.

Hula
Hula is one of Hawai'is best-known indigenous artforms. Traditionally, hula was a ritualistic dance performed to honor the gods and goddesses. Hula is typically categorized as either Hula Kahiko or Hula ʻAuana. Each hula tells a story via its movements and gestures.

Hula Kahiko is a traditional style. Its interpretive dance is known for its grace and romantic feel. Dances are accompanied by percussion instruments and traditional chanting. The traditional instruments include the pahu hula, kilu or puniu, ipu, hano or phe hano ihu, ka, pu, oeoe, pahupahu kaekeeke, hokio, and wi. Dancers add to the effect using uli, puili, iliili, papahehi, and kalaau.

Hula ʻAuana was influenced by later Western factors. It is accompanied by non-traditional musical instruments and colorful outfits. It became popularized with tourists and it is this form that is most widely practiced beyond the islands. Ukuleles and guitars are common.

Holidays
The Hawaiian people celebrate traditions and holidays. The most popular form of celebration in Hawaii is the Lūʻau. A lūʻau is a traditional Hawaiian banquet, commonly featuring foods such as poi, poke, lomi-lomi salmon, kalua pig, haupia, and entertainment such as ukulele music and hula.

One of the most important holidays is Prince Kuhio Day. Celebrated every year since 1949 on his birthday (March 26), the holiday honors Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a Congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become landowners. It is celebrated with canoe races and luaus across the islands. Every June 11 Kānaka Maoli celebrate King Kamehameha day. Kamehameha I was the king who unified the islands and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He was known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades and lei draping ceremonies, where Kānaka Maoli bring lei (flower necklaces) to King Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.

Hawaiian cultural revival
Native Hawaiian culture underwent a renaissance beginning in the 1970s. It was in part triggered by the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, held 200 years after the arrival of Captain Cook. At the convention, state government committed itself to the study and preservation of Hawaiian culture, history, and language.

Hawaiian culture was introduced into Hawaiʻi's public schools, teaching Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to teach Hawaiian history to all their students.

Many aspects of Hawaiian culture were commercialized to appeal to visitors from around the world. This includes hula, use of the word "Aloha", lei, and the assimilation of Hawaiian culture into non-native lifestyles. This has provided significant financial support for cultural practices, while emphasizing aspects that have popular appeal over those that respect tradition.

Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure of Barbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the region formerly occupied by the base was renamed Kalaeloa.

Activism
While Native Hawaiian protest has a long history, beginning just after the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, many notable protests came during or after the Hawaiian cultural revival. These include the Kalama Valley protests, the Waiāhole-Waikāne struggle, the Kahoolawe island protests, and protests over the presence and management of astronomical observatories atop Hawaii's mountains, most notably the Thirty Meter Telescope protests.

Hawaiian Traditional Language
The Hawaiian language (or ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi) was once the language of native Hawaiian people; today, Kānaka Maoli predominantly speak English. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English "be the only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools". This law excluded the Hawaiian language from schools. In spite of this, some Kānaka Maoli (as well as non-Kānaka Maoli) learned ʻŌlelo Hawaii. As with other Hawaii locals, Kānaka Maoli typically speak Hawaiian Creole English (referred to locally as Pidgin) in daily life. Pidgin is a creole that developed during the plantation era in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, mixing words and diction from the various ethnic groups living in Hawaii then.

ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi later became an official language of the State of Hawaii, alongside English. The state enacted a program of cultural preservation in 1978. Programs included Hawaiian language immersion schools, and a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Ever since, Hawaiian language fluency has climbed among all races.

In 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a masters program in Hawaiian, and in 2006, a Ph.D program. It was the first doctoral program established for the study of any pre-contact language in the United States.

Hawaiian is the primary language of the residents of Niʻihau.

Hawai'i Sign Language
Alongside  'Ōlelo Hawai'i, some Maoli spoke the little studied Hawai'i Sign Language.

Education
In Hawaii, the public school system is operated by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Education rather than local school districts. Under the administration of Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state's educational system established Hawaiian language immersion schools. In these schools, all courses are taught in the Hawaiian language and incorporate Hawaiian subject matter. These schools are not exclusive to native Hawaiians.

Kānaka Maoli are eligible for an education from Kamehameha Schools (KS), established through the last will and testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiest private school system in the United States, KS was intended to benefit orphans and the needy, with preference given to Kānaka Maoli. The schools educate thousands of children of native Hawaiian children ancestry and offers summer and off-campus programs not restricted by ancestry. KS practice of accepting primarily gifted students, has been controversial in the native Hawaiian community. Many families feel that gifted students could excel anywhere, and that the Hawaiian community would be better served by educating disadvantaged children to help them become responsible community contributors.

Many Kānaka Maoli attend public schools or other private schools.

United States annexation
In 1893, during the Hawaiian rebellions of 1887–1895 and after the ascension of Queen Liliuokalani to the Hawaiian Throne in 1891, Sanford Dole created the "Committee of Safety" overthrew the monarchy. This was in part due to the Queen's rejection of the 1887 Constitution, which severely limited her authority. This diminished traditional governance and installed a US-backed, plantation-led government. One reason for the overthrow was over Kalākaua's unwillingness to sign the amended Treaty of Reciprocity that would have damaged Hawaiian trade, and opened up part of 'Oahu for the Pearl Harbor military base.

The event was challenged by Grover Cleveland, but was eventually supported by President William McKinley in his Manifest Destiny plan, which harmed indigenous peoples in the continental United States and Hawai'i. The change left Kānaka Maoli as the only major indigenous group with no "nation-to-nation" negotiation status and without any degree of self determination.

Native American Programs Act
In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include Kānaka Maoli. This paved the way for Kānaka Maoli to become eligible for some federal assistance programs originally intended for continental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".

United States apology resolution
On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as the Apology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes to Kānaka Maoli on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii".

Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009
In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill (Akaka bill), an attempt to recognize and form a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments. The bill would establish, for the first time, a formal political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the US government. Proponents consider the legislation to be an acknowledgement and partial correction of past injustices. They included Hawaiʻi's Congressional delegation, as well as former Governor Linda Lingle. Opponents include the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, (who doubted the constitutionality of creating a race-based government), libertarian activists, (who challenged the accuracy of claims of injustice), and other Native Hawaiian sovereignty activists, (who claimed that the legislation would prevent complete independence from the United States).

A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure ... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure." A Zogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii indicated that a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed it and that 76% indicated that they were unwilling to pay higher taxes to offset any resulting tax revenue loss due to the act.

The bill did not pass.

Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law
In 2005, with the support of U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at UH Mānoa William S. Richardson School of Law. The program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law.

Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao maintains a social media presence and provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships.

Department of Interior Self-Governance Proposal
In 2016, the Department of Interior (DOI), under the direction of Secretary Sally Jewell, started the process of recognizing the Hawaiians' right to self governance and the ability for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights. This created opposition from the Hawaiian Sovereignty movement who believed that Kānaka Maoli should not have to navigate US structures to regain sovereignty and viewed the process as incomplete. The outcome ultimately allowed nation-to-nation relationships if Kānaka Maoli created their own government and sought that relationship. The government formation process was stopped by Justice Anthony Kennedy, using his earlier precedent in Rice v. Cayetano that "ancestry was a proxy for race" in ancestry-based elections, but the voting itself was not stopped.

Violence Against Women Act
In December 2022, the Violence Against Women Act was amended to include Kānaka Maoli survivors of gender-based violence and Native Hawaiian organizations in grant funding.

Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month
The United States government has permanently designated the month of May to be Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month; before 2021 it was known as Asian Pacific American Heritage Month.

Notable Kānaka Maoli
In 1873, the first Kānaka Maoli were given permission from King Lunalilo (prior emigration of Kānaka Maoli was not allowed) to permanently emigrate to the United States (Salt Lake City, Utah). They were Kiha Kaʻawa, and Kahana Pukahi. Kiha was adopted by Mormon Missionary President George Nebeker upon arrival, making Kiha Kaʻawa (Nebeker) the first native Hawaiian to become a U.S. citizen in 1873.

title: Native Hawaiians


text:
V-shaped passage grave

V-shaped passage graves are a megalithic chamber tomb found in parts of Atlantic Europe including Ireland, the Channel Islands and Brittany. They date to between 3500 and 2500BC.

They are similar to Wedge-shaped gallery graves in that in plan they have a narrow entrance that widens out inside into a burial chamber. The entrance passage and the burial chamber are distinguished by sill stones, however, meaning they are part of the passage grave tradition.

In some cases a small sub chamber leads off from the main chamber.

Examples include "La Varde" and Le Creux es Faies on Guernsey and "Le Ruen" and "Ty-ar-Boudiquet" in Brtittany.

title: V-shaped passage grave


text:
Büren

Büren may refer to the following places:

Germany

 * Büren, Westphalia, a town near Paderborn, North Rhine-Westphalia
 * Büren, a village in the municipality of Lotte, North Rhine-Westphalia
 * Büren, a village in the municipality of Neustadt am Rübenberge, Lower Saxony

Switzerland

 * Büren, Aargau, part of Gansingen in the canton of Aargau
 * Büren nid dem Bach, in the canton of Nidwalden
 * Büren ob dem Bach, in the Canton of Nidwalden
 * Büren, Solothurn, in the canton of Solothurn
 * Büren District, a former district in the canton of Bern
 * Büren an der Aare in the canton of Bern
 * Büren zum Hof, in the canton of Bern
 * Büron, in the canton of Lucerne

Mongolia

 * Büren, Töv, a sum in Töv Province

title: Büren


text: User talk:81.106.40.10

title: User talk:81.106.40.10


text:
Talk:French paradox

January 2023 cleanup
I have deleted paragraphs that violate WP:SYN. These were mainly a compilation of ideas that Wikipedia editors think might explain the French Paradox. However, the sources given in these paragraphs have no direct link to the hypothesis. Thus, these paragraphs violate WP:SYN. CarlFromVienna (talk) 12:50, 25 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:French paradox


text:
Blanquette de veau

Blanquette de veau is a French veal stew. In the classic version of the dish the meat is simmered in a white stock and served in a sauce velouté enriched with cream and egg. It is among the most popular meat dishes in France.

Definition
The Oxford Companion to Food describes "blanquette" as "a French and to some extent international culinary term indicating a dish of white meat (veal, poultry, also lamb) served in a white sauce". In Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagne's definition is "the French term for a ragout of white meat (veal, lamb or poultry) cooked in a white stock or water with aromatic flavourings".

Simone Beck, Louisette Bertholle and Julia Child in their Mastering the Art of French Cooking describe blanquette de veau, as "a much-loved stew in France … veal simmered in a lightly seasoned white stock … served in a sauce velouté made from the veal cooking stock and enriched with cream and egg yolks". In 2007 Anne Willan wrote that French television had recently conducted a poll of favourite meat dishes in which "Blanquette de veau was in the top five, with steak frites and gigot d'agneau".

Ingredients
The name "blanquette" derives from "blanc", the French word for white, and there is a purist view that the whiteness of the dish is key, and coloured vegetables such as carrots should not be included. In the words of Anthony Bourdain:

Some cooks, such as Anne Willan, share Bourdain's view, but numerous cooks from Auguste Escoffier (1907) onwards have included carrots in their recipes for blanquette de veau, though in many cases the carrot is removed prior to serving.

Beck, Bertholle and Child list six suitable cuts of veal for a blanquette: poitrine (breast), haute de côtes (short ribs), épaule (shoulder), côtes découvertes (middle neck) and gîte/jarret (knuckle). Other cooks and food writers have differed in their recommended cuts for the dish:

In older recipes the veal was roast and allowed to go cold before being sliced or chopped, covered in a white sauce and reheated. Eliza Acton's 1858 recipe includes mushrooms gently sautéed in butter and served over the veal with Sauce Tournée (also called velouté). There was at one time some question of how blanquettes were to be distinguished from fricassées. In 1960 The Times commented:

According to Montagne, blanquette de veau is usually served with rice à la créole but may also be served with celeriac, halved celery hearts, carrots, braised parsnips or leeks, braised cucumber, braised lettuce or lettuce hearts. Pasta or potatoes are sometimes served instead of rice, and Escoffier recommends noodles.

title: Blanquette de veau


text:
User talk:Paliebert

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I find useful

 * Policy Library
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Conflict resolution
 * Brilliant prose
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 * Village pump
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Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Cheers, Sam [Spade] 20:28, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paliebert


text:
Apostolic poverty

Apostolic poverty is a Christian doctrine professed in the thirteenth century by the newly formed religious orders, known as the mendicant orders, in direct response to calls for reform in the Roman Catholic Church. In this, these orders attempted to live their lives without ownership of lands or accumulation of money, following the precepts given to the seventy disciples in the Gospel of Luke (10:1-24), and succeeding to varying degrees. The ascetic Pope Paschal II's solution of the Investiture Controversy in his radical Concordat of 1111 with the Emperor, repudiated by the cardinals, was that the ecclesiastics of Germany should surrender to the imperial crown their fiefs and secular offices. Paschal proved to be the last of the Gregorianist popes.

The provocative doctrine was a challenge to the wealth of the church and the concerns about ensuing corruption it brought: rejected by the hierarchy of the Church, it found sympathetic audiences among the disaffected poor of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries.

The doctrine of apostolic poverty was condemned as heresy in 1323, but it continued to be a source of debate.

Apostolic Brethren
In Northern Italy, Spain, and France primarily, a religious movement of people called the Apostolic Brethren was a large advocate of this idea. The word "Apostolic" used to describe members of the Brethren was also used as a label for people from similar religious sects.

Humiliati
One group which was a major proponent of apostolic poverty was the Humiliati, the "Humble Ones". Founded by a wool merchant, they established communities scattered around Italy and France, organized on the principle of a simple way of life for the laity, who shared their goods while remaining in family units. They remained primarily a lay movement, and came to reject the authority of the hierarchy and the clergy. For this and other reasons, they were later to be declared heretical by the Catholic Church.

It is often assumed that Saint Francis of Assisi was inspired to form the Franciscans by their movement, in an effort to emulate the poverty of Jesus Christ and to bring his message through a simple life and example, while strictly adhering to the beliefs of the Catholic Church. Saint Dominic founded a similar order, the Order of Preachers, better known as the Dominicans.

Waldenses
Sometime during the 1170's, a wealthy cloth merchant known as Waldes or Peter Waldo experienced a religious conversion, which has been attributed to him hearing a minstrel retell the story of St. Alexis. After hearing this recital, Waldes visited a master theologian in order to determine the surest way to salvation, to which the theologian replied he should follow the scripture; specifically Matthew 19:21: 'If you wish to go the whole way, then go and sell everything you have, and give to the poor'. Waldes then, after providing for his family, gave away all his possessions and followed a life of apostolic poverty. He had the Gospel translated and began openly preaching, gaining many followers who too embraced lives of apostolic poverty; these men and women became known as the Waldensians. Walter Map, though critical of the Waldensians lack of education and therefore their inability to preach, conceded that they did truly live in a state of poverty comparable to the apostles, describing them as having 'no permanent homes...possessing nothing and having everything in common like the Apostles, naked, following a naked Christ'.

Franciscans
The Franciscans were authorized by Pope Gregory IX to have non-members who would look after their material needs, while the friars themselves would own nothing and would only make use according to the vow of poverty of what was given to them. From the beginning, two tendencies developed. Some friars, referred to as the Zelanti, living more isolated and simpler lives, strictly observed the poverty enjoined by the testament of Saint Francis. Others lived in convents in the towns, tending the attached churches with the necessary liturgical furnishings and devoting themselves also to study and preaching, which required the use of books. They observed the Franciscan Rule in accordance with interpretations officially made by the Popes. Already Gregory IX had indicated that the testament of St Francis did not oblige the friars in conscience. Pope Innocent IV gave the Franciscans permission to appoint "procurators" to buy, sell and administer goods given to them. Bonaventure, who become minister general in 1257, tried to reconcile the two tendencies and is sometimes called the second founder of the Order, to which he gave its first General Constitutions. Conflicts with the secular clergy and with lay teachers in the universities led to accusations of hypocrisy with regard to the profession of poverty from outsiders, as well as from those members of the order formerly known as the Zelanti, but who then began to be referred to as the Spirituals, because of their association with the Age of the Spirit that the apocalyptic writer Joachim of Fiore had foretold would begin in 1260.

In the early years of the 14th century, the conflict between the Spirituals and the Conventual Franciscans came to a head. The Spirituals, who in the 13th century were led by the Joachimist Peter Olivi, adopted more extreme positions that discredited the notion of apostolic poverty in some eyes and led to condemnation by Pope John XXII.

In his 14 August 1279 bull Exiit qui seminat, Pope Nicholas III had confirmed the arrangement already established by Pope Gregory IX, by which all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See, which granted the friars the mere use of it. The bull declared that renunciation of ownership of all things "both individually but also in common, for God's sake, is meritorious and holy; Christ, also, showing the way of perfection, taught it by word and confirmed it by example, and the first founders of the Church militant, as they had drawn it from the fountainhead itself, distributed it through the channels of their teaching and life to those wishing to live perfectly". Pope Clement V's bull Exivi de Paradiso of 20 November 1312 failed to effect a compromise between the two factions. Clement V's successor, Pope John XXII was determined to suppress what he considered to be the excesses of the Spirituals, who contended eagerly for the view that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, either separately or jointly, and who were citing Exiit qui seminat in support of their view. In 1317, he formally condemned the group of them known as the Fraticelli.

On 26 March 1322, John removed the ban on discussion of Nicholas III's bull and commissioned experts to examine the idea of poverty based on belief that Christ and the apostles owned nothing. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the Church's right to have possessions. The Franciscan chapter held in Perugia in May 1322 declared on the contrary: "To say or assert that Christ, in showing the way of perfection, and the Apostles, in following that way and setting an example to others who wished to lead the perfect life, possessed nothing either severally or in common, either by right of ownership and dominium or by personal right, we corporately and unanimously declare to be not heretical, but true and catholic." By the bull Ad conditorem canonum of 8 December of the same year, John XXII, declaring that "it was ridiculous to pretend that every egg and piece of bread given to and eaten by the Friars Minor belonged to the pope", forced them to accept ownership by ending the arrangement according to which all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See, which granted the friars the mere use of it. He thus demolished the fictitious structure that gave the appearance of absolute poverty to the life of the Franciscan friars, a structure that "absolved the Franciscans from the moral burden of legal ownership, and enabled them to practise apostolic poverty without the inconvenience of actual poverty". And on 12 November 1323 he issued the short bull Cum inter nonnullos, which declared "erroneous and heretical" the doctrine that Christ and his apostles had no possessions whatever.

Influential members of the order protested, including the minister general Michael of Cesena, the English provincial William of Ockham, and Bonagratia of Bergamo. In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the Pope of heresy. In reply to the argument of his opponents that Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat was fixed and irrevocable, John XXII issued the bull Quia quorundam of 10 November 1324, in which he declared that it cannot be inferred from the words of the 1279 bull that Christ and the apostles had nothing, adding: "Indeed, it can be inferred rather that the Gospel life lived by Christ and the Apostles did not exclude some possessions in common, since living 'without property' does not require that those living thus should have nothing in common."

In 1328 Michael of Cesena was summoned to Avignon to explain the Order's intransigence in refusing the Pope's orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria. Michael was imprisoned in Avignon, together with Francesco d'Ascoli, Bonagratia and William of Ockham. In January of that year Louis of Bavaria entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor. Three months later, he declared John XXII deposed and installed the Spiritual Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as Pope. The Franciscan chapter that opened in Bologna on 28 May reelected Michael of Cesena, who two days before had escaped with his companions from Avignon. But in August Louis the Bavarian and his pope had to flee Rome before an attack by Robert, King of Naples. Only a small part of the Franciscan Order joined the opponents of John XXII, and at a general chapter held in Paris in 1329 the majority of all the houses declared their submission to the Pope. With the bull "Quia vir reprobus" of 16 November 1329, John XXII replied to Michael of Cesena's attacks on Ad conditorem canonum, Cum inter and Quia quorundam. In 1330 Antipope Nicholas V submitted, followed later by the ex-general Michael, and finally, just before his death, by Ockham.

title: Apostolic poverty


text:
User talk:Mr Sheen

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I find useful

 * Policy Library
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Conflict resolution
 * Brilliant prose
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
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 * Boilerplate text

Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Cheers, Sam [Spade] 20:29, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mr Sheen


text: User talk:12.72.203.82

title: User talk:12.72.203.82


text:
Aurolac

Aurolac is an industrial adhesive sold in Romania, designed for use in repairing terracotta stoves, which is commonly abused as an inhalant. The law HG 767/2001 applies restrictions on where and how aurolac, which it uses as a generic term for a variety of substances containing ethers, ketones, acetates, as well as methanol and toluene, can be sold.

In 2000, a child who had abused Aurolac was photographed while naked and crying in a tram station in Bucharest's Rahova district. The image was widely published and used to define social problems in Romania. The 2001 documentary Children Underground also details the effects of Aurolac abuse amongst Bucharest's homeless children.

title: Aurolac


text:
User:Terabyte~enwiki

de:Benutzer:Terabyte

Meanings of Terabyte:

 * 1) a Unit of Measurement. See Terabyte.
 * 2) a user of the Wikipedia. See you later.

I'm a German user and admin on the German Wikipedia.

Please leave messages on my discussion page.

title: User:Terabyte~enwiki


text:
Talk:1980 in American television

Untitled
i would like a picture of the characters in Angie.

16 May
The edit of 16 May: please check! Probably a jokeSuper48paul (talk) 19:08, 16 May 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:1980 in American television


text:
Wichtrach

Wichtrach is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

History
Wichtrach was created on 1 January 2004, by uniting the independent municipalities of Niederwichtrach and Oberwichtrach. The parish church of Oberwichtrach was first mentioned in 1180. The two Wichtrach villages were first mentioned in 1180 as Wichtracho.

Geography
Wichtrach has an area of. As of 2012, a total of 7.35 km2 or 63.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 2.59 km2 or 22.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.52 km2 or 13.1% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.11 km2 or 0.9% is either rivers or lakes and 0.02 km2 or 0.2% is unproductive land.

During the same year, housing and buildings made up 6.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 4.4%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 49.9% is used for growing crops and 12.1% is pastures, while 1.5% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

On 1 January 2004 the former municipalities of Niederwichtrach and Oberwichtrach merged into the municipality of Wichtrach.

On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Konolfingen, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland.

Demographics
Wichtrach has a population of. , 5.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2001-2011) the population has changed at a rate of 0%. Migration accounted for -0.6%, while births and deaths accounted for 0.5%.

Most of the population speaks German (94.7%) as their first language, French is the second most common (0.5%) and Italian is the third (1.1%).

, the population was 50.2% male and 49.8% female. The population was made up of 1,897 Swiss men (47.2% of the population) and 120 (3.0%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,903 Swiss women (47.4%) and 99 (2.5%) non-Swiss women.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 21.4% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 63.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 15.3%.

, there were 488 households that consist of only one person and 76 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0.2 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 2.78%.

Historic Population
The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2015 federal election, the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 36.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (14.5%), the Social Democratic Party (SP) (13.8%) and the FDP.The Liberals (9.6%). In the federal election, a total of 1,508 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.0%.

Economy
, Wichtrach had an unemployment rate of 1.32%. , there were a total of 967 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 120 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 46 businesses involved in this sector. 291 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 41 businesses in this sector. 556 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 92 businesses in this sector.

there were a total of 760 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 78, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 270 of which 127 or (47.0%) were in manufacturing and 143 (53.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 412. In the tertiary sector; 111 or 26.9% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 15 or 3.6% were in the movement and storage of goods, 42 or 10.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 5 or 1.2% were in the information industry, 38 or 9.2% were technical professionals or scientists, 71 or 17.2% were in education and 31 or 7.5% were in health care.

Of the working population, 27.6% used public transportation to get to work, and 50.2% used a private car.

Religion
In 2000 about 78.2% of the population belonged to a Protestant church, 9.4% were Roman Catholic and 5.6% had no religious affiliation.

Education
In Wichtrach about 62.5% of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 18.9% have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 588 students attending classes in Wichtrach. There were 4 kindergarten classes with a total of 78 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 6.4% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 9.0% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 13 primary classes and 258 students. Of the primary students, 6.2% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 7.4% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 12 lower secondary classes with a total of 252 students. There were 3.2% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 4.0% have a different mother language than the classroom language.

title: Wichtrach


text:
Karaikudi

Karaikudi is the largest city in Sivaganga district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Karaikudi Municipal Corporation is the 21st largest urban agglomeration of Tamil Nadu based on 2011 census data. It is part of the area commonly referred to as "Chettinad" and has been declared a City Municipal Corporation by the Government of Tamil Nadu, on account of the palatial houses built with limestone called Kaarai veedu. For this reason, the place is sometimes called Kaarai Nagar locally. The extended urban limit spreads about 115 sqkm which undergoes major developments as part of Government Schemes.

Karaikudi comes under the Karaikudi Assembly constituency, which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years, and it is a part of the Sivaganga Lok Sabha constituency, which elects its member of parliament (MP) once in five years. The town is administered by the greater Karaikudi special grade municipality. This metropolitan Urban Agglomeration(UA) had a population of 181,851 of which 90,799 were males and 91,052 were females in 2011. This metropolitan area consists of Karaikudi City Corporation which includes its neighbourhood towns like Kottaiyur, Koviloor, Kandanur, Puduvayal, and Sankarapuram (census town) and villages like Amaravathiputhur, Ariyakudi, Iluppakkudi, Managiri, Mathur, Peyampatti, Thiruvelangudi and Soorakudi.

This city is famous for Karaikudi Kandangi sarees a special type of sarees which come from and are woven in this area. The geographical indication presents the government of India of this Kandangi sarees.

The Chettinad cuisine originated in the areas around Karaikudi.

It is one of the few towns and cities in List of AMRUT Smart cities in Tamil Nadu selected for AMRUT Schemes from central government and the developmental activities are taken care by the government of Tamil Nadu.

History
The city derives its name from the thorny plant Karai, referred to in ancient literature as Karaikudi, which in modern times has become Karaikudi. The town was established in the 19th century, and the oldest known structure is the Koppudaiya Nayagi Amman Temple. Mahatma Gandhi delivered two speeches in Karaikudi in 1927 and Bharathiyar visited Karaikudi in 1919 to participate in an event. After independence, the city saw significant growth in the industrial sector. Karaikudi and surrounding areas are generally referred as "Chettinad". Chettinad comprises a network of 73 villages and 2 towns forming clusters spread over a territory of 1,550 km2 in the districts of Sivagangai and Pudukottai in the state of Tamil Nadu. Karaikudi is the largest town in Sivaganga district. Karaikudi and surrounding areas are very popular for their unique palaces, Chettinad Architecture based buildings and palatial mansions. Kannadasan Manimandapam, Kamban Manimandapam and Thousand windows house are other visitor attractions in Karaikudi.

The first Temple for Mother Tamil, Tamil Thai Kovil is located in Karaikudi and was established in 1993.

Demographics
As calculated for the town extension processes, the district administration office confirmed the population of Karaikudi is 234523 in 2022. According to 2011 census, Karaikkudi had a population of 181,125 with a sex-ratio of 1,000 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 19,619 children were under the age of six, constituting 10,405 males and 10,214 females. The average literacy rate of the town was 81.48%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The town had a total of 47504 households. There were a total of 60,069 workers, comprising 244 cultivators, 314 main agricultural labourers, 1,303 in household industries, 30,836 other workers, 17,372 marginal workers, 162 marginal cultivators, 2496 marginal agricultural labourers, 1345 marginal workers in household industries and 9,469 other marginal workers. In Karaikudi, Hinduism is the majority religion with 83.9% of the total population, followed by Islam, 11.39%, Christianity, 4.3%, Jainism, 0.05%, Sikism, 0.01% and Others, the rest.

Geography
Karaikudi is located in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu State. The Trichy–Rameswaram Highway passes through Karaikudi. The Thennar River flows through South Karaikudi. Karaikudi is located at 10.07°N, 78.78°W. It has an average elevation of 82 m. The terrain of Karaikudi is predominantly flat. Rocky areas are found in the surrounding areas of Karaikudi town with more rocks towards the western side of the town. The soil is of the hard red lateritic type and is not suitable for cultivation. The water table in the area is generally at depths of 3 to 6 ft and rises to nearly 1 m below the ground level during rainy seasons. Since the 1970s, the water supply of the Karaikudi residents has depended on the deeper aquifers. The average maximum temperature is about 34 °C, and average minimum temperature is about 24 °C. The annual average rainfall in Karaikudi is about 920 mm.

Administration and politics
Karaikudi was constituted as a municipality in 1928 and was upgraded to a Grade II Municipality in 1973, to Selection Grade in 1988, to special grade in 2013 and City Corporation in 2024. The area of the city is about 13.75 km2, comprising the revenue towns of Kottaiyur and Kandanur and nearby villages of Kalanivasal, Sekkalai Kottai, Ilupakkudi Area, Ariyakudi Area, Koviloor, Managiri and Senjai. The Karaikudi municipality has 36 wards and there is an elected councillor for each of those wards. The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: general administration/personnel, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, city planning and Information Technology (IT). The legislative powers are vested in a body of 36 members, one each from the 36 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson assisted by a deputy chairperson.

Karaikudi is a part of the Karaikudi assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. The current member of the legislative assembly is S. Mangudi from INC party. Karaikudi is a part of the Sivaganga Lok Sabha constituency. The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is Karti Chidambaram from the INC.

Law and order in the city is maintained by the Sivaganga sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent. There are three police stations in the city as North police station, south police station, Azhagappapuram police station are mainly being an all-women police station and town police station. There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police.

Landmarks
Some prominent temples around the city are:
 * Karaikudi Nagara Sivan Kovil, located at the center of Karaikudi, built by Nagarathars/Chettiars in according to Dravidian Temple architecture
 * Koppudaiya Amman Kovil, Kallukatti, Temple in Karaikudi
 * Ariyakudi Thiruvenkatamudayan Temple, one of the biggest Vishnu temples of the Chettinad region; located 2 km away
 * Pillayarpatti Karpagavinayagar temple located at 12 km away.
 * Kundrakudi Shanmughanathar Temple located at 9 km away.
 * Mathur Ainootreeswarar Temple located at 6 km away from Karaikudi.
 * Kandanur Kandaneswarar Sivan Temple located at 8.5 km away.
 * Koviloor Kotravaaleeswarar Sivan Temple located at 6 km away.
 * Thirumayam fort 20 km away from the city
 * Thousand window house, Kanadukathan palace, Athangudi palace, Kannadasan manimandapam, Kamban manimandapam, Azhagappar museum, Sankarapathi Fort in Amaravathiputhur are other tourist attractions in and around the city.
 * Siraavayal Manjuvirattu (A type of jallikattu like sports playing with bulls brought from various parts of the Tamil Nadu state) will be performed here annually during the time of Pongal festival in the month of January each year.

Economy

 * Karaikudi is a developing urban center in Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu. UNESCO has offered to set up a Chettinad Heritage Museum in Sivaganga district recognizing the unique style of architecture in the region.
 * Tourism is the main focus in recent years as the places are getting tourists from both domestically and internationally throughout the year since the government identified Karaikudi as heritage town and world heritage identified it in one among List of World Heritage Sites in India.
 * Chettinad Kottan are palm leaf baskets woven by the women of the region. Chettinad Kottan has been noted for its unique style and colors and was granted a Geographical Indication tag in 2013. Chettinadu Kandangi sarees are a popular type of sarees produced in the region. In these area around 250 rice mills and paper mills located in puduvayal and pallathur are the sub urban region of karaikudi is one of the trade and commercial economical growth area. It is also called as second rice bowl of Tamil Nadu. Athangudi tiles are basically cement tiles like mosaic used for building the palatial houses in the town and in modern times, is a source for handicraft industry. Indian Overseas Bank was founded on 10 February 1937 in Karaikudi by M. Ct. M. Chidambaram Chettyar.

Major Companies and Govt Organisations

 * C.E.C.R.I Central Electrochemical Research Institute under CSIR is located here in Alagappapuram is working on the development of new and improved products and processes as well as novel innovations in electrochemical technologies. It is operating from 25 July 1948.
 * TNSTC Karaikudi Regional Office in TNSTC-Kumbakonam-Div-III is serving people transportation services for Sivaganga and Ramnathapuram Districts. It is operating from 1 April 1983.
 * BSNL Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited Regional Headquarters in Karaikudi is serving Telecommunication services for Karaikudi Telecom District areas comprising Sivaganga District and Ramanathapuram District.
 * AAVIN Karaikudi Dairy in Sivaganga Union is supplying milk and milk products to most of the southern districts commercial and residential needs by collecting sources from Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram Districts. It is operating since 1983.
 * Karaikudi has the Postal Sorting Office and serves as the Headquarters of the Postal Sorting District of the Madurai Sub-Zonal postal region since 1972, so the entire postage received for the Sivaganga district (both Sivaganga and Karaikudi Head Post Office) will be received & handled here from Madurai and then dispatched to the rest of areas in the postal circle.

By Air
Nearby airports include Tiruchirapalli International Airport (95 km) and Madurai Airport (100 km).

Though this city is well connected by roadways and railways. This town also has an unused airstrip called Chettinad airport also known as Karaikudi airport. This old British era airfield had been used during the world war 2. The government of India is planning to reopen this airfield under the UDAN scheme.

By Rail
Karaikudi Junction railway station is a major rail head serves the city and Devakottai road Railway station, kottaiyur Railway station, Chettinad Railway station, Kandanur puduvayal Railway station are the sub-urban stations around the city.

By Road
The town has two bus terminals namely "Rajaji Bus-stand" aka Old Bus terminal and new bus terminal. Buses that connect the Karaikudi city, nearby villages and smaller towns terminate at the Old bus-stand. The State Transport Corporation Buses To:Chennai, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai, Trichy and near by cities run moffusil buses terminate at the New bus-stand Karaikudi Bus Terminal.

Education
It serves as one of the two headquarters of the Educational District in Sivaganga district. As of 2011, there were government schools and many private schools in Karaikudi and Alagappa university colleges, many private colleges in the city. Alagappa University is located in this town and Alagappa Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology is the oldest college here and was established in 1953. Alagappa Government Arts College, Alagappa Polytechnic College, Annamalai Polytechnic College are located in Karaikudi area.

Many educational institutions in the town benefited from donations made by the businessman and philanthropist Alagappa Chettiar, who attended Sri Meenakshi Sundareswarar Vidyalaya. The school, on Sivan Koil Street, dates back to 1913 and is now SMSV Higher Secondary School for Boys. Some of the known institutions in this area can be referred in List of educational institutions in Karaikudi.

Utility services
Electricity supply to Karaikudi is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The town along with its suburbs forms the Sivaganga Electricity Distribution Circle. Water supply is provided by the Karaikudi Municipality from seven borewells is located at Sambai Oothu (Artesian aquifer). As per the municipal data for 2011, about 45 metric tonnes of solid waste were collected. The underground drainage system in the city is on board at process and the sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences. The municipality maintained a total of 46.55 km of storm water drains in 2011. As of 2011, there was one government hospital and 13 private hospitals in the town. The municipality operates one daily market namely the Anna Daily Market and there are three weekly markets (Uzhavar Santhai) that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it.

title: Karaikudi


text:
Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic, (Santo Domingo; 8 August 1170 – 6 August 1221), also known as Dominic de Guzmán, was a Castilian Catholic priest and the founder of the Dominican Order. He is the patron saint of astronomers and natural scientists, and he and his order are traditionally credited with spreading and popularizing the rosary. He is alternatively called Dominic of Osma, Dominic of Caleruega, and Domingo Félix de Guzmán.

Birth and early life
Dominic was born in Caleruega, halfway between Osma and Aranda de Duero in Old Castile, Spain. He was named after Saint Dominic of Silos. The Benedictine abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos lies a few miles north of Caleruega.

In the earliest narrative source, by Jordan of Saxony, Dominic's parents are not named. The story is told that before his birth his barren mother made a pilgrimage to the Abbey at Silos, and dreamt that a dog leapt from her womb carrying a flaming torch in its mouth, and seemed to set the earth on fire. This story is likely to have emerged when his order became known, after his name, as the Dominican order, Dominicanus in Latin, and a play on words interpreted as Domini canis: "Dog of the Lord." Jordan adds that Dominic was brought up by his parents and a maternal uncle who was an archbishop. The failure to name his parents is not unusual, since Jordan wrote a history of the Order's early years, rather than a biography of Dominic. A later source of the 13th century gives their names as Juana and Felix. Nearly a century after Dominic's birth, a local author asserted that Dominic's father was "vir venerabilis et dives in populo suo" ("an honored and wealthy man in his village"). The travel narrative of Pero Tafur, written circa 1439 (about a pilgrimage to Dominic's tomb in Italy), states that Dominic's father belonged to the family de Guzmán, and that his mother belonged to the Aça or Aza family. Dominic's mother, Joan of Aza, was beatified by Pope Leo XII in 1829.

Education and early career
At fourteen years of age, Dominic was sent to the Premonstratensian monastery of Santa María de La Vid and subsequently transferred for further studies in the schools of Palencia. In Palencia, he devoted six years to the arts and four to theology. At some point in time he also joined Santa María de La Vid.

In 1191, when Spain was desolated by famine, young Dominic gave away his money and sold his clothes, furniture, and even precious manuscripts to feed the hungry. Dominic reportedly told his astonished fellow students, "Would you have me study off these dead skins when men are dying of hunger?"

At the age of 24, Dominic was ordained as a priest and subsequently joined the canonry of the Cathedral of Osma. In 1198, Don Martin de Bazan, the Bishop of Osma, having reformed the chapter, made Dominic the subprior of the chapter.

Diego de Acebo succeeded Bazan as Bishop of Osma in 1201. In 1203 or 1204 he accompanied Diego de Acebo on a diplomatic mission for Alfonso VIII, King of Castile, to secure a bride in Denmark for crown prince Ferdinand. The envoys traveled to Denmark via Aragon and the south of France. The marriage negotiations ended successfully, but the princess died before leaving for Castile. During their return journey, they met with Cistercian monks who had been sent by Pope Innocent III to preach against the Cathars, a Christian religious sect with gnostic and dualistic beliefs which the Catholic Church deemed heretical. Dominic and Diego de Acebo attributed the Cistercians' lack of success to their extravagance and pomp compared to the asceticism of the Cathars. They decided to adopt a more ascetic way of life and began a program in the south of France to convert the Cathars.

Prouille
In late 1206, Acebo and his group established themselves at the Monastery of Our Lady of Prouille in France. Bishop Foulques of Toulouse allowed them to use the church. The house was intended partly as a refuge for women who had previously lived in Cathar religious houses, and partly the first established base of operations. The first nuns of Prouille lived for several months at Fanjeaux, because the buildings at Prouille were not yet habitable. Dominic gave them the Rule of St. Augustine.

Catholic-Cathar debates were held at Verfeil, Pamiers and Montréal. Ordered by the Pope to return to his diocese, Diego de Acebo died at Osma in December 1207, leaving Dominic alone in his mission.

The Vision of Mary and the rosary
According to Dominican tradition, in 1208 Dominic experienced a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the church at Prouille, during which she gave him a rosary. This gave rise to the title Our Lady of the Rosary.

The spread of the rosary is attributed to the preaching of the Dominicans. For centuries the rosary has been at the heart of the Dominican Order. Pope Pius XI stated, that the rosary is "the principle and foundation on which the Order of St. Dominic rests for perfecting the lives of its members and obtaining the salvation of others."

Foundation of the Dominicans

In 1215, Dominic established himself, with six followers, in a house given by Peter Seila, a rich resident of Toulouse. Dominic saw the need for a new type of organization to address the spiritual needs of the growing cities of the era, one that would combine dedication and systematic education, with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy. He subjected himself and his companions to the monastic rules of prayer and penance; Bishop Foulques gave them written authority to preach throughout the territory of Toulouse.

Also in 1215, the year of the Fourth Lateran Council, Dominic and Foulques went to Rome to secure the approval of Pope Innocent III. Dominic returned to Rome a year later and was finally granted written authority in December 1216 by the new pope, Honorius III, for him to form the Ordo Praedicatorum ("Order of Preachers").

In the winter of 1216–1217, at the house of Ugolino de' Conti, Dominic first met William of Montferrat, who joined Dominic as a friar in the Order of Preachers and remained a close friend.

Later life
Cecilia Cesarini, who was received by Dominic into his new order, in her old age described him as "...thin and of middle height. His face was handsome and somewhat fair. He had reddish hair and beard and beautiful eyes ... His hands were long and fine and his voice pleasingly resonant. He never got bald, though he wore the full tonsure, which was mingled with a few grey hairs."

Although he traveled extensively to maintain contact with his growing brotherhood of friars, Dominic made his headquarters in Rome. In 1219, Pope Honorius III invited Dominic and his companions to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220. Before that time the friars had only a temporary residence in Rome at the convent of San Sisto Vecchio, which Honorius III had given to Dominic circa 1218, intending it to become a convent for a reformation of nuns at Rome under Dominic's guidance. The official foundation of the Dominican convent at Santa Sabina with its studium conventuale, the first Dominican studium in Rome, occurred with the legal transfer of property from Pope Honorius III to the Order of Preachers on 5 June 1222, though the brethren had taken up residence there already in 1220. The studium at Santa Sabina was the forerunner of the studium generale at Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The latter would be transformed in the 16th century into the College of Saint Thomas (Collegium Divi Thomæ), and then in the 20th century into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum sited at the convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus.

Dominic arrived in Bologna on 21 December 1218. A convent was established at the Mascarella church by Reginald of Orleans. Soon afterward they had to move to the church of San Nicolò of the Vineyards Dominic settled in this church and held here the first two General Chapters of the order.

According to Guiraud, Dominic abstained from meat, "observed stated fasts and periods of silence", "selected the worst accommodations and the meanest clothes", and "never allowed himself the luxury of a bed". "When traveling, he beguiled the journey with spiritual instruction and prayers". Guiraud also states that Dominic frequently traveled barefoot and that "rain and other discomforts elicited from his lips nothing but praises to God".

Dominic died at the age of fifty-one, according to Guiraud "exhausted with the austerities and labors of his career". He had reached the convent of St Nicholas at Bologna, Italy, "weary and sick with a fever". Guiraud states that Dominic "made the monks lay him on some sacking stretched upon the ground" and that "the brief time that remained to him was spent in exhorting his followers to have charity, to guard their humility, and to make their treasure out of poverty". He died at noon on 6 August 1221. His body was moved to a simple sarcophagus in 1233. Under the authority of Pope Gregory IX, Dominic was canonized in 1234. In 1267 Dominic's remains were moved to the shrine, made by Nicola Pisano and his workshop for the Church of St. Dominic in Bologna.

Dominic is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 8 August.

Inquisition

Dominic is commonly but apocryphally associated with the Inquisition. Historical sources from Dominic's own time period reveal nothing about his involvement in the Inquisition. Dominic died in 1221, and the office of the Inquisition was not established until 1231 in Lombardy and 1234 in Languedoc.

Canon 27 of the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 stressed the duty of princes to repress heresy and condemned "the Brabantians, Aragonese, Basques, Navarrese, and others who practice such cruelty toward Christians that they respect neither churches nor monasteries, spare neither widows nor orphans, neither age nor sex, but after the manner of pagans, destroy and lay waste everything". This was followed in 1184 by a decretal of Pope Lucius III, Ad abolendam. This decreed that bishops were to investigate the presence of heresy within their respective dioceses. Practices and procedures of episcopal inquisitions could vary from one diocese to another, depending on the resources available to individual bishops and their relative interest or disinterest. Convinced that Church teaching contained revealed truth, the first recourse of bishops was that of persuasio. Through discourse, debates, and preaching, they sought to present a better explanation of Church teaching. This approach often proved very successful.

In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors, mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of Europe. As mendicants, they were accustomed to travel. Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods, the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records. This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early fourteenth century.

In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition commissioned the artist Pedro Berruguete to depict Dominic presiding at an auto da fé. Thus, the Spanish inquisitors promoted a historical legend for the sake of auto-justification. Reacting against the Spanish tribunals, 16th- and 17th-century Protestant polemicists gladly developed and perpetuated the legend of Dominic the Inquisitor. This image gave German Protestant critics of the Catholic Church an argument against the Dominican Order whose preaching had proven to be a formidable opponent in the lands of the Reformation. As Edward Peters notes, "In Protestant historiography of the sixteenth century a kind of anti-cult of St. Dominic grew up."

Cord of Saint Dominic
Cord (belt) of Saint Dominic is a Catholic sacramental, which reminds the wearer of the protection of Saint Dominic. History of the cord is associated with the miraculous image of Saint Dominic in Soriano. The length of its strip suits to the perimeter of the painting. The beginning of the prayer "O wonderful hope" is placed on the cord. According to the tradition, if someone wants to receive grace from Saint Dominic, they should wear it all the time. Infertile couples use this cord to prayer for intercession of Saint Dominic to get the gift of offspring from God.

Toponymy
The country Dominican Republic and its capital Santo Domingo are named after Saint Dominic.

Veneration
The Arca di San Domenico is a shrine containing the remains of Saint Dominic, located in the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna. The Pattern of Urlaur is an annual festival held on 4 August at Urlaur, Kilmovee, County Mayo since medieval times, to commemmoratere the feast day of Saint Dominic.

The feast of Saint Dominic is celebrated with great pomp and devotion in Malta, in the old city of Birgu and the capital city Valletta. The Dominican order has very strong links with Malta and Pope Pius V, a Dominican friar himself, aided the Knights of St. John to build the city of Valletta.

 * 25 January – commemoration of translation of relics to Church of Saint Roch,
 * 15 February – commemoration of the skull translation (1383),
 * 24 May – commemoration of first translation (1233),
 * 5 June – commemoration of second translation (1267)
 * 3 July – commemoration of canonization anniversary (1234)
 * 13 July – commemoration of canonization anniversary (1234)
 * 3 August – main commemoration (Australia)
 * 4 August – commemoration by (Traditional Roman Catholics),
 * 5 August – main commemoration (New Zealand)
 * 6 August – commemoration of death anniversary,
 * 7 August – main commemoration (Diocese of Sosnowiec, 8 August - anniversary of the dedication of cathedral church)
 * 8 August – main commemoration,
 * 15 September – commemoration of apparition of Saint Dominic in Soriano (traditional date)
 * 25 September – commemoration of apparition of Saint Dominic in Soriano (modern date)
 * 11 November – commemoration of third translation (1411)

title: Saint Dominic