text:
Denehole

A denehole (alternatively dene hole or dene-hole) is an underground structure consisting of a number of small chalk caves entered by a vertical shaft. The name is given to certain caves or excavations in England, which have been popularly supposed to have been created by the Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling Dane hole is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo Saxon den, a hole or valley. The lack of evidence found in them has led to long arguments as to their function.

Form
The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 feet (1 m) in diameter falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 feet (20 m). The depth is regulated by the depth of the chalk layer from the surface, although chalk can be found within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface. A depth of from 45 to 80 feet or more, is a characteristic feature.

Footholds were cut into the sides of the shaft to allow people to climb in and out. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 feet thick. The walls frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule the main chamber is 16 to 18 feet in height, beneath each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In most cases, between two and four sub-chambers are present, excavated laterally from the floor level, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left standing.

Distribution
There are many underground excavations in the south of England, also found to some extent in the Midlands and the north, but true deneholes are found chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near Challock on the south side of the river south of Faversham. Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing. It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained.

History
Pliny the Elder wrote about British chalk extraction in A.D. 70 and archaeological evidence shows that at least some of the deneholes were being exploited during prehistory. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. Numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of deneholes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman times. However, very few artifacts which would provide dating evidence or assisted in determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations have been discovered in any of the known deneholes. Chrétien de Troyes has a passage on caves in Britain which may have reference to deneholes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the deneholes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century.

In 1225 Henry III gave every man the right to sink a marl pit on his own land. Spreading chalk on the fields was a common practice in the Middle Ages. This appears to have continued into the 19th century. The need for chalk in agriculture supports the theory that the origin of deneholes was for chalk extraction.

Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly deneholes which have been adapted later for other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls.

Local tradition in some cases suggests the use of these caves by smugglers. Illicit traffic was common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking Creek. The theory is at least plausible that these ready-made hiding-places, which were difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were used in this way.

Purpose
By the end of the nineteenth century, three purposes had been suggested for which deneholes may have been originally excavated:

 * as hiding-places or dwellings,
 * as storehouses for grain, or
 * as draw-wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses.

For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasionally as hiding places. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well-known in southern Europe and in Morocco. It has been suggested that grain was stored unthreshed and carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber denehole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory.

Since the 1950s the theory that they were ancient chalk mines has gained acceptance. This was formerly thought unlikely, as it was reasoned that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by. J.E.L. Caiger worked in Kent excavating, surveying and researching deneholes, and concluded that they were excavated in prehistoric, Roman, medieval and even post-medieval times in order to produce a supply of unpolluted chalk to spread on fields for the purposes of marling. By excavating a narrow shaft the miners used up as little of the productive agricultural land as possible. He suggested various other practical matters that supported his ideas, including the facts that opencast chalk extraction would require moving the material further than necessary and that shallower chalk deposits have much of their minor mineral content leached out by groundwater.

Another theory that has been advanced is that the excavations were made in order to get flints for implements.

title: Denehole


text:
HMS Furious (47)

HMS Furious was a modified Courageous-class battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy (RN) during the First World War. Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord, Lord Fisher, the ship was very lightly armoured and designed with a main battery of only two 18-inch (457 mm) guns. Furious was modified as an aircraft carrier while under construction. Her forward turret was removed and a flight deck was added in its place, such that aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land. Later in the war, the ship had her rear turret removed and a second flight deck installed aft of the superstructure, but this was less than satisfactory due to air turbulence. Furious was briefly laid up after the war before she was reconstructed with a full-length flight deck in the early 1920s.

After her conversion, Furious was used extensively for trials of naval aircraft, and later as a training ship once large, modern fleet carriers such as HMS Ark Royal (91) entered service in the 1930s. During the early months of the Second World War, the carrier spent her time hunting for German raiders in the North Atlantic and escorting convoys. This changed dramatically during the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940, when her aircraft provided air support to British troops ashore in addition to attacking German shipping. The first of what would be numerous aircraft ferry missions was made by the carrier during the campaign. After the withdrawal of British troops in May, Furious made several anti-shipping strikes in Norway with little result before beginning a steady routine of ferrying aircraft for the Royal Air Force.

At first, Furious made several trips to West Africa, but she began to ferry aircraft to Gibraltar in 1941. An unsuccessful attack on German-occupied ports on the Arctic Ocean interrupted the ferry missions in mid-1941. Furious was given a lengthy refit in the United States and spent a few months training after her return in April 1942. She made several more ferry trips in mid-1942 before her aircraft attacked airfields in Vichy French Algeria as part of the opening stages of Operation Torch in November 1942. The ship remained in the Mediterranean until February 1943 when she was transferred to the Home Fleet.

Furious spent most of 1943 training, but made a number of attacks on the GERMAN BATTLESHIP Tirpitz and other targets in Norway during the first half of 1944. By September 1944, the ship was showing her age and she was placed in reserve. Furious was decommissioned in April 1945, but was not sold for scrap until 1948.

Design and description
During the First World War, Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown-class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers. To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles, such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders, he settled on ships with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser. He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast, shallow-draught ships for his Baltic Project, a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast.

Furious had an overall length of 786 ft, a beam of 88 ft, and a draught of 24 ft at deep load. She displaced 19513 LT normally and 22890 LT at deep load. She had a metacentric height of 5.33 ft at deep load. Furious and her half-sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines. To save design time, the installation used in the light cruiser HMS Champion (1915), the first cruiser in the RN with geared turbines, was copied and simply duplicated to provide two sets of turbines. The four Brown-Curtis turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small-tube boilers that were designed to produce a total of 90000 shp. The ship's speed was an estimated 31.5 kn, but she never ran her sea trials.

Furious was designed to normally carry 750 LT of fuel oil, but could carry a maximum of 3160 LT. At full capacity, she could steam for an estimated 6000 nmi at a speed of 20 knots. The ship was designed to carry two BL 18-inch Mark I guns in two single turrets, one each fore ('A') and aft ('Y'). Her secondary armament consisted of 11 BL 5.5 in Mk I guns. A pair of quick-firing (QF) 3-inch (76 mm) 20 cwt anti-aircraft guns were mounted before the funnel. Furious was also fitted with two submerged tubes for 21 in torpedoes for which 10 torpedoes were carried.

Even as she was being built, Furious was modified with a large hangar capable of housing ten aircraft on her forecastle that replaced the forward turret. A 160-foot (49 m) flight deck was built along its roof. Aircraft were flown off and, rather less successfully, landed on this deck. Floatplanes like the Short Type 184 used a four-wheel trolley that ran down a track along the centre of the flight deck for take-off. Aircraft were lifted by crane from the hangar to the flight deck. Although the aft turret was fitted and the gun tested, it was not long before Furious returned to her builders for further modifications. In November 1917, the rear turret was replaced by a 300-foot (91 m) deck for landing aircraft over another hangar. Her funnel and superstructure remained intact, with a narrow strip of decking around them to connect the fore and aft flight decks. Turbulence from the funnel and superstructure was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden. Her 18-inch guns were reused on the Lord Clive-class monitors HMS General Wolfe (1915) and HMS Lord Clive (1915) during the war.

Furious was laid down on 8 June 1915 at Armstrong Whitworth's Low Walker shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne. The ship was launched on 18 August 1916 and commissioned on 26 June 1917. As completed, her complement numbered 737 officers and ratings.

Aircraft landing and the First World War
On 2 August 1917, while performing trials, Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning landed a Sopwith Pup on Furious, becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship. On 7 August, he made another landing in the same manner, but on his third attempt the engine choked and the aircraft crashed off the starboard bow into the sea and he was drowned. The deck arrangement was unsatisfactory because aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land. Dunning's replacement as the head of Furious' air group, Frederick Rutland, performed a landing in the same manner as Dunning, after which he stopped these experiments, reporting to the Admiralty that the average lifespan of a pilot making a landing like this would be ten landings, in good weather.

The three Courageous-class ships were assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron (CS) in October 1917 when the Admiralty received word of German ship movements on 16 October, possibly indicating a raid. Admiral David Beatty, commander of the Grand Fleet, ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea to locate the enemy ships. Furious was detached from the 1st CS and ordered to sweep along the 56th parallel as far as 4° East and to return before dark. HMS Courageous (50) and HMS Glorious were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day. Two German Brummer-class cruiser light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed the Scandinavia convoy during the morning of 17 October, but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon. The 1st CS was ordered to intercept the German ships, but they proved to be faster than expected and the British ships were unsuccessful.

Furious returned to the dockyard in November to have the aft turret removed and replaced by another deck for landing, giving her both a launching and a recovery deck. Two lifts (elevators) serving the hangars were also installed. Furious was recommissioned on 15 March 1918, and her embarked aircraft were used on anti-Zeppelin patrols in the North Sea after May. In July 1918, she flew off seven Sopwith Camels which participated in the Tondern raid, attacking the Zeppelin sheds there with moderate success.

Overview
Furious was laid up after the war, but was converted to an aircraft carrier with a continuous flight deck between June 1921 and September 1925. Her design was based on experience gained with the first two British carriers, HMS Argus (I49) and HMS Eagle (1918), although this was very limited as Argus was less than three years old and Eagle had carried out only 143 deck landings during her preliminary sea trials in 1920.

The ship's superstructure, masts, funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 by flight deck that extended over three-quarters of her length. This flight deck was not level; it sloped upwards about three-quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft, which had no brakes at that time. The fore-and-aft 320 ft arresting gear was not intended to stop landing aircraft—the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind—but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck. Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges used minimised turbulence.

Furious was not lengthened, but her beam was increased 1 ft to 89 ft and her average draught was now 27 ft at deep load, 2 ft deeper than before the conversion. She displaced 22500 LT at normal load and 26500 LT at deep load, over 3000 long tons more than her previous displacement. Her metacentric height was 3.6 ft at deep load, a reduction of 1.48 ft after her conversion. During the ship's post-conversion sea trials she reached 30.03 kn. Her fuel capacity was increased by 700 LT during her reconstruction, which increased her range to 5300 nmi at a speed of 16 knots or 7480 nmi at a speed of 10 kn. A two-level hangar was built under the flight deck, 15 ft in height per level. The lower hangar was 550 ft long by 35 - 50 ft wide and the upper was 520 by. Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers. Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck or, when landing operations were in progress, out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship. This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space, made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree. Her original flying-off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters which improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility allowing the ship to simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck or to speedily fly off her aircraft from both decks. Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck. Like Argus, Furious was flush-decked and lacked an island superstructure to minimise any turbulence over the flight deck; instead she had a navigating position at the leading edge of the flight deck, starboard, and was provided with a retractable charthouse forward, on the flight deck centreline. The ship could normally carry about 36 aircraft. Two 47 by lifts (elevators) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars. No arresting gear was fitted and two 600 impgal ready-use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship's boats on the upper deck. An additional 20000 impgal of petrol were in bulk storage. In 1939, her complement consisted of 41 officers and 754 crewmen.

Armament
Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech-loading 5.5 in guns, five on each side, for self-defence from enemy warships. Six QF 4-inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti-aircraft guns. Four were mounted on the sides of the flying-off deck and two on the quarterdeck. The four guns on the flying-off deck were removed in 1926–27 for trials of the lower flight deck, but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded. Four single QF 2-pounder "pom-poms" were installed in 1927. During Furious's September 1930 – February 1932 refit, her anti-aircraft outfit was reinforced by the addition of two eight-barrel QF 2-pounder Mark V pom-pom mounts where the forward 4-inch guns on the flying-off deck had been removed earlier.

The 5.5-inch and 4-inch guns were replaced during her refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4-inch Mk XVI guns in six twin dual-purpose Mark XIX mounts. One mount each was on the former flying-off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side. Two more Mark V 2-pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island superstructure at the same time. While later refitting in the United States, the ship was fitted with a maximum of 22 manually operated automatic 20 mm Oerlikon light anti-aircraft guns, which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mount.

A single High Angle Control System director was fitted on the island and another on an elevated mount on the former flying-off deck. Two pom-pom directors were also mounted on the island for the weapons mounted fore and aft of the island.

Inter-war service
Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925, although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) inventory. These included landing and flying-off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes, with and without wheels, to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats. The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty. A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily. The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards. Deck-edge palisades were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather. The first carrier night-landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious. In the 1920s, the ship commonly carried one flight of fighters (Fairey Flycatcher), two of spotters (Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison), one spotter reconnaissance (Fairey IIID) and two flights of torpedo bombers (Blackburn Dart), each usually of six aircraft.

Furious was reduced to reserve on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport. It lasted from September 1930 to February 1932 and was focused on refitting her machinery and re-tubing her boilers. In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck, the AA armament was revised and spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars. Upon completion, she ran a full-power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28.8 kn from a total of 89745 shp.

Furious recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November. Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid-1930s. She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934. Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI. She became a deck-landing training carrier in 1937, although she was refitted in Devonport between December 1937 and May 1938 where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward. During the Munich Crisis in September 1938, the ship embarked 801, 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow, before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair. She was struck a glancing blow by the destroyer HMS Encounter (H10) during this time, but suffered only minor damage.

From 1933 to the end of 1938, Furious carried 801 Squadron which initially flew a mixture of six Hawker Nimrod and three Flycatcher fighters. Hawker Osprey fighters replaced the Flycatchers in early 1934 and the Nimrods were withdrawn in October 1936. 811 and 822 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti-shipping missions. They flew the Blackburn Ripon, the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers as well as the Fairey IIIF, the Fairey Seal and the Blackburn Shark reconnaissance aircraft.

The ship was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5.5-inch guns and palisades, mounted anti-aircraft guns on her lower flying-off deck, plated in the doors at the forward end of the upper hangar, and gave her a small island on the starboard side. Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939. As a deck-landing training carrier in 1939 Furious embarked 767 Squadron, flying Shark, Swordfish and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers and reconnaissance aircraft, and 769 Squadron, flying Blackburn Skua, Blackburn Roc, and Gloster Sea Gladiator fighters.

Second World War
Furious remained on training duties, combined with anti-submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland until 2 October 1939. She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and embarked nine Swordfish aircraft from 816 Squadron and a detachment of three more Swordfish from 818 Squadron. The ship sortied on 8 October with the fleet to unsuccessfully hunt for the GERMAN BATTLESHIP Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway. After returning from this search, Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship HMS Royal Oak (08) in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October, the day before Royal Oak was sunk by GS U-47 (1938). Afterwards she was transferred to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where she and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse (1916) formed a hunting group for German raiders. Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid-December 1939. In the darkness on 17 December, the west-bound ocean liner RMS Samaria passed through the convoy unseen. She ripped off the horizontal wireless masts on Furious's starboard side, carried away five overhanging lifeboats from the port side of RMS Aquitania, and just missed the third and fourth ships in line.

Norwegian campaign
Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 with only eighteen Swordfish from 816 and 818 Squadrons embarked; no fighters were able to join the ship in time. Sixteen Swordfish made unsuccessful torpedo attacks on German ships in Trondheim harbour the following morning. On 12 April, both squadrons attempted to attack German ships in Narvik in bad weather. Disappointed with the failure of the torpedo attacks the previous day, bombs were carried instead. 818 Squadron, making the first attack, damaged several captured Norwegian ships, but lost two aircraft to flak, although the crews were rescued by the British cruiser HMS Penelope (97) and the destroyer HMS Punjabi (F21). Following 40 minutes behind, 816 Squadron was forced to turn back by heavy weather. One aircraft was lost while landing, but the crew was recovered. Another attack was launched the next day in support of the British ships entering Narvik, but they contributed little and another pair of Swordfish were shot down.

Furious, ordered to remain behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April, departed the Narvik area on 14 April, escorted by three destroyers, to refuel at Tromsø. En route, her Swordfish attacked Junkers Ju 52 transports that had landed on frozen Lake Hartvikvatnet approximately 10 mi northeast of Narvik. Two of the Ju 52s were destroyed and several others damaged. She reached the port on 16 April with only 27% of her fuel remaining. She stayed there until 18 April when she headed south to scout the Narvik area. She was attacked en route by a single Heinkel He 111 bomber of the II./KG 26 wing from very high altitude. Two large bombs narrowly missed the ship, the closest only 11 yd off the port side aft. The shock shook her propeller shafts out of alignment and jarred the port inner high-pressure turbine so she was limited to 20 kn. Furious remained off the coast of Norway despite the damage and attempted to fly off aircraft on 22 April, despite severe weather, to discourage German aircraft from delivering supplies to the German forces in Narvik. One aircraft was shot down by the Germans and the others returned reporting heavy snowstorms between the ship and Narvik. The weather worsened the next day and Captain Troubridge decided to head to Harstad to check the damage from the near miss. It proved worse than anticipated and he was ordered back to the United Kingdom. Only six of the nine remaining Swordfish were serviceable.

After quick repairs, which included the removal of several rows of turbine blades, Furious returned to Norway on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed Royal Air Force 263 Squadron; they were flown off on 21 April once their base at Bardufoss was ready. One Gladiator and the guiding Swordfish crashed en route, killing all crewmen. The ship returned to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off, carrying only six Sea Gladiators of 804 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 816 Squadron for self-protection while ferrying 263 Squadron.

On 14 June, carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection, Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax carrying £18,000,000 in gold bullion. On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft with spare parts and munitions. On his own initiative, Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used to transport sugar to Britain. Upon her arrival, she embarked the rest of 816 Squadron, as well as nine Skuas of 801 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 825, and made a number of largely unsuccessful air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø in September and October 1940, at a cost of several aircraft. Both Swordfish squadrons disembarked afterwards to make room as she prepared to resume her role as an aircraft transport.

Ferry duties
Furious loaded 55 aircraft, mostly crated Hawker Hurricane fighters of No. 73 Squadron RAF, in Liverpool on 7 November 1940 sailing for Takoradi, Gold Coast, on 15 November 1940 where they were flown off or off-loaded on 27 November with the ultimate destination of Egypt. During this time, she retained only six Skuas of 801 Squadron for her own protection. Furious was back in Liverpool by 15 December where she embarked 40 more Hurricanes for Takoradi. She sailed on 21 December 1940 joining with Convoy WS5A and the small carrier Argus. The GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Hipper encountered the convoy on 25 December 1940, but little damage was inflicted by Admiral Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts. No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and their torpedoes were aboard Furious. After Furious's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper, space was made to land the Swordfish to load the torpedoes, but the Skuas could not locate Admiral Hipper because of the poor visibility. Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 arriving back in Britain on 5 February 1941 where she was given a brief refit. She made another ferry trip to Takoradi on 4 March, carrying 12 Fairey Fulmars of 807 Squadron and six Swordfish of 825 Squadron for self-defence.

Furious now had a new destination for her ferry trips and she transported 24 Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to HMS Ark Royal (91) to be flown off for Malta. She sailed for a brief refit at Belfast immediately afterwards. While in Belfast she was hit by one small bomb and near-missed by two others during a German air raid in early May, but was only lightly damaged. The ship loaded another batch of 40 Hurricane IIs, plus nine Fulmars from 'X' Flight of 800 Squadron in Liverpool, and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May. Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern. This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia. Furious loaded 48 more Hurricane IIs and arrived back in Gibraltar on 1 June where some of the fighters were transferred to Ark Royal. The two carriers departed Gibraltar on 4 June and flew off 44 of the 48 fighters. Furious returned to the Clyde for her biggest load of aircraft yet, 64 Hurricanes, leaving room for only nine Swordfish from 816 Squadron on this voyage. Upon her arrival on 25 June she transferred 22 Hurricanes to Ark Royal and that carrier flew them off to Malta the next day. Of the 42 Hurricanes left on Furious, 26 were moved to Ark Royal when she returned on 28 June. This time, however, both carriers sailed to deliver the fighters to their usual take-off point west of Sicily. The tenth of Furious's aircraft to take off crashed into her island, killing 14 men and starting a serious fire on the flight deck. The blocked flight deck forced the remaining six Hurricanes to remain on board and they were returned to Gibraltar. Furious exchanged 816 Squadron for 818 from Ark Royal, then departed for home.

In July, Furious embarked nine Fulmars of 800 Squadron, 'A' Flight of 880 Squadron with four Sea Hurricane IBs, nine Swordfish from 812 Squadron and nine Albacores of 817 Squadron to attack the German-occupied ports of Kirkenes, Norway, and Petsamo, Finland, departing Scapa Flow on the 23rd in company with the carrier HMS Victorious (R38), two cruisers and six destroyers. The two carriers and their escorts gathered in Seidisfjord, Iceland, under the command of Rear Admiral Wake-Walker where they refuelled in late July. Furious attacked ships in Petsamo on 30 July with all her Swordfish and Albacores, escorted by six Fulmars and all four Sea Hurricanes, but there was very little shipping present. One small ship, MV Trotter, was sunk, several oil storage tanks were set afire, and several wooden jetties were torpedoed. The British ships had been spotted before the attack and two Fulmars and an Albacore were shot down by the alerted defences. Furious was short of fuel and had to leave shortly afterwards, but she transferred her Albacores to Victorious to fill up that carrier's decimated squadrons before she left. Sea Hurricanes of 880 Squadron shot down a shadowing Dornier Do 18 flying boat on 31 July as the ship was leaving.

On 30 August, Furious left Belfast with a load of 49 Hurricanes, carrying three Fulmars of 800 Squadron and four Sea Hurricane IBs of 880A Squadron for self-defence, and nine Swordfish of 812 Squadron for Ark Royal. She arrived in Gibraltar on 6 September and transferred 40 Hurricanes to the other carrier the next day. Ark Royal sailed for the departure point the following day, but could only fly off 14 Hurricanes because some of the Bristol Blenheim bombers used to guide the fighters to Malta failed to make their rendezvous. When Ark Royal returned, she transferred the six Swordfish of 810 Squadron to Furious and both carriers departed that same day to deliver the Hurricanes. This was Furious's last ferry mission as she was sent to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for a lengthy refit. She arrived on 7 October and did not return to the United Kingdom until April 1942.

Furious spent the next three months after her return working up. In August, she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal, but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta. This she did, just as Eagle was torpedoed, but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully. She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day southeast of the Balearic Islands. After this mission, Furious was sent back to the Home Fleet for training. One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch and the ship arrived at Gibraltar on 27 October. She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on 29 August before returning to Gibraltar and being assigned to Force H.

As part of Operation Torch, Furious embarked 12 Supermarine Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron, another 12 Seafire IICs of 807 Squadron and nine Albacores of 822 Squadron to provide air cover for the amphibious landings by the Central Task Force. On the morning of 8 November, Furious's Seafires strafed the Vichy French airfield at Tafraoui, destroying three aircraft on the ground and shooting down one Dewoitine D.520 fighter, the first air-to-air kill by a Seafire. Eight Albacores, escorted by Sea Hurricanes from two escort carriers, attacked the field at La Senia. They were attacked by D.520s as they began their attack dive, but they destroyed 47 aircraft on the ground despite the loss of an Albacore from anti-aircraft fire and the loss of three and damage to two more against the French fighters. Seafires of 807 Squadron from Furious covered the landings at Oran, engaging a flight of D.520s, shooting down three and destroying about twenty aircraft on the ground.

Home waters
Furious remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to the Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war. In July, the fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily; Furious's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report, then shoot it down. She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training. During the passage of Convoy JW 57 from the UK to Russia in February 1944, Furious, escorted by the British battleship HMS Anson (79) and the FRENCH BATTLESHIP Richelieu, attacked German shipping off the Norwegian coast on 24 February 1944. The carrier had the Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron aboard, plus the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 Squadron and 830 Squadrons. No aircraft were lost and a beached freighter was destroyed.

In preparation for Operation Tungsten, an attack on the GERMAN BATTLESHIP Tirpitz, Furious and Victorious exchanged Barracuda squadrons, 827 for 831 Squadron, so that the squadrons that trained together could fly together. Furious also embarked 880 Squadron with eight Seafire L.IIC fighters to reinforce the six Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron. On the morning of 3 April 1944, 21 Barracudas of 827 and 830 Squadrons made the first attack just as the Tirpitz was getting under way for sea trials. The Germans were caught entirely by surprise and the Tirpitz's smokescreen was only just beginning to form. The British aircraft enjoyed a clear view of their target and hit the German battleship six times. An hour later, the second wave of 19 Barracudas from 829 and 831 Squadrons arrived and scored eight more hits. Only one Barracuda was shot down from each wave and another crashed on take-off. 801 and 880 Squadrons were retained for fleet air defence during the operation. Tirpitzs superstructure and upper hull was moderately damaged by the bombs, but her machinery was intact because the Barracuda pilots pressed home their attack below the 3000 ft altitude necessary to give their 1600 lb armour-piercing bombs enough velocity to penetrate Tirpitzs main armoured deck. Nonetheless Tirpitz was under repair for three months.

The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later on 23 April 1944, but bad weather prevented any attack from being made that day and for the next several days. Instead, the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø on 26 April 1944, but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships. Furious and the escort carrier HMS Searcher (D40) attacked shipping in the vicinity of Kristiansund and sank the ore carrier Almora and the tanker Saarburg for the loss of two aircraft on 6 May 1944. Another attack on Tirpitz by the Home Fleet had to be abandoned on 15 May 1944 because of poor weather. Yet another attempt on 28 May was foiled by bad weather, but a German convoy was successfully attacked on 1 June 1944. One ammunition ship was sunk and two others were set on fire.

Furious and the fleet carriers HMS Formidable (67) and HMS Indefatigable (R10) made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July 1944, in Operation Mascot. For this attack, the carrier embarked 880 Squadron with three Seafire L.IICs, 20 Grumman Hellcats of 1840 Squadron, Barracudas of 830 Squadron and three Swordfish of 842 Flight. The Barracudas, heavily loaded with bombs of up to 1600 lb, launched using a wooden ramp that was temporarily placed at the end of the flight deck, an early example of what was to be later named the ski-jump. The attack was unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences as a smokescreen covered the German battleship so the Barracudas had to drop their bombs blindly through the smoke. Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August 1944 under the name of Operation Goodwood in a concerted effort to sink her. Furious carried twelve Seafire F.IIIs of 801 Squadron, another twelve Seafire L.IICs of 880 Squadron and nine Barracudas of 827 Squadron for this operation. The first attack on 20 August 1944 was recalled because of bad weather, but the attack on 22 August 1944 was spotted by the Germans and 11 aircraft were lost. Another attack was made two days later; one armour-piercing bomb penetrated Tirpitz's armoured deck but failed to detonate, and another 500 lb bomb did only superficial damage. A fourth attack was made on 29 August, but inflicted no damage.

By this time, the ship's age and limitations became increasingly apparent and she was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944. The ship was paid off in April 1945 being berthed at Loch Striven, was used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship's structure. Furious was sold in 1948 for scrap, and had been completely broken up in Troon by 1954.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: HMS Furious (47)


text:
Dalek Emperor

Dalek Emperor may refer to one of several characters in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who:
 * Emperor Dalek, from The Evil of the Daleks
 * Dalek Emperor, from Remembrance of the Daleks, really Davros
 * Dalek Emperor, from The Parting of the Ways
 * Dalek Emperor, from City of the Daleks

title: Dalek Emperor


text:
User:Dukeofomnium/Stuff I look up

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg

Territorial evolution of the United States

title: User:Dukeofomnium/Stuff I look up


text: User talk:207.219.58.20

title: User talk:207.219.58.20


text:
Jacques-Marie, vicomte Cavaignac

Jacques-Marie, vicomte Cavaignac (1773–1855) was a French general. He was the brother of Jean Baptiste Cavaignac.

Jacques-Marie served with distinction in the army under the Republic and successive governments. He commanded the cavalry of the XI corps in the retreat from Moscow, and eventually became Vicomte Cavaignac and inspector-general of cavalry.

title: Jacques-Marie, vicomte Cavaignac


text:
Chrysler Royal

The Chrysler Royal was a full-size car produced by the Chrysler Corporation in the United States. It was first released in 1933 and continued being built until 1934. Then, the model ended production and did not return until 1937, and then continued until 1950.

Chrysler Eight
For production year 1931, Chrysler introduced their first straight eight engine for the Chrysler Imperial, and offered it in the Chrysler Eight Series CD. It borrowed appearance influences from the Cord L-29. The engine used had a 240.33 CID displacement that was smaller than the one used in the Imperial Series CG, followed in 1932 with the Chrysler Series CP and an upgraded 298.65 CID engine, while both Eights used a 124 in wheelbase. The Chrysler Eight offered sweeping fenders, rear suicide doors, dual windshield wipers, dual taillights and dual chrome trumpet horns, sharing an appearance with the 1931 Chrysler Imperial Series CG, and was available with five different two-door body style choices that could accommodate between two through five passengers, and three four-door coachwork choices were offered, to include a sedan convertible and two versions of the Royal Sedan in Standard and Special trim packages. Prices ranged from US$1,495 ($0 in dollars ) for the two-door Sport Roadster to US$1,970 ($0 in  dollars ) for the four-door Dual Cowl Phaeton. A stripped-down Chrysler Eight Series CD Sport Roadster was entered along with an Imperial roadster in the 1931 24 Hours of Le Mans but did not finish due to radiator issues.

Large displacement engines provided the horsepower and torque clients wanted and due to the low quality of gasoline fuel at the time, and low compression ratios, 50 bhp was more than adequate. It is estimated that the rating equivalent of early gasoline available varied from 40 to 60 octane and that the "High-Test", sometimes referred to as "fighting grade", probably averaged 50 to 65 octane.

Chrysler Royal (eight cylinder engine)
The Chrysler Royal is a full-size car that was produced by Chrysler. The "Royal" nameplate was added to the 1932 Chrysler Eight Series CP and appeared in 1933 as the Chrysler Royal Series CT and was previously used to describe a top level trim package on sedans. The Royal was originally installed with the Chrysler Straight Eight, and it was the second Chrysler to use a nameplate that didn't refer to a "Series" designation that referred to an internal body code or the speed it was capable of in past products. The first Chrysler product to do so was the Imperial, which it originally shared a shortened chassis. The Royal was offered as a two-door Business Coupe, Roadster Coupe, Convertible Coupe, a two-door, five-passenger Convertible Sedan and four-door Sedan using a shorter 120 in wheelbase from previous years. The longer 128 in wheelbase was used for the eight-passenger sedan, while the longer wheelbase was available as a cowl and chassis only for special coachwork choices from private companies, of which 95 were documented to have been built. Prices ranged from US$895 ($0 in dollars ) for the business coupe to US$1,085 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible sedan, while the long wheelbase was listed at US$1,125 ($0 in  dollars ), offering the appearance of the flagship Imperial but at an affordable price.

Chrysler Royal (six cylinder engine)
The "Royal" nameplate was used for one year in 1933 when the Airflow replaced the Royal in 1934, then brought back as a new model in 1937 when the Airflow sold poorly, and was sold alongside the Airflow which continued to offer the Chrysler Straight Eight. The Airflow received no direct successor. A November 1936 advertisement listed the 1937 Royal as available in ten body types, starting at US$715 ($0 in dollars ), with the four door sedan at US$815 ($0 in  dollars ). The 1937 Royal Series C-16 was installed with the Chrysler Straight Six and took the entry-level position in the Chrysler hierarchy, while being shared with the DeSoto Airstream. In 1939 the Series C-22 Royal introduced the "Royal Windsor" nameplate as a trim package, then in 1941, the "Royal", "Windsor" and "Highlander" became separate nameplates sharing the same wheelbase but only using the Straight Six, with "Windsor" models offering more standard features and a higher standard interior over the "Royal".

The Royal replaced the Chrysler Six that the company originated with in 1925, and the Royal remained the 6-cylinder entry-level model for Chrysler until it was dropped at the end of 1950 model year, making the Chrysler Windsor the entry-level car for the 1951 model year. Pre-war models were offered in two wheelbase lengths, with coupes and sedans available on the shorter wheelbase, while seven-passenger sedan and limousine were offered on the longer wheelbase. While it was the most affordable Chrysler, it was still a well equipped car with luxurious attention to detail as it was above DeSoto Custom, Dodge Custom and Plymouth De Luxe.

The Royal name was revived by Chrysler Australia in 1957 for an Australian produced model based on the 1953 Plymouth. The "royal" model name was also revived for the 1955 North American Dodge Royal.

The name was later applied as a trim level of the Chrysler Newport from 1970 to 1972; It was also used on Dodge Ram pickup trucks and vans until the early 1990s.

title: Chrysler Royal


text:
Invisible theater

Invisible theatre is a form of theatrical performance that is enacted in a place where people would not normally expect to see one, for example in the street or in a shopping centre. Performers disguise the fact that it is a performance from those who observe and who may choose to participate in it, thus leading spectators to view it as a real, unstaged event.

The Brazilian theater practitioner Augusto Boal and Panagiotis Assimakopoulos developed the form during their time in Argentina in the 1960s as part of Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed, which focused on oppression and social issues. Invisible theatre developed in the context of increasingly repressive dictatorship in Brazil and Argentina. The purpose of invisible theatre was to show oppression in everyday life, in an everyday setting, without the audience or "spect-actors" knowing. Boal went on to develop forum theater.

Invisible theatre in Argentina
Invisible theatre was developed in Buenos Aires as public and participatory action that avoided police authority. The Brazilian Augusto Boal was in exile in Argentina from 1971 to 1976 and created his first invisible theatre experiment in collaboration with a group of actors. The performance took place in a busy restaurant at lunchtime, with actors sitting at different tables. One actor ordered à la carte, but at the end of the lunch told the waiter that he could not pay the 70 soles. He offered to pay with his labour and asked the waiter how much he would get paid taking out the rubbish. Another actor, seated at another table, informed the customers that a rubbish collector gets paid 7 sole per hour. Yet another actor, at yet another table, told everyone that a gardener gets 10 soles per hour. Eventually another member of the cast started to collect money from the restaurant customers to pay the bill.

Boal took theatre to an audience who did not recognise that they were the audience; he argued it was critical that actors participating in the invisible theatre did not reveal that they were actors. In its early phase, invisible theatre aimed to raise public awareness of class differences and to provide a forum for articulating dissent.

Invisible theatre in Europe
In the late 1970s and the early 1980s Boal staged invisible theatre performances in Sicily, Stockholm, Paris and other European cities, in public locations like the Paris Metro and on Stockholm ferries. These performances tackled issues such as racism, ageism, sexism and homelessness.

Invisible theatre in Brazil
When Boal returned to Brazil in 1986, he produced a weekly invisible theatre for a Rio TV station. In one episode a dark-skinned man sold himself as a slave in the market, informing the crowd that he earned less than a 19th-century slave.

Comparison to happenings
Historically, invisible theatre developed after happenings had been staged in Argentina by Oscar Mosatta. Mosatta had staged happenings in the late 1960s after he had attended such performances in New York in 1966. While happenings are also used to raise awareness about an issue, take place outside a theatre or gallery, and are scripted, the audience is aware that they are attending a happening. Boal states in Tecnicas latinoamericanas de teatro popular that invisible theater and happenings are distinct: "El teatro invisible no debe ser confundido con el happening, que es un hecho teatral insólito, caótico, en que todo puede ocurrir, anárquicamente." ["Invisible theater must not be confused with the happening, which is an unusual theatrical event, chaotic, in which anything can occur, anarchically."]

title: Invisible theater


text:
Shai Hulud

Shai Hulud is an American metalcore band formed in Pompano Beach, Florida, in 1995, and later based in Poughkeepsie, New York. The band is named after the giant sandworms in Frank Herbert's novel Dune.

The two mainstay members of Shai Hulud are considered to be Matt Fox (guitar), who writes most of the band's musical and lyrical output, and Matt Fletcher (originally guitar, now bass), who assists in writing.

Early years (1995–1997)
Matt Fox (guitar) and Dave Silber (bass) formed Shai Hulud in 1995 with Damien Moyal (formerly of Culture) on vocals, Jason Lederman on drums, and Oliver Chapoy on guitar. "Matt was playing in several other kinds of bands like rock bands and they just wanted to play some hardcore" says former bassist Jared Allen. However, things with Jason Lederman didn't work out and the band began to look for a new drummer. This, unfortunately, would be something the band would become accustomed to. In 1994, Steve Kleisath and Matt Fox met for the first time in Tampa, FL, when Matt was filling in on drums for Strongarm, the band Steve later joined as drummer. With a complete lineup intact, the band recorded a six-song demo and was soon signed to Revelation Records by Rob Moran, bass player of Unbroken, who received their demo from Jeanne Probart, a friend that worked in Revelation's mail-order department. Although Revelation loved the Shai Hulud demo, they asked the band to change the name because they thought "it was too difficult to remember". Shai Hulud's first show was a Halloween party, played on October 31, 1995, at Discount's warehouse for under 50 people.

Moyal quit the band shortly after the band signed to Revelation Records in early 1996 and went on to play in Morning Again, Bird of Ill Omen and As Friends Rust. With Moyal's exit, Shai Hulud recruited fourteen year old Chad Gilbert on vocals; Gilbert had been recommended by Moyal at the time of his departure. The band had a record deal with Revelation Records' subsidiary, Crisis Records. In September 1996, they recorded a three-song EP called A Profound Hatred Of Man which was released in February 1997. On the first 5000 copies of their debut EP, the band's name is misspelled on the spine as, "Shai Halud", but spelled correctly on the cover. This EP started the legacy of Shai Hulud.

Hearts Once Nourished with Hope and Compassion (1997–2003)
Chad Gilbert departed to found the pop punk band New Found Glory in 1997. This would pose problems for Shai Hulud in the future. However, they started recording their first full-length, Hearts Once Nourished with Hope and Compassion, in August 1997. They would finish the album in September and release it in November. Throughout the next year and a half Shai Hulud toured America with Strongarm, Bloodlet, Shadows Fall, Zao, Overcast, Cannibal Corpse and Disembodied. A limited edition vinyl of the album was released in 2006, and featured a cover painting by Dan Henk.

In May 1998 three tracks were recorded for a split with New York's Indecision entitled The Fall of Every Man. The split was released in November 1998. As Shai Hulud's popularity grew some of the band's members' interest began to wane. In January 1999, Oliver Chapoy decided to leave the band. He was replaced by Matthew Fletcher who later moved to Florida to join the band in February 1999. Matt Fletcher had seen Shai Hulud for the first time in Seattle, Washington in 1997 with Strongarm and NineIronSpitFire. Andrew Gormley (future Shai Hulud drummer) was also at the show selling Kiss It Goodbye demos. Poison the Well drummer Chris Hornbrook filled in for a single show in February 1999 before Gormley joined. In June 1999, they recorded a cover of "Fearless Vampire Killers" for the Bad Brains tribute compilation called Never Give In.

Steve Kleisath quit the band due to personal issues, and Chad Gilbert decided to leave Shai Hulud and become a full-time guitar player for the band New Found Glory. The band forged ahead and recruited Andrew Gormley to fill in as drummer on a European tour. Matt Fletcher filled in as singer until Geert van der Velde joined the band during the tour. The band returned to Florida determined to continue Shai Hulud. However, Dave Silber had been ready to quit and did so upon their return. In January 2000, Jared Allen, Matt Fletcher's friend from Oklahoma, would fill in the bass player position and quickly joined the band in the studio. Three tracks would be recorded for a split with the band Another Victim named A Whole New Level of Sickness. This and another split, honoring Metallica, were both released in March 2000. Shai Hulud shared the Metallica tribute split, named Crush 'Em All Vol. 1, with Boy Sets Fire, covering the song Damage Inc. Spikey Goldbach would fill in as drummer for the A Whole New Level Of Sickness split and Steve Kleisath would return for the sole track on the Crush 'Em All Vol. 1 split for Undecided Records. In April 2000, the band relocated to Poughkeepsie, NY. Chris Cardinal, who used to play for Inner Dam, joined the band to fill in on drums, but he later decided to leave the band.

That Within Blood Ill-Tempered (2003–2006)
In 2002, Jared Allen decided to leave the band, and Matt Fletcher moved on to bass. The band recorded a second full-length That Within Blood Ill-Tempered, released on May 20, 2003. The album peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Top Independent albums chart, without any video or radio airplay. Throughout the creation of the new album, the band continued to search for a permanent drummer. Tony Tintari joined the band in the studio while recording the new album. After the release of That Within Blood Ill-Tempered, Shai Hulud picked up guitarist Matt Canning and embarked on a number of international tours. After some time, Shai Hulud and vocalist Geert van der Velde mutually decided it was for the best he leave the band. Geert left and soon thereafter started his solo project The Black Atlantic, and to join as vocalist for the metalcore band Miscreants. Drummer Tony Tintari left the band to join the indie rock band Holy Roman Empire. Guitarist Matt Canning left the band to start The Twilight Collective. Andrew Gormley rejoined on drums for some time and the band played a series of shows with Chad Gilbert on vocals before taking a hiatus to regroup. Acknowledging some people may misinterpret the parting as the end of Shai Hulud, the band came out on their homepage indicating that they would not be breaking up; instead, the band would change name to "The Warmth of Red Blood" and continue what had been started with Shai Hulud. They started requesting that anyone who considered themselves up for the challenge of taking over vocal duties record a demo of themselves performing the track "Whether to Cry or Destroy" (quite similar to what The Dillinger Escape Plan did when auditioning new vocalists). In 2005, the band co-released (via their own record label At Dawn We Wage War Records and Revelation Records) a retrospective release entitled, A Comprehensive Retrospective: or How We Learned to Stop Worrying and Release Bad and Useless Recordings containing rare demos and live tracks!

Misanthropy Pure (2006–2009)
In early 2006, the band recorded a three song rough demo with Eric Dellon on lead vocals and drums, featuring former vocalist Geert van der Velde on backup vocals. In March 2006, the band announced they were abandoning the moniker "The Warmth of Red Blood" and keeping the name Shai Hulud. In August 2006, the band signed with Metal Blade Records. The band recorded their third full-length album Misanthropy Pure at Silver Bullet Media in Connecticut with Matt Mazzali on vocals and Andrew Gormley on drums; the album features additional vocalists such as J Costa of Thy Will Be Done. Released on May 27, 2008, the album peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Top Independent albums chart and 15 on the Top Heatseekers chart. For a number of months, Shai Hulud enlisted the help of former Unearth & The Red Chord drummer Mike Justain up until he joined the band Trap Them. The position of second guitar was filled by Chad Kishick of Miami, Florida, until 2009 when he left the band. Geert Van der Velde temporally returned as vocalist for the band for the 2009 Japan tour, with Parkway Drive and Crystal Lake.

The band released a split EP with New Found Glory titled Not Without a Heart Once Nourished by Sticks and Stones Within Blood Ill-Tempered Misanthropy Pure Gold Can Stay being sold only at the "Not Without a Fight" tour. There are two colors limited to a total of only 500 copies and only for sale from either Shai Hulud or New Found Glory at these shows.

Reach Beyond the Sun (2011–present)
On January 26, 2011, the band announced that they would embark on a 17-day US tour, beginning on the February 2, 2011 to the 19. Shai Hulud is currently in the studio recording a new album. Which is being produced by former vocalist and guitarist of New Found Glory: Chad Gilbert. More recently, August 9, 2012, the band has been announced as an artist touring Australia as part of the annual Soundwave Festival. Details on who will be performing vocals for this tour have yet to be released. They will complete the Australian tour with the festival in early to mid March 2013. The band has also expressed interest in completing as many Sidewaves as possible, shows which would see them play in smaller and more personal venues than the festival itself. Along with this comes a statement via Facebook suggesting that they will be returning to Australia once again, after this festival has been completed, perhaps for the launch tour of their forthcoming album. On September 13, 2012, Matt Fox announced that not only did former member Chad Gilbert produce their forthcoming album, he also supplied the vocals for it as well. On November 19, the band announced the new album's name, Reach Beyond the Sun and a 30-second teaser on YouTube. In December 2015, the band released an EP entitled Just Can't Hate Enough.

Genre
The band is known within the hardcore scene for their affecting, well-written lyrics, whose themes range from misanthropy, hatred, human psychology to hope and compassion, and their often complex compositions, utilizing elements of hardcore punk, heavy, thrash and progressive metal.

Shai Hulud was one of the first hardcore/metal crossover band that used the term "metalcore" to describe their music (as shown in the back cover of That Within Blood Ill-Tempered) and by some fans the band is still considered to be "a true metalcore band", while others, including band members have discarded the term due to their current meaning, e.g., the melodic death metal influenced metalcore, when this genre became a commercial success in early 2000s as "metalcore" and it differed from what the band was playing at that time.

"Taking the term literally, and breaking it apart, yes, we definitely are a true example of 'metalcore,' a hybrid of hardcore and metal. When we used to joke with the term, it was just a clever (or not so clever) way of describing a metallic hardcore, metal-influenced hardcore, or hardcore-influenced metal band. My friends and I would listen to Deadguy and say 'this isn't HARDcore, it's METALcore,' which made sense based on the music they played, combined with the attitude and ethic of the band. Same thing used to be said for Earth Crisis, Integrity, Coalesce, Unbroken, and a lot of the 90s bands that incorporated heavier riffs and more progressive structuring and ideas into their songs. When the term 'metalcore' was thrown around back then it was very tongue-in-cheek; this, obviously, long before it became a legitimate genre, it's [sic] current legitimacy being highly debatable, of course.

'Metalcore,' the actual genre in 2008 doesn't usually seem like a hybrid of hardcore and metal as much as it just seems like metal, only written by people who imitate it rather than love it, typically resulting in trite and shallow music. If this accurately describes 'metalcore' then we clearly do not embrace the term. Conversely, if Earth Crisis and Deadguy define 'metalcore,' count us in."

In a more recent interview Fox stated that "progressive hardcore" was the best way to describe the band, rather that stick to a one specific genre.

Influences and legacy
Shai Hulud has become a very influential band in the underground hardcore, metalcore and post-hardcore scene. Bands like 7 Angels 7 Plagues, Alove for Enemies, As Hope Dies, As I Lay Dying, Behind Crimson Eyes, It Prevails, Many Men Have Tried, Misery Signals, Mychildren Mybride, Poison the Well, See You Next Tuesday, Silverstein, the Funeral Pyre, the Banner and Unearth, have cited Shai Hulud as an influence.

They cite their influences as Raw Power, Burn, Chain of Strength, Deadguy, J.F.A., Metallica, NOFX, S.F.A., Strongarm, Testament, Turning Point, Embodiment 12:14, Uniform Choice and Voivod.

Religion and beliefs
Shai Hulud is neither a Christian band nor straight edge, as stated by the band:

"You guys are neither a Straight Edge or a Christian band, but you often get labeled as such. Why?

Well you've got Chad who's Christian; you have Steve who was in Strongarm who's Christian. You also have Chad who's SXE. Then there's me who doesn't smoke, drink or do drugs. So I guess you could call me SXE, but I don't usually say anything. It's just something I've always been. That's mainly the reason, but you have 3 members who drink, 1 that smokes, 2 who believe in God, 3 that don't. So if you want to call us Christian or SXE, fine. We're not."

Zombie Apocalypse
Shai Hulud also have a side project named Zombie Apocalypse (formerly called Boddicker), whose sound can be summed up as a faster, more chaotic and more manic version of its mother band. It features Matt Fox, Matthew Fletcher, Ronen Kaufman, Eric Dellon and Greg Thomas.

The Fremen Warriors
The Fremen Warriors (another reference to Dune) are a group who provide the backing vocals on all of Shai Hulud's releases. Their names are not listed in any of the liner notes, but on the song "Faithless Is He Who Says Farewell When The Road Darkens," they consisted of Aaron Bedard, Nick Brunson, Nicole Prizio, Kelly Reaves, and Paul Romanko.

Band members

 * Current members
 * Matt Fox – guitar, backing vocals (1995–present)
 * "Mad" Matt Fletcher – bass (2002–present; 2013–present studio only), guitar (1999–2002) , lead vocals (1999)
 * Moe Watson – drums (2015–present)
 * Mark Gumbrecht – guitar (2013–2015, 2019–present)
 * Eric Dellon – bass, backing vocals (2020–present), lead vocals, drums (2005–2006)
 * Jay Pepito – lead vocals (2020–present)

 * Former members
 * Damien Moyal – lead vocals (1995–1996)
 * Dave Silber – bass (1995–1999)
 * Jason Lederman – drums (1995)
 * Oliver Chapoy – guitar (1996–1998)
 * Chad Gilbert – lead vocals (1996–1998, 2004; touring, 2012–2013)
 * Steve Kleisath – drums (1996–1999)
 * Chris Hornbrook – drums (1999)
 * Andrew Gormley – drums (1999–2000, 2004–2005, 2006–2008)
 * Geert van der Velde – lead vocals (1999–2003, 2003–2005, 2009; touring)
 * Spikey Goldbach – drums (2000–2001)
 * Jared Allen – bass (2000–2002)
 * Chris Cardinal – drums (2002)
 * Tony Tintari – drums (2002–2004)
 * Dane Metcalfe – guitar (2003)
 * Matt Canning – guitar (2003–2006)
 * Matt Mazzali – lead vocals (2006–2009, 2015)
 * Gregory Thomas – guitar (2007–2008)
 * Chaz Kishick – guitar (2008–2009)
 * Tim O'Leary – guitar (2009–2010)
 * Matt Covey – drums (2009–2013)
 * Mike Moynihan – lead vocals (2009–2012)
 * Justin Kraus – lead vocals (2013–2014)

 * Former touring musicians
 * Steve Bucala – guitar (2002)
 * Pierce Webster – lead vocals (2003–2004)
 * Ryan Burns – guitar (2005–2006)
 * Brian Go – drums (2006)
 * Shane Shook – drums (2008)
 * Mike Justian – drums (2009)
 * Kai Saunders - guitar (2009)
 * Aaron Goodrich – drums (2009–2010)
 * Steve Muczynski – bass (2009–2010, 2013) (died 2023)
 * Tony DelMonego – guitar (2011–2012)
 * Justin Shepp – bass (2012–2013)
 * Thomas "Tam-Tam" Colello – guitar (2012–2014)
 * Nathan Gluck – bass (2013)
 * Rick Maldonado – bass (2013)
 * Eric English – bass (2013–2014)
 * Dave Joyal – drums (2013–2015)
 * James Marshall – tambourine (2010)
 * Kevin Bruning – drums (2013)
 * Sean Bearhope - bass (2013)
 * Billy Nottke – bass (2014–2015)
 * Mike – bass (2015)
 * Eddie Collins – guitar (2015)
 * John Abernathy – guitar (2015)
 * Dustin Albright – bass (2015–2016)
 * Stefan Hojnacki – guitar (2016)
 * Matty Carlock – lead vocals (2016)
 * Joshua Lozano – guitar (2016–2019)
 * "Mean" Pete Kowalsky – lead vocals (2016–2020)

Studio albums

 * Hearts Once Nourished with Hope and Compassion (1997)
 * That Within Blood Ill-Tempered (2003)
 * Misanthropy Pure (2008)
 * Reach Beyond the Sun (2013)

title: Shai Hulud


text:
Peter des Roches

Peter des Roches (died 9 June 1238) (Latinised as Petrus de Rupibus ("Peter from the rocks")) was bishop of Winchester in the reigns of King John of England and his son Henry III. He was not an Englishman, but rather a native of the Touraine, in north-central France.

Biography
Towards the end of Richard I's reign, Peter became Lord Chamberlain and an influential counsellor. He held the ecclesiastical offices of Archdeacon of Poitiers, treasurer of Poitiers, and was a precentor of the diocese of Lincoln in 1204.

In early 1205, through John's influence, Peter was elected to the see of Winchester. His election was disputed but, on appeal, confirmed on 25 September 1205 by Pope Innocent III. Peter was consecrated on 24 March 1206. Nonetheless, the new bishop stood by John's side during the whole period of the papal interdict set upon him due to John's refusal to accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury despite Papal warning.

In 1213 Peter was made Chief Justiciar in succession to Geoffrey Fitz Peter. This promotion was justified by the fidelity with which Peter supported the king through the First Barons' War. However, by 1215, Hubert de Burgh was Chief Justiciar. In 1216, Peter was named Sheriff of Hampshire.

At the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Peter led a division of the royal army and earned some distinction by his valour; but he played a secondary part in the government so long as William Marshal held the regency. After Marshal's death in 1219 Peter led the baronial opposition to Hubert de Burgh, with varying success. At first the justiciar was successful.

Peter was responsible for founding several monasteries in England and France, including Titchfield Abbey and Netley Abbey, both in Hampshire, England, and La Clarté-Dieu in Poitou, France. He gave his protection to the first group of Dominican friars to come to England in 1221.

In 1225 a plot to ship Eleanor of Brittany, who as cousin to Henry III always posed a potential threat to the crown and was thus viewed as a state prisoner and then confined at Bristol Castle, away to France, was reported. The plot might have been false and only fabricated to discredit Peter, and he eventually fell out of royal favor in spring 1234.

Crusading bishop
Peter participated in the Sixth Crusade alongside William Briwere, who was Bishop of Exeter. An army of other crusaders accompanied them to the East, although whether they were English or mercenaries recruited on the Continent is unclear. The contingent left from Brindisi in August 1227. Both bishops were influential advisors to Frederick II the Holy Roman Emperor even though Pope Gregory IX had ordered that no one collaborate with Frederick, who was at the time excommunicated. Both bishops ignored the papal orders and worked closely with Frederick's agents and Frederick himself. The financial resources both bishops brought were especially appreciated by the crusaders. On the 18th of February 1229, both bishops were witnesses at the Treaty of Jaffa which restored Jerusalem to the Christians. After the crusade, he spent time in Italy.

Peter died on 9 June 1238.

Legends
The Lanercost Chronicle relates that Peter, out hunting one day, encountered King Arthur, dined with him, and asked for a token of their meeting. Arthur told him to close his hand, then open it, whereupon a butterfly flew out. For the rest of his life Roches was able to repeat this miracle, so that he became known as the Butterfly Bishop.

title: Peter des Roches


text:
Comando Jaramillista Morelense 23 de Mayo

The Comando Jaramillista Morelense of May 23 (shortened CJ23M) is a rebel group in Mexico, attached to agrarian and leftist thoughts, taking the name of the agrarian leader and militar Rubén Jaramillo. His operation is a classic armed propaganda action that fulfilled one objective: to disseminate the existence of the command and its ideology. An initiative carried out at a time of profound political decomposition in the rest of the country, preceded by the making of paintings that gave account of the existence of the group in different parts of the states of Morelos.

History
CJM took the name of Rubén Jaramillo, who was associated with a Zapatist movement in the 1940s and 1950s and was murdered on May 23, 1962. The bombings were a tribute to Jaramillio and carried out because CJM claimed to be against the corruption of government leaders; in particular, Sergio Estrada Cajigal (governor of Morelos) and President Vicente Fox. The group claims Estrada Cagijal is involved in drug trafficking and runs a corrupt and repressive government. The CJM claims not to be terrorists, but anti-government, and have stated they have no interest in harming civilians – one of the reasons why the bombing was on a Sunday (when the banks were closed and few people were about). The group was founded on May 24, 2004, where their first communiqué came out, claiming their first attack, taking the demands of Rubén Jaramillo as an ideological basis and "strengthening their legacy".

Between May 23, 2004, and May 23, 2009, the group issued nineteen Comunicados expressing their support of socialism and their opposition to neoliberalism without expressing specific demands. A similarly named group, Comando Jaramillista de la Region Oriente, issued a Comunicado in Oaxaca on November 11, 2004. Over the years there have been other armed groups in the State of Morelos. Besides the rebellions led by Ruben Jaramillo, the Partido Proletario Unido de América flourished in 1974. More recently, the Popular Revolutionary Army and Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias del Pueblo (People's Armed Revolutionary Forces) have been active.

The group is against the establishment of Neoliberalism in the country, especially during the final stretch of the presidency of Vicente Fox, in addition to being active during the 2006 elections, blaming the Partido Acción Nacional and the Partido Revolucionario Institucional and Partido Verde Ecologista de Mexico for the economic stagnation of the country. The attack took place a few days after the start of the III Summit of the European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean, which will be held in Guadalajara. The group also threatens to reactivate its military activity in the event that the elections are "a fix" calling the process as a "sacrifice of hundreds of revolutionaries and social fighters who lost their lives and freedom for the sake of a free, dignified and fair to all ". It also calls for the union of the various political and social organizations either from underground and from all perspectives (whether liberal, democratic, progressive, revolutionary, socialist, etc.)

The group also came to tie with the candidacy of Andrés Manuel López Obrador and notable peaceful civil movements during the 2006 elections, in addition to showing solidarity with the Bolivarian Revolution. The group calls for "resistance to be found in the defense and democratic transformation" of republican institutions and, consequently, in the reconstitution of the State and the Nation, as well as the members of The Other Campaign.

The May 15, 2004, the Federal Government and the Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación signed the Alliance for the Quality of Education, an agreement that seeks to transform the model education through public policies that promote higher quality and equity in education in the country. But this measure was received with hostility by some sectors of the teaching profession, provoking demonstrations, for supposedly affecting their labor rights. The group sympathized with these protests, describing the repression. The group also opposed the Lerma-Tres Marías highway projects, northwestern bypass and the Proyecyo siglo 21 with the highway of the sun. On May 23, 2009 the group released its statement number 19 in which they show their sympathy for various political and social movements that had suffered "persecution" by the government of Felipe Calderón Hinojosa. CJ23M only recently became a vocal group; prior activity is unheard of in the region.

Banamex attack
The May 24 CJM-23 claimed responsibility for the detonation of three devices in the bank branches and a fourth device that was found without exploding in a branch of Banamex, Bancomer, Santander Serfin and HSBC, in the city of Jiutepec, Cuernavaca, Morelos. The group also claimed to have placed an offering on the bust of Rubén Jaramillo, located in the city of Jiutepec. The attack was carried out in commemoration of the death of Rubén Jaramillo, in addition to strongly criticizing the government of Vicente Fox and the governor of the state of Morelos, Sergio Estrada Cajigal accusing his administration of corrupt and inefficient. The attacks said they were carried out against the corruption of government leaders Sergio Alberto Estrada Cajigal Ramírez, governor of Morelos and Vicente Fox.

Other incidents
In the following communiqués, they spoke about the death of indigenous activists such as Gregorio Sánchez Mercado, in the state of Guerrero and Pavel Gonzalez in Mexico City, in addition to accusing the neoliberal system of "impoverishing indigenous organizations." The group also criticizes the presidency of Vicente Fox and in addition to the economic and social policies that were developed during the government of the PAN and the PRI.

The October 23, 2005, a Improvised explosive device detonated in front of a branch of BBVA in the municipality of Temixco, Morelos, causing material damage to other establishments within a 30-meter radius and leaving an attacker with minor injuries. Another explosive was also deactivated and two people were arrested, but released the next day.

The group claimed responsibility for the attack, however, the authorities investigated the incident, and came to the conclusion this was a lie.

External sources

 * CEDEMA list of communicados from Comando Jaramillista Morelense


text:
Alexander Huber

Alexander Huber (born 30 December 1968) is a German rock climber who is considered one of the greatest and most influential climbers in the history of rock climbing. Huber came to prominence in the early 1990s as the world's strongest sport climber after the passing of Wolfgang Güllich. He is the second-ever person to redpoint a graded route by ascending Om in 1992, and has come to be known as the first-ever person to redpoint a  graded route from his 1996 ascent of Open Air (climb).

For a decade following the mid-1990s, Huber, often partnered with his brother Thomas, also came to be regarded as the strongest big wall free climber of his generation, with groundbreaking first ascents in Yosemite (El Nino in 1998, and Zodiac in 2003), the Karakoram (Latok II in 1997, and Eternal Flame in 2009), and in other notable big wall locations around the world. Huber’s 1995 ascent of the Salathé Wall in Yosemite was the first-ever redpoint of an graded big wall in history. His 2001 ascent of Bellavista (climb) in the Dolomites was the first-ever redpoint of an graded big wall in history.

Huber is also known as one of the greatest free solo climbers for both big wall and sport climbing routes. In 2002, he free soloed the first-ever grade big wall in history, the 580-metre Brandler-Hasse Direttissima in the Dolomites. In 2003, he free soloed the second-ever grade sport climbing route in history with Der Opportunist in Austria, and in 2004, he became the first-ever person in history to free solo an  graded sport route with Kommunist, also in Austria.

Early life and education
Huber was born in Trostberg in Bavaria, the second of three children. His father Thomas, a climber who had ascended the north face of Les Droites, and his mother Maria, took the children mountaineering from a young age. By 1986, aged 18, Huber and his brother Thomas climb Utopia (VIII+, 7a+) on the Wartsteinwand, and in 1988, they ascend Vom Winde Verweht (X−, 8a+) on Scharnstein in the Berchtesgaden Alps.

By 1992, Huber trained as a fully qualified UIAGM mountain guide. In 1997, Huber graduated with a Master's in Physics and gets a post-graduate position as an assistant at the Institute for Theoretical Meteorology in the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. In 1998, Huber decided to become a full-time professional climber, one year after Thomas; the pair are known as the "Huberbuam" (Huberboys).

Sport climbing
Huber came to prominence as a sport climber in the early 1990s, at a time when Wolfgang Gullich was considered the world's strongest sport climber. Huber attributes the initial conservative grading of Gullich's famous 1991 route, Action Directe, which persisted for many years until it was eventually shown to be a "hard 9a", for suppressing the grades of Huber's own routes such as Om, Weisse Rose, and La Rambla. In 2008, when Adam Ondra made the first repeat of Huber's 1996 route Open Air (climb) and graded it, that the climbing media began to realize that Huber was probably the first-ever person to climb at that grade, several years before Chris Sharma's groundbreaking ascent of Realization in 2001. Huber felt that Open Air was his limit, and he decided to focus on big wall climbing.

Big wall climbing
From the mid-1990s onwards, Huber (often partnered with Thomas), began to focus almost exclusively on big wall climbing in which he would become one of the most important big wall free climbers in history. In 1995, Huber became the first person to lead all 36-pitches of the Salathé Wall, and thus became the first-ever person to redpoint a big wall route at the grade of. Over the following decade, Huber made the first free ascent (or partial free ascent with minor aid), some of the most iconic big wall routes in Yosemite, including El Nino (5.13c A0, 1998), Golden Gate (5.13a, 2000),  El Corazon (5.13b, 2001), and  Zodiac (5.13d, 2003). Huber's most famous Yosemite route was his easiest, his 1998 ascent of Freerider (5.12d/5.13a), a route which is only second in popularity to The Nose. The Huber brothers set several Yosemite speed records including a speed record for The Nose of 2:45.45, in 2007.

In 2001, Huber made the first free ascent of Bellavista (climb) through the huge roofs of the north face of Cima Ovest in the Dolomites (the birthplace of big wall climbing), which was the world's first-ever big wall route at the grade. In 2005, Huber freed the famous Voie Petit, the hardest big wall route in the French Alps at the time at, and in 2007, he returned to the Cima Ovest to free the route Pan Aroma, also at. During this period, Huber also made important big wall ascents in the Karakoram (Tsering Mosong on Latok II, 1997), in Patagonia (Golden Eagle in 2006 and El Bastardo in 2008, on Fitz Roy),  in Antarctica (Sound of Silence on Ulvetanna Peak, 2008),  and on Baffin Island (Bavarian Direct on Mount Asgard, 2012). In 2009, Huber and his brother Thomas freed the famous high-altitude big wall route, Eternal Flame (5.13a), on the Nameless Tower in Pakistan.

Free solo climbing
Huber has made some of the most important free solo climbing ascents in history. In 2002, Huber free soloed at 17-pitches of the 580-metre Brandler-Hasse Direttissima (5.12a) on the Cima Grande in the Dolomites, which was the first-ever free solo of a graded big wall route in history. In 2003, he free soloed the sport climbing route, Der Opportunist in Austria, which was only the second-ever free solo of an graded route in history. In 2004, Huber free soloed Kommunist in Austria, which was the first-ever free solo of an graded route in history;   Huber called this solo a "search for my limits". Huber said that after his 2008 free solo of the multi-pitch 280-metre route Locker Vom Hocker, he largely stopped doing free solo climbs at very extreme grades saying: "You mustn't forget that free soloing is very, very risky indeed. Even for the best climbers who seemingly have everything under control".

Sport climbing
Huber was considered one of the world's best sport climbers.

 * 1991 – Shogun, Karlstien, Bavaria, first ascent, and Huber's first grade.
 * 1992 – Om, Triangel, Bavaria, first ascent, and second-ever in history.
 * 1994 – Weisse Rose, Schleierwasserfall, Austria, first ascent.
 * 1994 – La Rambla (35-metre version), Siurana, Spain. first ascent; the route was extended to 40-metres and graded in 2003; Huber maintains his original route was the same difficulty.
 * 1996 – Open Air (climb), Schleierwasserfall, Austria, first ascent; in 2008, Adam Ondra made the first repeat and proposed , making Open Air the first 9a+ in history (several years before Chris Sharma's Realization).

Big wall climbing
For a period in the late 1990s, Huber dominated big wall free climbing in Yosemite Valley, as well as in the Alps:

 * 1995 – Salathé Wall (5.13b, VI, 36-pitches), El Capitan, Yosemite, first-ever redpoint at the grade (Skinner and Piana co-led the FFA in 1988).
 * 1998 – El Nino (5.13c, VI, A0, 30-pitches), El Capitan, first (almost free) ascent bar a down-abseil on pitch-13 (A0); was the third route to be freed on El Capitan and the first on the North America Wall. In 2019, Sonnie Trotter avoided the down-abseil to create the Pineapple Express.
 * 1998 – Freerider (5.12d/5,13a, VI, 30-pitches), El Capitan, first free ascent, and in 15:25 was the first El Capitan route inside 24 hrs. Huber discovered it on the Salathe; it became a classic that Huber called the "Astroman of the new millennium"; free soloed by Alex Honnold 2017.
 * 2000 – Golden Gate (5.13a, VI, 41-pitches), El Capitan, first free ascent; a combination of the Salathé Wall and Heart Route.
 * 2001 – Bellavista (climb) (10-pitches, 500-metres), on the Cima Ovest, Dolomites, Italy, first free ascent through the huge roof; first-ever big wall route at 8c; Huber later discovered subsequent climbers had "treated" some holds to soften grade.
 * 2001 – El Corazon (5.13b, 35-pitches), El Capitan, first free ascent; combination of Salathé Wall, Albatross, Son of Heart and Heart Route.
 * 2003 – Free Zodiac (5.13d, VI, 16-pitches), El Capitan, first free ascent of the overhanging 1972 aid route; with the famous "Nipple pitch".
 * 2004 – Zodiac (5.8, A2+, 16-pitches), El Capitan, speed record on the 1972 aid climbing version of Zodiac in 1:51:34 (fastest route on El Capitan).
 * 2005 – Voie Petit (16-pitches, 450-metres), on Grand Capucin, Mont Blanc, first free ascent of famous 1997 Arnaud Petit route.
 * 2007 – Pan Aroma (9-pitches, 450-metres), the Cima Ovest, first free ascent; starts per Bellavista but breaches  roof.
 * 2007 – The Nose (5.9, A1), El Capitan, Yosemite, speed record with Thomas Huber on the aid climbing version of The Nose in 2:45:45.

 * 2008 – Sansara (6-pitch, 200-metres, east face Grubhorn), and Feuertaufe (7-pitches, 250-metres, south face Sonnwand), FFAs at.
 * 2012 – Nirwana (200-metres), Sonnwendwand, Austria, first free ascent of one of the hardest multi-pitch rock climbs in the world.

High-altitude climbing

Huber took part in several expeditions to famous big wall climbing locations including the high-altitude walls of Trango Tower, the stormy towers of Patagonia, and the extreme-cold of Ulvetanna in Antarctica; climbing usually with his brother Thomas, but also often part of a larger climbing team in an alpine style approach:

 * 1997 – Tsering Mosong (VII 5.10c A3, 26-pitches), on the 1,000-metre west face of Latok II, Karakoram (starts at 6,100-metres), first ascent with Thomas Huber, Conrad Anker and Toni Gutsch.
 * 1998 – Tichy Route, northwest ridge of Cho Oyu (8,188-metres), Himalaya, Nepal, Huber climbed the eight thousander by the "standard route" to understand effects of extreme altitude.
 * 2002 – In Patagonia, ascends: Cerro Torre (via Compressor Route, V A1), Fitz Roy (via Franco-Argentina, VII), and later Cerro Standhardt (via Exocet, 6b, winter ascent); in 2008, Torre Egger.
 * 2006 – Golden Eagle (5.11, V, A1, 800-metres), southwest face Aguja Desmochada, Fitzroy, first ascent.
 * 2008 – El Bastardo (5.11, V, A1, 500-metres), south face Aguja de la Silla, Fitzroy, Patagonia, first ascent.
 * 2008 – Eiszeit (VII+, A4, 24-pitches, 750-metres), west face, and Skywalk (VII−, 10-pitches, 450-metres), north pillar of Holtanna, both first ascents, in Antarctica.
 * 2008 – Sound of Silence (VIII-, 5.11a, A2, 20-pitches, 800-metres) on the west pillar of Ulvetanna, in Antarctica, first ascent.
 * 2009 – Eternal Flame (5.13a, 24-pitches, 650-metres), Nameless Tower, Pakistan, FFA of the historic 1989 Güllich, Albert et. al. route.
 * 2012 – Bavarian Direct (5.13b, 28-pitches, 700-metres), on Mount Asgard, Canada, first free ascent of the 1997 aid climb with Thomas Huber.

Free solo rock climbing
Huber was one of the few climbers to free solo extreme grades in both single-pitch and big wall routes.

 * 2002 – Brandler-Hasse Direttissima (5.12a, 17-pitches, 580-metres) of Cima Grande, Dolomites; the first-ever big wall solo at grade.
 * 2003 – Der Opportunist (18-metres), Schleierfall, Austria; the second-ever free solo of an  graded route.
 * 2004 – Kommunist (22-metres), Tyrol, Austria; the first-ever free solo of an  graded route; Huber found his "limit".
 * 2004 – Mescalito (20-metres), Karlstein, Drugwall, Germany, first free solo of route; Huber found it his scariest solo (starts at 50m).
 * 2006 – South Face of Dent du Géant (200-metres), Mont Blanc; first free solo of the route.
 * 2008 – Swiss Route (up and down) on Grand Capucin (400-metres), Mont Blanc; first free solo, which Huber also downclimbed.
 * 2008 – Locker Vom Hocker (8-pitches, 280-metres), Schüsselkarspitze, Germany; Huber's last extreme-level free solo.
 * 2009 – Tour Muriciana (8-pitches, 285-metres), on Mallo Pison, Mallos de Riglos, Spain; first free solo of the route.

Filmography

 * Speed climbing The Nose:

title: Alexander Huber


text:
National Development Plan

National Development Plan (NDP, Plean Forbartha Náisiúnta) is the title given by the Irish Government to a scheme of organised large-scale expenditure on (mainly) national infrastructure. The first five-year plan ran from 1988 to 1993, the second was a six-year plan from 1994 to 1999 and the third ran as a seven-year plan from 2000 to 2006. A fourth National Development Plan ran from 2007 to 2011 (spending €70 million a day every day during this period). The main elements of the third plan were the development of a national motorway network between the major cities in Ireland. The upgrading of the rail network was a secondary scheme.

The ESRI conducted a review of the latest NDP in 2023.

Road network

By the start of 2009 substantial progress had been made on the motorway network, with all sections of the five major inter-urban motorways either under construction or complete. The M1 motorway from Dublin towards Belfast has been completed as far as the border with Northern Ireland. The last section of N1/M1 route to be completed was the motorway/dual carriageway upgrade that crossed the border to become an upgraded A1 route as far as Newry. This was the first cross-border road project and was opened to traffic on 2 August 2007, thus completing the N1/M1 route.

The N7/M7 motorway from Dublin to Limerick was completed in 2010. Major work was undertaken to extend the motorway westwards from Portlaoise to Limerick from 2006 onwards when work on the Nenagh to Limerick section commenced. Construction commenced on the Portlaoise to Castletown section in 2007 while work commenced on the Castletown to Nenagh section in 2008. All sections were completed at various times in 2010. Other upgrades during this period include the Naas road upgrade, which was finished in August 2006. This involved the widening of a section of the route to three lanes in each direction and the removal of several at-grade junctions.

The M4/N4 from Dublin towards Sligo (and providing the link to the N6/M6 for Galway) now reaches as far as the Midlands. By September 2008, the M6 motorway was contiguous from Kinnegad to Athlone. The rest of the M6 route was completed in 2009 as far as Galway (where it will tie in with the proposed M17/M18 schemes). All sections of the M9 motorway to Waterford are also completed. The M9 Carlow bypass element opened in May 2008, while the Waterford-Knocktopher scheme opened in 2010. The M8 Dublin-Cork road motorway moved substantially towards completion in 2008 with the opening of the 37 km Cashel-Mitchelstown scheme and the redesignation of the Cashel bypass to motorway standard. In December 2008, the 40 km M8 Cullahill-Cashel scheme was opened to traffic. All other sections of this route were under construction by late 2007. The 16 km Fermoy to Mitchelstown segment opened to traffic on 25 May 2009. The M8 was completed in 2010 following the opening of the M7/M8 Portlaoise to Castletown/Cullahill route where the M8 intersects with the M7. The N11/M11 is also receiving upgrades along with the new controversial 47 km M3 motorway.

In 2010, upgrade works the now-complete M50 motorway Dublin inner ring road were finalised. The upgrade of parts of the M50 was appended to the NDP. One of the upgrades was the M50 Dublin Port Tunnel project which was a major scheme involving tunnelling from the M1 north of the city centre, through to the Docklands to the east of the city centre. The tunnel was officially opened by the Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern, on 20 December 2006. Other upgrades included the changing of the N4/M50 to a free-flow layout and an upgrade of the motorway to three or four lanes in each direction between many junctions. Works to upgrade the N7/M50 and M1/M50 junctions to free-flow or near free-flow layouts, and to upgrade the rest of the route to three or four-lane motorway were completed in late 2009 and during 2010.

By early 2009, some progress had been made on the Atlantic Corridor, which aims to link Letterkenny to Waterford, via upgrades of the N15, N17, N18, N20 and N25. The upgrade would have seen dual-carriageway/motorway links between Letterkenny and Sligo, Sligo and Galway, Galway and Limerick, Limerick and Cork and Cork and Waterford. In November 2008 work commenced on the 22 km section of the N18 HQDC from Crusheen to Gort. Various other sections of the route are planning stages. The M20 Cork-Limerick route is at public consultation stage and an EIS and motorway order are due to be published around April next year. The M17 from Galway to Tuam, along with the M18 from Gort (which ties in with the aforementioned M17) were completed in 2017. The N25 Waterford City bypass was completed on 19 October 2009, 10 months ahead of schedule. The N25 New Ross bypass was opened in January 2020.

Rail network
Dublin suburban routes benefited from large amounts of new rolling stock, in the form of suburban railcars. These operate north to Dundalk, northwest to Maynooth, southwest to Portlaoise and south to Gorey. The electrified section of the north-south route through Dublin had extra EMUs brought into service. Dublin also saw the opening of a new tram system, the Luas in 2004.

Major projects undertaken were the upgrade of Heuston Station in Dublin to nine platforms and the new railcar servicing depot in Drogheda. Many other stations, particularly the Dublin suburban stations, were upgraded and modernised, with lifts for example on new footbridges. Other measures to improve disabled access were implemented, and park and ride facilities were developed.

InterCity travel benefited from new suburban railcars freeing up InterCity rolling stock previously in use. 67 new locomotive-hauled InterCity carriages were introduced in 2006. Over 100 "regional railcars" were ordered, in the form DMUs currently in use on peripheral services that are not commuter-only. Services were increased on routes such as that from Limerick to Ennis.

Planned developments included enhancing suburban rail in Cork, where a section of rail was reopened to Midleton, east of the city. Other projects under discussion, some or all of which are unlikely to be undertaken, include:
 * A railway line from Dublin to Navan.
 * Developing a rail link to Dublin Airport (possibly as an underground Metro link).
 * Opening a new city centre railway terminus for Sligo and western commuter services at Spencer Dock.
 * Creating the DART Underground tunnel south from the Docklands railway station in Spencer Dock to Pearse Station and west to Heuston Station.
 * Reopening a Western Railway Corridor from Limerick to Sligo. The section from Ennis to Athenry was reopened in 2010, with the sections from Athenry to Tuam, as well as preserving right of way north of Tuam, cancelled indefinitely in 2011.
 * Reopening of Limerick-Tralee and Athlone-Mullingar railway lines.

title: National Development Plan