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Chester (district)

Chester was a non-metropolitan local government district of Cheshire, England from 1974 to 2009. It had the status of a city and a borough, and the local authority was called Chester City Council.

Apart from Chester itself, which was the principal settlement, the district covered a large rural area. Other settlements included Malpas and Tarvin.

History
The district was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by the merger of the existing city and county borough of Chester with the Chester Rural District and Tarvin Rural District. It was a non-metropolitan district, with county-level services for the area provided by Cheshire County Council.

The new district was awarded borough status from its creation, allowing the chairman of the council to take the title of mayor. The city status which had previously attached to the old county borough of Chester was extended to cover the enlarged district on 28 May 1974, a few weeks after the changes came into effect, allowing the council to call itself Chester City Council.

In 2006 the Department for Communities and Local Government considered reorganising Cheshire's administrative structure as part of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England. The decision to merge Vale Royal with the districts of Chester and Ellesmere Port and Neston to create a single unitary authority was announced on 25 July 2007, following a consultation period in which a proposal to create a single Cheshire unitary authority was rejected.

The Chester district was abolished on 31 March 2009, with the area becoming part of the new unitary authority of Cheshire West and Chester from 1 April 2009. Chester's city charter is retained through the appointment of charter trustees.

Lord mayoralty and shrievalty
The office of mayor of Chester was continued in 1974 by virtue of the charter, the title being borne by the chairman of the council. The mayor of Chester had, since at least 1528, enjoyed the additional honorific title of "Admiral of the Dee". The title was confirmed by letters patent dated 15 May 1974. In 1992, as part of celebrations of the fortieth anniversary of the accession of Elizabeth II, the mayor's title was raised to Lord Mayor of Chester by letters patent dated 10 March 1992.

Under the charter granted in 1974 the new council was permitted to continue to appoint any traditional "officers of dignity" that the predecessor city and county borough had been entitled to appoint. Accordingly, in June 1974 it was decided to continue the office of Sheriff of Chester that dated from the early twelfth century.

The offices of lord mayor and sheriff of Chester were held by serving councillors, and there was an annual rotation of the posts between the three main parties.

Coat of arms
In 1977 the city council was regranted a "differenced" version of the sixteenth century arms of the predecessor Corporation of the City and County Borough of Chester. The historic arms of Chester was based on the Royal Arms of England (three golden lions on a red shield) combined with three gold wheatsheaves on blue of the Earldom of Chester. A gold border bearing acorns was added to the arms to represent the rural areas added in 1974. The crest of the corporation was a depiction of the city sword. To this was added two branches of oak for the two rural districts combined with the county borough. The supporters of the city arms were a gold lion representing England and a white wolf for Hugh Lupus, 1st Earl of Chester. In 1977 they were altered slightly by the addition of red castles hanging about their necks. The Latin motto was Antiqui Colant Antiquum Dierum or Let the ancients worship the ancient of days.

Civil parishes
Chester district contained a comparatively large number of civil parishes. There were 46 parish councils operating in the district in 2008, some of which were grouped parish councils covering more than one civil parish. Some smaller parishes were not covered any parish council, leaving parish level representation to be administered through a parish meeting.

 * Agden
 * Aldersey
 * Aldford
 * Ashton Hayes
 * Bache
 * Backford
 * Barrow
 * Barton
 * Beeston
 * Bickley
 * Bradley
 * Bridge Trafford
 * Broxton
 * Bruen Stapleford
 * Buerton
 * Burton
 * Burwardsley
 * Caldecott
 * Capenhurst
 * Carden
 * Caughall
 * Chester Castle
 * Chidlow
 * Chorlton
 * Chorlton by Backford
 * Chowley
 * Christleton
 * Church Shocklach
 * Churton by Aldford
 * Churton by Farndon
 * Churton Heath
 * Claverton
 * Clotton Hoofield
 * Clutton
 * Coddington
 * Cotton Abbotts
 * Cotton Edmunds
 * Crewe by Farndon
 * Croughton
 * Cuddington
 * Dodleston
 * Duckington
 * Duddon
 * Dunham on the Hill
 * Eaton
 * Eccleston
 * Edge
 * Edgerley
 * Elton
 * Farndon
 * Foulk Stapleford
 * Golborne Bellow
 * Golborne David
 * Grafton
 * Great Boughton
 * Guilden Sutton
 * Hampton
 * Handley
 * Hapsford
 * Harthill
 * Hatton
 * Hockenhull
 * Hoole Village
 * Horton by Malpas
 * Horton cum Peel
 * Huntington
 * Huxley
 * Iddinshall
 * Kelsall
 * Kings Marsh
 * Larkton
 * Lea Newbold
 * Lea by Backford
 * Ledsham
 * Little Stanney
 * Littleton
 * Lower Kinnerton
 * Macefen
 * Malpas (town)
 * Marlston cum Lache
 * Mickle Trafford
 * Mollington
 * Moston
 * Mouldsworth
 * Newton by Malpas
 * Newton by Tattenhall
 * Oldcastle
 * Overton
 * Picton
 * Poulton
 * Prior's Heys
 * Puddington
 * Pulford
 * Rowton
 * Saighton
 * Saughall
 * Shocklach Oviatt
 * Shotwick
 * Shotwick Park
 * Stockton
 * Stoke
 * Stretton
 * Tarvin
 * Tattenhall
 * Thornton le Moors
 * Threapwood
 * Tilston
 * Tilstone Fearnall
 * Tiverton
 * Tushingham cum Grindley
 * Upton by Chester
 * Waverton
 * Wervin
 * Wigland
 * Willington
 * Wimbolds Trafford
 * Woodbank
 * Wychough

The main built-up part of Chester was an unparished area, corresponding to the area of the former county borough. One anomaly was that there was a small civil parish just covering the area around Chester Castle, which was surrounded by the unparished area. This was the civil parish of Chester Castle, which had not been part of the pre-1974 Chester County Borough, but had been a detached part of the Chester Rural District.

Political control
The city of Chester had been a county borough, independent from any county council, from 1889 to 1974. The first elections to the enlarged district created under the Local Government Act 1972 were held in 1973, initially operating as a shadow authority until the new arrangements came into effect on 1 April 1974. Political control of the council from 1974 until its abolition in 2009 was held by the following parties:

Leadership
The leaders of the council were:

Premises
The council had its main offices at The Forum on Northgate Street, Chester, being offices above a shopping centre. The offices at The Forum had been opened on 4 April 1973 for the old city council when it was a county borough, but in anticipation of the reforms due to come into effect in 1974. The offices immediately adjoined Chester Town Hall, where council and committee meetings were held.

Council elections

 * 1973 Chester City Council election
 * 1976 Chester City Council election
 * 1979 Chester City Council election (New ward boundaries)
 * 1980 Chester City Council election
 * 1982 Chester City Council election
 * 1983 Chester City Council election
 * 1984 Chester City Council election
 * 1986 Chester City Council election
 * 1987 Chester City Council election
 * 1988 Chester City Council election (City boundary changes took place but the number of seats remained the same)
 * 1990 Chester City Council election
 * 1991 Chester City Council election
 * 1992 Chester City Council election
 * 1994 Chester City Council election
 * 1995 Chester City Council election
 * 1996 Chester City Council election
 * 1998 Chester City Council election
 * 1999 Chester City Council election (New ward boundaries)
 * 2000 Chester City Council election
 * 2002 Chester City Council election
 * 2003 Chester City Council election
 * 2004 Chester City Council election
 * 2006 Chester City Council election
 * 2007 Chester City Council election

2006 Election
The Conservative Party gained 5 seats in Lache, Newton St. Michael's, Handbridge, Elton and Upton Grange. Labour lost three seats to the Conservatives, and avoided losing Boughton and City to the Conservatives, and College to the Liberal Democrats. The Liberal Democrats lost two seats to the Conservatives, and only avoided losing a safe seat, Vicars Cross, to the Conservatives. In addition, a Liberal Democrat Councillor (Jeff Clarke, Waverton) defected to the Conservatives. The Conservatives also won a by-election in Autumn 2006, taking another seat from the Liberal Democrats.

2007 Election
The Conservative party gained 7 seats in Lache, Newton Brook, Huntington, Tattenhall, Upton Grange, Kelsall and Boughton Heath. They also regained Christleton after the seat had been vacant for four months. The Liberal Democrats were defeated in five seats, Labour in one, and one long-serving Independent (Doug Haynes, Tattenhall) was beaten. Labour were beaten into fourth place in one ward (Malpas) by the English Democrats. The Liberal Democrats narrowly avoided finishing in fourth place in Blacon Hall and Blacon Lodge. Labour held College by just 7 votes, with the Liberal Democrats in second place.

2008 Election
The 2008 elections were cancelled due to local government re-organisation. Elections to a shadow Cheshire West and Chester (CWC) unitary authority were instead held. This meant that councillors elected in 2004 served for an additional year before the city council was disbanded. Therefore, the Conservatives remained the governing party until April 2009, when the new CWC Council replaced the city council.

title: Chester (district)


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Snowy River

The Snowy River is a major river in south-eastern Australia. It originates on the slopes of Mount Kosciuszko, Australia's highest mainland peak, draining the eastern slopes of the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales, before flowing through the Alpine National Park and the Snowy River National Park in Victoria and emptying into Bass Strait.

While the river's course and surroundings have remained almost entirely unchanged, the majority of it being protected by the Snowy River National Park, its flow was drastically reduced in the mid 20th century, to less than 1% (as measured at Jindabyne), after the construction of four large dams (Guthega, Island Bend, Eucumbene, and Jindabyne) and many smaller diversion structures in its headwaters in New South Wales, as part of the Snowy Mountains Scheme.

The river has been immortalised in cultural folklore through the poem The Man from Snowy River, written by Banjo Paterson in 1890, which formed the basis of many subsequent works in film, TV and music theatre.

Geography
The main headwaters of the Snowy River, which include the Eucumbene, Gungarlin and Thredbo Rivers and many smaller alpine watercourses, are predominantly located in Kosciuszko National Park and meet near Jindabyne. From this point the river winds 352 km southwards through inaccessible country, comprising private lands and the Snowy River National Park, eventually reaching the sea in the Snowy Inlet, at Marlo, near Orbost.

In New South Wales, the river runs through the Snowy Monaro Regional Council. The tributaries of the Snowy River below Jindabyne include: the Mowamba, Wullwye Creek, Maclaughlin, Delegate, Jacobs, Pinch, Suggan Buggan, Deddick, Buchan, Rodger and Brodribb rivers. At a pinch point named Hutchings pass, water flows uphill.

In 1986, Jennings and Mabbutt mapped four geomorphic classes in the Snowy River Basin; (i) Australian Alps; (ii) the Monaro Tablelands; (iii) the East Victorian Uplands and (iv) the Gippsland Plains. Each class is physically distinct from one another.

Rainfall
The general distribution of rainfall over the Snowy River drainage basin (catchment) is controlled by orographic effects. There is a strong rainfall gradient across the basin.

The highest average annual rainfall is recorded in the higher alpine reaches of the Snowy Catchment, with 1800 mm recorded in areas above 1500 m. The lowest average rainfall is recorded in the rain shadow affected north eastern catchment on the Monaro Plains around Dalgety, with average rain below 500 mm. The lower eastern sub-catchments are more strongly influenced by coastal rainfall patterns. For example, peak rainfall in the Delegate catchment is strongly influenced by east coast lows, rather than the alpine dominated precipitation patterns in the upper Snowy River catchment. These local variations in rainfall result in distinctly different hydrology in the rivers across the Snowy River catchment.

Hydrology
The snow melt derived rivers in the Snowy Mountains typically have the lowest average stream flow in the months from November to June, with October having the largest monthly flows of the year, e.g., mean monthly flow for October at Dalgety was 283973 ML prior to the Snowy Scheme. The large flows in September and October are derived from snowmelt and hydrologically it is one of the key aspects that defines these mountain waterways. Typically, Australian rivers can be defined as having highly variable river flows, with frequent zero flows even in humid areas due to the extreme age of soils and consequent extremely high water absorption to absorb minimal phosphorus via proteoid and similar root types. The mixed snow melt-rainfall rivers of the Snowy Mountains can be defined by strong seasonal patterns and remain permanent throughout the year, with no record of zero flow ever observed in the Lower Snowy. Prolonged base flows over the summer months are another feature of these types of rivers, driven by snowmelt derived groundwater.

In the lower reaches of the Snowy River catchment, the larger tributaries have a distinctly different flow regime to the snow melt rivers of the Alps. These tributaries are typically dominated by the winter rainfall and often have peak monthly flows a few months earlier than the snow melt tributaries. The peak monthly flows for these lower Snowy River tributaries occur in June through July. Additionally, the flow regime in the lower tributaries is far more variable and unpredictable.

Waterfalls
The Snowy River below Jindabyne Dam contains four major waterfalls; Stone Bridge Falls, Corrowong Falls, Snowy Falls and Pinch Falls. Potentially, many of these waterfalls act as barriers for the large scale movement of aquatic species in the main stem of the Snowy River. The flows required to drown out the largest barrier, Snowy Falls, is potentially larger than the environmental water releases to the river via Jindabyne Dam.

Parklands and protected areas
Around 70–80% of the Snowy River's length is protected by national parks, these include, from upstream to downstream:
 * Kosciuszko National Park — New South Wales
 * Alpine National Park — Victoria
 * Snowy River National Park — Victoria

River ecology
The aquatic flora and fauna of the snowy mountain snow melt rivers have evolved with the predictable seasonal hydrological snow melt peaks and constant summer base flow conditions. Many of these flora and fauna are coldwater specialists.

River habitat
The instream habitat of the Snowy River below Jindabyne has changed. Many of the in-stream features of a large upland river are not evident today. The substrate was previously typified by a clean cobble stone substrate. Today, the river channel has contracted and the substrate has a heavy cover of sediment, overlying much of the cobble stone riverbed.

The bushfires of 2002–03, added to this problem as large amounts of sediment and organic matter were deposited in the river via tributary inflows. This input of sediment lead to the substrate becoming finer. This pattern of increased silt in the pools of rivers and streams has been observed across the Snowy Mountains following the bushfires. These bushfires are likely to have a long lasting influence on these waterways.

Larger events are required to start to improve the condition of the river bed. Events of 1000 ML per day will start to move the unconsolidated fine particles of the riverbed. Events between 1000 and 3000 ML per day are important for conditioning the riffle habitats (i.e., a type of flowing water habitat).

The current poor condition of the river bed is one of the key factors inhibiting the aquatic fauna typical in a snow melt river.

Water quality
The mountain streams and rivers are typically low in nutrients and electrical conductivity. Conductivity is generally below 50 μS/cm.

Large dams can essentially influence downstream water quality via two key mechanisms, either by poor water quality released from the waters of the dam itself and reduced mixing of the river water column attributable to lower water velocities leading to anoxic conditions at the bottom of deep river pools.

Influence of Jindabyne Dam on water quality
Possibly the main influence on downstream water quality from Jindabyne Dam, is the influence on water temperature. Unlike many other dams where coldwater pollution is a concern, where water is released from the below the thermocline in the reservoir (i.e. the bottom water of the lake), the water is released from the surface waters of lake Jindabyne. The water temperature of the Snowy River downstream can reach temperatures of 19 C in summer.

The Snowy River is on average 4 °C (7 °F) warmer than the surrounding unregulated snow melt rivers, with a peak difference of up to 8 °C (14 °F). The water temperature in spring appears to be the greatly warmer than the surrounding snow melt rivers.

Thermal stratification
Thermal stratification in the river reaches below Jindabyne is typically restricted to a few of the larger or deeper pools. In general thermal stratification is spatially restricted to the pools that are typically greater than 4 – deep. Pools shallower than 4 m have not displayed any thermal stratification.

Stratification can occur between October and March, but typically does not persist for very long in the Snowy River in the Jindabyne Gorge. Breakdown of thermal stratification is frequently driven by the cooling overnight air temperature. This region experiences a very large temperature range between day and night (i.e. diurnal temperature range).

Algae
Algae is present in the water column and on the bed of the Snowy River. The water column algae is called phytoplankton, whereas the riverbed algae is defined as periphyton (attached algae).

Riverbed algae
Much of the bed of the Snowy River below Jindabyne contains high levels of attached algae. These taxa are typically filamentous algae. In the snowy mountains rivers unaffected by water diversions, large stands of filamentous algae are uncommon.

Water column algae
During 2008–09, the river pools of Jindabyne Gorge and the Dalgety uplands were typically dominated by blue green algae. Two blue green algae Aphanotheca spp. and Aphanocaspa spp. comprise about 25% of the total abundance. However, these abundances are still under the guidelines and its unclear if this is solely related to river regulation, but also reflects other catchment inputs.

The composition of algae in the free flowing snow melt rivers are typically defined by diatoms. Over 58% of taxa are diatoms, with Fragilaria spp. being the most numerically abundant taxa.

Water bugs
The water bugs in the Snowy River differ from the bugs of the snowmelt rivers. Dams have been shown to have an adverse impact on the water bugs of rivers.

Caenid mayflies (riffles) and oligochaete worms (pool edges) are generally typical of the upland regulated Snowy River. Other studies have also found greater densities of Caenidae mayflies in regulated rivers compared to unregulated rivers. Reduced high flows and constant low flows in the upper Snowy River are likely to have favoured high densities of worms through the buildup of silt and organic matter in the pools. Nichols et al. (2006) and Petts et al. (1993) also found greater densities of segmented worms associated with soft sediments and coarse organic debris in response to river regulation. Chironomids were also numerically dominant in riffles sampled in the regulated Snowy River. This response has been found in many other studies of regulated rivers and has been attributed to an increase of periphytic growth in riffles that increased overall habitat area and food availability. Conoesucidae caddisflies (riffles), larval and adult elmids (riffles) and Oniscigastridae (pool edges) distinguished the snow melt rivers from regulated Snowy River. Marchant and Hehir (2002) reported that AUSRIVAS models (>50% probability) predicted Conoesucidae and elmids to be present in the upper Snowy River, but these taxa were not found in their study. The greater density of these taxa in snowmelt rivers compared the Snowy River is consistent with river regulation.

Marchant and Hehir attribute the absence of these taxa to dams acting as a barrier to drift and limiting recolonisation of these taxa and not to flow regulation. The upper Snowy River sites are all below the confluence of the Mowamba River which provides a pathway for recolonisation of the Snowy River. Therefore, the reduced flow and altered flow regime is likely to be the primary cause of reduced densities of these taxa in the upper Snowy River rather than the barrier effects of Jindabyne Dam. There is little information on the responses of Oniscigastridae to reduced flows and altered flow regimes, but it is probable that an elevated temperature regime combined with lack of suitable sandy edge habitat has reduced their densities in the Snowy River.

Fish
The fish assemblage of the Snowy River below Jindabyne are clearly divided into two components. This division is based on that which occurred in the upper catchment (above Snowy Falls) and that in the lower catchment (below Snowy Falls). The major differences between the two zones were the low abundance or absence of diadromous migratory fish (except eels) and the greater abundance of short-finned eel and trout in the upper catchment, and the greater abundance of Australian smelt, congolli and long-finned eel below Snowy Falls. These upper and lower Snowy River zone differences were greater than the differences between un-regulated tributary streams and the highly regulated main channel of the Snowy River within either zone. In the upper catchment, river blackfish, brown trout and short-finned eel were more abundant in un-regulated tributaries, whilst long-finned eel and goldfish were more abundant in the regulated upper part of the Snowy River. In the lower zone, eastern gambusia, long-finned eel, Australian smelt, short-finned eel and congolli were all more abundant in Snowy River while common galaxias and short-headed lamprey were more abundant at tributaries.

Flow thresholds below Jindabyne
River scientists are currently undertaking studies to determine the flow thresholds for a range of riverine processes. Some preliminary flow thresholds that have been developed include:

Further defining of ecological flow thresholds is currently in progress via modelling, field based studies, and flow trials. See Snowy Flow Response Monitoring and Modelling.

Early history
The Snowy River was initially utilised sustainably as a food and water resource by Indigenous Australians for around 30,000–40,000 years prior to European settlement. Evidence of human occupation at Cloggs Cave, near the Snowy River, near Buchan, was dated at up to 17,000 years. Despite the cold climate in the river's higher reaches, the Ngarigo nation held territory around the Australian Alps and the Snowy Mountains in modern-day New South Wales. As the river flowed southwards into modern day Victoria, it flowed in the Gunai nation's territory, particularly, the Krauatungalung clan's territory.

The first use of the Snowy River, for the extraction of energy, was by a water-powered flour mill, fed from a low weir across the river at Jindabyne. It was constructed by Stewart Ryrie, Junior, in 1847, and operated until around 1889.

1950–1990s reduced water flow
The Snowy River originally had a huge, often destructive flow during the spring snow-melt which flowed directly into the sea. In the 1950s and 1960s, as part of the Snowy Mountains Scheme, a network of four dams (i.e. Guthega, Island Bend, Eucumebene and Jindabyne) and many smaller water diversion structures were built to collect and divert 99% (as measured at Jindabyne) of the Snowy River's flow through the mountains, to provide more water to the Murray and Murrumbidgee River agricultural basins for irrigation. Several hydro-electric power stations were also constructed to generate electricity. While there was initial public opposition to the diversion of the river's water during the 1950s and '60s, it was largely ignored as the scheme provided agriculture with more water. It generated a large number of jobs in construction initially, then in agriculture and logistics, and added permanent and reliable, on-demand electricity generation to two states.

1990s–2000: Increased awareness
By the 1990s, the reduced flows in the Snowy River became a major environmental concern in Victoria, New South Wales and across Australia. After the scheme was built downstream flows were insufficient to keep the channel clear of vegetation or move sediment in the stream bed. Salt water intrusion extended seven to ten kilometres up the estuary and outdoor recreational activities were curtailed along the lower reaches of the river.

This period of increased awareness of the impacts of water diversions lead to the Snowy Water Inquiry, which looked at options to improve the health of the Snowy River. The key outcomes of the Snowy Water Inquiry was an initial agreement to increase environmental water releases to the Snowy River below Jindabyne by 15% and the Snowy Montane Rivers.

These series of staged flow targets (up to 28% of mean annual natural discharge) were set for the Snowy River below Jindabyne, with these dependent on water savings in the Murray and Murrumbidgee River catchments. The targets included 15% by 2009 and 21% by 2012.

2002–2006: Environmental water releases from the Mowamba River in a low allocation period
From 28 August 2002 until January 2006, the first stage of environmental water was released to the Snowy River via the Mowamba River. The Mowamba River aqueduct was "turned out", preventing water being diverted to Jindabyne Dam. The releases from the Mowamba River essentially doubled the daily discharge at Dalgety from about 40 to 80 ML per day. Additionally, it provided a small snow melt signal, peaking in September. Only a small percentage of the Mowamba River catchment is covered by snow in winter, compared to some of the upper catchments in the Snowy River catchment. Additionally, the release increased daily river flow variability, between 3 and 523 ML per day, and the timing of flows was in keeping with natural events across the catchment. These small discharges saw a 20% increase in wetted habitat and a doubling of running water habitat (i.e. riffles) in the upper reaches of the Snowy River in the Dalgety Uplands, whereas the rest of the river saw a decline in discharge due to the prevailing drought.

This stage increased flows from 1% to approximately 4% of mean annual river discharge. Typically an annual release of 38 GL per year.

2006–2010: Environmental water releases from Jindabyne Dam in a low allocation period
After the completion of capital works (i.e. multi-level offtake and the cone values) at Jindabyne Dam the environmental water releases were essentially released from Jindabyne Dam, rather than the Mowamba River. The second stage of environmental flow releases saw a very small increase in the median flow rate, but also a decline in daily flow variability compared to base flow compared to stage one.

Overall the annual volume released remained around 38GL year given the historical record drought.

2010–2011: Environmental water releases in a higher allocation period
During this stage the "Water for Rivers" were able to secure more water entitlements (i.e. up 190 GL) in the Western Rivers and the allocations increased as the drought broke in South Eastern Australia. Actual allocations are weather dependent, so in dry periods the allocation will be smaller than during wet periods. During this period the annual water availability jumped from about 38 to 150 GL per annum. Although water is released all year, this period has seen two significant spring snow melt environmental water releases to the Snowy River.

In November 2010 the first spring snow melt release occurred. This small but important release had a peak discharge of 3080 ML per day, and was sufficient to start to scour the fines sediment from some sections of the bed of the Snowy.

In October 2011, with substantially greater water available a much larger spring snow melt release has occurred i.e. 84 GL over 19 days. This second and substantially larger release with a peak discharge rate of 12000 ML per day over three days is expected to scour the bed of the river. This releases targeted much larger particles, up to the size of 256 mm, as the bed of the river is heavily "armoured" and larger flows are required to move these particles to improve the instream habitat of the river. Once the armouring had been removed it is expected the fine sediment would be scoured within the river bed profile.

Politics
A political campaign began, which aimed to increase the water flow from 1% to 28% of its original flow from the dam at Jindabyne. An independent candidate from the East Gippsland district, Craig Ingram, was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly in 1999 and re-elected in 2002 and 2006, on a platform to increase the flow of water in the Snowy River.

After Ingram was elected to office, he became instrumental in the three shareholding governments reaching agreement to return of up to 28% ANF of an environmental flow to the Snowy River which was an outcome of the corporatisation of the Snowy Scheme, swinging the Victorian Government to sign the legislation. Although the Victorian, NSW and Federal governments promised that corporatisation would not lead to privatisation, in November 2005 they announced their intention to sell Snowy Hydro through a public float. Community groups rallied to stop the sale of Snowy Hydro and by June 2006 the Australian Prime Minister withdrew the Commonwealth's intention to sell Snowy Hydro.

Cultural references
The poem The Man from Snowy River was written by 'Banjo' Paterson in 1890, which formed the basis of many subsequent works in film, TV and music theatre.

The natural environment surrounding the Snowy River formed part of the subject matter and setting for the 'Banjo' Paterson poem The Man from Snowy River, first published in 1890. The Snowy River has also been immortalised in a 1920 The Man from Snowy River silent film, as well as in the better-known 1982 Fox film The Man from Snowy River and its 1988 Disney sequel film The Man from Snowy River II (U.S. title: "Return to Snowy River" – UK title: "The Untamed"), as well as in The Man from Snowy River (TV series) and The Man from Snowy River: Arena Spectacular, all of which were based on the Banjo Paterson's poem.

Settlements
There are very few towns located on the Snowy River, the following is a list of towns that sit on the Snowy River, ordered from upstream to downstream;

 * New South Wales:
 * Guthega ski village
 * Jindabyne
 * Dalgety
 * Ironmungy (nearby)

 * Victoria:
 * Willis
 * Suggan Buggan (nearby)
 * Buchan (nearby)
 * Orbost
 * Marlo

Crossings

 * New South Wales
 * Summit Road (closed to vehicles) – Mount Kosciuszko
 * Main Range Walk (ford, closed to vehicles) – Charlotte Pass
 * Illawong suspension bridge (pedestrians only)
 * Guthega Dam Wall (closed to vehicles)
 * Munyang (Guthega) Power Station
 * Island Bend Fire Trail at Gungarlin River
 * Kosciuszko Road – Jindabyne
 * Romero
 * Snowy River Way – Dalgety

 * Victoria
 * McKillops Bridge – McKillops Road
 * Princes Highway – Orbost

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Snowy River


text:
Lament

A lament or lamentation is a passionate expression of grief, often in music, poetry, or song form. The grief is most often born of regret, or mourning. Laments can also be expressed in a verbal manner in which participants lament about something that they regret or someone that they have lost, and they are usually accompanied by wailing, moaning and/or crying. Laments constitute some of the oldest forms of writing, and examples exist across human cultures.

History
Many of the oldest and most lasting poems in human history have been laments. The Lament for Sumer and Ur dates back at least 4000 years to ancient Sumer, the world's first urban civilization. Laments are present in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, and laments continued to be sung in elegiacs accompanied by the aulos in classical and Hellenistic Greece. Elements of laments appear in Beowulf, in the Hindu Vedas, and in ancient Near Eastern religious texts. They are included in the Mesopotamian City Laments such as the Lament for Ur and the Jewish Tanakh, (which Christians refer to as the Old Testament).

In many oral traditions, both early and modern, the lament has been a genre usually performed by women: Batya Weinbaum made a case for the spontaneous lament of women chanters in the creation of the oral tradition that resulted in the Iliad The material of lament, the "sound of trauma" is as much an element in the Book of Job as in the genre of pastoral elegy, such as Shelley's "Adonais" or Matthew Arnold's "Thyrsis".

The Book of Lamentations or Lamentations of Jeremiah figures in the Old Testament. The Lamentation of Christ (under many closely variant terms) is a common subject from the Life of Christ in art, showing Jesus' dead body being mourned after the Crucifixion. Jesus himself lamented over the prospective fall of Jerusalem as he and his disciples entered the city ahead of his passion.

A lament in the Book of Lamentations or in the Psalms, in particular in the Lament/Complaint Psalms of the Tanakh, may be looked at as "a cry of need in a context of crisis when Israel lacks the resources to fend for itself". Another way of looking at it is all the more basic: laments simply being "appeals for divine help in distress". These laments, too, often have a set format: an address to God, description of the suffering/anguish from which one seeks relief, a petition for help and deliverance, a curse towards one's enemies, an expression of the belief of ones innocence or a confession of the lack thereof, a vow corresponding to an expected divine response, and lastly, a song of thanksgiving. Examples of a general format of this, both in the individual and communal laments, can be seen in Psalm 3 and Psalm 44 respectively.

The Lament of Edward II, if it is actually written by Edward II of England, is the sole surviving composition of his.

A heroine's lament is a conventional fixture of baroque opera seria, accompanied usually by strings alone, in descending tetrachords. Because of their plangent cantabile melodic lines, evocatively free, non-strophic construction and adagio pace, operatic laments have remained vividly memorable soprano or mezzo-soprano arias even when separated from the emotional pathos of their operatic contexts. An early example is Ariadne's "Lasciatemi morire", which is the only survivor of Claudio Monteverdi's lost Arianna. Francesco Cavalli's operas extended the lamento formula, in numerous exemplars, of which Ciro's "Negatemi respiri" from Ciro is notable.

Other examples include Dido's Lament ("When I am laid in earth") (Henry Purcell, Dido and Aeneas), "Lascia ch'io pianga" (George Frideric Handel, Rinaldo), "Caro mio ben" (Tomaso or Giuseppe Giordani). The lament continued to represent a musico-dramatic high point. In the context of opera buffa, the Countess's lament, "Dove sono", comes as a surprise to the audience of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, and in Gioachino Rossini's Barber of Seville, Rosina's plaintive words at her apparent abandonment are followed, not by the expected lament aria, but by a vivid orchestral interlude of storm music. The heroine's lament remained a fixture in romantic opera, and the Marschallin's monologue in act 1 of Der Rosenkavalier can be understood as a penetrating psychological lament.

In modernity, discourses about melancholia and trauma take the functional place ritual laments hold in premodern societies. This entails a shift from a focus on community and convention to individuality and authenticity.

Scottish laments
The purely instrumental lament is a common form in piobaireachd music for the Scottish bagpipes. "MacCrimmon's Lament" dates to the Jacobite uprising of 1745. The tune is held to have been written by Donald Ban MacCrimmon, piper to the MacLeods of Dunvegan, who supported the Hanoverians. It is said that Donald Ban, who was killed at Moy in 1746, had an intimation that he would not return.

A well-known Gaelic lullaby is "Griogal Cridhe" ("Beloved Gregor"). It was composed in 1570 after the execution of Gregor MacGregor by the Campbells. The grief-stricken widow, Marion Campbell, describes what happened as she sings to her child.

"Cumhadh na Cloinne" ("Lament for the Children") is a pìobaireachd composed by Padruig Mór MacCrimmon in the early 1650s. It is generally held to be based on the loss of seven of MacCrimmon's eight sons within a year to smallpox, possibly brought to Skye by a Spanish trading vessel. Poet and writer Angus Peter Campbell, quoting poet Sorley MacLean, has called it "one of the great artistic glories of all Europe". Author Bridget MacKenzie, in Piping Traditions of Argyll, suggests that it refers to the slaughter of the MacLeod's fighting Cromwell's forces at the Battle of Worcester. It may have been inspired by both.

Other Scottish laments from outside of the piobaireachd tradition include "Lowlands Away", "MacPherson's Rant", and "Hector the Hero".

Musical form
There is a short, free musical form appearing in the Baroque and then again in the Romantic periods, called lament. It is typically a set of harmonic variations in homophonic texture, wherein the bass (Lament bass) descends through a tetrachord, usually one suggesting a minor mode.

Greek laments (Thrênoi, Moirológia)

 * Andrea Fishman, "Thrênoi to Moirológia: Female Voices of Solitude, Resistance, and Solidarity" Oral Tradition, 23/2 (2008): 267–295
 * Roderick Beaton, Folk Poetry of Modern Greece, Cambridge University Press, 2004
 * Greek lament song (Mοιρολόϊ – Moiroloi) from Mani, performed in a funeral
 * Greek lament song (Mοιρολόϊ – Moiroloi) from Epirus, instrumental

title: Lament


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User:Dunks58

too much information ...too little time ...

title: User:Dunks58


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Rivers of New South Wales

This page discusses the rivers and hydrography of the state of New South Wales, Australia.

The principal topographic feature of New South Wales is the series of low highlands and plateaus called the Great Dividing Range, which extend from north to south roughly parallel to the coast of the Coral and Tasman seas of the South Pacific Ocean.

The two main categories of rivers in New South Wales, are those that rise in the Great Dividing Range and flow eastwards to the sea, the Coastal NSW Rivers; and those that rise on the other side of the crest of the range and flow westward, the Inland NSW Rivers. Most of the inland rivers eventually combine into the Murray-Darling network of rivers, which drains to the sea in South Australia.

Major rivers
The following rivers are the longest river systems, by length.

Coastal rivers
Due to the relatively close proximity of the Great Dividing Range to the eastern coast of New South Wales, in general, the coastal rivers are short, navigable only in their lowest reaches, if at all, and subject to flooding in periods of high rainfall. The inland rivers have little water, are also subject to flooding, and their limited resources are extensively used for irrigation in the more arid inland agricultural districts of the State. On all of the significant inland rivers, large dams have been constructed to regulate the water flow, to facilitate irrigation, and in some cases, to generate hydro-power.

For administrative purposes, the rivers are generally grouped into four major catchments defined by their drainage basin, and then a series of sub-catchments. The following is a list of the coastal rivers in New South Wales, in order from north to south, grouped according to catchment and sub-catchments, from mouth to upper reaches, organised by tributary:

Tweed River sub-catchment

 * Coral Sea
 * Tweed River
 * Oxley River
 * Rous River

Brunswick River sub-catchment

 * Coral Sea
 * Brunswick River

Richmond River sub-catchment

 * Coral Sea
 * Evans River
 * Richmond River
 * Bungawalbin Creek
 * Wilsons River
 * Coopers Creek (designated as a river)
 * Leycester Creek (designated as a river)
 * Back Creek (designated as a river)
 * Eden Creek (designated as a river)
 * Sandy Creek (designated as a river)
 * Shannon Brook (designated as a river)

Clarence River sub-catchment

 * Coral Sea
 * Clarence River
 * Mann River
 * Nymboida River
 * Boundary Creek (Nymboida) (designated as a river)
 * Blicks River
 * Glen Fernaigh River
 * Boundary Creek (Glen Fernaigh) (designated as a river)
 * Clouds Creek (designated as a river)
 * Boyd River
 * Sara River
 * Oban River
 * Nowlands Creek (designated as a river)
 * Guy Fawkes River
 * Aberfoyle River
 * Chandlers Creek (designated as a river)
 * Little Murray River
 * Bielsdown River
 * Little Nymboida River
 * Bobo River
 * Henry River
 * Yarrow River
 * Tooloom Creek (designated as a river)
 * Beaury Creek (designated as a river)
 * Cataract River
 * Coldstream River
 * Timbarra River
 * Orara River
 * Urumbilum River
 * Kangaroo River
 * Towallum River
 * Esk River
 * Corindi River
 * Maryland River
 * Boonoo Boonoo River
 * Sandon River
 * Wooli Wooli River
 * Barcoongere River

Bellinger River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Bellinger River
 * Never Never River
 * Rosewood River
 * Kalang River

Nambucca-Macleay River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Nambucca River
 * Taylors Arm (designated as a river)
 * Macleay River
 * Apsley River
 * Tia River
 * Yarrowitch River
 * Warnes River
 * Chandler River
 * Oaky River
 * Styx River
 * Wollomombi River
 * Dyke River
 * Gara River
 * Commissioners Waters (designated as a river)
 * Georges Creek (designated as a river)
 * Blue Mountain Creek (designated as a river)
 * Christmas Creek (designated as a river)
 * Kunderang Brook (designated as a river)

Hastings River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Hastings River
 * Forbes River
 * Pappinbarra River
 * Tobins River
 * Thone River
 * Ellenborough River
 * Doyles River
 * Maria River
 * Wilson River
 * Camden Haven River

Manning River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Manning River
 * Pigna Barney River
 * Barnard River
 * Back River
 * Myall River
 * Curricabark River
 * Nowendoc River
 * Cooplacurripa River
 * Mummel River
 * Walcrow River
 * Rowleys River
 * Burns Creek (designated as a river)
 * Cells River
 * Connollys Creek (designated as a river)
 * Dingo Creek (designated as a river)
 * Bobin Creek (designated as a river)
 * Caparra Creek (designated as a river)
 * Cedar Party Creek (designated as a river)
 * Dawson River
 * Lansdowne River
 * Gloucester River
 * Barrington River
 * Cobark River
 * Dilgry River
 * Moppy River
 * Kerripit River
 * Bowman River
 * Avon River

Great Lakes sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Coolongolook River
 * Wallamba River
 * Wallingat River
 * Wang Wauk River
 * Karuah River
 * Mammy Johnsons River
 * Wards River
 * The Branch River
 * Telegherry River
 * Myall River
 * Crawford River

Hunter River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Hunter River
 * Pages Creek (designated as a river)
 * Moonan Brook (designated as a river)
 * Stewarts Brook (designated as a river)
 * Paterson River
 * Allyn River
 * Williams River
 * Chichester River
 * Wangat River
 * Rouchel Brook (designated as a river)
 * Pages River
 * Isis River
 * Goulburn River
 * Munmurra River
 * Cooba Bulga Stream (designated as a river)
 * Cattle Creek (designated as a river)
 * Krui River
 * Bow River
 * Merriwa River
 * Worondi Rivulet
 * Bylong River
 * Growee River
 * Lee Creek (designated as a river)
 * Baerami Creek (designated as a river)
 * Widden Brook (designated as a river)
 * Blackwater Creek (designated as a river)
 * Wollombi Brook
 * Congewai Creek (designated as a river)
 * Cedar Creek (designated as a river)

Central Coast sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Lake Macquarie
 * Dora Creek (designated as a river)
 * Tuggerah Lake
 * Budgewoi Lake
 * Lake Munmorah
 * Wyong River
 * Cedar Brush Creek
 * Wamberal Lagoon
 * Terrigal Lagoon
 * Avoca Lake
 * Nunns Creek
 * Erina River

Hawkesbury-Nepean sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Hawkesbury River
 * Grose River
 * Nepean River
 * Glenbrook Creek
 * Erskine Creek
 * Bedford Creek
 * Glen Erskine Creek
 * Warragamba River
 * Coxs River
 * Kedumba River
 * Little River (Oberon)
 * Jenolan River
 * Kowmung River
 * Hollanders River
 * Tuglow River
 * Wollondilly River
 * Paddys River
 * Tonalli River
 * Nattai River
 * Little River (Wollondilly)
 * Tarlo River
 * Jooriland River
 * Mulwaree River
 * Wingecarribee River
 * Joadja Creek
 * Little River (Wingecarribee)
 * Burke River
 * Little Burke River
 * Cordeaux River
 * Avon River
 * Cataract River
 * Bargo River
 * Colo River
 * Wollemi Creek
 * Wollangambe River
 * Wolgan River
 * Capertee River
 * South Creek
 * Eastern Creek
 * Breakfast Creek
 * Bells Creek
 * Reedy Creek
 * Kemps Creek
 * Bonds Creek
 * Blaxland Creek
 * Ropes Creek
 * Badgerys Creek
 * Macdonald River
 * Mangrove Creek (designated as a river)
 * Mooney Mooney Creek (designated as a river)
 * Berowra Creek
 * Cowan Creek
 * Coal and Candle Creek
 * Smiths Creek
 * Pittwater

Sydney Metropolitan sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Bilgola Creek
 * Port Jackson
 * Middle Harbour
 * Middle Harbour Creek
 * Parramatta River
 * Iron Cove Creek
 * Hawthorne Canal
 * Lane Cove River
 * Gore Creek
 * Scout Creek
 * Devlins Creek
 * Terrys Creek
 * Tarban Creek
 * Powells Creek
 * Saleyards Creek
 * Haslams Creek
 * Duck River
 * A'Becketts Creek
 * Duck Creek
 * Little Duck Creek
 * Charity Creek
 * Smalls Creek
 * Archer Creek
 * Subiaco Creek
 * The Ponds Creek
 * Vineyard Creek
 * Darling Mills Creek
 * Toongabbie Creek
 * Blacktown Creek
 * Whites Creek
 * Johnstons Creek
 * Orphan School Creek
 * Botany Bay
 * Cooks River
 * Coxs Creek
 * Wolli Creek
 * Bardwell Creek
 * Cup and Saucer Creek
 * Alexandra Canal
 * Georges River
 * Cabramatta Creek
 * Prospect Creek
 * Orphan School Creek (Fairfield)
 * Clear Paddock Creek
 * Salt Pan Creek
 * Woronora River
 * Boggywell Creek
 * Port Hacking
 * Hacking River

Illawarra sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Lake Illawarra
 * Minnamurra River
 * Port Kembla

Shoalhaven River sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Shoalhaven River
 * Kangaroo River
 * Mongarlowe River
 * Corang River
 * Endrick River
 * St Georges Basin

Eurobodalla catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Clyde River
 * Yadboro River
 * Bimberamala River
 * Buckenbowra River
 * Moruya River
 * Deua River
 * Araluen Creek (designated as a river)
 * Majors Creek (designated as a river)
 * Bettowynd Creek (designated as a river)
 * Tomaga River
 * Tuross River
 * Back River
 * Wadbilliga River
 * Queens Pound River
 * Yowrie River
 * Pambula River
 * Yowaka River

Far South Coast sub-catchment

 * Tasman Sea
 * Bega River
 * Brogo River
 * Bemboka River
 * Nunnock River
 * Bermagui River
 * Genoa River
 * White Rock River
 * Wallagaraugh River
 * Imlay Creek (designated as a river)
 * Merimbula Lake
 * Merrica River
 * Murrah River
 * Dry River
 * Nadgee River
 * Twofold Bay
 * Nullica River
 * Towamba River
 * Wog Wog River
 * Pambula River
 * Wonboyn River

Snowy River sub-catchment

 * Bass Strait
 * Snowy River (mouth located in Victoria)
 * Mowamba River
 * Maclaughlin River
 * Jacobs River
 * Delegate River
 * Bombala River
 * Undowah River
 * Coolumbooka River
 * Little Plains River
 * Bendoc River
 * Queensborough River
 * Pinch River
 * Eucumbene River
 * Gungarlin River
 * Burrungubugge River
 * Thredbo River
 * Little Thredbo River
 * Suggan Buggan River (river and mouth located in Victoria)
 * Ingeegoodbee River (mouth located in Victoria)

Inland-flowing rivers
The inland-flowing rivers in New South Wales can be considered in two groups. In the northern half of the state, a series of rivers rise on the western side of the Great Dividing Range. These rivers flow west and northwest and eventually combine into the Barwon, which becomes the Darling River further west near Bourke. The waters of the Darling River then flow south through the arid far west of NSW.

The second group of inland-flowing rivers in NSW rise in the southern part of the state, sourced predominantly from the western and southern slopes of the Snowy Mountains and the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, and combine directly with the Murray River, which forms the southern border of NSW with Victoria.

The two groups converge at Wentworth in the far south-west corner of the state, where the Murray River crosses the New South Wales/Victorian/South Australia border, east of Paringa in South Australia.

North-western New South Wales

 * Darling River in the northwestern sector of the state.
 * Barwon River
 * Bokhara River
 * Moonie River
 * MacIntyre River
 * Boomi River
 * Dumaresq River
 * Bluff River
 * Severn River (Queensland)
 * Mole River
 * Severn River, New South Wales
 * Beardy Waters
 * Gwydir River also Copeton Dam
 * Horton River
 * Moredun Creek
 * Rocky River
 * Mehi River
 * Namoi River also Keepit Dam
 * Peel River
 * Cockburn River
 * Manilla River
 * Mooki River
 * Macdonald River
 * Castlereagh River
 * Macquarie River also Burrendong Dam
 * Talbragar River
 * Coolaburragundy River
 * Cudgegong River
 * Little River
 * Bell River
 * Turon River
 * Crudine River
 * Fish River
 * Duckmaloi River
 * Campbells River
 * Bogan River

South-western New South Wales
In the southwestern sector of the state:
 * Murray River also Lake Hume
 * Murrumbidgee River also Burrinjuck Dam
 * Lachlan River also Wyangala Dam
 * Abercrombie River
 * Bolong River
 * Isabella River
 * Boorowa River
 * Belubula River
 * Crookwell River
 * Tumut River  also Blowering Dam
 * Goobarragandra River
 * Doubtful Creek (designated as a river)
 * Goodradigbee River
 * Yass River
 * Molonglo River also Cotter River and other rivers of the ACT
 * Queanbeyan River
 * Jerrabomberra Creek (designated as a river)
 * Bredbo River
 * Strike-a-Light River
 * Edward River
 * Wakool River
 * Swampy Plain River
 * Geehi River see Snowy Mountains Scheme
 * Tooma River
 * Tumbarumba Creek (designated as a river)

title: Rivers of New South Wales


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Insulin-like growth factor 1

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), also called somatomedin C, is a hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin which plays an important role in childhood growth, and has anabolic effects in adults. In the 1950s IGF-1 was called "sulfation factor" because it stimulated sulfation of cartilage in vitro, and in the 1970s due to its effects it was termed "nonsuppressible insulin-like activity" (NSILA).

IGF-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IGF1 gene. IGF-1 consists of 70 amino acids in a single chain with three intramolecular disulfide bridges. IGF-1 has a molecular weight of 7,649 daltons. In dogs, an ancient mutation in IGF1 is the primary cause of the toy phenotype.

IGF-1 is produced primarily by the liver. Production is stimulated by growth hormone (GH). Most of IGF-1 is bound to one of 6 binding proteins (IGF-BP). IGFBP-1 is regulated by insulin. IGF-1 is produced throughout life; the highest rates of IGF-1 production occur during the pubertal growth spurt. The lowest levels occur in infancy and old age.

Low IGF-1 levels are associated with cardiovascular disease, while high IGF-1 levels are associated with cancer. Mid-range IGF-1 levels are associated with the lowest mortality.

A synthetic analog of IGF-1, mecasermin, is used for the treatment of growth failure in children with severe IGF-1 deficiency. Cyclic glycine-proline (cGP) is a metabolite of hormone insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). It has a cyclic structure, lipophilic nature, and is enzymatically stable which makes it a more favourable candidate for manipulating the binding-release process between IGF-1 and its binding protein, thereby normalising IGF-1 function.

Synthesis and circulation
The polypeptide hormone IGF-1 is synthesized primarily in the liver upon stimulation by growth hormone (GH). It is a key mediator of anabolic activities in numerous tissues and cells, such as growth hormone-stimulated growth, metabolism and protein translation. Due to its participation in the GH-IGF-1 axis it contributes among other things to the maintenance of muscle strength, muscle mass, development of the skeleton and is a key factor in brain, eye and lung development during fetal development.

Studies have shown the importance of the GH-IGF-1 axis in directing development and growth, where mice with a IGF-1 deficiency had a reduced body- and tissue mass. Mice with an excessive expression of IGF-1 had an increased mass.

The levels of IGF-1 in the body vary throughout life, depending on age, where peaks of the hormone is generally observed during puberty and the postnatal period. After puberty, when entering the third decade of life, there is a rapid decrease in IGF-1 levels due to the actions of GH. Between the third and eight decade of life, the IGF-1 levels decrease gradually, but unrelated to functional decline. However, protein intake is proven to increase IGF-1 levels.

Mechanism of action
IGF-1 is a primary mediator of the effects of growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is made in the anterior pituitary gland, released into the bloodstream, and then stimulates the liver to produce IGF-1. IGF-1 then stimulates systemic body growth, and has growth-promoting effects on almost every cell in the body, especially skeletal muscle, cartilage, bone, liver, kidney, nerve, skin, hematopoietic, and lung cells. In addition to the insulin-like effects, IGF-1 can also regulate cellular DNA synthesis.

IGF-1 binds to at least two cell surface receptor tyrosine kinases: the IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R), and the insulin receptor. Its primary action is mediated by binding to its specific receptor, IGF1R, which is present on the surface of many cell types in many tissues. Binding to the IGF1R initiates intracellular signaling. IGF-1 is one of the most potent natural activators of the Akt signaling pathway, a stimulator of cell growth and proliferation, and a potent inhibitor of programmed cell death. The IGF-1 receptor and insulin receptor are two closely related members of a transmembrane tetrameric tyrosine kinase receptor family. They control vital brain functions, such as survival, growth, energy metabolism, longevity, neuroprotection and neuroregeneration.

Metabolic effects
As a major growth factor, IGF-1 is responsible for stimulating growth of all cell types, and causing significant metabolic effects. One important metabolic effect of IGF-1 is signaling cells that sufficient nutrients are available for them to undergo hypertrophy and cell division. Its effects also include inhibiting cell apoptosis and increasing the production of cellular proteins. IGF-1 receptors are ubiquitous, which allows for metabolic changes caused by IGF-1 to occur in all cell types. IGF-1's metabolic effects are far-reaching and can coordinate protein, carbohydrate, and fat metabolism in a variety of different cell types. The regulation of IGF-1's metabolic effects on target tissues is also coordinated with other hormones such as growth hormone and insulin.

The IGF system
IGF-1 is part of the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system. This system consists of three ligands (insulin, IGF-1 and IGF-2), two tyrosine kinase receptors (insulin receptor and IGF-1R receptor) and six ligand binding proteins (IGFBP 1–6). Together they play an essential role in proliferation, survival, regulation of cell growth and affect almost every organ system in the body.

Similarly to IGF-1, IGF-2 is mainly produced in the liver and after it is released into circulation, it stimulates growth and cell proliferation. IGF-2 is thought to be a fetal growth factor, as it is essential for a normal embryonic development and is highly expressed in embryonic and neonatal tissues.

Variants
A splice variant of IGF-1 sharing an identical mature region, but with a different E domain is known as mechano-growth factor (MGF).

Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a syndrome caused by the anterior pituitary gland producing excess growth hormone (GH). A number of disorders may increase the pituitary's GH output, although most commonly it involves a tumor called pituitary adenoma, derived from a distinct type of cell (somatotrophs). It leads to anatomical changes and metabolic dysfunction caused by elevated GH and IGF-1 levels.

High level of IGF-1 in acromegaly is related to an increased risk of some cancers, particularly colon cancer and thyroid cancer.

Growth hormone deficiency
IGF-1 levels can be analyzed and used by physicians as a screening test for growth hormone deficiency (GHD), acromegaly and gigantism. However, IGF-1 has been shown to be a bad diagnostic screening test for growth hormone deficiency.

The ratio of IGF-1 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 has been shown to be a useful diagnostic test for GHD.

Liver fibrosis
Low serum IGF-1 levels have been suggested as a biomarker for predicting fibrosis, but not steatosis, in people with metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease.

Causes of elevated IGF-1 levels
Calorie restriction has been found to have no effect on IGF-1 levels.
 * Medical conditions:
 * acromegaly (especially when GH is also high)
 * delayed puberty
 * pregnancy
 * hyperthyroidism
 * some rare tumors, such as carcinoids, secreting IGF-1
 * Diet:
 * High-protein diet
 * consumption of dairy products (except for cheese)
 * IGF-1 assay problems

Causes of reduced IGF-1 levels

 * Metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease, especially at advanced stages of steatohepatitis and fibrosis

Mortality
Both high and low levels of IGF‐1 increase mortality risk, with the mid‐range (120–160 ng/ml) being associated with the lowest mortality.

Cancer
Several studies have shown associations between high levels of IGF-1 and an increased risk of tumor development. High levels of IGF-1 are associated with a 65% risk increase in the risk of premenopausal breast cancer, and a 49% increase in the risk of prostate cancer. One study found that with an increase in serum IGF-1 levels of 100 ng/ml, there is a corresponding 69% increase in the risk of colorectal cancer. Another study found that high levels of IGF-1 are associated with a 106% increase in the risk of lung cancer.

Dairy consumption
It has been suggested that consumption of IGF-1 in dairy products could increase cancer risk, particularly prostate cancer. However, a 2018 review by the Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) concluded that there is "insufficient evidence to draw any firm conclusions as to whether exposure to dietary IGF-1 is associated with an increased incidence of cancer in consumers". Certain dairy processes such as fermentation are known to significantly decrease IGF-1 concentrations.

Cardiovascular disease
Increased IGF-1 levels are associated with a 16% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 28% reduction of cardiovascular events. One Mendelian randomization study found that high IGF-1 levels are associated with an 9% increase in the risk of coronary artery diease.

Childhood obesity
Some studies have found that obese children have higher IGF-1 levels than normal-weight children.

Diabetes
Low IGF-1 levels are shown to increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. On the other hand, a high IGF-1 bioavailability in people with diabetes may delay or prevent diabetes-associated complications, as it improves impaired small blood vessel function. One Mendelian randomization study found that high IGF-1 levels are associated with an 14% increase in the risk of type 2 diabetes.

IGF-1 has been characterized as an insulin sensitizer.

Low serum IGF‐1 levels can be considered an indicator of liver fibrosis in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients.

title: Insulin-like growth factor 1


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City of Bradford

Bradford, also known as the City of Bradford, is a metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire, England. It is named after its largest settlement, Bradford, but covers a larger area which includes the towns and villages of Keighley, Shipley, Bingley, Ilkley, Haworth, Silsden, Queensbury, Thornton and Denholme. Bradford has a population of 528,155, making it the fourth-most populous metropolitan district and the sixth-most populous local authority district in England. It forms part of the West Yorkshire Urban Area conurbation which in 2011 had a population of 1,777,934, and the city is part of the Leeds-Bradford Larger Urban Zone (LUZ), which, with a population of 2,393,300, is the fourth largest in the United Kingdom after London, Birmingham and Manchester.

The city is situated on the edge of the Pennines, and is bounded to the east by the City of Leeds, the south by the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees and the south west by the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale. The Pendle borough of Lancashire lies to the west whilst the unitary authority of North Yorkshire lie to the north west and north east of the city. Bradford is the 4th largest metropolitan district in the country, and the contiguous urban area to the north which includes the towns of Shipley and Bingley is heavily populated. The spa town of Ilkley lies further north, whilst the town of Keighley lies to the west. Roughly two thirds of the district is rural, with an environment varying from moorlands in the north and west, to valleys and floodplains formed by the river systems that flow throughout the district. More than half of Bradford's land is green open space, stretching over part of the Airedale and Wharfedale Valleys, across the hills and the Pennine moorland between. The Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District are both in close proximity.

The City of Bradford has architecture designated as being of special or historic importance, most of which were constructed with local stone, with 5,800 listed buildings and 59 conservation areas. The model village of Saltaire has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Central Bradford rose to prominence during the 19th century as an international centre of textile manufacture, particularly wool. The area's access to a supply of coal, iron ore and soft water facilitated the growth of Bradford's manufacturing base, which, as textile manufacture grew, led to an explosion in population and was a stimulus to civic investment. However, Bradford has faced similar challenges to the rest of the post-industrial area of northern England, including deindustrialisation, housing problems, and economic deprivation. Wool and textiles still play an important part in the city's economy, but today's fastest-growing sectors include information technology, financial services, digital industries, environmental technologies, cultural industries, tourism and retail headquarters and distribution.

Bradford has experienced significant levels of immigration throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 1840s Bradford's population was significantly increased by migrants from Ireland, particularly rural County Mayo and County Sligo, and by 1851 around 18,000 people of Irish origin resided in the town, representing around 10% of the population, the largest proportion in Yorkshire. Around the same time there was also an influx of German Jewish migrants to the town, and by 1910 around 1,500 people of German origin resided in the city. In the 1950s there was large scale immigration from South Asia and to a lesser extent from Poland. Bradford has the second highest proportion in England and Wales outside London, in terms of population (behind Birmingham) and in percentage (behind Slough, Leicester, Luton and Blackburn with Darwen). An estimated 140,149 people of South Asian origin reside in the city, representing around 26.83% of the city's population. An estimated 352,317 of all White ethnic groups reside in the city which includes people of Polish and Irish origin, representing around 67.44% of the city's population.

In 2025, Bradford will become the UK City of Culture having won the UK City of Culture designation on 31 May 2022.

History
Bradford was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1847, covering the parishes of Bradford, Horton and Manningham. It became a county borough with the passing of the Local Government Act 1888. The County Borough of Bradford was granted city status by Letters Patent in 1897.

Bradford was expanded in 1882 to include Allerton, Bolton, Bowling, Heaton, Thornbury and Tyersall. In 1899 it was further expanded by adding North Bierley, Eccleshill, Idle, Thornton, Tong and Wyke. Clayton was added in 1930. The Brontë sisters, Emily, Anne and Charlotte were born along with their brother Branwell at 74 Market Street in Thornton, now in Bradford, before moving to the parsonage at Haworth in the heart of West Yorkshire's Brontë Country where they wrote a range of classics of English literature including "Wuthering Heights" and "Jane Eyre".

The city played an important part in the early history of the Labour Party. A mural on the back of the Priestley Centre For The Arts in Little Germany commemorates the centenary of the founding of the Independent Labour Party in Bradford in 1893.

The Bradford Pals were three First World War Pals battalions of Kitchener's Army raised in the city. When the three battalions were taken over by the British Army they were officially named the 16th, 18th and 20th Battalions, The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment.

On the morning of 1 July 1916, an estimated 1,394 young men from Bradford and District The Bradford Pals, the 16th and 18th Battalions of the Prince of Wales Own West Yorkshire Regiment left their trenches in Northern France to advance across No Man's Land. It was the first hour of the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Of the estimated 1,394 men who left the trenches 1,094 were either killed or injured during the ill-fated attack on the village of Serre.

Other Bradford Battalions involved in the Battle of the Somme were 1st/6th Territorial Battalion of The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment, based at Belle Vue barracks in Manningham and the 10th Battalion of The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment. The 1st/6th Territorial Battalion of The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment first saw action in 1915 at Neuve Chapelle before moving north to Yser Canal near Ypres. The 10th Battalion The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment was involved in the attack on Fricourt, the 10th West Yorks suffered the highest casualty rate of any battalion on the Somme on 1 July and perhaps the highest battalion casualty list for a single day during the entire war. Nearly 60% of the battalion's casualties were deaths.

In 1919 the Diocese of Bradford was founded, the Church of Saint Peter was then elevated to cathedral status. The current city boundaries date from 1 April 1974, when the County Borough of Bradford was merged with the borough of Keighley, the urban districts of Baildon, Bingley, Denholme, Ilkley, Shipley and Silsden, along with the Queensbury parts of Queensbury and Shelf Urban District and the parishes of Addingham, and Steeton with Eastburn from Skipton Rural District. Kildwick was part of Bradford at this time, but has since been moved into the Craven District (part of North Yorkshire).

The National Science and Media Museum (formerly the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television) was established in the city in 1983. One of the first cinema shows outside London took place on the site where the museum now stands, in a music hall known as the People's Palace. Today, the National Science and Media Museum hosts the annual Widescreen Weekend film festival.

With a large influx of South Asian immigrants and the Bradford Council's pursuit of a policy of multiculturalism in the 1980s, separatism between ethnic communities became an issue, an issue highlighted by Bradford headteacher Ray Honeyford. In 1989, a section of the Muslim community led a campaign against Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses, and caught the attention of the international media by publicly burning a copy of the book. In July 2001, ethnic tensions led to rioting. The Ouseley Report, written shortly before the riots broke out, noted that Bradford had become deeply divided by segregated schooling, with communities deeply ignorant of each other, and there was widespread fear of crime and violence which West Yorkshire Police had insufficiently tackled for fear of being branded racist.

In one case, a Bradford man whose car was set on fire following his conversion complained to police, but the officer advised him to "stop being a crusader and move to another place."

In response to the Ouseley Report, approximately £3 million was provided by the Home Office and the Neighbourhood Renewal Fund to regenerate the city. A further £2 billion was invested in regenerating the city centre, building a banqueting hall, new housing and leisure facilities.

In December 2001, Saltaire was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This means that the government has a duty to protect the site. The buildings belonging to the model village are individually listed, with the highest level of protection given to the Congregational church (since 1972 known as the United Reformed Church) which is listed grade I. The village which includes Salts Mill (pictured right) has survived remarkably complete with Roberts Park on the north side of the river recently restored by Bradford Council.

In October 2007, Bradford was voted the greenest city in the United Kingdom. In the Sustainable Cities Index, compiled by Forum for the Future, the city was revealed to have the lowest environmental impact of any British city. In spite of its undeniably large role in the Industrial Revolution, Bradford's rivers were not polluted beyond redemption, and the streams surrounding the city are now a haven of wildlife. The City of Bradford has areas of green space, and recycling schemes.

Bradford became the world's first UNESCO City of Film in 2009. The designation recognises Bradford's aim to use this history and the local popularity and accessibility of film as a major tool for regeneration, cultural development and social inclusion.

The cinema connections in the city (which is also the home of the National Science and Media Museum) are both historical and contemporary, with ongoing efforts to preserve, promote and enrich the city's heritage of film. Bradford has been a film location since the beginning of cinema, with its indigenous film industry being traced back to the years around the First World War. By then the residents of Bradford had already witnessed important contributions to cinema development, such as the invention of the Cieroscope in Manningham in 1896.

In April 2021, Little Germany was one of the areas where scenes for the second series of All Creatures Great and Small were being filmed. Some child and adult actors from the theatre school Articulate were to appear in some episodes.

Geography
The City of Bradford is situated on the edge of the Pennines, and is bounded to the east by the City of Leeds, the south by the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees and the south west by the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale. The Lancashire Borough of Pendle lies to the west, whilst North Yorkshire districts of Craven and Harrogate lie to the north west and north east respectively. Bradford district has 3636 hectares of upland heathland, including Ilkley Moor where the peat bogs rise to 402 m above sea level. Less than 5% of the Bradford district is woodland. Greenspace accounts for 73.8% of the City of Bradford's total area, domestic buildings and gardens comprise 12.1%, and the rest is made up of roads and non-domestic buildings.

Three river systems serve the City of Bradford, along with 23 km of canal. The Airedale towns of Keighley, Bingley and Shipley lie on the River Aire. The River Wharfe runs through Ilkley and Burley in Wharfedale, and tributaries of the River Calder run through the district. Unusually for a major settlement, Bradford is not built on any substantial body of water. The ford from which it takes its name (Broad-Ford) was a crossing of the stream called Bradford Beck.

Parishes
While most of Bradford is unparished, there are parish and town councils for most of the outlying towns and villages in the District. From 2009, the parishes are:

 * Addingham
 * Baildon
 * Burley
 * Clayton
 * Cullingworth
 * Denholme
 * Harden
 * Haworth, Cross Roads and Stanbury
 * Ilkley
 * Keighley
 * Menston
 * Oxenhope
 * Sandy Lane
 * Silsden
 * Steeton with Eastburn
 * Trident
 * Wilsden
 * Wrose

Parliamentary constituencies
The residents of Bradford are represented in the British Parliament by Members of Parliament (MPs) for five separate parliamentary constituencies. Bradford East is represented by Imran Hussain (Labour), Bradford West is represented by Naz Shah (Labour), Bradford South is represented by Judith Cummins (Labour), Shipley is represented by Philip Davies (Conservative), and Keighley is represented by Robbie Moore (Conservative).

The city played an important part in the early history of the Labour Party. A mural on the back of the Priestley Centre For The Arts (visible from Leeds Road) commemorates the centenary of the founding of the Independent Labour Party in 1893.

Council
In 1974, City Of Bradford Metropolitan District Council was created to administer the newly formed metropolitan borough. The County Borough of Bradford was merged with the Borough of Keighley, the Urban Districts of Baildon, Bingley, Denholme, Ilkley, Shipley and Silsden, along with part of Queensbury and Shelf Urban District and part of Skipton Rural District by the Local Government Act 1972. The council, which is based at Bradford City Hall in Centenary Square, governs the whole metropolitan district. The city was granted the right on 18 September 1907 to elect a Lord Mayor.

The city is divided into 30 Electoral Wards, each ward electing three Councillors. Elections are held in May, where one third of the 90 seats (one for each ward) are contested and the successful candidate is elected for a period of four years.

Electoral wards
The Metropolitan District is divided into 30 electoral wards.

Possible split of district
Between 2020 and 2022 there was a campaign led by Philip Davies and Robbie Moore, the Conservative MPs for Shipley and Keighley, for their constituencies to break away from Bradford. They claimed the council's focus was too much on Bradford urban area, to the detriment of the smaller centres of Bingley, Ilkley, Keighley, and Shipley, which they said suffered a lack of investment and service cuts as well as council tax hikes. The move for independence was criticised by Bradford City Council. Moore promoted a private member's bill which would have allowed a referendum to be held on the matter, but it did not proceed beyond its second reading in the House of Commons in 2022.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Bradford City council is based on that of the former City and County Borough Council, with additions to indicate the merger of eleven Yorkshire councils. The boar's head, as in the former city council's crest, refers to the legend of the boar of Cliffe Wood. This was a ferocious wild boar that terrorised the populace and caused much damage to land and property; so much so that the Lord of the Manor offered a reward for anyone brave enough to slay the boar and bring its head to the Manor House. The mural crown is a frequent symbol of local government, but here also suggests a well head. The stag is derived from the device of the Denholme Urban District Council and the arms of the former Borough of Keighley, but represents the District as a whole. The white angora goat is retained from the former arms, recalling that the wool of this animal was used in the local industries. The roses on the collars refer to the Yorkshire rose and the compartment resembles the area's hills and dales.

The original Bradford Coat of Arms had the Latin words 'LABOR OMNIA VINCIT' below it, meaning Work conquers all.

Demography
At the 2011 UK census, the City of Bradford had a population of 522,452. Of the 180,246 households in Bradford, 36.5% were married couples living together, 28% were one-person households, 10.8% were lone parents and 8.4% were co-habiting couples, following a similar trend to the rest of England. The population density was 1,290 /km2 and for every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. Of those aged 16–74, 24.5% had no academic qualifications, lower than the 28.9% in all of England. 11.8% of Bradford residents were born outside the United Kingdom, higher than the England average of 9.2%.

In the 2011 census, it stated that 67.44% (352,317) of the city's population was White (All White ethnic groups), 2.48% (12,979) (Mixed ethnic groups), 26.83% (140,149) (All Asian ethnic groups), 1.77% (9,267) (All Black ethnic groups) and 1.48% (7,740) (all other ethnic groups).

The ONS Regional Trends report, published in June 2009, showed that most of the urban core and 41% of the district as a whole were among the most deprived in the country, it also showed that 11% of the district as a whole were among the least deprived in the country. Bradford has one of the highest unemployment rates in England, with the economic inactivity rates of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic groups standing at over 50% of the working age population.

The crime rate in the City of Bradford is significantly higher than the national average, but lower than that of similar cities such as Manchester or Leeds.

Tourism

Brontë Country is an area including Western parts of the city as well as the area to the west. The City of Bradford includes the town of Haworth and the village of Thornton, the birthplace of the Brontë sisters.

Keighley and Worth Valley Railway, Ilkley's Cow and Calf Rocks, Bradford's National Science and Media Museum, Bradford City Park, Cartwright Hall, Saltaire village (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) and Salts Mill are key attractions that draw visitors from across the globe.

The City of Bradford has also become the first UNESCO City of Film.

Annual events such as the Bradford Literature Festival, Bradford Film Festival, Bradford Festival, Bradford Mela, Bingley Music Live, Ilkley Literature Festival, Haworth's 1940s weekend, Saltaire Festival and special Christmas events take place across the district.

The value of tourism to the district's economy stands at more than £500 million a year, with an estimated 8.6 million day trips within the district. The impact of this is more than 13,500 jobs supported by the tourism and retail sector.

Economy
The economy of Bradford is worth around £9.5 billion, contributing around 8.4% of the region's output, and making the district the third largest after Leeds and Sheffield in Yorkshire & Humber. Traditionally based on the wool and textile industries, manufacturing is still strong, accounting for around 1 in 5 jobs. The city's service-sector economy accounts for 77% of the district's 195,000 jobs, with today's fastest-growing sectors including information technology, financial services, tourism and retail headquarters and distribution. The district is home to a number of large businesses with recognised brands operating on a national and international scale such as Morrisons, Pace Plc and Hallmark Cards. Three of the UK's biggest financial institutions are based in Bradford: Yorkshire Building Society, Santander Group and Vanquis Banking Group. It is also home to nationally outstanding cultural businesses, a strong group of new media companies, and a significant national institution in the National Science and Media Museum. Tourism is worth over £400 million to the local economy, and employs over 10,000 people. Bradford's exports are worth almost £700 million.

The city's working-age population has risen by 3.3% since 2000, faster than any UK city outside London, whilst the population of the city itself is growing by twice the national average. Bradford has a younger age profile than the Yorkshire & Humber regional average and the national average, with the younger age groups forming a greater proportion of the population in comparison. Bradford has been named by research group OMIS as one of the top six cities in the UK equipped for future growth, and the CBI reports that business confidence is higher in Bradford than in the UK as a whole, whilst £1.5 billion of construction work is transforming Bradford in a bid to attract further investment.

At the 2001 UK census, Bradford had 326,774 residents aged 16 to 74. 2.5% of these people were students with jobs, 7.6% looking after home or family, 6.1% permanently sick or disabled and 4.5% economically inactive for other reasons. The City of Bradford has a lower economic activity rate than West Yorkshire, the regional average for Yorkshire and the Humber and the national average. Conversely Bradford has a higher economic inactivity rate than all these areas and also has a lower employment rate.

Manufacturing is still strong in Bradford and accounts for almost 12% of all jobs, and the city's service-sector economy accounts for 82% of the district's 192,000 jobs. The entrepreneurial spirit is more present in Bradford than generally in the UK, with start-ups accounting for 12% of the business community.

Bradford's GVA is over £6 billion.

Education
Education in the city is provided for by a number of schools and colleges. State schooling is managed by Bradford local education authority. There are also a number of independent (private) and free schools, such as Bradford Grammar School, Woodhouse Grove School and Bradford Girls Grammar School. Bradford College and the University of Bradford are the main further and higher education providers.

Television
In terms of television, the area is served by BBC Yorkshire and ITV Yorkshire both broadcast from nearby Leeds.

Radio
The radio stations that broadcast to the area are:

BBC Local Radio

 * BBC Radio Leeds

Independent Local Radio

 * Heart Yorkshire
 * Capital Yorkshire
 * Pulse 1
 * Greatest Hits Radio West Yorkshire

Community Radio

 * Sunrise Radio (for the Asian community)
 * BCB 106.6fm
 * Drystone Radio (covering Wharfedale)

Newspapers
Local newspapers for the area:
 * Telegraph & Argus
 * The Yorkshire Post
 * Yorkshire Evening Post

Public transit
Public transport in Bradford is co-ordinated by Metro. Most local train services are run by Northern, with longer-distance services to London King's Cross railway station served by Grand Central from Bradford Interchange and London North Eastern Railway from Bradford Forster Square station.

The Wharfedale line connects direct to Ilkley, Ben Rhydding, Burley-in-Wharfedale, Menston, Guiseley, Baildon, Shipley and Frizinghall railway stations with Bradford Forster Square. The Airedale line connects the stations at Morecambe, Lancaster, Settle, Carlisle, Skipton, Steeton & Silsden, Keighley (change for the Brontë Country and the Keighley & Worth Valley Railway), Crossflatts, Bingley, Saltaire (UNESCO World Heritage Site) and Shipley, continuing to either Frizinghall and Bradford Forster Square or to Leeds to the east of the district. Both Bradford Forster Square and the districts major and busiest railway station Bradford Interchange are served by the Leeds–Bradford lines with direct routes to Leeds, Selby, York, Brough and Hull. Bradford Interchange, via the Calder Valley line, also connects direct to stations at Manchester, Halifax, Rochdale, Burnley, Blackburn, Preston, Poulton-le-Fylde, Blackpool, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Doncaster, Chester, Warrington, and London King's Cross.

There are bus stations in Bradford, Ilkley, Keighley and Shipley. The majority of services are provided by First Bradford and Keighley Bus Company.

Air and water transport
Leeds Bradford Airport itself is located in Yeadon, about 10 mi to the north-east of the city centre, and has both charter and scheduled flights to destinations within Europe plus the United States, Egypt, Pakistan, and Turkey. There are connections to the rest of the world via London Heathrow, Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.

There are also navigable waterways that run through the district. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal passes through numerous towns and villages in the borough, with the Grade I listed Five Rise Locks at Bingley generally considered to be one of the finest feats of canal engineering in the country. There are also proposals to restore and re-open the Bradford Canal, which closed in 1922, as part of a wider regeneration of the city.

Roadways
The M606, a spur off the M62 motorway, connects the district with the national motorway network. The M606 was originally laid out to reach the centre of Bradford and beyond, but connects instead to the A6177 Bradford outer ring road, making the motorway one of the shortest in the country at less than 3 mi long. Another motorway was planned in the 1970s, envisaging a link between Bradford, the Aire valley in the north of the district and the M65 at Colne, roughly mirroring the existing A650 road. It has since been upgraded to dual carriageway along much of its length, bypassing the towns of Bingley and Keighley. The A658 road passes through a tunnel underneath the main Leeds Bradford Airport runway as it heads north-east from Bradford to Knaresborough.

Twin towns
The City of Bradford, and the various towns and villages that make up the Metropolitan District, have Twin Town and Sister City Friendship Agreements with several other communities. Each was originally twinned with a place within the City of Bradford.

title: City of Bradford


text:
Bob Murphy (sportscaster)

Robert Allan Murphy (September 19, 1924 – August 3, 2004) was an American sportscaster who spent 50 years doing play-by-play of Major League Baseball games on television and radio. The Oklahoman was best known for announcing the New York Mets, from their inception in 1962 until his retirement in 2003. He was honored by the Baseball Hall of Fame with the Ford C. Frick Award in 1994.

Broadcasting career
The Tulsa, Oklahoma-born Murphy made his first appearance in a baseball broadcast booth with the minor league Muskogee Reds. His first major league job was with the Boston Red Sox in 1954, working alongside Curt Gowdy. In 1960, he moved to the Baltimore Orioles for two seasons, replacing Ernie Harwell.

New York Mets
Murphy's call of Roger Maris' record-tying 60th home run of the 1961 season became an audition tape that landed him a job with the expansion New York Mets in 1962.

Broadcasting style
Murphy's broadcasts were known for his optimistic outlook. He would rarely be critical of players and would always strive to emphasize the positive. According to Gary Thorne, who was his partner in the Mets radio booth from 1985 to 1988, Murphy felt that, "the game was to be enjoyed and he sought out the joy in that day's game to bring to the fans."

Murphy, despite his long association with the Mets, never openly rooted for the team from the booth. Listeners knew that he was happier when the Mets won, as evidenced by his mention of a "happy recap" after a Mets win and a "recap" after a Mets loss, but he never referred to the Mets as "we" and, reflecting his love of the game, he would sound equally excited when a good play was made against the Mets as he would when the Mets made a similar play.

Murphy was well known for his sunny outlook. He opened games saying "the sun is shining, the sky is blue, it's a beautiful day for baseball.” Because of this, an unprecedented display of crankiness on his part received much attention. On July 25, 1990 in Philadelphia, the Mets took a 10-3 lead into the ninth inning. But the rival Phillies opened the inning with seven consecutive singles, followed by a walk, and scored six runs to narrow the Mets lead to one run before the Mets were able to turn a double-play and get a line drive out. Murphy's patience was apparently worn thin by the long inning. When the game finally ended, he famously exclaimed, "A line drive caught. The game is over. The Mets win it. A line drive to Mario Díaz. And the Mets win the ballgame! They win the damn thing by a score of 10 to 9!" The use of off-color language was so out of character that it was frequently cited as one of his more memorable moments following Murphy's retirement from the booth in 2003 and later when the Mets honored him after his death in 2004.

Murphy occupied the broadcasting booth in every stadium in the National League, including Jack Murphy Stadium in San Diego, which was named after his brother, Jack, a popular San Diego sportswriter.

Broadcast partners
From the Mets' first game in 1962 through the post-Tom Seaver days of 1978, on radio and television, the Mets games were announced by the trio of Murphy, along with Lindsey Nelson and Ralph Kiner. Nelson left after the 1978 season and was replaced by Steve Albert. Albert broadcast the Mets for three seasons.

Prior to 1982, the Mets announcers had done television and radio on a rotational system. While two were on TV, the other would take over on radio.

After 1981
However, in 1982, Murphy was taken out of the television booth, in order to announce the games on radio only. He was joined by Steve Lamar, who also strictly did radio for the Mets. Murphy became known for "painting the word picture;” play-by-play of baseball on radio requires broadcaster to be able to inspire the listener's imagination, which Murphy was cited as doing well. For the rest of his career, with the exception of occasional fill-in duty on the TV side, Murphy announced exclusively from the radio booth.

Murphy was inducted into the New York Mets Hall of Fame in 1984. He was paired with Gary Thorne from 1985–88, and Thorne was his broadcast partner for his memorable call of Bill Buckner's error in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series. Gary Cohen—the current TV voice of the Mets and Murphy's longest tenured partner after Kiner and Nelson—shared the booth with him from 1989 through his 2003 retirement.

In 1994, Bob Murphy was honored by the Baseball Hall of Fame as a recipient of the prestigious Ford C. Frick Award. There is a display about Murphy in the Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, as there is for former Mets partner Nelson, who had also won the award.

In 1995, Murphy briefly returned to television for NBC Sports, his first network broadcasts, calling regional action involving the Mets several times as part of Baseball Night in America.

He was voted into the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Hall of Fame in 2002.

Other broadcasting areas
In addition to his baseball work, Murphy was an announcer for the New York Titans (renamed the New York Jets) of the American Football League in 1962–63, and called some college football later in that decade.

He also broadcast minor league hockey and college football in his native Oklahoma. He was the voice of the Oklahoma Sooners during their 47-game winning streak during the 1950s.

Murphy also broadcast several Orange Bowl games in the 1980s on network radio. In addition, from September 17, 1973 through April 5, 1974, Murphy hosted the New York City edition of Bowling for Dollars, on WOR-TV.

Retirement
In his later years, Murphy (a smoker) began having trouble calling games due to persistent throat inflammation. After the 2003 season, he left the broadcast booth and retired to Florida. He died of lung cancer August 3, 2004 in West Palm Beach. After his death, the Mets honored Murphy's memory by wearing a patch on the left sleeve of their uniforms for the rest of the 2004 season. The Mets honored Murphy with a large plaque adorning the outfield wall of Citi Field, next to that of his long-time broadcast partner Ralph Kiner's in April 2023.

title: Bob Murphy (sportscaster)


text:
Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme

Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, often simply called Vendôme (1 July 1654 – 11 June 1712) was a French general and Marshal of France. One of the great generals of his era, he was one of Louis XIV's most successful commanders in the War of the Grand Alliance and War of the Spanish Succession.

Vendôme joined the French Army and was promoted Lieutenant General in 1688 after his distinguished combat record in the Franco-Dutch War. Further successes entitled him to his first army command in 1695, and soon after, he was rewarded with a promotion to Marshal of France.

Vendôme was one of the most aggressive and successful French army commanders during the wars of Louis XIV. His charisma, courage and skill won him the loyalty of his troops and the Spanish crown for the House of Bourbon.

Biography
Louis Joseph de Bourbon was born in Paris, the son of Louis, Duke of Vendôme and Laura Mancini. Orphaned at the age of fifteen, he inherited a vast fortune from his father that had been handed down from his great-grandmother, the duchesse de Mercœur et Penthièvre. Prior to succeeding his father in 1669, he was known as the duc de Penthièvre. He was raised by his aunt, Marie Anne Mancini, duchesse de Bouillon.

Entering the army at the age of eighteen, Vendôme soon distinguished himself by his vigour and personal courage in the Dutch wars, and by 1688, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general. In the Nine Years' War, he rendered conspicuous service under the duc de Luxembourg at the Battle of Steenkerke, and under Nicolas Catinat at Marsaglia. In 1695, he was placed in command of the army operating in Catalonia, where he took Barcelona in 1697.

Soon afterwards, Vendome was made a Marshal of France. In 1702, after the first unsuccessful campaign of Catinat and Villeroi, he was placed in command of the Franco-Spanish army in Italy. During three campaigns in that country, he proved himself a worthy antagonist to Prince Eugène of Savoy, whom he at last defeated in 1705 at Cassano in a magnificent show of courage and command over his troops, converting the impending defeat that his indolent brother Philippe had incurred, into a glorious success.

The next year, after holding his own as before, and gaining another victory at Calcinato, he was sent to Flanders to repair the disaster of Ramillies. Following the departure of Vendôme to shore up the shattered army in the Flanders, Prince Eugène and the Duke of Savoy inflicted a heavy loss on the French under the duc d'Orléans and Ferdinand de Marsin at the Battle of Turin, driving the French out of Italy by the end of the year. In Flanders, meanwhile, Vendôme quarrelled with the king's unenterprising grandson, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, and was unable to prevent the French defeat at the Battle of Oudenarde.

In disgust, Vendôme retired to his estates. It wasn't long, however, before he was summoned back to take command of the army of his cousin, Philip V of Spain. There, he won his last victories, crowning his work triumphantly in the battles of Brihuega and Villaviciosa. Before the end of the war, he died suddenly at Vinaròs on 11 June 1712 and was buried at El Escorial in Spain.

Assessment
Vendôme was one of the most remarkable soldiers in the history of the French army. He had, besides the skill and the fertile imagination of the true army leader, the brilliant courage of a soldier. The real secret of his continuous success, however, was his extraordinary influence over his men. He seldom made mistakes, and his opponent Eugene of Savoy praised the brilliance of some of his actions in his memoirs.

Marriage
Vendôme married Marie Anne de Bourbon, a daughter of Henri Jules, Prince of Condé and granddaughter of Le Grand Condé.

Marie Anne was unmarried at the time of her father’s death, and still had no marriage prospects when her brother, who became the Prince of Condé in 1709, died the next year. She could have married the duc du Maine in 1692, but Maine preferred Marie Anne's sister, Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, and married her instead.

The marriage ceremony occurred at the chapel at the Château de Sceaux on 21 May 1710. Sceaux was the residence of Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon. Louis Joseph was fifty-five years old at the time. He was a Marshal of France and had been designated as the heir of his cousin, King Philip V of Spain. In the event that Philip should die childless, the House of Bourbon had decided that Louis Joseph would become the next king of Spain.

His marriage to Marie Anne remained childless though, perhaps due to the homosexual tendencies of Louis Joseph; Marie Anne died in 1718 without issue.

Although Louis XIV had given permission for the marriage, the manipulative duc and duchesse du Maine hurriedly arranged the details of the wedding, probably for mercenary reasons. Even though the Dowager Princess of Condé was not informed of the marriage, she was present at the bedding ceremony at Sceaux along with Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, his wife Marie Anne de Bourbon, the Dowager Princess of Conti, and her children the Prince of Conti and Mademoiselle de La Roche-sur-Yon.

On his death, Louis Joseph left his wife the duchy of Étampes and its lands. She held this title in her own right. When she died, it went to her niece, the Princess of Conti.

Sexuality
The Duke was known to be homosexual. Other members of his family, including his brother Philippe and his grandfather César, Duke of Vendôme, were also known for their homosexuality/bisexuality, which led to the family mansion on Place Vendôme being called the Hôtel de Sodome in the 17th century. According to Saint-Simon, Louis-Joseph "plunged...more than anyone else" into sodomy, satisfying his desires with "his valets and officers". Saint-Simon wrote of the Duke's relationship with Louis XIV that, although the King "had always a singular horror of the inhabitants of the Cities of the Plain [homosexuals]...M. de Vendôme, though most odiously stained with that vice - so publicly that he treated it as an ordinary gallantry - never found his favor diminished on that account." Those who wished to curry favor with Vendôme would try and win over his lovers first. One contemporary account alleges that on his estate at the Chateau d'Anet, peasant men from the neighborhood would wait for the Duke in the woods when he went out hunting, hoping to be paid for sexual favors.

Louis-Joseph suffered from syphilis and lost part of his nose to the disease. He was the first courtier to seek leave from court to be treated for the disease with Mercury salts, known as the "Great Remedy" (le grand remède).

title: Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme