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Yakovlev Yak-38

The Yakovlev Yak-38 (Яковлев Як-38; NATO reporting name: "Forger") was Soviet Naval Aviation's only operational VTOL strike fighter aircraft in addition to being its first operational carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft. It was developed specifically for, and served almost exclusively on, the Kiev-class aircraft carriers (heavy aviation cruiser in Russian classification).

Design and development

Designed by the A.S. Yakovlev Design Bureau, the first drawings showed a supersonic aircraft strongly resembling the Hawker P.1154 in study in the United Kingdom, but with two R27-300 engines. Supersonic performance would have implied many difficulties of development, and it was decided to initially develop a relatively simple aircraft limited to Mach 0.95. Although the Yak-38 and Yak-38M were developed from the land-based Yakovlev Yak-36, the aircraft had almost nothing in common.

The prototype VM-01 was finished on 14 April 1970. Though outwardly similar to the British Hawker Siddeley Harrier, it followed a completely different configuration. Together with a vectorable thrust engine in the rear used during flight, two smaller, and less powerful, engines were housed in the front portion of the fuselage and used purely for takeoff and landing.

The Yak-38 had an automatic ejection seat. If one of the takeoff engines failed or the aircraft rolled past 60 degrees the pilot was automatically ejected from the aircraft.

Operational history

The majority of Yak-36M initial production deliveries were to the 279 OKShAP (Otdelny Korabelny Shturmovoy Aviatsionny Polk, Independent Shipboard Attack Air Regiment), initially based at Saki, the AV-MF's training centre in Crimea.

In July 1979, Minsk arrived in the Sea of Japan, where the vessel was home-ported at Strelok Bay, the Yak-38 component of its air wing thereafter being provided by the 311 OKShAP subordinate to the Pacific Fleet.

In September 1982, SOVIET AIRCRAFT CARRIER Novorossiysk – the third Kiev-class carrier – was commissioned. By now the V/STOL technique had been well practised, and the resulting increase in the Yak-38's overall performance and capability was exploited during the passage of Novorossiysk from Severomorsk to join the Pacific Fleet. A pair of armed Yak-38s operating from Minsk intercepted aircraft from the U.S. carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65) over the Arabian Sea on 16 December 1982. This event marked the first time Soviet VTOL aircraft intercepted American aircraft while armed with missiles.

In a maritime context, the Yak-38 was not limited to the decks of Kiev. In September 1983, AV-MF pilots operated from the civilian Ro-Ro vessel Agostinho Neto, and NII-VVS pilots conducted further tests from another Ro-Ro vessel, Nikolai Cherkasov. In both cases, use was made of a heat-resistant landing platform; further land-based trials tested the practicality of dispersed landing platforms, in a similar concept to the British Royal Air Force's Harrier operations in West Germany.

Variants
The initial pre-production version, differing slightly from the Yak-38. It weighed 6650 kg compared to the Yak-38's 7370 kg and the engines were slightly less powerful.
 * Yak-36M "Forger":

The Yak-38 was the first production model, it first flew on 15 January 1971, and entered service with the Soviet Naval Aviation on 11 August 1976. A total of 143 Yak-38s were produced.
 * Yak-38 "Forger-A":

The Yak-38M was an upgraded version of the Yak-38, the main difference being the new Tumansky R-28V-300 and Rybinsk RD-38 engines. The maximum takeoff weight in VTOL was increased from 10300 kg to 11300 kg and was 12000 kg in short takeoff mode. The air intakes were slightly widened and the underwing pylons reinforced to carry a 2000 lb weapons load. The Yak-38M entered service with the Soviet Naval Aviation after June 1985; 50 Yak-38M were produced.
 * Yak-38M "Forger-A":

Two-seat training version of the Soviet Naval Aviation. This version differed from the basic aircraft in having an enlarged fuselage to accommodate a two-seat cockpit. The Yak-38U entered service on 15 November 1978. Thirty-eight Yak-38U were produced, the final aircraft was delivered in 1981.
 * Yak-38U "Forger-B":

Unbuilt projects
Multi-role VTOL fighter/attack aircraft project dating from 1983, employing one R-28V-300 and two RD-48 engines, PRNK-39 avionics suite; S-41D multi-mode radar, larger wing, increased fuel capacity and expanded weapons options based around Shkval or Kaira PGM designation systems.
 * Yak-39:

Operators

 * Soviet Navy
 * Soviet Naval Aviation
 * Ukrainian Naval Aviation (Former operator, was only used in limited numbers as land-based fighters after the collapse of the Soviet Union, no longer in service.)
 * Ukrainian Naval Aviation (Former operator, was only used in limited numbers as land-based fighters after the collapse of the Soviet Union, no longer in service.)

title: Yakovlev Yak-38


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Angiodysplasia

In medicine (gastroenterology), angiodysplasia is a small vascular malformation of the gut. It is a common cause of otherwise unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding and anemia. Lesions are often multiple, and frequently involve the cecum or ascending colon, although they can occur at other places. Treatment may be with colonoscopic interventions, angiography and embolization, medication, or occasionally surgery.

Signs and symptoms
Although some cases present with black, tarry stool (melena), the blood loss can be subtle, with the anemia symptoms predominating.

Pathophysiology
Histologically, it resembles telangiectasia and development is related to age and strain on the bowel wall. It is a degenerative lesion, acquired, probably resulting from chronic and intermittent contraction of the colon that is obstructing the venous drainage of the mucosa. As time goes by the veins become more and more tortuous, while the capillaries of the mucosa gradually dilate and precapillary sphincter becomes incompetent. Thus is formed an arteriovenous malformation characterized by a small tuft of dilated vessels.

Although angiodysplasia is probably quite common, the risk of bleeding is increased in disorders of coagulation. A classic association is Heyde's syndrome (coincidence of aortic valve stenosis and bleeding from angiodysplasia). In this disorder, von Willebrand factor (vWF) is proteolysed due to high shear stress in the highly turbulent blood flow around the aortic valve. vWF is most active in vascular beds with high shear stress, including angiodysplasias, and deficiency of vWF increases the bleeding risk from such lesions.

Warkentin et al. argue that apart from aortic valve stenosis, some other conditions that feature high shear stress might also increase the risk of bleeding from angiodysplasia.

Diagnosis
Fecal occult blood testing is positive when bleeding is active. If bleeding is intermittent the test may be negative at times.

Diagnosis of angiodysplasia is often accomplished with endoscopy, either colonoscopy or esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). Although the lesions can be notoriously hard to find, the patient usually is diagnosed by endoscopy. A new technique, pill enteroscopy, has been a major advance in diagnosis, especially in the small bowel which is difficult to reach with traditional endoscopy. With this technique a pill that contains a video camera and radio transmitter is swallowed, and pictures of the small intestine are sent to a receiver worn by the patient. Recently, multiphase CT angiography (without positive oral contrast) has been shown to play a promising role in the diagnoses of small and large bowel angiodysplasia, especially when associated with active hemorrhage.

Angiodysplasiae in the small bowel can also be diagnosed and treated with double-balloon enteroscopy, a technique involving a long endoscopic camera and overtube, both fitted with balloons, that allow the bowel to be accordioned over the camera.

In cases with negative endoscopic findings and high clinical suspicion, selective angiography of the mesenteric arteries is sometimes necessary, but this allows for interventions at time of the procedure. An alternative is scintigraphy with red blood cells labeled with a radioactive marker; this shows the site of the bleeding on a gamma camera but tends to be unhelpful unless the bleeding is continuous and significant.

Treatment
If the anemia is severe, blood transfusion is required before any other intervention is considered. Endoscopic treatment is an initial possibility, where cautery or argon plasma coagulation (APC) treatment is applied through the endoscope. Failing this, angiography and embolization with particles is another microinvasive treatment option, which avoids the need for surgery and bowel resection. Here, the vessel supplying the angiodysplasia is selectively catheterized and embolized with microparticles. Resection of the affected part of the bowel may be needed if the other modalities fail. However, the lesions may be widespread, making such treatment impractical.

If the bleeding is from multiple or inaccessible sites, systemic therapy with medication may be necessary. First-line options include the antifibrinolytics tranexamic acid or aminocaproic acid. Estrogens can be used to stop bleeding from angiodysplasia. Estrogens cause mild hypercoagulability of the blood. Estrogen side effects can be dangerous and unpleasant in both sexes. Changes in voice and breast swelling is bothersome in men, but older women often report improvement of libido and perimenopausal symptoms. (The worries about hormone replacement therapy/HRT, however, apply here as well.)

In difficult cases, there have been positive reports about octreotide and thalidomide.

In severe cases or cases not responsive to either endoscopic or medical treatment, surgery may be necessary to arrest the bleeding.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Angiodysplasia


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Talk:W. S. Gilbert

Need for Infobox?
I think this article would benefit from an infobox.

This would provide a quick, at-a-glance summary of W.S. Gilbert's key details, enhancing the reader's ability to grasp the essential facts and context of his life and work.

It would also help standardise his article with other literary figures, facilitating comparison and improving navigation between related articles.

Given Gilbert's significance in the literary and theatrical fields, an infobox would contribute to a more informative and user-friendly Wikipedia experience.

What do others think? Anaximenes of Miletus (talk) 19:23, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

 * While sports and politician bios can benefit from infoboxes, as a Signpost report notes: "Infoboxes may be particularly unsuited to liberal arts fields when they repeat information already available in the lead section of the article, are misleading or oversimplify the topic for the reader". I disagree with including an infobox in this article, in particular, because: (1) The box would emphasize less important factoids, stripped of context and lacking nuance, whereas the WP:LEAD section emphasizes and contextualizes the most important facts about Gilbert. (2) As the information that would be in the box is already discussed in the article and is also seen in a Google Knowledge Graph, the box would display a redundant 3rd (or likely 4th) mention of these facts. (3) Updates are often made to articles but not reflected in the box (or vice versa). (4) Instead of focusing on the content of the article, my experience is that editors will spend time arguing over what to include in the box. -- Ssilvers (talk) 00:14, 14 November 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not convinced by IBs in liberal arts biographies, and I'm not sure one here would be an improvement. There is certainly no guideline or policy that suggests standardisation is required or beneficial, and an IB wouldn't improve navigation at all. The relevant links between articles are already present once or twice in the article. Neither is the "importance" of a subject any metric for determining one (I'm not sure how one would even measure the "importance" of a historical figure against all those notable people we have across history, but maybe that's just me). - SchroCat (talk) 10:12, 14 November 2023 (UTC)
 * I'd rather we not have infoboxes in bios of those who are not politicians or involved with sports. GoodDay (talk) 15:55, 14 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:W. S. Gilbert


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Cantrip

A cantrip is a magic spell of any kind, or one which reads the same forward and backward. It can also be a witch's trick, or a sham. The word "cantrip", of Scots origin, possibly comes from the Gaelic term canntaireachd, a piper's mnemonic chant.

A Wiccan Dictionary defines a cantrip as "a magickal spell".

In the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game, a cantrip is a type of minor spell that generally is the simplest and weakest kind available to learn. Their weakness is usually described as they can only produce the magical effect equal to the energy put into it; no giant breaks from reality. ("Most cantrips are simple little spells of no great effect, so... knowledge and information pertaining to these small magics are discarded in favor of the more powerful spells when available.") The differences, in terms of game mechanics, between cantrips and more powerful spells have changed from edition to edition.

In the trading card game Magic: The Gathering, a cantrip is player-jargon referring to a spell that, in addition to any other effect, makes a player draw a card.

In the deck-building game Dominion, a cantrip is any Action card that is self-replacing: it both draws one card and gives an Action used to play it.

title: Cantrip


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Polaron

A polaron is a quasiparticle used in condensed matter physics to understand the interactions between electrons and atoms in a solid material. The polaron concept was proposed by Lev Landau in 1933 and Solomon Pekar in 1946 to describe an electron moving in a dielectric crystal where the atoms displace from their equilibrium positions to effectively screen the charge of an electron, known as a phonon cloud. This lowers the electron mobility and increases the electron's effective mass.

The general concept of a polaron has been extended to describe other interactions between the electrons and ions in metals that result in a bound state, or a lowering of energy compared to the non-interacting system. Major theoretical work has focused on solving Fröhlich and Holstein Hamiltonians. This is still an active field of research to find exact numerical solutions to the case of one or two electrons in a large crystal lattice, and to study the case of many interacting electrons.

Experimentally, polarons are important to the understanding of a wide variety of materials. The electron mobility in semiconductors can be greatly decreased by the formation of polarons. Organic semiconductors are also sensitive to polaronic effects, which is particularly relevant in the design of organic solar cells that effectively transport charge. Polarons are also important for interpreting the optical conductivity of these types of materials.

The polaron, a fermionic quasiparticle, should not be confused with the polariton, a bosonic quasiparticle analogous to a hybridized state between a photon and an optical phonon.

Polaron theory
The energy spectrum of an electron moving in a periodical potential of a rigid crystal lattice is called the Bloch spectrum, which consists of allowed bands and forbidden bands. An electron with energy inside an allowed band moves as a free electron but has an effective mass that differs from the electron mass in vacuum. However, a crystal lattice is deformable and displacements of atoms (ions) from their equilibrium positions are described in terms of phonons. Electrons interact with these displacements, and this interaction is known as electron-phonon coupling. One possible scenario was proposed in the seminal 1933 paper by Lev Landau, which includes the production of a lattice defect such as an F-center and a trapping of the electron by this defect. A different scenario was proposed by Solomon Pekar that envisions dressing the electron with lattice polarization (a cloud of virtual polar phonons). Such an electron with the accompanying deformation moves freely across the crystal, but with increased effective mass. Pekar coined for this charge carrier the term polaron.

Landau and Pekar constructed the basis of polaron theory. A charge placed in a polarizable medium will be screened. Dielectric theory describes the phenomenon by the induction of a polarization around the charge carrier. The induced polarization will follow the charge carrier when it is moving through the medium. The carrier together with the induced polarization is considered as one entity, which is called a polaron (see Fig. 1).

While polaron theory was originally developed for electrons, there is no fundamental reason why it could not be any other charged particle interacting with phonons. Indeed, other charged particles such as (electron) holes and ions generally follow the polaron theory. For example, the proton polaron was identified experimentally in 2017 and on ceramic electrolytes after its existence was hypothesized.

Usually, in covalent semiconductors the coupling of electrons with lattice deformation is weak and polarons do not form. In polar semiconductors the electrostatic interaction with induced polarization is strong and polarons are formed at low temperature, provided that their concentration is not large and the screening is not efficient. Another class of materials in which polarons are observed is molecular crystals, where the interaction with molecular vibrations may be strong. In the case of polar semiconductors, the interaction with polar phonons is described by the Fröhlich Hamiltonian. On the other hand, the interaction of electrons with molecular phonons is described by the Holstein Hamiltonian. Usually, the models describing polarons may be divided into two classes. The first class represents continuum models where the discreteness of the crystal lattice is neglected. In that case, polarons are weakly coupled or strongly coupled depending on whether the polaron binding energy is small or large compared to the phonon frequency. The second class of systems commonly considered are lattice models of polarons. In this case, there may be small or large polarons, depending on the relative size of the polaron radius to the lattice constant $a$.

A conduction electron in an ionic crystal or a polar semiconductor is the prototype of a polaron. Herbert Fröhlich proposed a model Hamiltonian for this polaron through which its dynamics are treated quantum mechanically (Fröhlich Hamiltonian). The strength of electron-phonon interaction is determined by the dimensionless coupling constant $$\alpha = (e^2 / \kappa)(m / 2 \hbar^3\omega)^{1/2}$$. Here $$m$$ is electron mass, $$\omega$$ is the phonon frequency and $$\kappa^{-1} = {\epsilon}_{\infin}^{-1} - {\epsilon}_{0}^{-1}$$, $${\epsilon}_{0}$$, $${\epsilon}_{\infin}$$ are static and high frequency dielectric constants. In table 1 the Fröhlich coupling constant is given for a few solids. The Fröhlich Hamiltonian for a single electron in a crystal using second quantization notation is:

H = H_{\rm e} + H_{\rm ph} + H_{\rm e-ph} $$

H_{\rm e} = \sum_{k,s} \xi(k,s) c_{k,s}^\dagger c_{k,s} $$

H_{\rm ph} = \sum_{q,v} \omega_{q,v} a_{q,v}^\dagger a_{q,v} $$

H_{\rm e-ph} = \frac 1 {\sqrt{2N} } \sum_{k,s,q,v} \gamma(\alpha, q , k , v ) \omega_{qv} ( c_{k ,s}^\dagger c_{k-q , s} a_{q,v} + c_{k-q ,s}^\dagger c_{k , s} a^\dagger_{q,v} ) $$

The exact form of γ depends on the material and the type of phonon being used in the model. In the case of a single polar mode $$\gamma(q) = i\hbar\omega(\frac{4\pi\alpha}{V_0}(\frac{\hbar}{m\omega})^{1/2})^{1/2}\frac{1}{q}$$, here $$V_0$$ is the volume of the unit cell. In the case of molecular crystal γ is usually momentum independent constant. A detailed advanced discussion of the variations of the Fröhlich Hamiltonian can be found in J. T. Devreese and A. S. Alexandrov. The terms Fröhlich polaron and large polaron are sometimes used synonymously since the Fröhlich Hamiltonian includes the continuum approximation and long range forces. There is no known exact solution for the Fröhlich Hamiltonian with longitudinal optical (LO) phonons and linear $$ \gamma $$ (the most commonly considered variant of the Fröhlich polaron) despite extensive investigations.

Despite the lack of an exact solution, some approximations of the polaron properties are known.

The physical properties of a polaron differ from those of a band-carrier. A polaron is characterized by its self-energy $$\Delta E$$, an effective mass $$m^*$$ and by its characteristic response to external electric and magnetic fields (e. g. dc mobility and optical absorption coefficient).

When the coupling is weak ($$\alpha$$ small), the self-energy of the polaron can be approximated as:

\frac{\Delta E}{\hbar\omega } \approx -\alpha -0.015919622\alpha^2, \qquad \qquad \qquad (1)\, $$

and the polaron mass $$m*$$, which can be measured by cyclotron resonance experiments, is larger than the band mass $$m$$ of the charge carrier without self-induced polarization:

\frac{m^*}{m} \approx 1+\frac{\alpha}{6}+0.0236\alpha^2. \qquad \qquad \qquad (2)$$

When the coupling is strong (α large), a variational approach due to Landau and Pekar indicates that the self-energy is proportional to α² and the polaron mass scales as α⁴. The Landau–Pekar variational calculation yields an upper bound to the polaron self-energy $$E < -C_{PL} \alpha^2 $$, valid for all α, where $$C_{PL}$$ is a constant determined by solving an integro-differential equation. It was an open question for many years whether this expression was asymptotically exact as α tends to infinity. Finally, Donsker and Varadhan, applying large deviation theory to Feynman's path integral formulation for the self-energy, showed the large α exactitude of this Landau–Pekar formula. Later, Lieb and Thomas gave a shorter proof using more conventional methods, and with explicit bounds on the lower order corrections to the Landau–Pekar formula.

Feynman introduced the variational principle for path integrals to study the polaron. He simulated the interaction between the electron and the polarization modes by a harmonic interaction between a hypothetical particle and the electron. The analysis of an exactly solvable ("symmetrical") 1D-polaron model, Monte Carlo schemes  and other numerical schemes demonstrate the remarkable accuracy of Feynman's path-integral approach to the polaron ground-state energy. Experimentally more directly accessible properties of the polaron, such as its mobility and optical absorption, have been investigated subsequently.

In the strong coupling limit, $$\alpha \gg 1$$, the spectrum of excited states of a polaron begins with polaron-phonon bound states with energies less than $$\hbar\omega_0$$, where $$\omega_0$$ is the frequency of optical phonons.

In the lattice models the main parameter is the polaron binding energy: $$E_p = \frac{1}{2N}\sum_{q}|\gamma(q)|^{2}/\hbar\omega$$, here summation is taken over the Brillouin zone. Note that this binding energy is purely adiabatic, i.e. does not depend on the ionic masses. For polar crystals the value of the polaron binding energy is strictly determined by the dielectric constants $$\epsilon_0$$,$$\epsilon_\infin$$, and is of the order of 0.3-0.8 eV. If polaron binding energy $$E_p$$ is smaller than the hopping integral $t$ the large polaron is formed for some type of electron-phonon interactions. In the case when $$E_p > t$$ the small polaron is formed. There are two limiting cases in the lattice polaron theory. In the physically important adiabatic limit $$t\gg\hbar\omega$$ all terms which involve ionic masses are cancelled and formation of polaron is described by nonlinear Schrödinger equation with nonadiabatic correction describing phonon frequency renormalization and polaron tunneling. In the opposite limit $$t\ll\hbar\omega$$ the theory represents the expansion in $$t/\hbar\omega$$.

Polaron optical absorption
The expression for the magnetooptical absorption of a polaron is:

\Gamma(\Omega) \propto -\frac{\operatorname{Im} \Sigma(\Omega)}{\left[\Omega-\omega_{\mathrm{c}}-\operatorname{Re} \Sigma(\Omega)\right]^2 + \left[\operatorname{Im}\Sigma(\Omega)\right]^2}. \qquad\qquad\qquad (3) $$

Here, $$\omega_c$$ is the cyclotron frequency for a rigid-band electron. The magnetooptical absorption Γ(Ω) at the frequency Ω takes the form Σ(Ω) is the so-called "memory function", which describes the dynamics of the polaron. Σ(Ω) depends also on α, β and $$\omega_{c}$$.

In the absence of an external magnetic field ($$\omega_{c}=0$$) the optical absorption spectrum (3) of the polaron at weak coupling is determined by the absorption of radiation energy, which is reemitted in the form of LO phonons. At larger coupling, $$\alpha \ge 5.9$$, the polaron can undergo transitions toward a relatively stable internal excited state called the "relaxed excited state" (RES) (see Fig. 2). The RES peak in the spectrum also has a phonon sideband, which is related to a Franck–Condon-type transition.

A comparison of the DSG results with the optical conductivity spectra given by approximation-free numerical and approximate analytical approaches is given in ref.

Calculations of the optical conductivity for the Fröhlich polaron performed within the Diagrammatic Quantum Monte Carlo method, see Fig. 3, fully confirm the results of the path-integral variational approach at $$\alpha \lesssim 3.$$ In the intermediate coupling regime $$3<\alpha <6,$$ the low-energy behavior and the position of the maximum of the optical conductivity spectrum of ref. follow well the prediction of Devreese. There are the following qualitative differences between the two approaches in the intermediate and strong coupling regime: in ref., the dominant peak broadens and the second peak does not develop, giving instead rise to a flat shoulder in the optical conductivity spectrum at $$\alpha =6$$. This behavior can be attributed to the optical processes with participation of two or more phonons. The nature of the excited states of a polaron needs further study.

The application of a sufficiently strong external magnetic field allows one to satisfy the resonance condition $$\Omega =\omega_{\mathrm{c}} + \operatorname{Re} \Sigma (\Omega )$$, which {(for $$\omega_c < \omega$$)} determines the polaron cyclotron resonance frequency. From this condition also the polaron cyclotron mass can be derived. Using the most accurate theoretical polaron models to evaluate $$\Sigma (\Omega )$$, the experimental cyclotron data can be well accounted for.

Evidence for the polaron character of charge carriers in AgBr and AgCl was obtained through high-precision cyclotron resonance experiments in external magnetic fields up to 16 T. The all-coupling magneto-absorption calculated in ref., leads to the best quantitative agreement between theory and experiment for AgBr and AgCl. This quantitative interpretation of the cyclotron resonance experiment in AgBr and AgCl by the theory of Peeters provided one of the most convincing and clearest demonstrations of Fröhlich polaron features in solids.

Experimental data on the magnetopolaron effect, obtained using far-infrared photoconductivity techniques, have been applied to study the energy spectrum of shallow donors in polar semiconductor layers of CdTe.

The polaron effect well above the LO phonon energy was studied through cyclotron resonance measurements, e. g., in II–VI semiconductors, observed in ultra-high magnetic fields. The resonant polaron effect manifests itself when the cyclotron frequency approaches the LO phonon energy in sufficiently high magnetic fields.

In the lattice models the optical conductivity is given by the formula:

\sigma(\Omega) = n_pe^2a^2 \frac{\pi^{\frac{1}{2}}t^2\left(1-e^{\frac{\hbar\Omega}{k_{\rm B}T}}\right)}{2\hbar^2\Omega(E_ak_{\rm B}T)^{1/2}}\exp\left(-\frac{(\hbar\Omega-4E_a)^2}{16E_ak_{\rm B}T}\right) $$ Here $$E_a$$ is the activation energy of polaron, which is of the order of polaron binding energy $$E_p$$. This formula was derived and extensively discussed in  and was tested experimentally for example in photodoped parent compounds of high temperature superconductors.

Polarons in two dimensions and in quasi-2D structures
The great interest in the study of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) has also resulted in many investigations on the properties of polarons in two dimensions. A simple model for the 2D polaron system consists of an electron confined to a plane, interacting via the Fröhlich interaction with the LO phonons of a 3D surrounding medium. The self-energy and the mass of such a 2D polaron are no longer described by the expressions valid in 3D; for weak coupling they can be approximated as:

\frac{\Delta E}{\hbar \omega} \approx -\frac{\pi}{2}\alpha\ - 0.06397\alpha^2; \qquad \qquad \qquad (4)\,$$

\frac{m^*}{m} \approx 1+\frac{\pi}{8}\alpha\ + 0.1272348\alpha^2. \qquad \qquad \qquad (5)\,$$

It has been shown that simple scaling relations exist, connecting the physical properties of polarons in 2D with those in 3D. An example of such a scaling relation is:

\frac{m^{*}_{\rm 2D}(\alpha)}{m_{\rm 2D}}=\frac{m^{*}_{\rm 3D}(\frac{3}{4}\pi\alpha)}{m_{\rm 3D}}, \qquad \qquad \qquad (6)\,$$

where $$m_\mathrm{2D}^*$$ ($$m_\mathrm{3D}^*$$) and $$m_\mathrm{2D}$$ ($$m_\mathrm{3D}$$) are, respectively, the polaron and the electron-band masses in 2D (3D).

The effect of the confinement of a Fröhlich polaron is to enhance the effective polaron coupling. However, many-particle effects tend to counterbalance this effect because of screening.

Also in 2D systems cyclotron resonance is a convenient tool to study polaron effects. Although several other effects have to be taken into account (nonparabolicity of the electron bands, many-body effects, the nature of the confining potential, etc.), the polaron effect is clearly revealed in the cyclotron mass. An interesting 2D system consists of electrons on films of liquid He. In this system the electrons couple to the ripplons of the liquid He, forming "ripplopolarons". The effective coupling can be relatively large and, for some values of the parameters, self-trapping can result. The acoustic nature of the ripplon dispersion at long wavelengths is a key aspect of the trapping. For GaAs/AlxGa1−xAs quantum wells and superlattices, the polaron effect is found to decrease the energy of the shallow donor states at low magnetic fields and leads to a resonant splitting of the energies at high magnetic fields. The energy spectra of such polaronic systems as shallow donors ("bound polarons"), e. g., the D0 and D− centres, constitute the most complete and detailed polaron spectroscopy realised in the literature.

In GaAs/AlAs quantum wells with sufficiently high electron density, anticrossing of the cyclotron-resonance spectra has been observed near the GaAs transverse optical (TO) phonon frequency rather than near the GaAs LO-phonon frequency. This anticrossing near the TO-phonon frequency was explained in the framework of the polaron theory.

Besides optical properties, many other physical properties of polarons have been studied, including the possibility of self-trapping, polaron transport,  magnetophonon resonance, etc.

Extensions of the polaron concept
Significant are also the extensions of the polaron concept: acoustic polaron, piezoelectric polaron, electronic polaron, bound polaron, trapped polaron, spin polaron, molecular polaron, solvated polarons, polaronic exciton, Jahn-Teller polaron, small polaron, bipolarons and many-polaron systems. These extensions of the concept are invoked, e. g., to study the properties of conjugated polymers, colossal magnetoresistance perovskites, high-$$T_{c}$$ superconductors, layered MgB2 superconductors, fullerenes, quasi-1D conductors, semiconductor nanostructures.

The possibility that polarons and bipolarons play a role in high-$$T_{c}$$ superconductors has renewed interest in the physical properties of many-polaron systems and, in particular, in their optical properties. Theoretical treatments have been extended from one-polaron to many-polaron systems.

A new aspect of the polaron concept has been investigated for semiconductor nanostructures: the exciton-phonon states are not factorizable into an adiabatic product Ansatz, so that a non-adiabatic treatment is needed. The non-adiabaticity of the exciton-phonon systems leads to a strong enhancement of the phonon-assisted transition probabilities (as compared to those treated adiabatically) and to multiphonon optical spectra that are considerably different from the Franck–Condon progression even for small values of the electron-phonon coupling constant as is the case for typical semiconductor nanostructures.

In biophysics Davydov soliton is a propagating along the protein α-helix self-trapped amide I excitation that is a solution of the Davydov Hamiltonian. The mathematical techniques that are used to analyze Davydov's soliton are similar to some that have been developed in polaron theory. In this context the Davydov soliton corresponds to a polaron that is (i) large so the continuum limit approximation in justified, (ii) acoustic because the self-localization arises from interactions with acoustic modes of the lattice, and (iii) weakly coupled because the anharmonic energy is small compared with the phonon bandwidth.

It has been shown that the system of an impurity in a Bose–Einstein condensate is also a member of the polaron family. This allows the hitherto inaccessible strong coupling regime to be studied, since the interaction strengths can be externally tuned through the use of a Feshbach resonance. This was recently realized experimentally by two research groups. The existence of the polaron in a Bose–Einstein condensate was demonstrated for both attractive and repulsive interactions, including the strong coupling regime and dynamically observed.

title: Polaron


text:
Platform shoe

Platform shoes are shoes, boots, or sandals with a thick sole, usually in the range of 5 - 10 cm. Platform shoes may also be high heels, in which case the heel is raised significantly higher than the ball of the foot. Extreme heights, of both the sole and heel, can be found in fetish footwear such as ballet boots, where the sole may be up to 20 cm high and the heels up to 40 cm or more. The sole of a platform shoe can have a continuous uniform thickness, have a wedge, a separate block or a stiletto heel. Raising the ankle increases the risk of a sprained ankle.

History
Platform shoes are known in many cultures. The most famous predecessor of platform shoes are the Zoccoli in Venice of the 15th century, designed with the functional goal of avoiding wet feet when the pavements were flooded. Depending on the current shoe fashion, platform shoes are more or less popular. In the 1970s they were widespread in both genders in Europe. Today, they are preferred by women.

Ancient
After their use in Ancient Greece for raising the height of important characters in the Greek theatre and their similar use by high-born prostitutes or courtesans in London in the sixteenth century, platform shoes, called pattens, are thought to have been worn in Europe in the eighteenth century to avoid the muck of urban streets. Of the same practical origins are Japanese geta. There may also be a connection to the buskins of Ancient Rome, which frequently had very thick soles to give added height to the wearer. Another example of a platform shoe that functioned as protection from dirt and grime is the Okobo- "Okobo" referring to the sound that the wooden shoe makes when walking. Dating back to 18th century Japan, the Okobo was worn by maikos, or geishas, during their apprenticeships. Similar to the Okobo, wooden Kabkabs were named after the sound they made upon marble flooring. Worn by Lebanese women between the 14th and 17th centuries, the straps were often made from velvet, leather, or silk while the wooden stilts were decorated with silver or pearl. The ancient Indian Paduka, which translates to footprints of the Gods, was often sported by the upper echelon as a way to mark their status. The wooden platforms were sometimes carved into different animal shapes and decorated with ivory and silver. In ancient China, men wore black boots with very thick soles made from layers of white cloths. This style of boots is often worn today onstage for Peking opera. During the Qing dynasty, aristocratic Manchu women wore a form of platform known as the flowerpot shoe to imitate the gait of Han women with bound feet and their lotus shoes.

Modern
Platform shoes enjoyed some popularity in the United States, Europe and the UK from the 1930s to the 1950s but not nearly to the extent of their popularity from the 1960s to the 1980s.

1930s–1950s
In the early 1930s, Moshe (Morris) Kimel designed the first modern version of the platform shoe for actress Marlene Dietrich. Kimel, a Jew, escaped Berlin, Germany, and settled in the United States with his family in 1939 and opened the Kimel shoe factory in Los Angeles. The design soon became very popular amongst Beverly Hills elite. In 1938, The Rainbow was a platform sandal designed by famous shoe designer Salvatore Ferragamo. “The Rainbow” was created and was the first instance of the platform shoe returning in modern days in the West. The platform sandal was designed for Judy Garland, an American singer, actress, and vaudevillian. This shoe was a tribute to Judy Garland's signature song “Over the Rainbow” performed in the Wizard of Oz in 1939. The shoe was a crafted using uniquely shaped slabs of cork that were covered in suede to build up the wedge and gold kidskin was used for the straps. His creation was a result of experimentations with new materials because of wartime rationing during World War II. Traditionally heels were built up with leather, but because of the rationing of leather, he experimented with wood and cork The colors and design of this shoe still resemble modern shoe standards today.

In the 1940s, platforms were designed with a high arch, but as exemplified here, they originated with the heel elevated only slightly above the toes. The platform brings a heavy looking foundation to the wearer that is in direct polarity to the stiletto heel. With its reconfiguration of the arch and structure of attenuated insubstantiality, the high heel suggests the anti-gravitational effect of the dancer en pointe. On the contrary, the platform displays weightiness more like the flat steps of modern dance.

In the 1950s, platform shoes were not favored in the same way that they used to be. Fashion returned to the more elegantly shaped shoe.

1960s and 1970s
A resurgence of interest in platform shoes in fashion began as early as 1967 (appearing in both advertisements and articles in 1970 issues of Seventeen magazine), and continued through to 1976 in Europe and Britain, when they suddenly went out of fashion. The fad lasted even further in the US, lasting until as late as the early 1980s. At the beginning of the fad, they were worn primarily by young women in their teens and twenties, and occasionally by younger girls, older women, and (particularly during the disco era) by young men. Platform shoes were considered the "party shoe." Disco-goers used their shoes to bring attention to themselves on the dance floor. 70s platform shoes were presented in dramatic and showy ways such as with glitter or tiny lights.

In 1972, at 219 Bowery in Manhattan, Carole Basetta developed a special mold for making platform shoes and was successful in selling custom-made shoes to people such as David Bowie, David Johansen of the New York Dolls, and several other punk artists. Although platform shoes did provide added height without the discomfort of spike heels, they seem to have been worn primarily for the sake of attracting attention. Many glam rock musicians wore platform shoes as part of their act. Bowie, an icon of glam rock and androgynous fashion in the 1970s, famously wore platform shoes while performing as his alter ego Ziggy Stardust.

While a wide variety of styles were popular during this period, including boots, espadrilles, oxfords, sneakers, and sandals of all description, with soles made of wood, cork, or synthetic materials, the most popular style of the late 1960s and early 1970s was a simple quarter-strap sandal with tan water buffalo-hide straps, on a beige suede-wrapped cork wedge-heel platform sole. These were originally introduced under the brand name Kork-Ease but the extreme popularity supported many imitators. Remarkably, there was very little variation in style, and most of that variation was limited to differences in height.

1980s
As the fad progressed, manufacturers like Candie's stretched the envelope of what was considered too outrageous to wear, while others, like Famolare and Cherokee of California, introduced "comfort" platforms, designed to combine the added height of platforms with the support and comfort of sneakers, or even orthopedic shoes, and by the time the fad finally fizzled in the late 1980s, girls and women of all ages were wearing them. It may also be a by-product of this fad that Scandinavian clogs, which were considered rather outrageous in the late 1960s and early 1970s, had become classic by the 1980s.

1990s
Vivienne Westwood, the UK fashion designer, re-introduced the high heeled platform shoe into high fashion in the early 1990s; it was while wearing a pair of Super-Elevated Gillie with five-inch platforms and nine-inch heels that the supermodel Naomi Campbell fell on the catwalk at a fashion show. However, they did not catch on quickly and platform shoes only began to resurface in mainstream fashion in the late 1990s, thanks in part to the UK singing group the Spice Girls. The all-girl group was often seen in tall platform sneakers and boots. The footwear brand Buffalo created the famous platform sneakers worn by members of the group.

The United Kingdom (and European) experience of platform shoes was somewhat different from that of the United States. The long, pointed shoes of the early 2000s, giving an elongated look to the foot, have been more popular in the US than in the UK.

2000s
The platform shoe resurfaced in popularity in the early 2000s when the YSL Tribute Sandal appeared in 2004, quickly gaining popularity by celebrities and the fashion world for its sex appeal and added comfort of a platform sole. The shoe is continued to be released season after season, despite changes in creative directors.

2010s
During the late 2010s, platform boots became fashionable due to a resurgence of interest in 1970s fashion. These included so-called "nothing shoes" with clear Perspex soles, and mule sandals.

Notable wearers

 * Gary Glitter
 * James Brown
 * Dani Filth of gothic rock band Cradle of Filth
 * Lady Gaga wears platform shoes out in public as well for concerts and performances.
 * Spice Girls
 * Ariana Grande
 * Elton John has a large collection of platform shoes, many of which were sold at auction for charity.
 * Lady Miss Kier
 * Richard Kruspe of industrial metal band Rammstein
 * Marilyn Manson wore platform boots on the Mechanical Animals promo, Grotesk Burlesk, and Rock Is Dead tours. For live performances, the prominent wearers were Manson, Skold, John 5, and Pogo.
 * Carmen Miranda
 * Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac
 * Simon Rimmer wears platform shoes at all times due to his different length legs.
 * Veruca Salt
 * Gene Simmons from Kiss
 * Courtney Stodden
 * Charli XCX

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Talk:Sancho IV of Castile

Untitled
There appears to be an error here about the date of Sancho IV's birth. If you look at the year 1257 in this encyclopedia it (& Encyclopedia Britannica) states that he was born in 1257?

 * A fair number of sites give the date as May 12, 1258, but since none of them look particularly reliable, I just changed it to 1257/58, until/unless we get some better info. Everyking 22:59, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

The article says that he was the friend and tutor of his uncle Manuel. That seems unlikely, since his uncle was 20 years older than him. Perhaps we are getting the relationship backwards? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 18.40.124.101 (talk) 22:09, 9 January 2019 (UTC)

note: Sancho IV didn't have any uncle named "huan". the only "huan" exists on that constellation is his younger brother, the king of valencia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.230.95.201 (talk) 23:52, 14 December 2011 (UTC)

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Matt Barlow

Matthew Barlow (born March 10, 1971) is an American heavy metal singer. He is the lead singer for Ashes of Ares and former lead singer of Iced Earth and Pyramaze. He is Jon Schaffer's brother-in-law.

History
Barlow joined Iced Earth after the Night of the Stormrider tour with Blind Guardian in Europe, as a replacement for John Greely. The first album Barlow can be heard on is Burnt Offerings (1995). Barlow left the band in 2003, much to the chagrin of many fans. His reason for leaving was due to personal beliefs related to the September 11 terrorist attacks. He took a look at his life and realized that he wanted to contribute to the "real world" instead of living the illusion of a "rock star." He approached Jon Schaffer with this in late 2002, but Schaffer, known for his persuasive personality, convinced Barlow to stay with the band. When the band recorded The Glorious Burden, Schaffer decided that Barlow's vocals were not what he desired them to be; he believed they lacked the passion and quality that Barlow was known for. He decided to let Barlow go after all and hired Tim "Ripper" Owens, former lead singer of Judas Priest.

Barlow became a police officer in the police department in Georgetown, Delaware. He was also a vocalist for the First State Force Band, which is made up of law enforcement members from different departments throughout Delaware. The band performs for schools, aiming to promote positive values through music.

On April 13, 2007, Barlow returned to music more fully as the new lead singer of Danish progressive power metal band Pyramaze. Barlow accepted the offer to join Pyramaze because it would allow him to return to the music scene, while still being able maintain his current job.

However, on December 11, 2007, it was announced that Barlow had officially re-joined Iced Earth and would be singing on The Crucible of Man and following albums. Pyramaze confirmed that he would remain with them to record their album Immortal, but that their professional relationship would end there. On March 3, 2011, Matt Barlow announced that he will again be leaving Iced Earth after the band finishes its European festival shows, citing his commitment to his family and the need for Iced Earth to tour more as his reasons for retirement. On August 6, Barlow performed his farewell show with Iced Earth at the Wacken Open Air festival.

On June 26, 2012, Barlow announced on his Facebook page the creation of a new band named Ashes of Ares with former Iced Earth bassist Freddie Vidales and Nevermore drummer Van Williams, posting on YouTube two one-minute teaser videos. The band signed with Nuclear Blast, and the self-titled album released on September 6, 2013.

In May 2013, Barlow contributed vocals to American power metal band Artizan's album Ancestral Energy, being featured on the album's final track.

On January 1, 2017, a joint project with Jonah Weingarten of Pyramaze named We Are Sentinels was announced by Barlow on his Facebook page.

In 2020 he reunited with Jon Schaffer for a christmas EP, Winter Nights under the banner Schaffer/Barlow Project.

Cauldron

 * Cauldron Demo (1990)
 * Driven by Hate (1993)

Iced Earth
Studio albums
 * Burnt Offerings (1995)
 * The Dark Saga (1996)
 * Days of Purgatory (1997)
 * Something Wicked This Way Comes (1998)
 * The Melancholy E.P. (1999)
 * Horror Show (2001)
 * Tribute to the Gods (2002)
 * The Crucible of Man: Something Wicked Part 2 (2008)

Live albums
 * Alive in Athens (1999)
 * Alive in Athens (2006, DVD)
 * Festivals of the Wicked (2011)

Pyramaze
Studio albums
 * Immortal (2008)

Ashes of Ares
Studio albums

 * Ashes of Ares (2013)
 * Well of Souls (2018)
 * Emperors and Fools (2022)

We Are Sentinels

 * We Are Sentinels (2018)

Schaffer/Barlow Project

 * Winter Nights (2020)

title: Matt Barlow


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Edwards Pierrepont

Edwards Pierrepont (March 4, 1817 – March 6, 1892) was an American attorney, reformer, jurist, traveler, New York U.S. Attorney, U.S. Attorney General, U.S. Minister to England, and orator. Having graduated from Yale in 1837, Pierrepont studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1840. During the American Civil War, Pierrepont was a Democrat, although he supported President Abraham Lincoln. Pierrepont initially supported President Andrew Johnson's conservative Reconstruction efforts having opposed the Radical Republicans. In both 1868 and 1872, Pierrepont supported Ulysses S. Grant for president. For his support, President Grant appointed Pierrepont United States Attorney in 1869. In 1871, Pierrepont gained the reputation as a solid reformer, having joined New York's Committee of Seventy that shut down Boss Tweed's corrupt Tammany Hall. In 1872, Pierrepont modified his views on Reconstruction and stated that African American freedman's rights needed to be protected.

In April 1875, Pierrepont was appointed U.S. Attorney General by President Grant, who, having teamed up with Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow, vigorously prosecuted the notorious Whiskey Ring, a national tax evasion swindle that involved whiskey distillers, brokers, and government officials, including President Grant's private secretary, Orville E. Babcock. Upon his appointment, Pierrepont quickly cleaned up corruption in Southern U.S. districts. Pierrepont had continued former Attorney General George H. Williams moratorium on prosecuting the Ku Klux Klan. The Klan had been previously prosecuted by President Grant's Attorneys General Amos T. Akerman and Williams from 1871 to 1873, prosecuting civil rights violations of whites against African Americans. Pierrepont ruled that a naturalized Prussian immigrant's son born in the U.S. was not obligated to serve in the Prussian military as an adult. In his ruling of the Chorpenning Claim, Pierrepont cited the Supreme Court case Gorden v United States, having agreed that the Postmaster General, as well as the Secretary of War, served as ministers rather than legally binding arbitrators for a monetary claim by a private citizen. After serving as Attorney General, Pierrepont was appointed Minister to Great Britain by President Grant serving from 1876 to 1877. After many visits to France, Pierrepont became an advocate for bimetalism. Having returned from England, Pierrepont resumed his law practice until his death in 1892.

Early life and ancestry
Edwards Pierrepont was born in North Haven, Connecticut, on March 4, 1817. He was the son of Giles Pierepont and Eunice Munson Pierepont. Giles Pierepont was a New England descendant of James Pierepont, a cofounder of Yale University. Pierrepont's baptised name was Munson Edwards Pierepont, however, he changed his name to Edwards Pierrepont, dropping Munson and adding an extra "r" to his last name. Pierrepont was an earlier version of his family name.

Pierrepont attend several schools in the North Haven area, enrolled at Yale University, and graduated in 1837. After graduation, Edwards traveled and explored the West, then studied at New Haven Law School. He passed the bar in 1840, and tutored at Yale University from 1840 to 1841. He then moved to Columbus, Ohio where he practiced law with Phineas B. Wilcox from 1840 to 1845. In 1846, Pierrepont moved to New York where he established his own practice.

Marriage, family, and estates
On May 27, 1846, Pierrepont married Margaretta Willoughby, from Brooklyn, the daughter of Samuel Willoughby. Their marriage produced two children, one son, Edwin, and one daughter, Margaretta. Edwin died in Rome in 1885 while serving as Chargé d'Affaires, having replaced Mr. William Astor, the U.S. Envoy, who had retired. Pierrepont's daughter married Leanord F. Beckwith who lived at 48 West Seventy-second Street in New York.

In 1852, Pierrepont completed the construction of his estate house at 103 Fifth Avenue in New York. This would be his permanent residence for the next 40 years. In 1867, Pierrepont built a country estate house in Garrison, designed by architect Alexander Jackson Davis; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 as the Hurst-Pierrepont Estate.

Political career
Upon moving to New York, Pierrepont became active in politics, having joined the Democratic Party in 1846. Pierrepont first served in office when he was elected Superior Court Judge on the New York Supreme Court; he served from 1857 to 1860.

Civil War
Pierrepont was believed to have a pulse on the nation and served as Abraham Lincoln's personal advisor before and after Lincoln was elected president. In 1862, during the Civil War Pierrepont was appointed by President Lincoln a member of the military commission to try the cases of state prisoners in the custody of the federal military authorities. During the Presidential election of 1864, Pierrepont supported Lincoln in a political speech at Cooper Union, believing President Lincoln would secure the restoration of the Union. Pierrepont stated Lincoln stood for freedom, liberty and national glory.

Prosecuted Surratt trial

In 1867 Pierrepont conducted the case for the government against John H. Surratt, indicted as an accomplice in the murder of President Lincoln. Surratt, a former Confederate spy, was the last person to be tried by a U.S. Military commission in the case of Lincoln's assassination. After Lincoln's assassination, Surratt fled the United States to Montreal, Liverpool, Rome, and was finally caught in Egypt on December 2, 1866, where he was indicted and returned to the United States to face U.S. military trial. The trial opened on June 10, 1867 under Judge George P. Fisher and held immense public interest in the United States. Pierrepont argued that Surratt was involved in the conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. Government and involved with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth. Pierrepont argued that the military trial was suited for Surratt's case and quoted Bible verses that he viewed supported government was created by God for the express purpose of finding the guilty. Pierrepont argued that because Surratt had assumed an alias name, John Harrison, in staying at a hotel, and had fled the country that this proved his guilt. The trial lasted until August 10, 1867 and ended with the jury unable to make any decision after a seventy-hour deliberation. As a result of the hung jury, Judge Fisher set Surratt free.

New York constitutional convention member
In April 1867, Pierrepont was elected a member of the New York Constitutional Convention serving on the Judiciary Committee. A total of 19 committees were created to study each constitutional revision with Pierrepont's larger Judiciary Committee having a total of 15 members. The Constitutional Convention turned out to be a long drawn-out process of deliberation that lasted into June 1867 whose purpose was to root out any constitutional defects from the previous 1846 New York Constitution. One contentious issue was whether to allow women suffrage and to strike out the word "male" that defined New York voters.

U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York
From April 25, 1869 to July 20, 1870 Pierrepont served as U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant. As U.S. Attorney, he prosecuted Cuban revolutionaries for violation of the Neutrality Act. On Tuesday June 15, 1869, U.S. Attorney Pierrepont arrested and indicted members of the Cuban Junta, an organization to aid the Cuban Rebellion. Included in the arrests were the Cuban Junta President and other members; Jose Moralez Lemus, Wm. O.C. Ryan, Francisco Fesser, and Jose Mora. The Cuban Junta on May 1, 1869 had organized a military expedition to fight in the Cuban Rebellion against Spain. Other members of the Cuban Junta escaped arrest by the Deputy Marshall Allan. Pierrepont retired as U.S. Attorney and resumed his private law practice.

Committee of Seventy member
After the American Civil War the Democratic Party under Boss William Tweed's Tammany Hall gained a monopoly in both New York City Hall and the New York Legislature. Allegations of corruption rapidly grew as rumors spread that Boss Tweed and associates of Tammany Hall were laundering tax payers money in real estate and bribing New York State legislatures for favorable legislation. New York City workers under the Tammany Hall system were paid excessive rates on the burden of tax payers. By 1871, New York City residents and the press demanded that the corruption be investigated and cleaned up. On September 4, at Cooper Union, a large organization of reputed citizens was formed known as the Committee of Seventy, that investigated the corruption of Boss Tweed's Tammany Hall Ring. Pierrepont was appointed to and actively served on the legislation commission of the Committee of Seventy. The Committee of Seventy promised to thoroughly investigate Tammany Hall corruption and strongly encouraged honest voters to stop taking bribes from Tammany Hall at the polls during election. By the end of October 1871 the Committee of Seventy had successfully stopped funding Boss Tweed's Tammany Hall by court injunction effectively shutting down the corrupt institution. Tweed was arrested and thrown into jail.

Supported President Grant

On September 25, 1872 reformer Pierrepont gave a speech at the Cooper Union Institute in New York that supported President Grant's reelection. Pierrepont stated that Grant's opponent Horace Greeley had pointed out that Grant had made a better President than expected and that his second term would be better than his first. Pierrepont stated that President Grant had been unjustly slandered by the press, and that he believed "security, confidence, development and unexampled prosperity" would take place during President Grant's second term in office. Pierrepont, who had toured the South in February, spoke on President Grant's Reconstruction policy. Pierrepont had observed that southern whites in poverty supported Greeley, while African Americans were loyal to President Grant. Although acknowledging Reconstruction state governments needed reform, Pierrepont blamed southern poverty on the Southern peoples "swollen pride and obstinate will". Pierrepont believed that Grant's southern policy was good for the Southern people; that African Americans needed to be protected in their rights; and that government needed to govern justly and generously. Pierrepont believed that electing Greeley would turn over the state governments to a rebellious people and reminded his audience of Union prisoner deaths that had taken place at Andersonville and harsh conditions at Libby Prison. As a reformer, Pierrepont stated he would do his best to ensure that honest men were placed around President Grant.

On October 11, 1872 Edwards Pierrepont spoke in Ithaca, New York supporting President Grant and the Republican ticket. Pierrepont related a story of President Grant unworried he would not win North Carolina. Although there was concern that Grant would not win North Carolina, Pierrepont stated that Grant had said to a friend when wolves howl at night the sound is greater than the actual number of wolves. According to President Grant, this was the case in North Carolina. Pierrepont predicted Grant would win New York for seven reasons including that Grant had already won the state in 1868 when the Democratic coalition was at its height, the Republicans had carried the state government, and that Grant would receive 17,000 votes from African Americans. Pierrepont stated the Tammany Ring would no longer be instrumental in securing the Democratic vote through fraud. Pierrepont had earlier been instrumental in prosecuting the Tammany Ring that was completely shut down. With the prosecution of the Ku Klux Klan by President Grant and Pierrepont's shutting down the Tammany Ring, the general election of 1872 was one of the most fair in United States history.

Saint-Gaudens bust
In 1874, Pierrepont hired a young and upcoming Irish born sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to create a marble bust of himself. Pierrepont, who practiced phrenology, believed that having a wide head was a sign of intelligence. Pierrepont was an admirer of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle and he wanted his head to be wide as theirs were. Pierrepont turned out to be a demanding patron as he insisted Saint-Gaudens make his head larger on the bust. Although Saint-Gaudens complied, he was upset at Pierrepont for having to make his head larger. Saint-Gaudens said that Pierrepont's bust "seemed to be affected with some dreadful swelling disease". Saint-Gaudens was so upset over the Pierrepont portrait sculpture that he later stated to a friend, David Armstrong, he would "give anything to get hold of that bust and smash it to atoms".

U.S. Attorney General
President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Pierrepont Attorney General of the United States on April 26, 1875. A former Democrat, Pierrepont had difficulty fitting into the Grant Administration, as stress was created during his tenure because of the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring and the indictment of Grant's private secretary, American Civil War general, Orville E. Babcock. Pierrepont, a reformer, was teamed up by President Grant with Secretary of Treasury, Benjamin Bristow to rid the government of corruption. Sec. Bristow had discovered whiskey distillers had created a government ring that profiteered by evading payment of taxes on the manufacturing of whiskey. Pierrepont was also involved with Reconstruction, as President Grant administered Southern policy through the Attorney General's Justice Department and the War Department. In terms of southern Reconstruction, Pierrepont continued his predecessor Att. Gen. George H. Williams's Spring, 1873 moratorium of prosecuting civil rights cases and in general was unresponsive to white violent attacks or outrages against African American citizens in the South. Pierrepont was more concerned for the restoration of the United States "international influence and political clout" after the American Civil War and was primarily known for his rulings on international law, naturalization, and extradition. To change his Cabinet coalition, President Grant removed Pierrepont as Attorney General and appointed him minister to Great Britain.

Reforms (1875)
When Pierrepont assumed the office of U.S. Attorney General, he immediately implemented overdue reform in the South's U.S. Marshal and U.S. Attorney departments. The culmination of these reforms took place in June 1875. Attorney General Pierrepont had given specific reform orders to U.S. Attorneys and U.S. Marshals in the South that were vigorously enforced. Pierrepont ran extensive investigations into the conduct of the U.S. Attorneys and U.S. Marshals, exposing fraud and corruption. Pierrepont was fully sustained by President Grant's endorsement of the investigations, reforms, and persons to be removed and replaced from office.

Naturalization (1875)
In July 1875 Attorney General Pierrepont ruled on the naturalization case of the son of a Prussian immigrant, Steinkoanler, who had immigrated to the United States in 1848. Steinkoanler was naturalized as a United States citizen in 1854. Steinkoanler returned to Prussia with his son, born in the United States, who was four years old. The naturalization case concerned whether Steinkoanler's son, who was then 20 years old, had to serve in the Prussian military, an obligation for all Prussian male children. Pierrepont ruled that Steinkoanler's son, had both United States and Prussian citizenship, and was only obligated to serve in the Prussian military while under his father's care. However, after Steinkoanler had come of age on his own, he was free to return to the United States and as a U.S. citizen could even run for the President of the United States.

Chorpenning claim (1875)
On July 25, 1875, Attorney General Pierrepont ruled on what was denounced as a fraud known as the Chorpenning claim. Chorpenning had petitioned the post office in 1857 for payment of mail delivery in San Pedro and Carson's Valley. Chorpenning was paid $109,072.95 by Postmaster General Aaron V. Brown in 1857 for his postal services, however Chorpening, under protest, believed he deserved more compensation. On July 15, 1870, Congress authorized the Postmaster General to adjust the Chorpenning claim. On December 23, 1870, Grant's Postmaster General John A. J. Creswell ruled that Chorpenning was owed a $443,010.60 adjustment. On January 12, 1871 a House committee suspended payment to Chorpenning. On February 9, 1871 Congress repealed the July 15, 1870 law that allowed the Postmaster General to adjust the Chorpenning claim. On March 3, 1871 Congress forbid that any appropriations go to pay the Chorpenning claim. On May 8, 1872 Congress again forbid any appropriations to pay for the Chorpening claim. Pierrepont ruled that Postmaster General Creswell was not an arbitrator between Chorpenning and Congress. Chorpenning's legal counsel argued that Congress was bound to pay any contracts between Congress and a private citizen. Pierrepont argued citing Gordon v United States that the Postmaster served as in a ministerial position rather than judicial, and therefore Creswell's adjustment was not binding. Pierrepont referred the Chorpening claim to the Court of Collections and allowed the next Congress to decide the fate of the Chorpening claim, unless the statute of limitations stopped the claim.

Mississippi (1875)
President Grant's Reconstruction policy worked through the U.S. Attorney General and the Justice Department, in addition to the Secretary of War and the War Department. During later Reconstruction white supremacists known as white liners in both the North and the South put pressure on the Grant Administration to limit the use of deployed troops in the South that protected African American citizens under the Reconstruction Act of 1867. Previously President Grant had destroyed the Ku Klux Klan under the Enforcement Acts in 1871. Resistance continued and resurged as white liners violently attacked Mississippi blacks in 1875. Republican Governor Adelbert Ames requested troops to protect black voters. In order to avoid violence, Attorney General Pierrepont sent George K. Chase to Mississippi who met with white liner leaders to hold them to their previous pledge not to use violence during the election. President Grant and Att. Gen. Pierrepont told Governor Ames to use federal troops only if the white liners used violence on election day. No violence took place on election day, however, the intimidation tactics of the white liners prior to the election kept blacks and Republican voters from the polls.

Whiskey Ring (1875–1876)
After the American Civil War, whiskey distillers in St. Louis developed a tax evasion ring that depleted the U.S. Treasury. By 1875, the Whiskey Ring had grown into a nationwide criminal syndicate that included whiskey distillers, brokers, and government officials; making enormous profits from the sale of untaxed whiskey. Also rumored, was that in 1872 the Ring had secretly funded the Republican Presidential campaign. In an effort of reform and to clean up corruption, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Benjamin Bristow, as U.S. Secretary of Treasury in 1874, who immediately discovered millions of dollars were being depleted from the U.S. Treasury. Under orders from President Grant, in May 1875, Sec. Bristow struck hard at the Ring, nationally shutting down distilleries, arresting hundreds involved in the ring having obtained over 350 indictments. The Ring through Bristow's vigorous raids had been effectively shut down. In April 1875, President Grant appointed Pierrepont Attorney General and teamed him up with Bristow to prosecute the Ring and clean up corruption. Pierrepont and the Justice Department created by Grant prosecuted the Whiskey Ring. Under orders from Grant Pierrepont controversially sent circular letters to district attorneys in Milwaukee, Chicago, and St. Louis denying immunity to offenders who would testify against the ring. Pierrepont's prosecution of the ring however was viewed satisfactory by the public.

During the Summer of 1875, both Bristow and Pierrepont obtained President Grant's order to "let know guilty man escape". During the Fall of 1875, evidence was discovered that Grant's private secretary, Orville Babcock had been involved in the Ring. Bristow and Pierrepont, stayed behind after a cabinet meeting with President Grant and showed him correspondence between Babcock and William Joyce in St. Louis, indicted in the Ring, cryptic telegram messages as evidence of Babcock's involvement in the Ring. Babcock was summoned to the Oval Office for an explanation and was told to send a telegram to bring Wilson to Washington, D.C. After Babcock did not return to the Oval Office, Pierrepont discovered Babcock was in the process of writing a letter warning Wilson to be on his guard. This angered Attorney General Pierrepont, who spilled ink over Babcock's letter and shouted, "You don't want to send your argument; send the fact, and go there and make your explanation. I do not understand it." Babcock was indicted and later acquitted in a trial in St. Louis, after an oral deposition from President Grant defending Babcock was given to the jury. The Justice Department obtained 110 convictions of persons involved in the Whiskey Ring.

In March 1876, a rumor spread throughout Washington, D.C., that Attorney General Pierrepont had given information to aid the defense counsel of Orville Babcock in St. Louis. Pierrepont publicly denied the allegation in a letter to Scott Lord and stated the rumor was "an infamous falsehood". Pierrepont suspected that Gen. Babcock himself was the source of the rumor. Babcock was dismissed as Grant's personal secretary after Babcock's acquittal in St. Louis. Pierrepont also denied the rumor that himself and Secretary Bristow were at odds with each other. Pierrepont produced a letter from October 1875 to Bluford Wilson, Bristow's assistant during the Whiskey Ring raids, that proved Bristow and Pierrepont were working together in harmony during the Whiskey Ring prosecutions.

U.S. Minister to Britain
On May 22, 1876 President Grant appointed Pierrepont Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States to Britain, having replaced Robert Schenck, serving until December 1, 1877. While serving as minister to Britain, Pierrepont became interested in bimetalism, frequently traveling to France, a bimetalist country.

On June 5, 1877 Pierrepont gave a reception for former President Ulysses S. Grant at his elaborate house on Cavendish Square. The Prince of Wales Edward Albert, Foreign Secretary Lord Derby Edward Stanley, William Gladstone and his wife Catherine, and American journalist Kate Field attended the formal affair. Although Grant was well received by the British public, a diplomatic controversy was caused when British officials including Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli told Pierrepont that as a former head of state, Grant was nothing more than a "commoner", and could not be recognized by the government. Lord Derby, minister of foreign affairs, told Pierrepont that since Grant had no formal rank in the United States, he had none in Britain. Pierrepont countered Derby saying that first Napoleon had been elected ruler, not by hereditary lineage, and yet the succeeding Bonaparte emperors were recognized by England: "Once an Emperor always an Emperor." Therefore, the same precedent applied to an elected head of state: "Once a President always a President." Grant's diplomatic recognition, although informal, came when Queen Victoria invited him to Windsor Castle. The Grants accepted, and on June 26, 1877 Pierrepont introduced the former president to the Queen. She received them in an appropriate setting, the castle's magnificent 520 feet quadrangle.

After his tenure as Minister Plenipotentiary ended, Pierrepont returned to the United States and resumed his private legal practice in New York.

Transcontinental trip to Alaska
In 1883, at the age of 66, Pierrepont and his son Edwin Willoughby Pierrepont took a transcontinental trip to the far reaches of Alaska starting from New York. On July 25 Pierrepont and Edwin visited Fort Wrangell, having sailed by ship into Wrangell Harbor. Edwin was impressed by the mirror reflection of the snow-capped mountains in the harbor waters. Upon their return, Pierrepont and Edwin published a widespread paper titled, "Fifth Avenue to Alaska" in 1884. Edwin was awarded a fellowship to the Royal Geographical Society of England. The long trip took a health toll on him and he died in 1885.

Visited Atlanta
On August 28, 1886, Pierrepont and his wife visited Atlanta, Georgia, staying at the Kimball House. The year before Pierrepont had submitted a letter published by The Atlanta Constitution on bimetalism, a topic of popular discussion during the 1880s. Pierrepont favored a bimetalist economy believing that having two metal currencies would alleviate poverty and would keep a few wealthy businessmen from monopolizing a single gold standard currency. While in Atlanta, Pierrepont stated that the relations between the North and the South had improved and that the Southerners bore no ill will to the North. Pierrepont believed Atlanta was a model city for Southern industrialization. The Pierreponts toured the South in search of a place to improve Margaretta's health condition. Mrs. Pierrepont had suffered from grief after the death of their son Edwin, who had died of a fever in Rome in 1885.

Illness, death, and funeral
According to The New York Times, in late 1889, Pierrepont suffered a nervous disease that "deprived him of the use of his limbs". Although Pierrepont was an invalid, for the next two and one-half years he was able to carry on most of his law practice and travel back and forth from his New York residence to his mansion in Garrison. On Wednesday, March 2, 1892, Pierrepont suffered a massive stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body and he lost the ability to speak. Four days later on March 6, Pierrepont died in the house in New York he had built 40 years earlier.

The funeral services were done by Rev. Dr. Henry Y. Satterlee at Calvary Church on Wednesday March 9, at 10 am. Pierrepont's body was transferred to Garrison where he was buried at St. Philip's Cemetery, accompanied by 10 prominent pallbearers.

Legacy
Pierrepont is primarily known for his success as an attorney appearing for well-known clients in important cases, and for fighting political corruption in federal, state, and city offices. This includes his successful prosecution and shutting down the Whiskey Ring, a national tax evasion syndicate, from 1875 to 1876. Politically, Pierrepont's success relied mainly on his appointments to office by President Ulysses S. Grant to U.S. Attorney for New York, U.S. Attorney General, and U.S. Minister to Great Britain. Pierrepont is also known for his publications of pamphlets on financial questions, mainly supporting bimetallic standard of U.S. currency. Although Pierrepont's tenure as Attorney General took place during Reconstruction, his primary interest at the Justice Department was ruling on cases that determined the rights of U.S. citizens abroad. Certain Supreme Court rulings against the Enforcement Acts signed into law by President Grant, hampered Pierrepont's enforcement of civil rights in the United States.

title: Edwards Pierrepont