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Chabrias

Chabrias (Χαβρίας; bef. 420–357 BC) was an Athenian general active in the first half of the 4th century BC. During his career he was involved in several battles, both on land and sea. The orator Demosthenes described him as one of the most successful commanders Athens ever had:"To sum up the whole: he is the only general who never lost a single city or post or ship or soldier, when he commanded you: none of your enemies has any trophy over you and him, while you have many over many enemies under his command."

Family
Little is known of Chabrias' background, except that his father's name was Ktesippos and was rich enough to be subject to the liturgies, having been a trierarch in 377–6 BC. He is known to have had one other son, who was also named Ktesippos.

Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Chabrias’s first appearance in the historical record was his appointment as strategos (general) in 390–89 during the Corinthian War (so called because most of the fighting took place in and around Corinth). In this conflict, Athens joined a coalition including Thebes, Corinth, and Argos to challenge Sparta's dominance and unfair treatment of various cities in Greece. His first assignment in the spring of 389 was to replace his fellow general Iphicrates as commander of the Athenian garrison at Corinth when Iphicrates was recalled to Athens.

Within the year the garrison itself was recalled and in 388 BC Chabrias was given command of a small fleet (ten ships and 800 peltasts) to assist King Evagoras of the city of Salamis on the island of Cyprus, who was attempting to secede from the Persian empire. At the time, the Spartans had stationed a garrison on the island of Aegina which was harassing Athenian shipping through the Saronic Gulf and raiding small villages on the Attic coast. On his outbound leg, Chabrias staged a night time landing on Aegina to set up an ambush. The next morning a second Athenian force under Demainetos landed and openly marched inland. The Spartan garrison came out to attack them and was caught in the trap. The garrison commander Gorgopas was killed, along with hundreds of Spartan and Aegetinian troops. The Attic coast was then free from raids and Athens had command of the sea once again – at least for the time being.

The Corinthian War ended with a peace agreement imposed on Greece by the Great King of Persia, Artaxerxes II (also known as the Peace of Antalkides, for the Spartan diplomat who negotiated it). This cessation in fighting left those Greeks inclined to mercenary service free to participate in wars outside their homeland. Chabrias took advantage of this situation and sometime in the 386-384 BC period, without official sanction from the Athenian government, hired himself out to the Egyptian king Hakor to lead the Greek mercenary force the king had assembled for his attempt to break away from Persian control. Then, as Diodorus Siculus tells it:"Pharnabazus, who had been appointed by the King general of the Persian armies, prepared large supplies of war material, and also sent ambassadors to Athens, first to denounce Chabrias, who by becoming general of the Egyptians was alienating, so he said, the King's affection from the people of Athens, and, secondly, to urge them to give him Iphikrates as general. The Athenians, being eager to gain the favor of the Persian King and to incline Pharnabazus to themselves, quickly recalled Chabrias from Egypt and dispatched Iphikrates as general to act in alliance with the Persians."Though Chabrias' participation on the Egyptian side of the conflict was embarrassing to Athens, it did not seriously harm his long-term career. He was shortly called back into service.

Boeotian War (378–371 BC)
In the winter of 379–8 BC, Thebes and Sparta went to war over Thebes efforts to unite Boeotia into a federated state. Sparta had previously occupied Thebes’ Cadmeia, killed the leaders of the anti-Spartan faction in the city and were supporting by force a pro-Spartan regime. This winter, exiled Thebans living in Athens returned to their city and killed the Spartan commander, along with the Theban politicians complicit with them, and forced the Spartan garrison to quit the city. Sparta responded by sending an army under the command of one of its kings, Cleombrotus, to reestablish the status quo. To prevent this army from passing through Attica on its way north, Chabrias was dispatched to the border region to guard the road that led through Eleutherai. This forced Cleombrotus to enter Boeotia by another route.

Athens soon joined the war on the Theban side and in the spring of 378 BC, King Agesilaos II of Sparta led an army of eighteen thousand Peloponnesians into Boeotia to attack Thebes. Chabrias was dispatched with a mercenary force of five thousand to assist the Thebans in holding off the attack. Taking a position at the top of a ridge near the city, the combined Theban/Athenian army waited as the Peloponnesians approached. The first wave of the attack was by the Spartan peltasts and was easily repulsed. Agesilaos ordered his hoplites to attack next and as they began to climb the ridge, Chabrias gave a signal and the whole Athenian force, joined by the Theban Sacred Band, instantly stood at ease – shields leaning on each soldier's left knee and spears resting on the ground, pointing upward. It was a gesture of contempt, but it also spoke to the high level of discipline of the troops and gave Agesilaos pause. Rather than attack such a force while climbing uphill, he recalled his forces and left the field. Though the Peloponnesians were free to ravage the surrounding country, Thebes itself was safe. It was a moral and psychological victory for Thebes, and..."This device was so extolled by fame throughout Greece, that Chabrias chose to have the statue, which was erected to him at the public charge by the Athenians in the agora, made in that posture. Hence it happened that wrestlers, and other candidates for public applause, adopted, in the erection of their statues, those postures in which they had gained a victory." In 378 BC, Athens began building what is called the Second Athenian Confederacy. Cities from all over Greece signed on, including almost all those on the island of Euboea. Histiaia, at the north end of the island, was the one holdout, due to Athens having driven out the citizens in 446 and established a Cleruchy there.

After the Peloponnesian War, Sparta had restored the city to its original citizens and they were not now inclined to join with the rest of the island in joining Athens’ new league. Athens, wishing to complete its alliance with all the cities of Euboea, sent Chabrias to deal with the situation. As Diodorus tells it,"Chabrias, in command of the force dispatched by the Athenians, laid waste Histiaia, and, fortifying its Metropolis, as it is called, which is situated on a naturally steep hill, left a garrison in it, and then sailed to the Cyclades and won over Peparethos and Sciathos and some other islands which had been subject to the Lacedaemonians." Two years later (376 BC), after another expedition into Boeotia, the Sparta's Peloponnesian allies prevailed upon it to institute a naval blockade of Athens rather than put them through another long march to the north. This Sparta attempted to do, and initially was successful in stopping grain shipments into the port of Piraeus. Athens soon sent Chabrias out to break up the Spartan fleet. The battle, which took place off the island of Naxos, went to the Athenians and shipments resumed. It is worth noting that when Chabrias had the remnants of the Spartan fleet on the run, he held back his ships so they could retrieve those in the water, both living and dead. As Diodorus relates:"For he recalled the Battle of Arginusae (406 BC) and that the ekklesia, in return for the great service performed by victorious generals, condemned them to death on the charge that they had failed to bury the men who had perished in the fight; consequently he was afraid, since the circumstances were much the same, that he might run the risk of a similar fate. Accordingly, refraining from pursuit, he gathered up the bodies of his fellow citizens which were afloat, saved those who still lived, and buried the dead. Had he not engaged in this task he would easily have destroyed the whole enemy fleet. In the battle eighteen triremes on the Athenian side were destroyed; on the Lakedaimonian side twenty-four were destroyed and eight captured with their crews. Chabrias then, having won a notable victory, sailed back laden with spoils to the Peiraieus and met with an enthusiastic reception from his fellow citizens. Since the Peloponnesian War this was the first naval battle the Athenians had won."In appreciation for this victory, and for his service to the city to date, the Athenians granted Chabrias and his descendants ateleia, or freedom from the liturgies (providing warships, as his father had done, or choruses for dramatic productions, or managing and funding a gymnasium, etc.). To Chabrias’ credit, he did not insist of this exemption, later serving as trierarch in c. 365 and choregos sometime after 360.

Diodorus reports a further action by Chabrias the following year (375 BC) in Thrace. The Triballi, an inland tribe suffering from a famine, invaded the region around Abdera, a coastal city, ravaging the land with impunity. On their way home, the Abderites attacked them, killing some two thousand. The Triballi later retaliated and, drawing the Abderites into a trap, the latter were–"butchered almost to a man, as many as took part in the fight. But just after the Abderites had suffered so great a disaster and were on the point of being besieged, Chabrias the Athenian suddenly appeared with troops and snatched them out of their perils. He drove the barbarians from the country, and, after leaving a considerable garrison in the city, was himself assassinated by certain persons."This last event is clearly an error, for Chabrias lived another eighteen years.

In the spring of 373 BC, Chabrias "won the race at the Pythian games with his chariot and four, which he purchased from the sons of Mitys the Argive, and, on his return from Delphi, gave a banquet to celebrate the victory at Kolias (a promontory on the Attic coast south of Athens). From the historian Hypereides we learn that Chabrias owned a mansion. Using the location of this banquet, it is reasonable to suggest that it was located not in Athens, but along the coast south of the city.

In 371 BC, Thebes defeated the Spartan army at Leuktra and the whole military balance of power in Greece changed. Thebes was now the dominant power and repeatedly invaded the Peloponnese to consolidate its new-found power. In the course of these invasions it liberated the helots, those peoples of Messene who had been Spartan slaves for centuries. Seeing Thebes thus become the aggressor, Athens concluded a mutual defense treaty with Sparta, which still had allies in the Peloponnese. In 369 BC Thebes planned an expedition into the Peloponnese and Chabrias was dispatched with an army to Korinth to help the Spartans and their allies repel it. The combined armies created a defensive line across the isthmus outside the city but the Thebans punched through and proceeded to ravage the countryside from Troezen and Epidauros in the south to Sikyon in the north. They eventually returned to Korinth and managed to force their way through the gates into the city. Chabrias and his Athenians drove them out again. "In the rivalry which followed, the Boeotians gathered all their army in line of battle and directed a formidable blow at Korinth; but Chabrias with the Athenians advanced out of the city, took his station on superior terrain and withstood the attack of the enemy. The Boeotians, however, relying upon the hardihood of their bodies and their experience in continuous warfare, expected to worst the Athenians by sheer might, but Chabrias' corps, having the advantage of superior ground in the struggle and of abundant supplies from the city, slew some of the attackers and severely wounded others. The Boeotians, having suffered many losses and being unable to accomplish anything, beat a retreat. So Chabrias won great admiration for his courage and shrewdness as a general and got rid of the enemy in this fashion."

Oropos Affair
Chabrias is not known to participate extensively in Athenian politics, but he was at times associated with Callistratus, one of the leading politicians of this time. For example, Iphikrates had selected both men to join him in his expedition to Corcyra in 372. (Xenophon vi.2.39) Then, in 366, the two men incurred the enmity of certain partisans in the Athenian assembly by counseling the city not to go to war over the Theban acquisition of the coastal village of Oropos in the northwest corner of Attica. Control of the area had shifted back and forth between Athens and Thebes for generations, and at the time in question was an Athenian territory. Certain exiles from the village had induced Themison, tyrant of Eretria in Euboea, to take control so they could return. Athens sent a regiment out to take it back, but by the time it got there, Thebes had stepped in and taken it for themselves.

In the later Assembly debate over to what to do, Kallistratos and Chabrias advised restraint, expecting that the situation could be resolved diplomatically. When Thebes refused to cede control, the two men were brought up on charges. The specifics are not clear, but in ancient Athens anyone could sue anyone for almost anything. The eloquence of Callistratus saved them this time, but five years later Kallistratos was indicted a second time and condemned to death in absentia, he having left town before the trial.

In the late summer of 362 Chabrias once again went to the aid of an Egyptian king (Tachos) in revolt against Persia. This time he joined the aging Spartan King Agesilaos who had been sent by Sparta to command the infantry. Chabrias was to command the king's navy. As before, Chabrias went on his own, without the sanction of the Athenian assembly, but this time no embarrassing recall was forthcoming. During this affair, Agesilaos transferred his allegiance to a rival for the Egyptian throne, Nektanebos, and Tachos was later compelled to flee to Persia and seek asylum with Artaxerxes. What Chabrias did during this internal revolt is not recorded.

There is a brief mention in an oration of Demosthenes of Chabrias being sent on a mission to the Chersonese in 359/8 with one vessel in an abortive attempt to help an Athenodoros, an ally who capitulated to his enemies for lack of funds from Athens.

Social War (357–355 BC) and the death of Chabrias
In 357 four members of the Athenian Confederacy (Byzantium, Rhodes, Chios, and Kos) suffered internal revolts in which their democratic governments were overtaken by oligarchies, the reported motivation being the heavy-handed way Athens was managing the league. Each city then announced it was seceding from the Confederacy. In the initial action of the war, the Athenian admiral Chares was sent with a fleet to the various cities and set things right. Chabrias was appointed trierarch for this expedition. Cornelius Nepos provides the most complete description of what happened:"Chabrias lost his life in the Social War, in the following manner. The Athenians were besieging Chios; Chabrias was on board the fleet as a private man, but had more influence than all who were in command; and the soldiers looked up to him more than to those who were over them. This circumstance hastened his death; for while he was anxious to be the first to enter the harbor, and ordered the captain to steer the vessel towards it, he was the occasion of his own death, since, after he had made his way into it, the other ships did not follow. Upon which, being surrounded by a body of the enemy, his ship, while he was fighting with the utmost bravery, was struck with the beak of one of the enemy's vessels, and began to sink. Though he might have escaped from the danger, if he had cast himself into the sea, for the fleet of the Athenians was at hand to take him up as he swam, he chose rather to die, than to throw away his arms and abandon the vessel in which he had sailed. The others would not act in a similar manner, but gained a place of safety by swimming. He, on the other hand, thinking an honorable death preferable to a dishonorable life, was killed with the weapons of the enemy, while he was fighting hand to hand with them."

title: Chabrias


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James Weddell

James Weddell (24 August 1787 – 9 September 1834) was a British sailor, navigator and seal hunter who in February 1823 sailed to latitude of 74° 15′ S—a record 7.69 degrees or 532 statute miles south of the Antarctic Circle—and into a region of the Southern Ocean that later became known as the Weddell Sea.

Early life
He was born in Ostend on the Belgian coast, the son of a Scottish sea captain (captains were permitted their wives at sea). He was apprenticed as a seaman (this normally started at age eight) and so received little education, but could at least read and write. He originally worked on merchant ships on the north-east Scottish coast.

He entered the merchant service very early in his life and was apparently bound to the master of a Newcastle collier (a coal transport vessel) for some years. About 1805 he shipped on board a merchantman trading to the West Indies, making several voyages there.

In 1808 he struck his captain, which was considered a severe crime, and was handed to the Royal Navy for punishment. This proved a positive rather than negative step. He studied navigation during his imprisonment and on release joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman. He rose rapidly through the ranks, becoming captain.

He was aboard HMS Hope (1808) in 1813 in the English Channel when she captured the "Young True Blooded Yankee", a small American privateer. With the end of the Napoleonic War he was laid off on half pay in February 1816, and for a while resumed merchant voyages to the West Indies. In 1819 he was paid off in full from the Royal Navy.

Voyages to the Antarctic
In 1819 Weddell was introduced to James Strachan, a shipbuilder of North Leith, a partner of "Strachan & Gavin" shipbuilders.

Strachan, together with James Mitchell, a Scottish insurance broker living in London, owned the 160-ton brig Jane, an American-built ship taken during the War of 1812 and re-fitted for sealing. News of the discovery of the South Shetland Islands had just broken, and Weddell suggested that fortunes might be made in the new sealing grounds. His first voyage as the captain of the Jane took him to the Falkland Islands and further south. He returned with the holds full, and the voyage was so profitable that Strachan and Mitchell had a second ship, the Beaufoy, built.

The next voyage from 1821 and 1822 took both ships to the South Shetland Islands. However, there were some 45 sealers operating in the area, and seal were already becoming rare (a mere two years after the discovery of the islands), and so he scouted for new hunting grounds.

Michael McCleod, the captain of the Beaufoy, sighted the South Orkney Islands on 22 November 1821, an independent discovery from that of Powell and Palmer just a few days earlier. There, they hunted for seals, and arrived back in England in July.

On the third voyage from 1822 to 1824, Weddell again commanded the Jane, while the captain of the Beaufoy was one Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys again. Sealing proved disappointing, though, and after searching for land between the South Shetlands and the South Orkneys (and not finding any), they turned south in the hope to better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823, the two ships had reached latitude 74°15′S and longitude 34°16′45″W (−74.25, −34.279): the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted, but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coats Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea), but Weddell decided to turn back.

After deciding to go back, Weddell cheered the crew with the announcement of being southward of any former navigator and held a little ceremony; the colours were hoisted, a gun was fired, both crews gave three cheers, and an allowance of grog dispelled the gloom. A hope was infused that fortune might yet favor the crew of sealers. The area was named The Sea of George the Fourth, but the naming did not become permanent. The region would not be visited again until 1911, when Wilhelm Filchner discovered the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf.

Weddell returned north and sheltered at South Georgia, where he and his crews searched for the elusive seal. They wintered at the Falklands and sailed again for the South Shetlands in November 1823. At the beginning of 1824, the two ships separated. Weddell returned in March 1824 to the Falklands and headed back to England, where he arrived in July.

The Weddell seal was discovered and named in the 1820s during expeditions led by James Weddell.

His record for a southerly voyage, three degrees beyond that of James Cook, caused some raised eyebrows. Weddell was persuaded by Strachan and Mitchell to incorporate everything in a book. The first edition appeared in 1825, followed by second enlarged edition in 1827, incorporating some information from the Beaufoy which had returned to England in 1826.

Weddell appears to have been resident in Edinburgh, Scotland in the summer of 1826, when he was cited for non-payment of a debt of £245, loaned to him by the Commercial Bank. As his name appears on no directory in this period he was either living with a friend or relative.

Papers now in the National Archives of Scotland show that he and his sponsors appear to have fallen out over liability for payment, and is probably more than coincidence that the navigational instruments taken by Weddell on board, cost, according to his book, £240. The Leith merchants engaging him may have felt that these were unnecessary for a sealing expedition, yet Weddell has been criticised by such historians as David Walton for failing to take more instruments, not fewer. The legal papers fail to indicate what happened to the debt.

He was certainly in Edinburgh in February 1827 as he was elected an Ordinary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, requiring his physical presence (were he not present he would have been elected an Honorary Fellow). His proposer was Admiral Norwich Duff.

Later life
Weddell offered his services to the Admiralty with a proposal for a return voyage to the high southern latitudes, but was turned down. Instead, he returned to trading along the warmer Atlantic coasts. In 1829 he was again master of the Jane, but on a passage from Buenos Aires to Gibraltar Jane leaked so badly that she had to be given up at the Azores. Weddell and his cargo were transferred to another ship for the passage to England, but this ran aground on the island of Pico, and Weddell only barely survived.

The loss of the Jane meant financial ruin for Weddell, who was forced to take paid employment as a ship's master. In September 1830 he left England as master of Eliza, bound for the Swan River Colony in western Australia. From there he proceeded to Tasmania. He sailed back to England in 1832.

Weddell died on 9 September 1834 at the age of forty-seven. Although perhaps less affluent and famous than might be expected, he died in his house at Norfolk Street off the Strand in London. He was buried in the churchyard of St Clement Danes in the Strand, very close to his home.

Commemorations
Three places are named after him – the Weddell Sea, Weddell Islands in the South Orkney Islands, and Weddell Island in the Falklands. Also the Weddell seal is named after him.

Publications

 * A Voyage Towards the South Pole (1825)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: James Weddell


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Peachtree Street

Peachtree Street is one of several major streets running through the city of Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Beginning at Five Points in downtown Atlanta, it runs North through Midtown; a few blocks after entering into Buckhead, the name changes to Peachtree Road at Palisades Road. Much of the city's historic and noteworthy architecture is located along the street, and it is often used for annual parades, (such as the Atlanta St. Patrick's Day Parade and Atlanta Christmas Parade), as well as one-time parades celebrating events such as the 100th anniversary of Coca-Cola in 1986 and the Atlanta Braves' 1995 and 2021 World Series victories.

History
Atlanta grew on a site occupied by the Creek people, which included a major village called Standing Peachtree. There is some dispute over whether the Creek settlement was called Standing Peachtree or Standing Pitch Tree, corrupted later to peach. Pine trees, common to the area, were also known as pitch trees due to their sap.

A trail known as the Peachtree Trail stretched from northeast Georgia to Standing Pitch Tree along the Chattahoochee River. The original Peachtree Road began in 1812 at Fort Daniel located at Hog Mountain in present-day Gwinnett County and ran along the course of the trail to the Chattahoochee. Some portions of the present road trace this route.

After the American Civil War a shantytown named Tight Squeeze developed at Peachtree at what is now 10th Street in Midtown Atlanta. It was infamous for vagrancy, desperation, and robberies of merchants transiting the settlement.

In 1867, the name of Whitehall Street, the original road to White Hall Tavern in today's West End neighborhood, was changed to Peachtree Street from Marietta Street south to the railroad crossing (now "gulch") just north of Alabama Street. Later in the 1980s, the portion of Whitehall Street from Five Points south to Forsyth Street and Memorial Drive, a major shopping district from the Civil War through mid-20th century, was renamed Peachtree Street SE. In 2007, Atlanta mayor Shirley Franklin unveiled a $1 billion, 20-year plan to transform Peachtree Street with streetscape upgrades, public parks, buried utilities, and the addition of a streetcar, based on a sixteen-month study by the Peachtree Corridor Partnership task force.

Nomenclature
The Peachtree name is common throughout the Atlanta area. In fact, it is often joked by natives that half of the streets in Atlanta are named Peachtree, and the other half have five names to make up for it. While “Peachtree” alone almost always refers to this street or its continuations, there are 71 streets in Atlanta with a variant of “Peachtree” in their name. Some include: Peachtree is also seen in place names:
 * Peachtree Creek Road
 * Peachtree Lane
 * Peachtree Avenue
 * Peachtree Circle
 * Peachtree Place
 * Peachtree Drive
 * Peachtree Plaza
 * Peachtree Way
 * Peachtree Memorial Drive
 * New Peachtree Road
 * Peachtree Walk
 * Peachtree Park Drive
 * Peachtree Parkway
 * Peachtree Valley Road
 * Peachtree Battle Avenue (commemorating the Battle of Peachtree Creek)
 * Peachtree Dunwoody Road (running between Peachtree Street and Dunwoody, Georgia)
 * Old Peachtree Road (traces part of the route of the original Peachtree Trail for which the road is named; in Gwinnett County.)
 * Peachtree Center is a major development of skyscrapers and other high-rises in downtown, with Peachtree Center Avenue running a block east of Peachtree Street.
 * Peachtree City is a planned-suburb golf community located south of the city, in Fayette County.
 * Peachtree Corners is also a planned suburb located north of the city, in Gwinnett County.

West Peachtree Street
West Peachtree Street is not a western branch of Peachtree Street, but a major parallel (and unlike Peachtree, almost perfectly straight) due north–south street running one block west of Peachtree Street through downtown, and mostly two or three blocks west (due to the curves in Peachtree Street) through Midtown. West Peachtree divides the northeast and northwest quadrants of the city and county for street addressing purposes.

Where the current Peachtree Street turns to Peachtree Road and briefly heads northwest, it actually crosses West Peachtree, leaving it on the "east" side. It is at this point that the Buford-Spring Connector (Georgia 13) begins, taking the route of old I-85. The studios of WSB-TV are located on this section of “West” Peachtree Street, which terminates at I-85. The MARTA Red/Gold lines run directly under West Peachtree Street. The Civic Center MARTA Station is located under West Peachtree street where the road crosses the Downtown Connector (I-75/85) The station is notable as it is among a very small number of subway stations in the world that are simultaneously above a highway and below street level.

The intersection of the two Peachtree streets in downtown form Hardy Ivy Park, while in midtown, the intersection forms Pershing Point Park.

Route numbers
From the Buford–Spring Connector north to Roswell Road, Peachtree Street and Peachtree Road carry U.S. Route 19 (US 19) and State Route 9 (SR 9). At a five-way intersection with East/West Paces Ferry Road at the center of the original Buckhead Village, US 19 and SR 9 split off onto Roswell Road, while SR 141 begins on Peachtree instead. South of the connector, US 19 and SR 9 continue on two one-way streets: West Peachtree Street northbound and Spring Street southbound.

Peachtree meets Piedmont Road (SR 237) between Buckhead Village and Lenox Square. Besides the southwestern terminus of SR 13 (mentioned above) the only other major intersection in Atlanta is at North Avenue, which carries US 29, US 78, US 278, and SR 8.

There are no direct highway interchanges from Peachtree to the Downtown Connector (I-75/I-85), I-85 itself, or SR 400 freeways, all of which it crosses.

Landmarks
Many of Atlanta's most prominent buildings and landmarks are located along Peachtree Street. In downtown, 191 Peachtree Tower, Georgia-Pacific Tower, Westin Peachtree Plaza and SunTrust Plaza all line Peachtree. In Midtown, Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta's tallest building, is a block south of the "Fabulous" Fox Theatre, a grand movie palace completed in 1929.

Author Margaret Mitchell was killed by a speeding car in 1949 while crossing Peachtree Street as a pedestrian at the intersection with 13th Street. Mitchell wrote her classic Gone With the Wind in the basement apartment of a boarding house at the corner of 10th Street and Peachtree Street. That house is now a museum and is located across 10th Street from the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta which serves the southeastern United States. The film debuted at the Loew's Grand Theatre, at the corner of Peachtree and Forsyth Street, where the Georgia-Pacific Building now stands.

Office buildings 1100 Peachtree (formerly owned and occupied by BellSouth) and 1180 Peachtree, home to major law firms, are prominent business addresses. The heart of Atlanta's arts scene is found just north on Peachtree where the Woodruff Arts Center, including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta Symphony, Alliance Theatre Company, and the Atlanta campus of the Savannah College of Art & Design are located.

Although most have been demolished, there are still several historic buildings left along Peachtree in Buckhead. Several of these are stores, in single-story brick buildings constructed well before the annexation of Buckhead in 1952.

Northeast of the city limit, the road goes through Brookhaven and passes Oglethorpe University. Upon entering Chamblee, the road splits into Peachtree Industrial Boulevard and Peachtree Road. Peachtree Road becomes a two-lane road that travels farther east towards Doraville, while Peachtree Industrial Boulevard continues more on a more northerly trajectory (as Georgia 141) towards Dunwoody and Peachtree Corners.

Retail
The Buckhead shopping district features many high-end retailers, concentrated in the Phipps Plaza and Lenox Square malls. Buckhead Atlanta (formerly "Streets of Buckhead") is a mixed-use development that opened in 2014. The "Midtown Mile" was a concept to make part of Peachtree in Midtown like the Magnificent Mile in Chicago.

Geography
Atlantans are often convinced that the ridge followed by Peachtree Street is part of the Eastern Continental Divide. While Peachtree Street is atop a ridge, railroad tracks were built on the actual Eastern Continental Divide, which follows DeKalb Avenue from Decatur to Five Points, then turns southwest toward the Atlanta airport, with the northwest side draining into the Chattahoochee or Flint Rivers and therefore into the Gulf of Mexico, and the southeast side eventually into the Atlantic Ocean. In 1959, Whitehall Street SW, which meets Peachtree Street NE at Five Points, was renamed "Peachtree Street SW", and the Eastern Continental Divide follows this street, so a small portion of the story may be technically correct. Atlanta's primary water source is the Chattahoochee and much of the water is pumped over the watershed. To balance the river flows, treated sewage is pumped back to the Chattahoochee.

In popular culture

 * In Margaret Mitchell's epic Civil War romance Gone With the Wind, Scarlett O'Hara lives on various points of Peachtree Street along the novel. Coincidentally, it is also where the author herself was struck by a speeding automobile in Midtown, causing her death.
 * Frank Sinatra co-wrote a song with Jimmy Saunders and Leni Mason called "Peachtree Street" in 1950. He recorded it as a duet with Rosemary Clooney.
 * Sir Elton John keeps a home on Peachtree Road in Buckhead, for which his 2004 album Peachtree Road was named.
 * John Mayer references Peachtree Street in his song "Neon."

title: Peachtree Street


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Homecoming (Gateway album)

Homecoming is the third album by jazz trio Gateway, consisting guitarist John Abercrombie, bassist Dave Holland and drummer Jack DeJohnette, recorded in December 1994 and released on ECM—the trio's first release since Gateway 2 (1978).

Reception
An AllMusic review by Greg Turner stated "The Gateway Trio is a cooperative in the greatest sense of the word... Even though this only the third Gateway recording and the group's first in 17 years, each group member collaborates frequently with the others. As a result there is always a great sense of interplay between Abercrombie's sometimes-mellow-sometimes-distorted guitar, Holland's huge toned bass, and DeJohnette's dancing drums... This is a fine return to recording for a great group". A separate AllMusic review by jazz critic Scott Yanow stated: "the high improvisational level makes this a set deserving of close listens."

Regarding the album's title track, Tyran Grillo wrote: "The joy in every lick and tumble is in full evidence. DeJohnette is aflame, Abercrombie following his trail of embers with laser precision and shaving off an twist of lime for his solo, while Holland... is at his buoyant best." Concerning the album as a whole, he commented: "If only we could get a taste of this alchemy in our drink, we might all live beyond our time. Invigorating and fine, Homecoming is a joy to explore time and again."

Track listing

 * 1) "Homecoming" (Holland) - 12:37
 * 2) "Waltz New" (Abercrombie) - 8:32
 * 3) "Modern Times" (Holland) - 7:31
 * 4) "Calypso Falto" (Abercrombie) - 7:46
 * 5) "Short Cut" (Abercrombie) - 6:12
 * 6) "How's Never" (Holland) - 7:34
 * 7) "In Your Arms" (Holland) - 5:48
 * 8) "7th D" (DeJohnette) - 9:30
 * 9) "Oneness" (DeJohnette) - 7:43

Gateway

 * John Abercrombie – guitar
 * Dave Holland – bass
 * Jack DeJohnette – drums, piano

title: Homecoming (Gateway album)


text:
Gateway (band)

Gateway was an American jazz trio formed in 1975. The members were guitarist John Abercrombie, bassist Dave Holland, and drummer Jack DeJohnette. The group has also joined Collin Walcott on his debut album Cloud Dance (ECM 1062) recorded in 1975. The trio reunited temporarily for a performance in 2012 to mark DeJohnette's 70th birthday.

Discography

 * 1976: Gateway (ECM)
 * 1978: Gateway 2 (ECM)
 * 1995: Homecoming (ECM)
 * 1996: In the Moment (ECM)

title: Gateway (band)


text:
Perfect (grammar)

The perfect tense or aspect (abbreviated ' or ') is a verb form that indicates that an action or circumstance occurred earlier than the time under consideration, often focusing attention on the resulting state rather than on the occurrence itself. An example of a perfect construction is I have made dinner. Although this gives information about a prior action (the speaker's making of the dinner), the focus is likely to be on the present consequences of that action (the fact that the dinner is now ready). The word perfect in this sense means "completed" (from Latin perfectum, which is the perfect passive participle of the verb perficere "to complete").

In traditional Latin and Ancient Greek grammar, the perfect tense is a particular, conjugated-verb form. Modern analyses view the perfect constructions of these languages as combining elements of grammatical tense (such as time reference) and grammatical aspect. The Greek perfect tense is contrasted with the aorist and the imperfect tenses and specifically refers to completed events with present consequences; its meaning is thus similar to that of the English construction, "have/has (done something)". The Latin perfect tense is contrasted only with the imperfect tense (used for past incomplete actions or states) and is thus used to mean both "have/has done something" and "did something" (the preterite use). Other related forms are the pluperfect, denoting an event prior to a past time of reference, and the future perfect, for an event prior to a future time of reference.

In the grammar of some modern languages, particularly of English, the perfect may be analyzed as an aspect that is independent of tense – the form that is traditionally just called the perfect ("I have done") is then called the present perfect, while the form traditionally called the pluperfect ("I had done") is called the past perfect. (There are also additional forms such as future perfect, conditional perfect, and so on.) The formation of the perfect in English, using forms of an auxiliary verb (have) together with the past participle of the main verb, is paralleled in a number of other modern European languages.

The perfect can be denoted by the glossing abbreviation or. It should not be confused with the perfective aspect, which refers to the viewing of an action as a single (but not necessarily prior) event. To avoid confusion with the perfective, the perfect is occasionally called the retrospective.

As an aspect
In some analyses, the perfect is identified as one of the grammatical aspects. In the perfect aspect, the event being referred to is viewed as already completed at the time of reference. It should not be confused with the perfective aspect, which marks a situation as a single event without internal structure, and does not imply prior occurrence or present relevance as the perfect aspect does. The perfect also contrasts with the prospective aspect, which encodes the present relevance or anticipation of a future event. While the perfect is a relatively uniform category cross-linguistically, its relation to the experiential and resultative aspects is complex – the latter two are not simply restricted cases of the perfect.

The perfect is not necessarily incompatible with other grammatical aspects. In English, for example, it can be combined with the progressive (continuous) aspect, wherein an event is viewed as temporary and ongoing. A form such as the present perfect progressive I have been working combines the meanings expressed by the two aspects – viewing my working as an ongoing process, but one which is now completed (or, as in I have been working for two hours, restricting attention to the completed portion of that process).

If perfect is viewed as an aspect, then the verb forms traditionally called just "perfect" (as in Greek or – in appropriate contexts – in Latin) in fact combine the perfect aspect with present tense (the event occurred prior to the time of speech). The pluperfect and future perfect forms combine perfect aspect with past and future tense respectively. This analysis is reflected more explicitly in the terminology commonly used in modern English grammars, which refer to present perfect, past perfect and future perfect (as well as some other constructions such as conditional perfect).

However, not all uses of "perfect" verb forms necessarily express this "perfect aspect" – sometimes they are simply used as expressions of past tense, that is, as preterites. This applies to some uses of the Latin perfect, and also (for example) to the modern German Perfekt.

Types
In English, several uses of the perfect aspect have been recognized:
 * Resultative perfect (referring to a state in the present which is the result or endpoint of an event in the past):
 * "I have lost my pen-knife" (message: I still don't have it)

 * Continuative perfect (past situations continuing into present):
 * "I have always guided him"

 * Anterior perfect (completed past situations, but with relevance to the present):
 * "It has rained" (implication: the streets are wet now)

 * Experiential perfect (stating that a given situation has occurred at least once in a period of time leading up to the present time):
 * "Bill has been to America"
 * "I have seen that film three times now"

 * Universal perfect (stating that a given situation has been going on continuously during a period leading up to the present time):
 * "The meaning of the Perfect has been debated for 200 years"

In other languages other uses of the perfect are found:
 * Perfect of present state (stating that a present situation holds as a result of something that has happened recently):
 * (Swahili) A-me-choka 'he is tired' (lit. 'he has become tired')
 * (Swahili) A-me-simama 'he is standing' (lit. 'he has stood up'). This can be considered to be the same as resultative perfect.

 * Perfect of very recent past:
 * (Alicante Spanish) Yo estaba andando en el bosque. De pronto he pisado una culebra. Me ha mordido en la pierna. '(An hour ago) I was walking in the forest. Suddenly I stepped on a snake. It bit me in the leg.' (lit. 'I have stepped on a snake ... it has bitten me').

 * Evidential or inferential perfect (a statement that something must have happened because of the evidence available):
 * (Swedish) Tjuven har kommit in genom det här fönstret 'The thief evidently got in through this window' (literally, 'has got in')

 * Reportative perfect (referring to an event which the speaker has heard about but not personally witnessed). This is common in languages such as Turkish, Persian, Georgian, and Bulgarian:
 * (Turkish) Hasta-y-mış-ım 'They say I was/am ill' (literally, 'I have been ill')

Discontinuous past
In some languages a type of tense has been noted with exactly the opposite implication to a perfect. This type of tense is known as discontinuous past. Thus if a sentence such as "I have put the book on the table" implies that it is still on the table, so a discontinuous past sentence "I put the book on the table" in these languages would imply that the book is no longer on the table.

Construction with auxiliaries
A number of modern European languages exhibit a parallel type of perfect (or perfect-like) construction, formed with an auxiliary verb in combination with the past participle of the main verb. The auxiliary may be a verb meaning have (as in the English I have won) or a verb meaning be (as in the French je suis arrivé(e), "I (have) arrived", literally "I am arrived").

The have-perfect developed from a construction where the verb meaning have denoted possession, and the past participle was an adjective modifying the object, as in I have the work done. This came to be reanalyzed, with the object becoming the object of the main verb, and the participle becoming a dependent of the have verb, as in I have done the work. The construction could then be generalized to be used also with intransitive verbs. A vestige of the original interpretation is preserved in some languages in the form of inflection on the participle to agree with the gender and number of the object.

The be-perfect developed similarly, from a construction where the verb meaning be was an ordinary copula and the participle expressed a resultative state of the subject. It is consequently used mostly with verbs that denote a change in the state or location of the subject, and in some languages the participle inflects to agree with the gender and number of the subject.

Languages that use these constructions can generally inflect the auxiliary to produce different verb forms for the perfect aspect: the pluperfect or past perfect is produced with the auxiliary in the past tense, the future perfect with the auxiliary in the future tense, and so on. These include non-finite forms such as perfect infinitives. (More possible forms and examples are given under below.)

The basic (present) perfect form, with the auxiliary in the present tense, may specifically carry the meaning of perfect aspect, as in English; however in some languages it is used more generally as a past tense (or preterite), as in French and German.

The use of auxiliaries and meaning of the constructions in various languages are described below.
 * English uses have as the auxiliary; the use of be with some intransitive verbs (as in I am come; he is gone) is archaic. For more details see the section on below.
 * German uses haben ("have") as the auxiliary with most verbs, and sein ("be") with some intransitives, including the copula sein itself. The German "present perfect" construction is called the Perfekt (perfect), and for most verbs is the usual past tense for colloquial speech and dialects. For details, see German verbs. Other Germanic languages have similar constructions, such as the perfekt of Swedish and the perfectum (compound past) of Dutch.
 * French uses avoir ("have") as the auxiliary with most verbs, but uses être ("be") with reflexive verbs and with a certain number of intransitive verbs. The past participle is inflected to agree in gender and number with the subject when être is used, and with a direct object when avoir is used, but then only when the object precedes the verb (which is normally the case with personal pronouns and in some relative and interrogative clauses). The construction with "present perfect" form is called the passé composé (compound past) and is the usual past tense for completed events, corresponding to both the English present perfect and to the simple past. For more details see passé composé.
 * Italian uses avere ("have") and essere ("be") as auxiliaries, distributed in much the same way as avoir and être in French. The participle agrees with the subject when essere is used, and with a preceding pronoun direct object when avere is used. The present perfect is often used also for completed events where English would use the simple past. For details see Italian grammar.
 * Spanish uses haber ("have") as the auxiliary with all verbs. The "present perfect" form is called the pretérito perfecto and is used similarly to the English present perfect. While ser ("to be") was used as an auxiliary verb in a similar sense to modern French and Italian, this use disappeared by the 18th century. See Spanish verbs.

Celtic languages (except Cornish and Breton) have a somewhat different type of perfect construction, where a word meaning "after" is used together with a verbal noun. This is described under Welsh grammar and Irish conjugation. By analogy with this construction, sentences of the form I'm after eating (meaning "I have eaten") are used in Irish English. Middle Cornish and Middle Breton used a perfective particle re with the preterite to express a present perfect sense, although this has largely fallen out of use in the modern languages, being replaced with periphrastic formations using the verbs "to be" or "to have" with a past participle.

Proto-Indo-European
In reconstructions of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), the verb form that has traditionally been called "perfect" in fact signified stative aspect (a current state of being). The name was assigned based on similarity to the Greek or Latin perfect tense, before the stative nature of the form was fully recognized. For details of its formation, see Proto-Indo-European verbs.

Ancient Greek
The Ancient Greek perfect developed from the PIE perfect (stative) form; in both cases the stem is typically formed by reduplication. In Greek, however, it took on a true "perfect" meaning, indicating an action with a permanent result. The effect of the action is seen in the resulting state; this state may belong to either the subject or the object. The meaning is therefore similar to the English present perfect, although usage of the Greek perfect is rather narrower than in English. Greek also has a pluperfect and a (compound) future perfect, although their use is rare.

Other verb forms used in Ancient Greek to refer to past circumstances were the aorist, which was used simply to report past events (for example in narrative), and the imperfect.

For details of the formation and use of the Greek perfect, see Ancient Greek verbs (see also ). For the (compound) perfect found in modern Greek, see Modern Greek verbs.

Latin
In Latin the PIE aorist merged with the perfect. Consequently, the Latin perfect tense serves both as a true perfect (meaning, for example, I have done), and as a simple preterite, merely reporting a past event (I did). It contrasts with the imperfect, which denotes uncompleted past actions or states.

Latin also has pluperfect and future perfect forms. For details of how all of these forms are made, see Latin conjugation.

English
The English perfect is made with a form of the auxiliary verb have together with the past participle of the main verb. The auxiliary is inflected for tense and mood, and can also appear in non-finite forms (infinitive, participle or gerund), thus giving rise to a number of constructions which combine the perfect aspect with other verbal properties:
 * I have eaten; he has eaten (present perfect, generally denoting something that took place prior to the present moment)
 * I had eaten (past perfect, something that took place prior to a moment in the past)
 * I will have eaten (future perfect, something to take place prior to a moment in the future)
 * I would have eaten (conditional perfect, something conceived as taking place in hypothetical past circumstances)
 * Have [your dinner] eaten (perfect imperative)
 * ...that he have eaten... (present perfect subjunctive, a rarely used form; see English subjunctive)
 * (to) have eaten (perfect infinitive)
 * having eaten (perfect gerund or participle)

The perfect can also be combined with another aspect that is marked in English – the progressive (or continuous) aspect. In perfect progressive (or perfect continuous) constructions, the perfect auxiliary (a form of have) is followed by the past participle been (from be, the auxiliary of the progressive aspect), which in turn is followed by the present participle of the main verb. As before, the perfect auxiliary can appear in various tenses, moods and non-finite forms:
 * I have been eating; he has been eating (present perfect progressive)
 * I had been eating (past perfect progressive)
 * etc.

The perfect aspect (or perfect progressive) can also be combined with marking for the passive voice. Perfect passive forms can be constructed by replacing the participle of the main verb with the corresponding participle of be followed by the past participle of the main verb: it has been eaten; it will have been eaten; it has been being eaten. Perfect progressive passives, as in the last example, therefore involve two consecutive participles of the auxiliary verb be; these constructions are rarely used.

The implications of the present perfect (that something occurred prior to the present moment) are similar to those of the simple past. The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame – either explicitly stated (I wrote a book in 1995; the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context (for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). The present perfect, on the other hand, is used when the assumed time frame lasts up until the present moment: I have written two novels (in my lifetime; I am still alive); You have done no work this morning (it is still the morning). It is often used to draw attention to the consequences rather than the action: I've built a tree-house (the time of building is not important; the focus is on the result, the present existence of the tree-house).

Perfect progressive forms are used mainly to refer to an action continuing up to (or nearly up to) the time of reference, again with emphasis on its consequences (we were tired because we had been running), or its duration (we have been working for ten hours/since 7 o'clock). They may express interrupted activities (I had been writing a novel when she came to talk to me).

The perfect infinitive (without to in most cases) can be used after modal verbs with various meanings, chiefly to express modality with regard to past events: you should have done that; she might have seen it. With would (and sometimes should and could), it forms a contrary-to-fact past conditional (conditional perfect), as in she would/could have done it if she had tried. (These verb forms might not be considered to be truly in the perfect aspect. ) For more information on such constructions, see English modal verbs (particularly the sections on the individual modals).

For more details on the usage of the various perfect constructions in English, see Uses of English verb forms.

title: Perfect (grammar)


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Ray Draper

Raymond Allen Draper (August 3, 1940, New York City – November 1, 1982) was an American jazz tuba player.

Early life and education
Draper was born in New York City and attended the Manhattan School of Music in the mid-1950s.

Career
As a leader, he recorded his first album, Tuba Sounds (Prestige 1957), at the age of 16, with a quintet. His second album, The Ray Draper Quintet featuring John Coltrane, was recorded at the age of 17 with slight changes in his quintet, including John Coltrane.

Imprisoned over his drug use, after his release in the late 1960s, Draper formed the first jazz rock fusion band composed of established jazz musicians of the day. This preceded Miles Davis's Bitches Brew, which is normally recognized as the first jazz rock fusion group and recording by two years. Original band members included George Bohanon on trombone, Hadley Caliman on tenor sax, John Duke on upright bass, Paul Lagos on drums and Tom Trujillo on guitar. This band, after its first live performance at Hollywood's Whisky a Go Go - where it shared the bill with Nazz - was offered numerous record deals and booked solid at rock venues for the rest of the year. Paul Lagos went on to tour with John Mayall and was one of the founders of the group Pure Food & Drug Act, featuring Don 'Sugarcane' Harris.

Draper began using heroin again, whereupon the more experienced band members quit, except for the youngest member, guitarist Tom Trujillo and his landlord, Chuck Gooden. This led to a search for new members and hirings that included San Diego trumpeter Don Sleet and Ernie Watts. After two years of searching and many personnel changes, including getting clean from drugs, Draper brought drummer Paul Lagos back, along with saxophonist Richard Aplanalp, trumpeter Phil Wood, and bassist Ron Johnson. This new group was eventually named Red Beans and Rice, named after their favorite meal cooked by Draper's first wife, Cassondra. This group appeared on bills with some of the day's headlining groups including Jimi Hendrix, Chicago Transit Authority, Jethro Tull, and Gil Scott Heron. In a 1970 Billboard, reviewing a Dr. John performance mentioned that "His excellent support included Ray Draper on tuba....".

They went on to record the album produced by Jackie Mills titled Red Beans and Rice Featuring Sparerib Ray Draper on Epic Records. But when the band saw that Draper and his manager Forrest Hamilton had put only Draper's picture on the cover, the whole group quit and Draper was on his own once more. After this, he got hooked back on heroin and he sporadically performed and recorded but he was no longer able to recreate the band sound with other players. He left California and spent a couple years in London before returning to New York in the hopes of becoming clean once again. He remarried and had two children, Kayella and Hakim, with his second wife, Anne, continuing to compose for other musicians. Draper played for a time with Max Roach, as mentioned in the 2004 book, "Drummin' Men": "For a time, the Roach group included a tuba, played by young, talented Ray Draper. The instrument was used both as a rhythmic presence and as part of the front-line sound." In 1982, Draper joined the orchestra of Lionel Hampton.

In 1982, coming out of a bank in Harlem, he was held up by a gang of juveniles. The 13-year-old leader of the gang shot him, after Draper had given him his money. Draper had been clean of drug use and was working on a composition, found in his attaché case upon his death.

As leader

 * 1957: Tuba Sounds (Prestige)
 * 1957: The Ray Draper Quintet featuring John Coltrane (Prestige/New Jazz)
 * 1958: A Tuba Jazz (Jubilee), reissued as John Coltrane album, Like Sonny (Roulette, 1990)
 * 1968: Red Beans and Rice (Epic)

As sideman
With Sonny Criss With Brother Jack McDuff With Jackie McLean With Max Roach With Archie Shepp With Dr. John
 * Sonny's Dream (Birth of the New Cool) (Prestige, 1968)
 * Who Knows What Tomorrow's Gonna Bring? (Blue Note, 1970)
 * Jackie McLean & Co. (Prestige, 1957)
 * Strange Blues (Prestige, 1957)
 * Fat Jazz (Jubilee, 1957)
 * Max Roach + 4 at Newport (EmArcy, 1958)
 * Deeds, Not Words (Riverside, 1958)
 * Award-Winning Drummer (Time, 1958)
 * There's a Trumpet in My Soul (Arista Freedom, 1975)
 * The Sun, Moon & Herbs (Atlantic, 1971)

title: Ray Draper


text:
Pagurus pollicaris

Pagurus pollicaris is a hermit crab commonly found along the Atlantic coast of North America from New Brunswick to the Gulf of Mexico. It is known by a number of common names, including gray hermit crab, flat-clawed hermit crab, flatclaw hermit crab, shield hermit crab, thumb-clawed hermit crab, broad-clawed hermit crab, and warty hermit crab.

P. pollicaris inhabits the shells of shark eye snails and whelks. It grows to a length of 31 mm and a width of 25 mm. The shell is often shared by the commensal zebra flatworm (Stylochus ellipticus).

The diet of the flat-clawed hermit crab comprises organic matter, algae, and sometimes other hermit crabs. Fish are the most important predators of this species.

title: Pagurus pollicaris


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Breda 30

The Fucile Mitragliatore Breda modello 30 also known as Breda 30 or the Alpine scythe (la falce degli Alpini) or Finita Burrasca (The storm is over) was the standard light machine gun of the Royal Italian Army during World War II. The Breda Modello 30 was issued at platoon level and gave Italian rifle squads extra firepower. As a light machine gun it had many problems including jamming and overheating. It was fed by a 20 round stripper clips which had to be oiled by a lubrication device. Despite all its faults it formed the main base of fire for infantry units during the war.

Design
The Breda 30 was rather unusual for a light machine gun. It was fed from a fixed magazine attached to the right side of the weapon and was loaded using brass or steel 20-round stripper clips. If the magazine or its hinge/latch were damaged the weapon became unusable. It also fired from a closed bolt along with using short recoil for its action. The rotating bolt was locked by six radially-arranged lugs (reminiscent of, e. g., AR-15, Mondragón rifles or George Fosbery's shotgun).

The recoil operation was violent and often resulted in poor primary extraction. In the primary extraction phase of automatic firearms cycling, the initial small rearward movement of the hot expanded cartridge case away from the chamber's walls should be powerful but not too rapid, otherwise reliability problems may arise. Separated cases resulting in jamming of the Breda were usually the consequence of poor primary extraction, and this was often difficult to remedy in the field. The Breda 30 inherently lacked good primary extraction in its design, and thus utilized a small lubrication device that oiled each cartridge as it entered the chamber. The dust and sand of the deserts of North Africa caused significant premature wear and jamming.

As an automatic weapon's chamber and barrel heat up with prolonged automatic fire, the resulting excessive temperature can cause a chambered round to "cook off," or ignite without intent of the gunner. As a result of firing from a closed bolt, the Breda 30 could not fully take advantage of the cooling properties of air circulation like an open bolt weapon would, thus making cooked off rounds a realistic hazard. The disastrous results could lead to potential injuries to or even the death of the gunner. Some Bredas were eventually modified to accept the new 7.35 mm Carcano cartridge, which the Italian military was making an effort to adopt; however, this was short-lived as slowed production never allowed full adoption of the new cartridge.

Service history
In regular army units, one Breda 30 was issued to each squad (standard issue was 24 to 27 per battalion), although this was later changed to two weapons per squad. An Italian infantry company therefore had about six light machine guns in the early years of World War II (two per platoon), but this number eventually increased to twelve for the majority of the war (four per platoon).

An infantry platoon was divided into two large sections, each of twenty men, which were further split into rifle and light machine gun squads. The section was commanded by a sergeant, who also controlled the LMG squad. The latter was made up of two Breda 30s, each manned by a corporal gunner, an assistant gunner and two ammunition bearers. The balance of the section was the rifle squad of eleven men. Due to the importance of its extra firepower, the Breda 30 was most often given to the squad's most reliable soldier (unlike other armies of the time, it was not rare to see an NCO carrying the squad's automatic weapon). The manual indicates that the two squads were to operate as distinct elements, with the two LMGs supporting the rifle squad in its objective. At the time, most other armies embedded a light machine gun with each section or squad, usually half the size of the Italian section, which by comparison seems an unwieldy organisation. As individual weapons, pistols were issued to each corporal gunner, a carbine for the sergeant-major, and rifles for all others.

The Breda 30 was first used in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.

The Wehrmacht adopted the Breda 30 in small numbers after the occupation of Northern and Central Italy following the Italian armistice of 1943 with the Allies, as the MG 099(i); it filled a similar role as the German MG 34, a light machine gun, predominantly utilized in Italian campaign battlefields.

Combat performance
The Breda 30 was widely viewed as a poorly designed weapon. It had a low rate of fire, low magazine capacity, used sometimes unreliable ammunition and was highly prone to stoppages. The vital oiling system was very susceptible to allowing dust and debris to get into the action system, making the weapon unreliable in combat conditions. Though the magazine system was designed with the rationale that the feed lips on a detachable magazine are prone to damage, the Breda's sole magazine could also become disabled if the hinges or latches were damaged, and the slit on the top for viewing the ammunition count provided another way for debris to enter and jam the magazine.

The Breda's rear and fore sight were both on the gun body, so only one barrel could be zeroed and any spare barrels would, when installed, invariably lead to decreased accuracy without re-zeroing the sights. The magazine was loaded using 20-round stripper clips, which were known to be fragile, especially in combat conditions. In North Africa, the weapon's full-auto mode was nearly unusable: desert sand and dust caused the weapon to jam continuously, with the oil used in the cartridge lubrication only exaggerating this problem. Because of its highly frequent jamming and stoppages, the Breda, despite being a machine gun, was more comparable to a semi-automatic rifle in terms of fire output. In the Balkans, Eastern Front and other theatres of war, the weapon achieved slightly better results.

Low magazine capacity, frequent jamming and the complicated barrel change made firing and reloading a slow and laborious process, resulting in the Breda 30 being a weapon only capable of laying down a diminutive amount of firepower and making it a very modest contributor to a firefight. When considering all of the gun's deficiencies, taken during combat when it was at its worst, the practical rate of fire of the Breda 30 could even have been comparable to a semi-automatic weapon's practical rate of fire, as the standard American rifle was (the M1 Garand and M1 Carbine) and the later German Gewehr 43.

Although considerably flawed when compared to its contemporaries, the Breda 30 was still considered the deadliest weapon of the standard Italian infantryman's arsenal, since heavy machine guns were seen in relatively small numbers and submachine guns such as Beretta Model 38 were very rare. The Breda 30 along with the Carcano rifle made up the backbone of the Italian infantry armament during the Second World War. Field reports on the weapon were of mixed nature: the Breda's very low rate of fire often resulted in a turning of the tide during a firefight against Italian soldiers; however, the Breda 30, in most occasions, was the fastest and most helpful weapon available. The Italian Army attempted to counter the Breda's defects by stressing the importance of the loader's role: every soldier was trained to be a Breda 30 loader and taught how to rapidly feed one ammunition strip after another (this was not always possible, as with Breda 30s mounted on motorcycles). Careful polishing was also carried out frequently with extra attention being paid to the Breda's lubrication system and ammunition availability.

Users

 * Dutch East Indies
 * Nazi Germany
 * Kingdom of Greece
 * Kingdom of Italy
 * Kingdom of Romania
 * Kingdom of Albania
 * Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia.svg Yugoslavia

title: Breda 30


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Melbourne Town Hall

Melbourne Town Hall, often referred to as simply Town Hall, is the administrative seat of the local municipality of the City of Melbourne and the primary offices of the Lord Mayor and city councillors of Melbourne. Located on the northeast corner of Swanston and Collins street in the central business district of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, the building was completed in 1887 and heritage listed on the Victorian Heritage Register in 1974. The building is frequently used for art and cultural events such as concerts, festivals, theatrical plays and exhibitions.

History
Melbourne was officially incorporated as a town on 13 December 1842, with Henry Condell as its first Mayor. However, it was not until 1854 that its first Town Hall was completed. Begun in 1851, the work ground to a halt with the beginning of the Victorian gold rush. The foundation stone of a new, grander Town Hall was laid on 29 November 1867 by the visiting Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, after the demolition of the first. The current town hall officially opened on 11 August 1870 with a lavish ball, which was personally funded by the Lord Mayor Samuel Amess.

The foundation stone of the additional front portico was laid in 1887, and Sir Henry Weedon laid the foundation of the administrative annex building on 27 August 1908. An early cinema event Soldiers of the Cross premiered at the Melbourne Town Hall on 13 September 1900 to an audience of about four thousand people.

In 1913, the city hired a hall keeper in his 30s named James "Jimmy" Dewar, a Scottish immigrant and Black Watch veteran from Dundee. He continued to work there loyally for 30 years. James lived with his wife and family in the Hall's penthouse, raising their children there, and retired in 1943. During their upbringing in the Town Hall, their only playing space was a small asphalt yard where the children went "pigeon-nesting" on the roof.

In his obituary in 1946, The Argus reported that James was a familiar face at the Hall in this era. In his duties, he greeted various visitors from locals to royals, including the French General Paul Pau, the Princes of Wales Edward VIII, and Prince Henry, the Duke of Gloucester. James was described as a "friend, guide, and philosopher" to many Lord Mayors of Melbourne. When opera singer Dame Nellie Melba performed at the Hall in 1928, she wanted to give an encore, but her piano had been packed up and there was no music. James lent her his piano from his upstairs penthouse so she could perform.

On 1 February 1925, a fire destroyed a large part of the town hall, including the main auditorium and pipe organ valued then at £15,000. It was rebuilt and enlarged, extending east over the site previously occupied by the Victoria Coffee Palace, an early temperance hotel frequented by Melbourne's power brokers. The rebuilt section lost some of Reed's original flourishes including the elaborate mansard roof.

In 1964, The Beatles attended a civic reception at the Melbourne Town Hall. "Outside 20,000 teenagers had gathered to obtain a glimpse of the pop idols. Again, frenzied and hysterical cheering and uncontrollable screaming erupted when the Beatles emerged."

Architecture
The Town Hall was designed by the famous local architect Joseph Reed and Barnes, in the Second Empire style. Reed's designs also included the State Library of Victoria, the Royal Exhibition Building, and Melbourne Trades Hall.

The building is topped by Prince Alfred's Tower, named after the Duke. The tower includes a 2.44 m diameter clock, which was started on 31 August 1874, after being presented to the council by the Mayor's son, Vallange Condell. It was built by Smith and Sons of London. The longest of its copper hands measures 1.19 m long, and weighs 8.85 kg.

The building and the portico, excluding the interiors, were first classified on the basis of its Venetian Renaissance facade architecture by the National Trust in 1964 and reclassified in 1971. The organ and the 1927 murals by Napier Waller commissioned for £1,700 (a 2021 value of A$138,340.00) are also classified as historically significant at the State level. They were painted directly in line onto the newly installed asbestos Celotex acoustic tiles in a redecoration of the Auditorium after a fire in 1925. Waller, who had been given a free hand in devising the artworks explained that the figures were not intended to be allegorical, but to create rhythm, and that line-work was used because a skin of paint would interfere with the panels' sound-absorbing quality. The actual painting on the series of 7 metre high by 4m wide wall sections from Waller's half-scale cartoons produced in his Darebin studio was undertaken by H. Oliver and Sons under the artist's supervision.

Organ
The Main Auditorium includes a magnificent concert organ, now comprising 147 ranks and 9,568 pipes. The organ can be played by a fixed console located directly beneath the front pipes or by a secondary mobile console which is placed in close view of the audience for recitals. This organ is of great significance as it is the largest and most comprehensive pipe organ in Australia (measuring by number of voices/stops, the Sydney Opera House organ has more pipes thanks to its entirely "straight" design; there is no borrowing or duplexing at all whereas the Melbourne Town Hall organ makes extensive use of borrowing in the pedal division). The organ is best suited for romantic and symphonic works but is capable of playing just about anything thanks to its vast tonal resources.

History of the organ
The organ was originally built by Hill & son (of England) in 1872 before a fire destroyed it in 1925. A new organ constructed by Hill Norman & Beard was installed in 1929 and has since then been rebuilt and enlarged by Schantz Organ Company of the United States of America from 1995 to 2001 at a cost of $4.5 million. The rebuild included 2 new floating divisions (Fanfare & Bombarde), many new voices and a secondary moveable console

Specification
The stop list is as follows:

title: Melbourne Town Hall


text:
Talk:Universal enveloping algebra

alternate construction
the first sentence of the section which i renamed "Alternate Construction", namely "Noting that any associative K-algebra becomes a Lie algebra with the bracket [a,b] = a.b-b.a, a construction and precise..." i added this sentence to some stuff i put at the top in some explanatory stuff. if this stuff stays at the top, then this sentence should be removed from the "alternate Construction" section, because it would be redundant. i didn't remove it myself, because i couldn't figure out how to start the paragraph without it. need help of the author (i assume this is you, Charles?) - Lethe

I've been through this again, mainly format matters, but some moves of material.

Charles Matthews 14:45, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

Charles, do we have the ability to make commutative diagrams?

There are some examples (Clifford algebra, IIRC correctly). Mostly from the old days, and not very nice. Or, people make little graphics to upload.

My taste is to use words, anyway. This really isn't a mathematics text, from the point of view of exposition.

Charles Matthews 21:24, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

 * OK then. another question: i put the universal construction on top of the less abstract construction, but looking around a bit (e.g. Tensor product) it seems that the preference is to start with the less abstract, and save the universal property for later.  what do you think?

Not a big deal, either way. In this case, relying on tensor algebra, it's kind of clear what to do. Charles Matthews 11:37, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Direct construction
I changed the first sentence of "direct construction." It used to say "For general reasons having to do with universal properties..." the thing is unique if it exists. I thought this wording was oblique at best and incorrect at worst. Most directly, one would probably prove uniqueness from the universal property via some standard abstract nonsense argument. There's probably some way to formulate things so that the proof is seen as following from a "general reason," but more likely I would say it follows from a "standard method." Either way, the present wording, hinting, imprecisely and mysteriously, at grandiose ideas doesn't seem helpful. Either stick with my approach (though please reword it-- I don't know if my wording is ideal) or describe the proof-process in a little more detail, if you're going to mention it. Lewallen 01:55, 12 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I think this problem is now solved. 67.198.37.16 (talk) 21:01, 20 September 2016 (UTC)

Example?
The most familiar nontrivial example of a Lie Algebra would be, I'd guess, the cross product.

It would be nice to see explain, by way of an example, what the universal enveloping algebra of the cross product is.

Just my 2c... mike40033 (talk) 00:25, 13 February 2014 (UTC)

 * I think I just now accomplished this, I hope. The article now gives a very highly detailed development of how, exactly, one builds the thing. All you need to do is to find every location of the Lie bracket in that section, and replace it by the cross product, and bingo, you're done. If perhaps, somehow, that is still not enough to understand the concept, then re-read the "intuitive definition" section.  If that is not enough, and you want a concrete, explicit example, then you must jump forward to the very end, and read the final section, which provides the key construction. Here is the semi-accurate, and very explicit, concrete description:

 * The Lie group corresponding to the cross product has a manifold, and that manifold is the 3-sphere (well, it depends on which Lie group exactly, but the 3-sphere covers them, so lets go with that). The universal covering algebra for the cross-product is then, more or less, the vector space of all continuous complex-valued functions on the 3-sphere. This is clearly a very big space! I would put this in the article, except that I don't know of (can't think of) an easy, "obvious" straight-forward proof of this - the blather about Hopf algebras at the end being non-obvious.  But it is a worthy undertaking to find the simplest, easiest proof of such a construction.  I can't say that I've ever seen such a thing ... have to think about this ... it would make a worth-while addition to this article.  Anyway thanks!  I've just learned something new.  67.198.37.16 (talk) 20:57, 20 September 2016 (UTC)

TODO List
I've more-or-less completely rewritten this article. I hope that it is relatively clear now. There do remain various topics that really need to be fleshed out. Need short discussions of: 67.198.37.16 (talk) 21:21, 22 September 2016 (UTC)
 * Milnor–Moore theorem
 * Harish-Chandra homomorphism
 * Expanded discussion of the representation theory, starting with Verma modules, which are most easily accessible from current content.
 * More correctly, PBW says that the envelope is the coordinate ring $$k[\mathfrak{g}^*]$$ with g-star the dual vector space, which follows from the free vector space used in the construction being covariant, instead of contravarient, the way ordinary vector spaces are. The distinction between co and contravarience were glossed over, and could be fixed. Its a subtle point that usually does not matter.
 * The interplay with commutative geometry needs to be made explicit and formal: the intro says that "it kind-of-ish looks like the space of functions on the group manifold", this needs to be made formal. You can already smell this with all that talk about derivations and polynomials, and the algebras of Lie derivatives on manifolds. However, its all still vague and should be made concrete.
 * Relationship to physics, which are multifold. Well-known are the deformations that lead to the quantum groups. An then the spin structures. Much more obscure is why it is that the formulas resemble the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, and how this generalizes to other spin-statistics.

Mistake regarding the generalized Casimir elements?
The article claims: "It is clear that all central elements will be linear combinations of symmetric homogenous polynomials in the basis elements e_{a} e_{a} of the Lie algebra.", but the Casimir element of sl(2,C) is scalar multiple of h^2+2ef+2fe, which is not a symmetric polynomial in the usual sense. Are they trying to say the image under the Harish-Chandara isomorphism is symmetric? Or is it symmetric with respect to some other group action? -Pabnau 04:04, 16 Feb 2018 (UTC)

 * I think you need to write it in the symmetric basis, instead of in the ladder operators. The PBW theorem asked you to to create a symmetric basis. The quadratic casimir for sl(2,C) is the same as for su(2) aka so(3) in the examples; su(2) is just the real part of sl(2,C). 67.198.37.16 (talk) 04:41, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Profoundly confusing explanation
The technical definition of universal enveloping algebra reads as though it was written by someone who feels profoundly confused by the concept.

We need a definition written by someone who understands the concept well enough not to write a profoundly confusing definition.

To take just one example: From the section Formal definition we find:

The universal enveloping algebra is obtained Section 9.3 by taking the quotient by imposing the relations

 * $$a \otimes b - b \otimes a = [a,b]$$

''for all $a$ and $b$ in the embedding of $$\mathfrak{g}$$ in $$T(\mathfrak{g}).$$ To avoid the tautological feeling of this equation, keep in mind that the bracket on the right hand side of this equation is actually the abstract "bracket" operation on the Lie algebra. Recall that the bracket operation on a Lie algebra is any bilinear map of $$\mathfrak{g}\times\mathfrak{g}$$ to $$\mathfrak{g}$$ that is skew-symmetric and satisfies the Jacobi identity. This bracket is not necessarily computed as $$[X,Y]=XY-YX$$ for some associative product structure on $$\mathfrak{g}$$.''

But there is nothing in the definition that would distinguish one universal enveloping algebra from another.

I recognize that someone has attempted to clarify this in the text.

However: That is not what "formal definition" means. It does not mean an inadequate definition that is supplemented by a few English sentences in the hope they will neutralize the confusion sown by the inadequate definition.

(Maybe you though the brackets might be different in various universal enveloping algebras? A definition must make this explicit and not merely hope that readers will intuit this by telepathy.)2600:1700:E1C0:F340:1D1A:891C:4C07:FC9D (talk) 05:33, 6 November 2018 (UTC)

 * I just want to point out that we do give more formal definition after that. But, yes, the writing has a problem you identified and has to be fixed (by you, me or any other human or bot...). -- Taku (talk) 00:27, 12 April 2019 (UTC)

 * It would be nice if someone could explain in greater detail what is confusing. An earlier version contained a much longer explanation here, showing how to lift the Lie bracket on a vector space to a Lie bracket on the tensor algebra. It was cut and replaced by the above. Would an explanation of the lifting clarify things? (I liked the lifting approach, it was verbose but spelled out all the details.) I'll see if I can repair this. I just got done hacking Hall word and was going to integrate that article into this one, anyway. 67.198.37.16 (talk) 05:50, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

 * OK I think I just fixed it. I restored the text about lifting, so that is now explicitly spelled out. I've also re-organized the discussion of ideals. So now one has not one, but two equivalent definitions. You can bounce one off the other and see that they are consistent.67.198.37.16 (talk) 19:06, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

Universal Property
In the section on the universal property, it is said that
 * This is a functor Lie from the category of algebras Alg to the category of Lie algebras LieAlg over some underlying field—in fact, it is a free functor.

This just seems wrong, because there is no forgetful functor from LieAlg to Alg, or is there? Consequentley, there cannot be a left adjoint, i.e. a free functor.

The last sentence is
 * By functor composition, the universal enveloping algebra constructs an adjunction between the free Lie algebra on a vector space and the forgetful functor from Lie algebras to vector spaces.

which seems wrong as well. The adjunction "free Lie algebra from Vect" ⊣ "forget" is
 *  LieAlg(freeLie(V), g) = Vect(V, forget g),

the adjunction "universal enveloping algebra" ⊣ "free Lie algebra from Alg" is
 * Alg(U(g), A) = LieAlg(g, Lie(A)).

So, writing the above quote in formulas, we get
 * Vect(V, forget U (g)) = Alg(free V, U g) =/= LieAlg(freeLie V, g).

134.100.222.237 (talk) 08:01, 9 April 2019 (UTC)

 * I cannot figure out what you are saying. There is a forgetful functor from LieAlg to Vect. I think that's the first thing that section says. Just forget its an algebra, all you got left is the vector space. There is also something called the free Lie algebra: just take a vector space, generate and assoc alg A from it, and then impose an anti-commutator on A. This is freeLie(V) There are lots of canonical ways of writing the basis for this - I just got done writing the article on Hall word; it is one such basis, but so are the Lyndon words.) So we've got the needed hom's.

 * Using your notation, we have forget(g)=V and given V, we have freeLie(V) Next is the question of "what do you mean, when you write LieAlg(freeLie(V), g)"? You have two choices here: You can take this to be g or you can take it to be U(g).  Saying that its Vect(V, forget g) doesn't make sense, because V is already a Vect, and forget(g) is V. The intent is to say "when you impose g (i.e. the commutator relations) on freeLie(V) you get U(g)". That's because freeLie(V) already moded out anything anti-commuting, so there's nothing anti-commuting left over. All that's left is to mod out the relations in g.

 * I can't parse your last formulas. A is already an algebra, and so is U(g) and A has less structure than U(g) so you can't impose it on U(g), and besides, we are not forgetting a LieAlg to become an Alg, we are forgetting a LieAlg to become a V. I think the article is correct as it stands; its a bit hard to convert the words into formulas; I suppose this could be done but it would blow up the section and make it larger. Heh. 67.198.37.16 (talk) 22:22, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hmm. On closer reading, there's a number of awkwardly worded statements about T and U in there. It should say something like this: T is a functor that takes V to T(V) and not to FreeAlg... there is a functor that takes T(V) to FreeLie(V)= ... there is a functor Lie that takes Alg to LieAlg ... and takes FreeLie to U(g) ... Ugh.... this needs clarification. 67.198.37.16 (talk) 22:34, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

Linear combinations over what coefficients?
The section Free associative algebra begins with this passage:

"Recall first the definition of a free associative algebra generated by $$n$$ elements $$x_1,\ldots x_n.$$ This consists of all possible linear combinations of finite sequences $$x_i^mx_j^n\cdots x_k^p$$ for arbitrary (non-negative) integer powers $$m,n,\cdots,p$$ and the index drawn from the generating set, i.e. $$1\le i,j,\cdots,k\le n.$$ "

But linear combinations require coefficients belonging to some particular ring or field. This coefficient ring needs to be specified.65.132.0.175 (talk) 16:31, 17 November 2020 (UTC)

Article would greatly benefit from a rewriting
This article on one hand uses too many words, which in many places have an extremely unclear meaning.

By the same token, the article does not have enough words that are clear.

The article could greatly benefit from being rewritten so that each sentence follows logically from what came before, without all the extra verbiage that is in so many cases unclear. I hope someone knowledgeable in this subject can do this.65.132.0.175 (talk) 16:59, 17 November 2020 (UTC)

First sentence is confusing
The article starts:

 * In mathematics, a universal enveloping algebra is the most general (unital, associative) algebra that contains all representations of a Lie algebra.

First, I don't think it's true: if we take the Lie algebra to be the 1-dimensional abelian Lie algebra, its universal enveloping algebra does not contain all the representations of this Lie algebra (which has a continuum of 1-dimensional representations). Second, this is definitely not the point of the universal enveloping algebra. So I'm going to change this sentence to

 * In mathematics, the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra is the associative unital algebra whose representations correspond precisely to those of that Lie algebra.

Maybe this can be improved without making it too long, but this is basic idea behind the universal enveloping algebra. Note also that it's important to talk about the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra. John Baez (talk) 19:05, 10 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Universal enveloping algebra