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Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota)

Concordia College is a private liberal arts college in Moorhead, Minnesota. Founded by Norwegian settlers in 1891, the school is associated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and is unrelated to the Concordia University System operated by the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod. Concordia is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and has a total student enrollment of 1,800. It offers Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Science in Nursing, Master of Education, and Master of Science, and Master of Music Education degrees.

Since Concordia was founded, it has articulated a Christian and global curriculum. Students are required to take courses in health, communication, religion, and culture. The college maintains athletic teams in 22 sports and carries 20 music ensembles, including The Concordia Orchestra, The Concordia Band, and The Concordia Choir.

History

Concordia College was dedicated as a private academy on October 31, 1891, by a group of approximately one dozen Norwegian pastors and laymen who had recently settled in the Red River Valley. The school was founded on the property of the former Episcopalian Bishop Whipple School, which had closed in 1887. English professor Ingebrikt Grose of St. Olaf College was asked to preside over the academy, which at that time offered mixed-sex education in English literature, natural sciences, mathematics, piano, and organ. The school opened with three faculty and twelve students.

In 1892, Rasmus Bogstad, a Norwegian pastor, raised funds to build a male dormitory on campus grounds. His efforts led to the construction of Academy Hall. In 1893, Grose resigned and recently hired business professor Hans Aaker took his place. Aaker became mayor of Moorhead in 1900 and left two years later when that job compromised his dedication to the school. Bogstad was appointed Concordia's next president and established its liberal tradition. Under Bogstad, Concordia constructed a new academic building, now called Old Main.

Henry O. Shurson held the presidency after Bogstad resigned in 1910 until Johan A. Aasgaard was appointed in 1911. Under Aasgaard, the nearby Park Region College and Bruflat Academy were merged with Concordia, and a new library was built in what is now called Grose Hall. In 1925, John N. Brown became president and oversaw Concordia's accreditation by the North Central Association in 1927. Eleven years later, a female dormitory was built, named Fjelstad Hall, and in 1947, a male dormitory was built, later called Brown Hall.

Joseph "Prexy Joe" Knutson became president in 1951, and presided over the construction of 16 buildings and the increase in enrollment to 1592 students. Under his leadership, the Concordia Annual Fund, which continues today, was established to raise money for the college's interests. Paul J. Dovre took the presidency in 1975 and oversaw new college programs and articulated Concordia's Lutheran mission. In 1991, Concordia's Speech Team placed 4th in the nation at the AFA-NIET, beating schools with twenty times their enrolment.

In 1999, the college welcomed President Thomas W. Thomsen, who implemented the design for a new campus center; in 2004 Pamela M. Jolicoeur, who established plans for the college's Offutt School of Business, was appointed the first female President. Construction on the Offutt School of Business was completed in late 2012, and hosted students in the fall semester of 2013. William Craft began as president in 2011 and served until June 30, 2023. Today, the college is led by Colin Irvine.

Academics
Concordia is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. It enrolls over 1,800 students and offers 61 majors and 12 pre-professional programs. Master of Education degrees are offered, and the most popular majors are business, education, and communication.

The college upholds a curriculum that centers on a Christian and global perspective. Affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Concordia practices the liberal arts from the Lutheran theological tradition. Faculty are encouraged to retain Becoming Responsibly Engaged in the World (BREW) as a thematic focus in their instructions. The college operates by a semester calendar and first-year students are required to take courses in health, communication, religion, and culture. An honors program is offered for motivated students.

Concordia is included in the Open Doors survey of the top twenty baccalaureate institutions that send students abroad. The college offers four global education programs and offers instruction in nine languages. Moreover, students are permitted to study at two neighboring universities, Minnesota State University Moorhead and North Dakota State University, for course credit to their degrees.

Music
The college maintains three choirs, four bands, two orchestras, three jazz ensembles, two percussion ensembles, and two handbell choirs. Music education began with the college's 1891 formation, when piano and organ lessons were taught by one instructor. The college has since expanded to include a music department of 45 faculty that offers five Bachelor of Music degrees and two Bachelor of Arts degrees. The Concordia Choir is a 78-member mixed choir that travels internationally and has performed at major performance venues, including Carnegie Hall and the Kennedy Center. The choir was founded in 1919 by the college's voice instructor and began touring in 1923 under the direction of Herman Monson. The choir grew to national prominence in the following decades when Paul J. Christiansen became the director. Christiansen remained in the position for 49 years until composer René Clausen took over in 1986. Under Clausen, The Concordia Choir has released numerous recordings and has performed with the King's Singers. He was succeeded in 2020 by Michael Culloton.

The college has put on an annual Christmas concert since 1927 that remains a tradition of the local community. From its inception, it has featured the music department's choirs and orchestra. In 1940, Christianson began working with painter Cyrus M. Running to incorporate murals with the concert to reflect the music's themes. Running completed the designs until 1978, when their development was taken over by David J. Hetland, whose murals have traditionally extended 56 x 20 ft. After Hetland's 2006 death, mural designs were taken over by artist Paul Johnson. The concert is currently performed four times annually on Concordia's campus and twice annually at Orchestra Hall. Over 450 students perform for an audience of twenty thousand, and the concert is broadcast on radio and television. The 2009 concert, Journey to Bethlehem, was recorded by Twin Cities Public Television and won a regional Emmy. It was broadcast nationally by members of the Public Broadcasting Service.

Athletics

Concordia–Moorhead athletic teams are the Cobbers. The college is a member of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC) since the 1921–22 academic year.

Concordia–Moorhead competes in 20 intercollegiate varsity sports, in which more than 800 students participate. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, ice hockey, soccer, tennis, track & field, and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, ice hockey, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball.

Origins
Athletics began when a baseball club was organized in 1903 and a basketball team was formed after the construction of a gymnasium in 1907. Football emerged in 1916 and Concordia joined the MIAC in 1920. Soon after, teams for tennis, golf, wrestling, softball, volleyball, track, cross country running and others were formed.

Athletics grew further when Jake Christiansen, brother of conductor Paul J. Christiansen, was appointed physical education director in 1941. He coached the football team to five conference championships over his 28-year career. In 1952, Christiansen designed a new athletic facility that promoted the college's reputation in the region. One of Christiansen's former students, Jim Christopherson, took over coaching in 1969 and led the team to nine conference titles and two national championships. Both coaches have been inducted in the College Football Hall of Fame.

The 1982 Concordia–Moorhead women's basketball team defeated Mount Mercy, 73–72, to capture the Cobbers' first AIAW Division III national championship. The Cobbers defeated St. John Fisher in the 1988 NCAA Division III championship game, 65–57, to claim the Cobbers' first NCAA national title.

Notable faculty
Notable faculty include:
 * Basit Bilal Koshul, Pakistani researcher writer and editor
 * Chris Coste, head coach, baseball
 * Hiram Drache, historian-in-residence
 * Rich Glas, athletic director and men's basketball head coach
 * Terry Horan, Minnesota Football Coach Association Hall of Fame inductee and Concordia College football coach.
 * Marcus J. Borg, (1942–2015) American New Testament scholar and theologian who was among the most widely known and influential voices in progressive Christianity
 * René Clausen, Grammy award-winning composer and conductor emeritus of The Concordia Choir

Academia

 * Ephraim Isaac, Ethiopian scholar of ancient Ethiopian Semitic languages and of African and Ethiopian civilizations and among first the first professors of Afro-American studies at Harvard University.
 * Leon H. Johnson (March 6, 1908 – June 18, 1969), an American chemist and mathematician who served as President of Montana State University from 1964 to 1969.
 * Earl Lewis, National Humanities Medal awardee and professor of history at the University of Michigan.

Business

 * Marianne C. Brown, businesswoman
 * George Halvorson, retired American healthcare executive who served as CEO of Kaiser Permanente.

Entertainment

 * Kam Heskin, former American actress known for her roles in NBC daytime soap opera Sunset Beach, Planet of the Apes, and Catch Me If You Can, and The Prince and Me film franchise.
 * Rich Sommer, American actor, best known for his portrayal of Harry Crane on the AMC drama series Mad Men (2007–2015), for which he earned two Screen Actors Guild Awards along with the ensemble cast

Government

 * Glen H. Anderson, former Minnesotan politician who served in the Minnesota House of Representatives from 1973 – 1990.
 * Cynthia L. Bauerly, American civil servant who currently serves as the Commissioner of the Minnesota Department of Revenue and was formerly a member of the Federal Election Commission.
 * Kevin Cramer, current United States Senator for North Dakota.
 * Thomas Hall (June 6, 1869 – December 4, 1958), a former United States politician who served in five terms in the United States House of Representatives representing North Dakota.
 * Gabriel Hauge (March 7, 1914 – July 24, 1981), a prominent American bank executive, economist, academic, director on the Council on Foreign Relations. Hauge served as assistant to the president for economic affairs during the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower.
 * Clint Hill, United States Secret Service agent credited with saving the life of Jacqueline Kennedy during the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
 * Daniel Hovland, senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the District of North Dakota.
 * Wilberforce Juta, Former Nigerian politician who served as governor of Gongola State, and later was appointed Nigerian High Commissioner to Zimbabwe.
 * Coya Knutson (August 22, 1912 – October 10, 1996), former United States congresswoman who served two terms in the United States House of Representatives representing Minnesota's 9th congressional district.
 * Ole H. Olson (September 19, 1872 – January 29, 1954), former Governor of North Dakota.
 * Sidney Rand (May 9, 1916 – December 16, 2003), former United States Ambassador to Norway and president of St. Olaf College.
 * John R. Tunheim, United States district judge of the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota.

Journalism

 * Alan Bjerga, Journalist, author, lecturer at Georgetown University, and former president of the National Press Club.
 * Roxana Saberi, American journalist, CBS News correspondent and former Miss North Dakota pageant winner. In 2009, she was held prisoner in Iran's Evin Prison for 101 days under accusations of espionage.

Military

 * Scrappy Blumer, American pilot in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II credited with five aerial victories in a single action on August 25, 1944, earning him the title of the "Fastest Ace in a Day."
 * Michael E. Ennis, former major general in the United States Marine Corps.
 * Donald F. Hagen, retired vice admiral in the United States Navy, and Surgeon General of the United States Navy from 1991 to 1995.

Music

 * Karan Armstrong, former American operatic soprano, who won the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions in 1966.
 * Arlene Buckneberg Ydstie, composer
 * Phyllis Zimmerman, composer, choral conductor

Science

 * Adolph Murie, first biologist to study wolves in their natural habitat
 * Olaf Storaasli, former NASA & Oak Ridge National Laboratory scientist
 * Ernest O. Wollan, former American physicist who made major contributions in the fields of neutron scattering and health physics.

Sports

 * Barry Bennett, former defensive lineman for the New Orleans Saints, New York Jets and Minnesota Vikings.
 * Jim Christopherson, former linebacker and placekicker for the Minnesota Vikings
 * Chris Coste, former Major league baseball catcher and infielder, and 2008 World Series champion.
 * Terry Horan, Minnesota Football Coach Association Hall of Fame inductee and Concordia College football coach.
 * David Joerger, current head coach of the Sacramento Kings.
 * Kris Kuehl, retired track and field athlete who represented the United States in four World Championships and the 2000 Olympic Games.
 * Gary Larsen, defensive tackle for the Minnesota Vikings, member of Purple People Eaters.
 * Brandon Zylstra, wide receiver for the Detroit Lions.

Theology

 * William F. Beck (August 28, 1904 – October 24, 1966), Lutheran pastor, author of The Holy Bible, An American Translation of the Bible.
 * Marcus Borg (March 11, 1942 – January 21, 2015), former American New Testament scholar and theologian. He was among the most widely known and influential voices in Liberal Christianity.

title: Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota)


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Transylvania (disambiguation)

Transylvania is a historical region in present-day Romania.

Transylvania may also refer to:

Places

 * Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), realm of the Hungarian Crown, a semi-independent state, vassal of the Ottoman Empire
 * Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867), realm of the Hungarian Crown ruled by Habsburg Imperial Governors, crownland of the Austrian Empire since 1804
 * Transilvania Airport, an airport in Romania
 * 1537 Transylvania, an asteroid

United States

 * Transylvania, Louisiana, a small town in the United States
 * Transylvania County, North Carolina, United States
 * Transylvania (colony), an American colony in present-day Kentucky in the 1770s

Education

 * Transilvania University of Brașov, a public university in Brașov, Romania
 * Transylvania University, a private university in Lexington, Kentucky, United States

Entertainment

 * Transylvania 6-5000 (1963 film), an animated short film starring Bugs Bunny
 * Transylvania 6-5000 (1985 film), a comedy/horror movie
 * Transylvania (film), the title of a 2006 film directed by Tony Gatlif
 * Transylvania (board game), a 1981 game from Mayfair
 * Transylvania (series), a computer game series of the 1980s
 * Transylvania (video game), the first title in the series
 * "Transylvania" (song), a song by Iron Maiden on their 1980 self-titled album Iron Maiden
 * Transylvania (Nox Arcana album)
 * Transylvania (Creature with the Atom Brain album)
 * "Transylvania", a song by Tyler, the Creator from his album Goblin (2011)
 * "Transylvania", a song by Kim Petras from her EP Turn Off the Light, Vol. 1 (2018)
 * Transylvania, a fictional galaxy from The Rocky Horror Show (1973)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Transylvania (disambiguation)


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Nathaniel Eaton

Nathaniel Eaton (before 17 September 1609 − before 11 May 1674) was an Anglican clergyman who was the first Headmaster of Harvard, President designate, and builder of Harvard's first College, Yard, and Library, in 1636.

Nathaniel was the uncle of Samuel Eaton, one of the seven founding members and signatories of the Harvard Corporation by charter in 1650.

Early life and education
The fifth or sixth son of the Reverend Richard Eaton (1565–1616), and Elizabeth [Okell?]. Nathaniel was baptised in St Mary and All Saints' Church, Great Budworth, Cheshire, where his father was vicar, on 17 September 1609.

Eaton was educated at Westminster School, London. He attended Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he was a contemporary and friend of John Harvard, a student at Emmanuel College at the University of Cambridge.

He then attended the University of Franeker, where he studied under Rev. William Ames. Eaton later obtained a MD and PhD from the University of Padua, in Venetia.

Career
In 1637, Eaton emigrated to the New England Colonies on the merchant ship Hector, and arrived in Boston on 26 June 1637 along with a party that included his older brothers, Theophilus and Samuel, and John Davenport.

Harvard College
In the fall of 1637, he was appointed the first headmaster of Harvard College, then called New College, and was awarded 500 acres of land by the General Court of Massachusetts. He erected Harvard's first building, in 1636, called the Old College; named, fenced and planted the Harvard Yard called the College yard; established the colony's first printing press in March 1639, and created its first semi-public library, the Harvard Library.

Around the time that Eaton started teaching at Harvard, the Antinomian Controversy had erupted in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The governor at the time, John Winthrop, was noted for his extreme stance within the Puritan community and was feared by many of the colonists. Even those who were Winthrop's close allies, such as Rev. Thomas Hooker, who cofounded the colony of Connecticut, were repulsed by his personality. As such, many left the colony and any Antinomians who didn't leave voluntarily were forced out, banished, or excommunicated (such as Rev. John Wheelwright who founded Exeter, New Hampshire, and his sister-in-law, Anne (Marbury) Hutchinson, who founded a new colony in what later became Rhode Island).

Eaton's older brother, Theophilus Eaton, led the group along with John Davenport as their religious leader. They intended to start their own settlement – probably due in part to the commanding persona of John Winthrop, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony at the time (1637 to 1640, and many other terms). Winthrop was termed "an object of great fear in all the colonies," and caused the Rev. Thomas Hooker and others to go off and form their own colonies. Deciding that he didn't want to be involved in the animosity, he – like Rev. Thomas Hooker before him – founded a new colony, the colony of New Haven, though Winthrop and others begged both of them to stay.

In 1639, the year after Theophilus left, Eaton was brought before a court on allegations that he had beat his assistant Nathaniel Briscoe too harshly. According to John Winthrop's account, Briscoe had been hired by Eaton for less than three days when a dispute broke out. Eaton ordered others to hold Briscoe in place while he beat him with "200 stripes" using a walnut tree branch that Winthrop describes as "large enough to have killed a horse". The court also heard a number of other complaints, including that he would beat students with "20 to 30 lashes at a time" and that his wife had supposedly served students hasty pudding with goat dung in it. As a result, Eaton was ordered to step down from his position and pay a fine. The school was subsequently closed the next academic year. The only record of Eaton's own supposed confession was destroyed in a suspicious fire in the office of the historian James Savage (1784–1873), and the full extent of his guilt remains in doubt.

It is through the court case that we know that Eaton owned a slave referred to as "The Moor", in what is the earliest known record of slavery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. During the trial students of Harvard complained about being served the same food as "The Moor". At that time, the term "Moor" was used as a blanket term covering all of the inhabitants of North Africa, including Black and Muslim peoples. It is possible that "The Moor" had arrived a year earlier on the slave ship Desire.

Henry Dunster succeeded Eaton in 1640 as Harvard's first president, and the first students graduated in 1642. Dunster resigned in 1654 over disagreements with the church about infant baptism. Around the same time, he was excommunicated from the congregation in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1640, Eaton moved to the Colony of Virginia, and then sent for his wife and children who left New England, except for his two year old son Benoni.

Family lost at sea
According to Winthrop's History of New England, the ship in which the family traveled disappeared without a trace. His only remaining child, Benoni Eaton, had been left in Cambridge under the care of Thomas Chesholm and his wife, Isobel; Thomas was steward of Harvard College from 1650 to 1660. Through Benoni, Nathaniel has modern descendants.

Following the loss of his family, Eaton married the widow Anne (Graves) Cotton (1620–1684), the daughter of Captain Thomas Graves (1584–1635) of Virginia, becoming the brother-in-law of William Stone, the governor of the Province of Maryland, and family members with future Founding Fathers Thomas Stone and Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer.

Eaton served for several years as an assistant to the Anglican curate at Accomac, Virginia before returning to England, where he was appointed vicar of Bishop's Castle, Shropshire, in 1661 and rector of Bideford, Devon, in 1668.

In 1647, Eaton was exonerated of a £100 debt that Winthrop misstated as being for £1,000 in his History of New England, and with which Eaton had supposedly absconded to Virginia in 1640. The exoneration is documented in Henry Dunster's record book for Harvard College as a copy of a letter by two benefactors that Dunster recorded directly underneath his first design of the seal of Harvard College. The 1640 endowment letter was footnoted in 1647 by Theophilus, who wrote: "This money was put wholey into the hands of my brother Nath:Eaton. 9 August 1647. [signed] Theo:Eaton." The intention of the footnote was to indicate that his brother had finally been repaid, and apparently Nathaniel had in part used the money to further his education. As for the £100, Thomas Symonds, a carpenter who apparently assisted in the building of the college at Cambridge in 1639 and afterwards. was found to be in debt to one of the college's creditors, John Cogan, for the same amount. The college building was poorly erected, and Symonds was the responsible party after Eaton left. Symonds and at least one of his assistants were ultimately incarcerated in debtor's prison.

Religious convictions
Eaton left for England around 1652, where he had already been accepted back by the Church of England and honoured as a parish priest, though obviously he had his scruples, and was said to waver between devotion to his newly found home and that to his former.

In all likelihood, that "back and forthedness" and covering up set up a scenario of confusion, which seems to have confused every recordkeeper involved. Eaton died in 1674 in King's Bench Prison, where he had been incarcerated for a similar debt: quite probably the same £100 debt from which he had already been given relief. His imprisonment coincided with the Stuart Restoration, and was likely reposted on an old list that King Charles II's father had kept concerning those of lingering or questionable indebtedness. He was given a burial service on 11 May 1674 at St George the Martyr, Southwark, Surrey, England.

Confusion with Nathaniel Heaton of Boston
There was also Nathaniel (H)eaton, Heaten, wife, Elizabeth and children, who emigrated on the Griffin with William and Anne Marbury Hutchinson landing on 18 September 1634 in the town of Boston, but who spelled his name "Heaton". This Nathaniel Heaten was made free on 25 May 1636. Nathaniel Eaton of this article only arrived on the Hector on 28 June 1637, and was made a Freeman on 9 June 1638. In 1903 a series of plans of Boston, showing existing ways and owners of property from 25 December 1630 to 25 December 1645 inclusive was published showing the work of cartographer, George Lamb. In these maps #98, Nathaniel Eaton is cited as a property owner in Boston from 1638 to 1645. The subject of this article, Nathaniel Eaton, was known to have left Cambridge in the fall of 1639 and relocated to Virginia by 1640. The Nathaniel Eaton cited in the Lamb map collection is most likely Nathaniel Heaton. This error may have caused further conflation of two individuals, Nathaniel Heaton (Boston), and Nathaniel Eaton (Cambridge). In The Crooked and Narrow Streets of the Town of Boston – 1630–1822 [note 185] by Annie Haven Thwing, Nathaniel Heaton is accurately cited.

title: Nathaniel Eaton


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Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq

Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq were often lacking to various degrees among the various regimes that ruled the country. Human rights abuses in the country predated the rule of Saddam Hussein.

1850 to 1920
Assyrian historian Eden Naby writes that the relations between Assyrians and Kurds have been marked by a "bitter history", since Kurdish tribal chiefs in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwest Iran regularly attacked and plundered Christian tribes, and during World War I Kurds were "responsible for most of the atrocities committed against the Assyrians in particular, due to proximity and a long tradition of perceived Kurdish rights to pillage Assyrian Christians and carry away women and goods", and that "Kurdish expansion happened at the expense of Assyrians". In 1918, a Kurdish chieftain and his tribe assassinated the Patriarch of the Church of the East at the negotiation dinner. It is known that the Iraqi Kurdistan have accepted more than 200,000 Christians refugees and IDPs who had fled from Arab areas between 2012 and 2016. It is also known that security officers and authorities who work for Barzani tribe and his political party, the KDP, have frequently abused some local Christians and IDPs for not being "enough" loyal to them.

From the mid 19th century, "the Kurds carried out numerous massacres of Nestorians, culminating in 1915-1918 with the murder of about half of all the Nestorians and their patriarch Mar Shimun XIX - a genocide proportionally similar to the massacre of the Armenians." The important Rabban Hormizd Monastery and the Mar Mattai monastery in Iraq was plundered countless times by the Kurds. Nestorian libraris were destroyed by Turks and Kurds over the course of centuries. The Kurds murdered thousands of women and men, slicing off the ears of the dead and sending them to Badr Khan, and young women were sold as slaves. The Kurds also forcibly took possession of churches and convents, and they constantly abducted virgins, brides and women, forcing them to turn Muslim. Most notable are the first genocide carried out by Turks and Kurds in the period 1894 1896, and in 1915–1918. The Kurd Agha Simko assassinated the patriarch Mar Shimun XXI Benyamin.

The British occupation of Iraq (1920–1932)
In the 1920s, when Britain held a mandate from the League of Nations (predecessor of the United Nations), British occupational forces, under the command of Arthur Harris, used mustard gas and delayed action bombing to suppress Iraqi resistance to British rule, leading to numerous civilian casualties.

The Hashemite monarchy (1932–1958)
The Hashemite monarchy that took over Iraq from the British has been described as imperfect in terms of human rights, but in many ways better than the regimes that followed:
 * "After the creation of Iraq as an independent kingdom in 1932, the monarchy [...] sought to maintain the status quo of Sunni dominance, prompting conflict between the Arab Sunni establishment and several minorities (such as the Assyrians and the Kurds). But the monarchy also sought solutions, compromises, and certain forms of elections and democratic expression." Because the regime's legitimacy derived from its history in Arabia and its long experience in administration and ability to work with the British, it was able "to lead with less repression and coercion."

Prime ministers, and at one point the leaders of a military coup, had enormous influence during the era of the monarchy, and civil rights varied at different points. According to a United States Library of Congress history of Iraq:

 * In 1952 the depressed economic situation, which had been exacerbated by a bad harvest and by the government's refusal to hold direct elections, triggered large-scale antiregime protests; the protests turned especially violent in Baghdad. In response, the government declared martial law, banned all political parties, suspended a number of newspapers, and imposed a curfew. The immense size of the protests showed how widespread dissatisfaction with the regime had become. The middle class, which had grown considerably as a result of the monarchy's expanded education system, had become increasingly alienated from the regime, in large part because they were unable to earn an income commensurate with their status. Nuri as Said's autocratic manner, his intolerance of dissent, and his heavy-handed treatment of the political opposition had further alienated the middle class, especially the army. Forced underground, the opposition had become more revolutionary.

Repression of Assyrians
In 1915, facing massacres that led to the deaths of up to two-thirds of the Assyrians in southeastern Turkey and northern Iran, about 50,000 survivors streamed over the border into northern Iraq, which was largely populated by Kurds and Turkomen. The refugees were housed in British-run refugee camps. Similar upheavals in 1918 in Iran led to more flows of refugees into Iraq, where Assyrian communities already had existed for centuries. These influxes led to decades of ethnic conflict.

Under the British mandate, Assyrians were organized into militia groups called "the Assyrian Levies" and were used to put down revolts and support the British military presence in Iraq. The Assyrians were abandoned by the British once Iraq achieved independence in 1933. In the summer of that year an armed group of 800 Assyrians crossed from Iraq into Syria, where there were many other Assyrians, to "assert what they perceived as their legitimate national rights", according to Jonathan Eric Lewis, a political analyst. French colonial authorities in Syria forced them back into Iraq where the Iraqi military attacked them. On August 7, "the Iraqi army and Kurdish irregulars, with genuine popular support, committed a massacre at Simele." According to Assyrian sources, the dead numbered 3,000 (other estimates put the number in the "hundreds". "No event has shaped Iraqi Assyrian collective identity more", Lewis wrote.

Assyrians have suffered persecution during the early 20th century, mainly at the hands of Kurdish tribes who persecuted them as individual tribes (Shakkak), and as Muslim allies of the Committee on Union and Progress working through the Ottoman armies during World War I, and later as Kurds who took part in the 1933 Simele massacre of Assyrians. In the early 1930s, the Iraqi ministries disseminated leaflets among the Kurds calling them to massacre Assyrians. This call appealed to Islamic convictions and united Arabs and Kurds against the infidel Christians. Shortly before the August 11 Simmele massacre in 1933, Kurds began a campaign of looting against Assyrian settlements. The Assyrians fled to Simele, where they were also persecuted. There were many accounts by witnesses of numerous atrocities perpetrated by Arabs and Kurds on Assyrian women. Under the command of Kurdish chieftain Bakr Sidqi on August 11 the perpetrators committed the Simele massacre which targeted men almost exclusively. Under the leadership of the Kurdish General Bakr Sidqi Kurds, Arabs and others united and committed the Simele massacre against Christian Assyrians and plundered their towns, and raped and murdered women and children. Since the 16th century after Sultan Selim I brought the Kurds and settled them in Assyrian lands, the Ottoman Empire began using Kurdish tribes to kill Christian Assyrians and Armenians systematically.In the beginning of World War I the Kurdish tribes, and which formed a Kurdish cavalry force in the Ottoman army known as the ""Hamidian Cavalry"" headed to the Assyrian plain villages in the east of what is today known as Turkey as well as the Assyrian villages in Tur Abdin and Hakkari and killed thousands of Assyrians. The Assyrian Patriarch Mar Binyamin Shimon (who was later assassinated by a Kurd) declared that the Assyrians joined the war on Russia's side in self-defence and for liberation.

Between the monarchy and Saddam Hussein (1958–1969)
In the decade following the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy in 1958, various regimes ruled the country, each responsible for the government's treatment of its citizens and for protecting citizens, until the 1968 coup that brought the Ba'ath Party to power with Saddam Hussein as one of the coup leaders:

 * Military government of Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" (1958–1963);
 * First regime of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party (February–November 1963);
 * Governments of the Arif brothers and Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz (1963–1968).

The second regime of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party began with a coup in July 1968, with Saddam Hussein, one of the leaders of the coup, growing in power and eventually assuming the presidency of the country in 1979. He was overthrown in the United States-led invasion of 2003.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Iraqis and many other Arabs often supported the idea of a strong leader "along the lines of Stalin or Mao, Ho Chi Minh or Castro" who would act as "a political savior", acting with great power, a sense of mission and ruling with justice. Saladin, the eleventh-century Islamic hero who defeated the Crusaders, was looked on as a model and even Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, was viewed as a leader from whom an example could be drawn. In Iraq, many felt a strong leader was needed to hold the country together despite its ethnic divisions and other problems.

Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" Regime (1958–1963)
The 1958 military coup that overthrew the Hashemite monarchy brought to power members of "rural groups that lacked the cosmopolitan thinking found among Iraqi elites". Iraq's new leaders had an "exclusivist mentality [that] produced tribal conflict and rivalry, which in turn called forth internal oppression [...]"

According to Shafeeq N. Ghabra, a professor of political science at Kuwait University, and, in 2001, director of the Kuwait Information Office in Washington D.C.:

 * After the 1958 revolution, Iraq's ruling establishment created a state devoid of political compromise. Its leaders liquidated those holding opposing views, confiscated property without notice, trumped up charges against its enemies, and fought battles with imaginary domestic foes. This state of affairs reinforced an absolute leader and a militarized Iraqi society totally different from the one that existed during the monarchy.

Hundreds of thousands of Iraqis fled the country within four years of the 1958 revolution. In 1959 there was a massacre committed against the Iraqi Turkmen, known as the Kirkuk Massacre.

Assyrians fared rather well under the five-year regime, but since Baathist rule began again in 1968, they fared much worse, according to Jonathan Eric Lewis. "As Baathist power increased, Assyrian influence and rights within Iraq decreased," he wrote in 2003.

A power struggle developed among the coup leaders Brigadier Abd al Karim Qasim and Colonel Abd as Salaam Arif. Arif's pro-Nasserite sympathies were supported by the Baath Party, while Qasim found support for his anti-union position in the ranks of the communists. Qasim eventually emerged victorious, first dismissing Arif, then bringing him to trial for treason. He was condemned to death in January 1959, then pardoned in December 1962.

Aware of plotting for a coup by officers opposed to Qasim's increasing links with the communists, Qasim had his communist allies mobilize 250,000 of their supporters in Mosul in March 1959. The coup attempt never materialized, but the communists massacred nationalists and some well-to-do Mosul families. As a result of the killings, and a riot in Kirkuk, Baath Party leaders decided assassination was the only way to dislodge Qasim. Their attempt to kill him, led by Saddam Hussein, failed while injuring Qasim, and the dictator reacted by aligning himself more with the communists and by suppressing the Baath and other nationalist parties. But by 1960 and 1961, Qasim decided the communists had become too strong and he moved against them, purging communists from sensitive government positions, cracking down on trade unions and on peasant associations, and shutting down the communist press.

Various regimes (1963–1968)
After Qasim was overthrown in 1963, the Baath Party took over. The party was small, with only 1,000 active members, and lacked a coherent program, having been held together largely by opposition to Qasim. Saadi, the leader of the Baathists, established a one-party state with little tolerance for opposing views. The Baath was overthrown by November 1963 in a military coup led by a small group of officers. For the next five years power shifted among the officers until 1968, when another coup brought the Baath back to power.

The early Baathist regime (1968–1969)
When the Baathists came back to power, two men, Saddam Hussein and Bakr, increasingly dominated the party. Although Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, by 1969 Saddam "clearly had become the moving force behind the party."

Ethnic conflicts
Human rights violations in Iraq often came from conflicts between the country's rulers and members of distinct ethnic communities, especially the Kurds and Shiite Arabs, although Sunni Arabs, members of the minority that filled the top positions in the regimes after 1958 and through Saddam's years in power, could feel the wrath of the rulers for reasons unrelated to ethnic conflict.

Conflict with the Shi'a
Ghabra has called the treatment of the Shi'a one of the worst political mistakes of the regimes after 1958. Writing in 2001, Ghabra said the post-1958 regimes dismissed the "Shi'a majority and its rights, alienating them despite their commitment to Iraq."

Conflict with the Kurds
In the regimes that followed the 1958 overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy, human rights violations in Kurdistan occurred frequently as Kurdish nationalism conflicted with the goals of various Iraqi regimes, causing violence to break out when political negotiations broke down:

 * [T]he Kurds encountered a familiar pattern under each of the regimes that followed: first a period of negotiations that invariably failed to satisfy Kurdish demands for autonomy, and then, when the talks broke down, renewed outbreaks of violence. Rural villages were bombed and burned and Kurdish fighters hunted down relentlessly. The name that they adopted expressed accurately the condition of their existence. They called themselves peshmerga — "those who face death."

title: Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq


text:
Scott Diddams

Scott Diddams is a professor adjoint in the physics department at the University of Colorado Boulder. He is attached to the Optical Frequency Measurements Group at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) based in Boulder, Colorado. Part of his work there includes research towards increasing the accuracy of the atomic clock.

title: Scott Diddams


text:
Tracheal tube

A tracheal tube is a catheter that is inserted into the trachea for the primary purpose of establishing and maintaining a patent airway and to ensure the adequate exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Many different types of tracheal tubes are available, suited for different specific applications:
 * An endotracheal tube is a specific type of tracheal tube that is nearly always inserted through the mouth (orotracheal) or nose (nasotracheal).
 * A tracheostomy tube is another type of tracheal tube; this 2 - 3 in curved metal or plastic tube may be inserted into a tracheostomy stoma (following a tracheotomy) to maintain a patent lumen.
 * A tracheal button is a rigid plastic cannula about 1 in in length that can be placed into the tracheostomy after removal of a tracheostomy tube to maintain patency of the lumen.

History
Portex Medical (England and France) produced the first cuff-less plastic 'Ivory' endotracheal tubes. Ivan Magill later added a cuff (these were glued on by hand to make the famous Blue-line tube copied by many other manufacturers). Maeterlinck GmbH developed the disposable endotracheal tube and produced many design variations, adding the 'Murphy Eye' to their tubes in case of 'accidental' placement of the tube to avoid right bronchial occlusion. David S. Sheridan was one of the manufacturers of the American markets "disposable" plastic tracheal tube now used routinely in surgery. Previously, red rubber (Rusch-Germany) tubes were used, then sterilized for re-use.

Applications
Tracheal tubes can also be used to deliver oxygen in higher concentrations than found in air, or to administer other gases such as helium, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, xenon, or certain volatile anesthetic agents such as desflurane, isoflurane, or sevoflurane. Tracheal tubes may also be used as a route for administration of certain medications such as salbutamol, atropine, epinephrine, ipratropium, and lidocaine. Tracheal tubes are commonly used for airway management in the settings of general anesthesia, critical care, mechanical ventilation, and emergency medicine.

Endotracheal tube

Most endotracheal tubes today are constructed of polyvinyl chloride, but specialty tubes constructed of silicone rubber, latex rubber, or stainless steel are also widely available. Most tubes have an inflatable cuff to seal the trachea and bronchial tree against air leakage and aspiration of gastric contents, blood, secretions, and other fluids. Uncuffed tubes are also available, though their use is limited mostly to pediatric patients (in small children, the cricoid cartilage, the narrowest portion of the pediatric airway, often provides an adequate seal for mechanical ventilation).

Types of endotracheal tubes include oral or nasal, cuffed or uncuffed, preformed (e.g. RAE (Ring, Adair, and Elwyn) tube), reinforced tubes, and double-lumen endobronchial tubes. For human use, tubes range in size from 2 to 10.5 mm in internal diameter (ID). The size is chosen based on the patient's body size, with the smaller sizes being used for pediatric and neonatal patients. Tubes larger than 6 mm ID usually have an inflatable cuff. Originally made from red rubber, most modern tubes are made from polyvinyl chloride. Those placed in a laser field may be flexometallic. Robertshaw (and others) developed double-lumen endobronchial tubes for thoracic surgery. These allow single-lung ventilation while the other lung is collapsed to make surgery easier. The deflated lung is re-inflated as surgery finishes to check for fistulas (tears). Another type of endotracheal tube has a small second lumen opening above the inflatable cuff, which can be used for suction of the nasopharngeal area and above the cuff to aid extubation (removal). This allows suctioning of secretions that sit above the cuff which helps reduce the risk of chest infections in long-term intubated patients.

The "armored" endotracheal tubes are cuffed, wire-reinforced, silicone rubber tubes that are quite flexible but yet difficult to compress or kink. This can make them useful for situations in which the trachea is anticipated to remain intubated for a prolonged duration, or if the neck is to remain flexed during surgery. Polyvinyl chloride tubes are relatively stiff in comparison. Preformed tubes (such as the oral and nasal RAE tubes, named after the inventors Ring, Adair and Elwyn) are also widely available for special applications. These may also be constructed of polyvinyl chloride or wire-reinforced silicone rubber. Other tubes (such as the Bivona Fome-Cuf tube) are designed specifically for use in laser surgery in and around the airway. Various types of double-lumen endotracheal (actually, endobronchial) tubes have been developed (Carlens, White, Robertshaw, etc.) for ventilating each lung independently—this is useful during pulmonary and other thoracic operations.

Tracheostomy tube
Several types of tracheostomy tubes are available, depending on the requirements of the patient, including Shiley, Bivona (a silicon tube with metal rings that are good for airways with damage to the tracheal rings or otherwise not straight), and fenestrated.

Tracheal button
A tracheal button is generally used in people with severe obstructive sleep apnea, who often wear this device during waking hours and remove it while sleeping to ensure a patent airway and reduce the risk of asphyxiation. Since the tube does not extend far into the trachea, it is easy to breathe and speak with the device in place.

title: Tracheal tube


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mirror Coat

Update: I count 7 votes to delete, 1 to keep, 1 to merge, and 1 sock puppet (User:Demonstford -> User:Slakhan). Counting me as well that makes 8 to delete. I have deleted Mirror Coat and I'll now go and make a link to this discussion on Archived deletion debates. Wile E. Heresiarch 14:45, 23 May 2004 (UTC)

An article about a techinique in the Pokemon games. Is it really necessary to have a page on every single attack possible in every single video game? I don't think so. Delete. PMC 04:03, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Some things are just too trival...Average Earthman 10:56, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete is right. - Lucky 6.9 16:47, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Would go well in a Wikibooks Pokemon game guide, but not on Wikipedia. -- Cyrius|&#9998 18:46, May 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * Christ Jesus no. The Land 19:54, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Hopefully this is not the first of many.Beelzebubs 20:31, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I believe the usual practice is to keep Pokemon content. We kept the formula for deciding the outcome of battles not long ago. Perhaps there's some place where this is can be properly merged, but if not, keep. Everyking 23:25, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Could you give a cite for that policy? --Ben Brockert 22:52, May 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * I didn't say it was policy, I said practice. I can cite the continued existence of the formula article, if you want me to have to go and figure out the title of it. Everyking 15:58, 19 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Ben Brockert 22:52, May 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * Id say let Everyking go find the article with the formula and merge it into one all encompasing Pokemon strategy article. --Starx 00:45, 22 May 2004 (UTC)
 * ...which, being a how-to, would belong in Wikibooks. PMC 05:07, 22 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. It's factual info and people will use it (though, not me).  --Demonstford 17:17, 22 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
Laryngeal mask airway

A laryngeal mask airway (LMA), also known as laryngeal mask, is a medical device that keeps a patient's airway open during anaesthesia or while they are unconscious. It is a type of supraglottic airway device. They are most commonly used by anaesthetists to channel oxygen or inhalational anaesthetic to the lungs during surgery and in the pre-hospital setting (for instance by paramedics and emergency medical technicians) for unconscious patients.

A laryngeal mask is composed of an airway tube that connects to an elliptical mask with a cuff which is inserted through the patient's mouth, down the windpipe, and once deployed forms an airtight seal on top the glottis (unlike tracheal tubes which pass through the glottis) allowing a secure airway to be managed by a health care provider.

The laryngeal mask was invented by British anaesthesiologist Archibald Brain in the early 1980s, and in December 1987 the first commercial laryngeal mask was made available in the United Kingdom. The laryngeal mask is still widely used today worldwide, and a variety of specialised laryngeal masks exist.

Uses
It channels oxygen and inhalational anaesthetic to the lungs. It can be used during anaesthesia, or while a patient is unconscious. Laryngeal mask airways are designed to be an easy way to secure the airway and ventilate a patient – they are easier to place than tracheal intubation due to the lack of muscle relaxants and laryngoscopy. They are also less likely to damage teeth or the larynx itself. It may form an air-tight seal. Cuffs are available in multiple sizes.

LMAs can be alternatives to the use of a face mask when using a bag-valve-mask device to prevent gastric insufflation.

Contraindications
A laryngeal mask airway is generally not used in surgeries where there is a high risk that stomach contents may be aspirated. This is particularly for surgeries that last longer than 2 hours. It often uses low inflation pressures, so may not be appropriate in patients with illnesses that cause low lung compliance. As it is typically larger and more obstructive than tracheal intubation, it is generally not used for surgery of the mouth and throat.

It should not be used for conscious patients because of the risk of stimulating the gag reflex.

Complications
A laryngeal mask leaves more anatomical dead space in the trachea than with tracheal intubation. This can decrease the oxygenation of the lungs and the removal of carbon dioxide. It also slightly increases airway resistance. More serious complications include vomiting while the laryngeal mask airway is in place (potentially leading to aspiration of stomach contents).

Although the laryngeal mask airway is specifically designed to be easy to place, it is possible for the ventilation it provides to be inadequate. This may be due to variations in neck anatomy, abnormal neck position, dislodgement of the cuff, the mask not being long enough to reach the larynx (or more rarely too long), or folding of the mask in the pharynx. For these reasons, radiology can be used to ensure that the laryngeal mask airway is in the correct position.

Technique
A laryngeal mask airway has an airway tube that connects to an elliptical mask with a cuff. The cuff can either be an inflating type (achieved after insertion using a syringe of air), or self-sealing.

A laryngeal mask airway must first be completely sterilised (it may be reused many times). Standard checks for common use defects should be performed (such as cracks in the plastic). For an inflatable cuff, the cuff should be inflated and deflated outside the patient to ensure it is functional. A pen-like grip is used to move it through the patient's mouth and throat, preferably when their head is extended to straighten the airway. The laryngeal mask airway should be lubricated so that it can be placed more easily.

Once inserted correctly (and the cuff inflated where relevant), the mask conforms to the anatomy with the bowl of the mask facing the space between the vocal cords. The tip of the laryngeal mask sits in the throat against the upper oesophageal sphincter.

Concept
Archie Brain began studying the anatomy and physiology of the upper airway in relation to existing airways. Brain concluded that current techniques for connecting artificial airways to the patient were not ideal. He reasoned that if the respiratory tree is seen as a tube ending at the glottis and the objective is to connect this tube to an artificial airway, the most logical solution was to create a direct end-to-end junction. Existing airway devices failed to form this junction; the face-mask sealed against the face, and the endotracheal tube penetrated too far so that the junction was created within the trachea, instead of at its beginning.

First study
The first study of a laryngeal mask in 23 patients was conducted at London Hospital in 1982. Insertion and ventilation using the laryngeal mask in 16 anaesthetised, paralysed female patients was successful, achieving a seal greater than 20 cm H2O in all patients. Emergence from anaesthesia was also noted to be uneventful and only 3 patients complained of a sore throat, a marked contrast to endotracheal tube anaesthesia. Following the success of the initial study, Brain successfully inserted and ventilated 6 anaesthetised, non-paralysed patients. Finding no difference between the first and second group of patients, Brain realised that muscle relaxation was not required for insertion. Finally, Dr Brain used the device in a dental extraction patient, he realised that because the space in and around the glottis was filled by the mask, the need for packing was much reduced and more impressively the larynx was completely protected from surgical debris. Brain realised the exciting possibility that the laryngeal mask could be applied to head and neck surgery and also observed that "In two patients the anatomy was such as to suggest that endotracheal intubation might have presented at least moderate difficulty. Neither presented difficulty with regard to insertion of the laryngeal mask ". By 1985, experience with the laryngeal mask prototype had reached 4000 cases. Brain published a case series in Anaesthesia in 1985 describing the management of 3 difficult airway patients, illustrating the use of the laryngeal mask for airway rescue. Brain with 5 co-authors published a second paper in anaesthesia describing the use of the laryngeal mask in over 500 patients, adding considerable credence to the laryngeal mask concept. However the limitation of the prototypes remained, a new material was urgently needed.

Search for new material
Following the realisation that a new material was needed, Brain looked at a number of options; polyvinyl chloride was too rigid and synthetic foam did not lend itself to re-use. Silicone prototypes looked promising as what was produced was an ellipse with a flat central web which, if cut correctly, could be used to create an aperture bar to prevent the epiglottis falling into the distal aperture. The silicone prototype was also smooth and deflated into a wafer thin ellipse, however, the silicone mask was unable to retain the desired bowl shape and it was no longer possible to make rapid adjustments to the design. The silicone Dunlop prototype was superior to the Goldman prototype, one of Brain's first prototypes created from the cuff of a latex Goldman dental mask, however Brain needed a material that would give him design flexibility before the next set of silicone moulds were cast. In 1986, Brain continued to make prototypes from latex with a range of modifications; the inclusion of an inflation line, a thin-walled elliptical ring in the cuff which resulted in equal expansion of the cuff, the creation of a larger size to increase the reliability of cuff seal pressure and a moulded back plate for the cuff. By December 1986, Brain was ready to conduct the first wholly independent trial and chose John Nunn to be the recipient of the silicone prototypes to conduct the trial. "There were three outstanding advantages of the LMA in patients who breathed spontaneously. Firstly, excellent airway patency was obtained in 98% of patients and did not deteriorate during the course of the anaesthetic. Secondly, as no manual support of the jaw was necessary the hands of the anaesthetist were freed for monitoring, record keeping and other tasks. Thirdly, it was possible to maintain a clear airway throughout transfer of the patient to the recovery room." The publication of this trial in 1989 was critical in kickstarting the uptake of the laryngeal mask in the UK".

First commercial laryngeal mask
On 5 December 1987, Brain received the first case of all-factory-made, silicone cuffed, LMA Classic laryngeal mask distributed by The Laryngeal Mask Company Limited. The LMA Classic was launched in the UK and the British anaesthesia community were quick to realise the potential benefits of the laryngeal mask. Within 3 years of launch in the UK, the device had been used in at least 2 million patients and was available in every hospital. By 1992, the laryngeal mask was approved for sale and being sold in Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, India and the United States. The anaesthesia community had been calling for practice guidelines and in 1992 the ASA commissioned a task force to establish practice guidelines for managing difficult airway situations. The ASA algorithm for difficult airways was published in 1993 and stressed an early attempt at insertion of the laryngeal mask if face mask ventilation was not adequate. The laryngeal mask revolutionised anaesthetic practice and by 1995 had been used in excess of 100 million patients and was available in more than 80 countries throughout the world. The laryngeal mask had now been widely accepted as a form of airway management. From 1988 to 2017, more than 200 million patients used laryngeal mask.

Between 1989 and 2000 a variety of specialised laryngeal masks were released which included the LMA Flexible (1990), LMA Fastrach (1997), LMA Unique (1997) and LMA ProSeal (2000), all offered by The Laryngeal Mask Company.

title: Laryngeal mask airway


text:
User talk:Edsanville

$$\begin{array}{lll} \int \mathrm{d}^3 x \frac{1}{|\mathbf{x}|} e^{- \mathrm{i} \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{x}} & = & \lim_{u \rightarrow 0} \int \mathrm{d}^3 x \frac{\exp \left( - u \left| \mathbf{x} \right| \right)}{\left| \mathbf{x} \right|} e^{- \mathrm{i} \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{x}}\\ & = & \lim_{u \rightarrow 0} \int_0^\infty \mathrm{d} r \int_{-1}^1 \mathrm{d} \cos \vartheta 2 \pi r^2 \frac{\exp \left( - ur \right)}{r} e^{- \mathrm{i} q r \cos \vartheta}\\ & = & 2 \pi \lim_{u \rightarrow 0} \int_0^\infty \mathrm{d} r \int_{-1}^1 \mathrm{d}s r \exp \left( - r \left( u + \mathrm{i} q s \right) \right)\\ & = & \frac{2 \pi}{-\mathrm{i} q} \lim_{u \rightarrow 0} \int_0^\infty \mathrm{d} r \left[ \exp \left( - r \left( u + s \mathrm{i} q \right) \right)\right]_{-1}^1\\ & = & \frac{2 \pi \mathrm{i}} {q} \lim_{u \rightarrow 0} \left[ \frac{1}{u + s \mathrm{i} q } \right]_{-1}^1 \\ & = & \frac{2 \pi \mathrm{i}} {q} \frac{2} {\mathrm{i} q} \\ & = & \frac{4 \pi}{q^2 } \end{array}$$

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title: User talk:Edsanville


text:
Talk:Mount Katmai

Differences
The page for Mount Tambora states a death toll of 2, but this states a death toll of 10! Guanlongwucaii (talk) 14:18, 18 May 2009 (UTC)Guanlongwucaii

Distance to Novarupta?
This article says that the actual vent was at Novarupta, six miles from Mount Katmai but the Novarupta article says that it's 2.5 miles from Katmai. So, which is it? Senor Cuete (talk) 00:09, 21 February 2017 (UTC)

"The volcano has caused ten known fatalities due to gas exposure."
There is no citation for this statement and it seems unlikely given the extremely remote location and lack of visitation. Wikipedia seems to be the only online source that mentions this figure. The National Park Service does not, the Alaska Volcano Observatory does not, other scientific articles on the volcano and its neighbors do not.

 * Tag it as and if no citation is forthcoming for a while, delete it. Senor Cuete (talk) 14:45, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Katmai


text:
PathPing

The  command is a command-line network utility included in Windows NT operating systems since Windows 2000 that combines the functionality of ping with that of tracert. It is used to locate spots that have network latency and network loss.

Overview
The command provides details of the path between two hosts and ping-like statistics for each node in the path based on samples taken over a time period, depending on how many nodes are between the start and end host.

The advantages of  over   and   are that each node is pinged as the result of a single command, and that the behavior of nodes is studied over an extended time period, rather than the default ping sample of four messages or default traceroute single route trace. The disadvantage is that it takes a total of 25 seconds per hop to show the ping statistics.

Syntax
The command-syntax is:

pathping [-g host-list] [-h maximum_hops] [-i address] [-n] [-p period] [-q num_queries] [-w timeout] [-P] [-R] [-T] [-4] [-6] target_name

Options:
 *   Loose source route along host-list.
 *   Maximum number of hops to search for target.
 *   Use the specified source address.
 *   Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.
 *   Wait period milliseconds between pings.
 *   Number of queries per hop.
 *   Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.
 *   Test for RSVP PATH connectivity.
 *   Test if each hop is RSVP aware.
 *   Test connectivity to each hop with Layer-2 priority tags.
 *   Force using IPv4.
 *   Force using IPv6.

Sample
>pathping -q 10 wikipedia.org Tracing route to wikipedia.org [66.230.200.100] over a maximum of 30 hops: 0 Aaron.hsd1.mn.comcast.net. [192.168.11.3]  1  air.setup [192.168.11.1] 2 73.127.68.1   3  ge-1-38-ur01.minnetonka.mn.minn.comcast.net [68.86.234.41] 4 68.86.232.37   5  68.86.232.33   6  68.86.232.5   7  68.86.232.1   8     *     12.116.99.41   9  tbr2.cgcil.ip.att.net [12.122.99.70] 10    *     ggr2.cgcil.ip.att.net [12.123.6.69] 11 ar1-a3120s2.wswdc.ip.att.net [192.205.34.6] 12 66.192.247.163  13  ge8-13.csw5-pmtpa.wikimedia.org [66.193.50.242] 14    *     rr.pmtpa.wikimedia.org [66.230.200.100] Computing statistics for 35 seconds... Source to Here  This Node/Link Hop RTT    Lost/Sent = Pct  Lost/Sent = Pct  Address 0                                          Aaron.hsd1.mn.comcast.net. [192.168.11.3]                                0/  10 =  0%   |   1    0ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  air.setup [192.168.11.1] 0/ 10 =  0%   |   2    8ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  73.127.68.1 0/ 10 =  0%   |   3    8ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  ge-1-38-ur01.minnetonka.mn.minn.comcast.net [68.86.234.41] 0/ 10 =  0%   |   4    9ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  68.86.232.37 0/ 10 =  0%   |   5    8ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  68.86.232.33 0/ 10 =  0%   |   6   12ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  68.86.232.5 0/ 10 =  0%   |   7    8ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  68.86.232.1 0/ 10 =  0%   |   8  ---      10/  10 =100%    10/  10 =100%  12.116.99.41                                 0/  10 =  0%   |   9   20ms     0/  10 =  0%     0/  10 =  0%  tbr2.cgcil.ip.att.net [12.122.99.70] 0/ 10 =  0%   |  10   18ms     2/  10 = 20%     2/  10 = 20%  ggr2.cgcil.ip.att.net [12.123.6.69] 1/ 10 = 10%   |  11  ---      10/  10 =100%     9/  10 = 90%  ar1-a3120s2.wswdc.ip.att.net [192.205.34.6] 0/ 10 =  0%   |  12   44ms     2/  10 = 20%     1/  10 = 10%  66.192.247.163 0/ 10 =  0%   |  13   63ms     1/  10 = 10%     0/  10 =  0%  ge8-13.csw5-pmtpa.wikimedia.org [66.193.50.242] 0/ 10 =  0%   |  14   63ms     6/  10 = 60%     5/  10 = 50%  rr.pmtpa.wikimedia.org [66.230.200.100] Trace complete.

title: PathPing


text: User talk:82.43.50.196

title: User talk:82.43.50.196


text:
User talk:68.173.27.208

Proposed deletion of Mesivta Tiferes Yisroel
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Mesivta Tiferes Yisroel, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process
 * Lacks real hard notability

All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because, even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. Scarian Call me Pat!  22:13, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

Nomination of Mesivta Tiferes Yisroel for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Mesivta Tiferes Yisroel is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Mesivta Tiferes Yisroel until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on good quality evidence, and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article. The Terminator p  t  c  21:19, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

Nomination of Yeshiva Tiferes Yisroel for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Yeshiva Tiferes Yisroel is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Yeshiva Tiferes Yisroel until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article.  Puzzledvegetable Is it teatime already?  15:59, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.173.27.208


text:
R. Stephen Berry

Richard Stephen Berry (April 9, 1931 – July 26, 2020) was an American professor of physical chemistry.

He was the James Franck Distinguished Service Professor, emeritus,, at The University of Chicago. He was also special advisor for national security to the director, at Argonne National Laboratory.

Career and research
A native of Denver, Colorado, Berry joined the Chicago faculty in 1964, having been an assistant professor at Yale University and, between 1957 and 1960, an instructor at the University of Michigan. At the University of Chicago, he has been a member of the department of chemistry, the James Franck Institute, the College, and, for many years, the Committee and then the School of Public Policy Studies.

He was home secretary of the National Academy of Sciences from 1999 until 2003. He has written one book, been co-author of four others, one with Stuart A. Rice and John Ross, another with Linda Gaines and Thomas V. Long, another with Vladimir Kazakov, Stanislaw Sieniutycz, Zbigniew Szwast, and Anatoly Tsirlin, and one with Boris Smirnov. He was named a MacArthur Fellow in 1983.

His scientific studies have included both experimental and theoretical work. His doctoral thesis, directed by William Moffitt, was on the subject of the electronic structure of butadiene. He then went on to study alkali halides in the gas phase, first at the University of Michigan and then at Yale, using shock waves to produce sufficient dissociation of the molecules to ions to make it feasible to observe the photodetachment spectra of the halide ions, thus determining the electron affinities of the halogen atoms to four or five significant figures. He worked at Michigan with Martin Stiles to observe the free benzyne in the gas phase, and then, at Yale, with a graduate student Margaret Emery and an undergraduate Jon Clardy, they found the meta and para isomers of benzyne. He also worked with Walter Lwowski to study nitrenes in the gas phase.

In 1964, he moved to The University of Chicago, where he has worked on atomic and ionic collision processes, photoionization, the nature of correlation of valence electrons in atoms, and, more recently, on atomic and molecular clusters, and on protein dynamics. He became interested in energy and its efficient use first through concern about Chicago's air pollution in the 1960s. This led to what we believe is one of the first public studies of what has become called "life cycle analysis." This was an analysis of the actual and ideal limiting energy and free energy use in the manufacture and disposal of the automobile, and was carried out with Margaret F. Fels. This led to many other such analyses, which now are done very frequently. This work, in turn, stimulated what has become known as "finite-time thermodynamics," the study of the optimal performance of processes constrained to operate in finite time or at nonzero rates. He has been very active in the study of atomic and molecular clusters, particularly in their phases and phase changes. This has led to a broader interest in bridging between the microscopic and macroscopic descriptions of physical systems, especially of finding the boundary below which a macroscopic description fails.

His interests, apart from traditional scientific studies, have included energy and energy policy (which he was teaching with the economist George Tolley), scientific integrity issues, scientific information, its distribution and its contributions to policy and governmental decisions including those of the courts, and science education, particularly the problem of science illiteracy.

Personal life
Berry was married to Carla Friedman Berry. They had two grown daughters, one son, five grandsons, and three granddaughters. He died in July 2020 in Chicago.

Books

 * 2019 Three laws of nature: a little book on thermodynamics. New Haven: Yale University Press.
 * 2002 (with Stuart A. Rice and John Ross) Physical and chemical kinetics (2nd. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
 * 2000 (with Stuart A. Rice and John Ross) Physical chemistry (2nd. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
 * 2000 (with V. Kazakov, S. Sieniutycz, Z. Szwast and A. M. Tsirlin) Thermodynamic optimization of finite-time processes. Chichester; New York: Wiley.
 * 1991 Understanding energy: energy, entropy, and thermodynamics for everyman. Singapore; New Jersey: World Scientific.
 * 1979 (with Linda Gaines and Thomas Veach Long II) TOSCA, the total social cost of coal and nuclear power. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Pub. Co.
 * 1978 (with Margaret Lounsbury and Sandra Hebenstreit) Resource analysis: Water and energy as linked resources (WRC Research Report NO. 134). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Water Resources Center.

title: R. Stephen Berry


text:
ISO 3166-2:SO

ISO 3166-2:SO is the entry for Somalia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

ISO 3166-2 codes have been assigned to Somalia's 18 administrative regions. Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is SO, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Somalia. The second part is two letters.

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

 * Notes

title: ISO 3166-2:SO


text:
Cornwall County, Province of New York

Cornwall County was a county of the former Province of New York, established on September 5, 1665 from 25100 sqmi of land that had been granted to the Duke of York in modern Maine. As established, the grant ran all the way from the St. Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean, between the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers, and produced what today is most of Aroostook, Piscataquis, Washington, Hancock, Penobscot, Waldo, Knox, Lincoln, Kennebec, Somerset, and Sagadahoc counties.

History
On October 7, 1673, Massachusetts, relying on a new survey of its northern border, and responding to the Dutch capture of New York in August 1673 as a result of the Third Anglo-Dutch War, claimed 200 sqmi of the Duke of York's territory east of the Kennebec River in present-day Maine, including the Pemaquid settlement, and established a new county there. On May 27, 1674, this county was named Devonshire. Cornwall was implicitly reduced to the area north of the Massachusetts claim. Cornwall and Devonshire were lost to the Abenaki Indians in King Philip's War in the Autumn of 1675. Cornwall County was recreated on November 1, 1683, conforming to the original grant, still part of New York. Cornwall continued unchanged until the Spring of 1687, when it was transferred to the expanded Dominion of New England, extinguishing New York's claim to the land. Cornwall County was transferred from New England to Massachusetts in 1692 and called Yorkshire. Much of this region became part of Maine when it was split from Massachusetts in 1820.

title: Cornwall County, Province of New York


text:
Talk:Anyang

VfD discussion (2004)

 * The following discussion is closed. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.

This is a VfD discussion about AnYang, which now redirects here.

The article entitled "AnYang" is a duplicate of the article called "Anyang." "AnYang" is listed as orphaned. Since Anyang contains the same info, why not just delete "AnYang"? P0M 01:23, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * is a redirect now. -- Chris 73 | Talk 04:09, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep redir. Niteowlneils 17:22, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep the redirect. --Starx 00:34, 22 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep redirect. PMC 21:29, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.

Location
Whats the latitude and longitude of Anyang? Elijahmeeks 22:53, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Requested move (2007)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Anyang → Anyang, Henan — There must be a disambigation page for Anyang, Henan and Anyang, Gyeonggi in South Korea 70.131.218.93 22:42, 25 March 2007 (UTC)

Survey

 * Add  # Support   or   # Oppose   on a new line in the appropriate section followed by a brief explanation, then sign your opinion using ~ .  Please remember that this survey is not a vote, and please provide an explanation for your recommendation.

Survey - in opposition to the move

 * 1) Weak oppose Why "must there"? Looks like primary usage to me. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 16:03, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

 * 1) Oppose Just note the other Anyang(s) at the head of this article.  I would think that most people looking for Anyang are doing so because of Yin and the Shang Dynasty in China. Elijahmeeks 16:53, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Add any additional comments:

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

It was requested that this article be renamed but there was no consensus for it be moved. --Stemonitis 08:10, 31 March 2007 (UTC)

Photos
the photo for this page and for the anyang in south korea are identical. one of them is the wrong photo, and i think it is the chinese one that is out of place. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.111.121.41 (talk • contribs) 02:52, 22 May 2010 (UTC)

Requested move 21 August 2015

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved. The consensus is that the Chinese city is the primary topic. Jenks24 (talk) 10:20, 29 August 2015 (UTC)

Anyang → Anyang, Henan – Anyang, Gyeonggi is also notable too. Kanghuitari (talk) 03:47, 21 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Comment: This Anyang seems to have more than eight times the population of the other one. No one will dispute that the other one is notable – the only question is whether this Anyang is the WP:PRIMARYTOPIC for "Anyang" or not. 5.2 million versus 0.6 million is a big difference. London, Kentucky, and Paris, Texas, are notable too, but the WP:PRIMARYTOPIC for London and Paris are cities in Europe. —BarrelProof (talk) 04:31, 21 August 2015 (UTC)
 * But, Anyang is 15th largest city in South Korea. population.. yeah, I know. but most Chinese cities have a lot of population. See List of cities in China by population. China is originally "Huge" population country. -- Kanghuitari (talk) 08:35, 21 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Is 15th largest supposed to be meaningful? South Korea is not a large country, and 15 isn't even in the top 5. -- 67.70.32.190 (talk) 04:37, 23 August 2015 (UTC)

 * Strong oppose WP:RECENTISM/WP:PRIMARYTOPIC This is a former Capital of China, it is not merely a suburb of a capital as the on in Gyeonggi is of Seoul (South Korean capital). There is a lot of scholarship concerning this location, due to its centrality for hundreds of years of history in East Asia. -- 67.70.32.190 (talk) 04:43, 21 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Strong Oppose per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC. As pointed out above, Anyang, Henan is a much bigger city than Anyang, Gyeonggi. It is also far more important historically as the earliest archaeologically proven ancient capital in China (and East Asia). -Zanhe (talk) 18:10, 21 August 2015 (UTC)

 * Oppose per others above. A good analogy (I know, OSE) with roughly the same population ration is Boston vs. Boston, Lincolnshire.  If anything, the English Boston is even more notable vis-à-vis the American one than the Korean suburb is to the Chinese city.  —  AjaxSmack   16:13, 22 August 2015 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150302053152/http://cdc.cma.gov.cn/home.do to http://cdc.cma.gov.cn/home.do
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055035/http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 to http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3

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title: Talk:Anyang


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Clumping (biology)

Clumping is a behavior in an organism, usually sessile, in which individuals of a particular species group close to one another for beneficial purposes. Clumping can be caused by the abiotic environment surrounding an organism. Barnacles, for example, group together on rocks that are exposed for the least amount of time during the low tide. Usually, clumping in sessile animals starts when one organism binds to a hard substrate, such as rock, and other members of the same species attach themselves afterwards. Herbivorous snails are known to clump around where sufficient algae are present. The clumping of mussels (shown right) has been found to be influenced by competition with other species. The mussels attach themselves by byssal threads to potential competitors for space.

Predation avoidance
Clumping and increased locomotion has been found to occur with organisms such as blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) due to risks from predators such as the European lobster (Homarus gammarus). Trade-offs exist with clumping such as decreased growth and less reproductive activity from mussels clumping together due to predation. However, there are also benefits obtained, such as decreased mortality from predation and adverse weather conditions, from clumping.

Clumping has been practiced by bivalve organisms from the times of the fossil record, and the trade-offs between living quite an aggregated lifestyle. Predators such as the gastropod Nucella lamellosa utilize drilling techniques in order to hunt prey such as the blue mussels, and the latter's clumping strategies results in significantly less drilling frequency overall. However, the average drilling placement and variation by the gastropod did not show variation as a result of clumping.

Measurement
Measuring clumped populations of organisms in nature can prove challenging at times for researchers. Quadrat sampling, a favored method by ecologists to study the density of populations, is not as effective with criteria such as those groups that are clumped. Other methods instead can be utilized to measure clumped populations, such as the line-intercept method which is more popular with organisms that can be studied and identified before they move. The reasoning behind organisms clumping revolve around resources being restrained in smaller regions within larger ones and select organisms forming social groups. The funnel-web spider (Agelenopsis aperta) at smaller scales are evenly distributed in their habitats, but are a clumped species on larger scales. The reasoning for this is two-fold. Firstly, these types of spiders prefer environments with the ability to attract insect prey and have favorable thermal properties. Secondly, there is a limited space for spiders to establish their websites, and competition for these spaces is substantial. However, on a macro scale, most organisms actually have clumped distributions due to their habitats not being eventually distributed over extensive areas. Similar trends are seen with other species of spiders. Stegodyphus lineatus sees disadvantages no matter what other parameters exist when feeding in large groups. Otherwise, these types of spiders were able to survive in close proximity most effectively when they were of approximate equal size. The size of groups also played a role in the ability of these spiders to live.

Cellular clumping
The practice of clumping occurs at both the macro and micro level for organisms. Closely tied to the endosymbiotic theory, there exists significant evidence that single-celled organisms in the distant past evolved and combined with other organisms to create complex multi-cellular lifeforms that make up much of life in the present. This was despite the fact that these single-celled organisms were capable of sustaining themselves and reproducing to create future generations. Nevertheless, this occurrence is considered to be a major transition in the evolution of life. The benefits of these multi-cellular lifeforms forming include further advances in efficiency to already existing ways that single-celled organisms cooperated; the creation of extracellular "public goods" is an example of organisms gaining from clumping. However, cooperation could still evolve and coexist alongside clumping as a strategy for organisms. As genetic similarity strengthened between organisms that clumped, both "public goods" production and clumping itself became more prevalent and easier to accomplish in the case of the latter. In addition, just small changes in genetic similarity can cause major shifts the outcome of evolution for organisms, such as increased output of vital materials for survival and growth. Clumping can be impeded when the number of organisms that benefits must be shared with increases, but stimulated when those organisms are more related to one another.

title: Clumping (biology)


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User talk:Yong Maty

what is current software Engineering Techniques ? anybody help me to guide writing this topic?

title: User talk:Yong Maty


text:
Alpha Librae

Alpha Librae (α Librae, abbreviated Alpha Lib, α Lib) is a double star and, despite its 'alpha' designation, it is the second-brightest star system (or star) in the constellation of Libra. The two components are designated α1 Librae and α2 Librae. The system bore the traditional name of Zubenelgenubi, though the International Astronomical Union now regards that name as only applying to α2 Librae.

Alpha2 Librae is 0.33 degrees north of the ecliptic so it can be occulted by the Moon and (very rarely) by planets. It was occulted by Venus on October 25, 1947; the next occultation by a planet will be by Mercury on 10 November 2052. Both components are eclipsed (occulted) by the sun from about 7–9 November. Thus the star can be viewed the whole night, crossing the sky, in early May.

Nomenclature
α Librae (Latinised to Alpha Librae) is the system's Bayer designation.

Zubenelgenubi, also rendered Zuben Elgenubi, derives from the Arabic ّالزُبَانَى الجَنُوبِي al-zubānā al-janūbiyy "the southern claw", which was coined before Libra was recognized as a constellation distinct from Scorpius. The alternative name Kiffa Australis (Elkhiffa Australis) is a partial Latin translation of the Arabic al-kiffah al-janubiyyah الكفة الجنوبية "southern pan [of the scales]". Another name used in older astronomy texts, equivalent to "southern pan", was Lanx Australis.

In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Zubenelgenubi for α2 Librae on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.

In Chinese, 氐宿 (Dī Xiù), meaning Root, refers to an asterism consisting of α2 Librae, ι Librae, γ Librae and β Librae. Consequently, the Chinese name for α2 Librae itself is 氐宿一 (Dī Xiù yī), "the First Star of Root".

Properties
Alpha Librae is about 77 ly from the Sun. The two brightest components of Alpha Librae form a double star moving together through space as common proper motion companions. They are separated in the sky by an angular distance of 231" (3'51"). The position angle of the companion is 314 degrees. The brighter of the two is a white star of spectral type A3, with an apparent magnitude of 2.8. Its companion is a type F4 star of apparent brightness 5.2. They are probably members of the Castor Moving Group of stars that have a similar motion through space and share a common origin some 200 million years ago.

Alpha2 Librae
The brightest member, α2 Librae, is itself a spectroscopic binary system. The components have similar masses (mass ratio of 0.92) but the primary has a rotational velocity three times higher than its companion, which could be caused by them having significantly misaligned spin axes or if the primary is a merger product.

Alpha1 Librae
The second member, α1 Librae, is separated from the primary system by around $1.1$. It too is a spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 5,870 days and an angular separation of 0.383 arcseconds; equal to about 10 AU.

KU Librae
The system may have a fifth component, the star KU Librae at a separation of 2.6°, thus forming a hierarchical quintuple star system. KU Lib shares a similar motion through space to the Alpha Librae system, but is separated from the other stars by about a parsec. It is sufficiently close to be gravitationally bound to the other members, but has a substantially different metallicity.

title: Alpha Librae


text:
Talk:Purdue University

Purdue University WikiProject
Hey all! I would like to invite any editors here to show their support for and potentially join the new WikiProject: Purdue University. It hasn't technically been made yet, and I only proposed it just a few minutes ago, but I'm trying to start out strong. The Project would aim to improve existing Purdue University-related articles and create new ones. As it is still in the proposal process, you can show your support here: WikiProject Council/Proposals/Purdue University. Thanks!! Invinciblewalnut (talk) 20:26, 16 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Update - it is now live at WP:PURDUE. Invinciblewalnut (talk) 07:57, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

unsourced assertions
@Reywas92 I deleted statements that were flagged as problematic in Nov 2022. Since then, no one has been able or willing to source them. If you do find sources, that would be terrific. Please put the statements back in, and include proper references. -- Melchior2006 (talk) 08:17, 27 September 2023 (UTC)

 * @Melchior2006 What's your purpose in deleting pictures off this article? Alexysun (talk) 02:20, 6 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Which of the deleted pictures do you mean? -- Melchior2006 (talk) 06:26, 6 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Well all of them. What's the purpose in doing that? Alexysun (talk) 20:44, 6 May 2024 (UTC)
 * @Melchior2006 Alexysun (talk) 20:45, 6 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Without knowing which pix you are referencing, it would be hard to give you an intelligent answer. -- Melchior2006 (talk) 05:17, 8 May 2024 (UTC)
 * ok. I'll dig it up. Alexysun (talk) 06:14, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Purdue University


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Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe

Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe, (21 September 1867 – 3 July 1958) was a British Conservative politician and colonial governor. He was Governor-General of New Zealand from 1930 to 1935.

Early life
Bathurst was born in London, the second son of Charles Bathurst, of Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, and Mary Elizabeth, daughter of Colonel Thomas Hay by Georgette Arnaud. He was educated at Sherborne School, Eton College and then University College, Oxford, where he graduated with a law degree in 1890. He then studied law and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1892, when he gained a Master of Arts from Oxford. He was also called to the bar. He inherited Lydney Park on the death of his elder brother.

Member of Parliament and the First World War
Bathurst worked as a barrister and conveyancer. In 1910 he entered parliament representing the Conservative Party as MP for the South or Wilton division of Wiltshire. He served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food.

During the First World War of 1914–1918, Bathurst joined the Royal Engineers Special Reserves, and then served in Southern Command as Assistant Military Secretary at the War Office. He carried out the task of ensuring the country had a supply of sugar when asked to chair the Royal Commission on Sugar Supply until 1919. Bathurst was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1917, and raised to the peerage as Baron Bledisloe of Lydney in the County of Gloucester on 15 October 1918. He remained in parliament until 1928, serving as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries from 1924 onwards. The following year Bristol University granted him an honorary Doctorate of Science. He served as a member of the Privy Council from 1926. Stanley Baldwin appointed Lord Bledisloe to chair the Royal Commission on Land Drainage, probably owing to his own experiences on the banks of the Severn in Gloucestershire. This was his last such honour before being posted overseas.

Governor-General of New Zealand
After leaving parliament, Lord Bledisloe was created a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George and invested a Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem on appointment as the fourth Governor-General of New Zealand, an office he held from 1930 until 1935, proving to be well liked and respected.

His social conscience was much appreciated during the Depression era, as was his insistence that his salary should be cut as were the salaries of public servants at the time. Bledisloe also contributed to improved Pākehā–Māori relations, purchasing the site where the Treaty of Waitangi was signed and presenting it to the nation as a memorial. In 1934, the site was dedicated as a national reserve. The dedication ceremony attracted thousands of people, both Māori and Pākehā. Bledisloe continued to take an interest in the site even after his term expired and he returned to England. He also contributed to the recognition of the Māori King Movement by developing a friendship with King Koroki and Te Puea Herangi, and his willingness to use the title "king" without reticence.

Bledisloe also promoted various causes and events by the presentation of trophies, notably the Bledisloe Cup, the trophy for an ongoing rugby union competition between New Zealand and Australia, first awarded in 1932, and currently contested annually. He also initiated the New Zealand Chess Federation inter-club championship trophy, also called the Bledisloe Cup.

Bledisloe was a freemason. During his term as governor-general, he was Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand.

Later life
In 1935, Bledisloe was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal, honorary doctorate of civil laws (DCL) from Oxford, and honorary doctorate of Law (LLD) from Edinburgh. Upon returning to England he was elevated on 24 June 1935 to Viscount Bledisloe, of Lydney in the County of Gloucester. He continued to serve on a number of committees and councils, and was made a fellow of University College, Oxford and Pro-Vice Chancellor of Bristol. He received the King's Coronation Medal from George VI in 1937 and was admitted at the same time as Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.

Bledisloe was a director of Lloyds Bank and the Australian Mutual Provident Society; and latterly also of the P & O Steamship Company.

Lord Bledisloe chaired the Bledisloe Commission, also known as the Rhodesia-Nyasaland Royal Commission, appointed in 1937–39 to examine the possible closer union of the three British territories in Central Africa: Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. These territories were to some degree economically inter-dependent, and it was suggested that an association would promote their rapid development. (The three territories would ultimately unite as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953.)

In 1943, he created the Empire Knowledge Trophies, a school competition to promote the British Empire to grammar and secondary technical schools. The competition was organized by the Gloucestershire Education Committee. Lord Blesdisloe himself often attended to present the prizes to the pupils.

On his 90th birthday he endowed the Bledisloe Gold Medal for Landowners of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, to be awarded annually for the application of science or technology to some branch of British husbandry.

Bledisloe died, aged 90, at Lydney on 3 July 1958, and was succeeded as Viscount Bledisloe by his eldest son, Benjamin Ludlow Bathurst.

Family
Charles Bathurst married Hon Bertha Susan, daughter of Henry Lopes, 1st Baron Ludlow by Cordelia Clark. They had two boys and a girl. Bertha died in 1926 and Bathurst remarried in 1928 to Alina Kate Elaine Cooper-Smith (née Jenkins), the daughter of Lord Glantawe. Alina died in 1956.
 * Benjamin Ludlow, 2nd Viscount Bledisloe (1899–1979)
 * Ursula Mary (1900–1975), married Horace Field Parshall Jr. (1903–1986) on 14 May 1929; divorced 1942.
 * Hon. Henry Charles Hiley (1904–1969)

Sports
Upon its formation in 1888, Bathurst was invited to become President of Lydney Rugby Football Club. He held this position for 70 years until his death and was succeeded as by his eldest son, Benjamin. The Australia – New Zealand Bledisloe Cup, and Bledisloe Park sports ground in New Zealand, are named for Bledisloe.

Styles

 * 1867–1910: Charles Bathurst
 * 1910–1914: Charles Bathurst, MP
 * 1914–1917: Captain Charles Bathurst, MP
 * 1917 – 24 October 1918: Captain Sir Charles Bathurst, KBE, MP
 * 24 October 1918 – 1926: The Right Honourable The Lord Bledisloe, KBE
 * 1926–1930: The Right Honourable The Lord Bledisloe, KBE, PC
 * 1930 – 1 January 1935: His Excellency The Right Honourable The Lord Bledisloe, GCMG, KBE, PC
 * 1 January – 28 June 1935: The Right Honourable The Lord Bledisloe, GCMG, KBE, PC, KStJ
 * 28 June 1935 – 1958: The Right Honourable The Viscount Bledisloe, GCMG, KBE, PC, KStJ