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Virgil Exner

Virgil Max "Ex" Exner Sr. (September 24, 1909 – December 22, 1973) was an automobile designer for several American automobile companies, most notably Chrysler and Studebaker.

Exner is widely known for the "Forward Look" he created for the 1955–1963 Chrysler products and his fondness of tailfins on cars for both aesthetics and aerodynamics.

Prior to the 1955 model year, Chrysler products were considered solid and well-engineered, but with dull styling. But for 1955 and 1956, Chrysler introduced the first set of cars with Exner's stylish and popular Forward Look. These models were very popular and greatly improved Chrysler's image. For 1957, Chrysler launched all-new models again, introducing cars that were long, low, wide, and featured sweeping tailfins—designs that caused a sensation within the North American auto industry.

When GM designer Chuck Jordan peered through a fence—thanks to a tip he received—and spied Chrysler's soon-to-be-launched 1957 Chrysler lineup, it prompted Bill Mitchell, Jordan's boss at General Motors styling, to convince GM top executives and styling chief Harley Earl to re-open the already-completed designs for the 1959 models and create "an alternate design for each car line, Chevrolet through Cadillac." Exner's work effectively "change[d] the course of automotive design" during that period.

Early life
Born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Virgil Exner was adopted by George W. and Iva Exner as a baby. Virgil showed a strong interest in art and automobiles. He went to Buchanan High School in Buchanan, Michigan then studied art at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana but, in 1928, dropped out after two years due to lack of funds. He then took a job as a helper at an art studio specializing in advertising. In 1931 he married Mildred Marie Eshleman, who also worked for the studio and, on April 17, 1933, they had their first child, Virgil Exner Jr. By that time, Exner Sr. had been promoted to drawing advertisements for Studebaker trucks. They had a second son in 1940, Brian, who died of injuries after falling from a window. They had their first daughter June 28, 1943, Bronwen Marie Exner. Exner also adopted and raised his niece, Marie Exner, born in 1947, who had become an orphan after her mother Lenor (Milred's sister) passed away when Marie was a young child.

General Motors
His first work in design was for General Motors, where he was hired by GM styling czar Harley Earl. Before age 30, he was in charge of Pontiac styling.

Loewy and Associates

In 1938, he joined Raymond Loewy's industrial design firm Loewy and Associates, where he worked on World War II military vehicles and cars, notably Studebaker's 1939–40 models, and advance plans for their revolutionary post-war cars. "But working on Studebaker designs… Exner struggled to get the attention of his boss, who had to sign off on every facet of the designs. Exner was encouraged by Roy Cole, Studebaker's engineering vice president, to work on his own at home on backup designs in case the company's touchy relationship with Loewy blew up".

Studebaker Corporation
In 1944, he was fired by Loewy and was hired directly by Studebaker in South Bend, Indiana. There he was involved in the design of some of the first cars with all new styling to be produced after World War II (Studebaker's slogan during this period was "First by far with a post war car"). As acknowledged by Robert Bourke, Virgil was the final designer of the acclaimed 1947 Studebaker Starlight coupe, though Raymond Loewy received the public acknowledgment because his legendary name was a major advertising attraction. Exner is actually listed as the sole inventor on the design patent. Rivalry and bad feeling between the two resulted in Exner having to leave Studebaker, whose engineering chief Roy Cole provided personal introductions for him to Ford and Chrysler.

Chrysler Corporation
In 1949, Exner started working in Chrysler's Advanced Styling Group, where he partnered with Cliff Voss and Maury Baldwin. He also worked with Luigi "Gigi" Segre, of Italian coach builder Carrozzeria Ghia S.p.A. The men forged a strong personal bond, which helped link the companies closely throughout the 1950s. The alliance produced the Chrysler Ghia designs, such as the 1952 Chrysler K-310, the mid-1950s Dodge Firearrow series show cars, as well as the Chrysler d'Elegance and DeSoto Adventurer.

Forward Look design program

When Exner joined Chrysler, the company's vehicles were being fashioned by engineers instead of designers, and so were considered outmoded, unstylish designs.

After seeing the Lockheed P-38 Lightning-inspired tailfins on the 1948 Cadillac, Exner adopted fins as a central element of his vehicle designs. He believed in the aerodynamic benefits of the fins, and even used wind tunnel testing at the University of Michigan—but he also liked their visual effects on the car. Exner lowered the roofline and made the cars sleeker, smoother, and more aggressive looking. In 1955, Chrysler introduced "The New 100-Million Dollar Look". With a long hood and short deck, the wedgelike designs of the Chrysler 300 letter series and revised 1957 models suddenly brought the company to the forefront of design, with Ford and General Motors quickly working to catch up. The 1957 Imperial also featured compound curved glass, the first to be used in a production car. The 1957 Plymouths were advertised with the slogan, "Suddenly, it's 1960!" In June of that year, Exner and his team were awarded a Gold Medal Award by the Industrial Designers Institute (IDI). In 1958, Chrysler's Forward Look was the sponsor of the groundbreaking An Evening with Fred Astaire TV special.

In 1956, during the design of the 1961 models, Exner suffered a heart attack. He resumed work in 1957, working on the designs for the 1962 cars. On July 25, 1957, Exner was elected the first vice president of styling at Chrysler. Unfortunately, a rumor that GM was reducing the size of their cars caused the president of Chrysler, Lester Lum ("Tex") Colbert, to order Exner to do the same to his 1962 design–a change Exner disagreed with, thinking it would make his cars "ugly." Exner with his associates had completed work on the second full-sized finless Plymouth since 1955, this one for 1962, described as a strikingly attractive automobile. While he was still recovering from the heart attack, the 1962 models Exner took credit for were downsized by associates. This downsizing drastically changed the cars' appearance. This reduced the cars' appeal and caused a significant drop in sales. It turned out that the Chevrolet rumor was false and consumers disliked the smaller Plymouth and Dodge cars introduced for 1962, the styling of which was bizarre compared to more sedate Ford and GM products. Needing a scapegoat, Chrysler fired Exner. He was allowed to retain a position as a consultant so he could retire with a pension at age 55. He was replaced by Elwood Engel, who had been lured from Ford. Engel was highly regarded for his design of the classic 1961 Lincoln Continental.

Tailfins soon lost popularity. By the late 1950s, Cadillac and Chrysler–driven by the respective competing visions of GM's Earl and Chrysler's Exner–had escalated the size of fins till some thought they were stylistically questionable and they became a symbol of American excess in the early 1960s. The 1961 models are considered the last of the "Forward Look" designs; Exner later referred to the finless 1962 downsized Plymouth and Dodge models as "plucked chickens". He believed Chrysler executives had "picked" away at the cars to make them lower in cost.

Although fins were out of favor by the early 1960s, fins could still give aerodynamic advantages. In the early 1970s, Porsche 917 racing automobiles sported fins reminiscent of Exner's designs.

Volkswagen Karmann Ghia
Three entities came together in the history of the Volkswagen Karmann Ghia—a design that ultimately reflected strong influence from Virgil Exner. In the early 1950s, Volkswagen was producing its Type 1 (Beetle). As post-war standards of living increased, executives at Volkswagen were at least receptive to adding a halo model to its range, if not proactive. Luigi Segre was committed to expanding the international reputation of Carrozzeria Ghia. And Wilhelm Karmann had taken over his family coachbuilding firm Karmann and was eager to augment his contracts building Volkswagen's convertible models.

As the head of Ghia, Segre singularly directed and incubated the project through conception and prototyping, delivering a feasible project that Willhelm Karmann both wanted to and could practically build—the project Willhelm Karmann would in turn present to Volkswagen. The styling itself, however, integrated work by Segre as well as Mario Boano, Sergio Coggiola, and designer/engineer Giovanni Savonuzzi—and at various times they each took credit for the design. Furthermore, the design bore striking styling similarities to Virgil Exner's Chrysler D'Elegance and K-310 concepts, which Ghia had been tasked with prototyping, and which in turn reflected numerous cues and themes developed previously by Mario Boano. The precise styling responsibilities were never documented before the passing of the designers, further complicated by the overlapping work of the key players. A definitive individual attribution on Karmann Ghia's was never made.

Segre and Virgil Exner had become close professionally and personally, eventually traveling Europe together. Peter Grist wrote in a 2007 Exner biography that when Exner in 1955 eventually saw the Karmann Ghia, which cribbed heavily from his Chrysler D'Elegance, "he was pleased with the outcome and glad that one of his designs had made it into large-scale production." Chris Voss, a stylist in Exner's office, reported in 1993, that Exner considered the Karmann Ghia the ultimate form of flattery. Segre in turn sent Exner the first production Karmann Ghia imported into the state of Michigan, in gratitude.

After Volkswagen approved the design in November 1953, the Karmann Ghia debuted at the 1955 Paris Auto show and went into production, first at Ghia and then in Osnabrück — ultimately to reach a production over 445,000, running 19 years virtually unchanged.

Retirement
Exner continued consulting for many car companies from his office in Birmingham, Michigan. He also teamed up with his son, Virgil Exner Jr., designing watercraft for Buehler Corporation. In 1963, he designed a series of "Revival Cars" with production plans. His revival of Duesenberg failed, but he was instrumental in the revival of Stutz in the 1970s.

Seeking to reenter the automotive field, Exner drafted a resume, describing himself as having "extensive, responsible and successful experience in all areas." Exner died of heart failure on December 22, 1973, at the William Beaumont Hospital in Royal Oak, Michigan.

List of Exner-designed vehicles

 * DeSoto 1955-1961
 * Studebaker Champion
 * Studebaker Starlight
 * Chrysler C-200 concept
 * Chrysler d'Elegance concept (1953) (later produced, as the VW Karmann Ghia)
 * Chrysler New Yorker (1957)
 * Chrysler 300 letter series
 * Chrysler 300 non-letter series
 * Imperial 1955-1961
 * Chrysler Diablo concept (1957) with Ghia
 * Plymouth Savoy
 * Plymouth XNR
 * Plymouth Belvedere
 * Plymouth Fury
 * Plymouth Suburban
 * Plymouth Valiant
 * Dodge Coronet
 * Dodge Firearrow series
 * DeSoto 1961
 * DeSoto Adventurer
 * Bugatti Type 101 1965 concept with Ghia
 * Mercer-Cobra 1965 concept
 * Duesenberg 1966 prototype with Ghia
 * Stutz Blackhawk

title: Virgil Exner


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Concept map

A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between concepts. Concept maps may be used by instructional designers, engineers, technical writers, and others to organize and structure knowledge.

A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled arrows, often in a downward-branching hierarchical structure but also in free-form maps. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as "causes", "requires", "such as" or "contributes to".

The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping. Concept maps have been used to define the ontology of computer systems, for example with the object-role modeling or Unified Modeling Language formalism.

Differences from other visualizations

 * Topic maps: Both concept maps and topic maps are kinds of knowledge graph, but topic maps were developed by information management professionals for semantic interoperability of data (originally for book indices), whereas concept maps were developed by education professionals to support people's learning. In the words of concept-map researchers Joseph D. Novak and Bob Gowin, their approach to concept mapping is based on a "learning theory that focuses on concept and propositional learning as the basis on which individuals construct their own idiosyncratic meanings".
 * Mind maps: Both concept maps and topic maps can be contrasted with mind mapping, which is restricted to a tree structure. Concept maps can be more free-form, as multiple hubs and clusters can be created, unlike mind maps, which emerge from a single center.

History
Concept mapping was developed by the professor of education Joseph D. Novak and his research team at Cornell University in the 1970s as a means of representing the emerging science knowledge of students. It has subsequently been used as a way to increase meaningful learning in the sciences and other subjects as well as to represent the expert knowledge of individuals and teams in education, government and business. Concept maps have their origin in the learning movement called constructivism. In particular, constructivists hold that learners actively construct knowledge.

Novak's work is based on the cognitive theories of David Ausubel, who stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn (or assimilate) new concepts: "The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach accordingly." Novak taught students as young as six years old to make concept maps to represent their response to focus questions such as "What is water?" "What causes the seasons?" In his book Learning How to Learn, Novak stated that a "meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures."

Various attempts have been made to conceptualize the process of creating concept maps. McAleese suggested that the process of making knowledge explicit, using nodes and relationships, allows the individual to become aware of what they know and as a result to be able to modify what they know. Maria Birbili applied the same idea to helping young children learn to think about what they know. McAleese's concept of the knowledge arena suggests a virtual space where learners may explore what they know and what they do not know.

Use
Concept maps are used to stimulate the generation of ideas, and are believed to aid creativity. Concept mapping is also sometimes used for brain-storming. Although they are often personalized and idiosyncratic, concept maps can be used to communicate complex ideas.

Formalized concept maps are used in software design, where a common usage is Unified Modeling Language diagramming amongst similar conventions and development methodologies.

Concept mapping can also be seen as a first step in ontology-building, and can also be used flexibly to represent formal argument — similar to argument maps.

Concept maps are widely used in education and business. Uses include:
 * Note taking and summarizing gleaning key concepts, their relationships and hierarchy from documents and source materials
 * New knowledge creation: e.g., transforming tacit knowledge into an organizational resource, mapping team knowledge
 * Institutional knowledge preservation (retention), e.g., eliciting and mapping expert knowledge of employees prior to retirement
 * Collaborative knowledge modeling and the transfer of expert knowledge
 * Facilitating the creation of shared vision and shared understanding within a team or organization
 * Instructional design: concept maps used as Ausubelian "advance organizers" that provide an initial conceptual frame for subsequent information and learning.
 * Training: concept maps used as Ausubelian "advanced organizers" to represent the training context and its relationship to their jobs, to the organization's strategic objectives, to training goals.
 * Communicating complex ideas and arguments
 * Examining the symmetry of complex ideas and arguments and associated terminology
 * Detailing the entire structure of an idea, train of thought, or line of argument (with the specific goal of exposing faults, errors, or gaps in one's own reasoning) for the scrutiny of others.
 * Enhancing metacognition (learning to learn, and thinking about knowledge)
 * Improving language ability
 * Assessing learner understanding of learning objectives, concepts, and the relationship among those concepts
 * Lexicon development

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Concept map


text: User talk:211.28.81.109

title: User talk:211.28.81.109


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Midori (violinist)

Midori Goto (五嶋 みどり), who performs under the mononym Midori, is a Japanese-born American violinist. She made her debut with the New York Philharmonic at age 11 as a surprise guest soloist at the New Year's Eve Gala in 1982. In 1986 her performance at the Tanglewood Music Festival with Leonard Bernstein conducting his own composition made the front-page headlines in The New York Times. Midori became a celebrated child prodigy, and one of the world's preeminent violinists as an adult.

Midori has been honored as an educator and for her community engagement endeavors. When she was 21, she established her foundation Midori and Friends to bring music education to young people in underserved communities in New York City and Japan, which has evolved into four distinct organizations with worldwide impact. In 2007, Midori was appointed as a UN Messenger of Peace. In 2018, she joined the violin faculty at the Curtis Institute of Music. She is also on the faculty of the University of Southern California's Thornton School of Music serving as Distinguished Professor and Judge Widney Professor of Music. She was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2012.

Early life
Midori was born Midori Goto in Osaka, Japan, on October 25, 1971. She dropped her father's surname from her stage name after her parents’ divorce in 1983, initially performing under the name Mi Dori, then deciding on the single word Midori. Her father was a successful engineer and her mother, Setsu Gotō, was a professional violinist. Setsu regularly took young Midori to her orchestra rehearsals where the toddler slept in the front row of the auditorium while her mother rehearsed. One day Setsu heard a two-year-old Midori humming a Bach concerto that had been rehearsed two days earlier. Subsequently, Midori often tried to touch her mother's violin, even climbing onto the bench of the family piano to try to reach the violin on top of the piano. On Midori's third birthday, Setsu gave her a 1/16 size violin and began giving her lessons.

Career
Midori gave her first public performance at the age of six, playing one of the 24 Caprices of Paganini in her native Osaka. In 1982 she and her mother moved to New York City, where Midori started violin studies with Dorothy DeLay at Pre-College Division of Juilliard School and the Aspen Music Festival and School. As her audition piece, Midori performed Bach's thirteen-minute-long Chaconne, generally considered one of the most difficult solo violin pieces. In the same year, she made her concert debut with the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta, a conductor with whom she would later record on the Sony Classical label. In 1986 came her legendary performance of Leonard Bernstein's Serenade at Tanglewood, conducted by Bernstein. During the performance, she broke the E string on her violin, then again on the concertmaster's Stradivarius after she borrowed it. She finished the performance with the associate concertmaster's Guadagnini and received a standing ovation. The next day's The New York Times front page carried the headline, "Girl, 14, Conquers Tanglewood with 3 Violins".

When Midori was 15, she left Juilliard Pre-College in 1987 after four years and became a full-time professional violinist. In October 1989, she celebrated her 18th birthday with her Carnegie Hall orchestral debut, playing Bartok's Violin Concerto No. 2. She made her Carnegie Hall recital debut in 1990 four days before her 19th birthday. Both performances were critically acclaimed. In 1990, she also graduated from the Professional Children's School which she attended for academic subjects.

In 1992, she formed Midori and Friends, a non-profit organization that aims to bring music education to children in New York City and in Japan after learning of severe cutbacks to music education in U.S. schools. Her organization Music Sharing began as the Tokyo branch-office of Midori and Friends and was certified as an independent organization in 2002. Music Sharing focuses on education about Western classical music and traditional Japanese music for young people, including instrument instruction for the disabled. Its International Community Engagement Program is a training program for internationally chosen aspiring musicians that promotes cultural exchange and community engagement.

In 2000, Midori graduated magna cum laude from the Gallatin School at New York University with a bachelor's degree in Psychology and Gender Studies, completing the degree in five years while also continuing to perform in concerts. She later earned a master's degree in psychology from NYU in 2005. Her master's thesis was about pain research. In 2001, Midori had returned to the stage and took a teaching position at the Manhattan School of Music. In 2001, with the money Midori received from winning the Avery Fisher Prize, she established the Partners in Performance program focusing on classical music organizations in smaller communities. In 2004, Midori launched the Orchestra Residencies program in the U.S. for youth orchestras, which was expanded to include collaborations with orchestras outside the U.S. in 2010.

In 2004, Midori was named a professor at University of Southern California's Thornton School of Music where she is holder of the Jascha Heifetz Chair. She became a full-time resident of Los Angeles in 2006 after a period of bicoastal commuting and was promoted to the chair of the Strings Department in 2007. In 2012 she was named distinguished professor at USC, elected to the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, and was awarded an honorary doctorate in music by Yale University. Midori was Humanitas Visiting Professor in Classical Music and Music Education at Oxford University 2013–2014. Midori joined the violin faculty of Philadelphia's Curtis Institute in the 2018–2019 academic year and remains on the University of Southern California Thornton School of Music's violin faculty as a Judge Widney Professor of Music.

Accolades
In addition to being named Artist of the Year by the Japanese government (1988) and the recipient of the 25th Suntory Music Award (1993), Midori has won the Avery Fisher Prize (2001), Musical America’s Instrumentalist of the Year award (2002), the Deutscher Schallplattenpreis (2002, 2003), the Kennedy Center Gold Medal in the Arts (2010), the Mellon Mentoring Award (2012). In 2007 Midori was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In 2012, she received the prestigious Crystal Award by the World Economic Forum in Davos for "20-year devotion to community engagement work worldwide". In May 2021 she was an honoree of the 43rd Kennedy Center Honors. In May 2022, Midori was awarded the John D. Rockefeller III Award by the Asian Cultural Council alongside artist Cai Guo-Qiang. The John D. Rockefeller 3rd Award is given to individuals from Asia or the U.S. who have made significant contributions to the international understanding, practice, or study of the visual or performing arts of Asia.

Personal life
In September 1994, Midori suddenly cancelled her concerts and withdrew from public view. She was hospitalised and given an official diagnosis of anorexia for the first time. In her twenties, Midori struggled with anorexia and depression, resulting in a number of hospital stays. She later wrote about these personal difficulties in her 2004 memoir Einfach Midori (Simply Midori), which has been published in German but not English. (It was updated and reissued in German-speaking countries in 2012. ) After recovering, she continued to perform and also studied psychology and gender studies at New York University. For a while, she considered psychology as an alternative career, with a focus on working with children.

Midori's half-brother Ryu and her stepfather Makoto Kaneshiro (Ryu's father, a former violin assistant of Dorothy DeLay) are both violinists.

2019 Honoree of the Great Immigrants Award by the Carnegie Corporation of New York.

Instrument
Midori plays on the 1734 Guarneri "ex-Huberman" violin. Her bows are made by Dominique Peccatte (two) and François Peccatte (one).

Discography

 * Bach/Vivaldi: Double Violin Concertos (Philips Records, 1986) – with Pinchas Zukerman (violin, conductor), St. Paul Chamber Orchestra. Bach's Concerto for Two Violins in D minor and Violin Concerto No. 2 in E major; Vivaldi's 12 Concertos, Op.3 – "L'estro armonico" / Concerto No. 8 In A Minor For 2 Violins
 * Paganini: 24 Caprices for Solo Violin, Op.1 (CBS Masterworks Records, 1989)
 * Dvořák: Violin Concerto, Romance and Carnival Overture (Sony Classical, 1989) – with New York Philharmonic Orchestra, Zubin Mehta (conductor). Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in A minor, Op. 53; Romance in F minor for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 11; and Carnival Overture, Op 92.
 * Bartok – Violin Concertos No.1 & No.2 (Sony Classical, 1991) – with Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, Zubin Mehta (conductor)
 * Midori: Live At Carnegie Hall (Sony Classical, 1991) – with Robert McDonald (piano)
 * Encore! (Sony Classical, 1992) – with Robert McDonald (piano)
 * Sibelius: Violin Concerto / Bruch: Scottish Fantasy (Sony Classical, 1994) – with Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, Zubin Mehta (conductor). Sibelius's Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in D minor, Op. 47, and Bruch's Scottish Fantasy, Op. 46
 * Tchaikovsky & Shostakovich: Violin Concertos (Sony Classical, 1994) – with Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, Claudio Abbado (conductor); Tchaikovsky's Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in D Major and Shostakovich's Concerto for Violin and Orchestra No.1 in A minor
 * Franck: Elgar: Violin Sonata in E minor, Op. 82, Violin Sonata in A Major (Sony Classical, 1997) – with Robert McDonald (piano)
 * Mozart: Sinfonia Concertante in E-Flat Major & Concerto in D Major (Sony Classical, 2001) – with Nobuko Imai (viola), Christoph Eschenbach (conductor and piano), NDR Symphony Orchestra
 * Debussy, Poulenc & Saint-Saëns: Violin Sonatas (Sony Classical, 2002) – with Robert McDonald (piano). Poulenc's Sonata for Violin and Piano, Debussy's Sonata in G Minor for Violin and Piano, and Saint-Saëns's Sonata No.1 in D minor for Violin and Piano, Op. 75
 * Midori – 20th Anniversary Album (Sony Classical, 2002) – with Leonard Slatkin (conductor), Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra, Robert McDonald (piano)
 * Mendelssohn & Bruch Violin Concertos (Sony Classical, 2002) – with Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, Mariss Jansons (conductor). Mendelssohn's Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in E minor, Op. 64 and Bruch's Concerto No.1 for Violin and Orchestra in G Minor, Op. 26
 * Bach Sonata No. 2 in A minor, Bartók: Sonata No. 1 (Sony Classical, 2008) – with Robert McDonald (piano)
 * The Essential Midori (Sony Classical, 2008)
 * Violin Sonatas of Bloch, Janáček and Shostakovich (Sony Classical, 2013) – with Ozgür Aydin (piano)
 * Hindemith: Violin Concerto; Symphonic Metamorphosis; Konzertmusik (Ondine, 2013) – with NDR Symphony Orchestra, Christoph Eschenbach (conductor)
 * Bach: Sonatas & Partitas for Solo Violin (Onyx Classics, 2015)
 * Beethoven: Violin Concerto & Romances Nos. 1 & 2 (Warner Classics, 2020) – with Daniel Dodds (violin), Festival Strings Lucerne

title: Midori (violinist)


text: Category:Colleges of the University of Cambridge


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Power Macintosh 7100

The Power Macintosh 7100 is a personal computer that was designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Computer from March 1994 to January 1996. It is the mid-range machine of the first generation of Power Macintosh line, between the Power Macintosh 6100 and the 8100. The 7100 re-used the Macintosh IIvx case with few changes. The initial version of the 7100 was powered by a 66 MHz PowerPC 601, and an 80 MHz version replaced it in January 1995. The 7100 was succeeded in August 1995 by two new models, the Power Macintosh 7200 and the Power Macintosh 7500, though sales of the 7100 continued into early 1996.

Models
The 7100AV variants include a 2 MB VRAM card with S-Video in/out. The non-AV 7100s have a video card containing 1 MB VRAM which was expandable to 2 MB, and no S-Video in/out capability.

Apple did not release a "DOS Compatible" card for the 7100 as they had for some contemporary Macintosh Quadra models, opting instead to offer the 7100 bundled with the SoftWindows emulator at a price of $385. With an optional 256KB L2 cache card installed, MacWorld Magazine determined that the performance is comparable to 25 MHz Intel 80486SX.

Introduced March 14, 1994:
 * Power Macintosh 7100/66: No L2 cache. US$2,650.
 * Power Macintosh 7100/66AV: $3,450.

Introduced January 3, 1995:
 * Power Macintosh 7100/80: 256KB L2 cache.
 * Power Macintosh 7100/80AV

Codename lawsuits
The Power Macintosh 7100's internal code name was "Carl Sagan, one of the three "fraud" code names (Pilt Down Man, Cold Fusion, and Carl Sagan) referring to the PowerPC processor pretending to be a 68000. Though the project name was internal, it was revealed to the public in a 1993 issue of MacWeek. Sagan, worried that the public might interpret this as an endorsement which sullied his name, reportedly contacted Apple and threatened to sue unless they could prove the codename did not officially link to his intellectual property and identity. After they reportedly refused, he wrote a letter to the editor that appeared in a 1994 issue of MacWeek, seeking to inform their readers of the situation.

Following the letter, a rogue programmer at Apple renamed the project to "BHA (for Butt-Head Astronomer). Sagan then sued Apple for libel over the new name, but since the new codename was a expression of opinion, not fact, he lost his case. Sagan continued pursuing lawsuits. When he sued Apple again, this time for the original use of his name, he lost this suit as well. Sagan and Apple, apparently not wishing to engage in a series of lawsuits over the issue, came to an out-of-court agreement in November 1995, leading to Apple making a statement of apology. The engineers on the project made a third and final name change from "BHA" to "LAW", short for "Lawyers are Wimps".

title: Power Macintosh 7100


text:
Category:University of Cambridge

Articles and categories related to the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England.

title: Category:University of Cambridge


text:
Red Dragon (2002 film)

Red Dragon is a 2002 psychological thriller film based on the 1981 novel by Thomas Harris. It was directed by Brett Ratner and written by Ted Tally. It is the third film of the Dino De Laurentiis Company production, the last produced by Universal Pictures, and the last to star Anthony Hopkins as Lecter. It follows The Silence of the Lambs (1991) and Hannibal (2001) as a prequel, being followed by Hannibal Rising (2007). The film sees FBI agent Will Graham (Edward Norton) enlisting the help of serial killer Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins) to catch another killer, Francis Dolarhyde (Ralph Fiennes). Harvey Keitel, Emily Watson, Mary-Louise Parker, and Philip Seymour Hoffman also star.

It is considered the fourth of the five released films regarding Hannibal Lecter. The novel was previously adapted into the film Manhunter (1986). Both films feature the same cinematographer, Dante Spinotti. After turning down the Silence of the Lambs sequel, Hannibal (2001), The Silence of the Lambs screenwriter Ted Tally returned to write Red Dragon. It was released on October 4, 2002 to generally positive reviews from critics, who deemed it to be an improvement over Hannibal, but inferior to The Silence of the Lambs. It was a box office success, earning $209 million worldwide against a $78 million budget.

An origin story, titled Hannibal Rising was released in 2007.

Plot
In 1980, FBI agent Will Graham visits forensic psychiatrist Hannibal Lecter to discuss a case. Graham has been working with Lecter on a psychological profile of a serial killer; Graham is certain the killer is a cannibal. Realizing Graham is close to discovering he is the killer, Lecter stabs him, but Graham subdues him before falling unconscious. Lecter is imprisoned in an institution for the criminally insane, and Graham, traumatized, retires to Florida with his family.

Several years later, another serial killer nicknamed the "Tooth Fairy" has killed two families – the Jacobis and the Leeds – during full moons. With another full moon approaching, special agent Jack Crawford persuades Graham to help develop the killer's profile. Graham concludes that he must consult Lecter. The Tooth Fairy is Francis Dolarhyde, who kills as directed by his alternate personality, which he calls the Great Red Dragon, after the William Blake painting The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed in Sun, which he has tattooed on his back. He believes that each victim brings him closer to becoming the Dragon. His psychopathology originates from his childhood abuse by his grandmother.

A letter from the Tooth Fairy is discovered in Lecter's cell, expressing admiration for Lecter and suggesting that Lecter reply through the personals section of the National Tattler, which he does with Graham's home address, forcing Graham's wife, Molly, and son, Josh, to relocate. To lure out the Tooth Fairy, Graham gives an interview to Freddy Lounds, a tabloid reporter for the National Tattler, disparaging the killer as an impotent homosexual and that Lecter was only feigning interest in him. Enraged, Dolarhyde kidnaps Lounds, glues him to a wheelchair, forces him to recant his allegations on tape, and sets him on fire, killing him.

At his job in a St. Louis photo lab, Dolarhyde begins a relationship with his blind co-worker Reba McClane. However, his alternate personality demands that he kill her. Desperate to stop the Dragon's control over him, Dolarhyde goes to the Brooklyn Museum, tears apart the Blake painting, and eats it. Graham realizes that the Tooth Fairy knew the layout of his victims' houses from their home videos. He deduces that he works for the company that edits home movies and transfers them to video. He visits the company and is spotted by Dolarhyde. Panicked, Dolarhyde goes to Reba's house, where he kills her co-worker Ralph, takes her to his house, and sets it ablaze. Unable to kill her, he apparently shoots himself and Reba escapes.

After an autopsy, it is revealed that Dolarhyde used Ralph's body to stage his death. Dolarhyde infiltrates Graham's home in Florida and takes Josh hostage. To save Josh, Graham insults him, reminding Dolarhyde of his grandmother's abuse and provoking him to attack him. Both are wounded in a shootout, which ends when Molly kills Dolarhyde.

Graham survives and receives a letter from Lecter praising his work and bidding him well. Lecter's jailer, Dr. Frederick Chilton, tells him that he has a visitor, a young woman from the FBI.

Production
The 1991 film The Silence of the Lambs, starring Anthony Hopkins as Lecter, was a critical and commercial success, winning five Academy Awards. Hopkins was the only major member of the Silence of the Lambs team to return for the 2001 sequel, Hannibal; it was also a commercial success, but received less positive reviews. Both films were adapted from novels by Thomas Harris.

Husband-and-wife producers Dino and Martha De Laurentiis decided to produce a film based on the 1981 novel Red Dragon, the first Hannibal Lecter novel, as a prequel to The Silence of the Lambs. Dino said that people thought he was "crazy" for adapting the book, as it had been previously adapted as Manhunter (1986), with Brian Cox as Lecter. Both Manhunter and Red Dragon had the same cinematographer, Dante Spinotti, and both featured Frankie Faison.

Hopkins hesitated to sign on, worried that three Lecter films might be too much. Screenwriter Ted Tally, who wrote The Silence of the Lambs but not Hannibal, had turned down many offers to write more serial killer stories. He said he liked the idea of Hopkins' Lecter films forming a trilogy: "If it ends here, it will end gracefully. I would hate to see this become Hannibal Lecter XIII." To satisfy expectations, Tally added Lecter scenes not in the novel, describing it as a "commercial reality". He had the support of Harris, who sent Tally dialogue and ideas for scenes. Edward Norton and Ralph Fiennes admired The Silence of the Lambs but had not enjoyed Hannibal. The cast were persuaded to join by Tally's screenplay; Fiennes felt it worked "only on suspense", without overt violence.

Norton and Ratner disagreed on the scene in which Graham approaches the incarcerated Lecter for the first time. Ratner wanted Norton to incorporate a gesture or look to indicate Graham's fear, but Norton felt the audience would not need this if it were filmed correctly. They compromised by showing Graham's sweat stains when he removes his jacket in the next scene. Whereas Fiennes wanted to avoid overplaying his serial killer character, Hopkins aimed to play Lecter with more "danger and rage" than before. Fiennes spent 90 minutes of each day for months building his physique, and wore a prosthetic to give him a cleft palate. The tattoo on his back took around eight hours to apply.

Soundtrack
Red Dragon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was composed by Danny Elfman, and produced by Mark Helfrich and Brett Ratner. Decca Records released it on September 24, 2002, in the United States and Canada.

Box office
Red Dragon was released on October 4, 2002, and opened in 3,357 theaters in the United States, grossing $13,478,355 on its opening day and $36,540,945 on its opening weekend, ranking #1 ahead of Sweet Home Alabama with a per theater average of $10,885. It went on to achieve the highest October opening weekend, beating Meet the Parents. This record was surpassed by Scary Movie 3 the following year. On its second weekend, it remained #1 and grossed $17,655,750 – $5,250 per theater. By its third weekend it dropped down to #3 and made $8,763,545 – $2,649 per theater.

In the UK, Red Dragon collected $4.6 million during its opening weekend, ranking in first place at the box office above Lilo & Stitch.

Red Dragon grossed $93,149,898 in the United States and Canada and $116,046,400 in other territories. In total, the film has grossed $209,196,298 worldwide.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 69% based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6.40/10. The site's consensus said the film is "competently made, but everything is a bit too familiar". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.

Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review, stating: "This darkly seductive, flawlessly acted piece is worlds removed from most horror films. Here monsters have their grandeur, heroes their gravity. And when they collide, a dance of death ensues between two souls doomed to understand each other." Todd McCarthy of Variety also gave the film a positive review, saying that the "audiences will be excused for any feelings of déjà vu the new film might inspire. That won't prevent them from watching it in rapt, anxious silence, however, as the gruesome crimes, twisted psychology and deterministic dread that lie at the heart of Harris' work are laid out with care and skill."

Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3.5 out of four, praising Brett Ratner's directing and the film's atmosphere. He stated: "To my surprise, Ratner does a sure, stylish job, appreciating the droll humor of Lecter's predicament, creating a depraved new villain in the Tooth Fairy (Ralph Fiennes), and using the quiet, intense skills of Norton to create a character whose old fears feed into his new ones. There is also humor, of the uneasy he-can't-get-away-with-this variety, in the character of a nosy scandal-sheet reporter (Philip Seymour Hoffman)." David Sterritt of the Christian Science Monitor gave the film a positive review, stated that "the most refreshing aspect of Red Dragon is its reliance on old-fashioned acting instead of computer-aided gizmos. Hopkins overdoes his role at times—his vocal tones are almost campy—but his piercing eyes are as menacing as ever, and Ralph Fiennes is scarily good as his fellow lunatic."

David Grove of Film Threat, who gave the film four stars out of five, said: "Is Red Dragon a better film than Manhunter? I don't know. I think it stands on its own, but I wonder how much people who are intimately familiar with Manhunter will be shocked by it, although the ending is altogether different and much more realized, I think". Rick Kisonak, who also wrote for Film Threat, also gave the film a positive review, but he gave it three stars out of five, saying: "The only downside to this delectable third course? The regrettable likelihood that Lecter fans will have to make do without dessert."

Edward Guthmann of San Francisco Chronicle, gave the film a mixed review, saying that "in Hollywood, where integrity is rapidly consumed and careers defined by market value, there's trash and there's trash with a pedigree." Stephanie Zacharek, for Salon, also gave the film a mixed review, stating: "If you buy the overprocessed headcheese of the serial killer as refined genius, you'll love Red Dragon. Or maybe not. Even Hannibal Lecter devotees may lose patience with this picture's grandiose, self-serious ponderousness—that's Lecterese for, 'It's kind of boring in patches, actually.'" William Arnold of Seattle Post-Intelligencer, who gave the film a mixed review, said that the film "basically lives up to the old adage that the final work in a trilogy is invariably the weakest." Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice gave the film a negative review; he stated: "Red Dragon's formula is so risible and rote by now that the natural reaction to scenes of peril, torture, and suffering is flippant laughter."

Home media
The film was released on VHS and DVD on April 1, 2003. It was released in two extras-packed DVD editions, a single-disc package and two-disc "Director's Edition". The single-disc package includes deleted scenes, director's commentary by Brett Ratner, Interview with FBI profiler John E. Douglas, Four featurettes: "The Hannibal Lecter Story," "The Making of Red Dragon," "The Art of Criminal Profiling" and "The Making of a Killer". The Director's Edition includes Ratner's video diary, featurette "The Red Dragon Tattoo", screen and film tests, and storyboard-to-final-feature comparisons.

On October 24, 2023, Kino Lorber released a 4K Blu-ray featuring a HDR/Dolby Vision Master from a 4K scan of the 35mm original camera negative. It includes all previously released special features on the Blu-ray.

Awards
Red Dragon was nominated for 14 awards, and won several, including Empire Award for Best British Actress (Emily Watson) and Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Actor Age Ten or Younger (Tyler Patrick Jones).

title: Red Dragon (2002 film)


text:
User:Arunnplus

Welcome to my user page....

As of now please visit http://arunn.cjb.net for my homepage. thanks for visiting.. Cheers../ arunn

title: User:Arunnplus


text: Category:Government agencies

title: Category:Government agencies


text:
Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda

Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT; World Anational Association) is an independent worldwide cultural Esperanto association of a general left-wing orientation. Its headquarters are in Paris. According to Jacques Schram, chairman of the Executive Committee, the membership totalled 881 in 2003. In 2006 SAT had 724 members. In 2015-2016 there were 525.

SAT uses Esperanto as its working language and aims through the use of Esperanto to enable progressive individuals, organizations and workers of all countries to exchange ideas and meet on the basis of equality across national barriers. Members of SAT are involved in socialist, anarchist, peace, trade union, anti-nationalist, feminist and environmental activities, among others.

History
SAT was founded in 1921 by Eugène Lanti (pseudonym of Eugène Adam) and others as an organisation of the workers' Esperanto movement. It was the largest and most active between the two World Wars. At its high point in 1929-1930 it had 6524 members in 1674 communities in 42 countries. It suffered heavy attrition soon after, however, when "cosmopolitan" activities, a category into which Esperanto fell, began to be persecuted in the Soviet Union after the onset of Stalinism, and after the ban on the workers' Esperanto movement in Germany that took effect immediately after the Nazi takeover in 1933. The Soviet Union and Germany had been the countries in which SAT had the greatest number of members. Ideologically motivated internal schisms, involving at various times anarchists, communists and social democrats, also took a toll.

Aims
The following declaration of aims became part of the Statute at the foundation of SAT in 1921, and remains valid to this day:

"a) to utilise the international language Esperanto for the class aims of the worldwide working class; b) to promote mutual relations among members in the best and most worthy way possible, in order to instill in them a strong sense of human solidarity; c) to instruct, educate and enlighten the members in such a way as to make them the most capable and best of the so-called internationalists; d) to serve as an intermediary in relations among organisations using other languages but having aims analogous to those of SAT; e) to be an intermediary and supporter in the creation of an Esperanto literature consisting both of translations and original texts, and which reflects the ideal of our association."

In 1928 it was further clarified in the following addendum:

"SAT, an educational and cultural organisation rather than an overtly political one, tries to induce its members to be understanding and tolerant of the political and philosophical schools or systems that lie at the base of the various workers' parties that are oriented toward class struggle and of trade-union movements; it seeks, by means of comparison of facts and ideas and by means of free discussion, to enable its members to avoid the dogmatisation of the teachings they encounter in their particular milieus. In short, SAT constantly applies a rationally elaborated language on a worldwide scale in order to aid in the creation of intellects that think rationally and are able to compare accurately, understand correctly and assess ideas, theses and tendencies in such a way as to render them capable of electing independently the path they believe most direct or most expedient to the end of liberating their class and guiding the human race towards a level of civilisation and culture that is as advanced as possible."

SAT does not exist primarily to promote Esperanto – although it has a department that engages in such activity – but rather puts Esperanto to use for its political and educational purposes. Esperanto is promoted by separate regional organisations that are linked to SAT by contract. Most of these organisations are not national in scope, but encompass the territory of a particular language. The largest such organisation is SAT-Amikaro, which encompasses all French-speaking territories.

Structure
SAT has a non-national structure that deliberately avoids taking national differences into account. Its members join individually, not through the intermediary of a national section. The Universal Esperanto Association was structured in the same way when it was founded at the beginning of the 20th century by Hector Hodler. As for SAT, it was laid out by Eugène Lanti in a series of articles that appeared prior to the foundation of the Association in 1921.

The decision-making structure of SAT is, in theory, close to the organisational base, to the extent that all congress decisions should become valid only after a referendum. This statutory provision is intended to foment grass-roots democracy. In practice, many congress decisions are never submitted to a referendum. The association is governed by an eight-member Executive Committee, currently headed by Vinko Markov.

SATEB
SATEB (Workers’ Esperanto Movement) is the British affiliate of the SAT. It organizes an annual residential weekend at the Wedgwood Memorial College, Barlaston, Stoke-on-Trent. The main feature of these meetings is the visit of Esperanto-speaking lecturers from abroad (e.g. from Cuba, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and other countries).

Members of SATEB receive the bilingual quarterly magazine La Verda Proleto.

Proposed suspension
At the 2007 annual meeting of SATEB—which seven people attended, including the guest speaker—the committee proposed a motion to suspend activity of SATEB until there emerged sufficient people to perform its essential roles. However, after debate it was decided to continue at a minimal level of activity.

Activity
SAT publishes the monthly magazine Sennaciulo ["The Non-National"] and the annual cultural review Sennacieca Revuo. SAT's publishing cooperative also produces a variety of books, some of them of an educational nature, such as the Plena Ilustrita Vortaro, the most comprehensive Esperanto dictionary, as well as socially engaged literary works. It has recently begun to publish educational and political matter on the Internet.

It organises an annual international congress, which deals with both the affairs of the association and matters of general political concern.

title: Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda


text: Category:Students' unions

title: Category:Students' unions


text: Category:Student societies

title: Category:Student societies


text:
Category:Debating societies

This category contains debating societies, and combined literary and debating societies.

title: Category:Debating societies


text:
Category:Academic libraries

Academic libraries are located on the campuses of colleges and universities and serve primarily the students and faculty of their institutions and other academic institutions

title: Category:Academic libraries


text:
Joseph Roth

Moses Joseph Roth (2 September 1894 – 27 May 1939) was an Austrian-Jewish journalist and novelist, best known for his family saga Radetzky March (1932), about the decline and fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, his novel of Jewish life Job (1930) and his seminal essay "Juden auf Wanderschaft" (1927; translated into English as The Wandering Jews), a fragmented account of the Jewish migrations from eastern to western Europe in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution. In the 21st century, publications in English of Radetzky March and of collections of his journalism from Berlin and Paris created a revival of interest in Roth.

Biography
Joseph Roth was born into a Jewish family and grew up in Brody (currently in Ukraine), a small town near Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine) in East Galicia, in the easternmost reaches of what was then the Austro-Hungarian empire. Jewish culture played an important role in the life of the town, which had a large Jewish population. Roth grew up with his mother and her relatives; he never saw his father, who had disappeared before he was born.

After secondary school, Joseph Roth moved to Lemberg to begin his university studies in 1913, before transferring to the University of Vienna in 1914 to study philosophy and German literature. In 1916, Roth broke off his university studies and volunteered to serve in the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front, "though possibly only as an army journalist or censor". This experience had a major and long-lasting influence on his life. So, too, did the collapse in 1918 of the Habsburg Empire, which marked the beginning of a pronounced sense of "homelessness" that was to feature regularly in his work. As he wrote: "My strongest experience was the War and the destruction of my fatherland, the only one I ever had, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary."

Roth married Friederike (Friedl) Reichler in 1922. In the late 1920s, his wife became schizophrenic, which threw Roth into a deep crisis, both emotionally and financially. She lived for years in a sanatorium and was later murdered in the Nazis' Aktion T4 programme.

In 1929 he met Andrea Manga Bell, born in Hamburg and unhappily married to Alexandre Douala Manga Bell, Prince of Douala in Cameroon. Her husband had returned to Cameroon while she and their children stayed in Europe. When Roth met her, she was editor of the Ullstein magazine Gebrauchsgraphik. Being a prominent liberal Jewish journalist, Roth left Germany when Adolf Hitler became Reich Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Andrea Manga Bell accompanied him with her children. He spent most of the next six years in Paris, a city he loved. His essays written in France display a delight in the city and its culture.

Shortly after Hitler's rise to power, in February 1933, Roth wrote in a prophetic letter to his friend, the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig:

"You will have realized by now that we are drifting towards great catastrophes. Apart from the private—our literary and financial existence is destroyed—it all leads to a new war. I won't bet a penny on our lives. They have succeeded in establishing a reign of barbarity. Do not fool yourself. Hell reigns."

The relationship with Andrea Manga Bell failed due to financial problems and Roth's jealousy. From 1936 to 1938, Roth had a romantic relationship with Irmgard Keun. They worked together, traveling to Paris, Wilna, Lemberg, Warsaw, Vienna, Salzburg, Brussels and Amsterdam.

Without denying his Jewish origins, Roth considered his relationship to Catholicism very important. In the final years of his life, he may have converted: Michael Hofmann states in the preface to the collection of essays  The White Cities (also published as Report from a Parisian Paradise) that Roth "was said to have had two funerals, one Jewish, one Catholic".

In his last years, he moved from hotel to hotel, drinking heavily, and becoming increasingly anxious about money and the future. Despite suffering from chronic alcoholism, he remained prolific until his death in Paris in 1939. His novella The Legend of the Holy Drinker (1939) chronicles the attempts made by an alcoholic vagrant to regain his dignity and honor a debt.

Roth's final collapse apparently was precipitated by learning that playwright Ernst Toller had hanged himself in New York on May 22. Roth died on May 27 from double pneumonia, aggravated by abrupt withdrawal of alcohol that produced delirium tremens, and was buried on May 30 at the Cimetière de Thiais south of Paris.

Journalism and literary career
In 1918, Roth returned to Vienna and began writing for left-wing newspapers, signing articles published by Vorwärts as Der rote Joseph (The red Joseph, a play on his surname, which is homophonous with German rot, "red", which is also the signalling color of communist parties in Europe). In 1920 he moved to Berlin, where he worked as a successful journalist for the Das 12 Uhr Blatt and, from 1921, for the Berliner Börsen-Courier. In 1923 he began his association with the liberal Frankfurter Zeitung, traveling widely throughout Europe, and reporting from the South of France, the USSR, Albania, Poland, Italy, and Germany. According to his main English translator, Michael Hofmann, "He was one of the most distinguished and best-paid journalists of the period, being paid at the dream rate of one Deutschmark per line." In 1925 he spent a period working in France. He never again resided permanently in Berlin. Roth has been referred to as one of the novelists who helped the emergence of what is nowadays called the Habsburg Myth.

In 1923, Roth's first (unfinished) novel, The Spider's Web, was serialized in an Austrian newspaper. He went on to achieve moderate success as a novelist with a series of books exploring life in post-war Europe, but only upon publication of Job and Radetzky March did he achieve acclaim for his fiction rather than his journalism.

From 1930, Roth's fiction became less concerned with contemporary society, with which he had become increasingly disillusioned, and began to evoke a melancholic nostalgia for life in imperial Central Europe before 1914. He often portrayed the fate of homeless wanderers looking for a place to live, in particular Jews and former citizens of the old Austria-Hungary, who, with the downfall of the monarchy, had lost their only possible Heimat ("true home"). In his later works, Roth appeared to wish that the monarchy could be restored. His longing for a more tolerant past may be partly explained as a reaction against the political extremism of the time, which culminated in Germany with National Socialism. The novel Radetzky March (1932) and the story "The Bust of the Emperor" (1935) are typical of this late phase. In another novel, The Emperor's Tomb (1938), Roth describes the fate of a cousin of the hero of Radetzky March up to Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938.

Published works
Fiction
 * The Spider's Web (Das Spinnennetz) (1923, adapted in 1989 into a film of the same title)
 * Hotel Savoy (1924)
 * The Rebellion (Die Rebellion) (1924; some editions of the English translation call it simply Rebellion)
 * "April: The Story of a Love Affair" (April. Die Geschichte einer Liebe) (1925; in The Collected Stories)
 * "The Blind Mirror" (Der blinde Spiegel) (1925; in The Collected Stories)
 * Flight without End (Die Flucht ohne Ende) (1927)
 * Zipper and His Father (Zipper und sein Vater) (1928)
 * Right and Left (Rechts und links) (1929)
 * The Silent Prophet (Der stumme Prophet) (1929)
 * Job (Hiob) (1930)
 * Radetzky March (Radetzkymarsch) (1932; some English translations call it The Radetzky March)
 * "Fallmerayer the Stationmaster" (Stationschef Fallmerayer) (1933; in The Collected Stories)
 * Tarabas (1934)
 * "The Bust of the Emperor" (Die Büste des Kaisers) (1934; in The Collected Stories)
 * Confession of a Murderer (Beichte eines Mörders) (1936)
 * The Hundred Days (Die hundert Tage) (1936)
 * Weights and Measures (Das falsche Gewicht) (1937) translation by David Le Vay forthcoming from Pushkin Press in October 2024.
 * The Emperor's Tomb (Die Kapuzinergruft) (1938)
 * The String of Pearls (Die Geschichte von der 1002. Nacht) (1939)
 * The Legend of the Holy Drinker (Die Legende vom heiligen Trinker) (1939)
 * "The Leviathan" (The Leviathan (novel)) (1940; in The Collected Stories)
 * The Collected Stories of Joseph Roth, trans. by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton (2003)

Non-Fiction
 * The Wandering Jews (Juden auf Wanderschaft) (1927; reportage)
 * The Antichrist (Der Antichrist) (essay, 1934)
 * What I Saw: Reports from Berlin, 1920–1933, trans. by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton (2002) and London: Granta Books (2003)
 * The White Cities: Reports from France, 1925–39, trans. by Michael Hofmann, London: Granta Books (2004); issued in the United States as Report from a Parisian Paradise: Essays from France, 1925–1939, New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2004)
 * Joseph Roth: A Life in Letters, trans. and edited by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton (2012)
 * The Hotel Years, trans. and edited by Michael Hofmann, New York: New Directions (2015)

Filmography

 * Sins of Man, directed by Otto Brower (1936, based on the novel Job), starring Jean Hersholt
 * Die Rebellion, directed by Wolfgang Staudte (TV film, 1962, based on the novel Rebellion), starring Josef Meinrad
 * Die Legende vom heiligen Trinker, directed by (TV film, 1963, based on the novel The Legend of the Holy Drinker), starring Hannes Messemer
 * , directed by Michael Kehlmann (TV film, 1965, based on the novel Radetzky March), starring Helmuth Lohner
 * Die Geschichte der 1002. Nacht, directed by Peter Beauvais (TV film, 1969, based on the novel The String of Pearls), starring Johanna Matz
 * Beichte eines Mörders, directed by Wilm ten Haaf (TV miniseries, 1969, based on the novel Confession of a Murderer), starring Hannelore Elsner
 * Trotta, directed by Johannes Schaaf (1971, based on the novel The Emperor's Tomb), starring Doris Kunstmann
 * , directed by Bernhard Wicki (1971, based on the novel Weights and Measures), starring Helmut Qualtinger
 * Stationschef Fallmerayer, directed by Walter Davy (TV film, 1976, based on the novella Stationschef Fallmerayer), starring Odile Versois
 * Job (miniseries), directed by Michael Kehlmann (TV miniseries, 1978, based on the novel Job), starring Günter Mack
 * Geschichte einer Liebe, directed by Dagmar Damek (TV film, 1978, based on the story April: The Story of a Love Affair), starring Bruno Ganz
 * Tarabas, directed by Michael Kehlmann (TV film, 1981, based on the novel Tarabas), starring Helmuth Lohner
 * Die Flucht ohne Ende, directed by Michael Kehlmann (TV film, 1985, based on the novel Flight without End), starring Helmuth Lohner and Mario Adorf
 * The Legend of the Holy Drinker, directed by Ermanno Olmi (1988, based on the novel The Legend of the Holy Drinker), starring Rutger Hauer
 * Spider's Web, directed by Bernhard Wicki (1989, based on the novel The Spider's Web), starring Ulrich Mühe, Armin Mueller-Stahl and Klaus Maria Brandauer
 * Die Rebellion, directed by Michael Haneke (TV film, 1993, based on the novel Rebellion)
 * , directed by Axel Corti (TV miniseries, 1994, based on the novel Radetzky March), starring Max von Sydow and Charlotte Rampling

title: Joseph Roth


text: Category:Libraries

title: Category:Libraries


text:
Category:Parties

A party is a social gathering intended primarily for celebration and recreation. While parties are related to and are often part of religious, cultural, and seasonal festivals, the term "party" usually denotes a smaller gathering held for personal reasons such as enjoyment and relaxation.

Classification: Organizational culture: Meetings: Parties

title: Category:Parties


text: Category:Student culture

title: Category:Student culture


text: Category:Clubs and societies

title: Category:Clubs and societies


text:
Category:Debating

Articles relating to debates, formal discussions on a particular topic. In a debate, opposing arguments are put forward to argue for opposing viewpoints.

title: Category:Debating


text: Category:Hobbies

title: Category:Hobbies


text:
Talk:Electricity generation

Pics
The image placemnt on this aratile is very weird, their are images spaning to the bottom of the page, that do not relate to the choice of the other topics --Samnon_iceman 19:56, 28/2/08 (Aus)

Co-generation
I have replaced the link from co-generation to combined heat and power as a page co-generation does not exist. --OnUrb 08:03, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I think the Cogeneration section should be farther down the page, perhaps after Environmental Concerns. Cogeneration is a subtopic of Electricity Generation, but far less prominent of a topic than Methods of generating electricity. It may even be better to add a section and group Cogeneration with other topics of a similar nature, such as a discussion of the various remediation techniques used at modern coal fired power plants. These are both sort of 'add-ons' to the idea of Electric Generation but really don't have anything to do with the actual topic. Thoughts? Alexmead (talk) 04:28, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

delivery
I wonder if generation really is part of the delivery to customers. I can see how transmission and distribution are.

What is the point of making the pie chart so small?
Daniel.Cardenas 16:16, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Fuel cells
Fuel cells should be included in the methods section. Chulleman 06:29, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I believe fuel cells are more like a battery rather than a source of electricity. Daniel.Cardenas 08:42, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I think fuel cells and batteries both probably deserve a slot. Tarchon 22:13, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Fuel cells are like batteries in that they convert chemical energy to electrical energy, but they are different because batteries rely on chemicals built into the cell, while fuel cells consume fuel provided by an external source. I could see fuel cells being included, because eventually they may have a role in commercial electric generation, but batteries have no potential for such use, due to their high cost. (In principle, rechargeable batteries could be used to store energy for use during times of high demand, or to replace solar and wind energy at night or when the wind is calm, but as far as I know, this is not done except in small installations that are not connected to the grid.) --Gerry Ashton 23:09, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

 * World's Largest Utility Battery System Installed in Alaska "13,670 nickel-cadmium battery cells to generate up to 40 megawatts of power for about 7 minutes, or 27 megawatts of power for 15 minutes." ie: 6.75 mW for an hour, 0.28 mW for a day. Compare that to the 0.25 megawatt fuel cell installation mentioned above it, it's hydrogen must be generated somehow and at a substantial loss in the cyclic efficiency of about 25% (H2O+electricity -> H2 -> H20+electricity) where as batteries range from 66% to 99%.  Batteries have their place, but I don't consider fuel cells nor batteries electricity generation technology.  They are both electricity storage technologies, one far more expensive and inefficient, that being fuel cells. --D0li0 07:17, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Sometimes fuel cell hydrogen is generated by water electrolysis, but fuel cells can and do use hydrocarbon fuels from a variety of sources. Plus, some schemes use hydrogen extracted from hydrocarbon fuels rather than from water. I think drawing a line between "storage" and "generation" is pretty artificial anyway. By the storage criterion, I could argue that coal fired power plants should be excluded because they aren't generating electricity. The energy in coal was stored by plants 200 million years ago, after all. If you can hook a voltmeter up to it and the needle moves, it's generating electricity. Tarchon 17:26, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Perhaps you are right, both batteries and fuel cells do generate or produce electricity. I do consider coal, oil, and natural gas stored solar energy, so strictly speaking the stars are the only energy generators in the universe.  All the more reason to use the most direct forms of solar energy (Heat, PV, Wind, Hydro).  Even the heavy atoms in nuclear fuels are solar byproducts.  Having been burning fossil fuels so intensively for the last century we are in effect reversing the photosynthetic processes that occurred over the past hundreds of millennium, essentially reversing the time/age/balance of the earth natural systems, which seems like a pretty dangerous experiment to me.  Anyway, I'm not sure if there's a point other than if a fuel cell section is added then I would also be inclined to add a battery section.  --D0li0 18:35, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

 * The lead paragraph of the article clearly indicates the article is about commercial electric generation, which would exclude off-grid small scale electric generation, such as generators in automobiles, batteries used in portable devices (e.g. iPods), etc. It might be useful to put links to articles about small-scale generation in the See also section, if there are any such articles.

 * Considering the new information about use of batteries by a utility, I suppose that could go in this article. --Gerry Ashton 18:40, 10 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Batteries are just as commercial as power plants. Duracell isn't giving them away after all. I get the sense that the original article was intended to be about utility power generation, but if the article was supposed to be about that, that's what it should have been called. If an article has a generic title like "electricity generation," it should be about electricity generation in general, not just the particular type of electricity generation that the original contributor had in mind. When I wrote the "Other Methods" section I hadn't been thinking about fuel cells, but that doesn't necessarily imply that they shouldn't be in there. I think the important thing in the "Other Methods" is to point out that there are a lot of different technologies for generating electricity and to provide links to the various types for more information, along with some brief and broad description of their respective roles in the world. Tarchon 20:34, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Mention of batteries and fuel cells do not belong in this article. They are not methods of power generation, they are methods of chemical energy storage and transfer. Power generation is the transfer of mechanical energy to electromagnetic energy. KyuzoGator 00:19, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I completely agree. Batteries don't generate electricity, they store electricity. --Charlesreid1 (talk) 20:32, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

The Image of the Combined Cycle Gas Plant
It's a very high-resolution image of a bunch of very blurry lights at night. Really, what was the point of adding that image to the article? KyuzoGator 00:14, 7 November 2007 (UTC)Yes.of course that is very important for new generation.

Producers
This graph has no source, it does not indicate units, and really says nothing at all. It is poorly presented, justified and it should not be here unless it is complemented with the missing items. 1, 10, 100... what? percentage, MW, GW, what..??? --Orgoca (talk) 22:39, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

 * If you click on the graph, you will find a reference to http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/electricitygeneration.html

 * The units are TWh, which are almost certainly terawatt hours. --Gerry Ashton (talk) 22:50, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Perhaps an additional explanation of the units being used would be useful information to associate with the picture. --Charlesreid1 (talk) 20:34, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

Why data on this page are so outdated. They come from 2008, while latest available are from 2015. World has changed since 2008, why not show data from 1998 or 1988 it is the same stone age in electricity generation world ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.110.34.112 (talk) 19:02, 20 November 2016 (UTC)

method efficiency
what is the efficiency of each of the methoods of producing electricity? (what precentage of the power source in mentioned is converted to elecrical power?)--217.132.238.135 (talk) 12:25, 20 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Possibly a good addition to the article but is it meaningful to compare efficiencies between disparate sources? And what do you mean by "efficiency"? What are you wanting to learn from the answer?  Saying that a solar panel is about 11% efficient at converting sunlight to electricity and a combined-cycle gas-turbine plant is 59% efficient at converting natural gas to electricity looks like information, but what really does it tell you? A hydro turbine may be 95% efficent at converting energy of falling water to electricity. I think it's only useful to compare efficiencies for the same primary energy source; then there's a correlation between efficiency and capital and operating costs. But you shouldn't compare apples and oranges, let alone apples and shiny round rocks. --Wtshymanski (talk) 14:50, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

Hi, just wanted to suggest updating the photovoltaic efficiency to 47% from 40%. This figure's literally in another Wikipedia article; kinda embarrassing. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#/media/File:CellPVeff(rev191101).png)

Orbiting Solar Panels
In October 2007, the National Security Space Office, part of the Department of Defense, and ShareSpace Foundation and former astronaut Buzz Aldrin issued a report which said that the price of oil was now high enough for us to study putting solar panels in orbit around the Earth to collect solar energy and beam it down to earth. Shouldn't this article have a section on this or some mention of this? rumjal 20:46, 28 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Someone is going to study something is encyclopedic? I don't think so.  Perhaps the results of the study might be notable. Daniel.Cardenas (talk) 23:01, 28 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Attoman (talk) 01:57, 29 April 2008 (UTC) The orbiting panels are far to speculative as is the "beam down" energy transfer. A link to the "Space Ladder" is in order where such projects have resonance and are put properly into their 20 year plus perspective. Attoman (talk) 01:57, 29 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia already has a Solar power satellite article. The article cannot cover every possible technology for generating electricity. Even the individual sub-articles such as Solar energy and Wind power get so long that we have to split them up too. However,  could use a navigation template which would direct the reader to more details on the various technologies for generating electricity. The main drawback of solar power satellite technology is the enormous time and investment necessary before it could yield any power, when we already have plenty of unused desert land and rooftops on which to install solar collectors much more quickly, and above all incrementally, with proven technology. There is almost always a huge difference between proven and unproven technologies. With a proven technology, the costs and time requirements are knowable with high confidence. With unproven technologies, the actual costs and time requirements may differ enormously from preliminary estimates. That's why private investors greatly prefer proven technologies, whereas only governments are typically able to gamble large sums on unproven technologies. Time may become extremely important if the dire predictions of peak oil proponents bear out (see for example the Hirsch report) - e.g., once the full scale of the liquid fuel shortage becomes clear (in the worst-case scenario of petroleum depletion), civilization may lack the time and fossil energy resources necessary to mount a huge program of space power development. Only options with rapid short-term energy payback will be feasible in such a scenario. --Teratornis (talk) 20:16, 29 August 2008 (UTC)

Reference in caption
I agree with the recent deletion of a statement from a caption, together with the citation, because the citation did not say anything about coal being clean and cheap. User:Daniel.Cardenas claimed in an edit summary that citations should go in the text, not the caption. I disagree with that, and if it had been the only reason for removing the statement, it would have been insufficient. --Gerry Ashton (talk) 20:56, 24 July 2008 (UTC)
 * The statement seemed to me to be not NPOV and a promo for coal. I understand why you deleted it.  There might be some truth in it, though, that might be worth of preserving.  If coal is a cheap source (or cheapest) it would be worth putting that back in the caption.  But I'd like to see a citation for it.  I never really thought about references in captions.  Thinking about it now, it seems to me something to avoid if possible, but tolerable. Diderot's dreams (talk) 15:47, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

Tesla's Methods
It is reported that much of Tesla's research centered around the generation or "capture" of electricity from sources existing naturally around us. Should these be added to the article? - KitchM (talk) 19:49, 4 June 2010 (UTC)
 * It didn't, so please cite your sources. Tesla claimed a lot about transmission, relatively little about generation. Andy Dingley (talk) 20:17, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

Billion - replace with SI multiplier.
The article uses the multiplier "billion". Unfortunately this is not a standard multiplier and may be confusing since the US and the UK have used different values for the multiplier billion. It would be good if the multipliers were replaced with unambiguous SI multipliers such as Giga or Tera.

Worryingly the article seems to be using the old British value of 10^12 for Billion and not the currently accepted 10^9 which has I understand always been used in the US and is now I believe the most widely accepted in the UK.

I would change it myself however the figures that use the Billion multiplier are not sourced and I cannot be sure what the true values are and I am not a subject expert.

Threebs (talk) 22:00, 7 November 2010 (UTC)

energy production
hi, If we agree that the low of conservation of energy is correct then the terminology of 'generation' for energy might be misleading. After all nobody generates energy, only changes its form from one type to another. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tzachi Bar (talk • contribs) 09:44, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

 * If you want to create a campaign to make the English language consistent with the theories of physics, go ahead. Once you have accomplished your goal, report back here and we will edit our articles to reflect the new version of English. But Wikipedia follows the existing English language, it doesn't try to change it. Jc3s5h (talk) 14:16, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

Principles of Electricity Formation
There is no sign of the principle of electricity formation being represented on the page.

Freely moving positive or negative subatomic particles are termed to be electric charges. A group of Electric charges is an Electric current, often referred to as Electricity. Basically electricity itself is a group of electric charges free from their atoms. Anything with an electric or magnetic effect when coming in contact with a Conducting material attracts charge of opposite type towards it and thus forms electricity or electric charge. Anodes, Cathodes, Magnets, and other magnetic or objects carrying free electric charge form electricity when in physical contact or premises form electricity.

The above mentioned description of the principles behind the formation must be according to me displayed on the article.

Requested move 11 January 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. There is no consensus to rename this per the request. --  Dane talk  07:27, 19 January 2017 (UTC)

Electricity generation → Electric power generation – Electricity has a wide range of definitions and is not the topic of this article. Instead the topic is electric power generation. This is a subtle point because electricity is often used interchangeably with electric power. Brian Everlasting (talk) 11:07, 11 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Article currently focused on electric power generation, so the change seems reasonable. What outcome is intended for the original title? Redirect? • • • Peter (Southwood) (talk): 12:35, 11 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes redirect and tweak the article a bit to reflect the title change. Brian Everlasting (talk) 13:06, 11 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Oppose, as the article includes a section on "static electricity" that nom did not mention. Dicklyon (talk) 03:15, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Comment the phrase 'electricity generation' is widely used and means the same as 'electric power generation'. The Noms reason seems therefore to be invalid. Still, the fact that they mean the same, means it could be changed. OTOH, I'm unable to find good evidence that EPG is more common to change it per WP:COMMON, they seem to be used about the same amount.GliderMaven (talk) 03:54, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Oppose. I can see nom's point, but English is not that logical... if it were we'd call it Electrical energy generation rather than power as proposed. We use English even when not 100% logical. Andrewa (talk) 03:48, 19 January 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Merger proposal
I propose merging Centralised generation into Electricity generation because then it will be less work to keep them up to date as there will be less duplication. Chidgk1 (talk) 16:24, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Support there is no need for a separate article. --Ita140188 (talk) 16:46, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Support Looks good. Massive duplication. GliderMaven (talk) 17:09, 25 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Support per Chidgk1 nomination. — RCraig09 (talk) 19:21, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Merged - will do some basic tidying but leave plenty for you guys Chidgk1 (talk) 16:14, 26 November 2021 (UTC)

Audition
I added the following sentence to lead, mostly as an audition:

There are also exotic and speculative methods to recover energy, such as proposed fusion reactor designs which aim to directly extract energy from intense magnetic fields generated by fast-moving charged particles generated by the fusion reaction (see magnetohydrodynamics).

Given the global stakes involved for the current and future generation, I don't think this is a lead that should ruthlessly prioritize thinking inside the box, solely in terms of long established technologies.

There's a certain innate tendency of encyclopedias to be backward looking (all the better to cite you with) and this form of authority is often warranted.

However, in this case, the future mode of electric power generation on planet Earth is the Wild West right now (or should be), and so perhaps we should keep the open box front and center, even if it's so far but a tender, unlikely shoot sired by a DeLorean and raisin-eating porcupines.

Just a thought. — MaxEnt 14:42, 4 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Electricity generation


text:
Eugène Lanti

Eugène Lanti was a pseudonym of Eugène Adam (19 July 1879 in Normandy, France – 17 January 1947 in Mexico). Lanti was an Esperantist, socialist and writer. He was a founder of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda, and a longtime editor of the internationalist socialist magazine Sennaciulo. Lanti was a critic of Stalinism and the theoretician of a new doctrine, anationalism, which aimed to eliminate the very concept of the nation as a guiding idea of social organisation.

Biography
Lanti's parents were peasant farmers. In his early life he worked as an agricultural labourer, carpenter, furniture maker and designer. He was self-educated, and studied in the evening. In 1914 he was mobilised in the First World War and served as an ambulance driver. He learnt Esperanto in 1914–15 at the Western Front, but in 1919 was almost persuaded to abandon Esperanto in favour of Ido. Following the war, he returned to Paris, became acquainted with Lucian Banmer and Ludoviko Glodeau, and he reaffirmed his support for Esperanto with his editorship of Liberiga Stelo.

In the 1920s Lanti lived in Paris with Ellen Kate Limouzin, the aunt of George Orwell. Orwell visited the couple and suffered as a non-speaker of Esperanto, and developed a strong dislike for the language. It has been suggested that Orwell included elements of Esperanto in the "Newspeak" language he created in his anti-totalitarian novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Lanti's political career
In his youth Lanti had been attracted to anarchism, but in 1920 he abandoned anarchism and became a founding member of the French Communist Party. In 1921 in Prague he was the initiator and de facto leader of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT), a broad-based Esperanto-speaking organisation (containing Communists, Social Democrats and anarchists) which does not organise along national lines.

In 1933 Lanti, wounded by personal attacks and criticisms of his leadership, left his position of president of the Central Committee of SAT, a position he had occupied since the foundation of the organization. He continued, however, to play a role in the organisation chiefly as a writer. In 1935 Lanti founded the independent magazine Herezulo in which he criticised the Soviet regime more forcefully than in Sennaciulo.

Lanti as lexicographer
Lanti was self-taught both in his use of literary French and Esperanto. He worked with Petit Larousse, and sought to create an Esperanto dictionary of the same type. He was centrally involved in the project run by SAT for the writing and design of the Plena Vortaro which later became today's Plena Ilustrita Vortaro.

Later years
After his retirement in 1937, to meet Esperantists, Lanti left France for good and travelled to Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and South America. Suffering from an incurable illness, he hanged himself in his flat in Mexico on 17 January 1947.

title: Eugène Lanti


text:
Underground film

An underground film is a film that is out of the mainstream either in its style, genre or financing.

Notable examples include: John Waters' Pink Flamingos, David Lynch's Eraserhead, Andy Warhol's Blue Movie, Rosa von Praunheim's Tally Brown, New York, Frank Henenlotter's Basket Case, Nikos Nikolaidis' Singapore Sling, Rinse Dreams' Café Flesh, and Jörg Buttgereit's Nekromantik.

Definition and history
The first printed use of the term "underground film" occurs in a 1957 essay by American film critic Manny Farber, "Underground Films." Farber uses it to refer to the work of directors who "played an anti-art role in Hollywood." He contrasts "such soldier-cowboy-gangster directors as Raoul Walsh, Howard Hawks, William Wellman," and others with the "less talented De Sicas and Zinnemanns [who] continue to fascinate the critics." However, as in "Underground Press", the term developed as a metaphorical reference to a clandestine and subversive culture beneath the legitimate and official media.

In the late 1950s, "underground film" began to be used to describe early independent film makers operating first in San Francisco, California and New York City, New York, and soon in other cities around the world as well, including the London Film-Makers' Co-op in Britain and Ubu Films in Sydney, Australia. The movement was typified by more experimental filmmakers working at the time like Shirley Clarke, Stan Brakhage, Harry Everett Smith, Maya Deren, Andy Warhol, Kenneth Anger, Jonas Mekas, Ken Jacobs, Ron Rice, Jack Smith, George and Mike Kuchar, and Bruce Conner.

By the late 1960s, the movement represented by these filmmakers had matured, and some began to distance themselves from the countercultural, psychedelic connotations of the word, preferring terms like avant-garde or experimental to describe their work.

Having been embraced most emphatically by Nick Zedd and the other filmmakers associated with the New York–based Cinema of Transgression and No Wave Cinema of the late 1970s to early 1990s, the term would still be used to refer to the more countercultural fringe of independent cinema.

Latter-day cinema
In the early 1990s, the legacy of the Cinema of Transgression carried over into a new generation, who would equate "underground cinema" with transgressive art, ultra-low-budget filmmaking created in defiance of both the commercialized versions of independent film offered by newly wealthy distributors like Miramax and New Line, as well as the institutionalized experimental film canonized at major museums. This spirit defined the early years of underground film festivals (like the New York Underground Film Festival, Chicago Underground Film Festival, Boston Underground Film Festival, Sydney Underground Film Festival, Hamilton Underground Film Festival, Toronto's Images Festival, and others), zines like Film Threat, as well as the works of filmmakers like Craig Baldwin, Jon Moritsugu, Carlos Atanes, Johnny Terris, Sarah Jacobson, and Bruce La Bruce. In London the Underground resurgence emerged as a movement of Underground cinema clubs which included the radical open access group the Exploding Cinema.

By the late 1990s and early 2000s, the term had become blurred again, as the work at underground festivals began to blend with more formal experimentation, and the divisions that had been stark ones less than a decade earlier now seemed much less so. If the term is used at all, it connotes a form of very low budget independent filmmaking, with perhaps transgressive content, or a lo-fi analog to post-punk music and cultures.

A recent development in underground filmmaking can be observed through the Lower East Side based film production company ASS Studios. Founded in 2011 by writer Reverend Jen and filmmaker Courtney Fathom Sell, the group avoided most modern methods of production, choosing to shoot all of their work on an outdated Hi 8 format and usually with no-budget. Utilizing many New York based performers, their work generally contained camp elements and taboo themes. These films were commonly screened at venues & bars in and around New York City.

Underground versus cult
The term "underground film" is occasionally used as a synonym for cult film (as in the case of films like Eating Raoul). Though there are important distinctions between the two, a significant overlap between these categories is undeniable. The films of Kenneth Anger, for example, could arguably be described as underground while a studio film like Heathers (New World Pictures) may have a cult following, but could not be accurately described as an underground film.

Criticism
Film critic Pauline Kael called most underground cinema "a creature of publicity and mutual congratulations on artistry".

Notable underground cinema figures
List is incomplete.

 * Usama Alshaibi
 * Kenneth Anger
 * Gregg Araki
 * Carlos Atanes
 * Michel Auder
 * Scott Barley
 * Carmelo Bene
 * Jean-Pierre Bouyxou
 * Stan Brakhage
 * Jörg Buttgereit
 * Pierre Clémenti
 * Bruce Conner
 * Tony Conrad
 * Shirley Clarke
 * Tonino De Bernardi
 * Storm de Hirsch
 * Maya Deren
 * Marian Dora
 * Robert Downey, Sr.
 * Rinse Dream
 * Stephen Dwoskin
 * Matt Farley
 * James Fotopoulos
 * Hollis Frampton
 * Dmitrii Frolov
 * Curtis Harrington
 * Herk Harvey
 * Ian Hugo
 * Straub-Huillet
 * Ken Jacobs
 * Sarah Jacobson
 * Richard Kern
 * Peter Kubelka
 * George Kuchar
 * Gregory Markopoulos
 * Jonas Mekas
 * Marie Menken
 * Annette Michelson
 * Jon Moritsugu
 * Otto Muehl
 * Paul Morrissey
 * Gunvor Nelson
 * Nikos Nikolaidis
 * Damon Packard
 * Luther Price
 * Joel Potrykus
 * Yvonne Rainer
 * Jesse Richards
 * Peter Rinaldi
 * Jacques Rivette
 * Carolee Schneeman
 * Paul Sharits
 * P. Adams Sitney
 * Michael Snow
 * Ray Dennis Steckler
 * Chick Strand
 * Chester Novell Turner
 * Stan Vanderbeek
 * Agustí Villaronga
 * Andy Warhol
 * John Waters
 * Nicholas Watson
 * Nick Zedd
 * Thierry Zéno

title: Underground film


text: Category:University of Oxford

title: Category:University of Oxford