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Zatoichi

Zatoichi (座頭市) is a fictional character created by Japanese novelist Kan Shimozawa. He is an itinerant blind masseur and swordsman of Japan's late Edo period (1830s and 1840s). He first appeared in the 1948 essay Zatoichi Monogatari (座頭市物語), part of Shimozawa's Futokoro Techō series that was serialized in the magazine Shōsetsu to Yomimono.

This originally minor character was drastically altered and developed for the screen by Daiei Film and actor Shintaro Katsu, becoming the subject of one of Japan's longest-running film series. A total of 26 films were made between 1962 and 1989. From 1974 to 1979, a television series was produced, starring Katsu and some of the same actors that appear in the films. Produced by Katsu Productions, 100 episodes were aired before the Zatoichi television series was cancelled.

The seventeenth film of the Zatoichi series was remade in the US in 1989 by TriStar Pictures as Blind Fury, starring Rutger Hauer. A 2003 film was directed by Takeshi Kitano, who also starred as the title character. It was awarded the Venice Film Festival's Silver Lion for Best Direction. A stage adaptation of Zatoichi directed by Takashi Miike and starring Show Aikawa was filmed in 2007 and later released on home video. Zatoichi: The Last is a 2010 film directed by Junji Sakamoto and starring Shingo Katori.

Character
Zatoichi at first comes across as a harmless blind anma (masseur) and bakuto (gambler) who wanders the land, making his living by chō-han (playing dice) as well as giving massages, performing acupuncture and even, on occasion, singing and playing music. Secretly, however, he is very highly skilled in swordsmanship, specifically Muraku-school kenjutsu and iaido along with the more general sword skills of Japan, as well as sumo wrestling and kyujutsu.

Little of his past is revealed, other than that he lost his sight as a child through illness. His father disappeared for undisclosed reasons when Zatoichi was about five years old. He is described by his swordsmanship instructor as having practiced constantly and with extreme devotion when he was a pupil in order to develop his incredible skills. Zatoichi says of himself that he became a yakuza (gangster) during those three years he spent training (which immediately precede the original The Tale of Zatoichi) and killed many people, something he later came to deeply regret. This is reflected in his willingness to involve himself in the affairs of others—chiefly, those suffering from oppression and exploitation, or some form of corruption. Despite that moral re-assessment and his new perspective and remorse (and most often because of them), he usually has a bounty (sometimes quite large) on his head from one source or another throughout the movies and series. However, because of his earnestness, wit, and natural sense of empathy, many people who encounter him during his travels grow to respect and even care for him.

Unlike a bushi, he does not carry a traditional katana. Instead, he uses a well-made shikomi-zue (仕込み杖, lit. "prepared cane" or cane sword), as the use or possession of true fighting blades was formally outlawed for non-samurai during the Edo period. The decree was virtually impossible to enforce, however, as evidenced by the yakuza enforcers being shown wielding katanas throughout the films. The blades of Shikomi-zue were generally straight-edged, of lower-quality, unfolded steel, which could not compare with even a low-end katana. As a result, the blade in Ichi's cane sword is broken during the climactic battle in Zatoichi the Fugitive (the fourth film). The sword has a new blade by the next film, which he wields until the fifteenth film Zatoichi's Cane Sword. The blade (which breaks during the film) and the blade that replaces it were specially forged at great expense and with far more than the usual care by master bladesmiths and were both of exceptional quality, superior to the swords of even most samurai. At the beginning of Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo, his swordblade (presumably the same) inexplicably breaks and is sold to a blacksmith along with its hilt and scabbard. Its replacement is not a shikomi-zue, but a jotō (杖刀 lit. a "staff sword") of unrevealed origin that resembles a short, thick bo staff, which also soon breaks. In the next film, Zatoichi: The Festival of Fire, he is once again using his trademark cane sword, outfitted with a new blade of unknown origin and quality.

The principal recurring thematic formula of these films and the television series is that of the ever-wandering and sentimental drifter who protects the innocent and the helpless from oppressive or warring yakuza gangs, stops the worst of general injustice or predation and aids the unfortunate, and often, through no fault of his own, is set upon by ruffians or stumbles into harm's way. Zatoichi's saga is essentially one of an earthy but basically good and wise man almost always trying to do the decent thing, to somehow redeem himself and perhaps atone for past failings. Nevertheless, he believes himself instead to be a stained, corrupted and evil man, irredeemable and undeserving of the love and respect that some show and rightly have for him. This self-described "god of calamities" is routinely a magnet for troubles of one sort or another. Death is his only constant companion, as he pragmatically does not allow other people, especially those he loves or thinks highly of, to get close and stay there for long; such would lead to eventual tragedy. Death does seem, like a shadow, actually to follow an often reluctant Zatoichi almost everywhere he goes, and despite his mostly compassionate nature, killing appears to come entirely naturally to him.

His lightning-fast fighting skill is incredible, with his sword held in a reverse grip; this, combined with his unflappable steel-nerved wits in a fight, his keen ears, sense of smell and proprioception, all render him a formidable adversary. He is also quite capable with a traditional katana, as seen in Zatoichi's Vengeance and the bathhouse scene in Zatoichi and the Festival of Fire. Similarly, he displays considerable skill using two swords simultaneously, in Musashi-like Nitō Ichi style in Zatoichi and the Doomed Man. Almost preternaturally dangerous with blades, he is fully capable (whether standing, sitting or lying down) of fighting and swiftly defeating multiple skilled opponents simultaneously. Some, however, have come close to besting him in combat, in particular during the final duel in Zatoichi Challenged, where extenuating circumstances played a role.

A number of other standard scenarios are also repeated through the series: Zatoichi's winning of large amounts at gambling via his ability to hear whether the dice have fallen on even or odd is a common theme, as is his catching loaded or substituted dice by the difference in their sound. This frequently culminates in another set piece, Zatoichi's cutting the candles lighting the room and reducing it to pitch blackness, commonly accompanied by his tagline "Kurayami nara kotchi no mon da" (暗闇ならこっちのもんだ; roughly meaning "Darkness is my ally" or "Now we are all blind").

The character's name is actually Ichi. Zatō is a title, the lowest of the four official ranks within the Tōdōza, the historical guild for blind men (thus, zato also designates a blind person in Japanese slang). Ichi is therefore properly called Zatō-no-Ichi ("Low-Ranking Blind Person Ichi", approximately), or Zatōichi for short. Massage was a traditional occupation for the blind (as their lack of sight removed the issue of gender), as was playing the biwa or, for blind women (goze), the shamisen. Being lesser hinin (lit. "non-people"), blind people and masseurs were regarded as among the very lowest of the low in social class, other than eta or outright criminals; they were generally considered wretches, beneath notice, no better than beggars or even the insane—especially during the Edo period—and it was also commonly thought that the blind were accursed, despicable, severely mentally disabled, deaf and sexually dangerous.

Original film series
The original series of 26 films featured Shintaro Katsu as Zatoichi. The first film was made in 1962 in black and white. The third film, in 1963, was the first to be filmed in color. The 25th film was made in 1973, followed by a hiatus of 16 years until Katsu's last film, which he wrote and directed himself in 1989.

The original series of movies features other popular fictional characters of the genre on two occasions. Zatoichi Meets the One-Armed Swordsman (1971) connects with the Shaw Brothers series of Hong Kong-produced movies directed by prolific director Chang Cheh; and Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo (1970) features Toshiro Mifune as Imperial Shogunate Secret Agent Daisaku Sasa. This character resembles the title character of Akira Kurosawa's films Yojimbo and Sanjuro. The earlier films, in which Mifune's character used the pseudonym Sanjuro (30-year-old), are alluded to when Sassa is jokingly called Shijuro (40-year-old).

List of films

 * Note: The English titles shown are the common commercially used titles, thus they are not direct translations of the original Japanese titles.

Directors
Many directors directed multiple Zatoichi movies. The directors are (in order of number of movies they directed):
 * Kenji Misumi: 6
 * Kimiyoshi Yasuda: 6
 * Kazuo Mori: 3
 * Tokuzō Tanaka: 3
 * Kazuo Ikehiro: 3
 * Shintaro Katsu: 2
 * Akira Inoue: 1
 * Satsuo Yamamoto: 1
 * Kihachi Okamoto: 1

Television series
The television series Zatoichi ran for four seasons—a total of 100 episodes—with Shintaro Katsu in the lead role:
 * 1) 26 episodes, in 1974
 * 2) 29 episodes, in 1976
 * 3) 19 episodes, in 1978
 * 4) 26 episodes, in 1979

Most of the stories in the television series are original dramas, but some are essentially redacted remakes of the full-length Zatoichi films of the previous decade such as Season One, Episode 14, "Fighting Journey with Baby in Tow" (corresponds to the 8th film "Fight, Zatoichi, Fight" 座頭市血笑旅 Zatōichi kesshō-tabi); Season One, Episode 16, "The Winds From Mt. Akagi".

The first season of television shows has been released with English subtitles from Media Blasters / Tokyo Shock.

Production companies
The first 20 films were produced and distributed by Daiei Film (except for the 16th film Zatoichi the Outlaw and the 20th film Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo which were produced by Shintaro Katsu's own company, Katsu Productions, and distributed theatrically by Daiei).

The last 6 films (and the TV series) were also produced by Katsu Productions. Distribution of these films was done by Dainichi Eihai (Zatoichi Goes to the Fire Festival, Zatoichi Meets the One-Armed Swordsman), Toho (Zatoichi at Large which Toho also co-produced with Katsu Productions, Zatoichi in Desperation, and Zatoichi at the Blood Fest), and Shochiku which released Katsu's last Zatoichi film in 1989. It was re-released (and retitled Darkness Is His Ally) in 2004, occasioned by the new 2003 Zatoichi film, Zatoichi, starring Takeshi Kitano, which Shochiku also released.

Chambara Entertainment/Video Action of Honolulu held the original VHS release rights to the Zatoichi film series numbers 1-20, though it only released some of them. Chambara eventually expired its North American release license. AnimEigo held the remainder of the VHS rights.

Home Vision Entertainment was granted United States distribution rights to the original Daiei films (except for the 14th and the 16th (the second of which was still in possession of AnimEigo)), and released them on DVD: the films were numbered 1–13, 15, and 17–19. AnimEigo released seven of the films: Zatoichi the Outlaw (1967), Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo (1970), Zatoichi at the Fire Festival (1970, as Zatoichi: The Festival of Fire), Zatoichi Meets the One-Armed Swordsman (1971), Zatoichi at Large (1972), Zatoichi in Desperation (1972), and Zatoichi at the Blood Fest (1973, as Zatoichi's Conspiracy).

Media Blasters (under their Tokyo Shock label) have released both the 1989 film and the first season (26 episodes) of the TV series.

The Criterion Collection released the first 25 films as a dual-format Blu-ray and DVD boxed set on November 26, 2013.

Blind Fury
In 1989, TriStar Pictures released a remake called Blind Fury, starring Rutger Hauer as a Vietnam War vet who is blinded, then taught to use a cane sword by a local tribe before returning home to America. This film is based on Zatoichi Challenged (1967), the 17th film in the original series.

2003 film
In 2003, Takeshi Kitano wrote, directed and appeared in a new high-budget film featuring the character, Zatoichi. It premiered on September 3, 2003, at the Venice Film Festival, where it won the prestigious Silver Lion award, and went on to numerous other awards both at home and abroad. The soundtrack was composed by Keiichi Suzuki and the Japanese tap dance troupe The Stripes. Zatoichi discovers a small, remote mountain town that has been overtaken by a bullying gang that is extorting money from the townspeople. As Zatoichi seeks to liberate the town, he encounters a rōnin seeking employment to pay for his ailing wife's needs, and two geisha who are seeking to avenge the murder of their parents, but he soon discovers that they are not what they seem to be.

Stage adaptation
A stage version of Zatoichi directed by Takashi Miike starred Show Aikawa. It was filmed in 2007 and later released on home video.

Ichi
In 2008's Ichi, a blind female musician who is rescued (and later trained) by Zatoichi travels through Japan to find her mentor.

Zatoichi: The Last
Toho released a new Zatoichi film starring Shingo Katori titled Zatoichi: The Last on May 29, 2010.

In other works

 * In 1969, Teruo Sakamaki (酒巻輝男), a Japanese restaurant owner from Shinjuku turned Shintaro Katsu/Zatoichi impersonator, starred in a Pink film entitled Lewd Priest: Forty-Eight Positions Cutting (好色坊主 四十八手斬り). The film was directed by Kaoru Umezawa and produced by Uematsu Productions which was reportedly sued by Daiei for copyright infringement. Under various aliases including "Shintaro Katsu look-alike (勝新太郎ソックリショー)", "Rintaro Katsu (勝利太郎)", and "Sing Lung (勝龍)", Sakamaki continued to imitate Shintaro Katsu as Zatoichi in numerous films in Taiwan including: The Blind Swordsman's Revenge (盲劍・血滴子) (1972), The Blind Swordsman vs White Wolf (盲俠鬥白狼) (1972), Trust and Brotherhood (義氣傳義氣) (1972), The Hunchback (漢駝) (1972), Inspector Karate (頭號鐵人) (1973), and The Devil's Owl (魔鬼怪鷹) (1977).
 * The Crimson Bat film series (1969–1970) and TV series (1971) was an unauthorized variation, with a blind woman named O-Ichi, played by Yoko Matsuyama, as the sword-wielding hero.
 * Blindman is a 1971 Spaghetti Western variation on the Zatoichi formula starring Tony Anthony as a blind gunman.
 * In the second season of the 1985 animated series Thundercats, a character named Lynx-O shares many similarities to Zatoichi. Having been blinded by volcanic gasses during his escape from his dying homeworld of Thundera, Lynx-O develops his other senses to "see" the world around him. He is a formidable fighter, and can use pressure points to disable and defeat his foes.
 * The character of Zatoichi finds homage in the character of Zato-Ino (also known as "the Blind Swordspig") in Stan Sakai's long-running anthropomorphic comic series Usagi Yojimbo (1984). This iteration of the character uses his keen sense of smell to find his way and to combat his enemies. Zato-Ino first appeared in Critters #7 (Jan 1987), published by Fantagraphics Books.
 * A TV-movie Western titled Blind Justice was released in 1994 from HBO. A blinded civil war veteran protects a baby he is transporting to family beyond a border town besieged by bandits.
 * In the 1998 video game series Guilty Gear, one of the original characters is named Zato-1, who also happens to be a blind assassin. Although his name is pronounced Zato-one, the Japanese word for one is ichi, hence Zato-ichi.
 * In the 2005 episode of The Boondocks titled "Grandad's Fight," Huey has a dream in which he fights Col. Stinkmeaner - a blind and cruel elderly man who had beaten his grandfather earlier in the episode - as a samurai. Later in the episode, Huey shows his grandfather footage of the animated Zatoichi in action, comparing Stinkmeaner to the blind swordsman.
 * In the 2006 movie Devil's Den, the main characters, while being trapped in the strip club by female ghouls, have a fantasy scenario of how Zatoichi would deal with the ghouls himself.
 * The Italian heavy metal band Holy Martyr released a song titled "Zatoichi" on their 2011 album Invincible, based on the character. The cover artwork of Invincible depicts Zatoichi in combat against two rival warriors.
 * In the Shogun Pack update of the 2007 multiplayer first-person shooter Team Fortress 2, a katana called "The Half-Zatoichi" was introduced for use by both the Soldier and Demoman, alluding to the fact that the Demoman is missing an eye and is half-blind, while the Soldier's helmet covers his eyes and restricts his vision.
 * In the 2007 American exploitation horror film Death Proof, Jungle Julia calls Stuntman Mike "Zatoichi" sarcastically when he fails to notice a billboard. Mike responds with a wide grin similar to Zatoichi's.
 * In the 2013 online co-op game Warframe, there is a katana stance called "Blind Justice", which causes the katana to be held in reverse grip. Its first attack combination is called "Zatos' Creed", all of them being references to Zatoichi. As well as this, there is a skin for the "Excalibur" Warframe named "Excalibur Zato".
 * In the long-running manga series One Piece, the minor character and marine Admiral Fujitora is based upon Zatoichi.
 * In the music video for Wednesday Campanella's song Inca, singer KOM_I plays a Zatoichi inspired character.
 * The character of Zatoichi also finds homage in 2016's Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, where Chinese actor Donnie Yen appears as Chirrut Îmwe, a blind transient wanderer who is secretly a highly skilled warrior who believes in, and has a connection with, the Force. The Jedi characters Rahm Kota and Kanan Jarrus also draw inspiration from the character.
 * In 2017, a short eight-minute fictitious sci-fi film trailer entitled ZVP - Zatoichi vs Predator, produced, written and directed by Junya Okabe as a nonprofit fan film starring Shun Sugata as Zatoichi was released by Blast Inc. and made available on YouTube. A very special team of villains attack and kill a group of samurai comic book style, until a mysterious samurai appears to defeat them. He is revealed to be a Predator and Zatoichi will face him with a Star Wars-style Jedi Knight lightsaber. A making-of video was also available.
 * In Hou Hsiao-hsien’s debut feature Cute Girl, the main character Daigang performs a brief Zatoichi impression.
 * Denzel Curry's album Melt My Eyez See Your Future features a track titled "Zatoichi", and its accompanying music video includes Curry training under a blind martial artist.

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CBKT-DT

CBKT-DT (channel 9) is a CBC Television station in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. It is part of a twinstick with Ici Radio-Canada Télé station CBKFT-DT (channel 13). The two outlets share studios with sister radio stations CBK, CBK-FM and CBKF-FM at the CBC Regina Broadcast Centre at 2440 Broad Street in Downtown Regina; CBKT-DT's transmitter is located near McDonald Street/Highway 46, just northeast of Regina proper.

History
CBKT signed on for the first time on December 21, 1962 as CHRE-TV, a semi-satellite of CHAB-TV in Moose Jaw and an affiliate of CTV. CHRE signed on as part of a deal between CHAB-TV and Regina's original station, CKCK-TV, which allowed CTV to come to Saskatchewan for the first time. On the same day CHRE signed on, CKCK-TV opened a rebroadcaster in Moose Jaw. During the latter half of the 1960s, the station generally branded itself as "Channel 9".

On May 30, 1968, controlling interest in CHAB Ltd., owner of CHAB-AM-TV and CHRE, was transferred to Moffat Broadcasting, owner of Winnipeg's CTV affiliate, CJAY (channel 7, now CKY-DT). The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), however, told Moffat to sell CHAB-TV and CHRE to a new owner within one year. Moffat tried to sell CHAB and CHRE to Western Broadcast Management Ltd., owner of CHAN-TV in Vancouver. However, the CRTC denied this bid on July 18, 1969 in favour of a counteroffer from the CBC. On September 13, CBC officially assumed control of CHRE and CHAB and moved its programming there, while CKCK became the sole CTV outlet in southern Saskatchewan. CBC made the Regina station the main station, and changed the call letters of the stations to CBKRT and CBKMT respectively. After the switch to the CBC, the brand used was "9&4" or "CBC 9&4", to signify both the Regina and Moose Jaw channel numbers.

The station received its current call letters on July 31, 1978. On the same day, CBKMT's licence was merged with that of CBKT; its transmitter operated as a full-time rebroadcaster, CBKT-1. The CHRE calls are now used on a St. Catharines, Ontario radio station owned by Bell Media. After a brief flirtation with "TV9 Regina", the station returned to the "9&4" brand in the 1980s, this time to signify the station's cable channel position. Today the station is branded just as "CBC" or "CBC Saskatchewan", as it has since the early 1990s, when the latter branding was introduced to signify the inclusion of not only the main station but also its rebroadcasters across the province, including Moose Jaw and Saskatoon. In 2002, CBC purchased former privately owned affiliates CJFB-TV in Swift Current and CKOS-TV in Yorkton, turning both into rebroadcasters of CBKT.

Newscasts
CBKT-DT presently broadcasts 8 hours, 50 minutes of locally produced newscasts each week (with 2 hours, 10 minutes each weekday); unlike most CBC stations, CBKT does not air local newscasts on weekends. The station airs local news programming on weekdays, covering stories in Regina, Saskatoon, Swift Current, Yorkton and Prince Albert. The station broadcasts a 30-minute early evening newscast, with a short ten-minute newscast at 11 p.m. following The National.

Notable former on-air staff

 * Sheldon Turcott

Analog-to-digital conversion
On August 31, 2011, when Canadian television stations in CRTC-designated mandatory markets transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts, CBKT flash cut its digital signal into operation on VHF channel 9.

Transmitters
CBKT operated 14 analog over-the-air television rebroadcasters broadcasting in southern Saskatchewan in communities such as Moose Jaw, Swift Current and Yorkton. Additionally, CBKST in Saskatoon and its network of over 20 associated transmitters were officially licensed as rebroadcasters of CBKT. At CBC's request, CBKST's licence was revoked effective August 1, 2012. Due to federal funding reductions to the CBC, in April 2012, the CBC responded with substantial budget cuts, which included shutting down CBC's and Radio-Canada's remaining analog transmitters on July 31, 2012.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Simon Larose

Simon Larose (born June 28, 1978) is a former professional tennis player. He was Canada's top-ranked singles player for some months during 2003 and 2004. Larose retired from the tour shortly after being banned for two years for substance abuse.

Biography
Larose was born in Cap-de-la-Madeleine, Quebec, Canada. He joined the ATP professional tour at the age of 20 in 1998 having played collegiately at Mississippi State University. He was Canada's top-ranked singles player, according to the ATP rankings, in 2003 from January 6 until February 3, from May 19 until June 23, and from August 18 until October 13, and again in 2004 from July 12 until August 2. His best singles ATP ranking is World No. 189, which he achieved in July 2004.

Although Larose did not make any official announcement, he was quoted in the press as saying that he retired from tennis after being levied a two-year ban in February 2005 by the ATP for testing positive for cocaine. At the time of his supposed cocaine use, he had been out of action with a back injury.

Since his retirement from the ATP circuit Larose has been coaching at a local tennis club, moving on to coach for Tennis Canada.

Simon made Canadian radio history when he provided analysis on the first-ever Canadian English language production of the 2010 Rogers Cup tennis final along with CJAD 800's Rick Moffat (play-by-play) and Mark Shalhoub (courtside reporter).

Larose provided CJAD 800 coverage for the 2012 Rogers Cup and returns to the booth August 10–11 for the Men's Singles Semis and Final.

Larose has been successful as a coach. He was appointed the Canadian National team's head coach and has coached Rebecca Marino and Francoise Abanda.

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Kisii people

The Abagusii (also known as Kisii (Mkisii/Wakisii) in Swahili, or Gusii in Ekegusii) are a Bantu ethnic group and nation indigenous to Kisii and Nyamira counties of former Nyanza, as well as parts of Kericho and Bomet counties of the former Rift Valley province of Kenya.

The Abagusii traditionally inhabit Kisii and Nyamira counties, as well as sections of Kericho and Bomet counties, all of which were within the former Nyanza and Rift Valley provinces of Kenya. Studies of East African Bantu languages and anthropological evidence suggests that the Abagusii, together with Kuria, Ngurimi, Rangi, Mbugwe, Simbiti, Zanaki and Ikoma, emerged from East African Neolithic agropastoralists and hunters/gatherers  believed to have come from the North of Mt. Elgon. It's also believed that there was heavy influence on the Abagusii from Bantu speakers migrating out of Central Africa and West Africa; certain groups of the Abagusii may have been assimilated from the Luhya and Olusuba speaking Suba people, which originated from west of Lake Victoria. The majority of Abagusii are closely related to the Maasai, Kipsigis, Abakuria, and Ameru of Kenya.

The Abagusii also have a close linguistic relationship with the Ngurimi, Rangi, Mbugwe, Simbiti, Zanaki, Ikoma and Maragoli people. They speak the Ekegusii language which is classified with the Great Lakes Bantu languages. However, the inclusion of Abagusii in the Bantu language group is a subject of debate, given that studies on East African Bantu languages have found Ekegusii, together with the Kuria, Simbiti, Ngurimi, Rangi and Mbugwe languages to be rather distinct from other Bantu languages in terms of structure and tense.

Etymology
The term Kisii is Swahili and originates from the colonial British administration, who used it in colonial Kenya to refer to the Abagusii people, as it was much easier to pronounce. The term Kisii, however, has no meaning in the Ekegusii language. In the Swahili language, the singular form is Mkisii and the plural form is Wakisii; the Swahili name for the Ekegusii language is Kikisii. The term is now popularly used in Kenya to refer to Abagusii people.

Among the Abagusii, the name Kisii does not refer to the people, but to a town — Kisii, also called Bosongo or Getembe by the locals, is the major native urban centre of the Abagusii people. The name Bosongo is believed to have originated from Abasongo, which means "the whites" or "the place where white people settle(d))", referring to settlers living in the town during the colonial era.

The other name used by the British in reference to Abagusii were Kosova/Kossowa which is derivative of the Ekegusii expression "Inka Sobo", meaning their home. The endonym is Abagusii (plural), and Omogusii (singular); the language spoken by the people is Ekegusii. The term "Gusii" supposedly comes from Mogusii, the founder of the community.

Origins
Based on linguistic and anthropological evidence, the Abagusii originated from the neolithic agropastoralist inhabitants of present-day Kenya, particularly from the former Nyanza and Rift Valley provinces. The competing theory by some scholars that the Abagusii migrated from Uganda is lacking, as there's no historical evidence the Abagusii settled in Uganda and have been known to only settle on the eastern slopes of the Kenyan side of Mt. Elgon.

The oral tradition of the Abagusii holds that their ancestors migrated from a place called Misiri, north of Mt. Elgon, possibly in present-day Egypt. These ancestors were the founders of the six major Gusii clans: the Abagetutu, Abanyaribari, Abagirango, Abanchari, Abamachoge, and Ababasi. This original group later absorbed a group of settlers from west of Lake Victoria, what is now present day Buganda and Busoga; these settlers may have been assimilated from the Luhya and Olusuba-speaking Suba people.

Settlement in Gusiiland
Present-day Gusiiland, along with Kenya and East Africa at large, has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. As a result, its settlers have diverse origins. The first settlers were likely hunter/gathers similar to the Khoisan and Ogiek, which were followed by the Nyanza/Rift Cushites who replaced these hunters-gatherers, assimilating them, and settled during the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic period (ca.3200–1300 BC) The next group of settlers were Nilotic pastoralists from present-day South Sudan that settled in the area circa. 500 BC. The last group to settle in the area are Bantu speakers, whose migration to the area began in 1 AD. Several southern Nilotics and southern Cushitics were assimilated into the Abagusii, whom are likely responsible for the Gusii practice of circumcision and other practices due to cultural diffusion.

Colonial era

The Abagusii were seen as warlike and fierce fighters by other ethnic groups, along with the Ameru, Abakuria and Maasai; the Abagetutu specifically were seen as the most martial of all Abagusii Clans. This perception is evident in excerpts from the East African Protectorate Commissioner Sir Charles Eliot in early 1900s expeditions of Gusiiland and surrounding areas:

"To the north of the (Uganda) railway the Lake shore rises up into the Nandi country and Uasin Gishu plateau. To the south is a little-known region lying between the Mau range and the Lake, various parts of which bear the name Ugaya, Kossova and Lumbwa. Ugaya is the part nearest to the Lake, thickly inhabited by the Kavirondo and rich in cattle. Kossova or Kisii is a hilly district behind Ugaya, and is one of the least known parts of the Protectorate. The inhabitants appear to be Bantu-speaking, and have a bad reputation for ferocity, but this may merely mean that they have a hereditary feud with their neighbours, who are not Bantu, and does not necessarily imply that they will be hostile to Europeans..."

Their warlike nature was deemed as a threat to British rule, especially the cattle camps the warriors frequented, and the British enacted punitive expeditions that raided cattle and crushed the warriors. This slowly brought an end to the pastoral and war-based lifestyle of most Abagusii.

The British introduced new immigrants to Kisii County and other parts of Kenya in the 1930s to work as soldiers, porters and farmers. These were the Baganda, the Maragoli, the Nubi, and the Olusuba-speaking Suba people (Kenya) from Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, and sections of Homa Bay County. The Nubians were settled by the British in present-day Kisii town and worked as soldiers for the British government, while the Bantu speaking Maragoli, Baganda, and Suba people were settled in Kisii town as porters and labourers on white farms and tea plantations. Some of the new immigrants introduced to Kisii town by the British have been largely assimilated into the Gusii society, but others, particularly the Nubi, never assimilated and still maintain their original settlement in Kisii town.

Post-colonial
In the post-colonial age, the Abagusii have expanded out of their traditional range, settling in the major towns of the Luo-Nyanza counties, like Homa Bay, Migori, Kisumu and Siaya as well as other Kenyan towns and cities. There is also a significant diaspora population in the United States (particularly Minnesota), the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.

Relationship with Nilotic speakers
The relationship between the Abagusii and their neighbouring Nilotic speaking communities (such as Maasai, Nandi, Kipsigis, Luo) is often painted negatively on social media. The colonial perceptions of Nilotics as more hostile and warlike have continued to persist in wider Kenyan discourse as evidenced by works of scholars and researchers such as Ochieng and Ogot among others. These scholars have exploited such colonial stereotypes and largely stereotyped the Nilotic speaking communities in their works. Despite these stereotypes, the Abagusii have often maintained positive relationships with their Nilotic neighbours in the pre- and post-colonial era. Prior to colonization, the Abagusii engaged in barter trade with these communities, especially the Luo people, and at times, worked together to defeat cattle raiders. The co-existence between the Abagusii and the neighbouring Nilotic communities was largely peaceful, despite these communities and Abagusii occasionally clashing in sometimes violent cattle rustles and grazing land conflicts.

Relationship with East African Bantu speakers
During the pre-colonial period, the Abagusii mostly had contact with their immediate, Nilotic-speaking neighbours. As a result, there was limited contact between the Abagusii and Bantu-speaking communities, as indicated by Ekegusii having features not found in other Bantu languages. However, not all Bantu-speaking groups were cut off from the Abagusii. The Bantu-speaking groups in contact with the Abagusii in pre-colonial Kenya include the Kuria, Zanaki, Ikoma, Rangi, Mbugwe, Ngurimi, Simbiti, some Suba clans, and the Maragoli. In the post-colonial period, however, contact with other Bantu speaking communities both inside and outside of Kenya has dramatically increased, both from British population relocations and the advent of modern transportation.

Etymology of Bantu and relevance to Abagusii
The modern usage of the term "Bantu" was only developed in the 19th century with the advent of European colonization; prior to colonization, no such division existed in Africa. This categorization of Africa's people into distinct, internally homogeneous groups is seen as generalizing at best, and inaccurate at worst. In the context of the Abagusii together with Kuria, Zanaki, Ikoma, Rangi, Mbugwe, Ngurimi, and Simbiti, some linguistic and cultural evidence indicate that they may be more influenced by Nilotic and Cushitic communities than other Bantu groups.

Agriculture and herding
During the pre-colonial era, the Abagusii cultivated finger millet, sorgum, barley, pumpkin, and other native crops; ox-drawn plows and iron hoes were used for cultivating crops. However, the Abagusii were mainly pastoralists and hunter-gatherers who primarily relied on their cattle, goats, sheep, and to a lesser extent, poultry for food. In the 19th century, Europeans introduced tea, coffee, bananas/plantains, and most importantly, maize. By the 1920s, maize quickly replaced finger millet and sorghum as a staple and cash crop. By the 1930s, tea and coffee had become major cash crops.

Today, the Abagusii still continue to keep livestock and poultry alongside farming, along with old agricultural practices; some crops they cultivate today include: cassava, potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, beans, onions, tropical fruits, and peas among others. Farming remains a dominant activity in Gusiiland due to high population density.

Industrial activities
During the pre-colonial period, Abagusii produced iron tools, weapons, decorations, wooden implements, pottery, and baskets. The Abagusii also imported pottery from the neighbouring Luo community. Blacksmiths and other occupations that worked with iron and iron ore were highly respected and influential members of Abagusii society, despite not forming a distinct societal caste; smithing was largely carried out by men.

Trade
The primary form of trade carried out in pre-colonial times was barter, and mostly took place within homesteads, as well as with neighbouring communities, especially the Luo; tools, weapons, crafts, livestock, and agricultural products were commonly exchanged. Cattle were an important form of currency, and goats served a lower valued currency. Barter trade between the Abagusii and the Luo took place at border markets and Abagusii farms, and was mainly carried out by women.

In the modern age, the Abagusii have established shopping centers, shops, and markets, further connecting them to the rest of Kenya, as opposed to their comparatively isolated pre-colonial economies.

Division of labor
Traditionally, Abagusii society divided labor between men and women. Women were expected to cook, brew, clean, cultivate and process crops, and fetch water and firewood; men were expected to herd, build houses and fences, clear crop fields, among other duties. Men were less involved in crop cultivation compared to women. Herding was primarily carried out by boys and unmarried men, and girls and unmarried women helped with crop cultivation. This division of labor has broken down over time, and women have gradually taken over many of the men's traditional duties.

Coming-of-age rituals
Among the Abagusii, circumcising boys without anesthesia around 10 is an important rite of passage. Traditionally, the Abagusii did not marry into tribes that did not practice circumcision, though this practice has declined in recent generations. The ritual typically takes place every year in the months of November and December, followed by a period of seclusion where boys are led in different activities by older boys. During this period, only older circumcised boys are allowed to visit the initiates. It is considered taboo for anyone else to visit during this time. In this period of isolation, the male initiates are taught their roles as young men in the community, and the code of conduct of a circumcised man. Initiated boys were also taught the rules of shame ("chinsoni") and respect ("ogosika"). This is a time of celebration for families and the community at large. Family, friends, and neighbours are invited days in advance by the candidates to join the family in celebration.

Music
The Abagusii traditionally play a large bass lyre called obokano, alongside drums and flutes. Some of the notable musicians from the Abagusii community include: Nyashinski, Rajiv Okemwa Raj, Ringtone, Mwalimu Arisi O'sababu, Christopher Monyoncho, Sungusia, Sagero, Riakimai '91 Jazz, Bonyakoni Kirwanda junior band, Mr Ong'eng'o, Grandmaster Masese, Deepac Braxx (The Heavyweight Mc), Jiggy, Mr. Bloom, Virusi, Babu Gee,Vickyoung Ensanako, Brax Rnb, Sabby Okengo, Machoge One Jazz,Dela among others.

Art
The Abagusii are also known for their world-famous soapstone sculptures, called "chigware", which are mostly concentrated in the southern parts of Kisii County, around Tabaka town.

Religion

Prior to the introduction of Christianity and Islam to Africa, the Abagusii were monotheistic, believing in a supreme God called ' Engoro '; this God is also popularly called ' Nyasae ', a loanword from Dholuo language, among Abagusii. The Abagusii believe that Engoro created the Universe, and was the source of all life. The sun ('Risase ') and stars are both important in the Abagusii religion. Death, disease, and destruction of crops and livestock were considered unnatural events brought on by evil spirits, bad luck, witchcraft, or the displeasure of ancestor spirits. The Abagusii also revered medicine men and practiced ancestor worship, calling the ancestor spirits "Ebirecha."

Today, most Abagusii practice Christianity, with the four major denominations being Catholicism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Swedish Lutheranism, and Pentecostal Assemblies of God. A minority of Abagusii still adhere to their traditional religion, and others observe a syncretic form of their traditional religion and Christianity. Many still go to visit a diviner ('omoragori ') who can point out displeased spirits of the dead and prescribe solutions on placating them.

Marriage
Traditionally, marriage was arranged by the parents, who used intermediaries called "chisigani"; these intermediaries acted as referees for the future bride and groom. After the parents negotiated the dowry, the wedding would be organized. The wedding ceremony involved a mentor, called an "omoimari", who could provide continuing support to the newly married couple. Marriage between members of the same clan was traditionally forbidden. Marriage was officially established through the payment of dowry in the form of cattle to the wife's family. Afterwards, the man and woman are officially considered husband and wife. Divorce is customarily not allowed among Abagusii, as marriage is considered a permanent union that is only disrupted by death. Currently, civil and Christian marriages are recognized among the Abagusii.

Household
The typical Gusii family unit is composed of a man, his wives, and their children, living on the same land. This was divided into two components: the homestead ("Omochie") and the cattle camps ("Ebisarate"). The married man, his wives, and their unmarried daughters and uncircumcised boys lived in the omochie. The ebisarate, situated in the grazing fields, was protected by the male warriors to defend theft by cattle rustlers and raiders.

Architecture
A typical Gusii house has conical grass thatched roofs, and is typically round, though sometimes rectangular, in shape. Today, Gusii houses are still similar, though corrugated iron sheets and stone is sometimes used for the roofs and walls.

The traditional Gusii compound had elevated granaries for storing crops, such as millet and other crops. The Abagusii customarily built fortified walls and dug trenches around their homesteads and villages to protect against cattle rustling and raids by neighbouring communities. However, in 1913, the cattle camps were abolished by the British, forcing Abagusii to live in dispersed homesteads.

Cuisine
The original diet of Abagusii prior to colonization consisted of meat, milk, and blood from livestock, cereals from millet and sorghum, as well as fruits, vegetables, birds, edible insects ("chintuga"), and wild meat obtained through hunting and gathering. The post-colonial diet of Abagusii and other African tribes has been transformed and influenced by interactions with the European colonists that introduced new crops and farming methods to Gusiiland and Africa.

The staple meal is obokima, which is a dish of millet flour or sorghum flour cooked with water to a hardened dough-like consistency. It is often served with rinagu, chinsaga, rikuneni, enderema, emboga, omotere, risosa, egesare, among other local green leaves consumed as vegetables. It's served with milk, particularly sour milk from livestock; it can also be served with any other stew. The Ekegusii word for "having a meal" ('ragera') usually connotes a meal involving obokima at the centre. By 1920s, maize was introduced to Gusiiland and had overtaken finger millet and sorghum as staple crops and cash crops. As a result, maize is now largely used to prepare obokima. Ritoke (plural: "amatoke"), a dish of cooked and flavoured bananas, is a popular snack, but is considered a supplemental food, and not a proper meal.

Social organization
The social organization of Abagusii is clan-based and decentralized in nature. The Abagusii society is less based on social/caste stratifications compared to other societies, and there was little hierarchical strata based on caste or social status. For instance, certain professions like iron smiths ("oboturi") and warriors ("oborwani"/"chinkororo") were generally respected, but did not form a distinct caste.

Political organization

The Abagusii had a decentralized and clan-based form of government. Each clan had their own independent government and leader; the clan leader ("omorwoti/omogambi") was the highest leadership rank for all clans and was equivalent to a king/chief role. It is common for the Abagusii men refer to their peers within the community as ' erwoti ' or 'omogambi ' when talking. There were also lower leadership ranks unique to individual clans. Warriors held an important role as the defenders of the community and their shared wealth in the form of cows.

Notable Abagusii people

 * David Kenani Maraga, former president of the Supreme Court of Kenya
 * Zachary Onyonka, Minister of Education, then of Foreign Affairs
 * Sam Ongeri, former Senator for Kisii County
 * Fred Matiang'i, former Cabinet Secretary for the Ministry of Interior and Coordination of National Security
 * Simeon Nyachae, former Cabinet Minister
 * James Ongwae, former governor of Kisii County
 * John Nyagarama, former governor of Nyamira County
 * George Anyona, Member of Parliament for Kitutu East/Masaba.

title: Kisii people


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City of Salford

Salford, also known as the City of Salford, is a metropolitan borough with city status in Greater Manchester, England. The borough is named after its main settlement, Salford, but covers a larger area which includes the towns of Eccles, Swinton, Walkden and Pendlebury. The borough had a population of in, and is administered from the Salford Civic Centre in Swinton.

Salford is the historic centre of the Salford Hundred an ancient subdivision of Lancashire. The City of Salford is the fifth-most populous district in Greater Manchester. The city's boundaries, set by the Local Government Act 1972, include five former local government districts. It is bounded on the southeast by the River Irwell, which forms part of its boundary with Manchester to the east, and by the Manchester Ship Canal to the south, which forms its boundary with Trafford. The metropolitan boroughs of Wigan, Bolton, and Bury lie to the west, northwest, and north respectively. Some parts of the city, which lies directly west of Manchester, are highly industrialised and densely populated, but around one-third of the city consists of rural open space. The western half of the city stretches across an ancient peat bog, Chat Moss.

Salford has a history of human activity stretching back to the Mesolithic age. There are over 250 listed buildings in the city, including Salford Cathedral, and three Scheduled Ancient Monuments. With the Industrial Revolution, Salford and its neighboring settlements grew alongside the textile industry. The former County Borough of Salford was granted city status in 1926 and thus making it the second city in Greater Manchester after neighbouring Manchester. The city and its industries experienced a decline throughout much of the 20th century. Since the 1990s, parts of Salford have undergone regeneration, especially Salford Quays, home of BBC North and Granada Television, and the area around the University of Salford.

Salford Red Devils are a professional rugby league club in Super League and Salford City F.C. is a professional football club in League Two.

History
Although the metropolitan borough of the City of Salford was a 20th-century creation, the area has a long history of human activity, extending back to the Stone Age. Neolithic flint arrow-heads and tools, and evidence of Bronze Age activity has been discovered in Salford. The northerly section of Watling Street, a Roman road from Manchester (Mamucium) via Bury to Ribchester (Bremetennacum), passes through the city; a hoard of over 550 bronze Roman coins dating between 259 AD and 278 AD was discovered in Boothstown; and a Romano-British bog body, Worsley Man, was discovered in the Chat Moss peat bog.

In 1142, a monastic cell (small monastic house) dedicated to St. Leonard was established in Kersal. The 12th century hundred of Salford was created as Salfordshire in the historic county of Lancashire and survived until the 19th century, when it was replaced by one of the first county boroughs in the country. Salford became a free borough in about 1230, when it was granted a charter as a free borough by the Earl Ranulph of Chester. The cell in Kersal was sold in 1540 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. A 16th-century manor house, called Kersal Cell, was built on the site of the priory. In the English Civil War between King Charles I and parliament, Salford was Royalist. Salford was also noted as Jacobite territory; its inhabitants supported Charles Edward Stuart's claim to the Kingdom of Great Britain and hosted him when he rode through the area during the Jacobite rising of 1745.

During the Industrial Revolution, Salford grew as a result of the textile industry. Although Salford experienced an increase in population, it was overshadowed by the dominance of Manchester and did not evolve as a commercial centre in the same way. On 15 September 1830, Eccles was site of the world's first railway accident. During a stop in Eccles to take on water, William Huskisson, Member of Parliament for Liverpool, had his leg crushed by Stephenson's Rocket; at the time he was in conversation with the Duke of Wellington, who was opening the railway, and did not get out of the way of the train in time. Although Huskisson was taken to Eccles for treatment he died of his injuries. The six-foot-tall Oglala Sioux tribesman, "Surrounded By the Enemy", died here from a bronchial infection at age twenty-two in 1887 during a tour of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and was buried at Brompton Cemetery. In 1894, the Manchester Ship Canal was opened, running from the River Mersey to Salford Quays; when it was complete it was the largest navigation canal in the world. Along the route of the canal, it was necessary to create an aqueduct carrying the Bridgewater Canal over the Ship Canal. The Barton Swing Aqueduct, designed by Sir Edward Leader Williams, is 100 m long and weighs 1450 MT.

At the start of the 20th century, Salford began to decline due to competition from outside the UK. A survey in 1931 concluded that parts of Salford were amongst the worst slums in the country. Salford was granted city status in 1926. During World War II, Salford Docks were regularly bombed.

In the decades following the Second World War there was a significant economic and population decline in Salford. In 1961 a small part of Eccles was added to the city. On 1 April 1974, the City and County Borough of Salford was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972, and was replaced by the metropolitan borough of City of Salford, one of ten local government districts in the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester. The city status of the new district was confirmed by additional letters patent issued on the same day. Since the early 1990s, the decline has slowed.

Prior to the metropolitan borough's creation, the name Salford for the new local government district courted controversy. Salford was "thought second-class by those in Eccles", who preferred the new name "Irwell" for the district (with reference to the River Irwell). A councillor for the then City and County Borough of Salford objected to this suggestion, stating this label was nothing but "a dirty stinking river". The name Irwell won 8 votes to Salford's 7, but a private protest and deliberation favoured Salford as the name for the new city, citing that the River Irwell would pass through two other Greater Manchester districts, and that it "doesn't touch Worsley".

Geography
The City of Salford is bounded to the north by the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton and Metropolitan Borough of Bury. To the south by the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford and to the west by the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan. Manchester lies directly across the river from Salford. The natural mossland of Chat Moss lies in the south western corner of the city; it covers an area of about 10.6 sqmi, accounting for about 30% of the city's area, and lies 75 ft above sea level. The moss makes up the largest area of prime farmland in Greater Manchester. Kersal Moor is an area of moorland spanning 8 ha in Kersal; it is a local nature reserve and a Site of Biological Importance. Greenspace accounts for 55.7% of the City of Salford's total area, domestic buildings and gardens comprise 20.0%, and the rest is made up of roads and non-domestic buildings.

To the south of Salford are the docks of Salford Quays, now home to the MediaCityUK. MediaCityUK is a large area that crosses the boundary into Trafford Park, Trafford. Although Salford Quays is in the City of Salford and has created job opportunities and more housing since the 2010s when it was built.

The River Irwell runs south east through Kearsley, Clifton and Agecroft then meanders around Lower Broughton and Kersal, Salford Crescent and the centre of Manchester, joining the rivers Irk and Medlock. Turning west, it meets the Mersey south of Irlam, where the route of the river was altered in the late 19th century to form part of the course of the Manchester Ship Canal. The ship canal, opened in 1894, forms part of Salford's southern boundaries with Trafford. The city's climate is generally temperate, like the rest of Greater Manchester. The nearest weather station is 10 mi away at Ringway, in Manchester; the mean highest and lowest temperatures (13.2 °C and 6.4 °C) are slightly above the national average, while the annual rainfall (806.6 mm) and average hours of sunshine (1394.5 hours) are respectively above and below the national averages.

Parliamentary constituencies
The City of Salford is represented by Members of Parliament (MPs) for three constituencies, Salford and Eccles by Rebecca Long-Bailey (Labour), Worsley and Eccles South by Barbara Keeley (Labour), and the Broughton and Kersal wards of Salford in Blackley and Broughton by Graham Stringer (Labour).

Council
In 1974, Salford City Council was created to administer the newly formed local government district. Until 1986, it shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council. The council offices are in Swinton, in what was formerly Swinton and Pendlebury Town Hall. The Labour Party have been in control of the council since its formation in 1974. The council has a constitution detailing how they should operate in performing their duties.

Salford City Council was assessed by the Audit Commission and judged to be "improving well" in providing services for local people. Overall the council was awarded "three star" status meaning it was "performing well" and "consistently above minimum requirements", similar to 46% of all local authorities.

The metropolitan borough of the City of Salford is based on the former County Borough of the City of Salford which included the city centre, Pendleton, Weaste, Claremont, Langworthy, Broughton, Kersal, Ordsall and Seedley. The city is entirely unparished and absorbed the municipal boroughs of Eccles and Swinton and Pendlebury and the urban districts of Irlam and Worsley. An urban district was a type of local government district which covered an urbanised area.

Since 2012, in addition to the long-existing and largely ceremonial, annually appointed civic mayor of Salford, the city has also had a directly elected mayor.

Electoral wards
There are 60 councillors representing 20 wards. Swinton and Walkden have six councillors each.

Central Salford and Salford West
The district is divided into two areas (Central Salford and Salford West) for some purposes including planning, regeneration and housing.
 * Central Salford is the eastern part of the district and comprises seven wards: Broughton, Claremont, Irwell Riverside, Kersal, Ordsall, Langworthy and Weaste & Seedley. This is the more urban half of the district and lies partly within the Manchester Inner Ring Road. Salford Quays lies within this area. Between 2005 and 2011, the Central Salford Urban Regeneration Company was responsible for urban regeneration in this area, securing over £1 billion of private sector investment. Social housing is provided by Salix Homes in this area.
 * Salford West comprises the other 13 wards, including the towns of Eccles, Pendlebury, Swinton and Walkden. This is the more suburban and rural half of the district. Salford City Council's aspiration is that "In 2028, Salford West will be one of the most desirable and prosperous areas in Greater Manchester." Social housing is provided by City West Housing Trust in this area.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Salford City Council depicts a weaving shuttle surrounded by five bees with a three masted ship above, on a shield flanked by two lions. The blue background with a gold chief is taken from the arms of the city council of the County Borough of Salford, who in turn took it from the colours of the Earl of Chester. The shuttle and five bees represent the industry of the area and five settlements who benefited from the textile industry. The ship is borrowed from the crest of Eccles Borough Council and represents the importance of waterways to the city. The ship is flanked by two millrinds – the iron centres of millstones – symbolising engineering. The lions are taken from the crest of the Borough of Swinton and Pendlebury; they are wearing iron steel chain representing engineering. The shield is topped by a griffin carrying a pennon depicting three boars' heads. The griffin is taken from the crest of Eccles and the boars are from the crest of Irlam Urban District. Beneath the shield is a scroll reading salus populi suprema lex, Latin for "the welfare of the people is the highest law".

Budget
In 2017–18, Salford City Council agreed to spend £267 million. They agreed an estimated £79M on children's services (30%); £56M on community health and social care (21%); £40M on levies and charges (15%); £39M on environment and community safety (14%); £36M and on capital financing (13%); £9M on corporate business (3%); £7M on regeneration (3%); and £2M on public health, reform and commissioning (1%). For the 2016–17 financial year, the council's income is expected to consist of £65M including council tax and efficiency savings. The net expenditure is therefore expected to be £202M.

Audit
A Comprehensive Area Assessment by the Audit Commission in 2009 found that Salford's key priorities are improving health, reducing crime, helping young people achieve A-level qualifications, social services, including the views of minority groups, improving skills and "making Salford a cleaner and more attractive place to live".

Ethnicity
At the 2011 UK census, the City of Salford had a total population of 233,933. Of the 103,556 households in Salford, 25.4% were married or same-sex civil partnership couples living together, 36.4% were one-person households, 11.2% were co-habiting couples and 13.5% were lone parents. The figures for lone parent households were above the national average of 10.6%, and the percentage of married couples was also below the national average of 33.2%; the proportion of one person households was higher than the national average of 30.3%.

The population density was 24.1 persons per hectare (Salford covers 9,719 hectares), 117,151 (50.1%) female, and 116,782 (49.9%) male. Of those aged 16–74 in Salford, 27.1% had no academic qualifications, significantly higher than 22.5% in all of England. 11.8% of Salford's residents were born outside the United Kingdom, lower than the national average of 13.8%. The largest minority group was recorded as Asian, at 4.1% of the population.

The number of theft from a vehicle offences and theft of a vehicle per 1,000 of the population was 21.3 and 7.9 compared to the English national average of 7.6 and 2.9 respectively. The number of sexual offences was 1.1 compared to the average of 0.9. The national average of violence against another person was 16.7 compared to the Salford average of 27.2. The figures for crime statistics were all recorded during the 2006/7 financial year. Although all were above the averages for England, Salford's crime rate was lower than Manchester's.

Population change

The table below details the population change since 1801, including the percentage change since the last available census data. Although the City of Salford has existed as a metropolitan borough since 1974, figures have been generated by combining data from the towns, villages, and civil parishes that would later be constituent parts of the city.

Religion

The following table shows the religious identity of residents residing in the city of Salford.

Salford is covered by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford, and the Church of England Diocese of Manchester.

During the mid-19th century, there was an influx of Irish people into the Salford area, largely due to the famine in Ireland. In 1848, Salford Roman Catholic Cathedral was consecrated, reflecting Salford's large Irish-born community at the time.

Of Salford's six Grade I listed buildings, three are churches. St Augustine's Church, Pendlebury, was built in 1874 by George Frederick Bodley. The Church of St Mary the Virgin, in Eccles, was originally built in the 13th century but was expanded in the 15th. A church has been on the site since at least the 12th century. St Mark's Church, Worsley was built in 1846 by George Gilbert Scott. The six Grade II* listed churches are the Church of St Andrew in Eccles, the Cathedral Church of St John, the Church of St Luke in Pendleton, Monton Unitarian Church in Monton, the Church of St Philip in Salford, and the United Reformed Church.

Economy
Salford Docks (also called Manchester Docks) were opened by Queen Victoria in 1894, providing docks in Manchester and Salford for the Manchester Ship Canal which linked Manchester to the sea. During the 1970s, the docks fell into decline as they proved too small for new, larger ships, and when they were abandoned in 1982 over 3,000 people lost their jobs. Salford City Council purchased the docks in 1984 and since then they underwent regeneration as a centre of tourism in Salford, which included the construction of the Lowry Centre. More than 10,000 people are employed in the Quays in jobs such as retail, construction, and e-commerce. In 2007, it was confirmed that the BBC would be moving five of its departments to a new development on Pier 9 of Salford Quays, called MediaCityUK. The move was completed in 2011. Finance and professional services, tourism and culture, and computer and internet based services have been identified as growth industries in Greater Manchester and are concentrated in Manchester and Salford. Average house prices in the City of Salford are sixth out of all the metropolitan boroughs in Greater Manchester, 7.6% lower than the average for the county. There are, however, areas of considerable affluence, within the city, such as Broughton Park, parts of Kersal, Ellesmere Park, Worsley, parts of Swinton and Pendlebury and the ultra-modern Salford Quays.

At the 2011 UK census, Salford had 173,117 residents aged 16 to 74. 4.7% of these people were students with jobs, 4.1% looking after home or family, 6.9% permanently sick or disabled and 2.9% economically inactive for other reasons. The City of Salford has a high rate of people who are permanently sick and disabled, 70% higher than the national average of 4.0%.

In 2011, of 106,904 residents of the City of Salford in employment, the industry of employment was: 17.8% retail and wholesale; 7.6% manufacturing;13.7% health and social work; 8.7% education; 7.2% construction; 5.2% transport and storage; 6.6% accommodation and food service; 6.2% administrative and support services; 6.0% professional, scientific and technical; 5.1% public administration and defence; 4.4% financial and insurance; 3.4% information and communication; 1.6% real estate; 0.9% water supply and waste management; 0.6% energy supply; 0.1% agriculture, forestry and fishing; 0.1% mining and quarrying; and 4.7% other. This was roughly in line with national figures, except for the proportion of jobs in agriculture which is less than half the national average, reflecting the city's suburban nature and its proximity to the centre of Manchester.

JCDecaux UK has its Manchester office in the Metroplex Business Park in Salford.

Museums and arts
Salford Museum and Art Gallery is situated in Peel Park. Opened in 1850, the institution is devoted to the history of Salford and Victorian art and architecture. The Salford collection includes works by artists such as Christian Ludwig Bokelmann, Charles Landseer and Thomas Henry Illidge, and ceramics from Pilkington's Lancastrian Pottery & Tiles. Its extensive collection of artworks by the Salford-born painter L. S. Lowry was transferred to The Lowry in 2000. The museum also contains an indoor re-creation of a typical Victorian street, Lark Hill Place, which was built in 1957 using shop fronts that had been saved from demolition.

At the southern edge of Salford lies The Lowry arts centre, on the waterfront of Salford Quays. Opened in 2000, it is named after the artist and houses the city's collection of Lowry artworks. Notable paintings on display there include Going to the Match (1953) and Industrial Landscape (1953). The building also contains two theatres and a drama studio, hosting drama, concerts, opera and dance events.

Landmarks
As of September 2003, the City of Salford has 6 Grade I, 14 Grade II*, and 253 Grade II listed buildings. The city has the equal second highest number of Grade I listed buildings out of the districts of Greater Manchester, behind Manchester. The Grade I listed buildings are the Church of St Augustine, the Parish Church of St Mary the Virgin, St Mark's Church, Ordsall Hall, Wardley Hall, and a bridge over the River Irwell. Salford Cathedral, built in 1845, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford and a Grade II* listed building. Most of Salford's tallest buildings are mid-20th century residential tower blocks or 21st century high rise apartments. A study by Christopher Collier of the University of Salford suggested that Manchester's drizzly climate is largely due to the multitude of high-rise blocks in Salford. Collier has proposed that they have a "dramatic influence on the region's weather patterns", and may contribute to the 8 °C (14 °F) temperature difference between Salford and its surrounding countryside.

There are three Scheduled Ancient Monuments in the city. The oldest is an Iron Age promontory fort occupied from 500 BC–200 AD. Also scheduled is Hanging Bridge on the border with Manchester, dating to the 14th century, and an underground section of the Bridgewater Canal in Swinton built in 1759.

Sport

Salford is home to a number of past and present rugby league teams. Founded in 1873, Salford Red Devils play in the Super League at the AJ Bell Stadium, in Barton, Salford. They are 6 times Champions and they won the Challenge Cup in 1938, and have experienced two previous stretches in the Super League, 1997–2002 and 2004–2007. In 2008 they won the Northern Rail Cup beating Doncaster 60–0 in the Final at Blackpool. They previously won the same trophy in 2003. They also won the National League 1 Grand Final in 2008, beating Celtic Crusaders after extra time in Warrington. Construction on a new 20,000 seat £35 million pound stadium was complete in 2012. Now named the AJ Bell stadium it is home to Salford Red Devils and Sale Sharks rugby union team.

Swinton Lions were founded in 1866 and play in the Championship at heywood road sale. They won the Rugby Football League Championship six times between 1927 and 1964, before it was superseded by Super League. They have also won the Challenge Cup three times between 1900 and 1928.

Broughton Rangers were founded in 1877 and won the Rugby League Challenge Cup in the 1901–02 and 1910–11 seasons. The club folded in 1955, but were reformed as a local amateur club in 2007 with the support of Salford Red Devils.

At amateur level, the city is represented in rugby league by the Langworthy Reds. They are the oldest amateur rugby league club in Salford.

Also in Salford are several football and cricket teams. Irlam F.C. is an amateur football team that has played in the Manchester Football League since 1989. They were founded in 1969 as Mitchell Shackleton Football Club and changed their name in 2006. Salford City F.C. was founded in 1940 and play in the Football League Two. Monton & Weaste C.C. and Clifton C.C. have played in the Central Lancashire Cricket League since 2005 and 2006 respectively. Walkden play in the Bolton Cricket League. Little Hulton play in the Bolton and District Cricket Association. Winton and Worsley play in the Manchester and District Cricket Association.

Education
Overall, Salford was ranked 75th out of all the Local Education Authorities (LEAs) – and seventh in Greater Manchester – in National Curriculum assessment performance in 2007. Unauthorised absences and authorised absences from Salford secondary schools in 2006–07 were 2.0% and 7.0% respectively, both higher than the national average (1.4% and 6.4%). In 2007, the Salford LEA was ranked 127th out of 149 in the country – and ninth in Greater Manchester – based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least 5 A*–C grades at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) including maths and English (37.8% compared with the national average of 46.7%). In 2007, Beis Yaakov High School was the most successful school in Salford at GCSE, with 90% of the pupils gaining five or more GCSEs at A*–C grade including maths and English. Bridgewater School was the most successful at A–level.

The University of Salford is one of four universities in Greater Manchester and was ranked 81st by The Times. It has over 19,000 students and a 69.7% level of student satisfaction. In 2007, the university received nearly 17,000 applications for 3,660 places. The university is undergoing £150M of redevelopment through investment in new facilities, including a £10M law school and a £22M building for health and social care which were opened in 2006. In 2007, the drop out rate from the university was 25%. Of the students graduating, 50% gained first class or 2:1 degrees, which is below the national average of about 55%.

Transport
The city of Salford is served by nine railway stations on four routes. Eccles and Patricroft are on the northern route of the Liverpool to Manchester Line, while Irlam, in the southwest of the borough, is on the southern route. Clifton is on the line to Bolton and Preston; Swinton, Moorside and Walkden are on the Manchester to Southport Line via Wigan; and Salford Central and Salford Crescent are served by both routes. A station at Pendleton was closed in 1998 after suffering fire damage and a loss of patronage in favour of nearby Salford Crescent, opened a few years earlier. All train services are provided by Northern, though First transpennine offer occasional services during peak hours.

The Eccles line of the Manchester Metrolink runs through the City of Salford, with stations at Exchange Quay, Salford Quays, Anchorage, Harbour City, Broadway, Langworthy, Weaste, Ladywell and Eccles. The line was opened in two stages, in 1999 and 2000, as Phase 2 of the system's development. In 2010 a new tram stop was opened at MediaCityUK, a 1 stop spur off the main Eccles line. Trams operate from here to Etihad Campus, sharing most of the route with the Eccles to Ashton line. Some Eccles and Ashton bound services also stop here, especially during peak hours. These lines provide good access for Eccles and the Quays to the rest of Greater Manchester.

There are bus stations at Pendleton and Eccles. Buses run to destinations throughout the city, across Greater Manchester and further afield: Pendleton is served by a route to Preston, Eccles Interchange is next to the Metrolink stop.

The council is responsible for the administration and maintenance of public roads and footpaths in the city.

Since 2020, electric scooters have been available for public hire in central Salford, Salford Quays, Ordsall, Pendleton and at the University of Salford. The e-scooter hire service is operated by shared micromobility company Lime.

Notable people

 * Jason Manford (born 1981), comedian and actor
 * Mark E. Smith (1957-2018), leader of post-punk band The Fall
 * Harry Williams (born 1929), footballer

Twin towns
The City of Salford has formal twinning arrangements with four European places and one in Canada. Each was originally twinned with a place within the city prior to its creation in 1974.

 * 🇫🇷 Clermont-Ferrand, France (originally twinned with County Borough of Salford in 1966)
 * 🇩🇪 Lünen, Germany (Municipal Borough of Swinton and Pendlebury, 1966)
 * 🇫🇷 Narbonne, France (Municipal Borough of Eccles, 1957)
 * 🇫🇷 Saint-Ouen, France (Worsley Urban District, 1961)
 * 🇨🇦 Oattessel, Canada (Jaques Urban District, 1977)

Freedom of the City
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Salford.

Individuals

 * Benjamin Armitage: January 1899.
 * Benn Wolfe Levy: January 1899.
 * David Lloyd George: October 1922.
 * Frederick Smith, 1st Baron Colwyn: July 1933.
 * Edward Arthur Hardy: January 1960.
 * L. S. Lowry: March 1965.
 * Sir Peter Maxwell Davies: November 2004.
 * Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela: 30 November 2005.
 * Ryan Giggs: January 2010.
 * Harold Riley: 15 November 2017.
 * Mike Leigh: 24 July 2019.

 * Ben Wallsworth: 30 October 2019.
 * Alan Henning: 28 April 2023.
 * John Cooper Clarke: 19 July 2023.

Military units
Military units:
 * The Lancashire Fusiliers: 18 October 1947.
 * The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers: 26 April 1975.

title: City of Salford


text:
Tel Dor

Tel Dor (דוֹר or, meaning "generation", "habitation") or Tell el-Burj, also Khirbet el-Burj in Arabic (lit. Tell, or Ruin, of the Tower), is an archaeological site located on the Israeli coastal plain of the Mediterranean Sea next to modern moshav Dor, about 30 km south of Haifa, and 2.5 km west of Hadera. Lying on a small headland at the north side of a protected inlet, it is identified with D-jr of Egyptian sources, Biblical Dor, and with Dor/Dora of Greek and Roman sources.

The documented history of the site begins in the Late Bronze Age (though the town itself was founded in the Middle Bronze Age, c. 2000 BCE), and ends in the Crusader period. The port dominated the fortunes of the town throughout its 3,000 year history. Its primary role in all these diverse cultures was that of a commercial entrepôt and a gateway between East and West. The remains of the pre-1948 Palestinian Arab village of Tantura lie a few hundred meters south of the archaeological site. A kibbutz and the resort of Nahsholim were built on the site of the village.

Etymology
Dor (Hebrew: דוֹר or דאר, meaning "generation", "habitation"), was known as Dora to the Greeks and Romans, and as Dir in the Late Egyptian Story of Wenamun. Dor was successively ruled by Canaanites, Sea Peoples, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.

The city was known as Dor even before the Greeks arrived or had contact with the peoples in Israel. When the Greeks came to the city and learned its name to be Dor, they called it Dora, possibly after a Dorus said to be a son of Poseidon.

Location and identification
Dora of the classical period has been placed in the ninth mile from Caesarea, on the way to Ptolemais (Acre). Just at the point indicated was the small village of Tantura, probably an Arabic corruption of Dora.

Hebrew Bible

Many scholars doubt the historical accuracy of biblical texts relevant to times prior to the 9th century BCE. They suggest that the biblical context for such places as early Dor is more mythology than history.

In the Hebrew Bible, Dor is depicted as an ancient royal city of the Canaanites, whose ruler was an ally of Jabin king of Hazor against Joshua,. It appears to have been within the territory of the tribe of Manasseh, though they never managed to conquer it. It was one of Solomon's commissariat districts.

History and archaeology
According to IAA archaeologists, the importance of Dor is that it is the only natural harbour on the Levant coast south of the Ladder of Tyre, and thus was occupied continuously from Phoenician times until the late 18th century. According to Josephus, however, its harbour was inferior to that of Caesarea.

Dor is mentioned in the 3rd-century Mosaic of Rehob as being a place exempt from tithes, seeing that it was not settled by Jews returning from the Babylonian exile in the 4th century BCE. Schürer suggests that Dor, along with Caesarea, may have initially been built towards the end of the Persian period.

Early Iron Age
After the Late Bronze Age collapse, the town appears to have been settled by a migrant group called the Tjekker. In the Egyptian literary text known as the Story of Wenamun, the main character visits Dor and is received by Tjekker prince named Beder. This layer of the settlement is known archaeologically as Dor XII, and dates from c. 1150–1050 BC.

Persian period
In ca. 460 BCE, the Athenians formed an alliance with the Egyptian leader Inaros against the Persians. In order to reach the Nile delta and support the Egyptians, the Athenian fleet had to sail south. Athens had secured landing sites for their triremes as far south as Cyprus, but they needed a way station between Cyprus and Egypt. They needed a naval base on the coast of Lebanon or Palestine, but the Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre held much of the mainland coast and those cities were loyal to Persia. Fifty miles south of those cities, however, the Athenians found an isolated and tempting target for establishing a way station.

The Athenians seized Dor from Sidon. Dor had many strategic advantages for the Athenians, starting with its distance from Sidon. The Athenians had a maritime empire built on oared ships. They did not need large tracts of land and instead needed strategically situated coastal sites that had fresh water, provisions and protection from bad weather and enemy attack. Dor had an unfailing freshwater spring near the edge of the sea and to its south a lagoon and sandy beach enclosed by a chain of islets. This was precisely what the Athenian fleet needed for landing their ships and resting their crews. Dor itself was strategically situated. It stood atop a rocky promontory and was protected on its landward side by a marshy swale that formed a natural moat. Beyond the coastal lowlands was Mount Carmel. The town had Persian-built fortifications. In addition to this, the town had straight streets and Phoenician dye pits for the purpling of cloth. For these reasons, Dor became the most remote outpost of the Athenian navy.

Hellenistic period
In 138 BC, Dora was the scene of battle between Seleucid emperor Antiochus VII Sidetes and the usurper Diodotus Tryphon, leading to the latter's flight and ultimately his death.

Roman period
In the early 40s CE, young men in Dor placed a statue of Emperor Claudius inside a Jewish synagogue, provoking a challenge to Jewish ownership of the space. Agrippa responded by appealing to Petronius, the legate of Syria, who ordered the statue's removal and reaffirmed Jewish rights to practice their customs freely under imperial decree.

State of Israel
A moshav south of Tel Dor is named "Dor" after the ancient city.

The victims of the 1948 Tantura massacre are buried in a mass grave under a car park for the nearby Tel Dor beach.

Excavation history

Tel Dor ("the Ruin of Dor") was first investigated in the 1920s by John Garstang, on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. J. Leibowitz excavated in the lower town around the tell in the 1950s. From 1979 to 1983, Claudine Dauphin excavated a church east of the tell. Avner Raban excavated harbour installations and other constructions mainly south and west of the mound in 1979 - 1984. Underwater surveys around the site were carried out by Kurt Raveh, Shelley Wachsman and Saen Kingsley. Ephraim Stern, of the Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University, directed twenty seasons of excavations at the site between 1980 and 2000, in cooperation with the Israel Exploration Society. The eleven excavation areas opened have revealed a wealth of information about the Iron Age, Persian, Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Purple dye production
As of 2001, excavations at the site have yielded an apparatus for the production of a purple dye solution, dating to the Persian and Hellenistic periods, wherein there was still a thick layer of quicklime (calcium oxide) which served, according to scholars, in helping to separate the dye from the mollusks after they had been broken and removed from their shells. These mollusks were primarily imported into the region from other places along the Mediterranean coast, and consisted of species Phorcus turbinatus, Patella caerulea, Stramonita haemastoma, Hexaplex trunculus, among other species.

Neolithic tsunami
In 2020, archaeologists discovered evidence of a tsunami that destroyed middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B coastal settlements in Tel Dor, Israel as it traveled between 3.5 to 1.5 km inland. The tsunami was approximately 16 m high. Recovery in the affected areas was slow but overall, it did not significantly affect the social development of the southern Levant. Whilst the tsunami is not identified with the Biblical flood, it is believed to contribute to the flood myths found in numerous cultures.

Museum

The historic 'Glasshouse' museum building, located in kibbutz Nahsholim, some 500 meters south of the site itself, now houses the Center for Nautical and Regional Archaeology at Dor (CONRAD), consisting of the expedition workrooms and a museum displaying the finds from Tel Dor and its region such as documenting the city's importance in the ancient world as a manufacturer of the prestigious azure and crimson colours from sea snails. The house is an old glass-making factory from the 19th century built by Baron Edmond James de Rothschild.

title: Tel Dor


text:
Talk:Bolometer

Hmm... seems substantially different then the following:

the most sensitive thermometer known to science. Invented in 1880 by astronomer Samuel P. Langley, the bolometer is used to measure light from the faintest stars and the sun's heat rays. It consists of a fine wire connected to an electric circuit. When radiation falls on the wire, it becomes very slightly warmer. This increases the electrical resistance of the wire. The difference in conductivity is proportional to the incident irradiance. rredc.nrel.gov/solar/glossary/gloss_b.html

 * I don't know what you are referring to, but to me seems consistence with the definitons given in the article. The definition given in the article is the correct one. The quote you give maybe descrive a pioneer bolometer. The only inconsistence is that a bolometer is not a thermometer but it contains a thermometer (but in any way you can made it) AnyFile

Units of measure and Category
I have corrected again 50 millikelvins into 50 mK. Please use the correct SI forms as stated in Manual_of_Style, Manual_of_Style_%28dates_and_numbers%29 SI. I can not consider valid the question we are inside a sentence. The satments of SI said that every time the unit is after a number it must go in form like K or mK. The long form (but always in sigular) like kelvin should use only when speaking of the unit of measure itslef (in which it is not preceded by any numbers)

I also reinsert this page in the Category:Particle detectors as I condider it interesting that this article is shown in that category. From waht I can see there is no reason why a page should stay in the minor possible category and that if a page should or not be present in a category have to depend on if we wants an article to be shown in the category pages and not if we consider if he article is in its whole in this category. Now Category:Particle detectors is also a subcategory of Category:Particle physics which has no link with Category:Measuring instruments. If you really have some good reason why it should not be palcede in Category:Particle detectors,I'll will move in Category:Particle physics, but of course it is prefearred the Category:Particle detectors category. AnyFile 10:20, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

 * The proper long form is millikelvins. The plural does indeed have an "s" at the end.
 * Many people get confused about this, because in the old days when Kelvin was an adjective, in English the adjectives do not add an "s" in "degrees Kelvin"; the "s" is added to the unit, the noun part, degree. But now kelvin is the noun, and it forms the normal English plural.
 * It may be used in text.
 * It often should be used spelled out in first occurence, symbols thereafter.
 * There is no requirement by the various standards agencies which oversee the SI that these units are never spelled out when used with numbers.
 * 11:21, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

I have got a question about the millikelvin comment
Hello,

in the article it is stated "Bolometers are therefore used for astronomy at these wavelengths. However, to achieve the best sensitivity, they must be cooled down to a fraction of a degree above absolute zero (typically from 50 millikelvins to 300 mK); this makes their operation technically somewhat challenging."

Now, as far as I understand it, the bolometers used in astronomy are mostly hot electron bolometers, which employ superconductive microbridges. However I was under the impression that they would be cooled to the transition temperature, so that an increase in temperature due to radiation actually causes a leap in resistance. If that is the case, then further cooling from 4 Kelvin or whereever the transition temperature of the material is, wouldn't yield an increase in sensitivity.

Could the author of the article elaborate on the 50-300 mK, as I am apparently missing some detail here and don't quite understand it.

Thanks in advance.

 * As someone who makes hot electron bolometers (HEBs), I can say that you are generally right here. HEB physics are still not completely understood, though temperature, LO power, biasing, etc all do appear to play somewhat of a role in sensitivity (really noise temperature). Lowering the temperature of your entire receiver system would reduce overall noise, but strictly speaking wouldn't have such a big effect on the HEB itself. I think what the author is referencing here are probably bolometric direct detectors, which would not even necessarily require superconductors. --Jschultz 03:42, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

I believe what you're talking about is the Transition Edge Sensor (TES). General bolometers, which employ semiconductors as their detectors/thermometers, improve as heat sink temperature goes down. You are right in that a TES must be kept at it's transition temperature or else it looses sensitivity. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.118.147.129 (talk) 07:06, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

OK. In astronomy, hot electron bolometers (HEBs) are often used as mixers in heterodyne systems (which is what Jschulz is describing). For direct detection, HEBs are not often used; the thermistor is either a semiconductor (silicon or germanium) or a superconductor. While it's true that the absorber and thermometer of a TES must be kept at its transition temperature or it loses (all) sensitivity, the heat sink temperature must be lower than the absorber (this is how any bolometer works, even an HEB, though here the heat sink is the crystal lattice and the electrons are the absorber and thermistor). The absorber will maintain itself at the transition temperature by an automatic feedback mechanism, but (to a point), lowering the heat sink temperature improves performance. Also, you can choose the transition temperature of your TES, and again you get the best performance by choosing lower temperatures, usually at least as low as 300 mK. The lowest transition temperatures used are around 100 mK, with heat sink temperatures lower than that.

TESs are also used as calorimeters to measure X-ray radiation by detecting the heating due to a single photon being absorbed; here, temperatures as low as 50 mK can be needed. Incidentally, hot electron TES bolometers can be used to detect optical and infrared radiation, with the wavelength being determined by measuring the heat due the absorption of a single photon.

AdamW (talk) 11:16, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Microbolometer Generality
It seems to me that the section on microbolometers is way too specific to a particular kind of bolometer. I think a hot electron bolometer (HEB) could probably be called a microbolometer, though it doesn't match the description in this section at all. Maybe it would be more appropriate to have a section called 'Microbolometric IR Camera' instead. Any thoughts here? --Jschultz 03:42, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Bolometers
How about a larger overview of bolometers? There are various different types that can also be used in X-rays, photon counters, composite bolometers... etc. Also, maybe a discussion of some of the science and results that they have done?

The Bolometer Limerick
This version found in J.M. Pasachoff, Contemporary Astronomy (Saunders College Publishers, Philadelphia, 1985) page 47:

Langley invented the bolometer, A very fine sort of thermometer. It can measure the heat, Of a polar bear's feet At the distance of half a kilometer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lori.goldner (talk • contribs) 19:11, 22 June 2017 (UTC)

Which I recall coming across in the 70's

Langley invented the bolometer, It's really a kind of thermometer, That can measure the heat, From a polar bears feet, At a distance of half a kilometer.

WhaleyTim 09:18, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

My recollection:

Langley invented the bolometer, A wonderful kind of thermometer. It can measure degrees On a grasshopper's knees At a distance of half a kilometer.

Herb Helbig, hhelbig@roadrunner.com — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.255.201.86 (talk) 03:05, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

Secretary Charles G. Abbot with Bolometric Apparatus.jpg
Hi everyone! I just uploaded an image of Charles Greeley Abbot utilizing a "Bolometric apparatus." It might be a cool thing to feature in this, or a related article! You can see the image. Thanks! Sarah (talk) 19:24, 11 April 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Bolometer