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Talk:List of island countries

"List of borderless country" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect List of borderless country. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 January 30 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Matthew hk (talk) 11:37, 30 January 2021 (UTC)

 * There's no need to maintain a List of borderless countries. Except Australia, all continental countries share at least one land border with another country. In total, there are 24 borderless countries in the world (countries with no land or maritime borders) and an additional 16 countries share only maritime border(s) with other countries. Other than Australia, all 39 countries without land borders are island countries already listed in this article. 120.16.171.146 (talk) 02:47, 15 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose I reckon we should create the List of borderless countries as a new article. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 10:01, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

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 * Flag of Réunion (Local).png

 * Oppose I am opposing any attempt to suppress the promotion of local political and cultural identities among the world's dependent territories. Eventually, they all deserve to become independent countries. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 10:07, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Australia
Australia is not just "often referred to as" (= weasel words). It really is an island. If Greenland is an island, why is not Australia?
 * Australia has its own continental shelf. Greenland is part of the North American continental shelf. End of discussion. Ddum5347 (talk) 22:56, 26 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Same thoughts exactly. Def of an island is a territory surrounded by water regardless of how big or how small; Australia is an island the same as Africa is almost an island of not for the Sinai which locks with Israel that made it not being an island Nlivataye (talk) 16:52, 28 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Huge continental mainlands are generally not considered to be islands. Greenland is generally considered the largest island in the world and Australia is generally considered the smallest continent in the world. Australia is not a true island country but it deserves a honourable mention. 2001:8003:9008:1301:501E:2EC1:45D6:B919 (talk) 00:28, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * We follow sources. Most sources recognise Australia as a continent - it has it's own continental plate - that is why there is an article about the Australia (continent). Some sources also call it an island but it's not 'really' an island but one that has been defined as both with a preponderance of sources calling it a continent. It is nonsense to say Australia is an island because of being surrounded by water because Africa is almost an island - this type of argument merely confuses the issue and there are no sources that say Africa is an island anyway. Robynthehode (talk) 12:53, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * If mainland Australia is an island, then Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, and Antarctica are also islands. Greenland would become the world's fifth-largest island.
 * I think you have confused landmass with continent and island. 120.16.171.146 (talk) 02:34, 15 May 2022 (UTC)

United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Denmark
I think there is a problem with the definition of the term island country. Does an island country have to have 100% of its territory on islands? If so, why is the United Kingdom considered to be an island country? Gibraltar, however small it might be, is a continental territory on the Iberian Peninsula which is administered by the United Kingdom.

If the United Kingdom can be classified as an island country, then the Kingdom of Denmark (including the Faroe Islands and Greenland) should be classified as an island country too. Over half of the Danish population live on the islands, the capital city Copenhagen is also located on an island. The Jutland Peninsula is the only continental part of the Danish Kingdom but it only makes up less than 1 percent of the Kingdom’s land.

For consistency purposes, I reckon we should either include both the UK and Denmark in the list or exclude both of them. 2001:8003:9008:1301:10C6:CA0D:C6F:5069 (talk) 12:41, 10 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Before defining whether the UK itself as an island country, a basic cognition you should know is that, as of now, the British Overseas Territories are not considered as parts of the United Kingdom in strict legal sense, this concept has also been explained in the citing annotation to the UK. LVTW2 (talk) 23:56, 10 April 2022 (UTC)

 * I don't buy into all that "not an integral part of the country" stuff. It doesn't matter what kind of wording is used, if a territory is not independent and it is under the sovereignty of another country, then it is technically a part of that country. Otherwise, it should be treated as an independent country. Some classical examples of an independent country are: Taiwan, Palestine, Kosovo, and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Some classical examples of a dependent territory are: Gibraltar, Greenland, Puerto Rico, and Hong Kong.
 * The fact is that the UK does have a small piece of land on the European continent, so the inclusion criteria for this article needs to be clarified. Otherwise, the inclusion of the United Kingdom and the exclusion of the Kingdom of Denmark is controversial.
 * A discussion is needed. 120.16.171.146 (talk) 03:16, 15 May 2022 (UTC)
 * The Kingdom of Denmark is not a country, it is a sovereign state and a realm. Denmark is a country. The British Overseas Territories are not part of the country of the United Kingdom, regardless of whether you "buy into" it or not. JM2023 (talk) 05:05, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Dude, your argument is invalid. All sovereign states are countries, but not all countries are sovereign states. Constituent countries and dependent territories can also be classified as countries. The first list in this article is clearly a "list of island sovereign states" while the second one is a "list of island dependent territories". 120.16.127.229 (talk) 02:51, 11 April 2024 (UTC)
 * The presence of the Kiel Canal actually makes Denmark a de facto island country. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 09:59, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Suggestion
I suggest that the number of islands that make up a country be added to the chart. Although, not all nations have a clear exact number, due to islets and rock/sand formations, so a general estimate could be added instead. Tankpiggy18 (talk) 16:35, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

 * That's a good idea. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 09:46, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

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 * Flag of the Majapahit Empire.svg

Taiwan
I reckon this guy has raised a good point about Taiwan. Taiwan, officially known as the Republic of China, still claims the whole of China as its territory. If we are treating Taiwan as a partially recognized state, we should respect its territorial extent as per its Constitution, then Taiwan should be removed from our list since it is not a de jure island country (although it is a de facto island country). 2001:8003:913E:5D01:C11F:31DB:E162:B781 (talk) 15:11, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

 * The lead article has explained it clearly, the list includes states with limited diplomatic recognition which have de facto control over territories entirely on the islands LVTW2 (talk) 06:11, 9 July 2023 (UTC)
 * But the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is not listed as a landlocked country due to its claim of Western Sahara as its de jure territory, despite the fact that its entire coast is under Moroccan control. Similarly, the State of Palestine is not listed as a landlocked country due to its claim of the Gaza Strip (under Hamas control) as a part of its de jure territory, even though its entire coast is currently under Israeli control. We should have some consistencies in our inclusion criteria for country-related articles. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 09:45, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Denmark
Why is Denmark not included in the list of island countries? Isn't the presence of the Kiel Canal makes Denmark a de facto island country? Taiwan is already included as a de facto island country in our article. 42.200.36.189 (talk) 09:53, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Malaysia
East Malaysia constitutes about 60 percent of Malaysia, shouldn't we include Malaysia in the list of island countries since the majority of the country's territory is consisted of islands? 42.200.36.189 (talk) 09:57, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Belize, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, and Suriname
The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs includes Belize, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, and Suriname in its list of the Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Should we include these four countries in our list of island countries too? 42.200.36.189 (talk) 10:27, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Philippines
The Philippines' category should be various. Only Palawan and associated islands are continental, on a fragment rifted from mainland Asia ang occasionally connected to Borneo on the Sunda shelf. The rest of the Philippines are oceanic islands on the Philippine mobile belt, with both the Sunda plate and the Philippine plaate subducting beneath it on the Manila trench in the West and the Philippine trench in the East. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.94.177.225 (talk) 09:56, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Could you provide sources for that? 120.16.127.229 (talk) 03:01, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of island countries


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Modern Egyptian Language

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Modern Egyptian Language.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article.

A proposed conlang masquerading as a real language. RickK 22:28, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed - and the conlang hasn't even been designed yet! Delete. - Mustafaa 22:38, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh, jeez. First micronations, now this.  Delete as nonsense. - Lucky 6.9 22:46, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Only articles pertaining to the "real world" are allowed here. I see no evidence of this language ("we") eliminating Arabic words in the near future. Beelzebubs 23:28, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Wasn't this listed already? Delete -- Cyrius|&#9998 02:09, May 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Rather to my surprise, Googling on exact phrase "modern Egyptian language" yields only nine hits, none of which are to the proposed conlang. Dpbsmith 23:38, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User talk:195.144.131.10

title: User talk:195.144.131.10


text:
L'Enfant Plaza station

L'Enfant Plaza station is an intermodal transit station complex located at L'Enfant Plaza in the Southwest Federal Center neighborhood of Washington, D.C. It consists of an underground Washington Metro rapid transit station and an elevated Virginia Railway Express commuter rail station.

The Metro station, which opened on July 1, 1977, is one of four major interchange stations on the Metro system. It is the only station to serve five of the six Metro lines: the Green and Yellow lines with two side platforms on the upper level, and the Blue, Orange, and Silver lines with one island platform on the lower level. It was the seventh-busiest Metro stop in 2023, with an average of 7,506 daily passenger entries.

The VRE station, which has a single side platform serving the northernmost of the three tracks of the RF&P Subdivision, is served by the Manassas Line and Fredericksburg Line.

Metro station
The lower level of the Metro station opened on July 1, 1977, as part of the opening of 11.8 miles of the Blue Line between and. Orange Line service began on November 20, 1978 when the extension to opened. The upper level opened with the opening of the Yellow Line on April 30, 1983; Green Line service began on May 11, 1991. Silver Line service on the lower level began on July 26, 2014. The Maryland Avenue entrance will be closed for about seven months beginning on May 9, 2022, for escalator replacement.

L'Enfant Plaza was the setting of a 2007 Pulitzer Prize–winning article by Washington Post reporter Gene Weingarten where world-famous classical violinist Joshua Bell performed outside the station at rush hour disguised as a street musician. On January 12, 2015, smoke appeared in the station during the afternoon rush hour, causing one death. A scene from the 2020 film Wonder Woman 1984 was filmed in the station in June 2018.

VRE station
The VRE station opened with the Manassas Line on June 22, 1992. The Fredericksburg Line began service on July 20, 1992. L'Enfant is the northern terminus of 40% of trips on VRE. A 2010 city report analyzed options to expand the station, including the potential extension of MARC service from Union Station to L'Enfant or Alexandria. VRE began planning for an expansion of the station in 2021. The existing side platform will be replaced with an island platform to allow for increased service, with a fourth track added.

Station layout
The station complex is located in the Southwest Federal Center area of Southwest, Washington, DC, centered around the intersection of 7th Street SW and D Street SW. The Metro station has three levels: a fare mezzanine, the Yellow/Green Line upper level with two side platforms, and the Orange/Blue/Silver Line lower level with one island platform. The north-south upper level stretches from C Street to E Street; the east-west lower level stretches from 9th Street to 6th Street. Metro entrances are located at the L'Enfant Plaza shopping mall concourse at 9th and D Streets, on D Street between 6th and 7th Streets, and at Maryland Avenue and 7th Street. Additional head houses may be eventually added.

The VRE platform is located on the north side of the three-track RF&P Subdivision, which is elevated above Virginia Avenue SW between 6th Street and 7th Street. Stairs lead to the station from 6th Street and 7th Street; a ramp leads to the station from C Street west of 7th Street. Most Amtrak intercity trains do not stop at L'Enfant, though several Northeast Regional trains stop for VRE passengers only as part of a ticket cross-honoring agreement.

title: L'Enfant Plaza station


text:
The Money or the Gun

The Money or the Gun was an Australian comedy/talk-show on the ABC network. It ran from late 1989 to mid-1990, with occasional specials until 1994. It was written by Andrew Denton, Simon Dodd, Bruce Griffiths, and George Dodd, directed by Martin Coombes and produced by Mark Fitzgerald.

Each episode was based on a significant theme, with Denton interviewing a number of people as well as conducting vox pops on the street. Significant episodes include "Guns-The Musical" and the award-winning episode on disabilities, "The Year of the Patronising Bastard" (which picked up a United Nations Media Peace Prize). In 1993, a one-off special was called "Topic of Cancer", which talked to teenagers with cancer (while at a CanTeen weekend). In 2003, Denton held a 10-year reunion for the people on the 1993 show, as part of his ABC interview programme Enough Rope.

"Stairway to Heaven"
Each week a guest would perform their own version of Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven". Versions would occasionally tie in with the theme of the episode ("Guns - the Musical" had a Broadway-style version by Jodie Gilles as the conclusion, while the episode on Australian Comedy had the Doug Anthony All Stars performing it with the assistance of Barry Crocker) but the most surprising of all was the version by Rolf Harris which eventually reached number 7 on the UK singles chart. Generally the performance of "Stairway" would be a break in the program and the artists would have no other part in the program. The CD release won an Aria Award in Australia in 1993 and was subsequently released on the Atlantic Label in the USA though truncated.

Performers and styles included:
 * Kate Ceberano and The Ministry Of Fun, in a funk style
 * John Paul Young, in the style of "Love is in the Air"
 * Pardon Me Boys, in a swing style (with numerous references to Glenn Miller songs)
 * The Beatnix, a Beatles tribute band, in the style of "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "Please Please Me", and "Twist and Shout"
 * Nick Barker & The Reptiles, in a heavy blues style
 * Rolf Harris, in the style of "Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport"
 * The Australian Doors Show, a Doors tribute band, in the style of "When the Music's Over"
 * Sandra Hahn, Michael Turkic and the Opera Australia chorus, in the style of an epic Wagner opera
 * Robyne Dunn, in the style of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" by The Beatles
 * Elvis impersonator Neil Pepper, in the style of "Viva Las Vegas"
 * Toots - Jenny Lovell in the flesh, voice by Helen Jones, a femme fatale performance in the style of Jessica Rabbit
 * The Whipper Snappers, in an indie rock girl group style
 * Friends Of The Castanet Club, as a sea shanty
 * Toys Went Berserk, a post-punk version
 * Bob Downe, in the style of a lounge singer
 * The Rock Lobsters, a B-52's tribute band, in the style of "Rock Lobster"
 * Jodie Gillies, in the style of a Broadway musical (with numerous references to "One" from A Chorus Line)
 * Etcetera Theatre Company, as a techno dance in the style of Talking Heads
 * The Jeff Duff Orchestra, a chamber orchestra with vocals
 * Fargone Beauties, as a country thrash in the style of "Dueling Banjos"
 * Judi Connelli, as a gospel song
 * Barry Crocker and Doug Anthony All Stars in a unique style
 * Vegemite Reggae, in a modern reggae/ska style
 * The Symphony Chorus of the Sydney Philharmonia Choirs, as an a cappella chorus
 * Leonard Teale, as a dramatic poem
 * Rory O'Donoghue in the style of an advertising jingle and an Australian ballad

Two compilations of the performances were released in 1992: a video which featured 25 of the 26 performances, and an album, called Stairways to Heaven, which featured 22 of the 26 performances. An album consisting of 12 tracks was released internationally in 1995.

ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards are a set of annual ceremonies presented by Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), which recognise excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of the music of Australia. They commenced in 1987.

! Ref.
 * rowspan="2"| 1993
 * rowspan="2" | Stairways to Heaven
 * Best Comedy Release
 * Won
 * rowspan="2"|
 * Best Adult Contemporary Album
 * Nominated
 * Best Adult Contemporary Album
 * Nominated

title: The Money or the Gun


text:
Three-point hitch

The three-point hitch (British English: three-point linkage) is a widely used type of hitch for attaching ploughs and other implements to an agricultural or industrial tractor. The three points resemble either a triangle, or the letter A. In engineering terms, three-point attachment is the simplest and the only statically determinate way of rigidly joining two bodies.

A three-point hitch attaches the implement to the tractor so that the orientation of the implement is fixed with respect to the tractor and the arm position of the hitch. The tractor carries some or all of the weight of the implement. The other main mechanism for attaching a load is through a drawbar, a single point, pivoting attachment where the implement or trailer is not in a fixed position with respect to the tractor.

The primary benefit of the three-point hitch system is to transfer the weight and resistance of an implement to the drive wheels of the tractor. This gives the tractor more usable traction than it would otherwise have, given the same power, weight, and fuel consumption. For example, when the Ford 9N introduced Harry Ferguson's three-point hitch design to American production-model tractors in 1939, it was a light and affordable tractor competing principally with row-crop tractors such as Farmalls that did not yet have three-point hitches. At 2500 lb, the 9N could plow more than 12 acre in a normal day pulling two 14 in plows, outperforming the tractive performance of the heavier and more expensive Farmall F-30 model. The hitch's utility and simplicity have since made it an industry standard.

Components
The three-point hitch is made up of several components working together. These include the tractor's hydraulic system, attaching points, the lifting arms, and stabilizers.

Three-point hitches are composed of three movable arms. The two lower arms—the hitch lifting arms—are controlled by the hydraulic system, and provide lifting, lowering, and even tilting to the arms. The upper center arm—called the top link—is movable, but is usually not powered by the tractor's hydraulic system. Each arm has an attachment device to connect implements to the hitch.

Each hitch has attachment holes for attaching implements, and the implement has posts that fit through the holes. The implement is secured by placing a pin on the ends of the posts.

The hitch lifting arms are powered by the tractor's own hydraulic system. The hydraulic system is controlled by the operator, and usually a variety of settings are available. A draft control mechanism is often present in modern three-point hitch systems. The draft of the implement, the amount of force it is taking to pull the implement, is sensed on the top link and the hydraulic system automatically raises the arms slightly when the draft increases and lowers the arms when the draft decreases.

Size categories
There are five different hitch sizes, called categories. The higher category hitches have sturdier lift arms and larger connector pins.

There are also variants to the above categories denoted by N (narrow). These utilize the pin sizes of the listed category, but the width of a category one step lower. The N variations are common in "quick hitches" and allow larger tractors to easily hook onto smaller utility implements.

History
Before the 1940s, most hitching of farm implements to tractors was done simply with a drawbar, on the same principle as a modern tow hitch. The drawbar was a flat bar with holes in it, and the implements were trailers, with tongues that attached to the drawbar with a pin through a hole. The main reason why this was the default hitching idea is that it was the natural follow-on from the days of horse-drawn implements, which were towed as trailers by the horse or team (and often had an operator's seat). In fact, for decades during the mechanisation of agriculture in Europe and North America, as tractors gradually replaced horses in increasing degrees, existing implements from the horse era were often what the tractor pulled. Towing with a drawbar is a good, practical system for many purposes, and it has continued to be used even up to today, but the three-point hitch outperforms it in several ways (described below).

Harry Ferguson patented the three-point linkage for agricultural tractors in Britain in 1926. He had long been a champion of the importance of rigid attachment of the plough to the tractor. The idea did not originate with him, but he led its popularization over many years of development, explaining, and selling. During the decade of 1916 to 1926 he developed his ideas through various iterations, duplex and triplex, mechanical and hydraulic, to arrive at the patented form. During the next decade, he continued explaining and selling his hitches and implements and even produced his own model of tractor in cooperation with David Brown Ltd. via the Ferguson-Brown Company. The particular geometry of the linkage that attached the plough to the tractor enabled forces generated by the plough to be applied to the rear wheels of the tractor. This redirected the plough's resistance into downward force on the drive wheels, which enabled Ferguson's tractor to be much lighter and more manoeuvrable than earlier models of farm tractor with equivalent tractive force and traction. As a result his tractor could operate on soft ground and caused less compacting damage to the soil in comparison with other tractors of the time, and it could produce given amounts of work with less time and fuel. The hydraulically operated and controlled three-point hitch used the draft of the mounted tool to moderate the depth of the tool and therefore the load on the tractor (automatic depth control or draft control). In addition, the three-point hitch would prevent the tractor from flipping backwards on the drive wheels if the implement being dragged were to hit a rock or other immovable obstruction. Ferguson and his colleagues developed several innovations to this device (e.g., the hydraulic lift and depth control) which made the system workable, effective, and desirable. In 1938, after almost two decades of trying to sell Henry Ford on using Ferguson's system on tractors mass-produced by Ford, Ferguson finally convinced Ford. The American mass-market debut was via the Ford-Ferguson 9N in 1939.

The Ferguson system, as it was called, was not just an improved hitch but rather the hitch plus an entire line of implements purpose-built to make full use of its advantages. During the 1940s, it was so advantageous and popular that other manufacturers were compelled to come up with competing hitch improvements that could also be pitched as proprietary "systems" with at least some of the features of the Ferguson system (such as quick, easy hitching and unhitching, implement raising and lowering controlled from the tractor seat, and treating the tractor and implement as a unit rather than an articulated pair). Thus, International Harvester developed its Fast Hitch and began to advertise the notion of "farming with the Farmall system" and Allis-Chalmers introduced its Snap-Coupler which allowed the operator to hook and unhook implements without leaving the operator's seat. Likewise, JI Case developed its Eagle Hitch, and similar path was followed at John Deere. Some of these systems, with one-point or two-point hitching, were not well suited to lifting heavy implements. They also presented the problem of incompatibility between brands of tractors and implements, applying pressure toward vendor lock-in that many farmers resented. During the 1950s and 1960s, farmers often would have to purchase the same brand implements as their tractor to be able to hook up the implement correctly or to best effect. If a farmer needed to use a different brand of implement, an adaptation kit—which were typically clumsy, ill-fitting, or unsafe—was sometimes needed. The pressure toward vendor lock-in was a two-edged blade for the salespeople. It was an advantage in cases where it encouraged the sale of implements (e.g., a farmer decided to purchase not just a tractor but also new implements to replace his old ones, betting on increased productivity to make it worth the cost), but it was a disadvantage to the extent that farmers did not see the value in a special new hitch if they could not afford also to buy new implements to make full use of it or felt uneasy about buying new implements when they already had existing implements that were still usable. Ferguson often faced the latter problem in the UK and Ireland in the 1920s and 1930s, and it also applied to the competitors' proprietary hitches of the 1940s and 1950s.

In the 1960s, as patents on the technology expired, tractor and implement manufacturers agreed on the three-point hitch as the one standard, interchangeable, full-featured system to hitch implements to tractors. With the advent of nonproprietary status, the manufacturers were able to refine the system and create useful modifications. Now, nearly all manufacturers have adopted some standardised form of the modern three-point hitch system; many companies also offer safe adaptation kits for converting the non-standard hitch systems to the three-point hitch system.

title: Three-point hitch


text:
User:Ribamar

Hello, I am Ribamar Santarosa de Sousa, computer engineering student at State University of Campinas, Brazil. For more information, refer to:
 * my personal wiki (at moment only in portuguese): http://atum.lab.ic.unicamp.br/~ribamar
 * or my e-mail address: ribamar[at]fee.unicamp.br
 * or me in irc.freenode.net: riba

title: User:Ribamar


text:
Talk:Green Eggs and Ham

Unnamed
I know the man that Sam-I-Am pesters is later named "Guy-Am-I" in the Netflix series, but why he still is unnamed in the book other than vague descriptions like "Grouchy Guy" or "Sam's Friend"? Allan Bao (talk) 18:03, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Because he is unnamed in the book. Decisions made by the people behind the Netflix series have no bearing on the original book. Ckruschke (talk) 14:52, 22 October 2021 (UTC)
 * That's why you left the note to clarify that it is pertinent to the original book where the 2nd character is originally unnamed, besides naming him Grouchy Guy or Sam's Friend.Allan Bao (talk) 13:33, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Green Eggs and Ham


text:
Camille Flammarion

Nicolas Camille Flammarion FRAS (26 February 1842 – 3 June 1925) was a French astronomer and author. He was a prolific author of more than fifty titles, including popular science works about astronomy, several notable early science fiction novels, and works on psychical research and related topics. He also published the magazine L'Astronomie, starting in 1882. He maintained a private observatory at Juvisy-sur-Orge, France.

Biography
Camille Flammarion was born in Montigny-le-Roi, Haute-Marne, France. He was the brother of Ernest Flammarion (1846–1936), the founder of the Groupe Flammarion publishing house. In 1858 he became a computer at the Paris Observatory. He was a founder and the first president of the Société astronomique de France, which originally had its own independent journal, BSAF (Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France), which was first published in 1887. In January 1895, after 13 volumes of L'Astronomie and 8 of BSAF, the two merged, making L’Astronomie its bulletin. The 1895 volume of the combined journal was numbered 9, to preserve the BSAF volume numbering, but this had the consequence that volumes 9 to 13 of L'Astronomie can each refer to two different publications five years apart.

The "Flammarion engraving" first appeared in Flammarion's 1888 edition of L’Atmosphère. In 1907, he wrote that he believed that dwellers on Mars had tried to communicate with Earth in the past. He also believed in 1907 that a seven-tailed comet was heading toward Earth. In 1910, for the appearance of Halley's Comet, he was widely but falsely reported as believing the gas from the comet's tail "would impregnate [the Earth’s] atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet".

As a young man, Flammarion was exposed to two significant social movements in the western world: the thoughts and ideas of Darwin and Lamarck and the rising popularity of spiritism with spiritualist churches and organizations appearing all over Europe. He has been described as an "astronomer, mystic and storyteller" who was "obsessed by life after death, and on other worlds, and [who] seemed to see no distinction between the two".

He was influenced by Jean Reynaud (1806–1863) and his Terre et ciel (1854), which described a religious system based on the transmigration of souls believed to be reconcilable with both Christianity and pluralism. He was convinced that souls after the physical death pass from planet to planet and progressively improve at each new incarnation. In 1862 he published his first book, The Plurality of Inhabited Worlds, and was dismissed from his position at the Paris Observatory later the same year. It is not quite clear if these two incidents are related to each other.

In Real and Imaginary Worlds (1864) and Lumen (1887), he "describes a range of exotic species, including sentient plants which combine the processes of digestion and respiration. This belief in extraterrestrial life, Flammarion combined with a religious conviction derived, not from the Catholic faith upon which he had been raised, but from the writings of Jean Reynaud and their emphasis upon the transmigration of souls. Man he considered to be a “citizen of the sky,” other worlds “studios of human work, schools where the expanding soul progressively learns and develops, assimilating gradually the knowledge to which its aspirations tend, approaching thus evermore the end of its destiny.”

His psychical studies also influenced some of his science fiction, where he would write about his beliefs in a cosmic version of metempsychosis. In Lumen, a human character meets the soul of an alien, able to cross the universe faster than light, that has been reincarnated on many different worlds, each with its own gallery of organisms and their evolutionary history. Other than that, his writing about other worlds adhered fairly closely to then current ideas in evolutionary theory and astronomy. Among other things, he believed that all planets went through more or less the same stages of development, but at different rates depending on their sizes.

The fusion of science, science fiction and the spiritual influenced other readers as well; "With great commercial success he blended scientific speculation with science fiction to propagate modern myths such as the notion that “superior” extraterrestrial species reside on numerous planets, and that the human soul evolves through cosmic reincarnation. Flammarion's influence was great, not just on the popular thought of his day, but also on later writers with similar interests and convictions." In the English translation of Lumen, Brian Stableford argues that both Olaf Stapledon and William Hope Hodgson have likely been influenced by Flammarion. Arthur Conan Doyle's The Poison Belt, published 1913, also has a lot in common with Flammarion's supposed worries that the tail of Halley's Comet would be poisonous for earth life.

Family
Camille was a brother of Ernest Flammarion and Berthe Martin-Flammarion, and uncle of a woman named Zelinda. His first wife was Sylvie Petiaux-Hugo Flammarion, and his second wife was Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion, also a noted astronomer.

Mars
Beginning with Giovanni Schiaparelli's 1877 observations, 19th-century astronomers observing Mars believed they saw a network of lines on its surface, which were named "canals" by Schiaparelli. These turned out to be an optical illusion due to the limited observing instruments of the time, as revealed by better telescopes in the 1920s. Camille, a contemporary of Schiaparelli, extensively researched the so-called "canals" during the 1880s and 1890s. Like American astronomer Percival Lowell, he thought the "canals" were artificial in nature and most likely the "rectification of old rivers aimed at the general distribution of water to the surface of the continents." He assumed the planet was in an advanced stage of its habitability, and the canals were the product of an intelligent species attempting to survive on a dying world.

Halley's Comet
When astronomers announced that the Earth would pass through the tail of Halley's Comet in May 1910, Flammarion was widely reported, in numerous American newspapers, as believing that toxic gases in the tail might "snuff out all life on the planet". In fact, he said no such thing.

In an article in the New York Herald in November 1909, responding to such claims by others, he stated that "The poisoning of humanity by deleterious gases is improbable", and correctly stated that the matter in the comet's tail is so tenuous that it would have no noticeable effect. However, he also indulged in a "thought experiment" about what might happen if it did inject various gases into the atmosphere. Sensation-seeking papers chose to quote only the latter part, leading to the widespread misconception that Flammarion actually believed it.

On 1 February 1910, Flammarion published an update in the Herald, saying he wished to warn journalists against "accusing me of announcing the end of the world for May 19 next. The end of the world will not occur on May 19 next."

He could not have made his position any clearer - yet many papers ignored this rebuttal, and continued a campaign of misquoting and fabrication for the sake of sensational headlines. Flammarion was, in fact, the victim of a deliberate character assassination, in order to sell papers!

Psychical research
Flammarion approached spiritism, psychical research and reincarnation from the viewpoint of the scientific method, writing, "It is by the scientific method alone that we may make progress in the search for truth. Religious belief must not take the place of impartial analysis. We must be constantly on our guard against illusions." He was very close to the French author Allan Kardec, who founded Spiritism.

Flammarion had studied mediumship and wrote, "It is infinitely to be regretted that we cannot trust the loyalty of mediums. They almost always cheat". However, Flammarion, a believer in psychic phenomena, attended séances with Eusapia Palladino and claimed that some of her phenomena were genuine. He produced in his book alleged levitation photographs of a table and an impression of a face in putty. Joseph McCabe did not find the evidence convincing. He noted that the impressions of faces in putty were always of Palladino's face and could have easily been made, and she was not entirely clear from the table in the levitation photographs.

His book The Unknown (1900) received a negative review from the psychologist Joseph Jastrow who wrote "the work's fundamental faults are a lack of critical judgment in the estimation of evidence, and of an appreciation of the nature of the logical conditions which the study of these problems presents."

After two years investigation into automatic writing he wrote that the subconscious mind is the explanation and there is no evidence for the spirit hypothesis. Flammarion believed in the survival of the soul after death but wrote that mediumship had not been scientifically proven. Even though Flammarion believed in the survival of the soul after death he did not believe in the spirit hypothesis of Spiritism, instead he believed that Spiritist activities such as ectoplasm and levitations of objects could be explained by an unknown "psychic force" from the medium. He also believed that telepathy could explain some paranormal phenomena.

In his book Mysterious Psychic Forces (1909) he wrote:

This is very far from being demonstrated. The innumerable observations which I have collected during more than forty years all prove to me the contrary. No satisfactory identification has been made. The communications obtained have always seemed to proceed from the mentality of the group, or when they are heterogeneous, from spirits of an incomprehensible nature. The being evoked soon vanishes when one insists on pushing him to the wall and having the heart out of his mystery. That souls survive the destruction of the body I have not the shadow of a doubt. But that they manifest themselves by the processes employed in séances the experimental method has not yet given us absolute proof. I add that this hypothesis is not at all likely. If the souls of the dead are about us, upon our planet, the invisible population would increase at the rate of 100,000 a day, about 36 millions a year, 3 billions 620 millions in a century, 36 billions in ten centuries, etc.—unless we admit re-incarnations upon the earth itself. How many times do apparitions or manifestations occur? When illusions, auto-suggestions, hallucinations are eliminated what remains? Scarcely anything. Such an exceptional rarity as this pleads against the reality of apparitions.

In the 1920s Flammarion changed some of his beliefs on apparitions and hauntings but still claimed there was no evidence for the spirit hypothesis of mediumship in Spiritism. In his 1924 book Les maisons hantées (Haunted Houses) he came to the conclusion that in some rare cases hauntings are caused by departed souls whilst others are caused by the "remote action of the psychic force of a living person". The book was reviewed by the magician Harry Houdini who wrote it "fails to supply adequate proof of the veracity of the conglomeration of hearsay it contains; it must, therefore, be a collection of myths."

In a presidential address to the Society for Psychical Research in October 1923 Flammarion summarized his views after 60 years of investigating paranormal phenomena. He wrote that he believed in telepathy, etheric doubles, the stone tape theory and "exceptionally and rarely the dead do manifest" in hauntings. He was also a member of the Theosophical Society.

Legacy
He was the first to suggest the names Triton and Amalthea for moons of Neptune and Jupiter, respectively, although these names were not officially adopted until many decades later. George Gamow cited Flammarion as having had a significant influence on his childhood interest in science.

Honors
Named after him
 * Flammarion (lunar crater)
 * Flammarion (Martian crater)
 * Asteroids: 1021 Flammario is named in his honour. In addition, 154 Bertha commemorates his sister;  169 Zelia commemorates his niece;  141 Lumen is named after Flammarion's book Lumen: Récits de l'infini;  286 Iclea for the heroine of his novel Uranie;  and 605 Juvisia after Juvisy-sur-Orge, France, where his observatory is located.
 * In 1897, he received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society.
 * He was made a Commandeur de la Legion d'honneur.

Works
Source:
 * La pluralité des mondes habités (The Plurality of Inhabited Worlds), 1862.
 * Real and Imaginary Worlds, 1865.
 * God in nature, 1866. Flammarion argues that the mind is independent of the brain.
 * L'atmosphère: Des Grands Phenomenes, 1872. (Appears to be an earlier edition of L'atmosphère: météorologie populaire 1888 which does not have the Flammarion engraving).
 * Récits de l'infini, 1872 (translated into English as Stories of Infinity in 1873).
 * Lumen, a series of dialogues between a man and a disembodied spirit which is free to roam the Universe at will. The novel includes observations about the implications of the finite velocity of light, and many images of otherworldly life adapted to alien circumstances.
 * History of a Comet
 * In Infinity
 * Distances of the Stars, 1874. Popular Science Monthly V.5, Aug 1874. Translated in English from La Nature. (available online)
 * Astronomie populaire, 1880. His best-selling work, it was translated into English as Popular Astronomy in 1894.
 * Les Étoiles et les Curiosités du Ciel, 1882. A supplement of the L'Astronomie Populaire works. An observer's handbook of its day.
 * De Wereld vóór de Schepping van den Mensch, 1886. A paleontological work.
 * L'atmosphère: météorologie populaire, 1888.
 * Uranie, 1889 (translated into English as Urania in 1890).
 * La planète Mars et ses conditions d'habitabilité, 1892.
 * La Fin du Monde (The End of the World), 1893 (translated into English as Omega: The Last Days of the World in 1894), is a science fiction novel about a comet colliding with the Earth, followed by several million years leading up to the gradual death of the planet, and has recently been brought back into print. It was adapted into a film in 1931 by Abel Gance.
 * Stella (1897)
 * L’inconnu et les problèmes psychiques (published in English as: L’inconnu: The Unknown), 1900, a collection of psychic experiences.
 * Mysterious psychic forces: an account of the author's investigations in psychical research, together with those of other European savants, 1907
 * Death and its mystery—proofs of the existence of the soul; Volume 1—Before death, 1921
 * Death and its mystery—proofs of the existence of the soul; Volume 2—At the moment of death, 1922
 * Death and its mystery—proofs of the existence of the soul; Volume 3—After death, 1923
 * Dreams of an Astronomer, 1923
 * Haunted houses, 1924

title: Camille Flammarion


text:
Talk:R-1 (missile)

http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/r1.htm has different figures for the R1 payload: Payload 815 kg. Rather than 785 kg warhead as stated in the article. It also mentions that the standard warhead was 547 kg E David Moyer 22:58, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:R-1 (missile)


text:
List of nuclear weapons

This is a list of nuclear weapons listed according to country of origin, and then by type within the states.

United States
American nuclear weapons of all types – bombs, warheads, shells, and others – are numbered in the same sequence starting with the Mark 1 and ending with the W91 (which was cancelled prior to introduction into service). All designs which were formally intended to be weapons at some point received a number designation. Pure test units which were experiments (and not intended to be weapons) are not numbered in this sequence.

Early weapons were very large and could only be used as free fall bombs. These were known by "Mark" designators, like the Mark 4 which was a development of the Fat Man weapon. As weapons became more sophisticated they also became much smaller and lighter, allowing them to be used in many roles. At this time the weapons began to receive designations based on their role; bombs were given the prefix "B", while the same warhead used in other roles, like missiles, would normally be prefixed "W". For instance, the W-53 warhead was also used as the basis for the B53 nuclear bomb. Such examples share the same sequence number.

In other cases, when the modifications are more significant, variants are assigned their own number. An example is the B61 nuclear bomb, which was the parent design for the W80, W81, and W84. There are also examples of out-of-sequence numbering and other prefixes used in special occasions.

This list includes weapons which were developed to the point of being assigned a model number (and in many cases, prototypes were test fired), but which were then cancelled prior to introduction into military service. Those models are listed as cancelled, along with the year or date of cancellation of their program.

 * Bombs – designated with Mark ("Mk") numbers until 1968, and with "B" numbers after that. "Test Experimental" bombs designated with "TX".
 * Mark 1 – "Little Boy" gun-type uranium weapon (used against Hiroshima). (13–18 kilotons, 1945–1950)
 * Mark 2 – "Thin Man" plutonium gun design—cancelled in 1944
 * Implosion Mark 2 – Another Manhattan Project plutonium implosion weapon, a hollow pit implosion design, was also sometimes referred to as Mark 2. Also cancelled 1944.
 * Mark 3 – "Fat Man" plutonium implosion weapon (used against Nagasaki), effectively the same as the "Gadget" device used in the Trinity nuclear test with minor design differences. (21 kilotons, 1945–1950)
 * Mark 4 – Post-war "Fat Man" redesign. Bomb designed with weapon characteristics as the foremost criteria. (1949–1953)
 * Mark 5 – Significantly smaller high efficiency nuclear bomb. (1–120 kilotons, 1952–1963)
 * Mark 6 – Improved version of Mk-4. (8–160 kilotons, 1951–1962)
 * Mark 7 – Multi-purpose tactical bomb. (8–61 kilotons, 1952–1967)
 * Mark 8 – Gun-assembly, HEU weapon designed for penetrating hardened targets. (25–30 kilotons, 1951–1957)

 * Mark 10 – Improved version of Mk-8 (12–15 kilotons, cancelled May 1952).
 * Mark 11 – Re-designed Mk-8. Gun-type (8–30 kilotons).
 * Mark 12 – Light-weight bomb to be carried by fighter aircraft (12–14 kilotons).
 * Mark 13 – Improved version of Mk-6 (cancelled August 1954).
 * TX/Mark 14 – First deployable solid-fuel thermonuclear bomb (Castle Union device). Only five produced. (5 Megatons)
 * Mark 15 – First "lightweight" thermonuclear weapon. (1.7–3.8 Megatons, 1955–1965)
 * TX/Mark 16 – First weaponized thermonuclear weapon (Ivy Mike device). Only cryogenic weapon ever deployed. Only five produced. (6–8 Megatons)
 * Mark 17 – High-yield thermonuclear. Heaviest U.S. weapon, second highest yield of any U.S. weapon. Very similar to Mk-24. (10–15 Megatons)
 * Mark 18 – Very high yield fission weapon (Ivy King device).
 * Mark 20 – Improved Mark 13 (cancelled 1954)
 * Mark 21 – Re-designed variant of Castle Bravo test
 * Mark 22 – Failed thermonuclear design (Castle Koon device, cancelled April 1954).
 * Mark 24 – High-yield thermonuclear, very similar to Mk-17 but had a different secondary.
 * Mark 26 – Similar design to Mk 21 (cancelled 1956).
 * Mark 27 – Navy nuclear bomb (1958–1965)
 * Mk 101 Lulu (1958–1971)
 * Mk 105 Hotpoint (1958–1965)
 * B28 nuclear bomb (Mark 28) (1958–1991)
 * Mark 36 – Strategic nuclear bomb (1956–1961) 6–19 Megatons
 * B39 nuclear bomb (Mark 39) (1957–1966)
 * B41 nuclear bomb (Mark 41) (1960–1976); highest yield US nuclear weapon (25 Megatons).
 * B43 nuclear bomb (Mark 43) (1961–1991)
 * B46 nuclear bomb or (Mark 46); experimental, design evolved into B53 nuclear bomb and W-53 warhead (cancelled 1958)
 * Mark 90 nuclear bomb (1952-1960)
 * B53 nuclear bomb (1962–1997; dismantled 2010–2011)
 * B57 nuclear bomb (1963–1993)
 * B61 nuclear bomb (1966–present)
 * B77 nuclear bomb (cancelled 1977)
 * B83 nuclear bomb (1983–present)
 * B90 nuclear bomb (cancelled 1991)
 * Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator design program (2001–2005, cancelled)
 * Nuclear artillery shells
 * 16-inch (406 mm)
 * W23 (1956–1962) gun-type
 * 11-inch (280 mm)
 * W9 (1952–1957) gun-type
 * W19 (1953–1956) gun-type, W9 derivative
 * 8-inch (203 mm)
 * W33 (1956–1980s) gun-type
 * W75 (cancelled 1973)
 * W79 (1981–1992)
 * There were/are also nuclear warheads for the Army's 175 mm (6.9-inch) and 155 mm (6.1-inch) artillery.
 * W48 (1963–1992)
 * W74 (cancelled 1973)
 * W82 (cancelled 1983 (W-82-0 Enhanced Radiation) and 1990 (W-82-1 fission only))
 * Atomic Demolition Munitions
 * W7/ADM-B (c. 1954–1967)
 * T4 ADM (1957–1963) Gun-type
 * W30/Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition (1961–1966)
 * W31/ADM (1960–1965)
 * W45/Medium Atomic Demolition Munition (1964–1984)
 * W54/Special Atomic Demolition Munition (1965–1989)
 * Missile and Rocket warheads
 * W4 for SM-62 Snark cruise missile (cancelled 1951)
 * W5 for MGM-1 Matador cruise missile (1954–1963)
 * W7 for MGR-1 Honest John artillery rocket (1954–1960), MGM-5 Corporal TBM (1955–1964), Nike Hercules SAM, and BOAR air-to-surface rocket (ASR) (1958–1960s)
 * W8 for SSM-N-8 Regulus cruise missile, Gun-type (cancelled 1955)
 * W12 for RIM-8 Talos SAM (cancelled 1955)
 * W13 for SM-62 Snark cruise missile and PGM-11 Redstone SRBM (cancelled 1954)
 * W15 for SM-62 Snark cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
 * W21 for SM-64 Navaho cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
 * W25 for MB-1 "Ding Dong", later AIR-2 Genie AAR (1957–1984)
 * W27 for SSM-N-8 Regulus and SSM-N-9 Regulus II cruise missile (1958–1965)
 * W28 for AGM-28 Hound Dog and MGM-13 Mace cruise missiles (1958–1976)
 * W29 for SM-64 Navaho cruise missile, PGM-11 Redstone SRBM, and SM-62 Snark cruise missile (cancelled 1955)
 * W30 for RIM-8 Talos SAM (1959–1979)
 * W31 for MGR-1 Honest John artillery rocket (1961–1985), Nike Hercules SAM (1960s–1988)
 * W34 for Mk 101 Lulu depth charge, Mark 45 ASTOR torpedo, Mk 105 Hotpoint bomb (1958–1976)
 * W35 for SM-65 Atlas ICBM, HGM-25A Titan I ICBM, PGM-17 Thor IRBM, and PGM-19 Jupiter MRBM (cancelled 1958)
 * W37 (cancelled 1956)
 * W38 for SM-65 Atlas ICBM and HGM-25A Titan I ICBM (1961–1965)
 * W39 for PGM-11 Redstone SRBM (1958–1964)
 * W40 for MGM-18 Lacrosse TBM, CIM-10 Bomarc SAM (1959–1972)
 * W41 for SM-64 Navaho cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
 * W42 for MIM-23 Hawk SAM, AIM-47 Falcon AAM, AAM-N-10 Eagle AAM (cancelled 1961)
 * W44 for RUR-5 ASROC SSM (1961–1989) Nuclear depth charge explodes near USS Agerholm (DD-826) on 11 May 1962.jpg antisubmarine rocket armed with the W44]]
 * W45 for MGR-3 Little John artillery rocket, RIM-2 Terrier SAM, and AGM-12 Bullpup ASM (1961–1969 (some 1988))
 * XW-46 for PGM-11 Redstone SRBM and SM-62 Snark cruise missile (cancelled 1958)
 * W47 for UGM-27 Polaris A-1 and A-2 SLBMs (1960–1974)
 * W49 for PGM-19 Jupiter MRBM (1959–1963) and PGM-17 Thor IRBM (1959–1963)
 * W50 for MGM-31 Pershing SRBM, and Hopi ASR (1960–1990)
 * XW-51 for various (program converted to W54 in 1959)
 * W52 for MGM-29 Sergeant TBM (1962–1977)
 * W53 for LGM-25C Titan II ICBM (1962–1987)
 * W54 for Davy Crockett recoilless rifle, AIM-26 Falcon AAM, and AIM-4 Falcon AAM (1961–1972)
 * W55 for UUM-44 SUBROC SSM (1965–1989)
 * W56 for LGM-30 Minuteman I and II ICBMs (1963–1993)
 * W58 for UGM-27 Polaris A-3 SLBM (1964–1982)
 * W59 for LGM-30 Minuteman I ICBM and GAM-87 Skybolt ALBM (1962–1969)
 * W60 for RIM-50 Typhon SAM (cancelled 1963)
 * W61 for MGM-134 Midgetman (cancelled 1992)
 * W62 for LGM-30 Minuteman III ICBM, (1970–2010)
 * W63 for MGM-52 Lance TBM (warhead cancelled 1966)
 * W64 for MGM-52 Lance TBM (warhead cancelled 1964)
 * W65 for Sprint ABM (cancelled 1968)
 * W66 for Sprint ABM (available 1970–1975)
 * W67 for UGM-73 Poseidon SLBM and LGM-30 Minuteman III ICBM (cancelled 1967)
 * W68 for UGM-73 Poseidon SLBM (1970–1991)
 * W69 for AGM-69 SRAM ASM (1972–1990)
 * W70 for MGM-52 Lance TBM (deployed 1973–1992)
 * W71 for LIM-49A Spartan ABM (deployed 1974–1975; dismantled 1992)
 * W72 for AGM-62 Walleye glide bomb (1970–1979)
 * W73 for AGM-53 Condor ASM (cancelled 1970)
 * W76 for UGM-96 Trident I and UGM-133 Trident II SLBMs (1978–present)
 * W78 for LGM-30 Minuteman III ICBM (1979–present)
 * W80 for AGM-86, AGM-129, BGM-109 Tomahawk, and AGM-181 LRSO cruise missiles (1981–present)
 * W81 for RIM-67 Standard ER SAM, based on B61 (cancelled 1986)
 * W84 for BGM-109G Gryphon cruise missile (1983–1991)
 * W85 for Pershing II MRBM and Pershing 1b SRBM (1983–1991)
 * W86 for Pershing II MRBM Earth penetrating warhead option (cancelled 1980)
 * W87 for LGM-118 Peacekeeper ICBM (1986–2005), LGM-30 Minuteman III ICBM (2007–present), and LGM-35 Sentinel ICBM (future)
 * W87-1 for MGM-134 Midgetman ICBM (cancelled 1992)
 * W88 for UGM-133 Trident II SLBM (1988–present)
 * W89 for AGM-131 SRAM II ASM and UUM-125 Sea Lance SSM (cancelled 1991)
 * W91 for SRAM-T ASM (cancelled 1991)
 * Reliable Replacement Warhead (RRW1) design program (2004–2008, cancelled)
 * W93 for UGM-133 Trident II SLBM (proposed)

See also Enduring Stockpile.

Common nuclear primaries
Several American weapons designs share common components. These include publicly identified models listed below.

Soviet Union/Russia
At the peak of its arsenal in 1988, Russia possessed around 45,000 nuclear weapons in its stockpile, roughly 13,000 more than the United States arsenal, the second largest in the world, which peaked in 1966.
 * Tests
 * Torpedoes
 * 53-58 torpedo with 10 kilotons RDS-9 warhead
 * 65-73 torpedo with 20 kilotons
 * VA-111 Shkval with 150 kilotons
 * Bombs
 * RDS-1, 22 kiloton bomb. Tested 29 August 1949 as "First Light" (Joe 1). Total of 5 stockpiled
 * RDS-2, 38 kiloton bomb. Tested 24 September 1951 as "Second Light." The RDS-2 was an entirely Russian design, delayed by development of the RDS-1
 * RDS-3, 42 kiloton bomb. First Soviet bomb tested in an airdrop on 18 October 1951. First 'mass-produced" Soviet bomb
 * RDS-3I, 62 kiloton bomb. Tested 24 October 1954. The RDS-31 was an improved RDS-3 with external neutron generator
 * RDS-4, "Tatyana" 42 kiloton bomb. The RDS-4 was smaller and lighter than previous Soviet Bombs.
 * RDS-5
 * RDS-6, also known as RDS-6S, or "sloika" or 'layer cake" gaining about 20% of its yield from fusion. RDS-6 was tested on 12 August 1953. Yield 400 kilotons
 * RDS-7, a backup for the RDS-6, the RDS-7 was a 500 kiloton all fission bomb comparable to the US Mk-18, development dropped after success of the RDS-6S
 * RDS-27, 250 kiloton bomb, a 'boosted' fission bomb tested 6 November 1955.
 * RDS-37, 3 megaton bomb, the first Soviet two-stage hydrogen bomb, tested 22 November 1955
 * RDS-220 Tsar Bomba an extremely large three stage bomb, initially designed as a 100-megaton-bomb, but was scaled down to 50 megatons for testing.
 * Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles

 * RDS-9, 40 kiloton warhead for R-5M MRBM (SS-3)
 * RDS-37 3 megaton warhead for R7 Semyorka / SS-6 ICBM
 * RDS-46 5 megaton warhead for R-7A Semyorka / SS-6 ICBM
 * 8F17 3 megaton warhead for R-16 / SS-7 ICBM
 * 8F115 and 8F116 5-6 megaton warhead for R-16 / SS-7 ICBM
 * Unknown model warheads for R-9 / SS-8 Sasin ICBM
 * 15F42 1.2 megaton warhead for UR 100U / SS-11 Mod 3 Sego ICBM

 * Unknown model 750 kiloton to 1.0 megaton warhead for RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 1 Savage ICBM
 * 15F1r 750 kiloton to 1.65 megaton warhead for RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 2 Savage ICBM
 * Unknown model 466 kiloton warhead for RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 3 Savage ICBM
 * Unknown model 500 kiloton warhead for RT-20 / SS-15 Scrooge ICBM
 * Unknown model 1.5 megaton warhead for RT-20 / SS-15 Scrooge ICBM
 * Unknown model 650 kiloton to 1.5 megaton warheads for RT-21 Temp 2S SS-16 Sinner ICBM
 * Unknown model 300–750 kiloton warheads for MR-UR-100 Sotka / SS-17 Spanker Mod 1 ICBM
 * Unknown model 4–6 megaton warhead for MR-UR-100 Sotka / SS-17 Spanker Mod 2 ICBM
 * 8F675 (Mod2) 20 megaton warhead for R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan ICBM
 * 8F021 2 or 5 megaton warheads for R-36MP / SS-18 Satan ICBM (3 MIRV warheads)
 * unknown 550 kiloton warheads for R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
 * Unknown model 750 kiloton warheads for R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
 * Unknown model 550 kiloton warheads for UR-100N / SS-19 Mod 1 Stiletto ICBM (6 MIRV warheads)
 * Unknown model 2.5–5 megaton warhead for UR-100N / SS-19 Mod 2 Stiletto ICBM
 * Unknown model 550 kiloton warheads for RT-23 Molodets / SS-24 Scalpel ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
 * Unknown model 550 kiloton warhead for RT-2PM Topol / SS-25 Sickle ICBM
 * Unknown model 550 kiloton warhead for RT-2UTTH Topol M / SS-27 ICBM

 * Various tactical nuclear weapons including "suitcase bombs" (RA-115 or RA-115-01 as examples)

United Kingdom

 * Blue Steel
 * Yellow Sun productionised air-delivered thermonuclear bomb casing.
 * Warheads
 * Blue Danube Fission weapon.
 * Red Snow for Yellow Sun Mk.2.
 * Green Grass For Yellow Sun Mk.1.
 * Red Beard, tactical nuclear weapon.
 * WE.177 (also used as a nuclear depth charge).
 * Blue Cat – nuclear warhead a.k.a. Tony – UK version of US W44, a.k.a. Tsetse.
 * Blue Fox – kiloton range nuclear weapon, later renamed Indigo Hammer – not to be confused with the later Blue Fox radar.
 * Blue Peacock ten-kiloton nuclear land mine, a.k.a. the "chicken-powered nuclear bomb", originally 'Blue Bunny' It used the Blue Danube physics package.
 * Blue Rosette – short-case nuclear weapon bomb casing for reconnaissance bomber to spec R156T, including the Avro 730, Handley Page HP.100, English Electric P10, Vickers SP4 and various others.
 * Blue Slug – nuclear ship-to-ship missile using Sea Slug launcher.
 * Blue Water – nuclear armed surface to surface missile.
 * Green Bamboo – nuclear weapon.
 * Green Cheese – nuclear anti-ship missile.
 * Green Flash – Green Cheese's replacement.
 * Green Granite – nuclear weapons – Green Granite (small) & Green Granite (large).
 * Green Grass – nuclear weapon
 * Indigo Hammer – nuclear weapon
 * Orange Herald – fusion-boosted fission weapon. It is believed that the fusion boost didn't work, which would make it the most powerful fission bomb ever tested at 720 kt.
 * Violet Club – nuclear weapon

France
France is said to have an arsenal of 350 nuclear weapons stockpiled as of 2002.

 * Bombs
 * AN 11
 * AN 22
 * AN 52 (MR 50 CTC)
 * Warheads (and missiles)
 * MR 31 (S2)
 * MR 41 (M1 and M2)
 * MR 50 CTC (AN 51 CTC and AN 52 CTC)
 * AN 51 CTC (Pluton)
 * AN 52 CTC (AN 52)
 * TN 60 (M20)
 * TN 61 (M20 and S3)
 * TN 70 MIRV (M4)
 * TN 71 MIRV (M4)
 * TN 75 MIRV (M45 and M51)
 * TN 76 MIRV (M5)
 * TN 80 (ASMP)
 * TN 81 (ASMP)
 * TN 90 (Hàdes)
 * TNA (ASMP-A)
 * TNO MIRV (M51)

China
China is believed to possess around 250 nuclear weapons, but has released very little information about the contents of its arsenal.
 * Tests:
 * 596 (nuclear test)
 * Test No. 6
 * Ballistic Missiles:
 * DF-1
 * DF-2
 * DF-3A
 * DF-4
 * DF-5
 * DF-11
 * DF-15
 * DF-17
 * DF-21
 * DF-31
 * DF-31B
 * DF-41
 * JL-1
 * JL-2
 * B-611
 * P-12
 * Cruise Missiles
 * DH-10
 * CJ-10
 * HN1
 * HN2
 * HN3
 * CF-2
 * CF-1
 * SS-N-2

India
Although India's nuclear programme and its details are highly classified, international figures suggest that India possesses about 172 nuclear weapons as per 2024 estimate. In 1999, India was estimated to have 800 kg of separated reactor-grade plutonium, with a total amount of 8,300 kg of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons.

Israel
Israel is widely believed to possess a substantial arsenal of nuclear weapons and missiles, estimated at 75–130 and 100–200 warheads, but refuses officially to confirm or deny whether it has a nuclear weapon program, leaving the details of any such weapons unclear. Mordechai Vanunu, a former nuclear technician for Israel, confirmed the existence of a nuclear weapons program in 1986.

Unconfirmed rumors have hinted at tactical nuclear artillery shells, light fission bombs and missile warheads, and perhaps thermonuclear missile warheads.

The BBC News Online website published an article on 28 May 2008, which quotes former U.S. President Jimmy Carter as stating that Israel has at least 150 nuclear weapons. The article continues to state that this is the second confirmation of Israel's nuclear capability by a U.S. spokesman following comments from U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates at a Senate hearing and had apparently been confirmed a short time later by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.

Pakistan
As of June 2019, Pakistan is believed to possess about 160 nuclear weapons. The specifications of its weapon production are not disclosed to the public. The main series for nuclear transportation is Hatf (lit. Target).

North Korea
North Korea claims to possess nuclear weapons, however, the specifications of its systems are not public. It is estimated to have 6–18 low yield nuclear weapons (August 2012 estimate). On 9 October 2006, North Korea achieved its first nuclear detonation.

On 25 May 2009, North Korea conducted a second test of nuclear weapons at the same location as the original test. The test weapon was of the same magnitude as the atomic bombs dropped on Japan in the 2nd World War. At the same time of the test, North Korea tested two short range ballistic missiles. The country tested a 7 kt nuclear weapon on 2 February 2013. On 3 September 2017, North Korea conducted an underground thermonuclear test which had an estimated yield of 100kt to 250kt, according to various sources.

On March 24, 2023, North Korea unveiled the Hwasal-31 화살-31 tactical nuclear bomb with at least 10 warheads shown, each measuring an estimated 40 to 50 centimeters in diameter and 1 meter in length as reported by the South Korean media. KN-23 and KN-25 ballistic missiles are capable of carrying it.

South Africa
South Africa built six or seven gun-type weapons. All constructed weapons were verified by International Atomic Energy Agency and other international observers to have been dismantled, along with the complete weapons program, and their highly enriched uranium was reprocessed back into low enriched form unsuitable for weapons.

title: List of nuclear weapons


text:
Richard Yates (novelist)

Richard Walden Yates (February 3, 1926 – November 7, 1992) was an American fiction writer identified with the mid-century "Age of Anxiety". His first novel, Revolutionary Road, was a finalist for the 1962 National Book Award, while his first short story collection, Eleven Kinds of Loneliness, brought comparisons to James Joyce. Critical acclaim for his writing, however, was not reflected in commercial success during his lifetime.

Interest in Yates has revived somewhat since his death, partly because of an influential 1999 essay by Stewart O'Nan in the Boston Review, a 2003 biography by Blake Bailey and the 2008 Academy Award-nominated and Golden Globe-winning film Revolutionary Road starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio.

Life and career
Yates was born in Yonkers, New York, the son of Vincent Yates and Ruth Walden Maurer. He came from an unstable home; his parents divorced when he was three and much of his childhood was spent in many different towns and residences. He first became interested in journalism and writing while attending Avon Old Farms School in Avon, Connecticut. After leaving Avon, Yates joined the Army, serving in France and Germany during World War II. By the middle of 1946, he was back in New York.

Upon his return to New York City, he worked as a journalist, freelance ghost writer (briefly writing speeches for Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy) and publicity writer for Remington Rand Corporation. His career as a novelist began in 1961 with the publication of the well received Revolutionary Road. In 1962, he wrote the screenplay for a film adaptation of William Styron's Lie Down in Darkness, which has not yet been produced as of 2022. He subsequently taught writing at Columbia University, the New School for Social Research, Boston University (where his papers are archived), at the University of Iowa Writer's Workshop, at Wichita State University, the University of Southern California Master of Professional Writing Program, and at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa.

In 1948, he married Sheila Bryant, the daughter of Marjorie Gilhooley Bryant and British actor Charles Bryant, who lived with Broadway actress and silent-film star Alla Nazimova from 1912 to 1925 during the height of her wealth and fame. Richard and Sheila Yates had two daughters, Sharon and Monica, before divorcing in 1959. His daughter Monica dated Larry David and was the inspiration for Elaine Benes on Seinfeld. In 1968, Yates married Martha Speer and they had a daughter, Gina. A heavy smoker his entire life, in 1992, he died of emphysema and complications from minor surgery in Birmingham, Alabama.

Novels
Yates's fiction was autobiographical in nature and his fiction included much of his own life. Yates was born in 1926, making him 16 in 1942, the same age as Phil Drake in Cold Spring Harbor; he was 17 in 1943, the same age as William Grove in A Good School; he was 18 in 1944, the same age as Robert Prentice in A Special Providence; he was 29 in 1955, the same age as Frank Wheeler in Revolutionary Road; and he was 36 in 1962, one year younger than Emily Grimes in The Easter Parade. Yates's first novel, Revolutionary Road, was a finalist for the National Book Award that year (alongside Joseph Heller's Catch-22, J. D. Salinger's Franny and Zooey, and the winning novel, Walker Percy's The Moviegoer). Yates was championed by writers as diverse as Kurt Vonnegut, Dorothy Parker, William Styron, Tennessee Williams and John Cheever. Yates's brand of realism was a direct influence on writers including Andre Dubus, Raymond Carver and Richard Ford.

For much of his life, Yates's work met almost universal critical acclaim, yet not one of his books sold over 12,000 copies in hardcover first edition. All of his novels were out of print in the years after his death, though his reputation has substantially increased posthumously and many of his novels have since been reissued in new editions. This current success can be largely traced to the influence of Stewart O'Nan's 1999 essay in the Boston Review, "The Lost World of Richard Yates: How the great writer of the Age of Anxiety disappeared from print".

With the revival of interest in Yates's life and work after his death, Blake Bailey published the first in-depth biography of Yates, A Tragic Honesty: The Life and Work of Richard Yates (2003). Film director Sam Mendes directed Revolutionary Road, a 2008 film based on the 1961 novel of the same name. The film was nominated for BAFTAs, Golden Globes, Academy Awards, and others. Kate Winslet thanked Yates for writing such a powerful novel and providing such a strong role for a woman while accepting a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her role in the film.

Short fiction
Yates was also an acclaimed author of short stories. Eleven Kinds of Loneliness, Yates' first collection, followed the publication of his first novel, Revolutionary Road, by a single year. It was compared favorably to Joyce's Dubliners (all but one of its stories take place in and around the boroughs of New York City rather than Joyce's Dublin) and eventually achieved a kind of cult status among fiction writers despite its relative obscurity. One later New York Times essay by Robert Towers praised Yates' "exposure of the small fiercely defended dignities and much vaster humiliations of characters who might have been picked almost at random from the fat telephone book of the Borough of Queens."

Yates' second collection, Liars in Love, appeared nearly 20 years later, in 1981, and was again met with a positive critical reception. Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, writing for the Times, called the stories "wonderfully crafted", and concluded that "every detail of this collection stays alive and fresh in one's memory."

Despite this, only one of Yates' short stories ever appeared in The New Yorker (after repeated rejections), and this was done posthumously. "The Canal" was published in the magazine nine years after the author's death, to celebrate the 2001 release of The Collected Stories of Richard Yates, a collection that was again met with great critical fanfare.

In popular culture
Films
 * In the movie Lonesome Jim (2005), the protagonist cites Yates as one of his favorite authors, adding that all Yates' books were out-of-print by the time the author died.
 * In Woody Allen's film Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), Lee (Barbara Hershey) thanks Elliott (Michael Caine) for lending her The Easter Parade, which she says was great.

Novels
 * Nick Hornby's 2005 novel A Long Way Down features several suicidal characters; one of them carries a copy of Revolutionary Road so that it may be discovered on his corpse.
 * Tao Lin's 2010 novel is titled Richard Yates.
 * Adelle Waldman's 2013 novel The Love Affairs of Nathaniel P. was influenced by Revolutionary Road.

Other
 * Singer Tanita Tikaram's 1992 album title Eleven Kinds of Loneliness was borrowed from Yates's 1962 collection of short stories.
 * The character of Elaine Benes on Seinfeld was loosely based on his daughter Monica, who had been the girlfriend and later friend of co-creator Larry David. David's first meeting with the writer was the basis for "The Jacket" episode of Seinfeld's second season, in which Jerry Seinfeld and George meet Elaine's curmudgeonly novelist father, portrayed by Lawrence Tierney. The suede jacket incident depicted in that episode really did happen.

Filmography

 * Lie Down in Darkness (unproduced screenplay) (1962)
 * The Bridge at Remagen (screenplay) (1969)
 * Revolutionary Road (posthumous adaptation of Yates's novel) (2008)

title: Richard Yates (novelist)


text:
Paula Newby-Fraser

Paula Newby-Fraser (born 2 June 1962 in Harare) is an Ironman triathlete and duathlete.

Biography
Newby-Fraser was born in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and raised in South Africa, where she was a nationally ranked swimmer as a child. She won the Ironman World Championship in Hawaii 8 times: 1986, 1988–1989, 1991–1994, and 1996. Because of her unprecedented winning streak, she is also referred to as "The Queen of Kona".

Over 12 years, she won 21 of 26 Ironman races she entered around the globe, and dozens of shorter races as well.

Newby-Fraser won 24 Ironman races overall between 1986 and 2002. In the 1990s, she also competed in long distance duathlons like the PowerMan Zofingen in Switzerland and the 1990 World Duathon Championships in Palm Springs, USA. She defeated Liz Downing.

Among numerous other awards, the United States Sports Academy named her as one of the top five professional women athletes of the last 25 years (1972–1997). Paula Newby-Fraser held the Ironman Women's world record of 8:50:28, until 2008-07-13, when Yvonne van Vlerken of the Netherlands posted a time of 8:45:48. Newby-Fraser is regarded as an icon for the Ironman distance in triathlon.

In 1991, Newby-Fraser appeared with the cycling master John Howard, in John Howard's Lessons In Cycling video produced by New & Unique Videos of San Diego, California. Newby-Fraser demonstrated the cycling technique called "The Hot Stop".

Later in her career, Newby-Fraser began running ultramarathons, which are running races of 50 km or more. At the Ridgecrest High Desert 50k in April 1997, she won with a new course record of 4 hours and 6 minutes.

title: Paula Newby-Fraser


text:
Talk:G. Spencer-Brown

Untitled
Philip Meguire, 22.10.05: I cleaned up this entry as part of my rewrite of Laws of Form, adding some links that may address some of the questions and concerns raised below. George Spencer-Brown is an amateur philosopher and mathematician, who has made embarrassing claims in print. Some who have interacted with him tell me that his prickly character leaves something to be desired. Charles Peirce anticipated much of what is valid in Laws of Form, but these writings of Peirce's have also been largely ignored by the intellectual establishment. Nevertheless, it remains the case that LoF shows a way of making elementary logic and Boolean algebra a lot easier to learn than they are at present.

G. or George
Why isn't this at George Spencer-Brown? Or is he more commonly known as "G"? RickK 22:56, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

He is more commonly known as G. and that is his pen-name. SamuelWantman

G. Spencer-Brown is primarily know for Laws of Form, which he published under the name G. and not George. This is similar to wikipedia entries for G. Gordon Liddy, H. Rap Brown, J. Edgar Hoover, etc... If you feel this is incorrect, please discuss your reasons before moving the page again. Thank --Samuel Wantman 10:18, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

 * His surname is Spencer-Brown and his personal name is George. You cite cases of people who go by a second personal name.  Is there a reliable source that says that he commonly goes by the personal name "G."?  If not, then move to George Spencer-Brown Zarboublian (talk) 05:22, 24 September 2010 (UTC)

VfD?
I'm half-tempted to nominate this at WP:VFD. He published one (possibly crank) book, and came up with a wrong proof of the four color theorem. He doesn't seem notable to me. Dbenbenn 07:23, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Does that mean that someone who comes accross his name or book shouldn't know anything about him? Why?  --Samuel Wantman 10:01, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * That, and even if his laws of form are crank, they are one of the building blocks for one of the more influential sociological theories of the last decades. -- till we ☼ ☽ | Talk 10:35, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Looks like a clearcut "kook" to me, except for his having held positions at reputable universities. Do we have some references to verify those? -- Danny Yee 04:19, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I believe everything in this article is accurate. Check out the Laws of form website.  He had a bit of a following in the 70's which continues still.  I don't see any reason to delete.  There is no reason why the "less notable" cannot have articles about them.  He may be eccentric, but he is not a "kook". -- Samuel Wantman 10:29, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * No, there is no reason to delete this article (nor is there any reason to delete L. Ron Hubbard). Howver, it is extaordinarily POV (not to say hagiographical nonsense). A large number of mathemticians and logicans consider him a crank. This is not POV. It is a fact thta a large number of mathemtaicians an logicians conisdre hima crank. I will get the sources and try to balance out this matter.--Lacatosias 07:52, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

JA: Coming up with an incorrect proof of a difficult theorem does not qualify one as a crank or a kook in mathematics, else few would scape a whipping. The use of ad hominem arguments instead of proofs might, however, count as an early symptom. Jon Awbrey 14:06, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

 * It is not fair to accuse me of ad hominem, since I was not talking about Spencer Brown but rather the lack of balance in the article. Here is one example of contrary opinion to that which is exemplified in the article(the only thing I can find on short notice but I will certainly work on finding more):

I wrote Martin Gardner, he replied 30-Nov-79: "I once planned a column about Spencer-Brown, but Donald Knuth talked me out of it on the grounds that it would give valuable publicity to a charlatan! But I have some paragraphs about Brown and his flawed four-color proof, and his Laws of Form, coming up in my Feb column. Conway once described the book as beautifully written but "content free." I describe it as a "construction of the propositional calculus in eccentric notation." But it has a big cult following, and even a periodical devoted to it."

--Lacatosias 15:31, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Look, here's a quotation from the Laws of Form web site itself:

 *  The work is powerful and has established a passionate following as well as harsh critics.

 * All I'm asking is why isn't this "harsh criticism" represneted in the article as well. Leaving it out gives an extremely misleading impression that there is a universal consensus about the value of LOF. It's just that simple.--Lacatosias 15:42, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

JA: I was commenting on the entire collection of comments on this page. The use of terms like crank and kook is ad hom, no matter how you look at it, just as an appeal to Gardner's appeal to Knuth is an appeal to authority, neither of which contribute to mathematical argument proper. Any acquaintance with the history of science tells us that people with all sorts of kooky ideas can now and then have a doozy of a good one, witness Descartes and Newton, to mention just a couple. Jon Awbrey 15:48, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Fine, leaving out appeal to authority and "crank", I'm appealing to Wikipedia policy of NPOV. You still have not responded to the following fundamental point:

 *  The work is powerful and has established a passionate following as well as harsh critics.

 * All I'm asking is why isn't this "harsh criticism" represneted in the article as well. Leaving it out gives an extremely misleading impression that there is a universal consensus about the value of LOF. It's just that simple.--Lacatosias 15:42, 2 April 2006 (UTC)--Lacatosias 16:03, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

JA: As I understand it, the procedure is to add whatever you see fit, so long as you source it with a reliable source. I am personally less interested in opinion in a matter like this, but maybe some people are. Jon Awbrey 16:30, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

James Keys
He also wrote poems (23 Degrees of Paradise) and a (to my mind rather annoying) half-poem/half-prose piece about his views on the sexes called Only two can play at this game, both under the name James Keys. And there is also a document floating around (possibly never formally published? I'm not sure) in which several people (some of them, I believe, connected to Co-Evolution Quarterly, now Whole Earth Review) spent a few days with him in a Q&A about some of his ideas that sit weirdly at the boundaries between math and mysticism. I've seen it, but I don't have a copy any more. I believe that somewhere in there, though, is one lovely quote: "A mystic is not someone to whom everything is mysterious; a mystic is someone to whom everything is perfectly clear." Anyway, I'm not particularly interested in putting in time on this one, but this may provide some useful leads for those who are.

In any event, I think Laws of Form has enough of a cult status to merit an article on him even if he is a bit of a crackpot. -- Jmabel | Talk 05:51, 16 April 2006 (UTC) He is a patron of the Telesio-Galilei Institute, where he is described as being a genius. However, the TGI is a notorious collection of kooks. The fact that many of its members hold, or have held, academic posts and are holders of scientific qualifications means nothing. One can spot a crackpot by how he behaves (oh, and by the lack of independently verifiable evidence). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.170.138.68 (talk) 08:23, 8 January 2011 (UTC)

Niklas Luhmann
Niklas Luhmann was a vastly prestigious Professor of Sociology in Germany - died 1998 - and has dozens of books in prints and about 20 translated into English - he cites GSB very frequently and respectfully, and regarded GSB's work as foundational in his own. This was my stimulus for looking up Spencer Bown, and I think it is vital that Wikipedia has a listing, indeed probably a more detailed listing than this one.

But the section: "...he studied at Trinity College Cambridge, earning Honours in Philosophy (1950) and Psychology (1951), and where he met Bertrand Russell. From 1952 to 1958, he taught philosophy at Christ Church College, Oxford, earning M.A. degrees in 1954 from both Oxford and Cambridge" must be a bit confused.

The MA is the only undergraduate degree from Oxford and Cambridge, but (I think this is correct) graduates initially receive a BA, which can then be automatically upgraded to MA after 3 years on payment of a small fee. The following is a guess - and I don't know where to check the facts. Probably GSB received an BA from Cambridge in 1951 (the 'tripos' degree having two parts, after 2 years and after 3 years, each awarded a separate title - in this case the Philosophy and Psychology names). This BA Cantab may have been automatically upgraded to MA after 3 years - in 1954. The Oxford MA of the same year was probably honorary (there was no time to complete a further course of study) - I would guess - since Oxford staff are/ were awarded an Oxford MA for the rather obscure reason that other universities degrees are not recognized for certain internal procedural purposes (membership of some committees, voting in certain elections etc). Therefore, the Oxford MA was probably not an extra degree in its own right, but just a matter of formality.

Comment: It is unusual, but GSB did receive 2 degrees, one from Cambridge and the other from Oxford. Having obtained his Phil-Psych degree from Cambridge, he found he enjoyed the university life and wanted to prolong it as much as he could. One way of doing this was a PGCE which he took. Oxford was the only place at the time he could explore his then interest in Psychical Research, hence his enrollment on a second degree course. He later joined the faculty there, as per the biog info. Leon Conrad - London, UK - --5.80.66.95 (talk) 12:15, 13 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Oxford MA will have been by incorporation. But "earning" is too strong, "taking" is better. Zarboublian (talk) 05:16, 24 September 2010 (UTC)

I don't think, that Spencer-Brown is a "charlatan". That Knuth called him so, says more about Knuth's conservatism than it says about Spencer-Brown. The Laws of Form are not a trivial re-iteration of two-valued logic. The key figure in the book is the concept of re-entry. It introduces a third value, called the imaginary state, which is closely related to the imaginary unit in complex number theory.

For Niklas Luhmann the problem is, how an operationally closed system can construct the notion of an environment. The answer to this is, that the system is in an imaginary state. It can switch autonomously between the marked state an the unmarked state. A computer cannot switch between 1 and 0 autonomously unless it is out of order. A sense processing system can switch the distinction it uses an is not bounded to a two-valued calculus. This is a great advantage, but nevertheless humans are often characterized as defect computers (eg. "errare humanum est").

Luhmann identifies two such sense processing system, that is the human consciousness and the human communication. The autonomy of the system which results from the oscillator function is compensated by the memory function. Oscillator and memory function can be derived from the re-entry, as Spencer-Brown shows. The memory function enforces structural consistency in the system an reduces the possibilities of the oscillator function. This sense processing reduces the complexity in the system an improves the "Anschlussfähigkeit" (connectivity) of further operations. --FrankRw1 (talk) 20:59, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

horse feathers
G S-Brown is not a controversial figure. His writings do not merit controversy. Boolean (or propositional logic) is a Complete system; we have no open questions about it, calculations are made in a straight-forward way, they are guaranteed to terminate, etc.

Brown reintroduced a dead subject using a notation he had picked up from switching engineers. Where he does try to be original, he withdraws into the most abject and obtuse hand-waving, making no sense whatsoever.

There is no theorem due to GS Brown. At all. Anywhere.

Betrand Russell was ninety FIVE when he supposedly endorsed Brown's book. Nuff said. CeilingCrash 17:55, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Would it be correct to infer that your implication is that Russell was senile, and therefore Spencer-Brown was able to put one over on him? Think you need to go back and read Russell's autobiography (which, by the way, was written during his ninth decade).

 * As for originality, you are correct. S-B said nothing new in the early chapters of LOF, he "merely" re-derived Boolean algebra from first principles.  But by your logic, Russell himself should be disregarded on the same grounds, I believe.

 * On the other hand, I agree with you that his attempt to bring self-reference explicitly into his system, was disappointing. It is (to me) clearly something that needs doing, but no one has yet succeeded in doing it. — SWWrightTalk 20:13, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

I think it's clear where S-Brown claims to be talking about self-referential (-negating and affirming), he is really discussing the vibrating flip-flops from electrical circuitry.

I believe Godel is the first to truly break thru to self-referential statements such as G, where the godel-numbering allows theorems to talk about other theorems and finally about THIS theorem ... CeilingCrash208.49.146.130 18:54, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Certainly that is so. Spencer-Brown was employed for awhile as an electrical engineer, if I recall.  I believe he recounted some embarrassment in using certain techniques (that preceded the work done in LOF) when doing sequential circuit design, because he could not justify those techniques mathematically; they were empirical.  But are you asserting that, since he was talking about flipflops instead of something unique and previously unknown, that his work is not valid?

 * Goedel's work (sorry about the "e", my keyboard does not have an umlauted "o") is definitely groundbreaking. But I am ultimately not satisfied with it, for this reason: Goedel introduced self-reference in an indirect way, by switching back and forth between interpretations of strings as natural numbers and as propositions.  In one sense, this is very nice, because the propositions can thus be generated automatically and mindlessly ("formally" in the strict sense of that word).  But it would be better, to my way of thinking, to have self-reference explicitly and formally introduced (that is, self-referential forms are included in the calculus directly, rather than by switching to a different interpretation of some formulae in the calculus).  This is what Spencer-Brown attempted.  That he was not successful, is not surprising; nor has anyone else, to my knowledge, that has attempted the feat. — SWWrightTalk 21:16, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

Life
Is a reliable source for his life? It appears to be a website run by someone else. Zarboublian (talk) 05:28, 24 September 2010 (UTC)
 * He´s still alive. He could edit (e.g. by a friend) this article. --(brookelynn77@ymail.com)--91.4.206.119 (talk) 16:53, 2 May 2011 (UTC)

Family Links
This Wikipedia article on GSB should be cross-linked to the Wikipedia article on his father, John Brown (Contract Bridge expert and author): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(bridge) Leon Conrad - London, UK --5.80.65.5 (talk) 09:30, 4 October 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:G. Spencer-Brown


text:
Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)

Blue Danube was the first operational British nuclear weapon. It also went by a variety of other names, including Smallboy, the Mk.1 Atom Bomb, Special Bomb and OR.1001, a reference to the Operational Requirement it was built to fill.

The RAF V bomber force was initially meant to use Blue Danube as their primary armament at a time when the first hydrogen bomb had not been detonated, and the British military planners still believed that an atomic war could be fought and won using atomic bombs of similar yield to the Hiroshima bomb. For that reason the stockpile planned was for up to 800 bombs with yields of 10-12 kilotons. V-bomber bomb bays were sized to carry Blue Danube, the smallest-size nuclear bomb that was possible to be designed given the technology of the day (1947) when their plans were formulated.

Design
Initial designs for the Blue Danube warhead were based on research derived from Hurricane, the first British fission device (which was neither designed nor employed as a weapon), tested in 1952. The actual Blue Danube warhead was proof-tested during Operation Buffalo in Autumn of 1956 at the Marcoo (surface) and Kite (air-drop) nuclear trials at Maralinga, Australia, by a team of Australian, British and Canadian scientists.

During the Kite test on 11 October 1956, a Vickers Valiant of No. 49 Squadron RAF piloted by Squadron Leader Ted Flavell became the first British aircraft to drop a live atomic bomb.

Blue Danube added a ballistically shaped casing to the existing Hurricane physics package, with four flip-out fins to ensure a stable ballistic trajectory from the planned release height of 50,000 ft. It initially used a plutonium core, but all service versions were modified to use a composite plutonium/uranium-235 (U-235) core, and a version was also tested with a uranium-only core. The service chiefs insisted on a yield of between 10-12 kt for two reasons: firstly, to minimise usage of scarce and expensive fissile material; and secondly, to minimise the risk of predetonation, a phenomenon then little understood, and the primary reason for using a composite core of concentric shells of plutonium and U-235. Although there were many plans for versions with higher yields, some up to 40 kt, none were developed, largely because of the scarcity of fissile materials, and there is no evidence that any were seriously contemplated.

Deployment
The first Blue Danube was delivered to stockpile at RAF Wittering in November 1953 although there were no aircraft equipped to carry it until the following year. No. 1321 Flight RAF was established at RAF Wittering in April 1954 as a Vickers Valiant unit to integrate the Blue Danube nuclear weapon into RAF service. The Short Sperrin was also able to carry the Blue Danube and had been ordered as a fall-back option, in case the V-bomber projects proved unsuccessful.

Declassified archives show that 58 Blue Danubes were produced before production shifted in 1958 to the smaller and more capable Red Beard weapon, which could accept the Blue Danube fissile core and also could be carried by much smaller aircraft. It seems unlikely that all 58 Blue Danube weapons were operational at any given time. Blue Danube was retired in 1962.

Bomb storage facilities for the weapon were built at RAF Barnham in Suffolk and RAF Faldingworth in Lincolnshire. These sites were built specifically to store bomb components in small buildings called 'hutches' with the high explosive elements of the weapons stored in dedicated storage areas. The storage facilities were probably closed in 1963 and put up for sale in 1966, the Barnham site becoming an industrial estate. The site at Barnham is a scheduled monument.

Problems
Major deficiencies with Blue Danube included the use of unreliable lead-acid accumulators to supply power to the firing circuits and radar altimeters. Later weapons used the more reliable ram-air turbine-generators or thermal batteries. Blue Danube was not engineered as a weapon equipped to withstand the rigours of service life; it was a scientific experiment on a gigantic scale, which needed to be re-engineered to meet service requirements, resulting in Red Beard. The same could be said of the first U.S. atomic bomb, Fat Man, which was quickly re-engineered after World War II.

Legacy
Parts of a Blue Danube could be viewed by the public at old Sellafield Visitors Centre in Cumbria, England. This centre closed in 2008. A replica Blue Danube bomb is displayed in the Gorse Industrial Estate (the former site of the RAF Barnham facilities) in Suffolk.

title: Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)