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Mamenchisaurus

Mamenchisaurus (, Dinosauria Translation and Pronunciation Guide M or spelling pronunciation ) is a genus of sauropod dinosaur known for their remarkably long necks which made up nearly half the total body length. Numerous species have been assigned to the genus; however, the validity of these assignments has been questioned. Fossils have been found in the Sichuan Basin and Yunnan Province in China. Several species from the Upper Shaximiao Formation, whose geologic age is uncertain, have been described. However, evidence suggests this formation to be no earlier than the Oxfordian stage of the Late Jurassic. M. sinocanadorum dates to the Oxfordian stage (158.7 to 161.2 mya), and M. anyuensis to the Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous (around 114.4 mya). Most species were medium-large to large sauropods, measuring roughly 15 to 26 m in length—possibly up to 35 m, based on two undescribed vertebrae.

History and species
Mamenchisaurus was first discovered in 1952 on the construction site of the Yitang Highway in Sichuan Province of China. The fossil site belonged to the Upper Shaximiao Formation, dating to at least the Late Jurassic. The partial skeleton fossil was later studied and named Mamenchisaurus constructus in 1954 by the renowned Chinese paleontologist Professor C. C. Young.

The type specimen (IVPP V. 790) was fragmentary, disordered, and not excavated in a technical way. Material included five dorsal vertebrae, 30 caudal vertebrae, rib fragments, dorsal neural spines, and chevrons. Fourteen neck vertebrae were preserved, but none were complete. Young noted that some neck vertebrae might have been missing. Limb material included; two pieces of a femur, a complete tibia, fibula, astragalus, metatarsals, phalanges, and claws. The skull, forelimbs, and pelvic girdle were missing.

Mamenchisaurus means 'Mamenchi lizard', from the Chinese Pinyin mǎ (马 'horse') and mén (门 'gate'), while chi is an alternative transliteration of xī (溪 'stream' or 'brook'), combined with the suffix -saurus (from Greek sauros meaning 'lizard'). The intention was to name the genus after the place where its fossil was first found. However, due to an accentual mix-up by Young, the location name Mǎmíngxī (马鸣溪 'horse-neighing brook') was mistaken as Mǎménxī (马门溪 'horse-gate brook'). The fact that the first Mamenchisaurus fossil was found due to construction work led to Young's naming the type species as Mamenchisaurus constructus.

In 1958, Young described additional sauropod remains collected from Gansu Province. The remains consisted of various partial specimens (IVPP V. 945, V. 946, V. 947, V. 948) most of which were assigned to M. constructus. In 1972, one of these specimens was reassigned to M. hochuanensis.

Mamenchisaurus hochuanensis
In 1972, Young and Xijin Zhao described a second species, Mamenchisaurus hochuanensis. The fossils were found near a village in Hechuan, north of Chongqing (originally part of the Sichuan Province), China; 200 m above the Fu River on the slope of a mountain. The M. hochuanensis fossil site also belonged to the Upper Shaximiao Formation, very close to the M. constructus type specimen's location, dating to at least the Late Jurassic. Locals first discovered the remains sometime before the Chinese Revolution. However, the remains were ultimately abandoned and left to weather in situ. Excavation did not begin on the site until 1957.

The holotype specimen (CCG V 20401) consisted of an almost complete and articulated vertebral column; including 19 elongated cervical vertebrae, which were almost entirely preserved, 12 dorsal vertebrae, four sacral vertebrae, and 35 caudal vertebrae with only the last several missing. Also missing from the skeleton was the majority of the forelimbs and skull. When M. hochuanensis was first described, it was the largest sauropod known from China.

In 1958, Young described a mamenchisaur specimen (IVPP V. 946) from the Haishiwan region of Yongdeng, Gansu Province. This specimen was initially assigned to M. constructus. However, in 1972 it was reassigned to M. hochuanensis as a paratype. This specimen was slightly smaller than the holotype and consisted of less material overall. However, it contained some anatomical details missing in the type specimen.

In 2001, another specimen (ZDM0126) was described and referred to M. hochuanensis. It was found in 1995 at a construction site in Huidong New District, Zigong City, Sichuan Province. This specimen was nearly complete and mostly articulated, preserving features missing from the holotype, such as the skull, pectoral girdle and forelimb material. However, a 2020 phylogenetic analysis by Moore and colleagues cast doubt on the referral of this specimen to M. hochuanensis.

Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum
In August 1987, a cervical rib was seen projecting out of a cliff by Z-M. Dong on an expedition by the China-Canada Dinosaur Project. The fossil site was located in the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang; from the upper part of the Shishugou Formation, making it one of the few mamenchisaurs known from outside the Sichuan basin; the locality is thought to date to around 162.2 million years ago. The location of the quarry the specimen was found in was originally reported as being 22 km north of an abandoned town, Jiangjunmiao. However, the original authors reported incorrect coordinates for the quarry that were later corrected by a subsequent study. The coarse and weak sandstone the specimen was preserved in, alongside the large and fragile nature of the bones, impeded excavation, leading to only the most anterior vertebrae being recovered despite more neck material being present. The specimen was named as a new species of Mamenchisaurus, coined M. sinocanadorum, in 1993 by Dale Russell and Zhong Zheng. The specific name refers to the China-Canada Dinosaur Project.

Overall, the specimen, IVPP V10603, consists of a complete left, a right , a , a right , a possible , a right , portions of the second through fourth , and an intact left. The neural arches of the vertebrae were well fused to the centra suggesting that the animal was mature. The authors noted that the teeth are fully erupted but unworn, possibly suggesting the animal starved. Due to the limited amount of bone at the cliff base, the authors proposed that the cervical vertebrae broke away before full decomposition. The head and part of the neck then drifted downstream until they came to rest in shallow water on a point bar and eventually buried. In 2023, M. sinocanadorum was redescribed by Andrew Moore and colleagues. The authors could not locate the vomer, right pterygoid, the possible ectopterygoid, the right quadrate, and the right dentary for restudy. A phylogenetic analysis performed by the authors found it to be outside the clade of other Mamenchisaurus species, closely allied to Xinjiangtitan, but refrained from taxonomic action until the type species M. constructus received re-evaluation.

Two large cervical vertebrae found from the same formation as M. sinocanadorum were informally referred to the species by Gregory S. Paul in 2019 based on their large sizes and origin. However, these vertebrae have yet to be formally described. Paul has suggested these may represent one of the largest dinosaurs known. Moore and colleagues could not support the referral of these vertebrae to M. sinocanadorum in their redescription of the species because the vertebrae lack anatomical overlap with the known material of the type specimen, and so cannot be compared for diagnosis. They also noted an undescribed specimen on display at the China University of the Geosciences in Beijing labelled as belonging to the species which has not been evaluated firsthand or mentioned in the scientific literature. Accordingly, they consider the referral to the species premature.

Mamenchisaurus anyuensis
M. anyuensis was described in 1996 by Xinlu He and colleagues. The remains were discovered in 1987 from two locations near the town of Longchiaoxiang in the Sichuan Basin. At one quarry, at least five to six individuals were found. At a second quarry, four individuals were found. One of these became the holotype, AL001, representing two-thirds of an articulated skeleton. Other specimens were also reported, AL002, AL003, and AL101-106, which provide more skeletal information. The species name references Anyue County where it was discovered. M. anyuensis is known from both the top of the Suining Formation and the bottom of the Penglaizhen Formation. Uranium–lead dating places M. anyuensis in the Suining Formation at 114.4 Ma in age; as this would make it roughly 30 million years younger than the other Mamenchisaurus species, it is unlikely that M. anyuensis is actually a member of the genus.

The holotype specimen preserved eight posterior cervical vertebrae, twelve dorsal vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae, several caudal vertebrae, and a complete pelvis. Another specimen (AL102) preserved five articulated cervical vertebrae from the middle of the neck. Except for the digit bones, the forelimb is completely known and represented by multiple individuals.

Mamenchisaurus youngi
Also described in 1996 was Mamenchisaurus youngi from the Upper Shaximiao Formation. A local quarrying stone near a village in Zigong, Sichuan Province, found the remains in 1987. The species was named in honour of C. C. Young.

The holotype specimen (ZDM 0083) was very complete and mostly articulated, preserving all the vertebrae from the head down to the 8th tail vertebra. Also preserved were the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and material from all four limbs. This specimen also preserved a nearly complete skull.

Mamenchisaurus jingyanensis
M. jingyanensis was described in 1998 by Yihong Zhang, Kui Li, and Qinghua Zeng. The type specimen (CV00734) was located 200 m away from the administrative headquarters of the town of Meiwang, Jingyan county. Another specimen (JV002) was found in the village of Sanjiang approximately 10 km from Meiwang and became the paratype. A third specimen (CV00219) found near the village of Dujia, about 10 kilometers from Sanjiang. The fossils were located in the Sichuan basin, from the Upper Shaximiao Formation. The species name refers to Jingyan County from which the majority of specimens were excavated.

The type specimen includes a partial scapula and complete coracoid, forelimb material, a complete ischium, a relatively complete skull, and a hyoid bone. The paratype specimen included three anterior cervical vertebrae, several weathered dorsal vertebrae, various caudal vertebrae including a nearly articulated column, relatively complete hind and forelimbs, and isolated teeth. The third specimen preserved a column of cervical vertebrae with articulated ribs, four fused sacral vertebrae, several caudal vertebrae, a complete scapulocoracoid, various limb bones, and isolated teeth.

Other Mamenchisaurus species and material
Other species of Mamenchisaurus have been named over the years. In some cases, species from other genera have been transferred to Mamenchisaurus, but there is disagreement with the referral's validity. Some of these species are based on fragmentary remains and have been considered undiagnostic. Others are considered as invalid or as nomina nuda.

In 1976, Hou, Chao and Chu named a new genus, Zigongosaurus fuxiensis. Known from at least four specimens from the Upper Shaximiao Formation. The type specimen (CV 02501 ) included skull material; maxilla, dentary, and basioccipital. Additional material includes dorsal vertebrae, pubis, and ischium. Since Zigongosaurus was described, other researchers have disagreed on whether the genus is valid. In 1983, Dong, Zhou and Zhang assigned some of the remains to the similarly named Omeisaurus fuxiensis, and the rest to Omeisaurus junghsiensis. Zhang and Chen assigned the remains to Mamenchisaurus as M. fuxiensis in 1996. Li and Cai considered it a nomen nudum in 1997. In 1999, Valérie Martin-Rolland considered Zigongosaurus a valid genus. Wang and colleagues considered it undiagnostic in 2019.

Another species, "Mamenchisaurus guangyuanensis", has not been formally described, making it a nomen nudum. It is known from the remains of several individuals, ranging from juvenile to adult, from the Upper Shaximiao Formation. The largest individuals were estimated to have a length of 16 m It was originally described by Zhang Suping in her 1981 thesis as "Omeisaurus guangyuanensis", but in 1997, Li and Cai listed it as a species of Mamenchisaurus. Like Mamenchisaurus, but unlike Omeisaurus, it shows bifurcated neural spines and procoelous caudal vertebrae. It was considered non-diagnostic by Wang and colleagues in 2019.

M. yunnanensis was described by Fang and colleagues in 2004, from the Anning Formation in the Sichuan Basin, Yunnan. The type specimen consisted of disarticulated forelimb, hindlimb, and pelvic material. Wang and colleagues questioned the assignment to Mamenchisaurus in 2019.

In 1988, He and colleagues considered Omeisaurus changshouensis to be closer to Mamenchisaurus based on features of the caudal vertebrae. In 2019, Tan and colleagues agreed with this assessment. In 1996, Zhang and Chen considered Omeisaurus changshouensis and Omeisaurus gongjianensis as referrable to Mamenchisaurus. However, in 2004, Upchurch considered O. changshouensis undiagnosable. In 1978, an incomplete sauropod humerus (NSM PV17656) found in a layer of the Early Cretaceous-aged Miyako Group of Japan was considered to probably belong to Mamenchisaurus. In 1991, it was referred to ?Mamenchisaurus sp. by Hasegawa and colleagues. However, the humerus was reassessed by Azuma & Tomida in 1998, and Barrett and colleagues in 2002. These authors could not find any distinguishing features that could place the humerus into a specific sauropod group. They regarded it as an indeterminate sauropod. The remains were given an informal name "Moshi-ryu"; "Moshi" being the local name for the location it was discovered, and "ryu" being Japanese for dragon —also referred to as "Moshisaurus".

Description
There is uncertainty that all the species assigned to Mamenchisaurus should belong to the genus. Some Mamenchisaurus species are almost completely known, and others are fragmentary. The species differ in overall size and specific features of the skull and skeleton but share typical sauropod traits, like quadrupedalism, large bodies, small heads, and long tails. The most distinctive feature of mamenchisaurids is their exceptionally long necks which approach half their total length. The type specimens of M. youngi and M. hochuanensis preserve complete necks, which consist of 18 and 19 vertebrae, respectively. Mamenchisaurus cervical vertebrae are elongated, lightly constructed and highly pneumatic. The neural spines on their posterior cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae are bifurcated. Their shoulders were somewhat higher than the hips.

The type species, M. constructus, is not particularly well preserved but has been estimated to be around 13 to 15 m in length with a mass of around 5 t. The neck of the type specimen was not completely preserved, but Young estimated the whole neck at 4.67 m.

The overall length of the M. hochuanensis type specimen is around 21 to 22 m with a neck 9.3 m long. Young and Zhao estimated the mass of M. hochuanensis at 45 t. However, later volumetric mass estimates are lower at 14 to 18.2 t. In 1972, Young and Chao described M. hochuanensis as having 19 cervical and 12 dorsal vertebrae. However, Paul Upchurch and colleagues suggested this vertebral count may be incorrect. The authors noted that the vertebra that is usually referred to as the second dorsal possessed a hyposphene, a feature not usually seen until the third or fourth dorsal in sauropods. They provisionally proposed that the actual vertebral count might be 18 cervicals and 13 dorsals in M. hochuanensis.

M. sinocanadorum is known from fragmentary remains, but these suggest that it was a large species. The cervical vertebrae are on average 1.19 times longer than those of M. hochuanensis; based on this, Russel and Zheng estimated the type specimen at 26 m in length. Taylor and Wedel estimated the neck around 12 m in length based on comparison to M. hochuanensis. However, the 2023 redescription gave a longer estimate between 14.4 m and 15.1 m based on comparison to Xinjiangtitan, though the authors stressed the level of uncertainty. The type specimen possessed the longest cervical rib of any described sauropod dinosaur, measuring 4.2 m. For comparison, a Sauroposeidon cervical rib measures 3.42 m. Based on CT imaging, Moore and colleagues estimated the cervical vertebrae of M. sinocandorum to be 69–77% air by volume, assuming complete removal of bone marrow. The mandible was 60.3 cm in length and had 19 teeth. In contrast to the more squared-off jaws of diplodocids, the front of the mandibles met at an oblique angle. Two as-yet-undescribed cervical vertebrae possibly suggest one of the largest dinosaurs known. Gregory S. Paul suggested that these might belong to M. sinocanadorum and estimated a length 35 m and possibly weighing 60 to 80 t. However, the referral of these vertebrae to M. sinocanadorum has been questioned.

M. anyuensis shares morphological similarities to M. hochuanensis. He and colleagues estimated the length of this species at 21 m. Paul estimated it longer at 25 m with a mass of 25 t.

M. youngi is one of the smaller species of Mamenchisaurus and known from relatively complete remains. The type specimen was around 16 m long with a 6.5 m neck. The mass of M. youngi was estimated at 7.87 t using volumetric techniques. The holotype specimen preserves a nearly complete skull. There were four teeth in the premaxilla, 18 in the maxilla, and 22 to 24 in the dentary. An unusual part of the skeleton is the wedge-shaped sacrum; this causes the sacrum and the base of the tail to pitch up relative to the rest of the vertebral column.

M. jingyanensis was estimated by Zhang and colleagues to be between 20 and 26 m in length. Paul estimated it at 20 m with a mass of 12 t. The skull was restored at 55 cm in length. There were four teeth in the premaxilla, 14–16 in the maxilla, and 17–19 in the dentary.

Mamenchisaurus have forked chevrons (or sled chevrons) starting around the middle of the tail, similar to those seen in diplodocids; these chevrons curve strongly backwards and add a forward projection. Paul has argued that these types of chevrons are adaptations linked to rearing behaviour. In a tripodal stance, the tail acts as a prop, and the forked chevrons would help distribute the weight evenly. Paul also notes that the pelvises of Mamenchisaurs are retroverted (tilted), which may have allowed slow walking whilst bipedal.

ZDM0126, a specimen possibly referable to M. hochuanensis, possessed four fused caudal vertebrae near the tip of the tail. These vertebrae have expanded neural arches and taller neural spines, possibly representing a tail club. A study by Lida Xing and colleagues performed a finite element analysis on the club. The authors concluded that the club would have a limited ability to perform as a defensive weapon but might have also functioned as a sensory organ. Other Chinese sauropods, Shunosaurus and Omeisaurus, are also known to have had tail clubs, but they differ in shape to that of ZDM0126.

The neck posture and feeding strategies of sauropod dinosaurs is a controversial topic. Andreas Christian and colleagues analysed the neck of M. youngi and found that when articulated in a neutral posture, the neck was almost straight, with a slight upward bend at the base and a slight downward bend towards the head. The base of the neck has comparatively high upward flexibility but limited downward flexibility. The region near the head had better downward flexibility and low upward flexibility. In the mid-region, downward flexibility was high, which led the authors to conclude that M. youngi frequently fed at low levels. Long overlapping cervical ribs may have limited flexibility. The authors also estimated the stress on the intervertebral joint cartilage. Their results suggest the neck was kept mostly straight, with the possible exception of the neck base and near the head.

A large ulna (GPIT SGP 2006/10) measuring less than 96 cm in length, referred to Mamenchisaurus sp. from the Shishugou Formation, was used in a bone histology analysis. By sectioning the bone and counting the growth rings, the age at death was estimated at 43 years.

Classification
Mamenchisaurus is sometimes referred to as a 'wastebasket taxon', with researchers questioning the number of species and fragmentary remains assigned to the genus. The genus is poorly defined with an increasingly confused taxonomy which makes understanding phylogenetic relationships difficult. Several analyses have failed to show Mamenchisaurus as monophyletic, suggesting the need to revise the genus. Additional research on the type species, M. constructus, is required to better understand the genus.

When M. constructus was first described, Young noted that the chevron bones indicated an affinity with Diplodocidae, but was uncertain to its exact position. In 1958, Young assigned Mamenchisaurus to the Titanosauridae. With the description of M. hochuanensis, Young and Zhao created the family Mamenchisauridae in 1972. In 1978, when no Mamenchisaurus skulls were known, Berman and McIntosh assigned the genus to Diplodocidae based on diplodocid-like vertebral features such as the forked chevrons. In 1990, McIntosh assigned Mamenchisaurus to a subfamily Mamenchisaurinae, which was placed inside Diplodocidae.

An analysis by Upchurch in 1995 found Mamenchisaurus in the family Euhelopodidae. Euhelopodidae, being named first, would take priority over Mamenchisauridae. Several later analyses found Euhelopus to be a more distantly related macronarian, with Mamenchisaurus in Mamenchisauridae just outside of Neosauropoda.

Analyses by Sekiya in 2011 and Moore and colleagues in 2020 treated M. constructus, M. hochuanensis, ZDM 0126 (M. hochuanensis referred), M. sinocandadorum, and M. youngi separately. Moore and colleagues analyses found the position of M. constructus to be unstable, probably due to the limited character information in its description. Depending on the dataset used, Euhelopus would either be within Macronaria, as other studies have found or outside Neosauropoda in a more traditional position, grouped with other Mamenchisaurus-like taxa. The latter scenario would make mamenchisaurids members of Euhelopodidae. The analyses of Sekiya (2011) and Moore and colleagues (2020) did not recover ZDM 0126 as a sister taxon to the holotype of M. hochuanensis, questioning its referral to the species.

The cladogram below shows a possible phylogenetic position of the genus within Sauropoda, from Allain and Aquesbi, 2008:

Below, two phylogenetic trees show the internal relationships of Euhelopodidae/Mamenchisauridae in the two analyses Moore and colleagues deemed most favorable, the implied-weights and Bayesian analyses of the Gonzàlez Riga dataset.

Topology A: Implied-weights analysis, Gonzàlez Riga dataset Topology B: Time-calibrated Bayesian analysis, Gonzàlez Riga dataset

The 2023 redescription of M. sinocanadorum found a consistent sister taxon relationship between it and Xinjiangtitan, with Hudiesaurus and referred material of M. hochuanensis (ZDM 0126) also found to be consistent relatives.

Paleochronology
Mamenchisaurus was originally thought to have ranged from the Middle to Late Jurassic. However, there is not reliable dating for the Upper Shaximiao Formation, where many of the Mamenchisaurus species are found.

A study published in 2018 used uranium–lead dating on the underlying Omeisaurus bearing beds of the Lower Shaximiao Formation, previously thought to belong to the Middle Jurassic. However, the radiometric dating found the Lower Shaximiao Formation dated to the Late Jurassic, Oxfordian Stage, around 159 million years ago (mya). This finding suggests a younger age for the overlying Mamenchisaurus bearing rocks of the Upper Shaximiao; implying them to be no older than the Oxfordian.

M. sinocanadorum was found from the Middle to Upper Shishugou Formation. Radiometric dating suggests this formation dated to the Oxfordian, ranging from 158.7 to 161.2 mya. M. anyuensis, was found in the Suining Formation, thought initially to be Middle to Late Jurassic. A 2019 study found these rocks belonged to the Early Cretaceous, Aptian Stage, with an average age of around 114.4 mya. This indicates that mamenchisaurids might have existed around 30 million years longer than previously thought.

title: Mamenchisaurus


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Last Married Couple in America

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled The Last Married Couple in America.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to keep the article.

Some IP tagged this article with a VfD tag, but hasn't listed it here. Originally it was just a data dump of the cast/crew credits. I have replaced that with a stub (short--I don't think I saw the movie, and IMDB and rottentomatos.com don't have much info). I think it should be kept, but I don't believe I have the right to arbitrarily remove the VfD tag, so I'm listing it here. Niteowlneils 17:44, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Keep and expand.  Why would this have been listed for deletion in the first place, I wonder? - Lucky 6.9 17:45, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Check the history--the original entry was capital U ugly. Niteowlneils 18:03, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Ugh. Kiddy-Wiki.  I see what you mean. - Lucky 6.9 18:58, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Good Lord. Grudingly keep. Who knows? The fate of Planet Earth may hang in the balance if an article about some B comedy was deleted... Alcarillo 17:52, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - disk space is cheap. Writing a stub to replace a poor or nonsense article often consumes less Wikipedian time than VfDing it.  Good job, do it early and often. - TB 18:24, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree. Ever since I added New Pages patrol to the mix, I've had many more "opportunities" to do just that. :/ Niteowlneils 01:52, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Stublike but encyclopedic, will expand as soon as anyone is interested enough to add a synopsis and see whether any of the other credits are otherwise notable. I've copied the removed text to the talk page, it may be useful to later editors, they may not find it in the history and in any case it's a courtesy. Andrewa 20:41, 12 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I didn't know that was common practice. Niteowlneils 01:52, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: It's not as common as it once was! It used to be very staunchly defended once. We've got friendlier and less legalistic by my observation, and I think that's good. But at least we should be aware of when removed text may be useful later, and IMO when in doubt it's good to put it in. Andrewa 09:02, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as it has real info if slightly esoteric Burgundavia 06:23, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, it's been apropriately stubbified. --Starx 13:29, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and improve with plot bits. JFW | T@lk  20:35, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * You know you're not famous anymore when your linked name comes up in red. Too bad, Richard Benjamin. And we so loved ye once, lad. Keep, for old times sake. Denni 06:11, 2004 May 18 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Hunts Point, Bronx

Hunts Point is a neighborhood located on a peninsula in the South Bronx of New York City. It is the location of one of the largest food distribution facilities in the world, the Hunts Point Cooperative Market. Its boundaries are the Bruckner Expressway to the west and north, the Bronx River to the east, and the East River to the south. Hunts Point Avenue is the primary street through Hunts Point.

The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community District 2, and its ZIP Code is 10474. The neighborhood is served by the New York City Police Department's 41st Precinct. NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P.S.A. 7 at 737 Melrose Avenue located in the Melrose section of the Bronx.

European settlement

Hunts Point was populated by the Wecquaesgeek, a Munsee-speaking band of Wappinger people, until English settlers first arrived in 1663. At this time, Edward Jessup and John Richardson arrived on the peninsula and purchased the lands from the Wecquaesgeek. After Jessup died, his widow, Elizabeth, entrusted the land to Thomas Hunt Jr., her son in-law for whom the area is named.

In the years between the Hunts' inheritance and 1850, several other wealthy landowning families occupied the peninsula. Legend has it that George Fox (1624–1691), founder of the Society of Friends (commonly known as Quakers), preached in the area in 1672. William H. Fox, a descendant of the Quaker leader, and his wife Charlotte Leggett, owned much of the land that is now Hunts Point.

As time passed and more New Yorkers became aware of Hunts Point, more City dwellers flocked to the area between 1850 and 1900. Later, the property wound up in the hands of Fox's and Leggett's son-in-law, H. D. Tiffany, a member of the family that owned the famous jewelry and decorative arts store Tiffany & Co. now on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan. Fox, Tiffany and Leggett Streets derive their names from these former landowners. In 1909, the Fox mansion was demolished.

Industry

Hunts Point's status as a home and vacation spot to the city's elite came to an abrupt end in the period following World War I. At this time, the IRT Pelham Line was built along Southern Boulevard. Apartment buildings replaced mansions, streets replaced meadows and Hunts Point became a virtual melting pot for the City's masses.

Aside from being a period of residential growth for Hunts Point, the 20th century was also a time of industrial expansion for the peninsula. As more people moved to the area, the city's business owners began to realize the advantages of locating to Hunts Point. Among these advantages were the convenient access to the Tri-State region, the existing rail lines running through the Hunts Point area and the abundance of space available for the development of industrial and commercial activity.

This discovery led to an influx of businesses to the area. As the momentum of incoming businesses increased, the reputation of Hunts Point grew accordingly among business circles. With the openings of the New York City Produce market in 1967 and Hunts Point Meat Market in 1974, and culminating with the designation of Hunts Point as an In-Place-Industrial Park in 1980, Hunts Point has grown into a successful economic zone. The Hunts Point Industrial Park hosts over 800 businesses providing an array of products and services to points throughout the world.

The second half of the 20th century, however, proved a difficult time for the district's residential community. Characterized by frequent arson and mass abandonment from the 1960s through the 1990s, this period marked a low point in the area's history. Living conditions became so difficult that almost 60,000 residents, approximately two-thirds of the population in Bronx Community District 2, left the neighborhood during the 1970s. The first full-service post office did not open in the neighborhood until 2001.

Demographics
The Hunts Point peninsula has a population of 8,684. It is a low-income residential neighborhood largely made up of Puerto Ricans, with smaller numbers of African Americans, Dominicans, Mexicans, and other Latin Americans. Hunts Point has one of the highest concentrations of Hispanics in all of New York City. Almost half of the population lives below the federal poverty line.

Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Hunts Point and Longwood was 27,204, an increase of 2,062 (8.2%) from the 25,142 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 1,124 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 24.2 PD/acre.

The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 1.3% (342) White, 22.2% (6,049) African American, 0.2% (65) Native American, 0.7% (187) Asian, 0.0% (1) Pacific Islander, 0.2% (63) from other races, and 0.7% (192) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 74.6% (20,305) of the population.

The entirety of Community District 2, which comprises Hunts Point and Longwood, had 56,144 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 78.9 years. This is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 28% are between the ages of between 0–17, 29% between 25–44, and 21% between 45–64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 12% and 10% respectively.

As of 2017, the median household income in Community Districts 1 and 2, including Melrose and Mott Haven, was $20,966. In 2018, an estimated 29% of Hunts Point and Longwood residents lived in poverty, compared to 25% in all of the Bronx and 20% in all of New York City. One in eight residents (12%) were unemployed, compared to 13% in the Bronx and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 58% in Hunts Point and Longwood, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 58% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation,, Hunts Point and Longwood are gentrifying.

Land use and terrain
Hunts Point is a peninsula located at the confluence of the Bronx River and the East River, which is actually a tidal strait connecting Upper New York Bay to the Long Island Sound. The total land area is approximately 690 acre.

The land area in Hunts Point is dominated by industry. There is a small but dense residential pocket that occupies the high ground in the northern half of the peninsula along Hunts Point Avenue. It consists primarily of older pre-war architecture apartment buildings with a smaller number of semi-detached multi-unit row houses. The area includes a recently developed park by the riverside, called the Hunts Point Riverside Park.

The New York City Department of City Planning designated a Special Hunts Point District in 2004 to incorporate zoning changes to encourage growth of the food distribution center while protecting the residential neighborhood.

Parks
Hunts Point Riverside Park was spearheaded by Majora Carter in 2000, and after several iterations, won the 2009 Rudy Bruner Award for Excellence in Public Spaces.

Joseph Rodman Drake Park is now recognized as the site of a burial ground for enslaved African-Americans.

The largest park in Hunts Point is the 5 acre Barretto Point Park on the East River waterfront. It offers piers for fishing, sites for launching canoes and kayaks, and a floating swimming pool during the summer. There are also volleyball and basketball courts, a small amphitheater, and restroom facilities.

Hunts Point Food Distribution Center
Hunts Point is home to one of the largest food distribution centers in the world, covering 329 acre. The Produce and Meat Distribution Center were opened along the Bronx river in 1967 and 1974, respectively. In 2005, Hunts Point became the site for New York City's New Fulton Fish Market, which replaced the 180-year-old fish market formerly located in downtown Manhattan. Over 800 industrial businesses, employing over 25,000 workers, are located on the peninsula. A large concentration of food wholesalers, distributors, and food processing businesses are located in the New York City zoned industrial business park. Below are some of the facilities that make up the Food Distribution Center in Hunts Point:

The New York City Terminal Market carries fresh fruit and vegetables from 49 states and 55 foreign countries. The market consists of four buildings, each one-third of a mile in length. More than 65 fruit and vegetable wholesalers own and operate the coop, which has 475000 sqft of warehouse space. Each year approximately 2.7 billion pounds of produce are sold from the Market which as recently as 1998 posted $1.5 billion in revenues. The market caters to the largest ethnically diverse region in the world with an estimated population that exceeds 15 million people (New York metropolitan area).

The Hunts Point Cooperative Market handles the production, processing, distribution and sale of meat, poultry and related products. Spread over 38 acre, the market's six main buildings offer 700000 sqft of refrigerated space. More than 50 independent wholesale food companies operate facilities here. In 2002, a state-of-the art, 100000 sqft refrigerated warehouse was added to accommodate the ever-expanding needs businesses.

In November 2001, shortly before leaving office, former New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani broke ground for the new Fulton Fish Market building in Hunts Point. Nearly four years after the structure was completed, which cost $85 million to build, 55 businesses moved into a 450000 sqft complex, located within the Hunts Point Food Distribution Center. The facility generates an estimated $1 billion in yearly revenue, as it allows seafood distributors to store their goods in a temperature controlled warehouse with ease of access to NYC, New Jersey and Connecticut.

Detention centers
Spofford Juvenile Center was formerly the New York City Department of Juvenile Justice's (DJJ) only Secure Detention center. The facility started as the Youth House for Boys and Youth House for Girls in the mid-1940s, and it moved to Hunts Point in 1957. The Youth House soon became known as Spofford Juvenile Center. On August 1, 1998, it was vacated by the DJJ; earlier that year, on January 18, the city announced that the Horizon Juvenile Center, in the Mott Haven neighborhood of the Bronx, and the Crossroads Juvenile Center, in Brownsville, Brooklyn, would be opened to replace the Spofford facility. However, ultimately, Spofford was not closed, but was instead renamed Bridges Juvenile Center in 1999. In early 2011, Bridges was closed by the city. In announcing the closure, the Correctional Association of New York recognized that the facility had "a history of poor conditions and brutality against children." It was reckoned as the juvenile counterpart of Attica Correctional Facility, which in turn has long been reckoned as the toughest adult prison in New York. The prison detention center was torn down in 2019 for a large, mixed use development to include over 700 housing units.

The Vernon C. Bain Correctional Center (VCBC) is an 800-bed barge offshore of Hunts Point, currently used as part of the New York City Department of Corrections. It is designed to handle inmates from medium- to maximum-security in 16 dormitories and 100 cells. It was opened in 1992 and was named for Vernon C. Bain, a warden who died in a car accident. It has been used by the city of New York as a prison, but has also temporarily held juvenile inmates.

Public housing
There is one New York City Housing Authority low-income housing development located in Hunts Point, Hunts Point Avenue Rehab, which includes thirteen rehabilitated tenement buildings, 4 and 5 stories tall.

Non-profits
There are several non-profits operating in this section of the South Bronx, most notably the Hunts Point Economic Development Corporation (HPEDC), Sustainable South Bronx (SSBx), THE POINT Community Development Corporation, Rocking the Boat, City Year, Legal Aid Society, Bronx Neighborhood Office, Mothers on the Move, Youth Ministries for Peace and Justice, Children's Bible Fellowship sponsored Revolution Church, Iridescent, the Hunts Point Alliance for Children, and South Bronx Overall Economic Development Corporation (SoBRO). Real Life Church, who has fed over 1,200 people in two years on Thanksgiving Day.

 * The Hunts Point Economic Development Corporation (HPEDC) was established in 1988 as a not-for-profit economic development corporation with the aim of improving and enhancing the challenging Hunts Point business environment. Josephine Infante is the founder and executive director of HPEDC, which has worked with public and private agencies to obtain federal empowerment and empire state incentives to revitalize the Hunts Point industrial zone. Since HPEDC has monitored more than five hundred million dollars in public works projects, and worked with the city to relocate of the Fulton Fish Market in Manhattan to Hunts Point and thus consolidate the Hunts Point Food Distribution Center as a major generator of jobs in the Bronx. HPEDC partnered with the police to relocate the infamous "Fort Apache" 41st Precinct to a more central location in the community. In 1995 HPEDC successfully lobbied NYNEX to accelerate the investment of $51 million to upgrade telephone system for fiber optic lines underground. In 2005, the city and HPEDC inaugurated an employment and training center for Hunts Point. Despite no available records reflecting the training center's actual number of successful job placements, a permanent workforce program was approved for Hunts Point starting 2008. The Southern Boulevard Business Improvement District (BID), signed into law at the end of 2007, is a plan where commercial businesses join together with property owners to develop and underwrite the cost of additional services to the retail area.
 * The Legal Aid Society has provided free civil legal services to needy residents from its Bronx Neighborhood Office for over 20 years. It specializes in housing, government benefits, and matrimonial law.
 * Rocking the Boat uses traditional wooden boat building and on-water education to help over 2,000 youth develop into empowered and responsible adults by assisting them in dealing with everyday realities that are often not addressed at home or in school. Five levels of community and youth development programs operate during the fall and spring academic semesters and over the summer.  Rocking the Boat holds community rowing events on Fridays and Saturdays. Rocking the Boat's Hunts Point riverside site is located at the Jose E. Serrano Riverside Campus for Arts and the Environment, adjacent to Lafayette Park on the Bronx River.
 * South Bronx Overall Economic Development Corporation (SoBRO) was founded in 1972 by a group of business executives and community leaders. Their mission was to reverse the flight of businesses and jobs from the South Bronx and rebuild the community. At the time it was known for burned out buildings, crime, poverty and drugs. SoBRO expanded its mission to address more aspects of community development: assisting local businesses to get started and grow, training residents according to the needs of employers, offering opportunities for youth to learn and develop, and creating affordable housing and commercial space that reverses blight in the community. SoBRO has been active in the neighboring Port Morris Industrial Business Zone for years helping businesses to secure government contracts and incentives, acquire low-interest loans, and expand their services and capacity.
 * Sustainable South Bronx (SSBx) is an environmental justice organization, founded by Majora Carter, has brought government, corporate, and foundation money into the area to build two new waterfront parks along the Bronx River at Lafayette Avenue, and along the East River at the end of Tiffany Street, providing the first formalized waterfront access in 60 years. In addition, SSBx runs the Bronx Environmental Stewardship Training (BEST) program, which takes qualifying students through 10 weeks of intensive training covering everything from tree pruning and climbing to OSHA brownfield remediation to green roof installation and maintenance to estuary restoration to job/life skills. This program aims to give local residents a personal and financial stake in the management of their local environment. In December 2006, Mitsubishi Corporation contributed $150,000 to expand the program. In 2005, above their offices in the historic American Banknote Building SSBx built the SSBx Cool and Greenroof Demonstration Project, the first such roof in New York City. In 2007, SSBx launched the for-profit SmartRoofs, a green roof installation business.
 * The Hunts Point Alliance for Children (HPAC) is a community-based organization, serving the families that live in the 10474 zip code. The mission of the Hunts Point Alliance for Children is to work with families and local organizations and schools to support the educational progress of the children of Hunts Point. HPAC serves two functions, first, to bring the seven neighborhood schools and nine child-serving non-profit organizations together in an Alliance. Secondly, HPAC provides direct educational enrichment and support services to Hunts Point families in four areas: Early Childhood Education, Youth Development, Academic Support and Education Transition Counseling, and Family Support Services.
 * The POINT Community Development Corporation is a nonprofit organization dedicated to youth development, culture, and economic revitalization of the Hunt Point section of the Bronx. Their mission is to encourage the arts, local enterprise, responsible ecology, and self-investment in the Hunts Point community.

Prior to 2010, Per Scholas—a nonprofit that provides tuition-free technology training to unemployed or underemployed adults for careers as IT professionals—was also located in Hunts Point, within the American Bank Note building.

Cultural institutions
An urban arts scene is emerging in Hunts Point, with cultural institutions such as THE POINT Community Development Corporation, the Bronx Academy of Arts and Dance (BAAD), and MUD/BONE STUDIO 889. BAAD was formerly located in the historic Bank Note Building and have now since relocated to 2474 Westchester Avenue. THE POINT, which is located in a former bagel factory, provides performance art space, visual art galleries, after-school programs in the visual and performing arts for schoolchildren in the community, and community organizing around environmental improvement and infrastructure development in the neighborhood.

Media
In 2006, an online news outlet The Hunts Point Express began reporting on Hunts Point and Longwood. It is written by students at Craig Newmark Graduate School of Journalism and its edited by Joe Hirsch.

As of 2023, the paper is exclusively digital. The Express previously printed and distributed it for free at community centers, clinics, and stores throughout the neighborhood.

Police and crime
Hunts Point and Longwood are patrolled by the 41st Precinct of the NYPD, located at 1035 Longwood Avenue. The 41st Precinct ranked 67th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 151 per 100,000 people, Hunts Point and Longwood's rate of violent crimes per capita is greater than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 1,036 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole.

The 41st Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 65% between 1990 and 2022. The precinct reported 5 murders, 31 rapes, 303 robberies, 426 felony assaults, 159 burglaries, 399 grand larcenies, and 231 grand larcenies auto in 2022.

The 41st Precinct was located at 1086 Simpson Street until 1993. During the 1980s, crime reached such a level that the Simpson Street building became known by the police as "Fort Apache", as was later immortalized in a 1981 movie named for it. The Simpson Street building currently houses the Bronx Detectives Bureau.

Hunts Point has suffered from crime and poverty for many years and was once part of the poorest congressional districts in the country, with almost half of the population living below the poverty line. Due to the lucrative drug trade in the area, many drug addicts reside in the community. The neighborhood has also been notorious for its prostitution industry since the 1980s. HBO has made four documentaries about prostitution in Hunts Point, Hookers at the Point, the most recent in April 2002. In 2008, a local news station released a two-part documentary on the life of several drug-addicted sex workers living on the streets of the neighborhood.

Fire safety
Hunts Point contains a New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire station, Engine Co. 94/Ladder Co. 48/Battalion 3, at 1226 Seneca Avenue.

Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are more common in Hunts Point and Longwood than in other places citywide. In Hunts Point and Longwood, there were 101 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 36.2 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Hunts Point and Longwood has a relatively high population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 14%, slightly higher than the citywide rate of 12%.

The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Hunts Point and Longwood is 0.0085 mg/m3, more than the city average. Fifteen percent of Hunts Point and Longwood residents are smokers, which is higher than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Hunts Point and Longwood, 42% of residents are obese, 20% are diabetic, and 38% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 26% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.

Eighty-two percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is less than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 72% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Hunts Point and Longwood, there are 20 bodegas.

The nearest hospital is NYC Health + Hospitals/Lincoln in Melrose.

Post office and ZIP Code
Hunts Point is covered by the ZIP Code 10474. The United States Postal Service operates the Hunts Point Station at 800 Manida Street.

Education
Hunts Point and Longwood generally have a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. While 16% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 41% have less than a high school education and 43% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 26% of Bronx residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Hunts Point and Longwood students excelling in math rose from 24% in 2000 to 26% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 28% to 32% during the same time period.

Hunts Point and Longwood's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is more than the rest of New York City. In Hunts Point and Longwood, 35% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, higher than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 58% of high school students in Hunts Point and Longwood graduate on time, lower than the citywide average of 75%.

Schools

The Bronx Charter School for the Arts, the Bronx Lighthouse Charter School, Hyde Leadership Charter School, the South Bronx Classical Charter School, and UA Bronx Studio School for Writers and Artists are located in Hunts Point. In September 2011, Hyde Leadership Charter School opened on Hunts Point Avenue, the first college preparatory high school to open in Hunts Point in nearly 30 years.

Other schools include the John V. Lindsay Wildcat Academy Charter School, MS201 Theatre Arts & RSCH (As of 2008, it is now known as MS 424), P352 at 201 Vida Bogart School, PS 352, PS 48 Joseph R Drake, St. Ignatius School and Wildcat Second Opportunity School. IS 217, the School of Performing Arts, is also located in Hunts Point on Tiffany Street.

Library
The New York Public Library operates the Hunts Point branch at 877 Southern Boulevard in Longwood, near Hunts Point. The Hunts Point library, a Carnegie library designed by Carrère and Hastings in the Italian Renaissance style, was opened in 1929. It was the last Carnegie library built for the New York Public Library system and is a New York City designated landmark.

Transportation
The following New York City Subway stations serve Hunts Point:
 * Longwood Avenue
 * Hunts Point Avenue
 * Whitlock Avenue

The following MTA Regional Bus Operations bus routes serve Hunts Point:
 * to Co-op City and Bay Plaza Shopping Center (via Bruckner Blvd and Story Avenue)
 * and Bx6 Select Bus Service to Washington Heights or Hunts Point Cooperative Market (via Hunts Point Avenue)
 * to Longwood or Hunts Point Cooperative Market (via Longwood Avenue and Tiffany Street)

title: Hunts Point, Bronx


text:
User:NeonElf

It's me.

title: User:NeonElf


text:
Talk:Autosuggestion

Please review article summary
The article summary only says that Autosuggestion "is a psychological technique", "has not been proven", and that somebody believes in it. These are things that a quick reader doesn't care about. What does autosuggestion mean? This is missing. 156.62.3.26 (talk) 22:20, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

Evidence and clinical trials?
The evidence section says: "In the early 20th century, Emile Coue used autosuggestion to cure patients; his work is evidence to support the existence of autosuggestion and the power of the human mind". How is "his work" evidence? In the early 20th century, people also used radium water to "cure" patients, resulting in painful death. Also, the "clinical trials" talks about a different technique, and says very little about autosuggestion itself. Destynova (talk) 03:00, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

In the early 20th century they also has limited means of determining if someone was 'cured'. The way they were diagnosed was by asking them how they felt, so of course placebo-like effects would appear to be strong. I'd like to see studies in which two people with very similar metabolics also share a very similar bone fracture. Then have one of them do the auto-suggestive mantras and compare the healing rate of the fractures over time. Eventually I think we'll come to realize that placebo effects aren't nearly as strong as those who promote them like to tell us they are.

Willpower
Coue is wrong about the lack of 'willpower' by which children are more susceptible to autosuggestion than adults. It has nothing to do with willpower, it has to do with intimidation. Children are intimidated by adults and want to please them. They also assume adults know what they are talking about, especially ones with 'doctor' credentials! So when Coue tells them they can't unclasp their hands, they simply do as they are told. A similar effect is at the root of Loftus' false-memory experiments. Loftus doesn't implant false memories, she uses peer pressure from family members and friends to tell the person who can't remember the false memory that they're wrong. When everyone you know is telling you you're wrong, you're going to accept that sooner or later because resisting requires too much energy. And whether it happens sooner or later is not a mechanism of willpower, but rather of ego. willpower is a word to describe what happens when a person decides to do something on their own volition, not when someone is messing with them. When someone is gaslighting you (which is essentially what Coue was doing to those children), your sense of self is what protects you from your reality being distorted. Willpower is nothing more than a euphemism for stubbornness in this context. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 154.5.215.119 (talk) 02:52, 18 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Autosuggestion


text:
Wikipedia:Press releases/Logbook/May 2004

Press releases/How to send a press release

Please protocol here to whom you have sent a particular press release:

Sent Webby Press Release to Mike Langberg of the San Jose Mercury News in San Jose, California - FrankH 15:21, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Luís Cabral

Comments
Subject - I consider this article isn't from a NPOV.

Saying that Cabral's government had a "program of socialist repression" is a clearly biased and unsustained statement. Even more when in succession you say that João Bernardo Vieira's coup was "relatively bloodless". These are things that can be heavily disputed.

One can mention that the coup caused several deaths and political arrestments, of people that supported Luís Cabral. Also, it is well known by the international community that for the following 18 years, during which João Bernardo Vieira was in power, a dictatorship was established. So, this article is very controversial. The way it is written is clearly not from a NPOV. FBC 17:55, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I am sorry, I am relying only on what limited resources about the guy I could find on the web.

 * If you feel this article is POV, why don't you fix it? I'm sure you know how to hit the EDIT button:-) David Cannon 22:52, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok, no problem. I just read the article and found it not to be neutral. I didn't change it immediately, because I didn't know if people here had all agreed with it. Now that I know it was just info that other resources gave, I feel more at ease to change it. That's exactly what I'm going to do now. FBC 09:58, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I am a strong supporter of Luís Cabral and I believe that the country would be in a much better position today if he had been able to stay in power. However, he had a well-established record of imprisoning and, in many cases summarily executing, hundreds of political prisoners in the early years after indepedence. If I had explained my use of the phrase "socialist repression" better, I don't think there would be any question about POV. I think that the quisling João Bernardo Vieira's accusations of mass graves are false ; however, the rest of the above is generally accepted to be factual. --TwinsFan48 — statement partially renounced by successor user Sesel on 5 March 2005.

Sorry to reopen this dispute, but the "Controversy" section is still NPOV, especially around the planned economy and the economic ruin claim. There is no evidence presented. As for the food shortages, there would need to be evidence it was his, or his government's, fault. None is presented here. Bruxism (talk) 02:10, 1 June 2009 (UTC)
 * The "Controversies" section's statements and claims are backed by proper and abundant references.Jomifica (talk) 13:38, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Luís Cabral


text: User talk:64.69.120.115

title: User talk:64.69.120.115


text:
Duke Aiona

James R. "Duke" Aiona Jr. (born June 8, 1955) is an American politician and jurist who served as the eleventh lieutenant governor of Hawaii under Linda Lingle from 2002 to 2010. A member of the Republican Party, he also served both as an attorney and a judge for the state prior to becoming lieutenant governor.

Aiona was the Republican nominee for Governor of Hawaii in the 2010 election, but was defeated by Democrat Neil Abercrombie in the general election. He was the Republican nominee once again in the 2014 election, but lost to Democrat David Ige, since which he has done legal work and consulting. In June 2022, Aiona announced that he would run again for a third time in the Republican nomination for the 2022 election, which he lost to Democrat Josh Green, the incumbent Hawaii Lieutenant Governor. As of 2023, he is the most recent Republican to serve as Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii.

Background
James Aiona was born in Pearl City, Hawaiʻi. He is of Hawaiian and Portuguese descent on his father's side and Chinese on his mother's side. His mother worked as an elementary school teacher and his father worked as a life insurance agent. He attended Saint Louis School, a local academy of the Diocese of Honolulu. Upon graduating high school, Aiona played basketball at University of the Pacific in Stockton, California and pursued a bachelor of arts degree in political science, which he received from there in 1977. Aiona returned to Hawaiʻi and graduated from the William S. Richardson School of Law at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa in 1981.

He began his legal career at the City and County of Honolulu as a deputy prosecutor, and was appointed to the Hawaiʻi State Judiciary in 1990 as a Family Court judge. In 1996, while serving as Circuit Court judge, Aiona became the first administrative judge and primary architect of the Drug Court Program in Hawaiʻi. The program gives non-violent offenders a chance to stay out of prison through active and effective drug rehabilitation.

In 1977, while attending law school, he met Vivian Welsh at a dance in Waikīkī. They married in 1981. They have two sons, Kulia and Makana; and two daughters, Ohulani and Kaimilani. As lieutenant governor, Aiona was paid $117,312 per annum.

Electoral history
Aiona and Governor Linda Lingle became Hawaii's first Republican administration to win a second term, and they won with the largest margin of victory in any gubernatorial race in the history of the state. Aiona ran to succeed Lingle as governor in 2010, but lost to Neil Abercrombie; he ran for governor again in 2014, losing to Democrat David Ige. In 2022, Aiona ran for governor a third time. He won the Republican nomination but was defeated in a landslide by the Democratic nominee, lieutenant governor Josh Green.

title: Duke Aiona


text:
User talk:216.56.81.226

November 2016
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Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at Ho-Chunk. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Repeated vandalism can result in the loss of editing privileges. Wikishovel (talk) 18:07, 11 November 2016 (UTC)
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text:
Dies Natalis (cantata)

Dies Natalis (Latin: "Natal Day" or "Day of Birth"), Op. 8, is a five-movement solo cantata composed in 1938–1939 by the twentieth-century English composer Gerald Finzi (1901–1956). It is a solo vocal cantata scored for a solo soprano or tenor accompanied by string orchestra, and features settings of four texts by Thomas Traherne (1636/37–1674), a seventeenth-century English Metaphysical poet, priest and theologian.

History
Dies Natalis is a cantata for solo voice and string orchestra. The opening introductory orchestral movement is followed by four movements for accompanied voice in which Finzi set mystical texts by the seventeenth-century English poet Thomas Traherne (1636/37–1674). Finzi selected three of Traherne's poems, prefaced by prose drawn from the opening three sections of the Third Century in Centuries of Meditations. Written from 1938–1939, the score was published in 1946. Finzi conducted the work at the Three Choirs Festival in 1946.

The first recording of Dies Natalis, sponsored by the British Council, was one of only two recordings of Finzi's music made in his lifetime. Two of the three sessions took place in October 1946, and the third on 29 January 1947. For Finzi it was an unfortunate experience: the soprano soloist was Joan Cross, whom he disliked for being an opera singer, and for her close connection to Benjamin Britten, whose work he disliked. The conductor Boyd Neel was ill for one of the three sessions, and Finzi had to take over. His biographer, Diana McVeagh, suggests it may have been for the "Rhapsody", which was recorded on a particularly cold day - the coldest day in 50 years - and Joan Cross said afterwards, "I don't think I did justice to that piece, alas!".

In 1964, his son Christopher Finzi conducted the work for its second recording with the soloist Wilfred Brown. Brown had first sung Dies Natalis in 1952 under the composer's baton. Finzi's biographer, Diana McVeagh, describes Brown's interpretation in the recording as "among his finest: intelligent, poetic, and informed with his acute but gentle feeling for words."

Movements
The work is in five movements: N.G. Long has analysed Finzi's setting of the texts.
 * 1) "Intrada"
 * 2) "Rhapsody" (Recitativo stromentato)
 * 3) "The Rapture" (Danza)
 * 4) "Wonder" (Arioso)
 * 5) "The Salutation" (Aria)

Texts of sung movements
The following are the texts of movements 2,3, 4 and 5.

Rhapsody
Will you see the infancy of this sublime and celestial greatness? I was a stranger, which at my entrance into the world was saluted and surrounded with innumerable joys: my knowledge was divine. I was entertained like an angel with the works of God in their splendour and glory. Heaven and Earth did sing my Creator's praises, and could not make more melody to Adam than to me. Certainly Adam in Paradise had not more sweet and curious apprehensions of the world than I. All appeared new, and strange at first, inexpressibly rare and delightful and beautiful. All things were spotless and pure and glorious.

The corn was orient and immortal wheat, which never should be reaped nor was ever sown. I thought it had stood from everlasting to everlasting. The green trees, when I saw them first, transported and ravished me, their sweetness and unusual beauty made my heart to leap, and almost mad with ecstasy, they were such strange and wonderful things.

O what venerable creatures did the aged seem! Immortal cherubims! and the young men glittering and sparkling angels, and maids strange seraphic pieces of life and beauty! I knew not that they were born or should die; but all things abided eternally. I knew not that there were sins or complaints or laws. I dreamed not of poverties, contentions or vices. All tears and quarrels were hidden from mine eyes. I saw all in the peace of Eden. Everything was at rest, free and immortal.

The Rapture
Sweet Infancy! O heavenly fire! O sacred Light! How fair and bright! How great am I Whom the whole world doth magnify!

O heavenly Joy! O great and sacred blessedness Which I possess! So great a joy Who did into my arms convey?

From God above Being sent, the gift doth me enflame [sic], To praise His Name. The stars do move, The sun doth shine, to show His Love.

O how divine Am I! To all this sacred wealth This life and health, Who rais'd? Who mine Did make the same! What hand divine!

Wonder
How like an angel came I down! How bright are all things here! When first among His works I did appear O how their glory did me crown! The world resembled His Eternity In which my soul did walk; And every thing that I did see Did with me talk.

The skies in their magnificence The lovely, lively air, O how divine, how soft, how sweet, how fair! The stars did entertain my sense; And all the works of God, so bright and pure, So rich and great, did seem, As if they ever must endure In my esteem.

A native health and innocence Within my bones did grow, And while my God did all His Glories show, I felt a vigour in my sense That was all Spirit. I within did flow With seas of life, like wine; I nothing in the world did know But 'twas Divine.

The Salutation
These little limbs, these eyes and hands which here I find, This panting heart wherewith my life begins; Where have ye been? Behind what curtain were ye from me hid so long? Where was, in what abyss, my new-made tongue?

When silent I, so many thousand, thousand years Beneath the dust did in a chaos lie, how could I smiles, or tears, Or lips, or hands, or eyes, or ears perceive? Welcome, ye treasures which I now receive.

From dust I rise and out of nothing now awake, These brighter regions which salute my eyes, A gift from God I take, the earth, the seas, the light, the lofty skies, The sun and stars are mine: if these I prize.

A stranger here, strange things doth meet, strange glory see, Strange treasures lodged in this fair world appear, Strange, all, and new to me: But that they mine should be who nothing was, That strangest is of all; yet brought to pass.

Recordings

 * Decca AK 1645-7 (rec. 1946-47): Joan Cross; Boyd Neel Orchestra; Boyd Neel, conductor
 * World Record Club SCM 50 (HMV HQS 1260) (rec. 1964): Wilfred Brown; English Chamber Orchestra; Christopher Finzi, conductor
 * Argo ZRG 896 (rec. 1979): Philip Langridge; London Symphony Orchestra; Richard Hickox, conductor
 * Hyperion CDA 66876 (rec. 1996): John Mark Ainsley; Corydon Orchestra; Matthew Best, conductor
 * Philips 454 438-2 (rec. 1996): Ian Bostridge; Academy of St Martin in the Fields; Sir Neville Marriner, conductor
 * Naxos 8.570417 (rec. 2007): James Gilchrist; Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra; David Hill, conductor
 * Wigmore Hall Live WHLIVE 0021 (rec. 2007): Toby Spence; Scottish Ensemble
 * Chandos CHAN 10590 (rec. 2009): Susan Gritton; BBC Symphony Orchestra; Edward Gardner, conductor
 * Harmonia Mundi USA HMU 807552 (rec. 2011): Mark Padmore; Britten Sinfonia; Jacqueline Shave, director

title: Dies Natalis (cantata)


text:
Duricrust

Duricrust is a hard layer on or near the surface of soil. Duricrusts can range in thickness from a few millimeters or centimeters to several meters.

It is a general term (not to be confused with duripan) for a zone of chemical precipitation and hardening formed at or near the surface of sedimentary bodies through pedogenic or non-pedogenic processes. It is typically formed by the accumulation of soluble minerals deposited by mineral-bearing waters that move upward, downward, or laterally by capillary action, commonly assisted in arid settings by evaporation. There are different types of duricrusts, each distinguished by a dominant mineralogy. For example, ferricrete (laterite) is dominated by sesquioxides of iron; alcrete (bauxite) is dominated by sesquioxides of aluminum; silcrete by silica; calcrete (caliche) by calcium carbonate, and gypcrete (gypcrust) by gypsum.

Duricrust is often studied during missions to Mars because it may help prove the planet once had more water. Duricrust was found on Mars at the Viking 2 landing site, and a similar structure, nicknamed "Snow Queen", was found under the Phoenix landing site. Phoenix's duricrust was later confirmed to be water-based.

title: Duricrust


text: User talk:81.10.229.2

title: User talk:81.10.229.2


text:
Morning

Morning is the period from sunrise to noon. It is preceded by the twilight period of dawn. There are no exact times for when morning begins (also true of evening and night) because it can vary according to one's lifestyle and the hours of daylight at each time of year. However, morning strictly ends at noon, which is when afternoon starts.

Morning precedes afternoon, evening, and night in the sequence of a day. Originally, the term referred to sunrise.

Etymology
The Modern English words "morning" and "tomorrow" began in Middle English as morwening, developing into morwen, then morwe, and eventually morrow. English, unlike some other languages, has separate terms for "morning" and "tomorrow", despite their common root. Other languages, like Dutch, Scots and German, may use a single word – morgen – to signify both "morning" and "tomorrow".

Cultural implications
Morning prayer is a common practice in several religions. The morning period includes specific phases of the Liturgy of the Hours of Christianity.

Some languages that use the time of day in greeting have a special greeting for morning, such as the English good morning. The appropriate time to use such greetings, such as whether it may be used between midnight and dawn, depends on the culture's or speaker's concept of morning. The use of  'good morning' is ambiguous, usually depending on when the person woke up. As a general rule, the greeting is normally used from 3:00 a.m. to around noon.

Many people greet someone with the shortened 'morning' rather than 'good morning'. It is used as a greeting, never a farewell, unlike 'good night' which is used as the latter. To show respect, one can add the addressee's last name after the salutation: Good morning, Mr. Smith.

For some, the word morning may refer to the period immediately following waking up, irrespective of the current time of day. This modern sense of morning is due largely to the worldwide spread of electricity, and the independence from natural light sources.

Astronomy
When a star first appears in the east just prior to sunrise, it is referred to as a heliacal rising. Despite the less favorable lighting conditions for optical astronomy, dawn and morning can be useful for observing objects orbiting close to the Sun. Morning (and evening) serves as the optimum time period for viewing the inferior planets Venus and Mercury. Venus and sometimes Mercury may be referred to as a morning star when they appear in the east prior to sunrise. It is a popular time to hunt for comets, as their tails grow more prominent as these objects draw closer to the Sun. The morning (and evening) twilight is used to search for near-Earth asteroids that orbit inside the orbit of the Earth. In mid-latitudes, the mornings near the autumnal equinox are a favorable time period for viewing the zodiacal light.

Genetics
For people, the morning period may be a period of enhanced or reduced energy and productivity. The ability of a person to wake up effectively in the morning may be influenced by a gene called "Period 3". This gene comes in two forms, a "long" and a "short" variant. It seems to affect the person's preference for mornings or evenings. People who carry the long variant were over-represented as morning people, while the ones carrying the short variant were evening preference people.

title: Morning


text:
Six-banded tiger barb

The six-banded tiger barb (Desmopuntius hexazona) is a Southeast Asian species of cyprinid fish native to blackwater streams, peat swamps and other freshwater habitats with little movement in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. Although there are reports from the Mekong basin, this is generally consider to be outside the range of the genus Desmopuntius. D. hexazona has often been confused—especially in the aquarium trade—with the less widespread, closely related D. pentazona, which is similar except that it has a black spot at the rear base of its dorsal fin (something that D. hexazona lacks). Although overall relatively widespread, D. hexazona is considered threatened in Singapore. This species reaches a total length of 5.5 cm.

title: Six-banded tiger barb


text:
Striped barb

The striped barb (Desmopuntius johorensis), is a species of cyprinid fish Cyprinidae native to the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra where it is found in the shallows of rivers, streams and ditches. This species can reach a length of 12 cm TL. It is commercially important to local fisheries and can also be found in the aquarium trade.

title: Striped barb


text:
Longnose gar

The longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus), also known as longnose garpike or billy gar, is a ray-finned fish in the family Lepisosteidae. The genus may have been present in North America for about 100 million years. References are made to gars being a primitive group of bony fish because they have retained some primitive features, such as a spiral valve intestine, but they are not primitive in the sense of not being fully developed.

They have an olive brown to green, torpedo-shaped body armored with ganoid scales, elongated jaws that form a needle-like snout nearly three times the length of its head, and a row of numerous sharp, cone-shaped teeth on each side of the upper jaw. They typically inhabit freshwater lakes, brackish water near coastal areas, swamps, and sluggish backwaters of rivers and streams. They can breathe both air and water, which allows them to inhabit aquatic environments that are low in oxygen.

Longnose gar are found along the east coasts of North and Central America, and range as far west in the US as Kansas, Texas, and southern New Mexico. They are the only species of the family Lepisosteidae found in New Mexico. Their populations are stable and in some areas abundant in the interior portions of their range.

Etymology
The longnose gar was first described by Carl Linnaeus (1758), who gave it the name Esox osseus. The generic name Esox, which is for pike, was later changed to Lepisosteus, the genus for slender gars. Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus, 1758), the scientific name for longnose gar, originated by combining lepis, which is Greek for scale, and osteos, the Latin word for bony. The latter references the bone-like, rhomboidal-shaped ganoid scales that protect gars against predation.

Gars have been referred to as primitive fish or living fossils because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their earliest ancestors, such as a spiral valve intestine, and a highly vascularized swim bladder lung that supplements gill respiration for breathing both air and water. Referring to gars as primitive fish simply means they have existed for a long time, having evolved over millions of years into a more perfected morphological state, not that the animal is primitive in the sense that it is not fully developed.

Distribution
Fossils of the genus dating from 100 million years ago (Mya) have been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. In the US, fossils of the modern species date back to the Pleistocene, where they were discovered in the Kingsdown Formation in Meade County, Kansas, and date back to the Irvingtonian (1.8–0.3 Mya). Longnose gar are found in Central America, Cuba, North America, and the Isla de la Juventud.

Longnose gar are frequently found in fresh water in the eastern half of the United States, but some gar were found in salinities up to 31 ppt. Their microhabitats consist of areas near downed trees, stone outcrops, and vegetation.

Ecology
The most common prey of longnose gar are small fish and occasionally insects and small crustaceans; they mostly feed at night. In most studies of adult L. osseus, a variety of species made up a majority of the diet, with the dominant prey changing among locations. Inland silversides were particularly common prey of juvenile gar in Lake Texoma, making up 84% of the diet, with gamefishes accounting for less than 1% of the diet. In Florida, their diet consisted mainly of fishes, with gizzard shad, bullhead catfish, and small bluegill particularly common. In Missouri, fishes made up 98% of the diet with shiners being the most common prey. In some lakes, adult longnose gar may consume large numbers of sunfish. Menhaden are a major food source along coasts where L. osseus moves towards the mouths of bayous into higher-salinity waters in the afternoon and evening to find this more prevalent prey. Longnose gar then move back up the bayous, into the lower-salinity waters in the morning. Their main competitors are other garfishes, and somewhat commonly, large gar to feed on smaller ones. Historically, Native Americans and early colonists harvested longnose gar as a main food source. Over time, longnose gars have gained in popularity as a sportfish rather than as a food source, but some people consider gar meat a delicacy. Adult longnose gar are considered apex predators in their aquatic habit, and have few predators, which include humans and in the southern reaches of their range the American alligator. They are most vulnerable to predation when they are young, and are preyed upon by other garfishes, larger fishes, birds of prey, snapping turtles, and water snakes.

Life history
Longnose gar have a typical lifespan of 15–20 years with a maximum reported age of 39. This long lifespan allows the female to sexually mature around 6 years old. Males mature sexually as early as 2 years of age. Longnose gar are sexually dimorphic; the females are larger than the males in body length, weight, and fin length. They generally have a clutch size close to 30,000, depending on the weight-to-length ratio of the females; larger females bear larger clutch sizes. They spawn in temperatures close to 20 C in late April to early July. Eggs have a toxic, adhesive coating to help them stick to substrates, and they are deposited onto stones in shallow water, rocky shelves, vegetation, or smallmouth bass nests. Their hatch time is 7-9 days; young gar stay in vegetation during the first summer of life. Longnose gar reach a typical length of 28 - 48 in, with a maximum length around 6 ft and 55 lb in weight.

Management
Currently, no management of this species is being conducted, nor is it federally listed as endangered, although some states have reported it as threatened (South Dakota, Delaware, and Pennsylvania). In the early 1900s, longnose gar were considered as destructive predators. Soon after this characterization, gar population reduction methods were established. Their declining populations are due to overfishing, habitat loss, dams, road construction, pollution, and other human-caused destruction of the aquatic systems. Because of their long lifespans and older sexual maturity age, factors affecting their reproduction is an issue in preserving them. Overfishing is a large issue for this fish, especially when the fish have not reached sexual maturity due to the female not reaching sexual maturity until about 6 years of age.

title: Longnose gar