text:
Iida Line

The Iida Line (飯田線) is a Japanese railway line connecting Toyohashi Station in Toyohashi, Aichi with Tatsuno Station in Tatsuno, Nagano, operated by Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central). The line links eastern Aichi Prefecture and southern Nagano Prefecture through northwestern Shizuoka Prefecture. It goes through steep mountains as well as cities such as Iida and Ina. The line was originally four different private railway lines, the first of which opened in 1897.

The line has an unusually high number of so-called Hikyō stations, or hikyo-eki, which have since lost their nearby communities due to depopulation. There are 94 such stations along the route. The line has been described as the "holy land for those who love touring hikyo-eki". The phrase was coined in 1999 by Takanobu Ushiyama and friends, for railroad stations that are isolated and little used.

Traveling the entire length of the 195.7 km (121.6 mi) line by local trains takes six hours.

Basic data

 * Operators, distances:
 * Central Japan Railway Company (Services and tracks)
 * Toyohashi – Tatsuno: 195.7 km (121.6 mi)
 * Japan Freight Railway Company (Services)
 * Toyohashi – Toyokawa: 8.7 km (5.4 mi)
 * Motozenkōji – Tatsuno: 61.9 km (38.5 mi)
 * Double-tracked section: Toyohashi – Toyokawa
 * Railway signalling:
 * Toyokawa – Tatsuno: Special Automatic, a simplified automatic system.
 * CTC center: Iida Operation Control Center

Services
The limited express Inaji (伊那路) runs between Toyohashi and Iida twice a day. The rapid Misuzu (みすず) runs between Iida and Okaya. Local service is generally divided into three parts by Hon-Nagashino and Tenryūkyō stations. The section near Toyohashi functions as commuter rail for the city, while the section between Hon-Nagashino and Tenryūkyō is a mountain railway with fewer passengers.

From Toyohashi to Iida

 * L: Local (普通)
 * R: Rapid (快速)
 * I: Limited Express Inaji (特急伊那路)

All trains stop at stations marked "●" and pass stations marked "-", "↓", or "↑". Arrows indicate the direction of rapid trains. Some trains stop at stops marked "▲".

From Iida to Okaya

 * L: Local (普通)
 * R: Rapid (快速)
 * M: Rapid Misuzu (快速みすず)

All trains stop at stations marked "●" and pass stations marked "-", "↓", or "↑". Arrows also indicate the directions the rapid trains run.

Rolling stock

 * 211 series 3-car EMUs (from 15 March 2015, on JR East inter-running services)
 * 213-5000 series 2-car EMUs
 * 313-3000 series EMUs
 * 373 series 3-car EMUs (on Inaji limited express and some all-stations "Local" services)

Past rolling stock

 * 115 series EMUs (until 14 March 2014, on JR East inter-running services)
 * 119 series EMUs (1983 – 31 March 2012)

History
The Toyokawa Railway opened the section from Toyohashi to Toyokawa in 1897, extending the line to Omi in 1900. At the northern end, the Ina Electric Railway opened the Tatsuno to Ina-Matsushima section (electrified at 1,200 V DC) in 1909, extending the line to Tenryukyo in sections between 1911 and 1927. The Horaitera Railway opened the Omi to Mikawa-Kawai section in 1923, and electrified it at 1,500 V DC in 1925 in conjunction with the electrification of the Toyohashi to Omi section the same year. The Toyohashi to Toyokawa section was double-tracked the following year. The Sanshin Railway opened the Tenryukyo to Kadoshima section as an electrified (1,500 V DC) line in 1932, the Mikawa-Kawai to Toei section (and all subsequent stages) as an electrified line in 1933, and connected the two sections (completing the line) in 1936. All four companies were nationalised in 1943.

In 1955, the overhead line voltage of the Tatsuno to Tenryukyo section was increased to 1,500 V DC.

CTC signalling was commissioned on the line between 1983 and 1984, and freight services ceased in 1996.

Former connecting lines

 * Hon-Nagashino Station: A 23 km line to Mikawa-Taguchi, electrified at 1,500 V DC, opened between 1930 and 1932. Two 762mm gauge forest railways connected to this line: the Damine forest railway, which connected at the station of the same name, consisted of a 19 km 'main line' (including a tunnel) and a 7 km branch, operated between 1932 and 1960; the Taguchi forest railway connected at the terminus station, consisted of a 10 km 'main line' and a 6 km branch, operated between 1934 and 1963. Both forest railways were notable for initially employing people and "large dogs" to haul the empty wagons upgrade, which then rolled downhill when loaded. The Mikawa-Taguchi line closed following flood damage in 1968.

Proposed connecting line

 * Chubu-Tenryu Station: Construction started on a 35 km line to Tenryu-Futamata on the Hamanako Line in 1967. Proposed to involve 20 bridges and 14 tunnels, about 13 km of roadbed, and about 50% of the overall work had been completed when construction was abandoned in 1980.

title: Iida Line


text:
Talk:Furnace (central heating)

Clean up
Several discussion items listed below express opinions that this article needs to be cleaned up. I whole heartedly agree. I am a professional engineer who worked as the head of engineering for an industrial furnace/oven manufacturer for 23 years. The article has some misleading elements and is substantially incomplete. I agree that the article should be split between comfort heating furnaces used in residential and commercial buildings and Industrial furnaces used in manufacturing. Also outdoor wood fire boiler has no place on this page.

Jbh803 (talk) 10:19, 12 December 2008 (UTC)

So if the term in Britain mostly refers to a smelting furnace, what do Brits call the things that heat their houses? Oh, that's right, Brits are well-known for not having central heating. . . surely that's changed with the coming of the twenty-first century! ;)} jaknouse 14:19, 4 May 2004 (UTC)

Like the text says, it's called a boiler or a heater! Take a look at http://www.diydata.com/planning/central_heating/boiler.htm. In 2001, 91% of homes in England, 92% of homes in Wales and 93% of homes in Scotland] had central heating, a few percentage points higher than in a 1997 USA survey 80.46.137.17 15:58, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Hmmmm... I can't believe that anyone would write an article on furnace without at least mentioning metallurgy. But then again, someone redirected smelter to forge. I guess in the wild west they meant much the same thing, but I thought that had changed, too. I've redone the intro to take account of the possibility that English Wikipedia may eventually become available outside of the USA. (->

But all kidding aside, folks, I think we should seriously consider splitting the article, maybe into furnace (domestic) and furnace (industrial). What stops me is the extensive material already at furnace. I haven't a clue where where all that comes from, or where it belongs. My guess is that it's US English again, in which case we need to find a term other than furnace (industrial) for the head article describing metallurgical furnaces. Maybe furnace (metallurgy)? Or maybe steal the article name furnace for the head article on metallurgical and industrial furnaces, and create industrial furnace for the detailed material under this heading, and furnace (domestic) and furnace (disambiguation)? Andrewa 18:26, 7 October 2005 (UTC)
 * The references show a lot of heavy-duty textbooks; I reckon the text in 'industrial furnaces' comes from those books. I personally think that the 'industrial furnace' section could use some cleanup (too technical), but I don't know where to start, as some of that text is relevant. Sentinel75 08:07, 2 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Dammit, hit 'save page' before I had finished thinking; who wants me to put a 'cleanup' tag at the top of this article? Sentinel75 08:08, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

How about "central heating furnace" or "warm air furnace" with disambiguation to bring furnace or other terms to it. Also, furnace (at least in the US) generally only refers to a heating appliance that uses air as the distribution medium. An appliance that uses hot water or steam as the transfer medium is usually referred to as a boiler. Maybe "central heating equipment" would be more appropriate if boiler and furnace are to remain in the same article. Also coal was once a common fuel for residential heating but is not very common anymore.

Also, the percentage of central heating in the US vs UK(in the discussion) doesn't account for areas of the US where the climate is relatively mild and central heating is more a luxury than necessity. Mattmia2 05:02, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

Cleaning up furnaces
I think the outdoor wood fire boiler section should be moved to the boiler page. It seems wierd to include it in the furnace page.

And, although the term furnace is itself very vague, one should try not to mix up the terms boiler and furnace or just a simple heater. Typical standards of definition would be by the type of fuel used. Another way would be by deducing whether only liquid phases are involved or both liquid and gaseous phases. Another way is whether it is used for chemical reactions, or just simply heating up stuff? This way, we can focus the page down. Otherwise, anything that burns something and produces heat can be called a furnace and gets included in this page. And with induction furnaces, it seems like anything that heats something else can be called a furnace.. Anchorage48 (talk) 10:39, 8 March 2008 (UTC)

Life of furnaces?
How long do furnaces last?

16:05, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

 * It varies enormously based on the quality of the materials used, the fuel used, and the amount of maintenance performed. For household hot-air furnaces, the heat-exchanger usually sets the life of the furnace; once it fails, the cost to replace it may exceed the remaining value of the furnace, especially if the old furnace can be replaced by a new furnace with higher fuel efficiency.

 * Atlant 22:54, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

Efair 15:07, 15 August 2007 (UTC) Organizing around or providing refernces to the variety of home heating devices might be helpful on this page, along with some discussion of what "efficency" means and the relationship of efficiency to the handling of combustion byproducts. Specifically from the Natural Gas perspective (which is most common in my part of the world) there are various techniques to handle those byproducts -- unpressurized metal ductwork,  lined or unlined chimneys, or through pressurized piping. Some rationale of why to use each technique would be helpful.

Speaking as someone who lives in SW-Ontario (same climate as Detroit, Buffalo, Toronto) where the heating season starts late October and ends in May, it's not unusual for houses built in the late 50's or early 60's to still have their original natural-gas forced air furnaces, and certainly not unusual to see furnaces built and installed in the 1975 - 1982 time frame. That would put the working life well into the 30-year period.

Yes, the end of life usually comes because of a cracked heat exchanger, but also note that the air pressure of the household air inside the exchanger will be positive with respect to the combustion side, so air will tend to flow from the interior side of the crack to the combustion side - meaning that combustion gas will most likely NOT leak into the household air, but instead the household air will tend to leak into the combustion side of the exchanger, resulting in flame disruption if the leak is bad enough.

Old furnaces get a bad rap because of their constant pilot light, or poor efficiency electric motors. However, most of the efficiency gains of modern furnaces come because of better scavanging of exhaust heat, which is essentially an issue of "plumbing". Electronic ignition, and electronic motor control, are gimicks that contribute little to efficiency but add A LOT of extra maintainence costs when they break. And when you think about it, the heat of a constant pilot light is not really lost - it is seeping into the house one way or another. It's like the issue with incandescent bulbs. They generate a lot of heat, but that heat helps heat houses in the winter (and the winter is when there is less natural light vs the summer). So the waste heat from incandescent bulbs is actually not wasted during the heating season. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.93.87.81 (talk) 00:44, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

Furnace location
does anyone have a reason why a furnace is generally installed in the middle of the basement?? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.52.52.57 (talk) 20:57, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

 * Generally the longer a section of piping, the more resistance there is to airflow. Putting a forced-air furnace in the center of the building helps to keep the ducts about the same average length for all locations.

 * For a corner-installed furnace, the really long distance ducts to the other side of the building will take longer to transfer heat than ducts near by the furnace. Small auxiliary fans can be mounted inside these long piping runs to help pull air through the very long tubes, or restrictive dampers can be installed in the very short ducts to even out airflow resistance throughout the whole system.

 * DMahalko (talk) 11:38, 3 November 2008 (UTC)

Merge "first fire"
The article First fire was prodded the prod was removed with a suggestion to merge here. Thoughts? JeepdaySock (AKA, Jeepday) 10:58, 13 September 2010 (UTC)

 * As long as the term is only used in furnaces, then I fully support it. Wizard191 (talk) 12:52, 13 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Merge completed JeepdaySock (AKA, Jeepday) 10:48, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I've never heard it applied to furnaces as such. Kilns mostly, also smelters and blast furnaces. Lighting a plain furnace is easy. Lighting a kiln (i.e. an enclosure of insulating bricks) is much more fraught, as they're the ones that can fail on heating and for which a successful first fire is thus a milestone. Andy Dingley (talk) 11:18, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

Modern Furnace Components
The paragraph on the ignition system seems to contradict itself (probably a typo). The article states The next sentence is the contradiction:

It seems that if the ignition control received this half wave signal from the flame sensor then combustion will NOT continue, since this is most likely a result of a short, as the paragraph mentions. The ignition control does not know if the flame exists during a short and so gas could be accumulating to explosive levels. Hence, it makes sense to end combustion when receiving a half wave signal.

Ekulrbx (talk) 03:47, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

Article has no focus
The edit I made at 9 december 2010 seems to have been reverted: Furnace&oldid=401454280 I wrote that " A furnace is a thermally insulated chamber (or oven) used for forging. " the revert was done because, as stated by Wizard191 "a furnace obviously has other functions too"; given that these "other functions" are about devices that also go under other names, and are even more correctly referred to by these other names, it destroys the quality of the article and the info is best placed at articles with their proper names. At present, the article is such a complilation of different devices that it's unreadable, please fix this, we require this article to have a standard acceptable by wikipedia. 91.182.217.92 (talk) 09:13, 10 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I agree that this article is somewhat convoluted, however, instead of breaking each type of furnace into its own article, why don't we split it off to industrial furnaces and household furnaces? Wizard191 (talk) 22:41, 10 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't find this a suitable division, ie if we would do it this way, we can never put down a good comparison of the types (ie regarding thermal efficiency, ...) Also, it would be confusing since a single type can exist in both categories, this makes things unnecessairily complicated.

91.182.29.99 (talk) 14:54, 18 December 2010 (UTC)

Efficiency of furnaces
--> Not sure whether it's best to mention these here, or whether it's best to make new article pages for each type of furnace (this can only be skipped if this article is focused exclusively on metallurgy)

- using cokes: -using natural gas/fuel oil - using electricity
 * Smelting furnaces:
 * Cupola furnace without heat recovery (25 to 30% efficient)
 * Cupola furnace with heat recovery
 * Rotary kiln furnace (50 to 65% efficient)
 * Shaft furnace (50% efficient)
 * Crucible furnace (30 to 45% efficient)
 * Cokes-less cupola furnace
 * Electric induction crucible furnace (middelfrequent furnaces, ie 750kW/ton are 65 to 75% efficient)
 * Electric arc furnace

 * Ladle furnaces
 * Shaft furnace
 * Electric induction crucible furnace
 * Electric induction channel furnace (80% efficient)

 * Casting furnaces
 * Electric induction channel furnace

Other older or specialised furnaces; including
 * blast furnace, used to reduce iron ore to pig iron
 * Puddling furnace
 * Reverberatory furnace
 * Bessemer converter
 * Open hearth furnace
 * Basic oxygen furnace
 * Vacuum furnaces  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.182.217.92 (talk) 14:29, 10 December 2010 (UTC)

terms
"In American English and Canadian English, the term furnace on its own is generally used to describe household heating systems based on a central furnace (known either as a boiler or a heater in British English)"

Err hate to have to point this out but we (USA) call them heaters the most often (at least in parts of the country) or more specific terms as well, such as "boiler", "heat pump", "central air", "furnace", and so on.

I'm curious where the terms are used the most.

Here, a "furnace" can be a centralized heater for a home or a kiln for brick-making (masonary) and such. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.112.142.23 (talk) 12:50, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

And yes, a furnace is used for smelting, as well. ;) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.112.142.23 (talk) 12:53, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

 * It's probably a regional thing, because here in Chicagoland we call them furnaces not heaters. Wizard191 (talk) 15:01, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

Furnace manufacturer in India(therelek Engineers Pvt ltd)
We are the No1 Furnace manufacturer in india, we do different types of furnace and covers broad spectrum of our expertise in manufacturing the Industrial Furnaces and Ovens and also Heat Treatment Services that are offered by us — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.166.106.23 (talk) 07:23, 2 August 2013 (UTC)

Tone of article.
Haven't read the whole thing, but the general tone of the part explaining single, 2-stage and modulating furnaces bothers me. It doesn't sound right to have it stating that a 2-stage is "better" than a one-stage, or that a modulating furnace is "most desirable". These are opinions, not facts. You could say that "many people consider" them to be better, but it sounds wrong the way it is. Not encyclopedic, and it almost comes across like an advertisement. Lets say, what if the person who wrote that also happens to be in the business of selling modulating furnaces, it seems like a conflict of interest. Yes, someone has listed some of the pros of a single-stage furnace, but I would rather see the phrasing changed to reflect the benefits of each type without actually saying one is better than another. Let the reader form their own opinions based on the facts (which is what an encyclopedia is supposed to contain...facts)..45Colt 12:29, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

Edit: in fact, considering that the links next to the phrases in the article direct you to a youtube video posted by a company that sells furnace equipment, I would say that it is very likely that it was written by someone who works for that company, and is in essence an advertisement posted on youtube. Isn't that against Wikipedia policy, especially providing a link to a page featuring your own company? Someone is using Wikipedia to convince people to buy their product, and supplying links directing them to a page advertising their company that sells that product. And I say that's BS..45Colt 12:35, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

Comfort heating history
https://www.achrnews.com/articles/87035-an-early-history-of-comfort-heating2606:6000:514B:AD00:F128:41B9:FA:F7C7 (talk) 20:33, 5 March 2018 (UTC)

Organization
The Categories and Heat distribution sections should be part of Home furnaces. Maybe they should be moved to the Central heating page.2606:6000:514B:AD00:F128:41B9:FA:F7C7 (talk) 21:08, 5 March 2018 (UTC)

Internal scientific mechanisms of the furnaces
Internal scientific mechanisms of the furnacesSudhakarlistens17 (talk) 03:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Sudhakar The article needs specific descriptions of the internal burning mechanisms of the various furnaces and this can be done by completely mentioning the involved scientific procedures, involved chemical reactions and the specific chemistry. This can further be made more elaborative and efficient by using diagrams and picture illustrations.Sudhakarlistens17 (talk) 03:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Sudhakar

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Furnace (central heating)


text:
User:Eric bailey

Eric Bailey
I go to the University of Minnesota. I like music.

title: User:Eric bailey


text:
Kentucky coffeetree

The Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), also known as American coffee berry, Kentucky mahogany, nicker tree, and stump tree, is a tree in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the legume family Fabaceae, native to the Midwest, Upper South, Appalachia, and small pockets of New York in the United States and Ontario in Canada. The seed may be roasted and used as a substitute for coffee beans; however, unroasted pods and seeds are toxic. The wood from the tree is used by cabinetmakers and carpenters. It is also planted as a street tree.

From 1976 to 1994, the Kentucky coffeetree was the state tree of Kentucky, after which the tulip poplar was returned to that designation.

Description
The tree varies from 18 to 21 meters (60–70 feet) high with a spread of 12–15 meters (40–50 feet) and a trunk up to one meter (3 feet) in diameter. The tree grows at a medium rate with height increases of anywhere from 12" to 24" per year. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about 4 meters (13 feet) tall. It usually separates 3 to 4½ meters (10–15 feet) from the ground into three or four divisions which spread slightly and form a narrow pyramidal head; or when crowded by other trees, sending up one tall central branchless shaft to the height of 15–21 m (50–70 ft). Branches are stout, pithy, and blunt; roots are fibrous.

The Kentucky coffeetree is a moderately fast-growing tree, and male trees are often grown in parks and along city streets for ornamental purposes. The tree is typically fairly short-lived, healthy trees living from 100 to 150 years. The Kentucky coffeetree sheds its leaves early during the fall and appears bare for up to 6 months. The naked appearance of the tree is reflected through the Kentucky coffeetree's Greek genus name, which means "naked branch". Like the Sumac, branches are absent of fine spray; smaller branches are thick and lumpish. Because of the absence of smaller branches and its later leafing, the French in Canada named it Chicot, "stubby". The expanding leaves are conspicuous because of the varied colors of the leaflets; the youngest are bright pink, while those which are older vary from green to bronze.

The bark is ash-gray and scaly, flaking similarly to black cherry, but more so. The trees are dioecious, and the fruit is a hard-shelled bean in heavy, woody, thick-walled pods filled with sweet, thick, gooey pulp. Pod length ranges from 5 to 10 in; unfertilized female trees may bear miniature seedless pods. The beans are commonly thought to contain the toxin cytisine, although this has yet to be confirmed in a study.

 * Bark: Tan or dark gray, deeply fissured, surface scaly, often with prominent narrow ridges. Branchlets at first coated with short reddish down.
 * Wood: Light brown; heavy, strong, coarse-grained; durable in contact with the ground, takes a fine polish. Specific gravity, 0.6934; weight of cubic foot, 43.21 lb.
 * Winter buds: Minute, depressed in downy cavities of the stem, two in the axil of each leaf, the smaller sterile. Bud scales two, ovate, coated with brown tomentum and growing with the shoot, become orange green, hairy and about one inch long, before they fall.
 * Leaves: Alternate, bipinnately compound, ten to fourteen pinnate, lowest pinnae reduced to leaflets, the other seven to thirteen foliate. One to three feet long, eighteen to twenty-four inches broad, by the greater development of the upper pairs of pinnae. Leaf stalks and stalks of pinnae, are terete, enlarged at base, smooth when mature, pale green, often purple on the upper side. Leaflets ovate, two to two and one-half inches long, wedge-shaped or irregularly rounded at base, with wavy margin, acute apex. They come out of the bud bright pink, but soon become bronze green, smooth and shining above. When full grown are dark yellow green above, pale green beneath. In autumn turn a bright clear yellow. Stipules leaf-like, lanceolate, serrate, deciduous.
 * Winter twigs are very stout and dark reddish brown to green brown in color; the pith is very thick and salmon pink to brown in color. The terminal bud is absent, and the lateral buds are small, bronze in color, and appear to be partially sunken beneath the bark of the twig. The leaf scars are very large, heart shaped with 3 to 5 conspicuous bundle scars. The flowers are dioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants). The female flowers are 8 to 12 inches long, greenish white in color, appear in early summer, and are quite fragrant. The male flowers are about half the size of the female flowers.
 * Flowers: June. Dioecious by abortion, terminal, greenish white. Staminate flowers in a short raceme-like corymb three to four inches (75–100 mm) long, pistillate flowers in a raceme ten to twelve inches (250–300 mm)  long.
 * Calyx: Tubular, hairy, ten-ribbed, five-lobed; lobes valvate in bud, acute, nearly equal.
 * Corolla: Petals five, oblong, hairy, spreading or reflexed, imbricate in bud.
 * Stamens: Ten, five long and five short, free, included; filaments thread-like; anthers orange colored, ; in the pistillate flower small and sterile.
 * Pistil: Ovary superior, sessile, hairy, contracted into a short style, with two stigmatic lobes; ovules in two rows.
 * Fruit: Legume, six to ten inches (150–250 mm) long, one and one-half to two inches wide, somewhat curved, with thickened margins, dark reddish brown with slight glaucous bloom, crowned with remnant of the styles. Stalks an inch or two long. Seeds six to nine, surrounded by a thick layer of dark, sweet pulp.
 * Rooting Habit, "Tap Root in proportion like a carrot". A seedling tree grows many times in root length to its growth upward in height. The Kentucky coffee tree is not commonly offered in the nursery trade because the taproot makes the tree somewhat difficult to transplant. Being in the Legume family the roots fix nitrogen in the soil.
 * Soil: Prefers rich, moist soils in floodplains, terraces, ravines, coves, and lower slopes.

Taxonomy
Gymnocladus is derived from the Ancient Greek κλάδος (kládos) "branch" and γυμνός (gumnós) "naked" and refers to the stout branchlets unclothed with small twigs.

It is one of five species in the genus Gymnocladus, and the only one native to North America; the other four being native to South, Southeast and Eastern Asia.

The name is sometimes hyphenated as 'coffee-tree'; the form 'coffeetree' here is as used officially by the United States Forest Service.

Distribution
The Kentucky coffeetree is considered a rare tree species. "Rare species are those that are so uncommon that they should be monitored to determine whether their populations are becoming threatened." It is widely distributed, but rare.

The tree's native range is limited, occurring from Southern Ontario, Canada and in the United States from Kentucky (where it was first encountered by Europeans) and Connecticut in the east, to Kansas, eastern Nebraska, and southeastern South Dakota in the west, to southern Wisconsin and Michigan in the north, and to northern Louisiana in the south. It is planted as an urban shade tree across the United States and eastern Canada, including California. It has a disjunct population in Central New York.

This tree usually occurs as widely dispersed individuals or small colonial groups with interconnected root systems. This tree is found in floodplains and river valleys but is also sometimes seen on rocky hillsides and limestone woods. In the northeastern part of its range, seemingly natural groves of this tree are actually associated with known prehistoric village sites. In some parts of its range, this tree may be used as an indicator of the presence of limestone or of calcareous soils.

The Kentucky coffeetree is considered an example of an evolutionary anachronism. The tough, leathery seed pods are too difficult for many extant animals to chew through (in addition to being poisonous) and they are too heavy for either wind or water dispersal. It has been hypothesized that the tree would have been browsed upon by now-extinct mammalian megafauna, which ate the pods and nicked the seeds with their large teeth, aiding in germination. This behavior is seen among African elephants eating Fabaceae relatives in Africa. Because of this, its prehistoric range may have been much larger than it has been in historical times. Today, in the wild, it only grows well in wetlands, and it is thought that only in such wet conditions can the seed pods rot away to allow germination in the absence of large herbivores.

Cultivation
Gymnocladus dioicus is considered well-suited to urban environments, as it is tolerant of poor soils, has extreme drought tolerance, and is not vulnerable to serious insect infestations or disease problems. It is cultivated by specialty tree plant nurseries as an ornamental tree for planting in gardens and parks. The peculiarly late-emerging and early-dropping leaves, coupled with the fact that the large leaves mean few twigs in the winter profile, make it a tree that is ideal for urban shading where winter sunlight is to be maximized (such as in proximity to solar hot-air systems).

It is often planted because of its unique appearance and interesting character. There are several Kentucky coffeetrees at Mount Vernon, in the gardens along the path leading up to the house of George Washington.

Trees prefer a rich moist soil, such as bottom lands. Their growth is largely unaffected by heat, cold, drought, insects, disease, road salt, ice, and alkaline soil. Kentucky coffeetree is easy to grow from seed. Filing the seedcoat by hand with a small file, and then soaking the seeds in water for 24 hours will ensure rapid germination. Propagation is also easy from dormant root cuttings from December through March.

The Kentucky coffeetree is typically found on "alluvial soils of river and flood plains and nearby terraces". Here it may be locally abundant and form large clonal colonies, reproducing by shoots sprouting from roots.

Food
The beans of the tree were eaten, after roasting, in the Meskwaki (Fox), Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) and Pawnee Native American cultures.

The Meskwaki also drank the roasted ground seeds in a hot beverage similar to coffee. The common name "coffeetree" derives from this latter use of the roasted seeds, which was imitated by settlers because it seemed a substitute for coffee, especially in times of poverty, similar to chicory. The European colonialists, however, considered it inferior to real coffee:

When Kentucky was first settled by the adventurous pioneers from the Atlantic states who commenced their career in the primeval wilderness, almost without the necessaries of life, except as they produced them from the fertile soil, they fancied that they had discovered a substitute for coffee in the seeds of this tree; and accordingly the name of coffee-tree was bestowed upon it. But when communication was established with the sea-ports, they gladly relinquished their Kentucky beverage for the more grateful flavor of the Indian berry; and no use is at present made of it in that manner.

The roasted seeds can be eaten like sweet chestnuts. Usefully, the fruits can be collected and picked up from the tree or ground at any time during fall, winter, and spring.

Toxicity
Caution should be used when consuming, as unroasted or only partially roasted beans and pods are considered poisonous and are reputed to contain the alkaloid cytisine. The pods, preserved like those of the tamarind, can be eaten and are slightly aperient (laxative). Many sources claim that roasting the seeds for a certain length of time can reduce or eliminate the cytisine thought to be in them, but this is not based on scientific evidence. There are however, many anecdotal accounts of people drinking a coffee-like drink made from the seeds without suffering any adverse health effects, although most reported the taste to be unpleasant.

The plant is toxic to some animals and intoxicates dogs. "Kentucky Coffee Tree intoxication in a dog"

Culture
In addition to use as a food, the seeds of Kentucky coffeetree were used by Native Americans for ceremonial and recreational purposes. Seeds were used as dice in games of chance that were common in eastern tribes. It is likely that indigenous community members carved patterns on coffeetree seeds used in ceremonial dice games, which also served to scarify the seeds and prepare them for germination. The seeds were also used in jewelry. The importance of the Kentucky coffeetree to Native Americans undoubtedly contributed to its dispersal.

Gymnocladus dioicus is used as a street tree as far north as Montréal, Québec. It resists harsh winters and de-icing salts.

Woodworking
The wood is used both by cabinetmakers and carpenters. It has very little sapwood.

Notable specimens
A specimen with a height of 26 m was referenced in La Turpinerie, commune of Geay, a short distance from the Charente in south-west France, growing in a typical calcareous soil (see Minutes of Congrès international de sylviculture de Paris, June 1900). Cut during the 20th century, it had a circumference of 2.8 m and was the tallest in the country at this time.

A Kentucky coffeetree, said to have been brought to the UK in 1812, stands in Mountsfield Park in the London Borough of Lewisham.

A Kentucky coffeetree found in the Will Rogers Park in Amarillo, Texas has been confirmed to be the largest of its kind in Texas. Texas A&M Forest Service said, has a circumference of 92 inches, a height of 51 feet and a crown spread of 52 feet.

A Kentucky coffeetree lives in Rhode Island in the Roger Williams Park Zoo at 1000 Elmwood Avenue, Providence.

At the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, 19 Kentucky coffeetrees are planted in the Apollo courtyard prior to entry into the museum.

In 2022, the Tree Board for the town of Hillsborough, North Carolina, selected a grove of Kentucky coffeetrees as its 2022 Treasure Tree. Originally the grove was mis-identified as a part of a program to remove invasive species, but the North Carolina Forest Service helped to confirm the proper identification of the trees.

The largest Kentucky coffeetree in New Hampshire, at 91 ft tall, is on the campus of Dartmouth College.

title: Kentucky coffeetree


text:
Ice hockey at the 1994 Winter Olympics

The men's ice hockey tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, was the 18th Olympic Championship. Sweden won its first gold medal, becoming the sixth nation to ever win Olympic ice hockey gold. The tournament, held from 12 February to 27 February, was played at the Fjellhallen in Gjøvik and the Håkons Hall in Lillehammer. There was no women's tournament at the Olympics until 1998.

Qualification
The top eleven nations from the 1993 World Championships qualified directly. To fill the twelfth spot, five nations were selected to compete: The top two from Group B (Great Britain and Poland), the top nation from Group C (Latvia), the best Asian nation (Japan), and Slovakia. This was the first IIHF event for Slovakia.

Preliminary round
All times are local (UTC+1).

Group A

Group B

9–12th place semifinals

Quarterfinals

5–8th place semifinals

Semifinals

Gold medal game
An exciting gold medal game saw Sweden force overtime by tying the score with less than two minutes to go. After a scoreless overtime, the winner was determined by a shootout. The first five rounds saw two players for each side make their penalty shots (Nedved and Kariya for Canada and Forsberg and Svensson for Sweden). In the sixth round, both Nedved and Svensson missed their shots. Forsberg then scored on Canadian goaltender Hirsch to start the seventh round. Kariya took Canada's seventh round shot and was stopped by Swedish goaltender Salo—giving the Swedes the gold medal.

Commemorative Swedish stamp
In 1995, the Swedish postal service memorialized Forsberg's game winning shootout goal by issuing a commemorative stamp. Because goaltender Corey Hirsch would not grant permission for his likeness to be used on the stamp, he was 'disguised' by means of changing the color of his sweater and his player number.

Average age
Team France was the oldest team in the tournament, averaging 28 years. Team USA was the youngest team in the tournament, averaging 22 years and 11 months. Gold medalists team Sweden averaged 26 years and 6 months. Tournament average was 26 years and 3 months.

Leading scorers
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; PIM = Penalties in minutes; POS = Position Source: eliteprospects.com

Media All-Stars

 * Goaltender: 🇸🇪 Tommy Salo
 * Defencemen: 🇨🇦 Brad Werenka, 🇫🇮 Timo Jutila
 * Forwards: 🇸🇪 Mats Näslund, 🇸🇰 Peter Šťastný, 🇸🇪 Patrik Juhlin

title: Ice hockey at the 1994 Winter Olympics


text: User talk:204.186.153.1

title: User talk:204.186.153.1


text: User talk:209.250.190.254

title: User talk:209.250.190.254


text:
List of partial differential equation topics

This is a list of partial differential equation topics.

General topics

 * Partial differential equation
 * Nonlinear partial differential equation
 * list of nonlinear partial differential equations
 * Boundary condition
 * Boundary value problem
 * Dirichlet problem, Dirichlet boundary condition
 * Neumann boundary condition
 * Stefan problem
 * Wiener–Hopf problem
 * Separation of variables
 * Green's function
 * Elliptic partial differential equation
 * Singular perturbation
 * Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem
 * H-principle
 * Atiyah–Singer index theorem
 * Bäcklund transform
 * Viscosity solution
 * Weak solution
 * Loewy decomposition of linear differential equations

Specific partial differential equations

 * Broer–Kaup equations
 * Burgers' equation
 * Euler equations
 * Fokker–Planck equation
 * Hamilton–Jacobi equation, Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation
 * Heat equation
 * Laplace's equation
 * Laplace operator
 * Harmonic function
 * Spherical harmonic
 * Poisson integral formula
 * Klein–Gordon equation
 * Korteweg–de Vries equation
 * Modified KdV–Burgers equation
 * Maxwell's equations
 * Navier–Stokes equations
 * Poisson's equation
 * Primitive equations (hydrodynamics)
 * Schrödinger equation
 * Wave equation

Numerical methods for PDEs

 * Finite difference
 * Finite element method
 * Finite volume method
 * Boundary element method
 * Multigrid
 * Spectral method
 * Computational fluid dynamics
 * Alternating direction implicit

Related areas of mathematics

 * Calculus of variations
 * Harmonic analysis
 * Ordinary differential equation
 * Sobolev space


text:
Howe

Howe may refer to:

People and fictional characters

 * Howe (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters
 * Howe Browne, 2nd Marquess of Sligo (1788–1845), Irish peer and colonial governor

Titles

 * Earl Howe, two titles, an extinct one in the Peerage of Great Britain and an extant one in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
 * Howe baronets, two extinct titles in the Baronetage of England

Antarctica

 * Mount Howe, Marie Byrd Land
 * Howe Glacier, Queen Maud Mountains

Australia

 * Cape Howe, on the border between New South Wales and Victoria, Australia
 * Lord Howe Island, Australia

Canada

 * Howe Sound, British Columbia
 * Howe Island, Ontario

Germany

 * Howe, Hamburg

United Kingdom

 * Howe, North Yorkshire, a small village and civil parish
 * Howe, Norfolk, a village and civil parish
 * Howe, Orkney, a small settlement
 * Howe of Fife, a low-lying valley in Scotland

United States

 * Howe, Idaho, an unincorporated community
 * Howe, Indiana, an unincorporated census-designated place
 * Howe, Minneapolis, a neighborhood in the city of Minneapolis
 * Howe, Nebraska, an unincorporated community
 * Howe, Oklahoma, a town
 * Howe, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
 * Howe, Texas, a town
 * Howe Township (disambiguation)
 * Howe Caverns, New York

Elsewhere

 * Île Howe, one of the Kerguelen Islands

United States

 * Howe House (Cambridge, Massachusetts), on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Howe Building, Lowell, Massachusetts, on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Howe Barn, Ipswich, Massachusetts, on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Howe Tavern (College Corner, Ohio), on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Wayside Inn (Sudbury), originally called the Howe Tavern, part of the Wayside Inn Historic District in Sudbury, Massachusetts

England

 * Castle Howe, Kendal, Cumbria

Scotland

 * Maes Howe, Stenness, Orkney
 * Mine Howe, Tankerness, Orkney
 * The Howe, Stromness, Orkney

Schools in the United States

 * Howe High School (disambiguation)
 * Howe Military Academy, Howe, Indiana

Other uses

 * HMS Howe, several British warships
 * Howe & Co, a firm of solicitors in London, England
 * A synonym for tumulus, a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves

title: Howe


text:
Hausdorff paradox

The Hausdorff paradox is a paradox in mathematics named after Felix Hausdorff. It involves the sphere $${ S^2}$$ (the surface of a 3-dimensional ball in ${ \R^3 }$). It states that if a certain countable subset is removed from $${ S^2 }$$, then the remainder can be divided into three disjoint subsets $${ A,B }$$ and $${ C }$$ such that $${ A, B, C }$$ and $${ B \cup C }$$ are all congruent. In particular, it follows that on $$S^2$$ there is no finitely additive measure defined on all subsets such that the measure of congruent sets is equal (because this would imply that the measure of $${ B \cup C }$$ is simultaneously $$1/3$$, $$1/2$$, and $$2/3$$ of the non-zero measure of the whole sphere).

The paradox was published in Mathematische Annalen in 1914 and also in Hausdorff's book, Grundzüge der Mengenlehre, the same year. The proof of the much more famous Banach–Tarski paradox uses Hausdorff's ideas. The proof of this paradox relies on the axiom of choice.

This paradox shows that there is no finitely additive measure on a sphere defined on all subsets which is equal on congruent pieces. (Hausdorff first showed in the same paper the easier result that there is no countably additive measure defined on all subsets.) The structure of the group of rotations on the sphere plays a crucial role here – the statement is not true on the plane or the line. In fact, as was later shown by Banach, it is possible to define an "area" for all bounded subsets in the Euclidean plane (as well as "length" on the real line) in such a way that congruent sets will have equal "area". (This Banach measure, however, is only finitely additive, so it is not a measure in the full sense, but it equals the Lebesgue measure on sets for which the latter exists.) This implies that if two open subsets of the plane (or the real line) are equi-decomposable then they have equal area.

title: Hausdorff paradox