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Tag soup

In web development, "tag soup" is a pejorative for HTML written for a web page that is syntactically or structurally incorrect. Web browsers have historically treated structural or syntax errors in HTML leniently, so there has been little pressure for web developers to follow published standards. Therefore there is a need for all browser implementations to provide mechanisms to cope with the appearance of "tag soup", accepting and correcting for invalid syntax and structure where possible.

An HTML parser (part of a web browser) that is capable of interpreting HTML-like markup even if it contains invalid syntax or structure may be called a tag soup parser. All major web browsers currently have a tag soup parser for interpreting malformed HTML, with most error-handling elements standardized.

"Tag soup" encompasses many common authoring mistakes, such as malformed HTML tags, improperly nested HTML elements, and unescaped character entities (especially ampersands (&) and less-than signs (<)).

"I have used this term in my instruction for years to characterize the jumble of angle brackets acting like tags in HTML in pages that are accepted by browsers. Improper minimization, overlapping constructs ... stuff that looks like SGML markup but the creator didn't know or respect SGML rules for the HTML vocabulary. In effect a soupy collection of text and markup. [...] I've never seen the term defined anywhere."

- G. Ken Holman

The Markup Validation Service is a resource for web page authors to avoid creating tag soup.

Overview
"Tag soup" is a term used to denigrate various practices in web authoring. Some of these (roughly ordered from most severe to least severe) include:

 * 1) Malformed markup where tags are improperly nested or incorrectly closed. For example, the following:
 * 2) Invalid structure where elements are improperly nested according to the DTD for the document. Examples of this include nesting a "ul" element directly inside another "ul" element for any of the HTML 4.01 or XHTML DTDs. Dan Connolly cites the use of title element outside the head section.
 * 3) Use of proprietary or undefined elements and attributes instead of those defined in W3C recommendations. For example the use of the Blink element or the Marquee element which were non-standard elements originally only supported by Netscape and Internet Explorer  browsers respectively.

Malformed markup
Malformed markup is arguably the most severe problem in web authoring. However, thanks to better education and information and perhaps with some help from XHTML, the issue of malformed markup is becoming less common. Browsers, when faced with malformed markup, must guess the intended meaning of the author. They must infer closing tags where they expect them and then infer opening tags to match other closing-tags. The interpretation can vary markedly from one browser to the next.

While many graphical web editors produce well-formed markup, an author writing code manually with a text-editor and then testing only in one browser can easily miss such errors. The presentation can therefore vary drastically from one browser to another as each tries to "correct" the authorʼs intent in different ways and then applies styling to those "corrections".

Invalid document structure
Invalid document structure here means only the use of attributes and elements where they do not belong. For example, placing a "cite" attribute on a "cite" element is invalid since the HTML and XHTML DTDs do not ascribe any meaning to that attribute on that element. Similarly, including a "p" element within the content of an "em" element is also invalid. With the move toward separating malformed markup from invalid markup, the problems with invalid markup have increasingly been seen as less severe. Some have begun to advocate looser content models that allow greater flexibility in authoring HTML documents (whether in HTML or XHTML). However, use of invalid markup can blur the author's intended meaning, though not as severely as malformed markup.

Many graphic web editors still produce invalid markup. Moreover, many professional web designers and authors pay little attention to issues of validity. It is common to see invalid markup in many of the sites throughout the World Wide Web.

Use of proprietary/discontinued elements
In the early age of the web (much of the 1990s), the design of the official HTML specification became increasingly strained, compared to the desire of designers for flexibility in creating visually vibrant designs. In response to this pressure, browser makers unilaterally added new proprietary features to HTML that fell outside the standards at the time. This meant there were proprietary elements in HTML that worked in some browsers, but not in others.

To some extent, this problem was slowed by the introduction of new standards by the W3C, such as CSS, introduced in 1998, which helped to provide greater flexibility in the presentation and layout of web pages without the need for large numbers of additional HTML elements and attributes.

Moreover, in HTML 4 and XHTML 1, many elements were either superseded by a single semantic construct (such as object elements replacing proprietary applet and embed elements) or deprecated due to being presentational (such as the "s", "strike" and "u" elements).

Nevertheless, browser developers continued to introduce new elements to HTML when they perceived a need. Some browsers included tabindex attributes on any element. Developers of Apple's WebKit introduced the canvas element, a version of which was subsequently adopted by Mozilla.

In 2004, Apple, Mozilla and Opera founded the WHATWG, with the intent of creating a new version of the HTML specification which all browser behavior would match. This included changing the specification if necessary to match an existing consensus between different browsers.

The canvas and embed elements were subsequently standardised by the WHATWG. Certain elements (including b, i and small) which were previously considered presentational and deprecated were included, but defined in a media-independent rather than visual manner.

Versions of the WHATWG specification were published by the W3C as HTML5.

Evolving specifications to solve tag soup
While some of the issues of tag soup are due to shortcomings of browsers and sometimes due to a lack of information for web authors, some of the proliferation of tag soup was due to missing links in the web standards themselves. The W3C has spearheaded several efforts to address the shortcomings of web standards. As more browsers support newer revisions of standards, the pressure on web developers to use non-standard code to solve problems diminishes.

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) provide a mechanism to specify the presentation of elements in a document without altering the markup structure of the document. Before CSS was commonplace, web developers may have resorted to some structurally invalid markup to achieve certain presentational goals – for example, including block level elements within inline elements to obtain a particular effect, or using sometimes large numbers of  and other display-specific HTML tags. CSS uses style rules to accomplish these tasks while leaving the markup cleaner and simpler.

XML and XHTML
XHTML is a reformulation of the HTML language based on XML. XHTML was developed to address many of the problems associated with tag soup.

XML allows parsers to separate the process of interpreting the document syntax and its structure. In HTML and SGML, a parser needed to know certain rules about elements during parsing, such as what elements could be contained within other elements and which elements implicitly close the previous element. This is because in HTML and SGML, closing tags and even opening tags were optional on some elements. By requiring all elements to have explicit opening and closing tags, XML parsers can parse the document and produce a document tree without any knowledge of the document type. This allows parsers to be universal and very light-weight, and to be separated from the process of validating or interpreting the document.

The XML specification clearly defines that a conforming user agent (such as a web browser) must not accept a document, and not continue parsing it, if any syntactical error is encountered. Thus, a browser interpreting a web page as XHTML will refuse to display the page if it encounters a formation error. This can help ensure that when authors test XHTML code against a conforming browser they will immediately be informed of malformation problems: perhaps the most severe problem facing web browsers. When code is malformed, the intent of the author is ambiguous. Without the directives of XML, HTML browsers must use complex algorithms to infer the author's intended meaning in a wide range of cases where invalid syntax is encountered.

XML and XHTML introduce the concept of namespaces. With namespaces, authors or communities of authors can define new elements and attributes with new semantics, and intermix those within their XHTML documents. Namespaces ensure that element names from the various namespaces will not be conflated. For example, a "table" element could be defined in a new namespace with new semantics different from the HTML "table" element and the browser will be able to differentiate between the two. In providing namespaces, XHTML combined with CSS allow authoring communities to easily extend the semantic vocabulary of documents. This accommodates the use of proprietary elements so long as those elements can be presented to the intended audience through complete style sheet definitions (including aural/speech and tactile styles).

XHTML documents may be served on the web using the internet media type  or  Microsoft Internet Explorer versions before 9 do not display XHTML documents served as. IE9 and later versions are compliant. See also the discussion of this issue in the XHTML article.

HTML5
HTML5 aims to be the most complete solution to the problem of tag soup thus far while remaining as backwards- and forwards-compatible as possible. By contrast to XHTML, which departs from backwards compatibility and takes the approach that parsers should become less tolerant of badly formed markup, HTML5 acknowledges that badly formed HTML code already exists in large quantities and will probably continue to be used, and takes the view that the specification should be expanded to ensure maximum compatibility with such code.

Thus, the HTML 5 specification has altered its definition of HTML syntax both to accommodate common syntax in use today, and to explicitly describe exactly how "badly formed code" should be treated by the parser. The handling of badly formed code now has a place in the specification itself, hopefully reducing the need for future HTML parsers to implement additional, out-of-specification measures for dealing with code that it does not recognize.

Tools
Many software tools exist which can parse and attempt to correct malformed markup, among other functions.
 * HTML Tidy is a software tool available for many platforms which can correct invalid syntax, and most invalid document structure, converting HTML-like code to HTML or XHTML.
 * Aggiorno is a Visual Studio add-in that focuses on making websites standards-compliant
 * TagSoup is a Java library that parses HTML, cleans it up, and delivers a stream of SAX events representing well-formed XML (not necessarily valid XHTML). This tools is used for processing JNLP files in the open source implementation of the JNLP protocol available in IcedTea-Web, a sub-project of IcedTea, the build and integration project of the OpenJDK.
 * Beautiful Soup is a Python DOM-like parser for HTML/XML which can handle malformed markup.
 * tagsoup: a library for Haskell language.

Valid deviations from XHTML
Unlike the strict XHTML, HTML and its predecessor SGML are designed to be written by humans, and already have a significant degree of flexibility in syntax to reduce boilerplate. These differences do not make the document invalid and are therefore not tag soup. The following apply to both HTML 4 and HTML5, and examples date back to the first days of HTML.

 * Tags like  can often be omitted completely.
 * The closure of tags can often be omitted because the specification rejects some elements nesting into itself. For example, multiple  elements can be written without closing.

Despite their validity, these omissions still require a special parser with a knowledge of HTML (as opposed to the more rigid XML) to parse. In addition, it is common for tools to "fix" these structures too. For example, HTML Tidy allows omitting optional tags, but defaults to not doing so.

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Film4 Productions

Film4 Productions is a British film production company owned by Channel Four Television Corporation. The company has been responsible for backing many films made in the United Kingdom. The company's first production was Walter, directed by Stephen Frears, which was released in 1982. It is especially known for its gritty, kitchen sink-style films and period dramas.

History
In 1981, producer David Rose left the BBC for Channel 4 where he was appointed the Commissioning Editor for Fiction by Jeremy Isaacs, the channel's founding Chief Executive but became mostly identified with the Film on Four strand. With an initial overall budget of £6 million a year, Channel Four Films was to invest in twenty films annually for Film on Four. The first film backed was Neil Jordan's debut film Angel (1982). The first film shown as part of Film on Four was Stephen Frears's Walter which was screened on 2 November 1982, the launch date of Channel 4. P'tang, Yang, Kipperbang screened the following day was also an early highlight. Originally, the company's films were intended for television screenings alone; the "holdback" system prevented investment in theatrical films by television companies because of the length of time (then three years) before broadcasters could screen them. An agreement soon concluded with the Cinema Exhibitors Association allowed a brief period of cinema exhibition if the budget of the films was below £1.25 million. Channel Four Films struck several deals with other film production companies including the BFI Production Board, Goldcrest Films and Merchant Ivory. By 1984, Channel Four Films were investing in a third of the feature films made in the UK.

Channel Four's Business Development Department was formed in 1983 for TV and film sales and they also invested in foreign films including Wim Wenders' Paris, Texas (1984) and Jan Svankmajer's Alice (1988). In 1985 FilmFour International was created as a separate international film sales arm and to invest in foreign film, including Andrei Tarkovsky's The Sacrifice (1986).

Channel Four Film's first big hit was Frears' third feature film for the cinema, My Beautiful Laundrette, in 1985. Originally shot in 16mm for Channel 4 it was met with such critical acclaim at the Edinburgh Film Festival that it was acquired by Orion Classics and distributed to cinemas and became an international success.

In 1987, FilmFour International agreed a licensing deal with Orion Classics to handle US distribution of two more FilmFour features, Rita, Sue and Bob Too and A Month in the Country. By 1987, Channel 4 had an interest in half the films being made in the United Kingdom.

Rose and Channel Four Films are credited by many as being a significant figure in the regeneration of British cinema and particularly remembered for films such as Wish You Were Here, Dance With a Stranger, Mona Lisa, and Letter to Brezhnev. Channel Four Films also invested in early Working Title Films as well as most of the films of Frears, Ken Loach and Mike Leigh. Leigh told writer Hannah Rothschild around 2008 that Film on Four had saved the British film industry: "This is a non-negotiable, historical fact of life and anybody who suggests that this isn't the case is simply either suffering from some kind of ignorance or has got some terrible chip."

Rose remained in his post as Commissioning Editor until March 1990. During his tenure at Channel 4, Rose approved the making of 136 films, half of which received cinema screenings. Of the films Rose backed, 20 were from overseas sources, including work by directors Theo Angelopoulos, Andrei Tarkovsky and Wim Wenders. The company also helped British minority filmmakers including Po-Chih Leong (Ping Pong (1986)); Horace Ové (Playing Away (1986)) and Hanif Kureishi (My Beautiful Laundrette; Sammy and Rosie Get Laid (1987)). This continued after Rose's departure with films directed by Gurinder Chadha (Bhaji on the Beach (1993)) and Steve McQueen (Hunger (2008)).

David Aukin joined as head of drama in October 1990 and took over responsibility for Film on Four. He changed his title to head of film in 1997 which he remained until 1998.

The company had another big international success with Jordan's The Crying Game in 1992. In addition it was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture as was Howards End the same year. Damage also received an Academy Award nomination that year. Later in 1993, Leigh's Naked and Loach's Raining Stones were entered into competition at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival.

The following year, Mike Newell's Four Weddings and a Funeral became the highest-grossing UK film of all time and Danny Boyle's Trainspotting (1996) was also very successful.

In the 1990s, Channel Four partnered with The Samuel Goldwyn Company to create a distribution company to release Channel Four films and Goldwyn films in the UK but Goldwyn pulled out late on and in August 1995, Film Four Distributors was formed. Its first release was Blue Juice (1995) and its first major successes were Secrets & Lies and Brassed Off in 1996.

In 1998, the company was re-branded as FilmFour with an annual budget of £32 million for 8 to 10 films. East Is East (1999) becomes their biggest self-funded film. In 2000, the company signed a three-year deal with Warner Bros. to make seven films with budgets of more than £13 million but their first, Charlotte Gray (2001) was not the success they hoped for.

The company cut its budget and staff significantly in 2002, due to mounting losses, and was reintegrated into the drama department of Channel 4. The name "Film4 Productions" was introduced in 2006 to tie in with the relaunch of the FilmFour broadcast channel as Film4.

Tessa Ross was head of both Film4 and Channel 4 drama from 2002 to 2014.

Selected list of productions
This is a list of the most notable productions by Film4.

 * 12 Years a Slave (co-production with Regency Enterprises, River Road Entertainment and Plan B)
 * 127 Hours (co-production with Pathé, Fox Searchlight Pictures, Everest Entertainment, Cloud Eight Films, Darlow Smithson Productions and Warner Bros. Pictures)
 * 20,000 Days on Earth (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * 24 Hour Party People (co-production with United Artists, UK Film Council, Revolution Films and Baby Cow Productions)
 * 45 Years (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * '71 (co-production with British Film Institute, Screen Yorkshire, Creative Scotland and Warp Films)
 * A Complete History of My Sexual Failures (co-production with Warp Films, Screen Yorkshire, EM Media, Madman Entertainment and UK Film Council)
 * A Field in England
 * A Life Less Ordinary (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and 20th Century Fox)
 * A Most Wanted Man (co-production with FilmNation Entertainment)
 * A Month in the Country (co-production with Euston Films)
 * A Room with a View (co-production with Merchant Ivory Productions and Goldcrest Films)
 * A Zed and Two Noughts (co-production with British Film Institute and Artificial Eye)
 * Amy (co-production with Universal Music, Playmaker Films & Krishwerkz Entertainment)
 * American Animals
 * American Buffalo (co-production with Capitol Films)
 * American Honey (co-production with Parts & Labor, Pulse Films, ManDown Pictures, British Film Institute, and Maven Pictures)
 * An Evening with Beverly Luff Linn (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * And When Did You Last See Your Father? (co-production with Sony Pictures Classics, UK Film Council, EM Media, Tiger Aspect, Bórd Scannán na hÉireann/Irish Film Board and European Development Fund)
 * Angel
 * Angels & Insects (co-production with The Samuel Goldwyn Company)
 * Another Year (co-production with Thin Man Films)
 * Attack the Block (co-production with Big Talk Productions, StudioCanal and UK Film Council)
 * Backbeat (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment)
 * Bad Behaviour
 * Bandit Queen (co-production with Kaleidoscope Entertainment)
 * Beast (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * Beautiful Thing
 * Been So Long (co-production with Netflix and British Film Institute)
 * Bent (co-production with Arts Council of England)
 * Berberian Sound Studio (co-production with Warp X Productions, Screen Yorkshire and UK Film Council)
 * Bhaji on the Beach
 * Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk (co-production with TriStar Pictures)
 * Birthday Girl (co-production with Miramax Films, Mirage Enterprises and HAL Films)
 * Black Sea (co-production with Focus Features)
 * Blue (co-production with BBC Radio 3 and Arts Council of Great Britain)
 * Blue Juice
 * Blonde Fist
 * Brassed Off (co-production with Miramax Films and Prominent Features)
 * Bread and Roses
 * Brian and Charles (co-production with British Film Institute and Mr Box Productions)
 * Brothers of the Head (co-production with Screen East and EM Media)
 * Buena Vista Social Club (co-production with Road Movies Filmproduktion and Arte)
 * Buffalo Soldiers (co-production with Good Machine and Miramax Films)
 * Bunny and the Bull (co-production with Warp X Productions, Wild Bunch, Optimum Releasing, Screen Yorkshire and UK Film Council)
 * Career Girls
 * Carla's Song (co-production with Glasgow Film Office and Televisión Española)
 * Carol (co-production with Number 9 Films and Killer Films)
 * Catch Me Daddy (co-production with British Film Institute and Screen Yorkshire)
 * Charlotte Gray (co-production with Ecosse Films and Warner Bros.)
 * Christmas Carol: The Movie (co-production with UK Film Council)
 * Cold War (co-production with British Film Institute and MK2)
 * Comrades (co-production with now-defunct National Film Finance Corporation)
 * Croupier (co-production with Arte and Westdeutscher Rundfunk)
 * Cuban Fury (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * Damage (co-production with Le Studio Canal+ and Canal+)
 * Dance with a Stranger
 * Dancer in the Dark (co-production with Canal+, France 3 Cinéma, Zentropa and Fine Line Features)
 * Dancing at Lughnasa (co-production with Sony Pictures Classics, Bórd Scannán na hÉireann/Irish Film Board, Raidió Teilifís Éireann and Capitol Films)
 * Dead Man's Shoes
 * Death and the Maiden (co-production with Capitol Films, Canal+, TF1 and Fine Line Features)
 * Death to Smoochy (co-production with Senator Film and Warner Bros.)
 * Deep Water
 * Dirt Music (co-production with ScreenWest)
 * Disobedience (co-production with FilmNation Entertainment and Element Pictures)
 * Dog Eat Dog (co-production with Tiger Aspect Productions)
 * Dogma (produced by View Askew)
 * Donkey Punch (co-production with EM Media, Madman Entertainment, Screen Yorkshire, UK Film Council and Warp X Productions)
 * Dream Horse (co-production with Cornerstone Films, Ingenious Media, Raw, Topic Studios, FFilm Cymru Wales, Bleecker Street, Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions and Warner Bros. Pictures)
 * Drowning by Numbers
 * Dust Devil(co-production with Miramax Films)
 * East Is East
 * Eat the Rich (co-production with Michael White)
 * Elizabeth (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, Meridian and Working Title Films)
 * Enduring Love (co-production with Pathé, UK Film Council and Ingenious Film Partners)
 * Ex Machina (co-production with Universal Pictures and DNA Films)
 * Experience Preferred... But Not Essential
 * Everybody's Talking About Jamie (co-production with New Regency Pictures, 20th Century Fox and Warp Films)
 * Fever Pitch
 * Fighting with My Family (co-production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, WWE Studios and Seven Bucks Productions)
 * For Those in Peril (co-production with Warp X Productions)
 * Four Lions (co-production with Warp Films, Wild Bunch and Optimum Releasing)
 * Four Weddings and a Funeral (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films)
 * Frank
 * Franklyn (co-production with Recorded Picture Company, HanWay Films and UK Film Council)
 * Free Fire (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * Funny Games (co-production with Warner Independent Pictures and Tartan Films)
 * Gabriel and Me (co-production with Pathé, Isle of Man Film and UK Film Council)
 * Gangster No. 1 (co-production with Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg, Road Movies Filmproduktion and BSkyB)
 * Giro City
 * God on the Rocks
 * Gregory's Two Girls
 * Greed (co-production with Columbia Pictures and Revolution Films)
 * Hallam Foe (co-production with Ingenious Film Partners, Glasgow Film Office, Scottish Screen and Sigma Films)
 * Happy-Go-Lucky (co-production with Ingenious Film Partners and Summit Entertainment)
 * Hear My Song
 * Hero
 * Hidden City
 * High Hopes
 * High-Rise (co-production with Recorded Picture Company, HanWay Films and the British Film Institute)
 * Hilary and Jackie
 * Holy Smoke! (co-production with Miramax Films)
 * How I Live Now (co-production with British Film Institute, Magnolia Pictures and Passion Pictures)
 * How to Lose Friends & Alienate People (co-production with UK Film Council)
 * How to Talk to Girls at Parties (co-production with HanWay Films, See-Saw Films and Little Punk)
 * How to Build a Girl (co-production with Tango Entertainment, British Film Institute, Monumental Pictures, Protagonist Pictures)
 * Howards End
 * Hunger
 * Hush (co-production with Warp X, Pathé, Screen Yorkshire, UK Film Council and Optimum Releasing)
 * Hyde Park on Hudson (co-production with Daybreak Pictures and Focus Features)
 * In Bruges (co-production with Focus Features)
 * In the Shadow of the Moon (co-production with Discovery Films and Passion Pictures)
 * Institute Benjamenta (co-production with Pandora Film)
 * Invincible (co-production with Fine Line Features)
 * Jimmy's Hall
 * Joe Strummer: The Future Is Unwritten
 * Journeyman
 * K-PAX (co-production with Universal Pictures and Intermedia Films)
 * Kill List (co-production with UK Film Council, Warp X, Screen Yorkshire and Rook Films)
 * Kinds of Kindness (co-production with Searchlight Pictures, Element Pictures and TSG Entertainment)
 * Ladybird, Ladybird
 * Last Night in Soho (co-production with Focus Features and Working Title Films)
 * Late Night Shopping (co-production with Scottish Screen and Glasgow Film Office)
 * Le Week-End
 * Lean on Pete (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * Life (co-production with See-Saw Films, Telefilm Canada and Screen Australia)
 * Life Is Sweet
 * London Kills Me (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films)
 * Looking for Eric (co-production with Icon Entertainment International and Wild Bunch)
 * Lucky Break (co-production with Paramount Pictures and Miramax Films)
 * Macbeth (co-production with StudioCanal, DMC Film, Anton Capital Entertainment, Creative Scotland and See-Saw Films)
 * Martha, Meet Frank, Daniel and Laurence
 * Mary Magdalene (co-production with Universal Pictures, Porchlight Films, Affirm Films, Columbia Pictures and See-Saw Films )
 * Me and You and Everyone We Know
 * Mister Lonely (co-production with Recorded Picture Company)
 * Moonlighting
 * Mr. Turner (co-production with British Film Institute, Focus Features International and Thin Man Films)
 * My Beautiful Laundrette (co-production with SAF Productions and Working Title Films)
 * My Name Is Joe
 * Neds (co-production with Scottish Screen, UK Film Council and Wild Bunch)
 * Never Let Me Go (co-production with DNA Films and Fox Searchlight Pictures)
 * Night on Earth (co-production with JVC Entertainment, Victor Music Industries, Le Studio Canal + and Pandora Film)
 * Nothing Personal (co-production with Bórd Scannán na hÉireann/Irish Film Board)
 * Nowhere Boy (co-production with UK Film Council, Ecosse Films and The Weinstein Company)
 * On the Road (co-production with American Zoetrope, MK2, France Télévisions, Canal+, Ciné+, France 2 Cinéma and Vanguard Films)
 * Once Upon a Time in the Midlands (co-production with UK Film Council)
 * One Day (co-production with Focus Features, Random House Films and Color Force)
 * Orphans (co-production with Scottish Arts Council and Glasgow Film Office)
 * P'tang, Yang, Kipperbang
 * Paris, Texas (co-production with Westdeutscher Rundfunk)
 * Peter's Friends (co-production with The Samuel Goldwyn Company)
 * Peterloo (co-production with British Film Institute, Amazon Studios and Thin Man Films)
 * Poor Things (co-production with Searchlight Pictures, Element Pictures and TSG Entertainment)
 * Prospero's Books (co-production with Canal+, Eurimages, VPRO, NHK, Cineplex Odeon Films and Palace Pictures)
 * Purely Belter
 * Queen of Hearts (co-production with Nelson Entertainment, TVS Television and Cinecom)
 * Raining Stones
 * Red Monarch (co-production with Goldcrest Films and Enigma Productions)
 * Remembrance
 * Riff-Raff
 * Rita, Sue and Bob Too
 * Rocks
 * Room (co-production with Element Pictures and No Trace Camping)
 * Saint Maud (co-production with British Film Institute, Escape Plan Productions and StudioCanal)
 * Sammy and Rosie Get Laid (co-production with Working Title Films)
 * Secrets & Lies (co-production with Ciby 2000)
 * Series 7: The Contenders (co-production with USA Films)
 * Seven Psychopaths (co-production with British Film Institute, HanWay Films and CBS Films)
 * Sexy Beast (Co-production with Kanzaman, Fox Searchlight Pictures and Recorded Picture Company)
 * Shallow Grave
 * Shame (co-production with Fox Searchlight Pictures, UK Film Council, See-Saw Films, HanWay Films and Momentum Pictures/Alliance Films)
 * Shaun of the Dead (co-production with Big Talk Productions, Working Title Films, StudioCanal, Universal Pictures and Rogue Pictures)
 * She'll Be Wearing Pink Pyjamas
 * Shopping (co-production with Kuzui Enterprises and PolyGram Filmed Entertainment)
 * Sightseers (co-production with Big Talk Pictures)
 * Sister My Sister
 * Slow West (co-production with the New Zealand Film Commission and See-Saw Films)
 * Slumdog Millionaire (co-production with Fox Searchlight Pictures, Warner Bros. Pictures, Pathé and Celador Films)
 * Starred Up (co-production with Creative Scotland, Northern Ireland Screen and Sigma Films)
 * Stormy Monday (co-production with Atlantic Entertainment Group)
 * Straightheads (co-production with Ingenious Film Partners and UK Film Council)
 * Submarine (co-production with Red Hour Films and Warp Films)
 * Suffragette (co-production with 20th Century Fox, Pathé, BFI, Ingenious Media, Canal+, Cine+ and Ruby Films)
 * Sunshine (co-production with Alliance Atlantis, Eurimages, Telefilm Canada, The Movie Network, Kinowelt, TV2, ORF and Paramount Classics)
 * The Acid House
 * The Actors (co-production with Miramax Films and Bórd Scannán na hÉireann/Irish Film Board)
 * The Baby of Mâcon (co-production with UGC and Canal+)
 * The Belly of an Architect (co-production with Hemdale Film Corporation)
 * The Crying Game (co-production with British Screen, Eurotrustees, Nippon Film Development and Finance and Palace Pictures)
 * The Debt Collector
 * The Deep Blue Sea (co-production with UK Film Council and Artificial Eye)
 * The Double (co-production with Alcove Entertainment and British Film Institute)
 * The Draughtsman's Contract (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * The Eagle (co-production with Focus Features)
 * The Emperor's New Clothes
 * The Favourite (co-production with Fox Searchlight Pictures and Element Pictures)
 * The Festival (co-production with Entertainment Film Distributors)
 * The Filth and the Fury (co-production with Jersey Films)
 * The Future (co-production with Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg)
 * The Great Bear
 * The House of Mirth (co-production with Granada Productions, Kinowelt, Arts Council of England, Showtime Networks and The Scottish Arts Council)
 * The Inbetweeners Movie (co-production with Bwark Productions, Young Films and Entertainment Film Distributors)
 * The Inbetweeners 2 (co-production with Bwark Productions)
 * The Iron Lady (co-production with Pathé, UK Film Council and The Weinstein Company)
 * The King
 * The Killing of a Sacred Deer (co-production with Element Pictures, Newsparta Films & A24)
 * The Land Girls (co-production with PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, Gramercy Pictures, Intermedia Films and Canal+)
 * The Last King of Scotland (co-production with DNA Films and Fox Searchlight Pictures)
 * The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse (co-production with Universal Pictures and Tiger Aspect)
 * The Little Stranger (co-production with Pathé, Canal+ and Element Pictures)
 * The Lobster (co-production with Irish Film Board, Eurimages, Netherlands Film Fund, British Film Institute, Canal+, Ciné+, CNC, Institut Français, Greek Film Centre, Element Pictures, Scarlet Films, Faliro House, Haut et Court and Lemming Films)
 * The Look of Love (co-production with StudioCanal UK, Revolution Films and Baby Cow Productions)
 * The Lovely Bones (co-production with DreamWorks Pictures and Paramount Pictures)
 * The Low Down (co-production with British Screen, Oil Factory and Sleeper Films)
 * The Madness of King George (co-production with The Samuel Goldwyn Company)
 * The Miracle
 * The Motorcycle Diaries
 * The Navigators (co-production with Road Movies Filmproduktion, Westdeutscher Rundfunk and Arte)
 * The Neon Bible (co-production with Artificial Eye)
 * The Personal History of David Copperfield (co-production with FilmNation Entertainment)
 * The Pillow Book (co-production with Canal+)
 * A Pin for the Butterfly
 * The Ploughman's Lunch (co-production with Goldcrest Films and Michael White)
 * The Pope Must Die (co production with Miramax Films, Palace Pictures and Michael White)
 * The Red Violin (co-production with New Line Cinema, Lionsgate, Telefilm Canada and CITY-TV)
 * The Riot Club (co-production with Universal Pictures, British Film Institute, HanWay Films and Pinewood Pictures)
 * The Selfish Giant (co-production with British Film Institute)
 * The Scouting Book for Boys (co-production with Celador Films, Screen East and Pathé)
 * The Spirit of '45
 * The Stone Roses: Made of Stone (co-production with Warp Films)
 * The Straight Story (co-production with StudioCanal and Walt Disney Pictures)
 * The Supergrass (co-production with The Comic Strip and Michael White)
 * The Woman in the Fifth (co-production with UK Film Council, Canal+, Orange Cinéma Séries and Artificial Eye)
 * The Woodlanders (co-production with Pathé Productions and Arts Council of England)
 * This Is England (co-production with UK Film Council, Optimum Releasing, Screen Yorkshire and Warp Films)
 * Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (co-production with Fox Searchlight Pictures and Blueprint Pictures)
 * To Kill a King (co-production with Natural Nylon and HanWay Films)
 * Touching the Void (co-production with Channel 4, UK Film Council, Darlow Smithson Productions and PBS)
 * Trainspotting
 * T2 Trainspotting (co-production with TriStar Pictures, Cloud Eight Films and DNA Films)
 * Trance (co-production with Pathé, Fox Searchlight Pictures and Cloud Eight Films and Indian Paintbrush)
 * Trespass Against Us (co-production with Potboiler Productions)
 * Trojan Eddie (co-production with Bórd Scannán na hÉireann/Irish Film Board)
 * True Blue
 * True History of the Kelly Gang (co-production with Film Victoria and Screen Australia)
 * Tyrannosaur (co-production with Warp X, Inflammable Films, UK Film Council, Screen Yorkshire, EM Media, and Optimum Releasing (as StudioCanal UK))
 * Under the Skin (co-production with British Film Institute, FilmNation Entertainment, Scottish Screen, Nick Wechsler Productions and A24 Films)
 * Una (co-production with Bron Studios, Jean Doumanian Productions, and WestEnd Films)
 * Velvet Goldmine (co-production with Newmarket Capital Group, Miramax Films, Killer Films and Zenith Entertainment)
 * Venus (co-production with UK Film Council and Miramax Films)
 * Very Annie Mary (co-production with Canal+)
 * Walking and Talking (co-production with Miramax Films, Zenith Productions, Pandora Film, Mikado Films (France), Electric, TEAM Communications Group, PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Good Machine)
 * Walter
 * Waterland
 * Welcome to Sarajevo (co-production with Miramax Films'')
 * When the Wind Blows (co-production with Kings Road Entertainment)
 * Widows (co-production with 20th Century Fox, Regency Enterprises and See-Saw Films)
 * Wild West
 * Wish You Were Here
 * With or Without You (co-production with Miramax Films and Revolution Films)
 * Wittgenstein (co-production with the British Film Institute)
 * Wuthering Heights (co-production with HanWay Films, Ecosse Films, UK Film Council, Goldcrest Films and Screen Yorkshire)
 * You Were Never Really Here (co-production with Why Not Productions, British Film Institute and Page 114)
 * Zastrozzi, A Romance

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Film4 Productions


text:
Franklin Field

Franklin Field is a sports stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the eastern edge of the University of Pennsylvania's campus. Named after Penn's founder, Benjamin Franklin, it is the home stadium for the Penn Relays, and the university's venue for football, track and field, and lacrosse. Franklin is also used by Penn students for recreation, intramural and club sports, including touch football and cricket; it is also the site of Penn's commencement exercises, weather permitting.

Franklin Field is the oldest still operating college football stadium in the nation. It was the first college stadium in the United States with a scoreboard and the second with an upper deck of seats. In 1922, it was the site of the first radio broadcast of a football game on WIP, as well as of the first television broadcast of a football game by Philco.

From 1958 through 1970, Franklin Field was the home of the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL). It hosted the NFL Championship Game in December 1960, as the Eagles defeated the Green Bay Packers by four points.

History
Until around 1860, the grounds of what became Franklin Field served as a potter's field. The crania of some of these individuals were acquired by Samuel Morton and are now housed in the Penn Museum.

Franklin Field was built for US$100000 1895 and dedicated on April 20, 1895, for the first running of the Penn Relays. The Field supplemented and eventually replaced the venue called University Grounds, which was located a few blocks west on a block bounded by Spruce Street (north), 38th Street (east), Pine Street (south), Woodland Avenue and 37th Street T-intersection (northwest). Its location was typically given as "37th and Spruce".

Permanent Franklin Field construction did not begin until after the turn of the century. Weightman Hall gymnasium, the stadium, and permanent grandstands were designed by architect Frank Miles Day & Brother and were erected from 1903 to 1905 at a cost of US$500000 1905. The field was 714 ft long and 443 ft wide. The site featured a ¼-mile track, a football field, and a baseball diamond. Beneath the stands were indoor tracks and indoor training facilities.

In 1916, university officials, led by George Neitzche, planned with the city to build a new 100,000-seat half-sunken stadium for $750,000 at Woodland Ravine, a depression on the southeastern side of Woodland Cemetery. Plans called for a new train station called Union Station which would feature a Pennsylvania Railroad stop and a stop on a proposed (and never built) elevated subway line connected to the Market–Frankford Line. Architecture firm Koronski & Cameron created a rendering but plans quickly collapsed. Five years later, it was decided instead to expand Franklin Field.

1922 rebuilding
The current stadium structure was built in the 1920s, designed by Day & Klauder, after the original wooden bleachers were torn down. The lower tier was erected in 1922. The old wood stands were razed immediately following the Penn Relays and the new concrete lower tier and seating for 50,000 were built. The second tier was added in 1925, again designed by Day & Klauder, when it became the second (and the largest) two-tiered stadium in the United States.

The stadium was designed of steel and concrete in the shape of a letter "U". Initial cost was estimated around $725,000. At the time of its construction, it was noted that Franklin Field was one of the few large fields which was built to support baseball as well as football and track sports. Most other large stadia were meant only for football and track.

The first football radio broadcast originated from Franklin Field in 1922, carried by Philadelphia station WIP. This claim is pre-empted by an earlier live radio broadcast emanating from Forbes Field in Pittsburgh, on October 8, 1921, a full year before Franklin Field's claim to fame. Harold W. Arlin announced the live broadcast of the Pitt-West Virginia football game on October 8, 1921, on radio station KDKA. The first commercial football television broadcast in 1939 also came from Franklin Field.

Heyday: the 1930s and 1940s
The 1936 Democratic National Convention was concluded at Franklin Field, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered his acceptance speech after being renominated for a second term.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Penn led the nation in attendance. The 65,000-seat stadium was expanded each fall with temporary stands to seat 78,000.

For example, the annual Thanksgiving Cornell–Penn game, broadcast on national radio, attracted a reported 70,000 to the stadium in 1931. The game earned a story on the front page of The Philadelphia Inquirer along with a quarter-by-quarter breakdown of every detail of the game. The 1947 game attracted a crowd estimated in contemporary reports at "about 80,000".

By the start of the 21st Century, Franklin Field seated 52,958.

Franklin Field switched from natural grass to AstroTurf in 1969 and became first NFL stadium with artificial turf. (The Houston Oilers of the AFL had moved into the Astrodome (with AstroTurf) the previous season.) The stadium's fifth AstroTurf surface was installed in 1993, and the current Sprinturf field replaced it in 2004. Tenants since 1958, the Eagles moved to Veterans Stadium in 1971, also with artificial turf.

Franklin Field was considered a candidate to host games for the 1994 World Cup. FIFA required that host stadiums have natural grass. Had Philadelphia been selected and Franklin Field used, the stadium would have had to return to a grass surface, or perhaps use a temporary grass field as was done at two World Cup sites—Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, and the Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan.

2015-2023 renovations
After 125 years, the original 1895 concrete stands were deteriorating badly. An extensive $44 million renovation to reinforce the concrete began in 2015. The project was staggered over multiple phases, which allowed the continued use of the stadium during renovation work. Previous coatings were removed, the failing sections were replaced, and rebar throughout the structure was reinforced. The project was completed by September 2023 and received a historic preservation award.

Penn Relays
Franklin Field has hosted the annual Penn Relays Carnival, the largest track-and-field meet in the U.S., for over 100 years.

The first Penn Relays was held in 1895. Frank B. Ellis, chairman of Penn's track committee, was looking for an event to mark the dedication of the school's then new stadium, Franklin Field. Two years earlier, during his senior year at Penn, Penn and Princeton competed in a one-mile relay race in which four runners from each school each ran a quarter of a mile. That race had been an outgrowth of intramural relay races held at Penn. Ellis and others arranged a series of relay races to take place on Saturday afternoon, April 20, 1895. 64 competitors from eight colleges, six prep schools and two high schools took part. Eight two-team races were run with Harvard beating Penn in the mile-relay feature in 3:34.4.

The Relays were featured in the April 29, 1961, premiere of ABC's Wide World of Sports.

The 2020 and 2021 Penn Relays were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. These were the first times the event had been canceled since the event's inception on April 21, 1895.

Other meets
The 2nd USSR-United States Track and Field dual meet was held at Franklin Field on July 18 and 19, 1959. Stars who competed included Parry O'Brien, Ray Norton, Al Cantello, Hayes Jones, Tamara Press, Vasili Kuznetsov, Dyrol Burleson, Greg Bell, a young Wilma Rudolph, and future long-jump great Igor Ter-Ovanesyan.

Franklin Field hosted the NCAA Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in June 1961, the first time the championship was held on the East Coast. Seven records were set, and the University of Southern California won its 21st team Track & Field championship.

Following the Montreal 1976 Summer Olympics and in honor of the United States Bicentennial, Franklin Field hosted The Bicentennial Meet of Champions track and field event on August 4, 1976. Montreal Olympians at the meet included Hasely Crawford, Don Quarrie, Michael Shine and Edwin Moses. The meet was also a chance for top runners including Houston McTear who had not been able to compete in Montreal to race against medal winners. 13,722 attended the event and saw Dwight Stones set a record for the high-jump and John Walker win the mile.

The University of Pennsylvania hosted the two-day 1980 Liberty Bell Track and Field Classic, an alternate to the 1980 Summer Olympics for 26 countries participating in the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics which were held in Moscow. The Liberty Bell Classic began on July 16, 1980. It was the largest international track meet held in the U.S. since the 1932 Summer Olympics in terms of the number of foreign competitors. Franklin Field hosted the track and field events where 20,111 spectators saw the final evening of competitions. In several events, the times were better than those in Moscow, such as American Renaldo Nehemiah's time of 13.31 in the 110m hurdles ahead of East German gold medal winner Thomas Munkelt's time of 13.39.

Track configuration
The track in Franklin Field has a rarely used configuration where the 400 metre circumference is achieved in lane 4, rather than in lane one. Thus there are two curbs on the track, inside of lane one and also inside of lane 4. In order to accommodate the full fields of the Penn Relays and other meets, special adaptations are made with a movable curb on the backstretch to stagger the runners to arrive at a common break point in lane 4, rather than the conventional lane one. Single lap races in the inner lanes, run portions of an extra straightaway. Multiple lap races spend the majority of the race in lane 4 to run the proper distances.

The Franklin Field track has utilized a Rekortan track surface since 1987. The track was last renovated in 2015 when ATT Sports Inc., installed the current Rekortan M99 track surfacing.

Penn Quakers
Penn football played on Franklin Field for the first time in 1895. The University of Pennsylvania was one of the top football schools in the first years of college football. Many consider Penn to have been the national champion in college football in 1894, 1895, 1897 and 1904. Other sources identify Penn as national champions in 1895, 1897, 1904 and 1908.

John H. Outland played at Franklin Field for Penn in 1897 and 1898. On October 26, 1907, Jim Thorpe and the Carlisle Indian school trounced a powerful University of Pennsylvania team, 26–6, before an overflow crowd of 20,000 at Franklin Field.

On October 26, 1918, with the Spanish flu sweeping through the city, the Penn football team played the Navy Yard's Marines football club at an empty Franklin Field with the stadium closed to fans to prevent the spread of the virus.

Red Grange set an NCAA record at Franklin Field when he rushed for 331 yards in the University of Illinois' 24–2 victory over Penn on October 31, 1925, before 67,877 spectators.

On Saturday, November 16, 2002, ESPN broadcast College GameDay from Franklin Field prior to the game between Penn and Harvard. Both teams entered the game undefeated, 5–0, in the conference. It was College GameDay's first broadcast from a Division I-AA college. Penn won the contest, 44–9, and was undefeated and untied for the season. Harvard finished 6–1 in conference, 7–3 overall.

The Penn Quakers football team played their 800th game ever at the stadium on October 4, 2008, against Dartmouth.

Philadelphia Eagles
The Philadelphia Eagles played at Franklin Field from 1958 through 1970. They moved to the stadium for the 1958 season after leaving Connie Mack Stadium: Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000. According to then-Eagles president Frank L. McNamee, the Eagles did not pay rent for use of Franklin Field because Penn was a not-for-profit organization. Instead, the Eagles donated between $75,000 and $100,000 per-year to pay for maintenance and other expenses. The university collected all concessions and parking revenue.

On October 11, 1959, NFL Commissioner Bert Bell died at the nearby university hospital after suffering a heart attack at Franklin Field during the last two minutes of the game between the Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers.

The Eagles hosted the 1960 NFL Championship Game here on December 26, defeating the favored Green Bay Packers 17–13     in head coach Vince Lombardi's only career playoff loss. Two years earlier, the two franchises had finished second last and last in the twelve-team league: the attendance for the title game was 67,325. As the venue did not have lights at the time, the game started at noon to allow overtime to be played if required.

Two infamous incidents in Eagles history occurred at the stadium.

Santa Claus booed
During the 1968 season finale against the Minnesota Vikings on December 15, a Christmas show was planned for halftime. The struggling Eagles entered the game at 2–11, and fans were less than pleased with Eagles quarterback Norm Snead (injured in preseason), owner Jerry Wolman, and especially coach Joe Kuharich: many fans came to the game wearing "Joe Must Go" buttons. Unfortunately, the man meant to play Santa was unable to make it to Franklin Field due to the bad weather.

In lieu of the original halftime show, a 19-year-old fan named Frank Olivo (who came to the stadium already wearing a Santa Claus costume) was invited onto the field to toss candy canes with the cheerleaders. Frustrated by the team, the ugly wet weather, and his unconvincing beard, fans booed Olivo and threw snowballs at him. This incident is often referred to by sportscasters in denigrating Philadelphia sports fans as to mean they booed Santa Claus. The Eagles lost the game, 24–17. (Olivo continued to attend Eagles games and even made a return as Santa Claus four decades later, at the Eagles' December 27, 2009, game against the Denver Broncos at Lincoln Financial Field. This time, Olivo was not targeted by snowballs.) Frank Olivo died in 2015 at age 66.

Howard Cosell taken ill
In the first season of Monday Night Football in 1970, announcer Howard Cosell was apparently drunk during the Eagles-New York Giants game on November 23. After throwing up on color commentator Don Meredith's cowboy boots shortly before halftime, Cosell left the stadium and took a taxi back to New York City. Meredith and play-by-play announcer Keith Jackson made little mention of his departure during the second half.

Later, denying drunkenness, Cosell said that he had been dizzy from running laps around Franklin Field's track before the game with track star Tommie Smith. Cosell was 52 years old at the time.

Other college football
The Army–Navy Game was played 18 times at Franklin Field between 1899 and 1935 before moving to the larger Municipal Stadium in South Philadelphia in 1936. Penn alumnus and Olympic-medalist George Orton (who had worked with Frank Ellis in managing the Penn Relays) is credited with helping to bring the game to Philadelphia in 1899.

Temple University played its home football games at Temple Stadium until the late 1970s. Temple Stadium, which opened in 1928, seated up to 34,000 for football. Over the years, Temple had played home games at Franklin Field when crowds were expected to exceed Temple Stadium's capacity. Temple moved its home games to Veterans Stadium in the late 1970s but the Phillies had priority for the field for Saturdays during baseball season, which ends the last week in September. When Temple home games conflicted with Phillies home games, Temple would play at Franklin Field. This continued through the 2002 season, Temple's final year at the Vet before the Owls moved to Lincoln Financial Field as tenants of the Eagles. One of the last Temple football games at Franklin Field was a 44–21 loss to the number-one-ranked Miami Hurricanes on September 14, 2002; Miami's Willis McGahee rushed for 134 yards and four touchdowns in front of 33,169 fans.

In 2016, the multi-division Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) held the second installment of its six NCAA Division III post-season bowl games (over three days) at Franklin Field for select member teams that did not make the DIII playoffs. In the series's inaugural year, the games were played at Arute Field in New Britain, Connecticut. The bowl series will move to Delaware Stadium in 2017, but will return to Franklin Field in 2018.

Other professional football
The NFL's Frankford Yellow Jackets hosted the Dayton Triangles on September 24, 1927, at Franklin Field. The Yellow Jackets usually played their home games in the Frankford section of Philadelphia. The Triangles won, 6–3.

On August 23, 1958, the first Canadian Football League game played on American soil between two Canadian teams was played at Franklin Field, as the Hamilton Tiger-Cats defeated the Ottawa Rough Riders, 13–7. (The contest remains the only regular season CFL game played outside Canada between two Canada-based teams.)

The Philadelphia Bell of the World Football League played their 1975 season home games at Franklin Field.

Franklin Field hosted two United States Football League Philadelphia Stars play off games 1984 when the Philadelphia Phillies had games scheduled at Veterans Stadium on the same dates. The Stars defeated the New Jersey Generals 28–7 behind two touchdowns from RB Kelvin Bryant on June 30, 1984. A crowd of 19,038 saw the game on a warm and overcast afternoon. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC Sports. The Stars hosted the Birmingham Stallions in the Eastern Conference championship game at Franklin Field the following weekend, which was also broadcast on ABC. (The Stars won, 20-10, in front of 26,616 fans, and a week later would down the Arizona Wranglers in the USFL Championship Game.)

Other sports
Franklin Field served as Penn's baseball field early in its history, as records show that the varsity played here from 1895 until 1939.

Franklin Field was the longtime home of Philadelphia's City Title high school football championship game. The game was held at the stadium in 1938, 1940, 1941, and from 1943 through 1972, before it moved to Veterans Stadium. On Thanksgiving Day, 1941, 40,000 fans watched West Philadelphia tie West Philadelphia Catholic, 0–0. In 1945, 54,000 fans saw Southern beat West Catholic, 18–13. The 1946 game, played before 60,000, ended in a riot when Northeast fans stormed the field in the final minute of the school's 33–26 victory over West Catholic, prompting West Catholic fans to do the same.

The NASL Philadelphia Atoms had played at Veterans Stadium from 1973–1975. They moved to Franklin Field in 1976 which had better sight lines for soccer. Attendance was 8,400 for the home opener on May 2, 1976. They drew a season high of 25,000 for the July 17 match against the New York Cosmos which featured soccer great Pelé. The team averaged 6,449 at Franklin Field for their 11 home matches in 1976. The Philadelphia Fury hosted a play-off game against the Tampa Bay Rowdies on August 23, 1979, at Franklin Field when the Fury's home field, Veterans Stadium, was being used by the Phillies.

Franklin Field was one of 15 United States stadia (along with John F. Kennedy Stadium, also in Philadelphia) inspected by a five-member FIFA committee in April 1988 in the evaluation of the United States as a possible host of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. On August 25, 1989, a crowd of 43,356 at Franklin Field saw the US national soccer team defeat Dnepr of the Soviet Top League, 1–0; Eric Eichmann scored the lone goal in the game's 12th minute.

On November 30, 2004, Franklin Field was home to the first rugby league match between the United States and Australia. The United States led the World Cup-holders Australia for much of the game, but eventually lost, 36–24.

The stadium hosted the Division I NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship in 1973 and 1992 and the NCAA Division I Women's Lacrosse Championship in May 2007.

April 14, 2012, marked the debut of Franklin Field as the home stadium for the Philadelphia Spinners in their first AUDL season. An estimated 1700 were in attendance as the Spinners defeated the Buffalo Hunters, 26–14. The Spinners continued to use Franklin Field for the rest of the 2012 season and used it for two games in the 2014 MLU season.

The inaugural Major League Ultimate championship game was played at Franklin Field on July 13, 2013. The Boston Whitecaps defeated the San Francisco Dogfish, 20–15. The Stadium again hosted the MLU Championship on July 16, 2016, as the Philadelphia Spinners defeated the Portland Stags, 14–11.

Other events
The stadium was the site of the speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in which he accepted the 1936 Democratic Party's nomination for a second term as president. It is estimated that a crowd of 100,000 sat through intermittent rain at Franklin Field to hear FDR's speech.

Entertainment
Drum Corps International held its annual Drum and Bugle Corps World Championships at the stadium in 1975 and 1976.

In 1997, Franklin Field hosted Irish band U2 during the first leg of their Pop Mart Tour on June 8. This was the stadium's first concert since the 1970s.

In film
The 2000 M. Night Shyamalan–directed movie Unbreakable features Franklin Field as one of its main locations. Its main character, played by Bruce Willis, works as a security guard at the stadium.

In the 2006 movie Invincible, Franklin Field served as a stand-in for the demolished Veterans Stadium, images of which were digitally superimposed on some of the football action sequences.

title: Franklin Field


text:
Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001

The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 was a major piece of tax legislation passed by the 107th United States Congress and signed by President George W. Bush. It is also known by its abbreviation EGTRRA (often pronounced "egg-tra" or "egg-terra"), and is often referred to as one of the two "Bush tax cuts".

Bush had made tax cuts the centerpiece of his campaign in the 2000 presidential election, and he introduced a major tax cut proposal shortly after taking office. Though a handful of Democrats supported the bill, most support came from congressional Republicans. The bill was passed by Congress in May 2001, and signed into law by Bush on June 7, 2001. Due to the narrow Republican majority in the United States Senate, EGTRRA was passed using the reconciliation process, which bypasses the Senate filibuster.

EGTRRA lowered federal income tax rates, reducing the top tax rate from 39.6 percent to 35 percent and reducing rates for several other tax brackets. The act also reduced capital gain taxes, raised pre-tax contribution limits for defined contribution plans and Individual Retirement Accounts, and reduced the estate tax. In 2003, Bush signed another bill, the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003, which contained further tax cuts and accelerated certain tax changes that were part of EGTRRA. Due to the rules concerning reconciliation, EGTRRA contained a sunset provision that would end the tax cuts in 2011, but most of the cuts were made permanent with the passage of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012.

Legislative history
Bush's promise to cut taxes was the centerpiece of his 2000 presidential campaign, and upon taking office, he made tax cuts his first major legislative priority. A budget surplus had developed during the Bill Clinton administration, and with the Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan's support, Bush argued that the best use of the surplus was to lower taxes. By the time Bush took office, reduced economic growth had led to less robust federal budgetary projections, but Bush maintained that tax cuts were necessary to boost economic growth. After Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill expressed concerns over the tax cut's size and the possibility of future deficits, Vice President Cheney took charge of writing the bill, which the administration proposed to Congress in March 2001.

Bush initially sought a $1.6 trillion tax cut over a ten-year period, but ultimately settled for a $1.35 trillion tax cut. The administration rejected the idea of "triggers" that would phase out the tax reductions should the government again run deficits. The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act won the support of congressional Republicans and a minority of congressional Democrats, passing in the House on May 16. The bill was then passed in the Senate on May 26. President Bush signed it into law in June of 2001. The narrow Republican majority in the Senate necessitated the use of the reconciliation, which in turn necessitated that the tax cuts would phase out in 2011 barring further legislative action.<ref name = "taxcuts1"

Sunset provision
One of the most notable characteristics of EGTRRA is that its provisions were designed to sunset (or revert to the provisions that were in effect before it was passed) on January 1, 2011 (that is, for tax years, plan years, and limitation years that begin after December 31, 2010). After a two-year extension by the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, the Bush era rates for taxpayers making less than $400,000 per year ($450,000 for married couples) were ultimately made permanent by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. The sunset provision allowed EGTRRA to sidestep the Byrd Rule, a Senate rule that amends the Congressional Budget Act to allow Senators to block a piece of legislation if it purports a significant increase in the federal deficit beyond ten years. The sunset allowed the bill to stay within the letter of the PAYGO law while removing nearly $700 billion from amounts that would have triggered PAYGO sequestration.

Tax rebate
In addition to the tax cuts implemented by the EGTRRA, it initiated a series of rebates for all taxpayers that filed a tax return for 2000. The rebate was up to a maximum of $300 for single filers with no dependents, $500 for single parents, and $600 for married couples. Anybody who paid less than their maximum rebate amount in net taxes received that amount, meaning some people who did not pay any taxes did not receive rebates. The rebates were automatic for anybody who filed their 2000 tax return on time, or filed for an extension and quickly sent a return. If an eligible person did not receive a rebate check by December 2001, then they could apply for the rebate in their 2001 tax return.

Income tax
EGTRRA generally reduced the rates of individual income taxes:

 * a new 10% bracket was created for single filers with taxable income up to $6,000, joint filers up to $12,000, and heads of households up to $10,000.
 * the 15% bracket's lower threshold was indexed to the new 10% bracket
 * the 28% bracket would be lowered to 25% by 2006.
 * the 31% bracket would be lowered to 28% by 2006
 * the 36% bracket would be lowered to 33% by 2006
 * the 39.6% bracket would be lowered to 35% by 2006

The EGTRRA in many cases lowered the taxes on married couples filing jointly by increasing the standard deduction for joint filers to between 164% and 200% of the deduction for single filers.

Additionally, EGTRRA increased the per-child tax credit and the amount eligible for credit spent on dependent child care, phased out limits on itemized deductions and personal exemptions for higher income taxpayers, and increased the exemption for the Alternative Minimum Tax, and created a new depreciation deduction for qualified property owners.

Capital gains tax
The capital gains tax on qualified gains of property or stock held for five years was reduced from 10% to 8% for those in the 15% income tax bracket.

Qualified and retirement plans
EGTRRA introduced sweeping changes to retirement plans, incorporating many of the so-called Portman-Cardin provisions proposed by those House members in 2000 and earlier in 2001. Overall it raised pre-tax contribution limits for defined contribution plans and Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs), increased defined benefit compensation limits, made non-qualified retirement plans more flexible and more similar to qualified plans such as 401(k)s, and created a "catch-up" provision for older workers.

EGTRRA allows, for the first time, for participants in non-qualified 401(a) money purchase, 403(b) tax-sheltered annuity, and governmental 457(b) deferred compensation plans (but not tax-exempt 457 plans) to "roll over" their money and consolidate accounts, whether to a different non-qualified plan, to a qualified plan such as a 401(k), or to an IRA. Prior rules only allowed plan moneys to leave the plan and maintain its tax deferred status only if the money went directly to an IRA or to an IRA and back into a "like kind" defined contribution retirement account. For example, 403(b) moneys leaving the old employer could only go to the new employer's defined contribution plan if it were also a 403(b). Now the old 401(k) plan money could be transferred directly in a trustee-to-trustee "rollover" to an IRA and then from the IRA to a new employer's 403(b) or the entire transfer could be directly from the old employer's 403(b) to the new employer's 401(k). That the new Tax Act allows employers to do so does not mean that any employer is forced to accept new money from the outside.

The so-called "catch-up" provision allows employees over the age of 50 to make additional contributions to their retirement plans over and above the normal limits. For workers who are already retired, the law raises the age for minimum required distributions (MRDs), directing the Treasury to revise its life expectancy tables and simplify MRD rules.

EGTRRA created two new retirement savings vehicles. The Deemed IRA or Sidecar IRA is a Roth IRA attached as a separate account to an employer-sponsored retirement plan; while the differing tax treatment is preserved for the employee, the funds may be commingled for investment purposes. It is an improvement upon the unpopular qualified voluntary employee contribution (QVEC) provision developed in the early 1980s. The so-called Roth 401(k)/403(b) is a new tax-qualified employer-sponsored retirement plan to become effective in 2006, and would offer tax treatment in a retirement plan similar to that offered to account holders of Roth IRAs.

For plan sponsors, the law requires involuntary cash-out distributions of 401(k) accounts into a default IRA. It accelerates the mandatory vesting schedule applied to matching contributions, but increases the portion of employer contributions permitted from profit sharing. Small employers are granted tax incentives to offer retirement plans to their employees, and sole proprietors, partners and S corporation shareholders gain the right to take loans from their company pension plans.

Educational savings incentives
House Republicans pushed Congress to provide incentives for those investing in education. One bill in the house was proposed to remove the time limit on student loan interest deductions. Their push was successful and was included in the final bill.

Estate and gift tax rules
The EGTRRA made sweeping changes to the estate tax, gift tax, and generation-skipping transfer tax.

 * The estate tax unified credit exclusion, which was $675,000 in 2001 but scheduled to increase by steps to $1,000,000 in 2006, was increased to $1,000,000 in 2002, $1,500,000 in 2004, $2,000,000 in 2006, and $3,500,000 in 2009, with repeal of the estate tax and generation-skipping tax scheduled for 2010.
 * The maximum estate tax, gift tax, and generation-skipping tax rate, which was 55% in 2001 (with an additional 5% for estates over $10,000,000 in order to eliminate the benefit of the lower estate tax brackets) was reduced to 50% in 2002, with an additional 1% reduction each year until 2007, when the top estate tax rate became 45%. P.L. 107-16 amended Code Section 2001 to change the rate to 49% in 2003, going down by 1% each year through 2009. (Because of the increasing exclusion and decreasing top tax rate, the estate tax effectively became a tax of 45% on estates over $2,000,000 in 2007.)
 * The state estate tax credit, which effectively gave the states a part of the estate tax otherwise payable to the federal government, was phased out between 2002 and 2005 and replaced by a deduction for state estate taxes in 2005.
 * The gift tax was not repealed, and the unified credit exclusion has remained at $1,000,000 for gift tax purposes despite the increases in the estate tax exclusion, but the maximum gift tax rate was reduced to 35% beginning in 2010.
 * Because of the repeal of the estate tax in 2010, complicated new "carry-over basis" provisions were enacted which would increase the income tax on capital gains realized by some estates and heirs. (Under pre-EGTRRA law, property that is subject to estate tax gets a new income tax basis equal to fair market value, eliminating any capital gain on lifetime appreciation.)

Because EGTRRA was subject to a "sunset" provision, the estate, gift, and generation-skipping taxes were automatically supposed to be reinstated in 2011.

Impact
After the tax bill was passed, Senator Jim Jeffords left the Republican Party and began caucusing with the Democrats, giving them control of the Senate. After Republicans re-took control of the Senate during the 2002 mid-term elections, Bush proposed further tax cuts. With little support among Democrats, Congress passed the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003("JGTRRA"), which cut taxes by another $350 billion over 10 years. That law also lowered the capital gains tax and taxes on dividends. Collectively, the Bush tax cuts reduced federal individual tax rates to their lowest level since World War II, and government revenue as a share of gross domestic product declined from 20.9% in 2000 to 16.3% in 2004.

A 2012 Congressional Budget Office analysis found that the tax cut reduced federal tax receipts by $1.2 trillion over ten years.


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Departments of Uruguay

Uruguay consists of 19 departments (departamentos). Each department has a legislature, called a Departmental Board, and a chief executive called a Intendente.

History
The first division of Uruguay into six departments occurred on 27 January 1816. In February of the same year, two more departments were formed, and in 1828 one more was added. When the country's first constitution was signed in 1830, there were nine departments: Montevideo, Maldonado, Canelones, San José, Colonia, Soriano, Paysandú, Durazno and Cerro Largo. At that time, the department of Paysandú occupied all the territory north of the Río Negro, which included the current departments of Artigas, Rivera, Tacuarembó, Salto, Paysandú and Río Negro.

On 17 June 1837, this northern territory was divided in three, by the creation of the departments of Salto and Tacuarembó. At the same time, the department of Minas (which was eventually renamed to Lavalleja) was created out of parts of Cerro Largo and Maldonado. In 1856 Florida was created, and on 7 July 1880 the department of Río Negro was split from Paysandú and Rocha was split from Maldonado. In 1884 Treinta y Tres was formed from parts of Cerro Largo and Minas, while Artigas was split from Salto. The same year the department of Rivera was split from Tacuarembó, and in 1885 Flores was split from San José.

Establishment of departments
The General Assembly has the powers to create new departments, requiring a supermajority vote of two thirds in both chambers, as provided by the Constitution in article 85. The General Assembly can also define their borders, requiring the same majority.

Politics and governance
The basic statutory framework of departments is defined by Section XVI of the Constitution. Each department has executive and legislative branches, in the form of the Intendant and the Departmental Board respectively. The Municipal Organic Law No. 9515 regulates more specific details of these rules.

Finances
The sources of financial resources of the departmental governments are detailed in article 297 of the Constitution, being the departmental taxes, national taxes whose administration is granted to departments, earnings from services or incomes, money obtained from sanctions, donations, inheritances and bequests received and accepted, and their own part of the national budget that they were granted by budget laws.

Municipalities
Since 2009 (Law No. 18567 of 13 September 2009), the Uruguayan departments have been subdivided into municipalities. This system has been widely criticized as a waste of resources, due to Uruguay's small population of 3.4 million. The inaugural municipal elections were held in 2010, with municipal officials assuming office later in the year. Currently there are 125 municipalities.

title: Departments of Uruguay


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Virilization

Virilization or masculinization is the biological development of adult male characteristics in young males or females. Most of the changes of virilization are produced by androgens.

Virilization is a medical term commonly used in three medical and biology of sex contexts: prenatal biological sexual differentiation, the postnatal changes of typical chromosomal male (46, XY) puberty, and excessive androgen effects in typical chromosomal females (46, XX). It is also the intended result of androgen replacement therapy in males with delayed puberty and low testosterone.

Prenatal virilization
In the prenatal period, virilization refers to closure of the perineum, thinning and wrinkling (rugation) of the scrotum, growth of the penis, and closure of the urethral groove to the tip of the penis. In this context, masculinization is synonymous with virilization.

Prenatal virilization of individuals with XX chromosomes and undervirilization of individuals with XY are common causes of ambiguous genitalia and intersex variations, also known as disorders of sex development.

For many years, it was widely believed that in mammals, the female is the "default" developmental pathway, and the SRY gene on the Y chromosome is responsible for suppressing the development of female characteristics and stimulating males characteristics. In this scenario, an embryo would passively develop female sexual characteristics without intervention by the SRY gene. However, in the early 2000s, other genes, such as WNT4 and RSPO1, were discovered that perform the opposite function – i.e., genes which suppress masculinization and stimulate feminization.

Two processes: defeminization, and masculinization, are involved in producing male typical morphology and behavior.

High
Prenatal virilization of a genetically female fetus can occur when an excessive amount of androgen is produced by the fetal adrenal glands or is present in maternal blood, resulting in virilization of the female genitalia such as an enlarged clitoris.

It can also be associated with progestin-induced virilisation.

Low
Undervirilization can occur if a genetic male cannot produce enough androgen or the body tissues cannot respond to it. Extreme undervirilization occurs when no significant androgen hormones can be produced or the body is completely insensitive to androgens, in which case a female phenotype will develop. Partial undervirilization produces ambiguous genitalia part-way between male and female. Examples of undervirilization in fetuses with a 46,XY karyotype are androgen insensitivity syndrome and 5 alpha reductase deficiency.

Normal virilization
In common as well as medical usage, virilization often refers to the process of normal male puberty. These effects include growth of the penis and the testes, accelerated growth, development of pubic hair, and other androgenic hair of face, torso, and limbs, deepening of the voice, increased musculature, thickening of the jaw, prominence of the neck cartilage, and broadening of the shoulders.

Abnormal childhood virilization
Virilization can occur in childhood in both males and females due to excessive amounts of androgens. Typical effects of virilization in children are pubic hair, accelerated growth and bone maturation, increased muscle strength, acne, and adult body odor. In males, virilization may signal precocious puberty, while congenital adrenal hyperplasia and androgen producing tumors (usually) of the gonads or adrenals are occasional causes in both sexes.

In adolescent or adult females
Virilization in females can manifest as clitoral enlargement, increased muscle strength, acne, hirsutism, frontal hair thinning, deepening of the voice, menstrual disruption due to anovulation, and a strengthened libido. Some of the possible causes of virilization in females are:
 * Androgen-producing tumors of the
 * ovaries
 * adrenal glands (see adrenal tumor)
 * pituitary gland (see pituitary adenoma)
 * Hyperthecosis
 * Hypothyroidism
 * Anabolic steroid exposure
 * Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (late-onset)
 * Conn's syndrome

Medically induced virilization in transgender people
Transgender people who were medically assigned female at birth sometimes elect to take hormone replacement therapy. This process causes virilization by inducing many of the effects of a typically male puberty. Many of these effects are permanent, but some effects can be reversed if the transgender individual stops or pauses their medical treatment.

Permanent virilization effects

 * Deepening of the voice
 * Growth of facial and body hair
 * Male-pattern baldness
 * Enlargement of the clitoris
 * Breast atrophy – possible shrinking and/or softening of breasts

Reversible virilization effects

 * Further muscle development (especially upper body)
 * Increased sweat and changes in body odor
 * Prominence of veins and coarser skin
 * Alterations in blood lipids (cholesterol and triglycerides)
 * Increased red blood cell count

Demasculinization
Demasculinization refers to the reversal of virilization. Some but not all aspects of virilization are reversible. Demasculinization occurs naturally with andropause, pathologically with hypogonadism, and artificially or medically with antiandrogens, estrogens, and orchiectomy. It is desired by many transgender women who have undergone the changes of pubertal masculinization, to restore and induce feminine physical traits that would otherwise be masked or never occur. Some virilized traits remain though (such as body hair, a hard jawline and an enlarged larynx), due to the fashion in which virilization affects a body's physiology.

title: Virilization


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Binary chemical weapon

Binary chemical weapons or munitions are chemical weapons which contain the toxic agent in its active state as chemical precursors that are significantly less toxic than the agent. This improves the safety of storing, transporting, and disposing of the weapon. Commonly, firing the munition removes a barrier between two precursors. These react to form the intended agent which is then aerosolized and distributed by a bursting charge.

Binary chemical weapons are chemical weapons within the scope of the Chemical Weapons Convention and therefore their production, use and stockpiling is forbidden in most countries, as at least one of the individual chemicals is likely to be a Schedule 1 chemical for which large scale production is forbidden.

Examples
One example of a binary chemical weapon is the United States Army M687. In the M687, methylphosphonyl difluoride (military name: DF, a Schedule 1 chemical) and a mixture of two agents are held in chambers within the munition, separated by a partition. When the weapon is fired, acceleration causes the partition to break, and the precursors are mixed by the rotation of the munition in flight, producing sarin nerve agent.

The Soviet Union and later Russian Federation experimented with binary munitions capable of mixing and distributing two agents that would work together in worsening the weapon's effects, an example of which would be the combination of nerve agents with blister agents.

The director of a non-proliferation research program of the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey has stated that the assassination of Kim Jong-nam due to poisoning with VX was likely carried out with a binary version of the agent, since VX fumes would otherwise have killed the suspected attackers.

In popular culture

 * A miniature binary weapon is used in an assassination in the Frederick Forsyth novel The Devil's Alternative. It consists of two half-capsules, a non-resistant one containing potassium cyanide and an acid-resistant one containing hydrochloric acid. The substances mix after the halves are assembled and the seal between them is broken, and form hydrogen cyanide. The surplus acid eats through the capsule walls of the non-resistant half, and after a delay of several hours, the lethal content is released into the intestinal tract of whoever ingested it. While technically possible, the assassination tool as discussed in the novel is presumably fictional. However, there are claims that in September 2003, the SVR (Russian Foreign Intelligence Service) prepared to assassinate Boris Berezovsky with a similar device.
 * In the 10th and 11th episodes of the 6th season of TV-series Dexter are shown preparation and application of binary weapon consisting of two containers filled with DF and isopropyl alcohol. When mixed, the two substances form sarin.
 * The 2002 movie xXx features a Soviet-made binary chemical weapon codenamed "Silent Night", after its supposed ability to render an area silent by killing its inhabitants. In the movie, the chemical was acquired by the terrorist group Anarchy-99, and their leader, Yorgi, plans to launch missiles containing Silent Night from an autonomous solar-powered submarine called Ahab, with the intent to sow chaos among civilized nations as they all blame each other for the attacks.
 * Michael Crichton's 1972 novel Binary uses a binary nerve agent "VZ" as the main plot device intended to kill the President of the United States, and indirectly most of the inhabitants of San Diego.

General and cited references

 * 🇦🇹 (2007): Death of a dissident: The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and the Return of the KGB. The Free Press. ISBN 1-4165-5165-4

title: Binary chemical weapon


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Talk:Robert A. Caro

This page is the same as Robert_Caro. I added the redirect. The information is covered on this page overlaps with that on the target page.

title: Talk:Robert A. Caro


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Saint-Georges

Saint-Georges may refer to:

People

 * Didia Saint Georges, Romanian composer
 * Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges French composer and violinist
 * Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges French librettist

In Canada

 * Saint-Georges, Quebec, a city in the Beauce-Sartigan Regional County Municipality
 * Saint-Georges-de-Windsor, Quebec, a municipality
 * Saint-Georges River (rivière au Chêne tributary), a river in Quebec

In England

 * St. Georges, North Somerset

In France

 * Saint-Georges (Paris Métro), a railway station in the 9th arrondissement
 * Saint-Georges, Lyon, a neighbourhood of Lyon
 * Saint-Georges, Cantal, in the Cantal département
 * Saint-Georges, Charente, in the Charente département
 * Saint-Georges, Gers, in the Gers département
 * Saint-Georges, French Guiana, or Saint-Georges-de-l'Oyapock, in the Guyane (French Guiana) département
 * Saint-Georges, Lot-et-Garonne, in the Lot-et-Garonne département
 * Saint-Georges, Moselle, in the Moselle département
 * Saint-Georges, Pas-de-Calais, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Saint-Georges, Tarn-et-Garonne, in the Tarn-et-Garonne département
 * Saint-Georges-Antignac, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Georges-Armont, in the Doubs département
 * Saint-Georges-Blancaneix, in the Dordogne département
 * Saint-Georges-Buttavent, in the Mayenne département
 * Saint-Georges-d'Annebecq, in the Orne département
 * Saint Georges d'Aunay, in the Calvados département
 * Saint-Georges-d'Aurac, in the Haute-Loire département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Baroille, in the Loire département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Bohon, in the Manche département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Chesné, in the Ille-et-Vilaine département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Commiers, in the Isère département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Didonne, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Gréhaigne, in the Ille-et-Vilaine département
 * Saint-Georges-de-la-Couée, in the Sarthe département
 * Saint-Georges-de-la-Rivière, in the Manche département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Lévéjac, in the Lozère département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Livoye, in the Manche département
 * Saint-Georges-d'Elle, in the Manche département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Longuepierre, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Luzençon, in the Aveyron département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Mons, in the Puy-de-Dôme département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Montaigu, in the Vendée département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Montclard, in the Dordogne département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Noisné, in the Deux-Sèvres département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Pointindoux, in the Vendée département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Poisieux, in the Cher département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Reintembault, in the Ille-et-Vilaine département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Reneins, in the Rhône département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Rex, in the Deux-Sèvres département
 * Saint-Georges-de-Rouelley, in the Manche département
 * Saint-Georges-des-Agoûts, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Georges-des-Coteaux, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Georges-des-Gardes, in the Maine-et-Loire département
 * Saint-Georges-des-Groseillers, in the Orne département
 * Saint-Georges-des-Hurtières, in the Savoie département
 * Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche, in the Isère département

In Grenada

 * St. George's, Grenada

In Montserrat

 * Saint Georges Parish, Montserrat

In the United States

 * Saint Georges, Delaware

title: Saint-Georges


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Regions of Slovakia

Since 1949 (except 1990–1996), Slovakia has been divided into a number of kraje (singular kraj; usually translated as "Regions" with capital R). Their number, borders and functions have been changed several times. There are eight regions of Slovakia and they correspond to the EU's NUTS 3 level of local administrative units. Each kraj consists of okresy (counties or districts). There are 79 districts.

List
After a period without kraje and without any equivalent (1990–1996), the kraje were reintroduced in 1996. As for administrative division, Slovakia has been subdivided into 8 kraje since 24 July 1996:

Since 2002, Slovakia is divided into 8 samosprávne kraje (self-governing regions), which are called by the Constitution vyššie územné celky (Higher Territorial Units), abbr. VÚC. The territory and borders of the self-governing regions are identical with the territory and borders of the kraje. Therefore, the word "kraj" can be replaced by "VÚC" or "samosprávny kraj" in each case in the above list. The main difference is that organs of samosprávne kraje are self-governing, with an elected chairperson and assembly, while the organs of kraje are appointed by the government.

Name
The term "Region" (kraj) should not be confused with:
 * the general (i.e. non-administrative) term "region" (región) as it is used for example in the articles List of traditional regions of Slovakia or List of tourism regions of Slovakia
 * the 4 "regions" (regióny or oblasti or zoskupenia krajov) that correspond to the NUTS 2 level, i.e. groups of several kraje, used by the Eurostat for statistical purposes. These are:
 * Bratislava SK 01 (Bratislava Region) – comprises only this single region
 * Západné Slovensko SK 02 (Western Slovakia) – Trnava, Trenčín and Nitra
 * Stredné Slovensko SK 03 (Central Slovakia) – Žilina and Banská Bystrica
 * Východné Slovensko SK 04 (Eastern Slovakia) – Prešov and Košice

Prior to 1949
Historically, Slovakia was not divided into kraje, but into counties (Slovak: župy or stolice). This was the case when present-day Slovakia was part of:
 * Great Moravia (cca. 9th century)
 * Kingdom of Hungary (cca. 11th / 12th century – 1918)
 * Czechoslovakia (the župy existed 1918 – 1928)
 * the WWII Slovak Republic (the župy existed 1940 – 1945)

In 1928–1939 (and formally also 1945–1948) Slovakia as a whole formed the administrative unit "Slovak land" (Krajina slovenská) within Czechoslovakia.

24 December 1948/1 January 1949 – 30 June 1960

 * Bratislavský kraj (Bratislava Region)
 * Banskobystrický kraj (Banská Bystrica Region)
 * Košický kraj (Košice Region)
 * Nitriansky kraj (Nitra Region)
 * Prešovský kraj (Prešov Region)
 * Žilinský kraj (Žilina Region)

Each kraj was named after its principal city.

July 1, 1960 – December 19, 1990

 * Stredoslovenský kraj (Central Slovak Region)
 * Východoslovenský kraj (Eastern Slovak Region)
 * Západoslovenský kraj (Western Slovak Region)
 * Bratislava (before March 22, 1968, part of the Západoslovenský kraj, afterwards a partly separate entity; from January 1971 a separate kraj)

Note: The kraje were abolished from July 1, 1969, until December 28, 1970, when they were reintroduced.

Traditional regions
There are also other regions in Slovakia, which do not correspond to historical counties:

title: Regions of Slovakia


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Alan Hart (television executive)

Alan Hart (17 April 1935 – 15 January 2021) was a British television executive, who from 1981 to 1984 was the controller of BBC One.

Career
Hart's initial career was in the BBC sports department as editor of Grandstand in the late 1960s and for much of the 1970s, and he rose through the ranks to become BBC head of sport in 1977. In 1981, BBC One controller Bill Cotton was promoted, and Hart was chosen to succeed him.

As channel controller, Hart was responsible for managing the direction, content and commissioning of programmes on the BBC's premier television station. Hart greenlit the BBC's first all-year round twice-weekly drama in modern times, EastEnders, which became a runaway success even though Hart had moved on by the time it began broadcasting in February 1985. One of Hart's early decisions in the role was taking Doctor Who off its long-standing early Saturday evening slot, and giving it an early evening, twice-weekly slot, beginning in 1982. Hart also green-lit a 90-minute special to celebrate the show's 20th anniversary, which became "The Five Doctors" and was broadcast as part of Children in Need.

Hart's tenure as controller of BBC One was not generally regarded as one of the most successful in the BBC's history, largely because of the huge success enjoyed by ITV drama during that period. In 1984, Hart was replaced by Michael Grade, who had expressed a desire to return from working in the US to work for the BBC, and Grade proceeded to radically overhaul the BBC's main channel.

Hart died in January 2021 at the age of 85.

title: Alan Hart (television executive)


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title: File:Southlander.jpg


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Saint-Georges-d'Aunay

Saint-Georges-d'Aunay is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Seulline.

title: Saint-Georges-d'Aunay


text:
Saint-Georges-en-Auge

Saint-Georges-en-Auge (, literally Saint-Georges in Auge) is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.

title: Saint-Georges-en-Auge


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text: User:Mav/sandbox

title: User:Mav/sandbox


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Bill Cotton

Sir William Frederick Cotton (23 April 1928 – 11 August 2008 ) was a British television producer and executive, and the son of dance band leader Billy Cotton. The television and radio presenter Fearne Cotton is related to him, as he was her paternal grandfather's cousin.

Early life
Following a secondary education at the independent school Ardingly College, he joined the Royal Army Service Corps as a transport officer. He joined BBC Television as an in-house producer of light entertainment programmes in 1956, working on various programmes such as his father's Billy Cotton Band Show and popular music programme Six-Five Special.

Professional career
In 1970, Cotton was promoted to head of light entertainment, following the death of Tom Sloan in May. In this position, Cotton was responsible for overseeing the production of a whole series of popular variety and light entertainment shows, including Jim'll Fix It (1975-1994) The Morecambe and Wise Show (1968–77), Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969–74), The Two Ronnies (1971–87), Bruce Forsyth and the Generation Game (first run 1971–77), Look: Mike Yarwood (1971–76) and Parkinson (TV series) (first run 1971–82). Cotton's era was generally seen as the most eclectic in the history of BBC light entertainment, with programmes such as Morecambe and Wise becoming icons of British popular culture and drawing huge audiences, while the more subversive Monty Python provided a more cutting-edge, contemporary and daring complement.

Cotton's success as head of light entertainment led to his promotion to controller of BBC1, the corporation's premier and the UK's oldest television station, in 1977. He oversaw some of the channel's highest-ever audience figures in 1979, although this was mostly due to the main opposition, ITV, being on strike for over two months.

In 1981, he was replaced as controller of BBC1 by Alan Hart and made the BBC's deputy managing director of television under Alasdair Milne. In 1984 Cotton was promoted to become managing director of television, a role he fulfilled until his retirement from the corporation in 1988. During this final period at the BBC he was involved with Michael Grade and Jonathan Powell in the attempted cancellation of Doctor Who in 1985 after a run of 22 years on the BBC, a decision which became an 18-month hiatus following a tabloid backlash (the series wasn't completely axed until 1989). Cotton subsequently did some freelance executive producing work in the light entertainment area and served as chairman of Noel Gay Television. He was deputy chairman of Meridian Broadcasting from 1992 to 1996, then chairman until 2001.

Personal life
In 1950, Cotton married Bernardine Maud ("Boo"; 1926-1964), daughter of Bernard Charles Henry Sinclair; they had three daughters. He married secondly, in 1965, makeup supervisor Ann Corfield Henderson, daughter of Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall and former wife of Andrew V. Henderson. They had no children and divorced in 1989. He married thirdly, in 1990, Marie Curie Foundation homes officer Kathryn Mary ("Kate"), daughter of chief education officer Frederick Ralphs and former wife of David P. H. Burgess.

Honours
Cotton was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1976 New Year Honours, and promoted to Commander of the same order (CBE) in the 1989 Birthday Honours.

He received a BAFTA Fellowship in 1998, and was knighted in the 2001 Birthday Honours for services to Television Broadcasting and Marie Curie Cancer Care.

He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1995 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel at Castle Ashby in Northamptonshire. Guests included Paul Fox, Brian Tesler, Michael Grade, and Billy Marsh.

BBC Two broadcast an evening of programmes that he commissioned as part of a tribute night to him on Boxing Day 2008, including the Morecambe & Wise Christmas Show of 1971, The Generation Game Christmas Show of 1973, and The Two Ronnies Old Fashioned Christmas Mystery of 1973. There was also a documentary about his career with Michael Grade, Bruce Forsyth, Michael Parkinson, Ronnie Corbett, Terry Wogan, and Paul Jackson among those paying tribute, in addition to this a two-part documentary about his life and career was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 on New Year's Eve 2008 and New Year's Day 2009 presented by Paul O'Grady.

Portrayal
Cotton was played by Michael Jibson in The Reckoning (2023).

title: Bill Cotton