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Mid-Canada Line

The Mid-Canada Line (MCL), also known as the McGill Fence, was a line of radar stations running east–west across the middle of Canada, used to provide early warning of a Soviet bomber attack on North America. It was built to supplement the Pinetree Line, which was located farther south. The majority of Mid-Canada Line stations were used only briefly from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s, as the attack threat changed from bombers to ICBMs. As the MCL was closed down, the early warning role passed almost entirely to the newer and more capable DEW Line farther north.

The MCL was based on the bistatic radar principle, using separated transmitters and receivers. An aircraft flying anywhere between the stations would reflect some of the transmitted signal towards the receiver, where it would mix with the signal travelling directly from the transmitter. The mixing of the two signals produces a pattern that is very easy to detect using simple electronics. As the transmitter is not pulsed, it does not require high voltages and is very simple as well. This leads to a very low-cost system that can cover huge areas, at the cost of providing no information about the precise location of the target, only its presence.

Throughout its history, the MCL suffered from a problem that was never solved; because of the way bistatic radar works, any object relatively close to either station produces a large signal, in contrast to conventional monostatic (single site) radars where this effect is limited to the area immediately around the site. In the case of the MCL, this caused problems when flocks of birds would fly anywhere near either station and swamp the signal of a more distant aircraft. Solving this problem using the Doppler effect was a major design criterion for the AN/FPS-23 "Fluttar" that filled a similar role in the DEW line.

Impetus
Construction of the Pinetree Line had only just started when air planners started to have concerns about its capabilities and siting. By the time it detected a potential attack by jet-powered aircraft, there would be little time to do anything before the attack reached Canadian or northern U.S. cities. Additionally, the Pinetree systems used pulsed radars that were fairly easy to jam and were unable to detect targets close to the ground due to "clutter." Although expensive in terms of fuel use, it would be possible for Soviet bombers to evade detection by flying lower and plotting a course between the stations.

Bennett Lewis, head of the AECL Chalk River Laboratories and former Chief Superintendent of the UK Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) had proposed to the Defence Research Board (DRB) a system that avoided both of these problems. Known today as a forward scatter bistatic radar, it used two antennas, a transmitter and receiver, separated by some distance. The antennas were positioned and aimed so that the signal from the transmitter filled the space above the line between the two stations. An aircraft flying into this region would reflect some signal back towards the receiver, allowing detection at altitudes as great as 65,000 ft.

A major advantage of the system is that it requires much less power to operate effectively. In a conventional radar, the radio signal has to travel to the target and back again. As each leg of the journey is subject to the inverse square law, the resulting radar equation contains a fourth-power dependence. In contrast, a forward-scatter radar signal always travels about the same total distance, from the transmitter to the receiver, modified only by the altitude of the target. This means it is dependent on the square root of range and not the fourth root, and thus delivers considerably more energy onto the receiver than a conventional radar over the same range. Also, unlike a conventional "monostatic" radar, the transmitter did not have to turn off to allow the receiver to listen for the signal. Since the total amount of energy received at the receiver is a function of both the peak power and the length of the pulse, using a continual signal means the same total energy will be deposited using much lower peak transmitter power. As a result, Lewis' system would require smaller sites and much less power than conventional radars like those of the Pinetree Line.

The major disadvantage of the system is that it did not indicate the aircraft's location within the beam, unlike a pulsed system where pulse timing can be used to determine range. This means the forward-scatter concept is useful for making a "radar fence" or "trip wire" that indicates that something is approaching, but not exactly where it is. To help address locating the target to a degree, the proposal was to build two interlinked fences, so that each pair of stations was perhaps 30 km apart, a short enough distance that the radar on an interceptor aircraft would be able to find the target within that area. Using two overlapping sets also allowed one pair to cover the dead zone directly above the towers of the other.

Lewis' initial concept was to place the transmitters and receivers on telephone poles and electric power transmission towers, which provided both a convenient location as well as the small amount of power needed to run the electronics. In the case of the telephone poles, the lines would also be used to send the data back to the tracking stations. This concept generated a considerable amount of interest, although it was abandoned for reasons that are not entirely clear. Willis and Griffiths speculate it might be the need for 1,000 such radars, but it is also likely that the desired to locate the line further north than the heavily settled areas in southern Canada was likely significant as well. In any event, the simplicity of the concept helped bring it to the attention of air planners.

Spider Web
The DRB decided to pursue Lewis’ idea in 1950–51 by directing a research contract to the Eaton Electronics Research Laboratories of McGill University, headed by Professor Garfield Woonton. Lewis suggested to DRB and Woonton that he put the project in the hands of associate professor, J. Rennie Whitehead as project leader, a former colleague of his from the TRE days in the UK who had recently taken a position at the Lab. Some preliminary tests were made in 1952 with breadboard hardware built by a graduate student, Hugh Hamilton, in order to confirm the validity of the idea.

In the meantime RCA Victor had been brought in by the DRB to design and produce the receivers, transmitters and antennas for tests on a substantial scale. The testing was performed in the summer of 1953, when Whitehead and his team of RCA Victor and RCAF personnel installed and operated a string of seven stations stretching from Ottawa to Mattawa  along the Ottawa River valley. Known under the code name of "Spider Web" at the suggestion of Hamilton, the tests were made with aircraft from CFB St. Hubert, near Montreal. All observations were transmitted to and made in the line HQ, which was set up in the equipment hut of one of the seven stations, located in Deep River.

Flight Lieutenant Andrew Matthews of the 104 Communications Flight at RCAF St. Hubert arranged for a series of different aircraft to fly through the network, including an Auster light aircraft, a T-33 Shooting Star, an Avro Lancaster bomber and even a recently acquired de Havilland Comet jet transport. The tests revealed a great deal about the spectral ‘signatures’ of aircraft crossing the line at different points, and demonstrated the capability to detect all sizes of aircraft from 100 ft to over 40,000 ft in altitude. During this time Dr. Ross Warren of RCA Victor and Dr. Whitehead jointly developed the theoretical background for the work in a major report to DRB.

The Spider Web trials were followed in 1954 by intensive tests on a single 30 mile wide link, built in the Eastern Townships by Bell Canada, who had by this time been given the go-ahead for the implementation of the Mid-Canada Line. When Whitehead inquired why RCA had not been given the contract, a colleague replied "Who do you think runs Canada?" The trials on this prototype link were also conducted by Whitehead and a small team in collaboration with Air Defence Command, St. Hubert, this time on behalf of Bell. The trials involved the flyover of numbers of B-52 bombers by arrangement with Strategic Air Command and a local bombplot unit. They also had full-time use of an Avro Lancaster from CFB Greenwood for the important low-level tests.

Deployment studies

In February 1953 the Canada-U.S. Military Study Group (MSG) was asked "to study those aspects of the North American Air Defence System in general, and the early warning system in particular, which are of mutual concern to the two countries." The MSG then asked the air defence commanders of Canada and the United States to prepare independent briefs on the subject. By July 1953, RCAF Air Defense Command had completed its brief, followed shortly thereafter by its USAF counterpart. Both reports suggested building a Doppler fence farther north, along the 55th parallel, roughly at the entrance of James Bay into Hudson Bay.

In October 1953 the MSG recommended to both governments "that there be established at the earliest practicable date, an early warning line located generally along the 55th parallel between Alaska and Newfoundland", and outlined their minimum operational requirements. By the end of November 1953, the Mid-Canada Line had been approved in principle. Unlike the jointly-operated Pinetree line and future DEW line, the Mid-Canada line would be funded and operated entirely by the RCAF. The DRB estimated that the system would cost about $69,700,000, while an independent RCAF report placed it at $85,000,000,.

In December an effort started to try to understand what sort of problems would be encountered during construction. Several "trains" consisting of tractor-pulled sleighs set out cross-country. One, manned by the RCAF, set out eastward from Fort Nelson, BC in order to link up with a second moving west from Flin Flon, Manitoba, while a third crewed by the Army left Lake Nipigon near Thunder Bay, Ontario for Lansdowne House about 200 km further north. The missions proved that it was possible to build the new line, but only during the winter when the muskeg was frozen solid. These missions also inspired the U.S. Army to invest in purpose-built overland trains which they experimented with in the 1960s but never put into production.

While that was taking place, efforts were underway to start primary siting studies. It quickly became clear that the areas in question, at least in eastern Canada, were so remote that there was no really accurate topographical information. A huge effort to map the area in a 15-mile wide strip across the entire country was started by Transport Command almost immediately, and ended by the spring of 1954. With this information in hand a construction division was set up, the Systems Engineering Group (SEG), in February 1954, tasked with producing a final report on the system to be submitted on June 1.

Finalizing the plans
As the experiments continued it became clear that by using taller masts, 350 feet tall, the radar stations could be located further apart, up to 90 km. This reduced the number of stations required. Nevertheless, the price rose, now estimated at about $120,000,000. Although their final report was not yet ready, the SEG put in an interim report in June and it was approved by cabinet by the end of the month.

In their report they outlined the system that would be built almost exactly. It called for eight major Sector Control Centres, numbered from 200 to 900, each of which control up to thirty unmanned radar sites for a total of 90 radar stations. Each of the radar stations consisted of a single tall mast with a number of small dishes in fixed positions on top (typically four, two pointed in either direction), with power and electronics located in a building beside the base of the mast.

The sector control centres were linked using an advanced microwave communications system developed in part by CARDE, which scattered off the troposphere for long-distance communications. The southernmost site along the eastern portion of the line, at Cape Henrietta Maria on Hudson Bay, was used as the main communications point, with three additional repeater stations transferring data from the line southward to the NORAD command center in North Bay, Ontario. The easternmost station at Hopedale, Labrador was co-located with an existing Pinetree Line station in order to save construction costs.

All aircraft transiting the line would have to file a flight plan through the Mid Identification Zone, or MIDIZ, centred on the fence. The plans also called for the construction of several airbases known as Line Clearance Aerodromes just to the north of the line, where interceptor aircraft could operate in times of heightened alert.

At about this time another huge civil engineering project was underway in Canada, the construction of a cross-Canada microwave relay telephone system. Since many of the logistics problems were similar, the construction group, led by Bell Canada, was selected as a major contractor for the base construction. Detailed site selection started in 1955, with a major surveying effort running across Canada at the 55th parallel. The sites were so remote that the RCAF had to form up its first all-helicopter squadron in order to provide flight support for the survey teams.

Construction and service

Construction started in 1956 and proceeded quickly. By April 1957 the eastern half was operational, and the line was declared fully operational on January 1, 1958. Operations were shortly integrated into the newly formed NORAD. Even the SEG's revised estimates turned out to be too low, and the fence's final cost is estimated at $224,566,830,.

Almost as soon as the units went into operation, a serious problem was seen. Due to the large radar cross sections seen in forward-scattering radars, even small targets produced detectable signals. This was multiplied if the targets were roughly the same size as the wavelength of the radar, or in this case, tended to be spread out in patterns that were multiples of that wavelength. This problem was triggered by the large flocks of migrating waterfowl during the spring and fall, which created signals so powerful that it rendered the radars useless. Testing on the Spider Web and Eastern Townships systems had both been carried out during the summer, so this had not been noticed.

Even before the line became operational, in a repeat of earlier history, a new and more capable line was already under study that would combine the plotting capability of the Pinetree system with the line-breaking capabilities of the MCL, and located much farther north to dramatically improve the detection and response times. Emerging as the Distant Early Warning Line, or DEW, construction started before the MCL had become operational. When the DEW line became operational in 1957, the value of the MCL was eroded, and the RCAF started pressing for it to be dismantled.

Although technically capable, the MCL gave little information for vectoring interceptors to their targets, so these tasks still required the Pinetree radars much farther south. The extra time offered by the MCL was not considered worth the trouble of keeping the line operational. The USAF disagreed, but in spite of their objections, the western half of the line was shut down in January 1964, leaving the eastern half to help defend the industrial areas of Canada and the US. As the Soviet Union moved their offensive capability to ICBMs it became clear that both the MCL and Pinetree systems were of limited use, and the entire Mid-Canada line was shut down in April 1965. The operations site located at Cranberry Portage, Manitoba, for example, has been converted into a high school and residence since active operations at the site closed in the mid-1960s.

The DEW line stations were sited to provide the best possible view of the horizon, but there remained a minimum detection angle below which aircraft could sneak by without being seen. During early planning, a system like the MCL's towers was considered as gap-fillers between the stations to prevent these sorts of intrusions. As the MCL came online and the problem with birds became clear, the original forward-scatter concept was replaced by one using Doppler filtering to ignore anything flying below 125 mph. These AN/FPS-23 "Fluttar" systems did indeed filter out birds, but failed to filter out the general aviation aircraft flying in the area, including those flying base-to-base for servicing and crew rotations. As a result, the false-alarm rate rendered it just as ineffective as the MCL, and it lasted even a shorter time, shut down in 1963.

Stations
From a December 1956 listing:

POL Supply Points
Petroleums, Oils and Lubricants (POL) Supply Points were distribution centers for consumable petroleum materials used to fuel and maintain the Mid-Canada Line DDS sites. Co-located with Sector Control Stations when possible, petroleum products were received in bulk and shipped out by air from these locations. From the same December 1956 listing.

title: Mid-Canada Line


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Rajputana Agency

The Rajputana Agency was a political office of the British Indian Empire dealing with a collection of native states in Rajputana (now in Rajasthan, northwestern India), under the political charge of an Agent reporting directly to the Governor-General of India and residing at Mount Abu in the Aravalli Range. The total area of the states falling within the Rajputana Agency was 127541 sqmi, with eighteen states and two estates or chiefships.

Subdivisions and (e)states

 * Mewar Residency, with headquarters at Udaipur, dealt with the state of Mewar (title Maharana of Udaipur), a salute state entitled to a hereditary gun salute of 19 guns (21 local).
 * Southern Rajputana States Agency, which was part of Mewar Residency until 1906, when it was separated, covered three salute states:
 * Banswara, title Maharawal, hereditary 15 guns
 * Dungarpur, title Maharawal, hereditary 15 guns
 * Pratapgarh, title Maharawal, hereditary 15 guns
 * Jaipur Residency, with headquarters at Jaipur, dealt with two salute states:
 * Jaipur, title Maharaja, hereditary 17 guns (19 local)
 * Kishangarh, title Maharaja, hereditary 15 guns
 * as well as the Thikana (estate) of Lawa.
 * Western Rajputana States Residency, with its headquarters at Jodhpur, dealt with:
 * Jodhpur, title Maharaja, hereditary salute of 17 guns (19 local)
 * Jaisalmer, title Maharawal, hereditary salute of 15 guns
 * Sirohi, title Maharao, hereditary salute of 15 guns
 * Bikaner Agency, with headquarters at Bikaner, dealt with the salute state of Bikaner, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17 guns (19 local)
 * Alwar Agency, with headquarters at Alwar, dealt with the salute state of Alwar, title Maharaja, hereditary salute of 15 guns (17 local)
 * Eastern Rajputana States Agency, with headquarters at Bharatpur, dealt with :
 * Bharatpur, Jat, title Maharaja, hereditary salute of 17 guns (19 local)
 * Karauli, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17 guns
 * Dholpur, Jat, title Maharaj Rana, hereditary salute of 15 guns (17 personal)
 * Haraoti-Tonk Agency, with headquarters at Deoli, dealt with:
 * Bundi title Maharao, hereditary salute of 17 guns
 * Tonk, Muslim, title Nawab, hereditary salute of 17 guns
 * Shahpura, title Raja, hereditary salute of 9 guns.
 * Kotah-Jhalawar Agency, with headquarters at Kota, dealt with:
 * Kota(h), title Maharaja, hereditary salute of 17 guns (19 personal)
 * Jhalawar, title Maharaj Rana, hereditary salute of 13 guns [15 Personal]

The small British province of Ajmer-Merwara was also included within the geographical area of Rajputana, but that was under direct British rule.

Population and dynasties
All of the princely states had Hindu rulers, except Tonk, which had a Muslim ruler, most being Rajputs, except two in Eastern Rajputana, Bharatpur State and Dholpur State, which had Jat rulers. Although Rajputs ruled most of the states, they comprised a small minority of the population; in the 1901 census, of a total population of 9,723,301, only 620,229 were Rajputs, who were numerically strongest in the northern states and in Udaipur and Tarangagadh.

Other important castes and tribes of Rajputana were the Charans, known as poet-historians and administrators in princely states; the Brahmins, who traditionally performed priestly functions, and were numerous and influential; the Bhats, who were the keepers of secular tradition and of the genealogies; the Hindu mercantile castes; Jains, who comprised the majority of the merchants; the agricultural groups, such as the Jats and the Gurjars, the tribal peoples, Bhils, Meenas and Meo. In the 1901 census, 7,035,093 persons, or more than 72% of the total population spoke one of the Rajasthani languages.

Rulers
Prior to the Muslim invasions of northern India in the eleventh century, Rajputana was ruled by a number of local dynasties, Chief of these were the Gurjara Pratiharas, who ruled at Kanauj; the Paramaras of Malwa; the Chauhans of Ajmer;The Bamraulia of Dholpur the Chaulukya (Solankis) of Anhilwara in Gujarat; the Guhilots with the Sisodia of Udaipur (Mewar); the Rathores of Marwar (Jodhpur); and the Kachwaha clan of Jaipur. The Rathore, Chauhan, Sisodia and Kachwahas ruled until Indian independence. These Rajput dynasties were the first in line to face Muslim invaders in 11th century and prior. In 14th century Rajput power revived with the great Maharana Kumbha ruling over entire Mewar region for 34 years after defeating various Islamic Sultans many times. He built the Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) to commemorate his victories against Islamic Sultans. Colonel James Tod called Vijay Stambha one of finest examples of Hindu Rajput architecture. In 16th century the Rajputs first allied & then faced off with foreigner Babur, founder of the Mughal empire at Fatehpur Sikri in 1527. Some clans chose to conciliate with Akbar, except for the Sisodia clan, which, however, conciliated with Jahangir in 1616. Many Mughal Kings sought refuge from the friendly allied Rajput kings during internal conflicts or while on the run; e.g. Akbar was born at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. From Jahangir's accession to Aurangzeb's death in 1707, a period of 100 years, many Rajput kings allied with Mughals although some states did rebel like Bundelas against Shah Jahan, Mewar's great Maharana Pratap against Akbar and Mewar and Marwar against Aurangzeb. In 16th century Jat power arose and they fought against Aurangzeb in battle of Tilpat. After death of Gokula Singh Raja Ram Jat looted Akbar's tomb and exhumed Akbar's bones and burned them. After Aurangzeb's death, the invasion of the Marathas and Nader Shah of Iran led to a triple alliance among the three leading Rajput chiefs, which internal jealousy so weakened that the Marathas, having been called in by the Rathors to aid them, took possession of Ajmer about 1756. By the end of the century nearly the whole of Eastern Rajputana had been vir aligned with Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809. In 1817 the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. The Pindari were defeated, and the Afghan adventurer Amir Khan submitted and signed a treaty with the British, making him the ruler of Tonk. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Jat and Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajput kings were some of the most loyal allies of British Empire during the Revolt of 1857, World War I, & World War II.

Economy
In the time of the British Raj, the majority of the people were occupied in agriculture. In the large towns banking and commerce flourished. In the north, the staple products for export were salt, grain, wool and cotton, and in the south opium and cotton. The major imports included sugar, hardware and piece goods. Rajputana had relatively little industrial production. The principal manufactures were cotton and woolen goods, metalwork, ivory carving, and other handicrafts which were chiefly carried on in the eastern states. The system of agriculture was very simple; in the drier country west of the Aravalli Range only one crop was raised in the year, while in other parts south and east of the Aravallis two crops were raised annually, and various kinds of cereals, pulses and fibres are grown. In the desert tracts fine breeds of camels, cattle, horses and sheep were to be found wherever there is pasturage. Irrigation, mostly from wells, was almost confined to the northern portion. Rajputana was traversed throughout by the Rajputana railway, with its Malwa branch in the south, and diverging to Agra and Delhi in the north. Jodhpur, Udaipur and Bikaner had constructed branch railways at their own cost, the first of which was extended in 1901 to Hyderabad in Sindh. In 1909 another line was opened running north near the eastern boundary from Kotah to Bharatpur.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rajputana Agency


text:
User:Andrew0211

They gave us a cheque, and took us by our necks, and swore undying loyalty.

We'll make a new art for the people.

title: User:Andrew0211


text:
Commodore 65

The Commodore 65 (also known as the C64DX) is a prototype computer created at Commodore Business Machines in 1990–1991. It is an improved version of the Commodore 64, and it was meant to be backwards-compatible with the older computer, while still providing a number of advanced features close to those of the Amiga.

History
In September 1989 Compute!'s Gazette noted that "Sales of the 64 have diminished rapidly, Nintendo has eaten big holes in the market, and the life of the old warhorse computer should somehow be extended." Noting that Apple had developed the IIGS to extend the life of its Apple II series, the magazine asked "Will Commodore take the same tack?", then continued:

"The latest rumor says Yes. We've heard reports from several sources of a new machine from Commodore—A 64GS, if you will. This machine is reportedly driven by a GE802, a version of the 65816 microprocessor (which is a 16-bit version of the 6502 chip), and runs at 4 MHz (by comparison, the 64 runs at 1 MHz; the Amiga, at slightly over 7 MHz). It comes with 128K of RAM and is expandable to one megabyte. Fully expanded, it supports 256 colors. Maximum resolution is a stunning 640 X 400 pixels. We've also heard that it has a 64 mode so that 64 owners can purchase a much more powerful machine and still use their software library. The 64GS reportedly comes with a built-in 3 1/2-inch disk drive and will support the 1581. But, our sources say, it does not support the 1541 or the 1571 drive (uh, excuse me, please pass the bologna). All we've heard about sound in the new machine is that it's 'enhanced' and features stereo output. The final tidbit is that the 64GS will retail in the $300-$350 range when it debuts in November."

The Gazette added, "Our sources also report that there is a great deal of infighting at Commodore as to whether the machine should be released. The sales staff wants to get the machine out the door, while the naysaying engineers have dubbed it 'son of Plus/4.'" While the next issue reported that "the latest rumor is that such a machine will never see the light of day", Fred Bowen and others at Commodore in 1990–1991 developed the Commodore 65 (C65) as a successor to the C64. In the end of 1990 the decision to create the C65 was taken. The project was cancelled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991.

When Commodore International was liquidated in 1994, a number of prototypes were sold on the open market, and thus a few people actually own a Commodore 65. Estimates as to the actual number of machines found on the open market range from 50 to 2000 units. As the C65 project was cancelled, the final 8-bit offering from CBM remained the triple-mode, 1–2 MHz, 128 KB (expandable), C64-compatible Commodore 128 of 1985.

Technical specifications

 * The CPU named CSG 4510 R3 is a custom CSG 65CE02 (a MOS 6502 derivative), combined with two MOS 6526 complex interface adapters (CIAs), a UART serial interface, and a memory mapper to allow for an addressable space of 1 MB
 * 3.54 MHz clock frequency (the C64 runs at 1 MHz)
 * A new VIC-III graphics chip named CSG 4567 R5, capable of producing 256 colors from a palette of 4096 colors; available modes include 320×200×256 (8), 640×200×16 (4), 640×400×16 (4), 1280×200×4 (2), and 1280×400×4 (2) ( X×Y×color depth, i.e. number of colors (bit planes) )
 * Supports all video modes of VIC-II
 * Text mode with 40/80 × 25 characters
 * Synchronizable with external video source (genlock)
 * Integrated DMA controller (bit blit)
 * Two CSG 8580R5 SID sound chips producing stereo sound (the C64 has one SID)
 * Separate control (left / right) for volume, filter and modulation
 * 128 KB RAM, expandable with up to 1 MB using a RAM expansion port similar to that of the Commodore Amiga 500
 * 128 KB ROM
 * Heavily improved BASIC: Commodore BASIC 10.0 (the C64 has the relatively feature-weak BASIC 2.0, which was almost 10 years old by this time.)
 * One internal 3½" DSDD floppy disk drive
 * Keyboard with 77 keys and an inverted T directional cursor block

Ports
Left side:

 * Power +5 V DC at 2.2 A and +12 V DC at 0.85 A
 * 2× Control ports DE9M

Back:

 * Expansion port 50-pin
 * CBM-488 bus using a 6-pin DIN for 1541/1571/1581
 * User port: parallel 24-pin (without 9 V AC)
 * Stereo 2× RCA connector for left and right channel
 * RGBA video DE9F
 * RF video
 * Composite video 8-pin DIN
 * External fast floppy drive port — mini-DIN-8

Bottom flap:

 * RAM expansion

Dimensions: ≈46 cm wide, 20 cm deep, 5.1 cm high

Chipset names
The custom chips of the C65 were not meant to have names like the custom chips in the Amiga. Although there are names printed near the chip sockets on various revisions of the circuit board, they were not intended as names for the chips. According to former Commodore engineer Bill Gardei, "The Legend on the PCB was to let others in the organization know [whom] to go to for advice on the chips. We did have an issue with that. But that wasn't the name of the chip at the time. The 4567 was always called the VIC-3. I can see why others outside of Commodore made the connection. But again—no—we never called these chips 'Victor' or 'Bill'."

The custom chips for the C65 are:

 * CSG 4510: processor (commonly called "Victor" after Victor Andrade)
 * CSG 4567: VIC-III graphics processor (commonly called "Bill" after Bill Gardei)
 * CSG 4151: DMAgic DMA controller (designed by Paul Lassa)
 * F011C: FDC (floppy disk controller, also designed by Bill Gardei)

The C65 also contains one or two programmable logic arrays depending on the version:

 * ELMER: PAL16L8 (C65 versions 1.1, 2A, 2B), PAL20L8 (C65 versions 3–5)
 * IGOR: PAL16L8 (C65 version 2B only)

Graphics subsystem
The main memory of the C65 is shared between the graphics subsystem and the CPU. The memory clock runs at almost twice the speed of the C64. To further increase the bandwidth of the graphics subsystem, the memory is divided into 2× 8-bit wide banks of 64 Kbyte which can be accessed by the CSG-4567 simultaneously. This provides an effective video-DMA bandwidth of 7.2 MB/s which is the same specification as the original 16-bit Commodore Amiga chipset (OCS/ECS). The CPU can use up to half the available bandwidth, since it can only access a single 8-bit bank at a time. In higher demanding video modes, the CPU is slowed down due to increased cycle stealing from the video controller.

Enhanced VIC-II modes
In addition to having all of the C64 video modes, the CSG-4567 also supports several new character attributes such as "blink" or "bold" and can display any of the new or old video modes in 80 column or 640 horizontal pixel format, as well as the older 40 column 320 pixel format [6]. These enhanced "VIC-II" modes take up to 16 KB of system RAM. The sprite capabilities in all VIC modes are equivalent to the C64.

Bitplane modes
A new "bitplane" video mode was added to allow the displaying of true bitplane type video, with-up to eight bitplanes in 320 pixel mode and up to four in 640 pixel mode. The CSG-4567 can also time-multiplex the bitplanes to give a true four-color 1280 pixel picture. Vertical resolution is maintained at 200 lines as standard, but can be doubled to 400 with interlace [6]. The VIC-III bitplane modes take up to 64 KB of system RAM in non-interlaced or 128 KB RAM in interlaced (400 line) modes. Since the C65 is equipped with only 128 KB in its basic configuration, these modes would consume the entire RAM, and are therefore only useful in a RAM expanded system. On a basic system, it would probably have made more sense to write software which uses less demanding resolutions with fewer bitplanes - partly because this would consume less of the confined RAM space, but also because more bitplanes would demand a higher video DMA bandwidth and consequently slow down the CPU as a result.

DAT and Blitter
The bitplanes on the C65 are organized in a less straightforward manner than e.g. on the Commodore Amiga, which organizes the bitplanes as straight rows of pixels: On the C65, the bytes within the bitplanes are organized as 25 rows of 40 or 80 stacks of 8 sequential bytes, similar to the original 320×200 VIC modes. Because this makes it harder to derive individual byte and pixel addresses from their position in the XY coordinate frame, the C65 provides a conversion mechanism in hardware called Display Address Translator (DAT).

Further aid to the programmer comes in the form of a bit-blitter, which supports

 * Copy (up,down,invert), Fill, Swap, Mix (boolean Minterms) Hold, Modulus (window), Interrupt, and Resume modes
 * Block operations from 1 byte to 64 KB

DOS
In contrast to previous 8-bit computers from Commodore, the C65 has a complete DOS through which the built-in 3.5-inch floppy disk drive can be controlled. Disks used by the C65 have a storage capacity of 880 KB and the drive is compatible with C1581. Since this format was uncommon for the former C64 owners, the C65 retains the serial IEC port for external Commodore disk drives. It's possible to use a 1541, 1571, 1581, or other similar model.

The DOS itself is based on the Commodore PET IEEE 8250 drive DOS. Since it can only deal with two floppy disk drives, including the internal, only one external drive may be connected to the internal floppy disk controller. Like earlier systems, up to 4 drives can be daisy-chained on the IEC port.

Interfaces
The C65 includes the same ports of the C64. In addition, there is a DMA port for memory expansion. The latter is attached just like on the Amiga 500 via a flap in the bottom of the board. The built-in floppy disk drive is connected in parallel, serial Commodore drives can be connected via the usual IEC port. A plug for a genlock was also provided. Only the port for the C64 datasette is no longer available, and the user port missing—like the Aldi C64—the 9 volt AC line. The expansion port differs significantly from all prior C64 variants and rather resembles that of C16.

Legacy
Because the Commodore 65 was only a prototype, not many units were made. If one appears on eBay, it may sell for around $20,000.

MEGA65
In 2015, the Museum of Electronic Games & Art (MEGA) announced a recreation of the Commodore 65. Also backwards compatible with the Commodore 64, the MEGA65 features Commodore 65 compatible hardware recreated in FPGA and supports newer connectors such as HDMI, MicroSD cards and LAN.

In September 2020, the pre-release developer-kit (r3) has sold out and in total 100 systems were delivered by the end of 2020.

On 30 September 2021, the final version of the MEGA65 with recreated C65 case, was available for pre-order. The first batch of 400 computers has sold out and been released to customers as of May 2022.

As of 10 May 2023, the second batch of 400 computers has also sold out and been released to customers.

title: Commodore 65


text:
Talk:Otto Maria Carpeaux

Untitled
Um, this is linked to List of Westerns authors - did this chap really write Westerns as well? Djnjwd 12:50, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The linker was confused; this guy is a Western author, not an author of westerns.
 * Derrick Coetzee 03:29, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

This page is totally hopelessly POV. It should speak of his accomplishments, not ramble on about how incredibly wonderful he is. I cite a disgustingly terrible POV piece:

''the History also features one of the most staggering, beyond-belief erudition to be ever found in any writer on the field of Literature. It would scare even the most broadly-read critics such as Harold Bloom.''

I don't know enough about the topic to fix it in the best way possible. Someone please help with this.

Derrick Coetzee 03:29, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Update: no one took on the task, so I decided to attempt it myself. There are remnants, but I think I got most of the POV. I went ahead and removed the tag.
 * Derrick Coetzee 00:54, 26 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks. I'm still not sure about the factual accuracy of some things (including all those peripatetic studies). RodC 13:47, 26 Jun 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Otto Maria Carpeaux


text:
Robert Thomson (executive)

Robert James Dell’Oro Thomson (born 11 March 1961) is an Australian journalist. Since January 2013 he has been chief executive of News Corp.

Life
Thomson was born in Torrumbarry, Victoria, and studied at Christian Brothers College in St Kilda East, and at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. One of his ancestors was named Arturo Dell'Oro, and came from Domodossola, in northern Italy. He is married to Wang Ping, the daughter of a general in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.

Career
Thomson started work as a copyboy at The Herald (now the Herald Sun) in Melbourne in 1979. In 1983, he became senior feature writer for The Sydney Morning Herald, and two years later became Beijing correspondent for The Sydney Morning Herald as well as the Financial Times. Thomson then became a Tokyo correspondent for the Financial Times in 1989. Thomson was appointed the Financial Times foreign news editor in 1994 and in 1996 became editor of the Financial Times weekend edition. While at Sydney Morning Herald, Thomson wrote a series on Australian judges, which was published as a book in 1987, The Judges: A Portrait of an Australian Judiciary. In 1998, Thomson became U.S. managing editor of the Financial Times.

In May 2008, he was appointed managing editor of The Wall Street Journal, having previously been the editor of The Times.

He received an honorary doctorate from RMIT University in 2010.

In January 2013, Thomson became the chief executive of News Corp.

In 2007, Thomson was one of the first media executives to criticise Google and big tech for the disaggregation of content and publication of falsehoods, and to pressure them for a higher share of advertising value. He has been known to use alliterative expressions to call out those companies, such as platforms for "the fake, the faux and the fallacious", and "tech tapeworms." Thomson called for new terms of trade for tech platforms to allow viable business models for creators and to benefit broader society.

In 2023, Thomson has decried the unauthorised use of journalistic content by generative AI and the resulting existential risk posed to media companies. Thomson and several other media leaders have called for compensation by tech companies that are developing and employing AI. Speaking in May 2023 at INMA, a media conference, Thomson summed up the industry's outrage, saying "[media's] collective IP is under threat and for which we should argue vociferously for compensation." He said that AI was "designed so the reader will never visit a journalism website, thus fatally undermining that journalism."

title: Robert Thomson (executive)


text:
Loughborough Junction railway station

Loughborough Junction railway station is a railway station in the Loughborough Junction neighbourhood of the London Borough of Lambeth. It was opened as Loughborough Road by the London, Chatham and Dover Railway in 1864. It is between Elephant & Castle and Herne Hill stations and is served by Thameslink.

History
On 6 October 1862 the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) opened its City Branch from Herne Hill to Elephant and Castle. Services ran from Victoria to Elephant and Castle via a reversing move at Herne Hill. From 1 May 1863 services ran directly from Brixton to Camberwell via a curve at Loughborough Junction. Services were extended from Elephant and Castle to Blackfriars on 1 June 1894.

In October 1864 the LCDR opened Loughborough Road station on the north-to-west Brixton spur which connects the City Branch to the original Chatham Main Line at Brixton station.

On 1 December 1872 platforms were opened on the City branch and on the north-to-east spur (called the Cambria Road platforms and spur after nearby Cambria Road). The enlarged station was renamed Loughborough Junction.

The Loughborough Road platforms closed during the First World War on 3 April 1916 when the Victoria to Moorgate local service was withdrawn. This also led to the closure of Camberwell and Walworth Road stations to the north and the loss of direct service to Brixton, Clapham, Wandsworth Road, Battersea Park Road and Victoria.

In connection with the Southern Railway suburban electrification the platforms on Cambria Jn spur could not be lengthened so were closed on 12 July 1925.

After nationalisation the station was part of the Southern Region of British Railways and, from 1986, Network SouthEast. Around 1990 the station became part of the Thameslink route.

Services

Off-peak, all services at Loughborough Junction are operated by Thameslink using EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:

 * 4 tph to St Albans City
 * 4 tph to Sutton (2 of these run via Mitcham Junction and 2 run via Wimbledon)

During the peak hours, a small number of Southeastern services between Beckenham Junction and London Blackfriars call at the station. The station is served by five trains to London Blackfriars in the morning peak and two trains to Beckenham Junction in the evening peak.

A small number of late evening Thameslink services are extended beyond St Albans City to Bedford. On Sundays, there are also direct services beyond St Albans City to Luton.

Connections
London Buses routes 35, 45, 345, P4 and P5 and night route N35 serve the station.

Future proposals
The South London line passes across the south end of Loughborough Junction station via a bridge but has never had platforms there. As part of phase 2 of the East London line extension project, this line is now part of the London Overground network operated by Transport for London. Completed on 9 December 2012, this extension connected the South London Line to the East and West London lines, allowing rail services to run across South London from Surrey Quays to Clapham Junction. This creates an orbital network around Central London, fulfilling the Orbirail concept.

The new route passes over both Loughborough Junction and Brixton stations, and the proposals were criticised for not including new interchange stations at these locations. No London Overground platforms are planned at Loughborough Junction as the line is on high railway arches, making the cost of any station construction prohibitive. It has been proposed, as an alternative, that the disused East Brixton could be reopened instead as the site is close to both stations.

title: Loughborough Junction railway station


text:
Boston College High School

Boston College High School (also known as BC High) is an all-male, Jesuit, Catholic college-preparatory day school in the Columbia Point neighborhood of Dorchester, Boston, Massachusetts. It educates approximately 1,400 students in grades 7–12. Founded in 1863 as a constituent part of Boston College, the school separated from the college in 1927.

Foundation and relationship with Boston College
In 1863, Jesuit priest John McElroy founded Boston College as a seven-year educational institution combining high school and college. The school administration believed that a seven-year course of study would ensure "moral influence" and a "uniform and homogeneous course of teaching and of training." The high school and college shared a campus in Boston's South End until 1910 (when the college moved to Chestnut Hill), and legally separated in 1927. Following the split, BC High initially remained in the South End, but moved to its current Dorchester campus in 1950.

During their years as a merged institution, BC High was much larger than the college. In 1913, it enrolled 1,300 students to the college's 300. In 1922, BC High enrolled 1,500 boys, making it the nation's largest Catholic high school and by far the nation's largest Catholic boys' school (the next largest, in Philadelphia, educated 859). Students who graduated from BC High in good standing were automatically admitted to Boston College without examination. Today, only a minority of BC High students (102 out of 1445 graduates between 2017 and 2021) attend Boston College.

Although BC High and Boston College are now separate institutions, the two schools' athletic programs share the Eagle mascot, and graduates of BC High and BC are known as "Double Eagles." (Graduates of BC High, BC, and BC's graduate schools (traditionally the law school) are called "Triple Eagles." )

Due to its shared history with Boston College, BC High has always been open to students of all faiths. The original Boston College was founded "to educate Boston's predominantly Irish, Catholic immigrant community." Nonetheless, the state government required the founders to open the school to students of all religious backgrounds, as reflected in Boston College's founding charter.

21st-century developments
In the 21st century, the size of BC High's student body has fluctuated for various reasons. For most of the 2000s, the school educated approximately 1,300 students in the high school division. In 2006, BC High added a middle school (grades 7–8), dubbed the "Arrupe Division," which temporarily increased the size of the school to 1,600 students. Since 2015, the student body has been shrinking. That year, the school surveyed its parents and alumni, who generally supported decreasing the size of the school over the alternatives of admitting female students or raising tuition to free up endowment funds for financial aid. In the 2022–23 school year, BC High enrolled 1,405 students, 334 of whom were in the middle school.

The school reportedly considered admitting girls in 2015 and 2017, but declined to do so after opposition from several stakeholders, including (allegedly) Cardinal O'Malley, the Archbishop of Boston, who was reportedly concerned about the effect a co-ed BC High might have on the Archdiocese's all-girls schools. A former chairman of the BC High board of trustees echoed this concern. However, in 2017 BC High appointed its first female president, Grace Cotter Regan, who stated that she would respect the board and alumni's wishes to continue single-sex education.

In 2023, BC High announced that it was launching a $125 million fundraising campaign to expand the scholarship fund and upgrade the campus. This campaign includes a $49 million gift (the largest in school history) to build a wellness complex, which will include a strength and conditioning center, a swimming pool, and exercise machines.

Sexual misconduct accusations
In 2002, Stephen F. Dawber was suspended from his teaching duties after accusations of sexual assault. This came just days after two other priests were accused of abuse about a decade prior.

In 2005, Jesuit priest James Talbot, who was also a teacher and coach at the school, pleaded guilty to rape, assault with intent to rape, and three counts of assault and battery, related to two students he sexually abused during his time there. The school had previously removed him after allegations of sexual assault surfaced from his time at Cheverus High School in Portland, Maine. Talbot's actions were subsequently dramatized in the 2015 film Spotlight. In 2016, BC High trustee Jack Dunn successfully threatened to sue Spotlight 's filmmakers for defamation. The film's distributor issued a statement clarifying that Dunn had not personally covered up sexual abuse at BC High.

Global Education
The Hyde Center for Global Education was founded was established in 2012 with the gift of Lawrence Hyde, who was a member of the Class of 1942. The program offers a variety of international programs to 18 different countries.

Innovation
In 2020, alumnus Jack Shields donated $5 million to establish the Shields Innovation Center. The program aims to "prioritize entrepreneurial thinking while preparing students for the rapidly evolving innovation economy".

Tuition and financial aid
In the 2023–24 school year, BC High charged students $26,650, plus other mandatory and optional fees.

41% of the student body is on financial aid. Based on the school's reported $11 million financial aid budget, the average aid grant is roughly $19,000 (~70% of tuition). In 2017, approximately 50% of the student body received financial aid, but the average aid grant was less than 50% of tuition.

Endowment and expenses
BC High does not file publicly accessible Internal Revenue Service disclosures. In the 2023 fiscal year, BC High reported that its financial endowment stood at $88.9 million.

Facilities
St. Ignatius Hall (formerly McElroy Hall) is the Dorchester campus' original building. Shortly after, Cushing Hall opened in 1953, followed by the new Jesuit residence, Loyola Hall, in 1957. The Walsh Hall Science Center opened in 1965. Walsh Hall was renovated in 2007 for the opening of the Arrupe Division, which serves grades 7-8. McQuillan Hall and Cadigan Hall are the two newest buildings on the campus. McQuillan Hall houses the new science center and cafeteria.

Cadigan Hall opened in 2013 after alumnus Pat Cadigan donated $12 million for a new "arts and recreation building". The hall features an atrium to facilitize alumni and outreach events. Cadigan Hall serves the art and music departments as well as the athletic program.

In the spring of 2016, Monan Park opened as the new home for the home for baseball at Boston College High School and the University of Massachusetts Boston. The complex features a baseball stadium with seating for 500 spectators and identical dimensions to Fenway Park, as well as a secondary field for baseball, lacrosse, and soccer. The joint project with the neighboring University of Massachusetts Boston was made possible with a $2 million donation from the Yawkey Foundation.

Athletics
Boston College High School teams are known as the Eagles, a name they share with Boston College. They compete as a member of the Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association (MIAA) Division 1 level, competing in the Catholic Conference (CC). As of 2021, the school offered 20 varsity sports teams. Sponsored sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, rowing, rugby, sailing, skiing, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, ultimate, volleyball, and wrestling.

The mascot for all Boston College High School athletic teams is the Eagle, generally referred to in the plural, i.e., "The Eagles". The school colors are maroon and gold. The fight song is For Boston.

The football team has a long-standing rivalry with Catholic Memorial School. They have faced off every year since 1962. The winner of the Thanksgiving Day game wins the Pumpkin Trophy.

The 2009 Indoor Track Relay Team won the Massachusetts State Relays. The baseball team won the State Finals in 2001, 2008 and 2009. The soccer team won the Massachusetts State Championship in 2004. The hockey team has won the Super 8 hockey tournament six times, the second-most in the tournament's history, behind only conference rival Catholic Memorial School. In 2019, the team won the championship game at the TD Garden over Pope Francis Preparatory School 2–1 in 4OT to win their second-straight title, the longest game in tournament history. The BC High Lacrosse Team has won the Division 1 South Sectional Championship 4 times in the last 5 years: 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2021 (No Season in 2020 due to the Covid-19 Pandemic). The team won the Massachusetts Division 1 State Championship over Acton-Boxborough Regional High School in 2018 by a score of 16-3.

Principal athletic facilities include Edward T. Barry Ice Rink (capacity: 1,000), McNeice Pavillion, Monan Park (500), and Viola Stadium. BC High athletics has been considered one of the best programs in the nation. Specifically, the school was ranked #10 on Sports Illustrated's list of Top High School Athletic programs in 2007.

Notable alumni

 * Paul Benedict, actor
 * William Bulger (born 1934, class of 1952), politician, former President of University of Massachusetts system
 * Tim Bulman, NFL defensive lineman
 * Joe Cannata, hockey player
 * Joe Callahan, NHL defenseman
 * Jim Carey (born 1974), former NHL player
 * Paul Carey (born 1968), former MLB player
 * General George W. Casey Jr. (born 1948, class of 1966), four-star general, Chief of Staff of the United States Army
 * David Chiu, president, San Francisco Board of Supervisors
 * Bob Clasby, NFL player
 * Thomas Cronin, political scientist and educator
 * Richard Cardinal Cushing, Archbishop of Boston
 * Most Rev. John Michael D'Arcy, Bishop Emeritus of Fort Wayne-South Bend, former Auxiliary Bishop of Boston
 * Terry Driscoll (born 1947), NBA professional basketball player
 * Joseph F. Dunford Jr., four-star general, U.S. Marine Corps, Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff
 * Ed Gallagher (1910-1981, class of 1928), starting pitcher in Major League Baseball who played briefly for the Boston Red Sox during the 1932 season
 * Paul Guilfoyle, actor
 * Ken Hackett, Ambassador to the Holy See, retired president of Catholic Relief Services
 * Daniel J. Harrington, Theologian and Biblical scholar
 * Alex Hassan (born 1988), MLB player for Boston Red Sox
 * General Joseph P. Hoar, former Commander-in-Chief, United States Central Command
 * Ike Kamp (1900-1955), former MLB player (Boston Braves)
 * Thomas G. Kelley, recipient of Medal of Honor
 * Edward Thaddeus Lawton, Boston-born Catholic bishop in Nigeria
 * Pat Leahy, NHL hockey player
 * Dennis Lehane, author of Mystic River, Gone Baby Gone, Shutter Island
 * Theodore Marier, founder of St. Paul's Choir School, Harvard Square
 * Chris Marinelli, NFL football player, Denver Broncos, Indianapolis Colts
 * Edwin McDonough, actor
 * John A. McNeice Jr, philanthropist, former Chairman and CEO, Colonial Group
 * James P. Moran Sr., Boston Redskins player, father of Virginia politicians Jim Moran and Brian Moran
 * Nnamdi Obukwelu, NFL player, Indianapolis Colts
 * Joe Nash, NFL player, Seattle Seahawks
 * Jake O'Brien, professional basketball player
 * Joseph T. O'Callahan, Catholic priest and recipient of Medal of Honor
 * Francis Patrick O'Connor, former Justice of Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
 * Pietro Pezzati, painter
 * Mike Ryan, NHL hockey player
 * Walter V. Robinson, journalist
 * Paul Sally, professor of mathematics and director of undergraduate studies at University of Chicago
 * Francis X. Shea, Jesuit academic who served as president of College of St. Scholastica and chancellor of Antioch College
 * Ryan Shea, professional hockey player for Chicago Blackhawks
 * Mike Sullivan, current head coach of Pittsburgh Penguins, former NHL hockey player
 * Steve Trapilo, NFL football player
 * Eric Turner, singer
 * Mike Vasil, baseball pitcher in the New York Mets organization
 * Erik Vendt, Olympic swimmer, gold medalist 2008, silver medalist in both 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics
 * Dan Wetzel, journalist
 * Jerry York, Boston College men's hockey head coach

title: Boston College High School


text:
Monograph

A monograph is a specialist written work (in contrast to reference works) or exhibition on one subject or one aspect of a usually scholarly subject, often by a single author or artist. Although a monograph can be created by two or more individuals, its text remains a coherent whole and it keeps being an in-depth academic work that presents original research, analysis, and arguments. As a focused, in-depth and specialised written work in which one or more authors develop a uniform and continuous argument or analysis over the course of the book, a monograph is essentially different from an edited collection of articles. In an edited collection, a number of original and separate scholarly contributions by different authors are edited and compiled into one book by one or more academic editors.

In library cataloguing, monograph has a broader meaning: a non-serial publication complete in one volume (book) or a definite number of books. Thus it differs from a serial or periodical publication such as a magazine, academic journal, or newspaper. In this context only, books such as novels are considered monographs.

Academia
The English term "monograph" is derived from modern Latin monographia, which has its root in Greek. In the English word, "mono-" means "single" and "-graph" means "something written". Unlike a textbook, which surveys the state of knowledge in a field, the main purpose of a monograph is to present primary research and original scholarship. This research is presented at length, distinguishing a monograph from an article. For these reasons, publication of a monograph is commonly regarded as vital for career progression in many academic disciplines. Intended for other researchers and bought primarily by libraries, monographs are generally published as individual volumes in a short print run.

In Britain and the U.S., what differentiates a scholarly monograph from an academic trade title varies by publisher, though generally it is the assumption that the readership has not only specialized or sophisticated knowledge but also professional interest in the subject of the work.

Biology
In biological taxonomy, a monograph is a comprehensive treatment of a taxon. Monographs typically review all known species within a group, add any newly discovered species, and collect and synthesize available information on the ecological associations, geographic distributions, and morphological variations within the group.

The first-ever monograph of a plant taxon was Robert Morison's 1672 Plantarum Umbelliferarum Distributio Nova, a treatment of the Apiaceae.

Art
Book publishers use the term "artist monograph" to indicate books dealing with a single artist, as opposed to broader surveys of art subjects.

United States Food and Drug Administration
In the context of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation, monographs represent published standards by which the use of one or more substances is automatically authorized. For example, the following is an excerpt from the Federal Register: "The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is issuing a final rule in the form of a final monograph establishing conditions under which over-the-counter (OTC) sunscreen drug products are generally recognized as safe and effective and not misbranded as part of FDA's ongoing review of OTC drug products." Such usage has given rise to the use of the word monograph as a verb, as in "this substance has been monographed by the FDA".

title: Monograph


text:
List of English districts by area

This is a list of the districts of England ordered by area, according to Standard Area Measurements published by the Office for National Statistics. The area is defined as 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'.

The list consists of 164 non-metropolitan districts, 32 London boroughs, 36 metropolitan boroughs, 62 unitary authorities, and two sui generis authorities (the City of London and the Isles of Scilly).

title: List of English districts by area


text:
Tricolored bat

The tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus) or American perimyotis is a species of microbat native to eastern North America. Formerly known as the eastern pipistrelle, based on the incorrect belief that it was closely related to European Pipistrellus species, the closest known relative of the tricolored bat is now recognized as the canyon bat. Its common name "tricolored bat" derives from the coloration of the hairs on its back, which have three distinct color bands. It is the smallest bat species in the eastern and midwestern US, with individuals weighing only 4.6-7.9 g. This species mates in the fall before hibernation, though due to sperm storage, females do not become pregnant until the spring. Young are born helpless, though rapidly develop, flying and foraging for themselves by four weeks old. It has a relatively long lifespan, and can live nearly fifteen years.

In the summer, females roost in small groups and males roost solitarily in tree foliage or beard lichen. It eats a diverse array of insects, foraging with a slow, erratic flight and navigating via echolocation. Though once considered one of the most common bat species in its range, its populations have declined rapidly since 2006 with the introduction of the fungal disease white-nose syndrome. It was listed as an endangered species in 2012 in Canada, and has been petitioned for inclusion on the US endangered species list. Along with the silver-haired bat, the tricolored bat is one of two bat species whose rabies variants have most frequently been implicated in human rabies deaths in the US, with sixteen deaths from 1958–2000.

Taxonomy
The tricolored bat was described as a new species in 1832 by French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier, who placed it in the genus Vespertilio with a scientific name of Vespertilio subflavus. The holotype had been collected in the US state of Georgia by American naturalist John Eatton Le Conte. In 1897, American zoologist Gerrit Smith Miller Jr. placed it in the genus Pipistrellus for the first time as a result of its physical similarities to other members of the genus. Its common name was thus the "eastern pipistrelle". In 1984 its status was reviewed, with H. Menu concluding that it was more similar in appearance to species in the genus Myotis rather than Pipistrellus, erecting a new genus for the taxon: Perimyotis. The name "Perimyotis" means "around Myotis", alluding to its similarities with the genus. This classification was not immediately accepted, however, with a 1985 study instead grouping it and the canyon bat into the genus Parastrellus and a 1987 publication maintaining that the tricolored bat was part of the Pipistrellus genus, though they listed Perimyotis as one of seven subgenera. However, in 2003, a genetic study concluded that the tricolored bat was distinct from Pipistrellus species (and the canyon bat), confirming the validity of the genus Perimyotis. Usage of the scientific name Perimyotis subflavus is widely accepted as of 2019. Its common name was changed from "eastern pipistrelle" to "tricolored bat" to reflect its revised classification.

A 2010 study found that the sister taxon of the tricolored bat is the canyon bat, with the authors suggesting that these two genera form a tribe, though declining to name and formally describe the tribe. Instead, they referred to it as the "perimyotine group", which they gave as the most basal member of a clade that also included the following tribes: Nycticeiini, Eptesicini, Vespertilioni, and another unnamed tribe referred to as the "hysugine group" (including Chalinolobus, Hypsugo, Laephotis, Neoromicia, Nycticeinops, Tylonycteris, and Vespadelus). The tribe was later described as Perimyotini.

Its species name "subflavus" means "a little less than yellow", meaning yellowish or pale yellow. Four subspecies are recognized:
 * P. s. clarus (Baker, 1954)
 * P. s. floridanus (Davis, 1957)
 * P. s. subflavus (Cuvier, 1832)
 * P. s. veraecrucis (Ward, 1891)

Description
The tricolored bat has blond fur that is distinctly tricolored on its back. Individual hairs tricolored: dark gray at the base, buffy (yellowish brown) in the middle, and brown or reddish brown at the tip. It is the smallest bat species found in the eastern and midwestern US. Individuals have a forearm length of 31.4-34.1 mm and weigh 4.6-7.9 g. Its forearms are reddish, contrasting sharply with the black membranes of its wings. Its wingspan is 21-26 cm. It has a dental formula of for a total of 34 teeth.

Reproduction and life cycle
The tricolored bat is a seasonal breeder, with copulation (mating) occurring in the fall before hibernation. Ovulation does not occur until the spring, however, and females store the males' sperm in their uteruses through the winter. Gestation (pregnancy) length is about forty-four days, with females giving birth in June or July. The litter size is typically two individuals. As newborns, the combined mass of twin pups can be as great as 58% of the mother's postpartum mass. At birth, the young lack fur and their eyes are closed. The mother leaves the offspring behind at the roost while she forages at night. Offspring develop rapidly, beginning to fly at three weeks old. By four weeks old, they are foraging for themselves. Young do not reach sexual maturity in their first fall; they do not breed until their second fall.

Individuals can live at least 14.8 years in the wild; juveniles have higher mortality rates than adults, and females have higher mortality rates than males.

Behavior
During the summer, the tricolored bat will roost in tree foliage or buildings, with females alone or in maternity colonies of up to thirty individuals. Trees used for this purpose include oak, maple, the eastern cottonwood, and American tulip tree. Males are solitary and do not form colonies. In Nova Scotia, researchers discovered nearly one hundred roosts of this species, finding that all sampled individuals were roosting not in tree foliage, but rather in a species of beard lichen, Usnea trichodea. This was thought to be the first documentation of a bat using beard lichen as a roosting substrate. It was speculated that the tricolored bat may use the lichen to ward off parasites. Usnic acid, which has anti-insect and anti-bacterial properties, naturally occurs in beard lichens, and no ectoparasites (external parasites) have been documented on the tricolored bat in Nova Scotia.

In the winter, the tricolored bat hibernates in mines, caves, or other human structures. A years-long study of a mine in the US state of Nebraska found that in the summer, the mine was mostly occupied by males. Total number of tricolored bats using the mine at one time ranged from zero to forty-three. Bats were in a state of torpor from November to April. More bats used the mine as a roost in the winter than in the summer. In another abandoned mine in the US state of Indiana, researchers found that the tricolored bat roosts solitarily during hibernation for the majority of the time (96.8% of observations were singletons). During hibernation, males lose an average of 2.65 g, while females lose an average of 2.5 g.

Diet and foraging
The tricolored bat is insectivorous, consuming small prey of 4-10 mm in length. Prey taxa include mosquitoes, beetles, ants, moths, and cicadas. It forages with slow, erratic flight in areas near water or forest edges. It is one of the first bat species to begin foraging each night. It navigates and searches for prey via echolocation (sonar). Its echolocation calls are at a high frequency; visual renderings of the calls show a distinctive hook-shaped call profile, with the lowest frequencies (bottom of the hook shape) at 42 kHz.

Predators, parasites, and disease
The tricolored bat's natural predators include the northern leopard frog, birds of prey, raccoons, snakes, skunks, and prairie voles. Feral cats will also catch and kill them as they leave their hibernacula (cave or mine used for hibernation). There are also records of it being attacked by the hoary bat. The tricolored bat is the host to several species of endoparasites (internal parasites) and ectoparasites. Oocysts (spores) of an Eimeria species (Eimeria heidti ) have been recovered from its guano (feces).

The tricolored bat has experienced severe population decline as a result of the fungal disease white-nose syndrome, which arrived in the US in 2006, with losses of 70% and greater detected in multiple US states. The disease kills bats by colonizing their skin during the winter, causing them to arouse from torpor and burn through their limited fat reserves. Though its population experienced dramatic reduction, subsequent studies have found that their numbers may be stabilizing, though hibernacula where many individuals once roosted may only host fewer than five bats, or even one solitarily.

Range and habitat
The tricolored bat is common throughout eastern North America, with the southern extent of its range in Central America and the northern extent in southern Canada. Its range has expanded since the 1980s, with westward expansion reaching the US states of Colorado, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Additionally, its range started to include the Great Lakes Basin.

Conservation
As of 2018, it is listed as a vulnerable species by the IUCN. In 2008, however, it was considered a least-concern species, which is the IUCN's lowest conservation priority. In the time between the two assessments, the fungal disease white-nose syndrome became widespread in eastern North America, severely impacting the tricolored bat. Historically, it was one of the most common bat species of eastern North America. After an emergency assessment, the tricolored bat is considered an endangered species under the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada as of 2012. In 2016, the Center for Biological Diversity and Defenders of Wildlife submitted a petition to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to list the tricolored bat under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The USFWS determined that the petition demonstrated that listing the species as "threatened" or "endangered" may be warranted. In September 2022, the USFWS announced it would protect the bat as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, following a lawsuit from the Center for Biological Diversity.

Relationship to people
Along with the silver-haired bat, the tricolored bat is one of two species of bat whose rabies variants are responsible for 70% of human rabies cases from bats in the US. Additionally, the rabies virus variants associated with these two species caused 75% of cryptic rabies deaths in the US (rabies cases where the exposure route is unclear, and no bite history exists). From 1958–2000, sixteen people in the US died from the rabies variant associated with tricolored bats, or 46% of all nationwide indigenous (not acquired elsewhere) rabies fatalities. The tricolored bat is infrequently encountered by humans and submitted for rabies testing, with only thirty-one individuals tested for rabies in the US in 2017. Of those, one (3.4%) tested positive for the virus.

title: Tricolored bat


text:
Joel Goldsmith

Joel King Goldsmith (November 19, 1957 – April 29, 2012) was an American composer of film, television, and video game music.

Biography
Joel Goldsmith was born on November 19, 1957, in Los Angeles, California, the third of four children of Sharon (née Hennagin), a singer, and renowned composer Jerry Goldsmith. He was of Jewish descent. Goldsmith's maternal uncle was composer and professor Michael Hennagin.

He was the main composer for the TV series Stargate SG-1, although the main titles were written by David Arnold (who composed the score to Stargate, the film that began the Stargate franchise). For Stargate Atlantis, Goldsmith composed the main titles and the score. He also composed the main title theme and score for the second season of the CBS series Martial Law.

During his career, he usually collaborated with two composers; his father Jerry Goldsmith, and Neal Acree. He made his first move into video games music in 2006, scoring Call of Duty 3. During his final years, Goldsmith relocated to Hidden Hills, California, where he built a home studio in his back yard.

Goldsmith died of cancer on April 29, 2012, aged 54, at his home in Hidden Hills, California. His interment was at Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery.

Emmy Award nominations

 * Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore) – Stargate SG-1 (1998)
 * Outstanding Main Title Theme Music – Stargate Atlantis (2005)
 * Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score) – Stargate Atlantis (2006)

title: Joel Goldsmith


text:
Köprülü

Köprülü may refer to:

People

 * Köprülü family (Kypriljotet), an Ottoman noble family of Albanian origin
 * Köprülü era (1656–1703), the period in which the Ottoman Empire's politics were set by the Grand Viziers, mainly the Köprülü family
 * Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (1575–1661), Ottoman statesman, founder of the Köprülü family
 * Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha (1635–1676), Ottoman statesman
 * Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha (1637–1691), Ottoman statesman
 * Amcazade Köprülü Hüseyin Pasha (1644–1702), Ottoman statesman
 * Köprülü Numan Pasha (died 1719), Ottoman statesman
 * Köprülü Abdullah Pasha (died 1735), Ottoman general
 * Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (1890–1966), Turkish politician and historian
 * Murat Köprülü, American chief executive

Places

 * Veles, North Macedonia, known as Köprülü until the Balkan Wars
 * Köprülü, Göle, a town in the district of Göle, Ardahan Province of Turkey
 * Köprülü, Ceyhan, a village in the district of Ceyhan, Adana Province, Turkey
 * Köprülü, Gündoğmuş, a village in the district of Gündoğmuş, Antalya Province, Turkey
 * Köprülü, Şavşat, a village in the district of Şavşat, Artvin Province, Turkey
 * Köprülü Canyon, a canyon and a national park in Antalya Province, Turkey

Other

 * Koprulu Sector, a fictional sector in space in the StarCraft universe

title: Köprülü


text:
Talk:Computer algebra system

I thought these were called algrebraic manipulators or is that something different? --(talk)BozMo 13:32, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

IMHO it's important to show which software packages are free software - what's the point of having wikipedia under the GFDL if we are not going to be supportive of the same sort of freedom in software? Boud 12:18, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't quite agree with your reasoning, but I do think that we should include a very short description of the software packages in the list - including its freeness. I tried to mark some more packages as free, but I have some problems with the templates: sometimes, {Free software} renders as Template:Free software (see the article). Any suggestions? -- Jitse Niesen 12:16, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Looks like templates only get properly referenced five times (as of today's date anyway) Boud 15:07, 10 Sep 2004 (UTC) So we need to discuss this with someone involved in coding...

There's a discussion here: http://bugzilla.wikipedia.org/show_bug.cgi?id=95 Boud 15:17, 10 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * seems resolvedAmcfreely 02:26, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Shouldn't Magma be listed under algebra, group theory along with GAP? I don't think you can do much else with it...

 * From five minutes' reading of the wikipedia pages on GAP and Magma, it looks like you're right, but it sounds like you know more about these than i do. IMHO you should make the correction. Boud 13:58, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Done. What's the rule on removing completed discussions? --64.5.123.248 19:51, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Why are the 'numerical' systems Matlab, Octave, MathCad, and SciLab listed here at all? Of these, only Matlab has some symbolic component (it includes a Maple module -- optionally?). The Octave page explicitly says it is not a computer algebra system....--Macrakis 02:36, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I've cut the list of numerical and statistical systems. For the record the list was: MATLAB, GNU Octave, Scilab, Mathcad, S (programming language), R (programming language). Of these, the symbolic capabilities of Matlab are provided by Maple; R has very rudimentary capabilities (I think it can compute derivatives and nothing else), and I don't think the others have any symbolic capabilities at all. So these are out of place in a discussion of algebraic systems. For what it's worth, Wile E. Heresiarch 05:49, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Automatic differentiation link
I think the automatic differentiation link that was just added is out of place here. Automatic differentiation is a technique for numerically maintaining one or more differentials through a calculation. Symbolic methods can be useful in deriving automatic differentiation programs, and for all I know there may be CASs that support automatic differentiation, but it is not specific to CASs. I'd compare this to calculating with numeric intervals -- again, a function which CASs may support (just as they support floating-point arithmetic), but not specific to CASs. Unless someone has a convincing counterargument, I will remove the link in a day or two. --Macrakis 21:40, 28 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Critisim of most CAS systems
As a student of math at college the individual purchases a student version of the software for say $100 but it commonly has an expiration date. Then after graduation it is not really possible for most individuals to continue using the product at the full price of the software since it usually is in the thousands of dollars. This type of policy impedes life long development of many individuals to mature into scientific programmers. It is as harmful to society as high tuition at colleges and overly expensive textbooks. It is oppressive to human attainment of true potential.

71.114.161.229 00:06, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

List of "Symbolic manipulations" contains "off topic" items
I think that sound synthesis, arbitrary-precision numeric operations, TeX-output, chart drawing etc. are nice to have, but are inadequate under this subtitle. These should be collected under a seprate heading.

--Jkbw (talk) 09:58, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
 * You are right, of course. I just fixed that now. --George Gesslein II (talk) 00:58, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

Thank You very much! --Jkbw (talk) 20:15, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

Does 'matrix operations including products, inverses, etc.' imply that software or a device that computes these things is CAS? The same question holds for 'simplification' (specifically, non-symbolic simplification) and 'solution of linear equations'; these are all things that standard graphing calcs do regularly and I am aware that the distinction between CAS/non-CAS is under renewed scrutiny in the education arena. I wouldn't want someone to get the wrong idea. Weirleader (talk) 21:20, 15 May 2013 (UTC)

market leader is Mathematica?
The statement The current market leader is Mathematica[1] which is commonly used by research mathematicians, scientists, and engineers. Maple, MuPAD and MathCad are other commercial systems. is based on the phrase "(...) Maple established itself as the leading commercial computer algebra system. However, during the mid-1990s the company ran into trouble and disagreements with his colleagues caused Gonnet to withdraw from managerial involvement. Since then, he feels that Maple has lost its battle with Mathematica.(...)" This is not at all a proof of the statement, which should be reformulated to reflect the fact that Maple and Mathematica are the two most popular CAS. — MFH:Talk 15:01, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

Link to experimenal mathematics
I added a linked to Experimental mathematics only to find it removed because of the claim that the results of experimental mathematics are solely numerical. Not true! Computer algebra plays a vital role in this area. If you read the link more carefully, it has a link to computer algebra itself. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 171.71.55.250 (talk) 21:56, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

Image/Sound Processing
If you add that stuff about 'some' being able to process images and sound you'll just cause someone like me to spend the better part of a week looking for one besides Mathematica that does, and probably failing. You may also cause me to redirect the flow of my life so that I can learn to program these things into Sage myself. If someone can tell me of a GPL/LGPL or other FSF CSA that imports JPEGS and WAVS as easily as GIMP or SWEEP, please contact my gmail account: alec dot battles atsymbol gmail dot com. . . —Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.109.2.118 (talk) 13:03, 8 July 2010 (UTC)

Redirect for "Symbolic Algebra"
I have seen the term "symbolic algebra" used in a few places (such as this) as a synonym for "abstract algebra". Should Symbolic algebra auto-redirect to this page as it does, or does it need a disambiguation page? (Personally, I came here expecting a redirect to Abstract algebra, and I'm a computer scientist.) TricksterWolf (talk) 21:33, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

IBM PL/I Formac Interpreter
My intention is to add a paragraph referencing the IBM work done by Dr. Robert G. Tobey in developing the IBM PL/I Formac Interpreter. From page 3 of the documenation: "The most basic and important capability of FORMAC is its accomodation of mathematical expressions as symbolic entities at execution time." I believe that this work falls squarely under this wikipedia topic and should be included. I am adding this topic under the talk section to see if anyone has any comments. 97.86.236.127 (talk) 23:56, 3 December 2012 (UTC)
 * As far as I know FORMAC is completely out of date and has not been maintained since around 1975 or before. I have used it around 1970. If it should be mentioned in this article, this can only be done in a history section, together with many other dead systems. It is notable only as the first computer algebra system that has been made accessible to users that were not close to the developers (as I was circa 1970). It is somewhat a stub of computer algebra system, as not having arbitrary precision integers nor simplification of fractions of polynomials. D.Lazard (talk) 04:36, 4 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Does not sound like you are opposed. And certainly under the history section; a few sentences then. 97.86.236.127 (talk) 04:38, 5 December 2012 (UTC)

Which tools offer Matrix Calculus, Tensor Calculus, Full Risch algorithm, etc.
I was hoping for a breakdown of more advanced features such as Matrix Calculus (taking the derivative of an expression with respect to a matrix or matrix entry) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 150.135.222.234 (talk) 22:42, 26 February 2013 (UTC)

 * The answer to your question should be either in List of computer algebra systems or, better, in the article about the advanced feature you need. Unfortunately, very few editors are competent in computer algebra. This is clear from the state of most articles related to the subject.

 * About your specific question:
 * Every major computer algebra system (Maple (software), Mathematica, Maxima (software), Magma computer algebra system) contain most tools that you need. For example they contain functions called "Jacobian", "Hessian", Lagrangian, ..., with an exact name depending of the system.
 * There are software dedicated to tensor calculus; I am not competent but I believe that one is cited in List of computer algebra systems.
 * As far as I know, the full Risch algorithm (including algebraic extensions) is implemented only in Axiom (computer algebra system)
 * D.Lazard (talk) 23:40, 26 February 2013 (UTC)

Introductory paragraph has a couple of issues
E.g. "The development of the computer algebra systems has impulsed the rise..." Impulsed? Sounds like commercial jibberjabber.

Also, the last sentence: 'In fact, "when the long-known finite step algorithms were first put on computers, they turned out to be highly inefficient."' At first glance this appears to be a non sequitur, as the only "finite step algorithms" I know about are those used for numerical integration. Footnote 1 explains the context, but the relevance of the sentence isn't clear on its own to a non-specialist. Maybe, instead of a direct quote, something along the lines of "In fact, this has led to significant improvements in the efficiency of a number of algebraic methods [citations]." Further details could then be provided later in the article. 121.98.95.33 (talk) 22:48, 7 March 2014 (UTC)

No mention of graphing calculators with CAS
There's no mention of graphing calculators with CAS such as HP-50g and TI Nspire. According to the definitions on this page, these should be included. I would bet that the TI is more popular than any other CAS on here. References: https://www.shopping.hp.com/en_US/home-office/-/products/Accessories/Calculators/F2229AA http://education.ti.com/en/us/products/calculators/graphing-calculators/ti-nspire-cas-with-touchpad/tabs/overview — Preceding unsigned comment added by 38.97.97.99 (talk) 18:40, 17 April 2014 (UTC)

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The image sucks!!!
Here is a picture of a nasty hand groping a calculator with a glare washing out the screen. Nice job. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.197.144.134 (talk) 00:52, 23 February 2018 (UTC)

I agree, the photo is poor quality and the holder's hand is repulsive. --2600:8800:1300:23D:C481:CC5E:CA64:3398 (talk) 19:57, 9 July 2019 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Technology and Culture
— Assignment last updated by Thecanyon (talk) 05:32, 12 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer algebra system


text:
Jonny Hurst

Jonny Hurst (born 11 June 1966), originally from Solihull, Birmingham, latterly Wanstead, north London, is England's first (and to date only) Chant Laureate.

Barclaycard set up the competition to choose a Chant Laureate, who would be paid £10,000 to tour Premiership stadiums and compose football chants for the 2004–5 football season. The judging panel was chaired by the Poet Laureate, Andrew Motion, who said "What we felt we were tapping into was a huge reservoir of folk poetry." Ironically, Hurst, a Birmingham City fan, composed the winning entry about Birmingham's local rivals Aston Villa. The chant, sung to the tune of Barry Manilow's Copacabana, refers to that club's star player, Juan Pablo Ángel. Some 1,500 people applied for the role.

A veteran of the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and the Canal Cafe Theatre NewsRevue, Jonny Hurst is both a comedy writer and a lawyer.

He published his first book, 'Becoming a Lawyer', in July 2013.

title: Jonny Hurst


text:
Kashi (company)

Kashi is a maker of whole grain cereals and other plant-based foods sourced from regular farming practices. Founded in San Diego in 1981, the company became a subsidiary of Kellogg's in 2000, and produces about 100 products sold in the U.S. and Canada. Its original cereal, discontinued in 2021, was identified by the tagline "Seven Whole Grains on a Mission". The name "Kashi" is a blended term derived from "kashruth", meaning kosher or pure food, and "Kushi", the last name of the founder of American macrobiotics, Michio Kushi.

History
Kashi's acquisition by Kellogg's in 2000 allowed the parent company to enter the market for natural and organic foods.

In 2005 Kashi acquired Stretch Island Fruit Co, a producer of fruit strips and fruit chews. In 2008 Kashi acquired Bear Naked Granola, a producer of granola and bars. Both brands currently operate out of Kashi's headquarters in Solana Beach, California.

In 2007, Kashi acquired Bear Naked food company.

In April 2012, Kashi announced it would remove GMOs from all its existing GOLEAN cereals and Kashi Chewy Granola Bars by the end of 2014. It later announced all its products would be Non-GMO Project Verified by the summer of 2016.

When the Kellogg Company was split into two companies in October 2023, Kashi became a unit of WK Kellogg Co.

Location
Kellogg's moved Kashi's operations to Battle Creek, Michigan, in 2013, to consolidate with its other cereal brands. But after sales declines in 2014, the parent company moved the business back to southern California in Solana Beach to help it realign with the health food community. At that time, Kashi was established as a stand-alone natural food business and would continue to encompass the Bear Naked and Stretch Island Fruit Co. brands. A team, headed by CEO David Denholm, who led Kashi in the 2000s, is now running the company as a standalone business. Kashi remains one of the largest natural foods businesses in the United States and the world.

Controversies
In April 2012, a grocer in Rhode Island found out Kashi used genetically engineered, non-organic ingredients, and pulled Kashi products from his store's shelves and later posted pictures and notification through social networking tools. Some customers began to call into question Kellogg's use of the term "natural" on Kashi product labels. Kashi's general manager responded by stating, "The FDA has chosen not to regulate the term 'natural'."

In 2012, the parent company of Kashi, the Kellogg Company, donated $790,000 to the NO on Prop. 37 campaign, which asked voters if they wanted foods containing genetically modified organisms to be labeled in California.

In 2013 it was reported that Kashi was being sued for claiming their products as "all natural" or "nothing artificial". The Court certified the following two Classes:

1) California "Nothing Artificial" Class: All California residents who purchased Kashi Company's food products on or after August 24, 2007 in the State of California that were labeled "Nothing Artificial" but which contained one or more of the following ingredients: Pyridoxine Hydrochloride, Alpha-Tocopherol Acetate and/or Hexane-Processed Soy ingredients. The Court excludes from the class anyone with a conflict of interest in this matter.

2) California "All Natural" Class: All California residents who purchased Kashi Company's food products on or after August 24, 2007 in the State of California that were labeled "All Natural" but which contained one or more of the following ingredients: Pyridoxine Hydrochloride, Calcium Pantothenate and/or Hexane-Processed Soy ingredients.

title: Kashi (company)


text: User talk:194.72.50.160

title: User talk:194.72.50.160


text:
Cowrie-shell divination

Cowrie-shell divination refers to several distinct forms of divination using cowrie shells that are part of the rituals and religious beliefs of certain religions. Though best-documented in West Africa as well as in Afro-American religions, such as Santería, Candomblé, and Umbanda,  cowrie-shell divination has also been recorded in India, East Africa, and other regions.

In West Africa
Several forms of cowrie-shell divination are distributed broadly throughout West Africa.

While there are many variants using from eight to 21 cowrie shells, West African-derived forms most commonly use 16 cowrie shells on a prepared table or on a mat on the ground, interpreting the patterns that result which are known as Odu. Before casting the shells, the priest/priestess invokes and salutes the Orishas, and puts questions to them. The Orishas answer the questions by influencing the way the shells fall on the table.

Ẹẹ́rìndínlógún
Ẹẹ́rìndínlógún (from the Yoruba owó mẹ́rìndínlógún "sixteen cowries", literally "four taken from 20") is a cowrie-shell divination method practiced in the Yoruba religion.

The number 16 holds important significance in Yoruba mythology as it was the purported number of original divinities that established life on earth. In merindinlogun divination, the shells are thrown and the number of shells that fall with the opening facing up is associated with a certain odu. This system of divination is used when consulting the Orishas.

In the African diaspora
Cowrie-shell divination is found in Latin America where it plays an important role in religions like Santería and Candomblé.

In Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, it is called dilogun.

In Brazil, it is called jogo de búzios or merindinlogun.

Though they share a common root, Caribbean and South American cowrie shell divination have subsequently developed in independence from West African practice. For example, among Caribbean diviners, the first throw of the shells involves throwing them twice to derive a composite Odu. While there are regional practices in Yorubaland where this is also the case, it is not as standardized and uniform as it is in Cuba, suggesting a weaker quality control by Cuban Ifá priests.

In Santería
The cowrie-shells, called Diloggún, are used by priests and priestesses of Santería, who are called Santeros and Santeras, respectively. Both men and women who have been initiated into Santería can read cowrie shells. There are a combination of 256 possible odu and a skilled diviner can interpret the meaning of each one, depending on the orientation of the reading. If the reading comes in Ire, the client will experience good fortune, and if it comes in Osogbo, the client faces obstacles that can be overcome with the help of the Orichás.

In Candomblé
The cowrie shell, as collected from a beach, has a flattened side with a longitudinal slit, and a smooth, rounded side. Like a coin, the shell has only two stable positions on a flat surface, with the slit side facing either up or down. A few cowrie-shell diviners use the shells in this natural state; then the outcome of the throw, for each piece, is either "open" (slit up) or "closed" (slit down). Some modern day witches also use cowrie shell divination.

Most priests, however, use modified shells whose rounded part has been ground away, creating a second, artificial opening. The two stable positions of the shell are still called "open" or "closed" for divination purposes. In most Candomblé houses, "open" still means that the natural opening is facing up; but some traditions (mainly in Candomblé Ketu) use the opposite convention. The number of "open" shells is used to select an item (odú) which direct the diviner to a fixed list of oracular verses.

title: Cowrie-shell divination