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Reuel

Reuel or Raguel (רְעוּאֵל;  ), meaning "God shall pasture" or more specifically "El shall pasture" (as a shepherd does with his flock)  is a Hebrew name associated with several biblical and religious figures.

Biblical figures
Biblical persons with this name are:
 * Moses' father-in-law, also named as Jethro and Hobab (Exodus ; Numbers ).
 * A son of Esau. Father of Nahath, Zerah, Shammah, and Mizzah (Genesis ; 1 Chronicles )
 * A Gadite (Numbers ), called also Deuel ; the father of the Gadite prince Eliasaph.
 * A Benjamite. (1 Chronicles )
 * Father-in-law of Tobias (Tobit )

First name

 * Reuel Abraham (born 1924), Nazi Luftwaffe pilot and Jewish convert
 * Reuel Denney (1913–1995), American poet and academic
 * Reuel Marc Gerecht, American writer and political analyst focused on the Middle East
 * Reuel Colt Gridley (1829–1870), American storekeeper and Civil War fundraiser
 * Reuel Lochore (1903–1991), New Zealand public servant and scholar
 * Reuel Williams (1783–1862), U.S. Senator from Maine

Middle name

 * Jairus Aquino (born 1999), Filipino actor
 * James Reuel Smith (1852–1935), American photographer and amateur historian.
 * J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973), English writer
 * Christopher Tolkien (1924–2020), son and literary executor of J. R. R. Tolkien
 * Simon Tolkien (born 1959), writer and grandson of J.R.R. Tolkien

Last name

 * Sophas, son of Raguel (1st century), 'of royal lineage', executed during the Jewish Revolt by John, son of Dorcas

Landmark houses

 * Capt. Reuel and Lucy Merrill House, Cumberland Center, Maine
 * Reuel E. Smith House, Skaneateles, New York

Other

 * Raguel (angel) – one of the seven archangels in the rabbinic tradition and the Kabbalah

title: Reuel


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University of Hartford Hartt School

The Hartt School is the performing arts conservatory of the University of Hartford, a private university in West Hartford, Connecticut. Founded in 1920 by Julius Hartt and Moshe Paranov, Hartt has been part of the University of Hartford since its charter merged the Hartt College of Music, the Hartford Art School, and Hillyer College to create the university in 1957. The Hartt School offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in music, dance, theatre, and associated disciplines. The Hartt Community Division offers a variety of opportunities in music and dance for students of all ages, backgrounds, and abilities.

Organ Studies
Since its founding, Hartt had an organ program of study. In 1970, the school acquired a new Gress-Miles pipe organ; it was inaugurated with a performance of Bach's Wir glauben all' an einen Gott. The organ program's director, John Holtz, subsequently launched the International Contemporary Organ Music Festival which ran from 1971 to 1984, and brought world-wide attraction to Hartt with new organ music commissions and performances from major composers and organists, including Marilyn Mason, William Albright, Iannis Xenakis, and William Bolcom. In 1982, the festival expanded to include harpsichord music. In 2015, facing total declinement of enrollment, the school closed down its organ studies program and sold the Gress-Miles organ to United Methodist Church in Babylon, New York. As of 2022, faculty member Scott Lamlein re-started a Foundations of Organ Performance course available to Hartt piano students, taught on a 1986 Wolff studio pipe organ.

Notable faculty
The Hartt School's faculty perform, teach, and present all over the country and around the world. Notable faculty members have included:
 * Glen Adsit, conductor & founder of the National Wind Ensemble Consortium Group
 * Robert Black, Bang on a Can All-Stars
 * Robert Carl, composer
 * John Feierabend, music education researcher and author
 * Kevin Cobb, American Brass Quintet
 * Steve Davis, jazz trombonist
 * Javon Jackson, jazz saxophonist
 * Nat Reeves, jazz double bassist
 * Julia Smith, pianist and composer
 * Leonid Sigal, violinist
 * Oxana Yablonskaya, pianist
 * Jackie McLean, (former) jazz saxophonist and founder of the Jackie McLean Jazz program
 * Rene McLean, jazz saxophonist and flutist
 * Gwyneth van Anden Walker, composer

Notable alumni

 * John Barcellona, flutist
 * Peter Boyer, composer
 * David Dodge Boyden, musicologist
 * Robert Brubaker, tenor
 * Larry Chesky, composer and Polka accordionist
 * Javier Colon, musician, winner of The Voice
 * David Cullen, guitarist
 * Jimmy Greene, jazz alto saxophonist
 * Ryan Speedo Green, bass-baritone opera singer
 * Laurel Hurley, soprano
 * Marin Ireland, film, stage and television actress
 * Barbara Kolb, composer
 * Mia Love, U.S. Representative from Utah
 * Rob Moose, musician
 * Houston Person, jazz saxophonist
 * Carmino Ravosa, composer
 * Francesca Roberto, soprano
 * Teresa Stich-Randall, soprano
 * Joe Souza, actor
 * Gwyneth van Anden Walker, composer
 * Dionne Warwick, pop singer and multiple Grammy winner
 * Doreen Ketchens, trad jazz clarinetist and New Orleans music ambassador
 * Tony MacAlpine, Grammy-nominated guitarist and pianist
 * Keir O'Donnell, actor
 * Charles Nelson Reilly, actor, teacher
 * Lynne Strow Piccolo, soprano
 * Andrew Ardizzoia, composer
 * Marcus Barone, Motion Picture Music Supervisor and Executive, Composer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: University of Hartford Hartt School


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Kathryn Morris

Kathryn Morris (born January 28, 1969) is an American actress, best known for her lead role as Detective Lilly Rush in the CBS series Cold Case.

Career
Morris's first role was a minor one in the 1991 tele-movie Long Road Home. Several other small parts followed, including a bit part as a psychiatric patient in the Oscar-winning As Good as It Gets. Her breakthrough role came as Lt. Annalisa "Stinger" Lindstrom in the television series Pensacola: Wings of Gold in 1997 for two seasons. Morris continued to work in films (notably ones directed by Rod Lurie) and had a brief stint on the Xena series in 1999 as Najara.

After seeing her in the film The Contender (which DreamWorks distributed), Steven Spielberg cast her in two successive films. Her scenes as a rock star in A.I. Artificial Intelligence, which required Morris to take intensive singing and guitar lessons were cut from the film by the director, which was particularly agonizing for her. In Minority Report, she portrayed the tormented wife of Tom Cruise's character.

In 2003, Morris won the lead role of detective Lilly Rush in the CBS dramatic series Cold Case. She also appeared in the 2004 films Mindhunters and Paycheck, opposite Ben Affleck, and more recently as the journalist wife of Josh Hartnett in Lurie's drama Resurrecting the Champ (2007). Morris appeared in the film Cougars, Inc. which was distributed in 2011. In 2012, Morris appeared in the Hallmark Channel movie The Sweeter Side of Life, a romantic comedy.

Personal life
Morris was born in 1969 in Cincinnati, Ohio. She grew up Christian in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, with her parents, Stanley, a Bible scholar, and Joyce, an insurance agent, and five siblings before moving away. From age 6 to 17, Morris and her family traveled the southern 'Bible Belt' as a gospel group called 'The Morris Code'. The group was mainly made up of Morris's father and three (out of five) of her siblings.

She attended two colleges in the Philadelphia area, Northeastern Christian Junior College and Temple University. After studying theatre in high school, she was involved in a hit-and-run collision while on her way to her first acting gig, a Japanese music video based on the musical Grease. She still made it to the gig and that's when she knew she was going to be an actress.

Morris was in a relationship with actor Johnny Messner. On April 8, 2013, Morris announced they were expecting twins. She gave birth to twin boys, who were diagnosed with autism when they were three years old. In October 2021, Morris launched The Savants: an initiative to "revolutionize how the world lives on and off the spectrum".

title: Kathryn Morris


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Baron Furnivall

Baron Furnivall is an ancient title in the Peerage of England. It was originally created (by writ) when Thomas de Furnivall was summoned to the Model Parliament on 24 June 1295 as Lord Furnivall. The barony eventually passed to Thomas Nevill, who had married the first baron's descendant Joan de Furnivall, and he was summoned to parliament in her right. Their daughter, Maud de Neville, married John Talbot, who was also summoned to parliament in her right. He was later created Earl of Shrewsbury. On the death of the seventh earl in 1616, the barony fell into abeyance. The abeyance was terminated naturally in favour of the earl's daughter Alethea Howard in 1651 and passed through her to the Dukes of Norfolk. On the death of the ninth Duke in 1777, the barony again fell into abeyance. In 1913 the abeyance was terminated again in favour of Mary Frances Katherine Petre, daughter of Bernard Petre, 14th Baron Petre. Through her father she was a great-great-great-granddaughter of the ninth Baron Petre and his first wife Anne Howard, niece of the ninth Duke of Norfolk (and 18th Baron Furnivall), who became co-heir to the Barony on her uncle's death in 1777. On Lady Furnivall's death in 1968 the barony fell into abeyance for the third time.

Barons Furnivall (1295; 1318)

 * Thomas de Furnivall, 1st Baron Furnivall (d. 1332)
 * Thomas de Furnivall, 2nd Baron Furnivall (1301–1339), son; summoned from 1318 onward as Baron Furnivall (acceleration or new creation?). He married firstly Joan, daughter and co-heir of Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun.
 * Thomas de Furnivall, 3rd Baron Furnivall (1322–1364), son
 * William de Furnivall, 4th Baron Furnivall (1326–1383), brother
 * Joane de Furnival, 5th Baroness Furnival (born in or before October 1368 - d. c. 1401), daughter
 * Thomas Nevill, 5th Baron Furnivall jure uxoris (d. 1407)
 * Maud Nevill, 6th Baroness Furnivall, daughter
 * John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of Waterford, 7th Baron Talbot, 10th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 6th Baron Furnivall jure uxoris (1390–1453) (created Earl of Shrewsbury in 1442)
 * John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury, 2nd Earl of Waterford, 8th Baron Talbot, 11th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 7th Baron Furnivall (1413–1460)
 * John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, 3rd Earl of Waterford, 9th Baron Talbot, 12th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 8th Baron Furnivall (1448–1473)
 * George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury, 4th Earl of Waterford, 10th Baron Talbot, 13th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 9th Baron Furnivall (1468–1538)
 * Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury, 5th Earl of Waterford, 11th Baron Talbot, 14th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 10th Baron Furnivall (1500–1560)
 * George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, 6th Earl of Waterford, 12th Baron Talbot, 15th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 11th Baron Furnivall (1522–1590)
 * Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury, 7th Earl of Waterford, 13th Baron Talbot, 16th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 12th Baron Furnivall (1552–1616) (abeyant 1616)
 * Co-heirs: Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke (died 1649 without issue); Elizabeth Grey, Countess of Kent (died 1651 without issue); and Alethea Howard, Countess of Arundel (died 1654 with issue)
 * Alethea Howard, 14th Baroness Talbot, 17th Baroness Strange of Blackmere, 13th Baroness Furnivall née Talbot (d. 1654) (abeyance terminated as sole heir 1651)
 * Thomas Howard, 5th Duke of Norfolk, 14th Baron Furnivall (1627–1677)
 * Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk, 15th Baron Furnivall (1628–1684)
 * Henry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk, 16th Baron Furnivall (1655–1701)
 * Thomas Howard, 8th Duke of Norfolk, 17th Baron Furnivall (1683–1732)
 * Edward Howard, 9th Duke of Norfolk, 18th Baron Furnivall (1685–1777)
 * abeyant since 1777
 * List of co-heirs:

 * Mary Dent, 19th Baroness Furnivall (1900–1968) (abeyance terminated by Crown 1913; abeyant 1968)

The co-heiresses since the 19th Baroness's death have been her daughters the Hon. Rosamond Mary Dent and the Hon. Mrs. Patricia Mary Bence. As Rosamond is a nun (Sister Ancilla Dent, OSB), and therefore without issue, the barony will upon her death come out of abeyance either to the Hon. Mrs. Bence or, if she predeceases her sister, to Francis Hornsby (b. 21 April 1958), Mrs. Bence's son.

title: Baron Furnivall


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Crinoline

A crinoline is a stiff or structured petticoat designed to hold out a skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair ("crin") and cotton or linen which was used to make underskirts and as a dress lining. The term crin or crinoline continues to be applied to a nylon stiffening tape used for interfacing and lining hemlines in the 21st century.

By the 1850s the term crinoline was more usually applied to the fashionable silhouette provided by horsehair petticoats, and to the hoop skirts that replaced them in the mid-1850s. In form and function these hoop skirts were similar to the 16th- and 17th-century farthingale and to 18th-century panniers, in that they too enabled skirts to spread even wider and more fully.

The steel-hooped cage crinoline, first patented in April 1856 by R.C. Milliet in Paris, and by their agent in Britain a few months later, became extremely popular. Steel cage crinolines were mass-produced in huge quantity, with factories across the Western world producing tens of thousands in a year. Alternative materials, such as whalebone, cane, gutta-percha, and even inflatable caoutchouc (natural rubber) were all used for hoops, although steel was the most popular. At its widest point, the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards, although by the late 1860s, crinolines were beginning to reduce in size. By the early 1870s, the smaller crinolette and the bustle had largely replaced the crinoline.

Crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world, from royalty to factory workers. This led to widespread media scrutiny and criticism, particularly in satirical magazines such as Punch. They were also hazardous if worn without due care. Thousands of women died in the mid-19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire. Alongside fire, other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery, carriage wheels, gusts of wind, or other obstacles.

The crinoline silhouette was revived several times in the 20th century, particularly in the late 1940s as a result of Christian Dior's "New Look" of 1947. The flounced nylon and net petticoats worn in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s to poof out skirts also became known as crinolines even when there were no hoops in their construction. In the mid-1980s Vivienne Westwood designed the mini-crini, a mini-length crinoline which was highly influential on 1980s fashion. Late 20th and early 21st century designers such as John Galliano and Alexander McQueen have become famous for their updated crinoline designs. Since the 1980s and well into the 21st century the crinoline has remained a popular option for formal evening dresses, wedding dresses, and ball gowns.

Etymology
The name crinoline is often described as a combination of the Latin word crinis ("hair") and/or the French word crin ("horsehair"); with the Latin word linum ("thread" or "flax," which was used to make linen), describing the materials used in the original textile.

In the 21st century, the term crin is still used to describe a type of woven nylon flat braid, available in various widths and used for stiffening and providing bulk-free body to hemlines, serving the same purpose as the original crin/crinoline. Crin tape/trim is typically transparent, though it also comes in black, white, and cream colors. It is also described as horsehair braid or crinoline tape.

Pre-1850
The crinoline was not the first garment designed to support the wearer's skirts in a fashionable shape. Whilst the bell-shaped skirts seen on statuettes from the ancient Minoan civilization are often compared to crinolines, particularly under the assumption that hoops were required to retain their shape, there is no evidence to confirm this and the theory is usually dismissed.

The crinoline's ancestors are more typically recognised as the Spanish verdugada, later known as the farthingale, widely worn in Europe from the late 15th century to the early 17th century, and the side-hoops and panniers worn throughout the 18th century.

The horsehair fabric called crinoline was first noted by 1829, when it was offered for lining and dress-making. That year, Rudolph Ackermann's Repository of Fashions described the new textile as a "fine clear stuff, not unlike in appearance to leno, but of a very strong and durable description: it is made in different colours; grey, and the colour of unbleached cambric are most in favour."

Petticoats made of horsehair crinoline appeared around 1839, proving so successful that the name 'crinoline' began to refer to supportive petticoats in general, rather than solely to the material. By 1847, crinoline fabric was being used as a stiffening for skirt linings, although English women preferred separate crinoline fabric petticoats which were beginning to collapse under the increasing weight of the skirts. One alternative to horsehair crinoline was the quilted petticoat stuffed with down or feathers, such as that reportedly worn in 1842 by Lady Aylesbury. However, quilted skirts were not widely produced until the early 1850s. In about 1849, it was possible to buy stiffened and corded cotton fabric for making petticoats, marketed as 'crinoline', and designed as a substitute for the horsehair textile. The artificial crinoline with hoops did not emerge until the 1850s.

1850s–60s
The cage crinoline made out of spring steel wire was first introduced in the 1850s, with the earliest British patent for a metal crinoline (described as a "skeleton petticoat of steel springs fastened to tape") granted in July 1856. Alison Gernsheim suggests that the unidentified French inventor was probably R. C. Milliet of Besançon, as the July 1856 patent was filed by their British agent, C. Amet. Milliet had already patented a 'tournure de femme' in Paris on 24 April 1856 which was described as comprising "elastic extensible circles joined together by vertical bands." Following its introduction, the women's rights advocate Amelia Bloomer felt that her concerns about the hampering nature of multiple petticoats had been resolved, and dropped dress reform as an issue. Diana de Marly, in her biography of the couturier Charles Frederick Worth, noted that by 1858 there existed steel factories catering solely to crinoline manufacturers, and shops that sold nothing else but crinolines. One of the most significant manufacturers of crinolines was that of Thomson & Co., founded by an American with branches across Europe and the United States. At the height of their success, up to four thousand crinolines were produced by Thomson's London factory in a day, whilst another plant in Saxony manufactured 9.5 million crinolines over a twelve-year period. In 1859, the New York factory, which employed about a thousand girls, used 300000 yard of steel wire every week to produce between three and four thousand crinolines per day, while the rival Douglas & Sherwood factory in Manhattan used one ton of steel each week in manufacturing hoop skirts.

The crinoline needed to be rigid enough to support the skirts in their accustomed shape, but also flexible enough to be temporarily pressed out of shape and spring back afterwards. Other materials used for crinolines included whalebone, gutta-percha, and vulcanised caoutchouc (natural rubber). The idea of inflatable hoops was short-lived as they were easily punctured, prone to collapse, and due to the use of brimstone in the manufacture of rubber, they smelled unpleasant. Although hard rubber hoops of gutta-percha worked satisfactorily at first, they were brittle and easily crushed without recovering their form. Despite objections that the sharp points of snapped steels were hazardous, lightweight steel was clearly the most successful option. It reduced the number of petticoats and their weight, and offered increased freedom of movement of the legs. However, hasty or careless movements in a hoop skirt could lead to accidentally revealing more than intended. An advertisement published in The Lady's Newspaper in 1863 for a cage crinoline with waved hoops attempted to reassure the potential customer that while wearing it, activities such as climbing stairs, passing to her theatre seat, dropping into armchairs, and leaning against furniture would be possible without hindrance either to herself or to others around her.

Despite some claims, such as that by the historian Max von Boehm, that the largest crinolines measured up to 10 yard around, the photo-historian Alison Gernsheim concluded that the maximum realistic circumference was in fact between 5.5–6 yard. Whilst a loosely gathered skirt draped over a large hoop would certainly require a higher yardage, Gernsheim noted that 10 yard hems were highly improbable. Staged photographs showing women wearing exaggeratedly large crinolines were quite popular, such as a widely published sequence of five stereoscope views showing a woman dressing with the assistance of several maids who require long poles to lift her dress over her head and other ingenious means of navigating her enormous hoopskirt. Such photographs, which re-enacted contemporary caricatures rather than accurately reflecting reality, were aimed towards the voyeur's market. However, it was a fact that the size of the crinoline often caused difficulties in passing through doors, boarding carriages and generally moving about. By the late 1860s many crinolines were of a significantly reduced size, as noted by a Victoria and Albert Museum curator observing the sizes of cage crinolines in the museum's collection.

Crinolettes and 1880s revival
The crinoline began to fall out of fashion from about 1866. A modified version, the crinolette, was a transitional garment bridging the gap between the cage crinoline and the bustle. Fashionable from 1867 through to the mid-1870s, the crinolette was typically composed of half-hoops, sometimes with internal lacing or ties designed to allow adjustment of fullness and shape. The crinolette was still worn in the early 1880s, with an 1881 article describing it as sticking out solely behind, as opposed to projecting "hideously at the side" like the crinoline. It is possible that some of the smaller crinolines that survive were worn in combination with separate bustles, rather than in isolation. During the 1880s the cage crinoline was revived, with hoop petticoats designed to accommodate the extremely large bustles of the period and support the skirt hems. One of the mid-1880s styles was called the lobster pot due to its resemblance to a lobster trap. Due to the extreme weight of the fabrics of the decade, the hoops of the crinolines were crossed over each other behind the legs in order to support and hold the skirts firmly in place. As with the earlier cage crinolines, sprung steel, wire and cane were used.

Critical response
Unlike the farthingales and panniers, the crinoline was worn by women of every social class. The fashion swiftly became the subject of intense scrutiny in Western media. Critical articles on the crinoline were published by the Hungarian journal Az Üstökös (1858) and the Bulgarian journalist Petko Slaveykov in 1864. In the 1850s, the Welsh poet Dafydd Jones wrote a ballad decrying the fashion. A similar sentiment was expressed by a Russian song published in 1854, where the singer complains about his wife having assumed the fashion. In 1855, an observer of Queen Victoria's state visit to Paris complained that despite the number of foreigners present, Western fashions such as the crinoline had diluted national dress to such an extent that everyone, whether Turkish, Scottish, Spanish, or Tyrolean, dressed alike. Victoria herself is popularly said to have detested the fashion, inspiring a song in Punch that started: "Long live our gracious Queen/Who won't wear crinoline!" Gernsheim has noted that the Queen was often photographed in crinolines, and suggests that this misunderstanding came from a request made by Victoria that female guests attending her daughter's marriage in 1858 should leave their hoops off due to limited space in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace.

The crinoline was perceived as a signifier of social identity, with a popular subject for cartoons being that of maids wearing crinolines like their mistresses, much to the higher-class ladies' disapproval. The questions of servants in crinoline and the related social concerns were raised by George Routledge in an etiquette manual published in 1875, where he criticised London housemaids for wearing hoops at work. As the girls knelt to scrub the doorsteps, Routledge described how their hoops rose to expose their lower bodies, inspiring street harassment from errand boys and other male passers-by. Routledge firmly opined that servants ought to save their fashionable garments for their leisure periods, and dress appropriately for their work. However, this was challenged by some servants who saw attempts to control their dress as equivalent to controlling their liberty, and refused to work for employers who tried to forbid crinolines.

Arthur Munby observed that in the "barbarous locality" of Wigan, the sight of a female colliery worker wearing trousers was "not half as odd as a woman wearing a crinoline," exposing his own upper-class attitudes. In Australia, poorer rural women were photographed posing outside their slab huts, wearing their best dresses with crinolines. The French sociologist and economist Frédéric le Play carried out surveys of French working-class families' wardrobes from 1850 to 1875, in which he found that two women had crinolines in their wardrobe, both wives of skilled workers. One, the fashion-conscious wife of a glove-maker, owned two crinolines and eleven dresses, although her usual everyday clothing consisted of wooden shoes and printed aprons. In America, the mid-19th century crinoline has become popularly associated with the image of the Southern Belle, a young woman from the American Deep South's upper socioeconomic, slave-owning planter classes. However, as in Europe and elsewhere, the crinoline was far from exclusively worn by wealthy white women. Both black and white women in America of all classes and social standings wore hooped skirts, including First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln and her African-American dressmaker, Elizabeth Keckley, who created many of Lincoln's own extravagant crinolines.

The difficulties associated with the garment, such as its size, the problems and hazards associated with wearing and moving about in it, and the fact that it was worn so widely by women of all social classes, were frequently exaggerated and parodied in satirical articles and illustrations such as those in Punch. Alexander Maxwell has summarised crinoline mockery as expressing the male authors' insecurity and fears that women, whose crinolines took up "enough space for five," would eventually "conquer" mankind. Julia Thomas, observing the extent of Punch's anti-crinoline sentiment and mockery, noted that the magazine's attacks, rather than crushing the fashion, exacerbated and even invented the phenomenon of "crinolinemania."

Hazards
The flammability of the crinoline was widely reported. Although trustworthy statistics on crinoline-related fatalities are rare, Florence Nightingale estimated that at least 630 women died from their clothes catching fire in 1863–1864. One such incident, the death of a 14-year-old kitchenmaid called Margaret Davey was reported in The Times on 13 February 1863. Her dress, "distended by a crinoline," ignited as she stood on the fender of the fireplace to reach some spoons on the mantelpiece, and she died as a result of extensive burns. The Deputy-Coroner, commenting that he was "astonished to think that the mortality from such a fashion was not brought more conspicuously under the notice of the Registrar-General," passed a verdict of "Accidental death by fire, caused through crinoline." A similar case was reported later that year, when 16-year-old Emma Musson died after a piece of burning coke rolled from the kitchen fire to ignite her crinoline. A month later, on 8 December 1863, a serious fire at the Church of the Company of Jesus in Santiago, Chile, killed between two and three thousand people. The severity of the death toll is credited in part to the large amounts of flammable fabric that made up the women's crinoline dresses. Two notable victims of crinoline fires were William Wilde's illegitimate daughters, Emily and Mary, who died in November 1871 of burns sustained after their gowns caught fire. Although flame-retardant fabrics were available, these were thought unattractive and were unpopular.

Other risks associated with the crinoline were that it could get caught in other people's feet, carriage wheels or furniture, or be caught by sudden gusts of wind, blowing the wearer off her feet. In 1859, while participating in a paper chase, Louisa, Duchess of Manchester, caught her hoop while climbing over a stile, and was left with the entirety of her crinoline and skirts thrown over her head, revealing her scarlet drawers to the assembled company.

The crinoline was worn by some factory workers, leading to the textiles firm Courtaulds instructing female employees in 1860 to leave their hoops and crinolines at home. Cecil Willett Cunnington described seeing a photograph of female employees in the Bryant and May match factories wearing crinolines while at work. A report in The Cork Examiner of 2 June 1864 recorded the death of Ann Rollinson from injuries sustained after her crinoline was caught by a revolving machinery shaft in a mangling room at Firwood bleach works.

20th century
During World War I, the "war crinoline" became fashionable, between 1915 and 1917. This style featured wide, full mid-calf length skirts, and was described as practical (for enabling freedom of walking and movement) and patriotic, as the sight of attractively dressed women was expected to cheer up soldiers on leave. The full skirts of the war crinoline endured in the robe de style of the 1920s.

In the late 1930s, just before the outbreak of World War II, there was a revival of the hooped crinoline from designers such as Edward Molyneux, who put hoops in both day skirts and evening gowns, and Norman Hartnell, whose late 1930s Winterhalter-inspired crinoline designs for Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother were so successful that the Queen is popularly (if inaccurately) credited with having single-handedly brought crinolines back into fashion. Both as Queen, and as the Queen Mother, Elizabeth adopted the traditional bell-shaped crinoline as her signature look for evening wear and state occasions. The film Gone with the Wind, released in 1939, inspired the American fashion for prom dresses with crinolines in Spring 1940.

Following World War II, crinolines were once again revived by designers such as Christian Dior, whose 1947 "New Look" featured full skirts supported by stiffened underskirts. Loschek has suggested that, by explicitly referencing the Belle Époque era and reviving historic styles of corsets and crinolines in his "New Look," Dior was the first designer to introduce the idea of postmodernism to fashion, albeit unconsciously. Crinolines were popular throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s. These were sold in a few clothing stores as late as 1970.

The American designer Anne Fogarty was particularly noted for her full-skirted designs worn over crinoline petticoats, which were always separate garments from the dress to enable ease of movement and travelling. Life reported in 1953 on how one of Fogarty's crinoline designs from 1951 was almost exactly duplicated by a design in Dior's latest collection. Hooped, tiered and/or ruffled crinoline petticoats in nylon, net and cotton were widely worn, as were skirts with integrated hoops.

In the mid-1980s Vivienne Westwood revisited the crinoline, taking inspiration from the ballet Petrushka to produce miniskirt length versions that she christened the "mini-crini." The mini-crini silhouette influenced the work of other designers such as Christian Lacroix's "puffball" skirts. The Westwood mini-crini was described in 1989 as a combination of two conflicting ideals – the crinoline, representing a "mythology of restriction and encumbrance," and the miniskirt, representing an "mythology of liberation."

Late 20th- and early 21st-century fashion designers such as Alexander McQueen and John Galliano often used crinolines in their designs, with the skirt of one of Galliano's ballgowns for Dior in 1998 reaching a width of 9 feet. Galliano specifically visited the original crinoline manufacturers that Christian Dior himself had used in order to inform and influence his own designs. McQueen was fascinated by the crinoline and often referenced it in his collections, cutting away leather ballgowns to reveal the cage beneath, or making it out of silver-decorated cut metal. One of McQueen's most notable crinoline designs was modelled by the amputee model Aimee Mullins in a series of photographs by Nick Knight for Dazed and Confused, in which Mullin's cage crinoline, deliberately worn without overskirts in order to reveal her prosthetic legs, was described as suggesting both a walking frame and a cage to "contain the unruliness of the unwhole". The images from this shoot were declared among the most significant commercial images of 1998, representing Knight and McQueen's dedication to presenting alternatives to the traditional concepts of fashion and physical beauty. After McQueen's death in 2010, his successor, Sarah Burton, continued the tradition of designing crinolines for the McQueen brand.

21st century
Crinolines continue to be worn well into the 21st century, typically as part of formal outfits such as evening gowns, prom dresses, quinceañera dresses, and wedding dresses. 1950s and 1960s style net crinolines are a traditional element of costumes for square dancing and clogging. They are also popular garments for attending 1950s and 1960s influenced rockabilly events such as Viva Las Vegas. The steampunk movement has also appropriated cage crinolines along with other elements of 19th century fashion such as corsets and the top hat for its costuming.

In some contexts, the traditional hooped crinoline may be seen as controversial, as in early 2015 when the University of Georgia reportedly requested hoop skirts not be worn to certain fraternity events due to their perceived association with Southern Belles and the slave-owning, upper socioeconomic classes of the American Deep South. The reason for the proposed ban was linked to the SAE racism incident earlier that year, with several articles noting it was a well-intentioned attempt to avoid the University of Georgia fraternities facing charges of racial insensitivity. It was noted that hoop skirts and crinolines had been worn by both black and white women of all classes and social standings during the historical period in question, and that despite popular associations, they were not exclusive to the image of the Southern Belle.

title: Crinoline


text:
Mani (prophet)

Mani (c. April AD 216 – 2 March AD 274 or 26 February AD 277) was an Iranian prophet and the founder of Manichaeism, a religion most prevalent in late antiquity.

Mani was born in or near Seleucia-Ctesiphon (south of modern Baghdad) in Mesopotamia, at the time part of the Parthian Empire. Seven of his major works were written in Syriac, and the eighth, dedicated to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I, was written in Middle Persian. He died in Gundeshapur.

Etymology
The exact meaning of the name remains unsolved. It may have derived from Babylonian-Aramaic Mânâ [luminescence]. Mandaeans used the term mânâ rabba, which means "Enlightened Lord/King". Ancient Greek interpretations were skeuos (σκεῦος, vessel, instrument) and homilia (ὁμιλία, intercourse, company, communion, instruction).

The same slightly contemptuous "a certain" (Manes quidam) also appears in Hegemonius' Acta Archelai (4th century), however, Hegemonius contributes a detailed description of Mani's looks. Mani’s names became the object of uplifting transformation (Greek, Coptic Mannichaios, Latin Mannichaeus, i.e., Mannam fundens "pouring out Manna"). Alternatively, due to Mani's possible origins in an Elchasai community, "Mani" could be a Hypocorism of the Hebrew name Menahem ("the consoler" or "comforter").

Life
This work and other evidence discovered in the 20th century establishes Mani as a historical individual. For an updated critique of the standard account and a radically alternative proposal see Iain Gardner's The Founder of Manichaeism: Rethinking the Life of Mani.

Early life
Mani was born near Seleucia-Ctesiphon, perhaps in the town Mardinu in the Babylonian district of Nahr Kutha; according to other accounts in the town Abrumya. Mani's father Pātik (Middle Persian Pattūg;, Futtuq), a native of Ecbatana (now Hamadan, Iran), was a member of the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcesaites. His mother was of Parthian descent (from "the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan" ); her name is reported variously, among others Maryam.

Mani was raised in a heterodox environment in Babylon. The Elcesaite community was ostensibly Jewish Christian, though with some Gnostic features due to their Ebionite heritage, such as the belief in recurring incarnations of heavenly apostles, one of whom was a docetic Christ. At ages 12 and 24 Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his (syzygos), calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Jesus in a new gospel. It is said that his appearance was a mixture of Iranian and Mesopotamian features. On the one hand he looked like a warrior, on the other like a magician. In some later texts he was described as lame, a characteristic possibly attributed to him by his opponents.

Travelling to India
Mani then travelled to India (Sakas in present day Afghanistan), where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies, as well as Buddhism. Al-Biruni says Mani only traveled to India after being banished from Persia, but this might be an error or a second journey. It is believed that his Christian roots might have been influenced by Marcion and Bardaisan.

Return from India
Returning in 242, Mani presented himself to Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the Shabuhragan. Shapur was not converted to Manichaeism and remained Zoroastrian, but he favored Mani's teachings, which mixed Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, and took him into his court. Mani is said to have performed miracles, including levitation, teleporting and healing, which helped him to gain converts in the Iranian elite. He was also famed as a painter.

Imprisonment and execution
Shapur's successor Hormizd I, who reigned only for one year, continued to patronize Mani, but his successor Bahram I, a follower of the intolerant Zoroastrian reformer Kartir, began to persecute the Manichaeans. He incarcerated Mani, who died in prison within a month, in 274. According to sources, he passed his last days comforting his visiting disciples, teaching that his death would have no other consequence than the return of his soul to the realm of light.

Mani's followers depicted Mani's death as a crucifixion in a conscious analogy to the crucifixion of Jesus; al-Biruni says that Bahram ordered the execution of Mani. There is a story which claims that he was flayed, and his corpse suspended over the main gate of the great city of Gundeshapur; however, there is no historical basis for this account. It is more plausible that his body was mutilated via post-mortem decapitation, and his head put on display, which may be the original source of the embellishment.

Works
The canon of Mani includes six works originally written in Syriac, and one in Persian, the Shapuragan. While none of his books have survived in complete form, there are numerous fragments and quotations of them, including a long Syriac quotation from one of his works, as well as a large amount of material in Middle Persian, Coptic, and numerous other languages.

Examples of surviving portions of his works include: the Shabuhragan (Middle Persian), the Book of Giants (numerous fragments in many languages), the Fundamental Epistle (quoted in length by Saint Augustine), a number of fragments of his Living Gospel (or Great Gospel), a Syriac excerpt quoted by Theodore Bar Konai, and his Letter to Edessa contained in the Cologne Mani-Codex. Mani also wrote the book Arzhang, a holy book of Manichaeism unique in that it contained many drawings and paintings to express and explain the Manichaeist creation and history of the world.

Teaching
Mani's teaching was intended to "combine", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Marcionism, Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic movements, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions, and mystery cults. It is based on a rigid dualism of good and evil, locked in eternal struggle, which was a "familiar mytholog[ical]" element of the time in many spiritual traditions that Mani deliberately borrowed.

In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation was possible through education, self-denial, fasting and chastity. According to Al-Biruni, a 10th-century Iranian scholar, Mani claimed to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, and the Last Prophet. However according to Lodewijk J. R. Ort, the term last prophet may "in all probability derived from the Quran by Al-Buruni in order to formulate Mani's pretensions and religious claims". Therefore Lodewijk J. R. Ort concludes that a definitive pronouncement about the final character of Mani's appearance is not mentioned in Manichaeistic scriptures.''

According to Christian eschatology, Jesus, not Mani, will perform the final judgment at the conclusion of history.

While his religion was not strictly a movement of Christian Gnosticism in the earlier mode, Mani did declare himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ", and extant Manichaean poetry frequently extols Jesus and his mother, Mary, with the highest reverence. Manichaean tradition also claims that Mani was the reincarnation of different religious figures including Jesus, Zoroaster, and the historical Buddha.

Mani's followers were organized in a church structure, divided into a class of "elects" (electi) and "auditors" (auditores). Only the electi are required to follow the laws strictly, while the auditores care for them, hoping to become electi in their turn after reincarnation.

Late Antique Christian accounts in the West
The Western Christian tradition of Mani is based on Socrates of Constantinople, a historian writing in the 5th century. According to this account, one Scythianos, a Saracen, husband of an Egyptian woman, "introduced the doctrine of Empedocles and Pythagoras into Christianity"; that he had a disciple, "Buddas, formerly named Terebinthus," who travelled in Persia, where he alleged that he had been born of a virgin, and afterwards wrote four books, one of Mysteries, a second The Gospel, a third The Treasure, and a fourth Heads. While performing some mystic rites, he was hurled down a precipice by a daimon, and killed.

A woman at whose house he lodged buried him, took over his property, and bought a boy of seven, named Cubricus. This boy she freed and educated, leaving him the property and books of Buddas-Terebinthus. Cubricus then travelled into Persia, where he took the name of Manes and gave forth the doctrines of Buddas Terebinthus as his own. The king of Persia, hearing that he worked miracles, sent for him to heal his sick son, and on the child's dying put Manes in prison. Thence he escaped, flying into Mesopotamia, but was traced, captured, and flayed alive by the Persian king's orders, the skin being then stuffed with chaff and hung up before the gate of the city.

According to Jerome, Archelaus wrote his account of his disputation with "Manichæus" in Syriac, whence it was translated into Greek. The Greek is lost, and the work, apart from extracts, subsists only in a Latin translation from the Greek, of doubtful age and fidelity, probably made after the 5th century. By Photius it is stated that Heraclean, bishop of Chalcedon, in his book against the Manichæans, said the Disputation of Archelaus was written by one Hegemonius, an author not otherwise traceable, and of unknown date.

In the Latin narrative, "Manes" is said to have come, after his flight from court, from Arabion, a frontier fortress, to Caschar or Carchar, a town said to be in Roman Mesopotamia, in the hope of converting an eminent Christian there, named Marcellus, to whom he had sent a letter beginning: "Manichæus apostle of Jesus Christ, and all the saints and virgins with me, send peace to Marcellus." In his train he brought twenty-two (or twelve) youths and virgins.

At the request of Marcellus, he debated on religion with bishop Archelaus, by whom he was vanquished, whereupon he set out to return to Persia. On his way he proposed to debate with a priest at the town of Diodorides. But Archelaus came to take the priest's place, and again defeated him, whereupon, fearing to be given up to the Persians by the Christians, he returned to Arabion.

At this stage Archelaus introduces in a discourse to the people his history of "this Manes," very much to the effect of the recapitulation in Socrates. Among the further details are these: that Scythianus lived "in the time of the Apostles", that Terebinthus said the name of Buddas had been imposed on him, that in the mountains he had been brought up by an angel, that he had been convicted of imposture by a Persian prophet named Parcus, and by Labdacus, son of Mithra.

Furthermore, that in the disputation he taught concerning the sphere, the two luminaries, the transmigration of souls, and the war of the Principia against God, that "Corbicius" or Corbicus, about the age of sixty, translated the books of Terebinthus. He made three chief disciples, Thomas, Addas, and Hermas, of whom he sent the first to Egypt, and the second to Scythia, keeping the third with him. The two former returned when he was in prison, and that he sent them to procure for him the books of the Christians, which he then studied. According to the Latin narrative, finally, Manes on his return to Arabion was seized and taken to the Persian king, by whose orders he was flayed, his body being left to the birds, and his skin, filled with air, hung at the city gate.

Medieval Islamic accounts
Mani is described as a painter who set up a sectarian movement in opposition to Zoroastrianism. He was persecuted by Shapur I and fled to Central Asia, where he made disciples and embellished with paintings a Tchighil (or picturarum domus Chinensis) and another temple called Ghalbita. Provisioning in advance a cave which had a spring, he told his disciples he was going to heaven, and would not return for a year, after which time they were to seek him in the cave in question. They then came back there after a year and found him, whereupon he showed them an illustrated book, called Ergenk, or Estenk Arzhang, which he said he had brought from heaven.

Whereafter he had many followers, with whom he returned to Persia at the death of Shapur. The new king, Hormisdas, joined and protected the sect, and built Mani a castle. The next king, Bahram or Varanes, at first favoured Mani. After getting him to debate with certain Zoroastrian teachers, caused him to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and hung up. Thereupon most of his followers fled to India and China.

title: Mani (prophet)


text:
Avro 504

The Avro 504 was a First World War biplane aircraft made by the Avro aircraft company and under licence by others. Production during the war totalled 8,970 and continued for almost 20 years, making it the most-produced aircraft of any kind that served in any military capacity during the First World War. More than 10,000 were built from 1913 until production ended in 1932.

Design and development
First flown from Brooklands by Fred "Freddie" Raynham on 18 September 1913, powered by an 80 hp Gnome Lambda seven-cylinder rotary engine, the Avro 504 was a development of the earlier Avro 500, designed for training and private flying. It was a two-bay all-wooden biplane with a square-section fuselage.

Manufacturers
The following companies are recorded as manufacturing the Avro 504 under licence.

 * A. V. Roe and Co Ltd., Park Works, Newton Heath, Manchester; and at Hamble Aerodrome, near Southampton, Hants
 * Australian Aircraft and Engineering, Sydney, NSW, Australia
 * Bleriot and SPAD Aircraft Works, Addlestone
 * The Brush Electrical Engineering Co Ltd, Loughborough
 * Canadian Aeroplanes Ltd, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
 * The Eastbourne Aviation Co Ltd, Eastbourne
 * Aero Historic, Parana, Argentina
 * Fabrica Militar de Aviones, Cordoba, Argentina
 * Frederick Sage and Co Ltd, Peterborough and London
 * The Grahame-White Aviation Co Ltd, Hendon Aerodrome, London
 * Harland and Wolff Ltd, Belfast
 * The Henderson Scottish Aviation Factory, Aberdeen
 * Hewlett and Blondeau Ltd, Luton
 * Humber Limited, Coventry
 * Morgan and Co, Leighton Buzzard
 * Nakajima Hikoki Seisaku Sho, Ohta-Machi, Tokyo, Japan
 * Parnall & Sons, Bristol
 * Regent Carriage, Fulham
 * S. E. Saunders Ltd, East Cowes, Isle of Wight
 * Savages Ltd, King's Lynn,
 * Societe Anonyme Belge de Constructions Aeronautiques Haren, Brussels, Belgium
 * The Sunbeam Motor Car Co Ltd, Wolverhampton
 * TNCA, Balbuena field in Mexico City
 * Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, Japan

Operational history
Small numbers of early aircraft were purchased by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) prior to the start of the First World War, and were taken to France when the war started. One of the RFC aircraft was the first British aircraft to be shot down by the Germans, on 22 August 1914. The pilot was 2nd Lt. Vincent Waterfall and his navigator Lt Charles George Gordon Bayly (both of 5 Sqn RFC) The RNAS used four 504s to form a special flight to bomb the Zeppelin works at Friedrichshafen on the shores of Lake Constance. Three set out from Belfort in north-eastern France on 21 November 1914, carrying four 20 lb bombs each. While one aircraft was shot down, the raid was successful, with several direct hits on the airship sheds and the destruction of the hydrogen generating plant.

Soon obsolete as a frontline aircraft, it came into its own as a trainer, with thousands being built during the war, with the major production types being the 504J and the mass production 504K, designed with modified engine bearers to accommodate a range of engines to cope with engine shortages. 8,340 Avro 504s had been produced by the end of 1918.

In the winter of 1917–18 it was decided to use converted 504Js and 504Ks to equip Home Defence squadrons of the RFC, replacing ageing B.E.2cs, which had poor altitude performance. These aircraft were modified as single-seaters, armed with a Lewis gun above the wing on a Foster mounting, and powered by 100 hp Gnome or 110 hp Le Rhône engines. 274 converted Avro 504Js and Ks were issued to eight home defence squadrons in 1918, with 226 still being used as fighters at the end of the First World War.

Following the end of the war, while the type continued in service as the standard trainer of the RAF, large numbers of surplus aircraft were available for sale, both for civil and military use. More than 300 504Ks were placed on the civil register in Britain. Used for training, pleasure flying, banner towing and even barnstorming exhibitions (as was ongoing in North America following World War I with the similar-role, surplus Curtiss JN-4s and Standard J-1s); civil 504s continued flying in large numbers until well into the 1930s.

The embryonic air service of the Soviet Union, formed just after the First World War, used both original Avro 504s and their own Avrushka (" Little Avro") copy of it for primary training as the U-1 in the early 1920s, usually powered by Russian-made copies of the Gnome Monosoupape rotary engine. This Russian version of the 504 was replaced by what would become the most produced biplane in all of aviation history, the Polikarpov Po-2, first known as the U-2; the type remained in Soviet service till the late 1920s, and much later elsewhere.

Although Avro 504s sold to China were training versions, they participated in battles among warlords by acting as bombers with the pilot dropping hand grenades and modified mortar shells.

The improved, redesigned and radial-engined 504N with a new undercarriage was produced by Avro in 1925. After evaluation of two prototypes, one powered by the Bristol Lucifer and the other by the Armstrong-Siddeley Lynx, the Lynx-powered aircraft was selected by the RAF to replace the 504K. 592 were built between 1925 and 1932, equipping the RAF's five flying training schools, while also being used as communication aircraft. The 504N was also exported to the armed forces of Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Greece, Siam and South Africa, with licensed production taking place in Denmark, Belgium, Canada, Siam and Japan.

The RAF's 504Ns were finally replaced in 1933 by the Avro Tutor, with small numbers continuing in civilian use until 1940, when seven were impressed into RAF service, where they were used for target- and glider-towing.

The 504 was the first British aeroplane to strafe troops on the ground as well as the first British aircraft to make a bombing raid over Germany. It was also the first Allied aeroplane to be downed by enemy anti-aircraft fire and was the first aircraft flown by many future aces, including Billy Bishop.

The 504 is easily recognisable because of the single skid between the wheels, referred to as the "toothpick" in the RAF.

Variants

 * 504: 80 hp Gnome Lambda engine.
 * Original model

 * 504A:
 * Modified with smaller ailerons and broader struts. 80 hp Gnome engine.

 * 504B
 * Version for RNAS with larger fin. 80 hp Gnome or Le Rhône engine.

 * 504C
 * Single-seat anti-zeppelin aircraft for the RNAS. The 504C was fitted with an extra fuel tank, in place of the observer.

 * 504D
 * Single-seat anti-zeppelin aircraft for the Royal Flying Corps. Six built.

 * 504E
 * 100 hp Gnome Monosoupape engine. Ten built.

 * 504F
 * 75 hp Rolls-Royce Hawk engine. One built.

 * 504G
 * Two-seat weapons training variant of the Type 504B for the RNAS. The Avro 504G was intended as a bombing/gunnery trainer, with provision for a Scarff ring mounted on the upper longerons, though the final ten delivered had no provision for a gun. Fitted with one 80 hp Gnome powerplant. 50 built and delivered between June 1917 and January 1918. 30 built by Avro and 20 constructed by The Regent Carriage Company.

 * 504H
 * 504C modified for catapult trials. 80 hp (60 kW) Gnome engine.

 * 504J
 * 504A modified to mount a 100 hp Gnome engine.

 * 504K
 * Two-seat training aircraft. The 504K had a universal mount to take different engines. Single-seat fighter (Comic) conversion used for anti-zeppelin work. Several were assembled in Australia by Australian Aircraft & Engineering. 130 hp Clerget 9B, 100 hp Gnome Monosoupape or 110 hp Le Rhône 9J engines.

 * 504K Mk.II
 * Hybrid trainer based on 504K fuselage with 504N undercarriage and wings and powered by rotary engine. Built under licence in Mexico as Avro Anahuac.

 * 504L
 * Floatplane version. 150 hp Bentley BR1, 130 hp Clerget or 110 hp Le Rhône engines.

 * 504M
 * Three-seat cabin biplane. Only one was ever built. 100 hp Gnome engine.

 * 504N
 * Two-seat training aircraft. Redesigned postwar trainer for RAF with 160 hp Armstrong Siddeley Lynx engine. 598 built.

 * 504O
 * Floatplane version of 504N. First aircraft to fly above the Arctic Circle in 1923 Oxford Expedition.

 * 504P
 * Unbuilt version of the 504N with side-by-side seating.

 * 504Q
 * Three-seat cabin biplane. The 504Q was built for the Oxford University Arctic Expedition. Only one was ever built, powered by an Armstrong Siddeley Lynx engine.

 * 504R Gosport
 * Reworked trainer with revised, lightweight structure. Five prototypes flown 1926 to 1927 with various engines (100 hp/75 kW Gnome Monosoupape, 100 hp/75 kW) Avro Alpha, (140 hp/104 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Genet Major and (150 hp/110 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Mongoose), with the Mongoose chosen for production aircraft. Ten were sold to Argentina, with 100 more built by FMA under licence in Argentina. Twelve were exported to Estonia, remaining in service until 1940, and an unknown number to Peru.

 * 504S
 * Two-seat training aircraft. Built under licence in Japan by Nakajima.

 * 540
 * Observer training version of 504K for Japan.

 * 582
 * Experimental version of 504N, with new wings of RAF 30 aerofoil section, Frise ailerons on the bottom mainplanes, wing struts reduced to a "K" arrangement and a simplified undercarriage. Converted back to 504N standard in 1928 for Bristol Titan engine test bed.

 * 585
 * 504R modified with 504N undercarriage and 90 hp Avro Alpha engine.

 * 598 Warregull
 * Two-seat trainer based on 504N for Australia, not built.

 * 599 Warregull II
 * Redesigned version of Type 598, not built.

 * Yokosuka K2Y1
 * Japanese version of the Avro 504N, given the long designation Yokosuka Navy Type 3 Primary Trainer, powered by a 130 hp Mitsubishi-built Armstrong Siddeley Mongoose radial piston engine, 104 built.

 * Yokosuka K2Y2
 * Improved version of the K2Y1, powered by a 160 hp Gasuden Jimpu 2 radial piston engine. 360 built (K2Y1 and K2Y2). Watanabe built aircraft were given the long designation Watanabe Navy Type 3-2 Land-based Primary Trainer.

 * U-1 (Uchebnyi – 1) Avrushka
 * Russian copy of the 504K. Over 700 built.

 * MU-1 (Morskoy Uchebnyi – 1)
 * Russian seaplane version.

 * Orlogsværftet Flyvemaskineværksted LB.I – Danish production at the Royal Naval Dockyard (Orlogsværftet)

Operators

 * Argentine Army Aviation Service – purchased 10 directly from Avro, with a further 34 license-built by FMA from 1928 to 1937. In service until 1938.
 * Argentine Army Aviation Service – purchased 10 directly from Avro, with a further 34 license-built by FMA from 1928 to 1937. In service until 1938.

 * Australian Flying Corps
 * No. 5 (Training) Squadron in the United Kingdom
 * No. 6 (Training) Squadron in the United Kingdom
 * No. 7 (Training) Squadron in the United Kingdom
 * No. 8 (Training) Squadron in the United Kingdom
 * Central Flying School AFC at Point Cook, Victoria
 * Royal Australian Air Force
 * No. 1 Flying Training School RAAF at Point Cook
 * Western Australian Airways
 * Qantas (Queensland And Northern Territory Aerial Service)
 * Belgian Air Force purchased 50 British-built 504Ks from 1920 to 1922, with a further 27 being built under license by SABCA These were replaced by the 504N, 17 being built by Avro in 1929–31, and 31 being built under license.
 * Bolivian Air Force 11 Avro 504R Gosport
 * Brazilian Air Force
 * Brazilian Naval Aviation
 * Royal Canadian Air Force
 * Chilean Air Force
 * Chilean Navy
 * Republic of China Air Force
 * [[File:Flag of the Republic of China-Nanjing (Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction).svg|23px|link=Reorganized National Government of China]] China-Nanjing
 * Reorganized Republic of China Air Force operated at least one in the trainer role.
 * Royal Danish Air Force
 * Royal Danish Navy
 * Estonian Air Force
 * Finnish Air Force
 * Hellenic Air Force
 * Hellenic Navy
 * Guatemalan Air Force
 * Royal Danish Air Force
 * Royal Danish Navy
 * Estonian Air Force
 * Finnish Air Force
 * Hellenic Air Force
 * Hellenic Navy
 * Guatemalan Air Force
 * Hellenic Air Force
 * Hellenic Navy
 * Guatemalan Air Force
 * Guatemalan Air Force
 * Guatemalan Air Force

 * 🇮🇳 British India

 * Imperial Iranian Air Force
 * Irish Air Service
 * Irish Air Corps
 * Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
 * Latvian Air Force
 * Aizsargi
 * Mexican Air Force
 * Models made in Mexico were called "Avro Anáhuac"
 * Mongolian People's Army Air Corps
 * Dutch Army Aviation Group –
 * Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force
 * New Zealand Permanent Air Force
 * Norwegian Army Air Service
 * Peruvian Air Force
 * Polish Air Force – 1 Avro 504K (captured from the Soviets in 1920).
 * Portuguese Air Force
 * Portuguese Navy
 * Imperial Russian Air Service
 * South African Air Force
 * Soviet Air Force – With original British-built examples, and Soviet built U-1 Avrushka copy.
 * 🇪🇸 Kingdom of Spain
 * Spanish Navy
 * Spanish Republican Navy
 * Swedish Air Force
 * Swedish Navy
 * Swiss Air Force
 * (Thailand)
 * Royal Siamese Air Force – 40 Avro 504N (at least).
 * Royal Thai Navy
 * Turkish Air Force – Two aircraft
 * Royal Flying Corps
 * Royal Air Force
 * Royal Naval Air Service
 * American Expeditionary Force
 * United States Army Air Service
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Spanish Navy
 * Spanish Republican Navy
 * Swedish Air Force
 * Swedish Navy
 * Swiss Air Force
 * (Thailand)
 * Royal Siamese Air Force – 40 Avro 504N (at least).
 * Royal Thai Navy
 * Turkish Air Force – Two aircraft
 * Royal Flying Corps
 * Royal Air Force
 * Royal Naval Air Service
 * American Expeditionary Force
 * United States Army Air Service
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Royal Naval Air Service
 * American Expeditionary Force
 * United States Army Air Service
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Uruguayan Air Force

Surviving aircraft and replicas

 * Australia

 * A3-4 – 504K on static display at the Australian War Memorial in Campbell, Australian Capital Territory. It was initially given the serial number H2174 before being sent to Australia in 1918–19. It was donated to the memorial in August 1929. It was loaned to Qantas in 1965 and restored to resemble the first Qantas aircraft. It was restored to original condition and returned to the Australian War Memorial in 1987.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the Qantas Founders Outback Museum in Longreach, Queensland. Built in 1988, it is marked as G-AUBG and represents the first Qantas Avro 504K.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the Sydney Airport in Sydney. Built in 1988, it is marked as G-AUBG and represents the first Qantas Avro 504K.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the RAAF Museum in Point Cook, Victoria. It uses an original engine, fittings, and instruments and is marked as E3747.

 * Canada
 * H2453 – 504K on static display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. It was previously registered as G-CYFG and before that owned by Cole Palen.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the Base Borden Military Museum at CFB Borden near Angus, Ontario. It is on loan from the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, was previously registered as G-CYCK, and before that was owned by J.S. Appleby.

 * Finland
 * AV-57 – 504K in storage at the Finnish Airforce Museum in Tikkakoski, Jyväskylä.

 * New Zealand
 * A202 – 504K airworthy at The Vintage Aviator in Masterton, Wellington. It was purchased by the New Zealand Permanent Air Force in 1925, and subsequently operated as a civilian aircraft.

 * Norway
 * Unknown – 504K on static display at the Norwegian Aviation Museum in Bodø, Nordland. It was in service from July 1921 to 1928 and has been on display at the museum since 1995. It is painted with the registration number 103, which belonged to 504A that crashed in 1919.

 * Russia
 * Replica – 504K airworthy in Russia. It was previously on display at the Military Aviation Museum in Virginia Beach, Virginia. It has been given the serial number "H5991" and is painted in Royal Flying Corps colors.

 * United Kingdom
 * BK892 – 504K airworthy at the Shuttleworth Collection in Old Warden, Bedfordshire. It was originally given the serial number H5199, but was converted to a 504N and sold into civilian ownership. However, it was later impressed into RAF service during World War II as a glider tug, at which point it was given a new serial number. Again returned to civilian use after the war, it was used in the filming of Reach for the Sky.
 * D7560 – 504K on static display at the Science Museum in London.
 * H2311 – 504K on static display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester.
 * Composite – 504K on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum London in London. It is made up of the fuselage of G-EBJE and the wings of G-EBKN.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the Brooklands Museum in Weybridge, Surrey. Marked as G-AACA, it was originally built as a taxiable replica for the 1970s BBC TV series 'Wings'; later acquired by the RAF Museum, Hendon and stored at RAF Henlow then loaned to Brooklands Museum c.1987. Later donated to Brooklands Museum, fitted with an original rotary engine and restored to represent one of two 504s used by the Brooklands School of Flying in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
 * Replica – 504J on static display at Solent Sky in Southampton, Hampshire. It is marked as C4451 and was built by ADJ, BAPC No 210.
 * Replica-504K built by Pursang in Argentina in 2010, bought by Eric Vernon-Roe, grandson of Alliot Vernon-Roe, founder of Avro, and then to the UK. Registered as G-EROE, it displays with the Great War Display Team.

 * United States
 * A201 – 504 under restoration at Blue Swallow Aircraft in Earlysville, Virginia.
 * Replica – 504 under construction at Blue Swallow Aircraft in Earlysville, Virginia
 * Replica – 504K undergoing work to airworthy at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome in Red Hook, New York. It has been flying since 1971.
 * Replica – 504K on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It was built in 1966–1967 by the Royal Canadian Air Force's Aircraft Maintenance & Development Unit and arrived at the museum in May 2003. It was previously registered as G-CYEI.

title: Avro 504


text:
User talk:Lucky13pjn/Archive1

Hi, welcome to Wikipedia! We really appreciate your help, and we hope you stick around. See FAQ for questions, or ask at the Help Desk. Hope to see you around. Yours, Meelar 22:29, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

User page layout
I saw your user page layout and I liked it so much that I used it for mine. I credited you at the bottom of my user page. Hope ya dont mind ;) -- Lucky13pjn 00:44, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)

 * Help yourself! A few other people have as well.  Glad you found it useful. -  Tεx  τ  urε  21:00, 31 Jan 2005 (UTC)

3rd message
Nice template that you are using. BTW now you have 3 messages. :-) --PinchasC 06:45, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * A third message? Noooooooo.... :) Anyways, thanks for the compliment but the layout is really my modification of User:Texture's layout. I am curious though how you found me. - Lucky13pjn 18:41, July 19, 2005 (UTC)

CSD
Heya, please only mark articles that fulfil one of the criteria listed at WP:CSD for speedy deletion. Anything else should go to WP:VfD. --fvw *  14:28, August 31, 2005 (UTC)
 * Which article(s) specifically didn't meet the criteria, to avoid future misnomination. Never mind. - Lucky13pjn 18:37, August 31, 2005 (UTC)

Path Loss
Lucky13pjn, I completely re-wrote the path loss article. I hope it reads a bit better now. Could you please review it? I may need a little help with format Kgrr 07:03, 3 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Are you talking about path loss or Link Budget? I was a little confused, because neither of us have edited path loss before. If you meant link budget, it looks pretty good. The formatting looks OK except for a few minor nits I fixed. The only thing I could see that might need improvement is possibly a little more description in the intro paragraph describing what exactly it is and where it is used to a layman who knows nothing at all about the topic (like me). - Lucky13pjn 18:07, September 3, 2005 (UTC)

seeking conversation with lucky13pjn
Hi lucky13pjn.

I was doing some research and found a page that had been removed, and yours was the only name on the page so thought I would write you (but can't find an email for you).

I note that a page has been removed from wikipedia that I wouldn't mind seeing, and wouldn't mind seeing the complaint about it being pov.: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Victims_of_Child_Welfare_Memorial_Day

I would certainly like to update the page to make it neutral.

The objects of the day should be widely accessible to people, and if someone else has done a bad job of a write up I would happily oblige by creating something a little more ‘learned’!

Cheers John Murray

 * First off, are you sure that the page has been deleted or removed? On my end, the page appears to be up for all to see. Regarding the content however, it appears that another anonymous user removed the POV stuff in September, but you can still see how the page looked when I added the NPOV tag here. I say you should go ahead and edit the page to make it better, and when you are done dont forget to remove the npov tag as well. - Lucky13pjn 15:30, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

lucky13pjn - John Murray email
opps sorry....

My email is- hirez at iprimus dot com dot au

cheers John

Timelines
I noticed your Canadian Prime Ministers timeline. I was just wondering id you knew there was already a Prime Ministers of Canada timeline? I made the timeline a while ago, and it has the exact dates, but it is not as nicely set up as yours. I suggest a merge or sorts. You may also want to take note of the Governors General of Canada timeline and even this exparimental one I was working on. Zhatt 00:51, 29 November 2005 (UTC)

Wikimedia Canada
Hi there! I'd like to invite you to explore Wikimedia Canada, and create a list of people interested in forming a local chapter for our nation. A local chapter will help promote and improve the organization, within our great nation. We'd also like to encourage everyone to suggest projects for our national chapter to participate in. Hope to see you there!--DarkEvil 17:11, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:TurnerGarth CPC.jpg
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Image:TurnerGarth_CPC.jpg
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Image copyright problem
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title: User talk:Lucky13pjn/Archive1


text:
Talk:Mount Assiniboine

Continental divide?
Is Mount Assiniboine located on the continental divide, or on the Alberta/British Columbia border? Statistics Canada lists it as such (link), but I remember it was well west of the continental divide. --Qyd 02:29, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Peakbagger also lists it in both AB an BC (link). I'm going to make the appropriate changes in he article. --Qyd 10:33, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

Scrambling?
There is a description here of a scrambling route up Assiniboine. I haven't tried it yet, but perhaps the sentence "There are no scrambling routes up Assiniboine" should be changed? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 136.159.61.246 (talk) 02:08, 28 August 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Mount Assiniboine


text:
Alias (comics)

Alias is a comic book series created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Michael Gaydos. It was published by Marvel Comics under Marvel's MAX imprint for a total of 28 issues from 2001 to 2004.

The protagonist of Alias is Jessica Jones, a former costumed superhero named Jewel who left that life behind to become a private investigator. The running thread is Jessica's character development, as the layers of her past and personality are revealed to the reader while, simultaneously, she tries to come to terms with them herself.

Characters from the series moved to Bendis' subsequent series The Pulse. The series received generally positive reviews from critics.

Alias was the basis of the first season of the Netflix Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) series Jessica Jones, which premiered in November 2015. Jessica Jones, a follow-up ongoing series to Alias created by Bendis and Gaydos as a tie-in to the television series, began publication in 2016.

Publication history
Alias was one of the titles that launched Marvel's "R-Rated" MAX imprint. It was written by Bendis and illustrated for most of its run by Michael Gaydos, with covers by David Mack. Bendis relates in a text piece on the letters page of the book's final issue that it was one of the reasons the imprint was created. Marvel Publishing President Bill Jemas read a draft of the script for the first issue of Alias (which, characteristically, starts with the word "fuck") and exclaimed, "Why couldn't we publish this?"

Being under the MAX imprint imposed certain other limitations on what the creators could do in the series. Bendis gave this as one reason for ending the series and moving the characters to The Pulse.

Some of the flashbacks to Jessica Jones's past are drawn in the style of classic 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s Marvel Comics issues.

"Alias Investigations" and "B Level" (issues #1–9)
Tasked to look for a missing woman, Jessica finds herself caught in a conspiracy involving Captain America and the President of the United States. Subsequently, she is hired to find the recently missing Rick Jones. The first issue introduces her relationship with Luke Cage, whom she sleeps with after meeting him at a bar. The arc also establishes Jessica's friendship with Carol Danvers, who attempts to set her up with Scott Lang. Other characters appearing in the arc include Daredevil (as Jessica's attorney Matt Murdock) and second-tier villain Man Mountain Marko.

"Come Home" (issues #11–15)
Jessica Jones is assigned to look for a missing girl rumored to be a mutant in a small, prejudiced town. She discovers the girl is a runaway and brings her home.

Issue #15 overlaps with Daredevil (Vol 2) #36, which was also written by Brian Michael Bendis. Both issues depict the same scene, in which a disguised Natasha Romanova visits Matt Murdock at his law office, from two different perspectives. The Alias scene focuses on Jessica and Luke Cage, who argue about their relationship while stood guard outside Murdock's office, while the Daredevil version of the scene depicts his conversation with Natasha. The issue goes on to show Jessica's first date with Scott Lang.

"The Underneath" (issues #10, 16–21)
J. Jonah Jameson hires Jessica to uncover Spider-Man's identity. Later, Mattie Franklin, the latest Spider-Woman and Jameson's stepdaughter, goes missing and Jessica is asked to find her. In the course of her investigation she discovers that Mattie is embroiled in a criminal underworld producing Mutant Growth Hormone, a drug designed to give ordinary people super-powered abilities. Along the way, Jones meets an unexpected ally in Jessica Drew, the original Spider-Woman, who is also investigating Franklin's disappearance. Meanwhile, Jessica's relationship with Scott Lang becomes strained after an encounter with Madame Web dredges up bad memories from her past.

"The Secret Origins of Jessica Jones" (issues #22–23)
Issues #22-23 depict Jessica's teenage years, revealing that she attended Midtown High School with Peter Parker, whom she secretly had a crush on and was present when he was bitten by the spider that gave him his powers. Jessica, then known as Jessica Campbell, loses her parents and brother in a car crash involving truck carrying hazardous materials. After waking up from a coma, Jessica is taken in by the Jones family, and soon discovers that she has developed super-powers. The story ends with Jessica deciding to become a superhero.

"Purple" (issues #24–28)
Family members of those murdered by the Purple Man ask Jessica to find evidence of those murders that he never confessed to. Jessica is initially reluctant, due to her history with the Purple Man. After drinking and ending up at Luke Cage's apartment, Jessica tells Luke about her history with the Purple Man. During her career as a superhero called Jewel, Jessica encountered the Purple Man at a restaurant. He mind-controlled Jessica for eight months, forcing her to bathe him, watch him have sex with other women, and making her beg for his attention. One day, in a fit of rage the Purple Man ordered Jessica to go and kill superheroes. Although the ensuing fight broke the mind-control over her, Jessica was mistaken for a threat by the Avengers and badly beaten. Jean Grey helped Jessica awaken from her resulting coma, and implanted a psychic defense in her mind in case of future encounters with the Purple Man.

After confronting the Purple Man in prison, he escapes and Jessica is forced to deal with him and her past trauma. Jean Grey triggers Jessica's psychic defense, allowing her to defeat him. In the aftermath of the fight, Jessica tells Scott Lang that she is three months pregnant, and that he is not the father. Later that day, Luke arrives to confess his feelings for her. She tells him that she is pregnant with his child, and the series ends with them about to begin a new chapter of their lives.

Collected editions
These have since been rereleased with the title of Jessica Jones: Alias.

Critical reception
The entire series received generally positive reviews from critics. According to Comicbook Roundup, the series received an average rating of 7.5 out of 10 based on 28 reviews.

Awards
The series won the Comics Buyer's Guide Award for "Favorite Comic Series" in 2003, and the Harvey Award for "Best New Series" in 2002.

The series was also nominated for two Eisner Awards in 2004: "Best Continuing Series" and "Best Serialized Story" (for "The Secret Origin of Jessica Jones" & "Purple" in Alias #22–28).

In other media
Alias was adapted into the 2015 first season of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) Netflix television series Jessica Jones, which was developed by Melissa Rosenberg for ABC Studios and Marvel Television. The name change was needed due to the unrelated ABC series Alias, while the character of Carol Danvers was replaced by Trish Walker (a composite character of Danvers, Foolkiller, and Patsy Walker) due to the development of Captain Marvel (2019).

title: Alias (comics)


text: User talk:64.252.126.66

title: User talk:64.252.126.66


text:
Nisroch

Nisroch (Nesroch) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, a god of Assyria in whose temple King Sennacherib was worshiping when he was assassinated by his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer.

The name is most likely a scribal error for "Nimrod". This hypothetical error would result from the Hebrew letter מ (mem) being replaced with ס (samekh) and the letter ד (dalet) being replaced with ך (kaf). (נסרך for נמרד) Due to the obvious visual similarities of the letters involved and the fact that no Assyrian deity by the name of "Nisroch" has ever been attested, most scholars consider this error to be the most likely explanation for the name.

The name is unknown in Mesopotamian sources, but it has been tentatively identified as the god of agriculture. If "Nisroch" is Ninurta, this would make Ninurta's temple at Kalhu the most likely location of Sennacherib's murder. Other scholars have attempted to identify Nisroch as Nusku, the Assyrian god of fire. Hans Wildberger rejects all suggested identifications as linguistically implausible.

Talmudic legend
In the Talmud, "Nisroch" is actually said to be derived from the Hebrew word "neser." Neser was the name given to a plank of wood discovered by Sennacherib on his return to Assyria from his campaign in Judah. The sages write that this plank was originally part of Noah's Ark, and that Sennacherib worshiped it as an idol. It would therefore be concluded that it was this idol that Sennacherib was worshiping when he was murdered by his two sons.

Nisroch as a demon
In the sixteenth century, Nisroch became seen as a demon. The Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer listed Nisroch in his Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577) as the "chief cook" of Hell. Nisroch appears in Book VI of John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (first published in 1667) as one of Satan's demons. Nisroch, who is described as frowning and wearing beaten armor, calls into question Satan's argument that the fight between the angels and demons is equal, objecting that they, as demons, can feel pain, which will break their morale. According to Milton scholar Roy Flannagan, Milton may have chosen to portray Nisroch as timid because he had consulted the Hebrew dictionary of C. Stephanus, which defined the name "Nisroch" as "Flight" or "Delicate Temptation".

In the 1840s, the British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard uncovered numerous stone carvings of winged, eagle-headed genii at Kalhu. Remembering the Biblical story of Sennacherib's murder, Layard mistakenly identified these figures as "Nisrochs". Such carvings continued to be known as "Nisrochs" in popular literature throughout the remaining portion of the nineteenth century. In Edith Nesbit's classic 1906 children's novel The Story of the Amulet, the child protagonists summon an eagle-headed "Nisroch" to guide them. Nisroch opens a portal and advises them, "Walk forward without fear" and asks, "Is there aught else that the Servant of the great Name can do for those who speak that name?" Some modern works on art history still repeat the old misidentification, but Near Eastern scholars now generally refer to the "Nisroch" figure as a "griffin-demon".

title: Nisroch


text: User talk:198.169.112.254

title: User talk:198.169.112.254