text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/X band

Somebody moved this old page to X (US band), breaking lots of links to create an unnecessary disambiguation page. Mackerm 02:49, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

I'm going to change X (band) to a redirect to X (US band), so external links aren't ambiguated. I hope nobody changes it again. I've left the info about the Ian Rilen group, because people need to hear more punk music. Mackerm 16:39, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Move (or redirect) X (US band) back to X (band) and note the Australian band, but don't delete -- BCorr | Брайен 03:12, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * What makes the disambig page unneccessary? Rhymeless 06:27, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * The old page mentioned the Australian band. When the X (Australian band) page was written, they should have made a link, but not moved the old X (band) page. It messed up lots of links. Mackerm 06:35, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm confused. What's wrong with having the pages which previously referred to X (this being the american band), to now refer to the X band disambig page? Am I missing something? Rhymeless 07:43, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I think continuity is very important. Suppose somebody tomorrow finds a X band in another American state. Should I have to change the links to X (California band)? Mackerm 07:53, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * The two mentioned are both significant in musical history. - David Gerard 08:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * I say keep. This argument seems pointless. Clicking an extra time never hurt anyone. Rhymeless 08:18, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Not quite - the disambig was created first by someone, then I wrote X (Australian band). (A few folk on Music of Australia are busy on writing up Australian bands at present.) - David Gerard 08:02, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * So fix the links. This method makes sense. If this isn't there, someone will create it again and again - David Gerard 08:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * What are the odds that someone will type out "X (band)"? Realistically, they would type X, which would take them to X which is already a disambiguation page, and which had straightforward links to both bands already. Mackerm 08:10, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * It's the sort of entry that will be created if it doesn't already exist. Deleting it would be futile and annoying for this reason. Fixing the links is a better idea. - David Gerard 13:06, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * I created the dismbig page; there was at least one link to the old "X (band)" page which related to the Aussie band, and the brief reference to that band was buried at the bottom of the article. I thought this would confuse those looking for information on that band. I apologise for not getting around to fixing the links; rather than spending time on a debate like this, wouldn't it be easier to just fix the links? Or is that too simple? :-) Cheers Grant65 (Talk) 12:38, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * As I prefer the current situation and Mackerm is mainly complaining about broken links, I went through and disambiguated all the X (band) links. If, as he hypothesises, another significant US band called X (and the trouble is both X'es are significant bands) shows up, I submit that whoever creates that article gets to fix the links too! :-D - David Gerard 13:49, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * It just means I'll have to undo this further vandalism. Mackerm 17:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * The broken redirects were your concern, I thought. Please clarify. - David Gerard 22:08, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * For one thing, links don't necessarily come from inside Wikipedia. Can you be sure external web links haven't been broken? Mackerm 01:01, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, I can: because they'll get a link to the disambig page. Greatest problem: they have to click again. - David Gerard 13:06, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * If people click an outside link they will get the disambig page and clink the link there, what's the big deal? "Vandalism"? I don't think so. From the above comments it looks like you're outvoted, Mackerm. Assuming this is a democracy :-) Grant65 (Talk) 02:50, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Suppose you had an external link to X (band) saying, "The drummer from this band is GREAT!" Before the page move, there was no question it meant DJ Bonebrake. But the page move created ambiguity. Mackerm 06:04, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm sure there would be enough information on any external page to indicate which Wikipedia page to go to from the disambig; the worst case scenario is that they would look at two pages.Grant65 (Talk) 11:50, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Dude, the old version of the page linked to both bands anyway. Realistically, external links have to cope with Wikipedia. It's unlikely they'll never find the link again, because you can get to the right one from the disambig page easily enough. And "The drummer from this band is GREAT!" example will almost certainly have further context indicating which band we're talking about. - David Gerard 13:06, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * "Dude" (and Grant), The old page had info on the Ian Rilen group only because you (David) put it there. You were right to make a dismbiguation link a X, but moving X (band) created ambiguity. You can't reasonably expect that an external link name will be more than a "this is cool". As far as having to "cope with Wikipedia", wouldn't you get angry if someone moved pages you'd worked on? Mackerm 16:39, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * There is no consensus on this. So far, it's you versus everyone who cares to comment. - David Gerard 18:13, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Actually its Bcorr and me versus y'all. Mackerm 19:30, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Point. Nevertheless, it's hardly consensus or even close to it - David Gerard 19:46, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Note that just yesterday somebody made a new link to X (band), clearly indicating the non-Australian one. Mackerm 19:57, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Link fixed. X (band) reverted until there's something more approaching consensus here. I've pointed to this discussion on Talk:X (band), Talk:X (US band) and Talk:X (Australian band) so as to facilitate it actually being found by interested parties. - David Gerard 20:13, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * And BTW, that link should still have been sent to X (US band) with either version - redirects should not be preserved. - David Gerard 21:19, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm more interested in Wikipedia's policy on continuity than on the opinion of music fans. (God bless punk fans tho). Re. your repeated comments on consensus: Grant65 didn't get consensus to do the improper move, and you didn't get consensus to change the links to it. Mackerm 20:26, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * No, but you were the only one really fussed about it - David Gerard 21:19, May 6, 2004 (UTC)

 * User:Mackerm has removed this debate from the VfD page. Is the discussion over, or was he acting in error? --Ben Brockert 23:41, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * It seems to have become a general discussion on what to do with the article. - David Gerard 23:49, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * I moved it to Wikipedia:Requests for comment because it was full of arguments instead of votes. Since you're apparently a moderator, I'd appreciate any suggestion you have. Mackerm 23:56, May 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * I prefer custodian, but no, I'm just a VfD elf. I just wanted to make sure you weren't "cheating" to try to win the argument :). If it's being mediated in another way, I'm happy. --Ben Brockert 02:42, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, It's not getting fixed.Reading the above comments, what would you recommend I do? How do you prevent people from arguing on the VfD page and just vote?Mackerm 03:05, May 7, 2004 (UTC)

Errrr *scratches head* ... Mackerm why bother putting the X (band) page up for debate if you are then going to make unilateral changes, as you have just done? I created the disambig page because I happen to own records by both bands and I didn't like seeing them confused and sharing a page. The disambig expanded Wikipedia with correct information, which you have just deleted.

If I had envisaged that it would even upset one person so much, I would have suggested the disambig on the X (band) talk page before I did it. But my experience is that talk pages are watched by few people. There is no point in having a note about the Australian band at the bottom of the US band's page, so I've moved it to the top. Please feel free to delete it entirely and restore the disambig page at the same time Grant65 (Talk) 04:44, May 7, 2004 (UTC)

OK. I finished up a revised introductory paragraph which I hope will produce more votes and fewer arguments. I'd prefer to use THIS page, which would mean I would erase almost everything which isn't a vote. (This page WAS intended for voting) Let me know if that's a problem, in which case I'll start a blank page. Mackerm 07:09, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd say leave this page as a record of the discussion. I've linked it from the new one so people can see what's gone before - David Gerard 10:36, May 7, 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/X band


text:
The Sibley Guide to Birds

The Sibley Guide to Birds is a reference work and field guide for the birds found in the continental United States and Canada. It is written and illustrated by ornithologist David Allen Sibley. The book provides details on 810 species of birds, with information about identification, life history, vocalizations, and geographic distribution. It contains several paintings of each species, and is critically acclaimed for including images of each bird in flight. Two regional field guides using the same material as The Sibley Guide to Birds were released in 2003, one for the western half of North American and one for the eastern half.

The guide was favorably reviewed by The New York Times, The Wilson Bulletin (now The Wilson Journal of Ornithology), and the journal Western Birds.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Sibley Guide to Birds


text:
Apostasy in Judaism

Apostasy in Judaism is the rejection of Judaism and possible conversion to another religion by a Jew. The term apostasy is derived from ἀποστάτης, meaning "rebellious" (מורד. translitterally Mored) Equivalent expressions for apostate in Hebrew that are used by rabbinical scholars include mumar (, literally "one who is changed" [out of their faith]), poshea Yisrael (, literally, "transgressor of Israel"), and kofer (, transliterally Koffer). Similar terms are meshumad (, lit. "destroyed one"), and min or Epikoros, which denote heresy and the negation of God and Judaism, implying atheism.

Classes of apostates and relevance
A mumar is someone who does not observe a certain mitzvah or who doesn't observe any mitzvot at all. Rabbinic categories differentiate between a mumar ledavar echad (מומר לדבר אחד) who doesn't observe a certain mitzvah, and a mumar lekhol hatorah kulah (מומר לכל התורה כולה) who doesn't observe any of the Torah. Likewise they differentiate between a mumar l'teyavon (מומר לתיאבון) who transgresses mitzvah(s) wantonly due to craving (teyavon) or convenience, versus a mumar l'hakh`is (מומר להכעיס) meaning one who transgresses out of spite, who defies the mitzvah willfully.

Some halakhic aspects of this status include: a mumar is treated as a gentile in regard to commerce; it is forbidden to cause them to stumble into doing something forbidden; regarding matrimony, ritual purity, and inheritance (with some exceptions) they are an Israelite; the sages prescribed no mourning for a mumar.

However today another category, tinok shenishba ("captured infant"), a Jew who sins as a result of having been raised without sufficient knowledge and understanding of Judaism, is widely applied and should be considered.

In the Bible
The first recorded reference to apostasy from Judaism is in, which states: "'If your very own brother, or your son or daughter, or the wife you love, or your closest friend secretly entices you, saying, 'Let us go and worship other gods' (gods that neither you nor your fathers have known, gods of the peoples around you, whether near or far, from one end of the land to the other), do not yield to him or listen to him. Show him no pity. Do not spare him or shield him. You must certainly put him to death. Your hand must be the first in putting him to death, and then the hands of all the people. Stone him to death, because he tried to turn you away from the LORD your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. Then all Israel will hear and be afraid, and no one among you will do such an evil thing again.'"

In the Talmud
In the Talmud, Elisha ben Abuyah (referred to as Acher, the "Other One") is singled out as an apostate by the rabbis.

Medieval Spain
In Medieval Spain, a systematic conversion of Jews to Christianity took place, largely under threats and force. The apostasy of these conversos provoked the indignation of some Jews in Spain and it was made illegal to call a converso by the epithet tornadizo (renegade).

Some Spanish Jews, however, remained crypto-Jews despite being compelled to convert to Christianity (see Anusim). They are also called Marranos.

Sabbatai Zevi and Jacob Frank
In 1648 Sabbatai Zevi claimed to be the Jewish Messiah. His Jewish followers were known as Sabbateans. Zevi converted to Islam in 1666. Afterwards, some of his followers willingly converted but continued to practise Sabbatean rituals. These people became known as the Dönmeh.

In the 1750s Jacob Frank claimed he was the reincarnation of Zevi and attracted many followers in Poland, known as Frankists. In 1759, with Frank's encouragement, more than 500 Frankists were baptized as Catholics. Frank himself was also baptized, with the King of Poland as his godfather.

title: Apostasy in Judaism


text:
Talk:Gasoline Alley (comic strip)

Death of Walt/Phyllis?
WRONGO!!!!! As the strip progresses, we see that Walt's wife Phyliss has passed on...not Walt!!!!!!! (Still...105 is very old by today's standards,)

 * Ditto that. Today (May 5th) was the day when which of the two died was to be revealed...and it was Phyllis (we knew either Phyllis or Walt died, and today's strip clearly shows Uncle Walt alive and well). I'll correct it. Furrykef 08:42, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

Aging of comic strip characters--unusual?

 * " . . . this path has been followed by very few, Lynn Johnston's For Better or For Worse being the only strip of merit."

What about Sally in Peanuts? Wiwaxia 23:19, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, I guess the criterion should he that all characters in the comics are aging at an equal pace. Also, I heard it was fairly common in modern manga.

 * The kids in Blondie and Dick Tracy's Junior, also. Actually, it is fairly common for kids in comicstrips to age to a certain point, then 'freeze'. The above example of Peanuts is a good one; the kids were originally daycare age. (There is a strip of Lucy crawling out of a crib and another with Schroeder sucking on a bottle. Linus started as a baby and both Sally and Rerun were actually born during the strip's run.) Dennis the Menace did the same, starting as almost a baby and freezing when he was in 'kiddy garden'. Gasoline Alley is one of the very few which has had the kids CONTINUE to age and introduce a third generation, although it has become more common nowadays with strips like Safe Havens and Doonesbury having their kids grow up. And yes, a lot of long-running manga does it, also (DragonBall, for instance). CFLeon 00:28, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Question about the 1975 Sunday version of Gasoline Alley
I remember in early 1975, that unlike the daily version of Gasoline Alley, the Sunday edition contained amorphous blobs of color and incoherent words that occassionally seem to reference the main characters. Then in either late 1975 or early 1976, the Sunday edition of Gasoline Alley suddenly appeared as the daily version, with recognizable characters and readable dialogue. Does anyone know what happened? Seeing that Perry retired and was replaced by Moores in 1975, perhaps Mr. Perry had a dibilitating disease, but was forced by contractual obligations to provide content, even if it was unreadable. Just curious if anyone knows the whole story or not. [unsigned]

 * Perry retired and Dick Moores replaced him. His art and writing may not be to your taste -- they aren't to mine -- but no need to insult the man. Rick Norwood 20:29, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Date needs correction
The Tribune could not have "picked up the feature" on August 25, 1918, since the feature was not created until November 24, 1918. Jimtrue 15:10, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

needs expanded
A list of the entire cast needs to be created. alphabeticaly and by year introduced. and a timeline with major events like walts marrage, births, deaths and introductions of new characters. Herogamer (talk) 16:44, 30 March 2010 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 14:29, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Name origin?
I went to this article looking for some information on how, exactly, this strip got its name. Even back in the 1950s, Mad did parodies noting that the name seemed to have nothing to do with the strip. It doesn't seem to have anything to do with the Indy 500, either ... is there any explanation for this? Daniel Case (talk) 19:36, 5 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Oops. I missed it. It's in "Early years" ... the four main characters would talk about cars in the panel. Sorry. But we should make that clearer. Daniel Case (talk) 19:38, 5 February 2013 (UTC)

Rover's Sister?
Doesn't he have a sister? It's been a minute since I've read the strip but I feel like her name was Gretchen. Kjscotte34 (talk) 22:26, 23 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes. Gretchen is the daughter of Clovia and Slim. Last I heard, she was living in Europe. 206.9.240.248 (talk) 13:41, 15 May 2018 (UTC)

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Donkey named Torchy in Gasoline Alley?
Does anyone remember Gasoline Alley had a storyline where there was a donkey with a tail that was pointy, and whoever it was (Walt?) kept smelling something burning, or having dreams of the donkey breathing smoke, or suggestions of things on fire, since the pointy tail reminded them of something demonic, but when awake, the donkey seemed pretty normal and nothing supernatural ? The donkey was later dubbed "Torchy" or something like that, and then given to Joel & Rufus and occasionally was later seen on their wagon? I don't remember when that storyline came out, perhaps in the 1980's or 1990's. Would "Torchy" be added as an occasional character? Ll1324 (talk) 05:46, 20 September 2022 (UTC)

Melba timeless?
I seem to remember Melba being introduced some time around 1970 ± a year or so, something of a waif with only one blouse, which didn't fit: it would fall off one shoulder, then she'd modestly tug it back into place, making it fall off the other shoulder. It was a couple of years later, at the peak of interest in the women's movement, that she was elected mayor in recognition of her good nature and good sense. (But she kept the blouse.) Hieronymus Illinensis (talk) 02:07, 11 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gasoline Alley (comic strip)


text: User talk:81.197.10.131

title: User talk:81.197.10.131


text:
Stand-up roller coaster

A stand-up roller coaster is a roller coaster where passengers aboard a train stand throughout the course of the ride. The first manufacturer to employ the format was TOGO, a Japanese company that converted two traditional roller coasters in 1982 to stand-up configurations. Arrow Dynamics followed suit in the United States the following year with their own conversion. The first roller coaster designed from the ground up as a stand-up coaster was King Cobra, built by TOGO, which opened at Kings Island in 1984. Intamin and Bolliger & Mabillard (B&M) have also designed stand-up models beginning in the 1990s, with the latest opening in 2023 as Pipeline: The Surf Coaster in SeaWorld Orlando.

Although riders stand, they have access to a height-adjustable bicycle seat in many configurations. Older designs from the now-defunct TOGO typically used over-the-shoulder or lap-bar restraints to secure riders. B&M models add a seat belt that connects the bicycle seat to the harness for additional security.

History
The first stand-up roller coasters in the world were originally built as sit-down roller coasters. Japanese manufacturer TOGO designed stand-up roller coasters that were first deployed in 1982 on Momonga Standing & Loop Coaster, originally built in 1979 at Yomiuriland in Tokyo, Japan. The same change was also performed on Dangai at the former Thrill Valley amusement park in Gotemba, Shizuoka, Japan. Both rides added stand-up trains in 1982, with Dangai opening one day before Momonga Standing & Loop Coaster.

The first stand-up roller coaster in the United States was also a former sit-down model. Screamroller at Worlds of Fun was a common corkscrew layout found at multiple parks and was built by Arrow Dynamics in 1976. In 1983, Arrow designed its own stand-up train for the attraction, and the ride was subsequently renamed ExtremeRoller after the trains were added. The original sit-down trains were reinstalled several years later. Arrow retrofitted another coaster in 1984 called River King Mine Train, which originally debuted at the grand opening of Six Flags St. Louis in 1971. Arrow added stand-up trains for the 1984 season, and the attraction was renamed Rail Blazer. The track wasn't intended for use with stand-up trains, and a fatal accident in 1984 – involving a passenger that was ejected from her seat – prompted a recall of the trains. The original trains and name of the ride were restored in 1985.

TOGO set out to design the first ever stand-up roller coaster from the ground up and successfully tested a prototype in the parking lot of their Tokyo plant. Named Astro-Comet, the prototype was purchased by Kings Island, an amusement park in the US looking for the proper ride to celebrate the 100th anniversary of America's first roller coaster. It opened at Kings Island in 1984 as King Cobra and operated until 2001.

In 1986, Intamin built their first stand up coaster, Shockwave at Six Flags Magic Mountain (later renamed Batman: The Escape and relocated to the now-defunct Six Flags Astroworld), which used four across seating and their new box spine track, and featured Intamin's first vertical loop. In 2005, it was disassembled and placed in storage at Six Flags Darien Lake, where it sat until its eventual removal in 2017.

The most recent stand-up roller coaster to be manufactured (the first since 1999's Georgia Scorcher at Six Flags Over Georgia) was SeaWorld Orlando's surfing-themed Pipeline: The Surf Coaster, which opened on May 27, 2023. In addition to surfboard-designed cars, Pipeline features modernized and comfortable vest restraints and bicycle-style seats which move several inches up and down, to simulate the feelings of actually surfing. Unlike the older style, it also features two across seating and a launch.

Design
Three manufacturers—TOGO, Intamin and Bolliger & Mabillard—have constructed multiple stand-up roller coasters. TOGO's stand-up models feature cars that seat four passengers in two rows of two. Models from Intamin and B&M also seat four riders per car, but in a single four-abreast row.

On a standard roller coaster, the rider is held in their seat by some form of harness, such as a lap bar or an over-the-shoulder restraint. As stand-up roller coasters, by their design, do not have "seats," the harness system must both restrain and support the rider. Typical stand-up roller coaster harnesses are mounted on vertical posts, which allow the harness to adjust to riders of different heights. At the bottom is a seat resembling that on a bicycle, while at the top is an over-the-shoulder harness. TOGO models normally use a lap bar to further secure riders, while B&M models add a seat belt to connect the bicycle seat to the shoulder harness.

With some exceptions, stand-up roller coasters normally feature at least one inversion. These inversions can include vertical loops, inclined loops, dive loops and corkscrews. Only one stand-up roller coaster, the Shockwave at Drayton Manor Theme Park in the United Kingdom, includes a zero-gravity roll.

title: Stand-up roller coaster


text:
Aqueous humour

The aqueous humour is a transparent water-like fluid similar to blood plasma, but containing low protein concentrations. It is secreted from the ciliary body, a structure supporting the lens of the eyeball. It fills both the anterior and the posterior chambers of the eye, and is not to be confused with the vitreous humour, which is located in the space between the lens and the retina, also known as the posterior cavity or vitreous chamber. Blood cannot normally enter the eyeball.

Composition

 * Amino acids: transported by ciliary muscles
 * 98% water
 * Electrolytes (pH = 7.4 -one source gives 7.1 )
 * Sodium = 142.09
 * Potassium = 2.2 - 4.0
 * Calcium = 1.8
 * Magnesium = 1.1
 * Chloride = 131.6
 * HCO3- = 20.15
 * Phosphate = 0.62
 * Osm = 304
 * Ascorbic acid
 * Glutathione
 * Immunoglobulins

Function

 * Maintains the intraocular pressure and inflates the globe of the eye. It is this hydrostatic pressure that keeps the eyeball in a roughly spherical shape and keeps the walls of the eyeball taut.
 * Provides nutrition (e.g. amino acids and glucose) for the avascular ocular tissues; posterior cornea, trabecular meshwork, lens, and anterior vitreous.
 * May serve to transport ascorbate in the anterior segment to act as an antioxidant agent.
 * Presence of immunoglobulins indicates a role in immune response to defend against pathogens.
 * Provides inflation for expansion of the cornea and thus increased protection against dust, wind, pollen grains, and some pathogens.
 * Contributes refraction, with a refractive index of 1.3335
 * Prevents eye dryness.

Production
Aqueous humour is secreted into the posterior chamber by the ciliary body, specifically the non-pigmented epithelium of the ciliary body (pars plicata). 5 alpha-dihydrocortisol, an enzyme inhibited by 5-alpha reductase inhibitors, may be involved in production of aqueous humour.

Drainage
Aqueous humor is continually produced by the ciliary processes and this rate of production must be balanced by an equal rate of aqueous humor drainage. Small variations in the production or outflow of aqueous humor will have a large influence on the intraocular pressure.

The drainage route for aqueous humor flow is first through the posterior chamber, then the narrow space between the anterior iris and the posterior lens (contributes to small resistance), through the pupil to enter the anterior chamber. From there, the aqueous humor exits the eye through the trabecular meshwork into Schlemm's canal (a channel at the limbus, i.e., the joining point of the cornea and sclera, which encircles the cornea ). It flows through 25–30 collector canals into the episcleral veins. The greatest resistance to aqueous flow is provided by the trabecular meshwork (esp. the juxtacanalicular part), and this is where most of the aqueous outflow occurs. The internal wall of the canal is very delicate and allows the fluid to filter due to the high pressure of the fluid within the eye. The secondary route is the uveoscleral drainage, and is independent of the intraocular pressure, the aqueous flows through here, but to a lesser extent than through the trabecular meshwork (approx. 10% of the total drainage whereas by trabecular meshwork 90% of the total drainage).

The fluid is normally 15 mmHg (0.6 inHg) above atmospheric pressure, so when a syringe is injected the fluid flows easily. If the fluid is leaking, the hardness of the normal eye is compromised, leading to collapse and wilting of the cornea.

Clinical significance
Glaucoma is a progressive optic neuropathy where retinal ganglion cells and their axons die causing a corresponding visual field defect. An important risk factor is increased intraocular pressure (pressure within the eye) either through increased production or decreased outflow of aqueous humour. Increased resistance to outflow of aqueous humour may occur due to an abnormal trabecular meshwork or due to obliteration of the meshwork resulting from injury or disease of the iris. However, increased interocular pressure is neither sufficient nor necessary for development of primary open angle glaucoma, although it is a major risk factor. Uncontrolled glaucoma typically leads to visual field loss and ultimately blindness.

Uveoscleral outflow of aqueous humour can be increased with prostaglandin agonists, while trabecular outflow is increased by M3 agonists. Fluid production can be decreased by beta blockers, alpha2-agonists, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.

title: Aqueous humour


text:
Borough of Burnley

The Borough of Burnley is a local government district with the borough status in Lancashire, England. It has an area of undefined km2 and a population of, and is named after its largest town, Burnley. The borough also contains the town of Padiham along with several villages and surrounding rural areas.

The neighbouring districts are Rossendale, Hyndburn, Ribble Valley, Pendle and Calderdale.

History
The town of Burnley had been governed by improvement commissioners from 1819. The commissioners were replaced in 1861 when the town was made a municipal borough, governed by a body formally called the "mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the borough of Burnley" but generally known as the corporation or town council. After elections, the corporation first met in January 1862 when Burnley's first mayor was appointed. When elected county councils were established in 1889, Burnley was considered large enough to provide its own county-level services, and so it became a county borough, independent from the new Lancashire County Council.

The modern district was created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, covering the whole area of two former districts and part of a third, which were all abolished at the same time:
 * Burnley County Borough
 * Padiham Urban District
 * Burnley Rural District (parishes of Briercliffe, Cliviger, Dunnockshaw, Habergham Eaves, Hapton, Ightenhill, North Town, Simonstone and Worsthorne-with-Hurstwood only, rest split between Pendle, Ribble Valley and Hyndburn)

The new district was named Burnley after the area's largest town. It was granted borough status from its creation, allowing the chair of the council to take the title of mayor, continuing Burnley's series of mayors dating back to 1862.

The parish of North Town (which had been created in 1894 from the parts of Padiham parish outside the urban district) was abolished in 1983, being absorbed into Simonstone. Simonstone was subsequently transferred to Ribble Valley in 1987, with some adjustments to its boundaries with neighbouring areas.

In 2007 a proposal to merge Burnley with neighbouring Pendle Borough Council to form a larger unitary authority was rejected by the government.

The creation of the Burnley Bondholders scheme, an initiative which brings together local firms to promote Burnley as a place for business saw Burnley awarded an Enterprising Britain award from the UK Government in 2013, for being the 'Most Enterprising Area in the UK'.

Governance
Burnley Borough Council provides district-level services. County-level services are provided by Lancashire County Council. Much of the borough is also covered by civil parishes, which form a third tier of local government.

Political control
The council has been under no overall control since 2019.

The first election to the reformed borough council was held in 1973, initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities before coming into its powers on 1 April 1974. Political control of the council since 1974 has been as follows:

Leadership
The role of mayor is largely ceremonial in Burnley. Political leadership is instead provided by the leader of the council. The leaders since 2006 have been:

Composition
Following the 2023 UK local elections the Labour Party ran a minority administration in Burnley council, having 21 seats and 2 short of a majority. However on 5 November 2023 council leader Afrasiab Anwar and ten Labour colleagues resigned from the Labour Party in protest at Keir Starmer's refusal to demand a ceasefire in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war. This group was subsequently known as the Burnley Independent Group. On 17 November, the council was taken over by the new "Co-operative Alliance", which comprised the Burnley Independent Group, Green Party, and Liberal Democrat councillors and had enough seats to hold overall majority on Burnley Council.

Following the 2024 United Kingdom local elections, the Alliance fell one short of a majority, with only 22 councillors. Despite this, the Alliance members agreed to continue their arrangement and continue running the council, relying on the independent mayor to use his casting vote in their favour in case of a drawn vote with Labour and the Conservatives.

As of May 2024, the council's composition is:

The ten independent councillors sit together as the 'Burnley Independent Group', which forms part of the council's administration with the Liberal Democrats and Greens. The next elections are due in 7 May 2026, where a third of seats will be up for election.

Elections
Since the last boundary changes in 2002 the council has comprised 45 councillors representing 15 wards, with each ward electing three councillors. Elections are held three years out of every four, with a third of the council (one councillor for each ward) elected each time for a four year term of office. Lancashire County Council elections are held in the fourth year of the cycle when there are no borough council elections.

The wards are:

 * Bank Hall
 * Briercliffe
 * Brunshaw
 * Cliviger with Worsthorne
 * Coal Clough with Deerplay
 * Daneshouse with Stoneyholme
 * Gannow
 * Gawthorpe
 * Hapton with Park
 * Lanehead
 * Queensgate
 * Rosegrove with Lowerhouse
 * Rosehill with Burnley Wood
 * Trinity
 * Whittlefield with Ightenhill

The district is represented on Lancashire County Council in six divisions: Burnley Central East, Burnley Central West, Burnley North East, Burnley South West, Burnley Rural and Padiham & Burnley West.

The boundaries of the Burnley Parliamentary constituency are the same as those of the borough.

Premises
The council is based at Burnley Town Hall on Manchester Road, which had been completed in 1888 for the old town council. The council has additional offices nearby at the old Burnley Building Society building on Parker Lane.

Geography
The Borough of Burnley roughly covers the upper part of the catchment basin of the River Calder, a major tributary of the River Ribble. This includes the catchment of the River Brun, which meets the Calder in Burnley town centre, but not that of Pendle Water. The Calder has its source in the Cliviger gorge which cuts through the Pennines into Yorkshire, very close to that of the West Yorkshire river with the same name. The gorge is located in the south east of the district and separates the South Pennines to the east from the area known as the Forest of Rossendale to the south. After passing through Burnley, the Calder turns around Ighten Hill forming part of the northern boundary and exits the borough at the west once it has flowed through Padiham. The exceptions to this occur along the southern boundary. The River Irwell and its feeder Whitewell Brook both have their sources on Deerplay Moor in Cliviger. Another tributary, Limy Water begins in Dunnockshaw and supplies the Clowbridge Reservoir. All three flow south into Rossendale. Catlow Brook forms part of the northern boundary (from the Coldwell Reservoirs to Walverden Reservoir) before continuing as Walverden Water into Nelson in Pendle. The banks of the Calder on the western boundary lie approximately 70 m AOD, but the hilltops on the eastern side—also the border between Lancashire and West Yorkshire—exceed 450 m in several places. Hameldon Hill (409 m) stands in the southwest corner, forming part of the boundary with Hyndburn.

The Burnley Way, a 40 mile waymarked circular footpath, visits much of the district, also passing briefly into the Calderdale district of West Yorkshire. It is considered to start/end at the Weavers' Triangle Visitor Centre at Burnley Wharf on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal.

Towns and parishes

The borough contains eight civil parishes. The parish council of Padiham takes the style "town council". The central part of the borough, roughly corresponding to the pre-1974 borough of Burnley, is an unparished area. The parishes are:

 * Briercliffe
 * Cliviger
 * Dunnockshaw
 * Habergham Eaves
 * Hapton
 * Ightenhill
 * Padiham
 * Worsthorne-with-Hurstwood

Padiham was also unparished from the abolition of its old urban district council in 1974 until a new parish was created in 2002, covering a similar area to the old urban district.

Demography
The borough's population has fallen from a high of 130,339 in 1911 to an estimated 87,700 in 2005. Between 1991 and 2001, it fell by 2.6%. Its employment rate of 59.0% places it 261st out of 376 local authorities in England & Wales; just 12.6% of its workforce are graduates, placing it 325th out of 376 local authorities.

The 2001 census recorded the population as 89,542 and the average (mean) age of residents was 37.7 years. The area of 11070 ha, giving a population density of undefined PD/ha. The gender makeup of the population was 43,408 male and 46,134 female. 64.3% of residents aged 16 to 74 were classed as economically active, with 0.8% long-term unemployed, but 8.9% classified as long-term sick or disabled. The largest employment sectors were manufacturing 29.3%, wholesale and retail trade including motor vehicle repairs 18.2%, and health and social work 12.9%. The ethnic makeup of the district was 91.8% white and 7.2% Asian, with the other ethnic minorities and people of mixed heritage making up the remaining 1%.

A 2010 report commissioned by the BBC and compiled by Experian ranked the borough as having the second lowest property prices in England, this combined with GCSE results and crime rates, led to the borough being ranked as the worst place in England.

By the 2011 census the population was 87,059 (a decline of NaN% from 2001). The average age of residents had increased to 39.4 years. The population density then undefined PD/ha. The gender makeup of the population was 42,794 male and 44,265 female. 66.1% of residents aged 16 to 74 were classed as economically active, with 2.1% long-term unemployed and 7% long-term sick or disabled. The largest employment sectors continued to be manufacturing 17.9%, wholesale and retail trade including motor vehicle repairs 16.7%, and health and social work 15.7%. The ethnic makeup of the district had shifted slightly to 87.4% white and 11% Asian, with other ethnic minorities and mixed-heritage people at 1.6%.

At the 2021 census the population was 94,646 (an increase of NaN% from 2011). The population density then undefined PD/ha. The gender makeup of the population was 46,797 male and 47,849 female. % of residents aged 16 and over were classed as economically active, with % unemployed and 6.7% long-term sick or disabled. Although the largest employers continued to be in the same sectors, the mix had changed to wholesale and retail trade including motor vehicle repairs 19.6%, health and social work 17.2% and manufacturing 14.4%. The ethnic makeup of the district then 82.5% white and 14.7% Asian, with other ethnic minorities and mixed-heritage people at 2.8%.

Economy
There are several industrial estates and business parks within the borough of varying ages and sizes. The largest are:

 * Burnley Bridge Business Park
 * A new 70 acre development in Hapton parish, to the south of Padiham. It is connected to Junction 9 of the M65 motorway via a bridge over the Leeds and Liverpool Canal.

 * Network 65 Business Park
 * Also located in Hapton on the western side of Burnley, on the south side of M65 Junction 9. Owned by Burnley Council, occupiers include GlenDimplex.

 * Rossendale Road Industrial Estate
 * Located in Habergham Eaves on the western side of Burnley, occupiers include The Original Factory Shop, Warburtons and VEKA. The AMS Technology Park has been developed here, focused on advanced technology manufacturers, principally AMS Neve.

 * Heasandford Industrial Estate
 * Situated on the eastern side of Burnley crossing into Briercliffe, occupiers include boohoo.com and Safran Aircelle. It has seen recent expansion with the Innovation Drive development.

 * Shuttleworth Mead Business Park
 * Located west of Padiham, on the former Padiham Power Station site (closed 1993). Occupiers include Graham and Brown and Whatmore UK.

There are also a number of smaller sites throughout historically industrial parts of Burnley. Burnham Gate Trading Estate was the site of Duckett's earthen sanitary ware works. Smallshaw & Chestnut Business Park was built over part of the railway sidings connected with Rose Grove railway station. Elm Street and Gannow Business Parks along with Healeywood Industrial Estate all incorporate converted Victorian cotton mill buildings. Empire Business Park, located between Rosegrove and Lowerhouse also opened in 2008.

Education
Education Services in the borough are provided and controlled by Lancashire County Council.

Fire and rescue
Fire and rescue services in the borough are provided by Lancashire Fire and Rescue Service and controlled by Lancashire County Council.

Health
Health services in the borough are provided by East Lancashire Primary Care Trust and East Lancashire Hospitals NHS Trust, with additional services provided by the North West Ambulance Service and North West Air Ambulance.

The Hospital Trust operates Burnley General Hospital, while the PCT operates the network of GP surgeries, and recently opened 2 Primary Health Care Centres in the borough (St. Peters Centre in 2006 and Briercliffe in 2007).

Housing and construction
In 2000 Burnley Council transferred its stock of around 5300 council houses to Burnley & Padiham Community Housing. Re-branded as Calico Homes in 2004, a nod to the cotton fabric historically so important to the area's economic success, the housing association has since grown and diversified into construction, support and training. The council is still able nominate tenants, prioritised by need, to Calico and the other associations that provide accommodation in the borough. All have agreements stipulating that they will allocate approximately half of their vacancies to council nominees.

Burnley Council's development control team deals with planning permission applications within the borough, subject to appeal to the Government Planning Inspectorate. The council adopted a new planning framework in July 2018, which sets out the overall development strategy for the district up to 2032.

Museums and libraries
The museum at Towneley Hall is owned, funded and managed by the borough council. Queen Street Mill Textile Museum is owned and operated by Lancashire County Council. Since cost-cutting measures saw a temporary closure of the site, a transfer to another operator, possibly the National Trust, is reportedly being investigated. Gawthorpe Hall on the edge of Padiham is owned by the National Trust but managed by the county council.

The county council is also responsible for library provision in the district. As well as the Central Library in Burnley there are smaller sites at Padiham Town Hall, Burnley Campus in Daneshouse, on Coal Clough Lane, and Pike Hill. The mobile library service also serves the area.

Parks and green public spaces
The borough council owns and manages six Green Flag Award parks: Ightenhill Park, Padiham Memorial Park, Queens Park, Scott Park, Thompson Park, and Towneley Park. In addition it is also responsible for the maintenance of over 500 hectare of public woodlands and informal open spaces including: Byerden Holme Linear Park in Stoneyholme; Cemetery Wood near Rosegrove; Healey Heights in Rosehill; Rowley Lake and woodland in Brunshaw. Additionally Gawthorpe Hall is situated within over 40 acre of wooded grounds.

Policing
Policing Services in the borough are provided by the Pennine division of Lancashire Constabulary based at Burnley Police station, and controlled by Lancashire County Council. Plans are in place to merge the pennine division into the neighbouring eastern division, based in Blackburn. Policing Services of the borough's Railways are provided by Pennine division of the British Transport Police – the nearest Transport Police office being in Preston.

Sports and leisure
From 2014, management of the majority of the borough's leisure facilities has been transferred from Burnley Council's sport and culture services department to the Burnley Leisure trust, a registered charity. Overseen by a board of trustees made up of local community members, the trust works in partnership with the council to deliver cultural services, leisure facilities, sport and play development, and promotion of healthy lifestyles.

As of 2021, the trust operates the following sites:
 * Barden Athletics Track – 400m synthetic running track and grass pitches.
 * The Boathouse, Thompson Park – Cafe with boat hire.
 * Burnley Mechanics Theatre
 * Padiham Leisure Centre – Swimming, gym, sauna, cycling studio, tennis.
 * Prairie Sports Village – Golf driving range, floodlit 3G football pitches.
 * St Peter's Leisure Centre – Swimming, gym, squash, multi-sports halls, cycling and dance studios, and a spa.
 * Towneley Golf – Full 18 hole golf course and separate nine hole course, 18 hole pitch and putt, and a footgolf course.

Also the council's green spaces team still manage sports pitches and courts at: Briercliffe Recreation Ground (football), Ightenhill Park (tennis), Padiham Fennyfold Playing Fields (football), Hapton Recreation Ground (football), Prairie Playing Fields (football, rugby), Scott Park (tennis), Sycamore Avenue (juniors football), Towneley Park (football, tennis), Queens Park (football, tennis).

Waste and recycling
Refuse and Recycling Collections, and Street Cleansing services are the responsibly of the borough council, and these services are currently contracted to Urbaser Ltd.

The borough Council has signed up to Lancashire's Municipal Waste Management Strategy, which specifies that the borough must recycle or compost 56% of all waste by 2015 and 61% by 2020.

There are currently 2 household waste recycling centres run by Lancashire County Council in the borough. One located on Grosvenor Street in Burnley and the second on Park Road in Padiham. Lancashire County Councils long-term plans to replace the Burnley site with facility at Heasandford Industrial Estate on the north eastern edge of the town, where approved in 2010 despite local objections regarding the site's suitability. 3 months later they then announced the closure of the Padiham site as part of cost-cutting measures, increasing the unsuitability of the new Burnley site's location.

Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Burnley.

Individuals

 * James McIlroy: December 2008.
 * James Anderson: 8 December 2011.
 * Mark Crabtree: 22 October 2021.

Military Units

 * HMS Active, RN: 1989.

title: Borough of Burnley


text:
Cadet

A cadet is a student or trainee within various organisations, primarily in military contexts where individuals undergo training to become commissioned officers. However, several civilian organisations, such as civil aviation groups, maritime organisations, and police services, also designate their trainees as cadets.

Armed forces
In several military services, cadets, flight cadets, officer cadets, and gentleman/lady cadets may refer to recruits and students that are undergoing military training to become commissioned officers. The specific rank structure and responsibilities of cadets can vary among different military organisations.

Australia
In Australia, a cadet is an officer in training. The official rank is Officer Cadet (OCDT for members of the Australian Regular Army and OFFCDT for members of the Royal Australian Air Force), however OCDTs in the Royal Military College—Duntroon are referred to as staff cadet (Scdt) for historical reasons.

Austria-Hungary
In Austria-Hungary, the cadets of the Austro-Hungarian Army (1867–1918) wore the Feldwebel rank insignia on the gorget patch. The characteristic of the cadet ranks was the so-called distinction-galloon on the sleeve ends. It was similar to the feldwebel-galloon, however, from gold colour instead of emperor-yellow. The particular rank was added as well.

Bangladesh
The recruits of the Bangladesh Army, Bangladesh Navy, and Bangladesh Air Force are called Gentleman Cadets. Students of Cadet Colleges and Military Collegiate School Khulna. There are twelve Cadet Colleges in Bangladesh, nine for men and three for women. The first cadet college was Faujdarhat Cadet College, established in 1958.

Canada
An officer-in-training with the Canadian Armed Forces is known as an "officer cadet" or a "naval cadet". Officer/naval cadets in the Canadian Armed Forces are subordinate officer who are undergoing training to become commissioned officers. Officer cadets may be post-secondary students of the Royal Military College of Canada or the Royal Military College Saint-Jean under the Regular Officer Training Plan. Civilians and non-commissioned members of the Canadian Forces who are undergoing training and commissioning programs, like the "University Training Plan for Non-Commissioned Members" or the "Commissioning from the Ranks Plan", are also appointed as officer cadets.

Finland
The National Defence University Finland educates all officers in the Finnish military. All students serve as cadets under the Cadet School for the first year and then either in the Navy Academy, Air Academy or one of the Army Academy's schools as cadets or holding an upper cadet rank (i.e. sergeant cadet).

Germany
In Germany, the rank cadet (Seekadett) only exists in the German Navy for officers in training. In the Army and the Luftwaffe, officers in training usually have the rank of a Fahnenjunker or ensign (German: Fähnrich) before they are promoted into the rank of a lieutenant.

India
Cadet is also used as a rank for those enrolled in military academies of India, such as the National Defence Academy, Indian Military Academy, Indian Naval Academy, Air Force Academy, Indian Coast Guard Academy, Officers Training Academy or Armed Forces Medical College (India). These cadets are commissioned as officers in the respective service upon graduation and commit to serve. The term Gentleman Cadet is used to refer to Indian Military Academy trainees.

Indonesia
In the service academies of Indonesia which includes (Military, Naval, and Air Force) also with the Police Academy, cadets are called Taruna for military academy and police academy cadets, Kadet for naval academy cadets, and Karbol for air force academy cadets in Indonesian. For recruits or trainee who are training to be soldiers or police personnel in the enlisted ranks, the term is called Siswa which means "student". However, siswa may also refer to students who are studying in military high schools and other training institutions.

Ireland
In Ireland, a cadet is a pupil of the military college, which carries out officer training for the Air Corps, Army and Naval Service. Training takes two years and the cadets are split into senior and junior grades and classes.

Netherlands
The Koninklijke Militaire Academie is the service academy for the Dutch Army, the Dutch Air Force, and the Royal Marechaussee. Located in Breda, the Netherlands, the academy has trained future officers since 1828. All students serve as cadet or holding an upper cadet rank (i.e. cadet-sergeant). Students of the Dutch Royal Naval College, the service academy for the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Netherlands Marine Corps do not serve as cadet, but as adelborst, the Dutch term for midshipman, or holding an upper adelborst rank (i.e. sergeant-adelborst). Both cadets and adelborsts are addressed as "jonker" (derived from "jonge heer" ("young lord") ).

Norway
In Norway, a cadet is an officer in training at one of the three Norwegian War Academies ("Krigsskole"). Each service branch (Army, Navy, and Air Force) is responsible for its war academy. The cadets hold the rank of 2nd Lieutenant during training, and graduate as a 1st Lieutenant.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, a cadet is an officer in training at one of the three Military Academies of Pakistan, namely the Pakistan Military Academy, Pakistan Air Force Academy Asghar Khan, and the Pakistan Naval Academy. Typically, male cadets are called 'Gentlemen Cadets' and female cadets are called 'Lady Cadets'. Cadets, based on their grades, physical fitness, and other achievements may be promoted to different ranks in the cadet system, the most senior rank is 'Academy Senior under Officer'. Cadets given these ranks are awarded certain privileges, for example, the ability to choose a unit of their preference upon passing out. Furthermore, it is one of these cadets who wins the coveted Sword of Honor. Some of these senior cadets are also selected for Foreign Academy training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Royal Military College, Duntroon and other allied military academies.

Philippines
In the Philippines, the term cadet is used in mostly military attached organizations, but it is more distinctive in the service academies of the Philippines, [e.g., the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), the Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA), Philippine Merchant Marine Academy (PMMA), Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific (MAAP) and Aerospace Cadets of the Philippines (ACP). Graduates of these service academies are automatically given officer commissions in the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the Philippine National Police, Philippine Coast Guard, the Bureau of Fire Protection, and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology. Graduates of PMMA are given reserve officer status in the Philippine Navy and mostly go to private shipping firms. Service academy cadets are thought to be between the NCO and officer ranks, and NCO consider cadets as rank higher to them. Punishments for the cadets depends on their violations. If a cadet violates the rules and regulations of Philippine Military Training and the rules of the school itself, the cadet will get punished by either doing push-ups, pumping, or squat.

Officer candidates are referred to RESCOM, AFPOCS and PCGOBETC students who had baccalaureate degree, foreign service academies and reserve officer pools undergoing 4 months to 1 year of rigorous military training. On the other hand, cadets are referred to students of military schools undergoing 4 years of military training while completing their college degree.

Turkey
In Turkey, a cadet is a pupil of the military college, which carries out officer training for the Air Forces, Army, Naval Forces and coast guard and gendarmerie. Training takes two years and the cadets are split into senior and junior grades and classes. Military colleges and schools were gathered under one roof within the National Defense University in 2016.

United Kingdom
Officers in training at one of the UK's officer training schools, these are Britannia Royal Naval College for the Royal Navy, Commando Training Centre Royal Marines for the Royal Marines, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst for the British Army and Royal Air Force College Cranwell for the Royal Air Force, as well as students who are part of the Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme, have the rank of Officer Cadet.

United States
In the United States, cadet refers to a full-time college student who is concurrently in training to become a commissioned officer of the armed forces. Students at the United States Military Academy, the United States Air Force Academy, and the United States Coast Guard Academy respectively hold the rank of Cadet, United States Army; Cadet, United States Air Force; and Cadet, United States Coast Guard, while students in the Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (AROTC) and the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) respectively hold the rank of Cadet, United States Army Reserve; and Cadet, United States Air Force Reserve. In contrast, students at the United States Naval Academy and those enrolled in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) at civilian colleges and universities are referred to as "midshipman" (plural: "midshipmen") vice cadet and hold Midshipman rank in the United States Navy and United States Naval Reserve, respectively.

Civilian organisations
Several civilian organisations, most notably police services and civil aviation and maritime groups, use the term cadet to refer to their trainees/students. Trainee mariners of maritime colleges such as the Bangladesh Marine Academy and Indian Maritime University are also called cadets. Students at the United States Merchant Marine Academy and the preponderance of students at the Maine Maritime Academy, the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, the California Maritime Academy and the State University of New York Maritime College, though called cadets at their respective institutions, actually hold the rank of Midshipman, United States Merchant Marine Reserve, United States Naval Reserve. Some state-sponsored military colleges, including The Citadel, Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and private military colleges like Norwich University, refer to their students as cadets, or have lists of corps of cadets.

title: Cadet


text:
Viena expedition

The Viena expedition (Vienan retkikunta, Vienaexpeditionen) was a military expedition in March 1918 by Finnish volunteer forces to annex White Karelia (Vienan Karjala) from Soviet Russia. It was one of the many "kinship wars" (Heimosodat) fought near the newly independent Finland during the Russian Civil War. Russian East Karelia was never part of the Swedish Empire or the Grand Duchy of Finland. and it was at the time mostly inhabited by Karelians. However, many advocates of a Greater Finland considered these Karelians a "kindred" Finnish nation and supported the annexation of Russian East Karelia to Finland.

Northern Group
The expedition was made up of two groups. One group was Finnish Jäger troops led by Lieutenant Kurt Martti Wallenius. Initial operations in Northern Finland were successful and the Red Finns were forced to withdraw to Eastern Karelia. Wallenius and his light infantry crossed the border at Kuusamo, but got bogged down in fighting the Finnish Red Guards. Low level of training and the low morale of his conscripted troops made any advance impossible, and only withdrawal of the defending Red Finns allowed the White Finns to advance a small distance until the troops again mutinied, the goals of the operations having passed the state border. In the end the force was withdrawn back within Finnish borders and performed only small incursions into East Karelia.

Initial Operations
The other group was led by Lieutenant Colonel Carl Wilhelm Malm and consisted of about 350 volunteers. By 10 April, Malm's group had advanced as far as the coastal town of Kem on the White Sea which was controlled by the Finnish Red Guard. Malm was unable to capture the town and retreated to Uhtua, where he began defending western White Sea Karelia. The Finns now switched tactics and adopted a village-by-village strategy of persuading locals to join them.

When the Finnish troops arrived in White Sea Karelia, they noticed that the population was divided. Part of the population wanted to secede from Russia and form an independent Karelia separate from Finland. However, a larger part of the population just wanted some form of autonomy. Many thought they would get autonomy as part of Bolshevist Russia. A small minority of the population wanted Karelia to be joined to the new state of Finland. Most importantly, for the great majority of the population, practical issues (such as ensuring having enough food) were more important than ideological issues. In the end, the proposal to join East Karelia to Finland received support in the White Karelian villages around Uhtua. Local Finnish White Guard (Suojeluskunta) militias were formed in over 20 villages in that area. In July, Malm was recalled back to Finland and in his place Captain Toivo Kuisma was placed in charge of the Finnish troops. The Finnish government could not decide whether to recall the troops or to send reinforcements.

British Intervention
The situation became more complicated with the landing in Murmansk of 130 British Royal Marine Light Infantry on 6 March to prevent the Germans (and their Finnish allies) from gaining the White Sea coast and the Murmansk Railroad. By June 1918, an assortment of British Royal Marines, French artillerymen, part of a Serb battalion, Poles, Red Russians from the Murmansk Soviet, and some Red Finns occupied the railway line from Murmansk south as far as Kem. The arrival of British reinforcements and an Allied plan for them to link up with anti-Bolshevik units in Siberia prompted Trotsky, now at peace with the Germans, to send 3,000 Red troops northwards. In July these troops were disarmed and seen off by the British, who advanced as far south as Sorokka. British-led forces defending the railway line included a battalion of 1,400 Red Finns and the Karelian regiment also known as the "Irish Karelians" after Colonel P.J. Woods of the Royal Irish Rifles who raised and led the regiment.

The situation of the Viena expedition began to deteriorate. The Karelian regiment stationed in Kem attacked the Finnish troops at Jyskyjärvi on 27 August. 18 men were lost. The next attack came against Luusalmi on 8 September when 42 Finns were killed. Subsequent battles were fought at Kostamus and Vuokkiniemi in September–October. The Finnish troops withdrew to Finland on 2 October. Of these troops, 195 survived and made their way home; 83 were killed. The British forces withdrew in October 1919 and the situation of the Russian White Army collapsed.

Outcome
In the end, the expedition failed due British efforts to prevent then German-aligned Finland from gaining access to the Murmansk railroad. In addition, British forces in the region made an effort to instill a sense of nationalism (i.e. to form a Karelian state) to fight against the Finnish effort to annex East Karelia. Also the support of the expedition from the Finnish government waned with the fortunes of the Germans. After the Viena expedition, the parishes of Repola and Porajärvi in East Karelia had held a vote to join Finland, but Finland gave up all claims to East Karelia in the 1920 Treaty of Tartu.

Two years later, after the last of the British expeditionary forces had left Russia and Bolshevik control was established, a group of Karelian irredentia supported by Finnish volunteers began an uprising in an attempt to form their own state.

title: Viena expedition


text:
User talk:Beatnick~enwiki

Hello, welcome to the English Wikipedia. Thanks for the interlanguage links you are adding.

Here are some pages you might find useful during your visit here:
 * Village pump (to ask questions)
 * Community Portal (community links)
 * Goings-on (recent events on the English Wikipedia)

There is also a vote on which order interlanguage links should be in that might interest you at Language order poll.

Angela. 07:58, May 5, 2004 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Beatnick~enwiki


text:
Rurrenabaque

Rurrenabaque is a small town in the north of Bolivia, on the Beni River. It is the capital of Rurrenabaque Municipality. In recent years, it has become popular with international tourism as it is an easy gateway for visits to Madidi National Park, which is within the Bolivian rainforest. It also provides access to the surrounding pampas. Locals commonly refer to the town by its shortened nickname, "Rurre."

Rurrenabaque is located in José Ballivián Province in Beni Department, Bolivia. Rurrenabaque Municipality, the fourth municipal section of José Ballivián Province, had 19,195 inhabitants as of 2012, of which 13,446 lived in urban Rurrenabaque itself.

Transportation
Rurrenabaque is reached by bus, 410 km from La Paz (18 hours), by hired taxi (12 hours), or by airplane (45 minutes to 1 hour). Ecojet offers flights to Rurrenabaque.

The buses from La Paz pass through Coroico, 70 km from La Paz. A new road on this route opened at the end of 2006, decreasing most motorized traffic on the older, more dangerous Yungas Road, also known as 'Death Road,' now highly popular for mountain bike tours.

Rurrenabaque Airport was paved in 2010. Sometimes, low clouds over nearby mountains can hinder planes' visibility and prevent them from landing.

A nearby airport can also be used, Reyes Airport, which is 32 km away and about one hour by bus. There are no mountains near Reyes, and the airport often has better weather and fewer low clouds. Reyes is the capital of José Ballivián Province in the Beni Department.

Rurrenabaque lies on the east bank of the Beni River. A bridge over the Beni River connects with the town of San Buenaventura on the west bank. The bridge is a part of a regional road project promoted as a way to improve the economic relationship between the two towns, which had been described as stunted because of limited and expensive transport by boat. An argument in favor of the proposed bridge is that the shallows and strong currents at the San Buenaventura section limit the types of boats and motors capable of crossing the stretch of river, representing an investment beyond the means of most individual Bolivian families. A bridge would allow San Buenaventura to enjoy the same accessibility as that enjoyed between Rurrenabaque and the neighboring town of Reyes. Researchers cite economic and social harm for the area because of environmental damage from the road project and the location of the bridge, which may reduce the town's appeal as a destination or gateway for eco-tourists.

Climate
Rurrenabaque sits on the Beni River as the waterway exits the Andean folds of western Bolivia into the Llanos de Moxos. The city has a tropical rainforest climate, bordering on a tropical monsoon climate with a noticeably drier part of the year. Rurrenabaque, like much of Bolivia, is subject to annual climactic variation, particularly as a result of climate change.

Tourism
From Rurrenabaque, popular tours go to the jungle or rainforest ("selva" in Spanish) and to the pampas. The jungle or rainforest is south and west of Rurrenabaque (including a part of Madidi National Park), and the tours leave by boat and foot. There are many tour agencies in the town offering similar tours.

Rurrenabaque is a starting point for ecotourism, and some eco-lodges are found in the area. The following is a list of the community-based Eco-Lodges-: Mashaquipe; San Louis Grande (Mosetén); Berraco del Madidi (Quechua-Tacanas); San Miguel del Bala (Tacanas); Chalalán (Quechua-Tacanas); Mapajo (Tsiman-Mosetén).

Events, festivities: 2 February: Fiesta de Rurre - Anniversary of Rurrenabaque - The day of La Virgen de Candelaria.

title: Rurrenabaque


text:
Steve Stevens

Steve Stevens (born Steven Bruce Schneider; May 5, 1959) is an American guitarist. He is best known as Billy Idol's guitarist and songwriting collaborator, and for his lead guitar work on the theme to Top Gun – "Top Gun Anthem" – for which he won a Grammy in 1987: Best Pop Instrumental Performance.

Stevens has played for Michael Jackson, Ric Ocasek, Robert Palmer, and many others. He was in Vince Neil's band from 1992 to 1994, touring and recording on his album Exposed and was a founding member of the supergroup Bozzio Levin Stevens, which released Black Light Syndrome in 1997 and Situation Dangerous in 2000. He played Spanish flamenco guitar on the song "Pistolero" (1999) for the trance group Juno Reactor. During 2012–2016, Stevens appeared with Kings of Chaos. His "Steve Stevens" group headlined the closing performance at the Musikmesse in Frankfurt, Germany, in April 2016. He is also a television personality on the E! show Married to Rock, alongside his wife, Josie Stevens.

Career
His solo album releases include Atomic Playboys (1989), Flamenco a Go-Go (1999), and Memory Crash (2008).

Studio albums

 * The Guitar World According to Steve Stevens (1986 cassette from the music magazine Guitar World)
 * Atomic Playboys (1989)
 * Akai Guitar Sample Collection (1994)
 * Flamenco a Go-Go (1999)
 * Memory Crash (2008)

with Billy Idol

 * Billy Idol (1982)
 * Rebel Yell (1983)
 * Whiplash Smile (1986)
 * Devil's Playground (2005)
 * Kings & Queens of the Underground (2014)
 * The Roadside (2021)
 * The Cage (2022)

with Ric Ocasek

 * This Side of Paradise (1986)

with Jerusalem Slim

 * Jerusalem Slim (1992)

with Vince Neil

 * Exposed (1993)

with Bozzio Levin Stevens

 * Black Light Syndrome (1997)
 * Situation Dangerous (2000)

with Kyosuke Himuro

 * I·De·A (1997)
 * The One Night Stands Live (1998)
 * Mellow (2000)
 * Beat Haze Odyssey (2000)
 * Follow the Wind (2003)

with Deadland Ritual

 * "Down in Flames" (2018)
 * "Broken and Bruised" (2019)

title: Steve Stevens


text:
Leonhard Stejneger

Leonhard Hess Stejneger (30 October 1851 – 28 February 1943) was a Norwegian-born American ornithologist, herpetologist and zoologist. Stejneger specialized in vertebrate natural history studies. He gained his greatest reputation with reptiles and amphibians.

Early life and family
Stejneger was born in Bergen, Norway. His father was Peter Stamer Steineger, a merchant and auditor; his mother was Ingeborg Catharine (née Hess). Leonhard was the eldest of seven children. His sister Agnes Steineger was a Norwegian artist. Until 1880, the Steineger family had been one of the wealthy families in Bergen; at that time business reverses led to the father declaring bankruptcy.

Stejneger attended the Smith Theological School in Bergen from 1859 to 1860, and Bergen Latin School until 1869. His interests in zoology developed early. By age sixteen, he had a printed catalogue of birds, and he painted birds in water color. He moved with his mother to Meran in South Tyrol and studied under a private tutor. Around 1870, he began to spell his surname "Stejneger" and continued to use that spelling for the rest of his life. He studied law and philosophy at the University of Christiania. He earned a Ph.D. and started a brief career as a lawyer.

Career
In 1880, Stejneger ordered a walking cane with a built-in collector's gun which would serve him in his specimen collection until the end of his life. In 1881, Stejneger moved to the United States on the advice of Jean Cabanis. He had married Anna Norman in 1876 but she chose not to move to the United States and they separated and later divorced. On arriving in the US, he immediately went to the Smithsonian Institution to meet Spencer Fullerton Baird after taking some time sitting in a park to brush up on his English vocabulary. Baird had been in communication and knew his competence and he began to work soon after. Stejneger became an American citizen in 1887. Stejneger participated in numerous expeditions to the northern parts of the North American continent. From 1882 to 1883, he was on an exploration mission to Bering Island and Kamchatka. In 1895, he went to the Commander Islands, studying fur seals for the U.S. Fish Commission. He returned there a second time in 1922.

Within the Smithsonian Institution, he moved up the career ladder. In 1884 he was Assistant Curator for birds, in 1889 Curator for reptiles, in 1899 Curator for reptiles and amphibians, and from 1911 on Head Curator for biology, a post he held until his death, having been exempted from retirement by a presidential decree.

Stejneger published more than 400 scientific works on birds, reptiles, seals, the herpetology of Puerto Rico, and other topics.

During his Bering Island trip he became fascinated by the life of Georg Wilhelm Steller, an 18th-century naturalist who had previously visited there. He thoroughly researched Steller's life over the next few decades, a hobby which culminated in his only non-scientific publication, an authoritative Steller biography published in 1936.

Stejneger was a Life Member of the Bergen Museum. He attended the International Congresses of Zoology of 1898, 1901, 1904, 1907, 1913, 1927, and 1930, as well as ornithological and fisheries congresses. He was elected to the International Committee on Zoological Nomenclature in 1898 and served as the organizing secretary for the Section on Zoogeography at the 1907 International Zoological Congress (VII) in Boston. In 1900, he was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exposition for his work on fur seals management and conservation. In 1923, Stejneger was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. In 1931, he was made honorary president for life of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. In 1906, he was made knight of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olaf and then in 1939 Commander of the same order.

Legacy
Stejneger is commemorated in the scientific names of 13 reptiles (ten species and three subspecies): Amphisbaena stejnegeri, Aspidoscelis tigris stejnegeri, Crotalus stejnegeri, Gloydius intermedius stejnegeri, Hemidactylus stejnegeri, Pseudoxenodon stejnegeri, Rhinotyphlops stejnegeri, Sceloporus stejnegeri, Sphaerodactylus cinereus stejnegeri, Takydromus stejnegeri, Trachemys stejnegeri, Trimeresurus stejnegeri, and Uta stansburiana stejnegeri. He is also commemorated in several bird species including Mellanitta stejnegeri and Saxicola stejnegeri.

Selected bibliography
For a complete list of all papers, see Wetmore (1945). Some of his major works include:

 * Results of Ornithological Explorations in the Commander Islands and in Kamtschatka (1885)
 *  Birds of Kauai Island, Hawaiian Archipelago / collected by Mr. Valdemar Knudsen, with description of new species (1887)
 * Notes on a third collection of birds made in Kauai, Hawaiian Islands (1890)
 * The Poisonous Snakes of North America (1895)
 * The Russian Fur-Seal Islands (1896)
 * Herpetology of Porto Rico (1904)
 * Herpetology of Japan and Adjacent Territories (1907)
 * A new Gerrhonotine Lizard from Costa Rica (1907)
 * Three new species of lizards from the Philippine Islands (1908)
 * A new genus and species of lizard from Florida (1911)
 * A new Scincid Lizard from the Philippine Islands (1911)
 * Results of the Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and Reptiles (1913)
 * A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles [with Thomas Barbour] (1917)
 * A chapter in the history of zoological nomenclature (1924)
 * Fur-seal industry of the Commander Islands: 1897-1922 (1925)
 * Identity of Hallowell's snake genera, Megalops and Aepidea (1927)
 * The Chinese lizards of the genus Gekko (1934)
 * Georg Wilhelm Steller, the pioneer of Alaskan natural history (1936)

title: Leonhard Stejneger


text:
President of the Confederate States of America

The president of the Confederate States was the head of state and head of government of the Confederate States. The president was the chief executive of the federal government and commander-in-chief of the Confederate Army and Navy.

Article II of the Constitution of the Confederate States vested executive power of the Confederacy in the president. The power included execution of law, along with responsibility for appointing executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the senate. He was further empowered to grant reprieves and pardons, and convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.

The president was indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a six-year term, and was one of only two nationally elected Confederate officers, the other being the vice president. On February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government, as well as the only person to assume the position. On February 22, 1862, he became president of the permanent government and served in that capacity until the Confederacy's military collapse. The Confederate States cabinet declared the Confederacy dissolved May 5, 1865, after which Davis stopped attempting to exercise his office's powers and duties. May 5 is therefore generally considered to be the day the Confederate States of America (and its presidency) were formally abolished. Davis himself was captured by elements of the United States Cavalry five days later.

Powers and duties
The constitutional powers of the president of the Confederate States were similar to those of the president of the United States. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander-in-chief of the Army, Navy, and militia of the confederated states when called into service of the Confederate States. He was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He was authorized to make treaties; to nominate and appoint diplomatic representatives, judges, and other officers of the Confederate States (including the heads of the executive departments) by and with the consent of the Confederate States Senate; and to remove such representatives and officers. During a Senate recess, he could fill vacancies but not reappoint persons previously rejected by the Senate. He was to supply Congress with information, recommend legislation, receive ambassadors and other public ministers, see that federal laws were faithfully executed, and commission all officers of the military and naval forces of the Confederate States.

Election and oath
On February 9, 1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11. Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U.S. Senate. Confederate presidents were to be limited to a single term. Davis and Stephens were elected on Wednesday November 6, 1861 for six-years terms, as provided by the permanent constitution. The capital had been moved in June 1861 to Richmond and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington on Capitol Square on February 22, 1862.

Before Davis entered on the execution of his office as President of the Confederate States, he was constitutionally required to take the following oath or affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Confederate States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution thereof."

Compensation
In 1861, the president of the Confederate States earned a CS$25,000 annual salary, along with an expense account, and a nontaxable travel account. The President's Office was located on the second floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room and the State and Treasury Departments. The City of Richmond purchased the White House of the Confederacy (Brockenbrough House) for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion. Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the "White House of the Confederacy" or the "Grey House," the mansion was used by Davis until Richmond fell to the Union Army in early April 1865. The residence later became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum.

Office of the Confederate President
As of 1864, Davis had a private secretary, Burton N. Harrison, of Mississippi, and five aides-de-camp: Col. William M. Browne of Georgia, Col. James Chestnut of South Carolina, Col. William P. Johnston of Kentucky, Col. G. W. C. Lee of Virginia, and Col. John T. Wood.