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Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes is a condition in which a person without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. Gestational diabetes generally results in few symptoms; however, it increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, depression, and of needing a Caesarean section. Babies born to individuals with poorly treated gestational diabetes are at increased risk of macrosomia, of having hypoglycemia after birth, and of jaundice. If untreated, diabetes can also result in stillbirth. Long term, children are at higher risk of being overweight and of developing type 2 diabetes.

Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy because of insulin resistance or reduced production of insulin. Risk factors include being overweight, previously having gestational diabetes, a family history of type 2 diabetes, and having polycystic ovarian syndrome. Diagnosis is by blood tests. For those at normal risk, screening is recommended between 24 and 28 weeks' gestation. For those at high risk, testing may occur at the first prenatal visit.

Maintenance of healthy weight and exercising before pregnancy assist in prevention. Gestational diabetes is treated with a diabetic diet, exercise, medication (such as metformin), and sometimes insulin injections. Most people manage blood sugar with diet and exercise. Blood sugar testing among those who are affected is often recommended four times a day. Breastfeeding is recommended as soon as possible after birth.

Gestational diabetes affects 3–9% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied. It is especially common during the third trimester. It affects 1% of those under the age of 20 and 13% of those over the age of 44. A number of ethnic groups including Asians, American Indians, Indigenous Australians, and Pacific Islanders are at higher risk. However, the variations in prevalence are also due to different screening strategies and diagnostic criteria being used. In 90% of cases, gestational diabetes resolves after the baby is born. Affected people, however, are at an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Classification
Gestational diabetes is formally defined as "any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy". This definition acknowledges the possibility that a woman may have previously undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, or may have developed diabetes coincidentally with pregnancy. Whether symptoms subside after pregnancy is also irrelevant to the diagnosis. A woman is diagnosed with gestational diabetes when glucose intolerance continues beyond 24 to 28 weeks of gestation.

The White classification, named after Priscilla White, who pioneered research on the effect of diabetes types on perinatal outcome, is widely used to assess maternal and fetal risk. It distinguishes between gestational diabetes (type A) and pregestational diabetes (diabetes that existed prior to pregnancy). These two groups are further subdivided according to their associated risks and management.

The two subtypes of gestational diabetes under this classification system are:
 * Type A1: abnormal oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), but normal blood glucose levels during fasting and two hours after meals; diet modification is sufficient to control glucose levels
 * Type A2: abnormal OGTT compounded by abnormal glucose levels during fasting and/or after meals; additional therapy with insulin or other medications is required

Diabetes which existed prior to pregnancy is also split up into several subtypes under this system:
 * Type B: onset at age 20 or older and duration of less than 10 years.
 * Type C: onset at age 10–19 or duration of 10–19 years.
 * Type D: onset before age 10 or duration greater than 20 years.
 * Type E: overt diabetes mellitus with calcified pelvic vessels.
 * Type F: diabetic nephropathy.
 * Type R: proliferative retinopathy.
 * Type RF: retinopathy and nephropathy.
 * Type H: ischemic heart disease.
 * Type T: prior kidney transplant.

An early age of onset or long-standing disease comes with greater risks, hence the first three subtypes.

Two other sets of criteria are available for diagnosis of gestational diabetes, both based on blood-sugar levels.

Criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes, using the 100 gram Glucose Tolerance Test, according to Carpenter and Coustan:
 * Fasting 95 mg/dl
 * 1 hour 180 mg/dl
 * 2 hours 155 mg/dl
 * 3 hours 140 mg/dl

Criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes according to National Diabetes Data Group:
 * Fasting 105 mg/dl
 * 1 hour 190 mg/dl
 * 2 hours 165 mg/dl
 * 3 hours 145 mg/dl

The third criterion used was endorsed by Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group India and approved by the National Health Mission in its Guidelines DIPSI(Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group India Guidelines

OGTT is performed in pregnant women by measuring the plasma glucose after 2 hours of fasting or non-fasting after ingesting 75 grams of glucose (Monohydrate Dextrose Anhydrous). The Indian Guidelines (DIPSI Test) are simple for diagnosing gestational diabetes (GDM). They can be done quickly in low-resource settings, where many pregnant women visit for ANC check-ups in a Non-fasting state. A single value of ≥140 mg/dl is diagnostic for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.

Risk factors
Classical risk factors for developing gestational diabetes are:
 * Polycystic ovary syndrome
 * A previous diagnosis of gestational diabetes or prediabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, or impaired fasting glycaemia
 * A family history revealing a first-degree relative with type 2 diabetes
 * Maternal age – a woman's risk factor increases as she gets older (especially for women over 35 years of age).
 * Paternal age – one study found that a father's age over 55 years was associated with GD
 * Ethnicity (those with higher risk factors include African-Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, Native Americans, Hispanics, Pacific Islanders, and people originating from South Asia)
 * Being overweight, obese or severely obese increases the risk by a factor 2.1, 3.6 and 8.6, respectively.
 * A previous pregnancy which resulted in a child with a macrosomia (high birth weight: >90th centile or >4000 g (8 lbs 12.8 oz))
 * Previous poor obstetric history
 * Other genetic risk factors: There are at least 10 genes where certain polymorphism are associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes, most notably TCF7L2. The MTNR1B gene is a common gene that is associated with how the body handles insulin and glucose. When this gene is not working properly, it can lead to less insulin production and higher blood glucose levels.

In addition to this, statistics show a double risk of GDM in smokers. Some studies have looked at more controversial potential risk factors, such as short stature.

About 40–60% of women with GDM have no demonstrable risk factor; for this reason many advocate to screen all women. Typically, women with GDM exhibit no symptoms (another reason for universal screening), but some women may demonstrate increased thirst, increased urination, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, bladder infection, yeast infections and blurred vision.

Pathophysiology
The precise mechanisms underlying gestational diabetes remain unknown. The hallmark of GDM is increased insulin resistance. Pregnancy hormones and other factors are thought to interfere with the action of insulin as it binds to the insulin receptor. The interference probably occurs at the level of the cell signaling pathway beyond the insulin receptor. Since insulin promotes the entry of glucose into most cells, insulin resistance prevents glucose from entering the cells properly. As a result, glucose remains in the bloodstream, where glucose levels rise. More insulin is needed to overcome this resistance; about 1.5–2.5 times more insulin is produced than in a normal pregnancy.

Insulin resistance is a normal phenomenon emerging in the second trimester of pregnancy, which in cases of GDM progresses thereafter to levels seen in a non-pregnant woman with type 2 diabetes. It is thought to secure glucose supply to the growing fetus. Women with GDM have an insulin resistance that they cannot compensate for with increased production in the β-cells of the pancreas. Placental hormones, and, to a lesser extent, increased fat deposits during pregnancy, seem to mediate insulin resistance during pregnancy. Cortisol and progesterone are the main culprits, but human placental lactogen, prolactin and estradiol contribute, too. Multivariate stepwise regression analysis reveals that, in combination with other placental hormones, leptin, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and resistin are involved in the decrease in insulin sensitivity occurring during pregnancy, with tumor necrosis factor alpha named as the strongest independent predictor of insulin sensitivity in pregnancy. An inverse correlation with the changes in insulin sensitivity from the time before conception through late gestation accounts for about half of the variance in the decrease in insulin sensitivity during gestation: in other words, low levels or alteration of TNF alpha factors corresponds with a greater chance of, or predisposition to, insulin resistance or sensitivity.

It is unclear why some women are unable to balance insulin needs and develop GDM; however, a number of explanations have been given, similar to those in type 2 diabetes: autoimmunity, single gene mutations, obesity, along with other mechanisms.

Though the clinical presentation of gestational diabetes is well characterized, the biochemical mechanism behind the disease is not well known. One proposed biochemical mechanism involves insulin-producing β-cell adaptation controlled by the HGF/c-MET signaling pathway. β-cell adaption refers to the change that pancreatic islet cells undergo during pregnancy in response to maternal hormones in order to compensate for the increased physiological needs of mother and baby. These changes in the β-cells cause increased insulin secretion as a result of increased β-cell proliferation. HGF/c-MET has also been implicated in β-cell regeneration, which suggests that HGF/c-MET may help increase β-cell mass in order to compensate for insulin needs during pregnancy. Recent studies support that loss of HGF/c-MET signaling results in aberrant β-cell adaptation.

c-MET is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) that is activated by its ligand, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and is involved in the activation of several cellular processes. When HGF binds c-MET, the receptor homodimerizes and self-phosphorylates to form an SH2 recognition domain. The downstream pathways activated include common signaling molecules such as RAS and MAPK, which affect cell motility, and cell cycle progression.

Studies have shown that HGF is an important signaling molecule in stress related situations where more insulin is needed. Pregnancy causes increased insulin resistance and so a higher insulin demand. The β-cells must compensate for this by either increasing insulin production or proliferating. If neither of the processes occur, then markers for gestational diabetes are observed. It has been observed that pregnancy increases HGF levels, showing a correlation that suggests a connection between the signaling pathway and increased insulin needs. In fact, when no signaling is present, gestational diabetes is more likely to occur.

The exact mechanism of HGF/c-MET regulated β-cell adaptation is not yet known but there are several hypotheses about how the signaling molecules contribute to insulin levels during pregnancy. c-MET may interact with FoxM1, a molecule important in the cell cycle, as FOXM1 levels decrease when c-MET is not present. Additionally, c-MET may interact with p27 as the protein levels increase with c-MET is not present. Another hypothesis says that c-MET may control β-cell apoptosis because a lack of c-MET causes increases cell death but the signaling mechanisms have not been elucidated.

Although the mechanism of HGF/c-MET control of gestational diabetes is not yet well understood, there is a strong correlation between the signaling pathway and the inability to produce an adequate amount of insulin during pregnancy and thus it may be the target for future diabetic therapies.

Because glucose travels across the placenta (through diffusion facilitated by GLUT1 carrier), which is located in the syncytiotrophoblast on both the microvillus and basal membranes, these membranes may be the rate-limiting step in placental glucose transport. There is a two- to three-fold increase in the expression of syncytiotrophoblast glucose transporters with advancing gestation. Finally, the role of GLUT3/GLUT4 transport remains speculative. If the untreated gestational diabetes fetus is exposed to consistently higher glucose levels, this leads to increased fetal levels of insulin (insulin itself cannot cross the placenta). The growth-stimulating effects of insulin can lead to excessive growth and a large body (macrosomia). After birth, the high glucose environment disappears, leaving these newborns with ongoing high insulin production and susceptibility to low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).

Screening
A number of screening and diagnostic tests have been used to look for high levels of glucose in plasma or serum in defined circumstances. One method is a stepwise approach where a suspicious result on a screening test is followed by diagnostic test. Alternatively, a more involved diagnostic test can be used directly at the first prenatal visit for a woman with a high-risk pregnancy. (for example in those with polycystic ovarian syndrome or acanthosis nigricans).

Non-challenge blood glucose tests involve measuring glucose levels in blood samples without challenging the subject with glucose solutions. A blood glucose level is determined when fasting, two hours after a meal, or simply at any random time. In contrast, challenge tests involve drinking a glucose solution and measuring glucose concentration thereafter in the blood; in diabetes, they tend to remain high. The glucose solution has a very sweet taste which some women find unpleasant; sometimes, therefore, artificial flavours are added. Some women may experience nausea during the test, and more so with higher glucose levels.

There is currently not enough research to show which way is best at diagnosing gestational diabetes. Routine screening of women with a glucose challenge test may find more women with gestational diabetes than only screening women with risk factors. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is not recommended for diagnosing gestational diabetes, as it's a less reliable marker of glycemia during pregnancy than oral glucose tolerance testing (OGTT).

Because women diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes (GDM) during pregnancy are at an increased risk for developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus after pregnancy, post pregnancy glucose tolerance testing is needed. Based on the recent meta-analysis conducted by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute, research has shown that post pregnancy testing reminders are associated with greater adherence to oral glucose tolerance testing up to 1 year postpartum.

Pathways
Opinions differ about optimal screening and diagnostic measures, in part due to differences in population risks, cost-effectiveness considerations, and lack of an evidence base to support large national screening programs. The most elaborate regimen entails a random blood glucose test during a booking visit, a screening glucose challenge test around 24–28 weeks' gestation, followed by an OGTT if the tests are outside normal limits. If there is a high suspicion, a woman may be tested earlier.

In the United States, most obstetricians prefer universal screening with a screening glucose challenge test. In the United Kingdom, obstetric units often rely on risk factors and a random blood glucose test. The American Diabetes Association and the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada recommend routine screening unless the woman is low risk (this means the woman must be younger than 25 years and have a body mass index less than 27, with no personal, ethnic or family risk factors) The Canadian Diabetes Association and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend universal screening. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force found there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against routine screening, and a 2017 a Cochrane review found that there is not evidence to determine which screening method is best for women and their babies.

Some pregnant women and careproviders choose to forgo routine screening due to the absence of risk factors, however this is not advised due to the large proportion of women who develop gestational diabetes despite having no risk factors present and the dangers to the mother and baby if gestational diabetes remains untreated.

Non-challenge blood glucose tests
When a plasma glucose level is found to be higher than 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) after fasting, or over 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) on any occasion, and if this is confirmed on a subsequent day, the diagnosis of GDM is made, and no further testing is required. These tests are typically performed at the first antenatal visit. They are simple to administer and inexpensive, but have a lower test performance compared to the other tests, with moderate sensitivity, low specificity and high false positive rates.

Screening glucose challenge test
The screening glucose challenge test (sometimes called the O'Sullivan test) is performed between 24 and 28 weeks, and can be seen as a simplified version of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). No previous fasting is required for this screening test, in contrast to the OGTT. The O'Sullivan test involves drinking a solution containing 50 grams of glucose, and measuring blood levels one hour later.

If the cut-off point is set at 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L), 80% of women with GDM will be detected. If this threshold for further testing is lowered to 130 mg/dL, 90% of GDM cases will be detected, but there will also be more women who will be subjected to a consequent OGTT unnecessarily.

Oral glucose tolerance test
A standardized oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) should be done in the morning after an overnight fast of between 8 and 14 hours. During the three previous days the subject must have an unrestricted diet (containing at least 150 g carbohydrate per day) and unlimited physical activity. The subject should remain seated during the test and should not smoke throughout the test.

IADPSG (International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups) has developed diagnostic criteria for GDM, based on the results of adverse pregnancy outcomes in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) study. These were recommended by WHO 2013.

According to these gestational diabetes mellitus should be diagnosed at any time in pregnancy if one of the following criteria are met, using a 75 g glucose OGTT:
 * Fasting blood glucose level ≥92 mg/dL (5.1 mmol/L)
 * 1 hour blood glucose level ≥180 mg/dL (10 mmol/L)
 * 2 hour blood glucose level ≥153 mg/dL (8.5 mmol/L)

Urinary glucose testing
Women with GDM may have high glucose levels in their urine (glucosuria). Although dipstick testing is widely practiced, it performs poorly, and discontinuing routine dipstick testing has not been shown to cause underdiagnosis where universal screening is performed. Increased glomerular filtration rates during pregnancy contribute to some 50% of women having glucose in their urine on dipstick tests at some point during their pregnancy. The sensitivity of glucosuria for GDM in the first two trimesters is only around 10% and the positive predictive value is around 20%.

Prevention
Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy may help to prevent gestational diabetes. A 2015 review found that when done during pregnancy moderate physical exercise is effective for the prevention of gestational diabetes. A 2014 review however did not find a significant effect. It is uncertain if additional dietary advice interventions help to reduce the risk of gestational diabetes. However, data from the Nurses' Health Study shows that adherence to a healthy plant-based diet is associated with lower risk for GDM. Diet and physical activity interventions designed to prevent excessive gestational weight gain reduce the rates of gestational diabetes. However, the impact of these interventions varies with the body-mass index of the person as well as with the region in which the studies were performed.

Moderate-quality evidence suggest that there is a reduced risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and caesarean section with combined diet and exercise interventions during pregnancy as well as reductions in gestational weight gain, compared with standard care.

A 2023 review found that a plant-based diet (including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, and tea) rich in phytochemicals lowers the risk of GDM. A Cochrane review, updated 2023, stated that myo‐inositol has a potential beneficial effect of improving insulin sensitivity, which suggested that it may be useful for women in preventing gestational diabetes″.

It has been suggested that for women who have had gestational diabetes, diet, exercise, education, and lifestyle changes between pregnancies may lower their chances of having gestational diabetes again in future pregnancies. However, there is no research to show whether interventions between pregnancies lower the number of women who develop gestational diabetes again.

Management

Treatment of GDM with diet and insulin reduces health problems mother and child. Treatment of GDM is also accompanied by more inductions of labour.

A repeat OGTT should be carried out 6 weeks after delivery, to confirm the diabetes has disappeared. Afterwards, regular screening for type 2 diabetes is advised.

Lifestyle interventions include exercise, diet advice, behavioural interventions, relaxation, self-monitoring glucose, and combined interventions. Women with gestational diabetes who receive lifestyle interventions seem to have less postpartum depression, and were more likely to reach their weight loss targets after giving birth, than women who had no intervention. Their babies are also less likely to be large for their gestational age, and have less percentage of fat when they are born. More research is needed to find out which lifestyle interventions are best. Some women with GDM use probiotics but it is very uncertain if there are any benefits in terms of blood glucose levels, high blood pressure disorders or induction of labour.

If a diabetic diet or G.I. Diet, exercise, and oral medication are inadequate to control glucose levels, insulin therapy may become necessary.

The development of macrosomia can be evaluated during pregnancy by using sonography. Women who use insulin, with a history of stillbirth, or with hypertension are managed like women with overt diabetes.

Lifestyle
Counselling before pregnancy (for example, about preventive folic acid supplements) and multidisciplinary management are important for good pregnancy outcomes. Most women can manage their GDM with dietary changes and exercise. Self monitoring of blood glucose levels can guide therapy. Some women will need antidiabetic drugs, most commonly insulin therapy.

Any diet needs to provide sufficient calories for pregnancy, typically 2,000–2,500 kcal with the exclusion of simple carbohydrates. The main goal of dietary modifications is to avoid peaks in blood sugar levels. This can be done by spreading carbohydrate intake over meals and snacks throughout the day, and using slow-release carbohydrate sources—known as the G.I. Diet. Since insulin resistance is highest in mornings, breakfast carbohydrates need to be restricted more.

The Mediterranean diet may be associated with reduced incidence of gestational diabetes. However, there is not enough evidence to indicate if one type of dietary advice is better than another.

Regular moderately intense physical exercise is advised, although there is no consensus on the specific structure of exercise programs for GDM. Pregnant women who exercise have lower blood sugar levels when fasting and after meals compared to those who do not exercise. It is not clear which form of exercise is best when pregnant.

Self monitoring can be accomplished using a handheld capillary glucose dosage system. Compliance with these glucometer systems can be low. There is not a lot of research into what target blood sugar levels should be for women with gestational diabetes and targets recommended to women vary around the world. Target ranges advised by the Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society are as follows: Regular blood samples can be used to determine HbA1c levels, which give an idea of glucose control over a longer time period.
 * fasting capillary blood glucose levels <5.5 mmol/L
 * 1 hour postprandial capillary blood glucose levels <8.0 mmol/L
 * 2 hour postprandial blood glucose levels <6.7 mmol/L

Research suggests a possible benefit of breastfeeding to reduce the risk of diabetes and related risks for both mother and child.

Medication
If monitoring reveals failing control of glucose levels with these measures, or if there is evidence of complications like excessive fetal growth, treatment with insulin might be necessary. This is most commonly fast-acting insulin given just before eating to blunt glucose rises after meals. Care needs to be taken to avoid low blood sugar levels due to excessive insulin. Insulin therapy can be normal or very tight; more injections can result in better control but requires more effort, and there is no consensus that it has large benefits. A 2016 Cochrane review (updated in 2023) concluded that quality evidence is not yet available to determine the best blood sugar range for improving health for pregnant women with GDM and their babies.

There is some evidence that certain medications by mouth might be safe in pregnancy, or at least, are less dangerous to the developing fetus than poorly controlled diabetes. When comparing which diabetes tablets (medication by mouth) work best and are safest, there is not enough quality research to support one medication over another. The medication metformin is better than glyburide. If blood glucose cannot be adequately controlled with a single agent, the combination of metformin and insulin may be better than insulin alone. Another review found good short term safety for both the mother and baby with metformin but unclear long term safety.

People may prefer metformin by mouth to insulin injections. Treatment of polycystic ovarian syndrome with metformin during pregnancy has been noted to decrease GDM levels.

Almost half of the women did not reach sufficient control with metformin alone and needed supplemental therapy with insulin; compared to those treated with insulin alone, they required less insulin, and they gained less weight. With no long-term studies into children of women treated with the drug, there remains a possibility of long-term complications from metformin therapy. Babies born to women treated with metformin have been found to develop less visceral fat, making them less prone to insulin resistance in later life.

Prognosis
Gestational diabetes generally resolves once the baby is born. Based on different studies, the chances of developing GDM in a second pregnancy, if a woman had GDM in her first pregnancy, are between 30 and 84%, depending on ethnic background. A second pregnancy within one year of the previous pregnancy has a large likelihood of GDM recurrence.

Women diagnosed with gestational diabetes have an increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus in the future. The risk is highest in women who needed insulin treatment, had antibodies associated with diabetes (such as antibodies against glutamate decarboxylase, islet cell antibodies and/or insulinoma antigen-2), women with more than two previous pregnancies, and women who were obese (in order of importance). Women requiring insulin to manage gestational diabetes have a 50% risk of developing diabetes within the next five years. Depending on the population studied, the diagnostic criteria and the length of follow-up, the risk can vary enormously. The risk appears to be highest in the first 5 years, reaching a plateau thereafter. One of the longest studies followed a group of women from Boston, Massachusetts; half of them developed diabetes after 6 years, and more than 70% had diabetes after 28 years. In a retrospective study in Navajo women, the risk of diabetes after GDM was estimated to be 50 to 70% after 11 years. Another study found a risk of diabetes after GDM of more than 25% after 15 years. In populations with a low risk for type 2 diabetes, in lean subjects and in women with auto-antibodies, there is a higher rate of women developing type 1 diabetes (LADA).

Children of women with GDM have an increased risk for childhood and adult obesity and an increased risk of glucose intolerance and type 2 diabetes later in life. This risk relates to increased maternal glucose values. It is currently unclear how much genetic susceptibility and environmental factors contribute to this risk, and whether treatment of GDM can influence this outcome.

Relative benefits and harms of different oral anti-diabetic medications are not yet well understood as of 2017.

There are scarce statistical data on the risk of other conditions in women with GDM; in the Jerusalem Perinatal study, 410 out of 37,962 women were reported to have GDM, and there was a tendency towards more breast and pancreatic cancer, but more research is needed to confirm this finding.

Research is being conducted to develop a web-based clinical decision support system for GDM prediction using machine learning techniques. Results so far demonstrated great potential in clinical practicality for automatic GDM prognosis.

Complications
GDM poses a risk to mother and child. This risk is largely related to uncontrolled blood glucose levels and its consequences. The risk increases with higher blood glucose levels. Treatment resulting in better control of these levels can reduce some of the risks of GDM considerably.

The two main risks GDM imposes on the baby are growth abnormalities and chemical imbalances after birth, which may require admission to a neonatal intensive care unit. Infants born to mothers with GDM are at risk of being both large for gestational age (macrosomic) in unmanaged GDM, and small for gestational age and Intrauterine growth retardation in managed GDM. Macrosomia in turn increases the risk of instrumental deliveries (e.g. forceps, ventouse and caesarean section) or problems during vaginal delivery (such as shoulder dystocia). Macrosomia may affect 12% of normal women compared to 20% of women with GDM. However, the evidence for each of these complications is not equally strong; in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study for example, there was an increased risk for babies to be large but not small for gestational age in women with uncontrolled GDM. In a recent birth cohot study of 5150 deliveries, a research group active at the University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland demonstrated that the mother's GDM is an independent factor that increases the risk of fetal hypoxia, during labour. The study was published in the Acta Diabetologica in June 2021. Another finding was that GDM increased the susceptibility of the fetus to intrapartum hypoxia, regardless of the size of the fetus. The risk of hypoxia and the resulting risk of poor condition in newborn infants was nearly 7-fold in the fetuses of mothers with GDM compared to the fetuses of non-diabetic mothers. Furthermore, according to the findings, the risk of needing to perform resuscitation on the newborn after birth was 10-fold.

Another finding was that gestational diabetes increased the susceptibility of the fetus to intrapartal hypoxia, regardless of the size of the fetus.

"The risk of hypoxia and the resulting risk of poor condition in newborn infants was nearly seven-fold in the fetuses of mothers with gestational diabetes compared to the fetuses of non-diabetic mothers," says researcher Mikko Tarvonen. According to the findings, the risk of needing to perform resuscitation on the newborn was ten-fold.Research into complications for GDM is difficult because of the many confounding factors (such as obesity). Labelling a woman as having GDM may in itself increase the risk of having an unnecessary caesarean section.

Neonates born from women with consistently high blood sugar levels are also at an increased risk of low blood glucose (hypoglycemia), jaundice, high red blood cell mass (polycythemia) and low blood calcium (hypocalcemia) and magnesium (hypomagnesemia). Untreated GDM also interferes with maturation, causing dysmature babies prone to respiratory distress syndrome due to incomplete lung maturation and impaired surfactant synthesis.

Unlike pre-gestational diabetes, gestational diabetes has not been clearly shown to be an independent risk factor for birth defects. Birth defects usually originate sometime during the first trimester (before the 13th week) of pregnancy, whereas GDM gradually develops and is least pronounced during the first and early second trimester. Studies have shown that the offspring of women with GDM are at a higher risk for congenital malformations. A large case-control study found that gestational diabetes was linked with a limited group of birth defects, and that this association was generally limited to women with a higher body mass index (≥ 25 kg/m2). It is difficult to make sure that this is not partially due to the inclusion of women with pre-existent type 2 diabetes who were not diagnosed before pregnancy.

Because of conflicting studies, it is unclear at the moment whether women with GDM have a higher risk of preeclampsia. In the HAPO study, the risk of preeclampsia was between 13% and 37% higher, although not all possible confounding factors were corrected.

Epidemiology
Gestational diabetes affects 3–10% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied.

title: Gestational diabetes


text:
Roland Jupiter-6

The Roland Jupiter-6 (JP-6) is a discontinued synthesizer, manufactured and introduced by the Roland Corporation in January 1983.

Background
Although introduced as a less expensive ($2,500-$3,000 market price) alternative to the Roland Jupiter-8, its features include some capabilities not present in the JP-8, which makes the JP-6 a successor. The Jupiter-6 is widely considered a workhorse among polyphonic analog synthesizers, capable of producing a wide variety of sounds, such as ambient drones, pads, lead synthesizer lines, unison basses and techy blips and buzzes. It is renowned for its reliability and ease, but with sophisticated programmability.

The JP-6 has 12 analog oscillators (2 per voice), and is bitimbral, allowing its keyboard to be "split" into two sounds - one with 4 voices, and one with the remaining 2 voices (either "Split 4/2" or "Split 2/4" mode). "Whole Mode" is also available, dedicating all 6 voices to single (monotimbral) sound across the entire keyboard. Available waveforms include sawtooth, triangle, variable width pulse, square, and noise. Unusually, the JP-6 allows simultaneous selection of any or all of the waveforms in each of its two oscillator banks, an option not found on the JP-8. Oscillator sync and cross modulation are also available. "Unison Mode" allows all 12 oscillators to be triggered simultaneously by depressing a single key. Unison Mode can also be played polyphonically, with the number of oscillators triggered by each key determined by the number of keys held down.

The JP-6 was among the first electronic instruments (alongside the Roland JX-3P and the Sequential Circuits Prophet-600) to feature MIDI, then a brand new technology. Sequential CEO Dave Smith demonstrated MIDI by connecting the Prophet to a Jupiter-6 during the January, 1983 Winter NAMM Show.

Europa, a popular firmware upgrade available from Synthcom Systems, adds a wide array of modern enhancements to the instrument's MIDI implementation, user interface, patch memory, and most especially its arpeggiator, turning the Jupiter-6 into a contemporaneously adaptable instrument and unique composition tool.

Notable users

 * Charly García
 * Chemical Brothers
 * The Crystal Method
 * Devo
 * Dubstar
 * Eddie Kulak of Aztec Camera
 * Goldfrapp
 * Greg Ham of Men at Work
 * Human League
 * Julio Bashmore
 * Kevin Saunderson (of Inner City)
 * King Crimson
 * Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell (Musical score for the first two series of Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends)
 * Nathan Fake
 * Orbital
 * Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark
 * Peggy Gou
 * Pet Shop Boys
 * Ray Parker Jr.
 * Rhythm Plate
 * Rob Preuss of The Spoons
 * Tangerine Dream
 * Thomas Gandey
 * The Unicorns
 * Vangelis
 * Vašo Patejdl

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Roland Jupiter-6


text:
Talk:David O. Selznick

Needs more editorial work
This is an inadequate biographical entry. Deficient in many ways. Call-out to Wiki bio editors, (which includes me!) see what you can do to enhance the content. Betempte (talk) 18:34, 29 March 2014 (UTC)

"O." or "Oliver"
I've long been burdened with the belief that David O. Selznick had no middle name, only a middle initial. Yet here, it is listed as "Oliver". I now realise that the line about "What does the 'O' stand for?" - "Nothing." is actually from North by Northwest, but even so his bio on IMDb lists the quote "...I decided to take a middle initial and went through the alphabet to find one that seemed to give me the best punctuation and decided on 'O'."

So is this a myth he took part in himself, or is the "Oliver" a myth that came about later? Whatever the answer turns out to be, I suggest we mention it here - preferably with references - so we can settle people's arguments... - IMSoP 02:57, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

The O. really stands for nothing. He was born David Selznick, and found that the middle initial gave him flair. Quote: '''The "O" in Selznik's middle name, though it has a period after it, doesn't stand for anything. Selznik added it because he felt it added flair to his name.''' This is actually from IMDb, but I have read it many times already, in books and documentaires. —  ēmpoor!  22:33, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

Well, yes, as I say, IMDb certainly supports the no middle name hypothesis; but a quick Google search shows Britannica and MSN Movies among those listing the "Oliver". So I'm at a loss to decide what to take as an "authoritative" source on this; a fully authorised biography perhaps? Just a page that mentions both the "Oliver" and the "Nothing", and discusses which one is correct, would be reassuring... - IMSoP 23:41, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

Too bad he died 40 years ago (for us and for the motion pictures industry).. No living family who wrote any books? —  ēmpoor!  17:47, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

His ex-wife Irene Mayer Selznick wrote her memoir "A Private View" (Knopf). His sons have given interviews and one produced the documentary "The Making of GWTW." Neither of his sons has any children, despite a number of marriages for each.

What about the personal quote in his IMDb bio? "I have no middle name...I had an uncle, whom I greatly disliked, who was also named David Selznick, so in order to to avoid any growing confusion between the two of us, I decided to take a middle initial and went through the alphabet to find one that seemed to give me the best punctuation and decided on 'O'." Can that be sourced/confirmed anywhere? SteveCrook 05:51, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

Wouldn't the easiest solution be to get ahold of a copy of his birth certificate from Allegheny County Vital Records? (see ) That would certainly confirm what his birth name was... Seann 10:21, 22 April 2006 (UTC)
 * it is well known that the O stands for... nothing! i'll put an extract in the article (which can be found without any problem in amazon with the search engine function)... thanks to correct my english kernitou talk 12:40, 1 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm quite sure that it doesn't stand for anything as well. But how do you explain the Britannica & MSN Movies references above? The only way to be 100% certain is to get a copy of his birth certificate. SteveCrook 05:50, 2 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Getting his birth certificate would be the best way, but might not be the easiest. The Allegheny County records site mentioned above says that only family members can get a copy of the record. PA seems to be very protective of its residents. SteveCrook 05:59, 2 July 2006 (UTC)
 * he wrote it himself... plenty enough and more accurate than anything kernitou talk 15:56, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * There's a difference between someone writing something themselves in a form that can be sourced and cited and this case where it was reported that an interview claimed that he said it. Nothing that can be sourced and cited there. SteveCrook 17:57, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

From the book Memo from David O. Selznick, by David O. Selznick, p. 3:
 * I have no middle name. I briefly used my mother's maiden name, Sachs. I had an uncle, whom I greatly disliked, who was also named David Selznick, so in order to avoid the growing confusion between the two of us, I decided to take a middle initial and went through the alphabet to find one that seemed to give me the best punctuation, and decided on "O."

That wasn't from an interview; it was written by Selznick himself. — Walloon 18:54, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * At last. A citable source. Thanks SteveCrook 19:53, 2 July 2006 (UTC)
 * funny steve, "at last", it has been said since 2004 in this talk page... kernitou talk 05:36, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

Other sources
Can other reference sources be used and listed? Only one appears in the bibliography.--Msr69er 20:10, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

"In photographs Selznick always looked constipated." -- That may not be absolutely, 100% encyclopedic in tone. Ken Kukec (talk) 18:39, 18 September 2013 (UTC)

The Republican Rally, October 18, 1944
This citation is in conflict with information from the Randolph Scott entry, which names Cecil B. DeMille as the master of ceremony, not Lionel Barrymore. Does anyone have a definitive source for this? Goodros nemesis (talk) 14:59, 13 May 2015 (UTC)

The Wild Heart/Gone to Earth
Re the passage:
 * Some of these were major plot points so the story doesn't make as much sense as the original. He also added a prologue and added various other scenes most of which added explanations of things, usually just by putting labels on them. Many of the additional scenes were close-ups of Jennifer Jones. The most infamous of these are the scenes at the end when she is carrying the tame fox. They presumably couldn't find a tame fox in Hollywood because in the additional scenes, Jennifer is carrying what is obviously a stuffed toy fox.

 * Michael Powell summed up the duo's relationship in this quote, "We decided to go ahead with David O. (Selznick) the way hedgehogs make love: verrry carefully !"

That really goes into more detail than warranted for this article. It takes up as many words as the first thirty years of Selznick's biography. It would be better placed in the separate article Gone to Earth on the film itself. — Walloon 21:25, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Most if it was already mentioned in the article on Gone to Earth. I've moved over the bits that were mentioned here but weren't mentioned in the article about the film. Most of it is just to point out what a pompous ass Selznick was, how he ruined a good film and the low opinion he must have had of the American audiences, thinking that everything needed explaining like that. I left out the comments about his benzedrine habit and bullying and deliberate humiliation of Jennifer that Powell also describes -- SteveCrook 00:06, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

The Bad and the Beautiful
I think the article should mention the film The Bad and the Beautiful, which is based in a collection of anecdotes featuring Selznick (by Welles, Chandler, Hitchcock, Thalberg...), starring Kirk Douglas as Selznick. The page of the movie in Wikipedia doesn't mention this, I took it from the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, but I do not dare to put the information myself. Nazroon 05:27, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I added a short section, since I thought it was noteworthy. The Jonathan Shields character was not based exclusively on Selznick--while both had a father who made and lost a fortune in the movie business, both were womanizers (which is a severe understatement in Selznick's case) and both could not stop themselves from meddling in others' work, usually through those infamous memos (Korda and Reed had to deal with this on The Third Man too), it's not just Selznick. The "Cat Man" subplot is taken from Val Lewton's life. Selznick likewise had no connections with Diana Barrymore, the model for the Georgia Lorrison character; his relationship with Jennifer Jones, whom he wooed away from Robert Walker, was far more complex. Nor did he ever work with Faulkner or any other Southern novelist to my knowledge.
 * But still there were enough similarities to make Selznick think he was bring defamed, so I jumped in where you hesitated. What's that old saying? "Fools rush in ..." Zeno Cosini~enwiki (talk) 23:02, 16 May 2022 (UTC)

Gary Cooper
Some unregistered editor is absolutely possessed to insert the same anecdote about Gary Cooper in any article having to do with Gone With the WInd. This is an encyclopedia article, not a depository for favorite anecdotes. — Walloon 08:40, 1 April 2007 (UTC)

WP:WikiProject Actors and Filmmakers priority assessment
Per debate and discussion re: assessment of the approximate 100 top priority articles of the project, this article has been included as a top priority article. Wildhartlivie (talk) 07:33, 1 March 2008 (UTC)

Amphetamine use
Could some medical expert inform us of the effects of amphetamine use? I've read that it makes people megalomaniacal, delusional and paranoid. It must have had psychological effects on David Selznick. I also hear it can induce strokes, did its usage contribute to his death? 50.202.81.2 (talk) 00:26, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

David O. Selznick?
Viewing the photograph with your article, is it not better that he ought to be "forgotten"??? 145.129.136.48 (talk) 16:01, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

Shirley Temple
Should we include the allegations made against Selznick by Shirley Temple? LoneWolf1992 (user talk) 24:33 5 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:David O. Selznick


text:
User talk:Timwi/Archive/Jun 04 - Jul 04

toki pona
sama ala e Klingon toki, e toki pona tawa pali. ken ala weka tawa e kulupu pilin sama. pona.

Unlike Klingon, toki pona links have not been disabled. Please stop removing these before there is consensus to do so. Thank you. Angela. 00:37, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I have already removed all of them. Please don't put them back until there is consensus to have them at all. Removing them was just because there was objection to the Toki Pona Wikipedia, and besides, it is pretty much dead already. — Timwi 00:44, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * From what I've seen, you are the only person who wants to remove toki pona links, so it's up to you to show there is consensus for your case. Just because Klingon is being submitted to this "no linking" compromise does not mean any language you find objectionable should be. Angela. 00:57, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Artificial languages equal rights. — Timwi 10:19, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Age limit
I don't know if I'm missing something but, Age limit redirected to Senescence? Kind of a longshot... Ilyanep 16:29, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah. What you are missing is that I'm not the one who came up with that redirect. :) — Timwi 16:32, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Alright, sorry for the confusion (mostly mine :P). Ilyanep 03:01, 12 Jun 2004 (UTC)

European dragon image
I don't see why you reduced the size of the image so that the dragon is barely distinguishable, and created all that white space. Why should a "thumbnail' be literally the size of a thumbnail? I haven't touched your edit. But i hope you'll have a look at the page as you've left it. Wetman 01:22, 12 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Other people sometimes have a different screen resolution, font size, and/or browser than you. — The image was previously 350 pixels wide. The TOC is approximately that same width, at least in my font size. That makes 700 pixels. How is that and the sidebar supposed to fit on a 800x600 resultion? — Timwi 01:42, 12 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Navigational Elements vs Categories
You say Now I'm advocating the idea of replacing the navigational elements with categories, but apparently some people want to keep my original idea. I'm one of the people who'd like to keep them :)

I was a little sad that you removed from Han unification (and presumably others as well, but that's a page I was watching). I feel that these navigational elements present a more structured approach to Categories; the two can be complementary, but I do not think that Categories should replace navigational elements.

See, for example, the "Politics of Germany" sidebar (e.g. here); it organises related things together, whereas categories only group alphabetically, unless you break things down into lots of subcategories—in which case it becomes hard to see the bigger picture. -- pne 15:55, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Whoa. I must have missed this message of yours somehow, sorry. :-) I'm not sure what I can do other than acknowledging that this is your point of view. There is no consensus on whether these boxes should be replaced with categories entirely or not. Personally, I'd really like to see boxes automatically generated from categories. Then you don't need to keep the box and the category in sync. — Timwi 03:20, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Votes for deletion
Do you mind not going and vfding other peoples articles. I saw you added a vfd to Katalyst, but it seems you know nothing about him. I didn't write that article, but I know that there is such a person. -JiangFlungDung 02:02, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * JiangFlungDung, I strongly suggest you read Votes for deletion, Deletion policy and assorted pages. If you don't agree that something should be deleted, then you vote against it. That's the point of Votes for deletion, you know. You don't go complaining to people for listing something on Votes for deletion that they genuinely think should be deleted. Thanks. — Additionally, just because the person exists, doesn't mean they warrant an article. See What Wikipedia is not. — Timwi 03:11, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Disambiguation block
I am sure you have a reason for your change of the looks of the disambiguation block at Republic of Karelia, I'm just curious about how you think. --Ruhrjung 12:47, 2004 Jun 16 (UTC)

 * I've been removing the HRs for a long long time; you're a little late to tell me to stop. :-) My edits are in line with the format suggested at Disambiguation. — Timwi 18:44, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * No, no, I wasn't intending to get you to stop.

 * (I think the format is worse than the
 * but consistency is good in principle).
 * but consistency is good in principle).
 * but consistency is good in principle).

 * Thank you for your answer.
 * --Ruhrjung 22:44, 2004 Jun 17 (UTC)

 * I wouldn't mind the <small>, but I do very much mind the HR. I think it is superfluous and extremely ugly. Especially in the old skin, it makes it look like that disambiguation message is the whole article (because it's right underneath the title) and the rest is some sort of extra stuff... — Timwi 13:25, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Cyrillic
Why moving "Be (cyrillic)" to "Be (Cyrillic)"? Nikola 05:37, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * English spelling, dear. — Timwi 13:37, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, I don't think it was neccesary (see User_talk:RickK) but now that everything is consistent have no objections. Nikola 06:34, 21 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * You don't think it's necessary to spell things correctly? That's... weird. — Timwi 14:00, 21 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Danny Rosenblatt
Hi. I noticed you were one of the most active posters at the moment, and you are an administrator, so maybe you could help me with a problem I'm having. User:Colinrorr keeps removing the vfd notice I've put on his page on Danny Rosenblatt, a non-notable high school student. Can you chip in to the discussion and tell him to stop removing the notice? TheCustomOfLife 22:47, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Please don't think of administrators as "higher-ups" and please don't think of telling me about this case as "reporting the user" (which you mentioned in an edit summary). Anyone, whether administrator or not, can "chip in" to the discussion to tell them to stop removing the notice. — That said, thanks for pointing out the case to me, and I'll see what I can do. I've already edited the VfD notice to ask newbies not to remove it. I hope that will reduce the number of cases of this kind. — Timwi 22:52, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I was aware that anyone could talk about the subject. I may be new but I am not that new. Thank you kindly for alerting me to the fact that you cannot help me in disputes. I will not trouble you again. TheCustomOfLife 22:54, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Maybe you misunderstood. I said, I'll see what I can do. I've replied to the thread on VfD. I hope I could be of some help. — Timwi 23:02, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * The consensus seems to be to delete. The user is being very difficult...can't anyone put a stop to it? TheCustomOfLife 23:40, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

David Lovering history
What happened to the history of David Lovering? While checking Recent Changes I came across an anon whose edit summary was "added external links". Checking the edit history showed his edit was the only one (i.e. article creation). I bulleted the links and lowercased the "L" in links but that doesn't show in the history. Recent Changes shows my edit, your edit 48 seconds later, and two edits by the anon several minutes before our edits. The article history only shows one edit by the anon and then your edit. Any idea what's going on? SWAdair | Talk 08:50, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * The history shows up properly for me: Four anon edits, your edit, and mine. — However, I have seen weirdness in another page history today; shame I can't remember which page it was. Maybe it fixes itself after time. — Timwi 08:52, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok, now that I check back later, everything shows. Odd...  SWAdair | Talk  10:35, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Repeated, concerted vandalism

 * Hi. I noticed you banned 64.217.26.84 with the explanation "Repeated, concerted vandalism". The user has made one single contribution (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/64.217.26.84), in my eyes a legitimate one which you reverted. No evidence of vandalism that I can see. Also no warning of any kind on their talk page. Please do not ban people like that. Thanks. — Timwi 06:49, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Not true. See: WP:VIP. Also see history of that page. User has repeatedly added false information over and over again from different IPs. R ADICAL B ENDER ★  13:33, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Parametrisierung
Hi Tim, in der de:wp zeichnet sich ab, dass im Rahmen der Qualitätsoffensive als nächstes die Gemeinden in Deutschland drankommen. Eigentlich der richtige Zeitpunkt, auf ein zentrales Template für die Infobox umzusatteln. Ich hab ein wenig damit gespielt und bin auf ein paar Bugs gestoßen, auf die so recht niemand eine Antwort weiß. Die Diskussionen unter den Entwicklern verfolge ich praktisch nicht. Daher habe ich auch keinen Plan, wer nun bei was helfen kann. Aber vielleicht hast Du eine Idee, wie man das fixen kann. Danke -- Ralf
 * Eine benannter Parameter nach dem Muster DISTRICT = Grevenmacher funktioniert nicht. Die Pipe wird als Ende des Parameters interpretiert.
 * Ein Link im Template nach dem Muster Capital: wird durchgängig als Edit-Link ausgegeben, unabhängig davon, ob er auf einen vorhandenen oder nicht vorhandenen Artikel verweist.
 * Die Übergabe von Bildpfaden an das Template nach dem Muster [[Image:|center|Map of ]] haut gar nicht hin.

 * Ich glaube, du bist irgendwo falsch abgebogen. Erstens ist das hier die englischsprachige Wikipedia, zweitens habe ich mit der deutschsprachigen nichts am Hut, und drittens ist mein Name nicht "Tim". — Timwi 09:57, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * OK. Mein Fehler. Ich dachte Dein Nick, sei ein Akronym Deines Namens. Bei den oben beschriebenen Problem scheint es sich um Bugs zu handeln, die in der Software liegen und damit unabhängig von der gewählten Sprachversion auftreten. Da ich, glaub ich, nicht falsch abgebogen bin, wenn ich Dich bei den Entwicklern ansiedle, dachte ich, Du könntest mir eine Antwort geben, die wenigstens ein wenig in Richtung Problemlösung führt. -- Ralf

 * Tut mir leid; die einzige Antwort, die ich dir da geben kann, ist, daß du mich vielleicht mit Tim Starling verwechselst — er ist Entwickler (allerdings kein Deutscher). — Timwi 10:48, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Von dem hab ich auch schon versucht, eine zielführende Antwort zu bekommen. Alles was ich von ihm erhielt, war ein Weblink, der zwar keine keine Hilfestellung bot, aber zumindest Deinen Namen im Zusammenhang mit dieser Problematik erwähnte. -- Ralf

Just to say hi
I remember you sort of invited me to Wikipedia several months ago, but I was busy with other things, so I never even took a look at it... But two days ago, on the weekend, I decided to check it out, and I was pleasantly surprised! What a great way of writing an encyclopedia. Now I am eager to contribute, but I am not sure yet where I should start beside from obvious places like Belarus and Belarusian language... ;) —  Rydel

 * Welcome to Wikipedia, Rydel! ... Thanks for notifying me of your arrival. :) — Timwi 15:51, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Cleanup
Please don't delete the text in Template:Cleanup. We most definitely DO need it so that people can see that the article they come to is in need of Cleanup. The category at the top of the page is easy to miss. RickK 20:05, Jul 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * If you're looking for an article to clean up, you go to Cleanup. If someone stumbles over the article because they wanted to read it, they will already see that it requires clean-up without the tag. — Timwi 22:17, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Not necessarily. If you go to it from another page, or from a Random Page, you'll see the text at the top and think, "hm, maybe I can fix this."  How does it hurt anything?  RickK 22:19, Jul 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * Firstly, please fix your signature. You might want to put the ' inside'' the link to your talk page, so it works properly. — Secondly: I'm not the right person to argue this, as I'm neutral to the clean-up tag, but consensus seems to be to keep them out of the article, so I'm enforcing this consensus. The reason is simply that it is useless to editors (if they really can fix the article, they will know even without the text), and detrimental to our outside impression (what are visitors supposed to think, going to a random page and seeing "this page needs clean-up"?). — Timwi 16:55, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * My sig was fine till the latest change, I don't know what they did to it, I just don't feel like doing anything about it. So, where is this discussion of this so-called consensus, and why doesn't it apply to the Template:stub as well?  RickK 20:20, Jul 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know, and I don't care. From now on I'll stay out of the Cleanup stuff. — Timwi 22:16, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

he did
sorry but he first called me an idiot+ it`s not his first time to call people like that!

check this out : plus:
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Hemanshu/Archive_2
 * history of Elizabeth II

then we can talk. [[User:Avala|Avala| ★ ]] 12:33, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * "Idiot" is a technical term, meaning "one who behaves in an extremely foolish and annoying manner." Hemanshu's behaviour in the epidsode you cite was indeed idiotic, as is Avala's. I will continue to employ this term as and when seems appropriate. As for the Yudhoyono photo, I agree it is not very good and I am trying to find a better one. Adam 13:06, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * What an idiot. --Hemanshu 13:25, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I find it offencive and I shall report ,you Adam, next time. You can call other people idiots, who are idiots actually if they like it, but not me. [[User:Avala|Avala| ★ ]] 13:19, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Geez. Help. Just why did I get into this? Please keep your quabbles off my talk page. Thanks. — Timwi 13:35, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

why did you get into this? i don`t know but it was you decission. You said i was attacking him and now try to explain howcome such a good guy like adam became "technical caller". And howcome any who thinks differnetly than him is an idiot?

[[User:Avala|Avala| ★ ]] 13:49, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Deleting images
I saw in the delete log that you'd removed image:portugal stadiums small.png without discussion. I think removing images like this without any sort of discussion Not Cool. The small image is 1/3 the size (being 256 colour) and more legible (having being sharpened). Ed g2s 15:49, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Did I really delete that? I'm sorry. I probably didn't mean to, or I wasn't thinking what I was doing. I do usually go through Images for deletion or delete only images where it's 100% clear. — Timwi 15:51, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks, no problem. Ed g2s 23:48, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Fundraising notice
You are of course correct on center and i vs. CSS. Do you know where the CSS for classic lives? - David Gerard 15:42, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * See my edit summary, or MediaWiki talk:Fundraising notice. It's MediaWiki:Monobook.css. — Timwi 15:43, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, oops, I'm not paying attention. No, I'm afraid I don't know where the CSS for Classic lives. However, newbies/visitors don't see it anyway :) — Timwi 15:44, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Your user: page is sexy
I just wanted to say that.

And I'm probably going to have to jack some of your layout to make mine sexy.

Maybe. The Inedible Bulk 03:26, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I see. — Timwi 12:06, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm serious, you have that little block of info about you and such, very nice. --TIB 03:19, Jul 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * Glad you like it. &madsh; Timwi 16:16, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Netscape Navigator Articles
Do not revert my changes to the Netscape Navigator article without first viewing the article's Talk page. --Mr. Grinch 15:09, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I perfectly explained my action on the Talk page. I don't care what inexcusably limited software you use, and probably nor does anyone else. Use something usable. — Timwi 21:25, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * My name is The Inedible Bulk, and I approve this message. TIB 03:21, Jul 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * You did not explain your action, you simply requested not to use JPEG for screenshots. If you have a suggestion for free software that I can use to encode PNGs, please tell me. — Mr. Grinch 14:12, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * People have already suggested GIMP to you. Additionally, there is the convert command-line tool. — Timwi 14:45, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry. You must have misunderstood. I'm on a Macintosh with OS9 so I cannot run the GIMP or command line tools. Thank you for converting the BMP for me. —Mr. Grinch 16:56, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Nobody is forcing you to use a Macintosh, or OS9, so don't complain to other people about your own choices. — Timwi 16:15, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I have told you before, these are not my choices, nor am I complaining. These are the only systems approved by my organization, though we are upgrading soon.  Additionally, I deleted this comment, why did you put it back?—Mr. Grinch 17:59, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry. It looked like you had only deleted it accidentally. — Timwi 19:16, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Otherwise, you can convert the image I uploaded as a BMP to a PNG for me. Thank you. — Mr. Grinch 14:12, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure. Done. — Timwi 14:45, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm glad we could handle this in an adult manner. —Mr. Grinch 17:02, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Vulcan (Star Trek)
Glad you liked my changes to the Vulcan page. I have more things in mind, but I don't know when I'll get the chance; mostly about the Stone of Gol, Rumarie, and IDIC. Trying to think of notable Vulcan stuff after 2161 too.

I've helped flesh out the entries for the Romulans, Tholians, Klingons, Ferengi, and Andorians, and I think the Vulcan page should be done justice, considering how prominent they are. --StAkAr Karnak 01:33, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Degree mills
This user seems to have made a number of iffy contributions of suspicious-sounding academic institutions. You might want to take a look. -- The Anome 15:43, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I'm not quite sure why you think I would? — Timwi 18:53, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

domain (mathematics)
Hello. I've directed some of the links to the redirect page function domain to domain (mathematics). If you go to the latter and click on "what links here", you'll see that more work is needed. I'll keep at it, but it will take a while. Can you help (since you moved the page to its latest name)? Michael Hardy 17:11, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia Database Schema
Hi Timwi,

yesterday i added a comment to the page meta:Talk:Experimental new database schema without having a look to the history. Today i saw that the page is that old that no one will have it in his watchlist. Can you please have a look at it and give me comment? Thanks Mijobe 10:21, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Your ideas are not new and have been shot down numerous times in the past. — Timwi 18:50, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Timwi/Archive/Jun 04 - Jul 04


text:
Rjukan

Rjukan is a town in Tinn Municipality in Telemark county, Norway. The town is also the administrative centre of Tinn Municipality. The town is located in the Vestfjorddalen valley, between the lakes Møsvatn and Tinnsjå. The municipal council of Tinn declared town status for Rjukan in 1996. The town is located about 10 km to the west of the village of Miland and about 20 km to the northwest of the village of Tuddal (in Hjartdal Municipality).

The 2.59 km2 town has a population (2021) of 3,003 and a population density of 1160 PD/km2.

The town was essentially "built from scratch" due to the industrial developments by Norsk Hydro in the 1910s and 1920s. It got its name from the Rjukan Falls west of the town. At its peak, Rjukan was a significant industrial center in Telemark. It became a World Heritage Site under the name Rjukan–Notodden Industrial Heritage Site on 5 July 2015. The town is perhaps best known for the heavy water sabotage operations at the local Vemork hydroelectric power plant during World War II.

Rjukan does not get any sunlight between September and March because the low sun is blocked by the tall Gaustatoppen mountain located directly to the south. In 2013, at a cost of NOK5 million, an art project called the Sunmirror in Rjukan built several large mirrors on the northern mountainside above the town to reflect the Sun down into the town during these dark months. The mirrors illuminate a small portion of the town square each day.

History
In 1906, the area which would become Rjukan consisted of only a few farmsteads, then called Saaheim, when Norsk Hydro began planning saltpeter (fertilizer) production in the area using the newly developed Birkeland–Eyde process. Rjukan was chosen because the Rjukan Falls, with a 104 m longest single fall, provided easy means of generating the large amounts of electricity that was required.

The Vemork hydroelectric power plant was built between 1907 and 1911, and was at the time the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. A similar power plant was finished in Såheim in 1915. The power plants had a combined cost of more than NOK200 million, the equivalent of two annual national budgets at the time. With the factories, many houses for the factory workers also had to be built, in addition to a train station and a town hall. The town formally changed its name to Rjukan, and in 1920 reached a population of 8,350.

In 1934, Norsk Hydro built a hydrogen plant next to the Vemork power plant. A by-product of hydrogen production via water electrolysis was heavy water. It was the later Nobel prize winner Odd Hassel who told Norsk Hydro that they were in fact in possession of the only regular heavy water production in Europe. At the time heavy water was believed to be a necessary component of an atomic bomb. When Norway came under German occupation during World War II, destroying this production became an important priority to the Allies. The facilities were sabotaged twice by the Norwegian resistance movement and bombed by allied forces.

After 1960, most of Norsk Hydro's saltpeter production in Rjukan was transferred to factories at Herøya in Porsgrunn.

Rjukan Church

Rjukan Church was constructed of natural stone with a tower at the entrance to the southwest. The church was consecrated on 21 December 1915. The church was designed by the architects Carl and Jørgen Berner with a cruciform architectural floorplan. The altar image came into place in April 1917 and was painted by Bernhard Folkestad. Seven vaulted windows in the foundation wall have stained glass paintings by Torvald Moseid. In February 1965, while filming Heroes of Telemark, the gallery caught fire, and all combustible material in the church burnt down; only the walls remained. Asbjørn Stein was commissioned as the architect for the reconstruction. The tower was severely heat damaged and had to be largely rebuilt. Most of the walls were reused, and the church basically got the same exterior, but the interior was quite different. The church was ready in 1968 (consecrated on 28 April).

Tourism
Rjukan has a long history of tourism, beginning in the 19th century, then mostly focused on the Rjukan Falls. Later, the local resistance fighter and mountain guide Claus Helberg called Rjukan "the cradle of tourism in Norway."

In 1811, royal geologist Jens Esmark "discovered" the Rjukan Falls, and enthusiastically reported to the Dano–Norwegian King Frederik VI that he had found "the tallest of all known waterfalls, not just in Europe, but the whole world," which was completely wrong. Apparently, his assistant wrongly measured the total fall at 271 m tall. In reality, it has a total fall of 238 m, with a largest single fall of 104 m. Skorga, the tallest waterfall in Norway and the sixth tallest in the world, has a total fall of 875 m.

Nonetheless, the valley became a famous tourist sight for the European upper classes. During the 19th century, two inns served Norwegian and international guests. One of these guests was French author Jules Verne, who stayed in Rjukan in 1861 during his travels through Norway. During this time he wrote The Lottery Ticket, an adventure novel set in Telemark. In the novel, he describes the Rjukan Falls as "one of the most spectacular waterfalls in Europe."

In addition to the waterfall, Rjukan had good terrain for skiing, and was a good starting point for hiking on the Hardangervidda plateau and Gaustatoppen,

In 1968, Krokan by the Rjukan waterfall became the Norwegian Trekking Association's (DNT) first cabin. After the waterfall was harnessed for hydropower production, the hut was sold. Today it is re-opened and a part of the Unesco World Heritage site, situated by the main road from Rjukan (Tinn) to Vinje.

Today, tourism to Rjukan is focused on hiking opportunities, the local Gaustablikk ski resort (one of the largest in Norway), and the Norwegian Industrial Workers Museum at Vemork. It is also considered one of the best ice climbing areas in Northern Europe because of the large number of waterfalls, and because the lack of sun gives ice consistently.

title: Rjukan


text:
William Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan

Lieutenant-General William Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan (c. 1671-1726) was an Irish-born British Army officer. He began his active military service during the Williamite War in Ireland in 1689 and ended it with the suppression of the 1715 Jacobite Rebellion. A close associate and confidant of the Duke of Marlborough, he was also a diplomat and Whig politician who sat in the English and British Houses of Commons from 1705 until 1716, when he was raised to the  peerage as  Baron Cadogan.

A strong supporter of the Hanoverian Succession, he took part in the suppression of the 1715 Jacobite Rebellion and succeeded Marlborough in 1722 as Master-General of the Ordnance and senior army commander.

Early life
Cadogan was born in Ireland around 1671, the son of the barrister Henry Cadogan and his wife Bridget Waller, daughter of the regicide Sir Hardress Waller. His family were Irish Protestants of Welsh descent. William's grandfather William Cadogan served as an officer in Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army.

He was one of five children, including two brothers Ambrose and Charles and two sisters: Frances, who died young, and Penelope, who married Sir Thomas Prendergast, 1st Baronet. The family owned an estate at Liscarton in County Meath. His father served as High Sheriff of the county and also acquired property in County Limerick.

At the age of ten, he was sent to England to be educated at Westminster School, then run by Richard Busby. William's father intended him to take up a law career like himself and, in March 1687, he was accepted as a student at Trinity College, Dublin. By this time he had developed into a tall, well-built young man.

War in Ireland
Midway through his studies, however, the Glorious Revolution took place in England in which the Protestant William of Orange seized the throne from the Catholic James II. In Ireland, the largely Catholic Irish Army remained loyal to James, while Protestants declared their support for William. The Protestants of Ulster formed an Army of the North, in which William Cadogan enlisted as a Cornet of Dragoons.

During 1689 he took part in the defence of Enniskillen which was one of only two places, along with Derry, which held out against the Jacobite Irish Army. Following the relief of Derry and Enniskillen by a large expeditionary force under Percy Kirke, Cadogan served with the Williamite troops for the remainder of the Irish War.

He was present at Dundalk Camp during the autumn of 1689, when the Army suffered large casualties from sickness. The following year he served at the Battle of the Boyne a major victory in which William III personally led his forces to victory over the Jacobites, leading to the capture of Dublin.

Later in the same year, he took part in the Siege of Cork where he first served with Marlborough, then an Earl. It appears that it was during this action that Cadogan, although only a junior officer, attracted the attention of his future commander by his conduct.

Following the climatic victory at the Siege of Limerick in 1691 he continued to serve in Ireland for three years having decided to become a professional soldier rather than return to his law studies. In 1694, he purchased a Captaincy in Erle's Regiment, which was then based in Flanders as part of the Nine Years' War with France.

In 1695, he took part in the Siege of Namur, an important Grand Alliance victory. Following the Peace of Ryswick he returned to Ireland, where in 1698 he became a major of the Inniskilling Dragoons.

Appointment
In June 1701, Cadogan was selected as Quartermaster General to Marlborough on the latter's appointment to command the British contingent in the Low Countries. Marlborough had been impressed by Cadogan's administrative skills and his courage and the Siege of Cork a decade before. He had Cadogan promoted to Colonel, over the heads of more experienced officers. In July 1701 he accompanied both Marlborough and King William to Holland.

Britain had not yet officially entered the war, although military preparations were underway. He learnt to speak Dutch at this time, having already mastered French. During his time in Amsterdam, he fell in love with a Dutch heiress named Margaretta Munter. He married her two years later.

War broke out in 1702, following the accession of Queen Anne to the throne. Cadogan was made Marlborough's chief of staff, soon becoming a trusted figure alongside other intimates including the General's brother Charles Churchill, military secretary Adam de Cardonnel and the artillery commander Colonel Holcroft Blood. He also worked with the Dutch political representative Anthonie Heinsius. Cadogan soon demonstrated a flair for logistics and administration. He also came to head the extensive intelligence-gathering operations.

In early 1704 while travelling back to England, carrying important documents, his ship was attacked by a French Privateer. Fearing the seizure of his secret papers, he threw them over the side into the sea. However, his ship managed to get away and safely into harbour. While in London he had an audience with Queen Anne.

Blenheim
During the campaign of 1704, he was one of the few entrusted with the truth of Marlborough's march from the Spanish Netherlands to the Danube and played a major role in the organisation of the March to the Danube. He wrote "This march has hardly left me time to eat or sleep".

He fought at the battles of the Schellenberg and Blenheim. Shortly after he was promoted to brigadier general and became Marlborough's chief of staff.

Ramillies
He commanded the army's scouting part which located the French army on the morning of Ramillies, and acted as a senior messenger for Marlborough during the battle, recalling Orkney's British infantry from their diversionary attack on the French right flank to assault the French centre around Ramillies itself.

In August 1706 Cadogan was captured while scouting enemy positions and taken as a prisoner to Tournai. Marlborough was distressed when he heard that he was missing, claiming "I shall not be quiet till I know his fate". Within two days an exchange had been agreed upon, with Cadogan being swapped with a French General captured at Ramillies.

At Oudenarde he commanded the allied advance guard, which established crossings over the River Scheldt. In 1706 he was promoted to major general and commanded the forces which broke through the French left towards the end of the battle.

Malplaquet
In 1709 he was promoted to lieutenant general. He fought at Malplaquet, and was wounded in the neck at the siege of Mons, but quickly recovered. At the end of 1709 Cadogan was appointed as a Lieutenant of the Tower of London. During the breaking of the lines of Ne Plus Ultra, he again commanded the allied advance guard, and established a bridgehead across the lines prior to Marlborough's arrival with the main army.

Exile

After Marlborough's dismissal from his posts at the end of 1711 Cadogan remained with the army, but refused to return with it when Britain withdrew from the war in 1712, going into voluntary exile with the Duke. In doing so he lost his rank, positions and emoluments under the crown. He was strongly opposed to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, agreed by the Tory Government, siding with the opposition Whigs who called for "No Peace Without Spain".

During Marlborough's voluntary exile during the last years of Queen Anne's reign, Cadogan accompanied him, and often acted as a go-between to maintain Marlborough's links with Britain. When the Hanoverian King George I succeeded in 1714, he reinstated Cadogan to his military offices. Marlborough was reappointed commander-in-chief, although as his deputy Cadogan had increasingly to take on much of the Duke's workload.

Cadogan was rewarded with the post of Ambassador to the Dutch Republic. He was tasked with restoring the relationship with Britain's recent ally which had been damaged by the country's sudden withdrawal from the war. Cadogan oversaw negotiations for a fresh treaty which was concluded the following year.

Jacobite Rebellion
In 1715 he replaced the Duke of Argyll in command of the army putting down a Jacobite Rebellion. A major rising had broken out in Autumn 1715 in the Highlands of Scotland. Argyll as the senior Scottish commander led the initial attempts to contain the Jacobites from his position at Stirling Castle. In November Argyll fought an intense but indecisive battle against the Jacobites at the Battle of Sherrifmuir, after which it was decided in London that he was insufficiently committed to the Hanoverian cause.

Cadogan was then sent north by Marlborough to provide effective leadership. He brought with him many of the 6,000 Dutch troops supplied as part of a treaty commitment, whose shipping to Britain he had overseen. During his absence from The Hague, the diplomat Horatio Walpole fulfilled his duties there.

Cadogan found that Argyll remained reluctant to move against the Jacobites due to the wintery conditions. This continued even after James Stuart, who proclaimed himself to be King, arrived near Aberdeen in December.

Argyll and Cadogan worked together for a while, although the Duke no longer enjoyed the confidence of the government in London. Cadogan established better supply lines for the Army, personally took part in scouting operations, and organised the advance on the rebel capital at Perth. Rather than face a siege of the city, the Jacobites withdrew to Dundee. In February 1716, James abandoned the attempt to personally lead the rebellion in Scotland and sailed for the Continent.

Soon afterwards, Argyll resigned and went to London, turning over total command to Cadogan. He was shortly afterwards dismissed from all his military and political roles, amidst allegations that he had Jacobite sympathies. Cadogan's task was to oversee continued military operations across northern Scotland, forcing the leading Clan chiefs to submit.

In April Cadogan declared the rebellion to be over, and returned to London the following month. Marlborough was instrumental in securing him a peerage as a reward for his efforts during the campaign.

Later life

Cadogan was a Whig Member of Parliament for Woodstock from 1705 to 1716. On 21 June 1716, he was made Baron Cadogan of Reading, having recently purchased Caversham Park, Oxfordshire (now Berkshire) near that town. He was also made a Knight of the Thistle and, the following year, a member of the Privy Council. On 8 May 1718 George I made him 1st Earl Cadogan, of Oakley, co. Buckingham, Viscount Caversham, of Caversham, co. Oxford and Earl Cadogan. In later years he also served as Master of the Robes (1714–1726) and governor of the Isle of Wight (1715–1726).

When the Duke of Marlborough died in 1722, Cadogan walked at the head of the procession at his funeral. He succeeded his former commander as Master-General of the Ordnance (1722–1725). However, the Opposition's staunch hostility towards him meant that he had lost any political influence several years before his death on 17 July 1726. Despite his closeness to Marlborough, he was much occupied in his later years with a lawsuit brought against him by Marlborough's widow. He was himself rather litigious by nature, even engaging in a bitter lawsuit against his own sister Penelope over her son's inheritance.

Family
He married Margaret Cecilia Munter in April 1704 at The Hague. They had two daughters: Sarah (born 18 September 1705), who married Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, and Margaret (born 21 February 1707), who married Charles John Bentinck, fourth son of William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland. With no male heir the earldom became extinct. His younger brother Charles, who had married Elizabeth Sloane, the daughter of the noted Irish-born physician and landowner Sir Hans Sloane, inherited the barony by special remainder, passing it down through his son.

title: William Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan


text:
Royalty trust

A royalty trust is a type of corporation, mostly in the United States or Canada, usually involved in oil and gas production or mining. However, unlike most corporations, its profits are not taxed at the corporate level provided a certain high percentage (e.g. 90%) of profits are distributed to shareholders as dividends. The dividends are then taxed as personal income. This system, similar to real estate investment trusts, effectively avoids the double taxation of corporate income.

Texas oilman T. Boone Pickens is often credited with creating the first royalty trust in 1979; however Marine Petroleum Trust (Marps) was created in 1956, twenty three years earlier.

Characteristics of royalty trusts
Royalty trusts typically own oil or natural gas wells, the mineral rights of wells, or mineral rights on other types of properties. An outside company must perform the actual operation of the oil or gas field, or mine, and the trust itself, in the United States, may have no employees. Shares of the trust generally trade on the public stock markets, but the trust itself is typically overseen by a trust officer in a bank.

They are a powerful investment tool for people who wish to invest directly in extraction of petroleum or mining of other materials, but who do not have the resources or risk tolerance to buy their own well or mine. Additionally, since trusts often own numerous individual wells, oil fields, or mines, they represent a convenient way for the average investor to diversify investments across a number of properties. Also, since commodities are considered a hedge against inflation, the popularity of royalty trusts as investments rises as interest rates rise, and their shares often rise as a result.

These trusts often attract investors with their relatively high yields; in 2007, their distributions were often in the 10 to 15 percent annual range. This makes the shares sensitive to interest rates, as share prices are likely to decline in periods of rising interest rates, and to rise when interest rates fall. Additionally, royalty trusts in the United States and Canada usually involve oil and gas fields or mines which are at or past their production peak, and will gradually decline in output as well as revenue; however, the infrastructure to develop them has already been built, so that an investor can expect a reasonably steady income stream.

In addition to allowing investors to achieve high distribution returns, especially during periods of low interest rates, royalty trusts allow investors to speculate directly on commodities such as gas, oil, or iron ore without having to buy futures contracts, or use the other investment vehicles traditionally associated with commodities—since the trusts trade like stocks. During times when a commodity price is rising, the share value as well as the dividend return of a trust engaging in production of that commodity will rise as well.

Canadian royalty trusts (CanRoy)
Royalty trusts are found mainly in Canada and the United States; there is also one in Germany. Canadian royalty trusts, called "Canroys" or "CanRoys", typically trade on the Toronto Stock Exchange, while some of the larger trusts also trade on the New York Stock Exchange. Canroys usually offer higher yields than U.S. trusts; for non-Canadian investors, this higher yield is reduced by the 15% foreign tax withholding that is absent in the U.S. trusts.

The most significant difference between Canadian and U.S. royalty trusts involves their legal status in their respective countries. In the U.S., trusts are not allowed to acquire additional properties, once they are formed. Since they are restricted to their original properties – for example, a group of oil fields or natural-gas-bearing rock formations—they can be expected to be depleted over time, the royalties they pay out will correspondingly decline, and eventually the trust will be dissolved. In Canada, trusts may be actively managed, and run as businesses. They may have employees, issue new shares, borrow money, acquire additional properties, and may manage the resources themselves.

Bell Canada Enterprises corporate unit Yellow Pages Group converted to Yellow Pages Income Fund on 25 June 2003, making it the "first high-profile conversion to the trust structure". Their income fund raised "$1-billion in the process".

According to a 2012 article in Canadian Energy Law,

""The royalty trust and income trust markets trace their origins to 1986 and 1995, respectively. As interest rates declined during the period and beyond these trusts became popular, since they provided lofty yields well in excess of the prevailing interest rate payable by corporations with similar credit ratings. The reason for the discrepancy was primarily due to the fact that royalty trusts and income trusts were flow-through vehicles that avoided the payment of corporate level tax. The yields payable by these trusts varied, but were typically in the 8 – 10% range.""

- Doug Richardson 2012

Richardson argued that by 2012 foreign asset income trusts (FAITs) had revived interest regarding income trusts in Canada. Because FAITs involve assets outside Canadian borders, they are "not subject to traditional Specified Investment Flow-Through (SIFT) rules".

Hallowe'en massacre
In 2006 $70 billion of new trust conversions were announced. The largest was proposed in September 2006 when Bell Canada Enterprise BCE announced its intention to convert its Bell Canada subsidiary to a CanRoy trust thereby saving the corporation $800 million in tax by 2008. The royalty trusts were increasingly popular because they do not pay corporate tax, rather they "pay out most of their income in distributions to unit holders, who then pay tax on those distributions". On 31 October 2006 then-Finance Minister Jim Flaherty made his now famous proposal to introduce new rules — later known as Specified Investment Flow-Through (SIFT) rules —  nicknamed the "Halloween Massacre". Under Prime Minister Stephen Harper — who was sworn into office 6 February 2006 after winning against the incumbent Paul Martin — the Canadian federal government announced the elimination of the loophole that placed over 250 income trusts at a tax advantage over other corporations. Starting in 2011 "income trusts, with the exception of those focused on real estate, would be subject to a tax on trust distributions" at the full 31.5% rate. Existing trusts would have a four-year transition period (2007 to 2011) whereas newer trusts such as the proposed Bell Canada trust would be applicable in 2007. What prompted the move was that the trusts were costing the Canadian government upwards of $500,000,000 each year in lost revenue. Flaherty described the conversion of corporations into royalty trusts as "a growing trend to corporate tax avoidance" which was hurting the Canadian economy and defended his response as "measured". If the trend of trusts conversions was not stopped, it was estimated that the Canadian federal and provincial governments would lose "$1 billion annually in tax revenue".

Immediately after the announcement share prices of the trusts dropped. Penn West Exploration. then- Penn West Energy Trust) — still referred to as known as Penn West Petroleum in the media — In an interview in January, 2013 Matt Donohue, an analyst at UBS AG in Calgary, argued that the growth-and-income model was "bruised" not "broken" with income trusts converting back into a corporate structure. With the increased use of horizontal drilling in the energy industry, energy trust adopt a hybrid policy that promised both "per-share growth and sustainable income for their shareholders". This model is least lucrative in periods of weak commodity prices.

Since the announcement of the Canadian "Tax Fairness Plan" approximately 90% of Canadian Royalty Trusts (CANROY's) have either converted to corporations, merged with other companies, or simply liquidated. While the Tax Fairness Plan did not require a conversion to corporate status most companies found it beneficial to do so. After conversion most companies were required to slash their dividend payouts to reflect the new level of taxation they would be required to pay.

Publicly traded royalty trusts

 * Baytex Energy Trust (Canada: oil and natural gas)
 * BP Prudhoe Bay Royalty Trust (US: Prudhoe Bay oil field, Alaska)
 * Canadian Oil Sands Trust (Canada: oil sands)
 * Enerplus Resources Fund (Canada: oil and natural gas; properties both in Canada and the U.S.)
 * Permian Basin Royalty Trust (US: Texas, oil and gas)
 * Penn West Energy Trust (Canada: oil and gas)
 * Pengrowth Energy Trust (Canada: oil and gas, including oil sands)
 * Precision Drilling Trust (Canada: drilling contractor to the oil and gas industry)

Former publicly traded royalty trusts, now liquidated

 * Torch Energy Royalty Trust (originally traded on NYSE under the symbol TRU) (US: Louisiana, Alabama, Texas; mainly natural gas; trust liquidated in 2008 )
 * LL&E Royalty Trust (original NYSE symbol LRT; Pink Sheets symbol LRTR) (US: Florida, Alabama, and in the Gulf of Mexico; oil and gas); the trustee sought to liquidate the trust at December 31, 2010, but unitholders sued to attempt to prevent this.

title: Royalty trust