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Thrust reversal

Thrust reversal, also called reverse thrust, is the temporary diversion of an aircraft engine's thrust for it to act against the forward travel of the aircraft, providing deceleration. Thrust reverser systems are featured on many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, reducing wear on the brakes and enabling shorter landing distances. Such devices affect the aircraft significantly and are considered important for safe operations by airlines. There have been accidents involving thrust reversal systems, including fatal ones.

Reverse thrust is also available on many propeller-driven aircraft through reversing the controllable-pitch propellers to a negative angle. The equivalent concept for a ship is called astern propulsion.

Principle and uses

A landing roll consists of touchdown, bringing the aircraft to taxi speed, and eventually to a complete stop. However, most commercial jet engines continue to produce thrust in the forward direction, even when idle, acting against the deceleration of the aircraft. The brakes of the landing gear of most modern aircraft are sufficient in normal circumstances to stop the aircraft by themselves, but for safety purposes, and to reduce the stress on the brakes, another deceleration method can be beneficial. In scenarios involving bad weather, where factors like snow or rain on the runway reduce the effectiveness of the brakes, and in emergencies like rejected takeoffs, this need is more pronounced.

A simple and effective method is to reverse the direction of the exhaust stream of the jet engine and use the power of the engine itself to decelerate. Ideally, the reversed exhaust stream would be directed straight forward. However, for aerodynamic reasons, this is not possible, and a 135° angle is taken, resulting in less effectiveness than would otherwise be possible. Thrust reversal can also be used in flight to reduce airspeed, though this is not common with modern aircraft. There are three common types of thrust reversing systems used on jet engines: the target, clam-shell, and cold stream systems. Some propeller-driven aircraft equipped with variable-pitch propellers can reverse thrust by changing the pitch of their propeller blades. Most commercial jetliners have such devices, and it also has applications in military aviation.

Types of systems
Small aircraft typically do not have thrust reversal systems, except in specialized applications. On the other hand, large aircraft (those weighing more than 12,500 lb) almost always have the ability to reverse thrust. Reciprocating engine, turboprop and jet aircraft can all be designed to include thrust reversal systems.

Propeller-driven aircraft
Propeller-driven aircraft generate reverse thrust by changing the angle of their controllable-pitch propellers so that the propellers direct their thrust forward. This reverse thrust feature became available with the development of controllable-pitch propellers, which change the angle of the propeller blades to make efficient use of engine power over a wide range of conditions. Reverse thrust is created when the propeller pitch angle is reduced from fine to negative. This is called the beta position.

While piston-engine aircraft tend not to have reverse thrust, turboprop aircraft generally do. Examples include the PAC P-750 XSTOL, Cessna 208 Caravan, and Pilatus PC-6 Porter.

One special application of reverse thrust comes in its use on multi-engine seaplanes and flying boats. These aircraft, when landing on water, have no conventional braking method and must rely on slaloming and/or reverse thrust, as well as the drag of the water in order to slow or stop. In addition, reverse thrust is often necessary for maneuvering on the water, where it is used to make tight turns or even propel the aircraft in reverse, maneuvers which may prove necessary for leaving a dock or beach.

Jet aircraft
On aircraft using jet engines, thrust reversal is accomplished by causing the jet blast to flow forward. The engine does not run or rotate in reverse; instead, thrust reversing devices are used to block the blast and redirect it forward. High bypass ratio engines usually reverse thrust by changing the direction of only the fan airflow, since the majority of thrust is generated by this section, as opposed to the core. There are three jet engine thrust reversal systems in common use:

External types
The target thrust reverser uses a pair of hydraulically operated bucket or clamshell type doors to reverse the hot gas stream. For forward thrust, these doors form the propelling nozzle of the engine. In the original implementation of this system on the Boeing 707, and still common today, two reverser buckets were hinged so when deployed they block the rearward flow of the exhaust and redirect it with a forward component. This type of reverser is visible at the rear of the engine during deployment.

Internal types

Internal thrust reversers use deflector doors inside the engine shroud to redirect airflow through openings in the side of the nacelle. In turbojet and mixed-flow bypass turbofan engines, one type uses pneumatically operated clamshell deflectors to redirect engine exhaust. The reverser ducts may be fitted with cascade vanes to further redirect the airflow forward.

In contrast to the two types used on turbojet and low-bypass turbofan engines, many high-bypass turbofan engines use a cold-stream reverser. This design places the deflector doors in the bypass duct to redirect only the portion of the airflow from the engine's fan section that bypasses the combustion chamber. Engines such as the A320 and A340 versions of the CFM56 direct the airflow forward with a pivoting-door reverser similar to the internal clamshell used in some turbojets. Cascade reversers use a vane cascade that is uncovered by a sleeve around the perimeter of the engine nacelle that slides aft by means of an air motor. During normal operation, the reverse thrust vanes are blocked. On selection, the system folds the doors to block off the cold stream final nozzle and redirect this airflow to the cascade vanes.

In cold-stream reversers, the exhaust from the combustion chamber continues to generate forward thrust, making this design less effective. It can also redirect core exhaust flow if equipped with a hot stream spoiler. The cold stream cascade system is known for structural integrity, reliability and versatility, but can be heavy and difficult to integrate into nacelles housing large engines.

Operation
In most cockpit setups, reverse thrust is set when the thrust levers are on idle by pulling them farther back. Reverse thrust is typically applied immediately after touchdown, often along with spoilers, to improve deceleration early in the landing roll when residual aerodynamic lift and high speed limit the effectiveness of the brakes located on the landing gear. Reverse thrust is always selected manually, either using levers attached to the thrust levers or moving the thrust levers into a reverse thrust 'gate'.

The early deceleration provided by reverse thrust can reduce landing roll by a quarter or more. Regulations dictate, however, that an aircraft must be able to land on a runway without the use of thrust reversal in order to be certified to land there as part of scheduled airline service.

Once the aircraft's speed has slowed, reverse thrust is shut down to prevent the reversed airflow from throwing debris in front of the engine intakes where it can be ingested, causing foreign object damage. If circumstances require it, reverse thrust can be used all the way to a stop, or even to provide thrust to push the aircraft backward, though aircraft tugs or towbars are more commonly used for that purpose. When reverse thrust is used to push an aircraft back from the gate, the maneuver is called a powerback. Some manufacturers warn against the use of this procedure during icy conditions as using reverse thrust on snow- or slush-covered ground can cause slush, water, and runway deicers to become airborne and adhere to wing surfaces.

If the full power of reverse thrust is not desirable, thrust reverse can be operated with the throttle set at less than full power, even down to idle power, which reduces stress and wear on engine components. Reverse thrust is sometimes selected on idling engines to eliminate residual thrust, in particular in icy or slick conditions, or when the engines' jet blast could cause damage.

In-flight operation
Some aircraft, notably some Russian and Soviet aircraft, are able to safely use reverse thrust in flight, though the majority of these are propeller-driven. Many commercial aircraft, however, cannot. In-flight use of reverse thrust has several advantages. It allows for rapid deceleration, enabling quick changes of speed. It also prevents the speed build-up normally associated with steep dives, allowing for rapid loss of altitude, which can be especially useful in hostile environments such as combat zones, and when making steep approaches to land.

The Douglas DC-8 series of airliners has been certified for in-flight reverse thrust since service entry in 1959. Safe and effective for facilitating quick descents at acceptable speeds, it nonetheless produced significant aircraft buffeting, so actual use was less common on passenger flights and more common on cargo and ferry flights, where passenger comfort is not a concern.

The Hawker Siddeley Trident, a 120- to 180-seat airliner, was capable of descending at up to 10,000 ft/min (3,050 m/min) by use of reverse thrust, though this capability was rarely used.

The Concorde supersonic airliner could use reverse thrust in the air to increase the rate of descent. Only the inboard engines were used, and the engines were placed in reverse idle only in subsonic flight and when the aircraft was below 30,000 ft in altitude. This would increase the rate of descent to around 10,000 ft/min.

The Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is one of the few modern aircraft that uses reverse thrust in flight. The Boeing-manufactured aircraft is capable of in-flight deployment of reverse thrust on all four engines to facilitate steep tactical descents up to 15,000 ft/min (4,600 m/min) into combat environments (a descent rate of just over 170 mph, or 274 km/h). The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, introduced in 1969, also has in-flight reverse capability, although on the inboard engines only.

The Saab 37 Viggen (retired in November 2005) also had the ability to use reverse thrust both before landing, to shorten the needed runway, and taxiing after landing, allowing many Swedish roads to double as wartime runways.

The Shuttle Training Aircraft, a highly modified Grumman Gulfstream II, used reverse thrust in flight to help simulate Space Shuttle aerodynamics so astronauts could practice landings. A similar technique was employed on a modified Tupolev Tu-154 which simulated the Russian Buran space shuttle.

Effectiveness
The amount of thrust and power generated are proportional to the speed of the aircraft, making reverse thrust more effective at high speeds. For maximum effectiveness, it should be applied quickly after touchdown. If activated at low speeds, foreign object damage is possible. There is some danger of an aircraft with thrust reversers applied momentarily leaving the ground again due to both the effect of the reverse thrust and the nose-up pitch effect from the spoilers. For aircraft susceptible to such an occurrence, pilots must take care to achieve a firm position on the ground before applying reverse thrust. If applied before the nose-wheel is in contact with the ground, there is a chance of asymmetric deployment causing an uncontrollable yaw towards the side of higher thrust, as steering the aircraft with the nose wheel is the only way to maintain control of the direction of travel in this situation.

Reverse thrust mode is used only for a fraction of aircraft operating time but affects it greatly in terms of design, weight, maintenance, performance, and cost. Penalties are significant but necessary since it provides stopping force for added safety margins, directional control during landing rolls, and aids in rejected take-offs and ground operations on contaminated runways where normal braking effectiveness is diminished. Airlines consider thrust reverser systems a vital part of reaching a maximum level of aircraft operating safety.

Related accidents and incidents
In-flight deployment of reverse thrust has directly contributed to the crashes of several transport-type aircraft:
 * On 4 July 1966 an Air New Zealand Douglas DC-8-52 with the registration ZK-NZB crashed on takeoff on a routine training flight from Auckland International Airport due to reverse thrust applied during a simulated failure of no.4 engine on takeoff . The crash killed 2 of the 5 crew on board.
 * On 11 February 1978, Pacific Western Airlines Flight 314, a Boeing 737-200, crashed while executing a rejected landing at Cranbrook Airport. The left thrust reverser had not properly stowed; it deployed during the climbout, causing the aircraft to roll to the left and strike the ground. Out of 44 passengers and 5 crew members, only 6 passengers and a flight attendant survived.
 * On 9 February 1982, Japan Airlines Flight 350 crashed 1000 ft short of the runway at Tokyo Haneda Airport following the intentional deployment of reverse thrust on two of the Douglas DC-8's four engines by the mentally unstable captain, resulting in 24 passenger deaths.
 * On 29 August 1990, a United States Air Force Lockheed C-5 Galaxy crashed shortly after take-off from Ramstein Air Base in Germany. As the aircraft started to climb off the runway, one of the thrust reversers suddenly deployed. This resulted in loss of control of the aircraft and the subsequent crash. Of the 17 people on board, 4 survived the crash.
 * On 26 May 1991, Lauda Air Flight 004, a Boeing 767-300ER, had an uncommanded deployment of the left engine's thrust reverser, which caused the airliner to go into a rapid dive and break up in mid-air. All 213 passengers and 10 crew were killed.
 * On 31 October 1996, TAM Linhas Aéreas Flight 402, a Fokker 100, crashed shortly after take-off from Congonhas-São Paulo International Airport, São Paulo, Brazil, striking two apartment buildings and several houses. All 90 passengers and 6 crew members as well as 3 people on the ground died in the crash. The crash was attributed to the un-commanded deployment of a faulty thrust reverser on the right engine shortly after take-off.
 * On 10 February 2004, Kish Air Flight 7170, a Fokker 50, crashed while on approach to Sharjah International Airport. A total of 43 out of the 46 passengers and crew on board were killed. Investigators determined that the pilots had prematurely set the propellers to reverse thrust mode, causing them to lose control of the aircraft.

title: Thrust reversal


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John Pulman

Herbert John Pulman (12 December 1923 –25 December 1998) was an English professional snooker player who was the World Snooker Champion from 1957 to 1968. He first won the title at the 1957 Championship and retained it across seven challenges from 1964 to 1968, three of them against Fred Davis and two against Rex Williams. When the tournament reverted to a knockout event in 1969, he lost 18–25 in the first round to the eventual champion John Spencer. After finishing as runner-up to Ray Reardon in 1970, Pulman never again reached the final, although he was a losing semi-finalist in 1977.

He turned professional in 1946, shortly after winning the English Amateur Championship, and achieved three News of the World Snooker Tournament titles, in 1954, 1957 and 1958. An emotional player, he was prone to venting his frustration and missing important shots. He generally played attacking snooker in his early career, but he made more use of tactics in the 1970s.

Pulman became a television commentator towards the end of his playing career and retired from competitive play in 1981 after breaking his leg in a traffic accident. He died in 1998 following a fall down the stairs at his home. He was one of the inaugural inductees to the World Snooker Hall of Fame in 2011, alongside seven other winners of multiple world championships.

Early life
Herbert John Pulman, known as John Pulman, was born on 12 December 1923 in Teignmouth, Devon, England. His father was Ernest Charles Pulman, a master baker and confectioner, and his mother was Ernest's wife Gertrude Mary Pulman, née Kent. In 1929, Ernest Pulman sold his bakery and confectionery business, and the family moved to Plymouth, where he bought a billiard hall with two tables. Coached by his father, John Pulman started playing billiards at the age of nine and made his first billiards aged twelve. In his teenage years he also played snooker and participated in local league competitions. He attended Exeter Episcopal School, where he was a swimming champion and represented his county at water polo.

In 1938, Pulman entered the British Boys Billiards Championship but left his cue on the train on his way to the event at Burroughes Hall. He was invited to choose a cue from a selection at the venue, and he used that particular cue for the rest of his career. In his first match at the event, against Barrie Smith (later known professionally as John Barrie), Pulman was 199–196 ahead in a 200-up match when he. Smith then got the he needed to win. The cue that Pulman had chosen included a metal plate with professional Sidney Smith's name engraved on it; he later filed Smith's name off, as he felt he could not play exhibition matches with a cue bearing another professional's name.

During World War II, Pulman was enlisted in the army for three months, making wings for Spitfires, before being discharged on medical grounds; he later told journalist Terry Smith that he had varicose veins.

Early professional career (1946–1955)
In 1946, Pulman won the English Amateur Championship title, with a 5–3 win over Albert Brown in the final. Aged 20, Pulman was the youngest player to win the event since it was established in 1916. Working as an income tax clerk, he took the decision to become a professional player shortly after the championship, having taken advice from Joe Davis, the reigning World Champion. Later that year, he made his first two century breaks, just ten days apart.

At the start of his professional career, Pulman was living at the home of his patron Bill Lampard, who was a baker from Bristol and a member of the Billiards Association and Control Council (BA&CC). Lampard built a billiard room at his house, where Pulman was able to practise. Snooker historian Clive Everton alleges that this arrangement ended after Pulman was discovered in bed with Lampard's wife. Pulman practised playing snooker for eight hours a day over several years, in pursuit of a level of consistency that would bring him to the standard of the top professionals. Shortly after turning professional, he had started wearing spectacles for playing snooker, using the same type of swivel-lens glasses that were worn by his fellow professional Fred Davis.

Pulman made his first appearance at the World Snooker Championship in 1947, losing 14–21 to Brown in the first round of qualification. The following season, he won the qualifying section of the 1948 World Championship, progressing through the first two matches and then defeating Willie Leigh 18–17 on the final in the  of the last qualifying match. He lost 29–42 to Clark McConachy in the first round of the main draw. Later the same year, he won the qualifying event for the 1948 Sunday Empire News Tournament and, benefitting from a points handicap, finished second in the main event behind Joe Davis. Pulman's total prize money was £400, made up of £150 for his qualifying win and £250 for his second-place finish overall.

At the 1949 World Championship, Pulman eliminated Brown in his first match but then lost 22–49 to Walter Donaldson in the semi-finals. He lost his opening match in 1950 and withdrew from the following year's championship due to influenza when trailing 14–22 against Fred Davis in their semi-final match. He also participated in the annual News of the World Snooker Tournament, which was a round-robin event with points handicaps applied, first staged in 1949/1950. He was runner-up in the 1950/1951 edition and won in 1953/1954. He married Frances Anne Hayes in April 1953.

World snooker championship contests (1955–1968)
Pulman first reached the final of the World Professional Match-play Championship, which was now effectively the world championship, in 1955. He defeated Rex Williams 22–15 in the quarter-finals and Alec Brown 37–24 in the semi-finals before losing 35–38 to Fred Davis in the final, which was played at Blackpool Tower Circus. Davis was 10–2 ahead at the end of the first day, but Pulman had narrowed the gap, at 15–9, by the end of the second day of play. Davis led 20–16 after day three, 27–21 after day four and 33–27 after day five; he won the match on the sixth day to claim the title. Pulman made three century breaks during the final: 103 on day two, another 103 on day four, and 101 in the last of the. Davis defeated him again in the 1956 final, at 33–37, with the score finishing at 35–38 after dead frames. Pulman won all five of his matches at the 1956/1957 News of the World Snooker Tournament, to take the title for a second time.

Fred Davis was not among the four entrants for the 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship. In the semi-finals, Pulman was level at 12–12 with Williams before winning the match 19–16. In the final, he trailed Jack Rea at 2–4, 5–8 and 8–11 before equalising at 11–11. Rea then opened up another lead to leave Pulman 15–20 behind. Pulman took four successive frames to narrow his deficit to 19–20, going on to take the lead 24–22, and starting the final day 32–27 ahead. He won the title at 37–29, and the score finished at 39–34 after dead frames. The tournament received little media coverage, and the championship was not staged again for another seven years. Public interest in the sport had been declining since 1946 when Joe Davis retired from competing in the world championship. In preference to finding an alternative career, Pulman continued to play exhibition matches, despite the limited income he was able to earn from this.

In 1964, the Conayes Professional Tournament was held at the Rex Williams Snooker Centre in Blackheath, being the first commercially sponsored professional snooker event since 1960. Pulman was one of the four competitors, along with Fred Davis, Rea, and Williams, and won the event. Williams was the driving force behind the revival of the World Snooker Championship in 1964, obtaining sanction for the competition after an approach to the BA&CC chairman Harold Phillips. The championship was reinstated on a challenge basis, with the first match scheduled between Pulman, who had won the most recent championship in 1957, and the challenger Fred Davis. Pulman defeated Davis 19–16 at Burroughes Hall in April 1964 to retain the title that he had claimed seven years earlier. Davis had been leading 15–12 when he failed to audibly nominate a, and the referee called a ; despite both players disagreeing with the referee's decision, he refused to change his ruling, and commentators felt that Davis's reaction led to a noticeable deterioration in the standard of his play.

Williams challenged Pulman for the title in October 1964. The match was played over 73 frames and took place from 12 to 17 October at Burroughes Hall. Williams led 8–4 at the end of the first day, but Pulman won 11 of the 12 frames on the second day to lead 15–9. He extended his lead to 31–17 after the fourth day of play, winning the match on the fifth day by taking a 37–23 lead. After playing the remaining 13 dead frames on the sixth and final day, Pulman finished 40–33 ahead.

In March 1965, Pulman retained his title in a final-frame decider by defeating his challenger Fred Davis, 37–36, winning the last two frames from 35–36 behind. Williams and Pulman met again in late 1965 in a series of short matches in South Africa, where Pulman won 25 of their 47 matches. At one of the venues, where there were no spectators present, the players reportedly spun a coin to determine the winner, instead of playing the match. In late 1965, Pulman defeated a further challenger, Fred Van Rensburg, 39–12.

Fred Davis challenged Pulman for a third time in 1966, in a series of seven best-of-five-frames matches. Pulman won the series at four matches to Davis's two, also taking the seventh match to win 5–2. Pulman won the world title for the eighth time in 1968 by fending off a challenge from Eddie Charlton. After the first 30 frames, Charlton was ahead 16–14; Pulman then took five of the next six frames, three of them on the final black, leaving Charlton 17–19 behind. Pulman eventually reached a winning lead of 37–28 and finished 39–34 ahead after dead frames.

Later career and retirement (1968–1998)
In 1967, Pulman had spent time touring snooker clubs across the Midlands doing promotional work for the tobacco brand John Player, and in turn the company sponsored his 1968 world title challenge match against Eddie Charlton. The good attendances for the Pulman/Charlton match led to John Player's decision to sponsor the 1969 World Snooker Championship as a knockout tournament. The 1969 event, with its updated format, is generally regarded as the start of the modern snooker era. Unable to defend his title, Pulman was eliminated 18–25 by the eventual champion John Spencer in the first round of the competition.

He reached the final of the 1970 World Championship but lost 33–37 to Ray Reardon, having earlier recovered from 14–27 behind to almost draw level at 33–34. The following year, he failed to qualify from the round-robin stages that determined the semi-finalists, and in 1972 he lost 23–31 to the eventual champion Alex Higgins in the quarter-finals. In October 1972, he was rescued, unconscious, from a road traffic collision, but he fully recovered in time to play in the Park Drive 2000 tournament that was held less than two weeks later. That December, he was runner-up to Higgins in the 1972 Ford Series Tournament, an invitational event with four world champions in competition. The following year, he reached the final of the 1973 Norwich Union Open. His opponent, Spencer, took a 5–2 lead before Pulman won five of the next seven frames to level the match at 7–7 and force a deciding frame. Spencer led by 57 points, but Pulman then made a break of 39 before failing to the, allowing Spencer to  as far as the  and win the match.

Pulman did not progress to the quarter-final stage of the World Championship again until 1977, the first time the event was held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield. He reached the semi-finals, with wins over Fred Davis and Graham Miles, before losing 16–18 to Spencer, the eventual champion. After 1977, he was unable to win another World Championship match, although he continued to enter until 1982. He reached the final of the 1977 Pontins Professional event, where he was again defeated by Spencer, 5–7. After the introduction of snooker world rankings in 1976, Pulman achieved his highest position of seventh in the 1977/1978 ranking list.

His book Tackle Snooker This Way, which had first been published in 1965, was revised and published as Tackle Snooker in 1974. Pulman and his wife Frances divorced around 1978; they had three children. He was declared bankrupt on 7 February 1979 with personal debts of £5,916. By this time, he was suffering from severe motivational problems and living in a hotel in Bromley.

He did not play professionally again after his leg was broken in five places when he was hit by a London bus in October 1981. He later admitted that he had already lost his enthusiasm for playing snooker by the time his accident happened. While he was being treated in hospital, he accepted an offer from ITV to work as a snooker commentator, having previously worked in that role for the BBC and for STV. He continued to commentate until his death. Everton, who had taken Pulman to court in a dispute over payment for his contribution to Pulman's Tackle Snooker, later wrote that Pulman had "the voice, the authority, and of course the knowledge" to be a good commentator.

In 1998, he fell down the stairs at home while his girlfriend was away, broke his hip, and lay on the floor unable to move for almost 24 hours. He was transferred to hospital and died soon afterwards, on 25 December 1998, aged 75.

Playing style and influence
Pulman was an emotional player, prone to venting his frustration and missing important shots. For the first part of his career he generally played attacking snooker, but in the 1970s he made more use of tactics. Fred Davis reflected that Pulman's impatience and lapses in concentration had probably cost him frames in their world championship finals in the mid-1950s and that, as Pulman became more patient in his play, he became a stronger opponent. At 6feet 2inches (188cm), Pulman was unusually tall among the leading players of the 1940s, and adapted a stance where his legs were relatively close together, meaning that more weight was transferred to his back foot than was typical among professionals. This enabled him to take full advantage of his height and his reach while playing shots.

In their 2005 book Masters of the Baize, Luke Williams and Paul Gadsby commented that Pulman "suffered the unenviable fate of being world champion for the 11-year period between 1957 and 1968 in which professional snooker all but died". Commentator Ted Lowe, who had managed Leicester Square Hall from 1947 to 1955 and was a long-time snooker commentator for BBC Television, considered that Pulman's exciting style of play and sense of humour "did a tremendous salvage job for the game when it needed it most".

Alex Higgins, the world champion in 1972 and 1982 whose popularity helped make snooker a growing sport in the 1970s and 1980s, wrote of Pulman: "If I ever had a hero as a kid, I guess it was John Pulman... [when] I was growing up, Pulman was invincible: a brilliant potter, a tactician, and foxy in the safety department." Pulman's all-round game was also praised by Ray Reardon. John Spencer admired Pulman's aptitude when using a. Steve Davis, who met Pulman in a match at the 1977 Pontins Open, observed how Pulman and Reardon both adapted to the poor quality of the snooker tables rather than complaining, and he found this to be a valuable lesson.

Pulman was one of the inaugural inductees to the World Snooker Hall of Fame in 2011, alongside seven other winners of multiple world championships.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Pulman


text:
List of Finnish treaties

This is a list of more important international treaties signed by Finland from 1917 onwards.

 * Treaty of Peace between Finland and Germany (1918)
 * Treaty of Peace between Austria-Hungary and Finland (1918)
 * Treaty of Tartu (1920) with Bolshevist Russia
 * Arbitration on Åland (1921) by the League of Nations
 * International treaties on Åland (1921)
 * Soviet-Finnish non-aggression pact (1932)
 * Moscow Peace Treaty (1940) with the Soviet Union - (obsolete)
 * Anti-Comintern Pact (1941) with the Nazi Germany during World War II
 * Ryti–Ribbentrop Agreement - (1944)
 * Moscow armistice (1944) with the Soviet Union - (many provisions considered obsolete with the dissolution of the Soviet Union)
 * Paris Peace Treaty (1947) with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom - (many provisions considered obsolete)
 * Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1948 YYA Treaty) with the Soviet Union - (considered obsolete)
 * Nordic Council, become member (since 1955)
 * United Nations, become member (since 1955)
 * Porkkala Restitution, (1956)
 * Helsinki Treaty with Nordic countries (1962)
 * Helsinki Accords (1975) with Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe
 * European Free Trade Association (EFTA), became an associate member in 1961 and a full member in 1986
 * Council of Europe, member state (since 1989)
 * Paris Charter, (since 1990)
 * Partnership for Peace (1994)
 * Treaty of Accession to the European union (1994) and become member since 1995
 * Nordic Battlegroup / EU Battlegroup, as a full member (since 2008)
 * Ottawa Treaty (2012)
 * Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF), become member (since 2014)
 * North Atlantic Treaty, NATO applicant in 2022 and become member (since 2023)
 * Agreement on Defense Cooperation between Finland and the United States of America, (DCA Treaty) (since 2023)
 * ICE Pact, (since 2024)

title: List of Finnish treaties


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Kidney disease

Kidney disease, or renal disease, technically referred to as nephropathy, is damage to or disease of a kidney. Nephritis is an inflammatory kidney disease and has several types according to the location of the inflammation. Inflammation can be diagnosed by blood tests. Nephrosis is non-inflammatory kidney disease. Nephritis and nephrosis can give rise to nephritic syndrome and nephrotic syndrome respectively. Kidney disease usually causes a loss of kidney function to some degree and can result in kidney failure, the complete loss of kidney function. Kidney failure is known as the end-stage of kidney disease, where dialysis or a kidney transplant is the only treatment option.

Chronic kidney disease is defined as prolonged kidney abnormalities (functional and/or structural in nature) that last for more than three months. Acute kidney disease is now termed acute kidney injury and is marked by the sudden reduction in kidney function over seven days. In 2007, about one in eight Americans had chronic kidney disease. This rate is increasing over time to where about 1 in 7 Americans are estimated to have CKD as of 2021.

Causes

Causes of kidney disease include deposition of the Immunoglobulin A antibodies in the glomerulus, administration of analgesics, xanthine oxidase deficiency, toxicity of chemotherapy agents, and a long-term exposure to lead or its salts. Chronic conditions that can produce nephropathy include systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure (hypertension), which lead to diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephropathy, respectively.

Analgesics
One cause of nephropathy is the long term usage of pain medications known as analgesics. The pain medicines which can cause kidney problems include aspirin, acetaminophen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). This form of nephropathy is "chronic analgesic nephritis," a chronic inflammatory change characterized by loss and atrophy of tubules and interstitial fibrosis and inflammation (BRS Pathology, 2nd ed.).

Specifically, long-term use of the analgesic phenacetin has been linked to renal papillary necrosis (necrotizing papillitis).

Diabetes
Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by angiopathy of the capillaries in the glomeruli. It is characterized by nephrotic syndrome and diffuse scarring of the glomeruli. It is particularly associated with poorly managed diabetes mellitus and is a primary reason for dialysis in many developed countries. It is classified as a small blood vessel complication of diabetes.

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
Gabow 1990 talks about Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney disease and how this disease is genetic. They go on to say "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common genetic disease, affecting a half million Americans. The clinical phenotype can result from at least two different gene defects. One gene that can cause ADPKD has been located on the short arm of chromosome 16." The same article also goes on to say that millions of Americans are effected by this disease and is very common.

COVID-19
COVID-19 is associated with kidney disease. In patients hospitalized with COVID-19, the prevalence of acute kidney injury is estimated to be 28%, and the prevalence of renal replacement therapy is estimated to be 9%.

Diet
Higher dietary intake of animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol may increase risk for microalbuminuria, a sign of kidney function decline, and generally, diets higher in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains but lower in meat and sweets may be protective against kidney function decline. This may be because sources of animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol, and sweets are more acid-producing, while fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains are more base-producing.

IgA nephropathy
IgA nephropathy is the most common glomerulonephritis throughout the world Primary IgA nephropathy is characterized by deposition of the IgA antibody in the glomerulus. The classic presentation (in 40–50% of the cases) is episodic frank hematuria which usually starts within a day or two of a non-specific upper respiratory tract infection (hence synpharyngitic) as opposed to post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis which occurs some time (weeks) after initial infection. Less commonly gastrointestinal or urinary infection can be the inciting agent. All of these infections have in common the activation of mucosal defenses and hence IgA antibody production.

Iodinated contrast media
Kidney disease induced by iodinated contrast media (ICM) is called contrast induced nephropathy (CIN) or contrast-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). Currently, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. But there is a body of evidence that several factors including apoptosis-induction seem to play a role.

Lithium
Lithium, a medication commonly used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorders, can cause nephrogenic diabetes insipidus; its long-term use can lead to nephropathy.

Lupus
Despite expensive treatments, lupus nephritis remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people with relapsing or refractory lupus nephritis.

Xanthine oxidase deficiency
Another possible cause of Kidney disease is due to decreased function of xanthine oxidase in the purine degradation pathway. Xanthine oxidase will degrade hypoxanthine to xanthine and then to uric acid. Xanthine is not very soluble in water; therefore, an increase in xanthine forms crystals (which can lead to kidney stones) and result in damage to the kidney. Xanthine oxidase inhibitors, like allopurinol, can cause nephropathy.

Polycystic disease of the kidneys
Additional possible cause of nephropathy is due to the formation of cysts or pockets containing fluid within the kidneys. These cysts become enlarged with the progression of aging causing renal failure. Cysts may also form in other organs including the liver, brain, and ovaries. Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disease caused by mutations in the PKD1, PKD2, and PKHD1 genes. This disease affects about half a million people in the US. Polycystic kidneys are susceptible to infections and cancer.

Toxicity of chemotherapy agents
Nephropathy can be associated with some therapies used to treat cancer. The most common form of kidney disease in cancer patients is acute kidney injury (AKI) which can usually be due to volume depletion from vomiting and diarrhea that occur following chemotherapy or occasionally due to kidney toxicities of chemotherapeutic agents. Kidney failure from break down of cancer cells, usually after chemotherapy, is unique to onconephrology. Several chemotherapeutic agents, for example cisplatin, are associated with acute and chronic kidney injuries. Newer agents such as anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) are also associated with similar injuries, as well as proteinuria, hypertension, and thrombotic microangiopathy.

Diagnosis
The standard diagnostic workup of suspected kidney disease includes a medical history, physical examination, a urine test, and an ultrasound of the kidneys (renal ultrasonography). An ultrasound is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney disease.

Treatment
Treatment approaches for kidney disease focus on managing the symptoms, controlling the progression, and also treating co-morbidities that a person may have.

Transplantation
Millions of people across the world have kidney disease. Of those millions, several thousand will need dialysis or a kidney transplant at its end-stage. In the United States, as of 2008, 16,500 people needed a kidney transplant. Of those, 5,000 died while waiting for a transplant. Currently, there is a shortage of donors, and in 2007 there were only 64,606 kidney transplants in the world. This shortage of donors is causing countries to place monetary value on kidneys. Countries such as Iran and Singapore are eliminating their lists by paying their citizens to donate. Also, the black market accounts for 5–10 percent of transplants that occur worldwide. The act of buying an organ through the black market is illegal in the United States. To be put on the waiting list for a kidney transplant, patients must first be referred by a physician, then they must choose and contact a donor hospital. Once they choose a donor hospital, patients must then receive an evaluation to make sure they are sustainable to receive a transplant. In order to be a match for a kidney transplant, patients must match blood type and human leukocyte antigen factors with their donors. They must also have no reactions to the antibodies from the donor's kidneys.

Prognosis
Kidney disease can have serious consequences if it cannot be controlled effectively. Generally, the progression of kidney disease is from mild to serious. Some kidney diseases can cause kidney failure.

title: Kidney disease


text:
Denis Rogers

Denis Rogers (30 September 1917 – 7 December 1987) was a New Zealand doctor and local-body politician.

Biography
Rogers was born in Hamilton, New Zealand, and attended Nelson College from 1931 to 1934. He studied medicine at the University of Otago, graduating MB ChB in 1941, and became a general practitioner.

Rogers stood for the Hamilton City Council in 1956. He was the highest polling candidate and became deputy mayor. He was the mayor of Hamilton from 1959 to 1968, elected for three terms. During his mayoralty, he campaigned for the poor and for an international airport to be built in Hamilton.

Rogers was married to Helen Wyn-Hesse and they had three children. He was well known for his like of gardening, and the Rogers Rose Gardens in Hamilton are named after him.

In the 1964 Queen's Birthday Honours, Rogers was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, and in 1985 he was awarded the Freedom of the City of Hamilton. He died of a heart attack in 1987.

Rogers' brother, Rufus Rogers, was also a well-known political figure in Hamilton. Starting in 1956, a local campaign began to have a university in Hamilton. The barrister and solicitor Douglas Seymour chaired the lobby group for the first five years, to be succeeded by Rufus Rogers. In 1964, their work was done and the University of Waikato was officially opened by the Governor-General, Sir Bernard Fergusson. Denis Rogers was the university's first chancellor from 1964 to 1969. His brother Rufus represented the Hamilton East electorate in Parliament from to 1975.

title: Denis Rogers


text:
User:Lutetia

de:User:Joanna it:User:Lutetia

title: User:Lutetia


text:
Talk:Keira Knightley

Links for Englishness
http://www.indielondon.co.uk/film/jacket_knightley_Q&A.html https://www.interviewmagazine.com/film/keira-knightley

title: Talk:Keira Knightley


text:
Common Cold Unit

The Common Cold Unit (CCU) or Common Cold Research Unit (CCRU) was a unit of the British Medical Research Council which undertook laboratory and epidemiological research on the common cold between 1946 and 1989 and produced 1,006 papers. The Common cold Unit studied etiology, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment of common colds. It was set up on the site of the Harvard Hospital, a former military hospital at Harnham Down near Salisbury in Wiltshire. Common colds account for a third of all acute respiratory infections and the economic costs are substantial in terms of sick leave.

Thirty volunteers were required every fortnight during trial periods. The unit advertised in newspapers and magazines for volunteers, who were paid a small amount. A stay at the unit was presented in these advertisements as an unusual holiday opportunity. The volunteers were infected with preparations of cold viruses and typically stayed for ten days. They were housed in small groups of two or three, with each group strictly isolated from the others during the course of the stay. Volunteers were allowed to go out for walks in the countryside south of Salisbury, but residential areas were out of bounds.

Human coronaviruses, which are responsible for about 10% of common colds, were first isolated from volunteers at the unit in 1965. The CCU continually recruited volunteers for research into the common cold until its closure in 1990. The final director was David Tyrrell, whose autobiography describes his work at the CCU from 1957.

The CCU was sometimes confused with the Microbiological Research Establishment at nearby Porton Down, a military unit with which it occasionally collaborated but was not officially connected.

History
Our current understanding of colds began in 1914 when Dr. Kruse showed that nasal secretions from people with colds could be filtrated to make them free from bacteria and that inoculation of those filtrated washes into the nose of recipients caused the same illness. Christopher Andrewes and David Tyrrell refined these experiments at Harvard Hospital in Salisbury, England. Around 1946 this hospital became the Common Cold Unit of the Medical Research Council. The Common Cold Research Unit was set up by the Medical Research Council after Dr. Andrewes promoted the idea of researches on volunteers and persuaded authorities to set up the research station.

Discoveries
The first coronavirus (B814) was found in washes from a boy with typical common cold symptoms in 1960 during the study led by virologist David Tyrrell at the Common Cold Unit. After washes were inoculated to volunteers and tested for known viruses none was found. Publication about first human coronavirus was published in The BMJ in 1965. Later virologist June Almeida imaged virus for the first time and group of eight virologists including June Almeida named it coronavirus in their publication in 1968.

Results
For 43 years of Common Cold Unit existence thousands of volunteers participated in researches being inoculated with common cold viruses or being in control group, but no cure for the common cold has been found. Some compounds were active against rhinovirus in vitro, but they didn't demonstrate clinical efficiency. Interferons alpha and beta administered intranasally before virus challenge were effective as prophylactic agents, but they were most effective in prophylaxis rather than treatment and had local side effects so they subsequently were not used in the routine practice against common cold viruses. Research made by the Common Cold Unit improved our understanding of respiratory viruses, their lifecycle and possible vaccines.

title: Common Cold Unit


text:
Sara Cox

Sara Joanne Cox (by marriage Cyzer; born 13 December 1974) is an English broadcaster and author. She presented Radio 1 Breakfast on BBC Radio 1 from 3 April 2000 until 19 December 2003. Since January 2019, she hosts the BBC Radio 2 drivetime show, Monday to Friday.

Cox has also presented a number of television shows for the BBC including The Great Pottery Throw Down (2015–2017), Too Much TV (2016) and Back in Time for... (2018–2020).

Early life and career
Cox was born Sarah Joanne Cox on 13 December 1974, but later dropped the use of the letter 'h' from her first name. Her parents lived in the village of Little Lever near Bolton, Greater Manchester, where she grew up on her father's farm. She was the youngest of five children. Her parents separated when she was six or seven, after which she moved with her mother and a sister to another house in the same village. Cox attended Smithills High School until the age of 16, and left Canon Slade School after her four A-levels to pursue a career in modelling.

She appeared in the music video for Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark's 1993 single "Everyday", and on a controversial promotional poster for the 1995 video game Wipeout.

Cox won her first television show role in 1996, presenting The Girlie Show on Channel 4. She later had stints on Channel 5 entertainment show Exclusive and Channel 4 music programme Born Sloppy. In 1997 Cox presented on the UK feed of MTV, hosting MTV Hot, a late-night music show. In 1998 Cox won her first film role in The Bitterest Pill.

In September 1998, Cox became a presenter of The Big Breakfast, following in the footsteps of her close friend Zoe Ball. During her time on the programme, she interviewed stars including Robbie Williams, Sting and Leonardo DiCaprio. Cox preferred to do interviews in her father's caravan, situated in The Big Breakfast garden.

1999–2002
A transfer to radio came on 19 September 1999 when she joined BBC Radio 1. She launched the hugely popular The Surgery with Mark Hamilton, where Cox acted as "Nurse Coxy". She also co-hosted the Saturday lunchtime show with Emma B from 13:00 – 15:00

In December 1999, it was announced that Cox would again step into Zoe Ball's shoes as presenter of Radio 1 Breakfast. Cox's breakfast show stint began on 3 April 2000. Initially, her listening figures were very good, growing from 6.9 million to 7.8 million listeners during her first fifteen months in the job—earning Radio 1 its largest breakfast audience ever—higher than that of her predecessor and ex-BBC Radio 1 DJ Chris Evans. By August 2002, however, numbers had dipped back under 7 million.

2003–2008
In January 2003, Cox denied rumours that she was preparing to leave the BBC for a rival show and signed a three-year contract with the public service broadcaster, tying her to the breakfast show and with the BBC for two years after that. In August 2003, the BBC again denied rumours, reported in the Daily Mail, that she had been given 10 weeks to increase ratings, or to face replacement. However, just two months later, the BBC announced that Cox, whose listening figures had slipped to 6.6 million, would be replaced by Chris Moyles in January 2004. Cox hosted her final breakfast show on 19 December 2003.

Cox then presented the afternoon "drivetime" slot, effectively swapping shows with Chris Moyles. She hosted the Drivetime show for six months with features such as "For Your Ears Only", "Me, Myself and I", and "Chap's Eye Pub Quiz" (referring to her former sidekick Mark Chapman). In June 2004, Cox began her maternity leave to give birth. Before she returned to Radio 1 in early 2005, Scott Mills, the presenter who took over her slot during her maternity leave, was given the drivetime slot permanently.

From February 2005, Cox took over the afternoon show (13:00 – 16:00) on Saturdays and Sundays.

2008–2014
On 17 February 2008, Cox presented her last show for six months before leaving for maternity leave to have her second child. Annie Mac presented the show during her absence until Cox's return in September 2008. Cox and Annie Mac both later covered for Jo Whiley who was on maternity leave between 29 September 2008 to 20 February 2009. Following Whiley's return, Cox returned to weekends to present a Sunday mid-morning show, broadcasting between 10:00 and 13:00.

In March 2010, Cox went on maternity leave for the third time, leaving her show in the hands of the newest Radio 1 presenter, Matt Edmondson. She returned to the station on 9 August 2010 to cover for Fearne Cotton for three weeks. Cox made a self-confessed unexpected return to the breakfast show on 2 and 3 September 2010, as she sat in for the unwell Chris Moyles.

In August 2012, it was announced that Cox, Gemma Cairney, Huw Stephens, Jameela Jamil, Alice Levine, and Annie Mac would cover Fearne Cotton's show on BBC Radio 1 weekdays from 10:00 to 12:45, whilst Cotton was on maternity leave, until Cotton's return in September 2013. After Cotton's return, Cox did various cover shows; her final show for Radio 1 was on 17 February 2014.

BBC Radio 2
In June 2011, Cox began hosting the fourth series of the comedy programme Hot Gossip on BBC Radio 2, covering for Claudia Winkleman, who chose not to present the series as she was heavily pregnant at the time. In 2012, Cox covered for Alex Lester, the late Janice Long, Ken Bruce, and Vanessa Feltz, as well as providing cover for Simon Mayo Drivetime and Steve Wright in the Afternoon.

Also between 2012 and 2018, she was the stand-in of The Radio 2 Breakfast Show covering for Chris Evans.

Cox joined BBC Radio 2 for her first regular show each Saturday night from 22:00 to midnight, presenting a 1980s decade show Sounds of the 80s to complement the weekend 1960s and 1970s decade shows. The show began on Saturday 5 October 2013. The show moved to Friday nights from April 2016.

Between 14 May 2018 and 13 December 2018, Cox began a new late-night show on Radio 2; the show ran from Monday to Thursday between 22:00 to midnight. She was replaced as host of Sounds of the 80s by Gary Davies; Cox presented her final edition of the show on 11 May 2018.

On 29 October 2018, it was announced that Cox would succeed Simon Mayo as drivetime presenter on 14 January 2019.

On 1 July 2022, it was announced that, in September, Cox would extend her drivetime show by an hour to run from 4–7pm to coincide with Scott Mills joining the station on a permanent basis to present from 2–4pm.

Television
In July 2007, Cox presented London Live on Channel 4, and appeared as a guest star on the Sky1 show Angela and Friends in November 2009 and as guest presenter in January 2010. Also in 2010, she appeared as a team captain on What Do Kids Know? along with Rufus Hound and Joe Swash on the Watch channel.

Cox commentated for the semi-finals of the Eurovision Song Contest on BBC Three with fellow BBC Radio 1 DJ Scott Mills at the 2011 Contest and 2012 Contest, and again in 2021 as a late stand-in for Rylan Clark. Cox was replaced by Ana Matronic starting from the 2013 Contest.

On 21 October 2014, Cox guest presented a Children in Need episode of The Great British Sewing Bee.

In April 2015, it was announced that Cox would present The Great Pottery Throw Down for BBC Two. The first series began in November 2015 and the second in February 2017.

In 2016 Cox co-presenting Too Much TV, a daily magazine show on BBC Two.

In 2017, Cox appeared on Dara O Briain's Go 8 Bit and was on Steve's team in the show. She lost the episode in terms of points. On 4 June 2017, Cox co-presented the One Love Manchester benefit concert special and British television special with Ore Oduba.

Since 2018, Cox has co-presented Back in Time for..., where a modern-day family enjoy meals that were eaten by families of years gone by. She replaced Giles Coren. From May 2018, Cox presents Love in the Countryside for BBC Two.

On 5 March 2019, it was announced that Cox would host a new ITV show, entitled The Sara Cox Show, which would feature entertainment, live music and celebrity guests and which would air on Saturday and Sunday mornings.

In October 2020, Cox launched and presented Between the Covers on BBC Two, a seven-episode book programme, renewing for five series, as of December 2022.

Books
In March 2019 her book Till the Cows Come Home: A Lancashire Childhood, a memoir of growing up in 1980s Lancashire, was published by Coronet Books.

Her debut novel Thrown was published in May 2022. Her second novel Way Back was published in March 2024.

Family
Cox married the DJ Jon Carter in October 2001. Their daughter was born on 13 June 2004. In December 2005, the couple announced their divorce.

On 16 September 2007, Cox announced, on her BBC Radio 1 weekend show, that she was expecting her second child. Cox's last weekend show was on Sunday 17 February 2008 before she left for six months' maternity leave. Her second child, a boy, was born on 10 March 2008. She returned to Radio 1 in September 2008. Cox went on maternity leave for the third time, after her show on 7 March 2010. Less than a week later, on 12 March, she announced that she had given birth to a girl.

On 23 June 2013, Cox tweeted a picture to announce she had just married her long-term boyfriend and fiancé Ben Cyzer.

Advocacy
Cox says that she is committed to protecting the environment. In 2009 she joined the 10:10 project in a bid to help her reduce her carbon footprint. She explained that, as she was brought up on a farm, she has no problem wearing extra layers instead of turning up the thermostat. Giving up meat was for her a different story, however, saying: "My dad is a beef farmer so he wouldn't be best pleased. I tried going veggie once, but it lasted about four hours."

In August 2014 Cox was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue. She revealed, when taking part in a one-off celebrity special of The Crystal Maze, that she had voted against Brexit in 2016.

Privacy
In June 2003, Cox and her ex-husband Jon received £50,000 in an out-of-court settlement from the British newspaper The People after it printed photographs of her sunbathing naked on her honeymoon in 2001. Cox, who was photographed with a telephoto lens while on a private island, initially complained to the Press Complaints Commission, who found in her favour. The People printed an apology. Cox was unsatisfied, and sued the newspaper in the High Court for a breach of her right to privacy under the Human Rights Act.

The People agreed to an out of court settlement with Cox and her ex-husband before any judgement was made. Cox received £30,000 and he £20,000, The People also agreed to pay the couple's legal costs, reported to be in excess of £100,000.

Stalking incident
In July 2017 a convicted child sex offender named Anthony Collins was convicted of stalking Cox, after sending her and her husband Ben a series of letters. He had sent the letters to her home address, which he reportedly obtained after purchasing the address for £17. He subsequently pleaded guilty to harassment and was sentenced to 16 months in prison.

Charitable activity
Cox was one of 52 celebrities contributing to a children's story entitled Once Upon a Time to promote a new charity directory inquiries number 118 520. The book will be auctioned with the profits going to the NSPCC. Cox is also a named supporter of the animal charity PDSA, and has promoted the charity by being photographed with her pet dog, Snoop, by the late Lord Lichfield. Cox and other celebrities entered the women's race (The Magnolia Cup) fundraising for the charity Great Ormond Street at Glorious Goodwood on 28 July 2011. She came ninth.

Cox has also been an ambassador for Centrepoint—the UK's charity for homeless young people—since 2000, making her its longest serving celebrity supporter. She takes part in the charity's flagship fundraising event, Sleep Out, every year, sleeping outside in a London location with around 800 other fundraisers. She also gives her time to Centrepoint for other events, messages of support and fundraising promotions.

In 2006, Cox participated as a celebrity showjumper in the BBC's Sport Relief event Only Fools on Horses.

From 09:30 on 20 March 2017 to 09:30 on 21 March 2017, Cox did a 24-hour danceathon on her own on BBC Radio 2, raising money for Comic Relief, Red Nose Day. She raised over £800,000 for Red Nose Day according to the commentary on television and the newspaper Manchester Evening News.

Awards and honours
In November 2006, Cox was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Bolton for contributions to broadcasting.

title: Sara Cox


text:
Dead or Alive

Dead or Alive most commonly refers to:

 * Dead or Alive (band), a British pop band
 * Dead or alive, a phrase on a wanted poster

Dead or Alive may also refer to:

Film and television

 * Dead or Alive (1921 film), an American silent film directed by Dell Henderson
 * Dead or Alive (1944 film), an American film starring Tex Ritter
 * Dead or Alive, or A Minute to Pray, a Second to Die, a 1968 film
 * Dead or Alive 1918, a 2012 Finnish dramatized documentary about the Battle of Tampere in the Finnish Civil War
 * Lupin III: Dead or Alive, a 1996 animated film
 * Dead or Alive (1999 film), a Japanese yakuza action film
 * Dead or Alive 2: Birds, 2000
 * Dead or Alive: Final, 2002
 * DOA: Dead or Alive, a 2006 film, based on the video game series
 * Tere Bin Laden: Dead or Alive, a 2016 Indian comedy film, sequel to Tere Bin Laden (2010)
 * "Dead or Alive", an episode of Hunter

Games

 * Dead or Alive (franchise), a video game series
 * Dead or Alive (video game), 1996

Literature

 * Dead or Alive (novel), a 2010 book by Tom Clancy with Grant Blackwood
 * Dead or Alive, a posthumous novel by Hugh Conway, 1886

Music

 * Dead or Alive (album), by FURT (Richard Barrett and Paul Obermayer), 2004
 * "Dead or Alive" (Bill Anderson song), 1959
 * "Dead or Alive" (KAT-TUN song), 2015
 * "Dead or Alive" (Lil Tecca song), 2023
 * "Dead or Alive", by Deep Purple from the 1987 album The House of Blue Light
 * "Dead or Alive", by John Cale from the 1981 album Honi Soit
 * "Dead or Alive", by Johnny Thunders, 1978
 * "Dead or Alive", by Journey from the 1981 album Escape
 * "Dead or Alive", by Oingo Boingo from the 1983 album Good for Your Soul
 * "Dead or Alive", by ZZ Ward from the 2023 album Dirty Shine
 * "(Wanted) Dead or Alive", by The Manhattan Transfer from the 1981 album Mecca for Moderns
 * "D.O.A." (Dead or Alive), by Van Halen from the 1979 album Van Halen II

title: Dead or Alive


text:
List of English words of Afrikaans origin

Words of Afrikaans origin have entered other languages. British English has absorbed Afrikaans words primarily via British soldiers who served in the Boer Wars. Many more words have entered common usage in South African English due to the parallel nature of the English and Afrikaner cultures in South Africa. Afrikaans words have unusual spelling patterns.

Most of these words describe the African flora, fauna or landscape.

Internationally common

 * Afrikaans (noun: name of language, from "african") derivative: Afrikaner (person who speaks Afrikaans as their native tongue), plural: Afrikaners
 * apartheid (literally "apart-ness"): also the name of a period of segregation in the country during 1948–1994
 * bergwind (warm dry wind blowing from the plateau to the coast)
 * biltong (literally "rump tongue/strip"): dried cured red-meat, similar to Jerky. Has a boerewors equivalent known as Droëwors
 * Boer (literally "farmer"): due to the large number of Afrikaans-speaking farmers, the term is exclusively used among Afrikaners for displaying national pride.
 * boerewors (literally "farmer's sausage"): a juicy mixed-spice and mixed-meat sausage
 * Highveld: a raised plateau stretching from the eastern side of the Free State (province) up north including the provinces of Gauteng and North West. Due to its location in Gauteng, the city of Johannesburg is the highest urban settlement by elevation
 * ja (literally "yes")
 * kraal (African village within a stockade, from Portuguese curral)
 * kommando (originally a mounted infantry unit raised to retrieve stolen livestock)
 * kop, or koppie (literally "head" or "cup", an African monadnock): Koppie can also refer to a small hill.
 * laager (a collection of vehicles in a circle, meant for protection)
 * lapa A thatched roof structure supported by wooden poles. Lapas are commonly used as semi-open entertainment areas.
 * rand (literally "edge", "rim" or "ridge"): also the name of the South African currency, named after the Witwatersrand (White waters' ridge)
 * rooibos (literally "red bush"): a bush, endemic to South Africa, used to make a herbal tea also called rooibos
 * rondavel A round hut
 * sjambok (an ox-hide whip): used by the South African Police Service for riot control, formerly used as a disciplinary tool for misbehaving school children
 * spoor (literally "tracks" or "footprints"): the Afrikaans "spoorweë" refers specifically to the National Train Route, often indirectly as the train-tracks as well.
 * trek (literally "draw", or "haul"): Popularized in English by "Die Groot Trek" (The Great Trek)
 * veld (literally "field" or natural African bush vegetation)
 * ystervarkies (literally "iron piglets"; translates as porcupine/hedgehog), the South African name for Lamingtons

Common names
Afrikaans (or Cape Dutch) common names for plants and animals often entered the English vernacular:
 * aardvark (literally "earth pig"): Also known as an Anteater
 * aardwolf (literally "earth wolf")
 * boomslang (literally "tree snake"): A highly venomous bright green tree snake
 * blesbok (literally "bald buck")
 * bontebok (literally "mottled buck")
 * dassie (from Dutch, English translation Hyrax; see also dassie rat)
 * duiker (literally "diver")
 * eland (from Dutch, meaning "elk"): The largest known species of antelope
 * grysbok (literally "grey buck")
 * klipspringer (literally "rock jumper")
 * korhaan (from Dutch, meaning "black grouse")
 * leguan / leguaan (corruption of "likkewaan")
 * meerkat (literally "lake cat")
 * padloper (literally "path walker")
 * platanna (from Dutch "plathander", meaning "flat handed creature")
 * rinkhals (literally "ring throat"): also known as the ring-necked spitting cobra
 * springbok (literally "jumping buck"): The National Animal of South Africa
 * white, in "white rhinoceros", possibly from wyd meaning "wide" (describing the animal's mouth) Modern Afrikaans also say "Wit Renoster", meaning White Rhinoceros.

Cape Dutch
There are also several English words derived from Cape Dutch, a forerunner of Afrikaans:
 * hartebeest (modern Afrikaans equivalent is hartebees)
 * scoff/skoff (as in scoffing food): from Cape Dutch schoff, the word did not find its way into modern Afrikaans
 * veldt borrowed again by English in the modern form veld
 * wildebeest (modern Afrikaans equivalent is wildebees)

Common in South African English
There are almost innumerable borrowings from Afrikaans in South African English.


text:
Lurker

In Internet culture, a lurker is typically a member of an online community who observes, but does not participate by posting. The exact definition depends on context. Lurkers make up a large proportion of all users in online communities. Lurking allows users to learn the conventions of an online community before they participate, improving their socialization when they eventually "de-lurk". However, a lack of social contact while lurking sometimes causes loneliness or apathy among lurkers.

Lurkers are referred to using many names, including browsers, read-only participants, non-public participants, legitimate peripheral participants, vicarious learners, or sleepers.

History
Since the beginning of computer-mediated communication lurking has been a concern for community members. The term "lurk" can be traced back to when it was first used during the 14th century. The word referred to someone who would hide in concealment, often for an evil purpose. In the mid-1980s, the word started to be applied to the Internet when bulletin board systems became popular. The bulletin boards were accessed through a single phone line that users would call to upload files and post comments to share with the community. It was expected that those using the system and consuming resources would contribute. Because lurkers would keep the phone line busy for extended periods of time without contributing anything, they were often viewed negatively and would be barred by the system operator who managed the BBS.

Today, lurkers are viewed both positively and negatively. In many communities lurkers are still seen as free-riders. They are perceived as a drain on the public goods since they "take without giving back." However, some communities encourage newbies to lurk. By lurking, newbies can learn more about the culture of the community, understand the community's social norms, and become familiar with the key members of the community. Lurkers are also viewed positively in present-day communities because they provide an audience for the mass media. The presence of lurkers is often the justification for receiving advertising support.

Lurkers are often hard to track in computer-mediated communities. Because they are not posting and mostly just read content, they leave behind few traces that can be tracked. In open source project communities, it is estimated that at any point in time, 50% to 90% of the community may be lurkers. Depending on the community, this may be consistent with the 90-9-1 principle.

Rationale
Lurkers lurk rather than participate for a variety of reasons. A majority of lurkers profess that they lurk simply because they think that browsing is enough for them. Users also choose to lurk in order to find examples to follow when they decide to participate, avoid making redundant posts or contributions, and learn more about the topics of conversation. A lurker's need to learn about the community before contributing also explains why almost twice as many users lurk on technical support communities where more information is required to post as compared to health support communities. Researchers have shown that different motivations underlie reading, contributing, and moderating web forums. Pure lurkers more often are motivated by the fact that the community is the only place to find a certain kind of content, while moderators and contributors are motivated by either duty or feelings of attachment. Lurking on social media can also be a form of receptive reading, whereby users seek to understand the opinions of those with a divergent points of view. In much of the published literature, "lurking" is treated as a personal trait. However, concepts of legitimate peripheral participation and "de-lurking" suggest that lurking may be more situational than dispositional. In a study of online communities in which it was possible to see the total membership list, researchers were able to count the number of members who were public participants in one community while remaining silent or non-public participants in another community. 84% of the members fit this mixed pattern, indicating that people choose whether to lurk or to contribute on a per-community basis.

Lurker benefits
Lurking behavior provides some benefits to users. Mo and Coulson found that lurkers on an online support group for HIV/AIDS did not differ from posters in their levels of care, self-efficacy, optimism, depression, and loneliness. They also found that lurkers felt more energetic than posters.

In a study that addressed lurking in E-learning, scholars found evidence that lurking is a helpful type of participation in online courses. Students said that the most common reasons they lurked before posting were to discover a message to reply to, to identify a model to adopt, to bypass providing a similar reply, and to acquire knowledge regarding the topic. Students in this study also expressed that they came back to read posts on online course discussion boards in order to check whether others had responded to their posts or to review a previous concept.

Learning community social norms
One reason lurkers lurk is the need to learn more about the group. In interviews, lurkers claim a lack of understanding of the community as a reason for not posting. Lurkers often take the time before posting to evaluate the group for how well it is a fit for them. Lurkers learn more about the individuals in the group, the dialogue styles, and the implicit norms and explicit policies. In the interviews, lurkers mentioned that this was their preferred method so that they could avoid making a mistake and being rejected by the group. To determine if the group is a good fit and to learn more about the norms, lurkers will read most if not all of the posts. By reading the posts, lurkers develop a better understanding about the topics being discussed and if this is a good fit for them. Lurkers will also examine email addresses and signatures with associated websites so get a better understanding of the other members of the group.

By taking these steps, lurkers gain more cultural capital. Soroka and Raffaeli define cultural capital as "the knowledge that enables an individual to interpret various cultural codes." In other words, it is the knowledge of the norms of the community. They found that people that lurk longer before posting had greater levels of cultural capital. A lurker can gain cultural capital in a community just by spending a lot of time in it. A person that has more cultural capital will benefit more from the community.

Benefits for others
In their study on interactive mailing lists, Takahashi, Fujimoto, and Yamasaki demonstrated that "active lurkers", or individuals who spread content from an online group to individuals external to the online group, help spread beneficial information to surrounding communities.

Lurkers can also develop stores of valuable knowledge as they lurk which may be helpful later should they decide to contribute. For example, users in open source software communities can quickly discover the answers to common problems, making them more likely to contribute answers later. If they have already had a question answered, they are even more likely to de-lurk and reciprocate. These behaviors form the backbone of open source technical support.

Lurkers also help reduce the burden on communities. A person who may have a question for a community may be better served searching for the answer than forcing community members to expend effort to see and respond to their query. In the case of open source project communities, the vast majority of questions have already been asked and answered in the community, making any repeated questions wasted work.

Pragmatically, lurkers also provide revenue for communities as they access pages, generating advertising revenue.

Lurker costs
Lurkers experience less belonging in a community compared to regular contributors. They are less satisfied and experience more distractions. This means that lurkers are predisposed to leave before making a contribution because they lack the motivation that belonging and satisfaction bring. In the case of social networking websites, lurkers experience less intimacy and personal well-being. Lurkers in Facebook can experience loneliness as they watch other, more social members of the community participate.

Costs for others
Lurkers can also negatively influence other community members. If community members can see that someone is lurking rather than participating, they may feel that they are being spied upon. Lurkers might also take pieces of content featured in communities without seeking consent, violating the rules of the community. As a result, while individuals in online communities may feel that they are experiencing private interactions, a lurker may see it as a public space for observation due to their reduced feelings of belonging. This can become quite extreme in more intimate communities such as chat rooms where lurkers are more obvious. Hudson and Bruckman entered IRC chatrooms as experimenters and either posted a message stating they were logging the chat, an opt-in message for logging, and opt-out message, or nothing at all. 63.3% of chat rooms kicked out the experimenters after they gave any sort of message, demonstrating a dislike of explicit chat logging. However, 29% of rooms kicked out the experimenters even though they did not post anything, showing a disregard for lurkers.

Free-riding
Lurking is just one form of free-riding that can happen within an Internet community, and is similar to asking questions without responding, or gathering information without distributing it. Lurking is seen as undesirable to communities because of the risk free-riding can have on the community if every member does it. A public good is something that is impossible to exclude someone from and has a joint supply within the community. An Internet community is seen as a public good because it is a pool of data to which people may, if they choose, separately contribute information. The survival of the community is then dependent on the contributions of the members. Since it is impossible to exclude members from sharing in the benefit of the public good, people are more motivated to free-ride on the work of the other members and not contribute themselves. As a group grows in size, the likelihood of free-riding increases. Individuals are less likely to contribute if they do not view their contribution as making a visible difference and if they expect the other members to provide enough content to reach the desired effect. A lurker may withhold information because when they contribute, it benefits everyone in the community except for themselves. When everyone then chooses to withhold information, the collective benefit is no longer produced. With more people free-riding, it is more difficult to produce useful information and interactions among the group members. The group will then not have enough resources to attract new members and retain current members. Lurking can also cost site holders money if they do not use advertising to generate revenue. The bandwidth costs of lurkers visiting a site may outstrip the value that donors or contributors provide to a community.

Community factors
Different factors in the community can influence the lurking behavior within that community. The amount of lurking within a community is correlated with the topic of the community, the size of the community, and the amount of traffic within the community. The number of lurkers is nearly double in technical support groups compared to health support groups. The nature of the topic may be responsible for the difference in the number of lurkers. The number of members in the community can also affect the amount of lurking that takes place. As the number of members in a group rises, the percentage of lurkers also rises. Within a given group size, the groups with higher traffic tend to have a lower percentage of lurkers.

De-lurking
When lurkers decide to participate in the community, they "de-lurk," which Rafaeli, Ravid, and Soroka define as: "...transfer from passive participation (only visiting the forum to read) to active participation (actively posting opinions and thoughts on the forum)".

De-lurking and community acceptance
In a series of studies investigating how newcomers learn the rules and habits of good users in four types of Usenet groups (i.e., health support, political issues, hobby, and technical groups), Burke, Kraut, and Joyce found correlational and experimental evidence that "group-oriented membership claims" or "de-lurking messages" were well received by previous community members. According to Burke et al., group-oriented membership claims are when new users introduce themselves to the online community by describing their undertakings in learning about the community; the authors provide the following example: "I've been lurking around your discussion group for a few weeks now. Just reading and trying to soak in some knowledge I guess". Correlational results in Study 1 showed that messages with group-oriented membership claims elevated community member responses by 38 percent, while experimental results in Study 2 showed that placing group-oriented membership claims into Usenet posts elevated community member responses by 6 percent.

Lurking to participation
Some researchers have discovered positive links between social capital, cultural capital, and de-lurking. Others have identified psychological approaches to overcome the barriers to online participation.

According to Rafaeli et al., "...community virtual social capital is 'a collection of features of the social network created as a result of virtual community activities that lead to development of common social norms and rules that assist cooperation for mutual benefit'" (p. 4). Through analyzing e-learning forums, Rafaeli et al. found a positive association between amounts of de-lurking and social capital. Soroka and Rafaeli claim that "virtual cultural capital" is "...an extent to which a person has a reading-based knowledge about a virtual community's culture and other participants, thus having much in common with them." By analyzing the Open University of Israel online forums and two IBM ReachOut online communities, Soroka and Rafaeli found that as users' cultural capital of an online community increases, their amount of activity increases, and they have a higher likelihood of de-lurking. Soroka and Rafaeli also found that irrespective of the amount of cultural capital, de-lurking becomes less likely as time passes.

The design and management of online communities can also affect de-lurking and participation. Resnick, Janney, Buis, and Richardson introduced a community element to the online walking program called Stepping Up to Health and discussed various issues of beginning an online community, including transforming lurkers into users. They discovered that posting contests (i.e., where users who made their first posts during a five-day period qualified to potentially win a prize) were a helpful mechanism to promote posting among lurkers. Similarly, Antin and Cheshire's survey of lurkers suggests that reading behavior in Wikipedia is a sort of participation which helps new users to learn about the online community and advance toward more comprehensive participation.

While Rashid et al. did not examine lurkers directly, they conducted an experimental study on MovieLens that investigated how to raise low contribution rates in online communities. They discovered that participants showed a higher likelihood of rating movies when ratings were valuable to someone than when ratings were associated with the probability of having previously watched a movie. Furthermore, they found that participants showed an enhanced likelihood of rating movies when ratings were valuable to MovieLens subgroups than when ratings were valuable to the entire MovieLens online community, and participants demonstrated an enhanced likelihood of rating movies when ratings were valuable to individuals who liked similar movie genres as the participant than when ratings were valuable to individuals who liked dissimilar movie genres as the participant. These authors also found that participants demonstrated a reduced likelihood of rating movies when ratings were valuable to oneself than when ratings were valuable to someone else. Given these findings, Rashid et al. claim, "…designers can use information about the beneficiaries of contributions to create subtle and integrated messages to increase motivation"(p. 958).

Methods used to study lurkers
Because of the nature of the lurker, they can be hard to study. They do not leave visible traces and it is often difficult to address them directly. To study lurkers, often Internet communities such as email-based discussion lists, public forums, and community building tools will be targeted so communication can be tracked more easily. Methods of studying lurkers include logging, questionnaires, interviews, observation, ethnography, and content and discourse analysis. Logging is a good tool for studying the number of lurkers in a community. It is easy to compare the number of lurkers between communities. Researchers can also collect information on the number of messages, the size of messages, the message content, and message threading. Questionnaires in contrast are better for asking the why and how of lurkers. There is less likely to be a response though because of the nature of lurkers and those that do respond may be a biased sample. Interviews are a good way to gain an understanding of the problem space. Interviews can also be used to answer the question of why and how lurkers lurk. The sampling must be done carefully or there could be a response bias. Observation is a good way to understand the context within the community. This method can be very intrusive though. If the observation is just on the community in general than no information may be gained about the lurkers because they are not visible. By observing a lurker, the tools and methods by which they lurk can be understood. Ethnography is better for understanding a single community but not multiple communities. It again is good for understanding the reasons and activities of lurking. Content and discourse analysis is a good tool to understand the interactions within a community. Since many lurkers do not publicly interact, this tool is better to use when understanding de-lurking.

title: Lurker


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Bricklin SV-1

The Bricklin SV-1 is a two-seat sports car produced by American businessman Malcolm Bricklin and his manufacturing company from 1974 until late 1975. The car was noteworthy for its gull-wing doors and composite bodywork of color-impregnated acrylic resin bonded to fiberglass. Assembly took place in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada. The name SV-1 is an abbreviation of "safety vehicle one". Bricklin company literature uses both the SV-1 and SV1 formats. To promote the car's safety bona fides, the company touted such features as its integrated roll-over structure and energy-absorbing bumpers.

Company history
The SV-1 was the creation of Malcolm Bricklin. Prior to his Bricklin, built in New Brunswick, Canada, with a loan from the Canadian government, Bricklin is noted as the first businessman to import the Subaru brand into the U.S. in 1968. The Bricklin Canada assembly plant was located in the Grandview Industrial Park in Saint John, New Brunswick, at 150 Industrial Drive. A separate facility to produce the bodywork was in Minto, New Brunswick.

With the support of New Brunswick premier, Richard Hatfield, the provincial government provided $4.5 million of financing. The government believed that this money would be used to cover expenses incurred to begin the production of cars, when in fact it was used for the engineering and development of the car as well as salaries and operations of the Phoenix-headquartered company.

Prototypes, design
The SV-1 was the creation of American entrepreneur Malcolm Bricklin, known in the industry for establishing Subaru of America prior to building the SV-1, and for importing Zastava cars to North America under the Yugo name afterwards.

Bricklin wanted to build a small, affordable sports car with gullwing doors. Power was to come from a four-cylinder engine from Opel. Bricklin entrusted design of a road-going proof-of-concept car to Bruce Meyers, but responsibility for the design soon transferred to Marshall Hobart. Dick Dean built the car, which was complete by December 1972. This car became known as the Grey Ghost. When completed the car had a six-cylinder Chrysler Slant-6 engine instead of a four. Other features included a rear suspension from a Datsun 510, a braking system that drew parts from Opel, Datsun and Toyota, and a tilting steering wheel from a Chevrolet.

In 1972 the Bricklin Vehicle Corporation began working with Herb Grasse Design and AVC Engineering to redesign and re-engineer the car. Three prototypes were built with assistance from AVC. AVC engineer Tom Monroe would later join Bricklin as Chief Engineer.

Design of the production SV-1 was done by Herb Grasse, a graduate of the ArtCenter College of Design who had earlier been employed by both Chrysler and Ford. Grasse had also worked with George Barris on the conversion of the 1955 Lincoln Futura show car into the television Batmobile.

It is claimed that Grasse opted to use the same taillamp units fitted to his personal DeTomaso Pantera for the Bricklin. These Carello units were also used on cars from Maserati and Lamborghini, but originally appeared on the Alfa Romeo 2000 Berlina.

The first of the original three prototypes became known as the Red Car. While some references say that it, like the Grey Ghost, had a Chrysler slant-6 engine, pictures exist of a Bricklin identified as the Red Car with an Argentine-sourced version of the Kaiser/Jeep Tornado inline six-cylinder engine from an IKA-Renault Torino installed. All subsequent prototypes had V8 engines. As many as eight prototypes were eventually built.

Manufacturing
The E.M.C. Company consulted on the plastic bodywork and built some prototype parts. Toolmaker Visioneering Inc. produced the master patterns for the molds using their new CNC equipment. E.M.C. expected to supply both the large panel press as well as a complete set of water-cooled cast aluminum molds for the 22 body-parts required for the Bricklin, but ultimately Bricklin only bought the press from E.M.C., opting to use epoxy molds for their bodywork.

Bricklin experienced persistent problems with the composite acrylic/fiberglass body panel technology. The acrylic resin first selected would blister at temperatures as low as 150 F. A substitute resin able to withstand higher temperatures was thinner than the original product, requiring an extra layer of fiberglass in the panel and increasing weight, so Bricklin reverted to the original resin. It was also discovered that ultraviolet light could pass through the acrylic layer, potentially degrading the polyester resins that were used to bond the acrylic to the fiberglass below.

To address these issues the company brought in polymer expert Archie Hamielec from McMaster University in Hamilton. A significant problem was lack of adhesion between the acrylic layer and the fiberglass. According to sources inside the company, as much as 60% of the acrylic used in the first few months of production was lost due to failures during the pressing and bonding stage, and another 10% was lost to damage during shipment of the parts from the Minto plant to Saint John. The only test for the integrity of the parts was one suggested by Albert Bricklin, Malcolm's father, who proposed striking each part that came out of the presses with a seven pound hammer; if the part did not delaminate it passed. Even after an acceptable bonding method was found, in 1975 losses due to poor bonding continued to be 15% to 25% of the parts produced.

Release
The SV-1 was presented to a gathering of celebrities and potential dealers at the Riviera Hotel Las Vegas in February 1974. The official unveiling of the car took place at the Four Seasons restaurant in New York City on June 25, 1974.

End of production
Among the factors blamed for the car's ultimate demise were ongoing quality control problems, nepotism, supplier shortages, worker absenteeism and a series of price increases that more than doubled the price of the car in two years.

Production of the SV-1 ended with just under 3,000 cars built. An estimated 1,700 Bricklins were surviving as of 2012.

Consolidated Motors acquired the inventory of the defunct Bricklin company, among which were several partially assembled cars later completed by Consolidated and sold as 1976 models. Consolidated also built a small number of SV-1s up from bare chassis, which were also sold as 1976 models. Bricklin had incorporated some minor body changes in the car for 1976.

Reviews and driving impressions
In a test done by Car and Driver magazine in May 1975 the performance of the Bricklin was found to be comparable to the contemporary Corvette, the only other V8-powered 2-seat plastic-bodied North American sports car at the time. On the other hand, automotive critic Dan Neil found the car's performance underwhelming due to its weight and named it to his 50 Worst Cars of All Time list, saying, "This thing couldn't outrun the Rose Bowl Parade."

Commemorations

 * As part of a series commemorating Historic Land Vehicles, Canada issued the Bricklin Stamp on June 8, 1996. It had a face value of 45¢.
 * In June 2003, the Canadian mint issued a $20 sterling silver Bricklin coin with selective gold plating.

Technical features
The SV-1 is a two-door, two-seat hatchback with gull-wing doors, hidden headlamps and a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. Its bodywork is a composite material made up of acrylic resin bonded to a fibreglass substrate. The acrylic is impregnated with the body's colour, which had the potential to reduce costs, as it eliminated the need for the factory to paint the cars in a separate step. The five "Safety" colours offered were one of the few options buyers had.

The doors, which weigh 90 lb each, are raised by hydraulic cylinders controlled by switches in the interior, and take up to 12 seconds to open or close. The system is sensitive to the condition of the car's battery, as well as being prone to breakdown. The system uses a single hydraulic pump and has no hydraulic interlock, so opening one door and closing the other at the same time has the potential to destroy the pump.

The Bricklin's chassis is a steel perimeter frame with an integrated "Steel Roll-Over Module". The front and rear bumpers are designed to absorb the force of a 5 mph impact.

The front suspension uses A-arms and coil springs and is made up of parts shared with a variety of existing AMC models. At the rear is a Hotchkiss system of leaf springs on a live axle.

Braking is by power-assisted 11 in discs in front and 10 in drums in back. Kelsey-Hayes provided the brake components for Bricklins built from 1974 to early 1975, after which the car used parts from Bendix.

Production Bricklins are powered by one of two OHV V8 engines, depending on the year of manufacture. Cars built in 1974 received a 360 cuin AMC V8 from American Motors. With a single four-barrel carburetor this engine produces 220 hp and 315 ftlb of torque. Transmission options for the year are a 3-speed Torque Command automatic (AMC's rebranded TorqueFlite 727) or a BorgWarner T-10 4-speed manual. Of the 772 cars built in 1974, 137 received the manual. Cars built in 1975 mounted a 351 cuin Windsor V8 from Ford, a change which required an extensive redesign of the car's subframe. With a single two-barrel carburetor this later engine produces 175 hp and 286 ftlb of torque. As Ford had no manual transmission EPA certified for the 351W engine, transmission options were limited to the Ford FMX 3-speed automatic.

The cars have no cigarette lighters or ashtrays. There is also no provision for a spare tire.

Police cars
In November 1974 Bricklin announced that they would supply five SV-1s to the police department in Scottsdale, Arizona. Only three 1974 cars were ultimately delivered. The cars were leased to the city for $1 each. The Bricklins had the same paint scheme as the department's regular cruisers and a single beacon on the roof. The cars were used primarily for public relations events. Officers found them difficult to get in and out of, and the Arizona heat caused battery issues that would prevent the electrically operated doors from opening.

The "Chairman"
In 1975, in an effort to raise capital, development started on a more exclusive model to be called the "Chairman". While mechanically similar to the existing car, Chairman cars were to have a larger engine than the stock SV-1. Visually they would be distinguished by black interior and a black body with gold stripes, gold coloured wheels and trim, and a gold-plated toolkit. The buyer was to be flown to the assembly plant to watch their car being built and receive a gold jumpsuit along with the car on delivery.

Two existing SV-1s were used to prototype the Chairman. Prototype #3 was used for the car's exterior appearance, and SV-1 VIN #1339 was used for interior development. Work on the car began in Arizona in June 1975 and moved to Livonia by July. The Chairman did not reach production.

The unfinished interior model VIN #1339 was bought by former Bricklin Manufacturing Engineering manager Terry Tanner and completed in the style of a Chairman.

Mini Bricklin
In 1978 mini-car builder F.W. & Associates offered a miniature version of the SV-1 to existing Bricklin owners through the pages of the Bricklin International quarterly magazine. The cars were powered by a 3 hp Briggs & Stratton gasoline engine and could be ordered in any of the Bricklin factory colours. List price was $550.00. The serial number of each mini-Bricklin was the same as that of the buyer's full-size car.

In the media

 * The Bricklin Story is a 30-minute promotional film produced in 1974 by Insight Productions with funding from Bricklin. It aired nationally on CBC and was roundly panned by critics.
 * History Television and Barna-Alper Productions produced a documentary, The Premier, The Promoter & Their Car, for its Turning Points of History series. The documentary explores the political fiasco that surrounded the Bricklin vehicle.
 * Film company Cojak Productions and director Chris LeBlanc produced a dramatized retelling of the Bricklin saga titled La Légende Bricklin. Malcolm Bricklin returned to New Brunswick to shoot scenes where he played himself. Three Bricklins once owned by the Irving family were discovered in Halifax and were purchased for use in the film. The film aired on RDI and Radio-Canada on April 15, 2006.
 * As part of its series "Tout le monde en parlait", Société Radio-Canada presented a 30-minute documentary on the car that focused on its economic impact in 2013.
 * Bricklin International member and New Brunswick resident Charlie Russell wrote a two-part song, "The Bricklin", which takes a satirical view of the history of the car.
 * In 2010, Theatre New Brunswick and The Playhouse (Fredericton) produced a musical, The Bricklin: An Automotive Fantasy, portraying the Bricklin story through funk music. An orange-colored Bricklin similar to Hatfield's was used on stage during the show.
 * In 2021, the Season 1 Episode 6 installment of 'Seduced By Speed' produced by Motor Trend featured the Bricklin cars and interview footage with Malcolm Bricklin.

title: Bricklin SV-1