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Szymon Askenazy

Szymon Askenazy (December 24, 1865, Zawichost – June 22, 1935, Warsaw) was a Jewish-Polish historian, educator, statesman and diplomat, founder of the Askenazy school.

He was the first Polish representative at the League of Nations. His work as a historian was influential in defining the creation and history of the Polish nation.

Biography
Persuaded by his father, Askenazy studied law at the Imperial University of Warsaw in the 1880s. After graduation, he worked as a lawyer; however, all the spare time he devoted to reading books in various languages. In April 1893, he went to Göttingen to study history. He was influenced by the professor of medieval and modern history Max Lehmann under whose supervision he wrote doctoral dissertation Die letzte Polnische Koenigswahl (1894).

Commencing in 1902, he served as a professor at the University of Lwów till November 1919. In 1909 he was inducted into the Polish Academy of Learning(Polska Akademia Umiejętności). One of his main books "Gdańsk a Polska" was published in 1919 and translated into English (Danzig & Poland, 1921), French (Dantzig et la Pologne, 1919) and German (Danzig und Polen, 1919). Askenazy planned to join Warsaw University, however on his way there stood Bronisław Dembiński and Marceli Handelsman, who blocked his nomination to become a professor of this university. Famous Poles supported Askenazy: Stefan Żeromski, Zofia Nałkowska, Karol Szymanowski, Leopold Staff, Andrzej Strug, Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz, Antoni Słonimski, Wacław Sieroszewski who signed an appeal (published in Robotnik, 2 March 1920) for a place for Askenazy at Warsaw University, however in vain.

After Poland regained independence, Askenazy was chosen to be the first Polish representative at the League of Nations (1920–23). His candidacy for this post was supported by Józef Piłsudski and nomination was signed by the Foreign Minister of Poland, Eustachy Sapieha in May 1920. He cooperated later with other Polish Foreign Ministers: Konstanty Skirmunt, Gabriel Narutowicz and Aleksander Skrzyński. In May 1923, Marian Seyda from, the Popular National Union (a Polish political party of the National Democracy political camp) became the Foreign Minister of Poland after Lanckorona Pact agreement was introduced. Askenazy saw this as a sign to step down. He resigned from the post and in July 1923 came back to Poland. Askenazy never joined any political party.

In his studies, he focused chiefly on Poland's political and economic history in the 18th and 19th centuries. He thus laid the foundations for the Lwów-Warsaw School of History (also known as the "Askenazy school"). He was the first historian to emphasize the Partitions period as crucially important to the creation of the modern Polish nation.

Askenazy's idea of describing a nation's history through its social and economic development, as well as its international and diplomatic backdrop, remains influential in modern Polish historical studies.

William J. Rose, an English translator of Askenazy's book "Danzig & Poland", wrote in the obituary published in The Slavonic and East European Review that with the death of Professor Askenazy "Polish learning lost one of its most distinguished ornaments".

Works

 * Ministeryum Wielhorskiego 1815-1816 : dodatek 1812-1813-1814 (1898)
 * Wczasy historyczne Tom 1 (1902) Tom 2 (1904)
 * Sto lat zarządu w Królestwie Polskiem : 1800-1900 (1903)
 * Uniwersytet Warszawski (1905)
 * Łukasiński Tom 1 (1908) Tom 2 (1908)
 * Dwa stulecia : XVIII i XIX : badania i przyczynki Tom 1 (1901) Tom 2 (1910)
 * Przymierze polsko-pruskie (1918)
 * Nauka uniwersytecka a kolejność studjów w uniwersyteckiej nauce prawa (1921)
 * Książę Józef Poniatowski 1763-1813 (1922)
 * Gdańsk a Polska (1923)
 * Uwagi (1924)
 * Szkice i portrety (1937)

Works in English

 * Dantzig & Poland (Published by George Allen & Unwin. London 1921. Translated by William J. Rose. The original Polish title: Gdańsk a Polska)
 * Thaddeus Kosciuszko, For the Centenary of His Death (London 1917)
 * Poland and Europe (Published by George Allen & Unwin. London 1916)
 * New Partitions of Poland (First published in Contemporary Review, June 1916; later by The Contemporary Review Company. London 1916)
 * Prince Joseph Poniatowski (London 1915)

title: Szymon Askenazy


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Adams River (New Zealand)

The Adams River is in the South Island of New Zealand. The headwaters are on the western side of the Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana. It flows into the Lambert River just before its confluence with the Wanganui River.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Adams River (New Zealand)


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Medicine Bar

The Medicine Bar was a bar in Birmingham, England. Located in the Custard Factory in Digbeth, it has hosted many techno, acid jazz, funk and hip hop events. It started as a collaboration in the 1990s between the London Medicine bar and local hip hop DJ 'Simon Fat Head', who began his career at the Brothers and Sisters at the Coast to Coast club on Broad Street. It ceased to trade by 2012.

Substance (which evolved out of Amplified) is the longest running hip hop night in the bar, with DJs Roc1, Magoo, Chris Reid (also from Scratch in London) and MC Mad Flow. It has brought hip hop acts including Afrika Bambaata, De La Soul and Jeru the Damaja to Birmingham.

Leftfoot is the bar's main funk and soul night which is part run by ex Rockers Hi-Fi DJ Dick and Adam Regan (who now owns the Bull's Head bar in the birmingham suburb of Moseley). Leftfoot hosts many large acid Jazz type events with appearances from Gilles Peterson to Mr Scruff. Both nights feature live acts.

Other events to take place at the bar include breakdance and graffiti art shows. For a short period in 2006/07, the Medicine Bar hosted the Birmingham leg of Club NME.

Medicine Bar had a Martin Audio modular system installed by Ace Vintage Systems.

title: Medicine Bar


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Diyarbakır

Diyarbakır (Տիգրանակերտ, local pronunciation: Dikranagerd; Amed; ), formerly Diyarbekir, is the largest Kurdish-majority city in Turkey. It is the administrative center of Diyarbakır Province.

Situated around a high plateau by the banks of the Tigris river on which stands the historic Diyarbakır Fortress, it is the administrative capital of the Diyarbakır Province of southeastern Turkey. It is the second-largest city in the Southeastern Anatolia Region. As of December 2021, the Metropolitan Province population was 1,791,373 of whom 1,129,218 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of the 4 urban districts (Bağlar, Kayapınar, Sur and Yenişehir).

Diyarbakır has been a main focal point of the conflict between the Turkish state and various Kurdish separatist groups, and is seen by many Kurds as the de facto capital of Kurdistan. The city was intended to become the capital of an independent Kurdistan following the Treaty of Sèvres, but this was disregarded following subsequent political developments.

On 6 February 2023 Diyarbakır was affected by the twin Turkey-Syria earthquakes, which inflicted some damage on its city walls.

Names and etymology
In ancient times the city was known as Amida, a name which could derive from an older Assyrian toponym Amedi. The name Āmid was also used in Arabic. The name Amit is found in official documents of the Empire of Trebizond from 1358.

After the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, the city became known as Diyar Bakr (ديار بكر), in reference to the territory of the Banu Bakr tribe, the Diyar Bakr. That tribe had already settled in northern Mesopotomia during the pre-Islamic period. In the 7th century, during the caliphate of Uthman and under the regional governorship of Mu'awiya, a portion of the tribe was ordered to settle further north in the lands near the city. The city was later also known in Turkish as Kara-Amid ("Black Amid"), on account of its black basalt walls.

In November 1937, Turkish President Atatürk visited the city and after expressing uncertainty on the exact etymology of the city's name, "Diyarbekir", in December of the same year ordered that it be renamed "Diyarbakır", which means "land of copper" in Turkish after the abundant resources of copper around the city. This was one of the early examples of the Turkification process of non-Turkish place names, in which non-Turkish (Kurdish, Armenian, Arabic and other) geographical names were changed to Turkish alternatives.

The modern Armenian name of the city is Tigranakert (Տիգրանակերտ). It is known as Amed in Kurdish and in Syriac as ܐܡܝܕ (Āmīd).

Antiquity
People have inhabited the area around Diyarbakır since the Stone Age. The first major civilization to establish itself in the region of Diyarbakır was the Hurrian kingdom of the Mitanni. It was then ruled by a succession of nearly every polity that controlled Upper Mesopotamia, including the Arameans, Assyrians, Urartu, Armenians, Achaemenid Persians, Medes, Seleucids, and Parthians. The Roman Republic gained control of the city in 66 BC, by which stage it was named "Amida". In 359, Shapur II of Persia captured Amida after a siege of 73 days.

According to the Synecdemus of Hierocles, as Amida, Diyarbakır was the major city of the Roman province of Mesopotamia. It was the episcopal see of the Christian diocese of Mesopotamia. Ancient texts record that ancient Amida had an amphitheatre, thermae (public baths), warehouses, a tetrapylon monument, and Roman aqueducts supplying and distributing water. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus was serving in the late Roman army during the Siege of Amida by the Sasanian Empire under Shapur II ((r. 309 – 379)), and described the successful siege in detail. Amida was then enlarged by refugees from ancient Nisibis (Nusaybin), which the emperor Jovian ((r. 363 – 364)) was forced to evacuate and cede to Shapur's Persians after the defeat of his predecessor Julian's Persian War, becoming the main Roman stronghold in the region. The chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite describes the capture of Amida by the Persians under Kavad I ((r. 488 – 531)) in the second Siege of Amida in 502–503, part of the Anastasian War.

Either the emperor Anastasius Dicorus ((r. 491 – 518)) or the emperor Justinian the Great ((r. 527 – 565)) rebuilt the walls of Amida, a feat of defensive architecture praised by the Greek historian Procopius. As recorded by the works of John of Ephesus, Zacharias Rhetor, and Procopius, the Romans and Persians continued to contest the area, and in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 Amida was captured and held by the Persians for twenty-six years, being recovered in 628 for the Romans by the emperor Heraclius ((r. 610 – 641)), who also founded a church in the city on his return to Constantinople (Istanbul) from Persia the following year.

Ecclesiastical history
Syriac Christianity took hold in the region between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, particularly amongst the Assyrians of the city. The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II (408–450) divided the Roman province of Mesopotamia into two, and made Amida the capital of Mesopotamia Prima, and thereby also the metropolitan see for all the province's bishoprics.

At some stage, Amida became a see of the Armenian Church. The bishops who held the see in 1650 and 1681 were in full communion with the Holy See, and in 1727 Peter Derboghossian sent his profession of faith to Rome. He was succeeded by two more bishops of the Armenian Catholic Church, Eugenius and Ioannes of Smyrna, the latter of whom died in Constantinople in 1785. After a long vacancy, three more bishops followed. The diocese had some 5,000 Armenian Catholics in 1903, but it lost most of its population in the 1915 Armenian genocide. The last diocesan bishop of the see, Andreas Elias Celebian, was killed with some 600 of his flock in the summer of 1915.

An eparchy for the local members of the Syriac Catholic Church was established in 1862. Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire during the First World War brought an end to the existence of both these Syrian residential sees.

Middle Ages
In 639, as part of the Muslim conquest of the Levant during the early Arab–Byzantine wars, Amida fell to the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate led by Iyad ibn Ghanm, and the Great Mosque of Amida was constructed afterwards in the city's centre, possibly on the site of the Heraclian Church of Saint Thomas. There were as many as five Christian monasteries in the city, including the Zuqnin Monastery and several ancient churches mentioned by John of Ephesus. One of these, the Church of the Virgin Mary, remains the city's cathedral and the see of the bishop of Diyarbakır in the Syriac Orthodox Church. Another ancient church, the Church of Mar Cosmas, was seen by the British explorer Gertrude Bell in 1911 but was destroyed in 1930, while the former Church of Saint George, in the walled citadel, may originally have been built for Muslim use or for the Church of the East.

The city was part of the Umayyad Caliphate and then the Abbasid Caliphate, but then came under more local rule until its recovery in 899 by forces loyal to the caliph al-Mu'tadid ((r. 892 – 902)) before falling under the sway of first the Hamdanid dynasty and then the Buyid dynasty, followed by a period of control by the Marwanids. The city was taken by the Seljuks in 1085 and by the Ayyubids in 1183. Ayyubid control lasted until the Mongol invasions of Anatolia, with its last Ayyubid ruler Al-Kamil Muhammad. The Mongols of Hulagu captured of the city in 1260 (Siege of Mayyāfāriqīn), following a long siege with a small Mongol force and a much larger Georgian and Armenian force under the Georgian leader Hasan Brosh. Between the Mongol occupation and conquest by the Safavid dynasty of Iran, the Kara Koyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu – two Turkoman confederations – were in control of the city in succession. Diyarbakır was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1514 by Bıyıklı Mehmed Pasha, in the reign of the sultan Selim I ((r. 1512 – 1520)). Mohammad Khan Ustajlu, the Safavid governor of Diyarbakir, was evicted from the city and killed in the following Battle of Chaldiran in 1514.

Safavids and Ottomans
The Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire saw it expand into Western Armenia and all but the eastern regions of Kurdistan at the expense of the Safavids. From the early 16th century, the city and the wider region was the source of intrigue between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire, both of whom sought the support of the Kurdish chieftains around Idris Bitlisi. It was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1514 in the campaigns of Bıyıklı Mehmed Pasha, under the rule of Sultan Selim I. Mohammad Khan Ustajlu, the Safavid Governor of Diyarbakir, was evicted from the city and killed in the following Battle of Chaldiran in 1514.

Following their victory, the Ottomans established the Diyarbekir Eyalet with its administrative centre in Diyarbakır. The Eyalet of Diyarbakır corresponded to today's Turkish Kurdistan, a rectangular area between the Lake Urmia to Palu and from the southern shores of Lake Van to Cizre and the beginnings of the Syrian desert, although its borders saw some changes over time. The city was an important military base for controlling the region and at the same time a thriving city noted for its craftsmen, producing glass and metalwork. For example, the doors of Rumi's tomb in Konya were made in Diyarbakır, as were the gold and silver decorated doors of the tomb of Ebu Hanife in Baghdad. Ottoman rule was confirmed by the 1555 Peace of Amasya which followed the Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555).

Concerned with independent-mindedness of the Kurdish principalities, the Ottomans sought to curb their influence and bring them under the control of the central government in Constantinople. However, removal from power of these hereditary principalities led to more instability in the region from the 1840s onwards. In their place, sufi sheiks and religious orders rose to prominence and spread their influence throughout the region. One of the prominent Sufi leaders was Shaikh Ubaidalla Nahri, who began a revolt in the region between Lakes Van and Urmia. The area under his control covered both Ottoman and Qajar territories. Shaikh Ubaidalla is regarded as one of the earliest proponents of Kurdish nationalism. In a letter to a British Vice-Consul, he declared: "The Kurdish nation is a people apart... we want our affairs to be in our hands."

In 1895 an estimated 25,000 Armenians and Assyrians were massacred in Diyarbekir Vilayet, including in the city. At the turn of the 19th century, the Christian population of the city was mainly made up of Armenians and Syriac Orthodox Christians. The city was also a site of ethnic cleansing during the 1915 Armenian and Assyrian genocide; nearly 150,000 were expelled from the city to the death marches in the Syrian Desert.

Republic of Turkey
In January 1928, Diyarbakır became the center of the First Inspectorate-General, a regional subdivision for an area containing the provinces of Hakkari, Van, Şırnak, Mardin, Siirt, Bitlis and Şanlıurfa. In a reorganization of the provinces in 1952, Diyarbakır city was made the administrative capital of the Diyarbakır Province. In 1993, Diyarbakir was established as a Metropolitan Municipality. Its districts are Bağlar, Bismil, Ergani, Hazro, Kayapinar, Çermik, Çinar, Eğil, Dicle, Kulp, Kocaköy, Lice, Silvan, Sur, Yenişehir, Hani and Çüngüş.

The American-Turkish Pirinçlik Air Force Base near Diyarbakır was operational from 1956 to 1997.

Diyarbakır has seen much violence in recent years, involving Turkish security forces, the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Between 8 November 2015 and 15 May 2016 large parts of Sur were destroyed in fighting between the Turkish military and the PKK. In early November 2015, Kurdish lawyer and human rights activist Tahir Elçi was killed in the Sur district during a press statement in which he had been calling for a de-escalation in violence between the PKK and the Turkish state.

A 2018 report by Arkeologlar Derneği İstanbul found that, since 2015, 72% of the city's historic Sur district had been destroyed through demolition and redevelopment, and that laws designed to protect historic monuments had been ignored. They found that the city's "urban regeneration" policy was one of demolition and redevelopment rather than one of repairing cultural assets damaged during the recent civil conflict, and because of that many registered historic buildings had been completely destroyed. The extent of the loss of non-registered historic structures is unknown because any historic building fragments revealed during the demolition of modern structures were also demolished. As of 2021, large parts of the city and district were restored and government officials were looking towards tourism again.

Many residences and buildings collapsed or suffered substantial damage in the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes around 200 miles (300 km) from the epicentre. A Turkish professor and former journalist from the country commented, "It is like having an epicenter of an earthquake in Harrisburg and buildings in New York City are collapsing."

Sports
The most notable football clubs of the city are Diyarbakırspor (established 1968) and Amed S.F.K. (established 1990), with Deniz Naki being one of the most notable footballers from the city. The women's football team Amed S.K. were promoted at the end of the 2016–17 Turkish Women's Second Football League season to the Women's First League.

Politics
In the 2014 local elections, Gültan Kışanak and Fırat Anlı of the Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) were elected co-mayors of Diyarbakır. However, on 25 October 2016, both were detained by Turkish authorities "on thinly supported charges of being a member of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)". The Turkish government ordered a general internet blackout after the arrest. Nevertheless, on 26 October, several thousand demonstrators at Diyarbakir city hall demanded the mayors' release. Some days later, the Turkish government appointed an unelected state trustee as the mayor. In November, public prosecutors demanded a 230-year prison sentence for Kışanak.

In January 2017, the un-elected state trustee appointed by the Turkish government ordered the removal of the Assyrian sculpture of a mythological winged bull from the town hall, which had been erected by the BDP mayors to commemorate the Assyrian history of the town and its still resident Assyrian minority. All Kurdish language street signs were also removed, alongside the shutting down of organisations concerned with Kurdish language and culture, removal of Kurdish names from public parks, and removal of Kurdish cultural monuments and linguistic symbols.

In the 2019 municipal elections, Adnan Selçuk Mızraklı of the HDP party was elected mayor of Diyarbakir. In August 2019 he was dismissed and subsequently sentenced to 9 years and 4 months imprisonment accused of supporting terrorism as part of a government crackdown against politicians of the Kurdish HDP party; the Turkish state appointed Münir Karaloğlu in his place. Other Kurdish mayors in Kurdish cities across the region also suffered a similar fate, with Turkish President Erdoğan vowing to remove any future Kurdish mayors too. Protests against the decision arose which were suppressed by the Turkish police with the use of water cannons; some protestors were killed. Diyarbakır's prison has become home to many political prisoners, mainly Kurdish activists and politicians accused of terrorism charges by the Turkish state. Inmates have been subject to torture, rape, humiliation, beating, murder and other abuses.

Economy
Historically, Diyarbakır produced wheat and sesame. They would preserve the wheat in warehouses, with coverings of straw and twigs from licorice trees. This system would allow the wheat to be preserved for up to ten years. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Diyarbakır exported raisins, almonds, and apricots to Europe. Angora goats were raised, and wool and mohair was exported from Diyarbakır. Merchants would also come from Egypt, Istanbul, and Syria, to purchase goats and sheep. Honey was also produced, but not so much exported, but used by locals. Sericulture was observed in the area, too.

Prior to World War I, Diyarbakır had an active copper industry, with six mines. Three were active, with two being owned by locals and the third being owned by the Turkish government. Tenorite was the primary type of copper mined. It was mined by hand by Kurds. A large portion of the ore was exported to England. The region also produced iron, gypsum, coal, chalk, lime, jet, and quartz, but primarily for local use.

The city is served by Diyarbakır Airport and Diyarbakır railway station. In 1935 the railway between Elazığ and Diyarbakır was inaugurated.

Demographics
At the turn of the 19th century, the Christian population of the city was mainly made up of Armenians and Assyrians. The Assyrian and Armenian presence dates to antiquity. There was also a small Jewish community in the city. All Christians spoke Armenian and Kurdish. Notables spoke Turkish. In the streets, the language was Kurdish. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica from 1911, the population numbered 38 thousand, almost half being Christian and consisting of Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites, and a few Greeks. During the Governorship of Mehmed Reshid in the Vilayet of Diyarbakır, the Armenian population of Diyarbakir was resettled and exterminated.

After World War II, as the Kurdish population moved from the villages and mountains to urban centres, Diyarbakir's Kurdish population continued to grow. Diyarbakır grew from a population of 30,000 in the 1930s to 65,000 by 1956, to 140,000 by 1970, to 400,000 by 1990, and eventually swelled to about 1.5 million by 1997. During the 1990s, the city grew dramatically due to the immigrant population from thousands of Kurdish villages depopulated by Turkey during the Kurdish–Turkish conflict.

According to a November 2006 survey by the Sûr Municipality, 72% of the inhabitants of the municipality use Kurdish most often in their daily speech due to the overwhelming Kurdish majority in the city, followed by minorities of Assyrian, Armenian and Turkish.

There are some Alevi Turkmen villages around Diyarbakır's old city, but there are no official reports about their population numbers.

There have been attempts by Turkish lawmakers to deny Diyarbakır's Kurdish majority identity, with Turkey's Education Ministry releasing a school book named "Our City, Diyarbakir" ("Şehrimiz Diyarbakır" in Turkish) on Diyarbakir Province in which it claims that a Turkish similar to that spoken in Baku is spoken in the city along with regional languages like Arabic, Persian, Kurdish, Turkmen and Caucasian languages. Critics link this to a general trend towards anti-Kurdish sentiment in Turkey.

Culture
There is local jewelry making and other craftwork in the area. Folk dancing to the drum and zurna (pipe) are a part of weddings and celebrations in the area. The Diyarbakir Municipality Theatre was founded in 1990, and had to close its doors in 1995. It was re-opened in 1999, under Mayor Osman Baydemir. It was closed down in 2016 after the dismissal of the mayor in 2016. The Municipality City Theatre also performed plays in the Kurdish language.

One of the other common celebrations in Turkey is Nowruz. This celebration is done on the pretext of the beginning of spring and the beginning of the new year. The establishment of Nowruz has a long history, so much so that it has been celebrated in different parts of Asia for the past three thousand years, especially in the Middle East. In different parts of Turkey, especially the Kurdish regions of this country, Nowruz is considered one of the most important cultural and historical traditions of these regions. Lighting a fire, wearing new clothes, holding a dance ceremony, and giving gifts to each other are some of the activities that are done in this celebration.

Cuisine
Diyarbakır's cuisine includes lamb dishes which use spices such as black pepper, sumac and coriander; rice, bulgur and butter. Local dishes include Meftune, lamb meat and vegetables with garlic and sumac, and Kaburga Dolması, baked lamb's ribs stuffed with rice, almonds and spices. Watermelons are grown locally and there is an annual Watermelon Festival.

Main sights
The core of Diyarbakır is surrounded by an almost intact set of high walls of black basalt forming a 5.5 km circle around the old city. There are four gates into the old city and 82 watch-towers on the walls, which were built in antiquity and restored and extended by the Roman emperor Constantius II in 349. The area inside the walls is known as the Sur district; before its recent demolition and redevelopment this district had 599 registered historical buildings. Nearby is Karaca Dağ.

Medieval mosques and medreses

 * Great Mosque of Diyarbakır built by the Seljuk Turkish Sultan Malik Shah in the 11th century. The mosque, one of the oldest in Turkey, is constructed in alternating bands of black basalt and white limestone (The same patterning is used in the 16th century Deliler Han Madrassah, which is now a hotel). The adjoining Mesudiye Medresesi/Medreseya Mesûdiyeyê was built at the same time, as was another prayer-school in the city, Zinciriye Medresesi/Medreseya Zincîriyeyê.
 * Behram Pasha Mosque (Beharampaşa Camii/Mizgefta Behram Paşa) – an Ottoman mosque built in 1572 by the governor of Diyarbakır, Behram Pasha, noted for the well-constructed arches at the entrance.
 * Sheikh Matar Mosque with Dört Ayaklı Minare/Mizgefta Çarling (the Four-legged Minaret) – built by Kasim Khan of the Aq Qoyunlu.
 * Fatihpaşa Camii/Mizgefta Fetih Paşa – built in 1520 by Diyarbakır's first Ottoman governor, Bıyıklı Mehmet Paşa ("the moustachioed Mehmet pasha"). The city's earliest Ottoman building, it is decorated with fine tilework.
 * Hazreti Süleyman Mosque/Mizgefta Hezretî Silêman (1155–1169) Süleyman son of Halid Bin Velid, who died capturing the city from the Arabs, is buried here along with his companions.
 * Hüsrevpaşa Camii/Mizgefta Husrev Paşa – the mosque of the second Ottoman governor, 1512–1528. Originally the building was intended to be a school (medrese)
 * İskender Paşa Camii/Mizgefta Îskender Paşa – a mosque of an Ottoman governor, in black and white stone, built in 1551.
 * Melek Ahmet Camii/Melek Ahmed Paşa a 16th-century mosque with tiled prayer-niche and for the double stairway up the minaret.
 * Nebii Camii/Mizgefta Pêxember – an Aq Qoyunlu mosque, a single-domed stone construction from the 16th century. Nebi Camii means "the mosque of the prophet" and is named for the inscriptions in honour of the prophet on its minaret.
 * Safa Camii/Mizgefta Palo – built in the middle of the 15th century under Uzun Hasan, ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans) tribe and restored in Ottoman time in 1532.

Churches

 * St. Giragos Armenian Church – first built in 1519, the current structure is from 1883, and was recently restored after a long period of disuse.
 * The Syriac Orthodox Church of Our Lady ( `Idto d-Yolda t Aloho, Meryemana kilisesi), was first constructed as a pagan temple in the 1st century BC. The current construction dates back to the 3rd century, has been restored many times, and is still in use as a place of worship today.
 * Mar Petyun (St. Anthony) Chaldean Catholic Church, built in 1681.
 * Surp Sarkis Chaldean Church
 * St. Marys Cathedral
 * St. George's Church

Museums

 * The Archaeological Museum contains artifacts from the neolithic period, through the Early Bronze Age, Assyrian, Urartu, Roman, Byzantine, Artuqids, Seljuk Turk, Aq Qoyunlu, and Ottoman Empire periods.
 * Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı Museum – the home of the late poet and a classic example of a traditional Diyarbakır home.
 * Ziya Gökalp Museum – the birthplace of poet Ziya Gökalp, preserved as a museum to his life and works.
 * Ahmet Arif Literature Museum Library

Other historical buildings

 * The Diyarbakır Fortress and Hevsel Gardens Cultural Landscape, named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2015.
 * Hasan Pasha Han, a large 16th-century Ottoman caravanserai, now hosting shops and cafés.
 * Delliler Han, a caravanserai built in 1527, now used as a five-star hotel.
 * Sülüklü Han, built circa 1680, now a popular café and meeting spot.
 * The Dicle Bridge, an 11th-century bridge with ten arches.
 * Urfa Kapi, Urfa Kapi (Urfa Gate) is one of the four main gates built in the 4th century Byzantine era city walls of Diyarbakir that leads the road from the west to the town of Urfa.

Climate
Diyarbakır has a Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification: Csa) or an anomalously warm, hot-summer oceanic climate (Trewartha climate classification: Doa). Summers are very hot and very dry, due to its location on the Mesopotamian plain which is subject to hot air masses from the deserts of Syria and Iraq to the south. The highest recorded temperature was 46.2 °C (112.64 °F) on 21 July 1937. Winters are chilly with moderate precipitation and frosty nights. Snowfall is quite common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two. The lowest recorded temperature was −24.2 °C (−10.12 °F) on 11 January 1933. Highest recorded snow depth was 65 cm (25.6 inches) on 16 January 1971.

Notable people born in the city

 * See Category:People from Diyarbakır

title: Diyarbakır


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Ahaura River

The Ahaura River is in the South Island of New Zealand. This river drains the western flanks of the Southern Alps and flows into the Grey River.

The Ahaura and its many tributaries rise in the Lake Sumner State Forest park and enters the Grey River at the small settlement of Ahaura approximately 30 km upstream from Greymouth. It drains a huge area of land and in its lower reaches below the Haupiri confluence can have a tea-colour stain for much of the year. The reaches above the junction with the Haupiri tend to have very clear water however for much of the year.

Other rivers in the catchment are the Nancy, Trent, Tutaekuri and Waiheke Rivers. They can all be kayaked, except in late summer and they are the most used rivers on the West Coast. The lower gorge has remnants of Chinese miners' gold diggings. Pack-tracks to Canterbury used to go through Amuri Pass into the Doubtful River Valley and by the Tūtaekurī to the Hope River. The Ahaura in the gorge is a wide, fast, shallow, braided river, with extensive grassy flats, surrounded by beech forest. Earthquake Rapid, is the largest rapid on the river. A 1981 survey described the scenic and recreational values of the gorge as exceptional.

The river is only bridged by the Stillwater–Ngākawau Line and SH7. A punt operated across the river from 1871 to 1879, when it was replaced by a bridge. The first railway bridge opened in 1890.

At the gorge the Ahaura's 7-day mean annual low flow is 26.45 m3 per second, the mean flow 99.77 m3 and the maximum recorded flow 3,972.06 m3. On 26 December 1957 the flood gauge at the SH7 bridge reached 7.35 m. The river's catchment is 870 km2.

Gold digging started about 1865 and a small settlement of shanties had been built at Ahauru by January 1866. 3,300 were reported to be at work in the area by March 1866 and a bridle path had been formed.

The Ahaura Terraces and Nancys Clearing Ecological Areas were declared in 1997 to protect kahikatea and red beech (tawhai raunui) forests on the river's terraces, including kākāriki parakeets.

title: Ahaura River


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César Award for Best Film

The winners and nominees of the César Award for Best Film (French: César du meilleur film).

title: César Award for Best Film


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Ahuriri River

The Ahuriri River is a river in the Canterbury and Otago Regions of the South Island of New Zealand.

The headwaters are on the eastern flanks of the Southern Alps. The river flows for 70 km through the southernmost part of the Mackenzie Basin before reaching the Ahuriri Arm of Lake Benmore, one of the lakes in the Waitaki hydroelectric project. From there, the waters join with those of the Waitaki, which has its outflow in the Pacific Ocean.

Much of the upper portion of the river is in the Ahuriri Conservation Park, and it is a well-regarded fly fishing river, supporting both brown and rainbow trout.

A notable rock formation, the Omarama or Ahuriri River Clay Cliffs, is located close to the river's north bank some 10 km west of the township of Omarama. Omarama is the main settlement close to the river.

title: Ahuriri River


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Askenazy school

The Askenazy school (Polish: Szkoła Askenazego, sometimes referred to as Lwów–Warsaw School of History, Lwowsko-warszawska szkoła historyczna) was an informal group of Polish historians formed in the early 20th century under the influence of Szymon Askenazy in the University of Lwów and Warsaw University.

In the 19th century, most history studies in Poland were focused mainly on the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The dominant trend among most conservative historians was to argue that the modern history of Poland was nothing but a history of ill-fated uprisings; the history was thus ignored in their studies.

The Askenazy school was the first to underline the importance of recent history in the creation of the modern nation in Poland. It also focused on the history of international diplomatic relations and economic development of Poland.

The historians grouped in this movement were the first to lay foundations for the modern study of the history of the Duchy of Warsaw and Congress Poland.

title: Askenazy school


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Ahuroa River

The Ahuroa River is a river in the Northland Region of the North Island of New Zealand.

It is a tributary of the Waipu River which it joins close to the town of Waipu.

title: Ahuroa River


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Talk:Malaysian Scouts Association

Untitled
We still need to talk about the Wood Badge. --Johnleemk 11:32, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

Arabic script tagging
This needs the Malay transliteration. Chris 06:18, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

images from deleted article
If anyone can use these somewhere in the article, please do so, the article they were in was recently deleted, Chris (クリス • フィッチ) (talk) 17:19, 28 January 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Malaysian Scouts Association


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Akatarawa River

The Akatarawa River is a river in the lower North Island of New Zealand.

It is a short river, flowing south for 20 km through small rocky gorges and the Akatarawa Valley before joining the Hutt River at Birchville, a suburb in the northern end of Upper Hutt. Its eventual outflow is into Wellington Harbour, then into Cook Strait.

title: Akatarawa River


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Aviation fuel

Aviation fuels are petroleum-based fuels, or petroleum and synthetic fuel blends, used to power aircraft. They have more stringent requirements than fuels used for ground use, such as heating and road transport, and contain additives to enhance or maintain properties important to fuel performance or handling. They are kerosene-based (JP-8 and Jet A-1) for gas turbine-powered aircraft. Piston-engined aircraft use leaded gasoline and those with diesel engines may use jet fuel (kerosene). By 2012, all aircraft operated by the U.S. Air Force had been certified to use a 50-50 blend of kerosene and synthetic fuel derived from coal or natural gas as a way of stabilizing the cost of fuel.

Jet fuel

Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet A-1), or a naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). Similar to diesel fuel, it can be used in either compression ignition engines or turbine engines.

Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of extremely refined kerosene and burns at temperatures at or above 49 C. Kerosene-based fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to ground-based users with less demanding requirements, such as railroads.

Avgas
Avgas (aviation gasoline) is used by small aircraft, light helicopters and vintage piston-engined aircraft. Its formulation is distinct from the conventional gasoline (UK: petrol, or "aviation spirit" in this context) used in motor vehicles which is commonly called mogas or autogas in aviation context. Although it comes in many different grades, its octane rating is higher than that for "regular" motor gasoline.

Biofuels
Alternatives to conventional fossil-based aviation fuels, new fuels made via the biomass to liquid method (like sustainable aviation fuel) and certain straight vegetable oils can also be used.

Fuels such as sustainable aviation fuel have the advantage that few or no modifications are necessary on the aircraft itself, provided that the fuel characteristics meet specifications for lubricity and density as well as adequately swelling elastomer seals in current aircraft fuel systems. Sustainable aviation fuel and blends of fossil and sustainably-sourced alternative fuels yield lower emissions of particles and GHGs. They are, however, not being used heavily, because they still face political, technological, and economic barriers, such as currently being more expensive than conventionally produced aviation fuels by a wide margin.

Compressed natural gas and liquified natural gas
Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified natural gas (LNG) are fuel feedstocks that aircraft may use in the future. Studies have been done on the feasibility of using natural gas and include the "SUGAR Freeze" aircraft under NASA's N+4 Advanced Concept Development program (made by Boeing's Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research (SUGAR) team). The Tupolev Tu-155 was an alternative fuel testbed which was fuelled on LNG. The low specific energy of natural gas even in liquid form compared to conventional fuels gives it a distinct disadvantage for flight applications.

Liquid hydrogen
Hydrogen can be used largely free of carbon emissions, if it is produced with power from renewable energy like wind and solar power.

Some development of technology for hydrogen-powered aircraft started after the millennium and gained track since about 2020, but as of 2022 was still far away from outright aircraft product development.

Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce or other emissions (besides water). However, hydrogen combustion does produce emissions. Cryogenic hydrogen can be used as a liquid at temperatures below 20 K. Gaseous hydrogen involves pressurized tanks at 250–350 bar. With materials available in the 2020s, the mass of tanks strong enough to withstand this kind of high pressure will greatly outweigh the hydrogen fuel itself, largely negating the weight to energy advantage of hydrogen fuel over hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen has a severe volumetric disadvantage relative to hydrocarbon fuels, but future blended wing body aircraft designs might be able to accommodate this extra volume without greatly expanding the wetted area.

Even if finally practical, the industry timeline for adopting hydrogen is fairly lengthy. Alternatives to conventional aviation fuel available in the near term include aviation biofuel and synthetically created fuel (aka "e-jet"). These fuels are collectively referred to as "Sustainable Aviation Fuel" (SAF).

Production of aviation fuel
The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for turbine engines and fuel suitable for spark-ignition piston engines. There are international specifications for each.

Jet fuel is a gas turbine fuel used in propeller and jet aircraft and helicopters. It has a low viscosity at low temperature, has limited ranges of density and calorific value, burns cleanly, and remains chemically stable when heated to high temperature.

Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas" or 100-LL (low-lead), is a highly refined form of gasoline for aircraft, with an emphasis on purity, anti-knock characteristics and minimization of spark plug fouling. Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption. Aviation fuel can be used as CNG fuel.

Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators; whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and militaries.

Energy content
The net energy content for aviation fuels depends on their composition. Some typical values are:

 * BP Avgas 80, 44.65 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 690 kg/m3 ( MJ/litre).
 * Kerosene type BP Jet A-1, 43.15 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 804 kg/m3 ( MJ/litre).
 * Kerosene type BP Jet TS-1 (for lower temperatures), 43.2 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 787 kg/m3 ( MJ/litre).

Density
In performance calculations, airliner manufacturers use a density of jet fuel around lb/US gal, 8.02 lb/ imp Gal or  kg/L.

Specific cases are:

 * Bombardier Aerospace: The Challenger Multi-role Aircraft is a special mission variant of the Bombardier Challenger 650 business jet platform. Bombardier bases performance on the use of fuel with an average lower heating value of 18,550 BTU/lb (43.147 MJ/kg) and a density of 0.809 kg/L.
 * Embraer: In its airport planning manual for the E195 uses an adopted fuel density of 0.811 kg/L.

Chemical composition
Aviation fuels consist of blends of over two thousand chemicals, primarily hydrocarbons (paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics), additives such as antioxidants and metal deactivators, biocides, static reducers, icing inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and impurities. Principal components include n-heptane and isooctane. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their octane rating.

Alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification. In Brazil, the Embraer Ipanema EMB-202A is a version of the Ipanema agricultural aircraft with a modified Lycoming IO-540-K1J5 engine so as to be able to run on ethanol. Other aircraft engines that were modified to run on 100% ethanol were several other types of Lycoming engines (including the Lycoming 235N2C, and Lycoming IO-320 ) and certain Rotax engines.

Tax
The Convention on International Civil Aviation (ICAO) (Chicago 1944, Article 24) exempts air fuels already loaded onto an aircraft on landing (and which remain on the aircraft) from import taxes. Bi-lateral air services agreements govern the tax exemption of aviation fuels. In the course of an EU initiative, many of these agreements have been modified to allow taxation. A motion for a European Parliament resolution on a European Strategy for Low-emission Mobility has stated that "the possibilities for harmonised international measures for kerosene taxation for aviation" needs to be explored.

A worry is that a local aviation fuel tax would cause increased tankering, where airlines carry extra fuel from low tax jurisdictions. This extra weight increases fuel burn, thus a local fuel tax could potentially increase overall fuel consumption. To avoid increased tankering, a worldwide aviation fuel tax has been proposed. Australia and the United States oppose a worldwide aviation fuel tax, but a number of other countries have expressed interest.

During a debate in the UK Parliament, the forgone tax income due to the exemption of tax on aviation fuel was estimated at £10 billion annually.

The planned inclusion of international aviation into the European Union Emission Trading Scheme in 2014 has been called an "illegal tax" by countries including the US and China, which cite the Chicago Convention.

Certification
Fuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed specifications for automobile gasoline as well as aviation gasoline. These specifications are ASTM D910 and ASTM D6227 for aviation gasoline and ASTM D439 or ASTM D4814 (latest revision) for automobile gasoline.

In use
Aviation fuel generally arrives at the airport via pipeline systems, such as the CEPS. It is then pumped over and dispensed from a tanker or bowser. The fuel is then driven up to parked aircraft and helicopters. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations to which aircraft must taxi. Some airports have permanent piping to parking areas for large aircraft.

Aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two methods: overwing or underwing.

Overwing
Overwing fueling is used on smaller planes, helicopters, and all piston-engine aircraft. Overwing fueling is similar to car fueling — one or more fuel ports are opened and fuel is pumped in with a conventional pump.

Underwing
Underwing fueling, also called single-point refueling or pressure refueling where not dependent on gravity, is used on larger aircraft and for jet fuel exclusively.

For pressure refueling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped in at 275 kPa (40 psi) and a maximum of 310 kPa (45 psi) for most commercial aircraft. Pressure for military aircraft, especially fighters, ranges up to 415 kPa (60 psi). Air being displaced in the tanks is usually vented overboard through a single vent on the aircraft. Because there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fueling point or in the cockpit. An early use of pressure refueling was on the de Havilland Comet and Sud Aviation Caravelle. Larger aircraft allow for two or more attachment points; however, this is still referred to as single-point refueling, as either attachment point can refuel all of the tanks. Multiple attachments allow for a faster flowrate.

Misfueling
Because of the danger of confusing the fuel types, precautions are taken to distinguish between avgas and jet fuel beyond clearly marking all containers, vehicles, and piping. The aperture on fuel tanks of aircraft requiring avgas cannot be greater than 60 millimetres in diameter. Avgas is often dyed and is dispensed from nozzles with a diameter of 40 mm (49 mm in the United States).

Jet fuel is clear to straw-colored, and is dispensed from a special nozzle called a J spout or duckbill that has a rectangular opening larger than 60 mm diagonally, so as not to fit into avgas ports. However, some jet and turbine aircraft, such as some models of the Astar helicopter, have a fueling port too small for the J spout, and thus require a smaller nozzle.

Forecasting demand
In recent years, fuel markets have become increasingly volatile. This, along with rapidly changing airline schedules and the desire to not carry excess fuel on board aircraft, has increased the importance of demand forecasting. In March 2022, Austin's Austin-Bergstrom International Airport came close to running out of fuel, potentially stranding aircraft. Common forecasting techniques include tracking airline schedules and routes, expected distance flown, ground procedures, fuel efficiency of each aircraft and the impact of environmental factors like weather and temperature.

Safety precautions
Any fueling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation operations have characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air, it can accumulate static electricity. If this is not dissipated before fueling, an electric arc could occur and ignite fuel vapors. To prevent this, aircraft are electrically bonded to the fueling apparatus before fueling begins, and are not disconnected until after fueling is complete. Some regions require the aircraft and/or fuel truck to be grounded too. Pressure fueling systems incorporate a dead man's switch to preclude unmonitored operation.

Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage; all fueling vehicles must carry equipment to control fuel spills. Fire extinguishers must be present at any fueling operation. Airport firefighting forces are specially trained and equipped to handle aviation fuel fires and spills. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt.

Avgas is the only remaining lead-containing transportation fuel. Lead in avgas prevents damaging engine knock, or detonation, that can result in a sudden engine failure.

title: Aviation fuel


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Dorothy

Dorothy may refer to:
 * Dorothy (given name), a list of people with that name.

Film and television

 * Dorothy (TV series), 1979 American TV series
 * Dorothy Mills, a 2008 French movie, sometimes titled simply Dorothy
 * DOROTHY, a device used to study tornadoes in the movie Twister

Music

 * Dorothy (band), a Los Angeles-based rock band
 * Dorothy (band), a disbanded Hungarian rock band
 * Dorothy, the title of an Old English dance and folk song by Seymour Smith
 * "Dorothy", a 2019 song by Sulli
 * "Dorothy", a 2016 song by Her's

In other media

 * Dorothy (opera), a comic opera (1886) by Stephenson & Cellier
 * Dorothy (Chase), a 1902 painting by William Merritt Chase
 * Dorothy (comic book), a comic book based on the Wizard of Oz
 * Dorothy, a publishing project, an American publisher

Places

 * Dorothy, Alberta, a hamlet in the Canadian province of Alberta
 * Dorothy, New Jersey, an unincorporated community and census-designated place in New Jersey, United States
 * Dorothy, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in West Virginia, United States
 * Dorothy (Venusian crater)
 * Dorothy (Charonian crater)

Nautical

 * Dorothy (1815 ship), an English merchant ship
 * USS Dorothy (SP-1289), a United States Navy patrol boat in commission from 1917 to 1918
 * ST Dorothy, A Malaysian tug in service 1958-75

title: Dorothy


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Ākitio River

The Ākitio River is in the North Island of New Zealand. It flows generally southeast for 35 km, entering the Pacific Ocean at Ākitio to the south of Cape Turnagain on the east coast.

In July 2020, the name of the river was officially gazetted as Ākitio River by the New Zealand Geographic Board.

Cyclone Gabrielle caused the mouth of the river to move.

title: Ākitio River


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Alexander River (New Zealand)

The Alexander River is on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It flows into the Upper Grey River.

title: Alexander River (New Zealand)


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Marcin Kromer

Marcin Kromer (Latin: Martinus Cromerus; 11 November 1512 – 23 March 1589) was Prince-Bishop of Warmia (Ermland), a Polish cartographer, diplomat and historian in the Kingdom of Poland and later in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was a personal secretary to two Kings of Poland, Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus.

Biography
Kromer was born in 1512 into a prominent burgher family of German descent in Biecz, in Lesser Poland. He completed his basic education in a local church-run school. In 1528 he transferred to Kraków, where in 1530 he graduated as a bachelor at the Cracow Academy. In 1533–37 he worked at the Royal Chancellery in Kraków. Thereafter he went to Italy, where he studied law for two years. Returning to Poland in 1540, he became secretary to Archbishop Piotr Gamrat. As the latter's personal advisor, he was also his envoy and representative to Rome, where he spent two years until 1544. He then became a canon in Kraków.

In 1545, upon the death of his mentor, Kromer accepted the latter's post as personal secretary to Poland's King Sigismund I the Old. He was also an associate of Samuel Maciejowski, who later became Chancellor of the Crown. A specialist on Royal Prussia and Warmia, in 1551 Kromer became head of the Warmian canonry. However, his church career did not proceed as planned, since he was seen as one of the best Polish diplomats of the age and was frequently required by the court to leave his post to serve as envoy on various diplomatic missions. In 1552, for his services to the King, he was ennobled and granted a coat of arms.

From 1558 to 1564 Kromer served as Polish envoy to Emperor Ferdinand I, who in recognition of Kromer's services added his own family coat-of-arms to Kromer's. The latter's tasks included advocacy of King Sigismund's claims to the inheritance of the late Queen-Consort Bona Sforza, which was also claimed by the King of Spain, who, however, based his claims on a forged testament.

In 1564 Kromer was recalled to Poland, where he was promoted within the church hierarchy and took the post of coadjutor (de facto bishop) of the Bishopric of Warmia, to succeed on the demise of Prince-Bishop Stanislaus Hosius. After nine years at that post, Kromer was officially promoted to Prince-Bishop. He spent the rest of his days in Warmia, keeping diaries and writing several books on the history of Poland. He died on 23 March 1589 in Heilsberg (Lidzbark Warmiński).

In his works, Kromer advocated the reform of Poland's scientific and cultural life. One of his notable demands was providing the Cracow Academy with new privileges to restore its position as one of the renowned universities in Central Europe. He also promoted the active defence of the Roman Catholic Church against the growing Reformation.

Martin Kromer and Stanislaus Hosius (Stanisław Hozjusz) were the two bishops most instrumental in causing Royal Prussia's diocese of Warmia to return to or remain Catholic during a time of major conversions to Protestantism, especially in the neighboring Duchy of Prussia which almost surrounded the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, and had converted to Lutheranism as the first state to do so.

Works
Marcin Kromer published his works in Latin and Polish.

In Latin

 * Musicae elementa, Kraków, 1532, survived only one fragment: De plana musica liber prior.
 * Martini Cromeri Sermo de tvenda dignitate sacerdotii, Petricoviae in Synodo habitus, Kraków, 1542,
 * Martini Cromeri De origine et rebvs gestis Polonorvm libri XXX. Adiecta est in fine, eiusdem autoris funebris Oratio Sigismvndi regis uitam compendiose complexa, 1555,
 * Martini Cromeri Varmiensis Episcopi Polonia: siue de origine et rebus gestis Polonorum libri XXX of 1555 (About origins and history of Poles in thirty books) in Latin, (Polish translation O sprawach, dziejach i wszystkich innych potocznościach koronnych polskich published in Cologne 1589,
 * Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo published in Cologne in 1577 (Poland, about location, culture and offices) in Latin, (Polish translation Polska, czyli o położeniu, obyczajach, urzędach Rzeczypospolitej Królestwa Polskiego in 1853)
 * Catecheses sive Institvtiones dvodecim de septem Sacramentis & sacrificio Missae & de funeribus exequiis : ad vtilitatem parochorum & aliorum Sacerdotum, in Polonicam Germanicamq[ue] linguam conversae Kraków, 1570,
 * Oratio Martini Cromeri in fvnere optimi & maximi principis, Sigismundi, eius nominis primi Polonorum, Litvanorum, Russorum, Prussorum, & Masouiorum Regis, etc., Kraków, 1548,

In Polish
http://staropolska.pl/ang/renaissance/Kromer/kromer.php3
 * Rozmowa dworzanina z mnichem, Czego sye krzesciyánski człowyek dźyerżeć ma : mnichá z dworzáninem rozmowa wtora of 1551-1554 (in English: "Discourse between a Courtier and a Monk")
 * Historyja prawdziwa o przygodzie żałosnej książęcia finlandzkiego Jana i królewny polskiej Katarzyny from 1570, (in English: "A True Story of the Sorrowful Adventure of John, Prince of Finland, and the Polish Princess, Catherine"), a narrative about the love and adventures of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagiellon of Poland, parents to Sigismund III Vasa

title: Marcin Kromer


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Doug Mountjoy

Doug Mountjoy (8 June 1942 – 14 February 2021) was a Welsh snooker player from Tir-y-Berth, Gelligaer, Wales. He was a member of the professional snooker circuit from the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, and remained within the top 16 of the world rankings for 11 consecutive years. He began his professional snooker career by taking the 1977 Masters, which he entered as a reserve player. He won both the 1978 UK Championship and the 1979 Irish Masters. Mountjoy reached the final of the 1981 World Snooker Championship where he was defeated by Steve Davis. He was also runner-up at the 1985 Masters losing to Cliff Thorburn, but by 1988 he had dropped out of the top 16.

Mountjoy enjoyed a resurgence in his 40s, and at the age of 46 he defeated Stephen Hendry in the final of the 1988 UK Championship. He followed up by also winning the next ranking event, the 1989 Classic, and by the end of the 1988–89 season he was back in the top 16, where he remained until 1992. His world ranking peaked at number five in 1990–1991. He also won five Welsh Professional Championship titles during his career.

Diagnosed with lung cancer in 1993, Mountjoy qualified for the World Championship at the age of 50, just weeks before having a lung surgically removed. He continued to play professionally until 1997, and he was coach to the United Arab Emirates snooker association between 1997 and 1999 and appeared sporadically at the World Snooker Championship until 2002. Mountjoy died in February 2021 after a stroke.

Early life
Mountjoy was born on 8 June 1942, in Tir-y-Berth, Gelligaer, Glamorgan, Wales. He was brought up just outside Ebbw Vale and worked for some years as a coal miner, playing snooker in his spare time. A popular player in the South Wales Valleys as a junior, he won many amateur tournaments including two Welsh Amateur titles and the World Amateur title in 1976, after defeating Paul Mifsud 11–1. After the World Amateur victory he turned professional at the age of 34.

Career
Mountjoy's first professional tournament, which he entered as a late replacement, was the 1977 Masters at the New London Theatre. After defeating former world champions John Pulman, Fred Davis, and Alex Higgins to reach the final, he beat the defending Masters champion and reigning world champion Ray Reardon 7–6 to win the title.

At the 1977 World Championship a couple of months later, he defeated Higgins again in the first round but lost to Dennis Taylor in the quarter-final 11–13. At the end of 1977, he reached the final of the first UK Snooker Championship, losing to Patsy Fagan 9–12. He won the title at the 1978 UK Championship, however, beating David Taylor 15–9, and he defeated Ray Reardon in the same season to win the Irish Masters 6–5. He won the 1980 Champion of Champions, with a 10–8 victory over John Virgo in the final. Mountjoy also won the 1978 Pot Black event.

After being part of the winning Wales team in the first two snooker World Challenge Cups, in 1979 and 1980, and winning the 1980 Welsh Professional Championship he had an attack of Bell's palsy which partially paralysed his face. Recovering from the attack, he reached the final of the 1981 World Championship, defeating Eddie Charlton, Dennis Taylor and, in the semi-final, Ray Reardon (against whom he made a 145 break, a championship record at the time). He then played Steve Davis in the final. Davis was favourite to win his first world title, and appeared to be racing to an easy victory by winning the first six frames of the match. However, Mountjoy recovered and came close to drawing level on several occasions. Trailing 11–13, and with the score at 60–63 in the 25th frame, he looked certain to cut Davis's lead to one frame but missed a simple blue from its spot; Davis went on to clear the colours, the final black. Mountjoy won only one more frame as Davis won the match 18–12.

After that run at the World Championship, he had only a short run of titles; he won the Welsh Professional Championship in 1982 and 1984 to go with his 1980 title. He was back in the final of a major again in the 1985 Masters tournament, losing to Cliff Thorburn 9–6. Mountjoy also reclaimed the Pot Black title in March that year.

He won another Welsh title in 1987 but otherwise struggled to regain his previous form, including a 1–9 defeat to Steve Longworth in the first round of the 1986 UK Championship. By 1988 he was out of the top 16 in the world rankings. In the 1988–89 snooker season, however, he reached the final of the 1988 UK Championship where he met Stephen Hendry. He won 16–12 and gained his first ranking tournament victory, having at one stage scored centuries in three consecutive frames. In January 1989 he won the Classic, beating fellow Welshman Wayne Jones in the final, to win consecutive ranking titles. This was enough for him to return to the top 16 the next season, and by 1990 he was number five in the world. He remained in the top 16 until 1992.

Mountjoy was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1993, having been a smoker for many years. That year, at the age of 50, he defeated Alain Robidoux 10–6 in the first round of the World Championship, only weeks before an operation to remove his left lung. This was his last appearance in the final stages of the championship and for fifteen years he was the last player aged over 50 to appear at The Crucible. He survived the cancer and continued to play snooker until 1997, after which he concentrated on snooker coaching. He would coach in the United Arab Emirates, but did appear in qualifying for the 2002 World Snooker Championship.

Death
Mountjoy died on 14 February 2021, at the age of 78 after a stroke. In a joint statement, World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn and World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association chairman Jason Ferguson said: "Doug was first and foremost a lovely man, who had great friendships with many players on the tour throughout the 1970s and onwards."

title: Doug Mountjoy


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Alfred River

The Alfred River is a river in New Zealand's Tasman region. It runs west-southwest from its source in the Spenser Mountains to its junction with the Maruia River. The schist in the river contains hornblende. The area has a temperate oceanic climate. Gold is said to have been found in the area.

title: Alfred River


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Frédéric Monod

Frédéric Monod (17 May 1794, in Monnaz - 30 December 1863, in Paris) was a French Protestant pastor. He was the older brother of minister Adolphe Monod. He was born citizen of the Republic of Geneva, and obtained the French nationality by naturalization in 1820.

He studied theology in Geneva, receiving his consecration in 1818. As a student, he was greatly influenced by the Scottish minister Robert Haldane. From 1820 to 1849 he was a Reformed Church pastor in Paris. In 1849, along with Agénor de Gasparin, he founded the Union of the Evangelical Free Churches of France.

From 1824 up until his death in 1863, he was principal editor of the Archives du Christianisme.

His son, Théodore, (1836–1921) followed in his footsteps. Naturalist and explorer Théodore André Monod is his great-grandson.

title: Frédéric Monod


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Willie Thorne

William Joseph Thorne (4 March 1954 –17 June 2020) was an English professional snooker player. He won one ranking title, the 1985 Classic. He also reached the final of the 1985 UK Championship, losing 16–14 to Steve Davis after leading 13–8. He was noted for his break-building, and was among the first players to compile 100 century breaks. He earned the nickname "Mr Maximum". After retiring as a player, Thorne became a snooker commentator, primarily for the BBC.

Career
Thorne was born on 4 March 1954 at the family home in Anstey, a village located near Leicester, to Bill Thorne, a Desford Colliery miner, and his wife Nancy. He had two brothers. Thorne was educated at the Thomas Rawlins School in Quorn, and played multiple sports but excelled the most in snooker. He began playing snooker while holidaying in Eastbourne at the age of 14. He left school at age 15 and became an estimator for a glass factory while practising snooker in Loughborough and then Leicester's snooker halls. Thorne became national Under-16 snooker champion in 1970, and won three consecutive National Under-19 Billiards Championship titles from 1971 to 1973.

He turned professional in 1975, but never really converted his early promise into success, only winning one ranking snooker tournament (The Classic in 1985). The same year, he reached the 1985 UK Championship final against the then dominant Steve Davis and seemed to have built himself an unassailable 13–8 lead, but a miss on a straightforward off its  during the first  of the final session allowed Davis to take the frame and eventually win the title. Thorne later said that he had "hardly looked" at the blue, considering it a "certainty". Thorne was runner-up in four other events that season: the British Open (losing 7–12 to Davis), the Scottish Masters (losing 7–9 to Cliff Thorburn), the Irish Masters (losing 5–9 to Jimmy White) and the Pontins Professional (losing 6–9 to Terry Griffiths).

He reached the quarter-finals of the World Snooker Championship in 1982 and 1986. Thorne won the 1986 Hong Kong Masters by 8–3 over Dennis Taylor in the final with century breaks of 102 and 106, and then defeated Davis 10–9 to claim the 1986 Matchroom Professional Championship.

He peaked at No. 7 in the world rankings in the mid-1980s, while also battling a serious gambling problem. Thorne began gambling when he frequented a billiard hall in central Leicester from the age of 16. In one incident, Thorne bet £38,000 on a match involving John Parrott, betting that Parrott would lose as he had lost his personal cue and had to use one supplied by the venue. Much to Thorne's dismay, not least because he was actually commentating on the match, Parrott recovered from a slow start to win, only worsening Thorne's debts. In an interview with The Guardian newspaper in 2004, Thorne admitted to placing bets of up to £20,000 on horses.

Thorne's bald head made him instantly recognisable and he was often referred to as the "Homer Simpson of Snooker". He first began commentating for the BBC during the 1980s, and he continued to work on the BBC's networked snooker coverage until he was dropped from the corporation's broadcast team after the 2017–18 season. He also had stints commentating on snooker for Sky and ITV. Thorne continued to commentate for BBC Wales on their coverage of the Welsh Open in February each year.

Alongside other Matchroom professionals, Thorne featured in the popular song "Snooker Loopy", written and performed by Chas & Dave. In the verse which begins "but old Willie Thorne, his hair's all gorn", Thorne's cameo line was "Perhaps I ought to chalk it", in reference to his gleaming head distracting his opponents. Thorne also appeared in the "Romford Rap" video with the rest of the "Matchroom Mob".

Thorne was described as a skilled break-builder and possibly the "missing link" between old-school percentage play and the current aggressive game. He took 19 seasons to record 100 competitive century breaks. He was only the third player to achieve this feat and achieved a maximum break at the 1987 UK Championship. Thorne claimed to have made almost 200 maximum breaks, and was known as "Mr Maximum". Thorne won the World Seniors Masters in 2000, beating Cliff Thorburn in the final.

After retiring from the game in 2001, Thorne did not play another match for sixteen years; however, he returned to action in 2017 in the World Seniors Championship, where he lost 1–3 in the first round to Aiden Owens. The World Seniors Tour was formed in the same year, but Thorne did not enter any events that season. He began his comeback in 2019 at the Seniors Irish Masters, where he faced Jimmy White in his first match in the quarter-finals, losing 0–3, and the World Seniors Championship, where he lost by the same scoreline in the first round to Darren Morgan. His next match, in the first round of the 2019 UK Seniors Championship, proved to be his last; drawn against Michael Judge, Thorne lost 2–3.

Thorne also held the all-time record in the "Pocket Money" round of the BBC show Big Break, with a score of £540, until it was broken by Tony Knowles' score of £580 in April 1996.

Personal life
Thorne was married to former Miss Great Britain winner Jill Saxby and lived in Broughton Astley. He was previously married to Fiona Walker, with whom he had twin sons and a daughter. From 1982, he ran the Willie Thorne Snooker Centre club in Leicester, converted from a former motor taxation office, where Mark Selby used to compete in junior tournaments. In 2004, Thorne and writer Derek Marsden co-authored his first autobiography, Double or Quits. His second autobiography, Taking a Punt on My Life, was published in 2011.

In 2007, Thorne competed in Series 5 of Strictly Come Dancing with professional dance partner Erin Boag. They were voted off in the third week. He was friends with footballer Gary Lineker, which was the subject of the VHS production, Best of Friends – The Official Story of Gary Lineker & Willie Thorne. In 1985, Lineker was best man at Thorne's wedding. Thorne was a lifelong fan of Leicester City.

Illness and death
In June 2015, Thorne was diagnosed with prostate cancer after a psychiatrist ordered routine blood tests. After diagnosis, Thorne began treatment.

Thorne tweeted on 18 March 2020 that he had been diagnosed with leukaemia. On 16 June 2020, he was placed in an induced coma after suffering respiratory failure in hospital in Spain. The following day, his carer reported that Thorne had gone into septic shock, was not responding to treatment, and died after his life support was withdrawn, aged 66.

title: Willie Thorne


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Curtis White (author)

Curtis White is an American essayist and author. Most of his career has been spent writing experimental fiction, but he has turned recently to writing books of social criticism.

As author

 * Heretical Songs (short fiction) (Fiction Collective, 1981)
 * Metaphysics in the Midwest (stories) (Sun & Moon, 1989)
 * The Idea of Home (Sun & Moon, 1993; reprinted by Dalkey Archive Press, 2004)
 * Anarcho-Hindu (FC2, 1995)
 * Monstrous Possibility: An Invitation to Literary Politics (Dalkey Archive Press, 1998)
 * Memories of My Father Watching TV (Dalkey Archive Press, 1998)
 * Requiem (Dalkey Archive Press, 2001)
 * The Middle Mind: Why Americans Don't Think for Themselves (HarperSanFrancisco, 2003)
 * America's Magic Mountain (Dalkey Archive Press, 2004)
 * The Spirit of Disobedience: Resisting the Charms of Fake Politics, Mindless Consumption, and the Culture of Total Work (Polipoint Press, 2006)
 * The Barbaric Heart: Faith, Money, and the Crisis of Nature (Polipoint Press, 2009)
 * The Science Delusion: Asking the Big Questions in a Culture of Easy Answers (Melville House Publishing, 2013)
 * We Robots: Staying Human in the Age of Big Data (Melville House Publishing, 2015)
 * Lacking Character: A Novel (Melville House Publishing, March 2018)
 * Living in a World that Can’t Be Fixed: Reimagining Counterculture Today (Melville House Publishing, November 2019)
 * Transcendent: Art and Dharma in a Time of Collapse (Melville House Publishing, 2023)

Edited works
 * American Made (co-edited with Mark Leyner and Thomas Glynn, Fiction Collective, 1986)
 * An Illuminated History of the Future (FC2, 1989)
 * In The Slipstream: An FC2 Reader (FC2, 1999) (co-edited with Ronald Sukenick)

Essays and interviews

 * "The Middle Mind", in CONTEXT
 * "Saving Private Ryan : Don't try to do no thinkin'!", in CONTEXT
 * "Chickening Out. Fear and loathing in the academy: Ward Churchill faces the dilemma of the holy whore", essay, in Village Voice, 2005.
 * "In the Sharkcage with Curtis White" : an interview by Trevor Dodge at Alt-X
 * "An Interview with Curtis White" : an interview by Ben Kuebrich for OxMag, May 2007.
 * "Largehearted Boy Book Notes essay : a music playlist for The Barbaric Heart at Largehearted Boy
 * The spirit of disobedience: an invitation to resistance, Harper's Magazine, April 1, 2006

Audio

 * Lecture at Clackamas Community College, (March 14, 2007)

Also

 * Vol. XVIII, no. 2 of the Review of Contemporary Fiction contains numerous essays on Curtis White's career and books.

title: Curtis White (author)


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User talk:Pengryphon

Hi Pengryphon, welcome to Wikipedia. I've noticed that you intend to make Oz kingdoms a special project. Good! I'm rather into Oz myself. Here are a few tips:

If you type at the bottom of each new Oz-related page you create, the following box will appear:

Which provides handy links to other Oz topics, and makes it easier to group topics together. If you create a new article for a character, please update List of characters in the Oz books. And if you create a new article for a character location, try to add interlinks to the new article is some related articles, such as Land of Oz or the relevant book's page - and vice versa.

You might like to take a look at How to edit a page and Manual of Style, when you get the time. Try to keep in mind that people may land on an article randomly, so the opening line of the article should always define the context quite clearly. Take a look at the changes I've made to Cowardly Lion and the ones I'm about to make to Sir Hokus of Pokes, to get and idea of what I mean. --Woggly 11:52, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

Article topics
Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a how to or tutorial site. Pages like How to make chain mail are likely going to get deleted (or possibly moved to the nebulous How to area). Perhaps you would prefer to writing articles in an encyclopedic style, if just to avoid the conflicts. Rmhermen 21:45, May 11, 2004 (UTC)
 * Also please don't put your name in articles. Authorship can be tracked through the article history. Rmhermen 22:19, May 11, 2004 (UTC)

Leather scales image
Hi, I'm not sure what your plans for Image:Leather scales plans.bmp were, but I've uploaded a new image that is much smaller in size and has clearer text (Image:Leather scales plans.png). Bitmap (BMP format) images tend to be unsuitable for online use, due to their size and lack of any kind of compression; I'd recommend reducing them to PNG or JPG format before uploading. Check out How to keep image file sizes as small as possible for tips on how to do this, and when it's most appropriate. Also, if you create an image yourself, you may want to note that on the image description page, just so there is no question about possible copyright problems. Cheers! -- Wapcaplet 19:14, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

Period Mail
Hello there, I noticed that Making Period Mail is listed on votes for deletion (as it isn't really suitable for the Wikipedia). Have you considered contributing your work to Cunnan?

Take a look at http://www.sca.org.au/cunnan/ I'm sure your how-to style articles would be very welcome there. - Tobin Richard 05:17, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Armor making articles
Hey there, since a couple of your armor making articles have been nominated for deletion, since they are not encyclopedia article, I cut-and-pasted Making Period Mail, Making Period Leather Armor and Making Basic Armor to Wikibooks, under the same titles: Making Period Mail, Making Period Leather Armor and Making Basic Armor, provided credit to you on the talk page, and also copied the corresponding images. If you want to work on them anymore, follow those wikibooks links, and the articles will be there as you left them here on Wikipedia (with a few improvements, possibly) — siro χ  o  09:46, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)

Unverified images

 * Image:Kings mail.jpg
 * Image:6in1 mail.jpg
 * Image:Mailribbon.jpg

Thanks for uploading these images. I notice they currently don't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know their copyright status? (You can use if you release them under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks, Kbh3rd 04:26, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

A business proposal
Hello Pengryphon!

I have a business proposal for you! If you would like details please send me an e-mail to crimson cosmos  gmail com! I hope I'll hear from you soon!

Image:6in1 mail.jpg
Burgundavia (✈ take a flight?) 16:48, May 28, 2005 (UTC)

Unspecified source for Image:Jigformail.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Jigformail.jpg. I notice the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you have not created this file yourself, then you need to specify who owns the copyright, please. If you got it from a website, then a link to the website where it was taken from with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher then their copyright should also be acknowledged.

As well as the source, please add a proper copyright licensing tag if the file doesn't have one already. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the GFDL-self tag can be used to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media meets the criteria at Fair use, use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have uploaded by following [ this link]. Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If the image is copyrighted under a non-free license (per Fair use) then the image will be deleted 48 hours after 07:44, 20 January 2007 (UTC). If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Iamunknown 07:44, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Nomination of Lark in the Morning for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Lark in the Morning is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Lark in the Morning until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Rogermx (talk) 22:22, 31 March 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pengryphon


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Becontree tube station

Becontree is a London Underground station located to the south of Becontree in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham, east London. It is on the District line between to the west and Dagenham Heathway to the east. It is 9.1 km along the line from the eastern terminus at Upminster and 25.1 km to in central London where the line divides into numerous branches. It is in Travelcard Zone 5.

The station was originally opened as Gale Street Halt in 1926 by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway on the existing route from Fenchurch Street in London toward Southend. The station was renamed and completely rebuilt in 1932 with an additional pair of platforms to serve the electric District Railway (now the District line) local service. Main-line services ceased to call at the station in the 1960s, leaving only two platforms in operation.

History
In 1858 a line through East Ham was constructed to provide a faster connection between Barking and the city of London, which connects to the London and Blackwall Railway route to Fenchurch Street. Between 1885 and 1888, the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway (LT&SR) constructed a line between Barking and Pitsea via Upminster to provide a more direct route between the two cities. The station was not built at the time.

The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMSR) took ownership of the London, Tilbury and Southend line in 1923 and the station opened as Gale Street Halt on 28 June 1926 to serve the new Becontree Estate and subsequent residential areas. Initially, there were no roads leading to the station. In 1929, the company proposed quadrupling their line between Barking and Upminster and electrifying one pair of tracks for the District line. The station was rebuilt and new platforms were constructed for the new pair of tracks. Gale Street Halt was renamed as Becontree and the new station building to the designs of the architect William Henry Hamlyn opened on 18 July 1932, with electrified District line services starting operation 2 months after on 12 September. In addition to the start of electrified services, two new adjacent stations on the District line named Upney and Heathway (now Dagenham Heathway) opened.

By 1935, there were approximately 18,000 homes in this area, and together with developers, Dagenham Council added more than 5000 homes until 1965. By 1940, the population grew to 116,000. This particular section of the line between Barking and Upminster was popular among commuters getting to West and East Ham which reduced the need for bus services. Other reasons were a shortened travel time to Charing Cross of up to 35 minutes and the good availability of trains servicing this part of the line.

The slow tracks on the former LT&SR line to Upminster were shared with steam locomotive hauled goods and passenger services, until 1961 when the District line took over exclusive use of the DC electrified lines. LT&SR services ceased to stop at the station on 15 June 1962.

Becontree Estate Railway
The railway here was crossed by Becontree Estate Railway, a temporary railway constructed as part of the building of the Becontree housing estate which operated between 1921 and 1934. Becontree estate was constructed in the 1920s by C. J. Wills and Sons Ltd., with the remainder completed in 1938. The estate was once to be served by high speed tramways, with services starting from Ilford, branching out into the estate and then rejoining the current line to Barking. This was not supported by Ilford and Barking councils, and was abandoned due to problems with Ilford authorities and the need to electrify the Barking to Upminster line. There was also a deferred plan for a Kearney Monorail tube connecting Becontree to the city.

Design
The station has four platforms, of which two are used by the District line and another two are disused since the LT&SR service was withdrawn in 1962. One of the platforms is fenced off from the westbound District line platform. The single-storey brick station buildings are of typical 1930s design which are also constructed at Dagenham East, Hornchurch and Upminster at the time. Station refurbishment works were completed by Metronet in 2006, where heritage features were restored, CCTV equipment replaced and PA system enhanced. New wall tiles and ceilings were clad, and new tactile strips, customer Help Points and better lighting were installed. Whilst these works were done between 2005 and 2006, the station was closed on several weekends whereby replacement buses operated to Dagenham Heathway station.

Location
The station is located on the west side of Gale Street. It serves the residential area of Becontree, which is to the north of the station. There is a commercial area to the south of the station, while Parsloes Park is to the north. Nearby landmarks include a driving school, the Jo Richardson Community School, Roding Primary School and The James Campbell Primary School.

London Bus routes 62 and 145 serve the station.

Services
Becontree is on the Upminster part of the line between Upney and Dagenham Heathway. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
 * 12 tph eastbound to Upminster
 * 6 tph westbound to Ealing Broadway
 * 6 tph westbound to Richmond

In popular culture
The station is said to be haunted by a faceless woman with long blonde hair that several staff members have sighted. A possible connection to this could be that in 1958 there was a collision between two trains near Becontree Station that led to the deaths of 10 people.

title: Becontree tube station


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Upney tube station

Upney is a London Underground station located on Upney Lane in Barking, east London. It is on the District line between Barking station to the west and station to the east. It is 10.96 km along the line from the eastern terminus at Upminster and 23.24 km to in central London where the line divides into three branches. It is in London fare zone 4.

The station was opened in 1932 by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway on the local electrified tracks that were extended to Upminster from Barking.

History
Upney, High Upney and Low Upney arguably lost their identity when they were swallowed up by the town of Barking. They apparently lost that identity after the station opened, as Upney was shown on an Ordnance Survey map fully revised in 1932, when the area was less built-up than it is today.

Upney station was opened in 1932 when the electrified District line was extended to Upminster from Barking. The station was constructed and initially operated by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway with services provided by the District line from the outset.

Design
The station buildings are of typical 1930s design and the platforms are arranged on a central island with a sloping walkway connection to the ticket hall. The station design is very similar to and.

Services
Typical off-peak service from the station is:
 * 12 tph (trains per hour) east to Upminster
 * 6 tph west to Ealing Broadway
 * 6 tph west to Richmond

Connections
London Buses route 62 serves the station.

title: Upney tube station


text:
List of Dark Angel episodes

Dark Angel is an American biopunk/cyberpunk science fiction television series created by James Cameron and Charles H. Eglee. It premiered in the United States and Canada on the Fox network on October 3, 2000, but was canceled after two seasons. The show chronicles the life of Max Guevara (X5-452), a genetically enhanced super-soldier, portrayed by Jessica Alba as an adult, and Geneva Locke as a child.

title: List of Dark Angel episodes