text:
G2 manifold

In differential geometry, a G2 manifold or Joyce manifold is a seven-dimensional Riemannian manifold with holonomy group contained in G2. The group $$G_2$$ is one of the five exceptional simple Lie groups. It can be described as the automorphism group of the octonions, or equivalently, as a proper subgroup of special orthogonal group SO(7) that preserves a spinor in the eight-dimensional spinor representation or lastly as the subgroup of the general linear group GL(7) which preserves the non-degenerate 3-form $$\phi$$, the associative form. The Hodge dual, $$\psi=*\phi$$ is then a parallel 4-form, the coassociative form. These forms are calibrations in the sense of Reese Harvey and H. Blaine Lawson, and thus define special classes of 3- and 4-dimensional submanifolds.

Properties
All $$G_2$$-manifold are 7-dimensional, Ricci-flat, orientable spin manifolds. In addition, any compact manifold with holonomy equal to $$G_2$$ has finite fundamental group, non-zero first Pontryagin class, and non-zero third and fourth Betti numbers.

History
The fact that $$G_2$$ might possibly be the holonomy group of certain Riemannian 7-manifolds was first suggested by the 1955 classification theorem of Marcel Berger, and this remained consistent with the simplified proof later given by Jim Simons in 1962. Although not a single example of such a manifold had yet been discovered, Edmond Bonan nonetheless made a useful contribution by showing that, if such a manifold did in fact exist, it would carry both a parallel 3-form and  a  parallel 4-form,  and that it would necessarily be   Ricci-flat.

The first local examples of 7-manifolds with holonomy $$G_2$$ were finally constructed around 1984 by Robert Bryant, and his full proof of their existence appeared in the Annals in 1987. Next, complete (but still noncompact) 7-manifolds with holonomy $$G_2$$ were constructed by Bryant and Simon Salamon in 1989. The first compact 7-manifolds with holonomy $$G_2$$ were constructed by Dominic Joyce in 1994. Compact $$G_2$$ manifolds are therefore sometimes known as "Joyce manifolds", especially in the physics literature.

In 2015, a new construction of compact $$G_2$$ manifolds, due to Alessio Corti, Mark Haskins, Johannes Nordstrőm, and Tommaso Pacini, combined a gluing idea suggested by Simon Donaldson with new algebro-geometric and analytic techniques for constructing Calabi–Yau manifolds with cylindrical ends, resulting in tens of thousands of diffeomorphism types of new examples.

Connections to physics
These manifolds are important in string theory. They break the original supersymmetry to 1/8 of the original amount. For example, M-theory compactified on a $$G_2$$ manifold leads to a realistic four-dimensional (11-7=4) theory with N=1 supersymmetry. The resulting low energy effective supergravity contains a single supergravity supermultiplet, a number of chiral supermultiplets equal to the third Betti number of the $$G_2$$ manifold and a number of U(1) vector supermultiplets equal to the second Betti number.

title: G2 manifold


text:
Talk:Sapere aude

2004 deletion debate
No consensus to delete. Removed VfD notice. Seems to be consensus for redirect, but since there is a little content, it is more like a disambiguation. Delete debate archived below. -- Cecropia | Talk 14:21, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

Another dictionary (Latin) definition. No information on the origin, and it's not even a well-known saying. Deb 17:06, 2 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I deleted this once. It's not even a dicdef, just a translation with no explanation or any indicatino as to why it should be here.  Should be quick deleted.  RickK 20:04, 2 May 2004 (UTC)
 * You will find the phrase in the first paragraph of Kant's essay "What is Enlightenment?". I would expand rather than delete it: A whole world view is hidden behind these two words.  20:45, 2 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Now that I've realized there is a "What Is Enlightenment?" page I'd suggest a simple redirect (as otherwise it would grow into a duplicate article).  20:56, 2 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I Agree with KF . . . this is Kant, and is important to the Enlightenment period. Redirect might be good.  I could see justic in expansion too. --Phil Larin 04:14, 3 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Agree with the preceeding comment. Redirect, hope for an expansion. There are several societies that have adopted the name. Alcarillo 15:57, 3 May 2004 (UTC)
 * And why is it that when I "add to this deletion debate" my addition is not shown here on VfD until I post it directly here, too (so that then it's here twice)?
 * Your comments in the msg:VfD page only show up when you reload the VfD page. RickK 03:28, 3 May 2004 (UTC)
 * This phrase is also the motto for the University of Otago, should be added if we keep this as a stub. Lisiate 04:40, 4 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, I added in the facts people mentioned in this debate. I'd say marginally keep with the new info, but it's no big deal either way. Isomorphic 16:39, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * On second consideration, not marginal keep, just keep. Wiki isn't paper, and we've now got three distinct facts in the article (translation, usage by Kant, and the school motto.)  Internet search showed lots of websites using the phrase, so an article giving it a little context has use. Isomorphic 05:19, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Cribcage 02:44, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

List recatigorization and copyedit into paragraphs
Wow, that's quite list this article has! I'd like to create a section called "Use as a Motto" and recategorize the list by type of institution -- government, higher education (colleges), primary and secondary education (grade schools), organizations (clubs, associations), and other (family crest, etc). Rather than simply create a new list, I will write the list into paragraph form. Before I start, your thoughts? --Martinship 19:55, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

Pronounciation
I googled "sapere aude" pronounced (and various similar permutations) and couldn't find a pronunciation guide for this phrase. Anyone know? If so, should one go parenthetically in the lead? — Demong talk 08:00, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Sap-er-ay Ow-day —Preceding unsigned comment added by StephenSmith (talk • contribs) 20:51, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Move to Wiktionary
This article was recently transwiki'd to Wiktionary. It was subsequently turned into a soft-redirect to the Wiktionary page. That soft redirect was reverted. I've read the article yet again. I find only meaning, origins and examples of usage (and a navbox of questionable utility). Please show me the non-lexical content. Rossami (talk) 16:39, 4 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Without wanting to provoke anything here, two different people have now disagreed with you about this. Every single article we have on Latin phrases features their meaning, origin, and usage, and nothing else.  What else do you suggest the article could actually contain?  See, for examples, E pluribus unum, Per capita or Carpe diem, or indeed anything in Category:Latin mottos, Category:Latin logical phrases, Category:Latin legal phrases, Category:Latin words and phrases and subcats, etc.  Are you suggesting they are all unencyclopaedic?  Every single article has meaning, origin, usage.  That's pretty much all you could ever have on a phrase, Latin or otherwise. Neıl  ☎  15:18, 19 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I can not agree with your starting premise that all our existing articles on Latin phrases are so limited. At articles like Prima facie and Res ipsa loquitur, I see a detailed discussion of the legal concept (which happens to be synopsized by the Latin phrase).  Those article include a direct translation but the translation is only a minor part of the article.  (The same holds true for most of the logic articles.)  At E pluribus unum and carpe diem, I see a great deal of discussion about the social and historical significance of the motto.  Those articles go far beyond meaning, origins and usage examples. I don't see that here, despite a more than reasonable amount of time for that content to have been added and despite a fair amount of my own research.  This page at its most expansive contained only a direct translation of the phrase (plus an alternate translation), a probable origin for the phrase and a listing of some colleges and other institutions that use it as a motto.  No underlying legal or philosophical concept, no extensive social or historical significance, nothing that seems to cross the boundary from lexical to encyclopedic. I'm willing to learn.  If you see a way this page can be expanded into a proper encyclopedia article, please describe it.  I can't see it.  Rossami (talk) 02:43, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Update: On 11 May 2008, anonymous user:71.63.245.222 successfully rewrote the page with content that goes beyond the merely lexical. Rossami (talk)

Missing content?
Under the "Foucault" header there seems to be a missing word: "Instead of a [blank], it becomes..." I have no clue what word is intended. If the original author could add it, I could perhaps avoid a fate in the insane asylum, tearing out my hair trying to figure out what it is. Thank you! Danopticon (talk) 02:45, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Thanks for mentioning this, Danopticon. It was driving me nuts as well! Maybe the author (or person who edited it out, as the case may be) can return and save us all, or leave us to guess onward into madness? Ronocdh (talk) 14:56, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Having read through the source cited for this passage, it appears the best text to serve as clarification would be "mere theory or doctrine". Are there any objections to this substitution? Ronocdh (talk) 01:37, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

The phrase is used as a school motto for Wesley College, Melbourne, Australia (and no doubt other institutions). The article doesn't mention the context of the phrase, which in the writings of Horace, is the moral for a story about a "fool" (a naive person) who waits for the stream to stop before crossing, whereas the wise man "makes a beginning". This fable or parable is intended to typify the personal qualities of being daring, or adopting risk, or mere determination in reaching a goal. It promotes the value of personal endeavour, against obstacles. The idea of enthusiasm and will or spirit being valuable personal qualities may bear some relevance in understanding the context of the phrase, which is devalued without the context. StephenSmith (talk) 21:35, 23 January 2010 (UTC)

use as a motto
While I agree that any list of institutions using the phrase as a motto is unnecessary, I feel it is definitely worth mentioning that it is widely used as such. I've added a short sentence to that effect to the lede. Note: this is NOT a licence to start listing institutions! Grutness...wha?  11:00, 18 December 2016 (UTC) (NO! not even my alma mater!)

Problematic
Why is the enlightenment deemed problematic in the second paragraph? Stiginz (talk) 21:26, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Sapere aude


text:
Light infantry

Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought as scouts, raiders, and skirmishers. These are loose formations that fight ahead of the main army to harass, delay, disrupt supply lines, engage the enemy's own skirmishing forces, and generally "soften up" an enemy before the main battle. Light infantrymen were also often responsible for screening the main body of a military formation.

Post-World War II, the term "light infantry" evolved to include rapid-deployment units (including commando and airborne units) that emphasized speed and mobility over armor and firepower. Some units or battalions that historically held a skirmishing role have kept their designation "light infantry" for the sake of tradition.

Ancient history
The concept of a skirmishing screen is a very old one and was already well-established in Ancient Greece and Roman times in the form, for example, of the Greek peltast and psiloi, and the Roman velites. As with the so-called "light infantry" of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the same time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in open order as skirmishers that made them light infantry and that hoplites fought in the battle line in a phalanx formation that made them heavy infantry.

Modern history
Early regular armies of the modern era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In particular, the French Army employed detachments of German and Balkan mercenaries to serve as patrols in the rough country until a permanent corps of Mountain Fusiliers (Fusiliers des Montagnes) was raised in the 1740s. In the 17th century, dragoons were sometimes employed as the skirmishers of their day, as mounted infantrymen who rode into battle but dismounted to fight, giving them a mobility lacking to regular foot soldiers.

In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a light company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more agile men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the ordinary infantry but often in widely dispersed groups, necessitating an understanding of skirmish warfare. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary and would fight ahead of the mainline to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position.

During the period 1777–1781, the Continental Army of the United States adopted the British Army practice of seasonally drafting light infantry regiments as temporary units during active field operations, by combining existing light infantry companies detached from their parent regiments.

Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and wore rifle green uniforms. These became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger and Schützen (sharpshooter) regiments in German-speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs and the sharpshooters tirailleurs. The Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from frontier areas. They were gradually absorbed into the line infantry becoming a hybrid type that proved successful against the French, to the extent that Napoleon recruited several units of Austrian army Grenzer to his own army after victory over Austria in 1809 compelled the Austrians to cede territories from which they were traditionally recruited. In Portugal, 1797, companies of Caçadores (Hunters) were created in the Portuguese Army, and in 1808 led to the formation of independent "Caçador" battalions that became known for their ability to perform precision shooting at long distances.

Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, and their swords were light curved sabres; as opposed to the heavy, straighter swords of other infantry officers. Orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drums (since the sound of a bugle carries further and it is difficult to move fast when carrying a drum). Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments (or converted existing ones) of light infantry. These were considered elite units, since they required specialised training with emphasis on self-discipline, manoeuvre and initiative to carry out the roles of light infantry as well as those of ordinary infantry.

By the late 19th century, the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice. Some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments.

On the eve of World War I, the British Army included seven light infantry regiments. These differed from other infantry only in maintaining such traditional distinctions as badges that included a bugle-horn, dark green home service helmets for full dress, and a fast-stepping parade ground march.

Contemporary
Today the term "light" denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. Light infantry units lack the greater firepower, operational mobility and protection of mechanized or armored units, but possess greater tactical mobility and the ability to execute missions in severely restrictive terrain and in areas where weather makes vehicular mobility difficult.

Light infantry forces typically rely on their ability to operate under restrictive conditions, surprise, violence of action, training, stealth, field craft, and fitness levels of the individual soldiers to compensate for their reduced lethality. Despite the usage of the term "light", forces in a light unit will normally carry heavier individual loads vis-à-vis other forces; they must carry everything they require to fight, survive and win due to lack of vehicles. Although units like the 101st Airborne (Air Assault) and the 82nd Airborne Division are categorized as Air Assault Infantry and Airborne Infantry respectively, they fall under the overall concept of light infantry. They are typically infantry intended for difficult terrain such as mountains or arctic conditions (US Marines) (Royal Marines, United States Army 10th Mountain Division, United States Army 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Mountain), Italian Army Alpini, French Army 27ème bataillon de chasseurs alpins) or jungle (1st Scout Ranger Regiment, Brazilian Army Jungle Infantry Brigades).

In the 1980s, the United States Army increased light forces to address contingencies and increased threats requiring a more deployable force able to operate in restrictive environments for limited periods. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division (light), 7th Infantry Division (light), 10th Mountain Division (light infantry), 25th Infantry Division, and the 75th Ranger Regiment. Operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U.S. Forces, mostly light, deployed to Panama within a 48-hour period to execute combat operations. On 30 September 1985, the 29th Infantry Division (Maryland and Virginia Army National Guard) was reactivated at Fort Belvoir, Virginia as the only light Infantry Division in the US Army's reserve components.

During the Falklands War in 1982, both Argentina and the United Kingdom made heavy use of light infantry and its doctrines during the campaign, most notably the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (Argentina) and 25th Infantry Regiment (Argentina) and the British Parachute Regiment and Royal Marines of 3 Commando Brigade. Due to the rocky and mountainous terrain of the Falkland Islands, operations on the ground were only made possible with the use of light infantry because the use of mechanized infantry or armour was severely limited by of the terrain, leading to the "Yomp" across the Falklands, in which Royal Marines and Paras yomped (and tabbed) with their equipment across the islands, covering 56 miles (90 km) in three days carrying 80-pound (36 kg) loads after disembarking from ships at San Carlos on East Falkland, on 21 May 1982.

During the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability. This scrutiny has resulted in the Stryker Brigade Combat Team, a greater focus on task organized units (such as Marine Expeditionary Units) and a reduction of purely light forces.

Despite their reduction, light forces have proven successful in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom), underlining the continued need for light infantry.

Argentina

 * Mountain Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores de Montaña
 * Jungle Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores de Monte

Belgium

 * 12th-13th Battalion of the Line
 * 1st Regiment Jagers te Paard, mechanized reconnaissance battalion
 * 2nd/4th Regiment Mounted Rifles, mechanized reconnaissance battalion with electronic warfare unit
 * Regiment Carabiniers Prins Boudewijn – Grenadiers

Brazil
There are three light infantry brigades, (4ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve de Montanha, 11ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve and 12ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve Aeromóvel), and an airborne infantry brigade (Brigada de Infantaria Paraquedista). The 12º Light Infantry Brigade and the Airborne Infantry Brigade both belong to the Força de Ação Rápida Estratégica (Quick Strategic Action Force), which is composed of units capable of rapidly engaging in combat anywhere in Brazil.

Canada
Each of the three regular army regiments (Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Royal Canadian Regiment and Royal 22e Régiment) maintains their third battalion as light infantry capable in airborne, mountain, and amphibious operations, with varying degrees of capability. All reserve infantry units are classed as light infantry, all with varying degrees of capability.

Denmark

 * Schleswig Regiment of Foot

Finland

 * Finnish Jäger troops, volunteers from Finland in Germany trained as Jägers
 * Guard Jaeger Regiment, a Finnish Army unit
 * Jaeger Brigade, a unit of the Finnish Army
 * Para Jägers, Special Operations Airborne Infantry in the Finnish Army
 * Utti Jaeger Regiment, the Finnish Army training and development centre for special forces and helicopter operations
 * Sissi troops can also be considered light infantry

Finnish infantry units are also known as Jäger (Finnish pl. Jääkärit, Swedish pl. Jägarna), a legacy of a Finnish volunteer Jäger battalion formed in Germany during World War I to fight for the liberation of Finland from Russia.

Ancien régime
The Chasseur designation was given to certain regiments of French light infantry (Chasseurs à pied) or light cavalry (Chasseurs à cheval).

The Chasseurs à pied (light infantry) were originally recruited from hunters or woodsmen. The Chasseurs à Pied, as the marksmen of the French army, were considered an elite. The first unit raised was Jean Chrétien Fischer's Free Hunter Company in 1743. Early units were often a mix of cavalry and infantry. In 1776, all Chasseurs units were re-organized into six battalions, each linked to a cavalry regiment (Chasseurs à cheval). In 1788, the link between infantry battalions and cavalry regiments was broken.

Revolution and Napoleon

In 1793, the Ancien Régime's Chasseur battalions were merged with volunteer battalions in new units called Light Infantry half-brigades (demi-brigades d’infanterie légère). In 1803, the half-brigades were renamed regiments. These units had three battalions of three regular Chasseurs companies, one elite Carabiniers company and one reconnaissance voltigeurs company.

In Napoléon's Imperial Guard, many units used names linked to light infantry:
 * Chasseurs à pied: three regiments (1809–1815; 1815–1815; 1815–1815). The regiments were the elite of the light infantry regiments.
 * Fusilier-Chasseurs: a single regiment, originally the first Guard Fusilier Regiment (1809–1815)
 * Voltigeur: 16 regiments, originally two regiments of Tirailleurs-chasseur and two regiments of Conscrits-chasseurs (1810–1815), then twelve new regiments (1811–1815). These regiments were expected to become Chasseurs à pieds.
 * Flanqueurs-Chasseurs: two regiments, from drafted Forest Service members (1811–1815; 1813–1815)

In Bourbon royalist
 * Chasseurs Britanniques: battalion-sized corps of royalist volunteers.

19th century

The Napoleonic light infantry regiments existed until 1854, but there were very few differences between them and the line infantry regiments, so the 25 remaining light infantry regiments were transformed to line infantry in 1854.

 * Chasseurs à pied: The Duke of Orléans, heir to the throne, created in 1838 a new light infantry unit, the Tirailleurs battalion. It soon became, under the name Chasseur à Pied, the main light infantry unit in the French Army. The number of battalions grew up steadily through the century. The current Chasseurs battalions drew their lineage form this unit.
 * Chasseurs alpins: Some of Chasseurs à pied battalions were converted to specialized mountain units as Bataillons de Chasseurs Alpins in 1888, as an answer to the Italian Alpine (Alpini) regiments stationed along the Alpine frontier.
 * Chasseurs Forestiers: The Chasseurs forestiers (Forest Huntsmen) were militarized units of the Forest Service. They were organized in companies. They existed between 1875 and 1924.
 * Infanterie Légère d'Afrique (African Light Infantry) were penal battalions forming part of the French forces serving in North Africa. These units were recruited mainly from convicted military criminals from all branches of the French Army, who had finished their sentences in military prisons but still had time to serve before their engagement periods were finished.
 * Zouaves: The Zouaves battalions and regiments were colonial troops, formed originally by Algerians, then by European settlers and colonists. The first Zouave battalion was created in 1831 and changed its recruiting to Europeans in 1841. During the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, effective use was made of Zouaves and Chasseurs à pied (see above) in evolving light infantry tactics that went further than merely screening the main battle line. At the Battle of Solferino these newly organized skirmishers operated as independent groups that were able to disrupt their Austrian opponents by sudden flank assaults.
 * Tirailleurs: Tirailleurs (Skirmishers) were light infantry who formed a shallow line ahead of the line of battle during the Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars and subsequently. The name was also used for the locally recruited colonial troops in the French Empire between 1841 and 1962.

20th century

 * Chasseurs à pied: The Chasseurs à pieds evolved during the mid 20th century into mechanized infantry units (Chasseurs mécanisés) or armored division infantry (Chasseurs portés). After World War Two, all Chasseur units were organized on the mechanized infantry model.
 * Chasseurs alpins: The Chasseurs alpins, mountain warfare units of the French Army created in 1888.
 * Chasseurs pyrénéens and Chasseurs pyrénéens were the short-lived (1939–1940) mountain warfare units formed in the Pyrénées.
 * Chasseurs-Parachutistes: The Chasseurs-parachutistes were airborne infantry units formed in 1943 from Air Force infantry compagnies transferred to the Army.
 * Zouaves and Tirailleurs: After the independence of the countries that made up the French Colonial Empire, the Zouaves and the Tirailleurs units, save for one, were disbanded.

Modern French Army Light Infantry

 * 7th Chasseurs Alpins Battalion
 * 13th Chasseurs Alpins Battalion
 * 16th Chasseur Battalion
 * 27e bataillon de chasseurs alpins
 * 1st Tirailleur Regiment
 * 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment

Although the traditions of these different branches of the French Army are very different, there is still a tendency to confuse one with the other. For example, when World War I veteran Léon Weil died, the AFP press agency stated that he was a member of the 5th "Regiment de Chasseurs Alpins". It was in fact the 5th Bataillon.

India
The Indian Army of 1914 included ten regiments with "Light Infantry" in their titles. These were the:

 * 2nd Queen Victoria's Own Rajput Light Infantry
 * 5th Light Infantry
 * 6th Jat Light Infantry
 * 63rd Palamcottah Light Infantry
 * 83rd Wallajahabad Light Infantry
 * 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry)
 * 103rd Mahratta Light Infantry
 * 105th Mahratta Light Infantry
 * 110th Mahratta Light Infantry
 * 127th Baluch Light Infantry

Most of these regiments lost their separate identity as a result of extensive amalgamations in 1922. The modern Indian Army retains the Maratha Light Infantry and the Sikh Light Infantry.

Of the 28 infantry regiments of the modern Indian Army, the following ten are designated as "Rifles". They are distinguished by their black rank badges, black buttons on their service and ceremonial uniforms and a beret in a darker shade of green than other regiments. Two paramilitary forces—the Assam Rifles and the Eastern Frontier Rifles—also follow the traditions of a rifle regiment.

 * Rajputana Rifles
 * Garhwal Rifles
 * 1st Gorkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment)
 * 3 Gorkha Rifles
 * 4 Gorkha Rifles
 * 5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 8 Gorkha Rifles
 * 9 Gorkha Rifles
 * 11 Gorkha Rifles
 * Jammu and Kashmir Rifles
 * Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry
 * Maratha Light Infantry
 * Sikh Light Infantry

Ireland
The Irish famously employed "Cethernacht" or Kern as light infantry. These usually made up the bulk of Gaelic and even later Anglo Norman Irish armies during the Middle Ages to renaissance era's. Traditionally armed with javelins and swords while wearing no armour, in later periods they were equipped with caliver muskets while still using little to no armour. They were notably effective while employed in tandem with heavily armed "Galloglaich" or anglicised Gallowglass. They could provide effective support to heavily armed troops as well as endlessly harassing enemies in difficult terrain. Today, all infantry battalions of the Irish Army are light infantry soldiers.

Italy
Most of the states of the Italian peninsula had their own units of skirmishers before Italian unification. One of the few that survived it were the Sardinian Bersaglieri, who were formed in 1836. They became some of the most iconic soldiers in Italian Army and were its "quick reaction force". The Alpini are the Italian Army's elite mountain troops, founded in 1875. Although they may not seem a true "light infantry" unit, (they were assigned their own artillery, carried double load of everything, and had a slower marching pace of 45 steps per minute), the Alpini were trained as jagers and skirmishers, introducing the use of skis and climbing training for all of their recruits. Those two corps still exist today, but in recent years the Bersaglieri have become a mechanised infantry unit, working closely with armoured units, and up until the mid-1990s had their own tank and artillery units. Other units that can be classified as light infantry are:

 * The Folgore Parachute Brigade, created in 1963, is the only airborne unit in the Italian Army. Apart from one light cavalry regiment, it comprises three airborne infantry and two special force regiments.
 * The Friuli Air Assault Brigade was originally an Italian Army mechanised brigade. In 2000 it converted to a fully airmobile role and is part of the "Friuli" Division. It is composed of three light aviation regiments and one infantry regiment—66th Reggimento Fanteria Aeromobile "Trieste"—the only regiment in the Italian Army to be fully airmobile.
 * The San Marco Marine Brigade of the Italian Navy comprises three regiments. The First is an amphibious assault unit, the Second carries out force protection, boarding and search and seizure procedures on ships and the Third is a training unit. Given that it has almost only light vehicles (the heaviest being the amphibious Arisgator and AAV7 landing vehicles) and is tasked to operate in harsh terrain (shore lines, lagoons, deserts, mountains, jungles), it is one of the purest "light infantry" units in the Italian Armed Forces.
 * The 13th and 7th regiments of the Carabinieri were created during WW2 as highly mobile infantry. They are still deployed to war zones as light infantry and military law enforcement units. The Carabinieri also have some domestic law enforcement units trained as light or airmobile infantry. The Squadrone Eliportato "Cacciatori di Calabria (nicknamed the Falchi d'Aspromonte, meaning "Hawks of the Aspromonte") is tasked with opposing the "Camorra" criminal organisation, who are numerous and typically armed with military-grade weapons acquired on the black market, and operate deep within the mountainous region of the Aspromonte. The Squadrone Eliportato Cacciatori di Sardegna was created by the Carabinieri to reduce the spree of banditry (mainly kidnapping) that afflicted the innermost areas of Sardinia.

Myanmar
As of current, it's reported that Myanmar Army has total of 10 units designated as a "Light Infantry Division" and 20 units designated as "Military Operation Command". Two units are mostly similar in term of organisational structure. One of the main differences is that LIDs are mostly numbered in double digits like 11, 22, 33, 44 whereas MOCs are numbered sequelly. Both commands 10 battalions. While not that obvious, one of the main difference in term of organisational structure is that LIDs' 10 battalions are all Light Infantry whereas for MOC, it's 7 Infantry Battalions (Motorised) and 3 Infantry Battalions (Mechanised). Both have an intermediate layer between the Battalions and Division HQ called Tactical Operation Command. A TOC is a unit that commands up to 3 battalions. Essentially, LIDs are made up of 3 TOC and 1 battalion under HQ as reserve whereas MOCs are made up of 2 TOC (Motorised) and 1 TOC (Mechanised) with an IB (Motorised) under HQ as reserve. As for the command structure, LIDs are directly answerable to the Commander in Chief of Army whereas MOCs are subordinate to their respective Regional Military Command. As for unit patches, LIDs have their own division patches where MOCs do not have distinctive patches and wear RMC's patch instead. LIDs in Burmese are called ခြေမြန်တပ်မဌာနချုပ် (တမခ) whereas MOCs are called စစ်ဆင်ရေးကွပ်ကဲမှုဌာနချုပ် (စကခ). Both Light Infantry Divisions and MOCs are have an officer ranked Brigadier General as their General Officer Commanding, Colonel as Second in Command and Lieutenant Colonel as Division Chief of Staff (informally Division G/A/Q).

Units designated as "Light Infantry Divisions" are

 * No. (11) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (22) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (33) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (44) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (55) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (66) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (77) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (88) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (99) Light Infantry Division
 * No. (101) Light Infantry Division

Military Operation Commands:

Units designated as "Military Operation Commands" are

 * No. (1) Military Operation Command
 * No. (2) Military Operation Command
 * No. (3) Military Operation Command
 * No. (4) Military Operation Command
 * No. (5) Military Operation Command
 * No. (6) Military Operation Command
 * No. (7) Military Operation Command
 * No. (8) Military Operation Command
 * No. (9) Military Operation Command
 * No. (10) Military Operation Command

Since No. (11) Light Infantry Division has already been reformed, No. (11) Military Operation Command was not formed

 * No. (12) Military Operation Command
 * No. (13) Military Operation Command
 * No. (14) Military Operation Command
 * No. (15) Military Operation Command
 * No. (16) Military Operation Command
 * No. (17) Military Operation Command
 * No. (18) Military Operation Command
 * No. (19) Military Operation Command
 * No. (20) Military Operation Command
 * No. (21) Military Operation Command

Netherlands

 * Garderegiment Grenadiers en Jagers, guards regiment, an amalgamation of the Garderegiment Grenadiers and the Garderegiment Jagers. Consists of one air mobile infantry battalion
 * Regiment Limburgse Jagers, line infantry (former 2nd Infantry Regiment). Consists of one armoured infantry battalion
 * Korps Pandoeren, was a Khoekhoen militia united that served the Dutch East India Company during the French Revolutionary Wars.

Norway

 * Hærens Jegerkommando, the armed forces competence center for ranger, airborne and counter-terrorist duty in the Norwegian Army
 * Jegerkompaniet, the Norwegian Army's northernmost unit
 * Marinejegerkommandoen, a maritime special forces unit
 * Kystjegerkommandoen, coastal units
 * Grensejeger, border rangers at the border between Russia and Norway

Poland

 * Wojska Obrony Terytorialnej, Territorial Defence Force 17 light infantry brigades

Portugal
Portuguese light infantry soldiers were known as caçadores (literally "huntsmen"). Initially organized as a light company in each of the line infantry regiments, the caçadores were later organized as independent battalions. They constituted the elite light infantry of the Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War, being considered by the Duke of Wellington as the "fighting cocks of his army". They wore distinctive brown uniforms as an early form of camouflage.

The caçadores units were disbanded by the Army reorganization of 1911, but were recreated in 1926 as high readiness units, responsible for defending the border and other strategic points of the Country until the line units could be mobilized. In the 1950s, the designation caçadores started to be also given to the expeditionary provisional light infantry battalions and independent companies responsible for reinforcing the overseas territories garrisons. These units constituted the bulk of the Portuguese forces engaged in the several theatres of the Portuguese Overseas War, from 1961 to 1975. Colonial troops with this title also existed, being recruited among both Portuguese European settlers and from indigenous populations. In the 1950s, the Portuguese Air Force formed a unit of paratroopers called caçadores paraquedistas ("parachutist hunters"). Additional battalions of caçadores paraquedistas were later created in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea. At the beginning of the 1960s, Portuguese Army raised special forces companies of that were named caçadores especiais (special huntsmen). The caçadores especiais wore a brown beret in the colour of the uniforms of the caçadores of the Peninsular War. These units were later abolished and the brown beret started to be used by most of the units of the Portuguese Army.

In 1975, the designation "caçadores" was discontinued in the Portuguese Armed Forces. All former units of caçadores were redesigned as "infantry". Currently, every infantry soldier of the Portuguese Army is known as atirador. Today, the Portuguese Army uses the designation "light infantry" as a generic collective classification of the Paratroopers, Commandos and Special Operations troops, while the remaining infantry is classified as "motorized/mechanized infantry".

Rhodesia
The Rhodesian Light Infantry was a regular regiment of the Rhodesian Army, unique in having the traditions of light infantry while serving as a modern Commando regiment.

Romania

 * Vânători de Munte, or "Mountain Huntsmen" are the elite mountain units of the Romanian Army since their establishment in 1916
 * Vânători, or "Huntsmen", were the elite Romanian light infantry units until their disbanding in 1947

Russia
The Imperial Russian Army, which was heavily influenced by the Prussian and Austrian military systems, included fifty Jäger or yegerskii [егерский] regiments in its organisation by 1812, including the Egersky Guards Regiment. They were mostly united with line infantry regiments in 1833, when almost all Russian infantry began to receive the same training; including skirmishing. At the same time strelkovyi [стрелковый] battalions were introduced. These undertook light infantry functions when the skirmishing skills of line infantry were insufficient.

Spain
Historically the Spanish infantry included several battalions of light infantry that were designated as Cazadores. These units were incorporated into the ordinary infantry following army reorganization in the early 1930s. Until 2006 the modern Spanish Army maintained a Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña "Aragón I" (Mountain Huntsmen Brigade "Aragón I")

Sweden

 * Jägare, elite units in the Swedish Armed Forces
 * Fallskärmsjägarna, the Parachute Rangers
 * Swedish Parachute Ranger School
 * Ö-Nerike skvadron, Intelligence squadron
 * Vadsbo skvadron, Airborne squadron
 * Army Ranger Battalion, Arctic warfare rifles
 * Kustjägarna, Coastal Rangers
 * Livbataljon, Life Guards Battalion

Somalia

 * Danab, which translates to "Lightning" are the elite commandos units of the Somali Armed Forces.

United Kingdom

The British Army first experimented with light infantry in the French and Indian War, to counter the tactics used by the French-allied Native Americans. Along with secondment of regular infantry, several specialised units were raised (including Rogers' Rangers and the 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot), though most if not all had been disbanded by the middle of the 1760s. From 1770, all regular battalions were required to designate one of their ten companies a "Light Company", though their training in skirmishing was poor and inconsistent.

Dedicated rifle and light infantry regiments began to be formed or converted in the Napoleonic Wars, to counter the French Chasseurs. A new battalion of the 60th Royal Americans (later the King's Royal Rifle Corps) was raised in 1797, and an "Experimental Corps of Riflemen" (later the 95th Rifles and then the Rifle Brigade) in 1800. Both were equipped with green jackets and Baker rifles. Some extant regiments began to be designated "Light Infantry" at this point, receiving skirmishing training but generally still equipped with red coats and muskets. In the Peninsular War, a Light Brigade and later a Light Division were formed, at some points incorporating Portuguese Caçadores. By the Crimean War, rifles had become universal and tactics had substantially changed. This meant that the distinctions between light and line infantry were effectively limited to details such as name, a rapid march of 140 steps per minute, buglers instead of drummers and fifers, a parade drill which involved carrying rifles parallel to the ground ("at the trail") and dark green cloth helmets instead of dark blue. Light infantry badges always incorporated bugle horns as a central feature.

In the Second World War, the use of light infantry was revived in what became the British Commandos and the Parachute Regiment. Because of the nature of their role and deployment, they were more lightly equipped than most infantry battalions. The Parachute Regiment has survived to this day, while the Royal Marine Commandos are directly descended from those units formed in the Second World War.

Most of the old light infantry and rifle regiments were administratively grouped in a new Light Division in 1968. The British Army ordered regimental amalgamations in 1957, 1966, 1990 and 2003. The Rifles (the largest infantry regiment in the British Army) was formed in 2007 from the amalgamation of the regiments of the Light Division. The Rifles maintain the traditional quick parade march of all British light infantry, the Rifle Brigade's "rifle green" No 1 dress with blackened buttons and black leather belts, and many other traditions and "golden threads" of its parent regiments. The only rifle regiment not to become part of the Rifles was the Royal Gurkha Rifles. Following a series of amalgamations and one disbandment, none of the historic Light Infantry regiments now survive as separate entities within the modern British Army.

Today, "Light role infantry" is a designation that can be applied to an infantry battalion of any regiment. Light role infantry are not (by default) equipped with armoured vehicles (unlike Armoured Infantry or Mechanised Infantry).

Colonial and Revolutionary War
In 1780, General George Washington published an order of battle which included a corps of light infantry, under the command of General Lafayette. The light infantry participated in several major battles of the southern states in 1781, including the Battle of Yorktown. The entire Continental Army was dismissed after the war, with all regiments disbanded in 1784.

19th Century
In 1808, the United States Army created its first Regiment of Riflemen. During the War of 1812 three more Rifle Regiments were raised but disbanded after the war. The Rifle Regiment was disbanded in 1821.

In the Mexican–American War Colonel Jefferson Davis created and led the Mississippi Rifles.

Riflemen were listed as separate to infantry up to the American Civil War.

During the Civil War, Sharpshooter regiments were raised in the North with several companies being raised by individual states for their own regiments.

20th Century
In the early years of World War 2 the US military saw the need for light forces. They designated the 82nd Division as the 82nd Airborne Division and reactivated the 101st division as the 101st Airborne Division in 1942. In 1943, the United States formed the 10th Light Division (Alpine), re-designated as the 10th Mountain Division in 1944. In 1983, General John A. Wickham Jr., Chief of Staff of the United States Army, announced the creation of five light infantry divisions to increase the U.S. Army's ability to deploy quickly. These included the 7th Infantry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 6th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, as well as the 29th Infantry Division of the Army National Guard.

Modern US Military Light Infantry

 * 82nd Airborne Division
 * 101st Airborne Division
 * 10th Mountain Division
 * 25th Infantry Division
 * 11th Airborne Division

In 2022 The US Army reactivated the 11th Airborne Division by reflagging two infantry brigades from the 25th Infantry division. Its mission is to conduct infantry operations in the Arctic.

title: Light infantry


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Mick Doyle (rugby union)

Mick Doyle (13 October 1941 – 11 May 2004) was an Irish rugby union international player and coach.

Youth and playing career
Doyle was born in Currow, County Kerry, and began playing rugby union at Newbridge College, County Kildare. He went on to study veterinary science at University College Dublin, who he also represented at rugby. He made his Ireland debut against France on 23 January 1965, scoring a try in the game. While representing Ireland he also studied at Cambridge University where he gained a Blue in the 1965 Varsity match against the Oxford University RFC. Doyle also studied at the University of Edinburgh and played club rugby for Edinburgh Wanderers before returning to Ireland.

He went on to earn the distinction of never being dropped during his 20-cap international career as a flanker. Doyler, as he was affectionately known, scored the winning try against Wales in 1967, toured Australia with Ireland in 1967 and South Africa with the British and Irish Lions the next year.

His last game for Ireland was against Australia in October 1968, when he lined out alongside his brother Tommy.

Coaching
He coached Leinster to Interprovincial Championship success five times between 1979 and 1983 before he succeeded Willie John McBride as Ireland coach during the 1984–85 season. Under Doyle's stewardship in 1985 Ireland won the Triple Crown and Five Nations Championship.

He led Ireland to the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup, but that joy was tinged with sadness as he suffered a heart attack at the opening dinner. He battled illness and adversity and his recovery from a brain problem was chronicled in his book '0.16'.

Media
After retiring from coaching, Doyle became a TV expert on RTÉ television, starting with the 1991 World Cup, and continuing both on live coverage and their "Rugby After Dark" Sunday night highlights programme until having to step down through ill-health in the late-90s.

Apart from working in his veterinary practice, he was a regular rugby contributor on RTÉ Radio One in the later years of his life.

Mick Doyle was killed in a car crash in Dungannon on 11 May 2004.

title: Mick Doyle (rugby union)


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Joseph Galloway

Joseph Galloway (1731—August 29, 1803 ) was an American attorney and a leading political figure in the events immediately preceding the founding of the United States in the late 1700s. As a staunch opponent of American independence, he would become one of the most prominent Loyalists in North America during the early part of the Revolutionary War.

The son of a wealthy landowner, Galloway became close friends with Benjamin Franklin through his law studies in the late 1740s. His association with Franklin and his father-in-law's relationship with the Penn family drew him into the political drama then unfolding in the American colonies. Galloway was elected to the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly in 1756 when he was just 25. He would go on to serve for 18 years, eight of them as assembly speaker.

In 1774, Galloway led the Pennsylvania delegation in the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, where as a conservative he proposed a plan for forming a union between the colonies and Great Britain. After the Congress failed to adopt his Plan of Union, he signed the Continental Association, an agreement uniting the colonies in a boycott of British goods. Unhappy with the radical directions being taken, Galloway quit the Assembly and refused election to the Second Continental Congress in May 1775. Remaining loyal to the king, he opposed the adoption of the Declaration of Independence the next year.

Three months after the Declaration's signing, Galloway fled to New York to join the British. As a top advisor to William Howe, the commander-in-chief of British forces in North America, he provided crucial intelligence, assisted in planning attacks on Continental Army troops, and personally recruited upwards of 80 spies. With the capture of Philadelphia in September 1777, Howe appointed Galloway to govern the city as Superintendent of both Police and Port.

When the British abandoned Philadelphia in June 1778, Galloway escaped to England and was convicted of high treason in absentia by the Pennsylvania Assembly; his estates were confiscated. Through the end of the war, Galloway was a leader of the loyalist cause in exile, a group of between 80,000 and 100,000 displaced colonists. He would never return to the Americas, nor again see his wife whom he had left behind in hopes of recovering his properties.

Early life
Galloway was born near West River, Anne Arundel County, Maryland, the son of a landowner in the colony. He moved with his father to Pennsylvania in 1740 where he received a liberal schooling. He studied law, for a time alongside William Franklin, the son of Benjamin Franklin and later a fellow Loyalist, and he was admitted to the bar and began to practice law in Philadelphia.

Galloway married Grace Growdon on October 18, 1753. Her father, Laurence Growdon, was even wealthier than the Galloways, well placed in the political and social lives of Philadelphia. Both Galloway and his wife had strong personalities, and consequently, theirs was an unhappy union.

Political career
Galloway was a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly from 1756 to 1774 and served as speaker of the House from 1766 to 1774. He was a prominent member of the faction which opposed Pennsylvania being a proprietary colony of the Penn family, and he called for it to be turned into a crown colony. He was a Loyalist, believing that most Americans would prefer to remain loyal to the Crown if only they were given a legitimate and effective government that would inspire their loyalty.

Galloway was a member of the Continental Congress in 1774, where he proposed a compromise plan for Union with Great Britain which would provide the colonies with their own parliament subject to the Crown. The Continental Congress rejected it by one vote. He signed the Continental Association, while he was opposed to independence for the Thirteen Colonies and remained loyal to the king. He was a resident of Philadelphia and an associate of Benjamin Franklin with whom he corresponded over the issues of American independence. In 1768, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society, which Franklin founded, and served as vice president of the organization from 1769 to 1776.

Galloway urged reform of the imperial administration and was critical of the trade laws, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Townshend Acts enacted in 1767, and he had a conciliatory plan to end the disputes between Britain and the colonies. He believed that the British had the right to tax and govern the colonies, keep the peace, and help the colonies to survive and flourish. Congress voted to expunge Galloway's plan from their journal, so he published it himself in 1775, reprimanding Congress for ignoring his analysis of Parliament's powers and colonial rights. He proposed a written constitution and joint legislature for the whole British Empire.

American War of Independence
In 1775, the Assembly rejected Galloway's urging that it abandon its struggle for independence from Britain, so Galloway left the Assembly and the Congress. In the winter of 1777, he joined General William Howe and accompanied him on his Philadelphia campaign. During the British occupation of Philadelphia, he was appointed superintendent of police and headed the civil government. He efficiently organized the Loyalists in Philadelphia, but the British were driven out of the city in 1778 following France's entry into the war. The British retreated to New York, and Galloway went with them.

When Benjamin Franklin departed for France in 1776, he left behind a chest of his papers, containing letters and manuscripts, and entrusted them to Galloway for safe keeping in his personal residence, Trevose Manor, just north of Philadelphia. At some point between 1776 and 1778, Trevose Manor was raided; some of Franklin's papers were stolen, while others were left scattered around as a result of the raid. The identities of the raiders were disputed, and modern historians note that no concrete information exists as to their identity.

Exile in Britain
In 1778, he fled to Britain with his daughter, never to return to the United States, becoming a leading spokesman of American Loyalists in London. The General Assembly of Pennsylvania convicted him of high treason and confiscated his estates, which included Trevose Manor, now known as Growdon Mansion, and much of the land that is now Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania. In 1779, he appeared as a government witness in a parliamentary enquiry into the conduct of Lord Howe and General Howe during the Philadelphia Campaign, of which he was deeply critical. When Galloway fled Philadelphia with the British, his wife Grace remained in the city with the hope of retaining the rights of their property (her ancestorial property). They expected that she would be able to join her daughter and husband afterwards, but Charles Willson Peale evicted her.

Galloway was influential in convincing the British that a vast reservoir of Loyalist support could be tapped by British initiatives, thus setting up the British invasion of the American South. After the war, he spent his remaining years in religious studies and writing. He died a widower in Watford, Hertfordshire on August 29, 1803; his wife had died on February 6, 1782.

title: Joseph Galloway


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Homestead Grays

The Homestead Grays (also known as Washington Grays or Washington Homestead Grays) were a professional baseball team that played in the Negro leagues in the United States.

The team was formed in 1912 by Cumberland Posey, and remained in continuous operation for 38 seasons. The team was originally based in Homestead, Pennsylvania, adjacent to Pittsburgh. By the 1920s, with increasing popularity in the Pittsburgh region, the team retained the name "Homestead" but crossed the Monongahela River to play all home games in Pittsburgh, at the Pittsburgh Pirates' home Forbes Field and the Pittsburgh Crawfords' home Greenlee Field.

From 1940 until 1942, the Grays played half of their home games in Washington, D.C., while remaining in Pittsburgh for all other home stands. As attendance at their games in the nation's capital grew, by 1943, the Grays were playing more than two-thirds of their home games in Washington.

Franchise history
The Grays grew out of an earlier industrial team. In 1900, a group of African-American players had joined together to form the Germantown Blue Ribbons, an industrial league team. For ten years, the Blue Ribbons fielded a team every season and played some of the best sandlot teams in the area. In 1910, the managers of the team retired. The players reorganized the team and named themselves the Murdock Grays. In 1912, they became the Homestead Grays, the name they retained for the remainder of the franchise's history.

American/East-West League
The Grays did join the American Negro League in 1929, but that league lasted only one season. Cumberland Posey was their inaugural manager in organized league play. The Grays went 32-29 (with three ties) for a fourth place finish. The team operated independently again until 1932, when Posey organized the ill-fated East-West League; that league also collapsed before completing its first and only season. Jud Wilson and Posey combined to lead the 1932 team to a 24-16 record (with one tie) before the Grays joined the Negro National League in 1933

Period of dominance in the National League
Posey managed the next two seasons, leading them to a 3rd and 7th place finish, respectively. Outfielder Vic Harris (a long-time player for the Grays) became player-manager in 1936. With the near-collapse of the Pittsburgh Crawfords, Josh Gibson returned to the Grays in 1937, combining with slugger Buck Leonard to power the Grays. From 1937 to 1948, the Grays went on an unprecedented run of success in Negro league baseball. They finished first place in the league in ten of twelve seasons while competing in organized playoff baseball in six of those seasons (which they won three).

Their one challenge for the Negro National League came in 1939, which matched the top four teams (of a six team league) in a postseason tournament that required three victories. They beat the Philadelphia Stars in five games to reach the Championship Series against the Baltimore Elite Giants. They lost to Baltimore in five games. The Grays rolled through the next two seasons with ease; in 1942, they competed in the re-born Negro World Series, which they lost in four games to the Kansas City Monarchs. For the 1943 and 1944 seasons, Candy Jim Taylor served as the manager for the Grays. They won the pennant each time to advance to the Series, which they won each time. Harris returned to manage the Grays for 1945, where he continued for four seasons. They went to the Series twice and won the 1948 Negro World Series, the final one to be played before the demise of quality in the leagues.

During their tenure in organized league baseball, the Grays went 629–377, which included a season each in the ANL and EWL and fifteen years spent with the Negro National League (where they went 573-332). They finished first place in the league ten times while reaching the Negro World Series (second incarnation) five times, which resulted in three championships. The Grays had just one losing season in their time in the National League (1935, when they finished 26-36), which was also one of only three times they ever finished in the bottom half of a league.

Pittsburgh Steelers founder and owner Art Rooney related in a 1981 interview that he "from time to time" had "helped financially support the Negro League team, the Homestead Grays, and . . . was a better baseball fan than football fan."

Post-Negro league play
Following the collapse of the Negro National League after the 1948 season, the Grays struggled to continue as an independent club and joined the minor league Negro American Association. The Grays dominated the competition, won both halves of the split-season and cruised to the league pennant. The league collapsed after the 1949 season and the Grays returned to barnstorming. After completing their 1950 season, they ultimately disbanded in May 1951.

Home fields
From the late 1930s through the 1940s, the Grays played their home games at Pittsburgh's Forbes Field, home of the Pittsburgh Pirates. However, during this same period the club adopted the Washington, D.C. area as its "home away from home" and scheduled many of its "home" games at D.C.'s Griffith Stadium, the home park of the Washington Senators. During these games, they were alternatively known as the Washington Grays or Washington Homestead Grays.

Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
These Homestead Grays alumni have been inducted to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum

AL/NL Players
The following players appeared in at least one game for the Grays and at least one game in the AL/NL.

 * Luke Easter
 * Dave Hoskins
 * Luis Marquez
 * Dave Pope
 * Bob Thurman

Negro National League

 * The Negro National League (second incarnation) ran from 1933 to 1948, and during that time they held a playoff to determine the league champion five times (1934, 1935, 1939, 1941, 1948). 1939 was the only time the league matched four teams together to play for the title, as all other playoffs were between two teams.
 * On occasions without a playoff, the team leading the season in winning percentage was generally considered the pennant champion
 * The Negro World Series was held 1924 to 1927 and from 1942 to 1948 as a matchup of two Negro leagues.

Legacy
On July 11, 2002, the Homestead High-Level Bridge which connects Pittsburgh to Homestead over the Monongahela River at Homestead was renamed the Homestead Grays Bridge in honor of the team.

Washington Nationals
When the Montreal Expos moved to Washington, "Grays" was one of the three finalists (along with "Senators" and the eventual winner "Nationals") for the relocated team's new name, reflecting Washington's baseball history.

The Nationals′ home field, Nationals Park, includes numerous references to the Grays:

 * The "Ring of Honor" on the facade behind home plate lists the names of Cool Papa Bell, Ray Brown, Josh Gibson, Buck Leonard, Cumberland Posey, Jud Wilson, and players from the Nationals, Expos, original Washington Senators of 1901–1960, and expansion Washington Senators of 1961–1971. The Ring honors players who are members of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and had played "significant years" for at least one of the teams or "anyone who has made a significant contribution to the game of baseball in Washington, D.C." All six Grays players were among the original 18 inductees to the Ring of Honor when it was unveiled on August 10, 2010.
 * The multi-sport Washington Hall of Stars display in the outfield features Josh Gibson and Buck Leonard.
 * A statue of Josh Gibson (along with ones of original Senator Walter Johnson and second-run Senator Frank Howard) stands near the center field gate.

MLB throwback jerseys
The Pittsburgh Pirates and Washington Nationals have worn Homestead Grays throwback uniforms in official Major League Baseball games several different times:

 * Pirates
 * May 20, 2006, in Cleveland, the Pirates and Cleveland Indians wore the uniforms of the Grays and the Cleveland Buckeyes.
 * August 11, 2006, in Pittsburgh, the St. Louis Cardinals and the Pittsburgh Pirates wore uniforms of the St. Louis Stars and Grays.
 * June 26, 2009, in Pittsburgh, the Pirates and the Kansas City Royals wore uniforms of the Homestead Grays and the Kansas City Monarchs.
 * July 23, 2011, in Pittsburgh, the Pirates and the St. Louis Cardinals wore uniforms of the Homestead Grays and the St. Louis Stars.
 * June 9, 2012, in Pittsburgh, the Pirates and the Kansas City Royals wore uniforms of the Homestead Grays and the Kansas City Monarchs.
 * September 9, 2016, in Pittsburgh, the Pirates wore the Grays uniform against the Cincinnati Reds
 * June 16, 2017, in Pittsburgh, the Pirates wore the Grays uniform against the Chicago Cubs

 * Nationals
 * June 2, 2006, in Milwaukee, the Washington Nationals and the Milwaukee Brewers wore uniforms of the Grays and Milwaukee Bears, during the first annual Negro Leagues Tribute Night in Milwaukee.
 * August 11, 2006, in Washington, the New York Mets and Nationals wore uniforms of the New York Cubans and the Grays.
 * August 3, 2007, The Nationals and Cardinals wore uniforms of the Grays and Stars.
 * July 28, 2012, in Milwaukee, the Nationals and the Milwaukee Brewers wore uniforms of the Grays and the Milwaukee Bears.
 * August 24, 2013, in Kansas City, the Nationals and the Kansas City Royals wore uniforms of the Grays and the Kansas City Monarchs.
 * June 25, 2016, in Milwaukee, the Nationals and Milwaukee Brewers wore the uniforms of the Grays and Milwaukee Bears.

 * Both
 * May 3, 2008, in Washington, the Washington Nationals and Pittsburgh Pirates both wore the uniform of the Grays. (The PA announcer referred to the teams as the Grays.)
 * June 1, 2013, both the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Washington Nationals wore Grays uniforms. In Pittsburgh, the Pirates played the Cincinnati Reds, who wore uniforms of the Cincinnati Tigers; and in Atlanta, the Nationals played the Atlanta Braves, who wore uniforms of the Atlanta Black Crackers.

title: Homestead Grays


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American Negro League

The American Negro League (ANL) was one of several Negro leagues established during the period in the United States in which organized baseball was segregated. The ANL operated on the East Coast of the United States in 1929.

History
The Eastern Colored League (ECL) had been the eastern of two major Negro leagues from 1923 through 1927 until its collapse during the 1928 season. Next winter the American Negro League was established by five former ECL teams—the Bacharach Giants of Atlantic City, the Baltimore Black Sox, the traveling Cuban Stars, the Hilldale Club of Darby, Pennsylvania, and the Lincoln Giants of New York City—along with the Homestead Grays, an important independent club.

1929 season

 * ''Annual final standings: 1929

The ANL operated a split season: first half and second-half schedules with a planned playoff for a pennant in a post-season series between the two winners. The Baltimore Black Sox, led by player-manager Dick Lundy and Hall of Fame first baseman Jud Wilson, won both halves and they were awarded the pennant without a playoff.

Demise
The league did not organize for the 1930 season, and it would not be until 1933 that an eastern Negro league would last for a full season.

Beside the downward economic spiral, bitter controversy in Baltimore and Philadelphia, about the local clubs continuing reliance on white umpires, may have been fatal to the league.

Statistics
The ANL made a conscientious effort, unusual for the Negro leagues, to compile statistics for the league's players. These were published at season's end in the Pittsburgh Courier.

title: American Negro League


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Galich, Russia

Galich (Га́лич) is a town in Kostroma Oblast, Russia, located on the southern bank of Lake Galichskoye. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 12,856.

History
It was first chronicled in 1234 as Grad Mersky (lit. the town of the Merya). It gradually developed into one of the greatest salt-mining centers of Eastern Europe, eclipsing the southern town of Halych, from which it takes its name. In the 13th century, Galich was ruled by a younger brother of Alexander Nevsky and remained in his line until 1363, when the Muscovites seized the principality and ousted the ruling family to Novgorod.

The 15th and 16th centuries are justly considered the golden age of Galich. At that time it controlled most of the Russian trade in salt and furs. Dmitry Shemyaka and other local princes pressed their claims to the Muscovite crown, and three of them actually took possession of the Kremlin in the course of the Great Feudal War.

The early medieval earthen ramparts were further fortified in the early 15th and 16th centuries and have since been known as Shemyaka Hills. The Poles burnt it to the ground in 1612, Peter the Great had a wooden kremlin demolished, and it further declined with the transfer of Russian foreign trade from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg.

Town status was granted to Galich in 1778.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Galich serves as the administrative center of Galichsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the town of oblast significance of Galich—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Galich is incorporated as Galich Urban Okrug.

Economy

The Galich Mobile Crane Plant (ОАО "Галичский автокрановый завод") manufactures some 20% of Russia's entire mobile crane production.

Town's industries also manufacture steel barrels, shoes, and clothing. There is a timber mill in town as well.

The town is also a minor railroad node of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

A 350 m tall guyed mast for FM and TV broadcasting can be seen in the town.

Culture

Historic monuments of Galich include various buildings from the imperial period of Russian history. Particularly noteworthy is the Paisiev Monastery, founded in the early 14th century and featuring a 16th-century five-domed cathedral and a three-domed church from 1642.

Since 2004, Galich hosts the annual short film festival "Russia's Family" (Семья России, Semya Rossii), whose stated goals are "to aid spiritual and moral healing of Russian society and to promote traditional family values".

title: Galich, Russia


text:
GSS coding system

GSS codes are nine-character geocodes maintained by the United Kingdom's Office for National Statistics (ONS) to represent a wide range of geographical areas of the UK, for use in tabulating census and other statistical data. GSS refers to the Government Statistical Service of which ONS is part.

GSS codes replaced a previous system called ONS codes from January 2011. ONS codes were hierarchical whereas in GSS codes there is no relation between the code for a lower-tier area and the corresponding parent area.

Code formulation
GSS codes have a fixed length code of nine characters. The first three characters indicate the level of geography, and the six digits following define the individual unit. For example, the Royal Borough of Greenwich is coded as, Middlesbrough is  , Cambridge   and Fenland.

, the meanings of some common three character prefixes are as follows:

In 2019, the House of Commons Library proposed names instead of numeric codes for MSOAs to make them easier to use.

A full listing of GSS names and codes may be found by following the link to ONS Geography's Code History Database, below.

Geography of the UK Census
Information from the 2011 Census is published for a wide variety of geographical units. These areas include:

 * Counties in England
 * Districts within English counties, and unitary authority areas (where one council provides district and county functions)
 * Unitary council areas in Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland
 * Civil parishes (communities in Wales)
 * Electoral wards (electoral divisions in Wales). These areas are defined for the election of local councillors, but are also widely used for presenting statistics at a smaller scale than the whole district.
 * Census output areas (OA), the smallest unit for which census data are published. They were initially generated to support publication of 2001 Census outputs and contain at least 40 households and 100 persons, the target size being 125 households. They were built up from postcode blocks after the census data were available, with the intention of standardising population sizes, geographical shape and social homogeneity (in terms of dwelling types and housing tenure).  The OAs generated in 2001 were retained as far as possible for the publication of outputs from the 2011 Census (less than 3% were changed ). Before 2001, census data was published for larger Enumeration Districts (ED) which were delineated before the census was conducted and were the organisational units for census data collection.

Neighbourhood Statistics Geography
Super Output Areas (SOAs) are a set of geographical areas developed following the 2001 Census, initially to facilitate the calculation of the Indices of Deprivation 2004 and subsequently for a range of additional Neighbourhood Statistics (NeSS). The aim was to produce a set of areas of consistent size, whose boundaries would not change (unlike electoral wards), suitable for the publication of data such as the Indices of Deprivation. They are an aggregation of adjacent Output Areas with similar social characteristics. Lower Layer Super Output Areas (LSOAs) typically contain 4 to 6 OAs with a population of around 1,500. Middle Layer Super Output Areas (MSOAs) on average have a population of 7,200. The hierarchy of Output Areas and the two tiers of Super Output Areas have become known as the Neighbourhood Statistics Geography.

MSOAs use the name of the local or unitary authority followed by three digits, for example "Tower Hamlets 022" which is. LSOAs use the name of the containing MSOA followed by a letter, for example "Tower Hamlets 022C" which is.

Some LSOAs and MSOAs were revised in alignment with the 2021 Census.

Former hierarchical coding system
The older ONS code was constructed top down:
 * A two-character code represented a county.
 * For example,  for Cambridgeshire.

 * A four-character code represented a district, so that the first two characters showed the county in which the district was placed.
 * For example,  for Cambridge district or    for Fenland.

 * In the case of a unitary authority (including metropolitan and London boroughs) the first two digits were 00.
 * For example,   for Greenwich (London Borough) or   for Middlesbrough.

 * Local Government wards were given a two-letter code within their local authority.
 * For example,  for Petersfield Ward within Cambridge district.

 * The smallest level, Census OAs were originally given an additional 4 digits within a ward, so that the first output area in Petersfield Ward was coded.
 * Civil parishes were also coded using this hierarchical system. Parishes were coded using an additional 3 digits after their local authority.  For example, within   for Fenland district, the parish of Tydd St. Giles was coded.

title: GSS coding system


text:
Sheer Heart Attack

Sheer Heart Attack is the third studio album by the British rock band Queen, released on 8 November 1974 by EMI Records in the United Kingdom and by Elektra Records in the United States. Digressing from the progressive themes featured on their first two albums, the album featured more pop-centric and conventional rock tracks and marked a step towards the "classic" Queen sound. It was produced by the band and Roy Thomas Baker, and launched Queen to mainstream popularity in the UK and throughout the world.

The album's first single "Killer Queen" reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart and provided the band with their first top 20 hit in the US, peaking at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100. Sheer Heart Attack was the first Queen album to hit the US top 20, peaking at number 12 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes Chart in 1975. It has been acknowledged for containing "a wealth of outstanding hard rock guitar tracks". Retrospectively, it has been listed by multiple publications as one of the band's best works and has been deemed an essential glam rock album.

Background and recording
After completing their second album, Queen embarked on their Queen II Tour as a support act for Mott the Hoople. After touring extensively throughout the UK, the two groups decided to tour together in the US, marking Queen's first tour in the country. The bands would remain on friendly terms for the rest of their career, with Ian Hunter performing "All the Young Dudes" at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert. Queen played their first US show on 16 April 1974 in Denver, Colorado, as a support, which Freddie Mercury reportedly disliked, saying: "Being support is one of the most traumatic experiences of my life". At the climax of the tour in Boston, Brian May was discovered to have hepatitis, possibly from the use of a contaminated needle during vaccinations the group received before travelling to Australia. The remainder of the tour was subsequently cancelled and Queen flew back home, where May was hospitalised.

In June, the band gathered together at Trident Studios to start rehearsing material for the album. Koh Hasebe interviewed Mercury, Taylor, and Deacon when they were rehearsing on 13 June. At the beginning of July, May joined them for rehearsals. The band were just preparing to record, and on 7 July, they trekked three and a half hours to get to the Rockfield Studios in Wales, where they would record ten backing tracks, finishing on 28 July. At the start of August, work shifted to Wessex Sound Studios. Work there would not last long, however, as May, who was starting to feel uneasy, went to a specialist clinic on 2 August. He collapsed at the clinic, as a result of a duodenal ulcer, and would be operated on the following day, but discharged from the hospital soon after so he could recover at home. While the band were overdubbing at Wessex, May booked studio time at AIR Studios, where he recorded "Dear Friends", and "She Makes Me". In the meantime, Taylor and Deacon made an appearance at an EMI/Radio Luxembourg motor rally at Brands Hatch on 11 August. By late August, May was working with the band again, and the rest of the band would add their parts to the songs he had recorded. There was still one song that needed to be recorded as the band worked into September, and that was "Now I'm Here". They recorded the backing track for this one at Wessex, and saved the rest to be completed during the mixing sessions.

Mixing commenced in the middle of September. The band were still overdubbing at this point, so they hired someone to deliver tapes from recording studio to mixing studio via motorcycle. The heart of the mixing sessions took place at Trident Studios, and one or two days was spent mixing each of the majority of the songs. "Brighton Rock", on the other hand, took four days to mix, with six hours' worth of different mixes created during that time. Each song was mixed in little edited sections that were about fifteen to twenty seconds in length. At this point, Trident had just installed a 24-track machine in their studio that had been around since 1972, but was not functioning until 1974. In fact, the album was Trident's first 24-track project. Even though Trident had expanded their recording flexibility by eight tracks, it still wasn't enough to mix each track individually. "Bring Back That Leroy Brown", for example, had 70 vocal tracks and had to be mixed down to work with the 24-track mixer.

On 20 September, it was announced the band were attempting to secure a release date for the album of 1 November, though it seemed unlikely they would be done in time to meet that deadline. They mixed "Now I'm Here", which was the last thing to be mixed, on 22 October. May did an interview the next day (which was published on 26 October) that explained what finishing the album was like. In total, the band used four different studios in the making of Sheer Heart Attack: most of the backing tracks were recorded at Rockfield, two backing tracks and some guitar overdubs were recorded at AIR Studios, most of the overdubs and one backing track were recorded at Wessex, and the mixing was done at Trident.

Songs
The album noticeably shifts away from the progressive rock themes of its predecessors, and has been categorised as hard rock and glam rock. The Daily Vault described it as "an important transition album" because it showcased "what the band would soon become while giving a nod to their hard-rock past," while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic observed that, although there are still references to the fantasy themes of their earlier works, particularly on "In the Lap of the Gods" and "Lily of the Valley", "the fantasy does not overwhelm as it did on the first two records".

"Killer Queen" was written in a single night, which contrasts with the, as Mercury put it, "ages" it took to write "The March of the Black Queen". "Brighton Rock" was written during the making of Queen II, "Stone Cold Crazy" had its genesis in Mercury's pre-Queen band Wreckage, and Mercury wrote "Flick of the Wrist" during May's illness-induced absence. As it included the first song written by John Deacon that Queen recorded ("Misfire") alongside tracks written by the other members of the band, Sheer Heart Attack was the first of the group's albums to contain at least one song written by each member; "Stone Cold Crazy" was the band's first song for which all four members shared the writing credit.

"Brighton Rock"
"Brighton Rock" was written by Brian May during the Queen II sessions, but was not recorded at that time, as the group felt it would not fit with the rest of the album. Lyrically, it tells the story of two young lovers named Jenny and Jimmy, who meet in Brighton on a public holiday. Mods travelling to Brighton on bank holidays was a popular narrative at the time, as in The Who's Quadrophenia.

The song includes a three-minute unaccompanied guitar solo interlude, which makes extensive use of delay to build up guitar harmony and contrapuntal melodic lines. It grew out of May's experimentation with an Echoplex unit while he attempted to recreate his guitar orchestrations for live performances of "Son and Daughter". He had made modifications to the original unit so he could change the delay times, and ran each echo through a separate amplifier to avoid interference.

The studio version of the solo only contains one "main" guitar and one "echoed" guitar for a short section, but, live, May would usually split his guitar signal into one "main" and two "echoed" guitars, with each going to a separate bank of amplifiers. In concert, the solo has been performed as part of "Brighton Rock", in a medley with another song, or as a standalone piece. For example, May performed some of it at the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. Considered one of May's finest solos, Guitar World ranked it No. 41 on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time.

"Killer Queen"
"Killer Queen" was written by Freddie Mercury and was the band's first international hit single. Mercury played a jangle piano as well as a grand piano on the recording. After it charted as a single, the band performed the song on Top of the Pops.

"Tenement Funster"/"Flick of the Wrist"/"Lily of the Valley" medley
Roger Taylor wrote "Tenement Funster" about youth and rebellion and sang lead vocals, while John Deacon played the song's prominent acoustic guitar parts in May's absence. It segues into Mercury's "Flick of the Wrist" (which was released, along with "Killer Queen", as a double A-sided single), and then into a softer, piano-based Mercury song, "Lily of the Valley", making the three songs a medley.

"Now I'm Here"
"Now I'm Here" was written by May while hospitalised, and recalls the group's early tour supporting Mott the Hoople. It was recorded during the last week of the sessions for the album, with May playing piano.

"In the Lap of the Gods"
"In the Lap of the Gods" was written by Mercury and featured multiple vocal overdubs from himself and Roger Taylor. It features one of the highest notes on the album, sung by Taylor.

"Stone Cold Crazy"
"Stone Cold Crazy" was one of the earliest tracks that Queen performed live, and had several different arrangements before being recorded for Sheer Heart Attack. No band member was able to remember who had written the lyrics when the album was released, so they shared the writing credit, the first of their songs to do so. The lyrics deal with gangsters and include a reference to Al Capone. The track has a fast tempo and heavy distortion, presaging speed metal. Music magazine Q described "Stone Cold Crazy" as "thrash metal before the term was invented". The song was played live at almost every Queen concert between 1974 and 1978.

Metallica covered the song as their contribution to the 1990 compilation album Rubáiyát: Elektra's 40th Anniversary. This cover version won a Grammy Award in 1991; it also appeared on the band's compilation Garage Inc.

"Dear Friends"
"Dear Friends" is a ballad written by May and sung by Mercury.

"Misfire"
"Misfire" was John Deacon's first individual composition for the band, and featured him playing the guitar solo and all guitar parts on the track except for some parts at the end of the song, in which Brian's Red Special becomes more prominent.

"Bring Back That Leroy Brown"
The title of "Bring Back That Leroy Brown" alludes to the then-recent hit "Bad Bad Leroy Brown" by American singer-songwriter Jim Croce, who had died in a plane crash the previous year. Written by Mercury, "Bring Back That Leroy Brown" features him playing grand piano and jangle piano, as well as doing multiple vocal overdubs. May plays a short section on ukulele-banjo, and Deacon plays a line on the double bass. DRUM! Magazine commended Taylor's drum work on the song: "It really shows off Taylor’s versatility. He nails dozens of kicks throughout this fast and tricky song and proves that he could’ve been a big band drummer or ably fit into any theatrical pit band if Queen hadn’t worked out so well for him. Honky-tonk piano, upright bass, ukulele-banjo, and a smokin' drummer all add up to a rollicking good time."

"She Makes Me (Stormtrooper in Stilettoes)"
"She Makes Me (Stormtrooper in Stilettoes)" was written and sung by May with him and Deacon playing acoustic guitars.

"In the Lap of the Gods...Revisited"
"In the Lap of the Gods...Revisited" was one of Queen's set-closers from 1974 to 1977. During the 1986 Magic tour, it was performed again in a medley, where it segued into "Seven Seas of Rhye".

Reception and legacy
At the time of its release, NME called the album: "A feast. No duffers, and four songs that will just run and run: 'Killer Queen', 'Flick of the Wrist', 'Now I'm Here', and 'In the Lap of the Gods...Revisited'." The Winnipeg Free Press commended "Brian May's multi-tracked guitar, Freddie Mercury's stunning vocalising and Roy Thomas Baker's dynamic production work", calling the album "a no-holds barred, full-scale attack on the senses". Circus referred to the album as "perhaps the heaviest, rockingest assault on these shores we've enjoyed in some time". Rolling Stone awarded the album a positive rating of 3 stars and wrote: "If it's hard to love, it's hard not to admire: this band is skilled, after all, and it dares." John Mendelsohn, however, was unimpressed, writing: "I hunted all over both sides of this latest album for something, anything, even remotely as magnificent as 'Keep Yourself Alive' or 'Father to Son', only to end up empty-eared and bawling." As 1974 drew to a close, the album was ranked by Disc as the third best of the year and tied for 24th place on NME's end-of-year list.

In a review for the Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot awards the album a generally positive rating of 2 and a half stars, while noting that this album was where "...the songs became more concise"

In a retrospective review, AllMusic said that "the theatricality is now wielded on everyday affairs, which ironically makes them sound larger than life. And this sense of scale, combined with the heavy guitars, pop hooks, and theatrical style, marks the true unveiling of Queen, making Sheer Heart Attack as [sic] the moment where they truly came into their own." Q called the record "indispensable" and "one of the great pop/rock admixtures of the '70s". Pitchfork wrote: "Sheer Heart Attack not only improves on every aspect of their sound suggested by the first two records, but delivers some of the finest music of their career ... this is the band at the height of its powers." Jon Bryan of Backseat Mafia described it as "the first album where Queen got it unarguably right", noting that "such obvious arrogance suited them".

Benjamin Ray of the Daily Vault felt that "Queen somehow manages to sound like every rock band of the 70s on here, including Rush, Zeppelin and even Uriah Heep." However, he noted the difference was that "Queen actually tries to be pretentious and bombastic, and often they are so over the top one can't help but be entertained", finally concluding that it was "their most fun and showcases everything they did right." The BBC wrote: "they stretched contemporary production methods to their very limit with multi-layered vocals and guitars and Freddie's vaudevillian streak finally emerged ... this was the album that finally saw Queen find their true voice." Rock historian Paul Fowles wrote that Sheer Heart Attack "saw the band become increasingly focused on the emerging cult figure of Mercury" and his "unique brand of rock theater", especially on the single "Killer Queen".

Mercury's appraisal
The album is very varied, we took it to extreme I suppose, but we are very interested in studio techniques and wanted to use what was available. We learnt a lot about technique while we were making the first two albums. Of course there has been some criticism, and the constructive criticism has been very good for us. But to be frank I'm not that keen on the British music press, and they've been pretty unfair to us. I feel that up and coming journalists, by the large, put themselves above the artists. They've certainly been under a misconception about us. We've been called a supermarket hype. But if you see us up on a stage, that's what we're all about. We are basically a rock band.

2011 reissue
On 8 November 2010, record company Universal Music announced that a remastered and expanded reissue of the album would be released in May 2011, as part of a new deal between Queen and Universal Music, which meant the band's association with EMI Records would come to an end after almost 40 years. Queen's entire studio catalogue was reissued in 2011.

Original release
All lead vocals by Freddie Mercury unless noted.

Personnel
Track numbers refer to CD and digital releases.
 * Queen
 * Freddie Mercury – lead vocals (1, 2, 4-11, 13), backing vocals (1, 2, 4-11, 13), piano (2-5, 7, 11, 13), Hammond organ (6), jangle piano (2, 11)
 * Brian May – electric guitar (all but 9), backing vocals (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13), piano (6, 9), lead vocals (12), acoustic guitar (12), banjolele (11)
 * Roger Taylor – drums (all but 9), backing vocals (1-4, 6-8, 13), percussion (2, 4), triangle (2), wind chimes (2), lead vocals (3), tambourine (4), timpani (7)
 * John Deacon – bass guitar (all but 9), acoustic guitar (3, 7, 10, 12), electric guitar (10), double bass (11)

title: Sheer Heart Attack


text:
Talk:Óscar Arias

Currently Unpopular in Costa Rica
Oscar Arias' popularity has declined sharply in Costa Rica since his second term. This is partly due :

- to his plan to allow for the militarization of the police force through the use of assault weapons (this decree was annuled by the constitutional court); - his referendum for the Central American Free Trade Agreement and the "MEMO of Fear" written by his vice president outlining fear tactics to be used in order to win the referendum. This memo was uncovered and led his vice president to self exile (Kevin Casas) - the support for the Open Sky Gold Mine in CRUCITAS - his decree allowing hotels to pay a 0.01% land tax instead of the 4% land tax in Papagayo.

Political POV
Removed some politically charged language with regards to Arias' role in a vote by the constitutional court allowing re-election. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Anduin13 (talk • contribs) 17:30, 2 August 2009 (UTC)
 * The part about his role as mediator of the coup seems to be wildly pro-coup.65.0.82.153 (talk) 21:21, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

Agree
Agree with the above comments, other than his personal information the rest is full of subjective one sided and ambiguous data. I would suggest a complete restart, specially noticing his new found force as the main candidate for the Costa Rica's next election.

date of birth
I just reverted an anon who changed Arias's year of birth from 1940 to 1941, going on what the Arias foundation says here (1940). But on the wider internet, there are a large number of hits for 1941, and (worryingly) '41 is what my print Britannica says. Even the Nobel Foundation cites both: 1940 & 1941. I'll try and investigate some more. –Hajor 16:07, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Update: from an e-mail received from an assistant to the Dirección Ejecutiva, Fundación Arias para la Paz y el Progreso Humano, www.arias.or.cr:
 * El Dr. Arias Sánchez nació en el año 1940, según se indica en nuestra página web.
 * Kudos to the foundation for their prompt reply to an anonymous e-mail query. Arias's web site for his presidential campaign also says 1940. Unless someone can dig up press references accusing OA of trying to make himself out to be a year older than he really is, that's good enough for me. –Hajor 20:51, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Page location
Shouldn't this be at Óscar Arias Sánchez? I've usually seen him called "Arias Sánchez," rather than just "Arias." john k 16:13, 20 October 2005 (UTC)

 * It was, until I moved it a couple of weeks ago. But (and see, in particular, the message from the Fundación Arias quoted above) maybe he is more commonly known by the double surname. –Hajor 16:30, 20 October 2005 (UTC)

==

provide a different POV on this guy, but given the fact that I am not that acquainted with Latin American affairs, I'll remain silent and watch this article. --FlavrSavr 21:50, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

yeah that was me writing the new article, ok, maybe a little one sided haha. I'll try to fix it just give me a while...

oh and by the way, him being the new president of my country, thats something im willing to fight against even on wikipedia

Last Election & Current Events
More information needs to be added from the 2006 election. His personal relationship with former Nicaraguan "Contra" and current sugarcane mogul in Costa Rica and his involvement with the large industrial sector of the country need to be expanded. His shift from Social Democratic policy in the 80's to his current Neo-Liberal stance is a particularly interesting phenomena.

--Josedanielc 08:43, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Dubious
Óscar Arias is the [...] first Nobel Laureate to be elected a nation's president after winning the award.
 * What about Lech Walesa? Arias's first presidency was before his award and his second presidency was much later than Walesa's 1990 election to the presidency of Poland. DHN 22:24, 10 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Correct. I removed that line from this article.  btw - Yasser Arafat was also elected president of the Palestinian Authority in 1994, a year after being a co-recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Fredwerner 22:46, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Q: is there acute in Oscar or not? - (in official biography which was in site of Costa Rican presidency, also on site of Nobel Prizes, on Arias Foundation there was/is written Dr. Oscar Arias Sánchez) -- Ahsoous (talk) 06:32, 5 June 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Óscar Arias


text:
Ernst Hartert

Ernst Johann Otto Hartert (29 October 1859 – 11 November 1933) was a widely published German ornithologist.

Life and career
Hartert was born in the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg on 29 October 1859. In July 1891, he married the illustrator Claudia Bernadine Elisabeth Hartert in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, with whom he had a son named Joachim Karl (Charles) Hartert, (1893–1916), who was killed as an English soldier on the Somme.

Together with his wife, he was the first to describe the blue-tailed Buffon hummingbird subspecies (Chalybura buffonii intermedia Hartert, E & Hartert, C, 1894). The article On a collection of Humming Birds from Ecuador and Mexico appears to be their only joint publication.

Hartert was employed by Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild as ornithological curator of Rothshild's private Natural History Museum at Tring, in England from 1892 to 1929.

Hartert published the quarterly museum periodical Novitates Zoologicae (1894–39) with Rothschild, and the Hand-List of British Birds (1912) with Francis Charles Robert Jourdain, Norman Frederick Ticehurst and Harry Forbes Witherby. He wrote Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna (1910–22) and travelled in India, Africa, and South America on behalf of his employer.

In 1930, Hartert retired to Berlin, where he died in 1933.

Hartert had been a mentor to Erwin Stresemann, whose cremated remains were interred at Hartert's grave in 1972.

Works
Among the written publications of Ernst Hartert are:
 * (1891). Katalog der Vogelsammlung im Museum der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main.
 * (1897). Podargidae, Caprimulgidae und Macropterygidae.
 * (1897). Das Tierreich.
 * (1900). Trochilidae.
 * (1902). Aus den Wanderjahren eines Naturforschers: Reisen und Forschungen in Afrika, Asien und Amerika, nebst daran anknüpfenden, meist ornithologischen Studien.
 * (1903). Ueber die Pipriden-Gattung Masius Bp.
 * (1910–1922). Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna: Systematische Übersicht der in Europa, Nord-asien und der Mittelmeerregion vorkommenden Vögel. Three volumes.
 * (1920). Die Vögel Europas.
 * (1920). Die Vögel Europas.

Eponyms
A species of lizard, Hemiphyllodactylus harterti, and 12 birds are named in his honor.

title: Ernst Hartert