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Group 47

Gruppe 47 (Group 47) was a group of participants in German writers' meetings, invited by Hans Werner Richter between 1947 and 1967. The meetings served the dual goals of literary criticism as well as the promotion of young, unknown authors. In a democratic vote titled "Preis der Gruppe 47" (Prize of Group 47), it elevated many who were beginning their writing careers. Group 47 had no organizational form, no fixed membership list, and no literary program, but was strongly influenced by Richter's invitations.

In its early days, Gruppe 47 offered young writers a platform for the renewal of German literature after World War II and the end of censorship in Nazi Germany. It later became an influential institution in the cultural life of the Federal Republic of Germany, as important contemporary writers and literary critics participated in the meetings. The cultural and political influence of Group 47 has been the subject of numerous debates. Even after the end of their meetings in 1967, former participants of the group remained influential in the literary development of Germanosphere.

Background of Der Ruf
In the spring of 1945, Der Ruf, Zeitung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen in USA (The Call: Newspaper of German War Prisoners) was begun in a Rhode Island POW camp, Fort Philip Kearny, as part of American re-education for German POWs. It was edited by Curt Vinz, working with Alfred Andersch and Hans Werner Richter. Upon their return to Germany they planned to publish a successor magazine under the title Der Ruf – unabhängige Blätter der jungen Generation (The Call – Independent paper of the Younger Generation), which first appeared on the 15th of August, 1946. The magazine was printed from literary texts, but the publishers (Andersch and Richter) understood it was primarily a political body, in which they argued for a free Germany as a bridge between East and West. They were also critical of the American occupation forces, which led to the prohibition of the April 1947 Ruf by the Information Control Division of the American Occupation Zone. After the dismissal of the editor, the magazine reappeared with a new political orientation, headed by Erich Kuby. However, it had lost its importance and was finally discontinued.

After Ruf ceased publication, Hans Werner Richter began to plan a successor magazine, which he wanted to dub Der Skorpion (The Scorpion). On the 6th and 7 September in 1947, Richter held an editorial meeting with authors from the area of the planned newspaper in Ilse Schneider-Lengyel's house, on Bannwaldsee, near Füssen. Their manuscripts were read and discussed together, as well as the private purpose of the future magazine. While Der Skorpion was never actually published, the first meeting of Gruppe 47 was developed from this meeting near Bannwaldsee. With regard to the group's history, Richter later explained: "The origin of Group 47 was of a political-publicistic nature. It was not created by literati, but by politically committed publicists with literary ambitions."

Historical periodization
Friedhelm Kröll divided the history of Group 47 into four periods:
 * 1) Constitutional period 1947–49,
 * 2) Ascent period 1950–57,
 * 3) High period 1958–63,
 * 4) Late and Decay Period 1964–67.

Formation and organization
At the meeting at Bannwaldsee, 16 participants took part. To begin, Wolfdietrich Schnurre read his short story Das Begräbnis ("The Funeral"). After this, the other participants expressed open, partly sharp, spontaneous criticism, which was to become the later ritual of group criticism. This form of literary criticism, in which the speaker author always sat on the empty seat next to Richter, jokingly dubbed the "electric chair", remained the form of discussion for Group 47's entire existence. The important maxim was that the lecturer was not allowed to defend himself and that the review of a specific text was the focus of the meeting. Political discussions of literary or political nature, on which the group could have split, were consistently deferred to Richter. Despite the group's preference for realistic Trümmerliteratur (the post-war "rubble literature"), there was no official literary program, no common poetics and only a few principles about not allowing fascist or militarist texts.

The name Gruppe 47 emerged only after the first meeting, as Hans Werner Richter was planning to repeat the event regularly. The author and critic Hans Georg Brenner suggested the name, associating the group with the Spanish Generación del 98 (Generation of '98) before. Richter, who rejected any organizational form of the meetings, whether "club, association, or academy", agreed with the proposal, saying "‘Group 47’ – that is without obligation and actually says nothing."

It was only in 1962, on the 15th anniversary of the group’s birth, that Richter retrospectively formulated the "idealistic starting points" of Gruppe 47: On the topic of who he invited to the meetings of the group, Richter personally decided: "It is my circle of friends. [...] now I hold a meeting once a year, [...] this is called Gruppe 47 [...]. And I invite all the people, who suit me, are friends with me." [10] He left nothing to outside influence from the outset, which was later a heavily-criticized referral process. According to Heinz Ludwig Arnold, who wrote several times on Gruppe 47, Richter's strength was his organizational talent, as Richter had gained no importance as a writer or a critic, and had not done well in the two readings he had before the group. Gruppe 47's success became Richter's life task.
 * 1) "Democratic elite education in the field of literature and journalism;"
 * 2) "To repeatedly demonstrate the practice of democracy to a circle of individualists with the hope of long-distance and, perhaps much later, latitude and mass action;"
 * 3) "To achieve both objectives without a program, without a club, without organization and without any collective thinking to work against."

The first year
Two months after the first meeting, the second meeting of Gruppe 47 was held, in Herrlingen near Ulm, in which the number of participants had doubled. Among the first-time participants was Richter's colleague Alfred Andersch, whose essay Deutsche Literatur in der Entscheidung (German Literature in the Decision) received a programmatic significance for the group.

Starting from the thesis that "genuine artistry" was always "the same as the opposition to Nazism," Andersch stated that "the younger generation stood before a tabula rasa, faced with the necessity to accomplish a renewal of German intellectual life, through original creations." Andersch's future plan remained the only essay that was read in the group for a long time.

In the following years, the meetings took place at different places, during spring and fall. At the seventh session in 1950 in Inzigkofen, the Preis der Gruppe 47 (Prize of Group 47) was first launched, which in contrast to the established literary prizes, was intended for as yet unknown authors. Franz Joseph Schneider, who had belonged to the group since the previous year, donated a prize of 1000 Deutsche Marks ($532). After completing the readings, the members of the group present democratically voted on the winner.

The lyricist Günter Eich was the first to be awarded the prize. He had joined the group during the third meeting in Jugenheim, and was regarded as the most profound author in the group during his early years. In the following years, Richter organized awards of varying amounts for publishers and broadcasters, but only granted them irregularly. Richter allowed the participants to conclude whether or not a prize was to be awarded at each meeting.

Founding
The former authors of Der Ruf met in September 1947 in order to start a new magazine, Der Skorpion. This was not successful because they lacked a sound financial basis. Inspired by the Spanish Group 98 they founded the Gruppe 47.

Organization
The group met regularly twice a year. Attendance was by invitation only; the organizers would send postcards listing the date and location to anyone who was deemed worthy of invitation, and only invitees and their spouses were allowed entry. No consistent membership list was kept, and a member who had been invited in the past could find himself without an invite at the whim of the organizers.

The meetings consisted of readings and criticism. A writer was required to read his own work, and could only read manuscripts which had not been published. At every meeting, prizes were awarded to the authors of the most popular pieces.

Founder and organizer Hans Werner Richter described this format as a "private public".

Goals
At first, the expressed goal of the Gruppe 47 was to encourage young authors, the so-called Nachkriegsliteratur (post-war literature). In addition, the group openly criticized the idealized, poetic dewey-eyedness of some modern prose, as well as the tendency to write about distant time instead of the here-and-now.

Literature Prize
The Literature Prize of Gruppe 47 was awarded to as yet unknown authors starting in 1950. The money for the first two awards was donated by the American publisher, Coward-McCann. Later it was funded by various publishers and radio stations. Complete list of recipients:

 * 1950: Günter Eich, for Abgelegene Gehöfte
 * 1951: Heinrich Böll, for Die schwarzen Schafe
 * 1952: Ilse Aichinger for the short story "Spiegelgeschichte"
 * 1953: Ingeborg Bachmann, for Die gestundete Zeit
 * 1954: Adriaan Morriën, for Zu große Gastlichkeit verjagt die Gäste
 * 1955: Martin Walser, for the story Templones Ende
 * 1958: Günter Grass, for Die Blechtrommel
 * 1962: Johannes Bobrowski for the poems Sarmatische Zeit
 * 1965: Peter Bichsel, for Die Jahreszeiten
 * 1967: Jürgen Becker, for Ränder

Decline
The Gruppe 47 quickly gained popularity, partly through the public profile of its well-known members, and was soon part of the literary establishment in Germany. The onset of its decline began just before the student protests in 1968. There were grave differences of political opinion in the group. Public meetings were discontinued in October 1967, and in 1977 the group was officially disbanded.

Well-known members

 * Ilse Aichinger
 * Alfred Andersch
 * Ingrid Bachér
 * Ingeborg Bachmann
 * Johannes Bobrowski
 * Heinrich Böll
 * Paul Celan
 * Günter Eich
 * Gisela Elsner
 * Hans Magnus Enzensberger
 * Erich Fried
 * Günter Grass
 * Peter Handke
 * Wolfgang Hildesheimer
 * Walter Höllerer
 * Walter Jens
 * Uwe Johnson
 * Erich Kästner
 * Alexander Kluge
 * Victor Lange
 * Siegfried Lenz
 * Reinhard Lettau
 * Marcel Reich-Ranicki
 * Hans Werner Richter (initiative and organization)
 * Nicolaus Sombart
 * Martin Walser
 * Peter Weiss
 * Gabriele Wohmann

title: Group 47


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The Battle for Everything

The Battle for Everything is the third studio album by American singer Five for Fighting, released on February 3, 2004 by Aware Records and Columbia Records. Following the success of America Town (2000) and its breakthrough single, "Superman (It's Not Easy)" (2001), John Ondrasik reteamed with producer Gregg Wattenberg and brought in Bill Bottrell to work on new material for his next record. The Battle for Everything debuted at number 20 on the Billboard 200 and spawned four singles: "100 Years", "The Devil in the Wishing Well", "Silent Night", and "If God Made You". The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting sales of over 1,000,000 copies. The album's title refers to the fact "that nothing in the making of this record came easy – including concern over the title itself".

Background and recording
Five for Fighting had achieved a hit record with "Superman (It's Not Easy)" in 2001 leading to his America Town album going Platinum. For the follow-up, Ondrasik went into the studio with record producer Bill Bottrell, best known for his work with Sheryl Crow, in 2003.

On the influences behind Battle and its recording, Ondrasik said, "When I was a kid I could put on Dark Side of the Moon, turn up the sound in my headphones, lie down in the dark, and go away. I wanted that experience again, and so Bill and I were ambitious to the point of absurdity. If we wanted drama, we'd get a thirty-piece orchestra. If we wanted a rock edge, we went after it with reckless abandonment. It was like doing my own private Quadrophenia." The Battle for Everything was released on February 3, 2004.

Critical reception
The Battle for Everything was met with mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 47, based on 6 reviews. Rolling Stone critic Christian Hoard said, "On Five for Fighting's third album, Ondrasik's self-pitying ballads overflow with dewy-eyed dreaminess, as his vocals swoon and swoop [...] Piano-based numbers such as "Disneyland" sport strong melodies, but their mush-headed philosophizing push the limits of poetic indulgence." David Browne, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the album a C+, saying "...deep down, [Ondrasik] yearns to be a serious artist making grand statements. The band's third CD is weighed down by artificially inflated anthems, garbled lyrics about the apocalypse, and coy attempts at surrealism."

AllMusic gave Battle a mixed review, criticizing Ondrasik's "pompous narcissism" but also saying he had "turned in a very accomplished, professional record that illustrates he has more ambition than such younger peers like John Mayer," that was "more assured and supple than its predecessor."

Billboard's review of the album was positive, saying that the album "impressively tackled new territory". In contrast to other reviews that said the lyrics were overcomplicated, Billboard wrote that Ondrasik had "a knack for writing dead-simple lyrics and turning them into eye-opening reflection". Another favorable review came from People, which selected Battle as a "Critic's Choice" and said it was "a grown-up work rich in melody, lyrical depth and solid musicianship".

Commercial performance
Battle for Everything debuted at number 20 on the Billboard 200 chart in February 2004. Its first single, "100 Years" was another top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The album was certified Gold in the United States on May 11, 2004 and Platinum on October 19, 2009. It has sold over 958,000 copies in the United States as of November 2009.

Track listing
All songs written by John Ondrasik, except where noted.

Bonus disc

 * 1) "Silent Night" – 3:42
 * 2) "Superman (It's Not Easy)" [Acoustic] – 3:43
 * 3) "Something About You" – 4:01
 * 4) "Sister Sunshine" – 2:58
 * 5) "2 + 2 Makes Five" – 2:41

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Battle for Everything


text:
List of functional programming topics

This is a list of functional programming topics.

Foundational concepts

 * Programming paradigm
 * Declarative programming
 * Programs as mathematical objects
 * Function-level programming
 * Purely functional programming
 * Total functional programming
 * Lambda programming
 * Static scoping
 * Higher-order function
 * Referential transparency

Lambda calculus

 * Currying
 * Lambda abstraction
 * Church–Rosser theorem
 * Extensionality
 * Church numeral

Combinatory logic

 * Fixed point combinator
 * SKI combinator calculus
 * B, C, K, W system
 * SECD machine
 * Graph reduction machine

Intuitionistic logic

 * Sequent, sequent calculus
 * Natural deduction
 * Intuitionistic type theory
 * BHK interpretation
 * Curry–Howard correspondence
 * Linear logic
 * Game semantics

Type theory

 * Typed lambda calculus
 * Typed and untyped languages
 * Type signature
 * Type inference
 * Datatype
 * Algebraic data type (generalized)
 * Type variable
 * First-class value
 * Polymorphism
 * Calculus of constructions

Denotational semantics

 * Domain theory
 * Directed complete partial order
 * Knaster–Tarski theorem

Category theory

 * Cartesian closed category
 * Yoneda lemma

Operational issues

 * Graph reduction
 * Combinator graph reduction
 * Strict programming language
 * Lazy evaluation, eager evaluation
 * Speculative evaluation
 * Side effect
 * Assignment
 * Setq
 * Closure
 * Continuation
 * Continuation passing style
 * Operational semantics
 * State transition system
 * Simulation preorder
 * Bisimulation
 * Monads in functional programming
 * Exception handling
 * Garbage collection

Programming languages

 * Clean
 * Clojure
 * Elixir
 * Erlang
 * FP
 * F#
 * Haskell
 * Glasgow Haskell Compiler
 * Gofer
 * Hugs
 * Template Haskell
 * ISWIM
 * JavaScript
 * Kent Recursive Calculator
 * Lisp
 * AutoLISP
 * Common Lisp
 * Emacs Lisp
 * Scheme
 * Mercury
 * Miranda
 * ML (Category:ML programming language family)
 * OCaml
 * Standard ML
 * Pure, predecessor Q
 * Q (programming language from Kx Systems)
 * Quantum programming
 * Scala
 * SISAL
 * Ωmega

title: List of functional programming topics


text:
One-way deck

A one-way deck is a deck of playing cards where the back of the cards has a pattern that can be oriented to have a "top" and "bottom". Magicians and card sharps can use the orientations of cards in one-way decks to encode information that allows them to perform card tricks.

A certain number of the faces of playing cards are not symmetrical, and therefore can also be used as "pointer cards" (the seven of any suit, for instance, whose odd pip is off-center on most modern decks). When all aligned, these cards allow an otherwise ordinary deck (where the backs are all identical) to be used as a partial one-way deck.

title: One-way deck


text:
London in film

London has been used frequently both as a filming location and as a film setting. These have ranged from historical recreations of the Victorian London of Charles Dickens and Sherlock Holmes, to the romantic comedies of Bridget Jones's Diary and Notting Hill, by way of crime films, spy thrillers, science fiction and the "swinging London" films of the 1960s.

Because of the dominant role played by the city in the British media, the number of British films set in London is huge. It has also been used many times in American films, and often recreated on a Hollywood studio backlot.

Historical London
Historical recreations of London on screen have been relatively frequent. The Tudor, Victorian, Edwardian and Second World War periods in the city's history have all been regularly depicted.

Pre-Victorian London
London in the Elizabethan Era has often been portrayed in films, including Fire Over England (1937), The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939), and Elizabeth (1998). Much of Shakespeare in Love (1998), a comedy involving Shakespeare in a fictionalised romance, was set around the original Globe Theatre, as was Laurence Olivier's 1944 Henry V.

The Tudor period has also been shown in other films, including the 1966 film of Robert Bolt's play A Man for All Seasons, the 1990s adaptation of Orlando and various versions of Mark Twain's The Prince and the Pauper.

Cromwell (1970) is one of the few films to show the city during the English Civil War, but several have been set during the subsequent restoration of the monarchy under Charles II. These include Nell Gwyn (1937), Forever Amber (1947) and Stage Beauty (2003). The 1995 film Restoration incorporates both the Great Plague and the Great Fire of 1665-66.

Late 18th and early 19th century London has been seen in a number of films, including Lady Hamilton (1941), Lady Caroline Lamb (1972), A Bequest to the Nation (1973), Princess Caraboo (1994), Sense and Sensibility (1995), and the various versions of The Scarlet Pimpernel.

Victorian London
One of the most popular images of the city is the Victorian era of Charles Dickens, Jack the Ripper and Sherlock Holmes. There have been almost 200 films based on the novels of Charles Dickens alone, beginning with the silent short film Death of Nancy Sykes in 1897. The most memorable of these are probably the musical Oliver! and the two David Lean films of Oliver Twist (1948) and Great Expectations (1946). Other film adaptations include David Copperfield in 1935 and 1969, Nicholas Nickleby in 1947 and 2002, The Pickwick Papers in 1952 and Little Dorrit in 1987. There have also been many versions of Dickens' A Christmas Carol, the best known of which is probably the 1951 Alastair Sim film Scrooge.

Many films have also been made of the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle. Basil Rathbone played Holmes in a series of American films from 1939 to 1946, with London recreated in Hollywood at 20th Century Fox and later Universal Studios. Other notable Holmes films which have strongly featured London backgrounds and locations are Young Sherlock Holmes (1985), Billy Wilder's The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes (1970), and the comedies The Adventure of Sherlock Holmes' Smarter Brother (1975) and Without a Clue (1988), as well as innumerable television films.

Holmes also dealt with the notorious Whitechapel serial killer Jack the Ripper in A Study in Terror in 1965 and Murder by Decree in 1978. The Ripper was also featured in Pandora's Box (1929), Jack the Ripper (1959), Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde (1971), Hands of the Ripper (1971), From Hell (2001) and several versions of The Lodger, including Hitchcock's silent film of 1926.

Much of the action in the Bram Stoker novel Dracula takes place in London, although several film adaptations have set it elsewhere. One notable exception is Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), directed by Francis Ford Coppola.

Other films set in Victorian London include the 1945 version of The Picture of Dorian Gray, Victoria the Great (1937), Sixty Glorious Years (1938), The Mudlark (1950), The Wrong Box (1966), The Assassination Bureau (1968), The First Great Train Robbery (1978), Topsy-Turvy (1999), An Ideal Husband (1999), Shanghai Knights (2003), the 1956 version and 2004 version of Around the World in Eighty Days, and the black-and-white film The Elephant Man (1980), based on the life of Joseph Merrick.

Other British cities, such as Edinburgh, or locations in other countries, are now often used for period films instead of filming in London itself. From Hell (2001), The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003) and Roman Polanski's 2005 film of Oliver Twist all recreated Victorian London in Prague in the Czech Republic.

Twentieth century
Edwardian London has been depicted in several films, notably 2010 Academy Award Winner for Best Picture The King's Speech, Ealing comedy Kind Hearts and Coronets in 1949, the Merchant Ivory E. M. Forster adaptation Howards End (1992) and the biopic Young Winston (1972).

Wartime London has featured in many films, with The Man Who Loved Redheads and Zeppelin (1971) among those set during the First World War. The 1943 film The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp covered 40 years in the city, including the Edwardian era, the First World War and the Second World War. Several others made during the Second World War itself, featured London locations, including Millions Like Us (1943) and Waterloo Road (1944). The Blitz featured prominently in the Ealing drama The Bells Go Down (1943), and in Humphrey Jennings' drama-documentary Fires Were Started (1943). The latter featured real firemen recreating scenes from the bombings. At the same time, a number of London-set films were being made in Hollywood, like Waterloo Bridge (1940), Mrs. Miniver (1942) and Forever and a Day (1943). The latter followed several generations of owners of a London house until 1943. Later films set in the city during World War II include The Man Who Never Was (1955), I Was Monty's Double (1958), Battle of Britain (1969), Hanover Street (1979), Hope and Glory (1987), Shining Through (1992) and The End of the Affair (1999), as well as some low-budget Italian-made war films like Stukas Over London (1970) and From Hell to Victory (1979).

The 1950s has been recreated in several films including 84 Charing Cross Road (1987) and Shadowlands (1993). The 1960s has proved particularly popular with film makers in recent years, especially for crime films like Buster (1988), Scandal (1989), The Krays (1990), Honest (2000) and Gangster No. 1 (2000). Withnail and I (1987) economically recreated the Camden Town area in the 1960s.

Postwar London
The Ealing comedies of the 1940s and 1950s made repeated use of locations in the city. Hue and Cry (1947) and Passport to Pimlico (1949) were memorably set in the ruins and bombsites of post-war London. In the 1950s The Lavender Hill Mob made extensive use of London locations, as did the dramas The Blue Lamp and Pool of London, while The Ladykillers used King's Cross Station and its surrounding marshalling yards as the backdrop to its story. The 1952 film The Happy Family is set on the South Bank during the lead up to the Festival of Britain.

Many other comedies have used locations in the city, some of the best known being The Ghosts of Berkeley Square (1947), Doctor in the House (1954), The Horse's Mouth (1958),  Mars Attacks!, Independence Day: Resurgence, Nuns on the Run, Mr. Bean, Bedazzled (1967), Brassed Off (1996), Billy Elliott (2000) and Bend It Like Beckham (2002).

Swinging London
With new developments in music, cinema and fashion, London found itself the centre of youth culture in the 1960s. The image of "swinging London", partly a creation of Time magazine, helped to fuel a production boom in the British film industry throughout the decade. The Beatles made memorable use of locations in the city in A Hard Day's Night (1964) (#1 in U.S.), and a huge number of other London-set films followed. These included The Pumpkin Eater, The Knack ...and How to Get It, Darling, Arabesque, Kaleidoscope, Georgy Girl, Morgan!, Alfie, Blowup, I'll Never Forget What's'isname, Casino Royale, Poor Cow, Up the Junction, Bedazzled, To Sir, with Love, The Jokers, Otley, Wonderwall, Smashing Time, Salt and Pepper and The Italian Job.

Romantic London
The city has often been used as the backdrop for romances like Indiscreet (1958) with Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman and A Touch of Class (1973), and has become popular for romantic comedies in recent years. This is at least partly due to the television and film writer Richard Curtis, who has written some of the most successful British films of recent years — The Tall Guy (1989), Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994), Notting Hill (1999) and Love Actually (2003), all set or partly set in the city. The films follow the awkward love lives of largely upper-middle class characters (aside from The Tall Guy, always including one played by Hugh Grant).

Curtis has been criticised for pandering to the American market by playing to the stereotype of the English as posh, socially awkward eccentrics. This hasn't stopped the films generally being a huge success in the American and British cinema box office charts. Other films which have followed in Curtis's footsteps include Sliding Doors (1998), Martha, Meet Frank, Daniel and Laurence (1998), About a Boy (2002), Wimbledon, and the American film What a Girl Wants (2002). Londinium (2001) used locations in Berkeley Square, Mayfair, Hyde Park, Primrose Hill Park and at Waterloo station.

Natalie Portman, Julia Roberts, Jude Law and Clive Owen conducted their affairs around various parts of London in Closer (2004), which uses locations such as Clerkenwell, the London Aquarium, Bloomsbury, the River Thames and the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane.

Woody Allen's Match Point (2005), uses a very up-market view of the city to reflect the upper class lives of the protagonists, including locations in Notting Hill, Belgravia, Chelsea, St. James's Park and Tate Modern.

Thrillers
Alfred Hitchcock probably started the fashion for using London landmarks for spy films, starting with Blackmail in 1929, which was set entirely in the city and finished on the dome of the British Museum. Many of his other thrillers followed a similar pattern, including The Man Who Knew Too Much (both the 1934 and 1956 versions), The 39 Steps (1935), Sabotage (1937), Foreign Correspondent (1940), Stage Fright (1950) and Frenzy (1972). London has since featured in many other thrillers, including Hunted (1952) The Yellow Balloon (1953) Sapphire (1959), Bunny Lake Is Missing (1965), The IPCRESS File (1965), The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1965), The Deadly Affair (1966), Arabesque (1966), The Black Windmill (1974), The Whistle Blower (1987), The Fourth Protocol (1987), Blue Ice (1992), The Innocent Sleep (1995) and briefly in Mission: Impossible (1996). This trend was spoofed in the films Otley (1968) with Tom Courtenay, and more recently in The Man Who Knew Too Little (1997) with Bill Murray and the Austin Powers films (#1 in U.S. box office). Anthony Minghella's film Breaking and Entering (2006) with Jude Law is named also a Romantic drama.

Landmarks featured in some of these films include the Royal Albert Hall, Westminster Abbey and Trafalgar Square. Both Night of the Demon (1957) and The IPCRESS File (1965) feature scenes filmed in the famous reading room at the British Museum. The 1978 version of The Thirty Nine Steps features a climax on the clock face of Big Ben, an idea borrowed from the 1943 Will Hay comedy My Learned Friend. A similar scene features in the 2003 Jackie Chan film Shanghai Knights.

Several American thrillers have also produced mangled versions of London's geography, including Twenty-Three Paces to Baker Street (1956), Midnight Lace (1960) and The Mummy Returns (2001) (#1 in U.S.), which features a chase across Tower Bridge on a double-decker bus and several scenes inside the British Museum. The 1944 version of The Lodger also features a scene by Tower Bridge, although the film was set several years before it was built.

Britain's most famous spy, James Bond, generally spends little time in London, other than to receive his orders from his boss 'M'. However, some of the films do feature locations in the city. These include On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969) (#1 in U.S.) in which George Lazenby as Bond visits the College of Arms and For Your Eyes Only (1981) (#1 in U.S.), in which Roger Moore experiences a hair-raising helicopter flight over the Docklands area. In the more recent Pierce Brosnan films, the Secret Service's headquarters are identified as being the new MI6 building on the River Thames at Vauxhall. The 1999 film The World Is Not Enough (#1 in U.S.) opens with an extended boat chase from the MI6 building down the river to the Millennium Dome, while in Die Another Day (2002) (#1 in U.S.) Bond visits a secret base in a disused Underground station, and makes a rare trip to his club Blades. Also in the 2012 Bond movie Skyfall (#1 in U.S.), Bond spends more time in London. First while he visits M's house to get back to service. Then to new underground office of MI6, then to the Art Gallery to meet the new Quartermaster. After returning from Shanghai also, Bond spends time in London before going to Scotland. He chases Silva in London Tube and other areas in London. Also at the end of Movie, Bond sees London from his office terrace. The 1967 version of Casino Royale makes extensive use of London locations, including 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, Trafalgar Square (with Nelson's Column replaced by a flying saucer) as well as showing the Changing of the Guard outside Buckingham Palace.

Parts of Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises (2012) (#1 in U.S.) were also filmed in London.

London Underground
London's underground railway system, known as the Tube, has featured in several films. The plot of the 1998 film Sliding Doors hinges on whether Gwyneth Paltrow's character catches a particular Tube train or not. Bulldog Jack (1934), Man Hunt (1941), The Good Die Young (1954), and 28 Weeks Later (2007) all include chase sequences across underground tracks.

A number of horror films have also used the subterranean network of tunnels as an atmospheric location, most notably the John Landis hit An American Werewolf in London (1981) (#1 in U.S.), which contains a famous scene set in Tottenham Court Road tube station, and the 2004 film Creep. The eerie 1973 horror Death Line stars Donald Pleasence as a Scotland Yard detective who traces a series of murders to cannibals living in the network's tunnels.

Excavations on the Underground unearthed an ancient alien spacecraft in Quatermass and the Pit (1967), and dormant dragons in Reign of Fire (2002).

The 2002 James Bond film Die Another Day features a secret MI6 facility in a fictional disused Underground Station called Vauxhall Cross. The 2012 Bond film Skyfall sets a long chase scene in the London Underground near a makeshift underground MI6 base near the Old Bailey. Another fictional station, Hobbs End, features in the 1967 science fiction film Quatermass and the Pit. Deleted scenes for Shaun of the Dead features the fictional Crouch End station.

Other films to have featured the Underground include Passport to Pimlico (1949), The Yellow Balloon (1953), Georgy Girl (1966), The Fourth Protocol (1987), Hidden City (1988) and Tube Tales (1999). The makers of the children's film The Boy Who Turned Yellow (1972) managed to persuade London Underground to paint a tube train yellow.

A rare recreation of the network in the Edwardian era featured in the adaptation of Henry James's The Wings of the Dove in 1997. The London underground of the 1920s is also recorded in Anthony Asquith's silent classic Underground (1928), while the 1969 film Battle of Britain shows the tunnel network converted to provide shelter for Londoners during the Blitz.

Aldwych tube station, formerly on a branch of the Piccadilly line, has been used as the location for many films and television productions, especially since the branch and station closed in 1994 and the platforms have been left intact making it suitable for filming and photography purposes, due to the absence of a regular train service. A 1970s tube train permanently is based at the station and heritage rolling stock can be brought in for filming - London Underground have retained one of their 1938 trains which can be used for historic appearances. In more recent years filming has also taken place at the former Jubilee line platforms at Charing Cross station, which were withdrawn from regular use when the line was extended in 1999 avoiding the station.

Science fiction
Nigel Kneale's Quatermass films and television series helped to popularise London as the setting for science fiction stories. The Quatermass Xperiment (1955) ends with Professor Quatermass cornering an alien monster in Westminster Abbey, while Quatermass and the Pit (1967) begins with an alien space craft being discovered during the construction of a new London Underground station. The John Wyndham novel The Day of the Triffids was made into a film in 1962 which also features scenes in London, while the much-derided 1985 film Lifeforce involved vampires from space taking over the city.

The 1950 thriller Seven Days to Noon featured a scientist who threatens to destroy London with a nuclear bomb, and was notable for its scenes of the city's evacuated and deserted streets. Despite the great difficulties involved in achieving this, the feat was repeated for the horror film 28 Days Later in 2002, which begins with the hero waking from a coma and wandering across a deserted Westminster Bridge.

Another nuclear threat was explored in The Day the Earth Caught Fire (1961) which has many notable scenes in London, including the Thames running dry. It also includes a lot of scenes inside the old Express Building on Fleet Street and Arthur Christiansen, the recently retired editor of the Daily Express, effectively plays himself.

Both Things to Come (1936) and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005) begin with the city being destroyed, by war and alien attack respectively, while the 2004 horror comedy Shaun of the Dead is set in the city during a zombie attack.

The 1960 film The Time Machine, based on the novel by H. G. Wells, featured an inventor in Victorian London named H. George Wells (played by Rod Taylor) who builds a time machine and time travels all the way to the year October 12, 802,701 where he finds that the human race has divided into two species - the surface dwelling Eloi and the underground dwelling Morlocks. While there, George falls in love with one of the Eloi named Weena (played by Yvette Mimieux).

The 1966 film Daleks' Invasion Earth: 2150 A.D., based on the Doctor Who story The Dalek Invasion of Earth from 1964, is set in part in a future version of London, which has been nearly destroyed by alien invasion.

Futuristic London is terrorized in the 2006 film V for Vendetta (#1 in U.S.) by a mysterious, masked anarchist who wishes to destroy the fascist government. The film was based on the graphic novel V for Vendetta. In Children of Men (2006), the London of 2027 is a grim place, full of refugees, armed policemen and exploding bombs. Locations used include Tate Britain, Battersea Power Station, the Mall and Admiralty Arch.

The Bollywood sci-fi Superhero adventure Ra.One begins in London, where the protagonist Dr. Shekhar Subramanium (played by Shahrukh Khan) works at the fictional Barron Industries. Much of the film was shot in various parts of the city.

2013 American science fiction film Star Trek Into Darkness is partially set in London of the distant future.

Criminals
Historic periods in the city's underworld have been portrayed in a small number of films. Examples include Where's Jack? (17th century), The First Great Train Robbery (Victorian era), Chicago Joe and the Showgirl (World War II) and The Krays (the 1960s), while 10 Rillington Place (1971) recreated 1940s London, filming in the actual street where John Christie carried out his infamous murders.

Other films have evoked London's underworld in the modern era, including Robbery (1967), Performance (1970), Villain (1971), Brannigan (1975), The Long Good Friday (1980), Mona Lisa (1986), Face (1997), Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998), G:MT – Greenwich Mean Time (1999), Snatch (2000), Sexy Beast (2000) and Layer Cake (2004).

Set in a dystopian near-future Britain, A Clockwork Orange (1971), featuring youth gangs, was filmed in metropolitan London.

The other side of London
A number of films have depicted the underbelly of the city away from the familiar tourist sites. Examples of these include Up the Junction, Nil by Mouth, Dirty Pretty Things, Eastern Promises and two out of every three films directed by Mike Leigh. The East End meanwhile, was shown in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), Waterloo Road (1944), It Always Rains on Sunday (1947) and A Kid for Two Farthings (1955), among others.

The 1967 documentary The London Nobody Knows, based on the book of the same name by Geoffrey Scowcroft Fletcher and presented by James Mason, attempted to show some unfamiliar aspects of the city, as did Patrick Keiller's 1994 documentary London. This approach has since been emulated by the Saint Etienne films Finisterre (2002) and What Have You Done Today, Mervyn Day? (2005). The latter attempted to capture the state of the Lower Lea Valley prior to its transformation ahead of the 2012 London Olympics.

Other films have tried to use less familiar locations in a new way. The 1995 version of Richard III, starring Ian McKellen, which is set in a fictional 1930s fascist version of England, makes imaginative use of London locations such as St Cuthbert's church, St Pancras chambers (the old Midland Grand Hotel), the University of London's Senate House, and the two Gilbert Scott power stations — Bankside serving for the Tower and the decrepit Battersea Power Station as the setting for the final battle scenes. Terry Gilliam's 1985 Orwellian fantasy Brazil also used the cooling towers of the same power station as a location, as did Michael Radford's 1984 film version of George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four.

London Kills Me (1991) portrays the city's immigrant and drug subcultures in the early Thatcher years, in a similar vein as My Beautiful Laundrette (1985). The 2007 film by Ken Loach It's a Free World... considered the ethical dilemmas regarding London's vast trade in illegal workers.

The acclaimed 1996 film Beautiful Thing depicted the lives of two gay teenagers living on the South London housing estate of Thamesmead. Similar themes, as well as race, were part of the 1970s set Young Soul Rebels, the debut of Derek Jarman protege Isaac Julien (1991).

Breaking and Entering, a 2006 romantic drama, by Academy Award-winning director Anthony Minghella, shot and set in King's Cross, a blighted, inner-city neighbourhood of London, examines an affair which unfolds between a successful British landscape architect and a Bosnian woman. The mother in Breaking and Entering has a troubled teenage son who was widowed by the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Kids' London
London has been a popular location for children's (and especially Disney) films over the last 40 years. The animated features The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad (1949), Peter Pan (1953), One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), The Sword in the Stone (1963) and Basil, the Great Mouse Detective (known in North America as The Great Mouse Detective) (1986) were all set in the city, as were Mary Poppins (1964) (#1 in U.S.) and part of Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971). These, however, were all filmed in the U.S.. The opening setting of Pocahontas (1995) is in London. The educational Disney short The Truth About Mother Goose (1957) featured London while showing the history behind the nursery rhymes Little Jack Horner and London Bridge Is Falling Down. The Mickey Mouse shorts Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) and The Prince and the Pauper (1990) were set in London.

In more recent years The Parent Trap (1998 version), Winning London, The Great Muppet Caper, the 1996 live-action remake of 101 Dalmatians (#1 in U.S.) and the 2018 film Christopher Robin all used actual locations in the city, as did the 1975 Disney comedy One of Our Dinosaurs is Missing, which was largely set around the Natural History Museum in the early 20th century. The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992) was set in Victorian London, but largely used Shepperton Studios. The film Melody (1970) (also known as S.W.A.L.K.) was filmed in and around Lambeth and Vauxhall and reunited Mark Lester and Jack Wild after their appearance in Oliver!.

Cars 2 was also set in London.

The Harry Potter films (#1 in U.S. box office) also feature some famous London locations. The London Zoo, King's Cross station, and Leadenhall Market (Diagon Alley) are among those used.

Stormbreaker, the first novel in the bestselling Alex Rider series by Anthony Horowitz, was turned into a film in 2006. It features locations in London such as Hyde Park, Piccadilly Circus, and the Science Museum. The film also features several action sequences in the city, including a horse chase through central London and the main characters fighting on the rooftop of a skyscraper.

Paddington (2014) features several London locations, and includes modern landmarks such as The Shard and the London Eye.

Musical London
Cliff Richard was a film star with three successful musical comedies in the early 1960s. The first of these, The Young Ones (1961), was set in London. Cliff, The Shadows, and others need money to save their youth club, so they set up a pirate radio station to generate publicity for the show. Although Cliff's second hit, Summer Holiday (1963), mostly took place while driving across Europe, it prominently featured a red London AEC RT bus.

The success of some of these 1960s films helped to make up for London Town, Britain's first Technicolor musical, which was a high-profile flop in 1946.

Mary Poppins (1964) was a critical and popular success, winning multiple Oscars for its editing, music (including Best Song for "Chim Chim Cher-ee"), and visual effects (notably the scene combining live action and animation). Lead actress Julie Andrews won an Academy Award for Best Actress.

Also in 1964, Audrey Hepburn starred in My Fair Lady, the film of the musical of the George Bernard Shaw play Pygmalion. George Cukor's decision to award the role of Eliza Doolittle to Hepburn was perceived by many as a snub to Julie Andrews, who had played the part to great acclaim on Broadway. This is another film with some famous songs, including Wouldn't it be Loverly, I Could have Danced all Night and Get Me to the Church on Time. Marni Nixon's voice was used in place of Audrey Hepburn's for the songs.

In Half a Sixpence (1967), professional cheery cockney Tommy Steele plays Arthur Kipps, a cockney who unexpectedly comes into some money, in a musical version of H. G. Wells's novel Kipps.

Oliver! (1968), the musical based on Oliver Twist, includes the songs Food, Glorious Food, Consider Yourself and You've Got To Pick A Pocket Or Two. Two more Dickens stories turned into musicals were A Christmas Carol (filmed as Scrooge in 1970) and The Old Curiosity Shop, which became Mr Quilp in 1975.

The musical adaptation of Goodbye, Mr. Chips with Peter O'Toole and Petula Clark made use of several London locations, including the dining room at the Savoy Hotel and the Salisbury pub in the heart of the West End.

Quadrophenia (1979) draws its soundtrack from the album of the same name, a rock opera by The Who. It tells the story of Jimmy, a disaffected teenager, taking his scooter to Brighton for the August bank holiday with a group of Mods, and taking part in one of the notorious 'battles' between Mods and Rockers.

Punk, one of London's notable contributions to pop music, is the subject of Sid and Nancy (1986), a biopic of Sid Vicious, bassist with the Sex Pistols. Gary Oldman stars as Vicious. Also see the punk-rockumentaries directed by Julien Temple, the first being band manager Malcolm McLaren's take on 'his' invention of punk in his The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle and the more recent return volley by the estranged band members in The Filth and the Fury.

The South London reggae scene is notably represented in Babylon (1980).

SpiceWorld (1997) was a comedy starring pop girl group the Spice Girls. It was a commercial success but widely panned by critics.

Early Victorian London was the setting for 2007's musical Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street.

K-On! The Movie (2011) is the first Japanese animated musical film to be set in London, as it features a band whose music is inspired by British rock music. The band performs their original songs at Jubilee Gardens.

title: London in film


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Kyatto Ninden Teyandee

Kyatto Ninden Teyandee (キャッ党忍伝てやんでえ) is a Japanese anime series produced by Tatsunoko Production and Sotsu Agency. The series originally aired in Japan on TV Tokyo from February 1, 1990, to February 12, 1991, for a total of 54 episodes. Saban picked up the North American rights to the series in 1991, and produced an English version called Samurai Pizza Cats. The creators stated that there was going to be a spin-off series, Kyatto Keisatsu Beranmee (キャッ党警察べらんめえ). The series is known for its cultural humor consisting of Japanese puns, pop culture, and fourth-wall breaking.

Plot
The series is set in Edoropolis (a portmanteau of "Edo" and "metropolis"), a mechanical city that fuses feudal Japanese culture with contemporary culture populated by cybernetic anthropomorphic "animaloids" (or animal androids). The city is notionally led by shōgun Iei-Iei Tokugawa, but as he is a doddering eccentric, the actual leadership is in the hands of his neurotic daughter Tokugawa Usako and a council. The council is headed by the ambitious prime minister Kitsunezuka Koon-no-Kami, a fox who constantly plots to overthrow the Shogun with the help of his trusted advisor Karasu Gennari-sai, and Karamaru, the leader of an army of ninja crows.

Unknown to the prime minister, council member Inuyama Wanko-no-Kami, the commander of the Palace Guard, learns of his designs on leadership, but is unable to prosecute him for treason because of his plausible deniability. Instead, Inuyama enlists the services of Yattarou, Pururun and Sukashii, cat ninja who work in the city's pizzeria, with their operator Otama. Known collectively as the Nyankī (a play on the Japanese word for a cat's meow and the term "Yankee"), they are assigned to stop Koon-no-Kami and his evil henchmen's plans to take over Edoropolis.

English dub
When Saban licensed the English version, Samurai Pizza Cats, proper translations of and information about the original Japanese episodes were either of poor quality or non-existent. It was decided to write completely original dialogue for the English dub, playing the show as a wacky, Animaniacs-esque comedy in contrast to the less farcical original. Every episode excluding the two clip shows was dubbed into English. Some episodes of the dubbed version were never aired on United States television due to risque humor (at the time) and depictions of homosexuality.

Video game
In 1991, Tecmo (now known as Koei Tecmo) published a video game based on the anime for the Family Computer. It was officially released in Japan only but was bootlegged outside Japan as Ninja Cat. Although the game was never officially released in the West, complete English adaptation (characters and places names changed to corresponding ones from Samurai Pizza Cats) are available via a fan-made ROM patch. A standalone handheld LSI game (similar to Nintendo's Game&Watch) was also made.

Players take the role of the three main cats and Otasuke members, who can be switched to at any time and have special abilities to progress through the game. The game features most of the characters in the series as well as an additional villain, a mysterious scientist named Dr. Purple (Dr. パープ) who shows up later on in the game and appears to ally with Koon-no-Kami.

The main characters were intended at one point to appear in the Wii fighting game Tatsunoko vs. Capcom: Ultimate All-Stars. The game's producer, Ryota Niitsuma, was quoted in an interview as saying: "One of the main anime we got more requests for than any others was Samurai Pizza Cats... I wanted to see that, but we couldn't reach an agreement."

Soundtrack
A soundtrack CD titled Kyatto Ninden Teyandee: The Cats' First Performance (キャッ党忍伝てやんでえ 猫座第一回公演) was released on September 21, 1990.

A second soundtrack CD, Kyatto Ninden Teyandee: The Cats' Final Performance Day (キャッ党忍伝てやんでえ 猫座千秋楽公演) was released on December 21, 1990.

Music
The incidental music was composed by Kenji Kawai (Ghost in the Shell, Patlabor, Ranma ½, Fate/Stay Night, Mobile Suit Gundam 00). The opening ("A Time for Beautiful Days" (おっとどっこい日本晴れ)) and ending ("To Be Yourself") songs were composed by Etsuko Yamakawa, Takeshi Ike and Anju Mana and sung by Reina Yazawa and Ai Orikasa. Ami Itabashi, the singer of the ending song of the Macross OVAs, sang the insert songs.

Home video release
Some episodes were released on video in Japan, but a complete release of the show was held up for many years owing to poor sales. It was rumored that the lack of a DVD release was due to the original masters of some episodes being lost, but this proved not to be the case. Starchild Records released the complete series on DVD in Japan on August 8, 2012, as part of a commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Tatsunoko Pro. The limited edition set sold well, placing second in the national animation DVD sales charts the week of its release.

In North America, Discotek Media announced on March 12, 2012, that they had licensed the home video rights to the series with plans to release both the original Japanese version with English subtitles and Saban's English dub in separate box sets for each version. The Japanese language box set was released on April 30, 2013, while the English dubbed version was released on July 30, 2013.

On May 16, 2016, anime streaming service Crunchyroll began streaming the show under license from Discotek with improved quality subtitles for at least six episodes while the rest used the DVD footage. As of May 23, 2016, all 54 episodes are available for free users.

Toys
Toys and model kits were released in Japan and Europe by Bandai, the latter usually being reboxed versions of the prior. Action figures were made for the Nyanki and the Otasuke (the Japanese originals came as model kits while the European figures came pre-assembled). There were large and small (Gachapon-sized), rubber-like figures, as well as playsets for the smaller figures, including the Nyago King and the pizza parlor.

Manga
A tie-in manga by Yoshimi Hamada was serialized in Comic Bom Bom in 1990. A sequel manga that took place after the end of the television series was released in 1994. The manga was made by Tatsuya Souma.

Other appearances

 * In the 4th episode of the Tatsunoko magical girl parody anime Nurse Witch Komugi-chan R, Komugi Nakahara is at a ninja-themed festival taking a picture of her family behind a standee of the Nyankee. Komugi shouts "Himitsu Ninja Tai" and her family responds "Nyankee".

title: Kyatto Ninden Teyandee


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Finn Ronne

Finn Ronne (December 20, 1899 – January 12, 1980) was a Norwegian-born U.S. citizen and Antarctic explorer.

Background
Finn Ronne was born in Horten, in Vestfold county, Norway. His father, Martin Rønne (1861–1932), was a polar explorer who served in Roald Amundsen's successful expedition to the South Pole. Ronne received his education in engineering at Horten Technical College.

In 1923 Finn Ronne immigrated to the U.S. and gained citizenship in 1929. After working at Westinghouse Electric Corporation for some years, he took part in two of Richard E. Byrd's expeditions to the South Pole, and in 1939 Ronne served as Byrd's executive officer helping discover one thousand miles of new coastline.

After serving several years in the United States Navy, gaining the rank of captain, Ronne returned to Antarctica in the 1940s, with support of the American Geographical Society as the leader of the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition. From 1946 to 1948 his team mapped and explored the Weddell Sea coastline and set a number of polar records. Ronne covered 3,600 miles by ski and dog sled—more than any other explorer in history. His wife Edith Ronne accompanied him on this expedition, serving as "historian and correspondent for the North American Newspaper Alliance". She and the chief pilot's wife Jennie Darlington were the first women to overwinter in Antarctica.

In the 1950s, the Navy organized Operation Deepfreeze to complete the mapping of Antarctica and establish centers for scientific research. Ronne became the scientific and military leader for a U.S. Weddell Sea base. During his lifetime he wrote several books on Antarctica and many scientific papers on Antarctic research. He received three medals and numerous military awards for service, for geographical exploration and for the advancement of science. He was awarded the St. Olav's Medal by the King of Norway. At his death in 1980, in Bethesda, Maryland, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The Finn Ronne Memorial Award is awarded by the Explorers Club to an individual noted for accomplishments in polar field research that best typify the spirit of Finn Ronne.

title: Finn Ronne


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User:Gnu~enwiki

I am Ramakrishnan Muthukrishnan from Bangalore, India. Visit my homepage for more info.

title: User:Gnu~enwiki


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User:Jasonnolan

the content is missing and the meaning is elsewhere. :P

title: User:Jasonnolan


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Talk:Llano Estacado

Untitled
This notion that Coronado marked his trail with wooden stakes seems pretty bogus to me. Where did he get the wood? There are very few native trees on the Llano and most of them are pretty short. Seems like he could have navigated using the stars, etc. Most of the markers were of water holes, etc. H2O 11:43, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * A pile of buffalo dung near a water hole is much more plausible. H2O 12:37, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

extent of Llano Estacado; local terminology; geology
Roswell, New Mexico is definately not located on the Llano Estacado. Roswell is located in the Pecos River valley about 50 miles west of the western escarpment marking the edge of the caprock.

The "Caprock" or "Cap" is the local term most often used for the Llano Estacado. The caprock refers to a hard layer of caliche (a form of calcium carbonate) beneath the topsoil that is an important feature of the Llano Estacado and is responsible for the prominent escarpments defining its western and eastern boundaries -- the caprock layer protects the underlying layers from erosion.72.16.50.56 03:11, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

Seminole???
"Important cities on the Llano include Amarillo, Lubbock, Seminole and Midland in Texas..."

How is Seminole incuded in this list? Amarillo = 183,021 population, Lubbock = 209,737, Midland = 100,378, Seminole = 5,910. I understand that population isn't everything, but cities like Odessa, Plainview, Big Spring and Levelland (among others) are larger economic and educational centers than Seminole. 72.16.85.36 06:26, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

staked/palisaded plain
Another useful cognate for the name "estacado" would be "stockade". Palisade basically means the same thing as stockade, and that would seem to be the most likely explanation for the Spanish name "Llano Esatacado"--it's the "Stockade Plain". Away with stories about sticks! Its all about the escarpments that form a wall around this steppe!

The reason for the name is that, while it was under control of the Spanish Empire, to mark the way the Spaniards used stakes (estacas) every so many leagues.

--139.47.116.162 (talk) 23:05, 12 May 2019 (UTC)

staked/palisaded plain
Another useful cognate for the name "estacado" would be "stockade". Palisade basically means the same thing as stockade, and that would seem to be the most likely explanation for the Spanish name "Llano Estacado"--it's the "Stockade Plain". Away with stories about sticks! Its all about the escarpments that form a wall around this steppe! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.19.106.240 (talk) 02:09, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

Could it have been "estancado" instead of "estacado"? As in "stagnant plain"? This is worth researching. I sense that a letter was left out and it changed the meaning forever. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.72.195.12 (talk) 01:28, 2 March 2011 (UTC)

Pictures
There are just too many pictures on this article now. They're impeding the flow, and some of them are redundant - we have THREE pictures of the Caprock Escarpment (north, east, and Palo Duro Canyon) and I just feel it's cluttered and unnecessary. I want to delete a picture and move/resize a couple of others, but I wanted to ask for opinions from whoever cares before I did so. Which one do you think should be deleted, or do you think it's fine the way it is? If I don't hear anything by tonight I'll go ahead and make changes. --NetherlandishYankee (talk) 13:33, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree. I have rearranged the maps and photos using the gallery function (See article). (Leaflet (talk) 15:21, 15 August 2008 (UTC))

Coronado Quote
With regard to the Coronado quote:

"I reached some plains so vast, that I did not find their limit anywhere I went, although I travelled over them for more than 300 leagues ..."

One Spanish league is equivalent to 2.6 miles so 300 Spanish leagues is 780 miles. The largest east-west dimension of the Llano Estacado is less than 200 miles and the largest north-south dimension is less than 300 miles. How could Coronado have travelled over them for them for more than 780 miles without finding "their limit"? Leaflet (talk) 00:29, 1 February 2009 (UTC)
 * a) He didn't have an odometer. b) He didn't say he traveled in a straight line. Barefoot through the chollas (talk) 04:31, 17 September 2021 (UTC)

West Texas Oil Fields
The information noted under Llano Estacado does not mention the oil fields of that area. West Texas (Llano Estacado) at one time was one of the largest oil producing areas in the United States. Andrews, Gaines, Hockley, Yoakum, Ector, Garza, Midland, Winkler, Scurry counties all had abundant drilling, oil production and pipeline transportation. The major oil companies: Shell, Amoco, Mobil, Humble Oil (Exxon), Atlantic-Richfield, Sun Oil, Texaco, Conoco, Phillips, Texas Pacific Coal & Oil had field offices, leased drilling rights, oil production, pipelines, etc. throughout the Llano Estacado areas. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Kimmerd30 (talk • contribs) 06:08, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

STAKED PLAINS
While is is possible to make a plausible argument dismissing stories about the the Conquistadors planting stakes as navigational aids, this has no bearing on the point of fact that the Llano Estacado is more commonly known as the Staked Plains, and this fact should be included in the article. I grew up in the area and know the area by both names, as does anyone who grew up there. You will also note that the article cited as as a source for debunking the "Stakes for Navigation" story, The Texas State Historical Association page on "Llano Estacado", also references "Staked Plains" as an alternative name in the first sentence of the article. A google search of "Llano Estacado" yields some 151,000 hits, whereas a google search of "Staked Plains" yields some 806,000 hits, indicating at the very least that "Staked Plains" is indeed in common usage, and most likely used much more commonly than the Spanish "Llano Estacado".

Changes in ideas about the origin of a place name to not change the place name itself.

Arcfixer (talk) 18:26, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes, "Staked Plains" is a common name. Lots of place names translated into English from other languages are mistranslations. Anyway, explicitly says "Translation into English is "staked plaines"; reportedly so level that in the old days the pioneers had to drive stakes across it to find their way." (not sure I believe that is the origin of the name--it does say "reportedly" though) Pfly (talk) 18:52, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

Good comments. Personally, I take no position on the origin of the name. I'm not sufficiently well informed. As we say in Texas, "It's hard to say, not knowing." Arcfixer (talk) 19:13, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

 * And an honest appraisal pretty much has to agree, i.e. the original semantic intention of llano estacado remains unknown, at least as reported in this article. One reason is that the as-obvious-as-it-is-sensible advice of the poster below from Barcelona seems to have gone unheeded: "read the contemporary accounts".
 * We have the speculation of modern English-speaking geologists as sources -- perhaps highly qualified in their field, but no indication of experience, much less expertise, in the historical semantics of Spanish or Hispano-American toponomastics -- geologists perhaps not surprisingly given to seeing the solution as "sensible geologic". Yet we have no findings of qualified philologists, and no direct quotations of Coronado or of other Europeans operating in the area at the appropriate time (Coronado did not write in English, boys and girls, notwithstanding the supposed quotations in the article).
 * As the article stands now, 9/2021, an honest jury has to return the verdict non liquet, cannot be judged, no matter how many evidence-free peremptory declarations are issued of how "the real interpretation" is "more accurately rendered". Barefoot through the chollas (talk) 17:33, 17 September 2021 (UTC)

Meaning of "Llano Estacado"
I am no expert in Spanish idiom. I do note that no expert in Spanish idiom of the time involved has yet been cited for the assertion that the meaning of "estacado" here is essentially "stockaded" or "pallisaded". I do offer a link, http://spanish.about.com/b/2010/05/12/what-does-llano-estacado-mean.htm, at which one putative expert on the language (the person answering the question for the website) notes the relationship of "stockade" to "estacado". But another putative expert (whose qualifications are unknown) asserts that the meaning was idiomatic for a "polo field" (presumably referencing the stakes that serve as the goals for the game).

In light of the considerable disagreement, and in the absence of some conclusive evidence of what Coronado meant, I would recommend that the strong bias in the article towards the meaning "pallisaded plains" be removed, and the several theories left as competing and unresolved. Doug (talk) 00:21, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

The answer that staked, stockaded and pallisadoed all mean virtually the same is correct. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 02:05, 19 July 2011 (UTC)
 * On what authority do you assert this? It's lack of referenced authority that makes this an issue.Doug (talk) 01:03, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

I am a native English speaker and can verify that what your answers.com guy answered about these 3 words meaning virtually the same is correct. But if you don't want to believe me or the answers.com guy, we also have these things called 'dictionaries' that are supposed to explain what words mean. As for the article, we can only use etymologies for llano estacado that appear in a reliable published source, but unfortunately that doesn't include user responses on answers.com. Tip: If you find anything about the etymology on "google books", there is a much better chance of adding it to the article as a source. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 11:48, 20 July 2011 (UTC)
 * You appear to be missing the point. The issue is not whether or not "stockade" and "pallisade" and "staked" have the same meaning in English.  The question is whether or not the use of "Estacado" by Coronado in the time frame involved would have been a reference to "palisaded", or a reference to "polo field", or a reference to "has stakes on it", or something else entirely different.Doug (talk) 20:40, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

You know, is not like Spain has been nuked and the archives in Spain had become fucking dust. Yes, the name was and still is in Spanish "Llanura estacada". And yes, it was because we, Spaniards, planted stakes as navigational aids. If you have doubts, learn Spanish and read the contemporary accounts.

139.47.116.162 (talk) 23:10, 12 May 2019 (UTC)

 * Odd then, that the corresponding article on Spanish Wikipedia is entitled "Llano Estacado". Carlstak (talk) 03:18, 13 May 2019 (UTC)

Meaningless statement
The following line exists in the current version of the article:
 * For years, the Llano Estacado was isolated from the state government in Austin

What the hell is that supposed to mean? Unless there was a wall built along the top of the escarpments, its meaning is unclear and the verbiage in non-encyclopedic. I'm going to delete it if no one can improve it or clarify its meaning. 98.82.199.243 (talk) 01:57, 3 January 2012 (UTC)

Strange Area Comparison
The phrase "Llano Estacado is larger in area than New England, excluding Maine" appears in this article. Well, then it's not larger in area than New England. Why compare it to a region that's only similar in size after you exclude its largest state? There are many better area comparisons that could be made. For example, the Llano Estacado is ~37,000 square miles. Indiana is ~36,000 square miles. I'm changing the comparison to this more relevant example. 63.115.56.33 (talk) 17:16, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

Largest mesa in the U.S.? in the world?
The article on Cedaredge, Colorado claims that Grand Mesa is the largest mesa in the world. If Llana Estacado is a larger mesa, the Cedaredge article certainly needs to be corrected, and the L.E. article ought to claim credit to being the largest (in Texas, if not in the U.S. or the world). 75.163.241.167 (talk) 21:40, 19 August 2012 (UTC)

So can anyone back up any of this stuff, or what?
The Llano Estacado article is a vast, barren vista which is interrupted by pitifully few citations to support the content which recedes to the gently undulating horizon. — O'Dea (talk) 21:55, 15 October 2012 (UTC)

Staked should read: stacked
For years I've struggled with how ground could be "staked". Staked to what? But on finally seeing the geologic features of this area, I realize that the translation from the Spanish: estacado, should be STACKED. 172.248.105.201 (talk) 18:48, 25 April 2019 (UTC)

 * You would have to show some reliable academic sources to support your contention. The literal translation of the Spanish "Llano Estacado" is "staked plain"; it is sometimes translated as "palisaded plain." See The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. Carlstak (talk) 21:02, 25 April 2019 (UTC)

Removing one sentence from In popular culture
"It is possible, but unverifiable, that the region is the origin for the term ‘the sticks’, which refers to a rural, undeveloped area." If an idea is admittedly unverifiable, and if there is no citation, it hardly seems like it belongs on Wikipedia. It sounds like pure speculation. Dgndenver (talk) 14:20, 19 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Definify has a couple ideas for the origin of "the sticks", and they involve the Southeast or the Pacific Northwest, not the Southwest.
 * https://www.definify.com/word/the_sticks
 * Possibly derived from 1800s Chinook Jargon stick = “tree”, “forest”, from English “stick”.
 * 1904 The American Missionary, "A Town of Colored People in Mississippi" by Rev. B.F. Ousley, vol. 58, no. 9 (November, 1904), p. 295:
 * Most of the farming at present is done in the "sticks," that is, in the large, dead, and often blackened trunks of trees standing in most of the cultivated fields around. There are but few new towns in the Delta where the "sticks" are not to be seen, and much damage is sometimes done when these old "deadenings," as they are called, are set on fire.
 * Dgndenver (talk) 14:28, 19 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Llano Estacado


text:
Jackie Ronne

Edith Jackie Ronne (October 13, 1919 – June 14, 2009) was an American explorer of Antarctica and the first woman in the world to be a working member of an Antarctic expedition (1947–48). The Ronne Ice Shelf was named by her husband after her.

Biography
Born Edith Ann Maslin on October 13, 1919, in Baltimore, Maryland, Ronne spent her first two years in college at the College of Wooster in Wooster, Ohio, and received a degree in history from George Washington University, where she was a member of Phi Mu sorority. After college she worked in the U.S. State Department where she spent five years serving in several different positions from file clerk to International Information Specialist in the Near and Far Eastern Division of Cultural Affairs. She married Finn Ronne on March 18, 1941, and on the expedition of 1946–1948 that her husband commanded, she became the first American woman to set foot on the Antarctic continent. She and Jennie Darlington, the wife of the expedition's chief pilot, became the first women to overwinter in Antarctica. They spent 15 months together with 21 other members of the expedition in a small station they had set up

As the expedition's recorder and historian, Ronne wrote the news releases for the North American Newspaper Alliance. She also kept a daily history of the expedition's accomplishments, which formed the basis for her husband's book, Antarctic Conquest, published by Putnam in 1949, as well as making routine tidal and seismographic observations.

Edith Ronne returned fifteen times to Antarctica, including a Navy-sponsored flight to the South Pole in 1971 to commemorate the 60th anniversary of Roald Amundsen first reaching the South Pole, and a 1995 trip back to her former base at Stonington Island as guest lecturer on the expedition cruise ship Explorer. She was a fellow of The Explorers Club and served as president of the Society of Woman Geographers from 1978 to 1981.

She died on June 14, 2009, aged 89, from Alzheimer's disease.

Legacy
Edith Ronne Land was named after her by her husband (Commander Finn Ronne), who mapped the last unknown coastline on earth. When the territory was determined to be mostly ice shelf, the name was changed to Edith Ronne Ice Shelf. At her request, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names removed her first name, so that the Ronne Ice Shelf would correspond to the continent's other large ice shelf, the Ross Ice Shelf and to commemorate all three Ronne explorers including her father-in-law, Martin Rønne, a member of Amundsen's South Pole expedition.

Ronne was the recipient of a special Achievement Award from Columbian College of George Washington University and dedicated a Polar Section to the National Naval Museum.

title: Jackie Ronne


text:
Red Garland

William McKinley "Red" Garland Jr. (May 13, 1923 – April 23, 1984) was an American modern jazz pianist. Known for his work as a bandleader and during the 1950s with Miles Davis, Garland helped popularize the block chord style of playing in jazz piano.

Early life
William "Red" Garland was born in 1923 in Dallas, Texas. He began his musical studies on the clarinet and alto saxophone, having studied with saxophonist Buster "Prof" Smith, who had been an early mentor of alto saxophonist Charlie Parker in Kansas City. He joined the United States Army in 1941 and was stationed in Fort Huachuca, Arizona. While there, Garland began to learn the piano with Army pianists John Lewis (not to be confused with John Lewis of the Modern Jazz Quartet) and Lee Barnes. At this time, he was also an amateur boxer, having fought Sugar Ray Robinson but losing the match. After being discharged from the military in 1944, Garland played locally around Texas until 1946 when he joined the trumpet player Hot Lips Page's band, playing with him until a tour ended in New York in March 1946. Garland decided to stay in New York and soon found work there and also in Philadelphia. While in New York, Garland was recommended to singer Billy Eckstine, who hired him for several weeks.

1955–1958: the first great Miles Davis Quintet
Garland became famous in 1955 when he joined the Miles Davis Quintet, featuring John Coltrane, Philly Joe Jones, and Paul Chambers. Davis was a fan of boxing and was impressed that Garland had boxed earlier in his life. Together, the group recorded their famous Prestige albums, Miles: The New Miles Davis Quintet (1956), Workin, Steamin, Cookin, and Relaxin'. Garland's style is prominent in these seminal recordings—evident in his distinctive chord voicings, his sophisticated accompaniment, and his musical references to Ahmad Jamal's style. Some observers dismissed Garland as a "cocktail" pianist, but Miles was pleased with his style, having urged Garland to absorb some of Jamal's lightness of touch and harmonics within his own approach.

Garland played on the first of Davis's many Columbia recordings, 'Round About Midnight (1957). Their relationship was already beginning to deteriorate, but he continued playing with Miles. By 1958, Garland and Jones had started to become more erratic in turning up for recordings and shows. He was eventually fired by Miles but later returned to play on another jazz classic, Milestones. Davis was displeased when Garland quoted Davis's much earlier, and by then famous, solo from "Now's The Time" in block chords during the slower take of "Straight, No Chaser". Garland walked out of one of the sessions for Milestones; on the track "Sid's Ahead", Davis comped behind the saxophone solos in his absence.

1958–1984: Red Garland Trio and later life
In 1958, Garland formed his own trio. Among the musicians the trio recorded with are Pepper Adams, Nat Adderley, Ray Barretto, Kenny Burrell, Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis, Jimmy Heath, Harold Land, Philly Joe Jones, Blue Mitchell, Ira Sullivan, and Leroy Vinnegar. The trio also recorded as a quintet with John Coltrane and Donald Byrd. Altogether, Garland led 19 recording sessions while at Prestige Records and 25 sessions for Fantasy Records. He stopped playing professionally for a number of years in the 1960s when the popularity of rock music coincided with a substantial drop in the popularity of jazz.

Garland eventually returned to his native Texas in the 1970s to care for his aged mother. He led a recording in 1977, named Crossings, which reunited him with Philly Joe Jones, and he teamed up with bassist Ron Carter. His later work tended to sound more modern and less polished than his better-known recordings. He continued recording until his death from a heart attack on April 23, 1984, at the age of 60.

As leader
Compilations
 * Rediscovered Masters (Prestige, 1977) – rec. 1958–61
 * At the Prelude, Vol. 1 (Prestige, 1994) – rec. 1959. compilation of Red Garland at the Prelude + Red Garland Live!.
 * Blues in the Night (Prestige, 1997) – rec. 1960. compilation of Halleloo-Y'-All + Soul Burnin'.
 * Red's Blues (Prestige, 1998) – rec. 1956–62.
 * Stretching Out (Prestige, 2002) – rec. 1959. compilation of Satin Doll + Lil' Darlin'.
 * The Best of the Red Garland Quintets (Prestige, 2004)
 * The Best of the Red Garland Trios (Prestige, 2004)

As sideman
With Arnett Cobb
 * Sizzlin' (Prestige, 1960)
 * Ballads by Cobb (Moodsville, 1960)

With John Coltrane
 * Tenor Conclave with Al Cohn, Hank Mobley, Zoot Sims (Prestige, 1957)
 * John Coltrane with the Red Garland Trio (Prestige, 1957) – reissued as Traneing In
 * Soultrane (Prestige, 1958)
 * Lush Life (Prestige, 1961)
 * Settin' The Pace (Prestige, 1961)
 * Standard Coltrane (Prestige, 1962)
 * The Believer (Prestige, 1964)
 * The Last Trane (Prestige, 1965)

With Miles Davis
 * The Musings of Miles (Prestige, 1955)
 * Miles: The New Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1955)
 * Cookin' with The Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956)
 * Relaxin' with The Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956)
 * Workin' with The Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956)
 * Steamin' with The Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956)
 * 'Round About Midnight (Columbia, 1957)
 * Milestones (Columbia, 1958)

With others
 * Curtis Fuller, Curtis Fuller with Red Garland (Prestige, 1963) – rec. 1957
 * Coleman Hawkins, Coleman Hawkins with the Red Garland Trio (Swingville, 1959)
 * Jackie McLean, McLean's Scene (Prestige, 1959) – rec. 1956–57
 * Charlie Parker, Charlie Parker at Storyville (Blue Note, 1953)
 * Art Pepper, Art Pepper Meets the Rhythm Section (Contemporary, 1957)
 * Sonny Rollins, Tenor Madness (Prestige, 1956)
 * Phil Woods, Sugan (Status/Prestige, 1965) – rec. 1957

title: Red Garland


text:
LMA

LMA may refer to:

Medicine

 * Laryngeal mask airway, a mask used in anaesthesia and emergency medicine

Science

 * Laban movement analysis, a language for describing, visualizing, interpreting and documenting human movement
 * Land-mammal age
 * Leaf mass per area, the inverse of Specific leaf area
 * Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, a mathematical procedure

Organisations

 * Ladies' Memorial Association, Southern local organizations dedicated to the Confederate dead
 * League Managers Association, an organization representing managers of English football clubs
 * Lebanese Muslim Association, Sydney, Australia
 * Light Miniature Aircraft, an aircraft design firm based in Okeechobee, Florida, United States
 * Ligue de Martinique d'Athlétisme, the governing body for the sport of athletics in Martinique
 * Liverpool Media Academy, a media, music and performing arts college in Liverpool, England
 * Loan Market Association, a UK-based organisation formed to support the secondary loan market in Europe
 * Lockheed Martin Aerospace, formally Lockheed Martin Corporation, a major US aerospace corporation
 * London Metropolitan Archives, the main repository for archives pertaining to Greater London

Places

 * Longwood Medical and Academic Area, Boston, United States
 * Minchumina Airport, Alaska, United States

Other

 * LaMarcus Aldridge (born 1985), American former basketball player
 * Late Middle Ages, a period in history
 * Live Music Archive, a subsection of the Internet Archive
 * Local marketing agreement, an agreement whereby an entity operates a broadcast media outlet licensed to a different owner

title: LMA


text:
Turcopole

During the period of the Crusades, turcopoles (also "turcoples" or "turcopoli"; from the τουρκόπουλοι, literally "sons of Turks") were locally recruited mounted archers and light cavalry employed by the Byzantine Empire and the Crusader states. A leader of these auxiliaries was designated as Turcopolier, a title subsequently given to a senior officer in the Knights Templars and the Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem, in charge of the coastal defences of Rhodes and Malta. In addition to the two Military Orders, the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem employed king's turcoples under the direction of a Grand Turcopolier.

Byzantine origins
The crusaders first encountered turcopoles in the Byzantine army during the First Crusade. These auxiliaries were from mixed Byzantine and Turkic origins. Raymond of Aguilers writes that they were called Turcopoles because they were either reared with Turks or because their fathers were Turks and their mothers Christians. Albert of Aix writes that their fathers were Turks and their mothers Greeks. From the 12th century, evidence suggest that non-Turks fighting in the Turkish fashion were also included in the Turcopoles, for example, in the 14th century Turcopoles who were employed by the Catalan company included Greeks who shaved their heads like the Turks in order to be employed in this capacity.

The term underwent a semantic evolution, extending to light cavalryman, mainly equipped with bows, regardless of ethnic origins.

Some Byzantine turcopole units under the command of General Tatikios accompanied the First Crusade and may have provided a model for the subsequent employment of indigenous auxiliary light horse in the crusader states.

Composition
It has been argued that, while turcopoles certainly included light cavalry and mounted archers, the term was a general one also applicable to indigenous Syrian footmen serving as feudal levies in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Evidence that Syrian levies, whether designated as turcoples or not, provided the bulk of the Frankish (Western European) led infantry of Outremer is not available but there are specific references to their participation in the Siege of Tripoli by Raymond de Saint-Gilles.

The turcopoles employed by the crusader states were not necessarily Turkish or mixed-race mercenaries, but many were probably recruited from Christianized Seljuqs, or from Syrian Orthodox Christians under crusader rule. By the second half of the 12th century the recorded names of individual turcoples indicate that some were Poulains (Syrian-born Franks), as well as European Franks. In addition to indigenous Christians and converted Turks, the turcopoles of Outremer may at various dates have included contingents from the west trained to serve as mounted archers.

Equipment
In the Holy Land, turcopoles were more lightly equipped than the knights and sergeants (mounted men at arms), being armed with lances and bows to help combat the more mobile Muslim forces. The turcopoles served as light cavalry providing skirmishers, scouts, and mounted archers, and sometimes rode as a second line in a charge, to back up the Frankish knights and sergeants. Turcopoles had lighter and faster horses than the western mounted troops and wore much lighter armour. Usually this comprised only a quilted aketon or jerkin and a conical steel helmet. Regulations of the Hospitallers made a clear distinction between the heavy war saddles of the knights of the military order and the "Turkish saddles" issued to the Syrian turcoples who served with them.

Employment by military orders
Turcopoles served in both the secular armies of Outremer and the ranks of the military orders. In the latter, turcopoles had lower status than the Frankish sergeants and were subject to various restrictions. These included having to eat at a separate table from the other mounted soldiers of the Templars or Hospitalers. In contrast to the unsalaried brother-knights and brother-sergeants of the fighting orders, turcopoles were paid warriors.

Funding
A perennial problem for the Christian states of Outremer was the limited quantities of Frankish manpower, horses and weapons available. To a certain extent this weakness was redressed through the employment of locally recruited turcoples, riding indigenous horses and using the same equipment as their opponents. The cost of paying the mercenary element amongst the turcopoles was one of the specific reasons for repeated cash donations being sent to the crusader states from Europe.

Battle of Hattin
At the decisive Battle of Hattin in 1187 the Historia Regni Hierosolymitani records 4,000 turcopoles as being part of the defeated Christian army. However the historian Steven Runciman considers this number exaggerated, and notes that the Muslim light cavalry present were probably better armed than the turcopoles. The turcopoles captured at Hattin were, as perceived renegades, probably executed at Saladin's order.

Later history
The Mamluks also considered turcopoles to be traitors and apostates, killing all those whom they captured. The turcopoles who survived the Fall of Acre followed the military orders out of the Holy Land and were established on Cyprus with the Knights Templar, plus Rhodes and Malta with the Knights Hospitaller. The Teutonic Order also called its own native light cavalry the "Turkopolen".

Turcopoliers and attendants
The turcopoles had their own leaders called Turcopoliers who outranked ordinary sergeants, at least in battle. The senior office-holders of the Knights Templar included a Turcopolier who commanded both the mercenary cavalry recruited by the Order in the east and the sergeant-brothers. The personal attendants of the Grand Master of the Temple included a turcopole - possibly as an interpreter or orderly. The Hospitallers included in their rank-structure a Turcopolier, who originally was probably a sergeant-brother but who in 1303 was accorded the senior status of conventual bailli (official in the Central Convent). Since the establishment of the Langues of the Knights of St John in 1319, the Pilier (head) of the Langue of England (with Wales, Scotland and Ireland) was the order's Turcopolier; and in charge of the coastal defences of Rhodes and Malta.

title: Turcopole


text:
Talk:David Low (cartoonist)

Untitled
Would it be possible to find an image of Low by himself (he often appears in his own cartoons, chatting to various characters)? The University of Kent Centre for the study of Cartoons and Caricature contains many of the originals. [ http://library.kent.ac.uk/cartoons/ ], though we'd need permission of the copyright owner. As a Kent alumni I could make enquiries, or would this be against Wikipedia's policies? Timrollpickering 12:13, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

it would also be nice if we could get a range of his pieces of work. As for above, as far as im aware the owner must give full permission for the picture to be distributed free of charge. --Chickenfeed9 17:49, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Davidlowrendezvous.png
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 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
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Content Merge from Articles for deletion/Rendezvous (political cartoon)
Below is the content from the article in the above header. Please feel free to incorporate the content below into the article:

Rendezvous is a political cartoon by David Low, first published in the Evening Standard on the 20th of September, 1939. It satirises the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, depicting Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin greeting each other in exaggerated fashion following their invasion of Poland, with their words suggesting (correctly) that their understanding will be short-lived. It is one of Low's most famous cartoons.

 * — Maggot Syn 02:59, 13 June 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:David Low (cartoonist)