text:
François Louis, Prince of Conti

François Louis de Bourbon, le Grand Conti (30 April 1664 – 22 February 1709), was Prince de Conti, succeeding his brother, Louis Armand de Bourbon, in 1685. Until this date, he used the title of Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon. He was son of Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti and Anne Marie Martinozzi, daughter of Girolamo Martinozzi and niece of Cardinal Mazarin, through her mother. He was proclaimed as the King of Poland in 1697. He is the most famous member of the Conti family, a cadet branch of the Princes of Condé. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a prince du sang.

Biography
Born at the Hôtel de Conti (quai Malaquais) in Paris, he was the last of his parents' children. He had one older brother, Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti (1661–1685), who married Marie Anne de Bourbon, the illegitimate daughter of King Louis XIV of France and his mistress, Louise de La Vallière.

In 1683, he assisted the Imperialists in Hungary, and while there, he wrote some letters in which he referred to King Louis XIV as le roi du théâtre; because of this, and because of an early engagement at the side of the Turks, in 1685, on his return to France, he was temporarily banished to Chantilly.

Conti was the protégé of his uncle, Louis de Bourbon, le Grand Condé, whose granddaughter, Marie Thérèse de Bourbon (1666–1732), he married at the Palace of Versailles on 22 January 1688, before the assembled court. Together, they had seven children.

The bride was passionately in love with her husband, but his attentions focused elsewhere. It was well known at court that he was in love with his wife's sister-in-law, Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, wife of Louis III, Prince of Condé, who was the eldest legitimated daughter of King Louis XIV and his mistress, Madame de Montespan. Marie Anne de Bourbon, the daughter of Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, was thought to have been the fruit of this affair. It was also noted, however, that he had homosexual tendencies and did not pay his wife much attention. He lived as a libertine, engaging in numerous love affairs with members of both sexes. His scandalous philandering and debaucheries caused tension and distance within the family, and earned him the nickname of le Grand Conti.

He served in the French army, but he never managed to achieve a rank higher than lieutenant-general. In 1689, he accompanied his intimate friend, François Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, to the Netherlands, and shared in the French victories at Fleurus, Steinkirk, and Neerwinden. On the death of his cousin, Jean Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville (1646–1694), and in accordance to his will, Conti claimed the principality of Neuchâtel against Marie d'Orleans-Longueville, Duchess de Nemours (1625–1707), a sister of the Duke.

He failed to obtain military assistance from the Swiss, and by the King's command, yielded the disputed territory to Marie d'Orleans, although the courts of law had decided in his favour. In 1697, King Louis XIV offered him the Polish crown, and by means of bribes, the Abbé de Polignac secured his election. On 27 June 1697, he was formally proclaimed as the King of Poland by Cardinal Radziejowski.

Conti started rather unwillingly for his new kingdom, probably, as the Duke of Saint-Simon remarks, owing to his affection for Louise-Françoise de Bourbon. He departed on the Railleuse, under Captain Jean Bart, on 6 September 1697.

When he reached Danzig, he found his rival Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, already in possession of the Polish crown. Conti returned to France, where he was graciously received by King Louis XIV, although Saint-Simon says the King was vexed to see him again. But the misfortunes of the French armies, during the earlier years of the War of the Spanish Succession, compelled the King to appoint Conti, whose military renown stood very high, to command the troops in Italy.

On 4 February 1699, Conti purchased the Château d'Issy, a small French Baroque château on the outskirts of Paris, bought for the sum of 140,000 livres. The estate remained the property of the Princes of Conti until the Revolution of 1789, when it was confiscated as biens nationaux.

The Prince of Conti fell ill and died on 22 February 1709 at the Hôtel de Conti (quai Conti), his death calling forth exceptional signs of mourning from all classes. He died from a combination of gout and syphilis. He was buried alongside his mother at his estate in L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise, near Paris.

He was succeeded as Prince de Conti by his eldest son, Louis Armand II de Bourbon (1696–1727).

Issue
Conti married Marie Thérèse de Bourbon, aged 22, who was the daughter of Henri Jules, Prince of Condé and Princess Anne Henriette of the Palatinate. They had the following seven children together:
 * Marie Anne de Bourbon (18 April 1689 - 21 March 1720), married Louis Henri I, Prince of Condé, but had no issue.
 * Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon (18 November 1693 - 22 November 1693), died in infancy.
 * Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon (1 December 1694 - 25 April 1698), died in infancy.
 * Louis Armand II, Prince of Conti (10 November 1695 - 4 May 1727), married Louise Élisabeth de Bourbon, daughter of Louis III, Prince of Condé, and had issue.
 * Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon (2 November 1696 – 20 November 1750), died unmarried but had many illegitimate children.
 * Mademoiselle d'Alais (19 November 1697 - 13 August 1699), died in infancy.
 * Louis François de Bourbon, Count of Alais (27 July 1703 - 21 January 1704), died in infancy.

title: François Louis, Prince of Conti


text: User talk:62.26.245.82

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:62.26.245.82


text:
Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti

Louis Armand de Bourbon (30 April 1661 – 9 November 1685) was Prince of Conti from 1666 to his death. He was the son of Armand de Bourbon and Anne Marie Martinozzi, the daughter of Girolamo Martinozzi and Laura Margherita Mazzarini, elder sister of Cardinal Mazarin. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang. He was a son-in-law of King Louis XIV of France, who was his namesake.

Biography
Louis Armand was born at the Hôtel de Conti (quai Malaquais) in Paris, France. In August 1679 he acted as the groom in the proxy marriage where Marie Louise d'Orléans married Charles II of Spain. In 1680 he married Marie Anne de Bourbon, the illegitimate daughter of King Louis XIV and his first mistress, Louise de La Vallière. The bride and groom were respectively thirteen and eighteen years old at the time. Since neither of them had been instructed on what to expect on their first night together, it ended up in disaster, with Marie Anne fleeing in despair and the prince not wanting to share the bed of a woman again.

He served with distinction in Flanders in 1683, and, against the wish of the King, went to Hungary, where he helped the Imperialists defeat the Turks at Gran in the same year. He died on 9 November 1685 at the Palace of Fontainebleau from smallpox, which he contracted from his wife. While she recovered after some time, the Prince succumbed after five days.

Having no descendants, he was succeeded as Prince of Conti by his younger brother, François Louis de Bourbon (1664–1709).

title: Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti


text:
The Dating Game

The Dating Game is an American television game show that first aired on December 20, 1965, and was the first of many shows created and packaged by Chuck Barris from the 1960s through the 1980s. ABC dropped the show on July 6, 1973, but it continued in syndication for another year (1973–1974) as The New Dating Game. The program was revived three additional times in syndication afterward, with the first from 1978 to 1980 as The All-New Dating Game, the second from 1986 to 1989, and the third from 1996 to 1999.

Jim Lange hosted The Dating Game for its entire ABC network run and for the 1973 and 1978 syndicated editions. The 1986 revival was hosted by Elaine Joyce for its first season and Jeff MacGregor for its remaining two seasons. When the show was revived with a different format in 1996, Brad Sherwood was named as its host. Chuck Woolery took over for the two final seasons, with the original format reinstated, in 1997 after he had left The Home and Family Show.

Beginning in 1966, The Dating Game was often paired with The Newlywed Game. This was especially true when the two shows entered syndication, and in 1996, the revivals of The Dating Game and The Newlywed Game were sold together as a package called "The Dating-Newlywed Hour".

The program was originally broadcast in black-and-white, but when a prime-time version began in October 1966, both versions were broadcast in color, making the daytime version the first ABC daytime series to be regularly broadcast in color.

In February 2021, it was reported that ABC and current distributor Sony Pictures Television would revive the show as The Celebrity Dating Game, with actress Zooey Deschanel and singer Michael Bolton as hosts, which premiered on June 14, 2021. It ran for eight episodes until August 16, 2021, and was canceled in April 2022.

Format
Typically, a bachelorette would question three bachelors, who were hidden from her view; at the end of the questioning period, she would choose one to accompany her on a date, with expenses paid by the show. Occasionally, the roles would be reversed with a man questioning three ladies; other times, celebrities would question three players for dates for themselves, co-workers or relatives.

Before becoming famous, Farrah Fawcett, Suzanne Somers, Yvonne Craig, Lindsay Wagner, Leif Garrett, Tom Selleck and Lee Majors appeared as contestants on the show in the 1960s and early 1970s. Other contestants who appeared before becoming famous included the Carpenters, Jackson Bostwick, Michael Richards, Joanna Cameron, Andy Kaufman (who went under the pseudonym Baji Kimran), Steve Martin, Burt Reynolds, John Ritter, Phil Hartman, Jennifer Granholm (governor of Michigan from 2003 to 2010), Arnold Schwarzenegger (governor of California from 2003 to 2011) and Alex Kozinski. Serial killer Rodney Alcala's episodes were shown during his murder spree and after he had been convicted of assault in California.

Some contestants appeared even after they were fairly well known, including a young Michael Jackson, Burton Cummings, Dusty Springfield, Ron Howard, Maureen McCormick, Barry Williams, Sally Field, Richard Dawson, Jay North and Paul Lynde.

A trademark of the show was that at the end of each episode, the host and winning contestants would blow a kiss to the viewers.

Original version
Generally, the bachelorette would ask questions, written in advance on cards, to each of the three hidden bachelors. The same question could be asked to multiple bachelors. This continued until time ran out. The bachelorette would make her choice based solely on the answers to her questions. Occasionally, the contestant was a bachelor who would ask questions to three bachelorettes. Certain kinds of questions were "off limits", such as name, age, occupation and income.

1996 revival
For the first season of the 1996 revival, a different format was used. A notable change was that the prospective bachelor/bachelorette knew the first names of the three contestants at all times.

Instead of asking questions of the contestants, the bachelor/bachelorette was presented with two pun-laden statements, each pertaining to one of the contestants. When chosen, a new statement replaced the old one and the potential date explained the reason why that fact pertained to him or her. Play continued until time expired, and then the bachelor/bachelorette would announce his or her choice.

In several weeks of episodes that aired at various times throughout the season, another format was used. This format had the players choose a potential date based on appearance and another based on personality. To decide the "looks" portion, the bachelor/bachelorette would observe each contestant (another change not seen on any Dating Game series beforehand) for several seconds, with the contestants wearing noise-canceling headphones to prevent them from hearing the bachelor/bachelorette talking about them. The statement round was used to determine the "personality" portion. After the game ended, the bachelor/bachelorette would select one contestant based on appearance and one based on personality, then would be prompted to choose between the two. If the bachelor/bachelorette was to select the same contestant for both looks and personality, the contestant would win a $500 cash prize.

The remaining two seasons reverted back to the original format, but there was more of a variety between bachelors and bachelorettes.

Episode status
Various episodes from the ABC daytime run have aired on Game Show Network. The remaining ABC versions of the show, which were made for primetime and for syndication, are assumed to exist in their entirety.

After the syndicated finale in 1980, repeats of the 1978–1980 version were seen on KHJ-TV (now KCAL-TV) in Los Angeles from September 26, 1983, to September 12, 1986 (when The All-New Dating Game with Elaine Joyce premiered on September 15, 1986), as well as in some other cities. In another variation of the final year in reruns, some episodes from ABC daytime, ABC primetime and weekly syndication were shown.

Guests
Some of the notable people that appeared on The Dating Game appeared as a bachelor or bachelorette before becoming famous, or as a special guest star, include:

 * Willie Aames (1978)
 * Rodney Alcala, subsequently dubbed "The Dating Game Killer" (1978)
 * Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1967)
 * Denise Alexander (1971)
 * Famous Amos (1978)
 * Judd Apatow (1980s)
 * Desi Arnaz Jr. (1967)
 * Mary Arnold of Kenny Rogers and the First Edition (1972)
 * Candice Bergen (1973)
 * Jacqueline Bisset (1973)
 * Bill Bixby (1968)
 * Karen Black (1973)
 * Danny Bonaduce (1972)
 * Jackson Bostwick (1968)
 * Julie Budd (1973)
 * Joanna Cameron (Late 1960s)
 * Bryan Cranston (1979)
 * Perry Caravello (1996)
 * Karen and Richard Carpenter (1970)
 * Angela Cartwright (1970)
 * David Cassidy (1970)
 * Barrie Chase (1966)
 * Candy Clark (1973)
 * Dick Clark (1973)
 * Jeremy Clyde (1966)
 * Ronald K.L. Collins (1967)
 * Michael Cole (1972)
 * Teri Copley (1979)
 * Yvonne Craig (1967)
 * Brandon Cruz (1972)
 * Joey D'Auria as himself, instead of as Chicago's Bozo the Clown (1980)
 * Cesare Danova (1969)
 * Ann B. Davis (1970 and 1971)
 * Richard Dawson (1968)
 * Peter Duel (1968)
 * Deep Purple (1968)
 * Samantha Eggar (1973)
 * Cass Elliot (1973 or 1974)
 * Farrah Fawcett (1969)
 * Sally Field (1966)
 * Fannie Flagg (1973)
 * Jackie Fox (1980)
 * Leif Garrett (1972)
 * Kathy Garver (1966, 1970 and 1971)
 * Maurice Gibb (1968)
 * Robin Gibb (1968)
 * Anita Gillette (1972)
 * Cuba Gooding Jr. (1986)
 * Barry Gordon (1966)
 * Jennifer Granholm, former Governor of Michigan (1978)
 * Luke Halpin (1968)
 * Phil Hartman (1979)
 * Cheryl Hines (1997)
 * T. J. Hoban (1996)
 * Eddie Hodges (1966)
 * Ron Howard (1972)
 * Iron Butterfly (1969)
 * Michael Jackson (1972)
 * Sam J. Jones, "Flash Gordon" (1978)
 * Casey Kasem (1967)
 * Andy Kaufman (1978)
 * Gladys Knight (1972)
 * Murray Langston, as The Unknown Comic (1978)
 * Peter Lawford (1971)
 * Vicki Lawrence (1971)
 * Peggy Lipton (1973)
 * Donna Loren (1967)
 * Paul Lynde (1968 and 1972)
 * Dave Madden (1970)
 * Lee Majors (1966)
 * Steve Martin (1968 and 1970)
 * Groucho Marx, as a prank on his daughter Melinda, who was Bachelorette #1 (1967)
 * Meredith MacRae (1968)
 * Jerry Mathers (1966)
 * Maureen McCormick (1971 and 1973)
 * Jed Mills (1978)
 * Kathryn Minner, "The Little Old Lady from Pasadena" (1966)
 * Trevor Moore (1998)
 * Agnes Moorehead (1970)
 * Jaye P. Morgan (1980)
 * Louisa Moritz (1973)
 * Bill Mumy (1968)
 * Tom Netherton (1978)
 * Jay North (1969)
 * Charlie O'Donnell (1987)
 * Butch Patrick (1972)
 * Freda Payne (1971)
 * Paul Petersen (1966)
 * Vincent Price (1972)
 * H.R. Pufnstuf (1972)
 * Paul Reubens as Pee-wee Herman (1979)
 * Emitt Rhodes, as part of his band The Merry-Go-Round (1967)
 * Michael Richards (1967)
 * John Ritter (1967)
 * Nipsey Russell (year unknown; happened before 1971)
 * Bobby Rydell (1966)
 * Bob Saget (1979 and 1980)
 * Arnold Schwarzenegger (1973)
 * Tom Selleck (1965 and 1967)
 * Rhonda Shear (1986)
 * Suzanne Somers (1973)
 * Dusty Springfield (1968)
 * The Standells (1968)
 * Kaye Stevens (1973)
 * McLean Stevenson (1968)
 * Strawberry Alarm Clock (1968)
 * Elaine Stritch (1971)
 * Rip Taylor (1973 and 1978)
 * Robert Vaughn (1966)
 * Jimmie Walker (1978)
 * Lindsay Wagner (1968)
 * Dionne Warwick (1969)
 * Adam West (1966)
 * Frank Wheaton
 * Johnnie Whittaker (1969)
 * Barry Williams (1972)
 * Terry Williams of Kenny Rogers and the First Edition (1972)
 * Jo Anne Worley (1967)

Theme music and cues
The show used many contemporary songs, ranging from those of Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass from the 1960s to pop music used for celebrity guest and band appearances. For the first few episodes at the beginning of the ABC run, live music was provided by the Regents (unrelated to the doo-wop band of the same name who were famous for their song "Barbara Ann"), a house band from Jack Martin's A.M-P.M. on La Cienega Boulevard Starting in 1966, the show used recorded music, with the main theme provided by the Mariachi Brass, featuring trumpeter Chet Baker. The show used cover songs made by Skip Battin & the Group (1967, Aurora 159) and the Challengers (196?, Triumph 64).

The series used several songs by Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass as cues for the show, including:

 * "Spanish Flea" (when introducing the bachelor)
 * "Whipped Cream" (when introducing the bachelorette)
 * "Lollipops and Roses" (when the dates meet)

Other songs were used after the interview portion, when guests were choosing a date, including:
 * "Ladyfingers" (Herb Alpert)
 * "Lemon Tree" (Herb Alpert)

Music used during celebrity guest appearances included:
 * "Live" (The Merry-Go-Round)
 * "Close to You" (Carpenters)
 * "Midnight Confessions" (The Grass Roots)
 * "I Want To Be Where You Are" (Michael Jackson)
 * "I Want You Back" (The Jackson Five), during the prize description
 * "Cheyenne" (The Brady Bunch)
 * "Goin' Out of My Head" (Little Anthony)
 * "What's It Gonna Be" (Dusty Springfield)

Other music cues used on the show included:
 * "Fantail" by Count Basie (when host Jim Lange would introduce the three potential dates to the audience)
 * "Love Sickness" by the Trumpets Ole (a brief cue used when the time limit for the interview portion is reached)
 * "Boston Bust-Out" by Jimmy McGriff (before the date is introduced to his or her prize)

In 1972, The Dating Game added a Dixieland-style closing theme called "Little Rosie" to its ABC daytime version; the tune was used also on the first two syndicated versions, through 1980. The song, along with some of the show's other cues, was featured on the 1973 album Themes from TV Game Shows, produced by Chuck Barris. The show continued to use the 1966 opening theme until 1974; during the 1978-80 version, the show used a rearranged version of it. The 1978 opening theme is found on the Barris album's first track and is credited to Barris and David Mook.

The 1980s reboot of the show used music composed by Milton DeLugg, while later editions featured a re-recording of the original theme by Steve Kaplan.

The music for The Celebrity Dating Game was composed by Cheche Alara.

International versions
These versions are no longer airing.

Legacy
In his first autobiography, Confessions of a Dangerous Mind (1988), Chuck Barris claimed that The Dating Game was a cover for his CIA activities, and was promoted by the CIA. However, his second memoir, The Game Show King: A Confession (1993), mentions neither the CIA nor his previous book. A CIA spokesman has categorically denied that Barris ever worked for the agency in any capacity.

The show's popularity in the 1960s inspired a Baskin-Robbins ice cream flavor called Dating Game. It was pink ice cream with diced dates and butter-toasted pecans.

In a 1980 Laverne and Shirley episode, Lenny and Squiggy appear as bachelors on The Dating Game.

The Dating Game was parodied by Steve Jobs during a 1983 Macintosh pre-launch event. The three "contestants" were Mitch Kapor of Lotus Software, Fred Gibbons of Software Publishing Corporation and Bill Gates of Microsoft.

A recurring parody featured in the current version of Let's Make a Deal called The Dealing Game features Wayne Brady and Jonathan Mangum (both as different characters in each appearance), but instead of a date, each represents a curtain and tries to convince the contestant to pick his curtain. Model Tiffany Coyne plays the role of the "hostess".

The Dating Game has been cited as a successor to future "reality TV juggernaut" Love is Blind in which contestants similarly choose among suitors sight unseen.

Licensed merchandise
Hasbro released three home games based on the original 1965 version of The Dating Game from 1967 to 1968, while Pressman Toy Corporation released a home game based on the late 1980s version in 1987.

In 1968, a 33⅓ rpm party record called The Dating Game Party Pak, narrated by Jim Lange, was released; it included postcard invitations, name tags and scorecards for six people to play.

In the late 1990s, Sony's website released an online version of The Dating Game.

A video slot machine based on the original 1965 version with an animated Jim Lange was released by IGT in 2004 in both nickel and quarter versions.

In March 2011, a new virtual version of The Dating Game was launched on Facebook, Twitter and other social media network sites. The game was developed by 3G Studios, under license from Sony Pictures Entertainment.

title: The Dating Game


text:
Kapaleeshwarar Temple

The Kapaleeshwarar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Shiva located in Mylapore, Chennai in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The temple was built around the 7th century CE and is an example of South Indian Architecture.

According to the Puranas, Parvati worshipped her husband Shiva in the form of a peahen (mayil in Tamil), giving the vernacular name Mylai to the area that developed around the temple. Shiva is worshiped as Kapaleeshwarar, and is represented by the lingam. Parvati is worshipped as Karpagambal (goddess of the wish-yielding tree). The presiding deity is revered in the 7th-century Tamil Shaiva canonical work, the Tevaram, written by Tamil saint poets known as the Nayanars and classified as one of the Paadal Petra Sthalam.

The temple has numerous shrines, with those of Kapaleeshwarar and Karpagambal being the most prominent. The temple complex houses many halls. The temple has six daily rituals at various times from 5:30 a.m. to 10 p.m., and four yearly festivals on its calendar. The Aṟupatimūvar festival celebrated during the Tamil month of Panguni as part of the brahmotsava is the most prominent festival in the temple.

The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu.

Legend
The temple's name is derived from the words kapala (head) and Ishvara, an epithet of Shiva. According to the Puranas, during the meeting of the deities Brahma and Shiva at top of Mount Kailash, Brahma failed to show the due respect to Shiva. Due to this, Shiva plucked off one of the five heads (kapala) of Brahma. In an act of penance, Brahma came down to the site of Mylapore and installed a lingam to please Shiva. This place is known as Sukra Puri, Veda Puri, among many other names including "Kailaye Mayilai" and "Mayilaye Kayilai" (lit. 'Mylapore is Kailash'). According to regional legend, Shiva's consort Parvati (Karpagambal), due to a curse became a pea-hen and did penance here to get back her original form. Her son Murugan received the spear (vel) for the destruction of a demon from Parvati here. Brahma had worshipped here to get rid of his ego and get back his power to create. The four Vedas have worshipped here. Shukra worshipped Shiva here and got back his lost eye. The daughter of Sivanesa Chettiar Angam Poompavai, who died due to snake bite, was resurrected here by the powers of the Nayanar saint Sambandar. Vayilar, another Nayanar saint, attained salvation here. .

History
The temple is generally thought to be built in the 7th century CE by the ruling Pallavas. This view is based on references to the temple in the hymns of the Nayanar saints. However, the Nayanar Sambandar and the saint Arunagirinathar make clear reference to the Kapaleeshwarar temple being located by a seashore. There are inscriptions dating back to 12th century inside the temple. The temple's 120 ft gopuram (gateway tower) was built during 1906 with stucco figures adorning it. The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the Government of Tamil Nadu.

The Temple
The Kapaleeshwarar temple is of typical Dravidian architectural style, with the gopuram overpowering the street on which the temple sits. This temple is also a testimonial for the vishwakarmas sthapathis. There are two entrances to the temple marked by the gopuram on either side. The east gopuram is about 40 m high, while the smaller western gopuram faces the sacred tank.

The vahanas ("vehicles") at the temple include the bull, adhikaranandi, elephant, bandicoot, peacock, goat and parrot, while a golden chariot is a recent addition. Statues of the presiding divine couple are seated on a vahana or chariot which is brought in a procession around the temple while the temple band plays music. Devotees gather around the vahanas and consider it a privilege to pull / lift the deities on the vahana. There is also a peacock and a peahen caged inside the temple, to symbolize the tradition that Karpagambal had come in the form of peahen to plead to Kapaleeshwarar.

Sapta Sthana Shiva temples
This temple is one of the Sapta Sthana Shiva temples in Mylapore area. (one of the seven sacred Shiva temples in Mylapore). They are:

 * 1) Karaneeswarar Temple
 * 2) Tirttapaleeswarar Temple
 * 3) Velleeswarar Temple
 * 4) Virupakshiswarar Temple
 * 5) Valeeswarar Temple
 * 6) Malleeswarar Temple
 * 7) Kapaleeshwarar Temple

In addition to these "Sapta Sthana Shiva sthalas", the Ekambareshwarar–Valluvar temple in the neighbourhood is traditionally considered the indispensable eighth.

The tank
The theppakulam or the temple tank lies to the west of the temple. Known as the Kapaleeshwarar Tank or the Mylapore Tank, it is one of the oldest and well-maintained theppakulams in the city, measuring about 190 m in length and 143 m in breadth. The tank has a storage capacity of 119,000 cubic metre and has water all through the year. The 16-pillared, granite-roofed structure, known as the mandapam at the centre of this tank is known for its significance during the three-day annual float festival, when idols of Kapaleeshwarar and other deities are taken around the tank to the chanting of Vedic hymns.

In 2014, ₹ 56.5 million was allotted to build a 2,150-meter-long pavement around the tank.

Religious practises
The temple priests perform the puja (rituals) on a daily basis and during festivals. Like other Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the Shaiva community. The temple rituals are performed six times a day; Ushathkalam at 6:00 a.m., Kalasanthi at 9:00 a.m., Uchikalam at 1:00 p.m., Sayarakshai at 5:00 p.m., Irandamkalam at 7:00 p.m. and Ardha Jamam at 9:00 p.m. There is a separate calendar for the Rahu Abhishekam (sacred ablution): it is performed twice in a day at 11:30 a.m and 5:30 p.m. and additionally twice at various times in the day. Each ritual comprises four steps: abhisheka (sacred bath), alangaram (decoration), neivethanam (food offering) and deepa aradanai (waving of lamps) for both Kapaleeshwarar and Karpagambal. The worship is held amidst music with nadasvaram (pipe instrument) and tavil (percussion instrument), religious instructions in the Vedas (sacred text) read by priests and prostration by worshippers in front of the temple mast. There are weekly rituals like somavaram and sukravaram, fortnightly rituals like pradosham and monthly festivals like amavasai (new moon day), kiruthigai, pournami (full moon day) and sathurthi. During Friday worship, Karpagambal is decorated with a kasu mala, a garland made of gold coins.

Festivals
During the Tamil month of Panguni, the traditional Brahmotsavam (annual festival) takes place when the entire neighborhood comes alive with a mela (carnival)-like atmosphere. Since this month corresponds to the mid-March to mid-April duration, the Kapaleeshwarar temple celebrates the nine day-long as Panguni Peruvila (Spring festival). The festival starts with dhvajarohanam (flag hoisting), includes the terotsavam, (festival of chariot), Arupathimoovar festival and concludes with the Tirukkalyanam (Marriage of Kapaleeshwararand Karpagambal). In Brahmotsavam, the idols of Kapaleeshwarar and Karpagambal are decorated with clothes and jewels, are mounted on a vahana, and then taken around the temple and its water tank in a pradakshinam (a clockwise path when seen from above). This is repeated with different vahanas over the next nine days. The more important of the individual pradakshinams are the Athigara Nandhi on the third day, the Rishaba Vahanam on the midnight of the fifth day, the ther (about 13 meters in height and pulled by people) on the seventh morning, and the Aṟupatimūvar festival on the eighth day.

The Arupathimoovar festival is the most important procession. It is named after the sixty-three Nayanar saints. All sixty-three Nayanar idols follow the Kapaleeshwarar idol on this procession. During the car festival, Kapaleeshwarar is depicted holding a bow while seated on a throne, with Karpagambal alongside. Brahma is depicted as driving the ther. The chariot is decorated with flowers and statues; there are huge gatherings of devotees to pull the ther. The car festival of 1968 is documented in the documentary film Phantom India by Louis Malle.

Religious work and saints
There is a reference to the temple in Sangam literature of the 1st to 5th centuries and the earliest post-Sangam mention is found in the 6th century Tamil literature. The temple and the deity were immortalized in Tamil poetry in the works of Tevaram by poet saint belonging to the 7th century – Thirugnana Sambanthar has composed the 6th Poompavai pathigam in praise of the temple. Arunagirinathar, a 15th-century poet, sings praise of the temple in Tirumayilai Tirupugal. The 12th-century poet Gunaveera Pandithar sings about Neminathan under Theerthangar neminathar pugazh. Tirumayilai Prabanthangal is a compilation of four works on the temple and the deity.

title: Kapaleeshwarar Temple


text:
List of zones of Nepal

Until the establishment of seven new provinces in 2015, Nepal was divided into 14 administrative zones (Nepali: अञ्चल; anchal) and 77 districts (Nepali: जिल्ला; jillā). The 14 administrative zones were grouped into five development regions (Nepali: विकास क्षेत्र; vikās kṣetra). Each district was headed by a Chief District Officer (CDO), who was responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries.

List
From east to west:
 * Eastern Development Region:
 * Mechi Zone, named after the Mechi River
 * Kosi Zone, named after the Kosi River
 * Sagarmatha Zone, named after Sagarmatha (Mount Everest)
 * Central Development Region:
 * Janakpur Zone, named after its capital city
 * Bagmati Zone, named after the Bagmati River
 * Narayani Zone, named after the Narayani (lower Gandaki) River
 * Western Development Region:
 * Gandaki Zone, named after the Gandaki River
 * Lumbini Zone, named after Lumbini, a pilgrimage site, birthplace of Gautama Buddha
 * Dhaulagiri Zone, named after Dhaulagiri mountain
 * Mid-Western Development Region:
 * Rapti Zone, named after the West Rapti River
 * Karnali Zone, named after the Karnali River
 * Bheri Zone, named after the Bheri River
 * Far-Western Development Region:
 * Seti Zone, named after the Seti River
 * Mahakali Zone, named after the Mahakali River

title: List of zones of Nepal


text:
Anders Chydenius

Anders Chydenius (26 February 1729 – 1 February 1803) was a Finnish Lutheran priest and a member of the Riksdag, and is known as the leading classical liberal of Nordic history.

Born in Sotkamo, Finland and having studied under Pehr Kalm at the Royal Academy of Åbo, Chydenius became a priest and Enlightenment philosopher. He was elected as an ecclesiastic member of the Riksdag of the Estates in 1765–66, in which his Cap party seized the majority and government and championed Sweden's first Freedom of the Press Act, the most liberal in the world along with those of Great Britain and the Seven United Provinces. Vehemently opposed to the extreme interventionist policies of mercantilism preached by the previously predominant Hat party since decades, he was ultimately coerced into retirement for his criticism of the Cap administration's radical deregulation policies and their social and political consequences.

Following Gustav III's coup d'état in 1772, which meant the end of parliamentary rule for another century, Chydenius briefly returned to prominence and worked to increase civil liberties and economic freedom as part of Gustav's doctrine of enlightened despotism, and contributed to the abolishment of torture as means of interrogation, the limitation of capital punishment, and the legalisation of Jewish and Catholic immigration into Sweden. Ultimately, the king's increasingly autocratic position brought Chydenius out of favour again, and he retired to private life in Ostrobothnia, where he died at age 73.

An early pioneer—also by international standards—and proponent of economic liberalism, freedom of religion, freedom of speech and migration (writing a pamphlet on the invisible hand a decade before the publication of The Wealth of Nations) he was one of the first comprehensive philosophers of liberalism.

Early life
Anders Chydenius was born in 1729 in Sotkamo, Ostrobothnia (now part of Kainuu region) where his father Jacob was a chaplain. The family moved to Kuusamo in 1734 where his father became a parish rector. Anders' childhood was spent in the barren area of northern Finland. He and his brother Samuel were taught privately by their father and then they went to Oulu grammar school (Uleåborg trivialskola). After the Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743), the boys studied privately in Tornio and entered The Royal Academy of Åbo in 1745. They also studied at Uppsala University. Anders studied mathematics, natural sciences, Latin and philosophy. In 1746 the father Jacob and family moved to Kokkola.

Nedervetil
In 1753, after graduation, Anders was appointed preacher of the Chapel of the dependent parish of Nedervetil (today, part of Kronoby) in Ostrobothnia. He was married in 1755 to Beata Magdalena Mellberg, daughter of a merchant from Jakobstad. The couple was childless. While in Nedervetil he was active in many projects such as the clearing of the marshes, experimenting with new breeds of animals and plants, and adopting new methods of cultivation of potatoes and tobacco. His aim was to enlighten the peasants by example. Chydenius practiced medicine and became known by inoculating ordinary people against smallpox. He also performed cataract operations and prepared medicines.

The 1765–1766 Riksdag of the Estates
Some of his first writings were about practical matters such as the moss overgrowing the meadows, and improvements in the design of horse carriages. Then he moved on to social questions and became known as a writer and speaker. He was sent to the Diet in 1765 to obtain free trading rights for the towns of Ostrobothnia. The cities of Gamlakarleby, Vasa (Finnish: Vaasa), Björneborg (Finnish: Pori) and Uleåborg received navigational rights which helped with their later development as well as helping all of Ostrobothnia. At that time, the tar which should have brought prosperity to his town and the coast had to be sold abroad through Stockholm, which made most of the profits. Largely due to Chydenius' efforts, Stockholm's monopoly was broken and from 1765, the towns gained freedom to sell and ship tar directly to foreign customers.

Chydenius participated actively in the Diet, and published several articles of criticism which caused a great stir. One of the results of his activities in the Diet was a stricter parliamentary control of the government budget. He considered that one of his greatest achievements was an extension of the freedom of the press. His radical activities caused him to be excluded from the Diet by his own political party in 1766.

Kokkola
In 1770 he was appointed rector of Gamlakarleby where he concentrated on parish work. He maintained his own orchestra, and rehearsed with them. They gave concerts in the rectory's reception hall. His father lived in the parsonage at Gamlakarleby from 1746 to 1766, and Anders lived there from 1770 to 1803.

Between 1778 and 1779 Anders Chydenius once again participated in the Diet, at which the position of hired hands was brought up. He championed the rights of the servant class. At the suggestion of King Gustavus III, he introduced a bill whereby foreigners were also granted limited rights to practice their own religion. He participated in the Diet again in 1793 and was active as a writer covering the development of agriculture, the burning of saltpeter, smallpox, and the settlement of Lapland. One of his main tasks during his latter years was the supervision of building an extension to the old parish church. In 1796 he became a member of the Swedish society Pro Fide et Christianismo, founded to promote Christian education, along with his nephew Jakob Tengström. He died in 1803.

Ideas
Chydenius focused his liberal writings on attacking the mercantilism, mercantilist conquest politics, conservatism, protectionism and privilege that were prevalent at the time. In his view, state offices should not be for sale and the state should not impose any restrictions or privileges on any act. He criticised the clergy, nobility, civil servants and other privileged people, saying that they lived off the work of peasants, seeking to turn the debate on the status of peasants into a debate on the status of the privileged. The prevailing view was that peasants and workers had to be kept poor to prevent them from idling. Chydenius showed that, on the contrary, workers were not idlers who should be forced to make the state rich, but vital individuals who, free to pursue their own happiness, would also benefit others.

Chydenius was in favour of peace, demanded full and inviolable land ownership, wanted to give refugees protection and peasants and artisans the right to sell their products whenever and wherever they wanted. He opposed price and wage regulation and the labour strike, and demanded the right of workers to choose their employers. To save sparsely populated Lapland, he proposed turning it into a night-watchman state.

Free trade
In 1765 Chydenius published a pamphlet called The National Gain (Den nationnale winsten), in which he proposes ideas of free trade and industry, explores the relationship between economy and society, and lays out the principles for liberalism, capitalism, and modern democracy. In the book Chydenius published theories closely corresponding to Adam Smith's invisible hand, eleven years before Smith published his book, The Wealth of Nations.

Chydenius also put his theories into practice by proposing to the Riksdag of the Estates a drastic trade liberalization of towns along the Gulf of Bothnia. However, most of his other propositions were not realized, such as turning Lapland to a nightwatchman state to make the poor province prosper economically:

– free state, private ownership and individual freedom. Inhabitants could choose whatever profession, freedom of trade would be complete, there would be no privileges, regulation or taxes. Bureaucracy would be nonexistent, and the only officer would be a judge who would oversee that no-one's rights would be suppressed.

Freedom of expression
Chydenius became a great proponent of freedom of the press. In a report published in 1776, he wrote:

"No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organisation of the state, as without it, the estates would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of the rights of government, and their own responsibilities. Education and good conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years."

Natural equality
Chydenius was outspoken about universal rights and the abolition of privilege. He wanted to give the poor the same freedom as for everybody else and argued for the good of the poor, which was then rather exceptional among politicians. He promoted democracy and defended the freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of trade and industry, and the workers rights. He called for an oversight of the way the state funds were spent. In modern language we would say he advocated openness and good governance.

In a 1778 essay, Thoughts Upon the Natural Rights of Servants and Peasants, he wrote:

Nature shapes them exactly like us. Their posture in the crib is the same as ours, their souls have the same reason as other peoples', whereby it is plain to see that the Lord of creation also had intended them to have equal rights with other people.

Legacy
Chydenius can be seen as a major influence on Nordic thinkers as well as real-life politics, strictly promoting classical liberalism. He has been labeled the father of Swedish liberalism. Both Sweden and Finland include him among their historical notables, and he is variably categorized either Swedish or Finnish by nationality.

Anders Chydenius is remembered as a man ahead of his time, expressing ideas that were radical in his day, but are now the backbone of the Nordic ideology. He can also be seen as an Enlightenment thinker, an advocate of science, arts, rational thinking and freedom. He was also a scientist and skilled eye-surgeon, the maker of several inventions, a pioneer of vaccination in Finland and the founder of an orchestra.

Chydenius was featured on the highest valued bank note (1000 marks) of the Finnish mark's last design series. There are also many place names referring to Chydenius in Kokkola, such as the Chydenia Shopping Center, which was completed in the town center in 2006.

Anders Chydenius was selected as the main motif in a recent Finnish commemorative coin, the €10 Anders Chydenius commemorative coin, minted in 2003. The obverse features an open book, referring to Chydenius's numerous publications and the Bible. On the reverse, a traditional village with a church and other buildings can be seen.

In the book Historiens 100 viktigaste svenskar ("100 Most Important Swedes in History"), written by Niklas Ekdal and Petter Karlsson, Chydenius was ranked as the seventeenth most important Swede in history. In Finland, Chydenius was ranked on the place #40 in the list of "Greatest Finns" in a voting contest organised by the national broadcasting company.

The Chydenius family is even today a well known cultural family in Finland. Composer Kaj Chydenius is Anders's distant relative.

Selected works

 * Americanska näfwerbåtar. Åbo 1753. (American Bark Boats.)
 * Svar På samma Fråga (Om bästa sättet at upodla Mosslupna Ängar). Stockholm 1762. (How to Cultivate Mossy Meadows.)
 * Svar på samma Fråga (Angående Kärrors Förbättring). Stockholm 1764. (The Improvement of Waggons.)
 * Wederläggning Af de Skäl, Hwarmed man söker bestrida Öster- och Wästerbottniska Samt Wäster-Norrländske Städerne Fri Seglation. Stockholm 1765. (Counter-arguments to Those Who Would Attempt to Oppose Free Navigation between the Towns of Ostrobothnia, Västerbotten and Norland.)
 * Swar På den af Kgl. Wetenskaps Academien förestälta Frågan: Hwad kan wara orsaken, at sådan myckenhet Swenskt folk årligen flytter utur Landet? Stockholm 1765. (For What Reason do so Many Swedes Emigrate Every Year?)
 * Källan Til Rikets Wan-Magt. Stockholm 1765. (The Source of the Weakness of the Kingdom.)
 * Den Nationnale Winsten. Wördsamast öfwerlemnad Til Riksens Höglofliga Ständer, Af En Deras Ledamot. Stockholm 1765. (The National Gain.)
 * Omständeligt Swar, På den genom Trycket utkomne Wederläggning af Skriften, Kallad: Källan til Rikets Wanmagt, Jämte Anmärkningar Öfwer De wid samma Källa anstälda Wattu-Prof. Stockholm 1765. (In Reply to Critiques Applying to The Source of the Weakness of the Kingdom.)
 * Berättelse Om Chinesiska Skrif-Friheten, Öfversatt af Danskan. Stockholm 1766. (A Report on the Freedom of the Press in China.)
 * Rikets Hjelp, Genom en Naturlig Finance-System. Stockholm 1766. (Assisting the Kingdom through a Natural Monetary System.)
 * Tal Hållet Vid Vår Allernådigste Konungs, Konung Gustaf III:s Höga Kröning, Den 29 Maji 1772. Stockholm 1772. (Speech on the Occasion of the Coronation of Gustavus III.)
 * Svar På Vetenskaps och Vitterhets Samhällets I Götheborg Förestälta Fråga: Huruvida Landthandel för ett Rike i gemen är nyttig eller skadelig, och hvad mon den bidrager til industriens uplifvande eller aftagande? Stockholm 1777. (Is Rural Trade Advantageous or Disadvantageous to the Kingdom, and to What Extent does it Affect the Progress or Decline in Means of Livelihood?)
 * Tankar Om Husbönders och Tienstehions Naturliga Rätt. Stockholm 1778. (Thoughts upon the Natural Rights of Servants and Peasants.)
 * Memorial, Angående Religions-Frihet. Stockholm 1779. (Memorandum on the Freedom of Religious Faith.)
 * Predikningar öfver Tio Guds Bud. Upsala 1781–82. (Sermons on the Ten Commandments.)
 * Predikningar öfver Andra Hufvudstycket i Catechesen. Homiletiska försök. Vol. VI. St. 2. Stockholm 1784. (Sermons on the Second Main Part of the Catechism.)
 * Om Saltpetter-Sjuderierna, särledes i Österbotten. Skrifter af Sällskapet för Allmänne Medborgerlige kunskaper II. Stockholm 1795. (Preparation of Saltpetre.)
 * Tankar om Koppympningen För Finlands Allmoge. K. Finska Hushållnings-Sällskapets Handlingar 1. Åbo 1803. (Thoughts on Inoculating against Smallpox for the Finnish People.)

title: Anders Chydenius


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Immortality Institute

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Immortality Institute.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article.

Delete. This is a very small organisation that happens to have 80 members (see Bruce Klein, its founder, right above) and can afford a web page. There must be lots of similar groups around, and this one is not more encyclopedic than any others. This material can be moved to cryonics or other pages which deal with subjects related to ImmInst's ideology and methodology. JFW | T@lk  11:47, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. This is too much of a vanity article to be moved to cryonics. AlainV 21:21, 2004 May 16 (UTC)
 * It's an ad. Delete. -- Cyrius|&#9998 22:21, May 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: advert, nonnotable. Wile E. Heresiarch 13:48, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * keep: It's a unique site, there are no other sites which target is the same. It contains a lot of information related to healthy life extension, which can't be found in no other single place.

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

Natal (, literally Christmas) is the capital and largest city of the state of Rio Grande do Norte, located in northeastern Brazil. According to IBGE's 2022 estimate, the city had a total population of 751,300, making it the 24th largest city in the country. Natal is a major tourist destination and an exporting hub of crustaceans, carnauba wax and fruits, mostly melon, sugar apple, cashew and papaya. Natal is Brazil's closest city to Africa and Europe, its Greater Natal International Airport connects the city with many Brazilian destinations and also operates some international flights. The city was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

History

The Brazilian coast has long been home to indigenous peoples, generally members of the Tupi language family. While written records do not exist, archeological evidence suggests that pre-European inhabitants moved from the Amazon to the coasts approximately 2,900 years ago.

Near the Rio Grande de Norte, the Potiguara people were the most numerous indios encountered by the Portuguese. It is believed that in 1500, prior to contact with the Europeans, there were over 1 million people living in coastal Brazilian among all of the local groups. This nearly equaled the population of Portugal at the time.

The northeastern tip of South America, 20 mi to the north of Natal and the closest point to Europe from Latin America, was first visited by European navigators in 1501, as part of the 1501–1502 Portuguese expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci. Vespucci renamed the area after the saint of the day, Cape São Roque; the prior indigenous name is unknown. For decades thereafter, no permanent European settlement was established in the area.

In 1597, after some years during which French pirates, led by Jacques Riffault, established regular commercial activities with the native population, the ninth Portuguese Governor-General of Brazil, Francisco de Sousa, ordered the expulsion of the buccaneers. The successful expedition against 50 Frenchmen and their Amerindian allies was led by the Captain-Major of the Captaincy of Pernambuco, Manuel de Mascarenhas Homem, with the assistance of Jerônimo de Albuquerque Maranhão.

Albuquerque Maranhão began on January 6, 1598, the construction of the Fort of the Holy Kings or of the Magi-Kings ("Forte dos Santos Reis" or "Forte dos Reis Magos"), named after the Three Wise Men, honored in the Christian feast of the Epiphany, celebrated on that day.

Natal (which translates to "Nativity" or "Christmas" in Portuguese) was founded on December 25, 1599, giving the village outside the fort the modern name of the city. The fort, city, and surrounding areas were occupied by Dutch forces from 1633 to 1654. They rechristened the fort "Fort Ceulen" after one of their commanders. The sandy soil of Natal prevented the city from becoming a producer of sugarcane during the colonial times. For centuries, the economy of the state was based on the raising of cattle in the dry interior lands. Cattle were sent alive to the larger centers, to be used as traction, or were turned into jerked beef, for food; the most typical food of Natal, "carne de sol" (sun meat), has origins in that jerked beef.

In the last century, Natal benefited from the growth of the salt industries (the north of Rio Grande do Norte is the largest producer in Brazil) and petroleum (the largest inland Brazilian reserves are in the State). Natal grew quickly, but in a somewhat planned way (compared to other major Brazilian cities). Tourists (first Brazilians, more recently foreigners) discovered the city, which became one of the major tourist destinations in Brazil.

Because of its strategic position (Natal is one of the cities in Brazil nearest to Western Europe and Africa, especially Dakar, Senegal), an American air base was built in a suburb of Natal named Parnamirim during World War II, as part of the so-called Operation Rainbow. This base provided support for allied troops fighting in north Africa. Thousands of American soldiers were sent to Natal. Their presence left traces in the culture of the city. The city also held the Potenji Conference, which took place right after the Casablanca Conference and defined the active participation of Brazil in the war, being the only Latin American country to send troops overseas to fight in Europe.

Geography
Natal is located at -5.76667°N, -35.2°W, in the far east of South America. The city has a total area of 170 km². Natal lies on the Atlantic Ocean, at the mouth of the Potengi River.

Climate
Natal has a typical tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification: As), with warm to hot temperatures and high relative humidity all throughout the year. However, these conditions are relieved by a near absence of extreme temperatures and pleasant trade winds blowing from the ocean. February is the warmest month, with mean maximum of 30.7 °C and minimum of 24.6 °C, while July is the coolest with mean maximum of 28.4 °C and minimum of 21 °C. Rainfall is heavy at around 1690 mm per year, but there is a dry season between about September and January that is more distinct than further south on the Atlantic coast. The greatest amount of rain falls between March and July.

Known as the "City of the Sun" and also as "The City of the Dunes", Natal is located in the northeastern tip of Brazil. Lying about six degrees south of the equator the sun shines on for more than 3,000 hours every year. The average temperature in Natal is about 27 °C. During the summer season it normally reaches above 30 °C with the water at 26 °C.

Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2022, there were 751,300 people residing in the city, and 1,52 million people residing in the Greater Natal (metropolitan area). This is the second smallest capital the country in territorial extension, therefore, the population density is high, 4488 PD/sqkm. It is the 21st-largest city in the country and the sixth largest in the northeastern region. The racial makeup of the city in 2022 was 46.6% Pardo (Multiracial), 43.2% White, 9.8% Black, 0.2% Asian and 0.2% Amerindian.

Economy
With its dozens of sandy, white beaches, such as Ponta Negra and its famous Morro do Careca, Tabatinga - the cliff of dolphins, Pirangi do Norte, Redinha, Pipa and Genipabu with its famous fixed sand dunes and imported dromedaries, tourism is the most important industry of Natal, attracting Brazilians, Europeans (many from Spain, England, Scandinavia, Germany, Portugal, Italy and France), and U.S. citizens alike. There has been an increase of 211% in foreign tourism in Natal between 2002 and 2007 (for the same time period the increase of foreign tourism in Brazil was 62,8%); This is a due to the accessibility of Natal and the appeal Brazil has for an increasing number of tourists, clearly showing that Natal is the area leading the Brazilian tourism boom. Natal is the number one area receiving international investments in Brazil. Natal will benefit enormously from the massive future investments on the coastline.

It is also a relevant administrative center for the oil industry (Rio Grande do Norte being the second largest oil-producing state in Brazil). Thus, its Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) is a national scientific research pole on Oil Sciences (ranging from Geophysical to Law studies), supported mostly by Petrobras financing.

The fishing industry is strong (shark cartilage being a major export to Japan) as is the cultivation of tropical fruit, especially mangos, guavas, and cashews (the fruit and the nuts).

In fact, the largest cashew tree in the world is located near the coast in the neighborhood of Pirangi, south of the city center. This tree has a circumference of 500 metres and occupies an area of 7,300 m², making it 70 times the size of average cashew trees.

The GDP for the city was R$206,832,516,000 (2019).

The per capita income for the city was $44,149 (2016) and $55,900.68 in 2019.

Education
Portuguese language is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.

Educational institutions

 * Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN);
 * International Institute of Physics (IIP-UFRN);
 * International Institute for Neuroscience of Natal (IINN-ELS);
 * Universidade Estadual do Rio Grande do Norte (UERN);
 * Universidade Potiguar (UnP);
 * Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Norte(IFRN);
 * Instituto de Educação Superior Presidente Kennedy (Kennedy);
 * Faculdade Natalense para o Desenvolvimento do Rio Grande do Norte (Farn);
 * Faculdade de Natal (FAL);
 * Faculdade de Excelência Educacional do Rio Grande do Norte (FATERN); (IINN-ELS)
 * Faculdade Câmara Cascudo (FCC);
 * Faculdade de Ciências Cultura e Extensão (FACEX);
 * Faculdade Católica Nossa Senhora das Neves (FCNSN);
 * Faculdade Maurício de Nassau (UNINASSAU);
 * Federal Rural University of the Semi-arid Region (UFERSA).

There are more than 15 universities in whole state of Rio Grande do Norte.

Main sights
The Natal Dunes State Park is considered the second largest urban park in Brazil. It includes 1,172 hectares of land, and allows observation of several vegetal and animal species, which are typical of the Atlantic Forest. The tour is along a trail, accompanied by trained guides. The park also has a jogging track, and stays open for visitors from Tuesday to Sunday.
 * Natal Dunes State Park

Museums in Natal include: Museu de Arte Sacra, Museu de Cultura Popular, Espaço Cultural Palácio Potengi, Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Norte, Pinacoteca do Rio Grande do Norte, Museum Camara Cascudo, Memorial Camara Cascudo.
 * Museums

The Natal Aquarium was founded and is run by a family of biologists and retired environmentalists. Besides the exhibit, the aquarium also serves as a surgery center for sea animals. The Aquarium is located between the Oceânica Avenue and the beach. The Aquarium exhibits about 60 marine species. There are about 30 small aquariums, where the species are put individually or in small groups of two or three species. Most species were collected at the Brazilian and Rio Grande do Norte coast. Species include several kinds of fish (including piranhas), sea horses, shrimps, lobsters, stingrays, octopus, etc. In a refrigerated aquarium, there is a couple of penguins. The Cashew of Pirangi is the biggest cashew tree in the world. In 1994, it entered the Guinness book as the tree which covers the largest area, 8,400 square meters; it is larger than a typical football pitch. Due to a genetic mutation, the branches of this tree grow outwards rather than upwards; thus when a branch touches the ground, roots are not created, rather a new ramification starts to grow. There is even a gazebo located in the cashew, a popular attraction among tourists.
 * Natal Aquarium
 * The Largest Cashew Tree in the World

Forte dos Reis Magos or Fortaleza dos Reis Magos is a medieval fortress that was the first milestone of the city – founded on 25 December 1599 – on the right side of the bar of the river Potenji (today near the Ponte Newton Navarro). It received its name based on the date of commencement of its construction, 6 January 1598, at Epiphany Catholic calendar.
 * Forte dos Reis Magos

The Natal City Park Dom Nivaldo Monte, or simply the City Park is an urban park. Inaugurated on July 21, 2008 with architectural project of Oscar Niemeyer. It has a unique, monumental tower, and has a museum and restaurant.
 * Natal City Park

Festa Junina was introduced to Northeastern Brazil by the Portuguese for whom St John's day (also celebrated as Midsummer Day in several European countries), on the 24th of June, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Differently from what happens on the European Midsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during the summer solstice but during the tropical winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after the 12th of June, on the eve of St Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets. Typical foods and beverages are served. As during Carnival, these festivities involve wearing costumes (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). Similar to what happens on Midsummer and St John's Day in Europe, bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil. Festa Junina in other cities of the state, especially in the city of Mossoró which gathers thousands of people during the month of June.
 * Festa Junina (Saint John Festival)

 * Newton Navarro bridge

The Newton Navarro bridge is one of the highest bridges in Brazil and has over a gorgeous sunset seen from Potengi River. It makes the connection with the beaches of the north coast of the state. In addition to unburden the city traffic, the bridge became a tourist attraction because of its large size.

The Natal Historic Center it comprises an area of approximately 201278 m², which are included 150 buildings of various styles, including colonial architecture, neoclassical, art-deco and modernist. This area comprises the districts of Ribeira and Cidade Alta, which are the oldest neighborhoods of the city, which have characteristics of the first centuries of the history of Brazil, highlighting important aspects of Portuguese colonization.
 * Historic Center

The Barreira do Inferno Launch Center is the first base to launch rockets from Brazil. With the construction of another center in Brazil, today, it only launches rockets, small and medium businesses and is open to visitation of tourists to know the rockets, but must make an appointment to visit the center.
 * Barreira do Inferno

The Parrachos de Maracajaú of coral reefs are the seven kilometers (7 km) of beach in Maracajaú, forming natural pools. Occupy an area of 13 km, excellent for snorkeling in the coral diving underwater that, at low tide, touch the surface. It is one of the places in Brazil where the sea is the most crystalline and suitable for diving. The beach of Maracajaú is 60 km from Natal. In Maracajaú also a water park, the Ma-Noa Park.
 * Parrachos de Maracajaú

Genipabu (or Jenipabu) is a beach, a complex of dunes, a lagoon and an area of environmental protection (APA) located in Natal capital city, one of the most famous post-cards of the Brazilian state Rio Grande do Norte. It is a huge dunes and a lagoon of fresh water, with strong attraction for tourism. The region has a good infrastructure of hotels, inns, restaurants, beach tents, tours of "buggies", rafts and dromedaries. It is played in the dunes around the lake called "esquibunda" stakeholders sit down the dunes on top of planks of wood, to dive in the waters of the lagoon. The tours of "buggies" are offered in the local "with emotion" or "no emotion", according to the degree of risk, it is recommended, however, are chosen accredited professionals responsible for security not only of tourists, but the middle - environment.
 * Genipabu

Ponta Negra is a famous beach and a neighborhood located in the Brazilian city of Natal in the state of Rio Grande do Norte. In the extreme south of the beach, is located in Morro do Careca (Bald Hill), a large dune. The extreme north of the beach, is located at Via Costeira (Coastal Way), a road in the middle of coastal dunes that connect the various beaches of the city. The beach is completely urbanized and there are several points shops, restaurants, bars and night clubs. The sand itself is lined with "tents", or huts, that serve food and drinks to beachgoers day and night. A common sight on the beach are "jangadas", simple, multicolored, local fishing boats typical of northeastern Brazil. The Via Costeira (Coastal Way) is a great avenue built next to the dunes and beaches of the city, including making the connection of several beaches in the state.
 * Ponta Negra and Via Costeira

The Pipa Beach is located 85 km from Natal and completely away from urban centers. A beach Paradise that attracts thousands of tourists every year.
 * Pipa Beach

 * Other attractions
 * As Natal means Christmas in Portuguese, possibly in December are some attractions such as concerts, plays, meeting writers and the traditional burning of fires, and the city be decorated with Christmas purposes.
 * Cape São Roque, point of the Brazilian coast close of Africa.
 * Calcanhar Lighthouse, the highest lighthouse in Brazil.

Culture
Carnival in Natal, known as "Carnatal", is one of the largest off-season carnivals in Brazil. Carnatal takes place sometime in November or December, in the streets around the Arena das Dunas Stadium (traffic around the stadium changes radically during Carnatal days). The transit department isolates about 3 km of streets, creating a ring, along which the party takes place. During the days of party, a huge truck (called "trio elétrico"), with a band on the top and sound boxes all around, drives slowly along the streets. The crowd follows the trio elétrico singing, dancing, jumping to the sound of the music.

Natal is also home to the "Mada", a national festival of pop rock national, and the "Verão de Todos", a summer festival.

The patron saint of the city is Our Lady of Presentation.

International airport
Located virtually at sea level (169 feet), with favorable weather and geographic conditions, Greater Natal International Airport in São Gonçalo do Amarante is 30 km from Natal.

Air Force Base
Natal Air Force Base - ALA10, one of their most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the nearby city of Parnamirim.

Highways
Federal Highway BR-101 is the most important access to Natal, coming from the South of Brazil, through the boundary with the municipality of Parnamirim. For those who come from the State of Ceará, the principle access is by the Federal Highway BR-304, through the boundary with the municipality of Macaíba, where you pick up BR-226 taking people to Natal. Leaving Natal, an important access to the southern Potiguar coast is the "Sun Route" (Rota do Sol) as RN-063 is known by, and which takes you to the beaches of Pirangi, Búzios, Tabatinga, up to the municipality of Nísia Floresta. The North Shore is accessible from the Newton Navarro bridge, following the Praia do Forte to Genipabu, and the Igapó Bridge, following the district of Igapó by BR-101 to Touros, and by BR-406 to Macau. Natal is connected to all the 167 municipalities of Rio Grande do Norte and dozens of locations and Potiguar districts, through the Passenger Bus Terminal of Natal (Terminal Rodoviário de Passageiros de Natal), located in the Eastern Zone of the city. All the accesses to the countryside of the state are through the Metropolitan region of Natal, composed of the municipalities of Ceará-Mirim, Emaús, Extremoz, Macaíba, Monte Alegre, Nísia Floresta, Parnamirim e São Gonçalo do Amarante. Buses with direct destinations to various Brazilian capitals also leave from the Passenger Bus Terminal of Natal. The cities with regular weekly schedules are: Belo Horizonte, Fortaleza, Goiânia, João Pessoa, Palmas, Recife, Salvador, São Luiz e Teresina.

Bus
Buses are the cheapest way to move around Natal. Passes or magnetic cards can be purchased beforehand, but it is easiest to pay the conductor. There are large buses, micro buses and vans, driving along the same streets, charging the same fares.

All the main touristic spots within Natal are well served by buses. People may expect to travel standing up on the big buses (not so with micros and vans). Typical waiting time is 15 min during the peak hours, up to one hour.

Rail
The Sistema de Trens Urbanos de Natal is a two-line commuter rail system that operates over 56 km of track, and served 3.7 million passengers in 2018.

Taxi
There are plenty of taxis in the city. Taxis are white cars and have a red plate. Fares are the same, regardless of how new and comfortable the car is. Fares are regulated by the government. The normal prices are: US$2 to start metering, US$1 per km and US$5 per waiting hour. The only exception to these prices are the so-called special taxis at the airport. From 10:00 pm to 6:00 am at weekdays, and all hours at weekends (and, depending on a decree by the mayor, all times during the month of December), there is a 20% increase in the above prices, this is indicated by a number 2 showing in the fare meter. There are several tele-taxis companies in Natal.

Buggy
The dune buggy is the vehicle used most to drive along the beaches. Some companies offer tours in Land Rovers and other 4WD vehicles, these cars offer much more comfort, but buggy drivers claim that the buggy is more flexible. Riding a buggy, people feel the sun and the wind. Buggies are safe, accidents with buggies are much less frequent than accidents with other cars (most dune buggy drivers are certified by the Tourist Authority).

Distances

 * João Pessoa: 180 km (110 mi);
 * Recife: 300 km (186 mi);
 * São Paulo: 3011 km (1870 mi);
 * Rio de Janeiro: 2750 km;
 * Belo Horizonte: 2615 km;
 * Brasília: 2383 km;
 * Salvador: 1100 km;
 * Porto Alegre: 4320 km.

Port
The Port of Natal is specialized in cold storage cargo such as fruit, fish and shrimp, among others. It has its own customs facilities and is connected to Europe by direct navigation lines, mainly to the ports of Vigo, Rotterdam and Sheerness.

Sports
The main soccer teams of Natal are:
 * ABC Futebol Clube
 * Alecrim Futebol Clube
 * América de Natal

Stadiums

 * Arena das Dunas
 * Maria Lamas Farache Stadium (Frasqueirão)
 * Juvenal Lamartine Stadium

Gymnasiums

 * Ginásio Nélio Dias
 * Palácio dos Esportes

2014 FIFA World Cup
Natal was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, for which Brazil was the host nation. The Dunas Arena was built in place of the old Machadão stadium. It is building a new airport, Greater Natal International Airport, to be the largest airport in Latin America. It is also investing in a public transport system using the system of light rail called VLT de Natal, and other projects of infrastructure.

David Beckham had announced plans for a football academy in Natal, called the Beckham World of Sport, to coincide with the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

11th World Maxibasketball Championship
Natal will be the first Brazilian city to host a World Maxibasketball Championship. The 11th World Maxibasketball Championship will occur in July 2011, winning among the cities which also wanted to host the event: Punta del Este in Uruguay; Vancouver in Canada and Eugene in the United States. The facilities of the modern Nélio Dias gymnasium should be used to house the event that will bring to the capital of Rio Grande do Norte about 3,500 athletes from around the world.

Notable people
Natalenses is the name in Brazil for residents of Natal.

 * Abraham Palatnik, artist
 * Aldo Parisot, cellist and cello teacher
 * André Oliveira, football player
 * Gleydson de Oliveira Santos, football player
 * Antônio Filipe Camarão, Native American
 * Café Filho, lawyer and ex-president of Brazil (1954–1955)
 * Carlos Paz de Araújo, scientist and inventor
 * Clodoaldo Silva, paralympic swimmer
 * Diego Pelicles da Silva, football player
 * Fernanda Tavares, international model
 * Garibaldi Alves Filho, politician and former President of the Federal Senate (2007–2009)
 * Kell, football player
 * Jussier da Silva, mixed martial artist
 * Larissa Costa, model and Miss Brasil 2009
 * Luís da Câmara Cascudo, anthropologist, folklorist, journalist, historian, lawyer, and lexicographer
 * Marinho Chagas, football player
 * Matuzalém, football player
 * Patrício Freire, mixed martial artist champion
 * Patricky Freire, mixed martial artist
 * Oscar Schmidt, basketball player
 * Ramalho, football player
 * Renan Barão, mixed martial artist
 * Richarlyson, football player
 * Ronny Markes, mixed martial artist
 * Abraham Palatnik (1928-2020), artist and inventor
 * Roberta Sá, singer
 * Virna Dias, volleyball player

Twin towns
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte is twinned with:
 * 🇵🇸 Bethlehem, Palestine
 * 🇦🇷 Córdoba, Argentina
 * 🇧🇷 Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
 * 🇧🇷 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * 🇧🇷 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
 * 🇧🇷 Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
 * 🇮🇱 Eilat, Israel

title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte


text:
Scoria

Scoria is a pyroclastic, highly vesicular, dark-colored volcanic rock formed by ejection from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains called clasts. It is typically dark in color (brown, black or purplish-red), and basaltic or andesitic in composition. Scoria has relatively low density, as it is riddled with macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles (gas bubbles), but in contrast to pumice, scoria always has a specific gravity greater than 1 and sinks in water.

Scoria may form as part of a lava flow, typically near its surface, or as fragmental ejecta (lapilli, blocks, and bombs), for instance in Strombolian eruptions that form steep-sided scoria cones, also called cinder cones. Scoria's holes or vesicles form when gases dissolved in the original magma come out of solution as it erupts, creating bubbles in the molten rock, some of which are frozen in place as the rock cools and solidifies. Most scoria is composed of glassy fragments and may contain phenocrysts. A sample from Yemen was mainly composed of volcanic glass with a few zeolites (e.g., clinoptilolite).

The geological term cinder is synonymous and interchangeable with scoria, though scoria is preferred in scientific literature. The word comes from Greek σκωρία, skōria, rust. In earlier terminology, scoria was usually defined with a size range, e.g. 2 to 24 mm in diameter, but neither color nor composition was typically a part of the definition. During the 1980s, the size range disappeared from the definition, and a requirement was added that scoria be black or reddish in color and/or mafic in composition.

Comparisons
Scoria differs from pumice, another vesicular volcanic rock, in having larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, and hence is denser. The difference is probably the result of lower magma viscosity, allowing rapid volatile diffusion, bubble growth, coalescence, and bursting.

Formation
As rising magma encounters lower pressures, dissolved gases are able to exsolve and form vesicles. Some of the vesicles are trapped when the magma chills and solidifies. Vesicles are usually small, spheroidal and do not impinge upon one another; instead, they open into one another with little distortion.

Volcanic cones of scoria can be left behind after eruptions, usually forming mountains with a crater at the summit. An example is Maungarei in Auckland, New Zealand, which like Te Tatua-a-Riukiuta in the south of the same city has been extensively quarried. Quincan, a unique variety of scoria, is quarried at Mount Quincan in Far North Queensland, Australia.

Uses
Scoria is used for a variety of purposes. It is commonly mined for use as loose construction aggregate in Europe, the Southwestern United States, and Japan. Another major use of cinders is in manufacture of concrete and cinder blocks.

Scoria is also used in the construction of flexible, long-lasting roadbeds, due to its high strength and high angles of internal friction. Because of its good insulating properties, such roadbeds protect the ground beneath them from frost heave and heat deformation. It is also spread as a traction aid on ice- and snow-covered roads, and around oil wells to firm up mud produced by heavy truck traffic.

Scoria is used in horticulture. Because it can hold water in its vesicles and in the pore space between grains in aggregates, it can improve the water-holding capacity of planting soils. When sorted to specific sizes and tightly packed, it is also an effective barrier against tunneling pests such as termites. Its striking colours and water-holding properties can make it attractive for landscaping and drainage works.

Scoria can be used for high-temperature insulation, as in gas barbecue grills.

The ancient Romans used cinders as construction aggregates, one of the earliest industrial uses of volcanic rocks. On Rapa Nui/Easter Island, the quarry of Puna Pau was the source of reddish scoria used to carve the pukao (topknots) for the famous moai statues, and even for the main bodies of some moai.

title: Scoria