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Peter Landin

Peter John Landin (5 June 1930 – 3 June 2009 ) was a British computer scientist. He was one of the first to realise that the lambda calculus could be used to model a programming language, an insight that is essential to the development of both functional programming and denotational semantics.

Academic
Landin was born in Sheffield, where he attended King Edward VII School; he graduated from Clare College, Cambridge. From 1960 to 1964, he was the assistant to Christopher Strachey when the latter was an independent computer consultant in London. Most of his work was published during this period and the brief time he worked for Univac and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, before taking a position at Queen Mary University of London. During the 1970s and 1980s, his efforts went into building the computer science department in Queen Mary College, developing courses, and teaching students, as set forth in the foreword to the textbook Programming from First Principles. On his retirement, he was appointed Emeritus Professor of Theoretical Computation at Queen Mary University of London, where in 2012, the computer science building was renamed the Peter Landin Building in his honour.

At a workshop at the Science Museum, London, in 2001, on the history of programming semantics he spoke of how his scholarly career in computer science began in the late 1950s and of how he was much influenced by a study of John McCarthy's Lisp language when the most commonly used language was Fortran.

He was active in the definition of the ALGOL programming language. He is listed among those who attended the November 1959 conference in Paris, and the 1962 conference, and cited by Tony Hoare as one of the people who taught him ALGOL 60 and hence facilitated his expression of powerful recursive algorithms:

"'Around Easter 1961, a course on ALGOL 60 was offered in Brighton, England, with Peter Naur, Edsger W. Dijkstra, and Peter Landin as tutors. ... It was there that I first learned about recursive procedures and saw how to program the sorting method which I had earlier found such difficulty in explaining. It was there that I wrote the procedure, immodestly named QUICKSORT, on which my career as a computer scientist is founded. Due credit must be paid to the genius of the designers of ALGOL 60 who included recursion in their language and enabled me to describe my invention so elegantly to the world. I have regarded it as the highest goal of programming language design to enable good ideas to be elegantly expressed.'"

Landin was involved with international standards in programming and informatics, as a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi, which specified, maintains, and supports the programming languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.

Landin is responsible for inventing the stack, environment, control, dump SECD machine, the first abstract machine for a functional programming language, and the ISWIM programming language, defining the Landin off-side rule and for coining the term syntactic sugar. The off-side rule allows bounding scope declaration by use of white spaces as seen in languages such as Miranda, Haskell, Python, and F# (using the light syntax).

Another phrase originating with Landin is "The next 700 ..." after his influential paper The next 700 programming languages. "700" was chosen because Landin had read in the Journal of the ACM that there were already 700 programming languages in existence. The paper opens with the quotation "... today ... 1,700 special programming languages used to 'communicate' in over 700 application areas." It also includes the joke that "A possible first step in the research program is 1700 doctoral theses called 'A Correspondence between x and Church's λ-notation.'" a reference to his earlier paper. This dry sense of humour is expressed in many of his papers.

Political
Landin, who was bisexual, became involved with the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) during the early 1970s. He was once arrested as part of an anti-nuclear demonstration. He was a dedicated cyclist and moved around London on his bike until it became physically impossible for him to do so.

Legacy
The Bodleian Library in Oxford holds an archive of material relating to Peter Landin. Since 2010, there has been an Annual Peter Landin Semantics Seminar held annually each December in memory of Peter Landin and organized by the BCS-FACS Specialist Group on Formal Aspects of Computing Science. The first seminar was delivered by the American computer scientist John C. Reynolds (1935–2013). There is a Peter Landin Building at Queen Mary University of London housing teaching and research facilities for computer science.

Selected publications

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title: Peter Landin


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Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick

Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick, KG (c. 1530 – 21 February 1590) was an English nobleman and general, and an elder brother of Queen Elizabeth I's favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Their father was John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who led the English government from 1550–1553 under King Edward VI and unsuccessfully tried to establish Lady Jane Grey on the English throne after the King's death in July 1553. For his participation in this venture, Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London and condemned to death. Reprieved, his rehabilitation came after he fought for King Philip in the Battle of St. Quentin.

On Queen Elizabeth's accession in November 1558, Dudley was appointed Master of the Ordnance, in which capacity he was to unofficially assist William the Silent in his struggle against Spain by delivering English weaponry. As the senior member of his family, Dudley was created Earl of Warwick in December 1561. In 1562–1563 he commanded the army Elizabeth sent to Le Havre to garrison the town and assist the Huguenots in the First French War of Religion. This campaign ended in failure when the French belligerents agreed to a peace and the English surrendered because of the plague which was decimating their ranks. Dudley, who had acted honorably throughout, returned with a severe leg wound which was to hinder his further career and ultimately led to his death 27 years later. His last military engagement was against the Northern rebels in 1569. From 1573 he served as a privy councillor.

Despite three marriages, Ambrose Dudley remained childless after the death of an infant daughter in 1552. This had serious repercussions for the survival of his dynasty, since his only surviving brother, Robert, equally died without legitimate issue. With him, Ambrose Dudley had a very close relationship, and in business and personal life they did many things together. Like Robert Dudley, Ambrose was a major patron of the Elizabethan Puritan movement and supported non-conforming preachers in their struggle with the Church authorities. Due to his homely way of life—and in contrast to the colourful Earl of Leicester—Ambrose Dudley became known to posterity as the "Good Earl of Warwick".

Youth

Ambrose Dudley was the fourth son of Sir John Dudley, later Viscount Lisle, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland, and his wife Jane Guildford. The Dudleys had 13 children in all and were known for their Protestant leanings as well as for their happy family life. Ambrose Dudley and his brothers were trained by, among others, the mathematician John Dee and the rhetorician Thomas Wilson. In August 1549, Dudley went to Norfolk with his father and his younger brother Robert to fight against the rebel peasant army of Robert Kett. Back in London, Dudley was knighted and married Anne Whorwood, daughter of William Whorwood, deceased Attorney-General. In 1552, they had a daughter who died soon. Anne also died in 1552, of the sweating sickness. Dudley soon married for the second time: Elizabeth Lady Tailboys (or Talboys, 1520–1563 ), who was a baroness in her own right with large possessions in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire.

After the death of King Edward VI on 6 July 1553, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who had led the young King's government for the last three and a half years, tried to install his daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey on the English throne; she was the King's Protestant cousin to whom Edward had willed the Crown, bypassing his half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth. When Mary Tudor asserted her right to the throne, an expedition against her base in East Anglia became inevitable. Northumberland marched on 14 July, accompanied by his eldest sons, John and Ambrose. Five days later the Privy Council changed sides; on hearing this on 20 July, Northumberland, who had been staying at Cambridge, gave up and was arrested with his party the next day.

Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London with his father and his four brothers. All were attainted and condemned to death, but only the Duke and Guildford Dudley, the second youngest brother, were executed. After the natural death of John, the eldest brother, in October 1554, Ambrose Dudley was the family's heir; he remained longest in the Tower, being released late in 1554 after a plea by his wife, Lady Tailboys. On the whole, the brothers' release was brought about by their mother and their brother-in-law Henry Sidney, who successfully lobbied the Spanish nobles around England's new co-ruler and king consort, Philip of Spain. Out of prison, in December 1554 or January 1555, Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in one of several tournaments held by Philip to celebrate Anglo-Spanish friendship.

Also in January 1555, Dudley's mother died, leaving him her lands, which Queen Mary allowed him to inherit despite his attainder. However, the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there; later in 1555 they were even ordered out of London and the next year, in the wake of a conspiracy by their second cousin Sir Henry Dudley, the French ambassador Antoine de Noailles reported that the government was seeking to apprehend "the children of the Duke of Northumberland", who were said to be on the run. By January 1557, the brothers were raising personal contingents in order to fight for Philip II, now also King of Spain. Ambrose, Robert, and Henry Dudley joined the Spanish forces in France and took part in the Battle of St Quentin, where Henry Dudley was killed. For these services, the two surviving brothers were restored in blood by Act of Parliament in 1558. The cost of the campaign almost bankrupted Ambrose Dudley and his wife, however, so that they had to reduce their household significantly.

Serving Elizabeth I
With the accession of Elizabeth I in November 1558, Robert Dudley came into great favour and was made Master of the Horse. Ambrose Dudley received the post of Master of the Ordnance, though he pressed his influential brother to delay the appointment somewhat, so that he could not be held accountable for his predecessor's embezzlement of funds. When their attainder had been lifted in 1558, the Dudley brothers had renounced any rights to their father's possessions or titles. Yet on 25 and 26 December 1561, Ambrose Dudley was created Baron Lisle and Earl of Warwick, and the next year received a large portion of the lands confiscated from the Duke of Northumberland. Warwick Castle—which the Queen visited on her 1572 summer progress—became his seat, while the neighbouring Kenilworth Castle became that of Robert Dudley. Like their father, Ambrose and Robert Dudley adopted the bear and ragged staff, the heraldic device of the medieval Earls of Warwick.

In 1562 the First War of Religion started in France, and Elizabeth was under pressure from her Protestant councillors to help the Huguenots. These were in possession of Le Havre, which was besieged by the Catholic Duke of Guise, and offered it to the English in return for military help—later, they promised, they would exchange it for Calais, which England had lost to France only in 1558. Elizabeth agreed to send 6,000 men to garrison Le Havre. Ambrose Dudley was chosen to lead the expedition in place of Robert Dudley, whom Elizabeth would not let go despite his strong desire to do so.

Warwick arrived at Le Havre in late October 1562. He was sceptical from the start as to the chances to hold Le Havre, writing: "I fear [you] are too much abused in the good opinion you have in the strength of this town". Elizabeth soon made it clear that she did not wish his army to engage in any active support for the Huguenot side, the purpose of the English contribution remaining somewhat obscure. In March 1563, the warring French agreed to a peace, while Elizabeth decided to hold on to Le Havre until Calais was returned to the English, as had been agreed with the Huguenot party. The reconciled French, however, turned jointly against the English garrison. Le Havre's fortifications would have needed major expansion and repair to withstand a prolonged siege. Still, Dudley tried his best until the town's walls were crumbling under French bombardment. The Queen permitted him to surrender honourably in July 1563 on account of the plague that was decimating his troops. Ambrose Dudley himself had been shot in the leg when parleying with the French and returned to England seriously ill. He wrote to his brother that he was happy "rather to end my life upon the breach than in any sickness... Farewell my dear and loving brother, a thousand times." Robert Dudley went to welcome him at Portsmouth despite the plague and much to Elizabeth's annoyance.

Politically, the expedition had been a disaster, yet Warwick gained recognition for his leadership since morale had been high and the civilian population had been treated with unusual respect. The Earl's rewards were the Welsh lordship of Ruthin and the Order of the Garter, which was awarded to him while still in France in April 1563. His war injury—which never properly healed—made him ineligible for posts like Lord President of the Council of the North or Lord Deputy of Ireland when they were suggested for him in the future. Elizabeth Lady Tailboys had also died while her husband was in France, and on 11 November 1565 Ambrose Dudley married for the third time. His bride was the 16-year-old Anne Russell, daughter of Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford. Robert Dudley, meanwhile Earl of Leicester, had arranged the match. It was an extraordinary court event. In between tournaments and banquets, the bride was given away by the Earl of Leicester in the presence of the Queen; she later became one of Elizabeth's closest friends.

In November 1569, the Northern Rebellion broke out with the aim to install Mary, Queen of Scots (who was in English captivity) on the English throne. The Earl of Warwick was one of the commanders appointed to march against the revolt, which was disintegrating rapidly, though. Due to his bad health, Warwick was soon allowed to return to his Midlands estates. In January 1570, Robert, Earl of Leicester, saw his reconvalescent brother at Kenilworth and reported to Elizabeth: "all this hard weather [he] hath every day travelled on horse, Your Majesty's service hath made him forget his pain... assuredly he is marvellous weary, though in my judgment it hath done his body much good".

As Master of the Ordnance, Warwick presided over an increasingly important government department, which centrally managed the storage and commissioning of the state's artillery, munitions, and small arms. Prince William of Orange valued English cannons, and Warwick—who fervently believed in the international Protestant cause —seems willingly to have supplied him with what he wanted. The Spanish ambassador officially protested against this practice in 1576, since the weapons would have been used against Spanish rule in the Netherlands. In 1573 Warwick was admitted to the Privy Council. His attendance to business was quite regular until it declined sharply due to his deteriorating health in the 1580s. At the 1587 trial of Mary Stuart, he acted as a commissioner and was asked by the Scottish Queen to plead for her with his brother, the absent Earl of Leicester. The day sentence was pronounced on her, Warwick did not attend.

One of Warwick's last appointments, in January 1588, was Keeper of the Queen's parks at Grafton Regis with the lawns, chases, and walks.

Private nobleman

Ambrose Dudley became one of the leading patrons of moderate Puritanism, the principal concern of which was the furtherance of preaching. Discouraged by the official Church, this was largely dependent on private initiatives by influential noblemen. In 1567, the two Dudley earls, together with local gentry, founded a consortium which provided for "the preachers of the Gospel in the county of Warwick." Ambrose Dudley also helped the preacher John Field when he got into trouble over a subversive book he had published in 1565; and when he was imprisoned in 1572, Leicester and Warwick worked his transfer into comfortable confinement in a London alderman's house before he was released altogether by his patrons' means. Like his brother, Ambrose Dudley invested in exploration and privateering voyages; in Martin Frobisher's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage, he was the principal patron, although he contributed only the relatively modest sum of £50.

The two Dudley brothers were on the closest personal terms and Ambrose said of Robert: "there is no man [that] knoweth his doings better than I myself", while Robert's recurrent phrase about Ambrose was: "him I love as myself". Elizabeth, who liked Warwick, loved to joke that he was neither as graceful nor as handsome as his brother—and stouter as well. Lacking a grand London residence of his own, Warwick had his suite of rooms in the palatial Leicester House: "the Lord of Warwick's bedchamber, the Lord of Warwick's closet, the Lord of Warwick's dining parlour". In the administration of their lands, the brothers shared their estate managers and lawyers, while their local affinities consisted of the same gentry families. Privately, they were "almost inseparable", passing time together whenever possible. When Robert Dudley had incurred the Queen's wrath while serving in the Netherlands as Governor-General in 1586, Ambrose wrote to him: "if I were you... I would go to the furthest part of Christendom rather than ever come into England again... Let me have your best advice what is best for me to do, for that I mean to take such part as you do."

After his first marriage, Ambrose Dudley remained childless. His second wife, Elizabeth Tailboys, suffered a phantom pregnancy in 1555. Anne Russell, though nearly 20 years her husband's junior, turned out to be a congenial partner. Through their paternal grandmother the Dudley brothers descended from the famous 15th century earls, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, and Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. The Beauchamp descent especially—which was represented by the earldom of Warwick—filled them with pride. Ambrose's childlessness deeply concerned the widowed Robert Dudley, who for many years dared not to remarry for fear of the Queen's displeasure, and eventually died without direct heirs himself in September 1588. Most of Leicester's estate—and debts—passed on to Warwick and encumbered his remaining lifetime. He also took care of his deceased brother's illegitimate teenage son Robert, who was his godson and whom Leicester had willed to inherit after Warwick's death.

From the 1570s the Earl of Warwick often resided at North Hall, his house in Northaw, Hertfordshire. He travelled little as he was often unable to move about, having "no use of his legs". At the end of January 1590, he finally had his gangrenous leg amputated; as a consequence, he died at Bedford House in the Strand, London, on 21 February. Two days before, the diplomat Sir Edward Stafford visited him and described his spasms and pain "which lasted him unto his death". He also saw the Countess sitting "by the fire so full of tears that she could not speak". The Earl of Warwick was buried in the Beauchamp Chapel of Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick, in the vicinity of his ancestor Richard Beauchamp, his brother Robert, and his little nephew Robert Dudley, Lord Denbigh, Leicester's son who during his short life had been heir to both Dudley earldoms. Ambrose Dudley's widow commissioned his monument, but on her request was buried with her ancestors in Chenies, Buckinghamshire, when she died in 1604. Ambrose Dudley entered tradition as the "Good Earl of Warwick"; this probably came about through his quiet life style, which contrasted with the colourful persona of his brother, the Queen's favourite.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick


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Elizabeth Eckford

Elizabeth Ann Eckford (born October 4, 1941) is an American civil rights activist and one of the Little Rock Nine, a group of African American students who, in 1957, were the first black students ever to attend classes at the previously all-white Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The integration came as a result of the 1954 United States Supreme Court ruling Brown v. Board of Education. Eckford's public ordeal was captured by press photographers on the morning of September 4, 1957, after she was prevented from entering the school by the Arkansas National Guard. A dramatic snapshot by Will Counts of the Arkansas Democrat showed the young girl being followed and threatened by an angry white mob; this and other photos of the day's startling events were circulated around the US and the world by the press.

Counts's image was the unanimous selection by the Pulitzer jury for a 1958 Pulitzer Prize, but since the story had earned then-rival Arkansas Gazette two other Pulitzer Prizes already, the Pulitzer board awarded the prize to another photographer for a pleasant photograph of a two-year-old boy in Washington, D.C. A different photo taken by Counts of Alex Wilson, a black reporter for the Memphis Tri-State Defender being beaten by the angry mob in Little Rock the same day, was chosen as the "News Picture of the Year" for 1957 by the National Press Photographers Association. This image by Counts prompted President Dwight D. Eisenhower to send federal troops to Little Rock.

Eckford only spent one year at Little Rock Central High where she and the other black students were tormented throughout. In the years since, she has struggled through life, and twice attempted suicide. She was subsequently diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Background
On September 4, 1957, Eckford and eight other African American students (known as the Little Rock Nine) made an unsuccessful attempt to enter Little Rock Central High School, which had been segregated. An angry mob of about 400 surrounded the school that day, with the complicity of the Arkansas National Guard.

Fifteen-year-old Eckford tried to enter the school, while soldiers of the National Guard, under orders from Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, stepped in her way to prevent her from entering. Eventually, she gave up and tried to flee to a bus stop through the mob of segregationists who surrounded and threatened to lynch her. Once Eckford got to the bus stop, she couldn't stop crying. A reporter, Benjamin Fine, having in mind his own 15-year-old daughter, sat down next to Eckford. He tried to comfort her and told her, "don't let them see you cry." Soon, she was also protected by a white woman named Grace Lorch who escorted her onto a city bus.

The original plan was to have the nine children arrive together, but when the meeting place was changed the night before, the Eckford family's lack of a telephone left Elizabeth uninformed of the change. Instructions were given by Daisy Bates, a strong activist for desegregation, for the nine students to wait for her so that they could all walk together to the rear entrance of the school. This last-minute change caused Elizabeth to be the first to take a different route to school, walking up to the front entrance completely alone. Elizabeth Eckford's family was not informed of the meeting and didn't know that the school board asked the parents to accompany her. Also, Eckford rode a public bus alone to the segregated school. That day, Elizabeth wore a starched black-and-white dress, and she covered her face under black sunglasses. Elizabeth also held her school book in her hand. As she walked toward the school, Elizabeth was surrounded by a crowd of armed guards and a mob of people, and she did not see any black faces. The mob included men, women, and teenagers (white students) who opposed integration. The white teenagers chanted "Two, four, six, eight, we ain't gonna integrate." Elizabeth attempted to go into the school through the mob but was denied entrance. Eckford walked to a bus bench at the end of the block. Eckford described her experience:

"I stood looking at the school— it looked so big! Just then the guards let some white students through. The crowd was quiet. I guess they were waiting to see what was going to happen. When I was able to steady my knees, I walked up to the guard who had let the white students in. He didn't move. When I tried to squeeze past him, he raised his bayonet, and then the other guards moved in and they raised their bayonets. They glared at me with a mean look and I was very frightened and didn't know what to do. I turned around and the crowd came toward me. They moved closer and closer. Somebody started yelling, "Drag her over this tree! Let's take care of that nigger!""

Even though Elizabeth Eckford would one day be known as a member of the Little Rock Nine, at this point in the school day, she was all alone, making her the first African-American student to integrate a white southern high school.

For the next two weeks, the Little Rock Nine stayed home to study instead of going to the Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was reluctant to do anything about the mob or the rioting. Eisenhower summoned Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas to intervene and asked for the withdrawal of all troops from the high school after Elizabeth Eckford's experience attempting to enter the school the first time.

On September 23, 1957, the Little Rock Nine approached Central High again, and Elizabeth Eckford along with the other eight students, accompanied by city policemen, were let into the high school through a side door. The reaction from the mob was described as follows:

"The crowd let out a roar of rage. 'They've gone in,' a man shouted...Once the Little Rock Nine entered the school, they were separated. The mob infiltrated the school, and under threats of death, the nine were taken to the principal's office. One of the nine overheard officials saying 'We may have to let the mob have one of those kids, so's we can distract them long enough to get the others out.'"

The Arkansas National Guard, under orders from the governor, and an angry mob of about 400 surrounded the school and prevented them from going in. On September 23, 1957, a mob of about 1000 people surrounded the school again as the students attempted to enter. The following day, President Dwight D. Eisenhower took control of the Arkansas National Guard from the governor and sent the 101st Airborne Division to accompany the students to school for protection. Both federal troops and federalized National Guardsmen were deployed at the school for the entirety of the school year, although they were unable to prevent incidents of violence against the group inside, such as Eckford being thrown down a flight of stairs.

All of the city's high schools were closed the following year, so Eckford did not graduate from Central High School. However, she had taken correspondence and night courses garnering enough credits for her high school diploma. In 1958, Eckford and the rest of the Little Rock Nine were awarded the Spingarn Medal by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), as was Ms. Bates.

Later life
Eckford was accepted by Knox College in Illinois, but chose to return to Little Rock to be near her family. She later attended Central State University in Wilberforce, Ohio, where she earned a BA in history. In 2018, Eckford was awarded an honorary doctorate from Knox College.

Eckford served in the United States Army for five years, first as a pay clerk, and then as an information specialist. She also wrote for the Fort McClellan (Alabama) and the Fort Benjamin Harrison (Indiana) newspapers. After that, she has worked as a waitress, history teacher, welfare worker, unemployment and employment interviewer, and a military reporter. In 2007, she was working as a probation officer in Little Rock.

In 1997, she shared the Father Joseph Biltz Award—presented by the National Conference for Community and Justice—with Hazel Bryan Massery, a then-segregationist student at Central High School who appeared in several of the 1957 photographs screaming at the young Elizabeth. During the reconciliation rally of 1997, the two women made speeches together. But later their friendship broke up, with Eckford reflecting, "[Hazel] wanted me to be cured and be over it and for this not to go on anymore. She wanted me to be less uncomfortable so that she wouldn't feel responsible." In 1999, President Bill Clinton presented the nation's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal, to the members of the Little Rock Nine.

On the morning of January 1, 2003, one of Eckford's two sons, Erin Eckford, age 26, was shot and killed by police in Little Rock. The Arkansas Democrat-Gazette reported that the police officers had unsuccessfully tried to disarm him with a beanbag round after he had fired several shots from his rifle. When Eckford pointed his rifle towards them, the police officers shot him. His mother feared that his death was "suicide by police". Erin, she said, had suffered from mental illness but had been off his prescribed medication for several years. The newspaper later reported that prosecutors investigating the fatal shooting had decided that the police officers concerned were justified in shooting Eckford.

In 2018, 60 years after leaving Little Rock Central High, Eckford told her story in her first autobiography, The Worst First Day: Bullied While Desegregating Little Rock Central High. The book was coauthored with Dr. Eurydice Stanley and Grace Stanley of Pensacola, Florida. Grace was 15 years old when she worked on the project, the same age Eckford was when she desegregated Central High. The Worst First Day tells Eckford's experiences in verse. It features the graphic artwork of Rachel Gibson and the photography of Will Counts. Eckford traveled to New Zealand in 2019 to teach American civil rights history to more than 4,000 students with Dr. Stanley at the request of high school teacher Roydon Agent, author of Public Image, Private Shame.

On November 19, 2022, Elizabeth Eckford spoke at the keel-laying ceremony of the attack submarine USS Arkansas (SSN-800) at Newport News Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia, after she and Ernest Green, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Carlotta Walls LaNier and Thelma Mothershed-Wair etched their initials onto metal plates that were then welded onto the keel. The plates will remain affixed to the submarine throughout its life. Melba Pattillo Beals and Minnijean Brown-Trickey were also named sponsors of the ship, and all members of the Little Rock Nine were honored. Eckford said “(Former Navy) Secretary Ray Mabus asked us to be supporters of the ship and its crew. I signed on to be a foster grandmother...President Eisenhower sent 1,000 paratroopers to Little Rock to disperse a mob, bring order, and they made it possible for us to enter Central High School. From that point, I’ve had very high regard for specially trained forces.”

Media portrayals
Actress Lisa Marie Russell portrayed Eckford in the Disney Channel movie The Ernest Green Story (1993). Amandla Stenberg portrayed Eckford during a segment on the show Drunk History (2019).

title: Elizabeth Eckford


text:
Talk:American values

Untitled
Surely this is a load of cobblers? I didn't think there was any consensus whatsoever as to what constituted 'American values' and if there is no consensus on what they are, or if they even exist then it hardly seems a fit topic for an encyclopedia. Nordic? The link to Nordic contains lots of stuff on socialism and social welfare projects!

While I actually agree that some of the things in the list would seem to characterise one view of America, I would like to add

 * A belief that violence, whether by the individual or the state, represents an acceptable solution to problems.
 * A belief that food should be served in enourmous portions.

Obviously such statements would be zipped away as unNPOV immediately but I think they are as valid as some of the things in the list. This indicates the fundamental flaw with this article as it currently stands--all it does is invite "what America means to me" type contributions.

Still, might be interesting to see where it goes. Monk Bretton 17:00, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

American Values can not be defined with any precision. What a social conservative would describe as "American values" would amuse a liberal, sicken a social democrat, and compel a libertarian to enagage in pathetic apologetics.

I don't think this can work
As such, I propose a redirect to American exceptionalism, where the topic is treated more fully. Objections? [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 20:24, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Objections? None. Monk Bretton 20:43, 23 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Well, that article doesn't explain the concept of American values to me, a non-American, and yet I see references to it rather frequently. I wonder: What is "American values" - and if it's different for different groups of Americans, is there any common denominator - and who says what - and why?

I wonder if Americans, ...or maybe Anglo-Saxons, find this concept too self-evident to be included in a Wikipedia. But for me, it's just an empty phrase that I would like some more information on. :-) /Tuomas 21:26, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

poor redirection
The redirection of this topic to American exceptionalism is an inherently non-POV redirection by someone with an axe to grind. It surpises me that it hasn't been fixed. A very reasonable objection was found on the exceptionalism page and it is copied below. I've redirected American values to culture of the United States where it belongs. Flying Jazz 12:36, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Should American values really redirect to this page? I don't think you need to be a believer in "American exceptionalism" to believe that American culture prioritizes certain values that are not necessarily as high a priority in other cultures. It's pretty common, for instance, to hear Canadians contrast the "Canadian values" (that phrase is taken directly from this Wikipedia article) of peace, order and good government with the United States' priorities of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. 68.226.239.73 05:29, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:American values


text:
Talk:John Dudley, 2nd Earl of Warwick

Untitled
I suspect this article is actually meant to be about John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. Deb 17:00, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Have now moved the misleading paragraphs into the article where they belong (with some editing). Deb 19:05, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

Wilson & Wilson
I am sorry for the trouble with Henry! I have taken the elder one out, as it's unnecessary to give his name. I simply didn't think of it yesterday, that there were two. I used another book by Derek Wilson than you, but I understand as far as regards this John Dudley here it is practically the same (I don't have a copy of the newer one). So I am asking you to forgive me if I replace your last footnote with my Wilson page number, as this would spare the article references one Wilson. Anyway, it only occured now to me you were perhaps planning to add more here; I didn't mean to "filch" the article from you in any way. I hope it's not too long now, not too detailed or "unencyclopedic". Please don't hesitate to add, remove or correct, especially as I am not a "native speaker", and sometimes I am a little doubtful about the right phrase. But that's one of the good things on WP, team work! Buchraeumer (talk) 16:09, 7 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Don't worry, we're fine. I made the changes because what was here before was just plain wrong, but I am delighted you fixed the rest of it.
 * Yes, it looks like the info in the newer Wilson is very much the same as the older one.
 * As far as two Wilsons, the canonical way to cover that is to cite them as "Wilson 1981, p. x" and "Wilson 2004, p. x". If I add anything else from the newer book, I'll make that change.
 * I like the way you've handled "Earl of Warwick" as a courtesy title in the opening paragraph.

- PKM (talk) 17:20, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Congratulations on the GA
Well done! - PKM (talk) 16:59, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:John Dudley, 2nd Earl of Warwick


text:
The Hawthorns

The Hawthorns is an all-seater football stadium in West Bromwich, West Midlands, England, with a capacity of 26,688. It has been the home of Championship club West Bromwich Albion since 1900, when it became the sixth ground to be used by the club. The Hawthorns was the first Football League ground to be built in the 20th century, opening in September 1900 after construction work took only 4 months. The official record attendance at The Hawthorns stands at 64,815, set in 1937.

Alongside being the home of West Bromwich Albion for over 120 years, The Hawthorns has also hosted a number of England internationals, as well as two FA Cup semi-finals. At an altitude of 551 ft, it is the highest ground above sea level of all Premier League and Football League clubs.

Previous grounds
During the early years of the club, West Bromwich Albion led something of a nomadic existence, playing at five different grounds in a 22-year period. Their first ground was Cooper's Hill, which the club occupied from 1878 to 1879. From 1879 to 1881 they played at Dartmouth Park, although they may also have alternated between there and Cooper's Hill during this period. Albion's third ground was Bunn's Field, also known as The Birches, where they played for a single season in 1881–82. With a capacity of 1500–2000, it was their first enclosed ground, allowing the club to charge an entrance fee for the first time. The increasing popularity of football led the well-established West Bromwich Dartmouth Cricket Club to rent their Four Acres ground to Albion from 1882 to 1885, but they quickly outgrew their new home and soon needed to move again. Albion's tenure of Stoney Lane, from 1885 to 1900, was arguably the most successful period in the club's history, as the club won the FA Cup twice and were runners-up three times.

20th century
The expiry of the lease on Stoney Lane, as well as the club's desire for a more spacious location, saw them move once again in 1900, this time permanently. All of Albion's previous grounds had been close to the centre of West Bromwich, but on this occasion they took up an "out of town" site on the borders of Handsworth. The area was covered in hawthorn bushes, which were cleared to make way for the new ground, hence its name, the Hawthorns. The club signed a lease for the land on 14 May 1900, giving them the option to buy within 14 years from the owner, Sandwell Park Colliery, and Albion did indeed buy the freehold on the ground in June 1913.

When opened, the Hawthorns could hold around 35,500 spectators. The first match took place on Monday 3 September 1900, when Albion drew 1–1 with Derby County in front of a crowd of 20,104. Derby's England international Steve Bloomer scored the first Hawthorns goal, with Chippy Simmons equalizing for Albion. The first Saturday game followed soon after, with Albion losing out 0–1 to fierce local rivals Aston Villa in front of a capacity crowd, officially put at 35,417 but with many more forcing entry and an estimated 15,000 people locked out. The 1900–01 campaign was not a successful one however, as Albion finished bottom of the table and were relegated to Division Two. Their defeat to Sheffield United on the final day of the season was witnessed by just 1,050 spectators, which remains the record lowest crowd for a league game at the Hawthorns.

The ground was gradually expanded and 1923 saw the first ever 50,000+ gate with 56,474 watching a 2–1 win in the cup against Sunderland. The first 60,000+ gate followed in 1925, with 64,612 fans watching a cup tie with arch-rivals Aston Villa. The all-time attendance record at the Hawthorns was set on 6 March 1937, when 64,815 spectators crammed in to see Albion beat hot-favourites Arsenal 3–1 in the FA Cup quarter-final. This record was likely bettered when Albion played Newcastle United in an FA Cup fifth round tie in 1954, when over 80,000 people are believed to have been in attendance. However, the official crowd was registered as 61,088. The highest ever league crowd was for a 1–1 draw 60,945 against Wolves on 4 March 1950.

Concrete terracing was added to the ground in 1920. In 1949 the ground became the first in Britain to have an electronic turnstile aggregator fitted, in order to automatically calculate attendances. In 1957 electric floodlights were erected, at a cost of £18,000. The ground's first floodlit match saw Albion draw 1–1 with Chelsea, on 18 September 1957. Soon afterwards a friendly game against the Russian Red Army was organised to officially open them. Albion won 6–5 in front of 53,805 fans.

The ground was once divided by the Birmingham/Smethwick border, but was moved completely into the latter by a minor rationalisation of local government borders in the 1960s and is now entirely in Sandwell. In 1964 the large Handsworth Side terrace was replaced by the Rainbow Stand at a cost of £40,000, reducing capacity to around 50,000. In October 1968, closed-circuit television was installed at the ground, in an attempt to ward off "increasing hooliganism". Over the following decades capacity was further reduced and perimeter fences were built to help tackle hooliganism. The Halfords Lane stand was rebuilt in two separate phases between 1979 and 1982, at a cost of around £2.5 million.

By the end of the 1980s, the capacity had been slashed dramatically to just over 30,000, with attendances frequently dropping below half that figure. The Hawthorns was become increasingly dilapidated and in need of modernisation. Following the Taylor Report in January 1990, the ground became all-seated with first the Smethwick End and then the much-loved Birmingham Road End terraces being demolished and replaced by all-seater stands, giving it a capacity of more than 25,000 by the mid-1990s. The official re-opening of the redeveloped ground saw Albion beat Bristol City 1–0 on Boxing Day in 1994.

21st century
Albion celebrated the stadium's centenary on 3 September 2000 by beating Crystal Palace 1–0 in a Division One match. In 2001 the Rainbow Stand was replaced by the new East Stand, raising the capacity to 28,003. In 2002, the Hawthorns became the first ground to install big screens in the widescreen format. The ground hosted its first Premier League match on 24 August 2002, with Albion losing 3–1 to Leeds United. Leeds player Harry Kewell scored the first Premier League goal on the ground. The Jeff Astle gates, which commemorate one of Albion's greatest strikers, were unveiled on 11 July 2003. The gates are located on the Birmingham Road, close to the Woodman Corner, and form the entrance to the East Stand car park. In December 2003, the board of directors unveiled plans to increase the stadium's capacity to 40,000 all-seated. However, these plans were scrapped as Albion slipped out of the Premiership in 2006.

There had been plans for the Halfords Lane Stand to be rebuilt, but these were shelved due to what Albion chairman Jeremy Peace called "continuing levels of excess capacity". The stand was instead refurbished and became known as the West Stand, with the capacity reduced to 26,272. Plans were again announced to expand capacity after West Bromwich finished in their highest league position since 1983. The plans involved an increase of capacity to around 30,000 by 2014, regardless of league performance. However, this never materialised and the Hawthorns still awaits its first major development in nearly two decades.

On 6 November 2014 a statue of Tony Brown, Albion's record appearance maker and goalscorer, was revealed.

In April 2017, The Hawthorns was listed by FourFourTwo magazine as the best stadium of all 92 in the Premier League and English Football League, citing it to be "modern and atmospheric".

West Stand
Constructed: 1979–1982 Refurbished: 2008 Capacity: 4,725 (seated)

Running along the west edge of the pitch and along Halford's Lane, the West Stand (formerly the Halford's Lane Stand) provided VIP seating before the advent of the new East Stand. The stand houses the main TV cameras as well as the press and commentary area. Chairman Jeremy Peace had announced plans for the Halfords Lane Stand to be demolished to make way for a single-tier, 10,000 seated stand, raising the total stadium capacity to around 32,000. However, following Albion's relegation from the Premier League, this plan has been shelved, despite Albion regaining their top flight status in 2008. The stand has instead been refurbished, cutting capacity from 28,003 to 26,272. The old name of the stand also provided the names for the names for the three aging detectives in New Tricks. Jack Halford (James Bolam) Brian Lane (Alun Armstrong) and Gerry Standing (Denis Waterman).

Birmingham Road End
Constructed: 1994 Capacity: 8,286 (seated) (including Woodman Corner)

Affectionately called the Brummie Road by supporters, the Birmingham Road End runs behind the goal, adjacent to the A41. Traditionally, it housed the core of the home support and was the main source of the so-called Albion roar. When a terrace, it held up to 14,000, but the stand which replaced it in 1994 holds 8,000 all-seated spectators.

Between this stand and the East Stand lies the Woodman corner, named after the Woodman pub which stood just behind it until its demolition in 2004. The Woodman corner is home to a large throstle mascot, which was originally perched above the old (terraced) Woodman corner scoreboard. The throstle effigy first appeared in 1979 and has been a familiar sight in the stadium since.

Smethwick End
Constructed: 1994 Capacity: 5,200 (seated)

Running behind the goal at the southern edge of the pitch, the Smethwick End houses away supporters, though they are only allocated part of the stand, except for cup matches. The remainder houses the most vocal of Albion's home support. Development in the summer of 2014 increased the stadium capacity to 26,850, with added seats made available in the Smethwick End due to the movement of the police control room.

East Stand
Constructed: 2001 Capacity: 8,791 (seated)

Replacing the old Rainbow Stand, the East Stand now houses the club's administration offices, club shop, club ticket office and corporate entertainment suites. The wings of the East Stand are known as the Woodman corner (which joins up with the Birmingham Road End, and is named after the Woodman public house that stood there until 2004) and the Millennium Corner (adjacent to the Smethwick End).

The Rainbow Stand was built in 1964, originally known as the East Stand, but gained the name Rainbow Stand over the next few years owing to its brightly painted seats. It originally consisted of standing accommodation in the lower section and seating in the upper section. However, a refurbishment project in 1977 saw the terracing replaced by executive boxes and seating. It survived until 2000, when it was demolished to make way for the new stand which opened in the 2000–01 season.

Tony 'Bomber' Brown statue
A statue dedicated to Albion's record appearance maker and goalscorer, Tony Brown, is situated outside the stadium's East Stand. The statue depicts Brown scoring his second goal in Albion's 2–0 victory over Valencia in the last-16 tie of the 1978–79 UEFA Cup. The statue's plaque acknowledges his appearance and goalscoring figures, as well as major honours won whilst at the club.

It also contains a quote from Brown:

"The moment I walked into The Hawthorns I felt I was home."

Jeff Astle gates
The Jeff Astle gates were built in honour of one of the club's most beloved players. They are located on the Birmingham Road, close to the Woodman Corner. The gates feature Astle's celebratory pose after his winning goal in the 1968 FA Cup Final. The gates have also become an unofficial location for tributes and makeshift memorials, most notably following the death of another of Albion's great strikers, Cyrille Regis.

Memorial Garden
A small memorial garden is located in the corner of the East Stand car park, adjacent to the meeting of the East Stand and Smethwick End.

Baggies Brick Road
The pavement running along the front of the East Stand is made up of individual bricks containing the names of supporters.

Football
As well as serving as the home ground of West Bromwich Albion, the Hawthorns has hosted a number of other football matches. It has hosted three full England internationals: on 21 October 1922, England beat Ireland 2–0, while on 8 December 1924 they won 4–0 against Belgium. The ground also hosted the first post-war match between England and Wales on 20 October 1945, in which England lost 0–1 to Wales in front of 54,611 people. The Hawthorns hosted a 'B' international for the first time in February 1998, when England B lost 2–1 to Chile. Two months later, a women's international friendly was hosted, Italy winning 2–1 against England.

Full England international matches
Two FA cup semi-finals have been staged at the ground. The first saw Derby County draw 1–1 to Sheffield United in 1902, and the second took place between Aston Villa and Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1960. Wolves won 1–0 in front of 55,596. The Hawthorns also staged the FA Trophy final replays of 1987 and 1988.

On 11 January 1987, Telford United (a non-league side playing some 30 miles away in Shropshire), switched their FA Cup tie against Leeds United to the Hawthorns as they had refused to host it at their own stadium due to concerns over hooliganism.

Other sports
The ground has additionally been the venue for other sporting events. In its early years, the ground was used for athletics meetings; in May 1908, Birchfield Harriers used the Hawthorns for their Spring Meeting, which included the end of the first marathon to be run in the Midlands. The runners covered 25 mi from Coventry to the Hawthorns, and one of them – Jack Price of Small Heath Harriers – was selected for the British team for the London Olympic Games on the strength of his performance.

In the late 1970s the Hawthorns was the venue for a cricket match between India and Pakistan, watched by 2,641 spectators, while in 2000 and 2001 the ground hosted Kabaddi tournaments. During the mid-late 1990s there were proposals for Moseley Rugby Football Club to share the ground, but these never materialised.

Records

 * All-time Record Attendance: 64,815 v Arsenal, 6 March 1937 (FA Cup Sixth Round)
 * Modern All-Seated Record Attendance: 27,751 v Portsmouth, 15 May 2005 (Premier League)
 * All-time Record Average Attendance: 40,083 (First Division, 1953–54)
 * Modern All-Seated Record Average Attendance: 26,776 (Premier League, 2002–03)

Average attendances in the 21st century

 * 2001–02: 23,655 (Football League Division One)
 * 2002–03: 26,776 (Premier League)
 * 2003–04: 24,765 (Football League Division One)
 * 2004–05: 25,987 (Premier League)
 * 2005–06: 25,404 (Premier League)
 * 2006–07: 20,472 (Football League Championship)
 * 2007–08: 22,314 (Football League Championship)
 * 2008–09: 25,828 (Premier League)
 * 2009–10: 22,199 (Football League Championship)
 * 2010–11: 24,683 (Premier League)
 * 2011–12: 24,798 (Premier League)
 * 2012–13: 25,360 (Premier League)
 * 2013–14: 25,194 (Premier League)
 * 2014–15: 25,064 (Premier League)
 * 2015–16: 24,631 (Premier League)
 * 2016–17: 23,876 (Premier League)
 * 2017–18: 24,520 (Premier League)
 * 2018–19: 24,148 (Football League Championship)
 * 2019–20: 24,153 (Football League Championship)
 * 2020–21: 5,371 (Premier League)
 * 2021–22: 21,875 (Football League Championship)
 * 2022–23: 23,111 (Football League Championship)

Notes

Progressive record attendances

 * 3 September 1901: 20,104 v Derby County
 * 8 September 1901: 35,417 v Aston Villa
 * 23 February 1907: 35,629 v Derby County
 * 11 January 1908: 36,727 v Birmingham
 * 26 December 1908: 38,049 v Birmingham
 * 30 September 1911: 46,203 v Aston Villa
 * 4 October 1913: 48,057 v Aston Villa
 * 10 February 1919: 49,121 v Aston Villa
 * 26 December 1921: 49,488 v Birmingham
 * 3 February 1923: 56,474 v Sunderland
 * 21 February 1925: 64,612 v Aston Villa
 * 6 March 1937: 64,815 v Arsenal

Train / Tram
The stadium is served by The Hawthorns station, which is both a railway station and West Midlands Metro tram stop. The station is approximately 500 yd from the ground. Due to the large number of fans travelling in both directions to and from The Hawthorns on matchdays, trains run more frequently at those times, and have been known to depart every ten minutes. That has helped to reduce the time taken for travelling fans to leave West Bromwich and return home.

Bus
National Express West Midlands bus service 74, which runs between Birmingham and Dudley, passes the stadium along the A41 Birmingham Road. NXWM bus service 89, running between West Bromwich and Birmingham, passes near to the stadium.

Previously NXWM ran 79 from Birmingham to Wolverhampton and 78 Birmingham and Wednesbury both of which would have stopped outside the ground, due to Midland Metro running between Birmingham to Wolverhampton these services no longer run with the exception of the 79 which only covers part of the route from West Bromwich to Wolverhampton

Car
The ground is less than half a mile from Junction 1 on the M5 motorway.

title: The Hawthorns


text:
Talk:Chapultepec

Bearings
Is it East of town ? --Jerome Potts (talk) 07:52, 4 January 2011 (UTC)

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Template:Chapultepec
I've created Template:Chapultepec and invite editors to further improve and organize entries appropriately. Thanks! --- Another Believer ( Talk ) 00:40, 29 April 2019 (UTC)

Useless Map
The OSM map in the sidebar does not show anything. Possibly something better can be provided.

thanks, Baden

200.68.142.23 (talk) 03:37, 25 June 2019 (UTC) baden k.

 * The map in this page works very well:

 * National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)

 * thanks,
 * Baden 200.68.142.23 (talk) 03:58, 25 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chapultepec


text:
Term life insurance

Term life insurance or term assurance is life insurance that provides coverage at a fixed rate of payments for a limited period of time, the relevant term. After that period expires, coverage at the previous rate of premiums is no longer guaranteed and the client must either forgo coverage or potentially obtain further coverage with different payments or conditions. If the life insured dies during the term, the death benefit will be paid to the beneficiary. Term insurance is typically the least expensive way to purchase a substantial death benefit on a coverage amount per premium dollar basis over a specific period of time.

Term life insurance can be contrasted to permanent life insurance such as whole life, universal life, and variable universal life, which guarantee coverage at fixed premiums for the lifetime of the covered individual unless the policy is allowed to lapse due to failure to pay premiums. Term insurance is not generally used for estate planning needs or charitable giving strategies but is used for pure income replacement needs for an individual. Term insurance functions in a manner similar to most other types of insurance in that it satisfies claims against what is insured if the premiums are up to date and the contract has not expired and does not provide for a return of premium dollars if no claims are filed. As an example, auto insurance will satisfy claims against the insured in the event of an accident and a homeowner policy will satisfy claims against the home if it is damaged or destroyed, for example, by fire. Whether or not these events will occur is uncertain. If the policyholder discontinues coverage because he or she has sold the insured car or home, the insurance company will not refund the full premium.

Usage
Because term life insurance is a pure death benefit, its primary use is to provide coverage of financial responsibilities for the insured or his or her beneficiaries. Such responsibilities may include, but are not limited to, consumer debt, dependent care, university education for dependents, funeral costs, and mortgages. Term life insurance may be chosen in favor of permanent life insurance because term insurance is usually much less expensive (depending on the length of the term), even if the applicant is higher risk, such as being an everyday smoker. For example, an individual might choose to obtain a policy whose term expires near his or her retirement age based on the premise that, by the time the individual retires, he or she would have amassed sufficient funds in retirement savings to provide financial security for the claims.

Annual renewable term
The simplest form of term life insurance is for a term of one year. The death benefit would be paid by the insurance company if the insured died during the one-year term, while no benefit is paid if the insured dies one day after the last day of the one-year term. The premium paid is then based on the expected probability of the insured dying in that one year.

Because the likelihood of dying in the next year is low for anyone that the insurer would accept for the coverage, purchase of only one year of coverage is rare.

One of the main challenges to renewal experienced with some of these policies is requiring proof of insurability. For instance the insured could acquire a terminal illness within the term, but not actually die until after the term expires. Because of the terminal illness, the purchaser would likely be uninsurable after the expiration of the initial term, and would be unable to renew the policy or purchase a new one.

Some policies offer a feature called guaranteed reinsurability that allows the insured to renew without proof of insurability.

A version of term insurance which is commonly purchased is annual renewable term (ART). In this form, the premium is paid for one year of coverage, but the policy is guaranteed to be able to be continued each year for a given period of years. This period varies from 10 to 30 years, or occasionally until age 95. As the insured ages, the premiums increase with each renewal period, eventually becoming financially inviable as the rates for a policy would eventually exceed the cost of a permanent policy. In this form the premium is slightly higher than for a single year's coverage, but the chances of the benefit being paid are much higher.

Basic pricing assumptions for annual renewable term life insurance
Actuarially, there are three basic pricing assumptions that go into every type of life insurance:

These pricing assumptions are universal among the various types of individual life insurance policies. It's important to understand these components when considering term life insurance because there is no cash accumulation component inherent to this type of policy. Buyers of this type of insurance typically seek the maximum death benefit component with the lowest possible premium.
 * 1) Mortality—How many individuals will die in a given year using a large sample size—EG, The 1980 CSO Mortality Table or the newer 2001 CSO Mortality Table which are compiled by the FDC.  Most life insurance companies use their own proprietary mortality experience based on their own internal set of statistics.  The CSO Mortality Tables reflect total population figures within the US and do not reflect how a life insurance company screens its applicants for good health during the policy underwriting phase of the policy issue process.  Corporate mortality will most likely always be more favorable than CSO tables as a result.  In rare cases some companies have recently increased policy mortality costs on existing business segments due to much lower than anticipated investment returns,
 * 2) Assumed Net Investment Return—EG Current industry average return of 5.5% Annual Yield by the life insurance company.  In the early 1980s interest/return assumptions were well over 10% to be sustained over the life of the policy.
 * 3) Internal Administrative Expenses—Generally these are proprietary figures which include, mainly, policy acquisition costs( sales commissions to selling agents and brokers),and general home office expenses.

In the competitive term life insurance market the premium range, for similar policies of the same duration, is quite small. All of the above referenced variations of term life policies are derived from these basic components.

Level term life insurance
More common than annual renewable term insurance is guaranteed level premium term life insurance, where the premium is guaranteed to be the same for a given period of years. The most common terms are 10, 15, 20, and 30 years.

In this form, the premium paid each year remains the same for the duration of the contract. This cost is based on the summed cost of each year's annual renewable term rates, with a time value of money adjustment made by the insurer. Thus, the longer the period of time during which the premium remains level, the higher the premium amount. This relationship exists because the older, more expensive to insure years are averaged, by the insurance company, into the premium amount computed at the time the policy is issued.

Most level term programs include a renewal option and allow the insured person to renew the policy for a maximum guaranteed rate if the insured period needs to be extended. The renewal may or may not be guaranteed, and the insured person should review the contract to determine whether evidence of insurability is required to renew the policy. Typically, this clause is invoked only if the health of the insured deteriorates significantly during the term, and poor health would prevent the individual from being able to provide proof of insurability.

Most term life policies allow conversion to permanent life insurance. By using the convertible term life insurance provision, the insured can convert a term life policy into a Universal Life or Whole Life policy. This option can be useful to a person who acquired the term life policy with a preferred rating class and later is diagnosed with a condition that would make it difficult to qualify for a new term policy. The new policy is issued at the rate class of the original term policy. This right to convert may not extend to the end of the Term Life policy. The right may extend a fixed number of years or to a specified age, such as convertible to age seventy.

Return premium term life insurance
A form of term life insurance coverage that provides a return of some of the premiums paid during the policy term if the insured person outlives the duration of the term life insurance policy.

For example, if an individual owns a 10-year return of premium term life insurance plan and the 10-year term has expired, the premiums paid by the owner will be returned, less any fees and expenses which the life insurance company retains. Usually, a return premium policy returns a majority of the paid premiums if the insured person outlives the policy term.

The premiums for a return premium term life plan are usually much higher than for a regular level term life insurance policy, since the insurer needs to make money by using the premiums as an interest free loan, rather than as a non-returnable premium.

Payout likelihood and cost difference
Both term insurance and permanent insurance use the same mortality tables for calculating the cost of insurance, and provide a death benefit which is income tax free. However, the premium requirement for term insurance is substantially lower for younger individuals than those for permanent insurance.

The reason the costs for term life insurance are substantially lower for younger individuals is due to the low chance they will die during the contracts term. Permanent life insurance programs are designed so the policy owner contributes more premiums than what the cost of insurance is in younger years so that those premiums, and any earning they generate, will offset the cost of insurance in later years when the insured is older and the average mortality rate is higher. The cash value build up in a permanent life insurance is a result of the additional contributions and their earning made to the policy that exceed the cost to insure the individual in any given year.

As a norm from Income Tax under Section 10(10D), when the beneficiary receives the death benefit under a term life insurance policy, they are not subject to pay tax on the amount received. The death benefit received is not added to taxable income. However, any interest that it accumulates over or any estate additions caused by it is liable to be taxed.

Some permanent universal life insurance policies do not accumulate cash values to stay active for long periods of time. These are sometimes referred to as "term-for-life." It is important to understand these policies could expire without value if the insured lives past the stated guaranteed period. The insurance company that manufactures these types of universal life contracts offer the policy owner a guarantee that, as long as premiums are paid on as required, the death benefit will be paid to beneficiaries if the insured dies while the contract is active. If the contract expires and the insured is still living, the life insurance policy ends without value. If the insured person dies and the policy has cash value, the cash value is retained by the insurance company who pays out only the stated death benefit listed on the policy. The beneficiaries do not receive both.

Death benefits are paid out income tax free, in addition to the policy face amount.

Simplified issue insurance
A scaled back underwriting process that is simplified. Coverage amounts are lower than traditional fully underwritten policies. Simplified issue policies typically do not require a medical exam and have fewer application questions to answer. Many of these policies can be approved within several days.

Guaranteed issue insurance
A life insurance policy that is guaranteed approval. Coverage amounts will be lower than traditional policies. Premiums will be considerably higher. Since there are no medical questions and everyone is approved, these policies will have a waiting period before benefits are paid out. If the insured dies during the initial waiting period, only premiums plus interest will be returned. Once the waiting period has been satisfied, the full death benefit will be paid out to the beneficiary.

Coverage for suicide
Most state laws require that a carrier make payment for life insurance claims that happen past two years of coverage for suicidal death. It is in the best interests of the policy owner for them to report depression or any use of anti-depression medication during the physical exam or for underwriting even if the policy owner receives a less than a favorable rate. All individual life insurance policies have a suicide clause in them. If suicide is not covered, more than likely a return of premium is owed to the beneficiary.

title: Term life insurance


text:
Oleic acid

Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish due to the presence of impurities. In chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18:1 cis-9, and a main product of Δ9-desaturase. It has the formula CH3\s(CH2)7\sCH\dCH\s(CH2)7\sCOOH. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. It is the most common fatty acid in nature. The salts and esters of oleic acid are called oleates. It is a common component of oils, and thus occurs in many types of food, as well as in soap.

Occurrence
Fatty acids (or their salts) often do not occur as such in biological systems. Instead fatty acids such as oleic acid occur as their esters, commonly triglycerides, which are the greasy materials in many natural oils. Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid in nature. It is found in fats (triglycerides), the phospholipids that make membranes, cholesterol esters, and wax esters.

Triglycerides of oleic acid comprise the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Olive oil exceeding 2% free oleic acid is graded unfit for human consumption. It also makes up 59–75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36–67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20–80% of sunflower oil, 15–20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. Karuka contains 52.39% oleic acid. It is abundantly present in many animal fats, constituting 37 to 56% of chicken and turkey fat, and 44 to 47% of lard.

Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and second in abundance in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid.

Production and chemical behavior
The biosynthesis of oleic acid involves the action of the enzyme stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase acting on stearoyl-CoA. In effect, stearic acid is dehydrogenated to give the monounsaturated derivative, oleic acid.

Oleic acid undergoes the typical reactions of carboxylic acids and alkenes. It is soluble in aqueous base to give soaps called oleates. Iodine adds across the double bond. Hydrogenation of the double bond yields the saturated derivative stearic acid. Oxidation at the double bond occurs slowly in air, and is known as rancidification in foodstuffs and as drying in coatings.

Reduction of the carboxylic acid group yields oleyl alcohol. Ozonolysis of oleic acid is an important route to azelaic acid. The coproduct is nonanoic acid:
 * H17C8CH\dCHC7H14CO2H + 4"O" → HO2CC7H14CO2H + H17C8CO2H

Esters of azelaic acid find applications in lubrication and plasticizers.

Neutralizing oleic acid with ethanolamines gives the protic ionic liquid monoethanolamine oleate.

Related compounds
The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid or trans-9-octadecenoic acid. These isomers have distinct physical properties and biochemical properties. Elaidic acid, the most abundant trans fatty acid in diet, appears to have an adverse effect on health. A reaction that converts oleic acid to elaidic acid is called elaidinization.

Another naturally occurring isomer of oleic acid is petroselinic acid.

In chemical analysis, fatty acids are separated by gas chromatography of their methyl ester derivatives. Alternatively, separation of unsaturated isomers is possible by argentation thin-layer chromatography.

In ethenolysis, methyl oleate, the methyl ester of the acid, converts to 1-decene and methyl 9-decenoate:
 * CH3(CH2)7CH\dCH(CH2)7CO2Me + CH2\dCH2 -> CH3(CH2)7CH\dCH2 + MeO2C(CH2)7CH\dCH2

Uses
Oleic acid is used as a component in many foods, in the form of its triglycerides. It is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils.

Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient. Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products.

E.O. Wilson found that oleic acid is used by ants; when a dead ant's corpse begins to emit oleic acid, other ants in the colony transport it away to the ant refuse pile.

Niche uses
Oleic acid is used to induce lung damage in certain types of animals for the purpose of testing new drugs and other means to treat lung diseases. Specifically in sheep, intravenous administration of oleic acid causes acute lung injury with corresponding pulmonary edema.

Oleic acid is used as a soldering flux in stained glass work for joining lead came.

Health effects
Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fat in the human diet (~90% of all monounsaturated fats). Monounsaturated fat consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. A 2017 review found that diets enriched in oleic acid are beneficial for regulating body weight.

The United States FDA has approved a health claim on reduced risk of coronary heart disease for high oleic (> 70% oleic acid) oils. Some oil plants have cultivars bred to increase the amount of oleic acid in the oils. In addition to providing a health claim, the heat stability and shelf life may also be improved, but only if the increase in monounsaturated oleic acid levels correspond to a substantial reduction in polyunsaturated fatty acid (especially α-linolenic acid) content. When the saturated fat or trans fat in a fried food is replaced with a stable high oleic oil, consumers may be able to avoid certain health risks associated with consuming saturated fat and trans fat.

title: Oleic acid


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Aggregate supply

In economics, aggregate supply (AS) or domestic final supply (DFS) is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing and able to sell at a given price level in an economy. Together with aggregate demand it serves as one of two components for the AD–AS model.

Analysis
There are two main reasons why the amount of aggregate output supplied might rise as price level P rises, i.e., why the AS curve is upward sloping:

 * The short-run AS curve is drawn given some nominal variables such as the nominal wage rate, which is assumed fixed in the short run. Thus, a higher price level P implies a lower real wage rate and thus an incentive to produce more output. In the neoclassical long run, on the other hand, the nominal wage rate varies with economic conditions. (High unemployment leads to falling nominal wages which restore full employment.) Hence, in the long run, the aggregate supply curve is vertical.
 * An alternative model starts with the notion that any economy involves a large number of heterogeneous types of inputs, including both fixed capital equipment and labour. Both main types of inputs can be unemployed. The upward-sloping AS curve arises because (1) some nominal input prices are fixed in the short run and (2) as output rises, more and more production processes encounter bottlenecks. At low levels of demand, there are large numbers of production processes that do not use their fixed capital equipment fully. Thus, production can be increased without much in the way of diminishing returns and the average price level need not rise much (if at all) to justify increased production. The AS curve is flat. On the other hand, when demand is high, few production processes have unemployed fixed inputs. Thus, bottlenecks are general. Any increase in demand and production induces increases in prices. Thus, the AS curve is steep or vertical.

Different scopes
There are generally three alternative degrees of price-level responsiveness of aggregate supply. They are:

 * 1) Short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) — During the short-run, firms possess one fixed factor of production (usually capital), and some factor input prices are sticky. The quantity of aggregate output supplied is highly sensitive to the price level, as seen in the flat region of the curve in the above diagram.
 * 2) Long-run aggregate supply (LRAS) — Over the long run, only capital, labour, and technology affect the LRAS in the macroeconomic model because at this point everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally. In most situations, the LRAS is viewed as static because it shifts the slowest of the three. The LRAS is shown as perfectly vertical, reflecting economists' belief that changes in aggregate demand (AD) have an only temporary change on the economy's total output.
 * 3) Medium run aggregate supply (MRAS) — As an interim between SRAS and LRAS, the MRAS form slopes upward and reflects when capital, as well as labor usage, can change. More specifically, medium run aggregate supply is like this for three theoretical reasons, namely the Sticky-Wage Theory, the Sticky-Price Theory and the Misperception Theory. The position of the MRAS curve is affected by capital, labour, technology, and wage rate.

In the standard aggregate supply–aggregate demand model, real output (Y) is plotted on the horizontal axis and the price level (P) on the vertical axis. The levels of output and the price level are determined by the intersection of the aggregate supply curve with the downward-sloping aggregate demand curve.

Data
In the United Kingdom, aggregate supply data is published in the Office for National Statistics' Input–output supply and use tables.

Policy interventions
Aggregate supply is targeted by government "supply-side policies", which are intended to increase productive efficiency and hence national output. Some examples of supply-side policies include education and training, research and development, supporting small/medium entreprise, reducing business taxes, undertaking labour market reforms to diminish frictions that may hold down output, and investment in infrastructure. For example, the United Kingdom's 2011 Autumn Statement incorporated a series of supply-side measures which the government was undertaking "to rebalance and strengthen the economy in the medium term", which included extensive infrastructure investment and development of a more educated workforce. Supply-side reforms in the 2015 Budget addressed the nation's digital communications infrastructure, transport, energy and the environment. In a speech to the G20 in February 2016, Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of England, urged G20 members "to develop a coherent and urgent approach to supply-side policies".

Continuing "supply-side reforms" were proposed by Liz Truss and Chancellor Kwasi Kwarteng as part of their 2022 economic programme, with reference to "a comprehensive package of supply-side reform and tax cuts" being made in the Growth Plan announced on 23 September 2022, and further supply side growth measures promised for October and early November, including measures affecting the planning system, business regulation, childcare, immigration, agricultural productivity and digital infrastructure. However, Larry Elliott in The Guardian has described this combination of reforms, reduced regulation and tax cuts as "one huge gamble". The September Growth Plan commitments were mostly reversed by the Autumn Statement of 17 November 2022, although a limited number of initiatives relating to "supply side growth" were included in the latter statement.

Within the UK government, HM Treasury's work on "the supply side" is led by the Enterprise and Growth Unit, working in conjunction with other government departments and public bodies. Sir John Kingman, a former civil servant who has been described as the "champion of HM Treasury's supply-side activism", has referred to concern with "the supply side" as the "third mission" of the Treasury, presenting former Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson as a notable example of "those who believe in the importance of supply-side reform".

"Supply-side pessimism" reflects a concern that productive capacity is lost when unused (e.g. during a recession), so that the economy loses the ability to recover aggregate supply when demand recovers. For example, unused factories are not kept in a state of readiness to be used when an economic upturn begins, or workers miss out on the skills and training which they would normally acquire whilst in work. Spencer Dale, a British economist who sat on the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee between 2008 and 2014, took a pessimistic view of supply-side capabilities during the recession of 2012. Cambridge economist Bill Martin reported on productivity pessimism in 2012, noting that there was an established debate about whether there had been a permanent loss of productive capacity, which was reflected as a continuing level of "uncertainty ... related to the prospects for labour productivity and effective supply" as the economy recovered in 2013.

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Henry T. Hazard

Henry T. Hazard (July 31, 1844 – August 7, 1921) was a California pioneer who became a land developer, a patent attorney and mayor of the city of Los Angeles. He gives his name to Hazard Park in Los Angeles.

Early
Hazard was born on July 31, 1844, in Evanston, Illinois, the son of Ariel M. Hazard. He had seven siblings. In 1853 he was brought by his parents in an oxen-drawn covered wagon at the age of about 8 on a two-year trek across the plains via Salt Lake City to a Mormon settlement in San Bernardino, California.

He was about 10 when the family attempted to settle on government land a few miles west of Los Angeles; they soon left for Tulare County, where the younger children, including Henry, went to school.

As well as working for his living, Hazard as a young man began studying law in the office of Volney E. Howard. He attended San Jose State College in 1863–64, then traveled by horseback across the plains again to the University of Michigan, where he earned his law degree.

Carrie Geller
Hazard was married to Carrie Geller, daughter of physician William Geller of Marysville, California, on October 3, 1873. The wedding party left Los Angeles early on a Friday morning, with the groom and his friends "in an elegant barouche, drawn by four horses." The group of carriages arrived at the Church of Our Saviour in San Gabriel, California, about 8 a.m. and the ceremony was performed by the Rev. H.H. Messenger of that city. A reception lasted until late in the evening, and the wedding party returned to Los Angeles by 2 a.m. Saturday, where the couple stayed at the Pico House.

Carrie Geller Hazard died suddenly in a Los Angeles hospital on April 5, 1914. The couple had no children; her survivors were sisters Sarah E. Dougherty of San Diego, Mrs. P. Amiraux of San Francisco and Susie E. Barrow of Los Angeles and brother J.L. Geller of Los Angeles.

Mildred Clough
Hazard and Mrs. Mildred Clough were married on May 5, 1919, in Prescott, Arizona, but the former mayor, age 78, later sued for an annulment on the ground of fraud, charging that she never intended to live with him, that she entered into the marriage only for the "purpose of obtaining support and maintenance and the property of Mr. Hazard" and that the marriage was never consummated. Hazard bequeathed the sum of $1 to Mildred Clough in his will, and it was understood that the annulment suit was settled out of court.

Homes
After their marriage in 1873, Henry and Carrie Geller Hazard lived for nineteen years in a home on South Hope Street on property later sold to a Methodist hospital, whose officials found it was "just far enough out to be quiet, just close enough in for convenience." The Hazards moved in about 1892 to Third and New Hampshire, where they had built a house that was "one of the show places of the city."

In 1911 Hazard was arrested along with three workmen and appeared in Police Court on a charge of removing earth from his property on West 4th Street and digging a drainage ditch without a permit. In the third of three court appearances, former Mayor Hazard at first claimed the charge was politically motivated but then promised to observe the city ordinance in the future.

Hazard was known for building "one of the most beautiful of the new residential show places of Los Angeles" on thirty acres south of Third Street, between Vermont Avenue and New Hampshire Avenue in the Bimini district, now part of Koreatown. Planned by Eager and Eager architects, the house at 255 South New Hampshire was

"of a stately classic design and occupies slightly grounds of between three and four acres in extent. ... with its formal gardens, pergolas, pool and Greek temple, [it] is today one of the most highly improved properties in Los Angeles. ... The reception hall and corridors are in tobasco mahogany and both dining and breakfast-rooms are in Juana Costa mahogany."

After America's entry into the Great War in 1917, the gardens of the Hazard estate, which included "an Italian villa and five acres of sunken gardens," were given over to vegetables instead of flowers. Hazard leased the property to actress Fannie Ward about 1919.

Anecdotes

 * Shortly after graduating from the University of Michigan, Hazard was in Los Angeles when a "battle-scarred" stagecoach was brought into the city after the driver had been killed by Indians. Hazard "mounted the coach seat, and drive back to Arizona with one passenger on the inside."
 * At the outset of the Chinese massacre of 1871 (Los Angeles), Hazard was in a barber's chair being shaved when a mob formed outside. "Just as he was, with his face covered with lather ..., he mounted a barrel in the middle of the street and remonstrated with the crowd[,] attempting to stop it. "He was rewarded by being shot at."
 * His "ability in extemporaneous speaking with well known by the public."
 * Hazard kept a "fine string" of racehorses and "frequently entertained friends with anecdotes of the days when he 'wrangled Missouri canaries [mules] with a twenty-foot whip.'" He later disposed of his horses, bought automobiles and "drove along the highways with the same enthusiasm he [had] displayed in handling his horses."
 * Early in the morning of July 8, 1889, Hazard shot in the back and wounded a man who was in Hazard's yard and refused to stop when called to do so.

Death
Hazard was "Stricken by paralysis, in his seventy-eighth year," and died on August 7, 1921, in his "temporary home, 240 South New Hampshire street." A funeral service was conducted at Bresee Brothers, and burial followed in Evergreen Cemetery.

Bequests
In his hand-written will, Hazard bequeathed half his estate to James Mayzle, "his trusted employee, who had been with him many years." Mayzle "became associated with Mr. Hazard at the age of 10" and was the petitioner and executor of Hazard's will. Another employee, J.L. Geller, the bookkeeper of the Hazard & Miller patent-attorney firm, received "everything appertaining to and connected with patent soliciting business, library furniture furniture, name, etc."

He left a quarter of his estate to the heirs of his first wife, Carrie G. Hazard, and a quarter to his own heirs, including two sisters, Mary Taft and Abbie J. Lechler.

Lawsuit
The Hazard estate was sued by Beulah Slater, who presented a signed agreement that Slater was to act as "companion and secretary, ... accompany him on automobile rides and in general make life enjoyable for an old man." In the agreement, Hazard "declared his love for Mrs. Slater and also his desire to help the widow of his old friend, Guy Slater." He gave the woman a check for $25,000 which she agreed not to cash immediately. After his death, she brought suit against the estate, and a jury ruled in her favor. In 1924, however, an appeals court reversed the decision, deciding that a hundred dollars a day was too much to pay.

Early
After Hazard moved to Los Angeles he became a farm laborer and a drover, or mule driver, which at the time paid good money.

Law and business
Returning to Los Angeles after earning his law degree in Michigan, Hazard became a criminal lawyer, and at one time received as a fee from a murder defendant a large block of land in what became the Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles.

In the land boom of 1878 in Los Angeles, Hazard became a land-title and patent attorney, becoming wealthy as a result. He had a partnership with Edmund A Strause, which was organized in 1907 and dissolved in August 1914. He sold a partial interest in his business to Herman Miller, and in 1921, he was a partner in the firm of Hazard & Miller.

Public service
Hazard was one of the organizers of Los Angeles's volunteer fire department. A Republican, he was Los Angeles city attorney in 1880 to 1882, then a member of the California State Assembly for the 77th district from 1885 to 1887 and mayor again in 1889–92.

As city attorney, "he used his knowledge of land titles in compelling local railroads to give back to the city what is now known as Lincoln Park," and he was responsible for the planting of thousands of eucalyptus trees in Elysian Park.

He favored division of the state into two parts, and he made several trips to Washington, D.C., to lobby for a free harbor at San Pedro. He actively promoted the Southern Pacific Railroad's proposal to enter Los Angeles.

Mayor Hazard fostered a law that insisted that the city treasurer deposit funds into banks instead of their being handled at the discretion of the treasurer.

Hazard's Pavilion
Hazard and George H. Pike bought property at Fifth and Olive Streets in Los Angeles and erected an auditorium called Hazard's Pavilion. A Los Angeles Times reporter wrote in 1947 that:

Architect Charles F. Whitney caught plenty of scolding from his contemporaries for his "wild" schemes; cantilever balconies that at long last eliminated bothersome pillars, and a great bowed roof with its dome. "Many pessimists," recalled Boyle Workman, gloomily figured that those galleries were doomed to fall into space." They didn't.

It was the largest auditorium in Southern California and hosted artistic, dramatic, literary, social and political activities. It was replaced by the Philharmonic Auditorium in 1905–6.

Sketch by Toshio Aoki

Hazard was one of nine civic or social leaders who were sketched by Japanese-born artist Toshio Aoki when he visited Los Angeles from his San Francisco home in 1895. Of Hazard, Aoki said:

"Make him one wise man, one man who has action among other men, much action, much spirit, much wisdom. Am I wrong? I think it is not so when I see his face; he is what you call unselfish, and the man who doe not get rich from his good work for all people He knows much law, and I make him a great man in my native costume. I do more than all. I make him a Buddhist priest—No, no, I do not make him an inner priest. He has the mustache, which he should not have at all. See, I make the Kesa, or robes of the outer priest, upon him. He is learned man and knows the law and the rules of the land."

Wheel clock
In 1940 Los Angeles County forest rangers stumbled upon the rusting parts of a 60-foot-diameter "wheel clock" designed by Hazard and overgrown with brush on the side of a hill west of Castaic, California, near the Ventura County border. The axle of the clock was "set parallel to the axis of the earth and at a 90-degree angle to the slope of the mountainside." The axle was connected to the rim of the wheel by three sets of strut wires. A Los Angeles Times report about the discovery went on:

"The rim of the wheel was made of five layers of 1x12-inch boards. On the rim . . ., spaced at close intervals, were small hooks on which could be placed weights to balance the wheel. ... the axle had bearings of extreme delicacy which cost $250."

A neighbor who had participated in setting up the wheel said it was "so delicately balanced that it could be started rotating by the touch of a matchstick and continue to turn in the opposite direction to the rotation of the earth."

title: Henry T. Hazard


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User talk:SassySammie

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Talk:Henry T. Hazard

Untitled
This information is taken from a family geneology book I have!
 * The info has to be cited and available to others to review. BeenAroundAWhile (talk) 05:28, 12 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Henry T. Hazard