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Hooded pitohui

The hooded pitohui (Pitohui dichrous) is a species of bird in the genus Pitohui found in New Guinea. It was long thought to be a whistler (Pachycephalidae) but is now known to be in the Old World oriole family (Oriolidae). Within the oriole family, this species is most closely related to the variable pitohuis in the genus Pitohui, and then the figbirds.

A medium-sized songbird with reddish-brown and black plumage, this species is one of the few known poisonous birds, containing a range of batrachotoxin compounds in its skin, feathers and other tissues. These toxins are thought to be derived from their diet and may function both to deter predators and to protect the bird from parasites. The close resemblance of this species to other unrelated birds also known as pitohuis which are also poisonous is an example of convergent evolution and Müllerian mimicry. Their appearance is also mimicked by unrelated non-poisonous species, a phenomenon known as Batesian mimicry. The toxic nature of this bird is well known to local hunters, who avoid it. It is one of the most poisonous species of pitohui, but the toxicity of individual birds can vary geographically.

The hooded pitohui is found in forests from sea level up to 2000 m but is most common in hills and low mountains. A social bird, it lives in family groups and frequently joins and even leads mixed-species foraging flocks. Its diet is made up of fruits, seeds and invertebrates. This species is apparently a cooperative breeder, with family groups helping to protect the nest and feed the young. The hooded pitohui is common and is currently not at risk of extinction, with its numbers being stable.

Taxonomy and systematics
The hooded pitohui (Pitohui dichrous) was described by the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1850. Bonaparte placed it in the genus Rectes which had been erected in the same year by Ludwig Reichenbach as an alternative name for the genus Pitohui, which had been described by René Lesson in 1831. No explanation was given for the preference of the newer name over the established older one, but it was common to prefer Latin names over non-Latin names, and to provide Latin names to those without. Richard Bowdler Sharpe encapsulated that attitude when he wrote in 1903 "Pitohui is doubtless an older name than Rectes, but can surely be laid aside as a barbarous word". Eventually however the principle of priority, which favours the first formal name given to a taxon, was applied, and Rectes was suppressed as the junior synonym of Pitohui.

The hooded pitohui was placed in the genus Pitohui with five other species, and the genus was thought to reside within the Australasian whistler family (Pachycephalidae). A 2008 examination of the genus, however, found it to be polyphyletic (meaning that the genus contained unrelated species), with some purported members of the genus not actually falling within the whistlers. The hooded pitohui and the closely related variable pitohui were both found to be related to the Old World orioles (Oriolidae). A 2010 study by the same team confirmed that the hooded pitohui and variable pitohui were orioles and indeed were sister species, and that together with the figbirds they formed a well defined basal clade within the family. As the variable pitohui was the type species for the genus Pitohui, the hooded pitohui was retained in that genus and the four remaining species were moved to other genera.

The hooded pitohui is monotypic, lacking any subspecies. Birds in the south east of New Guinea are sometimes separated into a proposed subspecies, P. d. monticola, but the differences are very slight and the supposed subspecies are generally regarded as inseparable.

Pitohui, the common name for the group and the genus name, is a Papuan term for rubbish bird, a reference to its inedibility. The specific name dichrous is from the Ancient Greek word, meaning two coloured. Alternate names for the hooded pitohui include the black-headed pitohui and lesser pitohui.

Physiology and description

The hooded pitohui is 22 to(-) long and weighs 65 –. The adult has a black, head, chin, throat and upper breast and a black tail. The rest of the plumage is a reddish brown. The bill and legs are black, and the irises are either reddish brown, dark brown or black. Both sexes look alike. Juvenile birds look like adults, except that the of the tail and  of the wing are tinged with brown.

Toxicity

In 1990 scientists preparing the skins of the hooded pitohui for museum collections experienced numbness and burning when handling them. It was reported in 1992 that this species and some other pitohuis contained a neurotoxin called homobatrachotoxin, a derivative of batrachotoxin, in their tissues. This made them the first documented poisonous birds, other than some reports of coturnism caused by consuming quail (although toxicity in quails is unusual), and the first bird discovered with toxins in the skin. The same toxin had previously been found only in Central and South American poison dart frogs from the genera Dendrobates, Oophaga and Phyllobates (family Dendrobatidae). The batrachotoxin family of compounds are among the most toxic compounds by weight in nature, being 250 times more toxic than strychnine. Later research found that the hooded pitohui had other batrachotoxins in its skin, including batrachotoxinin-A cis-crotonate, batrachotoxinin-A and batrachotoxinin-A 3′-hydroxypentanoate. These frogs also eat ants that naturally contain formic acid, which they can then metabolise and sequester in their tissues.

Bioassays of their tissue found that the skins and feathers were the most toxic, the heart and liver less toxic, and the skeletal muscles the least toxic parts of the birds. Of the feathers, the toxin is most prevalent in those covering the breast and belly. Microscopy has shown that the toxins are sequestered in the skin in organelles analogous to lamellar bodies and are secreted into the feathers. The presence of the toxins in muscle, heart and liver shows that hooded pitohuis have a form of insensitivity to batrachotoxins. A 65 g bird has been estimated to have up to 20 μg of toxins in its skin and up to 3 μg in its feathers. This can vary dramatically geographically and by individual, and some have been collected with no detectable toxins.

The poisonous pitohuis, including the hooded pitohui, are not thought to create the toxic compound themselves but instead sequester them from their diet. Phyllobates frogs kept in captivity do not develop the toxins, and the extent of the toxicity varies both in the pitohuis across their range and also across the range of the unrelated blue-capped ifrit, another New Guinean bird found with toxic skin and feathers. Both of these facts suggest that the toxins are obtained from the diet. The presence of the toxins in the internal organs as well as the skins and feathers rules out the possibility that the toxins are applied topically from an unknown source by the birds.

One possible source has been identified in the forests of New Guinea: beetles of the genus Choresine (family Melyridae), which contain the toxin and have been found in the stomachs of hooded pitohui. An alternative explanation, that the birds and beetles both get the toxin from a third source, is considered unlikely as the blue-capped ifrit is almost exclusively insectivorous.

Ecology
The function of the toxins to the hooded pitohui has been the source of debate and research since its discovery. The initial suggestion was that the toxins acted as a chemical deterrent to predators. Some researchers cautioned this suggestion was premature, and others noted that the levels of batrachotoxins were three orders of magnitude lower than in the poison dart frogs that do use it in this way.

Another explanation for the purpose of the toxins is to mitigate the effects of parasites. In experimental conditions chewing lice were shown to avoid toxic feathers of hooded pitohui in favour of feathers with lower concentrations of toxin or no toxins at all. Additionally lice that did live in the toxic feathers did not live as long as control lice, suggesting that the toxins could lessen both the incidence of infestation and the severity. A comparative study of the tick loads of wild birds in New Guinea would seem to support the idea, as hooded pitohuis had considerably fewer ticks than almost all the 30 genera examined. The batrachotoxins do not seem to have an effect on internal parasites such as Haemoproteus or the malaria-causing Plasmodium.

A number of authors have noted that the two explanations, as a chemical defence against predators and as a chemical defence against ectoparasites, are not mutually exclusive, and evidence for both explanations exists. The fact that the highest concentrations of toxins are bound in the feathers of the breast and belly, in both pitohuis and ifrits, has caused scientists to suggest that the toxins rub off on eggs and nestlings providing protection against predators and nest parasites.

One argument in favour of the toxin acting as a defence against predators is the apparent Müllerian mimicry in some of the various unrelated pitohui species, which all have similar plumage. The species known as pitohuis were long thought congeneric, due to their similarities in plumage, but are now spread through three families, the oriole, whistlers and Australo-Papuan bellbirds. The similarity in appearance therefore presumably evolved as a shared aposematic signal to common predators of their distasteful nature. This signal is reinforced by the species' strong sour odor. There is also evidence that some other birds in New Guinea have evolved Batesian mimicry, where a non-toxic species adopts the appearance of a toxic species. An example of this is the non-toxic juvenile greater melampitta, which has plumage similar to the hooded pitohui.

There have also been experiments to test pitohui batrachotoxins on potential predators. They have been shown to irritate the buccal membranes of brown tree snakes and green tree pythons, both of which are avian predators in New Guinea. The unpalatability of the species is also known to local hunters, who otherwise hunt songbirds of the same size.

The existence of resistance to batrachotoxins and the use of those toxins as chemical defences by several bird families have led to competing theories as to its evolutionary history. Jønsson (2008) suggested that it was an ancestral adaptation in Corvoidea songbirds, and that further studies would reveal more toxic birds. Dumbacher (2008) argued instead that it was an example of convergent evolution.

Distribution and habitat
The hooded pitohui is endemic to the islands of New Guinea. It is found widely across the main island, and also on the nearby island of Yapen. It inhabits rainforest, forest edge habitats and secondary growth, and sometimes mangrove forests. It is most commonly found in hills and low mountains, between 350 –, but is found locally down to sea-level and up to 2000 m. It typically occurs at higher elevations than the lowland variable pitohui and lower than the (unrelated) black pitohui, although there is some overlap.

Calls
The hooded pitohui makes a variety of calls, mostly forms of whistles. Its song is a variable collection of three to seven whistles, which can slur up or down with hesitant pauses in between. Usually the song begins with two similar notes followed by an upslur. It also makes an "tuk tuk w’oh tuw’uow" call, two whistled "woiy, woiy" notes, two downslurred whistled "tiuw tow" notes, and three whistles "hui-whui-whooee", which increase in volume.

Diet and feeding
The diet of the hooded pitohui is dominated by fruit, particularly figs of the genus Ficus, grass seeds, some insects and other invertebrates, and possibly small vertebrates. Among the invertebrates found in their diet are beetles, spiders, earwigs, bugs (Hemiptera, including the families Membracidae and Lygaeidae), flies (Diptera), caterpillars and ants. They feed at all levels of the forest, from the forest floor to the canopy, and are reported to do so in small groups, presumably of related birds. The species also regularly joins mixed-species foraging flocks, and on Yapen and between 1100 – above sea-level it will often act as the flock leader. This leadership role, and indeed their participation in mixed flocks, is not true across all of their range however.

Breeding
Little is known about the breeding biology of the hooded pitohui and its relatives due to the difficulties of studying the species high in the canopy of New Guinea. Nests with eggs of the hooded pitohui have been found from October through to February. The nest that has been described was 2 m off the ground. The nest is a cup of vine tendrils, lined with finer vines and suspended on thin branches.

The clutch is one to two eggs, 27 - 32.8 x, which are creamy or pinkish with brown to black spots and blotches and faint grey patches; in one egg all the markings with at the larger end. The incubation period is not known, but the species is thought to be a cooperative breeder, as more than two birds in a group have been observed defending the nest from intruders and feeding the young. Young birds, which are covered in white down as nestlings before developing their adult plumage, have been observed being fed acorn-shaped red berries and insects. Young birds will make a threat display when approached in the nest, rising up and erecting their head feathers. As chicks develop directly into adult plumage, it has been suggested that this display may be signalling its identity as a toxic species, even though young birds have not developed toxicity at that age.

Relationship with humans

The toxic and unpalatable nature of the hooded pitohui has long been known to local people in New Guinea, and this knowledge has been recorded by Western scientists as far back as 1895. In spite of this, and reports of toxicity in birds going back to classic antiquity, before the discovery that the hooded pitohui was toxic, toxicity was not a trait that scientists attributed to birds. The discovery of toxicity in birds, triggered by this species, sparked interest in the subject and a re-examination of older accounts of unpalatability and toxicity in birds, although the field is still understudied.

Status and conservation
Common and widespread throughout New Guinea, the hooded pitohui is evaluated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In one study of the effects of small subsistence gardens, populations of hooded pitohui were lower in disturbed agricultural habitat in the lowlands, compared to undisturbed forest, but actually increased in disturbed habitat higher in the mountains.

title: Hooded pitohui


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Bombay State

Bombay State was a large Indian state created in 1950 from the erstwhile Bombay Presidency, with other regions being added to it in the succeeding years. Bombay Presidency (roughly equating to the present-day Indian state of Maharashtra, excluding South Maharashtra and Vidarbha) was merged with the princely states of Baroda, Western India and Gujarat (the present-day Indian state of Gujarat) and the Deccan States (which included parts of the present-day Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka).

On 1 November 1956, Bombay State was re-organized under the States Reorganisation Act on linguistic lines, absorbing various territories including the Saurashtra and Kutch States, which ceased to exist. On 1 May 1960, Bombay State was dissolved and split on linguistic lines into the two states of Gujarat, with Gujarati speaking population and Maharashtra, with Marathi speaking population.

History
During the British Raj, portions of the western coast of India under direct British rule were part of the Bombay Presidency. After Indian independence in 1947 and when India was partitioned, Bombay Presidency remained part of India, while Sind province became part of Pakistan. The territory retained by India was restructured into Bombay State when India became a republic in 1950. It included princely states such as Kolhapur in Deccan, and Baroda and the Dangs in Gujarat, which had former parts of Deccan States Agency and Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency.

Expansion of the state
As a result of the States Reorganisation Act on 1 November 1956, the Kannada-speaking districts of Belgaum (except Chandgad taluka), Bijapur, Dharwar, and North Canara were transferred from Bombay State to Mysore State. but the State of Bombay was significantly enlarged, expanding eastward to incorporate the Marathi-speaking Marathwada region of Hyderabad State, the Marathi-speaking Vidarbha region of southern Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarati-speaking Saurashtra and Kutch states. The Bombay state was being referred to by the local inhabitants as "Maha Dwibhashi Rajya", meaning, "the great bilingual state".

In 1956, the States Reorganisation Committee, against the will of Jawaharlal Nehru, recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat with Bombay as its capital, whereas in Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state. In the 1957 elections, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed these proposals, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra.

Dissolution of Bombay state
Bombay State was finally dissolved with the formation of Maharashtra and Gujarat states on 1 May 1960.

Following protests of Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, in which 107 people were killed by police, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines. Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat following Mahagujarat Movement. Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.

Chief ministers
Bombay State had three chief ministers after the independence of India:
 * Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher was the first chief minister of Bombay (1946–1952)
 * Morarji Desai (1952–1956)
 * Yashwantrao Chavan (1956–1960)

Governors
Upon the split of Bombay State in 1960, the designation of the "Governor of Bombay" was renamed to the Governor of Maharashtra.

Sources: Governor of Maharashtra and Greater Bombay District Gazetteer

 * Graphical

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bombay State


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Hutatma Chowk

Hutatma Chowk ("Martyrs' Square, officially, Hutatma Smarak Chowk, "Martyrs Memorial Square") is a square in South Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. The square hosts Flora Fountain and was known by that name until 1961 when it was officially renamed in memory of the members of Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, who died when police fired upon their peaceful demonstration in 1956. A statue of a "Martyr with a Flame" stands next to Flora Fountain.

History
Hutatma Chowk is located in the busy financial district of Fort. It derives its present name from an incident in 1956 when a peaceful demonstration by the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti (United Maharashtra Committee) was fired upon by the police resulting in 106 deaths. The incident was part of ongoing struggles of the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, amongst others, for the creation of the State of Maharashtra. The shooting proved to be a major impetus for the creation of Maharashtra on 1 May 1960.

The Hutatma Chowk square is lined on all sides by buildings constructed during the British Raj. An ornate fountain surrounded by delicately carved figures forms the center of the huge square. This was the Flora Fountain.

The fountain itself was built in 1864 and represents the Roman Goddess Flora, the Goddess of Abundance. Today it is a heritage structure. It cost Rs. 47,000 to build, a large sum at the time, and was constructed by the Agri-Horticultural Society of Western India. Cursetjee Fardoonjee Parekh donated Rs.20,000 towards the construction of this fountain. The fountain was carved from stone that was imported from Portland. It was built in honour of Sir Bartle Frere, who was the Governor of Bombay at the time. Sir Bartle was responsible for dismantling Bombay Fort and shaping much of modern Mumbai. Initially it was to be named after the Governor but the name was changed before the fountain was unveiled. When it was constructed it was in the middle of the city. Flora fountain stands in exactly the same place where the original Churchgate of Bombay Fort stood. The area around Flora Fountain is the business center of Mumbai and is surrounded by offices, banks, colleges and shops.

title: Hutatma Chowk


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Talk:Space tether

Rotovator
People in industry call these tethers momentum exchange tethers. Rotovator isn't used. I myself have never heard the term and I work with in-space propulsion. In-Space Propulsion --Belchja 02:46, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

Folks, thanks for your work in explaining this tricky subject. But I think this article needs a lot more work. It is the first article I have accessed in Wiki which I could not understand.

I have a BS in engineering and have been reading science books for decades, so I think I am at least average in knowledge about this stuff, compared to your reader base. But you use a lot of terms where you dont define what they mean.

Rotate and Culivate make Rotavator, the English Rotavator Rotary Tiller, which existed long before thether propulsion was thought of.. Gregorydavid 06:38, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Tidal forces
I am having trouble understanding the tidal forces point and I think the article could do with a word of explanation in this respect. Surely the vertical alignment of the masses is simply a case of this being the lowest potential energy configuration? Paul Beardsell 16:50, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * You're right, it is precisely because it's the lowest potential energy configuration; since the tidal forces are the gradient of the potential, this is the same as saying that the tidal forces pull it into this configuration. It sounds like a fuller explanation is appropriate, although if the tidal force page has something, it could maybe be minimal. --Andrew 21:20, May 8, 2004 (UTC)

"rotovator" or "rotavator" ?
What's the proper spelling, "rotovator" or "rotavator" ? (Remind me to use the proper spelling at micrometeorites ) -- DavidCary 03:41, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Rotavator is a registered trade name for a kind of agricultural machinery (short for rotary cultivator). Rotovator was probably spelt with the O to avoid confusion. --Heron 15:23, 27 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Clarification requested
I'm a getting a little confused over the terminology being used in regards to the subject of space elevator and I was wondering if it would be possible to clear some things up. First, I would like to point out a few items that seem confusing to me:

 * See non-rocket spacelaunch. It has a nice brief description of tethers related to LAUNCHING vice orbital maneuvering.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) The space elevator article puts space elevators in the class of spacecraft propulsion, which is correct, but does not mention the tether propulsion category of that class.
 * 2) The tether propulsion article talks about several flavors of tethers, including the so-called beanstalk and something called the rotovator, but makes no mention of skyhooks which is a widely used term for tether propulsion.
 * 3) I'm working on this.  I hope to have it a little clearer soon. KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)
 * 4) The space elevator article correctly mentions the terms 'beanstalk' and 'skyhook', and the skyhook article correctly identifies two kinds of tether propulsion: the 'space elevator' and something called hypersonic skyhooks. However, the 'hypersonic skyhooks' link merely points to the tether propulsion article, which itself does not mention 'hypersonic skyhooks', but instead describes an identical concept as rotovators.
 * 5) The space elevator article also correctly identifies a space elevator as a geosynchronous orbital tether, but provides no link to this subject.

Now, that being said, here is my attempt to sort it all out:
 * 1) The term 'space elevator' is equivalent to the terms 'beanstalk' and 'geosynchronous orbital tether'.
 * 2) I agree, I had not previously heard of geosynchronous orbital tether, but it is technically accurate. 66.177.175.227 02:46, 23 June 2007 (UTC)
 * 3) I do NOT agree.  A space elevator / beanstalk is a special case of a synchronous tether, that is, one that reaches the planetary surface and is part of a LAUNCH process.  It is possible to have a synchronous tether that boosts from low to high orbit (and vice-versa) without being part of a launch.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) The term 'skyhook' is equivalent to the term 'tether propulsion', but is not exclusive to the terms 'space elevator', 'beanstalk', or 'geosynchronous orbital tether' as these are all equivalent terms for only one form of 'tether propulsion'.
 * 2) Do NOT agree. The term 'skyhook' as used in orbital or satellite discussions is equivalent to a tidally locked tether. KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)
 * 1) The term 'hypersonic skyhook' and 'rotovator' are equivalent to the term non-synchronous orbital tether  I understand why you want this catagory, but no one IMHO will think to put "non-synchonous orbital tether in a search box, plus we already have too many names for much the same thing without adding another.  This term describes a system that is very similar to a 'geosynchronous orbital tether', but which is different in several very important aspects.
 * 2) Rotovators we can build now need to be hypersonic with respect to Earth's surface, but a 100,000 kilometer rotovator could briefly move less than 60 miles per hour = 100 kilometers per hour at closest approach to Earth surface. Rotovators close to the Moon or other airless bodies can also move at much less than hypersonic speed. At least one group considers bolo a prefered name for shorter rotovators. 66.177.175.227 02:46, 23 June 2007 (UTC)
 * 3) Skyhooks and rotovators are fundamentally different.  One is tidally locked, the other rotates rapidly.  The mathematics used to describe them are significantly different and use different material terms.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

Given the above, I would like to suggest that the subject be re-organized in this way:

 * 1) A 'space elevator' is one form of 'tether propulsion', also known as a 'skyhook', which in turn is a category of 'spacecraft propulsion'.
 * 2) There are two forms of 'space elevator', one is a 'geosynchronous orbital tether' also known as a 'beanstalk', and the other is a 'non-synchronous orbital tether'.

I make this suggestion because it is my POV that the 'non-synchronous orbital tether' concept is just as valid as the 'geosynchronous orbital tether' and that both should be clearly described under one subject heading of either 'space elevator' or 'tether propulsion', however this would raise several questions:

 * 1) Should 'skyhook' be standardized as 'tether propulsion' and should the skyhook article be removed and/or incorporated into the tether propulsion article?
 * 2) Should the terms 'hypersonic skyhook' and 'rotovator' (both of which I have never seen before) be standardized as 'non-synchronous orbital tether'?
 * 3) No. Tether propulsion is a MUCH broader issue than skyhooks which are one small subset thereof.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Should the space elevator article be expanded to include both 'geosynchronous orbital tether' and 'non-synchronous orbital tether', or should the space elevator article be renamed as 'geosynchronous orbital tether' and another article added to describe the similar but also very different 'non-synchronous orbital tether'?
 * 2) Neither. I am working on a clarification of the sets and subsets of tether propulsion.  Please permit me the time to complete.KitemanSA (talk)
 * 3) If the latter, then shouldn't the term 'space elevator' also be standardized as 'tether propulsion' with links to 'geosynchronous orbital tether' and 'non-synchronous orbital tether' articles? If not then should term 'tether propulsion' be standardized as either 'skyhook' or 'space elevator'?

For reference I cite the following websites which describe both geosynchronous and non-synchronous orbital tethers, and although they seem to use the terms 'skyhook' and 'space elevator' interchangeably the latter has clearly overtaken the former in recent popular usage:

http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/1976.skyhook/papers/scable.pox

http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/1976.skyhook/papers/endsky.pox

http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/1976.skyhook/1982.articles/elevate.800322

Jerry mcmanus 20:55, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * A space elevator is a fixed structure, extending from the surface to beyond GEO. So called because from the bottom it looks and acts like an elevator system in a very tall building.

 * A beanstalk is just an informal term for the same thing, with an allusion to the fairy tale of a climbable column reaching up beyond the sky.

 * A rotovator is quite different; an orbiting structure with one or two long cables extending out from its center of gravity. It rotates on a horizontal axis at a rate such that the tip(s) of the cables are momentarily at rest when closest to the ground, Visualize a bicycle wheel rolling down the street and subtract the rim and all but one or two spokes. As seen from the ground, the tip drops down nearly vertically, payload is attached and/or detached, the cable then rises back to space.

 * A hypersonic skyhook is sort of a hybrid: a more-or-less vertical cable system, with a center of gravity orbiting well below GEO. The bottom tip is moving at hypersonic speed relative to the atmosphere, so it can't extend down close to the surface, but significantly slower than an object orbiting at that height. A merely suborbital rocket can rendezvous with the cable and transfer payload.

 * A skyhook is any kind of cable system for getting from ground to space, but I think it fits the orbiting systems best. The image is of a crane hook dropping down from the sky, picking up a payload, and pulling it back up.
 * I was with you to here. A skyhook is a tidally locked tether.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Tether propulsion can also cover rotating tethers used the transfer payloads in space, e.g. from Earth orbit to Lunar orbit.
 * It can also cover a number of other uses like endo-atmospheric tethers.KitemanSA (talk) 19:06, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

 * None of these are spacecraft, exactly, but...
 * --wwoods 00:14, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Tether propulsion also covers electrodynamic tethers, which are sort of like cut-rate magnetic sails. Also, there's a class of rotating tether I've seen referred to as "bolos" that don't fit perfectly into the divisions above; it's a rotating tether located away from planetary surfaces, used for changing the momentum of spacecraft in transit. Bryan 06:03, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Since they can't tap the Earth's angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy, the orbiting tethers need some other means of reboosting themselves after lifting a payload up from the Earth. Their advantage is that, being in orbit, they can use high efficiency (=> low thrust) methods, e.g. the geomagnetic motor or ion jets. The best method of all is traffic in the other direction; plain dirt from the Moon could deliver a huge amount of impulse to LEO...
 * "Bolos" is what I was thinking of in the "tether propulsion" above, but I didn't remember that term. A way to move stuff around while leaving your engines behind, so you don't care about their mass or propellant.
 * [This should be doubly indented, but for some reason it's not.]
 * --wwoods 07:43, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah yes, for some reason when I read that the first time I pictured something completely different. My bad. BTW, your paragraph looks doubly indented to me. I use the "classic" skin, perhaps there's a bug in one of the others? Bryan 08:13, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * It's indented right now, but I'll swear it wasn't in the preview. Weird. Let's see... And that post isn't -- again -- in the preview, though this one is. I also use the Classic, so it's not that. "Curiouser and curiouser" --wwoods 08:44, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

So, if I understand correctly, the subject breaks down like this:
 * Space Tethers. What is currently labeled as 'tether propulsion' and which breaks down into three categories:
 * Geosynchronous Orbital Tethers. AKA 'space elevator' AKA 'beanstalk'
 * Non-synchronous Orbital Tethers. AKA 'skyhooks' which include:
 * Electrodynamic Tethers.
 * Hypersonic Tether.
 * Rotovator.
 * Free Space Tethers.
 * Bolos.

If this is a valid breakdown, should the current articles be edited to reflect this, or is the currrent tether propulsion article good enough? Jerry mcmanus 21:09, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I believe that by 'electrodynamic tether', Bryan was referring to a method of moving an orbital tether, not to a separate type. And I find it easier to think of the space elevator as a stationary structure, held up by centrifugal force, than as a body in orbit. Otherwise, yeah. --wwoods 08:22, 10 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * As I understand it the space elevator is only stationary because it's center of mass is in GEO. In fact, the Edwards plan calls for the launch platform to be mobile in the Pacific in order that it may be moved to avoid space debris.  The mass of the platform acts as a counterpart to the counterweight above GEO, but it is the center of mass in GEO that is doing all the work, and so  a space elevator need not actually be attached to the surface of the Earth, or even strictly stationary.  This is a common misconception caused by the unfortunate comparison of the space elevator to a 'ball on a string'.  I believe this is also the reason that earlier references used 'space elevator' and 'skyhook' interchangeably, the portion of a space elevator below GEO is essentially just 'dangling' down to the surface of the Earth, like a hook from the sky.  However, for the sake of clarity, I can see an argument for changing 'geosynchronous' and 'non-synchronous' to 'geostationary' and 'non-stationary' respectively.

Jerry mcmanus 18:30, 10 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * It's stationary because it is tied to the ground, more-or-less. The center of gravity has to be a little above GEO, putting tension on the cable, if it's to have any payload capacity. In the Edwards design, the base station's weight is partly supported by the cable and partly by its buoyancy. Also there has to be enough of a connection to [the Earth] for the cable to transfer angular momentum from the Earth to the payload as it is lifted or you lose the greatest advantage of this type of tether. I haven't gone through the Edwards plan in detail, but there'll have to be various anchors that the cable can be moored to while operating, or it'll have to use its motors to keep from being pulled steadily westward.
 * --wwoods 20:23, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I should point out that there are tethers that do not rotate at all and really can't be called skyhooks - in fact all the tethers currently built are of this type. We should make sure that the ultimate classification includes, for example, the use of long tethers to tidally control the orientation of satellites. --Andrew 23:37, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

robert l forward
Shouldn't there be a link to 'Robert Forward' somewhere in this entry? -anon(not at my comp and can't remember password)

comments only
tethers are exteremely hard science. A one meter length as release makes for the t.

And t means the length of General Relativity mass difference.

A size of long line literally makes a boost to higher altitude!

A third body was added to General Relativity :)

A tide is not required to make the small boost. A tide boost is a difference of lengths of tether system of changing orbits.

HELP REQUESTED What about torsion tethers that propel circling aircraft or drive machines
The tether rotates and drives the propeller of the circling aircraft. E.g.: http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=Rp0rAAAAEBAJ&dq=3705720   Such is a torsion tether. Then another tether that propels is the endless-loop tether that drives pumps or generators. These two tether propulsion families are to be treated in what article? Discussion is invited. Thanks. Joefaust (talk) 05:19, 12 February 2011 (UTC)

Electric Sail
I'm not sure that really belongs in the page summary, and is under a different meaning of "tether". The other techniques mentioned in this article relate to two bodies being attached by a tensile cable, creating a new centre of mass which can be manipulated for certain results (generally whilst in orbit, although tethered formation flying is not, but still involves two or more bodies being tethered together). Meanwhile, electric sails are the propulsion method of a single craft, providing thrust through an electrically charged wire (forming a sail) being pushed by the solar wind. There is no "tether" in such as the body is not attached to anything. 160.5.185.13 (talk) 15:28, 29 October 2013 (UTC)

Practical materials - Misleading tag.
The reference cited for the list, states those materials' strength are appropriate only for Lunar tethers, and that for Earth, the stronger carbon nanotubes are required.

Quote from the the cited reference :
 * The table below shows some candidate materials for lunar space elevators, with density, stress limit, and the breaking height (the longest cable that can be suspended in 1 g). Lunar space elevators require much lower material strengths than the Earth space elevator, which will require carbon nanotubes (shown in Table 1 for comparison). All these materials, save the carbon nanotubes, are available now.

Listing all these materials in this Wikipedia article is misleading because it gives the impression they are up to the job on Earth, which they are not. Cheers, --BatteryIncluded (talk) 13:21, 21 April 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Gravitational gradient stabilization - Technical difficulty?
I might be getting the wrong impression, but I believe this section could use better wording, however I feel like I should ask before editing it.

Why is this point marked as a "technical difficulty"? I believe that it must be referring to the fact that synchronizing the movement of the tether in such a way is complicated, but it gives off the impression that the fact that both ends of the cable are at different lengths and speeds is the problem in on itself, when it is in fact the point. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tairetsu (talk • contribs) 08:17, 2 July 2017 (UTC)

History/pop culture
I came across what I think may be an extremely early discussion of a non-anchored (that is, non "beanstalk") tether in a short story at Gutenberg.org, from the magazine "If Worlds of Science Fiction" April 1956; "Atom Drive" by Charles L. Fontenay. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32067/32067-h/32067-h.htm

I'm not sure that this goes in "history", or in a pop culture reference section, which currently does not exist, but I thought it pretty interesting, as it far predates any discussion I am aware of (excluding Tsiolkovsky's original elevator idea), and I bet few others coming from the technical side know of it. Fontenay was a newspaper editor and SF writer, not an engineer that I can discover, so I wonder if he got the idea somewhere else, or had sufficient physics education to come up with the idea himself. Anyway, I leave it for anyone who feels it worthy to insert it in the article, but I leave this note here, as I am certain that tethers have a great future ahead of them, and at some point such history will be of considerable general interest.173.180.151.52 (talk) 07:20, 10 January 2018 (UTC)an occasional anonymous contributor, mostly of minor grammar and spelling repairs

title: Talk:Space tether


text:
Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti

Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, commonly known as the  Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, was an organisation in India that advocated for a separate Marathi-speaking state in Western India and Central India from 1956 to 1960.

The Samiti demanded the creation of a new state from Marathi-speaking areas of the State of Bombay, a Marathi state, with the city of Bombay as its capital. The Samiti achieved its goal when the state of Maharashtra was created as a Marathi linguistic state on 1 May 1960. Members continued to advocate for the inclusion of Marathi-speaking areas in northern Karnataka such as Belgaum, Karwar, Dharwad and Bidar into Maharashtra, and the newly annexed state of Goa and Damaon until the 1967 Goa Opinion Poll rejected merger with Maharashtra.

History
The Samyukta Maharashtra Movement organisation was founded on 6 February 1956, at Tilak Smarak Mandir in Pune. The Samiti declared its Executive Council. Shripad Amrit Dange as the President. T. R.Naravane as Vice President and S. M. Joshi as General Secretary were selected. Many of the Prominent activists of Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti were leftists such as S. M. Joshi, Shripad Amrit Dange, Narayan Ganesh Gore, Nana Patil and Uddhavrao Patil. Other leaders included Annabhau Sathe,    Maina Gawankar, Walchand Kothari, Pralhad Keshav Atre, Keshav Sitaram Thackeray, Pandurang Mahadev Bapat, Bhausaheb Raut,  and Amar Shaikh, G. T. Madkholkar, Madhu Dandavate, Y. K. Souni. As a part of the campaign, Pralhad Keshav Atre used his Maratha newspaper to criticise Prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Morarji Desai (then chief minister of Bombay state) and  S.K. Patil, the Mumbai Congress party politician who favored  separation of Mumbai city from a linguistically reconstituted Maharashtra or Gujarat.

The Indian National Congress had pledged to introduce linguistic states prior to Independence. However, after Independence, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel were adamantly opposed to linguistic states. They perceived linguistic states as a threat to the integrity of India. For the first time and perhaps the only time, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and its chief Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar supported Nehru and Patel against redrawing of the map along linguistic lines. The catalyst to the creation of a States Re-organization Commission was the fasting death of Telugu nationalist Potti Sriramulu. In 1956, the SRC (States Re-organisation Committee) recommended creation of linguistic states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka but recommended a bi-lingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat, with Bombay as its capital but Vidarbha outside Maharashtra. Further, they recommended the creation of Vidharba state to unite the Marathi-speaking people of former Hyderabad state with Marathi-speaking areas of Central Provinces and Berar state. On 21 November 1955, demonstrators were fired upon by the police at Flora Fountain in the capital city of Bombay. Flora Fountain was subsequently renamed Hutatma Chowk or "Martyr's Crossroad" in their memory. It is estimated that in a total of 106 people were shot by security forces during the period of agitation and at different places. Morarji Desai, who was the then chief minister of Bombay State was later removed and replaced by Yashwantrao Chavan as a result of criticism related to the 21 November incident. Nehru's speech dissenting with the SRC led C. D. Deshmukh, the then Finance Minister of the Nehru Cabinet to resign his post in January 1956. This led to the creation of the predecessor movement Sanyukta Maharashtra Parishad, inaugurated on 1 November 1956, causing a great political stir and, under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe, a whole party meeting was held in Pune and Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was founded on 6 February 1956. In the second general election of 1957, the Samiti defeated the stalwarts of Congress by securing 101 seats out of 133, including 12 from Bombay. The Congress party could form a government only with the support of Gujarat, Marathwada and Vidharba.

The Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti achieved its goal on 1 May 1960, when the State of Bombay was partitioned into the Marathi-speaking State of Maharashtra and the Gujarati-speaking State of Gujarat. However Goa (then a Portuguese colony), Belgaum, Karwar and adjoining areas, which were also part of the Maharashtra envisaged by the Samiti, were not included in Maharashtra state. Prominent leaders of the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti decided to quit the organization after 1 May 1960, but the then chairman of the Samiti, Udhavrao Patil, continued his fight for the 862 Marathi-speaking villages of Karnataka that were excluded in 1960.

Participants
Notable individuals who participated in the movement include -
 * Shripad Amrit Dange
 * Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi
 * T.R. Naravane
 * Prahlad Keshav Atre
 * Keshav Sitaram Thackeray
 * Pandurang Mahadev Bapat
 * Keshavrao Jedhe
 * Madhu Dandavate
 * Walchand Kothari
 * Udhavrao Patil
 * Shankarrao Deo
 * Ahilya Rangnekar
 * Annabhau Sathe
 * Amar Sheikh
 * Gajanan Tryambak Madkholkar
 * Chintaman Dwarkanath Deshmukh
 * Maina Gawankar
 * Narayan Ganesh Gore
 * Gopalrao Bajirao Khedkar
 * Y.K. Souni

Result

 * The state of Maharashtra with Mumbai and Nagpur as its capitals while Gujarat with capital Ahmedabad were formed as a result of this movement according to the Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960 enacted by the Parliament of India on 25 April 1960.

 * The inaugural government was formed under Yashwantrao Chavan, who became the first Chief Minister of Maharashtra.

Martyrs

Names of the people who died during the open firing -

1] Sitaram Banaji Pawar

2] Joseph David Pejarkar

3] Chimanlal D. Sheth

4] Bhaskar Narayan Kamtekar

5] Ramachandra Sevaram

6] Shankar Khote

7] Dharmaji Gangaram Nagvekar

8] Ramachandra Laxman Jadhav

9] K. J. Xavier

10] P. S. John

11] Sharad G. Wani

12] Vedi Singh

13] Ramchandra Bhatia

14] Gangaram Gunaji

15] Gajanan alias Bandu Gokhale

16] Retirement Vithoba More

17] Atmaram Purushottam Panwalkar

18] Balappa Mutanna Kamathi

19] Dhondu Laxman Pardule

20] Bhai Sakharam Kadam

21] Yashwant Babaji Bhagat

22] Govind Baburao Jogal

23] Pandurang Dhondu Dhadwe

24] Gopal Chimaji Korade

25] Pandurang Babaji Jadhav

26] Babu Hari Date

27] Anup Mahavir

28] Vinayak Panchal

29] Sitaram Ganpat Mhade

30] Subhash Bhiva Borkar

31] Ganpat Rama Tankar

32] Sitaram Gayadeen

33] Gorakhnath Raoji Jagtap

34] Muhammad Ali

35] Tulshiram Punjaji Belsare

36] Devaji Sakharam Patil

37] Shamlal Jethanand

38] Sadashiv Mahadev Bhosale

39] Bhikaji Pandurang Rangate

40] Vasudev Suryaji Manjrekar

41] Bhikaji Babu Bambarkar

42] Sakharam Shripat Dhamale

43] Narendra Narayan Pradhan

44] Shankar Gopal Kushte

45] Dattaram Krishna Sawant

46] Baban Bapu Bhargude

47] Vishnu became Sakharam

48] Sitaram Dhondu Radye

49] Tukaram Dhondu Shinde

50] Vitthal Gangaram More

51] Rama Lakhan Vinda

52] Edwin Ambrose Salvi

53] Baba Mahadu Sawant

54] Vasant Dwarkanath Kanyalkar

55] Vitthal Daulat Salunkhe

56] Ramnath Pandurang Amrita

57] Parashuram Ambaji Desai

58] Ghanshyam Babu Kolar

59] Dhondu Ramakrishna Carpenter

60] Munimji Baldev Pandey

61] Maruti Vithoba Mhaske

62] Bhau Kondiba Bhaskar

63] Dhondo Ragho Pujari

64] Hriday Singh Darjesingh

65] Pandu Mahadu Avrirkar

66] Shankar Vithoba Rane

67] Vijayakumar Sadashiv Bhadekar

68] Krishnaji Ganu Shinde

69] Ramchandra Vitthal Chowgule

70] Dhondu Bhagu Jadhav

71] Raghunath Sakharam Beengude

72] Kashinath Gobind Chinderkar

73] Karpaiya Kirmal Devendra

74] Chularam Mumbaraj

75] Balmohan

76] Ananta

77] Gangaram Vishnu Guruv

78] Ratnu Gondivere

79] Syed Kasam

80] Bhikaji Daji

81] Anant Goltakar

82] Kisan Veerkar

83] Sukhlal Ramlal Banskar

84] Pandurang Vishnu Valke

85] Phulvari crocodile

86] Gulab Krishna Khavale

87] Baburao Devdas Patil

88] Laxman Narahari Thorat

89] Thamabai Vitthal Suryabhan

90] Ganapat Rama ghosts

91] Munshi Wazir Ali

92] Daulatram Mathuradas

93] Vitthal Narayan Chavan

94] Devji Shivan Rathod

95] Raojibhai Dosabhai Patel

96] Hormusji Karsetji

97] Girdhar Hemchand Lohar

98] Sattu Khandu Waikar

99] Ganapat Sridhar Joshi

100] Madhav Rajaram Ture (Beldar)

101] Maruti Bennalkar

102] Madhukar Bapu Bandekar

103] Laxman Govind Gawde

104] Mahadev Barigadi

105] Kamalabai Mohite

106] Sitaram Dulaji Ghadigaonkar

107] Shankarao Toraskar

Memorials

 * Hutatma Chowk Smarak was created besides the Flora Fountain in the Fort, Mumbai. It was created in the memory of 106 Martyrs who were killed in an open firing of the police during a peaceful protest.

 * Samyukta Maharashtra Smruti Dalan was constructed in 2010 at Dadar. It displays the history of the formation of Maharashtra and origins of the movement. Spread over an area of 2,800 sq ft, the 3 storey gallery is a confluence of museum and art.

Popular culture
Hutatma a Marathi webseries on Zee5 starring Anjali Patil, Vaibhav Tatwawadi, Mohan Agashe, and Sachin Khedekar is based on the challenges faced by the people who participated in this Movement.

Midnight's Children, a classic by Salman Rushdie, which won the Booker Prize has a backdrop of both the Samyukta Maharashtra movement as well as the Mahagujarat movement.

Books

 * महाराष्ट्र : एका संकल्पनेचा मागोवा (लेखक - माधव दातार)
 * मुंबईसह संयुक्त महाराष्ट्राचा लढा (ऐतिहासिक, लेखिका - शिरीष पै)
 * संयुक्त महाराष्ट्र काल आणि आज (संपादक - प्रा. भगवान काळे)
 * संयुक्त महाराष्ट्राच्या चळवळीत शाहिरांचे योगदान, (लेखिका - सुहासिनी देशपांडे)

title: Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti


text:
Talk:Disruptive innovation

Biased and out of date
I am new here, so sorry if I get the process wrong. I came to this page to see if I could use the entry in my course. I cannot. The current version of the page is both biased and out of date. With the exception of Lepore, no disconfirming evidence for Christensen's theory is provided. In full disclosure, I wrote two of those articles, but there are many more. I knew Clay, considered him my friend, and debated the theory with him. I don't think he would approve of this page.

If you would like, I can edit the page, but if this page is being controlled by people with a personal interest in protecting the theory, I won't waste my time. As is revealed by this old article on disruption, most academics know the theory's limitations, so the harm done here is to the unsuspecting and uninformed (https://www.chronicle.com/article/the-undoing-of-disruption/).

Andrew King https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/how-useful-is-the-theory-of-disruptive-innovation/ https://web.archive.org/web/20190218031222id_/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a25/aff9e2ece8b67a4779682f8e476d3b8a382d.pdf — Preceding unsigned comment added by ProfAndrewaking (talk • contribs) 23:25, 3 January 2023 (UTC)

Neutrality Issue?
The section that discusses theory seems a bit inappropriate for an encyclopedia with words such as "simplistic", "wrong". It seems the author is trying to prove someone is wrong in the wrong place and way (not an editorial). I know nothing about the topic and don't want to research further for an encyclopedia correct approach. 2601:4C0:4180:4DD:24D8:BEFB:2A62:EFF7 (talk) 03:05, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

New article needed: Digital disruption
It’s a term frequently used by the newspaper industry, but is applied to many different areas. Guest houses —-> Airbnb, taxis —-> Uber, high street shops —-> online selling, etc.

This article doesn’t cover this and in any case the term doesn’t relate directly to the way in which online everything has affected so much of life. But I’m putting this here in case anyone with inspiration and the time feels like creating it. Boscaswell  talk  10:12, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

Irrelevant sections
The "potential opportunities" and "potential threats" sections aren't relevant here - they just list pre-existing knowledge which is not innovation... I think it would be better to just delete the sections rather than speculate on the "disruptive innovation" of free trade, as if nobody has thought of that before - either include it if the places where it's been applied (EU, etc?) were disruptive enough, or exclude it. 1rre (talk) 22:34, 5 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Disruptive innovation


text:
Satellite city

A satellite city or satellite town is a smaller municipality or settlement that is part of (or on the edge of) a larger metropolitan area and serves as a regional population and employment center. It differs from mere suburbs, subdivisions and especially bedroom communities in that it has employment bases sufficient to support its residential population, and conceptually, could be a self-sufficient community outside of its larger metropolitan area. However, it functions as part of a metropolis and experiences high levels of cross-commuting (that is, residents commuting out of and employees commuting into the city).

Satellite cities versus other types of settlement
Satellite cities are different from and are sometimes confused with the following related patterns of development.

Suburbs
Satellite cities differ from suburbs in that they have distinct employment bases, commuter sheds, and cultural offerings from the central metropolis, as well as an independent municipal government. Satellite cities are not bedroom communities.

Edge cities
Satellite cities differ from edge cities, which are suburbs with large employment bases and cultural offerings, in that satellite cities must have a true historic downtown, a distinct independent municipal government, existed as a city prior to becoming interconnected with the larger metropolitan core, and are surrounded by a belt of rural land between themselves and the central city.

Conceptually, both satellite cities and some types of edge cities could be (and once were) self-sufficient communities outside of their larger metropolitan areas but have become interconnected due to the suburban expansion of the larger metropolis. However, while edge cities may have their own government and share many characteristics with satellite cities, they are much more physically integrated with the core city and would not exist in anything like their present form if not for the suburban expansion of their larger neighbor. Edge cities are activity nodes within a metro area, not miniature metro areas themselves.

Some satellite cities that are particularly close or well connected to their larger neighbors and/or have their own historic downtown may also qualify as the uptown variety of edge cities, but the terms are not synonymous.

Multi-polar cities
In some cases, large metropolitan areas have multiple centers of close-to-equal importance. These multi-polar cities are often referred to as twin cities. Multi-polar cities differ from satellite cities in the following ways:
 * Satellite cities are clearly much less important than the larger central city around which they are located, while the various nodes of multi-polar cities are much closer to each other in importance.
 * Satellite cities are often separated from the central city by a substantial belt of rural or suburban territory, while twin cities may be fully integrated in physical form.

For example, Fort Worth, Texas is a twin of Dallas, Texas because though Fort Worth is somewhat smaller, it is proportionally close enough and physically integrated enough with Dallas to be considered a twin rather than a satellite. However, Waco, Texas is a satellite town of both cities. Generally speaking, cities that are listed as being part of the same urbanized area should be considered twins, rather than one having a satellite relationship to the other.

Metropolitan areas
Conceptually, satellite cities are miniature metro areas on the fringe of larger ones. Satellite cities are sometimes listed as part of the larger metro area and sometimes listed as totally independent. In the United States, satellite cities are often (but not always) listed as independent Metropolitan Statistical Areas within a single Combined Statistical Area that is unified with the larger metropolis.

External articles

 * Graham Romeyn Taylor, Satellite Cities. A Study of Industrial Suburbs. ISBN 1-4021-6188-3
 * Berger, A. S. (1978). The city: urban communities and their problems. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown.
 * Carpenter, N. (1931). The sociology of city life. Longmans' social science series. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.

title: Satellite city


text:
User talk:Waterfalls99

Hello there Waterfalls99, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. —Frecklefoot 16:59, May 6, 2004 (UTC)

Indian Chimney Farm
Hi, Waterfalls99. I noticed your addition of the Indian Chimney Farm article (with its associated image). While we appreciate the addition of articles and augmentation of content, we have a policy against articles which are, more or less, advertisements. Therefore I needed to add the article to Votes for deletion. If the farm is notable or historically significant in some way, it would be an appropriate entry. So, if it is, please add that information and it can be removed as a candidate for deletion.

Please keep contributing to Wikipedia! The more the merrier! Thanks. —Frecklefoot 16:59, May 6, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Waterfalls99


text:
Bursatella leachii

Bursatella leachii, whose common name is the ragged sea hare or shaggy sea hare, is a species of large sea slug: a marine gastropod mollusk in the sea hare family Aplysiidae. It has an almost pantropical distribution, from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean, but excluding the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. Its long planktonic larval period and short life cycle make able to colonise new areas and increase dramatically in number if food supplies are favourable.

Taxonomy
After Bursatella leachii was described in 1817 by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, numerous other species were added to the genus. In 1935 Eales and Engel synonymised these all with B. leachii, proposing six subspecies; one more was added by Bebbington in 1969, at which point Bursatella was considered a monotypic genus with a nearly pantropical distribution, containing the following subspecies: These subspecies were supposedly distinguishable by "wooliness", their background colour, and the colour of their eyespots, though other observers found these traits varied within local populations and few consistent differences could be seen.
 * Bursatella leachii africana Engel, 1926 (South Africa)
 * Bursatella leachii guineensis Bebbington, 1969 (Ghana)
 * Bursatella leachii laniculata Gould, 1852 (Brazil)
 * Bursatella leachii leachii Blainville, 1817 (Indo-Pacific)
 * Bursatella leachii pleii Rang, 1828 (West Indies)
 * Bursatella leachii rosea Engel, 1926 (West Africa)
 * Bursatella leachii savigniana Audouin, 1826 (Red Sea)

A 2020 molecular analysis by Bazzicalupo et al. found no consistent genetic differences between B. leachii subspecies, and recommended that this classification scheme be abandoned. In their view, B. leachii is a morphologically variable species with a pantropical distribution and limited gene flow between Indo-Pacific and Atlantic populations. Bazzicalupo et al. resurrected the name Bursatella ocilligera (Bergh 1902) for genetically-distinct specimens from the Philippines, and that same year Nimbs and Wilson described B. hirsuta from southern and western Australia, making three species in the genus Bursatella.

Distribution
This species is more widely-distributed than any almost other species of heterobranch sea slug, being found in coastal areas of the Atlantic down to South Africa and parts of the Indo-West Pacific ocean. Although it spans 20,000 km of tropical waters from the Caribbean to Japan, it is absent from the central and eastern Pacific. It has been hypothesised that the Atlantic and Indian-Pacific populations could be intermittently linked by the Agulhas Current around the tip of South Africa, explaining the small divergence in genetic sequence between the two populations. This species colonised the Mediterranean Sea in about the mid-20th century. It was first noted in the 1950s on the Levantine coast and Italy, reaching Morocco, southern Spain, and France in the 2000s. Because it was first noted from the eastern Mediterranean, the population was assumed to have originated in the Red Sea via the Suez Canal, but genetic sequencing revealed Mediterranean and Atlantic populations had almost identical haplotypes, meaning the species probably arrived from the Atlantic. Rather than being carried in ballast water like many other species invading the Mediterranean, B. leachii probably arrived naturally as sea surface temperatures that would normally prevent it entering the Strait of Gibraltar have shifted north with climate change.

Description
Bursatella leachii is green to greenish brown. It has a broad and short head. Its mantle is covered with papillae (finger-like outgrowths), which give it a thorny aspect. The mantle has a network-like pattern with blue eyespots (ocelli) in black spots and green areas. It moves slowly on a broad foot. There is short, sharp tail. The short parapodia (fleshy, winglike outgrowths) are fused on their rear end.

The maximum recorded length is 120 mm.

Ecology
The species is usually found in protected marine bays and estuaries, tidal pools, occurring in the intertidal zone and down to at least 10 m. It is a benthic detritivore which grazes for food on muddy or sandy bottoms. Populations in the wild have been observed feeding on a range of macroalgae including the green alga Enteromorpha, as well as the cyanobacteria Calothrix crustacea, forming large populations in response to bacterial blooms.

This sea hare may be found in dense concentrations or singly; it follows a daily rhythm, assembling in groups at sunset and dispersing in the morning. These patterns are also followed in captivity, with copulation predominantly in the morning and feeding in the afternoon. The species lays egg ribbons in long green stringy tangles. After hatching the veliger larvae grow rapidly and reach full size at 15 days, and are able to metamorphose to adult form aged just 19 days (the shortest larval period reported for sea slugs), but can live as plankton for up to three months. Larvae metamorphose on cyanobacteria, taking 1–2 days, discarding their shell when they reach 2.5–3.0 mm long. Adults grow relatively quickly, attaining maturity at the age of 2 or 3 months after hatching.

title: Bursatella leachii


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User:Simson~enwiki

sv:Användare:simson de:Benutzer:Simson nl:Gebruiker:Simson

title: User:Simson~enwiki


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Head of navigation

The head of navigation is the farthest point above the mouth of a river that can be navigated by ships. Determining the head of navigation can be subjective on many streams, as the point may vary greatly with the size or the draft of the ship being contemplated for navigation and the seasonal water level. On others, it is quite objective, being caused by a waterfall, a low bridge that is not a drawbridge, or a dam without navigation locks. Several rivers in a region may have their heads of navigation along a line called the fall line.

Longer rivers such as the River Thames may have several heads of navigation depending on the size of the vessel. In the case of the Thames, that includes London Bridge, which historically served as the head of navigation for tall ships; Osney Bridge in Oxford, which has the lowest headroom of any bridge on the Thames that generally restricts navigation to smaller vessels such as narrowboats and cabin cruisers, and the long reach above St John's Lock, the first lock downstream of the river’s source, on the outskirts of Lechlade, where the river can become treacherously narrow and shallow for anything but small motorboats and human-powered vessels.

In the United States, the entirety of a navigable waterway up to the head of navigation is subject to federal jurisdiction. The government recognizes that the "upper limit" of navigability will "often be the same point traditionally recognized as the head of navigation" but may under some circumstances lie "yet farther upstream."

title: Head of navigation


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Rennell and Bellona Province

Rennell and Bellona is one of the nine provinces of Solomon Islands, comprising two inhabited atolls, Rennell and Bellona, or Mu Ngava and Mu Ngiki respectively in Rennellese (a Polynesian language), as well as the uninhabited Indispensable Reef. Rennell and Bellona are both Polynesian-inhabited islands within the predominantly Melanesian Solomons. They are thus considered Polynesian outliers. The first known European to sight the islands was Mathew Boyd of Camberwell, London, commander of the merchant ship, Bellona, in 1793. The province has a combined population of 3,041 (2009 census), the least populous province of Solomon Islands. The Samoic language of the islands is, in English texts, called Rennellese. The province's capital is Tigoa, on Rennell Island.

History
In 1793, Bellona Island was named after a passing British ship, the Bellona. Rennell Island may have been named for the oceanographer James Rennell, FRS (1742–1830). In 1799, according to a chart, both islands were named Bellona Island. In 1816 the islands were referred to as Rennell's Isles.

The names the islanders used for self-reference are Mungiki (Bellona) and Mungava (Rennell), meaning 'small mountain' and 'large island' respectively (mu meaning 'island' or 'mountain', ngiki meaning 'small', and ngava meaning 'large'). Young people on both islands sometimes use the name Avaiki for both islands.

According to oral traditions, the islands were originally inhabited by a people of another culture before the ancestors of present-day Polynesians arrived in canoes from their homeland, ‘Uvea Gago (probably Ouvéa in the Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia). On their voyage, they arrived at ‘Uvea Matangi (probably East ‘Uvea, or Wallis Island, in Wallis and Futuna), and finally reached Rennell Island, where they found no inhabitants. They were told by a medium, Tahasi, that there was another island yet to be sighted and they left Rennell in search of it. They subsequently arrived at Bellona, where they found people, the Hiti, living in caves on the island near the shore. The Hiti were dark-skinned, short people with long hair reaching to their knees and spoke a language intelligible to the invaders, who gradually killed off the indigenous inhabitants. The oral traditions of Rennell and Bellona relate that the first invaders consisted of seven married couples who each founded a clan (sa’a), of which five became extinct. Ancestors of the two remaining clans, Kaitu’u and Iho, still inhabit the islands.

In oral traditions, narrators tell of scattered and singular voyages to and from other inhabited places in the Western Pacific. Just after settling, some men returned to East ‘Uvea (Wallis Island) to fetch precious turmeric root stocks that were used for ritual dyeing and anointment. In following generations two men went to Mungua (probably Woodlark Island, also known as Murua) and returned with place names and new kinds of yams and bananas. Another oral tradition details the arrival of a New Caledonian ship with tobacco and steel adzes. Other oral traditions state that poultry was brought to Rennell before the first Christian missionaries to the island were killed in 1910. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, Bellonese and Rennellese people were taken to Queensland by Blackbirders to work in the sugar plantations. One Rennellese man is known to have returned, bringing home with him Western goods such as axes, cotton cloth, umbrellas, and guns.

Initially, the two islands were contacted only sporadically by Europeans and Americans up to the later part of the nineteenth century. In 1910 the first three Christian missionaries were killed on Rennell, and the islands were left to themselves until preachers from the Seventh-day Adventists (SDA), the Church of England and the South Seas Evangelical Mission (SSEM) arrived in 1936. They took a group of Rennellese men to mission stations in other parts of Solomon Islands. In 1938, the Seventh Day Adventist Church became dominant on Rennell, followed by Bellona, which gradually converted all the inhabitants to Christianity. They destroyed all their heathen temples and built Christian churches all over the Islands.

Not until after World War II (1945) did Westernization slowly influence the two islands. A closer contact with the rest of Solomon Islands sped up the modernization process. More regular shipping was initiated, and children were sent to mission schools on other islands. In the 1950s health clinics and wireless contact were established on both islands. Regular air service to both islands was established in the beginning of the 1970s.

On July 7, 1978, Solomon Islands gained its independence from Great Britain, and Rennell and Bellona became part of the newly created country. About fifteen years later, Rennell and Bellona became a province of their own. At the turn of the millennium the different churches began losing their power, especially over the younger generation. Sports, music and home brewing became leisure-time interests, and education and vocational training rose in importance.

In 2005, there were reports that the people of Rennell and Bellona province were determined to secede from the country following a lack of infrastructure investment.

The history and linkage of the Rennellese people with the Māori are explored in a documentary entitled the "Mystery of the Lost Waka (canoe)", made by Maori TV in 2007.

Provincial government
In 1993, Rennell and Bellona became a province of Solomon Islands, becoming the only Polynesian province in the predominantly Melanesian country. The province is also a single constituency, Rennell and Bellona Constituency, represented in parliament by a single Member of Parliament. Today, the current Member of Parliament for Rennell and Bellona is Hon. Tautai Kaitu'u, an Australian-based doctor from Rennell Island.

The provincial government is made up of 10 wards (provincial equivalent of a constituency) represented by 10 elected members known in the provincial assembly as Members of the Provincial Assembly (MPAs). Rennell Island, the larger of the two islands, has six wards and Bellona only has four, namely wards seven to ten. Rennell and Bellona Province is sub-divided into the following wards. Population is noted as of the 2009 census:

Note: These figures changed every four years as more voters turned 18. The total number is not the total population of the Islands as they only take into account those eligible to vote in the National General Election and provincial elections.
 * Rennell-Bellona Province (3,041)
 * East Tenggano (367)
 * West Tenggano (378)
 * Lughu (362)
 * Kanava (239)
 * Te Tau Gangoto (569)
 * Mugi Henua (117)
 * Matangi (144)
 * East Gaongau (265)
 * West Gaongau (350)
 * Sa'aiho (250)

Climate
The islands are subject to tropical storms and cyclones, with the tropical cyclone season running from 1 November to 30 June. In recent history, substantial damage was caused by Cyclone Esau and Cyclone Nina in 1992, Cyclone Fergus in 1996, Cyclone Drena in 1997, Cyclone Beni in 2003, Cyclone Ului in 2010 and Cyclone Freda in 2012.

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Talk:Melvyn Bragg

Links
both the "Credo" link and the "Laurence Olivier" links are links for those objects instead to the books that Melvyn Bragg wrote. Is this correct?

Nope. I've changed them. Proteus (Talk) 17:19, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Degree
Are you sure he has a BA? I don't mean to be strange, but if he went to Oxford I believe his BA would officially disappear when he upgraded it to an MA, no? Possibly a full listing of his credentials would be useful (i.e. (Oxon) after the oxford degrees, an (Honorary) or something to that effect after which (if any) of his degrees are honorary.

Peerage
When did he become Baron Bragg and not Lord Bragg??

 * What the fuck are you talking about? People address him as Lord Bragg because he's a baron. 86.138.17.141 23:19, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

Please don't use wods like that. Millbanks 22:48, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

The tital LORD Only exists for The LORD God and thus isn't part of the British Peerage system (Morcus (talk) 16:04, 9 April 2008 (UTC))

There is some rubbish talked here :). In the British peerage there are a variety of titles (Baron being one) which entitle one to be called "Lord".  So - Baron Bragg is the same as Lord Bragg although in practice he would never be called Baron Bragg.  User 86. etc you really don't need to use that sort of language to correct a misunderstanding.  However Morcus, we do have the House of Lords, so Lord is quite acceptable as a title within the English peerage.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.104.45.142 (talk) 20:15, 12 March 2011 (UTC)

Wadham
Are you sure it was Wadham? His newsleter said about his remembrance of his days at Christ Church when he skipped services..
 * Pretty sure it's Wadham.--ukexpat 04:17, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Computing cluster
A Computing Cluster (group of computers set aside for general use by students) is named after Lord Bragg at the University of Leeds. It is called the "Bragg Cluster".

 * I always thought the Bragg Cluster was named after William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg.

 * Yes, it won't be for Melvyn Bragg. See photo for evidence to corroborate Leeds's commemoration of William Henry Bragg. 79.64.227.68 (talk) 16:04, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

Prat
I was mildly surprised to hear on the radio the other day that the first cited use of the word "prat" was by Melvyn Bragg. Can anyone with access to the OED confirm this and find out the year and the context? 86.138.17.141 11:29, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Bragg is quoted in the OED for a 1973 work, however there are earlier references for the usage given 192.122.171.25 (talk) 06:06, 23 December 2008 (UTC)

It seems he had previously been the first person known to have used it in print in the sense of 'fool' (other meanings go back much further), but two earlier examples are now cited in the OED. Bragg being the earliest was asserted in the article until I just removed it, and the source was an article in the Independent about the OED looking for earlier uses of certain words. The OED now has before Bragg's 1968 use of the word: "1955 E. TREVOR Big Pick-up iv. 62 Come dahn aht of it [sc. a tree], Milly, you stupid prat! 1964 J. ORTON Entertaining Mr Sloane I. 10 Go on, you superannuated old prat!" 79.64.227.68 (talk) 15:57, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

Same guy?
Is this the same guy made fun of here?-- Editor510  drop us a line, mate  19:37, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Yep, that's him! We also have an article TV Offal, the programme in which he was mocked. 79.64.227.68 (talk) 15:44, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

14-08-2013 This article is semi-characature. The Alma Matter is appropriate only for Americans and should be changed to an English term. The title The Lord Bragg is annoyingly jocular (it could be made worse by adding on Almighty) and should be changed to The Right Hon. Lord Bragg of (Area). The article contains buffoonary i.e. He coined Intelligentsia - no he did not it is (or was) a Russian word, and in the UK the term is Intellectual and it does not need replacing. A book plug for his second wife and name dropping of former PM Blair as a friend, hmm... I would question why he has been elected to the House of Lords. Is this who we as a British democratic nation want to make decisions about the governance of the UK? I suggest a total rewrite based on substantiated facts with publication and dates referenced as evidence if Wikipedia is an encyclopedia. This article has content like a magazine/comic as such a joke with no credibility. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.100.54.203 (talk) 08:53, 14 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Alma Matter ? Do you mean Alma Mater? Or the wife of Gustave Mahler? 2001:44B8:3102:BB00:69CB:1E2B:3B63:E1B9 (talk) 22:49, 22 September 2020 (UTC)

Time for a photo update?
The vanity of public figures seems to make it acceptable for them to rely on images that are obviously from years earlier so the current photo, dated "1990's" may be from 40 years ago, but even 20 seems outdated. Is there nothing more recent available?--174.7.56.10 (talk) 21:32, 10 December 2014 (UTC)
 * You can say that again. Bragg is appropriately named. 2A00:23C6:BA13:4801:F181:5819:1475:C641 (talk) 04:50, 23 February 2023 (UTC)

Marie-Elisabeth Roche's age
Is the comparative age of Marie-Elisabeth Roche relevant? I'm not really interested in setting any wagers, on how a different hypothetical age might be viewed. But to me it's just a fact and I see no good reason to exclude it (although I must admit the source on which it seems to be based could be much improved). Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 17:59, 16 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Would one have even noted the age difference if she were the younger party? Are there many Wikipedia articles that point out that a man's wife is five years younger than he? If the answer to either or both of these questions is "no," I can see no good reason why it should be noteworthy the other way around. PaulCHebert (talk) 18:35, 16 January 2018 (UTC)

80th birthday?.
As Bragg is 80 today, how come the automatic software still shows his age to be 79?

I write from the UK, btw, which is where he lives, just in case people think this is something to do with the international date line. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.148.31.147 (talk) 14:29, 6 October 2019 (UTC)

Punch
Bragg also wrote regularly for Punch, mostly during the 1970s, chiefly about the arts, and especially about the difficulties of authors.

title: Talk:Melvyn Bragg


text: User talk:165.138.213.230

title: User talk:165.138.213.230


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Godzilla vs. Destoroyah

Godzilla vs. Destoroyah (ゴジラＶＳデストロイア) is a 1995 Japanese kaiju film directed by Takao Okawara, with special effects by Kōichi Kawakita. Distributed by Toho and produced under their subsidiary Toho Pictures, it is the 22nd installment in the Godzilla franchise, and is the seventh and final film in the franchise's Heisei period. The film features the fictional monster characters Godzilla, Godzilla Junior and Destoroyah, and stars Takuro Tatsumi, Yōko Ishino, Yasufumi Hayashi, Sayaka Osawa, Megumi Odaka, Masahiro Takashima, Momoko Kōchi and Akira Nakao, with Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla, Hurricane Ryu as Godzilla Junior, and Ryo Hariya as Destoroyah.

In the film, Godzilla's heart, which acts as a nuclear reactor, is nearing a nuclear meltdown which threatens the Earth. Meanwhile, a colony of mutated creatures known as Destoroyah emerge from the sea, changing form and terrorizing Japan, forcing the Japanese Self-Defense Forces to devise a plan to eliminate both threats.

Godzilla vs. Destoroyah received global publicity following an announcement by Toho that the film would feature the death of Godzilla. It was the final film starring actress Momoko Kōchi, produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka, and scored by composer Akira Ifukube before their deaths, though Ifukube's themes would continue to be used in subsequent films. The film was released theatrically in Japan on December 9, 1995. Regarded as one of the best films of the franchise, it received critical acclaim from critics for its performances of the cast, ambition, special effects, story, themes, and Ifukube's musical score. A direct-to-video release in the United States in 1999 by Columbia TriStar Home Video. It was the last Godzilla film to be produced by any studio until the 1998 film, and was the last Godzilla film produced by Toho until the 1999 film Godzilla 2000.

Plot
In 1996, Miki Saegusa of the United Nations Godzilla Countermeasures Center (UNGCC) travels to Baas Island to monitor Godzilla and Little Godzilla following the defeat of SpaceGodzilla, only to find the entire island destroyed and both monsters missing as the island was ingulfed in an explosion of nuclear fission. Godzilla, now covered in lava-like rashes, subsequently appears in Hong Kong and destroys great swathes of the city with an empowered version of its atomic breath. The JSDF hires college student Kenkichi Yamane to unravel the mystery of Godzilla's condition. Yamane, a grandson of the same Dr. Kyohei Yamane who had encountered the first Godzilla, suspects that Godzilla's heart, which acts as a nuclear reactor, is undergoing a nuclear meltdown as a result of the monster absorbing the energy released from a volcanically triggered uranium deposit on Baas Island. Yamane theorizes that when Godzilla's temperature reaches 1,200 C, it will explode with enough energy to melt the Earth down to its core.

The JSDF deploys the Super X III, an aerial combat vehicle outfitted with ultra-low temperature lasers, in an attempt to reverse Godzilla's self-destruction. While Godzilla's meltdown is not stopped, it is halted long enough to render Godzilla unconscious temporarily. Meanwhile, a colony of Precambrian organisms mutated by the Oxygen Destroyer used to defeat the original Godzilla are awoken during the construction of the Tokyo Bay Aqua Line. The creatures combine into several man-sized crab-like creatures and engage the JSDF in several deadly skirmishes. The creatures, dubbed "Destoroyah," are revealed to be vulnerable to subzero temperatures and are temporarily held at bay with low-temperature lasers. The creatures respond to the threat by merging into a larger 'Aggregate' form, which destroys the lasers and takes to the skies in its Flying form.

Godzilla awakens, its condition, having worsened to the point that its meltdown could potentially destroy the planet through a China syndrome-like incident. Miki locates Little Godzilla - renamed Godzilla Junior on account of its increased size - and telepathically lures it to Tokyo, hoping that Godzilla will follow and be killed by Destoroyah. Junior arrives and battles Destoroyah's Aggregate form, who absorbs its DNA before being seemingly defeated. Godzilla arrives at Haneda Airport and reunites with Godzilla Junior, only for Destoroyah, bolstered by Junior's DNA, to reappear in its final, 'perfect' form. Destoroyah kills Junior by dropping Junior onto the Ariake Coliseum and blasting it with its Micro-Oxygen beam. Godzilla manages to drive off its adversary and unsuccessfully attempts to revive Junior.

Godzilla's bereavement accelerates its temperature increase which melted off his dorsal plates. A second attack by Destoroyah further worsens Godzilla. In the ensuing battle, Godzilla's temperature reaches a critical state, granting it access to an even further empowered heat ray, which it uses to critically wound Destoroyah. Destoroyah tries to retreat, but the JSDF fires its low-temperature lasers at its wings, causing it to plummet onto the superheated ground and dissipate.

Following the defeat of Destoroyah, Godzilla goes into meltdown, but the JSDF is able to minimize the damage with its freezer weapons. While successful in preventing Earth's destruction, Godzilla slowly and painfully melts to his death, which renders Tokyo uninhabitable. Suddenly, the radiation in Tokyo abruptly decreases to background levels. Godzilla Junior's lifeless body had absorbed the senior Godzilla's radiation, resurrecting it as the new King of the Monsters and the new Godzilla.

Production

After Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II and Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla failed to match the attendance figures of the highly successful Godzilla vs. Mothra, producer Shogo Tomiyama announced in the summer of 1995 that the next Godzilla movie would be the series' final installment. Screenwriter Kazuki Ōmori initially proposed a story treatment entitled Godzilla vs. Ghost Godzilla, in which the current Heisei Godzilla would have faced off against the ghost of the original 1954 Godzilla. While this idea was scrapped, it was decided to maintain the reference to the original film by reintroducing the Oxygen Destroyer, the weapon that killed the original Godzilla 40 years earlier. In the original script, the final battle was to have taken place in the then still under construction World City, a development project costing $2.35 billion, though Tokyo governor Yukio Aoshima scrapped the project on account of its unpopularity with taxpayers. Toho began promoting the movie via large placards featuring the kanji text ゴジラ死す ("Godzilla dies").

Five days prior to the film's release, a large bronze sculpture of Godzilla was erected on the Hibiya cinema district. After the film's release, Toho studios was bombarded by letters of protest demanding Godzilla's resurrection, and several mourners gathered at the bronze statue to leave ¥10-100 coins and tobacco. One Japanese travel agency commemorated Godzilla's demise by hosting tours of various locations destroyed by Godzilla throughout its 40-year tenure. Toho representatives assured the public that Godzilla's death was not permanent, though they were not planning to revive him until the 21st century due to TriStar Pictures' plans to adapt the character in a film trilogy. However, after the first film was poorly received, Toho returned to the series in 1999 with the first film of the "Millennium Era", Godzilla 2000: Millennium.

Special effects
Effects artist Koichi Kawakita originally envisioned Godzilla being luminescent, and coated a Godzilla suit with luminescent paint and reflective tape, though this was deemed to look too unnatural. The final product was the result of placing 200 small orange light bulbs on the suit previously used for Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla and covering them with semitransparent vinyl plates. The resulting suit proved difficult for suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma to perform in, as the cable powering the light bulbs added extra weight to the suit, and the carbonic acid gas emitted by the costume nearly suffocated him six times. For Godzilla's confrontation with the Super-X III, the now-expendable suit previously used for Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II was used, as it was predicted that it would have suffered irreparable damage from the liquid nitrogen used during the scene.

Godzilla Junior and Destoroyah were also portrayed via traditional suitmation techniques, though because the Junior suit was almost the same size as the main Godzilla one, a small animatronic prop was used in scenes where Junior interacts with his father for the purpose of proper scaling. During the scene where the JSDF bombards the immature Destoroyahs, the creatures were realized with Bandai action figures. Kawakita made greater use of CGI than in previous installments, having used it for the Super-X III's freezing of Godzilla, shots showing helicopters, computer schematics showing the outcome of Godzilla's meltdown, and Godzilla's death.

Music
Composer Akira Ifukube, who had previously declined to compose the score of Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla, agreed to work on Godzilla vs. Destoroyah's soundtrack since he "felt that since [he had] been involved in Godzilla's birth, it was fitting for [him] to be involved in his death." For Destoroyah's theme, Ifukube had initially wanted to give each of Destoroyah's forms their own motif, though he subsequently chose to give them all the same theme. He chose not to use the Oxygen Destroyer theme from the original 1954 film, as he felt that the theme expressed the tragedy of the weapon's creator, and thus was inappropriate for a monster. He also deliberately avoided using Godzilla's death theme from the original film, as he wanted to focus more on the dark side of humanity rather than on Godzilla itself. In describing his composition of Godzilla's death theme, he stated that it was one of the most difficult pieces he had ever composed, and that he approached it as if he were writing the theme to his own death.

English version
After the film was released in Japan, Toho commissioned a Hong Kong company to dub the film into English. In this international version of the movie, an English title card was superimposed over the Japanese title, as had been done with the previous 1990s Godzilla films.

Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment released Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla and Godzilla vs. Destoroyah on home video on January 19, 1999, the first time that either film had been officially released in the United States. TriStar used the Toho dubs, but cut the end credits and created new titles and opening credits for both films, which included subtitling the film's title. The complete Toho international version of Godzilla vs. Destoroyah has been broadcast on several premium movie channels since the early 2000s.

Merchandise
Various video games based on the film were released, all published by Sega and released in 1995. Godzilla: Kaijuu no Daishingeki for Sega Game Gear, Godzilla: Heart-Pounding Monster Island for Sega Pico, and Godzilla: Rettoushinkan for Sega Saturn.

Rettoushinkan was well known for being a first real-time tactics video game to be released on 32-Bit Consoles, by 11 month before the PlayStation port of Warhammer: Shadow of the Horned Rat. as well as the only real-time tactics video game for the system, as the Sega Saturn version of Syndicate Wars was being cancelled in March 1997, with Bullfrog's head of conversions, Steve Metcalf, explaining that the Saturn market was not large enough to cover development costs.

Box office
The film opened at number one at the Japanese box office and went on to sell approximately 4 million tickets in Japan for a gross of total of ¥3.5 billion (US$34.5 million). It earned ¥2 billion in distribution income (around US$18 million). It was the number one domestic film at the box office in Japan by distribution income for 1996 and Fourth Place overall behind Twister, SE7EN and Mission: Impossible.

Critical response
The film was acclaimed by critics and fans. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film is the most elevated Godzilla film, holding an approval rating of 100% based on 6 reviews. Rotten Tomatoes ranked the film #6 out of all entries in the franchise.

Toho Kingdom said, "With an elegant style, a powerful plot, brilliant effects, and believable acting, this entry is definitely a notch above favorites from all three timelines, and its impact on the series is challenged by only a handful of competitors." Michael Hubert of Monster Zero praised the "spectacular monster battles", adding: "Even for non-Godzilla fans, this movie might help dispel some of the preconceptions you have about Godzilla's 'cheese factor'." Japan Hero called the film "a work of art" and "a must see for anyone who loves Godzilla" that features "something for everyone".

Stomp Kaiju gave the film a score of 4 out of 5, saying "This is one of the biggest productions the big G ever had. The new Super-X III, looking black and stealth-bombery, is a great addition, and the return of Lt. Sho Kuroki (Masashiro Takashima) from Godzilla vs Biollante as its pilot is a nice touch [...] It's nice to see a company handle its property, beloved by millions, with a little respect and knowledge of that property's history." Tim Brayton of Alternate Ending called it "A Godzilla movie of particular grandeur and seriousness", saying "it's the best Godzilla film of the VS era: visually robust, focused on great heaving gestures and emotions that work so much better in this franchise than the attempts at human-scaled storytelling that some of the more recent sequels gestured towards."

Mike Bogue of American Kaiju felt the film suffered from "several visual weaknesses" and a "disappointing editing", but that "the positive aspects of the visuals outweigh the negatives", and praised the film for "treating Godzilla with the same awe, majesty, and terror as [the original 1954 Godzilla]". A mixed review came from DVD Talk, saying that "Although it benefits from having an honest-to-goodness storyline with some continuity from the previous Godzillas (going back to the earliest films), Destoroyah's portentous pacing, cardboard-thin characters and cheeseball effects apparently served as a primer on what not to do when Hollywood picked up the franchise."

Home media
The film has been released on DVD by Columbia/Tristar Home Entertainment on February 1, 2000, along with Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla.

It was released on blu-ray in The Toho Godzilla Collection by Sony on May 6, 2014, along with Godzilla vs. Megaguirus.

Destoroyah
Destoroyah (デストロイア) is a crustacean kaiju who first appeared in Toho's 1995 film Godzilla vs. Destoroyah, as its titular main antagonist.

Overview
Destoroyah originated as a colony of microscopic Precambrian crustaceans that had been awakened and mutated by chemical reactions in Tokyo Bay when the Oxygen Destroyer was detonated to kill the original Godzilla in 1954. In 1995, the Destoroyahs are released from the rock strata that held them as a consequence of the construction of the Tokyo Bay Aqua Line. They eventually grow into man-sized creatures which repel a JSDF assault. The Destoroyahs later combine into a flying form which fights Godzilla Junior. Destoroyah is defeated, but then morphs into an even larger form that is significantly larger than Godzilla and towers over Junior. The creature proceeds to kill Godzilla Junior and faces Godzilla in Haneda Airport, but is finally killed through the combined efforts of Godzilla and the army.

Development
In conceptualizing Godzilla's final adversary, screenwriter Kazuki Ōmori initially proposed having the Heisei Godzilla battle the ghost of the original 1954 Godzilla. Instead, the filmmakers settled on a new monster that was a by-product of the Oxygen Destroyer. The character was initially going to be named "Barubaroi", though this was rejected on account of it sounding too similar to Berber, and thus could have been considered offensive. The Barubaroi designs were more chimeric, in the style of the creature from The Thing, than the finalized Destoroyah look, though they shared Destoroyah's trait of surpassing Godzilla in height.

All of Destoroyah's forms were designed by Minoru Yoshida, who'd been instructed to make the creature a crustacean. His design for Destoroyah's final form was given to illustrator Noriyoshi Ohrai, who incorporated it into the movie poster. Ohrai's depiction was later used as the basis for the 3D model used in constructing the creature's suit.

Composer Akira Ifukube had initially wanted to give each of Destoroyah's forms their own motif, though he subsequently chose to give them all the same theme. He chose not to use the Oxygen Destroyer theme from the original 1954 film, as he felt that the theme expressed the tragedy of the weapon's creator, and thus was inappropriate for a monster.

Reception
Complex listed the character as No. 3 on its "The 15 Most Badass Kaiju Monsters of All Time" list. Godzilla historian Steve Ryfle called Destoroyah a "nearly immobile Predator-meets-SpaceGodzilla clone", stating the character is "more laughable than menacing, and should be placed alongside Megalon and Gigan in the back rooms of the Toho monster gallery." Destoroyah was one of the inspirations behind the name of Japanese heavy metal band Destroya.

Films

 * Godzilla vs. Destoroyah (1995)

Television

 * Godzilla Island (1997)

Video games

 * Godzilla Trading Battle (PlayStation - 1998)
 * Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee (GameCube, Xbox - 2002/2003)
 * Godzilla: Save the Earth (Xbox, PS2 - 2004)
 * Godzilla: Unleashed (Wii, PS2 - 2007)
 * Godzilla Unleashed: Double Smash (NDS - 2007) as equal Playable/Boss
 * Godzilla (PS3, PS4 - 2014/2015)
 * Godzilla Defense Force (2019)
 * Godzilla Battle Line (2022)
 * GigaBash (PS4, PS5, Steam, Epic Games - 2022)

Literature

 * Godzilla vs. Destoroyah (manga - 1995)
 * Godzilla: Legends (comic - 2011–2012)
 * Godzilla: Rulers of Earth (comic - 2013–2015)
 * Godzilla: Cataclysm (comic - 2014)
 * Godzilla in Hell (comic - 2015)
 * Godzilla: Oblivion (comic - 2016)

title: Godzilla vs. Destoroyah