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Carson River

The Carson River is a northwestern Nevada river that empties into the Carson Sink, an endorheic basin. The main stem of the river is 131 mi long although the addition of the East Fork makes the total length 205 mi, traversing five counties: Alpine County in California and Douglas, Storey, Lyon, and Churchill Counties in Nevada, as well as the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City, Nevada. The river is named for Kit Carson, who guided John C. Frémont's expedition westward up the Carson Valley and across Carson Pass in winter, 1844. The river made the National Priorities List (NPL) on October 30, 1990 as the Carson River Mercury Superfund site (CRMS) due to investigations that showed trace amounts of mercury in the wildlife and watershed sediments.

History
Archaeological findings place the eastern border for the prehistoric Martis people in the Reno/Carson River area, these are thought to be the first humans to enter the area about 12,000 years ago. By the early 1800s, the Northern Paiute lived near the lower Carson River and the present Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge, while the Washoe people inhabited the upper watershed region.

The Carson River watershed was a shared territory between these two tribes. The Northern Paiute of western Nevada was grouped into several bands relating to the area that they inhabited. The group that established itself along the Carson River were known in the Shoshone language as "Toituked". The Washoe peoples that had residence in the Carson Valley were also divided into a separate group and called "Pau wa lu". Ancient people and indigenous tribes used the Carson River as a resource for livelihood, depending on the river for fish, waterfowl, plant materials, and especially water in the arid Nevada desert climate. Displacement of these tribes and changes of lifestyle did not take place until the development of European settlements.

The first European settlements in Nevada were the 1851 settlements at Mormon Station (now Genoa) and at the mouth of Gold Canyon (Dayton), both in the Carson River Watershed. In the 1850s and 1860s, the river was used as the route of the Carson Trail, a branch of the California Trail that allowed access to the California gold fields, as well as by the Pony Express. Gold was discovered along the river in the Silver Mountain Mining District in 1860. 1868 Virginia and Truckee Railroad transported ore to the quartz reduction mines along the river. Virginia City, Nevada, along the lower watershed, was home to the world's greatest silver rush, the Comstock Lode in 1859. The Carson Valley provided food and forage for the silver miners and their livestock. The Comstock mining boom critically impacted the watershed and water quality by causing deforested slopes, mine tailings, and steep raw riverbanks above channels cut into the valley floor in many places. These mining operations have also led to high levels of existing mercury concentrations within the watershed.

In the early 20th century, the Newlands Reclamation Act was passed to bring irrigation water into the region for agriculture. The Lahontan Dam, completed in 1914, was constructed as part of the Newlands Irrigation Project. The Truckee-Carson Irrigation District was formed in 1918 as part of the project to divert water from the Truckee River to the Carson Valley for agricultural use.

In 1989, the East Fork Carson River was designated a "Wild and Scenic River" by the State of California from Hangman's Bridge just east of Markleeville, California to the CA/NV border, prohibiting any further consideration of impoundment.

Watershed
The 205 mi Carson River watershed encompasses 3966 sqmi and includes two major forks in the Sierra Nevada in its upper watershed region. The 74 mi East Fork rises on the north slopes of Sonora Peak (itself just north of Sonora Pass at about 10400 ft in southern Alpine County, southeast of Markleeville in the Carson-Iceberg Wilderness. The 40 mi West Fork rises in the Sierras near Carson Pass and Lost Lakes at 9000 ft elevation and flows northeast into Nevada, joining the East Fork about 1 mi southeast of Genoa. The Carson River then flows north 18 mi to the end of the upper watershed at Mexican Dam just southeast of Carson City. In the middle watershed, the river runs generally northeast from Carson City across Lyon County, past Dayton. The middle watershed ends in eastern Churchill County at the Lahontan Dam. Here, river flows are augmented by water from the Truckee River and stored in the Lake Lahontan reservoir. Downstream from the dam (in the lower watershed), much of the water is used for irrigation in the vicinity of Fallon, with limited flows continuing northeast into the Carson Sink.

Clear Creek, which begins at about 8780 ft on Snow Valley Peak (Toiyabe National Forest, Carson Range) west of Carson City, is the only perennial tributary of the Carson River mainstem, and is protected by the Nature Conservancy.

Carson River mercury superfund site
The Carson River basin, from New Empire to Stillwater and the Carson Sink, was designated as National Priority Listed (NPL) due to historic mining activity site under the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund) in August 1990. This is Nevada's only NPL site and is being jointly managed by NDEP and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 9 (EPA), Region IX, in San Francisco. Millions of pounds of mercury were imported and used in approximately 250 Comstock mills to recover gold and silver. An estimated 14,000,000 pounds of mercury was lost to the environment during that process. Arsenic and lead, which were common constituents of the mined ore, were concentrated by the milling process and were also released into the environment. Therefore, the contaminants of concern (CoCs) at the site are mercury, arsenic, and lead.

Mercury, arsenic, and lead are known or suspected carcinogens (cancer-causing agents) and/or detrimental to human health in some other way. Mercury is the primary concern regarding the Carson River Mercury Superfund site. Several forms of mercury are prevalent in the open water source, including inorganic mercury (Hg2+) and organic methylmercury (MeHg). MeHg is produced from bacteria in river systems and can be ingested by the wildlife in the area. The methylmercury, due to its specific properties that include it being fat soluble, can lead to bioaccumulation and biomagnification of mercury in Carson River Aquatic wildlife. The contaminants, however, need a route into the human body to have a harmful effect. Direct contact with soils and subsequent ingestion and/or eating fish and waterfowl taken from the CRMS area, which may have already ingested CoCs, provide the most likely route into the body. Small children have the highest risk due to developing bodies and their propensity for ingesting soil while at play. Signs of Mercury poisoning due to oral ingestion are most commonly found to affect kidneys, central nervous system, and development - especially in organic mercury. The EPA and other scientists studied residents of contaminated areas and found no direct evidence of increased metals in blood, hair and urine samples. They did find elevated levels in certain fish and waterfowl. Some of the highest levels in the nation. Human health, if impacted, would be impacted slowly, over years of small amounts of exposure, and could be hard to detect.

The upland (dry-land) contamination source area of the CRMS. OU-1 is undergoing continued management and monitoring to assure public protection from mine wastes. The most significant health risk in OU-1 is direct contact and ingestion of contaminated soils. OU-2 is defined as the water, sediment, and biologic resources of the Carson River, Lahontan Reservoir, Washoe Lakes, Steamboat Creek, associated irrigation ditches, and the Stillwater Wildlife Refuge. EPA Contractor and USGS are continuing studies of OU-2 areas and will produce a (RI/FS). The most significant health risk posed by mercury in OU-2 is the consumption of fish and waterfowl from affected lake and river systems. In the 1990s, the EPA compelled several limited area cleanups to be completed by third parties and completed cleanup on a half dozen areas themselves. The cleanups occurred primarily in residential areas of Dayton. The remainder of the site has not undergone cleanup, and due to the size and scope of the area impacted, most likely never will. Since complete site cleanup is not economically viable. A long-term sampling and response plan (LTSRP) was developed to manage site contamination in the future. The LTSRP provides guidance for land development activities (both commercial and residential) to help assure site CoCs do not impact human health and the environment. Typically, soil sampling is required to verify developed area soils do not contain CoCs at levels which may cause harm to human health.

Mercury amalgamation process
The Mercury in the Carson river is primarily introduced into the river through sediment deposition resulting from mine tailings during the Comstock Lode. These tailings were attributed to the mining process that settlers used in the 1850s to recover silver and gold. This process is known as mercury amalgamation. Mercury amalgamation has been mining precious metals since the Middle Ages. Mercury amalgamation is accomplished by pulverizing the ore and covering it with mercury using drums or tables. Once the mercury binds to the gold or silver, it is separated from the barren soil to a retorting vessel where the mercury is vaporized and condensed off of the amalgam. During the Comstock Lode a new, Washoe "hot-pan" amalgamation, the process was created specifically to treat Nevada ore in 1861. Washoe "hot pan" mining used a cast iron pan with the soil mixture, mercury, sulfuric acid, and other materials to remove the precious metals.

Losses of mercury that attributed to the contamination of the Carson River and eventually to the CRMS occurred during these processes. Mercury loss in the mining operations ranged from transportation failures, crude equipment, and poor handling. The mercury was transferred using leather bags, pails, and barrels that leaked and spilled. Equipment was not up to standards and not practical for containing tailings. However, most of the mercury loss happened throughout the amalgam process. The recovery amount of the vaporized mercury completely depends on the technology used, and the efficiency of mercury binding depends on the ability of the precious metal. Both of the actions were not completely refined themselves and attributed to as much as 0.7–1 kg of mercury waste/ per tonne of ore processed in Nevada mines.

Hydraulic mining was also used in the Carson River region. Hydraulic mining uses mercury to bond to the gold and silver in the mining slurry. The gold/silver amalgam drops to the bottom of the sluice while gravel and other tailings pass over. As time passes, the mercury is ground into a fine layer that coats the bottom of the sluice and can contaminate the surrounding area through leaks and the effluent of water containing the mercury. It is estimated that this practice in California attributed to mercury losses up to 10-30%.

Ecology
In the lower reaches of the Carson River watershed, the Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge hosts large breeding colonies of white-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) and is frequented by non-breeding American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). In winter, the refuge supports wintering tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus) as well as hosts of ducks and geese. The Carson River watershed also provides habitat for many smaller species of birds such as tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) and house wrens (Troglodytes aedon). Recent research on these two bird species has shown significant mercury concentrations in the livers and eggshells of the birds nesting along the river.

The upper Carson River watershed provides habitat for the threatened Lahontan cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi), as well as large non-native rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), providing excellent fly fishing. The Lahontan cutthroat is threatened by hybridization with rainbow trout, but there is a pure Lahontan strain on 5 mi of the East Fork Carson River from the headwaters to Carson Falls. There is also a native population of the only Paiute cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki seleniris) in existence in the drainages of Silver King Creek, a tributary of the East Fork Carson River in the Carson Ranger District of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest.

North American beaver (Castor canadensis) were re-introduced to the Carson River watershed around 1940 and have thrived since. There are eyewitness accounts of beaver in the upper Carson River through 1892. The Washo people who lived in the eastern Sierra with hunting grounds extending as far west as Calaveras County, have a word for beaver, c'imhélhel. Powers reported that the northern Paiute wrapped their hair in strips of beaver fur, made medicine from parts of beaver and that their creation legend included beaver, which they called su-i'-tu-ti-kut'-teh. Given the hydrological connection of the Humboldt River and Sink to the Carson Sink during flood years (as recently as 1998), it is not surprising that beavers were historically extant on eastern Sierra watercourses. Peter Skene Ogden, on a Hudson's Bay Company expedition to the terminus of the Humboldt River, wrote in his diary on May 15, 1829, "In no part have I found beaver so abundant. The total number of American trappers in this region at this time exceeds 80. I have only 28 trappers... The trappers now average 125 beaver a man and are greatly pleased with their success." James "Grizzly" Adams trapped beaver in the Carson River around 1860, "In the evening we caught a fine lot of salmon-trout (cutthroat trout), using grasshoppers for bait, and in the night killed half a dozen beavers, which were very tame." Adams' account is consistent with a 1906 newspaper article in the Nevada State Journal that the Mason's Valley of the nearby Walker River in Yerington, Nevada was well known to "the early trappers and fur hunters...Kit Carson knew it to the bone...The beavers of course were all trapped long ago, and you never see an elk nowadays..."

Environmental impact
During the Comstock Lode mining operations (1860–1890), extensive amount of Mercury (Hg) was released into the Carson River, Lahontan Reservoir, and Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge. The mercury levels in the Carson River and Lahontan Reservoir vary from 100-1000 ng/L, which is considered highly toxic. The surrounding wildlife has been exposed to this contamination and has been subject to negative effects. These organomercurials readily bioaccumulate and affect the predators in this ecosystem with the greatest mercury concentration. An example of this bioaccumulation has been researched in fish-eating birds along the river. The species involved in the study were adult double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), snowy egrets (Egretta thula) and black-crowned night-herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), which all recorded high levels of Hg toxicity in their kidneys and livers. Concentrations of Hg were also observed in eggs and fledglings, but were found not to affect the hatchability of the eggs. Rather, the levels of mercury observed in fledglings have led to induced stress, immune deficiencies, and neurological impairment, which could lead to a decrease in survival rates for younger birds learning to survive along the Carson River.

Many fish species in the Carson River also have been studied to check for mercury contamination. In one study, electrofishing was conducted at four different locations along the river to capture and sample fish for traces of Hg toxicity. Carp, golden shiners, species of sucker-fish, and crayfish all showed Hg toxicity in samples taken from the four testing sites. This study also showed that many samples taken from the fourth, and furthest down the river system, produced higher levels of Hg contamination, suggesting that the mercury has been getting washed down the Carson River and accumulating at the Lahontan Reservoir. White bass,a piscivorous species in Lahontan Reservoir, are subject to the bioaccumulation of Hg contamination, and have showed mercury concentration significantly higher to that catfish species found in the reservoir due to difference in diet. Research has shown that the concentrations of mercury vary dependent on species, diet, and size of the individual fish, and that currently the fish found in the reservoir are considered safe, but not recommended, for human consumption.

Recreation
The Carson River is a trophy trout stream that offers ideal conditions for both fly and spinning anglers. Further up in the river system anglers can fish for various species of trout, such as the previously mentioned Lahontan Cutthroat, Rainbow, and Brown trout. Down the river system the ecosystem changes to a warm water environment, and the fish species change accordingly.

Backcountry hiking is found along the upper river in the Carson-Iceberg Wilderness. Kayakers and river rafters enjoy the lower river's gentle class II rapids, as well as its outstanding scenery and river-side hot springs. The East Carson has extensive Native American cultural values associated with the Washoe tribe. The watershed is also a popular recreation spot for mountain biking, off-roading, hunting, and horse-back riding. Development along the river in Douglas, Carson City, and Lyon counties has limited public access in some areas.

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Category:Field (mathematics)

Field theory is a branch of mathematics which studies the properties of fields.

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title: Category:Field (mathematics)


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Category:Ring theory

In mathematics, ring theory is the study of rings—algebraic structures in which addition and multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those familiar from the integers.

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Sophia Forero

Sophia Forero is a jewelry designer. She creates jewelry with colors and textures inspired by her study of international cultures, including Tuareg culture and Byzantine art.

Biography
Educated at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for her undergraduate degree and then at the University of Chicago for her Master's, Sophia Forero lived in Eastern Europe working for the US Peace Corps as a teacher. She first became interested in designing jewelry while writing her masters thesis on indigenous cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa. While in the Peace Corps in Hungary, she visited bead factories and gathered materials from all over Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the Balkans.

In 2002, Sophia won Marshall Field's Distinction in Design award, coming in first place over hundreds of designers. In 2004, Fashion Group International selected Sophia Forero Jewels as its 2004 recipient of the Style Makers & Rule Breakers award. The award "honors Sophia Forero as a trendsetter in the Accessories category...(and) identifies Sophia Forero as an innovator, a creator, a visionary and a formidable talent in the fashion and design industries."

In 2013, Sophia completed the Goldman Sachs 10,000 Small Businesses program, an initiative to help businesses launch the next stage of growth. To date, SFD is set to introduce an augmented series to the mosaic collection with diamond and sapphire. Using the talents of sculptor Mauricio Forero to create new designs, the couple will unveil the Caviar collection in 2014.

Sophia lives and works in Illinois with her husband and four children.

title: Sophia Forero


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Postage stamps and postal history of Greece

Greece's first postal service was founded in 1828, at the time of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. This initial service continued mail delivery and, later, the issuing of postage stamps until 1970. It was then succeeded by the Hellenic Post S.A. (abbreviated ΕΛΤΑ), which remains Greece's official postal provider. The first Greek stamps (known as "Large Hermes heads") were issued in 1861; by then, the postal service had expanded to operate 97 branches. Until 1966, with the exception of a set issued in 1927, all Greek stamps were simply inscribed ΕΛΛΑΣ (Hellas, the country's Greek name). From 1966 to 1982, the inscription was modified to include both the Greek and Latin versions: ΕΛΛΑΣ-HELLAS. Beginning in 1982, ΕΛΛΑΣ was replaced with ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΗΜΟΚΡΑΤΙΑ (Hellenic Republic); this inscription is still being used on Greek stamps. It was also used on the 1927 set referred to earlier.

In 1875, Greece was among the founding members of the General Postal Union (renamed the Universal Postal Union in 1878).

Greece's territory and population was greatly expanded by the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars; it acquired some additional territory during World War I. This led to the issuing of several sets of occupation stamps, which consisted of both existing stamp issues with overprints and newly printed issues. In addition to these, some of the so-called "New Territories", notably the islands of Ikaria and Samos, issued their own stamps prior to becoming part of Greece.

Beginning with the Olympic issue of 1896, Greece has issued a number of commemorative stamps. Their subjects have included Greek history, art, mythology and wildlife.

Ionian Islands (1859–1864)
The first Greek-inscribed stamps were not issued by Greece proper, but by the nearby Ionian Islands. Under British rule from 1815 to 1864, this island group was known as the United States of the Ionian Islands. A set of three stamps was issued on 15 May 1859. Printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co. of London and inscribed ΙΟΝΙΚΟΝ ΚΡΑΤΟΣ (Ionian State), they depicted a profile of Queen Victoria. All were imperforate and bore no face value, this being indicated by their colors; orange (½ penny), blue (1 penny) and lake (2 pence). These stamps became invalid after the Ionian Islands were ceded to Greece on 28 June 1864.

Large Hermes heads (1861–1888)

The first stamps of Greece were the so-called "Large Hermes heads", depicting a profile of the Greek messenger god Hermes in a frame strongly resembling that used for contemporary stamps of France. The basic design was by the French engraver Albert Désiré Barre and the first batch was printed in Paris by Ernst Meyer. The first set was issued on 1 October 1861. It consisted of seven denominations (1 lepton, 2, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 lepta). In November 1861 the printing plates were transferred to Athens and subsequent printings made there. The plates continued in use into the mid-1880s, resulting in a number of varieties due to plates becoming worn and then cleaned, as well as the printing of the stamps on several kinds of paper. Most types were also printed with control numbers on the back, and all were imperforate. Additional denominations (30 and 60 lepta) were introduced in 1876, to comply with the General Postal Union's international letter rates (30 lepta for basic, 60 for registered letters).

Postage due stamps (1875–1902)
The first postage due stamps of Greece were issued in 1875. The first batch was printed in Vienna, as were further releases in 1876 and 1890-1893. Green to yellow-green in color, with numerals declaring each stamp's value along with the inscription ειοπρακτέον(-α) (postage due(s)) inside a central circle, these stamps are known as "rologakia" (little clocks). The first two sets consisted of twelve values; 1 lepton, 2, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 70, 80 and 90 lepta, 1 drachma and 2 drachmae. The third contained only the 1 lepton, 2, 5, 40 and 60 lepta. The stamps were issued with a variety of perforations: 9, 9½, 10, 10½ and compound.

A second design, with its inscription contained in a scroll pattern in place of the circle, was issued in 1902. Known as the London issue, it was printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co., with engraving by the Johnstonia Engraving Company. These stamps had perforations of 13½. In place of the earlier issues' 60, 70, 80 and 90 lepta values, the London issue introduced new denominations of 3, 25, 30 and 50 lepta; it also dropped the 2 drachmae value. With only minor changes, this design has been used on all Greek postage due stamps since.

Small Hermes heads (1886–1900)

In 1883, Greece's postal service reduced its international letter rates to 25 and 50 lepta (for basic and registered letters respectively). This, as well as the need for a new 1 drachma value to cover parcel post services, led to the issue of a new set of stamps. This set, the "Small Hermes heads", first appeared in 1886. The first batch was printed in Malines, Belgium followed by numerous reprints in Athens until 1900. Like their predecessors, they depicted Hermes in profile, but with a smaller head and a rounder helmet. Initially the sheets were imperforate. Perforated versions, initially 13½ and later 11½, became available in 1891. The denominations were 1 lepton, 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 40, and 50 lepta and 1 drachma.

In September 1900 some of the small Hermes head stamps (blue 25 lepta and violet 40 lepta) were surcharged with different values (20 lepta, 1 drachma and 2 drachmae) due to the delay in printing the new Flying Mercury issue.

1896 Olympic issue
Greece's first commemorative stamps were issued in 1896 for the 1896 Summer Olympics, the first Olympic games in modern times. The series consisted of twelve values (1 lepton, 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 40 and 60 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 5 and 10 drachmae). There were eight different designs, by Professor I. Svoronos, which included famous sports-related images from ancient Greece, such as a chariot race and Myron's Discobolus. The stamps were designed by Swiss artist A. Guilleron, the steel dies were created by the French engraver Louis-Eugène Mouchon and printing took place at the National Printing Office of France. The name E. MOUCHON appears at the bottom side of each stamp. The stamps were delivered in perforated sheets (13½ x 14). They were at first meant to be sold only during the Games, but their circulation period was extended; first to March 1897, then until they were sold out. The 1896 Olympics stamps, of which the 5 and 10 drachmae denominations are relatively rare, remain popular with collectors of topical stamps relating to sports and Olympic games.

A M overprints (1900–1901)
In 1900 and 1901, a variety of existing Greek stamps (Large Hermes heads, Small Hermes heads and 1896 Olympics) were surcharged in black or red with new values and also with the letters "A M", standing for the Greek words Αξία Μεταλλική ("Axia Metalliki" or "value in (gold) metal"), meaning that the face values were based on the gold standard of the Latin Monetary Union. These stamps were sold at the post offices at a price higher than the face value, due to the depreciation of the drachma. The "A M" stamps were mainly used for international parcel post and postal money orders, although they are sometimes found on normal letter covers. In 1902 these stamps were withdrawn and replaced with the "A M" series.

Flying Mercury and A M issues (1901–1902)
In 1901, a new series of definitive stamps was issued, replacing the small Hermes heads and the overprints of 1900. The new stamps depicted Giovanni da Bologna's statue of Hermes/Mercury (c. 1564). The series included fourteen denominations in three different designs: 1 lepton, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3 and 5 drachmae. The high values of this series are notable for being printed in metallic colors; bronze (2d), silver (3d), and gold (5d). The stamps were printed on two qualities of paper (thick and thin) with watermark "ET" and crown. The sheets were delivered with perforation 13½ for the low values and 11½ for the high values, although small quantities were delivered with different perforations.

In 1902 an additional series of five stamps was issued, depicting the head of the same statue. These stamps were in values of gold currency and inscribed "A M" for Αξία Μεταλλική ("Axia Metalliki" or "value in metal"). They replaced the provisional "A M" overprints of 1900-1901 for international parcel post and money orders. The series was printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co. on thick paper, watermarked with "ET" and crown and delivered with perforation 13½. These stamps were also used briefly as revenue stamps in 1913.

The 1901–1902 issues remained in regular use until 1911.

1906 Olympic issue
Commemorative issue for the 1906 Intercalated Games. This set of stamps was printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co. and issued on 25 March 1906. It consisted of fourteen denominations (1 lepton, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3 and 5 drachmae). Special commemorative cancellations were used during the Games at Zappeion (ΖΑΠΠΕΙΟΝ), Stadium (ΣΤΑΔΙΟΝ) and Acropolis (ΑΚΡΟΠΟΛΙΣ) provisional post offices. The 1906 Olympics stamps were never withdrawn and can be found with postmarks dated until 1910. They were also overprinted for use as revenue stamps.

1911 Engraved issue
In 1911, a new series of definitive stamps was issued to replace the Flying Mercury set. There were four different designs, by I. Svoronos (who had designed the 1896 Olympic issue) and G. Jakovides, which depicted Hermes and the rainbow goddess Iris. The set consisted of sixteen values (1 lepton, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3, 5, 10 and 25 drachmae). It would become known as the "Engraved issue". The plates were engraved by Thomas McDonald (UK) and printing was done by the firm Gerasimos Aspiotis Bros. of Corfu. The sheets were delivered on unwatermarked paper with perforation 13½.

The 3, 5 and 10 drachmae stamps from this set were re-issued in 1921 with slightly altered dimensions, measuring 20½ x 25½ mm.; the original issue measured 20½ x 26½ mm.

General issue ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ (1912–1913)
Greece's borders were greatly expanded by the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 as it occupied Macedonia including the city of Thessaloniki, parts of Epirus and Thrace and various Aegean islands, as well as formally annexing Crete. Until these so-called "New Territories" were formally incorporated into Greece, they were not permitted to use regular Greek stamps. In order to cover postal needs in these areas, Greece's government ordered existing stamps to be overprinted with ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ (Hellenic Administration) until a planned 1912 issue became available. A special overprint, ΛΗΜΝΟΣ, was also ordered for use on the island of Lemnos, which was occupied in October 1912. These overprints, in three different colors (black, red and carmine), were applied to the 1911 "Engraved" definitives, the 20 lepta Flying Mercury stamp, the 1902 postage due stamps and some of the 1913 "Lithographic" definitives. This issue went through several printings, initially by Aspiotis Bros. and later by the Aquarone printing house of Thessaloniki. The overprints normally read from the bottom of the stamp to the top; due to misplacement of sheets in the printing press, some were released with the overprint reading from top to bottom.

A variation of this overprint, consisting of the letters "Ε.*Δ" in red, was employed on the island of Chios in 1913. This was applied locally to a quantity of 25 lepta stamps from the ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ issue which were mistakenly delivered without the overprint.

Campaign issue and Souda Bay issue (1913)
A set of sixteen stamps was issued in April 1913, to replace the provisional ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ and ΛΗΜΝΟΣ overprints in territories under Greek military occupation. Two designs were used, depicting Constantine the Great's vision and the Eagle of Zeus; this set would become known as the "Campaign issue". It consisted of the following values: 1 lepton, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3, 5, 10 and 25 drachmae. It was printed by Aspiotis Bros. using the lithographic process. The stamps were printed on two types of paper, smooth and rough, with perforation 13½. These stamps were occasionally also used in Greece proper.

In 1916, certain values of the Campaign issue were overprinted with Ι. Κοινότης Αγ. Όρους (Holy Community of Mount Athos). Intended for local use in the Mount Athos area, these overprinted stamps were never put into circulation; most of them were burned in the 1930s. There were two types of overprint; horizontal (applied to the 1 lepton, 2, 3, and 15 lepta and 2 drachmae values) and vertical (applied to the 20 lepta).

A 25 lepta commemorative stamp was issued on 1 December 1913 for use only by Cretan post offices. This stamp depicts the 1 May 1913 raising of the Greek flag on Souda Island, marking the annexation of Crete to the Kingdom of Greece. It was printed by Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co. of London with perforation 14½. It remained in circulation for only one year.

Lithographic issue (1913–1923)
The First Balkan War, and the new territory it brought Greece, led to an increase in demand for definitive stamps. The increased demand, combined with a wartime money shortage, led the Greek government to seek the least expensive means of producing stamps in large quantities. It was decided to re-print the existing definitives using lithography; the resulting set is known as the "Lithographic issue". Also printed by Aspiotis Bros., the sheets were delivered on unwatermarked paper with perforation 13½. The eighteen values in this set were not issued all at once, but ranged in date from 1913 to 1923, as follows: 1 lepton, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20 and 25 lepta (1913); 15 lepta (1918); 30, 40 and 50 lepta (1914); 80 lepta (1923); 1 drachma, 2 drachmae (1919); 3 drachmae (1920); 5, 10 and 25 drachmae (1922).

The 25 and 40 lepta and 1 drachma values from this set were re-issued in 1926, printed in Vienna using new plates.

Ikaria, Mytilene and Samos (1912–1915)
The Aegean islands of Ikaria and Samos successfully rebelled against Ottoman rule shortly before the First Balkan War, in July and September 1912 respectively. The former was declared the "Free State of Ikaria" by a provisional government, which proceeded to issue its own stamps. These were printed by Stangel & Co. in Athens and issued in October 1912. They were inscribed ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΑ ΠΟΛΙΤΕΙΑ ΙΚΑΡΙΑΣ (Free State of Ikaria) and depicted Penelope, the wife of Odysseus. The values in this set of eight consisted of 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2 and 5 drachmae. Ikaria was occupied by Greek forces in November 1912, after which overprinted Greek stamps replaced the local issue.

Though the revolutionary government on Samos wished to become part of Greece, this did not happen until late 1914 when a General Administrator was sent from Athens to take charge. In the meantime, the Samian government issued several sets of stamps. The first, issued on 14 November 1912, was a set of three depicting a map of Samos with the inscription ΠΡΟΣΩΡΙΝΟΝ ΤΑΧΥΔΡΟΜΕΙΟΝ ΣΑΜΟΥ (Provisional Post Office of Samos). All were imperforate and printed locally by hand. The second, depicting a profile of Hermes, was printed by Stangel & Co. and released in two batches. The first batch, issued on 26 November, consisted of five values (1 lepton, 5, 10, 25 and 50 lepta) with perforation 11½; the second, issued on 22 December, was overprinted with ΕΛΛΑΣ in boldface type. It included the values from the first batch plus a 1 drachma value. This would be known as the "Large ΕΛΛΑΣ" overprint to distinguish it from a second, thinner overprint applied in February 1914 (the "Thin ΕΛΛΑΣ"). A third set, the "castles" issue, was released on 4 January 1913. Consisting of five values (1 drachma, 2, 5, 10 and 25 drachmae), it commemorated both an 1824 Greek victory over the Ottoman Empire at Gerontas Bay and the 1912 vote for union with Greece. The stamps were printed at the shop of lithographer O.K. Travlos in Vathy and signed ΘΣ, the initials of Samian president Themistoklis Sophoulis. Red ink was used for the signatures on all values except the 25 drachmae, on which black ink was used. An illustrated postal card was issued along with the Hermes set; printed on one side was the 5 lepta value from that set and the Greek coat of arms, the other side depicted Vathy palace and portraits of Sophoulis and Lykourgos Logothetis, the island's leader in the Greek War of Independence. All issues were replaced by the ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ and Campaign stamps when Greece assumed control of Samos. In December 1914 some of the Hermes and "castles" stamps were re-issued as charity stamps, with the overprint Γενική Διοίκησις Σάμου (General Administration of Samos).

Mytilene was occupied by Greek forces near the end of 1912. Turkish stamps were seized from the main post office and overprinted with Ελληνική Κατοχή Μυτιλήνης ("Greek Occupation of Mytilene"). This overprint was applied at the print shop of the newspaper Salpinx ("Trumpet"). Since there was no Greek currency available on Mytilene at the time, the overprinted stamps retained their value in Turkish paras and piastres.

Greek Occupation of Thrace (1913, 1920)
During the Second Balkan War, several cities in Thrace came under Greek occupation. Overprinted stamps were subsequently issued for the Thracian cities of Dedeagatch (July 1913) and Giumulzina (August 1913). In the former, a three-line overprint reading ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ ΔΕΔΕΑΓΑΤΣ (Hellenic Administration of Dedeagatch) along with new values was applied to stamps of Bulgaria. This was followed by three sets of locally printed stamps, one in July and two in September 1913. Printed on three different colors of paper (white, yellow and blue), they were inscribed ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΙΟΙΚΗΣΙΣ ΔΕΔΕΑΓΑΤΣ with values at the bottom. The September issues bore the added inscription ΠΡΟΣΩΡΙΝΟΝ (Provisional). In the latter, the overprint ΕΛΛ. ΔΙΟΙΚ. ΓΚΙΟΥΜΟΥΛΤΖΙΝΑΣ (Hellenic Administration of Giumulzina) in blue and red was applied to Turkish stamps along with new values (10 and 25 lepta). Both cities were returned to Bulgaria after the war.

In 1920, after World War I, Greece regained control of western Thrace. The Greek occupying authorities issued three sets of stamps for use in the region: stamps from the "Engraved", "Lithographic" and 1916 "ET" issues overprinted with Διοίκησις Δυτικής Θράκης (Administration of Western Thrace), released in May 1920; Turkish stamps overprinted with Υπάτη Αρμοστεία Θράκης (High Commission of Thrace) and new values, released in July 1920; and Greek stamps from the three sets listed above, overprinted with Διοίκησις Θράκης and released the same year.

Royal Government ET issue (1916)
During World War I, Greece was divided over the question of joining the Entente Powers or staying neutral (the National Schism). In October 1916 a pro-Entente group formed a separate, provisional government in Thessaloniki, led by Eleftherios Venizelos. The Athens government, to prevent them from using stamps already in circulation, ordered those stamps to be overprinted with the letters "ET" and the Greek crown. This overprint was applied to stamps from the "Engraved" and "Lithographic" sets, which were then issued on 1 November 1916.

Thessaloniki Provisional Government issue (1917)
In response to the "ET" overprints, Venizelos' Provisional Government ordered the engraving and printing of a new set of stamps from Perkins, Bacon and Co. Their design was based on the Iris stamps from the 1911 issue, with the additional inscription ΠΡΟΣΩΡΙΝΗ ΚΥΒΕΡΝΗΣΙΣ (Provisional Government). The set was lithographed on porous paper, with a perforation of 14½. It consisted of eleven values: 1 lepton, 5, 10, 25 and 50 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3, 5, 10 and 25 drachmae. A 4 drachmae value was also printed, but was only used as a revenue stamp.

1922 Revolution overprints (1923)
In May 1923, the overprint ΕΠΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΙΣ 1922 (Revolution of 1922) was applied to existing stamps of Crete and Greece, including the 1913 Campaign and 1917 Provisional Government issues. The overprint was in commemoration of the 1922 Revolution which led to the second abdication of King Constantine I, and was applied at the National Printing House in Athens.

Definitive issues
A new set of definitive stamps was issued on 1 April 1927. Its fourteen values (5, 10, 20, 25, 40, 50, and 80 lepta, 1 drachma and 2, 3, 10, 15 and 25 drachmae) depicted various landscapes and costumes of Greece, such as the Corinth Canal and the White Tower of Thessaloniki; therefore it was known as the "Landscapes set". A 1 lepton value was printed but never issued. The printing plates were manufactured by the firm Thomas McDonald of London and printing took place at Aspiotis Bros. Several later issues were intended to supplement this set; the 1933 Republic set (50, 75 and 100 drachmae), the 1934 Athens Stadium stamp (8 drachmae) and the 1935 Mystras stamp (4 drachmae). Between 1931 and 1935, the 50 lepta, 1 drachma, and 2, 3, 10, 15 and 25 drachmae values were re-issued. The set was withdrawn from circulation in 1939.

A further definitive issue was released in the late 1930s. Known as the "Historical issue", it was issued in three phases. Its first phase, issued on 1 November 1937, was a set of four stamps which depicted King George II, including values of 1 drachma and 3, 8 and 100 drachmae. The 3 drachmae value represented the domestic postal rate, and the 8 drachmae value the international postal rate. On 1 November 1937 the second phase, devoted to Themes from the evolution of the Greek civilization, was issued. It consisted of thirteen values (5, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 80 lepta and 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 15 and 25 drachmae) depicting important works of art and episodes in Greek history, such as the Venus de Milo, the Battle of Salamis and St. Paul preaching in Athens. The third phase was issued on 8 October 1938 to commemorate the unveiling of a statue of King Constantine I in Athens; it depicted that statue and consisted of two values (1.5 and 30 drachmae).

The "Historical issue" was withdrawn from circulation in 1941 (the King George and King Constantine issues) and 1943 (the Greek civilization set).

Early airmail stamps (1926–1939)
Greece's first airmail stamps, known as the "Patagonia set", were released in mid-October 1926. They were intended for use on airmail letters from Greece to Italy and Turkey, and produced by the Italian firm Aero Espresso Italiana (AEI). The design, by A. Gavalas, depicted flying boats against various backgrounds. The set was printed in Milan, Italy, reputedly by the firm Bestetti & Tumminelli, and consisted of four values (2, 3, 5 and 10 drachmae). This issue remained in circulation until 1933, when it was replaced by the zeppelin and "Aeroespresso" issues, also produced by AEI.

The zeppelin issue, consisting of three values (30, 100 and 120 drachmae), was issued 2 May 1933 and remained on sale until 27 May. It was released in connection with the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin's 29 May flight to Rome and depicted a zeppelin flying over the Acropolis of Athens.

Its successor, the "Aeroespresso set", was released on 10 October 1933; its designs depicted flight-related themes. It was printed by Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co. of London and consisted of seven values (50 lepta, 1 drachma, 3, 5, 10, 20 and 50 drachmae). This set remained in circulation until 1935.

All unsold stamps from these three sets were returned to AEI, who then placed them on the philatelic market.

On 2 November 1933 the Greek government, in conjunction with the Hellenic Aerial Communications Company, issued its own set of airmail stamps for general use. The plates were produced by Thomas De La Rue (UK) and the printing was done by Aspioti-ELKA. This set, depicting airplanes over various locations in Greece, consisted of seven values (50 lepta, 1 drachma, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 drachmae).

After the "Aeroepresso" set was withdrawn from circulation in 1935, Greece issued a new set of nine airmail stamps. Called the "Mythological issue", its designs, by M. Biskinis, depicted figures from ancient Greek mythology like Daedalus, Icarus, Helios and Athena. As with the first government issue, the plates were produced by Thomas De La Rue and the printing done by Aspioti ELKA. It was released on 10 November 1935 and consisted of nine values (1 drachma, 2, 5, 7, 10, 25, 30, 50 and 100 drachmae). Due to vast growth in airmail correspondence in the mid-to-late 1930s, several values of this set (1 drachma, 2, 5, 7 and 10 drachmae) were re-issued in 1937 and 1939.

Definitive issues
In April–May 1941, Greece came under Axis occupation, which lasted until October 1944. During this time, regular Greek stamps continued to be issued. A new definitive set depicting Greek landscapes including the Meteora monasteries and Aspropotamos River, intended to replace the 1937 "Historical issue", was released in two batches of nine. The first was issued in 1942 and consisted of 2, 5, 10, 15, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 200 drachmae values. Due to vastly increasing inflation later in the occupation period, the second batch, issued in 1944, bore higher values ranging from 500 to 5,000,000 drachmae. This set remained in circulation until 11 November 1944. On that date, to accompany a post-occupation money reform, three stamps from the "Historical" set (the 50 lepta and 2 and 5 drachmae values) were issued with the overprint ΔΡΑΧΜΑΙ ΝΕΑΙ (New Drachmae). The new exchange rate was fixed at 50 billion old drachmae to 1 new drachma. In May 1945, the 6 drachma "Historical" value was issued with the same overprint.

In 1945 a new set of eight definitives, the "Glory issue", was released. Intended to cover regular mail, airmail and international parcel post as well as replace the ΔΡΑΧΜΑΙ ΝΕΑΙ set, it included values of 1 drachma, 3, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 drachmae and was perforated 12½ x 13½. This set was named for its depiction of Nikolaos Gysis' painting The Glory of Psara.

During the occupation, Greek airmail was limited to two domestic routes; Athens-Thessaloniki and Athens-Heraklion. Foreign destinations were likewise restricted to Germany, Italy and certain Axis-occupied countries. At first, Greek postage due stamps were converted for airmail use by being overprinted with a small airplane design in red. However, these sold out rather quickly, creating the need for a new issue. A set of six values (2, 5, 10, 20, 25 and 50 drachmae) with designs by O. Perivolarakis depicting various Anemoi, or wind gods, was released on 15 August 1942. This set was re-printed in 1943, with three existing values (10, 25 and 50 drachmae) in different colors from the originals and three new values (100, 200 and 400 drachmae). Inflation rendered these stamps useless for mailing by April 1944; they were withdrawn from circulation in July. In the meantime, the use of regular stamps to cover airmail rates was allowed.

Semi-postal stamps
Greece's first semi-postal stamps were produced during the occupation. The first, a set of three, was issued on 3 October 1943. It consisted of the following values and designs; 25 + 25 drachmae (portrait of a child), 100 + 50 drachmae (portrait of a mother and baby) and 200 + 100 drachmae (portrait of the Virgin Mary and infant Christ). Use of these stamps was mandatory on domestic mail through that month; proceeds from their sale went toward the Patriotic Charity and Awareness Institution Fund, for use in children's welfare programs. A second semi-postal set of ten, consisting of 1942 definitives and 1944 airmail issues surcharged with ΒΟΜΒΑΡΔΙΣΜΟΣ ΠΕΙΡΑΙΩΣ 11-1-1944 ΔΡ. 100.000 (Bombardment of Piraeus 11-1-1944 dr. 100,000), was issued on 11 June 1944. This set's proceeds were used to aid the families of victims of the Allied bombardment of Piraeus in January 1944. It was withdrawn from circulation on 30 June 1944. On 20 July 1944 a third set, also of ten and again using definitive and airmail stamps, was released. Its overprint read ΠΑΙΔΙΚΑΙ ΕΞΟΧΑΙ ΔΡΧ. 50.000 + 450.000 (Children's camps dr. 50,000 + 450,000); proceeds went toward the support of children's camps. This set was withdrawn from circulation on 11 November 1944.

National Resistance issues
Resistance movements formed throughout Greece not long after its occupation. The two largest resistance groups, the National Liberation Front (E.A.M.) and the National Republican Greek League (E.D.E.S.), produced stamps for use in areas under their control - though few of them would actually be used postally.

E.A.M.'s single issue, a set of eight consisting of eight values (1000, 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000, 10000, 25000 and 40000 drachmae) inscribed ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΗ ΕΛΛΑΔΑ ("Free Greece"), was produced on 25 February 1944. The set was never used, though some were cancelled with an E.A.M. handstamp.

E.D.E.S. produced three sets, only one of which saw postal use. The first two, a set of five (values 15, 25, 50, 100 and 200 drachmae) and a single stamp (1000 drachmae) inscribed Free Greece, were produced in 1943 and July 1944 respectively; all were imperforate. Almost all stamps from their second issue were confiscated by the occupying Germans. The third set, which unlike the others was perforated, was produced on 23 July. Issued to commemorate two years of E.D.E.S.' existence, it consisted of four values (2000, 4000, 6000 and 8000 drachmae). It was not placed on sale until 25 November 1944. This date marked the second anniversary of the Resistance's destruction of the Gorgopotamos railway bridge. To commemorate that event, the third E.D.E.S. issue was overprinted with ΓΟΡΓΟΠΟΤΑΜΟΣ 25-11-1942 (Gorgopotamos 25-11-1942) and placed on sale for one day at the Ioannina post office with the condition that they would be attached to a cover.

As Greece was gradually liberated from occupation in 1944, local overprints and new values on the 1942 definitives were used for mail in some of the newly freed areas; Lefkada, Lesbos, Agrinio and Preveza. Values on these overprinted issues ranged from 100,000 to 10,000,000 drachmae.

Post-war definitive issues
In 1946-47 a new set of eighteen definitives, the "chain surcharges", was issued. Stamps from the 1937 "Historical issue" and 1942 definitives and airmail stamps were surcharged in red or black with the design of a closed chain and new values. Since then, Greece has released over twenty definitive issues with subjects including its culture, landscapes, mythology and royalty. Examples include the Dodecanese union set (twenty-three values released between 1947 and 1951), the Marshall Plan set (six values, 1951), the National products set (seven values, 1953), the ancient art series (1954–55, 1958–60), the ancient coins series (1959, 1963), the tourist publicity set (seventeen values, 1961), the King Paul set (ten values, 1964), the labors of Hercules set (eleven values, 1970), the national costumes series (1972–74), the Homer's epics set (fifteen values, 1983), the capitals of prefectures series (1988, 1990, 1992, 1994), the Greek dances set (2002) and the Greek islands series (2004, 2006).

Greece's final set of airmail stamps, a set of seven depicting Greek harbors, was issued in 1958.

Commemorative stamps
Starting with the 1896 Olympic issue, Greece has issued a number of commemorative stamps. Subjects depicted include political and military leaders, athletic events, ancient and modern Greek culture, archaeological discoveries, and wildlife. The "Anniversaries and events" set of 15 March 1982 marked the first contemporary use of the ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΗΜΟΚΡΑΤΙΑ-HELLAS inscription. A brief survey of Greek commemoratives:

 * Europa - Beginning in 1960, Greece has issued yearly commemoratives as part of the Europa stamp program. It used the common design through 1973; starting in 1974, it has issued stamps with Greek themes like the 1980 Europa issue depicting Giorgos Seferis and Maria Callas.
 * Olympics - Also starting in 1960, commemorative sets have been issued in honor of each Olympic Games; a number of these were issued for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, including a set depicting Greek medal winners.
 * Ancient Greece - Subjects commemorated include Pythagoras (1955), ancient Greek theatre (1959), Minoan art (1961), Greek mythology (1972–74), Alexander the Great (1977), Aristotle (1978), Aristarchus of Samos (1980), the Elgin marbles (1984), the Muses (1991) and ancient Greek technology such as the Antikythera mechanism (2006).
 * Political and military figures - Individuals commemorated include King Constantine I (1936), Eleftherios Venizelos (1946), King George II (1947), Archbishop Makarios III of Cyprus (1977), Georgios Karaiskakis (1982), Andreas Papandreou (1997) and Constantine Karamanlis (1999).
 * Wars - Several commemorative singles and sets have been dedicated to the Greek War of Independence and Greece's role in World War II.  Subjects include Lord Byron (1924), the fall of Missolonghi (1926), General Charles Fabvier (1927), the Battle of Navarino (1927–28), the centenary of Greek independence (1930), Greek participation in World War II (1947), the Battle of Crete (1950) and the anti-Axis resistance (1982).
 * Greek culture - Subjects have included the University of Athens (1937), the Mt. Athos monasteries (1963), the artist El Greco (1965), the University of Thessaloniki (1975), actress/politician Melina Mercouri (1995), and composer Vangelis (2013).
 * Wildlife - Commemorative subjects have included the Nature Conservation Year (1970), Greek wildflowers (1978) and rare birds (1979).
 * Archaeology - Stamps have been issued to commemorate Heinrich Schliemann (1976, 1990), as well as archaeological discoveries at Thera (1973) and Vergina (1979).
 * Airmail issues - Two sets of commemorative airmail stamps were issued in the 1950s; a 1952 set of four marking the third anniversary of the end of the Greek Civil War and a 1954 set of 3 for the fifth anniversary of NATO.

Charity stamps
Charity stamps benefiting various foundations were issued between 1914 and 1956. The first, a set of two from 1914 depicted the allegorical figure "The Tragedy of War". Its values were 2 and 5 lepta; proceeds went to the National Welfare Foundation. Other early issues included a 5 lepta stamp for the Greek Women's Patriotic League, released in 1915 and depicting the League's badge, and several for the Red Cross Fund. Issued in 1915, 1918 and 1924, their designs included the Red Cross symbol along with nurses and wounded soldiers. The 1918 issue was also released with the overprint "Π.Ι.Π." (Patriotic Relief Institution); proceeds went to the Greek Patriotic League.

During the National Schism of 1917, the Athens government ordered the surcharge "K.Π." and new values applied to Flying Mercury, Campaign and revenue stamps. At first, this only applied to those parts of Greece they controlled; for a short time after the Schism ended, use of these surcharged stamps was extended to the whole country.

In 1939, a set of three (10 and 50 lepta and 1 drachma) which depicted Queens Olga and Sophia was released.

A number of charity stamps were produced to benefit postal workers; initially proceeds went to the Postal Clerks' Tuberculosis Fund, to aid postal workers suffering from that disease. Later, starting in 1946, they were applied to the Postal Clerks' Welfare Fund. The first issue, a set of three (10, 20 and 50 lepta) depicting the goddess Hygeia, was released in 1934. It was re-released in 1935, with the inscription ΕΛΛΑΣ added at the top of each stamp. Use of these stamps was obligatory on all mail during four weeks of the year, including Christmas, Easter and the New Year, and year-round on parcel post packages. The 50 lepta stamp from the 1935 set was re-issued in 1939 with different colors; in 1941, Hygeia stamps were released with a surcharge of 50 lepta. In addition, from 1940 to 1945, surcharges and new values were applied to stamps from the 1927 Landscapes set, the "Historical issue", the 1939 charity set and 1942 definitives.

Other charity stamps included the Thessaloniki International Fair Fund issue, a 20 lepta stamp from 1934 which depicted St. Demetrius; its use was obligatory on domestic mail from Thessaloniki. It was re-issued with a 1 drachma surcharge in 1942. St. Demetrius was also depicted on a 50 drachmae charity stamp released in 1948; proceeds from its sale went toward the restoration of historic sites and churches destroyed during World War II.

Later issues included a 1953 set of two (300 and 500 drachmae) to raise funds for reconstruction in the Ionian Islands after an earthquake and a 1956 set of two (50 lepta and 1 drachma) for the Macedonian Studies Society Fund, to help finance archaeological studies in the region.

Postal stationery
The first items of postal stationery to be issued by Greece were postcards in 1876, post paid envelopes and Lettercards were issued in 1894 followed by newspaper wrappers in 1901. Aerogrammes were first issued in 1967. Postcards and aerogrammes continue to be available to this day. The last issue of envelopes was in 1941. Three different values of newspaper wrappers were issued in 1901, in 1911 one new newspaper wrapper was issued and no further newspaper wrappers were issued after this date.

References and sources

 * Notes

 * Sources


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Lake Lahontan (reservoir)

Modern Lake Lahontan is a reservoir on the Carson River in northwest Nevada in the United States. It is formed by the Lahontan Dam, built in 1905 by the Bureau of Reclamation as part of the Newlands Reclamation Act and is located between Fallon, Nevada and Carson City, Nevada. The flows from the Carson River are augmented by the diversions from the Truckee River. The reservoir is maintained by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District (TCID). The lake is named after ancient Lake Lahontan, which covered much of northwestern Nevada during the last ice age.

Lake Lahontan is 17 mi long and has 69 mi of shoreline. It consists of several lobes connected by narrow straits. When full, it has approximately 10,000 acre of surface area, although it is usually less than half full by late summer. As no water rights have been allocated for recreation, the TCID could completely drain the lake to supply its irrigation customers. Submerged beneath the water were parts of stagecoach routes which existed during the 1800s including Williams Station, the scene of the Battle of Williams Station, a minor skirmish during the Paiute War.

A small settlement called "Lahontan" once stood near the reservoir, which in 1940 the Federal Writers' Project reported had a population of 25.

Recreation
The lake sits within the Lahontan State Recreation Area. Recreational uses include fishing, pleasure boating and camping. Much of the shoreline is sandy and makes for good camping. As it is contaminated with mercury from the Comstock and other mines, consumption of fish from the lake should be limited as per posted guidelines. Primary game fish include wipers (white bass x striper hybrid), white bass, walleye, channel catfish, white catfish, largemouth bass, spotted bass, and crappie. It is stocked with walleye fry and fingerling wipers nearly every year. The best fishing occurs from April through July and October.

Variations
The Carson River enters the lake at its southwestern end. The lake is very shallow there, and the shoreline can vary drastically as the lake empties and fills. The Derby Dam diverts part of the Truckee River into the Truckee Canal which enters the lake at the northeastern end, immediately adjacent to the Lahontan dam.

During the 2017 California floods, the highest inflow in history filled the lake, and a weir was made to handle outflow. Oversized culverts were quickly put under US95 and lined with ripraps to let the water cross the road and protect Fallon from flooding.

title: Lake Lahontan (reservoir)


text:
Talk:Crossfire (1992 video game)

Crossfire classification
I removed the descriptive term MMORPG. The "massive" generally refers to a thousand players or more playing simultaneously, as well as the necessary infrastructure to handle such large player loads. Maybe theoretically Crossfire could handle a 1000-player game, but this has not been tested. In actuality, most Crossfire servers tend to have less than 10 people playing.

I removed the descriptive term roguelike. The general consensus among roguelike players and developers is that turn basis is an essential component of a roguelike game. Crossfire has more in common with Gauntlet than it does Rogue. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.131.180.128 (talk • contribs)

The real-time/turn based distinction is only a part of what defines a roguelike game, the roguelike article also lists; 'randomly generated dungeon levels... though many have static levels as well.' 'permadeath' 'a "wizard mode" which lets players explore the dungeon without risk of death' and claims that 'Instead of spending a lot of time on the graphics and 3D engines roguelike developers focus on advancing gameplay.'

All of these points hold for crossfire (the second one is optional in server config).

Whilst it is true that crossfire started off like a multiplayer version of gauntlet, such a description hasn't been accurate for at least 5 years, and more like the best part of a decade, the game has become far more Rouge/MMORPG-like.

Likewise, there is a dispute over what the 'massive' in MMORPG refers to, whether it is the player base, or the size of the game world. Whilst a large number of players is typical of a MMORPG, it doesn't follow that it is essential, and I would contend that the idea of a persistant game world played in by people all over the world is more important.

In any event GraalOnline has stol^H^H^H^H derived features from the crossfire source code ( they don't like to admit this, but evidence can be seen on their forums) and has many hundreds of users at a time, so even if you wanted to use the 'number of players' definition, there is an example where crossfire's code has been used to do that. Cavetroll 17:00, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree that the definition of MMORPG is sufficiently vague; besides, Crossfire certainly aspires to become an MMORPG, so the category is applicable. If someone wants to create a separate category for "non-massive" online RPGs, that would be fine with me, but for now, we should use this one.--Eloquence* 17:10, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

Notability
About notability, isn't Crossfire a natural part of computer game history? Please note that I'm massively biased, but still... I think this type of game coming out in 1993 was very unique. It was originally announced on comp.sources.games. Filik 11:54, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

Crossfire is certainly notable. Among other things, it is one of only five pages in the "Free, open source role-playing video games" category. It isn't famous, but it is fairly well known in the open-source gaming community. I searched Wikipedia for it today because I hear about it from time to time but don't know very much about it (because it's notable but not famous). I would have been disappointed if there hadn't been an article on it.

I propose removing the Notability tag. Eterry 04:56, 27 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Done so already. There are no doubts of notability after discussion that followed when someone AFD'd the article.-- Roc VallèsTalk - 10:36, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Crossfire (1992 video game)


text:
Anderson Valley Advertiser

The Anderson Valley Advertiser is a small weekly tabloid published in Anderson Valley, California. It was founded in 1955 as a local, community-based paper. The AVA's masthead features mottoes borrowed from the French Revolution and the Industrial Workers of the World:

 * Fanning the Flames of Discontent! (The IWW's Little Red Songbook is sub-titled "To Fan the Flames of Discontent")
 * Peace to the Cottages! War on the Palaces! (The motto of Georg Büchner's Hessian Courier)
 * All Happy - None Rich - None Poor

Various quotations are distributed through every issue of the paper. Examples include:

 * "Be as radical as reality." - Lenin
 * "Newspapers should have no friends." - Joseph Pulitzer

Contributors include:

 * Robert Mailer Anderson
 * Alexander Cockburn
 * Jeffrey St. Clair
 * Flynn Washburne

Bruce Anderson has owned and edited the Anderson Valley Advertiser since January 1984. He left the AVA, as the paper is known, in 2004 for Oregon where he tried to start another weekly. It failed and Anderson bought the AVA back in July 2007. The paper enjoys a modest national circulation. Its masthead bills it as "America's last newspaper." The paper is unique in that it is based in the rural community of Boonville, Mendocino County, California, but features much leftwing opinion wrapped around local sports, school board reports, profiles of local characters, and impressively detailed stories on local controversies. Anderson describes himself as "a socialist with strong, nay overwhelming, anarchist instincts."

title: Anderson Valley Advertiser


text:
Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony

The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony was signed on June 4, 1639. The free planters (founders of the New Haven Colony) who assented to the agreement are listed below:

 * William Andrews
 * Richard Beach
 * Richard Beckley
 * John Benham
 * Jarvis Boykin
 * John Brockett
 * William Browning
 * John Budd
 * John Chapmen
 * John Charles
 * Ezekiel Cheever
 * James Clark
 * John Clarke
 * John Cogswell
 * John Cooper
 * Jasper Crane
 * John Davenport
 * Jeremiah Dixion
 * Samuel Eaton
 * Theophilus Eaton
 * Nicholas Elsey
 * Timothy Ford
 * Thomas Fugill
 * Matthew Gilbert
 * Francis Hall
 * Matthias Hitchcock
 * Andrew Hull
 * Thomas Jeffries
 * William Ives
 * Thomas Kimberley
 * Benjamin Ling
 * Richard Malbon
 * Nathaniel Merriman
 * Andrew Messenger
 * John Moss (Morse)
 * Matthew Moulthrop
 * Thomas Munson
 * Francis Newman
 * Robert Newman
 * Richard Osborne
 * Edward Patteson
 * John Peacock
 * William Peck
 * Richard Perry
 * John Ponderson
 * William Potter
 * William Preston
 * John Reader (Reeder)
 * Robert Seeley
 * George Smith
 * William Thorpe
 * Nathaniel Turner
 * William Tuttle
 * George Ward
 * Lawrence Ward
 * Samuel Whitehead
 * Edward Wigglesworth
 * Mr. Wilkes
 * Benjamin Wilmot
 * Thomas Yale


text:
Josie Carey

Josephine Vicari Massucci Franz (August 20, 1930 – May 28, 2004), known by the stage name Josie Carey, was a lyricist and a host of several children's television shows.

Biography
Carey was born in Pittsburgh and raised in Butler, Pennsylvania as Josephine Vicari and would later change her name at the suggestion of her television station's general manager. Carey was the host of Pittsburgh's children show, The Children's Corner on WQED from 1953 to 1961. Carey was one of the station's original employees, beginning work there in October 1953 — six months before WQED actually started broadcasting. She went door-to-door, raising money for the station selling $2 educational program guides.

Carey was partnered with Fred Rogers who would act as puppeteer of various puppets who would dance along to 68 songs which he wrote and for which Carey wrote the lyrics. Carey joined ASCAP in 1955 and she and Rogers produced such songs as "Goodnight God," "It's Morning," and "Why Hi, Don't I Know You?" — the theme song for her program. Carey once remarked on their collaboration, "He would make me very angry because I'd labor over my lyrics and he would sit at the piano and what took me four hours, he would do in four minutes." Carey wrote the lyrics to "Tomorrow," which Rogers sang at the end of each Mister Rogers' Neighborhood episode until 1972. The puppet characters included Daniel S. Tiger, Grandpère Tiger, King Friday XIII of Calendarland, his wife Queen Sara Saturday, X the owl, and Henrietta the cat.

The Children's Corner was syndicated on NBC for 39 weeks and won a Sylvania Award in 1955 for the best locally produced children's program in the country. The Children's Corner debuted puppet characters who would go on to future fame on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood; characters like King Friday XIII (who would dub four children "Prince" or "Princess" during the birthday greetings segment of the Children's Corner) and Daniel Striped Tiger, who was named after WQED's first general manager, Dorothy Daniel. The program also featured a wide range of human guests, including Johnny Carson, Shirley Jones, Van Cliburn, and Charles Schulz.

After her show was cancelled, Carey went on to host other children's programming, including Josie's Storyland and Funsville, which were aired on KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh; Wheee! in South Carolina in the 1970s; and most recently, Josie's Attic during the 1990s on WQEX in Pittsburgh.

On July 23, 1999, Carey was interviewed by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for its archives in North Hollywood. She continued to perform, act, and direct in Pittsburgh community theater until her death, which resulted from complications from a fall, at the age of 73.

Awards

 * 1965—Pittsburgh Post Gazette named Josie Carey "Woman of the Year."
 * 1955—Sylvania Award - best locally produced children's program in the country
 * Both Duquesne University and the Pittsburgh Junior Chamber of Commerce would honor Carey with awards for her efforts in children's programming.

title: Josie Carey


text:
Talk:Saint-Aubin-du-Pavail

Ille-et-Villaine appeared as Ille-et-Unpleasant. If this is a translation error (my French appears to indicate it might be) can the correct version be 'forced'?

Jackie Speel

 * That's in fact quite a funny mistranslation, although vilaine and not villaine means something like ugly, or naughty. It is also an old derogative term for "female peasant". In fact, Ille-et-Vilaine is not to be translated, since the name comes from the name of 2 rivers, the Ille, and the Vilaine... maybe an ugly river, after all... olivier 14:33, Oct 29, 2004 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Saint-Aubin-du-Pavail