text:
Rigour

Rigour (British English) or rigor (American English; see spelling differences) describes a condition of stiffness or strictness. These constraints may be environmentally imposed, such as "the rigours of famine"; logically imposed, such as mathematical proofs which must maintain consistent answers; or socially imposed, such as the process of defining ethics and law.

Etymology
"Rigour" comes to English through old French (13th c., Modern French rigueur) meaning "stiffness", which itself is based on the Latin rigorem (nominative rigor) "numbness, stiffness, hardness, firmness; roughness, rudeness", from the verb rigere "to be stiff". The noun was frequently used to describe a condition of strictness or stiffness, which arises from a situation or constraint either chosen or experienced passively. For example, the title of the book Theologia Moralis Inter Rigorem et Laxitatem Medi roughly translates as "mediating theological morality between rigour and laxness". The book details, for the clergy, situations in which they are obligated to follow church law exactly, and in which situations they can be more forgiving yet still considered moral. Rigor mortis translates directly as the stiffness (rigor) of death (mortis), again describing a condition which arises from a certain constraint (death).

Intellectualism
Intellectual rigour is a process of thought which is consistent, does not contain self-contradiction, and takes into account the entire scope of available knowledge on the topic. It actively avoids logical fallacy. Furthermore, it requires a sceptical assessment of the available knowledge. If a topic or case is dealt with in a rigorous way, it typically means that it is dealt with in a comprehensive, thorough and complete way, leaving no room for inconsistencies.

Scholarly method describes the different approaches or methods which may be taken to apply intellectual rigour on an institutional level to ensure the quality of information published. An example of intellectual rigour assisted by a methodical approach is the scientific method, in which a person will produce a hypothesis based on what they believe to be true, then construct experiments in order to prove that hypothesis wrong. This method, when followed correctly, helps to prevent against circular reasoning and other fallacies which frequently plague conclusions within academia. Other disciplines, such as philosophy and mathematics, employ their own structures to ensure intellectual rigour. Each method requires close attention to criteria for logical consistency, as well as to all relevant evidence and possible differences of interpretation. At an institutional level, peer review is used to validate intellectual rigour.

Honesty
Intellectual rigour is a subset of intellectual honesty—a practice of thought in which ones convictions are kept in proportion to valid evidence. Intellectual honesty is an unbiased approach to the acquisition, analysis, and transmission of ideas. A person is being intellectually honest when he or she, knowing the truth, states that truth, regardless of outside social/environmental pressures. It is possible to doubt whether complete intellectual honesty exists—on the grounds that no one can entirely master his or her own presuppositions—without doubting that certain kinds of intellectual rigour are potentially available. The distinction certainly matters greatly in debate, if one wishes to say that an argument is flawed in its premises.

Politics and law
The setting for intellectual rigour does tend to assume a principled position from which to advance or argue. An opportunistic tendency to use any argument at hand is not very rigorous, although very common in politics, for example. Arguing one way one day, and another later, can be defended by casuistry, i.e. by saying the cases are different.

In the legal context, for practical purposes, the facts of cases do always differ. Case law can therefore be at odds with a principled approach; and intellectual rigour can seem to be defeated. This defines a judge's problem with uncodified law. Codified law poses a different problem, of interpretation and adaptation of definite principles without losing the point; here applying the letter of the law, with all due rigour, may on occasion seem to undermine the principled approach.

Mathematics
Mathematical rigour can apply to methods of mathematical proof and to methods of mathematical practice (thus relating to other interpretations of rigour).

Mathematical proof
Mathematical rigour is often cited as a kind of gold standard for mathematical proof. Its history traces back to Greek mathematics, especially to Euclid's Elements.

Until the 19th century, Euclid's Elements was seen as extremely rigorous and profound, but in the late 19th century, Hilbert (among others) realized that the work left certain assumptions implicit—assumptions that could not be proved from Euclid's Axioms (e.g. two circles can intersect in a point, some point is within an angle, and figures can be superimposed on each other). This was contrary to the idea of rigorous proof where all assumptions need to be stated and nothing can be left implicit. New foundations were developed using the axiomatic method to address this gap in rigour found in the Elements (e.g., Hilbert's axioms, Birkhoff's axioms, Tarski's axioms).

During the 19th century, the term "rigorous" began to be used to describe increasing levels of abstraction when dealing with calculus which eventually became known as mathematical analysis. The works of Cauchy added rigour to the older works of Euler and Gauss. The works of Riemann added rigour to the works of Cauchy. The works of Weierstrass added rigour to the works of Riemann, eventually culminating in the arithmetization of analysis. Starting in the 1870s, the term gradually came to be associated with Cantorian set theory.

Mathematical rigour can be modelled as amenability to algorithmic proof checking. Indeed, with the aid of computers, it is possible to check some proofs mechanically. Formal rigour is the introduction of high degrees of completeness by means of a formal language where such proofs can be codified using set theories such as ZFC (see automated theorem proving).

Published mathematical arguments have to conform to a standard of rigour, but are written in a mixture of symbolic and natural language. In this sense, written mathematical discourse is a prototype of formal proof. Often, a written proof is accepted as rigorous although it might not be formalised as yet. The reason often cited by mathematicians for writing informally is that completely formal proofs tend to be longer and more unwieldy, thereby obscuring the line of argument. An argument that appears obvious to human intuition may in fact require fairly long formal derivations from the axioms. A particularly well-known example is how in Principia Mathematica, Whitehead and Russell have to expend a number of lines of rather opaque effort in order to establish that, indeed, it is sensical to say: "1+1=2". In short, comprehensibility is favoured over formality in written discourse.

Still, advocates of automated theorem provers may argue that the formalisation of proof does improve the mathematical rigour by disclosing gaps or flaws in informal written discourse. When the correctness of a proof is disputed, formalisation is a way to settle such a dispute as it helps to reduce misinterpretations or ambiguity.

Physics
The role of mathematical rigour in relation to physics is twofold:

 * 1) First, there is the general question, sometimes called Wigner's Puzzle, "how it is that mathematics, quite generally, is applicable to nature?" Some scientists believe that its record of successful application to nature justifies the study of mathematical physics.
 * 2) Second, there is the question regarding the role and status of mathematically rigorous results and relations. This question is particularly vexing in relation to quantum field theory, where computations often produce infinite values for which a variety of non-rigorous work-arounds have been devised.

Both aspects of mathematical rigour in physics have attracted considerable attention in philosophy of science (see, for example, ref. and ref. and the works quoted therein).

Education
Rigour in the classroom is a hotly debated topic amongst educators. Generally speaking, classroom rigour consists of multi-faceted, challenging instruction and correct placement of the student. Students excelling in formal operational thought tend to excel in classes for gifted students. Students who have not reached that final stage of cognitive development, according to developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, can build upon those skills with the help of a properly trained teacher.

Rigour in the classroom is commonly called "rigorous instruction". It is instruction that requires students to construct meaning for themselves, impose structure on information, integrate individual skills into processes, operate within but at the outer edge of their abilities, and apply what they learn in more than one context and to unpredictable situations

title: Rigour


text:
The Donnas

The Donnas were an American rock band formed in Palo Alto, California, in 1993. The band consisted of Brett Anderson (lead vocals), Allison Robertson (guitar, backing vocals), Maya Ford (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Torry Castellano (drums, percussion, backing vocals). Amy Cesari replaced Castellano, who left the band in 2009 due to tendonitis. They drew inspiration from the Ramones, the Runaways, Girlschool, AC/DC, Bachman–Turner Overdrive and Kiss. Rolling Stone has stated that "the Donnas offer a guileless take on adolescent alienation; they traffic in kicks, not catharsis, fun rather than rage". MTV has stated that the band offers "a good old-fashioned rock & roll party".

After gathering a cult following in the punk scene since their 1997 debut, the band achieved major label commercial success in the early 2000s and afterward as their music mixed punk, metal and classic rock sounds.

Origins and early years: 1993–2001
All four founding band members were born in 1979; Brett Anderson (vocals) on May 30; Allison Robertson (guitar and vocals) on August 26; and Maya Ford (bass guitar and vocals) and Torry Castellano (drums, percussion, vocals), both on January 8. They all became friends by eighth grade and formed as a band in May 1993 to play for their school's "Day on the Green." One of two all-female bands in their town Palo Alto, California, they were relatively unknown until they were out of high school. They are all self-taught musicians and practiced in Castellano's garage nearly every day during their years at Palo Alto High School. They called themselves "Ragady Anne" in their early days and shortly thereafter changed their name to "The Electrocutes".

Towards the end of their high school days, while they were still known as The Electrocutes, they decided to create another band (with the same members) that would play softer tunes without distorting the metal queen image of The Electrocutes. To help their fans distinguish between the two bands, they all took matching "Donna" monikers, where all of their names were Donna and their last names were the first initial of their last name (Brett Anderson became Donna A, etc.), which they used only when performing as "The Donnas."

They worked with producer Darin Raffaelli for their first two albums, the first of which, simply called The Donnas, was released on Raffaelli's Super*teem! record label. (It was later released again on Lookout! Records.) They took a week off their senior year of high school to tour Japan as The Donnas, and were promoted and organized by Pinky Aoki A.K.A. The Phantomgift. Afterwards, they signed with Lookout! Records. As the band grew, they were urged to sign with a major label company. In December 2001, they signed with Atlantic Records.

Atlantic Records: 2002–2005
In 2002, The Donnas released Spend the Night as their Atlantic debut. The album represented their first attempt at mainstream success. With their single "Take it Off" they were booked for appearances on Total Request Live, Saturday Night Live, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and the Late Show with David Letterman. In the summer of 2003, they played the main stage at Lollapalooza. In 2004, they released their sixth album Gold Medal. In February 2005, they toured Australia with the Big Day Out music festival, playing from Sydney to Perth. While in Australia they performed "Take It Off" live on national prime-time show "Rove Live" with Rove McManus.

Atlantic repeatedly placed the Donnas' music in video game soundtracks. "You've Got a Crush On Me" can be heard in the PlayStation 2 game Splashdown. "Who Invited You" can be found on the soundtracks for True Crime: Streets of LA and MVP Baseball 2003 as well as Splashdown: Rides Gone Wild. "I Don't Want to Know" is in the Gran Turismo 4 soundtrack also and a cover of the song was also used for Donkey Konga 2 for the GameCube. "I Don't Want to Know" was also used as the theme song for the first season of The-N's hit series, "South of Nowhere". A cover of "Take it Off" is featured in Guitar Hero and added as a downloadable track in Guitar Hero 2 on the Xbox 360 (released in 2006) and Downhill Domination (released in 2004). Rock Band 2 (for the PS3, Xbox 360 & Wii), released by Harmonix in 2008, features the track "New Kid In School" which was released exclusively on Apples iTunes service. "Fall Behind Me" was also used in a national television commercial advertising the Nissan Xterra while Take It Off was used in a Budweiser commercial.

Atlantic also energetically marketed the Donnas through placements in numerous film soundtracks. The band appeared in the movie Drive Me Crazy in 1999 (as The Electrocutes), and later on the TV show Charmed performing the single "Fall Behind Me" at P3. They also appeared in the 1999 teen comedy Jawbreaker as the prom band, contributing two songs to the soundtrack ("Rock 'N' Roll Machine" and "Checkin' It Out"). A cover of "Roll On Down The Highway" was used in the Disney comedy film Herbie: Fully Loaded and Backstage was used in "Freaky Friday". The Donnas can also be heard on Mean Girls during the end credits playing a cover of the Billy Idol song "Dancing With Myself", and they also contributed to the soundtrack of the movie Grind. The video "Too Bad About Your Girl" also features the cast of that film. The song "Take It Off" features in the movie Dodgeball. The song "Take Me To The Backseat" can be heard in the action comedy film 2004 D.E.B.S.. A cover version of the Kiss song "Strutter" was used in the soundtrack to the 1999 movie Detroit Rock City. "Please Don't Tease" was used in "New York Minute" and "Everyone Is Wrong " was featured in the movie "Elektra". Then Guitar Hero used "Take It Off" for 2009 Guitar Hero Smash Hits. "Take It Off" was also used in the 2009 hit movie The Hangover. "Play My Game" was featured in a Season 1 episode of What's New, Scooby Doo?. "Who Invited You" is featured on the soundtrack of the 2003 movie What a Girl Wants.

New label, lineup change and dissolution: 2006–2012
On May 19, 2006, The Donnas announced on their public message board that they had "parted ways with Atlantic Records," claiming "[t]he decision was entirely mutual and completely amicable and will not impact the band, nor will it impact upon the writing, recording or touring for the next Donnas album." In March 2007, the Donnas released a single, "Don't Wait Up For Me," and had a new band logo designed.

The Donnas independently released their seventh studio album titled Bitchin' on September 18, 2007 Purple Feather Records label. Bitchin' was produced by Jay Ruston and The Donnas and contained the single "Don't Wait Up For Me".

In 2008 The Donnas toured with the Melbourne-based, Australian band Kisschasy as part of their Skin and Bones tour. They also toured the U.S. and Canada with The Hives.

In July 2009, the band released a retrospective collection titled Greatest Hits Vol. 16 to celebrate the band's 16th year together. The album contains new songs, re-recorded older songs as well as some unreleased material. The band toured that summer with Pat Benatar and Blondie on the two's joint Call Me Invincible Tour. Drummer Torry Castellano was unable to play on any of these tour dates as she was suffering from tendonitis of the shoulder, which was accredited to the fact that as a self-taught drummer she had held the drumsticks incorrectly (even though it felt right to her) and sustained long term damage over time. Long-time friend Amy Cesari of the band The Demonics has been chosen to fill in for Castellano.

On July 9, 2010, Castellano announced via the band's website that due to her continued shoulder problems she would have to retire from drumming and performing with The Donnas. She returned to school at Santa Monica College and then Stanford University, where she graduated in 2013 and went on to Harvard Law School.

In August 2012, the band was reported to be recording their eighth studio album and also premiered a new song called "Tramp" at a private show.

In November 2016 Cherry Red Records re-released the band's fifth album, Spend the Night, to include six bonus tracks which consist of B-sides and songs from previous albums.

In an interview from 2017, the band's lead vocalist, Brett Anderson, discussed "the end of the band" and turning down offers to "reunite," implicitly confirming the band is no more. In the same interview, she also mentions that there are no plans to release previously-unreleased studio-recorded songs.

In April 2023, for Record Store Day the band released a compilation of earlier material entitled The Donnas - Early Singles 1995-1999.

Band members

 * Brett Anderson – lead vocals, piano (1993–2012)
 * Allison Robertson – guitar, backing vocals (1993–2012)
 * Maya Ford – bass, backing vocals (1993–2012)
 * Torry Castellano – drums, backing vocals (1993–2009)
 * Amy Cesari – drums, backing vocals (2009–2012)

Timeline

Discography

 * The Donnas (1997)
 * American Teenage Rock 'n' Roll Machine (1998)
 * Get Skintight (1999)
 * The Donnas Turn 21 (2001)
 * Spend the Night (2002)
 * Gold Medal (2004)
 * Bitchin' (2007)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Donnas


text:
Cromlech

A cromlech (sometimes also spelled "cromleh" or "cromlêh"; cf Welsh crom, "bent"; llech, "slate") is a megalithic construction made of large stone blocks. The word applies to two different megalithic forms in English, the first being an altar tomb (frequently called a "dolmen"), as William Borlase first denoted in 1769. A good example is at Carn Llechart. The second meaning of the name "cromlech" in English refers to large stone circles such as those found among the Carnac stones in Brittany, France.

Unlike in English, the word "cromlech" in many other languages (such as Azerbaijani, Armenian, French, Greek, Indonesian, Italian, Romanian, and Spanish) exclusively denotes a megalithic stone circle, whereas the word "dolmen" is used to refer to the type of megalithic altar tomb sometimes indicated by the English "cromlech". Also, more recently in English, scholars such as Aubrey Burl use "cromlech" as a synonym for "megalithic stone circle".

List

 * Almendres Cromlech, the Cromlech of the Almendres megalithic complex, near Évora, Portugal
 * Dinas Cromlech, a rock outcrop in the Llanberis Pass, Snowdonia, Wales
 * Dolni Glavanak Cromlech, an oval stone circle near Dolni Glavanak, Bulgaria

title: Cromlech


text:
Tailhook Association

The Tailhook Association is a U.S.-based non-profit organization supporting the interests of sea-based aviation, with emphasis on aircraft carriers. The word tailhook refers to the hook underneath the tail of the aircraft that catches the arresting wire suspended across the flight deck in order to stop the landing plane quickly.

Establishment
The Tailhook Association was formed by active-duty naval aviators in 1956, eventually growing into a national organization headquartered in San Diego, California. During the Vietnam War, the annual Tailhook reunion and symposium also served to provide opportunities for aircrews from the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets to exchange information about events in Southeast Asia. The association evolved into an independent, non-profit organization dedicated to building camaraderie among those that have been a part of the Naval Aviation team. The purpose of the association is to foster, encourage, develop, study and support the aircraft carrier and sea-based aircraft and aircrews.

The Tailhook Educational Foundation (TEF) was created in 1992 to educate the nation's public with regard to the history and present day activities of the US Navy carrier aviation community. TEF is a separate non-profit that works closely with, and in support of, the Tailhook Association, providing over 100 scholarships per year to Naval Aviation legacies.

The Tailhook scandal
In September 1991, the 35th annual symposium in Las Vegas featured a two-day debriefing on Navy and Marine Corps aviation in Operation Desert Storm. It was the largest such meeting yet held, with 4,000 attendees including active, reserve, and retired personnel. According to a Department of Defense (DoD) report, 83 women and 7 men stated that they had been victims of sexual assault and harassment during the meeting. Several participants later stated that a number of flag officers attending the meetings were aware of the sexual assaults, but did nothing to stop them.

The issues were never settled, and as late as 2002, the Tailhook chairman spoke dismissively of "the alleged misconduct that occurred in 1991".

Frontline on PBS reported: Ultimately the careers of fourteen admirals and almost 300 naval aviators were scuttled or damaged by Tailhook. For example, Secretary of the Navy H. Lawrence Garrett III and CNO Admiral Frank Kelso were both at Tailhook '91. Garrett ultimately resigned and Kelso retired early two years after the convention.

Author Jean Zimmerman developed the thesis that the scandal underscored the shifting status of women in the US military and particularly the role of women in combat.

Activities
Among the Tailhook programs are publication of the quarterly journal The Hook, addressing historical and current events coverage; college scholarships via the Tailhook Educational Foundation; and local/regional "ready rooms" for active and retired members who support fleet activities.

Some visitors to US Navy aircraft carriers who joined or left the ship on a Carrier Onboard Delivery aircraft are issued "Tailhook certificates" by the Navy, commending them for "NAFOD and intestinal fortitude."

Tailhooker Of The Year Award
Yearly award given to an individual who has made the most significant contribution to U.S. carrier aviation.

Honorary Tailhooker of the Year
(Sponsored by the Boeing Company)

title: Tailhook Association


text: File:Jim-cantalupo.jpg

title: File:Jim-cantalupo.jpg


text:
Clifford Geertz

Clifford James Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology and who was considered "for three decades... the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States." He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton.

Life and career
Geertz was born in San Francisco on August 23, 1926. He served in the US Navy in World War II from 1943 to 1945. Geertz received a bachelor of arts in philosophy from Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio in 1950 and a doctor of philosophy in anthropology from Harvard University in 1956.

When in Harvard University, he studied at the Department of Social Relations with an interdisciplinary program led by Talcott Parsons. Geertz worked with Parsons, as well as Clyde Kluckhohn, and was trained as an anthropologist. Geertz conducted his first long-term fieldwork together with his wife, Hildred, in Java, Indonesia, a project funded by the Ford Foundation and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also studied the religious life of a small, upcountry town for two-and-a-half years, living with a railroad laborer's family. After finishing his thesis, Geertz returned to Indonesia, in Bali and Sumatra, after which he would receive his PhD in 1956 with a dissertation entitled Religion in Modjokuto: A Study of Ritual Belief In A Complex Society.

Throughout his life, Geertz received honorary doctorate degrees from around fifteen colleges and universities, including Harvard, Cambridge, and the University of Chicago; as well as awards such as the Association for Asian Studies' (AAS) 1987 Award for Distinguished Contributions to Asian Studies. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the United States National Academy of Sciences. Following his divorce from anthropologist Hildred Geertz, his first wife, he married Karen Blu, another anthropologist.

Teaching
He taught or held fellowships at a number of schools before joining the faculty of the anthropology department at the University of Chicago in 1960. In this period Geertz expanded his focus on Indonesia to include both Java and Bali and produced three books, including Religion of Java (1960), Agricultural Involution (1963), and Peddlers and Princes (also 1963). In the mid-1960s, he shifted course and began a new research project in Morocco that resulted in several publications, including Islam Observed (1968), which compared Indonesia and Morocco.

In 1970, Geertz left Chicago to become professor of social science at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey from 1970 to 2000, then as emeritus professor. In 1973, he published The Interpretation of Cultures, which collected essays Geertz had published throughout the 1960s. That became Geertz's best-known book and established him not just as an Indonesianist but also as an anthropological theorist. In 1974, he edited the anthology Myth, Symbol, Culture that contained papers by many important anthropologists on symbolic anthropology. Geertz produced ethnographic pieces in this period, such as Kinship in Bali (1975), Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society (1978; written collaboratively with Hildred Geertz and Lawrence Rosen) and Negara (1981).

Later life
From the 1980s to his death, Geertz wrote more theoretical and essayistic pieces, including book reviews for the New York Review of Books. As a result, most of his books of the period are collections of essays—books including Local Knowledge (1983), Available Light (2000), and Life Among The Anthros (2010), which was published posthumously. He also produced a series of short essays on the stylistics of ethnography in Works and Lives (1988), while other works include the autobiographical After The Fact (1995).

Geertz conducted extensive ethnographic research in Southeast Asia and North Africa. This fieldwork was the basis of Geertz's famous analysis of the Balinese cockfight among others. While holding a position in Chicago in the 1960s, he directed a multidisciplinary project titled Committee for the Comparative Studies of New Nations. As part of the project, Geertz conducted fieldwork in Morocco on "bazaars, mosques, olive growing and oral poetry," collecting ethnographic data that would be used for his famous essay on thick description.

Geertz contributed to social and cultural theory and is still influential in turning anthropology toward a concern with the frames of meaning within which various peoples live their lives. He reflected on the basic core notions of anthropology, such as culture and ethnography.

He died of complications following heart surgery on October 30, 2006. At the time of his death, Geertz was working on the general question of ethnic diversity and its implications in the modern world. He was remembered by the New York Times as "the eminent cultural anthropologist whose work focused on interpreting the symbols he believed give meaning and order to people’s lives."

Main ideas, contributions, and influences
Geertz's often-cited essay "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight" is a classic example of thick description, a concept adopted from the British philosopher Gilbert Ryle which comes from ordinary language philosophy. Thick description is an anthropological method of explaining with as much detail as possible the reason behind human actions. Many human actions can mean many different things, and Geertz insisted that the anthropologist needs to be aware of this. The work proved influential amongst historians, many of whom tried to use these ideas about the 'meaning' of cultural practice in the study of customs and traditions of the past.

Another of Geertz's philosophical influences is that of Ludwig Wittgenstein's post-Tractatus philosophy, from which Geertz incorporates the concept of family resemblances into anthropology. Geertz would also introduce anthropology to the "umwelt-mitwelt-vorwelt-folgewelt" formulation of Alfred Schütz's phenomenology, stressing that the links between the "consociate", "contemporary", "predecessor", and "successor" that are commonplace in anthropology derive from this very formulation.

At the University of Chicago, Geertz became a champion of symbolic anthropology, a framework which gives prime attention to the role of symbols in constructing public meaning. In his seminal work The Interpretation of Cultures (1973), Geertz outlined culture as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life."

He was one of the earliest scholars to see that the insights provided by common language, philosophy and literary analysis could have major explanatory force in the social sciences. Geertz aimed to provide the social sciences with an understanding and appreciation of “thick description.” Geertz applied thick description to anthropological studies, particularly to his own 'interpretive anthropology', urging anthropologists to consider the limitations placed upon them by their own cultural cosmologies when attempting to offer insight into the cultures of other people. He produced theory that had implications for other social sciences; for example, Geertz asserted that culture was essentially semiotic in nature, and this theory has implications for comparative political sciences.

Max Weber and his interpretative social science are strongly present in Geertz's work. Drawing from Weber, Geertz himself argues for a “semiotic” concept of culture: "Believing…that man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun…I take culture to be those webs, and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretative one in search of meaning. It is explication I am after, construing social expression on their surface enigmatical. (p.5)"Geertz argues that to interpret a culture's web of symbols, scholars must first isolate its elements, specifying the internal relationships among those elements and characterize the whole system in some general way according to the core symbols around which it is organized, the underlying structures of which it is a surface expression, or the ideological principles upon which it is based. It was his view that culture is public, because “meaning is,” and systems of meanings are what produce culture, because they are the collective property of a particular people. We cannot discover the culture's import or understand its systems of meaning, when, as Wittgenstein noted, “we cannot find our feet with them.” Geertz wants society to appreciate that social actions are larger than themselves:

"It is not against a body of uninterrupted data, radically thinned descriptions, that we must measure the cogency of our explications, but against the power of the scientific imagination to bring us into touch with the lives of strangers. (p.18)"

In seeking to converse with subjects in foreign cultures and gain access to their conceptual world, this is the goal of the semiotic approach to culture. Cultural theory is not its own master; at the end of the day we must appreciate, that the generality “thick description” contrives to achieve, grows out of the delicacy of its distinctions, not the sweep of its abstraction. The essential task of theory-building here is not to codify abstract regularities, but to make thick description possible; not to generalize across cases, but to generalize within them.

During Geertz's long career he worked through a variety of theoretical phases and schools of thought. He would reflect an early leaning toward functionalism in his essay "Ethos, Worldview and the Analysis of Sacred Symbols", writing that "the drive to make sense out of experience, to give it form and order, is evidently as real and pressing as the more familiar biological needs."

Legacy
Geertz's research and ideas have had a strong influence on 20th-century academia, including modern anthropology and communication studies, as well as for geographers, ecologists, political scientists, scholars of religion, historians, and other humanists.

University of Miami Professor Daniel Pals (1996) wrote of Geertz that "his critics are few; his admirers legion." Talal Asad attacked the dualism in Geertzian theory: the theory does not provide a bridge between external symbols and internal dispositions. Asad also pointed out the need for a more nuanced approach toward the historical background of certain concepts. Criticizing Geertz's theory of religion in general, Asad pointed out a gap between 'cultural system' and 'social reality' when attempting to define the concept of religion in universal terms. He would also criticize Geertz for ascribing an authorizing discourse around conversations of comparative religion that, Asad argues, does not really exist. Furthermore, Asad criticized Geertz for operating according to a eurocentric view of religion that places import on signs and symbols that may or may not carry through in non-Christian religious cultures.

Interlocutors

 * Stephen Greenblatt
 * Robert Darnton
 * Mark R. Woodward
 * Talal Asad

Bibliography of major works

 * 1960. The Religion of Java. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press (1976, revised ed.). ISBN 9780226285108.
 * 1963. Peddlers and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press..
 * 1964. Agricultural Involution: the process of ecological change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 * 1966. "Religion as a Cultural System." Pp. 1–46 in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion, edited by M. Banton. ASA Monographs 3. London: Tavistock Publications.
 * 1968. Islam Observed, Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press (1971). ISBN 0-226-28511-1.
 * 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books (2000). ISBN 0-465-09719-7.
 * 1975. Kinship in Bali, coauthored by H. Geertz. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press (1978), paperback: ISBN 0-226-28516-2
 * 1980. Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691007786.
 * 1983. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. Basic Books (2008). ISBN 9780786723751.
 * 1984. "Anti Anti-Relativism." American Anthropologist 86(2):263–78.
 * 1988. Works and Lives: The Anthropologist As Author. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1990), paperback: ISBN 0-8047-1747-8.
 * 1995. After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist. Boston: Harvard University Press (1996, revised ed.). ISBN 9780674008724.
 * 2000. Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691049748
 * 2002. "An inconstant profession: The anthropological life in interesting times." Annual Review of Anthropology 31: 1–19. Viewable at hypergeertz.jku.at

Complete bibliography

 * 1957. "Ethos, world-view and the analysis of sacred symbols." The Antioch Review, 17(4), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.2307/4609997
 * 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example." American Anthropologist 59(1):32–54.
 * 1959. "Form and Variation in Balinese Village Structure." American Anthropologist 61:991–1012.
 * 1959 "The Javanese Village." Pp. 34–41 in Local, Ethnic, and National Loyalties in Village Indonesia, edited by G. W. Skinner. New Haven: Southeast Asian Program, Yale University.
 * 1960. Religion of Java. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
 * 1961. "The Rotating Credit Association: A 'Middle Rung' in Development." Economic Development and Cultural Change 10:241–63.
 * 1962. "Studies in Peasant Life: Community and Society." Biennial Review of Anthropology 1961, edited by B. J. Siegal. pp. 1–41. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
 * 1962. "The Growth of Culture and the Evolution of Mind." Pp. 713–40 in Theories of the Mind, edited by J. Scher. New York: Free Press.
 * 1963. Agricultural Involution: The Process of Agricultural Change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 * 1963. Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 * 1963. (as editor) Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa. New York: Free Press.
 * 1963. "The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States." Pp. 105–57 in Old Societies and New States, ed. C. Geertz. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
 * 1964. "Ideology as a Cultural System." Pp. 47–76 in Ideology and Discontent, edited by D. Apter. New York: Free Press.
 * 1965. The Social History of an Indonesian Town. Cambridge: MIT Press.
 * 1965. Modernization in a Muslim Society: The Indonesian Case. Pp. 20157 11 in Man, State, and Society in Contemporary South East Asia, edited by R. O. Tilman (ed). London: Pall Mall.
 * 1966. "Person, Time, and Conduct in Bali: An Essay in Cultural Analysis." Southeast Asia Program, Cultural Report Series. New Haven: Yale University.
 * 1966. "Religion as a Cultural System." Pp. 1–46 in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion, edited by Michael Banton. ASA Monographs 3. London: Tavistock Publications.
 * 1966. "The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man." Pp. 93–118 in New Views of the Nature of Man, edited by J. Platt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 * 1967. "Politics Past, Politics Preset: Some Notes on the Contribution of Anthropology to the Study of the New States." European Journal of Sociology 8(1):1–14.
 * 1967. "The Cerebral Savage: On the Work of Claude Lévi-Strauss." Encounter 48(4):25–32.
 * 1967. "Tihingan: A Balinese Village." Pp. 210–43 in Villages in Indonesia, edited by R. N. Koentjaraningrat. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
 * 1967. "Under the Mosquito Net." New York Review of Books September 14.
 * 1968. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 136 pp.
 * 1968. "Thinking as a Moral Act: Dimensions of Anthropological Fieldwork in the New States." Antioch Review 28(2):139–58.
 * 1972. "Religious Change and Social Order in Soeharto's Indonesia." Asia 27:62–84.
 * 1972. "The Wet and the Dry: Traditional Irrigation in Bali and Morocco." Human Ecology 1:34–9.
 * 1972. "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight." Daedalus 101(1).
 * 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic Books.
 * 1973. "Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture." Pp. 3–30 in The Interpretation of Cultures.
 * 1976. "From the Native's Point of View." Pp. 221–37 in Meaning in Anthropology, edited by K. H. Basso and H. A. Selby. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
 * 1977. "Found in Translation: On the Social History of the Moral Imagination." Georgia Review 31(4):788–810.
 * 1977. "Curing, Sorcery, and Magic in a Javanese Town." Pp. 146–53 in Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology, edited by D. Landy. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
 * 1979. Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society: Three Essays in Cultural Analysis, written with H. Geertz and L. Rosen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See his own contribution on "Suq: The Bazaar Economy in Sefrou" (Pp. 123–225).
 * 1980. Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
 * 1983. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
 * "Centers, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power." Pp. 121–46 in Local Knowledge.
 * "From the Native's Point of View: On the Nature of Anthropological Knowledge." pp. 55–70.In: Local Knowledge.
 * 1983. "Notions of Primitive Thought: Dialogue with Clifford Geertz." Pp. 192–210 in States of Mind, edited & composed by J. Miller. New York: Pantheon.
 * 1984. "Anti Anti-Relativism: 1983 Distinguished Lecture." American Anthropologist 82:263–78.
 * 1984. "Culture and Social Change: The Indonesian Case." Man 19:511–32.
 * 1986. Pp. 251–75 in The Uses of Diversity. In: Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol. 7, edited by S. M. McMurrin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press & University of Utah Press.
 * 1988. Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Includes the following studies:
 * "The World in a Text: How to Read Tristes Tropiques" (pp. 25–48).
 * "Slide Show: Evans-Pritchard's African Transparencies" (pp. 49–72).
 * "I-Witnessing: Malinowski's Children" (pp. 73–101).
 * "Us/not-Us: Benedict's Travels" (pp. 102–28).
 * 1989. "Margaret Mead, 1901-1978." Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 58:329–41.
 * 1990. "History and Anthropology." New Literary History 21(2):321–35.
 * 1991. "The Year of Living Culturally." New Republic (October 21):30–6.
 * 1992. "'Local Knowledge' and Its Limits: Some Obiter Dicta." Yale Journal of Criticism 5(2):129–35.
 * 1993. "'Ethnic Conflict': Three Alternative Terms." Common Knowledge 2(3):54–65.
 * 1994. "Life on the Edge" [review of Tsing 1993, In the Realm of the Diamond Queen]. New York Review of Books 41(7 April ):3–4.
 * 1995. After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist, The Jerusalem-Harvard Lectures. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 * 1995. "Culture War" [review essay of Sahlins 1995, "How 'Natives' Think and Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook"]. New York Review of Books 42(19 November 30):4–6.
 * 1999 "'The pinch of destiny': Religion as Experience, Meaning, Identity, Power." Raritan 18(3 Winter): 1–19.
 * 2000. Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
 * 2010. Life Among the Anthros and Other Essays, edited by F. Inglis. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

title: Clifford Geertz


text:
User:Isomorphic/Quotes

"If a tree falls in the forest and no-one hears, it doesn't get included in an encyclopaedia." - Average Earthman, from a VfD discussion.

"Is it just me, or does this article make being a script kiddie sound like some kind of diagnosable medical condition..." - Eurleif's very first comment here.

"I'd like to see a band that says "We fit exactly into this existing well-established genre" just for the originality of it. - Cyrius on VfD, complaining about yet another no-name band and the genre they invented for themselves.

(attention geologists, I probably botched this stub!) - edit summary whereby Cyrius announced his creation of Burma Plate.

title: User:Isomorphic/Quotes


text:
Kerb (disambiguation)

Kerb, kerbs or K.E.R.B. may refer to:
 * Curb, or kerb, the raised edge of a road
 * Auto racing kerbs, kerbstones lining the corners of racing tracks
 * Kerb (archaeology), a type of stone ring
 * KERB (AM), a defunct radio station (600 AM) formerly licensed to serve Kermit, Texas, United States
 * KERB-FM, a defunct radio station (106.3 FM) formerly licensed to serve Kermit, Texas, United States

title: Kerb (disambiguation)


text:
Reperfusion injury

Reperfusion injury, sometimes called ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) or reoxygenation injury, is the tissue damage caused when blood supply returns to tissue (re- + perfusion) after a period of ischemia or lack of oxygen (anoxia or hypoxia). The absence of oxygen and nutrients from blood during the ischemic period creates a condition in which the restoration of circulation results in inflammation and oxidative damage through the induction of oxidative stress rather than (or along with) restoration of normal function.

Reperfusion injury is distinct from cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome (sometimes called "Reperfusion syndrome"), a state of abnormal cerebral vasodilation.

Mechanisms
Reperfusion of ischemic tissues is often associated with microvascular injury, particularly due to increased permeability of capillaries and arterioles that lead to an increase of diffusion and fluid filtration across the tissues. Activated endothelial cells produce more reactive oxygen species but less nitric oxide following reperfusion, and the imbalance results in a subsequent inflammatory response. The inflammatory response is partially responsible for the damage of reperfusion injury. White blood cells, carried to the area by the newly returning blood, release a host of inflammatory factors such as interleukins as well as free radicals in response to tissue damage. The restored blood flow reintroduces oxygen within cells that damages cellular proteins, DNA, and the plasma membrane. Damage to the cell's membrane may in turn cause the release of more free radicals. Such reactive species may also act indirectly in redox signaling to turn on apoptosis. White blood cells may also bind to the endothelium of small capillaries, obstructing them and leading to more ischemia.

Reperfusion injury plays a major part in the biochemistry of hypoxic brain injury in stroke. Similar failure processes are involved in brain failure following reversal of cardiac arrest; control of these processes is the subject of ongoing research. Repeated bouts of ischemia and reperfusion injury also are thought to be a factor leading to the formation and failure to heal of chronic wounds such as pressure sores and diabetic foot ulcer. Continuous pressure limits blood supply and causes ischemia, and the inflammation occurs during reperfusion. As this process is repeated, it eventually damages tissue enough to cause a wound.

The main reason for the acute phase of ischemia-reperfusion injury is oxygen deprivation and, therefore, arrest of generation of ATP (cellular energy currency) by mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation. Tissue damage due to the general energy deficit during ischemia is followed by reperfusion (increase of oxygen level) when the injury is enhanced. Mitochondrial complex I is thought to be the most vulnerable enzyme to tissue ischemia/reperfusion but the mechanism of damage is different in different tissues. For example brain ischemia/reperfusion injury is mediated via complex I redox-dependent inactivation. It was found that lack of oxygen leads to conditions in which mitochondrial complex I loses its natural cofactor, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and become inactive. When oxygen is present the enzyme catalyzes a physiological reaction of NADH oxidation by ubiquinone, supplying electrons downstream of the respiratory chain (complexes III and IV). Ischemia leads to dramatic increase of succinate level. In the presence of succinate mitochondria catalyze reverse electron transfer so that fraction of electrons from succinate is directed upstream to FMN of complex I. Reverse electron transfer results in a reduction of complex I FMN, increased generation of ROS, followed by a loss of the reduced cofactor (FMNH2) and impairment of mitochondria energy production. The FMN loss by complex I and I/R injury can be alleviated by the administration of FMN precursor, riboflavin.

Reperfusion can cause hyperkalemia.

Reperfusion injury is a primary concern in liver transplantation surgery.

Therapeutic hypothermia
However, the therapeutic effect of hypothermia does not confine itself to metabolism and membrane stability. Another school of thought focuses on hypothermia's ability to prevent the injuries that occur after circulation returns to the brain, or what is termed reperfusion injuries. In fact an individual suffering from an ischemic insult continues suffering injuries well after circulation is restored. In rats it has been shown that neurons often die a full 24 hours after blood flow returns. Some theorize that this delayed reaction derives from the various inflammatory immune responses that occur during reperfusion. These inflammatory responses cause intracranial pressure, pressure which leads to cell injury and in some situations cell death. Hypothermia has been shown to help moderate intracranial pressure and therefore to minimize the harmful effect of a patient's inflammatory immune responses during reperfusion. Beyond this, reperfusion also increases free radical production. Hypothermia too has been shown to minimize a patient's production of deadly free radicals during reperfusion. Many now suspect it is because hypothermia reduces both intracranial pressure and free radical production that hypothermia improves patient outcome following a blockage of blood flow to the brain.

Hydrogen sulfide treatment
There are some preliminary studies in mice that seem to indicate that treatment with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can have a protective effect against reperfusion injury.

Cyclosporin
In addition to its well-known immunosuppressive capabilities, the one-time administration of cyclosporin at the time of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been found to deliver a 40 percent reduction in infarct size in a small group proof of concept study of human patients with reperfusion injury published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2008.

Cyclosporin has been confirmed in studies to inhibit the actions of cyclophilin D, a protein which is induced by excessive intracellular calcium flow to interact with other pore components and help open the MPT pore. Inhibiting cyclophilin D has been shown to prevent the opening of the MPT pore and protect the mitochondria and cellular energy production from excessive calcium inflows.

However, the studies CIRCUS and CYCLE (published in September 2015 and February 2016 respectively) looked at the use of cyclosporin as a one time IV dose given right before perfusion therapy (PCI). Both studies found there is no statistical difference in outcome with cyclosporin administration.

Reperfusion leads to biochemical imbalances within the cell that lead to cell death and increased infarct size. More specifically, calcium overload and excessive production of reactive oxygen species in the first few minutes after reperfusion set off a cascade of biochemical changes that result in the opening of the so-called mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPT pore) in the mitochondrial membrane of cardiac cells.

The opening of the MPT pore leads to the inrush of water into the mitochondria, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction and collapse. Upon collapse, the calcium is then released to overwhelm the next mitochondria in a cascading series of events that cause mitochondrial energy production supporting the cell to be reduced or stopped completely. The cessation of energy production results in cellular death. Protecting mitochondria is a viable cardioprotective strategy.

In 2008, an editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine called for more studies to determine if cyclosporin can become a treatment to ameliorate reperfusion injury by protecting mitochondria. To that end, in 2011 the researchers involved in the original 2008 NEJM study initiated a phase III clinical study of reperfusion injury in 1000 myocardial infarction patients in centers throughout Europe. Results of that study were announced in 2015 and indicated that "intravenous cyclosporine did not result in better clinical outcomes than those with placebo and did not prevent adverse left ventricular remodeling at 1 year." This same process of mitochondrial destruction through the opening of the MPT pore is implicated in making traumatic brain injuries much worse.

TRO40303
TRO40303 is a new cardioprotective compound that was shown to inhibit the MPT pore and reduce infarct size after ischemia-reperfusion. It was developed by Trophos company and currently is in Phase I clinical trial.

Stem cell therapy
Recent investigations suggest a possible beneficial effect of mesenchymal stem cells on heart and kidney reperfusion injury.

Superoxide dismutase
Superoxide dismutase is an effective anti-oxidant enzyme which converts superoxide anions to water and hydrogen peroxide. Recent researches have shown significant therapeutic effects on pre-clinical models of reperfusion injury after ischemic stroke.

Metformin
A series of 2009 studies published in the Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology suggest that Metformin may prevent cardiac reperfusion injury by inhibition of Mitochondrial Complex I and the opening of MPT pore and in rats.

Riboflavin
In neonatal in vivo model of brain ischemia/reperfusion, tissue injury can be alleviated by the administration of FMN precursor, riboflavin that prevents inactivation of mitochondrial complex I.

Cannabinoids
A study published in 2012 show that the synthetic analogue of the phytocannabinoid Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ8-THCV) and its metabolite 11-OH-Δ8-THCV, prevent hepatic ischaemia/reperfusion injury by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammatory responses through cannabinoid CB2 receptors and thereby decrease tissue injury and inflammation with a protective effect against liver damage. Pretreatment with a CB2 receptor antagonist attenuated the protective effects of Δ8-THCV, while a CB1 antagonist tended to enhance it.

An earlier study published in 2011 found, that Cannabidiol (CBD) also protects against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury by attenuating inflammatory signaling and response of oxidative and nitrative stress, and thereby cell death and tissue injury, but independent from classical CB1 and CB2 receptors.

Reperfusion protection in obligate hibernators
Obligatory hibernators such as the ground squirrels show resistance to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in liver, heart, and small intestine during the hibernation season when there is a switch from carbohydrate metabolism to lipid metabolism for cellular energy supply. This metabolic switch limits anaerobic metabolism and the formation of lactate, a herald of poor prognosis and multi-organ failure (MOF) after I/R injury. In addition, the increase in lipid metabolism generates ketone bodies and activates peroxisome proliferating-activated receptors (PPARs), both of which have been shown to be protective against I/R injury.

title: Reperfusion injury


text:
Big Coppitt Key

Big Coppitt Key is an island in Monroe County, Florida, United States, in the lower Florida Keys. The name is said to be a derivation of the old English word "coppice", meaning thicket. According to A.D. Bache, in the notes for his coast survey conducted in 1861, this key was the location of Happy Jack's plantation in 1855.

Geography
Big Coppitt Key is located at 24.59778°N, -81.65667°W (24.597677, -81.656546).

U.S. 1 (the Overseas Highway) crosses the key at approximately mile markers 9.5-11, between East Rockland Key and the Saddlebunch Keys.

About the island
There are several businesses on Big Coppitt Key. There is also a Monroe County Fire/Rescue Station located on the island. Law enforcement services are handled by the Monroe County Sheriff's Office. There are three churches located on Big Coppitt Key. The key features three parks, including one with a playground and another with a basketball court, in the avenues section. A cemetery is located at Avenue A and 4th Street.

In 2005, Hurricane Wilma caused catastrophic damage to the island; many structures were either destroyed or rendered almost uninhabitable due to flood damage.

More recently, in 2017, Hurricane Irma caused similarly catastrophic damage; most homes were left uninhabitable due to severe wind and water damage. However, damage to the island's world-famous Bobalu's Southern Cafe was light because of proper preparation. They boarded up their windows and took in their outdoor furniture and signs, saving the landmark.

Big Coppitt Key, Florida
Big Coppitt Key is the name of a census-designated place and unincorporated community that occupies Big Coppitt Key and the neighboring islands of Geiger Key and Shark Key. As of the 2020 census, it had a population of 2,869. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 1.84 sqmi, of which 1.15 sqmi are land and 0.69 sqmi, or 37.38%, are water.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 2,869 people, 1,082 households, and 617 families residing in the CDP.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,595 people, 1,108 households, and 681 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 726.0 /km2. There were 1,332 housing units at an average density of 372.7 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 92.91% White, 1.08% African American, 0.81% Native American, 1.46% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 1.04% from other races, and 2.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.76% of the population.

There were 1,108 households, out of which 24.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.5% were non-families. 26.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.77.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 19.3% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 30.8% from 45 to 64, and 11.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 119.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114.5 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,194, and the median income for a family was $49,783. Males had a median income of $31,915 versus $27,721 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $24,022. About 6.1% of families and 8.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 7.5% of those age 65 or over.

title: Big Coppitt Key


text:
Talk:Ringworm

can
puppies rock —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.253.53.7 (talk) 00:18, 24 March 2009 (UTC) can we discuss treatment on wikipedia? I don't have any references, other than the packages themselves...

rinworm is funny.

Maybe links to actual medical references would be a good idea?

"Burn it off with bleach"??? 69.9.16.28 22:53, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

I really dont think burning it of with bleach will work..as opposed to ussing other medications/creams for it.(06-5-2006)

I had ring worm as a kid several times, we had a lot of cows... for animals such as horses, cows, the best product to treat ringworm was coppertox a green sticky solution. From using more than one type of antifungal, I will attest that nothing works as well on humans either, it seems rather safe (no ill personal effects), although I am ceratin the chemicals is quite toxic. It seems to have a limited range of application, that is its antifungal properties are excelent for ringworm but do not always cover other fungal infections (personal experience).(Jul 29, 2006)

Hey, I'd just like to add for anyone with a ringworm-type infection that lamisil once is AMAZING. You apply it once, and it removes the infection within a week. Definitely recommended (just thought this could come in useful if someone had the infection and decided to visit wikipedia about it) 121.45.206.107 (talk) 12:45, 12 May 2008 (UTC)

ringworm and fatties
Why is it that so many fat people have ring worm? does it reproduce faster when there's more fat to digest or something?

I discovered that ring worm is very sensitive to humidity. If you are able to lower the humidity in your room, that can be all it takes to get rid of it.

I had been getting ring worm every summer. But, since I play sports several times a week, even with diligent application of antifungal medication I couldn't get ride of it. I discovered that if I just lower the air conditioner setting so that my room temperature stays under 75 degrees F the ring worm would clear up within a week without using any medication.

I just want to know if it is virus!!!! Answer ME!! please i need to know!!~ anonymous —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.80.178.136 (talk) 16:34, 10 January 2010 (UTC)

The way this works is that as the air goes through the cooling coils the moisture condenses out. (Ever notice how cars will drip water when the AC is on.) I imagine you can use a dehumidifier and achieve the same effect.

"Fat people" get ringworm more often because they sweat more. The fungus thrives on the fatty acids humans secrete in their sweat, so anything causing more sweating (higher temperature, greater humidity, more fat to lug around) causes more ringworm. You'd be surprised that 90-100% of humans have the fungus on their skin normally, but it only "activates" in those "sweaty" conditions I mentioned. Check eMedicine, MedicineNet, or MayoClinic.com to learn more.Danierrr 02:49, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

Hmmmm Interesting. This 50 year old "Fatty" has never had ringworm. Perhaps regular bathing works as a preventative measure? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.36.10.135 (talk) 17:16, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia is not a doctor
"Terbinafine is highly effective for Tinea Corporis. It treats itching, burning, cracking, and scaling that accompany this condition. It cures most ringworm. Do not use it for the nails or scalp. Apply it once a day (morning or night) for one week. It should heal up by then or a little after."

Wikipedia should not be providing medical advice as if it were a doctor, this could lead to all sorts of horrible things if the advice turns out to be wrong. A more generalised statement like "Terbinafine is often applied once a day as treatment, but consult your doctor" or similar would be far more appropriate than the above paragraph which sounds like absolute medical advice.

if no one has any objections I would like to reword this, im thinking something like:

"Terbinafine is highly effective for Tinea Corporis. It is often used to treat the itching, burning, cracking, and scaling that accompany this condition. It cures most ringworm, but should not be used for the nails or scalp. Treatment generaly involves application once a day (morning or night) for one week, but as always you should consult your doctor for specific treatment." -- Mloren 13:02, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

I deleted an obvious advertisement. 65.102.39.66 01:33, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

Sexual Partners and Ring Worm?
Choose sex partners wisely and practice monagamy or abstinence. Is there any reason this reference is here? Is there any documented, referenced accounts of contracting ringworm from not practicing monagamy? Or abstinence!? Is this warning listed under chicken pox also, and other commonly spread infections among children? WilliamRoberts 10:10, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

Symptoms
For about a week now I've had an itchy rash on my face. It consists of some large pimple-like lesions—they are red all the way through but my mom thinks they're ringworm and insists that we bleach the whole house to get rid of the spores (not to mention wash our towls after every single shower and wash our sheets every day and mop the floors every day till the bleach is COMING OUT OF OUR EARS). Is this really ringworm and is this REALLY necessary?? Scorpionman 03:38, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

Total rewrite required and restructure of Clinical Mycology
This article entitled ringworm then discusses anything but ringworm. Ringworm is just one specific type of fungal infection occuring on the skin and causing, as the name requires, raised red rings, with central healing and often some flaking of skin. It has nothing to do with atheletes feet nor fungal infection of the nails, nor indeed tinea versicolor (a yeast rather than a fungus) - none of which forms the rings of ringworm. This article in fact tries to discuss fungal/yeast skin infection in general (mycology culturing and treatment) and therefore of conditions often described as "tineas". Tinea corporis/faciei/manuum are just descriptors of where the fungal infection occurs rather than being distinct in their aetiology (ie unlike Tinea pedis, Tinea unguinum, and Tinea versicolor which have very specific species involved and their own characteristic appearances). Much of current Ringworm contents would be better in a Clinical Mycology article - Mycology currently is the general biology field rather than the clinical branch of clinical microbiology biology, and while Dermatophyte article addresses "parasitic fungus that infects the skin", it is about the organisms rather than the resulting diseases and general approach to investigating and treating.

Before launching into this, could people add comments below of other aspects of the restructuring required for me to bear in mind, and I will then have a go in the next few days :-) David Ruben Talk 22:18, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Clinical mycology seems like a reasonable "root" for much of the information currently in ringworm. As an aside, the "references" section is woefully limited (as I'm sure you noticed). If you want any help after the split, let me know. -- MarcoTolo 23:02, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I think restructuring is a good idea and I support creating a clinical mycology article. Dermatophyte can give an overview of the various fungi (with specifics if there aren't individual articles on the genus or species), and ringworm can just be about the disease (probably just the human aspects, I'm thinking of creating a ringworm in animals article).  Incidentally, there is also a substub called dermatophytosis that should probably just be redirected to ringworm.  --Joelmills 04:27, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

 * None of the tree references given were "reliable sources" and they support few the statements in the article (as if that would matter), I therefore removed them and tagged the article with  . I also added the  tag. I kept the references here:
 * "Ringworm". Columbia University. Retrieved 30 December 2005.
 * Ringworm: Fungus Or Real Worm Under My Skin
 * Tinea images Dermnet.com.
 * Note that there is another article, Tinea corporis which I think is a synonym for ringworm? (I may be wrong). /SvNH 04:32, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

OK I've been WP:BOLD and transfered all the lists of different types of superficial fungal infections to Dermatophytosis, as clearly athlete's foot and nail infections are neither rings nor raised on skin surface (hence initial thought that there might be a worm underneath).

As per convention, articles on diseases are separate from articles on the biology of causative organisms. Hence mycology is study of fungi and their diseases are mycosis, fungi that grow parasitically on the skin/nails are dermatophytes and cause dermatophytosis infections.

I agree SvNH, that all cases of ringworm on the body are Tinea corporis, but not all cases of Tinea corporis appear as ringworm. Also infection in the beard area may reasonably be call ringworm if composed of raised red rings with central healing. However macerated (thickened pale damp) split skin in a deep neck opr chin skin crease may have appearances more in keeping the athlete's feet in the web spaces between the toes, than raised red rings. So Ringworm is more of a description of an appearance that allows diagnosis (of a fungal infection) whereas Tinea corporis or Tinea capitis are more classifications by location. The term for nail infections (onychomycosis) is both specific for location (nails) and a given set of possible appearances -which does not include raised red rings, but rather of discolouration, thickening and lifting of the nails (onycholysis).David Ruben Talk 03:24, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

New initial image needed
Image:Tinea_capitis.JPG doesn't show the disease very clearly. Jidanni 22:44, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Agree - there is no ring, no raised red margin and no central healling. A good picture of Tinea capitis, but it is not ringworm. Removed picture to Tinea capitis & Dermatophytosis David Ruben Talk 03:27, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Microsporum canis?
$$Insert formula here$$

I may be confused here, but no mention of fungal species causing ringworm is complete without the MOST COMMON cause of it, Microsporum canis. Which despite its name fluorishes more commonly in CATS.

Also not mentioned as a (PRESCRIPTION) treatment is Itraconozale. I have been told that oral medication is THE Front line, at least in domestic (Pet, not sure about food) animals. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.73.197.189 (talk) 15:14, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

if left untreated
Mention what will happen if is left untreated. Will it eventually "consume" the entire body? Also mention the pros and cons of using those ointments vs. braving it out. Jidanni (talk) 01:15, 16 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Oh, see Jidanni (talk) 04:19, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

And the results are in!: Moral of story: in the end you'll just end up having to use much more medicine to counter its already advanced and expanded front lines, if you don't want to look like Death Wish III (unrelated, but name sounds scary enough ☺). Jidanni (talk) 01:09, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

Deletion of sources and references
Please be careful when revamping articles.

I've noticed that some sources have been deleted, and now some of the content is actually false. (e.g. [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ringworm&oldid=52795700 Tinea is not always contagious, even though the actual article say so). — Enigma55  ( talk •  email ) 03:51, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 16:20, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Possible copyright violation
The first paragraph of the "treatment" section didn't sound like the usual sort of Wikipedia text:

The treatment for ringworm is one of the many effective topical antifungal creams, such as miconazole (Tinactin) or clotrimazole (Lotrimin). Several of these antifungal creams are now available without a prescription. Treatment may require several weeks. Only by treating for at least one week after the resolution of symptoms can one guarantee eradication. (Pets can be treated with the same medicines, but this is difficult, since they often don't get a rash with their infections. Contact your pet's veterinarian to get up-to-date information on the best treatment for animals).

So I googled a short phrase and found this page, timestamped July 1997:

http://www.drgreene.org/body.cfm?id=21&action=detail&ref=756

That page has this text:

The treatment for ringworm is one of the many effective topical antifungal creams, such as miconazole (Tinactin) or clotrimazole (Lotrimin). Several of these antifungal creams are now available without a prescription. Treatment may require several weeks. Only by treating for at least one week after the resolution of symptoms can one guarantee eradication. (Pets can be treated with the same medicines, but this is difficult, since they often don't get a rash with their infections. Contact your pet's veterinarian to get up-to-date information on the best treatment for animals). --12.48.196.9 18:31, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Thank you. As per policy, I deleted the copyvio from 14th June edit on sight, in any case the subsequent paragraph says essentially the same thing. David Ruben Talk 23:03, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Folk remedies
This paragraph sounds rather harsh, it makes it sound like anything but medical advice will probably hurt you. It also notes about "folk" remedies "that the efficacy of such treatments are not recognized outside of anecdotal reports". Which may be true in some cases but defiantly not all alternative treatments. Tea Tree oil for instance has articles all over the net including research articles that says it is effective in treating ringworm as well as being a general fungal. For example http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/f-w98/teatrees.html and wikipedia's own page on tea tree oil http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea_tree_oil#Medicinal_use mentions its "efficacy".

216.254.91.114 (talk) 21:38, 16 April 2008 (UTC)
 * If you want to include a reference mentioning tea tree oil as a common folk remedy but not giving directions, instructions, advice or amounts to use, go for it! However, keep in mind that past versions of that parargraph had been edited to take out medical advice added by well-meaning editors who thought giving exact instructions on how to use tea tree oil to treat ringworm was appropriate.  That we cannot leave in because it constitutes medical advice.  Past versions of this article and other articles on pet medical issues such as ticks often wind up with edits telling people to use this household cleanser or that easily obtained chemical and more often than not, that advice is foolish and dangerous.  I probably could have softened the wording a bit but I was getting tired of editors using articles on topics such as these to insert potentially disasterous advice.  Whatever you link to, be sure it meets the reliability standard and be mindful of the potential harm to people and animals that a link to an casual recipe for a cure could cause.  I'm sure there are many decent references and quotes you could find to support the efficacy of tea tree oil as a folk remedy and the theory behind it!  As to Wikipedia's own article, one wikipedia article cannot cite another to reference a statement but... if that article already has a reference that supports the contention of it's efficacy, well, by all means nab that citation!

—Preceding unsigned comment added by Lisapollison (talk • contribs) 22:56, 16 April 2008
 * I just had the time to look critically at the material on tea tree oil linked to above and I have to say it is rather underwhelming and hardly merits inclusion. All it says is that in an unnamed and unreferenced study, some test subjects with Ringworm acheived some relief using a tea tree oil preparation.  The writer was careful to note that the tea tree oil was NOT a cure for Ringworm.  It's an interesting article but odd for university-hosted site in that it offers no proof or references for any of the claims made.  The article is also written under the auspices of The Linus Pauling Institute which in and of itself is telling. I would therefore suggest that the article fails to meet the reliable source criteria and that we need to look further if we want to include any specific facts about Tea Tree Oil and its uses to treat ringworm.LiPollis (talk) 23:07, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

What if untreated?
Seems to me the article is missing a statement of what would happen if ringworm is untreated. I represent a mother in a family law matter. The separated father refuses to give their child medicine for ringworm, partly because he thinks children shouldn't get pills, partly to irritate mother. I came here looking for what would happen without treatment, but was disappointed to see there was nothing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.232.211.246 (talk) 00:43, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia does not provide legal or medical advice. Please see the general disclaimer. Gentgeen (talk) 14:07, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Gentgeen is correct.  In fact, one of the reasons I have this article on my watchlist is to prevent medical advice from creeping into the article although I may have contribuited to the problem myself by linking to some statements of fact about prevention.  I would suggest that you simply google the terms 'Ringworm" and "untreated".  I just did and dozens of very helpful articles popped up.  Wikipedia is different from sites like WebMD in that it is an encyclopedia and not a self-help site.  As editors, we are supposed to only provide information and not instructions.  You should keep in mind that ANYONE can edit a wikipedia article and as a result, some things can slip in that may in fact be factually incorrect.  In the area of medicine and diseases, Folk remedies are often documented in order to cover the topic but such remedies shouldn't be presented in such a way as to advocate oa treatment or represent instructions for a treatment.   Your best bet is to have your client seek information from a qualified medical professional who can advise you about both medications and natural remedies. If you need further info for your own handling of the case, I suggest using the Google Books Search function.  That will give you published info, page numbers, ISBN numbers and so on in case you need hard copies of the info you find there. LiPollis (talk) 18:46, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

Just like all the other information in the article, there is nothing special or mysterious that implies one must not mention what might happen if goes untreated. Is there some taboo like with AIDS?. This is the second request for a statement, any little statement on the matter. The article's lack of the finale is quite obvious.

Therefore will some of the M.D.s in the audience please pick one or two of those Google references as a basis for a paragraph about what will happen if left untreated. We need you to pick the best of the Google references else we won't get the balanced view we came here for. Thanks.

 * It will get worse, leading to x, y, and z?
 * It will go away on its own?
 * Both

My gamble is that sooner or later my entire body will become inside the ring, and then nobody will notice anymore. Jidanni (talk) 04:31, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=What+if+ringworm+is+left+untreated&btnG=Google+Search —Preceding unsigned comment added by Oursurged (talk • contribs) 22:47, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I added a very brief and referenced sentence on what will happen if left untreated under the paragraph on Treatment. It's no great mystery. It was information implied in other parts of the article and available to anyone who can use google.  No further info is really necessary because the consequences of leaving it untreated depend on the type of ringworm, the area infected, the person's medical condition/history and much more. Such answers are better left to be found on medical websites or ideally, directly from your own doctor.LiPollis (talk) 16:44, 9 July 2008 (UTC)

Second person instructional tone
The "Prevention" section takes on a second person instructional tone, telling the reader what to do. We are an encyclopedia, we don't instruct, we inform. We also don't talk directly at our readers, third person is always preferred to second person tone. Gentgeen (talk) 14:05, 24 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Would you like to see the language corrected or the section removed? LiPollis (talk) 18:25, 29 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks to the editors who restructured that section appropriately. I did, however, have to remove some material promoting a product called gymnsoap since it's inclusion appeared to be soley for the purposes of advertising the product and did not add much to the discussion.LiPollis (talk) 16:15, 9 July 2008 (UTC)

Removed "dog urine" as treatment for ringworm
I removed the following unsourced comment which appears to be vandalism, since I could not find any source that actually suggests this, i.e. be searching Yahoo, etc:

"There is lots of cures for this kind of infection. The most common cure is dog urine. Doctors reccommend dog urine because there is a mineral that helps the ringworm not to spread any bigger than it is.It also helps decrease the size of the infection. It usually takes about 24 hours to heal after the urine is applied to the surface of the skin where the ringworm is located."

Lazarus666 (talk) 08:28, 23 August 2008 (UTC)
 * thanks for taking care of that. Unfortunately, I don't think that was straight vandalism.  You find all kinds of weird folk remedies for ringworm on the net and they usually involve the use of weak acids or in the opposite direction mild alkaline solutions.  The faulty logic is that these preparations will "burn" away the ringworm.  You also see remedies that use petroleum based products.  I have this article on my watchlist as part of a group I keep an eye on that are likely to have potentially harmful folk remedies added to the content.  Dog urine, being a mild acid would fit the  bill for a potential folk remedy for Ringworm.  In fact, urine is a common folk remedy for skin ailments.LiPollis (talk) 16:55, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

Headline text
ATHLETES FOOT this disease is a nother form of ringworm and thus can be prevented with the same measures too! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.37.39.78 (talk) 22:47, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Ringworm is a fungi pathogen that is highly contagious and can be passed by many methods. The most common methods are skin to skin contact and using contaminated items such as hairbrushes, nailclippers, and believe it or not... underwear! Ringworm can affet many different parts of the body including the back, crotch, feet, chest, arms, face, and scalp. Ringworm can also affect the nails, in which case, the infection is much more difficult to cure. Tinea can also, and is more likely to, affect furry animals such as cats and dogs. When ringworm affects the skin, the generated symtoms are rash, inflammation, and itch. There are many different cures for ringworm the supposedly best, and most effective cures for skin ringworm are Lamisil, Diflucan, and Sporanox. These three medicines come is different forms such as cream, gels, and even spray-ons! And while these three medicines are non-perscription, there is one cure that works the best according to happy customers. Griseofluvin is a medicine used to eliminate the fungi pathogen. You do have to have a doctors note in order to get it though and you can eliminate the virus in under three weeks. There are many ways to avoid this disease including not sharing foods or cups, no sharing clothing, not sharing personal hygene products, and also almost anything to do with love can get you Ringworm. Kissing, hugging, and holding hands can all result in contamination of the area of contact. Sexual intercourse will almost guarentee your chance of getting Ringworm if your partner has it. For your pets, ways to aviod getting them contaminated are to keep them away from humid, infected enviornments such as a bog or a marsh, also keep them away from strays, as the animals are then more likely to have the disease. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 168.169.135.48 (talk) 15:01, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Removed unformatted end 'section' from article
I've removed this blurb from the article, put there by 168.169.135.48, mostly based on that it's appended to the article without any formatting, less because it's useless. It certainly doesn't seem to be vandalism - it's not pasted from another website as far as I can tell, either.

Maybe someone more knowledgable than I can work this into the article? Where it now, it obviously can't stay, it's both broken in formatting and prone to be overlooked; I'd clean it up and put it somewhere easier accessible, but I'm not really sure how to in this case.

 * ''Ringworm is a fungi pathogen that is highly contagious and can be passed by many methods. The most common methods are skin to skin contact and using contaminated items such as hairbrushes, nailclippers, and believe it or not... underwear!
 * Ringworm can affet many different parts of the body including the back, crotch, feet, chest, arms, face, and scalp. Ringworm can also affect the nails, in which case, the infection is much more difficult to cure. Tinea can also, and is more likely to, affect furry animals such as cats and dogs. When ringworm affects the skin, the generated symtoms are rash, inflammation, and itch. There are many different cures for ringworm the supposedly best, and most effective cures for skin ringworm are Lamisil, Diflucan, and Sporanox. These three medicines come is different forms such as cream, gels, and even spray-ons! And while these three medicines are non-perscription, there is one cure that works the best according to happy customers. Griseofluvin is a medicine used to eliminate the fungi pathogen. You do have to have a doctors note in order to get it though and you can eliminate the virus in under three weeks. There are many ways to avoid this disease including not sharing foods or cups, no sharing clothing, not sharing personal hygene products, and also almost anything to do with love can get you Ringworm. Kissing, hugging, and holding hands can all result in contamination of the area of contact. Sexual intercourse will almost guarentee your chance of getting Ringworm if your partner has it. For your pets, ways to aviod getting them contaminated are to keep them away from humid, infected enviornments such as a bog or a marsh, also keep them away from strays, as the animals are then more likely to have the disease.

-pinkgothic (talk) 02:06, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Oh, wow, talk about extraneous. Sorry, case of blindness. Identical text (or I think it's the same, I've not compared it word for word) in talk page section above. Again, sorry about that. -pinkgothic (talk) 02:08, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

Article needs a TOTAL REWRITE
This article has very few citations/references and overall doesn't seem to "read" like other articles about fungi. The language used is very simple and seems more like something I would read on the back of a package of antifungal medication than the kind of quality typical of Wikipedia. Chrisbrl88 (talk) 08:57, 6 April 2009 (UTC)
 * About a year ago, this was a much better article with lots of good references. It will be difficult to reconstruct it it now that it's been gutted.LiPollis (talk) 00:41, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Advice
Is there reallyany evidence that tea tree oil or antibacterial soap will do anything to prevent infection? And does anti-fungal soap even exist? Shoemaker's Holiday Over 200 FCs served 15:38, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Unsupported treatment claims
I have reworked the treatment section, removing much of the unsupported/uncited details and replaced with more typical clinical practice details on treatment durations (with accompanying sources per [{WP:MEDRS]]).

A new editor reverted back what is poorly sourced from http://www.health-up-online.com/2007/03/18/medications_to_treat_ringworm.html which is not a reliable source (as far as I can tell, anyone can selfpublish after registering).

In partuclar, this throwback includes following problems:
 * concept of occlusion I have never seen in clinical practice (well perhaps a covering crep bandage to stop a toddler from scratching, but that is not part of teh active treatment).
 * re "however if constantly touched it can leave a dark patch of skin where it had been" is nonsense - the ring worm infection itself, like any many other causes of skin irritation, may result in postinflammatory hyperpigmentation.
 * reverted back to the uncited statement "Most treatments should be continued for up to 14 days after the disease ceases to produce any visible symptoms", yet clinical practice is generally for just 7 days, per the secondary sources I provided.
 * "For instance, ringworm of the foot can spread to the toenails over the course of a few weeks if neglected" is getting the medicine confused. Ringworm is of course nothing special in terms of which fungi are involved, but rather a particular appearance of dermatophytosis (but not all fungal skin infections appear as a ringworm ring). The white macerated appearance seen in the web spaces of athelete's foot, might spread to the toe nails, but that is something for the athletes foot article to consider, and not this ringworm article dealling with raised rings that generally appear on the body rather than the feet (ringworm risks expanding, but would not be specifically considered a likely cause for onychomycosis).
 * "less responsive to regular treatments if they spread to body areas such as armpits, hands, palms or crotch." I know of no evidence to suggest these sites harder to treat - indeed groin fungal infections usually respond just as well to miconazole or terbinafine creams.

I've WP:1RR back, but the above points should be discussed before further revision. David Ruben Talk 02:31, 23 December 2009 (UTC)

== Merge ==

I have proposed merging tinea corporis into ringworm. The terms are synonymous. Ringworm is the more commonly understood term, so it should be the title. I'll perform the merge myself soon if there are no objections. - Draeco (talk) 17:28, 26 January 2010 (UTC)

 * I certainly object. Tinea corporis is an exclusively human medicine term for dermatophytosis of body skin, usually that without hair. But ringworm is a more general term, often used in veterinary medicine, for dermatophytosis of (obviously) usually hairy skin. The spectrum of organisms which causes these differs somewhat, and certainly the treatment does. S  B Harris 02:53, 19 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Have merged into the more general Dermatophytosis as they are presented as synonyms. Agree with Sbharris in the tinea corporis refers to ring worm of the body. Doc James (talk · contribs · email) 23:22, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

One way to get rid of ringworm spots
If you put a clear coat of nailpolish on the affected area and aply as often as possible. Because the nailpolish suffocates and dries the affected area. It might take a weeks but it will aventually clear up and will not be as pussy or bubbly looking

title: Talk:Ringworm


text:
Xeronema

Xeronema is a genus of flowering plants containing two species, Xeronema moorei from New Caledonia, and Xeronema callistemon (the Poor Knights lily) from the Poor Knights Islands and Taranga Island in New Zealand. The plants are herbaceous monocots, spreading by rhizomes, and have large flowers set on terminal spikes, with stamens towering above the flowers.

The type species X. moorei is found in the mountains of New Caledonia.

The Poor Knights lily (X. callistemon) is endemic to the Poor Knights Islands and Taranga Island in the north of New Zealand. It was discovered in 1924. The Poor Knights lily has large bottlebrush flower clusters that grow horizontally. The clusters begin growing vertically and then bend sideways. Bright red flowers grow upward from the stalk, with bright orange pollen. The plant can reach a height of one metre tall and across.

The APG IV system, of 2016, accepts this genus as constituting its own family Xeronemataceae. It places this in the order Asparagales, in the clade monocots. The family can be separated from other Asparagales families on DNA evidence; it is related to Asphodelaceae but differs in having uniformly unifacial leaves like Iridaceae.

title: Xeronema


text: File:Scoundrel Days album cover.jpg

title: File:Scoundrel Days album cover.jpg


text:
Court cairn

The court cairn or court tomb  is a megalithic type of chambered cairn or gallery grave. During the period, 3900–3500 BC, more than 390 court cairns were built in Ireland and over 100 in southwest Scotland. The Neolithic (New Stone Age) monuments are identified by an uncovered courtyard connected to one or more roofed and partitioned burial chambers. Many monuments were built in multiple phases in both Ireland and Scotland and later re-used in the Early Bronze Age.

Construction and design
Court cairns are characterized as having an uncovered courtyard area connected to one or more covered burial chambers. The boundaries of this open area were typically lined with large standing stones. A narrow, stone lined entry extended from the main area into one or more roofed burial chambers. Courtyards were generally oval or circular in shape, with U-shaped and semi-circular courtyards being the most common layout. Large, standing stones were used to make the walls and roof of burial chambers, normally located at one end of the cairn. Burial chambers are typically divided by jamb stones or jamb and sill stones into consecutive burial compartments.

There are variations in the court cairn layout in both Ireland and Scotland. Most examples have a single courtyard connected by one burial tomb or a courtyard connected to two burial tombs, located on opposite ends of the court area. In Ireland, there are also instances of layouts with dual tombs, each with their own courtyard, but both sharing a common burial mound. The court cairn is also found in Western Scotland. The similar layout of tombs found in Ireland and Scotland and the close geographical location of these tombs, separated by the narrow Irish Channel, indicates that these populations moved back and forth on a regular basis between the two countries.

History
The earliest megalithic tombs found in Britain, Scotland and Ireland were constructed in early 4th millennium BC. The first burial monuments in these areas were most likely single chamber dolmens surrounded by large standing stones. A few dolmens can be dated in both Wales and Ireland from 3800 to 3500 BC. During the same period, passage graves were being developed throughout Ireland, southwest Britain, the Hebrides and the Orkney Islands. Court cairns are unique to Ireland and Scotland. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the earliest court cairns were built around 3750 and new monuments continued to be built and existing ones enlarged until 2900 BC.

Court cairns in Ireland
There are over 390 court cairns recorded in Ireland, with a majority of monuments found in the northern third of the island. Irish court cairns have a few variations in layout. Most examples have a single courtyard connected by one burial tomb chamber or a single courtyard connected to a single burial tomb on each end. In Ireland, there are also instances of layouts with dual tombs, each with their own courtyard, but both share a common burial mound. Most tombs in Ireland are positioned facing east. Less than 40 tombs have been fully excavated to date, and at the majority of sites, at least one cremated individual has been found. In the Audleystown dual court tomb in County Down, Northern Ireland, the remains of 34 people were found in the burial chamber.

Court cairns are found north of a line crossing Ireland from the Burren to the Cooley peninsula. Court cairns are scattered densely across this area of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Thirty percent of all Irish neolithic monuments are court cairns. The court cairn at Creevykeel in County Sligo was the first court cairn to be excavated in Ireland by archaeologists from Harvard University in 1935. They determined that the Neolithic era in Ireland began in 3900 BC, more than 100 years before the first appearance of court tombs. They also suggested that court tombs were widely re-used during the Early Bronze Age. Excavations of court tombs yielded deposits of cremated and unburnt human bone, round bottomed bowls flat, bottomed pottery vessels, flint, polished axes and stone beads.

Court cairns in Scotland
Burial tombs in Scotland are known as Clyde cairns  or Clyde-Carlingford cairns. Generally considered to be the earliest chambered cairns in Scotland, more than 100 Clyde cairns have been found to date. The "Clyde" name is derived from the first discovery of courtyard type burial monuments in the Firth of Clyde region of southwest Scotland. The ancient monuments are distributed from the Solway Firth area north to the southern Hebrides, in the counties of Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway. A few Clyde Cairns have been recorded in North Uist in the Outer Hebrides.

Clyde cairns found in Scotland are identified by an open courtyard area surrounded with large stone slabs and attached to one or more roofed burial chamber areas. The burial chamber was often placed at one end of a rectangular or trapezoidal cairn, and was usually divided into separate burial compartments. Previous excavations suggest that these chambers were entered by removing the stone roof slabs. In some areas, Clyde cairns have one or more lateral chambers. The majority of these monuments were sited to have views over hills or mountains and over water. Many are situated alongside lochs. These monuments were often built in multiple phases. Only a few of the Clyde cairns have been fully excavated. Burnt human bone has been found in many Clyde burial chambers. Bowl pottery remnants have also been found. The tombs saw re-use of their burial chambers in the Early Bronze Age.

title: Court cairn