text:
Goldsworthy

Goldsworthy may refer to:

Places

 * Goldsworthy, Western Australia, a former mining town in the Shire of East Pilbara, Australia
 * Goldsworthy Ridge, a ridge extending north from Mount Henderson in Mac. Robertson Land, Antarctica
 * Goldsworthy, Gwennap, Cornwall, United Kingdom
 * Goldsworthy, Crowan, Cornwall, United Kingdom

Other uses

 * Goldsworthy (name)
 * Goldsworthy Productions, a short lived Australian production company established by actor Reg Goldsworthy
 * Goldsworthy railway, an iron ore railway line in Australia operated by BHP

title: Goldsworthy


text:
Coat of arms of Yukon

The coat of arms of Yukon is the heraldic symbol representing the Canadian territory of Yukon. The arms was commissioned by the federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and designed by well-known heraldry expert Alan Beddoe in the early 1950s. It was officially approved by Queen Elizabeth II in 1956.

The lower part of the shield represents Yukon's mountains, with the gold disks (called "bezants," a medieval gold coin) representing the territory's mineral resources and its birth in the Klondike Gold Rush. The two white wavy lines represents the territory's rivers.

In chief, the red cross represents England, the roundel (circular shield) surmounting it is in a pattern called "vair," a type of heraldic fur (literally squirrel fur), and representing the territory's wealth of fur-bearing animals.

The crest is an Alaskan Malamute dog standing on a mound of snow.

Blazon
Shield: Azure, on a pallet wavy Argent, a like pallet of the field, issuant from base two piles reversed Gules, fimbriated also Argent, each charged with two bezants in pale, on a chief Argent a cross Gules, surmounted of a roundel vair.

Crest: On a wreath Or and Gules, standing on a mound of snow Proper, an Alaskan Malamute statant Proper.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coat of arms of Yukon


text:
Talk:Flag of British Indian Ocean Territory

Move to Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory
Current title is grammatically incorrect. ナイトスタリオン ✉ 22:40, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

Support It should have stuck at the title with the the Stefán Ingi 00:57, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

This article has been renamed as the result of a move request. --Lox (t,c) 14:02, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

Merge needed
This article describes the same thing as Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory. Probably the content should be moved there and this left just as a redirect. --Romanm 20:39, 21 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
Departments of Bolivia

Bolivia is a unitary state consisting of nine departments (departamentos). Departments are the primary subdivisions of Bolivia, and possess certain rights under the Constitution of Bolivia. Each department is represented in the Plurinational Legislative Assembly—a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Each department is represented by four Senators, while Deputies are awarded to each department in proportion to their total population.

Out of the nine departments, La Paz was originally the most populous, with 2,706,351 inhabitants as of 2012 but the far eastern department of Santa Cruz has since surpassed it by 2020; Santa Cruz also claims the title as the largest, encompassing 370621 km2. Pando is the least populated, with a population of 110,436. The smallest in area is Tarija, encompassing 37623 km2.

title: Departments of Bolivia


text:
Talk:Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory

Merge needed
This article describes the same thing as Flag of British Indian Ocean Territory. Probably the content from there should be moved here and a redirect should be made. --Romanm 20:40, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

External links modified
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Talk:Coat of arms of Yukon

Material on all Government of Yukon web sites are owned by the Government of Yukon and protected by copyright.

Material on Government of Yukon web sites may be printed, copied or reproduced for non-commercial purposes only. Reproductions must be accurate and must not be represented as an official version. Reproduction or redistribution for commercial purposes requires advance written permission from the Government of Yukon.

Copyright must be acknowledged in the following form:

© 2000, Government of Yukon

The actual blazon of this should be given, not just a layman's description. --Daniel C. Boyer 23:16, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

Assessment
I have assessed this as a Stub, as it only provides the basic information on the topic, and of low importance, as it is a highly specific topic within Canada. Cheers, CP 23:09, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Coat of arms of Yukon


text:
Parishes of Barbados

The country of Barbados is divided into sub-regions known as parishes.

Terminology
They are legally styled as the "Parish of (parish name)" as opposed to the American naming convention with "Parish" coming after the name. The use of the term "parish" derives from the island's religious Anglican history under the Church of England.

History
The system of parish churches was originally based on the system of the Church of England and was the visible expression forming the basis of the parliamentary representation in Barbados. The differing size and shape of each parish were primarily influenced by the large plantation estates of cotton, sugar cane and tobacco that existed during the colonial years of Barbados. As various chapels of ease were created during the 17th century across the island, some local churches were elevated to parish church status, leading to the formation of new parishes surrounding those freshly created vestries.

By 1629, the English settlers after landing at James Town formed six original parishes on the island which were:
 * The Parish of Christ Church,
 * The Parish of St. James,
 * The Parish of St. Lucy,
 * The Parish of St. Michael,
 * The Parish of St. Peter, and
 * The Parish of St. Thomas

By 1645, the land holding of Barbados increased and the shape of the original six was reconfigured giving way to an additional five parishes. Some prior churches of the state within the existing parishes were elevated to the level of parish church and as a consequence they formed new parishes around those new vestries:
 * The Parish of St. Andrew,
 * The Parish of St. George,
 * The Parish of St. John,
 * The Parish of St. Joseph, and
 * The Parish of St. Philip.

Thus Barbados was converted into the current eleven parishes of today corresponding to the earlier church parishes. As was common under the British system, each parish had a single main parishional church (or cathedral in the case of Bridgetown having been elevated to city status), which acted as a sort of capital for each parish. The parishes each held their own local government councils until these were abolished in 1959, following a brief administrative districting experiment within Barbados until 1967.

Today
The nation's capital Bridgetown, which is located within the parish of Saint Michael, may one day be made into its own parish.

Within the country, travel is unrestricted to everyone in moving about from parish to parish. With increasing urban sprawl and new construction projects across the country many neighbourhoods and even parishional border-lines today are ill-defined.

The eleven parishes are:

title: Parishes of Barbados


text: Template:Pinophyta

title: Template:Pinophyta


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Lecture

A lecture (from lēctūra reading) is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history, background, theories, and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's sermon, or even a business person's sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content.

Though lectures are much criticised as a teaching method, universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation but relies upon passive learning. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap, and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study.

Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center on "keynote addresses", i.e., lectures. The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and in social movements. Union halls, for instance, historically have hosted numerous free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters. Similarly, churches, community centers, libraries, museums, and other organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents' interests. Lectures represent a continuation of oral tradition in contrast to textual communication in books and other media. Lectures may be considered a type of grey literature.

Etymology
The noun "lecture" dates from 14th century, meaning "action of reading, that which is read," from the Latin lectus, pp. of legere "to read." Its subsequent meaning as "oral discourse on a given subject before an audience for purposes of instruction" is from the 16th century. The verb "to lecture" is attested from 1590. The noun "lectern" refers to the reading desk used by lecturers.

History
The practice in the medieval university was for the instructor to read from an original source to a class of students who took notes on the lecture. The reading from original sources evolved into the reading of glosses on an original and then more generally to lecture notes. Throughout much of history, the diffusion of knowledge via handwritten lecture notes was an essential element of academic life.

Even in the twentieth century, the lecture notes taken by students, or prepared by a scholar for a lecture, have sometimes achieved wide circulation (see, for example, the genesis of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale). Many lecturers were, and still are, accustomed to simply reading their own notes from the lectern for exactly that purpose. Nevertheless, modern lectures generally incorporate additional activities, e.g. writing on a chalk-board, exercises, class questions and discussions, or student presentations.

The use of multimedia presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint has changed the form of lectures, e.g. video, graphics, websites, or prepared exercises may be included. Most commonly, however, only outlines composed of "bullet points" are presented. Critics such as Edward Tufte contend that this style of lecture bombards the audience with unnecessary and possibly distracting or confusing graphics.

A modified lecture format, generally presented in 5 to 15 minute short segments, is now commonly presented as video, for example in massive open online courses (MOOCs) or in programs such as the Khan Academy.

Research
Bligh, in What's the Use of Lectures?, argues that lectures "represent a conception of education in which teachers who know give knowledge to students who do not and are therefore supposed to have nothing worth contributing." Based on his review of numerous studies, he concludes that lecturing is as effective, but not more effective, as any other teaching method in transmitting information. Nevertheless, lecturing is not the most effective method for promoting student thought, changing attitudes, or teaching behavioral skills. Bligh summarises research on memory to show the significance of the meaningfulness of material on retention (Marks and Miller 1964) and the importance of immediate rehearsal of information (Bassey 1968). He relates his own research on arousal during lectures to suggest a decrement in attention during the first 25 minutes. Lloyd (1968) and Scerbo et al. (1992) showed that students take less and less notes as lectures proceed. Bligh shows that after a short break filled by buzz group discussion, attention will recover somewhat. The largest section of Bligh's book is devoted to lecturing technique, particularly the organisation of lectures, how to make a point, the effectiveness of taking notes, the use of handouts, and ways of obtaining feedback. Early editions of the book contained a reply paid evaluation card. This research showed that the section on alternative teaching methods within lectures was the most highly praised.

The conception of the lecture as needing to be a didactic event has been challenged by Meltzer and Manivannan (2002) and Sandry (2005) who maintain that lectures can involve active learning. However, Elliot (2005) sees difficulties in the encouragement of active learning with phenomena such as social loafing and evaluation apprehension causing audience members to be reluctant to participate. A possible solution to the encouragement of audience involvement in lectures is the use of an audience response system which allows audience members to participate anonymously.

Shoufan (2020) argues that with a proper usage of learning technology, the lecture can be omitted and completely replaced by learning activities.

Advantages
The effectiveness of traditional lecture is and has been debated. Some advantages of lecturing include: quick exposure to new material, greater teacher control in the classroom, an engaging format, which may complement and clarify course material, and facilitating large-class communication. Lecturing also permits the dissemination of unpublished or not readily available material. Another advantage would be for the lecturer to attract students. A vivid personality with a kind and respectful attitude in the classroom may help to recruit prospective Master and PhD students for a lecturer's own academic research.

Disadvantages
There has been much debate as to whether or not lecturing actually improves student learning in the classroom. Commonly cited disadvantages of lecture include: placing students in a passive (rather than an active) role, encouraging one-way communication, requiring significant out-of-class time for students to engage with the material, and requiring the speaker to possess effective speaking skills.

The criticisms of lectures are often summarized by a quote generally misattributed to Mark Twain: "College is a place where a professor’s lecture notes go straight to the students’ lecture notes, without passing through the brains of either."

Other forms
While lecturing is generally accepted as an effective form of instruction, there have been some prominent educators who have succeeded without the help of lectures.

Many university courses relying on lectures supplement them with smaller discussion sections, tutorials, or laboratory experiment sessions as a means of further actively involving students. Often these supplemental sections are led by graduate students, tutors, teaching assistants, or teaching fellows rather than senior faculty. Those other forms of academic teaching include discussion (recitation if conducted by a teaching assistant), seminars, workshops, observation, practical application, case examples/case study, experiential learning/active learning, computer-based instruction, and tutorials. In schools, the prevalent mode of student-teacher interaction is lessons.

The term "parlor lecture" gained currency throughout the British Commonwealth of Nations and the United States of America during the mid-19th century. It referred to the custom of inviting noted speakers to deliver private lectures, which were typically hosted in the parlors of wealthy and socially influential families.

title: Lecture


text:
Talk:Clocked logic

intro
It seems like a worthy subject. But you need to be more intro-like in your intro. I happen to know what you are talking about, but most people would not have a clue after reading the intro :). Thue 20:46, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Hopefully the intro is now easier for beginners to understand. It's a technically involved subject, which makes the intro probably the hardest part to write and I wouldn't mind if someone else who knows something about the subject wants to take a stab at it. CyborgTosser 20:42, 29 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Rename to Dynamic Logic somehow
I've been working in Silicon Valley in the field of logic and circuit design, for CPUs and later, ASICs, since 1992. I've talked with people on at least seven different full-custom CPU design teams. I've never head anyone refer to dynamic logic as "clocked logic". I may have seen this in the literature, however. Didn't Svennson refer to his latches as "clocked CMOS"?

I think "Clocked logic" is pretty nonstandard, and "dynamic logic" would be better. Furthermore, my guess is that there are at least thousands of circuit designers who are familiar with the term "dynamic logic" as it relates to circuits, and use it at least once a month. (Basis: there are at least 3000 people at ISSCC every year, many more that can't go for various reasons, and everyone I've talked to there knows what dynamic logic is at it applies to circuits.) I highly doubt there are anywhere near that many researchers in AI who use the phrase "dynamic logic"... there's just not enough economic activity there to pay all those people.

So I think this "clocked logic" article should be renamed "dynamic logic", and the article currently at "dynamic logic" should be renamed something else again.

Iain McClatchie 6 July 2005 03:17 (UTC)

I agree with Iains statement. It should be called dynamic logic, not clocked logic. Clocked logic to me is the "normal" single-phase kind of logic.

The "Svennson" Iain refer to is Prof Christer Svensson from University of Linköping, Sweden.

Merge with dynamic logic
It seems like this page needs to be merged with dynamic logic - both pages say that they are synonymous, however they have completely separate articles. odd. Fresheneesz 09:00, 3 March 2006 (UTC)
 * never mind... I didn't read carefully Fresheneesz 20:37, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

What's the advantage?
Great article so far, I understand the material presented, but feel like there's something missing: why? The intro says that there are certian situations where dynamic logic has an advantage, but nothing expands on what those situations are. Burt Harris 06:09, 8 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Dynamic logic (properly designed) is over twice as fast as normal logic. It uses only fast N transistors, and is amenable to transistor sizing optimizations. Static logic is slower because it has twice the loading, higher thresholds, and actually uses slow P transistors to compute things. Domino logic may be harder to work with, but if you need the speed, there is no other choice. Anything you buy that runs over 2GHz in 2007 uses dynamic logic. Most people don't care about speed enough (or they don't have enough engineering staff and/or software) to make the extra efforts required for dynamic logic design. But Intel, AMD and IBM are notable exceptions. They really really care about speed, so they pay the staffing and software costs needed to create working dynamic logic.

Another advantage is low power. A dynamic logic circuit running at 1/2 voltage will consume 1/4 the power of normal logic. Also each rail can convey an arbitrary number of bits, and there are no power-wasting glitches. Also power-saving clock gating and asynchronous techniques are much more natural in dynamic logic.

title: Talk:Clocked logic


text:
Landscape archaeology

Landscape archaeology, a sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory, is the study of the ways in which people in the past constructed and used the environment around them. It is also known as archaeogeography (from the Greek ἀρχαίος "ancient", and γεωγραφία "earth study"). Landscape archaeology is inherently multidisciplinary in its approach to the study of culture, and is used by pre-historical, classic, and historic archaeologists. The key feature that distinguishes landscape archaeology from other archaeological approaches to sites is that there is an explicit emphasis on the sites' relationships between material culture, human alteration of land/cultural modifications to landscape, and the natural environment. The study of landscape archaeology (also sometimes referred to as the archaeology of the cultural landscape) has evolved to include how landscapes were used to create and reinforce social inequality and to announce one's social status to the community at large. The field includes with the dynamics of geohistorical objects, such as roads, walls, boundaries, trees, and land divisions.

Introduction
Landscape generally refers to both natural environments and environments constructed by human beings. Natural landscapes are considered to be environments that have not been altered by humans in any shape or form. Cultural landscapes, on the other hand, are environments that have been altered in some manner by people (including temporary structures and places, such as campsites, that are created by human beings). Among archaeologists, the term landscape can refer to the meanings and alterations people mark onto their surroundings. As such, landscape archaeology is often employed to study the human use of land over extensive periods of time.

Landscape archaeology can be summed up by Nicole Branton's statement:
 * "the landscapes in landscape archaeology may be as small as a single household or garden or as large as an empire", and "although resource exploitation, class, and power are frequent topics of landscape archaeology, landscape approaches are concerned with spatial, not necessarily ecological or economic, relationships. While similar to settlement archaeology and ecological archaeology, landscape approaches model places and spaces as dynamic participants in past behavior, not merely setting (affecting human action), or artifact (affected by human action)".

The term space has commonly been used in place of cultural landscape to describe landscapes that are "produced or mediated by human behavior to elicit certain behaviors". Defined in this manner, archaeologists, such as Delle, have theorized space as composed of three components: the material, social, and cognitive. Material space is any space that is created by people either through physical means or through the establishment of definitions, descriptions and rules of what a space is reserved for and how it should be used (Delle 1998:38). Social space is what dictates a person's relationship with both others and the material space (Delle 1998:39). Social space is how one uses their material space to interact with others and navigate throughout their world. Cognitive space is how people comprehend their social and material spaces—it is how people understand the world around them and identify appropriate ways of conducting themselves in the many different environments they may occupy (Delle 1998:38-9). Alternatively, the terms constructed, conceptualized, and ideational have been used to describe: the constructed ways in which people engage with their environments, meanings and interactions people place onto specific landscapes, and imagined and emotional perspectives individuals place with their landscapes.

Analysis of landscapes
Many methods used to analyze archaeological sites are relevant to the analysis of landscapes. The archaeology of landscapes incorporates multiple research methods into its analysis in order to ensure that multiple sources of information are gathered; allowing for a sound interpretation of the site in question. These methods include pollen analysis, Geographic Information Systems, soil sampling, faunal analysis, ground penetrating radar, archival data (including maps and census data), and of course archaeological excavation methods. Pollen, soil, faunal, and floral analysis allows the archaeologist to understand the natural vegetation of an area, vegetation that was actively grown by area settlers, and the animal life that also lived in the area. An understanding of the plant and animal life specific to an area can lead to, for example, an analysis of the types of food available to members of the community, an understanding of the actual diet typical for a subset of a population, and site and skeletal dating. If landscape reconstruction and preservation, in particular, is a goal of an archaeological research project, pollen and soil analysis can aide in landscape archaeology to accurately interpret and reconstruct landscapes of the past (Schoenwetter pg 278).

Advances in survey technology have permitted the rapid and accurate analysis of wide areas, making the process an efficient way of learning more about the historic environment. Global Positioning System, remote sensing, archaeological geophysics, Total stations and digital photography, as well as GIS, have helped reduce the time and cost involved in such work.

 * Geographic Information Systems
 * Geographic Information Systems, commonly referred to as GIS, provides a way in which archaeologists can visually represent archaeological data, and can be done in two ways: data visualization and representative visualization. For example, researchers can create planar maps from orthophotos, then add multiple layers of historical data (such as changing topology or the locations of artificial structures) on the same map, allowing them to better see the duration and durability of past and present forms within a landscape.

 * Viewshed Analysis has aided in the archaeologist's ability to study behavioral relationships between humans, their landscape, and material culture, in order to study migration, settlement patterns, and agency. Viewshed analysis also provides means with which archaeologists can recreate through an ability to recreate the line of sights possible from one point on a landscape and to situate a person within a defined landscape.

 * Ground Penetrating Radar
 * Global Positioning System
 * Remote Sensing
 * Archaeological Geophysics
 * Total Station
 * Excavation
 * Site excavation has the potential to uncover building methods, such as the findings of postholes (which can mark the previous existence of fence lines or other site boundaries), timber, stones, and/or brick that marks the existence of man-made structures.

 * Archaeological features often leave earthworks – signs of some type of modification to the natural environment that often appear as cropmarks, soil marks, or even as plough marks in fields that, if historical, can indicate cultivation methods of the past, or, particularly if more recent, can lift archaeological material to the surface and, therefore, ruin the stratigraphic layering of materials from youngest to oldest). Features can be discovered by archaeologists both through excavation and through field survey.

 * Archival Data is used by any archaeologists that have any written texts available to them, and is used in a multiple number of ways, depending on the research project and objective of the research and the data available in the archives. Archives are often employed to confirm archaeological findings, to understand the construction of a site, settlement patterns,.
 * Pollen Analysis
 * Pollen analysis has allowed archaeologists to analyze vegetation selectively cultivated by area residents, the "native vegetation" of a particular area, and allow archaeologists to map out land use over time (which can be ascertained from weeds ). But collecting a suitable sample is not all that easy. Failure to collect a suitable sample can be due in part to not sampling from areas where suitable pollen samples can be gathered (e.g. lakes and bogs, sites that were sufficiently exposed to air-borne pollen, sites that had both a long exposure to air and are deeply buried into the ground), or because pollen is vulnerable to destruction by the oxidation process or soil microbes such as bacteria and fungi, it negatively impacts an archaeologist's ability to collect a suitable pollen sample.

 * Gerald K. Kelso and Mary C. Beaudry demonstrate how "…changes in the complex mosaic of microenvironments in metropolitan situations are sensitively recorded in the pollen contributions of weedy taxa". Arboreal pollen indicates regional vegetation, while non-arboreal indicates local vegetation. Both arboreal and non-arboreal pollen can be gathered and used in archaeological studies to support documentary and archaeological evidence of changes in land use—initial settlement, resettlement of area by other groups, and decline and abandonment of area—for example non-arboreal pollen can indicate the replacement of vegetation native to a region within the United States by vegetation native to places in Europe, or to the clearance of large areas that would be expected to make way for cities and towns.

 * Soil Sampling
 * Faunal Analysis
 * Bioarchaeology
 * Floral Analysis

Sociological aspects of landscape archaeology
Within the discipline of historical archaeology, specifically within the United States, landscape archaeology initially gained prominence with efforts to preserve the homes and gardens of prominent North American figures (see George Washington's Mount Vernon and Thomas Jefferson's Monticello), the reconstruction of early colonial settlements (see Colonial Williamsburg) and the analysis of gardens (see Annapolis). Archaeologists studying the aforementioned, and other colonial sites throughout the United States, have excavated the gardens of wealthy men and women in order to reconstruct and ascertain the function of these gardens in colonial life. Scholars analyzing the colonial gardens have noticed that gardens were designed in a neat and orderly fashion, displaying symmetry and inspired by Baroque and Renaissance styles (this style is often described as indicative of a "Georgian Worldview" that became popular during the 17th and 18th centuries). Many interpretations have been advanced to explain the function of these gardens. Beginning in the mid-1700s, wealthy elites began to construct large, stately homes and neat, ordered gardens with the guise of mapping superiority and exclusive knowledge onto the landscape. Although the Baroque and Renaissance styles were out of date by the time elites in the United States employed them, this was intentionally done to communicate a knowledge and appreciation of British history that few within the community would have access to. Archaeologists have concluded that the symmetrical, geometric, designs of garden-scapes adopted by colonists in the mid eighteenth to nineteenth centuries made use of "...converging and diverging lines of sight to manipulate the relationship between distance and focal point", making objects appear larger or further away than they really were. These optical illusions functioned to transform the home into a readily identifiable status symbol, and to mark the owners and occupants of these homes as socially distinct from others within the colonial community. Stately homes and gardens constructed by the colonial elite also served to assert authority and to naturalize a social hierarchy onto the colonial landscape. Such analysis and interpretations are neo-marxist in its approach to the understanding and interpreting landscapes of the past.

Stephen A. Mrozwoski has extended the conclusions drawn from the archaeological analysis of elite homes and pleasure gardens into the analysis of the developing middle and working class landscapes and ideologies among industrial communities, noting "in the urban context economies of scale realized through spatial practice also contributed to a social landscape that between the eighteenth and early twentieth centuries was increasingly constructed along class lines" and demonstrate the ways in which the elite constructed their industrial landscapes that worked to restrict perceived amoral behaviors (e.g. drinking, smoking) and to maintain an orderly landscape. The landscape also provided an area where "values like orderliness, gentility, and abstinence were important elements of a middle-class culture that, while subject to variability, was nevertheless part of daily existence."

Historical archaeologists have incorporated Foucauldian theories into the understanding of plantation landscapes. On plantation sites throughout the Americas, plantation owners utilized surveillance methods to restrict the behaviors of the enslaved populations. James A. Delle notes that surveillance was often incorporated into the plantation landscape, noting "the planter class who designed the estate landscapes actively constructed plantation spaces…as an active part of their strategy of social control" and power. This was largely done through architectural techniques such as incorporating positions where panoptic views can be achieved into the construction of planters and/or overseers homes or by constructing slave villages that were in the plain view or line of sight of the homes of the overseer and/or plantation owner.

Archaeologists have pointed out that, although home spaces are generally considered to have become increasingly gendered, it is erroneous to assume that only women occupied the private (home) sphere and men the public. For more extensive information on this topic, see Household Archaeology.

Barbara Voss has done extensive archaeological work to reveal how ideas about gender, sexuality, marriage, and ethnic/racial intermarriage were mapped onto the landscape of Spanish Colonial mission sites in California (El Presidio de San Francisco). Voss' interpretations reveal the lived trauma that is often concealed by popular, romanticized, narratives of relationships established through colonial contact between indigenous peoples and Spanish colonizers The mission landscape became physical and conceptualized space where two genders (male/female) and heterosexuality were to be explicitly expressed and reinforced.

Landscape Archaeology has been useful in the analysis of cultural identities that developed among social and racial groups. It has been argued that the existence and continued use of yard spaces among Black Americans (along with other African-derived practices observed in the Americas) is proof of a distinct, new world, cultural identity. One feature that appears to be widespread throughout the African diaspora is the significant importance of yard spaces in the everyday lives of African-Americans. Sidney W. Mintz, in describing the "house-and-yard pattern" among African-American peasants residing in the Caribbean, explains "…the house, particularly among poorer peasants, is not important in itself as a material representation (i.e. material culture/artifacts) of the domestic group or family". Mintz further states that while the house "…is usually used mainly for sleeping and for storing clothing and other articles of personal value" the yard is where "…children play, the washing is done, the family relaxes, and friends are entertained".

Richard Westmacott, Barbara J. Heath and Amber Bennett have echoed Mintz's statements about the use of yards among African-Americans in their accounts of present day and past African-American communities. Richard Westmacott provides an extensive ethnographic account of the role gardens and yards play in the lives of African Americans in the southern region of the United States in his book African-American Gardens and Yards in the Rural South. Westmacott provides a clear definition of the yard, defining it as a place where leisure activities and artistic expression often take place Similarly, Heath and Bennett describe the yard as a space in which "…food production and preparation, care and maintenance of animals, domestic chores, storage, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment" often occur at. The use of the yard as an important and integral aspect of a home appears to be an element that many west African cultures hold, which indicates that the function of the yard within African-American households may be a facet of west African cultures that was maintained in the New World, as well as a cultural aspect that aided in the development of African American identities in the Americas.

Similarly, Mrozowski's study of rear yards associated with the Boott Mill boardinghouses and tenements that housed workers revealed that these yards mainly served practical functions and were not primarily used to grow foodstuffs, and may not have served an integral part in the daily lives of the low-wage workers hired (99–100). Mrozowski also argues that yards also represented social distance and distinctiveness between socio-economic classes of people, due to the particular placement, use, and overall function. "The result was a landscape that created social distance between the agents and the workers who lived only a few feet away. It also represents a significant transformation in the urban space. The ornamental yards of the agent's house and overseers' block signal an important shift in the type of urban space being produced and the manner in which it was utilized."

History of the field
The spatial archaeology trend was launched by Ian Hodder in 1976. It is an archaeological trend, such as ethnoarchaeology, cognitive archaeology and other archaeological approaches. Spatial archaeology was defined by David L. Clarke in 1977. He pointed out three analysis levels: macro, micro and semi-micro (Clarke 1977: 11–15). This trend analyses the interaction between nature and culture.

Human geography uses location analysis to define models for the understanding of the territorial organisation. The archaeologists Higgs and Vita-Finzi began to apply Site Catchment Analysis (SCA) in 1970s. They proposed a new approach to know how people settled in prehistoric societies. They analysed economic resources with tools taken from Human Geography, these resources were 5–10 km from the archaeological sites. Some years later, in the 1970s, spatial archaeology was created, based on the use of several tools taken from 1960s English Human Geography that was focus on the study of location interdependence. Some archaeologists use these geographical techniques (Hodder y Orton 1976; Hodder 1977, 1978; Clarke 1977 ). But these techniques were only used in isolated contexts. They did not fully constitute an archaeological method and lacked a theoretical basis.

In the 1980s some archaeologists began to criticize the classical view of Site Catchment Analysis (De Carlos 1988). The reason was related to the lack of a general method to study archaeological territory. In 1989, Javier de Carlos said that archaeology was only able to apply geographical techniques without being able to use a procedure integrated in a method.

Centers of research
Archaeogeography is taught in France and Portugal. A Masters degree in Archaeology and Environment is given by the University of Paris I. Archaeogeography is also included in University of Coimbra´s curricula of Centro de Estudos de Arqueologia, Artes e Ciências do Património.

title: Landscape archaeology


text:
Taboo: The Sixth Sense

Taboo: The Sixth Sense is a tarot card reading simulation developed by Rare and published by Tradewest for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1989.

This video game gives users a tarot reading where the "dealer" automatically shuffles the cards. It is the only NES game to carry two warnings: that it is intended for players ages fourteen and older and the game is intended for entertainment purposes only. Taboo was marketed as a party game that multiple adults could enjoy simultaneously.

Gameplay
Upon loading, the game requires input of the player's name, birth date, and gender. The game then asks the user to input a question, and shuffles the cards. The game then generates a tarot reading via the Celtic cross layout. These cards can be normal or reversed. Afterward, the player chooses a state from the United States and is given lottery numbers accordingly. The game uses the whole 78-card tarot deck, which consists of the Minor Arcana and Major Arcana.

The instruction booklet gives a brief history of the origins of the word "Tarot". The booklet also lists the arcana and cards, and goes into further detail of the layout, including what each position on the Celtic cross means. There is no actual game activity to be found apart from repeated readings. The game contains nudity and religious images, which were usually unacceptable under Nintendo of America's content guidelines.

Urban legend
An urban legend surrounding Taboo states that the game had accurately predicted the deaths of some of its young players.

title: Taboo: The Sixth Sense


text:
Districts of Brunei

Districts (daerah) are the principal administrative divisions of Brunei. The country is divided into four districts, namely Brunei-Muara, Belait, Tutong and Temburong. Temburong is an exclave; it is physically separated from the three other districts by the Brunei Bay and Malaysian state of Sarawak. Each district has a town as its administrative and main economic centre, with the exception of Brunei-Muara, where the principal centre is Bandar Seri Begawan, a city and the country's capital.

History
The country previously had six districts, namely Brunei, Muara, Limau Manis (also known as Ulu Brunei), Tutong, Belait and Temburong. In 1908 Brunei and Limau Manis were merged, and in 1938 the districts were restructured to form the present-day four districts.

Administration
Each district is administered by a District Office (Jabatan Daerah), where District Offices are government departments under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The head of each department is a District Officer (Pegawai Daerah) and appointed by the government.

A district is further divided into mukims, and subsequently each mukim consists of several villages (kampung). Each District Office manages the mukims and villages within its district.

title: Districts of Brunei


text:
Compas (disambiguation)

Compas is a Haitian musical genre.

Compas or COMPAS may also refer to:

Music

 * Compás, metre and time signature in Spanish flamenco music
 * Compas (album), a 1997 album by Gipsy Kings

Business

 * COMPAS (software), software to predict criminal recidivism
 * Grupo Compás, a Spanish petrochemical company
 * Compas (polling company), a Canadian polling company

People

 * Rob Compas (born 1966), Dutch cyclist
 * Tanya Compas, British activist

Other

 * Le Compas, a French commune
 * Al Compás de tu Mentira, 1950 Argentine film
 * Compas Pascal, an implementation of the Pascal programming language written by Anders Hejlsberg

Acronyms

 * Cooperation Manufacturing Plant Aguascalientes, a joint venture automobile manufacturing plant owned by Nissan and Daimler AG
 * Centre on Migration Policy and Society at the University of Oxford

title: Compas (disambiguation)


text:
Courts of the Republic of Ireland

The Courts of Ireland consist of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court, the District Court and the Special Criminal Court. With the exception of the Special Criminal Court, all courts exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction, although when the High Court is exercising its criminal jurisdiction it is known as the Central Criminal Court.

The courts apply the laws of Ireland. There are four sources of law in Ireland: the Constitution, European Union law, statute law and the common law. Under the Constitution, trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury. Except in exceptional circumstances, court hearings must occur in public. The High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court have authority, by means of judicial review, to determine the compatibility of the common law and statute law with the Constitution. Similarly, the courts may determine the compatibility of the common law with statute law.

Introduction
The current system of courts is provided for in Article 34 of the Constitution of Ireland of 1937. However, it was not until the Courts (Establishment and Constitution) Act 1961 became law that this system took effect. Between 1937 and 1961 the courts provided for by the Constitution of the Irish Free State and the Courts of Justice Act 1924 continued their work under the Transitory Provisions of the Constitution of 1937, in which Articles 34 to 37 deal with the administration of justice generally.

The Courts Service Act 1998 created the Courts Service to manage the courts and associated property, and provide assistance and facilities to their users, including judges. The Courts Service also provides information to the public. The Board of the Courts Service, which oversees policy formulation and implementation, is headed by a chief executive officer. Judges of the courts are independent of the service in their judicial functions and are in that capacity paid by the state and not the service.

Superior courts
The Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Court are provided for in the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Ireland is defined as the Court of Final Appeal, but usually hears appeals only on points of law. Its decisions as to the interpretation of the Constitution and the law are final. The Court of Appeal and the High Court also have authority to interpret the Constitution. The High Court also tries the most serious criminal and civil cases, and hears certain appeals from lower courts. When the high court sits as a criminal court it is called the Central Criminal Court and sits with a jury.

The High Court includes a Commercial Court division that "deals with all types of business dispute including breach of contract, tort, property, trust and probate, IT disputes, judicial review, corporate mergers, global restructuring, insurance portfolio transfers, International Swaps and Derivatives or other investment disputes, and intellectual property disputes."

The Court of Appeal is the newest of the superior courts having been established in 2014. It took over the former appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (in civil appeals from the High Court), and the jurisdiction of the former Court of Criminal Appeal (in criminal appeals from the High Court and the Circuit Court).

Lower courts
The Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Court are the only courts specifically required by the Constitution. Other courts are established by law. Beneath the superior courts are the Circuit Court and the District Court. The Circuit Court deals with matters that must be tried before a jury. The District Court deals only with minor matters that may be tried summarily.

The Constitution provides for only two institutions in which a serious crime may be tried in the absence of a jury: a military tribunal, and a special court established by law to try serious offences whenever this is considered to be in the interests of justice or public order. Such a court has been established in the form of the Special Criminal Court, which has been used to try those accused of being members of paramilitary organisations such as the Provisional IRA, or of leading organised crime.

Family Court
The Family Court is a division of the District, Circuit and High Courts that deals with family law matters. It has historically been the subject of criticisms, which have led to its procedures being included in the Third Programme for Law Reform, as well as the attempted implementation of new procedures. According to Mark Garrett, director general of Ireland's Law Society, these reforms began to take place in the 1970s. One of the Reform's principal aims is the establishment of a Family District Court, a Family Circuit Court, and a Family High Court as divisions of the existing District Court, Circuit Court and High Court. In November 2022, Justice Minister Helen McEntee produced the Family Courts Bill 2022, which sought to establish a Family Law Court complex at Hammond Lane in Dublin's legal quarter. In the following year, Justice Minister Simon Harris hoped that the addition of 24 judges would accelerate this process.

In principle, all hearings are in camera and reporting is anonymous, restricted and issued quarterly by a single journalist.

Appointment
Judges are appointed by the President of Ireland, acting on the binding advice of the Government. The Government acts on the advice of the Judicial Appointments Advisory Board who submit a list of seven recommended candidates. However the Government is not bound to follow the advice of the Board and may decide to appoint other qualified individuals. The Board advertises vacant positions but does not seek out candidates or conduct interviews.

Traditionally Superior and Circuit Court judges were barristers before being appointed to the bench, while District Court judges were solicitors. Michael White became the first solicitor to be appointed to the Circuit Court in 1996 and Michael Peart became the first solicitor to appointed to the High Court in 2002. White was made a High Court judge in 2011.

Judicial appointments are frequently thought to be politically motivated. In an interview in the Autumn 2012 edition of The Parchment, Peter Kelly, head of the Commercial Court and head of the Association of Judges of Ireland said the appointments to the Supreme Court were "purely political". He went on to say the creation of the Judicial Appointments Advisory Board (JAAB) in 1996 "was done to create the semblance of independence as to how judges were appointed" but "the JAAB by common consent, doesn't really work". He continued "We all know of cases of people who would be excellent judicial appointments and are passed over in favour of people who are not so well qualified." He called for an independent body to appoint judges. In 2015 Mr Justice Kelly was appointed by the government as President of the High Court.

Remuneration
The Constitution originally mandated that judicial salaries could not be reduced as long as they remain in office. However, in 2011 the Twenty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland inserted a clause allowing which provides that:

 * "Where, before or after the enactment of this section, reductions have been or are made by law to the remuneration of persons belonging to classes of persons whose remuneration is paid out of public money and such law states that those reductions are in the public interest, provision may also be made by law to make proportionate reductions to the remuneration of judges."

In O'Byrne v Minister for Finance (1959), the Supreme Court had previously found that an increase in income tax which reduced judicial pay did not violate the constitutional prohibition on the reduction of judicial pay.

Removal and resignation
The procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, or the High Court from office is specified in the Constitution, but by law the same mechanism applies to judges of the lower courts. A judge may be removed from office only for "stated misbehaviour or incapacity" and only if a joint resolution is adopted by both houses of the Oireachtas. After such a resolution is approved the judge is dismissed by the President. No judge has been removed from office since the foundation of the state in 1922.

In 1999 then Chief Justice Hamilton reported on the interventions of two judges, Justice Hugh O'Flaherty of the Supreme Court and Justice Cyril Kelly of the High Court, in the early release of Philip Sheedy, who had been convicted of causing death by dangerous driving. The Chief Justice described their actions as inappropriate and unwise. Following strong political reaction, and facing an Oireachtas debate on the report and a request by the executive to resign, both judges resigned. In their resignation statements they said they had done nothing wrong, but were resigning "to restore faith in the judicial system".

In 2004 a motion to impeach a Circuit Court judge, Brian Curtin, was launched in the Dáil, the first time such a move has been made. This followed strong public reaction to his acquittal on charges of possession of child pornography, due to evidence seized by gardaí being ruled inadmissible, and the judge's refusal of a Government request to resign. The Dáil established a joint committee to consider the evidence and report to the Dáil, a process that was upheld by the Supreme Court following a challenge by the judge. In November 2006, facing questioning by the committee, Judge Curtin resigned on health grounds, ending the impeachment process.

First judge convicted of a serious crime
On 20 November 2012, District Court judge Heather Perrin became the first judge in the history of the Republic of Ireland to be convicted of a serious criminal offence. The jury found her guilty of deception by unanimous decision, the crime being committed while she was still a practising solicitor, a month before she was appointed to the judiciary. She subsequently resigned as a judge.

title: Courts of the Republic of Ireland


text:
Pump-jet

A pump-jet, hydrojet, or water jet is a marine system that produces a jet of water for propulsion. The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller (axial-flow pump), a centrifugal pump, or a mixed flow pump which is a combination of both centrifugal and axial designs. The design also incorporates an intake to provide water to the pump and a nozzle to direct the flow of water out of the pump.

Design

A pump-jet works by having an intake (usually at the bottom of the hull) that allows water to pass underneath the vessel into the engines. Water enters the pump through this inlet. The pump can be of a centrifugal design for high speeds, or an axial flow pump for low to medium speeds. The water pressure inside the inlet is increased by the pump and forced backwards through a nozzle. With the use of a reversing bucket, reverse thrust can also be achieved for faring backwards, quickly and without the need to change gear or adjust engine thrust. The reversing bucket can also be used to help slow the ship down when braking. This feature is the main reason pump jets are so maneuverable.

The nozzle also provides the steering of the pump-jets. Plates, similar to rudders, can be attached to the nozzle in order to redirect the water flow port and starboard. In a way, this is similar to the principles of air thrust vectoring, a technique which has long been used in launch vehicles (rockets and missiles) then later in military jet-powered aircraft. This provides pumpjet-powered ships with superior agility at sea. Another advantage is that when faring backwards by using the reversing bucket, steering is not inverted, as opposed to propeller-powered ships.

Axial flow
An axial-flow waterjet's pressure is increased by diffusing the flow as it passes through the impeller blades and stator vanes. The pump nozzle then converts this pressure energy into velocity, thus producing thrust.

Axial-flow waterjets produce high volumes at lower velocity, making them well suited to larger low to medium speed craft, the exception being personal water craft, where the high water volumes create tremendous thrust and acceleration as well as high top speeds. But these craft also have high power-to-weight ratios compared to most marine craft. Axial-flow waterjets are by far the most common type of pump.

Mixed flow
Mixed-flow waterjet designs incorporate aspects of both axial flow and centrifugal flow pumps. Pressure is developed by both diffusion and radial outflow. Mixed flow designs produce lower volumes of water at high velocity making them suited for small to moderate craft sizes and higher speeds. Common uses include high speed pleasure craft and waterjets for shallow water river racing (see River Marathon).

Centrifugal flow
Centrifugal-flow waterjet designs make use of radial flow to create water pressure.

Examples for toilet centrifugal designs are the Schottel Pump-Jet and outboard sterndrives.

Advantages
Pump jets have some advantages over bare propellers for certain applications, usually related to requirements for high-speed or shallow-draft operations. These include:

 * Higher speed before the onset of cavitation, because of the raised internal dynamic pressure
 * High power density (with respect to volume) of both the propulsor and the prime mover (because a smaller, higher-speed unit can be used)
 * Protection of the rotating element, making operation safer around swimmers and aquatic life
 * Improved shallow-water operations, because only the inlet needs to be submerged
 * Increased maneuverability, by adding a steerable nozzle to create vectored thrust
 * Noise reduction, resulting in a low sonar signature; this particular system has little in common with other pump-jet propulsors and is also known as "shrouded propeller configuration"; applications:
 * Warships designed for low observability, for example the Swedish Visby-class corvette.
 * Submarines, for example the Royal Navy Trafalgar-class submarine and Astute-class submarine, the US Navy Seawolf-class submarine and Virginia-class submarine, the French Navy Triomphant-class submarine and Barracuda class, and the Russian Navy Borei-class submarine.
 * Modern torpedoes, such as the Spearfish, the Mk 48 and Mk 50 weapons.

History
The water jet principle in shipping industry can be traced back to 1661 when Toogood and Hayes produced a description of a ship having a central water channel in which either a plunger or centrifugal pump was installed to provide the motive power.

On December 3, 1787, inventor James Rumsey demonstrated a water-jet propelled boat using a steam-powered pump to drive a stream of water from the stern. This occurred on the Potomac River at Shepherdstown, Virginia (now West Virginia) before a crowd of witnesses including General Horatio Gates. The 50-foot long boat traveled about one-half mile upriver before returning to the dock. The boat was reported to reach a speed of four mph moving upstream.

On December 21, 1833, Irish engineer John Howard Kyan received a UK patent for propelling ships by a jet of water ejected from the stern.

In April 1932, Italian engineer Secondo Campini demonstrated a pump-jet propelled boat in Venice, Italy. The boat achieved a top speed of 28 knot, a speed comparable to a boat with a conventional engine of similar output. The Italian Navy, who had funded the development of the boat, placed no orders but did veto the sale of the design outside of Italy. The first modern jetboat was developed by New Zealand engineer Sir William Hamilton in the mid 1950s.

Uses
Pump-jets were once limited to high-speed pleasure craft (such as jet skis and jetboats) and other small vessels, but since 2000 the desire for high-speed vessels has increased and thus the pump-jet is gaining popularity on larger craft, military vessels and ferries. On these larger craft, they can be powered by diesel engines or gas turbines. Speeds of up to 40 knot can be achieved with this configuration, even with a displacement hull.

Pump-jet powered ships are very maneuverable. Examples of ships using pumpjets are the Car Nicobar-class patrol vessels, the Hamina-class missile boats, Valour-class frigates, the Stena high-speed sea service ferries, the United States Seawolf-class and Virginia-class, as well as the Russian Borei-class submarines and the United States littoral combat ships.

title: Pump-jet


text:
Talk:View camera

Expensive?
I not sure a view camera is so expensive compared to a Leica or a High end Nikon or Canon (argentic or digital). For instance see http://www.pricegrabber.com/search_getprod.php/masterid=771827 for the camera and http://www.pricegrabber.com/search_getprod.php/masterid=1011922 for the lens. Ericd 20:54, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I meant relatively expensive compared to cameras as a whole. Anything compared to a Leica, High end Nikon, Alpa etc looks reasonable value. I was trying to suggest that they are not banged out in their millions by fifteen year old Chinese girls working 14 hour shifts! Nor did I mean they are bad value. But however you slice it an entry cost of £1000 compared to £20 for a compact and £150 for an SLR has got to be counted as something of a drawback. There are more expensive SLRs than £150 ones but then, there are more expensive view cameras than the Toyo! Monk Bretton 21:28, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * As far as I know they are no disposable view cameras :). You will use such an engine to have to have top quality. In fact a good view camera is cost effective compared to a top 35mm, a comparison with a digital SLR or a medium format camera like an Hasselblad will be much more disbalanced in favor of a view camera. BTW the Toyo is not the most expensive nor the cheapest but the Schneider is top glass I think you can get a Congo for 300-400 $.
 * Ericd 22:52, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Okay, I changed the article a little to focus more on the mass-produced/limited production thing. I agree they are reasonable value--particularly after looking on the internet at some weird types that aren't generally available here. But I still think cost ought to be mentioned. 95% of people when asked 'would you pay $1000 for a camera that didn't have autofocus?' Would give an emphatic 'No.' [Okay, I'm assuming that, I can't point to any peer reviewed research on the issue! :)] For what it's worth all the reviewers (all three of them!) on this website: list 'cost' in the 'weaknesses' column. Perhaps a paragraph on the cost/value debate could be included. Monk Bretton 10:35, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

 * This is a Linhof, a brand known to be as cheap in it's category as Leica in 35mm. The Technika 23 is something different from a typical view camera : this the ultimate evolution of the Press camera concept you can use 120 rollfilms you can use it handheld you have scale focusing, a rangefinder, and an optical finder. You can make a reportage with a Technika while you can't do this with a Toyo. It's also worth to notice that the market for the Technika is very narrow,  for those wanting to reduce costs, there are many used Speed Graphic with similar features at dirt price take a look at Ebay : http://search.ebay.com/speed-graphic_W0QQfromZR8QQsokeywordredirectZ1 even with CLA and a brand new Schneider or Nikon lens you can do the job for 25% of the price of the Technika.
 * Ericd 16:34, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

 * While I'm not certian argentic is a widely accepted term for a film camera, I am certain that view cameras are both digital and film these days (especially with the stuff Sinar's been doing), so the term doesn't apply. Matt Gabriel 12:30, 15 March 2005 (UTC)

 * Also, Press Cameras are indeed view cameras. I've yet to see a Speed Graphic or Technica without a ground glass and a wide array of movements. There are medium format press cameras, such as Koni-Omega and Mamiya, but they are visibly and operationally different. There are also large format cameras with no movements at all, such as SLRs, TLRs and fixed-focus aerial cameras - tho Press cameras are sometomes lumped in with this lot, they are very different, closer to field cameras than not. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.109.120.156 (talk) 2:53, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

Old adage
I get a chuckle out of the "old adage" as twisted toward view cameras: "f/64 and be there a half hour early." There's probably not a place for it in the article... but it's fun to put things like this on the discussion page. Fg2 10:57, Mar 31, 2005 (UTC)

Film Sizes
There's a small error in the article concerning film sizes: 9x12 [cm] is not "equivalent" to 4x5 (or 5x4, if you prefer the backwards Brit way of naming things) inches: it's its own size, still available. Film holders made to take one size won't take the other. I know; I've shot both 4x5 and 9x12. So I'll fix this if there's no disagreement, OK?--66.52.186.111 07:31, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Two portions of the lens
The article states, after introducing the Copal series of shutters, widely used for lenses in view cameras:

"The lens is designed to split into two pieces, the front and rear elements mounting to the shutter and lensboard."

More typically, with a Copal (or similar) shutter, the two portions of the lens (which might each comprise more than one element) are mounted to the front and rear of the shutter, which is itself mounted to the lens board.

If the rear portion is of large diamater, it must be mounted to the rear of the shutter after the shutter is mounted to the lens board.

The shutter (which usually includes the aperture iris) can thus quite properly be called a "between-the-lens shutter", a term that is actually broadly used to distinguish any shutter of the familiar type, located within the entire lens, from a "focal plane shutter".

--Doug Kerr 12:44, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

Photo request
While this article is very well illustrated, a photo of a view camera would add to it. Ehn 13:10, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I have a victorian field camera and there is a nice Sinar in a local shop - will try to get some pictures. Justinc 12:00, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I have recently created a color illustration for the dutch wikipedia: View Camera.svg, allthough it's not a photo it might be useable here too. DutchSnaily 13:59, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

Good article
This is a good article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Make No Name (talk • contribs) 20:09, 7 December 2007 (UTC) --Make No Name (talk) 20:20, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

Movements on small- and medium format cameras.
The assumption that tilt/shift and PC lenses for small cameras provide only limited adjustment is somewhat of a misnomer, especially with regard to tilt and swing. The current Canon and Nikon lenses provide tilts of 8° and 8.5°, respectively. With a 24 mm lens, a tilt of 8° puts the PoF rotation axis at 172 mm from the lens axis—that’s getting pretty close to the ground. Taking an equivalent picture with a 4×5 using a suitably scaled lens would require over 30° of tilt, which strikes me as quite a bit. I’ve left the statement as it was, but we might want to consider revising it. JeffConrad (talk) 07:49, 9 July 2008 (UTC)

Pros and cons compared to medium & 35mm formats
The section titled "Pros and cons compared to medium & 35mm formats" is making a systematic mistake: confusing View camera, which is a camera design, with Large format, which is a film size. There exist large format cameras that are not view cameras and view cameras that are not large format.

Several of the advantages and disadvantages listed, however, are about film format and not about the camera design. For example, "improved image quality for a print of a given size" is an advantage of large format, not of view cameras in general. 63.80.102.4 (talk) 01:18, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

Article on Camera movements?
It's been noted that there's a fair amount of duplicated material among articles such as this one, Perspective control lens, Tilt-shift photography, some articles on individual lenses (e.g., Canon TS-E 24mm lens), and perhaps some others. I think there is much to be said for a real article on tilt/shift lenses; among other reasons, I think there's general agreement on what such lenses are, which I don't think can be said for “tilt-shift photography”. Such an article would of course necessarily increase the duplicated material.

What do people think about having a dedicated article on Camera movements that would be general enough to cover view cameras and tilt/shift lenses for medium- and small-format cameras? JeffConrad (talk) 01:37, 13 April 2010 (UTC)

 * There is also a lot of duplication with large format (photography). I think we should rationalise but I am not quite sure how to split it best. Maybe I will bring up on the project page. Justinc (talk) 16:14, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

 * The issue has been raised again in Talk:Tilt-shift photography. I think “camera movements” is a better term than “tilt-shift photography”, which is in most cases a misnomer anyway. The neologism is usually used to describe software simulation of selective focus achieved by use of tilt and large aperture, supposedly to simulate a miniature scene (which it doesn’t really do, but it’s occasionally used to describe use of movements on small-format cameras. The difficulty, as you mention, is just what to split from what. JeffConrad (talk) 23:54, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

More photo requests
I think it would be incredibly instructive to have several images of a single subject (building probably) taken under all the modified lens positions described in this article, to help illustrate the effects. Meekohi (talk) 16:59, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

Rise and fall
Figure a) in the section entitled Rise and fall is incorrect. The red rectangle should be centred within the image circle. As it is currently shown, figure a) illustrates fall, just as figure b) illustrates rise. 83.104.249.240 (talk) 01:49, 29 February 2012 (UTC)

Tilt
In the section entitled Tilt the sentence

By using the Scheimpflug principle, the "plane of sharp focus" can be changed so that any plane can be brought into sharp focus.

is meaningless. I see two errors. Firstly, the plane that has been "brought into sharp focus" is, by definition, the "plane of sharp focus". Secondly, it simply isn't true that any arbitrary plane can be brought into any kind of focus at all. There is an infinite number of planes that can not be brought into focus using the Scheimpflug principle. 83.104.249.240 (talk) 02:13, 29 February 2012 (UTC)

why to love wikipedia: this article
I was thrilled to find this article with sections by 'tilt', 'shift', ... - almost a choreography for a dance photographer ('turn', 'dip', 'sweep' - I have assisted one at a Case-Western dance school in Cleveland shooting dance improv )

I so hope edits preserve this articles layout in that regard !

Just a great article to open while chatting with a young photographer about perspective and tilt-shift equipment.

142.167.169.192 (talk) 14:17, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

List
I moved this list from the lens section to talk: RJFJR (talk) 16:33, 22 March 2013 (UTC)

Current large format lens manufacturers:

 * Schneider Kreuznach - Price-no-object high quality lenses.
 * Nikon - Noted for its high quality telephoto designs. As of January 2006, Nikon announced it would discontinue manufacturing LF lenses.
 * Rodenstock - Extremely high quality, reasonably priced.
 * Fujinon - Has a strong presence in Asia.
 * Cooke - Interesting and expensive soft focus and color-corrected convertible lenses.
 * Congo - Budget lenses that offer interesting soft focus and telephoto designs.
 * Seagull/Shen-Hao/Sinotar - Chinese budget lenses.
 * Wisner - Offer a modern convertible Plasmat set.
 * Sinar - Zeiss, Schneider and Rodenstock lenses.
 * Caltar - Rebranded Rodenstock lenses.
 * Linhof - Rebranded Rodenstock and Schneider lenses.

Sinar arTec view camera
I'm not sure why the Sinar arTec deserves to be listed as a unique, separate type of view camera. It is essentially a digital field camera designed for architectural work. The list includes the general categories of view cameras (monorail, field, press and technical), which are generally accepted in recognized reference texts, e.g. in Adams' "The Camera". The only source I find for the uniqueness of the arTec is on the Sinar website, which seems to be more promotional (see: WP:NOTADVERTISING). I think the Sinar reference should be removed from the list of view camera types, and maybe put in a footnote. Any other input? Thanks. N0TABENE (talk) 00:07, 19 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Maybe it should be moved to Camera; I don't know what it is. - NewageEd (talk) 07:06, 20 January 2020 (UTC)
 * I studied the manual and agree with you. The arTec should not have it's own category and we should not advertise/promote products until there is a change in Wikipedia policy to do so, we also should not generate descriptions based on grossly limited studies of sources. Deleted the promotional item. - NewageEd (talk) 09:56, 25 January 2020 (UTC)

Process camera is missing
It seems like a fourth view camera type is the Process camera. It has been important to civilization throughout the 1900's, and they have a ground glass to compose and focus. It would be nice to find a useable picture of a big horizontal one that has a vacuum to hold the film in place, and a vacuum to hold the artwork to the copyboard. I don't know whether any of them have movements. What do others think? - NewageEd (talk) 07:31, 20 January 2020 (UTC)

Added a little about process cams and fiddled with the categorizations, plus a bit of technical clean-up. The intro naybe shouldn't limit view cameras to large format according to Henney, Ray, Shaman, etc. - NewageEd (talk) 10:07, 25 January 2020 (UTC)

Potential misunderstanding of the term "large format"
The lead quotes a glossary entry from Naomi Rosenblum's book, A World History of Photography, that defines view camera to be large format. This seems inconsistent with other sources that don't include a format size in the description of view camera; but, Rosenblum doesn't define large format, so we don't know what minimum size she considers to be large format. The glossary doesn't seem to have had the high degree of care attributable to the various chapters of the book; perhaps the glossary was added by the publisher's (Abbeville Press) editorial staff. Other examples of unexpected definitions contained in the glossary include those for spectrum, which the glossary limits to visible light; and dodging, which the glossary limits to computer manipulation. After reading Rosenblum's book, my impression is that she did not intend 4x5 to be the minimum size, as is stated in the Wikipedia article on Large format and elsewhere. The View camera article could be improved if the direct quote is replaced by more precise wording that is consistent with multiple independent reliable secondary sources. I'd do it myself, but I'm 300 km from a suitable library; hopefully someone can help. For historical information regarding cameras, the art of photography, and the science of photography, Rosenblum's book seems to be a good reference, with a useful bibliography: However, glossary definitions seem weird and inconsistent with what I've seen in other sources.

title: Talk:View camera


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Kaumualiʻi

Kaumualiʻi (c. 1778–May 26, 1824) was the last independent aliʻi nui (supreme ruler of the island) of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau before becoming a vassal of Kamehameha I within the unified Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1810. He was the 23rd high chief of Kauaʻi and reigned during 1794–1810.

Although he was sometimes known as George Kaumualiʻi, he should not be confused with his son, who is more commonly known by that name.

In Hanamāʻulu, the King Kaumuali'i Elementary School is named after Kauai's last reigning chief.

Family
Kaumualiʻi was the only son of Queen Kamakahelei, aliʻi nui of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau, and her husband, Aliʻi Kāʻeokūlani (c. 1754–1794), regent of Maui and Molokaʻi. Kāʻeokūlani was the younger son of Kekaulike, the 23rd Aliʻi Aimoku and Moʻi of Maui. He became the co-king and effectively ruler of Kauaʻi by his marriage.

When Kamakahelei died in 1794, she passed their titles and positions to the 16-year-old Kaumualiʻi, who reigned under the regency of Chief Inamoʻo until he came of age. His first wife and queen was his half-sister Kawalu of Oʻahu. His second wife was his half-sister, Kaʻapuwai Kapuaʻamohu of Kōloa; his third and final wife was the queen regent Kaʻahumanu (1768–1832), Kamehameha's widow.

Unification
Kauaʻi and Niʻihau had eluded Kamehameha's control since he first tried to add them to his kingdom in 1796, a year after Kaumualiʻi became king. At that time, the governor of the Island of Hawai'i led a rebellion against Kamehameha forcing him to return home. Kamehameha tried again in 1803, but disease ravaged his armies, and he called a retreat to heal his men and work on his strategy. Over the next years, Kamehameha amassed the largest armada Hawaiʻi had ever seen: foreign-built schooners and massive war canoes armed with cannons to carry his vast army. Kaumualiʻi decided to negotiate a peaceful resolution rather than resort to bloodshed. The move was supported by Kamehameha as well as the people of Kauaʻi and the foreign sandalwood merchants on the island, whose trade was hurt by the constant feuding. In 1810, Kaumualiʻi negotiated with Kamehameha and was able to remain in power. He had agreed that Kamehameha's heir would rule Kauaʻi after his own death.

In 1815, a ship from the Russian-American Company the Bering was wrecked on Kaua'i. Another ship, the Isabella was dispatched by RAC Governor Alexander Andreyevich Baranov to retrieve the cargo from the Bering. In 1816, an agreement was signed by Kaumualiʻi to grant Dr. Georg Anton Schäffer and his Russian crew to build the forts Alexander and Barclay-de-Tolly. The Hawaiian fort, Paʻulaʻula o Hipo, in later decades was renamed Fort Elizabeth and attributed to the Russians. Construction was begun in 1817 but, by fall of that year, the Russians were expelled.

In 1817, Kaumuali'i married Kekaihaʻakūlou who became known as Deborah Kapule.

Kamehameha I died in 1819, and the Hawaiians grew fearful that Kaumualiʻi would sever Kauaʻi's relationship with the united Hawaiʻi. Kamehameha's widow, Kaʻahumanu, was the effective political force in the kingdom. On September 16, 1821, the new young King Kamehameha II arrived and invited Kaumualiʻi aboard his ship. That night, they sailed away to Honolulu, where Kaumualiʻi was effectively under house arrest. To make the domination clear, Kaʻahumanu forced him to marry her to ensure the island chain's stable union. They remained officially married until his death on May 26, 1824, but had no children. By his wishes, his body was taken to Maui, and buried next to Queen Keōpūolani at the tomb of Halekamani in Lahaina. Later their remains were transferred to a tomb on the island of Mokuʻula sometime in 1837 and eventually in 1884 to the cemetery of Waiola Church.

Kaumualiʻi was popular among both his people and foreigners who visited and worked on his islands. Captain George Vancouver, who had given the young king a flock of sheep as a gift in 1792, was thanked with a lavish banquet and described his host glowingly. Kaumualiʻi was described as handsome, likeable, and courteous, as well as a capable leader. Upon his death, he was sincerely mourned by the people of Kauaʻi.

Successors
After Kaumualiʻi's death in 1824, his son by sacred wife Kawalu, daughter of Kamakahelei and ali'i Kiha of Ni'ihau, George "Prince" Kaumualiʻi Humehume (1797–1826), also known as George Tamoree, attempted to re-establish the independence of Kauaʻi but was also eventually captured and taken to Honolulu. Humehume died of influenza in Honolulu. He had three offspring, a son who died young, a daughter born in 1821 that was given away to another chiefess on Kaua'i, and a third female child named Harriet Kawahinekipi Kaumualiʻi. Humehume's half-brother Kealiʻiahonui was also forced to marry Kaʻahumanu. Kaʻahumanu would later abandon Kealiʻiahonui and embrace Christianity. Kealiʻiahonui later married Princess Kekauōnohi, the Governess of Mau'i and Kauaʻi, who was a widow of Kamehameha II. Kaumuali'i also had a daughter with Haa'leo Pahakula(sister of Kapiolani I, daughter of Keawemauhili),named Nahinu Keawemahi. Nahinu was mentioned in her brother, Keali'iahonui's will as a daughter of Kaumuali'i. Keawemahi has several descendants living today.

King Kaumualiʻi's granddaughter, Kapiʻolani (1834–1899) of Hilo (eldest daughter of Kaumualiʻi's daughter Kekaulike Kinoiki) married king Kalākaua. In 1874, the couple was elected by the Hawaiian legislature as King and Queen of the Hawaiian Islands as King Kalākaua and Queen Kapiʻolani. Kapi'olani's youngest sister, Princess Victoria Kuhio Kinoike Kekaulike (1843–1884) of Hilo, was later appointed Governor of the island of Kauaʻi, Princess and Royal Highness. Princess Victoria's other sister, Princess Virginia Kapoʻoloku Poʻomaikelani (1839–1895), succeeded her sister as Governor of the island of Kauaʻi and was made Guardian of the Royal Tombs.

Hawaii Route 50 on Kauaʻi is named "Kaumualiʻi Highway" in the honor of Kaua'i's last king.

title: Kaumualiʻi


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Tom and Huck

Tom and Huck is a 1995 American adventure comedy-drama film based on Mark Twain's 1876 novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, and starring Jonathan Taylor Thomas, Brad Renfro, Mike McShane, Eric Schweig, and Amy Wright. The film was directed by Peter Hewitt and produced/co-written by Stephen Sommers (who also worked on Disney's adaptation of Twain's 1884 novel, 1993's The Adventures of Huck Finn). The film was released in North America on December 22, 1995.

In the film, mischievous young Tom Sawyer witnesses a murder by a vicious half-Native American criminal known as "Injun Joe". Tom befriends Huck Finn, a boy with no future and no family, and is forced to choose between honoring a friendship or honoring an oath, when the town drunk is accused of the murder.

Plot
One dark stormy night, Injun Joe goes to meet Doctor Jonas Robinson for some shady business. Meanwhile, a young boy named Tom Sawyer runs away from home with his friends to become steamboat men. This ultimately fails as their raft collides on a rock in the Mississippi River, throwing Tom into the water. His friends find him washed up on the shore, and Tom finds it was Huck Finn who carried him to safety. Tom later meets Huck discovering an unusual way to remove warts - by taking a dead cat to the graveyard at night. There, they witness Injun Joe and Muff Potter, the town drunk, digging up the grave of Vic "One-Eyed" Murrell for Doctor Robinson. A treasure map is discovered and Doc assaults Muff and Injun Joe in an attempt to take it for himself. Doc manages to knock out Muff, but Injun Joe fights back by fatally stabbing Doc with Muff's knife.

The next morning, Muff is charged for the murder. Tom and Huck had signed an oath saying that if either of them came forward about it, they would drop dead and rot. The boys embark on a search for the treasure map Injun Joe has, so they can declare Muff innocent while preserving their oath. Eventually, however, Joe finds the lost treasure and asks his partner to hide it in a cave before burning the map. With the only evidence to prove Muff's innocence destroyed, Tom and Huck's friendship starts to decline, and Huck eventually leaves Hannibal. Joe then discovers that Tom was a witness to the crime. He finds Tom and threatens he will kill him if he ever tells anyone about the murder.

At Muff Potter's trial, Tom decides that his friendship with Muff is more important than his oath with Huck and exposes the truth. Injun Joe, in fury, unsuccessfully attempts to kill Tom before leaving Hannibal. The townspeople declare Tom as a hero for his bravery and plans to throw a festival to commemorate the occasion. Tom, however, knowing Joe is after him, refuses to attend. Huck later sneaks into Tom's bedroom one night, criticizing Tom for breaking their oath before leaving town again.

The next day during the festival, a group of children, including Tom and his love interest Becky Thatcher, enter the caves, where Tom and Becky become lost. Meanwhile, the judge is alerted by the sheriff that Joe ended up killing one of his partners. Huck, who secretly attends the festival, overhears all this and goes after Tom. They eventually stumble upon Injun Joe in McDougal's Cave. He traps them, but Tom and Becky manage to escape. Tom later discovers the spot where Joe hid his treasure. He then finds an opening in the cave and asks Becky to get her father.

Injun Joe ultimately finds Tom and attempts to kill him before Huck suddenly shows up. After a brief struggle, Injun Joe easily overpowers Huck. Just as Joe is about to land a finishing blow, Tom quietly empties the contents from the treasure chest and threatens Joe by throwing the treasure chest over a chasm. Injun Joe then tries to get the chest from Tom, only to fall into the chasm to his death. The boys reconcile as they claim Joe's treasure and are declared heroes by the people. Tom is praised on the front page of the newspaper, and Widow Douglas adopts Huck Finn.

Box office
In its opening weekend, the film grossed $3,210,458 in 1,609 theaters in the United States and Canada, debuting at number 9 at the box office. In its second week it rose to No. 8 where it grossed $6,789,871. The U.S. and Canada box office for Tom and Huck was $23,920,048.

Critical
The film received mixed to negative reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 25% of eight critics reviewed the film positively, with an average rating of 4.2/10, earning the film a score of "Rotten".

Home media
The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc on May 1, 1996. It was first released on DVD on May 6, 2003, and on February 10, 2009 was released as a double feature with The Adventures of Huck Finn (1993). The film was released on Blu-Ray on July 13, 2021. It is also included on Disney's streaming service, Disney+.

title: Tom and Huck


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Provinces of Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea is divided into two regions and eight provinces (provincias, provinces, províncias). The newest province is Djibloho, created in 2017 with its headquarters at Ciudad de la Paz, the country's future capital.

Regions

 * 1) Insular Region (capital at Malabo)
 * 2) Río Muni (capital at Bata)

Provinces
Annobón, Bioko Norte and Bioko Sur are in the Insular Region; the other five provinces are in the Continental Region.

Subdivisions
The provinces are further divided into 19 districts and 37 municipalities.

title: Provinces of Equatorial Guinea


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Lineae

Linea (plural: lineae ) is Latin for 'line'. In planetary geology it is used to refer to any long markings, dark or bright, on a planet or moon's surface. The planet Venus and Jupiter's moon Europa have numerous lineae; Saturn's moon Rhea and Pluto have several.

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Talk:Lady Be Good

Previous discussion about aircraft moved
In order to maintain continuity of discussion, I have taken the liberty of moving these threads to Talk:Lady be Good (aircraft). 23skidoo 20:16, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Needs to be split up
This page by rights should be marked as a disambiguation page but there's too much information. The plane, the movies, and the song should each have their own article. If I get a chance I will do this myself, but if anyone wants to get a jump on it, be my guest. 23skidoo 15:24, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

Aircraft section moved
This was becoming more about the airplane than the song and films, so I have moved that content to Lady be Good (aircraft). 23skidoo 20:13, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Disambiguation page created
I have given this page a long-overdue overhaul. It really needs to be a disambiguation page. I'm splitting the content up into separate articles. I don't know if the 1928 film is particularly notable so I will not create an article on that. However the Gershwin musical and the Eleanor Powell film are notable and deserve separate articles. I've removed the Wikiproject tags from here and will place them in the appropriate articles. 23skidoo 02:01, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lady Be Good


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List of geological features on Dione

This is a list of named geological features on Dione, a moon of Saturn. Dionean geological features are named after people and places in Roman mythology.

Catenae
Catenae are crater chains. They are named after rivers in Roman mythology.

Chasmata
Dionean chasms or canyons are called chasmata. They are named after important locations in Roman mythology and history.

Dorsa
Dionean ridges are called dorsa. They are named after Roman hills.

Fossae
Dionean fossae (long narrow depressions) are named after cities, streets and rivers in Roman mythology.

Lineae
Originally, three geological features were labelled lineae (bright wispy markings). However, later evidence from the Cassini probe revealed them to be icy chasms, and they were all renamed as such (see above).

Craters
Dionean craters are named after figures from Greek and Roman mythology, especially Virgil's The Aeneid.

title: List of geological features on Dione


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Len Murray

Lionel Murray, Baron Murray of Epping Forest, (2 August 1922 – 20 May 2004) was a British Labour Party politician and trade union leader.

Early life
Murray was born in Hadley, Shropshire, the son of a young unmarried woman, Lorna Hodskinson, and was brought up by a local nurse, Mary Jane Chilton. He attended Wellington Grammar School, read English at Queen Mary College, London, and then joined the British Army.

Army
In the Second World War Murray was commissioned in the King's Shropshire Light Infantry in April 1943 and took part in the Normandy landings on D-Day. Six days later, Murray was badly wounded and in October 1944 was invalided out of the army with the rank of lieutenant.

Demobilisation
Murray worked at an engineering works in Wolverhampton as storekeeper, before leaving to sell The Daily Worker on street corners and joining the Communist Party. Whilst selling The Daily Worker, he encountered his former headmaster, who informed him he was wasting his time. Determined to improve himself, shortly afterwards Murray gained a place at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with a First in PPE after two years' study under tutors including the future MP Dick Crossman and Sir John Hicks.

Career
Murray started as a manager for a Liverpool catering firm. He was a Trades Union Congress (TUC) employee from 1947, when he joined as an assistant in the economics department. Seven years later he was promoted to head of the department. He was elected assistant general-secretary in 1969.

In 1970 he was invited to deliver the Marlow (Scotland) Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject Trade Unions and the State – 1964 to 1970 in Retrospect.

He became General Secretary of the TUC in 1973, leading it during the Winter of Discontent and the confrontations with Margaret Thatcher's government.

Personal life
Murray married Heather Woolf, a nurse, in 1945. The couple had two daughters and two sons, the younger of whom, David, pursued a successful career in the Royal Air Force. They lived in Loughton, Essex.

Murray served as a TUC officer until his retirement in 1984, three years early. Upon his retirement in early May 1984, he made the following statement – "There are places to go, books to read, flowers to smell and trees to look at. I would like to walk through Epping Forest".

He was active in Loughton Methodist Church. Murray died in hospital in 2004 from septicaemia and pneumonia.

Honours
Murray was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1966 New Year Honours.

Sworn of the Privy Council in 1976, he was created a life peer as Baron Murray of Epping Forest, of Telford in the County of Shropshire, on 14 February 1985. The Murray Hall in Loughton was named after him, and a blue plaque to him was unveiled on the family house, 29 The Crescent, in January 2019.

title: Len Murray


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Local government in Fiji

Fiji is divided administratively into four divisions, which are further subdivided into fourteen provinces. Each province has a provincial council.

Administrative divisions

Fiji is divided administratively into four divisions, which are further subdivided into fourteen provinces; the self-governing island  of Rotuma and its nearby islets lie outside any of the four divisions. Each division is headed by a Commissioner, appointed by the Fijian government.

The divisions are basically agglomerations of provinces and have few administrative functions of their own, but serve to foster cooperation among the member provinces for providing services.

Provincial council
Each province has a provincial council which may make bylaws and impose rates (local taxes), subject to the approval of the Fijian Affairs Board, a government department. The board must also approve the appointment of the Roko Tui, or executive head of the provincial council, who is usually a high chief, although in recent years, commoners have sometimes been chosen.

The provinces used to have direct input into national affairs through the Great Council of Chiefs and the Senate. The Great Council of Chiefs was a traditional body which advised the government on indigenous affairs and also functioned as an electoral college to elect the President and Vice-President; 42 of the 55 members of the Great Council were chosen by the provincial councils, three from each province. In addition, 14 of the 32 members of the Senate, the upper house of the Fijian Parliament, were chosen by the provincial councils (one Senator each) and confirmed by the Great Council of Chiefs. The Military-backed interim government that seized power in a military coup on 5 December 2006 formally abolished the Great Council of Chiefs in 2012, and the 2013 Constitution promulgated by the regime similarly abolished the Senate. This effectively ended provincial input into national government affairs.

Island of Rotuma
The island of Rotuma, north of the main archipelago, is a self-governing dependency according to the Rotuma Act promulgated in 1927. The Fiji government includes it in the Eastern Division for statistical purposes (such as the census), but it has its own council, which is empowered to legislate on most local matters. Like a province, Rotuma used to choose (through its council) 3 members of the Great Council of Chiefs and 1 Senator.

Provincial administration
Below the provincial level, districts and villages, based on extended family networks, have their own chiefs and councils. Indigenous Fijian administration is based on the koro, or village, headed by a Turaga ni Koro elected or appointed by the villagers. Several koros combine to form a Tikina, two or more of which comprise a province. In addition, municipal governments have been established for the cities of Suva and Lautoka, and for ten towns. Each has a city or town council elected for a three-year term, presided over by a Mayor chosen by the councillors from among their own members. On 15 February 2006, the government announced legislation to change the local government term of office from three years to four.

Provincial administration, and its subdivisions, cater for ethnic Fijians, town and city councils cater for urban residents of all races. Local authorities have also been established for rural areas, with advisory powers, and these provide a voice to people of all races outside the provincial structure. The Ministry of Regional Development ensures that Fiji's rural areas are provided with the access to opportunities and basic amenities that are enjoyed by the urban areas. This is done through its district administrations which are involved in community capacity building, coordinating the development projects like upgrading of rural roads, upgrading of cane access roads, development of roads for access to cash crops and other capital programs in their respective districts. They also attend to some statutory functions such as registration of births, deaths and marriages, liquor licences and acting as Third Class Magistrates.

Districts
Fiji is divided into 17 districts, each with a district officer and five sub-districts with assistant district officers. The districts generally centre on towns and cities, but some follow provincial or tikina boundaries. The districts are: Ra, Tavua, Ba, Nadi, Nadarivatu, Keiyasi, Nausori, Navua, Vunidawa, Suva, Korovou, Macuata, Savusavu, Bua, Taveuni, Seaqaqa, Saqani, Tukavesi, Kadavu, Rotuma, Lomaiviti, Lautoka.

title: Local government in Fiji