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Plant physiology

Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Plant physiologists study fundamental processes of plants, such as photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, plant hormone functions, tropisms, nastic movements, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, environmental stress physiology, seed germination, dormancy and stomata function and transpiration. Plant physiology interacts with the fields of plant morphology (structure of plants), plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (biochemistry of plants), cell biology, genetics, biophysics and molecular biology.

Aims
The field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with life as they occur in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time. At the smallest scale are molecular interactions of photosynthesis and internal diffusion of water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of plant development, seasonality, dormancy, and reproductive control. Major subdisciplines of plant physiology include phytochemistry (the study of the biochemistry of plants) and phytopathology (the study of disease in plants). The scope of plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into several major areas of research.

First, the study of phytochemistry (plant chemistry) is included within the domain of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires a large array of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function. Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from herbivores, pathogens and competition from other plants. They do this by producing toxins and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals. Other compounds defend plants against disease, permit survival during drought, and prepare plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract pollinators or herbivores to spread ripe seeds.

Secondly, plant physiology includes the study of biological and chemical processes of individual plant cells. Plant cells have a number of features that distinguish them from cells of animals, and which lead to major differences in the way that plant life behaves and responds differently from animal life. For example, plant cells have a cell wall which maintains the shape of plant cells. Plant cells also contain chlorophyll, a chemical compound that interacts with light in a way that enables plants to manufacture their own nutrients rather than consuming other living things as animals do.

Thirdly, plant physiology deals with interactions between cells, tissues, and organs within a plant. Different cells and tissues are physically and chemically specialized to perform different functions. Roots and rhizoids function to anchor the plant and acquire minerals in the soil. Leaves catch light in order to manufacture nutrients. For both of these organs to remain living, minerals that the roots acquire must be transported to the leaves, and the nutrients manufactured in the leaves must be transported to the roots. Plants have developed a number of ways to achieve this transport, such as vascular tissue, and the functioning of the various modes of transport is studied by plant physiologists.

Fourthly, plant physiologists study the ways that plants control or regulate internal functions. Like animals, plants produce chemicals called hormones which are produced in one part of the plant to signal cells in another part of the plant to respond. Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism. The ripening of fruit and loss of leaves in the winter are controlled in part by the production of the gas ethylene by the plant.

Finally, plant physiology includes the study of plant response to environmental conditions and their variation, a field known as environmental physiology. Stress from water loss, changes in air chemistry, or crowding by other plants can lead to changes in the way a plant functions. These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.

Biochemistry of plants

The chemical elements of which plants are constructed—principally carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, etc.—are the same as for all other life forms: animals, fungi, bacteria and even viruses. Only the details of their individual molecular structures vary.

Despite this underlying similarity, plants produce a vast array of chemical compounds with unique properties which they use to cope with their environment. Pigments are used by plants to absorb or detect light, and are extracted by humans for use in dyes. Other plant products may be used for the manufacture of commercially important rubber or biofuel. Perhaps the most celebrated compounds from plants are those with pharmacological activity, such as salicylic acid from which aspirin is made, morphine, and digoxin. Drug companies spend billions of dollars each year researching plant compounds for potential medicinal benefits.

Constituent elements
Plants require some nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, in large quantities to survive. Some nutrients are termed macronutrients, where the prefix macro- (large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves. Other nutrients, called micronutrients, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy. Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as ions dissolved in water taken from the soil, though carnivorous plants acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey.

The following tables list element nutrients essential to plants. Uses within plants are generalized.

Pigments

Among the most important molecules for plant function are the pigments. Plant pigments include a variety of different kinds of molecules, including porphyrins, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. All biological pigments selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light while reflecting others. The light that is absorbed may be used by the plant to power chemical reactions, while the reflected wavelengths of light determine the color the pigment appears to the eye.

Chlorophyll is the primary pigment in plants; it is a porphyrin that absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light while reflecting green. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and green algae possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Kelps, diatoms, and other photosynthetic heterokonts contain chlorophyll c instead of b, red algae possess  chlorophyll a. All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light to fuel photosynthesis.

Carotenoids are red, orange, or yellow tetraterpenoids. They function as accessory pigments in plants, helping to fuel photosynthesis by gathering wavelengths of light not readily absorbed by chlorophyll. The most familiar carotenoids are carotene (an orange pigment found in carrots), lutein (a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables), and lycopene (the red pigment responsible for the color of tomatoes). Carotenoids have been shown to act as antioxidants and to promote healthy eyesight in humans.

Anthocyanins (literally "flower blue") are water-soluble flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue, according to pH. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, providing color in leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the petals of flowers, where they may make up as much as 30% of the dry weight of the tissue. They are also responsible for the purple color seen on the underside of tropical shade plants such as Tradescantia zebrina. In these plants, the anthocyanin catches light that has passed through the leaf and reflects it back towards regions bearing chlorophyll, in order to maximize the use of available light

Betalains are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are indole-derived compounds synthesized from tyrosine. This class of pigments is found only in the Caryophyllales (including cactus and amaranth), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of beets, and are used commercially as food-coloring agents. Plant physiologists are uncertain of the function that betalains have in plants which possess them, but there is some preliminary evidence that they may have fungicidal properties.

Signals and regulators
Plants produce hormones and other growth regulators which act to signal a physiological response in their tissues. They also produce compounds such as phytochrome that are sensitive to light and which serve to trigger growth or development in response to environmental signals.

Plant hormones
Plant hormones, known as plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition, hormones are signal molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations, and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals, plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones are often not transported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited to specific locations.

Plant hormones are chemicals that in small amounts promote and influence the growth, development and differentiation of cells and tissues. Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering to seed development, dormancy, and germination. They regulate which tissues grow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, as well as leaf abscission and even plant death.

The most important plant hormones are abscissic acid (ABA), auxins, ethylene, gibberellins, and cytokinins, though there are many other substances that serve to regulate plant physiology.

Photomorphogenesis
While most people know that light is important for photosynthesis in plants, few realize that plant sensitivity to light plays a role in the control of plant structural development (morphogenesis). The use of light to control structural development is called photomorphogenesis, and is dependent upon the presence of specialized photoreceptors, which are chemical pigments capable of absorbing specific wavelengths of light.

Plants use four kinds of photoreceptors: phytochrome, cryptochrome, a UV-B photoreceptor, and protochlorophyllide a. The first two of these, phytochrome and cryptochrome, are photoreceptor proteins, complex molecular structures formed by joining a protein with a light-sensitive pigment. Cryptochrome is also known as the UV-A photoreceptor, because it absorbs ultraviolet light in the long wave "A" region. The UV-B receptor is one or more compounds not yet identified with certainty, though some evidence suggests carotene or riboflavin as candidates. Protochlorophyllide a, as its name suggests, is a chemical precursor of chlorophyll.

The most studied of the photoreceptors in plants is phytochrome. It is sensitive to light in the red and far-red region of the visible spectrum. Many flowering plants use it to regulate the time of flowering based on the length of day and night (photoperiodism) and to set circadian rhythms. It also regulates other responses including the germination of seeds, elongation of seedlings, the size, shape and number of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the straightening of the epicotyl or hypocotyl hook of dicot seedlings.

Photoperiodism

Many flowering plants use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in day length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed photoperiodism. Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length. Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to start flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (vernalization) instead.

Although a short day plant cannot flower during the long days of summer, it is not actually the period of light exposure that limits flowering. Rather, a short day plant requires a minimal length of uninterrupted darkness in each 24-hour period (a short daylength) before floral development can begin. It has been determined experimentally that a short day plant (long night) does not flower if a flash of phytochrome activating light is used on the plant during the night.

Plants make use of the phytochrome system to sense day length or photoperiod. This fact is utilized by florists and greenhouse gardeners to control and even induce flowering out of season, such as the poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima).

Environmental physiology

Paradoxically, the subdiscipline of environmental physiology is on the one hand a recent field of study in plant ecology and on the other hand one of the oldest. Environmental physiology is the preferred name of the subdiscipline among plant physiologists, but it goes by a number of other names in the applied sciences. It is roughly synonymous with ecophysiology, crop ecology, horticulture and agronomy. The particular name applied to the subdiscipline is specific to the viewpoint and goals of research. Whatever name is applied, it deals with the ways in which plants respond to their environment and so overlaps with the field of ecology.

Environmental physiologists examine plant response to physical factors such as radiation (including light and ultraviolet radiation), temperature, fire, and wind. Of particular importance are water relations (which can be measured with the Pressure bomb) and the stress of drought or inundation, exchange of gases with the atmosphere, as well as the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and carbon.

Environmental physiologists also examine plant response to biological factors. This includes not only negative interactions, such as competition, herbivory, disease and parasitism, but also positive interactions, such as mutualism and pollination.

While plants, as living beings, can perceive and communicate physical stimuli and damage, they do not feel pain as members of the animal kingdom do simply because of the lack of any pain receptors, nerves, or a brain, and, by extension, lack of consciousness. Many plants are known to perceive and respond to mechanical stimuli at a cellular level, and some plants such as the venus flytrap or touch-me-not, are known for their "obvious sensory abilities". Nevertheless, the plant kingdom as a whole do not feel pain notwithstanding their abilities to respond to sunlight, gravity, wind, and any external stimuli such as insect bites, since they lack any nervous system. The primary reason for this is that, unlike the members of the animal kingdom whose evolutionary successes and failures are shaped by suffering, the evolution of plants are simply shaped by life and death.

Tropisms and nastic movements
Plants may respond both to directional and non-directional stimuli. A response to a directional stimulus, such as gravity or sun light, is called a tropism. A response to a nondirectional stimulus, such as temperature or humidity, is a nastic movement.

Tropisms in plants are the result of differential cell growth, in which the cells on one side of the plant elongates more than those on the other side, causing the part to bend toward the side with less growth. Among the common tropisms seen in plants is phototropism, the bending of the plant toward a source of light. Phototropism allows the plant to maximize light exposure in plants which require additional light for photosynthesis, or to minimize it in plants subjected to intense light and heat. Geotropism allows the roots of a plant to determine the direction of gravity and grow downwards. Tropisms generally result from an interaction between the environment and production of one or more plant hormones.

Nastic movements results from differential cell growth (e.g. epinasty and hiponasty), or from changes in turgor pressure within plant tissues (e.g., nyctinasty), which may occur rapidly. A familiar example is thigmonasty (response to touch) in the Venus fly trap, a carnivorous plant. The traps consist of modified leaf blades which bear sensitive trigger hairs. When the hairs are touched by an insect or other animal, the leaf folds shut. This mechanism allows the plant to trap and digest small insects for additional nutrients. Although the trap is rapidly shut by changes in internal cell pressures, the leaf must grow slowly to reset for a second opportunity to trap insects.

Plant disease

Economically, one of the most important areas of research in environmental physiology is that of phytopathology, the study of diseases in plants and the manner in which plants resist or cope with infection. Plant are susceptible to the same kinds of disease organisms as animals, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi, as well as physical invasion by insects and roundworms.

Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant pathogens tend to spread via spores or are carried by animal vectors.

One of the most important advances in the control of plant disease was the discovery of Bordeaux mixture in the nineteenth century. The mixture is the first known fungicide and is a combination of copper sulfate and lime. Application of the mixture served to inhibit the growth of downy mildew that threatened to seriously damage the French wine industry.

Early history
Francis Bacon published one of the first plant physiology experiments in 1627 in the book, Sylva Sylvarum. Bacon grew several terrestrial plants, including a rose, in water and concluded that soil was only needed to keep the plant upright. Jan Baptist van Helmont published what is considered the first quantitative experiment in plant physiology in 1648. He grew a willow tree for five years in a pot containing 200 pounds of oven-dry soil. The soil lost just two ounces of dry weight and van Helmont concluded that plants get all their weight from water, not soil. In 1699, John Woodward published experiments on growth of spearmint in different sources of water. He found that plants grew much better in water with soil added than in distilled water.

Stephen Hales is considered the Father of Plant Physiology for the many experiments in the 1727 book, Vegetable Staticks; though Julius von Sachs unified the pieces of plant physiology and put them together as a discipline. His Lehrbuch der Botanik was the plant physiology bible of its time.

Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for hydroponics, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.

Food production
In horticulture and agriculture along with food science, plant physiology is an important topic relating to fruits, vegetables, and other consumable parts of plants. Topics studied include: climatic requirements, fruit drop, nutrition, ripening, fruit set. The production of food crops also hinges on the study of plant physiology covering such topics as optimal planting and harvesting times and post harvest storage of plant products for human consumption and the production of secondary products like drugs and cosmetics.

Crop physiology steps back and looks at a field of plants as a whole, rather than looking at each plant individually. Crop physiology looks at how plants respond to each other and how to maximize results like food production through determining things like optimal planting density.

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John Luther Adams

John Luther Adams (born January 23, 1953) is an American composer whose music is inspired by nature, especially the landscapes of Alaska, where he lived from 1978 to 2014. His orchestral work Become Ocean was awarded the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for Music.

Early life
Born in Meridian, Mississippi, Adams began playing music as a teenager as a drummer in rock bands. He attended the California Institute of the Arts as an undergraduate in the early 1970s, studying with James Tenney and Leonard Stein, and graduated in 1973. After graduating, Adams began work in environmental protection, and through this work Adams first travelled to Alaska in 1975. Adams moved to Alaska in 1978 and lived there until 2014. He now splits his time between New York and the Sonoran desert in Mexico, though his time in Alaska continues to be a prominent influence in his music. From 1982 to 1989, he performed as timpanist and principal percussionist with the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and the Arctic Chamber Orchestra.

Career
Adams's composition work spans many genres and media. He has composed for television, film, children's theater, voice, acoustic instruments, orchestra, and electronics. Early in his career, Adams was influenced by the music and writings of Frank Zappa, whose enthusiasm for Edgard Varèse intrigued Adams. Through his careful listening to Varèse, Adams developed an interest in and was influenced by the music of John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen, among others. From 1998 to 2002, Adams served as associate professor of composition at Oberlin Conservatory of Music.

Influence of nature
Adams has described his music as, "... profoundly influenced by the natural world and a strong sense of place. Through sustained listening to the subtle resonances of the northern soundscape, I hope to explore the territory of sonic geography—that region between place and culture...between environment and imagination".

His love of nature, concern for the environment and interest in the resonance of specific places led him to pursue the concept of sonic geography. Early examples of this idea include two works written during Adams's sojourn in rural Georgia: Songbirdsongs (1974–80), a collection of indeterminate miniature pieces for piccolos and percussion based on free translations of bird songs, and Night Peace (1977), a vocal work capturing the nocturnal soundscape of the Okefenokee Swamp through slow-changing and sparse sonic textures.

His work, Sila: The Breath of the World, represents the "air element", following the representation of water in Become Ocean and the "earth element" in Inuksuit, an outdoor percussion piece. His music, he says, is "our awareness of the world in which we live and the world's awareness of us".

His more recent works include, Across the Distance, for a large number of horns, was premiered on the 5th of July, 2015 at the Cambo estate in Fife, Scotland as part of the East Neuk Festival. His recording of Ilimaq ("spirit journeys"), a solo work for percussion, played by art-music percussionist, composer, and Wilco drummer Glenn Kotche, was released in October 2015. A combination of contemporary classical music, Alaskan field recordings, and found sounds from the natural world, it evokes the travels of a shaman riding the sound of a drum to and from the spirit world.

Awards and honors
In 2014 Adams won the Pulitzer Prize for Music for his orchestral piece Become Ocean, which Alex Ross of The New Yorker called "the loveliest apocalypse in musical history". It was premiered in 2013 by Ludovic Morlot and the Seattle Symphony and performed by the same conductor and orchestra at the 2014 Spring For Music music festival at Carnegie Hall. Adams had never been to Carnegie Hall before hearing his work played there to a sold-out house. The surround-sound recording of Become Ocean on Cantaloupe Music debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Traditional Classical Chart, stayed there for two straight weeks, and went on to win the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition. All his works are published by Taiga Press (BMI) and available from.

In October 2015, Adams received the William Schuman Award from Columbia University. The events surrounding the award included a series of concerts of his music at the Miller Theater, including Clouds of Forgetting, Clouds of Unknowing, For Lou Harrison, and In the White Silence.

 * On February 8, 2015, Adams was awarded a GRAMMY in the category Best Contemporary Classical Composition for his Become Ocean.
 * In November 2014, Adams was named the Musical America 2015 Composer of the Year.
 * Adams was the recipient of the 2010 Nemmers Prize in Music Composition. He was cited by the selection committee for melding the physical and musical worlds into a unique artistic vision that transcends stylistic boundaries.
 * The Callithumpian Consort's recording of Adams' Four Thousand Holes was noted as one of The New Yorker's Best Classical Recordings of 2011.
 * In 2012, he received the 17th Annual Heinz Award with a special focus on the environment.
 * In 2006, Adams was named one of the first United States Artists Fellows. He has received awards and fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Rasmuson Foundation, and the Foundation for Contemporary Arts.
 * Adams received a 1993 Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award.

List of works

 * Green Corn Dance (1974) for percussion ensemble
 * Night Peace (1976) for antiphonal choirs, solo soprano, harp, and percussion
 * songbirdsongs (1974–80) for 2 piccolos and 3 percussion
 * Strange Birds Passing (1983) for flute choir
 * up into the silence (1978/84) (poem by E. E. Cummings) for voice and piano
 * How the Sun Came to the Forest (1984) (poem by John Haines) for chorus and alto flute, English horn, percussion, harp, and strings
 * The Far Country of Sleep (1988) for orchestra
 * Giving Birth to Thunder, Sleeping With His Daughter, Coyote Builds North America (1986–90) for theater
 * magic song for one who wishes to live and the dead who climb up to the sky (1990) for voice and piano
 * Dream in White-on-White (1992) for orchestra
 * Earth and the Great Weather (1990–93) for theater, libretto published in the book "Inukshuk" edited by ARBOS – Company for Music & Theater, Vienna 1999, ISBN 3-85266-126-9
 * Five Yup'ik Dances (1991–94) for solo harp
 * Crow and Weasel (1993–94) (story by Barry Lopez) for theater
 * Sauyatugvik: the Time of Drumming (1995) for orchestra
 * Clouds of Forgetting, Clouds of Unknowing (1991–95) for orchestra
 * Sauyatugvik: The Time of Drumming (1996) version for 2 pianos, timpani, and 4 percussion
 * Five Athabascan Dances (1992/96) for harp and percussion
 * Strange and Sacred Noise (1991–97) for percussion quartet
 * Make Prayers to the Raven (1996/98) flute, violin, harp, cello, and percussion
 * In the White Silence (1998) for orchestra
 * Qilyaun (1998) for four bass drums
 * Time Undisturbed (1999) for 3 shakuhachis, 3 kotos, and shō
 * In a Treeless Place, Only Snow (1999) for celesta, harp, 2 vibraphones, and string quartet
 * The Light That Fills the World (1999–2000) for orchestra
 * Among Red Mountains (2001) for solo piano
 * The Immeasurable Space of Tones (1998–2001) for violin, vibraphone, piano, sustaining keyboard, contrabass instrument
 * The Farthest Place (2001) for violin, vibraphone, marimba, piano, double bass
 * After the Light (2001) for alto flute, vibraphone, harp
 * Dark Wind (2001) for bass clarinet, vibraphone, marimba, piano
 * Red Arc/Blue Veil (2002) for piano, mallet percussion, and processed sounds
 * The Mathematics of Resonant Bodies (2002) for solo percussion and processed sounds
 * Poem of the Forgotten (2004) (poem by John Haines) for voice and piano
 * for Lou Harrison (2004, premiere 2005) for string quartet, string orchestra, and 2 pianos
 * ...and bells remembered... (2005) for bowed crotales, orchestra bells, chimes, vibraphone and bowed vibraphone
 * for Jim (rising) (2006) for three trumpets and three trombones
 * Always Very Soft (2007) for percussion trio
 * Dark Waves (2007) for orchestra and electronic sounds
 * Little Cosmic Dust Poem (2007) for voice (medium) and piano
 * Nunataks (Solitary Peaks) (2007) for solo piano
 * Three High Places (2007) for solo violin
 * The Light Within (2007) for alto flute, bass clarinet, vibraphone/crotales, piano, violin, cello and electronic sounds
 * Sky with Four Suns and Sky with Four Moons (2008) for four choirs
 * the place we began (2008) four electro-acoustic soundscapes
 * Inuksuit (2009) for nine to ninety-nine percussion
 * Four Thousand Holes (2010) for piano, percussion, and electronic sounds
 * The Wind in High Places (2011) for string quartet
 * I L I M A Q (2012), a drum-kit opera, premiered at the University of Texas at Austin, performed by Glenn Kotche
 * Become Ocean (2013) for orchestra, premiered at the Seattle Symphony, June 20, 2013, conducted by Ludovic Morlot
 * Become River (2013) for chamber orchestra, premiered by the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra, April 3, 2014, conducted by Steven Schick
 * Ten Thousand Birds (2014) for chamber orchestra, premiered by Alarm Will Sound, October 19, 2014
 * Sila: The Breath of the World (2014) for choir, percussion, strings, brass, and woodwinds premiered at the Mostly Mozart Festival at Lincoln Center, July 25, 2014, led by Doug Perkins
 * Across the Distance (2015) for horns in multiples of 8, premiered at the East Neuk Festival at the Cambo estate, July 5, 2015, led by Alec Frank-Gemmill
 * untouched (2015) for string quartet, commissioned by the University of North Carolina for Brooklyn Rider
 * Canticles of the Holy Wind (2013) for four choirs (SATB) and solo voices, with percussion, commissioned by The Crossing and others, premiered at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 29, 2016
 * Everything That Rises (2017) for string quartet, commissioned by SF Jazz
 * The Wind Garden (2017), a permanent public artwork commissioned by the Stuart Collection at the University of California, San Diego
 * Become Desert (2017), a work for five ensembles, premiered at the Seattle Symphony's Benaroya Hall, 29 March 2018, conducted by Ludovic Morlot
 * Lines Made by Walking (2019), string quartet, commissioned by the Tippet Rise Art Center
 * Arctic Dreams (2020) for 2 sopranos, 1 alto, and 1 bass voice, violin, viola, cello, and double bass, commissioned by Synergy Vocals
 * An Atlas of Deep Time (2022) for orchestra, Premiered by the South Dakota Symphony Orchestra for their Centennial Finale, April 30, 2022, conducted by Delta David Gier

 * Crossing Open Ground (2023)
 * Prophecies of Fire (2024) for percussion quartet, premiered by Sandbox Percussion, July 10, 2024 at Kaul Audiorium, Reed College.

Discography

 * songbirdsongs (1981), Anne McFarland, Kevin Culver, Michel Cook (ocarina), John Luther Adams, Kevin Culver, Scott Douglas, Tim Embry (perc.), Anne McFarland, Michel Cook (picc, fl), LP, Opus One, Number 66
 * A Northern Suite/Night Peace (1983), The Arctic Chamber Orchestra, Gordon Wright (cond.), The Atlanta Singers, Cheryl Bray (sop.), Joan Rubin (harp), Billy Traylor (perc.), Kevin Culver (cond.), LP, Opus One, Number 88
 * Forest Without Leaves (1987), Arctic Chamber Orchestra, various vocal soloists, Byron McGilvray (cond.), LP, Owl Recording, OWL-32
 * The Far Country (1993), CD, New Albion, NA 061
 * 1) Dream in White on White The Apollo Quartet and Strings, JoAnn Falletta (cond.)
 * 2) Night Peace The Atlanta Singers, Cheryl Bray Lower (sop.), Nella Rigel (harp), Michael Cebulski (perc.), Kevin Culver (cond.)
 * 3) The Far Country of Sleep The Cabrillo Festival Orchestra, JoAnn Falletta (cond.)
 * Earth and the Great Weather (1995), Michael Finkel (vcl), Robert Black (cb), Amy Knoles, John Luther Adams, Robert Black, Robin Lorentz (perc.), Robin Lorentz (vln), Ron Lawrence (vla), John Luther Adams, Michael Finkel (cond.), CD, New World Records, 80459-2
 * Clouds of Forgetting, Clouds of Unknowing (1997), The Apollo Chamber Orchestra, JoAnn Falletta (cond.), CD, New World Records, 80500-2 – nominated for the 1999 Grammy Award in the Best Classical Contemporary Composition and Best Orchestral Performance categories
 * Dark Wind (2002), Marty Walker (bass cl), Amy Knoles (vibraphone, marimba), Bryan Pezzone (piano), CD, Cold Blue Music, CB0009
 * The Light That Fills the World (2002), Marty Walker (bass cl), Barry Newton (double bass), Nathaniel Reichman (keyboards, sound design), Bryan Pezzone (piano), Amy Knoles (vibraphone, marimba), Robin Lorentz (violin), CD, Cold Blue Music, CB0010
 * 1) The Farthest Place
 * 2) The Light That Fills the World
 * 3) The Immeasurable Space of Tones
 * In the White Silence (2003), The Oberlin Contemporary Music Ensemble, Tim Weiss (cond.), CD, New World Records, 80600-2
 * Strange and Sacred Noise (2005), Percussion Group Cincinnati, CD and DVD, Mode Records, mode 153
 * The Mathematics of Resonant Bodies (2006), Steven Schick (perc.), CD, Cantaloupe Music, CA21034
 * for Lou Harrison (2007), Callithumpian Consort, Stephen Drury (cond.), CD, New World Records, 80669-2
 * red arc/blue veil (2007), CD, Cold Blue Music, CB0026
 * 1) Dark Waves Stephen Drury, Yukiko Takagi (piano)
 * 2) Among Red Mountains Stephen Drury (piano)
 * 3) Qilyuan Scott Deal, Stuart Gerber (bass drum)
 * 4) red arc/blue veil Stephen Drury (piano), Scott Deal (Vibraphone, Crotales)
 * The Place We Began (2009), CD, Cold Blue Music, CB0032 – appears on 2009's Best (Mostly) 'New Music', from WNYC
 * Four Thousand Holes (2011), Callithumpian Consort, Scott Deal (perc.), Stephen Drury (cond.), CD, Cold Blue Music, CB0035
 * 1) Four Thousand Holes
 * 2) . . . and bells remembered . . .
 * songbirdsongs (2012), CD, Mode Records, mode 240
 * 1) songbirdsongs Callithumpian Consort, Stephen Drury (cond.)
 * 2) Strange Birds Passing New England Conservatory Contemporary Music Ensemble, John Heiss (cond.)
 * Inuksuit (2013), So Percussion Ensemble, Doug Perkins (cond.). CD and DVD recording. Cantaloupe Music [no catalog number].
 * Become Ocean (2014), Seattle Symphony; Ludovic Morlot, conductor, Cantaloupe Music CA 21101
 * The Wind In High Places (2015), JACK Quartet, Northwestern University Cello Ensemble, Cold Blue Music, CB0041
 * Ilimaq (2015), Glenn Kotche, Cantaloupe Music
 *  Everything That Rises (2017), JACK Quartet (CD, Cold Blue Music CB0051, February 2018)
 * Become Desert (2019), Seattle Symphony; Ludovic Morlot, conductor, Cantaloupe Music CA 21148
 * The Become Trilogy  (2020), Seattle Symphony; Ludovic Morlot, conductor, Cantaloupe Music – contains Become Ocean, Become Desert (remastered) and Become River (previously unreleased).
 * Lines Made by Walking (2020), album also includes untouched, JACK Quartet, Cold Blue Music CB0058
 * Houses of the Wind (2022), (CD Cold Blue Music CB0063, June 2022)

Writings

 * Silences So Deep: Music, Solitude, Alaska (Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2020)
 * The Place Where You Go To Listen – In Search of an Ecology of Music (Wesleyan University Press, 2009)
 * "The Immeasurable Space of Tones", Musicworks 91 (Spring, 2005)
 * "Sonic Geography Alaska", Musicworks 93 (Fall, 2005)
 * "Winter Music: Composing the North", (Wesleyan University Press, 2004)
 * "Global Warming and Art", Orion (September–October, 2003)
 * "Global Warming and Art", Musicworks 86 (Summer, 2003)
 * "Winter Music. A Composer's Journal", In The Best Spiritual Writing 2002, edited by Philip Zaleski (Harper Collins, 2002), pp. 1–21.
 * "Winter Music. A Composer's Journal", Musicworks 82 (February, 2002)
 * "The Place Where You Go to Listen", In The Book of Music and Nature, edited by David Rothenberg and Marta Ulvaeus (Wesleyan University Press, 2000), pp. 181–182.
 * "Winter Music. A Composer's Journal", In Reflections on American Music, edited by James R. Heintze and Michael Saffle (Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2000), pp. 31–48.
 * "Strange and Sacred Noise", Yearbook of Soundscape Studies (Vol. 1: "Northern Soundscapes", ed. R. Murray Schafer and Helmi Järviluoma, 1998), pp. 143–146.
 * "The Place Where You Go to Listen", Terra Nova, 2/3, 1997, pp. 15–16.
 * "From the Ground Up", The Utne Reader, March/April, 1995, p. 86.
 * "Resonance of Place, Confessions of an Out-of-Town Composer", The North American Review, January/February, 1994, pp. 8–18.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Luther Adams


text:
James Thompson

James, Jim, Jimmy or Jamie Thompson may refer to:

Arts and sciences

 * James Thompson (cartographer) (active 1785), who produced one of the first maps of York
 * James Thompson (surveyor) (1789–1872), who produced the first plat of Chicago
 * James Thompson (journalist) (1817–1877), journalist and local historian
 * James Maurice Thompson (1844–1901), American novelist
 * Uncle Jimmy Thompson (1848–1931), country music pioneer
 * James Westfall Thompson (1869–1941), American historian
 * James Matthew Thompson (1878–1956), English historian and theologian
 * Jim Thompson (writer) (1906–1977), American author and screenwriter, known for his pulp crime fiction
 * Jimmy Thompson (comics artist) (1907–1949), Canadian artist in the Golden Age of Comics
 * James D. Thompson (1920–1973), American sociologist, author of Organizations in Action
 * Jimmy Thompson (actor) (1925–2005), British actor
 * Jimmy Thompson, American film actor known for roles in Singin' in the Rain and Brigadoon
 * James R. Thompson Jr. (1936–2017), known as J.R. Thompson, former director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, 1986–1989
 * James R. Thompson (statistician) (1938–2017), American statistician
 * James Thompson (crime writer) (1964–2014), American-Finnish crime writer
 * James Thompson (designer) (born 1966), Northern Irish inventor and patent holder in the airline seating industry
 * Jamie Thompson, Canadian musician

Business

 * James Pyke Thompson (1846–1897), English corn merchant and philanthropist
 * James Walter Thompson (1847–1928), American advertiser and namesake of the JWT advertising agency
 * Jim Thompson (designer) (1906–disappeared 1967), revived the Thai silk industry
 * James E. Thompson (born 1940), founder, chairman and chief executive of The Crown Worldwide Group

Military

 * James Thompson (VC) (1830–1891), recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * James Thompson of brothers Allen and James Thompson (1849–1921), American Civil War soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
 * Floyd James Thompson (1933–2002), America's longest-held POW; spent almost 9 years in POW camps in Vietnam
 * James B. Thompson (1843–1875), American soldier who fought in the American Civil War
 * James E. Thompson Jr. (1935–2017), U.S. Army general
 * James H. Thompson, American soldier, surgeon and recipient of the Medal of Honor

Politics

 * James Thompson (jurist) (1806–1874), congressman and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
 * James Thompson (Kansas politician), congressional candidate in Kansas in 2018
 * James Thompson (Australian politician), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, 1856–1857
 * James Banford Thompson (1832–1901), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, 1877–1881
 * James G. Thompson (New York politician) (1829–?), New York politician
 * James Thompson (civil servant) (1848–1929), Acting Governor of Madras
 * James T. Thompson (1849–1921), mayor of Birkenhead, England, c. 1899
 * James A. Thompson (New York politician) (c. 1873–1923), New York state senator
 * James Frederick Thompson (1884–1966), member of the New Zealand Legislative Council
 * James R. Thompson (1936–2020), known as Jim Thompson, governor of Illinois and member of the 9/11 Commission
 * James A. Thompson (Texas politician), mayor of Sugar Land, Texas
 * James Harold Thompson (born 1944), American politician in Florida
 * Jim Thompson (Oregon politician), member of the Oregon House of Representatives
 * Jim Thompson (Kentucky politician), member of the Kentucky House of Representatives
 * James E. W. Thompson (1879–1958), Canadian politician in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia

Religion

 * James Thompson (martyr) (died 1582), Catholic priest hanged under Elizabeth I
 * James Denton Thompson (1856–1924), Bishop of Sodor and Man
 * Jim Thompson (bishop) (1936–2003), Anglican bishop of Stepney and Bath and Wells

Association football

 * James Thompson (footballer) (1898–1984), English footballer, manager and scout
 * Jimmy Thompson (footballer, born 1899) (1899–1961), English footballer
 * Jimmy Thompson (footballer, born 1935), English footballer
 * Jimmy Thompson (footballer, born 1943), English footballer (Grimsby Town)

Rugby

 * Jimmy Thompson (rugby league) (born 1948), British rugby league footballer
 * Jim Thompson (rugby union) (born 1984), Scottish rugby union player
 * James Thompson (rugby union) (born 1999), New Zealand rugby union player

Water sports

 * James Thompson (swimmer) (1906–1966), Canadian swimmer at the 1928 Olympics
 * James Thompson (rower) (born 1986), South African rower
 * Jim Thompson (powerboat racing) (1926–2021), manager of three-time Harmsworth Trophy winner Miss Supertest III
 * Jim Thompson (designer) (1906–disappeared 1967), American businessman and Olympic sailor

Other sports and games

 * James Thompson (chess player) (1804–1870), American chess master
 * James Thompson (cricketer) (born 1961), Nevisian cricketer
 * Jim Thomson (ice hockey, born 1965), Canadian ice hockey player
 * James Thompson (racing driver) (born 1974), English racing driver
 * James Thompson (fighter) (born 1978), English mixed martial artist
 * James Thompson (table tennis) (1889–?), English table tennis player
 * J. B. Thompson (James Bogne Thompson, 1829–1877), co-creator of the laws of Australian rules football
 * Jim Thompson (coach) (born 1949), founder and executive director of Positive Coaching Alliance and author
 * James Thompson (judoka), American judoka
 * Sandy Thompson (James Thompson, 1901–?), American baseball player

Other

 * James Thompson (Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford)
 * Jimmy Thompson (executioner) (1895–1952), Mississippi executioner active from 1940 to 1950
 * James Richard "Ricky" Thompson Jr., perpetrator of the murders of John Goosey and Stacy Barnett (West Campus murders)

title: James Thompson


text:
Metropolitan Borough of Solihull

The Metropolitan Borough of Solihull is a metropolitan borough in West Midlands county, England. It is named after its largest town, Solihull, from which Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council is based. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region (code UKG32) and is one of seven boroughs or unitary districts that comprise the "West Midlands" NUTS 2 region. Much of the large residential population in the north of the borough centres on the communities of Castle Bromwich, Kingshurst, Marston Green and Smith's Wood as well as the towns of Chelmsley Wood and Fordbridge. In the south are the towns of Shirley and Solihull, as well as the large villages of Knowle, Dorridge, Meriden and Balsall Common.

Since 2011, Solihull has formed part of the Greater Birmingham & Solihull Local Enterprise Partnership along with neighbouring authorities Birmingham, Bromsgrove, Cannock Chase, East Staffordshire, Lichfield, Redditch, Tamworth and Wyre Forest.

History
Solihull probably derived its name from a 'miry or muddy' or soily hill. The parish church was built on a hill of stiff red marl, which turned to sticky mud in wet weather.

Solihull was an ancient parish, covering the town itself and adjoining rural areas, including Shirley. Solihull was made the centre of a poor law union in 1836, covering eleven parishes: Baddesley Clinton, Balsall, Barston, Elmdon, Knowle, Lapworth, Nuthurst, Packwood, Solihull, Tanworth and Yardley. Yardley was in Worcestershire and the rest of the parishes were in Warwickshire.

Such poor law unions formed the basis for later local government areas. In 1872 poor law unions also became rural sanitary districts for the parts of their areas without urban authorities; there were no urban authorities in the Solihull union. In 1894 rural sanitary districts were converted into rural districts with their own elected councils under the Local Government Act 1894. The 1894 Act split districts which straddled county boundaries, and so Yardley became a separate rural district (which was later absorbed into Birmingham in 1911), whilst the Warwickshire parishes from the Solihull poor law union became the Solihull Rural District. The 1894 Act also created parish councils for rural parishes, including Solihull.

The Solihull Rural District and the Solihull Parish Council were abolished in 1932. A new urban district of Solihull was created; the parishes of Solihull, Elmdon, Knowle, Nuthurst, Packwood and Sheldon were abolished and most of their combined area became the new urban district, subject to various adjustments to the boundaries with neighbouring parishes. The parts of the old Solihull Rural District not included were added to neighbouring rural districts.

Expansion continued and Queen Elizabeth II granted a charter in 1954 making Solihull into a Municipal Borough; ten years later it was given the status of County Borough. Reorganisation of boundaries and council responsibilities in 1974 created the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull by the merger of the Solihull County Borough and most of the Meriden Rural District, which forms the main rural part of the borough and county. It included Balsall Common, Barston, Berkswell, Bickenhill, Castle Bromwich, Chelmsley Wood, Elmdon, Fordbridge, Hampton in Arden, Hockley Heath, Kingshurst, Knowle, Marston Green, Meriden, Olton, Smiths Wood, Solihull, Shirley and Temple Balsall.

In 1986 the Solihull borough effectively became a unitary authority when the West Midlands County Council was abolished. It remains part of the West Midlands for ceremonial purposes, and for functions such as police, fire and public transport. There is some support to return the borough to Warwickshire for ceremonial purposes, as was the case when the County of Avon was abolished and Bath was returned to Somerset. There were also complaints that Solihull was not involved in the design of the Warwickshire flag in 2016.

Geography
The borough is bordered by the M6 and the M40 and split by the M42 which divides the urban centre of the borough from the rural south and east. The borough's transport links have led to a number of established large businesses being based in the borough, such as Land Rover, the National Exhibition Centre and Birmingham Airport. A short automatic light transport system links the airport to the nearby Birmingham International railway station. Around three-quarters of the borough is greenbelt and a large proportion of that is worked farmland. The borough shares its boundaries with Birmingham to the west and north, Coventry to the east, Warwickshire to both the north and south and Worcestershire to the south west. The borough contains a sizeable rural area known as the Meriden Gap (after the village of Meriden) which serves as a green belt separating the Birmingham conurbation from the city of Coventry. Parts of Solihull neighbour the suburbs of Minworth and Hall Green. Parts also lie close to (but not contiguous with) the town of Coleshill and city of Coventry.

Council
Elections to Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council are held in three out of every four years, with one third of the 51 seats on the council being elected at each election. Since the 2011 election The Conservative Party has had a majority on the council.

At the 2015 election to the council, the following members were returned:

For election purposes the council is divided up into the following wards based on civil parishes. Each ward is represented by three councillors:

 * Bickenhill
 * Blythe
 * Castle Bromwich
 * Chelmsley Wood
 * Dorridge and Hockley Heath
 * Elmdon
 * Kingshurst and Fordbridge
 * Knowle
 * Lyndon
 * Meriden
 * Olton
 * Shirley East
 * Shirley South
 * Shirley West
 * Silhill
 * Smith's Wood
 * St Alphege

Coat of arms
The constituent parts of the borough's coat of arms are:
 * Battlements, sickles and an oak tree with golden acorns, which represent the rural and agricultural nature of the Forest of Arden.
 * The Black Griffin is taken from the arms of the Earls of Aylesford, who are associated with Meriden.
 * The Silver Fleur-de-lys comes from the Digby family, who were associated with Fordbridge.
 * The Black Greyhound is taken from the arms of the Greswolds, the family who built the 15th century house called the Manor House in the High Street, Solihull.

A stylised version of the coat of arms can be seen on the top left of Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council's website pages, and the official, heraldic version appears on a dedicated page on the same site – external links below.

Economy
Solihull is regarded as having one of the strongest subregional economies in the West Midlands, with a significantly higher nominal GVA per capita and Silhillians enjoying considerably higher disposable income rates than both regional and UK averages.

Analysis also shows Solihull as having the lowest (and fastest falling) claimant count for Jobseeker's Allowance in the region.

The current Flybe airline maintains its head office on the second floor of Diamond House on the property of Birmingham Airport.

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Solihull at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.

includes hunting and forestry

includes energy and construction

includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured

Components may not sum to totals due to rounding

Settlements in Solihull
Localities in the borough include:

 * Balsall, Balsall Common, Barston, Bentley Heath, Berkswell, Bickenhill, Blossomfield
 * Castle Bromwich, Catherine-de-Barnes, Chadwick End, Chelmsley Wood, Cheswick Green, Coleshill Heath, Copt Heath
 * Dickens Heath, Dorridge
 * Elmdon, Elmdon Heath
 * Fordbridge
 * Hampton in Arden, Hockley Heath
 * Kingshurst, Knowle
 * Lyndon
 * Marston Green, Meriden, Monkspath Street
 * Olton
 * Packwood
 * Sharmans Cross, Shirley, Silhill, Smith's Wood, Solihull
 * Temple Balsall, Tidbury Green
 * Whitlock's End

Notable people

 * Dorian Yates - IFBB Pro Bodybuilder and six time Mr Olympia winner (1992-1997) born in Solihull.
 * Michael Buerk – BBC news presenter and journalist born and educated in Solihull.
 * Jasper Carrott – Born and lived in the Solihull Area
 * Lucy Davis - Daughter of Jasper Carrott. Born and raised in Solihull
 * Richard Hammond – Top Gear presenter and radio presenter was born in Solihull.
 * Martin Johnson – Rugby World Cup- winning England team captain and later their manager was born in Solihull.
 * John Wyndham – Science fiction author (The Day of the Triffids) was born in Dorridge in the Solihull area.

There is a longer list in the article for Solihull town.

Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Solihull.

Individuals

 * Lance corporal Matthew Croucher: 16 December 2008.

title: Metropolitan Borough of Solihull


text:
Shawnee Mission, Kansas

Shawnee Mission is a region of northern Johnson County, Kansas, part of the Kansas City metropolitan area in the United States. Since August 1, 1960, the United States Postal Service has used the name to denote a large postal coverage area (ZIP Codes 662xx) at the northeastern tip of Johnson County. It contains numerous towns, and the name was created to structure management of the post offices located therein. Effectively, these towns' post offices are subsidiaries of the Shawnee Mission Main Post Office in Mission, Kansas. Properly, a mailing address may indicate the delivery "place" as either Shawnee Mission, or the actual town name, and be treated the same.

The following towns are included in the postal area known as Shawnee Mission:
 * Countryside (Incorporated into the City of Mission in January, 2003)
 * Fairway
 * Lake Quivira (the northern part is in Wyandotte County, Kansas)
 * Leawood
 * Lenexa
 * Merriam
 * Mission
 * Mission Hills
 * Mission Woods
 * Overland Park (except some southern parts)
 * Prairie Village
 * Roeland Park
 * Shawnee
 * Stanley (unincorporated)
 * Westwood
 * Westwood Hills

Parts of southern Overland Park are not part of Shawnee Mission, as they were later annexed from the town of Stillwell which was already covered by ZIP Code 66085. Additionally, delivery to the eastern edge of Overland Park was assigned to the Post Office in Prairie Village, with ZIP Code 66208, and the Prairie Village post office was not managed under the Shawnee Mission designation until 2012.

History
The name Shawnee Mission derives from the Shawnee Methodist Mission. That historical mission to the Shawnee tribe was founded in 1830 by the Methodist church, in what became Wyandotte County, Kansas. The mission was moved to what became Johnson County in 1839. Shawnee Mission subsequently became a local, informal designation for the region surrounding the actual mission, especially before the development, expansion, and conjoint boundarying of the various towns in northeast Johnson County. The Shawnee Mission School District and Blue Valley School District encompass most of the area.

Shawnee Mission is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area. As of 2015, the estimated combined population of Shawnee Mission's constituent cities is 402,662 (up from 325,147 in 2000). That is greater than the largest city in Kansas, Wichita.

title: Shawnee Mission, Kansas


text:
Talk:R. James Woolsey

The edit summary said this was cut and paste. Even if it was public domain, we really ought to cite the source. Where's it from? Isomorphic 18:41, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * It was a conglomeration of content taken from here and here; neither of which indicate they are public domain, which is why I edited and merged the two texts. Alcarillo 18:52, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:R. James Woolsey


text:
San Antonio Wings

The San Antonio Wings were an American football team who played a single season in the World Football League in 1975. The team started as the Florida Blazers in 1974, then moved to San Antonio, Texas in 1975, becoming the San Antonio Wings.

History
The Florida Blazers never drew well, leading team owner Rommie Loudd to openly discuss moving the team to Atlanta in the middle of the 1974 season. The players and coaches were not paid for three months. Shortly after the Blazers' defeat in the World Bowl, Loudd was arrested on tax evasion and cocaine trafficking charges. He was convicted on the latter charge and served three years in prison. He was also sentenced to two years in prison for possession and distribution of cocaine.

The Blazers were one of two teams, the other being the Detroit Wheels, to outright fold after 1974 with no direct replacement in their markets in 1975 (not counting teams that moved midseason). Only one expansion team would be added, with Norman Bevan buying the franchise rights and establishing a team in San Antonio.

The new Wings were restocked with an expansion draft but retained 16 former Blazers, including running back Jim Strong and tight end Luther Palmer. Larry Grantham, a linebacker on the 1974 Blazers, retired but joined the Wings' coaching staff. The team's head coach was Perry Moss, a former head coach at Marshall and a former NFL assistant coach; Blazers coach Jack Pardee, who wanted nothing more to do with the WFL, returned to the NFL during the offseason.

Quarterback Johnnie Walton, a relic from the old Continental Football League who had spent most of the early 1970s bouncing around NFL practice squads, led the WFL in passing in 1975. The Wings held their home games at Alamo Stadium, which seated 25,000. San Antonio finished with a 7-6 record (winning all seven home games and losing all six road games) before the league folded on October 22, 1975.

title: San Antonio Wings


text:
Borough of Brentwood

The Borough of Brentwood is a local government district with borough status in Essex, England. The borough is named after its main town of Brentwood, where the council is based; it includes several villages and the surrounding rural area.

The neighbouring districts are Epping Forest, Chelmsford, Basildon, Thurrock and the London Borough of Havering.

History
The former Brentwood Urban District had been created in 1899. Urban districts were abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. A new non-metropolitan district was created on 1 April 1974 covering the whole of the former Brentwood Urban District plus parts of another two districts, which were all abolished at the same time:
 * Brentwood Urban District
 * Chelmsford Rural District (two parishes only, rest went to Chelmsford)
 * Ingatestone and Fryerning
 * Mountnessing
 * Epping and Ongar Rural District (five parishes only, rest went to Epping Forest)
 * Blackmore
 * Doddinghurst
 * Kelvedon Hatch
 * Navestock
 * Stondon Massey

The new district was named Brentwood after its main town. The district was awarded borough status on 10 March 1993, allowing the chair of the council to take the title of mayor.

Governance
Brentwood Borough Council provides district-level services. County-level services are provided by Essex County Council. Parts of the borough are also covered by civil parishes, which form a third tier of local government.

Political control
The council went under no overall control at the 2023 Brentwood Borough Council election. A Liberal Democrat and Labour coalition subsequently formed an administration.

The first election to the council was held in 1973, initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities until the new arrangements came into effect on 1 April 1974. Political control of the council since 1974 has been as follows:

Leadership
The role of mayor is largely ceremonial in Brentwood. Political leadership is instead provided by the leader of the council. The leaders since 1991 have been:

Composition
Following the 2024 election, the composition of the council is:

The next election is due in May 2026.

Premises
The council is based at Brentwood Town Hall on Ingrave Road, which had been built in 1957 for the former Brentwood Urban District Council.

Elections
Since the last boundary changes in 2002, the council has comprised 37 councillors representing 15 wards; each ward elects one, two or three councillors. Elections are held three years out of every four, with roughly a third of the council being elected each time for a four-year term. In the fourth year of the cycle, when there are no elections for the borough council, elections for Essex County Council are held instead.

Geography
There are still large areas of woodland including Shenfield Common, Hartswood (named after its last private owner, a Mr. Hart), Weald Country Park, and Thorndon Country Park.

Transport
The main transport links run through the borough in a south-west to north-east direction, with other important links running west to east.

Railway
Railway stations at Shenfield and Ingatestone facilitate services along the Great Eastern Main Line to Colchester, Clacton, Ipswich and London Liverpool Street; these are operated by Greater Anglia.

Brentwood and Shenfield stations are served by Greater Anglia trains between Liverpool Street, Billericay, Southend Airport and Southend Victoria; some peak hour services run to Southminster. Elizabeth line stopping trains run between London Paddington, Brentwood and Shenfield; this route is operated by MTR.

Also within the borough is West Horndon station, on the London, Tilbury & Southend line; c2c provides direct trains to London Fenchurch Street, Basildon, Southend Central and Shoeburyness.

Roads
A major trunk road running through the borough is the A12 dual-carriageway, running from East London to Chelmsford, Colchester, the ports of Harwich and Felixstowe, Ipswich and Lowestoft. The old Roman road (A1023) passes through the centre of Brentwood and joins the A12, which by-passes the town. Within different parts of Brentwood, the A1023 is called (from west to east) Brook Street, London Road, High Street, Shenfield Road, and Chelmsford Road.

The other main road in the borough is the A127 Southend Arterial Road, which separates from the A12 near Romford and then proceeds easterly to Southend-on-Sea.

Media
The borough is served by a dedicated community radio stations, Phoenix FM.

Secondary schools

 * Anglo European School
 * Brentwood County High School
 * Brentwood School
 * Brentwood Ursuline Convent School
 * Becket Keys
 * Shenfield High School
 * St Martin's School

Primary schools

 * Bentley St. Paul's Church of England School
 * Blackmore Primary School
 * Doddinghurst CofE Junior School
 * Doddinghurst Infant School
 * Hogarth Primary School
 * Holly Trees Primary School
 * Hutton All Saints Church of England Primary School
 * Ingatestone and Fryerning Church of England Primary School
 * Ingatestone Infant School
 * Ingrave Johnstone Church of England Primary School
 * Kelvedon Hatch Community Primary School
 * Larchwood Primary School
 * Long Ridings Primary School
 * Mountnessing Church of England Primary School
 * St. Helen's Catholic Infant School
 * St. Helen's Catholic Junior School
 * St. Joseph the Worker Roman Catholic Primary School
 * St. Mary's Church of England Primary School
 * St. Peter's Church of England Primary School
 * St. Thomas of Canterbury Church of England Infant School
 * St. Thomas of Canterbury Church of England Junior School
 * Warley Primary School
 * West Horndon Primary School
 * Willowbrook Primary School (formerly Brookfield School)

Special schools

 * The Endeavour School
 * Grove House School

Civil parishes and settlements in the borough
There are nine civil parishes in the borough. The former Brentwood Urban District is an unparished area, directly administered by Brentwood Borough Council.

 * Unparished
 * Brentwood
 * Childerditch
 * Great Warley
 * Havering's Grove
 * Hutton
 * Little Warley
 * Pilgrims Hatch
 * Shenfield
 * South Weald
 * Warley

 * Parished
 * Blackmore, Hook End and Wyatts Green
 * Blackmore
 * Hook End
 * Wyatts Green
 * Doddinghurst
 * Ingatestone and Fryerning
 * Ingatestone
 * Fryerning
 * Kelvedon Hatch
 * Mountnessing
 * Navestock
 * Stondon Massey
 * Herongate and Ingrave
 * Herongate
 * Ingrave
 * West Horndon

Twinning
Brentwood is twinned with Roth bei Nürnberg in Germany and Montbazon in France.

title: Borough of Brentwood


text:
Talk:Staffordshire Bull Terrier

Temperament?
What happened to the Temperament section? 213.17.118.30 (talk) 00:00, 15 May 2023 (UTC)
 * There hasn't been one for years. But this is covered in sections with other names. --Tryptofish (talk) 17:49, 15 May 2023 (UTC)

Fatal attacks
regarding this removed false information that is not helpful or in the cited source, are you sure that it's false that Staffordshires have killed people? Geogene (talk) 20:33, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I checked the source, and it's in there, so I restored it. --Tryptofish (talk) 20:41, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Really? Add the page # because I couldn't find it, and it is not a RS. So please add the page # where it clearly states that, and to what sources corroborated it. Thank you.  Atsme 💬 📧 21:39, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's BBC News. --Tryptofish (talk) 22:10, 15 June 2023 (UTC)

Hazards of ownership
I would also like to draw attention to this paper, which says, Breeds such as Pit Bull terrier [35] and Staffordshire Bull terrier [36] are described in Breed Standards as “excellent family companions and have always been noted for their love of children” or “Highly intelligent and affectionate especially with children” despite their history as fighting dogs, their weight and strength. Their specific style of biting, “hold and tear”, can cause fatal injuries in minutes [7], and the biting combined with violent shaking exacerbates the injuries (Burns, Kusanale, & Brennan, 2011). Additionally, bull breeds are known to be aggressive to other dogs, which indirectly increases the risk of injuries to humans who may try to protect their own dogs from the attacking dog [37]. Geogene (talk) 20:40, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's an anyalysis that dates back to fatal dog attacks in Europe 1995–2016. Staffords are mentioned once, not because they attacked, but because whoever wrote the paper happened to mention them and provided information that dates back to 2011, over a decade ago, that has long since been debunked. Who still believes chicken soup cures the common cold?
 * That article provides -0- relevant information. It does state: This figure should be interpreted with caution, as FCI focuses on purebred dogs, which are a very small minority, and only provide crude estimates of total dog numbers. Hello? MINORITY.  This article is about a purebred dog that is verifiable by two of the world's leading official dog registries; i.e., AKC and KC. All you are doing is further validating my position, which happens to be expert level in this topic area, not that it means anything to some WP editors - it's ok with me, I don't care - but it's funny that expert opinions only matter when one is seeking an expert opinion, but when those opinions do not agree with their POV, they don't count, do they? And your point for even mentioning this article? Seriously...cars are far more dangerous, and almost everyone of age has one. Better yet, let's go to the scary 18-wheelers - they are the "pit bulls" of the trucking industry. Compare the injury/death statistics and see how often those fatalities are mentioned in our articles about commercial trucking/trucks - you know, the deadly 18-wheelers. Let's create a list about 18-wheeler fatalities. You want to talk about dangerous to human life? There are about 471+/- million dogs in the world vs 278+/- commercial vehicles. Compare the death rates. In 2016, dogs killed 45 Europeans - and that is ALL OF EUROPE and ALL DOGS, not just Staffords - which translates to an incidence of 0.009 per 100,000 inhabitants. Dogs are animals, but trainable, considered domestic. So who is to blame for these fatalities with 18-wheelers? Is it the truck driver, the truck, the vehicle they hit?  In the case of dogs, is it the dog, the dog owner, the person who was bitten?  Let's look at the stats for 18-wheelers...in Texas alone in 2017 (which regularly has the highest number of fatal truck accidents) 556 fatalities were reported - that's a single state, not all of the US. California was second with 320, then Florida with 275. These stats are sourced to a law firm that appear to be the experts in this area. Corroborate the numbers - do the math. If you are truly concerned about human life to the point that you want to create fear in our readers who read this article thinking that these dogs are vicious, you are targeting the wrong topic area, and have totally missed the notability proportions for inclusion of such material. No pun intended, but you and the IP are barking up the wrong tree if you are looking for notable human deaths. At least with the vehicles, there are positive IDs as to the brand of vehicle/truck. With dogs, there is not. Think about it.  Atsme  💬 📧 22:30, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * We're not talking about 18 wheelers, we're talking about Staffordshire Bull Terriers. Geogene (talk) 22:34, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I read the paper, and it's a reliable source, but it's largely about variables other than the breed of the dog. There is one section that addresses the breed, and both of you have quoted in full the paragraph that is relevant to this page, as opposed to dogs in general. And the quoted paragraph treats it as "on the one hand, on the other hand", rather than an all-out warning against certain breeds. We can probably put something on the page from this, but it should not go beyond what the source says. --Tryptofish (talk) 22:40, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * In fact, the paragraph just before the paragraph about the terriers says in part: Important information includes who bred and raised the dog in question, if there were more litters from same parental material, the criteria the breeders used when selecting the breeding stock and to whom is the breeder sells the puppies. That's the authors making it clear that they regard such things as raising, training, and ownership, as distinguished from genetics, as being important in determining breed behavior. So they attribute some of it to the hold-and-tear genetics, but they also attribute some of it to human treatment. --Tryptofish (talk) 22:46, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It seems like the authors of that paper might have a problem with this article stating things like, The Stafford is considered a family pet and companion dog, and is among the breeds recommended by the KC for families.[7][41] Geogene (talk) 23:02, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * As you quoted them, the authors quote the Breed Standards as saying favorable things about them as good companions for families and children. Where the sentence pivots via "despite their history as...", I'm trying to evaluate what the authors intend, without trying to read something into it that isn't there. Are they saying that they are refuting what the Breed Standards say, or are they presenting two sides of the issue? I'm honestly not sure. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:08, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's marketing speech. -- Valjean (talk) ( PING me ) 23:18, 15 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I take your point about the potential for marketing speech in the Breed Standards, but I don't feel that this applies to the choice of scientists in a peer-reviewed scientific journal to quote it.
 * I've been thinking about how to treat this source for this page. As I said earlier, I think it's a reliable source. I think it could be useful to summarize it on a page about dog ownership in general, as opposed to a page like this, about a single breed. The source includes a section about differences between breeds, much of which is about how people treat different breeds differently, with one paragraph that we have been discussing in detail here. The rest of the source is about things other than breed traits, focusing mostly on the demographics of people who are more or less at risk of harm from domestic dogs. The paper abstract includes nothing about breeds. So it's not a source primarily about Staffies. If we cite the source for that one paragraph, we have to put in an awful lot of context. Otherwise, we would be misrepresenting the source in a POV way. I think that would require a couple of sentences, at least, and not just one sentence. And I think that runs up against WP:DUE. --Tryptofish (talk) 17:58, 16 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I've been thinking about how to treat this source for this page. As I said earlier, I think it's a reliable source. I think it could be useful to summarize it on a page about dog ownership in general, as opposed to a page like this, about a single breed. The source includes a section about differences between breeds, much of which is about how people treat different breeds differently, with one paragraph that we have been discussing in detail here. The rest of the source is about things other than breed traits, focusing mostly on the demographics of people who are more or less at risk of harm from domestic dogs. The paper abstract includes nothing about breeds. So it's not a source primarily about Staffies. If we cite the source for that one paragraph, we have to put in an awful lot of context. Otherwise, we would be misrepresenting the source in a POV way. I think that would require a couple of sentences, at least, and not just one sentence. And I think that runs up against WP:DUE. --Tryptofish (talk) 17:58, 16 June 2023 (UTC)

Irish Bull Terrier IBT or Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier
This breed came to pass in 1948 when the original SBT breed standard was changed by those in the show business via the English KC for smaller less athletic dogs. Sadly the old breed was never accepted and now allegedly classed as APBTs by the RSPCA even though they looked quite different and smaller. They are classified nowadays as the Irish Staffy as most are to be found on the emerald isle.

https://www.dogbreedinfo.com/irishstaffordshirebullterrierphotos.htm https://petkeen.com/dog-breeds/irish-staffordshire-bull-terrier/ 88.97.39.126 (talk) 14:47, 26 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Neither of those are reliable sources. No kennel club seems to recognise the breed from my search. Traumnovelle (talk) 22:03, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

Popularity and Registrations.
I can't speak to other countries but in New Zealand most mongrels/pit bull type dogs are registered as 'Staffordshire Bull Terrier' to avoid dangerous dog laws, the vast majority are not actually Staffies. So I'm wondering if this is true of other countries: if Staffordshire Bull Terrier is used to register banned/restricted dogs to get around the law. Traumnovelle (talk) 22:02, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Staffordshire Bull Terrier


text:
Lunette

A lunette (French lunette, 'little moon') is a half-moon–shaped architectural space, variously filled with sculpture, painted, glazed, filled with recessed masonry, or void. A lunette may also be segmental, and the arch may be an arc taken from an oval. A lunette window is commonly called a half-moon window, or fanlight when bars separating its panes fan out radially.

If a door is set within a round-headed arch, the space within the arch above the door, masonry or glass is a lunette. If the door is a major access, and the lunette above is massive and deeply set, it may be called a tympanum.

A lunette is also formed when a horizontal cornice transects a round-headed arch at the level of the imposts, where the arch springs. If the top of the lunette itself is bordered by a hood mould it can also be considered a pediment.

The term is also employed to describe the section of interior wall between the curves of a vault and its springing line. A system of intersecting vaults produces lunettes on the wall surfaces above a cornice. The lunettes in the structure of the Sistine Chapel ceiling inspired Michelangelo to come up with inventive compositions for the spaces.

In the Neoclassical architecture of Robert Adam and his French contemporaries such as Ange-Jacques Gabriel, a favorite scheme set a series of windows within shallow blind arches. The lunettes above lent themselves to radiating motifs: a sunburst of bellflower husks, radiating fluting, a low vase of flowers, etc. The Flemish painter Giusto Utens rendered a series of Medicean villas in lunette form for the third grand duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando I, in 1599–1602.

title: Lunette


text:
Jacksonville Sharks (WFL)

The Jacksonville Sharks were a professional American football team based in Jacksonville, Florida which competed in the World Football League in 1974. The Sharks folded during the 1974 season due to financial difficulties, and were succeeded by the Jacksonville Express which also folded when the league ceased operations during the 1975 season.

History
The Sharks were one of the original franchises of the World Football League, a failed attempt to launch a major professional football league in the United States in competition with the National Football League. In 1974, the team played seven home games at the Gator Bowl Stadium in Jacksonville. The Sharks roster was a mixture of rookies such as Mike Townsend, Eddie McAshan and Reggie Oliver, and veterans like Ike Lassiter, John Stofa, Drew Buie, and former University of Florida All-American lineman Larry Gagner. Six weeks into the season, the team had a 2–4 record, and owner Fran Monaco fired head coach Bud Asher—who had actually loaned Monaco $27,000 a few weeks earlier in order to meet payroll. The Sharks did not improve under new coach Charlie Tate, however, losing six of their remaining eight games.

Despite their mediocre play on the field, the Sharks reported that they were second in the league in attendance. The front office claimed to have sold 18,000 season tickets, and listed attendance numbers of 59,112 for the home opener against the New York Stars and 46,780 for their second home game against the Southern California Sun. However, in a similar situation to that in Philadelphia, the club later admitted to giving away 44,000 tickets for the first two games and distributing many thousands more free or sharply discounted tickets for subsequent home games. As with several WFL teams, declining real ticket sales coupled with uncontrolled spending led to serious cash flow problems. The team also dealt with some infrastructure problems: while on national television, the power failed at the Gator Bowl during the team's game against the New York Stars on July 11, forcing the game to be delayed while power was restored to the lights.

Monaco tried to sell the team to New York financier William Pease; however, after it emerged that Pease was under indictment regarding a Connecticut land deal, the WFL took over the franchise on September 22. The players, who had not been paid for over a month, threatened not to fly to Anaheim to play the Southern California Sun. League Commissioner Gary Davidson paid them $65,000 in escrow and the players made the trip. A week later, after vetoing several prospective owners, the WFL folded the team (as well as the hapless Detroit Wheels), and the Sharks' last six games were cancelled.

Today, the name is used by the National Arena League's Jacksonville Sharks, which began play in the Arena Football League in 2010.

title: Jacksonville Sharks (WFL)


text:
Jacksonville Express

The Jacksonville Express were a professional American football team based in Jacksonville, Florida which competed in the World Football League (WFL) in 1975. They were preceded in 1974 by the WFL's Jacksonville Sharks, though the two teams had separate ownership and identities. The Express folded when the league ceased operations during the 1975 season.

History
The Jacksonville Sharks were a professional American football team based in Jacksonville, Florida which competed in the 1974 WFL season. The Sharks folded during that season due to financial difficulties. The WFL returned to Jacksonville the following season with the Jacksonville Express. While head coach Charlie Tate and a few players returned from the Sharks, the Express had new owners (local businessman Earl Knabb along with several minor partners) and a mostly new front office staff. The team's biggest player acquisitions were quarterback George Mira, who had been co-MVP of the 1974 WFL championship game with Birmingham and had been a college All-American with the in-state Miami Hurricanes, and Tommy Reamon, who had led the WFL in rushing in 1974 with the Florida Blazers.

The new ownership group sought to be much more frugal than the free-spending Sharks had been. One notable example of this was that while the Sharks' headquarters had been located in a large suite atop a skyscraper in downtown Jacksonville, the offices of the Express were located in a mall in the basement of a hotel. Accordingly, the franchise was able to meet its financial obligations throughout its short existence. However, the WFL had lost their television contract right before the 1975 season, putting the entire league in serious financial difficulty. The Express had compiled a 6–5 record when the WFL folded in October 1975, 11 games into a planned 20-game schedule.

1975 regular season
Source:

title: Jacksonville Express


text:
Dan Walker (politician)

Daniel J. Walker (August 6, 1922 – April 29, 2015) was an American lawyer, businessman and politician from Illinois. A member of the Democratic party, he served as the 36th governor of Illinois, from 1973 until 1977. Born in Washington, D.C., Walker was raised in San Diego, before serving in the Navy as an enlisted man and officer during World War II and the Korean War. He moved to Illinois between the wars to attend Northwestern University School of Law, entering politics in the state during the 1960s.

Walker was perhaps best known for walking the state of Illinois in 1971 during his candidacy for governor and for being an outsider to Illinois' machine politics. Running against the machine's candidate for the Democratic nomination for governor, Walker scored a rare upset in the March 1972 primary election. He went on that year to defeat the Republican incumbent, but lost his own bid for re-election in 1976. His post political career was marked by high living, but marred by a guilty plea to bank fraud and perjury at the peak of the late 1980s savings and loan crisis. After a year and a half in federal prison, Walker retired to the San Diego metro area and wrote several books before he died in 2015.

Early life and career
Walker was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Virginia May (Lynch) and Lewis Wesley Walker, who were both from Texas. He was raised near San Diego, California, and was valedictorian when he graduated from high school there in 1940. He joined the U.S. Naval Reserve while still in high school, serving on a four pipe destroyer during the summers. His college plans at San Diego State College were interrupted when he was called to active duty in 1940 and served as an enlisted man on a minesweeper out of Point Loma, San Diego. In 1941 he took an exam to become an officer, ranking fifth out of over three thousand that were tested. He was attending the Naval Academy Preparatory School in Norfolk when Pearl Harbor was attacked. He graduated the United States Naval Academy in 1946 and would later be the second governor of Illinois to graduate from Annapolis. After that, he served as a naval officer near the end of World War II.

Walker moved to Illinois to attend Northwestern in 1947. He was recalled to the Navy during the Korean War and was communications officer on USS Kidd (DD-661). A 1950 graduate of the Northwestern University School of Law, Walker served as a law clerk for Chief Justice of the United States Fred M. Vinson, and as an aide to Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II. Walker later became an executive for Montgomery Ward while supporting reform politics in Chicago. In 1970, Walker was campaign chairman for the successful U.S. Senate campaign of Adlai Stevenson III (son of Adlai II). The National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence appointed Walker to head the Chicago Study Team that investigated the violent clashes between police and protesters at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. In December, the team issued its report, Rights in Conflict, better known as the Walker Report. The Report became highly controversial, and its author well-known. The report stated that while protesters had deliberately harassed and provoked police, the police had responded with indiscriminate violence against protesters, journalists, and bystanders, which Walker described as a "police riot". The Report charged that many police had committed criminal acts, and condemned the failure to prosecute or even discipline those police.

Governor of Illinois
Walker announced his candidacy for Governor of Illinois in 1971 and attracted wide attention by walking 1197 mi across Illinois in 1971. At this time he was the General Counsel of Montgomery Ward and Company, a position he had for over 5 years. During his campaign, Montgomery Ward & Company continued to pay him. They paid him $200,000 per year (equal to $2,000,000 in 2020 dollars.) He also employed his administrative assistant, working on his campaign, who was also paid by Montgomery Ward. Montgomery Ward hoped that this political support would yield benefits when Walker became governor. This never materialized. Walker's political platform was to stop the "Crosstown Expressway" in Chicago. This was to run north–south, along Cicero Avenue and had been part of the State of Illinois Transportation plan since the 1950s. This expressway would have had 1 billion dollars of federal funding (10 billion in 2020 dollars). Walker received campaign funds from the Archdiocese of Chicago to stop this Expressway because it would have affected two of the most profitable parishes at the north end at Cicero and the Kennedy expressway.

When Walker was elected, he stopped the Illinois Department of Transportation from pursuing this expressway project. This was a direct political strike against Mayor Daley, who did not support Walker. He narrowly won the 1972 Democratic primary against then-Lieutenant Governor Paul Simon. Though Simon had a "good government" reputation, Walker attacked Simon for soliciting and accepting the endorsement of the Cook County Democratic Party chaired by Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, which Walker charged reflected servility to the "Daley Machine". In the 1972 general election, he defeated incumbent Republican Richard B. Ogilvie by a 51% to 49% margin. In the early 1970s, Walker was discussed as a possible presidential candidate. The enmity between Walker and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley's political organization was deep. In 1974, Walker supported state legislative candidates against Daley allies. Walker's deputy governor, Victor deGrazia, later said: "I knew from the beginning that every time Daley looked at Walker, he saw the Church of England and the British suppression of the Irish, and when Dan would look at Daley, he would see the quintessential politician who was only interested in political gain." "We never established anything even approaching a personal rapport. To some degree, this was an obvious and natural result of my independent political activity. But it went deeper – much deeper," said Walker. During his tenure, Walker was often at odds with both Republicans and Democrats in the state legislature. He did obtain passage of the first law requiring disclosure of campaign contributions and issued a series of executive orders prohibiting corrupt practices by state employees. In 1976 Walker was defeated in the Democratic primary, losing to Illinois Secretary of State Michael Howlett, the candidate supported by Mayor Daley, by a 54% to 46% margin. In the general election, Howlett was overwhelmingly defeated by James R. Thompson. A Democrat would not serve as governor of the state for the next 26 years, when Rod Blagojevich was elected in 2002.

Post-governorship

In the 1980s, Walker entered the private sector by forming Butler-Walker, Inc, a chain of self-named quick oil change franchises later bought by Jiffy Lube and acquiring two savings and loan associations, one of which was First American Savings and Loan Association of Oak Brook which would later be declared insolvent. In 1987, Walker was charged with Federal bank fraud based on two loans. A private contractor borrowed $279,000 from First American to build schools. Walker later personally borrowed $45,000 from that individual on a "handshake" basis. Those two loans ("borrowing from a borrower" while serving as a director) constituted bank fraud. Walker agreed to a plea bargain with Federal prosecutors; he pleaded guilty to bank fraud in the loan, perjury (based on dealings by the Association with his son), and filing false financial statements. He was sentenced to four years imprisonment for bank fraud, three years for perjury, and probation for false financial statements; the sentences to be served consecutively.

At his sentencing, U.S. District Judge Ann Williams stated, "It's clear to this court that a pattern was established and that you, Mr. Walker, thought this bank was your own personal piggy bank to bail you out whenever you got into trouble." The U.S. Attorney General ruled that "borrowing from a borrower," which was Walker's main offense, was a violation of the regulations but not a violation of law. In 1987, news media reported Walker received over a million dollars in fraudulent loans for his business and repairs on his yacht Governor's Lady. As part of a plea agreement no charges were laid against Walker for any other loans, and no other loans by First American were described as fraudulent.

Walker served eighteen months of his seven-year sentence and was released in 1989 after his attorneys cited his failing health. Judge Williams ordered him released from prison based on "time served" and placed on probation until the two loans in question were repaid. This order eliminated the two other charges. During the mid-1980s Savings and loan crisis, First American was declared insolvent and taken over by the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC). It continued in business as before, run by individuals brought in by FSLIC. There were no bondholders of First American and Walker and his wife were the only stockholders. When the two loans described above were repaid, Walker was released from probation and the case against him was closed. There was no cost to taxpayers for his specific loans, but in 1989, First American and another Chicago area S&L were bailed out by tax payers for just under $80 million. First American had $22.2 million in negative equity at that point. Walker became the second of four Governors of Illinois in the 20th and 21st centuries to be convicted on federal criminal charges. The others were Otto Kerner Jr., George Ryan, and Rod Blagojevich. However, unlike Kerner, Ryan, and Blagojevich, Walker's crimes were not related to his term as governor.

Later life and death
After his release from prison in 1989, Walker moved to San Diego. He found work as a paralegal. Walker also began writing. In 2003, it was reported that he was writing for six hours a day and had several writing projects in the works, including a cookbook for couples. By 2007, he had written several books and published at least three. In January 2001, Walker requested a pardon from outgoing President Bill Clinton, but his request was not granted. In 2007, he published The Maverick and the Machine, in which he discussed his political career, his experiences in prison, and his business and law troubles. Of the latter, he wrote "I knew this was against regulations, but, like most businessmen, I saw a huge difference between a law and a regulation." After his plea deal was reached in 1987, Walker stated, "I have broken the law and pleaded guilty, I have deep regrets and no excuses." Walker died on April 29, 2015, at a veterans hospital in Chula Vista, California, from heart failure, aged 92.

Personal life
Walker was married in 1947 to Roberta Dowse, a Catholic school teacher from Kenosha, Wisconsin. They had seven children, three boys—Daniel Jr., Charles, and William—and four girls, Kathleen, Julie, Roberta, and Margaret. They were divorced in 1977 after 30 years of marriage, when he left her for another woman. Walker later admitted that the breakdown of the marriage and the divorce was primarily his fault, caused by his stubbornness, arrogance, and lust, and apologized for the pain it caused his family. He also called the divorce the worst decision of his life. Roberta Dowse-Walker, the former First Lady of Illinois, died in December 2006 from colon cancer. Walker later married Roberta Nelson, who was 14 years his junior, and was divorced in 1989 while he was in prison. In 2007 he resided in Escondido, California, with his third wife, Lillian Stewart. In 2007, they adopted a son. As of 2007, he resided in Rosarito Beach, Baja California, Mexico.

title: Dan Walker (politician)