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PP (complexity)

In complexity theory, PP is the class of decision problems solvable by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time, with an error probability of less than 1/2 for all instances. The abbreviation PP refers to probabilistic polynomial time. The complexity class was defined by Gill in 1977.

If a decision problem is in PP, then there is an algorithm for it that is allowed to flip coins and make random decisions. It is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. If the answer is YES, the algorithm will answer YES with probability more than 1/2. If the answer is NO, the algorithm will answer YES with probability less than 1/2. In more practical terms, it is the class of problems that can be solved to any fixed degree of accuracy by running a randomized, polynomial-time algorithm a sufficient (but bounded) number of times.

Turing machines that are polynomially-bound and probabilistic are characterized as PPT, which stands for probabilistic polynomial-time machines. This characterization of Turing machines does not require a bounded error probability. Hence, PP is the complexity class containing all problems solvable by a PPT machine with an error probability of less than 1/2.

An alternative characterization of PP is the set of problems that can be solved by a nondeterministic Turing machine in polynomial time where the acceptance condition is that a majority (more than half) of computation paths accept. Because of this some authors have suggested the alternative name Majority-P.

Definition
A language L is in PP if and only if there exists a probabilistic Turing machine M, such that
 * M runs for polynomial time on all inputs
 * For all x in L, M outputs 1 with probability strictly greater than 1/2
 * For all x not in L, M outputs 1 with probability strictly less than 1/2.

Alternatively, PP can be defined using only deterministic Turing machines. A language L is in PP if and only if there exists a polynomial p and deterministic Turing machine M, such that
 * M runs for polynomial time on all inputs
 * For all x in L, the fraction of strings y of length p(|x|) which satisfy M(x,y) = 1 is greater than 1/2
 * For all x not in L, the fraction of strings y of length p(|x|) which satisfy M(x,y) = 1 is less than 1/2.

In both definitions, "less than" can be changed to "less than or equal to" (see below), and the threshold 1/2 can be replaced by any fixed rational number in (0,1), without changing the class.

PP vs BPP
BPP is a subset of PP; it can be seen as the subset for which there are efficient probabilistic algorithms. The distinction is in the error probability that is allowed: in BPP, an algorithm must give correct answer (YES or NO) with probability exceeding some fixed constant c > 1/2, such as 2/3 or 501/1000. If this is the case, then we can run the algorithm a number of times and take a majority vote to achieve any desired probability of correctness less than 1, using the Chernoff bound. This number of repeats increases if c becomes closer to 1/2, but it does not depend on the input size n.

More generally, if c can depend on the input size $$n$$ polynomially, as $$c = O(n^{-k}) $$, then we can rerun the algorithm for $$O(n^{2k})$$ and take the majority vote. By Hoeffding's inequality, this gives us a BPP algorithm.

The important thing is that this constant c is not allowed to depend on the input. On the other hand, a PP algorithm is permitted to do something like the following:
 * On a YES instance, output YES with probability 1/2 + 1/2n, where n is the length of the input.
 * On a NO instance, output YES with probability 1/2 − 1/2n.

Because these two probabilities are exponentially close together, even if we run it for a polynomial number of times it is very difficult to tell whether we are operating on a YES instance or a NO instance. Attempting to achieve a fixed desired probability level using a majority vote and the Chernoff bound requires a number of repetitions that is exponential in n.

PP compared to other complexity classes
PP includes BPP, since probabilistic algorithms described in the definition of BPP form a subset of those in the definition of PP.

PP also includes NP. To prove this, we show that the NP-complete satisfiability problem belongs to PP. Consider a probabilistic algorithm that, given a formula F(x1, x2, ..., xn) chooses an assignment x1, x2, ..., xn uniformly at random. Then, the algorithm checks if the assignment makes the formula F true. If yes, it outputs YES. Otherwise, it outputs YES with probability $$\frac12 - \frac1{2^{n + 1}}$$ and NO with probability $$\frac12 + \frac1{2^{n + 1}}$$.

If the formula is unsatisfiable, the algorithm will always output YES with probability $$\frac12 - \frac1{2^{n + 1}} < \frac12$$. If there exists a satisfying assignment, it will output YES with probability at least $$\left(\frac12 - \frac1{2^{n + 1}}\right)\cdot \left(1 - \frac1{2^n}\right) + 1\cdot\frac1{2^n} = \frac12 + \frac1{2^{2n + 1}} > \frac12$$ (exactly 1/2 if it picked an unsatisfying assignment and 1 if it picked a satisfying assignment, averaging to some number greater than 1/2). Thus, this algorithm puts satisfiability in PP. As SAT is NP-complete, and we can prefix any deterministic polynomial-time many-one reduction onto the PP algorithm, NP is included in PP. Because PP is closed under complement, it also includes co-NP.

Furthermore, PP includes MA, which subsumes the previous two inclusions.

PP also includes BQP, the class of decision problems solvable by efficient polynomial time quantum computers. In fact, BQP is low for PP, meaning that a PP machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve BQP problems instantly. The class of polynomial time on quantum computers with postselection, PostBQP, is equal to PP (see below).

Furthermore, PP includes QMA, which subsumes inclusions of MA and BQP.

A polynomial time Turing machine with a PP oracle (PPP) can solve all problems in PH, the entire polynomial hierarchy. This result was shown by Seinosuke Toda in 1989 and is known as Toda's theorem. This is evidence of how hard it is to solve problems in PP. The class #P is in some sense about as hard, since P#P = PPP and therefore P#P includes PH as well.

PP strictly includes uniform TC0, the class of constant-depth, unbounded-fan-in boolean circuits with majority gates that are uniform (generated by a polynomial-time algorithm).

PP is included in PSPACE. This can be easily shown by exhibiting a polynomial-space algorithm for MAJSAT, defined below; simply try all assignments and count the number of satisfying ones.

PP is not included in SIZE(nk) for any k, by Kannan's theorem.

Complete problems and other properties
Unlike BPP, PP is a syntactic rather than semantic class. Any polynomial-time probabilistic machine recognizes some language in PP. In contrast, given a description of a polynomial-time probabilistic machine, it is undecidable in general to determine if it recognizes a language in BPP.

PP has natural complete problems, for example, MAJSAT. MAJSAT is a decision problem in which one is given a Boolean formula F. The answer must be YES if more than half of all assignments x1, x2, ..., xn make F true and NO otherwise.

Proof that PP is closed under complement
Let L be a language in PP. Let $$L^c$$ denote the complement of L. By the definition of PP there is a polynomial-time probabilistic algorithm A with the property that

 * $$x \in L \Rightarrow \Pr[A \text{ accepts } x] > \frac{1}{2} \quad \text{and} \quad x \not\in L \Rightarrow \Pr[A \text{ accepts } x] \le \frac{1}{2}.$$

We claim that without loss of generality, the latter inequality is always strict; the theorem can be deduced from this claim: let $$A^c$$ denote the machine which is the same as A except that $$A^c$$ accepts when A would reject, and vice versa. Then

 * $$x \in L^c \Rightarrow \Pr[A^c \text{ accepts } x] > \frac{1}{2} \quad \text{and} \quad x \not\in L^c \Rightarrow \Pr[A^c \text{ accepts } x] < \frac{1}{2},$$

which implies that $$L^c$$ is in PP.

Now we justify our without loss of generality assumption. Let $$f(|x|)$$ be the polynomial upper bound on the running time of A on input x. Thus A makes at most $$f(|x|)$$ random coin flips during its execution. In particular the probability of acceptance is an integer multiple of $$2^{-f(|x|)}$$ and we have:

 * $$x \in L \Rightarrow \Pr[A \text{ accepts } x] \ge \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{2^{f(|x|)}}.$$

Define a machine A′ as follows: on input x, A′ runs A as a subroutine, and rejects if A would reject; otherwise, if A would accept, A′ flips $$f(|x|)+1$$ coins and rejects if they are all heads, and accepts otherwise. Then

 * $$x \not\in L \Rightarrow \Pr[A' \text{ accepts } x] \le \frac{1}{2} \cdot \left (1- \frac{1}{2^{f(|x|)+1}} \right ) < \frac{1}{2} \quad \text{and} \quad x \in L \Rightarrow \Pr[A' \text{ accepts } x] \ge \left (\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2^{f(|x|)}} \right )\cdot \left ( 1-\frac{1}{2^{f(|x|)+1}} \right ) > \frac{1}{2}.$$

This justifies the assumption (since A′ is still a polynomial-time probabilistic algorithm) and completes the proof.

David Russo proved in his 1985 Ph.D. thesis that PP is closed under symmetric difference. It was an open problem for 14 years whether PP was closed under union and intersection; this was settled in the affirmative by Beigel, Reingold, and Spielman. Alternate proofs were later given by Li and Aaronson (see below).

PostBQP
The quantum complexity class BQP is the class of problems solvable in polynomial time on a quantum Turing machine. By adding postselection, a larger class called PostBQP is obtained. Informally, postselection gives the computer the following power: whenever some event (such as measuring a qubit in a certain state) has nonzero probability, you are allowed to assume that it takes place. Scott Aaronson showed in 2004 that PostBQP is equal to PP. This reformulation of PP makes it easier to show certain results, such as that PP is closed under intersection (and hence, under union), that BQP is low for PP, and that QMA is included in PP.

PQP
PP is also equal to another quantum complexity class known as PQP, which is the unbounded error analog of BQP. It denotes the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of less than 1/2 for all instances. Even if all amplitudes used for PQP-computation are drawn from algebraic numbers, still PQP coincides with PP.

title: PP (complexity)


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Wahoo McDaniel

Edward Hugh McDaniel (June 19, 1938 – April 18, 2002) was an American professional football player and professional wrestler better known by his ring name Wahoo McDaniel. He is notable for having held the NWA United States Heavyweight Championship five times. McDaniel was a major star in the American Wrestling Association and prominent National Wrestling Alliance affiliated promotions such as Championship Wrestling from Florida, Georgia Championship Wrestling, NWA Big Time Wrestling and, most notably, Jim Crockett Promotions.

McDaniel is often compared to his contemporary, Chief Jay Strongbow, due to both portraying similar Native American gimmicks.

Early life
McDaniel was born in the small town of Bernice, Louisiana, in 1938. He is a member of the Choctaw-Chickasaw tribe, his father Hugh, worked in the oil industry and moved to several towns before settling down in Midland, Texas. He attended Midland High School, where he was a track state champion in the shot put and second in the state in the discus. One of his baseball coaches, particularly for his Pony League team, was George H. W. Bush. The name "Wahoo" actually came from his father, who was known as "Big Wahoo". Though he was a problematic teenager, he was accepted to the University of Oklahoma by Bud Wilkinson. He became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity and was also a part of Wilkinson's Sooners football program, where he holds the record for the longest punt at 91 yards.

Professional football career
McDaniel began his career as a professional football player in 1960 in the American Football League (AFL), playing for the Houston Oilers during their inaugural AFL Championship-winning season. He then played for the Denver Broncos between 1961 and 1963. After he started playing as a linebacker for the New York Jets in 1964, McDaniel started wearing a custom jersey which had the name "Wahoo" sewn on the back above jersey 54, and whenever he made a tackle as a Jet, the public address announcer would ask the crowd WHO made that tackle, in which the crowd would shout, "Wahoo! Wahoo! Wahoo!" After two seasons with the Jets, McDaniel went to the Miami Dolphins in 1966, and played with this team until his retirement after the 1968 season.

Professional wrestling career
While with the Houston Oilers, McDaniel also trained with NWA Amarillo wrestling promoter Dory Funk Sr. and became a professional wrestler as a way to supplement his income by the time he was traded to the Denver Broncos in 1961. After he was traded to the New York Jets in 1964, McDaniel began wrestling for Vincent J. McMahon's World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). The promoter wanted him to play off his Native American heritage, thus he was given the moniker "Chief" Wahoo McDaniel. After he was traded to the Miami Dolphins in 1966, McDaniel began wrestling for Eddie Graham's Championship Wrestling from Florida (CWF). When his football career ended in 1969, McDaniel became a full-time wrestler; in his first year, McDaniel became involved in NWA Texas and won the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship.

While wrestling in the American Wrestling Association (AWA), McDaniel engaged in a feud with Superstar Billy Graham. Along with Johnny Valentine, Superstar Billy Graham was regarded as one of McDaniel's earliest and bitter rivals. Between 1973 and 1974, McDaniel and Superstar would engage in numerous wrestling bouts in what was considered one of the AWA's top-drawing feuds of the 1970s. Some of these bouts included Indian Strap Matches and also tag team matches which pitted McDaniel and The Crusher against Superstar and Ivan Koloff. In 1974, McDaniel came to Mid-Atlantic to wrestle for Jim Crockett Promotions and help build up the territory as a singles territory in a feud with a rival from Texas, Johnny Valentine. The feud evolved into a tag feud with McDaniel and Paul Jones taking on Valentine and Ric Flair, who McDaniel met in the AWA. McDaniel and Valentine had a historical feud remembered for the sheer force of their punch/chop exchanges, both men widely known for their hard-hitting style. On June 29, 1975, McDaniel won the NWA Mid-Atlantic Heavyweight Championship by defeating Valentine. In 1977, Johnny Valentine's son Greg Valentine attacked McDaniel and broke his leg in an angle to establish Greg as Johnny's successor. Valentine originally won the title on June 11, 1977, with McDaniel regaining it two months later. On September 7, 1977, Valentine regained the title at the WRAL-TV studio tapings, breaking McDaniel's leg in the process. This angle is particularly remembered for a follow-up interview weeks later with Flair and Valentine throwing change at McDaniel, and Valentine asking him if he needed a custom-made wheelchair for his fat body. Valentine then infuriated fans (thus building up the demand for a rematch) by parading around in T-shirts which read "I Broke Wahoo's Leg" and "No More Wahoo."

McDaniel also worked for World Championship Wrestling's Slamboree 1993: A Legends' Reunion pay-per-view on May 23, 1993, where he teamed with Blackjack Mulligan and Jim Brunzell and fought Dick Murdoch, Don Muraco and Jimmy Snuka to a no-contest. At Slamboree on May 23, 1995, he defeated Murdoch. He also worked in independent shows until retiring in 1996.

Personal life
McDaniel was married four times to three different women. With his first wife, Monta Rae, he had two daughters, Nikki, born in June 1963 and living in Houston and Cindi, born in October 1965 and living in Azle, Texas. He has four grandchildren, and two great-grandchildren from Dustin (Vayda and Bo Wayne) and Brittany through Nikki and twins, Morgan and Taylor, through Cindi. He was also an avid golfer and hunter.

McDaniel's health started to deteriorate in the mid-1990s, which led to his retirement in 1996, and he eventually lost both kidneys in 2000. He was awaiting a kidney transplant when he suffered a stroke and died of complications from diabetes and kidney failure on April 18, 2002, in Houston, Texas. His body was cremated and his ashes are with his daughter Nikki in Houston, Texas.

Championships and accomplishments

 * American Championship Wrestling
 * ACW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * ACW United States Championship (1 time)
 * American Wrestling Association
 * AWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Crusher Lisowski (1 time)
 * Cauliflower Alley Club
 * Other honoree (1996)
 * Championship Wrestling from Florida
 * NWA Florida Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * NWA Florida Television Championship (1 time)
 * NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Florida version) (2 times)
 * NWA United States Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (1 time) – with Billy Jack Haynes
 * NWA World Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (2 times) – with Jose Lothario
 * Georgia Championship Wrestling
 * NWA Georgia Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * NWA Georgia Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tommy Rich
 * NWA Macon Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * International Pro Wrestling
 * IWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling / Jim Crockett Promotions / World Championship Wrestling
 * NWA Mid-Atlantic Heavyweight Championship (7 times)
 * NWA National Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * NWA United States Heavyweight Championship (5 times)
 * NWA World Tag Team Championship (Mid-Atlantic version) (4 times) – with Mark Youngblood (2), Rufus R. Jones (1), and Paul Jones (1)
 * WCW Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)
 * Cadillac Cup (1976)
 * NWA United States Championship Tournament (1984)
 * Mid-Atlantic Wrestling Alliance
 * MAWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * National Wrestling Federation
 * NWF World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Chief White Owl
 * National Wrestling Alliance
 * NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2011)
 * NWA Big Time Wrestling
 * NWA American Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * NWA American Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Johnny Valentine (2), and Thunderbolt Paterson(1)
 * NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * NWA Texas Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tony Parisi
 * North American Wrestling Alliance
 * NAWA Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
 * Class of 2010
 * Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 * PWI Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1976)
 * PWI ranked him # 97 of the 500 best singles wrestlers during the "PWI Years" in 2003
 * Southern Championship Wrestling
 * SCW Hall of Fame (Class of 1998)
 * Southern States Wrestling
 * Kingsport Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 2000)
 * Southwest Championship Wrestling
 * SCW Southwest Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * SCW Southwest Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Terry Funk
 * SCW World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ivan Putski
 * Ultimate Championship Wrestling
 * UCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * WWE
 * WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2019)
 * Wrestling Observer Newsletter
 * Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2002)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wahoo McDaniel


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Dramatic monologue

Dramatic monologue is a type of poetry written in the form of a speech of an individual character. M.H. Abrams notes the following three features of the dramatic monologue as it applies to poetry:

Types of dramatic monologue
One of the most important influences on the development of the dramatic monologue is romantic poetry. However, the long, personal lyrics typical of the Romantic period are not dramatic monologues, in the sense that they do not, for the most part, imply a concentrated narrative. Poems such as William Wordsworth's Tintern Abbey and Percy Bysshe Shelley's Mont Blanc, to name two famous examples, offered a model of close psychological observation and philosophical or pseudo-philosophical inquiry described in a specific setting. The conversation poems of Samuel Taylor Coleridge are perhaps a better precedent. The genre was also developed by Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon, beginning in the latter's case with her long poem The Improvisatrice.

The novel and plays have also been important influences on the dramatic monologue, particularly as a means of characterization. Dramatic monologues are a way of expressing the views of a character and offering the audience greater insight into that character's feelings. Dramatic monologues can also be used in novels to tell stories, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, and to implicate the audience in moral judgements, as in Albert Camus' The Fall and Mohsin Hamid's The Reluctant Fundamentalist.

Examples
The Victorian period represented the high point of the dramatic monologue in English poetry.

 * Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Ulysses, published in 1842, has been called the first true dramatic monologue. After Ulysses, Tennyson's most famous efforts in this vein are Tithonus, The Lotos-Eaters, and St. Simon Stylites, all from the 1842 Poems; later monologues appear in other volumes, notably Idylls of the King.
 * Matthew Arnold's Dover Beach and Stanzas from the Grand Chartreuse are famous, semi-autobiographical monologues. The former, usually regarded as the supreme expression of the growing scepticism of the mid-Victorian period, was published along with the latter in 1867's New Poems.
 * Robert Browning produced his most famous work in this form. While My Last Duchess is the most famous of his monologues, the form dominated his writing career. The Ring and the Book, Fra Lippo Lippi, Caliban upon Setebos, Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister and Porphyria's Lover, as well as the other poems in Men and Women are just a handful of Browning's monologues.

Other Victorian poets also used the form. Dante Gabriel Rossetti wrote several, including Jenny and The Blessed Damozel; Christina Rossetti wrote a number, including The Convent Threshold. Augusta Webster's A Castaway, Circe, and The Happiest Girl in the World, Amy Levy's Xantippe and A Minor Poet, and Felicia Hemans's Arabella Stuart and Properzia Rossi are all exemplars of this technique. Algernon Charles Swinburne's Hymn to Proserpine has been called a dramatic monologue vaguely reminiscent of Browning's work. Some American poets have also written poems in the genre—famous examples include Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven".

Post-Victorian examples include William Butler Yeats's The Gift of Harun al-Rashid, Elizabeth Bishop's Crusoe in England, and T.S. Eliot's The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and Gerontion.

title: Dramatic monologue


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Anesthetic

An anesthetic (American English) or anaesthetic (British English; see spelling differences) is a drug used to induce anesthesia — in other words, to result in a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. They may be divided into two broad classes: general anesthetics, which result in a reversible loss of consciousness, and local anesthetics, which cause a reversible loss of sensation for a limited region of the body without necessarily affecting consciousness.

A wide variety of drugs are used in modern anesthetic practice. Many are rarely used outside anesthesiology, but others are used commonly in various fields of healthcare. Combinations of anesthetics are sometimes used for their synergistic and additive therapeutic effects. Adverse effects, however, may also be increased. Anesthetics are distinct from analgesics, which block only sensation of painful stimuli. Analgesics are typically used in conjunction with anesthetics to control pre-, intra-, and postoperative pain.

Ester-based

 * Benzocaine
 * Cocaine (historical)
 * Procaine
 * Tetracaine (sometimes called Amethocaine)

Amide-Based

 * Bupivacaine
 * Cinchocaine(INN/BAN)/Dibucaine(USAN)
 * Etidocaine
 * Levobupivacaine
 * Lidocaine
 * Mepivacaine
 * Prilocaine
 * Ropivacaine

Local anesthetic agents prevent the transmission of nerve impulses without causing unconsciousness. They act by reversibly binding to fast sodium channels from within nerve fibers, thereby preventing sodium from entering the fibres, stabilising the cell membrane and preventing action potential propagation. Each of the local anesthetics has the suffix "–caine" in their names.

Local anesthetics can be either ester- or amide-based. Ester local anesthetics are generally unstable in solution and fast-acting, are rapidly metabolised by cholinesterases in the blood plasma and liver, and more commonly induce allergic reactions. Amide local anesthetics are generally heat-stable, with a long shelf life (around two years). Amides have a slower onset and longer half-life than ester anesthetics, and are usually racemic mixtures, with the exception of levobupivacaine (which is S(-) -bupivacaine) and ropivacaine (S(-)-ropivacaine). Although general rules exist for onset and duration of anesthesia between ester- or amide-based local anesthetics, these are properties are ultimately dependent on myriad factors including the lipid solubility of the agent, the concentration of the solution, and the pKa. Amides are generally used within regional and epidural or spinal techniques, due to their longer duration of action, which provides adequate analgesia for surgery, labor, and symptomatic relief. Some esters, such as benzocaine and tetracaine, are found in topical formulations to be absorbed through the skin.

Only preservative-free local anesthetic agents may be injected intrathecally.

Pethidine also has local anesthetic properties, in addition to its opioid effects.

Inhaled agents
Volatile agents are typically organic liquids that evaporate readily. They are given by inhalation for induction or maintenance of general anesthesia. Nitrous oxide and xenon are gases, so they are not considered volatile agents. The ideal volatile anesthetic should be non-flammable, non-explosive, and lipid-soluble. It should possess low blood gas solubility, have no end-organ (heart, liver, kidney) toxicity or side-effects, should not be metabolized, and should not irritate the respiratory pathways.
 * Desflurane (common)
 * Enflurane (largely discontinued)
 * Halothane (inexpensive, discontinued)
 * Isoflurane (common)
 * Methoxyflurane
 * Nitrous oxide
 * Sevoflurane (common)
 * Xenon (rarely used)

No anaesthetic agent currently in use meets all these requirements, nor can any anaesthetic agent be considered completely safe. There are inherent risks and drug interactions that are specific to each and every patient. The agents in widespread current use are isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane, and nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide is a common adjuvant gas, making it one of the most long-lived drugs still in current use. Because of its low potency, it cannot produce anesthesia on its own but is frequently combined with other agents. Halothane, an agent introduced in the 1950s, has been almost completely replaced in modern anesthesia practice by newer agents because of its shortcomings. Partly because of its side effects, enflurane never gained widespread popularity.

In theory, any inhaled anesthetic agent can be used for induction of general anesthesia. However, most of the halogenated anesthetics are irritating to the airway, perhaps leading to coughing, laryngospasm and overall difficult inductions. If induction needs to be conducted with an inhaled anesthetic agent, sevoflurane is often used due to a relatively low pungency, rapid increase in alveolar concentration, and a higher blood solubility than other agents. These properties allow for a less irritating and quicker induction as well as a rapid emergence from anesthesia compared to other inhaled agents. All of the volatile agents can be used alone or in combination with other medications to maintain anesthesia (nitrous oxide is not potent enough to be used as a sole agent).

Volatile agents are frequently compared in terms of potency, which is inversely proportional to the minimum alveolar concentration. Potency is directly related to lipid solubility. This is known as the Meyer-Overton hypothesis. However, certain pharmacokinetic properties of volatile agents have become another point of comparison. Most important of those properties is known as the blood/gas partition coefficient. This concept refers to the relative solubility of a given agent in blood. Those agents with a lower blood solubility (i.e., a lower blood–gas partition coefficient; e.g., desflurane) give the anesthesia provider greater rapidity in titrating the depth of anesthesia, and permit a more rapid emergence from the anesthetic state upon discontinuing their administration. In fact, newer volatile agents (e.g., sevoflurane, desflurane) have been popular not due to their potency (minimum alveolar concentration), but due to their versatility for a faster emergence from anesthesia, thanks to their lower blood–gas partition coefficient.

Intravenous agents (non-opioid)
While there are many drugs that can be used intravenously to produce anesthesia or sedation, the most common are:
 * Barbiturates
 * Amobarbital (trade name: Amytal)
 * Methohexital (trade name: Brevital)
 * Thiamylal (trade name: Surital)
 * Thiopental (trade name: Penthothal, referred to as thiopentone in the UK)
 * Benzodiazepines
 * Diazepam
 * Lorazepam
 * Midazolam
 * Etomidate
 * Ketamine
 * Propofol

Among the barbiturates mentioned above, thiopental and methohexital are ultra-short-acting and are used to induce and maintain anesthesia. However, though they produce unconsciousness, they provide no analgesia (pain relief) and must be used with other agents. Benzodiazepines can be used for sedation before or after surgery and can be used to induce and maintain general anesthesia. When benzodiazepines are used to induce general anesthesia, midazolam is preferred. Benzodiazepines are also used for sedation during procedures that do not require general anesthesia. Like barbiturates, benzodiazepines have no pain-relieving properties.

Among the barbiturates mentioned above, thiopental and methohexital are ultra-short-acting and are used to induce and maintain anesthesia is one of the most commonly used intravenous drugs employed to induce and maintain general anesthesia. It can also be used for sedation during procedures or in the ICU. Like the other agents mentioned above, it renders patients unconscious without producing pain relief. Compared to other IV agents, etomidate causes minimal depression of the cardiopulmonary system. Additionally, etomidate results in a reduction in intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow. Because of these favorable physiological effects, was a favored agent in the ICU. However, etomidate has since been shown to produce adrenocortical suppression, resulting in decreased use to avoid an increased mortality rate in severely ill patients. Ketamine is infrequently used in anesthesia because of the unpleasant experiences that sometimes occur on emergence from anesthesia, which include "vivid dreaming, extracorporeal experiences, and illusions." When it is used, it is often paired with a benzodiazepine such as midazolam for amnesia and sedation. However, like etomidate it is frequently used in emergency settings and with sick patients because it produces fewer adverse physiological effects. Unlike the intravenous anesthetic drugs previously mentioned, ketamine produces profound pain relief, even in doses lower than those that induce general anesthesia. Also unlike the other anesthetic agents in this section, patients who receive ketamine alone appear to be in a cataleptic state, unlike other states of anesthesia that resemble normal sleep. Ketamine-anesthetized patients have profound analgesia but keep their eyes open and maintain many reflexes.

Intravenous opioid analgesic agents
While opioids can produce unconsciousness, they do so unreliably and with significant side effects. So, while they are rarely used to induce anesthesia, they are frequently used along with other agents such as intravenous non-opioid anesthetics or inhalational anesthetics. Furthermore, they are used to relieve pain of patients before, during, or after surgery. The following opioids have short onset and duration of action and are frequently used during general anesthesia:
 * Alfentanil
 * Fentanyl
 * Remifentanil
 * Sufentanil, which is not available in Australia.

The following agents have longer onset and duration of action and are frequently used for post-operative pain relief:
 * Buprenorphine
 * Butorphanol
 * Diamorphine, also known as heroin, not available for use as an analgesic in any country but the UK.
 * Hydromorphone
 * Levorphanol
 * Pethidine, also called meperidine in North America.
 * Methadone
 * Morphine
 * Codeine
 * Nalbuphine
 * Oxycodone, not available intravenously in U.S.
 * Oxymorphone
 * Pentazocine

Muscle relaxants
Muscle relaxants do not render patients unconscious or relieve pain. Instead, they are sometimes used after a patient is rendered unconscious (induction of anesthesia) to facilitate intubation or surgery by paralyzing skeletal muscle. These agents fall into two categories: depolarizing agents, which depolarize the motor end plate to prevent further stimulation, and non-depolarizing agents, which prevent acetylcholine receptor activation through competitive inhibition.
 * Depolarizing muscle relaxants
 * Succinylcholine (also known as suxamethonium in the UK, New Zealand, Australia and other countries, "Celokurin" or "celo" for short in Europe)
 * Decamethonium
 * Non-depolarizing muscle relaxants
 * Short acting
 * Mivacurium
 * Rapacuronium
 * Intermediate acting
 * Atracurium
 * Cisatracurium
 * Rocuronium
 * Vecuronium
 * Long acting
 * Alcuronium
 * Doxacurium
 * Gallamine
 * Metocurine
 * Pancuronium
 * Pipecuronium
 * Tubocurarine

A potential complication where neuromuscular blockade is employed is 'anesthesia awareness'. In this situation, patients paralyzed may awaken during their anesthesia, due to an inappropriate decrease in the level of drugs providing sedation or pain relief. If this is missed by the anesthesia provider, the patient may be aware of their surroundings, but be incapable of moving or communicating that fact. Neurological monitors are increasingly available that may help decrease the incidence of awareness. Most of these monitors use proprietary algorithms monitoring brain activity via evoked potentials. Additionally, anesthesia providers often have steps they follow to help prevent awareness, such as ensuring all equipment is working properly, monitoring that drugs are being delivered during surgery, and asking a series of questions (the Brice questions) to help detect awareness after surgery. If there is any suspicion of patient awareness, close follow-up and mental health professionals can help manage or avoid any traumatic stress associated with the awareness. Certain procedures, such as endoscopies or colonoscopies, are managed a technique called conscious sedation or monitored anesthesia care. These cases are performed with regional anesthetics and a "twilight sleep" achieved through sedation with propofol and analgesics, and patients may remember perioperative events. When this technique is used, patients should be advised that this is management is distinct from general anesthesia to help combat any belief or fear that they were "awake" during anesthesia.

Intravenous reversal agents

 * Flumazenil, reverses the effects of benzodiazepines
 * Naloxone, reverses the effects of opioids
 * Neostigmine, helps to reverse the effects of non-depolarizing muscle relaxants
 * Sugammadex, helps to reverse the effects of non-depolarizing muscle relaxants

title: Anesthetic


text:
Bombus (disambiguation)

Bombus is the genus that includes the bumblebee.

Bombus may also refer to:

 * Bombus (band), a Swedish speed/heavy metal band
 * Bombus (album), 2010

title: Bombus (disambiguation)


text:
BVE Trainsim

BVE Trainsim (originally Boso View Express ) is a Japanese three-dimensional computer-based train simulator. It is notable for focusing on providing an accurate driving experience as viewed from inside the cab, rather than creating a network of other trains —other trains passed along the route are only displayed as stationary objects. BVE Trainsim was designed and developed by Takashi "Mackoy" Kojima starting in 1996 with the original program name coming from the Japanese 255 series multiple unit trains found in routes in Japan.

Although the internal working of the BVE Trainsim program itself cannot be modified, additional routes and train cab views can be added via a number of text-based configuration files. Route builders have produced over 300 additional routes for the program, along with matching cab environments. Routes built by independent developers simulate rail activity in Africa, Asia, North America, South America, and Europe.

BVE Trainsim 1
BVE Trainsim 1 was released in 1996 as an Alpha version under the name Boso View Express and 1999 as a Beta Version. This version, the first version of BVE to be produced, had an interface that was similar to BVE Trainsim 2, but did not have a logo. Instead, the official symbol of BVE up until the release of BVE 2 in 2001 featured the words: 暴走 VIEW EXPRESS.

BVE Trainsim 2
The first stable version released in 2001. BVE Trainsim 2 featured ATS and ATC. The latest version of BVE 2 is ver. 2.6.3 which was released on 27 March 2004.

BVE Trainsim 3
Unreleased and later cancelled, BVE Trainsim 3 was originally started in 2003 as an improvement over BVE Trainsim 2, but was eventually stopped due to problems encountered with development of the aforementioned program.

BVE Trainsim 4
BVE Trainsim 4, released in 2005, added support for plugins to simulate train safety systems other than ATS and ATC. Because of the cancellation of version three, this was the first follow-on stable version since version two. It also has better graphics than BVE 2 with the latter being a major update. The latest version of BVE 4 is ver. 4.2.1947.25355 which was released on 1 May 2005.

The London Transport Museum used BVE Trainsim 4 to provide a simulation platform, within a mock underground rolling stock of the London Underground 1996 Stock, before later porting to openBVE in 2010.

BVE Trainsim 5
BVE Trainsim 5 was officially released on 5 September 2011 as the successor to BVE 4.

In July 2008, the developer stated that he was rewriting BVE Trainsim from scratch because the previously released versions (BVE 2 and BVE 4) do not work with DirectX 9, and that the new version would support Windows Vista and Windows 7.

The first BVE 5 version (ver. 5.0.4265.3690) features a new format for storing train routes and route dependencies and a redesigned interface including a distance to next station indicator and a passenger comfort indicator. The latest version of BVE 5 is ver. 5.7.6224.40815 which was released on 17 March 2017.

The BVE 5 download page also includes a route converter which can convert BVE 4 routes into a format recognised by BVE 5.

BVE Trainsim 6
BVE Trainsim 6 Release Candidate was announced and made available to the public as the successor to BVE 5 on June 21, 2020. Full release of BVE Trainsim 6 was made available on September 23, 2020.

BVE 6 is released as a 64-bit application, allowing for scenarios with larger data sizes and support for Windows 8.1, Windows 10 and Windows 11. BVE 6 also features support for 64-bit plugins, a new format for vehicle files and support for non-vertical cab gauges.

Included in the new release is the Uchibō Line, a newly developed example scenario demonstrating the new features available in BVE 6.

openBVE

openBVE is an independently developed open-source train simulator. Although the name and logo were originally based on BVE Trainsim, openBVE is free and open-source software developed and written from scratch. It features support for train exteriors, animated 3D cab environments and animated scenery. Internally, openBVE makes use of OpenGL for rendering, as well as OpenAL for three-dimensional positional audio.

The program is noted for its cab ambiance and realism. It is currently distributed in the public domain, along with full C# and C source code.

History
openBVE was originally conceived in 2009, as a free and open-source simulator, capable of running routes from BVE Trainsim, but with the eventual aim of loading content from other simulations, and the development of a separate route format. Initial development was done over four years from 2009 to 2013, by a team of four developers, led by Michelle Boucquemont (michelle) and odakyufan. In 2007 most active development has ended, as the main developer Michelle Boucquemont ended her active work. Despite the lacking developer support, around 2009 openBVE was capable of running most BVE Trainsim routes correctly and also supported additional features, including an exterior view, animated 3D cabs, and animated objects.

To end the stalled development in October 2015 a continuation of OpenBVE was announced on BVEWorldwide by another group of developers. The group transferred the development and codebase to a new repository on GitHub. To date (May 2017), numerous additions were made by the project: new parameters for animated objects and the plugin API, several unfixed errata from the previous openBVE 1.4.3 errata fixed, Dynamic lighting and backgrounds added, and a basic package format has been added to make the installation of addons easier.

OpenBVE was selected in September 2013 as "HotPick" by Linux Format.

title: BVE Trainsim


text:
Talk:Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!

Seth Ilys, thanks for putting in the ISBN link. I actually didn't know you could do that. I wasn't advertising for Amazon and was a bit loathe to put the link in, but I don't know many other sites for book reviews.

I have no business interest in driving business to bookstores, but the stub was so incoherent when I picked it up that I wanted to flesh it out a bit. The ISBN link tip should come in useful in the future. Abqwildcat 20:40, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

Where did the story come from wherein Geisel substitutes "Richard M. Nixon" for "Marvin K. Mooney"? It's not really cited here. Djcartwright 01:51, 18 August 2006 (UTC)
 * http://www.nationalreview.com/miller/miller200311210832.asp Cites a 1995 book entitled Dr. Seuss and Mr. Geisel by Judith and Neil Morgan.  Unknown page number.  Is a book citation without a page number sufficient?  The Natl Review article provides more details to the story, with Seuss telling Buchwald after Nixon's resignation that "they should have collaborated sooner." --Gavroche42 17:29, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:MarvinKMooneyWillYouPleaseGoNowBookCover.jpg
Image:MarvinKMooneyWillYouPleaseGoNowBookCover.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 02:28, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

grammar!
Suggesting that he could have [...] is unlikely.' is moronically bad use of the gerund

Averring that "'Suggesting that he could have [...] is unlikely.' is moronically bad use of the gerund'" displays poor grasp of the gerund. Despite what your J-school profs might believe, verbals are not gnarled boogie-men lying in wait for a chance to ambush and rape your sentences.


text:
David Rockefeller

David Rockefeller (June 12, 1915 – March 20, 2017) was an American economist and investment banker who served as chairman and chief executive of Chase Manhattan Corporation. He was the oldest living member of the third generation of the Rockefeller family, and family patriarch from 2004 until his death in 2017. Rockefeller was the fifth son and youngest child of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, and a grandson of John D. Rockefeller and Laura Spelman Rockefeller.

He was noted for his wide-ranging political connections and foreign travel, in which he met with many foreign leaders. His fortune was estimated at $3.3 billion at the time of his death.

Early life
Rockefeller was born in New York City, where he grew up in an eight-story house at 10 West 54th Street, the tallest private residence ever built in the city at the time. Rockefeller was the youngest of six children born to financier John Davison Rockefeller Jr. and socialite Abigail Greene "Abby" Aldrich. His father John Jr. was the only son of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and schoolteacher Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman.

His mother Abby was a daughter of Rhode Island U.S. Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich and Abigail Pearce Truman "Abby" Chapman. David's five elder siblings were Abby, John III, Nelson, Laurance, and Winthrop.

Rockefeller attended the experimental Lincoln School at 123rd Street in Harlem. The school, which was associated with Columbia University, was founded with the help of Rockefeller's educational philanthropy, the General Education Board.

Education
In 1936, Rockefeller graduated cum laude from Harvard University, where he worked as an editor on The Harvard Crimson. He also studied economics for a year at Harvard and then a year at the London School of Economics (LSE) under Friedrich von Hayek. He once dated Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington. During his time abroad, Rockefeller briefly worked in the London branch of what was to become the Chase Manhattan Bank.

After returning to the United States to complete his graduate studies, he received a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Chicago in 1940.

Government service
After completing his studies in Chicago, he became secretary to New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia for eighteen months in a "dollar a year" public service position. Although the mayor pointed out to the press that Rockefeller was only one of 60 interns in the city government, his working space was the vacant office of the deputy mayor. From 1941 to 1942, Rockefeller was assistant regional director of the United States Office of Defense, Health and Welfare Services.

Military
Rockefeller enlisted in the U.S. Army and entered Officer Candidate School in 1943. He was promoted to Captain in 1945. During World War II he served in North Africa and France (he spoke fluent French) for military intelligence, setting up political and economic intelligence units. He served as a "Ritchie Boy" secret unit specially trained at Fort Ritchie, Maryland. For seven months he served as an assistant military attaché at the American Embassy in Paris. During this period, he called on family contacts and Standard Oil executives for assistance.

Banking
In 1946, Rockefeller joined the staff of the longtime family-associated Chase National Bank. The chairman at that time was Rockefeller's uncle Winthrop W. Aldrich. The Chase Bank was primarily a wholesale bank, dealing with other prominent financial institutions and major corporate clients such as General Electric, which had, through its RCA affiliate, leased prominent space and become a crucial first tenant of Rockefeller Center in 1930. The bank is closely associated with and has financed the oil industry, having longstanding connections with its board of directors to the successor companies of Standard Oil, especially Exxon Mobil. Chase National became the Chase Manhattan Bank in 1955 and shifted significantly into consumer banking. It is now called JPMorgan Chase.

Rockefeller started as an assistant manager in the foreign department. There he financed international trade in a number of commodities, such as coffee, sugar and metals. This position maintained relationships with more than 1,000 correspondent banks throughout the world. He served in other positions and became president in 1960. He was both the chairman and chief executive of Chase Manhattan from 1969 to 1980 and remained chairman until 1981. He was also, as recently as 1980, the single largest individual shareholder of the bank, holding 1.7% of its shares.

During his term as CEO, Chase spread internationally and became a central component of the world's financial system due to its global network of correspondent banks, the largest in the world. In 1973, Chase established the first branch of an American bank in Moscow, in the then Soviet Union. That year Rockefeller traveled to China, resulting in his bank becoming the National Bank of China's first correspondent bank in the U.S.

During this period, Chase Manhattan expanded its influence over many non-financial corporations. A 1979 study titled "The Significance of Bank Control over Large Corporations" provided an estimate for which large U.S.-based financial institutions had the most control over other corporations. The study finds that: "'The Rockefeller-controlled Chase Manhattan Bank tops the list, controlling 16 companies.'"He was faulted for spending excessive amounts of time abroad, and during his tenure as CEO the bank had more troubled loans than any other major bank. Chase owned more New York City securities in the mid-1970s, when the city was nearing bankruptcy. A scandal erupted in 1974 when an audit found that losses from bond trading had been understated. In 1975 the bank was branded a "problem bank" by the Federal Reserve.

From 1974 to 1976, Chase earnings fell 36 percent while those of its biggest rivals rose 12 to 31 percent. The bank's earnings more than doubled between 1976 and 1980, far outpacing its rival Citibank in return on assets. By 1981 the bank's finances were restored to full health.

In November 1979, while chairman of the Chase Bank, Rockefeller became embroiled in an international incident when he and Henry Kissinger, along with John J. McCloy and Rockefeller aides, persuaded President Jimmy Carter through the United States Department of State to admit the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, into the United States for hospital treatment for lymphoma. This action directly precipitated what is known as the Iran hostage crisis and placed Rockefeller under intense media scrutiny, particularly from The New York Times, for the first time in his public life.

Rockefeller retired from active management of the bank in 1981, succeeded by his protégé Willard C. Butcher. Former Chase chairman John J. McCloy said at the time that he believed Rockefeller would not go down in history as a great banker but rather as a "real personality, as a distinguished and loyal member of the community".

Political connections
Rockefeller traveled widely and met with both foreign rulers and U.S. presidents, beginning with Dwight D. Eisenhower. At times he served as an unofficial emissary on high-level business. Among the foreign leaders he met were Saddam Hussein, Fidel Castro, Nikita Khrushchev, and Mikhail Gorbachev.

In 1968, he declined an offer from his brother Nelson Rockefeller, then governor of New York, to appoint him to Robert F. Kennedy's Senate seat after Kennedy was assassinated in June 1968, a post Nelson also offered to their nephew John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV. President Jimmy Carter offered him the position of United States Secretary of the Treasury but he declined.

Rockefeller was criticized for befriending foreign autocrats in order to expand Chase interests in their countries. The New York Times columnist David Brooks wrote in 2002 that Rockefeller "spent his life in the club of the ruling class and was loyal to members of the club, no matter what they did." He noted that Rockefeller had cut profitable deals with "oil-rich dictators", "Soviet party bosses" and "Chinese perpetrators of the Cultural Revolution".

Rockefeller met Henry Kissinger in 1954, when Kissinger was appointed a director of a seminal Council on Foreign Relations study group on nuclear weapons, of which David Rockefeller was a member. He named Kissinger to the board of trustees of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and consulted with him frequently, with the subjects including the Chase Bank's interests in Chile and the possibility of the election of Salvador Allende in 1970. Rockefeller supported his "opening of China" initiative in 1971 as it afforded banking opportunities for the Chase Bank.

Though a lifelong Republican and party contributor, he was a member of the moderate "Rockefeller Republicans" that arose out of the political ambitions and public policy stance of his brother Nelson. In 2006, he teamed up with former Goldman Sachs executives and others to form a fund-raising group based in Washington, Republicans Who Care, that supported moderate Republican candidates over more ideological contenders.

Central Intelligence Agency ties
Rockefeller was acquainted with Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) director Allen Dulles and his brother, Eisenhower administration Secretary of State John Foster Dulles—who was an in-law of the family —since his college years. It was in Rockefeller Center that Allen Dulles had set up his WWII operational center after Pearl Harbor, liaising closely with MI6, which also had their principal U.S. operation in the center. He also knew and associated with the former CIA director Richard Helms as well as Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt Jr., a Chase Bank employee and former CIA agent whose first cousin, CIA agent Kermit Roosevelt Jr., was involved in the Iran coup of 1953.

In 1953, he had befriended William Bundy, a pivotal CIA analyst for nine years in the 1950s, who became the Agency liaison to the National Security Council, and a subsequent lifelong friend. In Cary Reich's biography of his brother Nelson, a former CIA agent states that David was extensively briefed on covert intelligence operations by himself and other Agency division chiefs, under the direction of David's "friend and confidant", CIA director Allen Dulles.

Policy groups

In 1964, along with other American business figures such as Sol Linowitz, Rockefeller founded the non-profit International Executive Service Corps, which encourages developing nations to promote private enterprise. In 1979, he formed the Partnership for New York City, a not-for-profit membership organization of New York businessmen. In 1992, he was selected as a leading member of the Russian-American Bankers Forum, an advisory group set up by the head of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York to advise Russia on the modernization of its banking system, with the full endorsement of President Boris Yeltsin.

Rockefeller had a lifelong association with the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) when he joined as a director in 1949. In 1965, Rockefeller and other businessmen formed the Council of the Americas to stimulate and support economic integration in the Americas. In 1992, at a Council sponsored forum, Rockefeller proposed a "Western Hemisphere free trade area", which became the Free Trade Area of the Americas in a Miami summit in 1994. His and the council's chief liaison to President Bill Clinton in order to garner support for this initiative was through Clinton's chief of staff, Mack McLarty, whose consultancy firm Kissinger McLarty Associates is a corporate member of the council, while McLarty himself is on the board of directors. He was a trustee of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, including in 1948, when Alger Hiss was president.

Displeased with the refusal of Bilderberg Group meetings to include Japan, Rockefeller helped found the Trilateral Commission in July 1973.

Later career
After the war and alongside his work at Chase, Rockefeller took a more active role in his family's business dealings. Working with his brothers in the two floors of Rockefeller Center known as Room 5600, he reorganized the family's myriad business and philanthropic ventures. The men kept regular "brothers' meetings" where they made decisions on matters of common interest and reported on noteworthy events in each of their lives. Rockefeller served as secretary to the group, making notes of each meeting. The notes are now in the family archive and will be released in the future. Following the deaths of his brothers, Winthrop (1973), John III (1978), Nelson (1979), and Laurance (2004), David became sole head of the family (with the important involvement of his elder son, David Jr.).

Rockefeller ensured that selected members of the fourth generation, known generically as the cousins, became directly involved in the family's institutions. This involved inviting them to be more active in the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the principal foundation established in 1940 by the five brothers and their one sister. The extended family also became involved in their own philanthropic organization, formed in 1967 and primarily established by third-generation members, called the Rockefeller Family Fund.

In the 1980s, Rockefeller became embroiled in controversy over the mortgaging and sale of Rockefeller Center to Japanese interests. In 1985, the Rockefeller family mortgaged the property for $1.3 billion, with $300 million of that going to the family. In 1989, 51 percent of the property, later increased to 80 percent, was sold to Mitsubishi Estate Company of Japan. This action was criticized for surrendering a major U.S. landmark to foreign interests. In 2000, Rockefeller presided over the final sale of Rockefeller Center to Tishman Speyer Properties, along with the Crown family of Chicago, which ended the more than 70 years of direct family financial association with Rockefeller Center.

In 2005, he gave $100 million to the Museum of Modern Art and $100 million to Rockefeller University, two of the most prominent family institutions; as well as $10 million to Harvard and $5 million to Colonial Williamsburg. In 2006, he pledged $225 million to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund upon his death, the largest gift in the Fund's history. The money will be used to create the David Rockefeller Global Development Fund, to support projects that improve access to health care, conduct research on international finance and trade, fight poverty, and support sustainable development, as well as to a program that fosters dialogue between Muslim and Western nations. Rockefeller donated $100 million to Harvard University in 2008. The New York Times estimated in November 2006 that his total charitable donations amount to $900 million over his lifetime, a figure that was substantiated by a monograph on the family's overall benefactions, entitled The Chronicle of Philanthropy.

He published Memoirs in 2002, the only time a member of the Rockefeller family has written an autobiography.

Rockefeller was a noted internationalist.

Rockefeller's will requires his estate, once assets are liquidated, to donate over $700 million to various non-profits, including Rockefeller University, the Museum of Modern Art and Harvard. The largest donation will be either $250 million or the remaining balance of the estate that will fund the launch of the David Rockefeller Global Development Fund.

Internationalist conspiracy
Throughout his life, Rockefeller was accused of being part of an internationalist conspiracy seeking to undermine the interests of the United States and promote a more unified global order. One of Rockefeller's most prominent accusers was Georgia Congressman Lawrence Patton McDonald, who in the 1975 book, The Rockefeller File, wrote:

"The Rockefellers and their allies have, for at least fifty years, been carefully following a plan to use their economic power to gain political control of first America, and then the rest of the world.

Do I mean conspiracy? Yes, I do. I am convinced there is such a plot, international in scope, generations old in planning, and incredibly evil in intent."In response to accusations of this type, David Rockefeller himself wrote in his 2003 book, Memoirs:"For more than a century ideological extremists at either end of the political spectrum have seized upon well-publicized incidents such as my encounter with Castro to attack the Rockefeller family for the inordinate influence they claim we wield over American political and economic institutions. Some even believe we are part of a secret cabal working against the best interests of the United States, characterizing my family and me as 'internationalists' and of conspiring with others around the world to build a more integrated global political and economic structure--one world, if you will. If that's the charge, I stand guilty, and I am proud of it."

Personal life
In 1940, Rockefeller married Margaret "Peggy" McGrath, who died in 1996. They had six children:

 * 1) David Rockefeller Jr. (born July 24, 1941) – vice chairman, Rockefeller Family & Associates (the family office, Room 5600); chairman of Rockefeller Financial Services; Trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation; former chairman of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund and Rockefeller & Co., Inc., among many other family institutions.
 * 2) Abigail Aldrich "Abby" Rockefeller (born 1943) – ecologist and feminist. Eldest and most rebellious daughter, she was drawn to Marxism and was an ardent admirer of Fidel Castro and a late 1960s/early 1970s radical feminist who belonged to the organization Female Liberation, later forming a splinter group called Cell 16. An environmentalist and ecologist, she has been an active supporter of the women's liberation movement.
 * 3) Neva Rockefeller (born 1944 ) – economist. She is director of the Global Development and Environment Institute; trustee and vice chair of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
 * 4) Margaret Dulany "Peggy" Rockefeller (born 1947) – founder of the Synergos Institute in 1986; board member of the Council on Foreign Relations; serves on the advisory committee of the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University.
 * 5) Richard Gilder Rockefeller (1949–2014) – physician; chairman of the United States advisory board of the international aid group Doctors Without Borders; trustee and chair of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
 * 6) Eileen Rockefeller (born February 26, 1952) – Founding Chair of Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors, established in New York City in 2002.

Death
Rockefeller died in his sleep from congestive heart failure on March 20, 2017, at his home in Pocantico Hills, New York. He was 101 years old.

Wealth
At the time of his death, Forbes estimated Rockefeller's net worth was $3.3 billion. Initially, most of his wealth had come to him via the family trusts created by his father, which were administered by Room 5600 and Chase Bank. In turn, most of these trusts were held as shares in the successor companies of Standard Oil, as well as diverse real estate investment partnerships, such as the expansive Embarcadero Center in San Francisco, which he later sold for considerable profit, retaining only an indirect stake. In addition, he was or had been a partner in various properties such as Caneel Bay, a 4000 acre resort development in the Virgin Islands; a cattle ranch in Argentina; and a 15500 acre sheep ranch in Australia.

Another major source of asset wealth was his art collection, ranging from impressionist to postmodern, which he developed through the influence upon him of his mother Abby and her establishment, with two associates, of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1929. The collection, valued at several hundred million dollars, was auctioned in the spring of 2018, with proceeds going to several designated nonprofit organizations, including Rockefeller University, Harvard University, the Museum of Modern Art, the Council on Foreign Relations, and the Maine Coast Heritage Trust.

Residences

Rockefeller's principal residence was at "Hudson Pines", on the family estate in Pocantico Hills, New York. He had a Manhattan residence at 146 East 65th Street, as well as a country residence (known as "Four Winds") at a farm in Livingston, New York (Columbia County), where his wife raised Simmenthal beef cattle. He maintained a summer home, "Ringing Point," at Seal Harbor on Mount Desert Island off the Maine coast. In May 2015, he donated one thousand acres of land in Seal Harbor to the Mount Desert Land and Garden Preserve.

He owned a large estate on the French island of Saint Barthélemy. Along with the Rothschild family, was one of the earliest developers and tourists on the island in the 1950s. The home was very modern and was located in the Colombier district, known to many as the most beautiful section of the island. It has changed hands several times over the years, and is the single largest private parcel on the island, encompassing the entire Baie de Colombier. Many years ago, the Rockefeller family donated the land in the initial creation of the Saint Barth "Zone Verte," or Green Zone, which is an area which cannot be developed.

The property includes a private dock in the port of Gustavia, as there were no roads to the property and the only way to get there was by boat. David Rockefeller would moor his yacht at his private dock in Gustavia before transferring to the Colombier estate in a smaller boat as the bay could not accommodate his yacht. The property was recently listed for over $100 million, but is not currently used as a residence. The main house has fallen into disrepair. It was sold for $136 million in 2023.

The Kykuit section of the Rockefeller family compound is the location of The Pocantico Conference Center of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund – established by David and his four brothers in 1940 –  which was created when the Fund leased the area from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1991.

Non-governmental leadership positions

 * Council on Foreign Relations – Honorary Chairman
 * Americas Society – Founder and Honorary Chairman
 * Trilateral Commission – Founder and Honorary North American Chairman
 * Bilderberg Meetings – Only member of the Member Advisory Group
 * New York Young Republican Club – Board Member

Awards and honors

 * Presidential Medal of Freedom (1998);
 * U.S. Legion of Merit (1945);
 * French Legion of Honor (1945);
 * U.S. Army Commendation Ribbon (1945);
 * Commander of the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross (1956);
 * Elected to the American Philosophical Society (1959)
 * Charles Evans Hughes award NCCJ, (1974);
 * Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991)
 * George C. Marshall Foundation Award (1999);
 * Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy (2001);
 * Synergos Bridging Leadership Award (2003);
 * The Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur (2000);
 * C. Walter Nichols Award, New York University (1970);
 * World Brotherhood Award, Jewish Theological Seminary of America (1953);
 * Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects (1965);
 * Medal of Honor for City Planning, American Institute of Architects (1968);
 * World Monuments Fund's Hadrian Award (for preservation of art and architecture) (1994);
 * National Institute of Social Sciences Gold Medal Award (1967 – awarded to all 5 brothers);
 * United States Council for International Business (USCIB) International Leadership Award (1983);
 * The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award (1965).

title: David Rockefeller


text:
Talk:Jabir ibn Hayyan

al-Azdi means Yazdi
There are sources in Farsi, which say al-Azdi (as nisba of Jabir) means Yazdi (belonging to Yazd city in Iran), so Jaber is directly a Persian. Other variants of the word Yazd are Ayzd and Izad. If any one could find a reliable source which denotes this, please add it to the article. Perscience (talk) 14:31, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

 * For those who are interested, one (unreliable) source which makes this claim is here. ☿ Apaugasma  ( talk  ☉) 14:54, 2 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Al-Azd is attributed to the Arab tribe only. The person is attributed to the origins, not to the country of birth, and Iran is not only Persian Muhsin97233 (talk) 21:32, 8 April 2023 (UTC)

He was persian not arab
Jabir ibn Hayan was a Persian. 83.121.164.64 (talk) 09:23, 27 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Jaber Ibn Hayyan, all sources are attributed him to Arabs, not Persian Muhsin97233 (talk) 06:53, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Could you please cite a few sources? James.aminian (talk) 16:52, 15 December 2023 (UTC)
 * There is no source for that! He was Persian, and his father was also Persian, literally called Attar! During that period, everyone in Iran had to speak Arabic besides Persian, so it is not surprising that he has books in Arabic and Persian. Persiangreat (talk) 06:49, 30 May 2024 (UTC)
 * His ethnicity is well covered in Jabir ibn Hayyan. Please review the sources cited there, especially (the most authoritative account of Jabir's biography to date) and  (a recent paper reviewing all the evidence on Jabir's biography, affirming Kraus' position that ethnicity is uncertain). ☿  Apaugasma  ( talk  ☉) 13:41, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jabir ibn Hayyan


text:
William H. Hinton

William Howard Hinton (February 2, 1919 – May 15, 2004) was an American intellectual, best known for his work on Communism in China. A Marxist, he is best known for his book Fanshen, published in 1966, a "documentary of revolution" which chronicled the land reform program of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the 1940s in Zhangzhuangcun (张庄村, pinyin: Zhāngzhuāngcūn), sometimes translated as Long Bow Village, a village in Shanxi Province in northern China. Sequels (Shenfan) followed the experience of the village during the 1950s and Cultural Revolution. Hinton wrote and lectured extensively to explain the Maoist approach and later to criticize Deng Xiaoping's market-orient reforms.

Early life and education
Hinton was born on February 2, 1919, in Chicago. His great-grandfather was the mathematician George Boole, his grandfather was the mathematician Charles Howard Hinton, and his father, Sebastian Hinton, was a lawyer who invented the playground jungle gym before later committing suicide. His mother, Carmelita Hinton, was an educator and the founder of The Putney School, an independent progressive school in Vermont. His great-aunt was novelist Ethel Lilian Voynich (1864–1960), whose 1897 book The Gadfly sold over a million copies and became the number one American bestseller in the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Hinton's sister, Joan Hinton, was a physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico before moving to Beijing and becoming a Maoist.

Hinton attended Harvard University for two years, where he was captain of the ski team. In 1939, he raced the famous Inferno race from the summit of Mount Washington, skiing behind Toni Matt, who famously schussed the headwall. Hinton commented in 1996 that "he knew Matt did something special, as a huge roar came up from the crowd." Hinton earned a Bachelor of Science degree in agronomy and dairy husbandry from Cornell University in 1941.

Experiences in China
Hinton first visited China in 1937. At the time, prevailing U.S. views of the Chinese Communist Party since the 1920s had alternated between uncertainty and hostility. Most U.S. "experts" on communism were baffled by the appeal of a Marxist-Leninist party to Asian peasants. Some diplomats considered the Chinese Communist Party "agrarian reformers" who labeled themselves revolutionaries. They were uncertain whether or how closely the Communists were tied to the Soviet Union.

Given the attention lavished on the Kuomintang (KMT) by both U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the media, especially Henry Luce's Time Magazine, the U.S. public was slow to take notice of the Communists' rise in importance in China. When the U.S. joined China and the other Allied Powers of the Second World War in the War against Japan, there had been little contact between U.S. diplomats and the CCP, even though the KMT-led United Front against Japan made the Communists an implicit ally.

At the time of Hinton's first visit to China in the mid-1930s, a handful of U.S. journalists, such as Edgar Snow, Helen Foster Snow, and Owen Lattimore, had sneaked through the KMT blockade into communist territory. All praised the high morale, social reform, and commitment to fighting Japan that they observed.

Along with academic colleagues, Hinton made similar observations when he served from 1945 to 1953 during his subsequent visit to China. Hinton was a staff member of the U.S. Office of War Information and was present at the Chongqing negotiations between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, where he met Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong.

Hinton then worked for the United Nations as a tractor-technician, providing training in modern agricultural methods in rural China. When the United Nations program in the communist-led area ended in 1947, he accepted a position teaching at a Party-run university. Shortly thereafter, roughly half the faculty and staff left to join land reform work teams. Hinton asked to join the university-staffed work team going to the village of Zhang Zhuang (now popularly rendered in English as Long Bow, due to Hinton's writing), which was within walking distance of the university and on the outskirts of Changzhi. By 1948, his then-wife Bertha Sneck had also joined him in China.

Hinton spent eight months working in the fields in the day and attending land reform meetings both day and night, and during this time he took careful notes on the land reform process. He assisted in the development of mechanized agriculture and education, and mainly stayed in the CCP-governed northern Chinese village of Changzhi, forging close bonds with the inhabitants. Hinton aided the locals with complicated CCP initiatives, especially literacy projects, the breaking up of the feudal estates, ensuring the equality of women, and the replacement of the imperial-era magistrates that governed the village with councils in a symbiotic relationship with the landed gentry class. Hinton took more than one thousand pages of notes during his time in China.

Return to the United States
On his return to the United States after the conclusion of the Korean War in 1953, Hinton wanted to chronicle his observations of the revolutionary process in Long Bow. But on his return, at the height of McCarthyism, customs officials seized his papers, and turned them over to the Senate Committee on Internal Security (chaired by Senator James Eastland). Hinton was subjected to continual harassment by the FBI, his passport was confiscated, and he was barred from all teaching jobs. At first permitted to work as a truck mechanic, he was later blacklisted and denied all employment. He then took up farming on some land inherited from his mother, and farmed for a living for some fifteen years. During this period Hinton continued to speak out about the successes of the Chinese Revolution and waged a long (and eventually successful) legal battle to recover his notes and papers from the Eastland Committee.

After the government returned his notes and papers, Hinton set to writing Fanshen, a documentary account of the land reform in Long Bow village in which he had been both observer and participant. After many mainstream U.S. publishers had turned it down, it was published in 1966 by Monthly Review and was a success, selling hundreds of thousands of copies, with translations in ten languages. In the book, Hinton examines the revolutionary experience of the Long Bow village, painting a complex picture of conflict, contradiction and cooperation in rural China. Hinton's book did not shy away from discussing the violence of land reform in Long Bow. In Hinton's view, peasant liberation justified class struggle.

After the death of Edgar Snow, Hinton became the most famous of Americans sympathetic to the People's Republic of China, and he served as the first national chairman of the US–China Peoples Friendship Association from 1974 to 1976. The association published his controversial interviews with Chinese premier Zhou Enlai. Hinton cooled toward official policy as market reforms under Deng Xiaoping moved away from the type of socialism originally associated with Mao Zedong. Eventually, he wrote Shenfan (read as the opposite of Fanshen) and The Great Reversal, and became an outspoken opponent of the socialist market economy ("socialism with Chinese characteristics") and Chinese economic reform that the CCP continues today.

Personal life
In 1945, Hinton married Bertha Sneck, a writer and translator. They had one daughter, Carma Hinton, an academic and documentary filmmaker. Hinton and Sneck divorced in 1954. In 1958, Hinton married Joanne Raiford, a metallurgical technician, and had three more children. Raiford died in 1986, and Hinton married Katherine Chiu, an employee of UNICEF, in 1987.

In 2004, Hinton died in Concord, Massachusetts at the age of 85.

Works

 * 1966, Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 0-520-21040-9, ISBN 0-85345-046-3, ISBN 0-394-70465-7, ISBN 1-58367-175-7.
 * 1972, Hundred Day War: The Cultural Revolution at Tsinghua University, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 0-85345-281-4, ISBN 0-85345-238-5.
 * 1972, Turning Point in China: An Essay on the Cultural Revolution, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 0-85345-215-6.
 * 1984, Shenfan, Vintage, ISBN 0-394-72378-3, ISBN 0-330-28396-0, ISBN 0-394-48142-9.
 * 1989, The Great Reversal: The Privatization of China, 1978-1989, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 0-85345-794-8, ISBN 0-85345-793-X.
 * 1995, Ninth Heaven to Ninth Hell: The History of a Noble Chinese Experiment (with Qin Huailu and Dusanka Miscevic), Barricade Books, ISBN 1-56980-041-3. About Chen Yonggui and Dazhai.
 * 2006, Through a Glass Darkly: American Views of the Chinese Revolution, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 1-58367-141-2. A critique of Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz, Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, Yale University Press 1991, ISBN 0-300-05428-9.
 * 1995, Ninth Heaven to Ninth Hell: The History of a Noble Chinese Experiment (with Qin Huailu and Dusanka Miscevic), Barricade Books, ISBN 1-56980-041-3. About Chen Yonggui and Dazhai.
 * 2006, Through a Glass Darkly: American Views of the Chinese Revolution, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 1-58367-141-2. A critique of Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz, Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, Yale University Press 1991, ISBN 0-300-05428-9.
 * 2006, Through a Glass Darkly: American Views of the Chinese Revolution, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 1-58367-141-2. A critique of Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz, Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, Yale University Press 1991, ISBN 0-300-05428-9.

title: William H. Hinton


text:
Industrial processes

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical, physical, electrical, or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Chemical processes by main basic material
Certain chemical process yield important basic materials for society, e.g., (cement, steel, aluminum, and fertilizer). However, these chemical reactions contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, through chemical reactions, as well as through the combustion of fossil fuels to generate the high temperatures needed to reach the activation energies of the chemical reactions.

Cement (the paste within concrete)

 * Calcination – Limestone, which is largely composed of fossilized calcium carbonate (CaCO3), breaks down at high temperatures into useable calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide gas, which gets released as a by-product. This chemical reaction, called calcination, figures most prominently in creating cement (the paste within concrete). The reaction is also important in providing calcium oxide to act as a chemical flux (removal of impurities) within a blast furnace.
 * CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Steel

 * Smelting – Inside a blast furnace, carbon monoxide (CO) is released by combusting coke (a high-carbon derivative of coal) and removes the undesired oxygen (O) within ores. is released as a by-product, carrying away the oxygen and leaving behind the desired pure metal. Most prominently, iron smelting is how steel (largely iron with small amounts of carbon) is created from mined iron ore and coal.
 * Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)

Aluminium

 * Hall–Héroult process – Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is smelted with coke (C) in a high-temperature electrolysis reaction, yielding the desired pure aluminium (Al) and a mixture of CO and.
 * Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 2 Al(s) + 3 CO(g)
 * 2 Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 4 Al(s) + 3 CO2(g)

Fertilizer

 * Haber process – Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is separated, yielding ammonia (NH3), which is used to make all synthetic fertilizer. The Haber process uses a fossil carbon source, generally natural gas, to provide the CO for the water–gas shift reaction, yielding hydrogen (H2) and releasing . The H2 is used to break the strong triple bond in N2, yielding industrial ammonia.
 * CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3 H2(g)
 * CO(g) + H2O(g) → H2(g) + CO2(g)
 * N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

Other chemical processes

 * Disinfection – chemical treatment to kill bacteria and viruses
 * Pyroprocessing – using heat to chemically combine materials, such as in cement

Electrolysis
The availability of electricity and its effect on materials gave rise to several processes for plating or separating metals.
 * Electrolytic process – any process using electrolysis
 * Electrophoretic deposition – electrolytic deposition of colloidal particles in a liquid medium
 * Electropolishing – the reverse of electroplating
 * Electrotyping – using electroplating to produce printing plates
 * Gilding, electroplating, anodizing, electrowinning – depositing a material on an electrode
 * Isoelectric focusing a.k.a. electrofocusing – similar to electroplating, but separating molecules
 * Metallizing, plating, spin coating – the generic terms for giving non-metals a metallic coating

Cutting

 * Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
 * Laser cutting
 * Machining – the mechanical cutting and shaping of metal which involves the loss of the material
 * Oxy-fuel welding and cutting
 * Plasma cutting
 * Sawing
 * Shearing
 * Water-jet cutting – cutting materials using a very high-pressure jet of water

Metalworking

 * Case-hardening, differential hardening, shot peening – creating a wear-resistant surface
 * Casting – shaping of a liquid material by pouring it into moulds and letting it solidify
 * Die cutting – A "forme" or "die" is pressed onto a flat material in order to cut, score, punch and otherwise shape the material
 * Electric arc furnace — very-high-temperature processing
 * Forging – the shaping of metal by use of heat and hammer
 * Hydroforming – a tube of metal is expanded into a mould under pressure
 * Precipitation hardening – heat treatment used to strengthen malleable materials
 * Progressive stamping – the production of components from a strip or roll
 * Sandblasting – cleaning of a surface using sand or other particles
 * Smelting and direct reduction – extracting metals from ores
 * Soldering, brazing, welding – a process for joining metals
 * Stamping
 * Steelmaking – turning "pig iron" from smelting into steel
 * Tumble polishing – for polishing
 * Work hardening – adding strength to metals, alloys, etc.

Iron and steel

 * Basic oxygen steelmaking
 * Bessemer process
 * Blast furnace – produced cast iron
 * Catalan forge, open hearth furnace, bloomery – produced wrought iron
 * Cementation process
 * Crucible steel
 * Direct reduction – produced direct reduced iron
 * Smelting – the process of using furnaces to produce steel, copper, etc.

Molding
The physical shaping of materials by forming their liquid form using a mould
 * Blow molding as in plastic containers or in the glass container industry – making hollow objects by blowing them into a mould
 * Casting, sand casting – the shaping of molten metal or plastics using a mould
 * Compression molding
 * Sintering, powder metallurgy – the making of objects from metal or ceramic powder

Separation
Many materials exist in an impure form. Purification or separation provides a usable product.
 * Comminution – reduces the size of physical particles (it exists between crushing and grinding)
 * Frasch process – for extracting molten sulfur from the ground
 * Froth flotation, flotation process – separating minerals through flotation
 * Liquid–liquid extraction – dissolving one substance in another

Distillation
Distillation is the purification of volatile substances by evaporation and condensation
 * Batch distillation
 * Continuous distillation
 * Fractional distillation, steam distillation, vacuum distillation
 * Fractionating column
 * Spinning cone

Additive manufacturing
In additive manufacturing, material is progressively added to the piece until the desired shape and size are obtained.
 * Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
 * Photolithography
 * Selective laser sintering (SLS)
 * Stereolithography (SLA)

Petroleum and organic compounds
The nature of an organic molecule means it can be transformed at the molecular level to create a range of products.
 * Alkylation – refining of crude oil
 * Burton process – cracking of hydrocarbons
 * Cracking (chemistry) – the generic term for breaking up the larger molecules
 * Cumene process – making phenol and acetone from benzene
 * Friedel–Crafts reaction, Kolbe–Schmitt reaction
 * Olefin metathesis, thermal depolymerization
 * Oxo process – produces aldehydes from alkenes
 * Polymerization
 * Raschig hydroxylamine process – produces hydroxylamine, a precursor of nylon
 * Transesterification – organic chemicals

Organized by product

 * Aluminium – ( Hall-Héroult process, Deville process, Bayer process, Wöhler process)
 * Ammonia, used in fertilizer – (Haber process)
 * Bromine – (Dow process)
 * Chlorine, used in chemicals – (chloralkali process, Weldon process, Hooker process)
 * Fat – (rendering)
 * Fertilizer – (nitrophosphate process)
 * Glass – (Pilkington process)
 * Gold – (bacterial oxidation, Parkes process)
 * Graphite – (Acheson process)
 * Heavy water, used to refine radioactive products – (Girdler sulfide process)
 * Hydrogen – (water–gas shift reaction, steam reforming)
 * Lead (and bismuth) – (Betts electrolytic process, Betterton-Kroll process)
 * Nickel – (Mond process)
 * Nitric acid – (Ostwald process)
 * Paper – (pulping, Kraft process, Fourdrinier machine)
 * Rubber – (vulcanization)
 * Salt – (Alberger process, Grainer evaporation process)
 * Semiconductor crystals – (Bridgman–Stockbarger method, Czochralski method)
 * Silver – (Patio process, Parkes process)
 * Silicon carbide – (Acheson process, Lely process)
 * Sodium carbonate, used for soap – (Leblanc process, Solvay process, Leblanc-Deacon process)
 * Sulfuric acid – (lead chamber process, contact process)
 * Titanium – (Hunter process, Kroll process)
 * Zirconium – (Hunter process, Kroll process, van Arkel–de Boer process)

A list by process:
 * Alberger process, Grainer evaporation process – produces salt from brine
 * Bacterial oxidation – used to produce gold
 * Bayer process – the extraction of aluminium from ore
 * Chloralkali process, Weldon process – for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide
 * Dow process – produces bromine from brine
 * Formox process – oxidation of methanol to produce formaldehyde
 * Girdler sulfide process – for making heavy water
 * Hunter process, Kroll process – produces titanium and zirconium
 * Industrial rendering – the separation of fat from bone and protein
 * Lead chamber process, contact process – production of sulfuric acid
 * Mond process – nickel
 * Nitrophosphate process – a number of similar process for producing fertilizer
 * Ostwald process – produces nitric acid
 * Packaging
 * Pidgeon process – produces magnesium, reducing the oxide using silicon
 * Steam reforming, water gas shift reaction – produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide from methane or hydrogen and carbon dioxide from water and carbon monoxide
 * Vacuum metalising – a finishing process
 * Van Arkel–de Boer process – for producing titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, thorium, or protactinium

title: Industrial processes


text:
Streicher

Streicher is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Streicher's, police equipment and supply company founded in 1953 in Butler, Wisconsin
 * Agatha Streicher (1520 – 1581), German physician
 * Herbert Streicher, also known as Harry Reems, a pornographic actor
 * Johann Andreas Streicher (1761, Stuttgart – 1833, Vienna), German pianist, composer and piano maker
 * Nannette Streicher, née Stein (1769, Augsburg – 1833, Vienna), German piano maker, composer and music educator.
 * Johann Baptist Streicher (1796, Vienna – 1871, Vienna), Austrian piano maker
 * Julius Streicher (1885–1946), prominent Nazi prior to World War II, founder and publisher of anti-Semitic Der Stürmer newspaper, executed for war crimes
 * Lyubov Streicher (1888-1958), Russian composer
 * Ludwig Streicher (1920–2003), contrabassist from Vienna, Austria.
 * Michael A. Streicher (1921–2006), American metallurgist and engineer who became internationally recognized
 * Mike Streicher (born in Findlay, Ohio), American auto racing driver

title: Streicher


text: User talk:62.49.28.3

title: User talk:62.49.28.3


text:
Sempervivum

Sempervivum is a genus of about 40 species of flowering plants in the family Crassulaceae, commonly known as houseleeks. Other common names include liveforever (the source of the taxonomical designation Sempervivum, literally "always/forever alive") and hen and chicks, a name shared with plants of other genera as well. They are succulent perennials forming mats composed of tufted leaves in rosettes. In favourable conditions they spread rapidly via offsets, and several species are valued in cultivation as groundcover for dry, sunny locations.

Habitat
Houseleeks exist from Morocco to Iran, through the mountains of Iberia, the Alps, Carpathians, Balkan mountains, Turkey, the Armenian mountains, in the northeastern part of the Sahara Desert, and the Caucasus. Their ability to store water in their thick leaves allows them to live on sunny rocks and stony places in the mountain, subalpine and alpine belts. Most are hardy to US zone 4, and will handle warm climates to about zone 9.

Subtropical origin
Morphologically, they are similar to the genera Jovibarba, Aeonium, Greenovia, Aichryson, and Monanthes, occurring mainly in Macaronesia (Azores, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Madeira). Some botanists include some or all of these genera within a wider interpretation of Sempervivum, particularly Jovibarba.

Origin of name
The name Sempervivum has its origin in the Latin ("always") and  ("living"), a calque of Ancient Greek  ("houseleek", literally "(the) forever-living (one)"), because this perennial plant keeps its leaves in winter and is very resistant to difficult conditions of growth. The common name "houseleek" comes from the Anglo-Saxon word, meaning "plant", since these are literally plants that grow on houses. They were believed to ward off fire and lightning strikes. Some Welsh people still hold the old folk belief that having it grow on the roof of the house ensures the health and prosperity of those who live there. The plant is not closely related to the true leek, which belongs to the Allium genus.

Other common names reflect the plant's ancient association with Thor, the Norse god of thunder, and the Roman Jupiter, hence names such as "Jupiter's beard" and the German Donnerbart ("thunder beard").

Growth and reproduction
Houseleeks grow as tufts of perennial but monocarpic rosettes. Each rosette propagates asexually by lateral rosettes (offsets, "hen and chicks"), by splitting of the rosette (only Jovibarba heuffelii) or sexually by tiny seeds.

Typically, each plant grows for several years before flowering. Their hermaphrodite flowers have first a male stage. Then the stamens curve themselves and spread away from the carpels at the center of the flower, so self-pollination is rather difficult. The colour of the flowers is reddish, yellowish, pinkish, or—seldom—whitish. In Sempervivum, the flowers are actinomorphic (like a star) and have more than six petals, while in Jovibarba, the flowers are campanulate (bell-shaped) and are pale green-yellow with six petals. After flowering, the plant dies, usually leaving many offsets it has produced during its life.

Identification
The genus Sempervivum is usually easy to recognize, although it may sometimes be confused with the genus Echeveria. However, its species are often not easy to identify. Even one single clone can look very different under various growth conditions (modifications) or different times of the year. The members of this genus are very similar and closely linked to each other. As a consequence, many subspecies, varieties, and forms were described, without well-defined limits between them. As a second consequence, there is a high frequency of natural hybrids in this genus and the possibility of back-crossings of these. However, more or less 40 species can be individualized in the whole area of the genus, but there are many more local populations, without nomenclatural valour but sometimes with their own characters.

In the Alps, the most distributed species are S. tectorum (common houseleek, sometimes called S. alpinum), S. montanum (mountain houseleek) and S. arachnoideum (cobwebbed houseleek), each one with several subspecies. More local are the yellow-flowered S. wulfenii and S. grandiflorum, and the limestone houseleek (S. calcareum). More rare are S. dolomiticum and S. pittonii, the latter which is endemic to Eastern Austria.

On roofs or old walls S. tectorum can be found, more or less wild, very far out of its natural area. It is a very old medicinal and witch-plant. Some superstitious people believe this plant is able to protect a house from lightning.

Herbalism
It has been used historically and is used presently for purported health benefits. It has no known side effects (aside from being an emetic in large doses) or drug interactions. Common herbal uses are stopping bad cases of diarrhea by drinking the juice of the leaf or eating the leaves directly, and the juice is commonly applied directly to the skin for many of the same uses as aloe vera such as burns, warts and insect bites. It is furthermore said to bring relief in cases of swellings and water retention.

The famous English herbalist Culpepper says 'Our ordinary Houseleek is good for all inward heats, as well as outward, and in the eyes or other parts of the body: a posset made of the juice is singularly good in all hot agues, for it cooleth and tempereth the blood and spirits and quencheth the thirst; and is also good to stay all deflection or sharp and salt rheums in the eyes, the juice being dropped into them. If the juice be dropped into the ears, it easeth pain.... It cooleth and restraineth all hot inflammations St. Anthony's fire (Erysipelas), scaldings and burnings, the shingles, fretting ulcers, ringworms and the like; and much easeth the pain and the gout.'

Garden and container plants
Although their subtropical cousins are very frost-sensitive, sempervivums are among the most frost-resistant succulents, making them popular garden plants. They tend to grow best in dry conditions with well-draining, sandy soil to prevent soggy roots. They require only moderate watering, especially during warmer months, with occasional protection from extreme sun exposure.

Sempervivums also make suitable plants for containers, and do well in breathable terracotta, concrete, and cement pots. They have also been known to grow in rock crevices, metal containers, succulent wreaths, roof shingles, and anywhere else that allows adequate root drainage.

Cultivars
Collectors are numerous and often have many different cultivars in their collections. Sempervivums are very variable plants and hence hundreds, maybe thousands of cultivars have been created, but a lot of them are not much different from each other. The main interest of these cultivars is not their flowers, but form and color of the rosette-leaves.

The following species and cultivars - some of mixed or uncertain parentage - have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-

 * Sempervivum arachnoideum
 * Sempervivum arachnoideum subsp. tomentosum
 * 'Bronco'
 * Sempervivum calcareum 'Extra'
 * Sempervivum calcareum 'Guillaume'
 * Sempervivum ciliosum
 * 'Lilac Time'
 * 'Othello'
 * Sempervivum pittonii
 * 'Reinhard'
 * Sempervivum tectorum

title: Sempervivum