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Grand Duchy of Finland

The Grand Duchy of Finland, officially and also translated as the Grand Principality of Finland, was the predecessor state of modern Finland. It existed between 1809 and 1917 as an autonomous state ruled by the Russian Empire.

Originating in the 16th century as a titular grand duchy held by the King of Sweden, the country became autonomous after its annexation by Russia in the Finnish War of 1808–1809. The Grand Duke of Finland was the Romanov Emperor of Russia, represented by the Governor-General. Due to the governmental structure of the Russian Empire and Finnish initiative, the Grand Duchy's autonomy expanded until the end of the 19th century. The Senate of Finland, founded in 1809, became the most important governmental organ and the precursor to the modern Government of Finland, the Supreme Court of Finland, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland.

Economic, social and political changes in the Grand Duchy of Finland paralleled those in the Russian Empire and the rest of Europe. The economy grew slowly during the first half of the 19th century. The reign of Alexander II (1855–1881) saw significant cultural, social and intellectual progress, and an industrializing economy. Tensions increased after Saint Petersburg adopted Russification policies in 1898; the new circumstances saw the reduction of Finnish autonomy and cultural expression. Unrest in Russia and Finland during the First World War (1914–1918) and the subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 resulted in the Finnish Declaration of Independence and the end of the Grand Duchy.

History
An extended Southwest Finland was made a titular grand duchy in 1581, when King Johan III of Sweden, who as a Prince had been the Duke of Finland (1556–1561/63), extended the list of subsidiary titles of the Kings of Sweden considerably. The new title Grand Duke of Finland did not result in any Finnish autonomy, as Finland was an integrated part of the Kingdom of Sweden with full parliamentary representation for its counties. During the next two centuries, the title was used by some of Johan's successors on the throne, but not all. Usually, it was just a subsidiary title of the King, used only on very formal occasions. However, in 1802, as an indication of his resolve to keep Finland within Sweden in the face of increased Russian pressure, King Gustav IV Adolf gave the title to his new-born son, Prince Carl Gustaf, who died three years later.

During the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, the four Estates of occupied Finland were assembled at the Diet of Porvoo on 29 March 1809 to pledge allegiance to Tsar Alexander I of Russia, who in return guaranteed that the area's laws and liberties, as well as religion, would be left unchanged. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809, Finland became a true autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire; but the usual balance of power between monarch and diet resting on taxation was not in place, since the emperor could rely on the rest of his vast empire. The title "Grand Duke of Finland" was added to the long list of titles of the Russian tsar.

After his return to Finland in 1812, the Finnish-born Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt became counsellor to the Russian emperor. Armfelt was instrumental in securing the grand duchy as an entity with relatively greater autonomy within the Russian realm, and acquiring so-called Old Finland that Russia had annexed from Sweden in the Treaty of Nystad (1721) and the Treaty of Åbo (1743).

Beginning of the Grand Duchy

The formation of the grand duchy stems from the Treaty of Tilsit between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Emperor Napoleon I of the French. The treaty mediated peace between Russia and France and allied the two countries against Napoleon's remaining threats: the United Kingdom and Sweden. Russia invaded Finland in February 1808, claimed as an effort to impose military sanctions against Sweden, but not a war of conquest, and that Russia decided to only temporarily control Finland. Collectively, the Finns were predominately anti-Russian, and Finnish guerrillas and peasant uprisings were a large obstacles for the Russians, forcing Russia to use various tactics to quash armed Finnish rebellion. Thus, in the beginning of the war, General roda Voysk Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden, with permission of the tsar, imposed an oath of fealty on Finland, in which Russia would honour Finland's Lutheran faith, the Diet of Finland, and the Finnish estates as long as the Finns would remain loyal to the Russian imperial crown. The oath also dubbed anyone person who gave aid to the Swedish or Finnish armies a rebel.

The Finns complied, bitter over Sweden abandoning the country for their war against Denmark and France, and begrudgingly embraced Russian conquest. The Diet of Finland was now to only meet whenever requested, and was never mentioned in the manifesto published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without the Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, and promised the Diet would shortly be summoned. By 1809, all of Finland had been conquered and the Diet was summoned in March. Finland was then united through Russia via the crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, giving it autonomy.

Instead of the newly acquired territory being subjected to direct rule by an imperial governor-general, a novel administrative system was established in Finland, drafted in part by the liberal Mikhail Speransky. The new grand duchy would be governed by a Government Council, later the Senate of Finland, a body made up of Finnish citizens. The governor-general would accordingly have a relatively diminished role. Further, the emperor would deal with matters relating to Finland directly through a dedicated Secretary of State, without the involvement of his Russian cabinet or administration. This laid the foundation for the considerable autonomy enjoyed by Finland for most of the period of Russian rule.

Early years
The earlier years of the grand duchy can be seen as uneventful. In 1812, the area of Old Finland (known as Viipuri Province from 1812 to 1945) was gifted to Finland. Russia had annexed this territory from Sweden in the Great Northern War and the Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743). This surprising action by the tsar was met with anger from certain parts of the Russian government and aristocracy, who wished to either return to the previous border or annex the communities west of St. Petersburg. Despite the outcry, the borders remained set until 1940. The gesture can be seen as Alexander's concern for Finland and his attempts of appeasement of the Finns, in attempts to gain their loyalty which would come from passive appeasement, compared to the vigorous Russification later in the nineteenth-century. Moreover, Alexander moved the capital from Turku to Helsinki, a small fortified town protected by Suomenlinna. Finland's main university also transferred to Helsinki after a fire broke out in Turku, destroying most of the building.

Despite promises of a Finnish Diet, the Diet was not called to meet until 1863 and many new laws going through the legislature were laws that would have required the approval of the Diet while under Swedish rule. Alexander went a step further to demand a Finnish House of Nobles, which organised in 1818. The house was designed to register all noble families in Finland so that the highest Finnish estate would be representative of the next Finnish Diet. As for Sweden, the majority did not think too much about Finland's conquest, as Sweden itself annexed Norway from Denmark in 1814 and entered a personal union with the nation. Whether or not Alexander purposely ignored the existence of the Diet is debatable, with notable factors such as the fall of Napoleon and the creation of the Holy Alliance, newfound religious mysticism of the Russian crown, and the negative experience with the Polish Sejm. Despite this, Alexander I ceased to give in to Finnish affairs and returned to governing Russia.

Alexander's death and the assimilation of Finland: 1820s–1850s

In 1823, Count Arseny Zakrevsky was made Governor-General of Finland and quickly became unpopular among both Finns and Swedes alike. Zakrevsky abolished the Committee for Finnish Affairs and managed to obtain the right to submit Finnish affairs to the Russian emperor, bypassing the Finnish Secretary of State. Two years later, Alexander I died (1 December 1825). Zakrevsky seized the opportunity to require Finland to swear an oath of fealty which would refer to the emperor as the absolute ruler of Finland – expecting that emperor would be Constantine, Alexander's next-eldest brother. However, Nicholas, younger brother of Constantine and Alexander, became emperor despite the Decembrist revolt against him in December 1825. Nicholas assured Finland's secretary of state, Robert Henrik Rehbinder, that he (Nicholas) would continue to uphold Alexander's liberal policies regarding Finland.

In 1830, Europe became a hotbed of revolution and reform as a result of the July Revolution in France. Poland, another Russian client state, saw a massive uprising against Saint Petersburg during the November Uprising of 1830–1831. Finland made no such move, as Russia had already won over Finnish loyalty. Thus, Russia continued its policies respecting Finnish autonomy and the quiet assimilation of the Finns into the empire. Zakrevsky died in 1831; Knyaz Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov succeeded him as Governor-General of Finland and continued Finnish appeasement. The appeasement of the Finns could be seen as a prototype of the later Russification, as educated Finns moved to Russia in mass, seeking jobs within the imperial government to rise within Russian imperial society. The Russian language was studied increasingly as well, with more Finns seeking to learn Russian language, politics, culture, and to assimilate into Russian society. Even though Nicholas had no intentions on doing this, his inner office, specifically Nicholas's Interior Minister, Lev Perovski (in office: 1841–1852), advocated for Count Zakrevsky's ideas and further pushed the ideas of subtle Russification during the 1840s.

However, Finland did experience a nationalistic revolution in the 1830s – one based around literature. This marked the beginning of the Fennoman movement, a nationalistic movement that would operate in Finland until its independence. In 1831, the Finnish Literature Society was founded, which formed on the basis of appreciation of the Finnish language. Finnish was not represented as language of the scholarly elite, as most printed academic works, novels, and poetry was written in either Swedish or Russian. Copying the German reading rage, Lesewut, and subsequent Swedish mania, Finland entered the reading craze by the 1830s. This fad peaked in 1835 with the publication of The Kalevala, the Finnish epic. The Kalevala's influence on Finland was massive, and strengthened Finnish nationalism and unity, despite the epic being poetry or stories about Finnish folklore. The quest for literature expanded into the 1840s and 1850s and caught the eye of the Finnish church and the Russian crown. Finnish newspapers, such as Maamiehen Ystävä (The Farmer's Friend), began publication in both urban and rural areas of Finland. However, the Swedish academic elite, the church, and the Russian government opposed Finland's literature movement. Edvard Bergenheim, Archbishop of Turku from 1850 to 1884, called for double censorship on works opposing the church and works appearing socialist or communist. The reactionary policies of the Lutheran Church convinced the also reactionary Nicholas I ((r. 1825 – 1855)) to prohibit (1850) the publishing of all Finnish works that were not religious or economic in nature, as such works would have been considered revolutionary and might encourage the Finnish majority to revolt against the church and crown. However, the censorship only fueled Finland's language strife and the Fennomanian movement.

Crimean War and 1860s–1870s

The works of Johan Snellman and other Fennoman authors combined literature and nationalism and increased the calls for language recognition and education reforms in Finland. This heightened during the Crimean War in which Finnish ports and fortresses on the Baltic Sea became subject for Allied attacks, specifically Suomenlinna and Bomarsund in Åland during the Åland War. As newspapers were printed in Swedish and Russian due to censorship, many Finns could not read about the events of the Battle of Bomarsund and the Battle of Suomenlinna. Moreover, Nicholas I died in 1855, and the new emperor, Alexander II, had already planned educational reforms in outlying territories in Russia, including Finland. Alexander II also planned to call on the Diet of the Estates once more. Under Alexander's rule, Finland experienced a period of liberalization in education, the arts, and the economy. In 1858, Finnish was made the official language of local self-government, such as provinces, where Finnish was the majority of the language spoken. However, the Finns feared that St. Petersburg would prevent the Diet from meeting on the basis that Polish and Russian citizens did not receive the same liberties and that the Diet would be eradicated. It was misinterpreted, as it only added a few extra steps to the lawmaking process; the Diet was allowed to stay.

In 1863, Alexander called the Diet and issued that the Finnish language was to be on par with Swedish and Russian in the Grand Duchy, while also passing laws regarding infrastructure and currency. Alexander came to favor the Finnish working class over the Swedish elite, due to Swedish propaganda during the Crimean War urging revolt against the Russians. Alexander also passed a law regarding language ordinance in August 1863, requiring that the Finnish language must be introduced to all public businesses within twenty years. The law was expanded in 1865 to require that state offices must serve the public in Finnish if requested. Despite this, the language laws took time to be fully implemented due to the interference of the Swedish elite, who owned most of these offices and businesses. Despite this, the education laws pushed through and the first secondary schools instructed in Finnish began in the 1870s. The power of the Diet was also expanded in 1869, as it allowed the Diet more power and the ability to initiate various legislation; the act also called the tsar to call upon the Diet every five years. An act passed regarding religion was also passed in 1869 which prevented the power of the state over the church. Moreover, Finland also received its own monetary system, the Finnish markka, and its own army. Finland's first railway line was opened between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna on March 17, 1862.

Russification
The policies of Russification under Alexander III and Nicholas II easily sum up the time period from 1881 to 1917. In 1881, Alexander III took the throne after the death of his father and began a rule of staunch conservative, yet peaceful, rule of Russia. Finland, as well as many other outlying Russian territories, faced the burden of Russification, the cultural, social, economical, and political absorption into Russia. Compared to the early Russification of the 1830s and 1840s, the Russification of the late 19th-early 20th century was much more vigorous in its policies. Moreover, Finland faced political turmoil within its nation between various factions such as liberals, Social Democrats, Young Finns, and communists. Finland became a target for the Pan-Slavist movement, which called for Slavic unity in eastern Europe. Finland was viewed as conquered territory, and that as subjects, Finland was to respect the tsar. Finland was also viewed as a land of settlement and that the "alien race" of the Finns were to be assimilated and protected from Western interference, thereby "blessing" the Finns with their presence. Moreover, Finnish representatives to the tsar were replaced with Pan-Slavist advocates.

Russification only increased from there, but from the 1880s on, the conflict between the Swedish minority halted. Compared to the Baltic States, the Finnish majority was far better educated and more keen in Russian politics. The reactionary policies of Russification, which aimed to combine secular nationalism and a divine right monarchy, infiltrated the Finnish economy in 1885. Finland had managed to create a thriving modern industry based around textiles and timber that managed to rival the Russian economy at the time. Russian bureaucrats, out of both shock and jealousy, called for the revision of the Russo-Finnish Tariff. Russification had taken an economic turn as well, as the basis of the reformed tariff was economic uniformity, which only furthered economic difficulties of Finland. The tariff's revision in 1885, and subsequently 1897, was formed out of spite of Finland's commercial success and working-class unity. Russification policies continued into 1890, with the addition of the Imperial Post System in Finland, replacing the Finnish post. It was not until the mid-1890s, that the Finnish people realized the true intentions of the Russian crown.

Nicholas II ascended to the throne in 1894 after Alexander's death, and with him came General Nikolay Bobrikov, who was appointed governor-general. Under Bobrikov, the Finns had a near collective hatred of him, whose reactionary policies gave rise to socialism and communism among the Finnish working class. The Party of Active Resistance and Kagal, in particular, became very popular in Finland for the former's tactics of violence and the latter's tactic of propaganda and persuasion. At the beginning of this reign, Bobrikov almost immediately introduced a mandatory five-year military service, in which Finns had the possibility of being drafted into Russian units. Furthermore, he instituted that Russians be given the opportunity to serve in public office and that Russian be made the administrative language of Finland. In 1899, the February Manifesto under Nicholas II declared that Russian law was the law of the land, and Finland was to pledge allegiance to Russian law. The Diet was essentially downgraded to a state assembly and that Finland was a province of Russia, ignoring its autonomy. The Finnish Army as a whole was dissolved in 1901.

Bobrikov unintentionally united both Finns and Swedes against Russia, which only angered him more. With churches refusing to proclaim the law, judges refusing to carry it out, and conscripts refusing service, Bobrikov went on a frenzy with the current state of Finland. Bobrikov found little support in Finland, mainly from the Russian minority and members of the Old Finnish Party. Bobrikov brought in Russian officials to take government and state spots and, in an extreme act of anger, suspended the Finnish Constitution in 1903. His actions were met with extreme anger from Finns and Swedes, in which the moderate parties, the Young Finns and the Swedish Party combined to collectively fight Bobrikov. The Social Democratic Party of Finland, a Marxist party popular among peasants was also extremely hostile and advocated class warfare and took arms, in contrast to the Social Democrats elsewhere in Europe. Finally, the Party of Active Resistance, a nationalist party that advocated an armed struggle and guerilla tactics, received fame when member Eugen Schauman assassinated Bobrikov in Helsinki on 16 June 1904.

In 1905, Russia faced a humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and amidst the turmoil in St. Petersburg, Finns remade their constitution and formed a new parliament whose representation was based on universal suffrage, giving women full suffrage before any other European nation after the short-lived Republic of Corsica. However, the parliament was quickly destroyed by Pyotr Stolypin, Nicholas II's prime minister. Stolypin proved to be even more vigorous than Bobrikov, as he believed every subject should be a stoic patriot to the crown and uphold undying loyalty to Russia. Stolypin wished to destroy Finland's autonomy and disregarded native tongues and cultures of non-Russian subjects, believing them to be traditional and ritualistic at best. The Finnish parliament once again formed to combat Stolypin, but Stolypin was bent on quashing Finnish insurrection and permanently disbanded the parliament in 1909. As with Bobrikov before him, Stolypin was unaware that such actions only fanned the flames and was subsequently assassinated by Dmitry Bogrov, a Jewish member of the far-left. From Stolypin's death henceforward, the Russian crown ruled Finland as a monarchist dictatorship until Russia's collapse during the Russian Revolution, from which Finland declared independence, a war of independence that soon transformed into a civil war.

Government and politics
The Russian emperor ruled as the Grand Duke of Finland and was represented in Finland by the Governor-General. The Senate of Finland was the highest governing body of the Grand Duchy and was composed of native Finns. In St. Petersburg Finnish matters were represented by the Minister–Secretary of State for Finland. The Senate had a primarily advisory role until it got the right to representation in 1886. On top of having its own central, regional and local administration, Finland had its own stamps, currency and army. Alexander I did not want the Grand Duchy to be a constitutional monarchy but the governmental institutions born during the Swedish rule offered him a more efficient form of government than the absolute monarchy in Russia. This evolved into a high level of autonomy by the end of the 19th century. There were a total of twenty Governors-General from the Finnish War until independence:

 * General Count Göran Magnus Sprengtporten 1808–1809
 * General Knyaz Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly 1809–1810
 * General Count Fabian Steinheil 1810–1823
 * Count Gustav Mauritz Armfelt 1812–1813
 * General Count Arseny Zakrevsky 1823–1831
 * Admiral Aleksander Menshikov 1831–1855
 * General Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert Graf von Berg 1855–1861
 * General Baron Platon Rokassovsky 1854–1855, 1861–1866
 * General Johan Mauritz Nordenstam 1861, 1864, 1868, 1870, 1872–1873
 * General Count Nikolai Adlerberg 1866–1881
 * General Count Fyodor Logginovich van Heiden 1881–1897
 * General-Lieutenant Stepan Goncharov 1897–1898
 * General Nikolai Bobrikov 1898–1904
 * General-Lieutenant Knyaz Ivan Obolenski 1904–1905
 * Privy Councillor Nikolai Gerard 1905–1908
 * General Vladimir von Boeckmann 1908–1909
 * General-Lieutenant Franz Albert Seyn 1909–1917
 * Privy Councilor Adam Lipski 1917
 * Mikhail Stakhovich 1917
 * Nikolai Nekrasov 1917

Provinces
The administrative division of the Grand Duchy followed the Russian imperial model with provinces (губерния governorate, län, lääni) headed by governors. Few changes were made however, and as the language of the administrators was still Swedish the old terminology from the Swedish time continued in local use. The Viipuri Province was not initially part of the Grand Duchy, but in 1812 it was transferred by Tsar Alexander I from Russia proper to Finland. After 1831 there were eight provinces in the Grand Duchy until the end and that continued in the independent Finland:

 * Turku and Pori Province (Або-Бьернеборгская губерния, Åbo och Björneborgs län, Turun ja Porin lääni)
 * Kuopio Province (Куопиоская губерния, Kuopio län, Kuopion lääni)
 * Vaasa Province (Николайстадская губерния, Vasa län, Vaasan lääni)
 * Uusimaa Province (Нюландская губерния, Nylands län, Uudenmaan lääni)
 * Mikkeli Province (Санкт-Михельская губерния, S:t Michels län, Mikkelin lääni)
 * Häme Province (Тавастгусская губерния, Tavastehus län, Hämeen lääni)
 * Oulu Province (Улеаборгская губерния, Uleåborgs län, Oulun lääni)
 * Viipuri Province (Выборгская губерния, Viborgs län, Viipurin lääni)

Flags
The Grand Duchy of Finland had no official flag of its own, but different types of flags were used in different occasions. An official flag was debated even in the Diet of Finland in the 1860s, but one was never officially chosen. The flag of Russia was Finland's official flag until independence.

An official maritime flag was chosen in 1812 for governmental use. It was a white flag, with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a compass rose in the middle. In 1883 it was replaced with a blue cross flag with the compass rose in the upper corner. A post flag (a white flag with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a post horn in the middle) was also used in the Grand Duchy, along with a customs flag (a blue flag, with the Russian flag on the upper corner and the logo of the customs agency in the middle).

Originally, there were no regulations regarding merchant flags until 3 October 1821, when Finnish ships were given the right to fly the Russian flag without permission. White, blue and red flags with the Russian flag in the corner were also used. Later on six and nine-striped flags with the colors of the Russian flag twice or thrice saw some use.

A blue cross flag similar to that of the modern flag of Finland was first used by the yacht club Nyländska Jaktklubben in 1861, equipped with the coat of arms of Uusimaa in the upper corner. It was inspired by the similar flag used by the Neva Yacht Club. The flag of the yacht club was made official by the Senate in 1890 when the Swedish-speaking Östra Nylands Segelförening adopted the Flag of Sweden.

At the end of the 19th century, flags with the coat of arms were used in unofficial contexts such as private estates and protests. In official contexts, the Russian white-blue-red tricolour was primarily used.

The Grand Duchy of Finland participated in the 1912 Summer Olympics with their own team. In the opening ceremony, the Finnish team marched behind the Russian team with a Finland-sign. In the medal ceremonies, the Russian flag above a white-blue pennant reading "Finland" was raised for the Finnish athletes.

Historical population of the Grand Duchy

 * 1810: 863,000
 * 1830: 1,372,000
 * 1850: 1,637,000
 * 1870: 1,769,000
 * 1890: 2,380,000
 * 1910: 2,943,000
 * 1920: 3,148,000 (independent Finland, since 1917)

title: Grand Duchy of Finland


text:
User:Steve pinkston

Contact: steve_pinkston@yahoo.com

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Steve pinkston


text:
Talk:MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Note
On the Temp page, I have reverted to the last uninfringed information by Michael Hardy, all edits after are by 129.55.200.20 and infringed and I believe was taken from the MIT Lincoln Labs history page on their site, without their knowledge and attempt to contact the lab on if they would agree to allow the history to be put on this page, However, he never written a summary and I have not found any proof that he took it from their website with their consent. --Saint-Paddy 22:56, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

Name
Lincoln Laboratory (or "Lincoln Lab", never "Lincoln Labs") gets its name from Project Lincoln, which was named after the nearby town of Lincoln, Massachusetts. There is no connection to the American President of the same name. If other editors add the "... named after American Presidents" category, please delete it.

The name "Project Lincoln" was chosen because the Laboratory sits near the towns of Bedford, Lexington, and Lincoln, and the names "Project Lexington" and "Project Bedford" were already taken.

After writing this, I've decided to add it to the article... 129.55.200.20 13:49, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Location
Fixing the article; Lincoln Lab is at Hanscom Air Force Base, not Hanscom Field.

Mlvezie 02:04, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Organization
Still seems a little short, especially under the organization section. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.9.90.161 (talk) 16:04, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

Name
Should this article be renamed to MIT Lincoln Laboratory (adding MIT)? The official name on their site has all three words. Nasa-verve (talk) 22:04, 15 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Done--FeralOink (talk) 12:27, 6 December 2023 (UTC)

External links modified
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FX-1 test computer
Built after TX-2.

THE FX-1 COMPUTER AT LINCOLN LABORATORY - 196110.pdf, pp. 1B-8B (in reader: 9-16) --89.25.210.104 (talk) 21:19, 9 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:MIT Lincoln Laboratory


text:
National Credit Control

John Bernard Ball ran as a National Credit Control candidate in the federal 1957 federal election in Canada in the riding of Regina City in Saskatchewan. He won 122 of the 40,813 votes cast (0.3% of the popular vote).

Ball ran to promote "National Credit Control", a "universal monetary system" that he developed which was similar to social credit.

"National Credit Control" would introduce a credit card system of currency, and nationalize the investment capital of the country. Government would be divorced from industry, and become the central accounting agency for the economy, controlling the master balance sheet of industry. In doing so, all industrial debt would be eliminated, and the government would be placed on a cash basis, without borrowing from its citizens.

The NCC system would guarantee industry against bankruptcy, and abolish unemployment insurance in favour of a full work schedule for all workers. Farmers would be guaranteed the same wages as urban management, and seasonal calamity on farms would be "written off in the nation's accounting system".

NCC would bypass local taxation and abolish taxes on land and buildings. NCC would also abolish taxes on industry, which would be forced to operate at the "labour cost of investment" without profits. Industrial profits would be transferred to the tax assessment. The only taxes in an NCC system would be a consumer sales tax on goods and services. Urban, rural and provincial governments would not raise their own taxes: they would be funded by grants from the federal government. Public works would be tendered to private industry, instead of being undertaken by the government.

Capital goods would be sold to industry on a "lease-rental-depreciation" plan of repayment to perpetuate employment. Profits arising from the rental of buildings would be abolished in the accounting system of private enterprise.

title: National Credit Control


text:
User:Sexyfoxboy

Philippe Toscan du Plantier never existed - ditto Henri Lobineau.....(both being Plantard pseudonyms)

title: User:Sexyfoxboy


text:
Talk:Threshold pledge system

Earlier discussion
I'm not an expert and I might be slightly wrong, but haven't some of the most highly regarded works of art been sold in a way very similar to the SPP in 18th and 19th century? Mozart and Beethoven, among other composers, used subcriptions to premiere concerts and/or first print editions of their works. This meant (unlike in today's meaning of subscription) that a fixed number of people had to sign up and pay some amount before the concert could take place / the printing press started. Right now I don't have a reference handy and can only offer a quote from this (result of a quick google) to clarify what I'm talking about:

 * these three (piano) concertos K413-415 (...) formed an important milestone in his career, being the first in the series of great concertos that he wrote for Vienna, and the first to be published in a printed edition. Initially, however, he followed the usual practice of making them available in manuscript copies. Mozart advertised for subscribers in January 1783: "These three concertos, which can be performed with full orchestra including wind instruments, or only a quattro, that is with 2 violins, 1 viola and violoncello, will be available at the beginning of April to those who have subscribed for them (beautifully copied, and supervised by the composer himself)." Six months later, Mozart complained that it was taking a long time to secure enough subscribers. This was despite the fact that he had meanwhile scored a great success on two fronts:....

I think this fact merits a mention in the History of the Street Performer Protocol section. regards, High on a tree 23:04, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

or see this example, a record label in the 1930s: ''...before manufacturing, they showed title lists in the store and ask clients who were interested to sign an order. Only after a certain amount of signatures (maybe 200), the record was pressed and delivered.'' (doesn't explain if one had to pay when signing or later, though.) I'll edit the history section some day to include description of such examples, which are important for showing that schemes similar to the spp have worked historically. regards, High on a tree 14:53, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

This historical stuff should definiately be included. It may do it myself in the next few days. matturn 14:20, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

Merger proposal

 * I'll second that. I'm also pro merging the page on Ransom publishing model into this page. Better make one quality article than several hangers. --MortenB 23:51, 1 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Mrm, I'm not so sure. There are important differences between these systems.  I don't think understanding is well-served by merging them together as if they were variants on the same thing; they're not, really.  --Karl Fogel 01:25, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

There are a couple of important differences between the traditional subscription model and fund-and-release, though. The most important difference is the "release" part -- the subscribers would be among the first to get access, and would do so with the understanding that the work would likely always be a "rare" good; thus there was some status in owning a copy, as well as in having supported the work's creation. With fund-and-release, you're paying solely to cause the work to exist (and perhaps for the prestige of having been one of the patrons -- the artist may well mention you in the credits); the expectation is that there will be an infinite number of copies, i.e., as many as needed. Another difference is that the subscriptions were usually at a set price (though some wealthy subscribers may have sometimes given more, in order to be a patron), whereas with fund-and-release, each funder chooses how much they want to pay. So while I think it makes sense for these articles to link to each other, they shouldn't be merged: they're distinct systems. --Karl Fogel 02:55, 9 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Hi. The merger proposal seems to be linked backwards. I assume that the very stubby Fund and release would be merged into the more robust and fully developed Street Performer Protocol article. Essentially F&R sounds like a variation on the much older theme of SPP, thus it would make a good section within SPP under the section called Variations. I see that Ransom publishing model was already changed into a redirect to this article. If that's truly distinct from SPP, then it should be broken out into another sub-section under Variations. Rational Street Performer Protocol and the Wall Street Performer Protocol could also be expanded rather than just linking off-site. In short, it seems that the article with the greatest length, the most history, and the one from which all the other variations on a theme should be the surviving article. -- Will scrlt ( →“¡¿Talk?!” ) [edited 06:35, 21 April 2009 (UTC)]

Move to Threshold pledge system?
Street Performer Protocol → threshold pledge — Completing malformed request by User:Classicalecon--Aervanath (talk) 19:21, 15 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Street Performer Protocol →  — Threshold pledge is a broader term which SPP falls under, not the other way around. —

Why was Fund and Release redirected to Threshold Pledge? The terms are completely synonymous; I'm just unable to tell from the above sequence why the redirection is being done that way instead of the other way. --Karl Fogel 00:02, 12 September 2009 (UTC)

micropledge.com
I've removed this site because I know from a personal communication that it is shut down and works as a demo. --Beroal (talk) 03:12, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

History of the idea
"Street Performer Protocol is the origin of the threshold pledge system." This is false. It was discussed in experimental economics literature in the late eighties at the very least (do a Google books search for "provision point mechanism"). Alex Tabarrok's innovation, the "Dominant assurance contract", is also not original, it appears in these very same papers.

This idea has been reinvented many, many times. As far as I can see, John Pratt (the founder of fundable.org, the first website offering a Threshold Pledge system) and Perry Chen (founder of Kickstarter) were also unaware of each other, or any previous incarnation of their idea.

I'd correct it, but I'm not going to get into another wikipedia dispute over "original research". I'll just post this here and leave it to someone willing to engage this dysfunctional community ;) 176.75.193.29 (talk) 21:12, 28 May 2012 (UTC)

How is this in any way different from crowdfunding?
If there is a difference between a threshold pledge system and conditional crowdfunding, perhaps that should be more clearly stated in the article. I understand it's older, yes, but it's not very clear if there is any other difference.Brinerustle (talk) 21:06, 31 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Threshold pledge system


text:
Talk:Sepp Dietrich

Untitled
Cornel general (Generaloberst, Oberstgruppenführer) was higher than Obergruppenführer (General). The normal general ranks (without the field marshal) were then: Generalmajor (Brigadeführer, US brigadier general), Generalleutnant (Gruppenführer, US major general), General (Obergruppenführer, US lieutenant general), Generaloberst (Oberstgruppenführer, US general).

Sure that it's Joseph, not Josef? Difficult to say, Josef is more common, but it may really be that he was registered as Joseph at birth.

---

Hello,

I doubt that S.D. had anything to do with the s.c. spartacus uprising in Berlin (~January, 1919). It seems quite clear that he was in bavaria all the time; suppose there is mixing up with the putting down of the red Munich Raete Republic in which he participated with the Freikorps Oberland (April/May, 1919), as some sources say. Thanks, WernerE - 09.2.05 -- Just wondering, but does anyone know the source of the pictures? --203.17.44.84 09:01, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

- Who was second in command of the SS? Was it Dietrich?
 * There is a very similar photo of Sepp Dietrich (same outfit, but without the teeth-showing smile) on the cover of a paperback book due out on 19 October 2005, according to amazon.com. Bibliographic entry: Messenger, Charles. Hitler's Gladiator: The Life and Wars of Panzer Army Commander Sepp Dietrich. No location: Conway Maritime Press, 2005; paperback; 264 pages. P.S.: For what it might be worth, I wrote my Master's Thesis on the early career of Sepp Dietrich back in 1977. DonBruce 14:08, 12 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I would assume it was Karl Hanke, who succeeded Himmler as Reichsfuhrer-SS during the final days of the war. Being that Dietrich was Waffen-SS and showed little of the "qualities" of the likes of Himmler, Heydrich, et al., I doubt he would have been been considered for that position in any case. user:Jsc1973

POV
Anyone reading this article without knowing Sepp's career will think that he was a normal military man, and not the ruthless and murderous thug who he actually was. I still don't know if I should laugh or if should cry. A real tragedy he didn't fall in Soviet hands.

 * Cry.--217.230.254.116 23:03, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

WOW! What an astute comment. Ruthless murderous thug? Try reading a book, it might give you some insight onto the actions on both sides, especially during the US advancement through France. There were atrocities on both sides. And any commentator who has read the transcripts and the evidence during his "war crimes" trial will see that it was a complete miscarriage of justice. Even in the US at the time there is evidence to support this. The only murder he could be found complicit with would have been the deaths of the SA men killed while he was commanding the men at the prison. He did act on orders to kill them, and as such was found guilty at his trial after being released from prison the first time.

69.143.8.152

 * Nonsense...Dietrich was an early and ardent Nazi...Ok, so some on the Allied side committed 'atrocities'? That in no way mitigates the German side...Now, I'm not saying he was a "ruthless and murderous thug" as posted above - but he sure wasn't a "normal military man" either ! Engr105th 04:15, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

This is, indeed, so much nonsense! Dietrich's 6th murdered and raped its way through Belgium, killing numerous Belgiums and US POWs in their wake. Steven Zaloga's work (IIRC Max Hastings' too) on the Battle of the Bulge concluded that the killing of POWs and civies was a conscious terrorist strategy to demoralize the US army. Allied 'atrocities' would have been unsusprising. If the Americans were so atrocious, then perhaps Dietrich shoudl surrender to the Russians. -Jonathan Chin —Preceding unsigned comment added by 125.225.71.130 (talk) 05:54, 1 August 2008 (UTC)

Photo
Under the first photo it is written that he is gruppenfuhrer in that photo. But this is clearly wrong because in this photo he is obergruppenfuhrer.

Generalship
For an entry of a military man, the article on Sepp Dietrich's merits or weakneses as a commander is too sparse. Using one recommandation to encapsulate his military performance seems somehow inadequate; there are many military historians who considered him the archetypical political officer who owned his rise through the ranks to being Hitler's favorite instead of military abilities. Again, Max Hating and S. Zaloga's criticism of Dietrich is unsparing. A contempory German General gave him a back-handed compliment of being "a magnificient sargeant." While those are not necessarily true, a more throughly evaluation of Dietrich's competence, such as one that exists for Rommel, Model and Guderian, is warranted here. -Jonathan Chin —Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.109.140.134 (talk) 06:44, 15 September 2008 (UTC)

References & Further reading
This section lists an unlikely title in German: Hitler, Adolf. Adolf Hitler und seine Kämpfer. U.S. Library of Congress's on line catalogue doesn't list this title, nor does it show a similar title by Hitler. The Austrian parliamentary library catalog lists the title but no author: Identification 	 	( Parl ) Level of description 		Komplett abgeschlossene Titelaufnahme Title 		Adolf Hitler und seine Kämpfer '''Addit. title information''' 		288 Braunhemden im Reichstag ; die Nationalsozialistische Reichstagsfraktion VIII. Wahlperiode, 5.März 1933 ; mit Abb. und Personalangaben der Mitglieder Language 		Deutsch Publisher 		München : Eher, 1933 No. of Holding(s) 		1 Holding(s) 		Sign.: 21.996 * Sto: K1 Page(s) 		240 S. : Ill. - 16 cm Research unit(s) 		63a // 71z // 80b Classification (FDC) 		L03 ( Geschichte, Rechtsgeschichte ) // B07 ( Parlamentarismus ) // L02 ( Biographien, Festschriften ) Keywords 		c.Deutschland / Reichstag;k.Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei;s.Abgeordneter;f.Biographie

Roughly transklated: Adolf Hitler and his fighters: 288 brownshirts in the Reichstag, the national socialist legislative group VIII. Election 5 March 1933; with ??? and personal information of the members --AndersW (talk) 06:51, 30 December 2008 (UTC)

Idiot?
I was just channel hopping, and came into a documentary which said a few things about this guy. According to the documentary, his men loved him but fellow officers thought he was a fricken moron. Some examples given were an officer trying to use a map to explain the situation for over an hour, without him able to grasp the situation, and his inability to really understand orders. It also said he had a personality that his soldiers likes. Seems a bit contradictary to me maybe, but it's what it said. Anyone know anything else about this? -OOPSIE- (talk) 01:57, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

Promoted twice to same rank?
The following does not make sense:

 * He rose to the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer, commander of Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, General of the Waffen-SS and member of the Prussian state council.

Shortly thereafter, he was promoted to SS Obergruppenführer.
 * In 1934, Dietrich played an active role in the Night of the Long Knives.

Tabletop (talk) 01:07, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

Two reasons for his death?
There is two conflicting reasons for Dietrichs death:

 * Dietrich was sentenced to death in absentia by a Soviet court in connection with war crimes committed by Leibstandarte in Kharkov in 1943.

 * In 1966 Dietrich died of a heart attack in Ludwigsburg at age 73.

I can't seem to find references to verify which is correct, does anyone know?

 Fallschirmjäger 20:27, 4 October 2009 (UTC)

 * The 1966 answer is correct. Presumably he was sentenced to death, however the Soviets never got their hands on him.Dduff442 (talk) 11:02, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

Inadequate Lede
''Josef "Sepp" Dietrich (May 28, 1892 – April 21, 1966) was a German Waffen-SS general, an SS-Oberstgruppenführer, and one of the men closest to Adolf Hitler. For his wartime services, he was one of only 27 men to be awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds.''

-- This is a completely inadequate summary the life in question. Dietrich was a murderer, major war criminal and a participant in the night of the long knives. That he was one of 'only' 27 RK/swords/diamonds winners is no major news. This award was earned by ordering ideological maniacs to certain death. As a corps and army commander, Dietrich would only seldom have been near the front lines.

He was imprisoned in the 60s for murders during the SA purge. I don't think the Bundesrepublik esteemed his 'service'.

I intend to radically re-write this section, so comments are welcome now. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dduff442 (talk • contribs) 00:14, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

 * As there are no references in the article as it stands, I'm going to just write a new lede by taking stuff from the main body.Dduff442 (talk) 11:02, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

'Recommendations' section
I've no idea of the meaning of this section: ''Outstanding in the defence, especially on the return path to Riga. Refer to the Georgian Staff Corps''. Will delete unless it's clarified. Would improve only I really don't understand what's attempted to be stated.Dduff442 (talk) 13:54, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

Krätschmer biography not reliable
"qualified hotelier", "packmaster", "paymaster sergeant", flattery and prettying up - Krätschmer is not reliably at all (Devotional literature, notorious publisher). Dietrich was brought up by stepfather, joined bav. 4. Artillery in Augsburg voluntarily at age of 19, but had to leave shortly after. In WW I he was never promoted to Vizewachtmeister, and the EK I he awarded himself after the war. What bavarian military records allow to state is that he was promoted Gefreiter in 1917 and awarded the EK II in December 1917, and was member of ''bayerische Sturm-Panzer-Wagen-Abt. 13'' in 1918 (see: Bayerisches Kriegsarchiv, Kriegsstammrollen at ancestry.de) --93.104.179.253 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 10:52, 5 September 2013 (UTC)

Requested move 10 April 2015

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Moved. EdJohnston (talk) 15:05, 4 May 2015 (UTC)

Josef Dietrich → Sepp Dietrich – Per WP:COMMONNAME. Known almost exclusively as Sepp Dietrich or, more formally, as Josef "Sepp" Dietrich (a form that we almost never use for article titles). Almost never referred to simply as Josef Dietrich. -- Relisted. Favonian (talk) 18:36, 17 April 2015 (UTC). Necrothesp (talk) 08:12, 10 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Support per nom -- 65.94.43.89 (talk) 05:57, 18 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Support. "Sepp" does indeed appear to be the WP:COMMONNAME, witness for instance this ngram. Favonian (talk) 12:23, 27 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Support to the extent that I don't even understand why this article would ever have been at Josef. Peacemaker67 (crack... thump) 08:54, 28 April 2015 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Assessment section
This section does not match the encyclopedic style of the rest of the article, both in style and rigor; there are no sources and the information provided is vague. For example,

Dietrich's formal military education was sparse and many critics have said command of an army was beyond his competence. Many of the German army generals looked down upon him in this regard, especially members of the General Staff. However, Dietrich was an acknowledged expert small-unit tactician and no one questioned his personal bravery since he was a lead-from-the-front type of commander. The troops that he led appreciated his rough humor and identification with the soldiers on the front lines. Dietrich was also smart enough to appoint highly capable officers to his staff to handle the technical aspects of higher command, leaving him free to exercise overall command.

I'd like to have it removed. Throughts?--K.e.coffman (talk) 07:14, 21 November 2015 (UTC)

 * I went ahead and removed this sections. Please let me know if there are concerns about this. K.e.coffman (talk) 18:10, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Sentenced in absentia
Does anyone has a sourced for this statement?
 * Dietrich was sentenced to death in absentia by a Soviet court in connection with war crimes committed by Leibstandarte in Kharkov in 1943.

The only thing I'm finding is that the Soviets chose not to seek his extradition for crimes in Kharkov (per The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security, 1939-1953 by Michael Parrish). From this, I'm reading that Dietrich was not convicted, since a country normally seeks extradition so that they can put the alleged perpetrator on trial, correct?

There was indeed a trial in Kharkov (also discussed in The Lesser Terror but only small fry were convicted: a low-ranking SS man and a couple of collaborators, IIRC. K.e.coffman (talk) 04:57, 8 January 2016 (UTC)

Recent lead and infobox edit
Preserving here by providing this link; my rationale was: "Exp lead with material from the article; revise / streamline infobox; overcat". --K.e.coffman (talk) 01:13, 5 December 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sepp Dietrich


text:
User talk:PolishPoliticians

Hi, Please don't create articles with Polish diacritics in their titles. In English Wikipedia all articles titles must be in ISO-8859-1. See Lech Walesa as an example. You should move Lech Kaczy& into Lech Kaczynski, and use form Kaczyński in the article form itself. Note that ó is an exception as it appears in ISO-8859-1, thus Józef Oleksy works OK. Jeśli masz jakieś pytania nie krępuj się. Przepla 23:08, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Hi. It's me again. I changed L. Kaczynski's photos on all pages. The one you uploaded is very propably copyright violation. Fortunately, the for the media photo is available so please use this one instead. Przepla 22:29, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

Szczecin
Hello, (again). I am very unhappy with changes you have made in the History of Szczecin article. Changing all names from English to Polish (Odra river is a redirect to Oder River, duplicated links, etc. I am reverting to previous version from Szczecin. BTW. Are you the same user as User:Szczecin? Przepla 12:09, 3 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Hevelius
Listen pal, have you at least tried to read the discussion about Hevelius? There was long revert war about this article and few others and we finally came to compromise. I am Pole myself and i don't particularly like it, but we have made it so we shoudl stick to it!!! Szopen 07:33, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Hi,

Can you have a look into the articles edited by User:Irredenta: Vilnius, Gabriel Fahrenheit, Johann Reinhold Forster, Georg Forster. Regards.Yeti 10:27, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Linki
Od jakiegoś czasu dodajesz masowo linki do artykułów o miastach. A to do polityków, a to do uczelni. Nie mnie wnikać czy są to informacje istotne. Mógłbyś się jednak postarać i nie robić linków nie działających. Na przykład wiele uczelni ma już swoje strony. Angielska Wiki nie obsługuje jednak polskich znaków i linki zapisane z nimi działać nie będą. Mógłbyś to poprawić? Halibutt 02:03, Jul 16, 2004 (UTC)

 * Dzięki za Twoje uwagi na temat polskich uczelni. Mój plan polega na tym aby dodać listę polskich uczelni wyższych, na podstawie oficjalnego spisu MEN, do stron angielskich i polskich. Drugim krokiem będzie przetłumacznie nazw polskich na angielski. PolishPoliticians 02:18, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * W przypadku większych miast nie obędzie się chyba bez osobnej podstrony albo chociaż tabelki, bo lista kilkudziesięciu uczelni niepublicznych, z których żadna pewnie nie ma własnego artykułu na wiki, zajęłaby za dużo miejsca. Zobacz jak rozwiązałem całą sprawę na stronie Warsaw. Może być? Halibutt 14:29, Jul 16, 2004 (UTC)

 * Pełna akceptacja dla Education in Warsaw

 * No to świetnie! Halibutt 02:35, Jul 17, 2004 (UTC)

Personal insults
Can you watch the personal insults in edit summaries in articles like Gdansk? Calling others Nazis is not acceptable. Pakaran. 01:21, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

In my opinion the Nazis should be called the Nazis. The problem is some editors spread the Neo-Nazi ideas in Wikipedia, and they should be stopped somehow. The example is profanating Polish cities with the Nazi names, another example is calling the Nazi atrocities during WWII, the legal action of the legal German government. The Nazi atrocities should be called Nazi atrocities, people speading Nazi propaganda should be called the Nazis, don't you agree??? PolishPoliticians 01:32, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Your editing someone's user page and slapping the Neo-nazi label on them is out of line. . 147.8.224.157 01:38, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Also, placing additions on others' user pages calling them Neo-Nazis is NOT acceptable. If this continues you're very likely to be taken to the arbitration committee. Pakaran. 01:33, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Dont call people Nazis. See Godwin's Law. -SV 02:28, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Szczecin (yet another consensus proposition)
Co myślisz, o umieszczeniu w nagłówku takiego zdania: formerly referenced in English by it's German name Stettin? Jeśli wyrażasz zgodę, napisz na Talk:Szczecin. Przepla 09:42, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Naming issues
I have made a proposition in Talk:Gdansk/Naming convention. In short, it's sing most controversial names when first name appears in artcile and making a msg saying that the names are controversial and pointing to article explaining why. Please, contribute your opinion.Szopen 10:53, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

English and Nazi city names
Gdansk, Elblag and Torun are NOT English names. The English names are the same as the German names, and they are NOT Nazi names. RickK 23:39, Jul 21, 2004 (UTC)

Please see for example www.gdansk.pl, www.elblag.pl and www.torun.pl to see that the cities's authorities use these names (Gdańsk, Elbląg, Toruń) in their ENGLISH language subpages, so this means that they think they are the English names of the cities. In all English language publications I have seen these names are used. The German names are rarely mentioned, but always as German names (nothing more). The German people did much hurm to the Polish people during WWII. Since that time the German names are considered to be extremly offensive (like painting the Nazi swastikas on Jewish graves. Please be informed and try to understand. Thank you. PolishPoliticians 23:47, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Just because people in Poland use these names in English-language websites doesn't mean that English speaking people use these names. Those are Polish people speaking English. English speaking people say Danzia, Elbing and Thorn. RickK 23:49, Jul 21, 2004 (UTC)

All native English people I know speak and write Gdansk, Elblag and Torun. At least as soon as they are informed the Nazi names are offensive. PolishPoliticians 23:53, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Since those names were known long before anybody every heard of National Socialism, to refer to them as Nazi names is offensive. And guess what? Now you've met a native English speaker who doesn't think they're offensive, but does think that your characterizations of them as Nazi is offensive. RickK 04:07, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

The Swastika symbol was also known long before the Nazis, and today it is considered offensive in certain situations, don't you agree?

 * Yes, the Nazis liked certain city names. They also liked blonde hair and Protestants.  This does not make Hillary Clinton a Nazi symbol.  Pakaran. 04:31, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Blondes are not offensive, swastika and Danzig is offesive - that's the difference. PolishPoliticians 04:34, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Vladislaus I of Poland
Stop moving things without discussion. You are trying to turn the English Wikipedia into the Polish Wikipedia. Why don't you go work on the Polish Wikipedia and quit your POV edits? RickK 05:22, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

He ings' ame ere ladislaus (n atin ersion) nd ładysław (n olish ersion). on't ee hy e hould rop he irst etter rom he ing's ame.

The kings' name were Vladislaus (in Latin version) and Władysław (in Polish version). I don't see why we should drop the first letter from the king's name. PolishPoliticians 05:25, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Because, as you seem not to have grasped, this is the English Wikipedia, and the names you are moving them to are not the names as they are known in English. 05:27, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

As a matter of fact I've never heard the Vladislaus version in any language. Perhaps you were referring to Romanian name Vlad? Halibutt 06:04, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

Moving Ladislaus II to Vladisluas in English Wikipedia is like moving El& to Elizabeth I in Polish Wikipiedia with arguments: that Elizabeth never had ż in her name, and you don't see reason for insertion such strange characters into it. Please, try acknowledge that English names differs from Polish. Przepla 09:22, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Naming wars
Since you were either directly or indirectly once involved into edits revolving around "proper" naming of cities like Gdansk/Danzig etc i thought you may be interested in my proposition in User:Szopen/NamingWar. I would want to create a way aimed at stopping the revert wars in future - through creating something like a msg (in see also list or header) explaining that's there is compromise and why, and by linking to the article explaining changes of the statuses of the Royal Prussia province (I would prefer it ot have it as separate article, not scatter it in plethora other articles). I would be happy to hear from you. Szopen 09:16, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Arbitration result
See requests for arbitration. You have been placed under personal attack parole, due to your use of personal attacks in the past. If you make personal attacks in the future, administrators may, at their judgement, ban you from editing Wikipedia for 24 hours. Martin 21:22, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 1000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Sock Puppets and Cliques
Hi, I'm just trying to figure if there is any way to identify sock puppets. The assumption seems to be that puppets only do small numbers of edits.

Last Apr/May while Wik & John_Kenney where edit warring the West Papua articles to dumb down Melanesians in the articles; I found where John was instructing Wik on how to prevent Tannin or myself from editing the pages. Upon checking their Wikipedia activity at the time I got the impression they were both pro-Palestine in Israel articles, and pro-Indonesian government in West Papua articles - or in other terms anti-jewish and & anti-Melanesian (black). It looked to me that they had formed a very small clique to enforce their POV though John was intelligent enough to be careful how he did this, but he did also jump to Wik's defence.

A few weeks ago upon my return to the West Papua page, John starts reverting again, then Gzornenplatz waged in just like Wik use to. Later, when John was lossing ground in the discussion page & Jmarbel was not accepting his POV, suddenly this OneGuy jumped in to break up that discussion and get it back under John's control.

To me OneGuy sounded like John when he's upset, then I checked their contribution lists and it looked more like someone who sometimes switched between two accounts. For a new user, OneGuy seems very active just like John was last year. So is OneGuy John's sock puppet? And dare one mention it?

John's activity last year was typically 1600 edits/ month (1100 to 2400); it will be interesting to see if John & OneGuy can both maintain their levels at the same time. But how can one show proof of a sock puppet if the puppeteer is intelligent ?--Daeron 04:36, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC)

BTW: I notice OneGuy is defending Gzornenplatz, just like John use to defend Wik. But how to know who is who ?--Daeron 04:36, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC)

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Unreferenced BLPs
Hello PolishPoliticians! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 3 of the articles that you created  are tagged as Unreferenced Biographies of Living Persons. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring these articles up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the articles are adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the list:

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ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:PolishPoliticians


text:
WBNS-TV

WBNS-TV (channel 10) is a television station in Columbus, Ohio, United States, affiliated with CBS. It is owned by Tegna Inc. alongside the company's sole radio properties, WBNS (1460 AM) and WBNS-FM (97.1). The stations share studios on Twin Rivers Drive west of Downtown Columbus, where WBNS-TV's transmitter is also located.

WBNS-TV also serves as the CBS affiliate of record for the nearby Zanesville, Ohio, market.

Before its purchase in August 2019 by Tegna, WBNS-TV was the flagship station of founding owner Dispatch Broadcast Group, whose operations also included WTHR, the NBC affiliate in Indianapolis, and WALV-CD, Indianapolis' MeTV outlet and an alternate NBC affiliate; all of Dispatch's stations are now with Tegna.

Until 1995
WBNS-TV began operations on October 15, 1949. WBNS radio had been a CBS Radio Network affiliate for almost 20 years, so Channel 10 immediately joined the CBS television network. It is currently the ninth longest-tenured CBS affiliate. Channel 10 has used the on-air branding of 10TV since 1977. It is also one of only a few stations in the country to have had the same call letters and primary network affiliation throughout its history.

The WBNS call letters stand for "Wolfe Bank Newspaper and Shoes", the businesses owned by the company's longtime owners, the Wolfe family. Channel 10 maintained common ownership with The Columbus Dispatch, the city's lone remaining daily newspaper and the "N" in the station's call letters, until 2015 under an exemption of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s cross-ownership rules. The FCC has largely prohibited common ownership of co-located print and broadcast media since the mid-1970s. The Wolfe family, who purchased the Dispatch in 1905, sold the newspaper and related assets to New Media Investment Group in June 2015.

WBNS-TV was known for its locally produced shows Flippo the Clown, Luci's Toyshop, Franz the Toymaker, The Judge, and programs hosted by popular Columbus Zoo and Aquarium personality Jack Hanna (Hanna's Ark). The station also featured "Fritz the Nite Owl," who hosted midnight movies during the 1970s, and the Sunday state government talk show called Capital Square in the 1990s. Throughout much of the 1990s and early years of the millennium, WBNS-TV was home to the 10TV Kids News Network (KNN); a local show, "produced by kids, for kids." The half-hour show aired Saturday mornings. Several KNN kids have gone on to pursue careers in television news or public relations in central Ohio.

Since 1995
In 1995, WBNS-TV replaced Cleveland's WJW-TV as the default affiliate in the Mansfield area (part of the Cleveland–Akron DMA) after WJW became a Fox broadcast outlet. The new Cleveland CBS affiliate, WOIO, unlike WBNS-TV, did not reach Mansfield with a Grade B signal. WBNS also replaced Toledo CBS affiliate WTOL on cable television in the Lima DMA.

The first live high-definition broadcast on the station's digital signal took place in September 1998 in which the broadcast was a football game between Ohio State and West Virginia, making the station a pioneer in American digital television. The station claims this to have been the first locally produced HD broadcast in the U.S.; however, as several other stations throughout the country also lay claim to this distinction, the veracity cannot be verified. It is widely considered the first ever live sporting event in HD in the U.S. produced using a production truck and transmission vehicle from NHK, Japan's national public broadcasting organization.

Working with sister company Radio Sound Network, WBNS-TV, WBNS (AM) and Ohio News Network (ONN) produced and distributed on a Streaming media platform the Ohio State spring football game in 2001. It was one of the first live sporting events in the U.S. to be streamed. The game was delivered on RealVideo, a compressed video format, on the RealPlayer media player platform on the station's website. It also was distributed to Windows Mobile mobile devices using the Windows Media Player format, including Compaq's IPAQ personal digital assistant which required an ExpressCard to connect to the Internet.

On June 11, 2019, Dispatch announced it would sell its broadcasting assets, including the WBNS stations, to Tegna Inc. for $535 million in cash, a handsome return on its purchase of WBNS radio in 1929. Coinciding with WBNS-TV's 70th anniversary, the deal ended the Wolfe family's involvement in local media after over a century. At the time of the sale announcement, channel 10 was the only major television station in Columbus still owned by Ohio-based interests.

The sale was approved by the FCC on July 29, 2019, and was completed on August 8. WBNS-TV became Tegna's third television station located in Ohio, operating alongside fellow CBS affiliate WTOL in Toledo and NBC affiliate WKYC in Cleveland.

Sports programming
WBNS-TV has strong ties to the athletic department of the Ohio State University. For many years, it has produced the coaches' shows for both the football and men's basketball teams, along with other shows about Ohio State athletics. Additionally, its radio sister has been the flagship station of Ohio State football and basketball for decades. Prior to the launch of the Big Ten Network in September 2007, the station aired Ohio State games offered by ESPN Plus in both sports, including prime time preemptions of CBS network programming for games. Because of the Big Ten Network's exclusive contracts to cover live Ohio State sports, WBNS now only carries selected CBS Big Ten basketball broadcasts on weekends and latter portions of the conference tourney, although the programming outside of live sports remains produced by WBNS-TV; WSYX-DT3 and WCMH-TV currently air Ohio State football games through their affiliations with Fox and NBC and those respective networks' contracts with the Big Ten Conference. Since 2023, WBNS-TV has carried select Ohio State football games through the Big Ten on CBS as part of the network's new deal with the Big Ten Conference.

News operation
WBNS presently broadcasts 37 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with six hours each weekday, three hours on Saturdays and four hours on Sundays).

WBNS-TV was the first television station in the Columbus market to debut a news helicopter, "10TV SkyCam" (now "Chopper 10") in 1979, satellite news truck "10TV Skybeam" in 1986 and launch the Ohio News Network in 1997, which shared studio and office space with WBNS until ONN ended on August 31, 2012.

Appropriately for a station with roots in a newspaper, WBNS-TV had been a consistent ratings leader in programming and news for most of the time since records have been kept. In fact, for many years a popular saying in Columbus was "4 and 6 don't equal 10", referring to WBNS-TV and its rivals, WLWC/WCMH-TV (channel 4) and WTVN-TV/WSYX (channel 6). Since the sale of the station to Tegna, however, WBNS-TV's ratings have plummeted, with WCMH-TV and WSYX battling for first, with WSYX edging out WCMH-TV for the top spot.

The first major challenge to Channel 10's dominance occurred in 1985, two years after WCMH began featuring the popular anchor team (and then-married couple) of Doug Adair and Mona Scott. From then until the mid-2000s, WBNS-TV and WCMH alternated holding the dominant ratings position for their 11 p.m. newscasts (and were virtually tied for ratings leads). However, since 2002, WBNS-TV has returned to a dominant position due to stronger CBS programming and CBS' reacquisition of Sunday-afternoon NFL telecasts. WBNS-TV usually rotates games among the two teams with the largest followings in the Columbus market—the Cincinnati Bengals and Cleveland Browns (both of whom are part of the CBS package for the American Football Conference). When possible, WBNS also airs games of the Pittsburgh Steelers, a division rival of the Bengals and Browns whose fan base extends into portions of the WBNS viewing area.

During Super Bowl XLI, channel 10 debuted a large marketing campaign to promote the launch of 10TV News in high definition. The song "Carousels (Dreaming of Tomorrow)" by Columbus rock band Alamoth Lane was used throughout the course of the campaign. Some of the band members were shot playing on the roof of WBNS with the Columbus skyline behind them. The song was also used to promote sister station WTHR's 50th anniversary in 2007.

The station began making preparations for the transition to HD in late March 2007, and debuted its 5 p.m. newscast in high definition on April 2, becoming the first television station in Central Ohio to produce newscasts in HD. The station's newscasts are now known as 10TV News; 10TV News HD was used from 2007 to 2012, after being known as 10TV Eyewitness News for many years.

On November 7, 2008, WBNS-TV's morning-noon anchor Heather Pick died of breast cancer. Pick learned in 2004 that the disease she overcame in 1999 had returned. In her last public appearance, she hosted the "Spirit Celebration with Heather Pick", raising almost $500,000 for the Columbus Cancer Clinic.

On January 3, 2011, WBNS expanded its weekday morning newscast to 2$1/2$ hours, starting at 4:25 a.m. Weekend anchors Jeff Hogan and Angela An replaced Chuck Strickler and Anietra Hamper as anchors, and weeknight 5:30 p.m. anchor Tracy Townsend replaced Hamper and Strickler as noon anchors.

On May 11, 2011, WBNS-TV gained high-profile advertising when WBNS logos and a news ticker replaced those belonging to WCMH-TV on the Casto Building at the corner of High and Broad streets in downtown Columbus. Beginning in 2008, the building was leased by rival station WCMH-TV to house its NBC 4 on the Square newscast. When WCMH discontinued the newscast, WBNS assumed the lease but decided not to utilize the street-level studio space.

On October 1, 2012, WBNS-TV launched a redesigned set.

On September 17, 2013, Maria Tiberi, the 21-year-old daughter of WBNS-TV sports director Dom Tiberi, was killed in a car accident along Interstate 270 in Hilliard. Although authorities stated that Maria was distracted at the time of the accident, they did not claim that the distraction was a cell phone. In honor of Maria, WBNS has launched a campaign known as "Maria's Message", an awareness program which aims to prevent such accidents from occurring. On April 8, 2014, the 130th Ohio General Assembly passed Senate Bill 294, which officially designated September as "Safe Driving Awareness Month" in honor of Maria. The bill was signed into law by Governor John Kasich in June of that year.

In December 2019, the station named Ashlee Baracy as Chief Meteorologist, replacing Mike Davis, who was fired following his arrest on child pornography charges.

On March 13, 2020, WBNS-TV adopted Tegna's standardized news graphics and "C Clarity" theme, seven months after Tegna acquired the station.

Notable alumni

 * Sharyl Attkisson – former reporter (now host of Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson on the Sinclair Broadcast Group stations)
 * Keith Cate – weekend anchor (1988–1993; now evening co-anchor at WFLA-TV in Tampa)
 * Carol Costello – 6 and 11 p.m. anchor (1990–1992; now at CNN)
 * Jay Crawford – sports anchor (1993–1998; later at ESPN; now with WKYC in Cleveland)
 * Faith Daniels – daytime anchor (1982–1983; later with CBS News and NBC's Today Show)
 * Mike Gleason – sports announcer (1987–1998) Currently Fox Sports 1 announcer, previously at ESPN
 * Jack Hanna – program host (Hanna's Ark and Front Page Saturday Night)
 * Phil Keating – reporter (1993; now at Fox News Channel)
 * Dave Malkoff – overnight update anchor/associate producer (later with The Weather Channel, now with CBS News)
 * Ron Olsen – Reporter (Went on to KABC and KTLA in Los Angeles, Peabody recipient for Rodney King beating story)
 * Heather Pick – weekday morning and noon anchor (2002–2008; died on November 7, 2008, due to breast cancer)
 * Gary Radnich – sports director/anchor (1982–1985; later with KRON-TV in San Francisco, now retired)
 * Jerry Revish - news anchor/reporter (1980–2019; retired and now pastor of Unity Temple Church of God in Christ in Columbus)
 * Rod Serling – writer, producer and creator of The Twilight Zone (deceased)
 * Dana Tyler – evening anchor (1981–1990; formerly 6 p.m. co-anchor/reporter at WCBS-TV in New York City)
 * Jonathan Winters – performer and comedian (deceased)

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

WBNS-TV broadcasts in Dolby 5.1 and uses its SAP channel for varying purposes, including simulcasts of its radio sister and simulcasts of NOAA weather radio, along with Descriptive Video Service (DVS) and Spanish-language NFL coverage from CBS.

On June 12, 2009, WBNS-TV launched Doppler 10 Now, a weather subchannel, carried on channel 10.2, based on the Local AccuWeather platform. On May 28, 2013, WBNS-TV announced that the 10.2 subchannel would begin carrying Antenna TV. WBNS' promotions for the network, tagged as "Ridiculously Retro", showcase clips from Flippo the Clown and Lucy's Toyshop, hinting that old, local favorites could return to the airwaves, but that did not happen. On June 16, 2015, Antenna TV was replaced with Decades on channel 10.2. Then on October 1, 2017, WBNS-TV activated channel 10.3 and moved Decades there, replacing it with Heroes & Icons on channel 10.2. On September 26, 2019, Heroes & Icons was replaced with MeTV on channel 10.2 after WCMH-TV dropped MeTV carriage in favor of Court TV. At midnight on January 1, 2020, Decades was dropped from channel 10.3 and replaced with Dabl. Decades carriage moved to WCBZ-CD channel 22.5. Early in 2023, Circle was replaced with Shop LC on 10.6.

Analog-to-digital conversion
WBNS-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 10, on June 12, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 21, using virtual channel 10.

Retransmission disputes
As of September 15, 2012, the high-definition feed for WBNS-TV was dropped from Dish Network due to a contractual dispute between the two sides.

On September 6, 2017, WBNS and Indianapolis sister station WTHR, in both SD and HD formats, were pulled from their respective local AT&T U-verse and DirecTV channel lineups in a dispute over retransmission licensing fees.

title: WBNS-TV


text:
Talk:Grand Duke of Finland

Jao, what do you say? Should there be separate articles on the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Grand Duke? If not, which is to prefer as an article title?

BTW: I started on Russification of Finland, which in my view is a very important phase in the history of the Grand Duchy, and a key to understand Finland's history up til the YYA Treaty of 1948, but I do not know if or when I'll get time and energy to make something of that article. Everyone else, who feel like, is hereby officially invited to the talko! (Aha! Yet another article to write... ;-) The wikialcometer rises.) /Tuomas 23:12, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, the information in this article belongs at Grand Duke of Finland and nowhere else. I think Grand Duchy of Finland would have its own merit, though, as "part of the History of Finland series" (the part treating 1809-1917).
 * Yes, certainly. /Tuomas 13:19, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Russification of Finland is much welcome. I do hope that you and/or someone else who is knowledgeable in the area will extend it in the future. -- Jao 08:15, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * OK. :-)) /Tuomas 13:19, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The location of this article is complementary to the Governor-General of Finland and I think the location is proper. I would agree that an article on the Grand Duchy of Finland, would be most appropriate in a series on the History of Finland. I could be mentioned however that there are some former entities that have does in fact follow the countries template like the Soviet Union and East Germany, these are generally more recent though. -- Mic 14:19, May 16, 2004 (UTC)

Personal union is definitely not the correct interpretation of relationship of Finland to Russia. K.

 * It's questionable whether that was the true intention by Russia in 1808, but on the other hand the area wasn't incorporated in the way many other areas were in the course of the Napoleonic Wars; and in the following years it turned out that the notion of a separate state for Finland (in the meaning of an administration of its own and national finances of its own) were mutually beneficial. /Tuomas 16:53, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)

If you bother to read for example Hentilä, Nevakivi, Jussila, polhistF (original in Finnish, but if you happen not to understand Finnish enough, the book is Eng and Swed translated too), you will understand that "personal union" and "nationhood" were ideas not true at the time itself, but inventions propagated strongly after gaining independence - so you are joining such nationalist efforts to rewrite the history. The first signs of that invention came only for the russification time, and were not seriously used in government. How do you explain, with regard to your concept of personal union, that Finnish authorities recognized the temporary government of Russia in 1917 as tsar's successor, and did not directly decide that the personal union is either dissolved by lack of monarch, or the genealogical heir of the abdicated tsar is now independently sovereign of Finland, whatever Russia wants to do. 62.78.104.106 06:08, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

1772 personal union
The 1772 bit comes from Finlandais 14:07, 3 July 2006 (UTC)
 * My congratulations to you for being the first one here to state a source (even a good one!); however the right place to put is in a section at the end of each article Fastifex 07:35, 4 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I am sorry but that piece of information is just plain incorrect in its entirety, and I removed it from the article --Drieakko 17:50, 10 December 2006 (UTC)

Succession of Grand Dukes of Finland
Section "Succession of Grand Dukes of Finland" deals with the succession of the Swedish King in the 18th century and its consequences. There has been no succession rule *whatsoever* for the Grand Duke of Finland which was nothing but a titular title at the time, so the entire chapter is out of place. --Drieakko 18:10, 10 December 2006 (UTC)

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Grand Duke vs. Grand Prince
I have revised the article to use the title "Grand Duke" throughout, after someone had replaced it with "Grand Prince". This latter English translation, supposedly more accurate, is not established and indeed is not in the title of the page. The question has previously been discussed on the talk page of Grand Duchy of Finland.--Rallette (talk) 08:59, 24 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grand Duke of Finland


text: User talk:209.247.222.25

title: User talk:209.247.222.25


text:
Kuge

The kuge (公家) was a Japanese aristocratic class that dominated the Japanese Imperial Court in Kyoto. The kuge were important from the establishment of Kyoto as the capital during the Heian period in the late 8th century until the rise of the Kamakura shogunate in the 12th century, at which point it was eclipsed by the bushi. The kuge still provided a weak court around the Emperor until the Meiji Restoration, when they merged with the daimyō, regaining some of their status in the process, and formed the kazoku (peerage), which lasted until shortly after World War II (1947), when the Japanese peerage system was abolished. Though there is no longer an official status, members of the kuge families remain influential in Japanese society, government, and industry.

History
Kuge (from Middle Chinese kuwng-kæ 公家, "ducal family", or "nobility" in a pre–peerage context) originally described the Emperor and his court. The meaning of the word changed over time to designate bureaucrats at the court. During the Heian period, the relative peace and stability provided freedom for the noble class to pursue cultural interests, and the kuge became leaders and benefactors of arts and culture in Japan. Most of the Kuge resided in the capital city of Kyoto.

Later in the Kamakura period (1185–1333), kuge became an antonym to buke (warrior nobles), that is, samurai who swore loyalty to the shogunate. At this point, kuge began to be used to describe those who worked in the Court; both aristocratic noblemen and commoners.

Two classes formed the kuge: the dōjō (堂上) noblemen who sat on the floor with the Emperor; and the jige (地下) who were unable to sit with the Emperor. Although kuge included those two classes, mainly this word described the dōjō, the noblemen.

The highest offices at the court were called kugyō and eligibility was limited to members of dōjō kuge. During the Edo period there were about 130 families of dōjō kuge. The most prominent members of the kuge became regents to the emperor (sesshō or kampaku). These daijō-kan offices were restricted to members of the Fujiwara family.

Though they lost most of their political power, they sustained the court culture and maintained a cultural influence. In particular, after the Sengoku period they lost most of their financial basis and were no longer in a position to act as patrons of culture, but they passed on their knowledge as masters of particular fields such as writing waka poetry and playing instruments such as the biwa, and they had disciples among the daimyō and sometimes rich commoners. As masters of a certain field, kuge gave their disciples many licenses certifying that the disciples had learned a certain field and allowed them to perform in public or sometimes to teach others. Disciples were expected to pay their master a fee for each issued license. During the Edo period, this was an important source of income for the kuge.

In 1869 during the Meiji Restoration the kuge merged with the daimyō to form a single aristocratic group, the kazoku.

Others associated with the kuge included Buddhist priests, Kyoto cultural patrons, geisha, and actors.

Classification
The kuge were divided into two classes, the higher dojo and the lower jige. In the 12th century conventional differences were established among the dōjō, separating them into groups according to their office at court. These determined the highest office to which they could be appointed. Within the dojo class, the groupings were:
 * 1) Sekke (摂家): could be appointed as Sesshō and Kampaku: This was the highest class of kuge. Only five families belonged to this class, all descended from Fujiwara no Michinaga.
 * 2) Seigake (清華家): could be appointed daijin (minister), including daijō-daijin (chancellor), the highest of the four ministers of the court. They were descended from the Fujiwara clan or Minamoto clan, descendants of the emperors.
 * 3) Daijinke (大臣家): could be appointed naidaijin, if this office became vacant. In reality, the highest office they could normally achieve was dainagon.
 * 4) Urinke (羽林家): was a military class; they could be appointed dainagon or rarely to naidaijin.
 * 5) Meika (名家): was a civilian class; they could also be appointed dainagon.
 * 6) Hanke (半家): was the lowest class among the dōjō, created in the late Sengoku period. They could only be appointed to lower ranks than sangi or chūnagon.

The jige class was associated with but not a part of the dojo: Most of the highest-classed kuge belonged to the Fujiwara clan and Minamoto clan, but there were still other clans like the Sugawara clan, the Kiyohara clan, and the Ōe clan.
 * Jigeke (地下家):This class is not a part of all the classes above. Their status is lower than Hanke and they may not enter certain important places in the imperial palace. They are in charge of miscellaneous business in the palace such as cooking and sanitary services. Like other Kuge classes, their positions and ranks in the imperial court are hereditary.

title: Kuge