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Preamble to the United States Constitution

The Preamble to the United States Constitution, beginning with the words We the People, is a brief introductory statement of the US Constitution's fundamental purposes and guiding principles. Courts have referred to it as reliable evidence of the Founding Fathers' intentions regarding the Constitution's meaning and what they hoped the Constitution would achieve.

The preamble was mainly written by Gouverneur Morris, a Pennsylvania delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention held at Independence Hall in Philadelphia.

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"We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."

Drafting
The Preamble was placed in the Constitution during the last days of the Constitutional Convention by the Committee on Style, which wrote its final draft, with Gouverneur Morris leading the effort. It was not proposed or discussed on the floor of the convention beforehand. The initial wording of the preamble did not refer to the people of the United States; rather, it referred to people of the various states, which was the norm.

In earlier documents, including the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France, the Articles of Confederation, and the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing American independence, the word "people" was not used, and the phrase the United States was followed immediately by a listing of the states, from north to south. The change was made out of necessity, as the Constitution provided that, whenever the popularly elected ratifying conventions of nine states gave their approval, it would go into effect for those nine, irrespective of whether any of the remaining states ratified.

Meaning and application
The Preamble serves solely as an introduction and does not assign powers to the federal government, nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. Due to the Preamble's limited nature, no court has ever used it as a decisive factor in case adjudication, except as regards frivolous litigation.

Judicial relevance
The courts have shown interest in any clues they can find in the Preamble regarding the Constitution's meaning. Courts have developed several techniques for interpreting the meaning of statutes and these are also used to interpret the Constitution. As a result, the courts have said that interpretive techniques that focus on the exact text of a document should be used in interpreting the meaning of the Constitution. Balanced against these techniques are those that focus more attention on broader efforts to discern the meaning of the document from more than just the wording; the Preamble is also useful for these efforts to identify the "spirit" of the Constitution.

Additionally, when interpreting a legal document, courts are usually interested in understanding the document as its authors did and their motivations for creating it; as a result, the courts have cited the Preamble for evidence of the history, intent and meaning of the Constitution as it was understood by the Founders. Although revolutionary in some ways, the Constitution maintained many common law concepts (such as habeas corpus, trial by jury, and sovereign immunity), and courts deem that the Founders' perceptions of the legal system that the Constitution created (i.e., the interaction between what it changed and what it kept from the British legal system ) are uniquely important because of the authority "the People" invested them with to create it. Along with evidence of the understandings of the men who debated and drafted the Constitution at the Constitutional Convention, the courts are also interested in the way that government officials have put into practice the Constitution's provisions, particularly early government officials, although the courts reserve to themselves the final authority to determine the Constitution's meaning. However, this focus on historical understandings of the Constitution is sometimes in tension with the changed circumstances of modern society from the late 18th century society that drafted the Constitution; courts have ruled that the Constitution must be interpreted in light of these changed circumstances. All of these considerations of the political theory behind the Constitution have prompted the Supreme Court to articulate a variety of special rules of construction and principles for interpreting it. For example, the Court's rendering of the purposes behind the Constitution have led it to express a preference for broad interpretations of individual freedoms.

Examples
An example of the way courts utilize the Preamble is Ellis v. City of Grand Rapids. Substantively, the case was about eminent domain. The City of Grand Rapids wanted to use eminent domain to force landowners to sell property in the city identified as "blighted", and convey the property to owners that would develop it in ostensibly beneficial ways: in this case, to St. Mary's Hospital, a Catholic organization. This area of substantive constitutional law is governed by the Fifth Amendment, which is understood to require that property acquired via eminent domain must be put to a "public use". In deciding whether the proposed project constituted a "public use", the court pointed to the Preamble's reference to "promot[ing] the general Welfare" as evidence that "[t]he health of the people was in the minds of our forefathers". "[T]he concerted effort for renewal and expansion of hospital and medical care centers, as a part of our nation's system of hospitals, is as a public service and use within the highest meaning of such terms. Surely this is in accord with an objective of the United States Constitution: '* * * promote the general Welfare.

On the other hand, courts will not interpret the Preamble to give the government powers that are not articulated elsewhere in the Constitution. United States v. Kinnebrew Motor Co. is an example of this. In that case, the defendants were a car manufacturer and dealership indicted for a criminal violation of the National Industrial Recovery Act. The Congress passed the statute in order to cope with the Great Depression, and one of its provisions purported to give to the President authority to fix "the prices at which new cars may be sold". The dealership, located in Oklahoma City, had sold an automobile to a customer (also from Oklahoma City) for less than the price for new cars fixed pursuant to the Act. Substantively, the case was about whether the transaction in question constituted "interstate commerce" that Congress could regulate pursuant to the Commerce Clause. Although the government argued that the scope of the Commerce Clause included this transaction, it also argued that the Preamble's statement that the Constitution was created to "promote the general Welfare" should be understood to permit Congress to regulate transactions such as the one in this case, particularly in the face of an obvious national emergency like the Great Depression. The court, however, dismissed this argument as erroneous and insisted that the only relevant issue was whether the transaction that prompted the indictment actually constituted "interstate commerce" under the Supreme Court's precedents that interpreted the scope of the Commerce Clause.

Aspects of national sovereignty
The Preamble's reference to the "United States of America" has been interpreted over the years to explain the nature of the governmental entity that the Constitution created (i.e., the federal government). In contemporary international law, the world consists of sovereign states (or "sovereign nations" in modern equivalent). A state is said to be "sovereign" if any of its ruling inhabitants are the supreme authority over it; the concept is distinct from mere land-title or "ownership." While each state was originally recognized as sovereign unto itself, the Supreme Court held that the "United States of America" consists of only one sovereign nation with respect to foreign affairs and international relations; the individual states may not conduct foreign relations. Although the Constitution expressly delegates to the federal government only some of the usual powers of sovereign governments (such as the powers to declare war and make treaties), all such powers inherently belong to the federal government as the country's representative in the international community.

Domestically, the federal government's sovereignty means that it may perform acts such as entering into contracts or accepting bonds, which are typical of governmental entities but not expressly provided for in the Constitution or laws. Similarly, the federal government, as an attribute of sovereignty, has the power to enforce those powers that are granted to it (e.g., the power to "establish Post Offices and Post Roads" includes the power to punish those who interfere with the postal system so established). The Court has recognized the federal government's supreme power over those limited matters entrusted to it. Thus, no state may interfere with the federal government's operations as though its sovereignty is superior to the federal government's (discussed more below); for example, states may not interfere with the federal government's near absolute discretion to sell its own real property, even when that real property is located in one or another state. The federal government exercises its supreme power not as a unitary entity, but instead via the three coordinate branches of the government (legislative, executive, and judicial), each of which has its own prescribed powers and limitations under the Constitution. In addition, the doctrine of separation of powers functions as a limitation on each branch of the federal government's exercise of sovereign power.

One aspect of the American system of government is that, while the rest of the world now views the United States as one country, domestically American constitutional law recognizes a federation of state governments separate from (and not subdivisions of) the federal government, each of which is sovereign over its own affairs. Sometimes, the Supreme Court has even analogized the States to being foreign countries to each other to explain the American system of State sovereignty. Bank of Augusta v. Earle, 38 U.S. (13 Pet.) 519, 590 (1839) ("It has ... been supposed that the rules of comity between foreign nations do not apply to the states of this Union, that they extend to one another no other rights than those which are given by the Constitution of the United States, and that the courts of the general government are not at liberty to presume ... that a state has adopted the comity of nations towards the other states as a part of its jurisprudence or that it acknowledges any rights but those which are secured by the Constitution of the United States. The Court thinks otherwise. The intimate union of these states as members of the same great political family, the deep and vital interests which bind them so closely together, should lead us, in the absence of proof to the contrary, to presume a greater degree of comity and friendship and kindness towards one another than we should be authorized to presume between foreign nations .... They are sovereign states, and the history of the past and the events which are daily occurring furnish the strongest evidence that they have adopted towards each other the laws of comity in their fullest extent."); Bank of U.S. v. Daniel, 37 U.S. (12 Pet.) 32, 54 (1838) ("The respective states are sovereign within their own limits, and foreign to each other, regarding them as local governments."); Buckner v. Finley, 27 U.S. (2 Pet.) 586, 590 (1829) (" For all national purposes embraced by the federal Constitution, the states and the citizens thereof are one, united under the same sovereign authority and governed by the same laws. In all other respects, the states are necessarily foreign to and independent of each other. Their constitutions and forms of government being, although republican, altogether different, as are their laws and institutions.") However, each state's sovereignty is limited by the U.S. Constitution, which is the supreme law of both the United States as a nation and each state; in the event of a conflict, a valid federal law controls. As a result, although the federal government is (as discussed above) recognized as sovereign and has supreme power over those matters within its control, the American constitutional system also recognizes the concept of "State sovereignty", where certain matters are susceptible to government regulation, but only at the State and not the federal level. For example, although the federal government prosecutes crimes against the United States (such as treason, or interference with the postal system), the general administration of criminal justice is reserved to the States. Notwithstanding sometimes broad statements by the Supreme Court regarding the "supreme" and "exclusive" powers the State and Federal governments exercise, the Supreme Court and State courts have also recognized that much of their power is held and exercised concurrently.

People of the United States
The phrase "People of the United States" has been understood to mean "nationals and citizens." This approach reasons that, if the political community speaking for itself in the Preamble ("We the People") includes only U.S. nationals and citizens, by negative implication it specifically excludes non-citizens in some way. See, e.g., Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 410–11 (1857) ("The brief preamble sets forth by whom [the Constitution] was formed, for what purposes, and for whose benefit and protection. It declares that [the Constitution] [was] formed by the people of the United States; that is to say, by those who were members of the different political communities in the several States; and its great object is declared to be to secure the blessings of liberty to themselves and their posterity. It speaks in general terms of the people of the United States, and of citizens of the several States, when it is providing for the exercise of the powers granted or the privileges secured to the citizen. It does not define what description of persons are intended to be included under these terms, or who shall be regarded as a citizen and one of the people. It uses them as terms so well understood, that no further description or definition was necessary. But there are two clauses in the Constitution which point directly and specifically to the negro race as a separate class of persons, and show clearly that they were not regarded as a portion of the people or citizens of the Government then formed." (emphasis added)), superseded by constitutional amendment, U.S. CONST. amend. XIV, § 1, as recognized in Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36 (1873). But see Dredd Scott 60 U.S. 581–82 (Curtis, J., dissenting) (arguing that "the Constitution has recognized the general principle of public law, that allegiance and citizenship depend on the place of birth" and that the "necessary conclusion is, that those persons born within the several States, who, by force of their respective Constitutions and laws, are citizens of the State, are thereby citizens of the United States"). It has also been construed to mean something like "all under the sovereign jurisdiction and authority of the United States." The phrase has been construed as affirming that the national government created by the Constitution derives its sovereignty from the people, (whereas "United Colonies" had identified external monarchical sovereignty) as well as confirming that the government under the Constitution was intended to govern and protect "the people" directly, as one society, instead of governing only the states as political units. The Court has also understood this language to mean that the sovereignty of the government under the U.S. Constitution is superior to that of the States. Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 419, 471 (1793) (opinion of Jay, C.J.) ("[I]n establishing [the Constitution], the people exercised their own rights, and their own proper sovereignty, and conscious of the plenitude of it, they declared with becoming dignity, 'We the people of the United States, do ordain and establish this Constitution.' Here we see the people acting as sovereigns of the whole country; and in the language of sovereignty, establishing a Constitution by which it was their will, that the State Governments should be bound, and to which the State Constitutions should be made to conform. Every State Constitution is a compact made by and between the citizens of a State to govern themselves in a certain manner; and the Constitution of the United States is likewise a compact made by the people of the United States to govern themselves as to general objects, in a certain manner." (emphasis added)). abrogated by constitutional amendment, U.S. CONST. amend. XI, as recognized in Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 378 (1798), and abrogated by Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1, 12 (1890); see also United States v. Cathcart, 25 F. Cas. 344, 348 (C.C.S.D. Ohio 1864) (No. 14,756) ("[The Supreme Court has] den[ied] the assumption that full and unqualified sovereignty still remains in the states or the people of a state, and affirm[ed], on the contrary, that, by express words of the constitution, solemnly ratified by the people of the United States, the national government is supreme within the range of the powers delegated to it; while the states are sovereign only in the sense that they have an indisputable claim to the exercise of all the rights and powers guarantied to them by the constitution of the United States, or which are expressly or by fair implication reserved to them."). Stated in negative terms, the Preamble has been interpreted as meaning that the Constitution was not the act of sovereign and independent states.

The popular nature of the Constitution
The Constitution claims to be an act of "We the People." However, because it represents a general social contract, there are limits on the ability of individual citizens to pursue legal claims allegedly arising out of the Constitution. For example, if a law were enacted which violated the Constitution, not just anybody could challenge the statute's constitutionality in court; instead, only an individual who was negatively affected by the unconstitutional statute could bring such a challenge. For example, a person claiming certain benefits that are created by a statute cannot then challenge, on constitutional grounds, the administrative mechanism that awards them. These same principles apply to corporate entities, and can implicate the doctrine of exhaustion of remedies.

In this same vein, courts will not answer hypothetical questions about the constitutionality of a statute. The judiciary does not have the authority to invalidate unconstitutional laws solely because they are unconstitutional, but may declare a law unconstitutional if its operation would injure a person's interests. For example, creditors who lose some measure of what they are owed when a bankrupt's debts are discharged cannot claim injury, because Congress' power to enact bankruptcy laws is also in the Constitution and inherent in it is the ability to declare certain debts valueless. Similarly, while a person may not generally challenge as unconstitutional a law that they are not accused of violating, once charged, a person may challenge the law's validity, even if the challenge is unrelated to the circumstances of the crime.

Where the Constitution is legally effective
The Preamble has been used to confirm that the Constitution was made for, and is binding only in, the United States of America. For example, in Casement v. Squier, a serviceman in China during World War II was convicted of murder in the United States Court for China. After being sent to prison in the State of Washington, he filed a writ of habeas corpus with the local federal court, claiming he had been unconstitutionally put on trial without a jury. The court held that, since his trial was conducted by an American court and was, by American standards, basically fair, he was not entitled to the specific constitutional right of trial by jury while overseas.

The Supreme Court held in 1901 that since the Preamble declares the Constitution to have been created by the "People of the United States", "there may be places within the jurisdiction of the United States that are no part of the Union." The following examples help demonstrate the meaning of this distinction:
 * Geofroy v. Riggs, : the Supreme Court held that a certain treaty between the United States and France which was applicable in "the States of the Union" was also applicable in Washington, D.C., even though it is not a state or a part of a state.
 * DeLima v. Bidwell, : the Supreme Court ruled that a customs collector could not, under a statute providing for taxes on imported goods, collect taxes on goods coming from Puerto Rico after it had been ceded to the United States from Spain, reasoning that although it was not a State, it was under the jurisdiction of U.S. sovereignty, and thus the goods were not being imported from a foreign country. However, in Downes v. Bidwell,, the Court held that the Congress could constitutionally enact a statute taxing goods sent from Puerto Rico to ports in the United States differently from other commerce, in spite of the constitutional requirement that "all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States," on the theory that although Puerto Rico could not be treated as a foreign country, it did not count as part of the "United States" and thus was not guaranteed "uniform" tax treatment by that clause of the Constitution. This was not the only constitutional clause held not to apply in Puerto Rico: later, a lower court went on to hold that goods brought from Puerto Rico into New York before the enactment of the tax statute held constitutional in Downes, could retroactively have the taxes applied to them notwithstanding the Constitution's ban on ex post facto laws, even if at the time they were brought into the United States no tax could be applied to the goods because Puerto Rico was not a foreign country.
 * Ochoa v. Hernandez y Morales, : the Fifth Amendment's requirement that "no person shall ... be deprived of ... property, without due process of law" was held, by the Supreme Court, to apply in Puerto Rico, even though it was not a State and thus not "part" of the United States.

To form a more perfect Union
The phrase "to form a more perfect Union" has been construed as referring to the shift to the Constitution from the Articles of Confederation. The contemporaneous meaning of the word "perfect" was complete, finished, fully informed, confident, or certain. The phrase has been interpreted in various ways throughout history based on the context of the times. For example, shortly after the Civil War and the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court said that the "Union" was made "more perfect" by the creation of a federal government with enough power to act directly upon citizens, rather than a government with narrowly limited power that could act on citizens only indirectly through the states, e.g., by imposing taxes. Also, the institution was created as a government over the States and people, not an agreement (union) between the States.

In the 21st century, following a pivotal, widely reported speech entitled "A More Perfect Union" by then-candidate Barack Obama in 2008, the phrase has also come to mean the continual process of improvement of the country.

"To know what has come before is to be armed against despair. If the men and women of the past, with all their flaws and limitations and ambitions and appetites, could press on through ignorance and superstition, racism and sexism, selfishness and greed, to create a freer, stronger nation, then perhaps we, too, can right wrongs and take another step toward that most enchanting and elusive destinations: a more perfect Union.""

- Jon Meacham, 2018

The phrase has also been interpreted to support the federal supremacy clause as well as to demonstrate that state nullification of any federal law, ''See Bush v. Orleans Parish Sch. Bd.'', 188 F. Supp. 916, 922–23 (E.D. La. 1960) ("Interposition is ... based on the proposition that the United States is a compact of states, any one of which may interpose its sovereignty against the enforcement within its borders of any decision of the Supreme Court or act of Congress, irrespective of the fact that the constitutionality of the act has been established by decision of the Supreme Court .... In essence, the doctrine denies the constitutional obligation of the states to respect those decisions of the Supreme Court with which they do not agree. The doctrine may have had some validity under the Articles of Confederation. On their failure, however, 'in Order to form a more perfect Union,' the people, not the states, of this country ordained and established the Constitution. Thus the keystone of the interposition thesis, that the United States is a compact of states, was disavowed in the Preamble to the Constitution." (emphasis added) (footnote omitted) (citation omitted)), aff'd mem., 365 U.S. 569 (1961). Although the State of Louisiana in Bush invoked a concept it called "interposition," it was sufficiently similar to the concept of "nullification" that the court used the latter, more familiar term in a fashion that clearly indicated it viewed the concepts as functionally interchangeable. See id. at 923 n.7 ("[E]ven the 'compact theory' [of the Constitution] does not justify interposition. Thus, Edward Livingston, ... though an adherent of th[e 'compact] theory['], strongly denied the right of a state to nullify federal law or the decisions of the federal courts." (emphases added)). Compare Martin, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) at 332 ("The confederation was a compact between states; and its structure and powers were wholly unlike those of the national government."), with id. ("The constitution was an act of the people of the United States to supersede the confederation, and not to be ingrafted on it, as a stock through which it was to receive life and nourishment."). dissolution of the Union, or secession from it, are not contemplated by the Constitution.


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Martin L. Davey

Martin Luther Davey (July 25, 1884 –March 31, 1946) was an American Democratic politician from Ohio. He was the 53rd governor of Ohio.

Childhood
Davey was born in Kent, Ohio, in 1884. His father was John Davey, better known as the tree doctor and founder of the Davey Tree Expert Company. His mother was Bertha Reeves, the daughter of a minister. Martin was one of seven children. His sister Mary and another sibling died before reaching maturity. His surviving siblings were Belle, Wellington, James (Jim), and Paul.

Their family struggled with money, leading the young Martin to start making and selling his own horseradish as a child. All of the profits from this went to help his family. He also helped with his father’s farm and greenhouse. He was an excellent salesman, developing friendships with his customers.

He attended a country fair where he heard the famous "Cross of Gold" speech given by William Jennings Bryan. This led to him wanting to be a politician.

Education
Davey graduated from Kent High School in Kent, Ohio. After graduating high school, he worked for a time for the Oliver Typewriter Company in Cleveland, Ohio. He made $10.00 a week plus commission. He was an excellent salesman, and soon earned $200.00 a month. He decided to continue his education and attended Oberlin College, where he played football and was on the track team. He was third in his class, when he stopped his education to help found the family business. He returned to school for a time, until he met and married his wife. The marriage and birth of their first child ended his school career.

Political career
Davey was elected mayor of Kent, serving from 1913 to 1918. In 1918, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives to fill the term of Elsworth R. Bathrick. He was re-elected in November, but lost another bid for re-election in 1920. He was re-elected in 1922, 1924 and 1926. In 1928, Davey ran for governor, but was defeated. He ran again in 1934, and won two two-year terms before being defeated in a bid for renomination in 1938 by Charles W. Sawyer. He was the Democratic nominee for governor in 1940, but lost to incumbent Gov. John Bricker.

Family
In 1907 Martin married Berenice Chrisman of Kent. They had three children: Evangeline, Mary Bernice, and Martin Luther Jr.

Mary Bernice died in childhood. Evangeline married Alexander M. Smith. Martin L. Jr. went on to work at the family business.

Legacy
Davey's family was known for their company, The Davey Tree Expert Company (founded 1880), located in Kent, Ohio.

The Davey Beef Building (erected in 1977 but no longer standing) at the Ohio Expo Center and State Fair in Columbus, Ohio, was named in honor of Davey.

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title: Martin L. Davey


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Barron Hilton

William Barron Hilton (October 23, 1927 – September 19, 2019) was an American business magnate, philanthropist and sportsman. The second son and successor of hotelier Conrad Hilton, he was the chairman, president and chief executive officer of Hilton Hotels Corporation and chairman emeritus of the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. Hilton, a notable pilot and outdoorsman, was also a founder of the American Football League as the original owner of the Los Angeles Chargers, and helped forge the merger with the National Football League that created the Super Bowl. Like his father before him, he pledged 97 percent of his wealth to the humanitarian work of the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. At the time, the gift was projected to increase the foundation's endowment from $2.9 billion to $6.3 billion, and will make his estate the organization's most significant donor.

Early life
Hilton was born in Dallas, Texas, to Mary Adelaide (née Barron) and Conrad Nicholson Hilton, founder of Hilton Hotels. Hilton grew up with three siblings, Conrad Nicholson Hilton, Jr., Eric Michael Hilton, and Constance Francesca Hilton. His father was of Norwegian and German descent and from New Mexico while his mother was from Kentucky.

He served in the Navy during World War II as a photographer. As a child, Hilton was fascinated by aviation, and learned to fly when he was 17. After his wartime discharge, he attended the University of Southern California Aeronautical School, where he earned his twin-engine rating at age 19.

Early career, Los Angeles / San Diego Chargers
Before joining his father in the hotel industry, Barron Hilton honed his business skills in a variety of entrepreneurial ventures. He acquired the Los Angeles-area distributorship of Vita-Pakt Citrus Products, co-founded MacDonald Oil Company, and founded Air Finance Corporation, one of the nation's first aircraft leasing businesses. In 1954, Barron was elected vice president of Hilton Hotels, running the company's franchise operations and creating the Carte Blanche credit card as a service to the company's customers.

In 1959, Lamar Hunt offered Hilton the Los Angeles franchise in the new American Football League (AFL). Hilton named his team the Chargers, but denied that he did it to create synergy with his new credit card business. A fan had nominated the name in a contest, and Hilton selected it because of the bugle call and "Charge!" cheer that was often sounded during USC football games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Chargers began playing at the Coliseum in 1960, but in spite of winning the Western Division, the club found it difficult to compete for fans with the Rams of the National Football League (NFL) in their own stadium. Hilton moved the team to San Diego in time for the 1961 season and played in tiny Balboa Stadium, which the city had expanded to 30,000 seats.

Hilton began working with the local newspapers to engender support for construction of a state-of-the-art stadium. Encouraged by San Diego Union sports editor Jack Murphy, among others, a referendum was passed in 1965, and the Chargers began play in the new San Diego Stadium in 1967. With the availability of a new stadium, the city received a baseball expansion franchise from the National League, and the San Diego Padres began play in 1969.

Hilton also served as AFL president in 1965, and helped forge the merger between the AFL and the NFL, announced in 1966, which created the Super Bowl. In all, the Chargers won five divisional titles, and one AFL Championship, during Hilton's six years at the helm of the club. In 1966, directors of Hilton Hotels Corporation asked Hilton to succeed his father as president and chief executive officer of the company, provided that he drop his football responsibilities. He sold his majority interest in the team for $10 million—a record for any professional sports franchise at the time—after an initial investment in a franchise fee of just $25,000.

With the death of the Bills' Ralph Wilson in 2014, Hilton became the last surviving member of the Foolish Club—the nickname the original AFL owners gave each other, as they absorbed the start-up expenses and player salaries necessary to compete with the established NFL.

Hilton Hotels
Once charged with the responsibility for Hilton Hotels Corporation, Barron Hilton soon showed his father's genius for cost controls and real estate deals. In 1970, he convinced the board to expand into Las Vegas by purchasing the International and the Flamingo from financier Kirk Kerkorian. Hilton Hotels thus became the first company listed on the New York Stock Exchange to venture into the gaming market. Renamed the Las Vegas Hilton and the Flamingo Hilton, the two resorts tapped a new source of income from gambling in a state where it had been legal since 1931. Barron could also see that Las Vegas would become a leading convention destination, capitalizing on the company's strength in that important market segment.

Hilton personally introduced two innovations that have become standard features of casinos everywhere. Calling on his background in photography, he installed video cameras throughout the casinos to replace the "eye in the sky" system of observers peering through two-way mirrors in the ceiling.

Las Vegas would also become the self-proclaimed "Entertainment Capital of the World". Of all the headliners to perform at the Hilton or the Flamingo, the most successful and spectacular were certainly Liberace and Elvis Presley. After a decade in the movies, Elvis Presley again began performing in front of live audiences in 1969 at the opening of the International (a few years later renamed the Las Vegas Hilton). He went on to star at the Las Vegas Hilton two months a year—performing two shows a night, seven nights a week—until shortly before his death in 1977. Presley set a world entertainment record at the Las Vegas Hilton for selling out 837 consecutive concerts.

Having played Las Vegas since 1944, Liberace had created the resident entertainer model on the Las Vegas Strip the year before he befriended Elvis at Presley's first, and less-than-successful foray on the Strip in 1956. Liberace was signed by Hilton to the same showroom as Presley beginning in 1972, for an unprecedented $300,000 per week. Barron Hilton was a major influence in pushing Liberace to always outperform his previous shows, with more and more of the entertainer's famous brand of showmanship. True to form, Liberace played his last show at the Las Vegas Hilton in 1980, arriving on stage in a classic car, and closing by flying off stage in a 110 lbs. crystal and ostrich feather cape.

The company's expansion into Nevada had an immediate impact on its net income. By 1972, the two resorts contributed 45 percent of the company's income (before interest income, interest expense, write down of investments and sales of properties), nearly matching the income from the other 160 Hilton hotels in the United States. On the hotel front, in 1975 Hilton sold a 50 percent interest in six of the company's largest hotels to Prudential Insurance Company for $83 million. He took a leaseback to manage the properties, collecting lucrative management fees and a percentage of their gross profits. Perhaps more importantly, the sale proved that these hotels were worth double their book value, demonstrating the underlying value of the company's real estate holdings. The transaction also enhanced the value of the stock held by every HHC shareholder. Hilton used the proceeds to pay down high interest debt, and repurchase 20 percent of the company's stock—all at market rate—which was still trading well below the company's book value.

Hilton continued to expand the domestic hotel chain through franchising and the selective acquisition of management contracts and hotels in emerging markets. In 1977, he completed a hotel purchase that his father had initiated 28 years earlier. When Conrad Hilton bought the Waldorf-Astoria in 1949, he actually bought the hotel's operating company and its 30-year lease to run the hotel. The building, and the land under it, were still owned by the realty arm of the Penn Central Railroad. Knowing that the lease would expire in 1979, Hilton deftly negotiated to buy the hotel and real estate from the railroad. The landmark property, whose current value is estimated around $1 billion, was purchased by Hilton for just $35 million. As competitors aggressively spread across the U.S. in the '80s, Barron held his own by rehabbing his own hotels and increasing revenues in Las Vegas. Through a series of massive additions to the Flamingo Hilton and the Las Vegas Hilton, the company nearly tripled its rooms in Las Vegas by 1990, from 2,277 to 6,703. He also launched Conrad International in the '80s, and Hilton Garden Inn in the '90s.

In contrast to his gamble on gaming, Hilton earned a reputation as a financial conservative. After seeing his father struggle to overcome the effects of the Great Depression and World War II, he maintained the strongest balance sheet in the industry. Throughout his 30 years as CEO, he carried a low debt-to-capital ratio and a high credit rating, enabling him to gobble up such properties as Bally's Reno (formerly the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino-Reno). The 2,000-room resort was opened in 1978 for $230 million, and purchased by Hilton in 1992 for $88 million. With strong cash flow and plenty of liquid investments on hand, he was able to weather the inevitable recessions and business interruptions that struck the industry from the mid-'60s to the mid-'90s. Hilton continued as chairman of the board through the next decade as his hand-picked successor, Steve Bollenbach, dramatically expanded the company through a series of mergers and acquisitions. The advent of friendly capital markets in the late '90s enabled him to acquire such brands as Embassy Suites, Doubletree, Hampton Inn, Homewood Suites, Bally's and Caesars. Then, in 2005, he reacquired Hilton International, 38 years after it had been sold to TWA. With the company now strategically complete, Bollenbach spun off the gaming business, which merged with Harrah's in 2005 and was renamed Caesars Entertainment.

In 2007, private equity firm The Blackstone Group purchased Hilton Hotels Corporation, consisting of 2,800 hotels with 480,000 rooms in 76 countries and territories. Blackstone paid $47.50 per share, a 32 percent premium over the July 2 closing price. The $26 billion, all-cash transaction included $7.5 billion of debt.

Host Hotels & Resorts veteran Chris Nassetta was hired to manage the company, which was renamed Hilton Worldwide, Inc. and is now known as Hilton, Inc. Now celebrating the 100th year since Conrad Hilton purchased his first hotel, the company has expanded to include 17 brands, 5,800 hotels, and 939,000 rooms in 114 countries of the world.

Hilton family fortune
In 1979, Barron Hilton's father, Conrad Hilton, died at age 91. He left 13.5 million shares of Hilton Hotels Corporation stock—97 percent of his estate—to the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation, a humanitarian charity which he had established in 1944. In his will, Conrad also gave Barron the right to purchase those shares in order to maintain family control of the company, but the foundation challenged the option in probate court. It took an entire decade to resolve the issue. Hilton's right to exercise his option was upheld in an appeals court ruling in March 1988, giving him voting power over roughly 34 percent of the company's outstanding shares. Conrad's bequest of stock was worth $160 million when he died in 1979. Thanks to his son's successful management of the Hilton Hotels Corporation, those shares were worth $654 million when the settlement was reached late in 1988. In a press statement issued after the favorable ruling, Hilton said it gave him "the opportunity to structure an arrangement whereby my father's two objectives, retaining control of the stock in family hands, and benefiting charity through the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation, can both be achieved. I am confident that my father would be pleased with this accord."

The settlement was finalized in 1989. Neither Hilton, nor the foundation, had to actually pay for the shares; they split them instead. Hilton received 4 million shares, the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation received 3.5 million shares, and the remaining 6 million shares were placed in the W. Barron Hilton Charitable remainder unitrust, of which Barron was the executor. He received 60 percent of the unitrust income, and the foundation 40 percent, during his lifetime, then the fund would transfer to the foundation.

On December 25, 2007, Hilton announced that he would follow in his father's footsteps by leaving about 97 percent of his estate, estimated at that time to be $2.3 billion, to the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. Included was an immediate pledge of $1.2 billion, the proceeds of the sale of Hilton Hotels Corporation and Harrah's Entertainment Inc., which was placed in a charitable remainder unitrust that would be transferred to the foundation upon Hilton's death at whatever value the trust was worth at that time. The remainder of the funds that constitute Hilton's pledge of 97 percent of his estate will come from his personal assets, which were estimated at $1.1 billion at the time.

Conrad N. Hilton Foundation
Throughout his career, Conrad Hilton supported a variety of causes, particularly those involving the nuns that had helped educate him in his native New Mexico. He established the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation in 1944, and made a total of $7.6 million of gifts before his death.

In his last will and testament, Conrad left general guidance for the use of his endowment. He wrote: "There is a natural law, a Divine law, that obliges you and me to relieve the suffering, the distressed and the destitute. Charity is a supreme virtue, and the great channel through which the mercy of God is passed on to mankind. It is the virtue that unites men and inspires their noblest efforts. 'Love one another, for that is the whole law;' so our fellow men deserve to be loved and encouraged—never abandoned to wander alone in poverty and darkness. The practice of charity will bind us—will bind all men in one great brotherhood. As the funds you will expend have come from many places in the world, so let there be no territorial, religious, or color restrictions on your benefactions, but beware of organized, professional charities with high-salaried executives and a heavy ratio of expense. Be ever watchful for the opportunity to shelter little children with the umbrella of your charity; be generous to their schools, their hospitals and their places of worship. For, as they must bear the burdens of our mistakes, so are they in their innocence the repositories of our hopes for the upward progress of humanity. Give aid to their protectors and defenders, the Sisters, who devote their love and life's work for the good of mankind, for they appeal especially to me as being deserving of help from the Foundation."

Aviation career
Hilton was born the year Charles Lindbergh flew the Spirit of St. Louis across the Atlantic. When he was 7 or 8 years old, he would ride his bike to Love Field in Dallas to watch the exotic planes of the day take off and land. He promised himself that he would one day learn to fly. He took private flying lessons at a field on the north shore of Oahu during his time in the Navy, and got his pilot's license at age 17.

In addition to his single-engine and multi-engine ratings, Hilton eventually earned glider, lighter than air (balloons) and helicopter ratings as well. He maintained a small fleet of aircraft at his Flying M Ranch east of the sierras in northern Nevada that includes sailplanes, tow planes, aerobatic aircraft, hot air balloons and classic, restored biplanes. He flew them all until he retired from the cockpit in 2012 at age 84.

In the '90s, he boldly backed the first attempts to capture one of the last great milestones in aviation—flying non-stop around the world in a balloon—with the Earthwinds Hilton and Global Hilton campaigns. While falling short of the ultimate goal, Hilton is credited with inspiring the efforts of those who achieved the feat. Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones were the first to make a trans-global flight in 1999; Steve Fossett became the first to complete the flight solo in 2002.

From 1980 to 2009, he also hosted the Barron Hilton Cup, a unique, worldwide glider competition. Pilots who flew the longest triangular flights during each two-year period in six regions of the world earned participation in a weeklong soaring camp at his Flying M Ranch. Co-founder Helmut Reichmann, Germany's three-time world soaring champion, devised a handicap system that enabled pilots flying older gliders to compete with elite pilots in high-performance aircraft of the latest design. Once at the Flying M, they flew recreationally alongside world champions and celebrities invited to attend by Hilton. Beginning in 1996 with its predecessors, the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Co., EADS, had served as a partner in the event.

Over the years, a number of notable pilots regularly joined Hilton for weekends at the Flying M. They include entertainers John Denver and Cliff Robertson; astronauts Neil Armstrong, Gene Cernan, Bill Anders, and Ulf Merbold; and test pilots and record-holders: Chuck Yeager, Johnny Myers, Clay Lacy, Bruno GanTenbrink, Bob Hoover, Carroll Shelby, Sully Sullenberger, and air, sea and land adventurer, Steve Fossett.

On Labor Day, 2007, Fossett took off from the Flying M Ranch and never returned, perishing in a crash in the Sierras. In spite of an intensive search, the wreckage wasn't discovered until the following spring. The National Transportation Safety Board determined the probable cause(s) of this accident to be "the pilot's inadvertent encounter with downdrafts that exceeded the climb capability of the airplane. Contributing to the accident were the downdrafts, high density altitude, and mountainous terrain." Examination of the airframe and engine revealed no evidence of any malfunctions or failures that would have prevented normal operation.

The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum honored Hilton in 2010 by christening the Barron Hilton Pioneers of Flight Gallery. The redesigned exhibit recognizes aviators like Lindbergh, Amelia Earhart and the Tuskegee Airmen. The gallery includes an early childhood education component funded by the Hilton Foundation to help youngsters catch the same enthusiasm for aviation that he discovered as a child when Lindbergh and Earhart were making headlines.

In 2012, Barron was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

For his lifelong support of aviation, Hilton received the prestigious FAI Gold Air Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in 2009, the same award bestowed upon some of his closest friends and personal heroes, like Yeager, Armstrong, Cernan, Jones, Fossett, and Lindbergh himself.

In 2012, Hilton was also inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame in San Diego, and was hailed as the "patron saint of sport aviation."

Personal life
In 1947, Barron Hilton married Marilyn June Hawley; they remained married until she died in 2004. They had eight children: William Barron Hilton, Jr.; Hawley Anne Hilton; Stephen Michael Hilton; David Alan Hilton; Sharon Constance Hilton; Richard Howard Hilton; Daniel Kevin Hilton; and Ronald Jeffrey Hilton; William Barron Hilton, Jr. was born in 1948 and Ronald Jeffrey Hilton was born in 1963. Barron Hilton had 15 grandchildren, including Richard Hilton's daughters Paris Hilton and Nicky Hilton Rothschild, and four great-grandchildren.

His primary residence in Holmby Hills was the Jay Paley House, originally designed in the 1930s for Jay Paley by architect Paul Williams. It was used as the 'Colby mansion' in exterior scenes for The Colbys television series. He also maintained a permanent suite in New York's Waldorf-Astoria.

Hilton and several friends purchased the 475,000-acre Flying-M Ranch in Lyon County, Nevada (the property stretched across the California state line) in the mid-1960s, and he bought the others out in 1972. The ranch included an airport and a two-hole putting green.

Barron Hilton died at his home in Los Angeles on September 19, 2019. He was the last surviving child of Conrad Hilton.

Other
Hilton was a member of a duck club on Venice Island in the Sacramento – San Joaquin River Delta near Stockton in Northern California. Every year he put on a large Fourth of July fireworks display, attracting thousands of boaters to watch it.

title: Barron Hilton


text:
Newt Allen

Newton Henry Allen (May 19, 1901 – June 9, 1988) was an American second baseman and manager in baseball's Negro leagues.

Born in Austin, Texas, he began his Negro league career late in 1922 with the Kansas City Monarchs and, except for brief stints with other teams in 1931 and 1932, stayed with the Monarchs until his retirement in 1948. Long known for his leadership ability, he became the Monarchs' manager in 1941 when Andy Cooper suffered a pre-season stroke and died during the season. He won the Negro American League championship that season, but resigned as manager just before the beginning of the following season, resuming his duties as a reserve infielder.

Allen's accomplishments as a player were even more impressive. A master at scoring runs, he bunted, stole bases and almost always provided the spark his team needed to win. Among the fastest baserunners of his generation of Negro leaguers, his most remarkable season was his 1929 campaign, in which he batted .330 while hitting 24 doubles and stealing 23 bases in a typically abbreviated Negro league season.

Like the comparable Judy Johnson, he was a remarkable fielder, arguably the best fielding second baseman of any race from the 1920s through the 1940s, and was at his best in pressure situations. Unlike Johnson, Newt Allen is not in the Hall of Fame, although many experts regard him as having been superior to many white inductees. Allen did make the list of 39 finalists for the 2006 special Negro leagues and Pre-Negro leagues Election, but was not one of the 17 finally chosen.

Newt Allen is also listed on the second team of a 1952 Pittsburgh Courier Poll of the Greatest Black Players.

Allen died at age 87 in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Known statistics: .293 career batting average, 16 home runs, 640 games.

title: Newt Allen


text:
Rutilus

Rutilus is a genus of fish in the family Cyprinidae found in Eurasia. This genus is a widely distributed lineage of cyprinids and ranges from West Europe to East Siberia.

Species
In FishBase (2022), nine species are included in the genus:
 * Rutilus caspicus (Yakovlev, 1870) (Caspian roach)
 * Rutilus frisii (Nordmann, 1840) (Black sea roach)
 * Rutilus heckelii (Nordmann, 1840)
 * Rutilus kutum (S. N. Kamensky, 1901) (Caspian kutum)
 * Rutilus meidingeri (Heckel, 1851)
 * Rutilus pigus (Lacépède, 1803) (Pigo)
 * Rutilus rutilus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Common roach)
 * Rutilus stoumboudae Bianco & Ketmaier, 2014
 * Rutilus virgo (Heckel, 1852) (Cactus roach)

In a phylogeographic study, Levin et al. (2017) argue that the Ponto-Caspian taxa including R. caspicus, R. heckelii and R. stoumboudae could represent a single widespread species whose range extends to Siberia, to be named Rutilus lacustris, whereas R. kutum is included in R. frisii.

The genera Leucos and Sarmarutilus have been recently separated from Rutilus and are closely related to it.

title: Rutilus


text:
Richard Hilton

Richard Howard Hilton (born August 17, 1955) is an American businessman. He is the chairman and co-founder of Hilton & Hyland, a real estate brokerage firm based in Beverly Hills, California, that specializes in homes and estates in Beverly Hills, Holmby Hills, Bel-Air, Brentwood, Pacific Palisades, Malibu, Hollywood Hills, as well as estates from Santa Barbara to San Diego.

Early life
Hilton was born in Los Angeles, California, the sixth of eight children to Marilyn June (née Hawley) and Barron Hilton, whose father was Hilton Hotel founder Conrad Hilton. In 1978, he graduated from the University of Denver with a degree in hotel and restaurant management. His siblings are: William Barron Hilton Jr. (born 1948), Hawley Anne Hilton (born 1949), Steven Michael Hilton (born 1950), David Alan Hilton (born 1952), Sharon Constance Hilton (born 1953), Daniel Kevin Hilton (born 1962), and Ronald Jeffrey Hilton (born 1963).

Career
Hilton joined the New York office of Eastdil Secured, a real estate investment banking firm and spinoff of Eastman Dillon. He specialized in securing participation of institutional investors and pension funds in various transactions.

In 1984, he formed Hilton Realty Investment to handle commercial real estate. He obtained his broker license on November 29, 1985. Hilton and Jeffrey Hyland were issued a corporation license for their real estate firm Hilton & Hyland on July 26, 1993. Among their developments are Brentwood Country Estates. Former Million Dollar Listing cast members Chad Rogers and Josh Altman; Frank Robinson's daughter, Nichelle; Ron Kass's son, Robert; Anne Heche's former husband, Coleman Laffoon; Rayni Romito Williams and Branden Brent Williams, Richard D. Zanuck's daughter-in-law, Marisa, are among Hilton & Hyland's 106 salespeople. In 2012, Hilton & Hyland reported almost $3.5 billion in sales Since 2006, Williams & Williams has been affiliated with the Hilton & Hyland Real Estate Inc. Both companies joined forces to develop and distribute projects in the highly competitive real estate luxury market.

Personal life
Hilton married Kathy Avanzino on November 24, 1979, when he was 24 years old and she was 20 years old. They have four children:
 * Paris Hilton (born February 17, 1981)
 * Nicky Hilton (born October 5, 1983)
 * Barron Hilton II (born November 7, 1989), who married Tessa von Walderdorff
 * Conrad Hughes Hilton (born March 3, 1994)

They live in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Hilton has eight grandchildren, two by Paris, three by Nicky  and three by Barron.

title: Richard Hilton


text:
Talk:Barbara Graham

NPOV issues
I've tried to make this article a bit more NPOV. It's worth noting that the Wikipedia article for the movie I Want to Live! calls the movie a "true story". I certainly can't speak to the facts myself, however. Bill 20:23, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * The 1958 movie calls the movie a "True Story" during the opening credits. Rklawton 16:15, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

I changed slightly the last phrase, because it suggest a causal relationship between her prostitution and the fact she was convicted.

I had changed murderess to murder (meant to type murderer). I'm thinking of current common usage, such as So I Married an Axe Murderer, a female murderer.--158.81.251.201 19:08, 4 February 2006 (UTC)

Felony Murder Rule
It would be helpful to have a discussion of the felony murder rule and its potential application to this case. Generally speaking, if she was part of a robbery and burglary that resulted in the death of the homeowner, she was guilty of murder even if she was not involved in the actual killing, and thus potentially liable to receive the death penalty.John Paul Parks (talk) 19:26, 4 January 2013 (UTC)

Crimelibrary.com article?
I noticed that the crimelibrary.com article is not longer available except in Google cache. Too bad: it was a good ten-section story about this person. -- PinkCake 07:46, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

Biased information from anti-death penalty source removed. Tonopah reference removed--article needs a lot of facts pertinent to her criminal act--not information about where she lived. That crimelibrary.com article was a treasure trove of information about this crime, including the events leading up to it and events leading up to her arrest. Consequences2 14:03, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

another barbara
I came to this page looking for Barbara Graham, a very outspoken critic of scientology. does a page on her not exist or is something wrong? This seems strange. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.157.180.32 (talk) 14:56, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

What happened to Baxter Shorter?
The text mentions that Graham was involved with four men in planning the crime but says that three men were with Graham when the victim was murdered. Two of the men were executed and the third testified against the others. That leaves the fourth, Baxter Shorter, unaccounted for. Do any of the specialists in the topic(s) of crime and punishment know what happened to him? Did he opt out and not participate? Thanks. (71.22.47.232 (talk) 22:13, 26 June 2010 (UTC))
 * Baxter Shorter, a safecracker, was the most skilled criminal of the gang and participated in the robbery. He was later kidnapped in front of his wife and almost certainly murdered by the other men to prevent him from testifying against them in the trial. Barbara Graham told the undercover police officer who later testified against her that "he’s been done away with. I guarantee you he won’t be at the trial."TL36 (talk) 14:42, 22 June 2011 (UTC)

Deleted 'Popular Culture' Matter
I chose to delete a considerable amount from this section, which began with a citation of the Kathleen A. Cairns book, and proceeded for three large paragraphs (and about as many sentences). Since this was major surgery, I felt I should expand a little on my reasons. Basically, the material was not neutral. The Cairns book was praised as "meticulously footnoted and unembellished," while other sources were criticized. The material, in addition, developed into social criticism of the content of sensationalized coverage of the crime. Such material belongs in the references themselves, not in an encyclopedic survey of popular culture relating to the subject. Our task here should be to guide interested parties to the references, not to reproduce their arguments, let alone introduce conclusions drawn from them by the contributor. I cut all this material, replacing it with a short description that I think fairly (if very briefly) represents the content to be found in the Cairns book. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Donquixote99 (talk • contribs) 03:53, 9 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Barbara Graham


text:
Erich Neumann (psychologist)

Erich Neumann (אריך נוימן; 23 January 1905 – 5 November 1960) was a German psychologist, philosopher, writer, and student of Carl Jung.

Life and career
Neumann was born in Berlin to a Jewish family. He received his PhD in Philosophy from the University of Erlangen–Nuremberg in 1927. Then, he continued to study medicine at the University of Berlin, where he acquired his first degree in medicine in 1933.

In 1934 Neumann and his wife Julie, who were both Zionists, moved to Tel Aviv to avoid being persecuted by the Nazi Government. For many years, he regularly returned to Zürich, Switzerland to give lectures at the C. G. Jung Institute. He also lectured frequently in England, France and the Netherlands, and was a member of the International Association for Analytical Psychology and president of the Israel Association of Analytical Psychologists. He practiced analytical psychology in Tel Aviv from 1934 until his death from kidney cancer in 1960.

Contributions
Neumann contributed to the field of developmental psychology and the psychology of consciousness and creativity. His most notable contribution was his theory of the feminine development for which he published numerous journals and books including The Great Mother.

He began work with depth psychology to reveal the psychological reasonings and events that preluded how reinforcing Nazism was a triumph for Germany and its effects on the second world war. Depth Psychology is therapeutic approach to the subtle unconscious and the human experience including transpersonal aspects like dreams, complexes, and archetypes. Throughout this time, Neumann focused on the Jungian concept of the shadow, the Freudian concept of the id and other animal personality traits held by humans.

Neumann also contradicted the "old" ethic - the impossible repression of the shadow which led to the loss of the ability to apply to modern western cultures. The suppression of the shadow lead to hostility and unrest. Neumann related the old ethich to scapegoat psychology. "scapegoat psychology produces the most disastrous effects on the life of the collective (where it leads to wars and the extermination of group holding minority opinions)"

He had a theoretical and philosophical approach to analysis, contrasting with the clinical approach in England and the United States.

His most valuable contribution to psychology was the empirical concept of "centroversion", a synthesis of extra- and introversion.

Works
His most enduring contributions to Jungian thought are The Origins and History of Consciousness (1949) and The Great Mother (1955). Another work, Depth Psychology and a New Ethic, reflects on human destructiveness and the way the human mind relates to its own shadow.

Neumann further developed his studies in feminine archetypes in his Art and the Creative Unconscious, The Fear of the Feminine, and Amor and Psyche.

Neumann also wrote poetry, a novel called The Beginning (Der Anfang), and in 1932 conducted a critical study of Franz Kafka's works at a time when Kafka was still a minor figure in the literary world.

General references

 * Neumann, Erich. Depth Psychology and a New Ethic. Shambhala; Reprint edition (1990). ISBN 0-87773-571-9.
 * Neumann, Erich. The Child. English translation by Ralph Manheim, C.G. Jung Foundation for Analytical Psychology, Inc.; Hodder and Stoughton (1973). ISBN 0-340-16516-2.
 * Ortíz-Osés, Andrés. La Diosa madre. Trotta; (1996). ISBN 84-8164-099-9
 * Ortíz-Osés, Andrés. La Diosa madre. Trotta; (1996). ISBN 84-8164-099-9

title: Erich Neumann (psychologist)


text:
Eric Stoltz

Eric Stoltz (born September 30, 1961) is an American actor, director and producer. He played Rocky Dennis in the biographical drama film Mask (1985), which earned him the nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture.

He has appeared in a wide variety of films, from mainstream ones including Some Kind of Wonderful to independent films such as Pulp Fiction, Killing Zoe, and Kicking and Screaming. He was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male for his performance in Pulp Fiction. In 2010, he portrayed Daniel Graystone in the science fiction television series Caprica and became a regular director on the television series Glee.

Early life and education
Stoltz was born in Whittier, California, the son of Evelyn (née Vawter), a violinist and schoolteacher, and Jack Stoltz, an elementary school teacher. He has two sisters, Catherine, an opera singer, and Susan, a writer.

Stoltz was raised in both American Samoa and Santa Barbara, California. He attended the University of Southern California, but dropped out after his junior year. He moved to New York in 1981 and studied acting with Stella Adler and Peggy Feury.

1978–1999
In the 1970s, Stoltz joined a repertory company that performed ten plays at the Edinburgh Festival. He returned to the United States in 1979, when he entered USC as a drama student. He dropped out to pursue film and television roles.

In 1978, he was cast as Steve Benson in the television adaptation of Erma Bombeck's The Grass Is Always Greener Over the Septic Tank.

Director Cameron Crowe and Stoltz became friends when the latter appeared in his first feature film, Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982). Crowe wrote it and Stoltz had a minor role. According to Stoltz, Crowe promised Stoltz roles in all of his future films.

Stoltz was cast in each of Crowe's next four films, The Wild Life (1984), Say Anything... (1989), Singles (1992) and Jerry Maguire (1996).

In 1985, Stoltz received a Golden Globe nomination for starring performance as Rocky Dennis in Mask. Among his other roles in the 1980s, he appeared in the 1987 film Some Kind of Wonderful, written and produced by John Hughes.

Stoltz was originally cast as Marty McFly in Back to the Future. His view of the movie clashed, however, with that of the director, Robert Zemeckis. While the film was to become a sci-fi comedy (and box office smash hit), Stoltz had read the script from a more serious angle, apparently focusing on the tragic consequences of going back to live a life that was not one's own. Five weeks into shooting, Zemeckis replaced Stoltz with Michael J. Fox.

In 1989, Stoltz starred as the lead character of the sequel The Fly II. The movie was a hit, grossing aprox 38.9 million dollars worldwide.

During the 1990s, Stoltz went back and forth between stage, film and television, appearing in studio and independent films such as The Waterdance (1992), Pulp Fiction (1994), Grace of My Heart (1996) and Anaconda (1997).

During the 1990s, Stoltz produced the films Bodies, Rest & Motion (1993), Sleep with Me (1994) and Mr. Jealousy (1997).

He continued to appear on the New York stage, both on Broadway (Three Sisters, Two Shakespearean Actors, Arms and the Man,  Our Town) and off-Broadway (The Importance of Being Earnest, The Glass Menagerie, Sly Fox). He was nominated for a Tony Award as Featured Actor for his performance as George Gibbs in the 1989 Broadway revival of Thornton Wilder's Our Town.

A performance of this production was featured on Great Performances: Live from Lincoln Center, which received a 1989 Emmy nomination.

On television, he had a recurring role as Helen Hunt's character's ex-boyfriend on Mad About You (five episodes, 1994–1998), spent a year on Chicago Hope (1994) and did some television and cable films such as Inside (1996) (directed by Arthur Penn) and The Passion of Ayn Rand (1999), with Helen Mirren. Stoltz received the Indie Supporter Award at the 1998 Los Angeles Film Festival.

2000–present
During the first part of the 2000s, he starred with Gillian Anderson in The House of Mirth (2000), based on the novel by Edith Wharton. From 2001 to 2002, he had a recurring role as the English teacher-poet August Dimitri in ABC's Once and Again, wherein Julia Whelan's character, a teenager, fell in love with his character. He directed an episode of the show in 2002.

In 2003, he played his first leading TV role in Out of Order, which was canceled after five episodes. In 2004, he appeared in The Butterfly Effect as a child molester; the following year, he guest-starred in the NBC sitcom Will & Grace as Debra Messing's love interest. He was nominated for a Daytime Emmy for his direction of the cable movie My Horrible Year! (2001). He also directed a short film entitled The Bulls as well as the highest-rated episode of Law & Order in 2005, entitled "Tombstone". He appeared in the music video of The Residents' "Give It to Someone Else", featured on The Commercial DVD.

He has contributed essays to the books City Secrets--New York as well as Life Interrupted by Spalding Gray and appears on the children's CD Philadelphia Chickens.

Beginning in 2007, Stoltz directed episodes of the drama series Quarterlife, which began airing as webisodes and were then picked up to air on the NBC network in 2008. Stoltz played a serial killer in need of medical attention in three episodes of the fifth season of Grey's Anatomy. He has also directed two episodes of Grey's Anatomy.

Stoltz starred as Daniel Graystone, inventor of the Cylons, in the science fiction television series Caprica, a prequel set 58 years before the Battlestar Galactica series.

He became a regular director of the series, Glee, directing a total of 12 episodes, including "Nationals", in which the Glee club finally wins the championship.

In 2011 Stoltz was seen back on the silver screen with the film Fort McCoy; he earned accolades for his leading role as a conflicted barber of German heritage forced to suppress his American patriotism after moving his family to a post–World War II military base housing a German POW camp.

Starting in 2014, Stoltz became the producing director of the CBS political drama series Madam Secretary. The following year he became one of its four executive producers, alongside Morgan Freeman and Barbara Hall and has directed more than 10 episodes, as well as starring alongside Téa Leoni in several episodes as her brother, Will Adams.

Personal life
Stoltz and Bridget Fonda began dating in 1990 (they had met four years before). The relationship ended after eight years.

He married Bernadette Moley in 2005.

Stoltz is a vegetarian.

Television
He has directed many shows on The Learning Channel, TLC Network.

title: Eric Stoltz


text:
David Wu

David Wu (born April 8, 1955) is an American politician who served as the U.S. representative for OR's 1st congressional district from 1999 to 2011. He is a member of the Democratic Party.

Born in Taiwan and immigrated to the United States as a child, David Wu was the first Taiwanese American to serve in the House of Representatives. Wu announced that he would resign from office following resolution of the 2011 debt ceiling crisis, days after an 18-year-old woman left a voicemail at Wu's campaign office accusing him of an unwanted sexual encounter. Wu acknowledged the encounter and said it was consensual.

Wu submitted his resignation on August 3, 2011. A special election was held on January 31, 2012, to fill the vacancy in advance of the regular 2012 election. Democrat Suzanne Bonamici defeated Republican challenger Rob Cornilles to win this special election.

Since his resignation, Wu has remained in the Washington, D.C. area. He has been raising money for local Democratic parties, and organizing student exchange programs between the Chinese and American space programs. According to a 2014 report, he still frequents the House offices, where he visits with friends, sometimes sits in on hearings and even goes onto the House floor.

Early life and education
Wu was born in Hsinchu, Taiwan. His parents were from Suzhou in Jiangsu province and settled in Taiwan due to the Chinese Civil War. The family moved to the United States in 1961. Wu spent his first two years in the U.S. in Latham, New York, where his family were the only Asian Americans in town.

Wu received a Bachelor of Science degree in biology from Stanford University in 1977 and attended Harvard Medical School for a time, sharing an apartment with future-United States Senator Bill Frist. Wu did not complete his medical studies. Instead, he attended Yale Law School where he was awarded a Juris Doctor degree in 1982.

Law career
Wu served as a clerk for a federal judge. In 1984, he joined the Miller Nash law firm. In 1988, he co-founded the law firm of Cohen & Wu. The firm focused on representing clients in Oregon's high-tech development sector, centered on "Silicon Forest."

Elections
Wu was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1998, succeeding Democrat Elizabeth Furse. He narrowly defeated Republican Molly Bordonaro by a little over 7,100 votes. He won re-election in 2000, defeating state senator Charles Starr in the November election with 58% of the vote to 39% for Starr. Redistricting after the 2000 census made the 1st considerably more Democratic, notably by adding a small portion of Multnomah County. Wu won re-election in 2004 over Republican Goli Ameri; in 2006 over Oregon state representative Derrick Kitts and two minor party candidates; and in 2008 with no Republican candidate running, he captured 72% of the vote to win a sixth term over four minor party candidates. He faced his most difficult reelection test in 2010, defeating Republican challenger Rob Cornilles with 54% of the vote.

Tenure
Wu was a member of the New Democrat Coalition (NDC), a group of moderate Democrats in the House. In 2009, he received a 100 percent rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America. He was also a member of the executive board for the Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus and served as chair from January 2001 to January 2004.

Wu funded virus research at the Oregon Health and Science University that may be the first effective treatment and vaccine for AIDS. He authored legislation to promote research and product development by small businesses using a portion of federal research grants. Wu was a staunch supporter of science and research at both the basic and applied levels.

In the House, Wu was known for taking a strong stand on human rights and the rule of law, sometimes at the risk of his own seat. He opposed granting Most Favored Nation (MFN) trading status to China (renamed later as "Normal Trade Relations"), citing human rights violations and predicting that the trade deficit with China would balloon under the legislation. The two largest employers in his Congressional District, Nike and Intel, strongly supported granting MFN status to China. He favored closing the detention center at Guantanamo Bay, citing rule of law concerns.

Wu was a strong advocate for NASA and the space program. He served on the House Science Committee, which has jurisdiction over NASA, and on its Space Subcommittee, then chaired by Congresswoman Gabby Giffords. Wu defended NASA's budget and advocated for NASA goals for space exploration that are not subject to political influence. He viewed student interest in space as a way to promote STEM education, and founded a space camp scholarship program for underprivileged children. Wu continued this effort after he left Congress, and also started a program to send American students to China to learn about its space program. Chinese students were also included in order to promote international cooperation in space.

Perhaps Wu's most enduring legacy is his successful effort with his Washington State colleague Brian Baird to create the Lewis and Clark National Historic Park located at the mouth of the Columbia River. He expanded the Fort Clatsop National Memorial in 2002 and incorporated it into an expanded park in 2004.

Sexual assault allegation and resignation
On July 22, 2011, The Oregonian reported that an 18-year-old woman left a voicemail at Wu's campaign office accusing him of an unwanted sexual encounter. The woman is the daughter of a longtime friend and campaign donor. Wu acknowledged the encounter and said it was consensual. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi called for an ethics investigation into the allegations. Wu initially indicated that he would not resign but would also not seek reelection in 2012. Several days later, however, Wu announced he would resign following resolution of the 2011 US debt ceiling crisis. He resigned on August 3, 2011. This was his second brush with sexual assault allegations. On Oct 12, 2004, The Oregonian published a 3000 word article on a 1976 incident in a dormitory at Stanford University.

Committee assignments

 * Committee on Education and Labor
 * Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training
 * Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions
 * Committee on Science, Space and Technology
 * Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics
 * Subcommittee on Technology and Innovation (Ranking Member)

Post-Congress
In 2014 BuzzFeed reported that Wu was still living in the Washington area. The article noted that he frequently visited the Capitol and House offices to see friends, many of whom were still serving, such as Rep. Peter DeFazio. He also annually attended the Congressional Baseball Game, sometimes sat in on hearings and occasionally ventured onto the House floor, a privilege he is allowed as a former member.

Under the terms of his divorce, Wu explained to BuzzFeed, he must live in the Washington area until his daughter and son have finished high school. His income primarily comes from consulting for Chinese companies seeking to do business in the U.S.; he is also sometimes quoted in the Chinese media about issues such as the Senkaku Islands dispute (he supports China's claim to sovereignty over the islands, currently administered by Japan).

Wu is also treasurer of the Education and Opportunity Fund, a political action committee that supports county-level Democratic committees. At the time of BuzzFeed ' s article, he was trying to organize a student exchange program to allow Chinese and American students to tour the other country's space-program facilities, an exception to the prohibition on cooperation that otherwise exists. He said he eventually intended to return to Oregon.

Personal life
Wu married Michelle Reinmiller in 1996, and they have two children. In December 2009, he filed for separation from his wife, citing irreconcilable differences, and is now divorced. Previously living in Portland, Oregon, Wu lives in the Washington D.C. area with his son, Matt Wu, and daughter.

title: David Wu