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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Particles

Template
I modified the current template for classifying particles into this; I think it looks a bit better than the prior. Any suggestions or improvements are welcome.

Electron mass defined using natural units.
Author: Don J. Stevens

The ratio of the electron Schwarzschild radius to the electron Compton wavelength is numerically related to the Planck unit of time. The Planck time is (hG/2 pi c exponent 5) exponent 1/2. The dimension (1.5) times the Schwarzschild radius is the gravitational photon capture radius 3Gm/c squared. The right hand side of the equation below is the smallest segment of time that can be resolved, divided by 2 pi seconds. This is proposed to be the gravitational time dilation limit.

2 pi(1.5)x(Schwarzschild radius)divided by(0.5)x(electron Comp. wavelength) = (3/2) exponent 1/2, times (Planck time)divided by(2 pi seconds)

When the reported value for the gravitational constant is used, with G = (6.67259 plus or minus 0.00085) times 10 exponent-11 m exponent 3, kg exponent -1, s exponent-2, the left side of the equation is equal to 1.0508161 times 10 exponent-44 while the right side is equal to 1.0507496 times 10 exponent-44. An argument can be made that both of these quantities or ratios should be equal. When these quantities are equal, the electron Compton wavelength and the electron mass can be defined by using the most basic units known, the Planck units. When this is done it is clear that the electron mass is quantized so that all electrons have the same mass. Both quantities will be equal when the gravitational constant has the specific value 6.6717456 times 10 exponent-11. This is just within the uncertainty range of the reported value. With both sides equal, the equation may be solved for the electron Compton wavelength. The product of Planck's constant and the specific gravitational constant value will be 4.4207445 times 10 exponent-44.

electron Compton wavelength = (4 pi) times (3 pi hG/c) exponent 1/4

electron Compton wavelength = 2.4263102 times 10 exponent-12 meters

From the Planck length, a very high energy photon wavelength can be defined that has the special property of having its energy defined either by the Planck constant or the gravitational constant. This type of "limit wavelength" is equal to (3/2) exponent 1/2, times (2 pi) times Planck length. The Planck length is (hG/ 2 pi c cubed) exponent 1/2.

limit wavelength = (3/2) exp. 1/2, times (2 pi) x (hG/2 pi c cubed) exp. 1/2

limit wavelength = (3 pi hG/c cubed) exponent 1/2

This wavelength photon has the energy density to produce a pair of black holes such that each black hole would have a photon capture radius (3Gm/c squared) equal to the photon wavelength divided by two pi. This photon has energy equal to (2/3) exponent 1/2 times the Planck mass energy.

3Gm/c squared = (wavelength) divided by (2 pi)

m = (h/2 c) divided by (wavelength)

2 pi (3G/c squared) times (h/2c) = (wavelength) exponent 2

(3 pi hG/c cubed) exponent 1/2 = wavelength

photon energy = 2(c exponent4 /3G) times (wavelength/2 pi)

Any wavelength photon (shown below as lambda) that is gravitationally blueshifted to the "limit wavelength" would appear to have the energy density needed to collapse further and materialize a pair of gravitationally confined particles, unless there is another requirement that must be met. Note that the blueshift ratio (limit wavelength/lambda) defines time dilation. This term is squared to obtain a size change factor because gravitational space contraction is expected to be an associated effect that is equal to gravitational time dilation.

(lambda)x(limit wavelength/lambda) exponent 2 = 2 pi(3Gm/c squared)

m = h/(2 lambda times c)

2 pi (3Gm/c squared) divided by (lambda) = (limit wavelength/lambda) exp. 2

For the electron, the other requirement is that the ratio (limit wavelength/lambda) squared will be equal to the gravitational time dilation limit. If equal time dilation factors are required, first to blueshift a photon to maximum energy density, and then to convert photon energy into gravitational field energy (by reducing the time rate as near as possible to zero seconds per second) each time dilation factor would be equal to the square root of the limit time dilation factor. When the first time dilation factor is specified as shown below, each particle will have mass energy equal to the electron mass.

time dilation = (1/2 pi) exponent 1/2 times (3/2) exponent 1/4, times (Planck time/one second) exponent 1/2

(limit wavelength) divided by (0.5)x(electron Compton wavelength) = (1/2 pi) exp. 1/2 times (3/2) exp. 1/4, times (Planck time/ one second) exp. 1/2

electron Compton wavelength = (4 pi) times (3 pi hG/c) exponent 1/4

The product of the gravitational time dilation blueshift factor and the (equal) time dilation factor that converts photon energy to gravitational field energy is equal to the ratio (1/2 pi) times (3/2) exponent 1/2 times (Planck time/one second). This is interpreted to be the gravitational time dilation limit. When the specific requirements are met, the electron mass is quantized. All electrons would then have mass equal to 1/2 of the limit wavelength photon mass energy, when this energy is reduced by the blueshift gravitational time dilation factor.

electron mass = (h/4 pi c) times (c/3 pi hG) exponent 1/4

In Einstein's theory, there is no minimum mass for a black hole. Very small mass black holes would look like elementary particles. They would be completely defined by their mass, charge and spin. Black hole theory predicts that a black hole with charge and spin will have magnetic moment equal to charge times angular momentum divided by mass. This correctly defines the electron magnetic moment without the small (g-factor) correction for emission and reabsorbing of virtual photons.

When a gamma ray photon interacts with an existing mass particle, it will encounter the ever slower time rate gradient that is the hallmark of a collapsed mass. The photon will be blueshifted in a predictable way to ever smaller wavelength dimensions as gravitational time dilation approaches zero seconds per second. If the photon has sufficient energy before being blueshifted to the limit wavelength, it can produce a pair of gravitatonally confined particles. A collapsed mass with charge and spin is usually defined as a Kerr-Newman black hole.

The process of producing light by oscillations of charged particles (usually electrons) is known to be reversible. Oscillating charges produce light while light particles (oscillating electromagnetic waves) when appropriately confined will produce charges in pairs. The quantized energy that will produce electron particles is defined by the "limit wavelength" photon and a blueshift time dilation factor.

The "limit wavelength" photon energy is correctly defined from light velocity and the gravitational constant. This photon energy can be used to determine the energy of any wavelength photon because energy is inversely proportional to wavelength.

photon energy = 2(c exponent 4 /3 G) times (limit wavelength/2 pi)

The mass (or energy) to wavelength relationship relationship for the electron can be simply expressed as a function of the gravitational constant. The electron Compton wavelength is (Comp.wl) in the equations below. The product of the specific G value and the electron mass is 6.0775479 times 10 exponent-41.

3Gm (2 pi) exponent 5 = (0.5 Comp.wl) exponent 3

3G (2 pi) exponent 5 = (0.5 Comp.wl) exponent 3 times (1/m)

m = (h/2c) divided by (0.5 Comp.wl)

3G (2 pi) exponent 5 = (2c/h) times (0.5 Comp.wl) exponent 4

h = 4 pi mc (3Gm) exponent 1/3, times (2 pi) exponent 2/3

These equations are correct when the electron Compton wavelength is 4 pi (3 pi hG/c) exponent 1/4 as determined earlier. The square root of the product of (limit wavelength) and the length (2 pi) squared times (c times one second) is the wavelength 2 pi (3 pi hG/c) exponent 1/4.

These relationships define either actual true electron Compton wavelength and mass values or extremely close wavelength and mass values, though there is presently no accepted theory that explains them.

Barions, mesons
I made some pictures with The Gimp about the quark structure of barions and mesons. You can see them here: hu:Kvark The Gimp sources (and pictures) are here: http://www.szgti.bmf.hu/harp/gnu/particle-physics You can use it under GPL. -- Harp 13:07, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

There is a page at Wikimedia Commons: commons:Particle Physics. There are useful pictures. -- Harp 16:45, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

Project directory
Hello. The WikiProject Council has recently updated the WikiProject Council/Directory. This new directory includes a variety of categories and subcategories which will, with luck, potentially draw new members to the projects who are interested in those specific subjects. Please review the directory and make any changes to the entries for your project that you see fit. There is also a directory of portals, at User:B2T2/Portal, listing all the existing portals. Feel free to add any of them to the portals or comments section of your entries in the directory. The three columns regarding assessment, peer review, and collaboration are included in the directory for both the use of the projects themselves and for that of others. Having such departments will allow a project to more quickly and easily identify its most important articles and its articles in greatest need of improvement. If you have not already done so, please consider whether your project would benefit from having departments which deal in these matters. It is my hope that all the changes to the directory can be finished by the first of next month. Please feel free to make any changes you see fit to the entries for your project before then. If you should have any questions regarding this matter, please do not hesitate to contact me. Thank you. B2T2 00:25, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

Wikipedia Day Awards
Hello, all. It was initially my hope to try to have this done as part of Esperanza's proposal for an appreciation week to end on Wikipedia Day, January 15. However, several people have once again proposed the entirety of Esperanza for deletion, so that might not work. It was the intention of the Appreciation Week proposal to set aside a given time when the various individuals who have made significant, valuable contributions to the encyclopedia would be recognized and honored. I believe that, with some effort, this could still be done. My proposal is to, with luck, try to organize the various WikiProjects and other entities of wikipedia to take part in a larger celebrartion of its contributors to take place in January, probably beginning January 15, 2007. I have created yet another new subpage for myself (a weakness of mine, I'm afraid) at User talk:Badbilltucker/Appreciation Week where I would greatly appreciate any indications from the members of this project as to whether and how they might be willing and/or able to assist in recognizing the contributions of our editors. Thank you for your attention. Badbilltucker 18:21, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Particles


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Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia

The Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia, commonly abbreviated as the AVNOJ, was a deliberative and legislative body that was established in Bihać, Yugoslavia, in November 1942. It was established by Josip Broz Tito, the leader of the Yugoslav Partisans, an armed resistance movement led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia to resist the Axis occupation of the country during World War II.

The AVNOJ reconvened in Jajce in 1943 and in Belgrade in 1945, shortly after the war in Europe ended. Between the sessions, it operated through its presidency, its executive council, and the National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia. The committee was granted authority normally wielded by cabinets. While Tito presided over the committee, the AVNOJ sessions and its presidency were chaired by Ivan Ribar. The second session of the AVNOJ proclaimed itself Yugoslavia's new legislative body and decided that it should be a multi-ethnic federal state.

By 1944, the Western Allies and the Yugoslav government-in-exile recognised the AVNOJ as the all-Yugoslav legislative body. The third session of the AVNOJ was convened in preparation of the Constituent Assembly when the Yugoslav Parliament was convened again in 1945. Decisions of the AVNOJ determined there would be six units in the federation and defined their borders. It also took over the position of the legitimate ruling body of Yugoslavia from the government-in-exile in dealings with the Allies.

Invasion and uprising
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia acceded to the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941 under pressure from the Nazi Germany. The latter sought to protect its southern flank before the planned invasion of the Soviet Union, while ensuring the availability of transport routes and economic resources in the Balkans where the Greco-Italian War was in progress. In response to the pact, Royal Yugoslav Armed Forces generals staged a coup d'état deposing the government and Prince Regent Paul. Royal Yugoslav Air Force General Dušan Simović became the Prime Minister and the regency was abolished by declaring Peter II of Yugoslavia of age and thus the king even though he was only seventeen.

On 6 April 1941, the Axis powers invaded and quickly occupied Yugoslavia. Parts of the country were annexed by its neighbours, and the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was carved out as a Ustaše-ruled Axis puppet state. With the country's defeat imminent, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) instructed its 8,000 members to stockpile weapons in anticipation of armed resistance. By the end of 1941, the armed resistance spread to all areas of the country except Macedonia. Building experience in clandestine operation across the country, the KPJ proceeded to organise the Yugoslav Partisans as resistance fighters led by Josip Broz Tito. The KPJ believed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union had created favourable conditions for an uprising. The KPJ politburo founded the Supreme Headquarters of the National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia with Tito as commander-in-chief on 27 June 1941 and the Partisans waged war against the occupying powers until 1945.d.

Government-in-exile
King Peter II and the government fled Yugoslavia in April 1941 when it became apparent the royal army would not be able to defend the country. The decision to abandon organised armed resistance put the Yugoslav government-in-exile in a weak position, further eroded by political differences between ministers. The government, an extension of the post-coup government led by Simović, based its legitimacy on the 1931 Yugoslav Constitution, which made it responsible to the king. It lost three Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) ministers including the party's leader and the deputy prime minister Vladko Maček, who resigned and stayed in the country. The HSS thus split and lost influence. Džafer Kulenović, the only minister drawn from the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, also resigned.

The government-in-exile was split along an ethnic line separating the HSS from a bloc of Serb ministers drawn from several disunited parties. The divisions deepened because the HSS ministers were reluctant to publicly discuss and condemn Ustaše atrocities against Serbs in late 1941. In January 1942, Simović was replaced by Slobodan Jovanović and his decision to support the Chetniks widened the rift with the HSS ministers. Jovanović saw the Chetniks as a guerrilla force promising the restoration of the monarchy after the war. In combination with fear of communism, this led him to ignore information about Chetnik collaboration with the Axis powers, and appoint their leader Draža Mihailović the Minister of the Army, Navy and Air Forces. At the same time, the government promoted Mihailović to Army General and formally renamed the Chetniks the "Yugoslav Army in the Homeland". In June 1943, Jovanović resigned, unable to reunite the ministers, and his replacement Miloš Trifunović also resigned after less than two months. In August, Božidar Purić was appointed the prime minister of a largely administrative government mostly composed of civil servants, although Mihailović retained his ministerial position.

First session

In November 1942, the Partisans captured Bihać and secured control over a large part of western Bosnia, Dalmatia and Lika, which they called the Bihać Republic. On 26 and 27 November, the pan-Yugoslav Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) was established in the town at the initiative of Tito and the KPJ. At its founding session, the AVNOJ adopted the principle of a multi-ethnic federal state as the basis for the country's future government but did not officially determine what system of government would be implemented after the war. There was a degree of ambiguity regarding the number of future federal units and whether they would all have equal status within the federation.

The AVNOJ also did not mention the international recognition of the London-based Yugoslav government-in-exile, backed by the Western Allies; Soviet leader Joseph Stalin did not wish to antagonise the Allies by supporting the Partisans. Shortly before the Bihać session, Tito added the expression "Anti-Fascist" to the original name of the AVNOJ to emphasise its temporary and anti-Axis nature. These steps were made in response to Soviet positions expressed in correspondence in July–November 1942 between the KPJ and Moscow. The Comintern urged Tito to establish a political body solely to liberate the country and not to oppose the Yugoslav monarchy. The Soviets asked the AVNOJ not to openly advance a communist agenda in order to avoid antagonising the Western Allies, and cautioned against appointing Tito president of the AVNOJ.

AVNOJ delegates represented specific parts of Yugoslavia: seventeen for Bosnia and Herzegovina, fifteen for Croatia, fourteen each for Serbia and Montenegro, eight for Slovenia, six for the Sandžak, and three for Vojvodina. This distribution reflected the number of Partisans from each part of the country taking part in the armed struggle. Some of the selected delegates, including all of those representing Slovenia and Vojvodina and twelve others, did not arrive. The Slovene delegation informed the AVNOJ of its support by telegram. Macedonia was not represented at all. The AVNOJ elected its presidency with Ivan Ribar as president and Pavle Savić and Nurija Pozderac as vice-presidents. Ribar had been the first President of the Constitutional Assembly of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was later renamed Yugoslavia.

The AVNOJ also appointed an executive council presided by Ribar. It had three vice-presidents—Edvard Kocbek, Nurija Pozderac, and Pavle Savić—and six other members: Mladen Iveković (social affairs), Veselin Masleša (propaganda), Simo Milošević (health), Ivan Milutinović (economy), Mile Peruničić (internal affairs), and Vlada Zečević (religious affairs). The executive council was not formally considered a government, and Tito told the Bihać session of the AVNOJ that a government could not be formed for international reasons. Instead, he described the executive council as a political instrument to mobilise people.

After the Bihać meeting, land councils were established as political bodies representative of what was expected to be individual parts of the future federation. In January 1943, the executive council of the AVNOJ announced the "People's Liberation Loan", an attempt to raise half a billion kuna for the Partisan cause. The NDH's Ustaše regime launched a propaganda campaign in November 1942 to discredit the AVNOJ and portray the Partisans' struggle as pro-Serb and anti-Croat. The campaign, which declined after March 1943, involved the publication of brochures and newspaper articles as well as several rallies. Serb participation in the uprisings was highlighted while Croat or Bosnian Muslim AVNOJ participants were either not mentioned, labelled traitors, or misnamed. Ribar's name was misrepresented as Slovene-sounding "Janez Ribar".

Tito describes the purpose of AVNOJ in his work The Yugoslav peoples fight for freedom in 1944:

Delegates
After Italy defected to the Allies and Western Allied forces advanced towards Yugoslavia, Tito announced another session of the AVNOJ. Since the previous session, the Western Allies began to support the Partisans, and Tito considered a British landing in Yugoslavia likely. In October 1943, just before the second session, the KPJ central committee established the National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia (NKOJ), an all-Yugoslav executive body, appointed to perform the role of an interim government.

The AVNOJ reconvened in Jajce on 29 and 30 November 1943; Ribar chaired the meeting as president of the executive council. The KPJ originally planned for the second session of the AVNOJ to be attended by 250 delegates elected by regional land councils. The number of delegates was subsequently increased by 53 to include delegates from Macedonia and the Sandžak. In total, 78 delegates were to be elected in Croatia, 53 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 53 in Serbia, 42 in Slovenia, 42 in Macedonia, 16 in Montenegro, 11 in Sandžak, and 8 in Vojvodina. Of the planned 303, 142 delegates arrived by the start of the session and 163 deputy delegates also attended the session. No deputies from Sandžak or Macedonia were present. The Main National Liberation Committee for Serbia was unable to hold elections because of the German occupation of Serbia. Instead, the Serbian delegates were appointed by individual Partisan units originally from Serbia; as a result, eastern Yugoslavia was underrepresented.

Building blocks for a new state
The AVNOJ made several decisions of the highest political and constitutional significance. It declared itself the supreme legislative body in the country and the representation of Yugoslav sovereignty; affirmed a commitment to forming a democratic federation; and recognised the equal standing of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia in the future federation. Only Sandžak was listed with other lower-ranked regional entities, even though its land council was still included among the "seven basic bodies of people's government". Though the position of individual nations and regions were not further elaborated, the second session of the AVNOJ determined the type of federal system to be introduced in Yugoslavia, modelling it on the Soviet Union.

Tito's views prevailed over the model adopted by the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia and the Communist Party of Croatia (KPH), a nominally independent part of the KPJ established in Croatia. The KPH leader Andrija Hebrang advocated a loose Yugoslav federation where communist parties and bodies established in federal units would be sovereign. In contrast, Tito's vision for the federal units was as administrative divisions only. Hebrang was replaced in late 1944 by Vladimir Bakarić, who aligned the KPH's views on federalism to Tito's.

The AVNOJ also denied the legitimacy of the Yugoslav government-in-exile and forbade the return of King Peter II to the country until its people could decide on the future of the monarchy after the war. It also declared all agreements previously concluded by the government-in-exile to be subject to review and approval, renegotiation or cancellation while declaring any further agreements concluded by the government-in-exile void. Furthermore, the AVNOJ declared that Yugoslavia had never accepted the 1941 partition. Finally, Tito was awarded the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia.

The AVNOJ elected a new presidency consisting of sixty-three members, chaired by Ribar. Five vice-presidents were appointed: Antun Augustinčić, Moša Pijade, Josip Rus, Dimitar Vlahov, and Marko Vujačić. Radonja Golubović and Rodoljub Čolaković were appointed secretaries of the presidency. Some of the AVNOJ delegates were non-Communists so the presidency included some non-Communist members of the pre-war HSS and the Independent Democratic Party. The NKOJ was confirmed in the role of the government. Tito was appointed the president of the NKOJ and had three vice-presidents. Two were KPJ members Edvard Kardelj and Vladislav S. Ribnikar, and the remaining one was Božidar Magovac of the HSS. Finally, the AVNOJ formally praised and thanked Tito's Supreme Headquarters, and the Partisan forces for their armed struggle.

Allied recognition and developments in 1944
On 15 January 1944, the AVNOJ introduced multilingualism to its proceedings, deciding to publish its official work in Serbian, Croatian, Slovene and Macedonian. In February, the AVNOJ and the NKOJ adopted a new emblem of the future federation at Tito's request. The emblem consisted of five lit torches burning as one flame representing five united nations; this was framed by sheaves, topped by a red five-pointed star, and crossed by a blue stripe bearing the name of the country, Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.

Stalin was enraged by the AVNOJ's rejection of Soviet advice in its establishment of the NKOJ as an interim government and explicit repudiation of the government-in-exile. Stalin was specifically worried about Tito's assumption of the presidency of the NKOJ and his elevation to the rank of Marshal. He thought that this would signal to the Western Allies that the KPJ was actually fighting for a revolution. Stalin was further angered by the fact that he received no prior notice of the decisions.

To Stalin's surprise, the Western Allies did not strongly oppose the AVNOJ's decisions. The flow of British equipment and arms to the Partisans, which had started in the second half of 1943 on the basis of the Churchill's Mediterranean strategy, continued. Only days after the AVNOJ's second session, the Allies recognised the Partisans as an Allied force at the Tehran Conference, and cut off further aid to the Chetniks. On British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's urging, the government-in-exile led by Ivan Šubašić and the Tito-led NKOJ signed the Treaty of Vis on 16 June 1944; the government-in-exile recognised the AVNOJ in return for the NKOJ's pledge to postpone the decision on the constitution of Yugoslavia until after the war. Tito and Šubašić concluded another agreement on 1 November in Belgrade; Šubašić confirmed AVNOJ as Yugoslavia's legislative body and agreed to form a new 18-person government. Six of the members would come from the government-in-exile and twelve would be NKOJ members. The second session of the AVNOJ also drew a response from the Chetnik leadership. At the Ba Congress held in January 1944, they proposed an alternative solution for the post-war government. The congress also condemned the AVNOJ in line with the contemporary Chetnik propaganda as a product of collaboration of Communists and Ustaše against Serbs.

Persecution of Germans
On 21 November 1944, the presidency of the AVNOJ declared the Germans of Yugoslavia to be collectively guilty for the war and enemies of Yugoslavia. Germans in Partisan-controlled areas were interned. Prior to 1944, about half a million Germans lived in Yugoslavia. About 240,000 were evacuated before the arrival of the Red Army, another 150,000 were later deported to the USSR to work as forced labour, 50,000 died in Yugoslav-run labor camps and 15,000 were killed by the Partisans. Most of the others were expelled from Yugoslavia and German property was confiscated. By the time of 1948 census, fewer than 56,000 ethnic Germans remained.

Third session

At Allied suggestion, in February 1945 the AVNOJ was expanded to include members drawn from Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo-Metohija, which had not been represented at its second session. The AVNOJ was expanded again in late March to include 54 members of the pre-war Yugoslav Parliament as required by the Tito–Šubašić Agreement. At the Yalta Conference, Churchill and Stalin discussed the decisions made by the AVNOJ; they agreed to demand ratification of all AVNOJ's decisions by the future Yugoslav Constitutional Assembly.

In February 1945, the presidency of the AVNOJ concluded that the Sandžak should not be one of federal units of Yugoslavia. In turn, the Anti-Fascist Council for the People's Liberation of Sandžak divided the region along the pre-1912 Serbia–Montenegro border and dissolved itself. The Anti-Fascist Parliament for the People's Liberation of Serbia (ASNOS) held its first regular session between 7 and 9 April, and voted in favour of annexation of Vojvodina, Kosovo and a part of Sandžak. The People's Liberation Council for the Kosovo-Metohija Oblasts held its first regular session between 8 and 10 July, and a corresponding body of Vojvodina met on 30 and 31 July; both bodies decided the region they represented would join Serbia. All of these decisions were confirmed at the third session of the AVNOJ in August 1945. By the end of the month, the AVNOJ discussed and decided on changes to the borders of all Yugoslav federal units based on corresponding pre-1941 and pre-1918 borders.

The third session of the AVNOJ was held in Belgrade between 7 and 26 August 1945 as a part of preparation of the Constitutional Assembly. It was again presided over by Ribar, and held in the Yugoslav Parliament building. A parliamentary election was held on 11 November and the Constitutional Assembly convened on 29 November 1945. The Assembly went on to ratify the decisions previously made by the AVNOJ.

Legacy

The AVNOJ resulted in a defeat of Serbian nationalism. In the pre-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Serbia was in a dominant position. In comparison to the pre-war situation as well as the territory held by the Kingdom of Serbia before World War I, Serbia lost Macedonia and Montenegro. The AVNOJ established Bosnia and Herzegovina as an equal member of the Yugoslav federation, establishing and confirming borders separating Serbs living in those regions and in Croatia from Serbia. Those borders are sometimes referred to as the "AVNOJ borders".

In 1945, this situation caused concerns among Serbs who feared being divided among multiple Yugoslav constituent republics. In response, Tito and the Yugoslav regime employed rhetoric designed to diminish the apparent significance of the intra-Yugoslav borders. Although the AVNOJ borders were originally drawn as administrative boundaries, they gained importance with subsequent decentralisation and the breakup of Yugoslavia. Serbian irredentism across the AVNOJ borders was a contributing factor in the 1990 Serb revolt in Croatia and the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.

The second session of the AVNOJ was celebrated in post-war Yugoslavia as the birth of the country and the event was commemorated annually on 29 and 30 November as a two-day national holiday. Museums have been established in the buildings which hosted the first and the second sessions of the AVNOJ.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Fair division

Fair division is the problem in game theory of dividing a set of resources among several people who have an entitlement to them so that each person receives their due share. That problem arises in various real-world settings such as division of inheritance, partnership dissolutions, divorce settlements, electronic frequency allocation, airport traffic management, and exploitation of Earth observation satellites. It is an active research area in mathematics, economics (especially social choice theory), dispute resolution, etc. The central tenet of fair division is that such a division should be performed by the players themselves, maybe using a mediator but certainly not an arbiter as only the players really know how they value the goods.

The archetypal fair division algorithm is divide and choose. It demonstrates that two agents with different tastes can divide a cake such that each of them believes that he got the best piece. The research in fair division can be seen as an extension of this procedure to various more complex settings.

There are many different kinds of fair division problems, depending on the nature of goods to divide, the criteria for fairness, the nature of the players and their preferences, and other criteria for evaluating the quality of the division.

Things that can be divided
Formally, a fair division problem is defined by a set $$C$$ (often called "the cake") and a group of $$n$$ players. A division is a partition of $$C$$ into $$n$$ disjoint subsets: $$C = X_1 \sqcup X_2 \sqcup\cdots \sqcup X_n$$, one subset per player.

The set $$C$$ can be of various types:
 * $$C$$ may be a finite set of indivisible items, for example: $$C = \{\text{piano}, \text{car}, \text{apartment}\}$$, such that each item should be given entirely to a single person.
 * $$C$$ may be an infinite set representing a divisible resource, for example: money, or a cake. Mathematically, a divisible resource is often modeled as a subset of a real space, for example, the section [0,1] may represent a long narrow cake, that has to be cut into parallel pieces. The unit disk may represent an apple pie.

Additionally, the set to be divided may be:
 * homogeneous – such as money, where only the amount matters, or
 * heterogeneous – such as a cake that may have different ingredients, different icings, etc.

Finally, it is common to make some assumptions about whether the items to be divided are:
 * goods – such as a car or a cake, or
 * bads – such as house chores.

Based on these distinctions, several general types of fair division problems have been studied:
 * Fair item assignment – dividing a set of indivisible and heterogeneous goods.
 * Fair resource allocation – dividing a set of divisible and homogeneous goods. A special case is fair division of a single homogeneous resource.
 * Fair cake-cutting – dividing a divisible, heterogeneous good. A special case is when the cake is a circle; then the problem is called fair pie-cutting.
 * Fair chore division – dividing a divisible, heterogeneous bad.

Combinations and special cases are also common:
 * Rental harmony (aka the housemates problem) – dividing a set of indivisible heterogeneous goods (e.g., rooms in an apartment), and simultaneously a homogeneous divisible bad (the rent on the apartment).
 * Fair river sharing – dividing waters flowing in an international river among the countries along its stream.
 * Fair random assignment – dividing lotteries over divisions – is especially common when allocating indivisible goods.

Definitions of fairness
Most of what is normally called a fair division is not considered so by the theory because of the use of arbitration. This kind of situation happens quite often with mathematical theories named after real life problems. The decisions in the Talmud on entitlement when an estate is bankrupt reflect some quite complex ideas about fairness, and most people would consider them fair. However they are the result of legal debates by rabbis rather than divisions according to the valuations of the claimants.

According to the Subjective theory of value, there cannot be an objective measure of the value of each item. Therefore, objective fairness is not possible, as different people may assign different values to each item. Empirical experiments on how people define the concept of fairness lead to inconclusive results.

Therefore, most current research on fairness focuses on concepts of subjective fairness. Each of the $$n$$ people is assumed to have a personal, subjective utility function or value function, $$V_i$$, which assigns a numerical value to each subset of $$C$$. Often the functions are assumed to be normalized, so that every person values the empty set as 0 ($$V_i (\empty) = 0$$ for all i), and the entire set of items as 1 ($$V_i (C) = 1$$ for all i) if the items are desirable, and -1 if the items are undesirable. Examples are:
 * If $$C$$ is the set of indivisible items {piano, car, apartment}, then Alice may assign a value of 1/3 to each item, which means that each item is important to her just the same as any other item. Bob may assign the value of 1 to the set {car, apartment}, and the value 0 to all other sets except X; this means that he wants to get only the car and the apartment together; the car alone or the apartment alone, or each of them together with the piano, is worthless to him.
 * If $$C$$ is a long narrow cake (modeled as the interval [0,1]), then, Alice may assign each subset a value proportional to its length, which means that she wants as much cake as possible, regardless of the icings. Bob may assign value only to subsets of [0.4, 0.6], for example, because this part of the cake contains cherries and Bob only cares about cherries.

Based on these subjective value functions, there are a number of widely used criteria for a fair division. Some of these conflict with each other but often they can be combined. The criteria described here are only for when each player is entitled to the same amount:
 * A proportional division means that every person gets at least his due share according to his own value function. For instance if three people divide up a cake each gets at least a third by their own valuation, i.e. each of the n people gets a subset of $$C$$ which he values as at least 1/n of the total value:
 * $$V_i(X_i) \ge V_i(C)/n$$ for all i.
 * A super-proportional division is one where each player receives strictly more than 1/n (such a division exists only if the players have different valuations):
 * $$V_i(X_i) > V_i(C)/n$$ for all i.
 * An envy-free division guarantees that no-one will want somebody else's share more than their own, i.e. every person gets a share that he values at least as much as all other shares:
 * $$V_i(X_i) \ge V_i(X_j)$$ for all i and j.
 * A group-envy-free division guarantees that no subset of agents envies another subset of the same size; it is much stronger than envy-freeness.
 * An equitable division means every person feels exactly the same happiness, i.e. the proportion of the cake a player receives by their own valuation is the same for every player. This is a difficult aim as players need not be truthful if asked their valuation:
 * $$V_i(X_i) = V_j(X_j)$$ for all i and j.
 * An exact division (aka consensus division) is one where all players agree on the value of each share :
 * $$V_i(X_i) = V_j(X_i)$$ for all i and j.

All the above criteria assume that the participants have equal entitlements. If different participants have different entitlements (e.g., in a partnership where each partner invested a different amount), then the fairness criteria should be adapted accordingly. See Proportional cake-cutting with different entitlements.

Additional requirements
In addition to fairness, it is sometimes desired that the division be Pareto optimal, i.e., no other allocation would make someone better off without making someone else worse off. The term efficiency comes from the economics idea of the efficient market. A division where one player gets everything is optimal by this definition so on its own this does not guarantee even a fair share. See also efficient cake-cutting and the price of fairness.

In the real world people sometimes have a very accurate idea of how the other players value the goods and they may care very much about it. The case where they have complete knowledge of each other's valuations can be modeled by game theory. Partial knowledge is very hard to model. A major part of the practical side of fair division is the devising and study of procedures that work well despite such partial knowledge or small mistakes.

An additional requirement is that the fair division procedure be a truthful mechanism, i.e., it should be a dominant strategy for the participants to report their true valuations. This requirement is usually very hard to satisfy in combination with fairness and Pareto-efficiency.

Procedures
A fair division procedure lists actions to be performed by the players in terms of the visible data and their valuations. A valid procedure is one that guarantees a fair division for every player who acts rationally according to their valuation. Where an action depends on a player's valuation the procedure is describing the strategy a rational player will follow. A player may act as if a piece had a different value but must be consistent. For instance if a procedure says the first player cuts the cake in two equal parts then the second player chooses a piece, then the first player cannot claim that the second player got more.

What the players do is:
 * Agree on their criteria for a fair division
 * Select a valid procedure and follow its rules

It is assumed the aim of each player is to maximize the minimum amount they might get, or in other words, to achieve the maximin.

Procedures can be divided into discrete vs. continuous procedures. A discrete procedure would for instance only involve one person at a time cutting or marking a cake. Continuous procedures involve things like one player moving a knife and the other saying "stop". Another type of continuous procedure involves a person assigning a value to every part of the cake.

For a list of fair division procedures, see Category:Fair division protocols.

No finite protocol (even if unbounded) can guarantee an envy-free division of a cake among three or more players, if each player is to receive a single connected piece. However, this result applies only to the model presented in that work and not for cases where, for example, a mediator has full information of the players' valuation functions and proposes a division based on this information.

Extensions
Recently, the model of fair division has been extended from individual agents to families (pre-determined groups) of agents. See Fair division among groups.

History
According to Sol Garfunkel, the cake-cutting problem had been one of the most important open problems in 20th century mathematics, when the most important variant of the problem was finally solved with the Brams-Taylor procedure by Steven Brams and Alan Taylor in 1995.

Divide and choose's origins are undocumented. The related activities of bargaining and barter are also ancient. Negotiations involving more than two people are also quite common, the Potsdam Conference is a notable recent example.

The theory of fair division dates back only to the end of the second world war. It was devised by a group of Polish mathematicians, Hugo Steinhaus, Bronisław Knaster and Stefan Banach, who used to meet in the Scottish Café in Lvov (then in Poland). A proportional (fair division) division for any number of players called 'last-diminisher' was devised in 1944. This was attributed to Banach and Knaster by Steinhaus when he made the problem public for the first time at a meeting of the Econometric Society in Washington, D.C., on 17 September 1947. At that meeting he also proposed the problem of finding the smallest number of cuts necessary for such divisions.

For the history of envy-free cake-cutting, see envy-free cake-cutting.

In popular culture

 * The 17-animal inheritance puzzle involves the fair division of 17 camels (or elephants, or horses) into the proportions 1/2, 1/3, and 1/9. It is a popular mathematical puzzle, often claimed to have an ancient origin, but its first documented publication was in 18th-century Iran.
 * In Numb3rs season 3 episode "One Hour", Charlie talks about the cake-cutting problem as applied to the amount of money a kidnapper was demanding.
 * Hugo Steinhaus wrote about a number of variants of fair division in his book Mathematical Snapshots. In his book he says a special three-person version of fair division was devised by G. Krochmainy in Berdechów in 1944 and another by Mrs L Kott.
 * Martin Gardner and Ian Stewart have both published books with sections about the problem. Martin Gardner introduced the chore division form of the problem. Ian Stewart has popularized the fair division problem with his articles in Scientific American and New Scientist.
 * A Dinosaur Comics strip is based on the cake-cutting problem.
 * In the Israeli movie Saint Clara, a Russian immigrant asks an Israeli math teacher, how a circular cake can be divided fairly among 7 people? His answer is to make 3 straight cuts through its middle, making 8 equal pieces. Since there are only 7 people, one piece should be discarded, in the spirit of communism.

Survey articles

 * Vincent P. Crawford (1987). "fair division," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 274–75.
 * Hal Varian (1987). "fairness," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 275–76.
 * Bryan Skyrms (1996). The Evolution of the Social Contract Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55583-8
 * , chapters 11–13.
 * Fair Division by Christian Klamler – in Handbook of Group Decision and Negotiation pp 183–202.
 * Cake-Cutting: Fair Division of Divisible Goods by Claudia Lindner and Jörg Rothe – in Economics and Computation pp 395–491.
 * Fair division of indivisible goods by Jérôme Lang and Jörg Rothe – in Economics and Computation pp 493–550.
 * Fair division of indivisible goods by Jérôme Lang and Jörg Rothe – in Economics and Computation pp 493–550.

title: Fair division


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Rainer Schüttler

Rainer Schüttler (born 25 April 1976) is a German former professional tennis player. Schüttler was the runner-up at the 2003 Australian Open and a semifinalist at the 2008 Wimbledon Championships. He won an Olympic silver medal in doubles at the 2004 Athens Olympics, and achieved a career-high ranking of world No. 5 in April 2004.

Early life
He began playing tennis at the age of nine. He resides in Switzerland.

2003–2009
In 2003, Schüttler became the first German since Boris Becker in 1989 to advance to the fourth round at all Grand Slam tournaments. He became the first German to reach a Grand Slam final, at the Australian Open, since Michael Stich was the runner-up at Roland Garros in 1996. En route to the final, which he lost in straight sets to Andre Agassi, he defeated Andy Roddick who would end the season as world No 1.

In 2004, Schüttler reached his first career ATP Masters Series final in Monte Carlo by beating Gustavo Kuerten in the first round, Lleyton Hewitt in the third round, Tim Henman in the quarterfinal and Carlos Moyá in the semifinal. In the final, he lost to Guillermo Coria. That week, he would reach a career-high ranking of No. 5. Schüttler won a silver medal for Germany in men's doubles with partner Nicolas Kiefer at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. 2004 was the sixth straight year in which he finished in the ATP top 50.

Schüttler reached his first career semifinal at Wimbledon by beating Santiago Ventura, James Blake, Guillermo García López, Janko Tipsarević, and Arnaud Clément 6–3, 5–7, 7–6, 6–7, 8–6. His match with Clément was over five hours, completed in two days to reach the semifinals, in which Schuettler saved a match point at 6–5 down in the fifth set. He was defeated by eventual champion Rafael Nadal 1–6, 6–7, 4–6. His achievement was a big surprise, since he entered the tournament ranked 94th and with a streak of 13 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments without making it past the second round.

His 2009 season Schüttler started off at the Chennai Open, beating Prakash Amritraj 6–2, 4–6, 6–1. In the second round, he beat Simon Greul 6–4, 6–2, and in the quarterfinals Björn Phau, 6–2, 7–5. Unfortunately Schuettler had to withdraw from his semifinal match against Somdev Devvarman because of a wrist injury. He also withdrew from the tournament in Sydney. At the Australian Open, he was seeded 30th but lost in the first round to Israeli Dudi Sela 1–6, 6–2, 6–4, 6–4. He also participated in the doubles with Lu Yen-hsun, but they were defeated by Łukasz Kubot and Oliver Marach. In the first round in Rotterdam, he lost to Mario Ančić. He played the Open 13 in Marseille, defeating Laurent Recouderc in the first round 6–1, 6–4.

He competed at the ARAG World Team Cup in Germany, helping his country reach the final, where they lost to Serbia.

In the second round at Wimbledon, though seeded 18th, he was upset by Dudi Sela, 7–6, 6–3, 6–2.

2010–2011
He reached the second round of the Australian Open defeating Sam Querrey in four sets. However he lost to Feliciano López in four sets, too. At the French Open, he again suffered a first-round exit, this time against Guillermo García López in straight sets. He reached the semifinal of the Aegon Championships at the Queens Club in London but lost to Sam Querrey in three sets 7–6, 5–7, 3–6. Despite his good form he was defeated by Denis Istomin in the second round of Wimbledon in five sets. At the quarterfinal of the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles, Schüttler could not manage to close out the match against Querrey despite serving for it at 5–4 and 6–5 in the deciding set. He was knocked out in the first round of the US Open losing to Benoît Paire. At the Thailand Open in Bangkok, Schüttler beat Ricardo Mello in round one for a second round berth against Ernests Gulbis. He lost 6–7, 7–6, 4–6 in a close match.

In 2010, Schüttler and his former Davis Cup companion Alexander Waske founded the Schüttler Waske Tennis-University, a tennis academy for professional tennis players.

Schüttler started the tour at the Qatar Open where he confronted Teymuraz Gabashvili in the singles, but lost 3–5, 6–7. He also played doubles with Guillermo García López confronting Marco Chiudinelli and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, to whom they lost 1–6, 2–6. At the Australian Open, he played ninth seed Fernando Verdasco in the first round, but lost 1–6, 3–6, 2–6. He then played several Challenger series tournaments. At Wimbledon, he defeated Thomaz Bellucci in the first round, but lost to Feliciano López in the second 6–7, 7–6, 2–6, 2–6.

Schüttler officially retired in October 2012.

Coaching career
After retirement, he began his coaching career and has coached Janko Tipsarević, Sergiy Stakhovsky and Vasek Pospisil. Since November 2018, he coached former world No. 1, Angelique Kerber. In July 2019, Kerber announced they had split on social media.

Personal life
In 2014 Rainer met Serbian Jovana Sesevic, whose sister Biljana is married to another former top 10 player, Janko Tipsarević. They married in 2015 and have two sons (Noah and Leon) and now mostly reside in Switzerland.

title: Rainer Schüttler


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Talk:Ferdinand I of Austria

Why did the death date change?
The last time I saw the page, Ferdinand's death date was June 29, 1875. Now, the death date is at the end of his reign without any explanation. Could someone explain this to me? Other sources say it was the previous date (June 29, 1875) G0dzillaboy02 (talk) 11:58, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

 * There's been quite a bit of back-and-forth editing, with no discussion here. I've protected the page for a few days to give the parties a chance to explain themselvees here. Just Step Sideways from this world ..... today 17:54, 5 June 2024 (UTC)
 * This is obvious vandalism. Both the abdication and the date of death are cited, they are found in other literature and other language mutations of Wikipedia, which I also indicated in the Edit summary when I did not notice that this was vandalism and not a mistake. User changes it without justification in Edit summary and without references. FromCzech (talk) 18:17, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ferdinand I of Austria


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Avala

Avala (Авала, ) is a mountain in Serbia, overlooking Belgrade. It is situated in the south-eastern corner of the city and provides a great panoramic view of Belgrade, Vojvodina and Šumadija, as the surrounding area on all sides is mostly lowlands. It stands at 511 m above sea level, which means that it enters the locally defined mountain category just by 11 m.

Location
Avala is located 16 km south-east of downtown Belgrade. The entire area of the mountain belongs to the Belgrade City area, the majority of it being in the municipality of Voždovac, with the eastern slopes being in the municipality of Grocka, and the southernmost extension in the municipality of Sopot. It is possible that in the future the entire area of Avala would create a separate municipality of Belgrade, named Avalski Venac.

Geography
Avala is a low type of the Pannonian island mountain, though it is actually the northernmost mountain in Šumadija. Until 600,000 years ago, when the surrounding low areas were flooded by the inner Pannonian Sea, Avala was an island, just as the neighboring mountains (Kosmaj, Fruška Gora, etc.), thus earning its geographical classification. However, Avala remains an "island mountain" as the area around it, Pinosava plateau of the northern Low Šumadija, is low and mostly flat. In the north it extends into the woods of Stepin Lug.

The mountain is built of serpentinite, limestone and magmatic rocks, which are injected in the shape of cone (laccolith). Other peaks include Ladne vode (340 m), Zvečara (347 m), Sakinac (315 m). The Avala had deposits of ores, most notably lead and mercury's ore of cinnabarite and mining activities which can be traced to the pre-Antiquity times. Other metals mined on the mountain include silver, gold and zinc. At the Šuplja Stena localities, seven quartz-carbonate veins with minerals and cinnabarite ore were discovered (Šuplja Stena, Dževerov Kamen, Dževerov Potok, Rupine, Kamenik-Spomenik, Kamenik and Prečica), with 13 additional between Šuplja Stena and Topčiderka river.

Avala is also a location where the mineral avalite, named after the mountain, was found. A greenish mineral, chromian, magnesian or potassic alumosilicate (variety of the mineral illite), it was discovered by Serbian chemist Sima Lozanić who established its formula. Optically examined by the Israeli mineralogist Tamir Grodek who classified it as a member of the mica mineral group.

On the southern slopes, in the area of Ripanj, the closed Tešićev Majdan ("Tešić Quarry") is located. The stone pit was privately owned, but was confiscated by the state after World War II and stopped operating before 1960. In the process of restitution after 2000, the quarry was returned to the surviving owners, but they live abroad so the quarry is still not operational. It is the only known location of kersantite in Serbia, a rare type of greenish granite. For decades, kersantite was used for Belgrade buildings. Features built with this stone include the fountain between the Novi Dvor and Stari Dvor, the bordure of the Hotel Bristol, Small Staircase in Kalemegdan Park, pedestal of the Play of Black Horses statues in front of the House of the National Assembly of Serbia and buildings of Belgrade Cooperative, Elementary School King Petar I, Cathedral Church of St. Michael the Archangel and Main Post Office Building. As the buildings began to deteriorate over time, city authorities showed interest in the quarry, not only for the repairs but also for future construction. For now, when some deteriorated kersantite feature has to be replaced, the artificial stone is used (as in the case of the pedestal of the Play of Black Horses). Geologists suggested to the city to obtain the ownership over the land on which the pit is located and to reopen it. The Belgrade City government announced in 2012 that it will unilaterally explore the pit until it gets reopened and inspected it in 2013. Large amounts of already cut kersantite were found. Locals have been illegally extracting the stone and crushing it to use as road cover. After the political change in Belgrade in late 2013, the motion was dropped.

On the mountain itself, there are several springs, of which Sakinac is best known. Despite being the only mountain in the area, Avala is not a source of many rivers. The Topčiderka river, originating in the woods of Lipovička šuma on the south-west, flows on the western slopes of Avala, while the river Bolečica flows on the eastern slopes. Other minor flows include the Vranovac, a tributary to the Bolečica. A small artificial lake near the village of Pinosava was created on the western slope of the mountain. The settlements in the area are notorious for problems with shortages of drinking water during summer.

Protection

The mountain has been protected since 1859 as a natural monument, or, by the modern standards, "sight of the exquisite values". That year, Serbian ruling prince Miloš Obrenović issued an order for the Avala to get fenced and protected that way. He also banned construction of houses on the mountain itself.

In the early 20th century, plans were made for further forestation of the mountain. In his last visit to Serbia in 1903, Austro-Hungarian naturalist Felix Philipp Kanitz noted that the mountain would become "another exceptional excursion area", after the Topčider park. Remains of the medieval Žrnov were removed in 1934 to make way for the Monument to the Unknown Hero. The destruction of Žrnov, which was demolished with dynamite, caused massive discontent among the citizens of Belgrade. In the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the mountain was declared a national park, in 1936. In 1946, by the ukaz of the Presidium of the National Assembly of Serbia, Avala was reduced to the status of the "public property of general benefit" and placed under direct management of the Government of Serbia.

Despite being officially protected for almost 150 years, it was only in 2007 that preservation plans for the mountain were made. That way, Avala entered a circle of protected green areas of Belgrade, which also included the mountain of Kosmaj, the island of Veliko Ratno Ostrvo and the woods of Stepin Lug, with the forests of Košutnjak and Topčider to be added next. Protected areas of Avala spread over 489,13 ha

Some areas within the mountain are additionally protected., including the "Complex of mountain beech, oak, maple and elm", which is in the first level of protection. It is located in the valley of the Vranovica stream, close to the "Čarapićev Brest" visitors' complex.

In early September 2020, unknown persons began clearing the field in the protected downhill of Avala. The field was a recorded habitat of Caspian whipsnake. Illegal construction of the complex of houses, without any permits, began in January 2021. Inspections closed it, but the construction continued before it was halted. Demolition of the complex began in August 2022.

Plant life
Avala is known for its diverse plant life, despite not being a tall mountain. There are over 600 plant species living on the mountain. Some of them are protected by the law as natural rarities, like certain types of laburnum, box tree, black broom, common holly and martagon lily. The area is also abundant in medicinal herbs, like the early-purple orchid and belladonna. Almost 70% of Avala is forested, or 5.01 km2. Thus, the meadow plant communities are rare. Other protected plant species include common yew and oregano. High woods mostly consist of durmast oak, Turkey oak, hornbeam, beech, linden, black pine, black locust and other trees.

Animal life
Almost 100 species of birds live on Avala, including strictly protected Eurasian sparrowhawk, European honey buzzard and European green woodpecker. Total of 21 bird species is protected. Other species include common buzzard, stock dove, common kestrel, and Eurasian scops owl.

A section of the mountain is organized as a game hunting ground.

Name

In the Middle Ages, the town of Žrnov or "Avalski Grad" (Avala town) was located on top of Avala. In 1442. it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, which built a new town in Žrnov's place as a counter-fortress to the Belgrade city fort, and renamed it "havale", which originally comes from Arabic and means "obstacle" or "shelter".

Mining
Archeologist Miloje Vasić believed that the vast mines of cinnabarite (mercury-sulfide) on Avala were crucial for the development of the Vinča culture, on the banks of the Danube circa 5700 BC. Settlers of Vinča apparently melted cinnabarite and used it in metallurgy. Mining was active on the mountain at 3000 BC. However, it is still contested when people began mining on Avala, from the Neolithic, to the earnest mining by the Celtic Scordisci, prior to Roman conquest. There are three major mines, Šuplja Stena, Crveni Breg and Ciganlija, the first being the most explored.

Vasić also claimed that Vinča hosted a Ionian trade colony from the Aegean around 6000 BC, and that Ionian seamen discovered primitive mine in Šuplja Stena. The Ionians continued to mine cinnabarite and with their final departure from Vinča, the mine stoppe working until being partially revived by the Celts. Pots with mercury were discovered in Šuplja Stena, but not the smelting artefacts or slag. A vast number of potteries discovered in Vinča was internally glazed with cinnabarite, with some quartz and phyllosilicates. Examination showed that it matches materials from Avala. Vinča developed c.5700 BC, Vladimir Milojević claim the production for certain from 2000 BC to 750 BC without being able to say when the mining began. Remains from both the Neolithic and the last Ice Age are also discovered in the cave.

It is still debated whether Šuplja Stena is a natural cave or was completely dug for the mining purposes. Remains of the Neanderthal culture were discovered in it. In his 1943 Prehistoric mine Šuplja Stena on Avala hill near Belgrade (Serbia), Vladimir Milojčić said that the "cave is old as Avala", formed by the volcanic activity and elevation of the terrain. The cave was first used by the wild animals and later by the prehistoric peoples, with animal and human remains, and prehistoric mining artefacts have been discovered. However, geographer Dragan Petrović in his work on the caves of Šumadija, lists caves on the present Belgrade's territory, but makes no mention of Šuplja Stena.

In Medieval Serbia mining on Avala began in c.1420, after the Law on mines was issued by the Despot Stefan Lazarević in 1412. In this period, the cinnabarite was used for fresco paintings and was exported to Greece. Mining activities ceased by the 1960s, when the last two mines, Šuplja Stena and Crveni Breg, were closed. Šuplja Stena ("Hollow Boulder") was a mercury mine while in Crveni Breg ("Red Hill"), lead, zinc, silver and gold were extracted. Crveni Breg was closed in 1953 and has traces of the usage from the Roman period. It has seven levels, out of which four are flooded, and the stalactites are being formed inside. By 2009 the upper level was prepared for visitors, having been cleaned and lighted for some 300 m, but the project of turning it into a tourist attraction failed.

The survey of the Crveni Breg began in 1870, and the mine was opened in 1886. Lead, zinc and silver were mined. It was intermittently operational till 1901 when it was purchased by the Belgian company from the previous Serbian owners. Operational again from 1902, it was sold to the French owners in 1906. It worked until 1941, and in this period 18,800 tons of ore was extracted. It was reopened in 1948 and closed in 1953. 55,000 tons of ore was extracted in this period, containing lead, zinc, silver, gold and copper. Along the road to Mladenovac there is the Ciganlija mine, with numerous smaller horizontal pits covered with overgrowth. Next to the mine is Zavljak stream, where remains of the slag dated to Antiquity were discovered. The slag contains lead, zinc, copper and silver.

The ore in Šuplja Stena was rediscovered in 1882, and in 1883 survey began with digging of the "Jerina" horizontal pit. By 1886, horizontal pit "Prečica" with smelters, was also finished. During this period, numerous pits and shafts were dug, with 7 km being dug only in 1891. From 1884 to 1889 it was majority owned by Đorđe Vajfert, when he sold it to an English firm, but continued to manage works. The ore was exported to Vienna, London and China. Though officially closed in 1893, the mine was extracting ore only from 1887 to 1891. From 1889 to 1890 some 30 tons of mercury was sold. The survey of Šuplja Stena was continued in 1910 and, with interruptions, lasted until 1959, while the preparatory works for the reopening began in 1967. Smelters was built, the production continued in 1968 and until spring 1972 when it was finally closed, the mine produced 80 tons of mercury. Mine in Šuplja Stena is considered one of the best explored one, in geological, chemical, mineralogical and mining sense.

World War II and later
Avala was a key point during the Belgrade Offensive in October 1944, a fighting for the liberation of Belgrade in World War II. Germans halted their mechanized units along the Smederevo road, at Mali Mokri Lug, continued equipped with the light weapons and spread over Avala. German units were commanded by lieutenant general Walter Stettner, who was killed during the battle. Germans also had a 7th SS division at the mountain, but after the joint attack of Yugoslav Partisans and Red Army, Belgrade was liberated on 20 October 1944.

In 1965, a 202 m Avala TV Tower was constructed, one of the tallest structures in the Balkans, by the architects Uglješa Bogunović, Slobodan Janjić and M. Krstić. It had a restaurant look-out on 120 m. The tower was destroyed during the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999. Its total reconstruction began in 2006 and was officially opened at a ceremony on 21 April 2010. The new tower is almost the exact replica of the destroyed one, including the unique three-feet base. Belgrade's General Urbanistic Plan (GUP) for the 2001–2021 period defines the mountain as a sports and recreation area.

During the 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak, Avala functioned as a quarantine. The patients were first placed in the mountaineering camp "Čarapićev Brest", which was adapted into the ad-hoc hospital. The patients were later relocated closer to the main road, in the "1000 Ruža" motel.

The 1st Air Defense Missile Battalion, one of the "Neva" battalions of the 250th Air Defense Missile Brigade, is located in Zuce, on the eastern slopes of Avala.

Settlements
Settlements near the mountain are not much populous. They include Ripanj (on the south, the largest one, with a population of 10,084 by the 2022 census of population), Pinosava (on the west, 3,239), Zuce (on the north-east, 1,915), Beli Potok (on the north, 3,717), all in the municipality of Voždovac, and Vrčin (on the east, 8,601), in the municipality of Grocka.

Administration
A movement for creation of the new Belgrade's municipality called Avalski Venac originated in 1996. A motion for the recreation of the municipality of Ripanj appeared in 2002. The idea was to split municipality of Voždovac of its distant, suburban settlements in the area of the Avala: Ripanj, Beli Potok, Pinosava and Zuce. Later, a motion for Vrčin to split from the municipality of Grocka and creation of a joint sub-Avalan municipality also appeared. If created, the new municipality would have a population of 27,556 in 2022. In September 2007 an official motion was started by the municipality of Voždovac to create this new municipality, which would also include Resnik from the municipality of Rakovica  Supported by the local administration headed by the Democratic Party at the time, it was blocked by the members of the same party on the city level. It was also proposed by the political party G17 Plus in 2010 and Nova Stranka in 2015. Coalition Moramo, during the April 2022 campaign for the local elections in Belgrade, favored formation of the municipality, but also of several others.

Transportation
Avala is well connected with Belgrade and other parts of Serbia via roads, highway and railroads.

Avalski drum ("Avala road") is an extension of the Boulevard of the Liberation, which directly connects the mountain to downtown Belgrade (via neighborhoods of Selo Rakovica, Jajinci, Banjica, Voždovac, Autokomanda, Karađorđev Park and Slavija). On the mountain, Avalski drum divides in three: Sub-Avalan settlements are directly connected to Belgrade by the bus lines of the city's public transportation, with terminus in the Belgrade's neighborhood of Trošarina.
 * one section is a circular road which goes to the top of the mountain.
 * second section continues to the south-west, through Ripanj, Lipovička Šuma and Barajevo, and makes a connection to the major road in the western Serbia, Ibarska magistrala.
 * third section goes south-east, parallel to the highway, through Trešnja and Ralja and further to the south and east (where it meets the highway).

The Belgrade–Niš highway, a section of one of the major European roads, European route E75, runs east of the mountain, through Vrčin. North of the mountain runs Kružni put, the most important road in the southern outskirts of Belgrade, which connects all the southern sections of the city. It is also a projected route of the future Belgrade beltway which would continue through the Bolečica river valley and the projected Vinča-Omoljica bridge over the Danube into Vojvodina.

Railroads also run on both sides of the mountain. Eastern branch is a section of the Belgrade-Niš railroad. It runs through the tunnel under the Avala at Beli Potok and then through Včrin. Western branch runs through Ripanj and the long "Ripanj tunnel" (though not under the Avala), and continues into western Serbia and further into Montenegro, as part of the Belgrade–Bar railway.

Tourism

Avala is a traditional picnic resort for Belgraders, but its capacities are not being used much. In 1984 number of tourists was only 15,700 despite over 1.5 million of inhabitants in Belgrade. Some attractions and capacities on the mountain include:
 * Šuplja Stena, a former very popular children's resort, located on the mountain's wind rose; after the 1990s it turned into a residential place refugees from the Yugoslav Wars but was reconstructed and reopened in 2012;
 * Avala Tower, landmark TV Tower that was destroyed during the 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia, later rebuilt in 2010; In June 2017 the tourist complex was opened at the base of the tower. It includes, among other facilities, a restaurant, ethno-gallery, souvenir shop, sports fields and outdoor gym.
 * Weekend-settlement on the southern slopes;
 * Motel "1000 Ruža" in Beli Potok; now adapted into the 3-star hotel;
 * Hotel "Avala"; built in 1928 by the Russian architect Viktor Lukomsky. Russian sculptor Aleksandr Zagrodnyuk sculpted two sphinx which are located at the hotel's north side, on the staircase to the hotel's terrace. The hotel was privatised in 2005, but in 2007 it was declared a cultural monument;
 * Trešnja resort, in the southernmost extension of the mountain;
 * Mountaineering camp of Čarapićev brest; Projected by the architect Slobodan Mihajlović in the 1960s, on the northern slopes of the Avala, above Beli Potok. It was renovated in 2003;
 * Mountaineering camp of Mitrovićev dom. It was made of wood and stone and named (“Mitrović Home”) after dr Dušan Špirta Mitrović, a medical doctor and volunteer on the Salonika front. In 1981 it was declared a cultural monument but in 2014 it burned to the ground in the fire. In 2016–17 it was reconstructed to look exactly the same way it looked before the fire.
 * One of only three officially designated campsites in Belgrade by 2018 is located on the mountain. A small camping ground, it is situated on the slopes in the Ripanj section.
 * Hiking trail "Sakinac", fully revitalized in September 2020. Formerly paved with asphalt concrete, it is covered with the crushed stone from Struganik. It connects the Sakinac water spring to the Mitrovićev dom, on the top of the mountain. There, it forks in two, one end reaching the tower while the other leads to the church.

Monuments on Avala
Special attractions of the Avala are several monuments. They include:

 * Monument to the Unknown Hero – dedicated to the unknown Serbian soldier from World War I; sculptured by Ivan Meštrović in the form of mausoleum with 8 caryatides (columns shaped like female figures, in this case each one representing a woman from a different historical region of Yugoslavia), it was completed in 1938. An earlier monument was erected in 1915 at the location by the German soldiers, on the orders of Field marshal August von Mackensen.
 * Monument to the Soviet war veterans – dedicated to the members of the Soviet military delegation which died in an airplane crash on the Avala on October 19, 1964. They were flying to Belgrade for the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the liberation of Belgrade in World War II, October 20, 1944, as Red Army forces participated in the expulsion of Germans. Among those killed in the crash were Marshal Sergey Semyonovich Biryuzov, chief of the General Staff and first deputy defense minister of the Soviet Union and General Vladimir Ivanovich Zhdanov. The monument was sculptured by Jovan Kratohvil.
 * Memorial Park – dedicated to the victims of the World War II
 * Monument to Vasa Čarapić – dedicated to Vasa Čarapić, one of the leaders of the First Serbian Uprising in 1804 and liberator of Belgrade from the Turks, built in Beli Potok, his birthplace, near the mountaineers home Čarapićev brest. It was sculptured in 1991 by Dušan Nikolić.

Churches
Small church dedicated to the Saint Despot Stefan Lazarević was built in the immediate vicinity of the Avala Tower and Monument to the Unknown Hero. The foundations were consecrated by the Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church, Irinej, in 2015. Made of white pine and designed by deacon Miroslav Nikolić, it covers only 50 m2. The bell tower, built next to the church, is also made of wood. The church contains epitrachelion of Saint Nectarios of Aegina and pillow of Saint Petka.

Mountaineering camp
Annually, from July 1 until July 10, a traditional camp of Serbian mountaineers is held on the Avala. Among other mountaineering activities, there are competitions in:
 * Orienteering
 * Climbing (on an outdoor Climbing wall)
 * Mountain biking
 * Mountain running

Ski center
The first skiing competition in Yugoslavia was held on Avala in 1929. In 1934, Belgrade was declared a national ski center, and by 1936 there were ski pistes and a 20 m ski jumping hill. A special bus line was organized from Slavija to the ski structures on the mountain.

The first local, Serbian competition after World War II was also held here, in 1946. The usual route was the one starting at the logger's cabin and ending all the way to the foothills above Ripanj. The tracks were quite crude. Despite low altitude, construction of the ski resort, with sports and recreational venues and a cable car have been proposed in 1994 and 2005. In October 2018, city government announced plans to set a 550 m long piste. The construction of the complex, which is planned to be operational over the entire year thanks to the artificial snowing system (skiing specifically from November to February), should start in 2019. The piste will start in the immediate vicinity of the tower and end at the logger's cabin. Due to the altitude and the climate, the north-western slope, in the direction of Pinosava, is chosen. The track has been labeled as the "blue", which means it is of and intermediate level of difficulty.

Phase I includes the construction of the piste, ski lift, training trail, snowmaking cannons, decorative lights, parking lots and special machinery. Phase II comprises the building of the bobsled on rails track, zip-line, mini golf course, artificial climbing rock, children playground and an adventure park. Projected price is €5 million. As the project includes cutting of the mountain forest, the opposition to the project amounted and no works began before 2020.

title: Avala


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Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island

The Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island (Assemblée législative de l'Île-du-Prince-Édouard) together with the lieutenant governor of Prince Edward Island form the General Assembly of Prince Edward Island. The Legislative Assembly meets at Province House, which is at the intersection of Richmond and Great George Streets in Charlottetown. Bills passed by the Assembly are given royal assent by the lieutenant governor in the name of the King of Canada.

History
As a colony, Prince Edward Island originally had a bicameral legislature founded in 1773 with the Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island serving as the upper house and the House of Assembly as the lower house. Together they composed the 1st General Assembly of the Island of Saint John. After the name of the colony changed in 1798, the body became known as the General Assembly of Prince Edward Island.

In 1769, a British Order in Council established a new government on the British colony of St. John's Island (present day P.E.I.). In 1770, Lieutenant Governor Walter Patterson (the island's first Governor) arrived and appointed a Council to assist him in the administration of the island. By 1773, at the insistence of the British government, Governor Patterson summoned the island's first assembly.

Elections for the island's first House of Assembly were held on July 4, 1773, with 18 members being elected. Tradition has it that the first session of the island's new assembly was held in the Crossed Keys Tavern on the corner of Queen and Dorchester Streets in Charlottetown; however, a journal entry contradicts this and indicates that it was actually held in the home of James Richardson.

In 1839, an important distinction was drawn between the executive and legislative capacities of the Legislative Council. This distinction proved to be an important step on the road to responsible government which was finally implemented in 1851.

Prior to 1893, Prince Edward Island had a bicameral system of government, consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. These two bodies were amalgamated in 1893 to create one Legislative Assembly consisting of 30 members elected from 15 different constituencies. Each constituency returned a Councillor and an Assemblyman to the Assembly. The only change to this system of returning members to the assembly was the addition of two Members resulting from the creation of 6th Queens in 1966. In 1996, the system and the electoral map were restructured, and the province now has twenty-seven Members of the Legislative Assembly, each elected from a different constituency.

In 2015, Province House was closed for repairs and conservation work. The legislature moved to the adjacent Hon. George Coles Building, where it is expected to remain for several years.

Composition
The Legislative Assembly currently has 27 single-member districts and is currently the smallest provincial assembly in Canada.

Prior to the 1996 provincial election, the province was divided into 16 dual-member districts, each of which was represented by one member who held the title Assemblyman and one member who held the title Councillor. This was a holdover from the legislature's historic bicameral structure; instead of simply abolishing its upper house as most Canadian provinces with historically bicameral legislatures did, Prince Edward Island merged the two houses in 1893. Although both members sat in the same legislative house, all voters in a district voted for the assemblyman while only landowners could vote for the councillor. Excepting the division of 5th Queens, the district that contained the capital city of Charlottetown, into two districts in 1966, these district boundaries were never adjusted for demographic or population changes.

The property qualification was discontinued in 1963, largely eliminating any practical distinction between the two roles, although the nominal titles continued to be used until the current single-member districts were introduced in 1996.

Members of the Legislative Assembly
Cabinet ministers are in bold, party leaders are in italic, and the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is designated by a dagger (†).

Seating plan
Current as of February 2024

Officers
The legislature Black Rod has been carried by the Sergeant-at-Arms since 2000.


text:
William A. Moffett

William Adger Moffett (October 31, 1869 – April 4, 1933) was an American admiral and Medal of Honor recipient known as the architect of naval aviation in the United States Navy.

Biography
Born October 31, 1869, in Charleston, South Carolina, he graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1890. He was the son of George Hall Moffett (1829–1875), who enlisted in the Confederate States army as a private, and was promoted for bravery on the field of battle, eventually attaining the rank of Captain and adjutant-general, Hagood's Brigade, Twenty-fifth South Carolina Volunteers.

Moffett was on USS Charleston (C-2) when she sailed across the Pacific and captured Guam. Ultimately ending up in the Philippines, a month after the US victory at Manila Bay, the Charleston then shelled enemy positions in support of American and Filipino troops at the Battle of Manila (1898).

Commander Moffett was the captain of the Chester during the Tampico Affair. In December 1915 Moffett received the Medal of Honor for his captaincy of the USS Chester (CL-1) in a daring and dangerous night landing in 1914 at Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico. (See also United States occupation of Veracruz, 1914). (See text of the Citation set forth below.)

In World War I, he was commander of the Great Lakes Naval Training Center near Chicago, where he established an aviator training program. While commanding the battleship USS Mississippi (BB-41) (1918–1921) he supported the creation of a scout plane unit on the ship.

Although not himself a flyer, Moffett became known as the "Air Admiral" for his leadership of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics from its creation in 1921 with Captain Henry C. Mustin as its first Assistant Chief. In this role, he oversaw the development of tactics for naval aircraft, the introduction of the aircraft carrier, and relations with the civilian aircraft industry. A master politician, he maintained official support for naval aviation against Billy Mitchell, who favored putting all military aircraft into a separate air force. In that regard, Moffett benefited from his longstanding friendship with Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had been appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy by Woodrow Wilson in 1913.

Moffett was a strong advocate of the development of lighter-than-air craft, and lost his life when the USS Akron (ZRS-4), then the largest dirigible in the world, crashed in the Atlantic Ocean during  a storm off the coast of New Jersey on April 4, 1933.

He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, alongside his wife Jeanette Whitton Moffett (1885–1958), and one of their three sons, William Adger Moffett, Jr. (1910–2001), who was also a Navy admiral.

In 2008, Moffett was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio.

Decorations

 * Top – Naval Aviation Observer wings.
 * 1st row – Medal of Honor
 * 2nd row – Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Lifesaving Medal, Navy Spanish Campaign Medal
 * 3rd row – Philippine Campaign Medal, Mexican Service Medal, World War I Victory Medal

Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: Commander, U.S. Navy. Entered service at: Charleston, South Carolina Born: 31 October 1869, Charleston, South Carolina G.O. No.: 177, 4 December 1915. Other Navy award: Distinguished Service Medal.

Citation:

"For distinguished conduct in battle, engagements of Vera Cruz, 21 and 22 April 1914. Comdr. Moffett brought his ship into the inner harbor during the nights of the 21st and 22d without the assistance of a pilot or navigational lights, and was in a position on the morning of the 22d to use his guns at a critical time with telling effect. His skill in mooring his ship at night was especially noticeable. He placed her nearest to the enemy and did most of the firing and received most of the hits."

Namesake

 * The USS Moffett (DD-362) was named for him.
 * The naval air station that he helped establish in Sunnyvale, California was renamed Moffett Field in his memory soon after his death.
 * Mount Moffett, a mountain in Alaska.
 * John Philip Sousa's march, "The Aviators" is dedicated to William A. Moffett, the man responsible for Sousa's enlistment and commission in the American Navy during World War I.
 * In May 1999, NAVAIR dedicated its headquarters building to William A. Moffett.

title: William A. Moffett