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Microsoft Entourage

Microsoft Entourage is a discontinued e-mail client and personal information manager that was developed by Microsoft for Mac OS 8.5 and later. Microsoft first released Entourage in October 2000 as part of the Microsoft Office 2001 office suite; Office 98, the previous version of Microsoft Office for the classic Mac OS included Outlook Express 5. The last version was Entourage: Mac 2008, part of Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac, released on January 15, 2008. Entourage was replaced by Outlook for Macintosh in Microsoft Office for Mac 2011, released on October 26, 2010.

Overview

Entourage provided email, calendar, address book, task list, note list, and project manager functionality. With Entourage 2004, Microsoft began offering a Project Center, which allowed the user to create and organize projects. Information may come from within Entourage or outside the program. Entourage supported retrieving email using POP, IMAP, and (for Microsoft Exchange servers) WebDAV.

Entourage 2008 featured a new "My Day" utility, which assists in organizing one's day, and cites (in the welcome message) improvements to search speed, "to do" flags, improved junk mail and phishing protection, as well as quick navigation via favorites and customizable toolbars.

Features
Entourage supported some Mac OS technologies, like the Spotlight search engine and AppleScript; however, the use of a monolithic database made it difficult to back up incrementally with Time Machine. Entourage also maintained a separate address book, but allowed synchronization of contacts and calendar events through Sync Services.

Comparison to Outlook
Unlike the other applications in the Mac version of the Microsoft Office suite, Entourage did not share a name with its Microsoft Windows counterpart. Microsoft claimed that Entourage was intended "to address an entirely different audience". Entourage had its origins in Outlook Express 5 on the Mac, as well as Claris Emailer and contained "no ported code, and no Office code". Nevertheless, Microsoft has positioned Entourage as a "similar" product for Macintosh customers on Exchange servers.

As a client for Microsoft Exchange
Entourage had included support for Microsoft Exchange servers since August 4, 2003, when the Exchange Update for Entourage X was released. This early release required the use of IMAP for mail connectivity and WebDAV for address and calendar functionality. (Subsequent versions have dropped the requirement for IMAP and rely solely on WebDAV.) Users complained of the lack of a variety of functions present in Outlook for Windows and Outlook 2001.

Subsequent versions of Entourage added some of the missing functionality. However, full parity with Outlook as an Exchange client was never available in Entourage 2008. Synchronization of tasks and notes with an Exchange server was not available. Many Exchange users have been vocal in denouncing Microsoft's omission of these features. Microsoft claimed to have prioritized "reliability" over expanded Exchange support in Entourage 2008.

One major shortcoming of Entourage was its inability to handle complex HTML. While messages could be received and viewed correctly, they could not be forwarded without all formatting being stripped out. As an example, an airline confirmation received from, say, Imaginary Airlines, could not be forwarded without all of the pictorial information being reduced to links, rendering the e-mail unreadable. A workaround for this was to choose "Forward as attachment" which forwarded the message as a message/rfc822 file, and preserved complex HTML formatting.

An additional limitation was the inability to attach what is referred to as an "Item" in Outlook to a message while it was being composed since there was no menu choice to allow this. Instead, a user needed to find the item to be forwarded, i.e., a Contact, select it, then choose Forward as vCard from the menu.

It was also not possible to create or manage server side rules on the Exchange server, so filtering only worked when the Entourage application was running.

Limitations
Entourage could not natively read Outlook Personal Folder files and could not read Outlook archived emails without first re-importing them back into the main Windows Outlook database. As a result, it was impossible to directly transfer email data from Outlook (Windows) into Entourage (Mac).

Although Microsoft had released a PST Import Tool for Entourage, this did not directly solve the problem of exporting data from Windows to Mac, because this utility could only import PST files from Outlook 2001 for the Mac.

One could import a Windows Outlook 2000 compatible PST to Mac Outlook 2001, and then use the utility to import into Entourage. To address this, Microsoft made Mac Outlook 2001 available for free download.

This wasn't a solution for all Mac users, because Outlook 2001 only runs in the Classic Environment, which cannot run in OS 10.5 or on any Intel Macs. Outlook for Office 2011 for Intel Macs, is able to import Outlook .pst files from Windows; however, data will be stored as many individual files, rather than in a single database such as .pst or the Entourage database.

Macworld indicates that Windows Outlook messages can be transferred to Apple Mail or Entourage by using Mozilla Thunderbird as an intermediate agent. Thunderbird on Windows is used to import the mail from Outlook. Then the converted mail file is moved from the Windows Thunderbird directory to the Mac and the import feature is used on Mac Mail or Entourage. However, message attachments will be lost in the conversion to Thunderbird.

Commercial third-party software (e.g. Emailchemy) is available to facilitate the transfer of Outlook data to Entourage. But those using the mbox format will not be able to respect any subfolder hierarchy since the mbox format doesn't support it.

Other alternative solutions include synchronizing: to an iPod Touch or iPhone through iTunes; using Apple MobileMe service; using an IMAP-enabled email provider; using a Microsoft Exchange server.

Version history

 * Outlook Express (Entourage's predecessor), included with Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition (version 8)
 * Entourage 2001, included with Microsoft Office 2001 (version 9)
 * Entourage X, included with Office X (version X)
 * Entourage 2004, included with Office 2004 for Mac (version 11)
 * Entourage 2008, included with Office 2008 for Mac (version 12)
 * Entourage 2008 Web Services Edition, separate download from Microsoft. (version 13)
 * Entourage was replaced by Outlook for Macintosh in Microsoft Office for Mac 2011, released on October 26, 2010.

title: Microsoft Entourage


text:
PictBridge

PictBridge is a historical computing industry standard introduced in 2003 from the Camera & Imaging Products Association (CIPA) for direct printing. It allows images to be printed directly from digital cameras to a printer, without having to connect the formal name is "Standard of Camera & Imaging Products Association CIPA DC-001 — 2003 Digital Solutions for Imaging Devices". CIPA DC-001-2003 Rev. 2.0 has been published in 2007.

Implementation
PictBridge is typically implemented using USB ports and the USB protocol. PictBridge-capable printers typically have a USB type A port which is connected by cable to the USB port of a PictBridge-capable digital camera (typically a Mini-B). The user selects the images on the camera to print.

Licensing
The PictBridge specification is not an open standard; it can only be obtained from CIPA after agreement not to disclose any information from the specification to others. In practice, this means that PictBridge cannot be implemented as free and open source software, other than by reverse-engineering the protocol, if publishing source code of an implementation of the PictBridge standard is considered to count as "disclosing information" from the specification.

A printer may implement functions similar to a PictBridge printer without the non-disclosure agreement merely by treating the camera's memory as a USB mass storage device, although the user interface for image selection would necessarily be on the printer rather than the camera in this case.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: PictBridge


text:
USFI

Deluxe - Dallas (formerly known as US Forms, USFI, USFI a business unit of Safeguard, and Deluxe Branded Marketing - Dallas) is a full–service print and promotional products company based in Dallas, Texas. Deluxe - Dallas has regional sales offices in New York, Florida, Arizona, and Colorado. Deluxe - Dallas serves over 2,600 clients in the hospitality and retail industries in the United States and in various countries worldwide. Deluxe - Dallas is part of Deluxe Corporation which is headquartered in Shoreview, Minnesota.

Timeline

 * 1984 – Faisal Ahmad leaves Burroughs Corp to start US Forms Inc., acquiring first account, Pearle Vision
 * 1986 – Administrative assistant hired
 * 1987 – Nancy Henger joins company, acquires Omega Optical account
 * 1990 – Steven Sutor hired as Controller
 * 1990 – David Porter joins as Marketing Representative and acquires PageMart and Sears Employee Credit Union accounts
 * 1991 – Core competencies expand to enable becoming Omega's Agency of Record, producing Magazine ads and printed four–color work
 * 1991 – Dedicated creative department established by Ed Angerstein
 * 1993 – Tim VanCleave hired as ninth employee to generate new business – acquired Parkland Hospital account to significantly grow revenue
 * 1993 – USFI recognized as one of Top 100 Fastest Growing Companies by SMU Cox School of Business
 * 1995 – Steve Ealy hired to manage expansion of newly computerized creative department
 * 1997 – USFI Gains GTE Directories, designs and produces directory covers nationwide as well as collateral
 * 1997 – Steven Sutor moves from Controller position to build an IT department
 * 2000 – USFI launches new cellular provider MetroPCS via print, web, in–store campaigns
 * 2000 – USFI surpasses $10 million in annual sales, explores web marketing capabilities
 * 2001 – Dedicated Hospitality Division is founded
 * 2003 – Hospitality Reps expand to key markets nationwide, company legally changes name to USFI
 * 2003 – Robert Lyman joins the company for technology business development and MetroPCS account service
 * 2004 – First USFI Distribution Center is established
 * 2006 – USFI surpasses $20 million in annual sales
 * 2007 - Caryl Barrineau hired to develop business and sales operations.
 * 2008 – Dan Zipes is hired to convert Distribution Center into Logistics and Supply Chain Division
 * 2008 – USFI/GreenWorks is launched, a web–source of green products and information for hospitality, academic and other markets
 * 2009 – USFI at 25 year mark receives full identity re–design and positioning
 * 2011 – USFI hires Douglas Ritter as VP of Marketing and Business Development
 * 2012 – USFI launches new e-commerce effort, Vertical Cubed, based on a Kentico platform
 * 2012 – Faisal Ahmad, CEO and President of USFI passes away on Friday March 2
 * 2012 – USFI names Douglas Ritter President of USFI on March 5
 * 2012 - USFI launches new Health & Beauty division on March 10
 * 2012 - USFI shuts down Vertical Cubed and outsources the Digital Design with a partner
 * 2015 - Safeguard Business Acquisitions and Mergers (BAM), part of Deluxe Corporation, finalizes an asset purchase of USFI, now known as USFI, a business unit of Safeguard.
 * 2019 - USFI rebrands as Deluxe Branded Marketing - Dallas.
 * 2020 - Deluxe Corporation undergoes logo rebrand which is cascaded to Deluxe - Dallas.

title: USFI


text: Template:Tacoma class patrol frigate

title: Template:Tacoma class patrol frigate


text:
Battle of Reval

The naval Battle of Reval took place on 13 May 1790 during the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790), off the port of Reval in the roadstead (now Tallinn, Estonia). This battle ended in an imposing Imperial Russian Navy's victory; it has been compared to the practice of running the gauntlet.

Origins
Undaunted by the Swedish defeats and failures during 1789, the Swedish king, Gustav III sent the battle fleet under his brother Prince Karl, Duke of Södermanland, to eliminate Admiral Chichagov's Russian squadron, which had wintered in the harbor at Reval.

General-Admiral Duke Karl of Södermanland approached Reval with 26 ships of the line and large frigates mounting a combined 1,680 cannon. Chichagov, preparing to meet the enemy in the harbour, formed a battle line made up of 9 ships of the line and the frigate Venus.

Battle
The Russian fleet (10 ships of the line, 5 frigates) was anchored in a line going from Reval harbour towards the Viimsi (Wims) peninsula. The first line consisted of nine ships of the line and frigates (the 100-gun battleships Rostislav and Saratov, 74-gun Kir Ioann, Mstislav, Sv. Elena and Yaroslav, 66-gun Pobedonosets, Boleslav and Izyaslav and the 40-gun frigate Venus). In the second line, four frigates - Podrazhislav (32 guns), Slava (32), Nadezhda Blagopoluchiya (32) and Pryamislav (36). Two bomb-vessels were deployed on the flanks. The third line was composed of seven cutters.

The Swedish fleet under the command of General-Admiral Duke Karl consisted of 22 ships of the line, four frigates and four smaller vessels. It entered the harbour and started passing by the anchored Russian ships.

Due to strong winds and inaccurate aiming, most Swedish projectiles ricocheted past their targets, while the Russian ships that were anchored within the protected area of the harbour were able to use their guns much more effectively. The ship of the Swedish General-Admiral, which could not be brought into the wind due to a rigging problem, was forced to drift towards Rostislav and received major damage from grapeshot. The 64-gun battleship Prins Karl, fifteenth the Swedish line, lost her rudder to Russian fire and had to strike her colours.

The Duke of Södermanland directed the battle from the frigate Ulla Fersen, beyond the range of Russian fire. After a two-hour artillery duel he ordered his ships to break off the engagement; hence the last ten ships of Swedish line veered off without firing a shot. The Swedish ship Riksens Ständer hit the reef north of Aegna (Wolf) island. Swedish attempts to dislodge her failed, and the Swedes were forced to burn her so that the Russians would be unable to take her.

Aftermath
The Battle of Reval was a resounding Russian victory. The Swedes lost two ships of the line, and were forced to retreat despite their more than twofold numerical superiority in line ships. Russian losses were 8 killed and 27 injured. Contemporary sources reported Russian casualties of 4 killed, 7 seriously and 18 lightly wounded, with almost 400 Swedish sailors, soldiers and officers captured and presumably 130 killed.

After the battle the Swedish fleet partially repaired at the sea, and then sailed away east of Hogland Island.

title: Battle of Reval


text:
Late Cretaceous

The Late Cretaceous (100.5–66 Ma) is the younger of two epochs into which the Cretaceous Period is divided in the geologic time scale. Rock strata from this epoch form the Upper Cretaceous Series. The Cretaceous is named after creta, the Latin word for the white limestone known as chalk. The chalk of northern France and the white cliffs of south-eastern England date from the Cretaceous Period.

Climate
During the Late Cretaceous, the climate was warmer than present, although throughout the period a cooling trend is evident. The tropics became restricted to equatorial regions and northern latitudes experienced markedly more seasonal climatic conditions.

Geography
Due to plate tectonics, the Americas were gradually moving westward, causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand. The Western Interior Seaway divided North America into eastern and western halves; Appalachia and Laramidia. India maintained a northward course towards Asia. In the Southern Hemisphere, Australia and Antarctica seem to have remained connected and began to drift away from Africa and South America. Europe was an island chain. Populating some of these islands were endemic dwarf dinosaur species.

Non-avian dinosaurs
In the Late Cretaceous, the hadrosaurs, ankylosaurs, and ceratopsians experienced success in Asiamerica (Western North America and eastern Asia). Tyrannosaurs dominated the large predator niche in North America. They were also present in Asia, although were usually smaller and more primitive than the North American varieties. Pachycephalosaurs were also present in both North America and Asia. Dromaeosaurids shared the same geographical distribution, and are well documented in both Mongolia and Western North America. Additionally therizinosaurs (known previously as segnosaurs) appear to have been in North America and Asia. Gondwana held a very different dinosaurian fauna, with most predators being abelisaurids and carcharodontosaurids; and titanosaurs being among the dominant herbivores. Spinosaurids were also present during this time.

Birds
Birds became increasingly common, diversifying in a variety of enantiornithe and ornithurine forms. Early Neornithes such as Vegavis co-existed with forms as bizarre as Yungavolucris and Avisaurus. Though mostly small, marine Hesperornithes became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea.

Pterosaurs
Though primarily represented by azhdarchids, other forms like pteranodontids, tapejarids (Caiuajara and Bakonydraco), nyctosaurids and uncertain forms (Piksi, Navajodactylus) are also present. Historically, it has been assumed that pterosaurs were in decline due to competition with birds, but it appears that neither group overlapped significantly ecologically, nor is it particularly evident that a true systematic decline was ever in place, especially with the discovery of smaller pterosaur species.

Mammals
Several old mammal groups began to disappear, with the last eutriconodonts occurring in the Campanian of North America. In the northern hemisphere, cimolodont, multituberculates, metatherians and eutherians were the dominant mammals, with the former two groups being the most common mammals in North America. In the southern hemisphere there was instead a more complex fauna of dryolestoids, gondwanatheres and other multituberculates and basal eutherians; monotremes were presumably present, as was the last of the haramiyidans, Avashishta.

Mammals, though generally small, ranged into a variety of ecological niches, from carnivores (Deltatheroida), to mollusc-eater (Stagodontidae), to herbivores (multituberculates, Schowalteria, Zhelestidae and Mesungulatidae) to highly atypical cursorial forms (Zalambdalestidae, Brandoniidae).

True placentals evolved only at the very end of the epoch; the same can be said for true marsupials. Instead, nearly all known eutherian and metatherian fossils belong to other groups.

Marine life
In the seas, mosasaurs suddenly appeared and underwent a spectacular evolutionary radiation. Modern sharks also appeared and penguin-like polycotylid plesiosaurs (3 meters long) and huge long-necked elasmosaurs (13 meters long) also diversified. These predators fed on the numerous teleost fishes, which in turn evolved into new advanced and modern forms (Neoteleostei). Ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, on the other hand, became extinct during the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event.

Flora
Near the end of the Cretaceous Period, flowering plants diversified. In temperate regions, familiar plants like magnolias, sassafras, roses, redwoods, and willows could be found in abundance.

Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction discovery
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time, approximately (Ma). It is widely known as the K–T extinction event and is associated with a geological signature, usually a thin band dated to that time and found in various parts of the world, known as the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). K is the traditional abbreviation for the Cretaceous Period derived from the German name Kreidezeit, and T is the abbreviation for the Tertiary Period (a historical term for the period of time now covered by the Paleogene and Neogene periods). The event marks the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. "Tertiary" being no longer recognized as a formal time or rock unit by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the K-T event is now called the Cretaceous—Paleogene (or K-Pg) extinction event by many researchers.

Non-avian dinosaur fossils are found only below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary and became extinct immediately before or during the event. A very small number of dinosaur fossils have been found above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, but they have been explained as reworked fossils, that is, fossils that have been eroded from their original locations then preserved in later sedimentary layers. Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and many species of plants and invertebrates also became extinct. Mammalian and bird clades passed through the boundary with few extinctions, and evolutionary radiation from those Maastrichtian clades occurred well past the boundary. Rates of extinction and radiation varied across different clades of organisms.

Many scientists hypothesize that the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinctions were caused by catastrophic events such as the massive asteroid impact that caused the Chicxulub crater, in combination with increased volcanic activity, such as that recorded in the Deccan Traps, both of which have been firmly dated to the time of the extinction event. In theory, these events reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, leading to a massive disruption in Earth's ecology. A much smaller number of researchers believe the extinction was more gradual, resulting from slower changes in sea level or climate.

title: Late Cretaceous


text:
Glomerulus (kidney)

The glomerulus (: glomeruli) is a network of small blood vessels (capillaries) known as a tuft, located at the beginning of a nephron in the kidney. Each of the two kidneys contains about one million nephrons. The tuft is structurally supported by the mesangium (the space between the blood vessels), composed of intraglomerular mesangial cells. The blood is filtered across the capillary walls of this tuft through the glomerular filtration barrier, which yields its filtrate of water and soluble substances to a cup-like sac known as Bowman's capsule. The filtrate then enters the renal tubule of the nephron.

The glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal arterial circulation. Unlike most capillary beds, the glomerular capillaries exit into efferent arterioles rather than venules. The resistance of the efferent arterioles causes sufficient hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus to provide the force for ultrafiltration.

The glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitute a renal corpuscle, the basic filtration unit of the kidney. The rate at which blood is filtered through all of the glomeruli, and thus the measure of the overall kidney function, is the glomerular filtration rate.

Structure
The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries located within Bowman's capsule within the kidney. Glomerular mesangial cells structurally support the tufts. Blood enters the capillaries of the glomerulus by a single arteriole called an afferent arteriole and leaves by an efferent arteriole. The capillaries consist of a tube lined by endothelial cells with a central lumen. The gaps between these endothelial cells are called fenestrae. The walls have a unique structure: there are pores between the cells that allow water and soluble substances to exit and after passing through the glomerular basement membrane and between podocyte foot processes, enter the capsule as ultrafiltrate.

Lining
Capillaries of the glomerulus are lined by endothelial cells. These contain numerous pores—also called fenestrae—, 50–100 nm in diameter. Unlike those of other capillaries with fenestrations, these fenestrations are not spanned by diaphragms. They allow for the filtration of fluid, blood plasma solutes and protein, at the same time preventing the filtration of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

The glomerulus has a glomerular basement membrane sandwiched between the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes. It consists mainly of laminins, type IV collagen, agrin, and nidogen, which are synthesized and secreted by both endothelial cells and podocytes. The glomerular basement membrane is 250–400 nm in thickness, which is thicker than basement membranes of other tissue. It is a barrier to blood proteins such as albumin and globulin.

The part of the podocyte in contact with the glomerular basement membrane is called a podocyte foot process or pedicle (Fig. 3): there are gaps between the foot processes through which the filtrate flows into Bowman's capsule. The space between adjacent podocyte foot processes is spanned by slit diaphragms consisting of a mat of proteins, including podocin and nephrin. In addition, foot processes have a negatively charged coat (glycocalyx) that repels negatively charged molecules such as serum albumin.

Mesangium
The mesangium is a space which is continuous with the smooth muscles of the arterioles. It is outside the capillary lumen but surrounded by capillaries. It is in the middle (meso) between the capillaries (angis). It is contained by the basement membrane, which surrounds both the capillaries and the mesangium.

The mesangium contains mainly:
 * Intraglomerular mesangial cells. They are not part of the filtration barrier but are specialized pericytes that participate in the regulation of the filtration rate by contracting or expanding: they contain actin and myosin filaments to accomplish this. Some mesangial cells are in physical contact with capillaries, whereas others are in physical contact with podocytes. There is two-way chemical cross talk among the mesangial cells, the capillaries, and the podocytes to fine-tune the glomerular filtration rate.
 * Mesangial matrix, an amorphous basement membrane-like material secreted by the mesangial cells.

Blood supply

The glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal arterial circulation. Unlike most capillary beds, the glomerular capillaries exit into efferent arterioles rather than venules. The resistance of the efferent arterioles causes sufficient hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus to provide the force for ultrafiltration.

Blood exits the glomerular capillaries by an efferent arteriole instead of a venule, as is seen in the majority of capillary systems (Fig. 4). This provides tighter control over the blood flow through the glomerulus, since arterioles dilate and constrict more readily than venules, owing to their thick circular smooth muscle layer (tunica media). The blood exiting the efferent arteriole enters a renal venule, which in turn enters a renal interlobular vein and then into the renal vein.

Cortical nephrons near the corticomedullary junction (15% of all nephrons) are called juxtamedullary nephrons. The blood exiting the efferent arterioles of these nephrons enter the vasa recta, which are straight capillary branches that deliver blood to the renal medulla. These vasa recta run adjacent to the descending and ascending loop of Henle and participate in the maintenance of the medullary countercurrent exchange system.

Filtrate drainage
The filtrate that has passed through the three-layered filtration unit enters Bowman's capsule. From there, it flows into the renal tubule—the nephron—which follows a U-shaped path to the collecting ducts, finally exiting into a renal calyx as urine.

Filtration
[[File:Filtration barrier.svg|thumb|350px|Scheme of filtration barrier (blood-urine) in the kidney. A. The endothelial cells of the glomerulus; 1. pore (fenestra). B. Glomerular basement membrane: 1. lamina rara interna 2. lamina densa 3. lamina rara externa

C. Podocytes: 1. enzymatic and structural proteins 2. filtration slit 3. diaphragma]] The main function of the glomerulus is to filter plasma to produce glomerular filtrate, which passes down the length of the nephron tubule to form urine. The rate at which the glomerulus produces filtrate from plasma (the glomerular filtration rate) is much higher than in systemic capillaries because of the particular anatomical characteristics of the glomerulus. Unlike systemic capillaries, which receive blood from high-resistance arterioles and drain to low-resistance venules, glomerular capillaries are connected in both ends to high-resistance arterioles: the afferent arteriole, and the efferent arteriole. This arrangement of two arterioles in series determines the high hydrostatic pressure on glomerular capillaries, which is one of the forces that favor filtration to Bowman's capsule.

If a substance has passed through the glomerular capillary endothelial cells, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes, then it enters the lumen of the tubule and is known as glomerular filtrate. Otherwise, it exits the glomerulus through the efferent arteriole and continues circulation as discussed below and as shown on the picture.

Permeability
The structures of the layers determine their permeability-selectivity (permselectivity). The factors that influence permselectivity are the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytic epithelium, as well as the effective pore size of the glomerular wall (8 nm). As a result, large and/or negatively charged molecules will pass through far less frequently than small and/or positively charged ones. For instance, small ions such as sodium and potassium pass freely, while larger proteins, such as hemoglobin and albumin have practically no permeability at all.

The oncotic pressure on glomerular capillaries is one of the forces that resist filtration. Because large and negatively charged proteins have a low permeability, they cannot filtrate easily to Bowman's capsule. Therefore, the concentration of these proteins tends to increase as the glomerular capillaries filtrate plasma, increasing the oncotic pressure along the glomerular capillary.

Starling equation
The rate of filtration from the glomerulus to Bowman's capsule is determined (as in systemic capillaries) by the Starling equation:

 * $$\ GFR = K_\mathrm{f} ((P_\mathrm{gc} - P_\mathrm{bc}) - (\pi_\mathrm{gc} - \pi_\mathrm{bc}))$$

 * $GFR$ is the glomerular filtration rate
 * $K_{f}$ is the filtration coefficient—a proportionality constant
 * $P_{gc}$ is the glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure
 * $P_{bc}$ is the Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure
 * $π_{gc}$ is the glomerular capillary oncotic pressure
 * $π_{bc}$ is the Bowman's capsule oncotic pressure

Blood pressure regulation
The walls of the afferent arteriole contain specialized smooth muscle cells that synthesize renin. These juxtaglomerular cells play a major role in the renin–angiotensin system, which helps regulate blood volume and pressure.

Clinical significance
Damage to the glomerulus by disease can allow passage through the glomerular filtration barrier of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and blood proteins such as albumin and globulin. Underlying causes for glomerular injury can be inflammatory, toxic or metabolic. These can be seen in the urine (urinalysis) on microscopic and chemical (dipstick) examination. Glomerular diseases include diabetic kidney disease, glomerulonephritis (inflammation), glomerulosclerosis (hardening of the glomeruli), and IgA nephropathy.

Due to the connection between the glomerulus and the glomerular filtration rate, the glomerular filtration rate is of clinical significance when suspecting a kidney disease, or when following up a case with known kidney disease, or when risking a development of renal damage such as beginning medications with known nephrotoxicity.

History
In 1666, Italian biologist and anatomist Marcello Malpighi first described the glomeruli and demonstrated their continuity with the renal vasculature (281,282). About 175 years later, surgeon and anatomist William Bowman elucidated in detail the capillary architecture of the glomerulus and the continuity between its surrounding capsule and the proximal tubule.

title: Glomerulus (kidney)


text:
Talk:Custard Factory

Hi, this article was toned down slightly too much so i have restored some of my original work but a little more modest. Please respect this revised edit,

Thanks. N. (unsigned edit by User:195.92.67.208; probably User:Nick Boulevard)

I don't think that Code is actually part of the Custard Factory, it's just near it. Anyway, it's called Air now. Didn't want to edit the main page in case I'm mistaken. - Smallbone10

Hello there, I have some personal photos of the custard factory including the mentioned dragon. Should i supply them here or links to them for possible use in the wiki?

mark —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.107.3.6 (talk) 01:05, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes please! You can upload them to the Commons and link them here. — 82.36.30.34 (talk) 13:56, 18 January 2009 (UTC)

Independent
What is the point of the word "independent" in "The Custard Factory is an independent shopping destination"? No doubt it is independent of many things, but then so is everything under the sun, so it seems to me the word is just noise. 31.52.255.191 (talk) 14:01, 1 January 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Custard Factory


text:
Talk:Bristol (disambiguation)

Comment
I am not sure that I like the "primarily used for" wording, which sounds a bit Britocentric and possessive to me, or at least that it might be viewed in such a way by some people. I was wondering about changing it but, I hope, not losing the flavour or causing any restructuring etc. Any views? Nevilley 17:50, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure it's that, but the wording is very awkward. —Morven 18:49, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Reworded it - better? —Morven 00:28, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, much better, well done! Nevilley 00:19, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

Bristol tractors are missing, as well as the car maker Bristol who make coachbuilt motor cars, think they have a London show room. BulldozerD11 (talk) 03:32, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

Merge banner
A merge banner was placed by User:Bearcat in May 2010 suggesting that List of places called Bristol should be merged here. There has been no discussion, not even a rationale by the proposer, so I am removing the banner. Jezhotwells (talk) 00:24, 8 November 2010 (UTC)

Move?
This might be better as Bristol, and the Bristol UK page as "Bristol, UK" as is common for most cities. 212.219.94.138 (talk) 11:10, 17 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bristol (disambiguation)


text:
Seeed

Seeed is a German hip hop, reggae and dancehall band based in Berlin. Founded in 1998, they have become well known in Germany and its neighboring countries.

Musical style and lyrics
Seeed consists of eleven band members, including three singers, a horn section and a DJ. Seeed is recognized for their catchy fusional mix of German hip hop, reggae and dancehall styles and their use of horns, which is unusual in contemporary popular music. They have worked with Cee-Lo Green, Anthony B, Tanya Stephens, General Degree as well as other Jamaican artists and producers. Almost all of their music releases feature a popular guest experience. Seeed's lyrics are in German, English and Patois. Their biggest hits in the German Sprachraum were "Dickes B", "Aufstehn", "Ding" and "Music Monks". Although their lyrics are in English and German, most of the songs in German were completely translated into English for the international releases of the Albums Next! and Music Monks.

History
Their first hit was "Dickes B", an ode to Berlin. They won three ECHO Awards. With the international versions of Music Monks and Next!, they found broader success in Germany's neighboring countries, especially France. After their initial success with "Dickes B", in the year 2000, they released their first full-length album a few months later, in 2001: New Dubby Conquerors.

In September 2012, Seeed released their fourth studio album, Seeed, their first release in six years. In the meantime, members Peter Fox, Dellé and Demba Nabé (Boundzound) each released solo albums. The album Seeed went straight to number 1 in the German Albums Chart. It was the first time an album of Seeed achieved the top of the albums chart.

On 31 May 2018, Demba Nabé (Boundzound) died at the age of 46.

On 18 April 2019, Seeed released their first Single "Ticket" after Nabé's death. The band dedicated this song to their former member.

The fifth album "Bam Bam" was released 4 October 2019.

EPs

 * 2002: Waterpumpee
 * 2003: The Electric Boogie
 * 2005: Aufstehn!
 * 2011: Molotov / Wonderful Life
 * 2012: Beautiful

DVD

 * 2006: Live!

Riddims

 * "Rodeo" (2005 Germaican Rec.)
 * "Rodeo Refix" (2005 Germaican Rec.)
 * "High Noon" (2005 Germaican Rec.)
 * "Curefix" (2004 Germaican Rec.)
 * "Doctors Darling" (2003 Germaican Rec.)
 * "Electric Boogie" (2003 Germaican Rec.)
 * "Pharaoh" (2003 Germaican Rec.)
 * "FrogAss" (2001 Germaican Rec.)

title: Seeed


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John Evans (archaeologist)

Sir John Evans (17 November 1823 – 31 May 1908) was an English antiquarian, geologist and founder of prehistoric archaeology.

Between 1884 and 1908 he was curator of Oxford's Ashmolean Museum, becoming the founding member of the British Academy in 1902 and professor of prehistoric archaeology at Oxford in 1909.

The John Evans collection, housed at Oxford's Ashmolean Museum, comprises more than 12,000 objects, including a large proportion of British Palaeolithic stone tools.

Biography
John Evans, son of the Rev. A. B. Evans, was born at Britwell Court, Buckinghamshire. At the age of seventeen he started to work for the paper-manufacturing business of John Dickinson & Co. Ltd at Nash Mills (Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire). The company had been founded by his uncle and later father-in-law John Dickinson (1782–1869), who was also its senior partner. In 1850 Evans was admitted as a partner in the company and did not retire from active management until 1885.

Apart from his managerial work John Evans was also a distinguished antiquary, archaeologist and numismatist. He was president of the following societies and institutions:

 * The Society of Antiquaries, from 1885 to 1892.
 * The Royal Numismatic Society, from 1874 to the time of his death.
 * The Geological Society of London, from 1874 to 1876.
 * The Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, from 1877 to 1879.
 * The Society of Chemical Industry, from 1892 to 1893.
 * The British Association for the Advancement of Science, from 1897 to 1898.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1864 and for twenty years (1878–1898) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. He was appointed High Sheriff of Hertfordshire for 1881. Also in 1881, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.

As President of the Society of Antiquaries he was an ex officio trustee of the British Museum and subsequently he became a permanent trustee. His academic honors included honorary degrees from several universities and he was a corresponding member of the Institut de France. He was created a KCB (Knight of the Order of the Bath) in 1892. Most of his very large personal archaeological collection was given to the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford by his son Arthur. The Anglo-Saxon jewelled "Ixworth Cross" and "Tostock Buckle" are two of the outstanding objects. His library was left to the Bodleian Library. A collection of Iron Age antiquities Evans and Sir John Lubbock excavated at the site of Hallstatt in Austria is now in the British Museum's collection.

He lived at Britwell on Castle Hill in Berkhamsted where he died in 1908.

Works
He was the author of three books, in their day standards in their field:

 * The Coins of the Ancient Britons (1864);
 * The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain (1872); and
 * The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland (1881).

He also wrote papers on archaeological and geological subjects, notably the papers on Flint Implements in the Drift communicated in 1860 and 1862 to Archæologia.

Family
Evans was married three times, widowed twice, and had six children. His first wife was Harriet Ann Dickinson, daughter of John Dickinson, owner of the paper business, and Ann Dickinson, née Grover. They had five children:

 * Sir Arthur John Evans (1851–1941), curator of the Ashmolean Museum and excavator of Minoan Crete.
 * Lewis Evans (1853–1930), who continued the family business and collected scientific instruments that formed the core of the collection for the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
 * (Philip) Norman Evans (1854–1893), became a chemist after working for the firm
 * Alice Evans (1856–1882), married William Minet, died relatively young
 * Harriet Ann Evans (1857–1938), married a Longman of the publishing family

Harriet died on 1 January 1858 twelve days after giving birth to Harriet Ann Evans from complications of childbirth, and he married a cousin, Frances Phelps (1826–1890), the fourth daughter of Joseph Phelps and Elizabeth Phelps (née Dickinson). She died on 22 September 1890.

Then, on 9 July 1892, John married Maria Millington Lathbury (1856–1944) and they had a daughter Dame Joan Evans, a distinguished art historian of French and English medieval art. Her partly autobiographical book Time and Chance: The Story of Arthur Evans and His Forebears (1943) is an important source on her father.

Publications

 * The ancient stone implements, weapons and ornaments, of Great Britain (1872)

title: John Evans (archaeologist)


text:
User:Hawstom/List of articles about afterlife

Articles with titles that might contend for the organizational hub

 * Afterlife
 * Underworld
 * Eternity
 * Immortality

Articles on subjects that include afterlife prominently
This section could be immense. So I will go slowly and generally.
 * Eschatology
 * Soul
 * Ghosts, Undead
 * Most religion general articles

Specialized conceptions or subsets of afterlife

 * Heaven
 * Hell
 * Eternal Life
 * Elysium
 * Valhalla
 * Reincarnation
 * Near-death experience
 * Out-of-body experience
 * Pre-Birth communication

 * Many religion afterlife specifics articles

Other related articles referenced

 * Animism
 * Salvation


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Hendaye

Hendaye (Basque: Hendaia, Hendaya) is a commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department and Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of southwestern France.

The town, Metropolitan France's most southwesterly and a popular seaside tourist resort, stands on the right bank of the River Bidassoa – which marks the Franco-Spanish border – at the point where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean in the French Basque Country.

Hendaye has three distinguishable parts: la ville (the town), which stretches from Saint Vincent's church to the area around the SNCF railway station and the industrial zone; la plage (the beach), the seaside quarter; and les hauteurs (the heights), the villas and camping sites on the hills between and behind the other two areas.

History
Hendaye acquired its independence from the Urrugne parish in 1598, when Saint Vincent's church was built. In the Franco-Spanish War, the town was briefly occupied by the Spanish, in September 1636.

On the fortified Île des Faisans (Pheasant Island) in the river, the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed in 1659, ending decades of intermittent war between France and Spain. Authority over the island alternates between France and Spain every six months.

All the same, the village kept being subject to destruction due to cross-border military activity. In the War of the Pyrenees (1793–1795), the village was levelled to the ground, as described in 1799 by Wilhelm von Humboldt: "The settlement spreads over a rather wide area, and seems to have looked clean and pleasant time ago. Currently all the houses, but for a handful of them, lie destroyed. The empty walls can barely stand, while the ground before inhabited is covered with overgrown bush and hawthorn. Ivy creeps up the walls, out of crumbling windows the desolate ocean can be seen through the room. Shells can still be come across the street here and there, but hardly ever can one bump into a person. Most of the inhabitants either perished in the danger and helplessness of the runaway, or they scattered away to other places."

The abolition of the French provinces, the War of the Pyrenees and the end of Basque home rule in the Spanish Basque districts—customs on the Ebro river moved to the Pyrenees (1841)—broke definitely the fluent cross-border trade and natural coexistence of the Basque speaking communities around the lower Bidassoa and the Bay of Txingudi, divided as of then by a restricted Spanish-French border.

On 22 October 1863, the railway arrived in Hendaye, as the track on the Spanish side also approached the Bidassoa borderline. On 15 August 1864, the first Madrid-Paris train arrived in Hendaye, forever re-shaping the human and urban landscape of the village and prompting rapid development. Hendaye started to stand out as an international hub and a seaside resort for the elites after the model of Biarritz (1854), halfway between Donostia (San Sebastián) and Biarritz. In 1913, the Spanish Basque railway serving the coastline all the way to Donostia (later known as "topo", the 'mole') arrived at Hendaye Gare.

On 23 October 1940, Ramón Serrano Súñer, Francisco Franco, Adolf Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop met in the Hendaye railway station (then in German-occupied France) to discuss Spain's participation in World War II as part of the Axis. Franco declined Hitler's entreaties and outlived the other fascists by avoiding war with the United Kingdom.

Hendaye was the birthplace of Martin Guerre, a French peasant of the 16th century who was at the centre of a famous case of imposture.

Sights
The town square, where there is a weekly open-air market on Wednesdays, is the location of the famous seventeenth century "Great Cross of Hendaye", a stone cross carved with alchemical symbols that occultists find to contain encrypted information on a future global catastrophe. The church of Saint-Vincent was built in 1598, and largely reconstructed over the centuries following fires and bombardments. Its most recent transformation was finished in 1968. The 13th-century crucifix is the principal treasure.

The ruins of the early seventeenth century fortifications, which were reinforced by Vauban in 1685, and the old cannons facing Hondarribia, are one of the features of the promenade along the Bay of Txingudi waterfront.

The seafront Château of Antoine d'Abbadie, built by the architect and theorist Eugène Viollet-le-Duc is a monument of the Gothic Revival.

The Casino building, of Neo-Moorish style, was built in 1885. It used to be occupied by a casino (hence the name), until it was moved to the quartier de Sokoburu. During the First World War, it served as a military hospital for French soldiers and then as the Portuguese Military Hospital of Hendaia, from 15 June 1918 to 23 February 1919.

The picturesque old fishing port of Caneta has views over the Bay of Txingudi to Hondarribia and the Jaizkibel, and is also the site of Pierre Loti's house and the old customs building.

The  Jumeaux rocks (Dunbarriak in Basque, literally 'the bell stones') have become somewhat emblematic to Hendaye. These two high rock stacks, which have been carved out of the cliffs by wave action, are visible from the beach or from the domaine d'Abbadia, a nature park on the edge of the commune related to the Conservatoire du littoral project.

Music
Hendaye doesn't have any specific music venues, but there are many places where bands can play. The covered pelota fronton at Belcenia has a high capacity and the basque folk band Oskorri have played here on more than one occasion. In summer, bigger bands can play in open air at the Hendaye Plage Rugby pitch. Toure Kunda, among others, have played here. Concerts can be organised in the Cinéma les Variétés, which also has a high capacity.

The closed market is a good place for starting-out local bands to stage small concerts. Rather than a pub scene, local bands often play in Hendaye's many campsites in the summer.

The Lanetik Egina music club is the hub of Hendaye's music scene. It has a very good reputation and organises regular concerts. It is also a place where musicians of all ages can meet up and form bands.

Perhaps the most successful band to come from Hendaye is the basque ska-punk band Skunk, who have made many albums.

Theatre and performance
The Cinéma les Variétés is a large classic theatre and cinema, which is a regular venue for theatre, dancing, and performance arts. There is also a cinema at Sokoburu, near the quartier de la Plage, called the Salle Antoine d'Abbadie, but it is only used on special occasions.

The Théâtre des Chimères, from Biarritz, regularly perform at Hendaye.

Art and literature
The Médiathèque municipale François Mitterrand is a public library offering books, magazines, films, and CDs. There is also an art gallery, which is the main one for Hendaye.

Events
These a few of the regular festivals in Hendaye:

 * January
 * Bixintxo (St Vincent)
 * May
 * Mai du théâtre (theatre festival throughout the month)
 * June
 * Fête du cidre (cider festival)
 * Fête de la musique (music festival)
 * July
 * Fête de la Mer (festival of the Sea)
 * August
 * Fête Basque (basque festival)

Gastronomy
Most of the town's restaurants are found in the quartier de la Plage and along the Bay of Txingudi waterfront.

Hendaye is locally well known for the quality of its txurros.

Transport
The town is an important railway junction, as Spain's mainline trains use a broader gauge than continental Europe, with the French railway network finishing here on the banks of the Bidasoa. As well as the Gare d'Hendaye, there is also a station serving the beach quarter (Hendaye Plage) prior to the terminus, called the Gare des Deux-Jumeaux. Basque rapid transit system San Sebastián Metro linking the town to Donostia-San Sebastián gets right to Hendaye, by the SNCF station.

There has been recent controversy concerning the new LGV Sud Europe Atlantique (TGV line), which is planned to pass inland of Hendaye without stopping in or anywhere near the town itself. Most of the local population, along with that of the rest of the Côte Basque, are in favour of the TGV, but against the new line, which would destroy the surrounding countryside, bypassing the town completely. It has therefore been suggested to upgrade the present line to make it suitable for the TGV, with a stop at Hendaye station. It is argued that this would also be much less expensive, and would stimulate the local economy.

Agglomeration
Hendaye is part of the urban unit of Bayonne and of the communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque. The functional area of Hendaye includes two more communes: Biriatou to the south and Urrugne to the east.

Twin towns – sister cities
Hendaye is twinned with:
 * 🇪🇸 Arguedas, Spain
 * Peebles, Scotland, United Kingdom
 * Viana do Castelo, Portugal

Notable people

 * Antoine d'Abbadie lived here.
 * Pauline Ado, world champion surfer was born here
 * Robert Basauri, a rugby player who has been selected for the French national team, was born in Hendaye and played with the Stade Hendayais.
 * Coqueline Courrèges, dressmaker and co-founder of the Courrèges fashion company, born in Hendaye.
 * The professional rugby player Jean-Michel Esponda was born in Hendaye and played with the Stade Hendayais. He has been selected many times for the French national team.
 * Martin Guerre was born in Hendaye.
 * Ernest Hemingway, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist lived in Hendaye during the late 1920s between travels to Spain, wrote, and exchanged correspondence with family and friends. Reference: https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-lettersexcerpts.html.
 * Maurice Jouvet, a French-Argentine actor, was born here.
 * René Labat (1892–1970), high jumper, was born in Hendaye.
 * Joachim Labrouche was born in Hendaye.
 * Bixente Lizarazu grew up here and played with the Eglantins.
 * Pierre Loti lived and died here (1894–1923). His house in Hendaye, Bakhar-Etchea ('La maison du solitaire'), still exists.
 * Eduardo Ortega y Gasset, a Spanish philosopher lived there since before Unamuno's arrival.
 * Etienne Pellot was born and died here.
 * Miguel de Unamuno, a Spanish essayist leaves Paris and moves to Hendaye in 1925.

Sports

 * It is the western end of the GR 10 long-distance footpath.
 * It marks the beginning (or end) of the Raid Pyreneen long-distance cycle challenge.
 * The Endaika rowing club was founded in 1889 and won three silver medals in the French championships in 2006 and 2007, and a coastal world championship gold medal in 2014.
 * Hendaye has a Rugby and handball club, the Stade Hendayais, which was founded in 1908.
 * It has a football club, the Eglantins.
 * It has a surf club, the Bidasoa Surf Club.
 * Hendaye is a popular surfing destination renowned for its soft beach break waves suitable for beginners.
 * Since 2004, the world conception center for the watersports brand Tribord is located in Hendaye.
 * Hendaye is renowned for its marina, which has 850 places, making it the third largest in Aquitaine.
 * Tennis players gather for the Summer tennis tournament.

title: Hendaye


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Rachel's Tomb

Rachel's Tomb ( Qǝbūrat Rāḥēl; Modern קבר רחל Qever Raḥel; قبر راحيل Qabr Rāḥīl) is a site revered as the burial place of the Biblical matriarch Rachel. The site is also referred to as the Bilal bin Rabah mosque (مسجد بلال بن رباح). The tomb is held in esteem by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The tomb, located at the northern entrance to the Palestinian city of Bethlehem, next to the Rachel's Tomb checkpoint, is built in the style of a traditional maqam, Arabic for shrine.

The burial place of the matriarch Rachel as mentioned in the Jewish Tanakh, the Christian Old Testament and in Muslim literature is contested between this site and several others to the north. Although the site is considered by some scholars as unlikely to be the actual site of the grave, it is by far the most recognized candidate. The earliest extra-biblical records describing this tomb as Rachel's burial place date to the first decades of the 4th century CE. The structure in its current form dates from the Ottoman period, and is situated in a Christian and Muslim cemetery dating from at least the Mamluk period. When Sir Moses Montefiore renovated the site in 1841 and obtained the keys for the Jewish community, he also added an antechamber, including a mihrab for Muslim prayer, to ease Muslim fears. According to, a matzevah was erected at the site of Rachel's grave in ancient Israel, leading scholars to consider the site to have been a place of worship in ancient Israel. According to Martin Gilbert, Jews have made pilgrimage to the tomb since ancient times. According to Frederick Strickert, the first historically recorded pilgrimages to the site were by early Christians, and Christian witnesses wrote of the devotion shown to the shrine "by local Muslims and then later also by Jews"; throughout history, the site was rarely considered a shrine exclusive to one religion and is described as being "held in esteem equally by Jews, Muslims, and Christians". Though Rachel's Tomb has been a common site of Jewish pilgrimage since the twelfth century, in the modern era, a cult with uniquely Rachel elements developed. In contemporary Jewish society it is now considered the third holiest site in Judaism   and has become one of the cornerstones of Jewish-Israeli identity.

Following a 1929 British memorandum, in 1949 the UN ruled that the Status Quo, an arrangement approved by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin concerning rights, privileges and practices in certain Holy Places, applies to the site. According to the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the tomb was to be part of the internationally administered zone of Jerusalem, but the area was ruled by Jordan, which prohibited Jews from entering the area. Following the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1967, the site's position was formalized in 1995 under the Oslo II Accord in a Palestinian enclave (Area A), with a special arrangement making it subject to the security responsibility of Israel. In 2005, following Israeli approval on 11 September 2002, the Israeli West Bank barrier was built around the tomb, effectively annexing it to Jerusalem; Checkpoint 300 – also known as Rachel's Tomb Checkpoint – was built adjacent to the site. A 2005 report from OHCHR Special Rapporteur John Dugard noted that: "Although Rachel's Tomb is a site holy to Jews, Muslims and Christians, it has effectively been closed to Muslims and Christians." On October 21, 2015, UNESCO adopted a resolution reaffirming a 2010 statement that Rachel's Tomb was: "an integral part of Palestine." On 22 October 2015, the tomb was separated from Bethlehem with a series of concrete barriers.

Northern vis-à-vis southern version
Biblical scholarship identifies two different traditions in the Hebrew Bible concerning the site of Rachel's burial, respectively a northern version, locating it north of Jerusalem near Ramah, modern Al-Ram, and a southern narrative locating it close to Bethlehem. In rabbinical tradition the duality is resolved by using two different terms in Hebrew to designate these different localities. In the Hebrew version given in Genesis, Rachel and Jacob journey from Shechem to Hebron, a short distance from Ephrath, which is glossed as Bethlehem (35:16–21, 48:7). She dies on the way giving birth to Benjamin: "'And Rachel died, and was buried on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem. And Jacob set a pillar upon her grave: that is the pillar of Rachel's grave unto this day.' — Genesis 35:19–20" Tom Selwyn notes that R. A. S. Macalister, the most authoritative voice on the topography of Rachel's tomb, advanced the view in 1912 that the identification with Bethlehem was based on a copyist's mistake. The Judean scribal gloss "(Ephrath, ) which is Bethlehem" was added to distinguish it from a similar toponym Ephrathah in the Bethlehem region. Some consider as certain, however, that Rachel's tomb lay to the north, in Benjamite, not in Judean territory, and that the Bethlehem gloss represents a Judean appropriation of the grave, originally in the north, to enhance Judah's prestige. At 1 Samuel 10:2, Rachel's tomb is located in the 'territory of Benjamin at Zelzah.' In the monarchic period down to the Babylonian captivity, it would follow, Rachel's tomb was thought to lie in Ramah. The indications for this are based on 1 Sam 10:2 and Jer. 31:15, which give an alternative location north of Jerusalem, in the vicinity of ar-Ram, biblical Ramah, five miles south of Bethel. One conjecture is that before David's conquest of Jerusalem, the ridge road from Bethel might have been called "the Ephrath road" (derek ’eprātāh. ; derek’eprāt, ), hence the passage in Genesis meant 'the road to Ephrath or Bethlehem,' on which Ramah, if that word refers to a toponym, lay. A possible location in Ramah could be the five stone monuments north of Hizma. Known as Qubur Bene Isra'in, the largest so-called tomb of the group, the function of which is obscure, has the name Qabr Umm beni Isra'in, that is, "tomb of the mother of the descendants of Israel".

Bethlehem structure
As to the structure outside Bethlehem being placed exactly over an ancient tomb, it was revealed during excavations in around 1825 that it was not built over a cavern; however, a deep cavern was discovered a small distance from the site.

Byzantine period
Traditions regarding the tomb at this location date back to the beginning of the 4th century AD. Eusebius' Onomasticon (written before 324) and the Bordeaux Pilgrim (333–334) mention the tomb as being located 4 miles from Jerusalem.

Early Muslim period
In the late 7th century, the tomb was marked with a stone pyramid, devoid of any ornamentation. During the 10th century, Muqaddasi and other geographers fail to mention the tomb, which indicates that it may have lost importance until the Crusaders revived its veneration.

Crusader period
Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154) writes, "Half-way down the road [between Bethlehem and Jerusalem] is the tomb of Rachel (Rahil), the mother of Joseph and of Benjamin, the two sons of Jacob peace upon them all! The tomb is covered by twelve stones, and above it is a dome vaulted."

Benjamin of Tudela (1169–71) was the first Jewish pilgrim to describe his visit to the tomb. He mentioned a pillar made of 11 stones and a cupola resting on four columns "and all the Jews that pass by carve their names upon the stones of the pillar." Petachiah of Regensburg explains that the 11 stones represented the tribes of Israel, excluding Benjamin, since Rachel had died during his birth. All were marble, with that of Jacob on top."

Mamluk period
In the 14th century, Antony of Cremona referred to the cenotaph as "the most wonderful tomb that I shall ever see. I do not think that with 20 pairs of oxen it would be possible to extract or move one of its stones." It was described by Franciscan pilgrim Nicolas of Poggibonsi (1346–50) as being 7 feet high and enclosed by a rounded tomb with three gates.

From around the 15th century onwards, if not earlier, the tomb was occupied and maintained by the Muslim rulers. The Russian deacon Zozimos describes it as being a mosque in 1421. A guide published in 1467 credits Shahin al-Dhahiri with the building of a cupola, cistern and drinking fountain at the site. The Muslim rebuilding of the "dome on four columns" was also mentioned by Francesco Suriano in 1485. Felix Fabri (1480–83) described it as being "a lofty pyramid, built of square and polished white stone"; He also noted a drinking water trough at its side and reported that "this place is venerated alike by Muslims, Jews, and Christians". Bernhard von Breidenbach of Mainz (1483) described women praying at the tomb and collecting stones to take home, believing that they would ease their labour. Pietro Casola (1494) described it as being "beautiful and much honoured by the Moors". Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi (1495), the Jerusalemite qadi and Arab historian, writes under the heading of Qoubbeh Râhîl ("Dome of Rachel") that Rachel's tomb lies under this dome on the road between Bethlehem and Bayt Jala and that the edifice is turned towards the Sakhrah (the rock inside the Dome of the Rock) and widely visited by pilgrims.

Seventeenth century
In 1615 Muhammad Pasha of Jerusalem repaired the structure and transferred exclusive use of the site to the Jews. In 1626, Franciscus Quaresmius visited the site and found that the tomb had been rebuilt by the locals several times. He also found near it a cistern and many Muslim graves.

George Sandys wrote in 1632 that “The sepulchre of Rachel... is mounted on a square... within which another sepulchre is used for a place of prayer by the Mohometans".

Rabbi Moses Surait of Prague (1650) described a high dome on the top of the tomb, an opening on one side, and a big courtyard surrounded by bricks. He also described a local Jewish cult associated with the site. A 1659 Venetian publication of Uri ben Simeon's Yichus ha-Abot included a small and apparently inaccurate illustration.

"The tomb of Rachel the Righteous is at a distance of 1½ miles from Jerusalem, in the middle of the field, not far from Bethlehem, as it says in the Torah. On Passover and Lag B'Omer many people – men and women, young and old – go out to Rachel's Tomb on foot and on horseback. And many pray there, make petitions and dance around the tomb and eat and drink."

Eighteenth century
In March 1756, the Istanbul Jewish Committee for the Jews of Palestine instructed that 500 kuruş used by the Jews of Jerusalem to fix a wall at the tomb were to be repaid and used instead for more deserving causes. In 1788, walls were built to enclose the arches. According to Richard Pococke, this was done to "hinder the Jews from going into it". Pococke also reports that the site was highly regarded by Turks as a place of burial.

Nineteenth century
In 1806 François-René Chateaubriand described it as "a square edifice, surmounted with a small dome: it enjoys the privileges of a mosque, for the Turks as well as the Arabs, honour the families of the patriarchs. [..] it is evidently a Turkish edifice, erected in memory of a santon.

An 1824 report described "a stone building, evidently of Turkish construction, which terminates at the top in a dome. Within this edifice is the tomb. It is a pile of stones covered with white plaster, about 10 feet long and nearly as high. The inner wall of the building and the sides of the tomb are covered with Hebrew names, inscribed by Jews."

When the structure was undergoing repairs in around 1825, excavations at the foot of the monument revealed that it was not built directly over an underground cavity. However, a small distance from the site, an unusually deep cavern was discovered.

Proto-Zionist banker Sir Moses Montefiore visited Rachel's Tomb together with his wife on their first visit to the Holy Land in 1828. The couple were childless, and Lady Montefiore was deeply moved by the tomb, which was in good condition at that time. Before the couple's next visit, in 1839, the Galilee earthquake of 1837 had heavily damaged the tomb. In 1838 the tomb was described as "merely an ordinary Muslim Wely, or tomb of a holy person; a small square building of stone with a dome, and within it a tomb in the ordinary Muhammedan form; the whole plastered over with mortar. It is neglected and falling to decay; though pilgrimages are still made to it by the Jews. The naked walls are covered with names in several languages; many of them Hebrew."

In 1841, Montefiore renovated the site and obtained for the Jews the key of the tomb. He renovated the entire structure, reconstructing and re-plastering its white dome, and added an antechamber, including a mihrab for Muslim prayer, to ease Muslim fears. Professor Glenn Bowman notes that some writers have described this as a “purchase” of the tomb by Montefiore, asserting that this was not the case.

In 1843, Ridley Haim Herschell described the building as an ordinary Muslim tomb. He reported that Jews, including Montefiore, were obliged to remain outside the tomb, and prayed at a hole in the wall, so that their voices enter into the tomb. In 1844, William Henry Bartlett referred to the tomb as a "Turkish Mosque", following a visit to the area in 1842.

In 1845, Montefiore made further architectural improvements at the tomb. He extended the building by constructing an adjacent vaulted ante-chamber on the east for Muslim prayer use and burial preparation, possibly as an act of conciliation. The room included a mihrab facing Mecca.

In the mid-1850s, the marauding Arab et-Ta'amreh tribe forced the Jews to furnish them with an annual £30 payment to prevent them from damaging the tomb.

According to Elizabeth Anne Finn, wife of the British consul, James Finn, the only time the Sephardic Jewish community left the Old City of Jerusalem was for monthly prayers at "Rachel's Sepulchre" or Hebron.

In 1864, the Jews of Bombay donated money to dig a well. Although Rachel's Tomb was only an hour and a half walk from the Old City of Jerusalem, many pilgrims found themselves very thirsty and unable to obtain fresh water. Every Rosh Chodesh (beginning of the Jewish month), the Maiden of Ludmir would lead her followers to Rachel's tomb and lead a prayer service with various rituals, which included spreading out requests of the past four weeks over the tomb. On the traditional anniversary of Rachel's death, she would lead a solemn procession to the tomb where she chanted psalms in a night-long vigil.

In 1868 a publication by the Catholic missionary society the Paulist Fathers noted that "[Rachel's] memory has always been held in respect by the Jews and Christians, and even now the former go there every Thursday, to pray and read the old, old history of this mother of their race. When leaving Bethlehem for the fourth and last time, after we had passed the tomb of Rachel, on our way to Jerusalem, Father Luigi and I met a hundred or more Jews on their weekly visit to the venerated spot."

The Hebrew monthly ha-Levanon of August 19, 1869, rumored that a group of Christians had purchased land around the tomb and were in the process of demolishing Montefiore's vestibule in order to erect a church there. During the following years, land in the vicinity of the tomb was acquired by Nathan Straus. In October 1875, Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer purchased three dunams of land near the tomb intending to establish a Jewish farming colony there. Custody of the land was transferred to the Perushim community in Jerusalem. In the 1883 volume of the PEF Survey of Palestine, Conder and Kitchener noted: "A modern Moslem building stands over the site, and there are Jewish graves near it... The court... is used as a praying-place by Moslems... The inner chambers... are visited by Jewish men and women on Fridays."

Twentieth century
In 1912 the Ottoman Government permitted the Jews to repair the shrine itself, but not the antechamber. In 1915 the structure had four walls, each about 7 m (23 ft.) long and 6 m (20 ft.) high. The dome, rising about 3 m (10 ft.), "is used by the Moslems for prayer; its holy character has hindered them from removing the Hebrew letters from its walls."

British Mandate period

Three months after the British occupation of Palestine the whole place was cleaned and whitewashed by the Jews without protest from the Muslims. However, in 1921 when the Chief Rabbinate applied to the Municipality of Bethlehem for permission to perform repairs at the site, local Muslims objected. In view of this, the High Commissioner ruled that, pending appointment of the Holy Places Commission provided for under the Mandate, all repairs should be undertaken by the Government. However, so much indignation was caused in Jewish circles by this decision that the matter was dropped, the repairs not being considered urgent. In 1925 the Sephardic Jewish community requested permission to repair the tomb. The building was then made structurally sound and exterior repairs were effected by the Government, but permission was refused by the Jews (who had the keys) for the Government to repair the interior of the shrine. As the interior repairs were unimportant, the Government dropped the matter, in order to avoid controversy. In 1926 Max Bodenheimer blamed the Jews for letting one of their holy sites appear so neglected and uncared for.

During this period, both Jews and Muslims visited the site. From the 1940s, it came to be viewed as a symbol of the Jewish people's return to Zion, to its ancient homeland, For Jewish women, the tomb was associated with fertility and became a place of pilgrimage to pray for successful childbirth. Depictions of the Tomb of Rachel have appeared in Jewish religious books and works of art. Muslims prayed inside the mosque there and the cemetery at the tomb was the main Muslim cemetery in the Bethlehem area. The building was also used for Islamic funeral rituals. It is reported that Jews and Muslims respected each other and accommodated each other's rituals. During the riots of 1929, violence hampered regular visits by Jews to the tomb. Both Jews and Muslims demanded control of the site, with the Muslims claiming it was an integral part of the Muslim cemetery within which it is situated. It also demanded a renewal of the old Muslim custom of purifying corpses in the tomb's antechamber.

Jordanian period
Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War till 1967, the site was occupied then annexed by Jordan. the site was overseen by the Islamic waqf. On December 11, 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 194 which called for free access to all the holy places in Israel and the remainder of the territory of the former Palestine Mandate of Great Britain. In April 1949, the Jerusalem Committee prepared a document for the UN Secretariat in order to establish the status of the different holy places in the area of the former British Mandate for Palestine. It noted that ownership of Rachel's Tomb was claimed by both Jews and Muslims. The Jews claimed possession by virtue of a 1615 firman granted by the Pasha of Jerusalem which gave them exclusive use of the site and that the building, which had fallen into decay, was entirely restored by Moses Montefiore in 1845; the keys were obtained by the Jews from the last Muslim guardian at this time. The Muslims claimed the site was a place of Muslim prayer and an integral part of the Muslim cemetery within which it was situated. They stated that the Ottoman Government had recognised it as such and that it is included among the Tombs of the Prophets for which identity signboards were issued by the Ministry of Waqfs in 1898. They also asserted that the antechamber built by Montefiore was specially built as a place of prayer for Muslims. The UN ruled that the status quo, an arrangement approved by the Ottoman Decree of 1757 concerning rights, privileges and practices in certain Holy Places, apply to the site.

In theory, free access was to be granted as stipulated in the 1949 Armistice Agreements, though Israelis, unable to enter Jordan, were prevented from visiting. Non-Israeli Jews, however, continued to visit the site. During this period the Muslim cemetery was expanded.

Israeli control
Following the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel occupied of the West Bank, which included the tomb. The tomb was placed under Israeli military administration. Prime minister Levi Eshkol instructed that the tomb be included within the new expanded municipal borders of Jerusalem, but citing security concerns, Moshe Dayan decided not to include it within the territory that was annexed to Jerusalem.

Islamic crescents, inscribed into the rooms of the structure, were subsequently erased. Muslims were prevented from using the mosque, although they were allowed to use the cemetery for a while. Starting in 1993, Muslims were barred from using the cemetery. According to Bethlehem University, "[a]ccess to Rachel's Tomb is now restricted to tourists entering from Israel."

Oslo negotiations: Area A and Special Security Arrangement
The Oslo II Accord of September 28, 1995 placed Rachel's Tomb in a Palestinian enclave (Area A), with a special arrangement making it – together with the main Jerusalem-Bethlehem access road – subject to the security responsibility of Israel.

Initially the arrangement was intended to be the same as that for Joseph's Tomb near Nablus; however this was reconsidered following a significant reaction from Israel’s right-wing religious parties. With the explicit intention of creating facts on the ground, in July 1995 MK Hanan Porat established a yeshiva at the tomb, and right-wing activists began trying to acquire land around the tomb to create contiguity with Israeli-annexed areas of Jerusalem. On 17 July 1995, following a meeting of Rabin’s cabinet and security forces, the Israeli position was changed to demand that an Israeli force provide security at the tomb and control the access road to it. When this demand was put to Yasser Arafat during the negotiations, he is said to have responded:

I cannot agree to this! Next to Rachel’s Tomb there is a Muslim cemetery and the holy place is located in Area A and I myself am a descendant of Rachel

The Palestinians were also strongly against conceding control of the road linking Bethlehem to Jerusalem, but ultimately conceded in order not to threaten the overall accords.

On December 1, 1995, the rest of Bethlehem, with the sole exception of the tomb enclave, passed under the full control of the Palestinian Authority.

Fortification
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In 1996, Israel began an 18-month fortification of the site at a cost of $2m. It included a 13 ft wall and adjacent military post.

After an attack on Joseph's Tomb and its subsequent takeover and desecration by Arabs, hundreds of residents of Bethlehem and the Aida refugee camp, led by the Palestinian Authority-appointed governor of Bethlehem, Muhammad Rashad al-Jabari, attacked Rachel's Tomb. They set the scaffolding that had been erected around it on fire and tried to break in. The IDF dispersed the mob with gunfire and stun grenades, and dozens were wounded. In the following years, the Israeli-controlled site became a flashpoint between young Palestinians who hurled stones, bottles and firebombs and IDF troops, who responded with tear gas and rubber bullets.

At the end of 2000, when the Second Intifada broke out, the tomb came under attack for 41 days. In May 2001, fifty Jews found themselves trapped inside by a firefight between the IDF and Palestinian Authority gunmen. In March 2002 the IDF returned to Bethlehem as part of Operation Defensive Shield and remained there for an extended period of time.

On 11 September 2002, the Israeli security cabinet approved incorporating the tomb on the Israeli side of the West Bank barrier and surrounded by a concrete wall and watchtowers. This has been described as "de facto annexing it to Jerusalem". In February 2005, the Israel Supreme Court rejected a Palestinian appeal to change the route of the barrier in the region of the tomb. Israeli construction destroyed the Palestinian neighbourhood of Qubbet Rahil (Tomb of Rachel), which comprised 11% of metropolitan Bethlehem. Israel also declared the area to be a part of Jerusalem. From 2011, a "Wall Museum" was created by Palestinians on the North wall of the Israeli separation barrier surrounding Rachel's tomb.

In February 2010, Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu announced that the tomb would become a part of the national Jewish heritage sites rehabilitation plan. The decision was opposed by the Palestinian Authority, who saw it as a political decision associated with Israel's settlement project. The UN's special coordinator for the Middle East, Robert Serry, issued a statement of concern over the move, saying that the site is in Palestinian territory and has significance in both Judaism and Islam. The Jordanian government said that the move would derail peace efforts in the Middle East and condemned "unilateral Israeli measures which affect holy places and offend sentiments of Muslims throughout the world". UNESCO urged Israel to remove the site from its heritage list, stating that it was "an integral part of the occupied Palestinian territories". A resolution was passed at UNESCO that acknowledged both the Jewish and Islamic significance of the site, describing the site as both Bilal ibn Rabah Mosque and as Rachel's Tomb. The resolution passed with 44 countries supporting it, twelve countries abstaining, and only the United States voting to oppose. Also writing in the Jerusalem Post, Larry Derfner defended the UNESCO position. He pointed out that UNESCO had explicitly recognized the Jewish connection to the site, having only denounced Israeli claims of sovereignty, while also acknowledging the Islamic and Christian significance of the site. The Israeli Prime Minister's Office criticised the resolution, claiming that: "the attempt to detach the Nation of Israel from its heritage is absurd. ... If the nearly 4,000-year-old burial sites of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs of the Jewish Nation – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel and Leah – are not part of its culture and tradition, then what is a national cultural site?"

Rabbinic traditions
In Jewish lore, Rachel passed away on 11 Cheshvan 1553 BCE.
 * According to the Midrash, the first person to pray at Rachel's tomb was her eldest son, Joseph. While he was being carried away to Egypt after his brothers had sold him into slavery, he broke away from his captors and ran to his mother's grave. He threw himself upon the ground, wept aloud and cried "Mother! mother! Wake up. Arise and see my suffering." He heard his mother respond: "Do not fear. Go with them, and God will be with you."
 * A number of reasons are given why Rachel was buried by the road side and not in the Cave of Machpela with the other Patriarchs and Matriarchs:
 * Jacob foresaw that following the destruction of the First Temple the Jews would be exiled to Babylon. They would cry out as they passed her grave, and be comforted by her. She would intercede on their behalf, asking for mercy from God who would hear her prayer.
 * Although Rachel was buried within the boundaries of the Holy Land, she was not buried in the Cave of Machpelah due to her sudden and unexpected death. Jacob, looking after his children and herds of cattle, simply did not have the opportunity to embalm her body to allow for the slow journey to Hebron.
 * Jacob was intent on not burying Rachel at Hebron, as he wished to prevent himself feeling ashamed before his forefathers, lest it appear he still regarded both sisters as his wives – a biblically forbidden union.
 * According to the mystical work, Zohar, when the Messiah appears, he will lead the dispersed Jews back to the Land of Israel, along the road which passes Rachel's grave.

Location
Early Jewish scholars noticed an apparent contradiction in the Bible with regards to the location of Rachel's grave. In Genesis, the Bible states that Rachel was buried "on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem". Yet a reference to her tomb in Samuel states: "When you go from me today, you will find two men by Rachel's tomb, in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah" (1 Sam 10:2). Rashi asks: "Now, isn't Rachel's tomb in the border of Judah, in Bethlehem?" He explains that the verse rather means: "Now they are by Rachel's tomb, and when you will meet them, you will find them in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah." Similarly, Ramban assumes that the site shown today near Bethlehem reflects an authentic tradition. After he had arrived in Jerusalem and seen "with his own eyes" that Rachel's tomb was on the outskirts of Bethlehem, he retracted his original understanding of her tomb being located north of Jerusalem and concluded that the reference in Jeremiah (Jer 31:15) which seemed to place her burial place in Ramah, is to be understood allegorically. There remains however, a dispute as to whether her tomb near Bethlehem was in the tribal territory of Judah, or of her son Benjamin.

Customs
A Jewish tradition teaches that Rachel weeps for her children and that when the Jews were taken into exile, she wept as they passed by her grave on the way to Babylonia. Jews have made pilgrimage to the tomb since ancient times.

There is a tradition regarding the key that unlocked the door to the tomb. The key was about 15 cm long and made of brass. The beadle kept it with him at all times, and it was not uncommon that someone would knock at his door in the middle of the night requesting it to ease the labor pains of an expectant mother. The key was placed under her pillow and almost immediately, the pains would subside and the delivery would take place peacefully.

Till this day there is an ancient tradition regarding a segulah or charm which is the most famous women's ritual at the tomb. A red string is tied around the tomb seven times then worn as a charm for fertility. This use of the string is comparatively recent, though there is a report of its use to ward off diseases in the 1880s.

The Torah Ark in Rachel's Tomb is covered with a curtain (Hebrew: parokhet) made from the wedding gown of Nava Applebaum, a young Israeli woman who was killed by a Palestinian terrorist in a suicide bombing at Café Hillel in Jerusalem in 2003, on the eve of her wedding.

Replicas
The tomb of Sir Moses Montefiore, adjacent to the Montefiore synagogue in Ramsgate, England, is a replica of Rachel's Tomb.

In 1934, the Michigan Memorial Park planned to reproduce the tomb. When built, it was used to house the sound system and pipe organ used during funerals, but it has since been demolished.

North-east perspective

 * Mid 1990s North-east perspective available externally:
 * 2008 picture of the same North-east perspective:

East perspective

 * A 2014 photo from Hebrew Wikipedia:

title: Rachel's Tomb