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Mizrahi Jews

Mizrahi Jews (יהודי המִזְרָח), also known as Mizrahim (מִזְרָחִים) or Mizrachi (מִזְרָחִי) and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or Edot HaMizrach (עֲדוֹת־הַמִּזְרָח, lit. 'Communities of the East'), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jewish communities that lived in the Muslim world. Mizrahi is a political sociological term that was coined with the creation of the State of Israel. It translates as "Easterner" in Hebrew. The term Mizrahi is almost exclusively applied to descendants of Jewish communities from North Africa and Asia; in this classification are the descendants of Mashriqi Jews who had lived in Middle Eastern countries, such as Yemenite Jews, Iranian Jews, Kurdish Jews,  Turkish Jews, Egyptian Jews, Syrian Jews, Lebanese Jews, Iraqi Jews, Jordanian Jews, Saudi Arabian Jews, Emirati Jews, Kuwaiti Jews, Bahraini Jews, Qatari Jews, Omani Jews; as well as the descendants of Maghrebi Jews who had lived in North African countries, such as Algerian Jews, Libyan Jews, Moroccan Jews, and Tunisian Jews. These various Jewish communities were first officially grouped into a singular identifiable division during World War II, when they were distinctly outlined in the One Million Plan of the Jewish Agency for Israel, which detailed the methods by which Jews of the diaspora were to be returned to the Land of Israel (then under the British Mandate for Palestine) after the Holocaust.

Mizrahi also includes Jewish communities from other Muslim-majority countries, including Iranian Jews, Afghan Jews, Bukharian Jews from Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, and the Mountain Jews from Azerbaijan and Dagestan. While these communities have traditionally spoken Judaeo-Iranian languages such as Juhuri and Bukhori, some of their descendants are also widely fluent in Russian due to most of those countries' former status as republics of the Soviet Union. An earlier cultural community of southern and eastern Jews were the Sephardi Jews. Before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the various current communities of Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a distinctive Jewish subgroup, and many considered themselves Sephardis, as they largely followed the Sephardic customs and traditions of Judaism with local variations in minhagim. The original Sephardi Jewish community was formed in Spain and Portugal, and after their expulsion in 1492, many Sephardim settled in areas where Mizrahi communities already existed. This complicated ethnography has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in official Israeli ethnic and religious terminology, with Sephardi being used in a broad sense to include Middle Eastern and North African Jews, as well as Sephardim proper from Southern Europe around the Mediterranean Basin. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel has placed rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi chief rabbis.

Following the First Arab–Israeli War, over 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews were expelled or evacuated from Arab and Muslim-majority countries between 1948 and the early 1980s. A 2018 statistic found that 45% of Jewish Israelis identified as either Mizrahi or Sephardic.

Terminology
Mizrahi is literally translated as 'Oriental', 'Eastern', Mizraḥ, Hebrew for 'east'. In the past, the word Mizrahim, corresponding to the Arabic word Mashriqiyyun (مشريقيون, 'Easterners'), referred to the natives of Turkey, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North Africa (Maghribiyyun). In medieval and early modern times, the corresponding Hebrew word ma'arav (מערב) was used for North Africa. In Talmudic and Geonic times, however, this word ma'arav referred to the land of Israel, as contrasted with Babylonia. For this reason, many object to the use of Mizrahi to include Moroccan and other North African Jews.

In the past, the origin of the term Mizrahi was in the Hebrew translation of Eastern European Jews' German name Ostjuden, as seen in the Mizrahi Movement, Bank Mizrahi and in HaPoel HaMizrahi. During the 1940s, before Israel's establishment, the demographer Roberto Bachi used the categories of "Mizrahim" and "Ashkenzim" in his ethnic classification of the Yishuv. In the 1950s, the Jews who came from the communities listed above were simply called and known as Jews (Yahud, يهود in Arabic) and to distinguish them in the Jewish sub-ethnicities, Israeli officials, who themselves were mostly Eastern European Jews, transferred the name to them, though most of these immigrants arrived from lands located further westward than Central Europe. Mizrahi is subsequently among the surnames most often changed by Israelis, and many scholars, including Avshalom Kor, claim that the transferring of the name Mizrahim was a form of Orientalism towards the Oriental Jews, similar to the ways in which Westjuden had labeled Ostjuden as "second class" and excluded them from possible positions of power.

The usage of the term Mizrahim or Edot Hamizraḥ (עדות־המזרח), Oriental communities, grew in Israel under the circumstances of the meeting of waves of Jewish immigrants from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, followers of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Temani (Yemenite) rites. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, many of them Arabic-speaking Muslim-majority countries. The term came to be widely used more by Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation.

Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves as Sephardi, as they follow the customs and traditions of Sephardi Judaism (but with some differences among the minhag "customs" of particular communities). That has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in Israel and in religious usage, with "Sephardi" being used in a broad sense and including Mizrahi Jews, North African Jews as well as Sephardim proper. From the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, any rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel are under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel.

Sami Michael rejects the terms Mizrahim and Edot HaMizrach, claiming it is a fictitious identity advanced by Mapai to preserve a "rival" to the Ashkenazim and help them push the Mizrahim below in the social-economic ladder and behind them, so they won't ever be in line with the Israeli elites of European Jewish descent. He also speaks against the Mapai manner of labeling all the Oriental Jews as "one folk" and erasing their unique and individual history as separated communities; he says that he wonders why the real Easterners of his time who were the Eastern European Jewish peasants from the villages weren't labeled as "Mizrahi" in Israel, despite fitting it more than the Oriental Jews who were labeled that way. Michael is also against the inclusion of Oriental Jewish communities who do not descend from Sepharadic Jews, as "Sepharadim" by the Israeli politicians, calling it "historically inaccurate". He also claims that his work as an author is always referred to as "Ethnic", while European Jews' work, even if historic in theme, is not, as a result of racism.

Most of the "Mizrahi" activists actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called "Westerners" (Maghrebi), rather than "Easterners" (Mashreqi). The Jews who emigrated to Palestine from North Africa in the 19th Century and prior started their own political and religious organization in 1860 which operated in Jerusalem was called "The Western Jewish Diaspora Council" (ועד העדה המערבית בירושלים). Many Jews originated from Arab and Muslim countries today reject Mizrahi (or any) umbrella description, and prefer to identify themselves by their particular country of origin, or that of their immediate ancestors, such as "Moroccan Jew", or prefer to use the old term Sephardi in its broader meaning.

Religious rite designations
Today, many identify non-Ashkenazi rite Jews as Sephardi – in modern Hebrew Sfaradim – mixing ancestral origin and religious rite. This broader definition of "Sephardim" as including all, or most, Mizrahi Jews is also common in Jewish religious circles. During the past century, the Sephardi rite absorbed part of the unique rite of the Yemenite Jews, and lately, Beta Israel religious leaders in Israel have also joined Sefardi rite collectivities, especially following rejection of their Jewishness by some Ashkenazi circles.

The reason for this classification of all Mizrahim under Sephardi rite is that most Mizrahi communities use much the same religious rituals as Sephardim proper due to historical reasons. The prevalence of the Sephardi rite among Mizrahim is partially a result of Sephardim proper joining some of Mizrahi communities following the 1492 Alhambra Decree, which expelled Jews from Sepharad (Spain and Portugal). Over the last few centuries, the previously distinctive rites of the Mizrahi communities were influenced, superimposed upon or altogether replaced by the rite of the Sephardim, perceived as more prestigious. Even before this assimilation, the original rite of many Jewish Oriental communities was already closer to the Sephardi rite than to the Ashkenazi one. For this reason, "Sephardim" has come to mean not only "Spanish Jews" proper but "Jews of the Spanish rite", just as "Ashkenazim" is used for "Jews of the German rite", whether or not their families originate in Germany.

Many of the Sephardi Jews exiled from Spain resettled in greater or lesser numbers in the Arab world, such as Syria and Morocco. In Syria, most eventually intermarried with, and assimilated into, the larger established communities of Musta'rabim and Mizrahim. In some North African countries, such as Morocco, Sephardi Jews came in greater numbers, and so largely contributed to the Jewish settlements that the pre-existing Jews were assimilated by the more recently arrived Sephardi Jews. Either way, this assimilation, combined with the use of the Sephardi rite, led to the popular designation and conflation of most non-Ashkenazi Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa as "Sephardi rite", whether or not they were descended from Spanish Jews, which is what the terms "Sephardi Jews" and "Sfaradim" properly implied when used in the ethnic as opposed to the religious sense.

In some Arabic countries, such as Egypt and Syria, Sephardi Jews arrived via the Ottoman Empire would distinguish themselves from the already established Musta'rabim, while in others, such as Morocco and Algeria, the two communities largely intermarried, with the latter embracing Sephardi customs and thus forming a single community.

Arabic
In the Arab world (such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria and Iraqi Kurdistan), Mizrahim most often speak Arabic. Most of the many notable philosophical, religious and literary works of the Jews in Spain, North Africa and Asia were written in Arabic using a modified Hebrew alphabet.

Aramaic
Aramaic is a Semitic language subfamily. Specific varieties of Aramaic are identified as "Jewish languages" since they are the languages of major Jewish texts such as the Talmud and Zohar, and many ritual recitations such as the Kaddish. Traditionally, Aramaic has been a language of Talmudic debate in yeshivot, as many rabbinic texts are written in a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic. The current Hebrew alphabet, known as "Assyrian lettering" or "the square script", was in fact borrowed from Aramaic.

In Kurdistan, a region which includes parts of Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran, the language of the Mizrahim is a variant of Aramaic. As spoken by the Kurdish Jews, Judeo-Aramaic languages are Neo-Aramaic languages descended from Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. They are related to the Christian Aramaic dialects spoken by Assyrian people, which are Syriac Christians who claim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancient Mesopotamia.

Persian and other languages and dialects
Among other languages associated with Mizrahim are Judeo-Iranian languages such as Judeo-Persian, the Bukhori dialect, Judeo-Tat, and Kurdish languages; Georgian; Judeo-Marathi and Judeo-Malayalam. Most Persian Jews speak standard Persian, as do many other Jews from Iran, Afghanistan, and Bukhara (Uzbekistan). Some of their descendants are also widely fluent in Russian due to several of those countries' former status as republics of the Soviet Union.

History
The Jewish diaspora in the Middle East outside the Land of Israel started in the 6th century BCE, during the Babylonian captivity, which also caused some Jews to flee to Egypt. Other early diaspora areas in the Middle East and North Africa were Persia, Yemen and Cyrene.

As Islam started to spread in the 7th century CE, Jews who were living under Muslim rule became dhimmis. Because Jews were seen as "People of the Book", they were allowed to practice their own religion, but they had an inferior status in an Islamic society. Even though Jews in the Middle East and North Africa formed strong attachments to the areas in which they lived, they were seen as a community which was clearly distinct from other communities. For example, while Musta'arabi Jews in the Arab world were influenced by the local culture, e.g. they started speaking variants of the Arabic language and ate their own versions of the same food, they did not adopt Arab identity. Instead, Jews in the Arab world saw themselves (including the ones with family background of converts) and were seen as fundamentally a part of the wider collective of the Jewish people, and they maintained their identity as the descendants of the ancient Israelite tribes.

Some Mizrahim migrated to India, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.

Post-1948 dispersal
After the establishment of the State of Israel and subsequent 1948 Arab–Israeli War, most Mizrahim were either expelled by their Arab rulers or chose to leave and emigrated to Israel. According to the 2009 Statistical Abstract of Israel, 50.2% of Israeli Jews are of Mizrahi or Sephardi origin.

Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East and North Africa. The exodus of 25,000 Mizrahi Jews from Egypt after the 1956 Suez Crisis led to the overwhelming majority of Mizrahim leaving Arab countries. They became refugees. Most went to Israel. Many Moroccan and Algerian Jews went to France. Thousands of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jews emigrated to the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and other countries in the Americas.

Today, as many as 40,000 Mizrahim still remain in communities scattered throughout the non-Arab Muslim world, primarily in Iran, but also Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. There are few Maghrebim remaining in the Arab world. About 3,000 remain in Morocco and 1,100 in Tunisia. Other countries with remnants of ancient Jewish communities with official recognition, such as Lebanon, have 100 or fewer Jews. A trickle of emigration continues, mainly to Israel and the United States.

Memorialization in Israel
9 May 2021, the first physical memorialization in Israel of the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from Arab land and Iran was placed on the Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem. It is titled the Departure and Expulsion Memorial following the Knesset law for the annual recognition of the Jewish experience held annually on 30 November.

The text on the Memorial reads;

"With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000 Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran. The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel.

By Act of the Knesset: 30 Nov, annually, is the Departure and Expulsion Memorial Day. Memorial donated by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, With support from the World Sephardi Federation, City of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Foundation"

The sculpture is the interpretive work of Sam Philipe, a fifth generation Jerusalemite.

Absorption into Israeli society
Refuge in Israel was not without its tragedies: "In a generation or two, millennia of rooted Oriental civilization, unified even in its diversity", had been wiped out, writes Mizrahi scholar Ella Shohat. The trauma of rupture from their countries of origin was further complicated by the difficulty of the transition upon arrival in Israel; Mizrahi immigrants and refugees were placed in rudimentary and hastily erected tent cities (ma'abarot) often in development towns on the peripheries of Israel. Settlement in moshavim (cooperative farming villages) was only partially successful, because Mizrahim had historically filled a niche as craftsmen and merchants and most did not traditionally engage in farmwork. As the majority left their property behind in their home countries as they journeyed to Israel, many suffered a severe decrease in their socio-economic status aggravated by their cultural and political differences with the dominant Ashkenazi community. Furthermore, a policy of austerity was enforced at that time due to economic hardships.

Mizrahi immigrants arrived speaking many languages: Mizrahim from elsewhere brought Georgian, Judaeo-Georgian and various other languages with them. Hebrew had historically been a language only of prayer for most Jews not living in Israel, including the Mizrahim. Thus, with their arrival in Israel, the Mizrahim retained culture, customs and language distinct from their Ashkenazi counterparts. The collective estimate for Mizrahim (circa 2018) is at 4,000,000.
 * many, especially those from North Africa and the Fertile Crescent, spoke Arabic dialects;
 * those from Iran spoke Persian and various Judeo-Iranian languages;
 * Mountain Jews from Azerbaijan and Dagestan spoke Judeo-Tat;
 * Baghdadi Jews from India spoke English;
 * Bukharian Jews from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan spoke the Bukhori dialect;
 * the Malabar Jews from Kerala, India, arrived speaking Judeo-Malayalam.
 * the Bene Israel from Maharashtra, India, arrived speaking Marathi.

Disparities and integration
The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years. Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s). It has been claimed that intermarriage does not tend to decrease ethnic differences in socio-economic status, however, that does not apply to the children of inter-ethnic marriages.

Although social integration has increased, disparities persist. A study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. Israeli-born Ashkenazim are up to twice as likely to study in a university as Israeli-born Mizrahim. Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians. According to a survey by the Adva Center, the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.

In 2023, journalist Shany Littman believes the dynamics of inequality have reversed, with most Israeli cabinet ministers and City mayors being Mizrahi Jews; also she stated that middle-class Mizrahi women earned more than their Ashkenazi counterparts.

Genetics
The Middle Eastern Jewish populations have a connection to the Jewish communities of Europe and North Africa in their paternal gene pool, suggesting a common Middle Eastern origin between them.

In autosomal analyses, the Iraqi Jews, Iranian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Kurdish Jews, Mountain Jews, and Georgian Jews form a cluster. When examined at a more detailed level, the groups can be separated from each other. This cluster plots between Levantine and Northern West Asian populations. Syrian and North African Jews are separate from it and closer to the Sephardi Jews. Yemenite Jews are distinct from other Jewish groups and cluster with the non-Jewish population of the Arabian Peninsula.

Organizations

 * World Organization of Jews from Arab Countries
 * Sephardic Pizmonim Project
 * JIMENA – Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa
 * Middle Eastern and North African Jews at the Multiculturalism Project
 * Hakeshet Hademocratit Hamizrachit – an organization of Mizrahi Jews in Israel
 * Harif: Association of Jews from the Middle East and North Africa (British-based)
 * Ha' Yisrayli Torah Brith Yahad, Mizrahi Jewish Int'l Medical Humanitarian NGO recognized by the United Nations Civil Society and Economic Development Division (US-based)
 * Sephardi Voices UK – audiovisual testimonies of Jews in the UK originally from the Middle East, North Africa and Iran

Articles

 * Ella Shohat, Israeli Cinema: East/West and the Politics of Representation, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989; New Edition, London: I. B. Tauris, 2010).
 * Ella Shohat, Le sionisme du point de vue de ses victimes juives: les juifs orientaux en Israel (first published in 1988, with a new introduction, La fabrique editions, Paris, 2006).
 * Ella Shohat, Taboo Memories, Diasporic Voices (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
 * Mizrahi Wanderings – Nancy Hawker on Samir Naqqash, one of Israel's foremost Arab-language Mizrahi novelists
 * The Middle East's Forgotten Refugees A chronicle of Mizrahi refugees by Semha Alwaya
 * The Forgotten Refugees
 * Moshe Levy The story of an Iraqi Jew in the Israeli Navy and his survival on the war-ship Eilat
 * My Life in Iraq Yeheskel Kojaman describes his life as an Iraqi Jew in the 1950s and 1960s
 * Audio interview with Ammiel Alcalay discussing Mizrahi literature
 * Excerpt from The Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Times by Norman Stillman
 * Etan Bloom, The Reproduction of the Model "Oriental" in the Israeli Social Space; the 50s and the speedy immigration. Tel-Aviv Univ. M.A. in the Unit for Culture Research, 2003. (Hebrew, with summary in English.)
 * Saul Silas Fathi Full Circle: Escape From Baghdad and the Return by Saul Silas Fathi, A prominent Iraqi Jewish family's escape from persecution.
 * Road From Damascus, Tablet Magazine
 * Moshe Levy The story of an Iraqi Jew in the Israeli Navy and his survival on the war-ship Eilat
 * My Life in Iraq Yeheskel Kojaman describes his life as an Iraqi Jew in the 1950s and 1960s
 * Audio interview with Ammiel Alcalay discussing Mizrahi literature
 * Excerpt from The Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Times by Norman Stillman
 * Etan Bloom, The Reproduction of the Model "Oriental" in the Israeli Social Space; the 50s and the speedy immigration. Tel-Aviv Univ. M.A. in the Unit for Culture Research, 2003. (Hebrew, with summary in English.)
 * Saul Silas Fathi Full Circle: Escape From Baghdad and the Return by Saul Silas Fathi, A prominent Iraqi Jewish family's escape from persecution.
 * Road From Damascus, Tablet Magazine
 * Road From Damascus, Tablet Magazine

Communities

 * Bukharian Jews Bukharian Jewish community (English and Russian)
 * PersianRabbi.com Persian Jewish community
 * Kurdish Jewry (Hebrew)
 * Sha'ar Binyamin Damascus Jewry (Hebrew and Spanish)
 * Jews of Lebanon
 * Historical Society of Jews from Egypt
 * Harissa.com Tunisian Jewish site (French)
 * Jewish Djerba Djerbian Jewish site (French)
 * Zlabia.com Algerian Jewish site (French)
 * Dafina.net Moroccan Jewish site (French)
 * The Nash Didan Community Persian Azerbaijany, Aramaic speaking community (Hebrew, some English and Aramaic)

title: Mizrahi Jews


text: Category:Australian Labor Party politicians

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Talk:Dormancy

Rewrite for animals
This article needs a bit of a rewrite to cover animal dormancy, as even the introduction is of a botanical nature only. Fbriere 03:32, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Fruits
The development of communications have led to a wider cultivation of temperate fruits, cultivars being selected and grown in different environmental conditions. The demand of temperate-zone fruits is very intense in tropical countries but the production in these warm regions is limited by the lack of winter chilling (Subhadrabandhu, S. 1995). This situation has increased the risks derived from the incomplete breaking of dormancy, and encouraged studies concerning the chilling requirements of fruit cultivars for breaking dormancy. In cool regions the period of endodormancy is terminated rather soon but when there is no chilling, the intensity of endodormancy would not decrease, leading to an extreme case of prolonged dormancy. Saure M. C. (1985) in his review of dormancy, described the symptoms of prolonged dormancy in deciduous trees as the following: ·	Delayed, protracted, and very weak leafing ·	Formation of unbranched shoots that become increasingly shorter due to shorter internodes ·	Quickly declining growth vigor and early senescence of the trees ·	Delayed and protracted flowering season ·	Poor fruit development and irregular ripening

Microbes
What about microbial dormancy?

Computer Term
Also, dormancy is a technical term in fault-tolerant computer systems.

Uncertainty
I have tried to add more detail to this page. but it's my first attempt so i have probably done something completely wrong. i'd apreciate somebody else reading and editing this and then letting me know where i went wrong so i won't do it again!!--SuperJ587 14:18, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

Torpor
My understanding of hibernation vs. torpor does not match thiese definitions at all. I am not a biologist, though, so I am relying on the informational plaques at the zoo and other sites like http://library.thinkquest.org/25553/english/animals/how/sleeplike.shtml  We think bears don't hibernate and torpor indicates a slightly reduced temperature, not a drop to ambient levels. Any biologists out there? Juneappal 19:33, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

When i originally edited this page it was in a very sorry state and i was really trying to get it on the road to recovery (which it deffinatly is!!). Though the source i used was reasonably respectable i have found other notable mistakes in it and after consulting several other source this seems to be another as they all take about a reduced temperature, so feel free to change it. ......don't know about bears though if you take it out as an example we need to try to find some others to add in (i already removed squirrels as apparently they don't hibernate either!)--SuperJ587 22:33, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

Human-induced plant dormancy
It appears that Jean Henkens of Center Parks Belgium induces dormancy in trees by "injecting latex". Perhaps the technique can be mentioned in the article 91.182.165.141 (talk) 09:41, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

Hibernation in mammals only?
The hibernation section states that hibernation is "used by many animals", but lists only mammals. Also, it talks about decreased body temperature, which should mainly affect mammals. I suspect that only mammals hibernate, and I think the article should more clearly state that, if it is true. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.104.183.30 (talk) 20:43, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

Not only biological
Dormancy is not limited only to biological life. It is also used to describe a period when a volcano's growth, development and activity are temporarily stopped. See dormant volcano.  Volcano guy  22:29, 10 August 2014 (UTC)

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Category:Palestinian people

The Palestinian people (الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha‘b al-Filasṭīnī) are the citizens of the modern State of Palestine.

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Category:South African politicians

This category lists politicians whose nationality is South African. Most, but not all, have been involved in the Politics of South Africa. For individuals who have held office in the political institutions of South Africa (regardless of nationality), see Category:Political office-holders in South Africa

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File talk:Krak2.jpg

From Copyright problems
 * I uploaded Image:RomanChariot.jpg, Image:ByzantineChariot.jpg, Image:RomanChariotBig.jpg, Image:ByzantineChariotBig.jpg, Image:Krak1.jpg, Image:Krak2.jpg, and also Image:GreekChariot.jpg, Image:GreekChariotBig.jpg, Image:PatroclusChariot.jpg, and Image:PatroclusChariotBig.jpg, which may be problems. Unfortunately I didn't think to make copies of the e-mail exchanges, but the Roman chariot picture is an ancient mosaic and the website's claim to copyright may be spurious. Same for the "Patroclus" and "Greek" ones. The Byzantine chariot pic and the pics of Krak des Chevalier are a bit more difficult - the people who took the photos said we could use them, and they seemed to understand the license, but if that's not good enough then I guess removing them is the only option. Sorry! Adam Bishop 22:01, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

 * A claim of fair use may be in order then - that is one reason why those were the only images I did not remove from the article. --mav 22:05, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The site appears to be trying to present an accurate rendition of an out of copyright Roman period work, so I see no potential for a valid copyright on the public domain mural Image:RomanChariot.jpg and Image:RomanChariotBig.jpg. Same for Image:GreekChariot.jpg, Image:GreekChariotBig.jpg, Image:PatroclusChariot.jpg, and Image:PatroclusChariotBig.jpg. No creativity so no fair use - no copyright at all - public domain. Jamesday 12:14, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm happy to accept the statement from Adam that he requested permission, was granted permission by those who understood the license and that the images Image:ByzantineChariot.jpg Image:ByzantineChariotBig.jpg Image:Krak1.jpg Image:Krak2.jpg are therefore released under the GFDL. Jamesday 12:52, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

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John H. Stracey

John Henry Stracey MBE (born 22 September 1950) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1969 to 1978. He is a former welterweight world champion, having held the WBC and lineal welterweight titles between 1975 and 1976. At regional level, he held the British and European welterweight titles between 1973 and 1975, and is ranked by BoxRec as the eighth best British welterweight of all time.

Amateur career
Stracey competed for Great Britain as a lightweight at the 1968 Summer Olympics. He was defeated in the Round of 16 by eventual gold medallist Ronnie Harris. Stracey won the 1969 ABA light-welterweight championship.

Early career
Stracey began his professional career on 17 September 1969, knocking out Santos Martins in two rounds. Stracey won his first twelve fights, eleven by knockout, but against obscure opposition. Fight number thirteen was against Teddy Cooper, on 19 January 1971. Cooper was not a big name in boxing either, but this fight ended in controversy when Stracey won by a fifth round disqualification. On 5 October 1971 Stracey drew (tied) in ten rounds against Frankie Lewis.

Stracey produced five more wins before being matched with Marshall Butler, on 25 May 1972, at the Royal Albert Hall, suffering his first defeat after being outpointed by Butler over eight rounds. He then put a string of four more wins together, before facing Bobby Arthur for the British welterweight title, on 31 October, at the Royal Albert Hall. He lost the fight with another controversial ending: This time, Stracey found himself disqualified in round seven. Stracey then won five more bouts in a row. In February 1973, Stracey traveled to the United States, were he fought Danny McAloon on the undercard of the first Ali vs. Bugner fight, at the Las Vegas Convention Center, on 14 February. Stracey won the bout via unanimous decision. He then met Bobby Arthur in a rematch on 5 June, this time winning the British title with a fourth-round knockout.

Stracey vs. Menetrey
On 27 May 1974, Stracey got his chance at the European welterweight title, fighting Roger Menetrey at the Stade de Roland Garros, in Paris, France. Stracey won via eighth-round knockout. On 29 April 1975, he defended his European title against Max Hebeisen, at the Royal Albert Hall, winning via RTD in the sixth round.

Stracey vs. Nápoles
During the 1970s, it was a common practice to give world title shots to boxers that held continental titles. For example, the OPBF (Oriental Pacific Boxing Federation) champion would be given priority over other challengers for world title fights. Stracey was not the exception, and, after winning five more fights in a row (including a win over Ernie Lopez), he received his first world title shot: challenging WBC welterweight champion José Nápoles, in Nápoles' home-town of Mexico City, Mexico, on 6 December 1975. Stracey was sent down in round one, but he recuperated to close Nápoles' eye and have referee Octavio Meyran stop the fight in the sixth round, Stracey winning the world championship by a technical knockout. The new champion declared, "He [Nápoles] could have knocked me down in every round but I'd have won it anyway". It was Nápoles' last fight.

1976
On 20 March 1976 he retained the title against perennial world title challenger Hedgemon Lewis by a knockout in round ten, but on 22 June, at Wembley, he lost the world title, being knocked out in twelve rounds by California-based Mexican Carlos Palomino. In his next fight, he lost to future world title challenger Dave Boy Green, with a badly damaged eye in round ten. Stracey retired as a winner when he knocked out George Warusfel in nine rounds in Islington on 23 May 1978.

Outside the ring
Stracey bought the Three Horseshoes pub in Briston, Norfolk, in 1975 and renamed it the John H Stracey. In 2011 the pub reverted to its original name. He also had, at one point, a boxing school in London.

John also had a hotel in Bournemouth with a public bar called The Ringside.when he was married to Michele,they also had a daughter called Laura.

title: John H. Stracey


text:
User talk:Yakovsh

Hello, I noticed you editing Mordehai Milgrom. I was curious why he deserves a place in an encyclopedia. Could you add such information to the article if you know it or discuss it at Talk:Mordehai Milgrom? Thanks. --Hemanshu 10:49, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I came across it by accident and was trying to fix up the layout --Yakovsh 04:39, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Russian translation
Hello. I was on Wikipedia:Translators available and notice that you were on the list for Russian to English translators and wondered if you could translate Maria Vladimirovna of Staritsa and/or Vladimir of Staritsa? Thanks.--Queen Elizabeth II's Little Spy (talk) 00:05, 30 January 2012 (UTC)

Disambiguation link notification for February 28
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Nomination of M³AAWG for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article M³AAWG is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/M³AAWG until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Imcdc (talk) 12:59, 8 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yakovsh


text:
North Randall

North Randall may refer to the following places in the United States:

 * North Randall, a township in Thomas County, Kansas
 * North Randall, Ohio

title: North Randall


text:
Blonde on Blonde (rock group)

Blonde on Blonde was a guitar-led psychedelic rock group from South Wales.

The band was formed in Newport in 1967 by vocalist/guitarist Ralph Denyer, drummer Les Hicks, bassist/organist Richard Hopkins and guitarist/sitar player Gareth Johnson. The band was named after Bob Dylan's 1966 album of the same name.

In 1968 the quartet left Wales for London, and was joined by guitarist Simon Lawrance, playing clubs such as Middle Earth and appearing on the BBC TV series How Late It Is. Signing to Pye Records, they released their first album, Contrasts, produced by Barry Murray, in 1969. The album included the Robin Williamson covers "No Sleep Blues" and "I Need My Friend", and a cover of The Beatles' "Eleanor Rigby". That summer they appeared at the Isle of Wight Festival.

1970's Rebirth was released on Ember Records after a personnel change that saw Ralph Denyer joining Aquila and replaced by school friend David Thomas. Thomas' introduction gave the band a tougher, rock-oriented sound. Their second album included Moody Blues-styled ballads ("Castles In The Sky"), progressive rock songs ("You'll Never Know Me/Release") and fuzz-guitar based rockers ("November").

In 1971 Richard Hopkins left and was replaced by Graham Davis. Blonde on Blonde's final album Reflections on a Life was released by Ember Records in 1971, but the band achieved only modest commercial success. They disbanded in early 1972.

Ralph Denyer went on to co-write The Guitar Handbook with Isaac Guillory. He died in 2011.

Richard Hopkins died in late October 2022.

Les Hicks died 29 October 2022.

Singles

 * 1968 - "All Day All Night" / "Country Life"
 * 1969 - "I Need My Friend" / "Conversationally Making the Grade"
 * 1969 - "Castles in the Sky" / "Circles"

Albums

 * June 1969 - Contrasts
 * 1970 - Rebirth
 * 1971 - Reflections on a Life

title: Blonde on Blonde (rock group)


text:
John Brown (Rhode Island politician)

John Brown  (January 27, 1736 – September 20, 1803) was an American merchant, politician and slave trader from Providence, Rhode Island. Together with his brothers Nicholas, Joseph and Moses, Brown was instrumental in founding Brown University (then known as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations) and moving it to their family's former estate in Providence.

Brown laid the cornerstone of the university's oldest building in 1770, and he served as its treasurer for 21 years, from 1775 to 1796. He was also one of the founders of Providence Bank and served as its first president in 1791. Brown was active in the American Revolution, notably as an instigator of the 1772 Gaspee Affair, and he served in both state and national government. At the same time, he was a powerful voice of proslavery thought, clashing aggressively in newspapers, courts and the political system with his brother Moses, who had become an abolitionist.

Brown's home in Providence is now a museum and National Historic Landmark. His personal desk and bookcase reside at the Yale University Art Gallery in New Haven, Connecticut. The desk is attributed to Daniel Spencer, who opened his cabinetmaking studio in Providence, Rhode Island in 1772.

Early life
John Brown was born in Providence in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, on January 27, 1736, to James Brown II (1698–1739) and Hope Power (1702–1792). His paternal grandparents were Elder James Brown (1666–1716), a pastor at the First Baptist Church, and Mary (Harris) Brown. His father, James Brown II, established himself early in the mercantile business, trading in slaves, rum, molasses, and other goods. His parents, who were married in 1723, had six children, including: Mary (1731–1795), who married Dr. David Vanderlight, James (1724–1750), the eldest son who was a sea captain and who died young, Nicholas (1729–1791), Joseph (1733–1785), John (1736–1803) and Moses (1738–1836).

Family
John Brown was a descendant of Chad Brown, a co-founder of Providence and early Baptist minister at the First Baptist Church in America following Roger Williams. His uncle was Obadiah Brown I (1712–1762), who joined Brown's father, James Brown II (1698–1739), in the mercantile trade in cocoa, rum, molasses. He also enslaved and sold men, women and children of African descent. Obadiah's initial role was as master of his brother's shipping vessels in the West Indies trade. After the death of Brown's father in 1739, Obadiah retired from the sea himself, but continued the business. He also helped to raise James' young children, later forming a partnership with James' four surviving sons as "Obadiah Brown & Co." Obadiah Brown I, who married his first cousin, Mary Harris (1718–1805), daughter of Toleration and Sarah Harris, had eight children. All four of their sons died in early childhood, and their four daughters, Brown's first cousins, were Phebe Brown (born 1738), who married John Fenner (brother of Governor Arthur Fenner), Sarah Brown (1742–1800), who married Lt. Gov. Jabez Bowen (1739–1815), Anna Brown (1744–1773), who married her first cousin, Moses Brown, and Mary Brown (born 1753), who married Thomas Arnold (1751–1826). Another uncle was Rhode Island Deputy Governor Elisha Brown and a nephew was Nicholas Brown Jr., the philanthropist and the namesake of Brown University.

Career
Brown went on to own a successful farming and shipping business with his brothers, Nicholas, Joseph, and Moses Brown. He was active in the slave trade and China trade and invested heavily in privateers during the 1760s through 1780s.

Brown was a leader in the Sons of Liberty and was one of the instigators of the burning of the Gaspee in 1772. Along with the Boston Tea Party, this was one of the first violent acts of defiance to the authority of the British Crown which eventually led up to the American Revolution.

In 1775, during the American Revolution, John Brown sold the United States Navy its first ship, the USS Providence (previously, the Katy). Brown was named as a delegate for Rhode Island to the Continental Congress in 1784–1785 but did not attend.

Slave trading

John Brown was also a slave trader and personally owned slaves as well. On March 22, 1794, Congress passed the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which prohibited the making, loading, outfitting, equipping, or dispatching of any ship to be used in human trafficking. Subsequently, on August 5, 1797, John Brown was ordered to forfeit his ship Hope. He was tried in federal court as the first American to be tried under the 1794 law. Brown was acquitted, but did not have his ship returned.

Brown's involvement in the slave trade and slavery in Rhode Island are addressed in the official Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice.

Business interests
Brown's business interests were varied. In addition to the slave trade he was involved in shipbuilding and real estate speculation. He was also a partner (along with his brother Moses Brown and Rhode Island Governor Stephen Hopkins) in the Hope Furnace (located in Hope Village on the border of towns of Scituate and Coventry, RI) which made cannons during the American Revolution and through the War of 1812.

In 1791 Brown founded Providence Bank - the first bank in Rhode Island, and organizer of the Providence South Bridge Company. After various acquisitions over the next 160 years Providence Bank evolved into FleetBoston Financial which, in turn, was absorbed by Bank of America in 2004. Providence Bank is one of the oldest "branches" in Bank of America's "family tree" and is, at least arguably, still a "living" corporate entity.

The original Providence Bank building (built in 1774) still stands at 50 South Main Street in Providence and is the corporate office of the Brown & Ives Land Company which is another business which can trace its roots to John Brown.

American Revolution

Brown played a leading role in the Gaspée Affair of 1772 that increased hostilities between the Thirteen Colonies and the Kingdom of Great Britain and helped catalyze events leading up to the American Revolutionary War. He was an active Federalist and pushed against Rhode Island's anti-federalist, "Country Party" in getting Rhode Island to become part of federal union.

Providence, the first warship to sail for America's Continental Navy, was built in 1768 by John Brown. It was purchased by the colony of Rhode Island after the Royal Navy began attacking Rhode Island's shipping lanes. The General Assembly ordered its committee of safety to fit out two ships to defend the lanes, one of which became the Providence. The ship, at one time under the command of Continental Navy officer John Paul Jones, went on to participate in 60 engagements and capture 40 British ships before it was dismantled in 1779 to prevent it from falling into British hands.

Political activity
Brown was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1798 and served one two-year term from March 4, 1799, to March 3, 1801. The carriage he travelled to Washington in is referred to as "John Brown's chariot" and is preserved at the John Brown House in Providence.

Death and burial
John Brown died in Providence, Rhode Island on September 20, 1803, and interred in the Brown family plot in the North Burial Ground in Providence.

Personal life
He was married to Sarah (Smith) Brown (1738–1825). Together, they had:

 * James Brown III (1761–1834) from Rhode Island, who never married, was educated at Harvard University where he graduated in 1780. In 1789, James was elected a member of the Board of Fellows of Brown University, and regularly attended meetings until his death.
 * Abigail Brown Francis
 * Sarah Brown Herreshoff (1773–1846), who married Charles Frederick Herreshoff (1763–1819), an engineer derived from Germany.
 * Alice Brown Mason

Descendants
Brown's grandson John Brown Francis was later a U.S. Senator and Governor of Rhode Island. His grandson, Charles Frederick Herreshoff (1809–1888), and his sons, James Brown Herreshoff (1834–1930), John Brown Herreshoff (1841–1914), and Nathanael Greene Herreshoff (1848–1938) founded the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company, a boatbuilding establishment in Bristol, Rhode Island.

title: John Brown (Rhode Island politician)


text:
Category:Cycloalkanes

Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons that form one or more rings.

title: Category:Cycloalkanes


text:
Category:Nervous system

The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, monitors the organs, constructs and processes input from the senses and initiates actions.

title: Category:Nervous system


text: Category:England

title: Category:England


text:
Glenda Farrell

Glenda Farrell (June 30, 1904 – May 1, 1971)   was an American actress. Farrell personified the smart and sassy, wisecracking blonde of the Classic Hollywood films. Her career spanned more than 50 years, and she appeared in numerous Broadway plays, films and television series. She won an Emmy Award in 1963 for Outstanding Supporting Actress for her performance as Martha Morrison in the medical drama television series Ben Casey.

Farrell began acting on stage as a child and continued with various theatre companies and on Broadway before signing with Warner Bros. A signature 1930s Warner Bros. star, Farrell appeared in films such as Little Caesar (1931), I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932), Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) and Lady for a Day (1933). Starting with Smart Blonde (1937), Farrell played Torchy Blane, a daring female reporter, in a series of popular films which later was credited by comic book writer Jerry Siegel as the inspiration for the DC Comics reporter Lois Lane. After leaving Warner Bros. in 1939, Farrell remained active in film, television and theatre throughout the rest of her career.

Early life
Farrell was born in Enid, Oklahoma. Her father, Charles Farrell, was a horse trader of Irish and Cherokee descent. Farrell's mother, Wilhelmina "Minnie" of German descent, was the driving force behind her daughter's theatre career. Farrell had two brothers, Dick and Gene. After her family moved to Wichita, Kansas, Farrell began acting on stage with a theatrical company at age seven, playing the role of Little Eva in the play Uncle Tom's Cabin. Farrell's mother had never achieved her desire of being an actress, encouraged and supported her daughter's acting interests. When her family moved to San Diego, California, a teenage Farrell joined the Virginia Brissac Stock Company. Farrell made the third honor roll in Motion Picture Magazine's "Fame and Fortune Contest". Her picture and biography were featured in the magazine's April 1919 issue, which also stated that Farrell had some experience in the chorus, vaudeville, and camp entertainments. Farrell received a formal education at the Mount Carmel Catholic Academy.

1928–1939: Stage and films
In 1928, Farrell was cast as the lead actress in the play The Spider and made her film debut in a minor role in Lucky Boy. Farrell moved to New York City in 1929, where she replaced Erin O'Brien-Moore as Marion Hardy in Aurania Rouverol's play Skidding. The play later served as the basis for the Andy Hardy film series. By April 1929, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle reported that she had played the role 355 times. Farrell appeared in several other plays, including Divided Honors, Recapture, and Love, Honor and Betray with George Brent, Alice Brady, and Clark Gable.

In 1930, she starred in the comedy short film The Lucky Break with Harry Fox and in July 1930, Film Daily announced that Farrell had been cast as the female lead, Olga Stassoff, in director Mervyn LeRoy's gangster film Little Caesar. The movie was Farrell's first major film role, co-starring Edward G. Robinson and Douglas Fairbanks Jr. Afterwards, she returned to Broadway and starred in On the Spot at the Forrest Theater. At the time, Farrell conceded that motion pictures offered immense salaries but felt the theatre was the foundation of the actor's profession. She appeared in several more plays.

In 1932, Farrell starred in the hit Broadway play Life Begins, an episodic drama set entirely in the maternity ward in a hospital. Farrell received rave reviews and notices for her performance as Florette Darien, the professionally sullen chorus girl. Farrell was asked to recreate the role in Warner Bros.' film adaptation of Life Begins later that year. She was also given a seven years contract with the Warner Bros. film studio. Farrell did not return to the stage until 1939.

Farrell appeared in over 30 films in her first five years with Warner Bros., sometimes working on three pictures that were shooting at the same time and managed to transition from one role to another. She co-starred in the Academy-Award nominated films I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932) with Paul Muni and Lady for a Day (1933) by director Frank Capra. She also appeared in films such as Girl Missing (1933), Little Big Shot (1935), the musical Go into Your Dance (1935) and the comedies Nobody's Fool (1936) and High Tension (1936).

Farrell was close friends with fellow Warner Bros. actress and frequent co-star Joan Blondell. They were paired as a comedy duo throughout the early 1930s in a series of five Warner Bros. movies: Havana Widows (1933), Kansas City Princess (1934), Traveling Saleslady (1935), We're in the Money (1935) and Miss Pacific Fleet (1935). Farrell and Blondell appeared together in a total of nine films.

In 1937, Farrell began starring as Torchy Blane, a fast-talking, wisecracking newspaper reporter. Warner Bros. had started to develop a film adaptation of "MacBride and Kennedy" stories by detective novelist Frederick Nebel. For the film version, Kennedy is changed to a woman named "Torchy" Blane and is in love with MacBride's character. Director Frank MacDonald immediately knew whom he wanted for the role of Torchy. Farrell had already proved that she could play hard-boiled reporters in Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) and Hi, Nellie! (1934) and was quickly cast with Barton MacLane playing detective Steve McBride in the first film Smart Blonde (1937).

Smart Blonde was a surprise hit and became a popular second feature with moviegoers. Farrell continued to play Torchy in seven films opposite MacLane between 1937 and 1939. The Torchy series took Farrell's popularity to a new level. She was beloved by the moviegoing public and received a huge amount of fan mail for the series. Farrell based her portrayal of the Torchy character on real-life female journalists of the time, stating in her 1969 Time interview: "So before I undertook to do the first Torchy, I determined to create a real human being—and not an exaggerated comedy type. I met those [newswomen] who visited Hollywood and watched them work on visits to New York City. They were generally young, intelligent, refined, and attractive. By making Torchy true to life, I tried to create a character practically unique in movies."

Along with starring in the Torchy Blane series, Farrell appeared in several other films, including Dance Charlie Dance (1937), Exposed (1938) and Prison Break (1938). She also performed in the radio series Vanity and Playhouse in 1937 and Manhattan Latin with Humphrey Bogart in 1938.

Farrell was elected to a one-year term as the honorary mayor of North Hollywood in 1937, beating her competition Bing Crosby and Lewis Stone by a three-to-one margin. Even though it began as a Warner Bros. publicity stunt, Farrell took the job seriously, attending functions, presentations, and ceremonies. She was also put in charge when the North Hollywood Chamber of Commerce announced that it wanted to put sewers along Ventura Highway and started the groundwork for that project.

In 1939, Farrell left Warner Bros. when her contract expired. Several factors resulted in her decision, including feeling Warner Bros. was typecasting her as a newspaper reporter, a pay raise reneged on by Jack Warner, and a desire to return to the theatre. Farrell later told syndicated columnist Bob Thomas in 1952: "There's something more satisfying about working in a play. You get that immediate response from the audience, and you feel that your performance is your own. In pictures, you get frustrated because you feel you have no power over what you're doing."

1939–1969: Television, stage, and films
In July 1939, Farrell starred in the lead role in the play Anna Christie at the Westport Country Playhouse and followed that with a summer stock production of S. N. Behrman's play Brief Moment. She co-starred with Lyle Talbot and Alan Dinehart in the long-running play Separate Rooms at Broadway's Plymouth Theater for a successful 613-performance run throughout 1940 and 1941. She appeared in the Broadway plays The Overtons in 1945 and Home is the Hero by Walter Macken in 1954.

Farrell returned to motion pictures in 1941, starring in Mervyn LeRoy's film noir, Johnny Eager. Throughout the 40s, 50s, and 60s, Farrell continued to appear in numerous films: including the Academy Award-nominated film The Talk of the Town (1942), A Night for Crime (1943), the Western Apache War Smoke (1952) and the crime drama Girls in the Night (1953). She starred in the 1959 film adaptation of the Broadway play Middle of the Night with Fredric March and Kim Novak. Farrell co-starred with her son Tommy Farrell in two comedy films in 1964: Kissin' Cousins and The Disorderly Orderly.

Farrell made her television debut in 1949 in the anthology series The Chevrolet Tele-Theatre. She appeared in over 40 television series between 1950 and 1969, including Kraft Theatre, Studio One in Hollywood, The United States Steel Hour, Bonanza and Bewitched. In 1963, Farrell guest-starred in the ABC medical drama series Ben Casey as Martha Morrison in the two-part episode "A Cardinal Act of Mercy". She won the Primetime Emmy Award for outstanding performance in a supporting role by an actress.

Farrell briefly retired in 1968 but soon decided to return to acting. Farrell's final work in her long career was the Broadway play Forty Carats. She was appearing in Forty Carats at the Morosco Theatre until ill health forced her to leave the play a few months later. Farrell was eventually diagnosed with lung cancer.

Personal life
In 1920, Farrell was hired to do a dance routine at a Navy benefit ball in San Diego. There she met her first husband, Thomas Richards. They were married from 1921 to 1929. Their son, actor Tommy Farrell, was born in 1921. Farrell was engaged to Jack Durant of the comedy duo "Mitchell and Durant" in 1931 but never married him. She later dated screenwriter Robert Riskin and actor Jack Randall.

In 1941, Farrell married Dr. Henry Ross, a major and Army Air Force flight surgeon. The couple met during a performance of the play Separate Rooms after Farrell sprained her ankle and was treated backstage by Ross. Ross was a staff surgeon at New York's Polyclinic Hospital and West Point graduate, who later served as chief of the public health section on General Eisenhower's staff. Farrell and Ross remained married until her death 30 years later. Throughout her life, Farrell was a devout Catholic.

Death
In 1971, Farrell died from lung cancer, age 66, at her home in New York City and was interred in the West Point Cemetery in West Point, New York. When Ross, who did not remarry, died in 1991, he was buried with her.

Legacy
Comic book writer Jerry Siegel credits Farrell's portrayal of Torchy Blane as the inspiration for the fictional Daily Planet reporter and Superman's love interest, Lois Lane. Siegel also named June Farrell, one of the characters in his Funnyman comic book series, after Farrell.

On February 8, 1960, Farrell received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contribution to motion pictures at 6524 Hollywood Boulevard.

Writer and director Garson Kanin said in a 1971 New York Times article: "There are players who create characters; some of the great ones, a single character. More rare are those who, like Glenda, created a type. She invented and developed that made‐tough, uncompromising, knowing, wisecracking, undefeatable blonde. Whether she was the Girl Friend of the star, a cynical secretary, a salesgirl, a worldweary wife, a madam, homesteader, or schoolteacher she was always, relentlessly The Type. She was widely imitated, and lived long enough to see her imitators imitated."

In 1977, Farrell's husband, Dr. Henry Ross, donated 38 acres of land to the Putnam County Land Trust, establishing the Glenda Farrell–Henry Ross Preserve.

title: Glenda Farrell


text:
Category:Scotland

 * Scotland is a country in north-western Europe, and it is part of the United Kingdom.

title: Category:Scotland


text: Talk:Old World

title: Talk:Old World


text:
User:Gunnar Larsson

Quite active during the early years of Wikipedia, but currently a very sporadic user.

da:Bruger:Gunnar Larsson de:Benutzer:Gunnar Larsson sv:Användare:Gunnar Larsson

title: User:Gunnar Larsson


text:
Category:Wales

 * Wales is a country in north-western Europe, and it is part of the United Kingdom.

title: Category:Wales


text:
North Salem

North Salem is the name of several communities in the United States:

 * North Salem, Indiana
 * North Salem, Missouri
 * North Salem, New Hampshire
 * North Salem, New York
 * North Salem, Ohio

title: North Salem


text:
User:Popsracer/Formating test

Categories: Dummy Category This is a formating test article with several different formating types. I am using it to test changes in my personal stylesheet.

Lorem ipsum
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Donec rhoncus, nulla et condimentum condimentum, dui nulla pulvinar tortor, a egestas libero neque at lectus. Vestibulum ultrices sapien at magna. Cum sociis natoque penatibus et magnis dis parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. Nunc feugiat ullamcorper odio. Proin ante orci, sollicitudin iaculis, fringilla et, luctus non, nulla. Ut imperdiet nunc nec lectus. Vestibulum quis elit. Maecenas nec odio. Nunc lobortis mi quis nunc. Ut eget lorem vitae magna lobortis semper. Ut dui felis, facilisis a, luctus eu, fermentum eu, augue. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas. Pellentesque elementum, nisl sit amet pharetra dignissim, purus est adipiscing sapien, eu scelerisque est nisl vitae pede. Cras diam sem, feugiat eget, consequat nec, fermentum id, purus. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas.

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Nullam tempor libero
Nullam tempor libero nec mi. Curabitur ultricies erat vitae erat. Morbi nec nisl sed dolor dapibus aliquam. Fusce non mi. Vestibulum lobortis. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Praesent ac augue vel diam lobortis egestas. Fusce pulvinar. Aliquam erat volutpat. Morbi nibh sem, elementum convallis, rhoncus sed, tempus sed, elit. Nunc placerat tincidunt risus. Sed dolor risus, molestie sed, placerat ut, venenatis id, augue. Maecenas congue, orci eget suscipit molestie, nunc orci semper nibh, molestie bibendum enim sapien euismod pede.

title: User:Popsracer/Formating test


text:
User:Phil Boswell/monobook.css

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title: User:Phil Boswell/monobook.css


text:
Scalping

Scalping is the act of cutting or tearing a part of the human scalp, with hair attached, from the head, and generally occurred in warfare with the scalp being a trophy. Scalp-taking is considered part of the broader cultural practice of the taking and display of human body parts as trophies, and may have developed as an alternative to the taking of human heads, for scalps were easier to take, transport, and preserve for subsequent display. Scalping independently developed in various cultures in both the Old and New Worlds.

Europe
One of the earliest examples of scalping dates back to the mesolithic period, found at a hunter-gatherer cemetery in Sweden. Several human remains from the stone-age Ertebølle culture in Denmark show evidence of scalping. A man found in a grave in the Alvastra pile-dwelling in Sweden had been scalped approximately 5,000 years ago.

Georg Frederici noted that “Herodotus provided the only clear and satisfactory portrayal of a scalping people in the old world” in his description of the Scythians, a nomadic people then located to the north and west of the Black Sea. Herodotus related that Scythian warriors would behead the enemies they defeated in battle and present the heads to their king to claim their share of the plunder. Then, the warrior would skin the head “by making a circular cut round the ears and shaking out the skull; he then scrapes the flesh off the skin with the rib of an ox, and when it is clean works it with his fingers until it is supple, and fit to be used as a sort of handkerchief. He hangs these handkerchiefs on the bridle of his horse, and is very proud of them. The best man is the man who has the greatest number.”

Ammianus Marcellinus noted the taking of scalps by the Alani in terms quite similar to those used by Herodotus. The Abbé Emmanuel H. D. Domenech referred to the decalvare of the ancient Germans and the capillos et cutem detrahere of the code of the Visigoths as examples of scalping in early medieval Europe, though some more recent interpretations of these terms relate them to shaving off the hair of the head as a legal punishment rather than scalping.

In England in 1036, Earl Godwin, father of Harold Godwinson, was reportedly responsible for scalping his enemies, among whom was Alfred Aetheling. According to the ancient Abingdon manuscript, 'some of them were blinded, some maimed, some scalped. No more horrible deed was done in this country since the Danes came and made peace here'.

In 1845, mercenary John Duncan observed what he estimated to be 700 scalps taken in warfare and displayed as trophies by a contingent of female soldiers—Dahomey Amazons—employed by the King of Dahomey (present-day Republic of Benin). Duncan noted that these would have been taken and kept over a long period of time and would not have come from a single battle. Although Duncan travelled widely in Dahomey, and described customs such as the taking of heads and the retention of skulls as trophies, nowhere else does he mention scalping.

Occasional instances of scalping of dead Axis troops by Allied military personnel are known from World War II. While many of these instances took place in the Pacific Theater, along with more extreme forms of trophy-hunting (see American mutilation of Japanese war dead), occasional instances are reported in the European Theater as well. One particularly widely reported, although disputed, case involves that of German general Friedrich Kussin, the commandant of the town of Arnhem who was ambushed and killed by British paratroopers in the early stages of Operation Market Garden.

Asia
There is physical evidence that scalping was practiced during the Longshan and Erlitou periods in China's central plain.

A skull from an Iron Age cemetery in South Siberia shows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by the Scythians living there.

Some evidence is also found in the Indian Subcontinent. Bhai Taru Singh (c. 1720 – 1 July 1745) was a prominent Sikh martyr known for sacrificing his life, in the name of protecting Sikh values, by having had his head scalped rather than cutting his hair and converting to Islam.

Americas

Scalping in the Americas predominantly arose from the practices of Indian tribes, and was later copied by European colonists on the continent.

Techniques
Specific scalping techniques varied somewhat from place to place, depending on the cultural patterns of the scalper regarding the desired shape, size, and intended use of the severed scalp, and on how the victims wore their hair, but the general process of scalping was quite uniform:"They seize the head of the disabled or dead enemy, and placing one of their feet on the neck, twist their left hand in the hair; by this means, having extended the skin that covers the top of the head, they draw out their scalping knives, which are always kept in good order for this cruel purpose, and with a few dextrous strokes take off the part that is termed the scalp. They are so expeditious in doing this, that the whole time required scarcely exceeds a minute."The scalp separated from the skull along the plane of the areolar connective tissue, the fourth (and least substantial) of the five layers of the human scalp. Scalping was not in itself fatal, though it was most commonly inflicted on the gravely wounded or the dead. The earliest instruments used in scalping were stone knives crafted of flint, chert, or obsidian, or other materials like reeds or oyster shells that could be worked to carry an edge equal to the task. Collectively, such tools were also used for a variety of everyday tasks like skinning and processing game, but were replaced by metal knives acquired in trade through European contact. The implement, often referred to as a "scalping knife" in popular American and European literature, was not known as such by Native Americans, a knife being for them just a simple and effective multi-purpose utility tool for which scalping was but one of many uses.

Intertribal conflict
There is substantial archaeological evidence of scalping in North America in the pre-Columbian era. Carbon dating of skulls show evidence of scalping as early as 600 AD; some skulls show evidence of healing from scalping injuries, suggesting at least some victims occasionally survived at least several months. Among Plains Indians, it seems to have been practiced primarily as part of intertribal warfare, with scalps only taken of enemies killed in battle. However, author and historian Mark van de Logt wrote, "Although military historians tend to reserve the concept of 'total war, in which civilians are targeted, "for conflicts between modern industrial nations," the term "closely approaches the state of affairs between the Pawnees, the Sioux, and the Cheyennes. Noncombatants were legitimate targets. Indeed, the taking of a scalp of a woman or child was considered honorable because it signified that the scalp taker had dared to enter the very heart of the enemy's territory."

Many tribes of Native Americans practiced scalping, in some instances up until the end of the 19th century. Of the approximately 500 bodies at the Crow Creek massacre site, 90 percent of the skulls show evidence of scalping. The event took place circa 1325 AD. European colonisation of the Americas increased the incidence of intertribal conflict, and consequently an increase in the prevalence of scalping.

Colonial wars

The Connecticut and Massachusetts colonies offered bounties for the heads of killed Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the Pequot War in the 1630s; Connecticut specifically reimbursed Mohegans for slaying the Pequot in 1637. Four years later, the Dutch in New Amsterdam offered bounties for the heads of Raritans. In 1643, the Iroquois attacked a group of Huron pelters and French carpenters near Montreal, killing and scalping three of the French.

Bounties for Indian captives or their scalps appeared in the legislation of the American colonies during the Susquehannock War (1675–77). New England offered bounties to white settlers and Narragansett people in 1675 during King Philip's War. By 1692, New France also paid their native allies for scalps of their enemies. In 1697, on the northern frontier of Massachusetts colony, settler Hannah Duston killed ten of her Abenaki captors during her nighttime escape, presented their ten scalps to the Massachusetts General Assembly, and was rewarded with bounties for two men, two women, and six children, even though Massachusetts had rescinded the law authorizing scalp bounties six months earlier. There were six colonial wars with New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fighting New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy over a 75-year period, starting with King William's War in 1688. All sides scalped victims, including noncombatants, during this frontier warfare. Bounty policies originally intended only for Native American scalps were extended to enemy colonists.

Massachusetts created a scalp bounty during King William's War in July 1689, and continued doing so during Queen Anne's War in 1703. During Father Rale's War (1722–1725), on August 8, 1722, Massachusetts put a bounty on native families, paying 100 pounds sterling for the scalps of male Indians aged 12 and over, and 50 pounds sterling for women and children. Ranger John Lovewell is known to have conducted scalp-hunting expeditions, the most famous being the Battle of Pequawket in New Hampshire.

In the 1710s and 1720s, New France engaged in frontier warfare with the Natchez people and the Meskwaki people, during which both sides employed the practice. In response to repeated massacres of British families by the French and their native allies during King George's War, Massachusetts governor William Shirley issued a bounty in 1746 to be paid to British-allied Indians for the scalps of French-allied Indian men, women, and children. New York passed a scalp act in 1747.

During Father Le Loutre's War and the Seven Years' War in Nova Scotia and Acadia, French colonists offered payments to Indians for British scalps. In 1749, British governor Edward Cornwallis created an extirpation proclamation, which included a bounty for male scalps or prisoners. Also during the Seven Years' War, Governor of Nova Scotia Charles Lawrence offered a reward for male Mi'kmaq scalps in 1756. (In 2000, some Mi'kmaq argued that this proclamation was still legal in Nova Scotia. Government officials argued that it was no longer legal because the bounty was superseded by later treaties - see the Halifax Treaties).

During the French and Indian War, as of June 12, 1755, Massachusetts governor William Shirley was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old. In 1756, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governor Robert Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."

Although much has been made of the existence of scalp bounties, generally because they have been easily accessible as statutes, little research exists on the numbers of bounties actually paid. Early frontier warfare in forested areas in the era of flintlock muzzle-loading rifles favored tomahawks and knives over firearms because of the long loading time after a shot was fired. Advantage was clearly held by bow, knife, and hatchet. Some states had a history of escalating the payout of bounties offered per scalp, presumably because lower bounties were ineffective and were not worth risking one's life in exchange for the payoff. Rising bounties were a measure of bounty system failure.

American Revolution
In the American Revolutionary War, Henry Hamilton, the British lieutenant governor and superintendent of Indian Affairs at Fort Detroit, was known by American Patriots as the "hair-buyer general" because they believed he encouraged and paid his Native American allies to scalp American settlers. As a result, when Hamilton was captured, he was treated as a war criminal instead of a prisoner of war. However, American historians have noted that there was no proof that he had ever offered rewards for scalps, and it is now believed that no British officer paid for scalps during the American Revolution.

The September 13, 1779, journal entry of Lieutenant William Barton tells of patriots participating in scalping. It is well established that the Iroquois, allied to the British during the American Revolution, practiced scalping. The most famous case was that of Jane McCrea, whose fiancé was a Loyalist officer. She was abducted by Iroquois, loyal to the British and under the command of John Burgoyne, and ultimately scalped and shot. Her death inspired many colonists to join the fight against the British invasion from Canada, an effort which ended in defeat at the Battle of Saratoga.

Mexico
In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of Sonora put a bounty on the Apache which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old. In 1837, the Mexican state of Chihuahua also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child. Harris Worcester wrote: "The new policy attracted a diverse group of men, including Anglos, runaway slaves led by Seminole John Horse, and Indians — Kirker used Delawares and Shawnees; others, such as Terrazas, used Tarahumaras; and Seminole chief Coacoochee led a band of his own people who had fled from Indian Territory."

American Civil War
Some scalping incidents occurred during the American Civil War of 1861-1865. For example, Confederate guerrillas led by "Bloody Bill" Anderson were well known for decorating their saddles with the scalps of Union soldiers they had killed. Archie Clement had the reputation of being Anderson's “chief scalper”.

Continued Indian Wars
In 1851, the U.S. Army displayed Indian scalps in Stanislaus County, California.

In 1851, the Tehama Massacre occurred in Tehama County, California, wherein U.S. military and citizens razed villages and scalped hundreds of men, women, and children. This attack targeted Native communities specifically, in the villages of Yana, Konkow, Nisenan, Wintu, Nomlaki, Patwin, Yuki, and Maidu.

Scalping also occurred during the Sand Creek Massacre on November 29, 1864, during the American Indian Wars, when a 700-man force of U.S. Army volunteers destroyed the village of Cheyenne and Arapaho in southeastern Colorado Territory, killing and mutilating an estimated 70–163 Native American civilians. An 1867 New York Times article reported that "settlers in a small town in Colorado Territory had recently subscribed $5,000 to a fund ‘for the purpose of buying Indian scalps (with $25 each to be paid for scalps with the ears on)’ and that the market for Indian scalps ‘is not affected by age or sex’." The article noted this behavior was "sanctioned" by the U.S. federal government, and was modeled on patterns the U.S. had begun a century earlier in the "American East".

From one writer's point of view, it was a "uniquely American" innovation that the use of scalp bounties in the wars against indigenous societies "became an indiscriminate killing process that deliberately targeted Indian non-combatants (including women, children, and infants), as well as warriors." Some American states such as Arizona paid bounty for enemy Native American scalps.

title: Scalping


text:
Category:Theatre

Theatre or theater (from French "théâtre", from Greek "theatron", θέατρον) is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, mime, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as opera, ballet, mime, kabuki, classical Indian dance, Chinese opera, mummers' plays, improv and pantomime.

 * For people involved in theatre, see Category:Theatrical occupations
 * Most organisations can be found in Category:Theatres and Category:Theatre companies

title: Category:Theatre


text:
Alpine states

The Alpine states or Alpine countries are eight countries associated with the Alpine region, as defined by the Alpine Convention of 1991: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland.

Nations

Territory
The territory includes 83 NUTS 3-level local administrative divisions and about 6,200 municipalities.

In a narrow sense, the term "Alpine states" could be applied to Austria (28.7% of the total area), Italy (27.2%), and France (21.4%), which represent more than 77% of the Alpine territory and more than three quarters of the Alpine population. However, for larger countries like Italy and France, the share of their territory within the Alpine region only amounts to 17% and 7%, respectively. From a strictly national point of view, and with the exception of microstates Liechtenstein and Monaco, the Alps are dominant in only two countries: Austria (65.5% of its territory) and Switzerland (65%).

Diplomacy
The diplomatic status between these countries varies depending on their individual relationships with each other. Many of these countries are members of the European Union (EU) and have close diplomatic ties with each other through this regional organization. The EU has helped to facilitate greater cooperation and integration among the Alpine states in various areas, such as trade, transportation, and environmental policy.

There are also several bilateral agreements and treaties between these countries, covering issues such as border security, trade, and cultural exchange. In addition, these countries work together through various regional and international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.

title: Alpine states


text:
Talk:The South End

untitled

 * For 2004 talk, see Talk:The South End/Talk 2004
 * For 2005 talk, see Talk:The South End/Talk 2005
 * For 2006 talk, see Talk:The South End/Talk 2006

It resumed printing today, first day of classes at WSU. There probably won't be a 2007 error log. They make so many mistakes in each issue it's like shooting fish in a barrel. No fun. Nothing worth sending in to Jay Leno's Headlines. Carla Bondicteuresse 17:59, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

Merge proposal
I propose that the article Joseph Fisher be merged into this one then deleted. There's little in his article that isn't already covered here, and I imagine he'd fail the guidelines at WP:BIO. Thomjakobsen 22:50, 27 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Support merge. I hope in the future this young man does something positive enough to counteract his youthful outburst of infamy. But as of today I think he's only notable enough to mention in the South End article. Carla Bondicteuresse 15:11, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

OK, I've turned it into a redirect here. I haven't merged any of the text because the existing coverage is probably enough, but for reference the old page history can be found here in case any of it is useful. Thomjakobsen 01:56, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:The South End


text: User talk:81.82.63.98

title: User talk:81.82.63.98


text:
Maghrebi Arabic

Maghrebi Arabic (الْلهجَة الْمَغاربِيَة as opposed to Eastern or Mashriqi Arabic), often known as ad-Dārija (الدارجة, meaning 'common/everyday [dialect]') to differentiate it from Literary Arabic, is a vernacular Arabic dialect continuum spoken in the Maghreb. It includes the Moroccan, Algerian, Tunisian, Libyan, Hassaniya and Saharan Arabic dialects. Maghrebi Arabic has a predominantly Semitic and Arabic vocabulary, although it contains a significant amount of Berber loanwords, which represent 2–3% of the vocabulary of Libyan Arabic, 8–9% of Algerian and Tunisian Arabic, and 10–15% of Moroccan Arabic. Maghrebi Arabic was formerly spoken in Al-Andalus and Sicily until the 17th and 13th centuries, respectively, in the extinct forms of Andalusi Arabic and Siculo-Arabic. The Maltese language is believed to have its source in a language spoken in Muslim Sicily that ultimately originates from Tunisia, as it contains some typical Maghrebi Arabic areal characteristics.

Name
Darija, Derija or Delja (الدارجة) means "everyday/colloquial dialect"; it is also rendered as ed-dārija, derija or darja. It refers to any of the varieties of colloquial Maghrebi Arabic. Although it is also common in Algeria and Tunisia to refer to the Maghrebi Arabic varieties directly as languages, similarly it is also common in Egypt and Lebanon to refer to the Mashriqi Arabic varieties directly as languages. For instance, Algerian Arabic would be referred as Dzayri (Algerian) and Tunisian Arabic as Tounsi (Tunisian), and Egyptian Arabic would be referred as Masri (Egyptian) and Lebanese Arabic as Lubnani (Lebanese).

In contrast, the colloquial dialects of more eastern Arab countries, such as Egypt, Jordan and Sudan, are usually known as al-‘āmmīya (العامية), though Egyptians may also refer to their dialects as el-logha d-darga.

History and origin
Maghrebi Arabic can be divided into two lineages in North Africa. One originates from the urban Arabs and dates back to the Arab Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th and 8th centuries, referred to as Pre-Hilalian Arabic. The other stems from the Bedouin Arabic varieties brought in by the Bedouin Arab tribes of Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym and Ma'qil in the 11th and 12th centuries, termed as Hilalian Arabic. The Pre-Hilalian varieties were largely bedouinized by the Hilalian migrations in the 11th century, producing hybrid varieties that combined both pre-Hilalian and Hilalian features. This led to the choice of Banu Hilal's Arabic as the lingua franca of the Maghreb. This variety, with influences from Berber languages and Punic, gave rise to the modern Arabic varieties in the Maghreb spoken by the vast majority of Maghrebis.

The Arabic language was spread across North Africa throughout the Rashidun and Umayyad conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, during which about 150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb. As Arab-led forces established settlements in a triangle encompassing Roman towns and cities such as Tangier, Salé and Walili, Moroccan Arabic began to take form. Arabization was widespread in cities where both Arabs and Berbers lived, as well as Arab centers and surrounding rural areas. Nevertheless, the Arabization process in the countryside remained gradual until the Hilalian invasions of the 11th century.

Maghrebi Arabic originates from the Bedouin Arabic varieties that were introduced to the Maghreb in the 11th century by Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, who effectively accelerated the Arabization of a great part of the Berbers. Sources estimate that around 1 million Arabs migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century. Their impact was profound and reshaped the demographic situation and living conditions across the Maghreb. They played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara.

Characteristics
The varieties of Maghrebi Arabic form a dialect continuum. The degree of mutual intelligibility is high between geographically adjacent dialects (such as local dialects spoken in Eastern Morocco and Western Algeria or Eastern Algeria and North Tunisia or South Tunisia and Western Libya), but lower between dialects that are further apart, e.g. between Moroccan and Tunisian Darija. Conversely, Moroccan Darija and particularly Algerian Derja cannot be easily understood by Eastern Arabic speakers (from Egypt, Sudan, Levant, Iraq, and Arabian peninsula) in general.

Maghrebi Arabic continues to evolve by integrating new French or English words, notably in technical fields, or by replacing old French and Italian/Spanish ones with Modern Standard Arabic words within some circles; more educated and upper-class people who code-switch between Maghrebi Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic have more French and Italian/Spanish loanwords, especially the latter came from the time of al-Andalus. Maghrebi dialects all use n- as the first-person singular prefix on verbs, distinguishing them from Levantine dialects and Modern Standard Arabic.

Relationship with Modern Standard Arabic and Berber languages
Modern Standard Arabic (الفصحى) is the primary language used in the government, legislation and judiciary of countries in the Maghreb. Maghrebi Arabic is mainly a spoken and vernacular dialect, although it occasionally appears in entertainment and advertising in urban areas of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. In Algeria, where Maghrebi Arabic was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, some textbooks in the dialect exist but they are no longer officially endorsed by the Algerian authorities. Maghrebi Arabic has a mostly Semitic Arabic vocabulary. It contains Berber loanwords, which represent 2–3% of the vocabulary of Libyan Arabic, 8–9% of Algerian and Tunisian Arabic, and 10–15% of Moroccan Arabic. The dialect may also possess a substratum of Punic.

Latin substratum
Additionally, Maghrebi Arabic has a Latin substratum, which may have been derived from the African Romance that was used as an urban lingua franca during the Byzantine Empire period. in morphology, this substratum is considered the origin of the plural noun morphemes -əsh/-osh that are common in northern Moroccan dialects, and probably the loss of gender in the second person singular of personal pronouns verbs, for example in Andalusian Arabic. The lexicon contains many loanwords from Latin, e.g. Moroccan/Algerian/Tunisian شَاقُور from (this could also be borrowed from Spanish );  from  and  from  through Berber afullus.

Relationship with other languages
Maghrebi Arabic speakers frequently borrow words from French (in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), Spanish (in northern Morocco and northwestern Algerian) and Italian (in Libya and Tunisia) and conjugate them according to the rules of their dialects with some exceptions (like passive voice for example). As it is not always written, there is no standard and it is free to change quickly and to pick up new vocabulary from neighboring languages. This is comparable to the evolution of Middle English after the Norman conquest.

title: Maghrebi Arabic


text:
Mike Wolfe (politician)

Mike Wolfe is a former politician. He was the first directly elected mayor of Stoke-on-Trent, sitting in office from 2002 to 2005. He was formerly employed as the manager of the Citizens Advice Bureau in the city.

Time as Mayor
Wolfe left the Labour Party to stand as an independent in the mayoral race of October 2002 and narrowly beat George Stevenson, a local Labour member of Parliament. Both Wolfe and his successor Mark Meredith are openly gay.

Wolfe came third out of eight in his bid for re-election in May 2005 when Labour gained the position of elected mayor. The election was notable for a record number of spoiled ballot papers.

Post-2005
He later became a columnist for a local paper, The Sentinel.

title: Mike Wolfe (politician)