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Pupillary light reflex

The pupillary light reflex (PLR) or photopupillary reflex is a reflex that controls the diameter of the pupil, in response to the intensity (luminance) of light that falls on the retinal ganglion cells of the retina in the back of the eye, thereby assisting in adaptation of vision to various levels of lightness/darkness. A greater intensity of light causes the pupil to constrict (miosis/myosis; thereby allowing less light in), whereas a lower intensity of light causes the pupil to dilate (mydriasis, expansion; thereby allowing more light in). Thus, the pupillary light reflex regulates the intensity of light entering the eye. Light shone into one eye will cause both pupils to constrict.

Terminology
The pupil is the dark circular opening in the center of the iris and is where light enters the eye. By analogy with a camera, the pupil is equivalent to aperture, whereas the iris is equivalent to the diaphragm. It may be helpful to consider the Pupillary reflex as an 'Iris' reflex, as the iris sphincter and dilator muscles are what can be seen responding to ambient light. Whereas, the pupil is the passive opening formed by the active iris. Pupillary reflex is synonymous with pupillary response, which may be pupillary constriction or dilation. Pupillary reflex is conceptually linked to the side (left or right) of the reacting pupil, and not to the side from which light stimulation originates. Left pupillary reflex refers to the response of the left pupil to light, regardless of which eye is exposed to a light source. Right pupillary reflex means reaction of the right pupil, whether light is shone into the left eye, right eye, or both eyes. When light is shone into only one eye and not the other, it is normal for both pupils to constrict simultaneously. The terms direct and consensual refers to the side where the light source comes from, relative to the side of the reacting pupil. A direct pupillary reflex is pupillary response to light that enters the ipsilateral (same) eye. A consensual pupillary reflex is response of a pupil to light that enters the contralateral (opposite) eye. Thus there are four types of pupillary light reflexes, based on this terminology of absolute laterality (left versus right) and relative laterality (same side versus opposite side, ipsilateral versus contralateral, direct versus consensual):
 * 1) Left direct pupillary reflex is the left pupil's response to light entering the left eye, the ipsilateral eye.
 * 2) Left consensual pupillary reflex is the left pupil's indirect response to light entering the right eye, the contralateral eye.
 * 3) Right direct pupillary reflex is the right pupil's response to light entering the right eye, the ipsilateral eye.
 * 4) Right consensual pupillary reflex is the right pupil's indirect response to light entering the left eye, the contralateral eye.

Neural pathway anatomy
The pupillary light reflex neural pathway on each side has an afferent limb and two efferent limbs. The afferent limb has nerve fibers running within the optic nerve (CN II). Each efferent limb has parasympathetic nerve fibers traveling along the periphery of the oculomotor nerve (CN III). The afferent limb carries sensory input. Anatomically, the afferent limb consists of the retina, the optic nerve, and the pretectal nucleus in the midbrain, at level of superior colliculus. Ganglion cells of the retina project fibers through the optic nerve to the ipsilateral pretectal nucleus. The efferent limb is the pupillary motor output from the pretectal nucleus to the pupillary sphincter of the iris. The pretectal nucleus projects nerve fibers to the ipsilateral and contralateral Edinger-Westphal nuclei, which are also located in the midbrain. Each Edinger-Westphal nucleus gives rise to preganglionic parasympathetic fibers which exit with CN III and synapse with postganglionic parasympathetic neurons in the ciliary ganglion. Postganglionic nerve fibers leave the ciliary ganglion to innervate the pupillary sphincter. Each afferent limb has two efferent limbs, one ipsilateral and one contralateral. The ipsilateral efferent limb transmits nerve signals for direct light reflex of the ipsilateral pupil. The contralateral efferent limb causes consensual light reflex of the contralateral pupil.

Sympathetic nervous system plays a role in dilating the pupils in low light conditions.

Types of neurons
The optic nerve, or more precisely, the photosensitive ganglion cells through the retinohypothalamic tract, is responsible for the afferent limb of the pupillary reflex; it senses the incoming light. The oculomotor nerve is responsible for the efferent limb of the pupillary reflex; it drives the iris muscles that constrict the pupil.

 * 1) Retina: The pupillary reflex pathway begins with the photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, which convey information via the optic nerve, the most peripheral, distal, portion of which is the optic disc. Some axons of the optic nerve connect to the pretectal nucleus of the upper midbrain instead of the cells of the lateral geniculate nucleus (which project to the primary visual cortex). These intrinsic photosensitive ganglion cells are also referred to as melanopsin-containing cells, and they influence circadian rhythms as well as the pupillary light reflex.
 * 2) Pretectal nuclei: From the neuronal cell bodies in some of the pretectal nuclei, axons synapse on (connect to) neurons in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. Those neurons are the preganglionic cells with axons that run in the oculomotor nerves to the ciliary ganglia.
 * 3) Edinger-Westphal nuclei: Parasympathetic neuronal axons in the oculomotor nerve synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons.
 * 4) Ciliary ganglia: Short post-ganglionic ciliary nerves leave the ciliary ganglion to innervate the Iris sphincter muscle of the iris.

Schematic
Referring to the neural pathway schematic diagram, the entire pupillary light reflex system can be visualized as having eight neural segments, numbered 1 through 8. Odd-numbered segments 1, 3, 5, and 7 are on the left. Even-numbered segments 2, 4, 6, and 8 are on the right. Segments 1 and 2 each includes both the retina and the optic nerve (cranial Nerve #2). Segments 3 and 4 are nerve fibers that cross from the pretectal nucleus on one side to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus on the contralateral side. Segments 5 and 6 are fibers that connect the pretectal nucleus on one side to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus on the same side. Segments 3, 4, 5, and 6 are all located within a compact region within the midbrain. Segments 7 and 8 each contains parasympathetic fibers that courses from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, through the ciliary ganglion, along the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve #3), to the ciliary sphincter, the muscular structure within the iris.

The diagram may assist in localizing lesion within the pupillary reflex system by process of elimination, using light reflex testing results obtained by clinical examination.
 * Left direct light reflex involves neural segments 1, 5, and 7. Segment 1 is the afferent limb, which includes the retina and optic nerve. Segments 5 and 7 form the efferent limb.
 * Left consensual light reflex involves neural segments 2, 4, and 7. Segment 2 is the afferent limb. Segments 4 and 7 form the efferent limb.
 * Right direct light reflex involves neural segments 2, 6, and 8. Segment 2 is the afferent limb. Segments 6 and 8 form the efferent limb.
 * Right consensual light reflex involves neural segments 1, 3, and 8. Segment 1 is the afferent limb. Segments 3 and 8 form the efferent limb.

Clinical significance
Pupillary light reflex provides a useful diagnostic tool for testing the integrity of the sensory and motor functions of the eye. Emergency physicians routinely test pupillary light reflex to assess brain stem function. Abnormal pupillary reflex can be found in optic nerve injury, oculomotor nerve damage, brain stem lesion (including brain stem death), and depressant drugs, such as barbiturates. Examples are provided as below:
 * Optic nerve damage on the left (e.g. transection of left optic nerve, CN II, somewhere between retina and optic chiasma, therefore damaging the left afferent limb, leaving the rest of the pupillary light reflex neural pathway on both sides intact) will have the following clinical findings:
 * The left direct reflex is lost. When the left eye is stimulated by light, neither pupils constrict. Afferent signals from the left eye cannot pass through the transected left optic nerve to reach the intact efferent limb on the left.
 * The right consensual reflex is lost. When left eye is stimulated by light, afferent signals from the left eye cannot pass through the transected left optic nerve to reach the intact efferent limb on the right.
 * The right direct reflex is intact. Direct light reflex of right pupil involves the right optic nerve and right oculomotor nerve, which are both intact.
 * The left consensual reflex is intact. Consensual light reflex of left pupil involves the right optic nerve and left oculomotor nerve, which are both undamaged.
 * Oculomotor nerve damage on the left (e.g. by nerve transection or inflammation/infection), or compression of parasympathetic fibers on the periphery of the left oculomotor nerve by a mass lesion (e.g. aneurysm, tumor, or brain herniation) will have the following clinical findings:
 * The left direct reflex is lost. When the left eye is stimulated by light, left pupil does not constrict, because the efferent signals cannot pass from midbrain, through left CN III, to the left pupillary sphincter.
 * The right consensual reflex is intact. When the left eye is stimulated by light, the right pupil constricts, because the afferent limb on the left and the efferent limb on the right are both intact.
 * The right direct reflex is intact. When light is shone into right eye, right pupil constricts. Direct reflex of the right pupil is unaffected, The right afferent limb, right CN II, and the right efferent limb, right CN III, are both intact.
 * The left consensual reflex is lost. When the right eye is stimulated by light, left pupil does not constrict consensually. Right afferent limb is intact, but left efferent limb, left CN III, is damaged.

Lesion localization example
For example, in a person with abnormal left direct reflex and abnormal right consensual reflex (with normal left consensual and normal right direct reflexes), which would produce a left Marcus Gunn pupil, or what is called left afferent pupillary defect, by physical examination. Location of the lesion can be deduced as follows:
 * 1) Left consensual reflex is normal, therefore segments 2, 4, and 7 are normal. Lesion is not located in any of these segments.
 * 2) Right direct reflex is normal, therefore segments 2, 6, and 8 are normal. Combining with earlier normals, segments 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8 are all normal.
 * 3) Remaining segments where lesion may be located are segments 1, 3, and 5. Possible combinations and permutations are: (a) segment 1 only, (b) segment 3 only, (c) segment 5 only, (d) combination of segments 1 and 3, (e) combination of segments 1 and 5, (f) combination of segments 3 and 5, and (g) combination of segments 1, 3, and 5.
 * 4) Options (b) and (c) are eliminated because isolated lesion in segment 3 alone or in segment 5 alone cannot produce the light reflex abnormalities in question.
 * 5) A single lesion anywhere along segment 1, the left afferent limb, which includes the left retina, left optic nerve, and left pretectal nucleus, can produce the light reflex abnormalities observed. Examples of segment 1 pathologies include left optic neuritis (inflammation or infection of the left optic nerve), detachment of left retina, and an isolated small stroke involving only the left pretectal nucleus. Therefore, options (a), (d), (e), (f), and (g) are possible.
 * 6) A combined lesion in segments 3 and 5 as cause of defect is very unlikely. Microscopically precise strokes in the midbrain, involving the left pretectal nucleus, bilateral Edinger-Westphal nuclei, and their interconnecting fibers, could theoretically produce this result. Furthermore, segment 4 shares the same anatomical space in the midbrain as segment 3, therefore segment 4 will likely be affected if segment 3 is damaged. In this setting, it is very unlikely that left consensual reflex, which requires an intact segment 4, would be preserved. Therefore, options (d), (f), and (g), which all includes segment 3, are eliminated. Remaining possible options are (a) and (e).
 * 7) Based on the above reasoning, the lesion must involve segment 1. Damage to segment 5 may accompany a segment 1 lesion, but is unnecessary for producing the abnormal light reflex results in this case. Option (e) involves a combined lesion of segments 1 and 5. Multiple sclerosis, which often affects multiple neurologic sites simultaneously, could potentially cause this combination lesion. In all probability, option (a) is the answer. Neuro-imaging, such as MRI scan, would be useful for confirmation of clinical findings.

Cognitive influences
The pupillary response to light is not purely reflexive, but is modulated by cognitive factors, such as attention, awareness, and the way visual input is interpreted. For example, if a bright stimulus is presented to one eye, and a dark stimulus to the other eye, perception alternates between the two eyes (i.e., binocular rivalry): Sometimes the dark stimulus is perceived, sometimes the bright stimulus, but never both at the same time. Using this technique, it has been shown the pupil is smaller when a bright stimulus dominates awareness, relative to when a dark stimulus dominates awareness. This shows that the pupillary light reflex is modulated by visual awareness. Similarly, it has been shown that the pupil constricts when you covertly (i.e., without looking at) pay attention to a bright stimulus, compared to a dark stimulus, even when visual input is identical. Moreover, the magnitude of the pupillary light reflex following a distracting probe is strongly correlated with the extent to which the probe captures visual attention and interferes with task performance. This shows that the pupillary light reflex is modulated by visual attention and trial-by-trial variation in visual attention. Finally, a picture that is subjectively perceived as bright (e.g. a picture of the sun), elicits a stronger pupillary constriction than an image that is perceived as less bright (e.g. a picture of an indoor scene), even when the objective brightness of both images is equal. This shows that the pupillary light reflex is modulated by subjective (as opposed to objective) brightness.

Mathematical model
Pupillary light reflex is modeled as a physiologically-based non-linear delay differential equation that describes the changes in the pupil diameter as a function of the environment lighting:

 * $$\begin{align}

M(D) {} &= \tanh^{-1} \left(\frac{D - 4.9}{3}\right) \\ \frac{\mathrm{d}M}{\mathrm{d}D}\frac{\mathrm{d}D}{\mathrm{d}t} + 2.3026 \tanh^{-1} \left(\frac{D - 4.9}{3}\right) &= 5.2 - 0.45 \ln \left(\frac{\Phi [t - \tau]}{4.8118 \times 10^{-10}} \right) \end{align}$$

where $$D$$ is the pupil diameter measured in millimeters and $$ \Phi(t - \tau) $$ is the luminous intensity reaching the retina in a time $$t$$, which can be described as $$\Phi = IA$$: luminance reaching the eye in lumens/mm2 times the pupil area in mm2. $$\tau$$ is the pupillary latency, a time delay between the instant in which the light pulse reaches the retina and the beginning of iridal reaction due nerve transmission, neuro-muscular excitation and activation delays. $$\mathrm{d}M$$, $$\mathrm{d}D$$ and $$\mathrm{d}t$$ are the derivatives for the $$M$$ function, pupil diameter $$D$$ and time $$t$$.

Since the pupil constriction velocity is approximately 3 times faster than (re)dilation velocity, different step sizes in the numerical solver simulation must be used:

 * $$\begin{align}

\mathrm{d}t_{c} &= \frac{T_c - T_p}{S} \\ \mathrm{d}t_{d} &= \frac{T_c - T_p}{3S} \end{align}$$

where $$\mathrm{d}t_c$$ and $$\mathrm{d}t_d$$ are respectively the $$\mathrm{d}t$$ for constriction and dilation measured in milliseconds, $$T_c$$ and $$T_p$$ are respectively the current and previous simulation times (times since the simulation started) measured in milliseconds, $$S$$ is a constant that affects the constriction/dilation velocity and varies among individuals. The higher the $$S$$ value, the smaller the time step used in the simulation and, consequently, the smaller the pupil constriction/dilation velocity.

In order to improve the realism of the resulting simulations, the hippus effect can be approximated by adding small random variations to the environment light (in the range 0.05–0.3 Hz).

title: Pupillary light reflex


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Théophile-Jules Pelouze

Théophile-Jules Pelouze (also known as Jules Pelouze), ; 26 February 1807 – 31 May 1867) was a French chemist.

Life
He was born at Valognes, and died in Paris.

His father, Edmond Pelouze, was an industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks. The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fère acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and Jean Louis Lassaigne at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was appointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning to Paris next year became repetiteur, and subsequently professor at the École polytechnique. He also held the chair of chemistry at the Collège de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies.

After the coup d'état in 1851 he resigned his appointments, but continued to conduct an experimental laboratory-school he had started in 1846. There he worked with the explosive material guncotton and other nitrosulphates. His student Ascanio Sobrero was the discoverer of nitroglycerin (1847), and another student, Alfred Nobel, was to take that discovery on to great heights in the form of commercial explosives including dynamite. He was a major inspiration for both students.

Though Pelouze made no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investigator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar, on various organic acids (gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic, etc.), on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on guncotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass.

He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of several elements, and with Edmond Frémy, published Traité de chimie générale (1847–1850); Abrégé de chimie (1848); and Notions générales de chimie (1853).

His son Eugène-Philippe Pelouze married, a rich heiress, in 1857. The couple purchased the Château de Chenonceau in 1864. Marguerite continued to live there until 1888, when she ran out of money and was forced to sell.

His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Théophile-Jules Pelouze


text:
Chablis wine

Chablis is the northernmost Appellation d'origine contrôlée of the Burgundy region in France. Its cool climate produces wines with more acidity and less fruitiness than Chardonnay vines grown in warmer ones. These often have a "flinty" note, sometimes described as "goût de pierre à fusil" ("tasting of gunflint"), and sometimes as "steely". The Chablis AOC is required to use Chardonnay grapes solely.

The grapevines around the town of Chablis make a dry white wine renowned for the purity of its aroma and taste. In comparison with the white wines from the rest of Burgundy, Chablis wine has typically much less influence of oak. The amount of barrel maturation, if any, is a stylistic choice which varies widely among Chablis producers. Many Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines receive some maturation in oak barrels, but typically the time in barrel and the proportion of new barrels is much smaller than for white wines of Côte de Beaune. Wines not vinified in barrel will instead be vinified in stainless steel.

Location
Chablis lies about 10 mi east of Auxerre in the Yonne department, situated roughly halfway between the Côte d'Or and Paris. Of France's wine-growing areas, only Champagne, Lorraine, Alsace and parts of Grand Auxerrois have a more northerly location. Chablis is closer to the southern Aube district of Champagne than the rest of Burgundy.

The region comprises 15 by(x) across 25 communes located along the Serein river. The soil is Kimmeridge Clay with outcrops of the same chalk layer that extends from Sancerre up to the White Cliffs of Dover, giving a name to the paleontologists' Cretaceous period. The Grands Crus, the best vineyards in the area, all lie on a single, small slope, facing southwest and located just north of the town of Chablis.

History
During the Middle Ages the Catholic Church, particularly Cistercian monks, became a major influence in establishing the economic and commercial interest of viticulture for the region. Pontigny Abbey was founded in 1114, and the monks planted vines along the Serein. Anséric de Montréal gave a vineyard at Chablis to the Abbey in 1186. In 1245 the chronicler Salimbene di Adam described a Chablis wine. Chardonnay is believed to have first been planted in Chablis by the Cistercians of Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century, and from there spread south to the rest of the Burgundy region.

The Chablis area became part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century. There are records in the mid-15th century of Chablis wine being shipped to Flanders and Picardy. But in February 1568 the town was besieged by the Huguenots, who burned part of it.

The Seine river, easily accessible via the nearby Yonne river, gave the Chablis wine producers a near monopoly on the lucrative Parisian market. In the 17th century, the English discovered the wine and began importing large volumes. By the 19th century there were nearly 98840 acre of vines planted in Chablis with vineyards stretching from the town of Chablis to Joigny and Sens along the Yonne. Some Champagne producers used Chablis as a basis for a sparkling cuvée.

With the French Revolution, the monastic vineyards became biens nationaux, and were auctioned off. The new owners were mostly local, and the political upheaval saw small farmers involved as part-time vignerons. The English market continued to prosper. The 19th-century Russian novel Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy mentions "classic Chablis" as a commonplace choice of wine.

The end of the 19th century was a difficult time for the Chablis growers. Firstly, with new railway systems linking all parts of the country with Paris, there was inexpensive wine from regions in the Midi that undercut Chablis. The vineyards were affected by oidium from 1886, and then phylloxera from 1887. Effective replacement of vinestocks to counter phylloxera took some 15 years. Many Chablis producers gave up winemaking, the acreage in the region steadily declining throughout much of the early 20th century. By the 1950s there were only 1235 acre of vines planted in Chablis.

The 20th century did bring about a renewed commitment to quality production and ushered in technological advances that would allow viticulture to be more profitable and reliable in this cool northern climate. In 1938, the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine created the Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) region for Chablis that mandated the grape variety (Chardonnay) and acceptable winemaking and viticultural practices within delineated boundaries. One of the objectives of the AOC establishment was to protect the name "Chablis", which by this time was already being inappropriately used to refer to just about any white wine made from any number of white grape varieties all across the world. In the early 1960s, technological advances in vineyard frost protection minimized some of the risk and financial cost associated with variable vintages and climate of Chablis. The worldwide "Chardonnay-boom" of the mid-late 20th century, opened up prosperous worldwide markets to Chablis and vineyard plantings saw a period of steady increase. By 2004, vineyard plantings in Chablis reached a little over 10000 acre.

Climate and geography
Located in northeast France, the Chablis region is considered the northernmost extension of the Burgundy wine region but it is separated from the Côte d'Or by the Morvan hills, with the main Burgundian winemaking town of Beaune located more than 62 mi away. This makes the region of Chablis relatively isolated from other winemaking regions with the southern vineyards of the Champagne in the Aube department being the closest winemaking neighbor.

The Chablis wine region has much in common with Champagne province, when it comes to climate. It has a semi-continental climate without maritime influence. The peak summer growing season can be hot; and wintertime can be long, cold and harsh, with frosty conditions lasting to early May. Years that experience too much rain and low temperature tend to produce wines excessively high in acidity and fruit that is too lean to support it. Vintages that are exceedingly warm tend to produce fat, flabby wines that are too low in acidity. Frost can be countered by heaters, and aspersion by sprinklers to form an ice layer. The exceptionally poor 1972 Chablis suffered frost at vintage time.

The region of Chablis lies on the eastern edge of the Paris Basin. The region's oldest soil dates back to the Upper Jurassic age, over 180 million years ago and includes a vineyard soil type that is calcareous, and known as Kimmeridge Clay. All of the Chablis Grand Cru and Premier Cru vineyards are planted on this primarily Kimmeridgean soil, which imparts a distinctively mineral, flinty note to the wines. Other areas, particularly most of the Petit Chablis vineyards, are planted on slightly younger Portlandian soil, still of similar structure. The chalk landscape resembles some areas of Champagne and Sancerre.

Viticulture
A serious viticultural concern for Chablis vineyard owners is frost protection. During the bud break period of a grapevine's annual cycle, the Chablis region is vulnerable to springtime frost, from March to early May, which can compromise the crop yield. Formerly, the financial risk involved saw many producers turn to polyculture agriculture, pulling up vineyards to plant alternative crops. The 1957 vintage was hit particularly hard by frost damage: the regional authorities reported that only 11 cases (132 bottles) of wine were produced.

In the 1960s, technological advances in frost protection introduced preventive measures, such as smudge pots and aspersion irrigation to the region. Smudge pots work by providing direct heat to the vines while aspersion involves spraying the vines with water as soon as temperatures hit 32 °F and maintaining persistent coverage. The water freezes on the vine, shielding it with a protective layer of ice that functions igloo-style, retaining heat within the vine. While cost is a factor in using smudge pots, there is a risk with the aspersion method if the constant sprinkling of water is interrupted causing worse damage to the vine. There is no such protection against hail, which in 2016 caused serious difficulties for some Chablis vignerons.

At harvest time, AOC regulations stipulate grapes for Grand Cru vineyard must be picked with a potential alcohol level of at least 11 percent, at least 10.5 percent for Premiers Crus and 9.5 percent for AOC Chablis vineyards. Yields in Grands Crus must be limited to 45 hectoliters per hectare (3.3 tons per acre) with a 20% allowance for increased yields. There is no official regulation on the use of mechanical harvesting, but most Grand Cru producers prefer hand picking because human pickers tend to be more delicate with the grapes and can distinguish better between ripe and unripe bunches. Over the rest of the Chablis region, mechanical harvesting was used by around 80% of the vineyards at the turn of the 21st century. The traditional style of vine training in Chablis is to have the vine trained low to the ground for warmth with four cordons stretching out sideways from the trunk.

Winemaking
The 20th century saw many advances in winemaking technology and practices—particularly the introduction of temperature-controlled fermentation and controlled inducing of malolactic fermentation. One winemaking issue that is still contested in the region is the use of oak. Historically Chablis was aged in old wooden feuillette barrels that were essentially neutral: they did not impart the characteristic oak flavors (vanilla, cinnamon, toast, coconut, etc.) that are today associated with ageing a wine in barrels. Hygiene was difficult to control with these older barrels, and they could develop faults in the wine, including discoloration. These old barrels fell out of favor, replaced by stainless steel fermentation tanks which also controlled temperatures.

The use of oak became controversial in the Chablis when some winemakers in the late 20th century went back to wooden barrels in winemaking, using oak barrels. So-called "traditionalist" winemakers dismissed the usage of oak as counter to the "Chablis style" or terroir, while "modernist" winemakers embrace its use though not to the extent of a "New World" Chardonnay. The amount of char in oak barrels used in Chablis is often low, which limits the "toastiness" that is perceived in the wine.

Rarely will a producer use oak for both fermentation and maturation. Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines are most likely to see oak: proponents believe that they have necessary structure and enough extract to avoid being overwhelmed by oak influence. While there are style differences among producers, rarely is basic AOC Chablis or Petit Chablis oaked.

While chaptalization was widely practiced for most of the 20th century, there has been a trend of riper vintages in recent years, producing grapes with higher sugar levels that have diminished the need to chaptalize.

Appellation and classification
The main Chablis Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée was designated on January 13, 1938, but the junior appellation of Petit Chablis was not designated until January 5, 1944. All the vineyards in Chablis are covered by four appellations with different levels of classification, reflecting all-important differences in soil and slope in this northerly region. At the top of the classification are the seven Grand Cru vineyards, which are all located on a single hillside near the town of Chablis. Second in quality are the Premier Cru vineyards, which numbered 40 at the turn of the 21st century, covering an area of 1853 acre. Next is the generic AOC Chablis which, at 7067 acre, is the largest appellation by far in the region and the one exhibits the most variability between producers and vintages. At the lowest end of the classification is "Petit Chablis" which includes the outlying land. As of 2004, 1380 acre of a permitted 4448 acre in the Petit Chablis appellation was planted.

Soil and slope plays a major role in delineating the quality differences. Many of the Premier Crus, and all the Grand Crus vineyards, are planted along the valley of the Serein river as it flows into the Yonne. The Grand Crus and some of the most highly rated Premiers Crus (Mont de Milieu, Montée de Tonnerre, Fourchaume) are located on southwest facing slopes; these receive the maximum amount of sun exposure. The rest of the Premiers Crus are on southeast facing slopes.

Chablis Grands Crus
There are seven officially delineated Grand Cru climats, covering an area of 247 acre, all located on one southwest facing hill overlooking the town of Chablis at elevations between 490 - 660 ft. One vineyard there, La Moutonne, between the Grand Cru vineyards of Les Preuses and Vaudésir, is often considered an "unofficial" Grand Cru. The Bureau Interprofessionnel des Vins de Bourgogne (BIVB) does recognize La Moutonne, but the seven Grand Cru vineyards officially recognized by the INAO are (from northwest to southeast): Bougros, Les Preuses, Vaudésir, Grenouilles, Valmur, Les Clos and Blanchot (also known as Les Blanchots). Together, the Grand Cru vineyards account for around 3% of Chablis annual yearly production.

While the producer can have a marked influence, each of the Grand Cru vineyards is noted for its particular terroir characteristic. Tom Stevenson notes that Blanchot produces the most delicate wine with floral aromas; Bougros is the least expressive but still has vibrant fruit flavors; Les Clos tends to produce the most complex wines with pronounced minerality; Grenouilles produces very aromatic wines with racy, elegance; the Les Preuses vineyard receives the most sun among the Grand Crus and tends to produce the most full bodied wines; Valmur is noted for its smooth texture and aromatic bouquet; Vaudésir tends to produce wines with intense flavors and spicy notes. Of all the Grand Cru vineyards, Les Clos is the largest in the area at 61 acre. Hugh Johnson describes the wines from this Grand Cru as having the best ageing potential among Chablis and developing Sauternes-like aromas after some bottle age.

The Union des Grands Crus de Chablis (UGCC) was launched in March 2000, as a syndicate restricted to Grand Cru proprietors, with mission "to defend and promote the quality of Chablis Grand Cru wines". Members are bound to abide by a charter which covers wine making and sales. Grand Cru makers must submit their wines to a tasting committee of other Union members to ensure they meet the required quality. These tastings are conducted blind.

Premiers Crus
At the turn of the 21st century, there were 40 Premier Cru vineyards. The names of many of these vineyards do not appear on wine labels. The INAO permits the use of "umbrella names": smaller, lesser known vineyards are allowed to use the name of a nearby more famous Premier Cru vineyard. Some of the "umbrella" vineyards are Mont de Milieu, Montée de Tonnerre, Fourchaume, Vaillons, Montmains, Beauroy, Vaudevey, Vaucoupin, Vosgros, Les Fourneaux, Côte de Jouan and Les Beauregards. In general, Premier Cru wines have at least half a degree less alcohol by volume and tend to have less aromatics and intensity in flavors.

Grapes and wine
All Chablis is made 100% from the Chardonnay grape. Some wine experts, such as Jancis Robinson, believe that the wine from Chablis is one of the "purest" expressions of the varietal character of Chardonnay, because of the simple style of winemaking favored in this region. Chablis winemakers want to emphasize the terroir of the calcareous soil and cooler climate that help maintain high acidity. Chablis wines are characterized by their greenish-yellow color and clarity. The racy, green apple-like acidity is a trademark of the wines and can be noticeable in the bouquet. The acidity can mellow with age and Chablis are some of the longest living examples of Chardonnay. The wines often have a "flinty" note, sometimes described as "goût de pierre à fusil" (gunflint) and sometimes as "steely". Some examples of Chablis can have an earthy "wet stone" flavor that intensifies as it ages, before mellowing into delicate honeyed notes. Like most white Burgundies, Chablis can benefit from some bottle age. While producers' styles and vintage can play an influential role, Grand Cru Chablis can generally age for well over 15 years while many Premiers Crus will age well for at least 10 years.

Secondary grape varieties grown locally are permitted in the generic Bourgogne AOC wine. These include Aligoté, César, Gamay, Melon de Bourgogne, Pinot noir, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris (known locally as Pinot Beurot), Sauvignon blanc, Sacy, and Tressot.

Modern wine industry
For most of the 20th century, Chablis wine was produced more for the export than the domestic French market, which tended to favor the Côte d'Or Chardonnays. Négociants are not as influential in the Chablis wine industry as in other areas of Burgundy. Trends towards estate bottling and co-operatives have shifted the economics towards the individual growers and producer. The La Chablisienne co-operative makes nearly a third of all wine produced in Chablis today.

In recent years, Chablis producers have fought hard to protect the Chablis designation, using legal means to make foreign countries respect it. Despite a long association with Chardonnay, the wines of Chablis can be overshadowed by the New World expression of the varietal, and by other Burgundian Chardonnays such as Montrachet, Corton-Charlemagne and Meursault. The wide semi-generic use of the word "Chablis" outside of France is still seen in describing almost any white wine, regardless of where it was made and from what grapes.

title: Chablis wine


text:
Under color removal

In printing, under color removal (UCR) is a process of eliminating overlapping yellow, magenta, and cyan that would have added to a dark neutral (black) and leaving the black ink only, called a Full Black, during the color separation process. Under color removal is used in four-color (or more colors) printing. Black ink used to add details and darkness in shadowed areas is called a Skeletal Black.

With current ink technology, the total CMYK ink in the shadows refuses to stick after it reaches the dark shadows (usually above a 250% total CMYK coverage), and begins to peel off. To prevent this, printers developed UCR, in which neutral shadows – which would have normally been produced by overprinting the four inks Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black on top of each other (high ink coverage) – are replaced with the single layer of Black. UCR removes the color inks under the Black, resulting in a single layer of ink which sticks to the sheet better, and saves on the consumption of ink.

There is no universal rule for UCR. The amount required will depend on the printing press, paper, and ink in use.

 * Advantages: Solves the ink not sticking problem and;
 * Advantages: Black ink is cheaper.
 * Possible disadvantages: Black ink by itself in a shadow may not be dark enough, so CMY colors are added (called under color addition or UCA) to make a more accurate reproduction.

UCR is generally not recommended for use in printing, due to its tendency to produce dull-looking images and artwork. (The problem of "looking dull" can often be obviated on coated paper by use of an aqueous coating or UV coating applied on the press or as post-press. A press-applied coating can also eliminate the "ink sticking" problem.) The main exception to this rule is that where working in newsprint, UCR is the best way to avoid the associated ink limit and registration issues. UCR is also recommended for some specific paper stocks, depending on the coloration and texture of the paper.

title: Under color removal


text:
Talk:Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless

Question about criticism section
Does anyone think the word hobbyist should be replaced with something else. When I think of a hobbyist I think of someone wanting to make a program just for fun or to show friends, not someone who want's to make a product to be sold on carrier decks. Technically it is still possible for hobbyists to make applications for BREW handsets and load it on the handsets (if they can get access to qualcoms app loader or a similar program), they just won't be able to sell it through carrier decks (correct??). I'm thinking of changing it from hobbyists to something like small devlopers. What does anyone think about this? *Nov 2006*

 * One of two conditions must be met in order to load a BREW applet onto a handset with the BREW AppLoader. a) The handset must be specially configured as a "test" handset; these are not available to the general public.  b) The application must be True BREW certified and digitally signed, which is what the $400+ certification mentioned in the article is about.  This means that hobbyists are pretty much excluded from developing even for their *own* handset, let alone distribution through carriers. --Nephtes 18:20, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Very sad to see folks dismissing hobbyists in such a cavalier, off-hand manner. Typical of the ignorance generally prevalent amongst the kids today. Wouldn't they PTP if they were to learn that if it weren't for a few dedicated hobbyists like MITS and Gary Kildall and many others that these twerps would still be hitchin' up their jeans and walking down to the local soda bar to chat with their few friends from the local neighborhood instead of FBing globally. What the current BREW program really means is that only larger corporations, trust fund kids and the porn industry will be developing apps for great phones like the LG Dare. How sad. JimScott (talk) 15:51, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Interested in BREW info for the Mobile Development page
A few people said that BREW should be included in the Mobile development page, I'd be interested in any and all additions to the comparison chart. Benjaminhill 01:38, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Got a lot of suggestions, all set, thanks! Benjaminhill 03:43, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

GAAAAA! My phone only supports brew, and that sucks, because I can't develop for it then. >_>

ADS/RVDS vs. gcc
It's possible to develop for Brew phones with GCC, see  Perhaps it would be worthwhile to mention this?

redirect
Should Brew redirect to Brewing? Wouldn't that make sense? Or maybe a disambig?

Advantages of Brew over J2ME
From the advantages of Brew over J2ME:

The testing and development costs and difficulties weed out developers with low budgets and low tolerance for pain, resulting in less market dilution.

This is not a very neutral statement and perhaps should be removed. Plus, is this really an advantage? From my point of view, any application platform that is plagued with testing and development difficulties is a bad platform.

 * It could be taken to mean that the lower level of competition is an advantage from a business perspective -- in which case in needs clarifying. Really though, I'd say that whole section (advantages + disadvantages) could do with rewriting  --Nephtes 16:57, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I've added a cleanup tag to those sections. The wording is slangy and their point of view may not be neutral. Sentences like these...

 * "Time to market can take longer than with J2ME. After application is written it takes 2 weeks per iteration of True BREW testing (if your app fails). Then negotiations with carrier have to commence. Then (if successful) carrier will spend time testing your application, because being True BREW is not enough for them. Imagine rolling out a new version: it's all over again."

 * ...are why cleanup is needed. 216.98.197.149 21:50, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Weakness turned into advantage?
This sounds like some twisted logic: "BREW applications can use Object-oriented programming. In J2ME the filesize overhead for extra classes encourages C-like programming. In addition, because arrays of non-primitive types are actually arrays of references, there is significant memory overhead in J2ME for arrays of classes. To get around this, parallel arrays of primitive types are often used in J2ME"

Let's think about it: it is _possible_ to write in BREW using object-oriented style. Author was vague on how easy it is or how many developers actually do that, smart move! Yet, Java offers object-oriented style and allows procedural style with no extra cost, and some developers (targeting their programs to low-end devices that may have 256K of RAM or less, good luck running BREW on one!) opt for that style, while majority enjoys programming in OO.

 * Actually, the statement is valid (although perhaps the wording could be clearer). J2ME handsets, especially early models, have a fairly restrictive limit on the size of the .jar file the app must be stored in.  Early Nokia handsets, for example 3595 and 6010 models, have a limit of 64k and are still in common use.  Combined with the fact that defining a class incurs a substantial (400-1000 bytes) overhead, this makes it extremely difficult to use real object-oriented design, because for anything but very simple applications the per-class overhead would leave too little space for actual working code and data.  On the other hand, it's no harder to code BREW apps in C++ than it is in straight C, and the per-class overhead is negligible (if any).   --Nephtes 16:02, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

 * But you should clarify that more recent J2ME handsets do not have such restictions anymore. For example I have a SonyEricsson K610i, it has a dynamic

heap for java apps of about 1.5M and the JAR size is only limited by available memory (whitch can be expanded by a memory card). Okay, this is a new 3G phone, but my 2.5 year old Siemens S65 also accepts JARs >350K without problems. (Christian) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 80.133.155.79 (talk) 17:15, 8 December 2006 (UTC).

 * It's true that JAR size limits are not an issue on modern phones. However, if you're developping for a wide array of handsets you still have to make the same design decisions if you don't want to have to completely rewrite your app for older phones (which, as I mentioned, still represent a significant portion of the installed base).  Besides that, the overhead means that in a very real sense, each class you define costs your customers money if they pay by the kb to download your stuff.

 * Let me clarify. J2ME programmers avoid writing lots of classes for two main reasons:

1) Smaller jar size ... the jar zip algorithm compresses better when there are less files. 2) uses more memory. But mainly the reason is 1). Also, I like to clarify some other points in the artical: The jar limit in most countries really more like 200K and this is due to GPRS download rates, NOT due to any "artifical limit". The artifical limit was mainly due to old handsets like Nokia S40 ed. 1, which do not exist anymore except in emerging markets. It follows that if you are talking about emerging markets like China or India this statement is accurate. And likewise if you are devloping for emerging markets, then you are also less likely to use OO methods for reasons mentioned above. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 82.159.227.4 (talk) 07:29, 2 May 2007 (UTC).

Needs more wiki
Seems unencylopedic to me. Mathiastck 21:32, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

True Brew Testing
The link is incorrect

Profiler
Profilers for C/C++ are expensive, whereas the J2ME environment comes with a profiler.'

When you take a look at Performance analysis, you'll see there are GNU (i.e. free) profilers for C/C++, so generally speaking you cannot say C/C++ profilers are expensive. --Abdull 09:00, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

I presume they are talking about the profiler that comes with the sun WTK. This software is incredibly slow and buggy. I imagine that most developers find it just too painful to use.

Sprint?
Does Sprint count as a carrier running a JVM ontop of BREW? Mathiastck 02:48, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

phonebooks
''There are enough incompatibilities among BREW handsets. Addressbooks are implemented so differently in phones of different manufacturers that custom approach is needed to distinguish Motorola from Samsung from Kyocera (field-based vs record-based phonebooks).''
 * There are three carrier names but only two types of phonebooks. Can we make the numbers match (Motorola and Samsung from Kyocera)? Or add another type of phonebook? I don't know anything about them and simple google searching didn't help. Thanks! --Daev 14:57, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

NPOV "Advantages"
Several of the noted points are claiming things that are true of both J2ME and BREW, as if they applied only to BREW. Until cleaned up to be more neutral and fact-based, this needs to be marked for NPOV cleanup. Note several citation requests throughout the section. Todd Vierling (talk) 20:00, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I've done some cleanup.
 * *The BREW API is more standard across supported phones than the J2ME API...
 * Added dead link notice to the dead link, and added a dubious tag to the statement: what does it mean by standard? J2ME is created precisely to have a standard platform to develop mobile applications, how is BREW more "standard"?
 * * The API tends to be cleaner than J2ME, and many of the recent API changes have made BREW very game friendly.
 * Repeat of the first point, not backed up by reference
 * * Graphics tricks are easier, especially with BREW 2.0 and direct access to the screen buffer.
 * Not clear on what it means by graphics tricks, only retained the direct access to the screen buffer and added a citation required tag.
 * * J2ME phones often have an artificial limit to the size of the binary (128KB is common). This isn't present with BREW.
 * Changed to legacy J2ME phones, modern phones don't have this size limit any more.
 * * BREW applications can use Object-oriented programming.
 * Changed to "allows more freedom": it's not that you can't do OOP in Java, just that it has more overhead.
 * * BREW applications perform much faster
 * Added "due to its native nature", as native applications will run faster than Java apps. Also added mention to Symbian OS, another system with native application support.
 * * Being embedded on the chipset and connected to a tight and secure distribution network...
 * Removed. Security advantage is vague, the phone capability section basically says "while you can do it in J2ME in BREW it's defined!" and the "states" thing doesn't make sense. J2ME MIDlets allows multi-tasking, provided your phone supports it (eg. Most Sony Ericsson phones released after (and including) K800 and possibly before).

 * I've left the neutrality on there because there are still some that sound like advertising. --antilivedT 11:44, 2 August 2008 (UTC)

Conflicting info on emulators
On one hand, at first the article says:

''The BREW Emulator... does not emulate handset's hardware. Instead... compiled to native code... obscure platform bugs related to memory alignment and various firmware related glitches make debugging applications without a BREW handset difficult. Developers must test their applications on real BREW-enabled handsets.''

Later is says:

''The development environment is standardized... and contains a well integrated emulator that properly reflects the behaviour of the actual device''

Which one is it?

82.81.35.212 (talk) 16:53, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

Additionally, as I have come to understand things over the years, their tool is correctly called a simulator and not an emulator. The distinction between the two is that an emulator is run to produce the same effect as the thing being emulated, whereas a simulator is run for any other purpose, such as to determine if the new package will work correctly.

For example running an Atari emulator would be for the purpose of playing an Atari game. One might also play an Atari game on an Atari simulator, but the simulator would have been produced to explore and measure the behavior of an Atari, such as to study its efficiency of power or storage.

Arthur Protin 68.166.100.10 (talk) 16:21, 8 May 2009 (UTC)

NPOV and OR issues
Much of the critisms of BREW are WP:OR. While I agree with the issues expressed regarding frustration of hobbyists with signature costs, petitioning operators, and required test certifications, they can't just be voiced. Criticisms must be attributed to a source. I rewrote the critism section and the section about application development (I still need to add sources for the latter, but it's all straight summary of the content on the official BREW site).

Claims about platform specific bugs come off as contradictory, as the entire idea of a runtime environment is for it to work the same across all platforms. It wouldn't surprise me if such bugs were indeed an issue, but any contradictory sounding claims really need sourcing.

The whole issue about benefiting large development houses as an advantage of BREW is pure conjecture. (I believe this is also discussed above).

Going into detail about specific file names is overkill for this type of article. Readers interested in that level of detail should be reading the SDK documentation directly.

I can't find information concerning enabling and disabling apps based on handset free space. It sound like something specific to certain versions or even certain operators. I'm considering removing it. -Verdatum (talk) 21:42, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

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text:
Acyl halide

In organic chemistry, an acyl halide (also known as an acid halide) is a chemical compound derived from an oxoacid by replacing a hydroxyl group (\sOH) with a halide group (\sX, where X is a halogen).

If the acid is a carboxylic acid (\sC(\dO)OH), the compound contains a \sC(\dO)X functional group, which consists of a carbonyl group (C\dO) singly bonded to a halogen atom. The general formula for such an acyl halide can be written RCOX, where R may be, for example, an alkyl group, CO is the carbonyl group, and X represents the halide, such as chloride. Acyl chlorides are the most commonly encountered acyl halides, but acetyl iodide is the one produced (transiently) on the largest scale. Billions of kilograms are generated annually in the production of acetic acid.

Aliphatic acyl halides
On an industrial scale, the reaction of acetic anhydride with hydrogen chloride produces a mixture of acetyl chloride and acetic acid:
 * (CH3CO)2O + HCl -> CH3COCl + CH3CO2H

Common syntheses of acyl chlorides also entail the reaction of carboxylic acids with phosgene, thionyl chloride, and phosphorus trichloride Phosphorus pentabromide is used for acyl bromides, which are rarely of value.

Aromatic acyl chlorides
Benzoyl chloride is produced from benzotrichloride using either water or benzoic acid:
 * C6H5CCl3 + H2O  -> C6H5COCl  +  2 HCl
 * C6H5CCl3 + C6H5CO2H -> 2 C6H5COCl  +  HCl

As with other acyl chlorides, it can be generated from the parent acid and other chlorinating agents phosphorus pentachloride or thionyl chloride.

Representative laboratory routes to aromatic acyl halides are comparable to those for aliphatic acyl halides. For example, chloroformylation, a specific type of Friedel-Crafts acylation which uses formaldehyde as a reagent, or by the direct chlorination of benzaldehyde derivatives.

Acyl fluorides
Of commercial interest, acyl chlorides react with HF to give acyl fluorides. Aromatic (as well as aliphatic) acyl fluorides are conveniently prepared directly from carboxylic acids, using stable, inexpensive commodity chemicals: PPh3, NBS and Et3N\-3HF in a bench-top protocol. Cyanuric fluoride converts carboxylic acids to acyl fluorides.

Carboxylic acids react with sulfur tetrafluoride to give the acyl fluoride:
 * SF4 + RCO2H → SOF2 + RC(O)F +  HF

Acyl bromides and iodides
Acyl bromides and iodides are synthesized accordingly but are less common.

Reactions
Acyl halides are rather reactive compounds often synthesized to be used as intermediates in the synthesis of other organic compounds. For example, an acyl halide can react with:
 * water, to form a carboxylic acid. This hydrolysis is the most heavily exploited reaction for acyl halides as it occurs in the industrial synthesis of acetic acid.
 * [[Image:Hydration of Acyl Halide.PNG|450px]]

 * an alcohol to form an ester
 * [[Image:Acyl Halide plus Alcohol.PNG|450px]]

 * an amine to form an amide
 * [[Image:Acyl Halide plus Amine.PNG|450px]]

 * an aromatic compound, using a Lewis acid catalyst such as AlCl3, to form an aromatic ketone. See Friedel-Crafts acylation.
 * carboxylic acids to form an organic acid anhydrides.

In the above reactions, HX (hydrogen halide or hydrohalic acid) is also formed. For example, if the acyl halide is an acyl chloride, HCl (hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid) is also formed.

Multiple functional groups
A molecule can have more than one acyl halide functional group. For example, "adipoyl dichloride", usually simply called adipoyl chloride, has two acyl chloride functional groups; see the structure at right. It is the dichloride (i.e., double chloride) of the 6-carbon dicarboxylic acid adipic acid. An important use of adipoyl chloride is polymerization with an organic di-amino compound to form a polyamide called nylon or polymerization with certain other organic compounds to form polyesters.

Phosgene (carbonyl dichloride, Cl–CO–Cl) is a very toxic gas that is the dichloride of carbonic acid (HO–CO–OH). Both chlorine atoms in phosgene can undergo reactions analogous to the preceding reactions of acyl halides. Phosgene is used a reactant in the production of polycarbonate polymers, among other industrial applications.

General hazards
Volatile acyl halides are lachrymatory because they can react with water at the surface of the eye producing hydrohalic and organic acids irritating to the eye. Similar problems can result if one inhales acyl halide vapors. In general, acyl halides (even non-volatile compounds such as tosyl chloride) are irritants to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes.

title: Acyl halide


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Reactivity series

In chemistry, a reactivity series (or reactivity series of elements) is an empirical, calculated, and structurally analytical progression of a series of metals, arranged by their "reactivity" from highest to lowest. It is used to summarize information about the reactions of metals with acids and water, single displacement reactions and the extraction of metals from their ores.

Table
Going from the bottom to the top of the table the metals:
 * increase in reactivity;
 * lose electrons (oxidize) more readily to form positive ions;
 * corrode or tarnish more readily;
 * require more energy (and different methods) to be isolated from their compounds;
 * become stronger reducing agents (electron donors)
 * This is not the electrochemical series, but Gold's oxidation potential is more than half a volt higher than Platinum's. It is thermodynamicaly favourable for Pt to form PtO in air, and then PtO2; but Au won't form oxides spontaneously. Pt is used in crucibles etc, but this is due to its better mp/mechanical properties!

Defining reactions
There is no unique and fully consistent way to define the reactivity series, but it is common to use the three types of reaction listed below, many of which can be performed in a high-school laboratory (at least as demonstrations).

Reaction with water and acids
The most reactive metals, such as sodium, will react with cold water to produce hydrogen and the metal hydroxide:

 * 2 Na (s) + 2 H2O (l) →2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Metals in the middle of the reactivity series, such as iron, will react with acids such as sulfuric acid (but not water at normal temperatures) to give hydrogen and a metal salt, such as iron(II) sulfate:

 * Fe (s) + H2SO4 (l) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

There is some ambiguity at the borderlines between the groups. Magnesium, aluminium and zinc can react with water, but the reaction is usually very slow unless the metal samples are specially prepared to remove the surface passivation layer of oxide which protects the rest of the metal. Copper and silver will react with nitric acid; but because nitric acid is an oxidizing acid, the oxidizing agent is not the H+ ion as in normal acids, but the NO3− ion.

Comparison with standard electrode potentials
The reactivity series is sometimes quoted in the strict reverse order of standard electrode potentials, when it is also known as the "electrochemical series".

The following list includes the metallic elements of the first six periods. It is mostly based on tables provided by NIST. However, not all sources give the same values: there are some differences between the precise values given by NIST and the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. In the first six periods this does not make a difference to the relative order, but in the seventh period it does, so the seventh-period elements have been excluded. (In any case, the typical oxidation states for the most accessible seventh-period elements thorium and uranium are too high to allow a direct comparison.)

Hydrogen has been included as a benchmark, although it is not a metal. Borderline germanium, antimony, and astatine have been included. Some other elements in the middle of the 4d and 5d rows have been omitted (Zr–Tc, Hf–Os) when their simple cations are too highly charged or of rather doubtful existence. Greyed-out rows indicate values based on estimation rather than experiment.

The positions of lithium, sodium and gold are changed on such a series.

Standard electrode potentials offer a quantitative measure of the power of a reducing agent, rather than the qualitative considerations of other reactive series. However, they are only valid for standard conditions: in particular, they only apply to reactions in aqueous solution. Even with this proviso, the electrode potentials of lithium, sodium and gold – and hence their positions in the electrochemical series – appear anomalous. The order of reactivity, as shown by the vigour of the reaction with water or the speed at which the metal surface tarnishes in air, appears to be
 * Cs > K > Na > Li > alkaline earth metals,

i.e., alkali metals > alkaline earth metals,

the same as the reverse order of the (gas-phase) ionization energies. This is borne out by the extraction of metallic lithium by the electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride: lithium metal is formed at the cathode, not potassium.

Comparison with electronegativity values

The image shows a periodic table extract with the electronegativity values of metals.

Wulfsberg distinguishes: very electropositive metals with electronegativity values below 1.4 electropositive metals with values between 1.4 and 1.9; and electronegative metals with values between 1.9 and 2.54.

From the image, the group 1–2 metals and the lanthanides and actinides are very electropositive to electropositive; the transition metals in groups 3 to 12 are very electropositive to electronegative; and the post-transition metals are electropositive to electronegative. The noble metals, inside the dashed border (as a subset of the transition metals) are very electronegative.

title: Reactivity series


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Fisc

Under the Merovingians and Carolingians, the fisc (from Latin fiscus, whence we derive "fiscal") applied to the royal demesne which paid taxes, entirely in kind, from which the royal household was meant to be supported, though it rarely was. Though their personal territory was at first enormous, the Merovingian kings, faced with stiff resistance to taxation from their Frankish and Gallo-Roman subjects and ill-served by their illiterate peers, relied on constant conquests to renew the fisc which they were in the habit of granting away to ensure continued fidelity among their followers. Once fresh Frankish conquests were no longer forthcoming, constant redivision of the "fisc" among heirs reduced Merovingian kingship to a cluster of competitive kinglets subsisting on inadequate resources. Annual contributions in kind, of grain, produce, fodder, etc., were unwieldy to transport and not easily convertible, so the restless habit of Merovingian kings moving from stronghold to stronghold was constantly encouraged. As time passed, "fisc" began to refer to money any Frankish knight had direct control over and would carry with him. Eventually, "fisc" referred to any knight's money holder.

Nowadays, "fisc" is still used in French and in Romanian as a slang referring to the fiscal administration. In Spanish, the slang word "fisco" is also used, while the German term is "Fiskus" and the Dutch term is "fiscus".

title: Fisc


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Philosophy of time

Discussion concluded and article kept on May 18, 2004

The page seems to be a vanity page, but there actually is something called "Philosophy of time". Needs to be redone at the very least.--Beelzebubs 01:01, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Comment: Refactored and stubified, in particular removing the curse (you think I'm fooling don't you...) Andrewa 04:48, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, Andrewa has stubified it appropriately. --Starx 04:54, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, a good start Burgundavia 06:19, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yep, keep. Let me know if/when this is pulled off the VfD list and I'll put it on the needy pages. BTW, isn't there a wiki project specificially devoted to philosophy?? Alcarillo 06:38, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: Sure is, WikiProject Philosophy. Andrewa 07:01, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the info Andrewa. I think we should list it there as needing particular attention. Alcarillo 14:06, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Added to the WikiProject Philosophy tasks list. Thanks for catching this.  -Seth Mahoney 22:28, 14 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Now that it's been stubified, keep it like it is. I originally listed it because the content was somewhat ridonculous, but now it is appropriate for an encyclopedia.--Beelzebubs 17:55, 15 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Vista Ridge Estates in Horning Mills Horing Mills Ontario

Found this and a BUNCH of similar items on the new pages page, all from the same user and all talking about Canadian real estate developments from a decidedly advertising POV. - Lucky 6.9 00:44, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete all of them. POV, probable vanity and nonencyclopedic--Beelzebubs 00:49, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Note: Delete this page and this page when this item is removed from VfD. They had commas, which doesn't work. --Ben Brockert 01:06, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete 'em all. Advertising. PMC 01:27, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikispam, delete. Though I do like that line "The lots ranged in size vibrantly, from 0.4 to 5.3 acres." Could they mean that the lots rang vibrantly? Ding, ding, dong! The 0.4-acre lots would, of course, vibrate at a higher pitch than the 5.3-acre lots. Dpbsmith 02:05, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete 'only' this one. If the others need deletion, bring them here and let us vote Burgundavia 06:18, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete the lot of them (pun intended). Alcarillo 06:40, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: I'm not sure I know what you and others above are voting on. Could someone list the articles concerned? Otherwise it's going to be very difficult to carry out the deletions. Andrewa 06:57, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * It's a whole bunch of articles submitted by User:zanimum. The most obviously useless IMO is CountrySize, but there's a bunch of articles on housing developments like the one featured here. Isomorphic 07:23, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Here's the deal... I've taken all the articles, shortened them, and pasted them into the article for their parent villages/towns/cities. What I mean is below... Silver Brooke Estates, Everett, Ontario has been moved to Everett, Ontario, development info abbreviated, and the rest of the community of Everett elaborated upon. Mattamy On Main, Stouffville, Ontario has been transformed into a mention in the Neighbourhood section of Whitchurch-Stouffville, Ontario. Maple Ridge, Barrie, Ontario is briefly mentioned in Barrie, Ontario. Vista Ridge Estates in Horning Mills, Horing Mills, Ontario moved to Horning's Mills, Ontario, a rather extensive history added. Neighbourhoods of Churchill, Mississauga, Ontario and Creditvalley, Mississauga, Ontario were both merged into the Mississauga, Ontario. I still have to take care of The Willows at Chillico Woods, Guelph, Ontario, The Townhomes of Sheldon Creek, Burlington, Ontario, Sunflowers, Barrie, Ontario, South Pointe, Innisfil, Ontario, and The Meadows of Franklin Pond, Cambridge, Ontario. I personal think the one shown was chosen unfairly, others were much more encyclopedic, and talked about the towns they are located in, reaction to the developments from long-time locals, that sort of stuff. -- user:zanimum
 * Comment: I picked this one primarily because of the title.  Not only is it incredibly long, there's a misspelling - enough to insure that no one on the planet will find it, even inadvertently.  The whole thing comes off as an ad as do the others, IMO.  Please don't feel singled out.  It's just that this site isn't an advertising repository. - Lucky 6.9 16:18, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Why is it that just about every spelling flame will itself contain a misspelling? It's "ensure". DS 22:24, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oops. Rite speling, wrong werd.  I slink away with head in hand... - Lucky 6.9 21:44, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete all. Shameless advertising.  ElBenevolente 19:20, 15 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
Maria Berenice Dias

Maria Berenice Dias (born 1948 in the city of Santiago, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) is a Brazilian judge and the first woman to take the bench in her home state of Rio Grande do Sul. Dias obtained her Post Graduate Degree and Master in Civil Proceeding from the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul.

Dr. Dias also was the first woman to become a justice of the state highest Court of Appeals. She is the presiding justice over the Seventh Panel of Judges of the state highest Court of Appeals; the quorum of judges assembles in Porto Alegre, the state capital. Dr. Dias' own specialty is the area of family law. She was selected and she accepted the title of ambassador of the First World Outgames in 2006 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Authorship
Dias is also an author, and has created, co-founded or presided over such organizations as the Brazilian Institute of Family Law (Instituto Brasileiro de Direito de Família/IBDFAM); the Federation of Women’s Associations (Federação das Associações Femeninas/FAF); JusMulher, offering voluntary legal and psychological service to women in need; and the Brazilian Association of Women with Careers in the Justice Field (Associação Brasileira das Mulheres de Carreira Jurídica/ABMCJ-RS).

One of her most notable publications is Homoafetividade - o que diz a Justiça, a work in which she gathers and comments on judicial decisions by the Brazilian Court of Appeals regarding civil rights of same-sex couples. These decisions set legal precedents in Brazil.

title: Maria Berenice Dias


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gjermis

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Gjermis.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article.

Not notable. DeviantArt artist with almost no google hits outside deviantart website. Delete. Andris 00:46, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh, jeez. Another non-famous individual.  Another delete. - Lucky 6.9 00:46, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Aaaand delete. PMC 01:28, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Advert for website (and a money-making website, what's more). Andrewa 04:36, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, as above Burgundavia 06:15, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Been a while since we had one of those DeviantArt people pop up on VfD. Delete. -- Cyrius|&#9998 06:17, May 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Alcarillo 06:38, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Delete it now.  RickK 00:58, 14 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Fluff. Delete it three days ago. JFW | T@lk  20:36, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gjermis


text:
Balinese caste system

The island of Bali has a system of social organization similar to the Indian caste system.

The four castes of Bali are:
 * Sudras (Shudras) – peasants making up close to 93% of Bali’s population.
 * Wesias (Vaishyas) – the caste of merchants and administrative officials
 * Satrias (Kshatriyas) – the warriors caste, it also included some nobility and kings
 * Brahmanas (Brahmins) – the priests caste

Pre-modern Bali had four castes, as Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis state, but with a "very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence".

The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that the Balinese caste system had Indian origins, but Helen Creese states that scholars such as Brumund who had visited and stayed on the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the "received understandings concerning its Indian origins". In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelled Soedra) have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes.

In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite meweda (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.

The members of the four castes use different levels of the Balinese language to address members of a different caste. Middle Balinese is generally used to speak to people whose caste is unknown in an encounter. Once the caste status of the participants are established, the proper language is used to address each other.

Nowadays, the caste system is used more in religious settings where the members of the lower caste would ask the members of the Brahman caste (the Pedandas) to conduct ceremonies. Since the Dutch colonial years and more recently after the Indonesian independence, the differences in the economic roles of the members of the caste system are slowly eroding as the government prohibits treatments based on the caste system.

Most of the Kshatriya families in Java and Bali became extinct during the fall of the Majapahit and the numerous Javanese wars. Almost all of the Balinese Kshatriyas trace their origin to the royal family of King Deva Agung, who ruled 500 years before. Some of the original Kshatriyas, such as those claiming descent from Arya Damar, were relegated to Wesia status, so only those claiming descent from Deva Agung are recognized as proper Kshatriya in Bali.

During the 1950s and 1960s, there were conflicts between supporters of the traditional caste system in Bali and its opponents. Many of the latter were affiliated with the PKI, the Communist Party of Indonesia, which was violently suppressed during the Indonesian killings of 1965–1966, leading to the death of some 80,000 Balinese, around 5% of the population at the time.

title: Balinese caste system


text:
Oak Island (Minnesota)

Oak Island, Minnesota is an island and unincorporated community in Lake of the Woods, in Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota, United States, on the Minnesota/Ontario border. It is part of Angle Township. The ZIP Code for Oak Island is 56741.

History
A post office was established in 1920.

Geography
Oak Island is an island near the center of Lake of the Woods at the extreme northeast corner of Minnesota's Northwest Angle that reaches farther north than the rest of the state. Oak Island is approximately three miles long and one mile wide. The island is the site of several resorts, fishing camps, a small store, and a post office. Much of the interior of the island is part of the Red Lake Indian Reservation.

title: Oak Island (Minnesota)


text:
Lloyd Banks

Christopher Charles Lloyd (born April 30, 1982), better known by his stage name Lloyd Banks, is an American rapper. He began his career as a member of East Coast hip hop group G-Unit, which he formed with childhood friends 50 Cent and Tony Yayo in 1999. After the release of their debut album Beg for Mercy (2003), Banks released his debut solo album, The Hunger for More (2004) the following year. Met with critical and commercial success, it peaked atop the Billboard 200 and spawned the Billboard Hot 100-top ten single, "On Fire", as well as the top 20 single "Karma" (featuring Avant or Kevin Cossom). His second album, Rotten Apple (2006) peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 and saw mixed reviews. Banks then left Interscope Records and signed with EMI in 2010—along with his G-Unit cohorts—to release his third album, H.F.M. 2 (The Hunger For More 2) in November that year, which saw a critical rebound and peaked at number 26 on the chart.

Over a decade later, he independently released his fourth album, The Course of the Inevitable (2021) to critical acclaim.

Early life
Christopher Lloyd was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and raised in the South Jamaica section of the Queens borough in New York City; he is of mixed Puerto Rican and African-American descent. His father spent most of Lloyd's childhood in prison, leaving his mother to raise him and his two siblings. Lloyd attended August Martin High School but dropped out at the age of 16. For his stage name, he took his great, great-grandfather's name Banks, which was passed on by his uncles who also shared it.

Beginnings with G-Unit (1999–2004)
G-Unit was founded when childhood friends Lloyd Banks, 50 Cent, and Tony Yayo decided to form a group. They met Young Buck when UTP group came to New York and 50 Cent heard Young Buck rapping. After 50 Cent signed his contract with Aftermath Entertainment they took Young Buck in the group and signed him. Tony Yayo, being an older and more experienced rapper, joined 50 Cent on the Nas Promo Tour, the Cash Money Tour and the Ruff Ryders Tour. As Banks remained at home waiting for 50 and Yayo to return, he started rapping around the neighborhood to further increase his buzz on the streets. He then hooked up with neighborhood producers and recorded tracks for local mixtapes, becoming renowned on the mixtape scene. While Banks was recording Mixtapes, 50 Cent was soon granted his own record label by Dr. Dre and released the album Get Rich or Die Tryin' ; Lloyd Banks was featured on the song "Don't Push Me", and the remixed version of "P.I.M.P". Soon after the group had established their own record label, G-Unit Records, G-Unit released their first official group album Beg for Mercy in November 2003, which went on to be certified double platinum.

Shooting
On September 10, 2001, Banks was shot twice while leaving a nightclub in Southside Jamaica, Queens. He was hit in the back and stomach, and ran to the nearest hospital after suffering the injuries. He woke up the next morning to news of the 9/11 terrorist attacks and watched from his hospital bed as the Twin Towers fell to the ground.

Legal issues
During August 2005, Lloyd Banks, Young Buck, and their entourage were traveling in a van, when the vehicle was pulled over after passing through a red light in midtown Manhattan. Officers said they discovered a loaded handgun and another weapon in the van. Prosecutors asked a judge to dismiss the charges after an investigation determined that neither Lloyd Banks nor Young Buck were in possession of the weapons. Felony gun charges against Lloyd Banks and Young Buck were dropped on November 8, 2006.

In the early morning hours of January 9, 2010, in a Kitchener, Ontario hotel, an alleged altercation took place between Banks and a concert promoter over performance fees. Banks, and three of his associates, were later charged with forcible confinement, aggravated assault and robbery, and released on $50,000 bail.

Feud with The Game
The most well known feud involving Lloyd Banks is the feud between himself and The Game, which became public after The Game left G-Unit. Banks speculates that The Game was jealous about the attention Banks received after the success of his debut album The Hunger for More as well as Banks winning a lyricist title.

Solo career and The Hunger for More (2004–2005)
Lloyd Banks released his solo debut album The Hunger for More in June 2004. The first single was the summer smash hit "On Fire" which featured 50 Cent, however he was uncredited. Banks explained the reasoning behind the album's title: When I say The Hunger for More, it could be referring to more success. It could be more money. Or Respect. More power. More understanding. All those things lead up to that hunger for more, because my more isn't everybody else's more. I feel like I made it already, because I got already what everybody on the corners of the neighborhood I grew up in is striving to get. The album was a commercial success, receiving positive reviews. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard charts with over 433,000 copies sold in the first week. The album has since sold over 1.5 million copies and has been certified platinum by the RIAA.

During an interview, Lloyd Banks commented on his first week sales: That's the kind of debut that veteran artists have," says Banks. "That showed me that following 50's moves and studying the way that he played the game had put me in an incredible position. Two other singles were also released from The Hunger For More, "I'm So Fly" and "Karma", the latter was a hit reaching number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 9 on the R&B charts and number 6 on the rap charts.

At the time of the album's release, Lloyd Banks was managed by Sha Money XL and Teamwork Music.

Rotten Apple (2006–2008)
The Big Withdrawal was originally intended to be Lloyd Banks' second album. The album was leaked to the internet after Banks had a ménage à trois encounter with two women and left the CD album behind. The leaked version of the album contained 23 tracks. During an interview, Lloyd Banks commented on the issue, he said: "It's truth to that rumor. That comes from me doing too much. I was just lost in my ways, fucked two women at one time. It's the little things you don't pay attention to. I had the CD in an actual DJ Whoo Kid mixtape cover. It was just a blank CD with just tracks. I got over 70, 80 tracks, so you can't get them all on one CD. So I might have had 14 tracks of the last two weeks or something like that. Next thing I know, [I] can't find the CD. I'm assuming it had to be from one of those situations when you got too much going on around you. Maybe I'mma just stick to one girl from now on. That's the only explanation that makes sense. Sticky fingers."

Due to the leak, Lloyd Banks began work on Rotten Apple. "Rotten Apple" is a play on New York City's nickname "The Big Apple". It was released on October 10, 2006. The album debuted at #3, selling 143,000 copies in its first week. Rotten Apple was not considered as a commercial success because his debut album sold a significantly higher number of copies in its first week. He has released three singles from Rotten Apple: "Hands Up", "The Cake", and "Help".

Departure from Interscope (2009)
Banks was dropped from Interscope Records in 2009. He is still signed to G-Unit Records, which will release his new album. Banks released a mixtape on his 27th birthday, which fell on April 30, 2009; it included the track "Officer Down" that dissed Rick Ross. Banks also released a mixtape in 2009 called V5.

In 2010, a year later, Interscope Records reached back out to try to re-sign Lloyd Banks. Banks did not go for it and put his third album out under G-Unit Records.

The Hunger for More 2 and signing with EMI (2010–2013)
In late January 2010, it was announced that Banks would release a new song, "Beamer, Benz, or Bentley" featuring Juelz Santana, from his upcoming third studio album. "Beamer, Benz, or Bentley" charted at #49 on the Billboard Hot 100. In early June, Banks released the second single off the album, "Any Girl" featuring R&B singer Lloyd. Later on November 2, 2010, he released the third single Start It Up featuring Swizz Beatz, Kanye West, Ryan Leslie and Fabolous. Lloyd released the fourth single off the album, "I Don't Deserve You", featuring R&B singer Jeremih.

Banks release info via his Twitter announcing that the title for his third album has tentatively been called 'The Hunger for More 2' and will attempt to take him back to his best work. However, the G-Unit label later stated that the title is not set in concrete and still may be altered. The title of the album was confirmed by 50 Cent as The Hunger for More 2 in an interview with MTV News. According to Banks, Interscope is trying to get him back due to the success of the single "Beamer, Benz, or Bentley", but failed when Lloyd Banks revealed that he had signed a deal with EMI.

After being dropped by Interscope Records in 2009, Lloyd Banks announced on Friday, August 13, 2010, on MTV News that EMI Label Services has signed a deal with 50 Cent's label, G-Unit Records, in which EMI will distribute and promote releases on the G-Unit roster in North America including Lloyd Banks third album H.F.M. 2 (Hunger for More 2). On October 18, 2011, Banks was featured on the remix of Queen's Rapper Trav's single "Ride The Wave" alongside Juelz Santana.

Banks' had this to say about the deal,It's refreshing to see the EMI staff excited about my project, they have the passion and energy I haven't seen in while.

Resurgence with G-Unit (2014–2018)
During a performance at BB King's in New York City on August 2, 2015, Banks addressed his long-awaited Cold Corner 3 mixtape and expressed disappointment at the current state of hip-hop. He explained that the project would be released commercially, and available for pre-order. However, if he's not satisfied with the pre-order numbers, it will not be released.

Departure from G-Unit and 50 Cent feud (2018–present)
Lloyd banks left G-Unit Records in June 2018, as announced in an Instagram post by 50 Cent. Despite public perception largely being that the relationship between 50 Cent and Lloyd Banks was amicable, as 50 Cent had recently told fans to check out Banks' new mixtape, 50 Cent later spoke about the different members of G-Unit in an interview with Big Boy and said "Banks, he just... I don't even know. He couldn't even tell you like at any point when you speak to him where the problem is. I put him like where I put Marquise, like they just have something internal going on with them that gives them some sort of resentment towards me, and I just don't even care about what's going on". Trav, a former associate of G-Unit, then went on Instagram live and spoke on the matter, saying: "Banks [sic] father died, bro, and Banks was sad, bro. All Banks wanted to do was him to pull up like, 'yo, bro. I'm sorry for your condolences.' Because the nigga 50 don't come from no family, he tried to play like this fake role. Like man, you ain't even know your father". 50 Cent went on to call Lloyd Banks "lazy" in his book Hustle Harder, Hustle Smarter which Lloyd Banks would seemingly respond to in his song Stranger Things. Lloyd Banks hasn't spoke on the matter publicly however he has sent words that seem to be aimed at 50 Cent on numerous songs including Cold Summer Freestyle and Stranger Things. In-between Lloyd Banks departure from G-Unit and June 2021, he remained relatively quiet other than introducing a clothing line and touring places such as Australia, Lloyd banks wasn't doing interviews or releasing any new projects other than some freestyles. In fact, Lloyd Banks hadn't released a new project since his mixtape Halloween Havoc 3 in 2016. He would also go on to twitter to tweet things such as "Let's be real..ain't nobody checking for Banks anymore" leaving fans wondering if Lloyd Banks was done with music. However fans would be surprised as in April 2021 he would release a post on Instagram that teased possible new music which continued on May 25, when a video was released with a brief spoken-word monologue from poet Rashan Brown and a tracklist and cover art were revealed the same day. The album was released on June 4, 2021, as his 4th album and first album in 11 years named The Course of the Inevitable which sold 12,000 copies in its first week. The album received very positive reviews and Lloyd Banks seemed happy with the reception as he spoke about more upcoming music at a concert he held in Sony Hall.

Awards
In 2004, Banks was awarded 2004's Mixtape artist of the Year at the Mixtape Awards. Lloyd Banks commented on this award in an interview with AOL Sessions: "When I won the mixtape artist of the year 2004, after that I didn't want to get away from it because that right there is where I got my satisfaction, from the fans giving me that award. It wasn't like an award show when you got some big fat guys in suits on the podium that never even heard my album giving me a rating or judging what I deserve... that's actually my most proudest trophy right now."

In 2005, "On Fire" was nominated for a Grammy award for Best Rap Solo Performance. In 2006, "Touch It [Remix]" was nominated for Hip-Hop Video of the Year, and won for Best Collaboration at the BET Awards. The award was shared by Banks and his collaborators, Busta Rhymes, Mary J. Blige, Rah Digga, Missy Elliott, Papoose, and DMX. In 2010 with the excitement surrounding the release of H.F.M. 2 (Hunger for More 2) and his return to Hip-Hop's spotlight Hip-Hop news website HipHopDX wrote that Banks had the "Comeback of the Year".

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * The Hunger for More (2004)
 * Rotten Apple (2006)
 * H.F.M. 2 (The Hunger for More 2) (2010)
 * The Course of the Inevitable (2021)
 * The Course of the Inevitable 2 (2022)
 * The Course of the Inevitable III: Pieces of My Pain (2023)

 * Collaborative albums
 * Beg for Mercy (with G-Unit) (2003)
 * T·O·S (Terminate on Sight) (with G-Unit) (2008)
 * T·O·S (Terminate on Sight) (with G-Unit) (2008)

title: Lloyd Banks


text:
Glebionis segetum

Glebionis segetum (syn. Chrysanthemum segetum) is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, probably native only to the eastern Mediterranean region but now naturalized in western and northern Europe as well as China and parts of North America. Common names include corn marigold and corn daisy.

Glebionis segetum has been hybridized with related Argyranthemum species to create cultivars of garden marguerites.

Glebionis segetum is a herbaceous annual plant growing to 80 cm tall, with spirally arranged, deeply lobed leaves 5–20 cm long. The flowers are bright yellow, produced in capitula (flowerheads) 3.5-5.5 cm in diameter, with a ring of ray florets and a centre of disc florets.

Glebionis segetum is widely naturalised outside of its native range, colonising western and central Europe with early human agriculture; it can be an invasive weed in some areas. However, it also was ranked very highly, in terms of nectar production, thus showing particular value in the role of nectar-provider for insects in a UK survey of meadow species' production of nectar sugar and pollen. Glebionis segetum was practically an exact equivalent in terms of how much nectar and pollen it produced in this study with the popular garden and meadow plant, cornflower Centaurea cyanus — the top producer of nectar sugar among the cultivated plants in the study (as opposed to those classified as weeds). Its long blooming period helps its ranking, as it does not have few flowers with very high nectar volume per flower — coupled with a brief blooming period that completely exhausts the plant, like some top-ranked plants in nectar sugar production surveys (e.g. Bull Thistle, Cirsium vulgare). The plant strongly attracts very small butterflies (such as the Pearl Crescent) and also small hoverflies such as Toxomerus marginatus. Japanese beetles will consume the petals.

The corn marigold appears to have been a serious weed during the 13th century in Scotland, as suggested by a law of Alexander II which states that if a farmer allows so much as a single plant to produce seed in amongst his crops, then he will be fined a sheep.

In Crete and Greece, the leaves and the tender shoots of a variety called neromantilida (νερομαντηλίδα) are eaten raw in salads or browned in hot olive oil by the locals.

Taxonomy
Glebionis segetum was formerly treated in the genus Chrysanthemum, but under a 1999 decision of the International Botanical Congress, that genus has been redefined with a different circumscription to include the economically important florist's chrysanthemum (now Chrysanthemum indicum).

The epithet segetum is a plural noun in the genitive case, meaning "of the corn[fields]", so does not change its ending to agree with the feminine genus name.

title: Glebionis segetum


text:
File:R Leporis.png

Licensing
See User_talk:Bronger for a discussion of his take on copyright and the GFDL

title: File:R Leporis.png


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Dialogue editor

The dialogue editor is a type of sound editor who assembles, synchronizes, and edits all the dialogue in a film or television production. Usually, they will use the production tracks: the sound that was recorded on the set. If any of the production tracks are unusable they can be replaced by either alternate production tracks recorded on set or by ADR, automated dialogue replacement, which is recorded after the shoot with the actors watching their performances in a sound studio and rerecording the lines. Large productions may have an ADR editor working under the dialogue editor, but the positions are often combined. The ADR editor or dialogue editor also work with the walla group in films which they are required, providing the background chatter noise in scenes with large crowds, such as parties or restaurants.

Once the dialogue editor has completed the dialogue track, the re-recording mixer then mixes it with the music and sound effects tracks to produce the final soundtrack.

title: Dialogue editor