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Talk:Counter-revolutionary

Untitled
Hi. I started the 'political epithets' page a few years ago. Now its gone. Nice.

I pretty much remember putting 'counterrevolutionary' in after reading books written by dissidents in communist China. I see that China is not even mentioned here in this 'new and improved' article.

Please, have some dignity and put the article back like its supposed to be, as if a scholar wrote it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.207.222.132 (talk) 15:50, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

This is a quote from AndyL: 'WHEELER for God's sake Counterrevolutionary doesn't only apply to the French Revolution and you don't have to be anti-democratic to be counterrevolutionary. This "definition" is completely useless.' on the page history of this site.

The man must not read anything. And doesnt' know what he is talking about. He reverts without checking the sources. I referenced and he deletes all because it doesn't suit him.

I quoted from Mr. Schapiro who is a Professor Emeritus of History in l949 of the City College of New York. Andy here thinks he is greater than Mr. Schapiro. Andy can also divine the religion of Mr. Schapiro. I don't. I do not know the religion of this man and I don't care. But to Andy it is a big deal.

Well, Andy you are not greater than a Leon Blum professor nor a Professor Emeritus. You're anti-Christianism is affecting your scholarship.

And you manage to put fascism on every page of this encyclopaedia.

Cite your sources is a policy of Wikipedia. I want sources for your fascist material on this article. And put references with number in the reference section. No more of your sloppy opinions. WHEELER 17:29, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

- Sorry, I'm not going to adopt your unwiki footnoting style. If you want some references on fascism being reactionary try the following:

 * Black, Robert, "Fascism in Germany"
 * Forman, James D. "Fascism: The Meaning and Experience of Reactionary Revolution"
 * Osborn, R. "The Psychology of Reaction" (which has several chapters on fascism)

Incidentally, I suggest you look up "fascism" in the book you cite Schapiro, J. Salwyn, Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France 1815-1870 and see if Schapiro describes fascism as reactionary. I suggest you put aside your blinkers and actually read what the book says rather than hunt and peck for things you can take out of context. AndyL

"However, Proudhon was not a reactionary, despite the claims of the royalists. Nothing in his writings or in his life indicates that he desired to reestablish the Old Regime in France or that he had any sympathy with the reactionary ideas of De Maistre and De Bonald.  The royalists, like the syndacalists, mistook their man.  Before the First World War, anyone in France who opposed democratic ideas, parliamentary government, trade unions, or socialism was considered a counterrevolutionist." pg 364.

He describes Proudhon's writings as "To them his writings had a revolutionary trend, but in an unfamiliar direction, and a violence of language that yet clothed and anxious conservatism. They baffled reactionaries, liberals, and socialists alike.  Proudhon was a revolutionist." pg 365.

England and France banned unions or the workers right to assemble and strike in the 1820's and 30's because of their revolutionary character. Same thing happened in America 1890's and 1910's, Unions were the forefront of socialist movements.WHEELER 22:41, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

"Fascism is something unique in modern history, in that it is a revolutionary (his italics) movement of the middle class directed, on the one hand, against the great banks and big business and, on the other hand, against the revolutionary demands of the working class." pg 365

 * Of course Proudhon wasn't a reactionary, he was an anarchist. I fail to see the relevence of your quotes. You seem to be reading without understanding. AndyL 22:54, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I am on page 231 and am on my way of reading the whole thing.WHEELER 23:37, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

 * On the books you cite. They are curious in their term of "reaction".  Maybe the authors are "Marxist"?WHEELER 23:38, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

WHEELER, it's your use of the term "reaction" that's curious. That's why not one editor on Wiki agrees with you. AndyL 23:41, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

That is because you are Americans brought up in Leftist controlled American acadmia of the last thirty years.

"And the new division was even deeper and sharper than the old one had been, because it was a division between two groups, both of which were inspired by the French Revolution. Nothing is so bitter as a conflict between a moderate and extreme left, as witness the conflict between Girondins and Jacobins in the French Revolution and that between Menshevists and Bolshevists in the Russian Revolution. pg 239 WHEELER 15:17, 4 May 2004 (UTC)

WHEELER, first of all I'm not American, and second you again you use quotes without understanding them. The White Army that fought the Red Army in the Russian Civil War was not Menshevik but Tsarist. Some Mensheviks may have joined but the leadership of the Whites were old Tsarist generals and supporters of the old regime AndyL 20:16, 4 May 2004 (UTC)

"Andy here thinks he is greater than Mr. Schapiro. Andy can also divine the religion of Mr. Schapiro. I don't. I do not know the religion of this man and I don't care. But to Andy it is a big deal.

Well, Andy you are not greater than a Leon Blum professor nor a Professor Emeritus. "

First of all I have no where suggested what Schapiro's religion may or may not be. Second, if you're going to quote the Leon Blum professor I suggest you find out who Leon Blum was! :) I don't have a problem with Schapiro, I think you just don't understand him.AndyL 20:19, 4 May 2004 (UTC)

"Usage of the term"
This section has a few problems, IMO. For example, the first paragraph seems a bit weasely to me, especially "some people considered reactionary (like the CCP)".

Likewise, "The clerics who took power following the Islamic Revolution became counterrevolutionaries" seems incorrect and/or POV to me - the clerics didn't suddenly reverse their original ideology and try to reinstate the Shah - they just took the revolution in a direction that some of the other revolutionaries hadn't expected and didn't support.

Indeed, this section seems to me to be a good example of what it is trying to describe - i.e. that the term "counter-revolutionary" often gets used inconsistently, and is often used by dissatisfied revolutionaries to describe other revolutionaries who haven't produced the sort of society that the first group wanted. Wardog (talk) 10:53, 21 May 2009 (UTC)

 * The statement that "A counterrevolution can be positive or negative in its consequences; depending, in part, on the beneficent or pernicious character of the revolution that gets reversed" is peculiar. It implies that a revolution may be bad rather than good. Surely all revolutions are bad by definition - just like wars.  It is also a POV statement, is it not? I suggest deletion of this sentence, rather than trying to amend it to avoid its being POV, which may be impossible.124.197.15.138 (talk) 00:42, 1 July 2012 (UTC)

surely all revolutions are bad? wtf are you talking about? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.92.94.94 (talk) 18:47, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

 * I went ahead and deleted the whole unsatisfactory session. 162.251.172.112 (talk) 18:57, 27 January 2024 (UTC)

What does this paragraph mean?
"A counter-revolution can be positive or negative in its consequences; depending, in part, on the beneficent or pernicious character of the revolution that gets reversed. For example, the transitory success of Agis and Cleomenes of ancient Sparta in restoring the constitution of Lycurgus was considered by Plutarch to be counter-revolutionary in a positive sense. During the French Revolution the Jacobins saw the Counter-revolution in the Vendée as distinctly negative."

What does this paragraph mean? Of course conservatives are going to see counterrevolution as a good thing and revolutionaries are going to see it as a bad thing, no matter what the context. I don't think it at all objective, or in any way characteristic of an encyclopedia, to define a revolution as "beneficent or pernicious", or for that matter to class any political movement as "positive or negative in its consequences". Of course the paragraph may only be intended to say that some writers have supported and some opposed movements of a counterrevoutionary character, but if so the intention is not at all clear. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.21.74.252 (talk) 01:49, 5 June 2016 (UTC)

Requested move 20 March 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: No consensus — Amakuru (talk) 09:46, 10 April 2019 (UTC)

Counter-revolutionary → Counter-revolution – Preference for nouns vs. adjectives as article titles. A loose necktie (talk) 19:04, 19 March 2019 (UTC) --Relisting.  SITH   (talk)   19:32, 26 March 2019 (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request (permalink). Anthony Appleyard (talk) 05:41, 20 March 2019 (UTC)

 * A counter-revolutionary (used as a NOUN, here) may be someone who is against a/the revolution, whether or not a counter-revolution is happening or planned. Anthony Appleyard (talk) 05:42, 20 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Granted. But we also currently have no article at "Counter-revolution" (which redirects to "Counter-revolutionary") because it seems editors believe that these titles cover the same topic (which it seems they do to me as well).  Also, although the article is phrased in terms of "counter-revolutionaries" in the beginning, the gist of the article focuses on actual counter-revolutions, not so much the specific people who participated in them.  A loose necktie (talk) 06:09, 20 March 2019 (UTC)

Other contexts to consider: Rebel, once you get past the disambiguation page, leads to Rebellion (i.e., there is no article on the participant, only the activity); insurrectionist redirects to insurrection; we have Industrial Revolution but nothing at industrial revolutionist (nor should we).
 * Weak oppose. The term is most commonly seen in communist propaganda referring to individuals who didn't toe the party line as opposed to an actual organised counter-revolution. -- Necrothesp (talk) 14:05, 20 March 2019 (UTC)
 * If we are only going to have one or the other, as we do right now (i.e., with no article at counter-revolution, only a redirect), doesn't it make more sense to have the the relevant Wikipedia article namespace cover the overall social event rather than the kind of people who participate in that event? And if we split "counter-revolutionary" and "counter-revolution", we get one article with almost no content (counter-revolutionary) and another with all of the other's meat (counter-revolution) in which case why bother splitting when we can just move? Shouldn't Revolution have a corresponding [full] article at Counter-revolution?  A loose necktie (talk) 22:24, 23 March 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't think you can compare this term to revolutionary, insurrectionist, rebel, etc, for the reason I stated above. Most "counter-revolutionaries" haven't actually taken part in any sort of counter-revolution. They've simply been accused of trying to sabotage the revolution in propaganda, usually because their philosophy doesn't match that preached by the people in charge after the revolution. That's a completely different issue. Even if the accusations are genuine, "counter-revolution" suggests a genuine, organised event, which is rarely the case with counter-revolutionaries. -- Necrothesp (talk) 11:38, 26 March 2019 (UTC)

 * Support - the article already focuses on the wider concept of counter-revolution, and the current name seeks to artificially limit the focus to the people involved. Reversing this gives space for the article to explore the broader concept while still allowing discussion of the people participating. Note that the related article has as split between Revolution and Revolutionary, which itself seems a bit silly also. -- Netoholic @ 20:34, 26 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The article is primarily concerned with people referred to as counter-revolutionaries; the proposed title change would require a rewrite of the article. Quite frankly, I'm not sure what a "counter-revolution" is and how such an article would look, while counter-revolutionary is a well-established term.  Calidum   03:09, 1 April 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Taking the term at face value
I feel like this article simply accepts the use of the term at face value.

"A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "counter-revolutionary" pertains to movements that would restore the state of affairs, or the principles, that prevailed during a prerevolutionary era."

This may be the intended meaning of the term in its pure form, but it's obviously not the only (or possibly even the main) way the term is used. The CPC for example deems many people and activities to be "counter-revolutionary" which may have nothing to do with an actual or planned 'counter-revolution'. This has been the case with many historical socialist/communist regimes, with the term being a catch-all way of describing anyone opposed to certain actions of the state (including those who support socialism and have/had no desire to undo the revolution). I think the definition should reflect this reality.

183.177.48.166 (talk) 02:57, 15 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Counter-revolutionary


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El Barzón

El Barzón is a movement of middle class private business and farming interests in Mexico.

A Barzón, in terms of agriculture, is the yoke-ring to which a rope or chain is attached to pull a farm plow; a hitch-ring, connecting-ring, a pull-ring. The name comes from a Mexican revolutionary song that speaks about injustice in the fields of the countryside. Their motto is: "Debo, no niego, pago lo justo" ("I owe, I don't deny it, I'll pay what is fair").

Members of El Barzón were responsible for massive amounts of debt denominated in dollars; which they were expected to pay back with a peso worth half of its previous value. Their debts would amount to ten times the loan they had originally taken out, and El Barzón refers to the massive social movement where elements of the traditionally quiet middle class rose up and refused to pay the monstrous sums of money that were expected of them by lending institutions. It was an accepted public venting of frustrations and helped to set up the PRI's demise in the 2000 presidential elections.

El Barzón is a decentralized movement, and there were actually two main organizations, one that kept a pro-PRI stance and another that took a more leftist approach, siding with the PRD. There were several statewide organizations where debtors would receive legal and group support in exchange for a fee. Maximiano Barbosa Llamas founded this movement in Jalisco, Mexico. He was the most important leader of El Barzón A.C. Also he won a position on the congress by 1997.

One of the groups consisted of long-time members and supporters of the ruling Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) after the devaluation in December 1994 of the Mexican peso. This devaluation occurred during the Zedillo administration, but the administration blamed the outgoing President Salinas).

History
In 1994, Mexico had unprecedented economic growth. Analysts even suggested that the country was in the verge of becoming a first-world country. In December Carlos Salinas de Gortari left the presidency and was campaigning to become the leader of the World Trade Organization. At the start of the term of President Ernesto Zedillo, the event known as the December mistake started the 1994 economic crisis where the peso suffered a devaluation from 3 to 6 pesos a dollar.

Many Mexican businesses, during the last years had acquired debts in dollars, or depended heavily on supplies from the United States. Their debt was increased automatically, worsened by the contingency measures that raised interest rates drastically. Many businesses were forced to close and there were several well-publicized suicides.

In this context, several middle-class businessmen, many from agricultural backgrounds, started to make uncoordinated protests starting mainly in northern states such as Chihuahua and Sonora. From these movements some leaders started to organize the seeds of El Barzón. In Zacatecas, Manuel Ortega González, Juan José Quirino Salas and Alfonso Ramírez Cuéllar started a movement that started protests such as partial road blocks using farm equipment. El Barzón has an institutional and juridical step 13 October 1994, in Monterrey, N. L. In that city, the heart of the neoliberalism in México, with Liliana Flores Benavides, Manuel Ortega González, Juan José Quirino Salas and Alfonso Ramírez Cuéllar designed the strategy of these unique social movement in the world.

The leaders of the movement were given prison sentences but were later released. Juan Quirino then became a national leader that created and organized Unión Nacional de Productores Agropecuarios, Comerciantes, Industriales y Prestadores de Servicios El Barzón A.C. in the whole country. The movement grew rapidly and soon every state had at least one representation. At that time it was a common banking practice to hire legal advisers who specialized in credit recovery. A frequent tactic was to write intimidating legal letters or place phone calls that threatened recipients with jail, property seizing and other legal measures to pressure and force people to pay. El Barzón provided legal counselling to advise debtors on how to defend their property and renegotiate their debts in better terms.

Criticism
El Barzón has been criticized as being a movement that promotes a culture of ignoring debt through the use of legal or social pressure channels. The group presents itself however as a natural result of liberal economic policies gone wrong. They claim not to ignore debt but just to get a fair deal that works for both debtors and credit institutions alike.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: El Barzón


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Mainflingen

Mainflingen is a village and part (Ortsteil) of the municipality Mainhausen, in the district of Offenbach in Hesse with about 4000 inhabitants. It is known for its time signal transmitter, DCF77, which controls almost all radio clocks in Western Europe.

Location
Mainflingen is part of the municipality Mainhausen, which lies in the Offenbach district, located in the southernmost part of the state Hesse right on the border with Bavaria. It lies near the river Main.

Constituent communities
Mainflingen is one of the two constituent communities of Mainhausen, the other one is Zellhausen.

History
Mainflingen was first mentioned in a document from the year 775. In this and other documents from 793, 796 and 799 it is confirmed that citizens of the municipality Manolfingen bequeathed fields and meadows to the monastery Lorsch. Researchers believe that the name is not derived from the river Main, but from a man named Manolf and his ancestors.

A document confirms that Witch-hunts also occurred in Mainflingen.

As a direct consequence of the Thirty Years' War, Mainflingen and the surrounding communities had suffered severe population losses.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was approved by the Hessian Ministry of the Interior and Sport on 2 June 1955.

 * Blazon The coat of arms of Mainflingen depicts a red shield with a silver wave band and an ascending white horse above it.

title: Mainflingen


text:
Leopard gecko

The leopard gecko or common leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) is a ground-dwelling gecko native to the rocky dry grassland and desert regions of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India, and Nepal. The leopard gecko has become a popular pet, and due to extensive captive breeding it is sometimes referred to as the first domesticated species of lizard.

Taxonomy
Leopard geckos were first described as a species by zoologist Edward Blyth in 1854 as Eublepharis macularius. The generic name Eublepharis is a combination of the Greek words eu (good) and blepharos (eyelid), as having eyelids is the primary characteristic that distinguishes members of this subfamily from other geckos, along with a lack of lamellae. The specific name macularius derives from the Latin word macula meaning "spot" or "blemish", referring to the animal's natural spotted markings.

There are five subspecies of E. macularius:
 * Eublepharis macularius afghanicus
 * Eublepharis macularius fasciolatus
 * Eublepharis macularius macularius
 * Eublepharis macularius montanus
 * Eublepharis macularius smithi

Distribution and habitat
The native habitat of the leopard gecko includes the rocky, dry grassland, and desert regions of south-Asian Afghanistan, Pakistan, north-west India, western Nepal, and some parts of Iran. Leopard geckos inhabit arid and semi-arid areas with sparse vegetation and clay or sandy soils, as well as rocky habitat where crevices can be used as shelter. They reportedly avoid areas where the primary substrate is sand. Leopard geckos may also be found in arid forests of Nepal and Pakistan, and are reported to shelter under loose bark of trees in these environments. Winter temperatures within the range of the leopard gecko can be quite low, below 10 C, forcing the animals underground into semi-hibernation, called brumation, living on fat reserves.

Behaviour and ecology
Wild leopard geckos are generally considered to be nocturnal by field biology sources, academic herpetology sources, and some animal husbandry guides. During the day they retreat to burrows and sheltered hiding spots, becoming active at dusk when the temperature is favorable. Naturalist David Attenborough asserts in the wildlife documentary series Life in Cold Blood: "A leopard gecko—like most geckos—is nocturnal, and it manages to get all the heat it needs from rocks, which retain something of their warmth for several hours after the sun has set." Similarly, Nepalese biologist Yam Rawat writes: "Leopard Geckos remained undetected in Nepal until [2016]. This could be attributable to the secretive nocturnal nature of the species." In contrast, some sources focused on husbandry of captive leopard geckos have asserted leopard geckos are crepuscular or even cathemeral reptiles. This assertion has been used to explain the ability of leopard geckos to use UVB exposure to synthesize vitamin D3 in captivity, and as a rationale for providing captive leopard geckos with access to UVB lighting. John Courtney Smith, the brand manager for UVB light manufacturing company Arcadia Reptile, asserts in Bio-activity and the Theory of Wild Re-Creation: "The leopard gecko is quite crepuscular in its home range ... there are many reports of them being seen even in full daytime desert sunlight openly basking".

There is also debate as to the degree that leopard geckos interact with conspecifics in the wild. Academic sources have asserted that leopard geckos live in loose colonies in the wild. Pet keeping guides often claim these geckos are solitary and do not usually live with other animals.

Diet
Leopard geckos are opportunistic predators that eat a variety of prey items. Invertebrates are presumed to make up the majority of wild geckos' diets, but they will also eat small vertebrate prey if given the opportunity, including mouse pups, smaller reptiles, and even hatchling leopard geckos. Breeders of captive leopard geckos report that sufficiently fed leopard geckos will not cannibalize young, and that the cannibalistic behavior appears to take place only in poorly fed animals.

Characteristics
Leopard geckos are small lizards that derive their name from their spotted coloration. Hatchlings are on average 7 to 10 cm in length and weigh about 2 to 5 grams. Adult females are about 18 to 20 cm in length and weigh about 50 to 70 grams, while adult male geckos are about 20 to 28 cm in length and weigh about 60 to 80 grams.

Unlike many other species of geckos, leopard gecko toes do not have adhesive lamellae, so they cannot climb smooth vertical walls.

In the wild, leopard geckos live for an average of 4.9 years, while in captivity they can live for more than 20 years with the proper care.

Teeth
Leopard geckos are polyphyodonts and able to replace each of their 100 teeth every 3 to 4 months. Next to the full grown tooth there is a small replacement tooth developing from the odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina.

Tails
Leopard geckos have distinctly thick tails that store fat; similar to the way in which camels' humps serve as reservoirs of fatty tissue, the fat stored in the tails of leopard geckos acts as an energy reserve that the geckos can use as nourishment if there is not an available food supply. When hunting, a leopard gecko may lift its tail in a twitching or wagging motion as it approaches its prey; after the gecko eats its prey, the tail will then return to a relaxed position.

Like most geckos, leopard geckos have an ability called autotomy: their tails can regenerate when lost; however, the regenerated tails appear stumpy and never have the same appearance as the original tail.

Defense mechanisms
Wild leopard geckos’ primary defense against predators is to avoid detection. This is accomplished with cryptic coloration serving as camouflage. They also remain hidden during daytime, to avoid heat and the risk of being spotted and captured by diurnal predators. If a leopard gecko is confronted by a potential predator, it may vocalize in an attempt to ward off this predator.

Leopard geckos also possess caudal autotomy; this is the ability to voluntarily detach their tail when attacked. After detachment the tail can continue to twitch for as long as 30 minutes, providing a distraction to buy time for the gecko to escape from its predator. The tail is large and at least in one related species (Christinus marmoratus) it has been reported that the tail-less fleeing gecko makes for a quicker getaway. Fractures in the tailbone allow the tail to separate easily and rapid vasoconstriction allows the gecko to suffer minimal blood loss. This detaching of the tail causes a high level of stress on the gecko due to the loss of the valuable storage of fat it once had. It will start to regenerate its tail immediately after detachment. Regenerated tails often retain similar colors to the original tail. However, they are often smooth and generally shorter and wider than the original tail.

Chromatophores and color pigmentation
Leopard geckos range in color from a yellow to brownish-orange base with spots covering all or mostly half of the dorsal region of the body. Their color is derived from pigment-containing cells known as chromatophores. These cells are responsible for an array of coloration seen in all reptiles, amphibians, birds and some species of insects. Chromatophores come in a variety of types based on the color they correspond to. Chromatophore types include xanthophores (responsible for yellow coloration), erythrophores (responsible for red coloration), iridophores (responsible for iridescence), leucophores (responsible for white coloration), melanophores (responsible for black coloration), and cyanophores (responsible for blue coloration). The skin of wild leopard geckos contains xanthophores (yellow) and melanophores (black spots). Designer leopard geckos may possess erythrophores and leucophores since commercial breeding and artificial selection have allowed novel coloration to arise.

Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is defined as a phenotypic difference between males and females of a species. It can be commonly found in animals, such as the leopard gecko and other reptiles. It exists in adult males and females, but can be difficult to determine in young geckos. The underside of a gecko truly determines the sex of the gecko. Males have pre-anal pores and hemipenal bulges while females have smaller pores and do not have external bulges.

Males can determine the sex of other leopard geckos by smelling pheromones on their skin. Males respond to males with aggressive behavior while they demonstrate courtship behavior towards females. Towards other males, the male would raise itself up from the ground, extend his limbs, and arch his back with the swelling of the tongue in aggression. He will then make short dashes and quick, vigorous bites, which frequently lacerate the skin and sometimes severely injure his opponent. Males behave the same way towards females while females are shedding their skin. Before and after the shedding of the skin, the males still express courtship behavior towards the females.

Reproduction
Leopard geckos typically breed in the summer. Females can store sperm over the course of their breeding season, and produce up to three clutches from one or two copulations. Females can lay about six to eight clutches of two eggs; eggs are laid approximately 21 to 28 days after mating. The average amount of time it takes for a newborn to hatch is anywhere between 35 and 89 days, although it is usually closer to the latter. Baby leopard geckos will have an "egg tooth", a calcareous tip at the end of its snout to help break their egg shell. Their "egg tooth" will fall off within one to two days. In addition to this, their skin will usually shed within 24 hours of hatching. The leopard gecko hatchling will not be able to eat until after the first shedding.

Leopard geckos are also known to have temperature-dependent sex determination. Embryos incubated in predominantly cool temperatures (about 26 –) or very warm temperatures (about 34 –) will develop as females, while embryos incubated at intermediate temperatures (about 31 –) will develop as male. Determination of sex is believed to be set during the first two weeks of incubation. Females born in the higher temperatures differed from those who were born in the lower temperatures hormonally and behaviorally. Those born in the warmer temperatures expressed more aggressive behavior. These are known as "hot females" and are often determined to be infertile.

Leopard geckos as pets
Leopard geckos are one of the most popular lizard pets, second only to the bearded dragon. They are possibly the first domesticated lizard species. They are easy to breed under captive conditions, so most sold are captive-bred rather than wild-caught. Due to extensive captive breeding and artificial selection, captive animals display a range of colors and patterns. Those found in the wild typically have more dull colorations than those kept in captivity as pets.

title: Leopard gecko


text:
Viscount Severn

Viscount Severn is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The name of the viscountcy is derived from the River Severn that runs through England and Wales. The title, along with the Earldom of Wessex, was bestowed on Prince Edward by his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, upon his marriage to Sophie Rhys-Jones. Between 1999 and 2023, the title was a subsidiary title of the Earldom of Wessex and Earldom of Forfar. Since 2023, the title is a subsidiary title of the Dukedom of Edinburgh upon the granting of the dukedom to Prince Edward.

History
Viscount Severn was used by minor members of the royal family in the 18th century. There is a history of being given a secondary title so the eldest son can have it as a courtesy title.

The title Viscount Severn was given in allusion to the Welsh roots of Sophie Rhys-Jones's family. The significance of this title is that it alludes to her ancestors having ruled the land Between Wye and Severn. This was the first time a royal prince was granted a viscountcy since 1726 when the title was given to two of George II's sons.

First creation, 1999
Between 17th December 2007 and 10th March 2023, Viscount Severn was used as a courtesy title by Prince Edward's son, James, Earl of Wessex. When his father was conferred the Dukedom of Edinburgh, James instead became styled Earl of Wessex. The title will once again be used as a courtesy title should James have a son.

House of Windsor 1999–present  also: Duke of Edinburgh (2023), Earl of Wessex (1999), Earl of Forfar (2019)  Buckingham Palace, London son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip Sophie Rhys-Jones 2 children now 60 years, 125 days old
 * Prince Edward
 * Prince Edward 2022.jpg
 * 10 March 1964
 * 19 June 1999
 * }
 * }

Line of succession

 * Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh (b. 1964)
 * (1) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg James, Earl of Wessex (b. 2007)

title: Viscount Severn


text:
Métropole Européenne de Lille

The Métropole Européenne de Lille (MEL; "European Metropolis of Lille") is the métropole, an intercommunal structure, composed by a network of big cities (Lille, Roubaix, Tourcoing, Villeneuve d'Ascq, Armentières etc.) whose major city is the city of Lille. It is located in the Nord department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France – bordering both the Flemish and Walloon regions of Belgium. It was created in January 2015, replacing the previous Communauté urbaine de Lille, and covers that part of the Lille metropolitan area that lies in France. Its area is 671.9 km2. Its population was 1,179,050 in 2019, of which 234,475 in Lille proper. The annual budget of the métropole is €1,865 billion (2018).

History
The urban community was founded in 1967 with its first president Augustin Laurent.

Then, in 1971, Arthur Notebart, Deputy Mayor of Lomme, succeeded him until the election of Pierre Mauroy in 1989.

After the March 2008 municipal elections, each city council sent delegates to the urban community, a total of 170 voting members.

In April 2008, a new president was to be elected on a majority vote, defined at 816 votes. It caused for intense lobbying throughout the 85 cities and villages. One key issue was the investment priorities for the 2008/2014 period, namely transport, housing and the environment. The newly re-elected mayor of Lille, socialist Martine Aubry, tried to impose a new €800 million stadium in the eastern part of the community, which was opposed by three major mayors of her own party, who considered the project as misplaced and too expensive.

On January 1, 2015, the métropole replaced the urban community in accordance with a law of January 2014. On January 1, 2017, the number of municipalities of the métropole increased from 85 to 90. It was expanded with the 5 communes of the former Communauté de communes de la Haute Deûle on 14 March 2020.

Local public transport
The metropolitan community is responsible for the co-ordination of Ilévia, the private-sector company that operates a public transport network throughout the métropole. The network comprises buses, trams and a driverless metro system, all of which are operated under the Transpole name. The Lille Metro is a VAL system (véhicule automatique léger = light automated vehicle) that opened on 16 May 1983, becoming the first automatic metro line in the world. The metro system has two lines, with a total length of 45 km and 60 stations. The tram system consists of two interurban tram lines, connecting central Lille to the nearby communities of Roubaix and Tourcoing, and has 45 stops. 68 urban bus routes cover the metropolis, 8 of which reach into Belgium.

Cross-border cooperation
The MEL metropolitan community encompasses only the French part of the urban area around Lille; the other part is on Belgian territory and outside the scope of MEL.

The Eurometropolis Lille-Kortrijk-Tournai is a transnational structure founded on 28 January 2008 to overcome this problem, crossing borders and connecting Lille with the nearby Belgian cities Kortrijk, Mouscron and Tournai.

Communes
Métropole Européenne de Lille consists of the following 95 communes:

 * 1) Allennes-les-Marais
 * 2) Annœullin
 * 3) Anstaing
 * 4) Armentières
 * 5) Aubers
 * 6) Baisieux
 * 7) La Bassée
 * 8) Bauvin
 * 9) Beaucamps-Ligny
 * 10) Bois-Grenier
 * 11) Bondues
 * 12) Bousbecque
 * 13) Bouvines
 * 14) Capinghem
 * 15) Carnin
 * 16) La Chapelle-d'Armentières
 * 17) Chéreng
 * 18) Comines
 * 19) Croix
 * 20) Deûlémont
 * 21) Don
 * 22) Emmerin
 * 23) Englos
 * 24) Ennetières-en-Weppes
 * 25) Erquinghem-le-Sec
 * 26) Erquinghem-Lys
 * 27) Escobecques
 * 28) Faches-Thumesnil
 * 29) Forest-sur-Marque
 * 30) Fournes-en-Weppes
 * 31) Frelinghien
 * 32) Fretin
 * 33) Fromelles
 * 34) Gruson
 * 35) Hallennes-lez-Haubourdin
 * 36) Halluin
 * 37) Hantay
 * 38) Haubourdin
 * 39) Hem
 * 40) Herlies
 * 41) Houplin-Ancoisne
 * 42) Houplines
 * 43) Illies
 * 44) Lambersart
 * 45) Lannoy
 * 46) Le Maisnil
 * 47) Leers
 * 48) Lesquin
 * 49) Lezennes
 * 50) Lille
 * 51) Linselles
 * 52) Lompret
 * 53) Loos
 * 54) Lys-lez-Lannoy
 * 55) La Madeleine
 * 56) Marcq-en-Barœul
 * 57) Marquette-lez-Lille
 * 58) Marquillies
 * 59) Mons-en-Barœul
 * 60) Mouvaux
 * 61) Neuville-en-Ferrain
 * 62) Noyelles-lès-Seclin
 * 63) Pérenchies
 * 64) Péronne-en-Mélantois
 * 65) Prémesques
 * 66) Provin
 * 67) Quesnoy-sur-Deûle
 * 68) Radinghem-en-Weppes
 * 69) Ronchin
 * 70) Roncq
 * 71) Roubaix
 * 72) Sailly-lez-Lannoy
 * 73) Sainghin-en-Mélantois
 * 74) Sainghin-en-Weppes
 * 75) Saint-André-lez-Lille
 * 76) Salomé
 * 77) Santes
 * 78) Seclin
 * 79) Sequedin
 * 80) Templemars
 * 81) Toufflers
 * 82) Tourcoing
 * 83) Tressin
 * 84) Vendeville
 * 85) Verlinghem
 * 86) Villeneuve-d'Ascq
 * 87) Wambrechies
 * 88) Warneton
 * 89) Wasquehal
 * 90) Wattignies
 * 91) Wattrelos
 * 92) Wavrin
 * 93) Wervicq-Sud
 * 94) Wicres
 * 95) Willems

title: Métropole Européenne de Lille


text:
Talk:Presbytery

Residence
Presbytery is where a presbyter (= religious elder) lives. Compare: for example, 'bakery'. -- Kaihsu 17:35, 2004 May 3 (UTC)
 * See Presbytery (residence). Senator2029 “Talk” 11:57, 25 February 2019 (UTC)

Untitled
One could derive such from the greek roots, but that doesn't mean that such is in use anywhere. It is not reflected in the OED at all--Samuel J. Howard 17:39, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

"Presbytery" isn't needed in the first line, that is merely a redirect to "priest" and "elder (religious)"--Samuel J. Howard 17:42, 3 May 2004 (UTC)

Make this a real article?
It's not that helpful just to say "it could be any of these things". There must be a reason why the same word has such different meanings. Could anyone volunteer a real article on what the term "presbytery" means, its etymology, current usage etc? Stevage 14:17, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Presbytery


text:
Heart of Empire

Heart of Empire or The Legacy of Luther Arkwright is a limited series by Bryan Talbot, published in nine monthly parts in 1999 by American company Dark Horse Comics.

It is a sequel to his earlier work The Adventures of Luther Arkwright, set twenty-three years later, and centres on Arkwright's daughter Victoria.

Overview
While the earlier work was highly experimental in its storytelling, with flashbacks and other multiple storylines running at different speeds and told in different styles, only resolving into a single narrative in the later part of the book, Heart of Empire is straightforwardly linear and drawn in a consistent style, with computer colouring by Angus McKie and lettering by Ellie DeVille. The pacing of the story is made more natural by the decision to vary the page count of the monthly comics to fit the demands of the storytelling. The story is nevertheless full of mythological, historical, artistic and political references, symbolism, and subliminal imagery. Many events echo those in The Adventures of Luther Arkwright.

As well as a collected paperback edition, Heart of Empire is available as a CD-ROM containing scans of the pencil roughs, black-and-white inks, final colour pages and high-resolution versions and a great deal of annotation and supplementary material from Talbot. It also includes scans of the whole of The Adventures of Luther Arkwright, from the recently created digital remastered version at the best resolution that it has ever been seen in. The CD is in some ways the "Director's cut" of the comic and was created to answer the perennial "where do you get your ideas from?" question asked by fans. The first chapter of it was put online for free viewing due to the inherent difficulty in explaining what it contains.

A collected trade paperback edition, titled Heart of Empire: The Legacy of Luther Arkwright, was published by Dark Horse in 2001.

A third story, The Legend of Luther Arkwright, was published in July 2022 by Jonathan Cape.

Synopsis
The story is largely set on the same parallel on which the key events of Luther Arkwright occurred. Twenty-three years have passed (putting the date of the events at 2007), and England has emerged from its artificially prolonged Civil War to become the predominant world power under the autocratic rule of its psychic Queen Anne. The decadent court exhibits a mixture of Elizabethan, Restoration and Victorian styles. Ordinary people randomly "disappear" to an unknown fate in St. George's Chapel, Windsor at Windsor Castle.

Anne's only heir is Princess Victoria, her daughter by the long-vanished Luther Arkwright, born during the climactic battle twenty-three years earlier. Victoria is an engineering genius, but suffers constantly from nausea and headaches. Victoria's twin brother Henry was assassinated at the age of ten, but when Victoria is told she resembles the revolutionary leader Gabriel Shelley, she becomes fascinated by the possibility that he is her brother, and starts a quest to learn about the circumstances of Henry's death. Meanwhile, both a Papal Envoy and a group of fascists within the government plan to assassinate Anne and Victoria in order to seize the Empire for the Roman Catholic Church and themselves, respectively. Furthermore, the advanced society of parallel "zero-zero" has detected an imminent cataclysm centred on Victoria's world, and tries in vain to contact Luther.

Gabriel Shelley is not Henry, but Victoria's contact with him helps open her eyes to the oppressive nature of her mother's empire. It also opens her eyes in other ways, as she accidentally takes a hallucinogen instead of a migraine remedy from his collection of homemade medicines. Under the influence of the potion, she makes her first jump across the parallels to meet her father. They return to Victoria's world to defeat the true Heart of Empire and source of the imminent catastrophe - a psychic monster lurking in St George's Chapel, created by Anne's attempts to keep her son Henry alive. Anne is mortally wounded in combat with the Papal Envoy, and Victoria intervenes decisively to stop a massacre of democracy campaigners and kill the fascist ringleaders. In the final scene, she abdicates the throne and dissolves the Empire.

Audio adaptation
In 2023, Heart of Empire was made into a full-cast, two-CD audio adventure by Big Finish Productions, with David Tennant, India Fisher, Jez Fielder, Robert Jezek and Siri O'Neal returning from their adaptation of The Adventures of Luther Arkwright.

Cast

 * Luther Arkwright — David Tennant
 * Harry Fairfax / Dr John Dee — Jez Fielder
 * Queen Anne — India Fisher
 * Gabriel Shelley — Ahmed Hamad
 * Victoria — Georgina Hellier
 * Stanley — George Howard
 * Karl — Robert Jezek
 * Rose — Siri O'Neal
 * Northumberland — Emma Williams
 * Nurse / Lady in Waiting — Lizzie Worsdell

title: Heart of Empire


text:
Cigar (horse)

Cigar (April 18, 1990 – October 7, 2014), was an American Thoroughbred racehorse who was the 1995 and 1996 American Horse of the Year. He was the first American racehorse racing against top-class competition to win 16 consecutive races since Triple Crown winner Citation did so between 1948 and 1950. His major wins included the 1995 Breeders' Cup Classic, the NYRA Mile (later renamed in his honor), Jockey Club Gold Cup, Woodward Stakes (twice), Oaklawn Handicap, Hollywood Gold Cup, Donn Handicap (twice) and the first running of the Dubai World Cup. He became the leading money earner in racing history and was later inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame.

Originally campaigned on turf courses, he showed useful but unremarkable form in his early career. However, he emerged as an outstanding performer when switched to racing on dirt in late 1994. He was undefeated in 1995 in ten starts at racetracks across the United States, and received all but two of 306 ballots cast for American Horse of the Year. In 1996, he won the Dubai World Cup and three other races before his winning streak finally came to an end in August in the Pacific Classic. Despite narrowly losing two of his next three starts, he was named the America Horse of the Year for the second time.

After his retirement from racing, Cigar proved to be infertile and was quickly retired from stud duties. He nevertheless enjoyed a long retirement at Kentucky Horse Park before dying at the age of 24.

Background
Cigar was a dark bay colt with three white socks on his legs and a white star and stripe on his forehead. He was bred in Maryland by Allen Paulson and was foaled at Country Life Farm near Bel Air, Maryland. He was sired by Palace Music, who was a Group 1 winner in England and a Grade I winner in the United States on the turf. Cigar's success made Palace Music the leading sire in North America for 1995, but otherwise Palace Music was moderately successful with turf runners in Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Cigar's dam, Solar Slew, was by the 1977 Triple Crown winner, Seattle Slew. Cigar was a half-brother to Corridora Slew (ARG) by Corridor Key (USA), Mulca, and several other lesser performing horses. His second dam, Gold Sun, was a Group 1 winner in Argentina.

Madeleine A. Paulson was the original owner of Cigar. In his 2003 book, Legacies of the Turf, noted race historian Edward L. Bowen wrote that according to Paulson family banter, she traded Cigar to husband Allen for the filly Eliza, the 1992 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies winner and that year's Eclipse Award choice for American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly.

Cigar was named after a navigational intersection for airplanes, not for the tobacco product. Owner Allen Paulson was a major figure in American aviation who had owned the Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation, which manufactured Gulfstream private business jets. He named many of his horses after the five-letter-long names given to intersections on aeronautical navigational charts.

Cigar stood at maturity. He had a scar on his chest as a result of a paddock accident as a weanling. As a young horse, he had a habit of kicking out at his handlers, earning him a nickname of "the Hammer". He matured though into a kind horse who enjoyed greeting his fans and posing for the camera. His regular jockey, Jerry Bailey, later recalled a meeting between Cigar and Bailey's three-year-old son the day after the 1995 Breeders' Cup Classic. "He was just nuzzling on him," Bailey said. "Less than 24 hours earlier he was on fire, just a machine, and now he was like a pony in the parking lot of the Kmart. He really liked people."

1993: three-year-old season
Cigar did not race as a two-year-old. Under his first trainer, Alex Hassinger Jr., he won twice in nine starts at age three, but failed to win in stakes competition. He did finish second in the Grade III Volante Handicap at the Oak Tree Racing Association fall meeting at Santa Anita, and third in the Grade III Ascot Handicap at Bay Meadows. During this period, Hassinger switched from racing him on dirt to racing him on turf tracks, but the horse remained a low-grade stakes/high-class allowance horse. As a three-year-old, Cigar earned $89,175.

Cigar made his first start on February 21, 1993 at Santa Anita in a maiden special weight race over six furlongs on the dirt. He was never a factor, finishing sixth. He then had some bone chips removed from his knees and did not return until May 9 in another maiden special weight over six furlongs on the dirt. He broke slowly but rushed up to second place after a fast opening quarter-mile in 22.19 seconds. He moved to the lead on the turn and continued to draw away to win by $2 1/4$ lengths.

For his next starts, Hassinger switched Cigar to turf races over $1 1/16$ miles with moderate results. On May 23, Cigar finished fourth in an allowance race after leading with a furlong to go, then finished third in his next start on June 12. On August 18 though, he displayed a burst of speed at the top of the stretch that quickly moved him from fifth to first. He continued to draw away to win by $2 3/4$ lengths.

After finishing second in his next start, Cigar made his graded stakes debut in the Ascot Handicap at Bay Meadows. He raced near the front of the pack for the first three-quarters before taking the lead turning for home, opening a $3 1/2$-length in mid-stretch. However, he was caught at the finish line and finished third, beaten by a neck. He then finished second in the Volante Handicap on November 5 before finishing a distant eleventh in the Hollywood Derby on November 30.

1994: four-year-old season
The following year, Cigar was sent to an east-coast trainer, Bill Mott, who gave him the first half of the year off, bringing him back to racing in July. Cigar had moderate success in his first four starts of the year before breaking through with a dominant win in an allowance race on October 28. He followed up with his first Grade I win in the NYRA Mile (now the Cigar Mile Handicap), finishing the year with two wins from six starts and earnings of $180,838.

Cigar made his first start of the year on July 8 in an allowance race over $1 1/16$ miles on the turf at Belmont Park. He vied for the early lead with Victory Cross but tired and finished fourth, beaten by nine lengths. Over the next two months, he continued to race in allowance races on the turf, finishing third on August 9 at Saratoga, seventh on September 16 at Belmont Park, and third on October 7 at Belmont Park. For his next start at Aqueduct on October 28, Mott switched Cigar back to dirt in a one-mile allowance race for non-winners of two races other than maiden or claiming (NW2 X). Cigar challenged for the early lead with the favorite, Golden Plover, completing the first quarter-mile in 22.42 seconds. Cigar then took the lead and drew away, winning by eight lengths. He did not lose again for 22 months.

Mott decided to step Cigar sharply up in class, entering him in the Grade I NYRA Mile at Aqueduct on November 26. He went off at odds of 9-1 in a field of twelve that featured stakes winners Devil His Due, Brunswick, Itaka, Bertrando, and Harlan. Cigar raced for the first half mile in fourth place, then made a strong move on the turn and opened up to win by seven lengths. "Cigar really smoked them," said jockey Jerry Bailey. "I rode him before, but that was on grass and he was flat that day. On the dirt, he's been different."

1995: five-year-old season
At age 5, Cigar scored ten wins from ten starts, earning Beyer Speed Figures of 108, 114, 116, 121, 114, 117, 118, 111, 111, and 117. He travelled widely, winning races in Florida, Arkansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, California, and New York. Mott later commented, "I knew what was going on was special and was never going to happen again. The really good ones win races when they are not at their best. Whether he was coming off a layoff, or had a foot issue, or got caught in compromising position in a race. Cigar overcame all those."

Cigar started 1995 on January 22 in a $1 1/16$ mile allowance race at Gulfstream Park in January, which he won by two lengths. He then faced the 1994 American Horse of the Year Holy Bull in the Donn Handicap on February 11 at $1 1/8$ miles. Holy Bull was heavily favored based on his dominant 1994 campaign, with Cigar going off at 4-1. Cigar went to the early lead with Holy Bull pushing the pace to his outside. The two completed the half-mile heads apart in 46.48 seconds. However, as they turned into the backstretch, Holy Bull suffered a strain of the superficial flexor tendon and was pulled up. Cigar won, but little attention was paid to his victory due to the breakdown of Holy Bull, which signaled the end of his racing career. Cigar's winning streak stood at four.

He made his next start on March 5 in the Gulfstream Park Handicap over a distance of $1 1/4$ miles, and went off as the heavy 1-2 favorite in a field of eleven. He rated behind the early pace set by Northern Trend, then quickly moved to the lead near the top of the stretch. He continued to draw away and won "as rider pleased" by $7 1/2$ lengths. Cigar then went to Oaklawn Park in Hot Springs, Arkansas for the Oaklawn Handicap at $1 1/8$ miles. The field featured several other highly rated older horses, including 1994 Breeders' Cup Classic winner Concern, who carried top weight of 122 pounds compared to Cigar at 120 pounds, and Silver Goblin, who was also on an extended winning streak, at 119 pounds. Cigar settled into position a few lengths behind the early leader, then started his move on the final turn. Silver Goblin was slightly ahead near the top of the stretch when his jockey accidentally struck Cigar in the face with his whip. Cigar briefly checked but then pinned back his ears and rallied, drawing away to win by $2 1/2$ lengths in a time of 1:47.22.

Next was the Pimlico Special on May 13 at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore at $1 3/16$ miles. Cigar was the odds-on favorite despite carrying top weight of 122 pounds, compared to Devil His Due and Concern both at 121 pounds. In the absence of other early speed horses, Cigar went to the lead and set moderate opening fractions of 24.38 for the first quarter-mile and 48.16 for the half. He opened up his lead in midstretch and won under a hand ride by $2 1/2$ lengths in a time of 1:53.72. "I think he's more versatile than any horse I've ever seen," said Paulson. "He can be behind. He can be in front. There's no way to defend against him."

For his next start, Cigar shipped to Suffolk Downs north of Boston for the Massachusetts Handicap at $1 1/8$ miles on June 3. He was eligible for a $500,000 bonus after also winning the Gulfstream Park Handicap, Oaklawn Handicap, and Pimlico Special. He was the overwhelming favorite at 1-5 despite carrying 124 pounds, 9 to 17 pounds higher than his rivals. He tracked the early pace, then made his move turning into the stretch. He quickly opened a lead and won by four lengths in a time of 1:48.74. "If Cigar runs like he's been running, there isn't any horse that can beat him," said Bailey. "It's hard to get this horse in trouble. You almost have to go out of your way."

His connections originally planned to give Cigar some time off but decided instead to travel to California for the Hollywood Gold Cup at Hollywood Park on July 2 when the purse was increased to $1 million. Many great horses from the east, such as Kelso and Seattle Slew, suffered losses on the faster, harder California racing surfaces. The California track also assembled one of the greatest fields in the race's history, including Santa Anita Handicap and Pacific Classic Stakes winner Best Pal, Pacific Classic Stakes winner Tinners Way, Santa Anita Handicap winner Urgent Request, and old rival Concern, who had just won the Gold Cup's major preparatory race, the Californian Stakes. Nonetheless, Cigar was the odds-on favorite despite carrying top weight of 126 lb. He broke well and rated a few lengths behind the early pace. Turning into the stretch, he swept to the lead and drew away to win by $3 1/2$ lengths in a time of 1:59.46. "We put him into a situation where he could have gotten beat, but it didn't matter," said Mott.

After returning to the east coast, Cigar was given a brief layoff before resuming training. He made his next start on September 16 at Belmont Park in the Woodward Stakes over $1 1/8$ miles. In a field of nine that contained few serious contenders, he went off as the 1-10 favorite. He was even more heavily bet in the show wagering, creating the largest minus pool in New York's history. He tracked the early pace set by Star Standard, then moved to the lead in the stretch to win in hand by $2 3/4$ lengths in 1:47.07. "He was pretty devastating," said Bailey.

Cigar’s next start was on October 7 in the Jockey Club Gold Cup at Belmont over a distance of $1 1/4$ miles. He was again the odds-on favorite, with his main competition expected to come from three-year-old Thunder Gulch, who had won the Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes. Star Standard set the early pace, tracked closely by Thunder Gulch on the inside and Cigar on the outside. When Cigar started his move on the turn into the stretch, Thunder Gulch could not keep pace, eventually finishing fourth. Cigar opened up a $2 1/2$-length lead in midstretch, then stood off a late run by Unaccounted For to win by a length in a time of 2:01.29. Cigar had not relished the going, which was heavy due to earlier rain, and it was the closest he had come to defeat in his now eleven-race win streak. "I would have to say this was probably not Cigar's best race,” said Mott. "He was used more, [Bailey] had to go to the whip... he had to reach down and ask him. It looked as if he had to put him into a little more of a drive. But he still won by a clear length."

Breeders' Cup Classic
Cigar ended the season by winning the Breeders' Cup Classic at Belmont Park on October 28. He was the odds-on favorite in a field of eleven horses, most of which he had already beaten. The main concern was that predicted heavy rain could turn the track muddy, a surface over which Cigar had never run. "There's nothing I can do about it," said Mott on the day before the race. "We know it's going to rain, and we know there's going to be some mud. But we're running no matter what. If he gets beat, so be it, but we're not afraid of anything."

Bailey was also concerned by his outside post position, number 10, on a day where most winners had run along the rail. Knowing Cigar risked getting stranded out wide for the entire race, Bailey urged him strongly from the starting gate and settled into third place behind L'Carriere and Star Standard, with Unaccounted For to his inside in fourth. "He leaves the gate wanting to go to the lead, and usually I have to discourage him from doing that," said Bailey. "But this time I gave him his head. When he got up there, I had to spend the next three-eighths of a mile trying to get him back. By that point I needed a little rest on my arms."

The opening fractions were moderate, 24.21 seconds for the first quarter-mile and 48.35 for the half, and Cigar moved easily down the backstretch. Late on the final turn, he made his move and quickly opened a lead on the rest of the field. He was never challenged in the stretch and won by $2 1/2$ lengths. The final time of 1:59.58 was then the fastest Breeders' Cup Classic ever run, despite the muddy track condition. "Cigar is so fluid and so efficient that the only way you know you're going faster is when you look over and see you're going past everyone,” said Bailey. "I don't know if this was his best race, but it was his most important race. He did it the same way we've seen him do it so many times before. I don't know if he can duplicate this year. I don't know if that's possible for him or anybody else."

As Cigar swept to the lead, track announcer Tom Durkin gave one of the most famous calls in racing history: ""Cigar! Cigar makes his move, and he sweeps to the lead with a dramatic rush," said Durkin. As Cigar neared the wire, Durkin added, "Here he is, the incomparable, the invincible, the unbeatable Cigar.""

Cigar had completed a perfect season, 10 for 10, with earnings of $4,819,800. In doing so, he matched Spectacular Bid's record in 1980, the most dominant campaign of that decade. Sportswriter Andrew Beyer said that "it was certainly safe to say [Cigar] is the best of the 1990s" due to his versatility. He received all but two of 306 ballots cast for Horse of the Year and was also named American Champion Older Male Horse. He had won a record eight Grade I events in a single season, equalled only by Lady's Secret in 1986. During 1995, Cigar set a single-season stakes-winning record for a North American-based Thoroughbred of $4,819,800, surpassing Sunday Silence's mark of $4,578,454.

1996: six-year-old season
Cigar's six-year-old campaign started on a high note, with wins in the Donn Handicap and the newly created Dubai World Cup making him the world's richest racehorse. He then extended his winning streak to 16, matching the great Citation, before he was finally defeated in the Pacific Classic in August. He finished the year with a win in the Woodward Stakes followed by narrow losses in the Jockey Club Gold Cup and Breeders' Cup Classic. He was again named American Horse of the Year.

Cigar started his 1996 campaign on February 10 in the Donn Handicap, where he carried 128 pounds – 11 to 18 pounds more than the other entrants. Despite the weight difference, he was the heavy 1-5 favorite. He broke well then settled into third position off the opening pace set by Flying Chevron and Star Standard. He started his move on the far turn, followed by stablemate Wekiva Springs who moved to within a head as they turned into the stretch. In response to the challenge, Cigar quickly pulled away and won easily by two lengths. "He's going to be vulnerable because we're dealing with handicaps," said Mott. "I know some day this has got to come to an end, because we all get older," he added. "But Cigar has gotten stronger with every race. He just gets better and better."

Cigar's next start was expected to be in the Santa Anita Handicap but he had to miss the race after developing an abscess in his right front foot. Instead, he had eleven days of stall rest before resuming training for his next target, the inaugural Dubai World Cup, the world's richest horse race with a $4,000,000 purse. Cigar had to travel roughly 6000 mi from Florida to Dubai for the race, a journey of about 20 hours. Mott faced some criticism for the decision to run but responded by saying, "If I didn't think he was up to it, he wouldn't be going." Great horses had rarely traveled so far, duplicated their form, and then returned home in good shape.

The Dubai World Cup attracted a top quality field from around the world. The American contingent also included L'Carriere (second in the Breeders' Cup Classic) and Soul of the Matter (fourth in the Classic), while international challengers included Pentire, a multiple Group 1 winner from England, and Danewin with five Group 1 wins in Australia. Running at night and over a deep, sandy track made even heavier by recent rainfall, Cigar was also racing for the first time in twelve starts without Lasix. To further complicate matters, he broke poorly. "His rear end sort of came out from behind him," said Bailey. "He didn't handle the track very well."

Cigar found himself in the middle of the field behind the early pace set by L'Carriere. On the backstretch, he worked his way up to fourth, then launched his bid for the lead on the final turn. He pulled away from L'Carriere near the top of the stretch but then had to withstand a late run from Soul of the Matter. Soul of the Matter pulled almost alongside before Cigar responded to win by less than a length. "I don't think it was his best performance," said Bailey, "but I think it might have been his best effort." He was now the world's highest stakes-winning racehorse, and his streak stood at 14.

Cigar returned to seek a repeat win in the Massachusetts Handicap, where the largest crowd in the history of Suffolk Downs turned out to see him. He had to pass another test of greatness by carrying 130 lb in the race. Cigar won again for his 15th straight victory, the longest winning sequence for a major American stakes horse since Citation, who won 16 in a row in 1948 and 1950.

Arlington Park carded a special race, the Arlington Citation Challenge, for Cigar to attempt to tie Citation's streak. He faced Dramatic Gold and Unbridled's Song and again carried 130 lb. He pulled away from Dramatic Gold nearing the wire to win his 16th race in a row.

The end of the winning streak
Cigar next attempted to surpass Citation's record in the Pacific Classic Stakes at Del Mar Thoroughbred Club near San Diego, California. Another record crowd of over 40,000 attended. As in his last race in California, the Hollywood Gold Cup, Bailey took Cigar wide most of the way. However, he was drawn into a three-horse speed duel with the good stakes horses Siphon and Dramatic Gold, going the first $3/4$ of a mile in a very fast 1:09 1/5. The speed duel caused all the leaders to tire, and Dare And Go, ridden by Alex Solis, passed Cigar in the stretch to score the upset, with Cigar finishing second.

Cigar rebounded in the 1996 Woodward Stakes at Belmont Park, which was his last victory ever. Cigar lost to Skip Away (who went on to win the 1997 Breeders' Cup Classic and the 1998 Horse of the Year title) in the Jockey Club Gold Cup.

Breeders' Cup Classic
Cigar's final start was in the 1996 Breeders' Cup Classic, held on October 26 at Woodbine Racetrack in Toronto, Canada. After Skip Away bypassed the race, Cigar went off as the 3-5 odds-on favorite in a deep field that also included Grade I winners Will's Way (Travers Stakes), Atticus (Kentucky Cup Classic), Dare and Go (Pacific Classic), Editor's Note (Belmont Stakes), Dramatic Gold (Meadowlands Cup), Mahogany Hall (Whitney Handicap) and Louis Quatorze (Preakness Stakes). Alphabet Soup was a 20-1 longshot after having been disqualified from a win in his previous start. Cigar came into the race a bit short of training after his right front hoof required patching. He shipped to Woodbine on the 23rd, walked the paddock on the 24th and then had a strong gallop on the 25th. "Let's face it," said Jim Bond, the trainer of L’Carriere, who had faced off with Cigar in the Dubai World Cup. "Cigar is vulnerable. He’s had a long, tough year. It took L’Carriere a long time to recover from running in Dubai, and Cigar really didn’t take that much time off. I think it may finally be catching up with him."

The early speed horses, Atticus, Louis Quatorze and Alphabet Soup, all drew outside posts on a track that appeared to favor horses on the inside. Accordingly, the three horses all broke fast and quickly shifted over to the rail, running the opening quarter-mile in 22$4/5$ seconds. Cigar broke slowly and on the wrong lead, and found himself in tight quarters in the middle of the pack. He started his move on the far turn but lacked his normal acceleration while running five wide. Turning into the stretch, Mt Sassafrass briefly took the lead before Alphabet Soup and Louis Quatorze rallied, racing heads apart through the final furlong. Cigar inched his way into third but could not get by, losing by a head to Alphabet Soup, who was a nose in front of Louis Quartorze. The final time of 2:01 set a new track record.

As a six-year-old, Cigar won five of eight starts and $4,910,000, breaking his own single-season earnings record. His third-place finish at Woodbine cost him the chance to be the first horse to win $10 million; he finished with $9,999,815.

Until Curlin surpassed him in 2008, Cigar was America's top money earner.

Honors
Further accolades came when Cigar was named the Racehorse of the Decade of the 1990s. In 2002, he was inducted in his first year of eligibility into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame. In the Blood-Horse magazine ranking of the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, Cigar was ranked #18. In accordance with that ranking, Cigar is the highest-ranked American Thoroughbred during the decade of the nineties (1990–1999) and therefore lays claim to the title American "Horse of the Decade."

Cigar won four Eclipse Awards. In 1995, he was named the American Horse of the Year and Champion Older Male Horse. Despite the losses during his six-year old campaign, he was named Horse of the Year and Champion Older Male Horse again in 1996.

On February 2, 1997, a life-size bronze statue of Cigar was unveiled at Florida's Gulfstream Park on "A Salute to Cigar Day." Also in 1997, the New York Racing Association renamed the Grade I NYRA Mile, run in November at Aqueduct, as the Cigar Mile. The NYRA Mile was the second race in Cigar's winning streak and his first Grade I win. On October 27, 2015, the Kentucky Horse Park unveiled a bronze statue of Cigar by Douwe Blumberg.

Retirement
Cigar was retired to stud at the end of the 1996 racing season. Ceremonies took place during the National Horse Show at Madison Square Garden to honor the horse. Cigar was vanned through New York City accompanied for the last few blocks by the New York Knicks cheerleaders and the Budweiser Clydesdales. In the Garden, he was cantered around the arena by Bailey before the lights went out and a trumpeter started to play Auld Lang Syne. Veteran sportswriter Steve Haskin called it "he single most emotional moment I’ve ever experienced in racing."

Paulson sold 75% of Cigar to Coolmore Stud and Michael Tabor, and this equated to a value of $25 million for him. He was taken to stand at the Ashford Stud, the American division of Coolmore Stud, and began his coverings there in February. An insurance policy on Cigar required that he cover 20 mares twice and get at least 60 percent of them in foal to be considered fertile. He proved infertile as a stallion, as none of the 34 mares bred to him became pregnant.

Cigar lived out his retirement at the Kentucky Horse Park's Hall of Champions in Lexington. Around April 2014, Cigar began to suffer increasingly from osteoarthritis in his spine, leading to instability in his legs. He underwent surgery to correct the problem but complications ensued and he died on October 7.

title: Cigar (horse)


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Northern Ireland Policing Board

The Northern Ireland Policing Board (Bord Póilíneachta Thuaisceart Éireann, Ulster-Scots: Norlin Airlan Polisin Boord) is the police authority for Northern Ireland, charged with supervising the activities of the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI). It is a non-departmental public body composed of members of the Northern Ireland Assembly and independent citizens who are appointed by the Minister of Justice using the Nolan principles for public appointments.

History
The board is not the first police oversight body in the history of Northern Ireland. It was established on 4 November 2001 pursuant to the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000, as the direct successor of the Police Authority for Northern Ireland, which oversaw the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Appointments were made by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland prior to the devolution of policing and justice.

When the Assembly was suspended in October 2002, the first board's members were re-appointed as independents by the Secretary of State to enable it to continue its work (despite most being political representatives). The Policing Board was reconstituted on 1 April 2006, 22 May 2007 and again on 24 May 2011.

The third reconstitution of the board in 2007 was historic as Sinn Féin took up its seats on the Policing Board following the party's decision to support 'civic policing' by the PSNI at its ardfheis on 28 January 2007. Sinn Féin was associated in the past with the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA), which killed 271 Royal Ulster Constabulary officers and 12 police officers outside Northern Ireland during the Troubles, and had refused to recognise the legal authority of the RUC or PSNI until that point.

On 7 February 2008, the Policing Board decided to appoint a panel of independent experts to re-review the police investigation of the Omagh bombing. Some of the relatives of the bombing victims criticised the decision, saying that an international public inquiry covering both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland should be established instead. The review was to determine whether enough evidence existed for further prosecutions. It would also investigate the possible perjury of two police witnesses made during the trial of suspect Sean Hoey. Sinn Féin Policing Board member Alex Maskey stated that his party fully supported the families' right to call for a "full cross-border independent inquiry" while the Policing Board had a "clear and legal obligation to scrutinise the police handling of the investigations." He also stated: "We recognise that the board has a major responsibility in carrying out our duty in holding the PSNI to account in the interests of justice for the Omagh families."

On 22 November 2009, a 400lb car bomb was driven to the Policing Board building in Belfast. It partially exploded but no one was hurt. Republican dissidents tried to ambush policemen on the same day. The incident was one of several cross-border attacks carried out by hardline republicans in 2009–2010; others included the 2010 Newry car bombing.

Composition
According to the department, the appointment of all independent members is made on merit and political activity plays no part in the selection process. However, the Commissioner for Public Appointments for Northern Ireland requires that the political activity of appointees be published, for accountability.

The practice of appointing 'independent' members, who were also full members of political parties, was also common across the district policing partnerships organised by the Policing Board, thus reducing the number of places available for members of the public with no political connections.

Current members
Democratic Unionist Party
 * Joanne Bunting MLA
 * Maurice Bradley MLA
 * Trevor Clarke MLA

Sinn Féin Alliance Party of Northern Ireland
 * Gerry Kelly MLA
 * Linda Dillon MLA
 * Liz Kimmins MLA
 * John Blair MLA
 * Nuala McAllister MLA

Ulster Unionist Party
 * Mike Nesbitt MLA

Social Democratic and Labour Party
 * Mark H. Durkan MLA

Independent

 * Deirdre Toner (Chair)
 * Edgar Jardine CB (Vice Chair)
 * Les Allamby
 * Dr Janet Gray MBE
 * Dr Kate Laverty
 * Frank McManus
 * Brendan Mullan
 * Peter Osborne
 * Mukesh Sharma

title: Northern Ireland Policing Board


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Deinonychosauria

Deinonychosauria is a clade of paravian dinosaurs which lived from the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous periods. Fossils have been found across the globe in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, South America, and Antarctica, with fossilized teeth giving credence to the possibility that they inhabited Australia as well. This group of dinosaurs are known for their sickle-shaped toe claws and features in the shoulder bones.

Deinonychosauria is commonly defined as all dinosaurs more closely related to dromaeosaurids (such as Deinonychus antirrhopus) than to birds (such as Passer domesticus). It traditionally includes the families Dromaeosauridae and Troodontidae, which each possess enlarged "sickle claws". However, troodontids may instead be closer to birds than to dromaeosaurids, so they would lie outside Deinonychosauria under that hypothesis. This would also render Deinonychosauria equivalent to Dromaeosauridae, under a broad definition of the family. As the structure of the paravian family is still undergoing debate, the components of Deinonychosauria is unstable beyond dromaeosaurids.

Systematics
In 1866 Ernst Haeckel created the now-deprecated subclass of birds known as Sauriurae (meaning "lizard tails" in Greek). It was intended to include Archaeopteryx and distinguish it from all other birds then known, which he grouped in the sister-group Ornithurae ("bird tails"). The distinction Haeckel referred to in this name is that Archaeopteryx possesses a long, reptile-like tail, while all other birds known to him had short tails with few vertebrae, fused at the end into a pygostyle. The unit was not much referred to, and when Hans Friedrich Gadow in 1893 erected Archaeornithes for basically the same fossils, this became the common name for the early reptile-like grade of birds. This was followed by Alfred Romer (1933) and subsequent authors through most of the 20th century. According to Romer, the Archaeornithes are characterised by having clawed wings, a reptilian style ribcage without a large carina and the presence of a long, bony tail. The known members of the group by the time of its erection were Archaeopteryx and Archaeornis. The two are now thought to represent a single species, Archaeopteryx lithographica, the Archaeornis being the Berlin specimen of Archaeopteryx. It was in 1888 the German anatomist Max Fürbringer created the order Archaeopterygiformes, though the unit was not used as much as Archaeornithes. Due to the popularity of Archaeornithes as well as Archaeopterygidae being recognized as the only family in this clade, Sauriurae, Archaeornithes, and Archaeopterygiformes are considered to be redundant arbitrary names that can be synonymous.

During the dinosaur renaissance the American palaeontologist John Ostrom had published a series of papers arguing that birds are highly derived dinosaurs, after comparisons between the then-newly discovered Deinonychus and Archaeopteryx and noting their similarities in the wrist and shoulder bones. In his 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World, Gregory S. Paul classified dromaeosaurids in Archaeopterygidae. Paul states that: "Many theropods have been united into new groups... but the placement of Archaeopteryx and the sickle-clawed dromaeosaurs in the same family is by far the most radical–yet it is also one of the most necessary... how alike, in detail after detail, dromaeosaurs and Archaeopteryx were."

The name Deinonychosauria was coined by Ned Colbert and Dale Russell in 1969, and defined as a clade (all theropods closer to dromaeosaurids than to birds) by Jacques Gauthier in 1986. Through the early 2000s, the consensus among paleontologists was that dromaeosaurids were most closely related to the troodontids, and with the troodontids, deinonychosaurians were turned into the sister taxon to avialans, and therefore the closest relatives of avialan birds. In 2012, Turner et al. conducted a phylogenetic analysis (using a dataset of 474 characters scored for 111 taxa) which found Deinonychosauria to be monophyletic.

However, several more recent studies have cast doubt on the hypothesis that dromaeosaurids and troodontids were more closely related to each other than either was to birds. A more robust 2013 study by Godefroit et al. (using a dataset of 1,500 characters scored for 358 taxa) found that troodontids were possibly more closely related to birds than to dromaeosaurids; forcing troodontids to remain in a monophyletic Deinonychosauria required four extra steps in the analysis, making this result less likely, but not implausible. Because Deinonychosauria was originally defined as all animals closer to dromaeosaurids than to birds without specific reference to troodontids, Deinonychosauria is a synonym of Dromaeosauridae if Troodontidae is closer to birds.

With the description in 2019 of the Late Jurassic genus Hesperornithoides, Hartman et al., using every named Mesozoic maniraptoromorph (with the addition of 28 unnamed specimens), which they scored 700 characters and 501 operational taxonomic units, found that most of the anchiornithids are members of Archaeopterygidae, Halszkaraptorinae and Unenlagiinae are in a redefined family Unenlagiidae, and a Dromaeosauridae sensu stricto is the sister taxon of Troodontidae. The authors opted for Deinonychosauria (defined as dinosaurs closer to Deinonychus antirrhopus than to Passer domesticus) over "Archaeopterygiformes".

In a study conducted in 2020, Archaeopteryx was recovered as an avialan.

Description
Like other theropods, deinonychosaurs were bipedal; that is, they walked on their two hind legs. However, whereas most theropods walked with three toes contacting the ground, fossilized footprint tracks confirm that most deinonychosaurs held the second toe off the ground in a hyperextended position, with only the third and fourth toes bearing the weight of the animal. This is called functional didactyly. The enlarged second toe bore an unusually large, curved sickle-shaped claw (held off the ground or 'retracted' when walking). This claw was especially large and flattened from side to side in the large-bodied predatory eudromaeosaurs. The first toe (hallux) was relatively small and angled inward toward the center of the body, but was not fully reversed as in modern birds.

The teeth of deinonychosaurs were curved and serrated, but not blade-like except in some advanced species such as Dromaeosaurus albertensis. The serrations on the front edge of deinonychosaur teeth were very small and fine, while the back edge had serrations which were very large and hooked. Deinonychosaurs generally had long, winged forelimbs, though these were smaller in some troodontids. The wings usually bore three large, flexible claws.

Most deinonychosaurs seem to have been predatory, though some smaller species especially among the troodontids are known to have been at least omnivorous.

Claw function
One of the best-known features of deinonychosaurs is the presence of an enlarged and strongly curved "sickle claw" on a hyper-extendible second toe, modified to hold the sickle claw clear of the ground when walking. While this characteristic claw and its associated modifications to the anatomy of the foot (such as a shortened metatarsus in eudromaeosaurs) had been known since the mid-20th century, their possible functions were the subject mainly of speculation, and few actual studies were published. Initial speculation regarded the claws as slashing implements used to disembowel large prey. In this scenario, the shortened upper foot would serve as an anchor point for powerful tendons to improve kicking ability. However, subsequent studies of the actual claw shape showed that the underside of the claw was only weakly keeled and would not have been an effective cutting instrument. Instead, it appeared to be more of a hooking implement. Manning et al. suggested in 2006 that the claws were similar to crampons and were used for climbing, and in the case of larger species or individuals, climbing up the flanks of very large prey.

A larger study of deinonychosaur claw function, published in 2011 by Fowler and colleagues, concluded that the earlier study by Manning and colleagues was correct and that the "sickle claws" of deinonychosaurs would have been ineffective as cutting weapons. They compared the claw and overall foot anatomy of various deinonychosaurs with modern birds to shed light on their actual function. Fowler and colleagues showed that many modern predatory birds also have enlarged claws on the second toes. In modern raptors, these claws are used to help grip and hold prey of sizes smaller than or equal to the predator, while the birds use their body weight to pin their prey to the ground and eat it alive. Fowler and colleagues suggested that this behavior is entirely consistent with the anatomy of advanced deinonychosaurs like Deinonychus, which had slightly opposing first toes and strong tendons in the toes and foot. This makes it likely that advanced dromaeosaurids also used their claws to puncture and grip their prey to aid in pinning it to the ground, while using shallow wing beats and tail movements to stabilize themselves. Other lines of evidence for this behavior include teeth which had large, hooked serrations only on the back edge (useful in pulling flesh upward rather than slicing it) and large claws on the wings (for greater maneuvering of prey while mantling it with the wings).

In more primitive dromaeosaurids and in troodontids, the feet were not as specialized and the claws were not as large or as hooked. Additionally, the toe joints allowed more range of motion than the simple up-down movements of advanced dromaeosaurids. This makes it likely that these species specialized in smaller prey that could be pinned using only the inner toes, not requiring the feet to be as strong or sturdy.

title: Deinonychosauria


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Aplysiidae

Aplysiidae is the only family in the superfamily Aplysioidea, within the clade Anaspidea. These animals are commonly called sea hares because, unlike most sea slugs, they are often quite large, and when they are underwater, their rounded body shape and the long rhinophores on their heads mean that their overall shape resembles that of a sitting rabbit or hare. Sea hares are however sea snails with shells reduced to a small plate hidden between the parapodia, and some species are extremely large. The Californian black sea hare, Aplysia vaccaria is arguably the largest living gastropod species, and is certainly the largest living heterobranch gastropod.

Description
Members of the Aplysiidae have an atrophied inner shell (in contrast with the nudibranchs, which have no shell at all). In Aplysia and Syphonota, this shell is a soft flattened plate over the visceral rear end, where it is fully or partially enclosed in the mantle skin. In Dolabella auricularia, the shell is ear-shaped. The shell is only present in the larval stage of the two genera Bursatella and Stylocheilus, and on this basis they have been grouped into the subfamily Dolabriferinae.

They are rather large animals. Their length can reach up to 75 cm (Aplysia vaccaria), and they can weigh well over 2 kg. They are cosmopolitan and found in temperate and tropical seas, inhabiting shallow coastal areas and sheltered bays, thick with vegetation.

The Aplysiidae are herbivorous, eating a variety of red, green or brown algae and eelgrass. Their color is diet-derived from the pigments of the algae. They concentrate the toxins found on algae.

Defenses
Some species spout ink when disturbed or attacked, and they may also swim (rather than crawl) away, using their broad wing-like flaps or parapodia. The ink is extracted from their algal food, rather than being synthesized.

Sea hares have two main secretory glands in their mantle cavity.
 * purple gland: lying on top of the mantle cavity, above the gill. It gives off a red or purple fluid, or, in some species, a white ink.
 * opaline gland: situated on the floor of the mantle cavity, beneath the gill. It gives off a white opaque secretion.

The genus Aplysia has proved useful as a model in neurobiology for the study of electrical synapses, which mediate the release of the clouds of ink.

Mating habits
Sea hares are hermaphrodites, with fully functional male and female reproductive organs. The penis is on the right side of the head while the vagina is situated in the mantle cavity, beneath the shell, deep down between the parapodia. It is therefore physically impossible for mating partners to act as both male and female at the same time.

They have unusual mating habits: they can mate in pairs with one acting as a male, the other as a female, but they commonly occur in quite crowded numbers during the mating season, and this often leads to chains of three or more sea hares mating together. The one at the front acts as a female and the one at the back as a male. The animal(s) in between are acting as both males and females, in other words, the animal receiving sperm passes its own sperm to a third sea hare.

Predators
Predators include pycnogonid sea spiders, wrasses and sea turtles.

Laboratory use
Following the lead of Ladislav Tauc and his pupil Eric R. Kandel, Aplysia has been studied as a model organism by neurobiologists, because its gill and siphon withdrawal reflex, as studied in Aplysia californica, is mediated by electrical synapses, which allow several neurons to fire synchronously. This quick neural response is necessary for a speedy reaction to danger by the animal. Aplysia has only about 20,000 neurons, making it a favorite subject for investigation by neuroscientists. Also, the 'tongue' on the underside is controlled by only two neurons, which allowed complete mapping of the innervation network to be carried out.

Taxonomy
A 2004 study has shown that Aplysiidae is a monophyletic taxon with two distinct clades: Aplysiinae and Dolabellinae + Dolabriferinae + Notarchinae.

The authority of this family is still somewhat in dispute. The family was incorrectly originally spelled as Laplysiana. This was a Latinized form of the original common name "les Laplysiens" as described in Philosophie zoologique, 1:320 by Lamarck in 1809. Rafinesque introduced the new name Laplysinia in 1815. In 2001 Bouchet & Rocroi advocated the attribution of the name Aplysiidae to Lamarck.

Subfamilies
Classification after N. B. Eales (1984):
 * Aplysiinae Lamarck, 1809
 * Dolabellinae Pilsbry, 1895
 * Dolabriferinae Pilsbry, 1895
 * Notarchinae Mazzarelli, 1893

Genera

 * Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767 - type genus
 * Bursatella Blainville, 1817
 * Dolabella Lamarck, 1801
 * Dolabrifera Gray, 1847
 * † Floribella Woodring, 1970
 * Notarchus Cuvier, 1817
 * Paraplysia Pilsbry, 1895
 * Petalifera Gray, 1847
 * Phycophila A. Adams, 1861
 * Phyllaplysia Fischer, 1872
 * Stylocheilus Gould, 1852
 * Syphonota H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854 - the only one species: Syphonota geographica (A. Adams & Reeve, 1850)
 * Genera brought into synonymy:
 * Aclesia Rang, 1828 : synonym of Bursatella Blainville, 1817
 * Aplysiella P. Fischer, 1872 : synonym of Petalifera Gray, 1847
 * Barnardaclesia Eales & Engel, 1935 : synonym of Bursatella Blainville, 1817
 * Busiris Risso, 1826 : synonym of Notarchus Cuvier, 1816
 * Laplysia Linnaeus, 1767 : synonym of Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767
 * Neaplysia J. G. Cooper, 1863 : synonym of Aplysia (Neaplysia) J. G. Cooper, 1863 represented as Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767
 * Phycophila A. Adams, 1861 : synonym of Aplysia (Phycophila) A. Adams, 1861 represented as Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767
 * Pruvotaplysia Engel, 1936 : synonym of Aplysia (Pruvotaplysia) Engel, 1936 represented as Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767
 * Ramosaclesia Iredale, 1929 : synonym of Bursatella Blainville, 1817
 * Siphonotus A. Adams & Reeve, 1850 : synonym of Syphonota H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854
 * Tullia Pruvot-Fol, 1933 : synonym of Aplysia (Tullia) Pruvot-Fol, 1933 represented as Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767
 * Varria Eales, 1960 : synonym of Aplysia (Varria) Eales, 1960 represented as Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767

title: Aplysiidae


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Kentucky Horse Park

Kentucky Horse Park is a working horse farm, international equestrian competition venue, and an educational theme park opened in 1978 in Lexington, Kentucky. It is located off Kentucky State Highway 1973 (Iron Works Pike) and Interstate 75, at Exit 120, in northern Fayette County in the United States. The equestrian facility is a 1224 acre park dedicated to "man's relationship with the horse." Open to the public, the park has a twice daily Horses of the World Show, showcasing both common and rare horses from around the globe. The horses are ridden in authentic costume. Each year the park is host to a number of special events and horse shows.

Additionally, the park contains the International Museum of the Horse, a Smithsonian Affiliate, which has a permanent collection of horse history and memorabilia, along with a rotating historical collection focused on a particular theme. Past themes include A Gift from the Desert (Arabia), Imperial China, and All the Queen's Horses (Britain).

Beginning with the 1979 arrival of Forego, one of the leading handicap horses of the 1970s, the Kentucky Horse Park has been home to some of the world's greatest competition horses, including John Henry, Horse of the Decade for the 1980s and the top money-winning Thoroughbred gelding in racing history. With the exception of a few months in 1986, John Henry lived at the park from 1985 until his death in 2007, alongside other racing greats such as Forego and his fellow 1970s champion Bold Forbes, and more recent residents Cigar, voted Horse of the Decade for the 1990s, and Da Hoss, the first horse to win Breeders' Cup races in non-consecutive years. In late 2008, the champions Alysheba and Funny Cide became residents, but Alysheba died at the park in March 2009. 1994 Kentucky Derby winner, Go For Gin, became a resident of the barn in 2011, while Cigar died at the park in 2014.

Besides Thoroughbred horses, Standardbred pacing greats such as Staying Together and Western Dreamer, Cam Fella (deceased) and Rambling Willie (deceased), and Standardbred trotting champion Mr. Muscleman have made the Kentucky Horse Park their home, as well as 5-gaited American Saddlebred geldings CH Gypsy Supreme, CH Imperator and CH Sky Watch (all deceased).

Park sculptures
A number of horse sculptures stand in the Kentucky Horse Park, including a Man o' War statue on a pedestal near the entrance, over the horse's grave, which was moved here from Faraway Farm during the establishment of the park in the 1970s. There is also a life-size statue of the 1973 U.S. Triple Crown winner Secretariat with jockey Ron Turcotte aboard being led by groom Eddie Sweat, sculpted by Jim Reno. From harness racing, there is a statue of Bret Hanover.

Kentucky Horse Park's National Horse Center
The Kentucky Horse Park also contains the National Horse Center, headquarters for more than 30 national, regional and state equine organizations and associations including:
 * American Association of Equine Practitioners
 * American Farrier's Association
 * American Hackney Horse Society
 * American Hanoverian Society
 * American Morgan Horse Association
 * American Saddlebred Horse Association
 * Carriage Association of America
 * Kentucky Horse Racing Authority
 * Equestrian Events, Inc.
 * United States Hunter/Jumper Association
 * United States Dressage Federation
 * United States Equestrian Federation
 * United States Pony Clubs, Inc.

For a list of all 30+ organizations in one place, with contacts, see the Kentucky Horse Park website.

Rolex Stadium
Rolex Stadium is the primary outdoor event venue in the complex. The stadium seats 7,338 in its main grandstand but can accommodate up to 37,338 total capacity when bleachers seating up to 30,000 are used, primarily for larger outdoor horse shows, concerts, and other sporting events. Its show ring measures 306 feet by 406 feet, with the flooring made of sand and fiber; however, artificial turf has been brought into the stadium for soccer and football games on occasion, among other events. It is the largest outdoor concert venue in Central Kentucky with a capacity of up to nearly 52,000. There are six concession stands at the stadium and six restrooms, meaning that concession and restroom facilities may be limited for events that require larger capacity; however Rolex Stadium features an 18-by-33-foot Daktronics ProStar LED videoscreen.

Alltech Arena
Alltech Arena is Kentucky Horse Park's 5,520-seat indoor arena, expandable to 8,500 for concerts. The arena floor and championship ring measures 135 feet by 300 feet; in addition in indoor horse shows, Alltech Arena can also be used for indoor football, ice hockey, basketball, circuses, boxing, wrestling, concerts, and other special events. The arena contains nine luxury suites, 222 VIP box seats and a 4,000-square-foot club lounge seating up to 80 patrons. The arena floor is below street level; the arena concourse, with 50,000 square feet of space, overlooks the arena floor and contains six concession stands. There are also two box offices at the arena.

Events
The Kentucky Horse Park hosts diverse educational events and competitions. Past examples include: Also, in 2015 the park became the new home of the Ichthus Music Festival, a major Christian music festival originally held in nearby Wilmore until its temporary demise following its 2012 edition.
 * The annual Kentucky Three-Day Event held at the park since hosting the 1978 World Three-Day Championships
 * The annual High Hope Steeplechase since 1974
 * The annual Southern Lights holiday festival since 1993
 * The National Pony Club Championships every 3 years
 * North American Junior and Young Rider Championships, a prestigious event for talented horseback riders ages 14–21, since 2009
 * The USEF Pony Finals, the pony hunter/jumper national championships since 2008
 * National Horse Show

For a constantly up-to-date list of all park events, see the Kentucky Horse Park website.

2010 Alltech FEI World Equestrian Games

On December 6, 2005, it was announced that Lexington and the Kentucky Horse Park would host the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games in September and October. The 2010 games marked the first time the games were held outside of Europe; additionally, the eight Olympic-level world championships had never been held together in a single location within Europe.

As part of the games, several improvements to the park were slated:
 * The $36 million Alltech Arena was approved in 2006 by the Kentucky General Assembly (legislature).
 * Enhancements to the arena's sound system.
 * A resort hotel was planned to be constructed near the park.

On February 1, 2007, Governor Ernie Fletcher announced that he would seek an additional $38.3 million in improvements to the park in preparation for the games and other major horse events. In his address to the 2007 General Assembly the governor suggested:
 * $24 million for a new outdoor stadium that would feature 10,075 permanent seats but could be expanded to 30,325 temporarily for major events.
 * $4 million for an additional 21000 sqft of exhibition space for vendors.
 * $10.3 million for roadway improvements inside the park that would give the facility a second entrance via the campground. A wide loop road would be constructed so that events could be held on both sides of the horse park.

Funding
The new indoor stadium and additional exhibition space, costing $28 million, would be financed with 20-year bonds. The roadway improvements, at $10.3 million within the park, would come from the state highway fund. The resort hotel would be constructed and financed without state funds.

Administration
Although the park is owned by the state government, it is administered separately from the state park system.

title: Kentucky Horse Park


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User:Tarwater

I'm a former policy / procedures writer who has recently returned to school on a part-time basis to complete a degree in philosophy. My interests include philosophy (particularly ethics), veganism / vegetarianism, organic gardening, music and Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

title: User:Tarwater