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Hans Morgenthau

Hans Joachim Morgenthau (February 17, 1904 – July 19, 1980) was a German-American jurist and political scientist who was one of the major 20th-century figures in the study of international relations. Morgenthau's works belong to the tradition of realism in international relations theory; he is usually considered among the most influential realists of the post-World War II period. Morgenthau made landmark contributions to international relations theory and the study of international law. His Politics Among Nations, first published in 1948, went through five editions during his lifetime and was widely adopted as a textbook in U.S. universities. While Morgenthau emphasized the centrality of power and "the national interest," the subtitle of Politics Among Nations—"the struggle for power and peace"—indicates his concern not only with the struggle for power but also with the ways in which it is limited by ethical and legal norms.

In addition to his books, Morgenthau wrote widely about international politics and U.S. foreign policy for general-circulation publications such as The New Leader, Commentary, Worldview, The New York Review of Books and The New Republic. He knew and corresponded with many of the leading intellectuals and writers of his era, such as Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan, Carl Schmitt and Hannah Arendt. At one point in the early Cold War, Morgenthau was a consultant to the U.S. Department of State when Kennan headed its Policy Planning Staff, as well as a second time during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations until he was dismissed by Johnson when he began to publicly criticize American policy in Vietnam. For most of his career, however, Morgenthau was esteemed as an academic interpreter of U.S. foreign policy.

Education, career, and personal life
Morgenthau was born in an Ashkenazi Jewish family in Coburg, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany in 1904. After attending the Casimirianum, he continued his education at the universities of Berlin, Frankfurt, and Munich. He received his doctorate in 1929 with a thesis entitled International Jurisdiction: Its Nature and Limits, and pursued postdoctoral work at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, Switzerland.

He taught and practiced law in Frankfurt before emigrating to the United States in 1937, after several interim years in Switzerland and Spain. One of his first jobs in the U.S. was teaching night school at Brooklyn College. From 1939 to 1943, Morgenthau taught in Kansas City and taught at Keneseth Israel Shalom Congregation there. Morgenthau then was a professor at the University of Chicago until 1973, when he took a professorial chair at the City College of New York.

Morgenthau was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.

On moving to New York, Morgenthau separated from his wife, who remained in Chicago partly because of medical issues. He is reported to have tried to initiate plans to start a new relationship while in New York, with Ethel Person (d. 2012), a psychiatrist at Columbia University.

On October 8, 1979, Morgenthau was one of the passengers on board Swissair Flight 316, which crashed while trying to land at Athens-Ellinikon International Airport. The flight had been destined for Bombay and Peking.

Morgenthau died on July 19, 1980, shortly after being admitted to Lenox Hill Hospital in New York with a perforated ulcer. He is buried in the Chabad section of Montefiore Cemetery, in proximity to the Lubavitcher Rebbe, with whom he had a respectful relationship.

European years and functional jurisprudence
Morgenthau completed his doctoral dissertation in Germany in the late 1920s. It was published in 1929 as his first book, The International Administration of Justice, Its Essence and Its Limits. The book was reviewed by Carl Schmitt, who was then a jurist teaching at the University of Berlin. In an autobiographical essay written near the end of his life, Morgenthau related that, although he had looked forward to meeting Schmitt during a visit to Berlin, the meeting went badly and Morgenthau left thinking that he had been in the presence of (in his own words) "the demonic". By the late 1920s Schmitt was becoming the leading jurist of the rising Nazi movement in Germany, and Morgenthau came to see their positions as irreconcilable. (The editors of Morgenthau's The Concept of the Political [see below] state that "the reader of [Morgenthau's] The Concept of the Political ... will easily recognize that Morgenthau deplored Schmitt's understanding of the political on moral grounds and conceptual grounds.")

Following the completion of his doctoral dissertation, Morgenthau left Germany to complete his Habilitation dissertation (license to teach at universities) in Geneva. It was published in French as La Réalité des normes en particulier des normes du droit international: Fondements d'une théorie des normes (The Reality of Norms and in Particular the Norms of International Law: Foundations of a Theory of Norms). It has not been translated into English. The legal scholar Hans Kelsen, who had just arrived in Geneva as a professor, was an adviser to Morgenthau's dissertation. Kelsen was among the strongest critics of Carl Schmitt. Kelsen and Morgenthau became lifelong colleagues even after both emigrated from Europe to take their respective academic positions in the United States. In 1933, Morgenthau published a second book in French, La notion du "politique", which was translated into English and published in 2012 as The Concept of the Political. In this book Morgenthau seeks to articulate the difference between legal disputes between nations and political disputes between nations or other litigants. The questions driving the inquiry are: (i) Who holds legal power over the objects or concerns being disputed? (ii) In what manner can the holder of this legal power be changed or held accountable? (iii) How can a dispute, the object of which concerns a legal power, be resolved? and (iv) In what manner will the holder of the legal power be protected in the course of exercising that power? For Morgenthau, the end goal of any legal system in this context is to "ensure justice and peace".

In his work in the 1920s and 1930s, Morgenthau sought a "functional jurisprudence," an alternative to mainstream international law. He borrowed ideas from Sigmund Freud, Max Weber, Roscoe Pound, and others. In 1940 Morgenthau set out a research program for legal functionalism in the article "Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law". Francis Boyle has written that Morgenthau's post-war writings perhaps contributed to a "break between international political science and international legal studies." However, Politics Among Nations contains a chapter on international law, and Morgenthau remained an active contributor to the subject of the relationship between international politics and international law until the end of his career.

American years and political realism
Hans Morgenthau is considered one of the "founding fathers" of the realist school in the 20th century. This school of thought holds that nation-states are the main actors in international relations and that the main concern of the field is the study of power. Morgenthau emphasized the importance of "the national interest," and in Politics Among Nations he wrote that "the main signpost that helps political realism to find its way through the landscape of international politics is the concept of interest defined in terms of power." Morgenthau is sometimes referred to as a classical realist or modern realist in order to differentiate his approach from the structural realism or neo-realism associated with Kenneth Waltz. Recent scholarly assessments of Morgenthau show that his intellectual trajectory was more complicated than originally thought. His realism was infused with moral considerations—though not always acknowledged as such—and during the last part of his life he favored supranational control of nuclear weapons and strongly opposed the U.S. role in the Vietnam War (see below).

Realism and Politics Among Nations (1948)
Morgenthau's Scientific Man versus Power Politics (1946) argued against an overreliance on science and technology as solutions to political and social problems. The book presented a "pessimistic view of human nature" centered on a universal lust for power and the inevitability of selfishness. Scientific Man versus Power Politics also argued that, in Robert Jervis's words, "much of modern Liberalism fails to understand the contingent nature of its own knowledge."

Starting with the second edition of Politics Among Nations, Morgenthau included a section in the opening chapter called "Six Principles of Political Realism".

The principles, paraphrased, are:
 * 1) Political realism believes that politics, like society in general, is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature.
 * 2) The main signpost of political realism is the concept of interest defined in terms of power, which infuses rational order into the subject matter of politics, and thus makes the theoretical understanding of politics possible. Political realism avoids concerns with the motives and ideology of statesmen. Political realism avoids reinterpreting reality to fit the policy. A good foreign policy minimizes risks and maximizes benefits.
 * 3) Realism recognizes that the determining kind of interest varies depending on the political and cultural context in which foreign policy is made. It does not give "interest defined as power" a meaning that is fixed once and for all.
 * 4) Political realism is aware of the moral significance of political action. It is also aware of the tension between the moral command and the requirements of successful political action. Realism maintains that universal moral principles must be filtered through the concrete circumstances of time and place, because they cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation.
 * 5) Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe.
 * 6) The political realist maintains the autonomy of the political sphere; the statesman asks "How does this policy affect the power and interests of the nation?" Political realism is based on a pluralistic conception of human nature. The political realist must show where the nation's interests differ from the moralistic and legalistic viewpoints.

Morgenthau argued in Politics Among Nations that skillful diplomacy drawing on these principles could lead to stability via the balance of power. He wrote that "the balance of power and policies aiming at its preservation are not only inevitable, but an essential stabilizing factor in a society of sovereign nations." (For further discussion, see section on Criticism, below.) In practice, however, countries "actively engaged in the struggle for power must actually aim not at a balance -- that is, equality -- of power, but at superiority of power in their own behalf," Morgenthau wrote. The reason is partly that the relative strength of countries can be difficult to calculate, since key elements of national power, such as "the quality of government," are elusive and frequently change. Because "no nation can foresee how large its miscalculations will turn out to be, all nations must ultimately seek the maximum of power obtainable under the circumstances. Only thus can they hope to attain the maximum margin of safety commensurate with the maximum of errors they might commit."

Center for the Study of American Foreign and Military Policy
In the 1950s, Morgenthau directed the University of Chicago’s Center for the Study of American Foreign and Military Policy. Among other things, he sought to rebuild the center’s resources on “China Studies,” after many experts on the country had been publicly discredited during the Second Red Scare. Morgenthau approached Chinese immigrant and political scientist Tsou Tang to explore the Sino-American relationship using both American and Chinese materials. Morgenthau trusted Tsou, having served on Tsou's committees for his master's and PhD theses. Tsou's 1963 book, America’s Failure in China, 1941-50, drew upon his research at the center.

1955: "Dual state" theory
In a 1955 article in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Morgenthau quoted others speaking about a "dual state" existing in the United States: the democratic façade of elected politicians who operate according to the law, and a hidden national security hierarchy and shadow government that operates to monitor and control the former. This has been said to be the origin of the notion of a deep state in the United States.

Dissent on the Vietnam War

Morgenthau was a strong supporter of the Roosevelt and Truman administrations. When the Eisenhower administration gained the White House, Morgenthau turned his efforts towards a large amount of writing for journals and the press in general. By the time of Kennedy's inauguration in 1961, he had become a consultant to the Kennedy administration. After Johnson became president, Morgenthau became much more vocal in his dissent concerning American participation in the Vietnam War, for which he was dismissed as a consultant to the Johnson administration in 1965. Morgenthau sparred with Johnson's advisors McGeorge Bundy and Walt Rostow. Morgenthau's dissent concerning American involvement in Vietnam, which he viewed mainly as a civil war whose "global significance" was "remote," brought him considerable public and media attention.

On 21 June 1965, Morgenthau debated Bundy live on television under the title Vietnam Dialogue: Mr. Bundy and the Professors with Eric Sevareid as the moderator. During the debate, Bundy accused Morgenthau of being a defeatist and pessimist, citing his 1961 statement that the Pathet Lao were destined to win the Lao civil war, leading Morgenthau to reply: "I may have been dead wrong on Laos, but it doesn't mean I am dead wrong on Vietnam." Bundy then brought up a statement Morgenthau made in 1956, praising President Diem of South Vietnam for creating a "miracle." The American journalist A.J. Langguth wrote that Bundy's point was irrelevant as Diem had been assassinated in 1963, but Bundy made it sound as if Morgenthau was opportunistic and inconsistent. Bundy was generally regarded as having won the debate by viewers at the time.

In these years Morgenthau continued to write prolifically, publishing a three-volume collection of his essays in 1962.

American years after 1965

Starting in 1960, Morgenthau became increasingly concerned with the revolutionary implications of nuclear weapons and the possibility of nuclear war, which he maintained would be a moral calamity of an unprecedented kind. He remarked in the journal Christianity and Crisis that "no such radical qualitative transformation of the structure of international relations has ever occurred in history." While in the 1950s and earlier, Morgenthau had tended to emphasize, in William Scheuerman's words, "the continuities of human history," his recognition of the radical novelty of nuclear weapons led, from the early 1960s onward, to a stress on discontinuity, as represented by the possibility of a civilization-ending nuclear conflict. Morgenthau's views on this issue were influenced by Karl Jaspers' The Future of Mankind, which he reviewed in 1961 for Saturday Review.

After 1965, Morgenthau became a leading voice in the discussion of just war theory in the modern nuclear era. Just war theory was further developed in the work of Paul Ramsey, Michael Walzer, Jeff McMahan, and other scholars.

Morgenthau's book Truth and Power, published in 1970, collected his essays from the previous decade dealing with both foreign policy, including Vietnam, and U.S. domestic politics, e.g. the civil rights movement. Morgenthau dedicated the book to Hans Kelsen, "who has taught us through his example how to speak Truth to Power." Morgenthau's last major book, Science: Servant or Master, was dedicated to his colleague Reinhold Niebuhr and published in 1972.

In summer 1978, Morgenthau wrote his last co-authored essay titled "The Roots of Narcissism," with Ethel Person of Columbia University. This essay was a continuation of Morgenthau's earlier study of this subject in his 1962 essay "Public Affairs: Love and Power," where Morgenthau engaged some of the themes that Niebuhr and the theologian Paul Tillich were addressing. Morgenthau admired Tillich's book Love, Power and Justice, and he wrote a second essay related to the book's themes. More recently, Anthony Lang has recovered and published Morgenthau's extensive course notes on Aristotle (for a course Morgenthau taught while at the New School for Social Research during his New York years). The comparison of Morgenthau to Aristotle has been further explored by Molloy.

Morgenthau was a tireless reviewer of books during the several decades of his career as a scholar in the United States. He wrote nearly a hundred book reviews, including almost three dozen for The New York Review of Books alone. Morgenthau's last two book reviews were not written for The New York Review of Books and were of the books Soviet Perspectives on International Relations, 1956–1967, by William Zimmerman and Work, Society and Culture by Yves Simon. The last book review Morgenthau wrote for The New York Review of Books appeared in 1971. Morgenthau's first book review, written in 1940, was of Law, the State, and the International Community, by James Brown Scott. Morgenthau also commented on the Pentagon Papers.

Like Hannah Arendt, Morgenthau dedicated time and effort to the support of the state of Israel. Both Morgenthau and Arendt made annual trips to Israel to lend their established academic voices to its still young and growing academic community during its inaugural decades as a new nation. Morgenthau's interest in Israel also extended to the Middle East more generally, including the politics of oil. Morgenthau's interest in Israel extended further to related issues of geopolitics, and issues related to Andrei Sakharov and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.

Morgenthau remained throughout the Cold War an active participant in the discussion of U.S. foreign policy. He wrote in this connection about Henry Kissinger and his role in the Nixon administration. In a 1975 essay, Morgenthau criticized Kissinger's approach toward internal upheaval in the Third World, arguing that the root of "instability" was not "Communist subversion" but popular dissatisfaction with the status quo. A foreign policy that failed to recognize this could lead to the support of "tyranny," Morgenthau wrote: "[I]n an essentially unstable world, tyranny becomes the last resort of a policy committed to stability in the last resort." Morgenthau in 1977 also wrote a brief "Foreword" on the theme of terrorism as it began to emerge in the 1970s. In addition to addressing current political issues, Morgenthau also wrote about the philosophy of democratic theory when faced with situations of crisis or tension.

Criticism
The reception of Morgenthau's work can be divided into three phases. The first phase occurred during Morgenthau's life up to his death in 1980. The second phase was between 1980 and the one hundred year commemoration of his birth that took place in 2004. The third phase of the reception of his writings is between the centenary commemoration and the present, which shows a vibrant discussion of his continuing influence.

Criticism during European years
In Morgenthau's early career, the book review of his dissertation by Carl Schmitt had a lasting and negative effect on Morgenthau. Schmitt had become a leading juristic voice for the rising Nazi movement in Germany, and Morgenthau came to see their positions as incommensurable, although it has been argued that Schmitt and Morgenthau engaged in a "hidden dialogue" in which they influenced each other. Morgenthau subsequently met Hans Kelsen at Geneva while a student, and Kelsen's treatment of Morgenthau's writings left a lifelong positive impression upon the young Morgenthau. Kelsen in the 1920s had emerged as Schmitt's most thorough critic and had earned a reputation as a leading international critic of the then rising National Socialist movement in Germany, which matched Morgenthau's own negative opinion of Nazism.

Criticism during American years
While Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations had a large influence on a generation of scholars in global politics and international law, Morgenthau's views did not go unchallenged. On the one hand, some critics rejected the basic premises of Morgenthau's realist perspective. On the other hand, some theorists working within a realist framework, such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer, took issue with aspects of Morgenthau's approach even while sharing some of his basic assumptions.

In his Theory of International Politics (1979), Kenneth Waltz urged more attention to purely "structural" elements of the international system, especially the distribution of capabilities among states. Waltz's neorealism was more self-consciously scientific than Morgenthau's version of realism. Waltz argued that balances of power recurrently form whether or not states intend that result. Waltz criticized Morgenthau for seeing the maintenance of a balance of power as dependent on states' motives and conscious aims, leading to what Waltz called a "distortion" of balance-of-power theory.

In contrast to Waltz's "defensive" realism, John Mearsheimer presented a theory of "offensive realism" in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001). Mearsheimer agreed with Morgenthau that states seek to maximize their relative power but disagreed about the cause: whereas Morgenthau posited, in Mearsheimer's words, "a will to power inherent in every state," Mearsheimer argued that the "anarchical" character of the international system pushes states to acquire as much power as possible to maximize their chances of survival.

Another area of criticism concerned Morgenthau's treatment of the concept of the national interest. One scholar has suggested that Morgenthau erred in thinking that "the 'rational core of the national interest' can be ascertained by objective analysis." On this account, "the concept of the national interest simply cannot bear the weight Morgenthau assigned to it."

Morgenthau's concept of politics itself has been seen, at least by some writers, as a firmer basis for his position. While Morgenthau viewed politics as a struggle for power, he also viewed it as a struggle conducted by specific means and within certain limits. From this perspective, Morgenthau's distinction between political power and military power represented an effort "to insulate" the properly political realm "from the intrusion of physical violence and domination."

The conceptual distinction between political and military power may not always have influenced Morgenthau's views on specific policy issues, but it probably did so in the case of nuclear weapons. His concern with nuclear weapons and the arms race led to discussions and debates with Henry Kissinger and others. Morgenthau saw many aspects of the nuclear arms race as a form of irrationality requiring the attention of responsible diplomats, statesmen, and scholars. However, Morgenthau's view that a world state would be required to solve the problem of nuclear weapons is in tension with the skepticism about global governance that his realist perspective implies.

Criticism of Morgenthau's legacy
Christoph Frei's intellectual biography of Morgenthau, published in English translation in 2001 (from the earlier German edition) was one of the first of many substantial publications about Morgenthau in the 2000s. Christoph Rohde published a biography of Morgenthau in 2004, still available only in German. Also around 2004, commemorative volumes were published on the occasion of the centenary of Morgenthau's birth.

John Mearsheimer of the University of Chicago has contrasted Morgenthau's political realism to the neo-conservativism prevailing during the Bush administration in the context of the 2003 Iraq War. Morgenthau saw the ethical and moral component of international politics as an integral part of the reasoning process of the international statesman and the essential content of responsible scholarship in international relations. Scholars continue to explore various aspects of Morgenthau's thought, as well as his place in relation to twentieth-century intellectual currents and the disciplinary history of political science and international relations (see Further Reading section, below).

Selected works

 * Scientific Man versus Power Politics (1946) Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
 * Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (1948, and subsequent editions) New York New York Alfred A. Knopf.
 * In Defense of the National Interest (1951) New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
 * The Purpose of American Politics (1960) New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
 * Crossroad Papers: A Look Into the American Future (ed.) (1965) New York, New York: Norton.
 * Truth and Power: Essays of a Decade, 1960–70 (1970) New York, New York: Praeger.
 * Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics. (1983) Lanham, Maryland: Univ. Press of America for the Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Co-published with a separate text by David Hein.
 * The Concept of the Political (2012; original 1933) Intro. by H. Behr and F. Roesch. Translated by M. Vidal. Palgrave Macmillan.

For a complete list of Morgenthau's writings, see "The Hans J. Morgenthau Page" at Google Sites.

title: Hans Morgenthau


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Agustín García Calvo

Agustín García Calvo (October 15, 1926 – November 1, 2012) was a Spanish philologist, philosopher, poet and playwright.

Biography
García Calvo was born and died in Zamora. He read Classical Philology at Salamanca University, being one of the first students of Spanish philologist Antonio Tovar. He concluded his doctoral dissertation on Ancient prosody and metrics in Madrid at the age of 22. In 1951 he worked as a grammar-school teacher. In 1953 he was appointed to a university chair of Classical Languages in Seville, and he occupied a second chair at Madrid's Universidad Complutense (then called "Central University of Madrid") from 1964 to 1965. In 1965 the Franco administration expelled him from his Madrid chair, along with Enrique Tierno Galván, José Luis López Aranguren and Santiago Montero Díaz, because they had given support to student protests against the fascist government. "(...) ganó la cátedra de Filología Latina de la Universidad de Madrid en 1964, siendo destituido de la misma, tras los incidentes universitarios de febrero de 1965 (...)" (Diccionario Biográfico Español Contemporáneo, vol. 2, Madrid 1970, p. 688, as cited in: Proyecto filosofía en español, Biografía Agustín García Calvo, retrieved 2012.03.25). - "Por implicación en el levantamiento estudiantil, Febrero de 1965, expulsado de la Universidad y Cátedra, Agosto 1965." (Editorial Lucina, Biografía de Agustín García Calvo, retrieved 2012.03.25). - "En 1953 ocupó una cátedra en la Universidad de Sevilla y en 1964, la obtuvo en la Universidad Complutense, de la que fue separado en 1965 por apoyar, junto a otros catedráticos, las protestas estudiantiles de la época." (Fundación Juan March, Autobiografía intelectual Agustín García Calvo, retrieved 2012.03.25). - José Luis López Aranguren "(...) worked in 'Madrid University' since 1955 until 1965 as an Ethics and Sociology professor and he was dismissed from this job because he had criticized 'Franco (Spanish dictator) diet' and in the year 1965 he participated in a protest with Agustín García Calvo, Enrique Tierno Galván, and with a lot of teachers and students to fight against the prohibition of association in Spain (...)" (European Commission, Five Identities, one Europe, retrieved 2012.04.06). - "En agosto de 1965, junto con los profesores universitarios José Luis López Aranguren y Agustín García Calvo, [Enrique Tierno Galván] fue separado de la docencia, acusado de incitar a los estudiantes a emprender acciones subversivas." (Junta de Andalucía, Biografía Enrique Tierno Galván, retrieved 2012.04.06). - "En agosto de 1965, los profesores universitarios José Luis López Aranguren, Agustín García Calvo y Santiago Montero Díaz encabezaron una manifestación contra el régimen en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Dicha manifestación fue violentamente disuelta y los tres catedráticos fueron apartados de la docencia." (Fundación Transición Española, Biografía Enrique Tierno Galván, retrieved 2012.04.06). José María Valverde and Antonio Tovar resigned from their university chairs as a sign of protest against this reprisal. García Calvo spent many years of his subsequent exile in Paris, being appointed professor at Lille University and at the Collège de France. He also worked as a translator for the exiled Spanish publishing house Ruedo Ibérico. In the French capital he organized a regular circle of political discussion in one of the cafés of the Latin Quarter. In 1976, following the death of General Franco, he recovered his chair in Madrid, where he remained teaching ancient philology until his retirement in 1992. He was emeritus professor at the Universidad Complutense until 1997 and remained active as a lecturer, writer and columnist until his death in 2012.

Political thought
In his written works and public statements, García Calvo attempted to give voice to an anonymous popular sentiment that rejects the intrigues of Power. An essential part of this struggle consists in denouncing Reality - an idea that appears to be a true reflection of "what there is", while in fact it is an abstract construction in which things are reduced by force to the status of mere ideas. In this process of reduction all unpredictable and undefined aspects that may be found in things are destroyed, thus facilitating their subjection to all kinds of plots, schemes and intrigues. People - just another case of a "thing" - are in this way organized into individuals, subject to a double and contradictory requirement, which is that each of them has to be the one he is, and yet all of them have to constitute a mass of many. Fortunately this kind of social organization always leads to flaws and imperfections, and it is just these unpredictable impulses, inaccessible to planning and calculation, to which García Calvo refers when he speaks of "the people".

The ever-increasing sophistication of Power arrives at its pinnacle in democratic societies that are composed of masses of individuals. Given that the "scheme of progress" consists in imposing this democratic system in all parts of the world, popular struggle has to be directed against democracy itself, being this the kind of political régime that administers death to the people in the most advanced societies. The simultaneous survival of comparatively old-fashioned systems of domination (for example, communist dictatorships and some forms of religious rule in Arab countries) is only meant to legitimate democracy through a rhetoric of "unfavourable comparison" and must therefore be considered a "cheat".

An essential ingredient of the maintenance of Power and Reality is God, a personage who has assumed many different names (such as the name of Man) in the past, but in his most advanced and sophisticated form presents himself under the name of Money - a ubiquitous idea to which everything can be reduced, since everything has a cost or value. The religion in which this new God is worshipped is Science - a religion whose most important mission is to keep the idea of Reality up-to-date and to convince individuals that everything is under control.

In democracy, State and Capital are only two manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Popular struggle must be directed against both, without ever claiming a "right" to anything (as this would imply an acknowledgement of the legitimacy of Power) or proposing alternative forms of government (as this would only contribute to the further advance of Power). This popular struggle is not an individual struggle (since the individual, created after the image of the State, is essentially a reactionary entity and must be conceived as the people's most important adversary), but rather the people's struggle - a struggle that originates in what remains in us of the people, beneath all our individual features and in open contradiction with these.

Speech or language plays an important role in oppressing the people, but also in their rebellion. Those words that have signification in each of the world's languages constitute a Reality that happens to be different in each tribe. Insofar as language helps create the illusion that we know everything there is and that we know how to call it and how to manipulate it, language is a weapon directed against the people. On the other hand we continuously see conjectures or glimpses arise in the common use of language that point to the opposite conclusion (that we do not know what there is and that Reality does not reach so far as to include everything that occurs), and in this sense language, something that anyone can use although no-one can possess it, also constitutes the people's self-expression par excellence.

Specific examples of what this struggle against Reality may look like can be found (1) in García Calvo's attacks on the car (the individual vehicle) and his activism in defence of the train, (2) in the struggle against the idea that "we all together form public finance" and (3) in the decision to use the same style in writing as in oral communication, as opposed to the pedantic use of language that we know from academic scholars, civil servants and newspaper journalists.

Spanish bibliography

 * Librosdeagustingarciacalvo.blogspot.com

Grammar and language theory

 * Pequeña introducción a la prosodia latina (Madrid : Sociedad de Estudios Clásicos, 1954)
 * Lalia, ensayos de estudio lingüístico de la sociedad (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1973)
 * Del ritmo del lenguaje (Barcelona: La Gaya Ciencia, 1975)
 * Del lenguaje (I) (Zamora: Lucina, 1979; 2 ªed correg. 1991).
 * De la construcción (Del lenguaje II) (Zamora: Lucina, 1983).
 * Del aparato (Del Lenguaje III) (Zamora: Lucina, 1999).
 * Hablando de lo que habla. Estudios de lenguaje (Premio Nacional de Ensayo 1990) (Zamora: Lucina, 1989; 2ª ed. 1990; 3ª  ed. 1990; 4ª ed. 1993)
 * Contra la Realidad, estudios de lenguas y cosas (Zamora: Lucina, 2002).

Logic

 * De los números (Barcelona: La Gaya Ciencia, 1976)

Editions and translations of classics

 * Aristófanes, Los carboneros (Akharneís). Versión rítmica de A. García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 1981; 2ª ed. 1998).
 * Don Sem Tob, Glosas de sabiduría o proverbios morales y otras rimas. (texto crítico, versión, introducción y comentario) (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1974).
 * Herakleitos, Razón común (Lecturas presocráticas II) Edición, ordenación, traducción y comentario de los restos del libro de Heraclito (Zamora: Lucina, 1985).
 * Homero, Ilíada . Versión rítmica de Agustín García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 1995).
 * Xenophon, Memorias de Sócrates, Apología, Simposio (traducción, introducción y notas) (Madrid: Alianza Editorial; 1967, Salvat editores, 1971).
 * Lecturas presocráticas (Zamora: Lucina, 1981: 3.ª ed. con el Parmenides renovado 2001).
 * Lucrecio, De Rerum Natura / De la Realidad. Edición crítica y versión rítmica de A. García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 1997).
 * Plautus, Pséudolo o Trompicón (traducción rítmica, introducción y notas) (Madrid: Cuadernos para el Diálogo, 1971).
 * Platón, Diálogos Socráticos, Apología, Teages, Los enamorados, - Cármides, Clitofonte (traducción, introducción y notas) (Barcelona: Salvat Editores, 1972).
 * Poesía antigua (De Homero a Horacio) (Zamora: Lucina, 1992).
 * Socrates (en Enciclopedia Universitas, t. II, fasc.30), (Barcelona: Salvat Editores, 1972).
 * Sophocles, Edipo Rey. Versión rítmica de A. García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 1982; 2ª ed. 1988; 3ªed. 1993).
 * Virgilio (estudio biográfico y versión rítmica de las Bucólicas del libro IV de las Geórgicas y del libro VI de la Eneida) (Madrid: Ediciones Júcar, 1976).

Other translations

 * Shakespeare, William, Sonetos de amor ( texto crítico, traducción en verso, introducción y notas) (Barcelona: Anagrama, 1974)
 * Shakespeare, William, Sueño de noche de verano (1980: 2.ª ed. 1988: 3.ªed- 1993)
 * Shakespeare, William, Macbeth (1980) Versiones rítmicas de A. García Calvo. ed Lucina
 * Marquis de Sade Instruir deleitando o Escuela de amor (La philosophie dans le boudoir). Traducción y prólogo de A. Garcia Calvo- (Zamora: Lucina, 1980: 2.ªed. 1988)
 * Georges Brassens. 19 Canciones. Con versión para cantar de A. Garcia Calvo (1983) ed. Lucina
 * Belli, Giuseppe-Gioachino, 47 sonetos romanescos con las versiones de Agustín García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 2006)
 * Valéry, Paul, Le Cimetière Marin / El Cementerio Marino con la versión rítmica de Agustín García Calvo (Zamora: Lucina, 2006)

Essays, politics

 * Contra el Tiempo (Zamora: Lucina, 1993; 2ª edición 2001)
 * De Dios (Zamora: Lucina, 1996)
 * Actualidades (Zamora: Lucina, 1980)
 * Análisis de la Sociedad del Bienestar (Zamora: Lucina, 1993: 2ª ed. 1995)
 * Cartas de negocios de José Requejo (Zamora: Lucina, 1981)
 * Contra la Pareja (Zamora: Lucina, 1994: 2ª ed. 1995)
 * Noticias de abajo (Zamora: Lucina, 1991 -  2.ª ed. 1991  - 3ª ed.1995)
 * Locura. 17 casos (Zamora: Lucina).
 * De la felicidad (Zamora: Lucina, 1986; 2.ª ed. 1989; 3ª ed- 1991, 4ª ed. 2000)
 * De los modos de integración del pronunciamiento estudiantil (Zamora: Lucina, 1987)
 * El amor y los 2 sexos. Del tiempo de amor y olvido (Zamora: Lucina, 1984: 2.ª ed. 1991)
 * Familia: la idea y los sentimientos (Zamora: Lucina, 1983; 2ª ed. 1992)
 * Historia contra tradición. Tradición contra Historia (Zamora: Lucina, 1983; 2ª ed. 1998)
 * Contra el hombre (con dos epílogos de Isabel Escudero) (Madrid: Fundación de Estudios Libertarios, Anselmo Lorenzo, 1996)
 * Manifiesto contra el despilfarro(Madrid: Banda de Moebius, 1977)
 * ¿Qué es el Estado? (Barcelona: La Gaya Ciencia,1977)
 * Apotegmas apropósito del marxismo (París: Ruedo Ibérico, 1970)
 * Contra la Paz. Contra la Democracia (Barcelona: Editorial Virus, 1993)
 * ¿Qué es lo que pasa? (Zamora: Lucina, 2006)

Poetry

 * Al burro muerto ... (1998), ed. Lucina.
 * Bebela (1987; 2ª ed 2001), ed. Lucina.
 * Canciones y soliloquios (1982; 2.ª ed. 1993), ed. Lucina.
 * Del tren (83 notas o canciones) (1981), ed. Lucina.
 * Libro de conjuros (1979; 2ªed 1981;  3ª ed 1991;  4ª ed. 2000), ed. Lucina.
 * Más canciones y soliloquios (1988), ed. Lucina.
 * Ramo de romances y baladas (1991), ed. Lucina.
 * Relato de amor (1980; 2.ª ed. 1982; 3ªed. 1989; 4ª ed.1993), ed. Lucina.
 * Sermón de ser y no ser (1980; 2ª ed.1984;  3ª ed. 1988; 4ªed. 1995), ed. Lucina.
 * Valorio 42 veces (1986), ed. Lucina.
 * Uno o dos en 23 sitios y más, ed. Lucina.
 * 4 canciones de amor perdido y el cínife (2006), Ediciones del 4 de Agosto.

Theatre

 * Baraja del Rey Don Pedro (Premio Nacional de Literatura Dramática 1999) ( 1998; 2ªed. 1999) ed. Lucina
 * Ismena. Tragicomedia musical (1980)ed. Lucina
 * Rey de una hora (1984) ed. Lucina
 * Tres farsas trágicas y una danza titánica. "Traspaso», «Dos amores», "Velatorio» y "Rotura», cuatro obras de teatro de una media hora de duración. (1980) ed. Lucina
 * Los carboneros (Acharneis). Aristófanes

Other

 * Himno de la Comunidad de Madrid (1983 BOCM)
 * Eso y ella. 6 cuentos y una charla (1987; 2ª ed 1993) ed. Lucina
 * ¿Qué coños? 5 cuentos y una charla. (1990; 2ª ed 1991; 3ª ed. 1991: 4ª ed. 1995) ed. Lucina

Articles
Scientific articles on philology and linguistics published in journals Emérita, Estudios Clásicos, Revista Española de Lingüística, Saber Leer, etc. Articles on politics in the journal Archipiélago, and newspapers El País, Diario 16, La Razón, etc.

Agustin's translated work

 * What is it that's happening? Translated by Eduardo Guzmán Zapater.
 * Analysis of Welfare Society
 * Interview with Agustín García Calvo: "The future is a vacuum that doesn't let us live".

Awards

 * In 1999 he was awarded the National Dramatic Literature Award for his play Baraja del rey don Pedro.
 * In 2006 he was awarded the Premio Nacional a la Obra de un Traductor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Agustín García Calvo


text:
Lupus of Sens

Saint Lupus of Sens (or Saint Loup de Sens) (born c. 573; died c. 623) was the nineteenth bishop of Sens.

Life
He was the son of Betton, Count of Tonnerre, "Blessed Betto," a member of the royal house of the Kingdom of Burgundy. He distinguished himself by his tact and firmness in dealing with the rival Merovingian Princes of his time.

Church in Saint-Loup-de-Naud
The Romanesque church dedicated to Saint Loup at Naud, 8 km from Provins in Champagne in the east of France is distinguished by the outstanding sculptures in the porch of its great doorway, with an ambitious iconographic program in which Saint Loup mediates entry into the mystery of the Trinity. About 980, Sevinus, archbishop of Sens, made a gift to the Benedictine community of the abbey of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif at Sens of four altars in villa que dicitus Naudus, in honore sancti lupi consecratum—"in the demesne that is called Naud, consecrated in honor of Saint Loup"—betokening the presence of a shrine already on this site, a priory under the direction of the abbot of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif. Other documents mention Saint-Loup-de-Naud among the possessions of the abbey at Sens, seat of an archbishop with close political ties to the French Crown, who had Paris within his diocese. Thus, though it lay so close to Provins, a seat of the counts of Champagne and the abbey church was completed by Henri le Libéral, comte de Champagne, the priory at Saint-Loup-de-Naud looked to Sens for its patronage: a visit from the abbot is documented in 1120. In 1160/61 Hugues de Toucy, Archbishop of Sens, presented to the priory the relic of Saint Loup, brought from the abbey of Sainte-Colombe, to that community's dismay; the sculpted portail with an iconography comparable to the royal portal at Chartres was doubtless undertaken shortly thereafter, when pilgrimages brought wealth to the community.

The priory was laid waste by the English in 1432, during the Hundred Years' War and again by the Huguenots in 1567, during the French Wars of Religion.

title: Lupus of Sens


text:
Category talk:Mercian monarchs

Untitled
Although Egbert of Wessex did rule over Mercia for a year as a conqueror, it looks plain silly (and misleading) to have it prominently displayed at the top that he was a "Mercian monarch". He should be in a West Saxon king category, if any. Everyking 18:54, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Mercian monarchs


text:
Talk:Greg Bear

Gaia theory
I was surprised to read in the article that in The Forge of God Greg Bear makes use of the Gaia theory. From my recollection of the book Gaia has no relevance whatsoever. I read a book in the Eon/Eternity (Legacy?)series where the life on the planet Lamarckia is somewhat different to Earth's - but I'm not convinced either that the Gaia hypothesis is being used - just that evolution took a different course which on the face of it was non-Darwinian. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.159.60.137 (talk • contribs) attribute comment

 * The "planetism" concept - that ecosystems eventually evolve creatures capable of spreading to other worlds, other star systems, and ultimately other galaxies - is very much based on Gaia theory, IMHO. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.80.254.58 (talk • contribs)

 * Having just read the book I can say that the Gaia Theory is used in the book but as far as I can see on a cosmic scale ie not just in terms of the Earth. One of the characters theorises that the Killers' process of destroying planets is part of how the Universe preserves balance. Or something like that. Its pretty unconvincing as far as I can see.

 * That aside I found FORGE OF GOD an extaordinary book, brilliantly imagined. The genius of having the Earth destroyed by an enemy we never even see and tracking the process whereby the planet copes with an inevitable end which nevertheless has to be waited for is amazing. What I love about Greg Bear's work is his humanity - although almost every book of his I've read deals in some way with the end of the Human Race - EON's nuclear destruction of earth, BLOOD MUSIC's transformation of humanity, FORGE OF GOD's annihilation of the planet - his sense of loss as mankind faces insuperable odds is deeply moving. You could say his work is tragic on a global scale.

 * I read FORGE OF GOD weeks before people started predicting the crossing of the threshold of global warming we now face. The sense of the human race's inability to conceive of its own extinction despite constant warning rang a very real bell. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.93.21.6 (talk • contribs)

Removal
I removed the complaint that bacteria developing conscioussness was scientifically dubious, because we don't possess a scientific theory of consciousness. Instead I point out that the math in Eon is pretty bogus. Gene Ward Smith 22:16, 19 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Commenting on which parts of books are bogus is Original Research. And personal opinion. go find a forum for that. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.246.145.33 (talk) 05:08, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Dude, he did that five years ago.  Millahnna (mouse)  talk  09:43, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

For future article expansion.
Have fun! ~Kylu ( u | t )  04:01, 15 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Interview with Greg Bear on Aberrant Dreams

Vagina Dentata
I've read in a book, and I'm fairly sure that it's either Neil Stephenson, Greg Bear or Dan Simmons, a Native American legend involving vagina dentatas belonging to three "spider women". I wanted to add this to the Vagina Dentata article. Does anyone know if this comes from Bear? Tomandlu (talk) 09:31, 22 November 2007 (UTC)

Chronology
I'm a bit confused by the following quote:

"In later works, beginning with Queen of Angels and continuing with its sequel, Slant, Bear gives a detailed description of a near-future nanotechnological society. This historical sequence continues with Heads — which may contain the first description of a so-called "quantum logic computer" — and with Moving Mars"

This makes it sound as though the order the books were written in is Queen of Angels, Slant, Heads, and then Moving Mars. But the list of books further down has the order as Queen of Angels, Heads, Moving Mars, and then Slant. I haven't read any of these books myself, so I'm not sure if one of these is incorrect, or if it's just a case of awkward wording in the quote above. Jcb9 (talk) 07:15, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

Signed Up for 3 new Halo Novels
Tor have annouced that he is to write; 3 Halo Novels based in the Forerunner era. Should we add it? SPARTAN-J024(Talk) 16:19, 11 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Let's wait till they're out. Much of this page seems to come from the horse's mouth, with all due respect for the accompanying pic, so it's bound to be added as and when.Sartoresartus (talk) 12:36, 14 October 2009 (UTC)

Poul Anderson (Astrid's father), his short story "Call Me Joe" and it's similarity to the movie "Avatar"
Anybody know if Astrid and Greg Bear are planning a lawsuit against James Cameron's movie "Avatar" for ripping off Astrid's father's (Poul Anderson) short sci fi story "Call Me Joe"? The statute of limitations on civil copyright infringement cases is three years, as I recall. Thanks.69.104.54.170 (talk) 05:56, 19 June 2010 (UTC)Sgt. Rock

Listing Quantico and Mariposa under "Quantico ("Queen of Angels" prequels)"...
I think it's clear that Quantico and Mariposa should be included under the heading of Series: Quantico (Queen of Angels prequels), since Mariposa, by including "Mind Design, Inc.", a depiction of Mary Choy at the age of 5 years old,  and relating how President Raphkind comes to power, clearly indicates that the events in those books precede those in the "Queen of Angels" series.

So I'm adding "(Queen of Angels prequels)" to that heading...

bonze blayk 10:57, 19 June 2010 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Bonzesaunders (talk • contribs)

Missing awards
Article should include the fact that the Novella Hardfought, contained in 'The Wind from the Burning Woman' won a the 1984 Nebula

Maccheek (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 21:19, 30 March 2011 (UTC).

Darwin's Radio
Article had this section:

 * Such recent works as Darwin's Radio and Darwin's Children stick closely to the known facts of molecular biology of viruses and evolution. While some fairly speculative ideas are entertained, they are introduced in such a rigorous and disciplined way that Darwin's Radio gained praise in the science journal Nature.

Really? No citation for this supposed praise was given, nothing in the linked articles about the books. And having read the books in question, the science is ludicrous if you know anything about evolution. It's basically Intelligent Design -- that our evolution is following a program in our DNA. It's just the standard superman mutant story, like Van Vogt's Slan. So I think that Nature would "praise" these books is unlikely. If I'm wrong, supply the cite and restore it. 202.81.243.211 (talk) 11:22, 17 March 2014 (UTC)

Death
Private advice from Astrid is that he died peacefully with family beside him late today (Seattle time). Need a reliable source for the article. There will be obituaries and tributes over the next few days; worth mining for information. --Pete (talk) 06:19, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

 * It looks like the evidence of his death is a Tweet from earlier today (or yesterday, if you’re east of Washington state where he died): https://archive.ph/kOELE and the Facebook post from his wife that he was dying. news.google.com and other web searches are not showing up anything. I would like to see more confirmation before we update the Wikipedia page; hopefully Locus or what not will post something more official soon. Samboy (talk) 06:40, 20 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm not entirely happy about announcing his death in the article without better sourcing than social media and blogs. Astrid's FB post announcing his death was friends-only. The news is spreading:
 * * https://file770.com/greg-bear-1951-2022/?fbclid=IwAR25jGxPJuRo4jYM-2ntFg3N_FkLsgq4yS49hO3T9zWc803oX6VKaJzlR14
 * * https://medium.com/reciprocall/bear-hero-93100473cf18
 * * https://www.facebook.com/astrid.bear
 * I don't think we need remove the news from the article. There is no doubt that he is gone - at least in his corporeal state - but some solid sourcing is needed for the article. A stickler could revert it. --Pete (talk) 08:28, 20 November 2022 (UTC)
 * (later) The news has been placed on Gregbear.com. I think we may regard this as definitive. --Pete (talk) 16:08, 20 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree that’s definitive and allowed as per WP:ABOUTSELF. While we have to be careful about WP:HOAX content, having the news on his official webpage is good enough to put the info on the Wikipedia.  I’ve added a reference; and plan to add more references when it goes out to Locus and other sources. Samboy (talk) 16:20, 20 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Since it's started to spread widely across social media (several public posts/tweets by verified accounts of public figures close to him), and we've started seeing an influx of edits, whether or not it's a hoax, I've added the recent death template to the page. Once his death is reported by WP:RS, someone will need to deal with his personal user page. --Vandraedha (talk|contribs) 18:51, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

Career section
This whole section is just copied and pasted from the introduction to "The Collected Stories of Greg Bear" published in 2003. 14.200.159.34 (talk) 02:30, 23 November 2022 (UTC)

 * I reported this to Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Copyright_Cleanup. I don't have access to the Collected Stories to verify the claim, unfortunately. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 04:28, 14 March 2023 (UTC)

Pronunciation
Greg Bear's last name is transcribed into Russian and Ukrainian as if it's pronounced like "beer" and not "bear". What is the correct pronunciation of his last name? Hellerick (talk) 04:54, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Presumably someone messed up the transcription? Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 04:59, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Greg Bear


text:
Oily fish

Oily fish are fish species with oil (fats) in soft tissues and in the coelomic cavity around the gut. Their fillets may contain up to 30% oil, although this figure varies both within and between species. Examples of oily fish include small forage fish such as sardines, herring and anchovies, and other larger pelagic fish such as salmon, trout, tuna, swordfish and mackerel.

Oily fish can be contrasted with whitefish, which contain oil only in the liver and in much less overall quantity than oily fish. Examples of whitefish are cod, haddock and flatfish. White fish are usually demersal fish which live on or near the seafloor, whereas oily fish are pelagic, living in the water column away from the bottom.

Oily fish meat is a good source of important fat-soluble vitamins such as Vitamin A and D, and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids (white fish also contain these nutrients but at a much lower concentration). For this reason the consumption of oily fish rather than white fish can be more beneficial to humans, particularly concerning heart diseases such as stroke and ischemic heart disease; however, oily fish are known to carry higher levels of contaminants (such as mercury or dioxin or POPs) than whitefish. Among other benefits, studies suggest that the omega-3 fatty acids in oily fish may help improve inflammatory conditions such as arthritis.

Dementia
A 1997 study published in Annals of Neurology followed 5,386 elderly participants in Rotterdam. It found that fish consumption decreased the risk of dementia. However, the 2.1-year average follow-up was less than the three years dementia commonly affects people prior to diagnosis. Thus, the study was unclear as to whether fish consumption protected against dementia, or if dementia prevented the participants from wanting more fish.

French research published in 2002 in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) followed 1,674 elderly residents of southern France for seven years, studying their consumption of meat versus seafood and the presence of dementia symptoms. The conclusion was that people who ate fish at least once a week had a significantly lower risk of being diagnosed with dementia over a seven-year period. This study reinforced the Annals of Neurology findings. Because of the longer term, the BMJ study provided stronger evidence of a genuine protective effect. There was a possible confounding factor in that individuals with higher education have both a lower risk of dementia and higher consumption of fish.

Cardiovascular health
Consuming 200–400 g of oily fish twice per week may also help prevent sudden death due to myocardial infarction by preventing cardiac arrhythmia. The eicosapentaenoic acid found in fish oils appears to dramatically reduce inflammation through conversion within the body to resolvins, with beneficial effects for the cardiovascular system and arthritis.

Recommended consumption

In 1994, the UK Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy recommended that people eat at least two portions of fish per week, one of which should be oily fish.

In 2004 the UK Food Standards Agency published advice on the recommended minimum and maximum quantities of oily fish to be eaten per week, to balance the beneficial qualities of the omega-3 fatty acids against the potential dangers of ingesting polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins. It reiterated the 1994 guideline of two portions of fish per week including one portion of oily fish, but advised eating no more than four portions per week, and no more than two portions for people who are pregnant, may become pregnant or who are breastfeeding.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Exposure Reference Dose (RfI) for methylmercury (MeHg) is 0.1 micrograms per kg body weight per day. The corresponding limit of blood mercury is 5.8 micrograms per liter. The restrictions apply to certain oily fish – "marlin, swordfish, shark and, to a lesser extent, tuna". The recommendations on maximum consumption of oily fish were up to four portions (1 portion = 140g, or approx 4.9 ounces) a week for men, boys, and women past childbearing age, and up to two portions a week for women of childbearing age, including pregnant and breastfeeding women, and girls. There is no recommended limit on the consumption of white fish.

The EPA and 2007 U.S. Department of Agriculture guidelines sets a limit only on consumption of fatty fish with greater than one part per million of methylmercury, specifically tilefish, king mackerel, shark and swordfish. There are limits, however, for nursing/pregnant women and children under the age of six. This population should completely avoid fish with high risk of mercury contamination (those listed above) and limit consumption of moderate and low-mercury fish to 12 ounces or less per week. Albacore tuna should be limited to six ounces or less per week.

Omega-3 content
Concerns about contamination, diet or supply have led to investigation of plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids, notably flax, hempseed and perilla oils. Lactating women who supplemented their diet with flaxseed oil showed increases in blood and breastmilk concentration of alpha-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid but no changes to concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid.

title: Oily fish


text:
User:Killer

Killer

I like:
 * Floorball
 * Football
 * History
 * Icehockey
 * Sport

title: User:Killer


text:
Category:Baseball

Baseball is a team sport that originated in 18th-century England and is popular in the Americas and East Asia.

In its usual form, the game of baseball is played between two teams of nine players on a playing field consisting of four bases, arranged in a diagonal square ("the diamond") and a large outfield extending from two adjacent sides of the diamond. The main piece of equipment is the baseball plus bats, gloves and bases.

title: Category:Baseball


text:
87P/Bus

Comet 87P/Bus is a periodic comet with an orbital period of 6.5 years. It fits the definition of an Encke-type comet with (TJupiter > 3; a < aJupiter). It was discovered by Schelte J. Bus in 1981 on a plate taken with the 1.2m UK Schmidt telescope at Siding Spring, Australia. The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 3578 on March 4, 1981.

It has been observed on each of its subsequent apparitions, most recently in 2020.

title: 87P/Bus


text:
Geoffrey Durham

Geoffrey Durham (born 22 July 1949) is a British comedy magician and actor who was known for many years as "the Great Soprendo".

Early life
Durham was born in East Molesey, Surrey, England. At the age of ten, he developed an interest in magic and performed occasional shows for friends and relatives. By the age of 13, however, that interest had waned. He later studied Spanish at Leeds University and then took a job as a stage-hand at the Leeds City Varieties Theatre. He worked there for 18 months, ending up as head flyman, and then left to become an actor.

After working in various stage shows for several years his interest in magic was rekindled while preparing for a show in Liverpool, in which his character performed some tricks. He dug out some of his old props and found he enjoyed learning and performing magic so much that he decided to make it his new career.

Magic career
Durham presented a magic act as an outrageous Spanish magician for at least 15 years before performing as himself. As 'The Great Soprendo', Durham appeared in many children's TV shows, including Crackerjack, and appeared in theatres all over the country. His catchphrase was "Piff Paff Poof!"

After ditching his disguise as the Great Soprendo, Durham has had continued success in his own right. He was a regular contributor to the Channel 4 game show Countdown, and his Newspaper Tear featured on the 50 Greatest Magic Tricks on the same channel. He occasionally appeared as one of the Puzzle Panel on BBC Radio 4.

Durham acted as magic consultant on the Doctor Who story The Greatest Show in the Galaxy in 1988. He coaching Sylvester McCoy in magic for the scenes in Part Four, in which the Doctor performs a magic show in the Dark Circus to appease the Gods of Ragnarok. Durham recrived an on-screen credit for his work.

Durham is a member of the Inner Magic Circle, and was presented with the Maskelyne Award in 2002. Durham had previously refused to join the Magic Circle because membership was only open to men, and was instead a member of the International Brotherhood of Magicians.

Durham appeared in the 1987 film Wish You Were Here, which starred Emily Lloyd and Tom Bell.

Personal life
Durham married the writer and comedian Victoria Wood in March 1980, but they separated in October 2002 and were later divorced. The couple had a daughter, Grace, and a son, Henry. Durham remarried in December 2014.

In 1994, Durham went to a Quaker meeting and became a member of the Society of Friends two years later. He has described his life with Quakers as "the single most inspiring, moving and rewarding thread running through the whole of my adult life". He was involved for many years with the Quaker outreach programme Quaker Quest, and he remains a regular speaker at Quaker events. He has written The Spirit of the Quakers and Being a Quaker: A Guide for Newcomers.

title: Geoffrey Durham


text:
Talk:Interlisp

Envos was reincarnated as Venue Corp., and Interlisp-D is now known simply as "Medley" (TM) which was the name of the last release of Interlisp-D at Xerox. Later Interlisp-D releases had names rather than numbers (Koto, Lyric, Medley).

comments/additional history
See https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.sys.xerox/li_TlcUgtbc/MxGkh2G817gJ for history until 1991 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.6.174.39 (talk) 04:06, 28 July 2018 (UTC)

Intro:

"Interlisp was a version of the Lisp programming language" doesn't really capture what it was: what was interesting about Interlisp was not that it was a language, but that it was (or grew into) a software development environment.

"it was originally developed as a successor": There was no separate development. BBN LISP was a BBN project with ARPA funding; when some of the principals and users moved to Xerox PARC, ARPA funding continued for the same developers, who collaborated over the ARPANet.

Interlisp-10: When Interlisp to other machines, we distinguished between the versions with the suffix, so "Interlisp-10" ran on (some, not all) PDP-10 machines. In particular, it didn't run on the Tops 10 operating system, it ran under TENEX, an operating system for PDP-10s which had virtual memory (not all did). While Interlisp-10, Interlisp-VAX and Interlisp-D were language compatible (for the most part), there were some systems named "Interlisp" that were not.

Adoption:

Xerox 1100 (Dolphin) 1108 (Dandelion), 1186 (Dorado), 1100 (Dolphin). These were machines designed to run a bytecode interpreter, with the hardware designed with the focus on the byte codes for the Mesa programming language and the Pilot operating system. The development of Interlisp-D (and Smalltalk) did not influence the hardware design. The 1108 (Dandelion) was the same basic machine as the original Star workstation (with memory enhancements), the 1100 an early model in limited production

Interlisp had a (character terminal) Lisp-specific structure editor, debugging and analysis tools. The editing model differed from most systems in that one edited the actual Lisp structure of the program, and wrote out 'files' as save points. So the source code would be reformatted. Interlisp-D had graphic tools (window/mouse control, graphics system for drawing, visual structure editors) and the entire operating system (scheduler, file system, keyboard controller, network protocol stack) written in Interlisp.

Adaptations:

J Moore's "Interlisp Virtual Machine Specification", alas, has nothing to do with the byte coded virtual machine that was the underlying reason for machine portability. I think the best reference is probably

 * L. Peter Deutsch. A LISP machine with very compact programs. In Proceedings of 3rd International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, page 697, August 1973.

All Interlisp-D machines were microcoded to emulate a bytecode set that evolved only in small ways from the Deutsch design. It was possible to suspend a running image on one machine and resume it on another.

The 1987 port of Interlisp to SPARC started with a project at Fuji Xerox (in Japan) to code a byte code emulator, in C, which executed the same instruction set as the Interlisp-D machines. The work of the XAIS team in Palo Alto was to finish and tune the emulator and the necessary glue to connect the mouse, keyboard, file system, network, and so forth to the SunOS (Unix, XWindows) enviornment.

Masinter 06:04, 14 August 2006 (UTC) Larry Masinter 8/13/2006

 * It seems that this property "The editing model differed from most systems in that one edited the actual Lisp structure of the program, and wrote out 'files' as save points" is pretty unique among the development environments. In all other development environments I know of (except maybe the recent Apple Swift "playground") the source code is stored in text files, and the text files are processed (compiled, loaded, and/or combined) to produce executable code. I think this would be worth mentioning in the article. Professor Tournesol (talk) 02:23, 5 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Interlisp


text:
Saint-Loup

Saint Loup or Saint-Loup may refer to:
 * Lupus of Troyes (c. 383–c. 478), early bishop of Troyes
 * Lupus of Sens (c. 573-c. 623), bishop of Sens
 * Lupus, an early bishop of Bayeux
 * Loup de Limoges, locally venerated in Limoges
 * Loup de Soissons, locally venerated in Soissons
 * Loup de Châlons-en-Champagne, locally venerated in Châlons-en-Champagne
 * Marc Augier (1908–1990), French writer and politician who used the pseudonym Saint-Loup
 * Robert de Saint-Loup, character in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time

France

 * Saint-Loup, Allier, in the Allier department
 * Saint-Loup, Charente-Maritime, in the Charente-Maritime department
 * Saint-Loup, Creuse, in the Creuse department
 * Saint-Loup, Jura, in the Jura department
 * Saint-Loup, Loir-et-Cher, in the Loir-et-Cher department
 * Saint-Loup, Manche, in the Manche department
 * Saint-Loup, Marne, in the Marne department
 * Saint-Loup, Marseille, a neighbourhood of the 10th arrondissement of Marseille
 * Saint-Loup, Rhône, in the Rhône department
 * Saint-Loup, Tarn-et-Garonne, in the Tarn-et-Garonne department
 * Saint-Loup-Cammas, in the Haute-Garonne department
 * Saint-Loup-de-Buffigny, in the Aube department
 * Saint-Loup-de-Fribois, in the Calvados department
 * Saint-Loup-de-Gonois, in the Loiret department
 * Saint-Loup-de-Naud, in the Seine-et-Marne department
 * Saint-Loup-des-Bois, formerly Saint-Loup, in the Nièvre department
 * Saint-Loup-des-Chaumes, in the Cher department
 * Saint-Loup-des-Vignes, in the Loiret department
 * Saint-Loup-de-Varennes, in the Saône-et-Loire department
 * Saint-Loup-d'Ordon, in the Yonne department
 * Saint-Loup-du-Dorat, in the Mayenne department
 * Saint-Loup-du-Gast, in the Mayenne department
 * Saint-Loup-en-Champagne, in the Ardennes department
 * Saint-Loup-en-Comminges, in the Haute-Garonne department
 * Saint-Loup-Géanges, in the Saône-et-Loire department
 * Saint-Loup-Hors, in the Calvados department
 * Saint-Loup-Lamairé, in the Deux-Sèvres department
 * Saint-Loup-Nantouard, in the Haute-Saône department
 * Saint-Loup-sur-Aujon, in the Haute-Marne department
 * Saint-Loup-sur-Semouse, in the Haute-Saône department
 * Saint-Loup-Terrier, in the Ardennes department

Switzerland

 * Saint-Loup, Pompaples, a hamlet in the municipality of Pompaples

Other uses

 * Pic Saint-Loup, a mountain in the Languedoc-Roussillon region, France
 * Abbey of Saint Loup, Troyes, a ninth century abbey near Troyes, France

title: Saint-Loup


text:
Acratas

Acratas, also known as the anti-crats, was a protest group formed at Complutense University of Madrid, Spain, by Agustin Garcia Calvo in 1967. Acratas, influenced by new protest movement amongst students abroad, was anarchist rather than Marxist in character, against all authority, & protested by asserting their right to have fun by ridiculing the ideas, individuals and groups they despised.

title: Acratas


text: Category:Sexology

title: Category:Sexology


text: Category:World War II ships

title: Category:World War II ships


text:
Saint-Loup-de-Fribois

Saint-Loup-de-Fribois is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Belle Vie en Auge.

title: Saint-Loup-de-Fribois


text:
Saint-Loup-Hors

Saint-Loup-Hors is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

title: Saint-Loup-Hors


text:
Democrat and Chronicle

The Democrat and Chronicle is a daily newspaper serving the greater Rochester, New York, area. Headquartered at 245 East Main Street in downtown Rochester, the Democrat and Chronicle operates under the ownership of Gannett. The paper's production facility is in Rockaway, New Jersey. Since the Times-Union merger in 1997, the Democrat and Chronicle is Rochester's only daily circulated newspaper.

History
Founded in 1833 as The Balance, the paper eventually became known as the Daily Democrat. The Daily Democrat merged with another local paper, the Chronicle, in 1870, to become known as the Democrat and Chronicle. The paper was purchased by Gannett in 1928. Prior to 1959, the newspaper was headquartered at 59-61 E. Main Street, on Rochester's Main Street Bridge.

From 1928 to 1985, the Democrat and Chronicle was Gannett's flagship paper. In 1959, the newspaper relocated to Gannett's headquarters in the Gannett Building at 55 Exchange Boulevard. It shared the space with the Rochester Times-Union, an afternoon daily paper. Gannett moved its headquarters to Tysons Corner, Virginia, home of USA Today, in 1985. Over time, Gannett merged the Times-Union into the Democrat and Chronicle. Their staffs were merged in 1992, and the Times-Union circulation ended in 1997. That same year, newspaper production was relocated from the Gannett Building to a facility in Greece, New York.

In May 2016, the Democrat and Chronicle relocated its headquarters to a new, smaller building at the Midtown Plaza site on East Main Street. At 153,350 square feet, the former headquarters in the Gannett building was considerably larger than the current headquarters, which is 42,000 square feet. The Democrat and Chronicle no longer needed the much larger space in the building, which included the area that formerly held the printing presses before 1996, which was expensive to maintain.

With the move came new branding as D&C Digital, emphasizing focus on the outlet's digital marketing services and video properties.

In 2010, The Democrat and Chronicle ranked number one among US newspapers in market penetration, the percentage of readers in a metro area who read in print or online. The Democrat and Chronicle held that top spot for several years, and have been among the leaders since the 1990s.

In 2023, the paper announced it would relocate its printing offices from Greece, New York to Rockaway, New Jersey that April.

Sexual abuse scandal
The Democrat and Chronicle, along with its parent company Gannett, was sued in October 2019 by a former paperboy who accused the newspaper of enabling a former district manager to sexually abuse him in the 1980s. In late 2018, this former paperboy emailed investigative reporters and Gannett management, asking them to investigate his claims. Karen Magnuson, then Executive Editor for Gannett's Democrat & Chronicle, told reporters to put their investigative reporting of abuse claims on "pause" and brought the email to the attention of Gannett's management to conduct their own investigation. Gannett COO Michael G. Kane then sent the original claimant a letter indicating no evidence had been found and they were "closing out" the matter. Shortly after, New York passed its Child Victim Act, lifting the statute of limitations on child sex abuse claims. This initial case is currently pending. Four more lawsuits were filed in early 2020. Additionally, three more men filed suit against Gannett for child sex abuse in September 2020. As the New York state window to file under its Childs Victim Act closed in August 2021, a ninth man sued the Democrat and Chronicle, and its publisher Gannett, in Rochester NY alleging child sex abuse by the same former district manager of paper carriers. In July 2022, Gannett defense attorneys notified the court of their intent to file a motion to have the former paperboy's Child Victims Act cases taken "out of the state court system and turn them over to the New York Workers' Compensation Board" stating that the 11-14-year-old paperboys should have applied for workman's compensation at the time of their injuries in the 1980s, or in 2019 upon enactment of the CVA as it is a simple online process. All these cases are currently pending in New York State court.

Notable contributors

 * Earl Caldwell
 * Henry W. Clune
 * Marie D. De Jesus
 * Arch Merrill
 * Manuel Rivera-Ortiz
 * Brian Rooney, Correspondent, ABC News
 * Michael Walsh

title: Democrat and Chronicle


text:
Revenant Records

Revenant Records is an American independent record label based in Austin, Texas, which concentrates on folk and blues. Revenant was formed in 1996 by John Fahey and Dean Blackwood. Revenant's 2001 box set, Screamin' and Hollerin' the Blues: The Worlds of Charley Patton, won three Grammy Awards in 2003.

Revenant gained fame among free jazz fans in 2004 when it released Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962-70), a 9-CD box set of rare and unissued recordings and interviews by saxophonist Albert Ayler.

Other notable releases from Revenant are Harry Smith's Anthology of American Folk Music, Vol. 4 (2000) and John Fahey's posthumous album Red Cross (2003).

title: Revenant Records


text:
Category talk:World music

Tom Schnabel
Oops. How did Tom end up in T rather than S (as in Alan Stivell)? Can someone help correct, thanks. Dragonfly213 (talk) 23:54, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

Genres
Can somebody explain why list of cultural and regional genres of music is not listed here? The article page claims it is part of this category but it isn't included on the category page. Tuf-Kat 19:05, May 30, 2004 (UTC)

Religious music
Shouldn't religious music be promoted to being a child of Music rather than being in World Music? I certainly didn't find it when I was looking.

category talk:musical compositions
Don't know whether this category (and its subcategories) primarily categorizes pieces or other articles regarding World music.

Anyway: please visit category talk:musical compositions, and take part in the discussions there re. categorization systems for music.

--Francis Schonken 18:17, 23 Sep 2004 (UTC)

World Music producers, others?
Could I add Tom Schnabel to this category, a producer and scholar who truly helped forge the popularity of World Music for the United States? Could noted professors and such be added here? Dragonfly213 (talk) 04:14, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

I think the label "World Music' is extremely umhelpful at best (in that it provides no information about a musical style or genre) and verges on racist. Why are we even bothering with this? 124.168.47.108 (talk) 06:30, 2 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Well, the term exists and is used. So it should be covered in Wikipedia, flaws and all. Probably more as a term than an actual distinct genre. North8000 (talk) 18:06, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

title: Category talk:World music


text:
Saint-Manvieu-Bocage

Saint-Manvieu-Bocage is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Noues de Sienne.

title: Saint-Manvieu-Bocage


text:
Saint-Manvieu-Norrey

Saint-Manvieu-Norrey is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

History
The town was liberated on 26 June 1944 as part of Operation Epsom by Scottish troops from the Lowland Infantry Brigade's 44th Infantry from the Scottish 15th Infantry Division after fierce fighting against SS4 troops.

As part of the Raymond Marcellin plan to reduce the number of municipalities, the commune of Norrey-en-Bessin (228 inhabitants in 1963), merged with that of Saint-Manvieu (611 inhabitants) on 1 July 1972. The mayors of the Mrs. Degasteblet for Norrey and Mr. Imhof for Saint-Manvieu.

The commune was formed in 1972, with the merger of the two former communes of Norrey-en-Bessin and Saint-Manvieu.

Name
The name of the locality is attested in the form S. Manveus around 840. Manvieu is a bishop of Bayeux of the 5th century.

Concerning the merged commune, the locality is attested in the form Norreis in 1198 The toponym would come from the Latin nucarium, "walnut".

In 1926, the name of Bessin is deputy in the name of the commune.

The gentile is Manorey.

Landmarks

 * Manoir de la Mare today hosting a traditionalist Catholic high school. Built in the seventeenth century by Pierre le Marchand in a typical style of Bessin architecture, it is listed as a historical monument since 30 August 2000
 * Notre-Dame-des-Labours Church of Norrey-en-Bessin (11th century), listed as a historical monument since 1840
 * The old church Saint-Manvieu, located in the cemetery, built in the thirteenth century, rebuilt in the seventeenth century. The seigniorial chapel is listed as a historic monument since 24 January 1918 and the choir is inscribed since 16 May 1927, as was the bell tower destroyed in 1944
 * Castle Marcelet, eighteenth century.
 * Saint-Manvieu Church (20th century, Reconstruction).

title: Saint-Manvieu-Norrey


text:
Marculf

Marculf (in French Marcoult, Marcouf, Marcoul or Marcou) (d. 558) was the abbot at Nantus in the Cotentin. He is regarded as a saint and is associated with the healing of scrofula.

Life
Marculf was born in the Saxon colony of Bayeux around AD 500. The accounts of his life are merged with that of Saint Helier, whom he sent to convert the inhabitants of Jersey to Christianity. Marcouf also visited Jersey himself, where miracles are ascribed to him.

He died on May 1, 558, in the Îles Saint-Marcouf off the east coast of the Cotentin Peninsula. His relics were transferred to the abbey of Corbény in Champagne, where they played a part in the coronation ceremonies of kings of France, crowned at Reims, and in the tradition of the royal touch.

The traditional power ascribed to French and English kings to cure scrofula (the king's Evil) by the laying on of hands derives from the efficacy of the relics of Marcouf, according to the chronicle of Joan of Arc, Chronique de la Pucelle.

The north ambulatory of the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Coutances contains the Chapel of Saint Marcouf, with a stained glass window showing scenes from the saint's life.

title: Marculf


text:
Saint-Marcouf

Saint-Marcouf is the name of several places in Normandy, France:

 * Saint Marcouf, Calvados, in the Calvados department
 * Saint-Marcouf, Manche, in the Manche department
 * Îles Saint-Marcouf, a group of islands off the coast of the Cotentin Peninsula

 * See also
 * Saint Marcouf

title: Saint-Marcouf


text:
Saint-Marcouf, Calvados

Saint-Marcouf is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

History
The commune takes its name from Saint Marcouf, evangelizer of the Cotentin Peninsula.

title: Saint-Marcouf, Calvados


text:
Sainte-Marguerite

Sainte-Marguerite is French for Saint Margaret and may refer to the following places:

Belgium

 * Sint-Margriete, a section of Sint-Laureins in East Flanders province

Canada

 * Sainte-Marguerite, Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec, northeast of Montreal
 * Sainte-Marguerite-du-Lac-Masson, Quebec, northwest of Montreal, an early alpine skiing destination
 * Sainte-Marguerite-Marie, Bas-Saint-Laurent region, Quebec
 * Zec de la Rivière-Sainte-Marguerite, "controlled harvesting zone", in Quebec

France

 * Île Sainte-Marguerite, the largest of the Lérins Islands, off the coast of France, in Cannes
 * Sainte-Marguerite de Pornichet, a seaside resort, in the Loire-Atlantique département, in France

Communes in France:
 * Sainte-Marguerite, Haute-Loire, in the Haute-Loire département
 * Sainte-Marguerite, Vosges, in the Vosges département

It is part of the name of several other French communes:
 * Sainte-Marguerite-de-Carrouges, in the Orne département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-de-l'Autel, in the Eure département
 * Sainte Marguerite d'Elle, in the Calvados département
 * Sainte Marguerite des Loges, in the Calvados département
 * Sainte Marguerite de Viette, in the Calvados département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-en-Ouche, in the Eure département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-Lafigère, in the Ardèche département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Duclair, in the Seine-Maritime département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Fauville, in the Seine-Maritime département
 * Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Mer, in the Seine-Maritime département

title: Sainte-Marguerite


text:
Kibble balance

A Kibble balance (also formerly known as a watt balance) is an electromechanical measuring instrument that measures the weight of a test object very precisely by the electric current and voltage needed to produce a compensating force. It is a metrological instrument that can realize the definition of the kilogram unit of mass based on fundamental constants.

It was originally known as a watt balance because the weight of the test mass is proportional to the product of current and voltage, which is measured in watts. In June 2016, two months after the death of its inventor, Bryan Kibble, metrologists of the Consultative Committee for Units of the International Committee for Weights and Measures agreed to rename the device in his honor.

Prior to 2019, the definition of the kilogram was based on a physical object known as the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK). After considering alternatives, in 2013 the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed on accuracy criteria for replacing this definition with one based on the use of a Kibble balance. After these criteria had been achieved, the CGPM voted unanimously on November 16, 2018, to change the definition of the kilogram and several other units, effective May 20, 2019, to coincide with World Metrology Day. There is also a method called the joule balance. All methods that use the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant are sometimes called the Planck balance.

Design

The Kibble balance is a more accurate version of the ampere balance, an early current measuring instrument in which the force between two current-carrying coils of wire is measured and then used to calculate the magnitude of the current. The Kibble balance operates in the opposite sense; the current in the coils set very precisely by the Planck constant, and the force between the coils is used to measure the weight of a test kilogram mass. Then the mass is calculated from the weight by accurately measuring the local Earth's gravity (the net acceleration combining gravitational and centrifugal effects) with a gravimeter. Thus the mass of the object is defined in terms of a current and a voltage— allowing the device to "measure mass without recourse to the IPK (International Prototype Kilogram) or any physical object".

Origin
The principle that is used in the Kibble balance was proposed by Bryan Kibble of the UK National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in 1975 for measurement of the gyromagnetic ratio. In 1978 the Mark I watt balance was built at the NPL with Ian Robinson and Ray Smith. It operated until 1988.

The main weakness of the ampere balance method is that the result depends on the accuracy with which the dimensions of the coils are measured. The Kibble balance uses an extra calibration step to cancel the effect of the geometry of the coils, removing the main source of uncertainty. This extra step involves moving the force coil through a known magnetic flux at a known speed. This was possible by setting of the conventional values of the von Klitzing constant and Josephson constant, which are used throughout the world for voltage and resistance calibration. Using these principles, in 1990 Bryan Kibble and Ian Robinson invented the Kibble Mark II balance, which uses a circular coil and operates in vacuum conditions. Bryan Kibble worked with Ian Robinson and Janet Belliss to build this Mark Two version of the balance. This design allowed for measurements accurate enough for use in the redefinition of the SI unit of mass: the kilogram.

The Kibble balance originating from the National Physical Laboratory was transferred to the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) in 2009, where scientists from the two labs continued to refine the instrument. In 2014, NRC researchers published the most accurate measurement of the Planck constant at that time, with a relative uncertainty of 1.8. A final paper by NRC researchers was published in May 2017, presenting a measurement of the Planck constant with an uncertainty of only 9.1 parts per billion, the measurement with the least uncertainty to that date. Other Kibble balance experiments are conducted in the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the Swiss Federal Office of Metrology (METAS) in Berne, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) near Paris and Laboratoire national de métrologie et d’essais (LNE) in Trappes, France.

Principle
A conducting wire of length $$L$$ that carries an electric current $$I$$ perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength $$B$$ experiences a Lorentz force equal to the product of these variables. In the Kibble balance, the current is varied so that this force counteracts the weight $$w$$ of a mass $$m$$ to be measured. This principle is derived from the ampere balance. $$w$$ is given by the mass $$m$$ multiplied by the local gravitational acceleration $$g$$. Thus,
 * $$w = mg = BLI.$$

The Kibble balance avoids the problems of measuring $$B$$ and $$L$$ in a second calibration step. The same wire (in practice, a coil) is moved through the same magnetic field at a known speed $$v$$. By Faraday's law of induction, a potential difference $$U$$ is generated across the ends of the wire, which equals $$BLv$$. Thus
 * $$U = BLv.$$

The unknown product $$BL$$ can be eliminated from the equations to give
 * $$UI = mgv$$
 * $$m = UI/gv.$$

With $$U$$, $$I$$, $$g$$, and $$v$$ accurately measured, this gives an accurate value for $$m$$. Both sides of the equation have the dimensions of power, measured in watts in the International System of Units; hence the original name "watt balance". The product $$BL$$, also called the geometric factor, is not trivially equal in both calibration steps. The geometric factor is only constant under certain stability conditions on the coil.

Implementation
The Kibble balance is constructed so that the mass to be measured and the wire coil are suspended from one side of a balance scale, with a counterbalance mass on the other side. The system operates by alternating between two modes: "weighing" and "moving". The entire mechanical subsystem operates in a vacuum chamber to remove the effects of air buoyancy.

While "weighing", the system measures both $$I$$ and $$v$$. The system controls the current in the coil to pull the coil through a magnetic field at a constant velocity $$v$$. Coil position and velocity measurement circuitry uses an interferometer together with a precision clock input to determine the velocity and control the current needed to maintain it. The required current is measured, using an ammeter comprising a Josephson junction voltage standard and an integrating voltmeter.

While "moving", the system measures $$U$$. The system ceases to provide current to the coil. This allows the counterbalance to pull the coil (and mass) upward through the magnetic field, which causes a voltage difference across the coil. The velocity measurement circuitry measures the speed of movement of the coil. This voltage is measured, using the same voltage standard and integrating voltmeter.

A typical Kibble balance measures $$U$$, $$I$$, and $$v$$, but does not measure the local gravitational acceleration $$g$$, because $$g$$ does not vary rapidly with time. Instead, $$g$$ is measured in the same laboratory using a highly accurate and precise gravimeter. In addition, the balance depends on a highly accurate and precise frequency reference such as an atomic clock to compute voltage and current. Thus, the precision and accuracy of the mass measurement depends on the Kibble balance, the gravimeter, and the clock.

Like the early atomic clocks, the early Kibble balances were one-of-a-kind experimental devices and were large, expensive, and delicate. As of 2019, work is underway to produce standardized devices at prices that permit use in any metrology laboratory that requires high-precision measurement of mass.

As well as large Kibble balances, microfabricated or MEMS watt balances (now called Kibble balances) have been demonstrated since around 2003. These are fabricated on single silicon dies similar to those used in microelectronics and accelerometers, and are capable of measuring small forces in the nanonewton to micronewton range traceably to the SI-defined physical constants via electrical and optical measurements. Due to their small scale, MEMS Kibble balances typically use electrostatic rather than the inductive forces used in larger instruments. Lateral and torsional variants have also been demonstrated, with the main application (as of 2019) being in the calibration of the atomic force microscope. Accurate measurements by several teams will enable their results to be averaged and so reduce the experimental error.

Measurements
Accurate measurements of electric current and potential difference are made in conventional electrical units (rather than SI units), which are based on fixed "conventional values" of the Josephson constant and the von Klitzing constant, $$K_\text{J-90}$$ and $$R_\text{K-90}$$ respectively. The current Kibble balance experiments are equivalent to measuring the value of the conventional watt in SI units. From the definition of the conventional watt, this is equivalent to measuring the value of the product $$K_\text{J}^2 R_\text{K}$$ in SI units instead of its fixed value in conventional electrical units:
 * $$\frac{1}{K_\text{J}^2 R_\text{K}} = \frac{1}{K_\text{J-90}^2 R_\text{K-90}} \frac{\{mgv\}_\text{W}}{ \{UI \}_{W_{90}}}.$$

The importance of such measurements is that they are also a direct measurement of the Planck constant $$h$$:
 * $$h = \frac{4}{K_\text{J}^2 R_\text{K}}.$$

The principle of the electronic kilogram relies on the value of the Planck constant, which is as of 2019 an exact value. This is similar to the metre being defined by the speed of light. With the constant defined exactly, the Kibble balance is not an instrument to measure the Planck constant, but is instead an instrument to measure mass:
 * $$m = \frac{UI}{gv}.$$

Effect of gravity

Gravity and the nature of the Kibble balance, which oscillates test masses up and down against the local gravitational acceleration g, are exploited so that mechanical power is compared against electrical power, which is the square of voltage divided by electrical resistance. However, g varies significantly—by nearly 1%—depending on where on the Earth's surface the measurement is made (see Earth's gravity). There are also slight seasonal variations in g at a location due to changes in underground water tables, and larger semimonthly and diurnal changes due to tidal distortions in the Earth's shape caused by the Moon and the Sun. Although g is not a term in the definition of the kilogram, it is crucial in the process of measurement of the kilogram when relating energy to power in a kibble balance. Accordingly, g must be measured with at least as much precision and accuracy as are the other terms, so measurements of g must also be traceable to fundamental constants of nature. For the most precise work in mass metrology, g is measured using dropping-mass absolute gravimeters that contain an iodine-stabilised helium–neon laser interferometer. The fringe-signal, frequency-sweep output from the interferometer is measured with a rubidium atomic clock. Since this type of dropping-mass gravimeter derives its accuracy and stability from the constancy of the speed of light as well as the innate properties of helium, neon, and rubidium atoms, the 'gravity' term in the delineation of an all-electronic kilogram is also measured in terms of invariants of nature—and with very high precision. For instance, in the basement of the NIST's Gaithersburg facility in 2009, when measuring the gravity acting upon Pt10Ir test masses (which are denser, smaller, and have a slightly lower center of gravity inside the Kibble balance than stainless steel masses), the measured value was typically within 8 ppb of $9.801 m/s2$.

title: Kibble balance


text:
User:Jiang/monobook.js

function morelinks { var tabs = document.getElementById('p-cactions').cloneNode(true); // don't use the same ids twice- replace the p-cactions id and prepend 'mytabs-' to the li's tabs.id = 'mytabs'; // needs this to be set from js, it ignores the css width for some reason tabs.style.width = '100%'; var listitems = tabs.getElementsByTagName('LI'); for (i=0;i<listitems.length;i++) { if(listitems[i].id) listitems[i].id = 'mytabs-' + listitems[i].id; } // drop them at the bottom of the content area document.getElementById('content').appendChild(tabs); } if (window.addEventListener) window.addEventListener("load",morelinks,false); else if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent("onload",morelinks);

// User:Lupin/popups.js - please include this line

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popupAdminLinks=true; popupFixRedirs=true; popupFixDabs=true;

title: User:Jiang/monobook.js


text:
Category:Asteroids

Unless specified otherwise, subcategorized asteroids should be sorted using a 0-padded 6-digit sortkey based on their numerical designation. Otherwise, their provisional designation should be used. For example,
 * 493 Griseldis would use.
 * (6178) 1986 DA would use.
 * 2001 AV43 would simply use.

title: Category:Asteroids


text: Category:Literature

title: Category:Literature


text: Category:Discworld characters

title: Category:Discworld characters


text:
Harold C. Urey Prize

The Harold C. Urey Prize is awarded annually by the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society. The prize recognizes and encourages outstanding achievements in planetary science by a young scientist. The prize is named after Harold C. Urey.

Urey Prize winners

 * 1984 David J. Stevenson
 * 1985 Larry W. Esposito
 * 1986 Jack Wisdom
 * 1987 Steve Squyres
 * 1988 Jonathan I. Lunine
 * 1989 Christopher P. McKay
 * 1990 David J. Tholen
 * 1991 Richard P. Binzel
 * 1992 Jack J. Lissauer
 * 1993 Roger Yelle
 * 1994 Karen Jean Meech
 * 1995 Emmanuel Lellouch
 * 1996 Heidi B. Hammel
 * 1997 Renu Malhotra
 * 1998 Erik I. Asphaug
 * 1999 Douglas P. Hamilton
 * 2000 Alessandro Morbidelli
 * 2001 Michael E. Brown
 * 2002 Brett J. Gladman
 * 2003 Robin M. Canup
 * 2004 Jean-Luc Margot
 * 2005 David Nesvorný
 * 2006 Tristan Guillot
 * 2007 Francis Nimmo
 * 2008 no award
 * 2009 Sarah Stewart-Mukhopadhyay
 * 2010 Jonathan Fortney
 * 2011 Eric B. Ford
 * 2012 Alberto G. Fairen
 * 2013 Anders Johansen
 * 2014 Matija Ćuk
 * 2015 Geronimo Villanueva
 * 2016 Leigh Fletcher
 * 2017 Bethany Ehlmann
 * 2018 Francesca DeMeo
 * 2019 Kelsi Singer
 * 2020 Rebekah Dawson
 * 2021 Lynnae Quick
 * 2022 Juan Lora
 * 2023 Quanzhi Ye

title: Harold C. Urey Prize


text:
User:Ashl

Hi!

Send
I just felt that the list needs cutting. Sometimes I feel people just add their own spam links and the list gets too long. Really the focus needs to be encylopedic links rather than just a trawl of what you can find on google. Sometimes if the website is useful or has a good picture I'll leave it or I'll try and add a reference to the text. I think the same approach needs to be taken as that for a town such as Guildford. If there was a link to every church, school etc the list would be never-ending for Guildford; similarly for Send and other villages. The external links must add something. If you feel I've cut one which does, please don't hesitate to reinstate it. SuzanneKn 12:15, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Ashl