text:
Battle of Heraclea

The Battle of Heraclea took place in 280 BC between the Romans under the command of consul Publius Valerius Laevinus, and the combined forces of Greeks from Epirus, Tarentum, Thurii, Metapontum, and Heraclea under the command of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Although the battle was a victory for the Greeks and their casualties were lower than the Romans, they had lost many veteran soldiers that would be hard to replace on foreign soil.

Background
Tarentum was a Greek colony, part of Magna Graecia. The members of the leading faction in Tarentum, the democrats under Philocharis or Ainesias, were against Rome, because they knew that if the Romans entered Tarentum the Greeks would lose their independence. The Greeks in Tarentum had grown afraid of Roman expansion after the Third Samnite War. After the surrender of the Samnites in 290 BC, the Romans founded many colonies in Apulia and Lucania, the most important of which was Venusia. In 282 BC, after a battle against the Samnites, Lucanians, Bruttians and Thurii, Roman troops entered the Italian Greek colonies of Croton, Lokroi, and Rhegium. Democrats from Tarentum knew that as soon as Rome finished its war with the Gauls, Lucanians, Etruscans, Samnites, and Bruttians, they would enter Tarentum. Another event that concerned the Tarentines was that the aristocratic faction of Thurii that had taken power had invited a Roman garrison into their city; the Tarentines, who had been the referents of all the Magna Graecia colonies, were deeply worried about this fact.

The second faction in Tarentum were the aristocrats, led by Agis, who did not oppose surrendering to Rome, as it would lead to the return of the aristocratic faction to power. The aristocrats, however, could not surrender directly and become unpopular with the population. In the autumn of 282 BC, Tarentum celebrated their festival of Dionysus; while in their theatre in front of sea, they saw ten Roman ships, with soldiers and supplies for the Roman garrison of Thurii, entering the Gulf of Taranto. According to Kęciek, the Tarentine aristocracy asked the Roman commanders Publius Cornelius and Lucius Valerius to arrest and execute the democrats and their followers, which would allow the aristocrats to surrender. The Tarentines were angry, because the Romans had signed an agreement not to sail into the Gulf of Taranto, and they prepared their navy to attack the Roman ships. A few of the ships were sunk, and one was captured.

The Tarentines knew that they had few chances of victory against Rome. They decided to call for help from Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. The army and fleet of Tarentum moved to Thurii and helped the democrats there exile the aristocrats. The Roman garrison placed in Thurii withdrew.

The Romans sent a diplomatic mission to settle the matter and take back the prisoners but the negotiations ended abruptly, so Rome declared war on Tarentum. In 281 BC, Roman legions under the command of Lucius Aemilius Barbula entered Tarentum and plundered it. Tarentum, with Samnite and Salentine reinforcements, then lost a battle against the Romans. After the battle the Greeks chose Agis to sign a truce and begin diplomatic talks. These talks were also broken off when 3,000 soldiers from Epirus under the command of Milon entered the town. The Roman consul withdrew and suffered losses from attacks by the Greek ships.

Pyrrhus decided to help Tarentum because he was in debt to them — they had earlier helped him conquer the island of Corcyra. He also believed that he could count on help from the Samnites, Lucanians, Etruscans, Umbrians, and Bruttians, and some Illyrian tribes, all peoples with a history of conflict with Rome. His ultimate goal was to re-conquer Macedon he had lost in 285 BC, but did not have enough money to recruit soldiers. He planned to help Tarentum, then go to Sicily and attack Carthage. After winning a war against Carthage and capturing south Italy he would have enough money to organise a strong army and capture Macedon.

Preparation
Before he left Epirus, Pyrrhus formed an alliance and borrowed soldiers and money from the pretender to the Macedonian throne, Ptolemy Keraunos. His long-time friend and ally Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king of Ptolemaic Egypt, also promised to send 9,000 soldiers and 50 war elephants. He also recruited cavalry from Thessaly and archers and slingers from Rhodes — as their rulers wanted to avoid a war with Epirus. In the spring of 280 BC Pyrrhus landed without losses in Italy.

After hearing of Pyrrhus' arrival in Italy the Romans mobilized eight legions with auxiliaries, totalling about 80,000 soldiers. They divided it into four armies:
 * One army under the command of Barbula, with orders to distract the Samnites and Lucanians so they could not join Pyrrhus' army. They were placed in Venusia.
 * A second army left behind to secure Rome.
 * A third army under the command of consul Tiberius Coruncanius marched against Etruscans, to avoid an alliance between them and Pyrrhus.
 * A fourth army under the command of Publius Valerius Laevinus marched to Tarentum. They also plundered Lucania.

Publius Laevinus moved towards Heraclea, a city founded by the Tarentines, with the intention of cutting Pyrrhus off from the Greek colonies of Calabria, thus avoiding their uprising against Rome.

Armies and Order of battle
This is a possible order of battle for Heraclea.

Epirus
Commander: Pyrrhus
 * 3,000 hypaspists under Milon command
 * 20,000 phalangites, Epirotes including 5,000 Macedonian soldiers given by Ptolemy
 * 6,000 Tarentine levy hoplites
 * 4,000 horsemen, including the Thessalian contingent and 1,000 Tarentine horsemen
 * 2,000 archers
 * 500 Rhodian slingers
 * 20 war elephants with towers holding troops.

Roman Republic
The disposition of the troops of the Roman Republic hypothesized:

Commander: Publius Valerius Laevinus
 * Infantry: Approximately 8 legions divided into:
 * 4 legions of Roman citizens each consisting of 4,200-5,000 infantry for a total of 20,000 infantry;
 * 4 legions of Allies: alae of socii (Italian allies, who were placed at the wings of the line) for a total of 16,800
 * Bruttians, Campanian allies: 2400 Light infantry
 * Cavalry; two different accounts:
 * 600 Equites (Roman cavalry) and 1,800 allied Italian cavalry, amounting to a total of 2.400, some of which are placed in defense of the camp (castrum) and took no part in the initial fighting.
 * Other sources put the cavalry at 6,000 total composed as follows:
 * Roman Cavalry 1200
 * Allied Legion Cavalry 3600
 * Southern Italian Cavalry 1200 (Light Cavalry)

Battle
Pyrrhus did not march against the Romans while he was waiting for his allies' reinforcements. When he understood that reinforcements were not coming, he decided to fight the Romans on a plain near the river Siris (modern Sinni), between Pandosia and Heraclea. Pyrrhus took up position there and waited. Before the fight he sent diplomats to the Roman consul, proposing that he could arbitrate the conflicts between Rome and the population of southern Italy. He asserted that his allies recognised him as a judge and demanded the same recognition from the Romans. The Romans denied his request, and entered the plain on the right of the Siris river, where they set up camp.

It is unknown how many troops Pyrrhus had left in Tarentum, it is estimated he had about 25–35,000 troops with him at Heraclea. He took up position on the left bank of the Siris, hoping that the Romans would have difficulty crossing the river, which would allow him more time to prepare his attack. He set up some light infantry units near the river to let him know when the Romans began to cross, and planned first to attack them with his cavalry and elephants. Valerius Laevinus had about 42,000 soldiers under his command, including cavalry, velites, and spearmen. It would be the first time in history that two very different juggernauts of war clashed: the Roman Legion and the Macedonian Phalanx.

At dawn, the Romans started to cross the river Siris. On the flanks the Roman cavalry attacked the scouts and light infantry, who were forced to flee.

When Pyrrhus learned that the Romans had begun crossing the river, he led his Macedonian and Thessalian cavalry to attack the Roman cavalry. His infantry, with peltasts and archers and heavy infantry, began their march as well. The Epirote cavalry successfully disrupted the Roman battle formation and then withdrew. Pyrrhus' peltasts, slingers, and archers began to shoot and his sarissa-wielding phalanxes began to attack. The infantry line was near equal to the Romans' in length as, although Pyrrhus had a small advantage in number, the phalanx was by design deeper than the legion.

The phalanxes made seven attacks, but failed to pierce the legion. It had met a foe that was stronger than any it had ever encountered. The Romans made seven attacks, yet they could not break the phalanx, and the battle hung in the air. At one point, the battle became so pitched that Pyrrhus—realizing that if he were to fall in combat, his soldiers would lose heart and run—switched armor with one of his bodyguards. This bodyguard was subsequently killed, and word spread through the ranks that Pyrrhus had fallen. His force began to waver, and the Romans gave a thunderous cheer at the turn of events. Grasping the magnitude of the situation, Pyrrhus rode forward, bare-headed, along the lines of his men to show he was still living. This show of bravery strengthened their resolve. A massive cheer went up from the Greek line, and the battle raged on.

Unable to make any significant gains in action, Pyrrhus deployed his war elephants, held in reserve until now. The Roman cavalry was threatening his flank too strongly. Aghast at the sight of these strange and brooding creatures which none had seen before, the horses galloped away and threw the Roman legion into rout. (The Romans subsequently called elephants Lūca bōs, after the location of this first encounter.). Pyrrhus then launched his Thessalian cavalry among the disorganized legions, which completed the Romans' defeat. The Romans fell back across the river and Pyrrhus held the field.

In the opinion of Dionysius, the Romans lost 15,000 soldiers and had thousands taken prisoner; Hieronymus states 7,000. Dionysius totalled Pyrrhus' losses at around 11,000 soldiers, 3,000 according to Hieronymus. Either way, this could be considered the earliest of his Pyrrhic victories against Rome.

Aftermath
After the battle, reinforcements from south Italy joined Pyrrhus. The Greeks of Rhegium who wanted to join him were massacred by Roman soldiers under the command of Decius Vibelius, who was proclaimed ruler of the town. Pyrrhus then began to march towards Rome. He captured many small towns in Campania, and his forces plundered Latium. His march was stopped in Anagni, two days from Rome, when he met the other Roman consular army under Tiberius Coruncanius. Pyrrhus was afraid that he did not have enough soldiers to fight, and knew Laevinus and Barbula were probably marching behind him. Instead he withdrew and the Romans did not follow him.

title: Battle of Heraclea


text:
Cromwell, New Zealand

Cromwell (Māori: Tīrau) is a town in Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand. Cromwell is located on the shores of Lake Dunstan where the Kawarau river joins Lake Dunstan. Cromwell was established during the Otago gold rush and is now more known as one of the sub regions of the Central Otago wine region. In 2018, the town of Cromwell was home to a population of 5610 people.

Etymology
Māori refer to the area as "Tirau", referring to their plantings of Ti cabbage trees to stand as navigation markers and also as food for travellers.

Pākeha goldiggers called it as "The Junction", "The Point", or "Kawarau Junction", as it is at the confluence of the Clutha River / Mata-Au and the Kawarau River.

The town was named Cromwell in the middle of 1863 by J. A. Connell of the Dunedin firm Connell and Moodie, who was from Northern Ireland. Because of "a silly rivalry between a Northern Irish surveyor and Southern Irish miners" in the district he decided "to put the curse of Cromwell on them".

Geography
Cromwell is between (linking to Wānaka, 50 km north, and Queenstown via the Kawarau Gorge, 60 km west) and State Highway 8 leading to the Lindis Pass, 75 km northeast, and Alexandra, 33 km south. The road to Alexandra winds through the Cromwell Gorge. A point near Cromwell lies 119 kilometres from the sea, the farthest from the sea anywhere in New Zealand. A prominent feature surrounding much of the town is the man-made Lake Dunstan.

Cromwell is surrounded by the Pisa mountain range to the north (including Mount Pisa, 1963 metres) the Dunstan Mountains to the northeast (including Mount Dunstan, 1667 metres) Mount Difficulty (1285 metres) to the west and the Old Woman Range and Cairnmuir mountains to the south.

Nearby settlements are at Bannockburn, Lowburn, Tarras, and Ripponvale.

Cromwell has a strategic location between the Lindis and the Haast passes, and acts as a hub between the towns of Wānaka, Queenstown and Alexandra.

Cromwell is also the home of the Cromwell Chafer Beetle (Prodontria lewisi).

The 45th parallel south runs just north of the township.

Cromwell lay at the confluence of the Clutha River and the Kawarau River, which was noted for the difference between the colours of the waters of the two rivers and also for the historic bridge at the convergence of the two. Since the construction of the Clyde Dam and the filling of Lake Dunstan in the early 1990s the river confluence was drowned, as was the old town centre.

History
The first Pākehā to visit was Nathanael Chalmers in 1853, guided there by Reko and Kaikōura. He was stricken by dysentery, so his guides returned him down the Clutha, shooting the rapids in a mōkihi reed boat.

Official explorations of the northern and western parts of Central Otago began in the late 1850s, but detailed surveys did not commence until 1861.

In 1862, gold was discovered below the Junction by two miners, Horatio Hartley and Christopher Reilly. Once the word of a gold strike was out, there was an influx of several thousand miners to the area as well as supporting nine hotels in Cromwell.

Cromwell was declared a municipality in 1866. The government funded the construction of a bridge across the Clutha in 1866 (which cost 28,000 pounds). This was rebuilt in 1891. Bishop Selwyn visited in 1866. Cromwell's newspaper, The Cromwell Argus, was established in 1869. The Cromwell council chambers were completed in 1869 and the Cromwell district hospital was established in 1875 with wards to provide beds for ten inpatients.

The population was 424 people in 1878 and increased to 429 people in 1881. Gold mining by individuals was replaced by dredging by companies in the 1890s. but was short lived. The population decreased with smaller scale mining activities continuing until the 1930s. The Cromwell railway station, connecting Cromwell to Dunedin was opened in July 1921. It burnt down in 1942 and was subsequently rebuilt. it was closed in 1976 with the railway line from Clyde to Cromwell being closed in 1980.

Soldiers from Cromwell served in World War I with 13 losing their lives. A cenotaph was unveiled on 25 April 1923 to recognise their sacrifice. A further 11 soldiers from Cromwell died during World War II. A memorial hall was built in the 1950s which is dedicated to those fallen in the two World Wars.

As gold ran out, Cromwell became the service centre for an extensive farming and stone fruit growing area. An irrigation scheme was built in the 1920s diverting water from the Kawarau river to irrigate a large area of land near Ripponvale.

The stone fruit industry is commemorated with the giant sculpture of stone fruit which stands outside the northern end of the town. It was built by the Cromwell Rotary Club in 1990 with the design coming from Otto Muller. The sculpture is regularly repainted. The decision to build Clyde Dam and use Cromwell as the accommodation base brought many changes to the town. In the early stages, a government information centre in Cromwell was set on fire in a late-night attack.

Approximately one-third of the town was rebuilt on higher ground. A total of 60 homes and 50 commercial properties were affected. The changes included the doubling of the residential area, relocation of the old town centre (now called "Old Cromwell Town"), upgrading of services, the provision of modern educational and sports facilities, and the construction of the new Deadman's Point Bridge. The town centre was relocated between 1984 and 1985 to a new site known as "The Mall," that now houses the main retail, service and civic buildings in Cromwell. Several of the old buildings of the town which escaped the flooding have been retained as a historic precinct close to the shore of the Kawarau.

The lake started to fill in autumn of 1992 with 2000 hectares including farmland and 17 orchards also being flooded by Lake Dunstan.

Cromwell is nicknamed the "Fruit Bowl of the South".

Climate
Cromwell receives around 400 mm of rain a year due to its inland location. Although it is widely believed to have a continental climate, the town officially has an oceanic climate (Cfb) with rainfall just enough to escape the semi-arid climate (Bsk) classification.

Demography
The population of Cromwell was 838 people in 1951; 885 people in 1956 and 942 people in 1961.

Cromwell is described by Statistics New Zealand as a small urban area, and covers 15.63 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Cromwell had a population of 5,610 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 1,269 people (29.2%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 1,863 people (49.7%) since the 2006 census. There were 2,109 households, comprising 2,898 males and 2,709 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.07 males per female, with 1,041 people (18.6%) aged under 15 years, 912 (16.3%) aged 15 to 29, 2,604 (46.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 1,053 (18.8%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 90.1% European/Pākehā, 9.1% Māori, 2.0% Pasifika, 3.9% Asian, and 2.5% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 16.8, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 56.3% had no religion, 35.7% were Christian, 0.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.2% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.5% were Buddhist and 1.8% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 666 (14.6%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 852 (18.6%) people had no formal qualifications. 747 people (16.3%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 2,730 (59.8%) people were employed full-time, 663 (14.5%) were part-time, and 75 (1.6%) were unemployed.

Lindis-Nevis Valleys
The statistical area of Lindis-Nevis Valleys, which includes Bannockburn and Pisa Moorings, surrounds but does not include Cromwell. It covers 2884.61 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Lindis-Nevis Valleys had a population of 2,391 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 714 people (42.6%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 1,242 people (108.1%) since the 2006 census. There were 963 households, comprising 1,215 males and 1,173 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.04 males per female. The median age was 46.5 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 387 people (16.2%) aged under 15 years, 330 (13.8%) aged 15 to 29, 1,224 (51.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 447 (18.7%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 95.1% European/Pākehā, 5.6% Māori, 1.4% Pasifika, 1.3% Asian, and 2.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 16.6, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 59.8% had no religion, 30.7% were Christian, 0.1% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.4% were Hindu, 0.4% were Buddhist and 1.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 468 (23.4%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 288 (14.4%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $40,400, compared with $31,800 nationally. 429 people (21.4%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,188 (59.3%) people were employed full-time, 321 (16.0%) were part-time, and 33 (1.6%) were unemployed.

Motorsport park and museum
The Highlands Motorsport Park is located on the western edge of Cromwell. The park includes a $25 million classic car museum as well as a 4100 metre long race track.

Cromwell museum
The Cromwell museum was established in the 1960s. It had to relocate in 1988 due to its original location being due to be flooded by the filling of Lake Dunstan. It is currently located at 47 The Mall. Its collections include Chinese artefacts (which tell of the history of the Chinese gold miners in the region), moa bones, domestic and agricultural items and photographs of Cromwell.

Cromwell swimming pool
The Cromwell swimming pool was built in the 1980s. It was upgraded in 2007. Located on Barry Avenue, the indoor complex contains a 25-metre pool, a learners' pool and a toddler's pool.

Kiwi water park
The Kiwi water park is located five minutes outside of Cromwell on state highway 6. The park containing various inflatable obstacles, water toys and diving boards. It attracted 30,000 visitors in the summer of 2021/22. There was doubt that it would open for the 2022 / 23 summer season due to traffic safety issues entering the park but a resolution was achieved.

Cromwell public library
The Cromwell public library is located at 43 The Mall. It is open six days each week and is administered by Central Otago and Queenstown Lakes Library consortia. The library has wifi, computer facilities and wheelchair access as well as a range of fiction and non – fiction books, magazines and DVDs.

Rugby
The Cromwell rugby club was established in 1888 and had its 125th Jubilee in 2013. It has had many successes with the 2007 team winning every trophy that season. Cromwell lost the Central Otago rugby final to Wakatipu in 2022.

Mountain biking
The Lake Dunstan mountain bike trail was opened in May 2021. It connects Cromwell to Clyde and the Otago Central Rail Trail. The Lake Dunstan mountain bike trail is 55 kilometres long and includes cantilevered platforms to get around a series of granite cliffs. In the first ten months after opening, 62560 people had ridden the trail. Some of the trail has steeper climbs and is more remote and a safety video was made to prepare riders in what to expect on the trail.

Other trails in the Cromwell area include the 16 kilometre Cromwell Heritage Precinct to Smith's Way along the Lake Dunstan foreshore. In August 2022, the Cromwell mountain bike club were planning to build a mountain bike trail park at Shannon Farm. It was thought that it would include 14 kilometres of grade 3 (intermediate) to 5 (expert) trails.

Cromwell golf club
The Cromwell golf club held its first meeting in 1903. The course was redesigned in 2010 by Greg Turner and Scott MacPherson. The Cromwell Golf Club has held the New Zealand Open final qualifying event on more than one occasion. It has also held the South Island Amateur Championships, the 1988 NZ Seniors Championship and the 2001 Freyberg Masters. In 2019, The golf course was ranked the 22nd best course out of the top 50 courses by New Zealand Golf Digest. The golf course is an 18 hole is a sand-based, links-style course.

Cromwell bowling club
The Cromwell bowling club was established in August 1911. An artificial green was installed in 2015 which widened the playing season to ten months of the year. The club is located at 50 Alpha Street.

Cromwell racecourse
Horse racing has occurred on the racecourse land since 1862, with the Cromwell Jockey Club operating the racecourse between 1867 and 1999. In 1876, the Cromwell Racecourse Reserve Act was enacted for the purposes of establishing a board of trustees and putting aside the land for the public racecourse. The racecourse land has also been used as the Cromwell racecourse aerodrome, for outdoor concerts and pony club events. It has a 1600-metre track with a 350-metre straight. A new grandstand was built in 2007.

The longest running race to be held at the Cromwell racecourse is the Cromwell gallops race meeting which, in 2022, had been held annually for 156 years.

Cromwell heritage precinct
The construction of the Clyde Dam created Lake Dunstan, which consumed part of the old Cromwell town. Some of the historic buildings were saved or rebuilt to create the heritage precinct. Near the precinct is the Cromwell Kilwinning Lodge No.98 which was built in 1869.

Former St John's Presbyterian church
Presbyterian church services where first held in Cromwell by the 1860s. In the 1870s, fundraising took place to build a church. The St John's Presbyterian church was designed by F.W. Burwell in a gothic style and built by Grant and Mackellar out of local schist stone. The church hall was added in 1913. The church closed in 2004 and was sold. The building is a category two historic place.

Mary Immaculate and the Irish Martyrs Catholic church
The Mary Immaculate and the Irish Martyrs Catholic church was opened in April 1909. The church has a 20 metre tall belltower with an orange tiled roof. At the time of its opening, it was described as "far and away the handsomest building in Cromwell". The parish was renamed in recognition of both the Irish Catholic Martyrs and the role of Irish Catholic gold-miners in founding the town.

St Andrew's Anglican church
St Andrew's Anglican church was opened in 1874. It was designed in a Gothic style. The site for the church was chosen when Bishop Samuel Tarratt Nevill visited in 1873. John Marsh, a local Cromwell resident donated the land for the church and the church cost 700 pounds to build. The Ladies Guild raised 150 pounds of the cost in 1874. Leadlight windows were installed in the east and west ends in 1893. A pipe organ was installed in 1919. Electricity was installed in the church in 1926 and the church hall was built in 1932.

Athenaeum hall
The Athenaeum Hall was built in 1874. It was used to house the Cromwell Museum until 1988 and then earthworks from the building of Lake Dunstan left it three quarters buried. Work (including stonemasonry) was being completed in 2017 to stabilise the remaining walls.

Litany Street cemetery
The Litany Street cemetery was Cromwell's first cemetery and was established in 1865. This cemetery is the resting place for a number of the early Cromwell gold miners. A number of the early Chinese immigrants who came to Cromwell in search of gold are also buried here. In the early 1900s a second cemetery was created and is known as the new Cromwell cemetery.

Former Cromwell courthouse
The Cromwell courthouse was built by William Grant (a carpenter) and James Ritchie (a stonemason) and was completed in 1872. It was used at the courthouse in Cromwell for over one hundred years. It is now privately owned. It is a category two Historic Place.

Bannockburn
Bannockburn is located 5.8 km south of Cromwell via Bannockburn road. It is possible to walk to Bannockburn via the 11 kilometre Cromwell to Bannockburn lakeside walk. Bannockburn is a small town which was once the centre of a gold mining industry. Historic buildings include the hotel, post office, Stewart's store, and a number of homes. Next to the town of Bannockburn are the Bannockburn sluicings. These include dams, tunnels, water races and shafts created during the gold mining era between 1865 and 1910.

Bendigo goldfields
The Bendigo Goldfields were a successful quartz mining area for over half a century. From the site of the old Bendigo township at the top of the Bendigo Loop Road a steep, narrow vehicle track winds up into the hills to Logantown and even further up to Welshtown, where remains of old stone cottages can be found.

Carrick goldfields
The ruins of Carricktown are 4 km up a 4WD track from the old mining area of Quartzville (near the end of Quartzville Road), and the Young Australian 6m overshot water-wheel can be found a further 3 km on. The track continues up to Duffer's Saddle. Return down Nevis Road to Bannockburn.

Education
The first school in Cromwell opened in 1865, but its roll outstripped its capacity and it was replaced in 1874. Another school opened in 1915 with a secondary section in 1924. Cromwell District High School opened in 1929, and became Cromwell College in 1978 when it changed to accept year 7 and 8 students.

Cromwell Primary School is a co-educational state primary school for Year 1 to 6 students, with a roll of  as of.

Goldfields School is a co-educational state primary school for Year 1 to 6 students, with a roll of.

Cromwell College is a co-educational state secondary school for Year 7 to 13 students, with a roll of.

Otago Polytechnic has a campus in Cromwell specialising in horticulture, catering and tourism. Its crop centre provides advisory services to horticulturalists on commercially viable new crops.

Government
Cromwell has local government services provided to it by the Central Otago District Council and the Otago Regional Council. Cromwell is part of the Waitaki electorate.

Cromwell mayors
Former mayors of the Borough of Cromwell were as follows

 * WJ Barry 1866–1868
 * W Whetter 1868–1869
 * GW Goodger 1869–1870
 * W Smitham 1870–1871
 * JD Taylor 1871–1872
 * M Fraer 1872–1873
 * J Dawkins 1873–1874
 * DA Jolly 1874–1877
 * SN Brown 1877–1878
 * C Colclough 1878–1881
 * M Behrens 1881–1883
 * J Marsh 1883–1885
 * SH Turton 1885–1889
 * T McCracken 1889–1891
 * DA Jolly 1891–1892
 * JL Scott 1892–1895
 * T Rooney 1895–1897
 * K Pretsch 1897–1899
 * E Murrell 1899–1905
 * J Little 1905–1909
 * E Murrell 1905–1913
 * E Jolly 1913–1915
 * AM Brodrick 1915–1921
 * DC Jolly 1921–1927
 * CC Sanders 1927–1929
 * CWJ Roberts 1929–1937
 * JC Parcell 1937–1943
 * RE Austin 1943–1944
 * W Partridge 1944–1950
 * James Robert Munro 1950–1951
 * FG Dunn 1951–1956
 * LR Skinner 1956–1958
 * LA Jelley 1958–1960
 * IG Anderson 1960–1980
 * PJ Mead 1980–1986
 * DA Butcher 1986–1989

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cromwell, New Zealand


text:
Talk:Conceptual blending/Resources

Resources for Conceptual Blending

Please post links to papers and other resources here. If you're linking to an online resource(journal article, webpage), please ensure it is not password-protected or subscription-based. Thank You -- Gyan 20:54, 7 May 2004 (UTC)-

Overview
Blending and Conceptual Integration

Mark Turner

Turner's official page presenting links to blending resources. Brief pseudointroduction. Describes 'blending' in non-specific terms.

HTML. Contains Flash.

Blending Basics

Seana Coulson, Todd Oakley

Blending primer in form of a tutorial.

PDF.

The Way We Think - Encyclopedia

A brief technical introduction.

HTML.

Conceptual Integration Networks

Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner

A fuller overview of conceptual blending. Somewhat technical.

HTML.

A Mechanism of Creativity

Mark Turner, Gilles Fauconnier

Another explanation via example.

HTML.

The Artful Mind

Mark Turner

Illustrations of blending in artworks.

HTML.

Discussion
Conceptual Integration

Gilles Fauconnier

General discussion of CI theory by its developer.

PDF.

Blending in action:Diagrams reveal conceptual integration in routine activity

Beate Schwichtenberg

PDF.

Backstage Cognition in Reason and Choice

Mark Turner

Discusses conceptual blending illustrations and some potential applications.

HTML.

Governing Principles

Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner

Technical description of the principles that govern the elements and structures in blending.

PDF.

Mental spaces, language modalities, and conceptual integration

Gilles Fauconnier

An informal tour through meaning construction.

PDF.

Creativity as Projection:Conceptual Integration Networks and Idioms

Todd Oakley

Analyses blending as a framework for explaining creativity.

HTML.

Compression and Global Insight

Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner

The vital relation of compression in blending.

HTML.

Conceptual Integration and Formal Expression

Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner

Examines the relations between blending and its formal expression.

HTML.

Conceptual integration and metaphor:An event-related potential study

Seana Coulson, Cyma Van Petten

Experiment measuring brain electrical activity while reading literal and metaphorical texts.

PDF.

Fake Guns and Stone Lions: Conceptual Blending and Privative Adjectives

Seana Coulson, Gilles Fauconnier

Compares blending and Sense Generation Model using privative adjectives.

HTML.

Blending and Metaphor

Joseph Grady, Todd Oakley, Seana Coulson

Compares and contrasts blending and conceptual metaphor theory.

HTML.

Categories and Similarities:A Note on Circularity

David Ritchie

Examines the various theories of metaphor comprehension.

PDF.

Semantic Leaps:chapter 1

Seana Coulson

Discussion of the underlying foundation behind blending.

HTML.

Conceptual Integration (4th revision)

Line Brandt

Sketches out a tentative typology for conceptual integration.

PDF.

Knowledge Integration with Conceptual Integration

Francisco Pereira, Amilcar Cardoso

Propose a formal model for blending.

PDF.

Conceptual Blending and the Quest for the Holy Creative Process

Francisco Pereira, Amilcar Cardoso

Computational blending as a favorable framework for elements of computational creativity.

PDF.

Optimality Principles for Conceptual Blending: A First Computational Approach

Francisco Pereira, Amilcar Cardoso

Presents formal computational approach to model blending.

PDF.

Living in a conceptual clash

Anders Engberg-Pedersen

Uses blending to examine conflict between lack of free will and paradigm of responsibility.

PDF.

Application
Conceptual Integration in Online Interdisciplinary Study: Current Perspective, Theories, and Implications for Future Research

James L. Morrison

Examines learning environments in terms of blending.

HTML.

Metaphor, Metonymy, and Binding

Mark Turner, Gilles Fauconnier

Examines metaphors in terms of blending.

HTML.

Cognitive Semiotics and On-Line Reading of Religious Texts: A Hermeneutic Model of Sacred Literature and Everyday Revelation

Vito Evola

Applies Blending Theory to the understanding of religious literature.

HTML.

[http://www.case.edu/artsci/cogs/parrilllab/pdfs/parrill04.pdf Conceptual Integration in gesture analysis and transcription. Gesture 4, 197-219.]

Fey Parrill, Eve Sweetser

PDF.

Blending As A Central Process of Grammar

Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner

Examining grammar in terms of blending.

HTML.

Grammatical Blending:Creative and Schematic Aspects in Sentence Processing and Translation

Nili Mandelblit

PDFs.

Blended spaces and performativity

Eve Sweetser

Uses blending to examine relation between representation and performance.

PDF.

A Computational Approach to Conceptual Blending within Counterfactuals

Mark Lee, John Barnden

PDF.

Assembling Spaces: the Conceptual Structure of Allegory

Michael Sinding

HTML.

Magical rituals and conceptual blending

Gilles Fauconnier

PDF.

What's so funny?: Conceptual integration in humorous examples

Seana Coulson

HTML.

Purple Persuasion: Deliberative Rhetoric and Conceptual Blending

Seana Coulson, Todd Oakley

HTML.

[http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/vyv/blending.pdf Why does time flow and where does it flow to? The temporal matrix and conceptual blending]

Vyvyan Evans

PDF.

Terror Games

Rena Pacella

Popular Science article on a video game character designed as a conceptual blender.

HTML.

Conceptual integration in the domain of music

Finn Holst

PDF.

Blending and Your Bank Account: Conceptual Blending in ATM Design

Barbara Holder

PDF.

Modeling the Semantics of Geographic Categories through Conceptual Integration

Werner Kuhn

PDF.

Metaphors in the Globalization Debate: "Free Trade" or "Corporate Rule"?

Philip Eubanks

PDF.

Creativity as Pastiche

Tony Veale

Cinematic creativity in reused and borrowed ideas.

HTML.

Conventional Models of Time and Their Extensions in Science Fiction

Krystian Aparta

A master's thesis exploring conceptual blending in time travel. Also contains a detailed overview of Conceptual Blending Theory.

PDF.

Miscellanea
Meaning, language, and mind: an interview with Mark Turner

James W. Underhill

Discusses blending.

HTML.

Design for a Theory of Meaning

Mark Turner

Discusses aspects in a quest for a theory of meaning.

HTML.

Introduction to Methods and Generalizations

Gilles Fauconnier

On meaning, language and cognition.

HTML.

Mappings in Thought and Language - conclusion

Gilles Fauconnier

Final chapter of book dealing with meaning construction.

PDF.

Across the Chasm

Con Kenney, Phil Leggiere

This Intelligent Enterprise article discusses benefits of using blending in IT projects.

HTML.

Teaching for Conceptual Integration

A graduate program to enable multidisciplinary teachers in using conceptual integration as a pedagogical device.

HTML.

Books
Creativity and AI: A Conceptual Blending Approach

This book presents a model for the application of the Conceptual Blending framework to the area of Computational Creativity.

HTML.

(more to be added soon)

title: Talk:Conceptual blending/Resources


text: User talk:66.203.207.7

title: User talk:66.203.207.7


text:
Lila Kedrova

Yelizaveta Nikolaevna Kedrova (Russian: Елизавета Николаевна Кедрова; 9 October 1909 – 16 February 2000), known as Lila Kedrova, was a Russian actress of the screen and stage. She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Zorba the Greek in 1964, and the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical for the same role in the musical stage version of the film in 1984.

Life and career
Yelizaveta Nikolayevna Kedrova was born in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, the youngest of three children. Her parents were Russian opera singers. Her father, Nikolay Kedrov Sr. (1871–1940), was a singer and composer, a creator of the first Russian male quartet to perform liturgical chants. Her mother, Sofia Gladkaya (ru: Софья Николаевна Гладкая; 1874–1965), was a singer at the Mariinsky Theatre and a teacher at the Conservatoire de Paris. Her brother, Nikolay Kedrov Jr. (died 1981), was a Russian singer and composer of liturgical music. Her sister, Irene Kedroff (Irina Nikolayevna Kedrova; died 1989), was a soprano.

In 1922, several years after the October Revolution, the family emigrated to Berlin. In 1928, they moved to France, where Kedrova's mother taught at the Conservatoire de Paris, and her father again recreated Quatuor Kedroff. In 1932, Kedrova joined the Moscow Art Theatre touring company. Then her film career began, mostly in French films, until her first English-language film appearance as Madame Hortense in Zorba the Greek (1964). Her performance won her the Oscar for Best Supporting Actress. Kedrova then appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's film Torn Curtain (1966), playing the role of Countess Kuchinska, a Polish noblewoman in East Berlin who is desperate to emigrate to the United States. Kedrova played Fräulein Schneider in the West End stage production of Cabaret in 1968. She then played a series of eccentric and crazy women in Hollywood films. In 1983, she reprised her role as Madame Hortense on Broadway in the musical stage version of Zorba the Greek, winning both a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical and a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical in the process. In 1989, she played Madame Armfeldt in the London revival of A Little Night Music.

Her second husband was Canadian stage director Richard Howard (1932–2017).

Death
In 2000, Kedrova died at her summer home in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, of pneumonia, having suffered a long time with Alzheimer's disease. She was cremated. Her ashes are buried in her family grave in the Russian cemetery in Paris.

title: Lila Kedrova


text:
Harry Ruby

Harry Rubenstein (January 27, 1895 – February 23, 1974), known professionally as Harry Ruby, was an American pianist, composer, songwriter and screenwriter, who was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. He was married to silent film actress Eileen Percy.

Biography
Ruby was born in New York City in 1895. After failing at his early ambition to become a professional baseball player, he toured the vaudeville circuit as a pianist with the Bootblack Trio and the Messenger Boys Trio.

In his early career worked as a pianist and song plugger for the Gus Edwards and Harry Von Tilzer publishing firms (one of his co-workers at Edwards' place was the young Walter Winchell, who was also a song plugger). Ruby also played in vaudeville acts, nickelodeons and cafes throughout New York.

From 1917-1920, Ruby collaborated with songwriters Edgar Leslie, Sam Lewis, Joe Young and George Jessel on the hit songs “What’ll We Do Saturday Night When the Town Goes Dry”, “When Those Sweet Hawaiian Babies Roll Their Eyes”, “Come on Papa”, “Daddy Long Legs” and “And He’d Say Oo-La-La Wee Wee.”

Ruby found his most sustained success as a composer after meeting the man who would become his longtime partner, lyricist Bert Kalmar. Kalmar and Ruby were a successful songwriting team for nearly three decades until Kalmar's death in 1947, a partnership portrayed in the 1950 MGM musical Three Little Words, starring Fred Astaire as Kalmar and Red Skelton as Ruby.

A good friend of Groucho Marx, Ruby appeared several times on his television program, You Bet Your Life. In his 1972 concert at Carnegie Hall, Marx gave the following introduction before performing a song of Ruby's: "I have a friend in Hollywood ... I think I do, I'm not so sure. [laughter] His name is Harry Ruby [applause] and he wrote a lot of songs that I've sung over the years ..."
 * Today, Father, is Father's Day
 * And we're giving you a tie
 * It's not much we know
 * It is just our way of showing you
 * We think you're a regular guy
 * You say that it was nice of us to bother
 * But it really was a pleasure to fuss
 * For according to our mother
 * You're our father
 * And that's good enough for us
 * Yes, that's good enough for us
 * Yes, that's good enough for us

In The Dick Cavett Show, recorded June 13, 1969, Marx also sang a second stanza, and introduced it with, "Isn't that a beautiful melody? And a beautiful sentiment: ... Today, father, is father's day. ... 16 men in that orchestra: nine of them are illegitimate children [laughter]. Nine and a half including the director."

 * The tie that you got
 * Didn't cost such a lot
 * And we'll give you the same tie next year.
 * You tell us it was nice of us to bother
 * But it really was a pleasure to fuss
 * For they say, a child can only have one father
 * And you are the one for us.
 * And you are the one for us.

Works
Selected film scores
 * Animal Crackers (1930)
 * Horse Feathers (1932)
 * Duck Soup (1933)
 * Bright Lights (1935)
 * Walking on Air (1936)
 * Wake Up and Dream (1946)
 * Three Little Words (1950)

Selected screenplays
 * The Kid from Spain (1932)
 * Horse Feathers (1932)
 * Duck Soup (1933)
 * Bright Lights (1935)
 * Walking on Air (1936)
 * The Life of the Party (1937)
 * Lovely to Look At (1952)

Selected Broadway scores
 * Ziegfeld Follies of 1918 (1918) - revue - featured songwriter
 * Helen of Troy, New York (1923) - musical - co-composer and co-lyricist
 * No Other Girl (1924) - musical - co-composer and co-lyricist
 * Holka Polka (1925) - musical - co-book-editor
 * The Ramblers (1926) - musical - co-composer, co-lyricist and co-bookwriter
 * Lucky (1927) - musical - co-bookwriter
 * The Five O'Clock Girl (1927) - musical - composer
 * She's My Baby (1928) - musical - co-bookwriter
 * Good Boy (1928) - musical - co-composer and co-lyricist
 * Animal Crackers (1928) - musical - co-composer and co-lyricist
 * Top Speed (1929) - musical - co-producer and co-bookwriter
 * High Kickers (1941) - musical - co-composer, co-lyricist and co-bookwriter
 * Fosse (1998) - revue - featured songwriter for "Who's Sorry Now?" from All That Jazz 1979

Notable songs
 * "Rebecca Came Back From Mecca" (1921)
 * "The Sheik of Avenue B" (1922)
 * "Who's Sorry Now?" (1923), Kalmar and Ruby's first big hit
 * "I Wanna Be Loved by You" (1928), a hit for Helen Kane, known as the "Boop-boop-a-doop girl", and sung by Marilyn Monroe in the film Some Like It Hot
 * "Hooray for Captain Spaulding" from Animal Crackers (1928): became Groucho Marx's signature tune.
 * "I Love You So Much" (1928)
 * "Three Little Words" (1930), their biggest hit.
 * "Nevertheless" (1931), a hit for Jack Denny (vocal by Bob May) that year, later done by The Mills Brothers and Frank Sinatra
 * "I'm Against It", "I Always Get My Man" and "Everyone Says I Love You" from Horse Feathers (1932)
 * "Hail, Hail Freedonia" from Duck Soup (1933)
 * "What a Perfect Combination" (1932), lyrics by Kalmar and Irving Caesar, music by Ruby and Harry Akst, written for the Broadway show The Kid, starring Eddie Cantor
 * "A Kiss to Build a Dream On" (1935), their last hit
 * "Show Me a Rose" (1952), Groucho Marx recording
 * "The Real McCoys" (1957-1963), television theme

Selected bibliography
 * The Kalmar-Ruby Song Book Random House (1936) B009X7KK6K Introduction by Ben Hecht with contributions by Groucho Marx, Robert Benchley, Moss Hart, Irving Berlin, Marc Connelly, James Kevin McGuinness, Franklin P. Adams and Nunnally Johnson.
 * Songs My Mother Never Sang Random House (1943) B002B9VFCA
 * The Four Marx Brothers in Monkey Business and Duck Soup Simon & Schuster (1973) 978-0671212735 S.J. Perelman; Will B. Johnstone; Bert Kalmar; and Harry Ruby

Death
Ruby died on February 23, 1974, in Woodland Hills, California, and was interred at the Chapel of the Pines in Los Angeles.

title: Harry Ruby


text:
File:Ming chuan university logo.png

Summary
Not GFDL. Corporate logo of Ming Chuan University. Obtained from http://www.mcu.edu.tw. See Wikipedia:Logos for guidance on use.

title: File:Ming chuan university logo.png


text:
Hanmer Springs

Hanmer Springs is a small town in the Canterbury region of the South Island of New Zealand. The Māori name for Hanmer Springs is Te Whakatakanga o te Ngārahu o te ahi a Tamatea, which means “where the ashes of Tamate’s (sic) fire lay”, referring to Tamatea, the captain of the canoe Tākitimu.

Hanmer Springs is located 130 km north-west of Christchurch and 65 km south-west of Kaikōura (135 km by road), in the Hurunui District. The town lies on a minor road 9 km north of State Highway 7, the northern route between Christchurch and the West Coast via Lewis Pass. The township lies at the base of Conical Hill. Mount Isobel (1324 m) looks over Hanmer Springs. Jacks Pass and Jollies Pass provide access to the Molesworth and Rainbow roads.

Toponymy
The town is named after Thomas Hanmer, an owner of Hawkeswood Station near the Conway River during the 1850s. Thomas Hanmer was born in Hanmer, Wales. He arrived at Port Lyttleton in 1852. While searching for suitable farming land, he joined a party of surveyors working in the Amuri District. During this period he was linked with Hanmer Springs, although he never lived there. He was the manager of the St Leonards Station near Culverden from 1855 to 1857. He then moved to Queensland, Australia. There is a statue of Thomas Hanmer in the centre of Hanmer Springs.

History
The locality was discovered for its hot springs by William Jones in early 1859. Access to the general area was provided by a bridge over the Waiau Uwha River in 1864 constructed by a Mr Handisides of Nelson for NZ£2,000 to a design by John Blackett. The bridge lasted only ten years before it was blown over by a Nor'west wind.

John Turnbull Thomson surveyed the land for the township in 1879, with the total area comprising 2500 acre, of which 300 acre were for the township itself. The hot springs were not included within that area. The springs themselves were still in their natural state at that time, with only steps and a changing shed provided. The member for, Edward George Wright, brought up the question of developing the township in the New Zealand House of Representatives in June 1882. The Minister of Lands, William Rolleston, replied that it was important that the public should retain access to the springs. Surveyor Walter Kitson was instructed with laying out the site of the hot springs including an accommodation house. Construction of a bath house began in January 1884. The fifty year jubilee was held in 1933, stating that Hanmer had been a government resort since 1883, but the centenary book pointed out that the jubilee was held a year too early. The government investing significant funds into Hanmer Springs without a bridge crossing the Waiau Uwha River caused considerable controversy. Blackett designed a new bridge and John Anderson from Christchurch won the contract to erect it, and built a foundry at the site. This second bridge opened in 1887 and gives access to Hanmer to this day, with the structure registered as a Category I heritage item since 1983. The opening celebrations held by Anderson's sons at the site were rather liberal to the extent that the site is still known as Champagne Flat.

Hanmer Springs
Hanmer Springs is described by Statistics New Zealand as a rural settlement and covers 4.01 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Hanmer Springs had a larger boundary, covering 4.23 km2. Using that boundary, Hanmer Springs had a population of 960 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 120 people (14.3%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 231 people (31.7%) since the 2006 census. There were 375 households, comprising 480 males and 480 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.0 males per female. The median age was 41.9 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 150 people (15.6%) aged under 15 years, 177 (18.4%) aged 15 to 29, 483 (50.3%) aged 30 to 64, and 150 (15.6%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 86.9% European/Pākehā, 5.9% Māori, 0.6% Pasifika, 8.8% Asian, and 3.4% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 29.7, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 56.6% had no religion, 31.2% were Christian, 1.2% were Hindu, 0.9% were Muslim, 0.6% were Buddhist and 4.1% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 168 (20.7%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 96 (11.9%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $35,300, compared with $31,800 nationally. 114 people (14.1%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 498 (61.5%) people were employed full-time, 147 (18.1%) were part-time, and 6 (0.7%) were unemployed.

In 2018, there were 402 occupied private dwellings and a further 603 unoccupied private dwellings.

Hanmer Range
The statistical area of Hanmer Range surrounds but does not include Hanmer Springs. It covers 3609.13 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Hanmer Range had a smaller boundary, covering 3608.96 km2. Using that boundary, Hanmer Range had a population of 261 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 12 people (4.8%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 45 people (20.8%) since the 2006 census. There were 102 households, comprising 141 males and 123 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.15 males per female. The median age was 45.3 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 51 people (19.5%) aged under 15 years, 42 (16.1%) aged 15 to 29, 126 (48.3%) aged 30 to 64, and 42 (16.1%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 95.4% European/Pākehā, 6.9% Māori, 2.3% Asian, and 1.1% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 19.5, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 51.7% had no religion, 37.9% were Christian and 3.4% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 42 (20.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 33 (15.7%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $37,100, compared with $31,800 nationally. 33 people (15.7%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 123 (58.6%) people were employed full-time, and 39 (18.6%) were part-time.

Climate
Hanmer Springs has temperatures that range between summer temperatures of an average daily high of 22 degrees Celsius and an average daily low of 9 degrees Celsius in January and February and winter temperatures with an average daily high of 9 degrees Celsius and an average daily low of 1 degree Celsius in July. Rainfall is highest on average in July with 107 mm and lowest in January with 55 mm Snow falls in Hanmer Springs in winter and often closes the road into Hanmer Springs. In summer, Hanmer Springs often has very hot summer conditions for New Zealand with temperatures getting above 35 degrees Celsius.

Hot pools
In 1960 the local community purchased the hot pools and gifted them to the local council. The three hexagonal pools which are still in use currently and a fresh water pool were built in 1978. Changing rooms and a new entrance way were constructed in 1985. The rock pools were built in 1992 and further sulphur pools constructed in 1999.

In 2009, a 4600 square metre extension to the hot pools complex was proposed including "a second [16m high] water-slide, ice-skating rink and relocating and reconfiguring the freshwater pool." During the consent process oppositions were made to it by, among others, the Queen Mary Reserve Trust concerning the expansions effect on noise levels and visual impact. Concerns were also raised by former hospital superintendent, Dr Robert Crawford, about the change the development might have on the village's brand of "slow tourism and relaxation, not wet’n’wild."

After a hearing from independent Commissioner Robert Batty, on Monday, 18 January 2010 the proposal was approved. "The freshwater pool, new buildings, water slide/super bowl and the aqua play/ ice skating area are all to be on land from the subdivision of Queen Mary Hospital land." Development had continued since then and Hanmer Springs currently has 22 pools and four water slides with the most recent: The Conical Thrill being opened in November 2019. The Hot Pools were further extended in November 2020 with a new area for younger children to play on including a new waterslide. The Hanmer Springs Hot Pools also was the winner in the Luxury Hot Springs category at the 2020 World Luxury Spa Awards. At peak times, the hot pools can play host to 5000 people each day.

Other tourism
Hanmer Springs is a tourist destination, and the town's population swells during holidays. Hanmer Springs has around 520,000 visitors each year. Bungy jumping, jet boating, white water rafting, mountain biking and hiking are common tourist activities, and there is an airline service available for the viewing of the town's alpine surroundings. A Visitor Information Centre next to the hot springs provides information about the area and booking facilities for transport. Trampers can obtain weather information, maps and guidance from the Department of Conservation.

Accommodation options include hotels and various motels. Budget accommodation includes a youth hostel. Holiday homes are commonly rented out in Hanmer Springs. The Hanmer Forest provides many walking trails. The Conical Hill walk ascends to the 550 metre summit and provides a panoramic view of Hanmer Springs. Western hemlock, Lawson’s Cypress, Japanese cypresses, giant fir, Atlas cedar, and laburnum can be seen on this walk all of which were planted around 1910. The Shelter at the summit provides protection from the weather. A plaque at the shelter commemorates the role of Duncan Rutherford (1853–1917) has had in Hanmer Springs. Longer walking trips up Mount Isobel are possible via a variety of tracks.

The Hanmer Springs Rugby Football Club plays in the North Canterbury Rugby Union. They often hold a preseason game between the Canterbury and Tasman Makos sides. A variety of other endurance sporting events are annually held in Hanmer Springs including the Mount Isobel Challenge, The Alpine Marathon, the 4 hour and 8 hour mountain bike races, Hanmer Half Marathon and the Christchurch to Hanmer Springs road cycling race run by the Pegasus Cycling Club.

Mini golf is popular in Hanmer Springs. There is a variety of restaurants in Hanmer Springs. An animal park is located in Hanmer Springs. It provides experiences aimed at younger children.

Hanmer Springs is a gateway to the St James Conservation Area for hiking, biking, water sports, skiing, hunting and horse riding. In July 2020,

The New Zealand Government announced that it is investing more than $2 million to build a family-friendly twisting 850-metre long flying fox in Hanmer Springs. The ride is expected take nine minutes to complete and construction is expected to be finished by September 2021 The flying fox is expected to create 25 new jobs and provide $4 million revenue over the first five years. In May 2021, the resource consent application was suspended as planning showed that the ride would have to be modified due to the undulating hill side. Local residents objected to it in September 2021 saying that it "will ruin everything that is special about Conical Hill".

Hanmer Springs Forest
In order to provide timber for the Christchurch market, reserve land was set aside between 1900 and 1901. The planting of exotic trees began in 1902, and in 1903 prison labour was used. The prisoners who took part in the planting resided at a nearby prison camp which operated until 1913. A variety of trees were planted including black pines, Norway spruce and deciduous larch, with alders in wet areas, and oaks and silver birches planted as amenity species. The oldest area of the forest (203 hectares) is protected under a Crown covenant. Many woody species have invaded this forest from the township’s gardens. In 1964 pupils of Hanmer Primary School planted a 0.6 hectare block of pinus nigra in order to commemorate Arbor day. A number of walking trails now go through this mature forest.

In 2000, the Government sold the North Canterbury Crown Forests to Ngai Tahu as part of a Treaty of Waitangi settlement. Thus the Hanmer Springs Forests passed into private ownership. In 2008 a memorandum of understanding was signed by Matariki Forests, Hanmer Heritage Trust and the Hurunui District Council that protected the ongoing right for public access to the Hanmer Springs Forest. The Hurunui District Council would now be responsible for the maintenance of the tracks within the forest.

In 2018 an art trail of animal sculptures made from a redwood tree by Christchurch sculptor Andrew Lyons was opened.

The 41 metre high Dog Stream waterfall is located in the Hanmer Forest Park.

Economy
The town is built around hot springs which originate in the fractured rock bed along the Hanmer fault.

The Hanmer Springs' Queen Mary Hospital, formerly the South Island's leading rehabilitation centre for sufferers of drug addiction, was closed in 2003. The premises were purchased by the Department of Conservation in 2008.

Transportation
Two daily shuttle bus companies travel from Hanmer Springs to Christchurch and back. The town is the gateway to the Molesworth station, Lake Tennyson and Rainbow station. During summer months, gravel roads through the Rainbow Valley to St Arnaud and the Nelson Lakes National Park, and through the Molesworth Station to Blenheim, Picton, and the Marlborough region are frequented by travellers, four-wheel drivers, and guided tour groups.

Ski fields
There are two skifields in the Hanmer Springs area: the Hanmer Springs Ski Area and Mount Lyford. The Hanmer Springs Ski Area is run mostly by volunteers.

Mountain biking
Hanmer Springs is well known for mountain biking. The St James Cycle Trail is part of Nga Haerenga The New Zealand Cycle Trail. The trail is located 13 km from Hanmer Springs over Jacks Pass. This mountain bike ride is a 57 km loop that a fit rider can do in a day. It is also possible to turn the ride into a longer adventure with the option of making it a two-day trip, stopping overnight in campsites or one of three huts. Work is starting in 2020 to extend the St James trail to Hanmer Springs.

There is an extensive network of mountain bike trails ranging from easy to expert runs in the forests surrounding Hanmer Springs. Alligator Alley, Upper Dog Stream, Detox and the Tank Track are particularly popular. The network of trails has been extended in 2020 with the addition of the Southern Cross and Tombstone trails. The four kilometre long Tombstone trail includes 185 m of climbing to the highest point and a twisty 240 m descent. The mountainbike trails have been described as "world class".

The Jacks Pass – Clarence River – Jollies Pass Loop is a 25 km loop which is not technically challenging; however, it takes between two and four hours to complete. It can be ridden in either direction: West over Jacks Pass (869 m) or East over Jollies Pass (850 m). As the entire ride is at high elevation (700 m above sea level) it is subject to extreme and sudden changes in the weather which have caught riders out who were not prepared.

Hanmer Springs is the starting point (or end point) for both the Molesworth Muster cycle trail and the Rainbow Trail. These are also part of Nga Haerenga The New Zealand Cycle Trail.

The Banana House
The Banana House was donated by FJ Savill who was the owner of St Helen's Station in the early 1920s. It was built in part by Bert Orange also known by some locals as Bertie Bananas. Between this and the shelter being next to a Monkey Puzzle Tree, the shelter became known as the Banana House. The original structure had glass windows but these were removed due to ongoing vandalism. The roof is made of aluminium with moulded corners and joints.

Queen Mary Hospital
The Queen Mary Hospital for Sick and Wounded Soldiers was built on the site of the government sanatorium in Hanmer Springs. It was designed to encourage fresh air and sunlight. The Soldiers' Block was opened on 3 June 1916 by the Hon. G.W. Russell, the Minister of Public Health. The hospital remained under military control until 1922 when it was handed over to the Department of Health. Dr Percy Chisholm continued as the medical superintendent. The Chisholm Block was opened in 1926 to treat women with nervous disorders. The Nurses' Hostel was built in 1928 in a Georgian style. In the 1960s, it changed its focus to treat alcohol and drug dependency. It closed in 2003. In 2004 The Queen Mary Hospital (Former) and Hanmer Springs Thermal Reserve Historic Area was designated as a historic site by Heritage New Zealand. Within that area three buildings, the Soldiers' Block, Nurses' Home and Chisholm Block, were given Category I protection by Heritage New Zealand in 2005.

Hanmer Springs War Memorial Hall
The War Memorial Hall was completed in 1961. It has a more recent extension that includes an art gallery, library and district council offices. Just outside it is a Gingko tree that was planted in 1964 by the governor-general, Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson.

Hanmer Springs Post Office
The original Hanmer Springs Post Office was built in 1901 and is a Historic Place Category 2, listed in 1983. It is now used as a restaurant.

The Powerhouse
The Powerhouse building was built to house a small hydro electric generator in 1926. The water was provided by the nearby Rogerson river. It provided electricity for the Queen Mary Hospital as well as a few street lights. In 1934 mains electricity lines connected Hanmer Springs to the electricity grid via Waipara. The Powerhouse is now a cafe.

The Hanmer Springs Lodge
The Hanmer Springs Lodge, built in a Spanish Mission style was completed in 1932. It operated as the Heritage Hotel Hanmer until May 2020; when a combination of intense competition for holiday accommodation and Covid-19 meant that it closed temporarily following the withdrawal of the Heritage Hotels Group from management. The hotel was then purchased by the CPG hotel chain who reopened it in December 2020 with plans to further develop it as a five star resort in 2021.

Saint Andrews Presbyterian Church
Saint Andrews was built in 1892. It had to be rebuilt the following year due to a "hurricane" causing significant damage to it. The manse at Hanmer Springs was completed in January 1902. It closed on 29 November 2015. A notice on the building (sited October 2020) states that the Church does not meet earthquake building regulations and warns people not to enter the building.

Church of the Epiphany
The Church of the Epiphany is the Anglican Church in Hanmer Springs. It was listed as a Historic Place Category 2 in 1983. it was built in 1901 by Mr T W Berry of Blenheim.

Saint Rochs
Saint Rochs is the Catholic Church in Hanmer Springs. It was listed as a Historic Place Category 2 in 1984.

Education
Hanmer Springs School is a co-educational state primary school for Year 1 to 8 students, with a roll of  as of. The school was first established in 1896. The original building was built in 1901 of "wood and iron".

Fauna
There are numerous native species living in and around Hanmer Springs. These include keas, black-fronted tern (tarapirohe), banded dotterel (tūturiwhatu), rough gecko (moko kākāriki), South Island pied oystercatcher (tōrea), South Island robin (kakaruwai/ tōtōara), New Zealand falcon (kārearea), South Island tomtit (ngirungiru/ kōmiromiro), grey warbler (hōrirerire/riroriro), fantail (pīwakawaka), bellbird (tītapu/kōpara), New Zealand pigeon (kererū) amongst others.

There are also numerous introduced predators in and around Hanmer Springs including stoats, ferrets, rats, mice cats and possums for which Te Tihi o Rauhea Hanmer Springs Conservation Trust in partnership with the Department of Conservation are aiming to eliminate in order to support threatened native species.

Government
Hanmer Springs is part of the Kaikōura electorate. The Hurunui District Council is the local government body responsible for providing services to Hanmer Springs.

title: Hanmer Springs


text:
Project Prometheus

Project Prometheus (also known as Project Promethian) was established in 2003 by NASA to develop nuclear-powered systems for long-duration space missions. This was NASA's first serious foray into nuclear spacecraft propulsion since the cancellation of the SNTP project in 1995. The project was planned to design, develop, and fly multiple deep space missions to the outer planets.

The project was cancelled in 2005, due to other demands on NASA's budget. Its budget shrank from $252.6 million in 2005 to only $100 million in 2006, $90 million of which was for closeout costs on cancelled contracts.

Namesake
Originally named the "Nuclear Systems Initiative", Project Prometheus was named for the wisest of the Titans in Greek mythology who gave the gift of fire to humanity. NASA said the name Prometheus indicates its hopes of establishing a new tool for understanding nature and expanding capabilities for the exploration of the Solar System.

Motivations
Due to their distance from the Sun, spacecraft exploring the outer planets are severely limited in that they cannot use solar power as a source of electrical energy for onboard instrumentation or for ion propulsion systems. Previous missions to the outer planets such as Voyager and Galileo probe have relied on radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) as their primary power source. Unlike RTGs which rely on heat produced by the natural decay of radioactive isotopes, Project Prometheus called for the use of a small nuclear reactor as the primary power source.

The primary advantages of this would have been:
 * Increased power generation compared to RTGs, allowing scientists and engineers more flexibility in both mission design and operations.
 * Increased spacecraft longevity.
 * Increased range and propulsion power.
 * Extra power for high speed data transmission.

Missions
Missions planned to involve Prometheus Nuclear Systems and Technology included:
 * Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter
 * Exploration of the Jovian moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Originally planned to be the first mission of Project Prometheus, it was deemed too complex and expensive, and its funding was cut in the 2006 budget. NASA instead considered a demonstration mission to a target closer to Earth to test out the reactor and heat rejection systems, possibly with a spacecraft scaled down from its original size.

Technology
Project Prometheus was focused on Nuclear electric propulsion:

Development of spacecraft powered by nuclear reactors to generate electricity. Brayton cycle turboalternators were selected for power generation. This electricity would then be used to run ion engines. It did not study nor pursue nuclear thermal propulsion (e.g. NERVA).

NASA's Prometheus reactor was to be built by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Naval Reactors in Washington, D.C., per an agreement signed in August 2004. The reactor would have generated 200,000 watts of power for the propulsion and instruments of a spacecraft.

Collaboration
The project was managed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Spacecraft design contracts were awarded to Boeing, Lockheed-Martin, and Northrop Grumman.

Project Prometheus would have had substantial involvement of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

Naval Reactors, which oversees the nuclear reactor program of the U.S. Navy, was to participate in the design and construction of the reactors for the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO).

In addition to Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory in Schenectady, New York, Bettis Laboratory in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and other supporting Department of Energy national laboratories participated in the Prometheus cooperation.

In September 2004, JPL chose Northrop Grumman Space Technology to co-design the projected Prometheus spacecraft. The awarded contract was worth around $400 million.

title: Project Prometheus


text:
Songkhla Lake

Songkhla Lake (ทะเลสาบสงขลา,, ) is the largest natural lake in Thailand. It is on the Malay Peninsula in the southern part of the country. Covering an area of 1,040 km2 it borders the provinces of Songkhla and Phatthalung. Despite being called a lake, it is actually a lagoon complex.

The lake is divided into three distinct parts. The southern part opens with a 380 m wide strait to the Gulf of Thailand at the city of Songkhla. Here it contains brackish water about half the salinity of seawater. Further north, after a narrowing to 6 km width, is the Thale Luang (782.80 km2). At the northern end between mangrove swamps is the 28 km2 Thale Noi in Phatthalung Province. The most striking feature is the long 75 km long spit which separates the lake from the sea. Unlike most spits, it was probably formed when originally existing islands were connected by silting from the lake precursor.

Ramsar wetlands
The Phru Khuan Khi Sian wetlands near the Thale Noi Lake have been protected as a Ramsar wetland since 1998. It is part of the larger Thale Noi Non-Hunting Area, created in 1975.

Kuan Ki Sian of the Thale Noi Non-Hunting Area is at 07º50’N 100º08’E in a non-hunting area, Phatthalung. Just north of the very large Thale Luang (Lake Songkhla complex) in the south of the country, it is one of the few surviving intact freshwater wetland ecosystems in Thailand. Among the specific wetland types found here are lake, marsh, Melaleuca (also termed "paperbark") swamp forest, paddy fields, and swamp grasslands.

"Kuans" are islands free of water for most of the year in the Melaleuca swamp forest. Kuan Ki Sian is a knoll at 0–2 meters above mean sea level in the Thale Noi area. The Thale Noi area is home to more than 5,000 families, almost all of whom rely on resource extraction or other land use within the area. Activities include fishing, cattle grazing, cultivation, mat-making and tourism. The site is visited by more than 200,000 visitors annually.

Irrawaddy dolphin
A small population of Irrawaddy dolphins is found in Thale Luang, near the Si-Ha Islands of Phatthalung. They are threatened with extinction by overfishing and pollution. The IUCN Red List shows several populations, including those in the Mahakam River and Malampaya Sound, as critically endangered. As of March 2024, it is thought there are 14 individuals in the lake.

title: Songkhla Lake


text:
Talk:Desperado (Eagles album)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 November 2023
Change identification of Eagles band members in cover art of Desperado album, to L-R Don Henley, Glenn Frey, Randy Meisner, Bernie Leadon 2600:100C:B2F2:F7FB:3C5E:8C8:4241:A10E (talk) 23:59, 15 November 2023 (UTC)
 * . It's album cover art, not a band bio. WWGB (talk) 00:13, 16 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Desperado (Eagles album)


text:
Eltz

The House of Eltz is a noted German noble family, belonging to the Uradel. The Rhenish dynasty has had close ties to the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia since 1736.

History
Though older sources mentioned one Eberhard zu Eltz, a Frankish citizen of Trier in the late 7th century, the otherwise first recorded instance of the name occurred in 1157, when Rudolph zu Eltz was mentioned as witness to the donation of a property deed by Emperor Fredrick Barbarossa. At that time, Eltz lived in a small manor on the banks of the River Elz, a tributary of the Moselle, in what is now the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The family members had been ministeriales and loyal supporters of the Imperial Hohenstaufen dynasty. In the early 14th century they inherited the Vogtei over Rübenach near Koblenz, a possession of Imperial Abbey of St Maximin at Trier. Eltz Castle was built in the early 12th century on a site that held a 9th-century manor house with a simple earthwork palisade. Before 1268 three brothers shared the ownership of the castle and it was kept jointly by their descendants, the Kempenich, Rodendorf and Rübenach branches until 1815 when it was taken over by the Kempenich branch, which still owns it today.

From 1331 until 1336 the Eltz were stuck in a fierce feud with mighty Baldwin of Luxembourg, then Elector and Prince-Archbishop of Trier enforcing his acknowledgement as their suzerain, whereafter the Eltz family remained vassals of the Trier archbishops. In 1324 Pope John XXII had appointed Canon Arnold von Eltz Prince-Bishop of Cammin in Pomerania against the resistance of King Louis IV. Robin von Eltz served as Master of the Livonian Order from 1385 until 1389. Canon Jakob zu Eltz was elected Prince-Archbishop of Trier in 1567; he was one of the strongest champions of the Counter-Reformation and allied himself with the Jesuits in opposing Lutheran and Calvinist influence in the region.

In 1624, Hans Jakob zu Eltz was given the hereditary office of Field Marshal for the Electorate of Trier. This made him the supreme military commander of the region in time of war, including leader of the vassals on this important region of the Holy Roman Empire. The Eltz family, Imperial Knights since 1729, reached their greatest influence with Philipp Karl von Eltz-Kempenich, from 1732 Prince Elector and Archbishop of Mainz and German Archchancellor, making him the most noble and one of the most powerful Catholic princes north of the Alps. As a result of their service throughout the troubles of the Reformation and during the wars against the Ottoman Empire, the elder line of Eltz were awarded the title of Reichsgrafen (Counts of the Empire) by the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1733 in Vienna. The additional "Great Palatinate" privilege entitled the Eltz lords to knight others in the name of the Emperor, select notaries public, legitimate illegitimate children, confer coats of arms and crests, appoint judges and clerks, and release serfs from service.

In 1736 Archbishop Philipp Karl von Eltz had acquired the Lordship of Vukovar in eastern Slavonia (present-day Croatia) affiliated with the Hungarian nobility. From 1749 onwards his heirs had Eltz Manor erected, the main residence of the Grafen von und zu Eltz until the family was expelled by the Yugoslav communist regime in 1945. After Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia, Jakob Eltz returned to Croatia and as a naturalized citizen became a member of the new Sabor parliament, where he represented Vukovar. During the Battle of Vukovar, the Eltz Manor in Vukovar was destroyed by intense shelling and the bodies in the Eltz tomb desecrated by Serbian forces. Jakob Eltz, then in his 70s, personally took part in the defence of the city.

Notable members

 * Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach (1875-1943), Reich Minister of Mail and Transport from 1932 until 1937

title: Eltz


text:
A Course of Pure Mathematics

A Course of Pure Mathematics is a classic textbook in introductory mathematical analysis, written by G. H. Hardy. It is recommended for people studying calculus. First published in 1908, it went through ten editions (up to 1952) and several reprints. It is now out of copyright in UK and is downloadable from various internet web sites. It remains one of the most popular books on pure mathematics.

Contents
The book contains a large number of descriptive and study materials together with a number of difficult problems with regards to number theory analysis. The book is organized into the following chapters.

 * I. REAL VARIABLES
 * II. FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLES
 * III COMPLEX NUMBERS
 * IV LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS OF A POSITIVE INTEGRAL VARIABLE
 * V LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS OF A CONTINUOUS VARIABLE. CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
 * VI DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS
 * VII ADDITIONAL THEOREMS IN THE DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
 * VIII THE CONVERGENCE OF INFINITE SERIES AND INFINITE INTEGRALS
 * IX THE LOGARITHMIC, EXPONENTIAL AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE
 * X THE GENERAL THEORY OF THE LOGARITHMIC, EXPONENTIAL AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

Review
The book was intended to help reform mathematics teaching in the UK, and more specifically in the University of Cambridge and in schools preparing to study higher mathematics. It was aimed directly at "scholarship level" students – the top 10% to 20% by ability. Hardy himself did not originally find a passion for mathematics, only seeing it as a way to beat other students, which he did decisively, and gain scholarships.

Online copies

 * Third edition (1921) at Internet Archive
 * Third edition (1921) at Project Gutenberg
 * First edition (1908) at University of Michigan Historical Math Collection

Other

 * A Course of Pure Mathematics at Cambridge University Press (10 e. 1952, reissued 2008)

title: A Course of Pure Mathematics


text:
Raw foodism

Raw foodism, also known as rawism or a raw food diet, is the dietary practice of eating only or mostly food that is uncooked and unprocessed. Depending on the philosophy, or type of lifestyle and results desired, raw food diets may include a selection of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, eggs, fish, meat, and dairy products. The diet may also include simply processed foods, such as various types of sprouted seeds, cheese, and fermented foods such as yogurts, kefir, kombucha, or sauerkraut, but generally not foods that have been pasteurized, homogenized, or produced with the use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, solvents, and food additives.

The British Dietetic Association has described raw foodism as a fad diet. Raw food diets, specifically raw veganism, may diminish intake of essential minerals and nutrients, such as vitamin B12. Claims made by raw food proponents are pseudoscientific.

Varieties
Raw food diets are diets composed entirely or mostly of food that is uncooked or that is cooked at low temperatures.

Raw animal food diets
Raw animal food diets include any animal that can be eaten raw, such as uncooked, unprocessed raw muscle-meats/organ-meats/eggs, raw dairy, and aged, raw animal foods such as century eggs, fermented meat/fish/shellfish/kefir, as well as vegetables, fruits, nuts, and sprouts, but in general not raw grains, raw beans, and raw soy. Raw foods included on such diets have not been heated above 40 °C. "Raw Animal Foodists" believe that foods cooked above this temperature have lost much of their nutritional value and are harmful to the body. Smoked meats are frowned upon by many Raw-Omnivores. Some make a distinction between hot-smoked and cold-smoked.

Diet examples

 * The "People's Primal Potluck", anopsology (otherwise known as "instinctive eating"), and the "Raw Paleolithic Diet" (otherwise known as the "raw meat diet").
 * The "primal diet" consists of fatty meats, organ meats, dairy, honey, minimal fruit and vegetable juices, and coconut products, all raw.
 * The "raw Paleolithic diet", is a raw version of the (cooked) Palaeolithic diet, incorporating large amounts of raw animal foods such as meats/organ-meats, seafood, eggs, and some raw plant-foods, but usually avoiding non-Paleo foods such as raw dairy, grains, and legumes.

The founder of the Primal Diet is Aajonus Vonderplanitz, a resident of Malibu, California. It has been estimated by Aajonus Vonderplanitz that there are 20,000 followers of his raw-meat-heavy Primal Diet in North America, alone.

 * Aboriginal diets consisted of large quantities of raw meats, organ meats, and berries, including the traditional diet of the Nenets tribe of Siberia, and the Inuit.
 * Pemmican is the traditional North American travel food, prepared from dried meat, fat, and berries.

Raw veganism

Raw veganism has rarely been practised in history, but it became a fad in the 21st century. A raw vegan diet consists of unprocessed, raw plant foods that have not been heated above 40-49 °C. Typical foods included in raw food diets are fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and sprouted grains and legumes.

Among raw vegans are subgroups, such as "fruitarians", "juicearians", or "sproutarians". Fruitarians eat primarily or exclusively fruits, berries, seeds, and nuts. Juicearians process their raw plant foods into juice.

The British Dietetic Association named the raw vegan diet one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018", raising a concern that it could compromise long-term health.

History
Early documentation of raw food dieting has been associated with hermits and monks practising asceticism. For example, John of Egypt, a hermit from the Nitrian Desert, lived on a diet of dried fruit and vegetables for fifty years; he never ate anything cooked. Documented evidence of a commitment to raw food was by the Ethiopian monk Qozmos, who in the late 1300s CE committed to the ascetic discipline of eating only uncooked food. This posed a problem for his Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church monastery because he refused to eat the bread of the Eucharist, which is cooked. As a result, he fled the church and went to live with the Jewish community of the Beta Israel.

Contemporary raw food diets were first developed in Switzerland by Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939), who was influenced as a young man by the German Lebensreform movement, which saw civilization as corrupt and sought to go "back to nature"; it embraced holistic medicine, nudism, free love, regular exercise and other outdoors activity, and foods that it judged were more "natural". Bircher-Benner eventually adopted a vegetarian diet, but took that further and decided that raw food was what humans were really meant to eat; he was influenced by Charles Darwin's ideas that humans were just another kind of animal and Bircher-Benner noted that other animals do not cook their food. In 1904 he opened a sanatorium in the mountains outside of Zurich called "Lebendinge Kraft" or "Vital Force", a technical term in the Lebensreform movement that referred especially to sunlight; he and others believed that this energy was more "concentrated" in plants than in meat, and was diminished by cooking. Patients in the clinic were fed raw foods, including muesli, which was created there. These ideas were influential to Ann Wigmore, a notable raw food advocate, but were dismissed by scientists and the medical profession as quackery.

One of the earliest books to advocate raw foodism was Eugene Christian's Uncooked Foods and How to Use Them, 1904. Other proponents from the early part of the twentieth century include Californian fruit grower Otto Carque (author of The Foundation of All Reform, 1904), George Julius Drews (author of Unfired Food and Trophotherapy, 1912), Bernarr Macfadden and Herbert Shelton. Drews influenced John and Vera Richter to open America's first raw food restaurant "The Eutropheon" in 1917.

Shelton was arrested, jailed, and fined numerous times for practising medicine without a license during his career as an advocate of rawism and other alternative health and diet philosophies. Shelton's legacy, as popularized by books like Fit for Life by Harvey and Marilyn Diamond, has been deemed "pseudonutrition" by the National Council Against Health Fraud.

In the 1970s, Norman W. Walker (inventor of the Norwalk Juicing Press) popularized raw food dieting. Leslie Kenton's book Raw Energy – Eat Your Way to Radiant Health, published in 1984, added popularity to foods such as sprouts, seeds, and fresh vegetable juices. The book advocates a diet of 75% raw food, which it claims will prevent degenerative diseases, slow the effects of aging, provide enhanced energy, and boost emotional balance; it cites examples such as the sprouted-seed-enriched diets of the long-lived Hunza people and Gerson therapy, an unhealthy, dangerous and potentially very harmful raw juice-based diet and detoxification regime claimed to treat cancer.

In the 21st century, raw food diets (particularly those focused on raw milk, raw eggs and raw meat) have been popularized and politicized as part of a broader "right-wing bodybuilder" movement centered around hypermasculinity, physical fitness, fascination with ancient civilizations and opposition to feminism and mainstream modern culture.

Claims
Claims held by raw food proponents include:
 * That heating food above 104-118 F degrades enzymes in raw food that aid digestion, when in fact enzymes in food play no significant role in the digestive process, prior to being digested themselves.
 * That raw foods have higher nutrient values than foods that have been cooked, when in fact cooking affects nutrient contents variably – depending on the plant food and cooking method – and may actually increase availability of fat-based nutrients, such as vitamin E and beta-carotene.
 * That foods cooked at high temperatures, especially meat, may contain harmful toxins, including trans fatty acids produced by heating oil, acrylamide produced by frying, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Not all cooked food contains harmful chemicals, and a diet containing a mix of cooked and raw food is normal. According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear whether acrylamide consumption affects the risk of cancer. Public health authorities recommend reducing consumption of overly cooked starchy foods or meats.

Health effects

A raw food diet is likely to impair the development of children and infants. Care is required in planning a raw vegan diet, especially for children, as there may not be enough vitamin B12, vitamin D, and calories for a growing child on a totally raw vegan diet.

Food poisoning is a health risk for all people eating raw foods, and increased demand for raw foods is associated with greater incidence of foodborne illness, especially for raw meat, fish, and shellfish. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis among consumers of raw and undercooked animal products (including smoked, pickled or dried animal products ) are well-documented, and include raw meat, raw organ meat, raw fish (whether ocean-going or freshwater),   shellfish, raw milk and products made from raw milk,  and raw eggs.

One review stated that "Many raw foods are toxic and only become safe after they have been cooked. Some raw foods contain substances that destroy vitamins, interfere with digestive enzymes or damage the walls of the intestine. Raw meat can be contaminated with bacteria which would be destroyed by cooking; raw fish can contain substances that interfere with vitamin B1 (anti-thiaminases)"

title: Raw foodism


text:
User talk:David a

looking four info on weatelandes .and looking four my writes as a owner of my owen swamp.?is there anye way to getting a tax brack.

title: User talk:David a