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Ricardo Flores Magón

Cipriano Ricardo Flores Magón (, known as Ricardo Flores Magón; September 16, 1874 – November 21, 1922) was a Mexican anarchist and social reform activist. His brothers Enrique and Jesús were also active in politics. Followers of the Flores Magón brothers were known as Magonistas. He has been considered an important participant in the social movement that sparked the Mexican Revolution.

Biography

Ricardo was born on 16 September 1874, in San Antonio Eloxochitlán, Oaxaca, an Indigenous Mazatec community. His father, Teodoro Flores, was Zapotec and his mother, Margarita Magón was a Mestiza. The couple met each other in 1863 during the Siege of Puebla when both were carrying munitions to the Mexican troops.

Magón explored the writings and ideas of many early anarchists, such as Mikhail Bakunin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, but was also influenced by anarchist contemporaries Élisée Reclus, Charles Malato, Errico Malatesta, Anselmo Lorenzo, Emma Goldman, and Fernando Tarrida del Mármol. He was most influenced by Peter Kropotkin. He also read from the works of Karl Marx and Henrik Ibsen.

He was one of the major thinkers of the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican revolutionary movement in the Partido Liberal Mexicano. Flores Magón organised with the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and edited the Mexican anarchist newspaper Regeneración, which aroused the workers against the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.

Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread, which Flores Magón considered a kind of anarchist bible, served as basis for the short-lived revolutionary communes in Baja California during the "Magonista" Revolt of 1911.

The Magón brothers were from a family of modest means in Oaxaca and all three studied law at the Escuela Nacional de Jurisprudencia (today Faculty of Law of the UNAM). Ricardo initially attended the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria. During this time, he participated in student opposition to President Porfirio Diaz and he was jailed for five months. Nevertheless, he graduated and then transferred to the National School of Law. While there, he worked as a proofreader for the student newspaper El Demócrata and narrowly escaped arrest when the entire staff was arrested by the police. He was in hiding for three months but continued his studies and received his law degree in 1895 and passed the examination of the Barra Mexicana-Colegio de Abogados (Mexican Bar and Advocate's College). He practiced law for a short time and continued to study for a higher degree but was expelled from the school in 1898 because of his political activities. In 1900, he and his brother Jesús founded the newspaper Regeneración in which Ricardo wrote numerous articles attacking Diaz. He also wrote articles for the opposition periodicals Excelsior, La República Mexicana, and El Hijo del Ahuizote. He joined the PLM in 1900.

Flight to the United States
In 1904, Magón fled Mexico when the courts banned the printing of his writings and he remained in the United States for the remainder of his life. Half this period was spent in prison. He resumed publication of Regeneración and led the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) (Mexican Liberal Party) from abroad. In 1906, he went to California. Around this time PLM uprisings occurred in Mexico which were crushed by the Mexican government. The US sympathized with the Mexican government and started taking PLM leaders in the US into custody. Magón was fearful that he would be caught and be returned to Mexico, where he faced the possibility of execution.

In 1907, an American detective by the name of Thomas Furlong was employed by Enrique Creel, at that time governor of Chihuahua, to locate Mexican dissidents in the U.S. The American headquarters of the PLM was in St. Louis at that time. There were a large number of expatriates who knew of its whereabouts and as a result, Furlong had no difficulty locating the dissidents in the city. Magón, however, was living in great secrecy in Los Angeles. He used a pseudonym, and only two other persons in the city knew his real identity. If they needed to see him, they did so between midnight and dawn. The dissidents in St. Louis soon became aware that they were being sought by agents working for the Mexican government. Librado Rivera left the city in order to evade capture and although he was constantly on alert for agents who might be shadowing him, he failed to elude them. He was followed to Los Angeles and to Magón's place of residence. Furlong kept the house under surveillance for some time. Finally, on August 23, 1907, Magón, Rivera and Antonio Villarreal were taken into custody by Furlong, two of his assistants and some officers from the Los Angeles police department.

Magón and other PLM members had organized a brigade of revolutionaries in Douglas, Arizona in the years preceding his move to Los Angeles. An expedition was sent to the Cananea copper mines about thirty miles from the southern border of Arizona with the alleged intention of exterminating all Americans employed in and about the mines. The brigade had been pursued by the Arizona Rangers who put them to flight, capturing a few of them. Magón and his companions were extradited to Tombstone, Arizona where they were charged with violating U.S. neutrality laws. Although the American and Mexican left rallied to their defense, they were convicted and sentenced to eighteen months in Yuma Territorial Prison, later being transferred to Arizona State Prison Complex – Florence. They were released in 1910 and again resumed publishing Regeneración from an office in downtown Los Angeles. The Mexican Civil War began that same year, and the Magonistas, as the PLM forces were known, were involved in combat throughout Mexico, along with the forces of Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Venustiano Carranza and Francisco I. Madero.

By May 1911, Diaz was defeated. Madero organized an election, which he won by deceiving the Mexican electorate into believing that he had joined forces with the PLM. Magón continued to oppose the vast American economic presence in Mexico, and Madero's continuing expropriation of peasant lands. He was arrested again. After two years in prison in Washington state, he was released and settled with brother Enrique in Edendale, just north of the Silver Lake Reservoir. The PLM had no funds by this time, and the brothers and their friends farmed and raised chickens on the rented plot of land. He continued publishing Regeneración and making speeches in the region. One of the places Magon stayed was in the city of El Monte, part of the San Gabriel Valley in Los Angeles County. During his time in El Monte, Magon wrote letters to comrades in Mexico, as well was involved in local anarchist activities while supporting himself and family picking up work in local ranches in the area. He was again arrested in 1916, accused of sending "indecent materials" through the U.S. Mail. With the help of Emma Goldman, he made bail.

In 1918, he published an anti-war manifesto. In this he wrote, "The death of the old order is at hand. It is being whispered in the bars, theatres, streetcars and homes, especially in our homes, the homes of those at the bottom." For these writings, he was charged with sedition under the Espionage Act of 1917, convicted and sentenced to twenty years for "obstructing the war effort", a violation of the Espionage Act of 1917. The Wilson administration conducted what were called the Palmer Raids, a wholesale crackdown on war dissidents and leftists that also swept up notable socialists such as Eugene V. Debs. Magón died at Leavenworth Penitentiary in Kansas. He had been suffering from diabetes for many years and was losing his eyesight by the time of his death.

The cause of Flores Magón's death has been disputed. Some believe that he was deliberately murdered by prison guards. Others contend that he died as a result of deteriorating health caused by his long imprisonment, possibly exacerbated by medical neglect by Leavenworth Penitentiary officials and staff. Magón wrote several letters to friends complaining of debilitating health problems and of what he perceived to be purposeful neglect by the prison staff.

The Mexican Chamber of Deputies adopted a resolution requesting the repatriation of Magón's body. It stated,

"The undersigned Deputies, animated by the desire of rendering posthumous homage to the grand Mexican revolutionary, Ricardo Flores Magón, martyr and apostle of libertarian ideas, who has just died poor and blind in the cell of a Yankee prison, propose that this honorable Assembly pass the following resolution: That there be brought to rest in the soil of his native land, at the expense of the Mexican Government, the mortal remains of Ricardo Flores Magón. We request that this be acted upon immediately without reference to committee.

(Signed) Julian S. Gonzalez, Antonio G. Rivera, E. Baron Obregon, J. M. Alvarez Del Castillo, A. Diaz So'ro Y Gama, and others"

- Hall of the Mexican Congress, Mexico, D.F., November 22, 1922

The U.S. authorities denied the request and Magón was buried in Los Angeles. His remains were finally repatriated in 1945 and interred at the Rotunda of Illustrious Persons in Mexico City.

Legacy
Flores Magón's movement fired the imagination of both American and Mexican anarchists. In 1945, his remains were repatriated to Mexico and were interred in the Rotonda de los Hombres Ilustres in Mexico City. In Mexico, the Flores Magón brothers are considered left-wing political icons nearly as notable as Emiliano Zapata; numerous streets, public schools, towns and neighborhoods are named after them. His ideas have also inspired indigenous leaders from Oaxaca, Mexico including the Chatino leader Tomas Cruz Lorenzo.

In 1991, Douglas Day published The Prison Notebooks of Ricardo Flores Magón, a fictional diary covering Flores Magon's life from his birth in Oaxaca until his mysterious death in his cell at Leavenworth.

In 1997, an organization of indigenous peoples of Mexico in the state of Oaxaca formed the Popular Indigenous Council of Oaxaca "Ricardo Flores Magón" (Consejo Indígena Popular de Oaxaca "Ricardo Flores Magón", or CIPO-RFM), based on the philosophy of Magón.

Playwright
In his work of popular education, Ricardo Flores Magón also used the theater to denounce the faults of society and outline the main lines of the libertarian "program". He is the author of two plays: Verdugos et victimas and Tierra y Libertad. He is also the author of numerous tales, published in the newspaper Regeneración.

title: Ricardo Flores Magón


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Lattice gauge theory

In physics, lattice gauge theory is the study of gauge theories on a spacetime that has been discretized into a lattice.

Gauge theories are important in particle physics, and include the prevailing theories of elementary particles: quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and particle physics' Standard Model. Non-perturbative gauge theory calculations in continuous spacetime formally involve evaluating an infinite-dimensional path integral, which is computationally intractable. By working on a discrete spacetime, the path integral becomes finite-dimensional, and can be evaluated by stochastic simulation techniques such as the Monte Carlo method. When the size of the lattice is taken infinitely large and its sites infinitesimally close to each other, the continuum gauge theory is recovered.

Basics
In lattice gauge theory, the spacetime is Wick rotated into Euclidean space and discretized into a lattice with sites separated by distance $$a$$ and connected by links. In the most commonly considered cases, such as lattice QCD, fermion fields are defined at lattice sites (which leads to fermion doubling), while the gauge fields are defined on the links. That is, an element U of the compact Lie group G (not algebra) is assigned to each link. Hence, to simulate QCD with Lie group SU(3), a 3×3 unitary matrix is defined on each link. The link is assigned an orientation, with the inverse element corresponding to the same link with the opposite orientation. And each node is given a value in $$\mathbb{C}^3$$ (a color 3-vector, the space on which the fundamental representation of SU(3) acts), a bispinor (Dirac 4-spinor), an nf vector, and a Grassmann variable.

Thus, the composition of links' SU(3) elements along a path (i.e. the ordered multiplication of their matrices) approximates a path-ordered exponential (geometric integral), from which Wilson loop values can be calculated for closed paths.

Yang–Mills action
The Yang–Mills action is written on the lattice using Wilson loops (named after Kenneth G. Wilson), so that the limit $$a \to 0$$ formally reproduces the original continuum action. Given a faithful irreducible representation ρ of G, the lattice Yang–Mills action, known as the Wilson action, is the sum over all lattice sites of the (real component of the) trace over the n links e1, ..., en in the Wilson loop,

 * $$S=\sum_F -\Re\{\chi^{(\rho)}(U(e_1)\cdots U(e_n))\}.$$

Here, χ is the character. If ρ is a real (or pseudoreal) representation, taking the real component is redundant, because even if the orientation of a Wilson loop is flipped, its contribution to the action remains unchanged.

There are many possible Wilson actions, depending on which Wilson loops are used in the action. The simplest Wilson action uses only the 1×1 Wilson loop, and differs from the continuum action by "lattice artifacts" proportional to the small lattice spacing $$a$$. By using more complicated Wilson loops to construct "improved actions", lattice artifacts can be reduced to be proportional to $$a^2$$, making computations more accurate.

Measurements and calculations

Quantities such as particle masses are stochastically calculated using techniques such as the Monte Carlo method. Gauge field configurations are generated with probabilities proportional to $$e^{-\beta S}$$, where $$S$$ is the lattice action and $$\beta$$ is related to the lattice spacing $$a$$. The quantity of interest is calculated for each configuration, and averaged. Calculations are often repeated at different lattice spacings $$a$$ so that the result can be extrapolated to the continuum, $$a \to 0$$.

Such calculations are often extremely computationally intensive, and can require the use of the largest available supercomputers. To reduce the computational burden, the so-called quenched approximation can be used, in which the fermionic fields are treated as non-dynamic "frozen" variables. While this was common in early lattice QCD calculations, "dynamical" fermions are now standard. These simulations typically utilize algorithms based upon molecular dynamics or microcanonical ensemble algorithms.

The results of lattice QCD computations show e.g. that in a meson not only the particles (quarks and antiquarks), but also the "fluxtubes" of the gluon fields are important.

Quantum triviality
Lattice gauge theory is also important for the study of quantum triviality by the real-space renormalization group. The most important information in the RG flow are what's called the fixed points.

The possible macroscopic states of the system, at a large scale, are given by this set of fixed points. If these fixed points correspond to a free field theory, the theory is said to be trivial or noninteracting. Numerous fixed points appear in the study of lattice Higgs theories, but the nature of the quantum field theories associated with these remains an open question.

Triviality has yet to be proven rigorously, but lattice computations have provided strong evidence for this. This fact is important as quantum triviality can be used to bound or even predict parameters such as the mass of Higgs boson. Lattice calculations have been useful in this context.

Other applications
Originally, solvable two-dimensional lattice gauge theories had already been introduced in 1971 as models with interesting statistical properties by the theorist Franz Wegner, who worked in the field of phase transitions.

When only 1×1 Wilson loops appear in the action, lattice gauge theory can be shown to be exactly dual to spin foam models.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lattice gauge theory


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Skrull

The Skrulls are a race of extraterrestrial shapeshifters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. They first appeared in Fantastic Four #2 and were created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. They originated from the planet Skrullos and their empire is located in the Andromeda Galaxy. Their infiltration of Earth was a major event in the Marvel Comics universe as shown in the crossover event Secret Invasion.

The Skrulls have made numerous appearances in animated television and video games before making their live-action cinematic debut in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Captain Marvel (2019). Skrulls have also appeared in Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019) and the Disney+ series WandaVision, What If...? (both 2021) and Secret Invasion (2023), and the film The Marvels (2023).

Publication history

The Skrulls first appeared in Fantastic Four #2 and were created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. The Skrulls next appear in Fantastic Four #18. The four who impersonated the members of the Fantastic Four next appear in The Avengers #92. The concept of the Skrulls would be explored and used throughout multiple storylines, spin-off comics, and derivative projects.

Fictional history
Millions of years ago, in the main Marvel continuity, the Celestials perform genetic experiments on the reptilian ancestors of the Skrulls, resulting in three branches of Skrulls: the Prime, the Deviants, and the Eternals. Eventually, the three branches battled with one another and the Deviant branch – due to possessing the innate ability to shapeshift – were triumphant, and wiped out all members of the other two races until only two were left: the Skrull Eternal Kly'bn, and the Prime Skrull of the original non-Deviant Skrull race. Kly'bn implored them to spare his life, as killing him would kill part of their heritage. The Deviants' leader Sl'gur't eventually fell in love with Kly'bn, with the two eventually becoming the gods of the Skrull pantheon. Taking the name the Prime Skrull, the last original Skrull escaped to Earth in the 20th century and later became a member of the Underground Legion. From that point on, the Skrulls began to expand their territory. The Deviant branch later split into two more groups, the modern Skrulls and an anomaly called the Dire Wraiths.

The Skrulls originated from the planet Skrullos, and were originally a mercantile civilization, primarily interested in free trade and willing to share their technology with all races they deemed worthy. When they encountered a new race, they simply transformed themselves to resemble that race. The Skrull Empire that resulted from these contacts was based on free trade and mutual cooperation.

Kree–Skrull War
Eventually, the Skrulls developed long-distance space travel; a great tour of the universe was undertaken, led by Emperor Dorrek. Finally, the Skrull delegation reached the planet Hala, home to the then-barbaric Kree and the peaceful Cotati, and held a contest to determine which of the races would represent Hala to the Skrull Empire. Seventeen members of each race were taken to different uninhabited planetoids, where they were left with sufficient supplies for one year. At the end of that period, whichever group had done the most with themselves would be adjudged the most worthy. The Kree were taken to Earth's Moon where they built a great city, while the Cotati were taken to another barren world in a different solar system and used their abilities to create a beautiful park. Realizing that the Cotati were going to win, the enraged Kree killed all of them. When the Kree revealed that they had solved the question of who would represent Hala to the Skrulls by destroying their opposition, the Skrull delegates were appalled and vowed that Hala would forever be banned from their circle of favored worlds—so the Kree massacred them as well, took over the Skrull landing spaceship by force, and developed their own technology from it.

Because of the immense distances involved, decades passed before the Skrulls learned of the Kree's activities. By this time, however, it was too late. The Kree were now advanced and audacious enough to attack the Skrulls in their home galaxy. During the millennia that followed, the Kree aggression forced the Skrulls to become a militaristic civilization, and the Skrulls eventually developed the vicious streak needed to conduct intergalactic war. Their entire culture was remade in the warrior image. The Kree–Skrull War continued for thousands of years with only brief interruptions. The Skrull Throneworld is later moved from Skrullos to the more central Tarnax IV, with their empire encompassing over fifty worlds. The Skrulls also created the first Cosmic Cube, which later became the Shaper of Worlds; the Shaper related that, upon attaining self-awareness, he lashed out blindly, destroying two-thirds of the Skrull Empire and casting the civilization back into barbarism (suggesting this occurred before the war with the Kree broke out).

The Kree Accuser Ronan had wrested control of the Kree Empire from the Supreme Intelligence and attacked the Skrulls, reigniting hostilities. The Avengers become involved once the Super-Skrull kidnapped Captain Marvel and, in turn, they battled a Kree Sentry robot, three of the four original Skrulls that had fought the Fantastic Four, S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, rogue Inhumans and legions of Skrulls. The Supreme Intelligence ended the immediate conflict by revealing to the Avengers' ally Rick Jones that he had vast mental potential, which was then used to freeze all combatants in place. The Supreme Intelligence announced that, while the Kree and Skrulls had reached genetic dead ends, the human race displayed incredible untapped potential. It is revealed years later that the conflict produced a Kree-Skrull hybrid, the Hulkling, who was the child of one-time lovers Captain Marvel and the Skrull Princess Anelle.

Empire-changing events
The Skrulls became aware of Earth when they discovered a space warp linking Earth and Throneworld. Later, they discovered Earth possesses an equidistant link to Hala. They see Earth as a world to conquer, but they are content to hold off a full invasion. Because of their caution, the Skrulls have sent only a handful of scout warriors to infiltrate Earth, but failed to take into account the presence of the modern superhero.

In 1958, Skrulls attempted to sabotage Earth's space program. They battled the 3-D Man, and set the Cold Warrior against the 3-D Man. Later, a small scouting party used their shape-shifting powers to impersonate the Fantastic Four, committing crimes so the country would turn against the Fantastic Four, the only ones with the power to stop them at the time. But the Fantastic Four were able to locate the Skrulls and tricked their leaders into believing the Earth was full of threats. The fleet left and Mr. Fantastic made three of the four Skrulls that were left behind shape-shift into cows and he hypnotized them to remember nothing about their true heritage.

In retaliation, the Skrull Emperor Dorrek VII dispatched Kl'rt, a Skrull who was made into the Super-Skrull, to Earth to defeat the Fantastic Four. Kl'rt possessed the combined powers of the entire Fantastic Four (in addition to shape-shifting and hypnotism), and he held the team at bay until Mister Fantastic discovered the source of his power and used a miniature device to jam the ray, before the Human Torch imprisoned him inside a crater. The Super-Skrull posed as the jailed Dr. Franklin Storm, after transporting him to the Skrull Throneworld, and battled the Fantastic Four as the Invincible Man. Another Skrull, ultimately caused the death of Dr. Storm by attaching a bomb to his chest before he was transported back, but Storm turned to the floor, saving the Fantastic Four. The Fantastic Four later traveled to Tarnax IV and found the Skrull responsible for the murder of Susan and Johnny Storm's father (which turned out to be the Skrull Warlord Morrat). Skrulls were involved in other events, such as sending the Super-Skrull to battle Captain Mar-Vell, and abducting the Thing as a contestant in the Skrull Games.

Later, the cosmic being Uatu the Watcher adjudicates a duel between champions from both races: Colonel Bel-Dann of the Kree and Warlord Raksor of the Skrulls. After one year of conflict, the duel remained deadlocked and was ultimately abandoned, with no resolution. Years later, during a conflict with Xandar that included the Fantastic Four and the Champions of Xandar, Emperor Dorrek VII's wife Empress R'klll staged a coup and killed him to become ruling Empress.

Empress R'klll's reign was short-lived, however, as the greatest blow to the Skrulls arrived in the form of the World Devourer Galactus. After his Herald Nova annihilated the Skrull fleet, Galactus devoured Tarnax IV, killing 7 billion Skrulls, including R'klll and Princess Anelle. With the destruction of the central government, the Skrull Empire collapsed into hundreds of bickering factions. Their galaxy was filled with Governors who declared themselves to be Emperor of the Skrulls and soon, a civil war began. The Shi'ar maintained a heavy presence in the former Empire as well, constantly dealing with pockets of resistance.

Second Kree–Skrull War
Later, Reed Richards discovered that yet another Governor-turned-Emperor, Zabyk, had created a genetics bomb, which, when it exploded, made all the Skrulls lose their shape-shifting abilities. Whatever form they were in, they were stuck in at the time of the explosion.

In desperation, since without their shape-shifting powers they were vulnerable, they managed to kidnap the herald of Galactus Nova in an attempt to get Galactus to destroy Kree worlds for them. Their plot failed when the Silver Surfer helped Galactus rescue Nova in exchange for his freedom from Earth.

When the Celestials made an appearance, this scared the Skrulls into starting a second war with the Kree to show they were not powerless. The attack was first made by Kylor, one of five governors claiming to be Emperor. He had a spy in the Kree Empire, Nenora, who gave him the early edge. They tried to hide their secret weakness at all costs from the Kree.

Kylor was eventually betrayed by Nenora, as was the entire Skrull race. She assumed power of the Empire and wished to keep it for herself. It was Empress S'byll who stepped up to control the Skrulls and finish the war. She was able to resurrect the Super-Skrull and he returned to find the empire in shambles. They tricked the Silver Surfer into attacking a Badoon fleet, which he was not aware were allied with the Kree. Since the Kree waged war on the Surfer, he allied himself with the Skrulls to save Zenn-La from destruction.

To restore their powers, the Super-Skrull's DNA needed to be transferred to S'byll, because only a female could spread the ability to the other Skrulls. The Surfer helped them to power a machine that would return the Empress' shape-shifting abilities. The device was successful. With this power, she was able to restore every Skrull she touched and became the true Empress of the Skrulls.

She and the Super-Skrull waged war with the Kree with the help of the Silver Surfer. She replaced the Super-Skrull with Captain Reptyl and he helped to change her into an emotionless reptile. But Reptyl was betrayed by one of his own and the Skrull fleet was utterly destroyed by the Kree. S'byll and the Silver Surfer went alone to attack the Kree homeworld of Hala.

Gaining the knowledge that Nenora was actually a Skrull gave them the advantage. S'byll gave her shape-shifting abilities back to her, crippling her and showing the Kree her true self. A peace treaty was created.

The Skrulls eventually broke that peace treaty, as they kept their military drive and prefer to fight rather than negotiate. Among the other races contained within the Skrull Empire are the Druff, Guna, Kallusina, Morani, Pheragot, Queega, Tekton, and Yirbek races. Other races remain independent, whether through treaties or open resistance. Such races include the Clegrimites, Gegku, Krylorians, Wilameanis, and Xandarians. The Skrull-Xandarian war with the Xandarians recently ended with the destruction of Xandar by the supervillainess Nebula.

Other activities
Skrulls are, meanwhile, involved in numerous other activities. They were revealed to have conquered a medieval planet and abandoned it after its inhabitants perished. Skrull Prime Ten battled the Fantastic Four and Captain Mar-Vell. The Skrulls sent their own representative to witness the fate of the Phoenix, at her trial by the Shi'ar. There is a lone appearance of Queen Akilll of the Skrulls. A lone Skrull poisoned Vera Gantor to force the Avengers to seek the Resurrection Stone on his behalf. The Skrulls sent General Zedrao to give the dying Captain Mar-Vell the Royal Skrull Medal of Honor. The Skrulls had captured a Kree spy who had infiltrated into the Skrulls by using a symbiote.

Warskrulls
A group of genetically-bred Skrulls called the Warskrulls began infiltrating the Shi'ar Empire. They used a Nexus Amplifier to assume total physical discorporation of their targets, adopting their superpowers along with their physical appearance. They captured and replaced the Starjammers with members of their race, as well as key components in government. The Warskrulls, acting under the direction of the paramount among them, posing as a Shi'ar called the Chamberlain, began committing murders and even genocide upon various Shi'ar affiliated races, such as the P!ndyr, in the name of the Shi'ar Empire. One Warskrull replaced the Imperial Consort, Professor X, called himself Warlord, and took mental control over Lilandra, the Majestrix of the Shi'ar. They were eventually defeated by the combined forces of Deathbird and the X-Men and later the Shi'ar vowed to weed out any other Warskrulls.

Infiltrating Earth
Some time later, a Skrull called Paibok the Power Skrull mounted a campaign to invade Earth, using another Skrull called Lyja as an infiltrator. The plan involved secretly replacing the real Alicia Masters, the Thing's blind lover. The plan fell through when she instead seduced the Human Torch and the two eventually married one another. The long-running facade eventually came to light and the group discovered that the real, human Alicia was actually being held captive by the Skrull nation and Lyja defected, having fallen in love with the Human Torch. The Fantastic Four rescued her, but Lyja seemingly died in the process as she sacrificed herself to save Johnny when Paibok attacked.

Paibok later revealed to Devos the Devastator that she was still alive. Paibok, with the assistance of Devos, awoke Lyja from her comatose state and gave her the power to fly and fire energy blasts from her hands (she called herself "Lyja the Lazerfist"). These powers were later revealed to come from a special device implanted in her. Joining them in search of vengeance, the three arrived on Earth, and battled the Torch at Empire State University. The Torch panicked, used his nova flame and destroyed the campus. Alongside Devos and Paibok, Lyja witnessed a battle between the Fantastic Four and an alternate Fantastic Four. However, Lyja still bore feelings for the Torch and once again betrayed her cohorts to side with the Fantastic Four. This ended with the Fantastic Four destroying the "Skrull War World", the Skrulls' largest attack ship.

Cadre K
A group of Skrulls traveled to Earth, where they began plotting to invade the planet once again. They were, however, at some point approached by Apocalypse, who wanted to lure together 12 powerful mutants that he needed to ascend to godhood. At the same time, the body of the Living Monolith, who had been hurled out into the far reaches of space by Thor, is found and brought back to Earth. On Earth, a mutant Skrull named Fiz snuck into Xavier's mansion to tell them urgent news of trouble: the Skrulls have allied themselves with someone powerful and the only thing he knows is that there are 12 mutants that cannot be harmed and that something terrible is going to happen. Fiz also reveals the existence of a subtype of Skrulls that possess innate powers like Earth's mutants. Deemed outcasts by the other Skrulls, they were hunted by the Empire.

After the eventual defeat of Apocalypse, Professor X went into space to train them, giving them the name Cadre K. Cadre K and Xavier returned to Earth during the Ruul's attempt to overtake the planet by turning it into an intergalactic prison. A wounded Z'Cann attempted to pass on vital information to Rogue. Their physical contact affected Rogue's powers for some time. The information was received and the X-Men were reunited with Bishop.

Annihilation
The Skrull Empire is the first of the major interstellar empires to be invaded by the forces of Annihilus. The Annihilation Wave's superweapon, the Harvester of Sorrow, physically destroys dozens of Skrull planets. In the aftermath, the Skrulls unsuccessfully attempt to convince the Hulkling to become their new Emperor.

The Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire
A group of Warskrulls attacked a remote Shi'ar space station and took it over. Disguised as Shi'ar, they were taken aboard the space station willingly and slaughtered all those aboard, except a few needed to keep working the ship. The group, however was eventually defeated by a group of X-Men (Darwin, Havok, Marvel Girl, Nightcrawler, Professor X and Warpath). These Warskrulls are, however, revealed to be cyborgs.

Secret Invasion
In the Secret Invasion series by Brian Michael Bendis and Leinil Yu, a flailing Skrull Empire, under the leadership of newcomer Queen Veranke, made an all-out effort to infiltrate and conquer Earth. It was revealed that the Skrulls had infiltrated Earth for quite some time by capturing and replacing many of Earth's heroes. They followed this infiltration with their main assault group. This wave of Skrulls then formed new versions of the Super-Skrull, with each possessing the abilities of several different heroes. Their invasion ultimately failed, costing the life of Veranke, and reducing their numbers even further. Even their gods were slain, and the Japanese God of Evil Amatsu-Mikaboshi took over their Pantheon, leading to the events of Chaos War.

Re-establishing the Empire and Infinity
After the events of Secret Invasion, the Skrulls, now reduced in numbers, became very segmented with various factions rising up around Warlords that began plotting to rise back to power by orchestrating events for their own benefit.

During the Infinity storyline, several planets that the Skrulls settled on began being targeted by the Builders and while the Silver Surfer tried to save most of them, the Skrulls' population was once more decimated. Kl'rt the Super-Skrull later represented the Skrull Empire as a member of the Galactic Council. After the Avengers' victory over the Builders and Thanos, Kl'rt becomes the new Emperor of the Skrulls, where they settle on Tarnax II.

Meanwhile, Cadre K had settled on a ranch in South Dakota, while another group of Skrulls remain undercover on Earth as the "Warner" family, who are gathering data for the next Skrull invasion. The Warner family participate in day-to-day life, but end up stranded on Earth, completely cut off from the Empire.

Infinity Countdown
During the search of the Infinity Stones in the Infinity Countdown storyline, Razor reveals the true origin of the Tree of Shadows; according to Razor, the Tree of Shadows was created eons ago by one of the Elders of the Universe known as the Gardener, who tried to bring life to the Null Space and planted it in the Darkforce Dimension. Eventually the Null Space and the Tree of Shadows were discovered by a more prehistoric version of the Shi'ar and the Skrulls, a find that erupted in a war between the two alien races. The war raged until one member of the Shi'ar was able to grasp one of the seeds of the Tree. His physiology, fear and beliefs shaped the birth of the most vicious killing machine the universe had ever seen, the first Raptor and while the Skrulls, being shape-shifters, were still able to hold out against the Shi'ar, they eventually were nevertheless slaughtered by Raptor Prime, a creature of instinct and adaptation which quickly learnt to use their enemies' shape-shifting abilities as well.

Empyre
In the "Road to Empyre," Teddy Altman is made a mysterious offer at the cost of leaving Billy Kaplan. He accepts the offer which was to become the new ruler of the Kree-Skrull Alliance, adopting the mantle of "Dorrek VIII," and beginning the preparations of invading the Earth for "the final war."

General G'iah, under the alias of "Gloria Warner", sends an encrypted message to the Skrull High Command about the progress of Project Blossom. Her mate, Colonel Klrr, uses the alias of "Carl Warner" and they have three daughters named Alice, Ivy, and Madison. After losing her husband to their handler and rescuing Ivy, General G'iah obtains a sample of a Cotati from a lab while explaining the history of the Kree and the Skrull's feud. At their motel, they are ambushed by a Kree operative. General G'iah leads her daughters to track the assailant to a Kree family. After G'iah's daughters prevent her from retaliating against them, the patriarch of the Kree family that blew up their motel room suddenly receives a message on his Kree-tech cellphone by Dorrek VIII, stating to all Kree and Skrull soldiers in the field that the Kree and Skrull armadas have united to face a common enemy. They are coming to Earth to destroy them as he speaks. The enemy is eventually revealed to be the Cotati, who are returning, as well as the Celestial Messiah. In the Kree/Skrull Alliance, Dorekk VIII has gained Captain Glory, Mur-G'nn, Tanalth the Pursuer, and the Super-Skrull as his inner circle. When the Avengers learned about the Cotati's true motives, they decided to work together to fight the Cotati and prevent them from eliminating all animal life. As Dorekk VII allows the Black Panther to wield the Sword of Space, Captain Glory has a private chat with Tanalth the Pursuer and his scans reveal that she is not a Kree. It is revealed that Tanalth the Pursuer is actually Empress R'Klll in disguise, having survived the destruction of Tarnax IV. When Captain Glory states that her grandson spent too much time with the humans, R'Klll notes that it brought out the Hulking's heroism and states that they will have to do something about that.

Biology
Skrulls are green-skinned reptilian humanoids with large pointed ears, red or green eyes, and chins with several vertical folds in the skin below their mouths. Skrulls are known for genetic and molecular instability and genetic diversity, due to Celestial experimentation creating the Skrull Deviants. The Skrulls are known for their physical malleability and ability to shapeshift to any size, shape, or color at will, taking on the appearance but not the characteristics of other beings and objects. Skrulls are able to assume virtually any form, be it organic (e.g., cows ) or inorganic (e.g., lamps ). As a result, the Skrulls excel at spying and infiltration. Skrulls are also able to use their shapeshifting abilities to form weapons (e.g., blades and clubs) with parts of their bodies, making them dangerous hand-to-hand combatants. Their sexual dimorphism is roughly the same of a human being, with the exception that the males are mostly bald and have no facial hair, while females have full head of greenish-black hair, but their sexual orientation is more complex, since they can change their genders at will. Indeed, Xavin once casually said that, for a Skrull, changing gender is comparable to a human being changing their hair color. As for their reproductive system, just like the other reptilians, the females do not give live birth, but instead lay eggs and the newborns are known as "hatchlings". However, despite being reptilian, the females also possesses hair and mammary glands to nurture their newborn, just like a human being.

The Skrulls later developed the ability to render themselves undetectable when using their shapeshifting abilities, even from telepaths and those with superior senses. Reed Richards discovered a method to use technology to negate this ability and reveal a disguised Skrull's true form.

Courtesy of their advanced technology, the Skrulls have also been able to augment their abilities in certain warriors, such as the Super-Skrull, Power Skrull and the Warskrulls—all elite groups who, with special encoding, are able to emulate the powers as well as the appearance of their biophysical templates or are bestowed entirely unique supertropical abilities all their own (in the case of Paibok).

The Skrulls have been shown to suffer from various diseases. Some Skrulls are born with a defect that makes them unable to shapeshift, however, this defect also enhances their strength to those Skrulls including Titannus, Talos and Raze. The Skrulls can also suffer from cancer, as shown with Kl'rt the Super-Skrull and Prince Klundirk. In an alternate universe, Skyppi suffered from a form of tuberculosis which was common to the Skrull species.

Just like the Kree, the Skrull were evolutionarily stagnant, unable to evolve. However, over the millennia Skrull mutants have been born with the K-gene (as opposed to the human mutant X-Gene), meaning that now this might not be the case anymore.

After a Skrull dies, they revert to their original form.

Language
The Skrull species speak a variety of languages and dialects, including: Skrullos, Skrullian, the Irdu dialect, the Tligi dialect and the Frti dialect. While the Prime Skrulls had their own language, however, it was forgotten as their species was extinct.

Art
Since the Skrulls are a warrior race, it is hard for them to grasp almost any kind of representational art.

Religion
The main Skrull religion is the "Dard'van Sect", their "True Faith", which worships Sl'gur't and Kly'bn. It is unknown about the relation between Zorr'Kiri and the actual pantheon.

In Deadpool vs. Thanos #3, it is revealed that the Skrull equivalent of Hell is called the Shapeless Wastes.

Known Skrulls

 * Al'arok – A Skrull who posed as a Zenn-Lavian known as "Tallian Pay" to gain entrance for Skrulls to Shalla-Bal; deported after his attempt to kill the Silver Surfer failed; committed suicide to prevent capture by Kree who had disabled the Skrull starship he was on.
 * Anelle – Skrull princess and the only child of Emperor Dorrek VII and Empress R´Klll; heir to the Skrull Empire and the mother of the Hulkling (Dorrek VIII/Teddy Altman). Killed when Galactus consumed their Throneworld.
 * Aptak – A Skrull trapped in a female Waziliah form by the Hyper-Wave Bomb. She is the lover of Nenora.
 * Akilll – A Skrull representative to witness the fate of Phoenix, on trial by the Shi'ar.
 * Ard'ran – A fourth-rank Skrull engineer who participated in the Skrull's invasion upon San Francisco. She had the telepathic abilities of any telepathic member of the X-Men.
 * Bag'le –
 * Bartak – A Skrull who posed as the Silver Surfer.
 * Baryn – A Skrull who helped in liberating Prince Dezan.
 * Bellok – Member of the "S-Men" also known as the Ice-Boy.
 * Broodskrulls – A group of Brood/Skrull hybrids.
 * Cadre K – A group of "K-Class Deviant Skrulls" who have powers and physical appearances unlike other Skrulls. They oppose the killing of their kind by the Empire in the name of racial purity. Cadre K was led by Professor X.
 * Fiz – A mutant Skrull who journeyed to Earth to join the X-Men. Fix assisted in the battle against Apocalypse. He led Skrull mutants to rebel against the Slave-Drivers. He left Earth with the others and Professor X to find a new homeworld. Fiz could alter his size and mass.
 * Goroth – A Skrull that has stretching abilities.
 * Nuro – A Skrull that has the ability to elongate his body.
 * R'Tee – A Skrull that has the ability to project spikes from his arms and head.
 * Spunje – A Skrull that has the ability to absorb and reflect energy.
 * Z'Cann – The leader of Cadre K. She was captured by the Intergalactic Council. Z'Cann is a telepath.
 * Carnival – Slavers who were using a carnival to attract and capture humans as slaves. They were encountered by the New Mutants and fled in their starship, but left one behind.
 * Gragnon – Skrull slaver.
 * Rekxorm Sebastian – Skrull slaver.
 * Ch'gra – A delegate in Queen Veranke's court.
 * Ch'rith – A Skrull Lieutenant who participated in the Skrull's invasion upon San Francisco.
 * Chrell – A Skrull Commander entrusted by Queen Veranke to train her army and slay the Hulkling. Chrell possessed the combined powers of Mister Fantastic, the Invisible Woman, the Human Torch, and the Thing. Chrell self-destructed trying to eliminate the Young Avengers and the Runaways.
 * Criti Noll – A Skrull who was chosen to pose as Hank Pym. The first version tried to warn the diner owner that served her good food, only to be killed by the Skrull posing as Dum Dum Dugan. A second version stays with the cause, also having the combined powers of Black Panther and the Vision.
 * Dakr't –
 * Dalx – Skrull diplomat and cultural attaché.
 * De'Lila – A Skrull thief who sought the Inorganic Technodrone. She was then taken by the Skrulls.
 * Dezan – The brother of Dorrek VII. He was long imprisoned due to his pacifist nature and branded a traitor to the Skrull Empire.
 * De'zean – The father of Xavin and the current Prince of Tarvax VII.
 * Dharr – A Skrull Lieutenant.
 * Dorrek I – A Skrull King who reigned during the Skrull's first encounter with the Kree.
 * Dorrek VII – Former Emperor of the Skrulls. Killed by his wife R'Klll.
 *  – The Skrull Royal Priest of Science. A Skrull scientist who experimented and discovered the advancements that allowed the Skrull Empire to infiltrate Earth on a massive scale.
 * Dzirot – A Skrull who participated in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco. He died in battle.
 * Ethan Edwards – A Skrull who was a Marvel Comics pastiche of Superman.
 * Evh'ser – A Skrull adjutant who participated in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco.
 * Ewe'fareek – Uncle to Xavin in the comic book Runaways.
 * Flaw – A Skrull who served in the Shi'ar's Death Commandos.
 * Fremn –
 * Fry'lu – A Skrull telepath who existed during the reign of Dorrek VII.
 * Galan – The Skrull Priest of Science.
 * Godkiller – A specially-bred female Super-Skrull that has the powers of Battleaxe, Thundra, Titania, and Volcana. She was also genetically modified to wield Beta Ray Bill's hammer, Stormbreaker.
 * Gorth – A Skrull who was the governor of a Skrull colony.
 * Granok –
 * Grrix – The Skrull Ambassador at S.W.O.R.D.
 * H. Warren Craddock Impostor – A Skrull who impersonated H. Warren Craddock.
 * Hagar – A Skrull who serves as the High Judicator in the Skrull courts.
 * Henkor –
 * H'kurrek – Fanatical Skrull Commander that commanded the part of the Secret Invasion directed against the X-Men.
 * Hokk Algol – A Skrull who is a member of the War Crimes Tribunal.
 * Host –
 * H'rpra – A Skrull who posed as Mockingbird.
 * Hs'fld –
 * The Hulkling (Dorrek VIII/Teddy Altman) – Theodore "Teddy" Altman, a Kree/Skrull hybrid, the son of Anelle and the Kree Captain Mar-Vell. He is a member of the Young Avengers, with the codename "the Hulkling".
 * The Intelligencia – A Skrull being that was a composite of the greatest Skrull minds. It was created by the Skrulls to serve as their version of the Supreme Intelligence.
 * Jaketch – A Skrull who served as an apprentice executioner of the Skrull jury.
 * Jaq –
 * Jash – A Skrull Lieutenant who participated in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco.
 * Jazinda – A Skrull bounty hunter and the daughter of Kl'rt the Super-Skrull.
 * Jora'thrll – A Skrull who participated in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco.
 * K'eel R'kt – A Royal Science Officer of the Skrull Empire and only survivor of the Builders' destruction of the Skrull planet Hy'lt Minor. He was saved by the Silver Surfer and transported to the orbital headquarters of S.W.O.R.D., where he offered his services to them against the war with the Builders.
 * K'and'rr – A Skrull Commander of the 7th Fleet.
 * K'arr'N –
 * K'rtem – A Skrull who was an old comrade of Z'Reg.
 * K'Targh –
 * The Knights of the Infinite – A group of Kree/Skrull hybrids who believed in a prophecy about uniting the two empires and becoming their protectors.
 * Dorrek Supreme – The group's leader and the first wielder of the sword "Excelsior".
 * M'ryn - A member of the group who founded the prophecy and father of Mur-G'nn. Killed by the wizard Moridun to be used as body for the latter.
 * K'kyy – A female member of the group. She assisted in kidnapping Dorrek VIII in order for the latter to become King of the new Empire.
 * Lan-Zarr – A member of the group. He guided Dorrek VIII through the test to see if he was Dorrek Supreme reincarnated.
 * Mur-G'nn – A female member of the group. She assisted in kidnapping Dorrek VIII.
 * Varra – A female member of the group. She is killed by Moridun, who wanted to possess the Wiccan.
 * K'vvvr – A Skrull Commander who is the son of K'and'rr. He led the Skrull attack upon Wakanda.
 * Kalamari – A Skrull General and ally of Paibok the Power Skrull.
 * Kalxor – A Skrull who serves as a Commander for Dorrek's armada.
 * Karant Kiar – A Skrull Prelate of the Skrull Empire's 7th Quadrant who was a witness at the trial of Galactus.
 * Karza –
 * K'thron –
 * Kerth – A Skrull who was a slave of the Broker.
 * Kholdsor –
 * Khn'nr – A Skrull who posed as the original Captain Marvel. He turned against the other Skrulls.
 * Kl'rt/Super-Skrull – A Skrull who had the combined powers of the Fantastic Four and became the first Super-Skrull.
 * Kly'bn – The last surviving Skrull Eternal, who became a Skrull God.
 * Korya – A female Skrull that is the lover of the Yeti.
 * Kradhal –
 * Kravo –
 * Kreddik –
 * Krellek Council –
 * Krillik –
 * Krimonn the Power Prism – A Skrull transformed into a sentient power object after a failed coup d'état.
 * Kylak –
 * Kylor – A Skrull Governor who was a competitor for the title of Skrull Emperor.
 * Lyja – A Skrull who infiltrated the Fantastic Four and married Johnny Storm while impersonating Alicia Masters.
 * Magnitude – A Super-Skrull who has the combined powers of the Banshee, Havok, Polaris, and Sunfire. He was sent to infiltrate the Point Men until he was exposed and killed by Delroy Garrett.
 * Meg'ror –
 * Melugin –
 * Moloth - A Skrull who is the handler of G'iah and Klrr.
 * Morfex – A Skrull who is a member of the Star Masters.
 * Morrat – A Skrull Warlord who is responsible for the death of Franklin Storm.
 * Mrok – A Skrull soldier.
 * M'Lanz – A Skrull Warbride, she was tasked to stop Tel-Kar from retreating his symbiote (Venom) and getting a Skrull bio-weapon after Tel-Kar killed her two sisters. She teamed up with Eddie Brock as the Sleeper to defeat Tel-Kar.
 * Muraitak – A Skrull that joined the Xandarian Nova Corps and served under Queen Adora.
 * Myrn – A Skrull who is a longtime friend of Zabyk and Dezan and the creator of the Hyper-Wave Bomb. After Myrn had Zabyk don an insulated armor that is said to protect him from the bomb's effects, Myrn was killed by Zabyk.
 * N'ala –
 * Nenora – A former Skrull spy that was trapped in Kree form after being hit by a Hyper-Wave Bomb. She is the lover of Aptak.
 * Nogor – A Skrull who posed as Longshot. He is the talisman of the Skrulls and the representation of the Skrulls' Gods.
 * Nuro –
 * Orf –
 * Pagon – A Skrull who posed as Elektra after Siri's demise. Killed by Echo as part of a suicide mission.
 * Paibok/Power Skrull –
 * Pitt'o Nili – A Skrull who posed as Captain America (and was brainwashed to be him) who came from a downed ship in the Savage Land. Killed by Shanna the She-Devil after being hit by a poisonous dart that had a huge effect on Skrulls.
 * The Prime Skrull – Only surviving member of the original non-Deviant Skrull race.
 * The Prime Ten – Ten unnamed Skrulls who sought to obtain Mister Fantastic's matter/energy transmitter.
 * Ptakr –
 * Purnlr – A Warskrull who was killed in battle with the Kree.
 * R'Tee –
 * Raava – A rogue Skrull pirate that struck back against the Skrull Empire following the deaths of her off-spring, Skragg and Raavaka. In the wake of her carnage, she was sentenced to a lifetime at a secret deep-space torture prison. There, she made acquaintances with fellow prisoners Metal Master, Blinky, Absorbing Man, and Black Bolt, with whom she eventually tried to escape.
 * Rachman –
 * Raksor – A Skrull who oversaw the Phoenix trial.
 * Rale –
 * Raze – A Skrull bounty hunter who cannot shapeshift, but is capable with hand-to-hand combat, athletic abilities, and carries an assortment of knives and guns. He is the brother of Vranx.
 * Replica – A young female Skrull who was part of the Guardians of the Galaxy.
 * Ripan – A Skrull who was a second-in-command to Kylor.
 * R'Klll – Wife of Dorrek VII. She killed her husband and took over the Empire in his place. She was apparently killed when Galactus consumed Tarnak IV but turned up alive, having posed as Tanalth the Pursuer.
 * R'Kin – A short Skrull who served as fleet mechanic. Even though he is small, he has super-strength.
 * Rl'nnd – Son of Rm'twr. Rl'nnd is an undercover X-Skrull agent participating in the Secret Invasion. He has displayed the combined powers of several X-Men. Killed by Ms. Marvel.
 * Rm'twr – Father of Rl'nnd. He was killed by Ms. Marvel.
 * Ryga'a – Wife of Kree Soh-Larr and mother of Dorrek Supreme.
 * S'Bak – A Skrull Baroness.
 * Samuel J. Skrull –
 * Sar T'llrk – A Skrull "Soul Shepherd" who participated in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco. Killed by Cyclops.
 * S'Byll – A Skrull Empress who restored the Skrull's shapeshifting ability.
 * Sarnogg – A Skrull who is the son of Kl'rt.
 * The Sensational Hydra – A Skrull spy that works for HYDRA.
 * She-Thing Impostor – An unnamed Skrull who posed as the She-Thing. Killed by the Skrull Kill Krew.
 * Siri – A Skrull who impersonated Elektra. She was killed by the real Elektra.
 * Skragg – A Skrull pirate/mercenary that served Thanos.
 * The Skrull Beatles – Skrulls who posed as members of the Beatles.
 * John the Skrull – The last surviving member of the Skrull Beatles. A member of MI: 13.
 * Skrull-X – A Skrullian robot who can mimic the powers of the X-Men in a manner similar to Mimic.
 * The Skrulls of Kral – A group of Skrulls that come from the planet Kral.
 * "Skrullverine" – An unnamed Skrull working for Apocalypse who was used to replace Wolverine at the time when Apocalypse turned Wolverine into the Horseman Death. This Skrull was later killed by Death.
 * Skypii – An elderly Skrull mechanic who was friends with Hercules 2300. Often assumed female form and was working as a human female model when he and Hercules first met. As the "retirement plan" for Skrull workers was execution, he went into hiding in the form of a human female. Skypii chose a statue of Hercules to be his "death-form" in eternal tribute to his friend.
 * Sl'gur't – A Skrull Deviant who became a Skrull Goddess and mate to Kly'bn.
 * Ssrov – A Skrull Dropshift Captain who participates in the Skrull invasion upon San Francisco.
 * St'kr –
 * Syrro – A Skrull major.
 * Talos the Untamed – A Skrull who cannot shapeshift. However, the mutation that left him unable to shapeshift gave him an enormous amount of strength.
 * Tarna – A Skrull who is part of the Agents of Cosmos. She had a symbiote partner until Agent Venom became enraged and nearly killed it while stealing a ship, burning it with the ship's engine.
 * Tenelle –
 * Titannus – A Skrull who cannot shapeshift, but has been bio-engineered to possess immense strength and regeneration ability.
 * Trall –
 * Trl'k –
 * Valth –
 * Velmax (Effigy) – Founder of the superhero team the First Line; posing as a human hero, Effigy, with shape-shifting powers.
 * Veranke – The current Skrull Queen. She posed as Spider-Woman. Killed by Norman Osborn.
 * V'lrym –
 * Vranx – A Skrull technology user and brother of Raze.
 * Warpriest Kh'oja – A ruthless fanatic and an enemy of Power Pack.
 * The Warners – A group of Skrull spies posing as an ordinary American family to make way for a future invasion.
 * G'iah - A Skrull General who operated on Earth as Gloria Warner.
 * Klrr - A Skrull Colonel and G'iah's wife, who operated on Earth as Carl Warner. He was later killed by Moloth.
 * Alkss - The middle daughter of G'iah and Klrr, who operated on Earth as Alice Warner.
 * Ivy Warner - The youngest daughter of G'iah and Klrr.
 * Madison Warner - The oldest daughter of G'iah and Klrr.
 * The Warskrulls – A bunch of genetically-bred Skrulls who infiltrated the Shi'ar's culture to obtain power for the Skrull race.
 * Wor'il – Delegate in Dorrek's War Council.
 * Xalxor –
 * Xavin – A Super-Skrull in training and a member of the teenage superpowered group the Runaways. Xavin is the child of Prince De'zean of the Skrull planet Tarvax VII.
 * X'iv – A Super-Skrull assassin sent to assassinate the Hulkling. She has the combined powers of Daredevil, Elektra, and Cloak and Dagger.
 * Yorak –
 * Y'tll –
 * Zabyk – A Skrull warrior who was a childhood friend of Dezan and Myrn. He had Myrn construct a Hyper-Wave Bomb to use on his enemies. Under the advice of Myrn, he donned an insulated armor (even shifting his form to fit the unusual shape of its interior) that would protect him against its effects, but it failed, leaving his contorted body frozen inside and placing him in agony.
 * Zankor – An alien retconned into a Skrull.
 * Zedrao – A high-ranking Skrull General, notable for being on good terms with Earth's metahumans. Gave the dying Mar-Vell the Royal Skrull Medal of Honor, the highest honor in the Skrull military, for being a worthy rival.
 * Zirksu – A Skrull spy who assumed the alias of Diabolik.
 * Zkrodd – A Skrull General.
 * Z'Reg (the Crusader) – A Skrull who deserted his kind. He was formerly a member of the Initiative as the second Crusader.
 * Zuhn – A Skrull who was the partner of Velmax.
 * Zorr'Kiri – The Skrull Goddess of Love. Killed by Gorr the God Butcher.

Reception

 * In 2018, CinemaBlend included Skrulls in their "5 Marvel Villains We'd Love To See In Black Panther 2" list.
 * In 2022, CBR.com ranked The Skrulls 9th in their "Black Knight's 10 Strongest Villains" list.

Amalgam
In Amalgam Comics, the Skrull are the native inhabitants of Mars (having amalgamated DC's Green Martians with the Skrulls). Mister X (the Martian Manhunter and Professor X) is an example of a Martian Skrull.

Earth X
In the alternate universe limited series Earth X, Thanos dwelled in the Realm of the Dead with the entity Death. It is revealed his mother was a Skrull and Death used her secret to make him believe that Death was his mother.

Hulk: The End
In the one-shot issue Hulk: The End, an alien Recorder robot tells an elderly Bruce Banner, the last human on the planet, that the death of the human race was widely celebrated throughout the universe, so much so that the Kree and the Skrulls had settled their differences in celebration.

Squadron Supreme
The Skrullian Skymaster (real name Skymax) is a founding member of the Squadron Supreme and possesses abilities matching the Super-Skrull from Earth-616. The character first appeared in flashback in Squadron Supreme #1 (1989), and appeared in more detail in Squadron Supreme: New World Order.

On Earth-712, the Skrull Empire has been at war with the Kree Empire. In an attempt to end the bloodshed, the Skrull Empire created a means to imbue their soldiers with extraordinary powers to vanquish the Kree. Skymax was the first and the only soldier subjected to the experiments, because the World Devourer destroyed the Skrull homeworld. Sk'ym'x was in the vicinity of Earth when his starship malfunctioned. He was rescued by American astronaut Joe Ledger (who would later become Doctor Spectrum). Grateful for his rescue, Skymax gave Ledger a Power Prism, which Ledger used to become the costumed adventurer Doctor Spectrum, while Skymax became the costumed adventurer known as the Skrull. Skymax and Ledger both became founding members of the Squadron Supreme, and Skymax remained with the team until member Tom Thumb repaired his ship, allowing him to return to space. Skymax realized that the damage to his ship was beyond repair despite Tom Thumb's efforts, and he chose to remain on Earth in secret, searching for any possibility of other Skrull survivors. Not finding any, Skymax concluded that he was indeed the last of his race; he remained on Earth.

After the Squadron Supreme returned from their adventures on Earth-616, the sorcerer Mysterium sent the surviving members to retrieve others to help in the rebellion against the Global Directorate. Doctor Spectrum was sent after "the Watcher" and discovered Skymax. Renaming himself the Skrullian Skymaster and revealing his true origin to Doctor Spectrum, Skymax rejoined the Squadron Supreme and settled with them on Utopia Isle.

In the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" reality, the Skrullian Skymaster was established as a former member of the Squadron Supreme of America. While trying to break up the protests caused by mutants over a bill that would start the Mutant Registration Act, the Skrullian Skymaster killed Mystique with his flame attacks. This caused Rogue to use her life-draining powers to avenge her adoptive mother by killing the Skrullian Skymaster.

Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel reality, Skrulls are led by the billion-year-old Skrull Emperor Kl'rt, as their off shoot Chitauri exist whom they call terrorists. They have extremely advanced technology, but have not been observed to shapeshift. These Skrulls were seen only in an alternate timeline in which Reed Richards contacted their world via his teleporter; the events leading to that timeline were altered in Ultimate Fantastic Four #29 so that contact was never made.

MC2
In the MC2 universe, Torus Storm, the son of Lyja and Johnny Storm, is a Skrull/Human hybrid, who inherited the powers of both his parents.

Thirty years into the future
In an alternate timeline set 30 years into the future, the Skrull Empire was united with the Kree Empire under the rulership of Emperor Dorrek VIII and they were successful in eliminating all life on Earth.

Secret Invasion
On Earth-10021, the Skrulls were victorious in the end of Secret Invasion and the heroes were defeated. In this reality, the Skrulls were coexisting along with the humans on Earth and were seen by humans as people with good intentions. Despite helping the humans in medical care and technology, in reality, they are secretly turning the humans into Skrulls like themselves, including Norman Osborn, who had married Queen Veranke, while the heroes had been hiding in Wakanda, since now they were seen as criminals. In the end, the heroes spread a virus which killed every Skrull and the humans who had been turned into Skrulls, except for Osborn, who had been disguised as Iron Man. Osborn revealed that he had orchestrated the plan all along, but he was killed by Bucky Barnes. The heroes were then taken by the U.S. government as world criminals.

Television

 * The Skrulls appear in Fantastic Four (1967), Fantastic Four (1978), X-Men: The Animated Series, Fantastic Four, Silver Surfer, Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes (1994), and The Super Hero Squad Show.
 * The Skrulls appear in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes as part of an adaptation of the Secret Invasion storyline.
 * The Skrulls appear in the Avengers Assemble episode "Mojo World".
 * The Skrulls appear in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episodes "Deathlok" and "Guardians of the Galaxy".

Film
Actor Tye Sheridan revealed in a 2019 interview that the Skrulls were originally intended to be the main antagonists in an earlier cut of Dark Phoenix before they were replaced by the D'Bari amidst re-shoots.

Marvel Cinematic Universe
The Skrulls appear in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe:
 * They are introduced in the live-action film Captain Marvel (2019).  A faction of Skrull refugees led by Talos seek to escape a genocidal war waged by the Kree by coming to Earth to seek the aid of renegade Kree scientist Mar-Vell in devising a light-speed engine that could take the Skrulls to safety. On Earth, they meet Maria Rambeau, and Nick Fury. After Kree warrior "Vers" learns of her true identity as Carol Danvers, she helps defend Talos, his wife Soren, and the other Skrull refugees from a Kree attack before they leave Earth to find a new planet to settle on.
 * In the live-action film Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), Talos and Soren pose as Fury and Maria Hill respectively on Earth while Fury himself works with a group of Skrulls in space.
 * A Skrull appears in a mid-credits scene of the live-action miniseries WandaVision episode "The Series Finale", portrayed by Lori Livingston. They appear in Westview, New Jersey disguised as an FBI agent to inform Monica Rambeau that an old friend of Maria's needs help for an upcoming mission.
 * Alternate timeline versions of the Skrulls appear in the Disney+ animated series What If...? episode "What If... Thor Were an Only Child?" They attend Thor's Earth party alongside various other aliens and amuse Thor by assuming his appearance.
 * The Skrulls appear in the live-action series Secret Invasion. Fury and Talos join forces to tackle a plot by a rogue Skrull sect led by Gravik (portrayed by Kingsley Ben-Adir) to infiltrate and take over Earth that also involved enlisting scientists to help establish the Super-Skrull project. A rogues Skrulls have kidnapped world officials and replaced them, including James Rhodes and Everett Ross. Talos tells him that following the Blip, he summoned one million Skrull refugees to live on Earth. Angry that Fury failed on his promise to take care of them, Gravik orchestrates several terroristic attacks across many continents, kills Hill, Talos and other Skrulls that try to rebel against him, and attempts to instigate World War III. He and G'iah, Talos' daughter, use a machine to acquire the DNA from some Avengers, some Guardians of the Galaxy, the Black Order, and other enhanced individuals and become Super-Skrulls. G'iah ultimately kills Gravik, Fury kills Raava, Rhodes' imposter, and the rogue faction becomes defunct. In response to the invasion, the U.S. President initiates the Anti-Alien Act deeming Skrulls and other aliens public enemies. G'iah is recruited into MI6, while Fury's wife, Varra, joins him in space with S.A.B.E.R..
 * The Skrulls appear in the live-action film The Marvels (2023). They were refugees on the planet Tarnax and made a peace conversation with the Kree, organized by Fury, but before the arrival of Danvers, Monica Rambeau and Kamala Khan, the treaty was dissolved. After Kree leader Dar-Benn makes a jump point with a Quantum Band by mining Tarnax's atmosphere into Hala to restore its air, the remaining Skrulls were evacuated and taken away by Valkyrie.

Video games

 * Skrull Governor Kylor, identified as "Emperor", appears as a boss in Silver Surfer (1990).
 * The Skrulls appear in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance. When Galactus attacks the Skrulls' homeworld, the heroes are forced to fight his Punishers and Skrulls who refuse to believe that the heroes came to stop Galactus. After helping the Skrull Empress escape the planet, the player has the option of destroying Galactus' Optonic Drills before they destroy the Skrull homeworld. If the player stops the drills, the Skrulls will form a tentative partnership with Earth and will later come to their aid when the Kree threaten to enslave humanity. Otherwise, the loss of their homeworld will destabilize the sector of space it originally occupied and the Kree and Skrull go to war for decades, at the cost of millions of lives.
 * The Skrulls appear in Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer.
 * The Skrulls appear in Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet.
 * The Skrulls appear in Marvel Heroes.
 * The Skrulls appear in Pinball FX 2.
 * The Skrulls would have appeared in The Avengers.
 * The Skrulls appear in Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth.

title: Skrull


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Talk:Isoelectronicity

It seems that on the page http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Isoelectronic exactly the same text exists. How is this possible?

The above question was asked years ago, but I'll respond anyway. thefreedictionary.com mirrors all content of Wikipedia. There was no plagiarism involved; thefreedictionary.com simply copied the article. The GFDL allows, and encourages, such copying. - Pingveno 19:34, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Question about a specific pair of molecules (title added)
I have a question: Is SiF4 and SiCl4 isoelectronic species? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 218.186.9.4 (talk • contribs).

 * According to the definition given here, they are, because they have the same structure and the same number of valence electrons. I vaguely remember reading something that used a stricter definition which required the whole electron configurations to be the same, but I can't remember what it was. I probably just imagined it. =P —Keenan Pepper 04:48, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

 * No, you didn't imagine it. Ne, HF, H2O, NH3, and CH4 are all isoelectronic molecules. The definition which uses valence electons instead is a generalization of the former. Page 94 of Chemical Structure and Bonding by R.L. DeKock and H.B. Gray state this. --HappyCamper 00:30, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Now that I read this article, this needs a fixup... --HappyCamper 00:31, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

- No two elements are isoelectronic. They can only be isoelectronic if they have added an electron (negative charge) or lost an electron (positive charge). This is how Argon can be isoelectronic to Sulfur: S + 2 electrons = Ar, S^(-2) = S + 2 electrons; therefore, Ar is isoelectronic to S, if Sulfur has a negative 2 charge.

Significance?
Why would it be signioficant that two molecules are isoelectric? I was seeing notes in a couple of articles that they are isoelectric to carbon dioxide and my real reaction is: so? RJFJR 14:19, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

cysteine
"the amino acids cysteine and serine are also considered isoelectronic"

don't think so at all - S is not isolectronic to O, at all. Is this a biological usage that differs?83.100.250.79 (talk) 12:58, 2 September 2009 (UTC)

With the addition valence the statement stands in respect with respect to the given definitions of (valence) isoelectronicity.T.vanschaik (talk) 11:53, 19 September 2009 (UTC)

Clarifying the lede
I've just made an edit, dropping the term "molecular entity" from the lede - "chemical species" is more familiar .. and hopefully, in the context, sufficiently equivalent!

Later in the article the term "species" is used - with, in the context, the same meaning; and the change of terminology is distracting. (At best it requires a mental adjustment by the reader; at worst it draws the reader to click into IUPAC terminology swamps.)

The alternative was to level the terminology the other way (ie using "molecular entity" throughout rather than using "chemical species"). I'm not sure there's much to choose in terms of theoretical accuracy / precision. The Gold Book uses "molecular entity", but "chemical species" is more readily abbreviated (for fluency; to "species"), in the running copy, and "molecular entity" is so rarely used that in a lede it functions as a minor distraction in itself.

95.149.131.11 (talk) 17:22, 21 December 2016 (UTC) 95.149.131.11 (talk) 18:28, 21 December 2016 (UTC)

I'm also changing the order of the differing definitions! The Gold Book is clear, current and authoritative, and defines isoelectronicity in terms of valence electrons. (It simply omits core electrons from consideration.) It's possible to define it more tightly (or at least has been possible in the past). And the Advances Vol.30 reference considers more-inclusive ("relaxed") possibilities. But I can't see us doing anyone any favors by starting out in conflict with IUPAC. Alternative definitions need to come later in the lede.

Also - regarding authority, credibility etc - I'm dropping the free dictionary as a reference (as it gives no sources and is doubtless not compiled by chemists).

95.149.131.11 (talk) 05:10, 22 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isoelectronicity


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Warped product

Warped product $$F\times_f B$$ of two Riemannian (or pseudo-Riemannian) manifolds $$F=(F,h)$$ and $$B=(B,g)$$ with respect to a function $$f\colon B\to\R$$ is the product space $$F\times B$$ with the metric tensor $$g\oplus (f^2\cdot h)$$.

Warped geometries are useful in that separation of variables can be used when solving partial differential equations over them.

Examples
Warped geometries acquire their full meaning when we substitute the variable y for t, time and x, for s, space. Then the f(y) factor of the spatial dimension becomes the effect of time that in words of Einstein "curves space". How it curves space will define one or other solution to a space-time world. For that reason, different models of space-time use warped geometries. Many basic solutions of the Einstein field equations are warped geometries, for example, the Schwarzschild solution and the Friedmann–Lemaitre–Robertson–Walker models.

Also, warped geometries are the key building block of Randall–Sundrum models in string theory.

title: Warped product


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User talk:RalfZosel~enwiki

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in articles will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. -- Graham :) | Talk 11:58, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Hi Graham. This page should not be a test. I tried to install my home here at Wikipedia. Is a link to my "real" homepage not enough? In the german Wikipedia this seems to be allright. User:RalfZosel

It's fine if you do it at User:RalfZosel, not fine if you do it in main namespace, which is what you did. -- Graham :) | Talk 18:43, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, I'm sorry for that mistake. Thank you very much for your help :) User:RalfZosel

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called RalfZosel. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name RalfZosel~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:17, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 17:56, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:RalfZosel~enwiki


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Randall–Sundrum model

In physics, Randall–Sundrum models (also called 5-dimensional warped geometry theory) are models that describe the world in terms of a warped-geometry higher-dimensional universe, or more concretely as a 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter space where the elementary particles (except the graviton) are localized on a (3 + 1)-dimensional brane or branes.

The two models were proposed in two articles in 1999 by Lisa Randall and Raman Sundrum because they were dissatisfied with the universal extra-dimensional models then in vogue. Such models require two fine tunings; one for the value of the bulk cosmological constant and the other for the brane tensions. Later, while studying RS models in the context of the anti-de Sitter / conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence, they showed how it can be dual to technicolor models.

The first of the two models, called RS1, has a finite size for the extra dimension with two branes, one at each end. The second, RS2, is similar to the first, but one brane has been placed infinitely far away, so that there is only one brane left in the model.

Overview
The model is a braneworld theory developed while trying to solve the hierarchy problem of the Standard Model. It involves a finite five-dimensional bulk that is extremely warped and contains two branes: the Planckbrane (where gravity is a relatively strong force; also called "Gravitybrane") and the Tevbrane (our home with the Standard Model particles; also called "Weakbrane"). In this model, the two branes are separated in the not-necessarily large fifth dimension by approximately 16 units (the units based on the brane and bulk energies). The Planckbrane has positive brane energy, and the Tevbrane has negative brane energy. These energies are the cause of the extremely warped spacetime.

Graviton probability function
In this warped spacetime that is only warped along the fifth dimension, the graviton's probability function is extremely high at the Planckbrane, but it drops exponentially as it moves closer towards the Tevbrane. In this, gravity would be much weaker on the Tevbrane than on the Planckbrane.

RS1 model
The RS1 model attempts to address the hierarchy problem. The warping of the extra dimension is analogous to the warping of spacetime in the vicinity of a massive object, such as a black hole. This warping, or red-shifting, generates a large ratio of energy scales, so that the natural energy scale at one end of the extra dimension is much larger than at the other end:

 * $$\mathrm{d}s^2 = \frac{1}{k^2 y^2}(\mathrm{d}y^2 + \eta_{\mu\nu}\,\mathrm{d}x^\mu\,\mathrm{d}x^\nu),$$

where k is some constant, and η has "−+++" metric signature. This space has boundaries at y = 1/k and y = 1/(Wk), with $$0 \le 1/k \le 1/(Wk)$$, where k is around the Planck scale, W is the warp factor, and Wk is around a TeV. The boundary at y = 1/k is called the Planck brane, and the boundary at y = 1/(Wk) is called the TeV brane. The particles of the standard model reside on the TeV brane. The distance between both branes is only −ln(W)/k, though.

In another coordinate system,

 * $$\varphi\ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\ -\frac{\pi \ln(ky)}{\ln(W)},$$

so that

 * $$0 \le \varphi \le \pi,$$

and

 * $$\mathrm{d}s^2 = \left(\frac{\ln(W)}{\pi k}\right)^2\, \mathrm{d}\varphi^2 + e^\frac{2\ln(W)\varphi}{\pi} \eta_{\mu\nu}\,\mathrm{d}x^\mu\, \mathrm{d}x^\nu.$$

RS2 model
The RS2 model uses the same geometry as RS1, but there is no TeV brane. The particles of the standard model are presumed to be on the Planck brane. This model was originally of interest because it represented an infinite 5-dimensional model, which, in many respects, behaved as a 4-dimensional model. This setup may also be of interest for studies of the AdS/CFT conjecture.

Prior models
In 1998/99 Merab Gogberashvili published on arXiv a number of articles on a very similar theme. He showed that if the Universe is considered as a thin shell (a mathematical synonym for "brane") expanding in 5-dimensional space, then there is a possibility to obtain one scale for particle theory corresponding to the 5-dimensional cosmological constant and Universe thickness, and thus to solve the hierarchy problem. It was also shown that four-dimensionality of the Universe is the result of stability requirement, since the extra component of the Einstein field equations giving the localized solution for matter fields coincides with the one of the conditions of stability.

Experimental results
In August 2016, experimental results from the LHC excluded RS gravitons with masses below 3.85 and 4.45 TeV for ˜k = 0.1 and 0.2 respectively and for ˜k = 0.01, graviton masses below 1.95 TeV, except for the region between 1.75 TeV and 1.85 TeV. Currently, the most stringent limits on RS graviton production.

title: Randall–Sundrum model


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Sir Rawlinson

Sir Rawlinson may refer to:
 * Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet (1810–1895), British diplomat and orientalist
 * Sir Henry Rawlinson, a fictional character created by Vivian Stanshall, used most notably on the LP Sir Henry at Rawlinson End
 * Sir Christopher Rawlinson (1806–1888), Indian judge
 * Sir Robert Rawlinson (1810–1898), English engineer and sanitarian

title: Sir Rawlinson


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Mahesh Bhupathi

Mahesh Shrinivas Bhupathi (born 7 June 1974) is an Indian former doubles world No. 1 tennis player. In 1997, he became the first Indian to win a major tournament (with Rika Hiraki). With his win at the 2006 Australian Open mixed doubles, he joined the elite group of eight tennis players who have achieved a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. He is also the founder of International Premier Tennis League. In December 2016, Bhupathi was appointed as India's next non-playing Davis Cup captain and took over the reins from Anand Amritraj in February 2017.

1995–2006
Mahesh Bhupathi is considered one of the top doubles players of the 1990s and 2000s. In 1999, Bhupathi won three doubles titles with Leander Paes, including the French Open and Wimbledon. He and Paes became the first doubles team to reach the finals of all four Grand Slams, the first time such a feat has been achieved in the open era and the first time since 1952. On 26 April of that year, they became the world no. 1 doubles team. Bhupathi also won the US Open mixed doubles with Ai Sugiyama of Japan.

In 2006, Bhupathi teamed with Martina Hingis in the Australian Open mixed doubles competition. Entering the tournament unseeded and as wildcards, the first-time pair defeated four seeded opponents along the way, while only dropping a single set throughout. Bhupathi and Hingis defeated the sixth-seeded team of Daniel Nestor and Elena Likhovtseva in straight sets, 6–3, 6–3, to capture the championship. It was the sixth mixed doubles Grand Slam for Bhupathi, and the first one for Hingis. By winning the Australian Open, Bhupathi completed a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles.

2007–2008
In 2007, Bhupathi and Radek Štěpánek reached the 2007 Australian Open men's doubles event's quarterfinals. Bhupathi teamed with Štěpánek at the 2007 French Open to make the doubles semifinals, defeating two-year defending champions Jonas Björkman and Max Mirnyi in the quarterfinals. The team lost to the eventual champions Mark Knowles and Daniel Nestor. After Wimbledon, Bhupathi teamed with Pavel Vízner to win the 2007 Canada Masters, defeating the top-ranked doubles team Bob and Mike Bryan en route. After this victory, he won a tournament in New Haven with Nenad Zimonjić. At the 2007 US Open, he and Zimonjić paired in doubles. After the US Open, the team that beat Bhupathi and Štěpánek in the French Open semifinals, Knowles and Nestor, split up. Bhupathi became Knowles' partner, while Zimonjić became Nestor's, but back surgery meant he was out until the end of the year.

2009–2012
In 2009, Bhupathi and compatriot Sania Mirza won the mixed doubles title at the Australian Open, beating Nathalie Dechy and Andy Ram, 6–3, 6–1, in the final. The Indian pair thus made up for the disappointment of the previous year's final when they were beaten by Sun Tiantian and Nenad Zimonjić. With this win, Bhupathi's count in mixed doubles Grand Slam titles increased to seven.

Bhupathi broke up his partnership with Knowles and began playing once again with Max Mirnyi, with whom he played to win the 2002 US Open. In 2011, Bhupathi reunited with former playing partner Leander Paes for the 2011 Australian Open. The team reached the final, but lost 3–6, 4–6 to the Bryan brothers. On 7 June 2012, Bhupathi and Sania Mirza won the French Open mixed doubles. On 4 November 2012, Bhupathi and partner Rohan Bopanna won the Paris Masters cup. In spite of suffering a setback with their loss against Jonathan Marray and Frederik Nielsen in the ATP Tour Finals opener, the Indian duo reached the final round of the ATP Tour Finals, but suffered a defeat at the hands of Marcel Granollers and Marc López.

2013
Bhupathi and Bopanna played with different partners for the first three months of 2013, Bhupathi winning the tournament in Dubai in March with Michaël Llodra, but rejoined starting with the Monte-Carlo Masters.

Early life
Mahesh Shrinivas Bhupathi was born on 7 June 1974 in Chennai, India.

Playing style
Mahesh Bhupathi is known for his big serve. According to Nadal, his strong backhand makes him the best for an Ad Court player. Roger Federer acclaims him as one of the best doubles players of all time. He often discusses strategies between the serves with his partner during the match and also communicates using finger-at-the-back signals.

Year-end finals
Bhupathi appeared with Paes in six season finales. In 2011, they appeared, for the first time since 2002, after securing qualification in mid-October. Bhupathi played at the year-end championships with Paes from 1997 to 2000 and in 2002, reaching three finals. In 1997, they lost the final to Rick Leach and Jonathan Stark. They lost the 1999 final to Sébastien Lareau and Alex O’Brien. In 2000, they lost the final to Donald Johnson and Pieter Norval. Bhupathi also qualified with Max Mirnyi in 2003, 2004, and 2010, when they finished runners-up to Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić. He appeared at the finals with Mark Knowles in 2008 and 2009. In 2012, he and Rohan Bopanna made it to the final, where they lost to Marcel Granollers and Marc López.

Mixed doubles: 12 (8 titles, 4 runner-ups)
By winning the 2006 Australian Open title, Bhupathi completed the mixed doubles Career Grand Slam. He became the eighth male player in history to achieve this.

Grand Slam seedings
The tournaments won by Bhupathi are in boldface, and advanced into finals by Bhupathi are in italics.

Davis Cup and Asian Games
Bhupathi has donned Indian colours numerous times for the Davis Cup as well as other international tournaments, including the Asian Games.

Bhupathi has played 55 matches for India in the Davis Cup (from 1995 to 2011), winning 35 and losing 20. Out of the 35 matches that he won, 27 of his victories came in doubles matches.

In 2006, Bhupathi won the doubles championship with Leander Paes at the Asian Games in Doha.

Personal life
In 2001, he was awarded the Padma Shri, one of India's highest civilian awards. Bhupathi is an alumnus of the University of Mississippi in the United States. He is the founder of Globosport India private Limited which he started in 2002 as a sports and entertainment agency.

He married model Shvetha Jaishankar in 2002 but the couple got divorced in 2009 after seven years of marriage. He then married Miss Universe 2000 Lara Dutta in a civil ceremony on 16 February 2011 at Bandra, Mumbai. It was followed by a Christian ceremony on 20 February 2011 at Sunset Point in Goa.

On 1 August 2011, Dutta confirmed that she was pregnant with their first child. Their daughter Saira was born on 20 January 2012. In 2010, the couple started a film production company, Big Daddy Productions.

In 2014, Mahesh Bhupathi launched an authentic Indian sports brand, ZEVEN. The company currently endorses Ravindra Jadeja, Rohan Bopanna, Shikhar Dhawan and Mary Kom, amongst others.

Partners in mixed doubles

 * These lists only consists of players who played with Mahesh Bhupathi in ATP(& ITF)-recognized tournaments which include the Olympics, Grand Slams, World Tour Finals, World Tour Masters, World Tour Series, Davis Cup Ties, and ATP Challengers. The lists might be incomplete when all the other tournaments are considered. The order of the players in the list is based on their first partnering with Mahesh Bhupathi.

India – Asian Games/Commonwealth Games/Other Events

 * 🇮🇳 Leander Paes

Partnership with Leander Paes
Bhupathi and Leander Paes partnered in the men's doubles event at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, but lost the quarterfinals, to Roger Federer and Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, who went on to win the gold medal.

Paes and Bhupathi decided to team up again at the Australian Open 2011, ending a nine-year separation on the ATP circuit. They reached the finals of the event, but lost to American twins Bob and Mike Bryan. Paes stated at the time that the best thing has been to have their friendship back.

The Indian duo has a 303–103 career record together. They have a Davis Cup record of longest winning streak in doubles, with 23 straight wins.

Leander Paes wanted to play with Mahesh Bhupathi in the men's doubles event of the London Olympics, to be held July–August 2012. On 19 June 2012, the All India Tennis association relented to the demands of Bhupathi and Bopanna of not playing along Paes. Two teams were sent for the London Olympics- 2012, with Mahesh Bhupathi and Rohan Bopanna as one team and the other team consisting of Leander Paes and Vishnu Vardhan. Bhupathi also accused AITA of using Sania Mirza as bait for Leander's participation in the Olympics. When AITA relented to the wishes of Bhupathi and Bopanna and permitted them to play together, they lost in the second round to the unseeded French pairing of Richard Gasquet and Julien Benneteau.

Davis Cup record
The duo of Bhupathi and Paes has the longest doubles streak in Davis Cup history.

Sports management and sports-based e-commerce
Bhupathi has also been involved in developing tennis facilities in India and, along with his company Globosport, has played a key role in developing and managing the careers of many Indian athletes, including Sania Mirza.

International Premier Tennis League
Mahesh Bhupathi announced the founding of the International Premier Tennis League on 25 May 2013, in Paris. The initial plan was to start the league with six charter franchises in Asia with the inaugural season commencing in November 2014. Bhupathi said the league would be modeled after the Indian Premier League, a cricket league in India. Justin Gimelstob said that the league would be star-driven as World Team Tennis was in the 1970s.

In popular culture
Break Point – A documentary series of Zee5 app released in 2021 unfolding the ups and downs in the relationship between Leander Paes and Mahesh Bhupathi.

Awards

 * Padma Shri, 2001
 * Sports people for Change Karmaveer Puraskaar, 2007, iCONGO-Confederation of NGOs
 * Davis Cup Commitment Award

title: Mahesh Bhupathi


text:
Aliasing (computing)

In computing, aliasing describes a situation in which a data location in memory can be accessed through different symbolic names in the program. Thus, modifying the data through one name implicitly modifies the values associated with all aliased names, which may not be expected by the programmer. As a result, aliasing makes it particularly difficult to understand, analyze and optimize programs. Aliasing analysers intend to make and compute useful information for understanding aliasing in programs.

Buffer overflow
For example, most implementations of the C programming language do not perform array bounds checking. One can then exploit the implementation of the programming language by the compiler and the computer architecture's assembly language conventions, to achieve aliasing effects by writing outside of the array (a type of buffer overflow). This invokes undefined behaviour according to the C language specification; however many implementations of C will show the aliasing effects described here.

If an array is created on the stack, with a variable laid out in memory directly beside that array, one could index outside the array and directly change the variable by changing the relevant array element. For example, if there is an int array of size 2 (for this example's sake, calling it arr), next to another int variable (call it i), arr[2] (i.e., the 3rd element) would be aliased to i if they are adjacent in memory. This is possible in some implementations of C because an array is a block of contiguous memory, and array elements are merely referenced by offsets off the address of the beginning of that block multiplied by the size of a single element. Since C has no bounds checking, indexing and addressing outside of the array is possible. Note that the aforementioned aliasing behaviour is undefined behaviour. Some implementations may leave space between arrays and variables on the stack, for instance, to align variables to memory locations that are a multiple of the architecture's native word size. The C standard does not generally specify how data is to be laid out in memory. (ISO/IEC 9899:1999, section 6.2.6.1).

It is not erroneous for a compiler to omit aliasing effects for accesses that fall outside the bounds of an array.

Aliased pointers
Another variety of aliasing can occur in any language that can refer to one location in memory with more than one name (for example, with pointers). This is a common problem with functions that accept pointer arguments, and their tolerance (or the lack thereof) for aliasing must be carefully documented, particularly for functions that perform complex manipulations on memory areas passed to them.

Specified aliasing
Controlled aliasing behaviour may be desirable in some cases (that is, aliasing behaviour that is specified, unlike that enabled by memory layout in C). It is common practice in Fortran. The Perl programming language specifies, in some constructs, aliasing behaviour, such as in foreach loops. This allows certain data structures to be modified directly with less code. For example,

will print out "2 3 4" as a result. If one wanted to bypass aliasing effects, one could copy the contents of the index variable into another and change the copy.

Conflicts with optimization
Optimizers often have to make conservative assumptions about variables when aliasing is possible. For example, knowing the value of a variable (such as  is 5) normally allows certain optimizations (such as constant propagation). However, the compiler cannot use this information after an assignment to another variable (for example, in C, ) because it could be that   is an alias of. This could be the case after an assignment like. As an effect of this assignment to, the value of   would be changed as well, so propagating the information that   is 5 to the statements following   would be potentially wrong (if   is indeed an alias of  ). However, if there is information about pointers, the constant propagation process could make a query like: can  be an alias of  ? Then, if the answer is no,  can be propagated safely.

Another optimization impacted by aliasing is code reordering. If the compiler decides that  is not aliased by , then code that uses or changes the value of   can be moved before the assignment  , if this would improve scheduling or enable more loop optimizations to be carried out.

To enable such optimizations in a predictable manner, the ISO standard for the C programming language (including its newer C99 edition, see section 6.5, paragraph 7) specifies that it is illegal (with some exceptions) to access the same memory location using pointers of different types. A compiler may therefore assume that such pointers do not alias. This rule, known as the strict aliasing rule, sometimes allows for impressive increases in performance, but has been known to break some otherwise valid code. Several software projects intentionally violate this portion of the C99 standard. For example, Python 2.x did so to implement reference counting, and required changes to the basic object structs in Python 3 to enable this optimization. The Linux kernel does this because strict aliasing causes problems with optimization of inlined code. In such cases, when compiled with gcc, the option  is invoked to prevent unwanted optimizations that could yield unexpected code.

Hardware aliasing
The term aliasing is also used to describe the situation where, due to either a hardware design choice or a hardware failure, one or more of the available address bits is not used in the memory selection process. This may be a design decision if there are more address bits available than are necessary to support the installed memory device(s). In a failure, one or more address bits may be shorted together, or may be forced to ground (logic 0) or the supply voltage (logic 1).

For this example, assuming a memory design with 8 locations, requiring only 3 address lines (or bits, since 23 = 8). Address bits (named A2 through A0) are decoded to select unique memory locations as follows, in standard binary counter fashion:
 * Example

In the table above, each of the 8 unique combinations of address bits selects a different memory location. However, if one address bit (say A2) were to be shorted to ground, the table would be modified as follows:

In this case, with A2 always being zero, the first four memory locations are duplicated and appear again as the second four. Memory locations 4 through 7 have become inaccessible.

If this change occurred to a different address bit, the decoding results would be different, but in general the effect would be the same: the loss of a single address bit cuts the available memory space in half, with resulting duplication (aliasing) of the remaining space.

title: Aliasing (computing)