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Hellenistic-era warships

From the 4th century BC on, new types of oared warships appeared in the Mediterranean Sea, superseding the trireme and transforming naval warfare. Ships became increasingly large and heavy, including some of the largest wooden ships hitherto constructed. These developments were spearheaded in the Hellenistic Near East, but also to a large extent shared by the naval powers of the Western Mediterranean, specifically Carthage and the Roman Republic. While the wealthy successor kingdoms in the East built huge warships ("polyremes"), Carthage and Rome, in the intense naval antagonism during the Punic Wars, relied mostly on medium-sized vessels. At the same time, smaller naval powers employed an array of small and fast craft, which were also used by the ubiquitous pirates. Following the establishment of complete Roman hegemony in the Mediterranean after the Battle of Actium, the nascent Roman Empire faced no major naval threats. In the 1st century AD, the larger warships were retained only as flagships and were gradually supplanted by the light liburnians until, by Late Antiquity, the knowledge of their construction had been lost.

Terminology
Most of the warships of the era were distinguished by their names, which were compounds of a number and a suffix. Thus the English term quinquereme derives from Latin quīnquerēmis and has the Greek equivalent πεντήρης (pentḗrēs). Both are compounds featuring a prefix meaning "five": Latin quīnque, ancient Greek πέντε (pénte). The Roman suffix is from rēmus, "oar": hence "five-oar". As the vessel cannot have had only five oars, the word must be a figure of speech meaning something else. There are a number of possibilities. The -ηρης occurs only in suffix form, deriving from ἐρέσσω (eréssō), "(I) row". As "rower" is ἐρέτης (erétēs) and "oar" is ἐρετμόν (eretmón), -ērēs does not mean either of those but, being based on the verb, must mean "rowing". This meaning is no clearer than the Latin. Whatever the "five-oar" or the "five-row" originally meant was lost with knowledge of the construction, and is, from the 5th century on, a hotly debated issue. For the history of the interpretation efforts and current scholarly consensus, see below.

Evolution of design
In the great wars of the 5th century BC, such as the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, the trireme was the heaviest type of warship used by the Mediterranean navies. The trireme (Greek: τρῐήρης (triḗrēs), "three-oared") was propelled by three banks of oars, with one oarsman each. During the early 4th century BC, however, variants of the trireme design began to appear: invention of the quinquereme (Gk.: πεντήρης (pentḗrēs), "five-oared") and the hexareme (Gk. hexērēs, "six-oared") is credited by the historian Diodorus Siculus to the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse, while the quadrireme (Gk. tetrērēs, "four-oared") was credited by Aristotle to the Carthaginians.

Oar system
Far less is known with certainty about the construction and appearance of these ships than about the trireme. Literary evidence is fragmentary and highly selective, and pictorial evidence unclear. The fact that the trireme had three levels of oars (trikrotos naus) led medieval historians, long after the specifics of their construction had been lost, to speculate that the design of the "four", the "five" and the other later ships would proceed logically, i.e. that the quadrireme would have four rows of oars, the quinquereme five, etc. However, the eventual appearance of bigger polyremes ("sixes" and later "sevens", "eights", "nines", "tens", and even a massive "forty"), made this theory implausible. Consequently, during the Renaissance and until the 19th century, it came to be believed that the rowing system of the trireme and its descendants was similar to the alla sensile system of the contemporary galleys, comprising multiple oars on each level, rowed by one oarsman each. 20th-century scholarship disproved that theory, and established that the ancient warships were rowed at different levels, with three providing the maximum practical limit. The higher numbers of the "fours", "fives", etc. were therefore interpreted as reflecting the number of files of oarsmen on each side of the ship, and not an increased number of rows of oars.

The most common theory on the arrangement of oarsmen in the new ship types is that of "double-banking", i.e., that the quadrireme was derived from a bireme (warship with two rows of oars) by placing two oarsmen on each oar, the quinquereme from a trireme by placing two oarsmen on the two uppermost levels (the thranitai and zygitai, according to Greek terminology), and the later hexareme by placing two rowers on every level. Other interpretations of the quinquereme include a bireme warship with three and two oarsmen on the upper and lower oar banks, or even a monoreme (warship with a single level of oars) with five oarsmen. The "double-banking" theory is supported by the fact that the 4th-century quinqueremes were housed in the same ship sheds as the triremes, and must therefore have had similar width (c. 16 ft), which fits with the idea of an evolutionary progression from the one type to the other.

The reasons for the evolution of the polyremes are not very clear. The most often forwarded argument is one of lack of skilled manpower: the trireme was essentially a ship built for ramming, and successful ramming tactics depended chiefly on the constant maintenance of a highly trained oar crew, something which few states aside from Athens with its radical democracy had the funds or the social structure to do. Using multiple oarsmen reduced the number of such highly trained men needed in each crew: only the rower at the tip of the oar had to be sufficiently trained, and he could then lead the others, who simply provided additional motive power. This system was also in use in Renaissance galleys, but jars with the evidence of ancient crews continuing to be thoroughly trained by their commanders. The increased number of oarsmen also required a broader hull, which on the one hand reduced the ships' speed, but on the other offered several advantages: larger vessels could be strengthened to better withstand ramming, while the wider hull increased their carrying capacity, allowing more marines, and eventually catapults, to be carried along. The decks of these ships were also higher above the waterline, while their increased beam afforded them extra stability, making them superior missile platforms. This was an important fact in an age where naval engagements were increasingly decided not by ramming but by less technically demanding boarding actions. It has even been suggested by Lionel Casson that the quinqueremes used by the Romans in the Punic Wars of the 3rd century were of the monoreme design (i.e., with one level and five rowers on each oar), being thus able to carry the large contingent of 120 marines attested for the Battle of Ecnomus.

An evolution to larger ships was also desirable because they were better able to survive a bow-on-bow ramming engagement, which allowed for increased tactical flexibility over the older, smaller ships which were limited to broad-side ramming. Once bigger ships had become common, they proved their usefulness in siege operations against coastal cities, such as the siege of Tyre by Alexander the Great, as well as numerous siege operations carried out by his successors, such as the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes.

Construction
There were two chief design traditions in the Mediterranean, the Greek and the Punic (Phoenician/Carthaginian) one, which was later copied by the Romans. As exemplified in the trireme, the Greeks used to project the upper level of oars through an outrigger (parexeiresia), while the later Punic tradition heightened the ship, and had all three tiers of oars projecting directly from the side hull.

Based on iconographic evidence from coins, Morrison and Coates have determined that the Punic triremes in the 5th and early 4th centuries BC were largely similar to their Greek counterparts, most likely including an outrigger. From the mid-4th century, however, at about the time the quinquereme was introduced in Phoenicia, there is evidence of ships without outriggers. This would have necessitated a different oar arrangement, with the middle level placed more inwards, as well as a different construction of the hull, with side-decks attached to it. From the middle of the 3rd century BC onwards, Carthaginian "fives" display a separate "oar box" that contained the rowers and that was attached to the main hull. This development of the earlier model entailed further modifications, meaning that the rowers would be located above deck, and essentially on the same level. This would allow the hull to be strengthened, and have increased carrying capacity in consumable supplies, as well as improve the ventilation conditions of the rowers, an especially important factor in maintaining their stamina, and thereby improving the ship's maintainable speed. It is unclear however whether this design was applied to heavier warships, and although the Romans copied the Punic model for their quinqueremes, there is ample iconographic evidence of outrigger-equipped warships used until the late imperial period.

In the Athenian Sicilian Expedition of 415–413 BC, it became apparent that the topmost tier of rowers, the thranitai, of the "aphract" (un-decked and unarmoured) Athenian triremes were vulnerable to attack by arrows and catapults. Given the prominence of close-quarters boarding actions in later years, vessels were built as "cataphract" ships, with a closed hull to protect the rowers, and a full deck able to carry marines and catapults.

Quadrireme
Pliny the Elder reports that Aristotle ascribed the invention of the quadrireme (quadriremis; τετρήρης, tetrērēs) to the Carthaginians. Although the exact date is unknown, it is most likely the type was developed in the latter half of the 4th century BC. Their first attested appearance is at the Siege of Tyre by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and a few years later, they appear in the surviving naval lists of Athens. In the period after Alexander's death (323 BC), the quadrireme proved very popular: the Athenians made plans to build 200 of these ships, and 90 out of 240 ships of the fleet of Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306–301 BC) were "fours". Subsequently, the quadrireme was favoured as the main warship of the Rhodian navy, the sole professional naval force in the Eastern Mediterranean. In the Battle of Naulochus in 36 BC, "fours" were the most common ship type fielded by the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, and several ships of this kind are recorded in the two praetorian fleets of the Imperial Roman navy.

It is known from references from both the Second Punic War and the Battle of Mylae that the quadrireme had two levels of oarsmen, and was therefore lower than the quinquereme, while being of about the same width (c. 5.6 m). Its displacement must have been around 60 tonnes, and its carrying capacity at c. 75 marines. It was especially valued for its great speed and manoeuvrability, while its relatively shallow draught made it ideal for coastal operations. The "four" was classed as a "major ship" (maioris formae) by the Romans, but as a light craft, serving alongside triremes, in the navies of the major Hellenistic kingdoms like Egypt.

Quinquereme
Perhaps the most famous of the Hellenistic-era warships, because of its extensive use by the Carthaginians and Romans, the quinquereme (Latin: quīnquerēmis; πεντήρης, pentērēs) was invented by the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I (r. 405–367 BC) in 399 BC, as part of a major naval armament program directed against the Carthaginians. During most of the 4th century, the "fives" were the heaviest type of warship, and often used as flagships of fleets composed of triremes and quadriremes. Sidon had them by 351, and Athens fielded some in 324.

In the eastern Mediterranean, they were superseded as the heaviest ships by the massive polyremes that began appearing in the last two decades of the 4th century, but in the West, they remained the mainstay of the Carthaginian navy. When the Roman Republic, which hitherto lacked a significant navy, was embroiled in the First Punic War with Carthage, the Roman Senate set out to construct a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes. According to Polybius, the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme and used it as a blueprint for their own ships, but it is stated that the Roman copies were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels, which were better built. The quinquereme provided the workhorse of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout their conflicts, although "fours" and "threes" are also mentioned. Indeed, so ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.

According to Polybius, at the Battle of Cape Ecnomus, the Roman quinqueremes carried a total crew of 420, 300 of whom were rowers, and the rest marines. Leaving aside a deck crew of c. 20 men, and accepting the 2–2–1 pattern of oarsmen, the quinquereme would have 90 oars in each side, and 30-strong files of oarsmen. The fully decked quinquereme could also carry a marine detachment of 70 to 120, giving a total complement of about 400. A "five" would be c. 45 m long, displace around 100 tonnes, be some 5 m wide at water level, and have its deck standing c. 3 m above the sea. Polybius said the quinquereme was superior to the old trireme, which was retained in service in significant numbers by many smaller navies. Accounts by Livy and Diodorus Siculus also show that the "five", being heavier, performed better than the triremes in bad weather.

The Republic of Venice in the 1520s built what was called a quinquereme based on the design of Vettor Fausto, who based it on his readings of classical texts.

Hexareme
The hexareme or sexireme (hexēris; ἑξήρης, hexērēs) is affirmed by the ancient historians Pliny the Elder and Aelian to have been invented in Syracuse. "Sixes" were certainly present in the fleet of Dionysius II of Syracuse (r. 367–357 and 346–344 BC), but they may well have been invented in the last years of his father, Dionysius I. "Sixes" were rarer than smaller vessels, and appear in the sources chiefly as flagships: at the Battle of Ecnomus, the two Roman consuls each had a hexareme, Ptolemy XII (r. 80–58 and 55–51 BC) had one as his personal flagship, as did Sextus Pompeius. At the Battle of Actium, hexaremes were present in both fleets, but with a notable difference: while in the fleet of Octavian they were the heaviest type of vessel, in the fleet of Mark Antony they were the second smallest, after the quinqueremes. A single hexareme, the Ops, is later recorded as the heaviest ship serving in the praetorian Fleet of Misenum.

The exact arrangement of the hexareme's oars is unclear. If it evolved naturally from the earlier designs, it would be a trireme with two rowers per oar; the less likely alternative is that it had two levels with three oarsmen at each. Reports about "sixes" used during the 1st-century BC Roman civil wars indicate that they were of a similar height to the quinqueremes, and record the presence of towers on the deck of a "six" serving as flagship to Marcus Junius Brutus.

Septireme
Pliny the Elder attributes the creation of the septireme (septiremis; ἑπτήρης, heptērēs) to Alexander the Great. Curtius corroborates this, and reports that the king gave orders for wood for 700 septiremes to be cut in Mount Lebanon, to be used in his projected circumnavigations of the Arabian peninsula and Africa. For Salamis, Demetrius Poliorcetes had seven such ships built in Phoenicia and, later, Ptolemy II (r. 283–246 BC) had 36 septiremes constructed. Pyrrhus of Epirus (r. 306–302 and 297–272 BC) also apparently had at least one "seven", which was captured by the Carthaginians and eventually lost at Mylae.

Presumably, the septireme was derived by adding a standing rower to the lower level of the hexareme.

Octeres
Very little is known about the octeres (ὀκτήρης, oktērēs). At least two of their type were in the fleet of Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC) at the Battle of Chios in 201 BC, where they were rammed in their prows. Their last appearance was at Actium, where Mark Antony is said by Plutarch to have had many "eights". Based on the comments of Orosius that the larger ships in Antony's fleet were only as high as the quinqueremes (their deck standing at c. 3 m above water), it is presumed that "eights", as well as the "nines" and "tens", were rowed at two levels.

An exceptionally large "eight", the Leontophoros, is recorded by Memnon of Heraclea to have been built by Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC), one of the Diadochi. It was richly decorated, required 1,600 rowers (8 files of 100 per side) and could support 1,200 marines. Remarkably for a ship of its size, its performance at sea was reportedly very good. The Romans used similar ships as troop carriers and flagships.

Enneres
The enneres (ἐννήρης) is first recorded in 315 BC, when three of their type were included in the fleet of Antigonus Monophthalmus. The presence of "nines" in Antony's fleet at Actium is recorded by Florus and Cassius Dio, although Plutarch makes explicit mention only of "eights" and "tens". The oaring system may have been a modification of the quadrireme, with two teams of five and four oarsmen.

Deceres
Like the septireme, the deceres (δεκήρης, dekērēs) is attributed by Pliny to Alexander the Great, and they are present alongside "nines" in the fleet of Antigonus Monophthalmus in 315 BC. Indeed, it is most likely that the "ten" was derived from adding another oarsman to the "nine". A "ten" is mentioned as Philip V's flagship at Chios in 201 BC, and their last appearance was at Actium, where they constituted Antony's heaviest ships.

Larger polyremes
The tendency to build ever bigger ships that appeared in the last decades of the 4th century did not stop at the "ten". Demetrius Poliorcetes built "elevens", "thirteens", "fourteens", "fifteens" and "sixteens", and his son, Antigonus II Gonatas had an "eighteen", while Ptolemy II's navy fielded 14 "elevens", 2 "twelves", 4 "thirteens", and even one "twenty" and two "thirties". Eventually, Ptolemy IV built a "forty" (tessarakonteres) that was 130m long, required 4,000 rowers and 400 other crew, and could support a force of 2,850 marines on its decks. However, "tens" seem to be the largest to have been used in battle.

The larger polyremes were possibly double-hulled catamarans. It has been suggested that, with the exception of the "forty", these ships must have been rowed at two levels.

Light warships
Several types of fast vessels were used during this period, the successors of the 6th and 5th-century BC triacontors (τριακόντοροι, triakontoroi, "thirty-oars") and pentecontors (πεντηκόντοροι, pentēkontoroi, "fifty-oars"). Their primary use was in piracy and scouting, but they also found their place in the battle line.

Lembos
The term lembos (from λέμβος, "skiff", in Latin lembus) is used generically for boats or light vessels, and more specifically for a light warship, most commonly associated with the vessels used by the Illyrian tribes, chiefly for piracy, in the area of Dalmatia. This type of craft was also adopted by Philip V of Macedon, and soon after by the Seleucids, Rome, and even the Spartan king Nabis in his attempt to rebuild the Spartan navy.

In contemporary writings, the name was associated with a class rather than a specific type of vessels, as considerable variation is evident in the sources: the number of oars ranged from 16 to 50, they could be one- or double-banked, and some types did not have a ram, presumably being used as couriers and fast cargo vessels.

Hemiolia
The hemiolia or hemiolos (ἡμιολία [ναῦς] or ἡμίολος [λέμβος]) was a light and fast warship that appeared in the early 4th century BC. It was particularly favoured by pirates in the eastern Mediterranean, but also used by Alexander the Great as far as the rivers Indus and Hydaspes, and by the Romans as a troop transport. It is likely that the type was invented by pirates, probably in Caria.

Little is known of their characteristics, but Arrian, based on Ptolemy I (r. 323–283 BC), includes them amongst the triacontors. According to one view, it was manned by half the number of oarsmen to make room for the fighters. According to another, there were one and a half files of oarsmen on each side, with the additional half file placed amidships, where the hull was wide enough to accommodate them. In this view, they could have had 15 oars on each side, with a full file of ten and a half file of five or instead the middle oars may have been double-manned. Given their lighter hulls, greater length and generally slimmer profile, the hemiolia would have had an advantage in speed even over other light warships like the liburnian.

Trihemiolia
The trihemiolia (τριημιολία [ναῦς]) first appears in accounts of the Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 304 BC, where a squadron of trihemioliai was sent out as commerce raiders. The type was one of the chief vessels of the Rhodian navy, and it is very likely that it was also invented there, as a counter to the pirates' swift hemioliai. So great was the attachment of the Rhodians to this type of vessel, that for a century after their navy was abolished by Gaius Cassius Longinus in 46 BC, they kept a few as ceremonial vessels.

The type was classed with the trireme, and had two and a half files of oarsmen on each side. Judging from the Lindos relief and the famous Nike of Samothrace, both of which are thought to represent trihemioliai, the two upper files would have been accommodated in an oarbox, with the half-file located beneath them in the classic thalamitai position of the trireme. The Lindos relief also includes a list of the crews of two trihemioliai, allowing us to deduce that each was crewed by 144 men, 120 of whom were rowers (hence a full file numbered 24). Reconstruction based on the above sculptures shows that the ship was relatively low, with a boxed-in superstructure, a displacement of c. 40 tonnes, and capable of reaching speeds comparable with those of a full trireme. The trihemiolia was a very successful design, and was adopted by the navies of Ptolemaic Egypt and Athens among others. Despite being classed as lighter warships, they were sometimes employed in a first-line role, for instance at the Battle of Chios.

Liburnians
The liburnian (liburna, λιβυρνίς, libyrnis) was a variant of lembos invented by the tribe of the Liburnians. Initially used for piracy and scouting, this light and swift vessel was adopted by the Romans during the Illyrian Wars, and eventually became the mainstay of the fleets of the Roman Empire following Actium, displacing the heavier vessels. Especially the provincial Roman fleets were composed almost exclusively of liburnians. Livy, Lucan and Appian all describe the liburnian as bireme; they were fully decked (cataphract) ships, with a sharply pointed prow, providing a more streamlined shape designed for greater speed. In terms of speed, the liburnian was probably considerably slower than a trireme, but on a par with a "five".

title: Hellenistic-era warships


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Mount Aspiring National Park

Mount Aspiring National Park is in the Southern Alps of the South Island of New Zealand, north of Fiordland National Park, situated in Otago and Westland regions. The park forms part of the Te Wahipounamu World Heritage Site.

Landsborough Station addition
In April 2005 the Nature Heritage Fund purchased private land in the Landsborough River valley as an addition to the park.

Milford Sound tunnel proposal
In 2006, the Milford Dart Company asked the Department of Conservation to amend the Mt Aspiring National Park Management Plan to allow an additional road within the park for a bus tunnel, the so-called Milford Tunnel, from the Routeburn Road to the Hollyford Valley to take tourists to Milford Sound. The tunnel would have established a connection via Glenorchy and would have significantly reduced the current return travel time from Queenstown to Milford Sound of 9 hours.

In December 2007, the New Zealand Conservation Authority declined to adopt the amendment to the Management Plan. The Conservation Authority considered the proposed road would not add to the use and enjoyment of Mount Aspiring National Park and that the adverse effects of construction and use of the road in the National Park would outweigh any benefits.

The proposal gained approval in principle by the Department of Conservation in 2011, but was rejected by the Minister of Conservation, Nick Smith, in July 2013. Smith stated that "the proposal was beyond what was appropriate for a World Heritage Area." The managing director of the company behind the proposal stated that he was "disappointed of course. National trying to out-green the greens. Going skiing."

Mining proposal
In 2009 the National-led government of New Zealand indicated that Mount Aspiring National Park may be opened up to mining. Around 20% of the total area of the park, mainly in the western portions around the Red Hill Range, and the north eastern parts, could be removed from the park and mined. Prospectors here are particularly interested in carbonatite deposits including rare earth elements and tungsten. The Green Party warned that the park is one of New Zealand's main tourism drawcards, and that mining here could do significant damage to the country's image.

Geography
Established in 1964 as New Zealand's tenth national park, Mount Aspiring National Park covers 3562 km2 at the southern end of the Southern Alps, directly to the west of Lake Wānaka, and is popular for tramping, walking and mountaineering. Mount Aspiring / Tititea, elevation 3033 m above sea level, gives the park its name. Other prominent peaks within the park include Mount Pollux, elevation 2542 m, and Mount Brewster, elevation 2519 m.

The Haast Pass, one of the three principal road routes over the Southern Alps, crosses the north-eastern corner of the park.

Glaciers
Mount Aspiring is still home to over 100 glaciers, that contributed to the formation of the valleys in the national park. U-shaped valleys with steep sides can be found throughout Mount Aspiring National Park, which was formed through glaciation in the region 16,000 –18,000 years ago during the Ōtira Ice Age.

Visitor centre
The Mount Aspiring National Park visitor centre is located in Wānaka on the Corner of Ardmore St and Ballentyne Rd.

Activities
Popular tramping and hiking tracks in the park include:
 * Cascade Saddle Track
 * Gillespie Pass circuit
 * Matukituki Valley
 * Routeburn Track
 * Rees and Dart Tracks

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mount Aspiring National Park


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Mount Aspiring / Tititea

Mount Aspiring / Tititea is New Zealand's 23rd-highest mountain. The peak's altitude of 3033 m makes it the country's highest outside the Aoraki / Mount Cook region.

Names
Māori named it Tititea, after a chief of the Waitaha tribe, who were the first people to settle the South Island.

It was named Aspiring in December 1857 by the Chief Surveyor for the Otago Province, John Turnbull Thomson.

It is also often called 'the Matterhorn of the South,' for its pyramidal peak when seen from the Matukituki River.

The mountain's name was used for the surrounding Mt Aspiring National Park at its creation in 1964.

The mountain's official name was updated to Mt Aspiring/ Tititea in 1998, by the Treaty Settlement Legislation Section 269 and Schedule 96 of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998.

Location
Mount Aspiring / Tititea sits slightly to the west of the main divide, 30 kilometres west of Lake Wānaka. It lies at the junction of three major glacial systems – the Bonar Glacier, which drains into the Waipara River, and the Volta and Therma glaciers, which both drain into the Waiatoto River. The Waipara is a tributary of the Arawhata River, and both the Arawhata and Waitoto Rivers flow out to the West Coast in between Haast and Jackson Bay.

Climbing
The first ascent was on 23 November 1909 by Major Bernard Head and guides Jack Clarke and Alec Graham. Head's party climbed to the summit ridge by the west face from the Bonar Glacier, a route not repeated until 1965.

The most used route to Mount Aspiring is up the West Matukituki Valley, which is at the end of a 50-kilometre road from Wānaka at Raspberry Flat. From here a network of huts provide staging points for climbers.

The first is Mount Aspiring Hut, which is 8 kilometres (or approximately two hours' walk) from the end of the road. The next hut is an 8-12hr hike away that is mainly off trail. The trail only provides a route for the first half of the approach that winds through the flat valley floor. From the end of the trail one can either ascend the French Ridge and traverse the Bonar Glacier, or ascend Bevan Col to the Bonar Glacier. Both require good route finding skills and knowledge of rock climbing techniques and glacial travel. Many climbers opt to fly in via helicopter because of the gruelling approach.

The mountain and park are popular with climbers and trampers, so has experienced a number of accidents and deaths.

title: Mount Aspiring / Tititea


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/P-P-P-Powerbook (0th nomination)

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the pages entitled P-P-PowerBook and P-P-P-Powerbook.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete both articles.

Vanity. DO'Neil 08:29, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not only vanity, but the site with the "PDF file of all the misadventures" requires a password for access and hence is pointless (so I've removed it.) The link to the forums is misformatted, so I fixed that. The forum story is a long, rambling, typical tale of someone foolish who got ripped off in an eBay escrow scam. The Wikipedia article implies that the scammer got his comeuppance in some dramatic, amusing, or particularly appropriate way, but according to the forum thread this result has yet to be achieved. There are websites devoted to people who scam the scammers--there was a very funny one some months ago in which someone led a Nigerian scammer on for days with emails signed Harry Potter, insisting that the scammer needed to wait a couple of days so he could get his money out of Gringotts, etc. etc. There could be a decent Wikipedia article on this phenomenon, if there isn't already (haven't looked), but this isn't it, and P-P-P-Powerbook isn't the right title for it. Dpbsmith 13:33, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I agree with Dpbsmith. EddEdmondson 13:40, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. The story did amuse me, but agree that it should just serve an example of fooling scammers in a wider-context article. (I note that the scammer actually did get his comeuppance, in that he did have to pay a hefty import fee for worthless goods... and that you don't actually have to be a member of the forum to download the PDF.) - MykReeve 14:57, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Not that I'm voting to keep, but it has been on fark, too. Rhymeless 16:25, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. RickK 20:38, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - just another ebay scam story. -- Cyrius|&#9998 21:40, May 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - ephemeral. -- The Anome 23:42, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This just made /. there's a mirror here  if anyones interested. --Starx 23:33, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This has made /. and Fark, and was a major focus of Something Awful's forums for a while. Yes, it'll be forgotten in time, but the Franco-Prussian War is kind of forgotten by now too, and we haven't deleted that article yet, so we may as well keep this one around too. (Who knows when someone will need to do research on the history of odd internet cult favorite sites.) Snowspinner 00:04, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. People die in war. This is hardly as important. –Ed Cormany 03:43, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, as per Dpbsmith --Tagishsimon 00:23, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, nonnotable. BTW I think we want to steer away from using Slashdot and the like as a test of notability. "It's notable because it was on Slashdot" is putting the cart before the horse, shall we say. Wile E. Heresiarch 02:41, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Interesting but ephemeral. Isomorphic 03:29, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * A stubby duplicate article has been created at P-P-PowerBook. I have put a vfd notice on it, as well.  It should, I suppose, be turned into a redirect if this article is kept, but it doesn't appear that that will be the case, so both should be deleted. Isomorphic 09:01, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Maximus Rex
 * Delete. Amusing japes on the internet are not what I would call "encyclopedic". --Stormie 09:16, May 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete both, although I did enjoy reading the story, and the auction (won by a now suspended eBay user) is real enough, so although it reads a bit like an urban myth it looks genuine to me. Andrewa 20:48, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * P-P-P-Delete. Beelzebubs 00:48, 19 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Would make an intresting note on a scamming or counterscamming entry. I personally think this is the funniest example of how effective counterscamming can be when you have a worldwide group to assist you.  The totality of 'intel' retrieved about the location, 'scammer', etc is rather impressive.  Again, an excellent example that should be moved to a subheading of scamming or counterscamming, not outright deleted.
 * Parent was an IP. Also, delete. Vanity and utter nonsense. Cymydog Naakka 12:40, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Louis François, Prince of Conti

Louis François de Bourbon, or Louis François I, Prince of Conti (13 August 1717 – 2 August 1776), was a French nobleman who became the Prince of Conti from 1727 to his death, succeeding his father, Louis Armand II de Bourbon. His mother was Louise Élisabeth de Bourbon, the daughter of Louis III, Prince of Condé and Louise Françoise de Bourbon, a legitimized daughter of King Louis XIV of France. His younger sister, Louise Henriette de Bourbon, was the mother of Philippe Égalité. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang.

Biography
Louis François I de Bourbon was born in Paris.

In 1731, he married Louise Diane d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Chartres (the first-cousin of his mother Louise Élisabeth, through her mother), who was the youngest daughter of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (the Régent of France during the minority of King Louis XV of France) and his wife, Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, the daughter of King Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan.

His mother, the Dowager Princess of Conti, and future mother-in-law, the Dowager Duchess of Orléans, organized his marriage. However, the short marriage ended when Louis François's wife died giving birth to a stillborn child at the Château d'Issy in 1736. He then stayed at the Château de L'Isle-Adam near Paris. In 1740, he proposed a marriage with the king's second daughter, Henriette of France (1727–1752), to the king, who turned down Louis François’ request.

Military career
Louis François also pursued a military career and he accompanied the Duke of Belle-Isle to Bohemia when the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1741. His services there led to his command of the army in Italy, where he distinguished himself by forcing the pass of Villafranca and winning the battle of Coni in 1744.

In 1745, he was sent to check the Austrians in Germany. In 1746, he was transferred to the Netherlands and led the successful siege of Mons, but conflicts with the Maréchal de Saxe led to his retirement in 1747 to the Château de L'Isle-Adam.

In 1760, he bought a famous Burgundy vineyard, which then bore the name of La Romanée, at a high price. After the purchase, he added his own name to the vineyard and it has been known as Romanée-Conti since then. This vineyard produces some of the world's most expensive wine today.

Candidate for the Polish throne and court influence
In that same year, a faction of Polish nobles offered Conti the throne of Poland, where King Augustus III was expected to die soon. Conti was able to win the personal support of Louis XV of France for his candidacy. However, the policy of the king's ministers was to establish the ruling house of Saxony upon the throne in Poland, as Louis XV's daughter-in-law, Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, was a daughter of the ailing Augustus. As a result of this conflict, Louis XV began secret communications with his ambassadors at certain influential foreign courts that opposed the official communications being sent to those same ambassadors by his ministers. The system of couriers used to relay the king's secret messages developed later into a spy-network known as the Secret du Roi.

Although Conti did not secure the Polish throne, he did remain in the confidence of the king until 1755, when Madame de Pompadour destroyed his influence through her intrigues at court. His relationship with Louis XV deteriorated enough that when the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756, Conti was refused the command of the army of the Rhine. Angry, he began opposing the royal government, which caused Louis to refer to him as, "my cousin, the advocate".

In 1771, Conti took the lead in opposing the chancellor, Maupeou. He supported the parlements against the government and was hostile to Turgot especially. Due to the intensity of his anti-government feelings, he was suspected of aiding an uprising which took place in Dijon in 1775.

Later life
He was exiled from court and, following involvement in a Frondiste association with Protestants and with the affairs of Parlement, Conti settled into stylish retirement as Grand Prior of the Knights of the Order of Malta, resident at the Palais du Temple in Le Marais.

Eventually, Conti accumulated a vast and celebrated art collection, which he housed in a special gallery at the Temple, having collected it mainly during the last twenty years of his life. This was dispersed by auction between April and June 1777, a sale which impacted the Parisian art market through the following decade. His collection included Michel Barthélemy Ollivier's English Tea Served in the Salon des Glaces at the Palais du Temple, dated 1764, showing the infant Mozart at the clavichord (now in the Palace of Versailles).

Conti inherited literary tastes from his father, was a brave and skillful general, and a diligent student of military history. His mistress, the cultivated Comtesse de Boufflers (1725–1800), presided over a salon at his home in Paris, which attracted many men of letters. Through his mistress, he became a patron of Jean Jacques Rousseau.

His son, Louis François Joseph (1734–1814), succeeded him and became the last Prince of Conti.

title: Louis François, Prince of Conti


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Tamariki School

Tamariki is the oldest 'free school' in New Zealand and one of the oldest in the world. It was founded in 1966 by a group of parents and teachers interested in preventive mental health. It is located in the Christchurch suburb of Woolston.

Its name is the Māori word for young children.

Special character
Mistakes are regarded as important learning information and grading is never done. No adult has the right to demand to see the child’s work and such access is always under the child's control. The children also have a very large measure of control over the environment; the adults in the school defer their need for a tidy environment to the child’s need to experience cause and effect; to experience why order is desirable.

The school is loosely modelled on Summerhill School.

Originally a private school, owned and operated by the parents, Tamariki integrated into the state system as a special character school in 1990.

History
The Tamariki School was formed in 1966 by a group of parents and teachers who owned and operated the school, the school was formally opened in 1967. This group became the Proprietor of Tamariki School, and entered into an integration agreement with the Ministry of Education in 1990, to operate a state integrated primary school with a Special Character under the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975. In 2017 Tamariki Celebrated its 50th Jubilee.

title: Tamariki School


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La belle province

La belle province may refer to:
 * "La belle province" ("the beautiful province"), a nickname for Quebec, a French-speaking province in Eastern Canada
 * La Belle Province (restaurant), a fast-food chain based in Quebec
 * The motto on Vehicle registration plates of Quebec prior to 1978 (the current motto is Je me souviens ("I remember"))

title: La belle province


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Princes of Conti

Prince of Conti (French: prince de Conti) was a French noble title, assumed by a cadet branch of the princely house of Bourbon-Condé.

History
The title derives its name from Conty, a small town in northern France, c. 35 km southwest of Amiens, which came into the Bourbon-Condé family by the marriage of Louis de Bourbon, first Prince of Condé, with Eleanor de Roye in 1551.

François de Bourbon (1558–1614), the third son of this marriage, was given the title of marquis de Conti and was later elevated to the rank of prince de Conti. He died in 1614 and the title lapsed, since his only child had predeceased him in 1610.

In 1629, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in favor of Armand de Bourbon (1629–1666), second son of Henry II, Prince of Condé, and brother of Louis, the Grand Condé. During the time that the House of Bourbon ruled France, from the reign of King Henry IV of France to the reign of King Louis-Philippe of the French, the Princes of Conti were considered to be princes du sang in the Kingdom of France. The holders of this title used the style of Serene Highness.

Marquis and Princes of Conti

 * 1558-1614: marquis, then from 1581 onwards 1st prince François de Bourbon

At his death, the title was not passed on, for want of direct descendants. The title was bestowed in 1629 upon:

 * 1629-1666 : 2nd prince Armand
 * 1666-1685 : 3rd prince Louis Armand I
 * 1685-1709 : 4th prince François Louis
 * 1709-1727 : 5th prince Louis Armand II
 * 1727-1776 : 6th prince Louis François I
 * 1776-1814 : 7th prince Louis François II

At his death, the title was not passed on, for want of legitimate descendants.

title: Princes of Conti


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Louis François Joseph, Prince of Conti

Louis François Joseph de Bourbon or Louis François II, Prince of Conti (1 September 1734 – 13 March 1814), was the last Prince of Conti, scion of a cadet branch of the House of Bourbon, whose senior branches ruled France until 1848.

Louis was the only child of his parents and lived a secluded childhood at his father's chateau, after the death of his mother in 1736. He later married his first cousin, with the union producing no children. During the French Revolution he stayed in France until 1797 when he was exiled to Spain where he died in 1814, less than a month before his family were restored to the throne of France; with his death the house of Bourbon-Conti became extinct.

Biography
Born at the Hôtel de Conti (quai Conti) in Paris, on 1 September 1734, and baptised in the presence of the French king and queen, he succeeded his father, Louis François I de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, as head of the most junior branch of the House of Bourbon in 1776. His mother was Louise Diane d'Orléans, youngest daughter of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, Regent of France during the minority of King Louis XV of France.

From birth, he was known as the comte de La Marche. His mother died on 26 September 1736, giving birth to a later child who did not survive. After her death, his father retired from the Royal court to the Château de L'Isle-Adam, pursuing his love of hunting, although he would later emerge to have a distinguished military career.

On 17 May 1750, Louis François was made a knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit at Versailles. During the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), he took part as a maréchal de camp in the Battle of Hastenbeck in July 1757, and in the Battle of Krefeld in June 1758.

He married his first cousin, Maria Fortunata d'Este, (1731–1803), fourth daughter of Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena and his wife, Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans, who was his mother's older sister; as such, Louis François Joseph was the first cousin of Philippe Égalité, through his father.

The marriage contract was signed in Milan on 3 January 1759 by the French ambassador to the court of Turin. A wedding by proxy took place in Milan on 7 February of the same year and was celebrated in person on 27 February at Nangis-en-Brie in France. Maria Fortunata's father settled upon her a dowry of one million livres. In addition, upon her arrival in France her husband was given 150,000 livres by Louis XV. The young comtesse de La Marche was presented to the king and the rest of the royal family on 5 March 1759 by the Louise Élisabeth de Bourbon, Dowager Princess of Conti, Louis François' paternal grandmother. In 1770 they were one of twelve couples invited to dine with the newlyweds, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, in the Opéra of the Palace of Versailles, which had been constructed for the royal wedding.

The couple never had children. Louis François Joseph had two illegitimate children, born in 1761 and 1767, by Marie Anne Véronèse, known as Mademoiselle Coraline, previously a dancer at an Italian theatre. Among his other lovers was, notably, Anne Victoire Dervieux.

After the death of his father, he and his wife became officially separated on 12 June 1777, anticipating the extinction of the House of Bourbon-Conti. She retired to the Château de Triel. After fleeing France during the revolution, she travelled incognito as the comtesse de Triel, dying in Venice on 21 September 1803.

Pierre Beaumarchais noted in the preface to his 1778 play, The Marriage of Figaro (which satirized the aristocracy) that it was the late prince de Conti who requested the play be written, and Louis François Joseph's antics may have been the model for the misadventures of "Count Almaviva".

He took the side of Maupeou in the struggle between the chancellor and the parlements, and in 1788 declared that the integrity of the constitution must be maintained. He emigrated following the French Revolution, but refused to take part in plans for the invasion of France. He returned to his native country in 1790.

Arrested by order of the National Convention in 1793, he was acquitted, but was reduced to poverty by the confiscation of his possessions. He afterwards received a pension. In 1797, however, the Directoire decided to exile the last of the Bourbons. He was banished to Spain along with his few remaining relatives who still lived in France and had not already been killed in the revolution, including Bathilde d'Orléans, Duchess of Bourbon. Relegated to a place near Barcelona, he lived in poverty. Refusing to share in the plots of the Royalists, he lived an isolated existence in Barcelona until his death in 1814, whereupon the Princes of Conti became extinct.

He was first buried at the Iglesia de San Miguel in Barcelona prior to the Bourbon Restoration. During the reign of Louis Philippe I, he was removed from Saint-Michel and placed in the Chapelle royale de Dreux on 2 April 1844.

title: Louis François Joseph, Prince of Conti


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John Banister (naturalist)

John Baptist Banister (1654 – May 1692) was an English clergyman and one of the first university-trained naturalists in North America. His primary focus was botany but he also studied insects and molluscs. He was sent out as a missionary chaplain by the garden-loving Bishop Henry Compton, with whom he soon established a correspondence. Banister was first in Barbados in the West Indies and then by April 1679 in Virginia, where, while serving a rector of the parish of Charles City he became one of Bishop Compton's most energetic plant collectors, "the first Virginia botanist of any note".

Banister matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he could see and study the American plants grown from seed in the Oxford Physic Garden under the care of Dr. Robert Morison. From Virginia, his first letter to Dr Morison at the Oxford Physic Garden was dated 1679: in it he listed the bounty of American oaks that would supplement Britain's impoverished flora: dwarf, black, white, red, Spanish, chestnut, live or willow, shrubby. The historian of American gardens Ann Leighton surmises that Banister's list of Virginian timber trees provided some of the material for John Evelyn's list of desirable plants of Virginia and New England, intended to be given to a captain sailing for New England. Once settled in Virginia, where he purchased a tract of 1735 acre on the Appomattox River in 1689/90, he established a close friendship with William Byrd of Westover, an influential Virginia planter with botanical connections in London. By 1692 Banister had become a substantial figure in Virginia, one of the founders of the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg that year; Bishop Compton was on the college's board of overseers.

Banister contemplated writing a natural history of Virginia; perhaps it was as a preliminary gesture he sent some fine botanical drawings and herbarium specimens to the botanist James Petiver, a London apothecary and Fellow of the Royal Society. According to Jon Kukla Robert Beverley's History and Present State of Virginia (London, 1705) reproduced extensive passages on natural history and the Indians from manuscripts of Banister. Banister sent numerous occasional papers to the Royal Society that were published in its Philosophical Transactions, providing "the first scientific account for Virginia in the field of descriptive botany, entomology, and malacology. His letter describing Mutinus elegans, a stinkhorn, is thought to be the first report of a fungus from North America. Among them were "Observations on the natural productions of Jamaica"; "The Insects of Virginia" (with James Petiver,1700); "Curiosities in Virginia"; "Observations on the Musca lupus"; "On Several Sorts of Snails" ; and "A Description of the Snakeroot, Pistolochia or Serpentaria Virginiania." He compiled a catalogue of American plants, the first flora of North America; it was published in the second volume of John Ray's  Historia Plantarum (London, 1688-1704), a comprehensive catalog of plant taxonomy. He was accidentally shot dead by Jacob Colson while exploring the lower Roanoke River in company with some men of Byrd's entourage. John Lawson in his New Voyage to Carolina saluted Banister's memory in 1709, as "the greatest Virtuoso we ever had on this Continent".

Notable plants he collected and sent to his bishop, Henry Compton, in England included balsam fir (Abies balsamea), box elder (Acer negundo), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), liquidambar (Liquidambar styraciflua), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), and Sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana).

Banister's library in Virginia was dispersed after his death and his lists and papers found their way to publication through other botanists, beginning with James Petiver, whose Museum Petiveranum gives 65 common names for Banister's plants sent to Bishop Compton, where Banister's Virginian trees were flourishing in the gardens of Fulham Palace.

Banister was commemorated by Linnaeus who gave the name Banisteria to a tropical genus of Malpighiaceae. Banisteriopsis also references Banister's name; the two genera are very close relatives and are sometimes merged under the older name Banisteria.

His grandson, Col. John Banister, was one of the prominent Virginians of the American Revolution.

title: John Banister (naturalist)


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Robert Cutlar Fergusson

Robert Cutlar Fergusson (1768–1838) was a Scottish lawyer and politician. He was 17th Laird of the Dumfriesshire Fergussons, seated at Craigdarroch (Moniaive, Dumfriesshire).

Life
Robert Fergusson was born in Dumfries, the eldest son of Alexander Fergusson, Esq., of Craigdarroch and Orraland House, Kirkcudbrightshire, who was an eminent advocate. His great-grandfather was Alexander Fergusson, the husband of Annie Laurie of folksong fame. He was educated at Edinburgh and studied law at Lincoln's Inn, being called to the bar in 1797.

He was gaoled for a year in the King's Bench prison in the late 1790s for being associated with Arthur O'Connor and Father James Coigly, United Irishmen who were trying to coordinate a republican insurrection in Ireland, with radical circles in Britain and with the French Directory. On his release he decided it would be wise to leave the country and therefore moved to India where he worked as a barrister for some 30 years in the Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta. He was made acting Advocate-General of Bengal in 1817 when Edward Strettell left for England due to ill-health, holding the post until Robert Spankie arrived as Strettell's successor. When Spankie returned to England in 1823, Fergusson succeeded him as Advocate-General.

On his return to Britain he was elected MP for the Stewardtry of Kirkcudbright in 1826, sitting until 1838. He was appointed a Privy Councillor in 1834 and Judge Advocate General from 1835 to 1838.

Dwarkanath Tagore, the great Bengal entrepreneur, was apprenticed under him in 1810, and Fergusson was one of the two leading influences in his life.

title: Robert Cutlar Fergusson


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Shōmyō

Shōmyō (声明) is a style of Japanese Buddhist chant, used mainly in the Tendai and Shingon sects. There are two styles: ryokyoku and rikkyoku, described as difficult and easy to remember, respectively.

Shōmyō, like gagaku, employs the Yo scale, a pentatonic scale with ascending intervals of two, three, two, two, and three semitones.

title: Shōmyō


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John Banister (anatomist)

John Banister (1533–1610) was an English anatomist, surgeon and teacher. He published The Historie of Man, from the most approved Authorities in this Present Age in 1578.

Life
He attended Edward VI in his final illness. He continued his professional life as surgeon to the forces sent under Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick in 1563 to relieve Le Havre. On this expedition he and William Clowes, another surgical author, began a friendship which lasted throughout their lives. Some time after his return he studied at Oxford, and received a license to practise in 1573. For several years he practised both physic and surgery at Nottingham.

The military expedition to the Low Countries under Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester in 1585 gave Banister another opportunity of public service, and he served on board a ship.

After the expedition he settled in London, living in Silver Street (which he mentions in his Antidotarie of 1589), not far from the Hall of the Barber-Surgeons. In 1588 he and Clowes are associated in the dedication of John Read's Translation of Arceus. They saw many cases together, and in 1591 T. P., a patient of theirs, praised both surgeons in a bad English poem. Complaints were often made at that time to the College of Physicians as to surgeons practising medicine, and, perhaps in consequence of some such difficulty, Banister in 1593 obtained a royal letter of recommendation which led the college to grant him a license (15 February 1594) on the condition that in dangerous cases he should call in one of its fellows.

Banister was known for his kindness to the poor, especially to old soldiers, and for his extensive professional reading.

Legacy
He was buried in St Olave's Church, Silver Street. The church was destroyed in the Great Fire of London. He had a long epitaph in English verse, which bears sufficient resemblance to some poems of Clowes to make it likely that it was written for Banister's tomb by his old friend.

Works
He edited Hans Jacob Wecker, with corrections, ‘A Compendious Chyrurgerie gathered and translated (especially) out of Wecker,’ London, 1585. He compiled a collection of remedies and prescriptions, ‘An Antidotarie Chyrurgicall,’ London, 1589, in which he acknowledges the generous help of his contemporaries, George Baker, Robert Balthrop, Clowes, and Goodrus. He also published in folio ‘The History of Man, sucked from the Sap of the most approved Anatomists, 9 books, London, 1578.’ Calametius, Tagaltius, and Wecker, three dry and unprofitable writers on surgery, form the basis of his writings. No cases from his own practice are given. In 1633, some time after Banister's death, a collected edition of his surgical works was published, ‘The Workes of that Famous Chyrurgian, Mr. John Banester,’ in six books.

title: John Banister (anatomist)


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Radio Network Controller

The Radio Network Controller (RNC) is a governing element in the UMTS radio access network (UTRAN) and is responsible for controlling the Node Bs that are connected to it. The RNC carries out radio resource management, some of the mobility management functions and is the point where encryption is done before user data is sent to and from the mobile. The RNC connects to the Circuit Switched Core Network through Media Gateway (MGW) and to the SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) in the Packet Switched Core Network.

Interfaces
The logical connections between the network elements are known as interfaces. The interface between the RNC and the Circuit Switched Core Network (CS-CN) is called Iu-CS and between the RNC and the Packet Switched Core Network is called Iu-PS. Other interfaces include Iub (between the RNC and the Node B) and Iur (between RNCs in the same network). Iu interfaces carry user traffic (such as voice or data) as well as control information (see ), and Iur interface is mainly needed for soft handovers involving 2 RNCs though not required as the absence of Iur will cause these handovers to become hard handovers.

Until 3gpp R4, all the interfaces in the UTRAN are implemented using ATM only, except the Uu (air) interface which uses WCDMA technology. Starting R5, IP bearers can be used over Ethernet instead. Physically, these interfaces can be carried over SDH over optical fiber, E1 (sometimes referred to as PDH) - over a copper wire or microwave radio. Several E1s can be bundled to form an IMA Group. Since the interfaces are logical, many interfaces can be multiplexed onto the same transmission line. The actual implementation depends on the network topology; examples are chain, distant star, mesh and loop configurations.

Protocols
Iub, Iu and Iur protocols all carry both user data and signalling (that is, control plane).
 * Signalling protocol responsible for the control of the Node B by the RNC is called NBAP (Node-B Application Part). NBAP is subdivided into Common and Dedicated NBAP (C-NBAP and D-NBAP), where Common NBAP controls overall Node B functionality and Dedicated NBAP controls separate cells or sectors of the Node B. NBAP is carried over Iub. In order for NBAP to handle common and dedicated procedures, it is divided into: NodeB Control Port (NCP) which handles common NBAP procedures and Communication Control Port (CCP) which handles dedicated NBAP procedures.
 * Control plane protocol for the transport layer is called ALCAP (Access Link Control Application Protocol). Basic functionality of ALCAP is multiplexing of different users onto one AAL2 transmission path using channel IDs (CIDs). ALCAP is carried over Iub and Iu-CS interfaces.
 * Signalling protocol responsible for communication between RNC and the core network is called RANAP (Radio Access Network Application Part), and is carried over Iu interface.
 * Signalling protocol responsible for communications between RNCs is called RNSAP (Radio Network Subsystem Application Part) and is carried on the Iur interface.

RNC roles
In a relationship to a UE (in a soft handover situation) an RNC can play two different roles. These are:
 * D-RNC: Drift RNC
 * S-RNC: Serving RNC

However, as far as the NodeB is concerned, the RNC may play a third role:
 * C-RNC: Controlling RNC

It is important to know that one RNC can assume more than one role at any time.

An RNC also controls the power of a NodeB.

title: Radio Network Controller


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Yoshihiro Yasuda

Yoshihiro Yasuda (安田 好弘) is a Japanese lawyer known for his anti–death penalty activism. With death penalty being a prominent method of punishment for violent criminals in Japan, Yasuda has defended many of these cases. At the time when Yasuda took on many of these cases, such cases were considered detrimental to a lawyer's career. He participated in many controversial trials because he believed that the suspects were tried unfairly as a result of mass media bashing.

Background
Yoshihiro Yasuda was born in Hyogo Prefecture on December 4, 1947. He graduated Hitotsubashi University Faculty of Law in 1975. In 1977, Yasuda passed the bar exam, and in 1980, he officially became a lawyer after completing the Supreme Court Legal Research and Training Institute.

Shinjuku bus attack
Yasuda was one of the defenders of a Shinjuku bus attacker who killed six people in 1980. The attacker wasn't sentenced to death, but he died by suicide in 1997.

Japan Air Lines Flight 404
Japan Air Lines Flight 404 was an airliner hijacked by Palestinian and Japanese terrorists on July 20, 1973. As of 1987, Yasuda was elected to the counsel of the accused (Osamu Maruoka). Osamu Maruoka was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Aum Shinrikyo
Shoko Asahara, the founder of the religious cult group Aum Shinrikyo, was trialed as the mastermind behind the crimes perpetrated by his followers, including the Tokyo subway sarin gas attack. Yasuda was the court-appointed attorney to defend Asahara in 1995, but was forced to resign from the team due to his arrest in 1998. asserted that the arrest was made because prosecutors were dissatisfied with Yasuda's court tactics to delay the trial as long as possible to avoid the likely death sentence on Asahara.

1,200 lawyers listed as Yasuda's defenders, and Japan Federation of Bar Associations and Amnesty International protested that the arrest was unfair. After his legal complications were settled in 2003, Yasuda became Asahara's private lawyer.

In September 15, 2006, the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence on Asahara.

Masumi Hayashi
Yasuda defended Masumi Hayashi, who was convicted of putting poison in a pot of curry being served at a 1998 summer festival in the Sonobe district of Wakayama, Wakayama, Japan. Yasuda was asked by Kazuyoshi Miura, who was exchanging letters with Masumi Hayashi, to work on this trial. Despite Yasuda's efforts, she was sentenced to death in 2002.

Hikari City homicides
Yasuda was the chief defender for a 19-year-old boy sentenced to death by the Hiroshima High Court in April 2008 for raping and strangling a woman to death and murdering her 1-year-old daughter in 1999 in Hikari city, Yamaguchi. This case has received much attention because of the circumstances of the crime and the possibility of the death penalty being imposed on a minor (the age of majority in Japan was 20 at the time). The Supreme Court ruled that perpetrator's age at the time of the crime did not exempt him from the death penalty. Yasuda and the defense team tried to prevent the death penalty from being applied by claiming that the perpetrator did not intend to kill the woman or her baby. In March 2006, Yasuda and his group of attorneys were absent from the oral argument hearing for an unknown reason. The Japanese media considered their behavior as a tactic to delay the trial just as they did during the Asahara trial; the Supreme Court ordered them to attend the next hearing.

Arrest
On December 6, 1998, Yasuda was arrested on charges of obstruction of justice (the compulsory seizure of rental income of one of the failed jusen mortgage lenders). Yasuda was charged with advising the Singaporean real estate developer Sun Chungli and his son Naoaki to set up a dummy company to hide assets. Sun was the president of Sun's Corporation Tokyo Ltd., a major borrower from the several former, now obsolete jusen housing loan companies. Yasuda was accused by the police of conspiring with Sun to hide rental income of approximately 200 million yen by using a dummy company by the name of Wide Treasure. The police suspected that Yasuda instructed the Sun family on how to hide assets. Yasuda acknowledged that he became the legal advisor for Sun in 1991, but argued that he gave advice within a legal framework. Yasuda denied the charges, and claimed he had no involvement in the Wide Treasure operation while the Sun family pleaded guilty. Yasuda was acquitted in 2003.

Yasuda on mass media
Yasuda's reason for defending the accused who are labelled by society as highly vicious criminals is that he believes their chance of a fair trial is taken away by media bashings. Yasuda fears the recent trend by the media to label people as vicious villains to bury the possibility of a legitimate trial for the accused as a signal of a crisis of democracy in Japan. Yasuda criticizes the premise of modern Japanese law that deviates from justice as the need for assumed innocence has increasingly become a prerequisite for acquittal; he sees this as a crisis in the judicial system.

Movies
Shikei Bengonin (死刑弁護人), a documentary directed by Junichi Saito that explores the issue of capital punishment with a focus on Yasuda, was released in theaters on June 30, 2012. The movie is based on a TV show that aired midnights in 2011. The film was also screened at the Amnesty International Human Rights Documentary Film Show in Hong Kong.

Cast and crew:
 * Narration: Taro Yamamoto
 * Director: Junichi Saito
 * Producer: Katsuhiko Abuno
 * Music: Shouhei Murai
 * Music producer: Kozue Okada
 * Filming: Akihiko Iwai
 * Editor: Tetsuji Yamamoto

Books

 * Shikei Bengonin: Ikiru to Iu Kenri

title: Yoshihiro Yasuda


text:
Talk:Lib–Lab pact

When people say "Lib-Lab pact" they usually mean 1977. gives some clues as to its use pointing at David Steel, UK general election, 1979, James Callaghan, as well as Labour Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats (UK). Why can the article not say so? --Henrygb 12:19, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

Because they don't, especially if they are in Scotland (and earlier, in Wales). In Scotland the "Lib-Lab Pact" is still very much a matter of current discussion so to state it as being all about the 1977 one is very much a England-centric POV. I only created the page recently so haven't started going around to see what else should link here (although did add a couple of more obvious ones). There is certainly an opportunity to add in the earlier links (which were a surprise to me when I started creating the page!). As an encyclopedia we should give weight to all historical and current events rather than just ones in our lifetime (imho, anyway) and there is also an education element here to let people know that it wasn't the first time the two parties got very close. --VampWillow 19:57, 2004 May 16 (UTC)

I agree with Henrygb. In Scotland when referring to the ruling coalition they don't use the words 'Lib-Lab Pact'. They call it a coalition. I agree that most people would assume it refers to the situation in 1977 where the Liberals supported the Callaghan Government but did not become part of the government. The current situation in Scotland is different as the Lib Dems form part of the Scottish Government which gives them a say over policy, and collective responsibilty holds them to it. Catchpole 19:38, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

As above, *the* Lib-Lab pact was what came about in 1977. This is a wishy-washy article with no basis on published sources. --kingboyk (talk) 14:26, 11 May 2010 (UTC)

Your part on 2010 is very biased; it sounds as if the decision was purely made by the Lib Dems, with a clear choice between the Conservatives and Labour. Why is it not mentioned that together the Labour and the LibDems did not have an overall majority, thus making it far harder to make an arrangement? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.27.176.13 (talk) 17:43, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Have added a bunch of citation tags to the 2010 paragraph and staarted attempting to clean up the language, then gave up as the entire paragraph needs rewriting to take in account actual facts, which a) I don't have time for and b) am worried about my bias-I am a Lib Dem member, remain one and followed the talks closely so NPOV is difficult. The mention of Littlewood as a specific is laughable-he has zero influence at that sort of level, adn the idea that the LDs changed their position on deficit reduction when Govt policy is close to spot on what the LDs proposed in the manifesto, even if cuts are in different areas, is simply factually wrong. MatGB (talk) 18:08, 29 December 2011 (UTC)MatGB

The section on 2015 is unsatisfactory. Isnt there a difference between an encyclopaedia and political speculation? Apart from anything else, in a political situation that is changing by the day, is this supposed to be up to the minute, or fairly recent, or what?Unraed (talk) 16:08, 2 May 2015 (UTC)unraed

title: Talk:Lib–Lab pact


text:
Jet bridge

A jet bridge (also termed jetway, jetwalk, airgate, jetty, gangway, aerobridge/airbridge, finger, skybridge, airtube, expedited suspended passenger entry system (E-SPES), or its official industry name passenger boarding bridge (PBB)) is an enclosed, movable connector which most commonly extends from an airport terminal gate to an airplane, and in some instances from a port to a boat or ship, allowing passengers to board and disembark without heading outside and being exposed to harsh weather. Depending on building design, sill heights, fueling positions, and operational requirements, a jet bridge may be fixed or movable, swinging radially, or extending in length. The jetway was invented by Frank Der Yuen.

Similar devices are used for astronauts to enter spacecraft, which are installed in the appropriate height of the launch tower.

History

Before the introduction of jet bridges, passengers normally boarded an aircraft by walking along the ground-level ramp and climbing a set of movable stairs, or airstairs on aircraft so equipped. Mobile staircases or "ramp stairs" are employed at many airports around the world, particularly smaller airports and terminals supporting low cost carriers.

United Airlines tested an early prototype "Air Dock" in 1954. The first operational "Aero-Gangplank", as it was dubbed by inventor Lockheed Air Terminal, was installed by United at Chicago's O'Hare Airport in 1958.

Advantages
Jet bridges provide all-weather dry access to aircraft and enhance the security of terminal operations. They are often permanently attached at one end by a pivot (or rotunda) to the terminal building and have the ability to swing left or right. The cabin, at the end of the loading bridge, may be raised or lowered, extended or retracted, and may pivot, to accommodate aircraft of different sizes. These motions are controlled by an operator's station in the cab. The cab is provided with an accordion-like canopy, which allows the bridge to dock with aircraft with differing shapes, and provide a nearly weather-proof seal. Additionally, many models offer leveling devices for the portion of the floor that makes contact with the aircraft; this allows passengers to slowly transition from level aircraft floor to sloping jet bridge floor. As such, jet bridges provide enhanced access to aircraft for passengers with many types of disabilities and mobility impairments, as they may board and disembark without climbing stairs or using a specialized wheelchair lift.

Some airports with international gates have two or even three bridges for larger aircraft with multiple entrances. In theory, this allows for faster disembarking of larger aircraft, though it is quite common, especially on aircraft such as Boeing 747s and Boeing 777s, to use one bridge for only passengers in first class and/or business class, while the other bridge is for the use of passengers in economy class. In some designs, the second jet bridge would even extend over the aircraft wing, being suspended from an overhead structure. This was, for example, originally adopted for most wide body gates at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The Airbus A380 is unique in that both of its two passenger decks have outside access doors and so using loading bridges for each deck is possible, having the advantage of faster aircraft loading (in parallel). Faster loading can lead to lower airport charges, fewer delays and more passenger throughput for the airport, all factors which impact an airline's bottom line.

Though loading bridges are usually permanently attached at their terminal-building end, leaving only the cab free to move, this is not always the case. Those at Melbourne Airport's international terminal, and at Hong Kong's former Kai Tak Airport, are anchored in the middle and movable at either end to permit the terminal building-end to be raised or lowered to connect with either the departures level or the arrivals level of the terminal building.

Disadvantages
Loading bridges restrict aircraft parking to spots immediately adjacent to the terminal. Thus, airports use mobile staircases to facilitate disembarking at hardstands (remote parking positions) and have buses transporting passengers to terminals.

Loading bridges may pose hazards to aircraft if handled improperly. If the bridge is not retracted fully before departure, it may contact protruding parts of the taxiing aircraft (e.g., a pitot tube), requiring repair and delays. Furthermore, during cold weather, the loading bridge may become frozen to the aircraft. In this case, when the jet bridge retracts, it could damage the aircraft if that area has not been properly de-iced.

When regional jets are used, jet bridges have another disadvantage, since they allow only one aircraft to park at the gate at a time. Several airlines have removed jet bridges at regional jet gates at airports such as Atlanta which are short on gates. When having passengers disembark on the ramp or apron, airlines can fit two or more regional jets per gate. In many other places like Beijing Capital Airport and Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, a gate for large aircraft can be used to accommodate two smaller aircraft like Boeing 737s or Airbus A320s.

Several incidents of jet bridges collapsing include Sydney, Hong Kong, Seattle, Los Angeles, Baltimore, and Islamabad.

Airports frequently charge increased fees for using loading bridges on stands as opposed to mobile stairs, therefore low-cost airlines such as Ryanair have avoided using these wherever possible.

Use at small airports
Jet bridges are occasionally used at smaller, single-story airports. This is accomplished by a flight of stairs and, in some instances, a wheelchair lift. In this scenario, a passenger proceeds through the gate and then up a flight of stairs to meet the height of the jet bridge. An example of this can be found at South Bend International Airport. Alternatively, a ramp can be used in the terminal building to bring the passengers from the waiting area to the height of the jet bridge. For example, Sawyer International Airport in Marquette, Michigan has jet bridges that can load passengers onto smaller passenger aircraft such as the Saab 340 turboprop. The Ithaca Tompkins Regional Airport has two gates using this approach. This can be done to attract larger airlines that require use of a jet bridge to the airport, as well as to make disembarking smaller planes easier for disabled people and to improve the disembarking process in bad weather.

Use and appearance
At the airport terminal, the bridge is connected to a portal (called a "gate") in the terminal wall behind the gate desk. Once airplane boarding starts, passengers hand their boarding passes to the gate's attendant, who lets them pass through.

Inside, the bridge looks like a narrow, lighted hallway, without doors. Loading bridges usually have no windows, but glass walls are becoming more common. The walls are normally painted in accordance with airline standards, generally with relaxing colours. Some bridges have advertisements on interior or exterior walls. The floors of retractable bridges are generally uneven, creating a hazard for wheelchair users and others with mobility issues.

By using a retractable tunnel design, loading bridges may retract and extend varying lengths. Some airports use fixed walkways to effectively extend the reach of a loading bridge. The fixed walkway extends out from the terminal building and connects to the loading bridge rotunda. Occasionally, fixed bridges lead to multiple loading bridges. There are some jetways (such as several older bridges on the north terminal at Edmonton International Airport) that sit directly on the ground, as opposed to supports. These jetways are often used by small airlines or airplanes that are sometimes too low for conventional jetways (such as the Dash 8 and CRJ).

The cab of the loading bridge is raised and lowered to dock with aircraft of differing sill heights. The height of the cab is matched to the height of the aircraft door sill height. This often results in a slope along the length of the loading bridge.

Controls in older systems contain a large number of individual motor control buttons, with efficient operation requiring a high degree of operator skill and experience. Modern control consoles are much simpler, with only a few buttons, a graphic display console, and a single multi-axis joystick, with an overall appearance similar to that of a video game console in a video arcade.

Marketing
Marketing space on jetways was uncommon until the early 2000s when HSBC launched their campaign "The World's Local Bank".

Peter Stringham, head of marketing for HSBC worldwide, worked closely with Lowe's, the Group's global agency, in developing the campaign which required a single global platform. Stringham noticed jetways were a global medium which had not been tapped.

HSBC thus bought the rights to jetways across major localities in 81 countries and territories.

title: Jet bridge


text:
Eric Blore

Eric Blore Sr. (23 December 1887 – 2 March 1959) was an English actor and writer. His early stage career, mostly in the West End of London, centred on revue and musical comedy, but also included straight plays. He wrote sketches for and appeared in variety.

In the 1930s Blore acted mostly in Broadway productions. He made his last London appearance in 1933 in the Fred Astaire hit Gay Divorce. Between 1930 and 1955 he made more than 60 Hollywood films, becoming particularly well known for playing butlers and other superior domestic servants. He retired in 1956 for health reasons, and died in Hollywood in 1959 at the age of 71.

Early years
Blore was born in Finchley, a north London suburb, on 23 December 1887, son of Henry Blore and his wife Mary, née Newton. He was educated at Mills School, Finchley, and after leaving school he worked for an insurance company. He was drawn to a theatrical career, and in 1908 he made his first appearance on the stage at the Spa Theatre, Bridlington in the musical comedy The Girl from Kays. In the same year he went to Australia, where he appeared with a concert party, "The Merrymakers". In the English provinces he appeared in the musical comedy The Arcadians (1910), the pierrot show The March Hares (1911) and Barry Jackson and Basil Dean's Fifinella (1912).

In April 1913 Blore made his first appearance in London, at the Empire, Leicester Square in C.H. Bovill's revue All the Winners, in which he was praised by The Observer. He also appeared at the Empire in Bovill's and P.G. Wodehouse's revue Nuts and Wine (1914). During the First World War, Blore enlisted and served in the South Wales Borderers and later joined the Royal Flying Corps, before being assigned to run the 38th Divisional Concert Party in France ("The Welsh Wails") 1917–1919.

Blore wrote several sketches for revue and variety, including "Violet and Pink" (1913); "A Burlington Arcadian" (1914); "The Admirable Fleming" (1917); "Yes, Papa" (1921); "French Beans" (1921) and his most enduring sketch, "The Disorderly Room", written while he was in the army, and first given in London by Stanley Holloway, Tom Walls, Leslie Henson, Jack Buchanan and the author. It was taken up by Tommy Handley who starred in it in music halls around the country and on BBC radio in the 1920s and 30s.

West End and Broadway
In the early 1920s Blore toured in variety and appeared in the West End in Angel Face (1922), a "musical farce" with music by Victor Herbert, heading a cast that included Sylvia Cecil and the young Miles Malleson, and The Cabaret Girl, joining the cast in mid-run.

In August 1923 Blore appeared for the first time on Broadway, playing the Hon. Bertie Bird in Little Miss Bluebeard, and on his return to London he appeared in the same part at Wyndham's Theatre. After the death of his first wife, Violet (née Winter), Blore married Clara Macklin in 1926. In the same year he returned to New York, playing Teddie Deakin in The Ghost Train. The play, which ran in London for 655 performances did less well on Broadway, and closed after 61 performances. Blore remained in the US for the next seven years; his Broadway roles were Reggie Ervine in Mixed Doubles, Sir Calverton Shipley in Just Fancy, Sir Basil Carraway in Here's Howe, the King of Arcadia in Angela, Captain Robert Holt in Meet the Prince, Lieutenant Cooper in Roar China, Bertie Capp in Give Me Yesterday and Roddy Trotwood in Here Goes the Bride. In 1932 he toured as Cosmo Perry in The Devil Passes, before returning to Broadway to play the waiter in Cole Porter's Gay Divorce, which starred Fred Astaire and Claire Luce.

Gay Divorce ran for 248 performances, closing in July 1933, to allow Astaire and Luce to go to London to play in the piece at the Palace Theatre. Blore and Erik Rhodes from the Broadway cast also appeared in the London production, which ran for five months. This was Blore's last London stage show. As The Times put it, he joined "the select company of English actors who were persuaded to journey to California" to appear in Hollywood films, along with the likes of C. Aubrey Smith and Ronald Colman.

Hollywood
Blore made more than 60 films between 1930 and 1955. He was particularly known for playing superior butlers, valets and gentlemen's gentlemen. The Times commented that he and another English actor, Arthur Treacher, "made a virtual corner in butler parts … no study of an upper class English or American household was complete without one or other of them". Treacher was tall and thin with a haughty and austere manner; Blore was "shorter and slightly tubby … a trifle more eccentric in manner but equally capable of registering eloquent but unspoken disapproval". His less lofty air enabled him to deliver the line, "If I were not a gentleman's gentleman I could be such a cad's cad."

In 1943 Blore returned to Broadway, replacing Treacher during the run of Ziegfeld Follies, and made his final stage appearance at Los Angeles in September 1945, playing Charles Mannering in the unsuccessful Tchaikovsky-based musical Song Without Words.

Blore retired after suffering a stroke in 1956. Taken ill in February 1959 he was moved from his Hollywood home to the Motion Picture Country Hospital, where he died of a heart attack on 1 March, aged 71. He was survived by his widow, Clara, a son, Eric Jr., and one grandchild.

Filmography
Source: British Film Institute.

title: Eric Blore


text:
The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith

The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith is a 1997 autobiographic apologia written by Ian Smith, focusing on his time as Prime Minister of the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia, later Rhodesia (April 13, 1964 – June 1, 1979).

The memoirs cover the time period during which Smith's government attempted to preserve white minority rule in Rhodesia through political and military means, including a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom, and the termination of Smith's government with the resumption of the UK's rule and the recognised independence of Zimbabwe in 1980.

In the book, Ian Smith sought to explain the reasons why his government made its Unilateral Declaration of Independence, and how Rhodesia coped in the face of sanctions and the Rhodesian Bush War until the pressures forced him and his government to accede to the wishes of his adversaries. Smith points to the chaotic situation in Zimbabwe after 1980 as proof that he was trying to prevent Rhodesia from suffering the same fate as other majority-ruled African states.

The book was republished in 2001 with the title Bitter Harvest: The Great Betrayal. After Smith's death in 2007, the book was also reprinted in May 2008 with a foreword by Rupert Cornwell, and a brief postscript.