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Thermoacoustics

Thermoacoustics is the interaction between temperature, density and pressure variations of acoustic waves. Thermoacoustic heat engines can readily be driven using solar energy or waste heat and they can be controlled using proportional control. They can use heat available at low temperatures which makes it ideal for heat recovery and low power applications. The components included in thermoacoustic engines are usually very simple compared to conventional engines. The device can easily be controlled and maintained.

Thermoacoustic effects can be observed when partly molten glass tubes are connected to glass vessels. Sometimes spontaneously a loud and monotone sound is produced. A similar effect is observed if one side of a stainless steel tube is at room temperature (293 K) and the other side is in contact with liquid helium at 4.2 K. In this case, spontaneous oscillations are observed which are named "Taconis oscillations". The mathematical foundation of thermoacoustics is by Nikolaus Rott. Later, the field was inspired by the work of John Wheatley and Swift and his co-workers. Technologically thermoacoustic devices have the advantage that they have no moving parts, which makes them attractive for applications where reliability is of key importance.

Historical review of thermoacoustics
Thermoacoustic-induced oscillations have been observed for centuries. Glass blowers produced heat-generated sound when blowing a hot bulb at the end of a cold narrow tube. This phenomenon also has been observed in cryogenic storage vessels, where oscillations are induced by the insertion of a hollow tube open at the bottom end in liquid helium, called Taconis oscillations, but the lack of heat removal system causes the temperature gradient to diminish and acoustic wave to weaken and then to stop completely. Byron Higgins made the first scientific observation of heat energy conversion into acoustical oscillations. He investigated the "singing flame" phenomena in a portion of a hydrogen flame in a tube with both ends open.

Physicist Pieter Rijke introduced this phenomenon into a greater scale by using a heated wire screen to induce strong oscillations in his Rijke tube. Feldman mentioned in his related review that a convective air current through the pipe is the main inducer of this phenomenon. The oscillations are strongest when the screen is at one fourth of the tube length. Research performed by Sondhauss in 1850 is known to be the first to approximate the modern concept of thermoacoustic oscillation. Sondhauss experimentally investigated the oscillations related to glass blowers. Sondhauss observed that sound frequency and intensity depends on the length and volume of the bulb. Lord Rayleigh gave a qualitative explanation of the Sondhauss thermoacoustic oscillations phenomena, where he stated that producing any type of thermoacoustic oscillations needs to meet a criterion: "If heat be given to the air at the moment of greatest condensation or taken from it at the moment of greatest rarefaction, the vibration is encouraged". This shows that he related thermoacoustics to the interplay of density variations and heat injection. The formal theoretical study of thermoacoustics started by Kramers in 1949 when he generalized the Kirchhoff theory of the attenuation of sound waves at constant temperature to the case of attenuation in the presence of a temperature gradient. Rott made a breakthrough in the study and modeling of thermodynamic phenomena by developing a successful linear theory. After that, the acoustical part of thermoacoustics was linked in a broad thermodynamic framework by Swift.

Sound
Usually sound is understood in terms of pressure variations accompanied by an oscillating motion of a medium (gas, liquid or solid). Thermoacoustic machines rely more on the temperature-position variations than the usual pressure-velocity variations.

The sound intensity of ordinary speech is 65 dB. The pressure variations are about 0.05 Pa, the displacements 0.2 μm, and the temperature variations about 40 μK. So, the thermal effects of sound cannot be observed in daily life. However, at sound levels of 180 dB, which are normal in thermoacoustic systems, the pressure variations are 30 kPa, the displacements more than 10 cm, and the temperature variations 24 K.

A full theory of thermoacoustics should account for the propagation of heat in the fluid as it makes compression cycles during the propagation of the sound wave. Good insights can however be gained by making the usual assumption of adiabatic compression. Even if no heat is exchanged during adiabatic compression, the temperature of the fluid does change and will tell the correct direction of heat flow. Under the adiabatic approximation, the one-dimensional wave equation for sound reads
 * $$c^2 \frac{\partial ^2 v}{\partial x ^2}-\frac{\partial ^2 v}{\partial t ^2}=0$$

with t time, v the gas velocity, x the position, and c the sound velocity given by c2=γp0/ρ0. For an ideal gas, c2=γRT0/M with M the molar mass. In these expressions, p0, T0, and ρ0 are the average pressure, temperature, and density respectively. In monochromatic plane waves, with angular frequency ω and with ω=kc, the solution is
 * $$v = v_{Ar}\cos(\omega t-kx)+v_{Al}\cos(\omega t+kx). $$

The pressure variations are given by
 * $$\delta p = c\rho _0[v_{Ar}\cos(\omega t-kx)-v_{Al}\cos(\omega t+kx)]. $$

The deviation δx of a gas-particle with equilibrium position x is given by
 * {| width=500px

and the temperature variations are
 * $$\delta x=\frac{v_{Ar}}{\omega}\sin(\omega t-kx)+\frac{v_{Al}}{\omega}\sin(\omega t+kx)$$
 * style="text-align:right"|(1)
 * }
 * {| width=500px

The last two equations form a parametric representation of a tilted ellipse in the δT – δx plane with t as the parameter. If $$v_{Ar}=v_{Al}$$, we are dealing with a pure standing wave. Figure 1a gives the dependence of the velocity and position amplitudes (red curve) and the pressure and temperature amplitudes (blue curve) for this case. The ellipse of the δT – δx plane is reduced to a straight line as shown in Fig. 1b. At the tube ends δx =0, so the δT – δx plot is a vertical line here. In the middle of the tube the pressure and temperature variations are zero, so we have a horizontal line. It can be shown that the power, transported by sound, is given by
 * $$\delta T=\frac{cM}{C_p}[v_{Ar}\cos(\omega t-kx)-v_{Al}\cos(\omega t+kx)].$$
 * style="text-align:right"|(2)
 * }
 * $$P=\frac{\gamma p_0}{2c}A(v_{Ar}^2-v_{Al}^2)$$

where γ is the ratio of the gas specific heat at fixed pressure to the specific heat at fixed volume and A is the area of the cross section of the sound duct. Since in a standing wave, $$v_{Ar}=v_{Al}$$, the average energy transport is zero.

If $$v_{Ar}=0$$ or $$v_{Al}=0$$, we have a pure traveling wave. In this case, Eqs.(1) and (2) represent circles in the δT – δx diagram as shown in Fig. 1c, which applies to a pure traveling wave to the right. The gas moves to the right with a high temperature and back with a low temperature, so there is a net transport of energy.

Penetration depths
The thermoacoustic effect inside the stack takes place mainly in the region that is close to the solid walls of the stack. The layers of gas too far away from the stack walls experience adiabatic oscillations in temperature that result in no heat transfer to or from the walls, which is undesirable. Therefore, an important characteristic for any thermoacoustic element is the value of the thermal and viscous penetration depths. The thermal penetration depth δκ is the thickness of the layer of the gas where heat can diffuse through during half a cycle of oscillations. Viscous penetration depth δv is the thickness of the layer where viscosity effect is effective near the boundaries. In case of sound, the characteristic length for thermal interaction is given by the thermal penetration depth δκ
 * $$\delta _\kappa^2=\frac{2\kappa V_m}{\omega C_p}.$$

Here κ is the thermal conductivity, Vm the molar volume, and Cp the molar heat capacity at constant pressure. Viscous effects are determined by the viscous penetration depth δν
 * $$\delta _\nu^2=\frac{2\eta }{\omega \rho} $$

with η the gas viscosity and ρ its density. The Prandtl number of the gas is defined as
 * $$P_r=\frac{\eta C_p}{M\kappa}.$$

The two penetration depths are related as follows
 * $$\delta _\nu^2 = P_r \delta_ \kappa^2.$$

For many working fluids, like air and helium, Pr is of order 1, so the two penetration depths are about equal. For helium at normal temperature and pressure, Pr≈0.66. For typical sound frequencies the thermal penetration depth is ca. 0.1 mm. That means that the thermal interaction between the gas and a solid surface is limited to a very thin layer near the surface. The effect of thermoacoustic devices is increased by putting a large number of plates (with a plate distance of a few times the thermal penetration depth) in the sound field forming a stack. Stacks play a central role in so-called standing-wave thermoacoustic devices.

Thermoacoustic systems
Acoustic oscillations in a medium are a set of time depending properties, which may transfer energy along its path. Along the path of an acoustic wave, pressure and density are not the only time dependent property, but also entropy and temperature. Temperature changes along the wave can be invested to play the intended role in the thermoacoustic effect. The interplay of heat and sound is applicable in both conversion ways. The effect can be used to produce acoustic oscillations by supplying heat to the hot side of a stack, and sound oscillations can be used to induce a refrigeration effect by supplying a pressure wave inside a resonator where a stack is located. In a thermoacoustic prime mover, a high temperature gradient along a tube where a gas media is contained induces density variations. Such variations in a constant volume of matter force changes in pressure. The cycle of thermoacoustic oscillation is a combination of heat transfer and pressure changes in a sinusoidal pattern. Self-induced oscillations can be encouraged, according to Lord Rayleigh, by the appropriate phasing of heat transfer and pressure changes.

Standing-wave systems
The thermoacoustic engine (TAE) is a device that converts heat energy into work in the form of acoustic energy. A thermoacoustic engine operates using the effects that arise from the resonance of a standing-wave in a gas. A standing-wave thermoacoustic engine typically has a thermoacoustic element called the "stack". A stack is a solid component with pores that allow the operating gas fluid to oscillate while in contact with the solid walls. The oscillation of the gas is accompanied with the change of its temperature. Due to the introduction of solid walls into the oscillating gas, the plate modifies the original, unperturbed temperature oscillations in both magnitude and phase for the gas about a thermal penetration depth δ=√(2k/ω) away from the plate, where k is the thermal diffusivity of the gas and ω=2πf is the angular frequency of the wave. Thermal penetration depth is defined as the distance that heat can diffuse though the gas during a time 1/ω. In air oscillating at 1000 Hz, the thermal penetration depth is about 0.1 mm. Standing-wave TAE must be supplied with the necessary heat to maintain the temperature gradient on the stack. This is done by two heat exchangers on both sides of the stack.

If we put a thin horizontal plate in the sound field, the thermal interaction between the oscillating gas and the plate leads to thermoacoustic effects. If the thermal conductivity of the plate material would be zero, the temperature in the plate would exactly match the temperature profiles as in Fig. 1b. Consider the blue line in Fig. 1b as the temperature profile of a plate at that position. The temperature gradient in the plate would be equal to the so-called critical temperature gradient. If we would fix the temperature at the left side of the plate at ambient temperature Ta (e.g. using a heat exchanger), then the temperature at the right would be below Ta. In other words: we have produced a cooler. This is the basis of thermoacoustic cooling as shown in Fig. 2b which represents a thermoacoustic refrigerator. It has a loudspeaker at the left. The system corresponds with the left half of Fig. 1b with the stack in the position of the blue line. Cooling is produced at temperature TL.

It is also possible to fix the temperature of the right side of the plate at Ta and heat up the left side so that the temperature gradient in the plate would be larger than the critical temperature gradient. In that case, we have made an engine (prime mover) which can e.g. produce sound as in Fig. 2a. This is a so-called thermoacoustic prime mover. Stacks can be made of stainless steel plates but the device works also very well with loosely packed stainless steel wool or screens. It is heated at the left, e.g., by a propane flame and heat is released to ambient temperature by a heat exchanger. If the temperature at the left side is high enough, the system starts to produces a loud sound.

Thermoacoustic engines still suffer from some limitations, including that: The performance of thermoacoustic engines usually is characterized through several indicators as follows:
 * The device usually has low power-to-volume ratio.
 * Very high densities of operating fluids are required to obtain high power densities
 * The commercially available linear alternators used to convert acoustic energy into electricity currently have low efficiencies compared to rotary electric generators
 * Only expensive specially-made alternators can give satisfactory performance.
 * TAE uses gases at high pressures to provide reasonable power densities which imposes sealing challenges particularly if the mixture has light gases like helium.
 * The heat exchanging process in TAE is critical to maintain the power conversion process. The hot heat exchanger has to transfer heat to the stack and the cold heat exchanger has to sustain the temperature gradient across the stack. Yet, the available space for it is constrained with the small size and the blockage it adds to the path of the wave. The heat exchange process in oscillating media is still under extensive research.
 * The acoustic waves inside thermoacoustic engines operated at large pressure ratios suffer many kinds of non-linearities, such as turbulence which dissipates energy due to viscous effects, harmonic generation of different frequencies that carries acoustic power in frequencies other than the fundamental frequency.
 * The first and second law efficiencies.
 * The onset temperature difference, defined as the minimum temperature difference across the sides of the stack at which the dynamic pressure is generated.
 * The frequency of the resultant pressure wave, since this frequency should match the resonance frequency required by the load device, either a thermoacoustic refrigerator/heat pump or a linear alternator.
 * The degree of harmonic distortion, indicating the ratio of higher harmonics to the fundamental mode in the resulting dynamic pressure wave.
 * The variation of the resultant wave frequency with the TAE operating temperature

Travelling-wave systems
Figure 3 is a schematic drawing of a travelling-wave thermoacoustic engine. It consists of a resonator tube and a loop which contains a regenerator, three heat exchangers, and a bypass loop. A regenerator is a porous medium with a high heat capacity. As the gas flows back and forth through the regenerator, it periodically stores and takes up heat from the regenerator material. In contrast to the stack, the pores in the regenerator are much smaller than the thermal penetration depth, so the thermal contact between gas and material is very good. Ideally, the energy flow in the regenerator is zero, so the main energy flow in the loop is from the hot heat exchanger via the pulse tube and the bypass loop to the heat exchanger at the other side of the regenerator (main heat exchanger). The energy in the loop is transported via a travelling wave as in Fig. 1c, hence the name travelling-wave systems. The ratio of the volume flows at the ends of the regenerator is TH/Ta, so the regenerator acts as a volume-flow amplifier. Just like in the case of the standing-wave system, the machine "spontaneously" produces sound if the temperature TH is high enough. The resulting pressure oscillations can be used in a variety of ways, such as in producing electricity, cooling, and heat pumping.

title: Thermoacoustics


text:
Smarch

Smarch may refer to:

People

 * Carl Smarch, a candidate in the 1989 Yukon general election
 * Jim Smarch, a candidate in the 1992 Yukon general election
 * Keith Wolfe Smarch, a Tlingit people woodcarver and apprentice of Dempsey Bob

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title: Smarch


text:
Benny Urquidez

Benny Urquidez (born June 20, 1952) is an American former professional kickboxer, martial arts choreographer and actor. Nicknamed "The Jet", Urquidez was a non-contact karate competitor who later pioneered full-contact fighting in the United States. He made the transition from point to full-contact karate in 1974, the year of its inception in the US, frequently fighting in bouts where the rules were ambiguous and contrasts in styles were dramatic. Urquidez is also known for once holding the rare achievement of six world titles in five different weight divisions, and remained largely undefeated in his 27-year career. His only loss came in a Muay Thai match which was shrouded in controversy, as Urquidez had only agreed to a no-decision exhibition, a clause which was ignored when the fight had ended.

Between 1974 and 1993, he amassed a documented professional record of 49–1–1 (win-loss-draw) with 35 knockouts and two controversial no-contests, although he is also supposed to have an additional record of 10–0–1 (10 KOs) in undocumented professional fights, making a total of 59–1–2–2 (45 KOs). However, sources vary with Ratings listing Urquidez as 63–0–1, (57 knockouts) and on his own official webpage, Urquidez lists his fight record as 200–0, and says he was 63–0, with 57 knockouts in title defenses. Also, he claims to have been undefeated in the "Adult Black Belt Division" prior to entering full-contact karate. Black Belt magazine voted Urquidez "Competitor of the Year" in 1978. In 2019, he was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.

He has appeared in occasional acting roles, including the Jackie Chan movies Wheels on Meals (1984) and Dragons Forever (1988), and played a hitman in George Armitage's Grosse Pointe Blank (1997).

Early life, family and education
Urquidez was born in Los Angeles County, California, the son of a wrestling mother and a boxing father. His parents are of Spanish (Basque), Mexican and Blackfoot ancestry. He has said that his father was Spanish and his mother was Native American.

Benny began competing in 1958, at the age of five, in "peewee" boxing and wrestling in Los Angeles. His martial arts instruction started when he was seven years old; his first formal teacher was Bill Ryusaki. Urquidez received his black belt at the age of 14, a highly unusual feat in the 1960s. His siblings also achieved the rank of black belt. His sister Lilly Rodriguez was a pioneer in kickboxing for women, and their late brother Reuben Urquidez appeared with Benny in a documentary on the combination martial art budojujitsu.

Career
At the age of 12, Urquidez attended the Long Beach International Karate Championships in 1964. He witnessed a demonstration by Bruce Lee, including the one-inch punch which sent a 245-pound man flying back. This demonstration by Lee inspired a young Urqidez to start entering martial arts tournaments.

He entered the point circuit in 1964 and earned a reputation as a colorful fighter. At the 1972 Santa Monica Kempo Open, Urquidez lost in the finals to Brian Strian. In the 1973 Internationals, he fought John Natividad in what is considered one of the greatest non-contact bouts in history. In an unprecedented 25-point overtime match, Natividad won the match 13–12, receiving the Grand Title and the $2,500 purse. In May 1974, at the PAWAK Tournament, Urquidez lost a 4–1 decision to Joe Lewis. He also competed in England and Belgium as a member of Ed Parker's 1974 US team. Also in 1974, he began his move away from the non-contact style by entering and winning the World Series of Martial Arts Championship, effectively a tough-man contest with few rules. Over the next two decades, he fought under various kickboxing organizations (NKL, WPKO, Professional Karate Association (PKA), World Kickboxing Association (WKA), AJKBA, Shin-Kakutojutsu Federation, NJPW and MTN) to amass a record of 58 wins with no losses. This undefeated record, though official, is controversial and highly disputed.

In 1977, Urquidez traveled to Japan and fought under the WKA's compromise US–Japan rules which included leg kicks and knees to the body. He defeated Katsuyuki Suzuki by KO in the 6th round (August 1977) as part of the professional wrestling event in which Antonio Inoki fought Everett Eddy in what was said to be a wrestler/karate fighter mixed match but was a pre-determined pro wrestling match. The Suzuki fight materialized because the newly formed WKA organization could not compete against the PKA in the US. At the same time, Japanese professional wrestler Antonio Inoki, who gained the worldwide fame by fighting Muhammad Ali in the controversial 1976 boxer/wrestler mixed-match in Japan, had been looking for new opponents for what he called the world martial arts championship series. Eventually, promoter Ron Holmes discovered Everett Eddy for Inoki. By that time, Eddy had been coached by Arnold Urquidez, and lost in a knockout in the 1st round to PKA world heavyweight champion Ross Scott in the previous year. In the same event, Benny Urquidez knocked out Howard Jackson, but soon his lightweight title was stripped by the PKA, and so both Eddy and Urquidez had no action in the US, and had to look for fights overseas. Even though the Inoki/Eddy bout was successful, it was the fight between Urquidez and Suzuki, which shocked Japan, where Japanese kickboxing had been very popular. Though never tested for or achieved any rank in Japanese karate, Urquidez has decided to bestow upon himself the title of sensei, a Japanese honorific term which is given to experts and instructors meaning: "someone who precedes you in knowledge".

The All-Japan Kickboxing Association, for which Suzuki had been rated as No. 2, became interested in the American sport of full-contact karate, decided to promote series of mixed-rules bouts between the American full-contact karate fighters and Japanese kickboxers. On November 14, 1977, the AJKF held the first of such event which featured Benny Urquidez, his brother-in-law Blinky Rodriguez, Marc Costello, Brendan Leddy, Tony Lopez, Leonard Galiza and Freddy Avila. Only Benny Urquidez and Costello came out as the winners for the American team. Urquidez's victory over Kunimitsu Okao convinced the Japanese fight fans, and eventually began to be featured as the central figure for what was supposed to be the documentary comic book, The Square Ring, until he declined to avenge his loss against the Thai opponent Prayout Sittiboonlert. Urquidez's second loss came in August 1980 in Florida. American Billye Jackson dominated seven rounds including knocking Urquidez down. Urquidez protested the decision and petitioned the WKA's Howard Hansen to classify it as a no-contest.

After 1980, Urquidez' ring appearances became less frequent. Between 1981 and 1984 he fought only sporadically. In 1984, he fought Ivan Sprang in Amsterdam under modified Muay Thai rules (no elbows), winning by 6th-round TKO. His ring career largely came to a halt after 1985, and he retired after facing Yoshihisa Tagami at the age of 41. Subsequently, Urquidez became devoted to acting, teaching kickboxing and martial arts choreography. Urquidez's late brother Reuben was also a competitive martial artist and actor; they appeared together in a 1982 training video, World Of Martial Arts, along with Steve Sanders (karate), Chuck Norris and John Saxon. Van Halen lead singer David Lee Roth dedicated the band's hit 1984 song "Jump" to Urquidez, of whom Roth was a student.

In 2000, Urquidez and Emil Farkas founded the Los Angeles Film Fighting Institute, which was one of the first schools of its kind in the United States to teach martial artists the intricacies of stunt work.

Urquidez has had training in nine styles: Judo, Kajukenbo, Shotokan, Taekwondo, Lima Lama, White Crane Kung Fu, Jujutsu, Aikido and American Kenpo. He is the founder of Ukidokan Karate. He continued to teach at The Jets Gym in North Hollywood, California. Urquidez has also authored various instructional books and videos. He also has a special friendship with actor/client John Cusack with whom talks of opening up a bigger gym in Santa Monica, targeting former champions as clients and trainers are in the works as Cusack has shown interest in taking part as co-owner. The Jets Gym in the North Hollywood location closed in 2007, to make way for a shopping mall. Today, he is still very active teaching privately, and working as a stunt coordinator in the entertainment business. He teaches ukidokan kickboxing at Team Karate Center in Woodland Hills, California.

Varied fights
Benny Urquidez was the first kickboxing champion with an international profile who also operated as a free agent under different rules for different sanctions. Consequently, he fought in several unorthodox match-ups and hotly disputed bouts. In late 1974, in the grand finale of an early mixed martial arts-style tough man contest in Honolulu, Hawaii, a 5 ft, 145 lb Urquidez decisioned a 6 ft, 230 lb Dana Goodson after scoring a takedown and pin against Goodson in the third and final round.

A year later, in Detroit, Urquidez was disqualified for knocking out his opponent with a fourth punch under the subsequently-discontinued three-punch rule. The disqualifying referee was the opponent's own karate instructor. The bout was excoriated on network television, prompting state athletic commissions across the United States to become interested in regulating the sport. Chuck Norris' short-lived International Karate League (IKL) and later the STAR System world ratings reversed this outcome.

Another three bouts were eventually ruled no-contests (NC). The first, in Los Angeles on March 12, 1977, was a nine-round NC (WKA) against Thai boxer Narongnoi Kiatbandit as part of the inaugural WKA world title event. Urquidez scored flash-knockdowns against Narongnoi in rounds three and six as well as five legal throws over three other rounds. Narongnoi was warned for illegal knee kicks and groin attacks on four occasions before being assessed with a point deduction in round nine. However, the point deduction came shortly after Narongnoi had scored his sole flash-knockdown which, in turn, provoked a riot among Muay Thai fans in the audience. The audience invaded the ring moments before the final bell. Scores were never collected for round nine. The California State Athletic Commission declared the no-contest.

Next, on April 29, 1978, Urquidez faced his fourth Japanese opponent Shinobu Onuki in Tokyo; the event was co-promoted by the AJKBA and Shin-Kakutojutsu Federation. Eventually, Urquidez executed a throw that dislocated Onuki's shoulder. Initially, because of the throw, Urquidez was given a TKO loss, however, the promoters acknowledged that Urquidez used the throw without knowing it was illegal under Japanese rules; the bout was then scored as a no-contest. Following this unsatisfactory result, the two faced each other again in Las Vegas on January 2, 1980. The fight was aired by NBC, and this time Urquidez knocked out Onuki with a left hook to the body. Later, in October 1981, when the AJKBA merged with the WKA, the WKA transmuted the original Onuki no-contest to a TKO victory for Urquidez because, in fact, Urquidez's fight contract had permitted throws.

Third, Urquidez fought to a seven-round NC (WKA) against Billye Jackson in West Palm Beach, Florida, on August 8, 1980. This non-title fight was first reported as a seven-round decision for Jackson; then was changed to a seven-round technical draw, and then to a no-contest. The WKA waited until March 1986 to unambiguously transmute this outcome owing to uneven glove assignments and a coerced last-minute rule change that unfairly affected Urquidez's performance in an otherwise close bout. Despite multiple attempts to reschedule a rematch to settle the dispute Urquidez refused to fight Jackson. The no-contest status of these fights has been corroborated in print by Paul Maslak (Chief Administrator of the STAR System world ratings). As a side note, the WKA and Star system ratings were owned and operated by Urquidez brother, Arnold.

Meanwhile, on August 2, 1978, Urquidez faced the then fifth-ranked welterweight Thai boxer, Prayout Sittiboonlert, in Tokyo as part of the Shin-Kakutojutsu Organization's first independent event. The rules for the bout included six two-minute rounds, one-minute intervals, and no elbow contact as per agreement with Urquidez. Urquidez lost a heart-stopping decision to the Thai, who controlled the fight with relentless knee attacks and through the masterful use of Thai clinches. Afterward, Urquidez claimed he had been maneuvered into a competitive bout under unaccustomed "new rules" through deliberate misrepresentations. A rematch was set on October 30, 1978, at the Budokan (Martial Arts Hall) as part of the five world championships card for the Shin-Kakutojutsu Organization. However, for unknown reasons, Urquidez canceled the fight on the day of the event. According to one report, Urquidez did travel to Japan, but was unable to recover sufficiently from a high fever which he contracted from an allergic reaction to pain medication being used to treat a lingering left knuckle injury. This sanctioning organization was among several discontinued in 1981 for alleged ties to organized crime. Both the WKA and the STAR world ratings regarded this bout as muay Thai, a separate sport, and did not include it as part of Urquidez's rankings and record count for kickboxing.

After a six-year absence from the Japanese ring, Urquidez agreed to fight an exhibition against Nobuya Asuka on April 24, 1989, at the Tokyo Dome as part of the New Japan Pro-Wrestling event. The rules of the bout were five rounds at two-minutes each, one-minute intervals and without elbow or knee contact to the head. Additionally, it was established that, if the fight went the distance, it would automatically be scored as a draw. The bout did go five rounds without knockout or disqualification and a no-decision was immediately declared.

After another four-year absence on December 4, 1993, in "The Legend's Final Challenge" at the Mirage Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, Urquidez fought Japanese champion Yoshihisa Tagami to establish the vacant WKA super welterweight world title. Despite having injured his left wrist in training, Urquidez proceeded with the bout and narrowly defeated his equally aggressive opponent with kicking attacks. Urquidez slipped to the canvas in round two; and Tagami scored a clean flash knockdown in round nine. Neither contestant was ever in serious trouble. The bout ended in a split decision, two judges scoring for Urquidez, one for Tagami.

Gracie Challenge
In September 1994, Urquidez revealed he had been challenged by Rorion Gracie for a mixed martial arts bout as part of the Gracie Challenge. He claimed to have backed down from the fight, considering it to be just a promotional stunt, due to Rorion demanding to fight for free after having negotiated for a fight purse. In response, in November of the same year, Rorion's brother Royce Gracie challenged Urquidez himself, which Benny rejected on the grounds of being retired.

Months later, Royce Gracie wrote an attack piece printed in Black Belt magazine titled "Message for Urquidez: Actions Speak Louder Than Words" in which he voiced his issues with Urquidez, criticizing Urquidez for not submitting to the Gracies' demands for a fight; Gracie alleged that Rorion had dominated Urquidez in a training bout at Urquidez's Jet Center gym in 1978, taking him down "several times" without being touched. Although Gracie went on to state that "that's how the whole Gracie rivalry with Benny started", he went on to accuse Urquidez of having said he would "help Rorion", but not following through on the offer. He also claimed Urquidez only wanted to fight under kickboxing rules, to lessen the chance of being defeated, and that Rorion refused on the grounds that he was "not a kickboxer". None of Gracie's claims were independently verified.

Movie roles
Urquidez has played a number of roles in various martial arts movies. The first was Force: Five (1981), starring Joe Lewis and Bong Soo Han. Later, he made two movies with Jackie Chan, Wheels on Meals (1984) and Dragons Forever (1988), wherein he fights against the characters played by Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao. Urquidez is depicted as a relentlessly tough opponent who is defeated in the climactic fight scenes of both movies. His final fight with Chan in Wheels on Meals is considered to be among the finest fights of Chan's career, including by Chan himself.

Urquidez cameoed as a kickboxer in the Troma film Ragin' Cajun. The movie, filmed in 1988 and released in 1991, wrongfully asserted that it featured Urquidez's first film appearance, stating in the opening credits, "Introducing Benny 'The Jet' Urquidez". He appeared in the 1989 film Roadhouse as one of the fighters seen at a car dealership which is partially destroyed in elaborately choreographed mayhem. He trained Patrick Swayze in his own fighting techniques for the film. Urquidez appears in the 1991 film Blood Match, and in 1992, he played a referee in the James Woods and Louis Gossett Jr. film Diggstown. He has a cameo appearance in the movie Street Fighter (1994), playing one of several prisoners put in a truck with Ken, Ryu, Sagat and Vega. Urquidez was also responsible for the physical training of most of the Street Fighter cast. He was set to play a different character in the franchise, Raven, in a game based on the movie, but the character was later scrapped.

Urquidez performed in the film Grosse Pointe Blank (1997) as Felix La Poubelle, a hitman sent to kill a character played by John Cusack. He appeared in 1408 (2007) as a spectral killer with a hammer, again with Cusack. Urquidez is Cusack's long-time kickboxing trainer. Urquidez also appeared as one of several thugs who accost Kirsten Dunst's character in the first Spider-Man film during an attempted robbery; Urquidez plays the thug wearing a black-and-white-striped T-shirt who makes kissing noises at Dunst.

He was a fight coordinator for an episode of the television drama Criminal Minds, "The Bittersweet Science" (season 7, episode 10), and also appears in the episode in a 30-second role as an underground MMA referee.

Titles and awards

 * World Kickboxing League W.K.L - Hall of Fame 2013
 * Black Belt Magazine
 * 1978 Competitor of the Year
 * KATOGI
 * KATOGI super-lightweight (-63.6 kg) world champion (0 title defences - vacated): 1978
 * Muay Thai Bond Nederland
 * M.T.B.N. welterweight (-66 kg) world champion (0 title defences - vacated): 1984
 * National Karate League
 * N.K.L. lightweight (-70.5 kg) world champion (3 title defences - vacated): 1974-1975
 * Professional Karate Association
 * P.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world champion (2 title defences - vacated): 1976-1977
 * STAR System World Kickboxing Ratings
 * S.T.A.R. undisputed welterweight (-66.8 kg) world champion: 1985
 * S.T.A.R. undisputed super-welterweight (-70.5 kg) world champion: 1974
 * World Kickboxing Association
 * W.K.A. super-welterweight (-70 kg) world champion (0 title defences - vacated): 1993
 * W.K.A. welterweight (-66.8 kg) world champion (0 title defences - vacated): 1985
 * W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world champion (14 title defences - vacated): 1977-1985 Note that 1 of the defences were for the W.K.A. lightweight world title (-65.9 kg) but the weight classes were later restructured
 * World Professional Karate Organization
 * W.P.K.O. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world champion (0 title defences): 1975
 * World Series of Martial Arts Championships
 * W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world champion (4 title defences - vacated): 1975-1976
 * W.S.M.A.C. openweight (unlimited weight) world champion (1 title defences - vacated): 1974-1976

Kickboxing record
Note that the record below is the documented professional record of Benny Urquidez from the S.T.A.R. website. He also is believed to have 11 undocumented matches, winning 10, drawing one with all 10 victories by way of KO.

! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins W.K.A. super welterweight (-70 kg) world title. Vacates title after bout. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins W.K.A. welterweight (-66.8 kg) world title and receives recognition as S.T.A.R. undisputed welterweight (-66.8 kg) champion. Prior to fight vacates W.K.A. super-lightweight world title, while after fight he also vacates W.K.A. welterweight world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins M.T.B.N. welterweight (-66 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (14th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (13th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (12th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (11th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (10th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (9th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (8th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (7th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (6th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Loses KATOGI super-lightweight (-63.6 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (5th defence). Fight was originally awarded to Onuki via a disqualification victory due to what was deemed an illegal throw by Urquidez. This was later changed to a no contest and then by the W.K.A. to a TKO victory for Urquidez. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins KATOGI super-lightweight (-63.6 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (4th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (3rd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. super-lightweight (-64.5 kg) world title (2nd defence). Note that W.K.A. had reclassified their weight divisions with the super-lightweight replacing lightweight and weights being slightly lower. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title (1st defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains P.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title (2nd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Fight was for Urquidez's W.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title. Match resulted in a no contest after bout was stopped due to a riot in the crowd after Narongnoi was penalised for multiple fouls. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins inaugural W.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title. Also retains P.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title (1st defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins inaugural P.K.A. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.S.M.A.C. openweight world title (1st defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Urquidez had initially been disqualified for knocking out his opponent with a 4th punch when the N.K.L. rules had stated that for every 3 punches a kick must follow. However, S.T.A.R. later overturned the decision due to a number of factors including the fact that the referee was Urquidez's opponent's martial arts instructor. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world title (4th defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world title (3rd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains N.K.L. lightweight (70.5 kg) world title (3rd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world title (2nd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world title (1st defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins W.S.M.A.C. lightweight (-79.5 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins W.P.K.O. lightweight (-65.9 kg) world title. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains N.K.L. lightweight (-70.5 kg) world title (2nd defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Retains N.K.L. lightweight (-70.5 kg) world title (1st defence). ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins inaugural N.K.L. lightweight (-70.5 kg) world title. Also receives recognition as S.T.A.R. undisputed super-welterweight (-70.5 kg) world champion. ! style=background:white colspan=9 |Wins inaugural W.S.M.A.C. openweight world title.
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1993-12-04 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Yoshihisa Tagami || W.K.A. Event @ Mirage Hotel || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || Decision (split) || 12 || || 48-1-4
 * - style="background:#c5d2ea;"
 * 1989-04-24 || No-Decision||align=left|🇯🇵 Nobuya Asuka (Ikuya Sumino) || N.J.P.W. Event @ Tokyo Dome || Tokyo, Japan || No-Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 47-1-4
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1985-11-16 || Win ||align=left|🇨🇦 Tom Larouche || W.K.A. Event || Northridge, California, USA || Decision (split) || 12 || 2:00 || 47-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1984-01-15 || Win ||align=left|🇳🇱 Iwan Sprang || M.T.B.N. Event || Amsterdam, Netherlands || TKO (referee stoppage) || 4 || 1:37 || 46-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1983-09-12 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 "Iron" Fujimoto || W.K.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 6 || 1:37 || 45-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1983-01-08 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Kunimasa Nagae || W.K.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 4 || || 44-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1982-06-21 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Yutaka Koshikawa || W.K.A. Event || Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada || KO (spinning back kick) || 6 || 1:48 || 43-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1982-02-02 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Jesse Orrozzo || W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || Decision || 6 || 2:00 || 42-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1981-04-09 || Win ||align=left|🇭🇰 Kong Fu Tak || W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || TKO (cut) || 4 || || 41-1-3
 * - style="background:#c5d2ea;"
 * 1980-08-09 || NC ||align=left|🇺🇸 Billye Jackson || W.K.A. Event || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || decision loss || 7 || 2:00 || 40-1-3
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1980-04-19 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Frank Holloway || W.K.A. Event || Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 40-1-2
 * 1980-04-19 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Frank Holloway || W.K.A. Event || Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 40-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1980-01-26 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Shinobu Onuki || W.K.A. Event @ Tropicana Casino Hotel || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || KO (left hook) || 7 || || 39-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-?-? || Win ||align=left|🇲🇽 || W.K.A. Event || Tijuana, Mexico || KO || 4 || || 38-1-1
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-10-01 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Yoshimitsu Tamashiro || W.K.A. & A.J.K.B.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 37-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-09-14 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Frank Holloway || W.K.A. Event || Ensenada, Mexico || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 36-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-?-? || Win ||align=left|🇹🇭 || W.K.A. Event || Tijuana, Mexico || KO || 2 || || 35-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-07-05 || Win ||align=left| Frank Lee || W.K.A. Event @ Northland Pavilion || Edmonton, Alberta, Canada || KO || || || 34-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1979-05-02 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Rick Simmerly || W.K.A. Event || South Lake Tahoe, California, USA || KO || 6 || || 33-1-2
 * - style="background:#fbb;"
 * 1978-08-02 || Loss ||align=left|🇹🇭 Prayut Sitiboonlert|| KATOGI Event || Tokyo, Japan || Decision || 6 || 3:00 || 32-1-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1978-04-29 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Shinobu Onuki || W.K.A. & A.J.K.B.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || TKO (injury) || 3 || 1:17 || 32-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1978-04-10 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Takeshi Naito || KATOGI Event || Osaka, Japan || KO (spinning back kick) || 1 || 1:16 || 31-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1978-04-05 || Win ||align=left|🇨🇦 Dave Paul || W.K.A. Event || Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada || TKO || 4 || || 30-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1977-11-14 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Kunimatsu Okao || W.K.A. & A.J.K.B.A. Event @ Nippon Budokan || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 4 || 1:31 || 29-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1977-08-03 || Win ||align=left|🇯🇵 Katsuyuki Suzuki || W.K.A. & A.J.K.B.A. Event @ Nippon Budokan || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 6 || || 28-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1977-07-? || Win ||align=left|🇲🇽 || W.K.A. Event || Tijuana, Mexico || KO (kick) || 1 || || 27-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1977-04-23 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Howard Jackson || P.K.A. Event @ Hilton Hotel || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || TKO (referee stoppage) || 4 || 1:25 || 26-0-2
 * - style="background:#c5d2ea;"
 * 1977-03-12 || NC ||align=left|🇹🇭 Narongnoi Kiatbandit || W.K.A. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || No contest (riot in crowd) || 9 || || 25-0-2
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1976-10-01 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Eddie Andujar || P.K.A. & W.K.A. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || TKO || 8 || || 25-0-1
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1976-08-28 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Earnest Hart, Jr. || P.K.A. Event @ Neal Blaisdell Center || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 24-0-1
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1976-?-? || Win ||align=left|🇹🇭 || || Tijuana, Mexico || KO (kick) || 3 || || 23-0-1
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1976-06-? || Win ||align=left|🇹🇭 Sanun Plypoolsup || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Dallas, Texas, USA || Decision || 8 || 3:00 || 22-0-1
 * - style="background:#c5d2ea;"
 * 1976-02-14 || Draw ||align=left|🇺🇸 Earnest Hart, Jr. || || Los Angeles, California, USA || Technical draw (Hart cut after throw) || 1 || || 21-0-1
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1976-?-? || Win ||align=left| || N.K.L. Event || Detroit, Michigan, USA || KO || 1 || || 21-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-12-? || Win ||align=left| || N.K.L. Event || Detroit, Michigan, USA || KO || 2 || || 20-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-10-11 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Bill Henderson || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || KO || 3 || 0:32 || 19-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-09-21 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Farrel Sojot || W.S.M.A.C. Event @ Honolulu International Center Arena || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || TKO || 3 || || 18-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-08-? || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Marcelino Torres || N.K.L. Event || San Juan || KO || 1 || 0:30 || 17-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-07-26 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Burnis White || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO (kick) || 4 || || 16-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-07-? || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Sammy Pace || N.K.L. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || KO || 1 || || 15-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-06-28 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Eddie Andujar || N.K.L. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || Decision || 3 || 3:00 || 14-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-06-20 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Ken Riley || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO || 2 || || 13-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-05-30 || Win ||align=left|🇹🇭 Sanun Plysoolsup || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || TKO (cut) || 2 || || 12-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-05-16 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Roland Talton || W.S.M.A.C. Event || Los Angeles, California, USA || KO (knee) || 2 || 2:04 || 11-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-05-10 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Tayari Casel || W.P.K.O. Event @ Madison Square Garden || New York City, New York, USA || Decision || 3 || 3:00 || 10-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-04-? || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Demetrius Havanas || N.K.L. Event @ Tarrant County Convention Center || Savannah, Georgia, USA || Decision || 3 || 3:00 || 9-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-03-? || Win ||align=left| || N.K.L. Event || Atlanta, Georgia, USA || KO (kick) || 2 || || 8-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-03-? || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Ken Kolodziej || || Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA || KO (knee) || 4 || || 7-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1975-02-? || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Arthur Butch Bell || N.K.L. Event || Savannah, Georgia, USA || TKO || 2 || || 6-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1974-11-15 || Win ||align=left|🇦🇺 Dana Goodson || W.S.M.A.C. Event, Final || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || Decision || 3 || 3:00 || 5-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1974-11-15 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Burnis White || W.S.M.A.C. Event, Semi Final || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || Decision || 3 || 3:00 || 4-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1974-11-14 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Bill Rosehill || W.S.M.A.C. Event, Quarter Final || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || TKO (forfeit) || 3 || || 3-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1974-11-14 || Win ||align=left|🇦🇸 Futi Semanu || W.S.M.A.C. Event, 2nd Round || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO || 2 || || 2-0-0
 * - style="background:#cfc;"
 * 1974-11-14 || Win ||align=left|🇺🇸 Tom Mossman || W.S.M.A.C. Event, 1st Round || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO (foot sweep) || 3 || || 1-0-0
 * colspan=9 | Legend:
 * colspan=9 | Legend:

title: Benny Urquidez


text:
Photomask

A photomask (also simply called a mask) is an opaque plate with transparent areas that allow light to shine through in a defined pattern. Photomasks are commonly used in photolithography for the production of integrated circuits (ICs or "chips") to produce a pattern on a thin wafer of material (usually silicon). In semiconductor manufacturing, a mask is sometimes called a reticle.

In photolithography, several masks are used in turn, each one reproducing a layer of the completed design, and together known as a mask set. A curvilinear photomask has patterns with curves, which is a departure from conventional photomasks which only have patterns that are completely vertical or horizontal, known as manhattan geometry. These photomasks require special equipment to manufacture.

History
For IC production in the 1960s and early 1970s, an opaque rubylith film laminated onto a transparent mylar sheet was used. The design of one layer was cut into the rubylith, initially by hand on an illuminated drafting table (later by machine (plotter)) and the unwanted rubylith was peeled off by hand, forming the master image of that layer of the chip, often called "artwork". Increasingly complex and thus larger chips required larger and larger rubyliths, eventually even filling the wall of a room, and artworks were to be photographically reduced to produce photomasks (Eventually this whole process was replaced by the optical pattern generator to produce the master image). At this point the master image could be arrayed into a multi-chip image called a reticle. The reticle was originally a 10X larger image of a single chip.

The reticle was by step-and-repeater photolithography and etching used to produce a photomask with image-size the same as the final chip. The photomask might be used directly in the fab or be used as master-photomask to produce the final actual working photomasks.

As feature size shrank, the only way to properly focus the image was to place it in direct contact with the wafer. These contact aligners often lifted some of the photoresist off the wafer and onto the photomask and it had to be cleaned or discarded. This drove the adoption of reverse master photomasks (see above), which were used to produce (with contact photolithography and etching) the needed many actual working photomasks. Later, projection photo-lithography meant photomask lifetime was indefinite. Still later direct-step-on-wafer stepper photo-lithography used reticles directly and ended the use of photomasks.

Photomask materials changed over time. Initially soda glass was used with silver halide opacity. Later borosilicate and then fused silica to control expansion, and chromium which has better opacity to ultraviolet light were introduced. The original pattern generators have since been replaced by electron beam lithography and laser-driven mask writer or maskless lithography systems which generate reticles directly from the original computerized design.

Overview
Lithographic photomasks are typically transparent fused silica plates covered with a pattern defined with a chromium (Cr) or Fe2O3 metal absorbing film. Photomasks are used at wavelengths of 365 nm, 248 nm, and 193 nm. Photomasks have also been developed for other forms of radiation such as 157 nm, 13.5 nm (EUV), X-ray, electrons, and ions; but these require entirely new materials for the substrate and the pattern film.

A set of photomasks, each defining a pattern layer in integrated circuit fabrication, is fed into a photolithography stepper or scanner, and individually selected for exposure. In multi-patterning techniques, a photomask would correspond to a subset of the layer pattern.

In photolithography for the mass production of integrated circuit devices, the more correct term is usually photoreticle or simply reticle from a historical perspective. In the case of a photomask, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the mask pattern and the wafer pattern. This was the standard for the 1:1 mask aligners that were succeeded by steppers and  scanners with reduction optics. As used in steppers and scanners which use image projection, the reticle commonly contains only one layer of the designed VLSI circuit. (However, some photolithography fabrications utilize reticles with more than one layer placed side by side onto the same mask). In modern usage, the terms reticle and photomask aresynonymous.

The pattern is projected and shrunk by four or five times onto the wafer surface. To achieve complete wafer coverage, the wafer is repeatedly "stepped" from position to position under the optical column until full exposure is achieved.

Features 150 nm or below in size generally require phase-shifting to enhance the image quality to acceptable values. This can be achieved in many ways. The two most common methods are to use an attenuated phase-shifting background film on the mask to increase the contrast of small intensity peaks, or to etch the exposed quartz so that the edge between the etched and unetched areas can be used to image nearly zero intensity. In the second case, unwanted edges would need to be trimmed out with another exposure. The former method is attenuated phase-shifting, and is often considered a weak enhancement, requiring special illumination for the most enhancement, while the latter method is known as alternating-aperture phase-shifting, and is the most popular strong enhancement technique.

As leading-edge semiconductor features shrink, photomask features that are 4× larger must inevitably shrink as well. This could pose challenges since the absorber film will need to become thinner, and hence less opaque. A 2005 study by IMEC found that thinner absorbers degrade image contrast and therefore contribute to line-edge roughness, using state-of-the-art photolithography tools. One possibility is to eliminate absorbers altogether and use "chromeless" masks, relying solely on phase-shifting for imaging.

The emergence of immersion lithography has a strong impact on photomask requirements. The commonly used attenuated phase-shifting mask is more sensitive to the higher incidence angles applied in "hyper-NA" lithography, due to the longer optical path through the patterned film. During manufacturing, inspection using a special form of microscopy called CD-SEM (Critical-Dimension Scanning Electron Microscopy) is used to measure critical dimensions on photomasks which are the dimensions of the patterns on a photomask.

EUV lithography
EUV photomasks work by reflecting light, which is achieved by using multiple alternating layers of molybdenum and silicon.

Mask error enhancement factor (MEEF)
Leading-edge photomasks (pre-corrected) images of the final chip patterns are magnified by four times. This magnification factor has been a key benefit in reducing pattern sensitivity to imaging errors. However, as features continue to shrink, two trends come into play: the first is that the mask error factor begins to exceed one, i.e., the dimension error on the wafer may be more than 1/4 the dimension error on the mask, and the second is that the mask feature is becoming smaller, and the dimension tolerance is approaching a few nanometers. For example, a 25 nm wafer pattern should correspond to a 100 nm mask pattern, but the wafer tolerance could be 1.25 nm (5% spec), which translates into 5 nm on the photomask. The variation of electron beam scattering in directly writing the photomask pattern can easily well exceed this.

Pellicles
The term "pellicle" is used to mean "film", "thin film", or "membrane." Beginning in the 1960s, thin film stretched on a metal frame, also known as a "pellicle", was used as a beam splitter for optical instruments. It has been used in a number of instruments to split a beam of light without causing an optical path shift due to its small film thickness. In 1978, Shea et al. at IBM patented a process to use the "pellicle" as a dust cover to protect a photomask or reticle. In the context of this entry, "pellicle" means "thin film dust cover to protect a photomask".

Particle contamination can be a significant problem in semiconductor manufacturing. A photomask is protected from particles by a pellicle – a thin transparent film stretched over a frame that is glued over one side of the photomask. The pellicle is far enough away from the mask patterns so that moderate-to-small sized particles that land on the pellicle will be too far out of focus to print. Although they are designed to keep particles away, pellicles become a part of the imaging system and their optical properties need to be taken into account. Pellicles material are Nitrocellulose and made for various Transmission Wavelengths. Current pellicles are made from polysilicon, and companies are exploring other materials for high-NA EUV and future chip making processes.

Leading commercial photomask manufacturers
The SPIE Annual Conference, Photomask Technology reports the SEMATECH Mask Industry Assessment which includes current industry analysis and the results of their annual photomask manufacturers survey. The following companies are listed in order of their global market share (2009 info):

 * Dai Nippon Printing
 * Toppan Photomasks
 * Photronics Inc
 * Hoya Corporation
 * Taiwan Mask Corporation
 * Compugraphics

Major chipmakers such as Intel, Globalfoundries, IBM, NEC, TSMC, UMC, Samsung, and Micron Technology, have their own large maskmaking facilities or joint ventures with the abovementioned companies.

The worldwide photomask market was estimated as $3.2 billion in 2012 and $3.1 billion in 2013. Almost half of the market was from captive mask shops (in-house mask shops of major chipmakers).

The costs of creating new mask shop for 180 nm processes were estimated in 2005 as $40 million, and for 130 nm - more than $100 million.

The purchase price of a photomask, in 2006, could range from $250 to $100,000 for a single high-end phase-shift mask. As many as 30 masks (of varying price) may be required to form a complete mask set.

title: Photomask


text:
Jules Quicherat

Jules Étienne Joseph Quicherat (13 October 1814 – 8 April 1882) was a French historian and archaeologist.

His father, a working cabinet-maker, came from Paray-le-Monial to Paris to support his large family; Quicherat was born there. He was fifteen years younger than his brother Louis, a great Latin scholar and lexicographer, who survived him. Although very poor, he was admitted to the College of Sainte-Barbe, where he received a thorough classical education. He showed his gratitude to this establishment by writing its history in three volumes, published between 1860 and 1864. At the end of his studies he hesitated for some time before deciding what career he would follow, until Jules Michelet put an end to his indecision by inspiring him with a taste for history.

In 1835 Quicherat entered the École des Chartes; he left two years later at the head of the college. Once more inspired by the example of Michelet, who had just written an admirable work on Joan of Arc, he published the text of the two trials of Joan, adding much contemporary evidence on her heroism in his Procès de condamnation et de réhabilitation de Jeanne d'Arc (5 vols. 1841-1849), as well as half a volume of Aperçus nouveaux sur l'histoire de Jeanne d'Arc, in which it seems that the last word has been said on important points.

From the 15th century he drew other inspirations. In 1844 he published memoirs of the adventures of a brigand, Rodrigue de Villandrando, which gradually grew into a volume full of fresh matter. He wrote full biographies of two chroniclers of Louis XI, one very obscure, Jean Castel, the other, Thomas Basin, bishop of Lisieux, who was, on the contrary, a remarkable politician, prelate and chronicler. Between 1855 and 1859 Quicherat published the works of the latter, most of which were now brought out for the first time. In addition to these he wrote Fragments inédits de Georges Chastellain and Lettres, mémoires et autres documents relatifs à la guerre du bien public en 1465.

These works did not wholly occupy his time: in 1847 he inaugurated a course of archaeological lectures at the École des Chartes, and in 1849 was appointed professor of diplomatics at the same college. His teaching had exceptionally good results. Although he was not eloquent and had a nasal voice, his hearers were loath to miss any of his thoughtful teaching, which was unbiased and well expressed. Of his lectures the public saw only some articles on special subjects which were distributed in a number of reviews. Note should be made of a short treatise on La Formation française des anciens noms de lieu published in 1867; and a memoir De l'ogive et de l'architecture ogivale published in 1850, where he gives his theory on the use of stone arches important for the history of religious architecture. In an 1874 article on L'âge de la cathédrale de Laon, he declared an exact date for the birth of Gothic architecture.

Following the advice of his friends, he began to transcribe towards the end of his life his lectures on archaeology; but only the introductory chapters, up to the 11th century, were found among his papers. On the other hand, the pupils trained by him circulated his principles throughout France, recognizing him as the founder of national archaeology. In one point he seems to have taken a false step; with a warmth and pertinacity worthy of a better cause he maintained the identity of Caesar's Alesia with Alaise, and he died without becoming a convert to the opinion, now almost universally accepted, that Alise Sainte-Reine is the place where Vercingetorix capitulated. But even this error benefited science; some well directed excavations at Alaise brought many Roman remains to light, which were subsequently sent to enrich the museum at Besançon.

After 1871, his course of lectures on diplomatics having been given up, Quicherat, still professor of archaeology, was nominated director of the Ecole des Chartes. He filled this post with the same energy which he had shown in the many scientific commissions in which he had taken part. In 1878 he gave up his duties as professor, which then fell to the most conspicuous of his pupils, Robert de Lasteyrie. He died suddenly at Paris on April 8, 1882, a short time after having corrected the proofs of Supplément aux témoignages contemporains de Jeanne d'Arc, published in the Revue Historique.

After his death it was decided to bring out his hitherto unpublished papers; among these are some important fragments of his archaeological lectures, but his Histoire de la laine, with which he was occupied for many years, is missing.

Selected publications

 * Procès de condamnation et de réhabilitation de Jeanne d'Arc, 5 vol., 1841-1849. Available online: tome I, tome II, tome III, tome IV, tome V.
 * Aperçus nouveaux sur l'histoire de Jeanne d'Arc, 1850
 * Thomas Basin, 1855-1859
 * L'Alésia de César rendue à la Franche-Comté, 1857
 * Histoire de sainte Barbe, 1860-1864. Available online: tome I, tome II, tome III.
 * De la formation française des anciens noms de lieu, 1867
 * Histoire du costume en France, 1875
 * Rodrigue de Villandrando. L'un des combattants pour l'indépendance française au quinzième siècle 1879
 * posthumous collection : Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire (1885-1886), containing la Notice sur l’Album de Villard de Honnecourt architecte du XIIIe siècle (written in 1849)

title: Jules Quicherat


text:
Stanley Johnson (writer)

Stanley Patrick Johnson (born 18 August 1940) is a British-French author and former politician who was Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for Wight and Hampshire East from 1979 to 1984. A former employee of the World Bank and the European Commission, he has written books on environmental and population issues. His six children include Boris Johnson, who was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 2019 to 2022. He is a member of the Conservative Party.

Personal life
Stanley Johnson was born in 1940 in Penzance, Cornwall, the son of Osman Kemal (later known as Wilfred Johnson) and Irene Williams (daughter of Stanley Fred Williams of Bromley, Kent, who was the grandson of Sir George Williams, and Marie Louise de Pfeffel). His paternal grandfather, Ali Kemal Bey, one of the last interior ministers of the Ottoman government, was assassinated in 1922 during the Turkish War of Independence. Stanley's father was born in 1909 in Bournemouth, and his birth was registered as Osman Ali Wilfred Kemal. Osman's Anglo-Swiss mother Winifred Brun died shortly after giving birth. Ali Kemal returned to the Ottoman Empire in 1912, whereafter Osman Wilfred and his sister Selma were brought up by their English grandmother, Margaret Brun, and took her maiden name, Johnson, Stanley's father thus becoming Wilfred Johnson.

Johnson's maternal grandmother's parents were Hubert Freiherr von Pfeffel (born in Munich in the Kingdom of Bavaria on 8 December 1843) and his wife Hélène Arnous-Rivière (born on 14 January 1862). Hubert von Pfeffel was the son of Karl Freiherr von Pfeffel (born in Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony on 22 November 1811; died in Munich on 25 January 1890) by his marriage in Augsburg on 16 February 1836 to Karolina von Rothenburg (born in the Free City of Frankfurt on 28 November 1805; died in Frankfurt on 13 February 1872), herself said to be the illegitimate daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg by Friederike Porth.

Stanley Johnson attended Sherborne School, Dorset. While still an undergraduate studying English at Exeter College, Oxford, he took part in the Marco Polo Expedition with Tim Severin and Michael de Larrabeiti, travelling on a motorcycle and sidecar from Oxford to Venice and on to India and Afghanistan. The adventure led to the publication of Severin's 1964 book Tracking Marco Polo, with photographs by de Larrabeiti.

Johnson started studying at Columbia University in 1963, but dropped out after a year. While at Columbia he married the painter Charlotte Fawcett in Marylebone, with whom he had four children: Boris, former Leader of the Conservative Party and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; Rachel, journalist and former editor-in-chief of The Lady; Jo, former Conservative MP for Orpington, former Minister of State for Universities, and former Head of the Lex Column at the Financial Times; and Leo, film-maker and entrepreneur. Johnson and Fawcett divorced in 1979. Johnson married Jennifer Kidd in Westminster in 1981, and they had two children, Julia and Maximilian.

In July 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson posted pictures on Instagram of himself travelling to Athens, Greece. He was criticised by Liberal Democrat MP Jamie Stone for travelling at a time when guidance under lockdown was to avoid "all but essential international travel". At the time, Greece had reopened its borders but banned direct travel from the United Kingdom; Johnson had circumvented Greece's rules by travelling via Bulgaria.

In December 2020, Johnson said that he was applying for a French passport as his mother and her parents were French. After subsequently being awarded French citizenship Johnson stated that he was delighted.

Career
Johnson was the recipient of a United States, Harkness Fellowship and was then employed at the World Bank in Washington during the 1960s. He went on to become the Head of Prevention of Pollution Division at the European Commission (EC) in Brussels from 1973, acting briefly as advisor to the head of ECPS in May 1979, before taking a leave of absence a month later. He resumed his former role with the EC in 1984, until taking a second leave of absence in 1990, this time to work in the field of international environmental policy. He retired early from the EC in 1994.

Politics
From June 1979-84 Johnson served as the elected Conservative Party MEP (95,000 majority) representing the area of Hants East and the Isle of Wight.

At the 2005 general election, Johnson stood for the Conservative Party in the constituency of Teignbridge, where he came second behind Liberal Democrat Richard Younger-Ross.

In May 2008, Johnson hoped to be selected to contest his son Boris's parliamentary seat of Henley for the Conservative Party, but local councillor John Howell was the candidate selected.

Having supported the Remain campaign during the 2016 European Union membership referendum, in October 2017 he came out in support of the United Kingdom leaving the European Union, stating that "the time has come to bail out" and cited the approach and attitude of the European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker as a major factor in his change of mind.

Books and other writing
He has published a number of books dealing with environmental issues and nine novels, including The Commissioner, which was made into a 1998 film starring John Hurt. In 1962 he won the Newdigate Prize for Poetry.

For a time, starting on 26 May 2005, he wrote a weekly column for the G2 section of The Guardian, and continued to write for various newspapers and magazines, often on environmental topics.

He wrote a memoir, Stanley I Presume, published in March 2009.

His 2015 novel The Virus is a thriller about the rise of a mysterious virus and the fight to stop a deadly pandemic.

Television
He was one of the first regular hosts of the late night discussion programme The Last Word on Channel 4's More4 channel, and made an appearance on Have I Got News For You on 7 May 2004.

In November 2017, Johnson was confirmed as a contestant for the seventeenth series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, finishing in seventh place. In 2018 he appeared on the BBC programme The Real Marigold Hotel with eight other celebrities. In February 2020 he appeared on BBC Two's Celebrity Antiques Road Trip.

Awards
In 1983 he received the RSPCA Richard Martin Award for Outstanding Services to animal welfare. He was for many years an ambassador for the UNEP Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals based in Bonn, Germany.

In October 2015 Johnson was awarded the RSPB Medal by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds for his role in the creation of one of the cornerstones of Europe's nature conservation policy – the Habitats Directive (1992).

In December 2015 he received the World Wide Fund for Nature Leader for a Living Planet Award.

Public statements
In August 2018, Johnson said his son Boris Johnson's comments that Muslim women who wear burkas look like "letterboxes" and "bank robbers" did not go far enough, and that criticism of the comments had been "synthetic indignation" created by political opponents.

In June 2022, ahead of Johnson's visit to China for a television programme on the explorer Marco Polo, Johnson called for the UK parliament to lift a ban on the Chinese ambassador to the UK entering the parliamentary estate.

Allegations of spousal abuse and inappropriate touching
Biographer Tom Bower records in an interview with his first wife Charlotte Fawcett that 'he hit me many times, over many years'. She said of a 1970s incident "He broke my nose. He made me feel like I deserved it. I want the truth to be told."

On 15 November 2021, Caroline Nokes accused Johnson of inappropriately touching her at the Conservative Party conference in Blackpool in 2003. Johnson said that he had "no recollection of Caroline Nokes at all". Following this, journalist Ailbhe Rea accused Johnson of groping her at the 2019 Conservative Party conference.

Works

 * Gold Drain (1967, Heinemann) ISBN B0000CNKG6
 * Panther Jones for President (1968, Heinemann) ISBN 0-434-37701-5
 * Life without Birth: A Journey Through the Third World in Search of the Population Explosion (1970, Heinemann) ISBN 0-434-37702-3
 * The Green Revolution (1972, Hamilton) ISBN 0-241-02102-2
 * The Population Problem (1973, David & C) ISBN 0-7153-6282-8
 * The Politics of Environment (1973, T Stacey) ISBN 0-85468-298-8
 * The Urbane Guerilla (1975, Macmillan) ISBN 0-333-17679-0
 * Pollution Control Policy of the EEC (1978, Graham & Trotman) ISBN 0-86010-136-3
 * The Doomsday Deposit (1979, EP Dutton) ISBN 0-525-09468-7
 * The Marburg Virus (1982, Heinemann) ISBN 0-434-37704-X
 * Tunnel (1984, Heinemann) ISBN 0-434-37705-8
 * Antarctica: The Last Great Wilderness (1985, Weidenfeld & N) ISBN 0-297-78676-8
 * The Commissioner (1987, Century) ISBN 0-7126-1587-3
 * World Population and the United Nations (1987, Cambridge UP) ISBN 0-521-32207-3
 * Dragon River (1989, Frederick Muller) ISBN 0-09-173526-2
 * The Earth Summit: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (1993, Kluwer Law International) ISBN 978-1-85333-784-0
 * World Population - Turning the Tide (1994, Kluwer Law International) ISBN 1-85966-046-0
 * The Environmental Policy of the European Communities (1995, Kluwer Law International) ISBN 90-411-0862-9
 * The Politics of Population: Cairo, 1994 (1995, Earthscan) ISBN 1-85383-297-9
 * Icecap (1999, Cameron May) ISBN 1-874698-67-8
 * Stanley I Presume (2009, Fourth Estate Ltd) ISBN 0-00-729672-X
 * Survival: Saving Endangered Migratory Species [co-authored with Robert Vagg] (2010, Stacey International) ISBN 1-906768-11-0
 * Where the Wild Things Were: Travels of a Conservationist (2012, Stacey International) ISBN 1-906768-87-0
 * UNEP The First 40 Years; A Narrative by Stanley Johnson (2012, United Nations Environment Programme) ISBN 978-92-807-3314-3
 * Stanley I Resume (2014, Biteback) ISBN 978-1-84954-741-3
 * The Virus (2015, Witness Impulse) ISBN 978-0062414922
 * Kompromat (2017, Point Blank) ISBN 978-1-78607-246-7

title: Stanley Johnson (writer)


text:
Talk:Ma'anshan

Untitled
A comment was put in the article which should be in the discussion - 位置放错了，而且地理位置也描述错了. Supposely this needs to be corrected. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.91.173.36 (talk) 19:25, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

I moved this page from Ma'anshan to Maanshan since:

 * 1) The official pinyin romanization is Maanshan. (No apostrophe between Ma and an is needed since there is no pinyin syllable Maan.) See http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/~chifc/pinyin.html.
 * 2) 15000 Google results for Maanshan versus 3000 for Ma'anshan.
 * 3) The official municipal website lists Maanshan.

☞spencer195 20:11, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

A rule that we currently have on Naming conventions (Chinese) puts an apostrophe in "Ma'anshan". You're welcome to come and discuss the rule. -- ran [[User talk:Ran|(talk)]] 20:53, Sep 13, 2004 (UTC)

In any case the explanation "(simplified Chinese: 马鞍山; traditional Chinese: 馬鞍山; pinyin: Mǎ'ānshān)" is wrong, as Pinyin doesn't put a '. 117.136.34.129 (talk) 02:24, 7 November 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140225124039/http://www.mas.gov.cn/En/Enlist.aspx to http://www.mas.gov.cn/En/Enlist.aspx

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title: Talk:Ma'anshan


text:
Rasul v. Bush

Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court in which the Court held that foreign nationals held in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp could petition federal courts for writs of habeas corpus to review the legality of their detention. The Court's 6–3 judgment on June 28, 2004, reversed a D.C. Circuit decision which had held that the judiciary has no jurisdiction to hear any petitions from foreign nationals held in Guantanamo Bay.

The lead petitioner, British citizen Shafiq Rasul, was one of the Tipton Three. The U.S. transported the three men to the United Kingdom in March 2004 before the decision was handed down, and the government released them the next day.

Military order
On September 14, 2001, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, giving the President of the United States broad powers to prosecute a Global War on Terror in response to the September 11 attacks. Secretary of State Colin Powell and State Department Legal Advisor William Howard Taft IV advised that the President must observe the Geneva Conventions. Colonel Lawrence Morris proposed holding public hearings modeled on the Nuremberg trials. Major General Thomas Romig, the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army, recommended any new military tribunals be modeled on existing courts-martial.

However, Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel Jay Bybee, relying on the unitary executive theory developed by Deputy Assistant Attorney General John Yoo, advised the President in a series of memos that he could hold enemy combatants abroad, indefinitely, without Congressional oversight, and free from judicial review. On November 13, 2001, President George W. Bush signed a military order titled the Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism, which sought to detain and try enemy combatants by military commissions under Presidential authority alone.

Capture and detainment
The various plaintiffs were taken to Guantanamo Bay for different reasons, but were generally captured or arrested during the United States invasion of Afghanistan.

The U.S. military transferred Rasul and Asif Iqbal, both British citizens, and David Hicks, an Australian citizen, to Guantanamo Bay in December 2001. Each denied voluntarily joining any terrorist forces. As noted by the District Court, they did not deny having fought for the Taliban, but claimed that if they did take up arms, it was only when being attacked and in self-defense. Rasul and Iqbal say they were with the Taliban because they were taken captive. Hicks is silent on the matter in court filings, but his father, in filing the brief, said that he believed that his son had joined the Taliban forces.

The twelve Kuwaitis, combined in Al Odah v. United States, claimed that they were in Pakistan and Afghanistan giving humanitarian aid. They were seized by villagers seeking bounties and "sold" to the United States (US) forces. The US transferred them to Guantanamo Bay starting in January 2002.

Mamdouh Habib, the plaintiff in Habib v. Bush, was arrested by Pakistani authorities on October 5, 2001, two days before the fighting began.

Court petitions
The Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) was the first organization to file two petitions, Rasul v. Bush and Habib v. Bush, challenging the U.S. government's practice of holding foreign nationals in detention indefinitely who were captured in Afghanistan during the war against the Taliban regime and al-Qaida. The government had designated the detainees as enemy combatants and did not allow them access to counsel, the right to a trial, or knowledge of the charges against them.

On February 19, 2002, Guantanamo detainee Shafiq Rasul, a British citizen, petitioned in federal court for a writ of habeas corpus to review the legality of his detention. Guantanamo detainee Mamdouh Habib, an Australian citizen, also filed a petition.

These cases were each filed in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia and the court decided them together, consolidating them under Rasul v. Bush. Each of the filings alleged that the government had not allowed the detainee to speak at all to friends, family or lawyers, and had not given him any hearing whatsoever on the question of whether he was an enemy combatant in the war.

U.S. District Court
U.S. District Judge Colleen Kollar-Kotelly denied the detainees' petitions on July 30, 2002, finding that aliens in Cuba had no access to U.S. courts.

Citing Johnson v. Eisentrager,, in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that U.S. courts had no jurisdiction over German war criminals held in a U.S.-administered German prison, the District Court ruled that U.S. courts have jurisdiction only in a territory where the U.S. has sovereignty. Because the lease with Cuba regarding Guantanamo Bay stated that Cuba technically has "ultimate sovereignty", the court held Guantanamo Bay could not be considered a sovereign territory of the United States and therefore foreign nationals could not be given a trial in the U.S. The plaintiffs pointed out that the U.S. has all effective powers in the area.

U.S. Court of Appeals
In Al Odah v. United States a panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit including Judge A. Raymond Randolph, Judge Merrick Garland, and Judge Stephen F. Williams affirmed on March 11, 2003.

Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of the United States, over the Government's objections, agreed in November 2003 to hear the cases of the Guantánamo detainees, namely Rasul v. Bush, which was consolidated with al Odah v. Bush (the latter represented twelve Kuwaiti men).

Release of Rasul and Iqbal
On March 9, 2004, two years after they were first detained, the U.S. released Rasul and Iqbal to the United Kingdom with no charges filed, along with three other British citizen detainees. The British government had been pressing the United States for the return of its citizens and legal residents. The next day, the UK government released all five men without charge.

Oral arguments
One-hour of oral arguments were heard on April 20, where former-Circuit Chief Judge John Joseph Gibbons appeared for the detainees and Theodore Olson, the Solicitor General of the United States, personally appeared for the Government.

During the oral arguments the following points came up:
 * Many of the Justices' questions indicated a belief that Johnson v. Eisentrager was immaterial to the jurisdictional question at hand, while the government argued that it was material. Justice Stevens noted that the Ahrens v. Clark decision, the basis of the Eisentrager decision, had since been largely reversed in Braden (1973), and thus relevant parts of Eisentrager may no longer apply.
 * Justice Souter noted that the ability of a U.S. citizen to get a trial may necessarily imply that the court has jurisdiction in that geographic area, since jurisdiction is largely a geographic and sovereignty matter. Since the government had said it would not challenge 'habeas corpus' by a U.S. citizen in Guantanamo Bay, in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004), this could establish jurisdiction at the base.
 * The court had concern that there is a gray area where certain types of cases would fall through the cracks, because only the U.S. military appeared to have jurisdiction. On the other hand, Justice Scalia noted, it may be possible, and better, for Congress to remedy that situation, as they have deliberative powers the court does not.

Quotes
Justice Scalia regarding the purpose of jurisdiction: "The Constitution requires jurisdiction—the Constitution requires that an American citizen who has the protection of the Constitution have some manner of vindicating his rights under the Constitution."

Justice Breyer on whether to deny jurisdiction to citizens outside the U.S. "So what I'm thinking now, assuming that it's very hard to interpret Eisentrager, is that if we go with you, it has a virtue of clarity. There is a clear rule. Not a citizen outside the United States; you don't get your foot in the door. But against you is that same fact. It seems rather contrary to an idea of a constitution with three branches that the executive would be free to do whatever they want, whatever they want without a check."

Justice Scalia on whether the courts or Congress are better suited to rewrite laws: "Can we hold hearings to determine the problems that are bothering you? I mean, we have to take your word for what the problems are. We can't call witnesses and see what the real problems are, can we, in creating this new, substantive rule that we're going to let the courts create? Congress could do all that, though, couldn't it? ..." "If it wanted to change the habeas statute, it could make all sorts of refined modifications about issues that we know nothing whatever about because we have only lawyers before us, we have no witnesses, we have no cross-examination, we have no investigative staff. And we should be the ones, Justice Breyer suggests, to draw up this reticulated system to preserve our military from intervention by the courts."

Opinion of the Court
On June 28, 2004, the Supreme Court of the United States decided against the Government. Justice John Paul Stevens, joined by Justices Sandra Day O'Connor, David Souter, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and Stephen Breyer, held that the detainees had a statutory right to petition federal courts for habeas review.

That same day, the Supreme Court ruled against the Government in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the four justice plurality opinion finding that an American citizen detained in Guantanamo had a constitutional right to petition federal courts for habeas review under the Due Process Clause.

Quoting Lord Mansfield and William Blackstone, Justice Stevens reasoned that common law courts exercise habeas jurisdiction over all dominions under the sovereign's control.

Justice Kennedy's concurrence in judgment
Justice Anthony Kennedy concurred only in the judgment. While refusing to join the majority's opinion's view of "automatic statutory authority", Justice Kennedy felt federal-court jurisdiction is permitted, "in light of the status of Guantanamo Bay and the indefinite pretrial detention of detainees".

Justice Scalia's dissent
Justice Antonin Scalia, joined by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, and Justice Clarence Thomas, filed a dissenting opinion. Attacking the majority's statutory interpretation Justice Scalia wrote, "for this Court to create such a monstrous scheme in time of war, and in frustration of our military commanders' reliance upon clearly stated prior law, is judicial adventurism of the worst sort."

Subsequent developments
The United States Government announced that it planned to charge Hicks and Habib before a military commission. Habib was released in January 2005, after the Washington Post reported his extraordinary rendition from Pakistan to Egypt by the CIA soon after his arrest. He was held and interrogated under torture in Egypt for five months before being returned to Pakistan, and then transferred to military custody and Guantanamo Bay.

Justice Rutledge's influence
Directly after law school, John Paul Stevens worked as a law clerk to Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge. In Ahrens v. Clark (1948), the Court held that no federal court had been given territorial jurisdiction over Ellis Island, provoking Justice Rutledge to file a dissent Stevens helped draft.

In 1956, Stevens wrote a book chapter where he quoted Justice Rutledge's dissent from In re Tomoyuki Yamashita (1946): "It is not too early, it is never too early, for the nation to steadfastly follow its great constitutional traditions, none older or more universally protective against unbridled power than due process of law in the trial and punishment of men, this is, of all men, whether citizens, aliens, alien enemies or enemy belligerents. It can become too late."

Justice Stevens quoted the Ahrens dissent approvingly in Rasul, fifty-six years after he had drafted it as a clerk.

Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006)
Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz responded by creating "Combatant Status Review Tribunals" to determine if detainees were unlawful combatants. Detainee's habeas petitions to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia were consolidated into two cases. In one, Judge Richard J. Leon rejected the detainees petition because they "have no cognizable Constitutional rights" on January 19, 2005. In the other, Judge Joyce Hens Green granted the detainees petition, finding the CSRTs were insufficient to protect the detainees rights under the Geneva Convention and the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution on January 31, 2005.

On July 15, 2005, a panel of the D.C. Circuit made of Judge A. Raymond Randolph then-Circuit Judge John Roberts and Judge Stephen F. Williams vacated the lower rulings and threw out the detainees' petitions. On November 7, 2005, the Supreme Court agreed to review that judgment. On December 30, 2005, Congress responded by passing the Detainee Treatment Act, which changed the statute to explicitly strip detainees of any right to petition courts for habeas review.

On June 29, 2006, the Supreme Court decided against the Government in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld. Justice Stevens, writing for a five justice majority, found that courts had jurisdiction to hear those detainees' petitions which had been filed before Congress enacted the DTA and that the CSRTs violated the Geneva Conventions standards enacted in the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

Boumediene v. Bush (2008)
Congress responded by passing the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which gave statutory authorization to the CSRTs and was explicit in retroactively stripping detainees of any right to petition courts for habeas review. On February 20, 2007, D.C. Circuit Judge A. Raymond Randolph, joined by Judge David B. Sentelle upheld the Act and dismissed the detainees' petitions, over the dissent of Judge Judith W. Rogers.

On June 12, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court decided against the Government in Boumediene v. Bush. Justice Anthony Kennedy, writing for a five justice majority, held that the detainees had a right to petition federal courts for writs of habeas corpus under the United States Constitution. Justice Antonin Scalia strongly dissented, writing that the Court's decision, "will almost certainly cause more Americans to be killed".

title: Rasul v. Bush


text:
Les Paul and Mary Ford

Les Paul and Mary Ford were a popular 1950s husband-and-wife musical duo who performed and recorded during 1945–1963. They both sang and played guitars.

Ford and Paul were music superstars during the first half of the 1950s, putting out 28 hits for Capitol Records between 1950 and 1957, including "Tiger Rag", "Vaya con Dios" (11 weeks at No. 1), "Mockin' Bird Hill" (top 10), "How High the Moon" (nine weeks at No. 1), "Bye Bye Blues" and "The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise".

Background
The couple were introduced to each other by Gene Autry in 1945 and were married on December 29, 1949. They first appeared in the pop charts in 1950. Between the years 1950 and 1954, Les Paul and Mary Ford had 16 top-ten hits. They had five top-ten hits within nine months. "Tennessee Waltz", "Mockin' Bird Hill", "How High the Moon" (#1 for nine weeks), "The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise" and "Whispering". From August 1952 to March 1953 they had five more top-ten hits; "My Baby's Coming Home", "Lady of Spain", "Bye Bye Blues", "I'm Sitting on Top of the World" and "Vaya Con Dios" (#1 for 11 weeks). Their 1954 version of "I'm a Fool to Care" went to No. 6, and was featured in a memorable Southern Comfort commercial in 2013 that got over 1 million views on YouTube.

In 2009, they were inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.

Paul and Ford are famous for creating a makeshift recording studio in their garage. In their garage studio, they used multitrack recording to record many of their hits including ‘Lover’, ‘Nola’, ‘Brazil’ and ‘Whispering' with only the two of them.

Paul and Ford divorced acrimoniously in December 1964, which also ended the collaboration between the two.

The duo have a star at 1541 Vine Street in the Recording section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Radio and television programs
Paul had hosted a 15-minute radio program, The Les Paul Show, on NBC in 1950, featuring his trio (himself, Ford, and rhythm player Eddie Stapleton) and his electronics, recorded from their home and with gentle humour between Paul and Ford bridging musical selections, some of which had already been successful on records, some of which anticipated the couple's recordings, and many of which presented dazzling re-interpretations of such jazz and pop selections as "In the Mood," "Little Rock Getaway," "Brazil," and "Tiger Rag." Several recordings of these shows survive among old-time radio collectors today.

The show also appeared on television a few years later with the same format, but excluding the trio and retitled The Les Paul & Mary Ford Show (aka Les Paul & Mary Ford At Home) with "Vaya Con Dios" as a theme song. Sponsored by Warner–Lambert's Listerine, it was widely syndicated during 1954—55 and was only five minutes long (one or two songs) on film and therefore used as a brief interlude or fill-in on programming schedules. Since Les created the entire show himself, including audio and video, he maintained the original recordings and was in the process of restoring them to up-to-date quality at the time of his death.

Streaming

 * Episodes of the Les Paul Show from Les Paul Show | Variety - Old Time Radio Downloads

title: Les Paul and Mary Ford


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Saint Elias Mountains

The Saint Elias Mountains (Chaîne Saint-Élie) are a subgroup of the Pacific Coast Ranges, located in southeastern Alaska in the United States, Southwestern Yukon and the very far northwestern part of British Columbia in Canada. The range spans Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve in the United States and Kluane National Park and Reserve in Canada and includes all of Glacier Bay National Park in Alaska. In Alaska, the range includes parts of the city/borough of Yakutat and the Hoonah-Angoon and Valdez-Cordova census areas.

This mountain range is named after Mount Saint Elias, which in turn was named in 1741 by the Danish explorer Vitus Bering.

Geology
The St. Elias Mountains form the highest coastal mountain range on Earth. It formed due to the subduction of the Yakutat microplate underneath the North American Plate. The Yakutat microplate is a wedge shaped oceanic plateau with a thickness of 20 to 30 km. Similar to the adjacent Pacific Plate, which has a crustal thickness of 7 km, the Yakutat plate is moving northwestward at a rate of 50 mm per year with respect to North America. The Yakutat plate is transported northwards along the active Fairweather Fault, which probably started more than 35 million years ago. Due to its thickness, the Yakutat plate is buoyant, resulting in surface uplift of the overriding North American plate, which formed the Talkeetna Mountains and the Alaska Range in Southcentral Alaska, located above the subducted part of the Yakutat plate.

The St. Elias Mountains formed at the plate boundary between the Yakutat and North American plates. The up-to-12 km-thick sediments that have been deposited on top of the Yakutat plate became imbricated and deformed as they were scraped off and compose today the southern (coastal) flanks of the St. Elias Mountains. In contrast the high elevated regions of the drainage divide (Bagley Icefield, Seward Glacier) and north of it are composed of rocks that are part of the North American plate. The highest peaks of the St. Elias Mountains are located in the high ice field region of the Kluane National Park (Mount Logan, Mount Vancouver) and north of the Malaspina Glacier (Mount Saint Elias, Mount Cook), in the region known as the St. Elias syntaxis. At the syntaxis region the tectonic style changes from strike-slip motion along the Fairweather Fault to collision west of Malaspina Strait. This tectonic transition concentrates stress in the crust at the syntaxis that together with efficient glacial erosion results in positive feedback processes that through time forms extreme high mountain peaks and local relief, and rapid exhumation of rocks from up to 10 km depths to the surface.

Ranges
The mountains are divided by the Duke Depression, with the shorter, more rounded Kluane Ranges to the east, and the higher Icefield Ranges to the west. Sub-ranges of the Saint Elias include the Alsek Ranges, the Fairweather Range, and the Centennial Range.

Highest mountains
The highest mountains of the range include:

title: Saint Elias Mountains