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Talk:Outline of commercial law

Reordering
BoNoMoJo, I find your re-ordering of the business entity section of the list of business law topics confusing. It originally included links to the various forms of legal entities, for example, corporations, partnerships, trusts, cooperatives, etc. All the general principles that were not specific to one of these forms of ownership were in the main part of the list. Now I see that you have deleted cooperatives, included general legal principles like agency theory and fiduciary duty as a subcategory of legal entities, and made partnership a subcategory of fiduciary duty. Please explain. mydogategodshat 19:19, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

 * AKAIK the article did not link to cooperatives when I edited it, but if it was deleted that was accidental. The article still 456456continues to link to various forms of legal entities...all I have done is reorganize it and add a few other topics. Agency and fiduciary have not been deleted, but renamed. Partnerships are a subcategory of Fiduciary: a partner is a fiduciary to his partners and a partnership creates a fiduciary relationship. Note that until relatively recently a partnership was merely a relationship and not a "legal entity"; e.g. you could sue a partner in name, but you could not sue a partnership in name because it was thought a partnership did not have a separate existence in addition to its partners. This is the current way of looking at trusts and estates. Trusts and estates are not really "legal entities"; they do not have an existence separate from their fiduciaries (trustees and executors); e.g. you cannot sue a trust in its own name, you must sue the trustee in his/its capacity as trustee. Partners, partnerships, trustees, executors and agents are all fiduciaries. Once you understand that, the way I organized it makes more sense....and, yes, I am a lawyer. B 19:48, May 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the explanation. Your organizational scheme may not seem intuitively obvious to a non-lawyer like myself, but your rationale is impeccably logical. Keep up the good work. mydogategodshat 07:04, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * There are other ways that this list could be organized, alphabetical, for example. I am not opposed to organizing this list in other ways so long as it makes sense. My reorganization is just a suggestion. B 13:35, May 13, 2004 (UTC)

 * I am happy with your organization. mydogategodshat 16:25, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

Should their be a topic for insurance law? I know no one has written one yet, but presumably this will get tackled eventually. I may have a punt myself when I am feeling stronger, although it is not my principle field. Legis 08:06, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

Blue laws ???
Why are "blue laws" included here? Unless there's another meaning I'm not aware of AND the link points to the wrong article, blue laws are antiquated common law on the east coast that used to enforce morality. For example, it used to be illegal and punishible by jail time to commit adultry, instead of just a private matter between husband and life, the state was involved. I don't see any relavance for business law?

Quick explanation of Wikipedia outlines
"Outline" is short for "hierarchical outline". There are two types of outlines: sentence outlines (like those you made in school to plan a paper), and topic outlines (like the topical synopses that professors hand out at the beginning of a college course). Outlines on Wikipedia are primarily topic outlines that serve 2 main purposes: they provide taxonomical classification of subjects showing what topics belong to a subject and how they are related to each other (via their placement in the tree structure), and as subject-based tables of contents linked to topics in the encyclopedia. The hierarchy is maintained through the use of heading levels and indented bullets. See Outlines for a more in-depth explanation. The Transhumanist 00:04, 9 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Outline of commercial law


text:
Aberdyfi

Aberdyfi, also known as Aberdovey , is a village and community in Gwynedd, Wales, located on the northern side of the estuary of the River Dyfi.

The population of the community was 878 at the 2011 census. The electoral ward had a larger population of 1,282 and includes the community of Pennal.

Founded by shipbuilding, Aberdyfi is now a seaside resort with a high quality beach. The centre is on the river and seafront, around the original harbour, jetty and beach; it stretches back from the coast and up the steep hillside in the midst of typical Welsh coastal scenery of steep green hills and sheep farms. Penhelig railway station (Penhelyg) is in the eastern part of the village.

Being less than 100 mi from the West Midlands, the area is popular with tourists. 43.3% of houses in the village are holiday homes. The village is located within the Snowdonia National Park.

In the 2011 census, 38.5% of the population of Aberdyfi ward identified themselves as Welsh (or combined). 59.4% of the population were born outside Wales. According to the 2021 census, 43.3% could speak Welsh with an increase of 0.7% from last time.

Name
The anglicised spelling for the village and community is Aberdovey. The Welsh Aberdyfi is now widely used locally and by the Gwynedd Council and the Welsh Government.

The body responsible for providing advice on the standard forms of Welsh place-names, the Welsh Language Commissioner, recommends Aberdyfi to be the standard form for use in both English and Welsh. Some entities continue to use the anglicisation   e.g. some local businesses in their name and/or address   and some use the two spellings interchangeably e.g. the BBC  or under different circumstances e.g. the Aberdyfi Community Council.

History
Local tradition suggests that the Romans established a track into the area as part of the military occupation of Wales around AD78.

The strategic location in mid-Wales was the site of several conferences between north and south Wales princes in 540, 1140, and for the Council of Aberdyfi in 1216. The hill in the centre of the village, Pen-y-Bryn, has been claimed to be the site of fortifications in the 1150s, which were soon destroyed. The site of Aberdyfi Castle however is usually said to be at the motte earthworks further up the opposite side of the river near Glandyfi.

During the Spanish Armada of 1597, a Spanish ship, the Bear of Amsterdam missed her objective at Milford Haven and ended up having entered the Dyfi estuary. She was unable to leave for 10 days because of the wind and could not be boarded as no suitable boats were available. An attempt to burn her was frustrated by winds and when she did leave she ended up being captured by a waiting English fleet off the Cornish coast.

In the 1700s, the village grew with the appearance of several of the inns still in current use (The Dovey Hotel, Britannia and Penhelig Arms). Copper was mined in the present Copperhill Street, and lead in Penhelig (Penhelyg).

Port and railway
In the 1800s, Aberdyfi was at its peak as a port. Major exports were slate and oak bark. Ship building was based in seven shipyards in Penhelig where 45 sailing ships were built between 1840 and 1880.

The railway came to the village in 1863 built by the Aberystwith and Welsh Coast Railway. The first train was ferried across the river, as the line to Dovey Junction and then Machynlleth was not completed until 1867. Due to public demand, this section had to use a long tunnel behind the village centre, and further major earthworks and tunnels were needed along the bank of the river. This line, which became part of the Cambrian Railways, and later the Great Western Railway, is particularly scenic.

A jetty was built in 1887, with railway lines connecting it with the wharf and the main line. The Aberdyfi & Waterford Steamship Company imported livestock from Ireland which were then taken further by the railway. Coal, limestone and timber were also imported.

Local coastal shipping links with Liverpool were strong, with many Aberdyfi men sailing on international voyages from Liverpool. The SS Dora was one of the last ships trading between Aberdyfi and Liverpool and was scuttled, with no loss of life, by a German submarine in 1917.

The jetty and wharf continued in commercial use for coal until 1959. After prolonged negotiations, redevelopments from 1968 to 1971, including rebuilding the jetty, led to their present use mainly for recreational purposes. Some local fishing still occurs.

The first ever Outward Bound centre was opened in the village in 1941. Many of their activities involve the river, boats and jetty.

Lifeboat
The village's first lifeboat was bought in 1837. Run by the RNLI since 1853, it has taken part in many rescues, sometimes with loss of life of crew members. The current lifeboat, an Atlantic 75, is housed in the boathouse by the jetty and is launched using a lifeboat tractor. Currently it is averaging about 25 emergency launches each year.

Governance
An electoral ward of the same name stretches inland along the A494 road and includes Pennal community. The total population of the ward taken at the 2011 census was 1,282.

Worship
Chapels in Aberdyfi include the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist chapel, the English Presbyterian chapel, the Wesleyan Methodist chapel, and the Welsh Independent congregational chapel. The Anglican (Church in Wales) is St Peter's.

Transport
Road access to Aberdyfi is by the A493, with Tywyn four miles to the north and Machynlleth 11 miles to the east. The village is on the Cambrian Coast railway line and has two railway stations, Aberdovey and Penhelig. Trains on the Cambrian Line are operated by Transport for Wales. The local bus service is operated by Lloyds Coaches with services to Tywyn, where a connection can be made for Dolgellau, and to Machynlleth, where connections are available to Aberystwyth.

A ferry used to operate across the River Dyfi to Ynyslas. The last ferryman was Ellis Williams.

Recreation
Popular recreational activities focus on the beach and watersports, such as windsurfing, kitesurfing, fishing, crabbing, sailing, and canoeing on the estuary.

The Dovey Yacht Club has a prominent position on the river front of the village. It was founded in 1949 and helped develop the popularity of the GP14 dinghy class. It organises races for dinghies throughout the season on the estuary of the River Dyfi.

The Aberdovey Golf Club, founded in 1892, is a famous 18 hole links course located near the railway station. It is world-renowned, having been described frequently and lyrically in the press by Bernard Darwin, the famed golf writer, who was a notable member of the club. In 1895, it was the location of the first Welsh Golfing Union Championship. Current members include Ian Woosnam and Peter Baker.

Located by the Aberdovey Golf Club is Aberdyfi Football club boasting one of the best football pitches in Mid-Wales. The football team won the Welsh Amateur Cup Competition in 1934.

The Aberdyfi Rowing Club rows in the Dyfi Estuary and Cardigan Bay and takes part in races all round the coast of Wales and internationally. They row 24’ long Celtic longboats, with four rowers (each with one oar) and a cox. They have three of these traditional Welsh boats with fixed seats and use these for races in Wales.

The Aberdovey Literary Institute, founded in 1882, is situated on the river front. The deeds of 1923 state it was established in perpetuity as "a non-sectarian, non-political place of recreation, education and social intercourse including ... reading rooms, writing rooms, library, billiard rooms, concert rooms ..."

Neuadd Dyfi is a community hall, conference centre and theatre owned by the village for village activities. It caters for a range of local organisations and events.

The Bells of Aberdovey
Aberdyfi is closely linked to the legend of the submerged lost kingdom of Cantre'r Gwaelod (Lowland Hundred) beneath Cardigan Bay, and bells which, it is said, can be heard ringing beneath the water at the beach. The Bells of Aberdovey (Clychau Aberdyfi) is a well-known song referring to this legend. This song first appeared in the English opera Liberty Hall in 1785, written by Charles Dibdin, and is not thought to be a traditional folk-song as Welsh words were written by John Ceiriog Hughes, during the 19th century.

The legend and the song have inspired local cultural projects involving bells.

A new chime of bells was installed in September 1936 in the tower of St Peter's Church, which overlooks the harbour. The ten bells, tuned in the key of A flat, were specifically designed to allow the playing of The Bells of Aberdovey and are played from a mechanical carillon inside the church.

In 2010 an art installation was commissioned from sculptor Marcus Vergette as a homage to The Bells of Aberdovey. The work is a bronze time-and-tide bell suspended beneath the pier which is rung by the action of water at high tide. It was installed in July 2011 and is one of several such bells around the United Kingdom.

Other
Bugail Aberdyfi (the Shepherd of Aberdovey) is a poem written by John Ceiriog Hughes which has been set to music and recorded by several singers including Bryn Terfel.

The children's novel, Silver on the Tree, by Susan Cooper, the final book of The Dark is Rising, is largely set around Aberdyfi, with many references to local landmarks.

The novel, Megan's Game by Tony Drury, published in 2012, contains many references to Aberdyfi, surrounding areas and the legend of The Bells of Aberdovey.

Notable people associated with Aberdyfi

 * James Atkin, Baron Atkin of Aberdovey (1867–1944), Barrister and Judge
 * John Corbett (1817–1901), industrialist, philanthropist and politician
 * Tom Cave (born 1991), rally driver
 * Christopher Riche Evans (1931–1979), psychologist, computer scientist, and author
 * John T. Houghton (1931–2020), co-chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, lived in Aberdyfi
 * Stan Hugill (1906–1992), Musician and artist, lived in Aberdyfi, and worked at the Outward Bound centre from 1950 to 1975
 * David Gill (born 1957), chief executive of Manchester United and a vice chairman of The Football Association
 * Marguerite Florence Laura Jarvis (1886–1964), novelist under using pseudonyms, including Countess Barcynska
 * Simon Jenkins (born 1943), Journalist, editor, author, chairman of the National Trust
 * Kenneth O. Morgan, Baron Morgan of Aberdyfi, (born 1934), Historian and author
 * Oliver Onions (1873–1961), Novelist
 * Jimmy Page (born 1944), with Robert Plant (born 1948), composed many Led Zeppelin songs at nearby Bron-Yr-Aur cottage
 * Berta Ruck (1878–1978), Romantic novelist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aberdyfi


text:
Exponential integral

In mathematics, the exponential integral Ei is a special function on the complex plane. It is defined as one particular definite integral of the ratio between an exponential function and its argument.

Definitions
For real non-zero values of x, the exponential integral Ei(x) is defined as

 * $$ \operatorname{Ei}(x) = -\int_{-x}^\infty \frac{e^{-t}}t\,dt = \int_{-\infty}^x \frac{e^t}t\,dt.$$

The Risch algorithm shows that Ei is not an elementary function. The definition above can be used for positive values of x, but the integral has to be understood in terms of the Cauchy principal value due to the singularity of the integrand at zero.

For complex values of the argument, the definition becomes ambiguous due to branch points at 0 and $\infty$. Instead of Ei, the following notation is used,

 * $$E_1(z) = \int_z^\infty \frac{e^{-t}}{t}\, dt,\qquad|{\rm Arg}(z)|<\pi$$[[File:Plot of the exponential integral function Ei(z) in the complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2i with colors created with Mathematica 13.1 function ComplexPlot3D.svg|alt=Plot of the exponential integral function Ei(z) in the complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2i with colors created with Mathematica 13.1 function ComplexPlot3D|thumb|Plot of the exponential integral function Ei(z) in the complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2i with colors created with Mathematica 13.1 function ComplexPlot3D]]

For positive values of x, we have $-E_1(x) = \operatorname{Ei}(-x)$.

In general, a branch cut is taken on the negative real axis and E1 can be defined by analytic continuation elsewhere on the complex plane.

For positive values of the real part of $$z$$, this can be written
 * $$E_1(z) = \int_1^\infty \frac{e^{-tz}}{t}\, dt = \int_0^1 \frac{e^{-z/u}}{u}\, du ,\qquad \Re(z) \ge 0.$$

The behaviour of E1 near the branch cut can be seen by the following relation:

 * $$\lim_{\delta\to0+} E_1(-x \pm i\delta) = -\operatorname{Ei}(x) \mp i\pi,\qquad x>0.$$

Properties
Several properties of the exponential integral below, in certain cases, allow one to avoid its explicit evaluation through the definition above.

Convergent series

For real or complex arguments off the negative real axis, $$E_1(z)$$ can be expressed as

 * $$E_1(z) = -\gamma - \ln z - \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-z)^k}{k\; k!} \qquad (\left| \operatorname{Arg}(z) \right| < \pi)$$

where $$\gamma$$ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The sum converges for all complex $$z$$, and we take the usual value of the complex logarithm having a branch cut along the negative real axis.

This formula can be used to compute $$E_1(x)$$ with floating point operations for real $$x$$ between 0 and 2.5. For $$x > 2.5$$, the result is inaccurate due to cancellation.

A faster converging series was found by Ramanujan:

 * $${\rm Ei} (x) = \gamma + \ln x + \exp{(x/2)} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{ (-1)^{n-1} x^n} {n! \, 2^{n-1}} \sum_{k=0}^{\lfloor (n-1)/2 \rfloor} \frac{1}{2k+1}$$

Asymptotic (divergent) series

Unfortunately, the convergence of the series above is slow for arguments of larger modulus. For example, more than 40 terms are required to get an answer correct to three significant figures for $$E_1(10)$$. However, for positive values of x, there is a divergent series approximation that can be obtained by integrating $$x e^x E_1(x)$$ by parts:
 * $$E_1(x)=\frac{\exp(-x)} x \left(\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} \frac{n!}{(-x)^n} +O(N!x^{-N}) \right)$$

The relative error of the approximation above is plotted on the figure to the right for various values of $$N$$, the number of terms in the truncated sum ($$N=1$$ in red, $$N=5$$ in pink).

Asymptotics beyond all orders
Using integration by parts, we can obtain an explicit formula $$\operatorname{Ei}(z) = \frac{e^{z}} {z} \left (\sum _{k=0}^{n} \frac{k!} {z^{k}} + e_{n}(z)\right), \quad e_{n}(z) \equiv (n + 1)!\ ze^{-z}\int _{ -\infty }^{z} \frac{e^{t}} {t^{n+2}}\,dt$$For any fixed $$z$$, the absolute value of the error term $$|e_n(z)|$$ decreases, then increases. The minimum occurs at $$n\sim |z|$$, at which point $$\vert e_{n}(z)\vert \leq \sqrt{\frac{2\pi } {\vert z\vert }}e^{-\vert z\vert }$$. This bound is said to be "asymptotics beyond all orders".

Exponential and logarithmic behavior: bracketing

From the two series suggested in previous subsections, it follows that $$E_1$$ behaves like a negative exponential for large values of the argument and like a logarithm for small values. For positive real values of the argument, $$E_1$$ can be bracketed by elementary functions as follows:

\frac 1 2 e^{-x}\,\ln\!\left( 1+\frac 2 x \right) < E_1(x) < e^{-x}\,\ln\!\left( 1+\frac 1 x \right) \qquad x>0 $$

The left-hand side of this inequality is shown in the graph to the left in blue; the central part $$E_1(x)$$ is shown in black and the right-hand side is shown in red.

Definition by Ein
Both $$\operatorname{Ei}$$ and $$E_1$$ can be written more simply using the entire function $$\operatorname{Ein}$$ defined as

\operatorname{Ein}(z) = \int_0^z (1-e^{-t})\frac{dt}{t} = \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{k+1}z^k}{k\; k!} $$ (note that this is just the alternating series in the above definition of $$E_1$$). Then we have

E_1(z) \,=\, -\gamma-\ln z + {\rm Ein}(z) \qquad \left| \operatorname{Arg}(z) \right| < \pi $$
 * $$\operatorname{Ei}(x) \,=\, \gamma+\ln{x} - \operatorname{Ein}(-x)

\qquad x \neq 0 $$

Relation with other functions
Kummer's equation
 * $$z\frac{d^2w}{dz^2} + (b-z)\frac{dw}{dz} - aw = 0$$

is usually solved by the confluent hypergeometric functions $$M(a,b,z)$$ and $$U(a,b,z).$$ But when $$a=0$$ and $$b=1,$$ that is,
 * $$z\frac{d^2w}{dz^2} + (1-z)\frac{dw}{dz} = 0$$

we have
 * $$M(0,1,z)=U(0,1,z)=1$$

for all z. A second solution is then given by E1(−z). In fact,
 * $$E_1(-z)=-\gamma-i\pi+\frac{\partial[U(a,1,z)-M(a,1,z)]}{\partial a},\qquad 0<{\rm Arg}(z)<2\pi$$

with the derivative evaluated at $$a=0.$$ Another connexion with the confluent hypergeometric functions is that E1 is an exponential times the function U(1,1,z):
 * $$E_1(z)=e^{-z}U(1,1,z)$$

The exponential integral is closely related to the logarithmic integral function li(x) by the formula
 * $$\operatorname{li}(e^x) = \operatorname{Ei}(x)$$

for non-zero real values of $$x $$.

Generalization
The exponential integral may also be generalized to

 * $$E_n(x) = \int_1^\infty \frac{e^{-xt}}{t^n}\, dt,$$

which can be written as a special case of the upper incomplete gamma function:

 * $$E_n(x) =x^{n-1}\Gamma(1-n,x).$$

The generalized form is sometimes called the Misra function $$\varphi_m(x)$$, defined as

 * $$\varphi_m(x)=E_{-m}(x).$$

Many properties of this generalized form can be found in the NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions.

Including a logarithm defines the generalized integro-exponential function
 * $$E_s^j(z)= \frac{1}{\Gamma(j+1)}\int_1^\infty \left(\log t\right)^j \frac{e^{-zt}}{t^s}\,dt.$$

The indefinite integral:
 * $$ \operatorname{Ei}(a \cdot b) = \iint e^{a b} \, da \, db$$

is similar in form to the ordinary generating function for $$d(n)$$, the number of divisors of $$n$$:
 * $$ \sum\limits_{n=1}^{\infty} d(n)x^{n} = \sum\limits_{a=1}^{\infty} \sum\limits_{b=1}^{\infty} x^{a b}$$

Derivatives
The derivatives of the generalised functions $$E_n$$ can be calculated by means of the formula

E_n '(z) = - E_{n-1}(z) \qquad (n=1,2,3,\ldots) $$ Note that the function $$E_0$$ is easy to evaluate (making this recursion useful), since it is just $$e^{-z}/z$$.

Exponential integral of imaginary argument

If $$z$$ is imaginary, it has a nonnegative real part, so we can use the formula

E_1(z) = \int_1^\infty \frac{e^{-tz}} t \, dt $$ to get a relation with the trigonometric integrals $$\operatorname{Si}$$ and $$\operatorname{Ci}$$:

E_1(ix) = i\left[ -\tfrac{1}{2}\pi + \operatorname{Si}(x)\right] - \operatorname{Ci}(x) \qquad (x > 0) $$ The real and imaginary parts of $$\mathrm{E}_1(ix)$$ are plotted in the figure to the right with black and red curves.

Approximations
There have been a number of approximations for the exponential integral function. These include:

A &= \ln\left [\left (\frac{0.56146}{x}+0.65\right)(1+x)\right] \\ B &= x^4e^{7.7x}(2+x)^{3.7} \end{align}$$ \textbf{a} & \triangleq [-0.57722, 0.99999, -0.24991, 0.05519, -0.00976, 0.00108]^T \\ \textbf{b} & \triangleq[0.26777,8.63476, 18.05902, 8.57333]^T \\ \textbf{c} & \triangleq[3.95850, 21.09965, 25.63296, 9.57332]^T \\ \textbf{x}_k &\triangleq[x^0,x^1,\dots, x^k]^T \end{align}$$ h &= \frac{1}{1+x\sqrt{x}}+\frac{h_{\infty}q}{1+q} \\ q &=\frac{20}{47}x^{\sqrt{\frac{31}{26}}} \\ h_{\infty} &= \frac{(1-G)(G^2-6G+12)}{3G(2-G)^2b} \\ b &=\sqrt{\frac{2(1-G)}{G(2-G)}} \\ G &= e^{-\gamma} \end{align}$$ with $$\gamma$$ being the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
 * The Swamee and Ohija approximation $$E_1(x) = \left (A^{-7.7}+B \right )^{-0.13},$$ where $$\begin{align}
 * The Allen and Hastings approximation $$E_1(x) = \begin{cases} - \ln x +\textbf{a}^T\textbf{x}_5,&x\leq1 \\ \frac{e^{-x}} x \frac{\textbf{b}^T \textbf{x}_3}{\textbf{c}^T\textbf{x}_3},&x\geq1 \end{cases}$$ where $$\begin{align}
 * The continued fraction expansion $$E_1(x) = \cfrac{e^{-x}}{x+\cfrac{1}{1+\cfrac{1}{x+\cfrac{2}{1+\cfrac{2}{x+\cfrac{3}{\ddots}}}}}}.$$
 * The approximation of Barry et al. $$E_1(x) = \frac{e^{-x}}{G+(1-G)e^{-\frac{x}{1-G}}}\ln\left[1+\frac G x -\frac{1-G}{(h+bx)^2}\right],$$ where: $$\begin{align}

Inverse function of the Exponential Integral
We can express the Inverse function of the exponential integral in power series form:

 * $$\forall |x| < \frac{\mu}{\ln(\mu)},\quad \mathrm{Ei}^{-1}(x) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{n!} \frac{P_n(\ln(\mu))}{\mu^n}$$

where $$\mu$$ is the Ramanujan–Soldner constant and $$(P_n)$$ is polynomial sequence defined by the following recurrence relation:

 * $$P_0(x) = x,\ P_{n+1}(x) = x(P_n'(x) - nP_n(x)).$$

For $$n > 0$$, $$\deg P_n = n$$ and we have the formula :

 * $$P_n(x) = \left.\left(\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}\right)^{n-1} \left(\frac{te^x}{\mathrm{Ei}(t+x)-\mathrm{Ei}(x)}\right)^n\right|_{t=0}.$$

Applications

 * Time-dependent heat transfer
 * Nonequilibrium groundwater flow in the Theis solution (called a well function)
 * Radiative transfer in stellar and planetary atmospheres
 * Radial diffusivity equation for transient or unsteady state flow with line sources and sinks
 * Solutions to the neutron transport equation in simplified 1-D geometries

title: Exponential integral


text:
God is great

God is Great may refer to:

 * The Takbir, the Arabic phrase "Allāhu Akbar", often translated as "God is Great"
 * God Is Great and I'm Not (Dieu est grand, je suis toute petite), a 2001 French film
 * God is Great (no. 2), a 1991 sculpture by John Latham

title: God is great


text:
Beovoz

Beovoz (Беовоз, stylized as БЕОВОЗ – BEOVOZ) was a commuter rail that provided mass-transit service within the Belgrade metropolitan area. The main usage of system was to connect the suburbs with downtown Belgrade. Beovoz was operated by Serbian Railways.

The Belgrade suburban railway system connects the suburbs and nearby cities to the west, north and south of the city.

History
The reconstruction of the Belgrade railway junction began in 1971, since 1977 the construction of a central section about 10 km long, with several tunnels on it, began. Since 1984, traffic began along the route Batajnica - Beograd Main Station, and the official opening took place in 1992, when tunneling under the city center was completed and electric trains were launched in three directions: Batajnica in the west, Pančevo in the north and Resnik in the south of Belgrade. The operational control center is located at the Belgrade Center station, also known as Prokop. The construction of this station, which should have received not only suburban, but also intercity and international passenger trains, has not yet been completed.

On July 7, 1995, 2 underground stations were opened in the longest tunnel leading to the Pančevo Bridge.

The lines operate electric trains of the machine-building plant Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca ER31 and ER35, with three-door cars and 1435 mm gauge bogies. Since 2010, modern trains have been purchased to replace worn-out Riga trains.

For a long time Beovoz intervals were significant, from half an hour on the main line Pančevo bridge - Batajnica, to just a few trains per day on peripheral sections. The system was not popular with residents of the city, but was in demand by residents of the suburbs for trips to Belgrade. In 2007, Beovoz carried about 4.5 million passengers.

In 2010, the section Pančevo bridge - New Belgrade was reconstructed and included in the new system of urban electric trains, called the BG Voz. An important difference of the new system is the tact timetable for the movement of electric trains: at rush hour, the intervals are exactly 15 minutes, the rest of the time - half an hour. In 2011, the tracks were reconstructed to Batajnica station and this section was also included in the new system.

Ridership
Beovoz handled 6,182,000 passengers in 2006.

Service area

There were four lines in the Belgrade underground railway network:
 * Inđija - Novi Beograd - Vukov Spomenik - Pančevo Vojlovica
 * Velika Plana - Rakovica - Novi Beograd - Zemun - Inđija
 * Mladenovac - Ripanj - Rakovica - Vukov Spomenik - Pančevo Vojlovica
 * Valjevo - Rakovica - Vukov Spomenik - Pančevo Vojlovica

Most stations were above ground. Vukov Spomenik and Karađorđev Park—the two underground stations of the Beovoz system—are located in downtown Belgrade.

Closure
Following introduction of BG Voz back in 2010, many vehicles used in Beovoz were rerouted towards new system. After the beginning of reconstruction of Pančevo bridge in 2013, some of the main lines (Belgrade-Pančevo and Valjevo-Pančevo) were abolished, while others were included in Serbian railways regional system. After this, Beovoz became officially defunct.

The rolling stock

The line operates nine ER31 4-car electric trains manufactured by the Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca with an upper current collection and three doors on the sides of the cars, repaired at the expense of the city specifically for intracity transportation.

title: Beovoz


text:
Stockline Plastics factory explosion

On 11 May 2004, the ICL Plastics factory (commonly referred to as Stockline Plastics factory), in the Woodside district of Maryhill, Glasgow in western Scotland, exploded. Nine people were killed, including two company directors, and 33 injured, 15 seriously. The four-storey building was largely destroyed.

Response
Approximately 100 people worked in the four-storey building. At midday BST (11:00 UTC), an explosion occurred and the building collapsed instantly.

The first service to attend were a Patient Transport Ambulance crew who took the decision to divert straight to the scene because they were so close at the time of the explosion. This initial crew saved dozens of lives by taking control of the evacuation and pulling the injured to safety. Around a dozen were trapped in the rubble. Fire crews used specialist search-and-rescue equipment, including sniffer dogs, carbon dioxide detectors (which detect the respired carbon dioxide of trapped persons), thermal-imaging equipment, and fibre-optic cameras to search for people trapped in the collapsed building. Some trapped workers were able to make themselves heard by shouting, or by using their mobile phones. Fire and Ambulance crews pulled seven people alive from the rubble on 11 May. The search through the factory's ruins continued for the following three days.

Up to 300 firefighters and paramedics were present at the scene and were supported by, the crew of a Sea King rescue helicopter from RAF Leconfield, North Yorkshire, and a sniffer dog team from RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire. The volunteer group International Rescue Corps, who specialise in travelling to the site of earthquakes and helping locate survivors, sent eleven of its Scottish members to the scene.

The injured were taken for treatment to five hospitals in Glasgow; the most patients were taken to Stobhill Hospital, Western Infirmary and Glasgow Royal Infirmary, and the remaining were treated at Southern General and Victoria Infirmary. Seven people were declared dead at the scene, and two died in Western Infirmary. One firefighter was taken to hospital after being overcome by fumes, and several were stricken by heat exhaustion while labouring in the hot and humid conditions.

By the end of the second day, seven deaths had been declared. After the fourth day, Strathclyde Police had named the deceased as Annette Doyle (32), Peter Ferguson (52), Thomas McAulay (41), Tracey McErlane (27), Ann Trench (34), company directors Stewart McColl (60) and Margaret Brownlie (49), Kenneth Ronald Murray, (45), and Timothy Smith (31). With the recovery of Mr. Smith's body from the site on 14 May, Strathclyde Fire Brigade announced that they believed no hope of recovering live victims remained.

Cause
Ten weeks after the explosion, the site was returned to the owners, after tonnes of debris were removed from the site for detailed examination.

The cause of the explosion was initially unknown. Some press coverage reported eyewitness accounts of gas industrial ovens in the coating department exploding. This has since been shown as unlikely as the gas ovens used on site have been found intact.

Another theory investigated by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) was that there was no explosion. An article in The Scotsman newspaper of 5 October 2004 stated that the HSE was investigating the possibility that heavy machinery and pallets kept on the upper floors caused the floor to collapse, bringing the rest of the building down with it.

Other theories included a dust explosion and a build-up of methane beneath the building.

However the final report of the HSE indicated that the explosion was due to an ignition of gas released by a leak in a pressurised petroleum gas pipe.

The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) tank and pipes that had been installed beneath the factory in the late 1960s had corroded, allowing the gas to escape.

Confusion over name
Although regularly referred to as the "Stockline Plastics factory", largely due to the signage around the building (the "name over the door"), the factory was owned by ICL Plastics and much of the work that took place there was for ICL Tech (part of the same group of companies ). The offices on the floors above were used by ICL Plastics, ICL Tech (formerly ICL Technical Plastics), and Stockline Plastics.

Stockline Plastics is a distribution company that is part of the same group of companies, and did not operate the factory.

Aftermath
The Grovepark Fund, established to help the families of those killed and injured in the blast, received a boost when the departing Celtic F.C. star, Henrik Larsson, announced that the shirt he wore in his farewell match against Seville on Tuesday would be auctioned in aid of the appeal. It was expected to attract bids of up to £10,000. It eventually sold for £1400.

A memorial service took place in the Glasgow Royal Concert Hall on 4 July 2004. Another was held at Community Central Hall on 11 May 2005, one year on from the tragic event.

Prosecution
The Crown Office decided on 17 February to prosecute ICL Plastics Limited and ICL Tech Limited under the Health & Safety at Work Act following a report conducted by the Glasgow Procurator Fiscal and HSE.

The company was accused of:
 * Failing to maintain pipes carrying hazardous gas;
 * Failure to ensure the safety of staff and visitors; and
 * Failing to carry out suitable and sufficient risk assessments.

The original hearing date of 12 December 2006 was postponed as "The timescale that the defence solicitors have been afforded for their preparation of the case has been significantly less [than the Procurator Fiscal's]".

The trial, which began on 13 August 2007, concluded on 17 August 2007, with the operators ICL Tech Ltd and ICL Plastics admitting to 4 charges in court.

On 28 August 2007 a fine of £200,000 was imposed on each of the two companies responsible (ICL Plastics Limited and ICL Tech Limited).

Public Inquiry
The ICL Inquiry took place in Maryhill Community Central Hall. It occurred after the criminal proceedings were concluded.

In December 2007, Lord Gill, Lord Justice Clerk was announced as Chair of the inquiry. The inquiry started on 2 July 2008, after extensive refurbishment work was carried out on behalf of the Scottish Courts Service to make the venue suitable for the public inquiry. The Crown, the victims' families, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and ICL are all represented. The inquiry examined over 20,000 pages of evidence and took place in two phases. The first was a factual enquiry into what occurred. The second stage, to look at causes and reasons, began in October 2008. The inquiry was chaired by Lord Gill. Roy Martin Q.C., a former Dean of the faculty of Advocates, was lead counsel for the inquiry.

In July 2009, Lord Gill's Report was published. His inquiry cost £1.9 million and was published 13 months after his appointment. It was described favourably in 2024 by the Times as "short, sharp and hard-hitting" in contrast to many subsequent inquiries. In Appendix 4 of the Report Lord Gill set out the chronological process operated by him. In the Preface he stated he did this to assist other inquiries in the future.

As well as being critical of the companies involved, it noted failings by the Health & Safety Executive's supervision and inspection regime. The Report contained various recommendations relating to proper safety protocols concerning the storage and use of liquid petroleum gas.

Memorial
In May 2007, a memorial garden was unveiled.

title: Stockline Plastics factory explosion


text:
Swatara Creek

Swatara Creek (nicknamed the Swatty) is a 72 mi tributary of the Susquehanna River in east-central Pennsylvania in the United States. It rises in the Appalachian Mountains in central Schuylkill County and passes through northwest Lebanon County before draining into the Susquehanna at Middletown in Dauphin County.

The name "Swatara" is said to derive from a Susquehannock word, Swahadowry or Schaha-dawa, which means "where we feed on eels". Ancient Native Americans built dozens of eel-weirs, V-shaped rock barriers designed to funnel eels to facilitate capture, on the Susquehanna and its tributaries.

Geography
Swatara Creek rises in the Appalachian Mountains in central Schuylkill County, on Broad Mountain north of the Sharp Mountain ridge, approximately 5 mi west of Minersville. It flows southwest in a winding course, passing south of Tremont, then cutting south through the ridges of Sharp Mountain and Second Mountain. It passes through Swatara State Park then turns south to pass through Swatara Gap in the Blue Mountain ridge northwest of Lebanon. After emerging from the ridge the creek flows southwest, north of Hershey, past Hummelstown, and joins the Susquehanna at Royalton, in Middletown. It receives Quittapahilla Creek from the east 3 mi north of Palmyra.

History

The creek was a significant transportation route in the colonial period of North America up through the late 19th century. A canal linking the Susquehanna and Delaware valleys in southeastern Pennsylvania was first proposed in 1690 by William Penn, the founder of the Pennsylvania Colony. Nearly a century passed before a route for the canal was surveyed by David Rittenhouse and William Smith between 1762 and 1770, the first canal ever surveyed in the United States. Spurred by the 1791 discovery of anthracite in the upper Susquehanna Valley, the Pennsylvania General Assembly chartered two companies to undertake the project: the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company. At the time of the initial construction in 1792, Philadelphia was involved in an intense rivalry with Baltimore, Maryland, for supremacy as a shipping port. The canal was backed by Philadelphia businessmen as a means to divert commercial traffic from following the Susquehanna downriver to the Chesapeake Bay, its more natural destination. Although the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company project failed for lack of funds, the project was restarted and ultimately completed by its successor company, the Union Canal in 1828.

From west to east, the route of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company canal in 1792 was to follow Swatara Creek upstream from Middletown to Quittapahilla Creek, which it then followed upstream past Lebanon and Myerstown to its headwaters. It then crossed overland to Clarks Run at the headwaters of Tulpehocken Creek, following Tulpehocken Creek downstream to Reading on the Schuylkill River. It was to follow the Schuylkill downriver to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The route of the Union Canal followed the same route up Swatara Creek and continued up the creek to Union Water Works. The canal then went up Clarks Run to the summit and thence by a 729 ft tunnel over to Lebanon. The upper course above Union Water Works into the mountains provided the route of a feeder to the main canal, as well as providing a route to ship anthracite from the mountains to Philadelphia.

On September 8, 2011, the creek reached a record height of 26.8 ft near Hershey, following devastating rains from Tropical Storm Lee and remnants of Hurricane Irene, the highest since measurements began in 1975. Farther upstream at the Harpers Tavern gauge, 24.6 ft was recorded, making it the worst flooding since 1889. The flooding caused thousands of people to be evacuated from their homes throughout central Pennsylvania, and at least one death.

Several covered bridges once crossed Swatara Creek, including the Fiddler's Elbow Covered Bridge, built 1862, near Hummelstown and Clifton Covered Bridge, built 1870, near Middletown, both destroyed by Hurricane Agnes in 1972. The Sand Beach Covered Bridge burned down in 1966 by arson.

Recreation
Today, Swatara Creek is part of a national and statewide water trail system, providing outdoor recreation for families canoeing and kayaking a 60 mi segment that connects to the Susquehanna River and Captain John Smith water trails.

Drinking water
Three water companies — Suez Water Pennsylvania, American Water, and the Lebanon Water Authority — draw drinking water for hundreds of thousands of residents of the Swatara watershed.

Tributaries

 * Iron Run
 * Beaver Creek
 * Spring Creek
 * Manada Creek
 * Quittapahilla Creek
 * Brandywine Creek
 * Bow Creek
 * Indiantown Run
 * Little Swatara Creek
 * Lower Little Swatara Creek
 * Upper Little Swatara Creek
 * Good Spring Creek

Ships
Two ships in the United States Navy have been named USS Swatara after the creek:
 * The first USS Swatara (1865) was a wooden, screw sloop, launched in 1865 and dismantled in 1872 to become the second ship of this name.
 * The second USS Swatara (1873) was a screw sloop, launched in 1873 and decommissioned in 1891.

title: Swatara Creek


text:
Lison

Lison is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

Notable people

 * Fernande Albany (1889 – 1966), actress, born in Lison.

Today
There is a train station, Lison station, which has frequent services to Caen, Saint-Lô and Cherbourg. There are many small supermarkets and restaurants.

title: Lison


text:
Seychellois Creole

Seychellois Creole, also known as kreol, is the French-based creole language spoken by the Seychelles Creole people of the Seychelles. It shares national language status with English and French (in contrast to Mauritian and Réunion Creole, which lack official status in Mauritius and France).

Description
Since its independence in 1976, the government of the Seychelles has sought to develop the language, with its own orthography and codified grammar, establishing Lenstiti Kreol (the Creole Institute) for this purpose.

In several Seychellois Creole words derived from French, the French definite article (le, la and les) has become part of the word; for example, 'future' is lavenir (French l'avenir). The possessive is the same as the pronoun, so that 'our future' is nou lavenir. Similarly in the plural, les Îles Éloignées Seychelles in French ('the Outer Seychelles Islands') has become Zil Elwanyen Sesel in Creole. Note the z in Zil, as, in French, les Îles is pronounced.

Samples
(Lord's Prayer)

 * Ou, nou papa ki dan lesyel,
 * Fer ou ganny rekonnet konman Bondye.
 * Ki ou renny i arive.
 * Ki ou lavolonte i ganny realize
 * Lo later parey i ete dan lesyel
 * Donn nou sak zour nou dipen ki nou bezwen.
 * Pardonn nou pour bann lofans
 * Ki noun fer anver ou,
 * Parey nou pardonn sa ki n ofans nou.
 * Pa les tantasyon domin nou,
 * Me tir nou dan lemal.

49 fables of La Fontaine were adapted to the dialect around 1900 by Rodolphine Young (1860–1932) but these remained unpublished until 1983.

While Seychellois laws are written in English, the working language of the National Assembly is Creole and the verbatim record of its meetings provides an extensive corpus for its contemporary use in a formal setting.

(See also Koste Seselwa, the national anthem.)

title: Seychellois Creole


text:
Lisores

Lisores is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

title: Lisores


text:
Litteau

Litteau is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. The 19th-century poet Hippolyte Guérin was born in Litteau.

title: Litteau


text:
Coinfection

Coinfection is the simultaneous infection of a host by multiple pathogen species. In virology, coinfection includes simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more virus particles. An example is the coinfection of liver cells with hepatitis B virus and hepatitis D virus, which can arise incrementally by initial infection followed by superinfection.

Global prevalence or incidence of coinfection among humans is unknown, but it is thought to be commonplace, sometimes more common than single infection. Coinfection with helminths affects around 800 million people worldwide.

Coinfection is of particular human health importance because pathogen species can interact within the host. The net effect of coinfection on human health is thought to be negative. Interactions can have either positive or negative effects on other parasites. Under positive parasite interactions, disease transmission and progression are enhanced and this is also known as syndemism. Negative parasite interactions include microbial interference when one bacterial species suppresses the virulence or colonisation of other bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa suppressing pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus colony formation. The general patterns of ecological interactions between parasite species are unknown, even among common coinfections such as those between sexually transmitted infections. However, network analysis of a food web of coinfection in humans suggests that there is greater potential for interactions via shared food sources than via the immune system.

A globally common coinfection involves tuberculosis and HIV. In some countries, up to 80% of tuberculosis patients are also HIV-positive. The potential for dynamics of these two infectious diseases to be linked has been known for decades. Other common examples of coinfections are AIDS, which involves coinfection of end-stage HIV with opportunistic parasites and polymicrobial infections like Lyme disease with other diseases. Coinfections sometimes can epitomize a zero sum game of bodily resources, and precise viral quantitation demonstrates children co-infected with rhinovirus and respiratory syncytial virus, metapneumovirus or parainfluenza virus have lower nasal viral loads than those with rhinovirus alone.

Poliovirus
Poliovirus is a positive single-stranded RNA virus in the family Picornaviridae. Coinfections appear to be common and several pathways have been identified for transmitting multiple virions to a single host cell. These include transmission by virion aggregates, transmission of viral genomes within membrane vesicles, and transmission by bacteria bound by several viral particles.

Drake demonstrated that poliovirus is able to undergo multiplicity reactivation. That is, when polioviruses were irradiated with UV light and allowed to undergo multiple infections of host cells, viable progeny could be formed even at UV doses that inactivated the virus in single infections. Poliovirus can undergo genetic recombination when at least two viral genomes are present in the same host cell. Kirkegaard and Baltimore presented evidence that RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) catalyzes recombination by a copy choice mechanism in which the RdRP switches between (+)ssRNA templates during negative strand synthesis. Recombination in RNA viruses appears to be an adaptive mechanism for transmitting an undamaged genome to virus progeny.

Examples

 * Anaplasmosis
 * Bacteriophage coinfection
 * GB virus C
 * HIV-HCV coinfection
 * HIV-TB coinfection (enhances TB transmission and lethality)
 * Hepatitis D
 * Hookworm-malaria coinfection
 * Mansonella perstans
 * Trichuriasis
 * Chikungunya and Dengue coinfection
 * Dengue and HIV coinfection (suppresses HIV)
 * Chagas and HIV coinfection
 * Most sexually transmitted diseases and HIV (enhance HIV transmission)
 * Some COVID-19 patients, or those who were ill with other coronaviruses, can be co-infected with seasonal influenza (flu) viral strains, certain viral strains that cause the common cold, or can be co-infected with bronchitis or pneumonia from another bacterial or viral micro-organism. Even more dangerous, some of them could already have conditions like tuberculosis or active AIDS that make patients very vulnerable.

title: Coinfection


text:
Patty Wetterling

Patricia Lynn Wetterling (born November 2, 1949) is an American advocate of children's safety and chair of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Her advocacy particularly focuses on protecting children from abduction and abuse. In recent years Wetterling has become one of the most vocal critics of current sex offender registry laws, painting them as overly broad and unnecessarily causing tremendous harm to many. Her advocacy began after her son Jacob was abducted in 1989 and culminated in passage of the federal Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act. She was a candidate for the Minnesota Sixth District seat in the United States House of Representatives as the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party candidate in 2004 and 2006, losing to Republicans Mark Kennedy and Michele Bachmann respectively. In September 2016, the remains of her son Jacob were discovered and positively identified.

Biography
Born in Omaha, Nebraska, Wetterling grew up in St. Paul, Minnesota and later moved to St. Joseph, where she raised four children (Amy, Jacob, Trevor and Carmen) with her husband Jerry. On October 22, 1989, their son Jacob, then 11 years old, was abducted at gunpoint by a masked man. An extensive search was carried out, but Jacob and the abductor were not found. Jacob's remains were found on September 1, 2016, 27 years after the abduction. Four months after the abduction, the Wetterlings founded the Jacob Wetterling Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to child safety education. Wetterling sent a scathing letter to then Attorney General Alberto Gonzales decrying the dilution of sex offender registration laws and demanding that Congress and the Justice Department fix the flaws that their overzealousness caused. On June 18, 2007, Wetterling was interviewed on air by Minnesota Public Radio and discussed "Romeo and Juliet" offenders (cases where both parties are teenagers and were dating or were willing participants in the sex). Wetterling has found common ground with the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers and joined them in declaring the Adam Walsh Act unconstitutional and contrary to public safety. On September 14, 2007, Wetterling reiterated her perception of the harm that current sex offender laws are causing.

Political career
In the 2004 race for U.S. Representative from Minnesota's 6th District she challenged incumbent Republican Mark Kennedy. Wetterling decided to enter the race after Stillwater lawyer Janet Robert withdrew. Wetterling received a $1,000 campaign contribution donation from U.S. Senate candidate Barack Obama, one of only 3 political contributions listed for Obama that year. Kennedy won the election with 54% of the vote to Wetterling's 46%.

Wetterling then entered the race for Mark Dayton's U.S. Senate seat in 2006 when Dayton announced he would not seek reelection. Wetterling withdrew from the race on January 20, 2006, and endorsed Hennepin County Attorney Amy Klobuchar of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party, who won the election.

After leaving the Senate race, Wetterling was publicly asked by Attorney General and gubernatorial candidate Mike Hatch to run with him as Lieutenant Governor. Wetterling declined Hatch's offer. On February 3, 2006, Wetterling announced that she would once again run for Congress in Minnesota's Sixth Congressional District. Wetterling's opponent for the DFL nomination was Elwyn Tinklenberg, former mayor of Blaine, Minnesota. A third DFL candidate, Scott Mortensen, dropped out early on.

On May 13, 2006, Wetterling won the DFL endorsement to face Republican state senator Michele Bachmann for the U.S. House seat. Wetterling lost the general election to Bachmann, 50% to 42%.

Son's abduction
In 1999, for the 10th anniversary of Jacob's abduction, Patty Wetterling decided to write an open letter to the abductor. Minnesota newspapers agreed to print it for her. Wetterling consulted the FBI for advice on how to word the letter. In the letter, Wetterling asks the abductor if Jacob is still with him. She offers compassion for the abductor, and says that all little boys, including the abductor when he was one, deserve a happy childhood. She tells him she's sorry if he did not have one, that she does not see him as an ugly, dirty old man, and that she hopes that if he ever goes fishing and catches something he cooks it for Jacob. She writes that she and her family are looking for answers, that only he can answer them, and that she wants to know what became of Jacob after the kidnapping. The letter generated some tips, but nothing substantial.

Also in early 2004, news reports circulated that new evidence was being considered in the abduction of her son. News outlets in the Twin Cities indicated that another boy had been assaulted not long before Jacob disappeared. Police were also ruling out the long-held belief that the abductor had gotten away in a car.

On September 1, 2016, a person of interest named in the investigation reportedly decided to cooperate with authorities and led investigators to human remains. On September 3, Wetterling told television station KARE, a local NBC affiliate, that the remains found were indeed those of Jacob's. She said, "All I can confirm is that Jacob has been found and our hearts are broken. I am not responding to any media yet as I have no words."

Philanthropy
Wetterling is a member of the Board of Directors of the International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children (ICMEC), a global nonprofit organization that combats child sexual exploitation, child pornography, and child abduction.

Electoral history

 * 2006 Race for U.S. House of Representatives - Minnesota 6th District
 * Michele Bachmann (R), 50%
 * Patty Wetterling (DFL), 42%
 * John Binkowski (I), 8%
 * 2004 Race for U.S. House of Representatives - Minnesota 6th District
 * Mark Kennedy (R) (inc.), 54%
 * Patty Wetterling (DFL), 46%

title: Patty Wetterling


text:
Superinfection

A superinfection is a second infection superimposed on an earlier one, especially by a different microbial agent of exogenous or endogenous origin, that is resistant to the treatment being used against the first infection. Examples of this in bacteriology are the overgrowth of endogenous Clostridium difficile that occurs following treatment with a broad-spectrum antibiotic, and pneumonia or sepsis from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in some immunocompromised patients.

In virology, the definition is slightly different. Superinfection is the process by which a cell that has previously been infected by one virus gets co-infected with a different strain of the virus, or another virus, at a later point in time. In some cases viral superinfections may be resistant to the antiviral drug or drugs that were being used to treat the original infection. Viral superinfections may also be less susceptible to the host's immune response. In Zika virus infection, there is some evidence that primary infection of another Flavivirus, Binjari virus, results in the direct inhibition of a secondary infection of Zika virus in mosquito cells. Recent metagenomic analyses have demonstrated that the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 can be associated with superinfection and colonization of other pathogens, such as rhinovirus species and Moraxella spp.

In parasitology, superinfection is reinfection of the same genus of parasite, as a person infected by Fasciola hepatica again infected by Fasciola gigantica.

title: Superinfection


text: Talk:Copenhagen Free University

title: Talk:Copenhagen Free University


text:
Livarot cheese

Livarot is a French cheese of the Normandy region, originating in the commune of Livarot, and protected by an Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) since 1975.

It is a soft, pungent, washed rind cheese made from Normande cow's milk. The normal weight for a round of Livarot is 450 g, though it also comes in other weights. It is sold in cylindrical form with the orangish rind wrapped in 3 to 5 rings of dried reedmace (Typha latifolia). For this reason, it has been referred to as 'colonel', as the rings of dried bullrush resemble the stripes on a colonel's uniform. Sometimes green paper is also used. Its orange colour comes from different sources depending on the manufacturer, but is often annatto. The bacterium Brevibacterium linens is employed in fermentation. Production in 1998 was 1,101 tons, down 12.2% since 1996. Only 12% of Livarot are made from raw, unpasteurised milk. Its period of optimal tasting is spread out from May to September after a refining from 6 to 8 weeks, but it is also excellent from March to December.

title: Livarot cheese


text:
Livarot

Livarot is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.

The population is composed of 2,052 inhabitants (in 2017) and the name of its inhabitants is Livarotais.

The town is home to many companies of renown such as the Georges Leroy factory, Graindorge cheese manufacturing which produces Livarot, among others. The commune gave its name to its cheese; Livarot cheese. The La Fermière (CCLF) calvados cider is also produced in the commune.

Geography
Livarot is situated at the junction of the D4 and D579 roads. The nearest city is Caen, approximately 30 km to the north-west.

Toponymy
The place is attested late in the form Livarrot in 1155, and Livar(r)ou in 1156 or 1157.

The etymological explanation of this place name has no unanimity among toponymists:

 * Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing, based on a false attestation of Livaron from 1137 (form and date wrong), described it as "obscure", while evoking a derivision of ivos, an assumed Gallic word designating if, and declaring it unlikely. They perhaps resume in these previous assumptions. In reality, the term *ivos or *īvos is not attested and should include an asterisk.
 * Ernest Nègre, reasoning from this same erroneous form, considered that it might be from the Germanic name Liubwar, which is followed by the suffix -o /-onem and that the final would be modified by attraction of names in -ot. However, François de Beaurepaire notes that a Germanic name is never used with this suffix.
 * Dominique Fournier refuted Livaron (cacography attributed to Albert Dauzat, and badly dated) and based it on the actual form Livar(r)ou, stemming from the Chronicle of Robert of Torigni, to advance the hypothesis of a Gallo-Roman person named Libarius followed by the suffix of Gallic origin -avo which explains most of the words ending in -ou of Normandy.

Battle of Normandy
On 17 July 1944, the pharmacist and Mayor of Livarot brought first aid to Rommel following the strafing of his car by an Allied aircraft, not far away, between the villages of Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery and Vimoutiers. He was then evacuated, the same day, to the German military hospital in Bernay.

Livarot was liberated on 19 August. Following Operation Paddle, the British 7th Armoured Division was on the banks of the. The division then faced a strong resistance by the 272nd Division of the German infantry, but also suffered losses to friendly fire from Allied aircraft. On 19 August, British artillery heavily bombed the area. The British arrived to seize a bridge, which hadn't been destroyed, across the river to Saint-Michel-de-Livet, north of Livarot. The French Resistance then learned that the Germans had abandoned Livarot and that the first British soldiers had entered the same day.

Politics and administration
The municipal council is composed of 23 members, including the mayor and six assistants.

Demographics
In 2012, the municipality had 2,183 inhabitants. Since 2004, censuses in municipalities of less than 10,000 inhabitants are held every five years (in 2008, 2013, 2018, etc. for Livarot) and legal municipal population are estimations in other years. Livarot counted 2,654 inhabitants in 1975.

Economy

 * Livarot cheese

Places and monuments

 * Former (1841), included in the title of the historic monuments.
 * The Church of Saint-Ouen from the 15th century, and very reworked. The gallery of the 19th century organ is classified as an historic monument object.
 * The old Bisson cheesemakery (1902), converted into a Museum of the workshops of iron art.
 * The L'Isle Manor (1912), former property of the Bisson.
 * The Graindorge cheesmakery, burned in 1999 and rebuilt in 2001.
 * Vestiges of an ancient castle which was owned by Charles the Bad, King of Navarre.
 * The menhir of the.

Twinning

 * 🇬🇧 South Molton, United Kingdom since 1975

Sports
The Étoile Sportive Livarotaise [Livarotaise Sports Star] evolved two football teams in.

The cycling section of the club has trained many riders such as father and son François and Romain Lemarchand, and also. Stage 7 of the 2015 Tour de France is also planned to start in Livarot.

Events
The Livarot Cheese Fair is held every year in August.

Personalities linked to the commune

 * Charles II of Navarre (1332-1387), King of Navarre and count of Évreux, owner of the old Castle.
 * (1732 to Livarot - 1832), parish priest of Le Mesnil-Durand, Deputy of the clergy.
 * (1802 Livarot - Livarot, 1894), politician.
 * (born in 1946 in Livarot), Quebec radio host.
 * François Lemarchand (born in 1960 in Livarot), cyclist.

title: Livarot


text:
Marilyn Mazur

Marilyn Mazur (born January 18, 1955) is an American-born Danish percussionist. Since 1975, she has worked as a percussionist with various groups, among them Six Winds with Alex Riel. Mazur is primarily an autodidact, but she has a degree in percussion from the Royal Danish Academy of Music.

Musical life
Mazur was born in New York City in 1955, from Polish and African-American parents, who moved with her to Denmark at age 6. She learned to play the piano, but when she was 19, she took up drumming, inspired by Al Foster, Airto Moreira, and Alex Riel. She started her first band in 1973, Zirenes. In 1978, she formed Primi, an all-woman theatre band. In 1985, she was asked to participate in the Palle Mikkelborg project that would become the Miles Davis album Aura, and soon after she went on the road with Miles Davis. Afterward, she played with Gil Evans, Wayne Shorter, Jan Garbarek, and Makiko Hirabayashi.

Her all-Scandinavian band Shamania consists of avant-garde female musicians.

The U.S. magazine Down Beat, in 1989, 1990, 1995, 1997, 1998 and 2002 selected Mazur as a "percussion-talent deserving wider recognition". In 2001, she was awarded the Jazzpar Prize, the world's largest international jazz prize.

Honors

 * Ben Webster Prize, Ben Webster Foundation, 1983
 * JASA Prize, Danish jazz journalists, 1989
 * Jazzpar Prize, 2001
 * Edition Wilhelm Hansens Composer Prize, 2004
 * Danish Django dOr (Legend), 2006
 * Unlimited Communication, Telenor 2007
 * EuroCore-JTI Jazz Award, 2010
 * The Grethe Kolbe Grant, Danish Conductors Association, 2013
 * No. 1 Jazz Performer, Down Beat, six times

As leader

 * MM 4 with Mazur Markussen Kvartet (Rosen, 1984)
 * Marilyn Mazur's Future Song (veraBra, 1992)
 * Circular Chant (Storyville, 1995)
 * Small Labyrinths (ECM, 1997)
 * Colors with LLL-Mental (Hot Wire, 1997)
 * Jordsange/Earth Songs (Dacapo, 2000)
 * Poetic Justice with Lotte Anker, Marilyn Crispell (Dacapo, 2001)
 * All the Birds: Reflecting + Adventurous (Stunt, 2002)
 * Daylight Stories (Stunt, 2004)
 * Elixir with Jan Garbarek (ECM, 2008)
 * Tangled Temptations & the Magic Box (Stunt, 2010)
 * Celestial Circle (ECM, 2011)
 * Flamingo Sky (Stunt, 2014)
 * Marilyn Mazur's Shamania (RareNoise, 2019)

As guest
With Lindsay Cooper
 * Music from the Gold Diggers (Sync Pulse, 1983)
 * Oh Moscow (Victo, 1991)
 * Rags & the Golddiggers (ReR, 1991)

With Pierre Dørge
 * Pierre Dorge & New Jungle Orchestra (SteepleChase, 1982)
 * Brikama (SteepleChase, 1984)
 * Even the Moon Is Dancing (SteepleChase, 1985)
 * Canoe (Olufsen, 1986)
 * Johnny Lives (SteepleChase, 1987)

With Jan Garbarek
 * Twelve Moons (ECM, 1993)
 * Visible World (ECM, 1996)
 * Rites (ECM, 1998)

With Makiko Hirabayashi
 * Makiko (Enja, 2006)
 * Hide and Seek (Enja, 2009)
 * Surely (Yellowbird, 2013)
 * Where the Sea Breaks (Yellowbird, 2017)

With others
 * Frans Bak, Natsange (Stunt, 1999)
 * Jon Balke, Further (ECM, 1994)
 * Peter Bastian, Northern Lights (Fonix Musik 1997)
 * Harry Beckett & Pierre Dorge, Echoez of... (Olufsen, 1990)
 * Kirsten Braten Berg, Stemmenes Skygge (Heilo, 2005)
 * Ketil Bjornstad, Floating (Universal/EmArcy, 2005)
 * Ketil Bjornstad, La Notte (ECM, 2013)
 * Kristian Blak, Antifonale (Tutl, 1987)
 * Birgit Bruel, Den Hemmelige Rude (Exlibris, 1985)
 * Etta Cameron & Nikolaj Hess, Etta (Stunt, 2009)
 * Carsten Dahl, Short Fairytales (EmArcy, 2006)
 * Lars Danielsson, European Voices (Dragon, 1995)
 * Miles Davis, Aura (Columbia, 1989)
 * Gil Evans & Laurent Cugny, Rhythm A Ning (EmArcy, 1988)
 * Gil Evans & Laurent Cugny, Golden Hair (EmArcy/Mercury 1989)
 * Yelena Eckemoff, Forget-me-not (L&H, 2011)
 * Agnes Buen Garnas, Han Rider Den Morke Natt (Via Music 2002)
 * Caroline Henderson, Made in Europe (Stunt, 2004)
 * Nikolaj Hess, Playin (Music Mecca, 2000)
 * Nikolaj Hess, Rhapsody (Cloud, 2016)
 * Jan Gunnar Hoff, Fly North (Losen, 2014)
 * Robert Irving III, Midnight Dream (Verve Forecast/Polygram 1988)
 * Morten Kaersa, Morten Kaersa & Moonjam (Replay, 1987)
 * Iver Kleive, Kyrie (Kirkelig Kulturverksted, 1994)
 * Peter Kowald, Duos Europa (FMP, 1991)
 * Wolfgang Lackerschmid, Gently but Deep (Bhakti, 1996)
 * Wolfgang Lackerschmid, Colors (Hot Wire, 1997)
 * Michala Petri, Brazilian Landscapes (2017)
 * Jean-Michel Pilc, Composing (Storyville, 2015)
 * Caecilie Norby, Sisters in Jazz (ACT, 2019)
 * Charlie Mariano, Innuendo (Lipstick, 1992)
 * Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Uncharted Land (Pladecompagniet, 1992)
 * Rena Rama, Rena Rama with Marilyn Mazur (Dragon, 1989)
 * Helge Sunde, Denada (ACT, 2006)
 * Helge Sunde, Finding Nymo (ACT, 2009)
 * Eje Thelin, E.T. Project Live at Nefertiti (Dragon, 1986)
 * Trondheim Voices, Improvoicing (MNJ, 2010)
 * Hans Ulrik, Strange World (Stunt, 1994)
 * Hans Ulrik, Suite of Time (Stunt, 2015)
 * Andreas Vollenweider, Dancing with the Lion (Columbia, 1989)
 * Andreas Vollenweider, Book of Roses (Columbia, 1991)
 * Dhafer Youssef, Divine Shadows (Jazzland, 2006)
 * Eberhard Weber, Stages of a Long Journey (ECM, 2007)

title: Marilyn Mazur


text:
Talk:Robert Frost

Suggested edit to "Legacy and cultural influence" section
Frost's poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" is used as a plot device in the spy movie "Telefon" (1977). In the movie, "dormant" agents were "awakened" by reciting the last lines of the poem to them. In Tarantino's movie "Death Proof", the same code phrase is used, possibly as a reference/homage to Telefon. It might be worth mentioning it under "Legacy and cultural influence" (I have just re-signed up to Wikipedia and I don't seem to have the clearance to edit the article myself). Cheers! Slowtraveller lazywriter (talk) Marco - 16 Feb 2021

Robert Frost was the first poet to speak at the inauguration of a president, reciting from memory “The Gift Outright,” when the glare of the sun prevented him from reading “Dedication,” a poem he had written specially for the occasion. Surely this should be included. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:8003:B050:1D01:78B4:B12C:791F:811F (talk) 11:22, 9 July 2023 (UTC)

 * You would need a source to support the first-time-ness of it. Dhtwiki (talk) 02:25, 10 July 2023 (UTC)

"October(poem)" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect October(poem) and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 April 6 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 19:10, 6 April 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 19 April 2022
Adult Life, first line: "In 1894, he sold his first poem, "My Butterfly. An Elegy" (published in the November 8, 1894, edition of the New York Independent) for $15 ($470 today)." $15 in 1894 is over $500 today, not $470 ($501+ according to the CPI inflation calculator). 158.104.45.26 (talk) 07:57, 19 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: This is handled with the inflation template. ($ today) ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 11:14, 19 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Most inflation measures are imprecise and the general ones cannot take account of variation in the value of different types of goods and services. £30 is only 6% of $500 anyway. Martinevans123 (talk) 11:19, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

Correct spelling of Robert Frost's son's name
Robert Frost's son's name was Elliott, not Elliot. Please correct his spelling.

Here is a link to a photo of his tombstone. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/27886938/elliott-frost PGleick (talk) 23:09, 1 December 2022 (UTC)

 * ✅ – Dhtwiki (talk) 09:55, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

About Robert Frost....
▪ Born - March 26,1874 ▪ Died -January 29,1963 49.205.143.63 (talk) 06:36, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

Correction to daughter Irma's date of death
The correct date is 12 April 1981 (not 1967, as listed in the Personal Life section). Reference the Vermont Vital Records Department, the Frost family headstone, and multiple news article referring to Irma as living after 1967 100.36.107.197 (talk) 16:21, 31 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Robert Frost


text:
Livry

Livry may refer to:

Places in France

 * Livry, Calvados
 * Livry, Nièvre
 * Livry-Gargan, in the Seine-Saint-Denis department
 * Livry-Louvercy, in the Marne department
 * Livry-sur-Seine, in the Seine-et-Marne department

People

 * Emma Livry (1842–1863), French ballerina
 * Henri de Livry (1884-1979), French actor known for Notre Dame van de sloppen, Histoire vraie and Dropped from Heaven
 * François Sanguin de Livry (fl. 1720), French ambassador to Poland
 * François-Hyppolite Sanguin, marquis of Livry (18th century), who built the Château de Bénouville

Other uses

 * Gare de Livry-sur-Seine, a station on the Transilien Paris-Lyon railway line
 * Canton of Livry-Gargan, a canton of the Seine-Saint-Denis department

title: Livry


text:
List of Beovoz stations

There are six lines in Belgrade Beovoz City Railway System:

 * 1) Stara Pazova-Batajnica-Beograd Centar-Pančevo Vojlovica
 * 2) Ripanj-Resnik-Rakovica-Pančevo Vojlovica
 * 3) Stara Pazova-Batajnica-Beograd Centar-Rakovica-Resnik-Ripanj
 * 4) Zemun-Beograd Centar-Rakovica-Valjevo
 * 5) Nova Pazova-Batajnica-Beograd Centar-Rakovica-Resnik-Mladenovac
 * 6) Stara Pazova-Batajnica-Beograd Centar-Rakovica-Mala Krsna

List of stations (Note that two lines can have same stations in some parts):

Line 1:
 * Stara Pazova
 * Nova Pazova
 * Batajnica
 * Zemunsko Polje
 * Zemun
 * Tošin Bunar
 * Novi Beograd
 * Beograd Centar
 * Karađorđev park (underground)
 * Vukov spomenik (underground)
 * Pančevački most
 * Krnjača
 * Sebeš
 * Ovča
 * Pančevo Glavna
 * Pančevo Varoš
 * Pančevo Strelište
 * Pančevo Vojlovica

Line 2:
 * Ripanj
 * Ripanj Kolonija
 * Pinosava
 * Resnik
 * Kijevo
 * Kneževac
 * Rakovica
 * Karađorđev park (underground)
 * Vukov spomenik (underground)
 * Pančevački most
 * Krnjača
 * Sebeš
 * Ovča
 * Pančevo Glavna
 * Pančevo Varoš
 * Pančevo Strelište
 * Pančevo Vojlovica

Line 3:
 * Stara Pazova
 * Nova Pazova
 * Batajnica
 * Zemunsko Polje
 * Zemun
 * Tošin Bunar
 * Novi Beograd
 * Beograd Centar
 * Rakovica
 * Kneževac
 * Kijevo
 * Resnik
 * Pinosava
 * Ripanj Kolonija
 * Ripanj

Line 4 (Zemun branch):
 * Zemun
 * Tošin Bunar
 * Novi Beograd
 * Beograd Centar
 * merge with Pančevo branch at Rakovica

Line 4 (Pančevo branch):
 * Pančevo Glavna
 * Pančevo Varoš
 * Ovča
 * Sebeš
 * Krnjača
 * Pančevački most
 * Vukov Spomenik (underground)
 * Karađorđev park (underground)
 * Rakovica
 * Kneževac
 * Kijevo
 * Resnik
 * Bela Reka
 * Nenadovac
 * Barajevo
 * Barajevo Centar
 * Veliki Borak
 * Leskovac Kolubarski
 * Stepojevac
 * Vreoci
 * Lazarevac
 * Lajkovac
 * Slovac
 * Mlađevo
 * Divci
 * Lukavac Kolubarski
 * Iverak
 * Valjevo

Line 5:
 * Nova Pazova
 * Batajnica
 * Zemunsko Polje
 * Zemun
 * Tošin Bunar
 * Novi Beograd
 * Beograd Centar
 * Rakovica
 * Kneževac
 * Kijevo
 * Resnik
 * Pinosava
 * Ripanj Kolonija
 * Ripanj
 * Klenje
 * Ripanj Tunel
 * Ralja
 * Sopot Kosmajski
 * Vlaško Polje
 * Mladenovac

Line 6:
 * Stara Pazova
 * Nova Pazova
 * Batajnica
 * Zemunsko Polje
 * Zemun
 * Tošin Bunar
 * Novi Beograd
 * Beograd Centar
 * Rakovica
 * Jajinci
 * Beli Potok
 * Zuce Stajalište
 * Zuce
 * Vrčin
 * Kasapovac
 * Lipe
 * Mala Ivanča
 * Brestovi
 * Mali Požarevac
 * Dražanj–Šepšin
 * Umčari
 * Živkovac
 * Vodanj
 * Kolari
 * Ralja Smederevska
 * Mala Krsna

title: List of Beovoz stations


text:
Talk:Charitable trust

Companies
A good part of the info currently in the article needs to be moved/merged into the foundations article. B 20:03, May 11, 2004 (UTC)
 * At least in the US, 501(c)3 charities are taxed entirely differently and are a bit of a different animal from foundations. - Taxman 15:49, Nov 22, 2004 (UTC)

Charitable trusts that aren't "charities"
This article focuses on the entity of a charity and fails to mention the use of trusts by private individuals for charitable purposes. In the United States, examples include CRUT's and CRAT's (Charitable remainder trusts), GRUT's and GRAT's (Grantor retained trusts), and various others. I'm not sure how to split the two or include that use of the same term. In the US a charity can be either a corporation or a trust or similar entity that meets IRS definitions for a charitable organization. So come to think of it Charity is wrong too. - Taxman 15:49, Nov 22, 2004 (UTC)

I'm not aware of anything similar in New Zealand or other Commonwealth countries. If it doesn't have a public purpose and provide a public benefit then it is not a charitable trust. On another note I've corrected teh error as to UK trusts income (somehow I think a 'million' got left out somewhere trusts int he Uk recieve more that US$61.70 a year!) Lisiate 04:20, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * OK, so then I've added it under the US section. Someone can have fun trying to make that more readable without being innaccurate, which I currently have no idea how to do. - Taxman 15:25, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)

Dubious 'fact' removed
The article did say: For example, the annual income for charities in England and Wales has risen from about 37.41 million US dollars in 1998 to about 65.47 US million dollars in 2004.

There is no source for this figure and it seems way too low - for instance the one charity Comic Relief alone raised more than GBP 60 million in 2003 - more than USD 100 million.

 * That "fact" made it back into the article, without any explanation, in the edit by 213.123.249.179 two days later (16 Mar 2005), and it's still in the article. Meanwhile, I'm wondering why income for U.K. charities is being given in USD. — Nowhither 07:27, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

History of Charitable Organizations
It would be interesting to go into the history of charities. For example, what were charities doing during the great depression?

Added content\edited
Added some additional info under the Indian section Chocolate Horlicks (talk) 08:02, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

semi legit links as citations? (one example)
Charitable_trust&action=edit&section=1 is tagged as needing references/citations. For this wp content as example: "charitable remainder trusts" section 664, a web search site:irs.gov 5227 html found detailed irs.gov instructions, but not the actual legal code: G. Unrelated Business Taxable Income (Section 664 trusts only) Form 5227 "split-interest trust"2z2z (talk) 18:19, 7 April 2012 (UTC)

New Zealand law
This will likely be relevant for more than just NZ law, but I thought I would throw it out there as a suggestion anyhow. This is in talk as I don't have time right now to make it nice, tidy and properly referenced.

1. The legal concept of charity is different from the meaning assigned to it in common parlance - to be a legal charity by NZ law it must fall within one of the heads of charity

2. A charitable trust can be made to last perpetually, so long as it vests within the perpetuity period

3. In New Zealand charitable trusts have no human beneficiary - they are enforced by the Attorney-General

4. Uncertainty as to objects will not invalidate a charitable trust (Moggridge v Thackwell (1803) 7 Ves 36, 32 ER 15, [1803-13] All ER Rep 754.)

The starting point in ascertaining precisely what is a charity for legal purposes is to be found in a statute of Elizabeth I (43 Eliz I, c 4 1601), which is commonly referred to as the Charitable Uses Act 1601, or the statute of Charitable Uses 1601. The preamble to that Act provides the modern basis for the modern law of charities.

In Morice v Bishop of Durham (1804) 9 Ves 399, at 405 Sir WIlliam Grant MR said "those purposes are charitable which that statute enumerates or which by analogies are deemed within its spirit and intendment." Towards the end of nineteenth century, in Commissioner for Special Purposes of the Income Tax v Pemsel [1891] AC 531, Lord MacNaughten endorsed the comments in Morice and summarised charitable trusts into four categories

 * 1) trusts for the relief of poverty;
 * 2) trusts for the advancement of education;
 * 3) trusts for the advancement of religion; and
 * 4) trusts for other purposes beneficial to the community, not falling under any of the preceding heads.

However, even if a trust can be found to fit within one of the four heads espoused in Pemsel there are still additional requirements which must be met, namely:

 * 1) that the trust be for a public purpose;
 * 2) that the trust be for the public benefit; and
 * 3) that the trust be capable of being controlled by the court, if necessary.

The New Zealand Court of Appeal has stated, in CIR v Medical Council of New Zealand [1997] 2 NZLR 297, that in applying the preamble to the statute of Charitable Uses 1601 the court should be guided by principle rather than a detailed analysis of the decisions in particular cases.

Public Purpose

Re Compton [1945] Ch 123. [1945] 1 All ER 198 (CA)

Oppenheim v Tobacco Securities Trust Co Ltd [1951] AC 297, [1951] 1 All ER 31 (HL)

Dingle v Turner [1972] AC 601, [1972] 1 All ER 878 (HL)

Educational Fees Protection Society Inc v Commissioner of Inland Revenue [1992] 2 NZLR 115

Public Benefit

Re Pinion [1965] Ch 85, [1964] 1 All ER 890 (CA)

Re Collier [1998] 1 NZLR 81 (HC)

New Zealand Society of Accountants v Commissioner of Inland Revenue [1986] 1 NZLR 147 (CA)

National Anti-Vivisection Society v Inland Revenue Commissioners [1948] AC 31

Re Howey [1991] 2 NZLR 16 (CA)

Cenrepoint Community Growth Trust v Commissioner of Inland Revenue [1985] 1 NZLR 673

Re Centrepoint Community Growth Trust [2000] 2 NZLR 325 (HC)

Control by the court

Morice v Bishop of Durham (1804) 9 Ves 399

The Relief of Poverty

The Advancement of Education

The Relief of Religion

Other purposes beneficial to the community

 * 1) Animals
 * 2) Recreation
 * 3) Political trusts
 * 4) Miscellaneous

Mixed charitable and non-charitable gifts

s 61B of the Charitable Trusts Act 1957

Variation of Charitable trusts

Will update and fill in blanks when I have the opportunity. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lord of appeal in ordinary (talk • contribs) 10:44, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

Australia
Likely to be similar I guess.

See Talk:Union Church (Australia) and any help appreciated. And I wonder... were and are there Union Churches in New Zealand? It may be appropriate to broaden and rename the article, currently just about Australia. Andrewa (talk) 21:30, 11 September 2016 (UTC)

Avathar Charitable Trust
Avathar Charitable Trust, H.No:2-11, Vidya Nagar, Miryalaguda, Nalgonda, Telangana, 508207, Email:Avatharcharitabletrust@gmail.com Web: Http://avatharcharitablet.wix.com/avct — Preceding unsigned comment added by Shankarreddynamala (talk • contribs) 03:09, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

"Charity work" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charity_work&redirect=no Charity work] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. ‑‑Neveselbert (talk · contribs · email) 20:51, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Charitable trust


text:
People Power

"People power" is a political term.

People power or People Power may refer to:

 * People Power Revolution, the Philippine Revolution of 1986
 * People Power Monument a monument in Quezon City commemorating the revolution
 * 8888 Uprising in Myanmar, also known as the People Power Uprising in 1988
 * People Power Party (disambiguation), several political parties
 * People Power, Our Power, or People Power Movement, a Ugandan resistance pressure group
 * People Power Company (or People Power), an American technology company
 * People & Power, a current affairs TV programme on Al Jazeera English

 * the term given by Indonesians for May 2019 Jakarta protests and riots as an effort to step down Joko Widodo from his presidency
 * People Power: the Game of Civil Resistance, video game
 * Ganashakti (lit. 'People Power'), a newspaper of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
 * Janashakti (lit. 'People Power'), a publication of the Communist Party of India
 * Lok Shakti (lit. 'People Power'), a political party in India
 * Prajasakti (lit. 'People Power'), an Indian newspaper
 * Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Janashakti, former communist party in India, merged into Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Class Struggle
 * Lok Satta Movement (India)

title: People Power


text:
Nieuwpoort, South Holland

Nieuwpoort is a tiny city in the Netherlands in the municipality of Molenlanden. The place was given city rights in 1283.

In 2001, the city of Nieuwpoort had 619 inhabitants. The built-up area of the city was 0.092 km², and contained 230 residences. The statistical area "Nieuwpoort", which also can include the surrounding countryside, has a population of around 1370 (2006).

History
In the 13th century, the current location of the Nieuwpoort fortress was created by Lord Van Liesveld and Lord Van Langerack. The two lords wanted a settlement and in 1270, they both gave some of their property to make this happen. In 1283, the fortress was given town privileges.

After a turbulent beginning, with many sieges and devastation, more peaceful times eventually arrived in the 17th century. The city ramparts saved the city from floods in 1809 and 1820. Due to an economical crisis in the 1930s and World War II, the town decayed. In 1970, the Provincial States of South Holland initiated a reconstruction and restoration of the fortress and the town. This work was finished in 1998.

Nieuwpoort was a separate municipality until 1986, when it became part of Liesveld, and then became part of Molenwaard in 2013.

title: Nieuwpoort, South Holland


text:
TIR

Tir, tir or TIR may refer to:
 * The modern Persian name for the Zoroastrian god Tishtrya
 * Tir (month), of the Iranian calendar
 * Tir (god), of ancient Armenia
 * Tabar, Iran, a village in North Khorasan Province
 * Old English spelling of the Norse god Týr
 * Tir (demon), son of Iblis

Abbreviations

 * Total internal reflection
 * Tigrinya language, ISO 639 code
 * Tirupati Airport, IATA code
 * Translocated intimin receptor, used by E. coli
 * TIR Convention, (Transports Internationaux Routiers, International Road Transport)
 * Toll-Interleukin receptor
 * Total indicator reading in metrology

Other

 * Tir McDohl, in the video game Suikoden
 * INS Tir, various ships of the Indian navy

title: TIR


text:
Livry, Calvados

Livry is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Caumont-sur-Aure.

title: Livry, Calvados


text:
Le Locheur

Le Locheur is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Val d'Arry.

title: Le Locheur


text:
Les Loges

Les Loges is the name or part of the name of several communes in France:

 * Les Loges, Calvados, in the Calvados département
 * Les Loges, Haute-Marne, in the Haute-Marne département
 * Les Loges, Seine-Maritime, in the Seine-Maritime département
 * Les Loges-en-Josas, in the Yvelines département
 * Les Loges-Marchis, in the Manche département
 * Les Loges-Margueron, in the Aube département
 * Les Loges-Saulces, in the Calvados département
 * Les Loges-sur-Brécey, in the Manche département

title: Les Loges


text:
User:RobKelley

My first Wikipedia page.

I joined Wikipedia because I am interested in the WikiWiki culture, have a background in technical writing, and have recently gotten keen on wiki software packages.

And maybe there's some stuff I can write...

Cheers

title: User:RobKelley


text:
Les Loges, Calvados

Les Loges is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

title: Les Loges, Calvados


text:
Les Loges-Saulces

Les Loges-Saulces is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

Geography
The commune of Les Loges-Saulces is part of the area known as Suisse Normande.

The commune is made up of the following collection of villages and hamlets,  Les Loges-Saulces and Aizier.

The river Baize runs through the commune, along with one of its tributaries,Ruisseau du Val Lienard.

title: Les Loges-Saulces


text:
Talk:The Broadmoor

From WP:VFD
Votes for deletion/Broadmoor Hotel

Keep.
It's one of the only 5 star hotels that has maintained its 5 star rating for essential its entire existance.

name?
why was it named Broadmoor? Kingturtle 04:00, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Comment
My mother worked at the Broadmoor, and I knew one of their distinguished Matredi's, John Altrichter. I was told that the reason the "A" in the logo is smaller is because when the original hotel stationary was misprinted omitting the "A" altogether. Because the width of the stationary and type font were set, the printer could only offset the other letters in the word enough to accommodate a smaller font "A" and had to shift it up to make it fit. Penrose liked it and kept it as the logo. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Llebbor (talk • contribs).
 * Reply (better late than never): There was a copyright issue (1918 timeline) with the name "Broadmoor" so it was spelled with an elevated smaller font "A". --  Otr500 (talk) 14:59, 12 June 2023 (UTC)

neutrality
ok, some bozo put a NPOV tag on this article without stating any of his/her concerns. --...cause those tags are just so pretty, and people who go around lopping tags on articles are really providing a valuable service...  :-[     This is hardly a controversial topic. I'm giving anyone a month to respond re: the hit-and-run tagging, or with any NPOV specifics, and then that eyesore goes. -- Thisis0 (talk) 08:10, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I just re-read the article and it reads like it was written by the Broadmoor PR department. I tried to NPOV some of it, but it needs more (for example, in several places, instead of saying "Broadmoor", it says "BROADMOOR"). It needs to gone over carefully with all the POV removed. It's a famous 5-star hotel, but it doesn't deserve this special treatment in the 'pedia.—Frecklefσσt | Talk 21:20, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

However this is how the BROADMOOR states their name--Rwiki19 (talk) 01:03, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

In the news and film

 * According to a report in Newsweek magazine (December 11, 2006), President George W. Bush decided to quit drinking after waking up with a hangover in the Broadmoor Hotel one morning in the summer of 1986.
 * Perry Mason: The Case of the Sinister Spirit was filmed at the Broadmoor Hotel. (many of the newer tv episodes were filmed in Denver)
 * pop culture removed to Talk, not notable or historic or with social or media impact, thousands of films are filmed somewhere, wiki not database of films and 'locations' ,, no references given.LanceBarber (talk) 04:14, 11 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks,, I found sources for these and am adding them to the article.-- CaroleHenson (talk) 07:29, 30 January 2015 (UTC)

Article class upgrade
I really believe this article has expanded past the "start" class and should be elevated to at least "C" class. Not bad for a previous stub article that was the subject of a deletion debate. Otr500 (talk) 10:32, 5 November 2015 (UTC)

Crags Land Exchange
Just putting this here in case anyone feels it would be appropriate to add to the article. The president signed S.47 which includes the Crags Land Exchange, in which Broadmoor Hotel Inc. will transfer 320 acres that it owns to the federal government, which in turn will transfer 83 acres to BHI. Schazjmd (talk) 23:58, 15 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Broadmoor


text:
Longraye

Longraye is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Aurseulles.

title: Longraye


text:
Longues-sur-Mer

Longues-sur-Mer is a commune in the Calvados department in Normandie region in northwestern France.

The Longues-sur-Mer battery is nearby, part of the Atlantic Wall coastal fortifications.

title: Longues-sur-Mer