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Literary language

Literary language is the form (register) of a language used when writing in a formal, academic, or particularly polite tone; when speaking or writing in such a tone, it can also be known as formal language. It may be the standardized variety of a language. It can sometimes differ noticeably from the various spoken lects, but the difference between literary and non-literary forms is greater in some languages than in others. If there is a strong divergence between a written form and the spoken vernacular, the language is said to exhibit diglossia.

The understanding of the term differs from one linguistic tradition to another and is dependent on the terminological conventions adopted.

Literary English
For much of its history, there has been a distinction in the English language between an elevated literary language (written) and a colloquial or vernacular language (spoken, but sometimes also represented in writing). After the Norman conquest of England, for instance, Latin and French displaced English as the official and literary languages, and standardized literary English did not emerge until the end of the Middle Ages. At this time and into the Renaissance, the practice of aureation (the introduction of terms from classical languages, often through poetry) was an important part of the reclamation of status for the English language, and many historically aureate terms are now part of general common usage. Modern English no longer has quite the same distinction between literary and colloquial registers.

English has been used as a literary language in countries that were formerly part of the British Empire, for instance in India up to the present day, Malaysia in the early 20th century and Nigeria, where English remains the official language.

Written in Early Modern English, the King James Bible and works by William Shakespeare from the 17th century are defined as prototype mediums of literary English and are taught in advanced English classes. Furthermore, many literary words that are used today are found in abundance in the works of Shakespeare and as well as in King James Bible, hence the literary importance of early modern English in contemporary English literature and English studies.

Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic is the contemporary literary and standard register of Classical Arabic used in writing across all Arabic-speaking countries and any governing body with Arabic as an official language. Many western scholars distinguish two varieties: the Classical Arabic of the Qur'an and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature; and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the standard language in use today. The modern standard language is closely based on the Classical language, and most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of the same language. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages.

The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia—the use of two distinct varieties of the same language, usually in different social contexts. Educated Arabic speakers are usually able to communicate in MSA in formal situations. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which a speaker switches back and forth between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which highly educated Arabic-speakers of different nationalities engage in conversation but find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Kuwaiti), they are able to code switch into MSA for the sake of communication.

Aramaic
The Aramaic language has been diglossic for much of its history, with many different literary standards serving as the "high" liturgical languages, including Syriac language, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic language and Mandaic language, while the vernacular Neo-Aramaic languages serve as the vernacular language spoken by the common people like Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Bohtan Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Hértevin language, Koy Sanjaq Syriac language, Senaya language), Western Neo-Aramaic, Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, Central Neo-Aramaic (Mlahsô language, Turoyo language), Neo-Mandaic, Hulaulá language, Lishana Deni, Lishanid Noshan, Lishán Didán, Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic, and Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic.

Armenian
The Armenian language was a diglossic language for much of its history, with Classical Armenian serving as the "high" literary standard and liturgical language, and the Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian dialects serving as the vernacular language of the Armenian people. Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian were eventually standardized into their own literary forms.

Bengali
Standard Bengali has two forms:

 * Chôlitôbhasha (চলিত ভাষা ), the vernacular standard based on the elite speech of Kolkata.
 * Shadhubhasha (সাধু ভাষা ), the literary standard, which employs more Sanskritized vocabulary and longer prefixes and suffixes.

Grammatically, the two forms are identical; differing forms, such as verb conjugations, are easily converted from one form to another. However, the vocabulary is quite different from one form to the other and must be learned separately. Among the works of Rabindranath Tagore are examples of both shadhubhasha (especially among his earlier works) and chôlitôbhasha (especially among his later works). The national anthem of India was originally written in the shadhubhasha form of Bengali.

Chinese
Literary Chinese is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese, as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the classical written language became less representative of the spoken language. At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical Chinese, and writers frequently borrowed from the classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, even though the similarity decreased over the centuries.

Starting from early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese became the literary standard. This is mostly aligned with a standardized form of Mandarin Chinese, which however means there exists considerable divergence between written vernacular Chinese and other Chinese variants like Cantonese, Shanghainese, Hokkien and Sichuanese. Some of these variants have their own literary form, but none of them are currently used in official formal registers, although they may be used in legal transcription, and in certain media and entertainment settings.

Finnish
The Finnish language has a literary variant, literary Finnish, and a spoken variant, spoken Finnish. Both are considered a form of non-dialectal standard language, and are used throughout the country. Literary Finnish is a consciously created fusion of dialects for use as a literary language, which is rarely spoken at all, being confined to writing and official speeches.

Georgian
The Georgian language has a literary liturgical form, the Old Georgian language, while the vernacular spoken varieties are the Georgian dialects and other related Kartvelian languages like Svan language, Mingrelian language, and Laz language.

German
German differentiates between Hochdeutsch/Standarddeutsch (Standard German) and Umgangssprache (everyday/vernacular language). Amongst the differences is the regular use of the genitive case or the simple past tense Präteritum in written language. In vernacular German, genitive phrases ("des Tages") are frequently replaced with a construction of "von" + dative object ("von dem Tag") - comparable to English "the dog's tail" vs. "the tail of the dog" - likewise the Präteritum ("ich ging") can be substituted with the perfect ("ich bin gegangen") to a certain degree. Nevertheless, the use of neither the Präteritum nor especially the genitive case is totally unusual in daily language, though it is considered rare, and might be dependent on a region's dialect and/or the grade of education of the speaker. People of higher education use the genitive more regularly in their casual speech and the use of perfect instead of Präteritum is especially common in southern Germany, where the Präteritum is considered somewhat declamatory. The German Konjunktiv I / II ("er habe" / "er hätte") is also used more regularly in written form being replaced by the conditional ("er würde geben") in spoken language, although in some southern German dialects the Konjunktiv II is used more often. Generally there is a continuum between more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties in German, while colloquial German nonetheless tends to increase analytic elements at the expense of synthetic elements.

Greek
From the early nineteenth century until the mid-20th century, Katharevousa, a form of Greek, was used for literary purposes. In later years, Katharevousa was used only for official and formal purposes (such as politics, letters, official documents, and newscasting) while Dimotiki, 'demotic' or popular Greek, was the daily language. This created a diglossic situation until in 1976, Dimotiki was made the official language.

Hebrew
During the revival of the Hebrew language, spoken and literary Hebrew were revived separately, causing a dispersion between the two. The dispersion started to narrow sometime after the two movements merged, but substantial differences between the two still exist.

Italian
When Italy unified in 1860, Italian existed mainly as a literary language. Different languages were spoken throughout Italy, almost all of which were Romance languages which had developed in every region, due to the political fragmentation of the time. Now, it is the standard language of Italy.

Japanese
Until the late 1940s, the prominent literary language in Japan was the Classical Japanese language (文語), which is based on the language spoken in Heian period (Late Old Japanese) and is different from the contemporary Japanese language in grammar and some vocabulary. It still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo, although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect, and fixed form poetries like Haiku and Tanka are still mainly written in this form.

In the Meiji period, some authors started to use the colloquial form of the language in their literature. Following the government policy after the World War II, the standard form of contemporary Japanese language is used for most literature published since the 1950s. The standard language is based on the colloquial language in Tokyo area, and its literary stylistics in polite form differs little from its formal speech. Notable characteristics of literary language in contemporary Japanese would include more frequent use of Chinese origin words, less use of expressions against prescriptive grammar (such as "ら抜き言葉"), and use of non-polite normal form ("-だ/-である") stylistics that are rarely used in colloquial language.

Javanese
In the Javanese language, alphabet characters derived from the alphabets used to write Sanskrit, no longer in ordinary use, are used in literary words as a mark of respect.

Kannada
Kannada exhibits a strong diglossia, like Tamil, also characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style, and a modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming a diglossic continuum.

The formal style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Kannada literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however, the modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema, theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio.

There are also many dialects of Kannada, Which are Dharwad Kannada of North Karnataka, Arebhashe of Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu, Kundakannada of Kundapura, Havyaka Kannada are major dialects.

Latin
Classical Latin was the literary register used in writing from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, while Vulgar Latin was the common, spoken variety used across the Roman Empire. The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul, Iberia, or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero, and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low-register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus and Terence, being comedies with many characters who were slaves, preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does the recorded speech of the freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter. At the Third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language—either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars—since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin.

Malay
The Malay language exists in a classical variety, two modern standard variety and several vernacular dialects.

Maltese
Maltese has a variety of dialects (including the Żejtun dialect, Qormi dialect and Gozitan amongst others) that co-exist alongside Standard Maltese. Literary Maltese, unlike Standard Maltese, features a preponderance of Semitic vocabulary and grammatical patterns; however, this traditional separation between Semitic and Romance influences in Maltese literature (especially Maltese poetry and Catholic liturgy on the island) is changing.

Manchu
Standard Manchu was based on the language spoken by the Jianzhou Jurchens during Nurhaci's time, while other unwritten Manchu dialects such as that of Aigun and Sanjiazi were also spoken in addition to the related Xibe language.

Mongolian
The Classical Mongolian language was the high register used for religious and official purposes, while the various Mongolian dialects served as the low register, like Khalkha Mongolian, Chakhar Mongolian, Khorchin Mongolian, Kharchin Mongolian, Baarin Mongolian, Ordos Mongolian and the Buryat language. The Tibetan Buddhist canon was translated into Classical Mongolian. The Oirat Mongols who spoke the Oirat Mongol language and dialects like Kalmyk language or Torgut Oirat used a separate standard written with the Clear script.

The Mongolian language, based on Khalkha Mongolian, now serves as the high register in Mongolia itself while in Inner Mongolia a standard Mongolian based on Chakhar Mongolian serves as the high register for all Mongols in China. The Buryat language, which is seen by some as part of the Mongolian language, has been turned into a standard literary form itself in Russia.

N'Ko
N'Ko is a literary language devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for the Mande languages of West Africa. It blends the principal elements of the partially mutually intelligible Manding languages. The movement promoting N'Ko literacy was instrumental in shaping the Maninka cultural identity in Guinea, and has also strengthened the Mande identity in other parts of West Africa. N'Ko publications include a translation of the Qur'an, a variety of textbooks on subjects such as physics and geography, poetic and philosophical works, descriptions of traditional medicine, a dictionary, and several local newspapers.

Persian
Persian or New Persian has been used continually as the literary language of major areas in Western Asia, the Caucasus, Central Asia and South Asia. The language written today remains essentially the same as that used by Ferdowsi despite variant colloquial dialects and forms. For many centuries, people belonging to the educated classes from the Bosphorus to the Bay of Bengal would be expected to know some Persian. It was once the language of culture (especially of poetry), from the Balkans to the Deccan, functioning as a lingua franca. Until the late 18th century, Persian was the dominant literary language of Georgia's elite. Persian was the second major vehicle after Arabic in transmitting Islamic culture and has a particularly prominent place in Sufism.

Serbian
Slavonic-Serbian (slavenosrpski) was the literary language of Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy used from the mid-18th century to 1825. It was a linguistic blend of Church Slavonic of the Russian recension, vernacular Serbian (Štokavian dialect), and Russian. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was severely attacked by Vuk Karadžić and his followers, whose reformatory efforts formed modern literary Serbian based on the popular language, known as Serbo-Croatian.

Tagalog
Tagalog was the basis of the Filipino language; both share the same vocabulary and grammatical system and are mutually intelligible. However, there is a significant political and social history that underlies the reasons for differentiating between Tagalog and Filipino.

Modern Tagalog is derived from Archaic Tagalog, which was likely spoken during the Classical period, it was the language of the Mai State, Tondo Dynasty (according to the Laguna Copperplate Inscription) and southern Luzon. It was written using Baybayin, a syllabary which is a member of the Brahmic family, before the Spanish Romanised the alphabet beginning in the late 15th century. Tagalog was also the spoken language of the 1896 Philippine Revolution.

The 1987 Constitution maintains that Filipino is the country's national language and one of two official languages, alongside English. Today, Filipino is considered the proper term for the language of the Philippines, especially by Filipino-speakers who are not of Tagalog origin, with many referring to the Filipino language as "Tagalog-based". The language is taught in schools throughout the country and is the official language of education and business. Native Tagalog-speakers meanwhile comprise one of the largest linguistic and cultural groups of the Philippines, numbering an estimated 14 million.

Slavic languages
Notably, in Eastern European and Slavic linguistics, the term "literary language" has also been used as a synonym of "standard language".

Tamil
Tamil exhibits a strong diglossia, characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style and a modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming a diglossic continuum.

The modern literary style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however, the modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema, theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio.

Tibetan
Classical Tibetan was the high register used universally by all Tibetans while the various mutually unintelligible Tibetic languages serve as the low register vernacular, like Central Tibetan language in Ü-Tsang (Tibet proper), Khams Tibetan in Kham, Amdo Tibetan in Amdo, Ladakhi language in Ladakh and Dzongkha in Bhutan. Classical Tibetan was used for official and religious purposes, such as in Tibetan Buddhist religious texts like the Tibetan Buddhist canon and taught and learned in monasteries and schools in Tibetan Buddhist regions.

Now, Standard Tibetan, based on the Lhasa dialect, serves as the high register in China. In Bhutan, the Tibetan Dzongkha language has been standardised and replaced Classical Tibetan for official purposes and education, in Ladakh, the standard official language learned are now the unrelated languages Urdu and English, and in Baltistan, the Tibetan Balti language serves as the low register while the unrelated Urdu is the official language.

Uzbek and Uyghur
The Turkic Chagatai language served as the high register literary standard for Central Asian Turkic peoples, while the vernacular low register languages were the Uzbek language and Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur). The Soviet Union abolished Chagatai as the literary standard and had the Uzbek language standardized as a literary language for, and the Taranchi dialect of Ili was chosen as the literary standard for Modern Uyghur, while other dialects like the Kashgar and Turpan dialects continue to be spoken.

Yorùbá

Standard Yoruba is the literary form of the Yoruba language of West Africa, the standard variety learnt at school and that spoken by newsreaders on the radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when Samuel A. Crowther, native Yoruba and the first African Anglican Bishop in Nigeria, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the Ọyọ and Ibadan dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects. Additionally, it has some features peculiar to itself only, for example the simplified vowel harmony system, as well as foreign structures, such as calques from English which originated in early translations of religious works. The first novel in the Yorùbá language was Ogboju Ode ninu Igbo Irunmale (The Forest of A Thousand Demons), written in 1938 by Chief Daniel O. Fagunwa (1903–1963). Other writers in the Yorùbá language include: Senator Afolabi Olabimtan (1932–1992) and Akinwunmi Isola.

title: Literary language


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Talk:Andrei Alexandrescu

Untitled
Why has it been named the crack book by some? Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 19:48, 10 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Template metaprogramming on crack! Or, you must be on crack to understand/come up with some of the things in the book - it shows how templates can be used in some very twisted ways. Raduberinde (talk) 13:58, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

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Prince Edward Islands

The Prince Edward Islands are two small uninhabited islands in the sub-Antarctic Indian Ocean that are administered by South Africa. They are named Marion Island (named after Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, 1724–1772) and Prince Edward Island (named after Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, 1767–1820).

The islands in the group have been declared Special Nature Reserves under the South African Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, No. 57 of 2003, and activities on the islands are therefore restricted to research and conservation management. Further protection was granted when the area was declared a marine protected area in 2013. The only human inhabitants of the islands are the staff of a meteorological and biological research station run by the South African National Antarctic Programme on Marion Island.

History

Barent Barentszoon Lam of the Dutch East India Company reached the islands on 4 March 1663 on the ship Maerseveen. They were named Dina (Prince Edward) and Maerseveen (Marion), but the islands were erroneously recorded to be at 41° South, and neither were found again by subsequent Dutch sailors.

In January 1772, the French frigate Le Mascarin, captained by Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, visited the islands and spent five days trying to land, thinking they had found Antarctica (then not yet proven to exist). Marion named the islands Terre de l'Espérance (Marion) and Ile de la Caverne (Prince Edward). After failing to land, Le Mascarin continued eastward, discovering the Crozet Islands and landing at New Zealand, where Marion du Fresne and some of his crew were killed and eaten by Māori natives.

Julien Crozet, navigator and second in command of Le Mascarin, survived the disaster, and happened to meet James Cook at Cape Town in 1776, at the onset of Cook's third voyage. Crozet shared the charts of his ill-fated expedition, and as Cook sailed from Cape Town, he passed the islands on 13 December, but was unable to attempt a landing due to bad weather. Cook named the islands after Prince Edward, the fourth son of King George III; and though he is also often credited with naming the larger island Marion, after Captain Marion, this name was adopted by sealers and whalers who later hunted the area, to distinguish the two islands.

The first recorded landing on the islands was in 1799 by a group of French seal hunters of the Sally. Another landing in late 1803 by a group of seal hunters led by American captain Henry Fanning of the Catharine found signs of earlier human occupation. The islands were frequented by sealers until about 1810, when the local fur seal populations had been nearly eradicated. The first scientific expedition to the islands was led by James Clark Ross, who visited in 1840 during his exploration of the Antarctic, but was unable to land. Ross sailed along the islands on 21 April 1840. He made observations on vast numbers of penguins ("groups of many thousands each"), and other kinds of sea-birds. He also saw fur seals, which he supposed to be of the species Arctocephalus falklandicus. The islands were finally surveyed during the Challenger Expedition, led by Captain George Nares, in 1873.

The sealing era lasted from 1799 to 1913. During that period visits by 103 vessels are recorded, seven of which ended in shipwreck. Sealing relics include iron trypots, the ruins of huts and inscriptions. The occasional modern sealing vessel visited from Cape Town, South Africa, in the 1920s.

The islands have been the location of other shipwrecks. In June 1849 the brig Richard Dart, with a troop of Royal Engineers under Lt. James Liddell, was wrecked on Prince Edward Island; only 10 of the 63 on board survived to be rescued by elephant seal hunters from Cape Town. In 1908 the Norwegian vessel Solglimt was shipwrecked on Marion Island, and survivors established a short-lived village at the north coast, before being rescued. The wreck of the Solglimt is the best-known in the islands, and is accessible to divers.

On 22 September 1979, a US surveillance satellite known as Vela 6911 noted an unidentified double flash of light, known as the Vela incident, in the waters off the islands. There was and continues to be considerable controversy over whether this event was perhaps an undeclared nuclear test carried out by South Africa and Israel or some other event. The cause of the flash remains officially unknown, and some information about the event remains classified. Today, most independent researchers believe that the 1979 flash was caused by a nuclear explosion.

In 2003, the South African government declared the Prince Edward Islands a Special Nature Reserve, and in 2013 declared 180,000 km2 of ocean waters around the islands a Marine Protection Area, thus creating one of the world's largest environmental protection areas.

Marion Research Station
In 1908, the British government assumed ownership of the islands. In late 1947 and early 1948, South Africa, with Britain's agreement, annexed the islands and installed the meteorological station on Transvaal Cove on the north-east coast of Marion Island. The research station was soon enlarged and today studies regional meteorology and the biology of the islands, in particular the birds (penguins, petrels, albatrosses, gulls) and seals.

A new research base was built from 2001 to 2011 to replace older buildings on the site. The access to the station is either by boat or helicopter. A helipad and storage hangar is located behind the main base structure.

In April 2017, scientists from McGill University, in collaboration with the South African National Antarctic Programme, launched a new astrophysical experiment on Marion Island called Probing Radio Intensity at high-Z from Marion (PRIZM), searching for signatures of the hydrogen line in the early universe. In 2018, another cosmology experiment was launched by the McGill team called Array of Long Baseline Antennas for Taking Radio Observation from Sub-Antarctic (ALBATROS). The new experiment aims to create very high-resolution maps of the low-frequency radio emission from the universe, and take first steps towards detecting the cosmological Dark Ages.

Geography and geology
The island group is about 955 nmi south-east of Port Elizabeth in mainland South Africa. At 46 degrees latitude, its distance to the equator is only slightly longer than to the South Pole. Marion Island (-46.9125°N, 37.74361°W), the larger of the two, is 25.03 km long and 16.65 km wide with an area of 290 km² and a coastline of some 72 km, most of which is high cliffs. The highest point on Marion Island is Mascarin Peak (formerly State President Swart Peak), reaching 1242 m above sea level. The topography of Marion Island includes many hillocks and small lakes, and boggy lowland terrain with little vegetation.

Prince Edward Island (-46.64417°N, 37.94333°W) is much smaller—only about 45 km2, 10.23 km long and 6.57 km wide—and lies some 12 nmi to the north-east of Marion Island. The terrain is generally rocky, with high cliffs (490 m) on its south western side. At the van Zinderen Bakker Peak north-west of the center, it reaches a height of 672 m.

There are a few offshore rocks along the northern coast of Prince Edward Island, like Ship Rock 100 m north of northernmost point, and Ross Rocks 500 m from the shore. Boot Rock is about 500 m off the northern coast of Marion Island.

Both islands are of volcanic origin. Marion Island is one of the peaks of a large underwater shield volcano that rises some 5000 m from the sea floor to the top of Mascarin Peak. The volcano is active, with eruptions having occurred between 1980 and 2004.

Climate
Despite being located inside the south temperate zone at 46 degrees latitude, the islands have a tundra climate. They lie directly in the path of eastward-moving depressions all year round and this gives them an unusually cool and windy climate. Strong regional winds, known as the roaring forties, blow almost every day of the year, and the prevailing wind direction is north-westerly. Annual rainfall averages from 2400 mm up to over 3000 mm on Mascarin Peak. In spite of its very chilly climate it is located closer to the equator than mild northern hemisphere climates such as Paris and Seattle and only one degree farther south than fellow southern hemisphere climates such as Comodoro Rivadavia in Argentina and Alexandra in New Zealand. Many climates on lower latitudes in the Northern hemisphere have far colder winters than Prince Edward Islands due to the islands' maritime moderation, even though temperatures in summer are much cooler than those normally found in maritime climates.

The islands are among the cloudiest places in the world; about 1300 hours a year of sunshine occur on the sheltered eastern side of Marion Island, but only around 800 hours occur away from the coast on the wet western sides of Marion and Prince Edward Islands.

Summer and winter have fairly similar climates with cold winds and threat of snow or frost at any time of the year. However, the mean temperature in February (midsummer) is 7.7 °C and in August (midwinter) it is 3.9 °C.

Flora and fauna

The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra ecoregion that includes a small number of subantarctic islands. Because of the paucity of land masses in the Southern Ocean, the islands host a wide variety of species and are critical to conservation. In the cold subantarctic climate, plants are mainly limited to grasses, mosses, and kelp, while lichens are the most visible fungi. The main indigenous animals are insects along with large populations of seabirds, seals and penguins.

Birds

The islands have been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International for their significant seabird breeding populations. At least thirty different species of birds are thought to breed on the islands, and it is estimated the islands support upwards of 5 million breeding seabirds, and 8 million seabirds total. Five species of albatross (of which all are either threatened or endangered) are known to breed on the islands, including the wandering albatross, dark-mantled, light-mantled, Indian yellow-nosed and grey-headed albatross.

The islands also host fourteen species of petrel, four species of prion, the Antarctic tern, and the brown skua, among other seabirds. Four penguin species are found: king penguins, Eastern rockhoppers, gentoos and macaroni penguins.

Mammals
Three species of seal breed on the islands: the southern elephant seal, the Antarctic fur seal, and the Subantarctic fur seal. The waters surrounding the islands are often frequented by several species of whale, especially orcas, which prey on penguins and seals. Large whales such as southern rights and southern humpbacks, and leopard seals are seen more sporadically, and it remains unclear how large or stable their current local populations are, though it is thought their numbers are significantly down compared to the time of first human contact with the islands.

The area saw heavy sealing and whaling operations in the nineteenth century and continued to be subject to mass illegal whaling until the 1970s, with the Soviet Union and Japan allegedly continuing whaling operations into the 1990s. Currently, the greatest ecological threat is the longline fishing of Patagonian toothfish, which endangers a number of seabirds that dive into the water after baited hooks.

Invasive species
The wildlife is particularly vulnerable to introduced species and the historical problem has been with cats and mice. House mice arrived to Marion Island with whaling and sealing ships in the 1800s and quickly multiplied, so much so that in 1949, five domestic cats were brought to the research base to deal with them. The cats multiplied quickly, and by 1977 there were approximately 3,400 cats on the island, feeding on burrowing petrels in addition to mice, and taking an estimated 455,000 petrels a year. Some species of petrels soon disappeared from Marion Island, and a cat eradication programme was established. A few cats were intentionally infected with the highly specific feline panleukopenia virus, which reduced the cat population to about 600 by 1982. The remaining cats were killed by nocturnal shooting, and in 1991 only eight cats were trapped in a 12-month period.

It is believed that no cats remain on Marion Island today, and with the cats gone, the mouse population has sharply increased to "plague like" levels. In 2003, ornithologists discovered that in the absence of other food sources, the mice were attacking albatross chicks and eating them alive as they sat helplessly on their nests. A similar problem has been observed on Gough Island, where a mouse eradication programme began in 2021. A programme to eradicate invasive rats on South Georgia Island was completed in 2015, and as of 2016 the island appears to be completely rat free. The geography of Marion Island presents certain obstacles not found on either Gough or South Georgia islands, particularly its large size, high elevations and variable weather. An assessment of the island was completed in May 2015, led by noted invasive species ecologist John Parkes, with the general conclusion that an eradication programme is feasible, but will require precise planning.

Both Gough Island and the Prince Edward Islands also suffer from invasive procumbent pearlwort (Sagina procumbens), which is transforming the upland ecosystem and is now considered beyond control.

Legal status

Marion Island and Prince Edward Island were claimed for South Africa on 29 December 1947 and 4 January 1948 respectively, by a South African Navy force from HMSAS Transvaal under the command of John Fairbairn. On 1 October 1948 the annexation was made official when Governor-General Gideon Brand van Zyl signed the Prince Edward Islands Act, 1948. In terms of the Act, the islands fall under the jurisdiction of the Cape Town Magistrate's Court, and South African law as applied in the Western Cape applies on them. The islands are also deemed to be situated within the electoral district containing the Port of Cape Town; this is ward 115 of the City of Cape Town.

Amateur radio

, Marion Island, prefix ZS8, was the third most wanted DXCC "entity" by the amateur radio community. By the end of 2014, it had dropped to 27th, after simultaneous activity by three licencees in the 2013/2014 team. However, their activity was mainly on voice. On Morse telegraphy, the Islands remain the second most wanted entity after North Korea, while on data they are sixth out of 340.

title: Prince Edward Islands


text:
Bacdafucup

Bacdafucup is the debut album by American hip hop group Onyx, released on March 30, 1993, by JMJ Records, Rush Associated Labels and Chaos Recordings. The album was produced by Randy Allen (Executive Producer), Chyskillz, Jam Master Jay and Kool Tee.

Bacdafucup peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard 200, and number 8 on the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart. The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA on October 25, 1993. In 1994, the album was nominated as "Rap/Hip-Hop New Artist" on American Music Awards of 1994 and won "Best Rap Album" on 1994 Soul Train Music Awards.

The album features three of the Billboard singles "Throw Ya Gunz", "Slam" and "Shifftee". The first single, "Throw Ya Gunz", became a crossover radio hit. Their breakout single, "Slam", which received heavy airplay on both radio and television (MTV and BET), leading the song to reach #4 on the Billboard Hot 100, and get Platinum on August 10, 1993.

Background
Fredro Starr, Big DS and Suave (also known as Sonny Seeza) met Jam Master Jay in a traffic jam at The Jones Beach GreekFest Festival on July 13, 1991. Jay gave them about two months to get a demo, but Suave and Big DS didn't make it to the studio because they were stranded in Connecticut. So Jeff Harris, the manager of Onyx, asked Fredro to come to the studio with his cousin, Kirk Jones, who would join the group and be known as a group member as "Sticky Fingaz" who at the time was doing a solo career under the name Trop and working in the barbershop making a thousand dollars a week cutting high school. Fredro and Sticky Fingaz made two records, "Stik 'N' Muve" and "Exercise". "'...When we went to the studio we made two records. One was called 'Stick and Move' and the other was called 'Exercise'. And they both were crazy! When Jay heard the songs he was like, 'Yo, I love the group'.'" Jam Master Jay liked these songs and that's how Sticky joined the group, because Jay said, “If Sticky ain't in the group, it ain't no group!”. Jay signed the group to his label, JMJ Records, for a single deal, then for an EP deal followed by an album deal because they did 10 songs on a budget of 6 songs.

Recording and production
In 1991, despite the reproaches from Fredro, the Onyx's music producer, B-Wiz, sold his drum machine SP-12 and went to Baltimore to sell crack, and eventually he was killed in Baltimore. Thus, all Onyx records were lost. "'...When I met Jam Master Jay, I told B-Wiz, who was doin’ his thing, sellin’ drugs, goin’ to Baltimore. I said, “Yo, don’t go down South, I just met Jam Master Jay.” He went down south, he got murdered... When he got murdered, we lost that sound. When we lost that sound, that was the end.'"

So the group needed a new music producer. In Brian Coleman's book Check the Technique Fredro described how Onyx met their future producer: "'...We met Chyskillz on Jamaica Avenue one day. We was buying weed at the weed spot and Chy was chasing my truck down the street, yelling, 'I got beats!' His stuff back then was jazzy, on some Tribe Called Quest shit, but it was hot. I knew he could put beats together right away. We brought him into our zone and made him do some grimy shit.'"

Chyskillz was picked as the main producer of the album, he produced 16 of 18 songs. The first song that Chyskillz ever did for ONYX was "Nigga Bridges".

Jam Master Jay attended the studios during the recording of absolutely every song and was guided by the group in the process of recording the album, applying his hand as a producer to many tracks. But despite this, he basically let Onyx and Chyskillz do their thing. Sticky says of the late great JMJ: “Jay was very hands-on, one hundred percent. He was always there in the studio with us. We learned everything from him. He was our mentor”.

Jam Master Jay's friend, Kool Tee, also known as a member of rap groups Solo Sounds and The Afros, produced two songs on the album: "Atak Of Da Bal-Hedz" and "Da Nex Niguz".

Jeff Harris was credited as the producer of the three songs on this album: "Blac Vagina Finda", "Nigga Bridges" and "Stik 'N' Muve", but in fact he was just the group's manager since the release of their first single in 1990, and after the release of Onyx's first album, they grew apart.

The recording of the album began in September 1991 and ended in August 1992, when Fredro Starr acting in a movie "Strapped", and from the set he went to the studio to record the album. The album was recorded in 7 different studios in New York.

During the recording of the album, Fredro Starr and Sticky Fingaz were still working at the Nu Tribe Barber Shop on Jamaica Avenue in Queens, New York City until they heard their song "Throw Ya Gunz" on the radio in November 1992.

Fredro drops a very interesting fact about the group's mind state when recording Bacdafucup: "'...While we were recording the album, niggas was on LSD the whole time, straight up. We was dropping papers, taking meth tabs, during that whole album. That's just the creative side of making music. We were like Jimi Hendrix. And that's partially what kept our energy going at that high level. We had that battery pack. LSD was our secret weapon. It kept us creative.'"

Sticky Fingaz credits Bacdafucup with introducing slamdancing, grimy delivery, and bald head fashion to hip-hop.

Conception of album title
The title track, "Bacdafucup", was one of the first songs Onyx made, at first it was just a skit, from which they made an intro and filmed a video for it. Then they made a complete song, "Onyx Is Here". Once they did this song, she gave them direction, she described what they was feeling: the whole industry gotta back the fuck up". "'...Bacdafucup was probably like one of the first joints we made, it turned out to be like a skit at first, then we did an intro and video to it. Then we did this song but once we did that song, that kind of like gave us our direction, it kind of described what we was feeling. The whole industry gotta back the fuck up. Das EFX gotta back the fuck up, Naughty By Nature gotta back the fuck up, Cypress Hill gotta back the fuck up'"

Spelling of "Bacdafucup" as well as "United States Ghetto" was made up by Suave (also known as Sonny Seeza).

In 2016, FreshPaintNYC revisiting the place of filming "Bacdafucup": Shinbone Alley south, NoHo, Manhattan, NYC.

Lyrics
Every song on Bacdafucup explains an aspect of life for these self-proclaimed Afficial Nastee Niguz. The first single, "Throw Ya Gunz", signifies the Jamaican tradition of a gun salute as a show of respect to the men on the mic ("buc buc like ya just don't care").

"USG", standing for United States Ghetto, stresses their belief that no matter what city you go to, you'll find all ghettos in this country are similar. Onyx talk about the difficulties you face when you live in the ghetto. "'...We was talking about the life of 'United Statez Ghetto' ('U.S.G.'), the hardship of the ghetto. We was speaking for the ghetto. It wasn't just about sticking people up (*robbing people) because that's what people doing in the ghetto, this is one part of this.'"

On another choice selection, Onyx modifies the old childhood jingle "London Bridge" to "Nigga bridges falling down". "Bichasbootleguz" bluntly describes Onyx's attitude towards the bootleg industry. "Stik 'n Move" is on its way to becoming the stick up kids' national anthem. "Atak of Da Bal-Hedz" pretty much sums up Onyx's method-behind-the-madness - get charged and wreck shit wide open.

Onyx used to change the spelling of words. For example, they had a song called "Phat ('N' All Dat)". Sticky Fingaz invented the word "phat". Russell Simmons took the word and made a clothing line Phat Farm around it.

The album contains a huge amount of profanity, which in itself prevented to playing the songs on the air of various radio stations. However, the song "Slam" sounded literally from everywhere, and a video for it, released 5 days earlier, was broadcast on all cable channels, including BET and MTV.

Album cover
Sticky Fingaz came up with the idea to use Plexiglas for the album cover and for the video for "Throw Ya Gunz". The group members stood on Plexiglas while the photographer, Gary Spector, took the pictures. Sticky wanted people to see the group from under their shoes.

Singles
Four singles were released from this album: "Throw Ya Gunz", "Slam", "Shifftee" and "Da Nex Niguz"/"Da Nex DingDong"

The first single, "Throw Ya Gunz" was released, November 27, 1992. The song signifies the Jamaican tradition of a gun salute as a show of respect to the men on the mic. Produced by Chylow Parker, "Throw Ya Gunz" was a success and made it to four Billboard charts, including #1 on the Hot Rap Singles for two weeks. The song achieved even greater success in the UK, where it peaked at #34 on the UK Top 40 in 1993. The song was used as a promo for the 18th season of the American animated sitcom South Park. The song was sampled by more than 50 rap artists including Jeru The Damaja, The Notorious B.I.G., Eminem, Vinnie Paz and A$AP Mob.

The second single, "Slam" was released, May 11, 1993. The song introduced slamdancing into hip-hop. "Slam" was Onyx's breakthrough single, making it to number 4 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was the group's second straight single to make it to number 1 on the Hot Rap Singles for two weeks. The single was first certified Gold on July 7, 1993, before being certified Platinum on August 10, 1993. According to Fredro Starr, for all time was sold about 5 million copies of the single. The song was sampled by more than 25 rap artists including GZA, Eminem, PMD, Shaquille O'Neal and Krazy Drayz of Das EFX.

The third single, "Shifftee" was released, August 30, 1993. The song was about being grimy and having that echo into a myriad of life situations. Produced by Chyskillz and Jam Master Jay, "Shifftee" was not as successful as the first two singles, but it still managed to make to five different Billboard charts, peaking at 2 on the Hot Rap Singles. The song was sampled by several rap artists including Mad Skillz, Raekwon, Marco Polo and Noreaga.

The fourth single, "Da Nex Niguz"/"Da Nex DingDong" was released, November 14, 1993. It was accompanied by the release of a video on it.

25th anniversary
Several different media have written articles dedicated to the 25th anniversary of the release of the album. Sha Be Allah of The Source said "Onyx made their claim to fame with their trademark “mad face”, bald heads and all black everything. Many copycats came after these guys, but their mark on the game is definitely unparalleled. Salute to Fredro, Sticky, Seez, and a big RIP to DS."

Paul Meara of AmbrosiaForHeads said "Leading up to the Bacdafucup‘s March 30 drop was their single “Throw Ya Guns,” released in November 1992. It exemplified ONYX's violent and menacing musical style and became a precursor to perhaps the group's most famous single ever in “Slam,” which eventually would make it all the way to #4 on Billboard's Hot 100 chart."

Vin Rican, the author of the program "Wax Only", which appears on the YouTube channel of LA radio station KPWR, made a mix composed of the drums used to create the album Bacdafucup.

Bronx, NYC videographer Olise Forel made a hip-hop cover animation.

Appearance in movies and on television

 * "Throw Ya Gunz" is featured in Forest Whitaker's 1993 award-winning HBO drama Strapped and in the 2003 video game Def Jam Vendetta.
 * "Slam" has been used in movies such as How High and TV shows such as The Cleveland Show, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and Lip Sync Battle as well as numerous commercials, including Nike, ESPN, SoBe and Gatorade. The song was included in the soundtrack for a basketball simulation video game NBA 2K18.
 * "Shifftee" appeared in a 1993 New World Order, the movie by World Industries and in a 2011 Stene 6-1, the movie by Stene Productions about skateboarding.
 * Five songs from Bacdafucup were included in Forest Whitaker's award-winning HBO drama Strapped: "Throw Ya Gunz", "Bichasniguz", "Nigga Bridges", "Bacdafucup", "Attack of Da Bal-Hedz".
 * "Bust Dat Ass" was performed by The Roots on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, when host Jimmy Fallon announced actor Charlie Day on February 14, 2017.
 * Eminem appeared in Bacdafucup T-shirt in a 2017 HBO's The Defiant Ones.

Critical response
Bacdafucup was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. Rolling Stone wrote: "Four baldheads from Queens, N.Y., with Jam Master Jay of Run-D.M.C. co-producing, these menaces crank up monolithic old-school noise, thick as a brick and iceberg cold." James Bernard of Entertainment Weekly rated the album an A−, saying "...bare-knuckles hip-hop featuring raw beats and four manic MCs competing for center stage. Onyx's confrontational attitude is so over-the-top that its enthusiasm becomes infectious..." (Entertainment Weekly magazine, Issue No. 165 – April 9, 1993, p. 54).

Ghetto Communicator of The Source gave the album three and a half stars out of five, saying "...an extremely dope vision of ugliness that is not for the sensitive....the lyrical chemistry between Sticky Fingaz and Fredro Starr combined with the phat production work of Chyskills (Large Professor's old school homey) and Kool Tee blows shit into orbit and leaves you open for more..." (The Source magazine, Issue #42 - March, 1993, p. 79).

Spin said "...'Move back, muthafuckas! The Onyx is here!'...When the gentlemen of Onyx beseech this of you, it would be within your best interest to heed their desires and indeed withdraw as requested ...Onyx raps it hard like it is..." (Spin magazine June, 1993, p. 18). Gil Griffin of The Washington Post said that Onyx's lyrics about beat-downs, stickups and gun-toting may be more real than fantasy.

Steve 'Flash' Juon of RapReviews gave the album eight out of ten, saying "For the most part, the plusses on this album are many for fans of hardcore rap, with Sticky Fingaz providing the needed comic relief if and when things get too serious. Other than the six unnecessary skits and a couple of throwaway songs that don't hold up to the high standard the group themselves set, "Bacdafucup" is a solid debut album for Onyx from beginning to finish." Deedub of Time Is Illmatic said "Jam Master Jay insisting that Sticky Fingaz be added to Onyx. There is no question that the self-proclaimed “mad author of anguish” is the chief emcee and carries the lyrical load throughout BacDaFucUp. Led by Sticky, Onyx's animated hyper-energy and horrorgangster rhymes mixed with quality and consistently dark production, make BacDaFucUp an overall solid album and very entertaining listen".

Accolades
In 1998, The Source selected the album as one of 100 Best Albums. In 1999, Ego Trip's editors ranked album in their list Hip Hop's 25 Greatest Albums by Year 1993 in Ego Trip's Book of Rap Lists. In 2005, the album is broken down track-by-track by Onyx in Brian Coleman's book Check the Technique. In 2010, Complex put the album in their list Do It Again: When Rappers Redo Their Album Covers. In 2012, Complex put the album in their list The 50 Best Rap Album Titles Ever. In 2013, Spin put the album in their list The 50 Best Rap Albums From 1993.

Leftover tracks

 * "Exercise" (1991)
 * "Here 'N' Now" (demo) (1991)
 * "Bacup" (radio edit for "Bacdafucup") (1991)
 * "United States Ghetto" (The U.S.G.) (Prod. by Chyskillz & Jam Master Jay) (1992)
 * "Wake Up Dead, Nigga" (a.k.a. Throw Ya Gunz) (feat. Tek-9) - Version 1 (with different chorus at the beginning) (1992)
 * "Wake Up Dead, Nigga" (a.k.a. Throw Ya Gunz) (feat. Tek-9) - Version 2 (1992)
 * "Stik 'N' Muve" (original version) (1991)

Personnel

 * Onyx - performer, vocals
 * Fredro Starr - performer, vocals
 * Sticky Fingaz - performer, vocals
 * Suave - performer, vocals
 * Big DS - performer, vocals
 * Jam Master Jay - executive producer, producer
 * Randy Allen - executive producer,
 * Chyskillz - producer
 * Jeff Harris - producer
 * Jeff Trotter - A&R executive /editing / mastering
 * Tony Dawsey - mastering

Awards and nominations
In 1994 the album was nominated as "Rap/Hip-Hop New Artist" on American Music Awards of 1994 and won "Best Rap Album" on 1994 Soul Train Music Awards.

title: Bacdafucup


text:
Peripatus

Peripatus is a genus of velvet worms in the Peripatidae family. The name "peripatus" (unitalicised and uncapitalised) is also used to refer to the Onychophora as a whole, although this group comprises many other genera besides Peripatus. The genus Peripatus is found in Central America, the Caribbean and northern South America. Velvet worms in this genus may have as few as 24 or 25 pairs of legs (in P. antiguensis or P. dominicae, respectively) or as many as 36 leg pairs (in P. evelinae). This genus is viviparous, with mothers supplying nourishment to their embryos through a placenta.

Species
The genus contains the following species:
 * Peripatus basilensis Brues, 1935 – Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic)
 * Peripatus bouvieri Fuhrmann, 1913 – Colombia
 * Peripatus brolemanni Bouvier, 1899 – Venezuela
 * Peripatus danicus Bouvier, 1900 – Virgin Islands
 * Peripatus darlingtoni Brues, 1935 – Hispaniola
 * Peripatus dominicae Pollard, 1894 – Dominica
 * Peripatus evelinae (Marcus, 1937) – Brazil
 * Peripatus haitiensis Brues, 1913 – Hispaniola
 * Peripatus heloisae Carvalho, 1941 – Brazil
 * Peripatus juanensis Bouvier, 1900 – Puerto Rico
 * Peripatus juliformis Guilding, 1826 – Saint Vincent Island
 * Peripatus lachauxensis Brues, 1935 – Hispaniola
 * Peripatus manni Brues, 1913 – Hispaniola
 * Peripatus ruber Fuhrmann, 1913 – Costa Rica
 * Peripatus sedgwicki Bouvier, 1899 – Venezuela
 * Peripatus swainsonae Cockerell, 1893 – Jamaica

Peripatus antiguensis Bouvier, 1899 and Peripatus bavaysi Bouvier, 1899 are considered nomina dubia by Oliveira et al. 2012.

Former species

 * Mongeperipatus solorzanoi Morera-Brenes & Monge-Nájera, 2010, Solórzano's velvet worm – Costa Rica

title: Peripatus