text:
USS Chauncey (DD-667)

USS Chauncey (DD-667) was a Fletcher-class destroyer of the United States Navy, the third Navy ship named for Commodore Isaac Chauncey (1779–1840).

Chauncey was launched 28 March 1943 by Federal Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, Kearny, New Jersey; sponsored by Mrs. R. K. Anderson; and commissioned 31 May 1943.

World War II
Clearing Norfolk, Virginia, 28 August 1943, Chauncey reached Pearl Harbor 19 September. She was assigned to the screen of a fast carrier task force for a punishing series of air strikes on Wake Island 5 and 6 October 1943. While screening the carriers, Chauncey rescued three downed aviators from the water. After a brief return to Pearl Harbor, Chauncey sailed with another carrier task force for Espiritu Santo, arriving 6 November 1943.

The destroyer sailed 3 days later for the air raids on Rabaul of 11 November, in coordination with the Bougainville landings. After the first successful strike launched by the carriers, enemy planes came swarming out to seek vengeance, and a furious 46-minute action, during which Chauncey's guns blazed almost continuously, resulted in a large number of splashed Japanese aircraft. Chauncey, continuing to screen the same carrier force, now sailed north to begin the preassault air strikes on Tarawa, 18, 19, and 20 November. As the landings began on 20 November, the carriers launched combat air patrol, antisubmarine searches, and close support strikes, which continued until the island was secured after furious fighting ashore. During this operation, Chauncey again helped drive a Japanese counterattack from the air above the ships she guarded.

With the Marshall Islands operation scheduled for the next month, Chauncey's force was assigned a strike at Kwajalein, center of Japanese air power in the Marshalls, and the shipping in its harbor. Air strikes were launched 4 December 1943 at Kwajalein and Wotje, but Japanese retaliation came in the evening, and Chauncey joined in the fire which splashed many enemy planes and drove them away just after midnight. Her task force sailed on to replenish and repair at Pearl Harbor. Bound for action once more, Chauncey sailed to Funafuti, where she made rendezvous with a seaplane tender whom she and another destroyer escorted up to Tarawa. After brief patrol duty there, she returned to Funafuti to prepare for the next operation, Majuro.

Chauncey sailed on 22 January 1944 to screen escort carriers north to Majuro, assaulted on 30 January. The destroyer screened and patrolled at Majuro and Kwajalein during the assault and occupation of the atolls, and in mid-March returned to the South Pacific. After 10 days early in April on watchful patrol off newly occupied Emirau Island, Chauncey screened escort carriers into position to cover the Aitape landings 22 April, and guarded them as they provided close air support, sailed north to replenish at Manus on 28 April, and returned to their covering strikes off New Guinea until 12 May.

Now Chauncey was assigned to guard the escort carriers assembling and rehearsing for the Marianas operation, and on 8 June 1944, arrived at Kwajalein for final preparations. She got underway two days later to screen carriers supporting the landings on Saipan with preassault raids on 13 and 14 June, and air cover during the assault on 15 June. Next day Chauncey joined the group operating off Guam for bombardments and air strikes, and her guns aided in driving off enemy air attacks on the 16th and 17th. Returning to Saipan, she screened carriers there until the 25th, when she got underway to escort transports to Eniwetok. She returned to operate with the carriers off Saipan and Guam from early July, and on 9 July began her part in the continuous bombardment of Guam before the landings there 21 July.

Chauncey continued to screen carriers covering operations on Guam through July, aside from an escort voyage to Eniwetok with unladen transports, and on 10 August, left Guam astern bound for Eniwetok and repairs at Pearl Harbor. She returned to Manus to prepare for the massive Philippine operation, and on 14 October sailed for Leyte guarding the Southern Attack Force transports. She offered close-in protection during the landings on 20 October, and that night patrolled watchfully around the transports, which remained dangerously close to shore in order to speed their unloading. On 22 October, two days before the opening of the decisive Battle of Leyte Gulf, Chauncey cleared to escort unloaded ships to Manus, from which she made two voyages to escort ships to Leyte and Palau during November.

After overhaul and training off the west coast until late February 1945, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor. Here she was joined by a carrier, whom she escorted to Ulithi, where Chauncey was assigned to mighty Task Force 58 for the preliminaries to the Okinawa operation. The force got underway 14 March for strikes on airfields on Kyūshū and shipping in the Inland Sea and at Kure and Kobe, Chauncey and other destroyers providing the essential screening services. Japanese retaliation came in a bombing raid on 19 March, when carrier USS Franklin (CV-13) was badly damaged but kept afloat by her crew's heroic work. Chauncey moved in to protect the stricken giant, and to guard her as she was towed and later steamed under her own power toward safety. Japanese air attacks were beaten off once more on the 20th and 21st, Chauncey firing with the others to splash many enemy planes.

Her force launched prelanding strikes at Okinawa and nearby islands, and after the landings on 1 April 1945, supported the ground forces and protected the transports. Chauncey continued her screening, and from 6 April, when the first great kamikaze attacks were hurled at American shipping off Okinawa, fired often to drive the would-be suicides off. She also served in shore bombardment and radar picket duty until 29 May, when she sailed for repairs and replenishment in San Pedro Bay, Philippine Islands. She then joined Task Force 38 for the final smashing air raids on Japan.

Following the war, Chauncey remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 11 November, when she cleared Tsingtao, China for the west coast. She was placed out of commission in reserve at San Diego 19 December 1945.

Korean War
Upon the outbreak of the Korean War, Chauncey was recommissioned 18 July 1950, and on 1 November, sailed to join the Atlantic Fleet. Chauncey operated from her home port at Norfolk, Virginia, along the east coast, and in the Caribbean, until 10 January 1953, when she got underway for the west coast on the first leg of a round-the-world voyage. Reaching Sasebo, Japan, 11 February, Chauncey screened the carriers of TF 77 off Korea during the final months preceding the Korean Armistice, and in June sailed on to call at Hong Kong, Singapore, Colombo, Aden, Athens, Naples, Cannes, and Gibraltar before her return to Norfolk 6 August.

Chauncey resumed her east coast and Caribbean operations until 14 May 1954, when she was again decommissioned and placed in reserve.

Awards
Chauncey received seven battle stars for World War II service, and two for Korean service.

title: USS Chauncey (DD-667)


text:
User talk:Jagnor

Hi, welcome to Wikipedia! A suggestion: you might want to review NPOV, our neutrality policy. Thanks very much. Meelar 18:21, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Welcome_to_the_Monkey_House_-_Ron_English.jpg
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:Welcome_to_the_Monkey_House_-_Ron_English.jpg. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use. Suggestions on how to do so can be found here.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Rettetast 17:43, 19 September 2007 (UTC)

Article Feedback Tool update
Hey Jagnor. I'm contacting you because you're involved in the Article Feedback Tool in some way, either as a previous newsletter recipient or as an active user of the system. As you might have heard, a user recently anonymously disabled the feedback tool on 2,000 pages. We were unable to track or prevent this due to the lack of logging feature in AFT5. We're deeply sorry for this, as we know that quite a few users found the software very useful, and were using it on their articles.

We've now re-released the software, with the addition of a logging feature and restrictions on the ability to disable. Obviously, we're not going to automatically re-enable it on each article—we don't want to create a situation where it was enabled by users who have now moved on, and feedback would sit there unattended—but if you're interested in enabling it for your articles, it's pretty simple to do. Just go to the article you want to enable it on, click the "request feedback" link in the toolbox in the sidebar, and AFT5 will be enabled for that article.

Again, we're very sorry about this issue; hopefully it'll be smooth sailing after this :). If you have any questions, just drop them at the talkpage. Thanks! Okeyes (WMF) 21:48, 1 September 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Jagnor


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/TheHeartIsDeceitfulAboveAllThings

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article.

Whoa. Highly POV, totally non-encyclopedic. There looks to be something salvageable in it, though. Is there anyplace to merge the useful content? - Lucky 6.9 18:23, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

How will the community who post here react? By deleting this garage. RickK 19:22, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Man, I've heard of deleting articles, but never garages before. Do we delete the cars too? :) Snowspinner 19:27, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * You know, that was almost precisely what I was going to post, except I wouldn't put my car in it. If someone can be bothered salvaging what there is to salvage, that's nice. But delete. - David Gerard 20:06, May 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * LOL! I guess I won't correct my posting, then.  :)  RickK 23:11, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. The verse is one of my favourite Bible verses.  But this is an ad, evangelism, and general malarkey.  Smerdis of Tlön 19:26, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Snowspinner 19:27, 20 May 2004
 * Delete, not encyclopedic. (Rick says it's garage, but I think it's verse). Wikipedia articles are not textbooks and should not contain problem sets or exercises for the reader. 4.242.63.81 should be encouraged to make appropriate contributions with encyclopedic style and content. Dpbsmith 20:19, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Possibly misplaced evangelism, no evidence that it's encyclopedic. It will be interesting to see how the poster reacts to this; Discuss this on the talk page not here unless it's relevant to the decision as to whether the article is kept. Andrewa 20:53, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Not encyclopedic. Delete. -- Cyrius|&#9998 02:41, May 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, this isn't encyclopedic by a long shot. --Starx 05:06, 21 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, even though it's a pure heated garage, it must go. Not encyclopedionical by any stretch. Verily. Denni 03:37, 2004 May 23 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
David Grisman

David Jay Grisman (born March 23, 1945) is an American mandolinist. His music combines bluegrass, folk, and jazz in a genre he calls "Dawg music". He founded the record label Acoustic Disc, which issues his recordings and those of other acoustic musicians. He was inducted into the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Fame in 2023.

Biography
Grisman grew up in a Conservative Jewish household in Passaic, New Jersey. His father was a professional trombonist who gave him piano lessons when he was seven years old. As a teenager, he played piano, mandolin, and saxophone.

In the early 1960s, he attended New York University. He belonged to the Even Dozen Jug Band with Maria Muldaur and John Sebastian. He played in the bluegrass band the Kentuckians led by Red Allen, then in the psychedelic rock band Earth Opera with Peter Rowan. He moved to San Francisco, met Jerry Garcia, and appeared on the Grateful Dead album American Beauty. He played in Garcia's bluegrass band Old & In the Way with Peter Rowan and Vassar Clements. When Grisman was 17 years old, he was invited on stage by Doc Watson to join him on mandolin for a rendition of “In the Pines”.

Garcia named him "Dawg" after a dog that was following him while they were driving in Stinson Beach, California. "Dawg Music" is what Grisman calls his mixture of bluegrass and Django Reinhardt/Stéphane Grappelli-influenced jazz as highlighted on his album Hot Dawg (recorded Oct. 1978, released 1979). It was Grisman's combination of Reinhardt-era jazz, bluegrass, folk, Old World Mediterranean string band music, as well as modern jazz fusion that came to embody "Dawg" music.

In the 1970s, he started the David Grisman Quintet with Darol Anger, Joe Carroll, Todd Phillips, and Tony Rice. They released their eponymous first album in 1977 for Kaleidoscope Records and their second, Hot Dawg, two years later for Horizon Records, the jazz division of A&M Records. When the quintet recorded for Warner Bros. Records, the membership changed to include Mike Marshall, Mark O'Connor, and Rob Wasserman, with occasional guest appearances by jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli.

In the 1980s, Grisman formed the record label Acoustic Disc, which issued his recordings and those by other acoustic musicians. The folk and bluegrass part of his personality emerged when he recorded with Mark O'Connor, Tony Rice, and Andy Statman.

Family
Grisman is married to Tracy Bigelow and was married twice before. He has three grown children: Samson, Gillian, and Monroe. Samson, a bassist and recording session musician living in Portland, often performs with his father. Gillian, a filmmaker living in Novato, California, directed Grateful Dawg and the music documentary, Village Music: Last of the Great Record Stores.

Monroe Grisman, named for bluegrass music pioneer Bill Monroe, lives in Fairfax, California, and plays in the Tom Petty tribute band Petty Theft.

In media
Grisman's song "Dawggy Mountain Breakdown" was the opening theme song for Car Talk on NPR.

Grisman sued YouTube in May 2007, asserting in federal court that YouTube should be required to prevent individuals from illegally uploading recordings of his music. Grisman's attorneys requested voluntary dismissal of the suit.

The documentary Grateful Dawg (October 14, 2001) chronicles the friendship between Jerry Garcia and David Grisman.

Grisman was a judge for the 6th and 7th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists.

He wrote much of the bluegrass music for the 1974 film Big Bad Mama directed by Roger Corman. It was played by the Great American Music Band, and they were recorded and mixed by Bill Wolf.

Acoustic Disc
Acoustic Disc is an independent record label founded by Grisman in 1990. The label is based in San Rafael, California, and specializes in bluegrass, folk, jazz, and Dawg music.

title: David Grisman


text:
Campeonato Brasileiro

Campeonato Brasileiro, Portuguese for Brazilian Championship, may refer to:

Football

 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, the top league of Brazilian football
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, the second division
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série C, the third division
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série D, the fourth division
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Sub-20, the top under-20 league
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Seleções Estaduais, defunct competition played by state teams
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino, the top league of women's football in Brazil
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Aspirantes, a Brazilian league for the top-tier clubs' under-23 squads

Other sports

 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Beisebol, the main Brazilian baseball tournament
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Basquete, the main division of Brazilian basketball
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Stock Car, the main division of Brazilian national stock car championships, also known as Stock Car Brasil
 * Campeonato Brasileiro de Rugby, the main division of Brazilian rugby union

title: Campeonato Brasileiro


text:
Talk:Nicéphore Niépce

Earliest known photograph
There seems to be a contradiction in the article with the paragraph stating "the earliest known example of a Niépce photograph (or any other photograph) was created in June or July of 1827 or 1826" — and the final paragraph, which states that an earlier photograph dated from 1825 was recently discovered. Is there some disagreement as to the authenticity of the latter? If not, then the earlier statement should be modified to reflect this development. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.177.171.117 (talk) 22:54, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

Biography assessment rating comment
WikiProject Biography Assessment Drive

The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- Yamara 15:11, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

untitled
What was sold was an heliography not a photography. Here's the first photography : http://www.sycamore-square.com/suite403-1.htm Ericd 18:26, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

Here's the link that was removed: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1885093.stm

The BBC link calls it a type of photography. Perhaps in absence of something more definitive, links to both could be included in the article. Both seem to be important examples of Niepce's early work. -- Infrogmation 20:09, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

You can include the link. But despite the fact that the BBC is supposed to be a serious media it contradicts all serious historians about the birth of photography. What was sold is not a photography it's more something like a photocopy. IMO the article has to be substantially reworked about to emphasize about difference between photography/heliography/litography, but this something over my skills... Take a look at : http://www.niepce.com/pagus/pagus-inv.html Ericd 21:04, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

Name
Niepce isn't another way of spelling his name. It's mearly a bastidardised way of spelling his name.

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 07:36, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

Pronunciation
I'm in a photography class at my high school and we are currently covering the history of photography. Obviously Mr. Niépce has to be mentioned, yet I get the feeling that my teacher is clueless on how his name is pronounced. (She pronounces it like Neep- kay) Is she correct? If not, what is the correct pronunciation?Deyyaz [ Talk 22:31, 2 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, you're absolutely right, your teacher is clueless. The correct pronunciation is Nee-eps (the second syllable is between eps and apes). Good for you for being skeptical! Pinkville (talk) 01:43, 3 February 2008 (UTC)
 * As pointed out here, the name Nièpce/Niépce/Niepce is probably an archaic, Latinised spelling (compare French orthography) for Nièce, hence the p is likely spurious and the original pronunciation was [njɛs] (i. e., nyes, rhyming with yes). Hence, [njɛps] is probably a spelling pronunciation. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 19:51, 21 May 2014 (UTC)
 * While the original Greek had a hard K, the French way of pronouncing the name followed French pronunciation rules that soften the c when followed by an e or an i. Pronunciation of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. Nicephore was baptised as Joseph but he adopted the name Nicephore, in honour of Saint Nicephorus the 19th century Patriarch of Constantinople, while he was studying at the Oratorian College in Angers.RPSM (talk) 10:45, 10 March 2015 (UTC)

Plagiarism
It appears that sections of this article have been copied from the [Niépce Museum web site]. For example, the article states:
 * In 1818 he developed a very strong interest for this ancestor of the bicycle without pedals and transmission and cousin of the dandy horse from Karl von Drais. He built himself a model and called it the vélocipède. Nicephore made quite a sensation running his contraption on the local country roads but he could not resist improving it by different means: the adjustable saddle among them. This velocipede with the saddle is exhibited at the Niépce Museum. In a letter to his brother, Nicephore thought of motorizing his machine, thus imagining the moped.

and the web site states:
 * It was in 1818 that he developed a very strong interest for this contraption, cousin of the dandy horse (ancestor of the bicycle without pedals and transmission) and built himself a model. Nicephore made quite a sensation running on his velocipede on the local country roads but he could not resist improving it by different means: the adjustable saddle among them. This velocipede with the saddle is exhibited at the Niépce Museum.In a letter to his brother, Nicephore thought of motorizing his machine, thus imagining the moped.

Is the text from the museum public domain or compatibly licensed, or have they granted permission? -AndrewDressel (talk) 13:43, 16 August 2010 (UTC)

The story of how Helmut Gernsheim*s heavy retouching replaced the original unretouched reproduction now at Texas University
In Photography and its Origins (Routledge 2015) the curator of the Ransom Center at the University of Texas, Jessica S. McDonald gives the story of how the heavily retouched version of The World's First Photograph, or more specifically,  "the earliest known surviving photograph made in a camera" came to be widely reproduced in any and every publication dealing with the subject. This type of very heavy retouching was common in the 1960s when delicate values would not reproduce in newsprint (pre-Photoshop).

Barbara Brown Head of Photograph Conservation Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center The University of Texas at Austin says that "This most famous reproduction of the World's First Photograph was based upon the March 1952 reproduction produced at Helmut Gernsheim's request by the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company in London. The pointillistic effect is due to the reproduction process and is not present in the original heliograph. The Kodak reproduction was touched up with watercolors by Gernsheim himself in order to bring it as close as possible to his approximation of how he felt the original should appear in reproduction."

The bitumen of Judea was washed with oil of lavender and turpentine - not lavender water (end of second paragraph in link to Texas University) - that's something you splash behind your ears. RPSM (talk) 05:37, 10 March 2015 (UTC)

The text now reads: Niépce developed heliography, a technique he used to create the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process: a print made from a photoengraved printing plate in 1825.

Well, as the print, heavily retouched by Helmut Gernsheim, was made from the original heliograph by the Kodak Laboratories in the 1950s, it is not the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process is it?

The "photoengraved printing plate" is, in fact, the world's first (surviving) photograph and is not a printing plate, but a heliograph made with Bitumen of Judea and washed off with oil of lavender and turpentine. RPSM (talk) 13:24, 8 June 2015 (UTC)

 * "... the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process" referred to the 1825 paper print reproduction of an engraving, which was indeed made by using a "photoengraved printing plate", and not to "Gernsheim's watercolor" (one writer's refreshingly dismissive characterization of the Kodak print Gernsheim "retouched" in 1952) of the 1827 camera image. Some people — particularly those involved in its sale and purchase roughly ten years ago — insisted on calling their breathtakingly high-priced 1825 ink-on-paper artifact "a photograph". IMO, that is a gross abuse of the term, and it would be more aptly described as "a photocopy", but I have no standing to dictate terminology here; therefore, the technically accurate "product of a photographic process" (no matter how many generations removed) wording, my attempt to obviate the need for a distracting nomenclature controversy tangent. 66.81.247.155 (talk) 04:28, 26 November 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Nicéphore Niépce


text:
Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Wik2/Decided

The following matters have been decided by a majority vote of the arbitrators either for or against. The remedies which have been decided upon will be enacted now. Note that some issues relating to the case are still under consideration - any further remedies will be enacted at a future date.

 * I'm going to try to provide some rationale at Requests for arbitration/Wik2/FAQ. Personal, but perhaps useful. Martin 00:03, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

Revocation of editing privileges: a summary
Details of revocation of editing privileges in this case can be found at. In summary:

 * User:Wik is to have their editing privileges revoked for seven days
 * User:Cantus is to have their editing privileges revoked for one day
 * User:Nico is to have their editing privileges revoked for one day

Please note that these bans have not actually been implemented by any member of the arbitration committee - I would rather they were implemented by another sysop, not an arbitrator. If you implement them, please note that here so we know. --Camembert 00:13, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * All three blocked as of 06:45 UTC, May 21, 2004. -- Cyrius|&#9998 06:46, May 21, 2004 (UTC)

Avoid personal attacks

 * Personal attacks damage the community and deter users, see No personal attacks
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 12:34, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:03, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Sock puppets
Possibly amongst other things, Sock puppets should not be used to evade legitimate bans or arbitration committee rulings.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * the Epopt 13:53, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:03, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Discuss reverts
Although it is not made explicit on revert, a review of Wikipedia policies such as staying cool and dispute resolution, together with common practice and community expectations, strongly suggests that "When reverting, explain your reasons for doing so" is a longstanding de facto Wikipdia policy.

The arbitration committee requests that the community clarify that this is the case (if indeed it is), and explain if there are situations where it is not the case. This will aid us in future arbitrations.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * the Epopt 13:54, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:03, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Threat of retaliatory reversions

 * As a tactic employed during an edit war on the article West Papuan Genocide Wik posted "If you continue to revert random edits of mine (and vandalize my talk page) without explanation, I will revert random edits of yours." on the talk page of User:Dmn . Wik on his user page User:Wik describes User:Dmn as a "(moron/vandal)". We find that this is a violation of Wikiquette.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * the Epopt 13:55, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Further theats on wikien-l
Wik sent the following message to Jimbo:

"From: wik1234@fastmail.fm Date: Mon, 14 Jun 2004 21:47:21 UT Date: Mon, 14 Jun 2004 13:47:21 -0800 To: "Jimmy Wales"  Subject: Quagga's vandalism

The vandalism goes on and on:

06:09, 14 Jun 2004 Isomorphic deleted "User talk:Wik/Talk/Wik" (trolling by some anon) 06:09, 14 Jun 2004 Isomorphic deleted "User:Wik/temp" (trolling by some anon) 06:09, 14 Jun 2004 Secretlondon deleted "User talk:User talk:Wik" (content was: 'I have sucked hairy balls for most of my life. i enjoy wathing elephants have sex because incase you didnt know, the elephant penis is the size of my ...')

I made the mistake of trusting your word; you gave a supposedly final warning to Quagga, but didn't follow up on it. Therefore I'll now give you the final warning: if Quagga isn't banned within 24 hours, I'll start a script which does everything automatically including changing proxies as needed, so don't hope that I will tire of it; nor is there anything else you can do against it. It will run until Quagga is banned. Too bad you don't understand any other language.

 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 02:02, Jun 16, 2004 (UTC)

 * Oppose:

 * Abstain or other:

Vandalism script
Following Wik's threat a vandalism script has been loosed on Wikipedia which affects the Village pump and other pages, see.

 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 02:07, Jun 16, 2004 (UTC)

 * Oppose:

 * Abstain or other:

Revert wars

 * In many instances provided on the /Evidence page, either neither side has been willing to discuss, or Wik has not discussed significantly less than the other party. However, Wik has, in some instances, reverted pages with little or no attempt at discussion, where the other party(s) to the dispute have been willing to discuss and attempt to reach an agreement. Examples of such pages include:
 * Papua (disambiguation) (see Talk:Papua (disambiguation) for comments by (eg) Daeron, no comment by Wik, continued reverts, no edit summaries beyond "rv" - a simple link to Talk:Papua (Indonesian province) by either party would likely have been sufficient)
 * Recentchanges - notable because, as a very high visibility page, discussion is typically favoured before adding notices, etc, let alone re-adding something that has already been reverted, and only belatedly (and half-heartedly) discussing after being reverted three times.
 * Ken Saro-Wiwa - reverted addition of much new content only because it missed out a birth date. Edit summary "rv". No reason given until asked on user talk page. Better would have been a summary such as "rv - missing birth date". Better still would have been reinstating the missing date.
 * Decimal calendar - Wik made no comment at all on talk, despite the other party commenting there.
 * East Germany - Though making a number of reversions to the article, Wik made only two brief comments on talk despite a very active discussion taking place there.
 * Central Asia See Refuses to discuss matter with Cantus, the other edit warrior or with Mark Richards, a third party. He makes the following statements: "Given that an edit war is going on, if you ( Mark Richards) don't want to take part, just stay out of the article. Normal edits are not advisable as long as the edit war is on. Otherwise I don't know what you want."; "I already said I'm not dealing with Cantus, neither directly nor by proxy"; "I am just reverting Cantus. If you make edits on top of his version, they will of course be reverted too. I can't be expected to correct Cantus' nonsense again and again by hand - I will just revert to my version"; etc.

 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:36, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 13:13, 8 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:15, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Sockpuppets

 * We find that Wik has tried to subvert the previous ruling by this committee by creating the user:Augustin and user:Augustine accounts.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 18:54, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

 * We find that Cantus attempted to evade a quickpoll ban by creating multiple sock puppet accounts, and to harass Wik by means of the User:Wik is Banned sock puppet.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 18:54, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

 * We find that Nico created the user:Augusta account to provoke a revert war and harass Wik.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 18:54, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Remedies

 * The previous ruling of the Arbitration Committee limiting the number of reverts Wik can perform in a 24 hour period shall be extended indefinitely, and may be enforced by temp-bans at sysop discretion as previously.
 * Support:
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:00, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Fred Bauder 19:39, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:44, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * the Epopt (assumed from above)
 * Other:

 * Each time Wik reverts an article he must give his reasons for doing so in the edit summary. Example explanations include "rv page blanking", "rv - remove biased material", "rv introduction of spelling errors", etc. For reverts of edits that are not vandalism (as defined at dealing with vandalism), Wik must back up that reason on a talk page and point to this in any reverts. Examples of this include: "rv, biased - see Talk" or "rv - see Talk:blah" . Wik must respond to any substantive objections by those who disagree with his reasons. If Wik reverts a new compromise or proposed solution, he must explain on the Talk page why the reverted version still fails to address his objections.
 * Support:
 * Martin 18:33, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC) Suggest adding "for continually failing to adequately explain his edits, Wik is sentenced to a one-week ban, to be served concurrently with other bans."
 * Fred Bauder (assumed from earlier vote - wording changed since vote)
 * the Epopt I think everyone should be required to explain reverts, if only by "erase vandalism." (assumed from earlier vote - wording changed since vote)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:15, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Enforcement
Note that the below may be superseded by points being voted upon at Requests for arbitration/Wik2

 * If Wik consistently fails to abide by any of these rulings of the arbitration committee or tries to evade them, that Wik shall be banned for 30 days, at arbitration committee's discretion.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * the Epopt 14:02, 5 May 2004 (UTC) I'd prefer three months, below.
 * Nohat 15:58, 2004 May 5 (UTC) after 3 month ban
 * Martin 18:33, 5 May 2004 (UTC) (I'd prefer one of the below two alternatives)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC) I'm wiling to go along with this, but this seems more like just a warning than an actual ruling, since we'd have to rule again on the 30-day ban anyway. Is this actually saying anything?
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:44, 7 May 2004 (UTC) (though I'd prefer one of the below two alternatives)
 * Oppose:
 * Other:

Revocation of editing priviledges

 * For using sock puppets to evade the previous arbitration ruling, Wik shall be banned from editing for a period of one week.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * the Epopt 14:02, 5 May 2004 (UTC) I would prefer something longer. Evading a ruling is malice, prima facie.
 * Nohat 15:58, 2004 May 5 (UTC) suggest adding "to be served concurrently with other bans"
 * Martin 18:45, 5 May 2004 (UTC) (would also support alternate introductory wording given below)
 * Camembert 03:02, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC) Don't really see this as constructive---What good does him not being here for a week do? I'd rather work for more structural solutions like the revert limits or the requirement for revert explanations.
 * Other:

Matter of Cantus
It has been demonstrated and he has confessed to using sock puppets to evade a short ban and harass Wik. Cantus shall be banned for 1 day.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:44, 7 May 2004 (UTC) (I'd probably support a slightly longer ban as well)
 * Oppose:
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC) Don't really see how a 24-hour ban quite a bit after the fact would be constructive. Why not just give a warning and take it up again if he does it again?
 * Other:

Matter of Nico
Banned for one day for using sock puppets to provoke a revert war and harass Wik.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:44, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC) Don't really see how a 24-hour ban quite a bit after the fact would be constructive. Why not just give a warning and take it up again if he does it again?
 * Other:

Points which have a majority against or have been superseded
The below point is superseded by the point at

 * We find that Wik continues to engage in a pattern of reverting articles - albeit at a slower pace. He also does not "calmly discuss matters on the talk page and seek compromises."
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Martin 19:03, 5 May 2004 (UTC) (as noted below)
 * Nohat 19:33, 2004 May 5 (UTC)
 * Other:
 * Camembert 22:15, 9 May 2004 (UTC) (I'm probably supportive, but the below seems preferable)

No, I don't think it's reasonable to criticise Wik for "a pattern of reverting articles" - lots of folks revert on occasion - a fair few on a regular basis. Reverting alone is not the issue at stake here.

I'm also dubious about using the advice to "seek compromises" as a prohibition of stubbornness, or a requirement to follow a (say) 70% majority opinion. This would seem to me to water down the higher principle of NPOV and wiki-style editing. Instead, I propose something like the below instead. Martin 00:19, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

The below point has a majority of arbitrators against

 * That Wik shall be banned from reverting any article for a period of one month. If Wik violates this, he will be banned from editing for the remainder of that month.
 * Support:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC) I think we need to get his attention.
 * Oppose:
 * the Epopt 14:02, 5 May 2004 (UTC) So if he reverts an article on the next-to-last day of that month, he'll be banned for only the remainder of the month; ie, one day?
 * Nohat 15:58, 2004 May 5 (UTC) prefer 3 revert limitation, below, to go into effect after 3 month ban
 * Martin 18:13, 5 May 2004 (UTC) (this would likely be equivalent to a straight one month ban, so I'd prefer a straight one month ban as simpler. Basically prefer alternatives)
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC) (The "indefinitely" option below is better)
 * Delirium 11:19, May 7, 2004 (UTC) Prefer a "no reverts without discussion, and even then only one of them" requirement, similar to below.
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Camembert 22:15, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Other:

''The below appears to be superseded by the point at

 * The previous ruling of the Arbitration Committee limiting the number of reverts Wik can perform in a 24 hour period shall be extended. Three additional months shall be added to this previous ruling.
 * Support:
 * Nohat 15:58, 2004 May 5 (UTC) to go into effect after 3 month ban, as part of "parole"
 * mav 08:01, 7 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Oppose:
 * Fred Bauder 13:00, May 5, 2004 (UTC)Just continues the game playing. We need to find another approach. If he can't shape up we need to eventually go to a lengthy ban.
 * the Epopt 14:02, 5 May 2004 (UTC) What he said.
 * James F. (talk) 12:26, 7 May 2004 (UTC) Agree with Fred.
 * Other:
 * Camembert 22:15, 9 May 2004 (UTC) (presumably the below trumps this)


text:
Isaac Chauncey

Isaac Chauncey (February 20, 1772 – January 27, 1840) was an American naval officer in the United States Navy who served in the Quasi-War, The Barbary Wars and the War of 1812. In the latter part of his naval career he was President of the Board of Navy Commissioners.

Involvement in the Quasi-War and First Barbary War
Chauncey, born in Black Rock, Connecticut, to Wolcott Chauncy and Ann Brown. His father was the great-great-grandson of Charles Chauncy, the 2nd President of Harvard College. At 19, he was given the command of the ship Jenny, belonging to Peter Schermerhorn, grandfather of Mrs. Astor, and was appointed a lieutenant in the Navy from September 17, 1798. He fought with gallantry in the West Indies during the Quasi-War with France; in the Mediterranean during the First Barbary War; and commanded John Adams (1804–5), Hornet (1805–6), Washington and the Mediterranean Squadron (1815–1820). He was promoted to captain in 1806.

War of 1812
Perhaps his most outstanding service was during the War of 1812 when he commanded the naval forces on Lake Ontario, conducting amphibious operations in cooperation with the Army, and containing the British fleet under the command of Sir James Yeo stationed there. He also served twice as commandant of the New York Naval Shipyard. Isaac Chauncey played a prominent role in the creation of the navy yard. His service there, began prior to its official designation as a shipyard.

Raiding British Shipment
On November 6, 1812, Commodore Isaac Chauncey set out on a raiding expedition to intercept the enemy vessels on their return from Fort George to Kingston. The enemy's force was the Royal George, 26 guns, 260 men; the Earl of Moira, 18 guns, 200 men; the Prince Regent, 18 guns, 150 men; the Duke of Gloucester, 14 guns, 80 men; the Simcoe 12 guns, 76 men; and the Seneca, 4 guns, 40 men. On November 8, Commodore Chauncey fell in with the Royal George and chased her into the Bay of Quinte. On the morning of Nov. 10th he took a small schooner and burnt it, and chased the Royal George into Kingston harbor, and engaged her batteries for an hour and forty-five minutes, but stood off with night coming up. The American loss in this engagement was one killed and three wounded. The next morning, with winds too strong to attack, he turned out and soon came upon the Simcoe. They chased her over a reef of rocks and severely disabled her with shot. Commodore Chauncey returned to Sackets Harbor on the 12th of November with three captured British trading schooners.

Raids the following week
In the following week, Commadore Chaunceys fleet made two short cruises and captured three vessels. Two of the vessels were brought into Sackets Harbor and the third was burnt and sunk.

First Raid on York
Commodore Chauncey was the commander of the American fleet transporting 1,700 American Regulars with Benjamin Forsyth's Riflemen leading the way. The American raiding force landed on the beach and routed the British-allied forces. The British-allied force suffering heavy casualties retreated from the field. The Americans occupied York for a while looting and burning private property. Then all of the Americans boarded Chauncey's vessels and the entire American raiding force withdrew safely.

Raid on Burlington Heights
From around July 30, 1813, to July 31, 1813. Commodore Chauncey with his fleet arrived near Burlington Heights from Niagara during the morning. A force of several hundred troops, including sailors and U.S. Marines, under Lt. Colonel Winfield Scott, debarked. About 150 British under Major Maule raised stiff resistance. The Americans seized some prisoners (civilians, possibly militia in the town) and returned to the ships. The American fleet then departed.

Second Raid on York
One of his most successful operations was taking part of a naval raid by transporting Winfield Scott's force of raiders in the successful raid at York, Upper Canada from July 31, 1813 – August 1, 1813. Isaac Chauncey transported Winfield's American raiding force of 340-500 men to York. The American raiders freed prisoners in jail, made wounded soldiers their captives (on paper), and confiscated British military baggage left there and whatever else they could find. The next day, the American raiders found a hidden bateau and carted off 400 barrels of food. The Americans also took 11 bateaux, 5 cannons, and some flour. Winfield and his American force of raiders set fire to barracks, a wood yard, and a storehouse on Gibraltar Point. Winfield and his force of American raiders withdrew safely aboard Chauncey's ships. The American raiders destroyed some artillery and boats, confiscated supplies and ammunition, and all withdrew back to New York.

Raid on Lake Ontario
Around October 5, 1813. Commander Isaac Chauncey was sailing with his fleet and spotted some British vessels sail on Lake Ontario. Chauncey pursued the British fleet which consisted of seven British gunboats being used as transports. Chauncey's fleet captured five of the British gunboats and destroyed one British gunboat. The remaining British gunboat escaped. 260 British soldiers are captured. Isaac Chauncey and his fleet withdrew back to Sacket's Harbor with the captured ships and 260 British prisoners.

Further career
Chauncey went on to be Brooklyn's longest serving commandant July 13, 1807 – May 16, 1813, and again December 21, 1824 – June 10, 1833. His letters to the Secretary of the Navy provide perhaps the fullest picture and most candid portrait by a career naval officer of the early yard. These letters deliver rich detail about the officers and employees, and the problems he encountered making the new yard a viable concern.

Writing November 27, 1807, to the Secretary of the Navy, Chauncey pleads for maintenance funds – "The following things are almost indispensable to promote the public service and for the accommodation of the yard. Two wells to be sunk, in the yard, with pumps in them, windows in the armory, a horse & cart to transport stores, fill holes about the wharf &c &c The tide ebbs & flows in 24 hours consequently leaving a dampness that must destroy the timber next to the ground very soon There is sufficient for the horse in the yard Six wheel barrows with more other little conveniences which I will hope you will leave to my discretion I will not abuse you're your confidence."

Commodore Chauncey was particularly tough when negotiating wages. Writing on January 5, 1808, to Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith he explained "Some of them (in consequence of Mr. Buckland having mentioned publicly that twenty three gun boats was to be built) immediately had an idea that we could not do without them and would not go to work.

I however was able to find a sufficient number willing to work at the reduced wages and these who refused will in a week come back and beg for work and I shall be able to reduce their wages 25 cents more for the merchants have no work for them to do therefore they must either work for us at our price or go unemployed."

In May 1829, while in command of the shipyard, Chauncey led a series of searches for the body of George Washington Adams, who committed suicide by jumping from the deck of the steamship Benjamin Franklin.

In December 1835 Chauncey led navy yard marines and sailors in suppressing the Great Fire of New York by blowing up buildings in the fire's path.

His last service was as member, and, for four years, President, of the Board of Navy Commissioners. Commodore Chauncey died in Washington, on January 27, 1840.

Legacy

 * Three different classes of destroyers USS Chauncey were named in his honor

Chauncey Street in Brooklyn, New York is named after him.

Issac was married to Catherine Sickles (c. 1778 – 1855).

The couple lived in Fairfield, Connecticut where they had three children.
 * Charles W. Chauncey
 * John S. Chauncey
 * Peter Schermerhorn Chauncey (1810–1866)
 * Augusta Chauncey married to Maj. Elbert Ellery Anderson (1833–1903). Founding father William Ellery was his great-great-granduncle. His father was Knight commander Henry James Anderson, and his mother was Frances Da Ponte, daughter of Lorenzo Da Ponte of Venice, the father of Italian Opera in the United States, and associate of Amadeus Mozart. He was also cousin of Elbert Jefferson Anderson, a millionaire of 1892, son of Lt. Col. Elbert Jefferson Anderson.
 * Peter Chauncey Anderson married to Mary Yale Ogden, and were members of the "Social Register" of New York. She was the daughter of Elias Hudson Ogden and Martha Louise Goodrich. Her grandparents were Dr. Oren Goodrich and Olivia Yale, daughter of Colonel Braddam Yale, members of the Yale and Ogden families.  She was a distant relative of Edith Ogden, wife of the Mayor of Chicago Carter Harrison Jr., cousin of US President William Henry Harrison, and of Senator Aaron Ogden, Governor of New Jersey.

title: Isaac Chauncey


text:
Riders

Riders can refer to

 * Leicester Riders, a British basketball team
 * Riders (Cooper novel), a book by Jilly Cooper
 * Riders (1993 film), a British film based on the book
 * Saskatchewan Roughriders, a Canadian football team
 * Frisco RoughRiders, an American Minor League Baseball team.
 * Steal (film), a 2002 American action film also called Riders
 * "Riders", a group of police officers involved in misconduct in Oakland, California; see Allen v. City of Oakland
 * The Riders collective refers to three of the four Horsemen of the Apocalypse in NetHack, serving as the game's final bosses.

Gaming

 * Sonic Riders, a 2006 racing video game from the Sonic the Hedgehog series
 * Sonic Riders: Zero Gravity, a 2008 racing video game from the Sonic the Hedgehog series
 * Sonic Free Riders, a 2010 racing video game from the Sonic the Hedgehog series

title: Riders


text:
General of the Armies

General of the Armies of the United States, more commonly referred to as General of the Armies, is the highest military rank in the United States. The rank has been conferred three times: to John J. Pershing in 1919, as a personal accolade for his command of the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I; to George Washington in 1976, as a posthumous honor during the United States Bicentennial celebrations; and to Ulysses S. Grant in December 2022, when Congress authorized the president to posthumously appoint him to the rank.

The grade is sometimes described as a six-star general, as being senior to the five-star grade of General of the Army, but no six-star insignia was ever officially created and Pershing, the only person to be General of the Armies during his own lifetime, never wore more than four stars. Whether Pershing's grade should rank as four, five, or six stars has been a subject of debate ever since the five-star grades were created in 1944. To make Washington unambiguously the highest ranking Army officer in 1976, Congress specified that his new grade of General of the Armies ranked above all other grades of the Army, past or present.

The General of the Armies enjoyed several privileges not afforded to other generals, including a much higher salary and the right to retire at full pay and allowances. Even in retirement, Pershing—the only-ever living person with the rank—was the second-highest-paid official in the federal government, after only the president of the United States.

Attempt to appoint Washington
The office of "General of the Armies of the United States" was created by an Act of Congress on March 3, 1799, which stated:

"That a commander of the army of the United States shall be appointed and commissioned by the style of 'General of the Armies of the United States,' and the present office and title of Lieutenant-General shall thereafter be abolished."

The law was intended to elevate George Washington, who was then a lieutenant general commanding the provisional army being organized to fight the Quasi-War against France, but President John Adams never made the appointment, concerned it would infringe on the president's constitutional function as "commander-in-chief of the armed forces". Washington died on December 14, 1799, and the grade lapsed on March 16, 1802, when not mentioned in the law that defined the peacetime military establishment.

American Civil War
After the American Civil War, Congress honored Ulysses S. Grant for his successful command of the Union Army by authorizing his promotion to the grade of general under the Act of July 25, 1866, which stated:

"That the grade of 'general of the army of the United States' be, and the same is hereby, revived...."

Despite being titled "General of the Army" instead of "General of the Armies", the Comptroller General of the United States would rule in 1924 that the grade revived in 1866 for Grant (and later William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan) was the same grade that had been created for Washington in 1799 and revived for Pershing in 1919.

"It thus appears that the office of general was first created in 1799 by the title of 'General of the Armies of the United States;' that it was revived in 1866 as 'General of the Army of the United States;' and that it was again revived in 1919 by the title of 'General of the Armies of the United States.' That it is one and the same office, that of general, is unquestioned."

Pershing would inherit several of his unique perquisites as General of the Armies through this legislative continuity with the Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan grade, including a much higher salary than other generals and the right to retire at full pay instead of three-quarters pay.

John J. Pershing (1919)
During World War I, Congress authorized the ex officio grade of general for the chief of staff of the Army and the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France, but only during the wartime emergency. Unlike the 1866 grade, which was a permanent personal appointment, the 1917 grade was only held while occupying a specific office. Army chief of staff Tasker H. Bliss and AEF commander John J. Pershing were commissioned emergency generals on October 8, 1917, with Peyton C. March succeeding Bliss as chief of staff and emergency general on May 20, 1918.

Attempt to appoint March with Pershing
When the war ended, Pershing and March were due to lose their emergency grades and revert to major general, so on June 18, 1919, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to promote both men to permanent general in a way that gave Pershing precedence over March. Six weeks later, the House Military Affairs Committee reported out two bills authorizing Pershing and March to each be appointed General of the Armies. To ensure that Pershing would outrank March, Pershing's bill also repealed the 1917 law that gave the Army chief of staff precedence over all other Army officers.

Congress and Pershing both opposed March's promotion, having clashed with him during the war, so March's bill did not pass and he reverted to major general. He was later advanced to general on the retired list.

Pershing appointment
On September 3, 1919, President Wilson signed Public Law 66-45, providing:

"That the office of General of the Armies of the United States is hereby revived...[for] a general officer of the Army who, on foreign soil and during the recent war, has been especially distinguished in the higher command of military forces of the United States...and any provision of existing law that would enable any other officer of the Army to take rank and precedence over said officer is hereby repealed...."

The bill had been rushed through Congress in only two days so that Secretary of War Newton D. Baker could hand Pershing his new commission as soon as he arrived from France on September 8, when his emergency grade would expire.

In the haste to promote Pershing, Wilson accidentally nominated him to be a general in the Army instead of a General of the Armies, a difference that could have cost Pershing half his income when he retired.

Official Army publications subsequently took care to spell out Pershing's title as General of the Armies, as distinct from the emergency generals of 1917 and the rank of general that was held by the chief of staff of the Army after 1929. In 1928, Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis even increased the 17-gun salute authorized for a General of the Armies to the 19 guns of a European field marshal.

Continued privileges during retirement
Pershing transferred to the retired list on September 12, 1924, but continued to draw full pay and allowances, a privilege not granted to other generals.

Even after retiring, the General of the Armies maintained a spacious office in the old State, War, and Navy Building until it was relocated to the Pentagon in 1947, years after ill health had permanently confined Pershing to Walter Reed General Hospital. In 1939, Congress created the office of military secretary to the General of the Armies with the rank of colonel so Pershing's longtime aide, Captain George E. Adamson, could continue to manage Pershing's affairs after his own retirement.

World War II
There were several attempts to appoint senior World War II officers as Generals of the Armies, but none came to fruition.

Attempts to appoint Marshall and Arnold
In August 1943, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Ernest J. King increased his efforts to create a grade higher than four stars after being outranked by his British counterpart at the First Quebec Conference. The Navy could even be outranked by the Army if Pershing died and Army chief of staff George C. Marshall inherited his title of General of the Armies with its de facto five-star rank, as retired CNO William V. Pratt warned King in January 1944.

Marshall opposed any higher grade, saying he did not need one. King and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson both suspected that as Pershing's longtime protégé, Marshall would resist any rank equivalent to General of the Armies while his mentor was still alive. Stimson did ask President Franklin D. Roosevelt to appoint Marshall as General of the Armies in September 1943 so he could command the planned invasion of France while remaining chief of staff, but Roosevelt ultimately gave the command to Dwight D. Eisenhower instead.

In February 1944, King's lobbying led both houses of Congress to submit bills reviving the grades of General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy. King wanted the American Joint Chiefs of Staff to rank with the British field marshals on the Combined Chiefs of Staff, raising both Marshall and Army Air Forces commander Henry H. Arnold to five-star General of the Armies. However, House Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson wanted King and Marshall to have even higher rank, so the House bills inserted a five-star fleet admiral below a six-star Admiral of the Navy, which the Army was expected to match with its own five-star grade and a six-star General of the Armies. Even King thought six stars was too much, and public opposition convinced supporters of higher grades to defer legislation until after a successful landing in Europe.

Creation of five-star grade
With the invasion of Europe well underway by September 1944, the War Department finally gave its blessing to a five-star grade on condition that it not be called General of the Armies, a title reserved for the higher rank held by Pershing. In a press conference on September 14, 1944, Stimson said:

"I have been asked by members of Congress for the War Department's view on an amendment which will provide for similar advanced army rank. I have advised Congress that the War Department concurs in such proposed action. This concurrence, however, is contingent on the understanding that a distinction will be made between the title conferred by the new advanced rank and the title now accompanying the higher rank of 'The General of the Armies' held by General John J. Pershing."

On December 14, 1944, Public Law 78-482 established the five-star grade of General of the Army, preserving Pershing's status as the only General of the Armies and further stating that nothing would change about the 1919 law that had promoted him:

"Nothing in this Act shall affect the provisions of the Act of September 3, 1919...or any other law relating to the office of General of the Armies of the United States."

Six-star debate
By specifying that nothing about the General of the Armies would be changed by the law that created the five-star grades, Congress intended Pershing to remain the highest-ranking officer in the Army. This sparked a long-running debate over whether Pershing was now a six-star general; the senior five-star general; or even just a four-star general, as later argued by an influential pair of articles by Frederick Bernays Wiener, who pointed out that the 1919 law that revived his office did not actually say that the General of the Armies outranked all other Army officers, but merely repealed a 1917 law that would have let the Army chief of staff outrank him.

For the rest of Pershing's life, official publications consistently treated the General of the Armies as being one grade higher than a five-star general. As late as 1951, Army regulations specified 19 guns to salute the General of the Armies, and only 17 guns for a General of the Army.

Pershing himself never wore more than four stars. Army regulations let the General of the Armies design his own uniform, but by the time the five-star grade was created in 1944, Pershing was too infirm to consider updating his insignia. When Pershing died on July 15, 1948, a proposal to bury him in a uniform bearing six stars was rejected in favor of the four stars he had always worn.

Attempts to appoint MacArthur
In January 1955, Congressional supporters of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur introduced legislation to appoint him General of the Armies, backdated to his 75th birthday on January 26. The proposal stalled in the House Armed Services Committee after the Defense Department opposed it on the grounds that promoting only MacArthur would downgrade all other five-star officers and "arouse interservice, intraservice and popular misunderstanding and controversies." Another attempt was still pending in Congress when MacArthur died on April 5, 1964. Further efforts were made to grant a posthumous promotion to MacArthur following his death.

George Washington (1976)
In September 1953, the New York Times reported that because George Washington had never been appointed General of the Armies in 1799, he remained a lieutenant general who was now outranked by 45 other generals, living and dead. Citing this low rank, Senator Edward Martin introduced a bill in April 1954 to appoint Washington posthumously as General of the Armies.

Twenty-two years later, a veterans group in the district of Representative Mario Biaggi observed that Washington had still not been promoted, prompting Biaggi to sponsor a joint resolution to elevate Washington to General of the Armies as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration in 1976.

When the House Armed Services Committee met to consider the resolution, a committee counsel acknowledged that it was still debatable whether Pershing was ever more than a four-star general, but Representative F. Edward Hébert asserted that the language of this resolution did make Washington a six-star general, saying, "We have three grades—general, General of the Army, and this is General of the Armies of the United States."

Representative Lucien N. Nedzi objected that Washington's stature was already so high that giving him a modern Army rank just made Congress look ridiculous. "It's like having the Pope offer to make Christ a cardinal."

Washington appointment
Deeming it "fitting and proper that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list," Public Law 94-479 declared that:

"(a) for purposes of subsection (b) of this section only, the grade of General of the Armies of the United States is established, such grade to have rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present.

(b) The President is authorized and requested to appoint George Washington posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States, such appointment to take effect on July 4, 1976."

Although President Gerald Ford signed the law on October 11, 1976, no further action was taken to promote Washington until February 1978, when a military driver studying for a promotion board asked his passenger, General Donn A. Starry, whether Washington now outranked Pershing. The specialist five's question to a four-star general triggered a chain of inquiries that caused the Department of the Army to issue on March 13, 1978, posthumously promoting Washington to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States, effective from the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1976. When the question was asked again in 1992, the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry considered Pershing's rank to be equivalent to five stars and junior to Washington.

Ulysses S. Grant (2022)
In September 2021, joint resolutions authorizing the President to appoint Ulysses S. Grant posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States were introduced in the House and Senate by a bipartisan Congressional delegation from his home states of Ohio, Missouri, and New York. In a letter to the secretary of defense, three of the bill's sponsors argued that by reestablishing the General of the Armies grade with "precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present," the 1976 law authorizing Washington's promotion had effectively lowered the grade to which Grant was appointed in 1866.

Supporters of Grant's promotion hoped the law would pass in time for his 200th birthday on April 27, 2022, the date of rank specified in the bill, which was titled the "Ulysses S. Grant Bicentennial Recognition Act". The joint resolutions were referred to the House Armed Services Committee and Senate Judiciary Committee, neither of which took any action. Instead, the annual defense policy bill used different language to authorize Grant's appointment to the grade of General of the Armies, adding a clause that tied his rank and precedence to that of Pershing.

Grant authorization
Section 583 of the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023, signed into law on December 23, 2022, states: "The President is authorized to appoint Ulysses S. Grant posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States, equal to the rank and precedence held by General John J. Pershing pursuant to the Act titled 'An Act Relating to the creation of the office of General of the Armies of the United States', approved September 3, 1919 (, ch. 56)."

Insignia
No insignia was ever officially specified for the General of the Armies, who was allowed to define it for himself.

Upon being appointed General of the Armies in 1919, Pershing continued to wear the four silver stars and gold collar eagle that he had selected for his insignia as a general in 1917, when Army regulations authorized generals to prescribe their own shoulder and collar insignia. Pershing and Generals Tasker H. Bliss and Peyton C. March all chose to wear four silver stars on their shoulders, instead of the previous insignia of two silver stars and a gold eagle. Pershing and Bliss also replaced the regulation bronze "U.S." insignia on their collars with a gold eagle representing the Great Seal of the United States.

In 1937, Pershing created a custom full dress uniform to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, denoting his rank with four gold stars embroidered on each sleeve. Full dress uniforms for other general officers used silver stars, including the custom uniform that Army chief of staff Malin Craig designed for himself the following year.

Because the General of the Armies prescribed his own insignia, later tradition held that Pershing could have worn as many stars as he wanted. Claimed one expert in 1976, "if a General of the Armies wants to wear six stars, he can. Or seven. Or 10, I guess." The creation of the five-star grades in 1944 led to suggestions that Pershing clarify his seniority by adopting a six-star insignia, but by then he was too ill. When Pershing died in 1948, funeral planners considered affixing a six-star insignia to his uniform, but instead buried him with the four stars he wore in life.

Compensation
As General of the Armies, Pershing was paid much more than other generals. The 1919 law that promoted Pershing gave the General of the Armies the same annual pay of US$13500 1919 that was set in 1870 for General William T. Sherman, plus US$8000 1919 in allowances.

All other generals fell under the Joint Service Pay Readjustment Act of 1922, which set the pay for a major general at US$8000 1922. Higher ranks had the same pay as a major general plus a personal money allowance of US$500 1922 for a lieutenant general, US$2200 1922 for a general, or US$5000 1922 for a general of the Army. Including food and housing, the annual compensation for a general of the Army in December 1944 was US$14951, versus US$21500 for the General of the Armies (respectively equivalent to $ and $ in ).

Retirement
The General of the Armies retired with full pay and allowances, another benefit created for Sherman and inherited by Pershing, who continued to receive $21,500 for the rest of his life. Even in retirement, he drew a higher annual compensation than any other official in the federal government except the president of the United States.

Other generals retired at three-quarters pay and no allowances. When Army chief of staff Charles P. Summerall retired in 1931, his annual compensation fell to only $6,000, three-quarters of a major general's pay.

Uniform
Starting in 1933, the General of the Armies was allowed to design his own uniform, as were current and former Army chiefs of staff. Pershing used this authority to create the unique uniform he wore to the 1937 coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, styled after the full dress uniform introduced by the Army in 1902 but discontinued in 1917. Whereas the 1902 uniform portrayed the rank of a general officer by embroidering silver stars on each sleeve, Pershing's 1937 uniform sleeves bore four gold stars. When Army chief of staff Malin Craig designed his own custom uniform in 1938, he returned to the usual silver stars.

Pershing's estate donated his General of the Armies uniforms to the Smithsonian Institution, including the 1921 service coat with four silver stars that he wore as Army chief of staff and the 1937 full dress coat with four gold stars that he wore to the coronation.

Equivalence with Admiral of the Navy
On March 2, 1899, Congress created the grade of Admiral of the Navy to honor George Dewey for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay. Only Dewey ever held this grade, which is often treated as the United States Navy equivalent of General of the Armies, although the two grades never overlapped since Dewey died on January 16, 1917, two years before Pershing's appointment.

Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies were permanent grades awarded as personal accolades for past service, unlike the later ex officio ranks of admiral and general. Both grades carried the same annual pay of $13,500 for life, and the proposal to create more Admirals of the Navy in 1944 continued to tie their compensation to the General of the Armies.

After Dewey was mistakenly nominated to be an admiral in the Navy instead of Admiral of the Navy in 1899 and had to be renominated in 1903, the Navy carefully distinguished between Dewey's grade and the rank of admiral that was held by the three fleet commanders from 1915, and the Chief of Naval Operations from 1916. The Army took similar care to distinguish between Pershing's grade and the rank of general held by the chief of staff of the Army from 1929, after Pershing was mistakenly nominated to be a general in the Army instead of General of the Armies in 1919.

Because Dewey and Pershing were both treated as if they held grades higher than admiral or general, before World War II they were sometimes thought to be on par with a British admiral of the fleet or field marshal. When the five-star grades were created in 1944, the initial legislation called them Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies. However, House Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson inserted a five-star fleet admiral below Admiral of the Navy, which he wanted to be a six-star grade. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson then required that the five-star Army grade not be called General of the Armies, which he thought was also a higher rank.

Although the 1944 proposal to create six-star grades was dropped, Army and Navy regulations in 1951 still authorized only 17 guns to salute a five-star officer, and 19 guns for an Admiral of the Navy or General of the Armies.

title: General of the Armies


text: User talk:131.111.203.106

title: User talk:131.111.203.106


text:
José Ortega y Gasset

José Ortega y Gasset (9 May 1883 – 18 October 1955) was a Spanish philosopher and essayist. He worked during the first half of the 20th century while Spain oscillated between monarchy, republicanism, and dictatorship. His philosophy has been characterized as a "philosophy of life" that "comprised a long-hidden beginning in a pragmatist metaphysics inspired by William James, and with a general method from a realist phenomenology imitating Edmund Husserl, which served both his proto-existentialism (prior to Martin Heidegger's) and his realist historicism, which has been compared to both Wilhelm Dilthey and Benedetto Croce."

Biography
José Ortega y Gasset was born 9 May 1883 in Madrid. His father was director of the newspaper El Imparcial, which belonged to the family of his mother, Dolores Gasset. The family was definitively of Spain's end-of-the-century liberal and educated bourgeoisie. The liberal tradition and journalistic engagement of his family had a profound influence in Ortega y Gasset's activism in politics.

Ortega was first schooled by the Jesuit priests of St. Stanislaus Kostka College, Málaga, Málaga (1891–1897). He attended the University of Deusto, Bilbao (1897–98) and the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at the Central University of Madrid (now Complutense University of Madrid) (1898–1904), receiving a doctorate in Philosophy. From 1905 to 1907, he continued his studies in Germany at Leipzig, Nuremberg, Cologne, Berlin and, above all Marburg. At Marburg, he was influenced by the neo-Kantianism of Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp, among others.

On his return to Spain in 1908, he was appointed professor of Philosophy, Logic and Ethics at the Escuela Superior del Magisterio de Madrid. In 1910, he married Rosa Spottorno Topete, a Spanish translator and feminist, and was named full professor of Metaphysics at Complutense University of Madrid, a vacant seat previously held by Nicolás Salmerón.

In 1917 he became a contributor to the newspaper El Sol, where he published, as a series of essays, his two principal works: España invertebrada (Invertebrate Spain) and La rebelión de las masas (The Revolt of the Masses). The latter made him internationally famous. He founded the Revista de Occidente in 1923, remaining its director until 1936. This publication promoted translation of (and commentary upon) the most important figures and tendencies in philosophy, including Oswald Spengler, Johan Huizinga, Edmund Husserl, Georg Simmel, Jakob von Uexküll, Heinz Heimsoeth, Franz Brentano, Hans Driesch, Ernst Müller, Alexander Pfänder, and Bertrand Russell.

Elected deputy for the Province of León in the constituent assembly of the Second Spanish Republic, he was the leader of a parliamentary group of intellectuals known as Agrupación al Servicio de la República ("The Grouping at the Service of the Republic"), which supported the platform of Socialist Republican candidates, but he soon abandoned politics, disappointed.

Leaving Spain at the outbreak of the Civil War, he spent years of exile in Buenos Aires, Argentina until moving back to Europe in 1942. He settled in Portugal by mid-1945 and slowly began to make short visits to Spain. In 1948 he returned to Madrid, where he founded the Institute of Humanities, at which he lectured. Upon his return to Spain, he often privately expressed his hostility to the Franco regime, stating that the government did not deserve anyone's confidence and that his beliefs were "incompatible with Franco."

Liberalism
The Revolt of the Masses is Ortega's best known work. In this book he defends the values of meritocratic liberalism reminiscent of John Stuart Mill against attacks from both communists and right-wing populists. Ortega likewise shares Mill's fears of the "tyranny of the majority" and the "collective mediocrity" of the masses, which he believes threaten individuality, free thought, and protections for minorities. Ortega characterized liberalism as a politics of "magnanimity."

Ortega's rejection of the Spanish Conservative Party under Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and his successors was unequivocal, as was his distrust of the Spanish monarchy and Catholic Church. Yet, Ortega's political thought has been characterized as anti-democratic and conservative, and his work The Revolt of the Masses is widely regarded as a conservative classic.

In a manner similar to Mill, Ortega was open-minded toward certain socialists and non-Marxist forms of socialism, and even complimented Pablo Iglesias Posse as a "lay saint". Under the influence of German social democrats, such as Paul Natorp and Hermann Cohen, he adopted a communitarian ontology and could be critical of capitalism, particularly the laissez-faire variant, declaring that "nineteenth-century capitalism has demoralized humanity" and that it had "impoverished the ethical consciousness of man."

"Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia"
For Ortega y Gasset, philosophy has a critical duty to lay siege to beliefs in order to promote new ideas and to explain reality. To accomplish such tasks, the philosopher must—as Husserl proposed—leave behind prejudices and previously existing beliefs, and investigate the essential reality of the universe. Ortega y Gasset proposes that philosophy must overcome the limitations of both idealism (in which reality centers around the ego) and ancient-medieval realism (in which reality is outside the subject) to focus on the only truthful reality: "my life"—the life of each individual. He suggests that there is no "me" without things, and things are nothing without me: "I" (human being) cannot be detached from "my circumstance" (world). This led Ortega y Gasset to pronounce his famous maxim "Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia" ("I am me and my circumstance") (Meditaciones del Quijote, 1914) which he always put at the core of his philosophy.

For Ortega y Gasset, as for Husserl, the Cartesian 'cogito ergo sum' is insufficient to explain reality. Therefore, the Spanish philosopher proposes a system wherein the basic or "radical" reality is "my life" (the first yo), which consists of "I" (the second yo) and "my circumstance" (mi circunstancia). This circunstancia is oppressive; therefore, there is a continual dialectical interaction between the person and his or her circumstances and, as a result, life is a drama that exists between necessity and freedom.

In this sense Ortega y Gasset wrote that life is at the same time fate and freedom, and that freedom "is being free inside of a given fate. Fate gives us an inexorable repertory of determinate possibilities, that is, it gives us different destinies. We accept fate and within it we choose one destiny." In this tied down fate we must therefore be active, decide and create a "project of life"—thus not be like those who live a conventional life of customs and given structures who prefer an unconcerned and imperturbable life because they are afraid of the duty of choosing a project.

Ratiovitalism
With a philosophical system that centered around life, Ortega y Gasset also stepped out of Descartes' cogito ergo sum and asserted "I live therefore I think". This stood at the root of his Kantian-inspired perspectivism, which he developed by adding a non-relativistic character in which absolute truth does exist and would be obtained by the sum of all perspectives of all lives, since for each human being life takes a concrete form and life itself is a true radical reality from which any philosophical system must derive. In this sense, Ortega coined the terms "vital reason" (razón vital, "reason with life as its foundation") to refer to a new type of reason that constantly defends the life from which it has surged and "ratiovitalism" (raciovitalismo), a theory that based knowledge in the radical reality of life, one of whose essential components is reason itself. This system of thought, which he introduces in History as System, escaped from Nietzsche's vitalism in which life responded to impulses; for Ortega, reason is crucial to create and develop the above-mentioned project of life.

Historical reason
For Ortega y Gasset, vital reason is also "historical reason", for individuals and societies are not detached from their past. In order to understand a reality we must understand, as Dilthey pointed out, its history.

Influence
Ortega y Gasset's influence was considerable, not only because many sympathized with his philosophical writings, but also because those writings did not require that the reader be well-versed in technical philosophy.

Among those strongly influenced by Ortega y Gasset were Luis Buñuel, Manuel García Morente, Joaquín Xirau, Xavier Zubiri, Ignacio Ellacuría, Emilio Komar, José Gaos, Luis Recasens, Manuel Granell, Francisco Ayala, María Zambrano, Agustín Basave (writer), Máximo Etchecopar, Pedro Laín Entralgo, José Luis López-Aranguren, Julián Marías, John Lukacs, Pierre Bourdieu, Paulino Garagorri, Vicente Ferreira da Silva, Vilém Flusser and Félix Martí-Ibáñez.

The Ortega hypothesis, based on a quote in The Revolt of the Masses, states that average or mediocre scientists contribute substantially to the advancement of science.

German grape breeder Hans Breider named the grape variety Ortega in his honor.

The American philosopher Graham Harman has recognized Ortega y Gasset as a source of inspiration for his own object-oriented ontology.

La rebelión de las masas (The Revolt of the Masses) has been translated into English twice. The first, in 1932, is by a translator who wanted to remain anonymous, generally accepted to be J.R. Carey. The second translation was published by the University of Notre Dame Press in 1985, in association with W.W. Norton & Co. This translation was by Anthony Kerrigan (translator) and Kenneth Moore (editor), with an introduction by Saul Bellow.

Mildred Adams is the translator (into English) of the main body of Ortega's work, including Invertebrate Spain, Man and Crisis, What is Philosophy?, Some Lessons in Metaphysics, The Idea of Principle in Leibniz and the Evolution of Deductive Theory, and An Interpretation of Universal History.

Madrid School
The Madrid School (also School of Madrid; Escuela de Madrid) was a group of philosophers, the members of which were students of Ortega y Gasset, who share an intellectual tradition of arguing against naturalism and positivism. Members included José Gaos, Julián Marías, and Xavier Zubiri.

Influence on the Generation of '27
Ortega y Gasset had considerable influence on writers of the Generation of '27, a group of poets that arose in Spanish literature in the 1920s.

Works
Much of Ortega y Gasset's work consists of course lectures published years after the fact, often posthumously. This list attempts to list works in chronological order by when they were written, rather than when they were published.
 * Meditaciones del Quijote (Meditations on Quixote, 1914)
 * Vieja y nueva política (Old and new politics, 1914)
 * Investigaciones psicológicas (Psychological investigations, course given 1915–16 and published in 1982)
 * Personas, obras, cosas (People, works, things, articles and essays written 1904–1912: "Renan", "Adán en el Paraíso" – "Adam in Paradise", "La pedagogía social como programa político" – "Pedagogy as a political program", "Problemas culturales" – "Cultural problems", etc., published 1916)
 * El Espectador (The Spectator, 8 volumes published 1916–1934)
 * España invertebrada (Invertebrate Spain, 1921)
 * El tema de nuestro tiempo (The Modern Theme, 1923)
 * Las Atlántidas (The Atlantises, 1924)
 * La deshumanización del arte e Ideas sobre la novela (The dehumanization of art and Ideas about the novel, 1925)
 * Espíritu de la letra (The spirit of the letter 1927)
 * Mirabeau o el político (Mirabeau or the politician, 1928–1929)
 * ¿Qué es filosofía? (What is philosophy? 1928–1929, course published posthumously in 1957)
 * Kant (1929–31)
 * ¿Qué es conocimiento? (What is knowledge? Published in 1984, covering three courses taught in 1929, 1930, and 1931, entitled, respectively: "Vida como ejecución (El ser ejecutivo)" – "Life as execution (The executive being)", "Sobre la realidad radical" – "On radical reality" and "¿Qué es la vida?" – "What is Life?")
 * La rebelión de las masas (The Revolt of the Masses, 1930)
 * Rectificación de la República; La redención de las provincias y la decencia nacional (Rectification of the Republic: Redemption of the provinces and national decency, 1931)
 * Goethe desde dentro (Goethe from within, 1932)
 * Unas lecciones de metafísica (Some lessons in metaphysics, course given 1932–33, published 1966)
 * En torno a Galileo (About Galileo, course given 1933–34; portions were published in 1942 under the title "Esquema de las crisis" – "Outline of crises"; Mildred Adams's translation was published in 1958 as Man and Crisis.)
 * Prólogo para alemanes (Prologue for Germans, prologue to the third German edition of El tema de nuestro tiempo. Ortega himself prevented its publication "because of the events of Munich in 1934". It was finally published, in Spanish, in 1958.)
 * History as a System (First published in English in 1935. the Spanish version, Historia como sistema, 1941, adds an essay "El Imperio romano" – "The Roman Empire").
 * Ensimismamiento y alteración. Meditación de la técnica. (Self-absorption and alteration. Meditation on the technique, 1939)
 * Ideas y creencias (Ideas and beliefs: on historical reason, a course taught in 1940 Buenos Aires, published 1979 along with Sobre la razón histórica)
 * Teoría de Andalucía y otros ensayos – Guillermo Dilthey y la idea de vida (The theory of Andalucia and other essays: Wilhelm Dilthey and the idea of life, 1942)
 * Sobre la razón histórica (On historical reason, course given in Lisbon, 1944, published 1979 along with Ideas y Crencias)
 * Prólogo a un Tratado de Montería (Preface to a treatise on the Hunt [separately published as Meditations on the Hunt], created as preface to a book on the hunt by Count Ybes published 1944)
 * Idea del teatro. Una abreviatura (The idea of theatre. An abbreviated version, lecture given in Lisbon April 1946, and in Madrid, May 1946; published in 1958, La Revista Nacional de educación num. 62 contained the version given in Madrid.)
 * La Idea de principio en Leibniz y la evolución de la teoría deductiva (The Idea of principle in Leibniz and the evolution of deductive theory, 1947, published 1958)
 * Una interpretación de la historia universal. En torno a Toynbee (An interpretation of universal history. On Toynbee, 1948, published in 1960)
 * Meditación de Europa (Meditation on Europe), lecture given in Berlin in 1949 with the Latin-language title De Europa meditatio quaedam. Published 1960 together with other previously unpublished works.
 * El hombre y la gente (Man and people, course given 1949–1950 at the Institute of the Humanities, published 1957; Willard Trask's translation as Man and People published 1957; Partisan Review published parts of this translation in 1952)
 * Papeles sobre Velázquez y Goya (Papers on Velázquez and Goya, 1950)
 * Pasado y porvenir para el hombre actual (Past and future for present-day man, published 1962, brings together a series of lectures given in Germany, Switzerland, and England in the period 1951–1954, published together with a commentary on Plato's Symposium.)
 * Goya (1958)
 * Velázquez (1959)
 * Origen y epílogo de la filosofía (Origin and epilogue of philosophy, 1960),
 * La caza y los toros (Hunting and bulls, 1960)
 * Meditations on hunting (1972, 1995) translated into English by Howard B. Westcott. Original art by Eldridge Hardie. Wilderness Adventure Press. ISBN 1-885106-18-1

Translated books in English

 * The Revolt of the Masses
 * Invertebrate Spain
 * Man and Crisis
 * What is Knowledge?
 * What is Philosophy? 1964
 * Some Lessons in Metaphysics 1971
 * The Idea of Principle in Leibniz and the Evolution of Deductive Theory 1971
 * An Interpretation of Universal History
 * The Dehumanization of Art and Other Essays on Art, Culture, and Literature, 1925, Princeton 2019
 * On Love: Aspects of a Single Theme. 1957, 2012
 * History as a System and Other Essays Toward a Philosophy of History, 1962
 * Man and Crisis, 1962 (Norton Library)
 * Man and People, 1963 (Norton Library)
 * Meditations on Hunting, 1972
 * The Origin of Philosophy, 1968
 * Psychological Investigations 1987
 * Historical Reason 1986
 * Mission of the University, 2014 (International Library of Sociology)

Books about Ortega y Gasset

 * Rockwell Gray - The Imperative of Modernity: An Intellectual Biography of José Ortega y Gasset
 * Carlos Morujão - The Philosophy of Ortega y Gasset Reevaluated
 * Andrew Dobson - An Introduction to the Politics and Philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset (Cambridge Iberian and Latin American Studies)
 * Pedro Blas González- Human Existence as Radical Reality: Ortega's Philosophy of Subjectivity
 * Pedro Blas González- Fragments: Essays in Subjectivity, Individuality and Autonomy
 * Pedro Blas González- Ortega's 'The Revolt of the Masses' and the Triumph of the New Man

title: José Ortega y Gasset


text:
Legionowo County

Legionowo County (powiat legionowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Masovian Voivodeship, east-central Poland. It came into being on 1 January 1999 as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Legionowo, which lies 22 km north of Warsaw. The only other town in the county is Serock, lying 17 km north-east of Legionowo.

The county covers an area of 389.86 km2. As of 2019, its total population is 106,321, out of which the population of Legionowo is 54,049, that of Serock is 4,506, and the rural population is 47,766.

Legionowo is part of the greater Warsaw area and has a large commuter population. The train connection takes about 30 mins to central Warsaw (connection to Warsaw Metro at Warszawa Gdańska station) and is planned to be added to the Warsaw Rapid Train system by 2010. Both the road and the train connection pass through the national reserve forest which separates Legionowo from Warsaw and is a favorite weekend walk and biking destination. On the opposite side of Legionowo is the Zegrze Reservoir, created in 1970 with the building of a river dam, now a popular leisure destination.

The village of Jabłonna, between Legionowo and Warsaw, housed the largest population of private production and greenhouse businesses in communist times, making the village the richest in Poland at that time and continuing to this day in the form of a thriving business community.

Legionowo is also famous throughout Poland for its police training college.

Neighbouring counties
Legionowo County is bordered by Pułtusk County to the north, Wyszków County and Wołomin County to the east, the city of Warsaw and Warsaw West County to the south, and Nowy Dwór County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into five gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Legionowo County