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Bleach (manga)

Bleach (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tite Kubo. It follows the adventures of a teenager Ichigo Kurosaki, who obtains the powers of a Soul Reaper—a death personification similar to a Grim Reaper—from another Soul Reaper, Rukia Kuchiki. His new-found powers allow him to take on the duties of defending humans from evil spirits and guiding departed souls to the afterlife, and set him on journeys to various ghostly realms of existence.

Bleach was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from August 2001 to August 2016, with its chapters collected in 74 tankōbon volumes. The series has spawned a media franchise that includes an anime television series adaptation produced by studio Pierrot from 2004 to 2012, two original video animation (OVA) episodes, four animated feature films, ten stage musicals, and numerous video games, as well as many types of Bleach-related merchandise. A Japanese live-action film adaptation produced by Warner Bros. premiered in 2018. A sequel to the anime television series, which adapts the manga's final story arc, premiered in 2022.

In North America, the manga was licensed for English release by Viz Media in 2004. They have released the collected volumes and published its chapters in their Shonen Jump magazine from November 2007 until the magazine's final issue in April 2012.

Bleach received the 50th Shogakukan Manga Award for the shōnen category in 2005. The manga had over 130 million tankōbon volumes in circulation worldwide by 2022, making it one of the best-selling manga in history.

Plot
Ichigo Kurosaki is a teenager from Karakura Town who can see ghosts, a talent allowing him to meet Rukia Kuchiki, a Soul Reaper who enters the town in search of a Hollow, a kind of monstrous lost soul who can harm both ghosts and humans. Rukia is one of the Soul Reapers (死神), soldiers trusted with ushering the souls of the dead from the World of the Living to the Soul Society, the afterlife realm from which she originates and with fighting Hollows. When she is severely wounded defending Ichigo from a Hollow she pursues, Rukia transfers her powers to Ichigo, so he may fight in her stead while she recovers. Rukia is thereby trapped in an ordinary human body, and must advise Ichigo as he balances the demands of his substitute Soul Reaper duties and attending high school. For aid in hunting the Hollows, the pair ally with a trio of other spiritually empowered allies: Ichigo's high school classmate Orihime Inoue, best friend Yasutora "Chad" Sado and Uryū Ishida, a Quincy classmate with the ability to control spiritual particles.

Eventually, Rukia is arrested by her Soul Reaper superiors and sentenced to death for the illegal act of transferring her powers to a human. Ichigo and his friends enlist the help of ex-Soul Reaper scientist Kisuke Urahara, who trains Ichigo to access his own Soul Reaper powers, to enter the Soul Society and rescue Rukia. Shortly after the party's arrival in the Soul Society, conflict arises among the captains of the Thirteen Court Squads when the captain of the fifth company, Sōsuke Aizen, is apparently murdered; the captains believed that the intruders might have been responsible, which causes the Soul Reapers to begin fighting amongst themselves. Thereafter, the Captain Commander Genryusai Shigekuni Yamamoto, issues the Soul Reapers to arrest Ichigo and his friends as suspects. However, Ichigo saves Rukia and manages to stop the war against the Soul Society. Aizen reappears and reveals his intention to obtain the Hōgyoku (崩玉), an orb of immense power Kisuke planted inside Rukia, by faking his death and arranging the execution. Aizen accompanies his fellow conspirators, Gin Ichimaru and Kaname Tōsen, who are the third and ninth company's captains, as they use Hollows to cover their escape into the Hollows' realm, Hueco Mundo. Afterwards, Ichigo and Rukia reconcile with the Soul Reapers, who view the former as a powerful ally and designate him an official title as Substitute Soul Reaper.

Ichigo soon finds himself and his friends in escalating skirmishes with Aizen's army of humanoid Hollows, the Arrancar, as they are joined by the Vizards, Soul Reapers who were victims of Aizen's experiments in creating the Arrancar. When Ulquiora, one of the Espada (Aizen's ten most powerful Arrancars) kidnaps Orihime, Ichigo and his allies enter Hueco Mundo to invade Las Noches. However, as Ichigo rescues Orihime, Aizen reveals her abduction was a distraction as he launches an attack on Karakura Town, in order to sacrifice everyone and create a key to the Soul King's Palace, so he can kill the Soul King who reigns over the Soul Society. Anticipating Aizen's attack, the Thirteen Court Squads had already been waiting for him by moving the entire Karakura Town to the Soul Society prior to his attack. When the Vizards join the remaining Soul Reapers, Gin reveals his agenda of killing Aizen. The latter uses the Hōgyoku to become a god-like being. However, Ichigo sacrifices and loses all his power to defeat Aizen and reverts to a normal human. Subsequently, Aizen is arrested by the Soul Society.

Months later, preparing for life after high school, Ichigo is called back into action when Xcution, a group of Fullbringers—supernaturally aware humans like Chad—manipulate him and his loved ones in a scheme to siphon his Fullbring abilities. After his Soul Society allies restore his Soul Reaper powers, Ichigo learns that Xcution's leader, Kugo Ginjo, was his predecessor. It is revealed that the Soul Society did not trust the substitute Soul Reapers, so they used the badge given to the Substitute Soul Reaper to monitor and restrict his power output. Ginjo felt betrayed and swore vengeance on all Soul Reapers. Despite knowing the truth, Ichigo decides to trust his Soul Reaper friends and defeats Ginjo. With his power restored, Ichigo once again is reinstated as a Substitute Soul Reaper.

After Ichigo regains his powers, an army of Quincies known as the Wandenreich appear and declare war against the Soul Society, having already enslaved many Arrancars in Hueco Mundo. The group is led by Yhwach, the ancient progenitor of the Quincies, who seeks to kill the Soul King and rid the world of death and fear. In their first invasion, the Wandenreich kill many Soul Reapers including the Head-Captain, Yamamoto. Uryū joins Yhwach and learns the truth behind the death of his mother. Later, Ichigo and his friends aid the Soul Society in fighting the Wandenreich's second invasion, but Yhwach invades the Royal Palace and kills the Soul King. In the final battle, the surviving Shinigami, along with Ichigo and his friends, assault Yhwach's new palace and defeat his army of Sternritters. Yhwach returns to the Soul Society to destroy it, but Ichigo defeats him with the help of Uryū and Aizen after the latter is temporarily released from prison.

Ten years later, Rukia becomes the new captain of the thirteenth company and has a daughter, an apprentice Soul Reaper named Ichika, with her childhood friend Renji Abarai. Meanwhile, Ichigo and Orihime have a son named Kazui, who is also a Soul Reaper. Two years later, Ichigo attends the Soul Funeral Ceremony for Jūshirō Ukitake. While the captains are waiting in the Soul Society to perform the ritual, Ichigo joins the Lieutenants at Karakura Town to capture Hollows that will be used as a sacrifice. They are ambushed by the Beasts of Hell, led by the late Octava Espada. Even though the lieutenants suppress them, it is revealed that the ceremony is a process of sending the deceased captains to Hell.

Production
Bleach was first conceived from Tite Kubo's desire to draw a shinigami (Soul Reaper) in a kimono, which formed the basis for the design of the Soul Reapers in the series. At first, Kubo thought that the Soul Reapers should use guns, so the first title for the series was "Snipe" (as in "sniper"); however, this was changed with the inclusion of swords. After that, the series was meant to be named "Black" due to the color of the Soul Reapers' clothes, but Kubo thought the title was too generic. He later tried the name of "White", but came to like "Bleach" more for its association with the color white and that he did not find it too obvious. The original story concept was submitted to Weekly Shōnen Jump shortly after the cancellation of Kubo's previous manga, Zombiepowder, but was at first rejected. Manga artist Akira Toriyama saw the story and wrote a letter of encouragement to Kubo. Bleach was accepted for publication a short time later in 2001, and was initially intended to be a shorter series, with a maximum serialization length of five years. Early plans for the story did not include the hierarchical structure of the Soul Society, but did include some characters and elements that were not introduced into the plot until the Arrancar arc, such as Ichigo's Soul Reaper parentage.

Kubo has cited influences for elements of Bleach ranging from other manga series to music, foreign language, architecture, and film. He attributed his interest in drawing the supernatural and monsters to Shigeru Mizuki's GeGeGe no Kitaro and Bleach's focus on interesting weaponry and battle scenes to Masami Kurumada's Saint Seiya, manga that Kubo enjoyed as a boy. The latter is based on Greek mythology and Kubo also considered it as a source for his focus on myths, monsters and the afterlife. The action style and storytelling found in Bleach are inspired by cinema, though Kubo has not revealed any specific movie as being an influence for fight scenes. When pressed, he told interviewers that he liked Snatch, but did not use it as a model. Bleach's fight choreography is instead constructed with the aid of rock music, which the author listens to while imagining the fights in order to give him a sense of pacing for the panel cuts and change of angles through the scenes. Kubo prefers to draw realistic injuries in order to render the fight more impactful, by making the readers feel the pain the characters are feeling. Bleach fight scenes are often broken up with brief gags, which the author inserts when he grows bored during the illustration process.

Bleach's plotting process is focused around character design. When writing plotlines or having difficulties generating new material, Kubo begins by thinking of new characters, often en masse, and rereading previous volumes of Bleach. Kubo has said that he likes creating characters that have outward appearances that do not match their true nature—an element that can be found in many Bleach characters—as he is "attracted to people with that seeming contradiction" and finds an "urge to draw people like that" when he works. The terminology used in Bleach has a variety of inspirations, with each category of characters bearing a different linguistic theme. Many of the names for swords and spells used by Soul Reapers were inspired by ancient Japanese literature. Hollows and Arrancars use Spanish terms. Fullbringers use English vocabulary, with names referencing rock music, and finally, both Quincy and Bounts draw on the German language. This multilingual terminology, along with the variety in apparent character ethnicities, emphasizes the international nature of the Bleach settings.

Themes and analysis
Bleach's plot incorporates the traditional Japanese belief of spirits coexisting with humans and their nature, good or evil, depends on the circumstances. An example is Orihime's backstory. She was raised from the age of three by her brother Sora, and prayed for his soul's peace after he died in a car accident. As time went on, she prayed less and Sora became jealous and turned into a Hollow and attacked Orihime. Academic Patrick Drazen says this is a reminder to the audience to not abandon the old ways or risk the spirits taking offense and causing problems in the world. Bleach also incorporates Shinto themes of purification of "evil spirits through charms, scrolls, incantations, and other rituals". Christopher A. Born regards Bleach as transmitting Confucian values.

Von Feigenblatt describes Bleach as being culturally and religiously aware, as it draws upon Christianity and Caribbean Santería. Spanish terms are prevalent throughout the realm of Hueco Mundo, while both Quincy and Bounts have been known to associate with the German language, making Kubo's world of characters diverse in race and language as well. Von Feigenblatt notes that the Quincy "are clearly inspired by the Roman Catholic Christian Orders of Knighthood such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre whose influence is shown in terms of the uniform worn by the Quincy as well as by the symbolism of the cross".

Manga
Bleach, written and illustrated by Tite Kubo, was serialized for 15 years in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from August 7, 2001, to August 22, 2016. Its 698 individual chapters were collected in 74 tankōbon volumes released between January 5, 2002, and November 4, 2016. Shueisha published the first 21 volumes compiled into six omnibus collections under the name Resurrected Souls to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the series. The first collection was released on August 22, 2011; the last collection was published on January 23, 2012. On September 21, 2012, Shueisha released 45 digital volumes in Japanese e-book stores, concluding with the 74th on November 4, 2016. These digital editions have been re-released as a set of 10 volumes on April 26, 2013; the sixth was released on March 14, 2014.

North American licensor Viz Media serialized the first chapters in the print magazine Shonen Jump from its November 2007 to April 2012 issues. The series moved to the digital anthology Weekly Shonen Jump Alpha in January 2012 and Viz Media released it digitally as Shueisha published new chapters in Japan. The first volume on English was released on July 6, 2004, and the last volume–the 74th–was released on October 2, 2018. Viz also released a hardcover "collector's edition" of the first volume that came with a dust jacket, two box sets, and twenty-five "3-in-1 edition" volumes between June 7, 2011, and March 5, 2019. Viz Media released first 16 volumes in English digitally on June 17, 2011, with the 74th released on October 2, 2018.

A 73-page chapter, titled "New Breathes From Hell" (獄頤鳴鳴篇), was published in Weekly Shōnen Jump, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the manga's debut in the magazine, on August 10, 2021. It was published in English by Viz Media's Shonen Jump online magazine and on the Shueisha's Manga Plus online platform. The one-shot ends seemingly on a cliffhanger; the character for "hen" (篇), used in the Japanese title of the chapter, is usually used to denote the title of a story arc. The chapter was digitally released as a collected volume on December 3, 2021. A full-color version of the chapter was published digitally on September 4, 2023.

Anime
Bleach was adapted by studio Pierrot into an anime television series directed by Noriyuki Abe and broadcast for 366 episodes on TV Tokyo from October 2004 to March 2012.

In March 2020, it was announced that the manga's final story arc, "Thousand-Year Blood War", would receive a new anime project. In November 2021, it was announced that the new project would be an anime television series. It is directed by Tomohisa Taguchi and premiered in October 2022.

Films
The series has spawned four animated films: Bleach: Memories of Nobody, premiered on December 16, 2006; Bleach: The DiamondDust Rebellion, premiered on December 22, 2007; Bleach: Fade to Black, premiered on December 13, 2008; and Bleach: Hell Verse, premiered on December 4, 2010. A live-action film adaptation premiered in Japan on July 20, 2018.

Light novels
Tite Kubo and Makoto Matsubara have co-authored three novelizations of the Bleach series, which were published by Shueisha under its Jump J-Books imprint. The first volume, Bleach – Letters From The Other Side: The Death and The Strawberry, was published on December 15, 2004, and re-released as Bleach – Letters From The Other Side: The Death and The Strawberry - New Edition on November 4, 2009. The second, Bleach: The Honey Dish Rhapsody, was published on November 30, 2006. The third, Bleach: The Death Save The Strawberry, was published on September 4, 2012. Two novelizations of the Bleach series have been co-authored by Narita Ryohgo. The first volume, Bleach: Spirits Are Forever With You, and the second, Bleach: Spirits Are Forever With You 2, were published on June 4, 2012.

After the series ended in 2016, a series of novels were released by Shueisha. The first novel, Bleach: WE DO knot ALWAYS LOVE YOU, was written by the writer of Bleach: The Death Save The Strawberry Makoto Matsubara and was published on December 27, 2016. The second, Bleach: Can't Fear Your Own World, is a serialized novel written by the writer of Bleach: Spirits Are Forever With You series Narita Ryohgo and was released bi-weekly from April 28, 2017. The first volume was released on August 4, 2017 and the second volume was published on November 2, 2018. The novel series ended with the release of the third volume on December 4, 2018. Viz Media published the three volumes of Bleach: Can't Fear Your Own World between July 7, 2020, and April 20, 2021.

Shueisha published four novelizations based on the Bleach movies. The first volume, Bleach: Memories of Nobody, was published on December 18, 2006. The second, Bleach: The DiamondDust Rebellion, Another Hyōrinmaru, was published on December 22, 2007. The third, Bleach: Fade to Black, I Call Your Name, was published on December 15, 2008. The fourth volume, Bleach: Hell Chapter, was published on December 6, 2010.

Video games
A number of video games have been created featuring characters from the Bleach series, primarily though not exclusively fighting games. The first video game to be released from the Bleach series was Bleach: Heat the Soul, which debuted on March 24, 2005, for the Sony PlayStation Portable. Currently, the majority of the games have only been released in Japan, though Sega has localized the first three Nintendo DS games and the first Wii game for North America. So far, all dedicated Bleach games released for Sony's consoles have been developed and published by SCEI, whereas the games for Nintendo consoles are developed and published by Sega, and the Nintendo DS games are developed by Treasure Co. Ltd. Two mobile games had also been released in 2014 (Bleach: Bankai Battle) and 2015 (Bleach: Brave Souls) for the series, which are available for iOS and Android. In 2017, Line announced the release of a game exclusive for their communication app called Bleach: Paradise Lost. In July 2023, a console video game titled Bleach: Soul Resonance, published by Nuverse, was announced. In July 2024, a video game titled Bleach: Rebirth of Souls was announced. It will be released by Bandai Namco Entertainment for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows (via Steam), and Xbox Series X/S.

Trading card game
Two collectible card games (CCG) based on the Bleach series have been produced, one in the Japanese market and a different one in North America. Bleach Soul Card Battle, produced by Bandai, was introduced in Japan at the Jump Festa in 2004. Twenty named sets were released for the series. After Bleach Soul Card Battle, Bandai introduced three more series. Bleach The Card Gum, which contains 14 sets, was released in early September 2007. The next series, Bleach Clear Collection, which contains six sets, was released in July 2008. The last series, Bleach Clear Soul Plate, which consists of three sets, was published in December 2009.

Bleach TCG was introduced in the United States by Score Entertainment in May 2007, but ceased publication April 2009, just before the planned launch of its seventh expansion, Bleach Infiltration. This cancellation was attributed to the 2007–09 recession, which has heavily affected TCG sales. Designed by Aik Tongtharadol, the TCG is a two-player game in which each player starts with at least 61 cards: a "Guardian" card, a 60-card "main deck", and an optional 20-card "side deck". A player loses if his or her power, as dictated by the Guardian card, is reduced to zero, or if he or she is unable to draw or discard a card from his or her deck. The cards for the game have been released in named sets with each set released in three formats: a 72-card pre-constructed box set containing a starter deck and two booster packs, a 10-card booster pack, and a 12-pack booster box.

Musicals
Bleach has been adapted into a series of rock musicals, jointly produced by Studio Pierrot and Nelke Planning. There have been five musicals produced which covered portions of the Substitute and Soul Society arcs, as well as five additional performances known as "Live Bankai Shows" and "Rock Musical Bleach Shinsei", which did not follow the Bleach plotline. The initial performance run of the Bleach musical was from August 17–28, 2005, at the Space Zero Tokyo center in Shinjuku.

The musicals are directed by Takuya Hiramitsu, with script adaptation by Naoshi Okumura and music composed by playwright Shoichi Tama. The songs are completely original and not taken from the anime soundtrack. Key actors in the series include Tatsuya Isaka, who plays Ichigo Kurosaki, Miki Satō, who plays Rukia Kuchiki, and Eiji Moriyama, who plays Renji Abarai.

In 2016, another musical was produced to celebrate Bleach 15th anniversary. The musical was directed and written by Tsutsumi Yasuyuki with Dream5's Akira Takano and Chihiro Kai as Ichigo Kurosaki and Rukia Kuchiki respectively. The musical debuted on July 28, 2016, in AiiA 2.5 Theater Tokyo.

Other media
The first Bleach artbook, All Colour But The Black, was released in Japan, the United States, and Europe. The artbook compiles a selection of color spreads from the first 19 volumes of the series, as well as some original art and author commentary. The second artbook, Bleach Official Bootleg: KaraBuri+ (BLEACH OFFICIAL BOOTLEG カラブリ プラス), was released on August 3, 2007. In addition to character guides and articles on other fictional aspects of the series, it compiles the various short comics, Tedious Everyday Tales Colorful Bleach (徒然日常絵詞 カラフル ブリーチ), that were published in V Jump. The omake-style panels are similar to those included in the main series, but reveal more of the daily lives of characters. Color Bleach+: Bleach Official Bootleg was released in English by Viz Media on August 10, 2010. In December 2018, another artbook, titled Bleach JET was released, which contains a massive 700 artworks from the series' 15 years tenure.

Seven databooks have also been released about the series. The first two, Bleach: Official Character Book SOULs. and Bleach: Official Animation Book VIBEs., were released on February 3, 2006. Bleach: Official Character Book SOULs. was later released in English by Viz Media on November 18, 2008. The third book, Bleach: Official Character Book 2: MASKED, was released on August 4, 2010. This book covers details about characters that appear 100 years prior to the story, such as former captains and lieutenants, along with the Arrancars and Visoreds. Although it was released on the same day as volume 46, Back From Blind, the book only covers material up to volume 37, Beauty Is So Solitary. The English version was released by Viz Media on March 6, 2012. A fourth book, Bleach: Official Invitation Book The Hell Verse, was given to the first one million movie-goers of Bleach: Hell Verse on December 4, 2010. It contains character sketches, promotional posters, and the one-off Hell manga special. A fifth book Bleach: Official Character Book 3: UNMASKED, was released on June 3, 2011, the same day as the volume 50 of the series. However it only covers material up to volume 48, God is Dead. On June 4, 2012, a sixth book was released under the name Bleach: The Rebooted Souls. This free booklet was distributed with Bleach manga volume 55, with the aim to provide information to readers about the manga's final arc, The Thousand-Year Blood War. The seventh book, BLEACH 13 BLADEs., was released on August 4, 2015, and it is focused solely on the Soul Reapers and the 13 Court Squads.

Shueisha published a special book Bleach: JCCover Postcard Book MAILs., which was released on December 4, 2013. It features cover pages as postcards up to volume 60 with poems on the back.

Sales
Bleach had over 90million tankōbon copies in circulation worldwide by 2017; over 120 million tankōbon copies in circulation worldwide by 2018; and over 130 million copies in circulation worldwide by 2022, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time from Weekly Shōnen Jump. During 2008, volume 34 of the manga sold 874,153 copies in Japan, becoming the 12th best-seller comics from the year. Volumes 33 and 35 have also ranked 17 and 18, respectively. In total the manga has sold 3,161,825 copies in Japan during 2008, becoming the year's fifth best selling series. In the first half from 2009, Bleach ranked as the second best-selling manga in Japan, having sold 3.5 million copies. Having sold 927,610 copies, volume 36 ranked seventh, volume 37 was eighth with 907,714 sold copies, and volume 38 at 10th with 822,238 copies.

North American sales of the manga have also been high, with tankōbon volumes having sold over 1.2million copies by 2007. Volume 16 placed in the top 10 graphic novel sales in December 2006 and volume 17 was the best-selling manga volume for the month of February 2007. In a 2010 interview, Gonzalo Ferreyra, Vice President of Sales and Marketing for Viz, listed Bleach as one of six Viz titles that continue to exceed expectations in spite of the harshening manga market. By 2022, the manga had over 2.7million tankōbon volumes in circulation in the United States.

Critical reception
Deb Aoki from About.com considered the series as the Best Continuing Shōnen Manga of 2007, along with Eyeshield 21, praising the "compelling stories, dazzling action sequences and great character development". She also placed the title on her list of "Top 10 Shōnen Manga Must-Reads". The artwork and the character designs received positive response by IGN's A.E. Sparrow. He also commented on the series' ability to handle multiple minor character plotlines at the same time, which he considered a point of appeal, in response to fans' claims about a "lack of a story" in Bleach. Leroy Douresseaux from Comic Book Bin agreed with Sparrow in the number of storylines, but also praised the fighting scenes finding them comparable to the ones of popular films. On the other hand, Mania reviewer Jarred Pine criticized the series as being plagued with stereotypes from the genre. He felt it was a rough start for the series with unimpressive battles, overused gags, and a bad introduction for central character Ichigo that causes him to come across "as a frowning punk" whose one good trait is his desire to protect. Despite this, Pine notes that he loves the series, particularly its quirky, lovable characters. Jason Thompson said he was no longer able to take Bleach seriously after it introduced villains Ulquiorra and Yammy in a scene precisely mirroring Vegeta and Nappa's arrival in Dragon Ball Z, but acknowledged it was likely intended as a deliberate homage. He also said Kubo was able to avoid the worst artistic failings typical in series which indulge in superpowered combat, but that the battle scenes were still sometimes difficult to follow.

Accolades
In 2005, Bleach was awarded the 50th Shogakukan Manga Award in the shōnen category. The English version of the manga was nominated for the "best manga" and "best theme" awards at the 2006 and 2007 American Anime Awards, but did not win either category.

In November 2014, readers of Media Factory's Da Vinci magazine voted Bleach the 16th Weekly Shōnen Jump's greatest manga series of all time. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150,000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Bleach ranked 23rd.

title: Bleach (manga)


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Oxalis oregana

Oxalis oregana, known as redwood sorrel or Oregon oxalis, is a species of the wood sorrel family, Oxalidaceae, in the genus Oxalis native to moist Douglas-fir and coast redwood forests of western North America from southwestern British Columbia to Washington, Oregon, and California.

Description
Oxalis oregana is a short, herbaceous perennial with erect flowering stems 5–15 cm tall. The three leaflets are heart-shaped, 1–4.5 cm long with purplish undersides, on 5–20 cm stalks. The inflorescence is 2.4–4 cm in diameter, white to pink with five petals and sepals. The hairy five-chambered seed capsules are egg-shaped, 7–9 mm long; seeds are almond-shaped. It spreads by a scaly rhizome varying the size of patches. They can be seen throughout moist forest under-canopies.

Rapid light response
Oxalis oregana photosynthesizes at relatively low levels of ambient sunlight (1/200th of full sunlight). When direct sunlight strikes the leaves they fold downwards; when shade returns, the leaves reopen. Taking only a few minutes, this movement is observable to the eye.

As food
The leaves of Oxalis oregana are eaten by the Cowlitz, Quileute and Quinault peoples. Like spinach, they contain mildly toxic oxalic acid, which is named after the genus. They are safe to eat in small amounts for those with no oxalate-related conditions.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Oxalis oregana


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Harold Russell

Harold John Avery Russell (January 14, 1914 – January 29, 2002) was an American World War II veteran. After losing his hands during his military service, Russell was cast in the epic drama film The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), which earned him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was the first non-professional actor to win an Academy Award for acting and the first Oscar recipient to sell his award.

Early life
Harold Russell was born in North Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, and moved to Massachusetts, United States, with his family in 1921, after his father's death in 1920.

At the time of the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, he was living in Cambridge, Massachusetts, working at a food market. In his 1949 autobiography, Victory In My Hands, he wrote that he rushed to enlist in the United States Army because he considered himself a failure.

On June 6, 1944, while he was an Army instructor teaching demolition work with the U.S. 13th Airborne Division at Camp Mackall, North Carolina, a defective fuse detonated TNT explosives that he was handling. He lost both hands and was given two hooks to serve as hands. After his recovery, while attending Boston University, Russell was featured in Diary of a Sergeant, an Army film about rehabilitating war veterans.

The Best Years of Our Lives
When film director William Wyler saw the film on Russell, he cast him in The Best Years of Our Lives with Fredric March and Dana Andrews. Russell played the role of Homer Parrish, a United States Navy sailor who lost both hands during the war.

For his role as Parrish, Russell won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1947. Earlier in the ceremony, he was awarded an honorary Oscar for bringing aid and comfort to disabled veterans through the medium of motion pictures. The special award had been created because the board of governors wanted to salute Russell, a non-professional actor, but assumed that he had little chance for a competitive win. It was the only time in Oscar history that the academy awarded two Oscars for the same performance.

Wyler called it "the finest performance I have ever seen on the screen. '' However, Russell earned less than $10,000 for his performance (equivalent to $167,500 in 2023 dollars), and he did not receive any residual profits.

Later years
Upon completion of the film, at the urging of Wyler, Russell returned to school, earning a business degree from Boston University. Speaking with the Los Angeles Times in 1996, Russell recalled: "Wyler told me I should go back to college because there wasn't much call for a guy with no hands in the motion picture industry. I figured he was right. [In the handful of roles I've taken since then,] I always play a disabled veteran. And this is what Wyler said—'After a while they're going to run out of ideas'—and he was absolutely right. How many times can you play the same role?"

Russell became active in AMVETS, serving three terms as National Commander. He was first elected in 1949. He was elected to his third term in 1960. He also was vice-president of the World Veterans Fund, Inc., the fundraising branch of the World Veterans Federation. As head of AMVETS, Russell wrote to President Truman in 1951 supporting his decision to dismiss General Douglas MacArthur during the Korean War. Russell's telegram to Truman cited MacArthur's "repeated insubordination in violation of basic American principles governing civil versus military authority." His telegram asserted that those were "obvious grounds" to relieve MacArthur. Erle Cocke, Jr., commander of the American Legion, said that he was "shocked by the news" that AMVETS and the American Veterans Committee supported MacArthur's firing.

From the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Russell served as chairman of the President's Commission on Employment of the Handicapped, an unpaid position.

In 1965, Russell received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Russell appeared in two films after his debut, Inside Moves in 1980 and Dogtown in 1997. He also appeared in an episode of Trapper John, M.D., in 1981 and a two-part episode of the television series China Beach in 1989.

Russell authored two autobiographies, Victory in My Hands (1949) and The Best Years of My Life (1981).

In 1992, Russell consigned his Oscar for Best Supporting Actor to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and, on August 6, 1992, in New York City, the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Russell defended his action by saying that he needed money for his wife's medical expenses, though this was later disputed. Russell did not sell the special Oscar. After his death, the unidentified collector was identified as Lew Wasserman, a studio executive and talent agent, who then donated it back to the Academy.

On January 29, 2002, Russell died at a nursing home in Needham, Massachusetts and was subsequently interred in Lakeview Cemetery in the nearby town of Wayland.

title: Harold Russell


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Talk:Tourism in Argentina

Untitled
''This page was listed on Votes for deletion in May, 2004. The result of that discussion was to keep the article. An archive of the discussion can be found at Talk:Tourism in Argentina/Delete.''

Attention request
This page survived deletion but it needs attention badly. It reads like a brochure or a guide to tourism in Buenos Aires. The items on the list of "other places" should be addressed separately and/or more items should be mentioned. --Pablo D. Flores 19:40, 16 Jun 2005 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:52, 26 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Argentina tourist regions.svg

There is something wrong with the site!
First of all for tourism in Argentina needs to be longer,what is tourism in Argentina, and finally is the site kind friendly please if you can answer my questions i would be grateful. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:2C7:97F:FBF0:AC2F:92D2:4E06:899B (talk) 01:00, 19 November 2019 (UTC)

Reference 3 is broken
Subject basically, it appears it was added quite a while back and now the link to wttc.travel leads to a Buzzfeed-type gossip site when it should lead to an specific article within https://wttc.org, the actual site for the World Travel & Tourism Council. Have not been able to find the exact instance that is being referenced otherwise I'd edited the article myself. If anyone finds the proper citation, please do edit the article --Dieskrad (talk) 04:48, 26 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tourism in Argentina


text:
Talk:Stepfamily

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Thatchick.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 10:11, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Cinderella effect
In many fairy tales, stepmothers are portrayed as wicked, evil, and hating their stepchildren. This is perhaps best seen (or at least most well known) in Cinderella and Hansel and Gretel.
 * How about in real lifes? Is there any specific research on it?211.75.249.244 05:47, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, for good reason. People typically care about their biological family, but not their stepfamily. Jim Michael (talk) 18:32, 23 March 2014 (UTC)
 * You're going to need to cite that. Most stepparents are NOT abusive and do care about their stepchildren. 108.210.5.163 (talk) 19:32, 21 April 2021 (UTC)

?
The end of this looks like it was copied from somewhere

Needs work
Needs considerable work --Dpr 10:52, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Agree, the article has a lot of problems, and much of it seems to be an essay or original commentary rather than encyclopedic or based on sources. For example (things I have already flagged in article comments):
 * * Who says that legal adoption does not change the identity of a stepfamily? I think many families in which the stepparent has adopted the child would dispute this. I recall, for example, that Nancy Reagan strongly objected when newspapers referred to her adoptive father Loyal Davis as her "stepfather," and insisted that the references be changed to "father" - which they were.
 * * The article contradicts itself about whether adult children of a remarriage can be considered as stepchildren, or not.
 * * The comment about a "nuclear stepfamily" including three or more parents living in one house is simply bizarre.
 * I don't have the expertise to rewrite this article but I wish someone would. For now I may simply delete the stuff above if no one improves it.
 * --MelanieN (talk) 17:16, 27 November 2009 (UTC)MelanieN

 * In fact, the introduction to this article is so badly written - speculative, unsourced, and in some cases contradictory - that I have written a new introductory section. Anyone who has more expertise or better sources, please add to it or correct it. --MelanieN (talk) 21:15, 27 November 2009 (UTC)MelanieN

Designation
How would you designate a man who has married one's mother and the one whose mother was married was originally born as a child to a single parent?? Georgia guy 22:41, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Married one's biological mother? Richard001 23:21, 12 July 2007 (UTC)

 * A man who is married to your mother is your stepfather. This is the case regardless of the previous marital status of the mother. Jim Michael (talk) 18:32, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Origins
What is the etymology of the word? Thes entinel 03:10, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Death vs. divorce
Reverted an assertion that because death doesn't severe the bond between the parents, no stepfamily is formed when the widowed remarries. (Cinderella didn't have a stepmother, apparently.) Goldfritha 23:48, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Statistics
Here is some error: According to clause 3: half of children under age 13 live in a kind of stepfamily According to clause 5: 30% of all children live in stepfamilies

What happens when children living in stepfamilies reach age of 13, stepfamily dissolves?

Vselezn (talk) 16:28, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

But it could be interpreted as high incidence of stepchildren is recent trend. Is it right?

Vselezn (talk) 02:02, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

Etymology
I looks like the original etymology supplied (stoep) was added in error some time ago. I have added what may be the accepted etymology (steop). Can someone more expert please check and correct...87.102.8.141 21:54, 15 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I removed this since I can find any proof of it "the ca. AD 1000 Middle-English root stoep meant "unrelated by marriage (or blood)"87.102.4.180 13:45, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

 * "step- combining form. Indicating relationship through the previous marriage of a spouse or parent rather than by blood: stepson; stepfather. [Old English stẽop-; compare ãstỹpan to bereave" - Collins English Dictionary (3rd edition, Glasgow: HarperCollins, 1991). Hope this helps. Cheers, Sam Clark 10:44, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

Care for the Family
I've added a link to the step-family section of a charity I support. Any problems please feel free to change it but they provide some good support that people might find useful. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Doive (talk • contribs) 10:08, 19 September 2007 (UTC)

Divorced stepfamily
I am researching the legal and social status of a divorced stepfamily for a personal genealogy project. Specifically, if a parent remarries, such that there is step-parent and step-siblings, and then divorces, does this nullify the "step" relationships? Some relatives have asserted that the stepfamily is unrelated and should not be included in a family tree. Miqrogroove (talk) 18:03, 20 March 2008 (UTC)
 * The answer appears to be both. I see evidence of a definition of stepparent that ends with divorse or death, and evidence of a definition.  See http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Talk:stepmother for some references of usage of stepmother and ex-stepmother.  Docbillnet (talk) 14:59, 26 August 2009 (UTC)
 * People who are related through marriage are related only for the duration of the marriage. Jim Michael (talk) 18:42, 23 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Not in all states. In the rare cases where a step-parent has been assessed child support, that child support obligation does NOT terminate if the marriage ends in divorce. 108.210.5.163 (talk) 19:34, 21 April 2021 (UTC)

Step-parents, siblings & their children
If your step-mother or father has brothers and sisters and they have their own children what would the relation be between those people? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.80.106.105 (talk) 21:15, 2 April 2008 (UTC) I've seen terms like 'step-cousin' (which would seem to apply in this case) or even 'step-aunt' and 'step-nephew' used in Genealogical descriptions, but do not know whether it is "officially" correct. - Loren —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.131.196.134 (talk) 12:27, 21 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, these terms are correct. For example, person A's stepparent's brother is A's step-uncle, and the step-uncle's child is A's step-cousin. Jim Michael (talk) 18:42, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Another question of definition:
Several dictionary definitions say a step-parent is a SUBSEQUENT spouse of a parent. If my father has been married twice, and I am his child by his first wife, then his second wife is my stepmother. (Obvious.) But if I am his child by his second wife, then his first wife is NOT my stepmother. (???) I could imagine that it had been assumed long ago that, if my father has a second wife, his first wife is dead. So my question wouldn’t have made sense. But that assumption is no longer reasonable. Has the definition changed in the meantime? - Loren —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.131.196.134 (talk) 03:54, 21 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Interesting question. I have not found any references to text that considers wifes from previous marriages as stepmothers.   For example, my wife's first husband died.   If my son considered him a stepfather he would write something like "my stepfather died before I was born".  The lack of this type of usage implies the definition of stepparent does not extend to marriages before a child was born.  Docbillnet (talk) 15:08, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

Changes to External links section for Australia
In January, 2008, there were two external links for Australia (permanent link).
 * Stepfamily Zone Australian site dedicated to stepfamilies and their unique challenges. (www.stepfamily.asn.au)
 * Stepfamily Forum Free forum and discussion board for all members of the stepfamily. (stepfamily.stepfamilyforum.com)

Last year, these changes were made to that section:
 * 26 October, User:Steptopia added a new link, which was reverted as linkspam; the user was warned. Steptopia then removed both long-standing external links, without comment.
 * 8 November, IP from Australia replaced the stepfamily forum link.
 * 26 February, IP from Australia appears to have attempted to edit the External Links, but only added a space. This IP then asked a question about blacklisting of the site that had been removed as a net effect of the prior edits. The site is not blacklisted, but that question would attract the attention of those volunteers who deal with excessive external links.
 * 27 February, Barek [ placed a linkfarm notice] on the External Links section.

I have above noted that there seem to be, indeed, too many external links, particularly in the United States section. I recommend that editors of this article review these links, and keep those which are most useful. See WP:EL for guidance. I suggest, in particular, links which will then link to other resources, and links which are neutral, as well as links which are particularly useful. Links appealing to a narrow audience may not be appropriate, but it is up to the editors of this article to decide. Of course, that any editor can become an editor of this article, absent some conflict of interest. If you are connected with a web site as an owner or employee or officer, you should not add links to your site, but may suggest them in Talk.

Because it was long-standing, and without serious review, I am replacing the former link to stepfamily.asn.au. It appears to have been removed as a kind of vandalism or making a point, and that wasn't noticed. --Abd (talk) 18:22, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

Question regarding term "stepsibling once removed"
This is just a question of curiosity, but what exactly is a stepsibling once (or more times) removed? I think it would be something of interest to address in this article. Fuelsaver (talk) 23:23, 9 October 2009 (UTC)
 * There's no such thing as a 'stepsibling once removed'. People are either stepsiblings or are not. Once removed, twice removed etc. describes types of cousins only. Jim Michael (talk) 18:42, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Incest
The article should maybe try to determine how often incest occurs within newly formed stepfamilies. Given that the obvious biological link is no longer prevalent in the second family, it is possible to imagine that the taboo surrounding sexual relations with step-relatives is not as strong as in biological families. ADM (talk) 19:49, 29 November 2009 (UTC)
 * The article is open to editing by anyone, including you. If you want to research this question and come up with reliable information, it would improve the article. Just be sure to cite your sources, OK? Thanks! --MelanieN (talk) 06:33, 30 November 2009 (UTC)MelanieN
 * Stepfamily incest is multiple times more common than biofamily incest, because of the Westermarck effect and the Cinderella effect. Jim Michael (talk) 20:02, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Question
Perhaps a strange question - but if a stepparent dies (while still married to someone's parent), is that someone still the step-sibling of the stepparent's children? I assume divorce means that a "step-sibling" will no longer be a step-sibling, but is the same true for death? All Hallow's Wraith (talk) 00:12, 20 February 2012 (UTC)

 * People related through marriage are only related for the duration of the marriage. Jim Michael (talk) 20:02, 23 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Not true in the case above. You've made several comments on this Talk page that suggest you have an agenda. Please cite your sources. 108.210.5.163 (talk) 19:35, 21 April 2021 (UTC)

Suggest? A suggestion is not a fact. 71.184.87.187 (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 00:20, 18 June 2022 (UTC)

Confusion over terms
Okay, so I get married and have one child by my husband. My father is his father-in-law. We divorce or he dies or something, and I remarry a guy that already has a child. My father is of course his father-in-law, and he is of course my child's stepfather. Here's where the confusion comes in...

Would my second husband technically be my child's father-in-law as well? Aren't the children sibling-in-laws? I see why they're step-family, but wouldn't they all also be family-in-law?

I mean, my father isn't genetically related to either of my husbands, so why wouldn't Husband 2 be my child's father-in-law? Motherloving non-genetic relationships, how do they work? (It just hit me all of the sudden, and I just HAD to ask, although I'm probably going to wish I hadn't. *wink*)

My brain hurts... 74.177.120.167 (talk) 00:15, 27 May 2013 (UTC)

 * No to both your questions. You and your hypothetical future second husband would be the stepparents of each other's children. The children would be stepsiblings, not siblings-in-law. A sibling-in-law is a sibling's spouse or a spouse's sibling. Jim Michael (talk) 18:47, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Removing POV tag with no active discussion per Template:POV
I've removed an old neutrality tag from this page that appears to have no active discussion per the instructions at Template:POV:
 * This template is not meant to be a permanent resident on any article. Remove this template whenever:
 * There is consensus on the talkpage or the NPOV Noticeboard that the issue has been resolved
 * It is not clear what the neutrality issue is, and no satisfactory explanation has been given
 * In the absence of any discussion, or if the discussion has become dormant.

Since there's no evidence of ongoing discussion, I'm removing the tag for now. If discussion is continuing and I've failed to see it, however, please feel free to restore the template and continue to address the issues. Thanks to everybody working on this one! -- Khazar2 (talk) 22:10, 21 July 2013 (UTC)

Stepsiblings
Do some parts of the world have laws against a stepbrother and stepsister having sex together? Can they marry each other? Obviously, such things are frowned on in most of the world, but are they illegal anywhere? 94.196.149.221 (talk) 13:09, 27 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Such laws do exist and should be included in this article. Historical instances should be included too like Nero and his wife Claudia Octavia who was his stepsister. 1.127.106.14 (talk) 12:37, 17 December 2022 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Stepfamily. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090626061128/http://www.stepfamilies.info:80/faqs/factsheet.php to http://www.stepfamilies.info/faqs/factsheet.php
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090626061128/http://www.stepfamilies.info:80/faqs/factsheet.php to http://www.stepfamilies.info/faqs/factsheet.php

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 11:00, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

Abuse section

 * Stepmothers are thought to be less violent in their abuse and instead rely mainly on verbal and emotional abuse.

This ignores completely that almost all infanticide is maternal, and statistically more disproportional in blended families, with the probability of infanticide raising up to five thousand times normal in such families. It appears the abuse section brushes over maternal abuse as a fairy tale and focuses in on the paternal and sexual abuse whilst utterly ignoring you know, something a little worse than any kind of abuse, ending someones life. 121.210.33.50 (talk) 00:12, 27 June 2020 (UTC)

LOL
The terminology section is hilarious. If I want to demonstate to someone the insansity that is Wiki, I'll be sure to direct them there. 71.184.87.187 (talk) 00:21, 18 June 2022 (UTC)

Step uncle/aunt
The definitions given do not make sense or correlate with common use. A step uncle should be a step-parent's sibling (this definition isn't even included). It doesn't really make sense that whether or not an aunt or uncle is a "step" is based on whether or not you already have cousins. This is an unnecessary redefining of the term. By that definition the person transitions from step to "full" aunt/uncle if they have a child. That doesn't work anywhere else.

Generally any current spouse of an aunt/uncle is an aunt/uncle. Period. Whether or not you consider them to continue to be after a marriage ends might vary. They are your aunt/uncle by definition of their marriage to your aunt/uncle, not through cousins. Such a definition would also introduce a silly procession. Imagine your uncle married, now you have an aunt. Then they divorce. Then your uncle married again, a new aunt. They have a child. Then they divorce. Uncle remarries first aunt, by this definition her remarrying, turns her into a step aunt. What? Then they have a kid and she turns into your aunt again? J1DW (talk) 21:10, 7 November 2022 (UTC)

Pictures
This article should include a picture to explain terminology around this topic. 1.127.106.14 (talk) 12:39, 17 December 2022 (UTC)

Co-children-in-law vs adoptive siblings
I think these articles

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stepsibling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepsibling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepfamily

need to make clear the 2 definitions of step-siblings

1. co-children-in-law

2. adoptive siblings

In these posts

https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/91992/can-step-siblings-marry-in-catholicism

https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/91966/according-to-catholicism-can-co-parents-in-law-marry

https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/41600/can-co-parents-in-law-marry-for-example-a-husbands-father-and-a-wifes-mother

https://judaism.stackexchange.com/questions/130193/can-co-parents-in-law-marry-for-example-a-husbands-father-and-a-wifes-mother

Someone says 'You could perhaps make it clear whether you are asking about step-siblings who have or have not been adopted by the step-parent.'

For example, in Stranger Things s4, when the Byers adopt Eleven, there's this part in S04E03 someone asks Jonathan 'Is Jane's father or mother around?' and then Jonathan says 'Uh, no. No, her mom's out of town. I'm her brother. Um, step-brother. But, uh…'

Or is Jonathan wrong? Or does this Wikipedia article have a different definition like how some definitions of 'rectangle' don't include 'square' ? Thewriter006 (talk) 01:11, 27 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stepfamily


text:
History of the Jews in Africa

African Jewish communities include:
 * Sephardi Jews and Mizrahi Jews who primarily live in the Maghreb of North Africa, including Morocco, Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia, as well as Sudan and Egypt. Some were established early in the diaspora; others after the expulsion from Iberia in the late 15th century.
 * South African Jews, who are mostly Ashkenazi Jews descended from pre-Holocaust immigrant Lithuanian Jews.
 * Beta Israel living primarily in the Amhara and Tigray regions of Ethiopia and sparsely in Eritrea.
 * Berber Jews, the majority of whom were assimilated and converted to Islam, especially during the historical persecutions of the Almohadic Caliphate in the Middle Ages. The modern population of Berber Jews in Africa now numbers about 8,000 people in Morocco, with the majority having emigrated to Israel since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, along with smaller numbers scattered throughout Europe and North America.
 * Historical communities which no longer exist in Africa due to assimilation, such as the Jews of Bilad el-Sudan in West Africa, who existed before the introduction of Islam to the region during the 14th century.
 * Various relatively modern groups throughout Africa, most of whom claim some form of a Judaic or Israelite identity, and/or ancestry.

Ancient communities
The most ancient communities of African Jews are the Ethiopian, West African Jews, Sephardi Jews, and Mizrahi Jews of North Africa and the Horn of Africa.

In the seventh century, many Spanish Jews fled from the persecution which was occurring under the rule of the Visigoths and migrated to North Africa, where they made their homes in the Byzantine-dominated cities along the Mediterranean coast. Others arrived after the expulsion from Iberia. Remnants of longstanding Jewish communities remain in Morocco, Tunisia, and the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla. There is a much-diminished but still vibrant community on the island of Djerba in Tunisia. Since 1948 and the war to establish Israel, which aroused hostility in Muslim lands, most other North African Jews emigrated to Israel.

Of the seventh-century immigrants, some moved inland and proselytized among the Berber tribes. A number of tribes, including the Jarawa, Uled Jari, and some tribes of the Daggatun people, converted to Judaism. Ibn Khaldun reported that Kahina, a female Berber warlord who led the resistance against the Muslim Arab conquests of North Africa in the 680s and 690s, was a Jew of the Jarawa tribe. With the defeat of the Berber rebellion, none of the Jewish communities was initially forced to convert to Islam.

Ethiopia
In 1975, the Israeli religious authorities and government recognized the Beta Israel of Ethiopia as a legally Jewish community. Hundreds of persons who wanted to emigrate to Israel were air-lifted under the leadership of Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Begin had obtained an official ruling from the Israeli Sephardi Chief Rabbi (or Rishon LeTzion) Ovadia Yosef that the Beta Israel were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes. Rabbis believed they were probably descendants of the Tribe of Dan; rabbinical responsa discussing issues related to the people date back hundreds of years. With this endorsement, in later decades tens of thousands of Beta Israel Jews were air-lifted to Israel. Significant immigration to Israel continues into the 21st century, producing an Ethiopian Jewish community of around 81,000 immigrants, who with their 39,000 children born in Israel itself, numbered around 120,000 by early 2009.

Due to certain aspects of Orthodox Jewish marital laws, Rabbi Yosef ruled that upon arrival in Israel, the Beta Israel had to undergo a pro forma conversion to Judaism. They had to declare their allegiance to a halachic way of life and the Jewish people, in conformity with practices followed by Orthodox Rabbinical Judaism. He did not demand the normal formal requirements that the halacha imposes on potential gentile proselytes, (such as a brit milah or immersion in a mikveh). Few Ashkenazi rabbinic authorities consider the conversions to be actual conversions, not pro forma.

Over time, due to their community's isolation from those in Europe and the Middle East, the practices of the Beta Israel developed to differ significantly from those of other forms of Judaism. In Ethiopia, the Beta Israel community was for the most part isolated from the Talmud. They did have their own oral law. In some cases, they had practices similar to those of Karaite Judaism, and in others more similar to rabbinical Judaism.

In many instances their religious elders, or priestly class, known as kessim or qessotch, interpreted the Biblical Law of the Tanakh in a way similar to the rabbinite Jewish communities in other parts of the world. In that sense, the Beta Israel had a tradition analogous to that of the Talmud, although at times at variance with the practices and teachings of other Jewish communities.

One significant difference is that the Beta Israel lacked the festivals of Purim and Hanukkah, probably because they branched off from the main body of Judaism before these non-Biblical holidays began to be commemorated. Today, most members of the Beta Israel community living in Israel do observe these holidays.

They are a community in transition. Some of the kessim accept the rabbinic/Talmudic tradition that is practiced by non-Ethiopian Orthodox Jews. Many of the younger generation of Ethiopian-Israelis have been educated in yeshivas and received rabbinical ordination (semikha). A certain segment of traditionalist kessim insist on maintaining their separate and distinct form of Judaism, as it had been practiced in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Many of the Ethiopian Jewish youth who have immigrated to Israel or been born there have assimilated either to the dominant form of Orthodox Judaism, or to a secular lifestyle.

The Beit Avraham of Ethiopia have some 50,000 members. This community also claims Jewish heritage. Several scholars think that they broke off from the Beta Israel community several centuries ago, hid their Jewish customs, and outwardly adopted Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity.

Beit Avraham have traditionally been on the lower rungs of Ethiopian social life. They have held occupations similar to those of the Beta Israel, such as crafts. Recently, the Beit Avraham community has attempted to reach out to the world Jewish community. They formed the Ethiopian North Shewa Zionist Organization in an attempt to save their Jewish identity. The members of this group refer to themselves as the Falashmura. Because they do not have any reliable proof of Jewish ancestry, Israeli religious authorities and other religious Jewish communities require them to complete a formal conversion to Judaism before they recognize them as Jews. Those Falashmura who do so are considered converts to Judaism.

The Gefat people (locally known by the pejorative "Fuga") are a southern Ethiopian tribe which is descended from Beta Israel.

Somalia
The Yibir are a tribe that lives in Somalia, eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, and northern Kenya. Though they have been Muslim for centuries, some of them assert they are descendants of Hebrews who arrived in the Horn of Africa long before the arrival of Somali nomads. These individuals assert that Yibir means "Hebrew" in their language.

Bilad el-Sudan
The historical presence of Jewish communities in Africa is well-attested to. Today, the descendants of these Jews live in nations such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, and many other areas. According to the 17th century Tarikh al-Fattash and the Tarikh al-Sudan, several Jewish communities existed as parts of the Ghana, Mali, and later Songhai empires. One such community was formed by a group of Egyptian Jews, who allegedly traveled by way of the Sahel corridor through Chad into Mali. Manuscript C of the Tarikh al-Fattash described a community called the Bani Israel; in 1402, it lived in Tindirma, possessed 333 wells, and had seven princes as well as an army.

Another such community was that of the Zuwa ruler of Koukiya (located at the Niger River). His name was known only as Zuwa Alyaman, meaning "He comes from Yemen". According to an isolated local legend, Zuwa Alyaman was a member of one of the Jewish communities transported from Yemen by Abyssinians in the 6th century CE after the defeat of Dhu Nuwas. Zuwa Alyaman was said to have traveled into West Africa along with his brother. They established a community in Kukiya at the banks of the Niger River downstream from Gao. According to the Tarikh al-Sudan, after Zuwa Alyaman, there were 14 Zuwa rulers of Gao before the rise of Islam in the second half of the eleventh century.

Other sources stated that other Jewish communities in the region developed from people who migrated from Morocco and Egypt; others later came from Portugal. Some communities were said to have been populated by certain Berber Jews, like a group of Tuareg known as Dawsahak or Iddao Ishaak ("children of Isaac"). They speak a language related to Songhai, live in Ménaka Region in northeastern Mali and were formerly herders for Tuareg nobles. In addition, some migrated into the area away from the Muslim rule of North Africa.

The well-known 16th Century geographer Leo Africanus - an Andalusian Berber convert to Christianity - mentions a mysterious small village of African Jews southwest of Timbuktu, who traded in exotic spices, weapons, and poisons.

North Africa and the Maghreb
The largest influx of Jews to Africa came after the Spanish Inquisition after the Fall of Granada and the end of Islamic Spain. The mass exodus and expulsion of the Iberian Jews began in 1492, Sicilian Jews were affected soon afterwards. Many of these Sephardi Jews settled primarily in the Maghreb under Muslim and Ottoman patronage. Morocco, Tunisia, Libya and Algeria as well as Egypt became home to significant Jewish communities. These communities were later incorporated into the Ottoman millet system as Africanized Ottoman Jews, bound by the laws of the Talmud and Torah but with allegiance to the Caliph of Constantinople.

Tanzania
The Nyambo are a tribe that lives in Tanzania, northern Tanzania, and Southern Uganda as Ankole. Though they have been Christians for centuries, they assert they are descendants of Hebrews who arrived in the Horn of Africa long before the arrival of Somali nomads. Some say that Nyambo means "Hebrew" in their language.

Sudan
We know little more about the presence of Jews in modern times in the territories of today's Sudan, and what is known is that in the 20th and 19th centuries a permanent Jewish community was founded, which at its peak totaled approximately one thousand Jews, and that Jewish community was closed in the 1970s.

Songhai
In the 14th century many Moors and Jews, fleeing persecution in Spain, migrated south to the Timbuktu area, at that time part of the Songhai Empire. Among them was the Kehath (Ka'ti) family, descended from Ismael Jan Kot Al-yahudi of Scheida, Morocco. Sons of this prominent family founded three villages that still exist near Timbuktu—Kirshamba, Haybomo, and Kongougara. In 1492, Askia Muhammed came to power in the previously tolerant region of Timbuktu and decreed that Jews must convert to Islam or leave; Judaism became illegal in Songhai, as it did in Catholic Spain that same year. As the historian Leo Africanus wrote in 1526: "The king (Askia) is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does business with them, he confiscates his goods."

The Kehath family converted with the rest of the non-Muslim population. The Cohens, descended from the Moroccan Islamicized Jewish trader El-Hadj Abd-al-Salam al Kuhin, arrived in the Timbuktu area in the 18th century, and the Abana family came in the first half of the 19th century. According to Prof. Michel Abitbol, at the Center for the Research of Moroccan Jewry in Israel, in the late 19th century Rabbi Mordoche Aby Serour traveled to Timbuktu several times as a not-too-successful trader in ostrich feathers and ivory. Ismael Diadie Haidara, a historian from Timbuktu, has found old Hebrew texts among the city's historical records. He has also researched his own past and discovered that he is descended from the Moroccan Jewish traders of the Abana family. As he interviewed elders in the villages of his relatives, he has discovered that knowledge of the family's Jewish identity has been preserved, in secret, out of fear of persecution.

São Tomé e Príncipe
King Manuel I of Portugal exiled about 2,000 Jewish children under the age of ten, to São Tomé and Príncipe around 1500. Most died, but in the early 17th century "the local bishop noted with disgust that there were still Jewish observances on the island and returned to Portugal because of his frustration with them." Although Jewish practices faded over subsequent centuries, there are people in São Tomé and Príncipe who are aware of partial descent from this population. Similarly, a number of Portuguese ethnic Jews were exiled to Sao Tome after forced conversions to Roman Catholicism. From São Tomé and by other means groups of Jews settled down the west coast of Africa, as far south as Loango.

Cameroon
Rabbi Yisrael Oriel, formerly Bodol Ngimbus-Ngimbus, was born into the Bassa people. He says there were historically Jews in the area and that the word "Bassa" is from the Hebrew for 'on a journey' and means "blessing". Rabbi Oriel claims to be a Levite descended from Moses and reportedly made aliya in 1988, and he was then apparently ordained as a rabbi by the Sephardic Chief Rabbi and appointed rabbi to Nigerian Jews.

Rabbi Oriel claims that in 1920 there were 400,000 'Israelites' in Cameroon, but by 1962 the number had decreased to 167,000 due to conversions to Christianity and Islam. He said that although these tribes had not been accepted halachically, he believes that he can prove their Jewish status from medieval rabbinic sources.

The father of Yaphet Kotto, an American actor, was a Cameroonian Jew. Kotto identified as Jewish.

Côte d'Ivoire
Communities have been forming in Côte d'Ivoire in recent years and have been slowly growing throughout the region. The capital city of Abidjan has two synagogues, each with a population of about 40-70 congregants. In addition, large groups of indigenous peoples referred to as Danites claim descent from the lost tribe of Dan and many from this ethnic group have shown interest in Judaic practices.

Ghana
From the eighteenth century on what is now Ghana was a favorite locus for theories positing Israelite origins for various ethnic groups in the area. These theories were widespread and were taken up by powerful people in the twentieth century. The House of Israel community of Sefwi Wiawso, Sefwi Sui has identified as Jewish since the early 1970s.

Kenya
Theories suggesting Israelite origins particularly of the Masai abounded in the nineteenth century and were gradually absorbed into religious and societal practices throughout the area. The chief proponent of Masai Israelite origins was a German officer Moritz Merkel whose detailed research is still in use today. Of the many Judaic manifestations in the religious sphere is a small emergent community in Laikipia County, Kenya,  which has abandoned Christianity  and taken up Judaism. There are an estimated 5,000 of them at the present time. Although at first Messianic, they concluded that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and are now waiting to be instructed in traditional Judaism. Some of the younger children of this community have been sent to the Abayudaya schools in Uganda to be instructed in Judaism and other subjects. Luos in Kenya are another of the groups considered by some to be  of Israelite origin. They claim to have migrated hundreds of years ago from the north along  the river Nile from Egypt through South Sudan and then into Kenya.

Madagascar
In early modern times it was widely believed that Israelites had settled in Madagascar. Works by the French scholar Alfred Grandidier and Augustus Keane, the British professor of Hindustani at University College, London provided what they saw as conclusive proof of these ancient connections. In 2010 a small community of Malagasies began practicing normative Judaism, and three separate communities formed, each embracing a different version of Jewish spiritual practice. In May 2016, 121 members of the Malagasy Jewish community were converted in accordance with traditional Jewish rituals; appearing before a beit din and submerged in a mikvah. The conversion, organized with the help of the Jewish organization Kulanu, was presided over by three Orthodox rabbis.

Nigeria
At the present time, the existence of Israelite associations is mainly attributed to the Igbo, many of whom claim Israelite origins. Most of the Jews of Nigeria can be found among the Igbo ethnic group. Certain Nigerian communities with Judaic practices have been receiving help from individual Israelis and American Jews who work in Nigeria with outreach organizations like Kulanu. The number of Igbos in Nigeria who identify as Jews has been estimated to number around 4,000 (2016), along with 70 synagogues. Many have converted from Christianity. Other sources give a higher estimate, claiming that some 30,000 Igbos were practicing some form of Judaism in 2008.

Uganda
For centuries, it was believed that Jews inhabited the central portions of Africa. Some Africans were keen to adopt Judaism in recent times. One of these was Samei Kakungulu, one of the most remarkable Ugandans of his generation, a brilliant military strategist and a man who had a great amount of spiritual and intellectual curiosity. In 1919, having declared that "we now will be known as Jews," he was circumcised along with his first son, whom he called Yuda. His second son was subsequently circumcised on the eighth day, in the Jewish fashion, and he was named Nimrod. In 1922, Kakungulu published a 90-page book, which was essentially a guide to Judaism. He died a Jew (albeit one with a residual belief in Jesus) and his followers in Mbale, who are known as the Abayudaya, continued to practice Judaism, despite the persecution which they were subjected to during the rule of Idi Amin, when many of them converted to Christianity or Islam, and today, they are some thousand strong. In the twenty first century, the Abayudaya are considered observant practitioners of Judaism, many of them have undergone formal Orthodox conversions, and they have forged strong links with Jewish communities in the United States and Israel, along with increasingly strong links with Black Jewish communities in Africa and elsewhere. In a relatively new movement, the Abayudaya of Uganda have converted to Judaism since 1917, influenced by the American William Saunders Crowdy, who claimed that African Americans were descended from the Jews.

Zambia
A number of European Jews settled in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). At its peak in the early 1960s, there were 1,000 Jews living in the country, many in Livingstone. The number began to fall after independence and there were estimated to be around 50 remaining by 2012.

Anglo-Jews
The Zimbabwe Jewish community was mainly of British citizenship, whose arrival coincides with the first white colonists in the 1890s. At its peak in the early 1970s, it numbered some 7500 people (80% Ashkenazi Jews) who lived primarily in the two communities of Salisbury (now Harare) and Bulawayo in Matabeleland. Smaller rural communities also existed for short periods in Kwekwe, Umtali (now Mutare), and Gatooma. The community declined in part due to age, but most Jewish residents in Zimbabwe left after violence and social disruption. In 2007, the local Jewish community had declined to 270. The community had strong links with Israel.

In 2003, the Bulawayo Hebrew Congregation Synagogue burned down; this was followed by several letters justifying the fire based on economic antisemitism.

The Lemba People
The Lemba,"wa-Remba", or "Mwenye" are a Bantu-speaking ethnic group native to Zimbabwe and South Africa, with smaller, little-known branches in Mozambique and Malawi. According to Tudor Parfitt, when he first worked in the field among the Lemba in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi in the 1980s, they numbered an estimated 50,000. They speak the same Bantu languages their geographic neighbours speak and they also bear a physical resemblance to their geographic neighbors, but some of their religious practices and beliefs are similar to Jewish and Muslim practices and beliefs. According to Parfitt, the Lemba claim that they once had a book which described their traditions but it was lost.

Parfitt has suggested that the name "Lemba" may originate in chilemba, a Swahili word for the turbans which are worn by some Bantu men, or it may originate from lembi, a Bantu term for a "non-African" or a "respected foreigner". In Zimbabwe and South Africa, the people prefer the name Mwenye.

They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line. Genetic Y-DNA analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population. More recent research argues that DNA studies do not support claims of a specifically Jewish genetic heritage.

Mauritius
According to the 2011 census carried out by Statistics Mauritius, there are 43 Jews in Mauritius.

General

 * Blady, Ken: Jewish Communities in Exotic Places, Jerusalem, Jason Aronson.
 * Bruder, Édith: Black Jews of Africa, Oxford 2008.
 * Kurinsky, Samuel: Jews in Africa: Ancient Black African Relations, Fact Paper 19-II.
 * Dierk Lange: "Origin of the Yoruba and the "Lost Tribes of Israel", Anthropos, 106, 2011, 579–595.
 * Parfitt, Tudor (2002) The Lost Tribes of Israel: the History of a Myth. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
 * Parfitt, Tudor (2013) Black Jews in Africa and the Americas, Harvard University Press.
 * Parfitt, Tudor (2020) Hybrid Hate: Conflations of Anti-Black Racism and Anti-Semitism from the Renaissance to the Third Reich. New York: Oxford University Press.
 * Parfitt, Tudor and Egorova, Y. (2005) Genetics, Mass Media, and Identity: A Case Study of the Genetic Research on the Lemba and Bene Israel. London: Routledge.
 * Rosenthal, Monroe and Isaac Mozeson: Wars of the Jews: A Military History from Biblical to Modern Times, New York, Hipporcrene Books, 1990.
 * Sand, Jay: "The Jews of Africa", Image Magazine, 5 May 2009
 * Williams, Joseph J.: Hebrewisms of West Africa: From Nile to Niger With the Jews, Ney York, The Dial Press, 1931.
 * History of the Zimbabwe Jewish Community

Northern Africa

 * Israel, Jonathan I. "The Jews of Spanish North Africa (1580–1669)" in Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740). Leiden: Brill 2002, pp. 151–184.
 * Israel, Jonathan I. "Piracy, Trade and Religion: The Jewish Role in the Rise of the Muslim Corsair Republic of Saleh (1624–1666)" in Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740). Leiden: Brill 2002, pp. 291–312.
 * Israel, Jonathan I. "Tangiers, Sephardic Jewry and English Imperial Ambitions in the Maghreb (1661–1684)" in Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740). Leiden: Brill 2002, pp. 421–448.
 * Jews in Africa: Part 1 The Berbers and the Jews, by Sam Timinsky (Hebrew History Federation)
 * Tarikh es Soudan, Paris, 1900, by Abderrahman ben-Abdall es-Sadi (trad. O. Houdas)
 * The Jews of Timbuktu, Washington Jewish Week, 30 December 1999, by Rick Gold
 * Les Juifs à Tombouctou, or Jews of Timbuktu, Recueil de sources écrites relatives au commerce juif à Tombouctou au XIXe siècle, Editions Donniya, Bamako, 1999 by Professor Ismael Diadie Haidara

West Africa

 * Mark, Peter and José da Silva Horta, The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2011.
 * Joseph Eidelberg "Bambara (A PROTO-HEBREW LANGUAGE?)" https://josepheidelberg.com/blog/

Nigeria

 * Remy Ilona: Igbos, Jews in Africa?, (Volume 1), Mega Press Limited, Abuja, Nigeria, 2004.
 * Charles K. Meek: Northern Tribes of Nigeria, Volume 1, Oxford, p. 66.
 * Kannan K. Nair: Origins and Development of Efik Settlements in Southeastern Nigeria. 1Ohio University, Center for International, 1975.
 * Eze Okafor-Ogbaji: Jews of Nigeria: The Aro Empire,

Ethiopia

 * Stigma "Gojjam": The Abyssinian Pariah Orits, Guihon Books, University of Geneva, 1993, by Muse Tegegne

title: History of the Jews in Africa


text:
One, Two, Three

One, Two, Three is a 1961 American political comedy film directed by Billy Wilder, and written by Wilder and I. A. L. Diamond. It is based on the 1929 Hungarian one-act play Egy, kettő, három by Ferenc Molnár, with a "plot borrowed partly from" Ninotchka, a 1939 film co-written by Wilder. The film stars James Cagney, Horst Buchholz, Liselotte Pulver, Pamela Tiffin, Arlene Francis, Leon Askin and Howard St. John. It would be Cagney's last film appearance until Ragtime in 1981, 20 years later.

The film is primarily set in West Berlin during the Cold War, but before the construction of the Berlin Wall, and politics is predominant in the premise. The film is known for its quick pace.

Plot
C.R. "Mac" MacNamara is a high-ranking executive in the Coca-Cola Company, assigned to West Berlin after a business fiasco a few years earlier in the Middle East (about which he is still bitter). While based in West Germany for now, Mac is angling to become head of Western European Coca-Cola Operations, based in London. After working on an arrangement to introduce Coke into the Soviet Union, Mac receives a call from his boss, W.P. Hazeltine, at Coca-Cola headquarters in Atlanta. Scarlett Hazeltine, the boss's hot-blooded but slightly dim 17-year-old socialite daughter, is coming to West Berlin. Mac is assigned the unenviable task of taking care of her.

An expected two-week stay extends into two months, and Mac discovers just why Scarlett is so enamored of West Berlin: she surprises him by announcing that she's married to Otto Piffl, a young East German Communist with ardent anti-capitalistic views. When the Southern belle is confronted about her foolishness in the matter of helping him blow up anti-American "Yankee Go Home" balloons (how the couple met) she simply replies with, "It's not anti-American, it's anti-Yankee. Where I come from, everybody's against the Yankees."

Mac tries to come to terms with letting his boss's daughter marry a Communist and learns the horrible truth: the couple are bound for Moscow to make a new life for themselves ("They've assigned us a magnificent apartment, just a short walk from the bathroom!"). Since Hazeltine and his wife are coming to Berlin to collect their daughter the next day, Mac deals with the disaster by bribing East German officials to steal Scarlett’s marriage certificate from the archives. Mac also frames the young Communist firebrand Otto, resulting in his being arrested by the East German police, by planting on his motorcycle a "Russky Go Home" balloon and presenting him with a wedding present of an Uncle Sam cuckoo clock wrapped in the Wall Street Journal. After Otto, during interrogation, is forced to listen endlessly to a cover of the song "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini" (which is intentionally badly distorted as it plays) he cracks and signs a confession saying that he is an American spy.

Under pressure from his exasperated and disapproving wife Phyllis (who wants to take her family back to live in the US), and with the revelation that Scarlett is pregnant—and, worse, unmarried with her East German marriage certificate gone—Mac must now fix the mess he has created. He must restore the marriage certificate and bring Otto back with the help of his new Soviet business associates on whom Mac uses all his wiles, as well as his sexy secretary, Fräulein Ingeborg. With the boss on the way, he finds that his only chance is to turn Otto into a son-in-law in good standing—which means, among other things, making him a capitalist with an aristocratic pedigree (albeit contrived by adoption).

Mac arranges to have Otto adopted by an impoverished count, who now works as a washroom attendant and includes a photo of the family castle with the price of adoption (destroyed in the 17th century by the Ottoman Turks). Scarlett is dubious that her father will be fooled by the ruse, but is reassured that her baby will now be part of a long line of bleeders, which will please her snobbish mother. In a frenetic race against time and the arrival of the Hazeltines' plane, Mac outfits Otto in complete paraphernalia befitting his new aristocratic status, while Otto rails against being forced to join the detested bourgeoisie (his Communist Party membership is paid up through the year). Meanwhile, Scarlett and Mac coach Otto on how to speak to her conservative Southern father ("The Civil War was a draw...").

In the end, the Hazeltines approve of their new son-in-law, Otto, who Mac learns from Hazeltine will be named the new head of Western European Operations, with a disappointed Mac getting a promotion to VP of Procurement back in Atlanta. Mac reconciles with his family at the airport, and to celebrate his promotion, buys them Cokes from a vending machine. After handing out the bottles, he discovers that the last one actually is a Pepsi-Cola.

Production
Cagney decided to take the role primarily because it was to be shot in Germany: while growing up in Manhattan's Yorkville neighborhood, he had had fond memories of the area, which was "teeming with German immigrants." Horst Buchholz was a young European actor who had recently finished The Magnificent Seven with Yul Brynner, Eli Wallach and Steve McQueen; during the production, he became the only actor that Cagney ever openly disliked.

Wilder was filming in Berlin the morning the Berlin Wall went up, forcing the crew to move to Munich. During principal photography, Wilder received a call from Joan Crawford, recently appointed to the board of directors of Pepsi-Cola following her husband Alfred Steele's death. In response to Crawford's protests over the use of the Coca-Cola brand in the film, Wilder scattered some references to Pepsi, including the final scene. Some scenes were shot at Bavaria Film Studios.

The theatrical release poster for the film, with a woman holding three balloons, was designed by Saul Bass. The Bass designed poster that Wilder originally intended for the film's release featured a United States style flag sticking out of a Coca-Cola-style bottle. The poster had to be replaced, however, when Coca-Cola threatened legal action against United Artists for copyright infringement.

Soundtrack
Aram Khachaturian's lively "Sabre Dance" marks the moments when Mac moves into energetic action (Ingeborg's table dance at Grand Hotel Potemkin and car chase) and is also played during the opening credits. The ride of the Valkyries is played on the way to the Grand Hotel Potemkin. The conductor of the orchestra sings a German language version of Yes! We Have No Bananas on the arrival of Mac at the Grand Hotel Potemkin.

Release
When the movie opened, it came with a spoken preface by Cagney, added by Wilder:

"On Sunday, August 13th, 1961, the eyes of America were on the nation's capital, where Roger Maris was hitting home runs No.44 and 45 against the Senators. On that same day, without any warning, the East German Communists sealed off the border between East and West Berlin. I only mention this to show the kind of people we're dealing with—real shifty."

Critical response
Critic Bosley Crowther applauded the work of Cagney and wrote,

"With all due respect for all the others, all of whom are very good—Pamela Tiffin, a new young beauty, as Scarlett; Horst Buchholz as the East Berlin boy, Lilo Pulver as a German secretary, Leon Askin as a Communist stooge and several more—the burden is carried by Mr. Cagney, who is a good 50 per cent of the show. He has seldom worked so hard in any picture or had such a browbeating ball. His fellow is a free-wheeling rascal. His wife (Arlene Francis) hates his guts. He knows all the ways of beating the rackets and has no compunctions about their use. He is brutishly bold and brassy, wildly ingenious and glib. Mr. Cagney makes you mistrust him—but he sure makes you laugh with him. And that's about the nature of the picture. It is one with which you can laugh—with its own impudence toward foreign crises—while laughing at its rowdy spinning jokes."

Time magazine called it a "yell-mell, hard-sell, Sennett-with-a-sound-track satire of iron curtains and color lines, of people's demockeracy, Coca-Colonization, peaceful noexistence [sic], and the Deep Southern concept that all facilities are created separate but equal." Time notes Wilder "purposely neglects the high precision of hilarity that made Some Like It Hot a screwball classic and The Apartment a peerless comedy of officemanship. But in the rapid, brutal, whambam style of a man swatting flies with a pile driver, he has produced a sometimes beWildered, often wonderfully funny exercise in nonstop nuttiness." The film won kudos from the staff at Variety. They wrote, "Billy Wilder's One, Two, Three is a fast-paced, high-pitched, hard-hitting, lighthearted farce crammed with topical gags and spiced with satirical overtones. Story is so furiously quick-witted that some of its wit gets snarled and smothered in overlap. But total experience packs a considerable wallop." Pauline Kael, on the other hand, dismissed the film as a tiresome succession of stale and inane gags. She was also bemused by what seemed to her the forced enthusiasm of the favorable reviews.

According to J. Hoberman, screenwriter Abby Mann (who wrote Judgment at Nuremberg) "deemed Wilder's [film] so tasteless, he felt obliged to apologize for it at the Moscow Film Festival."

Box office
One, Two, Three did not do well at either the U.S. or German box office. The lighthearted East-West Berlin story felt much more sinister at the release, since the Berlin Wall had been built after principal photography began. It earned rentals over $2 million in the US and Canada.

The film recorded a loss of $1.6 million. However, it was re-released in 1985 in France and West Germany and became a box office success, especially in West Berlin.

Censorship
One, Two, Three was banned in Finland, which had a policy of Finlandization, from 1962 to 1986 on "political" grounds — it was feared that the film would harm relations between Finland and the Soviet Union. United Pictures Finland tried to get the film released theatrically in 1962, 1966 and 1969 but it was only in 1986 that the Finnish Board of Film Classification allowed the film to be distributed.

Awards
Nominations
 * Academy Awards: Oscar, Best Cinematography, Black-and-White, Daniel L. Fapp; 1962.
 * Golden Globes: Golden Globe, Best Motion Picture – Comedy; Best Supporting Actress, Pamela Tiffin; 1962.
 * Laurel Awards: Golden Laurel, Top Comedy, 4th place; Top Male Comedy Performance, James Cagney, 4th place; 1962.
 * Writers Guild of America Awards: Best Written American Comedy (Screen), Billy Wilder and I.A.L. Diamond; 1962.

Homages and references

 * The film makes several references to Cagney's earlier films, including a Cagney impression from Red Buttons, and the grapefruit-to-the-face incident from The Public Enemy. Additionally, the cuckoo clock in MacNamara's office plays "Yankee Doodle Dandy". Cagney also refers to his contemporary Edward G. Robinson by using Robinson's line "Mother of Mercy, is this the end of Rico?" from Little Caesar, which was a competitor of The Public Enemy.
 * The Cold War is referenced, with one joke spoken by an apparatchik seeming to foreshadow the Cuban Missile Crisis: "We have trade agreement with Cuba: they send us cigars, we send them rockets." When Cagney's character retorts that they are "pretty crummy cigars," the Russian replies that they send the Cubans "pretty crummy rockets."
 * Cagney noted that he quit Hollywood after this film due to fatigue from an inordinate number of lines in a lengthy movie helmed by a demanding Wilder and to a feeling of jealousy when he heard from a friend about to set off on a leisurely yachting trip.
 * In the 2015 Steven Spielberg-directed film about an incident in the cold war, Bridge of Spies, there is a scene with a Berlin movie-house showing the film Eins, Zwei, Drei in the background.

Re-releases
One, Two, Three aired on The ABC Sunday Night Movie on 31 January 1965. It was received enthusiastically in Germany upon its 1985 re-release in cinemas. One, Two, Three was given a grand re-première at a large outdoor showing in West Berlin which was broadcast simultaneously on television. The film went on to spend a year in West Berlin cinemas, where it was rediscovered by West Berlin citizens.

title: One, Two, Three


text:
2004 Te Tai Hauauru by-election

The Te Tai Hauauru by-election was a by-election in the New Zealand electorate of Te Tai Hauāuru, one of the Māori electorates. The date set for the by-election was 10 July 2004. It saw the re-election of Tariana Turia, a former MP for the Labour Party and now co-leader of the Māori Party.

Turia had quit both Parliament and the Labour Party in protest over the government's position in the foreshore and seabed controversy. She contested the by-election as a member of the new Māori Party, which she played a leading role in establishing. None of the major parties contested the by-election, and Turia was always the overwhelming favourite to win. Perhaps due to the apparent inevitability of a win for Turia, only around 32% of Te Tai Hauauru voters cast ballots.

Nominations for the by-election closed on 15 June 2004. Candidates were:
 * Tariana Turia (Māori Party)
 * Peter Wakeman, a Labour Party member who stood as an independent.
 * Dun Mihaka (Aotearoa Legalise Cannabis Party), a veteran Māori activist best known for baring his buttocks to the Queen on her 1983 Royal Tour of New Zealand.
 * Tahu Nepia, who stood as an independent, but represented the Ratana movement, with the intent of establishing an Independent Ratana Party to contest the next general election.
 * Rusty Kane, an independent who campaigned on the platform that Māori electorates should be abolished.
 * David Bolton, independent.

If no candidates had been put forward to oppose Turia, she would have been declared the winner without a vote – this initially appeared possible, and given the cost of a by-election (estimated at almost NZ$500,000), many hoped that a vote could be avoided.

The holding of a by-election was criticised by a number other parties. The Labour Party, of which Turia was originally a member (and which has traditionally dominated the Māori electorates) has called the by-election "a waste of time and money", and a "sideshow" although the by-election was required by Labour-supported waka-jumping law in force at the time. Labour nominated Errol Mason to contest the seat at the subsequent 2005 general election, losing to Turia.

title: 2004 Te Tai Hauauru by-election


text:
White-bellied blue flycatcher

The white-bellied blue flycatcher (Cyornis pallidipes) is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family Muscicapidae. It is endemic to the Western Ghats (including the Nilgiris) of southwest India. Males are dark blue with a lighter shade of blue on the brow and have a greyish white belly. Females have a rufous breast, a white face and olive grey above.

Description

This flycatcher is about 13 cm long and has a longish beak. It forages in the undergrowth in the shade of dense forest canopy where it makes aerial forays to capture insects. The male is indigo blue with ultramarine blue supercilium and forehead. The lores and face are dark grey. The belly is white and bordered by smoky grey wash. The female is olive brown above with whitish lores. The rufous throat and breast fades to white towards the belly. The female has a chestnut tail and can be told apart from other flycatchers like by the lack of the black and white tail pattern. In poor lighting and within the Palni Hills it can be confusable with the white-bellied blue robin, which however has longer legs and is more likely to be seen on the ground.

Distribution
The white-bellied blue flycatcher occurs in dense forest and sholas south from Mahabaleshwar through the Western Ghats, extending into the Nilgiris and the Biligirirangan Hills, down to southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is found mainly in the hill forests from the foothills to about 1700 m in the Nilgiris.

Behaviour and ecology
The white-bellied blue flycatcher tends to be quiet and inactive, foraging mainly in the dark shade below the forest canopy. They have a very low song that can be heard only at close quarters. The song is a rambling series of rising and falling broken notes interspersed with clicks and squeaks. They are usually seen singly or in pairs and are often found to join mixed-species foraging flocks.

The breeding season is from February to September, mainly during the monsoon. The nest is a rough cup of moss neatly lined on the inside and placed low on a moss covered rock, hole in tree or mud-bank. The usual clutch is four eggs which are pale sea-green with brown spotting, denser on the broad end.

title: White-bellied blue flycatcher