text:
Southern Yan

Yan, known in historiography as the Southern Yan (398–410), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Murong clan of the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms. Its territory roughly coincided with modern Shandong. Its founder Murong De (Emperor Xianwu) was a son of Murong Huang (Emperor Wenming) and brother of Murong Jun (Emperor Jingzhao) and Murong Chui (Emperor Chengwu), and therefore was an imperial prince of both the Former Yan and Later Yan dynasties.

All rulers of the Southern Yan declared themselves "emperors".

Background
Murong De was the son of Murong Huang, the founder of the Former Yan dynasty. He was an accomplished military general for the Former Yan, then the Di-led Former Qin after they conquered Yan in 370, and finally the Later Yan, a restoration of the Former Yan founded by his brother, Murong Chui. Under Later Yan, De was trusted by Chui as a key advisor in his administration, and after Chui's son, Murong Bao, ascended the throne in 396, he was made to overlook the southern empire from Ye.

However, soon after Bao's succession, the Northern Wei launched a large-scale invasion of Later Yan. The Central Plains was quickly overran by Wei, and Murong Bao was forced to abandon his capital, Zhongshan (中山, in modern Baoding, Hebei) and evacuate to Longcheng in Liaoning. Initially, Murong De held firmly to Ye and parts of the south, but at the advice of his nephew, Murong Lin, who previously declared himself emperor at Zhongshan but fled to Ye as Wei captured the city, he decided to abdondon Ye for Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan) in 398.

Reign of Murong De
At Huatai, Murong De took the title of Prince of Yan, thus splitting the Yan into two. Historiographers distinguish Murong De's state with the other Yan states as the Southern Yan. De nearly captured and killed Murong Bao when the latter came to Huatai, unaware that his uncle had declared independence, but Bao managed to escape back north.

In 399, disorder broke out in Southern Yan when Fu Guang (苻廣), a remnant of the Fu clan of Former Qin, rebelled in an attempt to restore his state. Murong De campaigned against and defeated him, but while he was away, a traitor opened the gates of Huatai to Northern Wei forces, leaving Murong De stranded without any territory. He decided to attack Qing Province of the Eastern Jin dynasty, which corresponds to modern central and eastern Shandong. He took the province with ease, establishing the city of Guanggu (廣固, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong) as his new capital. In 400, he elevated his title to Emperor of Yan and changed his name to Murong Beide.

For the rest of Murong Beide's reign, Southern Yan was peaceful and prosperous to live in. As Yan had a much smaller population compared to the neighbouring Wei and Jin, Beide enacted policies to encourage manpower movement such as corvee exemptions while also rectifying the household registry. At the time, Jin was in turmoil due to Huan Xuan's rebellion, and Southern Yan welcomed a number of Jin exiles into their territory. Murong De also planned to take advantage of the situation in Jin by launching an invasion, but became ill and died in 405.

Reign of Murong Chao
Murong De did not have any living sons prior to his death, the throne was passed on to his nephew, Murong Chao. Chao had previously been a beggar in Later Qin and was almost immediately made heir when he arrived at Guanggu in 405. Records accuse Chao of initially having great potential, but turning cruel and capricious upon becoming emperor. During his reign, Chao purged his uncle's retainers like Murong Zhong while elevating his own confidants, particularly Gongsun Wulou, to power, which brought the government into disarray. In 407, wanting to retrieve his mother and wife who were still in Later Qin, Chao agreed to become a vassal and give up his court musicians in return for their safe passage to Southern Yan.

In 409, Murong Chao attacked the Jin for prisoners to be trained as new musicians. This prompted an invasion of Southern Yan by the Jin general Liu Yu. Liu Yu defeated the Southern Yan army at the Battle of Linqu and then besieged Guanggu. The Later Qin, held down by their war with the Helian Xia, was unable to send reinforcements to Southern Yan, and Liu Yu eventually took Guanggu in 410. Murong Chao was captured and executed and Southern Yan was annexed by Jin.

title: Southern Yan


text:
Talk:Districts of England

Extract
seperating the districts into four groups makes the data harder to extract.

Renamings
Under the renaming section, I think one has been left out. I believe that Nuneaton and Bedworth was renamed from being called just 'Nuneaton'. G-Man 22:31, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

Southwark/London border
Hmm. Saying "boundary is not vertical" is somewhat weird here. Is there a defined altitude below which you are in Southwark? Also, the City seems to control the place where the bridge touches down at the Southwark side, for a decent amount, including buildings. I've seen Corporation litterbin collectors go right up to the griffin, which is easily 20m inland, so how does that work here? does southwark covers the foundations? i think we should be told. Morwen - Talk 12:26, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Also, streetmap shows only London Bridge span to be part of the City. I have a map from 1970 that shows all of Blackfriars and half of London Bridge under City control. I suspect these have been altered at some point. It would be good to find out for sure... MRSC • Talk 12:03, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

Tanbridge
The map contains a label for 'TanBridge', which I think should be TanDridge (cf. Tandridge District). 92.234.212.231 (talk) 22:29, 4 May 2013 (UTC)

I also spotted the same error on the map. The Surrey district is Tandridge not Tanbridge. 87.113.227.81 (talk) 06:38, 26 October 2013 (UTC)

What do the colours mean on the main map
Hi there, I think it would really be helpful if someone could explain what the colours on the main map mean? With thanks KS 195.188.195.178 (talk) 12:49, 17 September 2013 (UTC)
 * There is no meaning to the different colours. It's essentially a less-strict case of the four color theorem - using six colours. -- Red rose64 (talk) 13:21, 17 September 2013 (UTC)

Isle of Wight
I've just been looking through some of the structural change orders, and it seems to me that the two districts of the Isle of Wight were never abolished, just their councils. A bit similar to what happened with Berkshire, just in reverse. If that's the case, then there would be one more district in England. Yamor2 (talk) 21:17, 4 June 2015 (UTC)

boroughs/districts
Hello Redrose64. According to the Local Government Act 1972, they are defined as "metropolitan districts". However, they all have borough status, hence the terms being used interchangeably. I don't think we should refer to them as "boroughs", while also referring to "non-metropolitan districts", as this suggests all non-metropolitan districts lack borough status.

As for the London boroughs, the London Government Act 1963 consecutively refers to "London boroughs and the City", or similar. An easy way to refer to both of those is "London districts", as that is what they are. I think distinguishing the London boroughs from the City isn't helpful. At the very least, the London boroughs section needs to mention the City.

Rob984 (talk) 10:48, 28 August 2015 (UTC)
 * They all have formal names like Metropolitan Borough of Bolton or London Borough of Ealing. There is no Metropolitan District of Bolton, London District of Ealing, a London Borough of London or even a London District of London. The City of London is proud of the fact that although it has many of the powers and responsibilities of a London Borough, it is not itself a London Borough. It is outside Metropolitan Police jurisdiction, for example. -- Red rose64 (talk) 10:58, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

 * And you also have the non-metropolitan district of Brentwood, named the "Borough of Brentwood", and the metropolitan borough of Newcastle upon Tyne, named the "City of Newcastle upon Tyne". There are numerous titles: Borough, Royal Borough, City, Metropolitan borough, etc. There is nothing wrong with calling them "metropolitan boroughs", but contrasting that term with "non-metropolitan districts" is misleading.

 * The City of London cannot be a London borough as London boroughs are defined as within the County of Greater London. It also probably can't be a borough at all considering it is the coterminous with a ceremonial county (I don't think any districts that are coterminous with ceremonial counties have borough status).

 * The Greater London authority covers two counties and 33 districts. For administrative purposes, the two counties in London, and the status of the districts are both irrelevant. Non-metropolitan districts are not distinguished by status, so why distinguish London's districts this way?

 * Rob984 (talk) 11:45, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

 * The City has a completely different legal status/basis than the London boroughs. It's not distinguished from them because of ceremonial status - it is a different "animal". On the other hand all non-metropolitan districts have the same legal status/basis and the grant of "borough" status is purely ceremonial.

 * I'm sorry Rob984 but once again I find you "re-inventing the wheel". It's really annoying. Argovian (talk) 17:07, 1 September 2015 (UTC)

Middlesbrough
Middlesbrough is misspelled as Middlesborough on the map.132.185.161.120 (talk) 15:43, 12 December 2016 (UTC)
 * That's something to mention at c:File talk:England Administrative 2010.png. -- Red rose64 (talk) 10:22, 13 December 2016 (UTC)

Buckinghamshire
Since 1/4/2020 Buckinghamshire is a unitary area and has no districts. The map of English districts is therefore out of date as it still shows the former districts. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.105.32.20 (talk) 21:32, 17 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Please see my reply in the previous section. -- Red rose64 🌹 (talk) 18:58, 18 April 2020 (UTC)

Somerset and Cumbria
The maps need another update: Somerset has become a single unitary authority; Cumbria has split into two unitary authorities, (i) Cumberland and (ii) Westmorland and Furness. IndigoJo (talk) 16:37, 8 March 2023 (UTC)
 * The changes haven't happened yet; they will occur on 1 April. On that date, and not before, the map File:English districts map coloured by type 2021.svg in the infobox can be replaced by File:English districts map coloured by type 2023.svg, and the numbers in the article will need updating at the same time. There are similar maps waiting for other articles. --  Dr Greg  talk 19:31, 8 March 2023 (UTC)

Berkshire
'Berkshire is unusual, being a non-metropolitan county with no county council and six unitary authority districts. '

I made an edit, since reverted, to remove this. Mainly as it suggests Berkshire is an exception to a norm, where as the current state is there are many different patterns seen across England (Cornwall, one UA for the whole county; Northants two UA for the county; Wiltshire/Bucks one for most of the county - and named as such - and one UA for a large town, etc etc). Foxdown (talk) 14:25, 2 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Berkshire is the only non-metropolitan county that has within in unitary authority areas that are non-metropolitan districts but are not non-metropolitan counties. All other unitary authority areas are both non-metropolitan districts and non-metropolitan counties. The examples you give are UAs within ceremonial counties but not are not within a larger non-metropolitan county. I've now reworded the sentence to try to make it clearer.  Dr Greg  talk 14:41, 2 August 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Districts of England


text:
Joanne Arnott

Joanne Arnott (born 16 December 1960 in Winnipeg, Manitoba) is a Canadian writer.

She has conducted writing workshops across much of Canada and in Australia, including a series at the Carnegie Centre, sponsored by SFU, and has written for the Literary Review of Canada. She received the Gerald Lampert Award for her 1991 collection of poetry Wiles of Girlhood.

Arnott lives in British Columbia with her family. She is a founding member of the Aboriginal Writers Collective West Coast and The Aunties Collective. As a member of the Alliance of Women Against Racism, Etc., she facilitated Unlearning Racism workshops for colleges, universities, government and community groups in Canada throughout the 1990s. She has served on The Writers Union of Canada National Council (2009), The Writers Trust of Canada Authors Committee, and as jury member for the Governor General's Awards/Poetry (2011). She is the Poetry Editor for Event Magazine.

Poetry

 * Wiles of Girlhood (Press Gang, 1991)
 * My Grass Cradle (Press Gang, 1992)
 * Steepy Mountain: love poetry (Kegedonce, 2004)
 * Mother Time: Poems New & Selected (Ronsdale, 2007)
 * Longing: Four Poems on diverse matters (Rubicon, chapbook with Aaron Paquette, 2008)
 * The Family of Crow (Leaf Press, chapbook with various artists, 2012)
 * A Night for the Lady (Ronsdale, 2013)
 * Halfling Spring: an internet romance (Kegedonce, 2013)

Children's literature

 * Ma MacDonald (Women's Press, 1993; illustrated by Maryanne Barkhouse)

Non-fiction

 * "Joanne Arnott: World Poetry Day 2009: Part 1", May 7, 2009
 * Breasting the Waves: On Writing and Healing (Press Gang, 1995)

Blogs

 * Joanne Arnott
 * Vera Manuel Tribute

title: Joanne Arnott


text:
Girdler sulfide process

The Girdler sulfide (GS) process, also known as the Geib–Spevack (GS) process, is an industrial production method for filtering out of natural water the heavy water (deuterium oxide = D2O) which is used in particle research, in deuterium NMR spectroscopy, deuterated solvents for proton NMR spectroscopy, in heavy water nuclear reactors (as a coolant and moderator) and in deuterated drugs.

Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack independently, and in parallel, invented the process in 1943 and its name derives from the Girdler company, which built the first American plant using the process.

The method is an isotopic exchange process between H2S and H2O ("light" water), that produces heavy water over several steps. It is a highly energy intensive process.

Until its closure in 1997, the Bruce Heavy Water Plant in Ontario (located on the same site as Douglas Point and the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station) was the world's largest heavy water production plant, with a peak capacity of 1600 tonnes per year (800 tonnes per year per full plant, two fully operational plants at its peak). It used the Girdler sulfide process to produce heavy water, and required by mass 340000 units of feed water to produce 1 unit of heavy water.

The first such facility of India's Heavy Water Board to use the Girdler process is at Rawatbhata near Kota, Rajasthan. This was followed by a larger plant at Manuguru, Andhra Pradesh. Other plants exist in the United States and Romania for example. Romania, India and the former supplier of much of the world's heavy water demand, Canada, all have operating heavy water reactors with two at Cernavoda Nuclear Power Plant in Romania making up the country's entire fleet and several each in India (mostly IPHWR) and Canada (exclusively CANDU).

The process
Each of a number of steps consists of two sieve tray columns. One column is maintained at 30 °C and is called the cold tower and the other at 130 °C and is called the hot tower. The enrichment process is based on the difference in separation between 30°C and 130°C.

The process of interest is the equilibrium reaction,

 * {| width="450"

 * style="width:50%; height:30px;"| H2O + HDS HDO + H2S
 * }

At 30°C, the equilibrium constant K = 2.33, while at 130°C, K = 1.82. This difference is exploited for enriching deuterium in heavy water.

Hydrogen sulfide gas is circulated in a closed loop between the cold tower and the hot tower (although these can be separate towers, they can also be separate sections of one tower, with the cold section at the top). Demineralised and deaerated water is fed to the cold tower where deuterium migration preferentially takes place from the hydrogen sulfide gas to the liquid water. Normal water is fed to the hot tower where deuterium transfer takes place from the liquid water to the hydrogen sulfide gas. In cascade systems, the same water is used for both inputs. The mechanism for this is the difference in the equilibrium constant; in the cold tower, deuterium concentration in the hydrogen sulfide is lowered, and the concentration in the water raised. The deuterium in the hot loop slightly prefers to be in the hydrogen sulfide, resulting in excess deuterium in the hydrogen sulfide relative to the cold tower. For n moles of deuterium per mole of protium in the hot tower input water, there are $n⁄1.82$ moles per mole of protium in the hydrogen sulfide. In the cold tower, part of this deuterium is transferred to the cold tower input water, in accordance with the equilibrium constant. At the input to the cold tower, the ratio of products to reactants in the above equation is 1.82, since both input streams have equal concentrations of deuterium. The chemical equilibrium tries to force more deuterium into the water to correct the ratio. Ideally for equal amounts of water and hydrogen sulfide, the cold tower should output water with 12% more deuterium than it entered. Enriched water is output from the cold tower, while depleted water is output from the hot tower.

An appropriate cascade system accomplishes enrichment: enriched water is fed into another separation unit and is further enriched.

Normally in this process, water is enriched to 15–20% D2O. Further enrichment to "reactor-grade" heavy water (> 99% D2O) is done in another process, e.g. distillation.

title: Girdler sulfide process


text:
User talk:TallQuietKid

John Stockton is a former NBA player who was not only a multi-year All Star, but also a member of the 1992 and 1996 Dream Teams in the Summer Olympics. He played his entire professional basketball career with the Utah Jazz.

title: User talk:TallQuietKid


text:
Talk:Roaming

Untitled
Hey guys, is that normal in "Roaming in general", definitions of "SIM-based roaming" and "Username/password based roaming" (the bullet stuff) are the same ?

I dispute the definition of "roaming" in this article.

A former version of this article had an incorrect explanation of roaming. It was actually describing handoff.

My understanding of "roaming" as it applies to wireless telecommunications is when a subscriber of a given carrier enters an area where they can only connect to the network of another non-affiliated carrier. For example, you are a Sprint subscriber, and your phone travels to an area where there is no Sprint service, but there is AT&T service. As long as there is a roaming agreement between AT&T and Sprint, and your Sprint plan allows roaming, you will be provided cellular service by AT&T in that area (with onerous per-minute fees applied), which will transfer your activity to Sprint for billing records, along with AT&T's charges (to Sprint) for use of their network.

However, the situation that was described in the article is was that of talking on the phone while moving between different antennas/cells of the same carrier's network. This is known in the industry as a handoff.

The article also seems seemed to be complaining about problems with roaming handoff -- talking on the phone while moving out of your carrier's coverage area and into that of another -- which is a virtually nonexistent concept. The roaming transactions, and the current paradigm of telephony, makes this practically impossible. For an example of the roaming transaction process, see GSM core network, especially VLR section. As far as I know.

As for wi-fi, I'm not sure there really is such a concept as wi-fi roaming in the sense I describe. Perhaps paid wi-fi from wireless companies has some sort of roaming, but it seems unlikely given the technology and overhead that would probably be required.

As for handoff in wi-fi, this should be altogether possible; that is, while you are traveling within an area of hotspots connected to the same IP network. Leaving the IP network you start on will, at best, break any connections you have open, and at worst, leave you with no service until you return to your original network.

Of course, the details of these issues of carrier network and IP network segments are generally not noticeable by the average user, so confusion of the terms is understandable, if not quite forgivable in an encyclopedia article.

Of course, I could be wrong, too...

KeithTyler 19:33, May 25, 2004 (UTC)

Because of the prior content of this article and the explanation I gave above, I'd like to find a way to re-include the distinction between handoff and roaming that was formerly made in the article. - KeithTyler 23:28, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC)

Roaming v. Fake Roaming
While the definition in the article is definitely correct,cell phone providers (at least Alltel, but I'm pretty sure the others do also) will often abuse the roaming concept. For eaxmple, the cell phone companies may offer a plan where you can use the phone in a certain geological area, but if you try to use the phone outside of that area you are charged a 'roaming fee' (typically the same as the real roaming fee), despite not actually being on annother carriers network. I know that my Altell phone shows 2 different roaming indicators. One is this fake roaming, which I can ignore due to my plan, however the other is real roaming as defined in the article.

Clarification needed: 'visited', 'home' and 'host' networks.
The 'The roaming process' section writes about 'visited network', 'home network' and 'host network'. It is unclear to me what 'host network' means in that context. Abu ari 14:23, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose that Inter standard roaming be merged into Roaming. I think that the content in the Inter standard roaming article can easily be explained in the context of Roaming, and the Roaming article is of a reasonable size in which the merging of Inter standard roaming will not cause any problems as far as article size or undue weight is concerned. JanetteDoe (talk) 01:04, 21 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Support Jim.henderson (talk) 02:14, 1 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Disagree Should not be even considered until the "too technical" problem has been repaired. --71.133.255.249 (talk) 14:15, 26 January 2014 (UTC)Doug Bashford

The term "roaming" originates from the GSM
Suggest adding reference to GSMA IR.50 2G 2.5G 3G Roaming v4.0 dated Oct.16 2009. Would that be OK? Kalle knegis (talk) 16:36, 29 April 2013 (UTC)kalle knegis

 * The term "roaming" does *not* originate with GSM, as it already existed with analogue (AMPS) cellular. In North America, there were even a series of local numbers for each provider for each city (typically (NPA) NNX-7626 where available so the last four digits spelled ROAM) which made it possible to make local calls to non-local mobile 'phones which had roamed into the local area without tromboning or incurring long-distance tolls. Dialling this local number would give a secondary dial tone, at which point the area code and number of the roaming mobile device could be entered.
 * I don't see a problem in citing the reference to say GSM mentions "roaming", but hesitate on the claim that roaming originated there if it existed on any prior systems (AMPS in particular). K7L (talk) 02:56, 22 May 2013 (UTC)

 * →The term "roaming" is actually ancient and does not originate from any technology at all. Roaming barbarians have been mentioned by Egypt and Roman historians already, roaming simply means the process of moving around the countryside without regard for who the lords of the individual strips of land are that are being passed through. 5.1.129.32 (talk) 15:53, 24 April 2014 (UTC) Olfan Doe

Too technical
Most people will come here to find out what cell phone roaming means, prolly within the context of their cell phone bill. Because the article leads with meaningless, unneeded jargon like "the home location where the service was registered," "the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) sphere," "CDMA technology," the average reader at first glance is unsure if cell phones are even germane here. For example, who cares if ""roaming" can also be applied to the [techno-gobly-gook]" when roaming itself remains undefined!? Quoting the entire Lead section:

"This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve this article...(July 2013)" In wireless telecommunications, roaming is a general term referring to the extension of connectivity service in a location that is different from the home location where the service was registered. Roaming ensures that the wireless device is kept connected to the network, without losing the connection. The term "roaming" originates from the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) sphere[citation needed]; the term "roaming" can also be applied to the CDMA technology. Traditional GSM Roaming is defined (cf. GSM Association Permanent Reference Document AA.39) as the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make and receive voice calls, send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services, when travelling outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a visited network. This can be done by using a communication terminal or else just by using the subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically supported by mobility management, authentication, authorization and accounting billing procedures (known as AAA or 'triple A').

Possibly it's just poorly organized, I'll fool around some. see also: Manual of Style (lead section) The Lead is required to be a conceptual overview, not a precise nor technical definition able to face all conceivable nit-picky onslaughts. --71.133.255.249 (talk) 14:59, 26 January 2014 (UTC)Doug Bashford

 * Ok, I made the Lede more accessible, but I only reorganized what was there. Much/Most of the rest of the article is also poorly organized, also with unneeded jargon and clutter, —as if a sophomore was writing a paper and wanted to check off his list all the things his robotic professor might desire. A list of facts is NOT AN EXPLANATION! ...Even worse when that list seems haphazard.

 * More specifically, examples of slop in Section: The roaming process
 * subsection: Mobile Terminated Call
 * "It occurs for example when a call is made to a roaming cell phone." HUH!?
 * and in all sub-sub-sections of Mobile Terminated Call....there is utterly NO MENTION of termination! Could this have actually been an accidental insertion of needless jargon? The Signaling process: 1) The calling subscriber dials the mobile subscriber's MSISDN (the telephone number) of the roaming cell phone. ...or a precocious fifth-grader trying to impress his unprecocious peers?  That's right, "MSISDN" is used over and over again in that alphabet soup instead of "phone number."  --71.133.255.249 (talk) 18:28, 26 January 2014 (UTC)Doug Bashford

No CDMA networks in Europe?
Inter Standard Roaming claims that "In Europe there is hardly any CDMA network". How old is that claim? Europeans often use the term UMTS which may sound different from CDMA, but the claim as such is just wrong. Anyone care to fix this in a way that this claim is removed while the rest of the paragraph still carries meaning? Olfan Doe (5.1.129.32 (talk) 15:40, 24 April 2014 (UTC))

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Roaming. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20110607143255/http://www.ida.gov.sg/News%20and%20Events/20110316121622.aspx?getPagetype=20 to http://www.ida.gov.sg/News%20and%20Events/20110316121622.aspx?getPagetype=20

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 11:34, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

mm 87.202.72.34 (talk) 11:44, 28 March 2023 (UTC)

needs to be simplified
This article is full of technical jargon and abbreviations that are meaningless to laypeople. Seems like it is written for people who already understand the topic. Wcg5003 (talk) 04:00, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roaming


text:
Ogmore, Vale of Glamorgan

Ogmore (Ogwr) is a village in the Vale of Glamorgan, Wales on the River Ogmore. It grew around the now ruined Ogmore Castle, built by the Normans.

The village does not lie in the parliamentary constituency also called Ogmore, which lies further up the Ogmore River in Bridgend and Rhondda Cynon Taff districts. Southerndown Golf Club lies opposite the village.

title: Ogmore, Vale of Glamorgan


text:
Renault 4

The Renault 4, or R4 in short (and 4L, pronounced "Quatrelle", in French), is an economy car built by the French company Renault from 1961 to 1994. Although the Renault 4 was first marketed as a short estate or wagon, its minimal rear overhang, and its top-hinged, single-piece tail-gate made it the world's first mass-produced hatchback car, as well as the first time Renault had used a front-wheel-drive layout in a family car. A bare-bones, entry-level Renault 3, or R3 was also offered in 1961/1962.

The car was launched at a time when several decades of economic stagnation were giving way to growing prosperity and surging car ownership in France. The first million cars were produced by 1 February 1966, less than four and a half years after launch; eventually over eight million were built, making the Renault 4 a commercial success because of the timing of its introduction and the merits of its design. Inearly 2020, the 33-year production run of the Renault 4 was counted as the seventeenth most long-lived single generation car in history.

Origins and strategy
The Renault 4 was Renault's response to the 1948 Citroën 2CV. Renault was able to review the advantages and disadvantages of the 2CV design. The Citroën had made motoring available to low-income people in France, and especially to farmers and other people in rural areas, for whom the car was as much a working tool as personal transport. The 2CV had been designed in the 1930s for use in the French countryside where the road network was poor - speed was not a requirement but a good ride, useful rough-terrain ability, a versatile body for load carrying, and economy and simplicity of operation were its key considerations. However, by the late 1950s, the 2CV was becoming outdated. Rural roads in France were improved and the national system of autoroutes was being developed. Agriculture was becoming more mechanized with fewer smallholdings and family farms for which the 2CV was designed. The Citroën had also proved popular with people living in towns and cities as affordable, economical transport but the 2CV's rural design brief made it less than ideal as a city car and, despite improvements, the late-1950s 2CV had a top speed of just 70 km/h. Its air-cooled two-cylinder engine was reliable and economical but noisy and offered poor performance. The 2CV's suspension gave it an excellent ride and good grip and handling but was mechanically complex with many moving parts that required regular maintenance and lubrication at intervals as low as every 1000 miles (1600km). With its roots in the 1930s, the 2CV's styling was also outdated and, with its separate wing/fenders, had a relatively narrow and cramped body for its overall footprint. While the Citroën had been designed during the Great Depression when money was tight and living standards were relatively low, by the 1960s the French economy was growing and people would be able to afford a more modern, refined, and less utilitarian small car.

In early 1956, Renault Chairman Pierre Dreyfus launched this new project: designing a new model to replace the rear engined 4CV and compete against the Citroën 2CV that would become an everyman's car, capable of satisfying the needs of most consumers. It would be a family car, a woman's car, a farmer's car, or a city car. Dreyfus summed up his intention for project by requesting his staff produce "a blue jeans car" - a car that, like the denim trousers that were becoming increasingly popular as casual wear fashion items at the time, could be as useful for recreation as for work, and be appealing to customers of all demographics.

The Renault 4 shared many design traits with the older Citroën 2CV to allow it to fulfill the same role as a versatile utility car, especially for people in rural France and other parts of the world with poor roads. It had a large structural platform with a separate body. It had front-wheel drive, long-travel fully independent suspension, and Rack and pinion steering. It had a simple body with minimal equipment, a large space for cargo or luggage, and 'deckchair' seats which could be easily removed. However, the Renault 4 updated this basic concept with a larger four-cylinder water-cooled engine with a sealed cooling system offering much better refinement and performance than the contemporary 2CV, with a top speed of over 104 km/h. The suspension consisted of torsion bars which required no regular maintenance. The boxy full-width body offered more space for both passengers and luggage than the similar-sized 2CV and the car boasted an early hatchback body for greater practicality.

Launch of the R3 and R4
Renault launched the Renault 3 and the Renault 4 simultaneously in July 1961. The cars shared the same body and most mechanical components, but the R3 was powered by a 603 cc version of the engine while the R4 featured a 747 cc engine. This placed the R3 in the 3CV taxation class while the R4 was in the 4CV class. Maximum power output was rated by Renault as 22.5 hp-metric for the R3, and 26.5 or for the R4, depending on price level and the type of carburettor fitted. Initially the base versions of the R3 and R4 came with a thick C-pillar behind each of the rear doors. Quarter glass was a 400 franc option for the basic R4. The extra visibility increased the weight of the vehicle, but these windows soon became standard for all R4s.

The R3 and R4 were targeted at the Citroën 2CV that employed soft springs and long wheel travel to absorb bumps on rough roads. The Renault 3/4 applied the same approach and two models appeared at the Paris Motor Show in 1961 on a specialized demonstration display that incorporated an irregular rolling road. Visitors could sit inside a car, which remained undisturbed while the suspension absorbed the erratic bumps of the rolling road. In 1962 Renault employed the same display at the Turin Motor Show.

The basic version of the R3 was priced 40 francs below the lowest-priced version of the Citroën 2CV in 1961 and featured painted bumpers and grille, a simplified instrument panel, a single sun visor, no windshield washer, and no interior door trim panels. This trim was also offered with the more powerful R4 engine. The R4L with six side windows, chrome-colored bumper and grille, as well as a less spartan interior cost 400 francs (roughly 8%) more than the R4 with its four side windows. However, as with the Renault 4CV "Service" in 1953, customers shunned the basic model and in October 1962, the Renault R3 was discontinued, along with the most basic version of the Renault 4.

A "Super" version (branded "de Luxe" in some export markets) with opening rear quarter-light windows and extra trim was also offered. The de Luxe and Super versions of the R4L received a version of the engine from the Renault Dauphine giving them an engine capacity of 845 cc. After the withdrawal of the 603 cc engined R3, the 747 cc R4 model continued to be listed with an entry-level recommended retail price, but the slightly larger-engined L versions were more popular. By 1965, Renault had removed the extra "R" from their model names: the Renault R4L thus became the Renault 4L.

Engines
Early versions of the Renault R4 used engines and transmissions from the Renault 4CV. The original design brief called for an engine size between 600 cc and 700 cc, but there was no consensus as to whether to use a four-cylinder unit or to follow Citroën with a two-cylinder unit. With Volkswagen rapidly growing market share across Europe and North America, Renault also gave serious consideration to an air-cooled boxer motor option for the forthcoming R3/R4. However, using the existing water-cooled unit from the 4CV was a solution, especially in view of the extended period of teething troubles encountered by the Renault Frégate, which was then Renault's most recent attempt to develop an innovative powerplant. The existing engines were larger than that specified by management for the new 4CV, but the automaker addressed this by reducing the bore so that the overall capacity of the base engine for the new R3 worked out to be 603 cc, comfortably at the lower end of the required 600–700 cc range. However, since Renault already produced the 747 cc version of the engine that was well proven in the 4CV, it made sense to use this as well in what would in many respects be the older car's successor. Therefore, in 1961, the R3 had a 49 mm bore and 80 mm stroke, while the R4 received the 54.5 mm × 80 mm existing engine.

Moving the engine from the rear of the 4CV to the front of the new model involved significant planning: design changes to the unit were introduced as part of the process. The inlet manifold was now a steel casting whereas on the 4CV it had been constructed of a light-weight alloy: this was driven by cost considerations now that aluminum was not so inexpensive as it had been fifteen years earlier. Renault also took the opportunity to introduce a feature which subsequently became mainstream. Renault also designed a "sealed-for-life" cooling system, supported by a small expansion tank on the right side of the engine bay. The cooling system contained antifreeze intended to enable operation without topping up or other intervention throughout a car's life provided ambient temperatures below -40 C were avoided.

The engines were larger than the small 425 cc (later 602 cc and 29 hp), engines in the 2CV. The R4 always had a four-cylinder watercooled engine. The original Renault R4's engine capacity of 747 cc served to differentiate the model from the more powerful Renault Dauphine, but the Dauphine's 845 cc engine was used in the 4 itself from 1963 onwards: for most markets at this stage the Dauphine engine now came as standard in the top of the range Renault R4 Super, and was available in some other versions only as an optional extra. Given that Renault’s 603, 747, and 845 cc engines all shared the same cylinder stroke and were all of the same basic design, it is likely that there was very little difference between the manufacturing costs of the basic engine block between the three. From the perspective of the sales and marketing department, they did fall within different taxation classes (respectively 3CV, 4CV, and 5CV) but at this end of the market tax level differences were by now less of an issue even in those European countries that still taxed cars according to engine size.

With time, the increasing trend to the production of Renault 4s in a wide range of countries reduces the validity of generalized statements as to which engines were fitted when: in French-built cars the old 845 cc engine continued in the low versions until the mid-1980s, but in 1978 the top-end Renault 4 GTLs received the new 1108 cc engine: this engine was not new to Renault, however, being the five-bearing "Sierra" engine, first installed in the Estafette van and R8 in the summer of 1962. A smaller version (956 cc) of this new engine finally replaced the by now venerable 845 cc engine in the 4 in 1986. Unlike the original "Billancourt" engine from the 4CV, the Sierra engine rotated in a clockwise direction, so fitting it required reversing the direction of the differential in the gear box in order to avoid producing a car with one forward speed and four reverse speeds.

Transmission
The initial transmission was a three-speed manual, described by one critic as an obsolete feature when compared to the four-speed manual of the then thirteen-year-old Citroën 2CV. Ironically the new Renault 4 did not inherit its transmission from the Renault 4CV nor from anyone else: the transmission was newly developed for the car. The dash-mounted gear lever was linked via a straight horizontal rod that passed over the longitudinally mounted engine and clutch directly to the gearbox right at the front. The resulting absence of any linkage at floor level permitted a flat floor across the full width of the car's cabin. Synchromesh featured only on the top two ratios, even though the low power of the engine required frequent gear changes by drivers using normal roads and wishing to make reasonable progress. On this point Renault quickly acknowledged their error and cars produced from 1962 featured synchromesh on all three ratios. In 1968 the Renault 4 finally received a four-speed transmission.

Structure and running gear
The three principal new models introduced by Renault since the war featured monocoque "chassisless" construction that was less expensive to manufacture process and reduced operating costs because of lower vehicle weight. The Renault R3/R4 design defied this by now widely accepted mantra, employing a separate platform to which the body shell was then attached. The body's structural role in maintaining the overall rigidity of the car body was thereby reduced, placing less stress on the roof and allowing for thinner window pillars. Although the use made of a separate platform resembled, in some respects, the use that pre-war designs would have made of a chassis, the outcome was a structure described as semi-monocoque, and it would later allow Renault to use the R4 platform, with very little modification, to build new models such as the Renault 6 and Rodeo. (Later, the successful Renault 5 used the R4 running gear, but in a monocoque shell).

Suspension
The R3 and R4 had four-wheel torsion-bar independent suspension. This was an innovation that would be copied on a succession of subsequent front-engined Renaults introduced during the 1960s and 70s.

The car features a shorter wheelbase on the left than on the right because the rear wheels are not mounted directly opposite one another. This concept allowed a very simple design of the rear suspension using transverse torsion bars located one behind the other without affecting handling. The front torsion bars were longitudinal. The fixed end of the torsion bars is mounted on quadrants that can be adjusted via a holes/fixing bolt arrangement. This enables the suspension to be "beefed up" and the ground clearance increased. With specialist tools provided by Renault, adjustments can be made to provide the light 4L some off-road capabilities. This feature, along with the installation of a thick protecting aluminum plate under the engine, has been used by off-road drivers and student 4L Trophy entrants. Damping was provided by hydraulic telescopic shock absorbers on all four wheels. Those at the rear were mounted virtually horizontally which avoided the intrusion of rear suspension componentry into the flat-floored passenger cabin.

The longitudinal layout of the front-wheel drive engine and transmission with the engine behind the front axle, and gearbox/differential in front, is identical to the Citroën Traction Avant. The suspension is similar with the difference being the deletion of the Citroën's flexible beam between the rear wheels to give the Renault 4 fully independent rear suspension.

Around the world

 * In Colombia, the Renault 4 was one of the highest-selling vehicles. Many Colombians nicknamed it "Amigo fiel" (Faithful friend) due to its popularity. The vehicle was manufactured at the SOFASA plant in Envigado (Medellín) from 1970 to 1992. Two of the most popular versions included the Master (1,022 cc) and the Líder (Leader), which had a more powerful 1,300 cc engine. The first Renault 4 was actually called "Azul Pastrana", named after President Misael Pastrana inaugurated the Renault plant in Envigado, Colombia.
 * In Argentina and Chile the 4 van (Fourgonette) is known as "Renoleta", following the nickname given to the Citroën 2CV van, "Citroneta". Due to heavy taxation on passenger vehicles in the late 1950s, the first 2CVs were imported unfinished, only up to the front doors and completed with an Argentine-made pickup truck bed. The Spanish word for pickup truck is "camioneta", hence "Renoleta".
 * In Italy the 4 was produced by the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan under license from 1962 to 1964. 41,809 R4s were built there.
 * In Australia the car was produced between 1962 and 1966 in Heidelberg, Victoria but ceased production to make way for other models
 * In Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia the car was known as "Mali div" (Little giant) or "četvorka"
 * In Finland, the car was known as "Tipparellu" (Drop Rellu) from the marketing slogan No grease, no water, just a drop of fuel and as it had excellent fuel economy. Rellu is the common nickname for Renault cars in Finland.
 * In Mexico, the Renault 4 was produced in Ciudad Sahagún, an industrial city created by DINA and Renault in the fifties. Renault production ceased in 1976.
 * In Ireland the car was first produced in a plant established in 1962 in Naas, and production was transferred to a new factory established in Wexford in 1972, production running until 1984.
 * In Slovenia (formerly part of Yugoslavia) the Renault 4, nicknamed "Katrca" or "štirica" (from French quatre, four), was produced in the Industrija motornih vozil (IMV) plant from 1973 to 1992. 575,960 R4s were built there. In 1989 the plant was sold to Group Renault and renamed REVOZ d.d.
 * In Portugal it had a CKD assembly line in Guarda from 1964 to 1989 where more than 190,000 units were assembled. It was known as "Quatro L" (four L).
 * In Spain the Renault 4L is known as "Cuatro latas" (four tins).
 * In East Africa it became known as the "Roho". In Swahili Roho means spirit, soul or character perhaps reflecting the affection the vehicle gained.
 * On September 7, 2013, Pope Francis accepted a white 1984 4L which had done 300,000 km, offered to him by father Renzo Zocca from Verona.

Design
The Renault 4 was a basic car with a simple dashboard and sliding windows. Suspension and seats were designed for comfort, and ventilation and the heater were effective.

The Renault 4 was not significantly changed during its production. Exterior chrome trim was eventually phased out on all models, and aluminium grilles were replaced with plastic. There were three different dashboard designs. On the right side of the car at the back the position of the fuel filler was raised by approximately 15 cm less than a year after the car's launch; other than that, changes to the body panels were limited to a slightly altered hood and hinges.

Renault developed new small cars, the Renault 6 and the Renault 5, while the Renault 4 was still selling well. The Renault 5 competed in a somewhat different sector (three-and five-door supermini). The Renault 4 is intermediate between the small utility vehicle (2CV) and the supermini design (R5, Peugeot 205).

Variants
There were many different 'special edition' Renault 4s. Some (including the Safari, Sixties, and Jogging) were sold in special colour schemes, upholstery and other details, while others (Clan, Savane) were standard models with special decals.

There were also special models that were not solely a marketing exercise, such as the Renault 4 Sinpar 4x4, the Plein Air, a pickup truck, LPG versions, and electric versions.

The Plein Air was a doorless and roofless version originally developed to meet a 1964 request by the French Army. Sinpar's version, called the Sinpar 4x4 Torpedo, was first shown as a prototype at the 1968 Geneva Salon, equipped with Sinpar's four-wheel-drive system. Sinpar was quickly given a contract to build a front-wheel-drive version at their works in Colombes near Paris; it appeared in May 1968. Called the Plein Air (meaning "Open Air"), it had no doors, with only a chain protecting the passengers. A military contract did not materialize but Renault and Sinpar attempted to ride the late sixties/early seventies buggy wave in marketing it as a fun beach car. Being more expensive and less capable than the Citroën Méhari it did not catch on and was discontinued in March 1970, after only 563 had been built. In 1989, Colombian SOFASA produced the variants Brisa (Breeze) which was based on the French Plein Air and Jogging, which was marketed as a sportier version of the car and featured red accessories.

In 1978, the R4 GTL arrived. It had the 1108 cc engine from the Renault 6 TL, albeit with the performance reduced for better economy, and bigger drum brakes. The GTL was identifiable by its grey front grille, grey bumpers, and grey plastic strips along the bottoms of the doors. It also had an extra air intake below the front grille (as a result, the registration plate was moved down to the bumper), and 12 inch (304.8 mm) wiper blades instead of the original 10 inch (254 mm) ones. For the 1983 model year, the GTL got front disc brakes, the handbrake now working on the rear wheels, and there were a modified dashboard and cloth seats. The Renault 4 was the last French automobile to be sold with drum brakes on all four wheels, after the Citroën 2CV received disc brakes in 1981. The very first 1983 models had the handbrake lever moved from left to right under the steering wheel before it was moved to the floor like in almost any other car by then.

There was also a panel van (Fourgonnette) version of the R4, which with its "high cube" bodyshell and the unique 'giraffon' (giraffe hatch) at the rear became the idiosyncratic French "Boulangerie" van. For many years, this was a successful vehicle of its type and for many customers, as it represents their idea of a Renault 4 more than a passenger version. It remained on sale in Europe until 1993 and was replaced by the Renault Express (called Extra in UK and Ireland, Rapid in Germany), which was based on the second generation Renault 5 'Supercinq'.

End of the R4
Though reasons such as emissions and safety legislation are often given for the Renault 4's demise in Europe during the 1980s, it would appear that its popularity would not have lasted. Outmoded production methods, more advanced competition and the reasons outlined above meant that the Renault 4's days were numbered, at least as a mainstream product. And Renault was already enjoying huge sales success with the far more modern R5, which was only slightly more expensive. Comparable products had already been discontinued in Europe or had their production scaled back, as more modern designs enjoyed the strongest sales. British Leyland's Mini had been produced in smaller figures since the launch of the Austin Metro in 1980 with production continuing until 2000. Volkswagen had switched Beetle production from West Germany to Mexico in 1978 (where it was made until 2003), with the new Polo and Golf proving hugely popular in Europe. Citroën kept its 2CV in production until 1990, but did not directly replace it, with the AX (launched in 1986) taking its place as the entry-level model in the Citroën range. It had also produced the earlier Dyane and Visa as more modern and only marginally more expensive alternatives to 2CV.

There were several projects to replace the Renault 4, starting from the early 1970s. However, the continuing success of the Renault 4, the need to replace the more popular Renault 5 during the early 1980s, the difficulties coming up with a suitable replacement (and the idea that the Renault 4's market would die with it) all meant that a new entry-level Renault (the Twingo) did not appear until 1992. To conclude production, a series of 1000 examples marketed as "Bye-Bye" was released, each with a numbered plaque.

To mark the end of Renault 4 production, a retrospective series of ten black-and-white photographs by Thierry des Ouches was published in Libération in early December 1992, when R4 production finally finished after 31 years. This series later won first prize from Le Club des Directeur Artistiques in the category of daily newspaper. It was also awarded the Lion d'Or at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.

In 2003, a Japanese car modification company called DAMD came up with a design called the Ancel Lapin which could transform a first-generation Suzuki Lapin into a Renault 4 lookalike.

Reintroduction (2020s)
In 2021, it was announced that the Renault 4 would be reintroduced during the 2020s as the "4ever", a compact crossover cousin of the forthcoming all-electric Renault 5 E-Tech. It will be built alongside the 5 EV at Renault ElectriCity, a union of three existing Renault factories in northern France that is planned to produce 400,000 EVs per year by 2025. The 4ever is based on the same CMF-B EV platform as the 5 EV; because the platform shares $1/undefined$ of its components with the existing CMF-B platform, production costs are expected to be $2/3$ of the current Zoe.

In motorsport
The Renault 4 was originally powered by a 24 hp engine and its suspension were never intended for sporting dynamics. The Renault 4 had certain advantages in its high torque and a suspension and ground-clearance that gave it go-anywhere capabilities. This meant that Renault was able to give it a sporting image with programs such as the "Cross Elf Cup of France" in 1974 and the "Routes du Monde" program in 1968. The latter was a project in which Renault would lend young people cars to travel the world in, and this would help to give the Renault 4 an adventurous and durable image. The "Coupe de France Renault Cross Elf" was a series of races in France on dirt tracks with slightly tuned 782 cc R4s.

A Renault 4 Sinpar (the four-wheel drive version) was entered in the Paris-Dakar Rally in 1979 and 1980 by Bernard and Claude Marreau, coming fifth in 1979 and in third in 1980. Renault 4 continued to feature in many long distance rallies after production ceased, such as in 2001 in the London-Sahara-London rally (Renault 4 GTL) and the 2008 Mongol Rally. The Renault 4 forms the basis of the 4L Trophy, an annual rally established in 1997 for students who collect sponsorship and drive to the Sahara to deliver educational materials to children of the desert and of Morocco.

The Renault 4 GTL was homologated in Group A. Jacky Cesbron raced one in the Monte Carlo Rally in 1993 and the Tour de Corse in 1991. Pinto dos Santos raced a Group N 4 GTL in visiting every round of the WRC though not all during the same season. To celebrate the car's 50th birthday, Renault entered the R4 in the Monte Carlo Rally in 2011.

Standard Renault 4s has taken part in a drag race at Santa Pod Raceway, Northamptonshire since 2004, and covered the quarter mile in 21.438 seconds with a terminal speed of 59.14 mph.

title: Renault 4


text:
Talk:Gravenhurst, Ontario

Gravenhurst Ontario's Racial Profile
97% Rastafarian? Oh my, who put that? Completely off, wrong Gravenhurst methinks. No idea on what the actual racial profile is, but it sure ain't that---it's about---99% white up there. xD

EDIT: Ah, the entire demographics section is wrong. - John Jacques May 3rd, 2007

Re: Gravenhurst Ontario's Racial Profile
Uh, yeah, the demographics listed on the page are complete nonsense. I'm deleting that racial profile bit, not only because its wildly inaccurate, but because it seems completely irelevant besides the point.

24.226.127.231 02:27, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Other Stuff
The Town of Gravenhurst includes a large area of the District of Muskoka, known to Ontarians as "cottage country." The town centre borders on two lakes: Lake Muskoka, which is the largest lake in the Region, and Gull Lake, a smaller cottage-bordered lake.

About ten kilometers to the south of town centre lies a medium-sized body of water called Kahshe Lake. The name came from the Indian designation Kah-she-she-bog-a-mog, which, according to one source, means Lake of Many Ducks and Birds. Other people swear that it means Lake of Many Islands. Yet others, especially those with powerful motor boats, swear at Lake of Many Rocks.

Three years ago the Kahshe Lake Ratepayers Association (KLRA) combined with another lake association to form a committee designed to study the natural and social environment of the lake and the area around it and to make recommendations on how to preserve the quality of life for residents on and around this lake.

This lake study was completed after two years and is available on the web site set up by the KLRA at www.kahshelake.ca

This study includes a series of maps of the lake which designate specific aspects such as sensitive areas, lots, publically owned areas, etc.

Other lake associations are welcome to visit this site, read the study and look at the maps. A discussion forum allows for questions to be asked.

infobox
Here is the Hamilton, Ontario infobox, please fill it out with the corresponding gravenhurst info. Alan.ca 07:15, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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Removed implausible text from camp section
"The camp also had its own small zoo that had a monkey and a black bear that prisoners would wrestle as a form of exercise." I thought of putting citation needed, but since there's a 95% chance it's vandalism (if it isn't,I'd love to know since that would be pretty awesome) I just moved it here. ❃Adelaide❃ (talk) 05:38, 24 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gravenhurst, Ontario


text:
Gaping Gill

Gaping Gill (also known as Gaping Ghyll) is a natural cave in North Yorkshire, England. It is one of the unmistakable landmarks on the southern slopes of Ingleborough – a 98 m deep pothole with the stream Fell Beck flowing into it. After falling through one of the largest known underground chambers in Britain, the water disappears into the bouldery floor and eventually resurges adjacent to Ingleborough Cave.

The shaft was the deepest known in Britain, until Titan in Derbyshire was discovered in 1999. Gaping Gill still retains the records for the highest unbroken waterfall in England and the largest underground chamber naturally open to the surface.

Features
Due to the number of entrances which connect into the cave, many different routes through and around the system are possible. Other entrances include Jib Tunnel, Disappointment Pot, Stream Passage Pot, Bar Pot, Hensler's Pot, Corky's Pot, Rat Hole, and Flood Entrance Pot.

The Bradford Pothole Club around Whitsun May Bank Holiday, and the Craven Pothole Club around August Bank Holiday, each set up a winch above the shaft to provide a ride to the bottom and back out again for any member of the public who pays a fee.

A detailed 3D model of the chamber has been created using an industrial laser rangefinder which showed that its volume is comparable to the size of York Minster.

Descents
The first recorded attempted descent was by John Birkbeck in 1842 who reached a ledge approximately 55 m down the shaft which bears his name. The first complete descent was achieved by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895.

Hensler's Crawl and Master Cave
On 16 May 1937 Eric Hensler (1907–1991) explored a low passage leading off Booth-Parsons crawl, finding it to be unexplored. This was later named Hensler's Crawl and was also found to lead into Hensler's Master Cave.

Since 1937
In 1983 members of the Cave Diving Group made the underwater connection into Ingleborough Cave.

An extreme rock-climb (graded E3, 5c) is possible up the main shaft which requires very dry conditions. It was first pioneered in 1972 with ten points of aid. The first free ascent was made in 1988.

title: Gaping Gill


text:
Stone (unit)

The stone or stone weight (abbreviation: st.) is an English and British imperial unit of mass equal to 14 avoirdupois pounds (6.35 kg). The stone continues in customary use in the United Kingdom and Ireland for body weight.

England and other Germanic-speaking countries of Northern Europe formerly used various standardised "stones" for trade, with their values ranging from about 5 to 40 local pounds (2.3 to 18.1 kg) depending on the location and objects weighed. With the advent of metrication, Europe's various "stones" were superseded by or adapted to the kilogram from the mid-19th century onward.

Antiquity
The name "stone" derives from the historical use of stones for weights, a practice that dates back into antiquity. The Biblical law against the carrying of "diverse weights, a large and a small" is more literally translated as "you shall not carry a stone and a stone (אבן ואבן), a large and a small". There was no standardised "stone" in the ancient Jewish world, but in Roman times stone weights were crafted to multiples of the Roman pound. Such weights varied in quality: the Yale Medical Library holds 10- and 50-pound examples of polished serpentine, while a 40-pound example at the Eschborn Museum is made of sandstone.

Great Britain and Ireland
The 1772 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica defined the stone: "STONE also denotes a certain quantity or weight of some commodities. A stone of beef, in London, is the quantity of eight pounds; in Hertfordshire, twelve pounds; in Scotland sixteen pounds."

The Weights and Measures Act 1824 (5 Geo. 4. c. 74), which applied to all of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, consolidated the weights and measures legislation of several centuries into a single document. It revoked the provision that bales of wool should be made up of 20 stones, each of 14 pounds, but made no provision for the continued use of the stone. Ten years later, a stone still varied from 5 pounds (glass) to 8 pounds (meat and fish) to 14 pounds (wool and "horseman's weight"). The Weights and Measures Act 1835 permitted using a stone of 14 pounds for trade but other values remained in use. James Britten, in 1880 for example, catalogued a number of different values of the stone in various British towns and cities, ranging from 4 lb to 26 lb. The value of the stone and associated units of measure that were legalised for purposes of trade were clarified by the Weights and Measures Act 1835 as follows:

England
The English stone under law varied by commodity and in practice varied according to local standards. The Assize of Weights and Measures, a statute of uncertain date from c. 1300, describes stones of 5 merchants' pounds used for glass; stones of 8 lb. used for beeswax, sugar, pepper, alum, cumin, almonds, cinnamon, and nutmegs; stones of 12 lb. used for lead; and the London stone of $12 1/2$ lb. used for wool. In 1350 Edward III issued a new statute defining the stone weight, to be used for wool and "other Merchandizes", at 14 pounds, reaffirmed by Henry VII in 1495.

In England, merchants traditionally sold potatoes in half-stone increments of 7 pounds. Live animals were weighed in stones of 14 lb; but, once slaughtered, their carcasses were weighed in stones of 8 lb. Thus, if the animal's carcass accounted for of the animal's weight, the butcher could return the dressed carcasses to the animal's owner stone for stone, keeping the offal, blood and hide as his due for slaughtering and dressing the animal. Smithfield market continued to use the 8 lb stone for meat until shortly before the Second World War. The Oxford English Dictionary also lists:

Scotland
The Scottish stone was equal to 16 Scottish pounds (17 lb 8 oz avoirdupois or 7.936 kg). In 1661, the Royal Commission of Scotland recommended that the Troy stone be used as a standard of weight and that it be kept in the custody of the burgh of Lanark. The tron (or local) stone of Edinburgh, also standardised in 1661, was 16 tron pounds (22 lb 1 oz avoirdupois or 9.996 kg). In 1789 an encyclopedic enumeration of measurements was printed for the use of "his Majesty's Sheriffs and Stewards Depute, and Justices of Peace, ... and to the Magistrates of the Royal Boroughs of Scotland" and provided a county-by-county and commodity-by-commodity breakdown of values and conversions for the stone and other measures. The Scots stone ceased to be used for trade when the Weights and Measures Act 1824 (5 Geo. 4. c. 74) established a uniform system of measure across the whole of the United Kingdom, which at that time included all of Ireland.

Ireland
Before the early 19th century, as in England, the stone varied both with locality and with commodity. For example, the Belfast stone for measuring flax equaled 16.75 avoirdupois pounds. The most usual value was 14 pounds. Among the oddities related to the use of the stone was the practice in County Clare of a stone of potatoes being 16 lb in the summer and 18 lb in the winter.

Modern use
In 1965, the Federation of British Industry informed the British government that its members favoured adopting the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the government, agreed to support a ten-year metrication programme. There would be minimal legislation, as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell. Under the guidance of the Metrication Board, the agricultural product markets achieved a voluntary switchover by 1976. The stone was not included in the Directive 80/181/EEC as a unit of measure that could be used within the EEC for "economic, public health, public safety or administrative purposes", though its use as a "supplementary unit" was permitted. The scope of the directive was extended to include all aspects of the EU internal market from 1 January 2010.

With the adoption of metric units by the agricultural sector, the stone was, in practice, no longer used for trade; and, in the Weights and Measures Act 1985, passed in compliance with EU directive 80/181/EEC, the stone was removed from the list of units permitted for trade in the United Kingdom. In 1983, in response to the same directive, similar legislation was passed in Ireland. The act repealed earlier acts that defined the stone as a unit of measure for trade. (British law had previously been silent regarding other uses of the stone.)

The stone remains widely used in the United Kingdom and Ireland for human body weight: in those countries people may commonly be said to weigh, e.g., "11 stone 4" (11 stones and 4 pounds), rather than "72 kilograms" as in most of the other countries, or "158 pounds", the conventional way of expressing the same weight in the US and in Canada. The invariant plural form of stone in this context is stone (as in, "11 stone" or "12 stone 6 pounds"); in other contexts, the correct plural is stones (as in, "Please enter your weight in stones and pounds"). In Australia and New Zealand, metrication has entirely displaced stones and pounds since the 1970s.

In many sports in both the UK and Ireland, such as professional boxing, wrestling, and horse racing, the stone is used to express body weights.

Elsewhere
The use of the stone in the former British Empire was varied. In Canada for example, it never had a legal status. Shortly after the United States declared independence, Thomas Jefferson, then Secretary of State, presented a report on weights and measures to the U.S. House of Representatives. Even though all the weights and measures in use in the United States at the time were derived from English weights and measures, his report made no mention of the stone being used. He did, however, propose a decimal system of weights in which his "[decimal] pound" would have been 9.375 oz and the "[decimal] stone" would have been 5.8595 lb.

Before the advent of metrication, units called "stone" (Stein; steen; kamień) were used in many northwestern European countries. Its value, usually between 3 and 10 kg, varied from city to city and sometimes from commodity to commodity. The number of local "pounds" in a stone also varied from city to city. During the early 19th century, states such as the Netherlands (including Belgium) and the South Western German states, which had redefined their system of measures using the kilogramme des Archives as a reference for weight (mass), also redefined their stone to align it with the kilogram.

This table shows a selection of stones from various northern European cities:

Metric stone
In the Netherlands, where the metric system was adopted in 1817, the pond (pound) was set equal to half a kilogram, and the steen (stone), which had previously been 8 Amsterdam pond (3.953 kg), was redefined as being 3 kg. In modern colloquial Dutch, a pond is used as an alternative for 500 grams or half a kilogram, while the ons is used for a weight of 100 grams, being $17 1/2$ pond.

title: Stone (unit)


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Sian Kaʼan Biosphere Reserve

Sian Kaʼan Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Biósfera de Sian Kaʼan) is a biosphere reserve in Tulum Municipality in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. It was established in 1986 and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

The term Sian Kaʼan, from the Yuatec Mayan language, "means 'gate of heaven' or 'a place where heaven begins.'"

With the participation of scientists, technicians, students, fishers, farmers, rural promoters, and administrators, together with regional and international partners, have successfully carried out more than 200 conservation projects basing all conservation actions on scientific and technical information for planning and implementing environmental policies and the proposal of viable solutions for sustainable use of natural resources and focusing their efforts established within eight protected natural areas that include the reefs of Banco Chinchorro, and Xcalak at South of Quintana Roo, Sian Kaʼan Biosphere Reserve, Cancun, the island of Cozumel that is located in front of Xcaret and Isla Contoy up north, covering 780000 acre. These areas lie in parts of all seven Caribbean Sea coastal municipalities of the state, with the largest part being in eastern Felipe Carrillo Puerto, where the vast majority of Sian Kaʼan Biosphere Reserve lies.

Part of the reserve is on land and part is in the Caribbean Sea, including a section of coral reef. The reserve has an area of 5280 km2.

The reserve also includes some 23 known archeological sites of the Maya civilization including Muyil. Remains of the Decauville railway Vigía Chico-Santa Cruz, which was operated from 1905 to 1932, can be found at several places.

Within the Amigos de Sian Kaʼan project objectives are the identification, protection, and management of additional areas with high biodiversity value as well as those critical for maintenance of the life cycles of endangered, threatened, and migratory species in the Riviera Maya, providing environmental education through books, journals, and pamphlets, giving technical assistance, and training to Mayan communities working with ecotourism.

Biological species
A list of some of the species recorded in Sian Kaʼan:

 * Alouatta pigra (Yucatán black howler monkey)
 * Amazona xantholora (yellow-lored amazon)
 * Ardea herodias (great blue heron)
 * Ateles geoffroyi (Geoffroy's spider monkey)
 * Caracara plancus (crested caracara)
 * Crax rubra (great curassow)
 * Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile)
 * Crocodylus moreletii (Morelet's crocodile)
 * Ctenosaura similis (black iguana)
 * Cuniculus paca (spotted paca)
 * Dasyprocta punctata (Central American agouti)
 * Dicotyles tajacu (collared peccary)
 * Eira barbara (tayra)
 * Fregata magnificens (magnificent frigatebird)
 * Galictis vittata (greater grison)
 * Jabiru mycteria (jabiru)
 * Leopardus pardalis (ocelot)
 * Leopardus wiedii (margay)
 * Meleagris ocellata (ocellated turkey)
 * Mycteria americana (wood stork)
 * Nasua narica (white-nosed coati)
 * Odocoileus virginianus (white-tailed deer)
 * Panthera onca (jaguar)
 * Pelecanus occidentalis (brown pelican)
 * Nannopterum brasilianum (neotropic cormorant)
 * Phoenicopterus ruber (American flamingo)
 * Platalea ajaja (roseate spoonbill)
 * Potos flavus (kinkajou)
 * Puma concolor (puma)
 * Puma yagouaroundi (jaguarundi)
 * Ramphastos sulfuratus (keel-billed toucan)
 * Sarcoramphus papa (king vulture)
 * Tamandua mexicana (tamandua)
 * Tapirus bairdii (Baird's tapir)
 * Tayassu pecari (white-lipped peccary)

title: Sian Kaʼan Biosphere Reserve


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Kenfig

Kenfig (Cynffig) is a village and former borough in Bridgend, Wales. It is situated 1 mi inland on the north bank of the Bristol Channel, and just south-west of the M4 motorway. To the east is the town of Bridgend, at approximately 6 mi, and the capital city of Cardiff, at 24 mi. To the west lies Port Talbot, at approximately 7 miles, and Swansea at approximately 18 miles.

Geography
The area of sand dunes and the pool at Kenfig are managed by Bridgend County Borough Council as Kenfig Pool National Nature Reserve, the area designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The reserve has a visitor and interpretation centre, and a car park. The dunes are home to a variety of rare and endangered species of plants and animals, including a high concentration of fen orchid (or Liparis loeselii). The current village, built further inland, is a continuation of the mediaeval one. Landmarks include ruins of Kenfig Castle.

The Kenfig Burrows beach is used by naturists.

History
The village was established in the 12th century and was situated around Kenfig Castle. The encroaching sand caused by intensive cattle grazing and declining temperature due to the Medieval Warm Period made habitation of the area difficult and by the 14th century most of the fields and buildings were unusable. The village was abandoned by 1650. The church was moved from the original village stone by stone and currently stands in the village of Pyle, where the relocation is evident by smaller stones at the bottom of the church, with larger ones above. The earlier settlement was the subject of an episode of the archaeological television programme Time Team, screened on 11 March 2012.

The borough contributed with other Glamorgan towns to sending a member of parliament to Westminster until the Reform Act of 1832. The municipal ceremonial mace is in the National Museum of Wales, but a pewter copy is held in the Prince of Wales Inn, a pub and Grade II-listed inn, which was built in the 17th century and over the years has served as town hall, courthouse, and a mortuary for sailors whose bodies washed ashore on nearby beaches.

In 1940, work commenced on a calcium carbide plant at Kenfig, built for the Ministry of Supply and operated by British Industrial Solvents, a subsidiary of the Distillers Company. Calcium carbide was a vital raw material for acetylene production. The Kenfig plant closed in 1966, overtaken by cheaper methods of producing acetylene from the catalytic cracking of oil and foreign competitors lower electricity costs.

In 1968, BorgWarner opened a plant at Kenfig for the manufacture of automatic transmissions. In January 1976 the plant completed its two millionth gearbox, which was 'presented' to A B Volvo. At that time a press release stated that Borg-Warner's UK plants at Letchworth and at Kenfig were producing transmissions for use in more than fifty different car models, and that more than half the gearboxes produced were exported outside the UK. In 2001 the factory faced the threat of closure but was saved by a new contract from Korean car company Kia. In December 2008 Borg-Warner announced that the plant would finally close by mid-2010 with the loss of all 110 jobs at the site; a statement from the company blamed the economic downturn for the decision.

In 2009, two Grob Tutor T1 aircraft collided in mid-air and crashed in the nature reserve, killing both pilots and two teenage air cadets.

In literature
Kenfig local legend, folklore, and Sker House inspired the novel The Maid of Sker by R. D. Blackmore.

title: Kenfig


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Tony Ayala Jr.

Antonio Ayala Jr. (February 13, 1963 – May 12, 2015) was an American professional boxer who competed in the light middleweight division. He began his professional career in 1980, and by 1982 he had compiled a record of 22 wins and no losses, with 19 knockouts. Ayala was born to a boxing family, and had three brothers who were boxers, Mike Ayala, Paulie Ayala and Sammy Ayala. Tony Ayala is considered one of the most promising boxing wasted talents by boxing writers and historians, as his career cut short after he was imprisoned in 1983, at the age of 19. His first shot at the world title never happened due to his personal troubles and later conviction, while his second shot proved unsuccessful, as he was 40 years old and out-of-shape by that time.

Early life
Ayala was born in San Antonio, Texas. Tony is the brother of former boxers Mike Ayala and Sammy Ayala and the son of trainer Tony Ayala, Sr.

Amateur career
Many have said Ayala was a boxing prodigy, he first fought at the age of five, at the age of six he avenged his first defeat. At the age of eight, he was rumored to suffer his last loss. At fourteen, he was battering a world champion around the ring. At 15, he knocked out Sugar Ray Leonard's older brother, Roger Leonard. At that point, his achievements was a bit overshadowed by his older brother Mike, who turned pro in 1975, and by the early 1980 was the number one ranked super bantamweight fighter in the world, so Tony was dubbed simply the "other fighting Ayala."

Highlights
National Golden Gloves (165 lbs), Indianapolis, Indiana, March 1979: National Sports Festival (165 lbs), Colorado Springs, Colorado, July 1979:
 * 1/2: Defeated Vaughn Hooks PTS
 * Finals: Defeated Lamont Kirkland PTS
 * Finals: Defeated Alex Ramon PTS

Ayala won National Junior Olympic titles in 1977 and 1978 as well as a National Golden Gloves championship in 1979, compiling an amateur record of 140–8 with sixty knockouts. He was one of Olympic hopefuls for the 1980 Summer Olympics, but turned pro instead of qualifying at the National Olympic Trials in Atlanta, Georgia (as Ayala withdrew, Charles Carter qualified for the U.S. Olympic Team in the middleweight class, but the U.S. participation was canceled soon thereafter due to the boycott).

Professional career
Ayala turned professional in June 1980 with a one-round knockout of Zip Castillo and proceeded to score three other first round knock outs in a row. He was co-managed by the Duva family, namely by Lou Duva, Dan Duva, and Kathy Duva. By December 1981 Ayala, the 18-year-old, was rated No. 3 by the World Boxing Association.

The young boxer was known as a savage brawler who was often considered a "dirty" fighter; for example, on one occasion, he spit on his opponent after knocking him to the ground. He also admitted to using heroin before a fight on three occasions (his brother Mike Ayala also made allegations of using drugs before his world title fight against Danny Lopez). In the summer of 1981, teenager Ayala was featured in a cover story of Sports Illustrated as a rising star in boxing. Veteran boxing writer Michael Katz claimed he was the best young fighter he had ever seen; Muhammad Ali's trainer Angelo Dundee said he thought Ayala could have been one of boxing's greatest fighters. On September 16, 1981, Ayala fought on the undercard of the legendary fight between Sugar Ray Leonard and Thomas Hearns.

Personal troubles
By summer 1982 Ayala split with and got back with his 18-year-old wife Lisa, they were living in New Jersey, not far from the Duvas. Twice a week, on Mondays and Fridays, he attended meetings of the local Alcoholics Anonymous. On Wednesdays, he drove to New York to attend meetings at the Freedom Institute. On November 19, 1982, Ayala was scheduled to meet Roberto Durán, the former lightweight and welterweight champion, in a 12-round junior middleweight bout co-promoted by Dan Duva and Don King, scheduled to be shown in prime time by NBC. During August-September 1982 he took a monthly course in a clinic, Care Unit Hospital in Orange, California, as part of a plea deal for one of his earlier attacks. Though he was allowed to leave for training purposes. The rehabilitation program kept him from having a $750,000 payday against Roberto Duran. When the Duran fight didn't happen, Ayala settled for about $150,000 to fight Argentinian Carlos Herrera. 'It doesn't bother me,' he said. 'I'm looking at it as a step closer to the world title. Davey Moore is going to have to meet me after this fight.'

Rape conviction
After defeating Carlos Herrera, November 20, 1982, he was scheduled to fight champion Davey Moore. Ayala was to have one last "tune up" bout on January 26, 1983 when he was scheduled to fight journeyman Leslie "Sweet Lemonade" Gardner at the Ice World Arena in Totowa, New Jersey. By December 1982, Ayala was already a second-ranked junior middleweight in the world.

The fight was not to be. On January 1, 1983, Ayala burglarized the home of his neighbor, a young schoolteacher, and brutally sexually assaulted her. Although he was only 19 years old, Ayala had already been convicted twice of assaults against women. One of these attacks took place in the restroom of a drive-in theatre and left the victim with a broken back. He had been given probation for these offenses. Under a repeat offender's law, he was sentenced to 35 years in prison. The prosecutor at trial argued the young boxer should serve the full term because he was a danger to the community.

Ayala Jr served his sentence term at Rahway State Prison and Trenton State Prison and released in 1999.

Release in 1999
Ayala was paroled from prison in 1999 and resumed his boxing career, winning six high-profile fights, all by knockout. Ayala was still popular in his hometown. An eliminator against hard hitting ex-champ Yori Boy Campas brought an end to his unlikely comeback, a hand injury caused Ayala to quit on his stool after 8 rounds. His troubles with the law continued. In 2000, he was shot in the shoulder by a young woman after breaking into her home. At Ayala's trial the prosecution pointed out this was almost an exact replay of Ayala's 1983 offense. He received probation and a brief jail term for this offense. In 2003, Ayala was charged with having sex with a thirteen-year-old girl, but the charges were dismissed when the girl said she lied about it.

Reincarceration in 2004
In 2004, Ayala was sentenced to ten years in prison for violation of probation after he was pulled over in his vehicle for speeding, and was also charged with driving without a license, heroin possession and possession of pornography in his vehicle. Tony Jr. was housed at the private Sanders Estes Unit for lower-level offenders in Venus, Southeast of Fort Worth, where he worked as a janitor. He was also housed at the Robertson unit in Abilene Texas a maximum security prison.

Release in 2014 and father's funeral
Ayala was released on April 25, 2014. He did not grant any interviews or make any appearances or public statements during his second incarceration.

His father, Tony Ayala Sr., who still owned and operated the Zarzamora Street Gym in San Antonio, died on April 10, 2014. Tony was granted special permission to attend his father's funeral on April 16, 2014, greeting family, friends, and fans, his first public appearance in over a decade. He then returned to custody to serve the remaining nine days of his sentence.

El Torito at Zarzamora Street Gym
Tony Ayala Jr. assisted his brothers, Mike Ayala and Sammy Ayala, in the running of the Zarzamora Street Gym in San Antonio, following his father's death.

Death
Ayala died on May 12, 2015, age 52, from an apparent overdose at Zarzamora Street Gym, San Antonio, Texas. It has been reported in the media that drug paraphernalia was found near his body.

title: Tony Ayala Jr.


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Rillettes

Rillettes (, also, ) is a preservation method similar to confit where meat is seasoned then submerged in fat and cooked slowly over the course of several hours (4 to 10 hours). The meat is shredded and packed into sterile containers covered in fat. Rillettes is traditionally made with goose or duck, and are commercially most commonly made with pork, but also made with other meats such as chicken, game birds, rabbit and sometimes with fish such as anchovies, tuna, pike or salmon. Rillettes are typically served at room temperature spread thickly on toasted bread.

Sarthe (Le Mans), Tours, and Anjou, all in central France, are notable sources of rillettes.

The term rillette can refer to the final product and its appearance when spread on sliced bread. Rillettes were traditionally made with fatty pork belly or pork shoulder. The meat was cubed, salted and cured, cooked slowly over low heat until very tender, then raked into small shreds and blended with the warm cooking fat to form a rustic paste. Rillettes could be stored in crocks for several months. In Anjou, rillaud was a speciality, plated in the shape of a pyramid and topped with the pig's tail; the rillettes were proudly displayed to the guest of honor. In time the rillette cooking style was applied to game birds, wild rabbit, and fish. Eventually several preparations for seafood rillettes were developed including an anchovy, tuna, and salmon version. Though the fish is not actually cooked in the fat, it is blended with fat to form the characteristic paste-spread. The soft, smooth texture is a deciding factor in determining a good rillette dish.

Like cassoulet or fondue, this French dish has its many regional definitions. In general most rillettes are served at room temperature, as a spread with toast points, much like a pâté. Pork rillettes from the northwestern regions of Tours and Anjou are famous for the rich texture and bronze color achieved during the cooking process. Rabelais called rillettes "brown pig jam" (brune confiture de cochon). Rillettes from the adjacent département of Sarthe are distinguished by a more rustic texture, complete with larger pieces of pork and less color.

In Quebec, cretons are similar to rillettes.

Etymology
The French word rillettes is first evidenced in 1845. It derives from the Old French rille, meaning a slice of pork, which is first attested in 1480. This is a dialect variation of the Old French reille, meaning a lath or strip of wood, from the Latin regula.

title: Rillettes