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Shaktism

Shaktism (शाक्तसम्प्रदायः) is a major Hindu denomination in which the godhead or metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman.

Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all being regarded as different aspects, manifestations, or personifications of the same supreme goddess Shakti. It includes various modes of worship, ranging from those focused on the most worshipped Durga, to gracious Parvati, and the fierce Kali. After the decline of Buddhism in India, various Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, a pantheon of ten goddesses. The most common forms of the Mahadevi worshipped in Shaktism include: Durga, Kali, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. Also worshipped are the various Gramadevatas across the Indian villages.

Shaktism also encompasses various tantric sub-traditions, including Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. Shaktism emphasizes that intense love of the deity is more important than simple obedience, thus showing an influence of the Vaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna as an ideal bhava. Similarly, Shaktism influenced Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the gods Vishnu and Shiva; they have their individual shaktis, Vaishnavi for Vishnu and Maheshvari for Shiva, and consorts Lakshmi and Sati/Parvati. An adherent of Shaktism is called Shakta. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Shaktism is the third largest Hindu sect constituting about 3.2% of Hindus.

The Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism form an important scriptural framework in Shaktism. Scriptures such as the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, and Shakta Upanishads like the Devi Upanishad are revered. The Devi Mahatmya in particular, is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. The Devi is revered in many Hindu temples and is worshipped during various Hindu festivals. The goddess-focused tradition and festivals such as the Durga puja are very popular in the eastern India.

Origins and history
The earliest archaeological evidence of what appears to be an Upper Paleolithic shrine for Shakti worship were discovered in the terminal upper paleolithic site of Baghor I (Baghor stone) in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, India. The excavations, carried out under the guidance of noted archaeologists G. R. Sharma of Allahabad University and J. Desmond Clark of University of California and assisted by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer and J.N. Pal, dated the Baghor formation to between 9000 BC and 8000 BC. The origins of Shakti worship can also be traced to Indus Valley civilization.

Among the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of God in Hinduism is this passage in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, also called the Devi Suktam hymn:

"I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship. Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in. Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken. They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it. I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome. I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman. I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller. On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother. Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body. I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them. The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything."

The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than Gods Indra, Agni and Soma. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of the neutral Brahman, of Prajapati and Purusha. The goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas (dawn), Vāc (speech, wisdom), Sarasvati (as river), Prithivi (earth), Nirriti (annihilator), Shraddha (faith, confidence). Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of divine and the knower of ultimate knowledge (Brahman), such as in section 3 and 4 of the ancient Kena Upanishad.

Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the Harivamsa section, which was a late addition (100 to 300 CE) to the work. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the goddess had become as prominent as God in Hindu tradition by about the third or fourth century. The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya. This text, states C. Mackenzie Brown – a professor of Religion, is both a culmination of centuries of Indian ideas about the divine woman, as well as a foundation for the literature and spirituality focussed on the female transcendence in centuries that followed. The Devi Mahatmya is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. The Devi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a professor of Religious Studies, but "it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as goddess, with a capital G".

Theology
Shaktas conceive the goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, and that into which everything will ultimately dissolve. Mahadevi said in Devi Upanishad, verse 2, "I am essentially Brahman". According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."

Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of everything in creation. Its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states:

"I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male in the form of Shiva."

Shaktism's focus on the Divine Female does not imply a rejection of the male. It rejects masculine-feminine, male-female, soul-body, transcendent-immanent dualism, considering nature as divine. Devi is considered to be the cosmos itself – she is the embodiment of energy, matter and soul, the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Yet in Shaktism, states C. MacKenzie Brown, the cultural concepts of masculine and the feminine as they exist among practitioners of Shaktism are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality. In Hindu iconography, the cosmic dynamic of male-female or masculine-feminine interdependence and equivalence, is expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari.

The philosophical premise in many Shakta texts, states professor of Religious Studies June McDaniel, is syncretism of Samkhya and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, called Shaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).

The Hindu monk Swami Vivekananda, remarked thus; about being an actual Shakti worshipper: "Do you know who is the real "Shakti-worshipper"? It is he who knows that God is the omnipresent force in the universe and sees in women the manifestation of that Force." Shakta-universalist Sri Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures of the Hindu reform movements, believed that all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the same mother goddess. The 18th-century Shakta bhakti poems and songs were composed by two Bengal court poets, Bharatchandra Ray and Ramprasad Sen, and the Tamil collection Abhirami Anthadhi was composed by Abhirami Bhattar.

Scriptures
The important scriptures of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana, the Lalita Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana). The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism, distilling into its 16 verses almost every important topic in Shakta Tantra tradition. Along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya (commentary) in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as the work of Bhaskararaya, and Ramanand. These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a Vedic attribute, however this link has been contested by scholars. Scriptures such as the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, and Shakta Upanishads like the Devi Upanishad are particularly revered.

Devi Gita
The seventh book of the Srimad Devi-Bhagavatam presents the theology of Shaktism. This book is called Devi Gita, or the "Song of the Goddess". The goddess explains she is the Brahman that created the world, asserting the Advaita premise that spiritual liberation occurs when one fully comprehends the identity of one's soul and the Brahman. This knowledge, asserts the goddess, comes from detaching self from the world and meditating on one's own soul.

The Devi Gita, like the Bhagavad Gita, is a condensed philosophical treatise. It presents the divine female as a powerful and compassionate creator, pervader and protector of the universe. She is presented in the opening chapter of the Devi Gita as the benign and beautiful world-mother, called Bhuvaneshvari (literally, ruler of the universe). Thereafter, the text presents its theological and philosophical teachings.

The Devi Gita describes the Devi (or goddess) as "universal, cosmic energy" resident within each individual. It thus weaves in the terminology of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. The text is suffused with Advaita Vedanta ideas, wherein nonduality is emphasized, all dualities are declared as incorrect, and interconnected oneness of all living beings' souls with Brahman is held as the liberating knowledge. However, adds Tracy Pintchman – a professor of Religious Studies and Hinduism, Devi Gita incorporates Tantric ideas giving the Devi a form and motherly character rather than the gender-neutral concept of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.

Principal deities
Shaktism is a goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism, involving many goddesses, all being regarded as various aspects, manifestations, or personifications of the same supreme goddess Shakti. Shaktas approach the Devi in many forms; however, they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess. The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta devotee is his or her ishta-devi, that is a personally selected Devi. The selection of this deity can depend on many factors such as family tradition, regional practice, guru lineage, and personal resonance.

Some forms of the goddess are widely known in the Hindu world. The common goddesses of Shaktism, popular in the Hindu thought at least by about mid 1st-millennium CE, include Parvati, Durga, Kali, Yogamaya, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Gayatri, Radha, and Sita. In the Eastern part of India, after the decline of Buddhism in India, various Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, a pantheon of ten goddesses.

The rarer forms of Devi found among tantric Shakta are the Mahavidyas, particularly Tripura Sundari, Bhuvaneshvari, Tara, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi, and Kamala.

Other major goddess groups include the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major Gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the 64 Yoginis. The eight forms of the goddess Lakshmi, Ashtalakshmi; and the nine forms of goddess Durga, the Navadurgas, which are mainly worshipped during the Navaratri festival. Also worshipped regularly are the numerous Gramadevatas across the Indian villages.

Tantric traditions
Sub-traditions of Shaktism include "Tantra", which refers to techniques, practices and ritual grammar involving mantra, yantra, nyasa, mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga, typically practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources. There has been a historic debate between Shakta theologians on whether its tantric practices are Vedic or non-Vedic.

The roots of Shakta Tantrism are unclear, probably ancient and independent of the Vedic tradition of Hinduism. The interaction between Vedic and Tantric traditions trace back to at least the sixth century, and the surge in Tantra tradition developments during the late medieval period, states Geoffrey Samuel, were a means to confront and cope with Islamic invasions and political instability in and after the 14th century CE.

Notable Shakta tantras are Saradatilaka Tantra of Lakshmanadesika (11th century), Kali Tantra (c. 15th century), Yogini Tantra, Sarvanandanatha's Sarvolassa Tantra, Brahmananda Giri's Saktananda Tarangini with Tararahasya and Purnananda Giri's Syamarahasya with Sritattvacintamani (16th century), Krishananda Agamavagisa's Tantrasara and Raghunatna Tarkavagisa Bhattacarya Agamatattvavilasa (17th century), as well as works of Bhaskaracharya (18th century).

Vidyāpīṭha
The Vidyāpīṭha is subdivided into Vāmatantras, Yāmalatantras, and Śaktitantras.

Kulamārga
The Kulamārga preserves some of the distinctive features of the Kāpālika tradition, from which it is derived. It is subdivided into four subcategories of texts based on the goddesses Kuleśvarī, Kubjikā, Kālī and Tripurasundarī respectively. The Trika texts are closely related to the Kuleśvarī texts and can be considered as part of the Kulamārga.

Worship
Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi's nature and form. Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula (family of Tripura Sundari), strongest in South India, and the Kalikula (family of Kali), which prevails in northern and eastern India.

Srikula: family of Lalita Tripura Sundari
The Srikula (family of Sri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita-Tripura Sundari. Rooted in first-millennium. Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South Indian regions such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas of Sri Lanka.

The Srikula's best-known school is Srividya, "one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements." Its central symbol, the Sri Chakra, is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect.

Srividya largely views the goddess as "benign [saumya] and beautiful [saundarya]" (in contrast to Kalikula's focus on "terrifying [ugra] and horrifying [ghora]" Goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice, moreover, every aspect of the goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita.

Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract Sri Chakra yantra, which is regarded as her subtle form. The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two-dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual, or permanently engraved in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as the Sri Meru. It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri Meru installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not the srichakra worship you see when it is done privately."

The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, the Kaula (a vamamarga practice) and the Samaya (a dakshinamarga practice). The Kaula or Kaulachara, first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India, and its most revered theorist is the 18th-century philosopher Bhaskararaya, widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy."

The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste brahmanical norms." Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric, though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both. The Samaya-Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism".

Kalikula: family of Kali
The Kalikula (Family of Kali) form of Shaktism is most dominant in northeastern India, and is most widely prevalent in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Odisha, as well as Nepal and Kerala. The goddesses Kubjika, Kulesvari, Chamunda, Chandi, Shamshan Kali (goddess of the cremation ground), Dakshina Kali, and Siddheshwari are worshipped in the region of Bengal to protect against disease and smallpox as well as ill omens. Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). The tantric part generally stand "in opposition to the brahmanic tradition," which they view as "overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion."

The main deities of the Kalikula tradition are Kali, Chandi, Bheema and Durga. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and all the other Mahavidyas, Kaumari as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa, the snake goddesses, Ṣaṣṭī, the protectress of children, Śītalā, the smallpox goddess, and Umā (the Bengali name for Parvati) — all of them, again, considered aspects of the Divine Mother.

In Nepal devi is mainly worshipped as the goddess Bhavani. She is one of the important Hindu deities in Nepal. Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat where the skull of Kali is believed to be worshipped along with her 25 forms. The kali ghat temple is located in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum district. In Calcutta, emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the goddess as Kali. Where the goddess(kali) is seen as the destroyer of evil.: "She is 'the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her] mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, and giving [of] offerings.'" At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation as Tara ("She Who Saves") or Ugratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including "conquest of the Goddess, exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."

The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the 19th-century saint Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism: "Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali."

Festivals
Shaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals, as well as a huge variety of local, temple- or deity-specific observances. A few of the more important events are listed below:

Navaratri
The most important Shakta festival is Navaratri (lit., "Festival of Nine Nights"), also known as "Sharad Navaratri" because it falls during the Hindu month of Sharad (October/November). This is the festival that worships the Navadurgas, forms of Devi. This festival – often taken together with the following tenth day, known as Dusshera or Vijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga's victory over a series of powerful demons described in the Devi Mahatmya. In Bengal, the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja, and mark one episode in particular: Durga's iconic slaying of Mahishasura (lit., the "Buffalo Demon"). Durga Puja also became the main religio-cultural celebration within the Bengal diaspora in the West (together with Kali and Sarasvati Pujas, if a community enough big and rich).

While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival, Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. The spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra Navatri, and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March/April). Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi's form as the goddess Tripura Sundari. The summer festival is called Ashada Navaratri, as it is held during the Hindu month of Ashadha (June/July). The Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu, with Vaishno Devi considered an aspect of Durga, celebrates Navaratri. Ashada Navaratri, on the other hand, is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar-headed Goddess Varahi, one of the seven Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya.

Diwali and others
Lakshmi Puja is a part of Durga Puja celebrations by Shaktas, where Laksmi symbolizes the goddess of abundance and autumn harvest. Lakshmi's biggest festival, however, is Diwali (or Deepavali; the "Festival of Lights"), a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India and in Nepal as Tihar. In North India, Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year, and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess's blessings. Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja, popular in Bengal, and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Parvati rather than Lakshmi. Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis, following Kali Puja. It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance, and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India. Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi, during Ganesha Puja in Western India, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri, Mother of Ganesha where she brings her son back home.

Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and Ambubachi Mela. The Meenakshi Kalyanam is a part of the Chithirai Thiruvizha festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of goddess Meenakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Parvati in marriage to Shiva. Ambubachi Mela or Ameti is a celebration of the menstruation of the goddess, by hundreds of thousands of devotees, in a festival held in June/July (during the monsoon season) at Kamakhya Temple, Guwahati, Assam. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like stone, and the site is one of Shakta Pitha or pilgrimage sites in Shaktism.

Animal sacrifice
Shaktism tradition practices animal sacrifice to revere goddesses such as Kali in many parts of India but particularly in the eastern and Himalayan states of India and Nepal. This is either an actual animal, or a vegetable or sweet dish substitute considered equivalent to the animal. In many cases, Shaktism devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.

In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakti temples, particularly to mark the legend of goddess Durga slaying the buffalo demon. This involves slaying of a goat or a male water buffalo. Animal sacrifice is also an essential component as part of the Kaula tantra school of Shaktism. This practice is rare among Hindus, outside this region.

In Bengal, the animal sacrifice ritual follows the guidelines as seen in texts such as Mahanirvana Tantra. This ritual includes selecting the animal, then a priest offers a prayer to the animal, then recites the Gayatri Mantra in its ear before killing it. The meat of the sacrificed animal is then cooked and eaten by the Shakta devotees.

In Nepal, animal sacrifice en masse occurs during the three-day-long Gadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were sacrificed during this event.

In Odisha, during the Bali Jatra, Shaktism devotees sacrifice male goats to the goddess Samaleswari in her temple in Sambalpur, Orissa.

The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places. The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior. The ritual is directed by a priest. The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.

Animal Sacrifice of a buffalo or goat, particularly during smallpox epidemics, has been practiced in parts of South India. The sacrificed animal is dedicated to a goddess, and is probably related to the myth of goddess Kali in Andhra Pradesh, but in Karnataka, the typical goddess is Renuka. According to Alf Hiltebeitel – a professor of Religions, History and Human Sciences, these ritual animal sacrifices, with some differences, mirrors goddess - related ritual animal sacrifice found in Gilgamesh epic and in texts of Egyptian, Minoan and Greek sources.

In the 19th century through the early 20th century, Indian laborers were shipped by the British Empire into colonial mining and plantations operations in the Indian ocean and the Caribbean regions. These included significant number of Shakta devotees. While instances of Shakta animal sacrifice during Kali puja in the Caribbean islands were recorded between 1850s to 1920s, these were relatively uncommon when compared to other rituals such as temple prayers, community dancing and fire walking.

Shaktism versus other Hindu traditions
The tantra practices are secretive, subject to speculations and criticism. Scholars variously attribute such criticism to ignorance, misunderstanding or sectarian bias on the part of some observers, as well as unscrupulous practices by some Shaktas. These are some of the reasons many Hindus question the relevance and historicity of Tantra to their tradition. The emphasis in Shaktism that love of the deity is more important than obedience shows an influence of the Vaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna as an ideal bhava. Similarly, Shaktism influenced Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the gods Vishnu and Shiva; they have their individual shaktis, Vaishnavi for Vishnu and Maheshvari for Shiva, and consorts Lakshmi and Sati/Parvati.

Beyond tantra, the Shakta sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Smartism as follows:

Demography
There is no census data available on demographic history or trends for Shaktism or other traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Shaktism compared to other traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Shaktism tradition is the smaller group with about 30 million or 3.2% of Hindus. Adherents of Shaktism are referred to as Shaktas. Large shakta communities are particularly found in eastern states, such as West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Tripura with substantial communities also existing in Punjab, Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Gujarat and Central India. In West Bengal Shaktas belong to the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes, while the lower middle castes are Vaishnavas. In contrast, Galvin Flood states that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly. The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses henotheistically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.

Temples and influence
Shakta temples are found all over South Asia. Many towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi. Major pilgrimage sites of Shaktism are called "Shakti Peethas", literally "Seats of the Devi". These vary from 4 to 51.

Some Shakta temples are also found in Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, Australia and elsewhere. Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach, California; and Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam, a Srividya temple in rural Rush, New York.

Some feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to Goddess worship", suggest Shaktism is a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality."

Buddhism
There has been a significant sharing of ideas, ritual grammar and concepts between Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana tradition) found in Nepal and Tibet and the Tantric Shakta tradition of Hinduism. Both movements cherish female deities. According to Miranda Shaw, "the confluence of Buddhism and Shaktism is such that Tantric Buddhism could properly be called Shakta Buddhism".

The Buddhist Aurangabad Caves about 100 kilometers from the Ajanta Caves, dated to the 6th to 7th century CE, show Buddhist Matrikas (mother goddesses of Shaktism) next to the Buddha. Other goddesses in these caves include Durga. The goddess iconography in these Buddhist caves is close, but not identical to the Hindu Shakta tradition. The "seven Goddess mothers" are found in other Buddhist caves and literature, such as their discussion in the Buddhist text Manjusrimulakalpa and Vairocanabhisambodhi.

Jainism
In Jainism, ideas similar to Shaktism tradition are found, such as the Vidyadevis and the Shasanadevis.

Sikhism
The secondary scripture of Sikhs, Dasam Granth attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, includes numerous sections on Shakta goddesses, particularly Chandi – the fierce warrior form of the Hindu goddess. According to Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh – a professor of Religious Studies, the stories about goddess Durga in the Dasam Granth are reworkings of ancient Shakti mythologies. A significant part of this Sikh scripture is based on the teachings in the Shakta text Devi Mahatmya found in the Markandeya Purana of Hinduism.

Books and Journals

 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations
 * Chapter 1: Global Religious Populations

title: Shaktism


text:
U.S. Route 166

U.S. Route 166 (US 166) is a 164 mi east–west United States highway. This route and US 266 are the only two remaining spurs of historic U.S. Route 66 (which was decommissioned in 1985), since US 666 was renumbered to US 491 in 2003.

US 166 meets the old route of US 66, now designated US 69 Alternate, in Baxter Springs in the southeast corner of Kansas.

Route description

 * KS||163.223 mi
 * MO||0.936 mi
 * Total||164.159 mi
 * }
 * Total||164.159 mi
 * }
 * }

Kansas
US 166 is an east–west highway that meanders about 164 mi along the Kansas–Oklahoma state line. The highway's western terminus is in South Haven, Kansas at an intersection with US 81, approximately 1 mi north of the northern terminus of US 177. US 166's eastern terminus, which is also shared by US 400, is an intersection with I-44 just inside the Missouri state line, near the point where Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri meet, southwest of Joplin, Missouri near Loma Linda, MO.

About 4 mi east from its intersection with US 81, the highway intersects with the Kansas Turnpike (I-35) at exit 4. Continuing east about 16 mi, US 166 crosses the Arkansas River into Arkansas City, where it runs concurrently with US 77 for approximately 2 mi, splitting off near Parkerfield.

Traveling 50 mi east of Arkansas City, US 166 turns northeast, arcing above Cowley County Lake Dam and Cedar Vale. US. 166 crosses the Caney River approximately 0.5 mi east of Chautauqua County Road 2. It turns south of Sedan approximately 0.6 mi east of Chautauqua County Road 14. A business loop connects the main US 166 route with Sedan.

Continuing east from Sedan, about 34 mi to Coffeyville, US 166 skims through Peru and Niotaze, US 166 crosses the Little Caney River 1.1 miles (1.77 km) to the east of Niotaze and proceeds east to the junction of US 75 near Havana. The two routes turn south for a 3 mi concurrency. US 166 splits off just north of Caney turning east again through Tyro to Coffeyville. US 166 has a brief concurrency with US 169 beginning at the intersection of Walnut/Paterson Streets and Eleventh Street on the south side of downtown Coffeyville. The highway proceeds east on Eleventh Street, curves to the northeast and becomes Northeast Street. It then proceeds northeasterly past Walter Johnson Park and the Montgomery County Fairgrounds before it crosses the Verdigris River. US 166 will exit from US 169 0.4 mi east of the Verdigris River and proceeds east toward the town of Chetopa

US 166 runs eastward about 50 mi from Coffeyville bypassing Edna and Bartlett. US 166 passes through Chetopa, where US 166 and US 59 travel concurrently from 0.2 mi east of the BNSF Railroad overpass, and proceeds south on Eleventh Street, then turns to the east near the Chetopa ball field. US 166/US 59 will run concurrently along Maple Street into downtown Chetopa. US 59 will then break off on Third Street and proceeds south towards the Kansas-Oklahoma state linesouth of the intersection. Leaving Chetopa, US 166 crosses over the Neosho River and crosses US 69 Alternate, 6 mi before Baxter Springs.

Heading east from Baxter Springs, US 166 crosses the Spring River. Approximately 2 mi later, US 166 intersects with US 400. US 166/US 400 then turn sharply southeast for 6 mi to cross the Missouri state line approximately 1/2 mi from the I-44 interchange.

Missouri
US 166's eastern terminus is its interchange with I-44, 0.6 mi from the state line and about 1000 ft from the Oklahoma–Kansas–Missouri tripoint.

History
US 166 is an original 1926 route and originally ran from South Haven to Baxter Springs, Kansas. In 1945, it was extended east through Joplin, Missouri, where it paralleled US 66 to Springfield. This extension absorbed Route 38, which had been formed in 1922 from Carthage to west of Springfield and realigned to Joplin in about 1930, with the former route becoming Route 38N and soon US 71 Alternate. In 1966, following the completion of the last section of I-44 in Missouri, the east end of US 166 was truncated back from Springfield to its current terminus. Most sections of US 166 between Joplin and Springfield were not upgraded to Interstate Highway standards and were renumbered as I-44 Business Loops, state highways (such as Route 174) or turned over to local or county jurisdiction.

In a resolution on December 22, 1993, KDOT approved and requested to realign US-166 south of Sedan, and to re-designate the former alignment as US-166 Business. This request was approved by AASHTO in a meeting on April 10, 1994.

Sedan business loop
U.S. Route 166 Business (US-166 Bus.) is a 7.378 mi business route of US-166 that serves the city of Sedan. US-166 Bus. begins at US-166 southwest of Sedan and begins travelling northeast. The highway soon crosses Middle Caney Creek and continues northeast. It then intersects K-99 and begins to follow it east. The two routes cross Deer Creek and then enters Sedan as Main Street. US-166 Business and K-99 then turn south onto School Street and soon exit the city. The two routes cross Middle Caney Creek once again as they continue south. After roughly 2.7 mi, US-166 Bus. intersects US-166 and ends, as K-99 continues south towards Chautauqua. In a December 22, 1993 resolution, KDOT approved and requested to realign US-166 south of Sedan, and to re-designate the former alignment as US-166 Business. This request was approved by AASHTO in an April 10, 1994 meeting.

Major intersections

Joplin

 * U.S. Route 166 Business – Joplin, Missouri (decommissioned)

Springfield

 * U.S. Route 166 Business – Springfield, Missouri (decommissioned)
 * U.S. Route 166 City - Springfield, Missouri (decommissioned)
 * U.S. Route 166 Truck - Springfield, Missouri (decommissioned)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: U.S. Route 166


text:
User:Wik

I was a Wikipedian from July 16, 2003, to May 21, 2004.

title: User:Wik


text:
Walnut Valley Festival

The Walnut Valley Festival is an acoustic music festival held annually in the small city of Winfield, Kansas, United States. The main genre of music is bluegrass, but a wide variety of other acoustic styles are represented. The festival is held on the Wednesday through Sunday that includes the third Saturday of September.

History
The first official "Walnut Valley Festival" was held in September 1972 and was organized by a trio of founders--Stuart Mossman, Joe Muret, & Bob Redford. The festival featured a two-day flat-picking contest.

In 1999 the International Bluegrass Music Association named the Walnut Valley Festival as its first "Bluegrass Event of the Year" award winner. The Festival celebrated 50 years in 2022, and that year presented about 200 hours of music on four stages (designated Stages I, II, III and IV) over a long weekend, headlined by nationally- and internationally-known performers.

Entertainment
The list of entertainers who have appeared on WVF stages includes Jimmy Driftwood, Doc Watson, Merle Watson, Lester Flatt, Mark O'Connor, Alison Krauss, Byron Berline, Dan Crary, Norman Blake, John Hartford, Tom Chapin, Merle Travis, Mike Cross, New Grass Revival, Hot Rize, Nickel Creek, Dixie Chicks, Tony Rice, Red Clay Ramblers, Gamble Rogers, Bryan Bowers, John McCutcheon, Tom Paxton, The Steel Wheels.

Contests
The flagship contest is the National Flat-pick Guitar Championship. Other contests include the National Mandolin Championship, the National Bluegrass Banjo Championship, the National Hammer Dulcimer Championship, the National Mountain Dulcimer Championship, the International Autoharp Championship, the International Fingerstyle Guitar Championship, and an Old Time Fiddle contest. The instrument contests routinely see winners from across the US and abroad.

Camping and jamming
There are typically 11,000-15,000 people in attendance, and campers include visitors from many different states and countries. Campsites are not preselected, and campers often line up well in advance of the festival to claim a choice campsite during the "Land Rush".

Attendees often bring musical instruments, and the event is known for the many and varied campground jam sessions throughout the festival. Campground stages operate well into the night, and include Stage 5, Stage 6, Stage 7, Stage 8, Finetime Stage and Stage 11 (songwriters stage). Performers sometimes appear on campground stages or join jams after finishing their sets on the official stages.

Many bands that began as "Jam Bands" in the campgrounds have been invited to perform at the festival, including Driven, Haymakers, Old Sound, Steelwind, Pretend Friend, Walnut River String Band, the Matchsellers, and the Weda Skirts.

title: Walnut Valley Festival


text:
Bernese Oberland Railway

The Bernese Oberland Railway (Berner Oberland-Bahn, BOB) is a narrow-gauge mountain railway in the Bernese Oberland region of Switzerland. It runs, via a "Y" junction at Zweilütschinen to serve Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald from Interlaken. The railway is rack assisted (that is although an adhesion railway, rack and pinion operation is used on steep sections of the line to assist traction).

The BOB is owned by the Berner Oberland-Bahnen AG, a company that also owns the Schynige Platte Railway. Through that company it is part of the Allianz – Jungfrau Top of Europe marketing alliance, which also includes the separately owned Wengernalpbahn, Jungfraubahn, Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen–Mürren, Harderbahn, and Firstbahn.

Planning
The first proposals for the Berner Oberland-Bahn, made in 1873, showed a line from Interlaken (at that time Aarmühle) to Zweilütschinen with later options to Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald with starting point at Bönigen. Four years later an 80 years concession was obtained for construction and operation of the line and the company, Berner Oberland-Bahnen AG was founded on 2 November 1888 and construction started the following year.

Failure of the plan to extend to Visp
In 1897 the company obtained a concession to construct a 54.7 km line from Lauterbrunnen to Visp, with stations at Stechelberg, Steinberg, Oberborn, and Blatten. It would have involved the construction of a 4,650 m tunnel at 2,200 m elevation under the Breithorn mountain. At Visp it would have had a connection with the Simplon line.

Estimated at 15 million Swiss francs, finance was not forthcoming and by 1906 the plans were abandoned.

Initial operations
By 1 July 1890 the gauge line, was opened, using steam traction.

On 18 August 1902 a disastrous fire destroyed the station buildings and goods shed at Grindelwald and these were later rebuilt, surviving to the present day. On 7 October 1908 a new station was added to the system, that at Schwendi on the Grindelwald section.

Steam traction on the line came to an end in 1914, the line becoming electrified at 1500 V d.c., overhead supply, on 17 March of that year, although steam locomotives have been used since that date on special services.

Several changes were made during the 1950s and 1960s, the two most important being in 1957, the construction of an airfield at Interlaken causing the realignment of the line between Wilderswil and Interlaken Ost, but to no detriment and, with a need for servicing and construction facilities on the line a new depot was opened at Zweilütschinen in 1968.

Recent improvements

Since that time there has been a need for track capacity to be increased and in 1991 the Wilderswil to Gsteigwiler section was substantially improved. This was followed by the doubling of the Gsteigwiler to Zweilütschinen 4 years later. A bottleneck between Wilderswil and Zweilütschinen was eased when, in 1999, a 2.5 km. double track section was opened between those places meaning that trains could run through without the need to use the passing loop and, as necessary, awaiting the train in the opposite direction.

The BOB has a total length of 23.608 km and is a mixed rack and adhesion railway with four rack and pinion sections, using the Riggenbach rack system, two each on the steep sections of both arms of the line.

Fatal accident in 2003
On 7 August 2003 two trains collided head-on on a single track section between Zweilütschinen and Wilderswil, 1 person was killed and 64 injured. The regular train coming down from Zweilütschinen had passed a red signal at the end of the double track section and collided with an extra train near Gsteigwiler. Automatic train stop system ZSI-127 had already been in place but not yet in use, awaiting final completion and approval.

Operations

Since 1949 railcars have predominated. Some of the older electric locomotives still survive and are used for special trains. The centre of operations is Zweilütschinen with the depot headquarters and the modern main workshops.

From the introduction of the 1999 timetable, the newly constructed 2.5 km section of dual track between Gsteigwiler and Zweilütschinen allows trains to pass without one having to wait in a loop, off the main line. This means that a half-hour timetable can be operated with only five train compositions. Since 2005, every composition has been equipped with an articulated (three-part) low-floor driving trailer as standard.

Two train compositions are usually coupled together to travel to Zweilütschinen where they are then split. The front portion travels to Lauterbrunnen, the other one to Grindelwald. The motor coach (power unit) is always positioned on the uphill side, a driving trailer (coach with a driver's cab) being positioned on the downhill side, to avoid any running round manoeuvres at the terminus stations.

Timetable

Like all Swiss railways the BOB operates to a clock – face timetable offering connections from the main line at Interlaken and, at its upper terminals, to the Wengernalpbahn.

Throughout the year the BOB offers a service every hour in each direction on both its lines, the trains leaving Interlaken Ost coupled together and dividing at Zweilütschinen. From mid December to late October, additional trains give a 30-minute service frequency in the morning and afternoon. The last services are often timetabled to be operated by buses.

Locomotives / Railcars

 * Rebuild 1997–2008 of 304–310 included fitting of equipment for push–pull trains, available from delivery on 311–313
 * *) for use on the then-planned but finally not built branch line to Mystery Park
 * **) arrived on LEB still numbered 601 on 22 February 2006 and was used together with Bt 702 arriving directly from CJ. LEB finally purchased the two vehicles.

Rolling stock
The passenger rolling stock of the line can be divided into that in regular use and that which is historic in nature. Present day passenger stock is painted in striking a blue/yellow livery.

That in regular use can be divided as follows:
 * Series A, First class open saloon bogie coaches with 36 seats, numbered 181 and 182, built by SIG in 1971, with 182 being rebuilt in 1999, MU-wired, and 181 sold to SBB, now Zentralbahn A 217.
 * Series AB, First/Second Composite bogie saloon open platform coaches with 18 first and 48 second class seats, originally numbered 205–210, built by SIG and delivered, the first two in 1952, the second pair in 1954 and the final pair in 1956. No.209 is the only member to be found on the line and still carrying (October 2009) the Brown and Cream BOB livery. It is not regularly working and can usually be found in Interlaken. (See Preservation Notes (Below).
 * Series AB, First/Second Composite bogie saloon coaches with 24 first and 23 second class seats, numbered 211–215, built by SIG and delivered in 1970. All have since been fitted with MU wiring, 211, 213 and 214 sold to Zentralbahn.
 * Series AB, First/Second Composite bogie coach with 23 first and 22 second class seats, numbered 221, built by SIG in 1946 and purchased from SBB (Brünig) in 1997, scrapped 2006.
 * Series B, Second class open saloon bogie coaches with 72 seats, numbered 232–237, built by SIG between 1952 and 1956. Five members of this group are preserved,(See notes below). Number 232 is still on the line and shown in stock lists but is presently (2009) to be found in Interlaken in Brown/Cream livery.
 * Series B, Second class saloon open platform bogie coaches with 64 seats, numbered 241–256, built by SIG between 1967 and 1970, most have been rebuilt but five members have been scrapped. 253–256 originally Zentralbahn. Repainted and MU-wired: 241, 245, 247, 250–256. 242 was MU-wired but is still in Brown/Cream livery and permanently sitting in Interlaken.
 * Series B, Second class open saloon bogie coaches with 62 seats, numbered 261 and 262, built by ACMV/SIG and delivered in 1987. MU-wired.
 * Series B, Second class open saloon, bogie coach with 52 seats, numbered 271, built by SIG for the SBB in 1954 as AB477 and rebuilt in 2001, scrapped 2006.
 * Series B, Second class open saloon bogie coaches with 60 seats, numbered 271–274, built by SIG for the SBB as B861/B863/B846 and delivered in 1954, being purchased and repainted in 1998, scrapped 1999/2006/2003/2006.
 * Series BD, Second class open saloon bogie coaches (40 seats) with guards/parcels compartment, numbered 501–503. These were built by SIG and delivered to the SBB, adapted for push-pull trains as numbers 512-4 / 511-6 / 510-8 in 1968/9. They were rebuilt 2003/4.
 * Series BDt, Second class driving trailer (40 seats) with guards/parcel compartment, numbered 401–403, built by ACMV/SIG/BBC in 1987.
 * Series ABt, First/Second composite driving trailer with 18 first and 31 second class seats, numbered 411 to 415 inclusive, built for the RBS as ABt 207/3/6/4/5 by FFA/SWP in 1982, being rebuilt by the BOB in 2003–06.
 * Series ABt, First/Second composite driving trailer three-car sets with low floor access built by Stadler. These were delivered in 2005 and now form part of every train. They are numbered from 421 to 425 inclusive.
 * Series D, Guards/Luggage bogie coach built by SIG in 1971 numbered 531 to 535 inclusive. 532 sold to CJ, 535 scrapped, 532 MU wired, still brown/cream

Historical stock includes the following items, which still carry the former brown/cream livery for coaches and all-over brown for guards/parcels vehicles.
 * Series A3, First Class saloon, double verandah with 30 seats, No.102. repairs required to one end due to accident.
 * Series BC4, First/second class open saloon coach with 14 first and 38 second class seats, numbered 203, built by SIG in 1938 and rebuilt in 1988.
 * Series C3, Second class open saloon coach numbered 29.
 * Series D3, Guards/parcels carriage, numbered 515 and 516, built by SIG in 1911.

Goods stock is a varied collection, much of which would not be out of place in a museum. The earliest wagon shown on the BOB stock list dates from 1888 and was rebuilt by the BOB in 1990. The collection of goods stock totals over 30 assorted wagons, most pre-First World War, many built by SIG and much rebuilt by the BOB over the years. More recently a few additions have been made, most of which are second-hand from CFF/SBB/FFS. The line is home to a snowplough (Series Xrot e) with was built in 1954 by SIG/BBC and rebuilt in 1990 at the BOB workshops.

Preservation
Several items of rolling stock have been sold (transferred) to metre gauge preserved railways.
 * Series B, Second class open saloon bogie coaches with 52 seats, numbered 201 and 202, built by SIG in 1930 are preserved by the La Traction group. Both were rebuilt, 201 in 1965, 202 in 1972 and both again in 1997.
 * Series AB, First/Second Composite saloon bogie coach No. 204, with 24 first and 23 second class seats, built by SIG in 1938 and rebuilt in 1997 can also be found at the depot of La Traction.
 * Series AB, First/Second Composite saloon bogiecoaches with 18 first and 48 second class seats, numbered 205–210, built by SIG and delivered, the first two in 1952, the second pair in 1954 and the final pair in 1956. All, except 206 and 208 have been rebuilt. No. 205 is preserved and works on the Brohltalbahn whilst 207, 208 and 210 can be found on the Chemin de Fer de la Baie de Somme (CFBS).
 * Series B has five preserved members, No's 234 and 235 are to be found on the Brohltalbahn with 205, whilst 231, 236 and 237 are in northern France working on the CFBS.
 * Series D, Guards / parcels carriages, No. 521, built by SIG in 1916 and rebuilt by BOB in 1973/4 can be found working on the Brohltalbahn, whilst No. 522, again built by SIG in 1916 and rebuilt by BOB in 1973/4 together with No. 523, built in 1908 by SIG and rebuilt by BOB in 1976 are to be found on the CFBS. Vehicle No. 522 is undergoing, (at Spring 2007), a rebuilt into a catering car for use on the CFBS dining car train.

title: Bernese Oberland Railway


text:
William Russell

William Russell may refer to:

Bishopry

 * William Russell (bishop of Sodor) (before 1300–1374), Cistercian prelate from Isle of Man
 * William Russell (bishop of North China) (1821–1879), Irish Protestant missionary to China
 * William Thomas Russell (1863–1927), American Roman Catholic bishop of Charleston

Business

 * William Russell (banker) (1734–1817) English collier and banker
 * William Russell (merchant) (1740–1818), English merchant
 * William Hepburn Russell (1812–1872), American freight contractor, founder of Pony Express
 * William Greeneberry Russell (1818–1887), American prospector and miner
 * William Hamilton Russell (1856–1907), American architect

Education

 * William Russell (educator) (1798–1873), American teacher born in Scotland
 * William Fletcher Russell (1890–1956), American educationalist; president of Teachers College
 * William D. Russell (historian) (born 1938), American history professor

Film

 * William Russell (American actor) (1884–1929), American stage and screen actor
 * William D. Russell (director) (1908–1968), American film and television director
 * William Russell (English actor) (1924–2024), British film and television actor

Judiciary

 * William Alison Russell (1875–1948), Scottish lawyer and judge
 * William Oldnall Russell (1785–1833), English chief justice of Bengal

Kingdom of England

 * William Russell (knight) (1257–1311), holder of a moiety of the feudal barony of North Cadbury, Somerset
 * William Russell, 1st Baron Russell of Thornhaugh (1553/63–1613), English military commander
 * Sir William Russell, 1st Baronet, of Chippenham (before 1585–1654), English MP for Windsor
 * Sir William Russell, 1st Baronet, of Wytley (1602–1669), English MP for Worcestershire
 * William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford (1616–1700), English peer and soldier
 * William Russell, Lord Russell (1639–1683), English politician

United Kingdom

 * Lord William Russell (1767–1840), MP best known as a murder victim
 * Sir William Russell, 1st Baronet, of Charlton Park (1773–1839), British baronet
 * William Congreve Russell (1778–1850), English MP and High Sheriff of Worcestershire
 * William Russell (Durham MP) (1798–1850), Member of Parliament (MP) for Saltash, Bletchingley and County Durham
 * William Russell, 8th Duke of Bedford (1809–1872), member of United Kingdom Parliament
 * Sir William Russell, 2nd Baronet (1822–1892), MP for Dover, 1857–1859
 * William Russell (Bolton MP) (1859–1937), Member of Parliament for Bolton, 1922–1923
 * William Russell (Lord Mayor) (born 1965), Lord Mayor of London, 2019–2021

United States

 * William Russell (Virginia politician) (1735–1793), Virginia frontier soldier and legislator, father of William Russell of Kentucky
 * William Russell (Kentucky politician) (1758–1825), American soldier, pioneer, and politician
 * William Russell (Ohio politician) (1782–1845), U.S. Representative from Ohio
 * William F. Russell (Florida politician) (c.1805–after 1875), Speaker of Florida House of Representatives
 * William Huntington Russell (1809–1885), businessman, educator and politician from Connecticut
 * William Fiero Russell (1812–1896), American congressman from New York
 * William A. Russell (New York politician) (after 1820–before 1897), New York politician
 * William A. Russell (Massachusetts politician) (1831–1899), U.S. Representative from Massachusetts
 * William E. Russell (politician) (1857–1896), governor of Massachusetts between 1891 and 1894
 * William Hepburn Russell (baseball) (1857–1911), lawyer, politician and owner of Boston Braves
 * William W. Russell (before 1870–after 1908), United States Ambassador to Colombia, 1904–1905 and to Venezuela, 1905–1908

Oceania

 * William Russell (New South Wales politician) (1807–1866), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
 * William Russell (New Zealand politician) (1838–1913), Member of Parliament
 * William Russell (Australian politician) (1842–1912), Australian senator from South Australia

Science

 * William James Russell (1830–1909), English chemist
 * William Russell (physician) (1852–1940), Scottish pathologist
 * William Ritchie Russell (1903–1980), British neurologist

Society

 * Elizabeth, Lady William Russell (1793–1874), English socialite, wife of Lord George William Russell

Sports

 * William Russell (cricketer) (1866–1929), Australian-born English first-class cricketer
 * William Russell (fencer) (1896–1958), American Olympic fencer
 * Willie Russell (1901–after 1935), Scottish footballer
 * Willie Russell (footballer, born 1903) (1903–after 1940), Scottish footballer
 * William Eric Russell (born 1936), Scottish-born English cricketer

War

 * William Howard Russell (1820–1907), Irish reporter and one of first modern war correspondents
 * William Carmichael Russell (1824–1905), British Bengal artillery officer

Writing

 * William Russell (Scottish writer) (1741–1793), Scottish writer
 * William Russell (organist) (1777–1813), English composer
 * William Russell (fiction writer) (1806–1876), English writer of detective and other stories
 * William Clark Russell (1844–1911), English writer of nautical novels
 * Willy Russell (born 1947), English playwright, lyricist and composer

title: William Russell


text:
Ascanio Sobrero

Ascanio Sobrero (12 October 1812 – 26 May 1888) was an Italian chemist, born in Casale Monferrato. He studied under Théophile-Jules Pelouze at the University of Turin, who had worked with the explosive material guncotton.

He studied medicine in Turin and Paris and then chemistry at the University of Gießen with Justus Liebig, and earned his doctorate in 1832. In 1845 he became a professor at the University of Turin

During his research he discovered, in 1847, nitroglycerine. He initially called it "pyroglycerine", and warned vigorously against its use in his private letters and in a journal article, stating that it was extremely dangerous and impossible to handle. In fact, he was so frightened by what he created that he kept it a secret for over a year.

Another of Pelouze's students was the young Alfred Nobel, who returned to the Nobel family's defunct armaments factory and began experimenting with the material around 1860; it did, indeed prove to be very difficult to discover how to handle it safely. In the 1860s Nobel received several patents around the world for mixtures, devices and manufacturing methods based on the explosive power of nitroglycerine, eventually leading to the invention of dynamite, ballistite and gelignite from which he made a fortune.

Although Nobel always acknowledged and honoured Sobrero as the man who had discovered nitroglycerine, Sobrero was dismayed by the uses to which the explosive had been put and claimed he was almost ashamed by his discovery.

title: Ascanio Sobrero


text:
Complex dynamics

Complex dynamics, or holomorphic dynamics, is the study of dynamical systems obtained by iterating a complex analytic mapping. This article focuses on the case of algebraic dynamics, where a polynomial or rational function is iterated. In geometric terms, that amounts to iterating a mapping from some algebraic variety to itself. The related theory of arithmetic dynamics studies iteration over the rational numbers or the p-adic numbers instead of the complex numbers.

Dynamics in complex dimension 1
A simple example that shows some of the main issues in complex dynamics is the mapping $$f(z)=z^2$$ from the complex numbers C to itself. It is helpful to view this as a map from the complex projective line $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ to itself, by adding a point $$\infty$$ to the complex numbers. ($$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ has the advantage of being compact.) The basic question is: given a point $$z$$ in $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$, how does its orbit (or forward orbit)
 * $$z,\; f(z)=z^2,\; f(f(z))=z^4, f(f(f(z)))=z^8,\; \ldots $$

behave, qualitatively? The answer is: if the absolute value |z| is less than 1, then the orbit converges to 0, in fact more than exponentially fast. If |z| is greater than 1, then the orbit converges to the point $$\infty$$ in $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$, again more than exponentially fast. (Here 0 and $$\infty$$ are superattracting fixed points of f, meaning that the derivative of f is zero at those points. An attracting fixed point means one where the derivative of f has absolute value less than 1.)

On the other hand, suppose that $$|z|=1$$, meaning that z is on the unit circle in C. At these points, the dynamics of f is chaotic, in various ways. For example, for almost all points z on the circle in terms of measure theory, the forward orbit of z is dense in the circle, and in fact uniformly distributed on the circle. There are also infinitely many periodic points on the circle, meaning points with $$f^r(z)=z$$ for some positive integer r. (Here $$f^r(z)$$ means the result of applying f to z r times, $$f(f(\cdots(f(z))\cdots))$$.) Even at periodic points z on the circle, the dynamics of f can be considered chaotic, since points near z diverge exponentially fast from z upon iterating f. (The periodic points of f on the unit circle are repelling: if $$f^r(z)=z$$, the derivative of $$f^r$$ at z has absolute value greater than 1.)

Pierre Fatou and Gaston Julia showed in the late 1910s that much of this story extends to any complex algebraic map from $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ to itself of degree greater than 1. (Such a mapping may be given by a polynomial $$f(z)$$ with complex coefficients, or more generally by a rational function.) Namely, there is always a compact subset of $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$, the Julia set, on which the dynamics of f is chaotic. For the mapping $$f(z)=z^2$$, the Julia set is the unit circle. For other polynomial mappings, the Julia set is often highly irregular, for example a fractal in the sense that its Hausdorff dimension is not an integer. This occurs even for mappings as simple as $$f(z)=z^2+c$$ for a constant $$c\in\mathbf{C}$$. The Mandelbrot set is the set of complex numbers c such that the Julia set of $$f(z)=z^2+c$$ is connected.

There is a rather complete classification of the possible dynamics of a rational function $$f\colon\mathbf{CP}^1\to \mathbf{CP}^1$$ in the Fatou set, the complement of the Julia set, where the dynamics is "tame". Namely, Dennis Sullivan showed that each connected component U of the Fatou set is pre-periodic, meaning that there are natural numbers $$a<b$$ such that $$f^a(U)=f^b(U)$$. Therefore, to analyze the dynamics on a component U, one can assume after replacing f by an iterate that $$f(U)=U$$. Then either (1) U contains an attracting fixed point for f; (2) U is parabolic in the sense that all points in U approach a fixed point in the boundary of U; (3) U is a Siegel disk, meaning that the action of f on U is conjugate to an irrational rotation of the open unit disk; or (4) U is a Herman ring, meaning that the action of f on U is conjugate to an irrational rotation of an open annulus. (Note that the "backward orbit" of a point z in U, the set of points in $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ that map to z under some iterate of f, need not be contained in U.)

The equilibrium measure of an endomorphism
Complex dynamics has been effectively developed in any dimension. This section focuses on the mappings from complex projective space $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ to itself, the richest source of examples. The main results for $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ have been extended to a class of rational maps from any projective variety to itself. Note, however, that many varieties have no interesting self-maps.

Let f be an endomorphism of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$, meaning a morphism of algebraic varieties from $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ to itself, for a positive integer n. Such a mapping is given in homogeneous coordinates by
 * $$f([z_0,\ldots,z_n])=[f_0(z_0,\ldots,z_n),\ldots,f_n(z_0,\ldots,z_n)]$$

for some homogeneous polynomials $$f_0,\ldots,f_n$$ of the same degree d that have no common zeros in $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$. (By Chow's theorem, this is the same thing as a holomorphic mapping from $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ to itself.) Assume that d is greater than 1; then the degree of the mapping f is $$d^n$$, which is also greater than 1.

Then there is a unique probability measure $$\mu_f$$ on $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$, the equilibrium measure of f, that describes the most chaotic part of the dynamics of f. (It has also been called the Green measure or measure of maximal entropy.) This measure was defined by Hans Brolin (1965) for polynomials in one variable, by Alexandre Freire, Artur Lopes, Ricardo Mañé, and Mikhail Lyubich for $$n=1$$ (around 1983), and by John Hubbard, Peter Papadopol, John Fornaess, and Nessim Sibony in any dimension (around 1994). The small Julia set $$J^*(f)$$ is the support of the equilibrium measure in $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$; this is simply the Julia set when $$n=1$$.

Examples

 * For the mapping $$f(z)=z^2$$ on $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$, the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$ is the Haar measure (the standard measure, scaled to have total measure 1) on the unit circle $$|z|=1$$.
 * More generally, for an integer $$d>1$$, let $$f\colon \mathbf{CP}^n\to\mathbf{CP}^n$$ be the mapping
 * $$f([z_0,\ldots,z_n])=[z_0^d,\ldots,z_n^d].$$
 * Then the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$ is the Haar measure on the n-dimensional torus $$\{[1,z_1,\ldots,z_n]: |z_1|=\cdots=|z_n|=1\}.$$ For more general holomorphic mappings from $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ to itself, the equilibrium measure can be much more complicated, as one sees already in complex dimension 1 from pictures of Julia sets.

Characterizations of the equilibrium measure
A basic property of the equilibrium measure is that it is invariant under f, in the sense that the pushforward measure $$f_*\mu_f$$ is equal to $$\mu_f$$. Because f is a finite morphism, the pullback measure $$f^*\mu_f$$ is also defined, and $$\mu_f$$ is totally invariant in the sense that $$f^*\mu_f=\deg(f)\mu_f$$.

One striking characterization of the equilibrium measure is that it describes the asymptotics of almost every point in $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ when followed backward in time, by Jean-Yves Briend, Julien Duval, Tien-Cuong Dinh, and Sibony. Namely, for a point z in $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ and a positive integer r, consider the probability measure $$(1/d^{rn})(f^r)^*(\delta_z)$$ which is evenly distributed on the $$d^{rn}$$ points w with $$f^r(w)=z$$. Then there is a Zariski closed subset $$E\subsetneq \mathbf{CP}^n$$ such that for all points z not in E, the measures just defined converge weakly to the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$ as r goes to infinity. In more detail: only finitely many closed complex subspaces of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ are totally invariant under f (meaning that $$f^{-1}(S)=S$$), and one can take the exceptional set E to be the unique largest totally invariant closed complex subspace not equal to $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$.

Another characterization of the equilibrium measure (due to Briend and Duval) is as follows. For each positive integer r, the number of periodic points of period r (meaning that $$f^r(z)=z$$), counted with multiplicity, is $$(d^{r(n+1)}-1)/(d^r-1)$$, which is roughly $$d^{rn}$$. Consider the probability measure which is evenly distributed on the points of period r. Then these measures also converge to the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$ as r goes to infinity. Moreover, most periodic points are repelling and lie in $$J^*(f)$$, and so one gets the same limit measure by averaging only over the repelling periodic points in $$J^*(f)$$. There may also be repelling periodic points outside $$J^*(f)$$.

The equilibrium measure gives zero mass to any closed complex subspace of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ that is not the whole space. Since the periodic points in $$J^*(f)$$ are dense in $$J^*(f)$$, it follows that the periodic points of f are Zariski dense in $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$. A more algebraic proof of this Zariski density was given by Najmuddin Fakhruddin. Another consequence of $$\mu_f$$ giving zero mass to closed complex subspaces not equal to $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ is that each point has zero mass. As a result, the support $$J^*(f)$$ of $$\mu_f$$ has no isolated points, and so it is a perfect set.

The support $$J^*(f)$$ of the equilibrium measure is not too small, in the sense that its Hausdorff dimension is always greater than zero. In that sense, an endomorphism of complex projective space with degree greater than 1 always behaves chaotically at least on part of the space. (There are examples where $$J^*(f)$$ is all of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$. ) Another way to make precise that f has some chaotic behavior is that the topological entropy of f is always greater than zero, in fact equal to $$n\log d$$, by Mikhail Gromov, Michał Misiurewicz, and Feliks Przytycki.

For any continuous endomorphism f of a compact metric space X, the topological entropy of f is equal to the maximum of the measure-theoretic entropy (or "metric entropy") of all f-invariant measures on X. For a holomorphic endomorphism f of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$, the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$ is the unique invariant measure of maximal entropy, by Briend and Duval. This is another way to say that the most chaotic behavior of f is concentrated on the support of the equilibrium measure.

Finally, one can say more about the dynamics of f on the support of the equilibrium measure: f is ergodic and, more strongly, mixing with respect to that measure, by Fornaess and Sibony. It follows, for example, that for almost every point with respect to $$\mu_f$$, its forward orbit is uniformly distributed with respect to $$\mu_f$$.

Lattès maps
A Lattès map is an endomorphism f of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ obtained from an endomorphism of an abelian variety by dividing by a finite group. In this case, the equilibrium measure of f is absolutely continuous with respect to Lebesgue measure on $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$. Conversely, by Anna Zdunik, François Berteloot, and Christophe Dupont, the only endomorphisms of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ whose equilibrium measure is absolutely continuous with respect to Lebesgue measure are the Lattès examples. That is, for all non-Lattès endomorphisms, $$\mu_f$$ assigns its full mass 1 to some Borel set of Lebesgue measure 0.

In dimension 1, more is known about the "irregularity" of the equilibrium measure. Namely, define the Hausdorff dimension of a probability measure $$\mu$$ on $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ (or more generally on a smooth manifold) by
 * $$\dim(\mu)=\inf \{\dim_H(Y):\mu(Y)=1\},$$

where $$\dim_H(Y)$$ denotes the Hausdorff dimension of a Borel set Y. For an endomorphism f of $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$ of degree greater than 1, Zdunik showed that the dimension of $$\mu_f$$ is equal to the Hausdorff dimension of its support (the Julia set) if and only if f is conjugate to a Lattès map, a Chebyshev polynomial (up to sign), or a power map $$f(z)=z^{\pm d}$$ with $$d\geq 2$$. (In the latter cases, the Julia set is all of $$\mathbf{CP}^1$$, a closed interval, or a circle, respectively. ) Thus, outside those special cases, the equilibrium measure is highly irregular, assigning positive mass to some closed subsets of the Julia set with smaller Hausdorff dimension than the whole Julia set.

Automorphisms of projective varieties
More generally, complex dynamics seeks to describe the behavior of rational maps under iteration. One case that has been studied with some success is that of automorphisms of a smooth complex projective variety X, meaning isomorphisms f from X to itself. The case of main interest is where f acts nontrivially on the singular cohomology $$H^*(X,\mathbf{Z})$$.

Gromov and Yosef Yomdin showed that the topological entropy of an endomorphism (for example, an automorphism) of a smooth complex projective variety is determined by its action on cohomology. Explictly, for X of complex dimension n and $$0\leq p\leq n$$, let $$d_p$$ be the spectral radius of f acting by pullback on the Hodge cohomology group $$H^{p,p}(X)\subset H^{2p}(X,\mathbf{C})$$. Then the topological entropy of f is
 * $$h(f)=\max_p \log d_p.$$

(The topological entropy of f is also the logarithm of the spectral radius of f on the whole cohomology $$H^*(X,\mathbf{C})$$.) Thus f has some chaotic behavior, in the sense that its topological entropy is greater than zero, if and only if it acts on some cohomology group with an eigenvalue of absolute value greater than 1. Many projective varieties do not have such automorphisms, but (for example) many rational surfaces and K3 surfaces do have such automorphisms.

Let X be a compact Kähler manifold, which includes the case of a smooth complex projective variety. Say that an automorphism f of X has simple action on cohomology if: there is only one number p such that $$d_p$$ takes its maximum value, the action of f on $$H^{p,p}(X)$$ has only one eigenvalue with absolute value $$d_p$$, and this is a simple eigenvalue. For example, Serge Cantat showed that every automorphism of a compact Kähler surface with positive topological entropy has simple action on cohomology. (Here an "automorphism" is complex analytic but is not assumed to preserve a Kähler metric on X. In fact, every automorphism that preserves a metric has topological entropy zero.)

For an automorphism f with simple action on cohomology, some of the goals of complex dynamics have been achieved. Dinh, Sibony, and Henry de Thélin showed that there is a unique invariant probability measure $$\mu_f$$ of maximal entropy for f, called the equilibrium measure (or Green measure, or measure of maximal entropy). (In particular, $$\mu_f$$ has entropy $$\log d_p$$ with respect to f.) The support of $$\mu_f$$ is called the small Julia set $$J^*(f)$$. Informally: f has some chaotic behavior, and the most chaotic behavior is concentrated on the small Julia set. At least when X is projective, $$J^*(f)$$ has positive Hausdorff dimension. (More precisely, $$\mu_f$$ assigns zero mass to all sets of sufficiently small Hausdorff dimension.)

Kummer automorphisms
Some abelian varieties have an automorphism of positive entropy. For example, let E be a complex elliptic curve and let X be the abelian surface $$E\times E$$. Then the group $$GL(2,\mathbf{Z})$$ of invertible $$2\times 2$$ integer matrices acts on X. Any group element f whose trace has absolute value greater than 2, for example $$\begin{pmatrix}2&1\\1&1\end{pmatrix}$$, has spectral radius greater than 1, and so it gives a positive-entropy automorphism of X. The equilibrium measure of f is the Haar measure (the standard Lebesgue measure) on X.

The Kummer automorphisms are defined by taking the quotient space by a finite group of an abelian surface with automorphism, and then blowing up to make the surface smooth. The resulting surfaces include some special K3 surfaces and rational surfaces. For the Kummer automorphisms, the equilibrium measure has support equal to X and is smooth outside finitely many curves. Conversely, Cantat and Dupont showed that for all surface automorphisms of positive entropy except the Kummer examples, the equilibrium measure is not absolutely continuous with respect to Lebesgue measure. In this sense, it is usual for the equilibrium measure of an automorphism to be somewhat irregular.

Saddle periodic points
A periodic point z of f is called a saddle periodic point if, for a positive integer r such that $$f^r(z)=z$$, at least one eigenvalue of the derivative of $$f^r$$ on the tangent space at z has absolute value less than 1, at least one has absolute value greater than 1, and none has absolute value equal to 1. (Thus f is expanding in some directions and contracting at others, near z.) For an automorphism f with simple action on cohomology, the saddle periodic points are dense in the support $$J^*(f)$$ of the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$. On the other hand, the measure $$\mu_f$$ vanishes on closed complex subspaces not equal to X. It follows that the periodic points of f (or even just the saddle periodic points contained in the support of $$\mu_f$$) are Zariski dense in X.

For an automorphism f with simple action on cohomology, f and its inverse map are ergodic and, more strongly, mixing with respect to the equilibrium measure $$\mu_f$$. It follows that for almost every point z with respect to $$\mu_f$$, the forward and backward orbits of z are both uniformly distributed with respect to $$\mu_f$$.

A notable difference with the case of endomorphisms of $$\mathbf{CP}^n$$ is that for an automorphism f with simple action on cohomology, there can be a nonempty open subset of X on which neither forward nor backward orbits approach the support $$J^*(f)$$ of the equilibrium measure. For example, Eric Bedford, Kyounghee Kim, and Curtis McMullen constructed automorphisms f of a smooth projective rational surface with positive topological entropy (hence simple action on cohomology) such that f has a Siegel disk, on which the action of f is conjugate to an irrational rotation. Points in that open set never approach $$J^*(f)$$ under the action of f or its inverse.

At least in complex dimension 2, the equilibrium measure of f describes the distribution of the isolated periodic points of f. (There may also be complex curves fixed by f or an iterate, which are ignored here.) Namely, let f be an automorphism of a compact Kähler surface X with positive topological entropy $$h(f)=\log d_1$$. Consider the probability measure which is evenly distributed on the isolated periodic points of period r (meaning that $$f^r(z)=z$$). Then this measure converges weakly to $$\mu_f$$ as r goes to infinity, by Eric Bedford, Lyubich, and John Smillie. The same holds for the subset of saddle periodic points, because both sets of periodic points grow at a rate of $$(d_1)^r$$.

title: Complex dynamics


text:
Talk:University of Innsbruck

Untitled
New call for action: As already previously said, please revert the last meaningful edit, thanks! Also, please correct the rest of the German text. I did some translation already, but there is more to do!212.152.150.236 00:35, 19 May 2006 (UTC+1)

Catholic Theology Faculty is wrongly linked to covenant theology! Kurusj (talk) 08:56, 11 January 2011 (UTC)kurusj Jan 10, 2011.

Someone kindly revert the previous edit, which replaced the previous discussion with this historical page, thanks. 218.170.154.221 03:06, 18 December 2005 (UTC)

I removed the Fictional Graduates section, as it contained one "fictional graduate" (Gordon Freeman of the Half-Life video game series) who, upon further research, only fictitiously witnessed experiments in teleportation at Innsbruck, but graduated from MIT. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.180.161.12 (talk) 21:12, 21 July 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:University of Innsbruck


text:
Sickle

A sickle, bagging hook, reaping-hook or grasshook is a single-handed agricultural tool designed with variously curved blades and typically used for harvesting or reaping grain crops, or cutting succulent forage chiefly for feeding livestock. Falx was a synonym, but was later used to mean any of a number of tools that had a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge.

Since the beginning of the Iron Age hundreds of region-specific variants of the sickle have evolved, initially of iron and later steel. This great diversity of sickle types across many cultures can be divided into smooth or serrated blades, both of which can be used for cutting either green grass or mature cereals using slightly different techniques. The serrated blade that originated in prehistoric sickles still dominates in the reaping of grain and is even found in modern grain-harvesting machines and in some kitchen knives.

Pre-Neolithic
The development of the sickle in Mesopotamia can be traced back to times that pre-date the Neolithic Era. Large quantities of sickle blades have been excavated in sites surrounding Israel that have been dated to the Epipaleolithic era (18000-8000 BC). Formal digs in Wadi Ziqlab, Jordan have unearthed various forms of early sickle blades. The artifacts recovered ranged from 10-20 cm in length and possessed a jagged edge. This intricate ‘tooth-like’ design showed a greater degree of design and manufacturing credence than most of the other artifacts that were discovered. Sickle blades found during this time were made of flint, straight and used in more of a sawing motion than with the more modern curved design. Flints from these sickles have been discovered near Mt. Carmel, which suggest the harvesting of grains from the area about 10,000 years ago.

Neolithic

The sickle had a profound impact on the Agricultural Revolution by assisting in the transition to farming and crop based lifestyle. It is now accepted that the use of sickles led directly to the domestication of Near Eastern Wild grasses. Research on domestication rates of wild cereals under primitive cultivation found that the use of the sickle in harvesting was critical to the people of early Mesopotamia. The relatively narrow growing season in the area and the critical role of grain in the late Neolithic Era promoted a larger investment in the design and manufacture of sickle over other tools. Standardization to an extent was done on the measurements of the sickle so that replacement or repair could be more immediate. It was important that the grain be harvested at the appropriate time at one elevation so that the next elevation could be reaped at the proper time. The sickle provided a more efficient option in collecting the grain and significantly sped up the developments of early agriculture.

Bronze Age
The sickle remained common in the Bronze Age, both in the Ancient Near East and in Europe. Numerous sickles have been found deposited in hoards in the context of the European Urnfield culture (e.g. Frankleben hoard), suggesting a symbolic or religious significance attached to the artifact.

In archaeological terminology, Bronze Age sickles are classified by the method of attaching the handle. E.g. the knob-sickle (German Knopfsichel) is so called because of a protruding knob at the base of the blade which apparently served to stabilize the attachment of the blade to the handle.

Iron Age
The sickle played a prominent role in the Druids' Ritual of oak and mistletoe as described from a single passage in Pliny the Elder's Natural History: A priest arrayed in white vestments climbs the tree and, with a golden sickle, cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak. Then finally they kill the victims, praying to a god to render his gift propitious to those on whom he has bestowed it. They believe that mistletoe given in drink will impart fertility to any animal that is barren and that it is an antidote to all poisons.

Due to this passage, despite the fact that Pliny does not indicate the source on which he based this account, some branches of modern Druidry (Neodruids) have adopted the sickle as a ritual tool.

Americas
Indigenous sickles have been discovered in southwest North America with unique design. There is evidence that Kodiak islanders had for cutting grass "sickles made of a sharpened animal shoulder blade". The artifacts found in present-day Arizona and New Mexico resemble curved tools that were made from the horns of mountain sheep. A similar site discovered sickles made from other material such as the Caddo Sickle, which was made from a deer mandible. Scripture from early natives document the use of these sickles in the cutting of grass. The instruments ranged 13-16 in from tip to haft. Several other digs in eastern Arizona uncovered wooden sickles that were shaped in a similar fashion. The handles of the tools help describe how the tool was held in such a way so that the inner portion that contained the cutting surface could also serve as a gathering surface for the grain. Sickles were sharpened by scraping a shape beveled edge with a coarse tool. This action has left marks on artifacts that have been found. The sharpening process was necessary to keep the cutting edge from being dulled after extended use. The edge is seen to be quite highly polished, which in part proves that the instrument was used to cut grass. After collection, the grass was used as material to create matting and bedding. The sickle in general provided the convenience of cutting the grass as well as gathering in one step. In modern times, the sickle is being used in South America as tool to harvest rice. Rice clusters are harvested using the instrument and left to dry in the sun.

Nepal
Called Hasiya (or Aasi), a sickle is very common in Nepal as the most important tool for cutting used in the kitchen and in the fields. Hasiya is used in the kitchen in many villages of Nepal where its used to cut vegetables during food prep. The handle of Hasiya (made of wood) is held pressed by the toe of one's foot and the curve inverted so vegetables can be cut with two hands while rocking the vegetable. Outside of home, Hasiya is used for harvesting.

Hasiya have traditionally been made by local blacksmiths in their charcoal foundries that use leather bellows to blow air. Sharpening of the Hasiya is done by rubbing the edges against a smooth rock or taken back to the blacksmith. Sharpening of the Hasiya is generally done during the beginning of the harvesting season.

Bigger Hasiya is called Khurpa (or Khoorpa) where the curve is less pronounced, is much heavier and is used to sever branches of trees with leaves (for animal feed), chop meat etc. The famous Nepali Khukuri is also a type of sickle where the curve becomes least visible.

Carrying around a sharp and naked Hasiya or Khurpa is unsafe. So Nepalis have traditionally built a cover/holder for it called "Khurpeto" (meaning Khurpa holder in Nepali). It could be a simple piece of wood with a hole big enough to slide the blade of Hasiya inside or could be an intricately carved piece of round wood slung around one's waist with a string made of plants (called "hatteuri"). Nowadays though many use cotton, jute or even cloth strings as a replacement of hatteuri which is not easy to find.

Serrated Simple or "toothed" sickles
The genealogy of sickles with serrated edge reaches back to the Stone Age, when individual pieces of flint were first attached to a "blade body" of wood or bone. (The majority among the well-documented specimens made later of bronze are smooth-edged.) Nevertheless, teeth have been cut with hand-held chisels into iron, and later steel-bladed sickles for a long time. In many countries on the African continent, Central and South America as well as the Near, Middle and Far East this is still the case in the regions within these large geographies where the traditional village blacksmith remains alive and well.

England appears to have been the first to develop the industrial process of serration-making. Then, by 1897, the Redtenbacher Company of Scharnstein, in Austria—at that time the largest scythe maker in the world—designed its own machine for the job, becoming the only Austrian source of serrated sickles. In 1942, its recently acquired sister company Krenhof also began to produce these. In 1970, a year before the sickle production branch of Redtenbacher was sold to Ethiopia, they were still making 1.5 million of the serrated sickles per year, predominately for market in Africa and Latin America. There were other enterprises in Austria, of course, who produced the smoothed-edged sickles for centuries. The last of the classical "round" versions were forged until the mid-1980s and machined until 2002.

While in Central Europe the smooth-edged sickle—either forged or machined (alternately referred to as "stamped") - has been the only one used (and in many regions the only one known), the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Greece long had fans of both camps. The many small family-owned enterprises in what is now Italy, Portugal and Spain produced sickles in both versions, with the teeth on the serrated models being hand-cut, one at a time, until the mid-20th century. The Falci Co. of Italy (established in 1921 as a union of several formerly independent forges) developed its own unique method of industrial scale serrated sickle production in 1965. Their innovations, which included tapered blade cross section (thicker at the back - for strength - gradually thinning towards the edge - for ease of penetration) were later adopted by Europe's largest sickle producer in Spain as well as, more recently, a company in India.

Use
The inside of the blade's curve is sharp, so that the user can either draw or swing it against the base of the crop, catching the stems in the curve and slicing them at the same time. The material to be cut may be held in a bunch in the other hand (for example when reaping), held in place by a wooden stick, or left free. When held in a bunch, the sickle action is typically towards the user (left to right for a right-handed user), but when used free the sickle is usually swung the opposite way. Other colloquial/regional names for principally the same tool are: grasshook, swap hook, rip-hook, slash-hook, reaping hook, brishing hook or bagging hook.

A serrated sickle was used for harvesting wheat, the ears being held bunched up in the free hand as described above. After this the straw was cut with a scythe. Oats and barley on the other hand were simply scythed. The reason for this is that wheat straw, unlike that of oats or barley, whose softer straw was suitable only for bedding or fodder, was a valuable crop, used for thatching, and subjecting it to the battering of a flail would have rendered it useless for this purpose.

The blades of sickle models intended primarily for the cutting of grass are sometimes "cranked", meaning they are off-set downwards from the handle, which makes it easier to keep the blade closer to the ground. Sickles used for reaping do not benefit by this feature because cereals are usually not cut as close to the ground surface. Instead, what distinguishes this latter group is their often (though not always) serrated edges.

A blade which is used regularly to cut the silica-rich stems of cereal crops acquires a characteristic sickle-gloss, or wear pattern.

As a weapon
Like other farming tools, the sickle can be used as an improvised bladed weapon. Examples include the Japanese kusarigama and kama, the Chinese chicken sickles, and the makraka of the Zande people of north central Africa. Paulus Hector Mair, the author of a German Renaissance combat manual also has a chapter about fighting with sickles. It is particularly prevalent in the martial arts of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. In Indonesia, the native sickle known as celurit or clurit is commonly associated with the Madurese people, used for both fighting and as a domestic tool.

Other uses

 * The hammer and sickle is a communist symbol representing proletarian solidarity, a union between the peasantry and the urban working class. It was first adapted during the Russian Revolution, the hammer representing the industrial workers, and the sickle representing the farmers/peasants.
 * The emblem of the Grim Reaper, who is sometimes portrayed as carrying a sickle rather than the more traditional scythe.
 * Tacitus reports that golden sickles were used in Druidic rituals.
 * Paulus Hector Mair's Manuscript Dresd. C 93 includes a section regarding the martial application of the sickle.
 * Three (or two) entwined sickles were the heraldic badge of the medieval Hungerford family. See also Hungerford knot.

Bagging hook
A bagging hook, badging hook, fagging hook, reap hook or rip hook, is a large sickle usually with an offset handle so that the user's knuckles do not make contact with the ground. The Oxford dictionary gives the definition of the word to bag, or badge, as the cutting of grain by hand. The blade is heavier than that of a normal sickle and always without serrated blades. It is usually about 40 mm wide with an open crescent shaped blade approx 45 cm across. It developed from the sickle in most parts of Britain during the mid to late 19th century, and was in turn replaced by the scythe, later by the reaping machine and subsequently the swather. It was still used when the corn was bent over or flattened and the mechanical reaper was unable to cut without causing the grain to fall from the ears and wasting the crop.

It was also used in lieu of the bean hook or pea hook for cutting field beans and other leguminous crops that were used for fodder and bedding for livestock.

Sometimes confused with the heavier and straighter billhook used for cutting wood or laying hedges. While the scythe or bagging hook blade was heavy enough to remove young growth instead of, say, shears for clipping a hedge, it was not strong enough to cut woody material for which the stronger, similarly shaped, but longer handled, staff hook was used. Many variations in blade shape were used in different parts of England and known under a variety of names. Its close relations in shape and usage are the grass hook and the reap hook.

title: Sickle