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Comrade

In political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member, usually left-wing. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution, after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution, popular culture in the West has often associated it with communism. As such, it can be used as a derogatory reference to left-wingers, akin to "commie". In particular, the Russian word tovarishch may be used as derogatory reference to Communists.

Etymology
The term comrade generally means 'mate', 'colleague', or 'ally', and derives from the Spanish and Portuguese, term camarada, literally meaning 'chamber mate', from Latin camera, meaning 'chamber' or 'room'. It may also specifically mean "fellow soldier", comrade in arms.

Background
Upon abolishing the titles of nobility in France, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, 'my lord' and 'my lady'), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen for men and citoyenne for women (both meaning 'citizen') to refer to each other. The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege.

When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists elsewhere began to look for a similar egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". In German, the word Kamerad had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship. The term was often used with political overtones in the revolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the word comrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice.

Russo-Soviet usage
In the late 19th century Russian Marxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted as a translation of the word Kamerad the Russian word for tovarisch (товарищ) (from Old Turkic tavar ishchi; abbreviated tov.), whose original meaning was "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate", deriving from the noun товар (tovar, 'merchandise') as a form of address in international (especially German) social democracy and in the associated parts of the labour movement. For instance, one might be referred to as Tovarisch Plekhanov or Tovarisch Chairman, or simply as Tovarisch. After the Russian Revolution, translations of the term in different languages were adopted by communists worldwide. However, due to its common usage in portrayals of the Soviet Union in Cold War films and books, the term became most strongly associated in public consciousness with communism as known in the Soviet Union, even though many other socialists would continue to use comrade among themselves.

In the early years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks used Tovarisch when addressing or referring to people assumed sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as members of the Communist party (and originally of other pro-revolution leftist formations such as the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries) and people from the "working masses". The more neutral republican form of address would translate as Citizen. Accordingly, supporters of the White movement in the Russian Civil War would use Tovarisch mockingly as a derogatory term for their enemies – although at the same time, the various socialist anti-Bolshevik forces such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Mensheviks also used Tovarisch among themselves. By the mid-1920s, the form of address Tovarisch became so commonplace in the Soviet Union that it was used indiscriminately in essentially the same way as terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed in English. That use persisted until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Still, the original meaning partly re-surfaced in some contexts: criminals and suspects were only addressed as "citizens" and not as tovarischi, and expressly refusing to address someone as tovarisch would generally be perceived as a hostile act or, in Stalinist times, even as an accusation of being "Anti-Soviet".

The term Tovarisch (Comrade) is still the standard form of address in the Russian Armed Forces and Police of Russia, where officers and soldiers are normally addressed as Tovarisch Colonel, Tovarisch General, Tovarisch Sergeant, or the like. The term is also used as part of idioms, for example: tovarishch po neschast'yu ('fellow-sufferer', from German Leidensgenosse) or boyevoy tovarishch ([war] buddy), or as a part of such words as tovarishchestvo (partnership) that do not associate with communism.

Chinese usage
In Chinese, the translation of comrade is 同志, literally meaning '(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc.'. It was first introduced in the political sense by Sun Yat-sen to refer to his followers. The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), which was co-founded by Sun Yat-Sen, has a long tradition of using this term to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Chang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."

Nevertheless, the term was promoted most actively by the Chinese Communist Party during its struggle for power. It was used both as a noun and as a title for basically anyone in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded. For example, women were nü tongzhi ('female comrade'), children were xiao tongzhi ('little comrade') and seniors were lao tongzhi ('old comrade'). However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of such daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Chinese Communist Party. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as tóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.

At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Tongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (e.g., Comrade Mao Zedong, Comrade Deng Xiaoping).

In October 2016, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms. It is also in the regulations of the Chinese Armed Forces as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade/s" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several servicepeople.)

The SAR territories of Hong Kong and Macau generally use tongzhi as a catch-all term to refer to members of the LGBT community; its use as a word for "comrade" has historically been uncommon due to both territories formerly being under foreign administrations. This definition of tongzhi is becoming increasingly popular among mainland Chinese youth and a growing number of older Chinese people have stopped using tongzhi due to its new association with the LGBT community.

South African usage
During the 1970s and 1980s, comrade emerged as a popular revolutionary form of address in South Africa among those involved in anti-apartheid political activities. For example, members of the African National Congress and South African Communist Party frequently referred to each other as comrade.

Among poor residents of the country's segregated townships, it was also used to specifically denote members of militant youth organisations. These radical activists led consumer boycotts, organised anti-apartheid rallies and demonstrations, and intimidated those suspected of having ties to the South African government or security forces. In this particular context, the English title comrades was also used interchangeably with the Xhosa term amabutho.

Zimbabwean usage
In Zimbabwe, the term is used for persons affiliated with the ZANU–PF political party. The state media also use Cde as short for comrade. Members of other political parties mainly the Movement for Democratic Change are often referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof.

The revived Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) members also call themselves comrades.

South Sudanese usage
Members of the Sudan People's Liberation Army call each other 'Comrade'.

British usage
The British Union of Fascists used the word commonly to refer to members. The Marching Song, set to the music of the Horst-Wessel-Lied began 'Comrades, the voices'. The writer, E.D. Randall, defended the usage of the word by stating that 'comrades' ‘fittingly and completely expresses the ideal of unity in the service of a common cause’

Cuban usage
In Cuba the corresponding revolutionary form of address was compañero, e.g., Compañero Fidel; see Cuban Spanish

In other languages

 * In Albanian, the word shok (meaning friend, from Latin socius) was used within communist circles. The female form is shoqe.
 * In Ethiopia the Amharic word for "comrade" is "Guade" written with ancient Geʽez script as "ጓድ". The word "Guade" trace its origin to the Amharic word of "Guadegna/ ጓደኛ" meaning " a friend". The word was in popular use after the 1974 revolution particularly by members of the socialist party to refer to another person of the similar political group, belongs to the same ideology, or similar style. The usage of the word is eroded since 1991 and it is limited to political party conventions or meetings. A rather the most popular variation of the word in the past and currently is "Guadochae/ ጓዶቼ" meaning "my friends" which is a humble way of address for a valued colleague or friend.
 * The Arabic word رفيق (Rafīq) (meaning comrade, companion) is used in Arabic, Urdu and Persian with the same political connotation as "comrade". The term is used both among Arab communists as well as within the Ba'ath movement and the Lebanese Forces. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Arabic male proper name. Iranian communists use the same term. In Pakistan, the term is sometimes used to refer to Islamist members of Jama'at-e-Islami and Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba (the student wing of Jamaat-e-Islami).
 * The Armenian word for comrade is ընկեր (unger) for boys and men and ընկերուհի (ungerouhi) for girls and women. This word literally translates as 'friend'. It is used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Ramgavar and Social Democrat Hunchakian Party when addressing other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.
 * The Azerbaijani word for comrade is Yoldaş (literally "co-traveller").
 * The Belarusian word for comrade is таварыш (tavaryš), with the same origin as the Russian word. It is usually used only with a political or historical meaning in connection with the Communists.
 * The Bengali word কমরেড (Kômrēḍ) is used by all leftist groups especially by the Communist Party of Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশের কমিউনিস্ট পার্টি-সিপিবি), Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist) and other Communist Parties in India (especially in the States of West Bengal and Tripura) and Socialist Party of Bangladesh-SPB, Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal-JSD (Bangladesh) etc.
 * The Burmese word yèbaw is used in the Communist Party of Burma.
 * The Bulgarian word for comrade is другар (drugar), female другарка (drugarka). It translates as friend or colleague. In Communist times, it was the general form of address, also used in reference to schoolteachers etc.
 * In Catalan, the word for comrade is company for males, companya for females. It is still in widespread use among communist and anarchist organisations, but it also occurs often in everyday speech to refer to neutral relationships such as classmates or flatmates with no political connotation.
 * In Chinese, the word 同志 is used. The meaning of the word refers to a like-minded person. It is, through usage, associated with Communism, however, it may be used as a friendly epithet between friends or colleagues, mostly of the older generation. It is still currently used in Chinese state media to address top party and state leaders such as Xi Jinping as well as within the People’s Liberation Army to address soldiers and officers. In current usage, it is also used by LGBT people in China to refer to one another.
 * The Czech word for comrade is soudruh (m.) and soudružka (f.). In 19th century Czech, it was a poetic word, meaning 'fellow'. As elsewhere in Europe, the term was originally introduced by the Czech Social Democrats and subsequently carried over to Czech Communists as well when these split off from the Social Democrats. After the Communist Party gained power in 1948, the word displaced all prior titles like pan, paní ("Mister", "Madam") and became the title used generally for everyone. Nowadays, it is used only in (actual or, more often, ironic) Communist context. After the Velvet Revolution, an attempt was made in the Czech Social Democratic Party to replace soudruh with přítel ("friend") as a form of an address, but it didn't catch on. A cognate to English word 'comrade', kamarád, means "friend" in Czech. It is a very commonly used word and it has no political connotations. A cognate (now obsolete) to the Russian word tovarishch, tovaryš, means "journeyman" in Czech and has no political connotations (compare Tovaryšstvo Ježíšovo, lit. "Jesus's Journeymen").
 * The Dutch word is kameraad. In Common Dutch the word is mostly reminiscent of communists, whereas in informal speech and dialects it can be used to indicate friends or acquaintances. It was used as a form of address in the Communist Party of the Netherlands, as well as in the pre-war National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands, the latter also using the female neologism kameraadske. The pseudo-Russian word kameraadski is used informally as a sobriquet for a person with leftist sympathies.
 * The Danish word is kammerat (plural kammerater) which literally translates as "mate," or "buddy". It is normally used to refer to someone's childhood friend or friends, but can also be used interchangeably with ven, which means friend.
 * The Esperanto word for comrade is kamarado either in the sense of a friend or a political fellow-traveller. In the latter case, when used in writing, it is often abbreviated to K-do. It is the preferred form of address among members of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda. The word samideano, literally "same-thinker", usually refers to a fellow Esperantist.
 * The Estonian word is seltsimees which originally comes from German Geselle. Having initially a neutral meaning, the term was later adapted by local communists. Today it has an ironical meaning, referring to Soviet times.
 * The Finnish word is toveri which literally translates as 'companion'. This has a heavy socialist connotation, but may sometimes be used in humorous manner. Mates in an institution like school, jail or hospital could also be addressed thus, but not in the army.
 * The French word is camarade. It is mainly used by communists and can apply to classmates or friends.
 * The Georgian word is ამხანაგი (amkhanagi).
 * In German, the word is Kamerad for a male, or Kameradin for a female. The meaning is that of a fellow, a companion or an associate. Since Kamerad is the usual term for a fellow soldier in German military language, the word is associated with right-wing rather than left-wing groups. Communists and socialists, especially party members of the SED and SPD use the word Genosse (fem. Genossin; i.e. "partner", in the sense of a fellow member of a co-operative) with the socialist association that 'comrade' has in English.. The members of the Nazi party NSDAP used the variant Parteigenosse (lit. party-comrade).
 * The Greek word is σύντροφος (syntrophos, m.) and συντρόφισσα (syntrophissa, f.), used by communists, socialists and other left-wing groups. Other meanings of this word are: mate, pal, friend, companion, even partner or associate etc.
 * The Hebrew equivalent is Chaver (חבר), a word which can mean both 'friend' and 'member' (of a group or organization). During the time of Socialist Zionist political and ideological dominance of the 1930s to the 1960s, the word in a sense similar to English "comrade" was in widespread use, in the Kibbutz movement, the Histadrut trade unions, the driver-owned bus companies etc., though this implication is carried only when it is used as a title to precede a name, in which case it includes a definite article (e.g. החבר סטאלין). At present, its political use is considered old-fashioned, mainly restricted to Israeli Communists; the same word exists also in Yiddish, which is one possible origin of the colloquial Australian word cobber.) The Hebrew Chaver and the female Chavera are still widely used in a non-political sense, as meaning simply 'friend' (in certain contexts also meaning 'boyfriend'/'girlfriend').
 * The Hindi equivalent for comrade is kômrēḍ (कॉमरेड) or sāthī (साथी). It is widely used among leftist (communist) parties of India, e.g., Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist), Revolutionary Socialist Party (India), Forward Bloc and others.
 * The Hungarian word for comrade is elvtárs; elv means 'principle' or 'tenet' while társ means 'fellow'. As the Hungarian Working People's Party gradually gained power after the Second World War, the word displaced all prior titles like úr ("Mister") and became the title used generally for everyone except for people who were obviously not "tenet fellows" e.g. those who committed political crime against the socialist state. After the democratic transition the word became obsolete and it is used derogatorily to address politicians on the political left.
 * The Icelandic word for comrade is félagi, which is cognate to English “fellow”. It is used as a less intimate alternative to vinur (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (e.g., félagi Tító or félagi Dimitroff) it has a communist implication.
 * In Indonesian, the word is kamerad. In the early days of independence, Bung, meaning "brother", was commonly used as an egalitarian form of address for people of any status.
 * In Irish the word for comrade is comrádaí, with a chara (friend) used as a term of address. Both expressions are used largely by Irish Republicans, Nationalism, Communists, and Socialists.
 * The Italian word for comrade is compagno (male) or compagna (female), meaning "companion". This word is in widespread use among left-wing circles, including not just communists but also many socialists. The literal translation of the word comrade is camerata, with the specific meaning of "comrade-in-arms" or "fellow soldier": it is used by nationalist and militarist right-wing groups. Using one word or the other is a quick way to announce one's political views.
 * The Japanese word for comrade is 同志 (dōshi), using the same Han characters as in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited to Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym 同士, which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
 * In Kannada, the word ಗೆಳೆಯರೇ, ಗೆಳೆಯ (Geḷeẏa) is used among communist people's while addressing its people.
 * In Kazakh, the translation of "tovarish" was similar to other Turkic translations, "жолдас"; "joldas" (literally "co-traveller", most often used referring to friends and spouses) was used.
 * In Khmer, the word comrade (សមមិត្ត Samakmit) was used by members of the Khmer Rouge during the communist rule of Pol Pot in 1975–1979 and by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation during the People's Republic of Kampuchea era.
 * In Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be 동무 (tongmu) or 동지 (tongji, senior comrade). Although the word was originally used by Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel began avoiding using the word after a communist state was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word tongmu replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". The word originally meant “friend”. On the other hand, the word 동지 (tongji) is frequently used in North Korean state media to address senior state and party leaders such as Kim Jong-un.
 * In Kurdish, the word Heval ("friend" or "companion on a long journey") is widely used among Kurdish political parties and organizations.
 * In Latvian, the word is biedrs for males and biedre or biedrene for females.
 * In Lithuanian, the word is draugas for males and draugė for females; both of which originally meant 'friend'.
 * In Macedonian, the word is другар (drugar) for males and другарka (drugarka) for females.
 * In Malay, the words Komrad, Kawan and Sahabat are used among socialist organizations.
 * In Malayalam, the word സഖാവ് (sakhavu) (meaning friend, ally, partner) is used among communist organizations while addressing fellow members. Due to the strong presence of the Communist Party of India in Kerala, the word is almost exclusively used to refer to a member of the party or to imply an association with communism.
 * In Mexico, the word is camarada and compañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
 * In Mongolian, the word is нөхөр (nökhör). It is still in use but less than before.
 * The Nepali equivalent for comrade is kamrēḍ (कमरेड) or sāthī (साथी) as in Hindi. It is used by communists in Nepal such as the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre), Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist), Janamorcha Nepal and others.
 * In Norwegian, the word is kamerat. It can be associated with communist usage, but more commonly refers simply to an associate, a co-worker (arbeidskamerat), or a classmate in school (klassekamerat or skolekamerat). In everyday use, the word kamerat on its own is considered a masculine term, referring to boys/men. For girls/women, the term venninne (female form of venn friend) is used instead. When joined with other words, such as klassekamerat, the word is gender neutral. (Although Norwegians would understand what is meant by klassevenninne, it would also sound awkward and somewhat archaic.)
 * In the Philippines, communist and left-leaning activists prefer the term kasama (roughly, companion), and the short form, Ka before the name (e.g. Ka Bel). Protestant (usually Evangelical) clerics and members of the Iglesia ni Cristo also use Ka before names or nicknames, but as a contraction of kapatíd ('brother'/'sister'), denoting spiritual brotherhood. Practitioners of law informally use the Spanish terms compañero and compañera when referring to each other, albeit without any socio-political connotation.
 * In the Pashto language, the word for comrade is malgury. It is used by and refers to communists, socialists, or supporters of the communist system across the Durand Line (i.e. in Afghanistan and Pakistan) by Pashto speakers. For the last decade or so it has also been used by the nationalists. The word is also used by common people both male and female for a very close friend.
 * In Poland, the word is towarzysz, which has the same origin as the Russian word. In non-political sense, it means "companion".
 * In Portugal and Brazil, the word is camarada, now being commonly employed to refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements. The term used among socialist activists nowadays tends to be companheiro / companheira although in Portugal camarada is still commonly used. Brazilian president Lula is widely known for addressing his political mates and supporters as companheiro, however this decreased during the last years of his presidential term, while it was very popular during the elections, often imitated by comedians who satirized Lula's idiosyncratic manners. The terms camarada and companheiro(s)/companheira(s) are also used without political connotations, meaning 'mate', 'partner', 'fella'.
 * In the Punjabi language the word for comrade is Sāthī (ਸਾਥੀ). However, the word "Comrade" itself, or ਕਾਮਰੇਡ (Kāmrēḍ), is used to refer to a communist or communist party member, and is often used as a more linguistically acceptable replacement for the word "communist," with the communist party often being called "The Comrades" or communist thought being called "ਕਾਮਰੇਡ ਸੋਚਣੀ" (Kāmrēḍ Sōcaṇī).
 * In the Romani language the word for comrade is Dosti as seen in the phrase Te vestinel o dosti Tito, te vestinena o jugoslovenske manusha or Long live comrade Tito and long live the Yugoslav people.
 * In Romanian the exact translation is camarad, a neologism introduced from French in the 19th century, which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. During the communist era an older term, tovarăș, derived from a Slavic source, was used to convey the political meaning.
 * The Serbo-Croatian equivalent for comrade is drug (друг) for males and drugarica (другарица) for females; it's also a regular and colloquial word for 'friend', although largely replaced by prijatelj and prijateljica in standard varieties of the language. Communist Party/League of Communists of Yugoslavia promoted the use of the term between the members and generally among the society throughout existence of the Socialist Yugoslavia, from World War II in early 1940s to Yugoslav Wars in early 1990s. It was not unusual to hear political leaders referring to their audience as drugarice i drugovi. Its intention was to emphasize empathy and equality, and it is still used by the most fervocious adherents of leftist ideologies.
 * The Slovak word for comrade is súdruh (m.) and súdružka (f.). The term kamarát is used too, but it is normally translated as friend.
 * The Slovenian word for comrade is tovariš (m.) and tovarišica (f.), first attested in the 16th century. After the Second World War it was also colloquially used for 'teacher' (as an elliptical form of the official tovariš učitelj (m.) and tovarišica učiteljica (f.) 'comrade teacher'). After 1991 it rapidly fell out of use as a general term of address, but is still used when expressing comradeship among individuals.
 * The Sindhi word for comrade is Saṅgat, سنگت; it is normally translated as friend.
 * The Somali word for comrade is jaalle; it is normally translated as friend. It was widely used by the erstwhile Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (1969-1991). The word fell out of use after the fall of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party.
 * In Spain, the word is compañero (m.) / compañera (f.) ('companion'); the term camarada ('comrade') has also been used, but it is more associated with the communist and Falange tradition. In Spain the word compañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
 * The standard form in Cuba is compañero / compañera, as it was in socialist Nicaragua and Chile. In some parts of Latin America, camarada is the more frequent word, except in Peru, where the term is commonly associated with the nom de guerre of members of far left groups Shining Path and MRTA, while members of the social-democrat party APRA as well as other left parties or left-leaning organizations employ compañero to refer to fellow members. The term camarada is the more normal among Spanish Communists.
 * In Chile, much like as in Italy, camarada has traditionally been used by its army, and historically by fascist groups, such as the National Socialist Movement of Chile, while compañero is commonplace within far-left wing groups and the Socialist and Communist parties.
 * In Sinhala, the word is සහෝදරයා sahōdarayā, which literally means brother.
 * In Swahili, the equivalent word is ndugu for brother-in-arms, or dada for a female comrade. The word ndugu is still used in formerly socialist Tanzania as a way of showing (political) solidarity.
 * The Swedish word is kamrat. Although it can be associated with communist usage, it can equally well refer simply to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat), or a classmate in school (klasskamrat or skolkamrat). Unlike the corresponding Norwegian word, the term is commonly used for both boys and girls in non-communist usage. See also Idrottsföreningen Kamraterna
 * The Tamil word for comrade is Tōḻar (தோழர்) and is a regular word for 'friend'.
 * In Tetun, the national language of Timor Leste, the word camarada is used – a direct loan from the language of the former colonial power, Portugal. During the 1970s the word was a common term of address within the left-leaning Fretilin party, and after the Indonesian invasion, continued to be used by the Fretilin associated guerrillas waging a war of resistance in the jungle. Though largely falling out of use since 1999 Fretilin politicians and veterans of the guerrillas struggle continue to use the term to refer to each other.
 * The Thai word sahai (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
 * The Turkish word yoldaş (literally 'co-traveller') has become used within the communist movement, yol meaning 'way' and 'cause'. Ottoman Janissaries used to call each other yoldaş (یولداش 'comrade') or yoldaşân (یولداشان, plural: 'comrades'). Turkish communists, being morally affected by Bektashi values of the older era, adopted this term. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage. Yoldaş is also a male name in Turkish.
 * In Ukraine comrade was still the standard form of address in the armed forces and police until October 2018, when it was changed into 'sir' (пан) by law.
 * In the United Kingdom, political use of the term comrade is strongly associated with both Communism and, historically, Fascism. However it is still used as an informal form of address among some Labour Party members, and in a more serious manner by many smaller parties of the left. Use of the term is generally restricted to people with whom the speaker agrees politically. It is usually written in full, the abbreviation Cde being associated with southern African usage. The honorific terms sister and brother, also declining in usage, are more politically inclusive, encompassing everyone from the centre-left to the far-left, without necessarily indicating complete political agreement. All three terms are occasionally used in a mocking or patronising manner by political opponents. On the far right, comrade was the standard form of address between members of the British Union of Fascists and featured widely in their publications and marching songs.
 * In the United States, the word comrade carries a strong connotation with Communism, Marxism–Leninism, and the former Soviet Union. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is frequently used ironically in that way. In addition, it is still used in its generic context by some American socialists. Despite this, it has been adopted into the U.S. Army Soldier's Creed in the statement "I will never leave a fallen comrade". It is also used at meetings of the Veterans of Foreign Wars to address a fellow member.
 * The Vietnamese word is đồng chí, which is derived from Chinese 同志. Due to the influence of Chinese revolutionary groups during the early 20th century on the Vietnamese independence movement, its usage was first seen among members of the Kuomintang-backed Vietnamese Nationalist Party and then later spread to members of the Vietnamese Communist Party. It is still being used openly in public to address state and Communist Party leaders as well as among soldiers and military officers in the People's Army of Vietnam.

title: Comrade


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Delta IV

Delta IV was a group of five expendable launch systems in the Delta rocket family. It flew 45 missions from 2002 to 2024. Originally designed by Boeing's Defense, Space and Security division for the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program, the Delta IV became a United Launch Alliance (ULA) product in 2006. The Delta IV was primarily a launch vehicle for United States Air Force (USAF) military payloads, but was also used to launch a number of United States government non-military payloads and a single commercial satellite.

The Delta IV had two main versions which allowed the family to cover a range of payload sizes and masses: the Medium (which had four configurations) and Heavy. The final flight of Medium occurred in 2019. The final flight of Heavy was in April 2024.

Delta IV vehicles were built in the ULA facility in Decatur, Alabama. Final assembly was completed at the launch site by ULA: at the horizontal integration facility for launches from SLC-37B pad at Cape Canaveral and in a similar facility for launches from SLC-6 pad at Vandenberg Space Force Base.

History
The latest evolutionary development of the Delta rocket family, Delta IV was introduced to meet the requirements of the United States Air Force's (USAF) Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV, now National Security Space Launch (NSSL)) program. While the Delta IV retains the name of the Delta family of rockets, major changes were incorporated. Perhaps the most significant change was the switch from kerosene to liquid hydrogen fuel, with new tankage and a new engine required.

During the Delta IV's development, a small variant was considered. This would have featured the Delta II second stage, an optional Thiokol Star 48B third stage, and the Delta II payload fairing, all atop a single Common Booster Core (CBC). The Small variant was dropped by 1999.

In 2002, the Delta IV was first launched, with the RS-68 becoming the first large liquid-propellant rocket engine designed in the United States since the Space Shuttle main engine (SSME) in the 1970s.

The L3 Technologies Redundant Inertial Flight Control Assembly (RIFCA) guidance system originally used on the Delta IV was common to that carried on the Delta II, although the software was different because of the differences between the Delta II and Delta IV. The RIFCA featured six ring laser gyroscopes and accelerometers each, to provide a higher degree of reliability.

Boeing initially intended to market Delta IV commercial launch services. However, the Delta IV entered the space launch market when global capacity was already much higher than demand. Furthermore, as an unproven design it had difficulty finding a market in commercial launches, and Delta IV launch costs are higher than comparable vehicles of the same era. In 2003, Boeing pulled the Delta IV from the commercial market, citing low demand and high costs. In 2005, Boeing stated that it sought to return the Delta IV to commercial service.

As of 2009, the USAF funded Delta IV EELV engineering, integration, and infrastructure work through contracts with Boeing Launch Services (BLS). On 8 August 2008, the USAF Space and Missile Systems Center increased the "cost plus award fee" contract with BLS for US$1.656 billion to extend the period of performance through the 30 September 2008 (FY09). In addition, a US$557.1 million option was added to cover FY10.

In February 2010, naturalized citizen Dongfan Chung, an engineer working with Boeing, was the first person convicted under the Economic Espionage Act of 1996. Chung passed on classified information on designs including the Delta IV rocket to China and was sentenced to 15 years.

In March 2015, ULA announced plans to phase out the Delta IV Medium by 2018.

With the exception of the first launch, which carried the Eutelsat W5 commercial communications satellite, all Delta IV launches have been paid for by the US government. In 2015, ULA stated that a Delta IV Heavy is sold for nearly US$400 million.

RS-68A booster engine upgrade
The possibility of a higher performance Delta IV was first proposed in a 2006 RAND Corporation study of national security launch requirements out to 2020. A single National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) payload required an increase in the lift capability of the Delta IV Heavy. Lift capacity was increased by developing the higher-performance RS-68A engine, which first flew on 29 June 2012. ULA phased out the baseline RS-68 engine with the launch of Delta flight 371 on 25 March 2015. All following launches used the RS-68A, and the engine's higher thrust allowed the use of a single standardized CBC design for all Delta IV Medium and M+ versions. This upgrade reduced cost and increased flexibility, since any standardized CBC could be configured for zero, two, or four solid-propellant rocket boosters. However, the new CBC led to a slight performance loss for most medium configurations. The Delta IV Heavy required non-standard CBCs for the core and boosters.

Payload capacities after RS-68A upgrade

Payload capacities with original RS-68 * Masses include a Payload Attach Fitting (240 kg to 1,221 kg depending on payload).

Proposed upgrades that were not implemented
Possible future upgrades for the Delta IV included adding extra strap-on solid motors, higher-thrust main engines, lighter materials, higher-thrust second stages, more (up to eight) strap-on CBCs, and a cryogenic propellant cross feed from strap on boosters to the common core.

At one point, NASA planned to use Delta IV or Atlas V to launch the proposed Orbital Space Plane, which eventually became the Crew Exploration Vehicle and then the Orion. Orion was intended to fly on the Ares I launch vehicle, then the Space Launch System after Ares I was cancelled.

In 2009, The Aerospace Corporation reported on NASA results of a study to determine the feasibility of modifying Delta IV to be crew-rated for use in NASA human spaceflight missions. According to Aviation Week & Space Technology the study, "found that a Delta IV heavy [...] could meet NASA's requirements for getting humans to low Earth orbit".

A proposed upgrade to the Delta IV family was the addition of extra solid motors. The Medium+ (4,4) would have used existing mount points to pair the four GEM 60s of the M+ (5,4) with the upper stage and fairing of the (4,2). An M+ (4,4) would have had a GTO payload of 7500 kg, a LEO payload of 14800 kg, and could have been available within 36 months of the first order. It was also considered to add extra GEM 60s to the M+ (5,4), which would have required adding extra attachment points, structural changes to cope with the different flight loads, and launch pad and infrastructure changes. The Medium+ (5,6) and (5,8) would have flown with six and eight SRBs respectively, for a maximum of up to 9200 kg to GTO with the M+ (5,8). The Medium+ (5,6) and (5,8) could have been available within 48 months of the first order.

Successors
The Vulcan Centaur is planned to replace the Atlas V and Delta IV rockets. Vulcan Centaur is projected to enter service by 2023, using the BE-4 methane-fueled rocket engine. The first Vulcan successfully launched on 8 January 2024. The Atlas V is expected to stay in service for a few years after Vulcan's inaugural launch, and the Delta IV Heavy was discontinued in April 2024.

Delta IV Medium
The Delta IV Medium (also referred to as 'single stick' ) was available in four configurations: Medium, Medium+ (4,2), Medium+ (5,2), and Medium+ (5,4).

The Delta IV Medium (Delta 9040) was the most basic Delta IV. It featured a single CBC and a modified Delta III second stage, with 4-meter liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks (called a Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS)) and a 4-meter payload fairing. The Delta IV Medium was capable of launching 4,200 kg to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). From Cape Canaveral, GTO is 1804 m/s away from GEO. The mass of fairing and payload attach fittings have been subtracted from the gross performance.

The Delta IV Medium+ (4,2) (Delta 9240) had the same CBC and DCSS as the Medium, but with the addition of two Orbital ATK-built 1.5-m (60-in) diameter solid rocket booster Graphite-Epoxy Motors (GEM 60s) strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity to 6,150 kg to GTO.

The Delta IV Medium+ (5,2) (Delta 9250) was similar to the Medium+ (4,2), but had a 5-m–diameter DCSS and payload fairing for larger payloads. Because of the extra weight of the larger payload fairing and second stage, the Medium+ (5,2) could launch 5,072 kg to GTO.

The Delta IV Medium+ (5,4) (Delta 9450) was similar to the Medium+ (5,2), but used four GEM 60s instead of two, enabling it to lift 6,882 kg to GTO.

To encapsulate the satellite payload, a variety of different payload fairings were available. A stretched Delta III 4-meter diameter composite payload fairing was used on 4-meter Medium versions, while an enlarged, 5-meter diameter composite fairing was used on 5-meter Medium versions.

The Medium (4,2) version last flew on 22 August 2019, marking the retirement of the Delta IV Medium variants.

Delta IV Heavy

The Delta IV Heavy (Delta 9250H) combines a 5 m diameter DCSS and payload fairing with two additional CBCs. These are strap-on boosters which are separated earlier in the flight than the center CBC. As of 2007, a longer 5 meter diameter composite fairing was standard on the Delta IV Heavy, with an aluminum isogrid fairing also available. The aluminum trisector (three-part) fairing was built by Boeing and derived from a Titan IV fairing. The trisector fairing was first used on the DSP-23 flight. The Delta IV with the extended fairing is over 62 m tall. The last launch took place on 9 April 2024, carrying the NROL-70 satellite, marking the conclusion of the Delta rocket family.

Common Booster Core
Each Delta IV consists of at least one Common Booster Core (CBC). Each CBC is powered by one Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-68 engine, which burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.

On flights of the Medium, the RS-68 ran at 102% rated thrust for the first few minutes of flight, and then throttled down to 58% rated thrust before main engine cutoff. On the Heavy, the main CBC's engine throttles down to 58% rated thrust around 50 seconds after liftoff, while the strap-on CBCs remain at 102%. This conserves propellant and allows the main CBC to burn after booster separation. After the strap-on CBCs separate, the main CBC's engine again throttles up to 102% before throttling back down to 58% prior to main engine cutoff.

The RS-68 engine is mounted to the lower thrust structure of the CBC by a four-legged (quadrapod) thrust frame and enclosed in a protective composite conical thermal shield. Above the thrust structure is an aluminum isogrid (a grid pattern machined out of the inside of the tank to reduce weight) liquid hydrogen tank, followed by a composite cylinder called the centerbody, an aluminum isogrid liquid oxygen tank, and a forward skirt. Along the back of the CBC is a cable tunnel to hold electrical and signal lines, and a feedline to carry the liquid oxygen to the RS-68 from the tank. The CBC is of a constant, 5 m diameter.

Delta Cryogenic Second Stage

The upper stage of the Delta IV was the Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS). The DCSS was based on the Delta III upper stage but has increased propellant capacity. Two versions have been produced: a 4 m diameter DCSS that was retired with the Delta IV Medium and a 5 m diameter DCSS that remains in service with the Delta IV Heavy. The 4 m diameter version lengthened both Delta III propellant tanks, while the 5-meter version has an extended diameter liquid hydrogen tank and a further lengthened liquid oxygen tank. Regardless of the diameter, each DCSS is powered by one RL10B-2 engine, with an extendable carbon-carbon nozzle to improve specific impulse. Two different interstages are used to mate the first stage and DCSS. A tapering interstage that narrowed down from 5 m to 4 m diameter was used to mate the 4 m DCSS to the CBC, while a cylindrical interstage is used to mate the 5 m DCSS. Both interstages were built from composites and enclosed the liquid oxygen tank, with the larger liquid hydrogen tank making up part of the vehicle's outer mold line.

Launch sites

Delta IV launched from either of two rocket launch complexes. Launches on the East coast of the United States used Space Launch Complex 37 (SLC-37) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. On the West coast, polar-orbit and high-inclination launches used Vandenberg Space Force Base's Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6).

Launch facilities at both sites are similar. A Horizontal Integration Facility (HIF) is situated some distance from the pad. Delta IV CBCs and second stages to be mated and tested in the HIF before they are moved to the pad. The partial horizontal rocket assembly of the Delta IV is somewhat similar to the Soyuz launch vehicle, which is completely assembled horizontally. The Space Shuttles, the past Saturn launch vehicles, and the Space Launch System are assembled and rolled out to the launch pad entirely vertically.

Movement of the Delta IVs among the various facilities at the pad was facilitated by rubber-tired Elevating Platform Transporters (EPTs) and various transport jigs. Diesel engine EPTs are used for moving the vehicles from the HIF to the pad, while electric EPTs are used in the HIF, where precision of movement is important.

The basic launchpad structure includes a flame trench to direct the engine plume away from the rocket, lightning protection, and propellant storage. In the case of Delta IV, the vehicle was completed on the launch pad inside a building. This Mobile Service Tower (MST) provides service access to the rocket and protection from the weather and is rolled away from the rocket on launch day. A crane at the top of the MST lifts the encapsulated payload to the vehicle and also attached the GEM 60 solid motors for Delta IV Medium launches. The MST is rolled away from the rocket several hours before launch. At Vandenberg, the launch pad also has a Mobile Assembly Shelter (MAS), which completely encloses the vehicle; at CCAFS, the vehicle is partly exposed near its bottom.

Beside the vehicle is a Fixed Umbilical Tower (FUT), which has two (VSFB) or three (CCAFS) swing arms. These arms carry telemetry signals, electrical power, hydraulic fluid, environmental control air flow, and other support functions to the vehicle through umbilical lines. The swing arms retract at T-0 seconds once the vehicle is committed to launch.

Under the vehicle is a Launch Table, with six Tail Service Masts (TSMs), two for each CBC. The Launch Table supports the vehicle on the pad, and the TSMs provide further support and fueling functions for the CBCs. The vehicle is mounted to the Launch Table by a Launch Mate Unit (LMU), which is attached to the vehicle by bolts that sever at launch. Behind the Launch Table is a Fixed Pad Erector (FPE), which used two long-stroke hydraulic pistons to raise the vehicle to the vertical position after being rolled to the pad from the HIF. Beneath the Launch Table is a flame duct, which deflects the rocket's exhaust away from the rocket or facilities.

Vehicle processing
Delta IV CBCs and DCSSs are assembled at ULA's factory in Decatur, Alabama. They are then loaded onto the R/S RocketShip, a roll-on/roll-off cargo vessel, and shipped to either launch pad. There, they are offloaded and rolled into a HIF. For Delta IV Medium launches, the CBC and DCSS were mated in the HIF. For Delta IV Heavy launches, the port and starboard strap-on CBCs are also mated in the HIF.

Various tests are performed, and then the vehicle is rolled horizontally to the pad, where the Fixed Pad Erector (FPE) is used to raise the vehicle to the vertical position. At this time, the GEM 60 solid motors, if any are required, are rolled to the pad and attached to the vehicle. After further testing, the payload (which has already been enclosed in its fairing) is transported to the pad, hoisted into the MST by a crane, and attached to the vehicle. Finally, on launch day, the MST is rolled away from the vehicle, and the vehicle is ready for launch.

Delta family launches by decade

 * List of Thor and Delta launches (2000–2009)
 * List of Thor and Delta launches (2010–2019)
 * List of Thor and Delta launches (2020–2024)

Delta IV launches by configuration

 * List of Delta IV launches (all variants, Medium and Heavy)
 * List of Delta IV Medium launches
 * List of Delta IV Heavy launches

Notable launches

The first payload launched with a Delta IV was the Eutelsat W5 communications satellite. A Medium+ (4,2) from Cape Canaveral carried the communications satellite into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) on 20 November 2002.

Heavy Demo was the first launch of the Delta IV Heavy in December 2004 after significant delays due to bad weather. Due to cavitation in the propellant lines, sensors on all three CBCs registered depletion of propellant. The strap-on CBCs and then core CBC engines shut down prematurely, even though sufficient propellant remained to continue the burn as scheduled. The second stage attempted to compensate for the shutdown and burned until it ran out of propellant. This flight was a test launch carrying a payload of:
 * DemoSat –  6020 kg; an aluminum cylinder filled with 60 brass rods  –  planned to be carried to GEO; however due to the sensor faults, the satellite did not reach this orbit.
 * NanoSat-2, carried to low Earth orbit (LEO) –  a set of two very small satellites of 24 and 21 kg, nicknamed Sparky and Ralphie  –  planned to orbit for one day. Given the under-burn, the two most likely did not reach a stable orbit.

NROL-22 was the first Delta IV launched from SLC-6 at Vandenberg Space Force Base (VSFB). It was launched aboard a Medium+ (4,2) in June 2006 carrying a classified satellite for the U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO).

DSP-23 was the first launch of a valuable payload aboard a Delta IV Heavy. This was also the first Delta IV launch contracted by the United Launch Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin. The main payload was the 23rd and final Defense Support Program missile-warning satellite, DSP-23. Launch from Cape Canaveral occurred on 10 November 2007.

NROL-26 was the first Delta IV Heavy EELV launch for the NRO. USA 202, a classified reconnaissance satellite, lifted off 18 January 2009.

NROL-32 was a Delta IV Heavy launch, carrying a satellite for NRO. The payload is speculated to be the largest satellite sent into space. After a delay from 19 October 2010, the rocket lifted off on 21 November 2010.

NROL-49 lifted off from Vandenberg AFB on 20 January 2011. It was the first Delta IV Heavy mission to be launched out of Vandenberg. This mission was for the NRO and its details are classified.

On 4 October 2012, a Delta IV M+ (4,2) experienced an anomaly in the upper stage's RL10B-2 engine which resulted in lower than expected thrust. While the vehicle had sufficient fuel margins to successfully place the payload, a GPS Block IIF satellite USA-239, into its targeted orbit, investigation into the glitch delayed subsequent Delta IV launches and the next Atlas V launch (AV-034) due to commonality between the engines used on both vehicles' upper stages. By December 2012, ULA had determined the cause of the anomaly to be a fuel leak (into the combustion chamber ), and Delta IV launches resumed in May 2013. After two more successful launches, further investigation led to the delay of Delta flight 365 with the GPS IIF-5 satellite. Originally scheduled to launch in October 2013, the vehicle lifted off on 21 February 2014.

A Delta IV Heavy launched the Orion spacecraft on an uncrewed test flight, EFT-1, on 5 December 2014. The launch was originally planned for 4 December 2014, but high winds and valve issues caused the launch to be rescheduled for 5 December 2014.

On August 12, 2018, another Delta IV Heavy launched the Parker Solar Probe on a mission to explore or "touch" the outer corona of the Sun.

The second GPS Block III satellite was launched with the final Delta IV Medium+ (4,2) configuration rocket on 22 August 2019.

The final flight from Vandenberg of the Delta IV Heavy launched the NROL-91 mission in September 2022.

The final flight from Cape Canaveral of the Delta IV Heavy and of the Delta rocket family took place in April 2024 carrying the NROL-70 mission.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Delta IV


text:
Treaty of Accession 2003

The Treaty of Accession 2003 was the agreement between the member states of the European Union and ten countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia), concerning these countries' accession into the EU (see 2004 enlargement of the European Union). At the same time it changed a number of points which were originally laid down in the Treaty of Nice. The treaty was signed on 16 April 2003 in Athens, Greece and it entered into force on 1 May 2004, resulting in enlargement of the European Union with 10 states.

Background
The European Union comprises a large number of overlapping legal structures which is a result of it being defined by successive international treaties. As well as other acts which together form the current legal framework (acquis) of the EU, the Treaty of Accession 2003 modifies:
 * the Treaty of Rome (establishing the European Economic Community),
 * the Euratom Treaty (establishing the European Atomic Energy Community)
 * the Maastricht Treaty (establishing the European Union)

All changes to the above treaties are made by article 11-19 in part two of the accession treaty. Beside of revising voting weights and the number of member state representatives at all European institutions, the most notable change outlined how Qualified Majority Voting shall be handled in the Council of the European Union. As from 1 November 2004, whenever the Council vote to adopt a decision by Qualified Majority, this need support both from a majority of member states which at the same time represents minimum 232 out of 321 weighted votes (72,3%), while also as a third requirement those states must represent at least 62% of the total population of the Union. Otherwise the decision in question shall not be adopted.

The Treaty's full name in English is:

 * Treaty between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Hellenic Republic, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, Ireland, the Italian Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Republic of Austria, the Portuguese Republic, the Republic of Finland, the Kingdom of Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Member States of the European Union) and the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia, the Slovak Republic, concerning the accession of the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic to the European Union.

title: Treaty of Accession 2003


text:
University of Copenhagen Faculty of Theology

The Copenhagen Faculty of Theology is the smallest faculty at the University of Copenhagen, with three departments and the affiliated Centre for African Studies. The disciplines offered are: Biblical Exegesis, Church History, Dogmatics, Ethics and Philosophy of Religion. The Faculty runs the Søren Kierkegaard Library and the Søren Kierkegaard Research Centre. The Centre for Christianity and the Arts is a unit under the Department of Church History. The Faculty prepares students for the master's degree in Theology.


text:
University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law

The Faculty of Law (Det juridiske fakultet) at the University of Copenhagen has two departments including a number of research centres and prepares students for the Bachelor of Law degree (BA) and the profession degree in Law, cand. jur. (candidatus (masculinum) or candidata (femininum) juris). The Faculty runs a special library, known as the Law Laboratory, for students.

The Faculty
The Faculty of Law at the University of Copenhagen is Denmark's largest law school, and one of the largest in Northern Europe, with approximately 4000 law students. One of the main objectives of the Faculty is to intensify contacts with foreign universities and law schools. These contacts have greatly increased in recent years. They include such activities as encouraging research and studies abroad, international student exchanges, faculty exchanges and a developing programme for visiting scholars.

The Faculty of Law at the University of Copenhagen has existed since 1479 when the University was founded. The instituting statute founding the Faculty is still preserved in the archives of the Danish Royal Library. The University of Copenhagen is the largest university in Scandinavia and the only Scandinavian university ranked among the top 50 universities worldwide. The Faculty of Law of the Royal Frederick University in Norway, established in 1811 as the second law faculty in then-Denmark-Norway, was based on the curriculum of the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law and retained strong similarities until recently.

The Faculty's research covers a wide range of topics. Additionally, the Faculty has a number of research centres:
 * CECS: Centre for Comparative and European Constitutional Studies
 * Centre for Pension Law
 * Centre for Studies in Legal Culture
 * FOCOFIMA - Forum for Company Law and Financial Market Law
 * WELMA - Legal Studies in Welfare and EU Market Integration
 * Centre for Information and Innovation Law (CIIR)
 * iCourts - The Danish National Research Foundation's Centre of Excellence for International Courts

Seal
The seal of the faculty contains the following text which is written in a circle around a lindworm above which is a sceptre and a sword. The lindworm symbolizes the struggle against evil, while the sceptre is the power of the state and the sword is justice.

The seal is based on the seal given to the Faculty by the King in 1531.

Law Programmes
The Faculty of Law offers 4 different degrees

The second degree of the law programme (LLM) takes a minimum of two years to complete. In Danish, the degree, which is awarded after a minimum of five years' of undergraduate and graduate studies, is called the candidatus or candidata juris, commonly shortened to cand.jur. This degree is equivalent to a master's degree. The official length of the programme is 120 ECTS Credits.

The PhD course is a three-year researcher training course. During this period the Ph.D. student must attend courses, acquire teaching experience and take part in the research environment at other universities. Admission is on an individual basis and subject to an overall evaluation of the project and personal qualifications of the applicant. Only a limited number of applicants are accepted, depending on the financial resources available and other criteria such as counselling facilities. The most important aspect of the PhD course of studies is the preparation of a written thesis that forms the basis of the award of a PhD degree after an oral public defence (viva). Subject to academic merit PhD theses are published by the publishing house Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag.

The master in Mediation and Conflict Resolution is part of the Faculty's continuing education programme.

title: University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law


text:
Germania (book)

The Germania, written by the Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus around 98 AD and originally entitled On the Origin and Situation of the Germans (De origine et situ Germanorum), is a historical and ethnographic work on the Germanic peoples outside the Roman Empire.

Contents
The Germania begins with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the Germanic people (chapters 1–27); it then describes individual peoples, beginning with those dwelling closest to Roman lands and ending on the uttermost shores of the Baltic, among the amber-gathering Aesti, the Fenni, and the unknown peoples beyond them.

Tacitus says (chapter 2) that physically, the Germanic peoples appear to be a distinct nation, not an admixture of their neighbors, since nobody would desire to migrate to a climate as horrid as that of Germania. They are divided into three large branches, the Ingaevones, the Irminones, and the Istaevones, deriving their ancestry from three sons of Mannus, son of Tuisto, their common forefather.

In chapter 4, he mentions that they all have common physical characteristics, blue eyes (truces et caerulei oculi = "sky-coloured, azure, dark blue, dark green"), reddish hair (rutilae comae = "red, golden-red, reddish yellow"), and large bodies, vigorous at the first onset but not tolerant of exhausting labour, tolerant of hunger and cold, but not of heat or thirst.

In chapter 7, Tacitus describes their government and leadership as somewhat merit-based and egalitarian, with leadership by example rather than authority, and punishments are carried out by the priests. He mentions (chapter 8) that the opinions of women are given respect. In chapter 11, Tacitus describes a form of folk assembly rather similar to the public things recorded in later Germanic sources: in these public deliberations, the final decision rests with the men of the group as a whole.

Tacitus further discusses the role of women in chapters 7 and 8, mentioning that they often accompany the men to battle and offer encouragement. He says that the men are often motivated to fight for the women because of an extreme fear of losing them to captivity. Tacitus says (chapter 18) that the Germanic peoples are mainly content with one wife, except for a few political marriages, and specifically and explicitly compares this practice favorably to other cultures. He also records (chapter 19) that adultery is very rare, and that an adulterous woman is shunned afterward by the community regardless of her beauty. In chapter 45, Tacitus mentions that the people to the north of the Germanic peoples, the Sitones, "resemble [the Suevi Scandinavians] in all respects but one - woman is the ruling sex." "This," Tacitus comments, "is the measure of their decline, I will not say below freedom, but even below decent slavery."

Purpose and sources

Ethnography had a long and distinguished heritage in classical literature, and the Germania fits squarely within the tradition established by authors from Herodotus to Julius Caesar. Tacitus himself had already written a similar—albeit shorter—essay on the lands and peoples of Britannia in his Agricola (chapters 10–13).

Tacitus himself is thought to have never travelled to Germania thus his information is second-hand at best. Ronald Syme supposed that Tacitus closely copied the lost Bella Germaniae of Pliny the Elder, since the Germania is in some places outdated: in its description of Danubian groups, says Syme, "they are loyal clients of the Empire ... Which is peculiar. The defection of these peoples in the year 89 during Domitian's war against the Dacians modified the whole frontier policy of the Empire." While Pliny may have been the primary source, scholars have identified others; among them are Caesar's Gallic Wars, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Posidonius, Aufidius Bassus, and numerous nonliterary sources, presumably based on interviews with traders and soldiers who had ventured beyond the Rhine and Danube borders, and Germanic mercenaries in Rome.

Reception
One of the minor works of Tacitus, Germania was not widely cited or used before the Renaissance. In antiquity, Lucian appears to imitate a sentence from it. It was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages. In the West, it was cited by Cassiodorus in the sixth century and used more extensively by Rudolf of Fulda in the ninth. In the East, it was used by the anonymous author of the Frankish Table of Nations in the early sixth century and possibly by the Emperor Maurice in his Strategikon later that century. In the ninth century, the Frankish Table was incorporated into the Historia Brittonum, which ensured a wide diffusion to at least some of the Germania ' s information. Guibert of Nogent, writing his autobiography around 1115, quotes Germania.

Germania survives in a single manuscript that was found in Hersfeld Abbey (Codex Hersfeldensis) in 1425. This was brought to Italy, where Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, first examined and analyzed the book. This sparked interest among German humanists, including Conrad Celtes, Johannes Aventinus, and Ulrich von Hutten and beyond.

The peoples of medieval Germany (the Kingdom of Germany in the Holy Roman Empire) were heterogenous, separated in distinct kingdoms, such as the Bavarians, Franconians, and Swabians, distinctions which remain evident in the German language and culture after the unification of Germany in 1871 (aside from Austria) and the establishment of modern Austria and Germany. During the medieval period, a self-designation of "Germani" was virtually never used; the name was only revived in 1471, inspired by the rediscovered text of Germania, to invoke the warlike qualities of the ancient Germans in a crusade against the Turks. Ever since its discovery, treatment of the text regarding the culture of the early Germanic peoples in ancient Germany remains strong, especially in German history, philology, and ethnology studies, and to a lesser degree in Scandinavian countries, as well. Beginning in 16th-century German humanism, German interest in Germanic antiquity remained acute throughout the period of Romanticism and nationalism. A scientific angle was introduced with the development of Germanic philology by Jacob Grimm. Because of its influence on the ideologies of Pan-Germanism and Nordicism, Jewish-Italian historian Arnaldo Momigliano in 1956 described Germania and the Iliad as "among the most dangerous books ever written". Christopher Krebs, a professor at Stanford University, claims in a 2012 study that Germania played a major role in the formation of the core concepts of Nazi ideology. The mainstream German reception is much less sensationalist and sees Tacitus's description as more patronizing than laudatory, a predecessor of the classical noble savage concept which started in the 17th and 18th centuries in western European literature.

Codex Aesinas
The Codex Aesinas is believed to be portions of the Codex Hersfeldensis – the lost Germania manuscript brought to Rome from Hersfeld Abbey. It was rediscovered in 1902 by priest-philologist Cesare Annibaldi in the possession of Count Aurelio Balleani of Iesi.

Temporarily transferred to Florence for the controls at the state body of the fine arts, the manuscript was severely damaged during the 1966 flood. It was later restored and brought back to Iesi, and in 1994, the Codex Aesinas was given to the National Library in Rome, catalogued as ''Cod. Vitt. Em. 1631''.

Editions and translations

 * Greenwey, Richard (trans.) The Annales of Cornelius Tacitus. The Description of Germanie. 1598.
 * Gordon, Thomas. (trans.), before 1750.
 * Murphy, Arthur. (trans.), before 1805.
 * Church, Alfred John and Brodribb, William Jackson (trans.), 1877.
 * Furneaux, Henry (ed.), 1900.
 * Mattingly, H. (trans.) The Agricola and The Germania. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1948
 * Syme, Ronald. (ed.), Tacitus, vol. 1 Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958
 * Önnerfors, Alf. (ed.) De origine et situ Germanorum liber. Teubner, Stuttgart: 1983, ISBN 3-519-01838-1 (P. Cornelii Taciti libri qui supersunt, T. 2,2)
 * Rives, J. B. (trans.) Tacitus: Germania. Oxford: 1999
 * Rives, J. B. (trans.) Tacitus: Germania. Oxford: 1999

title: Germania (book)


text:
University of Copenhagen Faculty of Social Sciences

The Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Copenhagen is divided into five departments, where research and teaching are carried out in the fields of Economics, Political Science, International Politics, Management, Anthropology, Psychology and Sociology. The faculty prepares students for the Bachelor's degree (BA), the Master's degree, and the Ph.D. in the fields of Economics, Political Science, Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology and Social Studies.


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North Manitou Island

North Manitou Island is located in Lake Michigan, approximately 12 mi west-northwest of Leland, Michigan. It is nearly eight miles long and more than four miles (6 km) wide, with 20 mi of shoreline. It has a land area of 57.876 km2 (22.346 sq mi) and has no population. The smaller South Manitou Island lies to its southwest.

Description
North Manitou Island is shaped like an upside-down teardrop, with the now-forested body of the 'drop' surrounding Lake Manitou, and the tail of the drop narrowing into sandy, exposed Dimmick's Point on the island's southeastern extremity. The ferry dock and ranger station are on the island's central eastern shore, directly east of Lake Manitou.

The island is in Leelanau County and is part of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, although it is over 6 mi offshore. Park passes and camping fees are required. The island can be accessed by a ferry service from Leland; private watercraft are permitted with limited docking. No wheeled vehicles are allowed on the island other than those used by the National Park Service or to cart off a dead deer, or to move trash bags. No campfires are allowed on the island except at public firepits near the ranger station. Similarly there is only one water spigot, and one outhouse, in the same area.

Before 1900
A legend attributed to the Ojibwe explains the origin of the Manitou Islands and the Sleeping Bear Dunes. Long ago, the bear Mishe Mokwa and her two cubs sought to cross Lake Michigan from the Wisconsin shore to escape a great forest fire. The mother bear made it across, but her twin cubs, although they swam hard behind her, drowned in Lake Michigan. The great spirit covered them with sand to form the two Manitou islands. The mother bear lies and waits forever for her cubs to reach the shore - the Sleeping Bear Dunes. Most archeologists believe early habitation by Native Americans was only temporary due to the island's scarcity of natural resources and the abundance of resources on the mainland. Despite this, there are signs of activity by Native Americans and some of the earliest archeological sites ever found in Michigan are located there. This includes seven sites, mostly on the east side. These sites date back to between 8,000 and 600 BC. Items found include: stone and flint tools, a copper awl, pottery and the remains of a canoe.

The initial European settlements were built by wood cutters supplying the fleet of the Great Lakes' wood-burning steamers with cord wood. Nicholas Pickard was probably the first (between 1842 and 1846). There is no record that Mr. Pickard owned any land on North Manitou when he began cutting wood there. While the record is clear that a wood-cutting station was established first on South Manitou, many travelers who have left written accounts did not make it clear which island they visited. Over 150 years later it can be difficult, if not impossible, to tell whether some stories of visiting "the Manitous" refer to North or South. Margaret Fuller's Summer on the Lakes, in 1843, for example, very probably recounts a visit to South Manitou. Piers were constructed on the eastern and western sides of the island for the steamers to load wood while traveling up and down Lake Michigan.

20th century
After the passing of the wood-burning steamers, there were several more woodcutting eras on the island - for sawn boards and raw logs. Among others there was the Smith & Hull operation on the west side (1906 to 1917), Peter Stormer's east side and north end, a World War II era sawmill (near the site of the old dock in the Settlement), and The Lake Michigan Hardwood Company sawmill and later raw log cutting. Smith & Hull also operated a standard gauge logging railroad, the "Manitou Limited", running northeast 8 miles out of Crescent using two Shay locomotives from July 12, 1909 until 1915 when the timber ran out.

Some island settlers turned to farming, growing apples and cherries; remnants of these orchards can still be seen. From the late 1940s through the 1960s, the William R. Angell Foundation, which owned most of the island, used the imported deer population as an economic resource, hosting hunters. The Foundation artificially supported an abundant deer population with commercial salt blocks and custom feed manufactured by Kellogg Company. The deer pruned the island's forests, giving an open, park-like feeling to even the deepest woods. A 4000 ft lighted runway, now a field in "The Settlement" on the eastern side of the island, next to the designated camping grounds and firepits, was used to bring in the hunters.

A summer colony grew on the east side of the island starting in the late 19th century. A group of successful Chicago businessmen built cottages (some of which remain on "Cottage Row"). The National Park Service occupies the old US Life-Saving Station (later the US Coast Guard) grounds near where the Leland boat lands campers. At the south end of the island was a lighthouse, built in 1896, automated in 1932, discontinued in 1938 and destroyed in 1942.

After the foundation sold most of the island to the United States government, the deer population declined due to the lack of artificial feed. The woods have grown up, many clearings are being obliterated; previously open space is rapidly being taken over by the woods. Now, after decades of regrowth, it is hard to spot any deer at all. All buildings built after the 1950s have been slated for demolition or have already been torn down.

Though at various times it was the less populated of the Manitou islands, apple and cherry orchards were planted during its settlement period. Now uninhabited except by the rotating National Park ranger and maintenance crews assigned there, the homesteads and most of the buildings of the island's former settlers lie in varying states of ruin. Various buildings are shored up during the summer months. There is a cemetery in the southeast of the island where some of the island’s former inhabitants are buried.

Today
The Manitou islands are surrounded by over 50 known shipwrecks; a few of these are popular (and protected) diving spots.

The island has a system of trails, the remnants of the island's unpaved roads. On the west side of the island one may still walk the "old grade" - the roadbed of the Smith & Hull logging railroad. Wilderness camping is permitted throughout the island, and there are several designated camping sites near the ranger station at the dock. Filtered water is available at the ranger station, with limited natural inland water sources. There is one sizeable inland lake, Lake Manitou, suitable for fishing, and another, Tamarack Lake, which is now essentially a cedar swamp. The island is flanked by dunes on its northwest and southwest sides.

Island mammals include coyote, beaver, white-tailed deer, and eastern chipmunk. The raccoon population died out due to disease shortly before 2002. Numerous songbirds and waterfowl can be seen; of particular note is the endangered piping plover, which nests here. Human disturbance of the nesting area (near Dimmick’s Point) is disastrous to successful reproduction. Therefore, the Dimmick’s Point area is closed to hikers from May 1 through August 15 of each year. Bald eagles are commonly seen, especially during spring and early summer nesting season. Garter snakes are abundant on the island. There is an annual deer hunting season to limit the size of the population.

title: North Manitou Island


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Choctaw, Neshoba County, Mississippi

Choctaw (not to be confused with Choctaw, Bolivar County) is an unincorporated community and Indian reservation located in Neshoba County, Mississippi, United States. Choctaw is approximately 5.3 mi west of Philadelphia along Mississippi Highway 16.

It is the home of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, the only federally recognized Indian tribe in Mississippi.

The Choctaw have developed several resorts and attractions on their reservation, including the Pearl River Resort (comprising the Silverstar and Golden Moon casinos), Dancing Rabbit Golf Club, Geyser Falls Water Theme Park, and Lake Pushmataha. This 285-acre (1.2 km$2$) fishing and recreation reservoir opened to the public in 2005.

title: Choctaw, Neshoba County, Mississippi


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Civil Rights Act of 1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875, sometimes called the Enforcement Act or the Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era in response to civil rights violations against African Americans. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. The act was designed to "protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights", providing for equal treatment in public accommodations and public transportation and prohibiting exclusion from jury service. It was originally drafted by Senator Charles Sumner in 1870, but was not passed until shortly after Sumner's death in 1875. The law was not effectively enforced, partly because President Grant had favored different measures to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the Southern United States.

The Reconstruction era ended with the resolution of the 1876 presidential election, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights law enacted until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. In 1883, the Supreme Court ruled in the Civil Rights Cases that the public accommodation sections of the act were unconstitutional, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations under the Equal Protection Clause. Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later re-adopted in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, both of which cited the Commerce Clause as the source of Congress's power to regulate private actors.

Legislative history
The drafting of the bill was performed early in 1870 by United States Senator Charles Sumner, a dominant Radical Republican in the Senate, with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. Congress removed the coverage of public schools that Sumner had included. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 as a memorial to honor Sumner, who had just died. It was signed into law by United States President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.

Enforcement
President Grant had wanted an entirely different law to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the South. Congress did not give him that, but instead wrote a law for equal rights to public accommodations that was passed as a memorial to Grant's bitterest enemy, the late Senator Charles Sumner. Grant never commented on the 1875 law, and did nothing to enforce it, says historian John Hope Franklin. Grant's Justice Department ignored it and did not send copies to US attorneys, says Franklin, while many federal judges called it unconstitutional before the Supreme Court shut it down. Franklin concludes regarding Grant and Hayes administrations, "The Civil Rights Act was never effectively enforced." Public opinion was opposed, with the black community in support. Historian Rayford Logan looking at newspaper editorials finds the press was overwhelmingly opposed.

Case law
The Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights bill signed into law until the Civil Rights Act of 1957, enacted during the Civil Rights Movement.

Legacy
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as the last major piece of legislation related to Reconstruction that was passed by Congress during the Reconstruction era. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.

Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later readopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. The 1964 and 1968 acts relied upon the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States rather than the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment.

Congressional Records

 * Congressional Record: Congressional Globe (1833–1873) Provides an index to the "History of Senate Bills and Joint Resolutions" for Senate bill S. 1 during 1873. Retrieved November 18, 2012
 * Congressional Record: House Proceedings, 1874 Provides an index to the "History of Senate Bills and Joint Resolutions" for House bill H.R. 796 during 1874. Retrieved November 18, 2012

Other

 * Benjamin F. Butler, "Civil Rights: Speech of Hon. Benjamin F. Butler, of Massachusetts, in the House of Representatives, January 7, 1874," From the Digital Archive Collections of the Mount St. Mary's University. Retrieved October 15, 2014
 * "Civil Rights Bill of 1875", The Fifteenth Amendment in Flesh and Blood: Legislative Interests Provides a detailed description of the history of the bill from 1870 until its passage by Congress in 1875. Retrieved November 18, 2012
 * History Crush: Charles Sumner, Prologue: Pieces of History, The National Archives.gov Provides a short biographical account of Sen. Charles Sumner including details surrounding his efforts to pass the Civil Rights bill in Congress. Includes images of Sumner, personal documents, and bill S. 1 that would later lead to the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Retrieved November 18, 2012
 * Summary of Constitutional Amendments and Major Civil Rights Acts passed by Congress Part of the Black Americans in Congress, 1870–2007 series. Provided by the Office of History and Preservation under the Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved November 18, 2012
 * "The Trouble has Commenced - A Tale of Anxiety" by Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly. From The New York Times "On This Day" series. Recounts the events on the floor of the House in the United States Congress involving the Civil Rights Bill on February 27, 1875. Retrieved March 16, 2013
 * "How Some People Regard the Passage of the Civil Rights Bill" Published in the Daily Graphic on March 3, 1875. From the Old Fulton website. Presents a detractors view on the outcome of the Civil Right Bill. Retrieved July 5, 2014
 * Digitized image of Charles Sumners' senate bill S. 1 as introduced during the 43rd United States Congress. From the  Records of the U.S. House of Representatives.  Retrieved May 18, 2015
 * "Some Memories of A Long Life" An excerpt from the memoir of Malvina Shanklin Harlan, the wife of Justice John Marshall Harlan. The excerpt chronicles the effort that Justice Harlan placed into writing an opinion for the Civil Rights Cases (1883).  From the Library of Congress.  Retrieved May 18, 2015

title: Civil Rights Act of 1875


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University of Copenhagen Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences

The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences (Det Sundhedsvidenskabelige Fakultet) at the University of Copenhagen houses 13 departments, 33 centres, five schools, four hospitals, and three libraries.

The Faculty educates students in the areas of Human Health and Medical Sciences, Oral Health Sciences, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science.

Bente Merete Stallknecht has been the dean at the Faculty since 1 May 2022.

History

The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen was established in its current form in 1992 from the merging of Københavns Tandlægehøjskole (The Dental School of Copenhagen) and Det Lægevidenskabelige Fakultet (The Medical Faculty).

The School of Medical Sciences' history dates back to 1479, when the University of Copenhagen was founded. The University of Oslo Faculty of Medicine was founded in 1814 as a de facto Norwegian (partial) continuation of the medical faculty in Copenhagen, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and the breakup of Denmark-Norway by the foreign powers. The medical faculty in Oslo therefore shared many of its traditions with the Copenhagen faculty. In 1842 the Faculty of Medicine and the Kirurgisk Akademi (Academy of Surgery) were merged to form the Faculty of Medical Science.

An integration of the health education programs was discussed in the late 1970s, and a decade later, the Faculty of Medical Science and the School of Dentistry were merged to form the Faculty of Health Sciences. Buildings built during this time period include the Panum Building. As of January 2016, Panum is the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences' largest building complex and houses six of the Faculty's thirteen departments.

In 2005, the Center for Health and Society (Danish: Center for Sundhed og Samfund, abbr. CSS) was opened in the former Copenhagen Municipal Hospital in central Copenhagen. As of January 2016, the CSS houses most of the Department of Public Health and the School of Global Health.

The School of Oral Health Sciences operates under the Department of Odontology. Its history dates back the early 1890s, when Denmark's first school of dentistry was founded on Nygade. The school moved its location twice, first in 1894 to Stormgade where the facilities were shared with the Teachers College and a school museum, and in 1928 to Trommesalen. In 1941, the school moved to newly constructed facilities on Jagtvej and changed its name to the School of Dentistry (Tandlægehøjskolen).

During the 1980s, the School of Dentistry was merged into the University of Copenhagen and moved to the recently erected Panum Building. The former School of Dentistry was merged with the university's Faculty of Medical Science to form the Faculty of Health Sciences, and was renamed as the Central Department of Odontology (Odontologisk Centralinstitut). It consisted of two scientific and one clinical section. In the early 1990s, a revision of the dental education program resulted in 60% joint courses with the medical program. In 1993, a new university law was passed and the Department of Odontology received its current designation.

The School of Pharmaceutical Sciences' history dates back to 1892, when the Pharmaceutical College (Den Farmaceutiske Læreanstalt) was founded on Stockholmsgade. In 1942, the Pharmaceutical College moved into a new building at University Park and changed its name to the Danish Pharmaceutical College (Danmarks Farmaceutiske Højskole). In 2003, the Danish Pharmaceutical College was renamed as the Danish University of Pharmaceutical Science (Danmarks Farmaceutiske Universitet).

In 2007, the Danish University of Pharmaceutical Science was merged into the University of Copenhagen and was renamed as the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences. In 2012, the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences merged with the Faculty of Health Sciences and the veterinary part of the Faculty of Life Sciences to form the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.

In January 2007, the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University was merged into the University of Copenhagen and was renamed as the Faculty of Life Sciences. This was later split up, with the veterinary part merging with the Faculty of Health Sciences and the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences to form the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the rest merging into the Faculty of Science.

The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences received its current name when the Faculty of Health Sciences, the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and the veterinary part of the Faculty of Life Sciences were merged in 2012.

Departments
As of July 2023, the faculty houses thirteen departments. The department of Experimental Medicine and School of Oral Health Care, functions as individual departments.

 * Department of Biomedical Sciences
 * Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine
 * Department of Immunology and Microbiology
 * Department of Neuroscience
 * Department of Forensic Science
 * Department of Public Health
 * Department of Odontology (also referred to as the School of Dentistry)
 * Department of Clinical Medicine
 * Department of Pharmacy
 * Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology
 * Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
 * Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences

Additional Department

 * Department of Experimental Medicine

School

 * School of Oral Health Care

Centres of excellence
A large amount of the research at the faculty is attached to research centres and transverse research collaboration. As of July 2023, the following list groups the current 33 centres of excellence into two groups: centres at faculty level and centres at department level.

Centres at Faculty Level

 * Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC)
 * The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research (CPR)
 * The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research (CBMR)
 * The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Stem Cell Biology (reNEW)
 * Center for Translational Neuromedicine (CTN)

Centres at Department Level

 * Center for Biopharmaceuticals and Biobarriers in Drug Delivery
 * Center for Chromosome Stability (CCS)
 * Center for Evolutionary Hologenomics
 * Center for Gene Expression (CGEN)
 * Center for Glacial Rock Flour Research
 * The Center for Healthy Aging (CEHA)
 * Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate (CMEC)
 * Center for Translational Medicine & Parasitology (CMP)
 * Center for Medicinal Chemistry (MedChem)
 * Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health (RTH)
 * Center for Peptide-Based Antibiotics (CEPAN)
 * Center for Research in Cattle Production and Health (CPH Cattle)
 * Center for Research in Pig Production and Health (CPH Pig)
 * Center for Star and Planet Formation (STARPLAN)
 * The Centre for Health Economics and Policy (CHEP)
 * Copenhagen Center for Disaster Research (COPE)
 * Copenhagen Center for Glycomics (CCG)
 * Copenhagen Centre for Regulatory Science (CORS)
 * Copenhagen Hepatitis C Program (CO-HEP)
 * Copenhagen Studies on Asthma in Childhood (COPSAC)
 * Coserton Biofilm Center (CBC)
 * Danish Research Centre for Migration Ethnicity and Health (MESU)
 * LEO Foundation Center for Cutaneous Drug Delivery
 * LEO Foundation Skin Immunology Research Center (SIC)
 * Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre
 * Lundbeck Foundation Research Initiative on Brain Barriers and Drug Delivery (RIBBDD)
 * NEOMUNE Centre (NEOMUNE)
 * Novo Nordisk - LIFE in Vivo Pharmacology Centre (LIFEPHARM)


text: Talk:Cholatse

title: Talk:Cholatse


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UCPH Department of Chemistry

The Department of Chemistry (Kemisk Institut) is a department under the Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen. It is the largest basic research institute in chemistry in Denmark, and is responsible for the teaching of chemistry at all levels at the University of Copenhagen's Faculty of Science: from undergraduate courses in chemistry to Ph.D.-level courses. Its office is located at the University of Copenhagen's North Campus.

History
Research and education in chemistry has been conducted at the department since 1778, when the first Laboratorium Chymicum was established. Since then, the chemists have moved several times. In 1962, Universitetets Kemiske Laboratorium moved to its present location in the H.C. Ørsted Institute (HCØ), named after Hans Christian Ørsted who discovered electromagnetism in 1820.

title: UCPH Department of Chemistry


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Raoul Heertje

Raoul Louis Heertje (born 11 March 1963, in Bussum) is a Dutch comedian. Being Jewish himself, his comedy performances include Jewish humour.

Biography
From 1983 till 1984 Heertje studied International Relations and Theatre Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. After that he studied in Birmingham till 1986.

The notable international appearances he made were in the TV shows of Ruby Wax, Clive James, Jeremy Clarkson and in the British satirical programme Have I Got News for You (on series 9) in 1995. A year later he became a panelist in the successful Dutch version of the same show: Dit was het nieuws.

Raoul, and his brother Eric, founded comedyclub Toomler and Comedytrain, the stand-up comedy collective that introduced stand-up comedy in the Netherlands in the year 1990. In 2007 he is one of the members of The Amsterdam Underground Comedy Collective.

Heertje also wrote columns voor Het Parool.

His father is the economist Arnold Heertje.

Comedytrain
Comedytrain was the first stand-up comedy collective in the Netherlands. It was founded in 1990 by Raoul Heertje. Comedy club Toomler in Amsterdam is its home theatre.

The word Comedytrain is a combination of comedy and training. Its main goal was to give talented comedians, who did not succeed at once in making an hour and a half one-man show, a place to perform and develop, to try out, fail and succeed; to evaluate others and be evaluated by them.

Over the years Comedytrain has become the home of famous Dutch comedians, like Hans Teeuwen, Theo Maassen, Najib Amhali, Hans Sibbel, Thomas Acda, Ronald Goedemondt, Jan Jaap van der Wal, and Sanne Wallis de Vries.

Comedytrain is still a place where young comedians find a stage for developing as performers. Twice a year auditions are held for new talents to enter Comedytrain. The comedians do not only play the Toomler stage weekly, but also tour the Dutch theatres together, perform for companies and parties and play the many stages in theatre café's and bars all over the country.

title: Raoul Heertje


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Many Waters

Many Waters is a 1986 novel by American writer Madeleine L'Engle, part of the author's Time Quintet (also known as the Time Quartet). The title is taken from the Song of Solomon 8:7: "Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it. If a man were to give all his wealth for love, it would be utterly scorned."

The principal characters of the story are Sandy and Dennys Murry, twin brothers who are somewhat out of place in the Murry family from A Wrinkle in Time. The action of the story follows that of A Wind in the Door but precedes the climactic, apocalyptic event in A Swiftly Tilting Planet.

Plot summary
In the middle of a New England winter, identical twin brothers Sandy and Dennys accidentally disturb an experiment in their parents' laboratory and are teleported to a sandy desert. There, they are acquired by water-prospector 'Japheth' and guided to an oasis, but Dennys is separated from the others. Sandy remains with Japheth and his elderly grandfather Lamech; there, Sandy is cured of heatstroke by a variety of improbable beings, including seraphim.

Dennys reappears in another tent and is thrown into a refuse heap. He later comes under the care of a friendly family in the center of the oasis, headed by a gruff but kindly patriarch called Noah. It soon becomes apparent that the boys have been interpolated into the story of Noah's Ark, shortly before the Flood. Both Noah and Lamech receive mysterious instructions from God (known as El) concerning the building of the Ark. The twins come to understand that unicorns who can traverse space and time live in the oasis. Sinister supernatural beings known as the nephilim distrust the twins, and their human wives attempt to gather information about them. At several points, the wife of a nephil unsuccessfully attempts to seduce Sandy.

Separated for much of the book, the twins become more independent of each other and gain maturity over the course of a year in the desert. Both are in love with Noah's beautiful and virtuous daughter Yalith (and she with them), but neither twin declares his affection until the very end of the novel. Dennys convinces Noah to reconcile with his father, Lamech, and both twins eventually care for Lamech's gardens while he lies ill. After Lamech's death, Sandy is kidnapped, but is eventually found by Japheth. Suspense arises when it becomes clear that there is no place on the Ark reserved for Sandy, Dennys, or Yalith. After both twins assist in the construction of the Ark, Yalith is taken by the seraphim to the presence of El. Sandy and Dennys are then returned to their own time and place by unicorns summoned by the seraphim.

Major themes
The story largely concerns the teenaged twins' emotional coming of age, but, like the other three novels about the Murry family, includes elements of fantasy and Christian theology such as the seraphim, a heavenly race of angels and the nephilim, a race of giants that were the result of the mating of mortal women and angels are the main antagonists of the story (see Genesis 6:1-4 ). Author Donald R. Hettinga notes that the world of Noah's oasis is especially difficult for "the empirically minded twins" to accept because in L'Engle's theology of "a gradual Fall", it is still populated by manticores and unicorns, "everyone can still see angels," and some people "can still converse intimately with God." Similarities to the fantasy-science fiction works of C. S. Lewis, always present in L'Engle's oeuvre, are particularly notable here. The twins' difficulty in believing in things that exist outside their empiricist world is a trait they must overcome in the story, because it is only by believing in a "virtual unicorn" that they can obtain transportation back to their everyday world.

Reception
Kirkus Reviews called the book "the kind of intricate tale with complex characters and relationships that L'Engle's readers have come to expect... A carefully wrought fable, entwining disparate elements from unicorns to particle physics, this will be enjoyed for its suspense and humor as well as its other levels of meaning." Writing for The New York Times, Newbery Medal-winning author Susan Cooper wrote, "Analogies between the Flood and the possibility of nuclear destruction are suggested from time to time, but no didactic conclusion is forced out of them... Miss L'Engle is above all a skillful storyteller, and every admirer of 'A Wrinkle in Time' will have fun with 'Many Waters.'"

title: Many Waters