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Bournville

Bournville is a model village on the southwest side of Birmingham, England, founded by the Quaker Cadbury family for employees at its Cadbury's factory, and designed to be a "garden" (or "model") village where the sale of alcohol was forbidden. Cadbury's is well known for chocolate products – including a dark chocolate bar branded Bournville. Historically in northern Worcestershire, it is also a ward within the council constituency of Selly Oak and home to the Bournville Centre for Visual Arts and the Cadbury's chocolate factory. Bournville is known as one of the most desirable areas to live in the UK; research by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 2003 found that it was "one of the nicest places to live in Britain".

History

Originally the area that was to become Bournville consisted of a few scattered farmsteads and cottages, linked by winding country lanes, with the only visual highlight being Bournbrook Hall, which was built during the Georgian era.

The bluebell glades of Stock Wood were said to be a relic of the Forest of Arden and there are Roman remains nearby.

Though Selly Manor and Minworth Greaves date back to the 14th century or earlier, they were each moved to Bournville in the 20th century, and are operated as a museum.

Cadbury
Having taken over their father John Cadbury's expanding business in 1861, the Quakers George and Richard Cadbury needed to move their cocoa and chocolate factory from Bridge Street in central Birmingham to a greenfield site to allow for expansion.

Cadbury were reliant on the canals for milk delivery, and on the railways for cocoa deliveries from the ports of London and Southampton. They therefore needed a site which was undeveloped and had easy access to both canal and rail. The brothers noticed the proposed development of the Birmingham West Suburban Railway, which would extend from central Birmingham south along the path of the Worcester and Birmingham Canal into the then green fields of southern Birmingham and the villages of northern Worcestershire.

In 1879, they moved their business to Bournbrook Hall, 4 mi to the south of Birmingham. The location was chosen as it was regarded as cleaner, healthier and more amenable to longer-term expansion plans. Although rural, it was also already serviced by the new Stirchley Street railway station, which itself was located right next to the canal.

The Cadburys named the area 'Bournville' after a local river named The Bourn (not to be confused with Bourn Brook, a similarly named local river for which the neighbourhood of Bournbrook is named); with 'ville' being French for 'town'; this set Bournville apart from the local area. Then the Cadburys began to develop their factory in the new suburb. Loyal and hard-working workers were treated with great respect and relatively high wages and good working conditions; Cadbury also pioneered pension schemes, joint works committees and a full staff medical service.

In 1893, George Cadbury bought 120 acres (0.5 km2) of land close to the works and planned, at his own expense, a model village which would "alleviate the evils of modern, more cramped living conditions". By 1900, the estate included 313 cottages and houses set on 330 acre of land, and many more similar properties were built in the years leading up to the First World War, with smaller developments taking place later on in the 20th century. These almost 'Arts and Crafts' houses were traditional in design but with large gardens and modern interiors, and were designed by the resident architect William Alexander Harvey. These designs became a blueprint for many other model village estates around Britain. It is also noteworthy that, because George Cadbury was a temperance Quaker, no public houses have ever been built in Bournville; however, since the late 1940s, there has been a licensed members' bar at Rowheath Pavilion.

The Cadburys were particularly concerned with the health and fitness of their British workforce, incorporating park and recreation areas into the Bournville village plans and encouraging swimming, walking and indeed all forms of outdoor sports. In the early 1920s, extensive open lands were purchased at Rowheath and laid to football and hockey pitches together with a grassed running track. Rowheath Pavilion was designed and built in accordance with the instructions of George Cadbury and opened in July 1924. At that time, it served as the clubhouse and changing rooms for the acres of sports playing fields, several bowling greens, a fishing lake and an outdoor swimming lido, a natural mineral spring forming the source for the lido's healthy waters. The Rowheath Pavilion itself, which still exists, was used for balls and dinners and the whole area was specifically for the benefit of the Cadbury workers and their families with no charges for the use of any of the sporting facilities by Cadbury employees or their families. The lido was eventually closed in the 1970s after complaints of noise disturbance were made by residents of the newly built Oak Farm estate, coupled with new and stringent health and safety regulations relating to outdoor public swimming facilities. Cadbury's also built the Bournville indoor swimming baths on Bournville Lane (separate buildings for 'girls' and men), the Valley pool boating lake and the picturesque cricket pitch adjacent to the factory site, that was made famous as the picture on boxes of Milk Tray chocolates throughout the 1950s and early 1960s.

In 1900, the Bournville Village Trust was set up to formally control the development of the estate, independently of George Cadbury or the Cadbury company. Elizabeth Cadbury succeeded her husband as chair of the Bournville Village Trust in 1922. The trust focused on providing schools, hospitals, museums, public baths and reading rooms. As Bournville is a conservation area, another job of the Bournville Village Trust is to accept or reject plans for building extension and modification.

An almost campus feel evolved, with a triangular village green, infant and junior schools, the School of Art and the Day Continuation School (originally intended for young Cadbury employees) and a host of events such as fêtes and Maypole dances. The carillon and a Quaker meeting house are also beside the village green.

The trust continues to exercise an international influence on housing and town planning generally. Now containing 7,800 homes on 1,000 acres (4 km2) of land with 100 acres (0.4 km2) of parks and open spaces, Bournville remains a popular residential area of Birmingham.

Cadbury is still one of Birmingham's main employers, and continues to make chocolate products.

The dark chocolate Bournville Plain is now manufactured in France and sold in the UK.

Cadbury also named their brand of malted drinks Bournvita after Bournville.

Cadbury World is now established here.

Governance
The ward (Bournville & Cotteridge) is served by two councillors, Liz Clements (Labour) and Fred Grindrod (Labour). It is within the boundary of the Birmingham Selly Oak parliamentary constituency. The current Member of Parliament is Alistair Carns.

Bournville has adopted a Ward Support Officer with the current holder of the title being Karen Stevens.

Demography
The 2011 UK Census found that 21,866 people were living in Bournville with a population density of 4,217 people per km2 compared with 3,649 people per km2 for the city of Birmingham as a whole. Bournville had an area of 639.8 hectares, and within this, it has a population density of 39.8 people per hectare. 52.9% of the population was identified as female, above the city average of 51.6%. A number of students from The University of Birmingham live there, although not as many as in the nearby wards of Selly Oak and Edgbaston.

Bournville has a White broad ethnic group representation of 70.9% of the population. The Asian broad ethnic group was the second largest at 15.4%. More specifically, the White British group is the largest ethnic group at 64.1%, well above the city average of 48.5% and below the national average of 85.4%. Ethnic minorities represent a much lower percentage (29.1%) of the ward's population as opposed to 59.6% for Birmingham. 28.7% of the ward's population was born outside the United Kingdom, below the city average of 16.5% and the national average of 9.3%. Christianity was the most prominent religion in the ward, with 70.6% of the population identifying themselves as Christians. 16.6% of the population identified as having no religion.

98.3% of the residents lived in households, equal to the city average and 0.1% higher than the national average. The other 1.7% lived in communal establishments. The total number of occupied households was 11,032, resulting in an average number of people per household of 2.3. This is below the city average of 2.5 and national average of 2.4. 62.5% of the occupied households were occupied by the owner and a further 15.4% were rented from a housing association. Terraced houses were the most common form of houses at 38.9%, followed by semi-detached houses at 32.9%.

The largest age group in the ward was the 25–44 age group which was represented by 30.1% of the population, above the city average of 28.3%. The second largest age group was the 45–54 years, which was represented by 17.9% of the population. 18.6% of the population was of state pension age, above the city average of 16.7% and the national average of 18.4%. 60.7% of the population was of working age, above the city average of 59.8% but below the national average of 61.5%. 68.4% of the population was economically active. The unemployment rate was 6.2%, of whom 36.7% were in long-term unemployment. The city unemployment rate is higher at 9.5%. Of those who worked, 18.2% worked in the Finance, Real Estate, & Business Activities sector. A further 16.7% worked in the Health sector. The largest employer in the area is Mondelez International, employing approximately 6,500 people. Serco Integrated Services is the second-largest employer in Bournville, employing approximately 1,800 people.

Although Bournville is most famous for its turn-of-the-20th century Cadbury style homes, a significant amount of more modern stock also exists in the area – not all of which was built by Cadbury's. The local authority built several homes around Bournville before and after the Second World War. Bryant Homes built a collection of upmarket and mostly detached houses in the west of Bournville during the 1970s.

Education
Elizabeth Cadbury focused on education and youth work at Bournville. Primary schools in the area include Bournville Junior School, Bournville Infant School and St Francis Primary School. St Francis has 243 children on roll and was opened in 1979 and the 26 place nursery was officially opened by Professor Tim Brighouse in November 1998.

Dame Elizabeth Cadbury School is a secondary school and sixth form in Bournville named after Dame Elizabeth Cadbury. Opened in 1955 located on Woodbrooke Road. The school badge shows the Bourne brook flanked by a tree each side.

Bournville School is a secondary school in the Birmingham Local Education Authority area. It is a secondary school and primary school with academy status, for students aged 4–16, Birmingham in the United Kingdom. Bournville is served by Bournville College of Further Education, which features a sixth form college and higher education programmes. The college relocated to a new campus in Longbridge in September 2011 at a cost of £66 million kick-starting wider regeneration of the area after the collapse of carmaker MG Rover in 2005.

The Bournville Centre for Visual Arts, located at Ruskin Hall on Linden Road, has been part of the Birmingham Institute of Art and Design (BIAD) at Birmingham City University since 1988. It offers undergraduate, foundation and self-development courses.

Transport
Bournville lies on the A4040, the ring road developed in the 1920s and served by the 11A and 11C Birmingham Outer Circle bus routes. The 27 (Hawkesley to Maypole) and 84 (Hawkesley to Queen Elizabeth Hospital) bus services also serve the area.

Road access into Birmingham City Centre is via either the Bristol Road (A38), served by the X61 (Birmingham to Frankley), 63 (Birmingham to Frankley), 98 (Birmingham to Rubery Great Park) and 144 (Birmingham to Worcester) bus routes, or the Pershore Road (A441), served by the 45 and 47 (Birmingham to Longbridge) buses. Trams ran on these routes until 1952.

Bournville is served by Bournville railway station on the Cross-City Line to Birmingham New Street, Lichfield and Redditch. While other suburban Birmingham railway stations feature the black and green corporate livery of Network West Midlands, Bournville railway station is instead painted in Cadbury's purple.

The National Cycle Network route five passes near Bournville (map) towards Hurst Street in the City Centre. The Worcester and Birmingham Canal towpath can be joined at the railway station and serves as a de facto cycle route to Brindleyplace.

Religion
Christian churches in Bournville include St Francis of Assisi Church which is also the Church of England parish church. The ward is also served by a joint Church of England and Methodist venture in the church dedicated to Saint Andrew and Oak Tree Church, meeting at Dame Elizabeth Hall. Rowheath Pavilion Church meets in Rowheath Pavilion. In addition to a site in Moseley, Riverside Church also meets in Bournville, at Dame Elizabeth Cadbury School.

There is a purpose-built Serbian Orthodox Church of St. Lazar, known by its members as Lazarica, formally the Church of the Holy Prince Lazar and is to be found in Cob Lane. The church is built in the traditional Byzantine style of the Balkans and is consciously modelled on some famous examples. The interior is decorated in the full scheme of the Orthodox Tradition with wall-paintings afresco. The parish is part of the Serbian Orthodox Eparchy of Britain and Scandinavia, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church.

As Bournville was founded by Quakers, a meeting house was built. Being intended also to serve other Christian denominations, it was equipped with an organ, which would not normally be expected in a Quaker meeting house in Britain. The Bournville Friends Meeting House is located on Linden Road, and features a bust of George Cadbury by Francis Wood, installed in 1924. The building, designed by William Alexander Harvey, was constructed in 1905. As a part of this Quaker tradition, Bournville is a dry town with no alcohol permitted to be sold within the historic estate boundaries.

Notable people

 * Bertha Bracey, Quaker aid worker and Hero of the Holocaust
 * James Jaysen Bryhan, actor (1978– )
 * John Cadbury, (1801-1881), founder of Cadbury's chocolate
 * Nigel Dakin CMG, soldier, diplomat and governor
 * Natalie Haynes, author, broadcaster and stand-up comedian
 * Felicity Jones, actress (1983– )
 * Julia Varley, suffragette and trade unionist
 * Clive Wedderburn, actor

Other model villages
See Wikipedia's listing of model villages.

title: Bournville


text:
Talk:St. Elmo's fire

Discussions
The link to Helena leads to a disambiguation page where no option makes sense in this context. I strongly suspect that this Helena is none other than Helen of Troy who, after all, was supposed to be sister to Castor and Pollux. But I do not know it for sure (I would have fixed it otherwise myself). --eiaccb 10:10, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Are you sure that St Elmo is Erasmus of Formiae and not Pedro González Telmo (or Pedro Telmo), also a patron of mariners?

Corpusants?

 * "References to St. Elmo's Fire, often known as "corposants" or "corpusants" from the Spanish Cuerpos Santos (Holy Bodies), can be found in the works of Julius Caesar, Pliny the Elder, Herman Melville, and Antonio Pigafetta's journal of his voyage with Ferdinand Magellan."

I haven't checked the sources mentioned, but if the term "corpusants" appears in works of Julius Caesar and Pliny the Elder, the claim that the term comes from Spanish is a rather misleading half-truth. There was no such thing as Spanish back then. It doesn't seem impossible to me that the term dates back that early, but the origin would be Latin (corpus sanctus?) rather than Spanish. EldKatt 19:06, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Hi. I wrote the Latin Wikipedia stub on St. Elmo's Fire.  (It's corpus sanctum btw; "corpus" is neuter.)  It seems that there is a confusion in the reading of the sentence you quoted.  There are certainly references to St. Elmo's Fire in Pliny, but not under the name "corpus sanctum" (nor "St. Elmo's fire", of course). He  describes them under the Greek names mentioned in the English article: Helena, and Castor and Pollux.  I'm not sure I remember if I read about it in Caesar.  The Romans don't seem to have had an overarching term for the phenomenon in general—at least, I wasn't able to find one.   —Muke Tever 04:40, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

weill, du bescheuert bist
kalte fusion? wieso kann man das das dann 3dimensionlae ausdehnung vs flächenbildung — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4DD4:FA6F:0:8D75:82C:4B9D:7714 (talk) 09:58, 9 June 2021 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the nice info. Anyhow, upon more careful reading, it's rather obvious that the passage does not at all state that the Latin sources used "corpusants". My comment thus falls flatly to the ground. Still, though, it got me fooled once... EldKatt 21:34, 28 Mar 2005 (UTC)

St. Elmo's fire in film
The 1970s film Hindenburg portrayed St. Elmo's fire racing around the lounge of that airship as it passed through a cloud, to the dismay of some passengers, who feared explosion. Elmos fires may occure on common household products such as cats,dog,and other household pets.

Where is St. Elmo's fire seen?
My professor once saw it while he was in the cockpit of a FedEx plane. He said it came up from the nose of the plane, over the windshield. It should maybe be added to the list of possible places where it is seen in addition to cattle horns and ship masts. Yoink23 01:01, 11 December 2005 (UTC)

You can search some neat pictures on airliners.net by using the tag "elmo's" One of my favorites is this one http://www.airliners.net/photo/Unknown/Airbus-A340-642/1024173&photo_nr=2&prev_id=1055823&next_id=0858785&size=L which was taken onboard of an Iberia A340. Would be very nice, if someone with more knowledge could provide that picture in the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.134.100.194 (talk) 23:03, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

And another remark, I once was able to see St. Elmo's fire (Helena) myself in the cockpit of a Condor A320 while crossing the austrian alps overflying some thunderstorms. It was absolutely impressive as also your hair and nails would lite up in a strange greenish tone! Absolutely great! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.134.100.194 (talk) 23:07, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

St. Elmo's fire was witnessed on one of the B-29 bombers en-route to Nagasaki. It was the atomic bomb mission, but not the plane carrying the bomb. raptor 12:55, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Incorrect quotation method
"Everything was in flames, the sky with lightning, the water with luminous particles (bioluminescence), and even the very masts were pointed with a blue flame."

"Bioluminescence" is not - as it might occur to a common reader - part of the quotation but an addition. What's your opinion: a) Delete it or b) put it into a form with no room for misinterpretation? Walter Schulz (unregistered) 13:07, 19 January 2006 (CET)
 * I put it in square brackets, using the nowiki thingies. There's got to be a more elegant way, but it works. --Allen 02:12, 21 January 2006 (UTC)1281 was the first accourence of such
 * I think that's a good way of doing that. Xhin  Give Back Our Membership!  11:31, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

Picture
Any chance the picture could be replaced by a photo?

I agree. Here are some results from Google:

http://inflightphotos.com/st-elmos-fire.html

http://www.jpgloverart.com/Pages/PhenomenPagesFolder/StElmoBlue.html

http://www.jpgloverart.com/Pages/PhenomenPagesFolder/StElmoI.html

http://www.airliners.net/photo/Unknown/Airbus-A340-642/1024173&photo_nr=2&prev_id=1055823&next_id=0858785&size=L —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.134.100.194 (talk) 23:09, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

 * These are not very conclusive pictures. Anyone have better ones? --71.245.164.83 (talk) 02:26, 30 January 2011 (UTC)
 * The german wikipedia page has this picture: http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Datei:Elms_Feuer_aus_Cockpit.JPG it is an St. Elmo's fire on a cockpit's front window 192.35.17.25 (talk) 13:05, 7 September 2012 (UTC)
 * The photos look more like momentary static discharges rather than long standing relatively static St Elmos fire. Videos would be clearer. - Rod57 (talk) 22:39, 7 March 2013 (UTC)
 * I concur. That photo from the plane's cockpit gives the wrong impression that the discharge is St Elmo's fire, it is the blue glow in the background. It's similar to cathode glow around an electrode before the discharge (sparks). — Preceding unsigned comment added by TheCampaignForRealPhysics (talk • contribs) 12:09, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Contact
Just to clarify, you can touch St. Elmo's Fire right?--68.88.232.113 01:46, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

"References in Popular Culture"
What a ridiculous, listcrufty, fancrufty section: I removed it. It serves absolutely no purpose unless you are of a very odd trainspotter mentality. Gsd2000 00:40, 4 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, after a short 3 years or so, it's back and quite uninformative. Per WP:HTRIV, I believe it should be seriously trimmed or removed entirely. -Verdatum (talk) 14:39, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I've too the liberty of removing it again, it was a mess.

Eugenespeed (talk) 18:21, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

'Popular Culture' made its way back in without having its own section: Popular novels released even in the last ten years were being listed under "In Literature", without reason or aim except to create yet another fanfare list. References to St. Elmo's fire became as popular as the mystery novel after the 17th century created them and churned them out. No need to begin listing their non-significance here...it is enough to summarize how St. Elmo's Fire made its way into popular awareness/culture.--Simyre (talk) 04:45, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Shakespeare apparently refers to St.Elmo's fire in these lines:

 * CASCA

A common slave--you know him well by sight-- Held up his left hand, which did flame and burn Like twenty torches join'd, and yet his hand, Not sensible of fire, remain'd unscorch'd.

- Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene III -Gopalan evr (talk) 04:09, 12 January 2010 (UTC)

This section has again been infected by fanfare disease. Since it seems likely that removing such entries will just cause new people to add them back, someone should monitor this subject regularly to remove them (or organize and re-write them appropriately). —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ggurman (talk • contribs) 21:43, 7 August 2010 (UTC)

I made some organisational changes
And tried to make the first few sentences more readable by those who do not posess a PHD in both Physics and Meteorology. Just a heads up. Xhin  Give Back Our Membership!  11:33, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

Suggesting a Partial Re-Write
The entire article is rather poorly written. Here are some of the major things that need addressed:

 * The Observation and Scientific Explanation sections are significantly lacking in both relevant content and notable sources.

 * The Historical Observations and In Fiction sections, apart from having inconsistent section titles, are far too list-like to be called encyclopedic.
 * Split "In Fiction" into two separate sections, "In Literature" and "In Popular Culture". Rewrote the "In Literature" section using progressional argument (ie, re-ordered chronology and introduced discussion of changing views/conventions in literature over time with regard to St. Elmo's fire) to eliminate "list-like" nature of this section.  Also added some lines to Moby Dick to provide more context with regard to omens, and to include the text's exact mention of "St. Elmo's flames".--Simyre 02:50, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Calling the lines from the Rime of the Ancient Mariner a possible reference to St. Elmo's Fire sounds much like speculation without a notable source.
 * The only scholarly reference I could locate regarding the meaning of this section of Coleridge's poem is from an article by John Owen of University of South Carolina:
 * The "Death-Fires", the "Fire-Flags" and the Corposant in "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". Ower, John. Philological Quarterly, vol. 70 no. 2, p. 199-218.  1991

 * A comment on the article is listed at http://virtual.park.uga.edu/eng3k/spring01/assignments/classbibs.html toward the end of the page (search page for "Ower"). The article discusses the contradictory interpretations that accompany these lines.  I suggest that this supports the argument to strike this mention as 'tangential' to this Wiki article.
 * --Simyre 01:27, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The reference to the comic Tintin in Tibet has no source or evidentiary quotations. Either this reference needs to be removed or expanded to include more relevant information than simply saying a reference to St. Elmo's Fire exists.
 * Now under new section title, "In Popular Culture", to help explain the trivial nature of this listing.--Simyre 02:50, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

So far, I have rewritten the initial definition and included a source for distinguishing Ball Lightning from St. Elmo's Fire because they are separate phenomena. One of the external links (http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/elements/stelmo.htm) seems to contain much of the information that this article needs to be improved. I will attempt to incorporate more information from this text as well as improve upon the items listed above.  Rmaus  22:24, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

Paracelsus and ancient Greek?
"In ancient Greece, the appearance of a single one was called Helena and two were called Castor and Pollux. Occasionally, it was associated with the Greek element of fire, as well as with one of Paracelsus's elementals, specifically the salamander, or, alternatively, with a similar creature referred to as an acthnici." This makes no sense to me, since the whole chapter seems to be talking about ancient Greece, save for the part about Paracelsus, who lived in the 16th century. Perhaps I just don't understand the reference? 80.221.7.99 (talk) 09:49, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

Refs
I'm new here but ref 9 on this page makes no mention of the text referenced. serious credibility problem." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 160.39.213.9 (talk) 01:41, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

Hindenburg Disaster
In an episode of When Weather Changed History, it attributed the Hindenburg disaster to St. Elmo's fire, because of the electrically charged atmosphere due to the presence of thunderstorms in the area. That, coupled with the Hindenburg releasing its Hydrogen, probably resulted in the explosion. You'll have to watch the episode, 'cause its too hard for me to explain ;). The show is usually on The Weather Channel. --Anonymous07921 (talk) 15:15, 5 May 2009 (UTC)
 * UK Channel 4 just did "What destroyed the Hindenberg" where they support the St Elmos fire theory. - Rod57 (talk) 22:20, 7 March 2013 (UTC)

Rawhide
The TV show "Rawhide" also had an episode where they tried to show it on cattle. Clint Eastwood "Rowdy Gates" mentioned it by, St. Elmos Fire and also as a Fire Fox... 75.248.14.198 (talk) 22:31, 10 August 2011 (UTC)

First hand observation
Removed from the article. Moved here in case it is of interest. 98.85.35.128 (talk) 05:11, 17 April 2012 (UTC)

"I have seen another variation that occurred one night on old wooden fishing boats in Binalbagan, Negros Occidental, Philippines 1981 or 82. The masts glowed green. The humidity was extremely high. The time of night was about 9:30 pitch black. I was not able to go back and see if it occurred again. Other times earlier in evening I never noticed it. Locals never mentioned it in the 4 or 5 times I was there. StitchExperiment626 (talk) 22:10, 15 April 2012 (UTC)"

Ever a ball
Intro says " glowing ball of light" implying it is always ball shaped. But most pictures show 'jets'. Could we change ball to jet ? (or does the source really support ball ?) - Rod57 (talk) 22:24, 7 March 2013 (UTC)

The bush that burns but was not consumed
I watched in person a phenomenon analog to the Bible episode when Moshes watched a bush on fire that wasn't consumed, and attracted by this, when he approached the place, began hearing: 'The Voice of God'. I was invited more than 20 years ago by an school mate to his home in Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain. From a window, the mast of a: 'Radio Nacional de España' broadcasting antenna could be watched. During a summer storm day, in the steel cords that held antenna in place, more often in the intermediate links in the cables, saint Elmo's fire plumes, partly bluish in color, appeared intermittently, specially around the moments when thunders were heard. When the saint Elmo's fires were 'on', it was perfectly audible, from the several tenths of meters between the house and the radio broadcasting antenna, sounds, music and voices that seemed correspond to what the radio station was broadcasting then. Loudspeakers existed using plasma to transform electrical signals into sounds, so the possibility is known. Thanks, + Salut--Caula (talk) 10:38, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

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/* Mark Heald */ An weird admission of personal investment.
" (Added by K.G.H. Nicholes: My father is History Professor Mark M. Heald's son, physicist Mark A. Heald. They did indeed witness the Hindenburg tragedy, but my grandfather had no prior experience of St. Elmo's Fire, and no background to support his identification of what he saw as such. My father has protested people's uncritical passing along of his father's assumption on many occasions.) " I dunno if it invalidates what's before it or not but despite the references, it seems like this section mightn't be relevant. --Strobelit (talk) 11:04, 6 July 2019 (UTC)
 * A. So I took this text out of the main article because it's ridiculous:

Aircraft examples
While flying over the mountains in Papua Niugini late at night, the pilot called some of us up to the cockpit to see St Elmo's fire glowing around the metal window frames and along the trailing edges of the wings. It strikes me that many pilots must have seen this phenomenon but, surprisingly, there are no examples in this article. I will try to find some to document this common occurrence. Hedley 12:13, 15 February 2020 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hfinger (talk • contribs)

"100 kV/m local field strength?" Clarifications needed
Around a sharp point or even a fairly blunt one, this field strength should occur at the tips of everyday objects and even indoors. Consider a millimeter thick wire 2 meters in length with 100V/m field strength?

So does anyone know if the 100 kV/m field strength requirement is the actual local field strength needed to sustain the discharge or whether that's the field strength estimated to be needed in free air for the field to occur at a sharp point on the end of a wire (at the usual 3 megavolt per meter sort of range).

I know I've seen what looks an awful lot like this around everyday, indoor objects but it's extremely low intensity and might be some kind of optical illusion so if anyone can help clarify the physics that would be very useful. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.237.249.230 (talk) 08:32, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Air's dielectric strength is 3 MV/m. 100 kV/m seems small by comparison, but I don't know much more. If this isn't sourced, consider tagging or removing it.--Jasper Deng (talk) 09:35, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Seems in the same ballpark to me, especially when humidity is taken into account. I'd suggest removing the inappropriate tag. As an aside, perfectly sharp tips don't exist. Djp~enwiki (talk) 01:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

Video examples?
Are there any good, and authentic, video examples of SEF? Searching on YouTube, I found several claimed examples, including some filmed from inside an aircraft cockpit, but they were spark discharges, not SEF as usually described (e.g. in the present article). The inset picture in the article may come from one of these videos, but the ones I have seen did not show any light except when there was a spark discharge. There was one more relevant case, with some young people by a lake filming a glowing discharge of light at their finger tips, but I had some doubts about its authenticity. If I suddenly found my fingertips glowing with electricity I wouldn't stand around laughing and photographing it, I would be afraid of a lightning strike. Also, it might be possible to fake the effect with concealed lights. Not saying it was faked, just that I would want verification. If there are no good natural examples, a laboratory example would help. I am not questioning the existence of the phenomenon, which seems much better attested and understood than, e.g., ball lightning, but if video examples exist it would be useful to have a link.2A00:23C8:7906:1301:391D:EEDE:F25A:EB6 (talk) 21:05, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

https://edmonton.ctvnews.ca/st-elmo-s-fire-phenomenon-caught-on-camera-during-flight-over-central-alberta-1.5560040

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:St. Elmo's fire


text:
Renault Kangoo

The Renault Kangoo is a family of vans built by Renault since 1997 across three generations. It is sold as a passenger multi-purpose vehicle or as a light commercial vehicle. For the European market, the Kangoo is manufactured at the MCA plant in Maubeuge, France.

The Kangoo was also marketed as a rebadged variant by Nissan in Europe as the Nissan Kubistar (first generation), Nissan NV250 (second generation) and Nissan Townstar (third generation). In September 2012, Mercedes-Benz began marketing a rebadged variant of the second generation Kangoo as the Mercedes-Benz Citan, which is also marketed as Mercedes EQT and Mercedes T-Class for the current generation.

, the electric variant, the Renault Kangoo Z.E., is Europe's top selling all-electric light commercial vehicle, with global sales of 48,821 units since its inception in 2011.

First generation X76 (FC/KC; 1997)
The first generation Kangoo was introduced in October 1997, and was facelifted in March 2003, with new front end nose styling, especially the grille, standardised across the Renault range, with the Renault diamond mounted on a body colour panel in the centre of the grille and teardrop headlamps.

The rear windows and seats of the Kangoo could be removed, producing the panel van Kangoo Express. The Kangoo became popular with mobility impaired and wheelchair users due to its height and accessibility and because it could be adapted to include mounting points for wheelchairs. The rear of the vehicle is cut to allow a ramp to be fitted. A pair of front tie downs are fitted (retractable seat belts with a solenoid release to allow them to be extended, passed around the wheelchair frame and then locked back when the solenoid is switched off and they retract); this stops the wheelchair from moving back. A pair of rear tie downs with the normal clamping buckles stop the wheelchair from moving forward. A normal, long seat belt is worn by the wheelchair user.

Both the Kangoo and Kangoo Express were available in four-wheel drive versions. A lengthened version was also available, with an increased cargo area. A pickup version was sold in the Swedish market. In some countries, such as Malaysia, the Kangoo was assembled by Nissan with third row seats.

From July 2003, Wallace and Gromit starred in adverts in the United Kingdom for the Kangoo.

Break'Up
The Kangoo Break'Up was a four-wheel drive concept car announced in August 2002 and previewed the facelift design due in 2003, together with a pick up-style rear. It was powered by 1.6 L engine producing 110 hp.

Kangoo Trekka 4x4
The 4WD version of the Kangoo was introduced in 2002, and was marketed under the model name Trekka. It should not be confused with the Skoda powered New Zealand built utility vehicle named Trekka, which was marketed in the Antipodes for several years circa 1970.

The Kangoo Trekka's all wheel drive system differed from the Renault Scénic RX4 in its inclusion of a Nissan sourced automatic torque coupling "ATC", a hydraulic coupling that would engage drive on all four wheels should the front wheels start to lose traction.

This allowed the Kangoo Trekka to run in front wheel drive in most conditions, thus saving fuel. Working in combination with the ATC, the Kangoo Trekka featured an electronically controlled "ASR" traction control system which could brake the front wheels to arrest traction loss.

The suspension on the front had longer front struts with revised coil springs, lower suspension arms were revised to a cast steel item. The rear suspension was completely revised from the standard Kangoo torsion bar suspension beam axle to a fully independent coil sprung system with wishbones. The rear differential was centrally mounted with two driveshafts transmitting power to the rear wheels. All this was carried on a subframe which increased the ground clearance and wheel travel.

These changes gave the Kangoo Trekka a 400 mm fording depth and 28 degree hill climbing capability. The Kangoo Trekka was marketed in the UK with a choice of two engines, the 1.6 L 16 valve petrol engine and the 1.9 L dCi common rail turbodiesel both with a five speed manual gearbox.

In 2005, these models were priced at £12,600 and £13,600 respectively. The diesel produced a peak torque of 133 lbft and achieved over 7 L/100 km on the combined (urban and extra urban) fuel consumption test.

The petrol engine had a 0 to 100 km/h time of 14.3 seconds, and a combined fuel consumption of 9 L/100 km. The interior of the Kangoo Trekka was spartan. The rear bench seat could be folded forward to provide a 2.5 m3 loading area, with better access through the sliding side doors.

Argentina
The first-generation Kangoo is produced in Argentina from 1998 to 2018. The panel van production was launched in 1998, and the passenger model in 2001. It received a first facelift in 2008. A second facelift internally codenamed VLL ("Very Long Life") was unveiled in 2013 exclusively for the Argentine market, featuring styling cues from Renault's then-current design language. It was discontinued in 2018 to make way for its replacement, based on the Dokker, after 374 591 units were produced in Argentina for the local market, and some other Latin America countries (Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Cuba).

Engines
The Kangoo and Kangoo Express was/is available with a choice of multiple engines: Some LPG and CNG variants of petrol engines have also been produced.

Nissan Kubistar
A badge-engineered version of the Kangoo panel van was sold as the Nissan Kubistar in many European markets from 2003 to 2009. Nissan applied the "X76" model code to the Kubistar.

Electric
Cleanova II is a hybrid electric drive train system, used in a vehicle based on Renault Kangoo, with two electric versions: full electric vehicle (FEV) and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV).

Second generation X61 (FW/KW; 2007)
The second-generation Kangoo are based on the Scénic and manufactured in Maubeuge. Sales began in May 2007. A seven-seat version, which is longer by 40 cm, became available from July 2012.

They are also sold by Mercedes-Benz as the Mercedes-Benz Citan, with a revised front design, being launched in September 2012. In February 2012, Renault retired the Kangoo MPV, Espace, Laguna, Modus, and Wind lines in the United Kingdom.

A facelifted version of both the van and the passenger versions was available from the beginning of 2013.

In November 2018, it was announced that Nissan would rebadge the Kangoo, turning it into the NV250. The Nissan NV250 launched in December 2019 and is currently sold in the United Kingdom.

Body styles
The Kangoo is available in three wheelbase configurations: the Kangoo Express, the Kangoo Compact with a shorter wheelbase, and the Kangoo Express Maxi with a longer wheelbase – all three offered in passenger variants. The short wheelbase version was sold as the Kangoo Be Bop between 2009 and 2012.

The payload of the Kangoo Express and Express Maxi is between 650 kg and 825 kg depending on version and market, while the Kangoo Compact with its short wheelbase has a reduced payload of 500 kg. The Kangoo Express Maxi has up to 2.90 m of usable floor length.

Kangoo Be Bop
Following the 2007 Renault Kangoo Compact Concept, the Renault Kangoo Be Bop was presented at 2008 Paris Motor Show. This 3870 mm long model, with only three doors, is equipped with a sliding glass roof at the rear, 4 seats and a two-tone body. Judged expensive and unpractical, the Kangoo Be Bop was a commercial failure, and only 1,400 units were produced between 2009 and 2011.

Grand Kangoo
A 7-seater version of the Kangoo, named Grand Kangoo, has been on the market since July 2012.

Kangoo Z.E.
As part of its Z.E. electric car initiative, Renault has developed the Kangoo Z.E. model that is manufactured at its Maubeuge plant. A prototype was shown at the September 2010 International Commercial Vehicles Show in Hanover, Germany, and the electric van was released for retail sales in October 2011. In November 2011, the Kangoo Z.E. was voted International Van of the Year for 2012. It was also elected Electric Vehicle of the Year in 2012 and 2013 by GreenFleet.
 * History

It was introduced to Mexico on 15 October 2020. In 2021, the next-generation electric Kangoo was introduced as the Kangoo E-Tech electric, based on the Renault–Nissan CMF-C/D platform.

A total of 3,652 Kangoo Z.E. utility vans were registered in France through December 2012, and, with 2,869 units delivered in 2012, the electric van became the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the country. During 2011, the Kangoo Z.E. sold 991 units in Europe, and cumulative sales in the region reached 6,658 units sold in the region through December 2012, with global sales of 6,665 units.
 * Sales

Worldwide cumulative sales passed the 10,000 mark by the start of September 2013, representing about 10% of overall Kangoo van global sales. The Kangoo Z.E. is the leader of the small all electric van segment, and the best selling electric vehicle in France, with 9,125 units registered through June 2014. The vehicle was updated in 2017.

The Kangoo Z.E. is Europe's top-selling all-electric light commercial vehicle, with global sales of 48,821 units since its inception through December 2019.

The Kangoo Z.E. has the same dimensions as the internal combustion model. It uses a synchronous electric motor with rotor coil. Its peak power is 44 kW at 10,500 rpm, while maximum torque is 226 Nm. Its top speed is capped electronically to 130 km/h. The vehicle is powered by a 22 kWh lithium-ion battery pack that delivers a combined cycle range of 170 km NEDC which varies depending on factors such as type of road, ambient temperature, speed or driving style. Maximum charging power is limited to 3.7 kW (AC).
 * Drivetrain

The Kangoo Z.E. Power+, released in 2017, includes four changes: a new battery, a new motor, a new charger, and a heat pump. The new battery has a capacity of 33 kWh for a range of 270 km according to the NEDC cycle. The new R60 traction motor produces the same peak power 44 kW, but was developed by Renault, based on the R90 motor found in Renault Zoe. Charging power has doubled to 7 kW, and the heat pump provides a more efficient method of heating the cabin.

Third generation XFK (FFK/KFK; 2020)
The third-generation Kangoo was revealed on 12 November 2020, alongside the lower-spec, separate model called Express. It is based on an all-new CMF-CD platform developed by Renault and Nissan. Production started late 2020 and sales early 2021.

A rebadged version called the Nissan Townstar was revealed in September 2021 to replace the NV200 and NV250 in various markets. In Europe, the electric Nissan e-NV200 will be replaced by a Townstar EV based on the Kangoo E-Tech Electric.

Dimensions

 * Notes
 * Interior width is 1570 mm for all versions, 1248 mm between the internal wheel arches.

Kangoo E-Tech Electric
The third generation Renault Kangoo was previewed by the Renault Kangoo Z.E. concept presented on 23 April 2019, which was said to be 80% representative of the production model. The Kangoo Z.E. concept (2019) is an electric vehicle and has no pillar at the leading edge of the sliding side door to facilitate access, like the Frendzy concept. A prototype of the production electric Kangoo, renamed to Kangoo Van E-Tech Electric, was first shown in March 2021. It was officially introduced in November 2021 to succeed the prior electric Kangoo Z.E., which was based on the second-generation Kangoo and had been produced since 2011. Production was scheduled to start in 2022.

The 100% electric production panel van model entered production in June 2022. It is offered in two lengths, with cargo volume of 3.9 m3 or 4.9 m3. The passenger version was launched in October 2022 at the 2022 Paris Motor Show.

The Kangoo E-Tech is equipped with a traction motor that delivers 90 kW and 245 Nm, drawing from a 45 kW-hr battery which gives the vehicle an estimated range of 285 – under the WLTP mixed driving cycle. So equipped, the van accelerates from 0 to 100 km/h in 11.6 seconds and has a top speed of 135 km/h. There is a limited-power Eco mode, which reduces output to 56 kW and maximum speed to 110 km/h. The standard onboard charger is limited to 11 kW (AC); as an option, the vehicle can be fitted with a charger that allows input power up to 80 kW (DC) or 22 kW (AC).

Euro NCAP
The Kangoo in its standard European market configuration received 4 stars from Euro NCAP in 2021.

The Townstar in its standard European market configuration received 4 stars from Euro NCAP in 2021.

title: Renault Kangoo


text:
Red squirrel

The red squirrel or Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is a species of tree squirrel in the genus Sciurus common throughout Europe and Asia. The red squirrel is an arboreal and primarily herbivorous rodent.

Taxonomy

There have been over 40 described subspecies of the red squirrel, but the taxonomic status of some of these is uncertain. A study published in 1971 recognises 16 subspecies and has served as a basis for subsequent taxonomic work. Although the validity of some subspecies is labelled with uncertainty because of the large variation in red squirrels even within a single region, others are relatively distinctive and one of these, S. v. meridionalis of South Italy, was elevated to species status as the Calabrian black squirrel in 2017. At present, there are 23 recognized subspecies of the red squirrel. Genetic studies indicate that another, S. v. hoffmanni of Sierra Espuña in southeast Spain (below included in S. v. alpinus), deserves recognition as distinct.

 * S. v. alpinus. Desmarest, 1822. (synonyms: S. v. baeticus, hoffmanni, infuscatus, italicus, numantius and segurae)
 * S. v. altaicus. Serebrennikov, 1928.
 * S. v. anadyrensis. Ognev, 1929.
 * S. v. arcticus. Trouessart, 1906. (synonym: S. v. jacutensis)
 * S. v. balcanicus. Heinrich, 1936. (synonyms: S. v. istrandjae and rhodopensis)
 * S. v. chiliensis. Sowerby, 1921.
 * S. v. cinerea. Hermann, 1804.
 * S. v. dulkeiti. Ognev, 1929.
 * S. v. exalbidus. Pallas, 1778. (synonyms: S. v. argenteus and kalbinensis)
 * S. v. fedjushini. Ognev, 1935.
 * S. v. formosovi. Ognev, 1935.
 * S. v. fuscoater. Altum, 1876. (synonyms: S. v. brunnea, gotthardi, graeca, nigrescens, russus and rutilans)
 * S. v. fusconigricans. Dvigubsky, 1804
 * S. v. leucourus. Kerr, 1792.
 * S. v. lilaeus. Miller, 1907. (synonyms: S. v. ameliae and croaticus)
 * S. v. mantchuricus. Thomas, 1909. (synonyms: S. v. coreae and coreanus)
 * S. v. martensi. Matschie, 1901. (synonym: S. v. jenissejensis)
 * S. v. ognevi. Migulin, 1928. (synonyms: S. v. bashkiricus, golzmajeri and uralensis)
 * S. v. orientis. Thomas, 1906. Ezo Red Squirrel (Hokkaidō).
 * S. v. rupestris. Thomas, 1907
 * S. v. ukrainicus. Migulin, 1928. (synonym: S. v. kessleri)
 * S. v. varius. Gmelin, 1789.
 * S. v. vulgaris. Linnaeus, 1758. (synonyms: S. v. albonotatus, albus, carpathicus, europaeus, niger, rufus and typicus)

Description
The red squirrel has a typical head-and-body length of 19 to 23 cm, a tail length of 15 to 20 cm, and a mass of 250 to 340 g. Males and females are the same size. The Eurasian red squirrel is somewhat smaller than the American eastern grey squirrel, which has a head-and-body length of 25 to 30 cm and weighs between 400 and 800 g.

The long tail helps the squirrel to balance and steer when jumping from tree to tree and running along branches and may keep the animal warm during sleep.

The red squirrel, like most tree squirrels, has sharp curved claws to help it to climb and descend broad tree trunks, thin branches, and even house walls. Its strong hind legs let it leap gaps between trees. The red squirrel also can swim.

The coat of the red squirrel varies in colour with time of year and location. There are several coat colour morphs ranging from black to red. Red coats are most common in Great Britain; in other parts of Europe and Asia different coat colours coexist within populations, much like hair colour in some human populations. The underside of the squirrel is always white-cream in colour. The red squirrel sheds its coat twice a year, switching from a thinner summer coat to a thicker, darker winter coat with noticeably larger ear-tufts (a prominent distinguishing feature of this species) between August and November. A lighter, redder overall coat colour, along with the ear-tufts (in adults) and smaller size, distinguish the red squirrel from the eastern grey squirrel. The red colour offers camouflage when seen against the bark of pine trees.

Distribution and habitat
Red squirrels occupy boreal, coniferous woods in northern Europe and Siberia, preferring Scots pine, Norway spruce and Siberian pine. In western and southern Europe they are found in broad-leaved woods where the mixture of tree and shrub species provides a better year-round source of food. In most of the British Isles and in Italy, broad-leaved woodlands are now less suitable due to the better competitive feeding strategy of introduced grey squirrels.

In Great Britain, Ireland and in Italy, red squirrel populations have decreased in recent years. This decline is associated with the introduction by humans of the eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) from North America. However, the population in Scotland is stabilising due to conservation efforts.

Ecology and behaviour
The red squirrel is found in both coniferous forest and temperate broadleaf woodlands. The squirrel makes a drey (nest) out of twigs in a branch-fork, forming a domed structure about 25 to 30 cm in diameter. This is lined with moss, leaves, grass and bark. Tree hollows and woodpecker holes are also used. The red squirrel is a solitary animal and is shy and reluctant to share food with others. However, outside the breeding season and particularly in winter, several red squirrels may share a drey to keep warm. Social organization is based on dominance hierarchies within and between sexes; although males are not necessarily dominant to females, the dominant animals tend to be larger and older than subordinate animals, and dominant males tend to have larger home ranges than subordinate males or females.

The red squirrel eats mostly the seeds of trees, neatly stripping conifer cones to get at the seeds within, fungi, nuts (especially hazelnuts but also beech, chestnuts and acorns), berries, vegetables, garden flowers, tree sap and young shoots. More rarely, red squirrels may also eat bird eggs or nestlings. A Swedish study shows that out of 600 stomach contents of red squirrels examined, only 4 contained remnants of birds or eggs.

Excess food is put into caches called "middens", either buried or in nooks or holes in trees, and eaten when food is scarce. Although the red squirrel remembers where it created caches at a better-than-chance level, its spatial memory is substantially less accurate and durable than that of grey squirrels. Between 60% and 80% of its active period may be spent foraging and feeding. The active period for the red squirrel is in the morning and in the late afternoon and evening. It often rests in its nest in the middle of the day, avoiding the heat and the high visibility to birds of prey that are dangers during these hours. During the winter, this mid-day rest is often much briefer, or absent entirely, although harsh weather may cause the animal to stay in its nest for days at a time.

No territories are claimed between the red squirrels and the feeding areas of individuals overlap considerably.

Reproduction

Mating can occur in late winter during February and March and in summer between June and July. Up to two litters a year per female are possible. Each litter averages three young, called kits. Gestation is about 38 to 39 days. The young are looked after by the mother alone and are born helpless, blind, and deaf. They weigh between 10 and 15 g. Their body is covered by hair at 21 days, their eyes and ears open after three to four weeks, and they develop all their teeth by 42 days. Juvenile red squirrels can eat solids around 40 days following birth and from that point can leave the nest on their own to find food; however, they still suckle from their mother until weaning occurs at 8 to 10 weeks.

During mating, males detect females that are in oestrus by an odour that they produce, and although there is no courtship, the male will chase the female for up to an hour prior to mating. Usually, several males will chase a single female until the dominant male, usually the largest in the group, mates with the female. Males and females will mate several times with many partners. Females must reach a minimum body mass before they enter oestrus, and heavy females on average produce more young. If food is scarce breeding may be delayed. Typically a female will produce her first litter in her second year.

Life expectancy
Red squirrels that survive their first winter have a life expectancy of 3 years. Individuals may reach 7 years of age, and 10 in captivity. Survival is positively related to the availability of autumn-winter tree seeds; on average, 75–85% of juveniles die during their first winter, and mortality is approximately 50% for winters following the first.

Competitors
Arboreal predators include small mammals such as the pine marten, wildcats and the stoat, which preys on nestlings; birds, including owls and raptors such as the goshawk and buzzards, may also take the red squirrel. The red fox, cats and dogs can prey upon the red squirrel when it is on the ground. Humans influence the population size and mortality of the red squirrel by destroying or altering habitats, by causing road casualties, and by introducing non-native populations of the North American eastern grey squirrels.

The eastern grey squirrel and the red squirrel are not directly antagonistic, and violent conflict between these species is not a factor in the decline in red squirrel populations. However, the eastern grey squirrel appears to be able to decrease the red squirrel population due to several reasons:
 * The eastern grey squirrel carries a disease, the squirrel parapoxvirus, that does not appear to affect their own health but will often kill the red squirrel. It was revealed in 2008 that the numbers of red squirrels at Formby (England) had declined by 80% as a result of this disease, though the population is now recovering.
 * The eastern grey squirrel can better digest acorns, while the red squirrel cannot access the proteins and fats in acorns as easily.
 * When the red squirrel is put under pressure, it will not breed as often.

In the UK, due to the above circumstances, the population has today fallen to 160,000 red squirrels or fewer; 120,000 of these are in Scotland. Outside the UK and Ireland, the impact of competition from the eastern grey squirrel has been observed in Piedmont, Italy, where two pairs escaped from captivity in 1948. A significant drop in red squirrel populations in the area has been observed since 1970, and it is feared that the eastern grey squirrel may expand into the rest of Europe.

Conservation
The red squirrel is protected in most of Europe, as it is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention; it is listed as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List. However, in some areas it is abundant and is hunted for its fur.

Although not thought to be under any threat worldwide, the red squirrel has nevertheless drastically reduced in number in the United Kingdom; especially after the grey squirrels were introduced from North America in the 1870s. Fewer than 140,000 individuals are thought to be left in 2013; approximately 85% of which are in Scotland, with the Isle of Wight being the largest haven in England. A local charity, the Wight Squirrel Project, supports red squirrel conservation on the island, and islanders are actively recommended to report any invasive greys. The population decrease in Britain is often ascribed to the introduction of the eastern grey squirrel from North America, but the loss and fragmentation of its native woodland habitat has also played a significant role.

In contrast, the red squirrel may present a threat if introduced to regions outside its native range. It is classed as a "prohibited new organism" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 preventing it from being imported into the country.

Projects
In January 1998, eradication of the non-native North American grey squirrel began on the North Wales island of Anglesey. This facilitated the natural recovery of the small remnant red squirrel population. It was followed by the successful reintroduction of the red squirrel into the pine stands of Newborough Forest. Subsequent reintroductions into broadleaved woodland followed and today the island has the single largest red squirrel population in Wales. Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour is also populated exclusively by red rather than grey squirrels (approximately 200 individuals).

Mainland initiatives in southern Scotland and the north of England also rely upon grey squirrel control as the cornerstone of red squirrel conservation strategy. A local programme known as the "North East Scotland Biodiversity Partnership", an element of the national Biodiversity Action Plan was established in 1996. This programme is administered by the Grampian Squirrel Society, with an aim of protecting the red squirrel; the programme centres on the Banchory and Cults areas. In 2008, the Scottish Wildlife Trust announced a four-year project which commenced in the spring of 2009 called "Saving Scotland's Red Squirrels".

Other notable projects include red squirrel projects in the Greenfield Forest, including the buffer zones of Mallerstang, Garsdale and Widdale; the Northumberland Kielder Forest Project; and within the National Trust reserve in Formby. These projects were originally part of the Save Our Squirrels campaign that aimed to protect red squirrels in the north of England, but now form part of a five-year Government-led partnership conservation project called "Red Squirrels Northern England" to undertake grey squirrel control in areas important for red squirrels.

On the Isle of Wight, local volunteers are encouraged to record data on the existing red squirrel population, and to monitor it for the presence of invasive greys; as the red squirrel is still dominant on the island, these volunteers are also requested to cull any greys they find. In order to protect existing populations, increasing amounts of legislation have been issued to prevent the further release and expansion of grey squirrel populations. Under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, it is an offense to release captured grey squirrels, indicating that any captured individuals must be culled. Additional rules covered under the WCA's Schedules 5 and 6 include limitations on the keeping of red squirrels in captivity, and also prohibits the culling of red squirrels.

Research undertaken in 2007 in the UK credits the pine marten with reducing the population of the invasive eastern grey squirrel. Where the range of the expanding pine marten population meets that of the eastern grey squirrel, the population of these squirrels retreats. It is theorised that, because the grey squirrel spends more time on the ground than the red, they are far more likely to come in contact with this predator.

During October 2012, four male and one female red squirrel, on permanent loan from the British Wildlife Centre, were transported to Tresco in the Isles of Scilly by helicopter, and released into Abbey Wood, near the Tresco Abbey Gardens. Only two survived and a further 20 were transported and released in October 2013. Although the red squirrel is not indigenous to the Isles of Scilly, those who supported this work intend to use Tresco as a "safe haven" for the endangered mammal, as the islands are free of predators such as red foxes, and of the Squirrel parapoxvirus-carrying grey squirrel.

The UK Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) has proposed a method of non-lethal control of grey squirrels as part of a 5-year Red Squirrel Recovery Network (RSRN) project. The planned method for control would be by administering oral contraceptives via a grey squirrel-specific feeder, which would selectively allow feeding based on body weight in order to avoid inadvertently distributing the contraceptive to red squirrels as well. This project has received National Lottery Heritage funding.

Historical, cultural and financial significance

Squirrel Nutkin is a character, always illustrated as a red squirrel, in English author Beatrix Potter's books for children.

"Ekorr'n satt i granen" (The Squirrel sat in the fir tree) is a well-known and appreciated children's song in Sweden. Text and lyrics by Alice Tegnér in 1892.

Charles Dennim, protagonist of Geoffrey Household's novel Watcher in the Shadows, is a zoologist who studies and writes about red squirrels.

In Norse mythology, Ratatoskr is a red squirrel who runs up and down with messages in the world tree, Yggdrasil, and spreads gossip. In particular, he carried messages between the unnamed eagle at the top of Yggdrasill and the wyrm Níðhöggr beneath its roots.

The red squirrel used to be widely hunted for its pelt. In Finland, squirrel pelts were used as currency in ancient times, before the introduction of coinage. The expression "squirrel pelt" is still widely understood there to be a reference to money. It has been suggested that the trade in red squirrel fur, highly prized in the medieval period and intensively traded, may have been responsible for the leprosy epidemic in medieval Europe. Within Great Britain, widespread leprosy is found early in East Anglia, to which many of the squirrel furs were traded, and the strain is the same as that found in modern red squirrels on Brownsea Island.

The red squirrel is the national mammal of Denmark.

Red squirrels are a common feature in English heraldry, where they are always depicted sitting up and often in the act of cracking a nut.

title: Red squirrel


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Vidsel

Vidsel is a locality situated in Älvsbyn Municipality, Norrbotten County, Sweden with 533 inhabitants in 2010. It is situated about 900 km north of Stockholm, Sweden, in the Arctic Circle.

History
Perhaps its earliest history is as a seasonal settlement, but permanent inhabitants have lived here since the 19th century.

The town was mainly founded in the 1950s, because of "Robotförsöksplats Norr" (RFN) (Missile Test Area North)/Vidsel Test Range. The range forms part of the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV) Testing Directorate, which is responsible for the verification of systems procured for the Swedish Armed Forces.

RFN is the largest overland test range in Western Europe, consisting of 1,650 km2 of uninhabited forest and marshland, which can be extended by 1,500 km2 if required. The installation includes a military base with a 2,300 m runway. Because of its usage as a Swedish and European missile test site, this remote area is often listed in international weather forecasts and maps.

The site has been a test area for most Swedish flight developments, including Draken, Viggen and Gripen.

title: Vidsel


text:
User talk:Estibaliz Larrañeta

Hello Estibaliz, welcome to Wikipedia! Am I right in assuming that you're a student at HLT? If so, thanks for trying to incorporate your work into Wikipedia! But please, observe a few points:

 * In Wikipedia, we normally do not capitalize article titles. For instance, it's Audio signal processing, not Audio Signal Processing.

 * Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, so its articles do not use first peron singular or plural ("I" or "we"). Could you please rewrite as necessary? It's no big deal, if you don't do it, someone else surely will :-)

 * Please check whether Wikipedia covers the topics you want to add already.

 * Please observe Copyright laws. Do you have permission to copy the texts from HLT into Wikipedia? Lupo 10:15, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Anyway, thanks for trying to help us and have fun! Lupo 09:52, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Soy User:Pfortuny de la Wikipedia. Es importante lo siguiente. Si bien vuestra ayuda es muy apreciada, hay varios detalles (como que el contenido de algunas páginas que habéis insertado puede ser violación de Copyright, etc...). Os agradeceríamos todos que fuerais a la página siguiente (para leerla): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki:VfD-Translation_articles porque vuestras colaboraciones pueden desaparecer. Si alguno de los profesores lee esto, por favor que se ponga en contacto conmigo y podemos procurar hacer algo que sea mejor para vosotros y para toda la wikipedia (en el sentido de que vuestras colaboraciones sean realmente nuevas y no sean borradas "por error").

De todas formas, gracias por colaborar, pero por favor, escribidme.

Si vais a mi página de usuario de la wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Pfortuny

en el enlace (a la izquierda) "E-mail this user" me escribís un mensaje y así puedo ponerme en contacto con alguno de los organizadores.

También se puede escribir en mi talk page, claro. Pfortuny 19:49, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Gracias. Pedro Fortuny.

title: User talk:Estibaliz Larrañeta


text:
Snufkin

Snufkin (original Swedish: Snusmumrik[en] or Mumrik[en], Finnish: Nuuskamuikkunen) is a character in the Moomin series of books written by Swedish-speaking Finn Tove Jansson, appearing in six of the nine books; his first appearance is in the second book, Comet in Moominland. He is the best friend of the series' protagonist, Moomintroll, and lives a nomadic lifestyle, only staying in Moominvalley in the spring and summer, but leaving for warmer climates down south every winter. He is the son of the elder Mymble and the Joxter, and is half-brother to the Mymble's daughter and Little My.

Snufkin serves as the main protagonist in the 2024 video game Melody of Moominvalley.

Description
Snufkin wears old green clothes and a wide-brimmed hat that he has had since birth. He lives in a tent, smokes a pipe and plays the harmonica. Snufkin also has a great dislike for authority figures such as the Park Keeper and the many regulation signs and fences he erects. At one point, he sabotages the Park Keeper by planting Hattifatteners in his garden, causing them to grow and drive him out. He has a great hatred for all symbols of private property, even losing his temper with the Hemulen after the latter attempts to put up a sign declaring "Moominvalley".

The age of Snufkin is difficult to determine. He has had more serious and mature conversations with Moominpappa and is notoriously wise or mysterious. However, he enjoys playing with Moomintroll and other children, and sometimes acts just as childish as them. He is also referred to as young and/or a child multiple in the series, and is younger than Little My, though he is easily twice her size. In problem situations, others often turn to the help of Snufkin, as he enjoys the unreserved admiration of the inhabitants of the valley for his multi-consciousness. His advice is also followed. There are intersections with a wide range of philosophical views on the way Snufkin thinks. He is undoubtedly one of the most multi-faceted characters in The Moomins. Snufkin has said that no one should own more than they can handle, and he cannot understand his friend Sniff's affection for things and worldly things. Snufkin once even throws his tent in the gorge, because he thinks it is not worth clinging to useless property, but instead can write a poem when he sees something beautiful.

Inspiration
Tove Jansson based the character of Snufkin on her friend and one-time fiancé, Atos Wirtanen. A typical feature of Snufkin, to come and go independently without caring for others, is inspired by the nature of Atos Wirtanen; at the time, Wirtanen was the center of Jansson's life, but Wirtanen was so busy working as an MP that he came and went, leading to the failure of their relationship. Wirtanen's style was also borrowed in the recognizable green hat of Snufkin.

Reception
The character has a mostly positive reception.

title: Snufkin


text:
Fly!

Fly! is a flight simulator video game for Windows and Macintosh developed by Terminal Reality and published by Gathering of Developers.

Gameplay
It includes simulation of air traffic control features as well as aircraft's on-board systems, and was acclaimed for its highly detailed fully working interactive cockpits. Featured aircraft are fixed-wing light to medium aircraft. An enhanced version, ''Fly! 2K, and add-on, Wilco's 737 for Fly!'', were released in 2000. ''Fly! 2K'' added user-created add-ons, enhanced graphics, real world and real-time weather generation via the ability to import METAR reports from NOAA, and support for Roger Wilco. The improvements were made available for owners of the original Fly! via a free patch. Another version titled ''Fly! 2K: German Edition'' was released in early 2001. It added Ruhr area to the game. It is intended to replace the Fly! 2 main program (exe) and remain fully compatible with previous versions, scenery, aircraft, etc. The first publicly available version was released in 2010.

Development
The game was in development for more than three years.

Reception
Fly! and ''Fly! 2K'' received mixed or average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. It sold 93,000 units by October 2001.

Sequel
''Fly! II is a sequel to Fly!'' released on April 26, 2001 for Windows and Macintosh. Macintosh version was distributed by MacSoft. Said sequel and ''Fly! 2K'' sold combined 47,000 units by October 2001.

Reception
Danny Atkin for Computer Gaming World said "Fly! II is this year's poster child for programs shoved out the door before completion–publisher Gathering of Developers not only shipped FLY! II with bugs and missing features, it even left out most of the manual. The shame of it all is that the finished parts are quire good, and developer Terminal Reality has been very quick to post patches and missing terrain data."

title: Fly!


text: User talk:130.206.100.134

title: User talk:130.206.100.134


text:
List of North Carolina state prisons

This is a list of state prisons in the U.S. state of North Carolina:

In January 2015, the former five male divisions and one female division were consolidated into four regions, as listed below. As of February 2015, North Carolina houses about 38,000 offenders in 56 correctional institutions.

Renamed Prisons
In 2021, five facilities were renamed because their previous names were explicitly associated with racism or slavery. The Roanoke River Correctional Institution was previously the Caledonia Correctional Institution, also known as the Caledonia State Prison Farm. The Western Correctional Center for Women was previously the Swannanoa Correctional Center for Women. The Granville Correctional Institution was previously the Polk Correctional Institution. The Richmond Correctional Institution was previously the Morrison Correction Institution. The DART Center in Goldsboro was previously the DART Cherry Facility.

Closed Prisons
The following North Carolina state prisons have been closed or consolidated into other facilities.

 * Alamance Correctional Center (closed October 2001)
 * Alexander Correctional Center (December 1998)
 * Anson CC (consolidated w/ Brown Creek CI) (December 2009)
 * Avery Correctional Center (October 1999)
 * Black Mountain Correctional Center for Women (July 2008)
 * Bladen Correctional Center (October 2013)
 * Blanch Youth Institution (formerly Ivy Bluff Prison) (September 1999)
 * Blue Ridge Correctional Center (October 2002)
 * Buncombe Correctional Center (consolidated with Craggy CC) (March 2014)
 * Burke Youth Center (June 1992)
 * Cabarrus Correctional Center (December 2011)
 * Charlotte Correctional Center (December 2011)
 * Chapel Hill Youth Development and Research Unit (1965)
 * Old Craggy Prison (1989)
 * Cleveland Correctional Center (December 2009)
 * Currituck Correctional Center (August 2000)
 * Davie Correctional Center (October 1997)
 * Duplin Correctional Center (August 2013)
 * Durham Correctional Center (October 2011)
 * Fountain Correctional Center For Women (December 2014)
 * Gates Correctional Center (October 2009)
 * Goldsboro Correctional Center (August 1999)
 * Granville Correctional Center (October 1996)
 * Guilford Correctional Center (October 2009)
 * Halifax Correctional Center (October 1996)
 * Haywood Correctional Center (November 2011)
 * Henderson Correctional Center (October 2002)
 * Iredell Correctional Center (October 1999)
 * IMPACT East (now Morrison minimum unit) (August 2002)
 * IMPACT West (now Foothills minimum unit) (August 2002)
 * Martin Correctional Center (December 1998)
 * McCain Correctional Hospital (April 2010)
 * McDowell Correctional Center (consolidated w/ Marion CI) (July 1996)
 * Mecklenburg Correctional Center (December 1998)
 * Montgomery Correctional Center (consolidated w/ Southern CI) 	(1997)
 * Moore Correctional Center (June 1995)
 * Nash (minimum) Correctional Center (September 1999)
 * North Piedmont Correctional Center for Women (August 2014)
 * Person Correctional Center (September 1996)
 * Polk Youth Center (Raleigh) (November 1997)
 * Raleigh Correctional Center for Women (consolidated w/ NCCIW) (March 2014)
 * Richmond Correctional Center (June 1995)
 * Robeson Correctional Center (August 2013)
 * Rockingham Correctional Center (September 1996)
 * Rowan CC (consolidated w/ Piedmont CI) (December 2009)
 * Sandhills Youth Center (June 2003)
 * Sandy Ridge Correctional Center (December 1998)
 * Scotland Correctional Center (November 2001)
 * Stanly Correctional Center (July 1999)
 * Stokes Correctional Center (October 1999)
 * Tillery Correctional Center (consolidated with Caledonia CI) 	(August 2014)
 * Triangle Correctional Center (August 1994)
 * Umstead Correctional Center (November 2009)
 * Union Correctional Center (October 2009)
 * Vance Correctional Center (November 1996)
 * Warren Correctional Center (May 1997)
 * Washington Correctional Center (November 1996)
 * Watauga Correctional Center (December 1998)
 * Wayne Correctional Center (October 2013)
 * Western Youth Institution (January 2014)
 * Wilmington Residential Facility for Women (September 2009)
 * Yadkin Correctional Center (September 1999)
 * Yancey Correctional Center (July 1999)

title: List of North Carolina state prisons


text:
List of amphibious warfare ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary

This is a list of amphibious warfare ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary, the naval auxiliary fleet of the United Kingdom.

Active

 * Bay-class dock landing ship
 * RFA Mounts Bay
 * RFA Cardigan Bay
 * RFA Lyme Bay
 * Littoral Strike Ship
 * RFA Argus

Decommissioned

 * Bay-class landing ship
 * RFA Largs Bay
 * Round Table-class landing ship logistics
 * RFA Sir Lancelot
 * RFA Sir Galahad (i)
 * RFA Sir Geraint
 * RFA Sir Percivale
 * RFA Sir Tristram
 * RFA Sir Galahad (ii)
 * RFA Sir Bedivere
 * Chartered LSL
 * RFA Sir Caradoc
 * RFA Sir Lamorak
 * Chartered Ro/Ro
 * RFA Sea Centurion
 * RFA Sea Crusader
 * Landing Ship Tank
 * RFA Empire Gull
 * Landing Ship Gantry
 * RFA Derwentdale
 * RFA Dewdale
 * RFA Ennerdale


text:
Talk:IQ and the Wealth of Nations

Wicherts et al on African I.Q.s, Lynn Thesis
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100121155220.htm

Controversial Study of African IQ Levels Is 'Deeply Flawed'

ScienceDaily (Jan. 21, 2010) - The controversial study on African IQ levels conducted by psychologist Richard Lynn is deeply flawed. This conclusion is the outcome of studies by Jelte Wicherts, Conor Dolan, Denny Borsboom and Han van der Maas of the University of Amsterdam (UvA) and Jerry Carlson of the University of California (Riverside).

Their findings are set to be published in Intelligence, Personality and Individual Differences, and Learning and Individual Differences.

In an oft-quoted literature study conducted in 2006, Lynn concluded that black Africans have an average IQ of less than 70 (compared to an average western IQ of 100). Lynn suggested that these low IQs are indicative of a low intelligence level, claiming this offered an explanation for the low level of economic development in sub-Saharan countries.

Lynn's study is well known among psychologists, and has been referenced by academics such as Nobel laureate James Watson, and the authors of the controversial book The Bell Curve -- Intelligence and Class Structure in America (Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray: Freepress, 1994).

African IQ scores prove flawed

Wicherts and his colleagues examined over 100 published studies, concluding that there is no evidence to back up Lynn's claims. Amongst other flaws, Lynn used selective data by systematically ignoring Africans with high IQ scores. The researchers also claim that African IQ test scores cannot be interpreted in terms of lower intelligence levels, as these scores have different psychometric characteristics than western IQ test scores. Until now, the incomparability of Western and African IQ scores had never been systematically proven.

The scientists point out that the average African IQ is currently comparable to the average level in the Netherlands around 1950. However, IQ scores in Western countries have risen sharply over the course of the 20th century. In view of this trend, Wicherts and his colleagues claim there are no reasonable grounds to conclude that sub-Saharan countries are poor due to the lower IQ scores of their populations. As it turns out, the average IQ of African adults is seeing a similar rising trend, which is expected to continue if living conditions in Africa improve in future.

Story Source: Adapted from materials provided by Universiteit van Amsterdam (UVA).

Journal References:

[see below]

-- -- -

Personality and Individual Differences

Volume 48, Issue 2, January 2010, Pages 91-96

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.028

Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Review

Why national IQs do not support evolutionary theories of intelligence

Jelte M. Wicherts, Denny Borsbooma and Conor V. Dolana

aDepartment of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Received 16 February 2009; revised 19 May 2009; accepted 26 May 2009. Available online 24 June 2009.

Abstract

Kanazawa (2008), Templer (2008), and Templer and Arikawa (2006) claimed to have found empirical support for evolutionary theories of race differences in intelligence by correlating estimates of national IQ with indicators of reproductive strategies, temperature, and geographic distance from Africa. In this paper we criticize these studies on methodological, climatic, and historical grounds. We show that these studies assume that the Flynn Effect is either nonexistent or invariant with respect to different regions of the world, that there have been no migrations and climatic changes over the course of evolution, and that there have been no trends over the last century in indicators of reproductive strategies (e.g., declines in fertility and infant mortality). In addition, we show that national IQs are strongly confounded with the current developmental status of countries. National IQs correlate with all the variables that have been suggested to have caused the Flynn Effect in the developed world.

Keywords: Evolutionary psychology; Flynn Effect; Race differences

Article Outline 1. Introduction 2. Temporal constancy over the course of evolution? 3. Climate change 4. Changes in reproductive strategies 5. Migration and geographic distance 6. The temporal stability of IQ-scores 7. The many confounds of national IQ 8. Method 9. Results 10. Discussion Acknowledgements References

Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 205257067.

- -- --

Personality and Individual Differences

Volume 48, Issue 2, January 2010, Pages 104-106

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.08.020

Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Short Communication

Evolution, brain size, and the national IQ of peoples around 3000 years B.C

Jelte M. Wicherts a, Denny Borsboom a and Conor V. Dolan a

aUniversity of Amsterdam, Department of Psychology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Received 22 August 2009; accepted 26 August 2009. Available online 18 September 2009.

Abstract

In this rejoinder, we respond to comments by Lynn, Rushton, and Templer on our previous paper in which we criticized the use of national IQs in studies of evolutionary theories of race differences in intelligence. We reiterate that because of the Flynn Effect and psychometric issues, national IQs cannot be taken to reflect populations' levels of g as fixed since the last ice age. We argue that the socio-cultural achievements of peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt in 3000 B.C. stand in stark contrast to the current low level of national IQ of peoples of Iraq and Egypt and that these ancient achievements appear to contradict evolutionary accounts of differences in national IQ. We argue that race differences in brain size, even if these were entirely of genetic origin, leave unexplained 91-95% of the black-white IQ gap. We highlight additional problems with hypotheses raised by Rushton and Templer. National IQs cannot be viewed solely in evolutionary terms but should be considered in light of global differences in socio-economic development, the causes of which are unknown.

Keywords: Evolutionary psychology; Flynn Effect; Race differences; Brain size

Article Outline 1. Introduction 2. IQ avant la lettre 3. Brain size 4. The Big picture 5. Conclusion Acknowledgements References

Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 205257067.

- -- --

Intelligence

Volume 38, Issue 1, January-February 2010, Pages 1-20

doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.05.002

Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A systematic literature review of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans

Jelte M. Wicherts, Conor V. Dolan a and Han L.J. van der Maas a

a Department of Psychology, Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Received 8 October 2008; revised 6 May 2009; accepted 12 May 2009. Available online 9 June 2009.

Abstract

On the basis of several reviews of the literature, Lynn [Lynn, R., (2006). Race differences in intelligence: An evolutionary analysis. Augusta, GA: Washington Summit Publishers.] and Lynn and Vanhanen [Lynn, R., & Vanhanen, T., (2006). IQ and global inequality. Augusta, GA: Washington Summit Publishers.] concluded that the average IQ of the Black population of sub-Saharan Africa lies below 70. In this paper, the authors systematically review published empirical data on the performance of Africans on the following IQ tests: Draw-A-Man (DAM) test, Kaufman-Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), the Wechsler scales (WAIS & WISC), and several other IQ tests (but not the Raven's tests). Inclusion and exclusion criteria are explicitly discussed. Results show that average IQ of Africans on these tests is approximately 82 when compared to UK norms. We provide estimates of the average IQ per country and estimates on the basis of alternative inclusion criteria. Our estimate of average IQ converges with the finding that national IQs of sub-Saharan African countries as predicted from several international studies of student achievement are around 82. It is suggested that this estimate should be considered in light of the Flynn Effect. It is concluded that more psychometric studies are needed to address the issue of measurement bias of western IQ tests for Africans.

Keywords: Group differences; Black-White differences; Flynn Effect; Race differences; Cross-cultural comparison; National IQ

Article Outline 1. Scholastic achievement surveys 2. A systematic review of the literature 3. Method 3.1. Search of studies 3.2. Our inclusion criteria 3.2.1. Norms 3.2.2. Standardized test administration of entire IQ test 3.2.3. No reported problems during testing 3.2.4. No measurement bias 3.2.5. Normal samples 3.3. Statistical analyses 4. Results 4.1. Draw-a-Man test 4.2. Kaufman-Assessment Battery for Children 4.3. Wechsler Scales 4.4. Culture Fair Intelligence Test 4.5. Other IQ tests 4.6. Meta-analytic analyses 4.7. Publication bias 5. Conclusion Appendix A. Appendix References

Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 205257067; fax: +31 206390026.

- -- --

Intelligence

Volume 38, Issue 1, January-February 2010, Pages 30-37

doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.11.003

Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The dangers of unsystematic selection methods and the representativeness of 46 samples of African test-takers

Jelte M. Wicherts, Conor V. Dolan a and Han L.J. van der Maas a

a University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Received 13 October 2009; accepted 6 November 2009. Available online 3 December 2009.

Abstract

In this rejoinder, we criticize Lynn and Meisenberg's (this issue) methods to estimate the average IQ (in terms of British norms after correction of the Flynn Effect) of the Black population of sub-Saharan Africa. We argue that their review of the literature is unsystematic, as it involves the inconsistent use of rules to determine the representativeness and hence selection of samples. Employing independent raters, we determined of each sample whether it was (1) considered representative by the original authors, (2) drawn randomly, (3) based on an explicated stratification scheme, (4) composed of healthy test-takers, and (5) considered by the original authors as normal in terms of Socio-Economic Status (SES). We show that the use of these alternative inclusion criteria would not have affected our results. We found that Lynn and Meisenberg's assessment of the samples' representativeness is not associated with any of the objective sampling characteristics, but rather with the average IQ in the sample. This suggests that Lynn and Meisenberg excluded samples of Africans who average IQs above 75 because they deemed these samples unrepresentative on the basis of the samples' relatively high IQs. We conclude that Lynn and Meisenberg's unsystematic methods are questionable and their results untrustworthy.

Keywords: Systematic literature review; National IQ; Group differences in IQ

Article Outline 1. Introduction 2. The full database 3. Inconsistent rules to determine representativeness 4. What is representative? 5. Conclusion Acknowledgements Appendix A. Supplementary data References

Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 205257067; fax: +31 206390026.

-- -- -

Learning and Individual Differences

Article in Press, Corrected Proof - Note to users

doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.12.001

Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Raven's test performance of sub-Saharan Africans: Average5 performance, psychometric properties, and the Flynn Effect

Jelte M. Wicherts a, Conor V. Dolan a, Jerry S. Carlson b and Han L.J. van der Maas a

a Department of Psychology, Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands

b University of California, Riverside, United States

Received 19 May 2009; revised 19 November 2009; accepted 3 December 2009. Available online 16 December 2009.

Abstract

This paper presents a systematic review of published data on the performance of sub-Saharan Africans on Raven's Progressive Matrices. The specific goals were to estimate the average level of performance, to study the Flynn Effect in African samples, and to examine the psychometric meaning of Raven's test scores as measures of general intelligence. Convergent validity of the Raven's tests is found to be relatively poor, although reliability and predictive validity are comparable to western samples. Factor analyses indicate that the Raven's tests are relatively weak indicators of general intelligence among Africans, and often measure additional factors, besides general intelligence. The degree to which Raven's scores of Africans reflect levels of general intelligence is unknown. Average IQ of Africans is approximately 80 when compared to US norms. Raven's scores among African adults have shown secular increases over the years. It is concluded that the Flynn Effect has yet to take hold in sub-Saharan Africa.

Keywords: Black-White differences; Cognitive abilities; Cross-cultural comparison; Measurement equivalence; Measurement invariance

Article Outline

1. Introduction 2. Is average IQ of Africans really below 70? 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Selection bias 2.1.2. Search of studies 2.1.3. Exclusion criteria 2.1.4. Converting raw scores to IQ 2.2. Results 2.2.1. Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices 2.2.2. Coloured Progressive Matrices 2.3. Conclusion on the average IQ of Africans 3. The Flynn Effect 3.1. Flynn Effect in Africa 4. Measurement problems and psychometric comparability 4.1. Reliability 4.2. Convergent validity 4.3. Factor analytical results 4.4. Measurement invariance 4.5. Criterion validity in educational settings 4.6. Conclusion on psychometric properties 5. General discussion Acknowledgements Appendix A. Appendix

Converting raw scores to IQs

Appendix B. Appendix References

Corresponding author. Tel.: + 31 205257067; fax: + 31 206390026.

Mankind Quarterly
user:greyfell Could you please link to the discussion where Mankind Quarterly is deemed unreliable? 2600:1012:B06D:B5D5:1A6:42B5:C488:100A (talk) 22:42, 9 November 2019 (UTC)

Concerns about wholesale deletion of text without discussion
I’ve noticed that some editors have been removing large blocks of information from the article without discussing first. In a potentially contentious article like this one, I would ask that the pending deletion at least be discussed in TALK before removing (BLP violations not withstanding). Any objections to this? Starcader (talk) 23:22, 9 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Mankind Quarterly is absolutely not a reliable source, and Emil Kirkegaard is not a recognized expert in anything (and has also been banned from Wikipedia). This is all WP:FRINGE. There is nothing else that needs to be said, but take it to WP:RSN if you want to waste more people's time. Grayfell (talk) 00:18, 10 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Can you please link to the discussion where Mankind Quarterly is found to be unreliable? Until then, the text should not have been reverted. 2600:1012:B06D:B5D5:1A6:42B5:C488:100A (talk) 00:37, 10 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Here are past discussions on WP:RSN. It's been a long time, so we could start a new discussion there if you wanted, but I don't think you'd convince anyone it can be used for things like this. --Aquillion (talk) 03:06, 10 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank you user: Aquillion Starcader (talk) 03:31, 10 November 2019 (UTC)

IQ and GDP per capita graph
This graph is patiently WP:SYNTH; it combines two separate data sources (IQ by country from worlddata.info, and GDP per capita from the IMF) in a way that leads the reader to a conclusion, outright describing the combination as just the synthesis made by a single editor. We cannot use that sort of thing in articles. EDIT: Also, I'm not sure that worlddata.info passes WP:RS; it appears to just be someone's personal website. Reading their description on here for the IQ data, though, they're using the list of estimated IQs from the book, which we're not allowed to reproduce here - I don't think putting it in graph form (synthesized with GDP) gets around the copyright issue. --Aquillion (talk) 03:41, 10 November 2019 (UTC)

Croatia
Pick another card, because this one is absolute rubbish!

Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen used IQ tests of children aged between 13 and 16 years old from 1952. Very reputable both of them. Later they had to correct their data. Unfortunately, this information has already been spread by equally dubious authors in several books, for whatever reason. Now is the Average iq for Croatia 99.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229401257_National_IQs_calculated_and_validated_for_108_nations Many of the most intelligent people in the world come from Croatia and you should accept that!

Three Croatians on the list of the smartest people alive today.

https://www.croatiaweek.com/3-croatians-make-30-smartest-people-alive-today-list/

The World Genius Directory Geniuses http://psiq.org/home.html

At least 7 Croats are among the 200 most intelligent people in the world. IQ Score: 192, 183, 180, 174, 163, 160, 151

Approximately 7 from Germany - 182 He is Turk not even a German, 165, 158, 156, 156, 153, 147

Approximatly 5 from France - 162, 158, 154, 150, 141

Approximatly 7 from the United Kingdom - 171, 167, 163, 153, 148, 144, 135

Approximatly 38 from Japan

Approximatly 30 from China

Approximatly 14 from Korea

Approximatly 21 from Italy

Four Croats have a higher IQ than the highest IQ-Score for Germany (182 is a Turk) and the United Kingdom and even five Croats have a higher IQ than the highest IQ-Score for France. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.25.6.141 (talk) 12:45, 19 May 2020 (UTC)

"List of nations by IQ" should not redirect here
The contents of this page are not nearly extensive enough to suffice for this redirect. Adding a list of countries by IQ would clutter this page, so removing the redirect is justified. Oro Temp (talk) 17:16, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:IQ and the Wealth of Nations