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AdS/CFT correspondence

In theoretical physics, the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence (frequently abbreviated as AdS/CFT) is a conjectured relationship between two kinds of physical theories. On one side are anti-de Sitter spaces (AdS) that are used in theories of quantum gravity, formulated in terms of string theory or M-theory. On the other side of the correspondence are conformal field theories (CFT) that are quantum field theories, including theories similar to the Yang–Mills theories that describe elementary particles.

The duality represents a major advance in the understanding of string theory and quantum gravity. This is because it provides a non-perturbative formulation of string theory with certain boundary conditions and because it is the most successful realization of the holographic principle, an idea in quantum gravity originally proposed by Gerard 't Hooft and promoted by Leonard Susskind.

It also provides a powerful toolkit for studying strongly coupled quantum field theories. Much of the usefulness of the duality results from the fact that it is a strong–weak duality: when the fields of the quantum field theory are strongly interacting, the ones in the gravitational theory are weakly interacting and thus more mathematically tractable. This fact has been used to study many aspects of nuclear and condensed matter physics by translating problems in those subjects into more mathematically tractable problems in string theory.

The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997. Important aspects of the correspondence were soon elaborated on in two articles, one by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov, and another by Edward Witten. By 2015, Maldacena's article had over 10,000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics.

One of the most prominent examples of the AdS/CFT correspondence has been the AdS5/CFT4 correspondence: a relation between N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory in 3+1 dimensions and type IIB superstring theory on AdS5 × S5.

Quantum gravity and strings
Current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Formulated in 1915, general relativity explains gravity in terms of the geometry of space and time, or spacetime. It is formulated in the language of classical physics that was developed by physicists such as Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. The other nongravitational forces are explained in the framework of quantum mechanics. Developed in the first half of the twentieth century by a number of different physicists, quantum mechanics provides a radically different way of describing physical phenomena based on probability.

Quantum gravity is the branch of physics that seeks to describe gravity using the principles of quantum mechanics. Currently, a popular approach to quantum gravity is string theory, which models elementary particles not as zero-dimensional points but as one-dimensional objects called strings. In the AdS/CFT correspondence, one typically considers theories of quantum gravity derived from string theory or its modern extension, M-theory.

In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space (up/down, left/right, and forward/backward), and there is one dimension of time. Thus, in the language of modern physics, one says that spacetime is four-dimensional. One peculiar feature of string theory and M-theory is that these theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency: in string theory spacetime is ten-dimensional, while in M-theory it is eleven-dimensional. The quantum gravity theories appearing in the AdS/CFT correspondence are typically obtained from string and M-theory by a process known as compactification. This produces a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions and the extra dimensions are "curled up" into circles.

A standard analogy for compactification is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length, but as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling inside it would move in two dimensions.

Quantum field theory
The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory. In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields. Quantum field theories are also used throughout condensed matter physics to model particle-like objects called quasiparticles.

In the AdS/CFT correspondence, one considers, in addition to a theory of quantum gravity, a certain kind of quantum field theory called a conformal field theory. This is a particularly symmetric and mathematically well behaved type of quantum field theory. Such theories are often studied in the context of string theory, where they are associated with the surface swept out by a string propagating through spacetime, and in statistical mechanics, where they model systems at a thermodynamic critical point.

Geometry of anti-de Sitter space
In the AdS/CFT correspondence, one considers string theory or M-theory on an anti-de Sitter background. This means that the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein's equation called anti-de Sitter space.

In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the right. This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior.

Now imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space. It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface. This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions. Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can "stack up" copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space.

Idea of AdS/CFT
An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this boundary is that, locally around any point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics.

One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which "spacetime" is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for the AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the "spacetime" for a conformal field theory. The claim is that this conformal field theory is equivalent to the gravitational theory on the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a "dictionary" for translating calculations in one theory into calculations in the other. Every entity in one theory has a counterpart in the other theory. For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory. In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding.

Notice that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space has fewer dimensions than anti-de Sitter space itself. For instance, in the three-dimensional example illustrated above, the boundary is a two-dimensional surface. The AdS/CFT correspondence is often described as a "holographic duality" because this relationship between the two theories is similar to the relationship between a three-dimensional object and its image as a hologram. Although a hologram is two-dimensional, it encodes information about all three dimensions of the object it represents. In the same way, theories that are related by the AdS/CFT correspondence are conjectured to be exactly equivalent, despite living in different numbers of dimensions. The conformal field theory is like a hologram that captures information about the higher-dimensional quantum gravity theory.

Examples of the correspondence
Following Maldacena's insight in 1997, theorists have discovered many different realizations of the AdS/CFT correspondence. These relate various conformal field theories to compactifications of string theory and M-theory in various numbers of dimensions. The theories involved are generally not viable models of the real world, but they have certain features, such as their particle content or high degree of symmetry, which make them useful for solving problems in quantum field theory and quantum gravity.

The most famous example of the AdS/CFT correspondence states that type IIB string theory on the product space AdS5 × S5 is equivalent to N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory on the four-dimensional boundary. In this example, the spacetime on which the gravitational theory lives is effectively five-dimensional (hence the notation AdS5), and there are five additional compact dimensions (encoded by the S5 factor). In the real world, spacetime is four-dimensional, at least macroscopically, so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity. Likewise, the dual theory is not a viable model of any real-world system as it assumes a large amount of supersymmetry. Nevertheless, as explained below, this boundary theory shares some features in common with quantum chromodynamics, the fundamental theory of the strong force. It describes particles similar to the gluons of quantum chromodynamics together with certain fermions. As a result, it has found applications in nuclear physics, particularly in the study of the quark–gluon plasma.

Another realization of the correspondence states that M-theory on AdS7 × S4 is equivalent to the so-called (2,0)-theory in six dimensions. In this example, the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven-dimensional. The existence of the (2,0)-theory that appears on one side of the duality is predicted by the classification of superconformal field theories. It is still poorly understood because it is a quantum mechanical theory without a classical limit. Despite the inherent difficulty in studying this theory, it is considered to be an interesting object for a variety of reasons, both physical and mathematical.

Yet another realization of the correspondence states that M-theory on AdS4 × S7 is equivalent to the ABJM superconformal field theory in three dimensions. Here the gravitational theory has four noncompact dimensions, so this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity.

A non-perturbative formulation of string theory

In quantum field theory, one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory. Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century, perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations. One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point-like particles and their interactions. Although this formalism is extremely useful for making predictions, these predictions are only possible when the strength of the interactions, the coupling constant, is small enough to reliably describe the theory as being close to a theory without interactions.

The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of quantum field theory can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings. The interaction of strings is most straightforwardly defined by generalizing the perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum field theory. At the level of Feynman diagrams, this means replacing the one-dimensional diagram representing the path of a point particle by a two-dimensional surface representing the motion of a string. Unlike in quantum field theory, string theory does not yet have a full non-perturbative definition, so many of the theoretical questions that physicists would like to answer remain out of reach.

The problem of developing a non-perturbative formulation of string theory was one of the original motivations for studying the AdS/CFT correspondence. As explained above, the correspondence provides several examples of quantum field theories that are equivalent to string theory on anti-de Sitter space. One can alternatively view this correspondence as providing a definition of string theory in the special case where the gravitational field is asymptotically anti-de Sitter (that is, when the gravitational field resembles that of anti-de Sitter space at spatial infinity). Physically interesting quantities in string theory are defined in terms of quantities in the dual quantum field theory.

Black hole information paradox
In 1975, Stephen Hawking published a calculation that suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon. At first, Hawking's result posed a problem for theorists because it suggested that black holes destroy information. More precisely, Hawking's calculation seemed to conflict with one of the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, which states that physical systems evolve in time according to the Schrödinger equation. This property is usually referred to as unitarity of time evolution. The apparent contradiction between Hawking's calculation and the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics came to be known as the black hole information paradox.

The AdS/CFT correspondence resolves the black hole information paradox, at least to some extent, because it shows how a black hole can evolve in a manner consistent with quantum mechanics in some contexts. Indeed, one can consider black holes in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, and any such black hole corresponds to a configuration of particles on the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. These particles obey the usual rules of quantum mechanics and in particular evolve in a unitary fashion, so the black hole must also evolve in a unitary fashion, respecting the principles of quantum mechanics. In 2005, Hawking announced that the paradox had been settled in favor of information conservation by the AdS/CFT correspondence, and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which black holes might preserve information.

Nuclear physics
One physical system that has been studied using the AdS/CFT correspondence is the quark–gluon plasma, an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators. This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies. Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvins, conditions similar to those present at around 10−11 seconds after the Big Bang.

The physics of the quark–gluon plasma is governed by quantum chromodynamics, but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark–gluon plasma. In an article appearing in 2005, Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators showed that the AdS/CFT correspondence could be used to understand some aspects of the quark–gluon plasma by describing it in the language of string theory. By applying the AdS/CFT correspondence, Sơn and his collaborators were able to describe the quark gluon plasma in terms of black holes in five-dimensional spacetime. The calculation showed that the ratio of two quantities associated with the quark–gluon plasma, the shear viscosity η and volume density of entropy s, should be approximately equal to a certain universal constant:
 * $$\frac{\eta}{s}\approx\frac{\hbar}{4\pi k}$$

where ħ denotes the reduced Planck constant and k is the Boltzmann constant. In addition, the authors conjectured that this universal constant provides a lower bound for η/s in a large class of systems. In an experiment conducted at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory, the experimental result in one model was close to this universal contant but it was not the case in another model.

Another important property of the quark–gluon plasma is that very high energy quarks moving through the plasma are stopped or "quenched" after traveling only a few femtometres. This phenomenon is characterized by a number $^ q$ called the jet quenching parameter, which relates the energy loss of such a quark to the squared distance traveled through the plasma. Calculations based on the AdS/CFT correspondence give the estimated value $^ q$ ≈ $4 GeV^{2}/fm$, and the experimental value of $^ q$ lies in the range $5 GeV^{2}/fm$.

Condensed matter physics

Over the decades, experimental condensed matter physicists have discovered a number of exotic states of matter, including superconductors and superfluids. These states are described using the formalism of quantum field theory, but some phenomena are difficult to explain using standard field theoretic techniques. Some condensed matter theorists including Subir Sachdev hope that the AdS/CFT correspondence will make it possible to describe these systems in the language of string theory and learn more about their behavior.

So far some success has been achieved in using string theory methods to describe the transition of a superfluid to an insulator. A superfluid is a system of electrically neutral atoms that flows without any friction. Such systems are often produced in the laboratory using liquid helium, but recently experimentalists have developed new ways of producing artificial superfluids by pouring trillions of cold atoms into a lattice of criss-crossing lasers. These atoms initially behave as a superfluid, but as experimentalists increase the intensity of the lasers, they become less mobile and then suddenly transition to an insulating state. During the transition, the atoms behave in an unusual way. For example, the atoms slow to a halt at a rate that depends on the temperature and on the Planck constant, the fundamental parameter of quantum mechanics, which does not enter into the description of the other phases. This behavior has recently been understood by considering a dual description where properties of the fluid are described in terms of a higher dimensional black hole.

Criticism
With many physicists turning towards string-based methods to solve problems in nuclear and condensed matter physics, some theorists working in these areas have expressed doubts about whether the AdS/CFT correspondence can provide the tools needed to realistically model real-world systems. In a talk at the Quark Matter conference in 2006, an American physicist, Larry McLerran pointed out that the N = 4 super Yang–Mills theory that appears in the AdS/CFT correspondence differs significantly from quantum chromodynamics, making it difficult to apply these methods to nuclear physics. According to McLerran,

"N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills is not QCD ... It has no mass scale and is conformally invariant. It has no confinement and no running coupling constant. It is supersymmetric. It has no chiral symmetry breaking or mass generation. It has six scalar and fermions in the adjoint representation ... It may be possible to correct some or all of the above problems, or, for various physical problems, some of the objections may not be relevant. As yet there is not consensus nor compelling arguments for the conjectured fixes or phenomena which would insure that the N = 4 supersymmetric Yang Mills results would reliably reflect QCD."

In a letter to Physics Today, Nobel laureate Philip W. Anderson voiced similar concerns about applications of AdS/CFT to condensed matter physics, stating

"As a very general problem with the AdS/CFT approach in condensed-matter theory, we can point to those telltale initials 'CFT'—conformal field theory. Condensed-matter problems are, in general, neither relativistic nor conformal. Near a quantum critical point, both time and space may be scaling, but even there we still have a preferred coordinate system and, usually, a lattice. There is some evidence of other linear-T phases to the left of the strange metal about which they are welcome to speculate, but again in this case the condensed-matter problem is overdetermined by experimental facts."

String theory and nuclear physics
The discovery of the AdS/CFT correspondence in late 1997 was the culmination of a long history of efforts to relate string theory to nuclear physics. In fact, string theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a theory of hadrons, the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that are held together by the strong nuclear force. The idea was that each of these particles could be viewed as a different oscillation mode of a string. In the late 1960s, experimentalists had found that hadrons fall into families called Regge trajectories with squared energy proportional to angular momentum, and theorists showed that this relationship emerges naturally from the physics of a rotating relativistic string.

On the other hand, attempts to model hadrons as strings faced serious problems. One problem was that string theory includes a massless spin-2 particle whereas no such particle appears in the physics of hadrons. Such a particle would mediate a force with the properties of gravity. In 1974, Joël Scherk and John Schwarz suggested that string theory was therefore not a theory of nuclear physics as many theorists had thought but instead a theory of quantum gravity. At the same time, it was realized that hadrons are actually made of quarks, and the string theory approach was abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics.

In quantum chromodynamics, quarks have a kind of charge that comes in three varieties called colors. In a paper from 1974, Gerard 't Hooft studied the relationship between string theory and nuclear physics from another point of view by considering theories similar to quantum chromodynamics, where the number of colors is some arbitrary number N, rather than three. In this article, 't Hooft considered a certain limit where N tends to infinity and argued that in this limit certain calculations in quantum field theory resemble calculations in string theory.

Black holes and holography

In 1975, Stephen Hawking published a calculation that suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon. This work extended previous results of Jacob Bekenstein who had suggested that black holes have a well-defined entropy. At first, Hawking's result appeared to contradict one of the main postulates of quantum mechanics, namely the unitarity of time evolution. Intuitively, the unitarity postulate says that quantum mechanical systems do not destroy information as they evolve from one state to another. For this reason, the apparent contradiction came to be known as the black hole information paradox.

Later, in 1993, Gerard 't Hooft wrote a speculative paper on quantum gravity in which he revisited Hawking's work on black hole thermodynamics, concluding that the total number of degrees of freedom in a region of spacetime surrounding a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the horizon. This idea was promoted by Leonard Susskind and is now known as the holographic principle. The holographic principle and its realization in string theory through the AdS/CFT correspondence have helped elucidate the mysteries of black holes suggested by Hawking's work and are believed to provide a resolution of the black hole information paradox. In 2004, Hawking conceded that black holes do not violate quantum mechanics, and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which they might preserve information.

Maldacena's paper

On January 1, 1998, Juan Maldacena published a landmark paper that initiated the study of AdS/CFT. According to Alexander Markovich Polyakov, "[Maldacena's] work opened the flood gates." The conjecture immediately excited great interest in the string theory community and was considered in a paper by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Polyakov, and another paper of Edward Witten. These papers made Maldacena's conjecture more precise and showed that the conformal field theory appearing in the correspondence lives on the boundary of anti-de Sitter space.

One special case of Maldacena's proposal says that N = 4 super Yang–Mills theory, a gauge theory similar in some ways to quantum chromodynamics, is equivalent to string theory in five-dimensional anti-de Sitter space. This result helped clarify the earlier work of 't Hooft on the relationship between string theory and quantum chromodynamics, taking string theory back to its roots as a theory of nuclear physics. Maldacena's results also provided a concrete realization of the holographic principle with important implications for quantum gravity and black hole physics. By the year 2015, Maldacena's paper had become the most highly cited paper in high energy physics with over 10,000 citations. These subsequent articles have provided considerable evidence that the correspondence is correct, although so far it has not been rigorously proved.

Three-dimensional gravity
In order to better understand the quantum aspects of gravity in our four-dimensional universe, some physicists have considered a lower-dimensional mathematical model in which spacetime has only two spatial dimensions and one time dimension. In this setting, the mathematics describing the gravitational field simplifies drastically, and one can study quantum gravity using familiar methods from quantum field theory, eliminating the need for string theory or other more radical approaches to quantum gravity in four dimensions.

Beginning with the work of J. David Brown and Marc Henneaux in 1986, physicists have noticed that quantum gravity in a three-dimensional spacetime is closely related to two-dimensional conformal field theory. In 1995, Henneaux and his coworkers explored this relationship in more detail, suggesting that three-dimensional gravity in anti-de Sitter space is equivalent to the conformal field theory known as Liouville field theory. Another conjecture formulated by Edward Witten states that three-dimensional gravity in anti-de Sitter space is equivalent to a conformal field theory with monster group symmetry. These conjectures provide examples of the AdS/CFT correspondence that do not require the full apparatus of string or M-theory.

dS/CFT correspondence
Unlike our universe, which is now known to be expanding at an accelerating rate, anti-de Sitter space is neither expanding nor contracting. Instead it looks the same at all times. In more technical language, one says that anti-de Sitter space corresponds to a universe with a negative cosmological constant, whereas the real universe has a small positive cosmological constant.

Although the properties of gravity at short distances should be somewhat independent of the value of the cosmological constant, it is desirable to have a version of the AdS/CFT correspondence for positive cosmological constant. In 2001, Andrew Strominger introduced a version of the duality called the dS/CFT correspondence. This duality involves a model of spacetime called de Sitter space with a positive cosmological constant. Such a duality is interesting from the point of view of cosmology since many cosmologists believe that the very early universe was close to being de Sitter space.

Kerr/CFT correspondence
Although the AdS/CFT correspondence is often useful for studying the properties of black holes, most of the black holes considered in the context of AdS/CFT are physically unrealistic. Indeed, as explained above, most versions of the AdS/CFT correspondence involve higher-dimensional models of spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry.

In 2009, Monica Guica, Thomas Hartman, Wei Song, and Andrew Strominger showed that the ideas of AdS/CFT could nevertheless be used to understand certain astrophysical black holes. More precisely, their results apply to black holes that are approximated by extremal Kerr black holes, which have the largest possible angular momentum compatible with a given mass. They showed that such black holes have an equivalent description in terms of conformal field theory. The Kerr/CFT correspondence was later extended to black holes with lower angular momentum.

Higher spin gauge theories
The AdS/CFT correspondence is closely related to another duality conjectured by Igor Klebanov and Alexander Markovich Polyakov in 2002. This duality states that certain "higher spin gauge theories" on anti-de Sitter space are equivalent to conformal field theories with O(N) symmetry. Here the theory in the bulk is a type of gauge theory describing particles of arbitrarily high spin. It is similar to string theory, where the excited modes of vibrating strings correspond to particles with higher spin, and it may help to better understand the string theoretic versions of AdS/CFT and possibly even prove the correspondence. In 2010, Simone Giombi and Xi Yin obtained further evidence for this duality by computing quantities called three-point functions.

title: AdS/CFT correspondence


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Talk:I Am – Somebody

This entry says: In 1990, when Dr. Seuss died, Saturday Night Live parodied the poem by having him recite "Green Eggs and Ham".

I don't think that SNL reading was a "parody" at all. The tone and presentation were nothing like the Sesame Street poem. I thought the SNL scene was an homage to Dr. Seuss, performed with a straight face and beautifully read by Rev. Jackson.

That portion of this klisting seems a bit too glib. (Bill Reagan)

Shouldn't that better be in WikiSource? - Sid 17:12, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * There is a fair amount of non-source text in it. -- user:zanimum

Copyvio removed
Per WP:LYRICS, the extensive quoting of copyrighted poetry and song lyrics is considered a copyright violation and must be removed, so I have done so. The use of a few lines is acceptable but I'll leave others to decide which lines to use. If Jackson has released his poem to the public domain, then this needs to be clearly indicated in the article with a verifiable source. I doubt the lyrics quoted from the J.B.'s version is public domain, however. 23skidoo 00:37, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Yasmin Brown?
Yasmin Brown featured in this episode

Who is Yasmin Brown? Anything relation of Yasmin Alibhi-Brown, or someone else altogether? Flapdragon (talk) 06:40, 20 September 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:I Am – Somebody


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Talk:List of earls in the peerages of Britain and Ireland

Untitled
We've already got lists for all the separate peerages (e.g. England, Scotland) and a reasonably good list of all earldoms (List of Earldoms). Is this page necessary? Mackensen 17:16, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

I think it's useful. The Peerage of England series duplicates all those with peerages in more than one Peerage. If I just want a list of Earls, say to draw up a table of precedence, this page is the most useful. If I want to see what a reconstituted Irish House of Lords would look like, then Peerage of Ireland is the most useful. They all have their uses. Proteus (Talk) 17:24, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

Earls of Scotland
While the Earls of Scotland are currently listed in chronological order by the creation of their earldom, I seem to recall that the order of precedence (which this page is supposed to represent) of early Scottish earls is actually based on some sort of traditional list, rather than actually on strict seniority. Does anyone know about this? john k 02:31, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Okay, the Hull database lists them in this order:

1398 Crawford 1452 Erroll 1404 Mar 1457 Rothes 1458 Morton 1469 Buchan 1507 Eglinton 1455 Caithness 1565 Mar & Kellie 1562 Moray

But it leaves out Sutherland, probably because it's based on a list from before 1963, when the Earldom and Dukedom of Sutherland split apart again. Does anyone know a) if this is correct; and b) where Sutherland fits in? john k 02:39, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

To note - the fact that Crawford and Erroll come first seems to be fairly well substantiated. I've no real idea of the rest - the only other ones that are out of place are Caithness and Mar&Kellie. john k 02:41, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I can't comfirm or deny the odd position of Caithness, but (Mar and) Kellie is indeed ahead of Moray. Crawford and Erroll are definitely first, and Sutherland, I assume, is between Erroll and (the actual) Mar. The other odd thing is Rothes and Morton, as my information says that the latter was created 6 days before the former (20 and 14 March 1458 respectively), but again I have no further information on them. Proteus (Talk) 12:53, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

The document to which you refer is called the Decreet of Ranking, which was created in 1606 on the instructions of James VI and I. The Decreet ordered the first seven earls as follows: Angus, Argyll (as Master of the Household), Crawford, Erroll, the Earl Marischal, Sutherland, Mar. As the post of Earl Marischal is no longer extant, Sutherland would indeed fit in between Erroll and Mar. (Source: Historic Earls and Earldoms of Scotland) -- Emsworth 17:11, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Emsworth, do you know anything about Caithness's placement? Also, is there a general consensus to reorder the early stuff to reflect order of precedence? john k 18:01, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I haven't been able to find anything on Caithness. I do agree, however, that the list should reflect the order of precedence. -- Emsworth 18:10, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

HRH The Earl of Wessex derives his precedence from his status a younger son of the Sovereign, not from the date of creation of the earldom. User: Jeff 4 July 2005

A bold proposal
Given the discussion here and the general support for moving the article to a more descriptive and accurate title, would anyone object if I moved the article to List of earls in the peerages of the British Isles with a redirect from List of earls? I'm going to propose this for the other peerage pages, as well. Fishhead64 20:44, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Under the current title I would expect to find Scandinavian earls here too Fornadan (t) 14:12, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was support for move.--Fuhghettaboutit (talk) 13:25, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * Support move to List of earls: No need for a capital letter, as these are earls in general: if it was List of Earls of Arundel the capital would be justified (that one's actually a redirect). Compare to existing articles List of dukes in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and List of counts of Austria–Hungary.  PamD (talk) 22:02, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Support for the same reason that we use Prime minister instead of Prime Minister. It is used as general term and not about a particular person. Same applies here. --70.24.182.130 (talk) 00:09, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Support This is proper English usage for a common noun. --Bejnar (talk) 01:28, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Oppose This is a list of Earls in the Peerages of Great Britain, not of all the earls in the world (chiefly in Scandinavia); it doesn't have the long form because we're using it for the variant which contains all Earldoms ever created. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 20:06, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * You mean a "List of earls in the peerages of Great Britain", certainly? Could you explain why a list of earls in peerages has a different capitalization from a list of earls full stop? The Earl of Y (or Earl X of Y) is an earl in the peerage (even the difference between the Earl and an earl indicates the capitalization). And if this is only a list as you descriibe it, then it is dreadfully mistitled anyway. Fram (talk) 20:34, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Support -- This is the correct capitalisation. Strictly, it is a List of extant British earldoms.  The word "earl" is occasionally used for Norman French titles, but that is an archaic usage.  There is a separate article listing all creations, though that may be deficient for the proconquest period, lacking Earls of Mercia, Northumberland, Wessex, etc.  However these were perhpas more in the nature of offices than hereditary peeages.  Peterkingiron (talk) 17:24, 14 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Support. Per nominator; proper English usage for a common noun, consistent with similar articles. Chrisieboy (talk) 01:06, 16 January 2009 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Earl of Charlton (1860)
I reverted the addition of the above by a new editor, on the basis that I could find no reliable source for the existence of this title. The same editor has undone my revert. However, he has not created an article on the title or added any reference. Until evidence is provided that the title existed, I must regard the addition as a variety of vandalism, but I am not sure how to proceed from here. Peterkingiron (talk) 19:42, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

I am absolutely appalled by the suggestion from Peterkingiron the addition is some sort of vandalism. The title does exist. I may have been premature in adding the title at this stage. But I intended on building the section as time dictated. Peterkingiron should never ever make assumptions and not just remove anything until they have the correct facts! An article will be added in due course, or don't I bother due to the tactics of Peterkingiron? user: Amendingt2

Thank You. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Amending2 (talk • contribs) 23:44, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

 * This appears to be a fictional title - (replace the word dot with a dot and no spaces) z7.invisionfree dot com/the18thcentury/ar/t67.htm (spam filter avoidance there... ) and references in the badly scanned Members of the Beaufort Hunt http://www.archive.org/stream/membersofbeaufor00henr/membersofbeaufor00henr_djvu.txt that appear to refer to Earls of Charlton Park in fact refer to Earls of Suffolk and Berkshire, whose seat was Charlton Park. Peridon (talk) 00:12, 4 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Amending2, if you have evidence that the title exists, you need to cite your evidence for it. If you do not know how to do this, set it out here, and I will add it to the article in the proper manner.  I am an experienced WP editor, and am not in the habit of intentionally removing correct and appropriate information, which would be vandalism.  I did a websearch before reverting your addition and also checked "rayment", a website which has compiled lists of peers, WPs, etc from reliable sources.  This led me to believe that the title does not exist.  If I am wrong, I will be very happy to be proved so.  If as Peridon suggests the title is a mistaken reference to the Earls of Suffolk and Berkshire from their residence, it should not be in the list, but should be a redirect to that title and a short passage should be added to the article on that article (or rather both of them), explaining the issue WITH REFERENCES.  If it is a fictional title, it should not be in this list, but again there will be appropriate ways of dealing with it.  Peterkingiron (talk) 11:43, 4 January 2011 (UTC)

list of heirs apparent
this list include a secondary list of the heirs apparent of earls, why? If I wanted to know who the heir apparent of a particular earl is I will(and do) click on the link for that earl's article(either one). After all mostly what is listed here is the courtesy title. It would make more sense to list heirs apparent who used an earldom as opposed to courtesy titles and broken links. besides it is something where that the information would change and no one would update the lists. Tinynanorobots (talk) 17:17, 3 December 2011 (UTC)

Earl of Buckland 1947 (UK)
= I'm calling bullsh*t, so if "Robin Johnson, 3rd Earl of Buckland" wants to prove me wrong, he can reply here.
 * 1) Its a redlink
 * 2) It doesn't appear in Leigh Rayment
 * 3) It doesn't, in fact, appear on Google other than on this page
 * Looks like WP:OR to me. Peterkingiron (talk) 15:16, 24 October 2013 (UTC)

Category:Earldoms in the Peerage of England
I suggest that the above category should be headed 'This category lists all substantive earldoms created in the Peerage of England.' Compare Category:Marquessates in the Peerage of England. The category would not therefore include: Alekksandr (talk) 16:47, 31 January 2016 (UTC) See ongoing discussion at Categories for discussion/Log/2016 February 7
 * 1) Earl of Arundel - held by the Duke of Norfolk.
 * 2) Earl of Bedford - held by the Duke of Bedford.
 * 3) Earl of Cardigan - held by the Marquess of Ailesbury.
 * 4) Earl of Marlborough - held by the Duke of Marlborough.
 * 5) Earl of Norfolk - held by the Duke of Norfolk.
 * 6) Earl of Northampton - held by the Marquess of Northampton.
 * 7) Earl of Salisbury - held by the Marquess of Salisbury.
 * 8) Earl of Sunderland - held by the Duke of Marlborough.
 * 9) Earl of Surrey - held by the Duke of Norfolk.
 * 10) Earl of Wiltshire - held by the Marquess of Winchester.
 * 11) Earl of Worcester - held by the Duke of Beaufort.

 * Each of these was created as a substantive earldom, i.e., not created simultaneously with a higher title. —Tamfang (talk) 09:24, 27 June 2016 (UTC)

Earl of Strathearn and Earl of Dumbarton
I'm surprised that the Earl of Strathearn (Prince William, Duke of Cambridge) wouldn't have been discussed here before, but is there any reason why he isn't on this list (or, for that matter, the Earl of Dumbarton)? There are certainly substantive titles. StAnselm (talk) 09:24, 20 May 2018 (UTC)
 * They are subsidiary titles rather than 'top level' titles, of which none are listed on this page. Subsidiary titles are listed on List of earldoms. This information is contained in the article lead. ToastButterToast (talk) 10:08, 20 May 2018 (UTC)
 * OK, does that mean the titles can be both substantive and subsidiary? Because both articles describe the respective titles as substantive. StAnselm (talk) 10:37, 20 May 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, the term substantive title is used to differentiate from courtesy titles. A peer can hold multiple substantive titles, for example Prince Harry holds three substantive titles, Duke of Sussex, Earl of Dumbarton, and Baron Kilkeel. In this case the Earl and Baron titles are subsidiary titles as they are of lower rank than the Duke title. Also, should Prince Harry have any children they could potentially (depending on other factors) use one of his subsidiary titles as a courtesy title, in a similar fashion to James, Viscount Severn. This is kind of a simplified explanation but I hope it covers everything well enough. ToastButterToast (talk) 11:18, 20 May 2018 (UTC)
 * OK, thanks for clearing that up. StAnselm (talk) 19:06, 20 May 2018 (UTC)

Earldom of Bristol
See Talk:Earl_of_Bristol, sub-heading 'Extinction of the first creation'. Please add any response there. Alekksandr (talk) 19:29, 17 June 2019 (UTC)

subsidiary earldoms
The column Subsidiary Titles is oddly, er, titled. That usually means the viscountcy/barony used as a courtesy title, not other titles of equal degree. How about Other Earldoms? —Tamfang (talk) 05:43, 27 December 2023 (UTC)


text:
Leonard Susskind

Leonard Susskind (born June 16, 1940) is an American theoretical physicist, Professor of theoretical physics at Stanford University and founding director of the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics. His research interests are string theory, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics and quantum cosmology. He is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, an associate member of the faculty of Canada's Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, and a distinguished professor of the Korea Institute for Advanced Study.

Susskind is widely regarded as one of the fathers of string theory. He was the first to give a precise string-theoretic interpretation of the holographic principle in 1995 and the first to introduce the idea of the string theory landscape in 2003.

Susskind was awarded the 1998 J. J. Sakurai Prize, and the 2018 Oskar Klein Medal.

Early life and education
Leonard Susskind was born to a Jewish family from the South Bronx in New York City. He began working as a plumber at the age of 16, taking over from his father who had become ill. Later, he enrolled in the City College of New York as an engineering student, graduating with a B.S. in physics in 1962. In an interview in the Los Angeles Times, Susskind recalls a discussion with his father that changed his career path: "When I told my father I wanted to be a physicist, he said, 'Hell no, you ain't going to work in a drug store.' I said, 'No, not a pharmacist.' I said, 'Like Einstein.' He poked me in the chest with a piece of plumbing pipe. 'You ain't going to be no engineer,' he said. 'You're going to be Einstein.'" Susskind then studied at Cornell University under Peter A. Carruthers, where he earned his Ph.D. in 1965.

Career

Susskind was an assistant professor of physics, then an associate professor at Yeshiva University (1966–1970), after which he went for a year to the Tel Aviv University (1971–72), returning to Yeshiva to become a professor of physics (1970–1979). Since 1979 he has been professor of physics at Stanford University, and since 2000 has held the Felix Bloch professorship of physics.

Susskind was awarded the 1998 J. J. Sakurai Prize for his "pioneering contributions to hadronic string models, lattice gauge theories, quantum chromodynamics, and dynamical symmetry breaking." Susskind's hallmark, according to colleagues, has been the application of "brilliant imagination and originality to the theoretical study of the nature of the elementary particles and forces that make up the physical world."

In 2007, Susskind joined the faculty of Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, as an associate member. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is also a distinguished professor at Korea Institute for Advanced Study.

Scientific career
Susskind was one of at least three physicists, alongside Yoichiro Nambu and Holger Bech Nielsen, who independently discovered during or around 1970 that the Veneziano dual resonance model of strong interactions could be described by a quantum mechanical model of oscillating strings, and was the first to propose the idea of the string theory landscape. Susskind has also made important contributions in the following areas of physics:
 * The independent discovery of the string theory model of particle physics
 * The theory of quark confinement
 * The development of Hamiltonian lattice gauge theory known as Kogut–Susskind fermions
 * The theory of scaling violations in deep inelastic electroproduction
 * The theory of symmetry breaking sometimes known as "technicolor theory"
 * The second, yet independent, theory of cosmological baryogenesis (Andrei Sakharov's work was first, but was mostly unknown in the Western hemisphere)
 * String theory of black hole entropy
 * The principle of black hole complementarity
 * The causal patch hypothesis
 * The holographic principle
 * M-theory, including development of the BFSS matrix model
 * Introduction of holographic entropy bounds in physical cosmology
 * Cool horizons for entangled black holes
 * The idea of an anthropic string theory landscape
 * The Census Taker's Hat (FRW/CFT duality)
 * Most recently, application of ideas from information and computation theory, such as the complexity equals action conjecture, to the physics and thermodynamics of black holes, and holographic theories in general.

Books
Susskind is the author of several popular science books.

The Cosmic Landscape
The Cosmic Landscape: String Theory and the Illusion of Intelligent Design is Susskind's first popular science book, published by Little, Brown and Company on December 12, 2005. It is Susskind's attempt to bring his idea of the anthropic landscape of string theory to the general public. In the book, Susskind describes how the string theory landscape was an almost inevitable consequence of several factors, one of which was Steven Weinberg's prediction of the cosmological constant in 1987. The question addressed here is why our universe is fine-tuned for our existence. Susskind explains that Weinberg calculated that if the cosmological constant was just a little different, our universe would cease to exist.

The Black Hole War
The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics is Susskind's second popular science book, published by Little, Brown, and Company on July 7, 2008. The book is his most famous work and explains what he thinks would happen to the information and matter stored in a black hole when it evaporates. The book sparked from a debate that started in 1981, when there was a meeting of physicists to try to decode some of the mysteries about how particles of particular elemental compounds function. During this discussion Stephen Hawking stated that the information inside a black hole is lost forever as the black hole evaporates. It took 28 years for Leonard Susskind to formulate his theory that would prove Hawking wrong. He then published his theory in his book, The Black Hole War. Like The Cosmic Landscape, The Black Hole War is aimed at the lay reader. He writes: "The real tools for understanding the quantum universe are abstract mathematics: infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces, projection operators, unitary matrices and a lot of other advanced principles that take a few years to learn. But let's see how we do in just a few pages".

The Theoretical Minimum book series
Susskind co-authored a series of companion books to his lecture series The Theoretical Minimum. The first of these, The Theoretical Minimum: What You Need to Know to Start Doing Physics, was published in 2013 and presents the modern formulations of classical mechanics. The second of these, Quantum Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum, was published in February 2014. The third book, Special Relativity and Classical Field Theory: The Theoretical Minimum (September 26, 2017), introduces readers to Einstein's special relativity and Maxwell's classical field theory. The fourth book in the series, General Relativity: The Theoretical Minimum was published in January 2023.

The Theoretical Minimum lecture series
Susskind teaches a series of Stanford Continuing Studies courses about modern physics referred to as The Theoretical Minimum. The title of the series is a clear reference to Landau's famous comprehensive exam called the "Theoretical Minimum" which students were expected to pass before admission to his school. The Theoretical Minimum lectures later formed the basis for the books of the same name. The goal of the courses is to teach the basic but rigorous theoretical foundations required to study certain areas of physics. The sequence covers classical mechanics, relativity, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and cosmology, including the physics of black holes.

These courses are available on The Theoretical Minimum website, on iTunes, and on YouTube. The courses are intended for the mathematically literate public as well as physical science/mathematics students. Susskind aims the courses at people with prior exposure to algebra, and calculus. Homework and study outside of class is otherwise unnecessary. Susskind explains most of the mathematics used, which form the basis of the lectures.

Cornell Messenger Lectures
Susskind gave 3 lectures "The Birth of the Universe and the Origin of Laws of Physics" April 28-May 1, 2014 in the Cornell Messenger Lecture series which are posted on a Cornell website.

Smolin–Susskind debate
The Smolin–Susskind debate refers to the series of intense postings in 2004 between Lee Smolin and Susskind, concerning Smolin's argument that the "anthropic principle cannot yield any falsifiable predictions, and therefore cannot be a part of science." It began on July 26, 2004, with Smolin's publication of "Scientific alternatives to the anthropic principle." Smolin e-mailed Susskind asking for a comment. Having not had the chance to read the paper, Susskind requested a summarization of his arguments. Smolin obliged, and on July 28, 2004, Susskind responded, saying that the logic Smolin followed "can lead to ridiculous conclusions." The next day, Smolin responded, saying that "If a large body of our colleagues feels comfortable believing a theory that cannot be proved wrong, then the progress of science could get stuck, leading to a situation in which false, but unfalsifiable theories dominate the attention of our field." This was followed by another paper by Susskind which made a few comments about Smolin's theory of "cosmic natural selection." The Smolin–Susskind debate finally ended with each of them agreeing to write a final letter which would be posted on the edge.org website, with three conditions attached: (1) No more than one letter each; (2) Neither sees the other's letter in advance; (3) No changes after the fact.

Personal life
He has been married twice, first in 1960, and he has four children. Susskind is a great-grandfather.

title: Leonard Susskind


text:
Time's Arrow

Time's Arrow may refer to:
 * "Time's Arrow" (short story), a 1950 short story by Arthur C. Clarke
 * Time's Arrow (novel), a 1991 novel by Martin Amis
 * "Time's Arrow" (Star Trek: The Next Generation), a 1992 two-part episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation
 * Time's Arrow (EP), a 2011 release by the American artist Prurient
 * "Time's Arrow", a 2012 orchestral work by English composer Anthony Payne
 * "Time's Arrow" (BoJack Horseman), a 2017 episode of BoJack Horseman
 * Time's Arrow (album), a 2023 album by the English electronic music band Ladytron

title: Time's Arrow


text:
Chechen War

Chechen War may refer to:

 * Chechen–Russian conflict, 1785–Present
 * Caucasian War, 1817–1864
 * Murid War, 1829–1859, a.k.a. Russian Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan
 * 1940–44 insurgency in Chechnya
 * First Chechen War, December 1994–August 1996
 * Second Chechen War, 1999–2009
 * Insurgency in the North Caucasus, 2009–2017

title: Chechen War


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HMS Broadsword

HMS Broadsword may refer to the following ships of the Royal Navy:

Ships

 * HMS Broadsword (D31), was a Weapon-class destroyer launched in 1946 and broken up in 1968.
 * HMS Broadsword (F88), was a Type 22 frigate launched in 1975. She was sold to the Brazilian Navy in 1995 and renamed Greenhalgh.

Battle honours
Ships named Broadsword have been awarded the following battle honours:
 * Falkland Islands, 1982

In fiction

 * HMS Broadsword, a fictional Royal Navy destroyer in Jeffrey Archer's novel First Among Equals.

title: HMS Broadsword


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Little Conemaugh River

The Little Conemaugh River is a tributary of the Conemaugh River, approximately 30 mi long, in western Pennsylvania in the United States.

The main branch rises in eastern Cambria County, along the western slope of the Appalachian ridge separating the watersheds of the Ohio and Susquehanna rivers. It flows west-southwest through the mountains, past Cassandra, Portage, and Summerhill, where it is joined by the South Fork Little Conemaugh River. It then follows a west-northwest course to Johnstown, where it joins the Stonycreek River to form the Conemaugh River.

Mine drainage
The river flows through scenic mountainous areas but is considered severely degraded by abandoned mine drainage, most notably the Hughes bore hole, from the long exploitation of the region's coal resources. The recovery of the river is an ongoing project of federal, state, and private agencies.

History
Only four navigable passes pierce the barrier range of the Appalachian Mountains in this part of the United States, one of which leads to the Conemaugh Valley. The headwaters of the Little Conemaugh form on the western side of Tunnelhill, Pennsylvania, at Cresson Pass in northern Cambria County, which is transited by the line of the Eastern Continental drainage divide. The river's upper valley falls off gradually enough that the terrain forms a natural transportation corridor navigable by muscle-powered vehicles such as Indian travois and Conestoga wagons. Consequently, when the earliest settlers pushed west from the Susquehanna basin, the waters falling or rising on the eastern side of the drainage divide ran down through valleys Amerindians had used for centuries to cross between the west and east sides of the mountains.

In the early 19th century, when Pennsylvania made a bid to connect to new business opportunities in the rapidly growing Ohio Valley, the state government launched the great engineering project of the Pennsylvania Canal System, which connected eastern and western Pennsylvania via the Conemaugh Valley and Johnstown. Several major dams were constructed on the rivers of the Conemaugh drainage system in order to impound reservoirs which could be used as permanent canals and towpaths, including one on the South Fork Little Conemaugh in the mountains upstream of Johnstown. The river was paralleled by the western inclines of the Allegheny Portage Railroad, connecting the two branches of the Pennsylvania Main Line Canals with the western terminus of the portage railroad at Johnstown. Created as part of the Pennsylvania Main Line of Public Works, the railway operated from its completion in 1834 until it was sold in 1854 to the Pennsylvania Railroad, which took over its rights of way. Thereafter, the banks of the Conemaugh and Little Conemaugh hosted one of the most important rail transport corridors running east–west across the Appalachian Mountains. As the canal system was gradually made obsolete by faster and cheaper rail transport, the impoundments in the valley were drained or sold to private interests. The reservoir on the South Fork Little Conemaugh was repurposed as a recreational property for use by members of a private fishing and hunting club.

On May 31, 1889, the dam holding back this reservoir failed during a period of extremely heavy rainfall, sending a wall of water up to 60 ft (18 m) high down the Little Conemaugh at 40 mph (64 km/h), causing massive flooding in the towns along its banks, including Johnstown, and resulting in the loss of 2,209 lives in the worst civilian disaster of the 19th century in the United States. The event is remembered to history as the Johnstown Flood.

title: Little Conemaugh River


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ExPlace Wind Turbine

The ExPlace Wind Turbine is a 91 m tall wind turbine located on the grounds of the Exhibition Place co-owned by the WindShare for-profit co-operative and Rankin Construction Inc.. It is the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre, and the first community-owned wind power project in Ontario. WindShare itself was officially launched in February 2002 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was created by the non-profit Toronto Renewable Energy Co-operative (TREC) which was incorporated in 1998. TREC continues to exist as a separate non-profit entity.

History
In 1998, the Toronto Renewable Energy Co-operative (TREC) was incorporated. The next year in 1999, the TREC received a grant to study three potential sites for an urban wind turbine project in Toronto. On June 30, 1999, the TREC formed an ad hoc partnership with Toronto Hydro to build wind turbines in Toronto. In February 2002, the TREC officially launched the WindShare co-operative with the policy of asking members of the non-profit TREC to become members of the for-profit WindShare co-operative.

From December 16 to 18, 2002, the WindShare's ExPlace wind turbine was erected. It is the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre, and the first community-owned wind power project in Ontario. On January 23, 2003, the ExPlace turbine began generating electricity. In 2006, the Government of Ontario introduced a feed-in tariff. As a part of the Green Energy Act, the feed-in tariff was revised by the Government of Ontario.

In the summer of 2012, the turbine was brought offline due to problems with the converter, the part of the turbine that converts the movement of the blades of the turbine into electricity. The converter was replaced and the turbine was brought back online in March 2013. Again in July 2014, the new converter had issues, causing the turbine to go offline until October of the same year while the issues were resolved.

In March 2017, water damaged the wind turbine's ring generator during a storm, causing the wind turbine to stop operating. Toronto Hydro took until August 2017 to fund a specialist firm to begin the required repairs as well as other upgrades to the turbine with work originally expected to be completed by November of the same year. In February 2019, the turbine finally became operational again.

Technical details
The turbine is 91 m tall and is a 750 kW direct drive Lagerwey Wind LW 52 wind turbine that weighs approximately 121000 kg. The tower of the turbine is 65 m tall and the diameter of the rotor is 52 m. The turbine has three blades that are each 25 m long. The rotor and reach a speed of approximately 24.5 rpm. The turbine is able to produce a power output in the range of 625 - 650 kilowatts at 12 m/s (871 electrical hp) in winds of 10 kn to 12 kn. Construction of the turbine cost approximately CAD$1.8 million (including foundation, interconnect, and erection).

The wind turbine adds an average of 1000 MWh of electricity to the city's main power grid per year.

title: ExPlace Wind Turbine


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User:Iratxe gonzalez

Please do not add copyrighted material to wikipedia. It is against the law. Mikkalai 17:26, 9 May 2004

title: User:Iratxe gonzalez


text:
Notobasis

Notobasis is a genus in the tribe Cardueae within the family Asteraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East, from Madeira, the Canary Islands, Morocco and Portugal east to Egypt, Iran and Azerbaijan.

 * Species
 * Notobasis obovallata (M.Bieb. ex Willd.) - Caucasus
 * Notobasis syriaca (L.) Cass. - Mediterranean

title: Notobasis


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Talk:RA90

The account of the RA90 disk drive comes from my direct experience with the project while at Digital's Colorado Springs facility from 1988 to 1993. Prior to Digital I also worked at Ampex from 1981 to 1985.

Marv Garrison
I worked with Marv Garrison at Ampex in 1982 and had regular contact with him at Digital in 1989; however, I have been able to find very little information about him in order to write a brief biography for the Wikipedia. If anyone reading this has information about Mr. Garrison's career I encourage you to edit this article.

title: Talk:RA90


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Talk:Asha Bhosle

Semi-protected edit request on 20 April 2020
In 2015, Asha Bhosle recorded a sufi song, "Sajde Me Tu" with co-singers Javed Ali and Pankaj Kumar.VineetGupta777 (talk) 20:03, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  JTP (talk • contribs) 21:30, 20 April 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 21 April 2020
Please add: 'In 2015, Asha Bhosle recorded a sufi song, "Sajde Me Tu" with co-singers Javed Ali and Pankaj Kumar' to the end of the subsection 'Concerts and collaborations with foreign artists' VineetGupta777 (talk) 20:57, 21 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. QueerFilmNerd  talk 21:44, 21 April 2020 (UTC)

Please add: 'In 2015, Asha Bhosle recorded a sufi song, "Fariyad Sun Fakira" with co-singers Javed Ali and Pankaj Kumar' to the end of the subsection 'Concerts and collaborations with foreign artists' — Preceding unsigned comment added by VineetGupta777 (talk • contribs) 22:31, 25 May 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 26 May 2020
Please add: 'In 2015, Asha Bhosle recorded a sufi song, "Fariyad Sun Fakira" with co-singers Javed Ali and Pankaj Kumar' to the end of the subsection 'Concerts and collaborations with foreign artists' — Preceding unsigned comment added by VineetGupta777 (talk • contribs) 06:58, 26 May 2020 (UTC)

12,000 songs?
I could easily believe a few thousand -- Frank Sinatra recorded 1200 different songs. But 12,000 is pushing beyond the limits of credulity.

12,000 according to who? From the information in the article it looks like she stated that number herself, and a bunch of other "sources" got the number from her statement and repeated it.

Guinness says she's the world's "most recorded artist", not that she's recorded 12,000 separate and distinct songs. She could, after all, have recorded some songs hundreds or even thousands of times. Without a solid reference -- that specifies how they determined there were, in fact, 12,000 distinct, individual songs -- this claim looks specious. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.95.43.253 (talk) 00:47, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

Brimful of Asha - Cornershop
If memory serves correctly, it was actually the Fatboy Slim remix that made number 1 in the U.K. - can this be reworded as at the moment it seems to me as if the article reads that the original version made number 1? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 51.9.7.3 (talk) 06:05, 2 September 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 8 August 2021
For the sake of removing overlink, all of the hyperlinking to similarly-protected article to Mohammed Rafi article must be removed after this instance: "Raj Kapoor signed her to sing 'Nanhe Munne Bachche' with Mohammed Rafi in.."

Likewise for Kishore Kumar article:"Ravi and Asha recorded a variety of songs, including the popular comic duet with Kishore Kumar –.."

And also for her sibling's Lata Mangeshkar article: "her elder sister Lata Mangeshkar began singing and acting in films.." Now this requires special-mention that since I consider that the lead section is isolated from the rest of mainspace, this is chronologically not the first-ever mention but in fact, the second. As in, there should be 2 hyperlinking to that article in the article body, at the very least. It should be also noted that I'm also positing to consider Rivalry with Lata Mangeshkar subsection as a rare exception. The punctuation of phrase “Lata-patrons” should be considered, though. If not the very phrase itself.

All dead-wikilinks should be removed. —103.163.124.86 (talk) 00:26, 8 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 10:27, 8 August 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 10 November 2023
Ganpatrao Bhosle (m. 1949–1960) to Ganpatrao Bhosle (m. 1947–1960) 2409:4085:E92:9C45:0:0:46C9:C08 (talk) 07:39, 10 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. EnIRtpf09b (talk) 08:22, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 27 May 2024
copmany = company 2603:8000:D300:3650:AD45:E6EE:7A8:8B7C (talk) 07:30, 27 May 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ Charliehdb (talk) 13:29, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Asha Bhosle


text:
Porno

Porno may refer to:

 * Pornography, explicit depiction of sexual subject matter with principal intention of sexually exciting a viewer
 * Pornographic magazine
 * Pornographic film
 * Porno, a 1995 Polish film
 * Porno (film), a 2019 American film
 * Porno (novel), a 2002 novel by Irvine Welsh
 * Porno for Pyros, an American musical group
 * Zack and Miri Make a Porno, a 2008 comedic film

title: Porno


text:
Sweden and the Winter War

The Winter War was fought in the four months following the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939. This took place three months after the German invasion of Poland that triggered the start of World War II in Europe. Sweden did not become actively involved in the conflict, but did indirectly support Finland. The Swedish Volunteer Corps provided 9,640 officers and men. The Swedish Voluntary Air Force also provided 25 aircraft that destroyed twelve Soviet aircraft while only losing six planes with only two to actual enemy action and four to accidents. Sweden also provided a portion of the weapons and equipment used by the Finns throughout the war.

Background to Swedish policy
According to the dominant view in Sweden's foreign ministry, Finland's foreign policy had, since its independence and 1918 civil war, been "unsteady and adventurous". In addition, Finland's domestic politics were viewed with great suspicion by Swedish Social Democrats. After the Socialists' defeat in the civil war, anti-parliamentarism and anti-socialist policies dominated Swedish impressions of Finland. Cooperation with Finland had in the 1920s and 1930s primarily been advocated by fringe right-wing politicians and military officers. Both to the right and to the left, a closer cooperation with Finland was seen as a means to counter the hegemonic position of the Social Democrats in Sweden.

After the Abyssinia Crisis, both Finland and Sweden were forced to adjust their foreign policies, as the League of Nations seemed to offer only a hollow protection against foreign aggression. In the Baltic region both the reborn Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union were seen as likely aggressors, eager to regain territories lost as a result of World War I, and likely to want to expand their influence further, if possible. Finland re-oriented its foreign policy towards Scandinavia and a neutralist policy of the Swedish type. The detailed plans for military cooperation were supplemented by intensified contacts between diplomats and politicians. Social Democrats under Väinö Tanner were rehabilitated and included in the cabinet. Finland's embassy in Stockholm was deemed the most important, and Juho Kusti Paasikivi became ambassador there.

Even though central politicians and officials had been converted and convinced of the necessity for a closer Swedish–Finnish cooperation, parliamentarians and prominent individuals did not change their anti-Swedish or anti-Finnish attitudes as easily. Impressions made (in both countries) in connection with Finland's independence, civil war, the Åland crisis, language strife, and the Lapua Movement all stuck. These impressions, in turn, were compounded by a tendency in Sweden to emphasize the danger of Nazi expansionism and to view the Soviet Union with a great deal of goodwill: in Finland, however, the converse view was dominant.

The Nordic trend did not officially allow Swedish participation in security management of the Gulf of Finland with Finland. However, behind the scene, the general staff of Sweden and Finland had negotiated secretly the Gulf of Finland blockade plan in 1929. Sweden agreed that it would first suggest the Gulf blockade to the Estonians in 1930. Officially Sweden would not participate, but it would give materiel and auxiliary troops if the Soviet Union attacked.

Litvinov's demise as Soviet Foreign Minister in March 1939 signaled an increasing tension and danger for Finland and the Baltic countries, and indirectly for Sweden. Litvinov was known as being friendly towards the West, whereas the new minister, Molotov, had made a more aggressive impression. Litvinov's half-promises to accept and support joint Finnish–Swedish provisions for the defense of Åland against the potential German threat were not upheld by his successor. As a consequence, Soviet-leaning ministers in Sweden, such as Ernst Wigforss and Östen Undén, proposed Sweden's withdrawal from these plans. Parliament agreed, being eager to continue Sweden's successful policy, since 1812, of non-confrontation towards Russia.

The political response to the Soviet invasion
In the face of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the following Soviet aggressions against Poland and the Baltic countries, Finland's situation seemed increasingly dangerous. On 4 October Finland's government asked if Sweden was prepared to contribute to Åland's defense with military means. The following day, Molotov invited a Finnish delegation to Moscow, with Sweden's parliament being informed the day after. On 12 October it turned out that the political support was deemed insufficient in Sweden for a military engagement on Åland: the Rightist Party was in favor, the Social Democrats were split, and a majority of the Farmers party (Bondeförbundet) and all the Liberals were opposed. The opposition to Swedish military assistance on Åland was strengthened by the fear that intervention would become extended to Mainland Finland, which few parliamentarians would support.

Publicly, Finland was supported, but Finland's Foreign Minister Elias Erkko was informed that Swedish troops were not to be expected. It remains controversial to this day whether he delivered this message to his colleagues and his president.

The message perceived by public opinion in Finland, as well as in Sweden, thus differed greatly from the Swedish government's intentions. For two months Finland literally fought for her national survival, but by the end of January 1940, the Soviet Union gave up its plans for a reconquest of the whole of Finland. It was now deemed sufficient if Finland ceded its industrial heartland, including its second largest city Viipuri (Viborg, currently Vyborg). This would mean that the Soviet Union might gain much greater territory than the Red Army had been able to seize control of by military means. Through the so-called Statsrådsdiktamen, Sweden's king helped the public perception of Sweden's intentions converge with the government's intentions.

Message from the King
In the "Statsrådsdiktamen" on 19 February 1940, Sweden's king Gustaf V publicly rejected pleas from Finland's government for military intervention in the Winter War to help defend Finland against the Soviet invasion. This statement from the king was aimed at pressuring Finland to accept harsh Soviet peace conditions and to quiet a strong Swedish activist public opinion advocating participation in the war. The statement had this effect, but was also to produce substantial bitterness in Finland.

During the war, Sweden's government rejected a total of three formal pleas from Finland's government to engage militarily in Finland's defense against the Soviet Union. Detailed plans for Swedish deployment along Finland's border had been made ten years before, and they were regularly updated in secret contacts between the General Staffs of the two countries. However, no formal alliance had been concluded, and a proposed official recognition of cooperative defense of the de-militarized Åland had been rebuffed by Sweden's parliament in June 1939.

Swedish military's position
One of the main considerations that led the Swedish government to declare Sweden a non-belligerent state was concern that they might otherwise lose control of the internal situation in Sweden. The Soviet demands on Finland in the months prior to the outbreak of war had roused public opinion. While there had been large demonstrations in support of Finland, Russia was a traditional enemy, and fear of the Russians had been a part of the Swedish mindset since 1719, when Russian galleys burned Swedish coastal communities during the Great Northern War. Therefore, there was a strong feeling that it was better to defend Sweden on Finnish soil.

Swedish military strength was at one of its low points due to the grand disarmament of 1925. The rearmament program decided in 1936 had not yet had any substantial effect on the armed forces. The army had only 16 tanks apart from a small number of tankettes armed with machine guns. Air defence guns were few and the air force had only 36 Gloster Gladiator fighters. Modern artillery was very limited, short range guns of the Great War era or older were the norm. Worse was that no modern military material was available for purchase, as the producing countries regarded exports secondary to equipping their own armed forces.

Even worse, training had been very reduced in a 1925 decision to cut back on the armed forces, and most units had no winter training and had to leave army units needing to conduct rehearsal training after a mobilization.

Within the Swedish military, officers who had been volunteers in the Finnish Civil War were now senior officers, most notably Axel Rappe, a member of the General Staff, and Archibald Douglas, commander of the Northern Army Corps.

The belief that Sweden was best served by a defence in Finland was enacted primarily by Douglas, whose Northern Army Corps comprised around 26,600 men who had been mobilised to guard the Swedish border with Finland in case the Russians invaded. He reasoned that the best way he could defend Sweden was to move into Finland and meet the Russians there. When the Russians had reached a certain point inside Finland, the whole Northern Army Corps would move across the border and take up positions along the Kemi river, all without approval of the Swedish government.

The fact that the Swedish government did not get news of Douglas' plan right away makes it entirely possible that the plan could have been implemented. However, when they found out the plan was scrapped although Douglas was allowed to retain command and later rose to become Chief of the Army.

The Northern Army Corps, barred from entering Finland, did not end attempts at aid, however. Swedish first line units would sometimes lose equipment and material that was needed on the other side of the border. The willingness to help out can be traced to officers in charge of Swedish supply units likening the Swedish Army Stores at Boden as a Finnish supply base.

It is known that at least 15,000 Swedes volunteered to fight alongside the Finns, with 10,000 accepted for training and 8,000 actually went to Finland in organised units before the war ended, which can be compared to the largest contributor to the International brigades, France, during the entire Spanish Civil War. In addition, a smaller number of individuals joined the Finnish army units or operated mechanical shops repairing equipment, mainly in the Swedish speaking south of Finland. The Swedish government and public also sent food, clothing, medicine, weapons and ammunition to aid the Finns during this conflict. The military aid included:
 * 135,402 rifles, 347 machine guns, 450 light machine guns with 50,013,300 rounds of small arms ammunition;
 * 144 field guns, 100 anti-aircraft guns and 92 anti-armour guns with 301,846 shells;
 * 300 sea mines and 500 depth charges;
 * 17 fighter aircraft, 5 light bombers, 1 DC-2 transport aircraft turned into bomber, and 3 reconnaissance aircraft, totally comprising 1/3 of the Swedish air force at the time.

According to Krister Wahlbäck, the Finnish government retrospectively complained about Sweden's passivity: any help had not only been insufficient, but also for the most part come from the military industry's own initiative.

Several books written about the Winter War include reference to the Swedish volunteers and many older Finns today still acknowledge their contributions.

Aftermath
The Winter War also helped reaffirm the Swedish position. Aid to Finland had been as much about aiding a neighbour as about neutralising the public opinion calling for active intervention in the war. It also helped to establish the political priorities before the events of 9 April 1940, when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway. The goal was now fixed on keeping Sweden out of the growing European conflict; if they had not gone to war to defend Finland, there was no way that they would do it for Norway. The last surviving Swedish veteran of the war, Bengt Essén, died in August 2020.

title: Sweden and the Winter War


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User talk:Deleting Unecessary Words

Dear sir or madam,

It's unnecessary, not unecessary. I'd advice you sign up again, or look silly from here on in. -- user:zanimum

Greetings. I'm all for removing the superfluous "very" from articles where it simply takes up extra space and improves the language. :) I would like to ask, though, that you use the edit summary box to descrbe your edits... even something as short as "rm very" would be helpful. Thanks. -- Seth Ilys 19:36, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Deleting Unecessary Words


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Mount Tyree

Mount Tyree (4852m) is the second highest mountain of Antarctica located 13 kilometres northwest of Mount Vinson (4,892 m), the highest peak on the continent. It surmounts Patton Glacier to the north and Cervellati Glacier to the southeast.

History
Mt. Tyree was discovered in January 1958 during reconnaissance flights by the United States Navy VX-6 squadron, and mapped later that month by the Marie Byrd Land Traverse Party. The mountain was named for Rear Admiral David M. Tyree, who was commander of the U.S. Naval Support Force in Antarctica, from April 14, 1959 to November 26, 1962.

As of 2017, the summit had only been reached on six occasions, by a total of fifteen people, via three different routes: in January 1967 by John Evans and Barry Corbet (of Corbet's Couloir); in January 1989 by Terry ‘Mugs’ Stump; in 1997 by French alpinists Antoine de Choudens and Antoine Cayrol; and later in 1997 by Conrad Anker and Alex Lowe. On January 3, 2012 Hans Kammerlander, Robert Miller and Christian Stangl repeated the French route to make the fifth ascent. Out of fifteen mountaineers who successfully climbed Mt Tyree, three died in unrelated mountaineering accidents within four years of their respective ascents. The still-unclimbed south face is 2000 m high and one of the largest walls in Antarctica.

On January 16, 2017, five climbers made the sixth ascent of Mt. Tyree by the Grand Couloir (French route). The Tyree 50/50 expedition included Richard Thurmer, Jr, Victor Saunders, Maria "Pachi" Paz Ibarra, Seth Timpano and Todd Tumolo. Richard Thurmer is the first amateur climber and second oldest man (age 61) to make the summit. Victor Saunders is the oldest man to summit Mt. Tyree (age 66). Maria "Pachi" Paz Ibarra is the first woman to reach the summit. The Tyree 50/50 expedition of January 2017 was the 50th anniversary of the first summit in January 1967 and the team increased the number of climbers on the summit by 50%.

On January 1, 2022, Jenn Drummond became the first American woman and only the second woman to summit the mountain. Jenn's team members were Sebastian Grau-Kunhardt, Todd Passey, Sam Hennessey and Rob Smith

The climbing season is November to January, when the sun is above the horizon 24 hours a day and the air is warmest—up to -30 °C near the summit. Like the nearby Mount Vinson, the mountain may be accessed by means of a 6-hour flight from Punta Arenas, Chile, to Union Glacier Camp followed by a 200 km flight on a ski plane to the base of the mountain.

Maps

 * Vinson Massif. Scale 1:250 000 topographic map.  Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.
 * D. Gildea and C. Rada. Vinson Massif and the Sentinel Range.  Scale 1:50 000 topographic map.  Omega Foundation, 2007.
 * Antarctic Digital Database (ADD). Scale 1:250000 topographic map of Antarctica. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Since 1993, regularly updated.

title: Mount Tyree