text:
Talk:Metaphysical poetry

Ok, so this is pretty stubby and all the info in it cut and pasted over from the long article on English poetry but I think this article needs to exist. It seems a pretty major movement, compared to some of the minor movements that do have articles on them. I shall try and add some more info but it aint my area really. I dont know if this is the ideal title for it, alternatives etc etc. Maybe it didn't ought to have a capital P? not sure on naming conventions. Change as you see fit. Regards Monk Bretton 19:12, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Metaphysical, poetry
 * Metaphysicals
 * The Metaphysicals

That answers that question! cheers Monk Bretton 19:16, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

NB the list of poetry groups and movements. Charles Matthews 19:19, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

Oops, I searched but not hard enough. All sorted out now. Incidently that list above contains a different set of entries from another list that I was working from. Weird. Monk Bretton 19:38, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Metaphysical poetry


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Doro

Doro may refer to:

 * Doro (musician), rock singer, former vocalist of the German heavy metal band Warlock
 * Doro (album), a 1990 album by Doro
 * AKA (rapper) (born 1988), South African hip hop recording artist
 * Dorothy Bush Koch, often called "Doro", daughter of US President George H. W. Bush
 * Dorothea Wierer, Italian biathlete
 * Doro (company), a Swedish telecommunications company
 * Doro, the bodiless, godlike character who designs a selective breeding program that spans centuries in the Patternist series of novels by Octavia E. Butler
 * DoRo Productions, a film company based in Austria, formerly known for their music videos
 * SS Doro, a Panamanian cargo ship in service 1951–1956
 * Doro, South Sudan

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Doro


text:
ESPACE

In computational complexity theory, the complexity class ESPACE is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a deterministic Turing machine in space 2O(n).

See also EXPSPACE.

title: ESPACE


text:
Lion's mane

Lion's mane may refer to:
 * Mane (lion), the mane of the adult male lion, the fur around its face
 * Lion's mane jellyfish
 * Lion's mane mushroom
 * Lion's mane nudibranch
 * "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", a Sherlock Holmes short story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
 * "Lion's Mane", a song by Iron & Wine from the album The Creek Drank the Cradle

title: Lion's mane


text:
NEXPTIME

In computational complexity theory, the complexity class NEXPTIME (sometimes called NEXP) is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine using time $$2^{n^{O(1)}}$$.

In terms of NTIME,

 * $$\mathsf{NEXPTIME} = \bigcup_{k\in\mathbb{N}} \mathsf{NTIME}(2^{n^k})$$

Alternatively, NEXPTIME can be defined using deterministic Turing machines as verifiers. A language L is in NEXPTIME if and only if there exist polynomials p and q, and a deterministic Turing machine M, such that We know
 * For all x and y, the machine M runs in time $$2^{p(|x|)}$$ on input $(x,y)$
 * For all x in L, there exists a string y of length $$2^{q(|x|)}$$ such that $M(x,y) = 1$
 * For all x not in L and all strings y of length $$2^{q(|x|)}$$, $M(x,y) = 0$

and also, by the time hierarchy theorem, that

If P = NP problem, then (padding argument); more precisely, $E ≠ NE$ if and only if there exist sparse languages in NP that are not in P.

Alternative characterizations
In descriptive complexity, the sets of natural numbers that can be recognized in NEXPTIME are exactly those that form the spectrum of a sentence, the set of sizes of finite models of some logical sentence.

NEXPTIME often arises in the context of interactive proof systems, where there are two major characterizations of it. The first is the MIP proof system, where we have two all-powerful provers which communicate with a randomized polynomial-time verifier (but not with each other). If the string is in the language, they must be able to convince the verifier of this with high probability. If the string is not in the language, they must not be able to collaboratively trick the verifier into accepting the string except with low probability. The fact that MIP proof systems can solve every problem in NEXPTIME is quite impressive when we consider that when only one prover is present, we can only recognize all of PSPACE; the verifier's ability to "cross-examine" the two provers gives it great power. See interactive proof system for more details.

Another interactive proof system characterizing NEXPTIME is a certain class of probabilistically checkable proofs. Recall that NP can be seen as the class of problems where an all-powerful prover gives a purported proof that a string is in the language, and a deterministic polynomial-time machine verifies that it is a valid proof. We make two changes to this setup:

 * Add randomness, the ability to flip coins, to the verifier machine.
 * Instead of simply giving the purported proof to the verifier on a tape, give it random access to the proof. The verifier can specify an index into the proof string and receive the corresponding bit. Since the verifier can write an index of polynomial length, it can potentially index into an exponentially long proof string.

These two extensions together greatly extend the proof system's power, enabling it to recognize all languages in NEXPTIME. The class is called PCP(poly, poly). What more, in this characterization the verifier may be limited to read only a constant number of bits, i.e. NEXPTIME = PCP(poly, 1). See probabilistically checkable proofs for more details.

NEXPTIME-complete
A decision problem is NEXPTIME-complete if it is in NEXPTIME, and every problem in NEXPTIME has a polynomial-time many-one reduction to it. In other words, there is a polynomial-time algorithm that transforms instances of one to instances of the other with the same answer. Problems that are NEXPTIME-complete might be thought of as the hardest problems in NEXPTIME. We know that NEXPTIME-complete problems are not in NP; it has been proven that these problems cannot be verified in polynomial time, by the time hierarchy theorem.

An important set of NEXPTIME-complete problems relates to succinct circuits. Succinct circuits are simple machines used to describe graphs in exponentially less space. They accept two vertex numbers as input and output whether there is an edge between them. If solving a problem on a graph in a natural representation, such as an adjacency matrix, is NP-complete, then solving the same problem on a succinct circuit representation is NEXPTIME-complete, because the input is exponentially smaller (under some mild condition that the NP-completeness reduction is achieved by a "projection"). As one simple example, finding a Hamiltonian path for a graph thus encoded is NEXPTIME-complete.

title: NEXPTIME


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Bentalha massacre

In the village of Bentalha (Arabic: بن طلحة), located 15 km (9.3 mi) south of Algiers, an incident occurred on the night of 22–23 September 1997, where a significant number of villagers lost their lives due to the actions of armed guerrillas. According to Amnesty International, over 200 villagers were killed. Different sources have reported varying numbers of deaths, with estimates ranging from 85 (the initial official estimate) to 400 (The Economist) to 417 (independent sources).

Background
In 1997, Algeria experienced a violent civil conflict triggered by the cancellation of the 1992 elections, which were expected to be won by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS). Bentalha, a town located a few kilometers south of Baraki (refer to the map), a satellite town of Algiers, had voted in favor of FIS in the elections. Initially, some of the town's residents supported the Islamist guerrilla groups that emerged after the cancellation of the elections and joined their ranks. The guerrillas in the area initially consisted of the revived Armed Islamic Movement (MIA) and various independent groups. Later, these groups were assimilated into the larger Armed Islamic Group (GIA) in 1994. The army maintained a significant presence in the area, with a post at the eastern entrance of the town, several roadblocks, and barracks on the north side of Baraki. The GIA also had a strong local presence and openly roamed the streets of Bentalha between 1994 and 1996, targeting individuals associated with the government. In June 1996, the government established a "Patriot" communal guard comprising approximately ten individuals in Bentalha.

On 29 August 1997, a massacre known as the Rais massacre took place a few kilometers southeast of Bentalha, resulting in the deaths of approximately 200 people. Widespread rumors circulated that more massacres were imminent. In the ten days leading up to the event, residents reported hearing the howling of jackals (which are not native to the area) every night, and helicopters could be seen flying overhead on a daily basis.

Massacre
On the night of 22 September at 11:30 p.m., explosions occurred in the Hai el-Djilali neighborhood in the southwest of Bentalha. Attackers infiltrated the area from the orange groves to the southeast of the neighborhood. They systematically went from house to house, resulting in the deaths of numerous residents. Eyewitness accounts reported that the attackers were armed with various weapons and engaged in violent acts. The event led to widespread devastation and loss of life.

According to Amnesty International, survivors reported that during the massacre, armed forces units with armored vehicles were stationed outside the village, preventing some individuals from escaping. Yacine, a survivor, stated that army vehicles appeared near the scene at midnight but did not intervene. Nesroullah Yous mentions that the army stopped locals from neighboring areas from coming to their aid. The assailants continued their conflict through Hai el-Djilali until approximately 5 a.m., when they departed without facing any opposition.

A photograph known as "The Bentalha Madonna," captured by Hocine Zaourar, gained widespread circulation and won the World Press Photo award in 1997. The image depicts a grieving Algerian woman waiting outside Zmirli Hospital and has become an iconic representation of the Bentalha massacre, similar to The Falling Soldier photograph from the Spanish Civil War.

Responsibility
Responsibility for the Bentalha massacre, as well as the Rais massacre, was claimed by the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) in a press release from London on 26 September, according to Agence France-Presse. Fouad Boulemia, a prominent GIA member, was sentenced to death on 1 August 2004 for his involvement in the massacre, in addition to his previous conviction for the murder of FIS leader Abdelkader Hachani. The local GIA leader, Laazraoui, was killed in October 1997, along with another GIA member, Rachid "Djeha" Ould Hamrane. Nacira, the sister of Rachid Ould Hamrane, admitted to participating in the looting of the victims' belongings and pointing out the homes of sympathizers who should be spared. She also claimed that she was coerced into cooperating under the threat of harm to her life.

One survivor, Nesroullah Yous, later emigrated to France and published a book titled "Qui a tué à Bentalha?" (Who Killed in Bentalha?) where he shared his experience and argued that the Algerian government had infiltrated and taken control of the GIA. Yous highlighted statements made by the attackers, suggesting that they were aware the soldiers stationed outside would not intervene and expressed little regard for religious principles. Yous believed that the circumstantial evidence strongly indicated government involvement.

Following the Bentalha massacre, there have been differing viewpoints regarding the identity of the perpetrators and their motives. Some critics argue that the known affiliation of the killers with Islamist guerrilla groups renders the question of 'who kills?' irrelevant, attributing the massacre to these groups. They have named individuals such as Laazraoui and Ould Hamrane as the leaders of the attack, with Nacira Ould Hamrane, Rachid's sister, implicated in the crime. On the other hand, there have been voices challenging the official narrative, including Yous and Habib Souaidia, who have raised questions about the involvement of armed groups and the role of state institutions in the aftermath of the massacre. Algerian TV has criticized these individuals for their stance, accusing them of attempting to exonerate armed groups and discredit state institutions.

In Western academic circles, the Bentalha massacre has sparked controversy and differing interpretations. Hugh Roberts, for instance, acknowledges the detailed account presented in "Qui a tué à Bentalha?" and recognizes that it challenges the official version of events. However, Roberts also notes that Yous does not definitively establish the involvement of a special commando or death-squad, indicating the complexity of the historical narrative surrounding the massacre.

title: Bentalha massacre


text:
Template talk:Nirvana

Grunge music, Courtney Love, Heavier Than Heaven, Kurt & Courtney, and Tom Grant don't belong in the Discography section. A separate section (maybe "Related topics") would probably be best for these. -- LGagnon

On A Plain and Polly (Unplugged) as Singles
I'm confused why "Drain You (Live)", which never charted, gets the distinction of being a part of the singles page, where as "On A Plain", which did chart, doesn't get that distinction. Neither was released as a commercial single, so wouldn't it make sense to have both or neither?

"Polly (Unplugged)" was also released as a promo single. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.101.57.67 (talk) 20:23, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

"Popular songs"
The term "popular" is subjective (that is POV). Anyone can claim that a song is popular because they liked it, and that seems to be what happened here. I'm switching it to "Singles" as that would fit the NPOV policy much better. -- LGagnon July 3, 2005 00:56 (UTC)

I re-arranged the singles in chronological order, they seemed to be random before --Surachit 01:13, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Standard style
I've changed this template to mirror the visual style of, , , etc. I'm trying to change all navigational templates like these to a single uniform style, so if you see any more please let me know. plattopustalk 05:43, September 1, 2005 (UTC)

Is this template too big?
This template seems unecessarily large. Articles such as Singles, although admittedly in-depth, should nonetheless be listed in a separate Discography article rather than filling up too much space on a template. For many of the articles linked on the template (Heavier Than Heaven, for example), the template is bigger than the article itself, making things look a bit lop-sided. Would anyone object to a downsizing? Thenugga 00:21, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I'll go revising the organization as I did to other band templates recently (Dave Matthews Band, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin). Circeus 14:20, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

I can't be stuffed logging into wikipedia to comment this but, why the hell was Fecal Matter deleted!? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by User:210.50.72.133 (talk • contribs) 05:41, July 10, 2006.

A big band is worthy of a big template, thats what I say. There are many templates contructed the same way anyway. The Smashing Pumpkins, The Beatles, etc. I don't see a problem with it, it's just extra informative. I have also reverted the template so that it includes Fecal Matter. --Reaper X 01:51, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

All Apologies & Rape Me
Call me petty for bringing this up, but I think we need consensus on this. All Apologies and Rape Me are together as a single. So should they be listed as either:
 * 1) "All Apologies" | "Rape Me" with a pipe.
 * 2) "All Apologies"/"Rape Me" with a slash.

Thoughts please, an edit war over this would be freakin stupid. -- Reaper  X  20:15, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Producer of "Nevermind"
It seems like the paragraph about Wallace's work on Nevermind might be simply a plug for him. Does anyone agree? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.191.228.105 (talk • contribs)
 * This is probably better placed at Talk:Nirvana. This discussion page is for the Nirvana band template. [[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|30px]] plattopustalk 05:58, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

band members
Kurt cobain should be written as Kurt Cobain (1967-1994) in the band members template so readers notice he has passed away —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 61.246.27.219 (talk) 08:28, 23 January 2007 (UTC).

1991 Year Punk Broke?
while 1991: The Year Punk Broke is considered primarily a Sonic Youth release, Nirvana is featured quite prominently with 5 songs included, should it be added to the video release section of the template? --Pantophobia 22:49, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Not appropriate to include in the videography, but I did add it in the Related articles section. (I thought I had seen it there before...)By the way, I also inserted a break before foo fighters because theres alot of relating articles, and it's startiong to overflow. -- Reaper  X  02:53, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Outcesticide
Between EPs and Compilations is currently listed "Outcesticide". It is not an official compilation so I think it should be removed or flagged as "unofficial". But if you leave it into the template, I think you should add every other compilations everly appeared... finally I think the best solution is to remove it. What do you think about this? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 151.37.96.186 (talk) 16:32, 11 April 2007 (UTC).

EDIT: No answers; I finally deleted it.

Pat Smear
How did people come to this consensus that Smear isn't an official member?? He was asked to join the band, toured with and recorded with the band... Please, define official member. --Endless Dan 13:48, 21 February 2008 (UTC)

He came with them on tour, but he didn't record with them. He did not play on "You know you're right", I don't think. Maybe he was more of a touring member, like Lori Goldston. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.224.161.24 (talk) 07:03, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

Foo Fighters
Maybe someone can help me out, but why is this template on the Foo Fighters page? I can see why it would be on David Grohl's page, but Foo Fighters? Just looking for some clarification.06:50, 19 March 2009 (UTC)Mogthetormentor (talk)

Unnofficial releases
I don't think this template should include unoffical releases like the In Utero DVD and the Smells Like Bleach tribute album. mjgm84 (talk) 13:26, 10 May 2010 (UTC)

McCartney
Should Paul McCartney be added to the additional touring members section? 220.244.162.100 (talk) 23:33, 14 December 2012 (UTC)

 * 1 song at a charity concert is not a tour. Tarc (talk) 23:49, 14 December 2012 (UTC)

Revisions
Seeing as the McCartney/Nirvana song has been released in a studio version, it is now appropriate to add Pat Smear to the current line-up and move Kurt Cobain to the departed members section. Discuss. 220.244.162.100 (talk) 06:58, 18 December 2012 (UTC)

 * No. Tarc (talk) 12:37, 18 December 2012 (UTC)

Albums that we may wish to consider adding to this template
Other compilation albums are also said to contain Nirvana tracks, although I have yet to personally confirm this. As I own the above five albums, I can verify personally that Nirvana indeed appears on each one.
 * Sub Pop 200 (1988)
 * The Grunge Years (1991)
 * No Alternative (1993)
 * The Beavis and Butt-head Experience (1993)
 * DGC Rarities Vol. 1 (1994)

That said, given that Nirvana discography is already listed on the template, one might wish to make the argument that we oughtn't include compilation albums, although I personally would contend that we should include them.

Just something to consider. Cheers, allixpeeke (talk) 19:51, 22 April 2014 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Nirvana


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Calliactis

Calliactis is a genus of sea anemones. Species in this genus are mutually symbiotic with hermit crabs. The anemone gets a place to live and discarded scraps of the crab's food in exchange for its help in defending the crab.

Species
Species within the genus include:

 * Calliactis algoaensis
 * Calliactis androgyna
 * Calliactis annulata
 * Calliactis argentacoloratus
 * Calliactis armillatas
 * Calliactis brevicornis
 * Calliactis conchicola
 * Calliactis japonica
 * Calliactis marmorata
 * Calliactis parasitica
 * Calliactis polypores
 * Calliactis polypus
 * Calliactis reticulata
 * Calliactis sinensis
 * Calliactis tricolor
 * Calliactis valdiviae
 * Calliactis variegata
 * Calliactis xishaensis

title: Calliactis


text:
96th Regiment of Foot

The 96th Regiment of Foot was a British Army regiment, raised in 1798. Under the Childers reforms it amalgamated with the 63rd (West Suffolk) Regiment of Foot to form the Manchester Regiment.

Formation
The regiment was raised in Menorca (then called Minorca) by Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Stuart from German-speaking prisoners of war of Swiss regiments in Spanish service on 12 December 1798. The regiment embarked for Gibraltar in October 1800 and then sailed on to Abu Qir in Egypt in January 1801 to take part in the Egyptian Campaign. At the Battle of Alexandria in March 1801, Private Antoine Lutz of the regiment distinguished himself by seizing the colour of the 21st Demi Brigade Legère. The colour had initially been captured by Sergeant Sinclair of the 42nd Regiment of Foot but after Sinclair fell in battle, a French officer recovered the colour for his country. Private Lutz shot the French officer holding the colour and took possession of the colour before being ridden over by French cavalry. As two dragoons charged towards him, Lutz claimed to have shot the horse from under one, whose life he spared. He returned to the British lines with both the colour and the captured dragoon. The regiment sailed for home in autumn 1801. It was renamed The Queen's Own German Regiment in 1802 and 97th (Queen's Own Germans) Regiment of Foot in January 1805.

Napoleonic Wars
In 1807 members of the regiment were lost in the sinking of the "Prince of Wales". The regiment embarked for Portugal in spring 1808 for service in the Peninsular War. It saw action at the Battle of Vimeiro in August 1808, the Battle of Talavera in July 1809 and the Battle of Bussaco in September 1810. It also fought at the First Siege of Badajoz In February 1811 and the Battle of Albuera in May 1811 before sailing for home in October 1811. The regiment was dispatched to Upper Canada in May 1814 and took part in the Siege of Fort Erie in August 1814 during the War of 1812 before arriving back home in July 1815. It was renumbered as the 96th (Queen's Own Germans) Regiment of Foot in February 1816 and was disbanded at Limerick in Ireland in December 1818.

The Victorian era
The regiment was reformed (and subsequently confirmed as the successor of the predecessor formation with full continuity of battle honours), in response to the threat posed by the French intervention in Spain, in January 1824. The regiment embarked for Halifax, Nova Scotia in summer 1824, transferred to Bermuda in 1825 and then returned to Halifax in 1828 before embarking for home in 1835. Between December 1839 and August 1841, it provided detachments for convict ships sailing to New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and Western Australia. In 1843, amid tensions in New Zealand between British settlers and Māoris related to breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi, a detachment from the regiment was dispatched to the North Island of New Zealand. Four members of the regiment were killed in action at the flagstaff blockhouse when captured by a large Māori force during the Battle of Kororāreka in the Bay of Islands on 11 March 1845; the blockhouse crew were forced to withdraw to the lower blockhouse. The regiment embarked for India in 1849 and, after returning to England in 1855, sailed for Gibraltar in 1856. It embarked for Canada in February 1862 to help suppress attacks by Fenians. One of the transport ships had to seek refuge in the Azores for a week in the face of extremely poor weather. The regiment spent only a brief time in Canada, the crisis having subsided, and returned to England in April 1862. The regiment deployed to the Cape of Good Hope in 1863 and then travelled on to India in 1865 before returning home in 1875. As part of the Cardwell Reforms of the 1870s, where single-battalion regiments were linked together to share a single depot and recruiting district in the United Kingdom, the 96th was linked with the 63rd (West Suffolk) Regiment of Foot, and assigned to district no. 16 at Wellington Barracks in Ashton-under-Lyne. On 1 July 1881 the Childers Reforms came into effect and the regiment amalgamated with the 63rd (West Suffolk) Regiment of Foot to form the Manchester Regiment.

Battle Honours
Battle honours won by the regiment (or its predecessors) were:
 * Egypt (inherited from the Minorca Regiment) (1801)
 * Peninsular (inherited from 96th (Queen's Own Germans) Regiment of Foot)
 * New Zealand (1846-1847)

Colonels of the Regiments
Colonels of the Regiments were:

The Minorca Regiment - (1798)

 * 1798: Lt-Gen. Sir Charles Stuart

97th (later the 96th) (Queen's Own Germans) Regiment of Foot - (1816)

 * 1806–1814: F.M. Thomas Grosvenor
 * 1814–?1818: Gen. Sir Gordon Drummond, GCB
 * Disbanded in Ireland, 1818

96th Regiment of Foot - (1824)

 * 1824–1832: Lt-Gen. Sir Joseph Fuller, GCH
 * 1832–1834: Lt-Gen. Sir Lionel Smith, 1st Baronet, GCB, GCH
 * 1834–1839: Lt-Gen. Sir William Thornton, KCB
 * 1839–1852: Gen. Sir Lewis Grant, KCH
 * 1852–1855: Lt-Gen. Charles Edward Conyers, CB
 * 1855–1860: Gen. Mildmay Fane
 * 1860–1863: Gen. George Macdonald
 * 1863–1866: Maj-Gen. Sir Charles Warren, KCB
 * 1866–1869: Gen. Hon. Sir Augustus Almeric Spencer, GCB
 * 1869–1872: Lt-Gen. George Thomas Conolly Napier, CB
 * 1872–1877: Lt-Gen. Thomas Crombie
 * 1877–1881: Gen. Thomas Maitland Wilson

title: 96th Regiment of Foot


text:
NE (complexity)

In computational complexity theory, the complexity class NE is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine in time O(kn) for some k.

NE, unlike the similar class NEXPTIME, is not closed under polynomial-time many-one reductions.

Relationship to other classes
NE is contained by NEXPTIME.

title: NE (complexity)


text:
E (complexity)

In computational complexity theory, the complexity class E is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a deterministic Turing machine in time 2O(n) and is therefore equal to the complexity class DTIME(2O(n)).

E, unlike the similar class EXPTIME, is not closed under polynomial-time many-one reductions.

Relationship to other classes
E is contained by NE.

title: E (complexity)


text:
User talk:RTC/element photos

Beautiful work. Thank you. Marnanel 19:26, May 18, 2004 (UTC) ---

It's awesome to have these photos, but do you have any higher (resolution) quality ones?

This is an inspiring collection. Wim van Dorst 22:55, 2005 Apr 9 (UTC).

 * I agree, these photos are pretty low-res and look fuzzy even when seen from afar. I think it's about time we replaced these pics... --ApolloBoy 02:17, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

suggestion for gases
In my chemistry classes, we did some work with shining a light through different gases, and were able to produce colors. Would you consider undertaking this project to provide better gas photos? Bob the Wikipedian, the Tree of Life WikiDragon (talk) 01:07, 12 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:RTC/element photos


text:
Lackawanna River

The Lackawanna River is a 42 mi tributary of the Susquehanna River in Northeastern Pennsylvania. It flows through a region of the northern Pocono Mountains that was once a center of anthracite coal mining in the United States. It starts in north Wayne County, Pennsylvania and ends in east Luzerne County, Pennsylvania in Duryea, Pennsylvania. The lower reaches of the river flow through the urban areas of Scranton, which grew around its banks in the 19th century as an industrial center. Its name comes from a Lenape word meaning "stream that forks".

The river rises in two branches, the West and East branches, along the boundary between Susquehanna and Wayne counties. The branches, each about 12 mi long, flow south, closely parallel to each other, and join at the Stillwater Lake reservoir in Union Dale. The combined river flows southwest past Forest City, Carbondale, Mayfield, Jermyn, Archbald, Jessup, Blakely, Olyphant, Dickson City, Throop, Scranton, Taylor, Moosic, Old Forge, and Duryea. It joins the Susquehanna River at the northern boundary of Pittston about 8 mi west-southwest of Scranton. As part of the Susquehanna River, it ultimately flows to Chesapeake Bay.

By the mid-20th century, the river was severely polluted from mine drainages in its watershed. The decline of industry in the region, as well as federal, state, and private efforts, have improved the water quality. Still, the Lackawanna River is the largest point source of pollution in the Chesapeake Bay. The upper reaches of the river are a popular destination for fly fishing of trout. It was designated as an American Heritage River in 1997.

Course
The Lackawanna River begins at the confluence of the East Branch Lackawanna River and the West Branch Lackawanna River in Stillwater Lake in Clifford Township, Susquehanna County. It flows south-southeast for a few miles in a deep valley, crossing Pennsylvania Route 171 and passing through Forest City. The river then enters Clinton Township, Wayne County. Here, it flows south for more than a mile before turning southeast for several tenths of a mile. It then turns south-southwest for a few miles, meandering into Vandling, in Lackawanna County. The river only flows through Vandling for a few tenths of a mile before entering Fell Township. The western side of its valley becomes steeper again and the river continues meandering south-southwest for a while before turning west for several tenths of a mile and into Simpson, where its valley broadens again. In Simpson, it turns southwest and crosses Pennsylvania Route 171 again before receiving the tributary Wilson Creek from the right.

After receiving the tributary Wilson Creek, the Lackawanna River continues flowing southwest alongside Pennsylvania Route 171 and soon enters Carbondale. After flowing for several tenths of a mile through Carbondale, the river turns south for a few tenths of a mile, receiving the tributary Racket Brook from the left and crossing Pennsylvania Route 106 and a spur of US Route 6. It then turns west-southwest for several tenths of a mile and receives the tributary Fall Brook from the right before turning southwest for several miles. In this reach, the river passes through Carbondale Township and enters Mayfield. It eventually enters Jermyn, where it crosses Pennsylvania Route 107 and receives the tributary Rush Brook from the right. The river then turns south for a few miles, receiving the tributary Aylesworth Creek from the left and entering Archbald. In Archbald, it continues flowing south, receiving the tributaries White Oak Run and Laurel Run from the left. Several tenths of a mile downstream of the latter tributary, it enters Jessup and turns abruptly west.

After flowing west for several tenths of a mile, the Lackawanna River receives the tributary Grassy Island Creek from the left and continues flowing in a generally westerly direction for several miles. The river begins flowing along the border between Blakely and Olyphant. In this reach, it crosses Pennsylvania Route 247 and receives the tributaries Sterry Creek and Wildcat Creek from the left and right, respectively. Further downstream, the river crosses Pennsylvania Route 347 and receives the tributary Hull Creek from the right. It then begins flowing in a southwesterly direction along the border between Olyphant and Dickson City, though it makes several sharp turns along the way. After some distance, it receives the tributary Eddy Creek from the left and begins flowing along the border between Dickson City and Throop. After a few miles, the river enters Scranton and crosses US Route 6/Interstate 81. It then turns south for several tenths of a mile, receiving the tributary Leggetts Creek from the right before turning southwest. After a few tenths of a mile, it abruptly turns north, and then west-southwest before turning south. After more than a mile, it crosses US Route 11/Pennsylvania Route 307 and passes the Steamtown National Historic Site before turning south and receiving the tributary Roaring Brook from the left.

After receiving the tributary Roaring Brook, the Lackawanna River flows in a southwesterly direction for several miles, alternating between flowing south and flowing west. In this reach, it receives the tributary Stafford Meadow Brook from the left and eventually begins flowing along the border between Scranton and Taylor before receiving Keyser Creek from the right and beginning to flow alongside the border between Taylor and Moosic. After some distance along the latter border, the river crosses Interstate 476 and turns south, now flowing along the border between Old Forge and Moosic. After more than a mile, it begins meandering west, receiving Spring Brook and Mill Creek. Several tenths of a mile further downstream, it receives the tributary Saint Johns Creek from the right and turns west-southwest. After several tenths of a mile, the river exits Lackawanna County and enters Duryea, in Luzerne County. It continues flowing west-southwest through Duryea for a few miles before reaching the border between Duryea and Pittston. The river flows along this border for the remaining several tenths of a mile to its confluence with the Susquehanna River.

The Lackawanna River joins the Susquehanna River 196.30 mi upriver of its mouth.

Tributaries
The Lackawanna River has 33 named direct tributaries and another 32 sub-tributaries and sub-sub-tributaries. Of the eight tributaries that drain an area of more than 10 sqmi, Spring Brook and Roaring Brook are the largest, with watersheds than drain 57.2 sqmi and 56.3 sqmi, respectively. They join the Lackawanna River 3.62 mi and 9.52 mi, respectively. The East Branch Lackawanna River drains an area of 19.0 sqmi and joins the Lackawanna River 40.32 mi upriver of its mouth. Leggetts Creek drains an area of 18.5 sqmi and joins the river 14.36 mi upriver of its mouth. The West Branch Lackawanna River drains an area of 16.8 sqmi and joins the river 40.32 mi upriver of its mouth. Other tributaries that drain an area of more than 10 sqmi include Stafford Meadow Brook, Fall Brook, and Mill Creek.

Hydrology
The Lackawanna River and its tributaries are in "good-to-excellent" condition in its upper reaches. The river deteriorates slightly as it approaches Scranton, but becomes considerably more degraded downriver of Scranton. A large number of mine seeps, outfalls, and boreholes occur within the watershed. The aquatic habitat in the last 3 mi is nonexistent due to acid mine drainage from the Old Forge Borehole, which discharges 100 million gallons of acid mine drainage into the river every day. Another 40 million gallons of acid mine drainage per day come from the Duryea Outfall. Other impacts include combined sewer overflows and urban stormwater. The stormwater discharges begin to become more common as the river reaches the Mid Valley region, and their frequency rapidly increases in the Down Valley region. The lower 3 mi have a yellow-orange color due to iron oxide contamination. There are a total of 158 combined sewer overflows on the river.

Several reaches of the Lackawanna River have been designated as impaired between 1996 and 2004. The causes of impairment include pH, metals, siltation, and flow alteration. The source of impairment include abandoned mine drainage and resource extraction.

The Lackawanna River has a perennial flow. Nevertheless, it experiences low flow conditions during warm weather. The discharge of the river near Forest City was observed to range from 3904.83 to 69,568.83 gallons per minute, with an average of 35,584.83 gallons per minute. The river's discharge near Archbald ranged from 3976.60 to 323,158.40 gallons per minute, with an average of 97,130.90 gallons per minute. Below the Broadway Street Bridge, it ranged from 34,560 to 586,397 gallons per minute and averaged 222,732.46 gallons per minute. Near Coxton Road, the discharge averaged 266,478 gallons per minute.

Chemical hydrology
In 2002, the concentration of iron in the Lackawanna River near Forest City was less than 0.3 milligrams per liter. The manganese concentration ranged from less than 0.05 to 0.175 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.1103 milligrams per liter. The concentration of aluminum ranged from less than 0.5 to 0.692 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.6255 milligrams per liter. The pH ranged from 6.1 to 7.4 (with an average of 6.7), the acidity concentration ranged from 0 to 10.4 milligrams per liter (with an average of 1.73 milligrams per liter), and the alkalinity concentration ranged from 16.4 to 32 milligrams per liter (with an average of 22.3 milligrams per liter). The sulfate concentration ranged from less than 20 to 30.7 milligrams per liter, with an average of 28.4 milligrams per liter.

The iron concentration in the Lackawanna River near Archbald ranged from less than 0.3 to 0.794 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.5 milligrams per liter. The amount of manganese ranged from less than 0.083 to 0.16 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.12 milligrams per liter. The amount of aluminum ranged from 0.4 to 0.742 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.57 milligrams per liter. The pH ranged between 6.5 and 7.2, with an average of 6.7. The concentration of acidity was 0 milligrams per liter and the alkalinity concentration ranged from 17 to 38 milligrams per liter (with an average of 27.57 milligrams per liter). The sulfate concentration ranged from less than 20 to 136 milligrams per liter, with an average of 59.55 milligrams per liter.

The amount of iron in the Lackawanna River below the Broadway Street Bridge was typically less than 0.3 milligrams per liter, but once reached 0.348 milligrams per liter. The manganese concentration ranged from less than 0.067 to 0.139 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.09 milligrams per liter. The aluminum concentration ranged from less than 0.5 to 0.753 milligrams per liter, with an average concentration of 0.63 milligrams per liter. The pH of the river at this point ranged from 6.7 to 7.3 (with an average of 6.95) and the acidity concentration was 0 milligrams per liter. The alkalinity concentration ranged from 19 to 36 milligrams per liter (with an average of 28.17 milligrams per liter). The concentration of sulfate ranged from less than 30.5 to 66.8 milligrams per liter, with an average of 46.25 milligrams per liter.

The iron concentration in the Lackawanna River near Coxton Road ranged from less than 1.21 to 10.5 milligrams per liter, with an average of 3.98 milligrams per liter. The amount of manganese ranged from less than 0.199 to 1.35 milligrams per liter, with an average of 0.67 milligrams per liter. The aluminum concentration ranged from less than 0.5 to 0.664 milligrams per liter. The pH ranged between 6.5 and 6.7, with an average of 6.58. The acidity concentration was typically 0, but once reached 15.4 milligrams per liter. The alkalinity concentration ranged from 24 to 68 milligrams per liter (with an average of 44.37 milligrams per liter). The sulfate concentration ranged from 30.2 to 221 milligrams per liter, with an average of 104.78 milligrams per liter.

Between the upper Carbondale city line and Green Ridge Street, the concentration of alkalinity in various reaches of the Lackawanna River ranges from 14 to 34 milligrams per liter. The lowest concentration occurs in the reach from the Mellow Park Foot Bridge to Pennsylvania Route 347 and the highest concentration occurs in the reach from Pennsylvania Route 347 to Green Ridge Street.

Geography and geology
The elevation near the mouth of the Lackawanna River is 522 ft above sea level. The elevation of the river's source is between 1560 and 1580 ft above sea level. The river is steep and sometimes narrow. Its average gradient between Forest City and Pittston is 19 ft/mi. For its first 13 mi, the river's average gradient is 45.4 ft/mi. For the next 15 mi, the average gradient is 20 ft/mi. For the final 12 mi, the gradient of the river averages 13.2 ft/mi.

In general, the topography of the Lackawanna River watershed consists of long, steep-sided ridges with valleys in between. The headwaters of the river are in a group of glacial ponds and bogs in Susquehanna County and Wayne County, about 12 mi north of Forest City. The river itself begins at Stillwater Lake, which was built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1960. For much of its length, the river flows through the Lackawanna Valley, which runs in a northeast-to-southwest direction. Many tributaries flow into the Lackawanna River from West Mountain, the Moosic Mountains, or the Pocono Mountains.

The headwaters of the Lackawanna River are in the glaciated plateau physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains. However, the Lackawanna Valley is in the northernmost part of the ridge and valley physiographic province. The river also flows through a portion of the Coal Region. The Lackawanna Valley is part of the Lackawanna/Wyoming Syncline, which is a large syncline in the Allegheny Front and is the main geological feature of the watershed. The syncline is canoe-shaped, with a length of 70 mi and a width of 5 mi. The crests of the anticlines on both sides have been eroded away. An escarpment known as Campbells Ledge is located near the river's mouth, where the Susquehanna Valley enters the 55-mile-long Lackawanna/Wyoming Valley.

A short distance downstream of the Stillwater Dam, the Lackawanna River flows through the Lackawanna River Gap and passes by the Stillwater Cliffs. Numerous other gaps, such as the Leggetts Creek Gap, Cobbs Gap, the Rushbrook Gap, and the Fall Brook Gap, occur on tributaries of the river. Downstream of Scranton, the river's channel becomes broader and the river becomes shallower. Assorted waste and debris is piled in many places in the Lackawanna River watershed. The waste can sometimes block waterways, causing localized flooding. During storms, minor tributaries also wash large quantities of urban debris and coal waste into the river, degrading it further.

In its upper reaches, the Lackawanna River is highly rocky and flows over cobbles. It has virtually continuous whitewater. There are also a few strainers within this reach of the river, due to its small size. Ledges become more common downstream of Forest City and there is one "distinctly high and nasty" ledge near Simpson. Downstream of Carbondale, the river becomes quieter, though there are still some ledges. A few riffles disrupt the otherwise smooth reach between Interstate 81 and Moosic, though there are many ledges at the latter location. In Scranton, the river flows between stone and concrete retaining walls, as well as high banks of slag. In general, riffles and pools on the river form a "watery stairway". The pools can be as short as a few hundred feet or as long as several thousand feet, with larger ones mainly correlating to broad floodplains. Rapids mainly occur in reaches such as Panther Bluff (in Fell Township), the Winson area (in Archbald and Jessup), near Cliff Street (in Scranton), and at the Moosic anticline (in Old Forge).

The channel of the Lackawanna River is sinuous and flows through narrow, alluvial floodplains at the base of steep hills.

There is a dam on the Lackawanna River at Forest City, and another one at Mayfield. A broken dam is located on the river below Jermyn.

The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of the Lackawanna River ranges from 35 to 45 in.

Geology
Deposits of glacial till containing boulders, cobbles, sand, and gravel occur in the Lackawanna River watershed. Some of the river's flow comes from recharge from this till, via ponds and wetlands. Some flow also comes from cracks in sandstone and shale strata. Groundwater flow along the river has been impacted by manmade events in some reaches.

In the Lackawanna River watershed, the boundary between the Llewellyn Formation and the Pocono and Pottsville Formations occurs at around 1500 ft above sea level on both sides of the valley. Numerous waterfalls occur on tributaries at this boundary; well-known once include the Nay Aug Falls, the Fall Brook Falls, Blakely Falls, and Panthers Bluff.

The main rock formations in the Lackawanna River watershed contain sandstone and shale, with rich coal deposits. For instance, the Llewellyn Formation contains anthracite in the watershed, along with sandstone and shale. Under this rock formation lie the Pottsville Formation, the Pocono Formation, the Mauch Chunk Formation, and the Catskill Formation. The first of these is made of coal, shale, sandstone, and conglomerate, while the second contains red sandstones and shales. The Pocono Formation contains dense sandstones and conglomerates and occurs in outcrops on the Moosic and West Mountains. The Catskill Formation mainly occurs on the fringes of the watershed. A total of 67 percent of the rock in the watershed is interbedded sedimentary rock, while the remaining 33 percent is sandstone.

The uplands of the Lackawanna River watershed contain poorly drained, rocky soils. The rocky floor contains mostly developed, impervious surfaces, but some abandoned mine lands have rapid permeability.

Watershed
The watershed of the Lackawanna River has an area of 348 sqmi. The mouth of the river is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Pittston and the source is in the quadrangle of Forest City. It also passes through the quadrangles of Avoca, Scranton, Olyphant, Carbondale, and Waymart. The watershed occupies parts of Lackawanna County, Susquehanna County, Wayne County, and Luzerne County.

Large parts of the Lackawanna River watershed, including its upper reaches in the Moosic Mountains, West Mountain, and the North Pocono Plateau, are largely forested. However, large areas of urban and suburban development occur in the river's valley from Pittston to Carbondale, with some urban sprawl reaching as far as halfway from the river to the ridge tops. Abandoned mining land lies between many of the developed areas in this part of the watershed. Such land contains at least 25000 to 30000 acre of culm banks, overburden piles, silt basins, non-vegetated soil, and degraded waterways. One of the main owners of forested land in the watershed is the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, which owns the Lackawanna State Forest that straddles the border between the Lackawanna River and Lehigh River watersheds. The Pennsylvania Game Commission also owns more than several thousand acres of Pennsylvania State Game Lands in the watershed. Additionally, there are more than 20000 acre of wetlands in the watershed and another 10000 to 15000 acre historically existed. All of the minor tributaries of the river begin in wetlands in the West Mountains or the Moosic Mountains. Riparian wetlands occur along the lower reaches of the river and a feature known as the Duryea Swamp is located in former mining pits at the river's mouth.

Forested land is the most common land use in the Lackawanna River watershed, making up 58 percent of its land area. Agricultural land occupies 20 percent of the watershed and developed land occupies 16 percent of it.

As of the early 2000s, approximately 240,000 people inhabit the Lackawanna River watershed. The population peaked in the 1920s. The early settlers were of English, Irish, Welsh, and German descent, but in the 1880s and 1920s, immigrants from southern and eastern Europe arrived. The population has been in decline since at least World War II. The river passes through approximately 20 municipalities.

From Gilmartin Street to Depot Street, a distance of 3.1 mi, the Lackawanna River is entirely on private property, but is open to access. From the Mellow Park Footbridge downstream to Pennsylvania Route 347, a distance of 1.1 mi, 13 percent of the river is on public property and the remaining 87 percent is on private property, but is open to access. From Route 347 downstream to Green Ridge Street, only 1 percent of the river is on public property, but the remaining 99 percent is on private property that is open to the public. Water supply in the urban part of the Lackawanna Valley mainly comes from numerous reservoirs constructed between the 1870s and the 1930s. These reservoirs are mainly owned by the Pennsylvania American Water Company, but smaller companies own reservoirs and wells in the watershed as well. One example is a small reservoir in Covington Township, Lackawanna County, which is operated by the Moscow Water Company. The rural parts of the watershed are mainly supplied by private wells.

History and etymology
The Lackawanna River was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1199891. The river's name comes from a Delaware word meaning "stream that forks". It has also been known as Gachanai, Hazirok, L'chau-hanne, Lackawannok, Lechau-hanne, Lechau-hannek, and Lechauwah-hannek.

Early history
Native Americans have inhabited the area in the vicinity of the Lackawanna River since at least 9000 BCE. An archaeological site at the mouth of the river contains artifacts from 9000 BCE (the Archaic period) to as late as 1400 (the Woodland period). Various rock shelters have been discovered on the ridgelines of the Lackawanna River valley; they were used by migrating hunter-gatherers in prehistory. A number of Lenape gravesites historically existed on the river near present-day Scranton, but were eventually destroyed. According to Horace Hollister's History of the Lackawanna Valley, one of the destroyed graves may have belonged to Capouse, a Lenape chieftain who was visited by Count Zinzandorf, a Moravian missionary, near the river in about 1750.

A number of Native American trails historically existed in the vicinity of the Lackawanna River. One of these was the Minisink Trail, which went from the upper Delaware River to the Lackawanna Valley and the Wyoming Valley via Wallenpaupack Creek and the Moosic Mountains. This trail was later used by settlers from Connecticut, who turned it into a wagon trail the Connecticut Road. Parts of the trail still exist in the form of jeep trails.

The first European settlers arrived in the vicinity of the Lackawanna River between the 1760s and the 1780s from Connecticut and Philadelphia. Land claim disputes led to several skirmishes between the settlers and Pennsylvania settlers; these disputes were known as the Yankee-Pennamite Wars.

1800s and 1900s
For a time after the American Revolutionary War, the main industry in the Lackawanna River watershed was agriculture, though economic development was difficult to the mountainous terrain between the river and the coast. After the War of 1812, entrepreneurs began to take an interest in the coal reserves in the watershed. Coal was being mined near the tributary Racket Brook as early as 1820. By the 1820s, the Wurts Brothers had formed the Delaware and Hudson Coal Company to mine coal in the upper Lackawanna Valley and ship it to ports in New York. Due to the difficulties associated with building a canal over the Moosic Mountains, the company instead constructed a gravity railroad to transport the coal to the D&H Canal and on to the Hudson River. In the 1840s the D&H Company expanded their mining work further down the Lackawanna Valley, causing many towns in the area to enlarge. Coal mining was eventually done along the center of the Lackawanna Valley all the way from Pittston to Forest City.

In 1838, the Scranton and Platt iron workers build an iron works near the confluence of Roaring Brook with the Lackawanna River. The iron works eventually grew and became the city of Scranton. The iron and steel industry in Scranton ended in 1902. Additionally, virtually all of the old-growth forest in the watershed was cut down in the 1800s.

In 1852, the Scranton Brothers and other people developed the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, providing another route to the Lackawanna River watershed and contributing to the valley's development. The Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad also went into the watershed, and the Erie Railroad had a number of routes into it. These included the Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad, which followed Roaring Brook, and the Jefferson Branch, which entered the river's watershed at Ararat Summit. The New York, Ontario and Western Railway, which was developed in 1890, was the last railroad to enter the watershed. It followed the river from Scranton to Union Dale before leaving the river's drainage basin via the East Branch Lackawanna River watershed.

In the 20th century, the anthracite industry remained the largest industry in the Lackawanna River region, though there was also a silk and textile industry. Additionally, agriculture remained a significant industry in the watershed into the early 20th century. However, the Great Depression of the 1930s caused a decline in mining activity. Mine pumping in the watershed ceased by 1961 and underground mining in the watershed ended on November 1, 1966, with the closing of the Continental Mine. Nevertheless, a small amount of strip mining and re-mining of previously mined sites has been done since the 1960s. By this point, the valley's railroad system was shrinking due to decreased coal shipments.

A gauging station was established on the Lackawanna River at Scranton in July 1908, but was discontinued in July 1913. Another gauging station was set up at Moosic in August 1913.

Modern history
Flooding events occurred on the Lackawanna River in 1902, 1922, 1936, 1942, 1954, 1955, 1972, 1985, and 1996, causing millions of dollars in property damage. Flood control dams such as the Stillwater Dam and the Aylesworth Dam were built in the watershed in 1960 and 1970, respectively. A number of levees and floodwalls were also erected in response to the floods.

A number of investor-owned water companies were developed in the Lackawanna River watershed in the 1880s. These merged into the Spring Brook Water Company at Scranton in 1928. The Spring Brook Water Company became the Pennsylvania Gas and Water Company in 1960 and remained under this name until 1996. Eventually the Pennsylvania Gas and Water Company lands were sold to the Pennsylvania American Water Company.

The effect of coal mining on water quality in the Lackawanna River watershed was known as early as 1904. One early plan for recovering from the effects of coal mining in the watershed was the Scranton Plan of 1942. A large number of studies of the Lackawanna River's water quality and habitat quality have been carried out. The Lackawanna River Corridor Association was founded in 1987 for the restoration and stewardship of the river. They created the Lackawanna River Citizens Master Plan between 1988 and 1990 and have also carried out stream walks and stream surveys on the river and its tributaries. In 1992 and 1993, the United States Army Corps of Engineers funded a study of the river's greenway. The study was carried out by the Corps of Engineers, as well as the National Park Service, the Heritage Authority, and the Lackawanna River Corridor Association. The Lackawanna River Watershed 2000 program was funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency with the aim of alleviating problems from combined sewer overflows, acid mine drainage, and abandoned mine land.

As of the early 2000s, there are still 12 active mining operations in the Lackawanna River watershed. Only one has an NPDES permit.

Biology
The upper reaches of the Lackawanna River watershed are a habitat of national significance. Several important natural areas occur in the watershed's upper reaches.

Animals
The main stem of the Lackawanna River is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery from the confluence of the East Branch Lackawanna River and the West Branch Lackawanna River to the Pennsylvania Route 347 bridge at Dickson City. From this point downriver to its mouth, the river is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the river from its headwaters downstream to the Lackawanna County/Luzerne County line, a distance of 35.60 mi. Five sections of the river are designated by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as Class A Wild Trout Waters for brown trout. The sections are adjacent to each other and run from the upper Carbondale city line downstream to Green Ridge Street, a distance of 17.4 mi. Both brook trout and brown trout inhabit the river, but only the former are native. In addition to trout, smallmouth bass, sunfish, carp, suckers, crappies, darters, and dace have been observed in the river. The fishery was nearly destroyed by 150 years of anthracite mining, but has recovered since the 1970s.

The Lackawanna River was historically a "vibrant" brook trout fishery. Shad may have also occurred in the river until the 1820s, when dam construction on the Susquehanna River closed off access by anadromous fish. There is anecdotal evidence that the river was able to function as a trout fishery in the early 1900s, though the habitat had experienced significant degradation by then. Recovery began in the once the coal mining industry had ended in the 1960s and 1970s, and continued into the 1980s and 1990s due to the efforts of local groups and fishing clubs.

A number of waterfowl species are common in the watershed of the Lackawanna River. The most common duck species are black ducks, mallard ducks, and wood ducks. Other birds in the watershed include belted kingfishers, great blue herons, and green backed herons. Birds of prey that have been observed in the area include ospreys, barred owls, coopers hawk, red tailed hawk, and sharp skinned hawk. Amphibians such as spotted salamanders and green frogs inhabit the watershed, as do reptiles such as rattlesnakes and snapping turtles.

Various other fauna, including a number of game animals, inhabit the Lackawanna River watershed. Common mammals include beavers, black bears, foxes, minks, muskrats, raccoons, and white-tailed deer. A few river otters are occasionally observed in the river.

Substantial reaches of the Lackawanna River have a healthy and diverse macroinvertebrate population.

Plants
Successional forest cover and forested wetlands occur in the upper reaches of the Lackawanna River watershed. Even in more urban parts, the river and many of its major tributaries have substantial riparian buffers. However, the riparian buffer is less substantial below Scranton. The watershed contains a temperate mixed forest with a high level of biodiversity. In the south, there are oak and chestnut trees, while in the north, the forests contain maple, ash, and hickory. However, the elevations and soils in the watershed also allow several arctic and boreal species to grow in the watershed. Appalachian heath barrens occur on the Moosic Mountains and West Mountains, with communities of scrub oak and pitch pine give way to sedges and lichens. Boreal plants such as tamarack, black spruce, and paper birch inhabit wetlands in the watershed's upper reaches, as well as wetlands in the watersheds of Roaring Brook and Spring Brook. Pitcher plants, lady's slipper, rhododendron, huckleberry, mountain laurel, and leatherleaf also occur in these wetlands.

Virtually all of the forests in the Lackawanna River watershed are second-growth forests or third-growth forests. As of the early 2000s, 88 percent of the river's riparian buffer is intact or recovering. The stretches that lack any riparian buffering are most commonly on flood control levees in Dickson City, Duryea, Mayfield, and north Scranton. Property encroachments, coal dumps, and historic buildings in Archbald, Carbondale, Olyphant, and Scranton also detract from the river's riparian buffer.

Recreation
There are numerous recreational facilities in the Lackawanna River watershed. These include state parks, state game lands, county and municipal parks, golf courses, Montage Mountain, and others.

Since the 1980s, the Lackawanna River has developed into a well-known "outstanding Class-A coldwater fishery". The river is also a fly fishing destination. It has Trophy Trout regulations from Blakely Corners to White Oak Run, forbidding live bait except in limited circumstances.

About 38.4 mi of the Lackawanna River are navigable by canoe during snowmelt and within three to seven days of hard rain. It is typically navigable when the United States Geological Survey gauge at Archbald reads over 2.5 ft, though navigation becomes difficult when the gauge height is over 4 ft. However, even in the summer, when the gauge height is often 1.8 to 2.2 ft, a few pool reaches in Dickson City and Scranton are still navigable. The difficulty rating of the river from Stillwater Lake to Carbondale ranges from 1 to 3. From Carbondale to the river's mouth, the difficulty rating is mostly 1, but there is one class-4 rapid formed by a complex ledge system at Moosic. The scenery above Carbondale is described as "good to poor" in Edward Gertler's book Keystone Canoeing. The scenery below Carbondale is "fair to poor". However, Gertler also described the area as "a place that most of us associate with ugliness, with a capital U". A few of the larger tributaries are also seasonally navigable by canoe or kayak.

The Lackawanna River Canoe-a-thon has been conducted on the Lackawanna River annually since 1973. It was originally hosted by the Luzerne–Lackawanna Environmental Council and the Jaycees, but the Lackawanna River Corridor Association took over the role in 1988. The race was postponed once due to flooding and cancelled once due to drought.

A land sale of land in the Lackawanna River watershed to the private Theta Corporation generated some controversy. The sale caused many previously-use hunting lands to become restricted. However, the Theta Corporation and the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission announced a cooperation to permit hunting on the lands was announced in 2001. At that point, the Theta Corporation owned 30000 acre of land in the watershed, including large tracts in the Spring Brook and Roaring Brook sub-watersheds.

title: Lackawanna River


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Kenan Thompson

Kenan Thompson (born May 10, 1978) is an American comedian and actor. He has been a cast member on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live since 2003, making him the longest-tenured cast member in the show's history. He was also the first regular cast member born after the show's premiere in 1975. Outside of SNL, Thompson starred on NBC's sitcom Kenan from 2021 to 2022.

Thompson began his acting career in the early 1990s, and was an original cast member of Nickelodeon's sketch comedy series All That (1994–2005), where he often collaborated with co-star Kel Mitchell. Beginning in 1996, they starred in their own sitcom Kenan & Kel (1996–2001). Thompson also had roles in The Mighty Ducks franchise, Good Burger, and as the title character in the 2004 film Fat Albert.

He has been nominated six times for a Primetime Emmy Award for his work on SNL, winning once. He is ranked at No. 88 on VH1's 100 Greatest Teen Stars.

Early life
Thompson was born on May 10, 1978, in Columbus, Ohio. His parents are Fletcher and Elizabeth Ann Thompson. He has two siblings: an older brother and a younger sister. His family moved to Atlanta, Georgia, when he was 9 months old. Thompson's mother enrolled him in acting classes at age five. His first role as Toto in a church production of The Wiz had no lines. He continued acting throughout his youth, appearing in school plays such as The Gingerbread Duck. He auditioned for a theater company, The Youth Ensemble of Atlanta (YEA). As a child, he was a fan of The Price Is Right, which he has called "my first love" and "very joyful viewing" that shaped his acting style.

1994–2002: Breakthrough with Kenan and Kel
One of Thompson's earliest roles was as an entertainment reporter for CNN's "Real News for Kids". He went on to star in the original run of All That for its first five seasons, playing such characters as Principal Pimpell, Miss Piddlin, Pierre Escargot, and Superdude. He starred as Kenan Rockmore on Nickelodeon's Kenan & Kel from 1996 to 2000, mostly while still working on All That. He began acting in his first film, D2: The Mighty Ducks, while attending Tri-Cities High School, a visual and performing arts magnet school in East Point, Georgia.

Thompson has starred in several films including Good Burger (1997), based on the All That sketch of the same title, and Fat Albert (2004), in which he played the title character. He has also had supporting roles in the D2: The Mighty Ducks (1994), D3: The Mighty Ducks (1996), as well as films such as Heavyweights (1995), Big Fat Liar (2002), Love Don't Cost a Thing (2003), and My Boss's Daughter (2003).

2003–present: Saturday Night Live and acclaim
Thompson returned to sketch comedy when he joined the cast of Saturday Night Live in 2003, becoming the show's first cast member born after its 1975 premiere. Thompson said he had sent several audition tapes to SNL, which dismissed him as looking too young; he said "it was a couple years' worth of that". Thompson said that he feared his addition to the cast would be a "disservice" to the show: "It was weird for me for a long time". Thompson was a featured player until 2005 (spanning the 29th and 30th seasons) and was promoted to repertory player at the beginning of season 31 (the 2005–2006 season).

In 2013, he began refusing to portray black women characters on the show and demanded SNL hire black women instead.

Thompson has been a cast member on SNL for 21 seasons, breaking the record for the longest-tenured cast member in the show's history previously held by Darrell Hammond, who was on the show for 14 years. Thompson became the most senior cast member in the second half of the 2013–14 season, following the departure of Seth Meyers. He is also the longest-serving African-American cast member, surpassing Tim Meadows, who stayed on the show for ten seasons. Thompson also holds the record for most celebrity impressions performed on the show, performing 139, beating Hammond's previous record of 107. Although early on he planned to stay on the show until something else came along, by 2019 he noted that SNL was his "forever plan".

Thompson has been nominated for five Primetime Emmys for his work on SNL, winning once. He has thrice been nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, in 2018, 2020 and 2021. For co-writing the song "Last Christmas", in 2017 he was nominated for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics, an award he then won in 2018 for the lyrics to "Come Back Barack" (along with Chris Redd and Will Stephen).

In 2014, SNL head writer Brian H. Tucker noted that simply putting "KENAN REACTS" would get a script more laughs, further elaborating, "Put him in your sketch somewhere, anywhere, and your sketch will get better. Because Kenan knows how to take ordinary lines and make them funny, and take funny lines and make them special." Similarly, Lorne Michaels in a 2019 article referred to Thompson as "the person I most rely on in the cast". Vulture referred to him as the "heir apparent" to Phil Hartman, both being "the glue" of their respective casts.

Thompson's celebrity impressions on SNL include Al Sharpton, Whoopi Goldberg, Bill Cosby, Charles Barkley, David Ortiz, O. J. Simpson, and Steve Harvey. He has performed in over 1,500 sketches, hitting the mark during the March 5, 2022, episode hosted by Oscar Isaac. In commemoration of his 20th anniversary on the show, Thompson received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on August 11, 2022. It was placed next to Lorne Michaels' star.

In December 2023, Thompson released a memoir, titled When I Was Your Age.

Recurring characters

 * Darnell Hayes, the host of Black Jeopardy!
 * Diondre Cole, the host of What Up with That? (What's Up with That? in some episodes), who is repeatedly distracted by the show's theme song
 * Reese De'What, the host of Cinema Classics
 * Willie, Michael Che's overly optimistic neighbor
 * Jean K. Jean, a French comedian
 * Lorenzo McIntosh, a prisoner in the Scared Straight sketches
 * Steve Kane, the gym teacher in the Daniel Frye sketches
 * Tre, a character in the Californians sketches
 * Virginiaca Hastings, an argumentative shopper
 * Elliot Pants, Host of What's Wrong with This Picture?

Film and television roles
During this time he has also taken supporting roles in Barbershop 2: Back in Business (2004), and Snakes on a Plane (2006). In 2009, Thompson was a regular voice actor in the Fox animated series Sit Down, Shut Up, portraying Sue Sezno who, like her last name, always says no. The series premiered on April 19, 2009, but was canceled after only four episodes due to low ratings and poor reviews. Thompson voiced the LeBron James puppet in Nike's MVP "Most Valuable Puppets" commercials, which were produced to be shown throughout the 2009 NBA playoffs. Thompson also guest-starred as Gus's estranged college singing buddy on the USA Network series Psych in the fourth-season episode "High Top Fade Out". In 2011, he returned to Nickelodeon, guest-starring in "iParty with Victorious", a crossover episode of sitcoms iCarly and Victorious.

Thompson appeared as a host of sorts of TeenNick's retro programming block, The '90s Are All That, appearing in many of the block's early bumpers and hyping material. He would return to the block, eventually called NickRewind but at the time called The Splat, for All That's 22nd anniversary, with segments filmed at the 2015 New York Comic Con. In 2015, film ticketing website Fandango announced that Thompson would play their brand character, Miles Mouvay. Thompson would play Mouvay in 18 videos, eight 30-second commercials, and several comedic skits.

On September 23, 2015, Thompson appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon alongside former All That co-star Kel Mitchell in which they reprised their popular Good Burger roles as "Ed" and "Lester Oakes, Construction Worker". They later competed against one another in an episode of the revived Nickelodeon game show Double Dare that aired in November 2018. In 2019, Thompson served as a judge for NBC's comedy competition series Bring the Funny. He also became an executive producer with Mitchell for Nickelodeon's All That revival, premiering in June. In May 2019, NBC announced they had picked up Thompson's single-camera comedy The Kenan Show to series. The series, retitled Kenan, premiered in 2021 on NBC, featuring Thompson as a newly-widowed father determined to be a "super dad". He was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series after its first season. In May 2022, the series was canceled after its second season.

In 2020, he became the spokesman for Universal Destinations & Experiences' "Let Yourself Woah" campaign, and was set to host the 2020 White House Correspondents' Dinner before it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2021 would also see Thompson be named host of that year's Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards and People's Choice Awards. He also hosted The Jonas Brothers Family Roast on Netflix.

In December 2021, Thompson co-founded the production company and talent incubator Artists for Artists (AFA). Their first announced project, Mike Tyson: Undisputed Truth Part 2 is in collaboration with Mike Tyson and wife Lakiha "Kiki" Spicer and a sequel to the boxer's 2013 HBO special. In March 2022, AFA fully funded the launch of Twenty Two Entertainment, led by actors Michael Rainey Jr. and Gianni Paolo, best known from the Starz series Power Book II: Ghost.

He appears in the third episode of the revival of The Kids in the Hall as Ron, a Friend of the Kids in the Hall, and hosted the NHL Awards in June 2022. He hosted the 74th Primetime Emmy Awards on September 12, 2022.

Personal life
Thompson married model Christina Evangeline in 2011. On June 20, 2014, the couple had their first child, Georgia Marie. On July 31, 2018, they welcomed their second child, Gianna Michelle.

On April 7, 2022, it was announced that the two had been separated for over a year, and are co-parenting their daughters. On June 15, 2022, it was announced that Thompson was officially filing for divorce.

Television
Thompson stood in for Simon Cowell, who was still recovering from a back injury the previous week that required him to rest under medical observation.

title: Kenan Thompson


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Northeast (disambiguation)

Northeast is a compass point.

Northeast, north-east, north east, northeastern or north-eastern or north eastern may also refer to:
 * Northeast (direction), an intercardinal direction

Africa

 * North East (Nigeria)
 * North Eastern Province (Kenya)
 * North-East District (Botswana)
 * North East Region (Ghana)
 * North Eastern District, Eritrea

Asia and Oceania

 * Northeast India or the Seven Sister States
 * North East Delhi, a district of Delhi
 * North Eastern Province, Sri Lanka
 * Northeast China or Manchuria
 * North Eastern (General Electors Communal Constituency, Fiji), an electoral division of Fiji
 * North-East Region, Singapore
 * North East Community Development Council, Singapore
 * Northeast Province (IMCRA region), an Australian marine biogeographic province
 * Northeast (Vietnam)
 * Tōhoku region or "Northeast Region", Japan

United Kingdom

 * North East (London Assembly constituency), a constituency of the London Assembly
 * North East (London sub region), a sub-region of the London Plan
 * North East England, one of the official government regions of England
 * North East Scotland (Scottish Parliament electoral region), an electoral region, but in wider use to refer to the area made up of Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire and Moray
 * North East (Dundee ward), Scotland
 * North East (Glasgow ward), Scotland

America

 * North East, Maryland
 * North East, New York
 * North East, Pennsylvania
 * Northeast, Minneapolis (sometimes referred to as Nordeast)
 * Northeast Region, Brazil, an official grouping of states for economic and statistical purposes
 * Atlantic Northeast, a region of North America
 * Northeast, Washington, D.C., the northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C.
 * Northeastern United States
 * Northeast Community, a neighborhood in Tampa, Florida
 * Northeast (Billings), a section of Billings, Montana

People

 * Sam Northeast (born 1989), English cricketer

Airlines

 * Northeast Airlines, a now defunct US airline which began operations in 1931 and merged with Delta Air Lines 1972
 * Northeast Airlines (UK), a now defunct British airline which began operations in 1951 as BKS and was merged into British Airways in 1976
 * Northeast Airlines (China), a planned start-up airline to be based in Shenyang, People's Republic of China
 * Northeast Express Regional Airlines, a now defunct Maine-based regional airline which operated as an affiliate of Northwest Airlines

Sports

 * NorthEast United FC, football team based in Guwahati, Assam, India which competes in Indian Super League
 * Northeastern Warriors, badminton team based in Guwahati, Assam, India which competes in Premier Badminton League
 * North East Re-Organising Cultural Association FC, football club based in Imphal, Manipur, India which competes in I-League
 * North East Tigers, boxing team which competes in Super Boxing League (India)
 * Northeastern Huskies, are athletic teams representing Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts, United States

Other uses

 * Northeast (film), a 2005 Argentine film
 * North East (film), a 2016 Nigerian romantic drama film
 * North East Island (disambiguation)
 * Northeastern University, a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA
 * Northeastern University (disambiguation)
 * Northeastern Conference, a high school athletic conference in Massachusetts
 * Northeastern Limited, named passenger train of the Illinois Central, from Shreveport, Louisiana to Meridian, Mississippi.

title: Northeast (disambiguation)


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Atria

Atria may refer to:

Science

 * Atrium (heart) (plural: atria), an anatomical structure of the heart
 * Atria (genus), a flatworm genus in the family Dendrocoelidae
 * Atria (star) or Alpha Trianguli Australis, a star in the constellation Triangulum Australe

Companies and brands

 * Atria (company), a large Finnish food company
 * Atria Convergence Technologies, an Indian telecommunications company
 * Atria Management Company, a North American assisted-living company
 * Atria Publishing Group, an imprint of Simon & Schuster
 * Atria Software, the original maker of ClearCase
 * Atria Watford, a shopping centre in Watford, Hertfordshire, UK

Places

 * Adria, or Atria, an Etruscan city in the Veneto region of Northern Italy
 * Atri, Abruzzo, or Atria, an ancient city in the Abruzzo region of Central Italy
 * Atria Park District, a mixed-use development zone in Mandurriao, Iloilo City, Philippines

Other uses

 * Atrium (architecture) (plural: atria), a large open space within a building
 * Atria gens, an ancient Roman family
 * Atria Galla, woman of ancient Rome who lived in the 1st century CE
 * Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history
 * Atria, a fictional planet in the TV series Star-Crossed

title: Atria


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Northwest (disambiguation)

Northwest is a compass point.

Northwest or north-west or north west may also refer to:

 * Northwest (direction), an intercardinal direction

Africa

 * North West (Nigeria)
 * North West Tunisia
 * North-West District (Botswana)
 * Northwest Region (Cameroon)
 * North West (South African province)

Asia and Oceania

 * North West Australia, an unofficial geographical region
 * North West Delhi, India
 * Northwest Province (IMCRA region), an Australian marine biogeographic province
 * North West District, Singapore
 * North-West Frontier Province, former name of the Pakistani province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
 * Tay Bac, literally Northwest Vietnam

Europe

 * North West England, region
 * Northern and Western Region, region in the Republic of Ireland
 * North-West (European Parliament constituency), in the Republic of Ireland (2004 to 2014)
 * Copenhagen North West, Denmark
 * Northwestern Krai or Northwestern Land in the historical Russian Empire

Americas

 * Northwestern United States
 * Pacific Northwest, unofficial region in the United States and Canada
 * Northwest Territories, federal territory of Canada
 * Northwest Territories (electoral district), Canadian federal electoral district
 * North-Western Territory, former territory in British North America administered by the Hudson's Bay Company
 * Northwest Passage, sea route traversing Canada's Arctic archipelago
 * Northwest Territory, former incorporated territory of the United States in the Great Lakes region
 * Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the United States
 * Northwest District, Portland, Oregon in the United States
 * Argentine Northwest

Schools

 * Northwest High School (disambiguation), several high schools
 * Northwest School, Seattle, Washington
 * Northwest University (disambiguation), several schools

People and characters

 * Northwest Smith, a character in science fiction stories by C. L. Moore
 * North West (musician) (born 2013), American musician, daughter of Kanye West and Kim Kardashian

Other uses

 * Northwest Ordinance, U.S. ordinance outlining the provisions of accepting a new state
 * Northwest Airlines, a former major airline purchased by Delta Air Lines that ceased operating in 2009
 * North by Northwest, a 1959 American thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock
 * North West (HBC vessel), operated by the HBC 1882–1897, see Hudson's Bay Company vessels
 * Hastings West-Northwest Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, a journal of environmental law and policy that was founded in 1994

title: Northwest (disambiguation)


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Balanus

Balanus is a genus of barnacles in the family Balanidae of the subphylum Crustacea.

This genus is known in the fossil record from the Jurassic to the Quaternary periods (age range: from 189.6 to 0.0 million years ago.). Fossil shells within this genus have been found all over the world.

Description
The bodies of these organisms are totally enclosed by a stony gray-whitish shell. The size of these shells ranges from 5 millimeters to 10 centimeters. They take the form of a cone consisting of six plates fixed on the rocks. The active animal can only be observed within the water when the shell opens and the barnacles expose two branched appendages (cirri ) regularly hitting the water to catch food. They mainly feed on plankton.

Habitat
These barnacles can be found in coastal areas at low shallow depth, although they can also be seen living out of the water. They commonly colonize stones, rocks and shells. They are found in abundance on the shells of mussels.

Species
Species within the genus Balanus include:

 * Balanus balanus (Linnaeus, 1758)
 * Balanus bloxhamensis Weisbord, 1966
 * Balanus borsodensis Kolosváry, 1952
 * Balanus calidus Pilsbry, 1916
 * Balanus campbelli Filhol, 1886
 * Balanus chisletianus Sowerby, 1859
 * Balanus citerosum Henry, 1973
 * Balanus connelli Cornwall, 1927
 * Balanus crenatus Bruguière, 1789
 * Balanus curvirostratus Menesini, 1968
 * Balanus darwinii Seguenza, 1876
 * Balanus ecuadoricus Pilsbry & Olson, 1951
 * Balanus flosculoidus Kolosváry, 1941
 * Balanus gizellae Kolosváry, 1967
 * Balanus glandula Darwin, 1854 (Common Acorn Barnacle)
 * Balanus hohmanni Philippi, 1887
 * †Balanus humilis Conrad, 1846 (extinct)
 * †Balanus imitator Zullo, 1984 (extinct)
 * Balanus irradians Zullo & Guruswami-Naidu, 1982
 * Balanus irregularis Broch, 1931
 * Balanus kanakoffi Zullo, 1969
 * Balanus kondakovi Tarasov & Zevina, 1957
 * Balanus laevis Bruguière, 1789
 * Balanus laguairensis Weisbord, 1966
 * Balanus leonensis Weisbord, 1966
 * Balanus microstomus Philippi, 1887
 * Balanus minutus Hoek, 1913
 * Balanus mirabilis Krüger, 1912
 * Balanus newburnensis Weisbord, 1966
 * Balanus nubilus Darwin, 1854 (Giant acorn barnacle)
 * Balanus ochlockoneensis Weisbord, 1966
 * Balanus pannonicus Kolosváry, 1952
 * Balanus parkeri Zullo, 1967
 * Balanus perforatus Bruguière, 1789
 * Balanus poecilus Darwin, 1854
 * Balanus polyporus Pilbry, 1924
 * Balanus provisoricus Kolosváry, 1961
 * Balanus pulchellus Ren, 1989
 * Balanus rhizophorae Ren & Liu, 1978
 * Balanus rostratus Hoek, 1883 (Minefujitsubo) (Japanese acorn barnacle)
 * Balanus sauntonensis Parfitt, 1871
 * Balanus similis Weltner, 1922
 * Balanus spongicola Brown, 1844
 * Balanus subalbidus Henry, 1974
 * Balanus tamiamiensis Ross, 1964
 * Balanus trigonus Darwin, 1854
 * Balanus tuboperforatus Kolosváry, 1962
 * Balanus tumorifer Kolosváry, 1962
 * Balanus uliginosis Henry, 1973
 * Balanus vadaszi Kolosváry, 1949
 * Balanus veneticensis Seguenza, 1876
 * Balanus withersi Pilsbry, 1930

The species Balanus balanoides (common barnacle, common rock barnacle, northern rock barnacle) has been reclassified as Semibalanus balanoides in the family Archaeobalanidae, due to its membranous base.

title: Balanus


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Rem (mythology)

Rem ( "to weep"), also Rem-Rem, Remi, or Remi the Weeper, who lives in Rem-Rem, the realm of weeping, was a fish god in Egypt who fertilized the land with his tears, producing both vegetation and the reptiles. He is assumed to be the personification of Ra's tears.

title: Rem (mythology)


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Yer

A yer is either of two letters in Cyrillic alphabets, ъ (ѥръ, jerŭ) and ь (ѥрь, jerĭ). The Glagolitic alphabet used, as respective counterparts, the letters  (Ⱏ) and  (Ⱐ). They originally represented phonemically the "ultra-short" vowels in Slavic languages, including Old Church Slavonic, and are collectively known as the yers.

In all modern Slavic languages, they either evolved into various "full" vowels or disappeared, in some cases causing the palatalization of adjacent consonants. The only Slavic language that still uses "ъ" as a vowel sign (pronounced /ɤ/) is Bulgarian, but in many cases, it corresponds to an earlier ѫ (big yus), originally pronounced /õ/, used in pre 1945 Bulgarian orthography.

Many languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet have kept one or more of the yers to serve specific orthographic functions.

The back yer (Ъ, ъ, italics Ъ, ъ ) of the Cyrillic script, also spelled jer or er, is known as the hard sign in the modern Russian and Rusyn alphabets and as ер голям (er golyam, "big er") in the Bulgarian alphabet. Pre-reform Russian orthography and texts in Old East Slavic and in Old Church Slavonic called the letter "back yer". Originally, it denoted an ultra-short or reduced mid rounded vowel.

Its companion, the front yer (Ь, ь, italics Ь, ь ), now known as the soft sign in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and as ер малък (er malak, "small er") in Bulgarian, originally also represented a reduced vowel, more frontal than the ъ. Today, it marks the palatalization of consonants in all of the Slavic languages written in the Cyrillic script except Serbian and Macedonian, which do not use it at all, but it still leaves traces in the forms of the palatalized letters њ and љ. In Bulgarian, it is debated whether the letter palatalises the preceding consonant or is a simple sound. See Bulgarian phonology.

In the modern Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, ь is also used to represent the palatalization of the previous consonant, while ъ represents a lack of palatalization. However, ъ is only necessary for the purposes of disambiguation between a consonant and an iotated vowel in situations when palatalization should not occur, as by default it would. It is therefore rarely used. As it is not necessary to specify palatalization under those circumstances, the much more common ь is frequently used as a substitute for ъ without any ambiguity arising.

Original use
In Old Church Slavonic, the yer was used to indicate the so-called "reduced vowel": ъ =, ь = in the conventional transcription. They stemmed from the Proto-Balto-Slavic and Proto-Indo-European short and  (compare Latin angulus and Old Church Slavonic ѫгълъ, ǫgŭlŭ < Early Proto-Slavic *angulu < Proto-Balto-Slavic *ángulas < Proto-Indo-European *h₂éngulos). In all West Slavic languages, the yer either disappeared or changed to in strong positions, and in South Slavic languages, the strong yer reflexes differ widely, according to dialect.

Historical development
In Common Slavic, the yers were normal short vowels /u/ and /i/. Havlik's law caused them, in certain positions, to be pronounced very weakly, perhaps as ultrashort vowels, and to lose the ability to take word accent. The weak yers were later dropped, and the strong yers evolved into various sounds that varied across different languages.

To determine whether a yer is strong or weak, one must break the continuous flow of speech into individual words, or prosodic units (phrases with only one stressed syllable, typically including a preposition or other clitic words). The rule for determining weak and strong yers is as follows:
 * A terminal yer is weak.
 * A yer followed by a non-reduced vowel in the next syllable is weak.
 * A yer in the syllable before one with a weak yer is strong.
 * A yer in the syllable before one with a strong yer is weak.

In Russian, for example, the yers evolved as follows:
 * Strong yers are fully voiced: ь → е (or ë); ъ → о
 * Weak yers drop entirely, but the palatalization from a following ь generally remains.

Simply put, in a string of Old Russian syllables, each of which has a reduced vowel, the reduced vowels are, in Modern Russian, alternately given their full voicing or drop: the last yer in the sequence drops. There are some exceptions to the rule, usually considered to be the result of analogy with other words or other inflected forms of the same word, with a different original pattern of reduced vowels. Modern Russian inflection is, therefore, complicated by so-called "transitive" (lit. беглые "fugitive" or "fleeting") vowels, which appear and disappear in place of a former yer. For example (OR = Old Russian; R = Russian):
 * OR сънъ → R сон  "sleep" (nominative singular)
 * OR съна → R сна  "sleep" (genitive singular)
 * OR ѫгълъ → R угол  "corner" (nominative singular)
 * OR ѫгъла → R угла  "corner" (genitive singular)

title: Yer


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William Eliot, 2nd Earl of St Germans

William Eliot, 2nd Earl of St Germans (1 April 1767 – 19 January 1845), known as William Elliot until 1823, was a British diplomat and politician.

Eliot was born at Port Eliot, Cornwall, the third son of Edward Craggs-Eliot, 1st Baron Eliot and his wife Catherine (née Elliston). He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, taking an M.A. in 1786. He served as an officer with the East Cornwall Militia.

From November 1791 until 1793 he was a Secretary of Legation at Berlin, from 1793 to 1794 Secretary of Embassy and Minister Plenipotentiary at The Hague and from 1796 Minister Plenipotentiary to the Elector Palatine and to the Diet of Ratisbon. Eliot also sat as Tory Member of Parliament for St Germans from 1791 to 1802 and for Liskeard from 1802 to 1823. He served as a Lord of the Admiralty from 1800 to 1804, as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 1804 to 1805 and as one of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury from 1807 to 1812.

In 1823 he succeeded his elder brother as second Earl of St Germans and entered the House of Lords.

Family
Lord St Germans married four times.

 * In November 1797 at Trentham, Staffordshire to Lady Georgiana Augusta Leveson-Gower (13 April 1769 – 24 March 1806). Georgiana was the daughter of Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford. They had one son and three daughters:
 * Edward Granville Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans (29 August 1798 – 7 October 1877) - Lady Jemmima Cornwallis, dau.of Charles Cornwallis, 2nd Marquess Cornwallis
 * Lady Caroline Georgina Eliot (27 July 1799 – April 1865)
 * Lady Susan Caroline Eliot (12 April 1801 – 15 January 1835) - Henry Lygon, 4th Earl Beauchamp
 * Lady Charlotte Sophia Eliot (28 May 1802 – 8 July 1839)
 * On 13 February 1809 at Heytesbury, Wiltshire, to Letitia A'Court (9 August 1778 – 10 January 1810), with no issue.
 * On 7 March 1812 at the Earl of Powis' House, Berkeley Square, London, to Charlotte Robinson (1790 – 3 July 1813), with no issue.
 * On 20 August 1814 at Walton, Warwickshire, to Susan Mordaunt (d. 5 February 1830), with no issue.

He died at Port Eliot in 1845 and was succeeded by his eldest son.

title: William Eliot, 2nd Earl of St Germans


text:
Talk:List of Manhattan, New York neighborhoods

Just how many Manhattans are there with a collection of neighborhoods? Wouldn't this better be named simply List of Manhattan neighborhoods? Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 19:40, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm, it appears that list already exists, and is more complete than this one. I am merging and redirect, I hope that is ok Dominus? Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 19:41, 18 May 2004 (UTC)


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Artistic language

An artistic language, or artlang,  is a constructed language designed for aesthetic and phonetic pleasure. Constructed languages can be artistic to the extent that artists use it as a source of creativity in art, poetry, calligraphy or as a metaphor to address themes such as cultural diversity and the vulnerability of the individual in a globalizing world. They can also be used to test linguistical theories, such as Linguistic relativity.

Unlike engineered languages or auxiliary languages, artistic languages often have irregular grammar systems, much like natural languages. Many are designed within the context of fictional worlds, such as J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. Others can represent fictional languages in a world not patently different from the real world, or have no particular fictional background attached.

Genres
Several different genres of constructed languages are classified as 'artistic'. An artistic language may fall into any one of the following groups, depending on the aim of its use. Similarly to philosophical languages, artlangs are created in accordance with an initially defined principle in mind.

Fictional languages
By far the largest group of artlangs are fictional languages (sometimes also referred to as "professional artlangs"). Fictional languages are intended to be the languages of a fictional world, and are often designed with the intent of giving more depth and an appearance of plausibility to the fictional worlds with which they are associated, and to have their characters communicate in a fashion which is both alien and dislocated. By analogy with the word "conlang", the term conworld is used to describe these worlds, inhabited by fictional constructed cultures.

There are two major categories of fictional languages.

Professional fictional languages are those languages created for use in books, movies, television shows, video games, comics, toys, and songs. Prominent examples of works featuring fictional languages include the Middle-earth and Star Trek universes, games like Ico and the Ar Tonelico series, and songs of the French band Magma, singing in Kobaïan.

Internet-based fictional languages are hosted along with their "conworlds" on the Internet, and based at these sites, becoming known to the world through the sites' visitors. An example is Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria on the planet of Almea.

Alternative languages
Alternative languages, or altlangs, speculate on an alternate history and try to reconstruct how a family of natural languages would have evolved if things had been different, e.g.: What if Greek civilization had gone on to thrive without a Roman Empire, leaving Greek and not Latin to develop several modern descendants? The language that would have evolved is then traced step by step in its evolution, to reach its modern form. An altlang will typically base itself on the core vocabulary of one language and the phonology of another.

The best-known language of this category is Brithenig, which initiated the interest among Internet conlangers in devising such alternate-historical languages, like Wenedyk. Brithenig attempts to determine how Romance languages would have evolved had Roman influence in Britain been sufficient to replace Celtic languages with Vulgar Latin, and bases its phonology on that of Welsh. An earlier instance is Philip José Farmer's Winkie language, a relative of the Germanic languages spoken by the Winkies of Oz in A Barnstormer in Oz. Another example is Anglish, which tries to reconstruct how English could have looked without Latin influence.

Although technically a professional fictional language, Wenja, used in the video game Far Cry Primal is an attempt an reconstructing an earlier stage of Proto-Indo-European, before the appearance of characteristics such as gender, ablaut or the s-mobile, to name a few.

Micronational languages
Micronational languages are the languages created for use in micronations. Having the citizens learn the language is as much a part of participating in the micronation as minting coins and stamps or participating in government. The members of these micronations meet up and speak the language they have learned when they are participating in these meets. They coin new words and grammatical constructions when needed. Talossan, from R. Ben Madison's Kingdom of Talossa, is an archetypal example of a micronational language.

Personal languages
Personal languages are ultimately created for one's own edification. The creator does not expect anyone to speak it; the language exists as a work of art. A personal language may be invented for the purpose of having a beautiful language, for self-expression, as an exercise in understanding linguistic principles, or perhaps as an attempt to create a language with an extreme phonemic inventory or system of verbs. Personal languages tend to have short lifespans, and are often displayed on the Internet and discussed on message boards much like Internet-based fictional languages. They are often invented in large numbers by the people who design these languages. However, a few personal languages are used extensively and long-term by their creators (e.g., for writing diaries). Javant Biarujia, the creator of Taneraic, described his personal language (which he terms a hermetic language) thus: "a private pact negotiated between the world at large and the world within me; public words simply could not guarantee me the private expression I sought." The author Robert Dessaix describes the origins of his personal language K: "I wanted words that described reality. So I made them up."

Languages with small vocabulary
The aim of such languages is to express deep meaning with very few parts. For instance, Toki Pona is generally said to have around 120, 123, or 125 root words and 14 phonemes. It was created by Canadian linguist and translator Sonja Lang for the purpose of simplifying thoughts and communication.

Jokelangs
The term jokelang is sometimes applied to conlangs created as jokes. These may be languages intended primarily to sound funny, such as DiLingo, or for some type of satire, often as satire on some aspect of constructed languages.

Some typical jokelangs are:
 * Europanto – an unstructured mixture of European languages
 * Transpiranto – constructed from international words inflected to sound like Swedish jargon, in order to improve malplacedness and ambiguity
 * Oou – a deliberately ambiguous and polysemous language whose writing system is made up entirely of punctuation marks and whose phoneme inventory is made up entirely of vowels
 * DiLingo – a rhyming language
 * Gulevache – a fictional joke romance language created by the Argentinian comedy-musical group Les Luthiers for its opera Cardoso en Gulevandia
 * Unwinese – the nonsensical but structured alternative English, also known as gobbledygook but named by its creator Basic Engly Twentyfimode, used by comedian Stanley Unwin
 * Inflationary Language – invented by comedian Victor Borge, incrementing numbers embedded in words, e.g., crenine ("create") and elevennis ("tennis")

Experimental languages
An experimental language is a constructed language designed for the purpose of exploring some theory of linguistics. Most such languages are concerned with the relation between language and thought; however, languages have been constructed to explore other aspects of language as well. In science fiction, much work has been done on the assumption popularly known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. Artlangs of this type overlap with engineered languages.

Examples of artistic languages
See list of constructed languages for a list.

Wikis on or about constructed languages and artistic languages

 * ConlangWiki – a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures.
 * Conlang wiki at Fandom
 * Unilang.org – a database of language- and linguistic-related information

title: Artistic language