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Percheron

The Percheron is a breed of draft horse that originated in the Huisne river valley in western France, part of the former Perche province, from which the breed takes its name. Usually gray or black in color, Percherons are well-muscled, and known for their intelligence and willingness to work. Although their exact origins are unknown, the ancestors of the breed were present in the valley by the 17th century. They are believed to descend from war horses. Over time, they began to be used for pulling stagecoaches; and later, for agriculture and hauling heavy goods. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Arabian blood was added to the breed. Exports of Percherons from France rose exponentially in the late 19th century, and the first purely Percheron stud book was created in France in 1893.

Before World War I, thousands of Percherons were shipped from France to the United States, but after the war began, an embargo stopped shipping. The breed was used extensively in Europe during the war, with some horses being shipped from the United States back to France to help in the war effort. Beginning in 1918, Percherons began to be bred in the United Kingdom; in 1918, the British Percheron Horse Society (BPHS) was formed. After a series of name and studbook ownership changes, the current United States Percheron registry was created in 1934. In the 1930s, Percherons accounted for 70% of the draft horse population in the United States, but their numbers declined substantially after World War II. However, the population began to recover; and, as of 2009, around 2,500 Percheron horses were registered annually in the United States alone.

The breed is still used extensively for draft work; in France, they are also bred for horse meat. They have been crossed with several light horse breeds to produce both stock horses and sport horses. Purebred Percherons are used for forestry work and pulling carriages, as well as work under saddle, including competition in various English riding disciplines, including show jumping.

Characteristics
The size considered ideal for the Percheron varies between countries. In France, height ranges from and weight from 500 to 1200 kg. Percherons in the United States generally stand between, with a range of. American Percherons average 1900 lb, and their top weight is around 2600 lb. In Great Britain, is the shortest acceptable height for stallions and  for mares, while weights range from around 2000 – for stallions and 1800 – for mares.

They are generally gray or black in coloring, although the American registry also allows the registration of roan, bay and chestnut horses. Only gray or black horses may be registered in France and the United Kingdom.

Many horses have white markings on their heads and legs, but registries consider excessive white to be undesirable.

The head has a straight profile, broad forehead, large eyes and small ears. The chest is deep and wide and the croup long and level. The feet and legs are clean and heavily muscled. The overall impression of the Percheron is one of power and ruggedness. Enthusiasts describe the temperament as proud and alert, and members of the breed are considered intelligent, willing workers with good dispositions. They are considered easy keepers and adapt well to many conditions and climates. In the 19th century, they were known to travel up to 60 km a day at a trot.

Horses in the French registry are branded on the neck with the intertwined letters "SP", the initials of the Société Hippique Percheronne.

History
The Percheron breed originated in the Huisne river valley in France, which arises in Orne, part of the former Perche province, from which the breed gets its name. Several theories have been put forth as to the ancestry of the breed, though its exact origins are unknown. One source of foundation bloodstock may have been mares captured by Clovis I from the Bretons some time after 496 AD. Another may have been Barb horse cavalry stallions brought from Spain by Moors in the 8th century. The Moorish were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD, and some of their horses may have been taken by warriors from Perche. A final theory posits that the Percheron and the Boulonnais breed are closely related, and that the Boulonnais influenced the Percheron when they were brought to Brittany as reinforcements for the legions of Caesar. It is known that during the 8th century, Barb stallions were crossed with mares native to the area, and more Oriental horse blood was introduced by the Comte du Perche upon his return from the Crusades and expeditions into territory claimed by Spain. Further blood from Spanish breeds was added when Rotrou III imported horses from Castile. No matter the theory of origin, breed historians agree that the terrain and climate of the Perche area had the greatest influence on the development of the breed. A possible reference to the horse is made in the 13th-century romance Guillaume de Dole, in which the title character asks for "the Count of Perche's horse" to be made ready, possibly indicating the "'great horse,' which could accommodate an armored knight" and was bred in the geographical setting of the poem.

During the 17th century, horses from Perche, ancestors of the current Percheron, were smaller, standing between high, and more agile. These horses were almost uniformly gray; paintings and drawings from the Middle Ages generally show French knights on mounts of this color. After the days of the armored knight, the emphasis in horse breeding was shifted so as to develop horses better able to pull heavy stage coaches at a fast trot. Gray horses were preferred because their light coloring was more visible at night. This new type of horse was called the "Diligence Horse", because the stage coaches they pulled were named "diligences". After the stage coach was replaced by rail, the modern Percheron type arose as a slightly heavier horse for use in agriculture and heavy hauling work, moving goods from docks to railway terminals.

19th century
Arabian stallions were made available to Percheron breeders for use in breeding army mounts, beginning in 1760 at the royal stud at Le Pin. Between 1789 and the early 1800s, the Percheron was in danger of becoming extinct as horse breeding was suppressed during the French Revolution and its aftermath. Early histories of the breed point to two gray Arabian stallions from Le Pin, Godolphin and Gallipoly, as the blood that helped to restart Percheron breeding. However, later research found that Godolphin was a chestnut Arabian of ordinary conformation and no special worth, while Gallipoly was a gray saddle horse of unknown breeding. Modern breed historians contest that there was enough breeding stock left after the early 19th century to restart the breed without further Arabian influence, and state that it is unlikely that two horses of unremarkable breeding and conformation had a significant influence on the breed. Jean le Blanc, a founding stallion of the Percheron breed, was foaled in 1823. Today, all Percherons trace their ancestry to this stallion. At this time the breed also became larger, with horses from other French districts being imported to Perche to change the Percheron from a coach horse averaging 1200 – to a draft horse averaging 2000 lbs. In 1893, the first Percheron stud book was created in France. By 1910, French registrations had risen to almost 32,000 horses. Between 1880 and 1920, Percheron breeders in France exported horses all over the world, including South Africa, South America, Australia and North America.

In the United States and Great Britain
Percherons were first imported into the United States in 1839 by Edward Harris II of Moorestown, New Jersey. Only one of the initial four horses survived the ocean trip. Soon after, two stallions and two mares were imported; one mare died shortly after arrival and one stallion went blind and was retired within a year. Although the first importations of Percherons were less than successful, the remaining stallion owned by Edward Harris II, named Diligence, was credited with siring almost 400 foals. In 1851, three stallions were imported: Normandy 351, Louis Napoleon 281 and Gray Billy. Throughout their stud careers, each had significant influence on American draft horse stock. In the mid-19th century in the United States, Percheron stallions were crossed with homebred mares to improve the local stock, resulting in thousands of crossbred horses. After the American Civil War in the 1860s greatly reduced the number of horses, there was a significant need for large draft horses, especially in growing cities and in the expanding West. Large numbers of Percherons were imported to the United States beginning in the early 1870s, and they became popular with draft horse breeders and owners. In the 1880s, approximately 7,500 horses were exported to the United States. This extensive importation lasted until 1893, when the US experienced a financial panic, and virtually no Percheron imports occurred between 1894 and 1898. In addition, many existing horses were lost as people were too poor to purchase or care for large draft horses. In 1898, importations began again as abruptly as they had ceased, with an average of 700 horses a year imported between 1898 and 1905. In 1906 alone, over 13,000 horses were imported to the United States from France. In the American traveling circuses of the late 19th century and early 20th century, the Percheron was the most frequently seen draft horse. Drivers appreciated the breed's agility, stamina and quick-footed gait.

In 1876, the Norman-Percheron Association was formed by a group of Percheron breeders in Chicago, and at the same time the stud book was begun. The Norman-Percheron Association was the United States' first purebred livestock association. In 1877, the word "Norman" was dropped from the name. Later, in the panic of 1893, the Percheron Association went bankrupt and ceased to function. In 1905, also in Chicago, Percheron breeders met again to reform as the Percheron Society of America. Since 1934, the group has been known as the Percheron Horse Association of America. At its height, the organization was the largest draft horse association in the world, in the early 20th century registering over 10,000 horses annually.

In the late 19th century, Percherons also began to be exported from the United States to Great Britain, where they were used to pull horse-drawn buses in large cities. The first Percherons imported to Britain included some of the thousands of crossbreds from the United States. In Britain, many of the horses, once they finished their bus-pulling career, were sold to farmers. Other imported horses were sold to the British Army, and in 1900, 325 horses were shipped to South Africa for use in the Boer War.

20th and 21st centuries
In 1911, the French society restricted registration to horses with both parents already registered with the society. In the early 20th century, the Percheron was one of the four major draft horse breeds, along with the Belgian, the Clydesdale and the Shire. Breeders could sell their horses for significant amounts of money, especially in the United States and Canada, where breeding stock brought a premium price.

Prior to World War I, a flourishing trade route for Percherons existed between Nogent-le-Rotrou, Le Havre and the United States. However, after the war began, an embargo was placed on French Percherons, disallowing them from exportation. Other than an exception in April 1916 to allow 59 horses to be shipped from France to the US, this embargo remained in place until the end of the war. The war took its toll on the Percheron breed as horses, fodder, and handlers were requisitioned for the fighting, and even after the embargo was lifted France did not have the quality or quantity of stock to fulfill the needs of American breeders. The embargo created a breeding boom in the US, replacing the previous practice of importing the majority of Percherons from France, and late in the war horses were shipped the other way – from the US to Europe – to supply those needed in the war. The lack of feathering on the Percheron's lower legs made them easier to care for in the mud that they often worked in during wartime. Their quick trot on paved roads made them more versatile than motorized vehicles, and they were useful for work with guns and in forward units due to their calm temperaments.

Between 1918 and 1922, over 350 Percherons were imported to Britain from France and, combined with stock from the US and Canada, were used as breeding stock to establish the breed in the country. In 1918, the British Percheron Horse Society was formed. British breeders and owners continue to import Percherons from France, and also occasionally from Canada, when not prohibitively expensive.

By the 1930s, Percherons accounted for over 70 percent of the purebred draft horses in the United States, and all of the major land-grant universities maintained stables of Percherons. A 1930 census of horses found over 33,000 Percherons in the United States, with the next most popular breed, the Belgian, having a population of less than 10,000. One Percheron historian attributes this popularity to the breed's "strength, energy, activity, robustness and endurance". After World War II, increasing mechanization prompted a decline in the Percheron population. In 1954, only 85 Percherons were registered in the US, a record low. The 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s were bad years for the US Percheron population, and breeding was reduced to only a few farms. These breeders kept the American population alive through these years, however, and the 1980s saw renewed interest in the breed.

In 1966, the French stud book was changed to include draft types from other areas of France that were closely related to the Percheron – including the horses of Berrichon, Nivernais, Marne, Augeron, Bourbonnais, Loire and Saône-et-Loire. French Percherons were also hit hard by the advent of mechanization, and between 1970 and 1990 focus was placed on breeding horses of greater mass for the meat market. The largest and heaviest stallions were selected for breeding. Beginning at the 1989 World Percheron Congress, French breeders realized that they needed a lighter breed for tourism, export to Japan for draft work, and other markets. In 1993, a trend of importing American stallions to France was started with the black stallion Silver Shadows Sheik. This stallion and others were used to create a more elegant, smaller and sleeker look in the French Percheron, while still retaining the traditional bone and foot structure. All the imported stallions were black, reviving the popularity of black Percherons in France. French breeders continue to import American-bred Percheron stallions in order to produce lighter foals, moving away from the heavier meat-type horses of the late 20th century. Also in 1993, the Société Hippique Percheronne anticipated the increasing tourist and exportation markets by prohibiting docking, which was not prohibited for other draft breeds until 1996. This was partly at the request of the Germans, and partly due to the influence of magazines such as Cheval.

In 1988, there were 1,088 Percherons in the United States, rising to 2,257 by 1998. As of 2009, the Percheron Horse Association of America had horses registered in all 50 states, and had nearly 3,000 members, with around 2,500 new horses being registered annually. The French Société Hippique Percheronne de France (Percheron Horse Society of France) registered between 750 and 885 horses in each year between 2007 and 2010. As of 2012, the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy considers the Percheron to be "recovering", meaning that the breed has exceeded the numbers required to be in one of the "watch" categories, but still needs to be monitored.

Augeron
The Augeron, also known as Caen or Virois, was developed from the Percheron during the 19th century and was merged back into the Percheron in the 1960s. Bred mainly in the Pays d'Auge region, it previously had its own studbook, registered by the Société hippique du trait augeron. The status of the subtype has been repeatedly debated because of its origin from Percherons bred in Pays d'Auge, a breeding group that was modified from the original breed standard due to the influence of soil and climate over the years, creating the Augeron type. Augerons are light gray in color, tall, strong, well-built, and energetic. They stand 158 – in height, but those horses bred in Vire are known to be smaller than the standard.

In the 19th century, the existence of the Augeron population was, despite its popularity, generally ignored by authors. In Paris, they were named "Caen" and "Virois", after their region of origin, although specialists included the "Caen Virois" breed with the Augeron in a 1904 text. In the 19th century, these horses were sold at fairs in Argences and Bayeux in Lower Normandy. They were noticed several times for their homogeneity, beauty, and high value. In 1858, Augerons were sold for between 600 and 1200 francs.

The Société hippique du trait augeron, or Augeron Horse Society, was formed in 1913 by breeders in Auge to record these horses in a breed registry. One reason for this lay in the desire to protect the cradle of breeding Percheron horses: only animals born near the Perche were entitled to registration in the studbook, and hence to use the name of "Percheron". This limitation excluded several nearby populations of horses foaled outside of Perche, such as the Maine and the Augeron.

Uses
The Percheron is the most famous and populous of all French draft breeds in the world today. They were used to improve both the Ardennes and Vladimir Heavy Draft horses, and to create the Spanish-Norman breed, a cross between the Andalusian and the Percheron. By the end of the 19th century, Percherons made up the majority of driving horses in Paris. The Percheron is still used extensively for draft work and, like other draft breeds, it is also used in France for meat production. Around the world, Percherons are used for parades, sleigh rides and hayrides, as well as being used to pull carriages in large cities. The largest team of working Percherons in Europe is found at Disneyland Paris, where the breed makes up 30 percent of the horses in the park and the horses work to pull trams on the main park street. One of the most famous horse teams in the United States is the Heinz hitch of Percherons, having appeared multiple times at the Tournament of Roses Parade.

In Great Britain, the Percheron is used for advertising and publicity, as well as forestry and farm work. They are crossbred with lighter horses by breeders of heavy hunters in order to increase size and improve disposition. Purebred Percherons are also ridden, and some have proven useful at show jumping. Crossbred Percherons have been used successfully in dressage. In both the Falkland Islands and northern Australia, Percherons have been crossed with local mares, primarily Criollos in the Falklands, to produce larger stock horses with greater stamina. These crossbred horses are used extensively in both the sub-Antarctic climate of the Falklands and the sub-tropical climate of Australia for working stock. In Australia they are also crossed with Thoroughbreds for use as mounted police horses.

In 1978, the first World Percheron Congress was held in Great Britain, and has been held annually ever since. Although the majority of the shows have been held in North America, four – in 1980, 1989, 2001 and 2011 – have been held in France. Each year, in July, the French national breed show is held in Haras du Pin.

Since the early 2000's the United States Army's Fort Sam Houston Caisson and Funeral Honors Platoon have used Percherons for pulling the casket-bearing military caisson during funeral details. As of 2019, the Fort Sam Houston Caisson Platoon had 11 working Percherons and one lighter horse used as the riderless horse in a funeral procession. In addition to funeral details, which they perform year round, the Caisson Percherons are routinely featured at the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo and other United States Army recruiting events in the south Texas area.

title: Percheron


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:ISSF shooting events


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Cherry Valley

Cherry Valley may refer to:

Places in the United States:
 * Cherry Valley, Arkansas
 * Cherry Valley, California, in Riverside County
 * Cherry Valley, Illinois
 * Cherry Valley, Missouri
 * Cherry Valley, New York, site of:
 * The Cherry Valley massacre, an event during the American Revolutionary War
 * Cherry Valley (village), New York
 * Cherry Valley Creek (New York)
 * Cherry Valley (valley), New York, valley running along Cherry Valley Creek
 * Cherry Valley, Pennsylvania
 * Cherry Valley, Tennessee
 * Cherry Valley Township, Winnebago County, Illinois
 * Cherry Valley Township, Michigan
 * Cherry Valley Township, Ohio
 * Camp Cherry Valley in California, on Catalina Island

Places in Canada:
 * Cherry Valley, Prince Edward County, Ontario

title: Cherry Valley


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Talk:Substitution–permutation network

(comment taken from article, added in edit: 22:21, 16 May 2004 . . 213.84.46.114) — Matt 21:24, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

 * S-boxes substitute or transform input bits into output bits. A good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits.  It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit. P-boxes permute or transpose bits across S-box inputs. (<- could someone elaborate on that sentence?)

 * It took only five years to fix this... I hope it's enough explanation that I have put in. --GaborPete (talk) 06:44, 5 April 2009 (UTC)

Invertible S-box?
It might be worth explaining that -- contrary to a Feistel scheme -- the S-box has to be invertible in order to permit decryption. This makes the statement The length of the output could be the same as the length of the input (the picture on the right has S-boxes with 4 input and 4 output bits), but could also change the length somewhat questionable. -- Jonas Wagner, 29 Oct 2009

 * You are right: although S-boxes in general don't have to be invertible (e.g., in DES they are not), for an SP-network they should be. Also, the article should mention how decryption is done. I will do this, unless you do it earlier :-). --GaborPete (talk) 20:57, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Go ahead... --Jonas Wagner (talk) 16:14, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

 * OK, I have finally done it. --GaborPete (talk) 06:52, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

Meaning of "permutation"
The "permutation" part of a modern cipher is typically not a bit permutation as described in the illustration. It is a simple (usually, but not necessarily, linear) vectorial Boolean function transformation of the state. This greatly enhanced machinery is still called "permutation", causing confusion: the term “permutation” has become established and is still used, even when we do not talk about a bit-permutation (Thorsten Kranz, 2020, p. 8, see also note 5 on the same page). If someone can find a better source with the same blunt statement, it would be great. We can then change this article and the Permutation box. Dimawik (talk) 22:33, 9 October 2023 (UTC)

All output bit are dependent, half change
Our article includes text
 * Rather, a good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits (or an avalanche effect). It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit.

While this is an obvious statement for a practitioner, these sentences can be extremely confusing to our readers who came here to understand the terminology, as noticed by. It would be nice to properly source the statement and add text explaining why the proper design of an S-box should randomize its input (some attempt at it is done in avalanche effect). Dimawik (talk) 02:00, 25 February 2024 (UTC)

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Suisei (spacecraft)

Suisei (すいせい), originally known as Planet-A, was an uncrewed space probe developed by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (now part of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA).

It constituted a part of the Halley Armada together with Sakigake, the Soviet Vega probes, the ESA Giotto and the NASA International Cometary Explorer, to explore Halley's Comet during its 1986 sojourn through the inner Solar System.

Spacecraft
Suisei was identical in construction and shape to Sakigake, but carried a different payload: a CCD UV imaging system and a solar wind instrument.

The main objective of the mission was to take UV images of the hydrogen corona for about 30 days before and after Comet Halley's descending crossing of the ecliptic plane. Solar wind parameters were measured for a much longer time period.

The spacecraft is spin-stabilized at two different rates (5 and 0.2 rpm). Hydrazine thrusters are used for attitude and velocity control; star and Sun sensors are for attitude control; and a mechanically despun off-set parabolic dish is used for long range communication.

Launch
Suisei was launched on August 18, 1985 by M-3SII launch vehicle from Kagoshima Space Center on M-3SII-2 mission. It was sent on an intercept course with Comet Halley, after which it would remain in a heliocentric orbit for later use as long as it was viable.

Halley encounter
Suisei began UV observations in November 1985, generating up to six images/day.

The spacecraft encountered Comet Halley at 151,000 km on sunward side during March 8, 1986, suffering only two dust impacts.

Earth flyby
Fifteen burns of Suisei's 3 N motors during the period of April 5–10, 1987, yielded a 65 m/s velocity increase for a 60,000 km Earth gravity assist swingby on August 20, 1992, although the craft was then lost behind the Sun for the summer.

The hydrazine fuel was depleted on February 22, 1991. Preliminary tracking indicated a 900,000-km flyby had been achieved.

Other planned encounters
ISAS had decided during 1987 to guide Suisei to a November 24, 1998, encounter with 21P/Giacobini-Zinner, but due to depletion of the hydrazine, this, as well as plans to fly within several million kilometers of Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle on February 28, 1998, were cancelled.

title: Suisei (spacecraft)


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Snus

Snus is a tobacco product (in Scandinavia) and non-tobacco nicotine product (outside of Scandinavia; often marketed as nicotine pouches) consumed by placing a pouch of powdered tobacco leaves or powdered non-tobacco plant fibers under your lip for nicotine to be absorbed through the oral mucosa. Whereas the nicotine in tobacco-based snus derives from tobacco leaves, the nicotine in non-tobacco snus can be either naturally or synthetically synthesized.

Tobacco-based snus carries many of the same health risks as smoking, although to a considerably lesser degree. Long-term oral tobacco use is correlated with a variety of harmful effects such as oesophagus cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke and adverse reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth, low birth weight. Conversely, non-tobacco based snus, or nicotine pouches, are currently classified as non-carcinogenic. However, they are still harmful to cardiovascular health due to their nicotine content, and are associated with moderately higher risk of cardivascular disease, stroke, and reproductive harms. The sale of both tobacco based and non-tobacco based snus is illegal in several countries, including Australia, New Zealand and all European Union (EU) countries except for Sweden. It is the most common type of tobacco product in Norway and Sweden, and is also available in Switzerland. Some European countries, such as the United Kingdom and Estonia, allow the sale of non-tobacco based snus. Snus is also available in the United States.

Tobacco-based snus
Tobacco-based snus is made from air-dried tobacco from various parts of the world. In earlier times, tobacco for making snus was laid out for drying in Scania and Mälardalen, Sweden. Later, Kentucky tobaccos were used. The ground tobacco is mixed with water, salt, an alkalizing agent (typically, E500), and aroma, and is prepared through heating. After the heating process, food grade aromas are typically added. In Sweden, snus is regulated as a food product and, for this reason, all ingredients are listed on the label of each individual package (can) of snus. Moist snus contains more than 50% water, and the average use of snus in Sweden is approximately 800 grams (16 units) per person each year. About 12% (1.1 million people) of the population in Sweden use snus. Unlike dipping tobacco and chew, most snus today does not undergo the fermentation process, but is instead steam-pasteurized. Although steam-pasteurization is remarkably complex, it has the advantages of inhibiting the growth of bacteria that facilitate the formation of tobacco-specific nitrosamines, while preserving the desired texture and mouthfeel of the snus. The absorption of nicotine, the addictive substance in tobacco, from snus depends on the level of nicotine in the snus and the pH level in the box. A voluntary quality standard for snus products has been introduced (Gothiatek) that sets maximum levels for certain controversial constituents including nitrosamines, heavy metals, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Most manufacturers of Scandinavian type snus adhere to this standard.

Snus is sold in small tins which, in the earlier years, were made of porcelain, wood, silver, or gold. Portioned snus usually comes in plastic tins of 20 to 24 portions, containing about 0.75 to 1 gram of snus each, while loose snus is mostly sold in wax coated cardboard containers with plastic lids (similar to dip snuff), at 42 g (50 g before 2008). Mini-portion and medium-portion snus are increasingly popular formats. Most of these products come in tins containing 20 portions, of either 0.65 or 0.5 grams each for a total of just under 13 or 10 grams, particularly with those for whom concealing their use of smokeless tobacco in places is of utmost importance.

Tobacco-based snus is available in two main types:
 * Loose snus (lössnus) is a moist powder that can be shaped into a cylindrical or spherical form using the fingertips or a specialized cylindrical device. This final product is commonly known as a pris (pinch), buga, prilla, or prell (slang). Some individuals, particularly long-time users, opt to simply pinch the tobacco and place it under their upper lip (known as a farmer's pinch or living snus). However, the popularity of loose snus has gradually been overtaken by portioned alternatives. Nowadays, many snus users appreciate the discreet nature of these pre-portioned varieties.
 * Portion snus (portionssnus) is a convenient and discreet form of snus that comes in small teabag-like sachets filled with moist powder. It is available in smaller quantities compared to loose powder snus. There are two varieties of portion snus:
 * Original portion: This traditional form was introduced in 1973. The sachet material is moisturized during manufacturing, resulting in a brown, moist pouch.
 * White portion: This form has a milder taste and slightly slower release. The sachet material is not moisturized during manufacturing, resulting in a white, dry pouch. The tobacco within the portion material has the same moisture content as original portion snus, but the nicotine and flavor are delivered somewhat slower due to the drier sachet. Notably, "white portion" refers to the style, not the color. Some white portion snus use a black material instead of white, yet are still considered "white portion". Examples of such snus include General Onyx, Grovsnus Svart (Black), and Blue Ocean (Blue).
 * The Stingfree portion is a patented pouch for snus and modern oral nicotine pouches, approved in the US and Europe. It features a protective side that effectively reduces the burning sensation and irritation on the user's gum and oral mucosa.

Portioned snus comes in three sizes: mini, normal/large, and maxi. The weights vary, but most packages disclose the net weight. Mini portions weigh around 0.5 g, normal portions weigh 0.8 to 1 g, and maxi portions weigh up to 1.7 g. Some brands offer regular and long versions of the normal size sachet.

The nicotine content varies among brands, with the most common strength being 8 mg per gram of tobacco. Stark and extra stark varieties have higher nicotine content, with stark varieties containing 11–14 mg and extra stark varieties containing up to 22 mg. Siberia brand has an "Extremely Strong" snus with 43 mg of nicotine per gram of tobacco, the highest available.

Usage
Snus is typically used by being placed under the upper lip. This is true for both loose snus and portion snus. The pris (pellet of loose snus) or pouch is typically left in place for anywhere between 30 and 120 minutes. No spitting is required.

Snus is not cured, so it can spoil much faster than cured tobacco. While tobacco-based snus is typically refrigerated for short term storage (up to a few months), it is typically frozen for longer term storage of a year or more. It can stay unrefrigerated for a week or more without spoilage. Some tobacco-based snus products are shipped very dry, so they have extended shelf life without needing any refrigeration. This makes them slower to initially "drip", as there is no appreciable moisture in the packet.

Differences to other oral tobacco products
Some forms of tobacco consumed in the mouth may be categorized as:
 * Swedish snus: A moist form of smokeless tobacco which is usually placed under the upper lip, and which does not result in the need for spitting. It is sold either as a moist powder known as loose snus, or packaged into pouches known as portion snus. Snus is often mildly flavored with food-grade smoke aroma, bergamot, citrus, juniper berry, herbs and/or floral flavors.  Most Scandinavian snus is produced in Sweden and regulated as food under the Swedish Food Act.
 * American snus: Available since the late 1990s, this is similar to the Scandinavian form, but usually has a lower moisture content and lower pH, resulting in lower bioavailability of nicotine than Scandinavian varieties, meaning less is available for absorption. American snus is often flavored, e.g., with spearmint, wintergreen, vanilla or fruit (e.g. cherry), and may contain sugar.
 * Nasal snuff: Mostly English, German, and Scandinavian, this is referred to as luktsnus in Swedish and luktesnus in Norwegian, and as "Scotch snuff" in the US, is a dry, powdered form of snuff. It is insufflated – "sniffed" but not deeply "snorted" – through the nose. It is often mentholated or otherwise scented.
 * Chewing tobacco: North American and European product, also known as chew (or in some Southern US dialects as chaw or dip). It is tobacco in the form of short or long, loose leaf and stem strands (like pipe tobacco or longer), or less commonly of chopped leaves and stems compressed into blocks called plugs, or even finely ground pieces compressed into pellets. A few brands are cut into much finer loose strands, like cigarette rolling tobacco. Chew is placed between the cheek and the gums, or actively chewed. It causes copious salivation, especially when chewed, and due to its irritant (even nauseating) effect on the esophagus, this "juice" usually requires spitting. Chewing tobacco is a long-established North American form of tobacco (derived from traditional use of raw tobacco leaf by Indigenous peoples of the Americas), and is also legal in the European Union. Chewing tobacco is sometimes flavored, e.g. with wintergreen, apple, or cherry.
 * Dipping tobacco: Also known as dip, spit tobacco or, ambiguously, as moist snuff, this is a common American form of tobacco. It is moist, and somewhat finely ground, but less so than snus. Dipping tobacco (so called because users dip their fingers into the package to pinch a portion to insert into the mouth) is placed between the lower lip or cheek and the gums; it is not used nasally. As with chewing tobacco, salivation is copious, and usually spat out. Dipping tobacco is usually flavored, traditionally with wintergreen or mint, though many other flavorings are now available, while some unflavored brands remain popular. Beginning in the mid-1980s, several brands have packaged American dipping tobacco in porous pouches like those used for many brands of Scandinavian and American snus.
 * Chema: This Algerian product is a moist tobacco similar to Scandinavian snus in many respects. Outside of Algeria, it is most widely known as "Makla", a name that originates from the Algerian brand "Makla El Hilal", which first produced this type of smokeless tobacco during the French colonization. It is placed in the upper lip in a manner similar to snus; it differs in that it is more finely ground and has an even higher nicotine content and pH level. Sales within the European Union are legal due to its classification as a chewing tobacco. Its safety in comparison to snus has not been studied sufficiently.
 * Naswar: A central Asian product which is a moist, powdered form of tobacco, often green and sometimes caked with the mineral lime and/or wood ash. It is used like dipping tobacco or put under the tongue, and is pungent and often heavily flavored, e.g. with culinary oils (cardamom, sesame), the fruit lime, menthol, etc.

Snus, dry snuff, and dipping tobacco are distinct products that some English speaking people may refer to as snuff but are all processed and used in very different ways, each with their own sets of risks.

Health risks
Various national and international health organizations stated that using snus is addictive, represents a health risk, has no safe level use, and is not a safe substitute for smoking. Using snus can cause a number of adverse health effects such as oesophagal cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, cardiovascular disease and stroke. Snus can also cause adverse reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth, low birth weight. Nicotine in snus products that are used during pregnancy can affect how a baby's brain develops in the womb.

Quitting snus use is as challenging as smoking cessation. There is no scientific evidence that using snus can help a person quit smoking, although widespread snus-usage is correlated with lower rates of smoking.

Nicotine pouches & non-tobacco based snus
The first tobacco-free snus product was developed in the beginning of the 2000s by a small start up company named Niconovum. Niconovum registered the non-tobacco snus in 2008 as a medicinal nicotine replacement product (Zonnic) with 2 mg of nicotine. In 2009, RJ Reynolds (now British American Tobacco) bought Niconovum. Thereafter tobacco companies, particularly Swedish Match, became active in the pouch category. Many of Sweden’s leading snus manufacturers, such as Swedish Match, Skruf and AG Snus created their nicotine pouch brands as a direct response to demand for a non-carcinogenic nicotine option with less helth-risks.

In addition to nicotine, non-tobacco nicotine pouches typically contain food-grade fillers, sweeteners, and flavorings. The main ingredient in nicotine pouches in terms of volume is plant fiber. Plant fibers are used to fill the pouch and give it the desired shape, fit, and properties. Different brands use different fibers, but some of the most common derive from eucalyptus and pine. Nicotine pouches are sold in an array of flavors, such as peppermint, black cherry, coffee, citrus, and many others. The nicotine content among nicotine pouch brands typically varies from 1 mg/pouch to 10 mg/pouch although some have much more. Nicotine pouches usually have a longer shelf-life than traditional snus.

Since 2021, sales of nicotine pouches have grown exponentially with Zyn as the global leader. This popularity has led to controversy among government regulators who view the product's appeal to youth as concerning. In April 2024, the UK's Department of Health and Social Care announced new regulations banning the sale of nicotine pouches to children as part of the Tobacco and Vapes Bill which was announced in the King’s speech on 7 November 2023 and introduced to Parliament on 20 March 2024.

Regulation
Non-tobacco nicotine pouches are regulated differently around the world. In some countries, like Norway, the sale of tobacco-free nicotine pouches is prohibited, as it would constitute the sale of a new nicotine-product in addition to cigarettes, snuff, and tobacco-based snus. In June 2018 the Norwegian Directorate of Health forced British American Tobacco Norway to remove the tobacco-free snus Epok, having been sold as the sole tobacco-free brand in Norway since 2014, since as it didn't contain any tobacco, it was a new form of nicotine product, distinct from the other forms of snus approved in Norway. Approval for the nicotine pouch brand ZYN had already been rejected twice for a very similar product. Within days of the ban, Epok was re-introduced to the Norwegian market, with a minute amount of bleached tobacco added, to qualify as snus, an already approved form of nicotine product. As of July 2024, Epok is still sold by Norwegian grocery stores.

In Finland, until April 2023, nicotine pouches were classified for medicinal use. The Finnish Medicines Agency (FIMEA) stated that nicotine pouches cannot be classified as medicinal products unless they are specifically marketed for a medicinal purpose or it can be demonstrated in some other way that they are typically used as medicinal products.

In some countries in Eastern Europe like Poland and the Baltics, nicotine pouches are sold freely, because they do not classify as a tobacco product. Although nicotine pouches are not heavily regulated in the European Union, some regulatory characteristics fall under the European Union CLP-Regulation (EC) 1272/2008.

In Canada, 4 mg nicotine pouches are widely available for sale in gas stations and convenience stores as a form of nicotine replacement therapy under the Zonnic brand. Nicotine products in Canada with a standard dosage exceeding 4 mg are considered a prescription drug, therefore personal imports of nicotine pouches containing over 4 mg of nicotine per pouch are prohibited. Exceptions exist for those who are a health practitioner or medical practitioner, a drug manufacturer, a wholesale druggist, a pharmacist, or a resident of a foreign country while a visitor in Canada.

The pouches are sold in supermarkets in the United Kingdom, and are not covered by tobacco or medical laws there. In 2022, the Action on Smoking and Health group called for a regulatory framework covering all nicotine products. It is assumed nicotine pouches are classified as tobacco products in the US because they contain nicotine obtained from tobacco.

Health risks
There is limited independent testing of the constituents, exposure, or biomarkers of effects for nicotine pouches, although independent research is now emerging. Nicotine itself is currently classified as non-carcinogenic according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, and ccording to the Royal College of Physicians nicotine in itself is not a hazardous drug. In turn, it is hypothesized that if nicotine can be delivered without tobacco and smoke inhalation, most, if not all of the harm of smoking can be avoided. However, if not carcinogenic, nicotine is still moderately harmful to cardiovascular health, and long-term use of non-tobacco nicotine pouches thus give higher risk for cardivascular diseases, stroke, and reproductive harms.

A meta-analysis from 2015 by members of Tata Memorial Hospital in Mumbai, India, argues that nicotine may be carcinogenic through indirect effects on a range of organ systems in the body. Specifically, they claim that nicotine "affects the cell proliferation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, DNA mutation by various mechanisms, which leads to cancer."

Advocacy groups opposed to the introduction of nicotine pouches in Kenya have protested that they may raise the risk of cancer, heart disease, and reproductive or developmental harms. The Kenya Tobacco Control Alliance alleged that given the higher levels of some toxic chemicals, and what the U.S. Food and Drug Administration said was a lack of medical data showing the pouches are safer than cigarettes (as claimed by manufacturer British American Tobacco), the government should not license the product.

History

Snus has a long history of use, reaching back to the 16th century and concentrated in Sweden. Its origin lies in an invention by Jean Nicot (1530–1600), a French diplomat residing in Portugal who cultivated tobacco in his garden, and was one of the pioneers in recognizing the medicinal properties of tobacco. Nicot is also the originor of the word nicotine. Nicot meticulously dried and ground the tobacco leaves into a fine powder, which could be inhaled as snuff. He presented this powder to Catherine de’ Medici (1519–1589), the Queen of France, in an effort to alleviate her migraines. The use of snuff quickly gained popularity among the French court and the upper-class citizens, becoming a fashionable trend. By the early 17th century, the practice of using nasal snuff had also spread to Sweden.

Tobacco use became so prevalent in Sweden that in 1724, King Fredrik I issued a decree mandating that Swedes cultivate their own tobacco. Consequently, farmers and homesteaders started grinding their own locally grown tobacco. However, rather than snorting it, they opted to mix it into a paste-like consistency and allowed it to ferment in jars for several weeks. The final product was then portioned and placed under the lip, eventually gaining popularity as snus.

Ljunglöf's Ettan is the oldest and most renowned brand, still utilizing the original formula from 1822. Jakob Fredrik Ljunglöf revolutionized the manufacturing process with pasteurization, resulting in longer-lasting, cleaner snus free from harmful elements, and significantly reducing production time by several weeks. In the years that followed, numerous manufacturers further perfected the art of producing snus, leading to the flourishing of many brands. Remarkably, several of these brands from that era continue to thrive in today's market.

In 1914, the Swedish parliament made the decision to nationalize the entire tobacco industry. This led to the transformation of numerous tobacco companies into the state-owned monopoly known as AB Svenska Tobakmonopolet. As a result, the number of available tobacco products decreased significantly from approximately four hundred local brands to just seventeen, although these were now distributed nationwide. Consequently, employment within the industry experienced a fifty percent decline. In the 1960s, Sweden decided to abolish the import and sales monopoly on tobacco. AB Svenska Tobaksmonopolet later merged with the match manufacturer Swedish Match and was listed on the stock market in 1996.

title: Snus


text:
Craiglockhart Hydropathic

Craiglockhart Hydropathic, now a part of Edinburgh Napier University and known as Craiglockhart Campus, is a building with surrounding grounds in Craiglockhart, Edinburgh, Scotland. As part of a large extension programme by the university in the early 2000s the original building and surrounding campus underwent significant restoration and modernisation; as a result, many of the original interior features of the building are no longer visible. The exterior of the building has been preserved.

Origins
The estate in which the Hydropathic's building lies was sold in 1773 to Alexander Monro, who was second of three generations to be Professor of Anatomy at the University of Edinburgh. It stayed in the Monro family for more than a hundred years.

The Hydropathic and the War Hospital
In 1877, the estate became the property of the Craiglockhart Hydropathic Company, who set about building a hydropathic institute. The Hydropathic was built in the Italian style by Architects Peddie & Kinnear. Craiglockhart remained as a hydropathic, until the advent of the First World War. Between 1916 and 1919 the building was used as a military psychiatric hospital for the treatment of shell-shocked officers.

Probably the most famous patients of Craiglockhart were the poets Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, whose poems appeared in the hospital's own magazine called The Hydra. Wilfred Owen was the editor of the magazine during his stay. Siegfried Sassoon was sent to Craiglockhart, as a response to his "Soldier's Declaration", an anti-war letter. He later wrote about his experiences at the hospital in his semi-autobiographical novel, Sherston's Progress. There is now an area within the building that celebrates the life and work of both Sassoon and Owen and their meeting at Craiglockhart.

The best known of the doctors assigned there was W. H. R. Rivers. The Hospital featured in the 1991 book Regeneration by Pat Barker, and the 1997 film adaptation by the same name, in which the institution was known as Craiglockhart War Hospital.

Later uses
The building then became a convent for the Society of the Sacred Heart, before serving as a Catholic teacher training college. It then passed to the then Napier College, and was used by that institution and its successor, Napier Polytechnic; thus it is now part of Edinburgh Napier University. Much of the old building has been retained, and an extensive new wing has been built behind it to house the Business School.

title: Craiglockhart Hydropathic


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Stanley Unwin (publisher)

Sir Stanley Unwin, KCMG (19 December 1884 – 13 October 1968) was a British publisher, who founded the Allen & Unwin publishing firm.

Career
Unwin started his career at the publishing firm of his step-uncle Thomas Fisher Unwin. In 1914, Stanley Unwin purchased a controlling interest in the firm George Allen and Sons, and established George Allen & Unwin, later to become Allen and Unwin.

The company found success publishing authors such as Bertrand Russell, Sidney Webb, R. H. Tawney and Mahatma Gandhi.

In the 1930s, Unwin published two bestsellers by Lancelot Hogben: Mathematics for the Million and Science for the Citizen.

In 1936, J. R. R. Tolkien submitted The Hobbit for publication and Unwin paid his ten-year-old son Rayner Unwin a shilling to write a report on the manuscript. Rayner's favourable response prompted Unwin to publish the book. Once the book became a success, Unwin asked Tolkien for a sequel, which eventually became the bestselling The Lord of the Rings. Tolkien had wanted to publish The Silmarillion, but it was turned down for being "too Celtic"; it was finally published after his death by Allen & Unwin in 1977.

In 1950, Unwin published another bestseller, Thor Heyerdahl's The Kon-Tiki Expedition.

During his career Unwin was active in book trade organs such as the Publishers Association, the International Publishers Association and the British Council.

Personal life
Stanley Unwin was born on 19 December 1884 at 13 Handen Road, Lee, Lewisham, south-east London. His father was Edward Unwin (1840–1933) and his mother was Elizabeth Unwin (née Spicer). Edward Unwin was a printer whose father, Jacob Unwin, was the founder of the printing firm Unwin Brothers.

The publisher Thomas Fisher Unwin was his father's youngest stepbrother, therefore Stanley Unwin's step-uncle. The children's author Ursula Moray Williams was his niece.

Unwin was a lifelong pacifist, and during the First World War, as a conscientious objector, he joined the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD).

Unwin died on 13 October 1968 and was honoured with a blue plaque at his birthplace.

title: Stanley Unwin (publisher)


text:
Stanley Unwin

Stanley Unwin may refer to:
 * Stanley Unwin (comedian) (1911–2002), South African-born comedic writer and performer
 * Stanley Unwin (publisher) (1884–1968), British publisher, founder of George Allen and Unwin

title: Stanley Unwin


text:
Shaker scoop

A shaker scoop (sometimes called a shaker hood scoop or a shaker hood) is an automobile term for an air intake for combustion air that is mounted directly on top of the engine's air cleaner and protrudes through a hole in the hood. Since it is fastened directly to the engine, it moves with the engine's movement and vibration on its mountings, thus the 'shaker' name.

Design
Like all such scoops, its purpose is to increase performance by a 'ram air' effect, taking advantage of the vehicle's speed to deliver high pressure, cool air to the engine over a shorter, less restrictive flow path. However, because engines draw air in hundreds of cubic feet per minute, scoops do not raise intake pressures significantly. Additional claimed benefits of a shaker hood include elevation to prevent water from being drawn on flooded terrain, being a source of cooler, denser air, and having a more direct path to the engine's throttle plate.

Aftermarket
Hot rod and drag race enthusiasts have modified automotive engines to increase power via supercharger forced induction since the 1920s; in some cases, a blower scoop is added to the top of the supercharger as an aid to air intake.

A vehicle also can be equipped with an aftermarket engine-mounted scoop that is mounted directly to the carburetor and protrudes through the hood, which is known as a carb scoop. Carb scoops are sometimes mistaken for blower scoops, but the presence (or lack) of a belt to drive the supercharger is one way to distinguish these scoops. Both carb and blower scoops are sometimes called bugcatchers. Like the shaker scoop, both a blower scoop and a carb scoop will vibrate in response to engine motions because they are attached to the engine.

Some aftermarket scoops include butterfly valves, which act as secondary throttle bodies.

Factory-fitted
Larry Shinoda of Ford is credited with introducing the shaker hood scoop as a factory-fitted option and campaigning to make it functional, first available exclusively for the 1969 model year Mustang equipped with the 428 Cobra Jet engine; the option was expanded to other Ford Mustang engines for 1970 and imitated quickly by competitors Chrysler (1970 Plymouth 'cuda and Dodge Challenger) and Pontiac (1970$1/undefined$ Firebird Trans Am, which used a backwards-facing scoop to draw air from the high-pressure area at the base of the windshield). Some official Chrysler literature referred to this popular hood style as the "Incredible Quivering Exposed Cold Air Grabber". This lengthy title has since been shortened by enthusiasts and collectors to the less tongue-twisting "shaker hood".

In the 2000s, factory-fitted shaker scoops were reintroduced with the Ford Mustang (2003 Mach 1) and Dodge Challenger (2014 "Shaker" package).

Examples
Such scoops were fitted to a variety of cars, including:
 * 1969 Ford Mustang Cobra Jet
 * 1970 Boss 302 Mustang
 * 1970 Plymouth Barracuda
 * Dodge Challenger
 * Ford Torino
 * Pontiac GTO
 * Pontiac Firebird Trans Am
 * Pontiac Can Am Grand Am
 * Ford Falcon XY GT Phase III
 * 2004 Ford Mustang Mach 1

title: Shaker scoop


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Battle of Peachtree Creek

The Battle of Peachtree Creek was fought in Georgia on July 20, 1864, as part of the Atlanta Campaign in the American Civil War. It was the first major attack by Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood since taking command of the Confederate Army of Tennessee. The attack was against Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's Union army, which was perched on the doorstep of Atlanta. The main armies in the conflict were the Union Army of the Cumberland, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas and two corps of the Confederate Army of Tennessee.

Background
Sherman had launched his grand offensive against the Army of Tennessee in early May. For more than two months, Sherman's forces, consisting of the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Ohio, sparred with the Confederate Army of Tennessee, then under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston. Although the Southerners gained tactical successes at the Battle of New Hope Church, the Battle of Pickett's Mill, and the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, they were unable to counter Sherman's superior numbers. Gradually, the Union forces flanked the Confederates out of every defensive position they attempted to hold. On July 8, Union forces crossed the Chattahoochee River, the last major natural barrier between Sherman and Atlanta.

Retreating from Sherman's advancing armies, General Johnston withdrew across Peachtree Creek, just north of Atlanta, and laid plans for an attack on part of the Army of the Cumberland as it crossed Peachtree Creek. On July 17, he received a telegram from Confederate President Jefferson Davis relieving him from command. The political leadership of the Confederacy was unhappy with Johnston's lack of aggressiveness and replaced him with Hood. In contrast to Johnston's conservative tactics and conservation of manpower, Hood had a reputation for aggressive tactics and personal bravery on the battlefield. In fact he had already been maimed in battle twice within the past year, having personally led several assaults. Hood formally took command on July 18 and launched the attempted counter-offensive.

It was not until July 19 that Hood learned of Sherman's split armies advancing for a swift attack from multiple directions. Thomas's Army of the Cumberland was to advance directly towards Atlanta, while the Army of the Ohio under the command of Major General John M. Schofield, and the Army of the Tennessee under the command of Major General James B. McPherson quickly moved several miles towards Decatur so as to advance from the northeast. This was apparently an early premonition of Sherman's general strategy of cutting Confederate supply lines by destroying railroads to the east. Thomas would have to cross Peachtree Creek at several locations and would be vulnerable both while crossing and immediately after, before they could construct breastworks.

Hood hoped to attack Thomas while his Army of the Cumberland was still in the process of crossing Peachtree Creek. Hood also sent forth the corps under Alexander P. Stewart and William J. Hardee to meet Schofield and McPherson. By so doing, the Southerners could hope to fight with rough numerical parity and catch the Northern forces by surprise. Hood thus sought to drive Thomas west, further away from Schofield and McPherson. This would have forced Sherman to divert his forces away from Atlanta.

Battle

Throughout the morning of July 20, the Army of the Cumberland crossed Peachtree Creek and began taking up defensive positions. The XIV Corps, commanded by Major General John M. Palmer, took position on the right. The XX Corps, commanded by Major General Joseph Hooker (the former commander of the Army of the Potomac who had lost the Battle of Chancellorsville) took position in the center. The left was held by a single division (John Newton's) of the IV Corps, as the rest of that corps had been sent to reinforce Schofield and McPherson on the east side of Atlanta. The Union forces began preparing defensive positions, but had only partially completed them by the time the Confederate attack began.

The few hours between the Union crossing and their completion of defensive earthworks were a moment of opportunity for the Confederates. Hood committed two of his three corps to the attack: Hardee's corps would attack on the right, while the corps of General Stewart would attack on the left as the corps of General Benjamin Cheatham would keep an eye on the Union forces to the east of Atlanta.

Hood had wanted the attack launched at one o'clock, but confusion and miscommunication between Hardee and Hood prevented this from happening. Hood instructed Hardee to ensure that his right flank maintained contact with Cheatham's corps, but Cheatham began moving his forces slightly eastward. Hardee too began side-stepping to the east to maintain contact with Cheatham, while Stewart began sliding eastward as well in order to maintain contact with Hardee. It was not until three o'clock that this movement ceased.

The Confederate attack was finally mounted at around four o’clock in the afternoon. On the Confederate right, Hardee's men ran into fierce opposition and were unable to make much headway, with the Southerners suffering heavy losses. The failure of the attack was largely due to faulty execution and a lack of pre-battle reconnaissance.

On the Confederate left, Stewart's attack was more successful. Two Union brigades were forced to retreat, and most of the 33rd New Jersey Infantry Regiment (along with its battle flag) were captured by the Rebels, as was a 4-gun Union artillery battery. Union forces counterattacked and after a bloody struggle, successfully blunted the Confederate offensive. Artillery helped stop the Confederate attack on Thomas' left flank.

A few hours into the battle, Hardee was preparing to send in his reserve, the division of General Patrick Cleburne, which he hoped would get the attack moving again and allow him to break through the Union lines. An urgent message from Hood, however, forced him to cancel the attack and dispatch Cleburne to reinforce Cheatham, who was being threatened by a Union attack and in need of reinforcements.

The Union lines had bent but not broken under the weight of the Confederate attack, and by the end of the day the Rebels had failed to break through anywhere along the line. Hood withdrew into defenses of Atlanta the following day, 21 July. Estimated casualties were 4,250 in total: 1,750 on the Union side and at least 2,500 on the Confederate.

Appraisal
Many historians have criticized the Confederacy's tactics and execution, especially Hood's and Hardee's. Johnston, although fighting defensively, had already determined to counterattack at Peachtree Creek; in fact, the plan for striking the Army of the Cumberland as it began to cross Peachtree Creek has been attributed to him. His long rear-guard retreat from the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain is understandable, as Sherman used his numerical superiority for constant large flanking movements. Although he had lost an enormous amount of ground, Johnston had whittled Sherman's numerical superiority from 2:1 to 8:5.

Replacing him with the brash Hood, practically on the eve of battle, has generally been regarded as a mistake. Hood, as well as several other generals, sent a telegram to Davis seeking a remand of the order, advising Davis that it would be "dangerous to change the commander of this army at this particular time". Although Hood's general plan was plausible, the federal forces being divided, the failure of the units to be formed and positioned prior to the Union river crossing, Hardee's failure to commit his troops fully and Hood's decision to continue the attack, when he had discovered he had lost his advantage, resulted in a severe and predictable defeat.

Medals of Honor
Lieutenant Colonel Douglas Hapeman was awarded the Medal of Honor for "extraordinary heroism on 20 July 1864, while serving with 104th Illinois Infantry, in action at Peach Tree Creek, Georgia. With conspicuous coolness and bravery Lieutenant Colonel Hapeman rallied his men under a severe attack, re-formed the broken ranks, and repulsed the attack."

First Lieutenant Frank D. Baldwin, Company D, 19th Michigan Infantry, was awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantry at the Battle of Peachtree Creek, Georgia, July 20, 1864. Under a galling fire moved ahead of his own men, and singly entered the enemy's line, capturing and bringing back two commissioned officers, fully armed, besides a guidon of a Georgia regiment.

Private Denis Buckley was awarded the Medal of Honor for "extraordinary heroism on 20 July 1864, while serving with Company G, 136th New York Infantry, in action at Peach Tree Creek, Georgia, for capture of flag of 31st Mississippi (Confederate States of America)."

Legacy
The battlefield is now largely lost to urban development. Tanyard Creek Park occupies what was near the center of the battle and contains several memorial markers. Peachtree Battle Avenue commemorates the battle. All are located in the western part of Buckhead, the northern section of the city which was annexed in 1952. The play Peachtree Battle is a comedy about life in the upscale area.

In popular culture

 * The plot of the alternate history novel Shattered Nation: An Alternate History Novel of the American Civil War, by Jeffrey Evan Brooks, centers around the Battle of Peachtree Creek. In the novel, the Army of Tennessee fights the battle with Johnston, rather than Hood, in command.
 * It was discovered, on Who Do You Think You Are?, that Matthew Broderick's great, great-grandfather, Robert Martindale was killed in this battle.

Memoirs and primary sources

 * Sherman, William T., Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman, 2nd ed., D. Appleton & Co., 1913 (1889). Reprinted by the Library of America, 1990, ISBN 978-0-940450-65-3.
 * U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.

title: Battle of Peachtree Creek


text:
North Atlantic Drift (album)

North Atlantic Drift is the sixth studio album by British rock band Ocean Colour Scene.

Background
Martin 'Max' Hayes and the band co-produced every song, except for "For Every Corner", which was produced solely by the former. They were assisted by Tim Roe (who also did additional engineering on "When Evil Comes"), Darren, Nash, Darren Blackwell, and Tom Webster. Hayes and Pete Craigie mixed the recordings.

Composition
Musically, the sound of North Atlantic Drift has been described as blues rock. The opening track "I Just Need Myself" is done in the style of the Faces, with percussion from Steve White. "Oh Collector" features guitar contributions from Kevin Rowe. The title track is political commentary on American cultural imperialism and its support by the UK government, particularly the then impending US-led invasion of Iraq, which was opposed by the majority of the British public. The Paul Weller-like "Golden Gate Bridge" is followed by the Phil Spector-indebted "Make the Deal", with a string arrangement from Sonia Slaney. Duncan Mackay, James Hunt and Nichol Tompson appear on "On My Way", playing trumpet, saxophone and trombone, respectively; it is followed by the folk-esque "Second Hand Car". "She's Been Writing", which also featured a string arrangement from Slaney, includes vocal contribution from Linda Thompson. Dalbir Singh Rattan plays tabla on "When Evil Comes", which ends with an atmospheric coda.

Release
"I Just Need Myself" was released as a single on 30 June 2003. Two versions were released on CD: the first with "Will You Take Her Love" and "Me, I'm Left Unsure", and the second with "Questions" and "I Want to See the Bright Lights".

The US version was released on 19 August 2003, and contained four bonus tracks: "Will You Take Her Love", "Me, I'm Left Unsure", "Questions", and "I Want to See the Bright Lights". "Make the Deal" was released as a single on 25 August 2003. Two versions were released on CD: the first with "Perfect Stranger" and "I Never Believed It Too", while the other included "We Rise" and "St. Cecelia". The 7" vinyl version featured a Caged Baby remix of "I Just Need Myself" as the B-side.

Bassist Damon Minchella left the band in late 2003. "Golden Gate Bridge" was released as a single on 29 December 2003. The CD version featured live versions of "Get Away" and "The Riverboat Song", while the DVD version included videos of live versions of "Golden Gate Bridge", "Second Hand Car", and "The Day We Caught the Train".

Reception
North Atlantic Drift was met with mixed-to-negative reviews from music critics. AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "only the faithful would care [about a new album from Ocean Colour Scene], which is too bad, because it's the best record they've done in a long time." He said that while there was not any "great progression in the sound", the production "isn't nearly as claustrophobic as it was on its predecessor". Gigwise contributor Jamie Bowman wrote that the "riffs and harmonies are still as comfortably worn as a pair of old Gazelles [shoes]". He highlted "I Just Need Myself" as "show[ing] any sign of exuberance," as the remainder of the album was "a stodgy mixture of endlessly recycled homespun tunesmithery." No Ripcord writer Peter Mattinson referred to the album "a disappointment [...] and one that will be leapt upon by a lot of people. It's fair to say that in years to come, this [...] chapter in Ocean Colour Scene's history will be fairly well overlooked." John Dugan of Rolling Stone found the band to "still practices the same retro naturalism and love for soul and psychedelia, but amid the trad modness it gives increasing attention to breezy pop ditties and neo-folk melodies."

Entertainment.ie reviewer Andrew Lynch wrote that other than the album being on a new album, "it's business as usual: mid-paced blues-rock, turgid Dadrock arrangements and lyrics so vague as to be absolutely meaningless." Drowned in Sound writer Adie Nunn complimented three of the songs, "[b]ut that’s where the praise (!) starts and ends, as they’re straight back into their retro mod-pop ways after that." The List Carolyn Rae wrote that the album would be enjoyed by fans of their last album, "otherwise don't except anything new." She went on further to say that "[m]ost bands grow and mature as their career develops but OCS are firmly stuck in the same groove." David Sinclair of The Times opened his review by calling it "all a bit sad. [... Nothing] can disguise the dog-eared sound of a band well past its sell-by date." The staff at Uncut simply stated "Ocean Colour Scene are inextricably linked to a mid-’90s era which now seems hideously pass".

The first track, "I Just Need Myself" reached #13 in the charts, though the other two singles did less well but still charted inside the top 40.

Track listing
Track listing per booklet.

 * 1) "I Just Need Myself" – 3:24
 * 2) "Oh Collector" – 3:53
 * 3) "North Atlantic Drift" – 3:09
 * 4) "Golden Gate Bridge" – 4:09
 * 5) "Make the Deal" – 3:58
 * 6) "For Every Corner" – 3:47
 * 7) "On My Way" – 3:26
 * 8) "Second Hand Car" – 2:56
 * 9) "She's Been Writing" – 4:12
 * 10) "The Song Goes On" – 5:21
 * 11) "When Evil Comes" – 6:22

Personnel
Personnel per booklet.

Ocean Colour Scene
 * Simon Fowler – lead vocals, Nashville guitar, acoustic guitar
 * Steve Cradock – electric guitar, Nashville guitar, acoustic guitar, EBow, Hammond organ, piano, percussion, autoharp
 * Damon Minchella – bass
 * Oscar Harrison – drums, percussion, backing vocals

Additional musicians
 * Sonia Slaney – strings arrangement (track 5 and 9)
 * Duncan Mackay – trumpet (track 7)
 * James Hunt – saxophone (track 7)
 * Nichol Tompson – trombone (track 7)
 * Steve White – percussion (track 1)
 * Kevin 'Ewok' Rowe – 2nd guitar (track 2)
 * Linda Thompson – vocals (track 9)
 * Dalbir Singh Rattan – tabla (track 11)

Production and design
 * Martin 'Max' Hayes – producer, mixing
 * Ocean Colour Scene – producer (all except track 6)
 * Pete Craigie – mixing
 * Tom Roe – additional engineering (track 11), assistant
 * Darren Nash – assistant
 * Darren Blackwell – assistant
 * Tom Webster – assistant
 * Ian – sleeve design
 * Lawrence Watson – photography

title: North Atlantic Drift (album)


text: File:North Atlantic Drift (album).jpg

title: File:North Atlantic Drift (album).jpg


text: User talk:68.209.104.192

title: User talk:68.209.104.192


text:
Groucho Club

The Groucho Club is a private members' club founded in 1985 and located on Dean Street in London's Soho. Its members are mainly drawn from the publishing, media, entertainment and arts industries.

The club's facilities include three bars, two restaurants, a snooker room, an enclosed terrace, 20 bedrooms for members or their guests and four event rooms, which are available for hire.

History
The club opened on 5 May 1985. Its name was in reference to Groucho Marx's saying he did not want to be a member of any club that would have him.

The club was owned by Graphite Capital from 2006 to 2015, when it was sold to a group of investors led by Isfield Investments and Alcuin Capital Partners. In 2022, the Groucho Club was purchased through Manuela and Iwan Wirth's Art Farm, which owns a group of boutique hotels and restaurants, for £40 million ($48.9 million).

In March 2024, the club announced that it would be opening its inaugural branch outside of London at Bretton Hall near Wakefield in Yorkshire.

Members
Anyone who is proposed by two existing members may apply for membership, but applications are favoured from those working in the creative side of media and the arts.

Prominent members of the club have included Cara Delevingne, Nick Grimshaw, Harry Styles, Caroline Flack, Jarvis Cocker, Lily Allen, Melvyn Bragg, Stephen Fry, Noel Gallagher, Luke Pasqualino and Rachel Weisz.

Art
The club has a large collection of contemporary art, curated by Nicki Carter, a graduate of Goldsmiths, University of London during the YBA period, erstwhile waitress and now the longest serving employee.

The Groucho Club Maverick Award
Launched in 2010 as 'the antidote to other awards', The Groucho Club Maverick Award celebrates people who have broken the mould in their field by challenging and making a significant contribution to culture and the arts in the previous 12 months, either in the UK or internationally.

title: Groucho Club


text:
Verso Books

Verso Books (formerly New Left Books) is a left-wing publishing house based in London and New York City, founded in 1970 by the staff of New Left Review (NLR) and includes Tariq Ali and Perry Anderson on its board of directors. According to its website, it's the largest independent, radical publishing house in the English-speaking world, publishing one hundred books a year. Harper's called it "Anglo-America's preeminent radical press," and The Sunday Times called it "a rigorously intelligent publisher."

Operations
In 1970, Verso Books began as a paperback imprint of New Left Books and became its sole imprint. It established itself as a publisher of nonfiction works on international politics. Verso Books has also periodically published fiction over its history.

On April 8, 2014 Verso began bundling DRM-free e-books with print purchases made through its website. Verso's managing director and US publisher, Jacob Stevens, stated that he expected the new offer on the Verso website to contribute £200,000 to the publisher's revenue in its first year helping to "shake up how publishers relate to their readership, and help to support independent publishing".

In 2019, Verso Books launched a dedicated fiction imprint, Verso Fiction. The fiction editor, Cian McCourt, said, "We want to publish bold, intelligent writing that's politically astute, but not dogmatic or charmless." In an article titled, "The best (and worst) fiction books of 2023," The Telegraph said of the imprint, "But the gem has been Verso, our closest thing to a mainstream radical publisher. It’s building one of Britain’s most interesting fiction lists."

Verso Books titles are distributed in the United States by Penguin Random House. The publishing house is known to host many events in the United States and the UK, focusing on radical politics and history.

Sexual harassment grievance
In 2021, Verso was publicly accused of poorly handling an internal sexual harassment grievance brought by a former publicist employed in the company's US office against its long-time publisher, Jacob Stevens. She described the incident in a Medium piece thus: "He then said, of my hiring, 'we needed someone nice to look at in the office besides Wes.'” She claims that this remark caused severe depression and self-harm. The board of directors responded with a public apology and updates on their sexual harassment policy. However, they likewise maintain that their procedures were properly followed, as determined by an independent review.

Publications
The publisher gained early recognition for translations of books by European thinkers and Continental philosophy, especially those from the Frankfurt School, and its affiliation with Marxist and neo-Marxist writers. Verso Books' best-selling title is the autobiography of Rigoberta Menchú, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992.

Verso has published books by Tariq Ali, Benedict Anderson, Robin Blackburn, Judith Butler, Noam Chomsky, C.L.R James, Mike Davis, Norman Finkelstein, Fredric Jameson, Edward Said, Max Shachtman, Rebecca Solnit, Nick Srnicek, Paul Feyerabend, Ellen Meiksins Wood, and Slavoj Žižek. Updated translations of Jean Baudrillard, Régis Debray, Jürgen Habermas, Rigoberta Menchú, and Paul Virilio have also been published through Verso.

By 2020, Verso Books had published over 1,800 titles.

title: Verso Books


text:
User talk:The phantom~enwiki

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title: User talk:The phantom~enwiki


text:
Gianna Beretta Molla

Gianna Beretta Molla (4 October 1922 – 28 April 1962) was an Italian Catholic pediatrician. Although aware of possible fatal consequences, Molla refused both a termination of pregnancy and a hysterectomy during her pregnancy with her fourth child.

Molla's medical career followed the teachings of the Catholic Church; she believed in following her conscience while coming to the aid of others who required assistance. Molla also dedicated herself to charitable work amongst the elderly and was involved in Catholic Action; she also aided the Saint Vincent de Paul group in their outreach to the poor and less fortunate.

Molla's beatification was celebrated in 1994 and she was canonized as a saint a decade later in mid-2004 in Saint Peter's Square.

Life
Gianna Beretta was born in Magenta on 4 October 1922, a Feast of Saint Francis of Assisi, as the tenth of 13 children (only eight survived into adulthood) to Maria de Micheli (c. 1887 - 1 May 1942) and Alberto Beretta (d. 1 September 1942), both members of the Third Order of Saint Francis. One of her siblings was the Servant of God Enrico Beretta (28 August 1916 – 10 August 2001). Beretta's uncle was Monsignor Giuseppe Beretta and one relative was Father Giovanni Battista Beretta. Her other siblings were Giuseppe (a priest), Virginia, and Amalia (1910 – 22 January 1937). Her baptism was celebrated at the Basilica di San Martino on 11 October.

When she was three, the Berettas relocated to Bergamo, where she grew up. She made her First Communion on 4 April 1928 and her Confirmation in the Bergamo Cathedral on 9 June 1930 from Monsignor Luigi Maria Marelli. The Berettas moved to Genoa following her sister Amalia's death in 1937 and sought residence in the Quinto al Mare neighborhood, where she attended school. She was an active participant in the parish of Saint Peter and Archbishop Mario Righetti had an active role in her spiritual formation until the Berettas returned to Bergamo in October 1941 to live with her maternal grandparents at San Vigilio. From 16 to 18 March 1938, she made the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius, but 1938 to 1939 saw a suspension in her studies when she was ill health.

In 1942, she began her studies in medicine in Milan. Outside of her schooling, she was active in the Azione Cattolica (Catholic Action) movement. Beretta received a medical diploma on 30 November 1949 from the Pavia college and in 1950, she opened an office in Mesero, close to her hometown, where she specialized in pediatrics. Beretta hoped to join her brother Giuseppe, a priest in the Brazilian missions, where she intended to offer gynecological services to poor women, but her chronic ill health made this impractical. Instead, she continued her practice. Beginning 7 July 1952, she specialized in pediatrics at the University of Milan.

In December 1954 she met Pietro Molla (1912 – 3 April 2010), an engineer, and the two became engaged the following 11 April. The pair later married on 24 September 1955 at the Basilica di San Martino, in Magenta. The pair visited Saint Peter's Square as part of their honeymoon. Molla gave birth to four children: Her sisters-in-law were Luigia (a nun) and Teresina (d. 1950).
 * Pierluigi (b. 19 November 1956)
 * Mariolina (11 December 1957 – 12 February 1964)
 * Laura (b. 15 July 1959)
 * Gianna (b. 21 April 1962)

In 1961, during the second month of her fourth and final pregnancy, Molla developed a fibroma on her uterus. The doctors gave her three choices following an examination: an abortion, a complete hysterectomy, or the removal of the fibroma alone.

Molla opted for the removal of the fibroma since she wanted to preserve her child's life. She told the doctors that her child's life was more important than her own. On the morning of Holy Saturday, 21 April 1962, Molla was sent to the hospital where her fourth child, Gianna Emanuela, was delivered via a Caesarean section. But Molla continued to have severe pain and died of septic peritonitis one week after giving birth, on the morning of Easter Saturday, 28 April. , her daughter Gianna Emanuela is a doctor of geriatrics.

Her husband wrote a biographical account of her life in April 1971 and dedicated it to his children. He often told Gianna Emanuela that her mother's choice was one of conscience as both a loving mother and a doctor.

Canonization

The Cardinal Archbishop of Milan Giovanni Colombo promoted the opening of a canonization cause on 6 November 1972 and it took a step forward on 11 April 1978 when Colombo and sixteen other bishops filed a petition to Pope Paul VI asking for him to initiate the cause of canonization.

The beatification process was opened under Pope John Paul II on 15 March 1980 and Molla became titled as a Servant of God. Carlo Maria Martini presided over the cognitional process of investigation from 30 June 1980 until 21 March 1986, at which stage all documents were sent to Rome for inspection. The Congregation for the Causes of Saints were convinced the process completed to an appropriate degree and issued a decree of validation for the cognitional process on 14 November 1986. The postulation submitted the Positio dossier to the CCS later in 1989, after which a team of theologians assessed and approved it on 14 December 1990. The CCS soon followed on 18 June 1991. Molla became titled as Venerable on 6 July 1991 after John Paul II confirmed that she had lived a model Christian life of heroic virtue.

Molla's beatification, like all others, depended upon a miracle, often a healing, that science and medicine cannot seem to explain. One such case was investigated in Grajaú in Brazil from 30 November 1981 until 15 January 1982. Two additional supplementary processes were also held during this time, with the first spanning from 30 October 1986 to November 1986, and the other from 8 August 1987 until 2 November 1987. The CCS issued their decree of validation at the closure of these three investigations on 27 September 1991. The CCS members confirmed the findings of these two bodies on 17 November 1992. John Paul II issued his approval of this healing on 21 December 1992, and beatified Molla on 24 April 1994.

But a second miracle was needed for her to be elevated to sainthood. A case came to the postulation's attention from Franca, Brazil, which promoted a diocesan investigation from 31 May to 1 August 2001. The closure of this investigation saw documents sent to the CCS, who validated the process on 22 February 2002. John Paul II granted the final approval on 20 December 2003, and formalization came at an ordinary consistory held on 19 February 2004. Molla was proclaimed as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church in Saint Peter's Square on 16 May 2004.

Molla's husband and their children were present at the canonization. It was the first time that a husband had ever witnessed his wife's canonization.

Miracles
The miracle that led to her beatification involved a Protestant Brazilian woman Lucia Sylvia Cirilo who gave birth to a stillborn child on 22 October 1977. Cirilo was discharged from the hospital, but began suffering from severe pains within a week that forced her brother to take her to the Saint Francis of Assisi hospital in Grajaú, Maranhão on 9 November. The doctors found an unseen complication that caused a rectal-vaginal fistula, one that the hospital was not equipped to treat. She was told that she would need to be moved to the hospital at São Luís, but she believed that she would not survive the trip there. One of the nurses, Sister Bernardina de Manaus, was so distressed about this that she appealed for the intercession of Molla while looking at a small picture of her. The nun asked two other nurses to follow her lead and the group soon discovered that Cirilo's pain had disappeared, leaving the doctors amazed at the fact that the fistula had healed in full.

The miracle that led to Molla's canonization involved another Brazilian Catholic woman, Elizabeth Comparini Arcolino. She was sixteen weeks pregnant in 2000 when she sustained a tear in her placenta that drained her womb of all amniotic fluid. Her doctors told her that the child's chances of survival were impossible because she was too early in her pregnancy. Arcolino said she appealed to the then-Blessed Molla asking for her intercession and was able to deliver her child in perfect health.

Legacies
The late Molla's example was hailed as courageous by Catholics after her death. Pope Paul VI hailed her protection and love of life in his Angelus address on 23 September 1973.

Gianna Beretta Molla is the inspiration behind the Gianna Center in New York, the first Catholic health care center for women in New York dedicated to pro-life beliefs. Saint Gianna Beretta Molla is also the eponym of Saint Gianna's Maternity Home in Warsaw, North Dakota.

In September 2015, the saint's daughter Dr. Gianna Emanuela Molla read a letter before Pope Francis during the 2015 World Meeting of Families in Philadelphia. The letter, which her mother wrote to her father not long before their marriage, highlighted the Christian virtues of marriage and called him and herself as a couple to serve God in a "saintly way" through what she called "the sacrament of love".

On November 1 (All Saints Day), 2019, Dr. Gianna Emanuela Molla was the featured guest at the University of Mary's Candlelight Gala and granted permission (on behalf of the Molla family) for the university to name its flagship School of Health Sciences after her mother, entrusting the students and faculty to St. Gianna as patroness.

title: Gianna Beretta Molla


text: User talk:62.64.172.6

title: User talk:62.64.172.6


text:
Grand Staircase

The Grand Staircase is an immense sequence of sedimentary rock layers that stretch south from Bryce Canyon National Park and Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument, through Zion National Park, and into Grand Canyon National Park.

Characterization
In the 1870s, geologist Clarence Dutton first conceptualized this region as a huge stairway ascending out of the bottom of the Grand Canyon northward with the cliff edge of each layer forming giant steps. Dutton divided this layer cake of Earth history into five steps from the youngest (uppermost) rocks:
 * Pink Cliffs
 * Grey Cliffs
 * White Cliffs
 * Vermilion Cliffs
 * Chocolate Cliffs

Since then, modern geologists have further divided Dutton's steps into individual rock formations.

Formations in the Grand Staircase starting with the youngest (uppermost) rocks:
 * Claron Formation
 * Kaiparowits Formation
 * Wahweap Formation
 * Straight Cliffs Formation
 * Tropic Shale
 * Dakota Sandstone
 * Carmel Formation
 * Temple Cap Formation
 * Navajo Formation
 * Kayenta Formation
 * Moenave Formation
 * Chinle Formation
 * Moenkopi Formation
 * Kaibab Limestone
 * Toroweap Formation
 * Coconino Sandstone
 * Hermit Shale
 * Supai Group
 * Surprise Canyon Formation
 * Redwall Limestone
 * Temple Butte Limestone
 * Muav Limestone
 * Bright Angel Shale
 * Tapeats Sandstone

Geology
The major sedimentary rock units exposed in the Grand Canyon range in age from 200 million to 600 million years and were deposited in warm shallow seas and near-shore environments. The nearly 40 identified rock layers of Grand Canyon form one of the most studied geologic columns in the world.

The oldest exposed formation in Zion National Park is the youngest exposed formation in the Grand Canyon – the ~240‑million-year-old Kaibab Limestone. The Bryce Canyon area to the northeast continues where the Zion area leaves off by presenting Cenozoic-aged rocks that are 100 million years younger. In fact the youngest formation seen in the Zion area is the oldest exposed formation in Bryce Canyon – the Dakota Sandstone. There are, however, shared rock units between all three, creating a super-sequence of formations that geologists call the Grand Staircase. Bryce Canyon's formations are the youngest known units in the Grand Staircase. Younger rock units, if they ever existed, have been removed by erosion.

These layers have undergone 5000 to 10,000 feet (1500 to 3000 m) of uplift starting about 66 million years ago with the Laramide orogeny which has increased the ability of the Colorado River to cut its channel to make individual plateaus out of the Colorado Plateaus region. The major canyons of the region did not start to form until about five to six million years ago when the Gulf of California opened up and thus lowered the river's base level (its lowest point).

Paleontology
In the 1880s, many large dinosaur skeletons were excavated from southern Utah in regions north of the Grand Staircase. Following these discoveries there was little interest in further exploration. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries there has been greatly renewed interests in the strata of the Grand Staircase, particularly since the exposure and collection of new fossils in previously unexplored strata has a high probability of revealing fossil remnants of hitherto unseen species.

Southern Utah has continued to reward researchers owing to its climatological "sweet spot" for exposing fossil remnants for observation and collection at the surface. At locations south, in Arizona, the climate is so dry that erosion is relatively slow. Further north, the wetter climates encourage growth of forests, which destroy fossils by the actions of roots and soil bacteria. In southern Utah, there are enough strong and wet storms to cause episodic rapid erosion and the consequent exposure of fossil remains, but with insufficient annual average rainfall to support destructive, deep-rooted plant life.

Gallery
(South to north, climbing the staircase)

title: Grand Staircase


text:
Term (architecture)

In Classical architecture and in art a term or terminal figure (: terms or termini) is a human head and bust that continues down as a square tapering pillar-like form. It is usually distinguished from a herm, which has a head and shoulders only, but the two words may be used rather loosely and interchangeably.

The god Terminus was the Etruscan and Roman deity of boundaries, and classical sources say that boundary markers often took the form of a half-figure of the god on a pillar, though ancient survivals in this form are extremely rare.

In the architecture and the painted architectural decoration of the European Renaissance and the succeeding Classical styles, term figures are quite common. Often they represent minor deities associated with fields and vineyards and the edges of woodland, Pan and fauns and Bacchantes especially, and they may be draped with garlands of fruit and flowers.

Term figures were a particularly characteristic feature of the 16th-century style in furniture and carved interior decoration that is called Antwerp Mannerism. Ornament prints, such as a set of 20 School of Fontainebleau etchings from the 1540s usually given to Jean Mignon, disseminated the style through Germany and England. In these very fanciful Mannerist creations, many of the forms dip in and out of architectural and anatomical shapes.

title: Term (architecture)


text:
Melbourne to Hobart Yacht Race

Commonly known as the Westcoaster, the Melbourne to Hobart Ocean Yacht Race also known as M2H commences from Port Phillip, Victoria and concludes in Hobart, Tasmania. It is run by the Ocean Racing Club of Victoria.

In 2007, to honour the 100th anniversary of the first sailing of the Rudder Cup, the ORCV broke with a 35-year tradition by redirecting the Melbourne to Hobart course for the “Westcoaster” to follow the Rudder Cup Melbourne to Launceston course to their finish line at Low Head near the mouth of the Tamar River and then on to Hobart but via Banks Strait and the East Coast of Tasmania. This proved to be a race with many unique navigational challenges. Unlike the other race down the East Coast, the course took competitors close in around the coastline. Many competitors called for the race to be repeated and so the Eastcoaster was born. The course over which the Eastcoaster race is run is slightly different from the initial 2007 race to eliminate the tidal influence of Low Head and Banks Strait. The race starts from Portsea and the first course is through the Heads. The fleet will then set a course past Cape Schank for Wilson's Promontory.

Line Honours Winners
 * 1990 Wild Thing (Vic)
 * 1991 Ronstan Wild Thing (Vic)
 * 1998 Longitude (Vic)
 * 1999 Cadibarra 7 (Sole Finisher)
 * 2000 Wild One
 * 2001 Kontrol (Vic)
 * 2002 Kontrol (Vic)
 * 2003 Indec Merit
 * 2004 Quetzalcoatl (Tas)
 * 2005 Helsal II (Vic)
 * 2006 No Fearr (Vic)
 * 2007 Not run - Eastcoaster race run instead
 * 2008 Shortwave (NSW)
 * 2009 Jazz Player (Vic)
 * 2010 Gusto (Vic)
 * 2011 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2012 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2013 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2014 Spirit of Downunder (Vic)
 * 2015 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2016 Cadibarra 8 (Vic) Skipper: Paul Roberts

Handicap Honours Winners (IRC)
 * 2000 Anaconda (Vic)
 * 2007 Not run - Eastcoaster race run instead
 * 2008 Shortwave (NSW)
 * 2009 Jazz Player (Vic)
 * 2010 Enchantress (SA)
 * 2011 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2012 Bandit (Vic)
 * 2013 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2014 Seduction (Vic)
 * 2015 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2016 Cadibarra 8 (Vic) Skipper: Paul Roberts

Handicap Honours Winners (AMS)
 * 1990 Paladin (Vic)
 * 1997 Island Trader (Vic)
 * 1998 Longitude (Vic)
 * 1999 Cadibarra 7 (Vic)
 * 2000 Tevake (Vic, Hobsons Bay Yacht Club, Angus Fletcher)
 * 2001 Island Trader (Vic)
 * 2002 Deja Blue (Vic)
 * 2003 Wavelength (Vic)
 * 2004 Under Capricorn (Vic)
 * 2005 Quetzalcoatl (Tas)
 * 2006 A Crewed Interest (Vic)
 * 2007 Not run - Eastcoaster race run instead
 * 2008 Tevake II (Vic, Hobsons Bay Yacht Club, Angus Fletcher)
 * 2009 Alien (Vic)
 * 2010 Enchantress (SA)
 * 2011 Alien (Vic)
 * 2012 Tevake II (Vic)
 * 2013 Tevake II (Vic)
 * 2014 Seduction (Vic)
 * 2015 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2016 Cadibarra 8 (Vic) Skipper: Paul Roberts

Handicap Honours Winners (PHD)
 * 1997 Granny Apple (Vic)
 * 1998 Tevake (Vic, Hobsons Bay Yacht Club, Angus Fletcher)
 * 2000 Sea Eagle (Vic)
 * 2001 San Miguel (Vic)
 * 2002 Deja Blue (Vic)
 * 2003 Rum Beat (Vic)
 * 2004 Under Capricorn (Vic)
 * 2005 By Order Of The Secretary (BOOTS) (Vic)
 * 2006 A Crewed Interest (Vic)
 * 2007 Not run - East Coast race run instead
 * 2008 Spirit of Downunder (Vic)
 * 2009 Jazz Player (Vic)
 * 2010 Enchantress (SA)
 * 2011 Alien (Vic)
 * 2012 Tevake II (Vic)
 * 2013 Tevake II (Vic)
 * 2014 Seduction (Vic)
 * 2015 Extasea (Vic)
 * 2016 Cadibarra 8 (Vic) Skipper: Paul Roberts

title: Melbourne to Hobart Yacht Race


text:
Ronaldus Shamask

Ronaldus Shamask (born November 24, 1945) is an American fashion designer.

Biography
Ronaldus Shamask was born in Amsterdam, Netherlands and raised in Australia. He was trained as an architect and is self-taught in fashion design. He started his professional career a window display designer in Melbourne (1963–1966). He went on to become a fashion illustrator for The Times and The Observer in London, England from 1967 to 1968.

From 1968 to 1971 Shamask was a theatrical designer for the Company of Man performance group in Buffalo, New York. He worked as a freelance interior and clothing designer between 1971 and 1977. In 1978–1990 he formed a partnership with Murray Moss and formed the Moss Shamask Fashion Company in New York. He went on to design many more clothes. Ronaldus has won several awards since then.

Awards

 * American Fashion Critics Coty Award in 1981
 * Council of Fashion Designers of America Award in 1987
 * Confédération Internationale du Lin Fil d'Or Award in 1989
 * Woolmark Award in 1989

title: Ronaldus Shamask