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List of rivers of the Americas by coastline

This list of rivers of the Americas by coastline includes the major coastal rivers of the Americas arranged by country. A link to a map of rivers with known coordinates is listed at right. The ocean coasts are demarcated as follows:
 * Arctic Ocean coast (including Hudson Bay) from Cape Prince of Wales east to Cape Chidley
 * Atlantic Ocean coast from Cape Chidley south to Cape Virgins
 * Pacific Ocean coast from Cape Prince of Wales south to Cape Virgins
 * Endorheic basin coast (drainage basins not reaching oceans)

This is a counterpart to the primarily alphabetical List of rivers of the Americas and other lists of rivers of countries, although only rivers which reach the ocean are included here, not tributaries.

Arctic Ocean coast
In the Americas, only the United States, Canada, and Greenland have rivers on the Arctic Ocean coast. Greenland is surrounded by the Barents Sea (part of the Arctic Ocean), the Greenland Sea (often described as part of the Arctic Ocean), Baffin Bay to the west (marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean), the Labrador Sea to the south (part of the Arctic Ocean), and directly to the Arctic Ocean to the north. The following is a list of rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean. The province and country where the mouth is located are included.

Atlantic Ocean coast
The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111866 km compared to 135663 km for the Pacific.

The rivers in the following sections flow into the Atlantic Ocean, unless indicated otherwise. The rivers of Cuba and several other countries flow into the Caribbean Sea which connects to the Atlantic Ocean. Some rivers also flow into the Gulf of Mexico before the water reaches the main Atlantic Ocean. A few of the major, notable rivers flowing into the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico are included below. These lists contain rivers with Wikipedia articles and a few other well-documented rivers.

Bahamas, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
While there are many tidal creeks in The Bahamas, the Goose River is the only river (24.35°N, -78.1°W). Its mouth is on the Caribbean Sea.

Barbados, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
The following rivers in Barbados flow to the Atlantic Ocean.
 * Bruce Vale River, Saint Andrew Parish, 13.24959°N, -59.55803°W
 * Joes River, Saint Joseph Parish, 13.21667°N, -59.53333°W
 * Long Pond River, Saint Andrew Parish, 13.25154°N, -59.55563°W

The following rivers in Barbados flow to the Caribbean Sea.
 * Constitution River, Saint Michael Parish, 13.09561°N, -59.61753°W
 * Indian River, Saint Michael Parish, 13.11053°N, -59.62652°W

Belize, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
All coastal rivers in Belize drain to the Caribbean Sea before going into the Atlantic Ocean.

Canada, Atlantic Ocean coast
Canadian coastal river basins flow towards either the Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, or Pacific Ocean. The major Canadian rivers with their mouth on the Atlantic Ocean coast are included in the list below. The Province where the mouth is located is also given.

 * Bald Head River, Newfoundland and Labrador, 47.32306°N, -52.74222°W
 * Barrington River, Nova Scotia,
 * LaHave River, Nova Scotia, 44.36725°N, -64.47975°W
 * Mersey River, Nova Scotia, 44.04975°N, -64.73911°W
 * Saint John, New Brunswick, Bay of Fundy45.26667°N, -66.06667°W
 * St. Lawrence River, Quebec, 49.5°N, -64.5°W
 * St. Mary's River, Nova Scotia, 45.10539°N, -61.96519°W

Colombia, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
Colombian rivers with their mouth on the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast include:
 * Magdalena River, Colombia, Caribbean Sea, 11.11667°N, -74.85°W

Costa Rica, Atlantic Ocean coast
All Costa Rican drainage basins flow to either the Caribbean Sea or the Pacific Ocean.

Cuba, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
All Cuban coastal rivers have their mouth on the Caribbean Sea, including the following major river:
 * Cauto River, Caribbean Sea20.54917°N, -77.24167°W

Dominican Republic, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
The following rivers of the Dominican Republic have their mouth on the Atlantic Ocean:
 * Dajabón River, 19.70194°N, -71.75861°W
 * Yaque del Norte River, 19.84°N, -71.68694°W

French Guiana, Atlantic Ocean coast
Rivers of French Guiana where the mouth is on the Atlantic Ocean coast include the following:

 * Approuague, 4.6836°N, -51.9613°W
 * Counamama (near Iracoubo), 5.54503°N, -53.29027°W
 * Kourou, 5.15278°N, -52.62917°W
 * Mahury, 4.8693°N, -52.2355°W
 * Maroni, 5.74579°N, -53.96843°W
 * Mana, 5.7289°N, -53.8381°W
 * Oyapock, 4.23556°N, -51.61472°W
 * Rivière de Cayenne, 4.923°N, -52.3489°W
 * Sinnamary, 5.4373°N, -52.9964°W

Guyana, Atlantic Ocean coast
Rivers of Guyana where the mouth is on the Atlantic Ocean coast include the following:

 * Abary River, 6.55°N, -57.73333°W
 * Berbice River, 6.28333°N, -57.53333°W
 * Courantyne River, 5.95°N, -57.1°W
 * Demerara River, 6.8121°N, -58.1701°W
 * Essequibo River, 7.03333°N, -58.45°W
 * Mahaica River, 6.71667°N, -57.91667°W
 * Mahaicony River, 6.56667°N, -57.8°W
 * Moruka River, 7.669°N, -58.782°W
 * Pomeroon River, 7.61667°N, -58.75°W
 * Waini River, 8.39019°N, -59.83721°W

Haiti, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Haiti have their mouths on the Caribbean Sea, including:
 * Artibonite River, Caribbean Sea, 19.25°N, -72.78333°W

Honduras, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Honduras flow into either the Caribbean Sea or Pacific Ocean.

Mexico, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Mexico include Pacific Ocean coastal rivers and the following river with its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico.
 * Rio Grande, United States, Mexico, Gulf of Mexico, 25.95611°N, -97.14528°W

Nicaragua, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Nicaragua with their mouth on the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean include:

 * Coco River, 15°N, -83.13333°W
 * Escondido River, 12.0868°N, -83.7492°W
 * Indio River, 10.94184°N, -83.71965°W
 * Kukalaya River, 13.6522°N, -83.61974°W
 * Kukra River, 11.9°N, -83.81667°W
 * Kurinwás River, 12.79253°N, -83.6549°W
 * Layasiksa River, 13.64885°N, -83.61504°W
 * Maíz River, 11.29275°N, -83.87431°W
 * Prinzapolka River, 13.4058°N, -83.5673°W
 * Punta Gorda River, 11.509°N, -83.774°W
 * Río Grande de Matagalpa, 12.9°N, -83.53333°W
 * San Juan River, 10.93972°N, -83.69833°W
 * Ulang River, 14.45°N, -83.23333°W
 * Wawa River, 14.22722°N, -83.57861°W
 * Wawasang River, 12.55415°N, -83.74634°W

Panama, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers in Panama have their mouth on either the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic or the Pacific Ocean. Some of the rivers with their mouth on the Caribbean Sea include:
 * Chagres River (Panama Canal), 9.31667°N, -80°W
 * Calovebora River, 8.78794°N, -81.21246°W
 * Sixaola River, 9.57222°N, -82.565°W

Suriname, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Suriname where the mouth is on the Atlantic Ocean coast include:

 * Coppename River, 5.8°N, -55.91667°W
 * Courantyne River, 5.95511°N, -57.07941°W
 * Maroni River, 5.74579°N, -53.96843°W
 * Nickerie River, 5.95764°N, -56.98905°W
 * Saramacca River, 5.85°N, -55.88333°W
 * Suriname River, 5.927°N, -55.16038°W

United States, Atlantic Ocean coast
The U.S. coastal rivers where the mouth is on the Atlantic Ocean coast include:

Uruguay, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Uruguay where the mouth is on the Atlantic Ocean coast include:
 * Chuí Stream, Uruguay and Brazil, -33.74365°N, -53.36904°W
 * Río de la Plata, Uruguay, -35.66667°N, -55.78333°W
 * Uruguay River, Uruguay and Argentina, -34.2°N, -58.3°W

Venezuela, Atlantic Ocean coast
Coastal rivers of Venezuela have their mouth on either the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean Sea. The Orinoco River flows into the Delta Amacuro at its mouth. The Delta empties into the Gulf of Paría and the Atlantic Ocean. Venezuelan rivers with their mouth on the Atlantic Ocean coast include:

 * Orinoco River, Venezuela and Colombia, 8.61667°N, -62.25°W
 * Tocuyo River, 11.05811°N, -68.33786°W
 * Unare River, 10.0889°N, -65.1867°W

Pacific Ocean coast
Coastal rivers in the following sections by country have their mouth on the Pacific Ocean coast.

Canada, Pacific Ocean coast
Canadian rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean include the following:

 * Fraser River, British Columbia, 49.17778°N, -123.2125°W
 * Skeena River, British Columbia, 54.1375°N, -130.09444°W

Chile, Pacific Ocean coast
The coastal rivers (Río) in Chile that have their mouth on the Pacific Ocean include:

 * Aconcagua River, -32.915°N, -71.50833°W
 * Bío-Bío River, -36.81389°N, -73.17056°W
 * Cautín River, -38.7533°N, -72.9806°W
 * Elqui River, -29.89444°N, -71.275°W
 * Itata River, -36.38447°N, -72.86858°W
 * Loa River, -21.43°N, -70.0576°W
 * Maipo River, -33.61111°N, -71.63056°W
 * Maule River, -35.31667°N, -72.40833°W
 * Maullín River, -41.59701°N, -73.65856°W
 * Palena River, -43.76778°N, -72.97583°W
 * Reñihue River, -42.44173°N, -72.77598°W
 * Río Bueno River, -40.2446°N, -73.71389°W
 * Toltén River, -39.25119°N, -73.22333°W
 * Valdivia River, °N, °W
 * Yelcho River, -42.9561°N, -72.7508°W

Colombia, Pacific Ocean Coast
Coastal rivers in Colombia flow into the Pacific Ocean or Caribbean Sea. Rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean include the following:

 * Anchicayá River, 3.53333°N, -76.8675°W
 * Baudó River, 4.96759°N, -77.33396°W
 * Dagua River, 3.86138°N, -77.06518°W
 * Guapi River, 2.64238°N, -77.91138°W
 * Iscuandé River, 2.61995°N, -78.06583°W
 * Mira River (Colombia and Ecuador), 1.6°N, -79.01667°W
 * Naya River, 3.30835°N, -77.4865°W
 * Patía River, 2.2599°N, -78.6798°W
 * Tapaje River, 2.64498°N, -78.11426°W
 * San Juan River, 4.045°N, -77.44139°W
 * San Juan de Micay River, 3.1974°N, -77.50871°W
 * Sanquianga River, 2.65°N, -78.31667°W
 * Yurumanguí River, 3.41367°N, -77.35716°W

Costa Rica, Pacific Ocean Coast

 * Abangares River, 10.14354°N, -85.07695°W
 * Aranjuez River, 9.98589°N, -84.81859°W
 * Barranca River, 9.95893°N, -84.73756°W
 * Coto Colorado River, 8.5485°N, -83.1389°W
 * Río Ceibo, 9.10365°N, -83.38529°W
 * Chacuaco River
 * Claro River (Costa Rica), 8.4653°N, -83.5916°W
 * Colón River
 * Conte River, 8.62472°N, -83.42761°W
 * Diamante River (Costa Rica)
 * Guacimal River, 10.02566°N, -84.89907°W
 * Jaba River (Costa Rica), 8.88742°N, -83.02963°W
 * Jesús María River, 9.8637°N, -84.6972°W
 * Lagarto River, 10.05633°N, -84.94175°W
 * Limón River (Costa Rica)
 * Naranjo River (Costa Rica), 10.79608°N, -85.68004°W
 * Nosara River, 9.96639°N, -85.67721°W
 * La Palma River, 10.16667°N, -85.08333°W
 * Negro River (Costa Rica)
 * Pirris River, 9.49207°N, -84.33297°W
 * Rincón River, 8.68709°N, -83.47879°W
 * Riyito River (Costa Rica)
 * Savegre River, 9.34664°N, -84.03128°W
 * Sierpe River, 8.81667°N, -83.56667°W
 * Síngrí River, 8.98481°N, -83.11738°W
 * Tamarindo River, Costa Rica, 10.30718°N, -85.84025°W
 * Tárcoles River, 9.78632°N, -84.64117°W
 * Tempisque River, Gulf of Nicoya, 10.15556°N, -85.22°W
 * Térraba River, 9.03226°N, -83.62674°W
 * Tigre River (Costa Rica), 8.56761°N, -83.32667°W
 * Volcán River (Costa Rica), 9.12991°N, -83.41293°W

Ecuador, Pacific Ocean Coast

 * Arenillas River, -3.4112°N, -80.02876°W
 * Balao River, -2.87965°N, -79.84589°W
 * Cañar River, -2.65785°N, -79.76595°W
 * Cayapas River, 1.23056°N, -79.04524°W
 * Coaque River, 0.01667°N, -80.1°W
 * Chone River, -0.58722°N, -80.41861°W
 * Cojimies River, 0.26181°N, -79.94371°W
 * Esmeraldas River, 0.904°N, -79.6575°W
 * Guayas River, Gulf of Guayaquil, -2.65136°N, -79.90905°W
 * Jama River, -0.16373°N, -80.26642°W
 * Jipijapa River, -1.35152°N, -80.73458°W
 * Jubones River, -3.17173°N, -79.92669°W
 * Mira River (Ecuador and Colombia border), 1.6°N, -79.01667°W
 * Muisne River, 0.62822°N, -80.04182°W
 * Portoviejo River, -0.79944°N, -80.52264°W
 * Zarumilla River (Peru and Ecuador border), -3.4408°N, -80.2219°W

El Salvador, Pacific Ocean Coast

 * Banderas River, 13.53333°N, -89.71667°W
 * Cara Sucia River, 13.76028°N, -90.03611°W
 * Comalapa River, 13.41667°N, -89.16667°W
 * Copinula River, 13.63262°N, -89.84346°W
 * Goascorán River, 13.41056°N, -87.81889°W
 * Río Grande de San Miguel, 13.23333°N, -88.36667°W
 * El Guayabo River, 13.26662°N, -88.83374°W
 * Jalponga River, 13.36667°N, -88.95°W
 * Jiboa River, 13.35889°N, -89.03778°W
 * Lempa River, 13.25472°N, -88.82722°W
 * El Molino River, 13.26297°N, -88.44997°W
 * Paz River, 13.77111°N, -90.1825°W
 * El Potrero River,
 * Pululuya River, 13.55°N, -89.7°W
 * Sensunapan River, 13.59833°N, -89.8375°W
 * Sirama River, 13.45944°N, -87.79778°W

Guatemala, Pacific Ocean Coast
The coastal rivers in Guatemala with their mouth on the Pacific Ocean coast include:

 * Acomé River, 13.9171°N, -91.0883°W
 * Achiguate River, 13.91536°N, -90.908°W
 * Coyolate River, 13.95398°N, -91.31149°W
 * Icán River, 14.12501°N, -91.6652°W
 * Lempa River, 13.25472°N, -88.82722°W
 * Los Esclavos River, 13.83889°N, -90.32944°W
 * Madre Vieja River, 14.00387°N, -91.43028°W
 * María Linda River, 13.94215°N, -90.70849°W
 * Nahualate River, 14.04588°N, -91.53834°W
 * Naranjo River, 14.50856°N, -92.18533°W
 * Ocosito River, 14.4358°N, -92.09369°W
 * Paso Hondo River, 14.71845°N, -92.09734°W
 * Paz River, 13.77111°N, -90.1825°W
 * Samalá River, 14.19193°N, -91.78545°W
 * Suchiate River (Guatemala and Mexico), 14.53147°N, -92.22812°W

Honduras, Pacific Ocean Coast

 * Choluteca River, 13.0914°N, -87.3733°W
 * Goascorán River, 13.41056°N, -87.81889°W
 * Lempa River, 13.25472°N, -88.82722°W
 * Nacaome River, 13.41917°N, -87.59028°W
 * Río Negro, 13.03333°N, -87.13333°W

Mexico, Pacific Ocean Coast
Rivers of Mexico that have their mouth on the Pacific Ocean coast include the following. The river's name, as well as Mexican State and coordinates where the mouth of the river is located are listed where known.

Nicaragua, Pacific Ocean Coast

 * Río Brito, 11.3443°N, -85.9793°W
 * Rio Casares
 * Río Escalante, Nicaragua, 11.51914°N, -86.17219°W
 * Estero Real, Chinandega, 12.92058°N, -87.36315°W
 * Río Negro, 13.03333°N, -87.13333°W
 * Río el Tamarindo, León, 12.21309°N, -86.7628°W
 * Río Tecolapa, Nicaragua, 11.72112°N, -86.44143°W

Panama, Pacific Ocean Coast
The mouth of the following rivers in Panama are at the Pacific Ocean:

 * Rio Anton, 8.30109°N, -80.26273°W
 * Bahia de Parita, 8.35878°N, -80.45197°W
 * Rio Cabra, 9.02111°N, -79.35235°W
 * Rio Caimito, 8.87578°N, -79.70363°W
 * Rio Cate, 7.71916°N, -81.24743°W
 * Rio Chame, 8.56067°N, -79.83933°W
 * Rio Chepo (Bayano River), 8.998°N, -79.1136°W
 * Rio Chiriquí Viejo, 8.3275°N, -82.7019°W
 * Rio Chorcha, 8.28998°N, -82.28624°W
 * Rio Colorado, 8.31255°N, -82.76737°W
 * Rio Congo, 8.41608°N, -78.36884°W
 * Rio Corotú, 8.75621°N, -78.71364°W
 * Rio Duablo, 8.32975°N, -82.68709°W
 * Estero de Ajo, 8.3408°N, -82.14751°W
 * Rio Farallon, 8.35009°N, -80.14359°W
 * Rio Fonseca, 8.20744°N, -82.00418°W
 * Rio Grande, 9.01667°N, -79.61667°W
 * Rio Guanábano, 8.24372°N, -82.87316°W
 * Rio Jaqué, 7.5°N, -78.05°W
 * Rio La Villa, 7.99645°N, -80.38755°W
 * Las Vueltas
 * Rio Lovaina, 7.94369°N, -81.61622°W
 * Rio Mariato, 7.61712°N, -80.98698°W
 * Rio Pacora, 9.02179°N, -79.27972°W
 * Rio Palo Blanco, 8.29898°N, -82.80909°W
 * Palo Seco, 7.60833°N, -80.97598°W
 * Rio Pavo, 7.35832°N, -80.89995°W
 * Rio Platanal, 8.31843°N, -78.18872°W
 * Puerto Pocrí (tidal creek), 7.7°N, -80.11667°W
 * Rio Rabo de Puerco, 8.27656°N, -82.85677°W
 * Rio Sabanas, 8.41814°N, -78.08803°W
 * Rio Sambú, 8.07681°N, -78.30233°W
 * Rio San Bártolo, 8.28382°N, -82.8474°W
 * Rio San Pablo, 7.85353°N, -81.18353°W
 * Rio San Felix, 8.16415°N, -81.8442°W
 * Rio San Juan, 8.19788°N, -81.96808°W
 * Rio San Pedro, 8.82529°N, -81.54414°W
 * Rio Santa Maria, 8.08917°N, -80.48529°W
 * Rio Santiago, 8.18118°N, -81.76116°W
 * Rio Suay, 7.74769°N, -81.03983°W
 * Rio Tabasara, 8.02742°N, -81.69743°W
 * Rio Tuira, 8.3194°N, -78.3086°W
 * Rio Varadero, 7.28694°N, -80.92408°W

Peru, Pacific Ocean Coast
The following coastal rivers in Peru have their mouth on the Pacific Ocean Coast:

 * Acarí River, -15.65943°N, -74.64257°W
 * Atico, -16.05436°N, -73.61765°W
 * Cañete River, -13.12932°N, -76.40156°W
 * Caplina River, -18.23333°N, -70.55°W
 * Caravelí River, -16.06121°N, -73.27347°W
 * Casma River, -9.44944°N, -78.38237°W
 * Chamán River, -7.20413°N, -79.66605°W
 * Chancay River (Lambayeque), -11.61476°N, -77.25006°W
 * Chancay River (Huaral), -11.61125°N, -77.24603°W
 * Chao River, -8.60034°N, -78.7162°W
 * Chaparra River, -15.92171°N, -74.12237°W
 * Chicama River, -7.93906°N, -79.28292°W
 * Chillón River, -11.94°N, -77.1386°W
 * Chira River, -4.9°N, -81.13333°W
 * Colca River, -16.63111°N, -72.76417°W
 * Culebras River, -9.93724°N, -78.2256°W
 * Fortaleza River, -10.6482°N, -77.8609°W
 * Grande River (Rio Nazca), -14.99534°N, -75.45437°W
 * Huaura River, -11.08467°N, -77.62874°W
 * Huarmey River, -10.09434°N, -78.16674°W
 * Ica River, -14.87089°N, -75.56198°W
 * Rio Indio Muerto or Chala, -15.8°N, -74.23333°W
 * Jequetepeque River, -7.3322°N, -79.5914°W
 * Lacramarca River, -8.88672°N, -78.31582°W
 * Rio Locumba, -17.9175°N, -70.96474°W
 * Lurín River, -12.275°N, -76.9036°W
 * Mala River, -12.67418°N, -76.65713°W
 * Moche River, -8.16111°N, -79.0363°W
 * Motupe River, -6.52417°N, -80.12111°W
 * Nepeña River, -9.21881°N, -78.36839°W
 * Ocoña River, -16.4519°N, -73.1119°W
 * Olmos River, -6.18771°N, -79.93162°W
 * Omas River, -12.75468°N, -76.49015°W
 * Osmore River or Moquegua or Ilo, -17.71667°N, -71.33333°W
 * Pativilca River, -10.73749°N, -77.7922°W
 * Pisco River, -13.6768°N, -76.21448°W
 * Piura River, -5.77222°N, -80.86861°W
 * Rímac River, -11.9473°N, -76.70792°W
 * Sama River, -18.16388°N, -70.674°W
 * Rio San Juan
 * Santa River, -8.96584°N, -78.63471°W
 * Supe River, -10.84724°N, -77.71237°W
 * Tambo River
 * Quebrada Topara, -13.32315°N, -76.24263°W
 * Tumbes River, -3.5°N, -80.45°W
 * Virú River, -8.48469°N, -78.87594°W
 * Vitor River, -16.62027°N, -72.30356°W
 * Yauca River, -15.69775°N, -74.53786°W
 * Zaña River, -7.08602°N, -79.71794°W
 * Zarumilla River, -3.4408°N, -80.2219°W

United States, Pacific Ocean coast
The following coastal rivers of the United States have their mouth on the Pacific Ocean:

Endorheic basins
There are Endorheic basins in several regions of the Americas. Rivers in these basins do not reach the oceans. The largest endorheic basin is the Great Basin (209162 mi2) in North America. There are also several endorheic basins in South America, including the Altiplano Basin (59,528 mi2).


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Saint-Agnant

Saint-Agnant may refer to the following places in France:

 * Saint-Agnant, Charente-Maritime
 * Saint-Agnant-de-Versillat, in the Creuse département
 * Saint-Agnant-près-Crocq, in the Creuse département

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Saint-Agnant


text:
Seversky P-35

The Seversky P-35 is an American fighter aircraft built by the Seversky Aircraft Company in the late 1930s. A contemporary of the Hawker Hurricane and Messerschmitt Bf 109, the P-35 was the first single-seat fighter in United States Army Air Corps to feature all-metal construction, retractable landing gear, and an enclosed cockpit.

Design and development
The origins of the P-35 can be traced back to the Seversky SEV-3 three-seat amphibian, designed by Alexander Kartveli, Seversky's chief designer and Seversky's first aircraft. The SEV-3 first flew in June 1933 and was developed into the Seversky BT-8 basic trainer, 30 of which were ordered by the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) in 1935. This proved grossly underpowered and was quickly replaced by the North American BT-9.

The second prototype SEV-3 was completed as a two-seat fighter derivative, the SEV-2XP. It was powered by a 735 hp (548 kW) Wright R-1820 radial engine, had fixed landing gear in aerodynamic spats and was armed with one .50 in (12.7 mm) and one .30 in (7.62 mm) forward-firing machine guns plus an additional .30 in (7.62 mm) gun for rear defence.

When the USAAC announced a competition for a new single-seat fighter in 1935, Seversky sent the SEV-2XP, confident it would win despite being a two-seater. However, the aircraft was damaged on 18 June 1935 during its transit to the fly-offs at Wright Field. To compete with the Curtiss Model 75, a single-seat aircraft with retractable undercarriage, Seversky rebuilt the aircraft into the single seat SEV-1XP, replacing the SEV-2XP's fixed landing gear with a retractable undercarriage where the mainwheels retracted backwards into the wing, and an 850 hp (634 kW) R-1820-G5 replacing the -F3 of the SEV-2XP. The SEV-1XP was delivered to Wright Field on 15 August for evaluation, which was generally successful, although the Cyclone failed to deliver its rated power and the SEV-1XP only reached 289 mph (465 km/h) rather than the 300 mph (483 km/h) predicted by Seversky.

Protests from Curtiss led to the formal flyoff between the fighters to be delayed until April 1936. The delay was used by both Seversky and Curtiss to improve their aircraft, while allowing additional fighters from Vought (the Vought V-141) and Consolidated with a single seat version of the PB-2. The SEV-1XP was re-engined again, with a two-row Pratt & Whitney R-1830-9 "Twin Wasp" replacing the Cyclone and a modified vertical stabilizer fitted, becoming the SEV-7.

The P&W also failed to deliver its rated power as it put out only 738 hp, and top speed was again well below 300 mph. While more expensive than the Curtiss and Vought designs, the Seversky was a clear winner of the Air Corps' competition, with an order for 77 P-35 fighters and spare parts equivalent to eight airplanes being placed on 16 June 1936 at a cost of $1,636,250. Modifications from SEV-1XP to production P-35 standard included partial instead of complete mainwheel fairings and seven degrees of dihedral to the outer wing panels.

The first production P-35 was delivered to the USAAC in May 1937, preceded by a company owned pre-production aircraft and demonstrator, the AP-1. Only 76 P-35s were built, delivery being completed in August 1938, with the 77th aircraft finished as the prototype XP-41. When it wanted further fighters in 1937, the Air Corps, who were unhappy with both the slow delivery of the P-35, and sale of 2PA two-seat aircraft to the Japanese Navy, ordered 210 Curtiss P-36s.

Also in 1937, a P-35 with naval equipment was supplied to the United States Navy for a design competition to replace the Navy's biplane fighters with an all-metal monoplane. Contrary to usual Navy practice, the single test aircraft was operated under civil registration as NX1254 and was not assigned a formal Navy serial number nor a type designation, and was instead operated as the NF-1, a company designation standing for "Naval Fighter One". The prototype competed against the Brewster F2A and Grumman F4F, but was found unsatisfactory, with the F2A being ordered into production. According to some sources, the type designation of FN was assigned to the Seversky under the 1922 United States Navy aircraft designation system, but others claim this is in error.

Seversky continued to develop the design with the hope of selling more aircraft both to the Air Corps and to civil and export customers. It modified the prototype SEV-1XP as a single seat racer, the S-1 entering it into the 1937 Bendix Trophy, where it finished in fourth place. The competition was won by the S-2 (registration number NR70Y), a similar aircraft built for Frank Fuller of the Fuller Paint Company. S-2 also won the Bendix Trophy in 1939 and placed second in 1938. The aircraft was used to portray the "Drake Bullet" in the 1938 film Test Pilot.

Another civil aircraft was the DS, (or Doolittle Special), a single seater for James Doolittle, employed at the time by the Shell Oil Company, while the AP-7 was another racer, powered by a 1,200 hp (895 kW) R-1830 engine and used by Jacqueline Cochran to win the 1938 Bendix Trophy race and to set a women's air speed record. Seversky entered two aircraft based on the P-35 in a 1938 competition for a new fighter for the Air Corps. One was the XP-41 (which had the company designation AP-4D, which was a P-35 with a 1,200 hp (895 kW) R-1830-9 engine fitted with a two-stage supercharger) and the AP-4, which had a turbo-supercharger mounted in the belly of a deeper fuselage. The Air Corps preferred the AP-4D, which was ordered into production as the P-43 Lancer.

Aiming to increase sales, Alexander P. de Seversky personally took a demonstrator on a tour of Europe in early 1939. As a result of this demonstration, Sweden ordered 15 EP-106 fighters on 29 June 1939, a development of the P-35 powered by a 1,050 hp (783 kW) R-1830-45, which improved performance by over 25 mph (40 km/h) and armed with two 7.9 mm (.311 in) machine guns in the cowl and two 13.2 mm (.52 in) machine guns in the wings. A second order for 45 EP-106s was placed on 11 October 1939, with a third order for 60 aircraft, placed on 6 January 1940, although by this time Seversky had been thrown out of the company bearing his name by the board of directors, with the company renaming itself Republic Aviation. The Swedish Air Force designated them J 9.

Two-seat versions

Seversky also built a two-seater, the 2PA. Evolved in parallel with the P-35, the 2PA was a two-seat fighter and fighter-bomber with a fundamentally similar airframe and offered with either a similar undercarriage to that of the single-seater as the 2PA-L (Land) or with an amphibious float undercarriage as the 2PA-A (Amphibian). Dubbed "Convoy Fighter" by the manufacturer, the 2PA was powered by a Wright R-1820-G2 or G3 Cyclone nine-cylinder radial engine, the former rated at 1,000 hp for take-off and the latter at 875 hp. Armament comprised two wing-mounted 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm Browning guns, one 7.62 mm Browning on a flexible mount in the rear cockpit, plus two forward-firing fuselage-mounted 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm Browning guns. Provision was made for a bomb load of up to 227 kg (500 lb) on internal wing racks. One 2PA-A and one 2PA-L were procured by the Soviet Union in March 1938, one with conventional landing gear and one with floats, along with the manufacturing license, but it appears that the Soviets never put it into production. In what proved to be an unpopular move for Seversky, 20 2PA-B3s were sold to the Japanese Navy, which briefly employed them in the Second Sino-Japanese War as Navy Type S Two-Seat Fighter or A8V-1 (Allied codename "Dick"). The Japanese were unimpressed with the aircraft and eventually relegated two of them to the Asahi Shimbun newspaper as "hacks." Sweden ordered 52 2PAs (Swedish designation B 6), able to carry 1,350 lb (612 kg) of bombs, but received only two prior to the U.S. embargo directed to combatants. The remaining 50 were appropriated by the USAAC, re-armed with 0.30 in and 0.50 in machine guns, and used as advanced trainers named AT-12 Guardsman.

United States Army Air Corps
The first P-35s were delivered to the 1st Pursuit Group (27th, 71st and 94th PS) stationed at Selfridge Field in Michigan. The aircraft used a wet wing to save weight and ground personnel quickly learned about the persistent fuel leaks. The P-35's performance was poor even by contemporary standards and, although USAAC aviators appreciated the aircraft's ruggedness, it was already obsolete by the time deliveries were finished in 1938.

On 18 June 1940, United States declared an embargo against exporting weapons to any nation other than the United Kingdom. Optimistically, Republic continued to manufacture EP-106s which, by the 24 October 1940 order, 60 were taken over by the USAAC as the P-35A. The aircraft were re-armed to American standards with a pair of 0.50 in machine guns that fired through the propeller, but retained the Swedish specification of a 0.30 in machine gun mounted in each wing. Flight instruments were metric, and both their labeling and flight manuals written in Swedish. Of these, three aircraft were kept in United States as instructional airframes for mechanics. Six P-35As were delivered to Ecuador to form the first combat unit, the Escuadrilla de Caza.

Philippine Army Air Corps
The remainder were sent to the Far East Air Force in the Philippines beginning in February 1941. Eventually all pilots of the three pursuit squadrons on Luzon transitioned to the P-35A from the P-26. About 10 of these were lost in accidents. The P-35s were used primarily as gunnery trainers by all three squadrons because of a critical shortage of .50-caliber ammunition in the Far East Air Force, placing a strain on the engines of all the aircraft since no replacement engines were available. In October 1941, the P-35s were earmarked for transfer to the Philippine Army Air Corps after sufficient Curtiss P-40 Warhawks were received by the FEAF.

In November 1941, after the 3rd and 17th PS received new P-40E aircraft, most of their P-35As were passed to two newly arrived squadrons attached to the group, the 21st and 34th PS, with the latter receiving most. The 21st PS received its P-40Es on the eve of war and transferred its few P-35s to the 34th Pursuit Squadron, which then had nearly a full squadron. It then fought with them in the futile defense of the islands in December 1941, initially at Del Carmen Airfield. They were hopelessly outclassed by the Japanese fighters. Lack of armor and self-sealing fuel tanks made the aircraft extremely vulnerable (12 P-35As were destroyed and six damaged by a Japanese strafing attack on Del Carmen Airfield on 10 December ) and by 12 December 1941, only eight P-35As were still in flying condition. However, also on 10 December 1941, a P-35A of the 34th Pursuit Squadron piloted by 1st Lt. Samuel H. Marrett is credited with the sinking of Japanese minesweeper W-10 during the Japanese invasion of Vigan in northern Luzon. Marrett made multiple strafing runs against W-10, until the ship blew up. The explosion was so powerful it tore a wing off of Marrett's P-35, causing him to crash into the sea.

In late December 1941, most of the remaining strength of the Army Air Force in the Philippines was evacuated to airfields on the Bataan Peninsula. On 2 January 1942, five surviving P-35As attempted to fly from Pilar Field to Bataan Airfield, but two were hit by anti-aircraft fire, with one crashing and the second returning to Pilar where it was wrecked on landing. On 11 January, the two remaining P-35s evacuated to Del Monte Airfield on Mindanao, carrying several unit personnel in their baggage compartments. On 4 April, they returned briefly to Bataan to evacuate other personnel, and one was lost crash-landing on Cebu on 10 April. The sole surviving P-35 was turned over to Capt. Ramon Zosa of the PAAC on 30 April, and flew its last sortie out of Del Monte Airfield, accompanying a P-40 on a strafing attack of Japanese landings at Macajalar Bay on 3 May 1942.

Sweden
The Swedish Air Force received 60 J 9s in the spring-summer 1940. The aircraft were operated alongside other units assigned to the Svea Air Force Wing (F 8) protecting Stockholm, replacing the obsolete Gloster Gladiators. Swedish J 9s served with Flygvapnet as a fighter until 1946. Later, 10 aircraft were equipped with cameras but retained their J 9 fighter designation and, in addition, a number of others were used for liaison and general flight training. The last seven J 9 aircraft remained in service until September 1952.

Variants

 * AP-1
 * A P-35 fitted with a Pratt & Whitney R1830 engine.

 * AP-2
 * From SEV-1-XP

 * AP-7
 * Racer for Jacqueline Cochran

 * AP-9
 * Fighter trials aircraft developed in parallel to the AP-7

 * BT-8
 * 30 production basic trainers for the USAAC

 * P-35
 * First production version, Pratt & Whitney R-1830-9 engine with 850 hp (634 kW).
 * EP-1 – Export version of the P-35.
 * P-35A – AAF designation for appropriated EP-106 originally contracted to Sweden, Pratt & Whitney R-1830-45 radial piston engine with 1,050 hp (783 kW) and increased armament.
 * EP-106 – Single-seat fighter version for Sweden.
 * J 9 – Swedish designation of the EP-1/P-35A.

 * 2PA
 * Two-seat version with rear gunner.
 * 2PA-202 – European demonstrator
 * 2PA-A – for USSR (Spain)
 * 2PA-B – European demonstrator
 * 2PA-BX – European demonstrator
 * 2PA-B3 – 20 production aircraft for Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service as Seversky A8V1.
 * 2PA-L – to USSR (Spain)
 * A8V1 "Dick" – Two-seat 2PA used by the Japanese Navy.
 * B 6 – Swedish designation of the 2PA.
 * AT-12 Guardsman – Two-seat advanced trainer.

 * NF-1
 * Single-seat fighter prototype for U.S. Navy evaluation – company designation standing for "Naval Fighter One". Some sources erroneously refer to this aircraft as FN-1.

 * SEV-1XP
 * Single-seat fighter prototype, a.k.a. SEV-S1

 * SEV-2XP
 * Two-seat fighter prototype

 * SEV-DS
 * for Shell Oil Company / James Doolittle

 * SEV-X-BT
 * Two-seat basic trainer

 * SEV-7
 * Single-seat fighter prototype, fitted with a Pratt & Whitney R-1830-9 Twin Wasp radial piston engine. The aircraft was later redesignated AP-1.

Operators

 * Ecuadorian Air Force
 * Philippine Commonwealth
 * Philippine Army Air Corps
 * Swedish Air Force
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Army Air Corps

Surviving aircraft

 * AT-12
 * USAAF Serial No. 41-17529; (Construction No. 483-38) One of those which did not make it to Sweden, restored to flying condition at the Planes of Fame Air Museum at Chino Airport, California (registered as NX55539).

 * P-35
 * USAAC Serial No. 36-404 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force as P-35A "17" (4MP).

 * J 9 (EP-1A)
 * S/n 282-19 built in 1940, displayed in Swedish Air Force markings 2134/F8-33 on display in Flygvapenmuseum, the Swedish Air Force Museum, in Malmslätt, Sweden.

 * J 9 (EP-1A)
 * S/n 282-11 built in 1940 for Swedish Air Force. As of 2012, it was being restored to flying condition at the Fantasy of Flight museum in Polk City, Florida.

title: Seversky P-35


text:
Father of the Bride

The Father of the Bride is commonly one of the wedding ceremony participants.

Father of the Bride may also refer to:

 * Father of the Bride (novel), 1949, by Edward Streeter
 * Father of the Bride (franchise), media franchise based on the 1949 novel.
 * Father of the Bride (1950 film), adaptation of the 1949 novel, starring Spencer Tracy, Joan Bennett, and Elizabeth Taylor
 * Father of the Bride (TV series), 1961–1962
 * Father of the Bride (1991 film), remake of the 1950 film, starring Steve Martin, Diane Keaton and Martin Short
 * Father of the Bride Part II (1995), sequel to the 1991 film and remake of the 1951 sequel Father's Little Dividend
 * Father of the Bride (2022 film), adaptation of the novel, starring Andy García and Gloria Estefan
 * Father of the Bride (album), 2019, by Vampire Weekend
 * "Father of the Bride" (Frasier episode)
 * "Father of the Bride", twentieth episode of the eleventh season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
 * "Father of the Bride", short story by Connie Willis

title: Father of the Bride


text:
Battleground (disambiguation)

A battleground is the site of a battle.

Battle Ground or battleground may also refer to:

Films

 * Battleground (film), a 1949 war film about the Battle of the Bulge
 * BattleGround: 21 Days on the Empire's Edge (2004), a documentary about the Iraq War
 * Forbidden Ground (2013 film), known as Battle Ground in the United States, an Australian action drama war film set in WWI

Games

 * Battleground (video game series) by TalonSoft
 * Battleground: Bulge-Ardennes, the first game in the series
 * Battleground – Crossbows and Catapults, a tabletop war game better known by its previous name, Crossbows and Catapults
 * Magic: The Gathering – Battlegrounds, a 2003 strategy video game
 * PUBG: Battlegrounds, a massively multiplayer online survival shooter previously known as PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds
 * Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds, a 2001 strategy game
 * World War II Online: Battleground Europe, a massively multi-player online first-person shooter computer game

Literature

 * "Battleground" (short story), a 1972 Stephen King short story which appears in Night Shift
 * Battleground, the fourth book in The Corps Series by W.E.B. Griffin
 * Battleground, the sixth book in the Code Red series by Chris Ryan
 * Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine, a 1973 history book concerning the Arab-Israeli conflict
 * Battle Ground (The Dresden Files), a 2020 novel by Jim Butcher

Music

 * Battleground (Gary Stewart album), 1990
 * Battleground (The Wanted album), 2011

Television

 * Battleground (2014), a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event
 * Battleground (American TV series), a 2012 documentary-style drama series about a political campaign
 * Battleground (Nigerian TV series), a telenovela
 * Battleground, a Pentagon Channel original series featuring historic films from World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War and more
 * "Battleground", an episode of the 2006 TNT show Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King based on Stephen King's 1972 short story
 *  WWE Battleground, a WWE PPV show

Places

 * Battle Ground, Indiana
 * Battle Ground, Washington
 * Battleground, Alabama

title: Battleground (disambiguation)


text:
Saadat Hasan Manto

Saadat Hasan Manto (Punjabi,, ; 11 May 1912 – 18 January 1955) was a Pakistani writer, playwright and author born in Ludhiana, who was active in British India and later, after the 1947 partition of India, in Pakistan.

Writing mainly in Urdu, he produced 22 collections of short stories, a novel, five series of radio plays, three collections of essays and two collections of personal sketches. His best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. He is best known for his stories about the partition of India, which he opposed, immediately following independence in 1947. Manto's most notable work has been archived by Rekhta.

Manto was tried for obscenity six times; thrice before 1947 in British India, and thrice after independence in 1947 in Pakistan, but was never convicted. He is acknowledged as one of the finest 20th century Urdu writers and is the subject of two biographical films: the 2015 film Manto, directed by Sarmad Khoosat and the 2018 film Manto, directed by Nandita Das.

Early life
Saadat Hassan Manto was born in Paproudi village of Samrala, in the Ludhiana district of the Punjab, India in a Muslim family of barristers on 11 May 1912. He belonged to a Kashmiri trading family that had settled in Amritsar in the early nineteenth century and taken up the legal profession. His father, Khwaja Ghulam Hasan, was a session judge of a local court. His mother, Sardar Begum had a Pathan ancestry and was the second wife of his father. Ethnically a Kashmiri he was proud of his roots. In a letter to Pandit Nehru he suggested that being 'beautiful' was the second meaning of being 'Kashmiri'.

Education and early career
He received his early education at a Muslim High School at Amritsar where he twice failed his matriculation examination. In 1931 he took admission at the Hindu Sabha College but dropped out after first year due to poor results.

The big turning point in his life came in 1933, at age 21, when he met Abdul Bari Alig, a scholar and polemic writer who encouraged him to find his true talents and read Russian and French authors. Bari also encouraged Manto to translate Victor Hugo's The Last Day of a Condemned Man into Urdu which was later published by Urdu Book Stall, Lahore as Sarguzasht-e-Aseer (A Prisoner's Story). He then translated Oscar Wilde’s Vera into Urdu in 1934. He published his first original story in Urdu, Tamasha (Spectacle) under a pseudonym in Abdul Bari Alig's Urdu newspaper Khalq (Creation). It was based on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. During this period he contributed to the daily newspaper Musawat, (Equality) and Ehsan (Kindness), both published from Amritsar. He also edited and translated Russian and French stories for the journals Alamgir and Humayun. On Bari's encouragement these Russian stories were then published in Lahore under the title, Rusi Afsanay (Russian Stories). The collection included stories from Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekhov and two of Manto's original stories, Tamasha (Spectacle) and Mahigir (Fisherman).

This heightened enthusiasm pushed Manto to pursue graduation at Aligarh Muslim University, which he joined in July 1934, and soon got associated with the literary circle who would later become members of the Indian Progressive Writers' Association (IPWA). It was here that he met writer Ali Sardar Jafri and found a new spurt in his writing. His second story, "Inqlaab Pasand", was published in Aligarh magazine in March 1935. His education at Aligarh was cut short when nine months into joining the university he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He spent the next three months at a sanatorium at Batote in Kashmir to regain his health and then returned home to Amritsar.

After a brief stay in Amritsar, Manto moved to Lahore in search of employment and joined the newspaper Paras (Philosopher's Stone). In 1936, at Lahore, he published his first collection of original short stories Atish Paray (Nuggets of Fire).

In late 1936, he moved to Bombay when he received an invitation to edit the weekly Mussawir (Painter).

Career in Bombay (1937-1941)
In Bombay, Manto started his work as an editor of Mussawir along with Nazir Ludhianvi and the magazine Samaj (Society). He also started to write dialogues and scripts for the Hindi film industry, working first for the Imperial Film Company and then for Saroj Movietone. His films during this period include the 1940 film Apni Nagariya. He wrote many radio plays including Ao Radio Sunen (Come, Let's Listen to Radio) and Qalopatrah ki maut (Cleopatra's Death). In Bombay, he also came in contact with Progressive Writers' Association and became friendly with progressive writers like Krishan Chander, Rajinder Singh Bedi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi.

In 1940 he published his second collection of short stories Manto Ke Afsanay (Stories of Manto) from Lahore.

In August 1940 he was dismissed from the editorship of Musawwir and started working for another magazine called Karwan (Caravan) at a lower salary. Dissatisfied in his work, he applied to Krishan Chander for a job with All India Radio in Delhi. Subsequently he moved to Delhi in January 1941 and accepted the job of writing for Urdu Service of All India Radio.

In Delhi (1941-1942)
Manto joined All India Radio in early 1941 and became acquainted with many writers working there such as Chiragh Hasan Hasrat, Akhtar Hussain Raipuri, Ansar Nasiri, Mahmud Nizami, Meeraji and Upendranath Ashk.

This proved to be his most productive period as in the next eighteen months he published over four collections of radio plays, Aao (Come), Manto ke Drame (Manto's Dramas), Janaze (Funerals) and Teen Auraten (Three women). He continued to write short stories and his next short story collection Dhuan (Smoke) was soon out followed by his first collection of topical essays, Manto ke Mazamin. This period culminated with the publication of his mixed collection Afsane aur Dramey in 1943. Meanwhile, due to growing differences with his colleagues at All India Radio, he left his job and returned to Bombay in July 1942 and again started working with the film industry.

Return to Bombay (1942-1948)
Manto returned to Bombay in July 1942 and rejoined as the editor of Musawwir. During this time, he associated with his Aligarh friend Shaheed Latif and his wife Ismat Chughtai. In 1932, on Latif's invitation he joined the Filmistan studio. Here he also formed friendship with Ashok Kumar and entered his best phase in screenwriting giving films like Aatth Din, Chal Chal Re Naujawan and Mirza Ghalib, which was finally released in 1954. He also wrote Shikari. Some of his short stories also came from this phase including Kaali Shalwar (1941), Dhuan (1941) and Bu (1945), which was published in Qaumi Jang (Bombay) in February 1945. Another highlight of his second phase in Bombay was the publication of a collection of his stories, Chugad, which also included the story 'Babu Gopinath'. Dissatisfied with the people at Filmistan, he joined the Bombay Talkies in 1947, after the partition of India.

Migration to Pakistan
As a resident of Bombay, Manto had intended to stay in India after partition. In 1948, his wife and children went to Lahore to visit their relatives and friends. During this time, as stories of the atrocities of partition riots reached him, in the midst of occasional communal riots in Bombay itself, he decided to migrate to Pakistan, and left for it by ship. He stayed a few days in Karachi, finally settling at Lahore with his family. Manto and his family thus found themselves as "muhajirs" (refugees from India) and were among the millions of Muslims who left present-day India for the new Muslim-majority nation of Pakistan.

Life in Lahore
When Manto arrived in Lahore from Bombay, he associated with several intellectuals at Lahore's Pak Tea House. According to one commentator: "There was absolutely no external influence and people would share their opinions on any subject without fear even during the military dictators' regimes." In Lahore, Manto lived with his wife and family in an apartment in Lakshmi Building located in Lahore's famous Lakshmi Chowk (where many Film Distributors had offices) at the juncture of McLeod Road and Abbott Road. Lakshmi Building no longer exists as such but only its front or facade has been renovated and still faces McLeod Road. Lakshmi Building was abandoned during the partition riots of 1947-48 in Lahore. The mansion is currently dilapidated and uninhabited, though its façade still exists, renovated and painted. Later on, when Manto's financial situation went from bad to worse, he and his family moved in with his wife Mrs. Safia Manto's extended family. This was Manto's extended family as well including his relatives Film Director Masud Pervaiz and Cricket Commentator Hamid Jalal. Manto, Safia Manto and their three daughters all lived with their extended family in a large apartment in the posh LAKSHMI MANSION, an Apartment Complex situated between Hall Road and Beadon Road which had a circular enclosed green space with a Peepal Tree where the other Apartment residents included Mani Shankar Ayyar and the renowned Lahore jeweller Girdhari Lal. The three storied building was built by Lala Lajpat Rai's Lakshmi insurance company in 1938, inaugurated by Sarojini Naidu, and was at one time the residence of K.Santhanam, an eminent lawyer. Lakshmi Mansion still exists in Lahore and was never abandoned. Later residents have included a former Speaker of Pakistan's National Assembly and Pakistan Peoples Party stalwart Malik Meraj Khalid.

Death
Manto had suffered public trials for writing obscene literature in the newly created and increasingly Islamized Pakistan. Sessions Judge Munir presided over Manto's last trial in Lahore and he is the infamous judge who later became Justice Munir, Chief Justice of Pakistan Supreme Court and who invented the Doctrine of Necessity alias Nazria e Zaroorat in later years to buttress martial law in Pakistan. In this trial in Lahore against Manto, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, M.D. Taseer and many literary celebrities testified in favor of Manto. Manto's trial ended with a warning from Sessions Judge Munir that he was being let off easy with just a fine but would be sent to jail for many years if he did not stop writing his provocative short stories. So, Manto could not write his novel and cutting edge short stories. Manto sank into depression. He tried to alleviate his depression with alcohol and this started affecting his liver and led to cirrhosis of liver with him vomiting blood. His wife and relatives tried admitting him into Lahore Mental Asylum on Jail Road, Lahore which was the rehab clinic for alcoholics at that time. This treatment did not work. Manto returned to Lakshami Mansions, Beadon Road near Mall Road. Soon he had become increasingly alcoholic, which eventually led to cirrhosis of the liver. He died on 18 January 1955, at Lakshami Mansions, Lahore. His death was attributed to the effects of alcoholism.

Manto is buried in Miani Saheb graveyard in Lahore. In 1954 he composed his own epitaph: "Here lies Saadat Hasan Manto. With him lie buried all the arts and mysteries of short story writing . . . Under tons of earth he lies, wondering who of the two is the greater short story writer: God or he."

However, on the insistence of his family it was replaced by an alternative epitaph on his grave, which was also authored by him, inspired by a couplet from Ghalib:"This is the grave of Saadat Hasan Manto, who still thinks his name was not the repeated word on the tablet of time.”"

Personal life
On 26 April 1939, Manto married Safia Begum. Their first child Arif died at a young age in April 1941 in Delhi. Later they had three daughters Nighat Manto, Nuzhat Manto and Nusrat Manto. His daughter Nighat Bashir still lives at Lakshami Mansions, Beadon Road where Manto breathed his last.

Writings
Manto chronicled the chaos that prevailed, during and after the Partition of India in 1947. Manto strongly opposed the partition of India, which he saw as an "overwhelming tragedy" and "maddeningly senseless". He started his literary career translating the works of Victor Hugo, Oscar Wilde and Russian writers such as Chekhov and Gorky. His first story was "Tamasha", based on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre at Amritsar. Though his earlier works, influenced by the progressive writers of his times, showed a marked leftist and socialist leanings, his later work progressively became stark in portraying the darkness of the human psyche, as humanist values progressively declined around the Partition.

His final works, which grew from the social climate and his own financial struggles, reflected an innate sense of human impotency towards darkness and contained satire that verged on dark comedy, as seen in his final work, Toba Tek Singh. It not only showed the influence of his own demons, but also that of the collective madness that he saw in the ensuing decade of his life. To add to it, his numerous court cases and societal rebukes deepened his cynical view of society, from which he felt isolated. No part of human existence remained untouched or taboo for him, he sincerely brought out stories of prostitutes and pimps alike, just as he highlighted the subversive sexual slavery of the women of his times. To many contemporary women writers, his language portrayed reality and provided them with the dignity they long deserved. He is still known for his scathing insight into human behaviour as well as revelation of the macabre animalistic nature of the enraged people, that stands out amidst the brevity of his prose.

At least one commentator compares Saadat Hasan Manto to D. H. Lawrence, partly because he wrote about taboos of Indo-Pakistani Society. His concerns on the socio-political issues, from local to global are revealed in his series, Letters to Uncle Sam, and those to Pandit Nehru. On his writing he often commented, "If you find my stories dirty, the society you are living in is dirty. With my stories, I only expose the truth".

Conservative critique: charge for obscenity
Manto faced trial for obscenity in his writings, three times in British India before 1947 (‘Dhuan’, ‘Bu’ and ‘Kali Shalwar’) and three times in Pakistan after 1947 (‘Khol Do’, ‘Thanda Gosht’ and ‘Upar Neeche Darmiyaan’) under section 292 of the Indian Penal Code  (by the British Government) and the Pakistan Penal Code in Pakistan's early years. He was fined only in one case. Regarding the charges of obscenity he opined, "I am not a pornographer but a story writer".

Progressive critique: migration to Pakistan
While the conservative or right-wing section of the society criticised him on moral grounds, the progressives or Marxists and leftists criticised him for ideological reasons, namely for his migration to Pakistan and embrace of Pakistani nationalism, Manto then being championed by traditional minded literary critics such as Hasan Askari and Mumtaz Shirin.

Awards
On 14 August 2012 which is Pakistan's Independence Day, Saadat Hasan Manto was posthumously awarded the Nishan-e-Imtiaz award (Distinguished Service to Pakistan Award) by the Government of Pakistan.

Film, theatre, and literature
Manto was a writer whose life story became a subject of intense discussion and introspection. During the last two decades, many stage productions were done to present his character in conflict with the harsh socio-economic realities of the post-partition era. Danish Iqbal's stage Play Ek Kutte Ki Kahani presented Manto in a new perspective on occasion of his birth centenary.

In 2015, Pakistani actor and director Sarmad Khoosat made and released a movie, Manto, based on the life of Manto. In 2018, the British Broadcasting Corporation named the work Toba Tek Singh among the 100 stories that shaped the world, alongside works by authors like Homer and Virginia Woolf.

The 2018 film Manto, made by Nandita Das and starring Nawazuddin Siddiqui, is a Bollywood film based on the life of Manto.

Other Media
On 18 January 2005, the fiftieth anniversary of his death, Manto was commemorated on a Pakistani postage stamp.

On 11 May 2020, Google celebrated his 108th birthday with a Google Doodle.

title: Saadat Hasan Manto


text:
Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil

Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France, approximately 17 km southeast of Caen. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune Le Castelet.

Personalities
This village is known as the site of the death of the famous German tank commander Michael Wittmann on 8 August 1944, when his Tiger tank (number 007) was destroyed during an ambush. The crew of the destroyed tank was buried in an unmarked grave. In 1983, the German War Graves Commission located the burial site. Wittmann and his crew were reinterred together at the La Cambe German war cemetery, plot 47—row 3—grave 120, in France (about 70 km west).

title: Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil


text:
Charles Bell

Sir Charles Bell (12 November 1774 – 28 April 1842) was a Scottish surgeon, anatomist, physiologist, neurologist, artist, and philosophical theologian. He is noted for discovering the difference between sensory nerves and motor nerves in the spinal cord. He is also noted for describing Bell's palsy.

His three older brothers included Robert Bell (1757–1816) a Writer to the Signet, John Bell (1763–1820), also a noted surgeon and writer; and the advocate George Joseph Bell (1770–1843) who became a professor of law at the University of Edinburgh and a principal clerk at the Court of Session.

Early life and education
Charles Bell was born in Edinburgh on 12 November 1774, as the fourth son of the Reverend William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland. Charles's father died in 1779 when he was five years old, and thus his mother had a profound influence on his early life, teaching him how to read and write. In addition to this, his mother also helped Charles's natural artistic ability by paying for his regular drawing and painting lessons from David Allan, a well-known Scottish painter. Charles Bell grew up in Edinburgh, and attended the prestigious High School (1784–88). Although he was not a particularly good student, Charles decided to follow in his brother John's footsteps and enter a career in medicine. In 1792, Charles Bell enrolled at the University of Edinburgh and began assisting his brother John as a surgical apprentice. While at the university, Bell attended the lectures of Dugald Stewart on the subject of spiritual philosophy. These lectures had considerable impact on Bell, for some of Stewart's teachings can be traced in Bell's later works in a passage on his Treatise on the Hand. In addition to classes on anatomy, Bell took a course on the art of drawing in order to refine his artistic skill. At the university he was also a member of the Royal Medical Society as a student and spoke at the Society's centenary celebrations in 1837.

In 1798, Bell graduated from the University of Edinburgh and soon after was admitted to the Edinburgh College of Surgeons where he taught anatomy and operated at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. While developing his talents as a surgeon, Bell's interests forayed into a field combining anatomy and art. His inherent talent as an artist came to the fore when he helped his brother complete a four-volume work called The Anatomy of the Human Body. Charles Bell completely wrote and illustrated volumes 3 and 4 in 1803, as well as publishing his own set of illustrations in a System of Dissections in 1798 and 1799. Furthermore, Bell used his clinical experience and artistic eye to develop the hobby of modelling interesting medical cases in wax. He proceeded to accumulate an extensive collection that he dubbed his Museum of Anatomy, some items of which can still be seen today at Surgeon's Hall.

Charles Bell's stay in Edinburgh did not last long due to an infamous feud between John Bell and two faculty members at the University of Edinburgh: Alexander Monro Secundus and John Gregory. John Gregory was the chairman of the Royal Infirmary and had declared that only six full-time surgical staff members would be appointed to work at the infirmary. The Bell brothers were not selected and thus barred from practicing medicine at the Royal Infirmary. Charles Bell, who was not directly involved in his brother's feuds, attempted to make a deal with the faculty of the University of Edinburgh by offering the university one hundred guineas and his Museum of Anatomy in exchange for allowing him to observe and sketch the operations performed at the Royal Infirmary, but this deal was rejected.

Professional career
In 1804, Charles Bell left for London and in 1805 had established himself in the city by buying a house on Leicester Street. From this house Bell taught classes in anatomy and surgery for medical students, doctors, and artists. In 1809, Bell was among a number of civilian surgeons who volunteered to attend to the many thousands of ill and wounded soldiers who had retreated to Corunna, and 6 years later he again voluntarily attended to the ill and wounded in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo. Regrettably, of Bell's 12 amputation cases, only one man survived. In addition to the amputation surgeries, Bell was quite fascinated by musket-ball injuries and in 1814, he published a Dissertation on Gunshot Wounds. A number of his illustrations of the wounds are displayed in the hall of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.

In 1811, Charles Bell married Marion Shaw. Using money from his wife's dowry, Bell purchased a share of the Great Windmill Street School of Anatomy which had been founded by the anatomist William Hunter. Bell transferred his practice from his house to the Windmill Street School Bell ended up teaching students and conducting his own research until 1824. In 1813–14, he was appointed as a member of the London College of Surgeons and as a surgeon at the Middlesex Hospital.

In addition to his domestic pursuits, Bell also served as a military surgeon, making elaborate recordings of neurological injuries at the Royal Hospital Haslar and famously documenting his experiences at Waterloo in 1815. For three consecutive days and nights, he operated on French soldiers in the Gens d'Armerie Hospital. The condition of the French soldiers was quite poor, and thus many of his patients died shortly after he operated on them. Dr Robert Knox, who was one of Bell's surgical assistants at Brussels, was critical of Bell's surgical skills and commented rather negatively on Bell's surgical abilities; (the mortality rate of amputations carried out by Bell ran at about 90%).

Bell was instrumental in the creation of the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, and became, in 1824, the first professor of Anatomy and Surgery of the College of Surgeons in London. In that same year Bell sold his collection of over 3,000 wax preparations to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh for £3000.

In 1829, the Windmill Street School of Anatomy was incorporated into the new King's College London. Bell was invited to be its first professor of physiology, and helped establish the Medical School at the University of London, gave the inaugural address when it formally opened, and even helped contribute to the requirements of its certification program. Bell's stay at the Medical School did not last long and he resigned from his chair due to differences of opinion with the academic staff. For the next seven years, Bell gave clinical lectures at the Middlesex Hospital and in 1835 he accepted the position of the Chair of Surgery at the University of Edinburgh following the premature death of Prof John William Turner.

He was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1833.

Bell died at Hallow Park near Worcester in the Midlands, while travelling from Edinburgh to London, in 1842.

He is buried in Hallow Churchyard near Worcester.

Honours and awards
Bell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 8 June 1807, on the nomination of Robert Jameson, William Wright and Thomas Macknight. He served as a Councillor of the RSE from 1836 to 1839.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London on 16 November 1826, and awarded the Royal Society's gold medal for his numerous discoveries in science. Bell was knighted into the Guelphic Order of Hanover in 1831. Like Sir Richard Owen, he was also elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Works

Charles Bell was a prolific author who combined his anatomical knowledge with his artistic eye to produce a number of highly detailed and beautifully illustrated books. In 1799, Bell published his first work "A System of Dissections, explaining the Anatomy of the Human Body, the manner of displaying Parts and their Varieties in Disease". His second work was the completion of his brother's four-volume set of "The Anatomy of the Human Body" in 1803. In that same year, Bell published his three series of engravings titled "Engravings of the Arteries", "Engravings of the Brain", and "Engravings of the Nerves". These sets of engravings consisted of intricate and detailed anatomical diagrams accompanied with labels and a brief description of their functionality in the human body and were published as an educational tool for aspiring medical students. The "Engravings of the Brain" are of particular importance for this marked Bell's first published attempt at fully elucidating the organization of the nervous system. In his introduction to the work, Bell comments on the ambiguous nature of the brain and its inner workings, a topic that would hold his interest for the remainder of his life.

In 1806, with his eye on a teaching post at the Royal Academy, Bell published his Essays on The Anatomy of Expression in Painting (1806), later re-published as Essays on The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression in 1824. In this work, Bell followed the principles of natural theology, asserting the existence of a uniquely human system of facial muscles in the service of a human species with a unique relationship to the Creator, ideals which paralleled with those of William Paley. After the failure of his application (Sir Thomas Lawrence, later President of the Royal Academy, described Bell as "lacking in temper, modesty and judgement"), Bell turned his attentions to the nervous system.

Bell published detailed studies of the nervous system in 1811, in his privately circulated book An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain. In this book, Bell described his idea of the different nervous tracts connecting with different parts of brain and thus leading to different functionality. His experiments to investigate this consisted of cutting open the spinal cord of a rabbit and touching different columns of the cord. He found that an irritation of the anterior columns led to a convulsion of the muscles, while an irritation of the posterior columns had no visible effect. These experiments led Bell to declare that he was the first to distinguish between sensory and motor nerves. While this essay is considered by many to be the founding stone of clinical neurology, it was not well received by Bell's peers. His experimentation was criticized and the idea that he presented of the anterior and posterior roots being connected to the cerebrum and cerebellum respectively, was rejected. Furthermore, Bell's original essay of 1811 did not actually contain a clear description of motor and sensory nerve roots as Bell later claimed, and he seems to have issued subsequent incorrectly dated revisions with subtle textual alterations. Despite this lukewarm response, Charles Bell continued to study the anatomy of the human brain and laid his focus upon the nerves connected to it. In 1821, Bell published the "On the Nerves: Giving an Account of some Experiments on Their Structure and Functions, Which Lead to a New Arrangement of the System" in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. This paper held Bell's most famous discovery, that the facial nerve or seventh cranial nerve is a nerve of muscular action. This was quite an important discovery because surgeons would often cut this nerve as an attempted cure for facial neuralgia, but this would often render the patient with a unilateral paralysis of the facial muscles, now known as Bell's Palsy. Due to this publication, Charles Bell is regarded as one of the first physicians to combine the scientific study of neuroanatomy with clinical practice.

Bell's studies on emotional expression played a catalytic role in the development of Darwin's considerations of the origins of human emotional life; and, while he rejected Bell's theological arguments, Darwin very much agreed with Bell's emphasis on the expressive role of the muscles of respiration. Darwin detailed these opinions in his The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), written with the active collaboration of the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne. Bell was one of the first physicians to combine the scientific study of neuroanatomy with clinical practice. In 1821, he described in the trajectory of the facial nerve and a disease, Bell's Palsy which led to the unilateral paralysis of facial muscles, in one of the classics of neurology, a paper delivered to the Royal Society entitled On the Nerves: Giving an Account of some Experiments on Their Structure and Functions, Which Lead to a New Arrangement of the System.

Bell also combined his many artistic, scientific, literary and teaching talents in a number of wax preparations and detailed anatomical and surgical illustrations, paintings and engravings in his several books on these subjects, such as in his book Illustrations of the Great Operations of Surgery: Trepan, Hernia, Amputation, Aneurism, and Lithotomy (1821). He wrote also the first treatise on notions of anatomy and physiology of facial expression for painters and illustrators, titled Essays on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting (1806).

In 1829, Francis Egerton, the eighth Earl of Bridgewater, died and in his will, he left a large sum of money to the President of the Royal Society of London. The will stipulated that the money was to be used to write, print, and publish one thousand copies of a work on the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God. The President of the Royal Society, Davies Gilbert appointed eight gentlemen to write separate treatises on the subject. In 1833, he published the fourth Bridgewater Treatise, The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design. Charles Bell published four editions of The Hand. In the first few chapters, Bell organizes his treatise as an early textbook of comparative anatomy. The book is full of pictures where Bell compares "hands" of different organisms ranging from human hands, chimpanzee paws, and fish feelers. After the first few chapters, Bell orients his treatise around the significance of the hand and its importance in its use in anatomy. He emphasizes that the hand is as important as the eye in the field of surgery and that it must be trained.

Legacy
A number of discoveries received his name:
 * Bell's (external respiratory) nerve: The long thoracic nerve.
 * Bell's palsy: a unilateral idiopathic paralysis of facial muscles due to a lesion of the facial nerve.
 * Bell's phenomenon: A normal defense mechanism—upward and outward movement of the eye which occurs when an individual closes their eyes forcibly. It can be appreciated clinically in a patient with paralysis of the orbicularis oculi (e.g. Guillain–Barré syndrome or Bell's palsy), as the eyelid remains elevated when the patient tries to close the eye.
 * Bell's spasm: Involuntary twitching of the facial muscles.
 * Bell–Magendie law or Bell's Law: States that the anterior branch of spinal nerve roots contain only motor fibers and the posterior roots contain only sensory fibers.

Charles Bell House, part of University College London, is used for teaching and research in surgery.

title: Charles Bell


text:
Talk:Pregolya

Untitled
This article should be renamed Pregolya (Преголя in Russian)

Has now been renamed -- Picapica 19:27, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

There is no link to a conclusive proof to the Ptolemy assertion. Nemunas is a more likely candidate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.60.234.8 (talk) 13:23, 17 September 2017 (UTC)

Pissa is tributary of Angrapa, not of Pregolya! Please edit this. Thanks. --Kusurija (talk) 09:09, 22 March 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pregolya


text:
New York State Route 2

New York State Route 2 (NY 2) is a state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States. It extends for 30.89 mi from an interchange with Interstate 87 (I-87) and NY 7 in the town of Colonie to the Massachusetts state line in Petersburgh, where it continues to Boston as Massachusetts Route 2. The route passes through the cities of Watervliet and Troy, where it connects to NY 32 and U.S. Route 4, respectively. In Grafton, located midway between Troy and Massachusetts, NY 2 serves Grafton Lakes State Park.

Most of the route was originally designated as part of an unsigned legislative route in the 1910s. In 1924, the portion of modern NY 2 between the hamlet of Latham and downtown Troy became part of NY 9. The rest of the highway was designated as NY 96 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY 96 was renumbered to NY 2 in 1942. From 1942 to 1970, NY 2 continued south along the Hudson River from Troy to Albany. It was extended to Latham in 1985, replacing a section of NY 7 that had been realigned onto a new parallel freeway to the north.

Albany County and Troy
NY 2 begins at I-87 (the Adirondack Northway) exit 6 in the hamlet of Latham, where NY 7 leaves Troy–Schenectady Road to join I-87. The route proceeds east on Troy–Schenectady Road, a four-lane boulevard in the town of Colonie. Passing south of the Latham Farms Shopping Center, and soon north of the Latham Circle Mall, the route enters Latham Circle, where it connects to US 9 (Loudon Road). Instead of directly intersecting US 9, NY 2 meets a series of ramps leading to and from the road while US 9 itself crosses under the circle, allowing for a continuous flow of traffic on US 9. East of US 9, NY 2 runs southeast through Colonie, serving residential neighborhoods and a short commercialized stretch on its way into the riverside city of Watervliet, where it becomes 19th Street. Two blocks into the city, maintenance of the route shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) to the city highway department.

The highway initially serves three blocks of homes before entering a linear commercial district at a junction with 12th Avenue. From here, the road crosses a Canadian Pacific Railway line as it approaches downtown Watervliet, where state maintenance resumes one block west of an intersection with NY 32 (Second Avenue). Past NY 32, NY 2 crosses over I-787 and the Hudson River on the Congress Street Bridge, which links Watervliet to the city of Troy on the opposite bank. Just east of the bridge, the route enters a partial interchange with Front Street and splits into a one-way pair along Congress Street (westbound) and Ferry Street (eastbound), both two lanes wide. The couplet takes the route through the Central Troy Historic District, where NY 2 eastbound heads into a two-block tunnel that carries the highway underneath the campus of Russell Sage College. Ferry Street returns to surface level at 3rd Street, where NY 2 meets the southbound half of US 4, which is also routed along a one-way pair through the city. A junction with US 4 northbound follows two blocks to the east at 4th Street. While most of NY 2 westbound is city-maintained in Troy, NY 2 eastbound is a state road up through its intersection with 5th Avenue. After 5th Avenue, the highway leaves downtown Troy and begins to climb the hills overlooking the city. Near the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Ferry and Congress streets merge to form a single two-lane road carrying the Congress Street name. The route runs southeastward from the merge, serving another commercial strip in the Eastside section of the city and connecting to the northern terminus of NY 66 (Pawling Avenue).

East of Troy
Past NY 66, NY 2 changes names to Brunswick Road and turns northeastward through a residential section of Troy. It loosely parallels the northern edge of Poesten Kill to the Troy city line, where the highway reaches the southern terminus of County Route 141 (CR 141 or South Lake Avenue). State maintenance of NY 2 resumes as the road heads into the town of Brunswick, where the homes along the highway become less frequent and more scattered. The route runs past occasional stretches of dense woods to reach the hamlet of Eagle Mills, where it intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 140 (Pinewoods Avenue) and the south end of CR 133 (Moonlawn Road). Outside of Eagle Mills, development along NY 2 continues to dwindle as it takes a more northerly track through the town. It bends back to the east near Clums Corners, the site of intersections with the southern terminus of NY 278 (Brick Church Road) and the northern terminus of NY 351 (Farm to Market Road).

East of Clums Corners, NY 2 loses the Brunswick Road name as it heads northeast through increasingly rural areas along the Quacken Kill. The route crosses the western terminus of CR 79 (Blue Factory Road) along this stretch before winding back to the southeast at the Grafton town line. It soon takes a more easterly track through Grafton, intersecting both ends of CR 84 (Old Road) on its way into the residential hamlet of Grafton. The route connects to Grafton Lakes State Park Way, the main road leading into Grafton Lakes State Park, and the northern terminus of CR 85 (South Road) before leaving the community. From the hamlet of Grafton, NY 2 winds southeast through rural sections of the town of Grafton, slowly heading downhill toward the Grafton–Petersburgh town line. In Petersburgh, the highway meets the southern terminus of CR 94 (Dill Brook Road) on its way into the hamlet of Petersburgh.

In the center of the community, NY 2 connects to NY 22 by way of Moses Road (eastbound) and Main Street (westbound), both designated as NY 914A, an unsigned reference route. NY 2 itself crosses over NY 22, taking on the Main Street name as it runs through the center of Petersburgh. Past the hamlet, the route changes names to Taconic Trail as it meanders southeastward through rural, mostly wooded sections of Petersburgh. NY 2 intersects both ends of CR 91 (East Hollow Road) before traversing dense woods in the Berkshire Mountains. The road takes a generally south-southeastward track to the Massachusetts state line, where it becomes Massachusetts Route 2 upon entering the town of Williamstown, Massachusetts.

History
Most of modern NY 2 east of 1st Street in Troy was originally designated by the New York State Legislature as Route 42, an unsigned legislative route, on July 7, 1911. East of Troy, however, Route 42 was routed on Pawling and Pinewoods avenues. Route 42 was extended west across the Hudson River to Schenectady in 1914 by way of what is now NY 2 and NY 7. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the portion of Route 42 west of 1st Street became part of NY 9. The rest of Route 42 remained unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, when it was designated as NY 96. Near Troy, NY 96 bypassed Pawling and Pinewoods avenues to the north on Brunswick Road instead of following the path of Route 42.

In Petersburgh, NY 96 originally had a brief overlap with NY 22; however, it was eliminated in 1931 when NY 96 was reconfigured to pass over NY 22 by way of a new bridge built midway between NY 96's original approaches to the route. The former alignments of NY 96 were subsequently repurposed as connectors between NY 22 and NY 96. Both roads, a combined 0.41 mi in length, are now designated as NY 914A, an unsigned reference route. In 1942, the state of New York switched the alignments of NY 96 and NY 2, a highway extending from Owego to Rochester in the Finger Lakes region. The change placed NY 2 on the Troy–Massachusetts routing.

Around the same time as the designation swap, NY 2 was extended south to NY 5 in Albany by way of overlaps with US 4, then routed on 1st Street, and NY 32. In between the two routes, NY 2 was routed on modern NY 378 and crossed the Hudson River by way of the Troy–Menands Bridge. NY 2 was rerouted slightly in the early 1950s to leave NY 32 at the junction of Wolfert Avenue and Broadway and follow Broadway into downtown Albany, where it ended at Madison Avenue (US 9 and US 20). The route was truncated to the northern end of the NY 32 overlap in the mid-1960s, then to 3rd Street (US 4) in Troy on January 1, 1970. The former routing of NY 2 between NY 32 and US 4 became an extension of NY 378.

Construction on a new limited-access highway through the town of Colonie between I-87 and I-787 began in the early 1980s. The roadway, known as "NY 7 Alternate", was built 1 mi north of NY 7 on an alignment that paralleled the original surface route. However, when it opened in December 1985, it became a realignment of NY 7 instead. NY 7's former surface routing from I-87 in Latham to US 4 in Troy became a westward extension of NY 2.

title: New York State Route 2


text:
Nalgene

Nalgene is a brand of plastic products developed originally for laboratory use, including items such as jars, bottles, test tubes, and Petri dishes, that were shatterproof and lighter than glass. The properties of plastic products make them suitable for work with many substances in various temperature ranges.

Nalgene products are manufactured by Nalge Nunc International, which in 2004 became a subsidiary of Fisher Scientific, now Thermo Fisher Scientific. The name Nalgene is a registered trademark.

Nalgene Outdoor
In the 1970s, conservationists began discouraging the disposal of cans and glass bottles by burning and burial in wilderness and recreation areas, and some places began forbidding such materials by regulation. Nalgene products became popular replacements among backpackers for storing consumables; the light, wide-mouthed high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polycarbonate bottles were more secure than plastic bags and were used for both liquids and solid foods.

Originally, wilderness travelers purchased Nalgene products from laboratory-equipment suppliers, or perhaps gained access to them in their workplaces. Company lore has it that Nalge Company president Marsh Hyman, based in Rochester, NY, discovered that his son's Boy Scout troop was using Nalgene laboratory containers when camping. Since then, the company has re-packaged and marketed items for consumer sales through their line of Nalgene Outdoor products. By the late 1990s, the "Nalgene" trademark was recognized by many hikers, and sales of the 1-litre wide-mouth bottle of translucent polycarbonate (originally typically grey, but now commonly in bright colors, often with custom labels made for the bottle retailer) with a screw-on plastic top that stays attached when the bottle is open, began to increase. Today, many hikers and others recognize the distinctive appearance of Nalgene-branded bottles. Its laboratory pedigree is still suggested by the markings, in hundreds of millilitres, of the volume contained. The materials resist stains and odor absorption, and can be filled with boiling water. The wide-mouth bottle is more widely used and sold over the narrow-mouth bottles in sub-freezing conditions, since it is easier to break through ice with the wider mouth. Currently, Nalgene markets over twelve different sizes of bottles in many colours, including the classic Wide Mouth and Narrow Mouth.

A variety of products from other manufacturers are designed for compatibility with this item's overall dimensions or its 2.5-inch neck; these include:
 * Screw-on water-purifying filters.
 * Stainless-steel collapsible-handle cups, for drinking and/or stove-top cooking, that store compactly with a Nalgene litre-bottle nested inside them.
 * Insulated Nylon-fabric cases for Nalgene 1-litre bottles; features include stable attachment points and, in most cases, nesting for a cup.
 * Snap-in plastic "splash guards" that narrow the neck opening to a size where drinking while in motion is less likely to cause spilling.
 * Screw-in filters, which allow the user to add coffee grounds or tea, pour boiling water over the contents, seal the lid, and brew the beverage.
 * Screw-on LED lights, creating a usable lantern with low power consumption.

Another widely available Nalgene Outdoor product is a 650 ml (22 fl oz) "All-Terrain" or "bike" bottle. The bottle is made from low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and its screw top has two moving parts — a drinking nozzle that seals until snapped open by pulling on it, and a hinged polycarbonate dome, that when closed both snaps the nozzle closed and protects the nozzle against contamination. Unlike traditional Nalgene containers, this item can be damaged and potentially ruined by filling it with very hot water.

Recently, Nalgene has added hydration systems to its cycling and wilderness product line. The line features 1- to 3-litre bladders with hose-and-bite-valve assemblies in small back-carried packs (mostly under 1000 cubic inches, or 16 L, of additional storage). Nalgene offers the option of two different bladder materials for a choice of superior taste and bacteria resistance versus improved durability. In addition, the bladder on these products can be quickly detached from the hose and pack by a self-sealing connector on the bladder. These features were intended to improve on perceived issues with existing hydration systems, including difficulty filling and/or leaking water into gear that shares the pack.

Increased awareness of the importance of hydration while exercising has led to the appearance of some Nalgene containers in urban and suburban settings like gyms, offices, and campuses. Many colleges give or sell Nalgene water bottles to their students, and Nalgene bottles are also customized and sold as retail promotions.

In October 2017, Nalgene launched a new line of colors for their water bottles.

Bisphenol A (BPA) concerns
In recent years, studies have suggested that polycarbonates, made from bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene, such as the ones Nalgene used, may leach endocrine disruptors including BPA. Nalgene denies that the quantity leached from their products posed a significant threat to health. Among the secreted chemicals, BPA is a concern, as it binds to estrogen receptors, thus altering gene expression. Other research has found that fixatives in polycarbonate plastics can cause chromosomal error in cell division called aneuploidy. Nalgene claims these chemicals are only potentially released from Nalgene products when used at temperatures outside of the designed range.

In November 2007, the national Canadian co-operative retailer Mountain Equipment Co-op removed all hard, clear polycarbonate plastic water bottles (including Nalgene-branded products) from their shelves and replaced them with BPA-free Nalgene bottles. In December 2007, Lululemon made a similar move. In May 2008, Recreational Equipment, Inc. removed Nalgene-branded polycarbonate water bottles and replaced them with BPA-free Nalgene bottles.

On April 18, 2008, Health Canada announced that bisphenol A is "'toxic' to human health". On the same date, Nalgene announced it would phase out production of its Outdoor line of polycarbonate containers containing BPA. Nalgene subsequently adopted Tritan copolyester, a BPA-free copolyester made by Eastman Chemical, as a substitute.

Although unpublished studies in 2008 and 2009 by Oregon State students suggest that BPA does not leach from polycarbonate plastic under extreme conditions, BPA is not the only component of plastics which can mimic estrogen and act as an endocrine disruptor. Unfortunately, BPA-free Tritan plastics were later found to leach other estrogenic chemicals in a cell-based assay. Eastman Chemical, the manufacturer of Tritan, will not disclose precise information about the chemical structure of Tritan.

A study from CertiChem (a private lab in Austin, Texas dedicated to studying endocrine disruption) found that green-colored Nalgene bottles effectively block the effects of UV rays, thus rendering the specific model studied safe from specific BPA-leaching concerns. However, CertiChem's founder and neuroscience professor at the University of Texas at Austin, George Bittner, cautioned that green Nalgene bottles found in stores "aren't guaranteed to be safe since minor change to the chemical formula can introduce estrogens". Bitter also published an article claiming most polymers, including Tritan, contained trace amounts of Bisphenol A. Eastman Chemical Company filed a lawsuit after these results were publicized in a brochure produced by PlastiPure, a sister company to CertiChem. Eastman maintained that the tests used by CertiChem, which were based around cultured estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cells, were not a definitive assay of endocrine activity in vivo. A jury ruled in Eastman's favor, and as a result Bittner, PlastiPure, and CertiChem were barred from making claims about Tritan’s oestrogenic activity.

title: Nalgene


text:
Johnsonville

Johnsonville may refer to:

Australia

 * Johnsonville, Victoria

New Zealand

 * Johnsonville, New Zealand

United States

 * Johnsonville, Alabama
 * Johnsonville, California, former name of Bear Valley, Mariposa County, California
 * Johnsonville, Illinois
 * Johnsonville, Indiana
 * Johnsonville, New York
 * Johnsonville, South Carolina
 * Johnsonville, Tennessee, a former town replaced by New Johnsonville, Tennessee
 * Johnsonville, Wisconsin, an incorporated village
 * Johnsonville Township, Minnesota
 * Johnsonville Village, Connecticut, an abandoned ghost town

Company

 * Johnsonville Foods is a sausage maker in Johnsonville, Wisconsin

History

 * Battle of Johnsonville

title: Johnsonville