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Refractive surgery

Refractive surgery is an optional eye surgery used to improve the refractive state of the eye and decrease or eliminate dependency on glasses or contact lenses. This can include various methods of surgical remodeling of the cornea (keratomileusis), lens implantation or lens replacement. The most common methods today use excimer lasers to reshape the curvature of the cornea. Refractive eye surgeries are used to treat common vision disorders such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.

History
The first theoretical work on the potential of refractive surgery was published in 1885 by Hjalmar August Schiøtz, an ophthalmologist from Norway. In 1930, the Japanese ophthalmologist Tsutomu Sato made the first attempts at performing this kind of surgery, hoping to correct the vision of military pilots. His approach was to make radial cuts in the cornea, correcting effects by up to 6 diopters. The procedure unfortunately produced a high rate of corneal degeneration, however, and was soon rejected by the medical community.

The first proficient refractive surgery technique was developed in the Barraquer ophthalmologic clinic (Bogotá, Colombia), in 1963, by Jose Barraquer. His technique, called keratomileusis, meaning corneal reshaping (from Greek κέρας (kéras: horn) and σμίλευσις (smileusis: carving)), enabled the correction, not only of myopia, but also of hyperopia. It involves removing a corneal layer, freezing it so that it could be manually sculpted into the required shape, and finally reimplanting the reshaped layer into the eye. In 1980, Swinger performed first keratomileusis surgery in US. In 1985, Krumeich and Swinger introduced non-freeze keratomileusis technique, it remained a relatively imprecise technique.

In 1974 a refractive procedure called Radial Keratotomy (RK) was developed in the USSR by Svyatoslav Fyodorov and later introduced to the United States. RK involves making a number of cuts in the cornea to change its shape and correct refractive errors. The incisions are made with a diamond knife. Following the introduction of RK, doctors routinely corrected nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism using various applications of incisions on the cornea.

Meanwhile, experiments in 1970 using a xenon dimer and in 1975 using noble gas halides resulted in the invention of a type of laser called an excimer laser. While excimer lasers were initially used for industrial purposes, in 1980, Rangaswamy Srinivasan, a scientist of IBM who was using an excimer laser to make microscopic circuits in microchips for informatics equipment, discovered that the excimer could also be used to cut organic tissues with high accuracy without significant thermal damage. The discovery of an effective biological cutting laser, along with the development of computers to control it, enabled the development of new refractive surgery techniques.

In 1983, Stephen Trokel, a scientist at Columbia University, in collaboration with Theo Seiler and Srinivasan, performed the first Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK), or keratomileusis in situ (without separation of corneal layer) in Germany. The first patent for this approach, which later became known as LASIK surgery, was granted by the US Patent Office to Gholam Ali. Peyman, MD on June 20, 1989. It involves cutting a flap in the cornea and pulling it back to expose the corneal bed, then using an excimer laser to ablate the exposed surface to the desired shape, and then replacing the flap. The name LASIK was coined in 1991 by University of Crete and the Vardinoyannion Eye.

The patents related to so-called broad-beam LASIK and PRK technologies were granted to US companies including Visx and Summit during 1990–1995 based on the fundamental US patent issued to IBM (1983) which claimed the use of UV laser for the ablation of organic tissues.

In 1991, J.T. Lin, Ph.D. (a Chinese Physicist) was granted a US patent for a new technology using a flying-spot for customized LASIK currently used worldwide. The first US patent using an eye-tracking device to prevent decentration in LASIK procedures was granted to another Chinese Physicist, Dr. S. Lai in 1993.

Flap procedures
Excimer laser ablation is done under a partial-thickness lamellar corneal flap.
 * Automated lamellar keratoplasty (ALK): The surgeon uses an instrument called a microkeratome to cut a thin flap of the corneal tissue. The flap is lifted like a hinged door, targeted tissue is removed from the corneal stroma, again with the microkeratome, and then the flap is replaced.
 * Laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK): The surgeon uses either a microkeratome or a femtosecond laser to cut a flap of the corneal tissue (usually with a thickness of 100–180 micrometres). The flap is lifted like a hinged door, but in contrast to ALK, the targeted tissue is removed from the corneal stroma with an excimer laser. The flap is subsequently replaced. When the flap is created using an IntraLase brand femtosecond laser, the method is called IntraLASIK; other femtosecond lasers such as the Ziemer create a flap similarly. Femtosecond lasers have numerous advantages over mechanical microkeratome based procedure. Microkeratome related flap complications like incomplete flaps, buttonholes or epithelial erosion are eliminated with femtosecond laser procedure. Absence of microscopic metal fragments from the blade will reduce the risk of lamellar keratitis also.
 * Customized aspheric treatment zone (CATz) is a topography-guided LASIK treatment developed by NIDEK Co. Ltd which ablates the cornea based on patient-specific geometry to address certain disadvantages in conventional wavefront spherocylindrical ablation. The treatment is effective for myopia with astigmatism or otherwise irregular corneas, and reduces symptoms such as glare, halos, and night driving difficulty.
 * Refractive Lenticule Extraction (ReLEx):
 * ReLEx "FLEx" (Femtosecond Lenticule Extraction): A femtosecond laser cuts a lenticule within the corneal stroma. Afterwards, a LASIK-like flap is cut which can be lifted to access the lenticule. This is removed through manual dissection using a blunt spatula and forceps.
 * ReLEx "SMILE" (Small Incision Lenticule Extraction): A newer technique without a flap, a femtosecond laser cuts a lenticule within the corneal stroma. The same laser is used to cut a small incision along the periphery of the lenticule about 1/5th the size of a standard LASIK flap incision. The surgeon then uses a specially designed instrument to separate and remove the lenticule through the incision, leaving the anterior lamellae of the cornea intact. No excimer laser is used in the "ReLEx-procedures".

Surface procedures
The excimer laser is used to ablate the most anterior portion of the corneal stroma. These procedures do not require a partial thickness cut into the stroma. Surface ablation methods differ only in the way the epithelial layer is handled.
 * Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) is an outpatient procedure generally performed with local anesthetic eye drops (as with LASIK/LASEK). It is a type of refractive surgery which reshapes the cornea by removing microscopic amounts of tissue from the corneal stroma, using a computer-controlled beam of light (excimer laser). The difference from LASIK is that the top layer of the epithelium is removed (and a bandage contact lens is used), so no flap is created. Recovery time is longer with PRK than with LASIK, though the outcome (after 3 months) is about the same (very good). More recently, customized ablation has been performed with LASIK, LASEK, and PRK.
 * Transepithelial photorefractive keratectomy (TransPRK) is a laser-assisted eye surgery to correct refraction errors of human eye corneas. It uses an excimer laser to ablate the outer layer of the cornea, the epithelium, as well as its connective tissue, the stroma, to correct the eye's optical power.
 * Laser Assisted Sub-Epithelium Keratomileusis (LASEK) is also a procedure that changes the shape of the cornea using an excimer laser to ablate the tissue from the corneal stroma, under the corneal epithelium, which is kept mostly intact to act as a natural bandage. The surgeon uses an alcohol solution to loosen then lift a thin layer of the epithelium (usually with a thickness of 50 micrometres) with a trephine blade. During the weeks following LASEK, the epithelium heals, leaving no permanent flap in the cornea. This healing process can involve discomfort comparable to that with PRK.
 * EPI-LASIK is a new technique similar to LASEK that uses an epi-keratome (rather than a trephine blade and alcohol), to remove the top layer of the epithelium (usually with thickness of 50 micrometres), which is subsequently replaced. For some people it can provide better results than regular LASEK in that it avoids the possibility of negative effects from the alcohol, and recovery may involve less discomfort.
 * Customized Transepithelial No-touch (C-TEN) is an innovative strategy for corneal surgery that avoids any corneal manipulation via a complete laser-assisted trans-epithelial approach. Since C-TEN is planned on the morphology of each individual eye, it can treat a large variety of corneal pathologies from refractive to therapeutic. C-TEN is sometimes referred to as Advanced Surface Ablation (ASA)

Corneal incision procedures

 * Radial keratotomy (RK), developed by Russian ophthalmologist Svyatoslav Fyodorov in 1974, uses spoke-shaped incisions, always made with a diamond knife, to alter the shape of the cornea and reduce myopia or astigmatism; this technique is, in medium to high diopters, usually replaced by other refractive methods.
 * Arcuate keratotomy (AK), also known as Astigmatic keratotomy, uses curvilinear incisions at the periphery of the cornea to correct high levels of non-pathological astigmatism, up to 13 diopters. AK is often used for the correction of high post-keratoplasty astigmatism or post-cataract surgery astigmatism.
 * Limbal relaxing incisions (LRI) are incisions near the outer edge of the iris, used to correct minor astigmatism (typically less than 2 diopters). This is often performed in conjunction with an Intraocular Lens implantation.

Refractive lens exchange
Clear lens extraction or Refractive lens exchange is effectively the same procedure as cataract surgery used to replace a natural lens with high refractive error when other methods are not effective. It can be done in patients with severe refractive error and/or presbyopia who wish to avoid spectacles. In addition to the common complications of cataract surgery, clear lens extraction may also cause premature posterior vitreous detachment and retinal detachment. In some people with very high myopia, the eye may be left aphakic, without intraocular lens implantation.

A related procedure is the implantation of phakic intraocular lenses in series with the natural lens to correct vision in cases of high refractive errors.

Other procedures

 * Radial Keratocoagulation, also known as Radial Thermokeratoplasty, was invented in 1985 by Svyatoslav Fyodorov and is used to correct hyperopia by putting a ring of 8 or 16 small burns surrounding the pupil, and steepen the cornea with a ring of collagen constriction. It can also be used to treat selected types of astigmatism. It is now generally replaced by laser thermal keratoplasty/laser thermokeratoplasty.
 * Laser thermal keratoplasty (LTK) is a non-touch thermal keratoplasty performed with a Holmium laser, while conductive keratoplasty (CK) is thermal keratoplasty performed with a high-frequency electric probe. Thermal keratoplasty can also be used to improve presbyopia or reading vision after age 40.
 * Intrastromal corneal ring segments (Intacs) are approved by FDA for treatment of low degrees of myopia.
 * Phakic intraocular lens (PIOL) implantation inside the eye can also be used to change refractive errors. The newest type of intervention is a type of PIOL called the implantable collamer lens (ICL) which uses a biocompatible flexible lens which can be inserted in the eye via a 3 mm incision. The ICL is used to correct myopia ranging from −0.5 to −18 diopters, and +0.5 cylinder power to +6.0 for the Toric ICL models.
 * Generally refractive surgery can be broadly divided into: corneal surgery, scleral surgery, lens related surgery (including phakic IOL implantation, clear lens extraction, photophacoreduction and photophacomodulation for correction of presbyopia)
 * For presbyopia correction, a corneal inlay consisting of a porous black ring surrounding a small clear aperture was originally developed by D. Miller, H. Grey PhD and a group at Acufocus. The inlay is placed under a LASIK flap or in a stromal pocket.

Using mid-IR and UV lasers for the treatment of presbyopia by scleral tissue ablation was first proposed and patented by J.T. Lin, Ph.D. in US patents #6,258,082 (in 2001) and #6,824,540 (in 2004).

Expectations
Research conducted by the Magill Research Center for Vision Correction, Medical University of South Carolina, showed that the overall patient satisfaction rate after primary LASIK surgery was 95.4%. They further differentiated between myopic LASIK (95.3%) and hyperopic LASIK (96.3%). They concluded that the vast majority (95.4%) of patients were satisfied with their outcome after LASIK surgery.

Ophthalmologists use various approaches to analyze the results of refractive surgery, and alter their techniques to provide better results in the future. Some of these approaches are programmed into the devices ophthalmologists use to measure the refraction of the eye and the shape of the cornea, such as corneal topography.

Risks
While refractive surgery is becoming more affordable and safe, it may not be recommended for everybody. People with certain eye diseases involving the cornea or retina, pregnant women, and patients who have medical conditions such as glaucoma, diabetes, uncontrolled vascular disease, or autoimmune disease are not good candidates for refractive surgery. Keratoconus, a progressive thinning of the cornea, is a common corneal disorder. Keratoconus occurring after refractive surgery is called Corneal Ectasia. It is believed that additional thinning of the cornea via refractive surgery may contribute to advancement of the disease that may lead to the need for a corneal transplant. Therefore, keratoconus is a contraindication to refractive surgery. Corneal topography and pachymetry are used to screen for abnormal corneas. Furthermore, some people's eye shape may not permit effective refractive surgery without removing excessive amounts of corneal tissue. Those considering laser eye surgery should have a full eye examination.

Although the risk of complications is decreasing compared to the early days of refractive surgery, there is still a small chance for serious problems. These include vision problems such as ghosting, halos, starbursts, double-vision, and dry-eye syndrome. With procedures that create a permanent flap in the cornea (such as LASIK), there is also the possibility of accidental traumatic flap displacement years after the surgery, with potentially disastrous results if not given prompt medical attention.

For patients with strabismus, risks of complications such as diplopia and/or increased strabismus angle need to be evaluated carefully. In case both refractive surgery and strabismus surgery are to be performed, it is recommended that the refractive surgery be done first.

Children
Pediatric refractive surgery involves other risks than refractive surgery on adults, yet it may be indicated especially for children whose cognitive or visual development is failing due to refractive error, in particular in cases of bilateral high refractive error, anisometropia, anisometric amblyopia or accommodative esotropia.

Interventions on young children may require general anaesthesia in order to avoid risks due to involuntary movement, and children have a higher risk of rubbing or manipulating their eyes post-surgically. Changes to refractive error occurring during normal age development need to be accounted for, and children have a higher risk of developing postoperative corneal haze. This risk is particularly relevant with relation to myopic children.

One study evaluated the outcome of LASEK interventions on 53 children aged 10 months to 16 years who had anisometropic amblyopia. The choice of LASEK was made as it was felt it would give fewer complications than LASIK and less post-operative pain than PRK. In the intervention, which was performed under general anaesthesia, the refractive error in the weaker eye was corrected to balance the refractive error of the other eye. Strabismus surgery was performed later if required. After one year, over 60% had improved in best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) in the weaker eye. Notably, over 80% showed stereopsis post-operatively whereas less than 40% had showed stereopsis before.

In addition to corneal refractive procedures (LASIK, PRK and LASEK), intraocular refractive procedures (phakic intraocular lenses, refractive lens exchange and clear lens extraction) are also performed on children.

title: Refractive surgery


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USS Chauncey

Three ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Chauncey to honor Commodore Isaac Chauncey.

 * USS Chauncey (DD-3), was a destroyer, which served from 1901 to 1917.
 * USS Chauncey (DD-296), was a Clemson-class destroyer, active 1918 to 1923.
 * USS Chauncey (DD-667), was a Fletcher-class destroyer during World War II.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Chauncey


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Kamehameha IV

Kamehameha IV (Alekanetero ʻIolani Kalanikualiholiho Maka o ʻIouli Kūnuiākea o Kūkāʻilimoku; anglicized as Alexander Liholiho ) (February 9, 1834 – November 30, 1863), reigned as the fourth monarch of Hawaii under the title Ke Aliʻi o ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻAina of the Kingdom of Hawaii from January 11, 1855, to November 30, 1863.

Early life
Alexander was born on February 9, 1834, in Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu. His father was High Chief Mataio Kekūanaōʻa, Royal Governor of Oʻahu. His mother was Princess Elizabeth Kīnaʻu the Kuhina Nui or Prime Minister of the Kingdom. He was the grandson of Kamehameha I, first monarch of all the islands. Alexander had three older brothers, David Kamehameha, Moses Kekūāiwa and Lot Kapuāiwa, and a younger sister, Victoria Kamāmalu.

As a toddler, Alexander was adopted by his uncle, King Kamehameha III who decreed Alexander heir to the throne and raised him as the crown prince.

His name  'Iolani means "hawk of heaven", or "royal hawk".

Education and travel
Alexander Liholiho was educated by Congregationalist missionaries Amos and Juliette Cooke at the Chiefs' Children's School (later known as Royal School) in Honolulu. He was accompanied by 30 attendants (kahu) when he arrived, but they were sent home and for the first time Liholiho was on his own. Alexander Liholiho played the flute and the piano, and enjoyed singing, acting, and cricket.

When he was 14 he left the Royal School and went to study law.

At the age of 15, he went on a government trip to England, the United States, and Panama. Liholiho recorded the events of his trip in a journal.

A diplomatic mission was planned following Admiral de Tromelin's 1849 attack on the fort of Honolulu, the result of French claims stemming back twenty years to the expulsion of Catholic missionaries. Contention surrounded three issues: regulations of Catholic schools, high taxes on French brandy, and the use of French language in transactions with the consul and citizens of France. Although this struggle had gone on for many years, the Hawaiian king finally sent Gerrit P. Judd to try for the second time to negotiate a treaty with France. Envoys Haʻalilio and William Richards had gone on the same mission in 1842 and returned with only a weak joint declaration. It was hoped the treaty would secure the islands against future attacks such as the one it had just suffered at the hands of Admiral de Tromelin. Advisors to Kamehameha III thought it best that the heir apparent, Alexander, and his brother, Lot Kapuāiwa, would benefit from the mission and experience.

With the supervision of their guardian Dr. Judd, Alexander and his brother sailed to San Francisco in September 1849. After their tour of California, they continued on to Panama, Jamaica, New York City, and Washington, D.C. They toured Europe and met with various heads of state, aiming to secure recognition of Hawaii as an independent country. Speaking both French and English, Alexander was well received in European society. He met president of France Louis Napoleon. Sixteen-year-old Alexander Liholiho described a reception given at the Tuileries by:

"General La Hitte piloted us through the immense crowd that was pressing on from all sides, and finally we made our way to the president...Mr. Judd was the first one taken notice of, and both of them made slight bows to each other. Lot and myself then bowed, to which the (Louis Napoleon) returned with a slight bend of the vertebras. he then advanced and said, 'This is your first visit to Paris', to which we replied in the affirmative. He asked us if we liked Paris to which we replied, very much, indeed. He then said, I am very gratified to see you, you having come from so far a country, he then turned towards the doctor and said, I hope our little quarrel will be settled. to which the Doctor replied. 'We put much confidence in the magnanimity and Justice of France.'"

Failing to negotiate a treaty with France during three months in Paris, the princes and Judd returned to England. They met Prince Albert, Lord Palmerston, and numerous other members of British aristocracy. They had an audience with Prince Albert since Queen Victoria was retired from public view, awaiting the birth of her seventh child, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught.

Prince Alexander accounted:

"When we entered, the prince was standing a little aside of the door, and bowed to each of us as we came in. He was a fine man, about as tall as I am, and had a very fine bust, and straight legs. We kept standing, Palmerston on my right, and the doctor on my left, and then Lot. the prince began the conversation by asking if we intended to make a long stay (in London) to which I answered by saying that we expected to leave in about a week and then Mr. Judd made a few remarks on his business."

In May 1850, the royal brothers, boarded a ship in England and sailed to the United States for a more extensive stay before returning. At Washington D.C., they met with President Zachary Taylor and Vice President Millard Fillmore. He experienced American racism firsthand when he was almost removed from his train car after being mistaken for a slave. The prince had preceded Dr. Judd and Prince Lot in occupying the compartment reserved for them for a return trip to New York and someone had arrived at the door of the compartment and questioned Alexander's right to be there. The prince wrote in his journal:

"I found he was the conductor, and took me for somebody's servant just because I had a darker skin than he had. Confounded fool;. the first time that I have ever received such treatment, not in England or France or anywhere else........In England an African can pay his fare and sit alongside Queen Victoria. The Americans talk and think a great deal about their liberty, and strangers often find that too many liberties are taken of their comfort just because his hosts are a free people."

At a dinner party in New York with friends of Judd, the princes were again exposed to a racist incident. Helen Kinau Wilder recalled in her memoirs:

"In Geneva (New York), visiting friends, the butler was very averse to serving 'blacks' as he called them, and revenged himself by putting bibs at their places. Alexander unfolded his, saw the unusual shape, but as he had seen many strange things on his travels concluded that must be something new, so quietly fitted the place cut out for the neck to his waist. Their hostess was very angry when she found what a mean trick her servant had played on them."

These displays of prejudice in the United States and the puritanical views of American missionaries probably influenced his slightly anti-American point of view, along with that of the rest of the royal family. Judd later wrote about him: "educated by the Mission, most of all things dislikes the Mission. Having been compelled to be good when a boy, he is determined not to be good as a man."

Succession
Upon his return Alexander was appointed to the Privy Council and House of Nobles of Kamehameha III in 1852. He had the opportunity to gain administrative experience that he would one day employ as King. During his term he also studied foreign languages and became accustomed to traditional European social norms.

He assumed the duties of Lieutenant General and Commander in Chief of the Forces of the Hawaiian Islands and began working to reorganize the Hawaiian military and to maintain the dilapidated forts and cannons from the days of Kamehameha I. During this period, he appointed many officers to assist him including his brother Lot Kapuāiwa, Francis Funk, John William Elliott Maikai, David Kalākaua, John Owen Dominis and others to assist him. He also worked with Robert Crichton Wyllie, the secretary of war and navy and the minister of foreign affairs, who supported creating a Hawaiian army to protect the islands from California adventurers and filibusters who were rumored to be planning to invade the islands.

Reign
Kamehameha III died on December 15, 1854. On January 11, 1855 Alexander took the oath as King Kamehameha IV, succeeding his uncle when he was only 20 years old. His first act as king was to halt the negotiations his father had begun regarding Hawaii's annexation by the United States.

His cabinet ministers were: Wyllie, as minister of foreign affairs, Keoni Ana (John Young II) served as minister of the interior, Elisha Hunt Allen as minister of finance, and Richard Armstrong as minister of education. William Little Lee served as chief justice, until he was sent on a diplomatic mission and then died in 1857. Allen became chief justice, and David L. Gregg became minister of finance. After Keoni Ana died, his brother Prince Lot Kapuāiwa was minister of the interior.

Only a year after assuming the throne, Alexander took the hand of Emma Rooke, whom he had met in childhood at the Chiefs' Children's School, as his queen. Queen Emma was the granddaughter of John Young, Kamehameha the Great's British royal advisor and companion. She also was Kamehameha's great-grandniece. On the day of their wedding, he forgot their wedding ring. Chief Justice Elisha Hunt Allen quickly slipped his own gold ring to the king and the ceremony continued. The marriage was apparently a happy one, as the king and queen shared interests including opera, literature and theatre.

After marrying in 1856, the royal couple had their only child on May 20, 1858, named Prince Albert Edward Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa a Kamehameha. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was Prince Albert's godmother (by proxy) at his christening in Honolulu. Alexander Liholiho thought he was responsible for the death of Prince Albert because he gave him a cold shower to "cool him off" when Albert wanted something he could not have. His ailing health worsened. At the age of four, the young prince died on August 27, 1862. The cause of the prince's death is unknown: at the time, it was believed to be "brain fever" or meningitis. Later speculation has included appendicitis.

On September 11, 1859, the king shot Henry A. Neilson, his secretary and one of his closest friends, who died two years later. Alexander had heard a rumour that Neilson was having an affair with Queen Emma, and after drinking heavily shot his friend in the chest. Following the shooting, the king apologised to Neilson and provided him with the use of his Waikiki home for the rest of his life. He also considered abdicating his throne, before being convinced not to by Wyllie, his minister of foreign affairs.

Wyllie sponsored a fancy dress ball in 1860. Even the Catholic bishop came, dressed as a bishop. Kamehameha IV's father Kekūanaōʻa came in Scottish highland dress, music was provided by German musicians, and the food by a French chef. Emma came as the earth goddess Cybele. The conservative American missionaries did not approve, especially of the dancing.

In 1860, Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma entertained a group of Japanese diplomats who were stopping in Honolulu on their way to Washington. These men were part of the Japanese Embassy to the United States, Japan's first diplomatic mission to the United States since the 1854 opening of Japan by Commodore Matthew Perry. Their meeting with Kamehameha IV was noted by Vice-Ambassador Muragaki Norimasa (村垣範正) as the first presentation of Japanese ambassadors to a foreign king, although Japan and Hawaii had no formal relation at this point. The Japanese delegation were later surprised to learn on their departure that the king paid for all of their expenses while in Honolulu.

In August 1861 he issued a declaration of neutrality in the American Civil War.

Resisting American influence
At the time of Alexander's assumption to the throne, the American population in the Hawaiian islands continued to grow and exert economic and political pressure in the Kingdom. Sugar producers, in particular, pushed for annexation by the United States in order to have free trade with the United States. Alexander worried that the United States of America would make a move to conquer his nation; an annexation treaty was proposed in Kamehameha III's reign. He strongly felt that annexation would mean the end of the monarchy and the Hawaiian people.

Liholiho instead wanted a reciprocity treaty, involving trade and taxes, between the United States and Hawaii. He was not successful, as sugar plantation owners in the southern United States lobbied heavily against the treaty, worried that competition from Hawaii would harm their industries. In an effort to balance the amount of influence exerted by American interests, Alexander began a campaign to limit Hawaii's dependence on American trade and commerce. He sought deals with the British and other European governments, but his reign did not survive long enough to make them.

In 1862, as part of his atonement for shooting his secretary and friend Neilson, he translated the Book of Common Prayer into the Hawaiian language.

Legacy
Alexander and Queen Emma devoted much of their reign to providing quality healthcare and education for their subjects. They were concerned that foreign ailments and diseases like leprosy and influenza were decimating the native Hawaiian population. In 1855, Alexander addressed his legislature to promote an ambitious public healthcare agenda that included the building of public hospitals and homes for the elderly. The legislature, empowered by the Constitution of 1852 which limited the King's authority, struck down the healthcare plan. Alexander and Queen Emma responded to the legislature's refusal by lobbying local businessmen, merchants and wealthy residents to fund their healthcare agenda. The fundraising was an overwhelming success and the royal couple built The Queen's Medical Center. The fundraising efforts also yielded separate funds for the development of a leprosy treatment facility built on the island of Maui.

In 1856, Kamehameha IV decreed that December 25 would be celebrated as the kingdom's national day of Thanksgiving, accepting the persuasions of the conservative American missionaries who objected to Christmas on the grounds that it was a pagan celebration. Six years later, he would rescind his decree and formally proclaim Christmas as a national holiday of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The first Christmas tree would come into the islands during his brother's reign.

Under his eight-year reign the Kingdom saw the many territory additions. Laysan Island was annexed on May 1, 1857, Lisianski Island was annexed on May 10, 1857, and Palmyra Atoll was annexed on April 15, 1862. Some residents of Sikaiana near the Solomon Islands believe their island was annexed by Kamehameha IV to Hawaii in 1856 (or 1855). Some maintain that through this annexation, Sikaiana has subsequently become part of the United States of America through the 1898 annexation of "Hawaii and its dependencies". The U.S. disagrees.

End of reign
Alexander died of chronic asthma on November 30, 1863, and was succeeded by his brother, who took the name Kamehameha V. At his funeral, eight hundred children and teachers walked to say goodbye. He was buried with his son at the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii on February 3, 1864.

Queen Emma remained active in politics. With the end of the Kamehameha dynasty and King William C. Lunalilo dying without an heir of his own, Queen Emma ran unsuccessfully to become the Kingdom's ruling monarch. She lost to David Kalākaua who would establish a dynasty of his own — the last to rule Hawaii.

The Feast of the Holy Sovereigns is celebrated annually in the Episcopal Church in Hawaii on November 28, honoring Kamehameha IV and Emma. The rest of the Episcopal Church observes this as the feast day of Kamehameha and Emma, King and Queen of Hawaii, but does not use the name "Feast of the Holy Sovereigns".

title: Kamehameha IV


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Francisco Cano

Francisco Cano (fl. 1560s) was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who travelled the north of Mexico to find gold and other precious metals in the 16th century. He served as Lieutenant Major of the Mazapil mines in the 1560s and discovered a lake in Mexico which led to further colonization of the area. He is considered important to the colonization of what is today New Mexico because of his opening up of supply lines in Zacatecas. His work in the mines was a major asset in the expanding metal trade that played a large role in the expansion of the Spanish economy throughout the world.

Early life
Cano probably grew up in Spain, where men of all ages were being recruited to go on voyages to the New World to explore and conquer more territory for the Empire.

Lieutenant Major
He became a Lieutenant Major in the Spanish Army in New Spain, and presided over the gold mines in Mazapil. One of his main objectives was to find precious metal deposits in the northern areas of New Spain.

Exploring New Galicia
By the 1560s, the Spanish had conquered the Aztec Empire and were pushing into what is today northern Mexico. On November 6, 1568, Cano reported discovering a new lake which he christened the "Lago de Nuevo Mexico". He had been serving as lieutenant major of the mines of Mazapil at the time.

Lake of New Mexico
In late 1568, Cano and the 16 soldiers under his command came upon a large lake while looking for gold and silver mines in the area. There were a large number of small Indian villages which the Spanish referred to as rancherías, as well as many Chichimeca Indians, mostly fishermen. He called his discovery the Lake of New Mexico, with the approval of the 16 soldiers under his command. The lake that he had discovered was not actually in what would today be considered the state of New Mexico in the United States. Instead, it most likely was in what is today Zacatecas in Mexico proper. The exploration of the area was the final conquest of the Aztec legacy and led to a strong Spanish footprint in the area.

Land claims
Cano made a number of land claims relating to areas he had found during his time as an explorer. He claimed the right of discovery on the shores of the lagune of Tlahualia, which would lead to later settlement of Parras de la Fuente, a city located in the southern part of the Mexican state of Coahuila.

title: Francisco Cano


text:
Talk:Tears

Comments
The rock band Tool should've been mentioned. At least in the "see also"-part. They claim they chose their name because they wanted their music to be a tool in crying as a way to evolve as a human. They have several referances to lachrymololgy.

what are these other cultures where men are more acce[ted for crying than women

>> They are filled with hormones, and it now believed tears are a method of expelling excess hormones from the body.
 * I have softened this down because as far as I know it is no more than a conjecture suggested by William Frey's research, the leap to a factoid was made by the trivia culture. Femto 14:32, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Removed the disambiguation because it only needs to be used if there is a risk of confusion between topics. It is reasonably clear that a page named tears is about crying, not about "two or more lacerations". See Disambiguation. It would be tear that could be made a disambiguation page, but the verb to tear will never have its own encyclopedia entry, and there's no risk of confusion with laceration apart from the synonymous dictionary definition. Femto 16:30, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Femto  (talk • contribs) 16:30, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tears


text:
Main course

A main course is the featured or primary dish in a meal consisting of several courses. It usually follows the entrée (lit. 'entry') course.

Usage
In the United States and Canada (except Quebec), the main course is traditionally called an "entrée". English-speaking Québécois follow the modern French use of the term entrée to refer to a dish served before the main course.

According to linguist Dan Jurafsky, North American usage ("entrée") comes from the original French meaning of the first of many meat courses.

title: Main course


text:
User talk:216.56.27.130

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title: User talk:216.56.27.130


text:
506th Infantry Regiment (United States)

The 506th Infantry Regiment, originally designated the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment (506th PIR) during World War II, is an airborne light infantry regiment of the United States Army. Currently a parent regiment under the U.S. Army Regimental System, the regiment has two active battalions: the 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment (1-506th IR) is assigned to the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, and the 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment (2-506th IR) is assigned to the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division.

The regiment served with the 101st Airborne Division in World War II. Regimental elements have served with the 101st in Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Regimental elements have also served in peacetime with the 2nd Infantry Division, and deployed to Operation Iraqi Freedom.

The World War II actions of Company E ("Easy Company") of the regiment's 2nd Battalion were portrayed in the 2001 HBO miniseries Band of Brothers.

World War II
The regiment was initially formed during World War II at Camp Toccoa, Georgia, in 1942 where it earned its nickname, "Currahees", after the camp's Currahee Mountain. Paratroopers in training ran from Camp Toccoa up Currahee Mountain and back with the shout "three miles up, three miles down!" (5 km up, 5 km down). The Cherokee word, which translates to "Stand Alone", also became the unit's motto. Members of the unit wear the spade (♠) symbol on the helmet outer and the Screaming Eagle patch (indicating membership in the 101st Airborne Division) on the left sleeve. Its first commanding officer was Colonel Robert F. Sink, and the 506th was sometimes referred to as the "Five-Oh-Sink". On 10 June 1943, the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment officially became part of the 101st Airborne Division, commanded by Major General William Lee, the "father of the U.S. Army Airborne".

Sink read in Reader's Digest about a Japanese Army unit that held the world record for marching. Sink believed his men could do better, so he marched the regiment from Camp Toccoa to Atlanta: 137 mi in 75 hours and 15 minutes, including 33.5 hours of actual marching. Only 12 of the 2nd Battalion's 556 enlisted men failed to complete the march. All 30 officers completed it, including 2nd Battalion commander Major Robert Strayer. Newspapers covered the march; many civilians turned out to cheer the men as they neared Five Points. In Atlanta, they boarded trains for Airborne School in Fort Benning, Georgia.

The 506th would participate in three major battles during the war: D-Day landings, Operation Market Garden, and the Battle of the Bulge. They would have participated in Operation Varsity, but SHAEF decided to use the 17th Airborne Division instead.

D-Day: Operation Overlord
Like almost all paratrooper units, the 506th was widely scattered during the Mission Albany night drop on the morning of D-Day. The most famous action for the 506th on D-Day was the Brécourt Manor Assault led by 1st Lieutenant Richard Winters. Later, they fought in the Battle of Carentan.

The unit had been promised that they would be in battle for just three days, but the 506th did not return to England for 33 days. Of about 2,000 men who jumped into France, 231 were killed in action, 183 were missing or POWs, and 569 were wounded – about 50% casualties for the Normandy campaign.

Operation Market Garden
The airborne component of Operation Market Garden, Operation Market was composed of American units (82nd Airborne Division, the 101st Airborne Division, and the IX Troop Carrier Command), British units (1st Airborne Division) and Polish units (1st Independent Parachute Brigade). The airborne units were dropped near several key bridges along the axis of advance of the ground forces, Operation Garden, with the objective of capturing the bridges intact in order to allow a deep penetration into the German-occupied Netherlands and to capture the key bridge crossing the River Rhine at Arnhem.

The 101st Airborne was assigned five bridges just north of the German defensive lines northwest of Eindhoven. The daylight schedule resulted in well-targeted and controlled drops into the designated zones. The 101st successfully captured four bridges, although one was demolished by its defenders as the airborne units approached. The ground forces of British XXX Corps linked up with elements of the 101st Airborne on the second day of operations but the advance of the ground forces was delayed while engineers replaced the Son bridge with a Bailey bridge. XXX Corps then continued its advance into the 82nd Airborne's area of operations where it was halted just shy of Arnhem due to German counterattacks along the length of the deep penetration.

The 101st Airborne continued to support XXX Corps advance during the remainder of Operation Market Garden with several running battles over the next several days. On 5 October after the operation had ended the 101st then came up to the Nijmegen salient and relieved the British 43rd Wessex Division to defend against the German counter offensive.

Battle of the Bulge
The 506th fought in the Battle of the Bulge from December 1944 to January 1945. In December, the unit, along with the rest of the 101st Airborne Division, was resting and refitting in France after Operation Market Garden. On 16 December, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander on the Western Front, ordered them to move into the Belgian town of Bastogne by 18 December, so that the Germans would not gain access to its important crossroads. The short-notice move left the unit short of food, ammunition, arms, men, and winter clothing. The unit, along with the rest of the 101st Airborne, was encircled immediately. The 506th was sent to the eastern section of the siege. During the siege, there were reports of problems with tying in the gap in between the 501st PIR and the 506th. To stall the Germans so that the defense could be set up, the 1st Battalion of the 506th (along with Team Desobry from the 10th Armored Division) was sent out to fight the Germans in the towns of Noville and Foy. One-third (about 200 men) of the battalion were killed or wounded, but the unit took out 30 enemy tanks and inflicted 500 to 1,000 casualties. The battalion was put into reserve and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions were put on the lines. A supply drop on 22 December helped to some extent. After the U.S. Third Army, under General George Patton, broke the encirclement, the 506th stayed on the line and spearheaded the offensive by liberating Foy and Noville in January. They were then transferred to Haguenau and pulled off the line in late February 1945.

Rest of the war
The regiment was put back on the line on 2 April, and continued for the rest of the war, taking light casualties. It helped encircle the Ruhr Pocket and capture Berchtesgaden, then took up occupational duties in Zell am See, Austria. The 506th then began training to be redeployed to the Pacific theater but the war ended in August 1945.

Post-World War II
The 506th was deactivated in 1945, then was re-activated as the 506th Airborne Infantry Regiment in 1948–1949, again in 1950–1953 and finally, in 1954 to train recruits. Despite the designation "Airborne Infantry" and its continuing assignment in the 101st Airborne Division, none of these troops received airborne training, nor was the "Airborne" tab worn above the Divisional patch.

The colors of the 101st were reactivated as a combat division in 1956 under the Pentomic structure, which eliminated infantry regiments and battalions in favor of five battle groups per division. The colors of Company A, 504AIR were reactivated as HHC, 1st Airborne Battle Group, 506th Infantry, the only active element of the 506th. In February of 1962 The Battlegroup Reinforced deployed to the Philippines and pioneered the use of Hueys in Air Assault. It was the first US ground forces in the Philippines since WWII. Just before the Cuban Missile Crisis, on 1 October 1962, C Company (the Division's alert-ready unit at the time) was deployed to Oxford, Mississippi to assist in restoring order after James Meredith arrived to integrate the University of Mississippi. The entire Battlegroup deployed to Oxford. The Battlegroup left Oxford and redeployed to Millington Naval Air Station where they remained for some time in the event of renewal of rioting.

Vietnam
The Pentomic structure was abandoned in 1964 in favor of brigades and battalions, and the 1st ABG, 506th Infantry was reorganized and redesignated as 1st Battalion (Airborne), 506th Infantry. Additionally, the lineage of Co. B, 506AIR was reactivated as HHC, 2nd Battalion (Airborne), 506th Infantry. Both battalions were part of the 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, which was deployed to Vietnam from late 1967 to 1971 to fight in the Vietnam War. 1-506th was recognized for its role during the Tet Offensive in early 1968 and the Battle of Hamburger Hill in May 1969 together with 2-506th, during the Battle of Fire Support Base Ripcord.

On 1 April 1967 the colors of the former Company C, 506AIR were reactivated at Fort Campbell as HHC, 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry. Assigned to the 1st Brigade, it served in Vietnam and was inactivated at Fort Campbell on 31 July 1972.

The division, including the 506th, was reorganized as Airmobile in 1968, later renamed Air Assault in 1974. During the Vietnam War, five soldiers from the 506th were awarded the Medal of Honor.

Post-Vietnam
When the 101st was reformed in 1973 at Fort Campbell (after its return from Vietnam), the 1st Battalion was the only active unit of the regiment, assigned to the division's 2nd Brigade. The battalion deployed to various training missions across the United States. In 1980, for example, deployments included Fort Drum, New York; Camp Grayling, Michigan; and Fort Polk, Louisiana. In addition, members of Charlie Company were present at President Ronald Reagan's inauguration, 20 January 1981. After redeployment from Fort Polk, "Hardcore Charlie" was detached to the 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry, for Exercise Bright Star 81 in September, to "round out" that unit when it deployed to the Sinai Peninsula for peacekeeping duties. This was the first U.S. military force to be deployed to the Middle East since the end of World War II. The battalion colors were inactivated on 5 June 1984 when all of the infantry battalions of the brigade were reflagged as elements of the 502nd Infantry.

South Korea
The battalion was reactivated on 16 March 1987 as part of the 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division in South Korea, by reflagging the 1st Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment at Camp Greaves. The 1st Battalion continued the mission to man Guard Posts Ouellette and Collier, conduct combat and reconnaissance patrols, man the southern entrance to the Korean Demilitarized Zone, and maintain the platoon that guarded Freedom Bridge. It was organized as an air assault battalion, 1-506 Infantry (Air Assault), and eventually switched brigades in a 2nd Infantry Division reorganization in 1994. The majority of the battalion remained north of the Imjin River at Camp Greaves, while Company A moved south of Freedom Bridge to Camp Giant in Munsan.

Iraq
In 2004, 1-506th was deployed from Korea to Habbaniyah, Iraq in the Iraq War. Instead of returning to Korea, the battalion redeployed to Fort Carson, Colorado on 30 September 2005 to be reflagged to 2-12th Infantry Regiment. On 30 September 2005, it was relieved with less personnel and equipment from assignment to the 2d Infantry Division and assigned to the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division. Concurrently, a "new" 1-506th was created by reflagging an existing battalion within the 101st and assigning it to the division's 4th Brigade Combat Team. Additionally, the colors of 2-506th were reactivated within the 4th BCT, again by reflagging an existing battalion.

The 1st Battalion (1-506) deployed to Ramadi, Al-Anbar Province, Iraq, from November 2005 until November 2006. The headquarters and headquarters company, Companies A, B, C, D, and elements of Company E, 801st BSB, occupied Camp Corregidor, the main FOB Camp Manhattan. Companies HHC, A, B, C, and D were tasked with missions in the Mulaab District of Ramadi. Company A occupied the combat outpost, which shared the facility with the HHC medical aid station, elements of Company E, 801st BSB, and a platoon of sappers from Company C, 876th Engineer Battalion, part of the 2nd Brigade, 28th Division, Pennsylvania National Guard. Company A was tasked with operations ranging from the north of FOB Corregidor to the Euphrates. Company B was posted 7 kilometers to the east of FOB Corregidor at OP Trotter, with a separate mission of protecting the most vulnerable part of the main supply route leading into Ramadi, and the occupation of OP Graveyard, an isolated and abandoned cemetery to the south of the MSR. Time described Ramadi during this time as "The Most Dangerous Place". During this time, forward observers from Task Force 1-506 were the first to call in a Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System strike in combat.

The 2d Battalion (2-506) deployed to FOB Falcon in South Baghdad, cross-attached to the 4th Brigade, 4th Infantry Division from November 2005 to November 2006 under Lieutenant Colonel Gregory Butts. During the Baghdad clearance operations that set the stage for the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 under General David Petraeus, the 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry and the Iraqi Police conducted the first deliberate clear-hold-build operation in the Doura Market as part of Operation Together Forward II under Multi-National Division – Baghdad. Careful examination of their techniques, tactics, and procedures resulted in the emulation of their tactics for similar operations across Baghdad for the next six months, a temporary measure until surge forces could arrive and set up joint security stations.

Afghanistan
In early 2008, the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division (the 1-506th and 2-506th being part of that brigade), deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the War in Afghanistan. 1st Battalion was deployed to the Ghazni, Wardak, and Western Paktika Provinces with the exception of Company A, split in half (1st and 2nd platoons) along with a platoon from Company D to assist a team from 10th Special Forces Group in Kapisa Province in the outpost FOB Kutchsbach for the first six months of the deployment. After completing their mission in establishing a safe area of operation in the Tagab Valley and a large compound to support a French Army battalion, the units rejoined their companies that were scattered in the other provinces. Much of the fighting was with insurgents that attempted to interdict the main highway from Kabul to Kandahar. The three-man "Shamsheer" team, part of the Operations Coordination Center Province, was widely used in collecting intel, locating enemy positions and high-value targets, and finding caches with the Afghan National Police. The 2nd Battalion was deployed primarily in Khost Province, with elements serving in eastern Paktika and Kandahar Provinces. The 2nd Battalion's Company D served in some of the most brutal firefights of the deployment, losing seven soldiers during rotation. The 506th returned to Fort Campbell in March 2009. In 2011 Company C was deployed to FOB Khayr-Khot Castle, where they assisted 5th and 20th Special Forces Group.

In spring 2013, the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, deployed to Afghanistan. With operations in southeastern Afghanistan, Task Force Currahee executed security force assistance operations to develop the capability of Afghan National Security Forces in Khost, Paktia, Paktika, and South Ghazni Provinces ahead of the 2014 Afghan presidential election. Despite operating at a reduced strength of 2,400 soldiers, TF Currahee and the Afghan National Army's 1st Brigade, 203rd Corps conducted training alongside combat operations, killing approximately 600 enemies and expanding ANSF operations into regions last untouched since 2001, including Paktia and Logar Province. 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment, Task Force Red Currahee, deployed to Paktya and Khowst Provinces at the end of April 2013 and assumed responsibility of over two thirds of the entire brigade AOR in May. TF Red Currahee maintained responsibility for approximately 2,809 sqmi of battlespace (adding approximately 560 sqmi of Paktika Province in the final months of the deployment) and three assistance platforms with an 8,500-strong ANSF contingent, and executed over 270 partnered patrols, 180 partnered named operations, and over 70 quick reaction force and time-sensitive target missions, during which TF Red Currahee fired over 2,291 rounds of artillery, conducted 14 close air support strikes, and executed 11 ISR kinetic strikes (a 144 percent increase from the years prior, making it the most kinetic province in Train Advise Assist Command – East). In all, TF Red Currahee's operations killed approximately 150 enemies and five high-value individuals; combined with ANSF and other task forces' operations, over 300 enemies were killed and nearly 250 detained. Without losing focus on lethal targeting, TF Red Currahee focused on the transfer of its three APs to the ANSF, the first being AP Chamkani, followed by AP Zormat and AP Wilderness, retrograding approximately $106 million worth of government property. 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment, Task Force White Currahee, in conjunction with three SFAAT teams, advised and assisted ANSF in Khost Province. Using a warrant-based targeting methodology, TF White Currahee and ANSF elements detained 53 enemy combatants, with most being convicted and imprisoned.

In honor of a fallen ANSF soldier, the "Hero of Khowst" competition was created by CSM Lamont Christian to mirror the U.S. Army's Sergeant Audie Murphy Club. Select NCOs from 3rd BN, 1st BDE, 203rd ANA Corps, were put through physical and mental tests and the top four competitors were recognized and awarded at FOB Salerno in the beginning of October, with the first NCO recipients of the award continuing the event annually until the Fall of Afghanistan. TF White Currahee successfully transferred eastern Khost Province from ANSF security primacy to full ANSF control with the successful transfer of AFCOP Sabari, AFCOP Matun Hill, and FOB Salerno. On the 10th anniversary of the first U.S. task force's arrival at FOB Salerno, TF White Currahee departed to conduct ANSF training across the remainder of Train Advise Assist Command – East.

Post-GWOT
In March 2024, 1st Battalion of the 506th Infantry Regiment was the first U.S. Army unit to be issued the XM7 rifle and XM250 squad automatic weapon.

Current organization

As part of the Army-wide reduction of brigade combat teams, 4th Brigade Combat Team "Currahee", 101st Airborne Division was inactivated on 25 April 2014.

Presently, the 506th Infantry Regiment legacy continues through its infantry battalions which continue to serve within the 101st Airborne Division.

Current assignments of active units of the regiment:
 * 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry [Regiment] "Red Currahee", 1st BCT "Bastogne", 101st Airborne Division
 * 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry [Regiment] "White Currahee", 3rd BCT "Rakkasan", 101st Airborne Division

Lineage
Constituted 1 July 1942 in the Army of the United States as the 506th Parachute Infantry

Activated 20 July 1942 at Camp Toccoa, Georgia

Assigned 10 June 1943 to the 101st Airborne Division

Inactivated 30 November 1945 in France

Redesignated 18 June 1948 as the 506th Airborne Infantry

Allotted 25 June 1948 to the Regular Army

Activated 6 July 1948 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky

Inactivated 1 April 1949 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky

Activated 25 August 1950 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky

Inactivated 1 December 1953 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky

Activated 15 May 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina

Relieved 25 April 1957 from assignment to the 101st Airborne Division; concurrently reorganized and redesignated as the 506th Infantry, a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System

Withdrawn 16 March 1987 from the Combat Arms Regimental System and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System

Constituted 16 September 2004 in the Regular Army as Headquarters, 4th Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky (The 4th BCT, 101st Abn Div was the next highest echelon above 1-506th and 2-506th and has a separate lineage from the 506th Infantry Regiment.)

Redesignated 1 October 2005 as the 506th Infantry Regiment

Re-aligned 16 April 2014 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky under 1st and 3d BCTs, 101st Abn Div.

Decorations
Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered NORMANDY

Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered BASTOGNE

Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered TRANG BANG

Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered DONG AP BIA MOUNTAIN

Valorous Unit Award, Streamer embroidered PHAN THIET

Valorous Unit Award, Streamer embroidered DEFENSE OF SAIGON

Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1968

Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered IRAQ 2005-2006

French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War II, Streamer embroidered NORMANDY

Netherlands Orange Lanyard

Belgian Croix de Guerre 1940 with Palm, Streamer embroidered BASTOGNE; cited in the order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at Bastogne

Belgian Fourragere 1940: Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in France and Belgium

Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered AFGHANISTAN 2008-2009

Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered AFGHANISTAN 2010-2011

Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered AFGHANISTAN 2013

Coat of arms
Shield
 * The blue field is for the Infantry, the 506th's arm of the service. Thunderbolt indicates the regiment's particular threat and technique to attack: striking with speed, power, and surprise from the sky. Six parachutes represent the fact that the 506th was in the sixth parachute regiment activated in the U.S. Army, of which, the unit is proud. The green silhouette represents the Currahee Mountain -- the site of the regiment's activation (Toccoa, Ga.) -- and symbolizes the organization's strength, independence, and ability to stand alone for which paratroops are renowned.

Crest
 * The winged sword-breaker represents airborne troops. The conjoined caltraps stand for the enemy line of defense behind which paratroopers are dropped. They are two in number in reference to the unit's two air assault landings. The fleur-de-lis is for the Normandy invasion and the bugle horn, from the arms of Eindhoven, the Netherlands, refers to the organization's capture of that objective. The six large spikes of the caltraps stand for the unit's six decorations. The demi-roundel represents a section of the hub of a wheel. It stands for Bastogne, Belgium, strategic crossroads of highways and railways. The hub, surmounted by the winged sword-breaker, commemorates the organization's heroic defense of Bastogne in the Battle of the Bulge.

Motto
 * CURRAHEE. American Aboriginal, Cherokee Tongue meaning Stands Alone.

Background
The coat of arms was originally approved for the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment on 20 Apr 1943. It was amended on 23 Aug 1943 to correct the blazon. The coat of arms was redesignated for the 506th Airborne Infantry Regiment on 18 Mar 1949. On 27 Feb 1958 it was redesignated for the 506th Infantry.

Medal of Honor recipients
Of the twenty-two Medals of Honor awarded to soldiers of the 101st Airborne, seven were Currahees and one was a US Navy SEAL attached to the Currahees.
 * Clyde Lee Choate
 * Rank and organization: Staff Sergeant, U.S. Army, Company C, 601st Tank Destroyer Battalion
 * Place and date: Near Bruyeres, France, 25 October 1944

 * Leslie H. Sabo, Jr.
 * Rank and Organization: Specialist Four, U.S. Army, Company B, 3d Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division
 * Place and Date: Se San, Cambodia, 10 May 1970

 * Frank A. Herda
 * Rank and Organization: Specialist Four, U.S. Army, Company A, 1st Battalion (Airborne), 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile)
 * Place and date: Near Dak To, Quang Trang Province, Republic of Vietnam, 29 June 1968

 * Gordon Ray Roberts
 * Rank and Organization: Specialist Fourth Class (rank at time of presentation: Sergeant; highest rank: Colonel), U.S. Army, Company B, 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile)
 * Place and Date: Thua Thien Province, Republic of Vietnam, 11 July 1969

 * Kenneth Michael Kays
 * Rank and Organization: Private First Class (rank at time of action: Private), U.S. Army, Company D, 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division
 * Place and Date: Thua Thien province, Republic of Vietnam, 7 May 1970

 * Andre Lucas
 * Rank and Organization: Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Army, 2d Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division
 * Place and Date: Fire Support Base Ripcord, Republic of Vietnam, 1 to 23 July 1970

 * Peter M. Guenette
 * Rank and Organization: Specialist Four, U.S. Army, Company D, 2d Battalion (Airborne), 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile)
 * Place and date: Quan Tan Uyen Province, Republic of Vietnam, 18 May 1968

 * Michael A. Monsoor
 * Rank and Organization: Petty Officer 2nd Class, US Navy Seal Team 3 attached to 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division
 * Place and date: Ar Ramadi, Iraq, 29 September 2006

World War II

 * Donald Burgett, of Company A, fought from Normandy to the end of the war. He wrote four books on his time in the company.
 * Sergeant Joseph Beyrle, of Company I, fought for US and Russian forces.
 * Colonel (later Lieutenant General) Robert F. Sink, regimental commander for all of World War II.
 * Lieutenant Colonel Robert Lee Wolverton, commanding officer of 3rd battalion.
 * Easy Company, 2nd Battalion
 * First Lieutenant Lynn "Buck" Compton, officer with Company E during World War II and chief prosecutor in the case of Sirhan Sirhan. He has published a book called "Call of Duty: My Life before, during and after the Band of Brothers".
 * Staff Sergeant William "Wild Bill" Guarnere, a colorful noncom of Company E who maintained a website devoted to the history of the 506th until his death in 2014. The website continues to be maintained.
 * First Lieutenant Carwood Lipton, company first sergeant, later promoted to 2nd Lieutenant via battlefield commission.
 * Technical Sergeant Donald Malarkey, non-commissioned officer, served in Easy Company for the entire war. He has published a book called Easy Company Soldier.
 * Captain Lewis Nixon, intelligence officer and close friend of Major Richard Winters.
 * Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Sobel, initial commanding officer.
 * Lieutenant Colonel Ronald Speirs, took command of Company E during their assault on Foy, Belgium in January 1945. Final commanding officer. Went on to become commandant of Spandau Prison.
 * Private First Class David Webster, a rifleman and diarist of Company E whose book Parachute Infantry deals in detail with the 506th.
 * Major Richard Winters started out as a platoon leader in Company E. Was made company commander when the commander's (Lieutenant Meehan) plane was shot down on D-Day. He was made 2nd Battalion Executive Officer during Operation Market Garden in October 1944. Took over as acting battalion commander during the siege of Bastogne. Became permanent 2nd Battalion commander in March 1945, and stayed in that position until the end of the war. He published a memoir of his war service (Beyond Band of Brothers) and has also been the subject of a biography (Biggest Brother).
 * Filthy Thirteen

Vietnam

 * Lieutenant Colonel Andre Lucas, commanded the 2nd Battalion in Vietnam during the battle of FSB Ripcord, killed in action, posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
 * Specialist 4 Gordon Roberts awarded the Medal of Honor.
 * Sgt. Leslie Halasz Sabo, killed during Operation Binh Tay I, posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012.

In popular culture

 * The book Band of Brothers tells the story of Easy Company, and was the basis of a successful TV miniseries, aired on HBO.
 * In the film Saving Private Ryan, the titular Pvt. James Francis Ryan of Iowa states he was assigned to Baker Company (B Co.) 1-506th. Captain Miller also encountered 506th Pathfinders early on in the movie during the search for Pvt. Ryan.
 * In the video game Call of Duty, the player character in the American campaign is depicted as a soldier from the 506th as denoted by the spade insignia on his helmet. A Veterans Day video released for Call of Duty: WWII in 2017 also featured Paul Martinez from the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment.
 * In the video game Company of Heroes, the player controls paratroopers from 506th's Fox Company in some of the main campaign missions.
 * In the film Saints and Soldiers, the characters are from the 506th Infantry Regiment, as depicted by the black Spade on their helmets.
 * In the Tom Clancy novel Without Remorse, Emmet Ryan, father of Jack Ryan, claimed to have jumped on D-Day with "E 2-506th".

title: 506th Infantry Regiment (United States)


text:
FCZ

FCZ may refer to:
 * FC Z, a Swedish television series
 * Fussballclub Zürich, a Swiss football club
 * FCZ: an EEG electrode site according to the 10-20 system

title: FCZ


text:
Cuatro Ciénegas

Cuatro Ciénegas is a city in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. It stands at 26.98333°N, -102.05°W, at an average elevation of 740 m above sea level. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name.

It is located in the state's desert region (Región Desierto). Cuatro Ciénegas is Spanish for "four marshes"; the name was chosen by the first settlers because of the natural springs in the vicinity that create extensive areas of wetland and lakes.

Archeological excavations indicate settlement in the area from approximately 5000 years ago, as well as ritual use of peyote by the inhabitants.

Several failed settlements were founded here prior to the successful establishment of a town by Antonio Cordero y Bustamante on 24 May 1800. The settlement's original name was Nuestra Señora de los Dolores y Cuatro Ciénegas, which was later changed to Villa Venustiano Carranza, before finally settling on its current name.

The city is formally known as Cuatro Ciénegas de Carranza, in honour of its most famous son: Venustiano Carranza, President of Mexico from 1915 to 1920, who was born there in 1859.

The municipality reported 12,154 inhabitants in the year 2000 census.

Cuatro Ciénegas Basin
The Cuatro Ciénegas Basin (CCB) is an official nature reserve in Mexico. The basin has inflowing rivers and streams from the near region, but it is endorheic (no natural outflow); a number of artificial channels leading water out of it have been made for irrigation and in prehistoric times it was part of the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) basin. The nature reserves are small ecosystems with unique fauna and flora that are highly protected by government authorities. Recently, NASA stated that the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin could have strong links to discovering life on Mars, since the adaptability of bioforms in the region was unique in the world. There are some 150 different plants and animals endemic to the valley and its surrounding mountains (e.g., Fouquieria shrevei). Among the many aquatic species in the Reserve are three endemic turtles (Coahuilan box turtle, Cuatro Ciénegas slider and Cuatro Cienegas softshell), eight endemic fish (Minckley's cichlid, Cuatro Cienegas shiner, Tufa darter, Bolson pupfish, Cuatro Cienegas pupfish, Cuatrociengas gambusia, Cuatrocienegas killifish and northern platyfish), and several endemic crustaceans and gastropods, especially hydrobiid freshwater snails.

Live stromatolites inhabit Cuatro Ciénegas' pools. These are colonies of certain types of cyanobacteria, extinct in most of the world, linked to the origin of an oxygen rich atmosphere over 3 billion years ago. A tiny copepod crustacean, Leptocaris stromatolicolus, is known only from the interstices of these stromatolites and bottom sediments in the saline pools.

The pools are an oligotrophic environment with little available phosphate, leading one local bacterial species, Bacillus coahuilensis, to acquire the genes necessary to partially replace its membrane phospholipids with sulfolipids through horizontal gene transfer.

Several environmental conservation leaders are working to protect the valley, including Pronatura Noreste. The organization owns a private reserve, called Pozas Azules, and has several ongoing projects that include the protection of native species, including stromatolites and the eradication of invasive flora and fauna, as well as community development and water efficient agriculture combined with organic techniques.

Tourism
Cuatro Ciénegas has several natural tourist attractions, including white dunes and many wetlands which have unique ecosystems. The most famous natural attractions are:

Poza Azul
Poza Azul is a protected wetland, located 9 km from Cuatrociénegas seat. It is one of the best known wetlands in Cuatrociénegas. There is a photographic exhibition hall of the flora and fauna of the reserve, viewing platforms, and self-guided trails.

La Poza de la Becerra
La Poza de la Becerra (Spanish: The Pool of the Calf) is located 16 km from the county seat, on road number 30 Cuatrociénegas-Torreon. It is part of the biosphere reserve of Cuatrociénegas. The area contains many species endemic to the region.

Poza Churince
Poza Churince is located 18 km from the Cuatrociénegas seat by the federal highway 30 Cuatrociénegas-Torreon. It is an area of spring waters and varying temperatures.

Las Playitas
Las Playitas is a large extension of wetlands located close to the municipal seat.

White dunes
Also known in Spanish as "Las Dunas de Yeso,” white dunes cover a large area of white sand that consists of calcium sulfate. They are considered the largest in the country, and the third largest in the Americas.

Other tourist attractions
Other featured wetlands include "Nogalito" and the ecotouristic park "La Ilusión,” as well as El Entronque and El Mesquite resorts. The Sierra de la Campana, a mountain range with a huge crater called El hundido, is also a tourist attraction. Cuatro Cienégas is also an important wine-making region; the winery Bodegas Ferrino, founded by a 19th-century Italian immigrant near the town of Cuatro Ciénegas, is the second largest producer of wine in Coahuila. The site attracts many visitors who are immersed in the process of making wine and it offers guide tours around the Cuatro Ciénegas valley.

Drying out
Scientists working in the basin and some local residents claim to have observed reduced spring discharge and a decrease in surface water in the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin (CCB) in recent years, although these changes have not been well documented in the scientific literature. Some have blamed the possible drying out on changes in climate and others have ascribed it to the introduction of large scale agriculture in adjacent valleys over the past two decades.

Valeria Souza, an ecology professor and researcher at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, found that based on genetic studies of microbes in the CCB and surrounding valleys, the aquifer extends far beyond the CCB and includes adjacent valleys. She published her results in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in April 2006. Regarding the source of drying out, she wrote: "Similar to situations occurring with increasing frequency in various arid regions of the world, agricultural development and associated water extraction in the region have placed new pressures on the ecological integrity of the unique ecosystems of Cuatro Ciénegas."

Research by hydrogeologist Brad Wolaver at the University of Texas at Austin, now at Flinders University, also found evidence that the aquifer supplying the water that emerges at the surface of the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin extends far beyond the basin and thus is potentially impacted by agricultural water extraction in adjacent valleys.

title: Cuatro Ciénegas


text:
Talk:English football league system

Defending
How do 4 on 1 and headers 91.84.213.22 (talk) 16:22, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Table of Download is cut at right hand side where table of original is quite wide
Hello,

I have downloaded this very useful site as pdf file,but unfortunately the copy on my USB stick is partly cut at the right hand side, where the table of the original is quite wide. It might have to do with the template of the original text. How could I get the complete table on my USB stick?

Saskiander Saskiander (talk) 15:08, 18 September 2023 (UTC)

Gloucestershire local leagues updates
-Level 14: Cheltenham League Division One: Now (Cheltenham Premier Division) https://fulltime.thefa.com/index.html?league=516676&selectedSeason=314809646&selectedDivision=875232964&selectedCompetition=0&selectedFixtureGroupKey=1_137286587

-Cheltenham Division Three & Four Disbanded

Stroud League Divisions Now: Division 1, Division 2, Division 3, Division 4 North, Division 4 South, Division 5 North, Division 5 South, Division 6, https://fulltime.thefa.com/index.html?league=1199765 HayesyChelt (talk) 20:24, 24 December 2023 (UTC)

Info box cup suggestion
For the men's cups parts of the info box there is no mention of the Football league trophy or the FA Vase. Is there a reason for this omission? 2001:56A:6FF1:D608:0:58:D160:9D01 (talk) 17:43, 8 February 2024 (UTC)

Lack of citations
This page is barren of citations, I see it is flagged as of high importance - if anyone is editing this page, please add these, thanks BlondeRat (talk) 15:24, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:English football league system