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Pravastatin

Pravastatin, sold under the brand name Pravachol among others, is a statin medication, used for preventing cardiovascular disease in those at high risk and treating abnormal lipids. It is suggested to be used together with diet changes, exercise, and weight loss. It is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include joint pain, diarrhea, nausea, headaches, and muscle pains. Serious side effects may include rhabdomyolysis, liver problems, and diabetes. Use during pregnancy may harm the fetus. Like all statins, pravastatin works by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme found in liver that plays a role in producing cholesterol.

Pravastatin was patented in 1980 and approved for medical use in 1989. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2021, it was the 39th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 15million prescriptions.

Medical uses
Pravastatin is primarily used for the treatment of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease. It is recommended to be used only after other measures, such as diet, exercise, and weight reduction, have not improved cholesterol levels.

Pravastatin has been shown to have a similar effectiveness at lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol as other statin medications such as fluvastatin but may low level evidence indicates that pravastatin may not be as effective as some other statin medications that are available. The beneficial effect of pravastatin is dependent on the dose and the potential for side effects or unwanted effects from this medication are not clear from clinical trials.

Adverse effects and contraindications
Pravastatin has undergone over 112,000 patient-years of double-blind, randomized trials using the 40 mg, once-daily dose and placebos. These trials indicate pravastatin is well tolerated and displays few noncardiovascular abnormalities in patients. However, side effects may occur. A doctor should be consulted if symptoms such as heartburn or headache are severe and do not go away.

These uncommon side effects should be promptly reported to the prescribing doctor or an emergency medical service:
 * muscle pain, tenderness, or weakness
 * lack of energy
 * fever
 * jaundice, yellowing of the skin or eyes
 * pain in the upper right part of the stomach
 * nausea
 * extreme tiredness
 * unusual bleeding or bruising
 * dark-colored urine
 * loss of appetite
 * flu-like symptoms
 * rash
 * hives
 * itching
 * difficulty breathing or swallowing
 * swelling of the face, throat, tongue, lips, eyes, hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs
 * hoarseness

These symptoms should be reported to the prescribing doctor if they persist or increase in severity:
 * heartburn
 * headache
 * memory loss or forgetfulness
 * confusion

Contraindications, conditions that warrant withholding treatment with pravastatin, include pregnancy and breastfeeding. Taking pravastatin while pregnant could lead to birth defects. While the amount of pravastatin ingested by an infant from breastfeeding is low, patients breastfeeding should not take pravastatin due to potential effects on the infant's lipid metabolism.

Drug interactions
Medications that should not be taken with pravastatin include, but are not limited to:
 * Cimetidine (Tagamet)
 * Colchicine (Colcrys)
 * Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune)
 * Ketoconazole (Nizoral)
 * Additional cholesterol-lowering medications such as: fenofibrate (Tricor), gemfibrozil (Lopid), cholestyramine (Questran, Questran Light, Cholybar), and niacin (nicotinic acid, Niacor, Niaspan);
 * Specific HIV protease inhibitors such as: lopinavir and ritonavir (Kaletra), and ritonavir (Norvir) taken with darunavir (Prezista); and spironolactone (Aldactone).

Pravastatin is cleared by the kidneys, giving it a distinct advantage over other statins when a potential for drug interactions using the hepatic pathway exists.

The combination of fenofibrate with pravastatin is approved for use in the European Union.

Mechanism of action
Pravastatin acts as a lipoprotein-lowering drug through two pathways. In the major pathway, pravastatin inhibits the function of hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase. As a reversible competitive inhibitor, pravastatin sterically hinders the action of HMG-CoA reductase by occupying the active site of the enzyme. Taking place primarily in the liver, this enzyme is responsible for the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate in the rate-limiting step of the biosynthetic pathway for cholesterol. Pravastatin also inhibits the synthesis of very-low-density lipoproteins, which are the precursor to low-density lipoproteins (LDL). These reductions increase the number of cellular LDL receptors, thus LDL uptake increases, removing it from the bloodstream. Overall, the result is a reduction in circulating cholesterol and LDL. A minor reduction in triglycerides and an increase in high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are common.

Pharmacokinetics
Oral bioavailability of pravastatin ranges from 17-34% with peak plasma concentration achieved 1-1.5 hours after administration. Absorption of drug is modestly decreased when taken with food however this does not reduce the clinical lipid-lowering effect.

The 3α-hydroxyisomeric metabolite of pravastatin is also an active HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor with approximately 2.5-10% the potency of the parent compound. Pravastatin has a plasma half-life of 1.8 hours whereas this active metabolite has a half-life up to 77 hours.

History
Initially known as CS-514, pravastatin is a derivative of ML236B (compactin), which was identified in a fungus called Penicillium citrinum in the 1970s by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc. It is being marketed outside Japan by the pharmaceutical company Bristol-Myers Squibb. In 2005, Pravachol was the 22nd-highest selling brand-name drug in the United States, with sales totaling $1.3 billion.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved generic pravastatin for use in the United States on 24 April 2006. Generic pravastatin sodium tablets were manufactured by Biocon Ltd, India and TEVA Pharmaceuticals in Kfar Sava, Israel.

title: Pravastatin


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Conwy Bay

Conwy Bay (Welsh Bae Conwy), also known as Conway Bay, is an inlet of the Irish Sea. It is situated at the southeastern point of the coast of Anglesey at Bangor on the northern central coast of Wales, stretching from Puffin Island to Great Orme in the northeast. Bangor, Penmaenmawr, Beaumaris and Llandudno are notable towns on the bay. With its onshore winds and ebbing tide, the bay is popular with yachtsmen; Conwy Yacht Club hosts an annual regatta in June.

Description
Conwy Bay lies at the southeastern point of the coast of Anglesey at Bangor on the northern central coast of Wales. Puffin Island and the Great Orme mark the limits of the bay. The bay is entered between Trwyn-du and Great Ormes Head in the northeast and extends for approximately 8 mi to the southwest at Bangor, marking the northeast entrance to the Menai Strait.

Bangor, Penmaenmawr and Beaumaris lie on the bay, with Llandudno to the eastern extreme. The River Conwy flows into Conwy Bay in the southeast, while the Menai Strait in the west connects it to Caernarfon Bay.

The coastline at both sides of the bay is low. A considerable area of the bay is characterised by drying sands, the Dutchman Bank and Lavan Sands being the most prominents banks. To the west of the entrance at Great Ormes Head is the Four Fathom Bank, a shallow area with depths of under 6 m, though the dry Conwy Sands dominate much of the estuary area in the eastern part of the bay between Great Ormes Head and Penmaen-bach Point, 3 mi to the south. 1.7 mi to the east of Penmaen-bach Point is the entrance to the Conwy River. The outer estuary of the Conwy in the southeastern corner of Conwy Bay is marked by "extensive sandbanks, mudflats and mussel beds", and is an important habitat for birds such as dunlin, oystercatcher, curlew and redshank.

Water sports
With its strong onshore winds and ebbing tide, the bay is popular with yachtsmen. The bay is home to several yacht and boating clubs. Conwy Yacht Club hosts an annual regatta in June, in preparation for the Conwy River Festival in July.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Conwy Bay


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Deductible

In an insurance policy, the deductible (in British English, the excess) is the amount paid out of pocket by the policy holder before an insurance provider will pay any expenses. In general usage, the term deductible may be used to describe one of several types of clauses that are used by insurance companies as a threshold for policy payments.

Deductibles are typically used to deter the large number of claims that a consumer can be reasonably expected to bear the cost of. By restricting its coverage to events that are significant enough to incur large costs, the insurance firm expects to pay out slightly smaller amounts much less frequently, incurring much higher savings. As a result, insurance premiums are typically cheaper when they involve higher deductibles. For example, health insurance companies offer plans with high premiums and low deductibles, or plans with low premiums and high deductibles. One plan may have a premium of $1,087 a month with a $6,000 deductible, while a competitive plan may have a premium of $877 a month with a $12,700 deductible. The consumer with the $6,000 deductible will have to pay $6,000 in health care costs before the insurance plan pays anything. The consumer with the $12,700 deductible will have to pay $12,700.

Deductibles are normally provided as clauses in an insurance policy that dictate how much of an insurance-covered expense is borne by the policyholder. They are normally quoted as a fixed quantity and are a part of most policies covering losses to the policy holder. The insurer then becomes liable for claimable expenses that exceed this amount (subject to the maximum sum claimable indicated in the contract). Depending on the policy, the deductible may apply per covered incident, or per year. For policies where incidents are not easy to delimit (health insurance, for example), the deductible is typically applied per year.

Several deductibles can be set by the insurer based on the cause of the claim. For example, a single housing insurance policy may contain multiple deductible amounts for loss or damage arising from theft, fire, natural calamities, evacuation, etc.

There are also deductible reimbursement programs that reimburse a deductible in the event of an automobile, home, boat/yacht or health insurance claim.

Difference from franchise
A deductible should not be confused with a franchise. A deductible represents a part of the expense for which the insurer is not liable, but the franchise is a pure threshold beyond which liability for the entire expense is transferred to the insurer. For example, with a franchise of $20,000, a claim of $19,900 is borne entirely by the policyholder, and a claim of $20,100 is borne entirely by the insurer.

Difference from excess
An excess can refer to one of two very different insurance terms.

Excess post-hospitalization is the extra costs borne by the insured over the maximum coverage that the insurance company pays. This terminology is especially common in areas of insurance sensitive to loss (like liability insurance) and is addressed by the insurance market through excess line insurance companies through mechanisms such as excess insurance, gap insurance, and umbrella insurance.

Excess pre-hospitalization is an insurance exception that is often interchangeably but wrongly referred to also as an excess or a deductible. It is "the first amount of the claim which the insured has to bear. If the insured has an excess of $500 and the total repair costs $3,000, then the insured has to pay $500 while the insurer pays the remaining $2,500."

Note that this different meaning does not apply to the British meaning of the term.

Automobile and property insurance
In a typical automobile insurance policy, a deductible applies to claims arising from damage to or loss of the policyholder's own vehicle whether the damage or loss is caused by accidents for which the holder is responsible or by vandalism or theft. Depending on the policy, the deductible may differ by the type of expense incurred that triggers the insurance claim.

Third-party liability coverages including auto liability, general liability, garage keepers, inland marine, professional liability and workers compensation are also written with deductibles. the deductibles on commercial liability policies are known as third-party deductibles or liability deductibles. Because the insured and claimant are not the same entity, insurers cannot pay the claim minus the deductible. That creates a receivable owed from the insured to the insurer. The complexity of identifying these third-party deductible receivables often causes many to be missed by the insurer and millions of dollars to go uncollected.

An insured has the option to accept an appearance allowance that can be used towards their deductible. Appearance allowances help manage repair costs by allowing for the insured to choose not to fix expensive parts that have minor damage and using the money towards their deductible.

Health and travel insurance
Most health insurance policies and some travel insurance policies have deductibles as well. The type of health insurance deductibles can also vary, as individual amounts and family amounts.

The nature of medical treatment makes the insured often face multiple medical expenses spread over several days for a single illness or injury. Therefore, health insurance deductibles often tend to be imposed on a term basis (e.g. annually), rather than a per visit threshold. However, major medical insurance policies may have a per visit excess, which often does not cover the cost of routine visits to a GP unless it is certified to be a part of a continuous treatment, and the bills can be collated in a single claim.

Industrial and commercial insurance
Industrial risks commonly have the deductible expressed as a percentage of the loss, often though not always with a minimum and maximum amount. That is similar to co-insurance in which the company pays a certain percentage of the losses, coupled with minimum and maximum payment thresholds. For example, with a deductible of 10% with a minimum of $1,500 and a maximum of $5,000, a claim of $25,000 would incur a deductible of $2,500 (i.e. 10% of the loss), and the resulting payment would be $22,500. A claim below $15,000 would incur the minimum deductible of $1,500, and a claim above $50,000 would incur the maximum deductible of $5,000.

In commercial insurance, retention may sometimes be used as synonymous with deductible, as both are costs of loss ultimately born by the insured.

title: Deductible


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Southwestern Christian College

Southwestern Christian College (SwCC) is a private historically black Christian college in Terrell, Texas.

History
SwCC was founded in 1948 by the educator and minister G. P. Bowser under the name Southern Bible Institute in Fort Worth, Texas. The initial class consisted of 45 students.

School officials intended to buy property in Fort Worth to erect a permanent school plant. In the summer of 1949, the school had the opportunity to purchase the property of the closed Texas Military College in Terrell. It relocated to the campus that fall, changing the college's name. The first President was E.W. McMillan from 1950 to 1953, having H.L. Barber (1953-1956) and A.V. Isbell (1956-1967) succeeding him. The fourth President was Dr. Jack Evans, Sr becoming the first black and longest-serving president in the school's history. His tenure was from 1967 to 2017 He was one of the longest-serving college presidents in the United States, and the current president is Dr. Ervin D. Seamster, Jr.

The campus includes two locally significant historic buildings:
 * The first dwelling erected in Terrell, an octagonal-shaped house designed to provide better defense against Indian attacks. (Built by the first Terrell in town, it was called a "Round House.") The house was fitted with the first glass windows in Kaufman County, Texas. It is one of only 20 surviving Round Houses in the entire nation.
 * the Administration Building, which originally housed all of the Texas Military College. It burned down in 2008. W.B. Toone built the house. His wife was born to a family who lived in the Terrell Round House.

SwCC became accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in 1973. It is accredited to award Associate and Bachelor-level degrees.

Athletics
SwCC participates in the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) Region 5 as a Division I program.

SwCC participates in volleyball, basketball (men's and women's), and track (men's and women's). The school colors are blue and white and the school mascot is the ram.

title: Southwestern Christian College


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St Catherine's Island

St Catherine's Island (Ynys Catrin) is a small tidal island linked to Tenby in Pembrokeshire, Wales, by Castle beach at low tide. The island, which is known colloquially as St Catherine's Rock, is the location of St Catherine's Fort.

History
The Earl of Pembroke (previously Jasper Tudor, the uncle of Henry VII), owned St Catherine's Island until the reign of Elizabeth I. Later, ownership passed to the Corporation of Tenby, which took possession of a number of crown lands. It is recorded in 1856 that a few sheep inhabited the island. An observer described them as "half wild sure footed creatures that run, turn and look, run again and leap from crag to crag almost with the agility of the Alpine Chamois".

For many centuries a tiny church was the only building on the island. The construction of St Catherine's Fort in 1867 necessitated the demolishing of the remains of the church.

A family trust has owned the island since 1962. The island operated as a zoo from March 1968 to 1979. In April 2014 the island was opened to the public for visits and tours. It was closed from Saturday 27 August 2016 to 12 April 2017 and remains open to the public as of 2019.

In 2016 The Final Problem, the third and last episode of the fourth series of the BBC TV series Sherlock was filmed on the island, with it standing in as a maximum security prison.

Geography
Formed from an outcrop of limestone, on average 25m high, the island is riddled with tidal caves. The island is approximately 200 m long and 60 m wide.

The area below the high waterline at St Catherine's Island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The stretch directly in front of the island is known as the Catterns.

title: St Catherine's Island


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User:Hinkle0

Here I am. I'm currently using this as merely a dropbox for URLs. Delete them on pain of death.

The Legacy of Isaac Asimov http://web15.epnet.com/citation.asp?tb=1&_ug=dbs+aph%2Cf5h%2Crlh%2Chhh+sid+A58F903B%2D9AC8%2D4146%2DA212%2D1B7B3A8A0564%40sessionmgr6+5417&_us=dstb+KS+hs+0+or+Date+ri+KAAACBXB00087781+sl+%2D1+sm+KS+ss+SO+8BD1&_uso=cli%5B0+%2DFT+clv%5B0+%2DY+db%5B3+%2Drlh+db%5B2+%2Dhhh+db%5B1+%2Df5h+db%5B0+%2Daph+hd+0+op%5B0+%2D+st%5B0+%2Dasimov+tg%5B0+%2D+3B49&fn=111&rn=113

Isaac Asimov: http://web15.epnet.com/citation.asp?tb=1&_ug=dbs+aph%2Cf5h%2Crlh%2Chhh+sid+A58F903B%2D9AC8%2D4146%2DA212%2D1B7B3A8A0564%40sessionmgr6+5417&_us=dstb+KS+hs+0+or+Date+ri+KAAACBXB00087781+sl+%2D1+sm+KS+ss+SO+8BD1&_uso=cli%5B0+%2DFT+clv%5B0+%2DY+db%5B3+%2Drlh+db%5B2+%2Dhhh+db%5B1+%2Df5h+db%5B0+%2Daph+hd+0+op%5B0+%2D+st%5B0+%2Dasimov+tg%5B0+%2D+3B49&fn=111&rn=114

Paternalism: http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/paternalism

write something comparing Foundation to 1984 http://www.aapsonline.org/newsletters/july98.htm

I can sue MSN for being homophobic (horoscope)

trey: http://astrology.yahoo.com/astrology/love/capricorn/monthly "Singles can date more than one person without any hurt feelings."

title: User:Hinkle0


text: User talk:209.183.200.166

title: User talk:209.183.200.166


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Segnosaurus

Segnosaurus is a genus of therizinosaurid dinosaur that lived in what is now southeastern Mongolia during the Late Cretaceous, about 102–86 million years ago. Multiple incomplete but well-preserved specimens were discovered in the Gobi Desert in the 1970s, and in 1979 the genus and species Segnosaurus galbinensis were named. The generic name Segnosaurus means "slow lizard" and the specific name galbinensis refers to the Galbin region. The known material of this dinosaur includes the lower jaw, neck and tail vertebrae, the pelvis, shoulder girdle, and limb bones. Parts of the specimens have gone missing or become damaged since they were collected.

Segnosaurus was a large-bodied therizinosaur that is estimated to have been about 6–7 m long and to have weighed about 1.3 MT. It would have been bipedal, with the trunk of its body tilted upwards. The head was small with a beak at the tip of the jaws, and the neck was long and slender. The lower jaw was down-turned at the front and the teeth were distinct in having additional as well as third cutting edges in some of the hindmost teeth. The forelimbs were robust and had three fingers which bore large claws, and the feet had four toes supporting the foot—apart from therizinosaurs, all theropods had three-toed feet. The front of the pelvis was adapted to support the enlarged belly. The pubic bone was turned backwards, a feature that is only seen in birds and the dinosaurs most closely related to them.

The affinities of Segnosaurus were originally obscure and it received its own theropod family, Segnosauridae, and later when related genera were identified, an infraorder, Segnosauria. Alternative classification schemes were proposed until more complete relatives were described in the 1990s, which confirmed them as theropods. The new fossils also showed Segnosauridae was a junior synonym of the earlier named family Therizinosauridae. Segnosaurus and its relatives are thought to have been slow-moving animals that, as indicated by their unusual features, were mainly herbivorous, whereas most other theropod groups were carnivorous. Therizinosaurs probably used their long forelimbs, long necks, and beaks when browsing, and large guts for processing food. Segnosaurus is known from the Bayan Shireh Formation, where it lived alongside the fellow therizinosaurs Erlikosaurus and Enigmosaurus; these related genera were probably niche partitioned.

History of discovery

In 1973, a joint Soviet–Mongolian expedition investigating the Bayan Shireh Formation at the Amtgay locality in the Gobi Desert of southeastern Mongolia discovered fossils that included the partial skeleton of an unknown dinosaur. Through 1974 and 1975, more remains were uncovered at the Amtgay and Khara-Khutul localities; though the skeletons were incomplete, the recovered bones were well-preserved. Other localities listed in the literature include Bayshin-Tsav and Urilbe-Khuduk. These fossils were scientifically described in 1979 by the paleontologist Altangerel Perle, who named the new genus and species Segnosaurus galbiensis. The generic name is derived from the Latin word segnis ("slow") and the Ancient Greek sauros ("lizard"). The specific name refers to the Galbin region of the Gobi Desert.

The holotype specimen from the Amtgay locality is housed at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences under the specimen number IGM 100/80 (Mongolian Institute of Geology, formerly GIN). It includes the (lower jaws), an incomplete, a complete  and  (lower arm bones),  of the fingers, a forelimb  (claw bone), an almost-complete , an incomplete right , six , ten  from the front of the tail, fifteen from the hindmost part of the tail, the first , and fragments of the dorsal ribs. Two more specimens were designated as paratype specimens; specimen IGM 100/82 from the Khara Khutul locality includes a femur, and  (leg bones),  and, five toe phalanges including a foot ungual, rib fragments, complete , the upper portion of an , and the lower portion of a. Specimen IGM 100/83 includes a left (shoulder girdle), a radius, an ulna, forelimb unguals, and a fragment of a  (neck) vertebra. In 1980, Perle and the paleontologist Rinchen Barsbold assigned another specimen to Segnosaurus; IGM 100/81 from the Amtgay locality included a left tibia and fibula.

In 1983, Barsbold listed additional specimens GIN 100/87 and 100/88. In 2010, however, the paleontologist Lindsay E. Zanno suggested these may refer to paratypes IGM 100/82 and IGM 100/83 (which had already been listed in 1979) because the Russian-to-English translation of Barsbold's article has several typographical errors in regard to specimen numbers. Zanno also noted that by the time of her study, there were numerous problems with the Segnosaurus IGM specimens, including damage caused since collection, the disappearance of elements of the holotype, incorrect identification of assigned elements, and more than one individual bearing the same specimen number. Holotype elements Zanno was able to access in 2010 included a severely damaged ilium, a sacrum missing the left sacral ribs with damage so it could not conjoin well with the rest of the ilium, and a pubic bone and ischium missing their upper portions. More bones bearing the specimen number IGM 100/82 were located but were not mentioned in Perle's description, while the whereabouts of some paratype elements was unknown. In a 2016 re-description of the holotype mandible, which had been little studied since 1979, Zanno and colleagues reported the majority of the tooth crowns had been damaged after collection, and most of them were missing their tips. Of the two (halves of the lower jaw), the right is nearly complete; only the hindmost part and the upper front of its mandibular symphysis (the area where the halves of the mandible meet) was missing. The left hemimandible is fragmented and preserves the front part with some displacement of bone due to crushing.

Description
Segnosaurus was a large-bodied therizinosaur that is estimated to have been about 6–7 m long and to have weighed about 1.3 MT. Campione & Evans in 2020, however, calculated its body mass at 4.17 MT. Segnosaurus is incompletely known, but as a therizinosaurid, it would have been bipedal and robustly built with the trunk of the body tilted upwards compared to other theropods. The head would have been small with a (horny beak) at the tip of the jaws, and a long, slender neck. The fingers were not particularly long, but bore large claws. The front of the pelvis was adapted to support the enlarged belly. Therizinosaurs are known to have had simple, primitive feathers as evidenced by fossils of the basal (or "primitive") genera Beipiaosaurus—the second-known non-bird dinosaur preserved with such integuments after Sinosauropteryx—and Jianchangosaurus. Since most therizinosaurs are incompletely known, it is uncertain how many of the anatomical features that are used to distinguish Segnosaurus are widespread among the group; many genera cannot be directly compared because the equivalent bones are not preserved.

Mandible and lower dentition
The mandible of Segnosaurus was low and elongated, yet relatively robust and shapeless compared to that of Erlikosaurus, which was more gracile. The nearly complete right hemimandible (half of the mandible) is 379 mm long from front to back, 55.5 mm at the highest point, and 24.5 mm at the lowest. The, the tooth-bearing bone forming most of the mandible's front part, was complex in shape compared to those of early therizinosaurs. The tooth-bearing part was almost rectangular and sloped downwards in side view with a pronounced arc throughout the upper length of the front end—more extreme than what is known in other therizinosaurs. The front-most part of the dentary was strongly deflected downwards at about a 30-degree angle, a unique feature for this genus. When each hemimandible is articulated with the other, they form a broadly U-shaped, toothless mandibular symphysis that projects upwards towards the front as in Erlikosaurus and Neimongosaurus. The expansive, toothless front region of the dentary spans 25.5 mm on the right hemimandible of the holotype. Proportionally, the toothless part of the dentary is 20% of its tooth row, which is 150.3 mm long. By comparison, the toothless region of Erlikosaurus was about 12% of the tooth row's length and was almost absent in Jianchangosaurus. The height of the dentary diminished towards the hindmost extend of the tooth row, whereafter it sharply fanned out to contact the bone behind it; by contrast, the hind part of the dentary in Erlikosaurus gradually approached the surangular in a gentle arc.

Segnosaurus was distinct among therizinosaurs in that the hindmost part of the dentary was toothless. The teeth were restricted to the front two-thirds of the dentary, which bore 24 (tooth sockets) in a manner similar to Jianchangosaurus but different from Erlikosaurus, in which nearly the entire dentary was toothed, bearing 31 alveoli. The tooth row of Segnosaurus was inset and demarcated by a shelf on the outer side as it was in all derived (or "advanced") therizinosaurs. Unlike in other related taxa, the shelf was restricted to the hind part of the dentary and the raised rim that defined it was not as pronounced. Segnosaurus was unique in having a low ridge rising between the fifth and fourteenth alveoli that divided the dentary into two almost-equally sized front and hind parts. Just above this ridge, the dentary was pierced by a row of as in Jianchangosaurus and Alxasaurus, which became less regular by the region around the mandibular symphysis, where the two halves of the mandible met at the front. This row was instead directly in line with and on the side of the ridge in Erlikosaurus. The that ran along the inner side of the mandible, was placed further down than in Erlikosaurus and had a consistent depth until the thirteenth tooth position, whereafter it widened. The lower jaw elements behind the dentary (the, surangular, , and bones) were distinct from those of other therizinosaurs, being gracile and linear, and contributing to the hind part of the hemimandible being elongate and almost rectangular. The surangular was long and sword-shaped, the angular was wing-like in shape, the prearticular was narrow and curved, and the splenial was thin and triangular in outline. The external mandibular fenestra, an opening at the outer side of the mandible, was larger than that of Erlikosaurus because the surangular was shallow from top to bottom.

Segnosaurus had the fewest teeth in the dentary; 24 in each half determined from the number of sockets, as well as the largest teeth known among therizinosaurs. The dentary teeth were foliodont (leaf-shaped) and bore enlarged, relatively tall, sideways compressed crowns with a slight recurvature at the upper margin of the tips. By comparison, the teeth of Erlikosaurus were smaller, symmetrical, and simpler. The bases of the crowns increased slightly in size hindwards across the tooth row, which reflected a decrease in sideways compression. The front surfaces of the crowns and outward-facing sides were convex while the inward-facing sides were concave. A thickened ridge ran along the longitude of the inward-facing side near the upper half of the crown, which was flanked by weak grooves near the front and back edges of the teeth, reaching almost to the cervix (neck; the transition between the crown and root) of the teeth. In general, the 18 front-most teeth were relatively homodont (of the same type), though the crown of the second tooth was relatively shorter and more tapered; this may also have been true for the first tooth, but it was not preserved. The teeth further back in the row also decreased in relative height hindwards. By comparison, the front four to five dentary teeth of Erlikosaurus were conidont (cone-shaped) with a gradual transition to foliodont teeth.

The dentary teeth were tightly packed, but not pressed closely together, with the tooth crowns approaching each other at mid-length. The (serrations) were large and bulbous, diminishing slightly in size towards the tooth tips, with about 5–6 denticles per 3 mm. The front  (cutting edges) folded upwards to overlap the inner surface of the crowns on the third to eighteenth teeth, but such folds were absent on the second and probably first crowns. The denticles were roughly perpendicular with the tip of the tooth crowns but parallel to the crown height on the front side fold and triangular facet on the hind side. There was a series of accessory denticles (in addition to those on the carinae) that projected from the front surfaces of the carinal folds, which made the front edges of the crowns more broadly roughened. The carinae of the hind edges were also very modified, and bifurcated (split in two) near the cervix, where they formed a flattened triangular, raised facet, which projected from the tooth crown and contacted or approached the folded carinae on the front edge of the crowns behind them (this arrangement is present in teeth 2–12). Such split carinae are known from other tetanuran theropods, where they are considered abnormalities caused by trauma, aberrant tooth replacement, or genetic factors. Though the condition in Segnosaurus was similar, it was uniformly expressed across the teeth of both dentaries, and does not appear to have been an abnormality, but served to roughen the contacts between tooth bases.

The 22nd and 23rd dentary teeth of Segnosaurus were significantly smaller than the rest, almost conidont, and had an additional third carina with denticles on their inner sides. Most of the other hindmost tooth crowns are damaged so their complete features are unknown. The additional carina on tooth 23 appears to have been fully denticulated while the denticles were restricted to the basal side of the crown in tooth 22. Segnosaurus was unique among all known theropods in possessing triple carinae. The 14th alveolus on the right dentary of the holotype is walled over by seemingly pathological (due to injury or disease) bone growth but the teeth in that part of the dentary are damaged so it is not possible to determine how the teeth were affected by this. The teeth in the same area of the left dentary bear triple carinae, though this dentary has no external indications of pathology that could have led to this condition, thus it cannot be concluded nor ruled out that this feature is the result of a pathology. Segnosaurus replaced its teeth in waves running from back to front of the jaws, that encompassed two to three erupting crowns. Some of the fully erupted teeth have wear on the carinae of their hind sides, unlike what is seen in other therizinosaurs. The texture of the appears to have been broadly irregular and the roots of the teeth were almost circular.

Postcranial skeleton

The (shoulder blade) of Segnosaurus was straight and flat at the upper end, and was fused to the coracoid bone, forming the scapulocoracoid. The coracoid was very wide, rectangular in outline and thick at the middle. The massive humerus was 560 mm in length; it had an almost-cylindrical shaft and well-defined condyles for articulation with the radius and ulna of the lower arm. The deltopectoral crest, where the deltoid muscle was attached to the upper front of the humerus, was well-developed. The humerus was distinct from those of other therizinosaurs, being straight rather than sigmoid shaped and not expanded or deflected forwards at its upper end. The humerus was also not expanded at the middle, and the entepicondyle was not well-developed. The lack of these features was more similar to ornithomimosaurs and troodontids than to other therizinosaurs. The radius was also massive—about 60 percent of the humerus—with a straight shaft. The ulna was thicker than the radius and slightly longer—about 70 percent of the humerus—and slightly twisted along its middle axis. The hand was tridactyl (three-fingered). The of the fingers were flattened from top to bottom and the articular depressions on their sides were not very developed. The first phalanx of the first finger was long and thin while the first and second phalanxes of the second finger were short. The ungual of the third finger was somewhat longer than the second phalanx and quite flat from top to bottom, which may have been a unique feature of Segnosaurus. This ungual was sharpy curved, very pointed, and compressed from side to side. The lower tubercle, where the flexor tendons attached to the ungual, was thick and robust.

The pelvis of Segnosaurus was robust and had sharply sideways-directed lobes at the front. The pelvis was shortened at the front, a feature found among bird-like theropods but uncommon among theropods as a whole. The pubic bone was directed backwards and down in parallel with the ischium; this backwards orientation of the pubic bone is known as the condition. This feature is only known from birds and their closest coelurosaurian relatives while other theropod dinosaurs had forwards-directed pubic bones. The pubic bone was elongated, flattened sideways, and had an ellipsoid projection or "boot" at the front of its lower end. The pelvis was distinct from those of other therizinosaurs in that the upper margin of the ilium had a pronounced overhang on the lower side and that the hindwards projecting process of the ischium was extensive, almost 50 percent of the front-to-back length of the. Some features of the pelvis were similar to that of Nothronychus, particularly the ischia, but it is uncertain whether these similarities were due to them having a common ancestor to the exclusion of other derived therizinosaurids, or because they retained basal features since lost in other relatives. The ischium of Segnosaurus was distinct from that of Nothronychus in that it had an almost-rectangular obturator process and an almost-circular obturator foramen. The pelvis was distinct from that of Enigmosaurus by its deep obturator process not fusing with its counterpart at the middle, by its unfused pubic boot, and because the lower part of the pubic shaft was wide from front to back. Segnosaurus was distinct from both Nothronychus and Enigmosaurus in having a deep (a groove where the caudofemoralis brevis muscle of the tail originated) and because its pubic boot lacked a well developed hindwards projection.

The femur was straight with an oval cross-section and was 840 mm in length. The head of the femur was placed on a long "neck" and the lower condyles were well-defined. The tibia was straight, slightly shorter than the femur, and twisted along its axis. The fibula was long and narrowed towards its lower end. The metatarsus of the foot was short, massive, and consisted of five bones—four of which functioned as support elements and terminated in four toes. Functionally tetradactyl (four-toed) feet were unique to derived therizinosaurs; basal therizinosaurs and all other theropods had tridactyl feet in which the first toe was short and did not reach the ground. Externally, the metatarsus was similar to, though proportionally larger than, those of prosauropods, an early evolutionary grade of sauropodomorphs. The epiphyses on the upper metatarsals were hypertrophied (enlarged), a distinctive feature of the genus. The first toe was shorter than the others but was of equal functional importance; the second and third toes were equally long while the fourth was thinnest. The toe ungual was robust, sharply curved, flat at the side, and more pointed than those of prosauropods. The lower tubercle where the flexor ligaments attached was robust. While the lack of strong compression of the toe unguals distinguished Segnosaurus from Erlikosaurus from the same formation, the lack of compression was common among therizinosaurs and therefore not unique to Segnosaurus. The cervical vertebrae were platycoelous and had large, massive centra (bodies) and low neural arches. The sacrum consisted of six, firmly fused vertebrae; the centra of these vertebrae were broadened and relatively elongated, and each centrum was slightly longer than their width. The neural spines here were not very long but surpassed the level of the ilia. The caudal (tail) vertebrae closest to the body were massive, high, and somewhat compressed from side to side. The neural arch was low with a small neural canal. The caudal vertebrae closer to the tip of the tail were platycoelous and had short, massive centra. The transverse processes of the caudal vertebrae and the ribs were robust and elongated.

Classification

Segnosaurus and its relatives, which are now recognized as therizinosaurs ("scythe reptiles"), were long considered an enigmatic group. Their mosaic of features resembling those of different dinosaur groups and the scarcity of their fossils led to controversy over their evolutionary relationships for decades after their initial discovery (the forelimb elements of Therizinosaurus itself were originally identified as belonging to a giant turtle when described in 1954). In 1979, Perle noted the Segnosaurus fossils were possibly representative of a new family of dinosaurs, which he named Segnosauridae, Segnosaurus being the type genus and sole member. He tentatively classified Segnosauridae as theropods, traditionally thought of as the "meat-eating" dinosaurs, pointing to similarities in the mandible and its front teeth. Using features of their humeri and hand claws, he distinguished Segnosauridae from the theropod families Deinocheiridae and Therizinosauridae, which were then only known from the genera Deinocheirus and Therizinosaurus, respectively, mainly represented by large forelimbs found in Mongolia. Later in 1979, Barsbold and Perle found the pelvic features of segnosaurids and dromaeosaurids were so different from those of "true" theropods that they should be separated into three taxa of the same rank, possibly at the level of infraorder within Saurischia, one of the two main divisions of dinosaurs—the other being Ornithischia.

In 1980, Barsbold and Perle named the new theropod infraorder Segnosauria, containing only Segnosauridae. In the same article, they named the new genus Erlikosaurus (known from a well-preserved skull and partial skeleton)—which they tentatively considered a segnosaurid—and reported a partial pelvis of an undetermined segnosaurian, both from the same formation as Segnosaurus. The specimens provided relatively complete data on this group; they were united by their opisthopubic pelvis, slender mandible, and the toothless front of their jaws. Barsbold and Perle stated that, though some of their features resembled those of ornithischians and sauropods, these similarities were superficial and distinct when examined in detail. While they were essentially different from other theropods—perhaps due to diverging from them relatively early—and warranted a new infraorder, they did show similarities with the theropods. Because the Erlikosaurus specimen lacked a pelvis, the authors were unsure that the undetermined segnosaurian could belong to the same genus, in which case they would consider it part of a separate family. Though Erlikosaurus was difficult to compare directly to Segnosaurus because its remains were incomplete, Perle stated in 1981 there was no justification for separating it into another family. In 1982, Perle reported the discovery of hindlimb fragments similar to those of Segnosaurus and assigned them to Therizinosaurus, whose forelimbs had been found in almost the same location. He concluded that the Therizinosauridae, Deinocheiridae, and Segnosauridae, which all had enlarged forelimbs, represented the same taxonomic group. Segnosaurus and Therizinosaurus were particularly similar, leading Perle to suggest they belonged in a family to the exclusion of Deinocheiridae (today, Deinocheirus is recognized as an ornithomimosaur). Barsbold retained Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus in the family Segnosauridae in 1983 and named the new genus Enigmosaurus based on the previously undetermined segnosaurian pelvis. The structure of the pelvis of Erlikosaurus was unknown but Barsbold considered it unlikely the Enigmosaurus pelvis belonged to it because Erlikosaurus and Segnosaurus were so similar in other respects while the pelvis of Enigmosaurus was very different from that of Segnosaurus. Barsbold found that segnosaurids were so peculiar compared to more typical theropods that they were either a very significant deviation in theropod evolution, or were possibly outside the group; he nevertheless retained them within Theropoda. Later in 1983, Barsbold stated the segnosaurian pelvis deviated significantly from the theropod norm and found the configuration of their ilia generally similar to those of sauropods.

Gregory S. Paul concluded in 1984 that segnosaurs had no theropodan features but were derived, late-surviving Cretaceous prosauropods with adaptations similar to those of ornithischians. He found segnosaurs to be similar to prosauropods in the morphology of their snout, mandible, and hindfoot; to ornithischians in their cheek, palate, pubis, and ankle; and to early dinosaurs in other respects. He proposed that ornithischians were descended from prosauropods and that the segnosaurs were an intermediate relic of this transition, which supposedly took place during the Triassic period. In this way, he considered segnosaurians to have a comparable position to herbivorous dinosaurs in general, as monotremes have to mammals. He found it unlikely but did not rule out that segnosaurs could have derived from theropods or that segnosaurs, prosauropods and ornithischians were each independently derived from early dinosaurs. David B. Norman considered Paul's idea contentious and "bound to provoke much argument" in 1985. In 1988, Paul maintained that segnosaurs were late-surviving, ornithischian-like prosauropods and proposed a segnosaurian identity for Therizinosaurus. He also placed segnosauria within Phytodinosauria, a superorder Robert Bakker had created in 1985 to contain all plant-eating dinosaurs. In a 1986 study of the inter-relationships of saurischian dinosaurs, Jacques Gauthier concluded segnosaurs were prosauropods. While he conceded they had similarities with ornithischians and theropods, he proposed these features had evolved independently. In a 1989 conference abstract about sauropodomorph inter-relationships, Paul Sereno also considered segnosaurs to be prosauropods, based on skull features.

In a 1990 review article, Barsbold and Teresa Maryańska found Segnosauria to be a rare and aberrant group of saurischians in an unresolved position among sauropodomorphs and theropods, and probably closer to the former. Accordingly, they listed them as Saurischia sedis mutabilis (position subject to change). They agreed the hindlimbs assigned to Therizinosaurus in 1982 were segnosaurian but did not consider this a sufficient justification for Therizinosaurus itself being a segnosaur because it was only known from forelimbs. In 1993, Dale A. Russell and Dong Zhi-Ming described the new genus Alxasaurus from China; at the time this was the most complete large theropod from its time and place. While Alxasaurus was similar in some respects to prosauropods, the detailed morphology of its limbs linked it to Therizinosaurus and segnosaurs. Because its fore and hindlimbs were preserved, Alxasaurus showed that Perle's assignment of segnosaurian hindlimbs to Therizinosaurus was probably correct. Russell and Dong, therefore, proposed that Segnosauridae was a junior synonym of the older name Therizinosauridae, and that Alxasaurus was the most completely known representative so far. They also named the new higher taxonomic rank Therizinosauroidea to contain Alxasaurus and Therizinosauridae because the new genus was somewhat different from its relatives. They concluded that therizinosaurs were tetanuran theropods, most closely related to ornithomimids, troodontids, and oviraptorids, which they placed together in the group Oviraptorosauria (because they found Maniraptora—the conventional grouping of these—invalid, and the higher-level taxonomy of theropods was in flux).

Perle and his co-authors of a 1994 redescription of Erlikosaurus's skull accepted the synonymy of Segnosauridae with Therizinosauridae and they considered therizinosaurs to have been maniraptoran theropods, the group that also includes modern birds (because they did find Maniraptora to be valid through their analysis). They also discussed the alternative previous hypotheses for therizinosaur affinities and demonstrated faults with them. In 1995, Lev A. Nessov rejected the idea therizinosaurs were theropods; he considered them a distinct group within Saurischia. In 1996, Thomas R. Holtz Jr. found therizinosaurs to group with oviraptorosaurs in a phylogenetic analysis of coelurosaurian theropods. Russell coined the name Therizinosauria for the wider group in 1997. In 1999, Xing Xu and colleagues described Beipiaosaurus, a small, basal therizinosaur from China, which confirmed the group belonged among the coelurosaurian theropods, and that similarities with prosauropods had evolved independently. They published the first cladogram showing the evolutionary relationships of Therizinosauria and demonstrated Beipiaosaurus retained features of more basal theropods and coelurosaurs, which linked them with therizinosaurs. The preservation of feather-like structures in Beipiaosaurus also suggested this feature was more widely distributed among theropods than previously thought.

By the early 21st century, many more therizinosaur taxa had been discovered—including some outside Asia—the first being Nothronychus from North America in 2001. Basal taxa that helped illuminate the early evolution of the group, such as Falcarius in 2005, had also been discovered. Therizinosaurs were no longer considered as rare or aberrant but more diverse in features—including size—than previously thought and their classification as maniraptoran theropods was generally accepted. The placement of Therizinosauria within Maniraptora continued to be unclear; in 2017, Alan H. Turner and colleagues found them to group with oviraptorosaurs while in 2009 Zanno and colleagues found them to be the most basal clade within Maniraptora, bracketed by Ornithomimosauria and Alvarezsauridae. Despite the additional fossil material, the interrelations within the group were also still uncertain by 2010, when Zanno conducted the most detailed phylogenetic analysis of the Therizinosauria to that point. She cited the inaccessibility, damage, potential loss of holotype specimens, scarcity of cranial remains, and fragmentary specimens with few overlapping elements as the most significant obstacles to resolving the evolutionary relationships within the group. The position of Segnosaurus and those of some other Asian therizinosaurids was affected by these factors; Zanno stated more well-preserved specimens and the rediscovery of missing elements would be necessary. Zanno also revised Therizinosauroidea to exclude Falcarius and retained it in the wider clade Therizinosauria, which became the senior synonym of Segnosauria. By 2015, Segnosaurus remained one of the best known therizinosaurs, according to Christophe Hendrickx and colleagues.

The following cladogram shows the relationships within Therizinosauria according to a 2013 study by Hanyong Pu and colleagues, which was based on Zanno's 2010 analysis, with the addition of the basal genus Jianchangosaurus:

The basalmost definite therizinosaur is Falcarius from the Early Cretaceous of North America; it showed the pelvis and dentition were the first features that were modified away from the more general maniraptoran plan in therizinosaurs, probably reflecting their transition from carnivory to herbivory. Therizinosaurs are mainly known from the Cretaceous of Asia and North America, and possible remains from other ages and places are controversial. Since therizinosaurs are known to have lived across the supercontinent Laurasia (which consisted of what are now North America, Europe, and Asia), Zanno suggested two scenarios for their paleobiogeographic distribution in 2010. One possibility is they dispersed through vicariance, whereby therizinosaurs were present in the areas that became Asia and North America before the rifting that divided these areas in the Late Triassic. The other possibility is that basal therizinosaurs dispersed between Asia and North America via Europe after the rifting event but before the middle Barremian; between 132 and 138 million years ago, a temporary land bridge connected North America and Europe, whereafter the landmasses were again isolated from each other, explaining why the basal therizinosaurs Beipiaosaurus from Asia and Falcarius from North America were so morphologically divergent from each other, though coeval. The presence of the derived therizinosaurid Nothronychus, which was most-closely related to Asian genera, in North America during the Turonian stage of the early Late Cretaceous also shows there would have been a faunal interchange between North America and Asia via a late-Early Cretaceous land bridge before that (during the Aptian/Albian), which is also seen in some other dinosaur groups.

Paleobiology

In 1979 and 1981, Barsbold and Perle said the short, massive metatarsus and unusually large, splayed toes indicated that Segnosaurus and its relatives were not adapted for rapid locomotion, perhaps because it was not required by their lifestyle; Barsbold and Perle suggested they could have been amphibious. Barsbold and Maryańska agreed in 1990 the short, broad feet and bulky trunks of the group indicated they were slow-moving animals. Paul depicted a prosauropod-like "segnosaur" skeleton (a composite of various genera) in a quadrupedal posture in 1988. Based on the more complete remains of Alxasaurus and the articulation of its vertebral column, Russell concluded in 1993 that Paul's skeletal restoration was inaccurate and that the arms of therizinosaurs were held clear off the ground. In 1995, Nessov suggested the elongated claws of therizinosaurs were used for defense against predators and that their young could have used their claws for arboreal locomotion along trunks and in tree crowns in a similar manner to sloths.

In a 2012 study of the anatomy of Erlikosaurus and other therizinosaurs that preserve, Stephan Lautenschlager and colleagues found these dinosaurs had well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and balance. The former two senses may have played a role in foraging, predator evasion, and social behavior. These senses were also well-developed in earlier coelurosaurs, so therizinosaurs may have inherited these traits from their carnivorous ancestors and used them for different dietary purposes. In a 2014 study of the function of therizinosaur hand claws, Lautenschlager found that these would not have been used for digging, which would have been done with the foot claws because, since as in other maniraptorans, feathers on the forelimbs would have interfered with this function. He could neither confirm nor disregard that the hand claws could have been used for defense, combat, stabilization by grasping tree trunks during high browsing, sexual display, or gripping mates during copulation. He largely ruled out that they dug burrows, due to their size.

Dinosaur eggs with embryos of the Dendroolithidae type from the Nanchao Formation of China were identified as belonging to therizinosaurs and described by Martin Kundrát and colleagues in 2007. The development of the embryos and the fact that no adults were found in association with the nests indicate that therizinosaur hatchlings were precocial (capable of locomotion from birth) and able to leave their nests to feed alone, independently of their parents. In a 2013 conference abstract, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi and colleagues reported a nesting ground of theropod dinosaurs from the Javkhlant Formation of Mongolia that contained at least 17 egg clutches within an area 22 x. Each clutch contained eight spherical eggs with rough surfaces; the eggs were in contact with each other and arranged in a circular structure with no central opening. The researchers identified the eggs as dendroolithid, and therefore therizinosaurian. Though therizinosaurs are not known from the formation, it overlies the Bayan Shireh Formation where Segnosaurus, Erlikosaurus, and Enigmosaurus were found. The multiple clutches indicate some therizinosaurs were colonial nesters like hadrosaurs, prosauropods, titanosaurs, and birds. The eggs were found in a single stratigraphic layer, suggesting the dinosaurs nested at the site on a single occasion and did not exhibit site fidelity (always returning to the same site to breed).

Diet and feeding

The unusual features of therizinosaurs have led to several interpretations of their feeding behavior; there is no direct evidence of their diet, such as stomach contents and feeding traces. In 1970, Anatoly K. Rozhdestvensky suggested Therizinosaurus—the only member of the group known at the time—used its large claws to open termite mounds or gather fruits from trees. Barsbold and Perle pointed out in 1979 and 1980 that their peculiar features probably reflected a different evolutionary direction than those of more typical theropods, many of which were considered effective, active predators. Their delicate jaws, small, weak teeth and beaks, and short, compact feet indicated they would not have used the armaments of other theropods to procure food but could have preyed on fish. In 1983, Barsbold said the horny beak at the front of the jaws and weakened teeth at the back were common features among herbivorous dinosaurs but not of carnivorous theropods, and speculated this might indicate segnosaurs had shifted to herbivory. In 1984, Paul suggested they were herbivorous due to the similarities of their skulls to those of prosauropod and ornithischian dinosaurs, which include horny beaks, inset rows of teeth, and a shelf at the side of the jaws that indicated the presence of cheeks. Like ornithischians, they could, therefore, crop, manipulate, and chew plants in a sophisticated manner. He also suggested the ilia of the pelvis had sideways-flaring blades at the front similar to those of sauropods to support a large gut that was used to ferment and process food. Norman stated in 1985 the possibility Segnosaurus was an aquatic fish-eater could explain its small, pointed teeth and broad and perhaps webbed feet, but found it mysterious why it should have a horny beak.

In 1993, Russell and Dong considered the small size of the head, blunt beaks and large body weights of therizinosaurs consistent with herbivory. In 1993 and 1997, Russell suggested therizinosaurs would have "sat" on their pelvises and supported their bodies on their hind limbs while using their long arms, claws, and flexible necks to reach leaves from trees and bushes with their beaks. They could have reached even higher while standing and browsing bipedally. This parallels the way some herbivorous mammals use their forelimbs to manipulate vegetation; Russell considered the extinct chalicotheres and ground sloths, as well as gorillas, adaptively convergent with therizinosaurs. Because therizinosaur remains are often found in sediments deposited in river and lake environments, Russell said they may have browsed on riparian bushes and trees. Based on the assemblage of fossils in the Bissekty Formation of Uzbekistan, Nessov suggested in 1995 that therizinosaurs could have been part of its nutrient-rich aquatic ecosystems, though perhaps indirectly, by feeding on wasps which had themselves fed on carrion of aquatic vertebrates. He found this consistent with Rozhdestvensky's suggestion that therizinosaurs may have fed on social insects. In a 2006 conference abstract, Sara Burch presented the inferred range of motion in the arms of the therizinosaur Neimongosaurus and concluded the overall motion at the -humeral joint at the shoulder was roughly circular, and directed sideways and slightly downwards, which diverged from the more oval, backwards-and-downwards-directed ranges of other theropods. This ability to extend their arms considerably forwards may have helped therizinosars reach and grasp for foliage.

In 2009, Zanno and colleagues stated therizinosaurs were the most-widely regarded candidates for herbivory among theropods and listed features associated with this diet. These included small, densely packed, coarse serrations; lanceolate (lance-shaped) teeth with a low replacement rate; a beak at the front of the jaws; an inset tooth row that suggests fleshy cheeks; an elongated neck; a small skull; a very large gut capacity as indicated by the rib circumference at the trunk and the outwards flaring processes of the ilia; and the loss of cursorial (related to running) adaptations in the hind limbs, including development of functionally tetradactyl feet. Zanno and colleagues found the clades at the base of Maniraptora—Ornithomimosauria, Therizinosauria, and Oviraptorosauria—had either direct or morphological evidence for herbivory, which would mean either this diet evolved independently multiple times in coelurosaurian theropods or that the primitive condition of the group was at least facultative herbivory with carnivory only emerging in more derived maniraptorans. Zanno and Peter J. Makovicky found, in 2011, therizinosaurs and some other groups of herbivorous dinosaurs that had beaks and retained teeth were unable to lose their teeth completely because they lacked gastric mills (gizzards) and needed the teeth to process food, and that the high-fiber folivorous (leaf-based) diet of therizinosaurs and other archosaurs may also have precluded the evolution of a complete beak. Lautenschlager found in 2014 the hands of therizinosaurs would have had to be able to extend the range of the animal to a point that could not be reached by the head if they were used for browsing and pulling down vegetation. In genera where both neck and forelimb elements are preserved, however, the necks were equal in length or longer than the forelimbs, so pulling vegetation would only make sense if lower parts of long branches were pulled down to access out-of-reach parts of trees.

Zanno and colleagues stated in 2016 that therizinosaurs were generally accepted to fall within the spectrum of omnivory and herbivory, with a trend towards intensified herbivory. While various anatomical features have been used to support this idea, tooth morphology had been considered relatively simplistic and with few unique specializations compared to other herbivorous dinosaurs. The few modifications include the increased symmetry in the teeth of Erlikosaurus and the enlargement of denticles in Segnosaurus. Zanno and colleagues identified novel, complex features in the dentary teeth of Segnosaurus, including the presence of additional carinae and folded carinae with denticulated front edges, which indicate Segnosaurus had a higher degree of oral food processing than other therizinosaurs. These traits together created a roughened, shredding surface near the base of the tooth crowns that was unique to Segnosaurus and suggest it consumed unique food resources or used highly specialized feeding strategies. Because multiple geological formations show evidence of sympatric therizinosaur species—related species that lived in the same area at the same time—it is possible niche partitioning between them could have played a role in the group's evolutionary success. This is supported by Segnosaurus with its highly specialized dentition being a contemporary of Erlikosaurus with its relatively indistinct teeth, indicating their partitioning in food acquisition, processing, or resources. This conclusion is also strengthened by the large difference in estimated body masses of sympatric therizinosaurs in the Bayan Shireh Formation, which was up to 500%.

In a 2017 study of niche partitioning in therizinosaurs through digital simulations, Lautenschlager found the dentaries of Segnosaurus experienced one of the lowest stress magnitudes during extrinsic feeding scenarios. Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus were aided by the down-turned tip of the lower jaws and symphyseal regions, and probably also by beaks, which are known to mitigate stress and strain. By contrast, the straighter and more elongated dentaries of basal therizinosaurs—typical of their coelurosaurian ancestors—had the highest magnitudes of stress and strain. A downwards-pulling motion of the head while gripping vegetation was more likely than a sideways or upwards movement, though such behavior would be more likely in Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus with their stress-mitigating jaws. Difference in relative bite force between the sympatric Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus show the former would have been able to feed on tougher vegetation while the overall robustness of the latter suggests greater flexibility in its manner of feeding, because stress levels stayed low across feeding simulations. Lautenschlager agreed the two taxa were adapted to different modes of feeding and food selection; Segnosaurus was more adapted to using its dentition to procure or process food while Erlikosaurus mostly used its beak for cropping and its neck musculature while foraging. The difference in size between Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus (the former of which is estimated to have weighed more than the latter) indicates these effects were increased and that there were further mechanisms partitioning their resources, such as different heights. Because other therizinosaur taxa were more divided in time and space, other factors than competition within their group may also have contributed to their variation, such as adaptations to different flora and competition with other kinds of herbivores.

In 2018, Loredana Macaluso and colleagues pointed out that the hips of therizinosaurs were peculiar because the shaft of the pubic bone was rotated backwards whereas the pubic boot was strongly projected forwards. While the larger gut associated with herbivory was able to push the shaft backwards, they suggested the pubic boot was restrained by ventilatory muscles that were crucial for cuirassal ventilation—breathing with extra air sacs—which shows the importance of this mode of respiration. In a 2019 study of jaw musculature, Ali Nabavizadeh concluded therizinosaurs were mainly orthal feeders—moving their jaws up and down—and raised their jaws isognathously whereby the upper and lower teeth of each side occluded (contacted each other) at once. The origin and insertion sites of their jaw muscles also added strength to their jaw closure. David J. Button and Zanno found in 2019 herbivorous dinosaurs mainly followed two distinct modes of feeding, either processing food in the gut—characterized by gracile skulls and low bite forces—or the mouth, characterized by features associated with extensive processing. Segnosaurus, along with diplodocoid and titanosaur sauropods, deinocheirid and ornithomimid ornithomimosaurs, and caenagnathids, was found to be in the former category, whereas Erlikosaurus was more similar to some sauropodomorph and ornithischian taxa, indicating these two therizinosaurs were functionally separated and occupied different niches.

Paleoenvironment
Fossils of Segnosaurus have been recovered from the Bayan Shireh Formation in Mongolia, which has been dated to about 102–86 million years ago during the Cenomanian to Turonian stages of the Late Cretaceous period, based on paleomagnetic analysis and calcite U–Pb measurements. The remains were found in poorly cemented, gray sands containing intraformational conglomerates, gravel, and gray claystone. The Bayan Shireh Formation overlies the Baruunbayan Formation and underlies the Javkhlant Formation. The sediments of these formations were deposited by meandering rivers and lakes on an alluvial plain (flat land consisting of sediments deposited by highland rivers) with a semi-arid climate.

Therizinosaurs were the most abundant theropods in the Bayan Shireh Formation in terms of biodiversity; in addition to Segnosaurus, members of the group included Erlikosaurus, Enigmosaurus, and possibly a fourth type. Other theropods included the tyrannosaur Alectrosaurus, the ornithomimid Garudimimus, and the dromaeosaur Achillobator. Other dinosaurs included the ankylosaur Talarurus, the hadrosaur Gobihadros, the sauropod Erketu, and the ceratopsian Graciliceratops. Dinosaur eggs, some of which were identified as Dendroolithidae, as well as footprints of dinosaurs and crocodyliforms, have also been found. The formation is distinctive for its variety and abundance of turtles, and invertebrates include ostracods and freshwater molluscs. The Bayan Shireh Formation is possibly coeval with the Iren Dabasu Formation of the Inner Mongolia region of China, from where therizinosaur fossils similar to those of Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus have also been found.

title: Segnosaurus


text:
Mainland Finland

Mainland Finland (Manner-Suomi, Fasta Finland) is a term used in statistics and in other contexts to describe the continental parts of Finland, an area which excludes Åland. In legal contexts, the relation between the mainland and Åland is depicted by the word pair the State–Åland (valtakunta–maakunta, riket–landskapet).

The term "mainland Finland" is significant in the context of legal differences between Åland and mainland Finland, and in the context of differences of culture, language, history, and self-perceived nationhood between the Ålanders and the Swedish-speaking Finns in mainland Finland. However, since the population of Åland is only about 0.5% of that of mainland Finland, and below 10% of that of the Swedish-speaking Finns in mainland Finland, there are many instances when this distinction is ignored.

In a geographical sense the term "mainland Finland" can be used to exclude Finland's other sea islands, but when distinguishing between Åland and the rest of Finland, the term encompasses those islands.

title: Mainland Finland


text:
Rova Saxophone Quartet

Rova Saxophone Quartet is an American, San Francisco–based saxophone quartet, formed in October 1977. The name "Rova" is an acronym formed from the last initials of the founding members: Jon Raskin, Larry Ochs, Andrew Voigt, and Bruce Ackley. When Voigt left in 1988, he was replaced by Steve Adams, but the group did not change the acronym.

Music
The quartet's music was inspired by a broad spectrum of influences, such as John Cage, John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman, Anthony Braxton, Steve Lacy, Charles Ives, Edgard Varése, and Olivier Messiaen. Its debut album, Cinema Rovaté, was released by Metalanguage Records in 1978. Metalanguage was founded in 1978 by Henry Kaiser and Ochs. It showcased Rova as well as many independent artists and produced the Rova Arts Festival in 1980. Rova's tour of the Soviet Union in 1983 was filmed and shown on PBS. In 1985, it became a non-profit organization.

Reception
In noting Rova's role in developing the all-saxophone ensemble as "a regular and conceptually wide-ranging unit," The Penguin Guide to Jazz calls its music "a teeming cosmos of saxophone sounds" created by "deliberately eschewing conventional notions about swing [and] prodding at the boundaries of sound and space...."

Jazz: The Rough Guide notes, "Highly inventive, eclectic and willing to experiment, Rova [is] arguably the most exciting of the saxophone quartets to emerge in the format's late 1970s boom."

Discography

 * 1978 Cinema Rovaté (Metalanguage)
 * 1979 The Bay (Ictus)
 * 1979 The Removal of Secrecy (Metalanguage)
 * 1979 Daredevils (Metalanguage)
 * 1980 This, This, This, This (Moers)
 * 1981 As Was (Metalanguage)
 * 1985 Saxophone Diplomacy (Hathut)
 * 1984 Favorite Street (Black Saint)
 * 1986 The Crowd (Hathut)
 * 1987 Beat Kennel (Black Saint)
 * 1989 The Aggregate (Sound Aspects)
 * 1990 Long on Logic (Sound Aspects)
 * 1990 Electric Rags II (New Albion)
 * 1991 This Time We Are Both
 * 1993 From the Bureau of Both (Black Saint)
 * 1995 The Works Vol. 1 (Black Saint)
 * 1996 The Works Vol. 2 (Black Saint)
 * 1996 John Coltrane’s Ascension (Black Saint)
 * 1996 Ptow!! (Victo)
 * 1998 Bingo (Victo)
 * 1998 Morphological Echo (Rastascan)
 * 1999 The Works Vol. 3 (Black Saint)
 * 1999 Freedom in Fragments
 * 2002 Resistance (Victo)
 * 2005 Electric Ascension (Atavistic)
 * 2006 Totally Spinning (Black Saint)
 * 2006 The Mirror World (Metalanguage)
 * 2007 Juke Box Suite (Not Two)
 * 2010 Planetary (Solyd)
 * 2011 The Celestial Septet (New World) with The Nels Cline Singers
 * 2011 The Receiving Surfaces (Metalanguage; limited edition LP as a sax quintet with John Zorn)
 * 2012 A Short History (Jazzwerkstatt)
 * 2016 Rova Channeling Coltrane Electric Ascension
 * 2017 Steve Lacy's Saxophone Special Revisited (Clean Feed)

title: Rova Saxophone Quartet


text:
Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism

This is a bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism. Objectivism is a philosophical system initially developed in the 20th century by Rand.

Works by Rand
The lists below provide information on Rand's major works and collections. Where there are multiple editions, the primary information listed is for the first regular trade edition, with notes following about other editions if they involve revisions or additions to the content. For dramatic works, date of first production is used instead of date of first publication. Individual essays, short stories and other short items are not listed separately, but most are reproduced in the items below.

Novels and short stories

 * Ideal (written in 1934, published in 2015). NAL. ISBN 0451475550.
 * We the Living (1936). New York: Macmillan. Revised edition published by Random House in 1959. 60th anniversary edition published by New American Library in 1996, includes an introduction by Leonard Peikoff, ISBN 0-525-94054-5.
 * Anthem (1938). London: Cassell and Company. Revised edition published by Pamphleteers in 1946. 50th anniversary edition published by Dutton in 1995, includes the revised edition text plus a facsimile of the first edition, ISBN 0-525-94015-4.
 * The Fountainhead (1943). New York: Bobbs-Merrill. 25th anniversary edition published by New American Library in 1971, includes a new introduction by Rand. 50th anniversary edition published by Bobbs-Merrill in 1993, includes an afterword by Leonard Peikoff, ISBN 0-451-17512-3.
 * Atlas Shrugged (1957). New York: Random House. 35th anniversary edition published by Dutton in 1992, includes an introduction by Leonard Peikoff, ISBN 0-525-93418-9.
 * The Early Ayn Rand: A Selection from Her Unpublished Fiction (1984). Leonard Peikoff, ed. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-453-00465-2. Expanded second edition published in 2005, ISBN 0-451-21465-X.

Drama

 * Night of January 16th (1934). Stage play. Produced in Los Angeles as Woman on Trial, then on Broadway as Night of January 16th. Player's book and director's manuscript with edits by Nathaniel Edward Reeid published in 1936. Revised version by Rand published by The World Publishing in 1968.
 * The Unconquered (1940). Stage adaptation of We the Living. Two versions of the script, edited by Robert Mayhew, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2014
 * Love Letters (1945). Screenplay.
 * You Came Along (1945). Screenplay, co-written with Robert Smith.
 * The Fountainhead (1949). Screenplay adaptation of her own novel.
 * Ideal (1989). New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-47555-0. Stage play, published in The Early Ayn Rand prior to first production.
 * Three Plays (2005). Richard E. Ralston, ed. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-21466-8. Anthology of plays, including Night of January 16th, Ideal, and Think Twice.

Non-fiction books

 * For the New Intellectual: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand (1961). New York: Random House.
 * The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism (1964). New York: New American Library. Includes essays by Nathaniel Branden. Introduction was revised in 1970.
 * Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966). New York: New American Library. Includes essays by Nathaniel Branden, Alan Greenspan, and Robert Hessen. Expanded second edition published by New American Library in 1967. Introduction was revised in 1970.
 * The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature (1969). New York: The World Publishing. Expanded second edition published by New American Library in 1975.
 * The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (1971). New York: New American Library. Expanded second edition published by New American Library in 1975. See also Return of the Primitive below.
 * Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1979). New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-61751-7. Includes an essay by Leonard Peikoff. A booklet of Rand's title essay was published by The Objectivist in 1967. Expanded second edition published by Meridian in 1990, edited by Harry Binswanger and Leonard Peikoff, ISBN 0-453-00724-4.
 * Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982). Leonard Peikoff, ed. New York: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52725-1.
 * The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought (1989). Leonard Peikoff, ed. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-453-00634-5. Includes essays by Leonard Peikoff and Peter Schwartz.
 * The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times (1991). Peter Schwartz, ed. Oceanside, California: Second Renaissance Books. ISBN 1-56114-099-6. Expanded second edition published by Second Renaissance Books in 1998, ISBN 1-56114-292-1. A collection of twenty-six newspaper columns that Rand wrote for the Los Angeles Times from 1962 on, as well as six essays (with an additional three in the revised edition).
 * Ayn Rand's Marginalia: Her Critical Comments on the Writings of Over 20 Authors (1995). Robert Mayhew, ed. New Milford, Connecticut: Second Renaissance Books. ISBN 1-56114-250-6
 * Letters of Ayn Rand (1995). Michael S. Berliner, ed. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-93946-6. Includes an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Journals of Ayn Rand (1997). David Harriman, ed. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-94370-6. Includes a foreword by Leonard Peikoff.
 * The Ayn Rand Reader (1999) Gary Hull and Leonard Peikoff, eds. New York: Plume. ISBN 0-452-28040-0.
 * Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (1999). Peter Schwartz, ed. New York: Meridian. ISBN 0-452-01184-1. Revised edition of Rand's earlier book, The New Left, and includes essays by Schwartz.
 * Russian Writings on Hollywood (1999). Michael S. Berliner, ed.; Dina Garmong, trans. Los Angeles: Ayn Rand Institute Press. ISBN 0-9625336-3-7. Reproduces and translates two booklets previously published in Russia without Rand's knowledge.
 * Why Businessmen Need Philosophy (1999). Richard E. Ralston, ed. Los Angeles: Ayn Rand Institute Press. ISBN 0-9625336-2-9. Includes essays by Leonard Peikoff, Harry Binswanger, Edwin A. Locke, John Ridpath, Richard M. Salsman, and Jaana Woiceshyn.
 * The Art of Fiction: A Guide for Writers and Readers (2000). Tore Boeckmann, ed. New York: Plume. ISBN 0-452-28154-7. Includes an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * The Art of Nonfiction: A Guide for Writers and Readers (2001). Robert Mayhew, ed. New York: Plume. ISBN 0-452-28231-4. Includes an introduction by Peter Schwartz.
 * Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q & A (2005). Robert Mayhew, ed. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-21665-2.

Periodicals edited by Ayn Rand

 * The Objectivist Newsletter. Vols. 1–4. 1962–1965. Co-edited with Nathaniel Branden.
 * The Objectivist. Vols. 5–10. 1966–1971. Co-edited with Nathaniel Branden through the April 1968 issue (Volume 7, Issue 4), then solely by Rand. Volume numbering carried over from The Objectivist Newsletter.
 * The Ayn Rand Letter. Vols. 1–4. 1971–1976.

Books about Rand or Objectivism
The books listed below are either entirely about Ayn Rand/Objectivism or contain multiple relevant chapters/essays. The main body of the list consists of books about Objectivist ideas published by academic, commercial or institutional presses. A special subsection lists books about Rand's life and writing. For books with a single relevant chapter or essay, see the list of other works below.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1968 book, originally titled Is Objectivism a Religion?
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1968 book, originally titled Is Objectivism a Religion?
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1968 book, originally titled Is Objectivism a Religion?
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1968 book, originally titled Is Objectivism a Religion?
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * With an introduction by Leonard Peikoff.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1990 book, originally titled Truth and Toleration.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1974 book, originally titled Answer to Ayn Rand.

Biography and literary analysis
The books below focus on Ayn Rand's life or her literary works.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1989 book, originally titled Judgment Day.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1989 book, originally titled Judgment Day.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.
 * Revised and retitled edition of a 1984 book, originally titled The Ayn Rand Companion.

Other works about Rand or Objectivism
The works listed below include articles, pamphlets, individual chapters of books, and materials in non-print media. Articles reproduced in books listed above are not included on this list.
 * Based on a lecture given to the Ayn Rand Society at the American Philosophical Association on December 29, 1995.
 * Hospers, John:
 * "Memories of Ayn Rand"
 * "Conversations With Ayn Rand" Part 1 by John Hospers (Originally published in Liberty, 1987)
 * Part 2 (Originally published in Liberty, 1987)
 * Reprinted in Nozick, Socratic Puzzles, 1997, ISBN 0-674-81653-6.
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Based on a lecture given to the Ayn Rand Society at the American Philosophical Association on December 29, 1995.
 * Hospers, John:
 * "Memories of Ayn Rand"
 * "Conversations With Ayn Rand" Part 1 by John Hospers (Originally published in Liberty, 1987)
 * Part 2 (Originally published in Liberty, 1987)
 * Reprinted in Nozick, Socratic Puzzles, 1997, ISBN 0-674-81653-6.
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Reprinted in Nozick, Socratic Puzzles, 1997, ISBN 0-674-81653-6.
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Reprinted in Nozick, Socratic Puzzles, 1997, ISBN 0-674-81653-6.
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Reprinted in Nozick, Socratic Puzzles, 1997, ISBN 0-674-81653-6.
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)
 * Menaul, Christopher, director (1998) The Passion of Ayn Rand. (Dramatisation of Barbara Branden's The Passion of Ayn Rand; released as a motion picture in 1999; leading players: Helen Mirren, Eric Stoltz, Peter Fonda)

Objectivist periodicals

 * The Intellectual Activist (1979–2010). Peter Schwartz editor (1979–1991), Robert Stubblefield editor (1991–1996), Robert Tracinski editor (1996–2010). Published fortnightly to September 1991; then bi-monthly to November 1998; monthly thereafter.
 * The Objectivist Forum. Vols 1–8, 1980–1987. Harry Binswanger, editor and publisher; Leonard Peikoff, consulting editor. Published bi-monthly.
 * Full Context. Vols 1–13, 1988–2000. Karen (Reedstrom) Minto, editor. Published monthly to June 1998; bi-monthly thereafter.
 * Objectivity. Vols 1–2, 1990–1998. Stephen C. Boydstun, editor. Published occasionally.
 * The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies (1999–2023). R.W. Bradford (until his death in 2005), Stephen D. Cox, Roderick Long (replacing Bradford), and Chris Matthew Sciabarra, editors. Published semi-annually.
 * The Undercurrent (2005– ). Various student editors. Published occasionally.
 * The Objective Standard (2006– ). Craig Biddle, editor and publisher. Published quarterly.


text:
Rova

Rova may refer to:

 * Rova, Domžale, a village in the municipality of Domžale in Slovenia
 * Rova (Madagascar), a type of fortified royal complex found throughout the highlands of Madagascar
 * Rova of Antananarivo, a royal-palace complex in Antananarivo that served as the seat of government in pre-colonial Madagascar
 * ROVA, the Rest of Virginia, a term referring to the portion of Virginia not including Northern Virginia
 * Rova Saxophone Quartet
 * The Rova (הרובע היהודי, HaRova HaYehudi), the Jewish Quarter in Jerusalem
 * Rova (app), a digital audio streaming app associated with MediaWorks Radio in New Zealand
 * Rova (river), Kola Peninsula, Murmansk Oblast, Russia

People with the surname

 * Adele Rova (born 1996), Fijian swimmer
 * Cheyenne Rova (born 1995), Fijian swimmer

title: Rova


text:
Rock rose

Rock rose, rock-rose, and rockrose are common names of various plants, including:

 * Cistaceae
 * Cistus
 * Halimium
 * Helianthemum
 * Pavonia lasiopetala
 * Phemeranthus
 * Portulaca grandiflora

title: Rock rose