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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Tree of Life/Archive 5

Taxonomic Inconsistencies
I've been looking through the mammal pages and noticed a number of inconsistencies. For instance, the Red Panda is listed as both a member of Procyonidae and Ursidae. The hamsters are listed as both a separate family (Cricetidae) at Rodentia, and as a subfamily of Muridae (Cricetinae). How are such issues to be dealt with? Is there any standard reference on which wikipedia's taxonomic schemes are based? john 19:10, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * You've hit the nail on the head, John. Taxonomy is nearly as fluid as it is static; almost as soon as a taxonomy is published, something in the classification is refuted in another work. While this project (ToL) is a great start and an excellent place to ensure consistent policies, there really isn't much standardizing what taxonomies are used. The only exceptions are the "leaf" descendants of this project (Birds, Primates, and Cetaceans). In those projects, we attempt to set policies on taxonomic references, as well as rabble rousing... err... brainstorming new policies for ToL. *grins* If you are particularly moved, I would be very supportive of you starting WikiProject Carnivora or Insectivora. - UtherSRG 22:30, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Sadly, my own taxonomic knowledge is rather limited, or at least dated, largely coming from books I read in my childhood in the late 1980s (Facts on File's Encyclopedia of Mammals from 1986, mostly) so I'm probably not the best person to work on such things. I am always astonished to discover how much the taxonomic scheme has changed in the past 20 years from the scheme elaborated in that book.  BTW, there is a wikiproject on Mammals in general, but it is so far rather barebones.  It seems to me that the thing to do would be to find the most recent general reference work and follow it, noting where appropriate controversies and suggested alternative arrangements.  Trying to assemble all of the most recent articles into a general scheme strikes me as striking at the edges of the "no primary research" rule.  Obviously, this would not be primary research, but the process of ourselves constructing a somewhat idiosyncratic general model of the classification of mammals, for instance, strikes me as unwise, given the extent to which this stuff is disputed.  It could certainly be accused of being POV.  Sticking to a single standard reference work for, say, mammals, would make the most sense. john 00:15, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Binomial name v. Binomial nomenclature|Binomial name v. Binomial nomenclature
Ok, I can't remember wher the conversation was, but I was arguing against the disambiguation and for 'Binomial nomenclature' at one point, but my discussion partner convinced me that 'Binomial name' was a better. However, I don't believe I ever brought that discussion back to here. The argument that swayed me was that 'binomial nomenclature' refers not just to the name, but to the whole system of naming, while the entry in the taxobox is just the name. Thoughts? I see that mav prefers the disambiguation... - UtherSRG 03:15, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Frankly I don't like any of them. "two name name" is redundant, and "two name system of naming" isn't much better when all we are talking about is the full species name. "Binomial" gets used as a noun and according to Merriam-Webster online is officially a noun meaning:

1 : a mathematical expression consisting of two terms connected by a plus sign or minus sign 2 : a biological species name consisting of two terms

 * So why not use "binomial". But if its a choice only among those given, I would take "binomial name", without disambig.  In this case I think redirecting is good enough. WormRunner | Talk 04:08, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I like the implicity of just plain binomial too. Good idea, WR. Also, I admit to a pet dislike of  in the taxoboxes. The less clutter the better. Tannin 05:27, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I have suggested some time ago to stop using the binominal bit at all in favour for the taxon that is applicable to what is discussed. It would be "species" followed by "Genus species". The idea that it is redundant is true. GerardM 05:41, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Maybe the most general term would be systematic name - because in a few cases we might want to use a trinomial (e.g. Canis lupus familiaris). I'm also conscious of the more general reader - plain "binomial" might be confusing or offputting.  Among those suggested, "binomial name" is probably the least bad; the reasons stated against the alternatives are cogent, and the only objection that's been raised against it is that it is a tautology.  But it's only a literal tautology if the reader knows Latin; and really it is not a tautology at all, because it is a compressed form of "name within the binomial system" - i.e. the two "name" particles within the phrase have different implicit references, one to the organism and the other to the system. seglea 19:15, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I could go for "Systematic name" -- WormRunner | Talk 19:54, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I strongly object - systematic name is way too general. Best to link to Binomial name or Trinomial name as appropriate. --mav 07:32, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes systematic name is an inappropiate target, first thing you see there is chemistry. We are probably worrying too much over last detail of the taxoboxes right now. The next software release will support parameterized templates. We will be able to set up a template for a species taxobox, and then tweak that to our hearts content. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 09:49, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Wikibook Tree of Life
In case anyone's interesting, I've decided to expand my Dichotomous Key to be interlinked with a comprehensive Field Guide for all life forms. It's kind of the Wikibook Tree of Life. Tuf-Kat 10:10, Mar 20, 2004 (UTC)

Sharing Taxonomic information in a mulitlingual_environment
is a article on the Village pump about how we may enable better cooperation between the different wikipedias. The subject's talk space is preferably on the meta wikipedia as this is a discussion for all wikipedia's.

To my delight, it has resulted in the implementation of part of the idea on the de: wikipedia. To my disappointment, I have not seen any response from the en: wikipedia. The discussion is ongoing and the input from en:wikipedia is important. So please have a look, have a thought and let us cooperate.

Thanks, GerardM 11:01, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I guess it just was drowned by all the other topics in the pump, which is way overcrowded nowadays. But if I understand your intention correctly the main thing you want is to be able to translate taxoboxes more easily. That one will solve itself quite easily once the Mediawiki software have parameters for the msg's - then we'd have just one taxobox for the species level, one for genus level. Then it's just left to have the parameter easy to translate, e.g. by always using the latin names in them. andy 13:26, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Current status and translatable taxoboxes

 * The taxoboxes can be easily translated already. See Ruffe for an example of a taxobox that was translated from nl: to en: using existing message syntax. The German wikipedia has set the usage of the messages as their standard. They intend to change their taxoboxes using a robot and it will be possible to translate their taxoboxes to any other wikipedia that adheres to the mechanism.

 * The intention is to get cooperation going between the different wikipedia's. Standard exist in many wikipedias and when we can agree to the same standards a lot of donkeywork will become unnecessary. This means that we have to talk not on a local level but on a multi-wikipedia level. It means that we come to a standard for all wikipedia's not just on translatable taxoboxes.

 * My intention is to translate a lot of stuff to for instance the Farsi wikipedia. This means that it is important to talk and look at each others standards. GerardM 17:17, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Question
If there was a bot that would change all occurrences of "regnum:" into "Kingdom: or ( " would that be OK ? GerardM 20:42, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't think so. Why would you want to do that? --mav 23:48, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * There is this discussion on translating taxoboxes and taxolists to other languages and, changing taxoboxes would tanslate all taxoboxes in one go when the appropriate messages exist on the receiving end. PS I can do this when en:wikipedia is on the receiving end. ruffe..

 * The reason for this question is to take this possibility serious. And discuss this matter on meta. GerardM 11:19, 6 Apr 2004 (UTC)

taxobox images
I editted the WikiProject_Tree_of_Life section, adding starting guidelines for image sizes: 200px for the main image. I think at the very least, that's as small as it should be made. Significantly larger and the taxobox encroaches on the article text. 250px is probably fine if needed. Also, it's not needed to upload both a 750px and a 250px image now that we have the auto-resizing: - UtherSRG 14:31, 6 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Taxomsgs
GerardM has gone ahead and modified the taxobox for Ruffe to use his new TaxoMsgs. While I like the concept, I dislike the implementation. Perhaps I'm being EN-wiki-centric, but I'd much prefer the msg names to be in English. I tried making as a redirect, but unfortunately msgs don't like redirects. - UtherSRG 05:04, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

GerardM has reverted Uther's edit, and I have just dereverted it. There's a bit of history on this - read Talk:Ruffe for information. seglea 06:16, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Well, you sort of did, because I had partially accepted his changes (accepted the but corrected his mistakes. Just about all the taxoarticles I've editted today I've done with the  .  I think it's handy. If we ever decide (again!) to change how that portion of the taxobox is going to look, all we have to do is change the message text instead of editting each taxobox. I still would prefer the message names to be in English, though, or for MediaWiki to correctly utilize redirected messages. - UtherSRG 20:11, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * The reason for using the latin is, that it is the lingua franca of taxonomy. For a very long time a taxonomic description was not valid unless it was written in Latin. So when you know your taxonomy, you know at least these few words. By copying an msg:taxobox to Swedish or french or dutch or german it will provide you with the locally accepted text. When a new taxonomic revision is accepted, the messages will enable a bot to updat all occurences of a taxon in ALL wikipedias. This means that wikipedia will be able to follow accepted science and easily have all wikipedia up to the latest standard. An other benefit is that sceleton articles can be produced for many species genuses etc using the latin name and when people want to localise, they can rename the article. This in turn allows bots to update the backlinks.

 * NB the discussion on all of this is still best held at meta:wikipedia. GerardM 22:26, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * That may be true in non-English speaking countries, but all the biology courses I've taken I've never seen 'regnum', 'classis' or 'ordo'. None of the books or field guides I have use them. English speakers interested in taxonomy use 'kingdom', 'class' and 'order'. - UtherSRG

 * The "Tokyo code" for botanical nomenclature Article 3 names both English and the Latin names for the taxa. Orignially in taxonomy all descriptions needed to be in Latin to be valid. GerardM 15:51, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Makes sense... and it also explains that I'm as right as you are. In a primarily English-language country like mine (US), where elementary school kids are taught about the Animal Kingdom and the Plant Kingdom, it makes sense to keep that going into middle- and high-school and then into college, refining the information presented but still keeping with KPCOFGS in English. It's acceptable and understandable. In other countries where English is not the primary language, they can choose to use English or Latin, which ever is locally preferred. So again I say - I prefer the tags to be in English. This is EN Wiki and English is one of the acceptable languages for the names of the taxonomic ranks. However, it's not as strong a preference as my preference for All Caps common names; I've already started using the regnum messages in the articles I'm editting. - UtherSRG 17:57, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

It might be best to wait for the 1.3 version of MediaWiki to be released before making these changes to the taxoboxes, as Template parameters will be enabled then. See the example on the TestWikipedia. Angela. 01:48, Apr 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * Would it? I'm not sure that 1.3's changes have any bearing on this. We're talking about using v.  . 1.3 would just change that to  v.  . Take a look at the taxobox on Ruffe. We're not talking about the value of "Animal" or "Chordata". We're talking about the name of the tag that creates the text "Kingdom" in the table.- UtherSRG 12:48, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Currently, most taxoboxes don't include either or , so what I mean is wait until the taxoboxes can have these as parameters, rather than adding them as separate messsages, and then having to change them all to match the format used by parameters in 1.3. It just saves having to do everything twice. For example,  and the rest of them should be changed to  etc. You only need one "Taxobox" message, rather than separate ones for regnum, phylum etc. Angela. 16:56, Apr 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah. Still, will the 1.3 changes allow regnum and kingdom to be interchangeable, so that would work equally well as  ? - UtherSRG 19:29, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * As far as I know, the Template:Infobox page would need to include either kingdom or regnum. You couldn't have both in the same message, though you could have an alternative infobox at a different page title that used the alternative version. Angela. 20:23, Apr 22, 2004 (UTC)

 * That sounds like a qualified yes to me. *grins* - UtherSRG 21:27, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

One big thing with messages is that it makes life easy for a bot. When a " Genus Oldname" is to be replace with " Genus Newname", it will be possible to replace all occurrences in all wikipedias when new taxonomic science mandates the change. This is correct as science is science (taxonomy) wherever you live. When taxoboxes are uniform in all languages which they are not at present, it will be possible to do things with changes (and even inclusions) of higher taxons.

When the use of messages is used from now on as a standard, the presentation in all wikipedia's will remain the same. But all the side benefits are there for everyone to use. My point is, when we start using the messages from now on, we will benefit. 1.3 is simply running a bot one time to change to a new format. But PLEASE let us decide on one standard and not use English only because _this_ is the English language, we are _all_ contributing to wikipedia and there are more than 500.000 articles. GerardM 19:57, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes Gerard, I understand your point. However, by sheer American numbers and by our own historical arrogance, more folks interested in taxonomy know "Kingdom" than know "Regnum"; and I'd guess that those that do know "Regnum" also know "Kingdom". Then add on the "unwashed masses" who will be editting without much understanding of the science... they've just found a critter that needs to be added and found the data on it online or whereever - again the sheer numbers of English speakers using Wikipedia plus those who prefer "Kingdom" to "Regnum" significantly out number those who don't speak English and who prefer "Regnum" to "Kingdom". - UtherSRG 20:15, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Image query

 * This section was originally on User talk:UtherSRG.

What's the thinking behind re-reformatting images like Nicobar Pigeon and Green Imperial Pigeon? The newest version is, IMHO, unnecessarily small, lacks the thumb icon, so it's not obvious that there is a larger image, even though it can be accessed by clicking on the image, and has lost the caption; if the caption is giving more than just a name, shouldn't it be on view, and not just floating? I'm not convinced that this is a step forward. Jim

 * Size is relative. *grins* I prefer the smaller size, but that's a matter of taste. I seriously dislike the ugly gray border and mag-icon of the thumb nail. I'd rather that space be used for the actual image instead. For Nicobar, "Adult" didn't seem to add anything significant. I left the caption for the Green Imperial. - UtherSRG 18:40, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Hi, from Adrian. I took the two photos so I've an interest in the appearance of the two pages.
 * First, I can see no objection to the grey background to the text. I think it looks smart and is part of the new standard syntax. I don?t see why the grey should not be used in taxoboxes if it?s cropping up everywhere else.
 * Secondly, I like the mag glass because the reader instantly knows a big pic is available. A reader might miss out on the large pic if clicking on the pic did not occur to them. I can?t see how a tiny icon is offensive!
 * Thirdly, why are the pics reduced to 200 pixels wide when 250px has always been used in the past for taxoboxes, apparently without any problems for low res screens.
 * So, my suggestion is that the pics are reverted to grey text area with mag glass, at 250px wide (but I'm not brave enough to do it!).
 * In this particular case I don?t think text is needed, the type of bird is stated directly above the pic and the Adult statement seems pointless.
 * Adrian Pingstone 20:07, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Like I said, size is relative. I use very high res, so it makes little difference to me... but with the grey there isn't much difference in the size. The grey is just wasted space in the taxobox. - UtherSRG 20:54, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah... I remember my other reason.... the width of the text in the taxoboxes is often closer to 200px or less. - UtherSRG 21:00, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

I looked at the Tree of life talk page, and the decision to reduce the standard picture size down from 250px doesn't seem to be in there, although you suggest that 200-250 px is acceptable. On the project page, the recommendation seems to be yours. I can live without the mag glass, but my view is that the images should go back to the previous 250, and, if we are not using the mag, to revert to the media: format to make it clear that there is a larger image.

However, I don't want to start an edit war just yet, so I want to consult Bigiron and Tannin as the other main pic contributors. Jim

I have a very clear and firm view on this matter, gentlemen. Unfortunately, I don't agree with any of you!

Image quality is paramount. Anything that produces a fuzzed-up, greyed-out image is not to be considered. In short, there is only one acceptable way to do a taxobox illustration, and that is to use a thumbnail image that has been appropriately cropped and resized by a human being.

This is the only way to get decent picture quality - and when you only have 200 or 250 pixels to work with, picture quality is everything.

Now to minor matters. The best size, in my view, is usually around 225 or 230 pixels. But this should never be made into an absolute number. It depends on the size and resolution of the source image (not all images can be shrunk to an arbitary number without noticable quality degredation), on the nature of the image (different angles of different creatures under different lighting conditions all produce different imperatives from the point of view of sizing - for example, a large creature with a small feature of particular interest such as the head may be best sized up towards the top of the 200 - 250px range, or a tall, narrow shot of an upright bird may be best kept down towards 200px to avoid either cutting its tail off or having the taxobox scroll off the screen), and on the text in the taxobox (some boxes are wide even before the image is added because the creature has a very long name, so it makes sense here to use a wider than average image size).

I don't like the grey border, but that is just a matter of personal taste. I particularly dislike the way that the new image code breaks page layouts on my preffered browser (Opera 6.06). Again though, that is a matter for the developers to decide. It seems that they have exercised their right to implement code that breaks some browsers. That's OK. In turn, some users (such as me) exercise our right to avoid using the new, broken code in favour of the old code that, although it does not offer the nice feature of clicking directly on the image to see a larger version, at least does not break browsers and actually produces the only thing that really matters - image quality. Tannin 08:17, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Compare:

Speaks for itself, doesn't it.

PS: has anybody noticed that I no longer provide full-size images to the 'pedia? This is no accident. By only providing thumbnails, I ensure that they don't get buggerised about and turned into grey fuz the way that the left and centre images above are.) Tannin 08:32, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Examine the right-most thumbnail above. Once again, you can only get decent image quality by combining the two most important bits of photographic equipment ever invented - the human eye and a human brain. Tannin

 * A couple of points, Tony .....(Uther, sorry to hijack your Talk Page but best to keep the discussion in one place)
 * Yes, of course 250px taxobox width is not set in concrete, I just simplified what I wrote to avoid wittering on for ever but I do see it as a "most-likely" value.

 * We are in complete disagreement on how important the thumb quality is. I regard the big pic as being the important one because if someone wants to download the pic for a project or homework (or just see a big image) then surely they'll open the big one. I regard the thumb as a "taster" of what the big one will look like. It's a shame you're not giving your audience a chance to see a decently big pic but it's clear you have very strong feelings on this question.

 * Thanks for the work you did on uploading the examples. I didn't know that the machine-generated thumbs were indifferent until I saw your hand-generated ones. Nevertheless, that doesn't change my mind that the machine quality is good enough. In any case what's the choice - mass reversion of the thousands of pics in the new code? Too late!

 * I didn't know that the new code breaks Opera (I have IE6), in which case it should never have been issued. The problem now is that the code is everywhere. Someone, for example, has systematically changed about 600 of my pics to the new code. Luckily I like the grey, I like the mag glass, and the thumbnail quality is OK for me.
 * Best Wishes, Adrian
 * Adrian Pingstone 10:16, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah -- poor Uther. Sorry about your talk page, mate. :)

 * I don't mind my talk being hi-jacked, although I'll probably move the text to a ToL talk page later today so that folks who have it on their watchlist can be notified, and for later archival. - UtherSRG 12:11, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I restrict my main attention to the bird and mammal pictures, Adrian. I do do through those from time to time and systematically revert the fuzzy thumbnails. (Not many lately, I'm tied up in other projects just now.) I appreciate your point of view, nevertheless I maintain my own view that first impressions count for a great deal and that, in consequence, sharp thumbnails are the #1 priority. Tannin

 * PS. Adrian wrote: I didn't know that the machine-generated thumbs were indifferent until I saw your hand-generated ones. That, my friend, is because you just blew your disposable income for the year on a new camera, when what you really needed was a nice new 22 inch monitor. :) Tannin

It seems I'm between Tony and Adrian on this. Image quality is important to me, but I think that quality is best found in the large image. I prefer using the large image auto-resized to eliminate a line in the taxobox for the additional link needed for a seperate image. I dislike the gray border and mag-icon; they take up space in the taxobox (I don't mind them outside the box). So I suppose my main concern then is minimizing the taxobox footprint while maintaining a reasonable level of quality information (text and image) in the box. finer quality data is outside of the box - the text of the main article, and the larger image. - UtherSRG 12:11, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

My opinion on this is closest to Tannin's. I prefer 250px wide images and I don't like the automatically-resized images. However, if someone is going to use them, there should be some kind of clear indication that this is not the original image size. In general, if there are some new rules to be imposed on the use of images in taxoboxes, then I think that the discussion belongs with the respective projects and shouldn't be some unilateral decision. That seems to run contrary to the Wikipedia concept. Big Iron 10:30 23 Apr 2004 (UTC)

range maps
Lupo has recently added some range maps to articles, which I then moved into the taxobox. He didn't like it there, and said there wasn't concensus here. I note that a few weeks ago I updated the Project page to indicate that range maps go into the taxobox. Do we need this discussed again? - UtherSRG 16:38, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I thought we had agreed that we should put them in the taxobox - and I support doing so if the discussion is reopened
 * Well, I looked over the archives and found some who thought that they should go in, and some statements that they might just as well remain with the text. I think it depends. Especially in smaller articles, maps unduly blow up the taxobox, to the point where the taxobox becomes too large for the article and is perceived (at least by me) as visual clutter distracting from the article. Putting maps into the box also incurs the risk of the map getting separated from a possible accompagnying (sp?) paragraph. I usually also describe the range textually (helps e.g. blind people with a Braille reader), and I don't want a sighted reader to have to scroll or change his focus of attention to see the map that goes with the text. I have nothing agaist other people putting range maps into taxoboxes, but I object to moving maps from the text into the taxobox indiscriminately without considering the general layout of an article or the effects such a move may have on the ease of reading. Lupo 10:46, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

updates, archive
We're at 44k for the talk. I think it's time to evaluate the discussions here, see what conclussions have been reached, update the Project page, and archive some of the discussions. Since I seem to be the center of controversy these days, I'll leave it to someone more neutral to deal with, unless there's concensus that I can go ahead and do it. *grins* - UtherSRG 16:38, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)


text:
Segni

Segni (Signia, Σιγνία) is an Italian town and comune located in Lazio. The city is situated on a hilltop in the Lepini Mountains and overlooks the valley of the Sacco River.

Early history
According to ancient Roman sources, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh king of Rome, established a Roman colony at the town, then known as Signia. Additional colonists were reportedly sent there in 495 BC.

The ancient architectural remains include a circuit of fortification walls built using polygonal masonry. The walls incorporated a system of gates, including the Porta Saracena which is covered by a large monolithic architrave. Atop the ancient acropolis of Segni sits the podium of the temple of Juno Moneta, which now supports a Medieval church of Saint Peter (tenth century).

Later history
Segni was a refuge for various popes with Pope Eugene III erecting a palace in the middle of the twelfth century. The Counts of Marsi, hereditary enemies of the Orsini, obtained Segni in the twelfth century. The family called de' Conti produced several popes (Innocent III, Gregory IX and Alexander IV) and many cardinals. In 1558 Segni was sacked by the forces of the Duke of Alba in the war against Pope Paul IV; immense booty was captured, as the inhabitants of the other towns of the Campagna had fled thither.

Main sights

 * Co-cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, built in the early 17th century on the former temple of St. Bruno. The bell tower is from the 11th century. The interior has a painting by Francesco Cozza.
 * The polygonal masonry fortification walls of the settlement are well preserved.
 * The former site of the Juno Moneta temple marks the ancient Segni acropolis. The acropolis has recently been the site of renewed fieldwork undertaken by the British School at Rome.

Twin towns

 * 🇬🇷 Mykines, Greece

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Segni


text:
Booth Gardner

William Booth Gardner (August 21, 1936 – March 15, 2013) was an American politician who served as the 19th governor of Washington from 1985 to 1993. He also served as the ambassador of the GATT. A member of the Democratic Party, Gardner previously served as a member of the Washington State Senate, representing the 26th district from 1971 to 1973 and served as the Pierce County Executive prior to his tenure as governor. His service was notable for advancing standards-based education and environmental protection.

Early life, education, and early career
Gardner was born in Tacoma, Washington on August 21, 1936. He attended Clover Park Junior High in Lakewood, Washington before graduating from Lakeside School in Seattle. His parents divorced when he was very young; through his mother's remarriage he became an heir to the Weyerhaeuser fortune. His mother and his sister, his only sibling, died in a plane crash when he was 14.

Gardner was a graduate of the University of Washington and Harvard Business School. His stepfather was Norton Clapp, one of the original owners of the Seattle Space Needle. Booth co-owned the Tacoma Tides, who played for one year in the American Soccer League in 1976. He was also a part-time soccer coach for various teams, including the Tacoma Cozars. In 1978, he co-owned the Colorado Caribous franchise in the NASL with Jim Guercio.

Governor of Washington (1985–1993)
In the 1984 Democratic primary for Washington state governor, Gardner defeated Jim McDermott. In the general election he unseated Republican incumbent, John Spellman. Gardner was easily elected to a second term in 1988 over state representative Bob Williams. He chose not to seek a third term.

While governor, Gardner signed into law a health care program that provided state medical insurance for the working poor. He helped develop land-use and growth-management policies that made Washington an early environmental leader, steered hundreds of millions of dollars of increased spending toward state universities, increased standardized testing in public education, and improved legal protections for gay people.

On March 21, 1992, Gardner signed a measure that outlawed selling "obscene" music to minors in the state of Washington. The law went into effect on June 11 of that year, and make record store retailers and their employees criminally liable for selling such music to anyone under the age of 18.

Later years
In 1994, one year after his retirement, Gardner was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. In 2006, he announced his support for assisted suicide. In 2008, he filed and successfully spearheaded the campaign for Initiative 1000, Washington's Death With Dignity Act, which was closely modeled on Oregon's assisted dying law; he remained involved in implementing the Act. Gardner said that he supported going even further than the current Washington and Oregon laws, to eventually permit lethal prescriptions for people whose suffering is unbearable without the requirement that the sufferer have a terminal condition.

In 2009, The Last Campaign of Governor Booth Gardner, a short documentary film, was produced by Just Media and HBO, chronicling the Initiative 1000 campaign. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Short.

Gardner supported eliminating Washington's WASL test, a standardized test that was required to graduate high school. It was replaced in 2009 by the MSP for grades three through eight and the HSPE for grades eight through twelve.

Gardner died at his home in Tacoma, Washington on March 15, 2013, of Parkinson's disease. He was 76.

title: Booth Gardner


text:
Silverton

Silverton may refer to:

Australia

 * Silverton, New South Wales
 * Silverton Wind Farm
 * Silverton, South Australia

Canada

 * Silverton, British Columbia

South Africa

 * Silverton, Pretoria

United Kingdom

 * Silverton, Devon, England
 * Silverton Park
 * Silverton railway station
 * Silverton, Dumbarton, Scotland

United States

 * Silverton, Colorado
 * Silverton Mountain
 * Silverton Railroad
 * Silverton, Idaho
 * Silverton Township, Pennington County, Minnesota
 * Silverton, Missouri
 * Silverton, New Jersey
 * Silverton, Oregon
 * Silverton Hospital
 * Silverton reservoir
 * Silverton, Ohio
 * Silverton, Texas
 * Silverton, Washington
 * Silverton, West Virginia

Other uses

 * Silverton (surname)
 * Silverton Las Vegas, a hotel and casino in Enterprise, Nevada, U.S.
 * Southern & Silverton Rail, formerly Silverton Rail, an Australian rail operator
 * Silverton Tramway
 * Silverton Partners, an American venture capital firm
 * Silverton, Oklahoma, a fictional place in Into the Storm (2014 film)
 * HMS Silverton (L115), a Royal Navy ship
 * Silverton High School (disambiguation)

title: Silverton


text:
Silver Bay

Silver Bay may refer to:

 * Silver Bay (Alaska), a fjord located south of the town of Sitka
 * Silver Bay, Minnesota, a small city
 * Silver Bay (New Jersey), a bay located near Silverton, New Jersey
 * Silver Bay, New York, a hamlet
 * Silver Bay, Ontario, a community within Port Colborne

title: Silver Bay


text:
Kid Gleason

William Jethro "Kid" Gleason (October 26, 1866 – January 2, 1933) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) player and manager. Gleason managed the Chicago White Sox from 1919 through 1923. His first season as a big league manager was notable for his team's appearance in the World Series and the ensuing Black Sox Scandal, although Gleason was not involved in the scandal. After leaving the White Sox, Gleason was on the coaching staff for the Philadelphia Athletics, until 1931.

Early life
Gleason was born in Camden, New Jersey. He acquired the nickname "Kid" early in life, not only because of his short stature (growing to only 5-foot-7, 155 pounds) but also because of his quite energetic, youthful nature. His family later moved to the Pocono Mountains in northeast Pennsylvania, where his father worked as a coal miner.

Playing career

Gleason played two seasons in the minor leagues of northern Pennsylvania. In 1886, with Williamsport of the Pennsylvania State League, he batted .355 and stole 20 bases in 36 games. Gleason debuted as a pitcher with the Philadelphia Quakers on April 20, 1888, after impressing Hall of Fame manager Harry Wright during an exhibition game against the University of Pennsylvania. After enjoying mixed success as a pitcher in 1888 and 1889, Gleason opted to stay in the National League under Wright instead of moving to the Players' League set up in 1890. His 1890 season was his best as a pitcher, with 38 wins, a 2.63 ERA, 54 complete games, and 506 innings pitched.

Gleason was sold to the St. Louis Browns for the 1892 season, where he played for two and a half seasons as a starting pitcher and reserve fielder. With St. Louis, he made appearances as an outfielder, first baseman, second baseman, and shortstop, and hit .235.

After being shipped to the Baltimore Orioles partway through the 1894 season, Gleason pitched effectively in 20 starts and also batted .349, helping Baltimore to a National League pennant. Early in the 1895 season, manager Ned Hanlon moved Gleason to second base full time, where he hit well but fielded poorly that year. Baltimore repeated as NL champions, but Hanlon traded Gleason in the offseason to the New York Giants.

In New York, Gleason played five seasons as the regular second baseman, hitting a respectable .271 overall but with little power. He served as a team captain, and in that capacity may have invented the intentional walk during an 1897 game by advising his pitcher to walk a strong hitter to face a weaker one. Gleason also earned local fame on April 26, 1900, for helping New York firemen rescue residents from an apartment fire.

Gleason joined the new American League in 1901, starting at second base for two years with the Detroit Tigers. From 1903 to 1908, he returned to Philadelphia and hit .250 over the period; he led the NL in sacrifice bunts in 1904 and 1905.

Gleason compiled a .261 career batting average. He retired as a player after the 1908 season at the age of 42, having appeared as a player in just two games for the Phillies that year. However, four years later, Gleason would make an unlikely return to the big leagues as a player, with his two at-bats in one game at second base for the White Sox in 1912 making Gleason one of only 29 MLB players to have played in four different decades.

Gleason led the league in putouts and assists three times each, though he also led in errors four times. He ranks seventh all-time in errors as a second baseman.

Coaching career
Gleason began his coaching career in 1908 with the Phillies as a player-coach. The Phillies unconditionally released Gleason on April 12, 1910, prior to Opening Day. At the time, the Philadelphia Inquirer called Gleason "one of the most popular players who ever donned a Philadelphia uniform."

After sitting out 1910 and 1911, Gleason joined the Chicago White Sox in 1912, where he made one appearance as a player and became a coach under manager Jimmy Callahan.

Gleason became manager of the White Sox on December 31, 1918, following the dismissal of Pants Rowland. In his first season, the team won the pennant but lost the World Series to the Cincinnati Reds, resulting in allegations the White Sox had been paid by gamblers to "throw" the Series. The ensuing scandal resulted in lifetime bans from baseball for eight White Sox players. Gleason, however, was not involved in the gambling, and some sources noted he was among those who alerted White Sox owner Charles Comiskey of the fix. Although he felt betrayed and disappointed by his 1919 team, he continued to manage the White Sox through the 1923 season.

After leaving in 1923, Gleason went on in 1926 to coach under manager Connie Mack with the Philadelphia Athletics until retiring after the 1931 season. As a coach, Gleason won two World Series championships with the Athletics, in 1929 and 1930.

Death
Gleason died due to a heart ailment in 1933, at the age of 66, in Philadelphia. His funeral was attended by an estimated 5,000 people, including baseball luminaries such as Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis and Hall of Fame manager John McGraw. He is buried in Philadelphia's Northwood Cemetery.

In popular culture
Gleason has been referenced in pop culture in several books, and is a prominent supporting character in Ring Lardner's 1916 novel You Know Me Al. He is portrayed by actor John Mahoney in the 1988 film Eight Men Out, based on Eliot Asinof's book of the same name.

title: Kid Gleason


text:
Simonton

Simonton may refer to:

 * Places
 * Simonton, Texas, city in Fort Bend County, Texas
 * Simonton Lake, Indiana, census-designated place in Elkhart County, Indiana
 * People
 * Ann Simonton, writer, lecturer and feminist media activist
 * Ashbel Green Simonton, (1833-1867), American Presbyterian minister and missionary
 * Charles Bryson Simonton (1838-1911), member of the United States House of Representatives
 * Charles Henry Simonton (1829–1904), United States federal judge
 * John Simonton (1943–2005), circuit designer
 * Ken Simonton (1979-), American football running back
 * O. Carl Simonton, American psycho-oncologist
 * Richard Simonton (1915-1979), also known as Doug Malloy, Hollywood businessman and entrepreneur
 * William Simonton (1788-1846), Whig member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
 * Companies
 * Simonton Windows & Doors, window and door manufacturer

title: Simonton


text:
John Spellman

John Dennis Spellman (December 29, 1926 – January 16, 2018) was an American politician who served as the 18th governor of Washington U.S. state from 1981 to 1985 and as the first King County Executive from 1969 to 1981.

Spellman was elected governor in 1980 amid large gains for Republicans across the country. During his tenure, the Washington State economy suffered due to the early 1980s recession. Spellman was defeated in his reelection campaign in 1984. To date, he is the last Republican to have held the office of Governor of Washington U.S. state.

Early life and education
Spellman was born in Seattle, to insurance executive Sterling Bartholomew "Bart" Spellman and teacher Lela A. Spellman (née Cushman). He was of Irish and English Puritan descent. His paternal grandfather, Dennis Bartholomew "Denny" Spellman, arrived in Seattle from Ireland just before the great fire of 1889 and became a successful plumbing contractor. His maternal grandmother was one of the first white children born in Oregon Territory and settled in the town of Brownsville. His father, Bart, was a standout guard for the University of Oregon in its 1917 Rose Bowl victory over the heavily favored University of Pennsylvania and later was an assistant coach at both Oregon and the University of Washington.

Spellman was raised in the Eastside suburbs of Hunts Point and Bellevue with his sister Mary; his older brother David Bartholomew was killed during the Korean War. He completed his high school education at Seattle Preparatory School, graduating in 1944. The same year, he left high school midway through his senior year studies to enroll in the Merchant Marine cadet program during World War II and served in the United States Navy. Under the G.I. Bill, he was a 1949 BBS History-Political Science graduate of Seattle University and a 1953 graduate of the Georgetown University Law Center. John met his wife Lois Elizabeth Murphy (1927–2018), who was from Havre, Montana in a Spanish class while attending Seattle University; the two were married in 1954 and had six children together, Margo, Bart, David, Jeffrey, Teresa and Kat.

Early political career
Spellman entered politics after joining a group of progressive Republicans who sought to reform the party. He became a member of the Municipal Civic Service Commission while practicing as an attorney in the early 1960s. Spellman ran for mayor of Seattle in 1964, but did not advance past the primary. He campaigned for Dan Evans in his successful bid to become governor later that year. Spellman was elected to the three-member King County Commission in 1967. Following a voter-approved plan to implement a new Home Rule Charter in 1968, the office of County Executive was established and Spellman was elected the county's first chief executive over former governor Albert Rosellini in 1969.

Spellman played the lead role in establishing the county's new governmental structure under the Charter. He consolidated previously independent departments and replaced the old patronage system with a merit system. Spellman supervised the controversial process of siting and building the Kingdome, the domed stadium that provided the first home for the Seattle Seahawks and Seattle Mariners, and initiated early efforts to deal with uncontrolled growth. He was twice re-elected to the office in 1973 and 1977.

Governor of Washington (1981–1985)
Spellman first ran for governor in 1976 and was the top Republican in the state's blanket primary, but lost the general election to Democrat Dixy Lee Ray. Spellman again ran for governor in 1980, narrowly defeating representative Duane Berentson in the primary. Jim McDermott was the Democratic nominee, having defeated Ray in the primary, but was defeated by Spellman by a lopsided margin in the general election in a year Republicans made big political gains across the country.

During Spellman's four-year term of office, Washington's economy suffered a serious recession marked by rising unemployment and disappointing tax revenues. The State Legislature was deeply divided over how to address an alarming revenue shortfall, but did agree to an increase in Washington's statewide sales tax rate from 5.5% to 6.5%. Despite campaign promises to oppose new taxes, Spellman pushed for $2.5 billion in new taxes to address funding shortfalls.

One of Spellman's memorable policy stands was his strong commitment to environmental protection. Against pressure from business groups and many legislators, he vetoed a bill permitting for an environmentally-risky development project by Chicago Bridge & Iron in a sensitive shoreline area of Whatcom County. The veto was overridden by a vote of the state senate. He successfully blocked a proposed oil pipeline that would have crossed under the Puget Sound over potential endangerment of the waterway's ecology and refused to back down amidst public support of the project.

In September 1983, upon the death of U.S. Senator Henry M. Jackson, Spellman appointed former Republican governor Daniel J. Evans to fill the vacant U.S. Senate seat. While the Democratic party protested the appointment of a Republican to fill the seat vacated by a Democrat, Spellman's appointment was considered lawful under the then-current statutes. As state law required an immediate primary and general election for the remaining U.S. Senate seat term, a primary election was held just three weeks after Evans' interim appointment.

In 1984, Spellman ran for a second term of office. After a Democratic primary between then-State Senator Jim McDermott, former state Representative John Jovanovich, and then-Pierce County Executive Booth Gardner, Spellman faced a difficult battle in the general election against Democratic nominee Gardner. In the November 1984 general election, Spellman was defeated by Booth Gardner, and no Republican has served as governor of Washington since.

Post-governorship career
After leaving office in January 1985, Spellman returned to private law practice. In 1990 he ran for election as a justice of the Washington Supreme Court against Richard P. Guy, but was not elected. Spellman was a partner at the Seattle-based law firm, Carney Badley Spellman.

Spellman was awarded the James R. Ellis Regional Leadership Award from the Municipal League of King County in 2006.

Death
Spellman suffered a fall on December 27, 2017, which resulted in a broken hip. He was admitted to Virginia Mason Medical Center in Seattle for treatment and died of pneumonia on the morning of January 16, 2018, at the age of 91.

title: John Spellman


text:
New York Racing Association

The New York Racing Association, Inc. (NYRA) is the not-for-profit corporation that operates the three largest thoroughbred horse racing tracks in the state of New York, United States: Aqueduct Racetrack in South Ozone Park, Queens; Belmont Park in Elmont; and Saratoga Race Course in Saratoga Springs.

Racing at NYRA tracks is year-round, operating at Belmont Park from May to mid-July and from September through October; at Saratoga Race Course from mid-July through Labor Day; and at Aqueduct from November through April.

The New York Racing Association is the successor to the Greater New York Association, a non-profit racing association created in 1955. NYRA is separate from the governing body that oversees racing in New York, currently the New York State Gaming Commission.

History
In 1913, racing returned to New York after a hiatus due to the Hart–Agnew Law. Only four tracks had survived the hiatus. These were Aqueduct Racetrack, Belmont Park, Jamaica Racetrack and Saratoga Race Course. The tracks came under common ownership with the creation of a non-profit association known as the Greater New York Association in 1955.

The association remodeled Aqueduct Racetrack, Belmont Park, and Saratoga Race Course and demolished Jamaica, which is now the Rochdale Village housing development. The partnership became the New York Racing Association on April 10, 1958. Later, Belmont Park was closed from 1963 to 1968 in order to construct a new grandstand.

Off-track betting in New York was established in 1970, being offered by regional, government-owned corporations. OTB parlors began showing live video feeds of races, referred to as simulcasting, in 1984. In 1995, NYRA launched a cable television channel and a telephone advance-deposit wagering service.

From December 2003 through September 2005, NYRA operated under a deferred prosecution agreement following a 2003 federal indictment. The charges related alleged income tax evasion and money laundering by mutuel clerks between 1980 and 1999 with the knowledge of NYRA middle managers. Under the agreement, NYRA paid $3 million to the government and its implementation of new cash-handling procedures designed to eliminate corruption and mismanagement was monitored by a New York law firm. After receiving a report from the monitor which concluded that NYRA was in compliance with the new guidelines, the Justice Department moved to dismiss the indictment and its motion was allowed by a federal judge.

NYRA, claiming that the state lottery division's failure to approve the installation of video-lottery terminal (VLT) machines at Aqueduct Racetrack pushed it to insolvency, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on November 2, 2006. The association emerged from bankruptcy protection September 12, 2008 with incorporation of a successor corporation, New York Racing Association Inc. New York City's OTB Corporation shut down permanently in 2010.

In 2016, NYRA launched an online advance-deposit wagering platform under the brand NYRA Bets, which offers live bets and live simulcasts, and is available on multiple states.

Restructuring
NYRA was reorganized and its franchise to operate the three racetracks was extended through 2033 under legislation approved by the New York state legislature on February 13, 2008. The new authorization provided $105 million in direct state aid and forgave millions more in state loans to NYRA. The association also gave up its claim to ownership of the land on which the three racetracks are situated. In return, the state gained expanded oversight responsibility. The state comptroller won the power to audit NYRA's books. The conversion of NYRA from a non-profit association to a not-for-profit corporation also gave the state attorney general enhanced oversight authority. In addition, the state now appoints 11 of the corporation's 25 directors. By changing from non-profit to not-for-profit status, NYRA also gained flexibility in its financial management.

Racetrack and TV Personalities

 * Jason Blewitt (2006–2016) — Blewitt graduated from Long Island University, C. W. Post with a degree in journalism. He was a regular co-host of Talking Horses, a daily handicapping show at NYRA tracks. He was also a frequent guest on New York City Off Track Betting Corporation's Thoroughbred Central.
 * Acacia Clement (2022–present)
 * Paul Corman (1995–1999)
 * Eric Donovan (2006–present) — worked on the NYRA press staff since 1999 and was the full-time oddsmaker for all three New York Racing Association tracks from 2005 - 2017. He was also the co-host of NYRA's daily handicapping show, Talking Horses. Donovan, who frequently substituted in recent years, took over for Don LaPlace, who set the morning line since early 2000.
 * Kelly Gecewicz (2000–2005)
 * John Imbriale (1979–2023) - also served as the full-time racecaller at the NYRA tracks from 2019 to 2022.
 * Rich McCarthy (1995–1999)
 * Harvey Pack (1995–1999)
 * Mary Ryan (1995–1999)
 * Jan Rushton (1995–2009)
 * Andy Serling (2008–present) — American television personality who works as a television analyst for all three NYRA tracks and also makes appearances on HRTV daily for his handicapping insights. A native of Saratoga Springs, New York, Serling began following horse racing as a child. For many years he worked at the New York Stock Exchange as an options trader before being hired by NYRA full-time in 2008. He is known as a trenchant and highly opinionated analyst. He is also a regular guest and the Monday host of Daily Racing Form's handicapping seminars at Siro's during the Saratoga race meeting.
 * Michael Sherack (1997–2000)
 * Anthony Stabile (2016–2023)
 * Travis Stone (2014–2017)
 * John M. Veitch (1995–1999)
 * Mike Watchmaker (1995–1999)
 * Maggie Wolfendale (2010–present)

Law Enforcement
NYRA maintains its own law enforcement force comprising over 300 sworn employees, including plain clothed investigators and inspectors as well as fire marshals. These officers must be licensed with the New York State Gaming Commission as well as meet requirements set forth by the Division of Criminal Justice Services.

Peace Officers
The force consists of uniformed officers & supervisors, fire marshals, plain clothed investigators and inspectors, all of whom are New York State Peace Officer. Special police officers from the New York Racing Association must be authorized and have the appropriate firearm license pursuant to section 400.00 of the penal law in order to carry a firearm. NYRA peace officers have the authority to make arrest and issue summonses on NYRA property only, they carry defensive weapons such as a baton, pepper spray, and handcuffs. Uniformed members wear navy blue style uniforms with gold on white NYRA patches on their left side and an American flag patch on the right side. NYRA Peace Officers wear eagle-top shields, typically gold in color regardless of rank. NYRA Inspectors wear gold shields, similar in design to that other law enforcement Detectives, but do not wear uniforms or logos thereof.

NYRA Peace Officers go through an in-house training academy. Officers can get assigned to either the Patrol or Backstretch divisions. Patrol division officers are the everyday face of the department to the general public, conducting patrols and enforcing the law during meets and events at all three of NYRA's facilities. Backstretch officers conduct patrols and enforce the law in the backstretch areas of all three locations such as the on-property residences NYRA staff and some riders live and work in. Each division's officers are covered by its own union representation derived from two completely separate union organizations.

Hiring Process
NYRA hires Peace Officers for both divisions through their online application system. Once an applicant is interviewed by the Corporate HR Department, they do a panel interview with a Lieutenant or higher ranking sworn employee. During this panel interview, a written examination is administered based on summarized information sheets provided in the moment at the time of interview. If the applicant interviews successfully, passes the written exam and accepts the extended job offer then they are sworn as Peace Officers and sent to the New York State Gaming Commission office. All three NYRA properties have NY State Gaming Commission officers on property. There they take fingerprints and conduct licensing as commissioned peace officers.

All NYRA Peace Officers and Sergeants are paid hourly rates. Investigators, Lieutenants and higher-ranking members are paid annual salaries.

Non-Sworn Members
NYRA also seasonally employs New York State licensed security officers at Saratoga Racecourse during its racing meets, as well as subcontracts private security guard companies to assist with large details downstate such as Belmont Stakes. NYRA's Security Officers wear light blue or white shirts with security patches on both arms. Contractors wear their security company's patches and logos while working. NYRA Security Officers and contractors derive their powers from the New York State Law's citizen's arrest procedures as well as report to assist and make arrests on the orders of a sworn NYRA peace officer. Security Officers are registered with the NY Department of State and as such have no power above that of a normal citizen's rights.

title: New York Racing Association


text:
Silver Grove

Silver Grove may refer to:

Places

 * Silver Grove, Kentucky
 * Silver Grove, Tennessee
 * Silver Grove, West Virginia

title: Silver Grove


text:
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

On March27, 1980, a series of volcanic explosions and pyroclastic flows began at Mount St. Helens in Skamania County, Washington, United States. A series of phreatic blasts occurred from the summit and escalated until a major explosive eruption took place on May18, 1980, at 8:32am. The eruption, which had a volcanic explosivity index of 5, was the first to occur in the contiguous United States since the much smaller 1915 eruption of Lassen Peak in California. It has often been declared the most disastrous volcanic eruption in U.S. history.

The eruption was preceded by a two-month series of earthquakes and steam-venting episodes caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the volcano that created a large bulge and a fracture system on the mountain's north slope. An earthquake at 8:32:11 am PDT (UTC−7) on May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, a sector collapse which was the largest subaerial landslide in recorded history. This allowed the partly molten rock, rich in high-pressure gas and steam, to suddenly explode northward toward Spirit Lake in a hot mix of lava and pulverized older rock, overtaking the landslide. An eruption column rose 80,000 ft into the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states and various Canadian provinces. At the same time, snow, ice, and several entire glaciers on the volcano melted, forming a series of large lahars (volcanic mudslides) that reached as far as the Columbia River, nearly 50 mi to the southwest. Less severe outbursts continued into the next day, only to be followed by other large, but not as destructive, eruptions later that year. The thermal energy released during the eruption was equal to 26 megatons of TNT.

About 57 people were killed, including innkeeper and World War I veteran Harry R. Truman, photographers Reid Blackburn and Robert Landsburg, and volcanologist David A. Johnston. Hundreds of square miles were reduced to wasteland, causing over $1 billion in damage (equivalent to $ billion in ), thousands of animals were killed, and Mount St. Helens was left with a crater on its north side. At the time of the eruption, the summit of the volcano was owned by the Burlington Northern Railroad, but afterward, the railroad donated the land to the United States Forest Service. The area was later preserved in the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument and due to the eruption, the state recognized the month of May as "Volcano Awareness Month" and events are held at Mt. St. Helens, or within the region, to discuss the eruption, safety concerns, and to commemorate lives lost during the natural disaster.

Build-up to the eruption
Mount St. Helens remained dormant from its last period of activity in the 1840s and 1850s until March 1980. Several small earthquakes, beginning on March 15, indicated that magma might have begun moving below the volcano. On March 20, at 3:45 pm Pacific Standard Time, a shallow, magnitude-4.2 earthquake centered below the volcano's north flank, signaled the volcano's return from 123 years of hibernation. A gradually building earthquake swarm saturated area seismographs and started to climax at about noon on March 25, reaching peak levels in the next two days, including an earthquake registering 5.1 on the Richter scale. A total of 174 shocks of magnitude 2.6 or greater was recorded during those two days.

Shocks of magnitude 3.2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate during April and May, with five earthquakes of magnitude 4 or above per day in early April, and eight per day the week before May 18. Initially, no direct sign of eruption was seen, but small earthquake-induced avalanches of snow and ice were reported from aerial observations.

At 12:36 pm on March 27, phreatic eruptions (explosions of steam caused by magma suddenly heating groundwater) ejected and smashed rock from within the old summit crater, excavating a new crater 250 ft wide, and sending an ash column about 7000 ft into the air. By this date, a 16,000 ft eastward-trending fracture system had also developed across the summit area. This was followed by more earthquake swarms and a series of steam explosions that sent ash 10000 to 11000 ft above their vent. Most of this ash fell between 3 and 12 mi from its vent, but some was carried 150 mi south to Bend, Oregon, or 285 mi east to Spokane, Washington.

A second, new crater and a blue flame were observed on March 29. The flame was visibly emitted from both craters and was probably created by burning gases. Static electricity generated from ash clouds rolling down the volcano sent out lightning bolts that were up to 2 mi long. Ninety-three separate outbursts were reported on March 30, and increasingly strong harmonic tremors were first detected on April 1, alarming geologists and prompting Governor Dixy Lee Ray to declare a state of emergency on April 3. Governor Ray issued an executive order on April 30 creating a "red zone" around the volcano; anyone caught in this zone without a pass faced a $500 fine or six months in jail. This precluded many cabin owners from visiting their property.

By April 7, the combined crater was 1700 by and 500 ft deep. A USGS team determined in the last week of April that a 1.5 mi section of St. Helens's north face was displaced outward by at least 270 ft. For the rest of April and early May, this bulge grew by 5 to 6 ft per day, and by mid-May, it extended more than 400 ft north. As the bulge moved northward, the summit area behind it progressively sank, forming a complex, down-dropped block called a graben. Geologists announced on April 30 that sliding of the bulge area was the greatest immediate danger and that such a landslide might spark an eruption. These changes in the volcano's shape were related to the overall deformation that increased the volume of the volcano by 0.03 mi3 by mid-May. This volume increase presumably corresponded to the volume of magma that pushed into the volcano and deformed its surface. Because the intruding magma remained below ground and was not directly visible, it was called a cryptodome, in contrast to a true lava dome exposed at the surface.

On May 7, eruptions similar to those in March and April resumed, and over the following days, the bulge approached its maximum size. All activity had been confined to the 350-year-old summit dome and did not involve any new magma. About 10,000 earthquakes were recorded before the May 18 event, with most concentrated in a small zone less than 1.6 mi directly below the bulge. Visible eruptions ceased on May 16, reducing public interest and consequently the number of spectators in the area. Mounting public pressure then forced officials to allow 50 carloads of property owners to enter the danger zone on Saturday, May 17, to gather whatever property they could carry. Another trip was scheduled for 10 am the next day, and because that was Sunday, more than 300 loggers who would normally be working in the area were not there. By the time of the climactic eruption, dacite magma intruding into the volcano had forced the north flank outward nearly 500 ft and heated the volcano's groundwater system, causing many steam-driven explosions (phreatic eruptions).

Landslide and climactic phase
As May 18 dawned, Mount St. Helens's activity did not show any change from the pattern of the preceding month. The rates of bulge movement and sulfur dioxide emission, and ground temperature readings did not reveal any changes indicating a catastrophic eruption. USGS volcanologist David A. Johnston was on duty at an observation post around 6 mi north of the volcano: as of 6:00 am, Johnston's measurements did not indicate any unusual activity.

At 8:32 am, a magnitude-5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide, approximately 7–20 seconds after the shock, followed a few seconds later by the main volcanic blast. The landslide, the largest subaerial landslide in recorded history, traveled at 110 to 155 mph and moved across Spirit Lake's west arm. Part of it hit a 1,150 ft ridge about 6 mi north. Some of the slide spilled over the ridge, but most of it moved 13 mi down the North Fork Toutle River, filling its valley up to 600 ft deep with avalanche debris. An area of about 24 mi2 was covered, and the total volume of the deposit was about 0.7 mi3.

Scientists were able to reconstruct the motion of the landslide from a series of rapid photographs by Gary Rosenquist, who was camping 11 mi away from the blast 46.31361°N, -122.03667°W. Rosenquist, his party, and his photographs survived because the blast was deflected by local topography 1 mi short of his location.

Most of St. Helens's former north side became a rubble deposit 17 mi long, averaging 150 ft thick; the slide was thickest at 1 mi below Spirit Lake and thinnest at its western margin. The landslide temporarily displaced the waters of Spirit Lake to the ridge north of the lake, in a giant wave about 600 ft high. This, in turn, created a 295 ft avalanche of debris consisting of the returning waters and thousands of uprooted trees and stumps. Some of these remained intact with roots, but most had been sheared off at the stump seconds earlier by the blast of superheated volcanic gas and ash that had immediately followed and overtaken the initial landslide. The debris was transported along with the water as it returned to its basin, raising the surface level of Spirit Lake by about 200 ft.

Four decades after the eruption, floating log mats persist on Spirit Lake and nearby St. Helens Lake, changing position with the wind. The rest of the trees, especially those that were not completely detached from their roots, were turned upright by their own weight and became waterlogged, sinking into the muddy sediments at the bottom where they are in the process of becoming petrified in the anaerobic and mineral-rich waters. This provides insight into other sites with a similar fossil record.

Initial lateral blast

The landslide exposed the dacite magma in St. Helens's neck to much lower pressure, causing the gas-charged, partially molten rock and high-pressure steam above it to explode a few seconds after the landslide started. Explosions burst through the trailing part of the landslide, blasting rock debris northward. The resulting blast directed the pyroclastic flow laterally. It consisted of very hot volcanic gases, ash, and pumice formed from new lava, as well as pulverized old rock, which hugged the ground. Initially moving about 220 mph, the blast quickly accelerated to around 670 mph, and it may have briefly passed the speed of sound.

Pyroclastic flow material passed over the moving avalanche and spread outward, devastating a fan-shaped area 23 miles across by 19 miles long (37 km × 31 km). In total, about 230 sqmi of forest were knocked down, and extreme heat killed trees miles beyond the blow-down zone. At its vent, the lateral blast probably did not last longer than about 30 seconds, but the northward-radiating and expanding blast cloud continued for about another minute.

Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, and Northern California, yet many areas closer to the eruption (Portland, Oregon, for example) did not hear the blast. This so-called "quiet zone" extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers, and to a lesser extent, local topography.

Later studies indicated that one-third of the 0.045 cumi of material in the flow was new lava, and the rest was fragmented, older rock.

Lateral blast result

The huge ensuing ash cloud sent skyward from St. Helens's northern foot was visible throughout the quiet zone. The near-supersonic lateral blast, loaded with volcanic debris, caused devastation as far as 19 mi from the volcano. The area affected by the blast can be subdivided into roughly concentric zones:
 * 1) Direct blast zone, the innermost zone, averaged about 8 mi in radius, an area in which virtually everything, natural or artificial, was obliterated or carried away. For this reason, this zone also has been called the "tree-removal zone". The flow of the material carried by the blast was not deflected by topographic features in this zone. The blast released energy equal to 24 MtTNT.
 * 2) Channelized blast zone, an intermediate zone, extended out to distances as far as 19 mi from the volcano, an area in which the flow flattened everything in its path and was channeled to some extent by topography. In this zone, the forces and direction of the blast are strikingly demonstrated by the parallel alignment of toppled large trees, broken off at the base of the trunk as if they were blades of grass mown by a scythe. This zone was also known as the "tree-down zone". Channeling and deflection of the blast caused strikingly varied local effects that still remained conspicuous after some decades. Where the blast struck open land directly, it scoured it, breaking trees off short and stripping vegetation and even topsoil, thereby delaying revegetation for many years. Where the blast was deflected so as to pass overhead by several metres, it left the topsoil and the seeds it contained, permitting faster revegetation with scrub and herbaceous plants, and later with saplings. Trees in the path of such higher-level blasts were broken off wholesale at various heights, whereas nearby stands in more sheltered positions recovered comparatively rapidly without conspicuous long-term harm.
 * 3) Seared zone, also called the "standing dead" zone, the outermost fringe of the impacted area, is a zone in which trees remained standing, but were singed brown by the hot gases of the blast.

By the time this pyroclastic flow hit its first human victims, it was still as hot as 360 C and filled with suffocating gas and flying debris. Most of the 57 people known to have died in that day's eruption succumbed to asphyxiation, while several died from burns. Lodge owner Harry R. Truman was buried under hundreds of feet of avalanche material 46.26656°N, -122.15925°W. Volcanologist David A. Johnston, who was stationed at Observation post Coldwater II 46.27708°N, -122.22444°W, located just 6 miles (10 km) north of the mountain, was one of those killed 46.29361°N, -122.22419°W, as was Reid Blackburn 46.29808°N, -122.28986°W, a National Geographic photographer who was situated near Coldwater Creek 46.29883°N, -122.28969°W, 8 mi from the volcano, on the day of the eruption. Robert Landsburg, another photographer, who was within a few miles of the summit 46.21286°N, -122.26758°W, was killed by the ash cloud. He was able to protect his film with his body, and the surviving photos provided geologists with valuable documentation of the historic eruption. Another eruption victim, amateur radio operator Gerry Martin, located near the Coldwater peak and farther north of Johnston's position 46.29992°N, -122.21528°W, reporting his sighting of the eruption enveloping the Coldwater II observation post. As the blast overwhelmed Johnston's post, Martin declared solemnly: "Gentlemen, the camper and car that's sitting over to the south of me is covered. It's going to hit me, too." before his radio went silent.

Later flows
Subsequent outpourings of pyroclastic material from the breach left by the landslide consisted mainly of new magmatic debris rather than fragments of pre-existing volcanic rocks. The resulting deposits formed a fan-like pattern of overlapping sheets, tongues, and lobes. At least 17 separate pyroclastic flows occurred during the May 18 eruption, and their aggregate volume was about 0.05 mi3.

The flow deposits were still at about 300 to 420 C two weeks after they erupted. Secondary steam-blast eruptions fed by this heat created pits on the northern margin of the pyroclastic-flow deposits, at the south shore of Spirit Lake, and along the upper part of the North Fork Toutle River. These steam-blast explosions continued sporadically for weeks or months after the emplacement of pyroclastic flows, and at least one occurred a year later, on May 16, 1981.

Ash column

As the avalanche and initial pyroclastic flow were still advancing, a huge ash column grew to a height of 12 mi above the expanding crater in less than 10 minutes and spread tephra into the stratosphere for 10 straight hours. Near the volcano, the swirling ash particles in the atmosphere generated lightning, which in turn started many forest fires. During this time, parts of the mushroom-shaped ash-cloud column collapsed, and fell back upon the earth. This fallout, mixed with magma, mud, and steam, sent additional pyroclastic flows speeding down St. Helens's flanks. Later, slower flows came directly from the new north-facing crater and consisted of glowing pumice bombs and very hot pumiceous ash. Some of these hot flows covered ice or water, which flashed to steam, creating craters up to 65 ft in diameter and sending ash as much as 6500 ft into the air.

Strong, high-altitude wind carried much of this material east-northeasterly from the volcano at an average speed around 60 mph. By 9:45 am, it had reached Yakima, Washington, 90 mi away, and by 11:45 am, it was over Spokane, Washington. A total of 4 to 5 in of ash fell on Yakima, and areas as far east as Spokane were plunged into darkness by noon, where visibility was reduced to 10 ft and 0.5 in of ash fell. Continuing eastward, St. Helens's ash fell in the western part of Yellowstone National Park by 10:15 pm, and was seen on the ground in Denver the next day. In time, ash fall from this eruption was reported as far away as Minnesota and Oklahoma, and some of the ash drifted around the globe within about 2 weeks.

During the nine hours of vigorous eruptive activity, about 540,000,000 tons (540 e6ST) of ash fell over an area of more than 22000 mi2. The total volume of the ash before its compaction by rainfall was about 0.3 mi3. The volume of the uncompacted ash is equivalent to about 0.05 mi3 of solid rock, or about 7% of the amount of material that slid off in the debris avalanche. By around 5:30 pm on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, but less severe outbursts continued through the next several days.

Ash properties

Generally, given that the way airborne ash is deposited after an eruption is strongly influenced by the meteorological conditions, a certain variation of the ash type will occur, as a function of distance to the volcano or time elapsed from eruption. The ash from Mount St. Helens is no exception, hence the ash properties have large variations.

Chemical composition
The bulk chemical composition of the ash has been found to be about 65% silicon dioxide, 18% aluminum oxide, 5% ferric oxide, 4% each calcium oxide and sodium oxide, and 2% magnesium oxide. Trace elements were also detected, their concentrations varying as 0.05–0.09% chlorine, 0.02–0.03% fluorine, and 0.09–0.3% sulfur.

Index of refraction
The index of refraction, a measure used in physics to describe how light propagates through a particular substance, is an important property of volcanic ash. This number is complex, having both real and imaginary parts, the real part indicating how light disperses and the imaginary part indicating how light is absorbed by the substance.

The silicate particles are known to have a real index of refraction ranging between 1.5 and 1.6 for visible light. However, a spectrum of colors is associated with samples of volcanic ash, from very light to dark gray. This makes for variations in the measured imaginary refractive index under visible light.

In the case of Mount St. Helens, the ash settled in three main layers on the ground:
 * The bottom layer was dark gray and was found to be abundant in older rocks and crystal fragments.
 * The middle layer consisted of a mixture of glass shards and pumice.
 * The top layer was ash consisting of very fine particles.

For example, when comparing the imaginary part of the refractive index k of stratospheric ash from 15 and 18 km from the volcano, they have similar values around 700 nm (around 0.009), while they differ significantly around 300 nm. Here, the 18 km sample (k was found to be around 0.009) was much more absorbent than the 15 km sample (k was found to be around 0.002).

Mudslides flow downstream

The hot, exploding material also broke apart and melted nearly all of the mountain's glaciers, along with most of the overlying snow. As in many previous St. Helens eruptions, this created huge lahars (volcanic mudflows) and muddy floods that affected three of the four stream drainage systems on the mountain, and which started to move as early as 8:50 am. Lahars travelled as fast as 90 mph while still high on the volcano, but progressively slowed to about 3 mph on the flatter and wider parts of rivers. Mudflows from the southern and eastern flanks had the consistency of wet concrete as they raced down Muddy River, Pine Creek, and Smith Creek to their confluence at the Lewis River. Bridges were taken out at the mouth of Pine Creek and the head of Swift Reservoir, which rose 2.6 ft by noon to accommodate the nearly 18000000 cuyd of additional water, mud, and debris.

Glacier and snowmelt mixed with tephra on the volcano's northeast slope to create much larger lahars. These mudflows traveled down the north and south forks of the Toutle River and joined at the confluence of the Toutle forks and the Cowlitz River near Castle Rock, Washington, at 1:00 pm. Ninety minutes after the eruption, the first mudflow had moved 27 mi upstream, where observers at Weyerhaeuser's Camp Baker saw a 12 ft wall of muddy water and debris pass. Near the confluence of the Toutle's north and south forks at Silver Lake, a record flood stage of 23.5 ft was recorded.

A large but slower-moving mudflow with a mortar-like consistency was mobilized in early afternoon at the head of the Toutle River north fork. By 2:30 pm, the massive mudflow had destroyed Camp Baker, and in the following hours, seven bridges were carried away. Part of the flow backed up for 2.5 mi soon after entering the Cowlitz River, but most continued downstream. After traveling 17 mi further, an estimated 3,900,000 cuyd of material were injected into the Columbia River, reducing the river's depth by 25 ft for a 4 mi stretch. The resulting 13 ft river depth temporarily closed the busy channel to ocean-going freighters, costing Portland, Oregon, an estimated $5 million (equivalent to $ million ). Ultimately, more than 65 e6cuyd of sediment were dumped along the lower Cowlitz and Columbia Rivers.

Direct results
The May 18, 1980, event was the most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the contiguous United States. About 57 people were killed directly from the blast, and 200 houses, 47 bridges, 15 mi of railways, and 185 mi of highway were destroyed; two people were killed indirectly in accidents that resulted from poor visibility, and two more suffered fatal heart attacks from shoveling ash. U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage, and said it looked more desolate than a moonscape.

A film crew was dropped by helicopter on Mount St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction, but their compasses spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred the next day (see below), but the crew survived and was rescued two days after that. The eruption ejected more than 1 cumi of material. A quarter of that volume was fresh lava in the form of ash, pumice, and volcanic bombs, while the rest was fragmented, older rock. The removal of the north side of the mountain (13% of the cone's volume) reduced Mount St. Helens's height by about 1300 ft and left a crater 1 to 2 mi wide and 2100 ft deep with its north end open in a huge breach.

More than 4000000000 board feet of timber were damaged or destroyed, mainly by the lateral blast. At least 25% of the destroyed timber was salvaged after September 1980. Downwind of the volcano, in areas of thick ash accumulation, many agricultural crops, such as wheat, apples, potatoes, and alfalfa, were destroyed. As many as 1,500 elk and 5,000 deer were killed, and an estimated 12 million Chinook and Coho salmon fingerlings died when their hatcheries were destroyed. Another estimated 40,000 young salmon were lost when they swam through turbine blades of hydroelectric generators after reservoir levels were lowered along the Lewis River to accommodate possible mudflows and flood waters.

In total, Mount St. Helens released 24 megatons TNT of thermal energy, seven of which were a direct result of the blast. This is equivalent to 1,600 times the size of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.

Uncertain death toll
The death toll most commonly cited is 57, but two points of uncertainty remain.

The first point regards two officially listed victims, Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer. They were reported missing after the explosion. In the aftermath, investigators were able to locate individuals named Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer who were alive and well. However, they were unable to determine who reported Hiatt missing, and the person who was listed as reporting Thayer missing claimed she was not the one who had done so. Since the investigators could not thus verify that they were the same Hiatt and Thayer who were reported missing, the names remain listed among the presumed dead.

The second point regards three missing people who are not officially listed as victims: Robert Ruffle, Steven Whitsett, and Mark Melanson. Cowlitz County Emergency Services Management lists them as "Possibly Missing — Not on [the official] List". According to Melanson's brother, in October 1983, Cowlitz County officials told his family that Melanson "is believed [...] a victim of the May 18, 1980, eruption" and that after years of searching, the family eventually decided "he's buried in the ash".

Taking these two points of uncertainty into consideration, the direct death toll could be as low as 55 or as high as 60. When combined with the four indirect victims (two dying from vehicle accidents due to poor visibility, and two dying from heart attacks triggered by shovelling ash) those numbers range from 59 to 64.

A year and a half after the eruption, the bodies of two young women, Marsha Anne Weatter and Katherine Jean Allen, 18 and 20 years old respectively, were discovered. They were believed to have been murdered six weeks before the eruption, rather than being killed by the events. Backpacks belonging to them had been found in July 1980, but a layer of ash deposited by the eruption may have hid the bodies, also preventing animals disturbing the remains. An autopsy showed they had each been shot once.

Ash damage and removal
The ash fall created some temporary major problems with transportation, sewage disposal, and water treatment systems. Visibility was greatly decreased during the ash fall, closing many highways and roads. Interstate 90 from Seattle to Spokane was closed for a week and a half. Air travel was disrupted for between a few days and two weeks, as several airports in eastern Washington shut down because of ash accumulation and poor visibility. Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled following airport closures. Fine-grained, gritty ash caused substantial problems for internal combustion engines and other mechanical and electrical equipment. The ash contaminated oil systems, clogged air filters, and scratched moving surfaces. Fine ash caused short circuits in electrical transformers, which in turn caused power blackouts.

Removing and disposing of the ash was a monumental task for some Eastern Washington communities. State and federal agencies estimated that over 2400000 cuyd of ash, equivalent to about 900,000 tons in weight, were removed from highways and airports in Washington. The ash removal cost $2.2 million and took 10 weeks in Yakima. The need to remove ash quickly from transport routes and civil works dictated the selection of some disposal sites. Some cities used old quarries and existing sanitary landfills; others created dump sites wherever expedient. To minimize wind reworking of ash dumps, the surfaces of some disposal sites were covered with topsoil and seeded with grass. In Portland, the mayor eventually threatened businesses with fines if they failed to remove the ash from their parking lots.

Cost

A refined estimate of $1.1 billion ($ billion in ) was determined in a study by the International Trade Commission at the request of the United States Congress. A supplemental appropriation of $951 million for disaster relief was voted by Congress, of which the largest share went to the Small Business Administration, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.

Also, indirect and intangible costs of the eruption were incurred. Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose 10-fold in the weeks immediately following the eruption, and then returned to near-normal levels once timber-salvaging and ash-cleanup operations were underway. Only a small percentage of residents left the region because of lost jobs owing to the eruption. Several months after May 18, a few residents reported suffering stress and emotional problems, though they had coped successfully during the crisis. Counties in the region requested funding for mental-health programs to assist such people.

Initial public reaction to the May 18 eruption dealt a nearly crippling blow to tourism, an important industry in Washington. Not only was tourism down in the Mount St. Helens–Gifford Pinchot National Forest area, but conventions, meetings and social gatherings also were cancelled or postponed at cities and resorts elsewhere in Washington and neighboring Oregon not affected by the eruption. The adverse effect on tourism and conventioneering, however, proved only temporary. Mount St. Helens, perhaps because of its reawakening, has regained its appeal for tourists. The U.S. Forest Service and the State of Washington opened visitor centers and provided access for people to view the volcano's devastation.

Later eruptions
St. Helens produced an additional five explosive eruptions between May and October 1980. Through early 1990, at least 21 periods of eruptive activity had occurred. The volcano remains active, with smaller, dome-building eruptions continuing into 2008.

1980–1991
An eruption occurred on May 25, 1980, at 2:30 am that sent an ash column 9 mi into the atmosphere. The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity, and occurred during a rainstorm. Erratic wind from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west, lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and Oregon. Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris, lahars, and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the May 18 eruption.

At 7:05 pm on June 12, a plume of ash billowed 2.5 mi above the volcano. At 9:09 pm, a much stronger explosion sent an ash column about 10 mi skyward. This event caused the Portland area, previously spared by wind direction, to be thinly coated with ash in the middle of the annual Rose Festival. A dacite dome then oozed into existence on the crater floor, growing to a height of 200 ft and a width of 1200 ft within a week. A series of large explosions on July 22 broke more than a month of relative quiet. The July eruptive episode was preceded by several days of measurable expansion of the summit area, heightened earthquake activity, and changed emission rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The first hit at 5:14 pm as an ash column shot 10 mi and was followed by a faster blast at 6:25 pm that pushed the ash column above its previous maximum height in just 7.5 minutes. The final explosion started at 7:01 pm, and continued over two hours. When the relatively small amount of ash settled over eastern Washington, the dome built in June was gone.

Seismic activity and gas emission steadily increased in early August, and on August 7 at 4:26 pm, an ash cloud slowly expanded 8 mi into the sky. Small pyroclastic flows came through the northern breach and a weaker outpouring of ash rose from the crater. This continued until 10:32 pm, when a second large blast sent ash high into the air, proceeding due north. A second dacite dome filled this vent a few days later.

Two months of repose were ended by an eruption lasting from October 16 to 18. This event obliterated the second dome, sent ash 10 mi in the air and created small, red-hot pyroclastic flows. A third dome began to form within 30 minutes after the final explosion on October 18, and within a few days, it was about 900 ft wide and 130 ft high. In spite of the dome growth next to it, a new glacier formed rapidly inside the crater.

All of the post-1980 eruptions were quiet dome-building events, beginning with the December 27, 1980, to January 3, 1981, episode. By 1987, the third dome had grown to be more than 3000 ft wide and 800 ft high.

Further eruptions occurred over a few months between 1989 and 1991.

2004–2008
The 2004–2008 volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens has been documented as a continuous eruption with a gradual extrusion of magma at the Mount St. Helens volcano. Starting in October 2004, a gradual building of a new lava dome happened. The new dome did not rise above the crater created by the 1980 eruption. This activity lasted until January 2008.

title: 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens


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