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List of English words of Turkic origin

This is a list of words that have entered into the English language from the Turkic languages. Many of them came via traders and soldiers from and in the Ottoman Empire. There are some Turkic words as well, most of them entered English via the Russian language.

Introduction
Languages of Turkic peoples left numerous traces in different languages, including the English language. Turkic borrowings, which belong to the social and political vocabulary, are generally used in special literature and in the historical and ethnographical works, which relate to the life of Turkic and Muslim peoples. The ethnographical words are generally used in the scientific literature, and in the historical and ethnographical texts.

The adoption of Indian (principally Hindustani) words, among which there were some Turkic borrowings, became one of the ways for the words of the Turkic origin to penetrate English. Additionally, several words of Turkic origin penetrated English through Central or Eastern European languages like Russian and Polish. Albanian, German, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, Hungarian and Serbo-Croatian were also intermediary languages for the Turkic words to penetrate English, as well as containing numerous Turkic loanwords themselves (e.g. Serbo-Croatian contains around 5,000 Turkic loanwords, primarily from Turkish ).

In the nineteenth century, Turkic loanwords, generally of Turkish origin, began to penetrate not only through the writings of the travelers, diplomats and merchants, and through the ethnographical and historical works, but also through the press. In 1847, there were two English-language newspapers in Istanbul – The Levant Herald and The Levant Times, seven newspapers in French, one in German and 37 in Turkish. Turkish contributed the largest share of the Turkic loans, which penetrated into the English directly. This can be explained by the fact that Turkey had the most intensive and wide connections with England. Nevertheless, there are many Turkic loans in English, which were borrowed by its contacts with other peoples – Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Kirghiz.

Most of the Turkic loans in English carry exotic or ethnographical connotations. They do not have equivalents in English, do not have synonymic relations with primordial words, and generally are used to describe the fauna, flora, life customs, political and social life, and an administrative-territorial structure of Turkic regions. But there are many Turkic loans, which are still part of the frequently used vocabulary. Some Turkic loans have acquired new meanings, unrelated to their etymology.

To conclude, the words of the Turkic origin began penetrating English as early as the Middle Ages, the Turkic loanwords found their way into English through other languages, most frequently through French. Since the 16c, beginning from the time of the establishment of the direct contacts between England and Turkey, and Russia, in English appeared new direct borrowings from Turkic languages. German, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, French, Arabic, Armenian, Afrikaans, Hungarian, Yiddish, Hindustani, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Malayan, to a different extent, took part in the process of the transfer of the Turkic words into English. The main language from which the borrowings were made, was Turkish.

A

 * Afshar: from Turkic Afshar, "a Turkic tribe living majorly in Kerman province of Iran". A Shiraz rug of coarse weave.
 * Aga or Agha: from Turkish ağa, a title of rank, especially in Turkey.
 * Aga Khan: from Turkic agha and khan, the divinely ordained head of the Nizari branch of Isma'ili Shi'a Islam.
 * Agaluk: from Turkish Ağalık, a feudal unit of the Ottoman Empire
 * Airan: from Turkish ayran
 * Akbash: from Turkish akbaş, literally "a whitehead"
 * Akche: from Turkish akçe, also asper, an Ottoman monetary unit that consisted of small silver coins.
 * Akhissar: from Turkish Akhisar, a city in Manisa Province, Turkey near İzmir. A kind of heavy modern carpet made at Akhisar.
 * Altay: from the Altai Mountains of Central Asia, which is from Turkic-Mongolian altan, meaning "golden". 1. the Altai horse 2. the Altay sheep
 * Altilik: from Turkish altılık. A coin formerly used in Turkey, originally silver, equivalent to six piastres.
 * Araba: (from عربة ʿarabah or the Turkish loan form araba, arba or aroba). A horse-driven carriage.
 * Arnaut: from Turkish arnavut, "an Albanian". An inhabitant of Albania and neighboring mountainous regions, especially an Albanian serving in the Turkish army.
 * Aslan: from Turkish Aslan, "lion".
 * Astrakhan: from Astrakhan, Russia, which is from Tatar or Kazakh hadžitarkhan, or As-tarxan (tarkhan of As or Alans) Karakul sheep of Russian origin or a cloth with a pile resembling karakul.
 * Atabeg: from Turkic atabeg, from ata, "a father" + beg "a prince".
 * Atabek: from Turkic, an alternative form of Atabeg.
 * Ataghan: from Turkish yatağan, an alternative form of yatagan.
 * Ataman: from Russian, from South Turkic ataman, "leader of an armed band" : ata, "father" + -man, augmentative suffix.
 * Aul: Russian, from the Tatar, Kyrgyz and Kazakh languages.
 * Ayran: see Airan

B

 * Bahadur: from Hindi bahādur "brave, brave person", from Persian, probably from Mongolian, cf. Classical Mongolian baγatur, which is from Turkic, perhaps originally a Turkic personal name.
 * Bairam: from Turkish bayram, literally "a festival"
 * Baklava: from Turkish baklava
 * Balaclava: from Balaklava, village in the Crimea, which is from Turkish balıklava. A hoodlike knitted cap covering the head, neck, and part of the shoulders and worn especially by soldiers and mountaineers.
 * Balalaika: from Russian balalaika, of Turkic origin.
 * Balkan: from Turkish balkan "a mountain chain", relating to the states of the Balkan Peninsula, or their peoples, languages, or cultures.
 * Bamia: from Turkish bamya.
 * Ban: from Romanian, from Serbo-Croatian ban, "lord", which is from Turkic bayan, "very rich person" : bay, "rich" + -an, intensive suff.
 * Barbotte: from Canadian French barbotte, which is from Turkish barbut. A dice game.
 * Barchan/Barkhan: from Russian, which is from Kirghiz barkhan. A moving sand dune shaped like a crescent and found in several very dry regions of the world
 * Bashaw: from Turkish başa, a variant of pasha
 * Bashi-bazouk: from Turkish başıbozuk
 * Bashlyk: from Turkish başlık, "a hood", from baş, "a head"
 * Batman: from Turkish batman. Any of various old Persian or Turkish units of weight
 * Beetewk: from Russian bityug, bityuk, which is from Turkic bitük, akin to Chagatai bitü, Uzbek bitäü. A Russian breed of heavy draft horses.
 * Beg: from Turkic beg, an alternative form of bey
 * Beglerbeg: from Turkish beylerbeyi, a variant of beylerbey
 * Begum: from Urdu begam, which is from East Turkic begüm
 * Behcet: from the name of Turkish scientist Hulusi Behçet, a multisystem, chronic recurrent disease.
 * Bektashi: from Turkish bektaşi
 * Bergamot: from French bergamote, from Italian bergamotta, ultimately from Turkish bey armudu, literally, "the bey's pear"
 * Bey: from Turkish bey
 * Beylerbey: from Turkish beylerbeyi
 * Beylik: from Turkish beylik
 * Binbashi: from Turkish binbaşı, "chief of a thousand", bin "thousand" + bash "head". (Mil.) A major in the Turkish army.
 * Bogatyr: from Russian bogatyr "hero, athlete, warrior", from Old Russian bogatyri, of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish batur "brave"
 * Borek: from Turkish börek, ultimately from root bur-, "twisted"
 * Borunduk: from Russian burunduk, which is from Mari uromdok or from Turkic burunduk. A Siberian ground squirrel.
 * Bosa or boza: from Turkish boza, a fermented drink
 * Bosh: from Turkish boş, which means "nonsense, empty" (Bosh on wiktionary)
 * Bostanji: from Turkish bostancı, literally "a gardener"
 * Bouzouki: from modern Greek mpouzoúki, which is from Turkish bozuk "broken, ruined, depraved" or büzük "constricted, puckered".
 * Boyar: from Russian boyarin, from Old Russian boljarin, from Turkic baylar, plural of bay, "rich"; akin to Turkish bay, "rich, gentleman".
 * Bridge game: the word came into English from the Russian word, biritch, which in turn originates from a Turkic word for "bugler" (in modern Turkish: borucu, borazancı) or might have come from a Turkish term bir, üç, or "one, three"
 * Bugger: from Middle English bougre, "heretic", from Old French boulgre, from Medieval Latin Bulgarus, from Greek Boulgaros, "Bulgarian", probably ultimately from Turkic bulghar, "of mixed origin, promiscuous" or "rebels", from bulgamaq, "to mix, stir, stir up".
 * Bulgar: from Bolgar, Bolghar, former kingdom on the Volga river around Kazan (see bugger). A Russia leather originally from Bolgar.
 * Bulgur: from Turkish bulgur, which means "pounded wheat"
 * Buran: from Russian buran, of Turkic origin, probably from Tatar buran
 * Burka: from Russian, probably from buryi "dark brown (of a horse)", probably of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish bur "red like a fox"; the Turkic word probably from Persian bor "reddish brown"; akin to Sanskrit babhru "reddish brown".

C

 * Cafeneh: from Turkish kahvane, kahvehane "a coffee shop, café", from kahve "coffee" + hane "house"
 * Caïque: from Turkish kayık
 * Caiquejee: alteration (influenced by caique) of earlier caikjee, from Turkish kayıkçı, "a boatman"
 * Calpack: from Turkish kalpak
 * Caracal: from Turkish karakulak, which means "black ear"
 * Caraco: from French, perhaps from Turkish kerrake "alpaca coat". A woman's short coat or jacket usually about waist length.
 * Caracul: from Uzbek karakul, an alteration of karakul
 * Caragana: from Neo-Latin, of Turkic origin; akin to Kirghiz karaghan "Siberian pea tree".
 * Caramoussal: from Turkish karamürsel, karamusal, perhaps from kara "black" + mürsel "envoy, apostle"
 * Casaba: from Turkish Kasaba, a small town with 2.000 to 20.000 people in Turkey
 * Cassock: from Middle French casaque "long coat", probably ultimately from Turkic quzzak "nomad, adventurer" (the source of Cossack), an allusion to their typical riding coat. Or perhaps from Arabic kazagand, from Persian kazhagand "padded coat".
 * Cham: from French, which is from Turkish khan, "lord, prince"
 * Chekmak: from Turkish, a Turkish fabric of silk and cotton, with gold thread interwoven.
 * Chelengk: from Ottoman Turkish çelenk, a bird's feather used as a sign of bravery
 * Chiaus: from Turkish çavuş.
 * Chibouk: from Turkish çubuk.
 * Choga: from Sindhi, of Turko-Mongol origin; akin to Turkish çuha "cloth". A long-sleeved long-skirted cloak for men worn mainly in India and Pakistan.
 * Chouse: perhaps from Turkish çavuş "a doorkeeper, messenger"
 * Coffee: from Ottoman Turkish kahve via Italian caffè
 * Corsac: from Russian korsak, from Kirghiz karsak, "a small yellowish brown bushy-tailed fox"
 * Cosaque: from French, literally, "Cossack", from Russian Kazak & Ukrainian kozak, which is from Turkic Kazak. A cracker.
 * Cossack: from Turkic quzzaq which means "adventurer, guerilla, nomad" (Cossack on wiktionary)

D

 * Desemer: from German, from Low German, alteration of Middle Low German bisemer, besemer, of Baltic origin; akin to Lithuanian bezmnas, of Slavic origin; akin to Old East Slavic bezmenu "desemer, small weight", Polish bezmian, przezmian "balance without pans", perhaps of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish batman "small weight". An ancient balance.
 * Devshirmeh: from Turkish devşirme, which means "gathering"
 * Dey: from Turkish dayı, literally "a maternal uncle"
 * Dolma: from Turkish dolma, which means "filled" or "stuffed"
 * Dolman: ultimately from Turkish dolaman, a robe, from dolamak "to wind"
 * Dolmus, also Dolmush: from Turkish dolmuş, a share taxi
 * Domra: from Kazakh dombra, a musical instrument
 * Doner kebab: (Canadian: donair) from Turkish döner kebap
 * Donmeh: from Turkish dönme, which literally means "a convert"
 * Donum: from Turkish dönüm, an alternative form of dunam
 * Doodle: from German dudeln "to play (the bagpipe)", from dudel "a bagpipe", from Czech or Polish dudy "a bagpipe", from Turkish düdük "a flute".
 * Dunam: from Turkish dönüm, from dönmek "go round"

E

 * Elchee or elchi: from Turkish elçi, which means "an ambassador".
 * Eleme figs: from Turkish eleme "selected, sifted". Smyrna figs of superior quality packed flat.

F

 * Fez: from Turkish fes

G

 * Galiongee: from Turkish kalyonçi, kalyoncu, "a Turkish sailor", from kalyon, Italian galeone + çi or cu, the Turkish suffix.
 * Ganch: modification of Turkish kancalamak "to put on a hook", from Turkish kanca "large hook", modification of Greek gampsos "curved" + Turkish suffix -lamak.
 * Giaour: from Turkish gâvur
 * Gilet: from French, from Spanish gileco, jaleco, chaleco, from Arabic jalikah, "a garment worn by slaves in Algeria", from Turkish yelek "waistcoat, vest"

H

 * Hajduk: from Ottoman Turkish haydut, "bandit, soldier"
 * Harambaša: from Turkish haramibaşı, "bandit leader" (from harami, "bandit" + baş, "head")
 * Haremlik: from Turkish haremlik, from harem (from Arabic harim & Arabic haram) + the Turkish suffix -lik "a place"
 * Horde: from Turkic ordu or orda ("khan's residence") (Horde on wiktionary)
 * Hungary: most directly from Latin, ultimately from Turkic, c.f. Onogur.

I

 * Imam bayildi: from Turkish imambayıldı, "the imam fainted", an eggplant dish prepared with olive oil.
 * Imbat: from Turkish imbat, a cooling etesian wind in the Levant (as in Cyprus).

J

 * Janissary: from Turkish yeniçeri, which means "a new soldier" (janissary on wiktionary)
 * Jelick: from Turkish yelek, the bodice or vest of a Turkish woman's dress.
 * Jettru: from Turkic, a union of seven Turkic peoples of Central Asia formed at the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century under one khan.

K

 * Kadi: from Ottoman Turkish kadı, "judge"
 * Kadiluk: from Ottoman Turkish kadıluk, "jurisdiction"
 * Kaftan: from Turkish kaftan (also in Persian)
 * Kaique: from Turkish kayık, an alternative form of caïque.
 * Kalderimi: from Ottoman Turkish kaldırım, "paved road"
 * Kalpak: from Turkish kalpak
 * Kangal: from Turkish kangal or sivas kangal köpeği
 * Karabagh: A type of rug, named after the Karabagh region in the Caucasus.
 * Karabash: from Turkish karabaş, literally "a blackhead"
 * Karadagh: from Azerbaijani Karadagh, a mountain range in Azerbaijan province, northwestern Iran. a Persian rug having a bold design and rich coloring.
 * Karagane: from Russian karagan, which is from Turkic karagan. A species of gray fox found in Russia.
 * Karakul: from Uzbek karakul, literally a village in Uzbekistan
 * Karakurt: from Russian, of Turkic origin, karakurt, "a venomous spider".
 * Kasseri: from New Greek kaseri, from Turkish kaşer, kaşar
 * Kavass: from Turkish kavas
 * Kazak: from Kazak, a town in Azerbaijan, an Oriental rug in bold colors with geometric designs or stylized plant and animal forms.
 * Kefir: from Russian, probably ultimately from Old Turkic köpür, "milk, froth, foam", from köpürmäk, "to froth, foam".
 * Kelek: from Turkish kelek, a raft or float supported on inflated animal skins.
 * Kendyr: from Russian kendyr, from Turkish kendir. A strong bast fiber that resembles Indian hemp and is used in Asia as cordage and as a substitute for cotton and hemp.
 * Ketch: probably from Middle English cacchen "to capture", or perhaps from Turkish kayık "a boat, skiff".
 * Khagan: from Turkic kaghan, an alternative form of khan
 * Khan: from Turkic khan, akin to Turkish han (title meaning "ruler")
 * Khanum: from Turkic khanum, akin to Turkish hanım, "a female derivation of Khan"
 * Khatun: from Turkic khatūn, perhaps from Old Turkic or from Sogdian kwat'yn, "a queen"
 * Kibitka: from Russian, of Turkic origin; akin to Kazan Tatar kibit "booth, stall, tent", Uyghur käbit.
 * Kielbasa: from Polish kiełbasa, from East and West Slavic *kŭlbasa, from East Turkic kül bassï, "grilled cutlet", from Turkic kül bastï : kül, "coals, ashes" + bastï, "pressed (meat)" (from basmaq, to press)
 * Kilij: from Turkish kılıç, a Turkish saber with a crescent-shaped blade.
 * Kiosk: from Turkish köşk, an open summerhouse or pavilion
 * Kipchak: from Russian, which is from Chagatai. 1. One of the ancient Turkic peoples of the Golden Horde related to the Uyghurs and Kyrgyz. 2. The Turkic language of the Kipchaks.
 * Kis Kilim: from Turkish kızkilim, a kind of carpet.
 * Kizilbash: from Turkish kızılbaş, literally "a red head"
 * Knish: from Yiddish, from Ukrainian knysh, probably of Turkic origin.
 * Kok-saghyz: from Russian kok-sagyz, from Turkic kök-sagız, from kök "root" + sagız "rubber, gum"
 * Komitadji: from Turkish komitacı, a rebel, member of a secret revolutionary society.
 * Konak: from Turkish konak, a large house in Turkey.
 * Krym-saghyz: from Russian krym-sagyz, of Turkic origin, from Krym "Crimea", + sagız "rubber, gum".
 * Kulah: from Turkish Kula, a town in western Turkey. A Turkish rug that is often a prayer rug and that uses the Ghiordes knot.
 * Kulak: from Russian kulak "a fist", of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish kol "arm".
 * Kulan: from Kirghiz kulan, "the wild ass of the Kirghiz steppe".
 * Kumiss: from Turkic kumyz or kumis (kumiss on wiktionary)
 * Kurbash: from Turkish kırbaç
 * Kurgan: from Russian, of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish kurgan "fortress, castle"
 * Kurus: from Turkish kuruş, a Turkish piaster equal to 1/100 lira.

L

 * Lackey: from French laquais, from Spanish lacayo, ultimately from Turkish ulak, which means "runner" or "courier".
 * Ladik: from Turkish Ladik, a village in Turkey. A rug of fine texture woven in and near Ladik in central Anatolia.
 * Latten: from Middle English latoun, laton, from Middle French laton, leton, from Old Provençal, from Arabic latun, of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish altın "gold"
 * Lokshen: from Yiddish, plural of loksh "noodle", from Russian dial. loksha, of Turkic origin; akin to Uyghur & Kazan Tatar lakca "noodles", Chuvash läskä.

M

 * Mammoth: from Russian mamot, mamont, mamant, perhaps from a Yakut word derived from Yakut mamma "earth"; from the belief that the mammoths burrowed in the earth like moles.
 * Martagon: from Middle English, from Old French, from Old Spanish, from Ottoman Turkish martagan, "a kind of turban".
 * Merdiban: an accounting method used by the Ottoman Empire, Abbasid empire, and the Ilkhanate; from a word meaning "Ladder" or "Staircase".

N

 * Nagaika: from Russian, of Turkic origin; akin to Kirghiz nogai

O

 * Oda: from Turkish oda, literally "a room, chamber". A room in a harem.
 * Odalisque: from French, which is from Turkish odalık, from oda, "a room"
 * Oghuz or Ghuz:from Turkic oghuz. A group of Turks from Central Asia.
 * Osmanli: from Turkish osmanlı, from Osman, founder of the Ottoman Empire + lı "of or pertaining to"
 * Ottoman: is a form of couch which usually has a head but no back, though sometimes it has neither. It may have square or semicircular ends, and as a rule it is what upholsterers call "overstuffed” — that is to say no wood is visible. In American English, an ottoman is a piece of furniture consisting of a padded, upholstered ...
 * Ottoman: from French, adjective & noun, probably from Italian ottomano, from Turkish osmani, from Osman, Othman died 1326, founder of the Ottoman Empire

P

 * Paklava: modification of Turkish baklava
 * Parandja: from Uzbek, a heavy black horsehair veil worn by women of Central Asia.
 * Pasha: from Turkish paşa, earlier basha, from bash "head, chief" which equates to "Sir"
 * Pashalic: from Turkish paşalık, "title or rank of pasha", from paşa: the jurisdiction of a pasha or the territory governed by him
 * Pastrami: from Yiddish pastrame, from Romanian pastrama, ultimately from Turkish pastırma
 * Petcheneg: from Russian pecheneg, which is from Turkic. Member of a Turkic people invading the South Russian, Danubian, and Moldavian steppes during the early Middle Ages.
 * Pilaf: from Turkish pilav, and ultimately from Sanskrit pulāka- (पुलाक), "lump of boiled rice"
 * Pirogi: from Yiddish, from Russian, plural of pirog (pie), perhaps borrowed from Kazan Tatar, (cf. Turk. börek)
 * Pul: from Persian pul, which is from Turkish pul. A unit of value of Afghanistan equal to 1/100 Afghani.

Q

 * Qajar or Kajar: from Persian Qajar, of Turkish origin. A people of northern Iran holding political supremacy through the dynasty ruling Persia from 1794 to 1925.
 * Quiver: from Anglo-French quiveir, from Old French quivre, probably ultimately from the Hunnic language, kubur in Old Turkic

R

 * Rumelia: from Turkish Rumeli, "land of Romans"

S

 * Sabot: from Old French çabot, alteration of savate "old shoe", probably of Turkish or Arabic origin.
 * Saic: from French saïque, from Turkish shaika.
 * Saiga: from Russian saĭgá(k), from Turkic; cf. Chagatai sayğak
 * Saker: through Old French from Arabic saqr, probably from Turkic sonqur, which means "a falcon".
 * Samiel: from Turkish samyeli, sam, "poisonous" + yel, "wind".
 * Sanjak: from Turkish sancak, which means "a banner"
 * Sarma: from Turkish sarma, which means "wrapping"
 * Saxaul: from Russian saksaul, which is from Kazakh seksevil. A leafless xerophytic shrub or tree of the family Chenopodiaceae of Asia that has green or greenish branches and is used for stabilization of desert soils.
 * Selamlik: from Turkish Selamlık.
 * Seljuk: from Turkish Selçuk, "eponymous ancestor of the dynasties". Of or relating to any of several Turkic dynasties that ruled over a great part of western Asia in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries.
 * Seraskier: from Turkish serasker, from Persian ser "head, chief" + Arabic asker "an army".
 * Sevdalinka: originally Arabic sawda, via Turkish sevda, "black bile". Genre of Balkan folk-music
 * Sevruga: through Russian sevryuga ultimately from Tatar söirök.
 * Shabrack: from French schabraque, from German schabracke, from Hungarian csáprág, from Turkish çaprak
 * Shagreen: from Turkish sağrı, which means "the back of a horse"
 * Shaman: from Turkic word šamán.
 * Shashlik: from Russian шашлык, which is from Crimean Tatar şışlık, which means "shish kebab"
 * Shawarma: ultimately from Turkish çevirme, which literally means "turning"
 * Shish: from Turkish şiş, which literally means "a skewer"
 * Shish kebab: from Turkish şiş kebabı
 * Shor: from Russian, of Turko-Mongol origin; akin to Kalmyk & Mongolian sor "salt", Turkish sure "brackish soil". A salt lake in Turkestan, a salina.
 * Som: from Kirghiz, "crude iron casting, ruble"
 * Sofa: a long upholstered seat with a back and arms, for two or more people.

T

 * Taiga: from Russian taiga, of Turkic origin; akin to Teleut taiga "rocky, mountainous terrain", Turkish dağ "mountain"; Mongolian origin is also possible.
 * Taramasalata: from modern Greek taramas "preserved roe", from Turkish tarama "preparation of soft roe or red caviar" + salata "salad".
 * Taranchi: from Chagatai Taranci, literally "a farmer".
 * Tarantass: from Russian tarantas, which is from Kazan Tatar tarıntas.
 * Tarbagan: from Russian, which is from Teleut. A rodent
 * Tarbush: from Arabic tarbūsh, from Ottoman Turkish terposh, probably from Persian sarposh "headdress" (equivalent to sar "head" + pūsh "covering"), by association with Turkish ter "sweat". A tasseled cap of cloth or felt, usually red, that is worn by Muslim men either by itself or as the inner part of the turban.
 * Tarkhan: from Old Turkic tarkan, a privileged class.
 * Tarpan: from Russian, which is from Kirghiz or Kazakh tarpan.
 * Tartar: from Persian Tatar, of Turkic origin. A ferocious or violent person - Latin, from "Tartarus" - evil, hell.
 * Tau-saghyz: from Russian tau-sagyz, from Turkic tau-sagız, from tau "mountain" + sagız "gum, rubber".
 * Tavla: from Turkish tavla, a version of the board game backgammon.
 * Tekke: from Turkish tekke, a dervish monastery.
 * Tenge: from Kazakh teŋge "coin, ruble".
 * Tepe: from Turkish tepe, literally "a hill, summit". An artificial mound.
 * Terek: from Terek, river of southeast Russia, which is from Balkar Terk. A sandpiper of the Old World breeding in the far north of eastern Europe and Asia and migrating to southern Africa and Australia and frequenting rivers.
 * Theorbo: from Italian tiorba, which is from Turkish torba "a bag".
 * Toman: from Persian تومان, which is from Turkic tümen, "a unit of ten thousand".
 * Tovarich: from Russian tovarishch, from Old East Slavic tovarishch, sing. of tovarishchi, "business associates", which is from Old Turkic tavar ishchi, "businessman, merchant" : tavar, "wealth, trade" + ishchi, "one who works" (from ish, "work, business").
 * Tughra: from Turkish tuğra, an elaborate monogram formed of the Sultan's name and titles.
 * Tungus: a member of the Tungusic people; from Russian, from East Turkic tunguz, "wild pig, boar", from Old Turkic tonguz.
 * Turk: from Turkish türk, which has several meanings in English.
 * Turki: from Persian turki, from Turk, "Turk", from Turkish Türk.
 * Turquoise: from Middle English Turkeys, from Anglo-French turkeise, from feminine of turkeis Turkish, from Turc Turkish.
 * Tuzla: from Turkish tuzla, from the name of Lake Tuz in Turkey. A central Anatolian rug.
 * Tzatziki: from modern Greek tsatsiki, which is from Turkish cacık.

U

 * Ugrian: from Old East Slavic Ugre, which means "Hungarians", of Turkic origin.
 * Uhlan: from Turkish oğlan "a boy, servant".
 * Urdu: from Hindustani Urdu "camp", which is from Turkic ordu (source of horde).
 * Urman: from Russian, which is from Kazan Tatar urman, "a forest", synonymous with taiga; Turkish word orman.
 * Ushak: from Ushak, Turkish Uşak, manufacturing town of western Turkey. A heavy woolen oriental rug tied in Ghiordes knots and characterized by bright primary colors and an elaborate medallion pattern.

Y

 * Yardang: from Turkic yardang, ablative of yar "steep bank, precipice".
 * Yarmulka: of Turkic origin; akin to Turkish yağmurluk which means "rainwear".
 * Yashmak or yashmac: from Turkish yaşmak.
 * Yataghan: from Turkish yatağan.
 * Yogurt: from Turkish yoğurt. (yogurt on wiktionary)
 * Yurt: from Turkic yurt, which means "a dwelling place".
 * Yuruk: from Turkish yürük, "a nomad". 1. One of a nomadic shepherd people of the mountains of southeastern Anatolia. 2. A Turkish rug from the Konya and Karaman regions, southeastern Anatolia.

Z

 * Zill: from Turkish zil "bell, cymbals", of onomatopoeic origin.

title: List of English words of Turkic origin


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Export


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Evolutionary biology/popgenstyle

The following are some notes for a standard population genetics style.

TeX Markup
Please familiarise yourself with TeX Markup, as we'll be using this.

Alleles
Alleles should be bold. Where an allele already has a name, e.g. for sickle cell anaemia, use that. Otherwise use A and a (? but suggests dominance; is there an alternative?)

Allele frequencies
Standardly, use p and q for allele frequencies, possibly r for a third. s is unfortunately used elsewhere for $$1-w$$.

At equilibrium, they should be represented with an ampersand hat over the top:

Fitness
The standard letter for fitness is w. Mean fitness should be represented as:


text:
OLPAS

The Online Pupillage Application System, or OLPAS was a centralised service through which students applied for pupillage, the last stage of their training to barrister in England and Wales. It was a replacement for 'PACH' the Pupillage Application Clearing House, and it was replaced in 2009 by a new, similar, system called Pupillage Portal. Previously, applications could be submitted for either the summer or autumn 'season', with deadlines in April and September in the year before pupillage was due to commence. Individual chambers were able to choose in which season they wished to recruit. The Pupillage Portal has done away with this, and operates just one round of applications annually.

The system is free of charge and consists of an online application form in which applicants may include their educational details, as well as work experience and career motivation. The service allows applicants to apply to a maximum of twelve chambers each season. Chambers that choose not to make use of the Portal have their own application procedures and forms, and may set different deadlines for each year's applications.

title: OLPAS


text:
Viking ring fortress

A Viking ring fortress, Trelleborg-type fortress, or trelleborg (pl. trelleborgs), is a type of circular fort of a special design, built in Scandinavia during the Viking Age. These fortresses have a strictly circular shape, with roads and gates pointing in the four cardinal directions. Inside the fort, each quadrant has one, in a single case four, square blocks of longhouses, completing the geometric symmetry. There are a total of five confirmed Viking ring fortresses at present, located in Denmark (although sites in Sweden and across Northern Europe have similar construction). They have been dated to the reign of Harold Bluetooth of Denmark, with an estimated near contemporary time of construction c. 980. Their exact historical context is subject to debate. In 2023, the five Danish forts were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List because of their unique architecture and testimony to the military power of the Jelling Dynasty.

Etymology
This specific type of fortification was named after the first discovered example: Trelleborg near Slagelse, excavated in the years 1936-1941. Traditionally, the name trelleborg has been translated and explained as ″a fortress built by slaves″, since the Old Norse word for slave was thrall (The modern word is træl in Danish and träl in Swedish) and borg means fortress or city. The word trel (pl. trelle) is also a plausible explanation and relates to the wooden staves, covering both sides of the protective circular walls.

History
At the end of the 10th century Harold Bluetooth vied with tribal Saxons, the Holy Roman Empire - at that time governed by the (integrated) Saxon Ottonian house - and the Slavic Abodrit and Veleti tribes for the control of the southern region of the Jutland peninsula, This area was also the very same region presumed to have been the ancient homelands of the Angles. Harald also had to contend with Norse people exercising coastal raids. At the Firth of Schlei lay Hedeby, known in the contemporary literary sources as Schleswig, where the Danevirke complex of fortifications streched across the foot of the peninsula, holding back the hostile hosts from entering the territory, as well as providing a safe trade route via Ejderen from the North Sea coastline into Hedeby and the Baltic Sea.

The entire complex of fortifications, bridges and roads, including Ravninge Bridge on the land route towards Jelling, are presumed to have been in the hands of Harold. The fortresses establish a string of strategic points stretching from Aggersborg at the north of Jutland southward across Funen to end in Borgring at the east coast of Zealand. They have been dated to the reign of Harold Bluetooth, who held sway until c. 985, where he was ousted by his son Sweyn Forkbeard, who eventually conquered the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Æthelred the Unready some years later. This is the apex of the Jelling dynasty, its patristic line ending the year 1042 with Harthacnut, son of Cnut the Great, son of Sweyn.

Fortifications of a similar shape and date have been found around other old towns in Scandinavia, including Borgeby, Trelleborgen, and Helsingborg in Skåne, Sweden, near Aarhus in Jutland, and Rygge, Norway Other, similar forts across Northern Europe include the Walcheren forts in Friesland (built in the outskirts of the Carolingian Empire, with a similar street orientation), and Warham Camp in England, but these are not considered Viking ring forts as they were likely built at different periods in time.

The precise purpose of the fortresses is unknown. Some historians argue that they functioned as military barracks or training grounds by Sweyn Forkbeard. However, it is more likely that they were intended as defensive strongholds along strategic trade points and/or administrative outposts of the budding state. Søren Sindbæk has offered the hypothesis that the fortresses allowed local populations to seek shelter within the fortress walls against an enemy while waiting for assistance from friendly forces from afar; this means that the fortresses helped Harold Bluetooth to control vast territory and send his army to a particular part of his territory without worrying that the undefended parts would be conquered or plundered. Others have debated whether the fortresses were defensive structures, military strongholds, or primarily served as barracks, as well as the economic, religious, and symbolic significance of the fortresses.

The fortresses were soon abandoned and was never mentioned in the literary sources, effectively creating the enigma now known as trelleborge (Danish plural of 'trelleborg'). Nonnebakken was enveloped by the near contemporary municipal bishopric of Odense, while the rest receded into the landscape. The modern discovery of these sites began in the 1930s, with the excavation of Trelleborg in Denmark. Since then, a total of five sites have been officially accepted as Viking ring fortresses.

During the royally funded research project Kongens Borge (The Kings Castles), in 2010, Denmark applied for the admission of Trelleborg, Fyrkat and Aggersborg as The Trelleborg Fortresses as a UNESCO World Heritage cultural property, It is rumoured, that Denmark and Sweden, perhaps around that time, applied for admission of the Viking ring fortresses, but the records available at the World Heritage Centre cannot confirm any Swedish ring fortresses was ever mentioned. The five trelleborge presently known became the Viking-Age Ring Fortresses World Heritage Site in 2023.

List of Viking ring fortresses

 * Aggersborg near Aggersund, Denmark.
 * Borgring near Køge, Denmark.
 * Fyrkat near Hobro, Denmark.
 * Nonnebakken in Odense, Denmark.
 * Trelleborg near Slagelse, Denmark.
 * Suspected
 * Borgeby north of Lund, Skåne, Sweden.
 * Helsingborg, Skåne, Sweden.
 * Trelleborgen, Skåne, Sweden.

Fortification typology
The trelleborgs had similar design, "perfectly circular with gates opening to the four corners of the earth, and a courtyard divided into four areas which held large houses set in a square pattern", and differ clearly from other fortifications in that region, essentially because of the geometrical plan - though excepting the Frankish forts at Walcheren. A short exposé over early Viking camps in Scandinavia, by Arjen Heijnis, has turned the picture around, marking out these earlier camps "fundamentally different from later defensive structures (ie. the early castles)."

The fortresses are sometimes partially encircled by advanced ramparts, though not always circular.

It has been said the trelleborgs were measured with the Roman foot and that the pointed bottom of the moats is a Roman trait.

Dating by dendrochronology has found the wood used for the construction of Trelleborg to have been felled in the autumn of 980 and thus being used for building presumably in the spring of 981. The findings indicate a short construction time with no signs of maintenance, leading to the interpretation of only a short use of the buildings, maybe five years but hardly more than twenty. Fyrkat may be a little older, Aggersborg somewhat younger. 2014 brought a corresponding date to Borgring (end of 10th century), and, in 2019, following the geo-radar survey and subsequent excavation, Nonnebakken also was dated to c. 980. In the 2021 application to UNESCO, all five Danish trelleborgs appear with dates between 970 and 980. Some say the material found at Nonnebakken, Borgring and the Scandian forts is not suffient for a precise dating,

but still the layout of the trelleborgs in their local setting - at Trelleborg, Fyrkat, Aggersborg, Nonnebakken under Odense, Borgring and the forts at Trelleborg and Borgeby in Sweden - are so similar that it is probable that they were also functionally associated.

At the turn of the century much debate had passed under the bridge, with much emphasis on adding or not adding an archaeological site to the list of trelleborgs; Nonnebakken was accepted as late as 2017, though at that time the archaeologist Mads Runge had to conclude there was no sign of any buildings inside the rampart. This knowledge status changed the following year, when geo-radar technology was applied.

title: Viking ring fortress


text:
Talk:Economy of Romania

Untitled
NOTE: The IMF has just revised its growth forecast for 2008 to 8.4%, since April when the previous figure of 5.4% was reported. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 41.4.203.20 (talk) 02:04, 23 October 2008 (UTC)

Advertisement
It feels like I'm reading an advertisement for Romania more than an analysis. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.233.233.166 (talk) 17:57, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

I have totally the same feeling...It annoys me —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.130.17.219 (talk) 00:53, 24 December 2009 (UTC)

Anybody has any sugestions?
How to stop the series of vandalizations of this article (especially in the first infobox) by individuals who keep increasing "the numbers" without giving any reference? The article risks becoming a joke if this numbers continue to be bumped up. Nergaal (talk) 19:13, 25 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I added this one "The average monthly salary in Romania is around €500" and I've taken this info from as one can see I added the ref. As the rest, much of it is referenced in comparison with other articles. --NotRem (talk) 19:28, 25 December 2007 (UTC)

"Romania is the regional economic power, well ahead in terms of GDP as its neighbouring countries." Romania's neighbor Ukraine has almost twice bigger GDP. Tiger is short but is very proud by his size :)
 * It's not a tiger who is proud, it's a nut, but I didn't have time to decrapify this article from his influence. -- AdrianTM (talk) 04:30, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

At least in 2006 GDP of Romania was bigger than its neighbours. See the list.
 * place 45, Romania 121,609 (millions of US dollars)
 * place 49, Hungary 112,899
 * place 51, Ukraine 106,111

Actually you can find this also in the article List of countries by GDP (nominal). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.113.151.26 (talk) 14:55, 4 January 2008 (UTC)

There are also interesting the future estimations of GDP for Romania. In all of them Romania has bigger GDP than Ukraine, Hungary, not to mention Moldova or Bulgaria. LearnratesX (talk) 19:40, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

See this interesting article List of countries by future GDP estimates (nominal) LearnratesX (talk) 19:42, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

It's funny to read that "Romania is the largest, high-income EU member economy of Central-Eastern Europe", when based on it's GDP per capita it's just recently gotten into upper-middle income class.Creionul (talk) 09:03, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

Something else, please review all the "Agriculture" article as most of the statements are not true. The county of Romania has the potential but not yet the technology. And I am sure much more than 5% of country population works within this sector.Creionul (talk) 20:47, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Please also review the statement that Romania is the second wine export in Europe. Unfortunately it is not! You might wanna check the 2007 list of wine-producing countries in the world. You will see that world wide Romania is only on the 12th position and other european counties are ahead Romania. Please try to be more correct for the next time.Creionul (talk) 21:17, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Yep, somebody shall correct these ridiculous claims. I.e. Poland has about twice as big GDP PPP according to its wiki entry, Czechs and Hungarians have comparable GDP while almost half of population of Romania. Moreover, Romania doesn't rank among high-income countries in the reference provided, so I'm removing this claim.138.38.221.134 (talk) 10:14, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

This article on the economy of Romania is nothing more than a load of cr*p. The tone is abnormally boastful and most of the information is totally inaccurate. I can understand the people who wrote this may want Romania to look good in the eyes of readers but I am afraid this is not best achieved through sheer lies. I have a good knowledge of the Romanian economy and I know there are some true and very positive things out there that should be mentioned instead of blatant lies. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ovimunt (talk • contribs) 14:54, 4 August 2008 (UTC)
 * +1. Enegrea (talk) 10:54, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

Current economic crisis
Someone with a bit more knowledge then me should write something about the current economic crisis. I think it's pretty important and there's nothing in here at all. Looking here you'd think we're the richest country in the EU, it's pretty surreal... --Helixdq (talk) 15:59, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't think the situation is bad enough to say that Romania is in an economic crisis, until we see some actual long term effect at least. --C.matei (talk) 16:47, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

Romania`s economic growth prognosis for 2009 is -4%, but here it says +7% please change that.

 * I agree, in fact the finance minister predicts an 8% contraction. This is clearly painting totally the wrong picture. The same can be said as to the rest of the article. Source: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,date:2009-07-31~menuPK:34461~pagePK:34392~piPK:64256810~theSitePK:4607,00.html

Before World War II
Before World War II Romania was supposed to have had the third-largest economy on the continent, after Germany and France; a prosperous peasant society, exporting huge amounts of wheat and oil.

I've removed this sentence from that section since it had nothing to do with reality. Having a mainly peasant society and exports comprised mostly of agricultural products and basic resources like oil (which at the time had nowhere near the value it has today) is definetly NOT a good thing for a country's economy, btw.
 * Romania processed 95% of its own oil, and it was not basic resources, it was petrochemical products that were exported.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 142.167.84.84 (talk) 03:44, 18 April 2008 (UTC)

According to these figures by A. Maddison, Romania's GDP was about the 15th on the continent before World War II and GDP per capita was the lowest. And according to the same figures, GDP only increased by 15% in 12 years before WWII, so I have doubts about the second part of that section too (if industrial production doubled from nothing, it doesn't mean a whole lot).

I might try to add something to this section in the following days if I have time. If someone else is willing to contribute, that would be great. C.matei (talk) 16:41, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

 * We've had socks of banned persons who kept adding this kind of things, thanks for keeping an eye on this. -- AdrianTM (talk) 16:53, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Looking at the trend, I am pretty sure that the author ignores the territories that were lost after 1945. Nergaal (talk) 00:08, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm not certain, but I think the author calculated GDP throughout history in the geographical area that is today's Romania. This would also explain why pre-WWI GDP was higher than post-WWI GDP.--C.matei (talk) 11:28, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

A lot of errors on the page. Agriculture is not!!!developed in Romania such as described. 62.143.120.66 (talk) 23:44, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

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National Prognosis Romania
Someone who keeps taking off Romania's economic prognosis in 2020 at EUR GPD PPP 36,300 please do not take this off, leave it on. The statement was backed up by the appropriate evidence meaning it had a citation. The information regarding Doing Business should be removed since it is already mentioned on the front page.Pryde 01 (talk) 01:59, 11 June 2008 (UTC)

Updates
In the last couple of days i tried to mend this article as much as i could because some figures were just ridiculous. I made many corrections, and for each correction i put a reliable source. I hope you all agree that this article must reflect the true face of the Romanian economy and that these vandalisms should be some how stopped. Mario 1987  09:41, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

Median Wage
Whats the Median Wage of this country (PPP)?--J intela (talk) 01:05, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

you told us the Average.

Average Wage
The growing middle class section mentions average wage, but per week? per month? per year? I'm guessing its per month, but who knows? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 164.97.245.84 (talk) 00:42, 28 September 2012 (UTC)

Energy section
editsemiprotected I found it very weird to read about the percentages mentioned in the energy section. I consider the most reliable source as being the data from Electrica, the electricity company. Accordingly, the percentages are the following: Coal - 41,69% Nuclear - 13,1% Gas - 17,42% Hydro - 25,8%

the link for the complete pdf. file is http://www.electrica.ro/files/eticheta%202007.pdf (Rava sd (talk) 15:52, 20 October 2008 (UTC))
 * Yes check.svg Done--Aervanath lives in the Orphanage 19:14, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

labour force by sector?
8.6% + 36.7% + 37.7% <100% why?

Aranjaments
I rearranged and reclassified the chapters, because there was big confusion between concepts and ideas. User:Damian Radu —Preceding undated comment added 18:08, 27 March 2009 (UTC).

"suffered more than most of its neighbors"
This edit took that out, but the statement comes from the Wall Street Journal source cited. I'm willing to WP:AGF that WSJ is wrong here, but I'd like to see some sources giving numbers that contradict it. Pcap ping  14:14, 19 January 2010 (UTC)

 * In 1938, per-capita national income reached $94, surpassing other present-day developed European countries such as Greece ($76) or Portugal ($81). However, the Romanian economy still lagged behind its Western European counterparts.

The reference is not a Reliable Source and [it's contradicted by this data](http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls)

1938 GDP/capita, values PPP in international 1990 dollars:

bogdan (talk) 19:55, 18 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Greece: $2,677
 * Portugal: $1,747
 * Romania: $1,242

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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 10:54, 24 October 2021 (UTC)
 * City Gate Towers.jpg

Too positive
I am not sure if this is really the truth? It seems too optimistic and positive. Llucadesigns (talk) 07:34, 4 May 2023 (UTC)

 * bit racist 62.56.102.127 (talk) 22:57, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

GDP Data
This user(@2003:e8:6f11:2c60:359e:a8da:5fc6:228c @2003:e8:6f11:2ce1:c484:36cd:f262:8af2 @2003:e8:6f11:2ce1:30e6:2669:9175:8173), which i suspect he's the same person keeps messing with the gdp figures without providing a source. Mascarpone1337 (talk) 12:47, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

GDP of Romania
Someone provides numbers higher than the real numbers of the source used. Someone has put values such as 402bn GDP nominal, 24.000 per capita and 810bn GDP PPP with 48.000 per capita, while based on the April 2023 IMF report, used as the source, the nominal GDP of Romania for 2024 is projected to reach 376bn, while per capita the value is to stand at the level of 20.175. In terms of GDP PPP, it is estimated to reach 830bn with per capita being 44.000. Those are the numbers accessible in the database of the April 2023 IMF report. As for today, we also have access to the newer report from October 2023, where the data also does not correspond with the numbers provided by someone Coartcord (talk) 09:05, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Economy of Romania


text:
Russian cuisine

Russian cuisine is a collection of the different dishes and cooking traditions of the Russian people as well as a list of culinary products popular in Russia, with most names being known since pre-Soviet times, coming from all kinds of social circles.

History
The history of Russian cuisine was divided in four groups: Old Russian cuisine (ninth to sixteenth century), Old Moscow cuisine (seventeenth century), the cuisine that existed during the ruling of Peter and Catherine the Great (eighteenth century), and finally Petersburg cuisine, which took place from the end of the eighteenth century to the 1860s.

In the Old Russian period, the main food groups were bread, grains, and other foods that contained starch. Women baked pies with many different fillings, such as mushrooms or berries. During gatherings, a loaf of bread and salt was always present. Kasha, such as buckwheat and oats, were represented as wellbeing to the household. Many Russians used honey and berries and made them into gingerbread, which is still a popular Russian dessert. Many current Russian dishes were inspired from Asian cultures, such as pelmeni.

In the seventeenth century, cuisine was separated based on economic class. The rich had meat and delicacies, such as caviar, while the poor had the most simple dishes. During this century, more food appeared, because new countries were annexed. During the Peter and Catherine the Great era, minced meat was incorporated into dishes and other European countries' cuisine was also mixed into Russian foods. In the last era (Petersburg cuisine), many French, German, Dutch, and Italian meals were incorporated into Russian foods, such as lamb and pork. The French popularized potatoes and tomatoes in dishes. Due to the long-lasting cold weather in Russia, many dishes were made to be preserved, so they would not have to take extra trips in the freezing snowy days.

Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century.

The 16th through 18th centuries brought more refined culinary techniques. It was during this time period that smoked meats and fish, pastry cooking, salads and green vegetables, chocolate, ice cream, wines, and juice were imported from abroad. At least for the urban aristocracy and provincial gentry, this opened the doors for the creative integration of these new foodstuffs with traditional Russian dishes.

In the early 20th century, the Revolution saw a rapid decline of elite cuisine, driven both by the new egalitarian state ideology and by disappearance of the old Imperial elites who used to be its consumers. The distinct Soviet cuisine was born, emphasizing fusion of the Union's national cuisines, scientific approach to a diet, and industrial approach to food preparation and serving.

The fall of the Soviet Union saw the end of state monopoly on food service, and a corresponding diversification of cuisine. As average prosperity grew starting with the second decade after the collapse, so did the demand for fresh culinary experiences, prompting a renaissance of Imperial-era elite cuisine, as well as a wide search for novelty, local specialties, and creative reinterpretations, leading to the birth of what has been dubbed the New Russian cuisine.

Ethnic and regional variations and influences
The national Russian cuisine has evolved in a multicultural and multiethnic state, with strong mutual influence from the cuisines of other ethnic groups that live within the nation's borders or had been a part of the Russian state historically.

Despite such deep mutual influence, many national cuisines within the borders of the Russian Federation maintain their uniqueness, such as Tatar cuisine, Sakha cuisine, or Yamal cuisine.

The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the north of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further east, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs.

Soups
Soups have always played an important role in Russian cuisine. The traditional staple of soups such as shchi (щи), borscht (борщ), ukha (уха́), rassolnik (рассо́льник), solyanka (соля́нка), botvinya (ботви́нья), okroshka (окро́шка), and tyurya (тю́ря) was enlarged in the 18th to 20th centuries by both European and Central Asian staples like clear soups, pureed soups, stews, and many others.

Russian soups can be divided into at least seven large groups:
 * Chilled soups based on kvass, such as tyurya, okroshka, and botvinya.
 * Light soups and stews based on water and vegetables, such as svekolnik.
 * Noodle soups with meat, mushrooms, or milk.
 * Soups based on cabbage, most prominently shchi.
 * Thick soups based on meat broth, with a salty-sour base like rassolnik and solyanka.
 * Fish soups such as ukha.
 * Grain- and vegetable-based soups.

Cold soups
Okroshka is a cold soup based on kvass or (less frequently) various kinds of sour milk; kefir is often preferred nowadays. Okroshka is also a salad. The main ingredients are two types of vegetables that can be mixed with cold boiled meat or fish in a 1:1 proportion. Thus vegetable, meat, poultry, and fish varieties of okroshka are made.

There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs—greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats.

The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to crème fraîche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste.

For sour milk-based okroshka, well-shaken natural sour milk (often with the addition of seed oil) is used with the addition of pure water and ground garlic. Sometimes manufactured kefir is used instead of natural sour milk for time-saving reasons, though some say it detracts from the original taste of okroshka.

Tyurya is very similar to okroshka, the main difference being that instead of vegetables, bread, sometimes with addition of onion and vegetable oil, is soaked in kvass, similar to Silesian wodzionka or Portuguese açorda. It was commonly consumed during rough times (such as the Russian Revolution, World War I, and World War II) and by poor peasants. Also, due to its simplicity, it was very common as a meal during religious fasting.

Botvinya is another type of cold soup. The name of the soup comes from the Russian word botva, which means "leafy tops of root vegetables", and, true to its name, it is made with the leafy tops of young beets, as well as sorrel, scallions, dill, cucumbers, and two types of kvass. Mustard, garlic, and horseradish are then added for flavor. The vegetables are blanched, then rubbed through a sieve, and kvass is poured over them.

Svyokolnik (also known as kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well.

Hot soups
Shchi (cabbage soup) had been the predominant first course in Russian cuisine for over a thousand years. Shchi knew no social class boundaries, and even if the rich had richer ingredients and the poor made it solely of cabbage and onions, all these "poor" and "rich" variations were cooked in the same tradition. The unique taste of this cabbage soup was from the fact that after cooking it was left to draw (stew) in a Russian stove. The "spirit of shchi" was inseparable from a Russian izba (log hut). Many Russian proverbs are connected to this soup, such as Shchi da kasha — pishcha nasha (Щи да каша — пища наша, "Shchi and porridge are our staples"). It can be eaten regularly, and at any time of the year.

The richer variant of shchi includes several ingredients, but the first and last components are a must:
 * 1) Cabbage.
 * 2) Meat (very rarely fish or mushrooms).
 * 3) Carrots, basil or parsley roots.
 * 4) Spicy herbs (onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper, bay leaf).
 * 5) Sour components (smetana, apples, sauerkraut, pickle water).

When this soup is served, smetana is added. It is eaten with rye bread. Older tradition called for thickening shchi with a sort of roux, made by scalding a portion of the flour with a boiling broth, without frying it first, to increase the soup's caloric content, especially if the meat was not used; but about late XVIII century, and especially in the higher-class cooking, this was abandoned for the sake of the finer taste. During much of the year when the Orthodox Christian Church prescribes abstinence from meat and dairy, a vegan version of shchi is made. "Kislye" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), "serye" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. "Zelyonye" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup.

Borscht is made of broth, beets, and tomatoes with various vegetables, including onions, cabbage, tomato, carrots, and celery. Borscht usually includes meat, particularly beef in Russia, and pork in Ukraine. Borscht is generally served very hot, with sour cream, chopped chives or parsley, and crushed garlic. Borscht is traditionally served with black bread. Borscht is associated as national cuisine in various different Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania.

Ukha is a warm watery fish dish, however calling it a fish soup would not be absolutely correct. "Ukha" as a name for fish broth was established only in the late 17th to early 18th centuries. In earlier times this name was first given to thick meat broths, and then later chicken. Beginning from the 15th century, fish was more and more often used to prepare ukha, thus creating a dish that had a distinctive taste among soups.

A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used.

Rassolnik is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late—only in the 19th century. About this time the name rassolnik was attached to it, originating from the Russian word rassol which means "brine" (pickle water). Pickle water was known to be used as a base for soups from the 15th century at the latest. Its concentration and ratio with other liquids and soup components gave birth to different soups: solyanka, shchi, and of course rassolnik. The latest is moderately sour-salty soups on pickled cucumber base. Some are vegetarian, but more often with products like veal or beef kidneys or all poultry giblets (stomach, liver, heart, neck, feet). For best taste, there has to be a balance between the sour part and neutral absorbers (cereals, potatoes, root vegetables). Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley.

Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th–17th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called "fish rassolnik". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish.

Solyanka is a thick, piquant soup that combines components from shchi (cabbage, smetana) and rassolnik (pickle water and cucumbers), spices such as olives, capers, tomatoes, lemons, lemon juice, kvass, salted and pickled mushrooms make up a considerably strong sour-salty base of the soup. Solyanka is much thicker than other soups, about 1/3 less liquid ratio. Three types are distinguished: meat, fish, and simple solyanka. The first two are cooked on strong meat or fish broths, and the last on mushroom or vegetable broth. All the broths are mixed with cucumber pickle water.

Lapsha (noodle soup) was adopted by Russians from Tatars, and after some transformation became widespread in Russia. It comes in three variations: chicken, mushroom, and milk. Cooking all three is simple, including preparation of noodles, cooking of corresponding broth, and boiling of noodles in broth. Noodles are based on the same wheat flour or buckwheat/wheat flour mix. Mixed flour noodles go better with mushroom or milk broth.

Salads
Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad) is a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main features of New Year buffets.

Sel'edka pod shuboy (or shuba, from шуба), also known as "dressed herring", is chopped salted herring under a "coat" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables.

Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) is a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. It is dressed with sunflower or olive oil.

Porridge
Porridge is one of the most important dishes in traditional Russian cuisine. The variety of cereals is based on the local variety of crops. In Russian, the word kasha refers to any kind of porridge.

The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porridge is cooked in milk, especially if it is to be served for breakfast. Butter, salt, sugar, jams, fresh fruit and berries may be added.

Plain cooked porridges, especially buckwheat and rice, may be served as a side dish with other meals.

Canned meat, tushonka, is made with buckwheat/rice kasha traditions in mind, unlike the bully beef type of canned meat. While average-priced tushyonka contains a large portion of lard and jelly, this very non-meaty addition to meat can be used as a sauce for enriching rice or buckwheat kasha's taste.

Meat
In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted: at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes.
 * a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock such as kholodets, below)
 * offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;
 * whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called "zharkoye" (from the word "zhar"(жар) meaning "heat")

As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products—pickled cabbage, or sour and "soaked" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine.

Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling.

Russians seem to have learned to make pelmeni from Finno-Ugric people. The word means "ear-shaped bread" in Finno-Ugric languages such as Udmurt and Komi; pel' means 'ear' and n'an means 'bread'. In Siberia they were made in large quantities and stored safely frozen outside for several winter months. In mainland Russia, the term "Siberian pel'meni" refers to pel'meni made with a mix of meats (whether the 45/35/20 mix mentioned above or another ratio), rather than a single meat. By the late 19th century, they became a staple throughout urban European Russia. They are prepared immediately before eating by boiling in water until they float, and then 2–5 minutes more. The resulting dish is served with butter or sour cream (mustard, horseradish, and vinegar are popular as well). Some recipes suggest frying pelmeni after boiling until they turn golden brown.

Pelmeni belong to the family of dumplings. They are akin to vareniki, a Ukrainian variety of dumplings with a filling made of, most commonly, mashed potatoes, farmer's cheese, or cherries. They are not dissimilar to Chinese potstickers, Tibetan mo-mo and Italian ravioli, as well as the manti of the Kazakh and Kyrgyz cultures. The main difference between pelmeni and other kinds of dumplings is in their shape and size; the typical pelmen' is roughly spherical and is about 2 to 3 cm in diameter, whereas most other types of dumplings are usually elongated and much larger.

The process of making pelmeni is somewhat labor-intensive, but a pelmennitsa greatly speeds up the task. This device typically consists of a round aluminum plate with a matrix of holes surrounded by ridges. A sheet of dough is placed over the matrix, a filling is scooped into each "cell", and the dough sags under the weight of the filling, forming the body of the dumpling. Another sheet of dough is placed on top, and a wooden roller is rolled over the top, pressing the dough layers together, cutting the dumplings apart by the ridges, and forcing the dumplings to fall through the holes. Using a pelmennitsa, the chef can quickly manufacture batches of dumplings at a time.

Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical.

Kotlety (minced cutlets) are pan-fried cutlet-shaped patties, not dissimilar from Salisbury steak and other such dishes. Kotlety are made from pork and beef, or from chicken, sometimes also from fish. In common recipes, ground meat, pork, onions and bread are put in a bowl and mixed thoroughly until it becomes relatively consistent. Once this effect is achieved, patties are formed and then put into a hot frying pan to cook. Pozharsky cutlet is a more elaborated version which was adopted by French haute cuisine.

Beef Stroganoff: Sautéed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). From its origins in mid-19th-century Russia, it has become popular around the world, with considerable variation from the original recipe.

Shashlyk is a form of shish kebab (marinated meat grilled on a skewer) popular in former Soviet Union countries, notably in Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan. It often features alternating slices of meat and onions. Even though the word "shashlyk" was apparently borrowed from the Crimean Tatars by the Cossacks as early as the 18th century, kebabs did not reach Moscow until the late 19th century, according to Vladimir Gilyarovsky's "Moscow and Moscovites". From then on, their popularity spread rapidly; by the 1910s they were a staple in St. Petersburg restaurants and by the 1920s they were already a ubiquitous street food all over urban Russia. Shashlik is also used in Russia as a food to be cooked in an outdoor environment, similarly to barbecue in English-speaking countries.

Kholodets (or studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3–4 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana.

Gulyash is also a very popular dish in Russia. Of course, this is the Austro-Hungarian dish Goulash originally, but it was still very popular in the USSR. It had its place in domestic cuisine, and was served in Soviet canteens in plants and factories.

Fish
Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish—including saltwater species—were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as "zakuski" (hors d'oeuvres).

Selyodka pod shuboi (dressed herring)
There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of "svekolnik" and pickled herring: selyodka pod shuboi, literally "[fur]coated (dressed) herring", where pickled herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or smetana sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence "fur"-coat" word, shuba).

Vegetables
Cabbage, potatoes, and cold-tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available.

Desserts and pastries

The earliest form of the honey bread was made with just rye flour, honey and berry juice, arriving in Russia by way of Egypt in the 9th century. Later preparations dating to the 12th and 13th centuries included spices purchased in the markets of India and the Middle east. Tula gingerbread is known as early as 1685, and was historically made by well-known confectioners with gingerbread molds hand carved into planks of wood taken from local birch and pear trees.

Pirozhki (singular: pirozhok; diminutive of pirog [pie]) are small stuffed buns (pies) made of either yeast dough or short pastry. They are filled with one of many different fillings and are either baked (the ancient Slavic method) or shallow-fried (known as "priazhenie", this method was borrowed from the Tatars in the 13th century). One feature of pirozhki that sets them apart from, for example, English pies is that the fillings used are almost invariably fully cooked. The use of chopped hard-boiled eggs in fillings is another interesting feature. Six typical fillings for traditional pirozhki are:

 * 1) Chopped boiled meat mixed with sautéed onions
 * 2) Rice and boiled eggs with dill
 * 3) Fish sautéed with onions and mixed with hard-boiled chopped eggs and rice
 * 4) Mashed potatoes mixed with dill and green onion
 * 5) Sautéed cabbage
 * 6) Sautéed mushrooms with onions and sometimes carrots

Polish pierogi (type: dumplings) are not really related to Russian "pirogi" (type: pies) and "pirozhki" (type: buns, small pies)

Blin are thin griddle cakes similar to crepes traditionally made with buckwheat flour and yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. They may be topped or filled with butter, smetana (sour cream), fruit preserves or caviar. Blini are often served in connection with Maslenitsa (Масленица, Butter Week; also known as Pancake Week), a springtime religious festival celebrated before Lent, but it is also a common breakfast dish. The word "blin" (singular of blini) comes from Old Slavic "mlin", which means "to mill".

Blin had a somewhat ritual significance for early Slavic peoples in pre-Christian times since they were a symbol of the sun, due to their round form. They were traditionally prepared at the end of the winter to honor the rebirth of the new sun during Maslenitsa. This tradition was adopted by the Orthodox Church and is carried on to the present day, as the last week of dairy and egg products before Lent. Bliny are still often served at wakes, to commemorate the recently deceased. Blini can be made from wheat, buckwheat, or other grains, although wheat blini are most popular in Russia. The word "blin" is also often used as a soft curse word, expressing frustration. This practice originates from the word's phonetic similarity to the much more vulgar word "Blyádt".

Syrniki are fried curd fritters, garnished with sour cream, jam, honey or applesauce.

Vatrushka is a kind of cake with a ring of dough and tvorog (cottage cheese) in the middle, often with raisins or bits of fruit, from about five inches to two and a half feet in diameter.

Kulich is a kind of Easter bread that is traditional in the Orthodox Christian faith and is eaten in countries like Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Moldova, North Macedonia and Serbia.

Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest. Blessed kulich is eaten before breakfast each day. Any leftover kulich that is not blessed is eaten with Paskha for dessert.

Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol XB (from the traditional Easter greeting of Христос воскресе, "Christ is Risen").

Kulich is only eaten between Easter and Pentecost.

The recipe for kulich is similar to that of Italian panettone.

Paskha is a festive dish made in Eastern Orthodox countries which consists of food that is forbidden during the fast of Great Lent. It is made during Holy Week and then brought to Church on Great Saturday to be blessed after the Paschal Vigil. The name of the dish comes from Pascha, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of Easter.

Cheese paskha is a traditional Easter dish made from quark (curd cheese, творог), which is white, symbolizing the purity of Christ, the Paschal Lamb, and the joy of the Resurrection. It is formed in a mould, traditionally in the shape of a truncated pyramid (a symbol of the Church; this form is also said to represent the Tomb of Christ). It is usually served as an accompaniment to a rich Easter bread called paska in Ukrainian and kulich in Russian.

The pascha is decorated with traditional religious symbols, such as the "Chi Ro" motif, a three-bar cross, and the letters X and B (Cyrillic letters which stands for Христосъ Воскресе. This is the Slavonic form of the traditional Paschal greeting: "Christ is Risen!"). All of these religious decorations symbolize Christ's Passion and Resurrection.

Varenye is a dessert and condiment. It is made from cooking fruits or berries. It is similar to jam except that fruits are not macerated and the consistency is more akin to fruit within syrup. It is used as a topping for crepes and syrniki and as a sweetener for tea. It is also eaten on its own as a sweet.

Pastila is a fruit confectionery (pâte de fruits). It has been described as "small squares of pressed fruit paste" and "light, airy puffs with a delicate apple flavor". In Imperial Russia, the "small jellied sweetmeats" were served for tea "with a white foamy top, a bit like marshmallow, but tasting of pure fruit". In its modern form, it is essentially fruit meringue, but baked to a soft, not crisp consistency. Unlike its derivative zefir, true pastila does not use gelling agents and has a much lower egg white content.

Zefir (may also be spelled zephyr or zephir) is a type of soft confectionery made by whipping fruit and berry purée (mostly apple puree) with sugar and egg whites with subsequent addition of a gelling agent like pectin, carrageenan, agar, or gelatine. It is commonly produced and sold in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The name given after the Greek god of the light west wind Zephyr symbolizes its delicate airy consistency.

Zefir is somewhat similar in its consistency to marshmallows, Schokokuss or krembo. It is derived from the traditional Russian pastila but with added egg white foam and a gelling agent. The form typically resembles traditional meringue. However, in contrast to commercial meringue, it is never crisp. It is usually of white or rose color.

Chocolate-coated versions are also widespread. In contrast to the other chocolate-coated marshmallow-like confectioneries they normally do not include a biscuit layer.

Kissel or kisel is a viscous fruit dish, popular as a dessert and as a drink. It consists of the sweetened juice of berries, like mors, but it is thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot; sometimes red wine or fresh or dried fruits are added. It is similar to the Danish rødgrød and German Rote Grütze. Swedish blåbärssoppa is a similarly prepared bilberry dessert, although only fresh or frozen bilberries, not dried berries are used to prepare it.

Kissel can be served either hot or cold, also together with sweetened quark or semolina pudding. Kissel can also be served on pancakes or with ice cream. If the kissel is made using less thickening starch, it can be drunk—this is common in Russia and Ukraine.

Beverages
Many traditional drinks are indigenous to Russia and are not present in other national cuisines. The most notable of these are vodka, sbiten', kvass, medovukha and mors. Many of them are no longer common and have been replaced by drinks originating in Europe. Nonetheless, these beverages were formerly drunk as a complement to meat and poultry dishes, sweet porridge, and dessert. Of particular note is sbiten, an immensely popular medieval drink which has since been replaced by tea as the Russian mainstay beverage.

Alcoholic

Of Russia's alcoholic beverages, perhaps the most ancient is Medovukha, a sweet, low-alcohol drink, made with fermented honey with the addition of various spices. A stronger honey-based beverage, stavlenniy myod, also exists in Russia and is broadly equivalent to Scandinavian mead; it is typically made with the admixture of berry juices.

Vodka is the best known of Russia's alcoholic products and is produced, with some variation, throughout the country. Vodka can be either grain or potato based and is frequently flavored with a great variety of ingredients ranging from hot-pepper and horseradish to fruits and berries.

Beer has been manufactured in Russia since at the very least the 9th century. Its popularity was for many centuries concentrated in the Lands of Novgorod. Beer continued to be made throughout Russian history, but real growth came in the 18th century when many breweries were founded in order to supply the newly modernized and expanded imperial army and fleet. A real explosion in the popularity of beer came in the last decades of the Soviet Era and has continued into the present day, with Russia now ranking as the fourth largest producer in the world.

Wine is manufactured in the southern regions in the country but lags far behind other alcoholic beverages in popularity. The wine industry, which was somewhat notable in imperial times, is slowly expanding, but most Russians that drink wine tend to prefer imported foreign varieties, especially sweet varieties produced in the countries of the former USSR and little known in the outside world.

Non-alcoholic
Most non-alcoholic Russian drinks are based on fruits and berries. Those include kompot, made by boiling fruit with sweetened water; uzvar, in which dried fruit is used instead; mors, made of berries such as lingonberry, cranberry, blueberries, or raspberries; and kisel, a viscous fruit drink thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot.

Kvass is an ancient and still widely popular bread-based drink. The basic method of preparing kvass includes water, flour and liquid malt; these ingredients are used to make a dough that is subjected to fermentation. This results in a beverage with very low alcohol content. Commercial kvass is often around 0.5% alcohol. The fermented liquid, referred to as "zator", is diluted with water and mixed with yeast, sugar, and aromatic additives. This final mixture is allowed to brew for several days. Flavor additives may include fruit and berry juices (cherry, raspberry, lemon, etc.), as well as ginger and mint.

Sbiten, another non-alcoholic drink, is made of honey, water, fruit juices, and spices. Sbiten was once the most popular non-alcoholic beverage in the country, but in the last few centuries, it has been superseded and largely replaced by tea and coffee.

Tea is by far the most common drink in almost all parts of Russia. First introduced from China in the 17th century, its popularity has since spread throughout the country. Black tea has always been the dominant variety, but after the Russian acquisition of Central Asia, awareness of and interest in green tea began to increase slowly. Today Russia remains one of the largest tea consumers in the world. Russian Caravan is perhaps the most well-known type of Russian tea around the world.

Until the Sino-Soviet split, tea was mostly brought in from China. Now, Russia imports most of its tea from India and Sri Lanka, with Darjeeling being the most prized variety. Domestic cultivation exists in the southern regions of the country (mostly in Krasnodar Krai), but local supply is very limited compared to national consumption.

Coffee is also popular but has never caught up to tea in popularity. Peter the Great is credited with introducing coffee to Russia, with the drink becoming steadily more pervasive since that time. Coffee is commonly made either using the Turkish or common European methods.

title: Russian cuisine


text:
Jean-Antoine Letronne

Jean Antoine Letronne (25 January 1787 – 14 December 1848) was a French archaeologist.

Life
Letronne was born in Paris. His father, a poor engraver, sent him to study art under the painter David, but his own tastes were literary, and he became a student in the Collège de France, where it is said he used to exercise his already strongly developed critical faculty by correcting old translations of Greek authors and afterwards comparing the results with the latest and most approved editions.

From 1810 to 1812 he travelled in France, Switzerland and Italy, and on his return to Paris published a paper entitled Essai critique sur la topographie de Syracuse, designed to elucidate Thucydides. Two years later appeared his Recherches geographiques et critiques on the De Mensura Orbis Terrae of Dicuil. In 1815 he was commissioned by government to complete the translation of Strabo which had been begun by François-Jean-Gabriel de La Porte du Theil, and in March 1816 he was one of those who were admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions by royal ordinance, having previously contributed On the Metrical System of the Egyptians.

Further promotion came rapidly: in 1817 he was appointed director of the École Nationale des Chartes, in 1829 inspector-general of the university, and in 1831 professor of history in the Collège de France. This chair he exchanged in 1838 for that of archaeology, and in 1840 he succeeded Pierre Claude François Daunou as keeper of the national archives.

Meanwhile, he published, among other works, Considérations générales sur l'évaluation des monnaies grecques et romaines, et sur la valeur de l'or et de l'argent avant la découverte de l'Amérique in 1817, Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains in 1823, and Sur l'origine grecque des zodiaques pretendus egyptiens in 1837. By the last-named he finally exploded a fallacy which had up to that time vitiated the chronology of contemporary Egyptologists. His Diplômes et chartes de l'époque mérovingienne, sur papyrus et sur vélin were published in 1844. The most important work of Letronne is the Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines de l'Égypte, of which the first volume appeared in 1842, and the second in 1848.

Letronne is also known as one of the earliest proponents of the Flat Earth Myth.

Publications

 * Essai sur la topographie de Syracuse dans le cinquième siècle avant J.-C., Paris, 1812.
 * « Lettre sur Eunapius », Magasin encyclopédique, avril, 1813
 * Dictionnaire géographique de Vosgien, nouvelle édition augmentée et refondue, 1813 (under the pseudonym Auguste L***)
 * Géographie de toutes les parties du monde, Paris, 1816.
 * Recherches sur les fragments d'Héron d'Alexandrie, ou Histoire du système métrique des Égyptiens depuis le règne de Pharaon jusqu'à l'invasion des Arabes, 1816 (mémoire couronné par l'Académie des Inscriptions).
 * Considérations générales sur l'évaluation des monnaies grecques et romaines, et sur la valeur de l'or et de l'argent avant la découverte de l'Amérique, mémoire lu à l'Académie dans les séances des 30 mai, 13 et 27 juin et 11 juillet 1817.
 * Œuvres complètes de Rollin, t.I (nouvelle édition accompagnée d'observations et d'éclaircissements historiques, par Antoine Jean Letronne), Firmin Didot, Paris, 1821 (publication des œuvres de Charles Rollin) (series 30 volumes).
 * Mémoire sur le tombeau d'Osymandyas, 1822
 * Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Égypte pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirées des inscriptions grecques et latines relatives à la chronologie, à l'état des arts, aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays, 1823
 * Œuvres complètes de Rollin, vol. 16 (Histoire romaine t.IV), Paris, 1823 (publication of Charles Rollin's works).
 * « Notice sur la traduction d'Hérodote de M. A.-L. Miot, et sur le Prospectus d'une nouvelle traduction d'Hérodote de M. P.-L. Courrier », Journal des Savants, 1823.
 * Inscription grecque, gravée sur la base d'une statue trouvée dans les fouilles du canal d'Alexandrie, et maintenant dans la collection Drovetti à Turin, 1824.
 * Observations critiques et archéologiques sur l'objet des représentations zodiacales qui nous restent de l'antiquité, à l'occasion du zodiaque égyptien peint dans une caisse de momie, qui porte une inscription grecque du temps de Trajan, 1824
 * Cours élémentaire de géographie ancienne et moderne, rédigé sur un nouveau plan, 9e édition, 1825.
 * Tabulae octo nummorum, ponderum, mensurarum apud Romanos et Graecos, 1825.
 * Lettre à M. Joseph Passalacqua sur un papyrus grec et sur quelques fragmens de plusieurs papyrus appartenant à sa collection d'antiquités égyptiennes (avec un fac similé du papyrus), Paris, 1826.
 * Matériaux pour l'histoire du Christianisme en Égypte, en Nubie et en Abyssinie, contenus dans trois mémoires académiques sur des inscriptions grecques des Ve et VIe, Imprimerie royale, Paris, 1832.
 * La Statue vocale de Memnon, considérée dans ses rapports avec l'Égypte et la Grèce, 1833.
 * Lettres d'un antiquaire à un artiste : sur l'emploi de la peinture historique murale dans la décoration des temples et des autres édifices publics ou particuliers chez les Grecs et les Romains ; ouvrage pouvant servir de suite et de supplément à tous ceux qui traitent de l'histoire de l'art dans l'antiquité, 1835.
 * Appendice aux lettres d'un antiquaire, etc., 1837.
 * Lettre des conservateurs de la Bibliothèque royale : sur l'ordonnance du 22 février 1839 relative à cet établissement / Jomard, Raoul-Rochette, Letronne, Champolion-Figeac, ..[et al.]
 * Fragments des poèmes géographiques de Scymnus de Chio et du faux Dicéarque : restitués principalement d'après un manuscrit de la Bibliothèque royale, 1840
 * Sur l'origine du zodiaque grec et sur plusieurs points de l'astronomie et de la chronologie des Chaldéens, 1840
 * « Sur les écrits et les travaux d'Eudoxe de Cnide, d'après M. Ludwig Ideler, membre de l'Académie de Berlin, et sur quelques points relatifs à l'histoire de l'astronomie et à la chronologie anciennes », Journal des savants, 1840–41
 * « Inscription grecque de Rosette [éd. grecque et trad. française] », Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, 1, éd. par Karl et Theodor Müller, Paris, 1841, p. I-VIII et 1-44 (Read online).
 * Mémoire sur l'utilité qu'on peut retirer de l'étude des noms propres grecs, pour l'histoire et l'archéologie, 1845. (Read online)
 * Fragments inédits d'anciens poètes grecs : tirés d'un papyrus appartenant au Musée Royal, avec la copie entière de ce papyrus : suivis du texte et de la traduction de deux autres papyrus appartenant au même musée, 1841
 * Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines de l'Égypte, vol., Paris, 1842.
 * « Inscription grecque accompagnée des noms hiéroglyphiques de Marc-Aurèle et de Lucius Vérus trouvée à Philes en Égypte », Journal des savants, 1843
 * Examen critique de la découverte du prétendu cœur de Saint-Louis, faite à la Sainte Chapelle le 15 mai 1843, 1844
 * Table d'Abydos imprimée en caractères mobiles, 1845
 * Analyse critique des représentations zodiacales de Dendéra et d'Esné, 1845
 * Diplômes et chartes de l'époque mérovingienne, sur papyrus et sur vélin, conservés aux Archives du royaume, publiés sous les auspices des ministres de l'intérieur et de l'instruction publique, Kaeppelin, Paris, 1845.
 * Sur l'authenticité de la lettre de Thibaud, roi de Navarre à l'évêque de Tusculum, 1846
 * Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines de l'Égypte, vol. II, Paris, 1848.
 * Mélanges d'érudition et de critique historique, Paris, 1860 (recueil d'articles et de travaux déjà parus, précédés par l'« Éloge de A.-J. Letronne lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres dans sa séance annuelle du 16 août 1850 » par le baron Walckenaer).
 * Œuvres choisies, 1881-1885

title: Jean-Antoine Letronne