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Dystonia

Dystonia is a neurological hyperkinetic movement disorder in which sustained or repetitive muscle contractions occur involuntarily, resulting in twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal fixed postures. The movements may resemble a tremor. Dystonia is often intensified or exacerbated by physical activity, and symptoms may progress into adjacent muscles.

The disorder may be hereditary or caused by other factors such as birth-related or other physical trauma, infection, poisoning (e.g., lead poisoning) or reaction to pharmaceutical drugs, particularly neuroleptics, or stress. Treatment must be highly customized to the needs of the individual and may include oral medications, chemodenervation botulinum neurotoxin injections, physical therapy, or other supportive therapies, and surgical procedures such as deep brain stimulation.

Classification
There are multiple types of dystonia, and many diseases and conditions may cause dystonia.

Dystonia is classified by: Physicians use these classifications to guide diagnosis and treatment.
 * 1) Clinical characteristics such as age of onset, body distribution, nature of the symptoms, and associated features such as additional movement disorders or neurological symptoms, and
 * 2) Cause (which includes changes or damage to the nervous system and inheritance).

Types

 * Generalized
 * Focal
 * Psychogenic
 * Acute dystonic reaction
 * Vegetative-vascular

Generalized dystonias
For example, dystonia musculorum deformans (Oppenheim, Flatau-Sterling syndrome):
 * Normal birth history and milestones
 * Autosomal dominant
 * Childhood onset
 * Starts in lower limbs and spreads upwards

Also known as torsion dystonia or idiopathic torsion dystonia (old terminology "dystonia musculorum deformans").

Focal dystonias
These most common dystonias are typically classified as follows:

The combination of blepharospasmodic contractions and oromandibular dystonia is called cranial dystonia or Meige's syndrome.

Genetic/primary
There is a group called myoclonic dystonia where some cases are hereditary and have been associated with a missense mutation in the dopamine-D2 receptor. Some of these cases have responded well to alcohol.

Other genes that have been associated with dystonia include CIZ1, GNAL, ATP1A3, and PRRT2. Another report has linked THAP1 and SLC20A2 to dystonia.

Signs and symptoms
Symptoms vary according to the kind of dystonia involved. In most cases, dystonia tends to lead to abnormal posturing, in particular on movement. Many individuals with the condition have continuous pain, cramping, and relentless muscle spasms due to involuntary muscle movements. Other motor symptoms are possible including lip smacking.

An accurate diagnosis may be difficult because of the way the disorder manifests itself. Affected individuals may be diagnosed as having similar and perhaps related disorders including Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, carpal tunnel syndrome, temporomandibular joint disorder, Tourette's syndrome, conversion disorder or other neuromuscular movement disorders. It has been found that the prevalence of dystonia is high in individuals with Huntington's disease, where the most common clinical presentations are internal shoulder rotation, sustained fist clenching, knee flexion, and foot inversion. Risk factors for increased dystonia in patients with Huntington's disease include long disease duration and use of antidopaminergic medication.

Causes
Primary dystonia is suspected when the dystonia is the only sign and there is no identifiable cause or structural abnormality in the central nervous system. Researchers suspect it is caused by a pathology of the central nervous system, likely originating in those parts of the brain concerned with motor function—such as the basal ganglia and the GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) producing Purkinje neurons. The precise cause of primary dystonia is unknown. In many cases it may involve some genetic predisposition towards the disorder combined with environmental conditions.

Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. The main mechanism is inflammation of the blood vessels, causing restriction of blood flow to the basal ganglia. Other mechanisms include direct nerve injury by the organism or a toxin, or autoimmune mechanisms.

Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some dystonias. The - pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons. This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients; but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, an ouabain block of - pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia. Ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations, dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations. A mutation in the - pump (ATP1A3 gene) can cause rapid onset dystonia parkinsonism. The parkinsonism aspect of this disease may be attributable to malfunctioning - pumps in the basal ganglia; the dystonia aspect may be attributable to malfunctioning - pumps in the cerebellum (that act to corrupt its input to the basal ganglia) possibly in Purkinje neurons.

Cerebellum issues causing dystonia is described by Filip et al. 2013: "Although dystonia has traditionally been regarded as a basal ganglia dysfunction, recent provocative evidence has emerged of cerebellar involvement in the pathophysiology of this enigmatic disease. It has been suggested that the cerebellum plays an important role in dystonia etiology, from neuroanatomical research of complex networks showing that the cerebellum is connected to a wide range of other central nervous system structures involved in movement control to animal models indicating that signs of dystonia are due to cerebellum dysfunction and completely disappear after cerebellectomy, and finally to clinical observations in secondary dystonia patients with various types of cerebellar lesions. It is proposed that dystonia is a large-scale dysfunction, involving not only cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical pathways, but the cortico-ponto-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop as well. Even in the absence of traditional "cerebellar signs" in most dystonia patients, there are more subtle indications of cerebellar dysfunction. It is clear that as long as the cerebellum's role in dystonia genesis remains unexamined, it will be difficult to significantly improve the current standards of dystonia treatment or to provide curative treatment."

Treatment
Various treatments focus on sedating brain functions or blocking nerve communications with the muscles via drugs, neuro-suppression, or selective denervation surgery. Almost all treatments have negative side-effects and risks. A geste antagoniste is a physical gesture or position (such as touching one's chin) that temporarily interrupts dystonia, it is also known as a sensory trick. Patients may be aware of the presence of a geste antagoniste that provides some relief. Therapy for dystonia can involve prosthetics that passively simulate the stimulation.

Physical intervention
While research in the area of effectiveness of physical therapy intervention for dystonia remains weak, there is reason to believe that rehabilitation can benefit dystonia patients. Physical therapy can be utilized to manage changes in balance, mobility and overall function that occur as a result of the disorder. A variety of treatment strategies can be employed to address the unique needs of each individual. Potential treatment interventions include splinting, therapeutic exercise, manual stretching, soft tissue and joint mobilization, postural training and bracing, neuromuscular electrical stimulation, constraint-induced movement therapy, activity and environmental modification, and gait training.

Recent research has investigated further into the role of physiotherapy in the treatment of dystonia. A recent study showed that reducing psychological stress, in conjunction with exercise, is beneficial for reducing truncal dystonia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Another study emphasized progressive relaxation, isometric muscle endurance, dynamic strength, coordination, balance, and body perception, seeing significant improvements to patients' quality of life after 4 weeks.

Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to "rewire" itself and eliminate dystonic movements. The work of several doctors such as Nancy Byl and Joaquin Farias has shown that sensorimotor retraining activities and proprioceptive stimulation can induce neuroplasticity, making it possible for patients to recover substantial function that was lost due to Cervical Dystonia, hand dystonia, blepharospasm, oromandibular dystonia, dysphonia and musicians' dystonia.

Due to the rare and variable nature of dystonia, research investigating the effectiveness of these treatments is limited. There is no gold standard for physiotherapy rehabilitation. To date, focal cervical dystonia has received the most research attention; however, study designs are poorly controlled and limited to small sample sizes.

Baclofen
A baclofen pump has been used to treat patients of all ages exhibiting muscle spasticity along with dystonia. The pump delivers baclofen via a catheter to the thecal space surrounding the spinal cord. The pump itself is placed in the abdomen. It can be refilled periodically by access through the skin. Baclofen can also be taken in tablet form

Botulinum toxin injection
Botulinum toxin injections into affected muscles have proved quite successful in providing some relief for around 3–6 months, depending on the kind of dystonia. Botox or Dysport injections have the advantage of ready availability (the same form is used for cosmetic surgery) and the effects are not permanent. There is a risk of temporary paralysis of the muscles being injected or the leaking of the toxin into adjacent muscle groups, causing weakness or paralysis in them. The injections must be repeated, as the effects wear off and around 15% of recipients develop immunity to the toxin. There is a Type A and a Type B toxin approved for treatment of dystonia; often, those that develop resistance to Type A may be able to use Type B.

Muscle relaxants
Clonazepam, a benzodiazepine, is also sometimes prescribed. However, for most, their effects are limited and side-effects like mental confusion, sedation, mood swings, and short-term memory loss occur.

Ketogenic diet
One complex case study found that a ketogenic type diet may have been helpful in reducing symptoms associated with alternating hemiplegia of childhood (AHC) of a young child. However, as the researchers noted, their results could have been corollary in nature and not due to the diet itself, though future research is warranted.

Surgery
Surgery, such as the denervation of selected muscles, may also provide some relief; however, the destruction of nerves in the limbs or brain is not reversible and should be considered only in the most extreme cases. Recently, the procedure of deep brain stimulation (DBS) has proven successful in a number of cases of severe generalised dystonia. DBS as treatment for medication-refractory dystonia, on the other hand, may increase the risk of suicide in patients. However, reference data of patients without DBS therapy are lacking.

History
The Italian Bernardino Ramazzini provided one of the first descriptions of task-specific dystonia in 1713 in a book of occupational diseases, The Morbis Artificum. In chapter II of this book's Supplementum, Ramazzini noted that "Scribes and Notaries" may develop "incessant movement of the hand, always in the same direction … the continuous and almost tonic strain on the muscles... that results in failure of power in the right hand". A report from the British Civil Service also contained an early description of writer's cramp. In 1864, Solly coined the term "scrivener's palsy" for this condition. These historical reports usually attributed the etiology of the motor abnormalities to overuse. Then, dystonia were reported in detail in 1911, when Hermann Oppenheim, Edward Flatau and Wladyslaw Sterling described some Jewish children affected by a syndrome that was retrospectively considered to represent familial cases of DYT1 dystonia. Some decades later, in 1975, the first international conference on dystonia was held in New York. It was then recognized that, in addition to severe generalized forms, the dystonia phenotype also encompasses poorly-progressive focal and segmental cases with onset in adulthood, such as blepharospasm, torticollis and writer's cramp. These forms were previously considered independent disorders and were mainly classified among neuroses. A modern definition of dystonia was worded some years later, in 1984. During the following years it became evident that dystonia syndromes are numerous and diversified, new terminological descriptors (e.g., dystonia plus, heredodegenerative dystonias, etc.) and additional classification schemes were introduced. The clinical complexity of dystonia was then fully recognized.

title: Dystonia


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Normal number (computing)

In computing, a normal number is a non-zero number in a floating-point representation which is within the balanced range supported by a given floating-point format: it is a floating point number that can be represented without leading zeros in its significand.

The magnitude of the smallest normal number in a format is given by:

$$b^{E_{\text{min}}}$$

where b is the base (radix) of the format (like common values 2 or 10, for binary and decimal number systems), and $E_{\text{min}}$  depends on the size and layout of the format.

Similarly, the magnitude of the largest normal number in a format is given by

 * $$b^{E_{\text{max}}}\cdot\left(b - b^{1-p}\right)$$

where p is the precision of the format in digits and $E_{\text{min}}$  is related to $E_{\text{max}}$  as:

$$E_{\text{min}}\, \overset{\Delta}{\equiv}\, 1 - E_{\text{max}} = \left(-E_{\text{max}}\right) + 1$$

In the IEEE 754 binary and decimal formats, b, p, $E_{\text{min}}$, and $E_{\text{max}}$  have the following values:

For example, in the smallest decimal format in the table (decimal32), the range of positive normal numbers is 10−95 through 9.999999 × 1096.

Non-zero numbers smaller in magnitude than the smallest normal number are called subnormal numbers (or denormal numbers).

Zero is considered neither normal nor subnormal.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Normal number (computing)


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Slaty bristlefront

The slaty bristlefront (Merulaxis ater) is a member of the Neotropical bird family Rhinocryptidae, the tapaculos. It is endemic to south-east Brazil.

Taxonomy and systematics
The slaty bristlefront and Stresemann's bristlefront (Merulaxis stresemanni) form a superspecies, and the two might actually be one species. It has no subspecies.

Description
The slaty bristlefront is 18.5 cm long. A male weighed 37.2 g and a female 33 g. The male is mostly dark blue gray. The lower back is dark brown and the flanks, vent, and tail are black. The female is over all shades of brown, lighter on the throat and breast. Both sexes have a crest of short stiff feathers that stand erect at the base of the bill and forehead.

Distribution and habitat
The slaty bristlefront is found only in southeastern Brazil, in a narrow band near the Atlantic coast from Espírito Santo south to Santa Catarina. It might have formerly occurred further north in southern Bahia.

The slaty bristlefront is a bird of humid forests in both lowlands and mountains. In a few locations it is found at elevations as low as 100 m but more typically its lower limit is 400 m. In the northern part of its range it is found only in the mountains, as high as 1800 m.

Feeding
Little is known about the slaty bristlefront's diet. It is known to forage in pairs, though not close together, on the ground and in low vegetation.

Breeding
One slaty bristlefront nest has been described, in Rio de Janeiro state. It was constructed by both members of a pair using twigs, narrow leaves, and leaf stems with a lining of lichen. It was placed in a roughly horizontal burrow at least 1.24 m long in an earthen bank.

Vocalization
The slaty bristlefront begins its song with a series of clicks followed by a trill described as "hysterical laughter". It has several calls, described as “tsewk-tsewk, pit”, “keekick”, and “he-he-heeheeheehee”.

Status
The IUCN has assessed the slaty bristlefront as least concern. It is threatened by habitat loss, especially in the lowlands.

title: Slaty bristlefront


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Little Joe 2

The Little Joe 2 was a test of the Mercury space capsule, carrying the rhesus monkey Sam (Macaca mulatta) close to the edge of space. He was sent to test the space equipment and the adverse effects of space on humans.

The flight was launched December 4, 1959, at 11:15 a.m. ET from Wallops Island, Virginia, United States. Little Joe 2 flew to an altitude of 55 miles (88 km). It was recovered with the monkey intact and alive in the Atlantic Ocean by the USS Borie. Sam was one of a series of monkeys in space. Sam, from the School of Aviation Medicine in San Antonio, Texas, received his name as an acronym of the facility. Sam experienced up to 12Gs and three minutes of weightlessness. The flight time was 11 minutes, 6 seconds, with a payload of 1,007 kg.

The boilerplate Mercury spacecraft used in the Little Joe 2 mission is currently displayed at Airpower Park and Museum, Hampton, Virginia.

title: Little Joe 2


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User:Pir

hello ! just leave a message on the talk page.

No personal attacks
From today 14. October 2:35:08am I'm removing all personal attacks on sight. pir 01:43, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Various articles I might write or improve one day
Participatory budget 45 minute claim Fallujah Brukman factory (Argentina)Argentina Occupation of Luxembourg (1940-1945) General Security Directorate Opposition to US foreign policy DNA repair DNA damage checkpoint cell cycle recombination post-replication repair nucleotide excision repair translesion synthesis repressive tolerance butchers of the world

Various articles I have contributed to
Iyad Allawi Operation Rockingham

Favourite quotes

 * "A little rebellion now and then is a good thing." (Thomas Jefferson)

"

title: User:Pir


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Talk:List of tier 1 internet service providers

BSNL

Primus Telecom, Agile/Internode, Comindico
I'm adding Primus Telecom ( primustel.com ) to the list as they appear to fit the criteria for a Tier 1 ISP. (Disclosure: I'm a primustel australia customer).

Edit: Agile/Internode ( http://internode.on.net ), and Comindico ( http://www.comindico.com.au ) as they are considered Tier 1 ISP's in Australia —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 211.27.82.46 (talk • contribs) 11:57, 14 May 2004  (UTC)

TeliaSonera International Carrier is a Tier1 Network. TeliaSonera International Carrier, not to be mixed with teliasonera that handles End Costumers. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeliaSonera_International_Carrier It is a Tier 1 network provider with Autonomous System number AS1299. In 2013 TeliaSonera was the second biggest carrier in the world.[1] — Preceding unsigned comment added by 37.123.144.4 (talk) 02:03, 9 May 2013 (UTC)

Allstream
Allstream is also a Tier-1 ISP. Check out: http://www.allstream.com/about/network/ —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 209.82.17.12 (talk • contribs) 13:58, 13 December 2004 (UTC)

"Tier 1 ISP" is a contentious issue, and possibly a meaningless term in 2005. I am deleting the truly marginal entries from the list. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Rdl (talk • contribs) 02:08, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

Cleaned up list
Cleaned up list, forgot to post about 2 weeks ago. Let me add that Primus is not a Tier1 even in Australia, but are close enough and will become the 5th as soon as telstra peers with them. The tier1's in AU are: MCI; AAPT/CONNECT; Telstra; SINGTEL Optus. Primus and Agile are in the ranks to be moved up; as well as powertel who has purchased NTT/Verio's customers in AU. Australia is more of a tier 2 base offering services to the people really wanting tier 1. SPT Comindico is hardly tier 1, they dropped connections over SCCN and limit themselves very broadly until they bring things around. Give them a good 4 - 5 years before even considering them tier 1; but they are a carriers carrier or a tier 2. Tier 1 ISP isn't at all meaningless here in 2005; run checks on the routing tables, it still holds very true today. To be considered Tier1 in the US or Canada, you need to own your own network backbone in either owned fiber or have a long term IRU, peer with those currently considered Tier 1 and be able to show enough traffic to support an ISP to actually buy from you (Why else is ATDN considered Tier1, people buy announcements via transit from them). Entire list updated, please note edits in here and save them. Dont go deleting them if you dont like them or believe they arn't Tier 1 without verification, I can back each one of them up with proof via route servers and personal knowledge. --68.57.130.138 05:51, 28 September 2005 (UTC)- J

Additions or removals from tier 1 isp page
Users should post here for all deletions or additions done to the page, I've checked each provider against route servers and verified global tier 1 status. Some are just common sense, yet were verified eitherway. Removals of ISP's because you have never heard of them or you think they are not tier 1, shouldn't be done without clear verification and proof to show that you have proven they are or are not tier 1. --68.57.130.138 23:27, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

Protected
I've protected this page until you've all sorted out what should and shouldn't be on the list.

Please could all editors sign their entries so that its possible for others to work out who is saying what? This is done by appending ~ to the end of your comment. --Tony Sidaway Talk 19:16, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Hi Tony, I noticed this article because of a comment someone left on your talk page... Thought I'd comment because this topic is covered by my professional expertise. The standing list is completely wrongheaded but resolving this dispute might be difficult because many providers' marketing departments will incorrectly represent themselves as tier-1 networks against the conventional definition (which, in short, is a network which doesn't pay for transit) because many customers incorrectly believe that it is advantageous to connect to tier-1 networks (it isn't, unless you are heavily multi-homed).
 * The conventional definition isn't really set in stone, as it is not always a useful metric and it is terribly hard to measure accurately, so people often redefine it to match what they want to know, what they can measure, or what they want others to think. In my professional opinion (although not speaking for my employer): This list is completely someplace between completely useless and somewhat useless depending on how we define tier-1, that the list is between difficult and impossible to make NPOV depending on how we define tier-1, and that the more useful versions tend to be the hopelessly POV ones. Finally, no matter how you define Tier-1, the list would be quite difficult to verify, the best we could do is say "X says Y is Tier-1" because of the above.  As a result, unless discussion here convinces me otherwise I'm going to AFD this list in a few days... We should replace it with a list of autonomous systems sorted by number of distinct AS adjacencies. This metric gives a more useful view of a networks global connectivity, is easily defined and verifiable, and as such is not subject to bad information being generated by marketing departments. --Gmaxwell 02:44, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Your comment doesn't surprise me. I've yet to see a definition of Tier 1 that makes any sense to me. --Tony Sidaway Talk 03:01, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I've unprotected, based on the reasoning that some radical edits may improve this article. If not, it may be considered as a deletion candidate on the grounds advanced by Gmaxwell. --Tony Sidaway Talk  17:30, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Cogent
An anonymous editor added Cogent to the list, probably due to the controversy surrounding a de-peering between Level (3) and Cogent today. As I don't have enough information to determine whether it belongs here or not, I'm leaving it listed and adding. Feel free to remove Cogent if I didn't do the right thing according to Neutral point of view. Baricom 07:16, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * apparently cognet do buy transit to some networks though i don't have information off hand on which ones. so that would make them not a tier 1 Plugwash 01:55, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

British Telecom?
This list seems very US centric. What about British Telecom for instance? Since they have had until recently an effective monopoly over the UK infrastructure...
 * the US is tier 1 of the internet! if your isp cannot route packets locally they send them to thier upstream in the USA. Plugwash 19:25, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Maybe it's US centric because THAT'S WHERE THE FREAKING SERVERS ARE LOCATED?! →Raul654 01:55, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

They aren't solely located their obviously, so no Raul you idiot. No country is "tier 1" of the Internet, packets not routed locally are not sent to servers in the UK, USA or anywhere else from another side of the globe, Plugwash. 82.1.73.23 (talk) 15:26, 3 May 2014 (UTC)
 * no, it isn't about where you're based or how big your marketing department is, Tier1 simply means doesn't buy transit i.e. is connected by settlement-free peering to the rest of the Internet in its entirety (for reasonanble definition of entirety at any given moment.) The few companies who are Tier1 rely on the rest of the Internet to pay to get to them, so you can see why any large ISP would want to claim this status. (unsigned comment by 212.42.15.34)
 * Yes, and to connect directly to those other Tier 1 ISPs, you to have a physical presence at many/most Network access points, all (or virtually all) of which are in the US. →Raul654 02:25, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

No Raul...those are the four points of the early US national network. Those are not required for a Tier 1 network of the global Internet. You didn't invent it, just try and get over it. 82.1.73.23 (talk) 15:29, 3 May 2014 (UTC)
 * yes and afaict to get the rest of the internet to pay to get to you requires being based in the USA (links within the usa are afaict relatively cheap compared to transatlantic ones). Its hard enough to become a tier 1 with a presence in the USA its going to be basically impossible without unless the USA is somehow wiped off the internet map. Plugwash 02:17, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

"the US is tier 1 of the internet! if your isp cannot route packets locally they send them to their upstream in the USA. " LOL. No it isn't. The largest global peering point used to be London, but is now Amsterdam. Nothing normally routes via the USA unless it needs to.194.176.222.227 (talk) 09:54, 8 October 2013 (UTC)

right
The pile of edits without justification is getting unmanageable. I've gone back to the latest revision that actually had a relavent comment on what was being done to the list and made some small edits to the text below the list, i will be mercilessly reverting any edits to the list that do not provide justification for the actual changes (and no insulting other editors is not justifying your edits). Sorry to have to do it this way but there doesn't seem any other way to keep this list sane Plugwash 02:03, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Some would argue that the definition of a Tier 1 is on a per location basis not globally, in that case BT would pass this test as they don't pay for any transit to get to locations within the UK.

Also a lot of these 'Tier 1' ISPs are now having to pay eyeball networks and CDN's for paid peering NOT transit.

The term Tier 1 cannot really be defined any more as there are always deals that people just don't know about. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.21.19.21 (talk) 15:58, 2 April 2013 (UTC)

aol
Aol has been on and off the list quite a bit recently, can anyone confirm/deny if they buy service from any other isp or not? Plugwash 02:08, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Determining Tier 1 Status
Some of this is just information which you are never going to be able to offically verify, due to Non-Disclosure Agreements surrounding peering at the Tier 1 level. At a certain point (if you want this list to be accurate at any rate) people who do not know who is a Tier 1 and who isn't are just going to have to accept the information provided by those who do have detailed understanding of the settlement currently in use in this industry.

If you have a question about a specific network, ask, and I'm certain that someone who understands these relationships will be able to point out how a network does or does not qualify. Just to throw out some answers to some of the questions posed here already:

Humble226
 * ATDN: 100% settlement free. I understand that some question has been raised about the "other business" AOL does with Level 3 in the form of outsourced dial. These kinds of deals involving the exchange of business external to the IP in question are certainly a factor in a great many complex peering relationships, but in this particular case I think it passes the test because ATDN does not pay Level 3 settlement for its IP directly, and the outsourced dial business is a stand-alone contract which is not used to justify or pay for peering.
 * Cogent: Buys transit from Verio to reach networks who will not peer with it, such as ATDN and Sprint.
 * British Telecom: Buys from Sprint.
 * Everything else listed: not even up for consideration, all very obviously buy transit.

 * "In the public Internet, acces networks situationed at the edge of the Internet are connected to the rest of the Internet through a tiered hierarchy of Internet Services providers (ISPs)... At the very top of this hierarchy is a relatively small number of so-called Tier-1 ISPs. In many ways, a Tier-1 ISP is the same as any network - it has links and routers and is connected to other networks. In other ways, however, tier-1 ISPs are special. Their link speeds are often 622 Mbps or higher, with the larger tier-1 ISPs having links in the 2.5-10 Gbps range; their routers must consequently forward packets at extremely high rates. Tier 1 ISPs are also characterized by being:
 * Directly connected to each of the other tier-1 ISPs
 * Connected to a large number of tier-2 ISPs and other customer networks
 * International in coverage.
 * Tier 1 ISPs are also known as Internet backbone networks. As of this writing, UUNet (a subsidiary of WorldCom) is the largest Tier 1 ISP; other major backbones companies include Sprint, AT&T, Genuity, and Cable and Wireless" -
 * --James Kurose, Computer Network - A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet, pg 39) [This is by far the most popular undergrad computer networking textbook] →Raul654 02:57, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Link speed is a fading metric, what was an "absurdly fast" link that only Tier 1's had 5 years ago are almost commonplace today. You won't find any Tier 1's running backbone circuits at less than multiple-OC192 (10G) these days. The only item of consideration for "Tier 1" status is the amount and type of peering, namely the "directly connected to all other tier-1's via settlement free peering". Anything else is gravy, common characteristics but not defining characteristics.

BTW based on the metrics most likely being used in that book (number of customer routes or percentage of the Internet that is a customer), Level 3 passed UUNet a while back. Of course in modern history, Cable and Wireless was sold to SAVVIS (the part of Cable and Wireless that was a Tier 1, Cable and Wireless America, AS3561, not AS1273 aka Cable and Wireless Plc), Genuity was bought by Level 3, AT&T is currently being bought by SBC, etc. Humble226

 * Humble thanks for stating your reasoning but its still unsourced, anyone can make assertions like that true or otherwise without sources it doesn't mean a great deal. Plugwash 16:49, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I posted this comment in another section of the this discussion page originally, but it's more appropriate right here... Dayv 00:00, 26 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Any proof you could offer would be POV and would probably violate No original research as well. No matter what anyone says to the contrary, "Tier 1" is *only* a colloquial marketing term, not conclusively defined by any authority.  There is no RFC, ANSI standard, or other indisputable document from which you can extract an ironclad proof of what networks are or aren't "Tier 1."  This list should either be changed to "networks commonly considered Tier 1" or (my preference) deleted.  The only reason I'm not adding this list to AfD myself is that I am employed by a Tier 1 provider (not saying which one) and thus feel a bit less than objective doing so.  Dayv 21:59, 25 October 2005 (UTC)

US Centric
I think this term is very misleading. The list is based on "networks that don't pay a fee to peer with US networks". But the fact is there are more IPX in other countries than in the US, and lots of backbones are tier 1 in other countries or even whole continents. If they pay a US tier 1 network to peer on 1 US IPX but use IPXs in other countries and don't pay anyone there, it should be tier 1. Elfguy 14:55, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The list, and "Tier 1" status in general, has nothing to do with the US or any other geopolitical boundries. The concept of "tier 1 within a certain geographic region" is a recent fabrication which is sometimes used to explain the way a particular carrier sees itself, and thus explain some of their attitudes and actions it takes when interacting with other networks. A true Tier 1 is settlement free across the entire Internet. Also, every network on the list operates a significant global network outside of the US. 66.235.41.152

 * In fact three of the nine companies currently listed either are or were not-US anyway (NTT is Japanese, C&W was British and Global Crossing is owned by Singapore Telecom.)
 * Regarding your point on "regional Tier1" status, there is an interesting article on this at Group of Four (Australia) but I don't think geography should come in to it at all. 212.42.15.34 11:07, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Merging to Tier 1 carrier
Merging this list into Tier 1 carrier. Don't know if we should merge the talk pages too, or just continue the discussion over there.... Jamie 01:33, 14 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge complete. Jamie 01:42, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Many more tier 1 providers in my opinion
If I can throw in my 2 cents here, I'm quite convinced that there are more than 9 tier 1 providers. As mentioned below, the problem is that the term tier 1 and tier 2 have not been defined. I know I learned about the terms from a geek admin and I've never seen it written down. So now we're trying to write it down and everyone's definition is going to be slightly different. Here's my proposal - when a certain percentage of the world's internet traffic is on your network then you qualify as a "tier 1." As to what that percentage is, I suggest 1%. However, I don't know how your going to determine who has what percent of the worlds internet traffic. Originally I thought that a tier 1 provider was the one who owns the fiber in the ground. But that simply doesn't work because the fiber is really only owned by handful of companies (who have nothing to do with bandwidth) and then hundreds of companies lease the fiber including the 9 already defined tier 1 providers. To me, the perfect example of a tier 2 is www.internap.com who boast about buying OC12's from various "tier 1" providers in each city and they they ping who has the fastest routes in any given hour and route that way. Then they sell their bandwidth to ISPs who otherwise couldn't afford to build that network. And originally, they were a tier 2 but I feel like they are moving enough traffic these days that they have graduated to being a tier 1. So again, I feel that its the amount of traffic moving on the network that defines a tier 1 from a tier 2. Here's my list of networks that in my mind are tier 1 providers. Sorry, I'm in USA so I'm sure I'm leaving out networks outside the US. Abovenet AT&T Broadwing Communications Cogent Grande Communications ICG Communications Level(3)/Global Crossing Looking Glass Networks MCI McLeodUSA OnFiber Communications Qwest Savvis SBC Sprint Telmex Time Warner Telecom UUNET Verizon WilTel Communications XO Zayo Group — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.82.208.100 (talk) 16:40, 5 March 2018 (UTC) TeliaSonera International Carrier — Preceding unsigned comment added by 37.123.144.4 (talk) 02:08, 9 May 2013 (UTC)

One other indicator is what sysadmins use to check the internet - this is the tool I'm familiar with: http://www.internetpulse.net/ This tool tells the pings between the largest networks, and in my mind those are definately tier 1 providers.

I think that it's also important that you stress in the article that from a consumer's stand point, a tier 1 is not better than a tier 2 or vice versa. In fact, if your dealing with a tier 1 company, unless your a million dollar per year customer, your dealing with their version of a tier 2 administrator. I think the best anology is shipping. A tier 1 provider is like a giant shipping company. A tier 2 is like a mail company. When you ship a package it goes to the mailing company who then wraps it, assigns a tracking number and sends it to the shipping company. They load it into the hold on a giant cargo ship with millions of other packaes and deliver it to another mailing company (tier 2) who then delivers it to the consumer. When the package is lost, you contact the guy with the tracking number, not the captain of the ship.

Disclosure - I'm in telecom sales for http://www.aspentx.com - defintaly a tier 2 provider 65.192.132.140 16:25, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Note: Globally there is only like 6 Tier1 ISP's. The simple and CORRECT definition of this is if an ISP buys TRANSIT they are not a Tier1 provider. The only Tier1 providers are that of which peer with the whole world. When you are talking to a national level, then the same principle applies but buys transit to access out of the country.


text:
Charles Hopkinson

Charles Sydney Hopkinson (1869 – 1962) was an American portrait painter and landscape watercolorist. He maintained a studio in the Fenway Studios building in Boston from 1906 to 1962. He painted over 800 portraits in a direct style with a palette gradually lightening through his career. Many of his paintings were commissioned by U. S. East Coast institutions, especially Harvard University, where he acted as house portraitist. Among his sitters were Oliver Wendell Holmes, Calvin Coolidge, Lewis Perry and John Masefield.

Early life
Born on July 27, 1869, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he graduated the Hopkinson School started by his father. He began to draw for the Harvard Lampoon upon his entrance to Harvard in 1888, and in 1891, he moved to New York City to study at the Art Students' League where he worked with John Henry Twachtman and H. Siddons Mowbray.

Hopkinson studied at the Académie Julian in Paris with Edmond Aman-Jean, traveled to Brittany, and exhibited in the 1895 Paris Salon.

Career
In the late 1890s he worked in Cambridge, Massachusetts and showed his paintings in New York at the Society of American Artists and also in Boston. He was a Member of the Boston Art Club and was involved in the promotion of Modern Art in Boston and Cambridge.

He returned to Europe in 1901, where he visited Spain to study the painting of Velázquez and El Greco and traveled through Brittany, and the Netherlands to see portraits by his "heroes", Frans Hals and Rembrandt.

Hopkinson then began a lucrative career as a portrait painter in Cambridge winning awards like the Logan Medal of the arts (1926), and soon his first commission being a baby portrait in 1896 of poet E. E. Cummings, a work that is in the Massachusetts Historical Society.

Adopting the colour theories of his former neighbour Denman Ross, who had become a prominent collector and a teacher at Harvard, Hopkinson later used the results of Carl Cutler's experiments with a spinning disk to study the color spectrum.

He exhibited regularly in the national annuals and at several Boston and New York galleries. His watercolors were described as "modern" in the press and he exhibited three oils in the 1913 Armory Show. Instead of allying himself with the local established painters, Hopkinson showed his work with the "Boston Five", a group of young watercolorists though he continued to paint in oil for an elite clientele.

In 1919 the National Art Commission selected him to paint some of the participants of the Peace Conference at Versailles, France. In 1927 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and became a full Academician in 1929.

In the mid-1920s, Hopkinson took on a young Boston painter Pietro Pezzati as his assistant, who worked with him at his Fenway studio. Hopkinson would pass on his studio to Pezzati when he died in October 1962, in Beverly, Massachusetts.

Hopkinson died October 16, 1962.

title: Charles Hopkinson


text:
Craigdarroch

 * "Craigdarroch, An Accessory to Murder" is an expansion set for the board game Kill Doctor Lucky

Craigdarroch is a house near Moniaive, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. It was the seat of the Chief of the Dumfriesshire Fergussons for 600 years. Built by William Adam in 1729 over the old house dating from the earliest records (14th century).

The Marriage Home of Annie Laurie (the heroine of 'the world's greatest love-song') who married Alexander Fergusson, 14th Laird of Craigdarroch, on 29 August 1709, and lived there for 33 years.

The first Fergusson of Craigdarroch on record was Jonkyne, who flourished in the 14th century. Robert, his descendant in the 6th generation, married Lady Janet Cunningham, daughter of the 4th Earl of Glencairn of Maxwelton, in 1537 and their marriage stone, with the shakefork of the Cunninghams, is to be seen with the other carved stones on the base of the old tower of Craigdarroch. The upper part of the tower was demolished when the present early 18th-century house was built.

Their eldest grandson, Thomas, married in 1609 (marriage stone), but died soon after, without inheriting. His younger brother, Robert, married Katherine, daughter of the 6th Earl of Cunningham, and their son, William Fergusson had a marriage contract with Sara Grierson, which was signed on 9 May 1621, daughter of Sir William Grierson of Lag, 9th Lord of Lag and their marriage stone, with the three cushions and star of the Griersons, is also to be seen. Robert was M.P. for Dumfriesshire, as were also his son, his grandson, and his great-grandson.

His grandson, John, Colonel of a Regiment of Foot, rode from Craigdarroch to Killiecrankie in 1689, where he was killed in battle. His servant returned with his master's horse and saddle and the saddle was kept at the top of the stairs until 1918 when it went to Caprington Castle where it still is. The story goes that his wife, Elizabeth, refused to believe her husband was dead and pined her days away waiting for his return, and subsequently haunted the saddle right up until 1920 when the ghost was laid by a Jesuit with Bell, Book and Candle. There is no doubt about the ghost, and no doubt about the laying of it, but history records that Elizabeth married twice afterwards, and the ghost was more probably Elizabeth Maxwell, John's mother.

His son, Alexander, born in 1685, actively supported King William against the Stuarts. In 1710 he married Anna Laurie or Annie Laurie, daughter of Sir Robert Laurie, Bt., of Maxwelton House, near Moniaive, the Annie Laurie of the song. In 1726 they commissioned William Adam, father of Robert Adam, Scotland's most famous architect, to build the new house. The estimate for the work in William Adam's handwriting (copy in the house) came to the then princely sum of £526 2s 9d. It was completed, much as it is today, in 1729, the date above the present front door. Robert Adam, then under his father's tuition, designed and made the fireplace in the hall. "Annie Laurie" lived at Craigdarroch for over 50 years and died at Friars' Carse, near Auldgirth, in 1763. Some sources suggest she may have been buried at Craigdarroch, but as she was a lifelong worshipper at Kirkland Church, her grave may be there, but it has not been located.

Their son James, Chamberlain to the 3rd Duke of Queensberry, lived all his life at Drumlanrig Castle and was there when 'Bonnie Prince Charlie' came with his Highland Army in December 1745. The Highland Army was not popular in the district and did considerable damage as it passed through. At Craigdarroch, the Fergussons and staff wisely decided to flee the house when they were requested to provide hospitality to the pretender. When the coast was clear they returned, only to find the house ransacked and much of the furniture burnt as fuel.

His son Alexander was the victor in the contest for the Whistle, celebrated in Robert Burns' poem. The actual whistle is an heirloom, also at Caprington Castle

Alexander's son, Robert, 17th Laird, was perhaps the most distinguished member of the family. He was a lawyer, Attorney-General of Bengal, later, M.P. for the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, Judge Advocate General and a Privy Councillor. He built the 'pond', turned the course of Craigdarroch Water, laid out the policies much as they are now, and built the west wing.

His grandson, Robert, died in 1904, leaving no heir - for the first time in 600 years - but twin daughters, the elder of whom, Ella, married William Cunninghame, 14th Laird of Caprington, descendant of the Earls of Glencairn, in 1918, and their elder son Robert inherited the castle and property.

After 1904 the house was occasionally rented by Clare Dubs who bought it in 1923, living there until he died in 1943 when it passed to his nephew (by marriage), Robert Sinclair Scott, who sold it in 1957 to Adam Dalzell who died in 1961.

In 1962 it was acquired by the present occupant's now deceased father-in-law whose wife's uncle was a Fergusson, kinsman to the Fergussons of Craigdarroch.

During the 19th century various alterations and additions were made - the Oriel window in the drawing-room; the Chapel, built in 1889 of oak and stone from the estate; and later the billiard room wing, replacing former conservatories, and rebuilt in 1932 as the present study. In the chapel there are photographs of the 50 or so estate workers and their families all together in their Sunday finery at the turn of the 20th century. Some of them would have worked in the extensive walled garden and greenhouses, now derelict, to provide produce for the house. Others would have worked on the local tenanted farms and in forestry on the estate.

During the late war (1939–1945) the house was allocated to a special unit of the Norwegian Army since when it has been lived in for short periods only until the present occupation. Modern conditions do not encourage developments and improvements, but they continue slowly. In recent years the house has been used for events and meetings and plans are in progress to use it as a wedding and function venue.

Craigdarroch House is open to the public throughout July each year from 2pm to 4pm. It is situated 2 miles west of Moniaive on the B729.

title: Craigdarroch


text: User talk:80.110.41.254

title: User talk:80.110.41.254


text:
Happy Land fire

The Happy Land fire was an act of arson that killed 87 people on March 25, 1990, in the Bronx in New York City, United States. The 87 victims were trapped in the unlicensed Happy Land social club, located at 1959 Southern Boulevard in the West Farms section of the Bronx. Most of the victims were young Hondurans celebrating Carnival, many of them part of the Garifuna American community. Cuban refugee Julio González, whose former girlfriend was employed at the club, was arrested soon afterward and ultimately convicted of arson and murder.

The fire was the deadliest in New York City since the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, which coincidentally occurred on the same day in 1911, and the deadliest in American territory since the Dupont Plaza Hotel fire in Puerto Rico in 1986 and the Winecoff Hotel Fire in 1946.

Background
The building that housed Happy Land club was managed by Jay Weiss, the primary leaseholder, and Morris Jaffe. In 1987, Weiss and Jaffe's company, Little Peach Realty Inc., had leased the building space for seven years to the club owner, Elias Colon, who died in the fire. An eviction trial against Colon had been scheduled to start on March 28, 1990, three days after the fire.

Before the blaze, Happy Land was ordered to close for building code violations in November 1988. Violations included lack of fire exits, alarms or sprinkler system. No follow-up by the fire department was documented.

Julio González served three years in prison in Cuba during the 1970s for desertion from the Cuban Army. In 1980, he faked a criminal record as a drug dealer to help him gain passage in the Mariel boatlift. The boatlift landed in Florida; he then traveled to Wisconsin and Arkansas and eventually settled in New York, sponsored by the American Council for Nationalities in Manhattan.

Six weeks before the fire, he split up with his girlfriend, Lydia Feliciano. Before that, González had lost his job at a lamp factory in Queens. At the time of the fire, he was two weeks behind on the rent of his room, and the owner of the boarding house where he was staying said of him: "From what I know, he was down to his last hope."

Incident
The evening of the fire, González had argued with his former girlfriend, Feliciano, who was a coat check worker at the club, urging her to quit. She said that she had had enough of him and did not want anything to do with him anymore. He was ejected by the bouncer around 3:00 a.m. He was heard to scream drunken threats to "shut this place down." He also reportedly shouted, "I'll be coming back." Feliciano tried to warn others, worried that González was going to do something.

González went to an Amoco gas station, then returned to the establishment with a plastic container with $1.00 worth of gasoline. He spread the fuel at the base of a staircase, the only access into the club, and then ignited the gasoline.

Eighty-seven people died in the resulting fire. Nineteen bodies were found downstairs; the others upstairs. Six bodies were found within several feet of the front door. Some of those trapped punched a hole through a wall to an adjoining union hall in an attempt to escape. Most of the deaths were from asphyxiation or trampling. The club filled with toxic smoke so quickly that some victims were found with drinks still in hand. Most of the victims were young Hondurans celebrating Carnival, largely drawn from members of the local Garifuna American community. A hundred and fifty firemen responded to the blaze, which was extinguished in five minutes.

Initial reports indicated that only three people survived the blaze, but later reports gave the number of survivors as five or six. Among them were Feliciano, the club owner's wife, and disc jockey Ruben Valladares. Valladares was hospitalized in guarded condition with second- and third-degree burns over half his body.

After setting the fire, González returned home, removed his gasoline-soaked clothes and fell asleep. He was arrested the following afternoon after police investigators interviewed Feliciano and learned of the previous night's argument. Once advised of his rights, he admitted to starting the blaze.

Arsonist
González was charged with 174 counts of murder, two for each victim, and was found guilty on 87 counts of arson and 87 counts of murder on August 19, 1991. For each count, he received the maximum sentence of 25 years to life. He was eligible for parole during March 2015 as New York law states that the sentences for multiple murders occurring during one act must be served concurrently, rather than consecutively.

González was denied parole in March 2015. He would have been eligible to apply for parole again in November 2016, but he died in prison of a heart attack on September 13, 2016, at the age of 61.

Landlords and other parties
The Bronx District Attorney said that the building's owner, Alex DiLorenzo III, and leaseholders Weiss and Morris Jaffe, were not responsible criminally, since they had tried to close the club and evict the tenant. Weiss was at the time the husband of actress Kathleen Turner. The New Yorker quoted Turner saying that "the fire was unfortunate but could have happened at a McDonald's".

Although the Bronx District Attorney said they were not criminally responsible, the New York City Corporation Counsel filed misdemeanor charges in February 1991 against Alex DiLorenzo III, the building owner, and Jay Weiss, the primary leaseholder. These charges claimed that the owner and landlord were responsible for the building code violations caused by their tenant. They both pleaded guilty in May 1992, agreeing to perform community service and paying $150,000 towards a community center for Hondurans in the Bronx.

A $5 billion lawsuit was also filed by the victims and their families against the owner, landlord, city, and some building material manufacturers. That suit was settled in July 1995 for $15.8 million or $163,000 per victim. The lesser amount was due mostly to unrelated financial difficulties of the landlord.

Legacy
The street outside the former Happy Land social club has been renamed "The Plaza of the Eighty-Seven" in memory of the victims. Five of the victims were students at nearby Theodore Roosevelt High School, which had a memorial service for the victims in April 1990. A memorial was erected directly across the street from the former establishment with the names of all 87 victims inscribed on it.

The plot of the Law & Order season 2 episode "Heaven" was inspired by the Happy Land fire.

Additionally, the band Duran Duran wrote the song "Sin of the City", which appeared on the band's 1993 self-titled album, about the fire. The song "Happyland" on Joe Jackson's album Night and Day II, released in 2000, was also inspired by this event. In the Jay-Z song "You, Me, Him and Her" he raps "The fire I spit burnt down Happy Land/ Social club, we unapproachable thugs."

In the aftermath of the Ghost Ship warehouse fire in Oakland, California, in December 2016, which killed 36 people, comparisons were drawn to this fire. The Oakland fire also occurred in a space that was being used for parties in violation of law and lease agreement. Investigations of the law and lease agreements were pending at the time of that fire as well.

title: Happy Land fire


text:
Talk:The Alphabet Cipher

The actual text of Carroll's article should probably reside at Wikisource (http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page:English). See Don't include copies of primary sources. — Matt

 * I'm okay either way. It's actually a good description of Vigenere that I recommend in that article, but the fact that we have Wikisource means that in general we could count on it not going anywhere.  Lunkwill 17:03, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Hello, but the following information currently in the article is a exact word-for-word copy of text from at least two books (the original) and the book "A Book of Puzzlements" by Herbert Kohl, copyright 1981. Pages 211 and 212 state that the following is a direct quote from Carroll's original:

"EACH column of this table forms a dictionary of symbols representing the alphabet: thus, in the A column, the symbol is the same as the letter represented; in the B column, A is represented by B, B by C, and so on.

To use the table, some word or sentence should be agreed on by two correspondents. This may be called the `key-word', or `key-sentence', and should be carried in the memory only.

In sending a message, write the key-word over it, letter for letter, repeating it as often as may be necessary: the letters of the key-word will indicate which column is to be used in translating each letter of the message, the sy mbols for which should be written underneath: then copy out the symbols only, and destroy the first paper. It will now be impossible for any one, ignorant of the key-word, to decipher the message, even with the help of the table.

For example, let the key-word be vigilance, and the message `meet me on Tuesday evening at seven', the first paper will read as follows --

v i g i l a n c e v i g i l a n c e v i g i l a n c e v i m e e t m e o n t u e s d a y e v e n i n g a t s e v e n h m k b x e b p x p m y l l y r x i i q t o l t f g z z v

The second will contain only 'h m k b x e b p x p m y l l y r x i i q t o l t f g z z v'.

The receiver of the message can, by the same process, retranslate it into English.

N.B. — If this table be lost, it can easily be written out from memory, by observing that the first symbol in each column is the same as the letter naming the column, and that they are continued downwards in alphabetical order. Of course it would only be necessary to write out the particular columns required by the key-word: such a paper, however, should not be preserved, as it would afford means for discovering the key-word."

PROBLEMS:

1. There are no indications in the article that these are the quoted words of Carroll.

2. This may violate the copyright of the 1981 above mentioned book.

title: Talk:The Alphabet Cipher


text:
File:Pinecandle9872.jpg

Licensing
)

title: File:Pinecandle9872.jpg


text:
FCAPS

FCAPS is the ISO Telecommunications Management Network model and framework for network management. FCAPS is an acronym for fault, configuration, accounting, performance, security, the management categories into which the ISO model defines network management tasks. In non-billing organizations accounting is sometimes replaced with administration.

Background
The ISO, under the direction of the OSI group, has created a network management model as the primary means for understanding the major functions of network management systems. The model in question is interchangeably called either the OSI network management model or ISO network management model so the full name could be the OSI/ISO network management model.

The comprehensive management of an organization's information technology (IT) infrastructure is a fundamental requirement. Employees and customers rely on IT services where availability and performance are mandated, and problems can be quickly identified and resolved. Mean time to repair (MTTR) must be as short as possible to avoid system downtimes where a loss of revenue or lives is possible.

History
In the early 1980s the term FCAPS was introduced within the first Working Drafts (N1719) of ISO 10040, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Systems Management Overview (SMO) standard. At that time the intention was to define five separate protocol standards, one for each functional area. Since initial experiences showed that these protocols would become very similar, the ISO working group responsible for the development of these protocols (ISO/TC97/SC16/WG4, later renamed into ISO-IEC/JTC1/SC21/WG4) decided to create a single protocol for all five areas instead. This protocol is called common management information protocol (CMIP). In the 1990s the ITU-T, as part of their work on Telecommunications Management Network (TMN), further refined the FCAPS as part of the TMN recommendation on Management Functions (M.3400). The idea of FCAPS turned out to be very useful for teaching network management functions; most textbooks therefore start with a section that explains the FCAPS.

The five areas of function of the model
The OSI network management model categorizes five areas of function, sometimes referred to as the "FCAPS model:" FCAPS can be seen as the predecessor of the newer FAB model defined in the Business Process Framework (eTOM). FAB is short for fulfillment, assurance, billing. As guideline, you can map the two models as follows:

The FCAPS model can be seen as bottom-up or network-centric. The FAB model looks at the processes more from top-down, is customer/business-centric. The two standards that have emerged are Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) by IETF and Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) by ITU-T.

Fault management
A fault is an event that has a lot of significance. The goal of fault management is to recognize, isolate, correct and log faults that occur in the network. Furthermore, it uses trend analysis to predict errors so that the network is always available. This can be established by monitoring different things for abnormal behavior.

When a fault or event occurs, a network component will often send a notification to the network operator using either a proprietary or open protocol such as SNMP (such as WhatsUp Gold, HP OpenView or Sun Solstice–formerly Net Manager), to collect information about network devices or at least write a message to its console for a console server to catch and log/page. In turn, the management station can be configured to make a network administrator aware of problems (by email, paging, or on-screen messages), allowing appropriate action to be taken. This notification is supposed to trigger manual or automatic activities. For example, the gathering of more data to identify the nature and severity of the problem or to bring backup equipment on-line.

Fault logs are one input used to compile statistics to determine the provided service level of individual network elements, as well as sub-networks or the whole network. They are also used to determine apparently fragile network components that require further attention. Errors primarily occur in the areas of fault management and configuration management.

Network elements produce alarms (also known as "traps" or "indications") that are monitored by a Fault management system. This function is known as alarm surveillance. Fault management systems include HP Network Node Manager i, IBM Tivoli, EMC Smarts, CA Spectrum, NetIQ, TTI Telecom Netrac, Objective Systems Integrators NETeXPERT, opEvents by Opmantek, Centina's vSure, Infosim StableNet, iReveal, ERAMON etc. Fault isolation tools like Delphi are also available, which are basically used to isolate the fault in any telecom network. A Fault management system is usually the primary feature of a network operations center.

Configuration management
The goals of configuration management include:
 * to gather and store configurations from network devices (this can be done locally or remotely).
 * to simplify the configuration of the device
 * to track changes that are made to the configuration
 * to configure ('provision') circuits or paths through non-switched networks
 * to plan for future expansion and scaling

Configuration management is concerned with monitoring system configuration information, and any changes that take place. This area is especially important, since many network issues arise as a direct result of changes made to configuration files, updated software versions, or changes to system hardware. A proper configuration management strategy involves tracking all changes made to network hardware and software. Examples include altering the running configuration of a device, updating the OS version of a router or switch, or adding a new modular interface card. While it is possible to track these changes manually, a more common approach is to gather this information using configuration management software, such as CiscoWorks 2000, HP Network Automation, ERAMON and Infosim. Opmantek and WhatsUp Gold uses Simple Network Management Protocol and Windows Management Instrumentation to collect application performance management, configuration management and infrastructure management information. Open source solutions are also available like Open-AudIT.

Accounting management
The goal is to gather usage statistics for users.

Accounting management is concerned with tracking network utilization information, such that individual users, departments, or business units can be appropriately billed or charged for accounting purposes. While this may not be applicable to all companies, in many larger organizations, the IT department is considered a cost center that accrues revenues according to resource utilization by individual departments or business units. For non-billed networks, "administration" replaces "accounting". The goals of administration are to administer the set of authorized users by establishing users, passwords, and permissions, and to administer the operations of the equipment such as by performing software backup and synchronization.

Accounting is often referred to as billing management. Using the statistics, the users can be billed and usage quotas can be enforced. These can be disk usage, link utilization, CPU time, etc.

Performance management
Performance management is focused on ensuring that network performance remains at acceptable levels. It enables the manager to prepare the network for the future, as well as to determine the efficiency of the current network, for example, in relation to the investments done to set it up. The network performance addresses the throughput, network response times, packet loss rates, link utilization, percentage utilization, error rates and so forth.

This information is usually gathered through the implementation of an SNMP management system, either actively monitored, or configured to alert administrators when performance moves above or below predefined thresholds. Actively monitoring current network performance is an important step in identifying problems before they occur, as part of a proactive network management strategy. By collecting and analysing performance data, the network health can be monitored. Trends can indicate capacity or reliability issues before they affect services. Also, performance thresholds can be set in order to trigger an alarm. The alarm would be handled by the normal fault management process (see above). Alarms vary depending upon the severity of the problem. Tivoli Netcool/Proviso by IBM, CA Performance Management by CA Technologies, opEvents by Opmantek and SolarWinds are some of the products used for performance monitoring.

Security management
Security management is the process of controlling access to assets in the network. Data security can be achieved mainly with authentication and encryption. Authorization to it configured with OS and DBMS access control settings.

Security management is not only concerned with ensuring that a network environment is secure, but also that gathered security-related information is analyzed regularly. Security management functions include managing network authentication, authorization, and auditing, such that both internal and external users only have access to appropriate network resources. Other common tasks include the configuration and management of network firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and security policies (such as access lists). Network elements keep log files, which are examined during a security audit. Many telecommunications network elements produce a security alarm when a security violation is suspected. This will be monitored along with all other alarms in the normal alarm surveillance function of fault management. Technicians in a network operations center will see this immediately and take appropriate action.

Network management system
In terms of the network management model, a network management station (NMS) is one that executes network management applications (NMAs) that monitor and control network elements (NE) such as hosts, gateways and terminal servers. These network elements use a management agent (MA) to perform the network management functions requested by the network management stations. The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used to communicate management information between the network management stations and the agents in the network elements. NMS is described in RFC 1157 "A Simple Network Management Protocol".

An NMS provides FCAPS functionality for the whole network. FCAPS: Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, Security, are the categories defined by the ISO model. In non-billing organizations accounting is sometimes replaced with administration.

Looking into the industry aspects, there are various players in the market like Nokia - NetAct, IBM - NetCool or Opmantek. Open source NMS solutions are also available like NMIS or OpenNMS.

title: FCAPS


text:
Talk:Happy Land fire

Disambiguation
Big problem, I do not know how to fix. he link to Julio Gonzalez brings us to a boxer. He is not the one we are talking about here. How do I make a disambig page? PaulinSaudi 12:20, 14 May 2004 (UTC)]]

I'm only going by my recollection, however its unclear in the article. Wasn't he convicted then sentences to 25 year per victim, and not a total sentence of 25 years for the entire crime? That would otherwise yield a total sentence of closer to 2175 years in prison, which I could appreciate would be the longest in state history. It doesn't seem that 'the longest sentence' would be twenty five years with parole in 2015. Hope I contributed properly...

I don't understand why it says he had to fake a criminal record to board the boat to the US? The Mariel Boatlift was a legal was to migrate to the US. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.68.22.98 (talk) 16:18, 10 May 2017 (UTC)

[[User:it1224 30 June 2011]] — Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.139.216.34 (talk) 12:12, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

Merge
I suppose the two articles ought to be merged, although the one dealing with Happy Land is much less-iinformative than this one, and seems focused on the building, and this one is about the fire. Paul, in Saudi 03:06, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

Prisoner database
In reponse to the request for a cite about his parole date, I added in a link to the NYS prisoner database. It doesn't let you go directly to the specific info, so you may have to enter in the prisoner ID. (Or you can type in his name, and then go through a half dozen pages). The site is: http://nysdocslookup.docs.state.ny.us his ID is: DIN# 91-A-7544] wiki-ny-2007 (talk) 03:06, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

Biggest mass murder in U.S. history?
I recall reading or hearing at the time that this was the biggest mass murder in U.S. history, and I believe it wasn't surpassed until the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City. Can anyone confirm? --anon. 71.183.130.55 (talk) 03:38, 29 December 2012 (UTC)

Adding some photos
Figured that i'd expand by adding a photo of Juilio Gonzalez, a photo of the location, and the memorials. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Graylandertagger (talk • contribs) 22:53, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Happy Land fire


text:
Telefunken

Telefunken was a German radio and television producer, founded in Berlin in 1903 as a joint venture between Siemens & Halske and the Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG) ("General electricity company"). Prior to World War I, the company set up the first world wide network of communications and was the first in the world to sell electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes, in Germany in 1934.

The brand had several incarnations: The company also had several subsidiaries and spin-offs of its own:
 * Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie m.b.H., System Telefunken, founded in 1903 as a joint venture between AEG and Siemens & Halske
 * Telefunken, Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie m.b.H., in 1923; since 1941 as subsidiary of AEG alone
 * Telefunken GmbH, in 1955
 * Telefunken Aktiengesellschaft (AG), in 1963
 * Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft AEG-Telefunken, created in 1967 through a merger between Telefunken and AEG
 * AEG-TELEFUNKEN AG, in 1979
 * TELEFUNKEN Fernseh und Rundfunk GmbH, formed in 1972 in Hanover as a subsidiary of AEG-TELEFUNKEN
 * Telefunken electronic GmbH, a spin-off of AEG-Telefunken and DASA
 * TEMIC, since 1992
 * Telefunken USA, in 2001; Telefunken Elektroakustik, since 2009
 * Telefunken Semiconductors, formed in Heilbronn in 2009
 * Telefunken Lighting technologies S.L., since 2009

The company Telefunken USA was incorporated in early 2001 to provide restoration services and build reproductions of vintage Telefunken microphones.

In 2023, Telefunken brand was acquired by the advisory and investment firm Gordon Brothers.

History

Around the start of the 20th century, two groups of German researchers worked on the development of techniques for wireless communication. The one group at AEG, led by Adolf Slaby and Georg Graf von Arco, developed systems for the Kaiserliche Marine; the other one, under Karl Ferdinand Braun, at Siemens, for the German Army. Their main competitor was the British Marconi Company.

When a dispute concerning patents arose between the two companies, Kaiser Wilhelm II urged both parties to join efforts, creating Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie System Telefunken ("The Company for Wireless Telegraphy Ltd.") joint venture on 27 May 1903, with the disputed patents and techniques invested in it. On 17 April 1923, it was renamed Telefunken, The Company for Wireless Telegraphy. Telefunken was the company's telegraphic address. The first technical director of Telefunken was Count Georg von Arco.

Telefunken rapidly became a major player in the radio and electronics fields, both civilian and military. Prior to World War I the company set up the first world wide network of communications and during the war they supplied radio sets and telegraphy equipment for the military, as well as building one of the first radio navigation systems for the Zeppelin force. The Telefunken Kompass Sender operated from 1908 to 1918, allowing the Zeppelins to navigate throughout the North Sea area in any weather.

In 1911 Telefunken built a wireless station in West Sayville just north of the Long Island Rail Road tracks. A 500 foot tower that could be raised and lowered rose from a ball and socket joint atop a concrete foundation. It was completed in 1912 and wireless messages could then be transmitted to a similar tower in Nauen 3,500 miles away. From August 1, 1914, until April 6, 1917, the United States monitored messages sent over the Telefunken wireless and the United States Marine Corps guarded the station. After the U.S. declared war the station was sealed off, the wire fence surrounding it was charged with electricity, and floodlights were placed throughout. After World War I it was taken over by Mackay Radio and Telegraph Company and later the Federal Aviation Administration. Presently it is not in use by anyone and it was demolished in 1938.

Starting in 1923, Telefunken built broadcast transmitters and radio sets. In 1928, Telefunken made history by designing the V-41 amplifier for the German Radio Network. This was the very first two-stage, "Hi-Fi" amplifier. Over time, Telefunken perfected their designs and in 1950 the V-72 amplifier was developed. The TAB (a manufacturing subcontractor to Telefunken) V-72 soon became popular with other radio stations and recording facilities. The V-72S was the only type of amplifier found in the REDD.37 console used by the Beatles at Abbey Road Studios on many of their early recordings. In 1932, record players were added to the product line.

In 1941, Siemens transferred its Telefunken shares to AEG as part of the agreements known as the "Telefunken settlement", and AEG thus became the sole owner and continued to lead Telefunken as a subsidiary (starting in 1955 as "Telefunken GmbH" and from 1963 as "Telefunken AG").

During the Second World War, Telefunken was a supplier of vacuum tubes, transmitters and radio relay systems, and developed Funkmess facilities (later referred to as radar devices by the US Navy) and directional finders, as part of the German air defence against aerial bombing. During the war, manufacturing plants were shifted to and developed in west of Germany or relocated. Thus, Telefunken, under AEG, turned into the smaller subsidiary, with the three divisions realigning and data processing technology, elements as well as broadcast, television and phono. Telefunken was also the originator of the FM radio broadcast system. Telefunken, through the subsidiary company Teldec (a joint venture with Decca Records), was for many decades one of the largest German record companies, until Teldec was sold to WEA in 1988.

In 1959, Telefunken established a modern semiconductor works in Heilbronn, where in April 1960 production began. The works was expanded several times, and in 1970 a new 6-storey building was built at the northern edge of the area. At the beginning of the 1970s it housed approximately 2,500 employees.

In 1967, Telefunken was merged with AEG, which was then renamed to AEG-Telefunken. In the beginning of the 1960s, Walter Bruch developed the PAL-colour television system for the company, in use by most countries of the western Hemisphere (except United States, Canada, Mexico and the western part of South America). PAL is established i.e. in the United Kingdom (PAL-I) and, except France, many other European countries -–also in Brazil (PAL-M), Argentina (PAL-N), South Africa, India and Australia.

The mainframe computer TR 4 was developed at Telefunken in Backnang, and the model was developed at Telefunken in Konstanz, including the first ball-based mouse named Rollkugel in 1968. The computers were in use at many German university computing centres from the 1970s to around 1985. The development and manufacture of large computers was separated in 1974 to the Konstanz Computer Company (CGK). The production of mini- and process computers was integrated into the automatic control engineering division of AEG. When AEG was bought by Daimler in 1985, "Telefunken" was dropped from the company name.

In 1995, Telefunken was sold to Tech Sym Corporation (owners of Continental Electronics Corporation of Dallas) for $9 million. However, Telefunken remained a German company.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, Telefunken was also instrumental in the development of high quality audio noise reduction systems, including (marketed since 1975), High Com (marketed since 1978), High Com II, High Com III, High Com FM, and CX (1982).

In 2005, Telefunken Sender Systeme Berlin changed its name to Transradio SenderSysteme Berlin AG. The name "Transradio" dates back to 1918, when Transradio was founded as a subsidiary of Telefunken. A year later, in 1919, Transradio made history by introducing duplex transmission. Transradio has specialized in research, development and design of modern AM, VHF/FM and DRM broadcasting systems.

In August 2006, it was acquired by the Turkish company Profilo Telra, one of the largest European manufacturers of TV-devices, with brand-owner Telefunken Licenses GmbH granting a license for the Telefunken trademark rights and producing televisions under that name.

In 2000, Toni Roger Fishman acquired the diamond-shaped logo and the Telefunken brand name from Telefunken Licenses for use in North America. The company "Telefunken USA" was incorporated in early 2001 to provide restoration services and build exact reproductions of vintage Telefunken microphones. In 2003, Telefunken USA won a TEC Award for Studio Microphone Technology for their exact reproduction of the original Ela M 250 / 251 Microphone system. Telefunken USA has since received several TEC Awards nominations for the following microphone systems: the Telefunken USA M12 or C12 (originally developed by AKG), the R-F-T M16 MkII, and the AK47. The Historic Telefunken Ela M251 microphone system entered the MIX foundation's Hall of fame in 2006. In 2008, Telefunken USA won a second TEC Award for its new Ela M 260 microphone.

As a result of a conference held in Frankfurt in May 2009, Telefunken USA has been renamed Telefunken Elektroakustik ("Electrical Acoustics") Division of Telefunken and awarded the exclusive rights to manufacture a wide variety of professional audio products and vacuum tubes bearing the Telefunken trademark in over 27 countries. Telefunken Elektroakustik now uses the Telefunken trademark for professional audio equipment and component-based electronics, such as capacitors, transformers, vacuum tubes in Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania and South America.

Business fields
The old Telefunken company had produced an extensive product spectrum of devices and systems from 1903 to 1996. Common characteristics are the authority for high frequency and communications technology and the construction unit and infrastructure technology necessary for it. Among other things:

 * Energy-saving lighting technology
 * Analogue computers
 * Voucher recognition, pattern recognition and letter sorting
 * Data communications networks
 * Digital computer for exchange technique, air traffic control, scientific, military applications
 * Electrical elements
 * Electro-acoustic plants and studio equipment
 * Flight guidance systems
 * Guidance and weapon deployment systems
 * Radio and data communication for applications of military
 * Radios for authority and operating radio
 * Semiconductors, circuits, solar cells, infrared modules
 * Mobile radio engineering
 * Direction finder and detection
 * Phono and tape decks, videodisc
 * Power tools
 * Radar facilities for soil, flight and ship monitoring
 * Radio and TV home receivers
 * Vacuum tubes
 * Radio relay link and satellite technology
 * Records
 * Sending and receipt tubes, travelling field tubes, color image tubes
 * Transmitters for broadcast and television, DAB transmitters
 * Speech recognition
 * Telephone, long-distance traffic, cable technology.

Locations and manufacturing plants
Into the 1930s years, production was made after a distributor in the workshops of the two parent companies. The company headquarters was located in Berlin Kreuzberg, Hallesches Ufer 30 (1918–1937).

The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Berlin in 1932.

Starting from 1938, manufacturing and developing plants were concentrated at the new headquarters (until 1945) in Berlin Zehlendorf, Goerzallee.

During the Second World War, there were further manufacturing plants in the Berlin area, in Thuringia, Saxony, Moravia, Silesia, on Rügen. In addition, in Baltic countries at Tallinn and Riga, and in occupied areas of Poland at Kraków and Łódź, floats and works were established. The vacuum tube factory Łódź was shifted with the staff in August 1944 to Ulm (Fortress Wilhelmsburg).

After the Second World War, new firm locations for development and production were established. The company headquarters was located first in Berlin-Schöneberg (1945–1948), then in Berlin-Kreuzberg (1948–1952), Berlin-Moabit (1952–1960) and Berlin Charlottenburg (1960–1967).

Production plants were located in:
 * Backnang: Long-distance communications and cable technology (now Tesat-Spacecom)
 * Berlin-Moabit, Sickingenstr. 20–26: Broadcast and television transmitters, mobile communications (since 2005 Transradio SenderSysteme Berlin AG, later simply known as Transradio)
 * Berlin-Moabit, Sickingenstr. 71: Tubes (since 2005: JobCenter Berlin Mitte, employment agency)
 * Berlin-Wedding (current: Gesundbrunnen), Schwedenstr.: Broadcast sets, phono and tape decks, videocassette recorders, Videodisc players
 * Celle: Color television sets (1966–1997), buildings completely demolished 2001/2002
 * Eiweiler: High-frequency engineering
 * Hanover, Göttinger Chaussee 76: Broadcast and television sets, acoustic engineering (until 1973)
 * Heilbronn: Semiconductors, circuits, solar cells, infrared modules (1998–2008 Atmel; since 2009 Telefunken Semiconductors (subsidiary of Tejas Silicon Holdings, UK; Insolvency of Telefunken Semiconductors in April 2013)
 * Konstanz: Computer technology, letter sorting systems, character recognition technology, air traffic control systems, studio tape decks, cash dispensing machines
 * Offenburg: Long-distance communications technologies
 * Osterode am Harz (former Kuba-Imperial plant): Videocassette recorder
 * Ulm, Danube valley: Television picture tubes
 * Ulm, Elisabethenstrasse: Radar, radiolocation, detection equipment, speech and radio data transmission systems, Research Centre (2000: EADS Racoms – Radio Communication Systems; then Cassidian, part of EADS Defence & Security, today Airbus Defence and Space, today Elbit Systems)
 * Ulm, Söflinger Strasse: Tubes
 * Wolfenbüttel: Electroacoustics (from 1973 on)

title: Telefunken


text:
Hongkou, Shanghai

Hongkou (; formerly spelled Hongkew) is a district of Shanghai, forming part of the northern urban core. It has a land area of 23.48 km2 and a population of 757,498 as of 2020. The district borders Yangpu to the east, Pudong to the southeast, Huangpu to the southwest, Jing'an to the west and Baoshan to the north.

It is the location of the Astor House Hotel, Broadway Mansions, Lu Xun Park, and Hongkou Football Stadium. It was once known as Shanghai's "Little Tokyo." Hongkou is home to the Shanghai International Studies University, the Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, and the 1933 Old Millfun.

History
During the Tang dynasty, the area in modern Hongkou District may have been a beach included in a seawall (捍海塘) near the East China Sea. In the early Ming dynasty, it became known as 黃埔口 (Huangpukou) or 洪口 (Hongkou), as there is a river mouth debouched into the Huangpu River, in the early Qing dynasty, it was renamed as 虹口 (Hongkou).

In 1845, an American bishop W. J. Boone bought an area of land there, and it later evolved into the American Concession in Shanghai in 1848 and merged into the International Concession in 1863, it was in large part reduced to rubble during the Second World war when Shanghai was occupied by the Japanese. 20,000 Ashkenazi Jewish refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe lived in an overcrowded square-mile section known to as the Shanghai Ghetto, in the Tilanqiao neighborhood of Hongkew.

In 1947, it was renamed as Hongkou District.

Subdistricts
Hongkou is responsible for the administration of the following subdistricts.

Economy
Previously Lianhua Supermarket had its Shanghai office in the district.

Schools

 * Hongkou Experimental School
 * Shanghai Beihong Senior High School
 * Shanghai Beijiao Senior High School
 * Shanghai Chengzhong Senior High School
 * Shanghai Jiguang Senior High School
 * Shanghai No.1 Normal Senior High School
 * Shanghai Fuxing Senior High School
 * Shanghai Hongkou Senior High School
 * Shanghai Hainan middle school

International schools
Russian Consulate School in Shanghai is a Russian overseas primary school operated by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, located on the grounds of the Consulate-General of Russia in Shanghai in Hongkou District.

Metro
Hongkou is currently served by five metro lines operated by Shanghai Metro:
 * - Dongbaoxing Road, Hongkou Football Stadium, Chifeng Road, Dabaishu, Jiangwan Town
 * - Hailun Road, Linping Road
 * - Siping Road, Quyang Road, Hongkou Football Stadium
 * - North Sichuan Road, Hailun Road, Youdian Xincun, Siping Road
 * - International Cruise Terminal, Tilanqiao

title: Hongkou, Shanghai


text:
User:Takei

I live in Boston, MA.

title: User:Takei