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Ghilman

Ghilman (singular غُلاَم ghulām, plural غِلْمَان ghilmān) were slave-soldiers and/or mercenaries in armies throughout the Islamic world. Islamic states from the early 9th century to the early 19th century consistently deployed slaves as soldiers, a phenomenon that was very rare outside of the Islamic world.

The Quran mentions ghilman (غِلْمَان) as serving boys who are one of the delights of Jannah or paradise/heaven of Islam, in verse 52:24 (Verse 56:17 is also thought to refer to ghilman).

Etymology
The words ghilman (غِلْمَان) and its singular variant ghulam (غلام) are of Arabic origin, meaning boys or servants. It derives from the Arabic root ḡ-l-m (غ ل م).

History
The ghilman were slave-soldiers taken as prisoners of war from conquered regions or frontier zones, especially from among the Turkic people of Central Asia and the Caucasian peoples (Turkish: Kölemen). They fought in bands, and demanded high pay for their services.

The use of slave soldiers in the Islamic world stretches back to 625, when African slave soldiers were mentioned serving under Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphate. Slavs and Berbers were also used under the Umayyad Caliphs. However, large-scale use became prevalent only in the mid-9th century. The first Muslim ruler to form an army of slave soldiers, before the Abbasid Caliphs, seems to have been Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab (800–812), founder of the Aghlabids of Ifriqiya, where there was already a large population of agricultural slaves and access to extensive slave trading networks across the Sahara Desert.

Ghilman were introduced to the Abbasid Caliphate during the reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842), who showed them great favor and relied upon them for his personal guard. Accounts cite that their numbers increased in the caliphal household as Mu'tasim tried to address the court factionalism. These slave-soldiers were opposed by the native Arab population, and riots against them in Baghdad in 836 forced Mu'tasim to relocate his capital to Samarra.

The use of ghilman reached its maturity under al-Mu'tadid and their training was conceived and inspired through the noble furusiyya. From a slave, a ghulam attained his freedom after completing the formative training period and joined the elite corps as a mounted warrior. The ghilman rose rapidly in power and influence, and under the weak rulers that followed Mu'tasim, they became kingmakers: they revolted several times during the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra" in the 860s and killed four caliphs. Eventually, starting with Ahmad ibn Tulun in Egypt, some of them became autonomous rulers and established dynasties of their own, leading to the dissolution of the Abbasid Caliphate by the mid-10th century.

In Umayyad Spain, slave soldiers of "saqaliba" (Slavs) were used from the time of Al-Hakam I, but only became a large professional force in the tenth century, when the slave soldier recruitment shifted to Christian Spain, particularly the Kingdom of Leon.

A ghulam was trained and educated at his master's expense and could earn his freedom through his dedicated service. Ghilman were required to marry Turkic slave-women, who were chosen for them by their masters. Some ghilman seem to have lived celibate lives. The absence of family life and offspring was possibly one of the reasons that ghilman, even when they attained power, generally failed to start dynasties or to proclaim their independence. There are, however, a few exceptions to that rule, such the Ghaznavid dynasty of Afghanistan and the Anushtegin dynasty, which succeeded it.

Slave soldiers became the core of Islamic armies as the Bedouin, Ghazi holy warriors and Hashariyan conscripts were not as reliable, while Ghilman were expected to be loyal as they had no personal connections to the rest of society. However, the Ghilman often did not remain as loyal as expected.

From the 10th century, masters would distribute tax farming land grants (Iqta) to the ghilman to support their slave armies.

The Buyids and likely the Tahirids also built armies of Turkish slave soldiers. The Saffarids drew slave soldiers from Turks, Indians and Africans. The Ghaznavid dynasty, which originated from a slave soldier of the Samanids, also built their military around slave soldiers, first Turks and later Indians.

The Turkish Seljuks and their successors the Ghurids and the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty also continued with an army of mainly Turkish slave soldiers. Seljuk regional princes were each placed under the tutelage of slave soldier guardians (atābak) who formed their own dynasties. After a brief interruption under the Mongols, the institution returned under the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu Turkmens. The various Iranian dynasties (Safavid, Afsharid, Qajar) drew slave soldiers from the Caucasus such as Georgians, Circassians and Armenians. (Unlike the Seljuks, who quickly abandoned their tribal warriors for an increase in slave-soldier forces, the Mongols did not adopt the institution of slave-soldiers).

The Delhi Sultanate also made extensive use of Turkish cavalry ghilman as their core shock troops. After Central Asia fell to the Mongols they switched to capturing Hindu boys to convert into Islamic slave soldiers.

There were violent ethnic conflicts between the different groups of ghilman, the Turks, Slavs, Nubians and Berbers in particular.

Tactics and equipment
Islamic caliphs often recruited slave-soldiers from the Turkic peoples of Central Asia due to their hardiness in desert conditions and expertise with horseback riding. Ghilman in the Abbasid Caliphate fought primarily as a mounted strike force whose purpose was to weaken the enemy with swift and rapid attacks before allied infantry were sent into battle. They carried a lance that could be used to impale enemy infantry easily and a round wooden shield that had been reinforced with either animal skin or thin metal plates. These ghilman also carried a sword on their belt, where it was easier to draw as opposed to the back or the chest.

Heaven
The Quran mentions ghilman in verse 52:24: "There will circulate among them ghilman for them, as if they were pearls well-protected." Ghilman are traditionally described as servant boys provided especially for believers in heaven. In verse 56:17: "There will circulate among them [the faithful in heaven] young boys made eternal" -- "them" refer to the faithful in heaven and "young boys made eternal" to ghilman. Descriptions of the ghilman by tenth and sixteenth-century theologians were focused on their beauty. Their commentaries also hold that the extratemporal parameters of the Paradise, which the young servants inhabit, are also extended to them so that they do not age or die.

Some have suggested that homosexuality might not apply in heaven where there is no need for procreation, and that the ghilman might be the male equivalent of the famously beautiful female houris that the faithful marry in heaven.

title: Ghilman


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User:MINT/list of korea birds

List of Korea birds

キジ科 PHASIANIDAE

 * Coturnix japonica ウズラ Japanese Quail <普通冬鳥(中部;南)>
 * Phasianus colchicus キジ Common Pheasant <多数留鳥>
 * Tetrao tetrix クロライチョウ Black Grouse <●留鳥>
 * Bonasa bonasia エゾライチョウ Hazel Grouse <留鳥>

カモ科 ANATIDAE

 * Cygnus olor コブハクチョウ Mute Swan <僅少冬鳥>
 * Cygnus cygnus オオハクチョウ Whooper Swan <特定地普通冬鳥>
 * Cygnus columbianus コハクチョウ Tundra Swan <特定地普通冬鳥>
 * Anser cygnoides サカツラガン Swan Goose <特定地少数冬鳥>
 * Anser fabalis ヒシクイ Bean Goose <少数冬鳥>
 * Anser albifrons マガン Greater White-fronted Goose <少数冬鳥>
 * Anser erythropus カリガネ Lesser White-fronted Goose <迷鳥>
 * Anser anser ハイイロガン Greylag Goose <迷鳥>
 * Anser caerulescens ハクガン Snow Goose <僅少冬鳥(中部)>
 * Anser canagicus ミカドガン Emperor Goose <迷鳥> (canagica?)
 * Branta canadensis シジュウカラガン Canada Goose <迷鳥>
 * Branta bernicla コクガン Brent Goose <減少冬鳥>
 * Tadorna ferruginea アカツクシガモ Ruddy Shelduck <少数冬鳥>
 * Tadorna cristata カンムリツクシガモ Crested Shelduck <絶滅>
 * Tadorna tadorna ツクシガモ Common Shelduck <特定地普通冬鳥>
 * Aix galericulata オシドリ Mandarin Duck <少数留鳥>
 * Anas strepera オカヨシガモ Gadwall <普通冬鳥>
 * Anas falcata ヨシガモ Falcated Duck <△少数冬鳥>
 * Anas penelope ヒドリガモ Eurasian Wigeon <普通冬鳥>
 * Anas americana アメリカヒドリ American Wigeon <迷鳥>
 * Anas rubripes アメリカガモ American Black Duck <●迷鳥>
 * Anas platyrhynchos マガモ Mallard <減少留鳥;多数冬鳥>
 * Anas poecilorhyncha カルガモ Spot-billed Duck <多数留鳥;多数冬鳥>
 * Anas clypeata ハシビロガモ Northern Shoveler <△少数冬鳥>
 * Anas acuta オナガガモ Northern Pintail <普通冬鳥>
 * Anas querquedula シマアジ Garganey <減少冬鳥>
 * Anas formosa トモエガモ Baikal Teal <○特定地普通冬鳥>
 * Anas crecca crecca コガモ Common Teal <多数冬鳥>
 * Anas crecca carolinensis アメリカコガモ Grean-winged Teal <迷鳥>
 * Aythya ferina ホシハジロ Common Pochard <多数冬鳥>
 * Aythya valisineria オオホシハジロ Canvasback <迷鳥>
 * Aythya americana アメリカホシハジロ Redhead (duck) <迷鳥>
 * Aythya baeri アカハジロ Baer's Pochard <僅少冬鳥>
 * Aythya fuligula キンクロハジロ Tufted Duck <多数冬鳥>
 * Aythya marila スズガモ Greater Scaup <△減少冬鳥>
 * Netta rufina アカハシハジロ Red-crested Pochard <迷鳥>
 * Histrionicus histrionicus シノリガモ Harlequin Duck <減少冬鳥(東;南)>
 * Clangula hyemalis コオリガモ Long-tailed Duck <少数冬鳥>
 * Melanitta nigra クロガモ Black Scoter <普通冬鳥(東;南)>
 * Melanitta fusca ビロードキンクロ White-winged Scoter <普通冬鳥(東;南)>
 * Bucephala clangula ホオジロガモ Common Goldeneye <普通冬鳥>
 * Bucephala islandica キタホオジロガモ Barrow's Goldeneye <●迷鳥>
 * Mergus albellus ミコアイサ Smew <△少数冬鳥> (Mergellus?)
 * Mergus serrator ウミアイサ Red-breasted Merganser <普通冬鳥>
 * Mergus squamatus コウライアイサ Scaly-sided Merganser <僅少夏鳥(北);僅少冬鳥(中部)>
 * Mergus merganser カワアイサ Common Merganser <僅少留鳥(中部);普通冬鳥>

ミフウズラ科 TURNICIDAE

 * Turnix tanki チョウセンミフウズラ Yellow-legged Buttonquail <●>

キツツキ科 PICIDAE

 * Jynx torquilla アリスイ Eurasian Wryneck <少数留鳥(中部);普通冬鳥>
 * Dendrocopos kizuki コゲラ Pygmy Woodpecker <普通留鳥>
 * Dendrocopos major アカゲラ Great Spotted Woodpecker <普通留鳥>
 * Dendrocopos minor コアカゲラ Lesser Spotted Woodpecker <減少留鳥(北)>
 * Dendrocopos leucotos オオアカゲラ White-backed Woodpecker <少数留鳥>
 * Dendrocopos hyperythrus チャバラアカゲラ Rufous-bellied Woodpecker <●減少留鳥(北)>
 * Dendrocopos canicapillus ハイガシラコゲラ Grey-capped Woodpecker <●減少留鳥(中部;南)>
 * Picoides tridactylus ミユビゲラ Three-toed Woodpecker <減少留鳥(北)>
 * Dryocopus javensis キタタキ White-bellied Woodpecker <僅少留鳥(北)>
 * Dryocopus martius クマゲラ Black Woodpecker <減少留鳥>
 * Picus canus ヤマゲラ Grey-faced Woodpecker <○普通留鳥>

ヤツガシラ科 UPUPIDAE

 * Upupa epops ヤツガシラ Eurasian Hoopoe <少数夏鳥>

ブッポウソウ科 CORACIIDAE

 * Eurystomus orientalis ブッポウソウ Dollarbird <少数夏鳥>

カワセミ科 ALCEDINIDAE
=== ヤマセミ科 CERYLIDAE
 * Alcedo atthis カワセミ Common Kingfisher <普通留鳥>
 * Halcyon coromanda アカショウビン Ruddy Kingfisher <少数留鳥>
 * Halcyon pileata ヤマショウビン Black-capped Kingfisher <少数留鳥>

 * Ceryle lugubris ヤマセミ Crested Kingfisher <▲絶滅> (Megaceryle?)

カッコウ科 CUCULIDAE

 * Cuculus fugax ジュウイチ Hodgson's Hawk-Cuckoo <△僅少旅鳥>
 * Cuculus micropterus セグロカッコウ Indian Cuckoo <少数夏鳥(繁殖不明)>
 * Cuculus canorus カッコウ Common Cuckoo <普通夏鳥>
 * Cuculus saturatus ツツドリ Oriental Cuckoo <△少数夏鳥>
 * Cuculus poliocephalus ホトトギス Lesser Cuckoo <△少数夏鳥>
 * Clamator coromandus カンムリカッコウ Chestnut-winged Cuckoo <迷鳥>

アマツバメ科 APODIDAE

 * Hirundapus caudacutus ハリオアマツバメ White-throated Needletail <少数旅鳥>
 * Apus pacificus アマツバメ Fork-tailed Swift <普通旅鳥>
 * Apus affinis ヒメアマツバメ Little Swift <減少夏鳥>

フクロウ科 STRIGIDAE

 * Otus scops コノハズク Eurasian Scops-Owl <少数留鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Otus bakkamoena オオコノハズク Indian Scops-Owl <少数留鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Bubo bubo ワシミミズク Eurasian Eagle-Owl <減少留鳥>
 * Nyctea scandiaca シロフクロウ Snowy Owl <迷鳥>
 * Strix aluco モリフクロウ Tawny Owl <●少数留鳥>
 * Strix uralensis フクロウ Ural Owl <▲迷鳥>
 * Surnia ulula オナガフクロウ Northern Hawk Owl <●減少留鳥(北)>
 * Athene noctua コキンメフクロウ Little Owl <●僅少留鳥>
 * Ninox scutulata アオバズク Brown Hawk-Owl <△少数夏鳥>
 * Asio otus トラフズク Long-eared Owl <普通冬鳥>
 * Asio flammeus コミミズク Short-eared Owl <普通冬鳥>

ヨタカ科 CAPRIMULGIDAE

 * Caprimulgus indicus ヨタカ Grey Nightjar <少数夏鳥>

ハト科 COLUMBIDAE

 * Columba rupestris コウライバト Hill Pigeon <●特定地普通留鳥>
 * Columba janthina カラスバト Japanese Wood-Pigeon <減少留鳥(東;南)>
 * Columba oenas ヒメモリバト Stock Pigeon <迷鳥>
 * Streptopelia orientalis キジバト Oriental Turtle-Dove <普通留鳥>
 * Streptopelia tranquebarica ベニバト Red Collared-Dove <迷鳥(北)>
 * Streptopelia decaocto シラコバト Eurasian Collared-Dove <特定地僅少留鳥>
 * Treron sieboldii アオバト White-bellied Green-Pigeon <▲迷鳥>

ノガン科 OTIDAE

 * Otis tarda ノガン Great Bustard <僅少冬鳥>

ツル科 GRUIDAE

 * Grus vipio マナヅル White-naped Crane <△僅少冬鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Grus monacha ナベヅル Hooded Crane <△減少冬鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Grus japonensis タンチョウ Red-crowned Crane <△僅少冬鳥>
 * Grus leucogeranus ソデグロヅル Siberian Crane <迷鳥>
 * Grus canadensis カナダヅル Sandhill Crane <迷鳥>
 * Grus virgo アネハヅル Demoiselle Crane <迷鳥>
 * Grus grus クロヅル Common Crane <迷鳥>

クイナ科 RALLIDAE

 * Coturnicops exquisitus シマクイナ Swinhoe's Rail <●僅少旅鳥>
 * Rallus aquaticus クイナ Water Rail <僅少冬鳥(南);減少旅鳥>
 * Amaurornis phoenicurus シロハラクイナ White-breasted Waterhen <少数旅鳥>
 * Porzana pusilla ヒメクイナ Baillon's Crake <減少旅鳥>
 * Porzana fusca ヒクイナ Ruddy-breasted Crake <普通夏鳥>
 * Porzana paykullii コウライヒクイナ Band-bellied Crake <●僅少旅鳥>
 * Gallicrex cinerea ツルクイナ Watercock <普通夏鳥>
 * Gallinula chloropus バン Common Moorhen <△少数夏鳥>
 * Fulica atra オオバン Common Coot <普通留鳥(南)>

サケイ科 PTEROCLIDIDAE

 * Syrrhaptes paradoxus サケイ Pallas's Sandgrouse <迷鳥>

シギ科 SCOLOPACIDAE

 * Scolopax rusticola ヤマシギ Eurasian Woodcock <少数旅鳥>
 * Gallinago solitaria アオシギ Solitary Snipe <減少冬鳥>
 * Gallinago hardwickii オオジシギ Latham's Snipe <僅少留鳥(東);僅少旅鳥>
 * Gallinago stenura ハリオシギ Pintail Snipe <減少旅鳥>
 * Gallinago megala チュウジシギ Swinhoe's Snipe <僅少旅鳥>
 * Gallinago gallinago タシギ Common Snipe <普通冬鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Lymnocryptes minimus コシギ Jack Snipe <●迷鳥>
 * Limosa limosa オグロシギ Black-tailed Godwit <少数旅鳥>
 * Limosa lapponica オオソリハシシギ Bar-tailed Godwit <△少数旅鳥>
 * Numenius minutus コシャクシギ Little Curlew <僅少旅鳥>
 * Numenius phaeopus チュウシャクシギ Whimbrel <普通旅鳥>
 * Numenius arquata ダイシャクシギ Eurasian Curlew <特定地普通冬鳥;特定地普通旅鳥>
 * Numenius madagascariensis ホウロクシギ Far Eastern Curlew <少数旅鳥>
 * Tringa erythropus ツルシギ Spotted Redshank <少数旅鳥>
 * Tringa totanus アカアシシギ Common Redshank <少数旅鳥>
 * Tringa nebularia アオアシシギ Common Greenshank <普通旅鳥>
 * Tringa stagnatilis コアオアシシギ Marsh Sandpiper <減少旅鳥>
 * Tringa guttifer カラフトアオアシシギ Nordmann's Greenshank <僅少旅鳥>
 * Tringa melanoleuca オオキアシシギ Greater Yellowlegs <迷鳥>
 * Tringa ochropus クサシギ Green Sandpiper <少数冬鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Tringa glareola タカブシギ Wood Sandpiper <△少数旅鳥>
 * Xenus cinereus ソリハシシギ Terek Sandpiper <普通旅鳥> (Tringa cinerea?)
 * Actitis hypoleucos イソシギ Common Sandpiper <△減少夏鳥;少数旅鳥> (Tringa?)
 * Tringa brevipes キアシシギ Grey-tailed Tattler <普通旅鳥>
 * Arenaria interpres キョウジョシギ Ruddy Turnstone <△少数旅鳥>
 * Limnodromus scolopaceus オオハシシギ Long-billed Dowitcher <迷鳥>
 * Limnodromus semipalmatus シベリアオオハシシギ Asian Dowitcher <迷鳥>
 * Calidris tenuirostris オバシギ Great Knot <特定地普通旅鳥>
 * Calidris canutus コオバシギ Red Knot <少数旅鳥>
 * Calidris alba ミユビシギ Sanderling <普通冬鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Calidris ruficollis トウネン Red-necked Stint <普通旅鳥>
 * Calidris temminckii オジロトウネン Temminck's Stint <少数旅鳥>
 * Calidris minuta ヨーロッパトウネン Little Stint <迷鳥>
 * Calidris subminuta ヒバリシギ Long-toed Stint <減少旅鳥>
 * Calidris melanotos アメリカウズラシギ Pectoral Sandpiper <迷鳥>
 * Calidris acuminata ウズラシギ Sharp-tailed Sandpiper <減少旅鳥>
 * Calidris alpina ハマシギ Dunlin <多数冬鳥;多数旅鳥>
 * Calidris ferruginea サルハマシギ Curlew Sandpiper <僅少旅鳥>
 * Tryngites subruficollis コモンシギ Buff-breasted Sandpiper <迷鳥>
 * Eurynorhynchus pygmeus ヘラシギ Spoonbill Sandpiper <減少旅鳥>
 * Limicola falcinellus キリアイ Broad-billed Sandpiper <減少旅鳥>
 * Philomachus pugnax エリマキシギ Ruff <迷鳥>
 * Phalaropus lobatus アカエリヒレアシシギ Red-necked Phalarope <普通旅鳥(東)>
 * Phalaropus tricolor アメリカヒレアシシギ Wilson's Phalarope <迷鳥>
 * Phalaropus fulicarius ハイイロヒレアシシギ Red Phalarope <迷鳥> (fulicaria?)
 * Hydrophasianus chirurgus レンカク Pheasant-tailed Jacana <迷鳥>

タマシギ科 ROSTRATULIDAE

 * Rostratula benghalensis タマシギ Greater Painted-snipe <▲迷鳥>

チドリ科 CHARADRIIDAE

 * Haematopus ostralegus ミヤコドリ Eurasian Oystercatcher <少数留鳥;普通冬鳥(西)>
 * Himantopus himantopus セイタカシギ Black-winged Stilt <△減少旅鳥>
 * Recurvirostra avosetta ソリハシセイタカシギ Pied Avocet <迷鳥>
 * Pluvialis fulva ムナグロ Pacific Golden-Plover <普通旅鳥>
 * Pluvialis squatarola ダイゼン Grey Plover <普通旅鳥>
 * Charadrius hiaticula ハジロコチドリ Common Ringed Plover <迷鳥>
 * Charadrius placidus イカルチドリ Long-billed Plover <減少冬鳥;減少旅鳥>
 * Charadrius dubius コチドリ Little Ringed Plover <普通夏鳥>
 * Charadrius alexandrinus シロチドリ Kentish Plover <普通夏鳥;普通冬鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Charadrius mongolus メダイチドリ Mongolian Plover <普通旅鳥>
 * Charadrius leschenaultii オオメダイチドリ Greater Sand Plover <迷鳥>
 * Charadrius asiaticus オオチドリ Caspian Plover <迷鳥>
 * Vanellus vanellus タゲリ Northern Lapwing <普通冬鳥>
 * Vanellus cinereus ケリ Grey-headed Lapwing <▲迷鳥>

ツバメチドリ科 GLAREOLIDAE

 * Glareola maldivarum ツバメチドリ Oriental Pratincole <僅少旅鳥>

カモメ科 LARIDAE

 * Stercorarius parasiticus クロトウゾクカモメ Parasitic Jaeger <減少旅鳥(東)>
 * Larus crassirostris ウミネコ Black-tailed Gull <普通留鳥>
 * Larus canus カモメ Mew Gull <普通冬鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Larus argentatus セグロカモメ Herring Gull <普通冬鳥>
 * Larus schistisagus オオセグロカモメ Slaty-backed Gull <普通冬鳥>
 * Larus cachinnans キアシセグロカモメ Yellow-legged Gull <迷鳥>
 * Larus heuglini ホイグリンカモメ West-shiberian gull <迷鳥> (?)
 * Larus glaucescens ワシカモメ Glaucous-winged Gull <▲迷鳥>
 * Larus hyperboreus シロカモメ Glaucous Gull <▲迷鳥>
 * Larus glaucoides アイスランドカモメ Iceland Gull <迷鳥>
 * Larus ridibundus ユリカモメ Black-headed Gull <多数冬鳥>
 * Larus saundersi ズグロカモメ Saunders's Gull <特定地少数旅鳥>
 * Larus relictus ゴビズキンカモメ Relict Gull <減少冬鳥>
 * Xema sabini クビワカモメ Sabine's Gull <迷鳥>
 * Rhodostethia rosea ヒメクビワカモメ Ross's Gull <迷鳥>
 * Rissa tridactyla ミツユビカモメ Black-legged Kittiwake <普通冬鳥(東;南)>
 * Pagophila eburnea ゾウゲカモメ Ivory Gull <迷鳥>
 * Sterna nilotica ハシブトアジサシ Gull-billed Tern <迷鳥>
 * Sterna bergii オオアジサシ Great Crested-Tern <迷鳥>
 * Sterna hirundo アジサシ Common Tern <普通旅鳥>
 * Sterna albifrons コアジサシ Little Tern <普通夏鳥>
 * Sterna fuscata セグロアジサシ Sooty Tern <迷鳥>
 * Chlidonias hybridus クロハラアジサシ Whiskered Tern <迷鳥>
 * Chlidonias leucopterus ハジロクロハラアジサシ White-winged Tern <迷鳥>
 * Uria aalge ウミガラス Common Murre <減少冬鳥(南)>
 * Cepphus carbo ケイマフリ Spectacled Guillemot <減少冬鳥(南)>
 * Synthliboramphus antiquus ウミスズメ Ancient Murrelet <特定地少数留鳥;多数冬鳥(南)>
 * Brachyramphus marmoratus マダラウミスズメ Marbled Murrelet <僅少旅鳥>
 * Synthliboramphus wumizusume カンムリウミスズメ Japanese Murrelet <僅少留鳥(南);僅少冬鳥>
 * Aethia pusilla コウミスズメ Least Auklet <迷鳥>
 * Cerorhinca monocerata ウトウ Rhinoceros Auklet <減少冬鳥(南)>

タカ科 ACCIPITRIDAE

 * Pandion haliaetus ミサゴ Osprey <△僅少旅鳥>
 * Pernis apivorus orientalis ハチクマ Oriental Honey-buzzard <△僅少旅鳥;時々冬鳥> (Pernis ptilorhyncus?)
 * Milvus lineatus トビ Black-eared Kite <△減少夏鳥(北);少数冬鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Haliaeetus albicilla オジロワシ White-tailed Eagle <少数冬鳥>
 * Haliaeetus pelagicus オオワシ Steller's Sea-Eagle <△僅少冬鳥>
 * Gypaetus barbatus ヒゲワシ Lammergeier <●迷鳥(北)>
 * Aegypius monachus クロハゲワシ Cinereous Vulture <減少冬鳥>
 * Circus aeruginosus チュウヒ Western Marsh-Harrier <減少冬鳥>
 * Circus cyaneus ハイイロチュウヒ Northern Harrier <少数冬鳥>
 * Circus melanoleucus マダラチュウヒ Pied Harrier <●僅少留鳥(中部);減少冬鳥> (melanoleucos?)
 * Accipiter gularis ツミ Japanese Sparrowhawk <△減少留鳥(北);少数冬鳥(南)>
 * Accipiter nisus ハイタカ Eurasian Sparrowhawk <普通留鳥>
 * Accipiter gentilis オオタカ Northern Goshawk <△少数冬鳥>
 * Accipiter soloensis アカハラダカ Chinese Goshawk
 * Butastur indicus サシバ Grey-faced Buzzard <△僅少夏鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Buteo buteo ノスリ Common Buzzard <普通冬鳥>
 * Buteo hemilasius オオノスリ Upland Buzzard <減少冬鳥>
 * Buteo lagopus ケアシノスリ Rough-legged Hawk <減少冬鳥>
 * Aquila clanga カラフトワシ Greater Spotted Eagle <僅少冬鳥>
 * Aquila rapax アフリカソウゲンワシ Tawny Eagle <●迷鳥(北)>
 * Aquila heliaca カタジロワシ Imperial Eagle <僅少冬鳥>
 * Aquila chrysaetos イヌワシ Golden Eagle <僅少留鳥>
 * Spizaetus nipalensis クマタカ Mountain Hawk-Eagle <▲迷鳥>
 * Spilornis cheela カンムリワシ Crested Serpent-Eagle <迷鳥>

ハヤブサ科 FALCONIDAE

 * Falco peregrinus ハヤブサ Peregrine Falcon <減少留鳥>
 * Falco subbuteo チゴハヤブサ Eurasian Hobby <僅少夏鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Falco tinnunculus チョウゲンボウ Common Kestrel <普通留鳥>
 * Falco vespertinus アカアシチョウゲンボウ Red-footed Falcon <少数旅鳥>
 * Falco columbarius コチョウゲンボウ Merlin <減少冬鳥>
 * Falco cherrug セーカーハヤブサ Saker Falcon <●迷鳥>

カイツブリ科 PODICIPEDIDAE

 * Tachybaptus ruficollis カイツブリ Little Grebe <△少数留鳥;普通冬鳥>
 * Podiceps grisegena アカエリカイツブリ Red-necked Grebe <減少冬鳥(南)>
 * Podiceps cristatus カンムリカイツブリ Great Crested Grebe <普通冬鳥>
 * Podiceps auritus ミミカイツブリ Horned Grebe <減少冬鳥>
 * Podiceps nigricollis ハジロカイツブリ Black-necked Grebe <普通冬鳥>

カツオドリ科 SULIDAE

 * Sula leucogaster カツオドリ Brown Booby <迷鳥>
 * Sula dactylatra アオツラカツオドリ Masked Booby <迷鳥>

ウ科 PHALACROCORACIDAE

 * Phalacrocorax carbo カワウ Great Cormorant <△減少冬鳥>
 * Phalacrocorax capillatus ウミウ Japanese Cormorant <△特定地少数留鳥;少数冬鳥>
 * Phalacrocorax pelagicus ヒメウ Pelagic Cormorant <特定地少数留鳥;少数冬鳥>
 * Phalacrocorax urile チシマウガラス Red-faced Cormorant <迷鳥>

サギ科 ARDEIDAE

 * Egretta garzetta コサギ Little Egret <普通留鳥>
 * Egretta eulophotes カラシラサギ Chinese Egret <僅少夏鳥;僅少旅鳥>
 * Egretta intermedia チュウサギ Intermediate Egret <△少数夏鳥> (Ardea intermedia?)
 * Egretta alba ダイサギ Great Egret <普通夏鳥;減少冬鳥(南)> (Ardea alba?)
 * Egretta sacra クロサギ Pacific Reef-Egret <減少留鳥(繁殖不明)>
 * Ardea cinerea アオサギ Grey Heron <普通留鳥>
 * Ardea purpurea ムラサキサギ Purple Heron <減少旅鳥>
 * Bubulcus ibis アマサギ Cattle Egret <普通留鳥>
 * Ardeola bacchus アカガシラサギ Chinese Pond-Heron <特定地少数夏鳥(中部)>
 * Butorides striatus ササゴイ Striated Heron <普通夏鳥>
 * Nycticorax nycticorax ゴイサギ Black-crowned Night-Heron <普通留鳥(中部;南)>
 * Gorsachius goisagi ミゾゴイ Japanese Night-Heron <迷鳥>
 * Ixobrychus sinensis ヨシゴイ Yellow Bittern <少数夏鳥>
 * Ixobrychus eurhythmus オオヨシゴイ Schrenck's Bittern <少数夏鳥(中部)>
 * Ixobrychus cinnamomeus リュウキュウヨシゴイ Cinnamon Bittern <迷鳥>
 * Ixobrychus flavicollis タカサゴクロサギ Black Bittern <迷鳥>
 * Botaurus stellaris サンカノゴイ Great Bittern <僅少冬鳥>

トキ科 THRESKIORNITHIDAE

 * Nipponia nippon トキ Crested Ibis <絶滅>
 * Threskiornis melanocephalus クロトキ Black-headed Ibis <迷鳥>
 * Platalea leucorodia ヘラサギ Eurasian Spoonbill <僅少冬鳥>
 * Platalea minor クロツラヘラサギ Black-faced Spoonbill <僅少夏鳥;特定地僅少冬鳥>

ペリカン科 PELECANIDAE

 * Pelecanus philippensis ハイイロペリカン Spot-billed Pelican <迷鳥>

コウノトリ科 CICONIIDAE

 * Ciconia nigra ナベコウ Black Stork <僅少冬鳥>
 * Ciconia boyciana コウノトリ Oriental Stork <僅少冬鳥>

グンカンドリ科 FREGATIDAE

 * Fregata ariel コグンカンドリ Lesser Frigatebird <迷鳥>

アビ科 GAVIIDAE

 * Gavia stellata アビ Red-throated Loon <少数冬鳥(南)>
 * Gavia arctica オオハム Arctic Loon <特定地少数冬鳥>
 * Gavia pacifica シロエリオオハム Pacific Loon <特定地少数冬鳥>
 * Gavia adamsii ハシジロアビ Yellow-billed Loon <迷鳥>

ミズナギドリ科 PROCELLARIIDAE

 * Calonectris leucomelas オオミズナギドリ Streaked Shearwater <特定地普通夏鳥>
 * Puffinus carneipes アカアシミズナギドリ Flesh-footed Shearwater <僅少旅鳥(東;南)>
 * Puffinus tenuirostris ハシボソミズナギドリ Short-tailed Shearwater <迷鳥(東)>
 * Pterodroma hypoleuca シロハラミズナギドリ Bonin Petrel <迷鳥>
 * Diomedea albatrus アホウドリ Short-tailed Albatross <迷鳥>
 * Oceanodroma monorhis ヒメクロウミツバメ Swinhoe's Storm-Petrel <多数夏鳥>

ヤイロチョウ科 PITTIDAE

 * Pitta nympha ヤイロチョウ Fairy Pitta <僅少夏鳥;僅少旅鳥>

モズ科 LANIIDAE

 * Lanius bucephalus モズ Bull-headed Shrike <△少数留鳥>
 * Lanius cristatus アカモズ Brown Shrike <少数夏鳥>
 * Lanius tigrinus チゴモズ Tiger Shrike <少数夏鳥>
 * Lanius excubitor オオモズ Northern Shrike <僅少冬鳥>
 * Lanius sphenocercus オオカラモズ Chinese Grey Shrike <僅少冬鳥>
 * Lanius schach タカサゴモズ Long-tailed Shrike <迷鳥>

カラス科 CORVIDAE

 * Pica pica カササギ Common Magpie <○多数留鳥>
 * Garrulus glandarius カケス Eurasian Jay <普通留鳥>
 * Cyanopica cyana オナガ Azure-winged Magpie <○普通留鳥>
 * Nucifraga caryocatactes ホシガラス Spotted Nutcracker <特定地少数留鳥>
 * Corvus dauuricus コクマルガラス Daurian Jackdaw <少数冬鳥>
 * Corvus frugilegus ミヤマガラス Rook <少数冬鳥>
 * Corvus corone ハシボソガラス Carrion Crow <普通留鳥>
 * Corvus macrorhynchos ハシブトガラス Large-billed Crow <普通留鳥;普通旅鳥>

 * Artamus leucorhynchus モリツバメ White-breasted <特定地減少夏鳥> (leucorynchus?)
 * Oriolus chinensis コウライウグイス Black-naped Oriole <○普通夏鳥>
 * Pericrocotus divaricatus サンショウクイ Ashy Minivet <普通夏鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Coracina melaschistos アサクラサンショウクイ Black-winged Cuckooshrike <●迷鳥>
 * Dicrurus macrocercus オウチュウ Black Drongo <●迷鳥>
 * Dicrurus hottentottus カンムリオウチュウ Hair-crested Drongo <●迷鳥>
 * Dicrurus leucophaeus ハイイロオウチュウ Ashy Drongo <●迷鳥>
 * Terpsiphone paradisi カワリサンコウチョウ Asian Paradise-Flycatcher <●僅少夏鳥(北)>
 * Terpsiphone atrocaudata サンコウチョウ Japanese Paradise-Flycatcher <少数夏鳥>
 * Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ベニハシガラク Red-billed Chough <迷鳥> w:Red-billed chough]]

レンジャク科 BOMBYCILLIDAE

 * Bombycilla garrulus キレンジャク Bohemian Waxwing <普通冬鳥>
 * Bombycilla japonica ヒレンジャク Japanese Waxwing <減少冬鳥>

カワガラス科 CINCLIDAE

 * Cinclus pallasii カワガラス Brown Dipper <普通留鳥>

ヒタキ科 MUSCICAPIDAE

 * Monticola gularis ヒメイソヒヨ White-throated Rock-Thrush <減少旅鳥>
 * Monticola solitarius イソヒヨドリ Blue Rock-Thrush <普通留鳥>
 * Zoothera sibirica マミジロ Siberian Thrush <減少旅鳥>
 * Zoothera dauma トラツグミ Scaly Thrush <普通夏鳥>
 * Turdus hortulorum カラアカハラ Grey-backed Thrush <少数夏鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Turdus cardis クロツグミ Japanese Thrush <▲迷鳥>
 * Turdus obscurus マミチャジナイ Eyebrowed Thrush <減少旅鳥>
 * Turdus pallidus シロハラ Pale Thrush <△少数留鳥(南);少数夏鳥>
 * Turdus chrysolaus アカハラ Brown-headed Thrush <▲迷鳥>
 * Turdus ruficollis ノドグロツグミ Dark-throated Thrush <迷鳥(南)>
 * Turdus naumanni eunomus ツグミ Dusky Thrush <△少数冬鳥,少数旅鳥> (ssp. in Japan)
 * Turdus naumanni naumanni ハチジョウツグミ Dusky thrush <○普通冬鳥,普通旅鳥>
 * Turdus merula クロウタドリ Eurasian Blackbird <迷鳥>
 * Erithacus akahige コマドリ Japanese Robin <▲迷鳥>
 * Luscinia sibilans シマゴマ Rufous-tailed Robin <少数旅鳥>
 * Luscinia calliope ノゴマ Siberian Rubythroat <減少旅鳥>
 * Luscinia svecica オガワコマドリ Bluethroat <迷鳥>
 * Luscinia cyane コルリ Siberian Blue Robin <少数夏鳥>

 * Muscicapa griseisticta エゾビタキ Grey-streaked Flycatcher <少数旅鳥>
 * Muscicapa sibirica サメビタキ Dark-sided Flycatcher <少数旅鳥>
 * Muscicapa dauurica コサメビタキ Asian Brown Flycatcher <少数旅鳥>
 * Ficedula zanthopygia マミジロキビタキ Yellow-rumped Flycatcher <●普通夏鳥>
 * Ficedula narcissina キビタキ Narcissus Flycatcher <▲迷鳥>
 * Ficedula mugimaki ムギマキ Mugimaki Flycatcher <少数旅鳥>
 * Ficedula parva オジロキビタキ Red-breasted Flycatcher <●僅少旅鳥>
 * Cyanoptila cyanomelana オオルリ Blue-and-white Flycatcher <普通夏鳥>
 * Tarsiger cyanurus ルリビタキ Orange-flanked Bush-Robin <△少数冬鳥(南);少数旅鳥>
 * Phoenicurus ochruros クロジョウビタキ Black Redstart <迷鳥(北)>
 * Phoenicurus auroreus ジョウビタキ Daurian Redstart <普通留鳥>
 * Saxicola maura ノビタキ Siberian Stonechat <普通夏鳥>
 * Saxicola ferrea ヤマザキヒタキ Grey Bushchat <迷鳥>
 * Oenanthe hispanica カオグロサバクヒタキ Black-eared Wheatear <迷鳥(北)>
 * Oenanthe pleschanka セグロサバクヒタキ Pied Wheatear <迷鳥(南)>

ムクドリ科 STURNIDAE

 * Sturnus cineraceus ムクドリ White-cheeked Starling <普通夏鳥;少数冬鳥>
 * Sturnus philippensis コムクドリ Chestnut-cheeked Starling <僅少夏鳥>
 * Sturnus sturninus シベリアムクドリ Purple-backed Starling <僅少夏鳥(中部);少数夏鳥>
 * Sturnus sinensis カラムクドリ White-shouldered Starling <迷鳥(南)>
 * Sturnus vulgaris ホシムクドリ Common Starling <迷鳥(北)>

ゴジュウカラ科 SITTIDAE

 * Sitta europaea ゴジュウカラ Wood Nuthatch <普通留鳥>
 * Sitta villosa チョウセンゴジュウカラ Snowy-browed Nuthatch <●少数留鳥(北)>

キバシリ科 CERTHIIDAE

 * Certhia familiaris キバシリ Eurasian Tree-Creeper <普通留鳥(北)>
 * Troglodytes troglodytes ミソサザイ Winter Wren <普通留鳥>

シジュウカラ科 PARIDAE

 * Parus major シジュウカラ Great Tit <多数留鳥>
 * Parus varius ヤマガラ Varied Tit <普通留鳥>
 * Parus ater ヒガラ Coal Tit <普通留鳥>
 * Parus montanus コガラ Willow Tit <普通留鳥>
 * Parus palustris ハシブトガラ Marsh Tit <○普通留鳥>
 * Panurus biarmicus ヒゲガラ Bearded Parrotbill <●迷鳥>
 * Remiz pendulinus ツリスガラ Eurasian Penduline-Tit <特定地少数旅鳥(南)>

エナガ科 AEGITHALIDAE

 * Aegithalos caudatus エナガ Long-tailed Tit <普通留鳥>

ツバメ科 HIRUNDINIDAE

 * Riparia riparia ショウドウツバメ Sand Martin <少数旅鳥>
 * Hirundo rustica ツバメ Barn Swallow <多数夏鳥>
 * Hirundo dauric コシアカツバメ Red-rumped Swallow <特定地普通夏鳥;普通旅鳥> (daurica?)
 * Delichon urbica イワツバメ Northern House-Martin <△特定地僅少夏鳥(北);減少冬鳥>

キクイタダキ科 REGULIDAE

 * Regulus regulus キクイタダキ Goldcrest <普通冬鳥>

シロガシラ科 PYCNONOTIDAE

 * Ixos amaurotis ヒヨドリ Brown-eared Bulbul <普通留鳥>

セッカ科 CISTICOLIDAE

 * Cisticola juncidis セッカ Zitting Cisticola <△少数留鳥(北);減少留鳥>
 * Rhopophilus pekinensis カラチメドリ White-browed Chinese Warbler <●減少夏鳥(北);減少旅鳥>

メジロ科 ZOSTEROPIDAE

 * Zosterops erythropleurus チョウセンメジロ Chestnut-flanked White-eye <●減少夏鳥(北);減少旅鳥>
 * Zosterops japonicus メジロ Japanese White-eye <普通留鳥(東;南)>

ウグイス科 SYLVIIDAE

 * Urosphena squameiceps ヤブサメ Asian Stubtail <普通夏鳥>
 * Cettia diphone ウグイス Japanese Bush-Warbler <普通夏鳥>
 * Locustella lanceolata マキノセンニュウ Lanceolated Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Locustella certhiola シベリアセンニュウ Pallas's Grasshopper-Warbler <減少旅鳥>
 * Locustella ochotensis シマセンニュウ Middendorff's Grasshopper-Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Locustella pleskei ウチヤマセンニュウ/ウチヤマシマセンニュウ Pleske's Grasshopper-Warbler <特定地減少夏鳥;減少旅鳥>
 * Locustella fasciolata エゾセンニュウ Gray's Grasshopper-Warbler <旅鳥>
 * Acrocephalus bistrigiceps コヨシキリ Black-browed Reed-Warbler <少数夏鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Acrocephalus arundinaceus オオヨシキリ Great Reed-Warbler <普通夏鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Acrocephalus aedon ハシブトオオヨシキリ Thick-billed Warbler <減少旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus fuscatus ムジセッカ Dusky Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus schwarzi カラフトムジセッカ Radde's Warbler <減少旅鳥>
 * Bradypterus thoracicus ノドフオウギセッカ Spotted Bush-Warbler <●迷鳥>
 * Phylloscopus proregulus カラフトムシクイ Lemon-rumped Warbler <減少旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus inornatus キマユムシクイ Inornate Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus borealis メボソムシクイ Arctic Warbler <普通旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus trochiloides ヤナギムシクイ Greenish Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus tenellipes エゾムシクイ Pale-legged Leaf-Warbler <少数旅鳥>
 * Phylloscopus occipitalis ニシセンダイムシクイ Western Crowned-Warbler <●普通旅鳥>
 * Magalurus pryeri オオセッカ Japanese Swamp Warbler <迷鳥>--> (Locustella?, Marsh Grassbird, Japanese Marsh Warbler)
 * Paradoxornis webbianus ダルマエナガ Vinous-throated Parrotbill <多数留鳥>
 * Sylvia curruca コノドジロムシクイ Lesser Whitethroat <迷鳥(南)>

ヒバリ科 ALAUDIDAE

 * Calandrella cinera アフリカヒメコウテンシ Red-capped Lark <迷鳥(北)> (cinerea?)
 * Calandrella rufescens コヒバリ Lesser Short-toed Lark <減少旅鳥>
 * Galerida cristata カンムリヒバリ Crested Lark <減少留鳥>
 * Alauda arvensis ヒバリ Sky Lark <多数留鳥;多数冬鳥>

スズメ科 PASSERIDAE

 * Passer rutilans ニュウナイスズメ Russet Sparrow <特定地普通留鳥;特定地普通冬鳥(南)>
 * Passer montanus スズメ Eurasian Tree Sparrow <多数留鳥>

 * Dendronanthus indicus イワミセキレイ Forest Wagtail <少数夏鳥>
 * Motacilla alba タイリクハクセキレイ White Wagtail <●普通夏鳥>
 * Motacilla lugens ハクセキレイ Black-backed Wagtail <△少数冬鳥>
 * Motacilla grandis セグロセキレイ Japanese Wagtail <△少数冬鳥>
 * Motacilla flava ツメナガセキレイ Yellow Wagtail <少数旅鳥>
 * Motacilla cinerea キセキレイ Grey Wagtail <普通夏鳥>
 * Anthus richardi マミジロタヒバリ Richard's Pipit <減少旅鳥>
 * Anthus godlewskii コマミジロタヒバリ Blyth's Pipit <僅少旅鳥>
 * Anthus hodgsoni ビンズイ Olive-backed Pipit <普通旅鳥;時々冬鳥(南)>
 * Anthus gustavi セジロタヒバリ Pechora Pipit <減少旅鳥>
 * Anthus cervinus ムネアカタヒバリ Red-throated Pipit <減少冬鳥(南);減少旅鳥>
 * Anthus roseatus チョウセンタヒバリ Rosy Pipit <迷鳥>
 * Anthus spinoletta タヒバリ Water Pipit <普通冬鳥(南);普通旅鳥>

 * Prunella collaris イワヒバリ Alpine Accentor <少数夏鳥(北);減少冬鳥(南)>
 * Prunella montanella ヤマヒバリ Siberian Accentor <○普通冬鳥>

アトリ科 FRINGILLIDAE

 * Fringilla montifringilla アトリ Brambling <普通冬鳥>
 * Carduelis sinica カワラヒワ Grey-capped Greenfinch <多数留鳥>
 * Carduelis pinus マツノキヒワ Pine Siskin <●多数留鳥>
 * Carduelis hornemanni コベニヒワ Hoary Redpoll <減少冬鳥(北)>
 * Carduelis flammea ベニヒワ Common Redpoll <○普通冬鳥>

 * Leucosticte arctoa ハギマシコ Asian Rosy-Finch <僅少冬鳥>
 * Uragus sibiricus ベニマシコ Long-tailed Rosefinch <普通冬鳥>
 * Carpodacus erythrinus アカマシコ Common Rosefinch <減少夏鳥(北);減少冬鳥>
 * Carpodacus roseus オオマシコ Pallas's Rosefinch <○普通冬鳥>
 * Pinicola enucleator ギンザシマシコ Pine Grosbeak <△迷鳥(北)>
 * Loxia curvirostra イスカ Red Crossbill <○普通冬鳥>
 * Loxia leucoptera ナキイスカ White-winged Crossbill <迷鳥>
 * Pyrrhula pyrrhula ウソ Eurasian Bullfinch <少数冬鳥>
 * Coccothraustes coccothraustes シメ Hawfinch <普通冬鳥>
 * Eophona migratoria コイカル Yellow-billed Grosbeak <少数夏鳥>
 * Eophona personata イカル Japanese Grosbeak <△少数旅鳥;少数冬鳥>

 * Emberiza cioides ホオジロ Meadow Bunting <普通留鳥>
 * Emberiza leucocephala シラガホオジロ Pine Bunting <僅少冬鳥> (leucocephalos?)
 * Emberiza jankowskii コマホオジロ Rufous-backed Bunting <○僅少留鳥(北)>
 * Emberiza tristrami シロハラホオジロ Tristram's Bunting <○普通旅鳥>
 * Emberiza fucata ホオアカ Chestnut-eared Bunting <普通夏鳥;普通旅鳥>
 * Emberiza pusilla コホオアカ Little Bunting <少数旅鳥;少数冬鳥(南)>
 * Emberiza chrysophrys キマユホオジロ Yellow-browed Bunting <減少旅鳥>
 * Emberiza rustica カシラダカ Rustic Bunting <多数冬鳥>
 * Emberiza elegans ミヤマホオジロ Yellow-throated Bunting <○普通留鳥>
 * Emberiza aureola シマアオジ Yellow-breasted Bunting <普通旅鳥>
 * Emberiza rutila シマノジコ Chestnut Bunting <普通旅鳥>
 * Emberiza sulphurata ノジコ Yellow Bunting <△少数旅鳥(南)>
 * Emberiza spodocephala アオジ Black-faced Bunting <△普通旅鳥>
 * Emberiza variabilis クロジ Grey Bunting <▲迷鳥;僅少冬鳥>
 * Emberiza pallasi シベリアジュリン Pallas's Bunting <少数旅鳥>
 * Emberiza schoeniclus オオジュリン Reed Bunting <△減少冬鳥;少数旅鳥>
 * Emberiza yessoensis コジュリン Ochre-rumped Bunting <○普通冬鳥>
 * Emberiza bruniceps チャキンチョウ Red-headed Bunting <●迷鳥>
 * Calcarius lapponicus ツメナガホオジロ Lapland Longspur <僅少冬鳥>
 * Plectrophenax nivalis ユキホオジロ Snow Bunting <△迷鳥>

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:MINT/list of korea birds


text:
User:MINT

working page
 * /list of korea birds

title: User:MINT


text:
Talk:Erica arborea

2004
Tree heath is a name applied to several species, including E arborea, E. lusitanica and E. australis. The distribution given for the tree heath here, including Cameroun, suggests that several species are being described.
 * My references state this as the natural range for Erica arborea specifically - MPF 12:48, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

Cross-section photo needed
There should be a high-quality color photo of the smooth-sanded cross-grain of this wood in order to illustrate the decorative characteristics which cause it to be in demand for pipe-making.Tokerdesigner (talk) 21:59, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

New study of Erica arborea biogeography
Désamoré, A., Laenen, B., Devos, N., Popp, M., González-Mancebo, J. M., Carine, M. A. and Vanderpoorten, A. (2011), Out of Africa: north-westwards Pleistocene expansions of the heather Erica arborea. Journal of Biogeography, 38: 164–176. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02387.x —Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.82.182.63 (talk) 20:57, 9 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Erica arborea


text:
Baalah

Baalah, properly Baʿalah ("Mistress" or "Lady" in the Northwest Semitic languages, sometimes Baʿalat) is the feminine form of Baʿal ("Lord") and was applied to various Levantine goddesses.

It was also the name of several places in ancient Palestine:

 * Another name of Kirjath-jearim
 * A city in Negev given to Simeon, also romanized as Bilhah (1 Chr. 4:29) and Balah (Josh. 19:3)
 * A mount in Judah, between Jabneel and Shikkeron; maybe today's Mughar

title: Baalah


text:
Summer Isles

The Summer Isles (Na h-Eileanan Samhraidh, ) are an archipelago lying in the mouth of Loch Broom, in the Highland region of Scotland.

Geography
Tanera Mòr is the largest island and was the last one to remain inhabited. It was formerly home to an Atlantic salmon fish farm, some rental holiday homes, a café and a post office, which operated its own local post and printed its own stamps from 1970 until 2013, but a new set is planned for 2016. The island has no roads, and the only recognisable path goes around the Anchorage, the sheltered bay on the east side of the island. Boats sail to the island from Achiltibuie and Ullapool.

Other islands

 * Bò Bhùiridh
 * Bottle Island
 * Càrn Deas
 * Càrn Iar
 * Càrn nan Sgeir
 * Eilean a' Chàr
 * Eilean Choinaid
 * Eilean Dubh
 * Eilean Fada Beag
 * Eilean Fada Mòr
 * Eilean Mullagrach
 * Eilean na Saille
 * Glas-leac Beag
 * Glas-leac Mòr
 * Horse Island
 * Iolla Mhòr
 * Isle Martin
 * Isle Ristol
 * Meall nan Caorach
 * Meall nan Gabhar
 * Priest Island (Eilean a' Chlèirich)
 * Sgeir an Aon Iomairt
 * Sgeir Bhuidhe Mòr
 * Sgeir Loisgte
 * Sgeir nam Mult
 * Sgeir Ribhinn
 * Sgeirean Glasa
 * Stac Mhic Aonghais
 * Tanera Beag

Conservation
The islands are part of the Assynt-Coigach National Scenic Area, one of 40 in Scotland.

Frank Fraser Darling, an important figure in the development of Scottish conservation, lived on Tanera Mòr for two years in the 1930s. His book, Island Years (published 1940), records his time in the Summer Isles, painting Priest Island as a place of great beauty as well as great wildlife.

Literature, film, and music

 * The Summer Isles feature in a novella of the same name by Ian R. MacLeod.
 * The fictional Summer Isle, Cladach Duillich (Sad Shore), features in the 1977 Desmond Bagley novel The Enemy.
 * The third movement of a guitar suite, "The Great Western Road," on the album of the same name by Tim Slemmons, is entitled, "III. Evening in the Summer Isles."
 * The Children's Film Foundation (CFF) The Big Catch (1968) features a group of boys who plan to sail to The Summer Isles to capture a wild pony. Filming took place in and around Ullapool and Lochinver.
 * The pagan island of "Summerisle" featured in the motion picture The Wicker Man (filmed in 1973 & directed by Robin Hardy) is sometimes mistakenly associated with this archipelago, but in actuality The Wicker Man was filmed around Newton Stewart in Dumfries and Galloway.

Summer Isles Philatelic Bureau
Since 1970 the Summer Isles Philatelic Bureau has been issuing stamps of the islands for tourists who place them on mail to be carried to the nearest GPO Post Box on the mainland.

Culture
The musician Mairearad Green grew up in Achiltibuie on the Coigach peninsula, overlooking the Summer Isles. She has released an album entitled Summer Isles.

title: Summer Isles


text:
List of sniper rifles

Major precision rifle variants used by snipers from around the world are as follows. The list includes hunting or precision rifles equipped with a telescopic optic, and precision rifles used by both military and law enforcement trained snipers and marksmen.

title: List of sniper rifles


text:
Talk:Curve/Archive 1

There should also be an article about Curve the band and a link on this page saying "Curve can also refer to a band..."

Then go ahead and do it! Revolver 09:09, 25 Apr 2004 (UTC)

I have a number of comments on this article.

1. The definition of curve is incorrect. A curve is not a subset of R^n, it's a continuous mapping of an interval of real numbers into a topological space. The curve is NOT the image. This is why we speak of "simple" or "closed" curves -- these notions only make sense if one defines a curve as the MAP, not the image.

2. The target space (where the image lives) neet not be Euclidean space, it's possible to have curves mapping into infinite-dimensional space, or for that matter any topological space whatsoever, so long as the map is continuous.

3. I don't think the part about curves having to be simple (injective) is necessary! This is why simple curves are called SIMPLE curves...because simple isn't part of the definition of "curve".

4. The definition of "closed" is misleading. Closed has to do with whether the curve ends where it starts, assuming it's defined on a closed bounded interval of real numbers. Moreover, if a curve is by definition a homeomorph of R^1, then there's no way a square could be the image of a curve -- since a square is not homeomorphic to R^1!

5. The definition of elliptic curve isn't really a true generalisation of a curve as a continuous map from an interval of real numbers, in the case over finite fields, this certainly isn't the case, as the set of all (x,y) would be finite and certainly not the continuous image of an interval of real numbers. The name "curve" is just terminology that has stuck, but it's not the same as what we're talking about here.

Revolver

I removed this:

 * any three of its elements are ordered by a betweenness relation (which also distinguishes curves as open, or closed);
 * for any two distinct elements, their distance d to each other is measured being non-zero;
 * for any two elements A and Q holds that for each element B between A and Q there exists an element N between B and Q (where N is neither between A and B, nor between A and Q) such that for each element P between N and Q (where P is neither between B and N, nor between B and Q) holds that
 * d( P, Q ) < d( B, N ) < d( B, Q ).

since the statements took me a while to figure out, and I'm still not sure that it's a correct definition of a 1-manifold (for example, it seems like we can have points p and q which have no point "between" them). More complete defintions referred to manifold. Chas zzz brown 22:29 Mar 8, 2003 (UTC)

As for: the statements took me a while to figure out
 * Nice try.

 * It would have been easier if you had made separate clauses. I might have written the above as:

 * For any two elements A and Q, the following holds for each element B between A and Q: There exists an element N with the following properties:
 * N is between B and Q;
 * N is not between A and B
 * N is not between A and Q
 * For each element P between N and Q which is neither between B and N, nor between B and Q, the following relationship holds:
 * d( P, Q ) < d( B, N ) < d( B, Q ).

 * This makes it easier to see that, for example, this is problematic for the real numbers; let A = 0, B = 1, and Q = 2. Then if we use the usual definition of "between", there is no N which is between B and Q which is not between A and Q - thus, the real number line is not a curve; is that what you wanted? I assumed that what you meant was that N is between B and Q, but 'not bewteen A and B; but there are further problems.

As for: it seems like we can have points p and q which have no point "between" them
 * In stating the "betweenness relation", existence of at least three distinct elements is assumed; say A, B, and Q.
 * As required, therefore exists an element N between B and Q; and so on, further elements between N and Q. Similarly there are also elements between B and A.

 * Let S = R union {p, q} where p and q are elements. Given distinct a, b, c in S, define Btw(a,b,c) as a if a is between b and c, b if b is between a and c, and c if c is between a and b.

 * For all distinct x, y, z in R, define Btw(x, y, z) = y iff x<y<z or z<y<x (using the usual ordering on R). For all distinct x, y in R, define Btw(p, x, y) = x if x<y, and y if y<x. For all distinct x, y in R, define Btw(q, x, y) = x if x<y, and y if y<x. For all x in R, define Btw(p, q, x) = q.

 * Then there is no element in S which is between p and q, but S seems to fit your requirements otherwise. Is S a curve?

As for: More complete definitions referred to manifold
 * Geometric relations between physical entities may not be representable as an n-manifold.

 * Can you give a concrete example (from physics specifically) that is not either a manifold or a pseudomanifold? I grant that in toplogy we want to consider all sorts of general definitions of curve, but in physics, we usually have some continuous physical system in mind.

 * For example, every subset of n + 1 elements might "look like it fits in no less than Rn" (to paraphrase the article on homeomorphism) based on their distance ratios, while ignoring any order between elements. But it may nevertheless be found (based on just these distance ratios, but taking the order between elements into account, as described) that such a set represents a continuous 1-dimensional topological space, i.e. a curve.

 * If you want to define a curve as a "continuous 1-dimensional topological space", then that's not neccessarily a particularly "physics" based definition. Also, you need to define what "continuous 1-dimensional" means. It seems like what you want is a canonical toplogical space over some infinite set with (1) a total order, (2) some metric on the space that supports the total order, and (3) a homeomorphism between your curve and that space. However, your use of "continuous" and "physics" makes me think that your further want the resulting space to be differentiable; and that is another whole kettle of fish!

 * I honestly don't think that's what you've defined here; and that's what worries me. Chas zzz brown 23:42 Mar 9, 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm restoring the article accordingly, attempting to integrate what you pointed out.

 * Regards, Frank W ~@) R 09:47 Mar 9, 2003 (UTC).

I'm reverting it - please address the following:

 * any three of its elements are ordered by a betweenness relation (which also distinguishes curves as open, or closed);

 * Exactly how does the betweeness relation distinguish between an open curve and a closed one? How are "open" and "closed" defined in this sense?

 * for any two distinct elements, their distance d to each other is measured being non-zero;

 * Are you requiring d to be strictly positive? If so, say so.

 * for any two elements A and Q holds that for each element B between A and Q there exists an element N between B and Q (where N is neither between A and B, nor between A and Q) such that for each element P between N and Q (where P is neither between B and N, nor between B and Q) holds that
 * d( P, Q ) < d( B, N ) < d( B, Q ).

As noted above, address what type of space requires that there exists an element between B and Q which is not between A and Q. Likewise for P between N and Q and not between B and Q.

Finally, can you give some justification that this approach is indeed related the definition of a curve "as used by physicists"?

Cheers - Chas Chas zzz brown 08:10 Mar 10, 2003 (UTC)

As for: ''[...] let A = 0, B = 1, and Q = 2. Then if we use the usual definition of "between", there is no N which is between B and Q which is not between A and Q''

 * Allright -- in my attempt to avoid an explicit distinction between open and closed curves, the notion
 * not between
 * was used ambiguously. The requirement should be more concretely:
 * N is between B and Q (which by itself is sufficient for open curves), and A does not belong to the ordered set between B and Q which also contains N (which distinguishes the two segments between any two elements of a closed curve).
 * (This also addresses the further point your trying to make with the definition of Btw, AFAIU.)
 * Thanks for pointing this out. I'll restate the definition of curve in physics accordingly, and I'll retain a reference to Manifold there.

As for: Exactly how does the betweeness relation distinguish between an open curve and a closed one?

 * (For completeness:) A curve is closed if for every element N between two distinct elements B and Q there exists another element A which is also between B and Q but which does not belong to the ordered set between B and Q which contains N.

As for: ''If you want to define a curve as a "continuous 1-dimensional topological space", then that's not neccessarily a particularly "physics" based definition. Also, you need to define what "continuous 1-dimensional" means.''

 * I didn't initially introduce the notions
 * 1-dimensional version of [...] special topological spaces
 * and
 * a curve can be continuously mapped onto.

 * But -- I have to take credit/blame for using these two notions together anyways; and since apparently
 * Again, the idea here is [...]
 * ... to use notions from physics in order to express a particular instance of a "continuous 1-dimensional topological space", therefore I'll try to express the idea of a curve by means of notions from topology in the first place.

As for: ''[... want ...] a canonical topological space over some infinite set with (1) a total order, (2) some metric on the space that supports the total order, and (3) a homeomorphism between your curve and that space''

 * As far as physics is concerned, We may not want the claim or requirement that a homeomorphism exists as part of any definition, but at most arising as a relation between selfstanding definitions.
 * Therefore, in the instance of physics, metric(s) have to provide pretty much everything that makes a set a curve.

As for: [...] want the resulting space to be differentiable

 * Certainly not explicitly.
 * But should any curve not be differentiable wrt itself anyways? Or are you referring to various homeomorphisms to certain ever so "canonical" other sets?

As for: Can you give a concrete example (from physics specifically) that is not either a manifold or a pseudomanifold?

 * First of all, neither Wikipedia nor myself seem presently to have command of the notion "pseudomanifold"; I've only referred to n-manifold''.
 * If you'd like Us to use the notion of "pseudomanifold" of curve (presumably at least in mathematics), then you should define "pseudomanifold" in the first place.

 * Further, yes, I can give concrete examples for how to measure and compare distances and (importantly, quite separately) how to establish betweenness. With these inputs, the example remains:
 * [... a set of which] every subset of n + 1 elements might "look like it fits in no less than Rn" (to paraphrase the article on homeomorphism) based on their distance ratios, while ignoring any order between elements. But it may nevertheless be found (based on just these distance ratios, but taking the order between elements into account, as described) that such a set represents a continuous 1-dimensional topological space [...]
 * (namely by pointing out a suitable assignment of which subsets are to be called open sets, and which are not, based on comparing the pairwise distances).

 * Finally, if you insist on particular physical labels being attached to the elements in this example, then why not call them "those who belonged together to one particular frame, and who met (one after the other) some particular baseball, coming through".

As for: Are you requiring d to be strictly positive?

 * "Positivity" seems to be an attribute of (real) numbers ...
 * In physics, distance values are exclusively to quantify whether two are meeting (i.e. distance value Zero, which was exlcuded), or how far they are apart.
 * However, not to overload the inequality symbol <, I'll use it to express inequality between numbers, i.e. for distance ratios.

Best regards, Frank W ~@) R 23:52 Mar 10, 2003 (UTC).

Frank, no offense, but your changes are incorrect. Your attempt at a definition of a topological curve includes the idea of open sets as subsets of C, but does not give any clue what space C is embedded in; thus, any closed subset of any space is a curve by your definition. A Google search shows no hits for the term "toplogical skin". We need to provide known material; see What Wikipedia is not, #10. Original Research. Regards, Chas zzz brown 02:00 Mar 11, 2003 (UTC)

As for: Your attempt at a definition of a topological curve [...] does not give any clue what space C is embedded in

 * Right on! A definition of some particular object as a topological space is precisely that the definition is given in terms of Set theory, and the designation of certain sets as open sets, as a primitive notion of topology. Correspondingly, there is no mentioning of "embed*" anywhere in the present Wikipedia articles on Topology or Set (or related to those, as far as I've checked); not even in the listings of "What links there".

As for: any closed subset of any space is a curve by your definition.

 * No offense, but -- Counterexample:

 * Topological Space (please feel free to check that it is one):

 * set A == { a, b, c, d, e, f ..., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ... } of infinitely many elements, with the following sets declared open:
 * A itself,
 * {},
 * { b, d, f, h, k, m, p, r ..., 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 ... } == B,
 * { c, e, g, j, l, n, q, s ..., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ... } == C,
 * { d, h, m, r ..., 0, 4, 8, 12 ... } == D,
 * { e, j, n, s ..., 1, 5, 9 ... } == E,
 * { f, k, p ..., 2, 6, 10 ... } == F,
 * { g, l, q ..., 3, 7 ... } == G
 * { h, r ..., 0, 8, 16 ... } == H and so on;
 * and the various unions, and intersections of all these open sets.

 * By construction, any subsets with only one element, such as { 0 }, or only a finite number of elements, such as { 0, 2 }, are not open.

 * Noting that A = Union( { a }, B, C ), and Intersect( B, C ) = {}, therefore set $ == Union( { a }, B ) is a (proper) closed subset (of the set/space A).

 * Is set $ a curve, according to the suggested definition ??:
 * Consider $ 's subset $$ == Union( { 0, 4, 8 }, F ).

 * Since Intersect( D, F ) = {}, and Intersect( H, F ) = {}, etc., and because neither { 0 }, nor { 0, 4 }, nor { 0, 8 }, nor { 0, 4, 8 } are open sets, therefore element 0 does not belong to the Interior of set $$. Similar arguments hold for 4, and 8. No element of the set { 0, 4, 8 } belongs to the interior of set $$; and the interior of set $$ is set F.

 * However: The set { 0, 4, 8 } is a subset of set D; and since Intersect( D, F ) = {}, therefore set D constitutes an open set which contains (at least) two elements of { 0, 4, 8 }, but no other element of the interior of set $$.

 * Therefore set $ is no curve. Q. e. ... darn it, of course I had missed the other in no 'other' element; and of course the closed curves raise their ugly special-cased head again, requiring consideration of 'three' elements instead of two.

 * So -- thanks again (but surely, asking: Which set not a curve, but this definition? might have sufficed, too). I'll restate the definition of a topological curve accordingly; to the best of my knowledge, for which don't claim completeness, of course -- who does ? I can barely keep track of all that's not known (and/or which presumptions become outdated) in physics, let alone topology.
 * Anyways: which definition of a topological curve would you propose to be known, since AFAIR you raise these notions ?

As for: A Google search shows no hits for the term "toplogical skin".
 * 1. Google suggests alternative spellings, and
 * 2. I used that term as an abbreviation for a more lengthy expression -- can you find a more appropriate one in the Topology glossary?
 * 3. Let'S be more explicit anyways ...

As for: ''We need to provide known material; see What Wikipedia is not, #10. Original Research.''

 * There's nothing original about the notion of Curve (even according to the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, nor Topology (though the 1911 might disagree), nor Distance (as a notion in Physics) to begin with. The research to establish what's therefore known involves more than hitting on Wippycadia:what Wikipedia is not.

Regards, Frank W ~@) R 11:31 Mar 11, 2003 (UTC).

p.s. Did you consider any particular closed subsets of a more specific space, when you suggested that any closed subset of any space is a curve by your definition (to which I tried to give a "counterexample for the right reasons"); or really just any closed subset of any old (topological) space ? Frank W ~@) R 17:35 Mar 11, 2003 (UTC)

Frank, please don't include what you think seems like a good defintion of a curve. 4 incorrect definitions (including the one I just reverted) should make you pause, and look up a reference which gives the definition you seek. We want to try to collect known information here - why not seek that information out and include it, rather than trying to re-invent the wheel? Cheers - Chas zzz brown 21:28 Mar 11, 2003 (UTC)

As for: incorrect definitions (including the one I just reverted)

 * As far as you're claiming "incorrectness" based on an assertion to which a counterexample was suggested without addressing this suggestion itself, nor stating explicitly just what does seem (exclusively) "correct" to you, you're excluding yourself from referencing what's known.
 * And if the wheel couldn't be re-invented equally (within the GFDL), it was not known to begin with.

As for: look up a reference which gives the definition you seek

 * Continually, of course; approaching already about a dozen times for this this particular topic alone. However, some present references merely give reversions (exsponges &) in response to the vista one sought to share -- after all, the reference on would ideally consult is still under construction.

Cheerios, <TT>F</TT>rank <TT>W ~@) R</TT> 09:42 Mar 13, 2003 (UTC)

---

See what I mean? Cat-pee. *sigh* -- Tarquin 10:48 Mar 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * My brain hurts just trying to read his response. Reverting again. Frank, please provide a reference external to wikipedia - for example, a definition from a book on topology, or from a physics textbook - that uses any of your given definitions of "curve".

 * Applying your current definition, let C = R with the usual topology (open sets are unions of open intervals). This is the real number line - we certainly want this to be a curve.

 * Let S = (0,1) union {3,4,5}; i.e., union of an open interval and a set of three points. S is a proper subset of R, with interior I = (0,1) and boundary B = {3,4,5}. The open subset O = (2,6) contains the three points in B, but does not intersect I, thus O and I are disjoint; therefore, the real number line R is not a curve by your definition; nor is any figure topologically equivalent to R, such as parabolas, lines, etc. - pretty much anything that anyone else would call a curve.

 * Even if your definition were correct, think about your audience here. The motivation behind the definition of a curve as "homeomorphic to R" (the commonly used one) is that we want things that are "like" the real number line. If one has to wade through a thicket of statements just to see whether the real line actually satisfies the definition, then the definition isn't particularly useful, especially to people who don't already know the material (our likely readers). If you know of another commonly used definition, include a reference. If you don't know what "homeomorphic to R" means, I applaud your attempts to learn; but in that case don't write an article defining what a curve is in mathematics! Chas zzz brown 21:21 Mar 13, 2003 (UTC)

As for: ''let C = R with the usual topology (open sets are unions of open intervals). [...] Let S = (0,1) union {3,4,5} [...]''
 * Good point; and we know that your example depends on (me) having omitted a requirement for S to be a closed set (wrt C), with an actually nonempty interior I (where the other conditions assure existence of such sets S). Thanks for the reference.

 * Requiring S to be closed doesn't change the situation. Let S = [0,1] union {3,4,5}. S is a closed set - it is the union of a finite number of closed sets. It has boundary B = {0,1,3,4,5}, and interior I = (0,1). As before, O = (2,6) is an open set containing 3 points of B and is disjoint from I, so the real line is not a curve according to this. Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * (Btw., in the above counterexample with $ == Union( { a }, B ), a suitable closed subset is then $$ == { a, b, d, f, k, m, p ..., 2, 4, 6, 10, 12 ... } = Complement( A, Union( C, H ) ) = Union( F, { a, b, d, m, ..., 4, 12 ... } ), where the elements 4, 12, 20 and so on belong together to D but not to F, i.e. not to the interior of $$.)

 * I don't know if your counterexample meets all your requirements for a curve; I was incorrect to state that every closed set was a curve by that defintion. But I was correct in stating that your definition doesn't meet a major requirement - namely that things we would naturally call a curve, like the real number line, are not classified as curves by your definition. Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

As for: [...] if that case don't write an article defining what a curve is in mathematics!
 * I don't presume to give definitions in mathematics, and my only modification in the corresponding section had been adding n-Manifold as a generalization to Rn.

 * ... and several attempts at a mathematical definition, via distance functions and open sets, of what a curve is defined as. Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * I merely wish Us not to omit the point(s) of view on the notion of curve which are not represented by the present section In mathematics, a curve is typically [...]. (And surely any incidental articles on Peano curve, Trefoil curve, Lemniscate etc. practically write themselves.)
 * The present statement that a (simple) curve is to be one-dimensional, continuous, and not self-intersecting may be at least for the moment sufficiently inclusive, especially in reference to physics and the notion of metric, and pending further definition and reference of these topological notions in Wikipedia.

 * Basically, I agree (although I might change "continuous" to to "connected").

As for: The motivation behind the definition of a curve as "homeomorphic to R" (the commonly used one) is that we want things that are "like" the real number line.
 * As emphasized above already: Is there any motivation to limit the notion of curve in mathematics to certain subsets of n-Manifolds, or even Rn??

 * Well, that's somewhat awkwardly put; I'd say there is no mathematical motivation to extend the notion of "curve" beyond certain limits. For example, there are sets one could call "1-dimensional" subsets of a vector space; but if the vector space is over a ring which doesn't have a total order (for example, over C), then it isn't very much like our intuitive notion of what a curve is. It would be more natural to call such a subset a surface, because it is more like our intuitive notions of what a surface is.

 * And if I can make my point concerning "homeomorphism" any clearer still:
 * If you do command reference of R 's usual topology', then why should the article not state this directly and explicitly, with or without reference to open intervals in turn; rather than having to put "like" in shudder-quotes ??

 * Because the homeomorphism link provides a better place to include the more detailed analysis; introducing the definition again here just confuses people who have no idea what open and closed sets are. And after all, "homeomorphic" is just a fancy latin way of saying "has the same shape as" - equally vague as "like", without further definition. I put "like" in quotes to indicate that in this case, "like" has a very specific meaning - see homeomorphism.

As for: If one has to wade through a thicket of statements just to see whether the real line actually satisfies the definition, then the definition isn't particularly useful, especially to people who don't already know the material (our likely readers).

 * I have no prejudice towards Our readers, however likely or unlikely they may appear...

 * We'll just have to take their existence as axiomatic.

 * ... (they've taught me already to take greater care in distinguishing closed sets from sets without any further qualification -- thanks again). Nor do I judge anyone's ability to perceive e.g. the Sierpinski carpet "like" the real number line, or not.
 * However, We may want not (only) to appeal to arbitrary perception, but (also) represent what can be equally known and understood.

 * I don't get your point here. An article about the term "curve" in mathematics should be about precisely that - what mathematicians, as a group, mean by the term "curve". Sure, mathematicians could call a "cup of coffee" a "curve" - but they don't. So why include "cup of coffee" as a possible mathematical definition of "curve"? Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

As for: commonly used definition
 * I don't presume to enforce what's common or not; considering all Our readers, any presently known definitions may all to soon become mere historical curiosities. Instead, and still, I'd like Us to present what's known to Us, and such that it can remain known unambiguosly.

 * We are editors, not researchers. It's not what's known to us, it's what known by us to be known in general.

As for: please provide a reference external to wikipedia
 * Not for definitions, as a matter of principle: namely in order to support the implementation of Wikipedia as an Encyclopedia, i.e. a self-containted circle (or rather: [[Karl Menger|sponge &).

 * That seems a rather silly stance to me. Supporting definitions using other incorrect or incomplete definitions in the name of self-referentiality serves no one. "Garbage in, garbage out". Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Insofar, I consider the present statement of what a (simple) curve is (outside the more or less severely limiting "typical definition in mathematics" which follows) already an achievement.

 * Yes - it helps clarify what is meant by "like" the real line. Chas zzz brown 21:26 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

Regards, <TT>F</TT>rank <TT>W ~@) R</TT> 10:25 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC).

As for: ''Requiring S to be closed doesn't change the situation. [...] boundary B = {0,1,3,4,5}, and interior I = (0,1).''
 * Correct -- and quite obviously so. Yet ... evidently I was under the impression that it does, for the condition I was considering, and which I have so far expressed only very poorly; namely that (roughly, trying to be more concise, and thus less error-prone):

 * If two closed subsets S and T of a simple curve C have the same border (of three or more elements), then they must share some of their interior.

 * Evidently this condition applies only to such closed subsets with (individually) nonempty interior.
 * Just as evidently (and as indicated earlier) this condition is "wrong" as well; for instance: a loop C can be represented as four consecutive closed "sectors [0, 90], [90, 180], [180, 270], [270, 0]" such that the closed Union( [0, 90], [180, 270] ) and the closed Union( [90, 180], [270, 0] ) have the same four boundary points, but nevertheless disjoint interiors.
 * Accounting for all this, I'd consider the following condition presently a pretty precise representation of which topological spaces are known as "simple curves":

 * For any three elements of a simple curve C there are at least two distinct closed subsets of C (both with nonempty interior) whose boundaries have exactly these three elements in common; and then these two subsets must have some interior in common, too.

 * (This alone might even imply "connectedness"; which otherwise needs to be required separately.)
 * IOW: I'd surely appreciate an encyclopedic entry to list some or all topological spaces of which certain instances (i.e. at least in certain fields of knowledge) would be called "simple curves" despite failing this condition.

As for: attempts at a mathematical definition, via distance functions
 * Not at all: I was careful to distinguish the definition of "curve" in physics; based on measured distance values.

As for: attempts at a mathematical definition, via [...] open sets
 * Hardly: None of my attempts to express a topological "curve" definition used the symbol "n", which appears indispensible for the "typical notion of curve in mathematics" as presently stated.

As for: I'd say there is no mathematical motivation to extend the notion of "curve" beyond certain limits.
 * Of course I don't wish to disrespect this POV. However, the n in n-Manifolds, or even Rn is obviously in general too limiting for the description of one-dimensional, connected, and not self-intersecting relations that may be derived from (infinitely many) distance values, or ratios.

As for: An article about the term "curve" in mathematics should be about precisely that - what mathematicians, as a group, mean by the term "curve"
 * If the mathematically inclined wish to present precisely and exclusively what "curve" is to be in mathematics, then they may need to create a new and separate article, e.g. Curve (mathematics). As it presently stands, the introduction of the article to be talked about exceeds the limit presented by the n which still appears there to define "(typical) curve in mathematics".

As for: might change "continuous" to "connected"
 * Good point: in this article (or thereby even in general), the notion of a curve "being connected" should take precedence over the capability to be "continuously mapped to R". (Since you had used the word "continuous" first, I had tried to be "less upsetting" by retaining it.)
 * With the same motivation I suggest that the explicit and separate definitions of curve or R 's usual topology as topological spaces ought to have precedence over mentionings of a homeomorphism between them.

As for: ''We are editors, not researchers. It's not what's known to us, it's what known by us to be known'' in general.
 * We are encyclopedists first; not copiers, nor poets. The contents of articles must be thereby equally known to anyone with the capacity to edit, wikify, and follow links. Otherwise the contents can surely be altered beyond recognition, or disappear alltogether.

As for: Supporting definitions using other incorrect or incomplete definitions in the name of self-referentiality serves no one.
 * Sure (except of course as examples for "incorrectness" and/or "incompleteness".)
 * However, a free and ongoing encyclopedic framework cannot deny to point out whatever can be understood to follow from the persistent knowledge already presented there; even if it was theretofore barely recognizable.

As for: "Garbage in, garbage out".
 * "Give the dudes a beer and they drink five minutes. Show them the fridge and they drink all night."

Regards, <TT>F</TT>rank <TT>W ~@) R</TT> 22:09 Mar 15, 2003 (UTC)

This was recently cut from the page:

''==Simple Curves== - It can be shown that a topological space X is the image of a simple curve if and only if X is a connected T1 space with at least two elements, satisfying the following property: -   - * If T is a subset of X which is closed and whose boundary consists of three distinct elements such that the boundary of the interior of T consists of these three elements as well, then T is the union of two disjoint non-empty closed subsets of X.   - - A simple curve is open (i.e. is the image of an open interval) if and only if such a closed subset T exists in X.''

Warehoused here.

Charles Matthews 09:36, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I was going to remove this earlier, mainly because it doesn't seem to be one of the most important definitions or properties...it's interesting (assuming it's true...I didn't even check when I read it) but more like an exercise in the back of the book than an essential definition or result. Revolver 20:17, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmmm - I've found what I was looking for earlier, on space-filling curve:

The Hahn-Mazurkiewicz Theorem
The Hahn-Mazurkiewicz theorem is the following characterization of general continuous curves:

<i>A Hausdorff topological space is a continuous image of the unit interval if and only if it is a compact, connected, locally connected metrizable space.</i>

So presumably the simple curve theorem is a toy version of this? Anyway, I presume these belong together, in some sense.

Charles Matthews 20:50, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Simple curve with positive Lebesgue measure
Such examples do exist. Please do not remove "simple" from here!!!

 * I will remove it unless you can give me a specific "example". Just saying "examples do exist" isn't enough.  To clarify, I assume you are talking about 2-dimensional Lebesgue measure in the plane.  Can you give a specific example of a simple curve whose image in the plane has positive 2-dimensional Lebesgue measure?  I don't know of any, and since you didn't bother to say what your "examples" are, I'll assume there aren't any.  BTW, the Peano curve is not simple, the Koch snowflake IS simple, but its image has zero 2-dim Lebesgue measure. Revolver 22:59, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Do not remove "Simple" in "Simple curve with positive Lebesgue measure"
In general if you do not know something please do not make changes!!!

One can construct such example by simple varying Peano curve construction making it simple (so you get a closed nowhere dense set of positive measure) I was trying to search interenet for such examples but found nothing, in a few days I will provide a reference.

Tosha

Sorry, let me explain my specific reasons for making the change: In general if you do not know something please do not make changes!!!
 * Your wording was very unclear; the way you had worded it, it sounded as if you were saying that the Peano curve (or a Peano curve) was an example of a simple curve with positive measure. Since the term "Peano curve" has this conventional meaning, that's how I took it, you didn't say anything about "varying the construction", so from the way I understood it, you were saying that the Peano curve was a simple curve with positive Lebesgue measure, which it is not. When I read something I know is untrue, I change it. THAT was the reason I took simple out. Now I see that wasn't what you meant, but can you see how I read it that way??
 * Okay, but there is a flip side to this -- in general, if you're going to make unusual claims in an article (and a simple curve whose image has positive measure seems unusual to me), then don't be surprised if people question if it's correct and want examples. Maybe among certain researchers, these kinds of curves are well-known, but I think if you took a survey of mathematicians in general, most would be surprised (or at least unaware) of these curves (in fact, out of a dozen or so grad students I asked, most "guessed" such curves didn't exist). I'm just saying, this fact is not part of the common knowledge. It's part of mathematical nature not to believe something until given an example, esp. when you misunderstand the example, this doesn't help, either.

Apologies, Revolver 09:07, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)

disagreement with trend of article
I disagree strongly with the trend this article is taking under the edits of Tosha, who is consolidating the differential geometry of curves in one article. Simply because a topic can be consolidated does not mean that it should be. It makes Wikipedia into a nice mathematical treatise, but it is not, in my opinion, the way a hyperlinked encyclopedia on this subject should be organized. For example, rectifiable curve is now redirects here without definition at all, and "regular curve" gets a single line, buried in the next. These are important definitions which should have articles to themselves which at least present the definitions, and perhaps links to theorems regarding their usage. In my opinion, Wikipedia suffers when they are lumped too much together, in the style of a mathematics monograph. -- Decumanus 19:58, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I did it since rectifiable curve and arc length was written worse than the subsection here (and I asked for oppinion in the Talk pages), Michael Hardy was trying to fix these articles, but it still would be better to copy this from curve. If it would be a way to take a part of big article and use it for an ather article it would be nice to use here (but it seems we do not have it).

About definitions, to make them avalable one could add subsection types of curves and it would solve it completely.

Tosha 23:52, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Curve/Archive 1