text:
Talk:Edgeworth box

FYE
Is Francis Ysidro Edgeworth the eponym of this idea? If so, I'd like to add that fact to this article and to the one about Edgeworth. Michael Hardy 03:33, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

Unfortunetly, the image accompanig this article is not one of an Edgeworth box - since it just shows one consumer. I'll try to find something better.radek 06:53, 14 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Actually, this diagram does show two consumers, One from origin O, and the other from origin A. However, I will agree this diagram is not a good example, because the lines are too think and the colours all too similar, but also because it shows more than just the Edgeworth box - it introduces indifference curves, the PPF, and budget constraints, MRS, etc.  These are not what this article should be concerned with - all of those things are tools, along with the Edgeworth box, used in general equilibrium analysis.  I would suggest that the first diagram shown in this article, if there are multiple diagrams, should simply be the box showing how it is simply two graphs, with one rotated, that have been joined together, and how this then shows mixtures of consumption (or whatever is appropriate), given some point in the box.  I may attempt this in the future. Narxysus 09:19, 3 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I've added Image:Edgeworth-box-example.svg, hopefully this is OK. -- Silver Star ★  00:36, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

Why Octavio and Abby
Just out of curiosity, but WHY them? Who are they? My economics book uses Adam and Eve, apples and fig leaves. 117.18.231.29 (talk) 15:41, 13 June 2011 (UTC)
 * The diagram's author probably follows a different creation story. Jonpatterns (talk) 16:38, 11 February 2018 (UTC)

 * I reckon it derives from apples and oranges. Abba Lerner calls his consumers Mark and Victor because his commodities are meat and veg. (‘Economics of control’, p9). Colin.champion (talk) 07:20, 28 July 2020 (UTC)

Tangency & budget line
Fig. 3 shows that at equilibrium the common tangent has the same slope of the budget line. However, if we constrain the equilibrium to be on the budget line, then it will correspond to the intersection with the Pareto set with no assurance that common tangent to the indifference curves at equilibrium equals the slope of the budget line. What am I missing? Antonio.scala.phys (talk) 11:37, 8 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Edgeworth box


text:
Benjamin Bristow

Benjamin Helm Bristow (June 20, 1832 – June 22, 1896) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 30th U.S. Treasury Secretary and the first Solicitor General.

A Union military officer, Bristow was a Republican Party reformer and civil rights advocate. During his tenure as Secretary of the Treasury, he is primarily known for breaking up and prosecuting the Whiskey Ring at the behest of President Grant, a corrupt tax evasion profiteering ring that depleted the national treasury. Additionally, Bristow promoted gold standard currency rather than paper money. Bristow was one of Grant's most popular Cabinet members among reformers. Bristow supported Grant's Resumption of Specie Act of 1875, that helped stabilize the economy during the Panic of 1873. As the United States' first solicitor general, Bristow aided President Ulysses S. Grant and Attorney General Amos T. Akerman's vigorous and thorough prosecution and destruction of the Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstructed South. Solicitor General Bristow advocated for African American citizens in Kentucky to be allowed to testify in a white man's court case. He also advocated education for all races to be paid for by public funding.

A native of Kentucky, Bristow was the son of a prominent Whig Unionist and attorney. Having graduated Jefferson College in Pennsylvania in 1851, Bristow studied law and passed the bar in 1853, working as an attorney until the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. Fighting for the Union, Bristow served in the army during the American Civil War and was promoted to colonel. Wounded at the Battle of Shiloh, Bristow recuperated and was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1863, Bristow was elected Kentucky state Senator, serving only one term. At the end of the Civil War, Bristow was appointed assistant to the U.S. District Attorney serving in the Louisville area. In 1866, Bristow was appointed U.S. District attorney, serving in the Louisville area.

In 1870, Bristow was appointed the United States' first U.S. Solicitor General, who aided the U.S. Attorney General by arguing cases before the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1874, Bristow was appointed U.S. Secretary of the Treasury by President Ulysses S. Grant. Initially Grant gave Bristow his full support during Bristow's popular prosecution of the Whiskey Ring. However, when Bristow and Grant's Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont, another reforming Cabinet member, uncovered that Orville Babcock, Grant's personal secretary, was involved in the ring, Grant's relationship with Bristow cooled. In June 1876, due to friction over Bristow's zealous prosecution of the Whiskey Ring and rumor that Bristow was interested in running for the U.S. presidency, Bristow resigned from President Grant's Cabinet on his 44th birthday. During the 1876 United States presidential election, Bristow made an unsuccessful attempt at gaining the Republican presidential ticket, running as a Republican reformer. The Republicans, however, chose Rutherford B. Hayes. After the 1876 presidential election, Bristow returned to private practice in New York. He formed a successful law practice in 1878, often arguing cases before the U.S. Supreme Court until his death in 1896.

Bristow was credited, by historian Jean Edward Smith, as one of Grant's best cabinet choices. Reformers were generally pleased by Secretary Bristow's overall prosecution of the Whiskey Ring, and looked to him for cleaning up government corruption. Historians have also given credit for Bristow, America's first Solicitor General, for prosecuting the Ku Klux Klan. Bristow, however, had an ambitious, contentious nature, and at times this led to various feuds with Grant cabinet members. Bristow, a native of Kentucky, represented the Southern United States on Grant's cabinet, during Grant's second term.

Early life

Benjamin Helm Bristow was born in Edwards Hall on June 20, 1832, in Elkton, Kentucky, United States. Bristow was the son of Francis M. Bristow and his wife Emily Helm. Francis was a prominent lawyer and Whig member of Congress in 1854–1855 and 1859–1861. Edwards Hall was the home of his late grandfather, Benjamin Edwards. Bristow graduated at Jefferson College, Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1853. For a while Bristow worked as a law partner for his father. His father later became a strong anti-slavery Unionist. His father's political anti-slavery and Whig views strongly influenced Bristow's own political outlook.

Marriage and family
On November 21, 1854, aged 22, Bristow married Abbie S. Briscoe. Benjamin and Abbie had two children one son, William A. Bristow, and one daughter Nannie Bristow. William was an attorney who worked in Bristow's New York law firm Bristow, Opdyke, & Willcox. In June 1896 William was in London recovering from typhoid fever. Nannie married Eben S. Sumner a Massachusetts textile businessman and politician.

Kentucky law practice (1858–1861)
In 1858, Bristow and his wife Abbie moved to Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Bristow practiced law until the outbreak of the Civil War.

American Civil War (1861–1863)
In December 1860, after Abraham Lincoln was elected, the South seceded from the Union and formed the Confederacy (1861), primarily to protect the institution of slavery, profitable cotton plantations, and resistance to black integration and citizenship. President James Buchanan, sympathetic to the South, did virtually nothing to contain Southern secession, prior to Lincoln's March 4, 1861, Inauguration. At the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, Bristow, an ardent Unionist, joined the Union Army, and mustered the 25th Kentucky Infantry. On September 21, 1861, Bristow was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 25th Kentucky Infantry. Bristow fought under General Ulysses S. Grant and served bravely at three battles, Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and Shiloh, at the latter he was injured.

In April 1862, General Grant and most of his Union Army were encamped at Pittsburg Landing, and had planned to attack Corinth, a Confederate stronghold. The Confederates, however attacked in full force, that surprised Grant's unentrenched Union Army. Grant and his men were able to hold off the Confederate Army, although one Union division was captured. The next day, after Grant received reinforcements, the Union Army attacked the Confederates in full force and pushed the Southern Army back to Corinth. At this two day Battle of Shiloh in Tennessee, Bristow was severely wounded by an exploding shell over his head and temporarily forced to retire from field duty in order to recover from his injury. The force and noise of the explosion left Bristow deaf and unconscious, unable to command. Bristow was replaced by Major William B. Wall. After his recuperation, Bristow returned to field service during the summer of 1862 and helped recruit the 8th Kentucky Cavalry.

On September 8, 1862, Bristow was commissioned lieutenant colonel over the 8th Kentucky Cavalry. Bristow assumed command of the 8th Kentucky Cavalry in January 1863 after Col. James M. Shackleford, the previous commander, was promoted brigadier general. On April 1, 1863, Bristow was promoted to colonel and continued his command over the 8th Kentucky Cavalry. In July 1863 Col. Bristow and the Kentucky 8th Cavalry assisted in the capture of John Hunt Morgan during his July 1863 raid through Indiana and Ohio.

Kentucky state senator (1863–1865)
On September 23, 1863, Bristow was honorably discharged from service in the Union Army; having been elected Kentucky State Senator by Christian County. Bristow had not known he had been elected and served one term as State Senator until 1865, having resigned office. Bristow supported all Union war effort legislation, the presidential election of Abraham Lincoln in 1864, and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment that outlawed slavery.

U.S. District Attorney (1866–1870)
In 1865, Bristow was appointed assistant to the United States Attorney. In 1866, Bristow was appointed district attorney for the Louisville, Kentucky district. As district attorney, he was renowned for his vigor in enforcing the 1866 U.S. Civil Rights Act. Bristow served as district attorney until 1870 and spent a few months practicing law in partnership with future United States Supreme Court Justice John Harlan.

Prosecuted Ku Klux Klan
In 1870, Congress created the U.S. Department of Justice, in part, to aid in the enforcement of U.S. Congressional Reconstruction laws and U.S. Constitutional amendments. On October 4, 1870, Bristow was appointed the first incumbent U.S. Solicitor General by President Ulysses S. Grant and served until November 12, 1872, having resigned the office. Bristow and U.S. Attorney General Amos Akerman prosecuted thousands of Klansmen that resulted in a brief two-year quiet period during the turbulent Reconstruction Era in the South. In 1873 President Grant nominated him Attorney General of the United States in case then Attorney General George H. Williams was confirmed as Chief Justice of the United States, a contingency which did not arise.

Feud with Akerman
On the verge of prosecuting the Ku Klux Klan in mid-September 1871, Bristow in Washington launched a treacherous attack on his boss Akerman's reputation, while Akerman was fighting lawlessness in the South. After Grant returned from a trip to Dayton, Ohio, Bristow, wanting Akerman's cabinet post, told Grant that Akerman was "too small" for the job of Attorney General and he was not respected "by the Court & the profession generally". Bristow went so far as to call Akerman a "dead weight on the administration". Grant was shocked at Bristow's view of Akerman and surprised that Bristow had prodded Grant to get him fired by Grant. Grant refused to consider firing Akerman, telling Bristow that Akerman was thoroughly honest and an earnest man. Grant kept Akerman on the cabinet while Bristow retained his job of Solicitor General.

Civil rights speech
In 1871, Bristow traveled to his native Kentucky state and in a speech advocated African American civil rights. Bristow advocated that blacks be given the right to testify in juries. At this time Kentucky law forbade the 225,000 black U.S. citizens from testifying in any civil or criminal case involving a white man. He stated the Kentucky law that denied African Americans the right to testify in a white man's case had roots in slavery and was a "monstrous and grievous wrong to both races." Bristow stated that the Ku Klux Klan Act and the previous Civil Rights acts passed by the U.S. Congress were designed to protect the "humblest citizens" from lawbreakers. Bristow stated he would "tax the rich man's property to educate his poor neighbor's child", and he would "tax the white man's property to educate the black man's child." Bristow advocated free universal education and all property in Kentucky be taxed to pay for schools.

Secretary of the Treasury (1874–1876)

On June 3, 1874, President Grant appointed Bristow Secretary of the Treasury after William A. Richardson was removed in light of the Sanborn incident that involved Treasury contract scandals. Bristow was hailed by the press as a much needed reformer. Bristow took control of the Treasury during the Long Depression, that was started by the Panic of 1873. The Republican Party at this time was divided over currency. Bristow supported the hard money North Eastern Republicans and favored a resumption of species (coin money) to replace greenbacks (paper money). President Grant had vetoed the Inflation Bill, on April 22, that would have increased paper money into the collapsed economy. Bristow's support of Grant's veto helped him get nominated for the Treasury by Grant. Sixteen days after Bristow took office, on June 20, Bristow's 42nd birthday, Grant signed a compromise act that legalized $26 million greenbacks released by previous Treasury Secretary Richardson, allowed a maximum of $382 million greenbacks, and authorized a redistribution of $55 million national banknotes. The act had little affect to alleve the devastated economy.

Internal reforms made
Fulfilling the press's reformer expectation, Bristow immediately went to work. He drastically reorganized the Treasury Department, abolished the corrupt office of supervising architect made famous by Alfred B. Mullett, and dismissed the second-comptroller and his subordinates for inefficiency. Bristow shook up the detective force and consolidated collection districts in the Customs and Internal Revenue Services. He dismissed over 700 people and implemented civil service rules in the Treasury Department.

Feud with Robeson
Within a few months after Grant appointed Bristow to run the Treasury, Bristow developed a feud with Grant's appointed Secretary of Navy George M. Robeson. The controversy centered around Robeson wanting to have Senator A.G. Cattell appointed financial agent in London to negotiate a bond issue. Cattell had performed a similar service in 1873 under previous Secretary Richardson. Bristow refused to make the appointment and believed a Treasury appointee could do the job. Bristow lobbied Grant to appoint John Bigelow, head of the Treasury Department's Loan Division. Grant accepted Bristow's choice of Bigelow, but he warned Bristow that Bigelow had a previous episode of drunkness. Bristow went further to undercut Robeson's influence in the Grant cabinet. Bristow told Grant that Robeson's Navy Department was financially mismanaged, and was under the control of former treasury secretary Hugh McCulloch's banking house. Bristow's advisers told Bristow to cool things off, and take a less confrontational approach.

Feud with Williams
Grant's appointed Attorney General George Williams position on the cabinet was not secure, after Williams nomination was withdrawn by Grant for Supreme Court Justice. His personal reputation and that of his wife, Kate Williams, was under public scrutiny. To defend her husband and herself, Kate sent out anonymous letters to slander Grant's cabinet, and others, including alleging sexual misconduct. Cabinet members who had received letters included Secretary of War William Belknap and Secretary of Navy George M. Robeson. Treasury department solicitor, Bluford Wilson, hired H.C. Whitely to investigate Kate and the letters. Wilson, Belknap, and Robeson agreed that Williams had to go. Bristow, supporting Wilson, urged Grant to fire Williams. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish told Grant that Kate had received a bribe of $30,000 from Pratt & Boyd for the Justice Department to drop a case against the company. Grant finally fired Williams, and replaced him with New York reformer Edwards Pierrepont, who cleaned up the Department of Justice.

Feud with Delano
Columbus Delano was Grant's Secretary of Interior, who allowed corruption in the vast Interior Department. Bristow, a reformer, wanted Delano out of office, believing Delano's departure would establish integrity in the Republican Party. Also, Bristow believed Delano was plotting to remove Bristow from the Interior. Bristow called Delano a "very mean dog" and said Delano deserved the "execration of every honest man." Bristow hired Frank Wolcott to investigate Delano's department, that was ripe with corruption. Wolcott discovered that surveyor general of Wyoming, Silas Reed, had been making contracts with corrupt surveyors who shared enormous profits with silent-partners.

One of those silent-partners was Delano's son John, who had no survey training or work experience. Wolcott sent Bristow damaging evidence against Delano, while Bristow shrewdly turned the documents over to Grant. Although the silent-partner contracts were technically legal, the scandal would embolden the Democrats. By April 1875, Delano had to go, but Grant delayed his resignation for several months. Delano fought back, by revealing information that other cabinet officers wanted Delano to stay in office, in addition to having made a false charge against Bristow. In October 1875, Grant finally replaced Delano with reformer Zachariah Chandler, who cleaned up corruption the Interior Department.

Broke the Whiskey Ring
In the Spring of 1875, Bristow began an anti-corruption campaign that would put him in the national spotlight. Bristow's greatest work in the Treasury Department came in prosecution and break up of the notorious Whiskey Ring headquartered in St. Louis The Whiskey Ring was powerful and corrupt machine started by western distillers and their allies in the Internal Revenue Service; it profiteered by evading the collection of taxes on whiskey production. Distillers tended to bribe revenue agents, rather than pay excessive levies on alcohol. Past efforts to uncover the Whiskey Ring were unsuccessful, because ring members in Washington D.C. alerted other ring members of pending investigations. A November 1872 investigation, by three revenue investigators, into St. Louis distilleries, had found significant irregularities, but one agent who was bribed, submitted a whitewashed version of corruption. Despite Washington rumors of its existence, the ring seemed to be impregnable to prosecution.

Investigation
In the Fall of 1874 Bristow received a $125,000 (~$ in ) appropriation from Congress to investigate the Whiskey Ring. In December 1874, Bristow convinced Internal Revenue Supervisor J.W. Douglas to send a new investigation team, but Grant's private Secretary at the White House, Orville E. Babcock, convinced Douglas to revoke his order. An effort to transfer revenue supervisors, proposed by Douglas, to new locations, to dismantle the ring, was defeated when, out of political objection, Grant suspended the order on February 4, 1875. Grant desired to "detect frauds" that had already been committed by the Whiskey Ring, rather than transfer the supervisors. Bristow, and Grant appointed Treasury Solicitor Bluford Wilson, lost faith in Douglas' willingness to go after the ring, and launched a covert investigation by independent undercover investigators, suggested by revenue agent Homer Yaryan.

Political journalist, George W. Fishback, owner of the St. Louis Democrat advised Bristow and Wilson, on how to expose the ring and to bypass any corrupt federal appointees who would tip other ring partners of a federal investigation. Washington correspondent, Henry V. Boynton, also aided Bristow and Wilson in their investigation. Monitored by Wilson, incorruptible investigative agents, that included Yaryan, obtained a vast supply of evidence in St. Louis of frauds committed by the ring. Bristow, in order to secure the enormity of the Whiskey Ring corruption, audited railroad and steamboat cargo receipts for accurate figures of the shipment of liquor in St. Louis and other key cities. To keep the investigation secret from the ring, Bristow gave the agents a cipher different from the Treasury code, while messages were relayed through Fishback and Boynton. Similar investigative work was done in Chicago and Milwaukee. Evidence of fraudulent activity was quickly obtained, into a profiteering scheme, that involved corrupt distillers and revenue agents. To escape taxes, the Whiskey Ring shipped whiskey labelled vinegar, listed whiskey at a lower proof, or illegally used revenue stamps multiple times. As a result, millions of dollars were depleted from the treasury in tax revenues.

Bristow's investigation revealed that Grant appointment, General John McDonald, St. Louis Collector of Internal Revenue, who controlled seven states, was the ring leader. In April 1875, McDonald was called to Bristow's Washington office and confronted by Bristow and showed massive evidence against McDonald, who confessed to being the ring leader. However, after McDonald left Bristow's office, knowing he would be indicted, he unsuccessfully asked Wilson for indemnity from prosecution, and that the corrupt distilleries not be raided. McDonald pleaded that prosecution of the Whiskey Ring would hurt the Republican Party in Missouri. Wilson said later that he would have had McDonald fired on the spot, had he had the authority to do so.

Prosecution
On May 7, 1875, Bristow gave Grant the investigation findings of corruption by the Whiskey Ring and stressed the need for immediate prosecution. Without hesitation Grant gave Bristow permission to go after the ring, and told Bristow to move relentlessly against all those who were culpable. Three days later, on May 10, Bristow struck hard shattering the ring at one blow. Treasury agents raided and shut down distilleries, rectifying houses, and bottling plants in St. Louis, Chicago, Milwaukee, and six other Mid-Western states. Internal Revenue offices were placed under custody of the Treasury, while thirty-two installations were taken over. Books, papers, and tax receipts were confiscated, that proved and identified individual ring members guilt. Overwhelming evidence against the ring was collected, while federal grand juries produced over 350 indictments.

A Republican Party patronage boss in Wisconsin was linked to corruption found in Milwaukee. Evidence suggested almost every Republican office holder in Chicago profited from illegal distilling. St. Louis proved to be the kingpin city of the Whiskey Ring. In the past six months, $1,650,000 in taxes was evaded, while over two years the tax evasion number reached $4,000,000. Bristow instituted almost 250 federal civil and criminal lawsuits against ring members, and within a year, Bristow, recovered $3,150,000 in unpaid taxes, and obtained 110 convictions on 176 indicted ring members. Chief clerk of the Treasury, Willam Avery, St. Louis revenue collector General John McDonald, and St. Louis deputy collector, John A. Joyce, were indicted and convicted.

Babcock's St. Louis trial
Bristow's investigation extended into the White House, as evidence suggested Grant's private Secretary, Orville E. Babcock, was a secret and paid informer of the Whiskey Ring. Bristow found two incriminating and cryptic letters signed "Sylph", believed to have been Babcock's handwriting. The first was dated December 10, 1874, that said, "I have succeeded. They will not go. I will write you." The other letter was dated February 3, 1875, that said, "We have official information that the enemy weakens. Push things." In October 1875, Bristow brought the two letters to Grant's cabinet meeting. Babcock was brought in and confronted by both Bristow and Grant's Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont. Babcock said that the messages had to do with the building of the St. Louis Eads Bridge and Missouri politics. Grant accepted Babcock's explanation over the letters. In December 1875, nonetheless, Babcock was formerly indicted in the Whiskey Ring and his trial was set for February 1876 in St. Louis. During the trial President Grant, who believed Babcock was innocent, took a deposition at the White House that defended Babcock, and it was read to the jury in St. Louis. Babcock was acquitted by the jury and he returned to Washington, D.C.

Resignation
In the aftermath of the Whiskey Ring prosecutions, including Babcock's trial, and an upcoming 1876 presidential election, Bristow's position on Grant's cabinet became untenable. Grant was grieved at Bristow's prosecution of Babcock, whom Grant maintained was innocent. Also, rumors swirled that Bristow prosecuted the Whiskey Ring, to get the Republican nomination, that caused Grant to feel betrayed by Bristow. Largely owing to friction between himself and the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio in June 1876; as Secretary of the Treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments and at least a partial retirement of "greenbacks"; and he was also an advocate of civil service reform. With his resignation, unlike other Grant appointed cabinet members, such as Ebenezer R. Hoar (Attorney General), Amos T. Akerman (Attorney General), and Marshall Jewell (Postmaster General), Bristow avoided the harsher reality of direct dismissal by Grant.

Presidential run (1876)
Bristow was a prominent reforming candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1876 (see U.S. presidential election, 1876). He was defeated at the Republican convention; Rutherford B. Hayes received the nomination. During the 1876 Republican Presidential Convention, Stalwart members of the Republican party, friends of President Grant, believed Bristow had been disloyal to Grant during the Whiskey Ring prosecutions, by going after Babcock. Rumor spread that Bristow had prosecuted the Whiskey Ring in an attempt to gain the 1876 Presidential Republican nomination. Bristow, however, proved to be a loyal statesman and had desired to keep President Grant and the nation from scandal. When Sec. Bristow testified in front of a congressional committee on the Whiskey Ring, he would not give any specific information regarding his conversations with President Grant, having claimed executive privilege.

The 1876 Republican National Convention, was held at Exposition Hall, in Cincinnati, Ohio. On the first Presidential Ballot, Bristow was third, at 113 votes, while James G. Blaine received 285 votes, followed by Oliver P. Morton, at 124 votes. On the fourth Presidential Ballot, Bristow finished second, at 126 votes, his highest number, while Blaine was first, at 292 votes. On the seventh and final Presidential Ballot, Bristow received only 21 votes. Rutherford B. Hayes, was elected the Republican presidential candidate, at 384 votes. Blaine finished a close second at 351 votes.

New York attorney
Bristow was upset over not winning the Republican presidential nomination and over the rumor he had been disloyal to President Grant. Bristow retired from politics, never again to run for political office. After 1878, he practiced law in New York City and on October 16, aged 46, he established the law partnership of Bristow, Peet, Burnett, & Opdyke. Bristow was a prominent leader of the Eastern bar and was elected the second president of the American Bar Association in 1879. Having remained an advocate of civil service reform, Bristow was vice president of the Civil Service Reform Association. Bristow often ably argued in front of the U.S. Supreme Court.

Death and burial
In 1896, Bristow suffered appendicitis and died at his home in New York City on June 22, just two days after his 64th birthday. He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, New York.

Historical reputation
Historians primarily admire Bristow's prosecution and shutting down the Whiskey Ring during his term as Grant's Secretary of Treasury. Although a lawyer by trade and having no financial training, he was able to rid the Internal Revenue Department of corruption. Bristow demonstrated his ability and in striking down the Whiskey Ring that was supported by powerful political forces. Bristow's zeal for reform, while he was Grant's appointed Secretary of Treasury, was in part motivated by a sincere belief to clean up the Republican Party from corruption, and in part, an ambition to run for the presidency, and be nominated on the 1876 Republican presidential ticket. His prosecutions offended the social and political Republican Party stalwarts who supported patronage, forcing him out of office. As the first Solicitor General Bristow aided in prosecuting the Ku Klux Klan that enabled African Americans in the South to vote freely without fear of violent retaliation. He was born a Southerner in Kentucky, but he lived the remaining years of his life in New York.

Historian Jean Edward Smith said Bristow's appointment to Secretary of Treasury was "one of Grant's best." Smith said Bristow "brought a reforming zeal to the Grant administration, reinforced by a heady dose of ambition that was not out of place for a man in his early forties."

Historian Charles W. Calhoun, had a less positive view of Bristow. Calhoun said Bristow was "ambitious" and had a "contentious nature".

Historian Ronald C. White said Bristow, as Secretary of Treasury, "brought honesty to the position".

Historian Ron Chernow said Bristow was "honest and competent", and: "A zealous advocate of civil service reform". Historian William S. McFeely said Grant's appointment of Bristow to run the Treasury was "reluctant", and "the department passed into the impeccably clean hands of Benjamin Bristow, a sound money man."

Books

 * scholarly review and response by Calhoun at DOI: 10.14296/RiH/2014/2270

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Benjamin Bristow


text:
Burrell Smith

Burrell Carver Smith (born December 16, 1955) is a retired American computer engineer who created the first wire wrap prototype of the motherboard for the original Macintosh at Apple Computer. He became Apple employee #282 in February 1979 as an Apple II service technician. He designed the motherboard for Apple's LaserWriter.

Smith was working in Apple's service department when he helped Bill Atkinson add more memory to an Apple II computer in an innovative fashion. Atkinson recommended him to Jef Raskin, who, along with Steve Wozniak, was looking for a hardware engineer for their newly formed Macintosh project. As a member of the design team, Smith prototyped five different motherboards using techniques based on Programmable Array Logic (PAL) chips to achieve maximum functionality with a minimal chip count and cost. His signature is molded into the original Macintosh case, along with the signatures of the rest of the Macintosh team.

Smith left the company before the release of Apple's Turbo Mac design platform, with an internal hard drive and a further simplified chipset.

He co-founded Radius Inc.

Personal life
Smith is retired and lives in Palo Alto.

He reportedly had bipolar disorder during the 1990s. In 1993, he was accused of "breaking windows, throwing a firecracker and leaving letters at the house" of Steve Jobs and the case was dropped when he accepted treatment. Actor Lenny Jacobson portrayed him in the 2013 film Jobs.

title: Burrell Smith


text:
Barbeau Peak

Barbeau Peak is a mountain in Qikiqtaaluk, Nunavut, Canada. Located on Ellesmere Island within Quttinirpaaq National Park, it is the highest mountain in Nunavut and the Canadian Arctic. The mountain was named in 1969 after Marius Barbeau, a Canadian anthropologist whose research into First Nations and Inuit cultures gained him international acclaim. Barbeau Peak is characterized by deep and long crevasses, razor thin ridges and highly variable and volatile weather.

Barbeau Peak is the highest mountain within the British Empire Range as well as the Arctic Cordillera, as well as in all of eastern North America.

Barbeau Peak was first climbed on 7 June 1967 by British geologist/glaciologist Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith as part of a joint Defence Research Board/Royal Air Force field party. The party both named the peak and determined its height.

The second ascent was by an eight-man American team in June 1982 (Errington, Trafton AAC 1983) via the north ridge. Subsequent ascents were made in 1992, 1998, 2000 and 2002, though as of 2006 only seven successful summits have been attained.

title: Barbeau Peak


text:
Crossroads of Twilight

Crossroads of Twilight is a fantasy novel by American author Robert Jordan, the tenth book of his The Wheel of Time series. It was published by Tor Books and released on January 7, 2003. Upon its release, it immediately rose to the #1 position on The New York Times best seller list for hardcover fiction, making it the third Wheel of Time book to reach the #1 position on that list. It remained on the list for the next three months.

Crossroads of Twilight consists of a prologue, 30 chapters, and an epilogue. Lord of Chaos, Knife of Dreams, New Spring, The Gathering Storm and A Memory of Light are the only other Wheel of Time books to have an epilogue. Many of the events of Crossroads of Twilight take place simultaneously with the events of the previous book, Winter's Heart.

Pre-publication information
The prologue of Crossroads of Twilight, entitled "Glimmers of the Pattern", was first sold by the Scribner imprint of Simon & Schuster as an ebook on July 17, 2002, six months in advance of the physical release of the book.

Plot summary
Perrin Aybara continues trying to rescue his wife Faile Bashere, kidnapped by the Shaido Aiel, even torturing prisoners for information. In addition, Perrin is approached with the suggestion of alliance with the Seanchan to defeat the Shaido. Mat Cauthon continues trying to escape Seanchan territory while courting Tuon, the heir to the Seanchan leadership. In the process, Mat discovers that Tuon is a sul'dam and can be taught to channel the One Power. Elayne Trakand continues trying to solidify her hold on the Lion Throne of Andor. It is revealed that she is expecting twins; but the identity of the father (Rand) is kept secret from others. Rand al'Thor sends Davram Bashere, Logain Ablar, and Loial to negotiate a truce with the Seanchan. They return at the end of the book to tell him that the Seanchan have accepted the truce, but demand the presence of the Dragon Reborn to meet with the Daughter of the Nine Moons. Egwene leads the siege of Tar Valon; but is kidnapped by agents of the White Tower after successfully blocking its River Port.

Release details

 * 2003, U.S., Tor Books ISBN 0-312-86459-0, Pub date 7 January 2003, hardback
 * 2003, UK, Orbit ISBN 1-84149-129-2, Pub date 7 January 2003, hardback
 * 2003, U.S., Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0592-5, Pub date ? February 2003, leather bound
 * 2003, UK, Orbit ISBN 1-84149-183-7, Pub date 6 November 2003, paperback
 * 2003, U.S., Tor Books ISBN 0-8125-7133-9, Pub date ? December 2003, paperback
 * 2003, U.S., Bt Bound ISBN 0-613-67798-6, Pub date ? December 2003, hardback (library edition)

title: Crossroads of Twilight


text:
Talk:Barbeau Peak

Untitled
Initial information on the ascents provided by. RedWolf 03:36, May 10, 2004 (UTC)

The statement that Barbeau Peak is the highest in NA "east of the Rockies" is very hard to support. Since Barbeau is on an island, it would seem one would have to consider ALL islands that are part of the NA continent, including Greenland and Hispaniola. Both have many mountains taller than Barbeau. Even if you ignore these other islands (which would be a completely arbitrary decision), there is still the fact that Guadalupe Peak, TX, is 200ft higher than Barbeau, and is east of the Rockies. The Rockies end at the southern end of the Sangre de Cristo in NM, so the Guadalupe Mtns are clearly "east of the Rockies" 9:58, Sep 28, 2005

title: Talk:Barbeau Peak


text:
Indianapolis Indians

The Indianapolis Indians are a Minor League Baseball team of the International League (IL) and the Triple-A affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates. They are located in Indianapolis, Indiana, and play their home games at Victory Field, which opened in 1996. The Indians previously played at Owen J. Bush Stadium from 1931 to 1996 and at two versions of Washington Park from 1902 to 1931.

Indianapolis is the second-oldest minor league franchise in American professional baseball (after the Rochester Red Wings). The team originated in 1902 as members of the American Association (AA), which was an independent league at the time but was granted Class A status in 1903. Since then, the Indians have played at the highest level of Minor League Baseball, though the terminology has changed. Indianapolis remained in the AA until the league disbanded after the 1962 season. They were briefly members of the International League (1963) and Pacific Coast League (1964–1968) before returning to the revived American Association in 1969. When the league dissolved a second time after the 1997 season, the Indians rejoined the IL in 1998. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of the minors in 2021, they were shifted to the Triple-A East, but this was renamed the International League in 2022.

Indianapolis has won 14 league championships. They were American Association champions twelve times (1902, 1908, 1917, 1928, 1949, 1956, 1982, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1994). The Indians have won the International League championship twice (1963 and 2000). They have also won two Little World Series (1917 and 1928), two Junior World Series (1949 and 1956), two Triple-A Classics (1988 and 1989), and one Triple-A World Series (2000).

Prior professional baseball in Indianapolis
Indianapolis has been home to professional baseball teams since the late 19th century. The city's first Minor League Baseball team was the Indianapolis Blues, who played in the League Alliance in 1877. They joined the major league ranks in 1878 as members of the National League. After a five-year hiatus, they were followed by several teams called the Indianapolis Hoosiers. The first Hoosiers played in the major league American Association in 1884. The second Hoosiers were members of the minor Western League in 1885. The third Hoosiers were part of the National League from 1887 to 1889. Other minor league Hoosiers played in the Western League/minor American League in 1892 and from 1894 to 1900 and in the Western Association in 1901.

American Association (1902–1962)

In 1902, Bill Watkins and Charles Ruschaupt established the Indianapolis Indians as charter members of a new minor league American Association (AA). The league was an independent or "outlaw league" outside the umbrella of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues. The circuit was granted Class A status, the highest level of the minors, in 1903. Since then, the Indians have remained at the top level of Minor League Baseball, though the terminology has changed: Class A (1903–1911), Double-A (1912–1945), and Triple-A (since 1946). The Indians' first home ballpark was East Washington Park.

The 1902 Indians, managed by Watkins, won the first American Association championship with a 96–45 record, two games ahead of the second-place Louisville Colonels. The team was ranked as the 27th greatest minor league baseball team of all-time by baseball historians in 2001.

Ruschaupt became the principal owner in 1904, and Indianapolis began playing at West Washington Park in 1905. The Indians won their next AA pennant in 1908 with a 92–61 season, four games ahead of Louisville, under manager Charlie Carr. Sol Meyer and Sol Kiser purchased the team in 1913 but sold the team to James C. McGill and William G. Smith Sr. in 1914. McGill became the principal owner in 1917 and Smith in 1921.

Led by Jack Hendricks, the 1917 Indians won a third AA title with a 90–63 season, which placed them two-and-a-half games ahead of Louisville and the St. Paul Saints. The pennant win qualified Indianapolis for the Little World Series against the champions of the International League, the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Indians won the best-of-seven series, 4–1.

James A. Perry purchased the club in 1927. He died in a plane crash two years later, and his brother, Norman Perry, assumed ownership in 1929. Late in the 1931 season, the team moved to Perry Stadium, which was renamed Victory Field in 1942 and Bush Stadium in 1967. The 1928 Indians, who were managed by Bruno Betzel, won a fourth AA pennant by finishing two-and-a-half games ahead of the Minneapolis Millers at 99–68. They then defeated the Rochester Red Wings, 5–1, in the Little World Series.

From 1936 to 1946, Indianapolis qualified for the American Association playoffs on six occasions, but failed to win a championship. Meanwhile, Frank E. McKinney and Owen J. "Donie" Bush purchased the team in December 1941. The Indians entered into their first major league affiliation in 1939 and 1940 as the top farm club of the Cincinnati Reds. They returned to being an unaffiliated team from 1942 to 1945 before affiliating with the Boston Braves in 1946.

Indianapolis became the Triple-A affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1947. The 1948 Indians posted a 100–54 record, a franchise high, but were eliminated in the playoff semifinals by St. Paul. The team was ranked as the 85th greatest minor league team in a 2001 ranking. Al López, who had managed the 1948 club, led the 1949 Indians back to the playoffs. They defeated Minneapolis, 4–3, in the semifinals and the Milwaukee Brewers, 4–3, in the final round, to win their first playoff title and fifth AA championship. In the Junior World Series, a successor to the Little World Series, Indianapolis defeated the Montreal Royals, 4–2. They made one more playoff appearance as a Pirates farm club in 1950 but lost in the championship finals.

The Cleveland Indians purchased the team in 1952, and made them their Triple-A affiliate. Over the five-year relationship, Indianapolis qualified for the playoffs three times. They lost in the semifinals in 1953, lost the 1954 finals, and won the American Association championship in 1956. On the heels of a 92–62 campaign, manager Kerby Farrell's Indians defeated Minneapolis, 4–3, in the semifinals before winning their sixth AA title over the Denver Bears, 4–0. They capped off the season by sweeping Rochester, 4–0, to win the Junior World Series.

Having incurred significant financial losses, Cleveland elected to sell the team after the 1955 season. The Indianapolis community rallied to save the Indians by purchasing 20,182 shares of stock valued at $10 each, which allowed Indians, Inc., to purchase the club in December. The affiliation between the major and minor league Indians remained intact until the teams parted ways after the 1956 season.

Indianapolis held a three-year affiliation with the Chicago White Sox from 1957 to 1959, with their only winning season occurring in the final season. This was followed by even shorter stints as the Triple-A affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies in 1960 and the Cincinnati Reds in 1961. The 1961 team qualified for the playoffs but were ousted in the semifinals. The Indians rejoined the Chicago White Sox organization in 1962 and experienced another semifinal playoff exit in the first year of the affiliation. The American Association disbanded after the 1962 season.

International League (1963)
The Indians became members of the Triple-A International League (IL) in 1963 and retained their affiliation with the White Sox. Led by Rollie Hemsley, the 1963 Indians clinched the Southern Division title with an 86–67 record. They defeated the Syracuse Chiefs, 4–1, in the playoff semifinals before winning the International League championship over the Atlanta Crackers, 4–2. With the addition of Indianapolis and the Little Rock Travelers to the IL, the westernmost teams in the loop, team travel costs increased. At the 1963 Winter Meetings, major league teams refused to continue paying to defray these additional costs, so Indianapolis and Little Rock were expelled from the league.

Pacific Coast League (1964–1968)
The Pacific Coast League welcomed Indianapolis and Little Rock as members in 1964. Though they became the easternmost teams in the league, its two-division alignment helped to keep travel costs down. The Indians continued to serve as the top farm club of the Chicago White Sox through 1967, but they were unable to return to the postseason during the affiliation. They became part of the Cincinnati Reds' organization for a third time in 1968.

American Association (1969–1997)
The American Association was revived in 1969, and the Indians rejoined the league as the Triple-A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds. Through 1982, the team qualified for the AA playoffs on three occasions via winning Eastern Division titles. They lost the 1971 league title in a best-of-seven series to the Denver Bears, 4–3. The 1974 championship series also went the full seven games with Indianapolis losing to the Tulsa Oilers. The 1978 team was denied a championship, losing to the Omaha Royals, 4–1. George Scherger managed the 1982 Indians to a fourth Eastern Division title as a Reds affiliate with a 75–61 campaign. They then defeated Omaha, 4–2, for the AA championship.

Indianapolis became part of the Montreal Expos organization in 1984 in what would become one of the most successful periods in team history. Though they were eliminated in the semifinals in 1984, the Indians won four consecutive American Association championships from 1986 to 1989. Manager Joe Sparks was at the helm for the first three of these titles. The 1986 Indians won the division with an 80–62 record. They won the AA championship versus the Denver Zephyrs, 4–3. The 1987 team placed second in the division, which gave them for a playoff berth. They beat the Louisville Redbirds, 3–2, in the semifinals and then won another league championship over Denver, 4–1. Sparks led the 1988 Indians to the Eastern Division title on a 89–53 season. In a single round of playoffs, they defeated Omaha, 3–1, for the league crown. From 1988 to 1991, American Association teams participated in interleague play with teams from the International League in a partnership called the Triple-A Alliance, and the season culminated in the Triple-A Classic, a best-of-seven postseason championship between the leagues' champions. Indianapolis won the first of these against Rochester, 4–2. Manager Tom Runnells' 1989 team ended the season with an 87–59 record and the Eastern Division title. They defeated Omaha, 3–2, for their fourth consecutive American Association championship. In the Triple-A Classic, the Indians swept the Richmond Braves, 4–0.

Indianapolis affiliated with Cincinnati for the fourth time in 1993. In 1994, Marc Bombard managed the team to a first-place 86–57 mark. They won the semifinals over Louisville, 3–0, and bested the Nashville Sounds, 3–1, for another league championship. The Indians made return trips to the postseason over the next three years but suffered semifinal eliminations in 1995 and 1997 and a finals loss in 1996. After 66 seasons at Bush Stadium, the Indians left the ballpark for the new $20-million Victory Field in downtown Indianapolis' White River State Park on July 11, 1996.

International League (1998–present)
The American Association disbanded after the 1997 season, and its teams were absorbed by the two remaining Triple-A leagues—the International League (IL) and Pacific Coast League. Indianapolis returned to the IL, of which they had previously been members in 1963. They remained as affiliates of the Cincinnati Reds through 1999.

In 2000, the team entered into a new partnership with the Milwaukee Brewers. Steve Smith led the 2000 Indians to the Western Division title with an 81–63 record. They defeated the Durham Bulls, 3–2, in the semifinals before winning the International League championship versus the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons, 3–2. The Indians met the Memphis Redbirds, champions of the Pacific Coast League in the Triple-A World Series, winning 3–1. Sub-.500 finishes during the next four seasons kept the team from returning to the postseason as a Brewers affiliate and prompted the team to end their affiliation with Milwaukee.

The Indians became the Triple-A affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates in 2005 after having previously been in their farm system in 1951. They qualified for the IL playoffs with a wild card berth, advanced to the finals by defeating the Buffalo Bisons, 3–2, but lost the championship to the Toledo Mud Hens, 3–0. the 2016 team finished the season tied for first-place in the Western Division with Toledo. On September 5, the Indians lost a one-game playoff against the Mud Hens for the division title, 4–0, which eliminated them from postseason contention. Indianapolis won back-to-back Western Division titles in 2012 and 2013 but lost in the semifinal round each time.

At the end of the 2015 season, Indianapolis was tied with the Columbus Clippers for first. Per the league's playoff procedures, the teams were declared co-champions of the Western Division, and the Indians lost the tiebreaker to be seeded as the wild card team. The won their semifinals series against the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders, 3–0, but lost the IL title versus Columbus Clippers, 3–2. They returned to the postseason in 2017 as Western Division champions but were eliminated in the semifinals by Durham, 3–1. The Indians did not qualify for the postseason from 2018 to 2019. The start of the 2020 season was initially postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before being cancelled altogether.

In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Indians were placed in the Triple-A East. They also extended their Professional Development License with Pittsburgh through 2030. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was declared the winner. Indianapolis ended the season in 11th place with a 57–62 record. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage. Indianapolis finished the tournament tied for 18th place with a 4–5 record. In 2022, the Triple-A East became known as the International League, the name historically used by the regional circuit prior to the 2021 reorganization.

Awards
The franchise has been awarded these honors by Minor League Baseball.

Eighteen players and nine managers won league awards in recognition for their performance with Indianapolis in the American Association.

One player won a league award in recognition for his performance with Indianapolis in the Pacific Coast League.

Seven players have won league awards in recognition for their performance with Indianapolis in the International League.

Hall of Famers

Thirteen former Indians have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame based on their performance in or contributions to Major League Baseball.

Radio and television
Howard Kellman is the long-standing "Voice of the Tribe", calling play-by-play for all but two seasons (1975 and 1980) since 1974. All Indians home and road games are broadcast on WNDE Fox Sports 1260 AM. Live audio broadcasts are also available online through the team's website and the MiLB First Pitch app. Some home games can be viewed on WTTV.2 The Dot, WISH-TV 8, and MyINDY-TV 23. All home and road games can be viewed through the MiLB.TV subscription feature of the official website of Minor League Baseball, with audio provided by a radio simulcast.

Name controversy
In July 2020, a year before Major League Baseball's similarly-named Cleveland Indians changed their name to the "Guardians" in 2021 (which took effect in the 2022 MLB season), Indianapolis management said it would form a committee to determine whether a change was necessary, based on dialogue with local organizations and community members. By the time Cleveland changed their name in July 2021, Indianapolis announced that they had no immediate plans for a name change. Although they acknowledged that, when the team was initially formed, the name was a play on Indianapolis itself, the moniker had evolved to include more Native American references in their logo and marketing. Meanwhile, the primary newspaper covering the team, the Indianapolis Star, started to report stories and results about the team using only the city's name, without the supposedly controversial nickname. In addition, Carolina Castoreno-Santana, executive director of the American Indian Center of Indiana, said the Indianapolis Indians should change their name, arguing that the indigenous people were "overwhelmingly" in favor of changing the name. In February 2023, it was announced that the Indianapolis Indians would retain their long-held nickname and partner with local Indian tribes (the Miami Nation of Indiana). “We are grateful to the Indianapolis Indians for the opportunity to share our story with Hoosiers throughout central Indiana,” said Brian Buchanan, chief of the Miami Nation of Indians. “When the history of Indiana is studied, the major influence of Native American people is seen in the names of Indiana cities, state parks, rivers, food, celebrations and other cultural points of interest.”

title: Indianapolis Indians


text:
National League North

The National League North, formerly the Conference North, is a division of the National League in England, immediately below the National League division. Along with the National League South, it is at the second level of the National League System, and at the sixth tier overall of the English football league system. It consists of teams mostly located in Northern England, the English Midlands and East Anglia. In addition, it can include a small number of teams from the northern-most parts of the South West and South East. Since the start of the 2015–16 season, the league has been known as the National League North.

History
The Conference North was introduced in 2004 as part of a major restructuring of English non-League football. The champions are automatically promoted to the National League. A second promotion place goes to the winners of play-offs involving the teams finishing in second to seventh place (expanded from four to six teams in the 2017–18 season). The three bottom clubs are relegated to Step 3 leagues. Teams from this division, as well as from the National League South, enter the FA Cup at the Second Qualifying Round.

For sponsorship reasons, the division was known as the Nationwide North from its formation in 2004 until 2007, when it was renamed the Blue Square North. In 2010 it was renamed the Blue Square Bet North. When the Blue Square sponsorship ended in 2013, it was renamed the Skrill North until the 2014–15 season, when it was renamed the Vanarama North. A further name change followed in 2015, when the division was renamed the Vanarama National League North.

The National League North was scheduled to expand to 24 teams in 2021. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England, the 2020–21 National League North season was curtailed and voided after written resolutions were put to a vote. No teams were relegated. Expansion would be at last implemented before the 2022–23 season when the bottom club was relegated and four promoted from Step 3.

Member clubs for 2023–24
The member clubs for the 2023–24 season are as follows:

League champions

The winners of the league title and the winners of the play-off final since the league's formation in 2004 are as follows:

League stadiums for 2023–24
The home stadiums for all of the teams in the league for the 2023–24 season are listed below:

title: National League North


text:
Zirid dynasty

The Zirid dynasty (الزيريون), Banu Ziri (بنو زيري), was a Sanhaja Berber dynasty from what is now Algeria which ruled the central Maghreb from 972 to 1014 and Ifriqiya (eastern Maghreb) from 972 to 1148.

Descendants of Ziri ibn Manad, a military leader of the Fatimid Caliphate and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were emirs who ruled in the name of the Fatimids. The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with the Fatimids in the mid-11th century. The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Zayyanid dynasty, Marinid Sultanate and Hafsid dynasty.

Under Buluggin ibn Ziri the Zirids extended their control westwards and briefly occupied Fez and much of present-day Morocco after 980, but encountered resistance from the local Zenata Berbers who gave their allegiance to the Caliphate of Cordoba. To the east, Zirid control was extended over Tripolitania after 978 and as far as Ajdabiya (in present-day Libya). One member of the dynastic family, Zawi ibn Ziri, revolted and fled to al-Andalus, eventually founding the Taifa of Granada in 1013, after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba. Another branch of the Zirids, the Hammadids, broke away from the main branch after various internal disputes and took control of the territories of the central Maghreb after 1015. The main branch of the Zirids, also called the Badisides, occupied only Ifriqiya between 1048 and 1148. They were based in Kairouan until 1057, when they moved the capital to Mahdia on the coast. The Zirids of Ifriqiya also intervened in Sicily during the 11th century, as the Kalbids, the dynasty who governed the island on behalf of the Fatimids, fell into disorder.

The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090, but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time. Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the Sunni Muslim Abbasid Caliphate. In retaliation, the Fatimids instigated the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya. In the 12th century, the Hilalian invasions combined with the attacks of the Normans of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power. The last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan, surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule. The Almohad Caliphate conquered the central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb.

Origins and establishment
The Zirids were Sanhaja Berbers, from the sedentary Talkata tribe, originating from the area of modern Algeria. In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shi'a state that challenged the authority of the Sunni Abbasid caliphs. The progenitor of the Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central Maghreb (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate.

With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at 'Ashir, south-east of Algiers, in 936. He proved his worth as a key ally in 945, during the Kharijite rebellion of Abu Yazid, when he helped break Abu Yazid's siege of the Fatimid capital, Mahdia. After playing this valuable role, he expanded 'Ashir with a new palace circa 947. In 959 he aided Jawhar al-Siqili on a Fatimid military expedition which successfully conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco. On their return home to the Fatimid capital they paraded the emir of Fez and the "Caliph" Ibn Wasul of Sijilmasa in cages in a humiliating manner. After this success, Ziri was also given Tahart to govern on behalf of the Fatimids. He was eventually killed in battle against the Zanata in 971.

When the Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt in 972, Ziri's son Buluggin ibn Ziri (r. 971–984) was appointed viceroy of Ifriqiya, spawning a dynasty whose rulers held the title of amir. Buluggin's position was confirmed on 2 October 972 at Sardaniya, a place outside Kairouan where the Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz was preparing for his departure to Egypt. On 20 December 972, Buluggin took up residence in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid caliph's former palace-city just outside the walls of Kairouan, where his successors continued to reside until the mid-11th century. Buluggin spent much of his time in the west, however. From 974 onward he entrusted the governance of Ifriqiya to Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, a secretary with whom he replaced the Fatimid-appointed secretary, Ziyadat Allah. In 974 or 977–978 (364 or 367 AH), he founded another capital and palace complex in Ashir, next to his father's foundation, which he favoured over Kairouan. Ashir continued to be the capital of the Zirids in the central Maghreb, while Kairouan was the capital of Ifriqiya.

Buluggin soon led a new expedition west and by 980 he had conquered Fez and most of the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco), which had previously been retaken by the Umayyads of Cordoba in 973. He also led a successful expedition to Barghawata territory, from which he brought back a large number of slaves to Ifriqiya. In 978 the Fatimids also granted Buluggin overlordship of Tripolitania (in present-day Libya), allowing him to appoint his own governor in Tripoli. In 984 Buluggin died in Sijilmasa from an illness and his successor decided to abandon Morocco in 985.

Buluggin's successors and the first divisions
After Buluggin's death, he was succeeded by his son Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (r. 984–996). After his departure to the west in 979, Bulugin had not returned to Kairouan and during this time his appointee, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, had amassed considerable power and influence in Ifriqiya. As a result, al-Mansur became involved in a confrontation with Abd Allah starting in 987. Later Zirid sources portray Abd Allah as a rebel who was aided by the Fatimid Caliphs, because the latter now preferred him over al-Mansur and wished to impose a new arrangement in Ifriqiya. In the end, al-Mansur ordered the successful assassination of Abd Allah and his son. In 989–990 he also suppressed a revolt by the Kutama, the traditional source of the Fatimid army, under the leadership of a pretender named Abu'l-Faraj. Following these challenges, al-Mansur was finally able to reunify the Zirid realm, but he was obliged to move his principal residence from 'Ashir to al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan) in 991, leaving his brother Yattufat to govern 'Ashir.

With al-Mansur's succession, the rule of the Zirid was now being passed on through the son of Buluggin and his descendants. This alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad, who now found themselves excluded from power. In 999 many of these brothers launched a rebellion in 'Ashir against Badis ibn al-Mansur (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids. The rebels were defeated in battle by Hammad ibn Buluggin, Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed. The only remaining brother of stature, Zawi ibn Ziri, led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under the Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba, the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids. He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the Taifa of Granada, in 1013.

After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a Maghrawa leader who founded the Banu Khazrun dynasty, which endured until 1147. Fulful fought a protracted war against Badis ibn al-Mansur and sought outside help from the Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time. The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other. The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022.

Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and the western Zirid territories in 997. He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered. Hammad constructed his own capital, the Qal'at Bani Hammad, in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs. Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced the negotiation of a peace agreement between them. Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new Hammadid state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter. Qal'at Bani Hammad was retained as the Hammadid capital, while 'Ashir became its second city.

Apogee in Ifriqiya
The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital, Qayrawan (Kairouan). The early reign of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062) was particularly prosperous and marked the height of their power in Ifriqiya. In the eleventh century, when the question of Berber origin became a concern, the dynasty of al-Mu'izz started, as part of the Zirids' propaganda, to emphasize its supposed links to the Himyarite kings as a title to nobility, a theme that was taken the by court historians of the period. Management of the area by later Zirid rulers was neglectful as the agricultural economy declined, prompting an increase in banditry among the rural population. The relationship between the Zirids and their Fatimid overlords varied - 20,000 Shiites were killed in the 1016 Ismaili massacre in Ifriqiya, and the Fatimids encouraged the defection of Tripolitania from the Zirids, but nevertheless the relationship remained close. In the 1040s, the Zirids broke away completely by adopting Sunni Islam and recognizing the Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs, a move which was popular with the urban Arabs of Kairouan.

In Sicily the Kalbids continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century, inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island. In 1025 (or 1021 ), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent a fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the Byzantines reconquering Calabria (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of Pantelleria. In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Akḥal, whose rule they considered flawed and unjust. The request also contained a pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler. Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army. Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them. A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal. Al-Akhal was besieged in Palermo and killed in 1038. 'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by George Maniakes. Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the Norman conquest of the island in the second half of the 11th century.

Hilalian invasions and withdrawal to Mahdia
The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49, or sometime between 1041 and 1051. The recognition of the Abbasids was nominal, as the Abbasids themselves were in political decline and could not impose direct authority in the region. In retaliation against the Zirids, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to the Maghreb. The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya. The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the Battle of Haydaran of 14 April 1052. Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening the road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry. The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids. The Banu Hilal invasions eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while the Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories.

As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas. In Tunis, the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler. He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing the Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances. In Qabis (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal. Sfaqus (Sfax) was declared independent by the Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati.

Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region. In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of Sus (Sousse). Meanwhile, the Hammadid ruler al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan. Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065. The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when a truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters. In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to Calabria where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered Nicotera and enslaved many of its inhabitants. The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of Mazara in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held. In 1087, the Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the Pisans. According to Ettinghausen, Grabar, and Jenkins-Madina, the Pisa Griffin is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack. In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi. Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated the Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control. He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100. Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal.

Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111. He captured an important fortress near Carthage called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against Sardinia and Genoa, bringing back many captives. He was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, 'Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121). 'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118. He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia. He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler.

End of Zirid rule
During the 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya. Jerba was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146. In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia. In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by George of Antioch, arrived off the coast. Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule. Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months. He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the Almohad court of 'Abd al-Mu'min in Marrakesh. He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz, the Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under house arrest in Algiers. When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh. Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, al-Hasan was with him. 'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in the suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163. The new Almohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in Tamasna in 1167.

Economy
The Zirid period was a time of great economic prosperity. The departure of the Fatimids to Cairo, far from ending this prosperity, saw its amplification under the Zirid and Hammadid rulers. Referring to the government of the Zirid emir al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the historian Ibn Khaldun reports: "It [has] never [been] seen by the Berbers of that country a kingdom more vast and more flourishing than his own." The northern regions produced wheat in large quantities, while the region of Sfax was a major hub of olive production and the cultivation of the date was an important part of the local economy in Biskra. Other crops such as sugar cane, saffron, cotton, sorghum, millet and chickpea were grown. The breeding of horses and sheep flourished and fishing provided plentiful food. The Mediterranean was also an important part of the economy, even though it was, for a time, abandoned after the departure of the Fatimids, when the priority of the Zirid Emirs turned to territorial and internal conflicts. Their maritime policy enabled them to establish trade links, in particular for the importation of the timber necessary for their fleet, and enabled them to begin an alliance and very close ties with the Kalbid Emirs of Sicily. They did, however, face blockade attempts by the Venetians and Normans, who sought to reduce their wood supply and thus their dominance in the region.

The Arab chronicler Ibn Hawqal visited and described the city of Algiers in the Zirid era: "The city of Algiers is built on a gulf and surrounded by a wall. It contains a large number of bazaars and a few sources of good water near the sea. It is from these sources that the inhabitants draw the water they drink. In the outbuildings of this town are very extensive countryside and mountains inhabited by several tribes of the Berbers. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists of herds of cattle and sheep grazing in the mountains. Algiers supplies so much honey that it forms an export object, and the quantity of butter, figs and other commodities is so great that it is exported to Kairouan and elsewhere".

Literature
Abd al-Aziz ibn Shaddad was a Zirid chronicler and prince. He wrote Kitab al-Jam' wa 'l-bayan fi akhbar al-Qayrawan (كتاب الجمع والبيان في أخبار القيروان) about the history of Qayrawan. Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the Zirid ruler, was also himself an author and wrote an important treatise on the arts of the book, covering subjects such as calligraphy, bookbinding, and illumination.

Architecture
The Zirid dynasty was responsible for various constructions and renovations throughout the Maghreb. Zirid and Hammadid architecture in North Africa was closely linked to Fatimid architecture, but also influenced Norman architecture in Sicily. The Zirid palace at 'Ashir (near present-day Kef Lakhdar), built in 934 by Ziri ibn Manad (who served the Fatimids), is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated. As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya seem to have built few structures on a grand scale and there are few surviving major monuments from this period. They reportedly built a new palace at al-Mansuriyya, the former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been uncovered by modern archeologists, except for some fragments of carved stucco decoration. At the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis an elegantly-designed ribbed dome, called the Qubbat al-Bahw, was added to the entrance of the prayer hall in 991 and is attributed to the patronage of Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin. The Great Mosque of Kairouan was restored by Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis in the 11th century. From this restoration some brightly-painted wooden ceilings have survived, featuring arabesques of scrolling vegetal motifs. Under Al-Mu’izz the Zirids also built the Sidi Abu Marwan mosque in Annaba. A major remodeling of the Great Mosque of Sfax, including the construction of a new minaret and an unusually decorated exterior façade, has also been attributed to the Zirid period (probably 10th century) by Georges Marçais and Lucien Golvin.

The Hammadids, for their part, built an entirely new fortified capital at Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been studied by modern archeologists and is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world. The Zirid branch in Granada was also responsible for turning it into one of the major cities of al-Andalus. Among the surviving remains of the Zirid period in Granada today are a section of its original city walls, an extensive system of cisterns on the Albaicín hill, and the former minaret of a mosque (now part of the Church of San José).

Art
The Zirids were also patrons of the arts. Important examples of woodwork commissioned for mosques have survived from this period. Buluggin ibn Ziri commissioned the production of a minbar for the Mosque of the Andalusians in Fez. The minbar, whose original fragments are now preserved in a museum, bears an inscription that dates it to the year 980, around the time of Buluggin's military expedition to this region. The wooden maqsura in the Great Mosque of Kairouan is believed to date from al-Mu'izz ibn Badis's restoration of the building. It is the oldest maqsura in the Islamic world to be preserved in situ and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is one of the most significant works of art from the Zirid period, notable for its elaborately carved woodwork featuring arabesque motifs and a Kufic inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz.

Zirid art is also known for its decorated manuscripts. This art form flourished in Kairouan under Zirid rule and manuscripts from this city were exported throughout the Islamic world. One important example is the so-called "Nurse's Qur'an" (مصحف الحاضنة), a Qur'an manuscript copied in 1020 by 'Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq for Fatima, the nursemaid of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis. It is one of many Qur'an manuscripts that were donated to the Great Mosque of Kairouan and it is one of the most important surviving Islamic manuscripts commissioned by a female patron in North Africa. Its folios are now kept in several museums and collections around the world, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Bardo Museum, and the David Collection.

List of Zirid rulers
The following list includes the Zirid rulers who ruled in the Maghreb:

 * Ziri ibn Manad, d. 971 CE (as Fatimid governor)

After 1015, the Hammadid branch ruled in the central Maghreb while the descendants of Badis ibn al-Mansur continued to rule in Ifriqiya:
 * Buluggin ibn Ziri, 972–984 (as viceroy of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and the Maghreb)
 * al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, 984–996
 * Badis ibn al-Mansur, 996–1016
 * al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, 1016–1062
 * Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz, 1062–1108
 * Yahya ibn Tamim, 1108–1116
 * Ali ibn Yahya, 1116–1121
 * al-Hasan ibn Ali, 1121–1148

Zirids of Granada
After the rebellion of Buluggin's brothers failed in 999, Zawi ibn Ziri sought to move to al-Andalus, which was under Umayyad control. The hajib of Caliph Hisham II (r. 976–1009) and de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba at the time, Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur (also known as Almanzor), initially refused to allow Zawi's immigration to al-Andalus, believing his reputation as a troublemaker. However, his son and successor, 'Abd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar (r. 1002–1008), seeking able military commanders, granted Zawi and his followers permission to come to Cordoba, where they subsequently became an important part of al-Muzaffar's army. The Caliphate of Córdoba fragmented after 1008, a period known as the fitna of al-Andalus. Zawi initially played a role, along with other Berber factions, in the siege of Córdoba between 1010 and 1013. By the end of the siege they succeeded in installing their own puppet caliph in Córdoba, Sulayman al-Musta'in, but by this point Zawi and other factions were seeking political fortunes elsewhere in al-Andalus. The new caliph granted Zawi and his faction the province of Ilbira (Elvira) to settle in 1013. After moving the capital from Madinat Ilbira to the hilltop settlement of Gharnāṭa (Granada) that year, Zawi founded the Taifa kingdom of Granada. Arab sources consider him to be the founder of the present-day city of Granada, a designation also repeated by some modern historians like Helen Rodgers, Stephen Cavendish, and Brian Catlos.

In 1018 the Umayyad pretender al-Murtada attempted to conquer Granada but was soundly defeated by the Zirids. In 1019 or 1020 Zawi left al-Andalus and returned to Ifriqiya, resuming his ambitions within the Zirid state there. His fate is not known for certain: according to Ibn Hayyan he died of the plague years later, while Abdallah ibn Buluggin's memoirs claim he was poisoned not long after arriving in North Africa, but neither gives the date of his death. In Granada, Zawi's nephew Habbus ibn Maksan was invited by the qadi of the city, Abu 'Abdallah ibn Abi Zamanin, to take control of the new kingdom instead of one Zawi's sons. Under the reign of Habus (1019–1038), the Taifa of Granada was consolidated and evolved into one of the most important political forces of al-Andalus during this period. During the reign of Badis Ibn Habus the Zirids of Granada defeated an attack by the Taifa of Almeria in 1038, annexing much of that kingdom's territory and turning Almeria into a vassal state for several years, before they defeated the Abbadids of Seville in battle in 1039, gaining some territory in turn to the west. In 1056 they annexed the Taifa of Malaga. The Taifa of Granada was eventually conquered by the Almoravids of North Africa in 1090, putting an end to the independent kingdom.

Hammadid dynasty
Hammad ibn Buluggin, the son of Buluggin and uncle of Badis ibn al-Mansur, was appointed governor of 'Ashir in 997 and given a great deal of autonomy, even going so far as to build a new capital for himself, known as the Qal'a Bani Hammad. The split between Hammad and his nephew came when Badis declared his son as heir and attempted to designate a part of Hammad's territory as a new principality to be governed by the crown prince. Hammad refused to let this happen and responded by ordering the name of the Fatimid caliph to be replaced with the Abbasid caliph in the khutba (Friday sermon) in mosques, a clear departure from Zirid political allegiances. A closely-fought war ended with Hammad and al-Mu'izz ibn Badis concluding a peace agreement which allowed Hammad to retain his effective independence.

The Hammadid state reached its apogee under the reign of al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) during which it was briefly the most important state in the Maghreb. The Hammadid capital attracted scholars and artists from Kairouan, growing its cultural and economic importance. The Hammadids initially weathered the Banu Hilal invasions much better than their Zirid counterparts to the east and sometimes even allied with the new Arab tribes. Al-Nasir exploited the partial collapse of Zirid rule in Ifriqiya to have his own authority recognized in many of the main cities there, including Sfax, Kairouan, and Tunis. Pressures from the Banu Hilal tribes eventually forced al-Nasir's successor, al-Mansur (r. 1088-1105), to move the capital to Bijaya (Béjaïa or Bougie), a city founded earlier by al-Nasir. Hammadid rule was eventually ended by the Almohads, led by 'Abd al-Mu'min, who captured Bijaya in 1152. Soon after, 'Abd al-Mu'min's son captured Constantine, where the last Hammadid ruler, Yahya, had fled. Yahya was given a pension and allowed to retire in Marrakesh and then Sala (Salé), where he died in 1161 or 1162.

title: Zirid dynasty


text:
Camp de Tarragona

Camp de Tarragona is a natural and historical region, as well as one of the nine regions (vegueries) of Catalonia. It is the third most populated region, with 536,453 inhabitants as of 2022.

The region includes the counties of Tarragonès, Alt Camp, Baix Camp, Conca de Barberà and Priorat. It borders to the east with Penedès and Central Catalonia, to the north with Ponent and to the west with Terres de l'Ebre.

The capital is the city of Tarragona.

History
The modern Camp de Tarragona roughly follows the old vegueria of Tarragona, which was abolished in 1716, following the Nueva Planta decrees, and replaced by the Castilian corregimientos.

The region was defined as a statistical region in 1987 in the Territorial Planning Laws approved by the Parliament of Catalonia, becoming a vegueria in January 2010. Prior to the region's official establishment, several organisations and citizens of Reus had requested that it be named simply Camp and that it share its capital with the city of Reus, for decentralisation and economic purposes.

Geography
The region's most populous settlements are Tarragona, Reus, Valls and Cambrils. Salou is a key resort destination.

Camp de Tarragona is located in the south of the country, just above the Terres de l'Ebre. It includes a central plain, surrounded by the Pre-Coastal Range mountain chain on the west and in the north, with the Mediterranean sand beaches of the Costa Daurada on the east and limited in the south by the Coll de Balaguer.

The main rivers are the Francolí, the Gaià and the Foix.

The region is regarded as the second metropolitan area of Catalonia, hosting the most important chemical complex in Spain as well as one of the main ports. Among the most distinctive agricultural produce of the region are hazelnuts, olives, wine and fish. It is also one of the major tourist areas in Catalonia, mainly due to the variety of beaches, holiday attractions like the remains of the Roman important past of Tarragona (one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Spain), samples of the Catalan Modernisme style (particularly in Reus, Gaudí's hometown) and PortAventura World (PortAventura Park, the most visited theme park in Spain, Ferrari Land and also the PortAventura Caribe Aquatic Park).

Transport

The region has a homonymous high-speed railway station located between the Tarragonès towns of La Secuita and Perafort, in the centre of the Tarragona-Reus-Valls area.

Economy
The GDP of Camp de Tarragona makes up 7% of Catalonia's. The productive structure is not homogeneous in the region, e.g. the primary sector is more important in Priorat and in Conca de Barberà than in the other counties. However, they all share wine as one of the main products of the sector. In terms of industry, in Alt Camp the paper sector plays a predominant role, whereas in Baix Camp it is the energy sector and in Tarragonès the chemical sector. Tourism is particularly significant in the coastal townships, namely Salou and Cambrils. The Costa Daurada is Camp de Tarragona's main tourist brand, and in addition to its beaches, it also houses the Port Aventura theme park.

Camp de Tarragona also has a public university, the University of Rovira i Virgili (URV), with facilities in the municipalities of Tarragona, Reus and Vila-seca. Founded in 1991, it currently offers a wide range of degrees and masters courses to over 11,000 students.

Television
Although the most viewed channels are the ones broadcasting for the whole of Catalonia, such as those of Televisió de Catalunya or RTVE, Camp de Tarragona has two multiplexes for local broadcasting, with coverage for the western and eastern areas of the region each.

title: Camp de Tarragona


text:
Wicks Organ Company

The Wicks Organ Company is an organ manufacturer in Highland, Illinois in the United States where they build, repair, and restore organs.

History
The Wicks Organ Company was founded by Adolph Wick, John F. Wick, and Louis Wick in the early 1900s at their jewelry and watch making store in Highland, Illinois. A local priest asked John Wick to study organ; he studied organ at St. Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, and then became the church organist. The church later decided to replace an old reed organ with a pipe organ.

The brothers utilized their skills in watch making, cabinet making, and jewelry to construct a small, two manual and pedal, mechanical action pipe organ for the church. They incorporated as the Wicks Organ Company in 1906.

The Wicks Organ Company invented, patented, and trademarked the Direct Electric chest action. This action was created in 1916 and it is still in use today.

The Wicks opus list encompasses over 6,440 instruments installed mostly in the U.S. In January 2011, the company downsized, outsourcing some of its production to past employees. Third-generation family member Scott Wick is president.

title: Wicks Organ Company


text:
Ruslan Fedotenko

Ruslan Viktorovych Fedotenko (Руслан Вікторович Федотенко; born 18 January 1979) is a Ukrainian former professional ice hockey winger.

A two-time Stanley Cup champion, in his National Hockey League (NHL) career he played for the Philadelphia Flyers, Tampa Bay Lightning, New York Islanders, Pittsburgh Penguins and the New York Rangers. Internationally, Fedotenko has competed for Ukraine in the 2002 Winter Olympics.

Start in the NHL
As a youth, Fedotenko played in the 1993 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a team from Ukraine.

Fedotenko went undrafted and first entered the NHL after being signed by the Philadelphia Flyers in 1999. He scored the overtime winning goal in Game 1 of the 2002 Eastern Conference Quarter-Finals against the Ottawa Senators during the 2002 Stanley Cup Playoffs.

Tampa Bay Lightning and first Stanley Cup win
After two seasons with the Flyers, he was traded in 2002 to the Tampa Bay Lightning, along with two second-round draft picks, in exchange for Tampa Bay's first-round draft pick, which was used to draft Joni Pitkänen.

In 2004, Fedotenko won the Stanley Cup for the first time, scoring both Lightning goals in Game 7 of the Finals against the Calgary Flames. It was Tampa Bay's first Stanley Cup in franchise history. After a career-high 26-goal, 41-point campaign in 2005–06, Fedotenko was re-signed as a restricted free agent in July 2006 to a one-year contract worth $1.65 million.

New York Islanders
Following his fourth season in Tampa Bay, Fedotenko signed a one-year, $2.9 million contract with the New York Islanders in July 2007, joining Mike Comrie and Bill Guerin as the Islanders' free agent acquisitions. He scored 33 points in his first and only season with the Islanders.

Pittsburgh Penguins and second Stanley Cup win
The following off-season, Fedotenko signed his third consecutive one-year contract, a $2.25 million deal with Pittsburgh Penguins in July 2008. Fedotenko neared career-high totals with 39 points in 65 games, benefiting as a winger on a talented Penguins team that featured centers Sidney Crosby, Evgeni Malkin and Jordan Staal. He went on to tally 14 points in 24 post-season games with the Penguins in 2009, capturing his second career Stanley Cup as Pittsburgh defeated the Detroit Red Wings in seven games. After becoming an unrestricted free agent in July 2009, Fedotenko took a pay cut and agreed to a one-year, $1.8 million contract to remain with the Penguins.

New York Rangers
On 10 September 2010, Fedotenko accepted a try-out with the New York Rangers. After an impressive preseason, the Rangers signed Fedotenko to a one-year $1 million deal on 4 October 2010.

On 1 July 2011, Fedotenko re-signed with the New York Rangers, accepting a one-year, $1.4 million contract.

Return to the Flyers
On 5 July 2012, Fedotenko returned to where his NHL career began and signed a one-year deal with the Philadelphia Flyers for $1.75 million. During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Fedotenko played for the Kontinental Hockey League's HC Donbass. Following the 2012–13 NHL season, Fedotenko signed a three-year, $9 million contract with Donbass.

Later career and retirement
On 20 January 2015, Fedotenko signed a professional try out contract with the Iowa Wild. To end the 2014–15 season, Fedotenko registered 3 goals in 13 games with Iowa. On 1 July 2015, Fedotenko signed as a free agent to a one-year contract with Iowa's parent affiliate, the Minnesota Wild.

On 11 October 2016, Fedotenko announced his retirement from professional hockey. Fedotenko finished his career as a two-time Stanley Cup Champion, played in a total of 863 NHL games with five different NHL teams, scored 173 goals and registered 193 assists, totaling 366 points.

International play
Fedotenko has played internationally for the Ukrainian national ice hockey team, appearing in one game for his nation at the 2002 Winter Olympics in a 5–2 defeat of Switzerland.

Personal life
Fedotenko has a tattoo of 2 Stanley Cups on his shoulder. Fedotenko resides in Tampa, Florida, with his wife Debbie.

title: Ruslan Fedotenko