text:
List of settlements in Corinthia

This is a list of settlements in Corinthia, Greece.

 * Agioi Theodoroi
 * Agionori
 * Agios Ioannis
 * Agios Vasileios
 * Aidonia
 * Ancient Corinth
 * Angelokastro
 * Ano Trikala
 * Archaia Feneos
 * Archaia Nemea
 * Archaies Kleones
 * Asprokampos
 * Assos
 * Athikia
 * Bolati
 * Bozikas
 * Chalkeio
 * Chelydoreo
 * Chiliomodi
 * Corinth
 * Dafni
 * Dendro
 * Derveni
 * Dimini
 * Drosopigi
 * Elliniko
 * Ellinochori
 * Evangelistria
 * Evrostina
 * Examilia
 * Feneos
 * Galataki
 * Galatas
 * Geliniatika
 * Gonoussa
 * Goura
 * Isthmia
 * Kaisari
 * Kalianoi
 * Kallithea
 * Kamari
 * Karya
 * Kastania
 * Kastraki
 * Katakali
 * Kato Assos
 * Kato Dimini
 * Kato Loutro
 * Kato Synoikia Trikalon
 * Kato Tarsos
 * Kefalari
 * Kiato
 * Klenia
 * Klimenti
 * Kokkoni
 * Korfiotissa
 * Korfos
 * Koutalas
 * Koutsi
 * Krines
 * Kryoneri
 * Kyllini
 * Lafka
 * Lagkadaiika
 * Laliotis
 * Lechaio
 * Leonti
 * Loutraki-Perachora
 * Lygia
 * Lykoporia
 * Manna
 * Mati
 * Megas Valtos
 * Melissi
 * Mesi Synoikia Trikalon
 * Mesino
 * Mikros Valtos
 * Mosia
 * Moulki
 * Nees Vrysoules
 * Nemea
 * Nerantza
 * Panariti
 * Panorama
 * Paradeisi
 * Pasi
 * Pellini
 * Perigiali
 * Petri
 * Pisia
 * Pitsa
 * Poulitsa
 * Psari
 * Pyrgos
 * Rethi
 * Riza
 * Sarantapicho
 * Sikyona
 * Sofiana
 * Sofiko
 * Solomos
 * Souli
 * Soulinari
 * Stefani
 * Steno
 * Stimagka
 * Stomio
 * Stylia
 * Stymfalia
 * Sykia
 * Tarsina
 * Thalero
 * Throfari
 * Titani
 * Velo
 * Vochaiko
 * Vrachati
 * Xanthochori
 * Xylokastro
 * Xylokeriza
 * Zemeno
 * Zevgolateio

title: List of settlements in Corinthia


text:
Category:Continental philosophers

Those who fall under the general category of continental philosophy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Continental philosophers


text:
Dreamcatcher (Secret Garden album)

Dreamcatcher is a greatest hits package released in the United Kingdom in 2000 by Secret Garden, an Irish-Norwegian duo consisting of Irish violinist Fionnuala Sherry and Norwegian composer/pianist Rolf Løvland. A version with an alternative track listing was released on 22 May 2001 in the United States, and a special Australian tour edition in 2004.

The opening track Nocturne is a mostly instrumental song that won the Eurovision Song Contest in 1995. The album cover features a recoloured photograph of the Eilean Donan castle.

Reception
In 2001, the album reached number 4 on the Billboard New Age chart. The Australian tour edition released in 2004 topped the classical music chart in that country and made the top 50 of the album charts in March 2004.

Track listing
Releases in different countries differed slightly in the included tracks.

UK version (2000)
The 2000 United Kingdom version included:
 * 1) "Nocturne" (3:11)
 * 2) "Prayer" (4:30)
 * 3) "Moving" (3:22)
 * 4) "Dreamcatcher" (4:35)
 * 5) "Sigma" (3:05)
 * 6) "Song from a Secret Garden" (3:32)
 * 7) "Sona" (4:16)
 * 8) "Passacaglia" (3:47)
 * 9) "Elan" (3:08)
 * 10) "In Our Tears" (4:36)
 * 11) "Celebration" (3:57)
 * 12) "Heartstrings" (3:22)
 * 13) "Steps" (4:01)
 * 14) "Adagio" (2:51)
 * 15) "The Rap" (2:31)
 * 16) "Hymn to Hope" (4:18)
 * 17) "Lore of the Loom" (3:17)
 * 18) "Dawn of a New Century" (6:08)

US version (2001)
The track listing on the version released in the US 2001 is:
 * 1) "Nocturne" (3:14)
 * 2) "Prayer" (4:36)
 * 3) "Moving" (3:22)
 * 4) "Dreamcatcher" (4:41)
 * 5) "Sigma" (3:07)
 * 6) "Song from a Secret Garden" (3:33)
 * 7) "Sona" (4:21)
 * 8) "Passacaglia" (3:46)
 * 9) "Elan" (3:12)
 * 10) "In Our Tears" (4:39)
 * 11) "Celebration" (3:56))
 * 12) "Heartstrings" (3:23)
 * 13) "Steps" (4:02)
 * 14) "Adagio" (2:53)
 * 15) "The Rap" (2:34)
 * 16) "Hymn to Hope" (4:20)
 * 17) "Lore of the Loom" (3:21)
 * 18) "Dawn of a New Century" (6:12)
 * 19) "Last Present" (3:24)

Australian version (2004)
The track listing on the 2004 Australian version is:
 * 1) "Nocturne"
 * 2) "Prayer"
 * 3) "Moving"
 * 4) "Dreamcatcher"
 * 5) "Sigma"
 * 6) "Song from a Secret Garden"
 * 7) "Sona"
 * 8) "Passacaglia"
 * 9) "Elan"
 * 10) "In Our Tears"
 * 11) "Windancer"
 * 12) "The Rap"
 * 13) "You Raise Me Up"
 * 14) "Heartstrings"
 * 15) "Greenwaves"
 * 16) "Papillon"
 * 17) "Escape"
 * 18) "Divertimento"
 * 19) "Illumination"
 * 20) "I Know a Rose Tree"

title: Dreamcatcher (Secret Garden album)


text: Category:Philosophers

title: Category:Philosophers


text:
Lower Navarre

Lower Navarre (Nafarroa Beherea/Baxenabarre; Gascon/Bearnese: Navarra Baisha; Basse-Navarre ; Baja Navarra) is a traditional region of the present-day French département of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. It corresponds to the northernmost merindad of the Kingdom of Navarre during the Middle Ages. After the Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre (1512–24), this merindad was restored to the rule of the native king, Henry II. Its capitals were Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and Saint-Palais. In the extreme north there was the little sovereign Principality of Bidache, with an area of 1,284 km2 and a decreasing population of 44,450 (in 1901), 25,356 (in 1990).

Although this denomination is not completely correct from the historical point of view, it is also known as Merindad de Ultrapuertos ("the regions beyond the mountain passes") by the southerners, and Deça-ports ("this side of the mountain passes") by the Gascon-speakers. Despite its lost administrative cohesion, the memory of its past heyday has left an imprint on its inhabitants, who keep identifying themselves as Lower Navarrese and therefore Navarrese. The Nafarroaren Eguna or Day of Navarre is a festival held in Baigorri every year to strengthen their bonds and celebrate their Basque identity. The territory is also claimed by Basque nationalists to be one of the seven constituent regions making up the Basque Country.

Geography
Lower Navarre is a collection of valleys in the foothills of the Pyrenees. The Aldudes valley, around the town of Saint-Étienne-de-Baïgorry in the south of Lower Navarre, preserves many old traditions, with houses of pink sandstone and contests of Force Basque, the games of strength. The Irouléguy wines are produced in the area around the town of Irouléguy.

The river Nive rises in Lower Navarre and flows through the province and on to Bayonne, where it meets the Adour. Beyond Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port itself, the Nive enters the Ossès valley, with many beautiful old houses with carved lintels in the villages of Ossès, Irissarry and Bidarray. A reserve for the pottok, the wild Basque Pyrenean pony, in the valley conserves this rare breed. The Baigura massif towers over the western valleys and sets a natural boundary with the rolling valleys of Labourd.

North of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port is the Mixe region around the town of Saint-Palais, a former Navarrese capital. Although close to Béarn, Basque influence and traditions are strong. Lower Navarrese is a dialect of the Basque language spoken in the region. Just south of Saint-Palais, the three principal routes to Santiago de Compostela on the Way of St James met at the hamlet of Ostabat, bringing much wealth and trade to the area in medieval times.

The Way of St James headed south from Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port towards the mountain pass above Roncesvalles. Pilgrims travelled across the Cize region of Lower Navarre on their way to Navarre across the mountains. In these rolling hills, ewes' milk cheese, pur brebis, is commonly made, including Ossau-Iraty cheese. Villages like Estérençuby and Lecumberry are popular for agro-tourism and the Iraty beech forest on the Spanish border is known for its views and history. Dolmens and other neolithic monuments dot the landscape, including the Tour d'Urkulu high in the mountains at 1,149m—a 2,000-year-old circular platform of huge stone blocks. Lower Navarre is well delimited by mountain ranges on the west (with Mount Iparla as its highest and most iconic landmark), south (Roncevaux, Mount Urkulu and Pyrenees altogether) and the east (bounded by the western mountains of Soule).

History
The lands of the Lower Navarre were part of the Duchy of Vasconia that turned into Gascony by the end of the first millennium. At the time of King Sancho III of Navarre, called the Great (died in 1035), Duke Sancho VI William of Gascony pledged allegiance to the Navarrese king, for a short period Gascony becoming vassal to the Kingdom of Navarre, with which it had always had close ties. Moreover, the valleys of Baigorri, Ossès, Arberoa, Cize and Arberoa were attached to the latter, so establishing the first nucleus of the Navarrese grip on the lands north of the Pyrenees. While these valleys were taken over again by Gascony for a period, the Ultrapuertos County (called Merindad in Navarre) was regained for Navarre in 1234, coming to be governed by the sheriff of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. However, the definite boundaries were not established until the 1244-1245 war between the Labourdins and Navarrese came to an end.

In 1512, the Duke of Alba, under orders from King Ferdinand II of Aragon, conquered Navarre, including Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. The Navarrese monarchs retreated to their sovereign domain of Béarn. In 1516, King John III of Navarre retook the town of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, but failed to take the citadel; he and Queen Catherine died soon after, and the 10,000-strong army of the Spanish king, the future Emperor Charles V recovered control of the town. Charles V's troops retained Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and its hinterland, besides devastating the region, but were met with strong resistance led by local lords loyal to King Henry II of Navarre. The latter succeeded in taking over the town and its castle in May 1521, losing it to the Duke of Alba in June; the Spanish evacuated Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port in 1522, but recovered it in January 1524. While possession of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port was hotly contested, Saint-Palais (Donapaleu in Basque) remained out of Spanish reach and would become the main royal center of the surviving Navarrese monarchy in Lower Navarre.

Eventually, the legitimate Navarrese king, de facto deprived of the rest of Navarre by Spanish rule, restored Navarrese official institutions and bodies in Lower Navarre, e.g. the Sovereign Council in 1523, the Chancery in 1524, the Royal Mint a little later in Saint-Palais, etc. In 1525, a new military inroad led by the Spanish viceroy of Navarre subdued the region, and tried to earn the loyalty of the nobles, but they unanimously kept their allegiance to the Navarrese monarchs of the House of Albret, and the lord of Luxa and the lord of Miossens, Esteban d'Albret, reconquered the region in 1527. Although Emperor Charles V, the Spanish monarch, recovered Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port within months, by 1528 he had lost interest in asserting and maintaining his control over the portion of Navarre north of the Pyrenees, difficult to hold and defend. Accordingly, he abandoned his remaining holdings in Lower Navarre, including Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, to its hereditary king Henry II, as part of a treaty with France—the Treaty of Cambray in 1530. In 1555, Henry II of Navarre died and was succeeded by his daughter Jeanne, who ruled until her death in 1572.

During the 16th century the Albrets ruled over a wider territory (Béarn, etc. as French vassals) and the effective seat of the Navarrese Royalty shifted to Pau, capital city of Béarn, where Henry III (later Henry IV of France), the son of Jeanne d'Albret was born. Henry III generally respected the laws issued by the Navarrese parliament, despite sometimes raising objections to their wordings. Henry succeeded to the French throne in 1589; he and his successors would now be titled "King of France and Navarre." His son Louis II (Louis XIII of France) was definitely reluctant to any binding reading of the Navarrese laws, and forced more loose wordings, devoid of specific meaning in order to feel his hands free. Ultimately this led to an encroaching French centralization of all relevant decisions and prerogatives during the 17 and 18th centuries.

In 1620 and 1624 respectively the House of Commons and the Justice system were merged with those of Béarn and transferred from Saint-Palais to Pau, despite protests voiced by the Navarrese representatives, who pointed to their different traditions and languages—Basque and Béarnese. The title of King of Navarre continued to be held by the lineage of the Albrets and the Bourbons up to the French Revolution, while the kingdom itself merged with France in 1620. It retained its historic personality as a kingdom and, albeit fragmented, a separate legal status. The two third estate representatives of Lower Navarre did not vote at the States-General of 1789 and its follow-up, the French National Assembly (1790), arguing that the impending new administrative arrangement was none of their business, since they did not belong in the Kingdom of France. All the same, the new French administrative design did not spare Lower Navarre. It came to be integrated in the Basses-Pyrénées department along with the rest of French Basque districts, and Béarn.

Administration of Lower Navarre, Ancien Régime
The administration of the independent Kingdom of Navarre after 1512 was centralized in Saint-Palais and consisted of a handful of institutions organized in a structure generally found in the Kingdom of France. By 1527 these administrations had been partially decentralized to Pau, and consisted of:

 * the Governor of Navarre and Béarn
 * Estates of Navarre (French: États de Navarre), in Saint-Palais
 * Chancery of Navarre, in Saint-Palais
 * Chambre des Comptes of Navarre, in Pau, Nérac and Vendôme
 * Mint of Navarre and Béarn (French: Monnaie de Navarre et Béarn), formed by the merger Mint of Navarre in Saint-Palais, with the mints of Béarn in Pau and Morlaàs, in Béarn, by the Chambre des Comptes of Navarre, in Pau
 * Conseil Souverain of Navarre and Béarn, the predecessor of the Parliament of Navarre and Béarn, in Pau
 * Conseil Privé, the King's private council for Navarre and Béarn, in Pau

title: Lower Navarre


text: Category:Horror films

title: Category:Horror films


text: Category:The Beatles songs

title: Category:The Beatles songs


text:
President of Slovakia

The president of the Slovak Republic (Prezident Slovenskej republiky) is the head of state of Slovakia and the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The people directly elect the president for five years, for a maximum of two consecutive terms. The presidency is essentially a ceremonial office, but the president does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion. The president's official residence is the Grassalkovich Palace in Bratislava.

History of the office
The office was established by the constitution of Slovakia on 1 January 1993 when Slovakia permanently split from Czechoslovakia and became independent. The office was vacant until 2 March 1993, when the first president Michal Kováč was elected by the National Council of Slovak Republic. However, in 1998, the National Council could not elect a successor to Kováč. As a result, the position was vacant for half a year after Kováč's term ended in March 1998. The duties and powers of the office devolved upon the then-prime minister and speaker of the National Council. To resolve the issue, the constitution was changed to provide for the popular election of the president. Presidential elections have been held in 1999, 2004, 2009, 2014, 2019 and 2024.

The current President is Peter Pellegrini, who took office on 15 June 2024.

Role and powers

The president of Slovakia has a limited role in policy-making, as the office is largely ceremonial within the framework of a parliamentary republic. According to the constitution, the president is the supreme representative of the state both in Slovakia and abroad.

The president represents the Slovak Republic externally and concludes and ratifies international treaties. The president may delegate to the government or, with the government's consent, to individual members of the Slovak Republic, the conclusion of international treaties. Historically, all Slovak presidents delegated this power to the government. Technically, it is officially done by Decision of President No. 250/2001 Coll. (which superseded Decision of President No. 205/1993 Coll.), which is still in effect.

Among the president's constitutional powers are nominating and appointing the prime minister. The constitution does not limit the president's choice; through their decisions, the president ensures the due performance of constitutional bodies. Because the government of whoever is appointed prime minister must receive a vote of confidence in parliament, the president usually appoints the winning party or coalition leader in parliamentary elections.

The president has sole discretion to appoint three members of the judicial council, one member of the Budget Council, and two members of the council of the Nation's Memory Institute; to award distinctions, to appoint the president and vice-president of the Constitutional Court of the Slovak Republic (from among the Constitutional Court judges), and to grant pardon or parole.

The president can also veto any bill or proposal by the National Council, except for constitutional amendments. This veto can be overridden if the National Council passes the same bill again with a majority of all council members, so this power is considered relatively weak.

The president is formally the commander-in-chief of the Slovak armed forces, but this role is ceremonial because by the constitution when the president acts as the commander-in-chief, their decision is valid only after it is signed by the prime minister or a minister authorized by the prime minister. In such cases, the government is responsible for the president's decision. The same applies to grants of amnesty and appointments of chiefs of diplomatic missions.

Among their other constitutional duties are signing bills into law, appointing ministers on the prime minister's recommendation, and appointing various other state officials, such as generals, professors, judges, rectors, and prosecutors.

The president has discretionary power over the appointments of some officials. For example, there have been cases when the president has refused to appoint vice-governors of the National Bank of Slovakia recommended by the government. These actions of the president were confirmed by the Constitutional Court.

In many cases, the appointment of state officials is regulated by other laws. For example, the president's power to appoint constitutional judges is limited to selection from nominees voted by the National Council, from which the president has to appoint half. The appointment or recall of judges is determined by decisions of the Judicial Council, which submits its proposals to the president.

Presidential powers are substantially increased in special circumstances when the National Council passes a vote of no confidence in the government. In such a case, many executive powers of government (e.g., appointment of officials, foreign trips, signing treaties) are subject to the president's approval, and the president can appoint the government without being subject to the parliament's approval.

Succession
In the case when the president is unable to perform their duties or if the presidency becomes vacant for any reason, the speaker of the National Council and the Government, led by the prime minister, jointly perform the duties of the president.

title: President of Slovakia


text:
Pitt Rivers Museum

Pitt Rivers Museum is a museum displaying the archaeological and anthropological collections of the University of Oxford in England. The museum is located to the east of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, and can only be accessed through that building.

The museum was founded in 1884 by Augustus Pitt Rivers, who donated his private collection to the University of Oxford with the condition that a permanent lecturer in anthropology must be appointed. Edward Burnett Tylor thereby became the first lecturer in anthropology in the UK following his appointment to the post of Reader in Anthropology in 1885. Museum staff are still involved in teaching archaeology and anthropology at the university. The first curator of the museum was Henry Balfour. A second stipulation in the Deed of Gift was that a building should be provided to house the collection and used for no other purpose. The university therefore engaged Thomas Manly Deane, son of Thomas Newenham Deane who, together with Benjamin Woodward, had designed and built the original Oxford University Museum of Natural History building three decades earlier, to create an adjoining building at the rear of the main building to house the collection. Construction started in 1885 and was completed in 1886.

The original donation consisted of approximately 22,000 items; this has now grown to more than 500,000 items, many of which have been donated by travelers, scholars, and missionaries.

Organization
The exhibition space in the museum's building is a large, rectangular, colonnaded room. It has two mezzanine levels and a massive, vaulted ceiling, and is brimming with glass display cases and exhibits.

The museum's collection is arranged typologically, according to how the objects were used, rather than according to their age or origin. The display of many examples of a particular type of tool or artifact, showing historical and regional variations, is an unusual and distinct feature of this museum. This topological layout is based upon Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers' theories; he intended for his collection to show progression in design and evolution in human culture from the simple to the complex. Although this evolutionary approach to material culture is no longer appropriate in the modern display paradigm for archaeological and anthropological objects, the museum has broadly retained the original typological organization due to the Pitt Rivers Deed of Gift which stipulated that any changes to the displays "shall not affect the general principle originated by Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers".

As the museum has an extensive collection of objects, those on display are changed periodically.

The museum was closed from 17 March 2020 to 22 September 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During this closure, a decision was made to remove displays of shrunken heads as well as other human remains. The museum's director issued a statement, "Exhibiting Tsantsas (shrunken heads) reinforced racist and stereotypical thinking that goes against the museum’s core values.” The shrunken heads had been on display since the 1940s.

The Haida Totem Pole
The largest object on display in the museum is the Haida house post, a totem pole, which has a height of 11.36m. It originally stood in front of the Star House in the village of Old Massett (Haida name Uttewas), on Graham Island, in British Columbia, Canada. The Star House belonged to Chief Anetlas (c.1816–1893); it is thought that the house was constructed in 1882. The pole was purchased by Edward Burnett Tylor and transported to the Pitt Rivers Museum in 1901.

Expansion
Despite the Pitt Rivers being so full as to be "bursting at the seams", designs for a new museum building in the 1960s were never realised. By 1964, the university wanted to expand the science area onto the Pitts Rivers site and move the museum to a larger plot on Banbury Road. A round museum was proposed, covering a site larger than the Sheldonian Theatre, the Clarendon Building, and the Bodleian Library combined. The concept was strongly supported by the museum's curator Bernard Fagg and, after concerted lobbying from Fagg, the university's Standing Committee on Museums and Galleries. In February 1966, the university greenlit the new museum and promised to keep the Banbury Road site free for three years while funding was arranged. Several architects were considered for the project including Leslie Martin (who was already working on plans for a new zoology building), Powell & Moya, and Pier Luigi Nervi; Nervi was selected and planning applications were submitted and approved by Oxford City Council in a 32-29 vote. The new museum needed £4.5 million to cover construction costs and £2.25 million as an endowment. In May 1968, Fagg suffered a stroke which left him in hospital until the end of the academic year and significantly limited his involvement in fundraising efforts. By 1970, the campaign had lost momentum, the fundraising committee dissolved, and in September, the university announced the project would be shelved.

In 2004, the museum received £3,700,000 from the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) to build an annex adjoining the museum. Building work was completed in 2007, bringing the academic staff of the museum back to the site, and providing a laboratory for conservation of the specimens.

A second phase of development began on 7 July 2008 necessitating the closure of the museum and galleries. The museum reopened on 1 May 2009. In this work, the 1960s exhibition gallery was dismantled, restoring the original view through to the museum's totem pole. Original display cases were returned to their original place at the front of the museum. The space upstairs vacated by these cases provides additional space for a Clore Duffield Education Centre. A new entrance platform was built to allow visitors to enter on the same level as the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and improves access for wheelchair users and parents with pushchairs. The entrance platform provides re-located shop and reception areas. An environmental control system was also installed.

Multaka network
In 2019, the museum joined six similar museums in Germany, Italy, Greece and Switzerland, creating the international Multaka network. This intercultural museum project organizes guided tours for refugees and migrants designed and offered for free by specially trained Arabic-speaking Multaka guides. The visitor-centered discussions with migrants in their language are focused on the historical origin and history of acquisition of cultural objects, including the visitors' own understanding of their country's cultural heritage.

Awards
The Pitt Rivers Museum, along with the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, won The Guardian newspaper's award for Family Friendly Museum of 2005. In 2019, the Pitt Rivers Museum was finalist of the Art Fund Museum of the Year Award.

Colonial legacy
In recent years, the Pitt Rivers Museum has been called sector-leading in its work on decoloniality. Further details can be found on the website. [Expansion needed]

In September 2020, the museum announced it had made a number of critical changes to its displays, including the removal from display of human remains and the installation of a new Introductory Case as an intervention in its permanent galleries that engages with the colonial legacy of the museum. The changes attracted worldwide attention as they involved the removal of the museum's collection of shrunken heads, which had been on display since the 1940s, citing the reason that "the displays reinforced racist and stereotypical thinking that goes against the museum’s values today". The museum has also said that it would make changes to the labels to include stories "through the voices of artists and indigenous leaders".

As part of this process the Pitt Rivers Museum is meeting with originating communities to address errors and gaps in the information it stores, and to discuss repatriation. One of these is the Living Cultures initiative, a collaboration between the museum, a Maasai community based campaign group called Oltoilo Le Maa, and community development organisation InsightShare. Additionally, the museum, together with the Museum of Natural History, returned the remains of 17 Aboriginal Australians to the Australian government in 2022.

2024 Pro-Palestine Encampments
Beginning on May 6th, pro-Palestine demonstrators under the name Oxford Action for Palestine (OA4P) occupied the lawns of Pitt Rivers Museum, demanding Oxford University enter negotiations about severing institutional relationships facilitating "the genocide and occupation of the Palestinian people." This followed the nationwide movement in the US of pro-Palestine sit-ins and encampments protesting the escalating violence of the ongoing Israel-Hamas war. In response, the University did not commit to the protestors demands but affirmed their right to protest and freedom of speech. Ultimately, following escalations involving die-ins and a second encampment outside the Radcliffe Camera and a series of marches, Oxford University began clearing the original Pitt Rivers Museum lawn encampment to be reopened for public use, and blocked entry to the space with metal fences. They cited "proactive measures to protect the lawn" and destroyed the recently created "Gaza Memorial Garden" planted there.

Notable people

 * Henry Balfour (curator)
 * Beatrice Blackwood (curator, anthropologist)
 * Leonard Halford Dudley Buxton (anthropologist)
 * Elizabeth Edwards (curator, historian of photography)
 * Bernard Fagg (curator, archaeologist)
 * Barbara Freire-Marreco (anthropologist)
 * Chris Gosden (archaeologist)
 * Clare Harris (curator for Asian Collections)
 * Schuyler Jones (American anthropologist)
 * Margaret Staples-Browne (Makereti) (Māori anthropologist)
 * Howard Morphy (anthropologist)
 * Michael Palin (patron)
 * Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers (archaeologist and donor of founding collection)
 * Edward Burnett Tylor (anthropologist)

title: Pitt Rivers Museum


text:
Blue Alert

Blue alert may refer to:

 * Blue Alert (album), a 2006 album by singer Anjani
 * "Blue Alert" (song), from the 2012 Sylvia Brooks album Restless
 * National Blue Alert Act of 2013, a proposed Act of Congress

title: Blue Alert


text:
Dual carriageway

A dual carriageway (BrE) or a divided highway (AmE) is a class of highway with carriageways for traffic travelling in opposite directions separated by a central reservation (BrE) or median (AmE). Roads with two or more carriageways which are designed to higher standards with controlled access are generally classed as motorways, freeways, etc., rather than dual carriageways.

A road without a central reservation is known as a single carriageway regardless of how many lanes there are. Dual carriageways have improved road traffic safety over the years and over single carriageways and typically have higher speed limits as a result. In some places, express lanes and local or collector lanes are used within a local-express-lane system to provide more capacity and to smooth out traffic flows for longer-distance travel.

History
A very early (perhaps the first) example of a dual carriageway was the Via Portuensis, built in the first century by the Roman emperor Claudius between Rome and its port Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber.

One claim for the first divided highway in the United States was Savery Avenue in Carver, Massachusetts, first built in 1860, where the two roadways were separated by a narrow strip of trees down the middle. In 1907 the Long Island Motor Parkway opened, and roughly 20% of it featured a semi-dual-carriageway design. The New York City Belt Parkway system, which was built between 1907 and 1934, also pioneered the same design. However the majority of it featured concrete or brick railings as lane dividers instead of grass medians.

In the year of 1924 the first Italian autostrada was opened running 55 km from Milan to Varese. It featured a broad road bed and did not feature lane dividers except near cities and through the mountains.

The London end of the Great West Road became Britain's first dual carriageway when it was opened in 1925 by King George V.

In 1927 the Rome bypass was opened. It ran 92 km bypassing Rome to the east. Almost the entire length featured a dual-carriageway design. In the early 1930s, it was extended southward all the way to Naples and northward to Florence. Most of the original routing was destroyed by the Allies in World War II.

By 1930 several US and European cities had built dual-carriageway highways, mostly to control traffic jams and/or to provide bypass routes for traffic.

In 1932 the first German autobahn opened between Cologne and Bonn. It ran 21 km and became a precedent for future highways. Although it, like the first autostrada, did not feature a dual-carriageway design, it inspired the mass construction of future high-speed roadways.

During the 1930s, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union began construction of a network of dual carriageway expressways. By 1942, Germany had over 3,200 km of dual carriageway roads, Italy had nearly 1300 km, and the Soviet Union had 400 km.

What may have been the world's first long-distance intercity dual carriageway/freeway was the Queen Elizabeth Way in Southern Ontario in Canada, initially linking the large cities of Toronto and Hamilton together by 1939, with construction on this stretch of the present-day Queen Elizabeth Way beginning in 1936 as "Middle Road". It was gradually upgraded to a freeway from the 1950s to 1970s.

Opened to traffic in 1940, the 160 mi Pennsylvania Turnpike was the first rural dual carriageway built in the United States. By 1955 several states had built dual carriageway freeways and turnpikes and in 1957 the Interstate Highway System began. Completed in 1994, the major highway system links all the major cities of the United States.

United Kingdom
In the UK, although the term "dual carriageway" applies to any road with physically separated lanes, it is frequently used as a descriptive term for major routes built in this style. Such major dual carriageways usually have two lanes of traffic in each direction, with the lane nearest the centre being reserved for overtaking. Occasionally dual carriageways have only one lane in each direction, or more than two lanes each way (sometimes to permit easier overtaking of slower uphill traffic). Different speed limits apply on dual carriageway sections from those that apply on single carriageway sections of the same class of road, except in cities and built-up areas where the dual carriageway is more of a safety measure.

When first constructed, many dual carriageways—including the first motorways—had no crash- or other barriers in the central reservation. In the event of congestion, or if a driver missed their exit, some drivers made U-turns onto the opposite carriageway; many accidents were caused as a result of their misjudging the speed of approaching traffic on the other carriageway when doing so.

The majority of dual carriageway roads now have barriers. Some are heavy concrete obstructions which can bounce a vehicle back into the path of other traffic; others are made from steel ropes mounted on moderately weak posts, where the rope cuts into the vehicle body to slow the vehicle while keeping it against the barrier until it has stopped. Often on urban dual carriageways where the road has been converted from a four-lane single carriageway the central reservation will not be substantial: often just a small steel divider to save space.

Turning right (that is, across the line of traffic heading in the opposite direction) is usually permitted only at specific locations. Often the driver will be required to turn left (away from the dual carriageway) in order to loop around to an access road that permits crossing the major road. Roundabouts on dual carriageways are relatively common, especially in cities or where the cost of a grade-separated junction would be prohibitive. Where space is even more limited, intersections may be controlled by traffic lights. Smaller residential roads adjoining urban dual carriageways may be blocked off at one end to limit the number of junctions on the dual carriageway; often other roads will pass over or under the dual carriageway without an intersection.

A dual carriageway with grade-separated junctions and which meets other requirements may be upgraded to motorway standard, denoted by an (M) added after the road number (e.g. "A1(M)" or "A38(M)"). Unlike in Ireland, there was no official terminology for 'high-quality dual carriageways' until April 2015, when in England a new standard was set to designate certain high-quality routes formally as "Expressways". Many roads such as the A1, the A14, the A19 and the A42 are built to a high quality, with grade-separated junctions, full barriers at roadside and central reservations and, in some cases, three lanes of traffic. They may still fall short of motorway standard in terms of hard shoulders, the height of overpasses or the quality of intersecting junctions.

Speed limits
The national speed limit applies on dual carriageways (unless it is in a 'built-up area', or a lower limit is posted), which is as follows:

A dual carriageway in a built up area will have a statutory speed limit of 30 mph unless otherwise sign-posted. It is common for such urban dual carriageways to have an increased speed limit of 40 mph. A road deemed to be in a built up area is indicated by the presence of street lights; on lit dual carriageways that are not considered to be in a built-up area, the speed limit will be clarified with intermittent signs.

Ireland
Although in Ireland the term dual carriageway technically applies to any road with physically separated lanes, it is usually used only to refer to those route sections that do not have a motorway designation. Most often it is national roads (roads with a route number prefix of N; e.g. N8) that are built as or upgraded to dual carriageway. A number of non-national roads (for example, regional roads) are dual carriageway, for example in urban areas near or in cities, or where the road was part of a national route.

Dual carriageways of this class differ from motorways in a number of ways. The hard shoulder is demarcated with a dashed yellow line (as opposed to an unbroken yellow line on motorways). The standard speed limit of 100 km/h for national routes usually applies (by default the limit is 80 km/h for non-national roads, even if dual carriageway). Local authorities have the power to apply a limit of up to 120 km/h as used on most motorways (The High Quality Dual Carriageway section of the N1 between the end of the M1 and the border with Northern Ireland and the N25/N22 Ballincollig Bypass in Cork are the only route sections with such special limits).

Traffic lights and junctions are permitted at grade on dual carriageways. For older sections of dual carriageway, this has resulted in fewer flyover junctions. Newer dual carriageway sections are usually near motorway standard, with grade-separated junctions, but may not be designated as motorways due to the need to preserve access to adjoining property or to the absence of a non-motorway alternative route. Also, dual carriageways that are not motorway classified do not need to be equipped with emergency phones.

Motorway restrictions only apply to motorway sections, rather than all dual carriageway sections of national roads (these are signposted with the N prefix on the route number, rather than M). Some national secondary roads, and regional roads in particular often have houses, schools and other developments fronting on to them. Less important national primary roads, and older sections not yet upgraded may also feature such developments built before the introduction the Irish Planning system in 1964. Today Irish planning policy prohibits such development on National Primary or National Secondary roads where the speed limit exceeds 60 km/h.

This policy results from concerns expressed by the National Roads Authority. A local authority is not obliged to implement this policy and can disregard this policy at its own discretion. This would usually only occur in exceptional circumstances or where planners are overruled by elected councillors using section 140 of the Local Government Act 2001. Accordingly, hard shoulders are included wherever feasible to provide for the resulting pedestrian and cyclist traffic, and are present on much of the national route network. These hard shoulders may also be used as running lanes by motorised traffic under certain conditions.

Until 2005, many motorways and dual carriageways in Ireland did not have crash barriers in the central reservation, the policy being to use a wider median instead. Crash barriers are now mandatory for such routes, and wire cabling or full crash barriers (depending on whether or not the route is a motorway, and median width) have been fitted to existing routes.

Between 2000 and 2010, three major types of dual carriageway were built on national road schemes in Ireland:

 * High Quality Dual Carriageways (HQDC) – these were built mainly on the major inter-urban routes, to full motorway standard but without motorway regulations. The Roads Act, 2007 allows for these roads to be redesignated as motorways by ministerial order. Many of the sections of HQDC on the major inter-urban routes have been redesignated as motorways and full motorway regulations were applied when the redesignations came into effect.
 * Standard dual carriageway of the traditional type was mainly used for schemes on the N11 road, the N18 road and the N25 road. Plans for this type of dual carriageway on the N20 road have been superseded by newer plans to build a motorway, the M20, to replace most of this route. Traditionally this type of dual-carriageway had a mixture of at grade junctions (including roundabouts), grade separated junctions, and median crossings. Nowadays they are similar to HQDCs, but minor at grade exits—generally left turn only—are allowed and the design speed (by Irish standards) is only 100 km/h. Median crossings and roundabouts are no longer generally found on these schemes. An example of a standard dual carriageway scheme, opened in 2006, is the Ennis bypass although this road has grade separated junctions and no median crossings. This route was upgraded to motorway status in 2009.
 * 2+2 roads—officially these roads are designated as Type 2 dual carriageways by the National Roads Authority (NRA). They were created by widening existing roads or building new roads, and have two lanes in each direction with a steel cable barrier in the middle but no hard shoulder. Most junctions are at-grade. With the exception of the restricted median width and the lack of lay-bys, this type of dual carriageway is similar to many dual carriageways found in the UK. The first 2+2 scheme was the N4 Dromod Roosky bypass, opened on 7 December 2007.
 * 2+1 roads—officially these roads are designated as Type 3 dual carriageways by the NRA. They have two lanes in one direction and one lane in the other, alternating every few kilometres, and usually separated with a steel cable barrier. Sections of 2+1 road were built on the N20 and the N2. In July 2007, the NRA announced that it would no longer build 2+1 roads and 2+2 roads were built instead.

Germany
In Germany the term Autobahnähnliche Straße (motorway-like road) refers to roads that are similar to German autobahn in grade-separation and signage. Most of them are designated as Kraftfahrstraßen (expressways), which means that the roads allow higher speed traffic than is common on other roads. This in turn requires them to have dual carriageways in most cases. An exception is the 2+1 road system in some rural areas; these roads are also referred to as expressways.

Autobahnähnliche Straßen mostly are colloquially referred to as gelbe Autobahn (yellow motorway) because they have the same technical standard as the Autobahn but have black on yellow signs instead of the white on blue signs used on the Autobahn motorway network. These are generally high-speed arterial roads in larger cities or important roads within a federal state that do not connect to major cities, so that they do not fall under the federal budget for the Autobahn network. The federal road Bundesstraße 27 is an example where about half of its length is upgraded to a high speed motorway standard. On the basis of their structure these roads have, comparable to the German autobahn, the legal foundation that no default speed limit exists (design speed 130 km/h), although the standard advisory speed limit (Richtgeschwindigkeit) still exists. Nevertheless, expressways are often given speed limit signs.

Exit signs. At the moment some (blue) motorways have been taken out of the Autobahn network programme but still have the blue signs (e. g. the B 59, formerly A 540 near Grevenbroich); and on the other hand some former non-Autobahn (yellow) motorways have been added to Autobahn budgeting but the signs have not been changed either (e. g. parts of the B 6, now A 36 in the north of the Harz highland area in Saxony-Anhalt). Motorways that are neither in the autobahn network nor in the Bundesstraße network are given black on white signs, following the same sign code as high-speed dual carriageways—this is mostly seen on urban trunk roads.

Italy

Italian Highway Code (Codice della strada) divides dual carriageways into three different classifications:
 * strada extraurbana principale (meaning main highway) or type-B road: a road with separate carriageways, at least two lanes for each direction, paved shoulder on the right and no cross-traffic. This type of road is quite similar to an autostrada or type-A road (Italian official name for motorways or freeways), but its building standards are lower. Access limitations and drive behaviour on type-B roads are the same as the motorways (no pedestrians, bicycles and other slow vehicles), as well as the signage (except for the background color, that is blue instead of green). Speed limits on type-B roads are up to 110 km/h. Type-B roads are always toll-free.
 * strada extraurbana secondaria (meaning secondary road) or type-C road. This category contains all the roads in non-urban context that are neither autostrada (type A) nor strada extraurbana principale (type B). This means that a dual carriageway that may not be classified as type-B road, since it does not meet such quality standards, belongs to this category. For type-C roads, there are neither special signage nor access restrictions, unless a specific sign is placed. The speed limit is 90 km/h, on both single and dual carriageways.
 * strada urbana di scorrimento (meaning urban expressway) or type-D road: a road in urban context, with separate carriageways, and at least two lanes for each direction. At-level junctions with smaller roads, regulated by traffic lights, are allowed as well as roundabouts. Unless a prohibition sign is placed, there are not access restrictions. Speed limits on this type of road are up to 70 km/h.

Italian type-B and type-C roads do not follow a specific numbering criterion. They may be numbered as Strade Statali (SS; "state roads"), Strade Regionali (SR; "regional roads"), Strade Provinciali (SP; "provincial roads") or Strade Comunali (SC; "municipal roads").

Spain

The Spanish word for dual carriageway is autovía (literally autoway). All of them are government-owned and not tolled.

First-generation autovías, built in the 1980s and early 1990s, were just duplications in parallel of existing roads, as shown in the photograph. Modern autovías are two carriageways built from scratch, leaving the old road they replace as an alternative route for pedestrians, bicycles and other non-motorized vehicles.

Private properties may have direct access to an autovía, as well as bus stops and gas stations in the hard shoulders. A controlled-access highway (motorway) in Spain is referred to as autopista (literally autotrack). They may be operated by private companies and be tolled. The two major accesses to Spain from France, AP-7 into Catalonia and AP-8 into the Basque Country, are autopistas. In comparison, the prime road between Spain and Portugal is the photographed autovía A-5. In both autopistas and autovías, the generic speed limit is 120 km/h, minimum speed is 60 km/h, driving backwards is strictly prohibited, and they shall not have at-grade junctions.

Croatia
Dual carriageways or expressways in Croatia (brza cesta) are non-tolled roads with 2 or more lanes in each direction, but without emergency lanes. The main motorways in Croatia are also dual carriageways, but they have emergency lanes and tolls.

Many bypasses and beltways of smaller cities in Croatia have been recently constructed or planned as dual carriageways. All dual carriageways in Croatia house a central median, usually fitted with guardrails.

The most heavily used expressways in Croatia is the D10 road, connecting capital Zagreb to Vrbovec and Križevci.

United States

In the United States, this type of road may be called a divided highway, boulevard, parkway, expressway, freeway, or interstate, and has a grassy median or Jersey barrier separating the traffic directions. With few exceptions, all roads in the federally funded Interstate Highway System are fully controlled access divided highways known as freeways. A broader definition, expressways, includes both freeways and partial limited-access divided highways, and "expressway" is often used specifically to refer to the latter.

United States Numbered Highways, state highways and other locally maintained highways may also be divided. Speed limits on rural divided highways range from 65 to 75 mph, with some portions as high as 80 mph. One privately run toll road in Texas, SH 130, has the highest speed limit in the United States at 85 mph. Urban divided highways which are at grade and typically have much lower speed limits are sometimes called boulevards.

In keeping with the U.S. Department of Transportation's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), since the early 1970s all divided highways are striped by color to show the direction of traffic flow. Two-way undivided roads have an amber center line, with a broken line indicating passing zones and a solid line indicating no passing zones and solid white baseline shoulder stripes.

On undivided roads with more than one lane in each direction, the center is normally marked with a double solid line. The double solid stripe denotes that it is illegal to pass on the other side of the center line. Multilane one-way carriageways use broken white lines between lanes; the median-side baseline is solid amber, and the right sideline is solid white.

Frequently in the U.S. the two carriageways are separated by some distance (wide medians with small forests or even hills in them), but drivers can always tell whether the roadway is two-way or one-way—and, if one-way, the direction in which the traffic flows—by looking at the striping coloration. For an example, see inset showing U.S. Route 52 near Lafayette, Indiana.

Some divided highways have been turned into undivided highways by widening the lanes of an existing road (for example US Highway 33 between Elkhart and Goshen in northern Indiana).

Canada
Like other countries, there are several types of divided highways; fully controlled-access divided routes with interchanges (commonly known as "freeways" in the United States, Australia, and regionally within Canada), expressways that often include a mix of interchanges and traffic signals, and divided arterial roads that are almost entirely stop-controlled. Unlike some other countries, divided dual carriageways in Canada are seldom equipped with traffic circles, roundabouts, or rotaries as alternatives to stoplights.

In Canada, the term "divided highway" is used for this type of road, and the segment between the roadways is referred to as a "median". There may be gaps in the median strip of a partially controlled-access road to allow turning and crossing. More informally, a divided highway may be referred to as "twinned". This stems from the practice of "twinning" an existing two-lane highway and converting it into a divided highway. Such highways in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and parts of Atlantic Canada usually feature full controlled-access with interchanges where robust federal and provincial funding has made such freeways possible. However, due to a lack of funding elsewhere, partial controlled-access "expressways" and limited-mobility divided arterial roads are more common in the western provinces where there are no specially numbered systems of freeways.

On some portions of Ontario's 400-series highway network, the median may be either steel guardrail or an Ontario tall-wall barrier rather than an unpaved strip, particularly in urban areas.

Some partial limited-access divided highways such as the Hanlon Parkway and Black Creek Drive have stop-controlled at-grade intersections and private entrances, but have sufficient right-of-way to convert them to full freeways with interchanges if traffic warrants. There are also RIRO expressways, such as Highway 11 and a portion of Highway 35, which are not full freeways since they allow access to existing properties, but traffic speeds are faster than regular roads due to a median barrier preventing left turns (motorists have to use a "turnabout" overpass to access exits on the opposing direction). Speed limits in Canada are usually 80 to 90 km/h on signalized divided highways and 100 to 120 km/h on freeways.

Australia

In Australia, dual carriageways are referred to in some regions as divided roads, though there is no official terminology. Each state's road agency has its own definition of what constitutes a 'motorway/freeway' standard divided road. Most states only declare a divided road as a 'motorway' or 'freeway' if access is completely controlled. Speed limits are usually 100 km/h or 110 km/h.

VicRoads, the agency responsible for highways in the state of Victoria, has often declared rural limited-access dual carriageways as freeways. Furthermore, VicRoads applies the M designation to these roads in alpha-numeric route numbers, where most other states will only do so if access is completely controlled.

Dual carriageways exist in and around the major capital cities however there are currently several road projects under construction have now been completed, creating roughly 2,000 kilometres of continuous dual carriageway from Geelong in Victoria to Curra in South East Queensland except for one 14 kilometre section of the Pacific Highway through Coffs Harbour.

Since 2013, it has been possible to drive between Australia's two largest cities (Sydney and Melbourne) on a continuous dual carriageway. When it was completed, the Hume Highway duplication became the first major interstate duplicated motorway.

Brazil
The country has about 17000 km of divided highways, 6300 km only in the State of São Paulo. Currently it's possible to travel from Rio Grande, in the extreme south of the country, to Brasília (2580 km) or Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (2045 km), only on divided highways.

The first highway to be transformed into a divided highway in Brazil was Rodovia Presidente Dutra, which is part of BR-116. In the stretch between the 2 largest cities in the country, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, the highway was duplicated in 1967.

Argentina
Argentina has approximately 2,800 km of divided highways. It's 50 km on the Ruta 1, which connects Buenos Aires to La Plata; 157 km on Ruta 3, between Buenos Aires/San Miguel del Monte and Puerto Madryn/Trelew; 485 km on the Ruta 7, which connects Buenos Aires to Santiago, Chile; 700 km on Ruta 9, which connects Buenos Aires, Rosario and Córdoba; and 589 km on the Ruta 14, which connects Buenos Aires to Paso de los Libres, on the border with Brazil.

Chile
Chile's main route is Route 5 (Pan-American Highway). From Puerto Montt to Caldera (1900 km) it's a divided highway. Chile doesn't just expand the highway after the city of Caldera because in this part of the country, it enters the Atacama Desert, where there is low traffic of vehicles. The Route 68, (110 km) connecting Santiago to Valparaíso, is also a divided highway. In 2020, Chile had 3,347 km (2,080 mi) of duplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil.

China
The best examples of dual carriageways in mainland China can be seen on the China National Highways. On some routes, such as China National Highway 106, there is a central reservation.

Thailand
Most Highways in Thailand are single carriageways with a hard shoulder. Dual carriageways have frequent u-turn lanes and intersections slowing down traffic. Coupled with the increase in the number of vehicles and the demand for a limited-access motorway, the Thai Government issued a Cabinet resolution in 1997 detailing the motorway construction master plan. Some upgraded sections of highway are being turned into a "motorway", while other motorways are not being built from highway sections.

Turkey
Turkey has 28,986 km of dual carriageway as January 2023. Speed limit changes, but normally 110 km/h is the limit of state road (e.g. D 100). Turkey has 3,633 km of motorways. The minimum speed limit on the Turkish motorways is 40 km/h and the maximum is 140 km/h. Almost all of the network is 6 lanes (3 in each direction) wide and illuminated. Some parts converted from uncontrolled access dual carriageways are 4 lanes (2 in each direction) wide. The motorway sign in Turkey is green and uses Highway Gothic typeface.

India
India has many dual carriageways. Many of them are under the control of National Highways Authority of India and some of them are under state and local authorities. National Highway (India) and State highways in India comes under these type of roads, like Golden Quadrilateral and major arterial roads.

Pakistan
Hyderabad–Mirpurkhas Dual Carriageway was constructed in 2012 on which the work started in 2009. It was under the Special Directives of President Asif Ali Zardari and Chief Minister Sindh Syed Qaim Ali Shah the first dual carriageway constructed under the Public Private Plan it extends up to 60 km.

N-55 and N-5 are dual carriageways.

Philippines
Principal Philippine Expressways, Metro Manila Roads and Avenues in Metro Cebu are examples of dual carriageways in the Philippines. STAR Tollway, NLEX, SCTEX and SLEX have portions with central reservations. Some highways inside Metro Manila have underpasses, tunnels and flyovers.

Singapore

A high proportion of roads in Singapore are dual carriageways with central reservations; examples include Clementi Road, Commonwealth Avenue and Holland Road. Often there might be railings erected on the central reservation to prevent pedestrians from dashing across the road. These usually have traffic lights along the way but flyovers and road tunnels (or 'underpasses') can be built to minimize the use of traffic lights; for example, at the Holland Road-Farrer Road-Queensway junction there are three levels of roads. Before the 1980s, roundabouts were popular, but since then many have been changed to traffic-light controlled junctions.

These dual carriageways are to be distinguished from motorways, known in Singapore as expressways such as the Pan-Island Expressway (PIE) and Ayer Rajah Expressway (AYE) where no traffic lights are used.

Malaysia

Known dual carriageways in Malaysia include the North–South Expressway (the main motorway system in Peninsular Malaysia), the East Coast Expressway (serving the Peninsular east coast), the Federal Highway (serving Kuala Lumpur), the AMJ Highway (linking Malacca and the Johorean towns Muar and Batu Pahat) and the under construct Pan Borneo Highway of Sabah and Sarawak. Some highways inside Klang Valley have underpasses, tunnels and flyovers e.g. SMART Tunnel (mostly tunnel section) and Ampang–Kuala Lumpur Elevated Highway (mostly elevated section). Apart from major motorways and expressways, treelined dual carriageways also pass through most urban areas.

title: Dual carriageway


text: Bolsover (borough)

title: Bolsover (borough)


text:
Iacocca: An Autobiography

Iacocca: An Autobiography is Lee Iacocca's best selling autobiography, co-authored with William Novak and originally published in 1984. Most of the book is taken up with reminiscences of Iacocca's career in the car industry, first with the Ford Motor Company, then the Chrysler Corporation. The hugely successful autobiography was the best-selling non-fiction hardcover book of 1984 and 1985.

Summary
In part 1 of the book, Iacocca speaks of his Italian immigrant family and his experiences at school. Because he couldn't join the army for World War II due to rheumatic fever as a child, he attended Lehigh University, where he completed his studies in 8 straight semesters. He was offered a job at Ford straight out of college, but at the same time, he was offered a fellowship for a graduate degree at Princeton University. He took the fellowship with the promise of a job after leaving Princeton. In his year at Princeton, his recruiter was drafted into the war and by the time he was finished with school, no one at Ford had heard of him. After explaining what had happened, he was given the 51st spot on the training group.

In part 2, "The Ford Story", Iacocca tells of his triumph of the Mustang and his climb to power in the company. He and Henry Ford II developed a father-son relationship, and he also had developed a lasting relationship with Robert McNamara. After becoming President of Ford, Henry Ford II began fearing that Iacocca would be after the CEO job next. He established a plot to fire Iacocca, and Iacocca was to resign from the company on October 15, 1978, his 54th birthday.

In Part 3, "The Chrysler Story", Iacocca tells of his difficult task of saving Chrysler from bankruptcy. He began a total reorganization of the company (including many layoffs) and received a US$1.2 billion loan guarantee from the government with many stipulations, including increased fuel efficiency of its vehicles and restructuring the company to be profitable. On July 13, 1983, the loan was paid back in full and Chrysler began to flourish.

The final portion of the book, titled "Straight Talk", consists of rhetoric arguing for legislation compelling Americans to wear seatbelts, the high cost of labor, the Japanese challenge, and making America great again.

title: Iacocca: An Autobiography


text:
Soule

Soule (Basque: Zuberoa; Zuberoan/ Soule Basque: Xiberoa or Xiberua; Sola) is a former viscounty and French province and part of the present-day Pyrénées-Atlantiques département. It is divided into two cantons of the arrondissement (district) of Oloron-Sainte-Marie (Mauleon-Licharre and Tardets-Sorholus), and a part of the canton of Saint Palais (arrondissement of Bayonne).

Its provincial capital is Mauléon, which combined with Licharre in 1841 to form "Mauléon-Licharre", but today is often known as "Mauléon-Soule". Historically, Soule is the smallest province of the Basque Country (785 km2; 303 sq. mi.). Its population has been decreasing (23,803 in 1901; 16,006 in 1990; 15,535 in 1999).

Etymology
The territory is named Xiberoa in Souletin Basque, Zuberoa in standard Basque, Sola in Gascon and Soule in French; all of them derivate from Subola, the previous name of the region attested for the first time in the year 635 in the diaries of a Franco-Burgundian expedition led by Duke Arnebert against the Basques. Subola comes from the name the Romans gave to the Aquitani tribe that inhabited the region by the time of their arrival, the Suburates, also called Sibusates by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Sybillates by Pliny the Elder.

History
Soule has been continuously inhabited since the last glaciation. There are several deposits from the Neolithic as well as fifteen protohistoric settlements. The first text written in Soule dates from the 7th century.

Ancient Soule
The territory was already inhabited in the Middle Paleolithic; Neanderthal prehistoric settlements have been found in the caves of Xaxixiloaga in Aussurucq and Etxeberri. At the end of the Neolithic the population had extended and assimilated knowledge from other peoples. There are protohistoric settlements that show a simple material life and a lifestyle dominated by migration. Remains of coins and other monetary artifacts have been found, proving the existence of an exchange economy in Soule, which very likely worked as an access point between Aquitaine—Novempopulania—in the north and the southern side of the Pyrenees.

At the time of the Roman arrival in the 1st century, Soule was inhabited by an Aquitani tribe named Suburates, who spoke the Aquitanian language (a form of Proto-Basque). As with other peoples in Aquitaine, the Romans had some influence in the territory, although Soule kept its language and culture and was relatively unimportant during the times of the Roman Empire, due to its isolation. The only evidence of Roman influence in Soule exists in the chapelle of the Madeleine, in Tardets.

Soule is first mentioned as a territory in a text from the 7th Century. In 636 (or 635) the Frankish army led by the Duke Arembert was ambushed and defeated by the Basques in a place named "vallis subola". This valley is then included in the territory of the "Wascones" (Duchy of Vasconia), which included intermittently lands to either side of the western and central Pyrenees. It was later referred to as Gascony.

Middle Ages

The region of Soule may have developed a primeval political structure before the 11th century with a strong influence from the Kingdom of Pamplona, established in the year 824. However, it would be in 1023 when Sancho VI Duke of Gascony would name Guillaume Fort as first Viscount of Soule. His descendants would inherit the title for around two centuries. The Viscounts of Soule had their base in the fortress of Mauléon, a strategic region that controlled the pass from Aquitaine to the Iberian peninsula. The viscounts of Soule took advantage of their territory. Despite being small in size, it held a strategic position between the Kingdom of Navarre to the south and the Duchy of Aquitaine to the north.

In the year 1152 Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England, and thus the Duchy of Aquitaine joined the Crown of England. In 1261, after ten years of conflict, the last viscount of Soule, Auger III, surrendered the castle of Mauléon to Edward I of England, and as a result the territory of Soule was administered by the crown of England. At this time the current network of roads between the Souletin villages was constructed.

Soule under English rule
The English Soule was under the direct authority of the Duke of Aquitaine, who was also the King of England. Control over the territory was delegated to a lord, who kept the castle of Mauléon and collected the taxes. The lord of Soule had fourteen captains, of whom only one was English, the rest being either locally-born or Gascons. The ex-viscount Auger III allied with the Kingdom of Navarre, and taking advantage of the war between Philip IV, king of Navarre, and Edward I of England, retook his fortress at Mauléon in 1295, but he was forced to hand it back after Aquitaine was formally declared English in 1303.

The Hundred Years' War kept Soule isolated from the exterior for many years. Finally, in 1449, an army led by Gaston IV, the Count of Foix and Viscount of Béarn, took possession of the castle in the name of the French king ending the English presence in Soule.

Soule under French rule
In the mid 15th century, Soule finally recognizes the King of France as its own, with the Basque district becoming the smallest province and exclave of the kingdom and the most distant from the centre of power, Paris. It came to be surrounded by the sovereign Kingdom of Navarre on the south and west and the independent principality of Viscounty of Béarn on the east. In 1511, King Francis I of France urged the Souletins to set down their institutional and legal framework on paper, which they did in Bearnese, the administrative written language up to that point. In 1539, an amendment to their region specific laws went on to be written in French, the new official language as decreed by King Francis I. Despite numbering more than fifty towns and villages, Soule was populated by fewer than 4,000 people. The only town was Mauléon, with a population totalling fewer than 350 people. As of 1512, given its proximity to France and its particular geographic situation surrounded by the Kingdom of Navarre-Bearn and the recently invaded Navarre to the south, Soule became ensnared in the political, religious and military manoeuvres derived from its shaky position, with the French Wars of Religion affecting the province tremendously.

The end of home rule
The province of Soule relied largely on the commons set on the highlands and lowlands of the valley for the use of local farmers and shepherds. However, they were also coveted by local and alien lords with estate grants on Soule. By the mid 17th century and in the context of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, anger spread like fire among common Souletins at the aristocracy's takeover of lands and the curtailment of their legal and institutional sovereignty. In 1661, a widespread rebellion erupted led by the priest Bernard Goihenetche 'Matalaz', but was harshly suppressed by an army sent over from Gascony.

Still Soule managed to retain many native laws and institutions, with its representatives attending the Parliament of Navarre and Béarn (six deputies, two for each estate). The representatives of Soule in the National Costituent Assembly held in Paris (August 1789) voted against the suppression of the French provinces and the establishment of a new administrative arrangement that wiped out the existence of their native order, giving way to the départément system.

Attempts by the Basque deputies in Paris to create a Basque department failed, their districts merged with Béarn among protests of the Basque representatives, and even Soule was divided into two cantons. After the end of the First Carlist War in Spain and the relocation of customs to the Pyrenees from the Ebro (1841), trade with Navarre collapsed. In the late 19th century, the establishment of espadrille factories in Mauleón made up for the decay of economic life and emigration, with a number of inhabitants in Navarre and Aragón pouring in and being recruited on the workforce.

Geography

Soule is located in the northern basin of the western Pyrenees, and is the smallest of the Basque region. It is surrounded by Lower Navarre on the west, Navarre on the south, Béarn on the east and north. Along with Labourd and Lower Navarre, it forms the Northern Basque Country, also known as French Basque Country or Pays basque. Its entire territory extends around the axis provided by the river Saison, known in Basque as Uhaitza, that flows from south to north until it joins the river Oloron, that works as a border between Soule and Béarn.

Soule includes three geographical regions: the lowlands at north on a territory known as Pettara or Lower Soule, a forest region known as Arbaila and the highlands at south, in a region named Basabürüa with a highest peak at 2,017 m at the Pic d'Orhy.

Orography
Soule's orography divides into three regions: the northern lowlands, made up by extensive plains; the central region, which is fairly hilly and the southern highlands, which are part of the northwestern Pyrenees, with altitudes reaching up to 2,017 m above sea level at the Pic d'Orhy.

In the Pyrenees, from west to east, the first peak is the Pic d'Orhy, above 2,000 m and the fourth highest peak in the Basque Country after Iror Errege Maia and Euzkarre among others, all of them in Navarre. Also in the highlands are located the Otsogorrigaina (1,922 m and Sardekagaina (1,893 m, which are the second and third highest mountains in Soule. In total, there exist more than 20 peaks higher than 1,000 m.

Hydrography
The river Saison (known as Ühaitza in Souletin Basque) is the main river of Soule. It is 60 km long and originates at Licq, in the highlands region. Smaller rivers rising at the Pyrenees join the Saison before it converges with the river Oloron, together flowing into the river Adour.

Climate
The oceanic climate of Soule is generally warm and humid. The highlands and Pyrenees experience an alpine climate.

Demography
Soule is the province with the lowest population density of the Northern Basque Country, with 17 /km2. Soule has experienced a significant population decline since the 19th century; many people have emigrated to larger cities and regions outside the province, such as Labourd, Béarn and Paris. In the last century, Soule has lost more than three quarters of its population, which has caused the need for different municipalities to be merged in order to assure the maintenance of public services.

Administrative divisions
Traditionally, Soule has been divided into three geographical regions, each of which group a determinate number of municipalities or communes.

 * Pettarra, comprising the lower Soule, in the north. It includes the towns and villages of Ainharp, Aroue-Ithorots-Olhaïby, Berrogain-Laruns, Domezain-Berraute, Espès-Undurein, Etcharry, Gestas, L'Hôpital-Saint-Blaise, Lohitzun-Oyhercq, Mauléon-Licharre, Moncayolle-Larrory-Mendibieu, Osserain-Rivareyte, Viodos-Abense-de-Bas.
 * Arbaila, in the mid-lands. It is divided into two regions: Arbaila Txipia ("small Arbaila") and Arbaila Handia ("big Arbaila"). It includes the towns and villages of Aussurucq, Garindein, Gotein-Libarrenx, Idaux-Mendy, Menditte, Musculdy, Ordiarp, Ossas-Suhare, Pagolle, Roquiague, Sauguis-Saint-Étienne.
 * Basabürua, comprising the highlands and Pyrenees. It is divided into two regions: Ibarresküin ("the right valley") and Ibarrezker ("the left valley"). It includes the towns and villages of Alçay-Alçabéhéty-Sunharette, Alos-Sibas-Abense, Barcus, Camou-Cihigue, Esquiule, Etchebar, Haux, Lacarry-Arhan-Charritte-de-Haut, Laguinge-Restoue, Larrau, Lichans-Sunhar, Licq-Athérey, Montory, Sainte-Engrâce, Tardets-Sorholus, Trois-Villes.

For administrative purposes, the communes of Soule are grouped into four cantons; the canton of Mauléon-Licharre, that includes 19 communes; the canton of Tardets-Sorholus, that includes 16 communes; the canton of Saint-Palais and the canton of Oloron.

Culture
After decades of emigration and demographic, social and cultural decay, the territory is showing a strong determination to recover the lost vitality of centuries ago. Assorted cultural events linked to old traditions bear witness to that dynamism.

There is a tradition of folk musical theatre, the pastoral: the inhabitants of a village spend the year preparing and rehearsing the play and its dances. Traditionally, the subject of the play was Catholic, but recently pieces of Basque history are also presented. Another event akin to the pastoral beloved of the people of Soule is the maskaradas. This theatrical performances are put on in many villages of Soule in carnival time through spring. Each year a specific village takes the responsibility of arranging a new performance. It consists of a music band in due carnival outfit surrounded with a group of set carnivalesque characters and dancers parading up and down the main street of the host village; at the end, they stage an informal play usually in the market place or handball court.

Soule is also renowned for its singing tradition, elegant dances and local music instruments, such as xirula and ttun-ttun. These instruments are gaining new dynamism thanks to music schools founded to that end by local cultural activists.

Language
Soule's own language has been Basque for centuries, with the region featuring its own Souletin dialect. At the same time, the neighbouring Béarnais (Gascon) has been widely understood, and in recent centuries even spoken as a lingua franca. However, both Basque and Béarnais have lost ground to French with both languages struggling to survive into the next generation. Basque is attested to have been widespread farther east of the territory into the Pyrenees in previous centuries.

The inhabitants call non-Basque speaking foreigners Kaskoinak, while other Basque speaking people (especially when referring to those of the French Basque Country) are dubbed Manexak after a commonplace sheep breed in the area.

title: Soule


text:
MetroCentre (shopping centre)

Metrocentre is a shopping centre and entertainment complex in the Dunston area of Gateshead. It is located on the former site of Dunston Power Station, near to the River Tyne.

Metrocentre opened in stages, with the first phase opening on 28 April 1986, and the official opening being held on 14 October that year. It has more than 300 shops occupying over 2000000 sqft of retail floor space, making it the second-largest shopping centre in the UK, behind Westfield London. Additional retail space can be found in the adjoining Metro Retail Park and MetrOasis.

History
Metrocentre's construction was financed by the Church Commissioners of England, and was masterminded by Sir John Hall's company, Cameron Hall Developments. The ground upon which it is built was purchased for £100,000 in the early 1970s. Access to the development was facilitated by an urban development grant from the Department of the Environment, and the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead.

The first phase of the development, the Red Mall, was opened in April 1986. At the time, it featured a large Carrefour supermarket, which later became a Gateway, and subsequently Asda. Metrocentre also featured the first out-of-town branch of Marks & Spencer.

In August 1987 the MetroCentre railway station, which is connected to the centre via a covered footbridge, was opened by British Rail.

1990s–2000s
In October 1995, the centre was sold to Capital Shopping Centres (later intu Properties) for £364 million, although the Church Commissioners retained a 10% stake.

In 1997, Asda moved from Metrocentre to a larger stand-alone store nearby, facilitating the redevelopment of the Red Mall, anchored by a Debenhams department store, opened in October 2004. The refurbishment programme at the time also included the construction of a new Transport Interchange, sited at the edge of the Blue Mall, replacing the former bus station.

In November 2006, centre owner Capital Shopping Centres announced plans to redevelop the centre's Yellow Mall. The Metroland indoor funfair closed in April 2008, and the area, along with the neighbouring Clockworks Food Court, has since been refurbished to become Metrocentre Qube.

Until August 2007, when it was purchased for £82.5 million, the adjacent retail park was not under the same ownership as the shopping centre.

2010s–2020s
In December 2009 the Odeon relocated from the Blue Mall to the Qube, and in Autumn 2010, the first TK Maxx Homesense store opened on the site of the former cinema in the Blue Mall. In 2012 the Central Mall was redeveloped as the Platinum Mall, which focuses on higher-end stores and designer outlets. Initial stores in the Platinum Mall included Mamas & Papas, H&M Kids and Tessuti.

The centre was rebranded as intu Metrocentre in 2013, following the renaming of its parent Capital Shopping Centres Group as intu Properties.

In March 2018, a 78,000 sq ft Next store opened, taking twelve shops on the upper floor, and the former BHS unit on the lower level, to create one of the largest Next stores in the country. Next further expanded their presence in the centre in 2020 by opening a Beauty & Home store in the former Debenhams anchor unit.

On 26 October 2020, it was announced that Sovereign Centros was to oversee asset management of the centre on behalf of owners Metrocentre Partnership, following the collapse of intu. The shopping centre was again rebranded, as The Metrocentre, with Savills as on-site property managers. Owners, the Metrocentre Partnership includes Church Commissioners and GIC Real Estate.

Malls and retailers
The Metrocentre has five malls: Red, Green, Blue, Yellow and Platinum.

Many large retail chains are represented in the centre. It is anchored by a number of large stores and department stores:
 * Marks & Spencer (Green Mall)
 * Next (Green Mall)
 * Harrods Beauty (Town Square) (Formerly House of Fraser)
 * Primark (Exhibition Square)
 * TK Maxx (Blue Mall)
 * Sports Direct (Red Mall) (Formerly Debenhams)
 * JD

Major fashion retailers include: All Saints, H&M, New Look, Next, Primark, River Island and Zara.

Other major retailers include: Boots, Hotel Chocolat, Poundland, WH Smith, Ann Summers, Lush, Waterstones, Lego, and Apple.

Leisure facilities
The centre's leisure facilities, which are mainly located in the Qube / Yellow Mall, consist of an Odeon cinema and Namco Funscape, Clip & Climb, Treetop Golf and Escapologist Escape Rooms which are due to open in June 2024.

The Odeon, a 12 screen cinema, opened in 2010. It features a VIP lounge, as well as multiple 3D screens, and an IMAX Digital – the first in the north-east of England.

Namco Funscape is located on the lower floor, and is a family entertainment centre including an 18-lane ten-pin bowling alley, dodgem ride and soft play.

Treetop Golf, which opened in upper Qube in late 2023, features two 18 hole mini golf courses. Clip & Climb in lower Qube is home to 26 climbing walls and a 10m drop slide.

In November 2023 Everlast Gyms opened the UK's largest hybrid gym on what was the top floor of the former Debenhams Department Store. The 40,000 sq ft gym includes a full size boxing ring, spin studio, yoga room, saunas and ice baths.

The Qube's exterior is clad with zinc and glass, to distinguish it as the entertainment part of the centre.

Qube is also home to a number of restaurants, including Bella Italia, Nando's, Pizza Express, YO! Sushi and Zizzi.

Metroland
The centre also featured an entirely enclosed theme park called Metroland. Renamed The New Metroland following refurbishment works by operators Arlington Leisure in 1996, it was Europe's largest indoor amusement park until its closure in 2008. Metroland opened in February 1988 at the cost of £20 million. The park's main rides included a rollercoaster, Ferris wheel, pirate ship, waltzers, a miniature railway and dodgem cars.

On the final weekend before its closure (19–20 April 2008), the park held the 'Last Ride Weekend', where the admission price was £5 for the whole day, with unlimited access to all the rides. The park finally closed at 8:00 pm on 20 April 2008, despite strong local opposition, and petitions raising around 4,000 signatures. Proceeds from the last night of operation went to charity.

After the closure, many of the park's rides were either scrapped or sold off, with the rollercoaster being relocated to The Big Sheep, a farm and theme park complex in Devon, where it reopened in March 2016. The park offered a free ride to visitors from the North-East of England for a period after the rollercoaster's reopening.

Metro Retail Park
Metro Retail Park occupies over 183,000 sq ft of space and is home to 15 brands, the majority of which are home and lifestyle brands. Situated to the west of Metrocentre it has the layout of a conventional out-of-town retail park, with large stores such as Barker and Stonehouse, Oak Furniture Land and Furniture Village.

The former Toys R Us unit was demolished in November 2022 to make way for a £5m redevelopment to bring in three new units, occupying over 25,000 sq ft of space. Work also included the introduction of 6 rapid EV charging units and increased cycle bay provision.

metrOasis
The metrOasis retail area, on the perimeter of the shopping centre, opened to the public in September 2012. It is located between Qube and the Metro Retail Park, on the site of a former petrol station. The development is home to a range of dining and entertainment venues, with construction beginning in January 2012. The retail area includes drive-thru Krispy Kreme Doughnuts and Starbucks, as well as a Toby Carvery and Burger King.

Transport
Metrocentre has a large bus station and the MetroCentre railway station is connected to the centre via a covered footbridge. The centre's car parking facilities has approximately 10,000 spaces.

title: MetroCentre (shopping centre)


text: Category:Psychological abuse

title: Category:Psychological abuse


text:
Blinding

Blinding may refer to:
 * Blinding (punishment)
 * Blinding (cryptography)
 * Blinding (novel), a novel by Mircea Cărtărescu
 * The Blinding EP
 * "The Blinding" (song), a song by Jay Electronica
 * "Blinding", a song by Florence and the Machine from Lungs

title: Blinding


text:
Labourd

Labourd (Lapurdi; Lapurdum; Labord) is a former French province and part of the present-day Pyrénées Atlantiques département of Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is one of the traditional Basque provinces, and identified as one of the territorial component parts of the Basque Country by many, especially by the Basque nationalists.

Labourd extends from the Pyrenees to the river Adour, along the Bay of Biscay. To the south are Gipuzkoa and Navarre in Spain, to the east is Lower Navarre, and to the north are the Landes. It has an area of almost 900 km2 and a population of over 200,000 (115,154 in 1901; 209,913 in 1990), making it the most populous of the three French Basque provinces. Over 25% of the inhabitants speak Basque (17% in the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz zone, 43% in the rest). Labourd has also long had a Gascon-speaking tradition, notably along the banks of the river Adour but also more diffusely throughout the whole viscounty (about 20% in Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz).

The main town of Labourd is Bayonne, although the capital up to the French Revolution was Ustaritz, 13 km away, where local Basque leaders assembled. Other important towns are Biarritz, Anglet (between Bayonne and Biarritz), Hendaye, Ciboure and Saint-Jean-de-Luz along the coast, and Hasparren inland. The area is famous for the five-day Fêtes de Bayonne and the red peppers of Espelette. Many tourists come to the coast, especially to Biarritz, and to the hills and mountains of the interior for walking and agri-tourism. La Rhune (Larrun in Basque), a 900 m high mountain, lies south of Saint-Jean-de-Luz on the border with Spain.

The traditional buildings of Labourd have low-roofed, half-timbered features, stone lintels, and red, white and green paint. The house of Edmond Rostand, Villa Arnaga at Cambo-les-Bains, is such a house and is now a museum dedicated to the author of Cyrano de Bergerac and to Basque traditions.

Lapurdian (Lapurtera) is a dialect of the Basque language spoken in the region.

History
Ancient Labourd was inhabited by the Tarbelli, an Aquitanian tribe. They had the fortified town of Lapurdum, which eventually would become modern Bayonne and give its name to the region.

In the Middle Ages, it formed part of the Duchy of Vasconia, which eventually came to be called Gascony. After the early 9th century, the area of the river Adour was referred to as the County of Vasconia. According to many authorities, Duke Sancho VI of Gascony ceded Labourd and its ports, Bayonne and Biarritz, to King Sancho III of Navarre around 1023, and Sancho in turn bestowed it on his majordomo, Lope Sánchez, as viscount. This Lope was supposedly the king's relative, being a nephew of King Ramiro Garcés of Viguera. This oft-repeated story has no basis in contemporary documents, and there is no evidence that Navarre extended its territory north of the Pyrenees prior to the late 12th century.

Around 1125, Bayonne was chartered by Duke William IX of Aquitaine. In 1130–31, King Alfonso the Battler of Aragon and Navarre attacked Bayonne over a dispute on jurisdictions with the Duke of Aquitaine, William X the Saint.

Labourd was ruled directly, between 1169 and 1199, by Richard Lionheart, who gave a second charter to Bayonne c. 1174 and, c. 1175, returning to the merchants of this city the duties they paid in the tolls of Poitou, Aquitaine and Gascony. This caused an uprising of Gascons and Basques (including Labourdins from outside Bayonne), but Richard defeated all the cities that had revolted.

Richard married the Navarrese princess Berengaria of Navarre in 1191, which favored the trade between Navarre and Bayonne (and England). This marriage also included a jurisdictional transaction that shaped the borders of the Northern Basque Country: Lower Navarre was definitively annexed to Navarre, while Labourd and Soule remained as parts of Angevin Aquitaine. This pact was materialized in 1193 in form of the sale of their rights by the legitimate viscounts of Labourd, who had established their seat in Ustaritz. From that point, Ustaritz was the capital of Labourd, instead of Bayonne, until the suppression of the province in 1790.

John I of England, gave to Bayonne the Municipal Law, that created the figures of mayor, 12 jurors, 12 councilors and 75 advisors.

Labourd passed to French hands in 1451, just before the end of the Hundred Years' War. Since then and until the French Revolution, Labourd was largely self-ruled as an autonomous French province.

In 1610, Labourd suffered a major witch-hunt at the hands of the judge Pierre de Lancre after feuds between the elites (merchant bourgeoisie vs nobility) and different social layers (nobility vs common people) took a turn for the worse over elements of superstition and alleged public morality, which ended up with some 70 supposed sorginak burnt at the stake (see Basque witch trials).

In 1790, France suppressed the historical provinces, including Labourd, incorporating them into the newly created département of Basses-Pyrénées, together with Béarn. Dominique Joseph Garat and his older brother were then representing the Biltzar (Assembly) of Labourd's third estate in Paris. Like the other Basque representatives, he opposed the new administrative layout (but eventually voted for it) and the inclusion of the Basques in the same department with Bayonne and Béarn.

During the War of the Pyrenees, Labourd had its customary trade with the Southern Basque Country interrupted, and was shaken by indiscriminate repression unleashed by the Convention (1793-1794) resulting in mass deportation to the Landes of Gascony, seizure of landholdings, and the death of an estimated 1,600 civilians from the bordering towns of Sara, Itxassou, Ascain, Biriatu, etc. The abuses included the establishment of new, alien names to the villages and towns of Labourd, but they were soon after reverted to their usual names.

In the last decades, petitions have asked for the separation from Béarn and the creation of a Basque département, together with the other two historical Basque provinces of Lower Navarre and Soule.

Mariner activities

Labourd, like the other coastal territories of the Basque Country, played an important role in early European exploitation of the Atlantic Ocean.

The earliest document (a bill) that mentions the whale oil or blubber dates from 670. In 1059, Labourdin whalers already gave to the viscount the oil of the first captured animal. It seems that Basques disliked the taste of whales but made good business selling their meat and oil to the French, Castilian and Flemish. Basque whalers used for this activity the longboats known as traineras, that only allowed whaling near the coast or based in a larger ship.

It seems that it was this industry, along with cod-fishing, is what brought Basque sailors to the North Sea and eventually to Newfoundland. Basque whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador began in the 1530s. By at least the early 17th century Basque whalers had reached Iceland.

The development of the rudder in Europe seems also a Basque and specifically Labourdine development. Three masted ships appear in a fresco of Estella (Navarre), dating to the 12th century, seals preserved in the Navarrese and Parisian historical archives also show similar ships. The rudder itself is first mentioned as steer "a la Navarraise" or "a la Bayonaise".

After Navarre lost San Sebastian and Hondarribia to Castile in 1200, it signed a treaty with Bayonne that made it the "port of Navarre" for nearly three centuries. Role that extended also into the Early Modern Age, after Navarre had been annexed by Castile (but both provinces remained autonomous).

title: Labourd


text:
CMS Pipelines

CMS Pipelines is a feature of the VM/CMS operating system that allows the user to create and use a pipeline. The programs in a pipeline operate on a sequential stream of records. A program writes records that are read by the next program in the pipeline. Any program can be combined with any other because reading and writing is done through a device independent interface.

Overview
CMS Pipelines provides a CMS command,. The argument string to the  command is the pipeline specification. PIPE selects programs to run and chains them together in a pipeline to pump data through.

Because CMS programs and utilities don't provide a device independent stdin and stdout interface, CMS Pipelines has a built-in library of programs that can be called in a pipeline specification. These built-in programs interface to the operating system, and perform many utility functions.

Data on CMS is structured in logical records rather than a stream of bytes. For textual data a line of text corresponds to a logical record. In CMS Pipelines the data is passed between the stages as logical records.

CMS Pipelines users issue pipeline commands from the terminal or in EXEC procedures. Users can write programs in REXX that can be used in addition to the built-in programs.

Example
A simple example that reads a disk file, separates records containing the string "Hello" from those that do not. The selected records are modified by appending the string "World!" to each of them; the other records are translated to upper case. The two streams are then combined and the records are written to a new output file.

PIPE (end ?) < input txt | a: locate /Hello/ | insert / World!/ after | i: faninany | > newfile txt a       ? a:        | xlate upper | i:

In this example, the  stage reads the input disk file and passes the records to the next stage in the pipeline. The  stage separates the input stream into two output streams. The primary output of  (records containing Hello) passes the records to the   stage. The  stage modifies the input records as specified in its arguments and passes them to its output. The output is connected to  that combines records from all input streams to form a single output stream. The output is written to the new disk file.

The secondary output of  (marked by the second occurrence of the   label) contains the records that did not meet the selection criterion. These records are translated to upper case (by the  stage) and passed to the secondary input stream of   (marked by the second occurrence of the   label).

The pipeline topology in this example consists of two connected pipelines. The end character (the  in this example) separates the individual pipelines in the pipeline set. Records read from the input file pass through either of the two routes of the pipeline topology. Because neither of the routes contain stages that need to buffer records, CMS Pipelines ensures that records arrive at  in the order in which they passed through.

The example pipeline is presented in 'portrait form' with the individual stages on separate lines. When a pipeline is typed as a CMS command, all stages are written on a single line.

Features
The concept of a simple pipeline is extended in these ways:
 * A program can define a subroutine pipeline to perform a function on all or part of its input data.
 * A network of intersecting pipelines can be defined. Programs can be in several pipelines concurrently, which gives the program access to multiple data streams.
 * Data passed from one stage to the next is structured as records. This allows stages to operate on a single record without the no need for arbitrary buffering of data to scan for special characters that separate the individual lines.
 * Stages normally access the input record in locate mode, and produce the output records before consuming the input record. This lock-step approach not only avoids copying the data from one buffer to the next; it also makes it possible to predict the flow of records in multi-stream pipelines.
 * A program can dynamically redefine the pipeline topology. It can replace itself with another pipeline, it can insert a pipeline segment before or after itself, or both. A program can use data in the pipeline to build pipeline specifications.

CMS Pipelines offers several features to improve the robustness of programs:
 * A syntax error in the overall pipeline structure or in any one program causes the entire pipeline to be suppressed.
 * Startup of the programs in the pipeline and allocation of resources is coordinated by the CMS Pipelines dispatcher. Individual programs can participate in that coordination to ensure irreversible actions are postponed to a point where all programs in the pipelines have had a chance to verify the arguments and are ready to process data. When the pipeline is terminated, the dispatcher ensures resources are released again.
 * Errors that occur while  data  flow  in  the  pipeline  can  be  detected  by  all  participating  programs. For example, a disk file might not be replaced in such circumstances.

History
John Hartmann, of IBM Denmark, started development of CMS Pipelines in 1980. The product was marketed by IBM as a separate product during the 80's and integrated in VM/ESA late 1991. With each release of VM, the CMS Pipelines code was upgraded as well until it was functionally frozen at the 1.1.10 level in VM/ESA 2.3 in 1997. Since then, the latest level of CMS Pipelines has been available for download from the CMS Pipelines homepage for users who wish to explore new function.

The current level of CMS Pipelines is included in the z/VM releases again since z/VM 6.4, available since November 11, 2016.

An implementation of CMS Pipelines for TSO was released in 1995 as BatchPipeWorks in the BatchPipes/MVS product. The up-to-date TSO implementation has been available as a Service Offering from IBM Denmark until 2010.

Both versions are maintained from a single source code base and commonly referred to as CMS/TSO Pipelines. The specification is available in the Author's Edition.

title: CMS Pipelines


text:
Talk:Eat Your Face

Revision as of 21:41, 11 December 2006 by 70.180.90.114
Sorry, your edit messed up some stuff: Make sure to hit "preview" after you edit to make sure that your edits don't result in broken links, etc. IllaZilla2 03:35, 12 December 2006 (UTC)
 * It broke the image link to the album cover (yeah I know the link is spelled wrong but it links to the correct image so it doesn't matter)
 * This is the band's 9th album, not 10th. Live at the House of Blues doesn't count because it was intended as a DVD release, not an album. The band promoted their next album Shave the Planet by saying "10 albums later, we're still punk," so obviously they consider Eat Your Face their 9th.
 * The band's name is Guttermouth (1 word), not "Gutter mouth." This messed up the link to the band article.

title: Talk:Eat Your Face