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Befana

In Italian folklore and folk customs, the Befana is a witch-like old woman who delivers gifts to children throughout Italy on Epiphany Eve (the night of January 5) in a similar way to Santa Claus or the Three Magi. The Befana is a widespread tradition among all Italians and thus has many names. She is a part of both popular national culture and traditional folk culture and is akin to other figures who roam about sometime during the Twelve Days and reward the good, punish the bad, and receive offerings. The Befana is a mysterious, contradictory figure of unclear origins. This character is enhanced by the fact that she is overall neglected by scholars but is the subject of much speculation by the ones who do mention her. Pre-Christian, Christian, and syncretism of the two have all been postulated as explanations of her origins. In some parts of Italy, especially the central regions, mumming takes place on Epiphany eve. Dolls are made of her and effigies are burnt and bonfires are often lit. She brings gifts to good children in some parts of Italy, typically sweets, candies or toys but coal, cinders and garlic to bad children. She is usually portrayed as a hag riding a broomstick through the air wearing a black shawl and is covered in soot because she enters the children's houses through the chimney. She is often smiling and carries a bag or hamper filled with candy, gifts, or both. She is not only loved but also feared and mocked, particularly by children.

Names and etymology
A popular belief is that her name derives from the Feast of Epiphany (Festa dell'Epifania). Many people believe that the name Befana is derived from the Italian version of the Greek word epifania or epiphaneia (Greek, επιφάνεια = appearance, surface; English: epiphany) and this is the most popular theory. Others posit, however, that the name is a derivative of bastrina, the gifts associated with the goddess Strina. In the book Domestic Life in Palestine, by Mary E. Rogers (Poe & Hitchcock, 1865) the author notes:

"But an 'Essay on the Fine Arts', by E. L. Tarbuck, led me to believe that this custom is a relic of pagan worship, and that the word 'Bastrina' refers to the offerings which used to be made to the goddess Strenia. We could hardly expect that the pagans who embraced Christianity could altogether abandon their former creeds and customs. Macaulay says, 'Christianity conquered paganism, but paganism infected Christianity; the rites of the Pantheon passed into her 'worship, and the subtlities of the Academy into her creed''. Many pagan customs were adopted by the new Church. T. Hope, in his 'Essay on Architecture', says: 'The Saturnalia were continued in the Carnival, and the festival with offerings to the goddess Strenia was continued in that of the New Year . . .'"

The Befana is known by several other names throughout Italy as demonstrated by, some of them dialectal variants of the Standard Italian "old woman" (vecchia) or "witch" (strega): "But the figure of the old woman who brings gifts is not only Roman: she is called, for example, the Vecchia [Old Woman] in Pavia, the Pifanie [Epiphany] in Lario Orientale, the Vecia [Old Woman] or Stria [Witch] in Mantua, Padua, Treviso, and Verona, the Pasquetta [Little Easter] in Legnago, in Venice Marantega or Redodesa, a name that is also found in the Belluno Alps with the variants Redosega, Redosola and Redosa; the Sibilia [Sybil] in Pirano, the Donnazza [Woman?] in Borca di Cadore, the Anguana [Serpent?] in Cortina d'Ampezzo and the Berola in the province of Treviso, the Vecie [Old Woman] or the Strie [Witch] or the Femenate or the Marangule in Friuli. In Modena she is Barbasa, in Piacenza she is Mara, and the Voecia [Old Woman] in Bologna."

Italian folklorist Giuseppe Pitrè also calls her Carcavecchia and the old woman of Christmas, the latter of which is Sicilian. The associated mumming custom also goes by different names in different regions of Italy. In Tuscany it is called the Befanata. It is called the Pasquella in Umbria, Lazio, Marche, Emilia-Romagna, and Abruzzo. It is also known as the Pasquarella in Abruzzo. Both of these latter names are derived from the Italian word for Easter Pasqua borrowed straight from the Hebrew Pesach.

Origin
Written records of the Befana and Befanata date to the Middle Ages. Her origins are the subject of speculation by scholars who have variously proposed they lie in paganism, Christianity, or a mix of the two. John B. Smith said she, like her High German counterpart Perchta, is nothing more than the personification of Epiphany invented by medieval Christians who had a tendency to personify feast and fast days while Jacob Grimm found it not credible that two separate cultures would personify a feast day as a supernatural figure ("a name in the calendar had caused the invention of a supernatural being") and concluded it was far more likely that the Befana and Perchta were pre-Christian in origin and that they blended with the Christian holiday name. It has been pointed out that there was "a clear attempt to Christianize the disturbing female character by transforming her into the female personification of the feast." Generally the pre-Christian origin is the one most proposed and the Befana is often said to be a goddess or the remnant of one, though what culture and time period she comes from has been less uniform. Cultures that have been proposed include Roman, Celtic, Neolithic farmers, and Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.

Appearance and behavior
In traditional Italian iconography, she is portrayed as having ember eyes, sharp feline teeth, a sharp and cutting tongue, and a sooty face from the chimneys she enters houses through. She is also described as an "ugly, toothless old woman". Grimm described her as a misshapen fairy. She is said wear rags, a headscarf, and carries a broom and a sack or a basket that she keeps her gifts in.

Once a year on the night of January 5, she leaves the mountain caves where she is said to live and flies through the air, riding her broom backwards, to bring toys or candy to good children and coal or cinders to naughty children in all of Italy. In many poorer parts of Italy and in particular rural Sicily, a stick in a stocking was placed instead of coal. Being a good housekeeper, many say she will sweep the floor before she leaves. To some the sweeping means the sweeping away of the problems of the year.

Children must not watch her as she visits and delivers items or they are in serious danger as she does not like to be watched. Another, sanitized version says that if the Befana catches someone watching her, they will receive a playful thump on the shoulder from her broomstick. This aspect of the tradition may be designed to keep children in their beds. In Rome, her house is said to be among the roofs of the Piazza Navona. Grimm said she was a "terror to children". Siporin noted her contradictory character and summed it up thus: "She is grandmotherly but witchlike, the target of endless mockery but deeply beloved, ridiculous and dignified, domestic yet a wanderer, weak and dependent yet feared and powerful. She is an old woman played by a young man."

Christian legend
Christian legend had it that the Befana was approached by the Biblical Magi, also known as the Three Wise Men or the Three Kings, a few days before the birth of the Baby Jesus. They asked for directions to where the Son of God was, as they had seen his star in the sky, but she did not know. She provided them with shelter for a night as she was considered the best housekeeper in the village with the most pleasant home. The Magi invited her to join them on the journey to find the Baby Jesus, but she declined, stating she was too busy with her housework. Later, the Befana had a change of heart and tried to search out the Magi and Jesus. That night she was not able to find them, so to this day the Befana is still searching for the Baby Jesus. She leaves all the good children toys and candy (caramelle) or fruit while the bad children get coal or dark candy (carbone), onions or garlic.

Another commonly heard Christian legend of the Befana starts at the time of the birth of the Baby Jesus. In this telling, Befana spent her days cleaning and sweeping. One day the Magi came to her door in search of the Baby Jesus. However, she turned them away because she was too busy cleaning. Feeling guilty, she eventually decides to find Jesus on her own by following a bright light, also known as the big star in the sky which she believes points the way. She brings along a bag filled with baked goods and gifts for Jesus and a broom to help the new mother clean. Unfortunately despite her best efforts she never finds him. According to this telling, the Befana is still searching after all these centuries for the newborn Messiah. On the eve of the Epiphany, the Befana comes to every house where there is a child and leaves a gift. Although she has been unsuccessful in her search, she still leaves gifts for children everywhere because the Christ Child can be found in all children.

Associated figures
In folk tradition, various figures are related to her, comprising a family, and are present in the befanotti, though the exact characters involved vary in time and place. Always present is her husband and male counterpart, the Befano, though in some places Saint Anthony the Abbot is said to be her husband. Songs sung as part of the mumming by befanotti mention her children, who she is searching for food for either implicitly or explicitly, paralleled in real life by the befanotti doing the same. One song specifies their number at one hundred. Grimm noted that "some say, she is Herod’s daughter". In Latera, the Befana and Befano are accompanied by the Count of Buon’Umor, a crier-type character who announces their presence and asks people to host them and to treat them with love as they ask for it.

Traditional customs
A number of customs are associated with her are practiced on the evening of January 5 and the following day, Epiphany (January 6). On the former, groups of men in the Italian countryside travel from house to house collecting food, both for themselves and the Befana in exchange for performing a song, "The Befana" ("La Befana"), and sometimes skits and other entertainment like dancing and quips for the houses’ inhabitants. The men who participate in these activities are called befanotti. While scholars have traditionally called this a "begging custom", Steve Siporin disagrees and argues it is an equal exchange (food for entertainment) designed to preserve the dignity of the befanotti precisely so they are not reduced to begging. The befanotti themselves view it as an exchange and one song explicitly states "the Befana doesn’t beg". The songs often, implicitly or explicitly, encourage the people being visited to give generously, typically because if they do not something bad will happen, either to the household (including people, animals, and objects, such as the house itself) or to the Befana, who is effectively held hostage. Alternatively, these threats were not to be taken seriously, akin to teasing and pranks that are part of the fun and festivities of the Befanata rather than actual intimidation. Fitting this atmosphere, the skits performed by the befanotti are suggestive and carnivalesque and Epiphany is the start of the Carnival season. Sometimes the song requests specific foods from the households, of which meat, especially pork, and eggs are paramount. In Tuscany, the song is the main performance and is always present. Italian folklorists have collected a large number of Befana songs from all over the country which demonstrate great lyrical variety and are very local, though mention of local landmarks is rare. There may be versions of songs sung only to specific people, such as those who are stingy to convince them to be more generous. Traditionally, the men who comprised the befanotti were the poorest in the village and rich men were severely prohibited from forming their own squads and taking part. This is because the practical function of the befanotti was to provide those who had little to no food with fat and protein rich foods over the winter to, at least temporarily, ward off hunger and death via starvation, which was ever present in Italy until only the 20th century, in some areas even into the latter half of said century. Neither this restriction nor the sense that this custom is only for the poor exists nowadays. However the custom does not exist in all parts of the country. It is absent from Sicily where in the past wealthy landowners directly distributed food to the poor in a way that "was humiliating to the recipients", thus negating the need for the Befanata and other, similar begging or exchange rituals.

In the 20th century, Pitrè noted a custom in which "We carry around the old witch . . . and we chase her". Dolls and effigies of the Befana are commonly made. The former are black and are considered lucky, possibly as a result of their black color. They are ugly in appearance and "made of rags". On Twelfth Night in Rome, these dolls are placed in windows by women and children and on Epiphany, "in some Tuscan villages a large effigy of her [the Befana] was burnt." Bonfires are often lit as well. On Epiphany eve, families with children typically leave out a small glass of wine and a plate with a few morsels of food, often regional or local, for the Befana.

Ban
In 1977, the Italian government, headed at that time by Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti, canceled Epiphany as a national public holiday, along with several other feasts in the schedule, in an attempt to perk up the country’s sagging economy. Until recently, Epiphany had been "more lavishly celebrated than Christmas" and was also known by Italians as "Little Christmas". "Poor Befana, she is a refugee," Pope Paul VI lamented in a public speech. "She seeks shelter now on the first Sunday after the feast which was her own.". Despite revolt by the people, who continued to celebrate the holiday as usual, even calling in sick from work and school (or just not showing up), Epiphany remains permanently canceled.

Parallels
She has long been noted to resemble other Christmas gift-bringers and figures who roam during the Christmas season and is called the Italian version of them, though different parts of Italy have other gift-bringers as well, such as the Three Kings. In particular, her resemblance to the female German figures of Holle and Perchta is often noted by scholars, even if just in passing, and the Befana is considered their Italian equivalent. The Befana and Perchta "both bring well-being". There is an evil Befana who punishes girls and women who spin on Epiphany eve, which is prohibited in some places. Perchta does the same though the prohibited day(s) vary by location. There are also analogs in Greek, Anatolian, and Slavic mythology and traditions. Pitrè thought the modern Italian custom of carrying and driving the Befana out bears similarity to the ancient Roman custom of leading and driving out a figure called Mamurius Venturius, Old Winter Man, who was clad in animal skins. Historian Carlo Ginzburg relates her to Nicnevin. The old lady character should then represent the "old year" just passed, ready to be burned in order to give place to the new one. In many European countries, the tradition still exists of burning a puppet of an old lady at the beginning of the New Year. In northern Italy, this figure is called Giubiana.

Interpretations and theories
The mystery of the Befana has led to many interpretations and theories over the centuries. The tradition of Befana appears to incorporate several pre-Christian popular elements, adapted to Christian culture and related to the celebration of the New Year. Jacob Grimm simply called her a "misshapen fairy" despite drawing parallels between her and Perchta, the latter of whom he considered to be a former heathen goddess. James Frazer simply said she was "an old hag." Steve Siporin thinks "they both missed the mark." After noting that effigies of her are burnt, Marinoni remarks "Of how many things does indeed the dawn of a new year mark the death!" John Forsdyke says she has "become the representative of the evil influences that are destroyed on Twelfth Night." Cattabiani reports that she has been interpreted as "an image of Mother Nature" and the old dying year who sows the seeds, even if just symbolically, for her reappearance "in the guise of young Nature", alluding to a goddess with power over plants, animals, abundance, prosperity, life, and death. Italian anthropologists Claudia and Luigi Manciocco, in their book Una casa senza porte ("A House without Doors") trace the Befana's origins back to Neolithic beliefs and practices. The team of anthropologists also wrote about the Befana as a figure that evolved into a goddess associated with fertility and agriculture. The Befana may be connected to a prehistoric European bear cult that was practiced among hunter-gatherers and which dates as far back as the Upper Paleolithic.

A theory connects the tradition of exchanging gifts to an ancient Roman festivity in honor of Janus and Strenia (in Italian a Christmas gift used to be called strenna), celebrated at the beginning of the year when Romans used to give each other presents. In the book Vestiges of Ancient Manners and Customs, Discoverable in Modern Italy and Sicily (1823), John J. Blunt says:

"This Befana appears to be heir at law of a certain heathen goddess called Strenia, who presided over the new-year's gifts, 'Strenae', from which, indeed, she derived her name. Her presents were of the same description as those of the Befana—figs, dates, and honey. Moreover her solemnities were vigorously opposed by the early Christians on account of their noisy, riotous, and licentious character'."

Contemporary customs

The Befana is celebrated throughout all of Italy, and has become a national icon. In the regions of Marche, Umbria, and Lazio, her figure is associated with the Papal States where the Epiphany held the most importance. Urbania is thought to be her official home. Every year there is a big festival held to celebrate the holiday. About 30,000 to 50,000 people attend the festivities. Hundreds of Befanas are present, swinging from the main tower. They juggle, dance, and greet all the children.

Traditionally, all Italian children may expect to find a lump of "coal" in their stockings (actually rock candy made black with food coloring) as every child has been at least occasionally bad during the year.

Three places in Italy are nowadays associated with the Befana tradition:

 * Piazza Navona, in central Rome, is the site of a popular market each year between Christmas and the Epiphany, where toys, coal candy, and other candies are on sale. The feast of the Befana in Rome was immortalized in four famous sonnets in the Romanesco dialect by the 19th century Roman poet Giuseppe Gioachino Belli. In Ottorino Respighi's 1928 Feste Romane (English: "Roman Festivals"), the fourth movement, titled La Befana, is an orchestral portrayal of this Piazza Navona festival. A common superstition is that at midnight when it turns January 6 the Befana shows herself in a window of Piazza Navona and visitors often go there to observe this.
 * The town of Urbania in the province of Pesaro and Urbino in Marche where the national Befana festival is held each year, usually between January 2 and 6. A "house of the Befana" is scheduled to be built and the post office has a mailbox reserved for letters addressed to the Befana, mirroring what happens with Santa Claus in Rovaniemi.
 * In Fornovo di Taro, a town in the province of Parma, the national meeting "Raduno Nazionale delle Befane e dei Befani" is held on 5 and 6 January.

In other parts of the world where a vibrant Italian community exists, traditions involving Befana may be observed and shared or celebrated with the wider community. In Toronto, Canada for example, a Befana Choir shows up on the winter solstice each December to sing in the Kensington Market Festival of Lights parade. Women, men, and children dressed in Befana costumes and nose sing love songs to serenade the sun to beckon its return. The singing hags gather in the street to give candy to children, to cackle and screech to accordion music, and to sing in every key imaginable as delighted parade participants join in the cacophony. Sometimes, the Befanas dance with paradegoers and dust down the willing as they walk by.

Poems and songs
There are poems about Befana, which are known in slightly different versions throughout Italy. Here is one of the versions:

La Befana vien di notte

Con le scarpe tutte rotte

Col vestito alla romana

Viva, Viva La Befana!

The English translation is:

The Befana comes by night

With her shoes all tattered and torn

She comes dressed in the Roman way

Long live the Befana!

Another version is given in a poem by Giovanni Pascoli:

Viene, viene la Befana

Vien dai monti a notte fonda

''Come è stanca! la circonda ''

Neve e gelo e tramontana!

Viene, viene la Befana

The English translation is:

Here comes, here comes the Befana

She comes from the mountains in the deep of the night

''Look how tired she is! All wrapped up''

In snow and frost and the north wind!

Here comes, here comes the Befana!

In modern media

 * La freccia azzurra, 1996 animated film, released in the US as How the Toys Saved Christmas.
 * The Italian-language Christmas fantasy comedy film The Legend of the Christmas Witch (La Befana vien di notte) was released on December 27, 2018. The Italian-Spanish co-production was directed by Michele Soavi and features a 500-year-old Befana who works as a schoolteacher by day.
 * The 2022 Disney+ Christmas miniseries The Santa Clauses featured Befana played by Laura San Giacomo.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Befana


text:
Spithead and Nore mutinies

The Spithead and Nore mutinies were two major mutinies by sailors of the Royal Navy in 1797. They were the first in an increasing series of outbreaks of maritime radicalism in the Atlantic World. Despite their temporal proximity, the mutinies differed in character. The Spithead mutiny was a simple, peaceful, successful strike action to address economic grievances, while the Nore mutiny was a more radical action, articulating political ideals as well, which failed.

The mutinies were extremely concerning for Britain, because at the time the country was at war with Revolutionary France, and the Navy was the main component of the war effort. There were also concerns among the government that the mutinies might be part of wider attempts at revolutionary sedition instigated by societies such as the London Corresponding Society and the United Irishmen.

Spithead
The mutiny at Spithead (an anchorage near Portsmouth) lasted from 16 April to 15 May 1797. Sailors on 16 ships in the Channel Fleet, commanded by Admiral Lord Bridport, protested against the living conditions aboard Royal Navy vessels and demanded a pay rise, better victualling, increased shore leave, and compensation for sickness and injury. On 26 April a supportive mutiny broke out on 15 ships in Plymouth, who sent delegates to Spithead to take part in negotiations.

Seamen's pay rates had been established in 1658, and because of the stability of wages and prices, they were still reasonable as recently as the 1756–1763 Seven Years' War; however, high inflation during the last decades of the 18th century had severely eroded the real value of the pay. In recent years, pay raises had also been granted to the army, militia, and naval officers. At the same time, the practice of coppering the submerged part of hulls, which had started in 1761, meant that British warships no longer had to return to port frequently to have their hulls scraped, and the additional time at sea greatly altered the rhythm and difficulty of seamen's work. The Royal Navy had not made adjustments for any of these changes, and was slow to understand their effects on its crews. Impressment (a common practice) meant that some of the seamen were onboard ship against their will. Finally, the new wartime quota system meant that crews had many landsmen from inshore (including some convicted criminals sent in lieu of punishment) who did not mix well with the career seamen, leading to discontented ships' companies.

The mutineers were led by elected delegates and tried to negotiate with the Admiralty for two weeks, focusing their demands on better pay, the abolition of the 14-ounce "purser's pound" (the ship's purser was allowed to keep two ounces of every true pound—16 ounces—of meat as a perquisite, equivalent to 2 oz in every 16 oz), and the removal of a handful of unpopular officers. Neither flogging nor impressment was mentioned in the mutineers' demands, even though ending impressment had been one of the motivations for the Mutiny. The mutineers maintained regular naval routine and discipline aboard their ships (mostly with their regular officers), allowed some ships to leave for convoy escort duty or patrols, and promised to suspend the mutiny and go to sea immediately if French ships were spotted heading for English shores.

Because of mistrust, especially over pardons for the mutineers, the negotiations broke down, and minor incidents broke out, with several unpopular officers sent to shore and others treated with signs of deliberate disrespect. When the situation calmed, Admiral Lord Howe intervened to negotiate an agreement that issued a royal pardon for all crews, reassignment of some of the unpopular officers, a pay raise and abolition of the purser's pound. Afterwards, the mutiny was to become nicknamed the "breeze at Spithead".

The Nore
Inspired by the example of their comrades at Spithead, the sailors at the Nore, an anchorage in the Thames Estuary, also mutinied, on 12 May 1797, when the crew of HMS Sandwich (1759) seized control of the ship. Several other ships in the same location followed this example, though others slipped away during the mutiny despite gunfire from the ships that were attempting to use force to hold the mutiny together. The mutineers had been unable to organise easily because the ships were scattered along the Nore (and were not all part of a unified fleet, as at Spithead), but they quickly elected delegates for each ship.

Richard Parker was elected "President of the Delegates of the Fleet". According to him, he was nominated and elected without his knowledge. Parker was a former master's mate who was disrated and court-martialled in December 1793 and re-enlisted in the Navy as a seaman in early 1797, where he came to serve aboard the brig-sloop HMS Hound (1796). Demands were formulated and on 20 May 1797, a list of eight demands was presented to Admiral Charles Buckner, which mainly involved pardons, increased pay and modification of the Articles of War, eventually expanding to a demand that the King dissolve Parliament and make immediate peace with France. These demands infuriated the Admiralty, which offered nothing except a pardon (and the concessions already made at Spithead) in exchange for an immediate return to duty.

Captain Sir Erasmus Gower commissioned HMS Neptune (98 guns) in the upper Thames and put together a flotilla of fifty loyal ships to prevent the mutineers moving on the city of London. It was largely fear of this blockade moving down river that made the mutineers reconsider their actions and begin to waver.

The mutineers expanded their initial grievances and blockaded London, preventing merchant vessels from entering the port, and the principals made plans to sail their ships to France, alienating the regular English sailors and losing more and more ships as the mutiny progressed. This gave rise to a fear in the Admiralty that ships still at sea might be taken to France, but that was generally unfounded. When word of the mutiny reached the squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren, cruising off Ushant, the crew of HMS Galatea seized her, confining her captain, Richard Goodwin Keats, but the whole squadron nonetheless followed orders to return to Plymouth. There was seemingly no thought of treason – the men just wanted improvements in their conditions. When they returned to shore Keats was released and once prize money was secured and other matters of pay were settled, they returned to their station. Although the port of Brest was unwatched for some weeks the French missed the opportunity to get to sea.

On 5 June Parker issued an order that merchant ships be allowed to pass the blockade, and only Royal Navy victualling (i.e., supply) ships be detained. The ostensible reason provided in the order was that "the release of the merchant vessels would create a favourable impression on shore", although this decision may have had more to do with such a wide and complex undertaking as interdicting all the merchant traffic on the busy Thames. After the successful resolution of the Spithead mutiny, the government and the Admiralty were not inclined to make further concessions, particularly as they felt some leaders of the Nore mutiny had political aims beyond improving pay and living conditions.

The mutineers were denied food and water, and when Parker hoisted the signal for the ships to sail to France, all of the remaining ships refused to follow.

Meanwhile, Captain Charles Cunningham of HMS Clyde (1796), which was there for a refit, persuaded his crew to return to duty and slipped off to Sheerness. This was seen as a signal to others to do likewise, and eventually, most ships slipped their anchors and deserted (some under fire from the mutineers), and the mutiny failed. Parker was quickly convicted of treason and piracy and hanged from the yardarm of Sandwich, the vessel where the mutiny had started. In the reprisals that followed, 29 were hanged, 29 were imprisoned, and nine were flogged, while others were sentenced to transportation to Australia. One such was surgeon's mate William Redfern who became a respected surgeon and landowner in New South Wales. The majority of men involved in the mutiny were not punished at all, which was lenient by the standards of the time.

After the Nore mutiny, Royal Navy vessels no longer rang five bells in the last dog watch, as that had been the signal to begin the mutiny.

Alleged role of the United Irishmen
The authorities were more than ready to see in the mutinies, not only the hand of English radicals but also among the large contingent of Irish sailors, the hand of the United Irishmen. Much was made of Valentine Joyce, among the delegates at Spithead, described by Edmund Burke as a "seditious Belfast clubist".

That the Valentine Joyce in question was Irish and a republican has been disputed, and while that "rebellious paper, the Northern Star" (from Belfast) may have circulated as reported among the mutineers, no evidence has emerged of a concerted United Irish plot to subvert the fleet. In Ireland there was talk of seizing British warships as part of a general insurrection, but it was only after the Spithead and Nore mutinies that United Irishmen awoke to "surprising effectiveness" of formulating sedition within the Royal Navy".

HMS Defiance, which had been part of the "floating republic" at Spithead, did see United Irish oaths administered (according to court-martial evidence) in a further mutiny during the Irish rebellion in the early summer of 1798. Eleven of the crew were hanged and ten sentenced to transportation.

Mutinies and discontent following
In September 1797, the crew of HMS Hermione (1782) mutinied in the West Indies, killing almost all the officers in revenge for a number of grievances, including throwing into the sea without proper burial, the bodies of three men killed by falling from the rigging in a desperate attempt not to be the last men on deck, which was punishable by flogging. The Hermione was taken by the crew to the Spanish port of La Guaira.

On 27 December, the crew of HMS Marie Antoinette (1793) murdered their officers and took their ship into a French port in the West Indies. Other mutinies took place off the coast of Ireland and at the Cape of Good Hope and spread to the fleet under Admiral Jervis off the coast of Spain. On HMS Defiance, a court martial took the evidence of the oaths of allegiance to the United Irishmen and eleven men were sentenced to hang for it.

In the years following Spithead and the Nore, there was about a 50% increase in mutinies among European navies and merchant companies. Scholars have linked it to the radical political ideologies developing at the time, including the development of working class consciousness among sailors. Both explanations have been the subject of extensive academic investigation. Political analyses often emphasize the radical discourse and conduct of the Nore mutineers as evidence of their ideological motivation. Class analyses often emphasize harsh discipline and economic grievances of the Spithead mutineers as pointing to "class solidarity". Recent attempts have been made to class these approaches under a heading of masculine identity, arguing that interpretations of what it meant to be a man for sailors marked the difference of motivation between the two mutinies.

In the arts

 * The father of the protagonist in Frederick Marryat's The King's Own (1830) was hanged for his part in the Nore mutiny.
 * Herman Melville's novel Billy Budd (1891, published 1924), and the 1951 opera based on it by Benjamin Britten, are set immediately after the mutinies.
 * The Floating Republic – An account of the Mutinies at Spithead and The Nore in 1797, by G. E. Manwaring and Bonamy Dobrée published by Frank Cass & Co. 1935 is a history of these mutinies. In 1982, BBC Radio 4's Saturday Night Theatre broadcast a dramatised account of the book called The Floating Republic.
 * The 1962 film H.M.S. Defiant (released in the U.S. as Damn the Defiant!) and the 1958 novel Mutiny by Frank Tilsley is a fictional account of a ship's crew undertaking a mutiny based on the Spithead mutiny, which is part of the plot.
 * Ramage and the Freebooters (1969) by British novelist Dudley Pope begins when Lieutenant Ramage is given command of a ship anchored at Spithead during the mutiny, and must convince the crew to sail so that he may carry out his orders.
 * The Men They Couldn't Hang, an English folk-punk group, commemorated the executed leaders of the mutiny in the ballad "The Colours" (1988).
 * In William Kinsolving's 1996 novel Mister Christian, Fletcher Christian returns from the South Seas and witnesses the Nore mutiny.
 * Much of the Dewey Lambdin 2000 novel A King's Captain is set during the Nore Mutiny as seen by the protagonist, Alan Lewrie.
 * Mutiny (2004) by Julian Stockwin is a fictional account of the Nore mutiny.

title: Spithead and Nore mutinies


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User talk:Mvigor~enwiki

My dates on the Town Car trim options and the appearance of the name as a full-fledged model are from the American Car Spotter's Guide, sometimes helped out by the discussions on lincolntowncar.org. I have a pretty high degree of confidence in them because I have seen all the cars except one--I have never been able to find even a picture of the '69 with TC option. This vehicle must be exceedingly rare! RivGuySC 00:25, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Mvigor~enwiki


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Template talk:CMedWikiProject

Template for talk page of medical articles
To use, place at the top of a medical article's Talk page

Revision May 2004
Templage of 19 May 2004

Aack! Too big. Let's see if we can be more concise, e.g.:

- Nunh-huh 00:26, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * WE DO NOT NEED THESE HUGE DISCLAIMERS. As User:Angela has pointed out, there are two disclaimer links on every page. I prefer Nunh's box. JFW | T@lk  09:26, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

Revision Apr 2005
After reviewing other WikiProject notices, I came up with this revision... Petersam 06:42, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Template talk:CMedWikiProject


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Child Support Agency

The Child Support Agency (CSA) was a delivery arm of the Department for Work and Pensions (Child Maintenance Group) in Great Britain and the former Department for Social Development in Northern Ireland. Launched on 5 April 1993, the CSA was to implement the Child Support Act 1991 and arrange payments for parents living with their children. The CSA was abolished and replaced in 2012 by its successor, the Child Maintenance Service (CMS).

Functions and involvement
The CSA's function was twofold, encompassing calculation of how much child maintenance is due (based on current legislation and rules) and collection, enforcement and transferral of the payment from the non-resident parent to the person with care.

For the CSA to generate a mediation of payment case, their services had to be requested by one of the parents; or to generate a recovery case, the parent with care (PWC) had to be in receipt of Income support, Jobseekers Allowance, Sickness Benefit, or another such benefit. Legislation also allowed children in Scotland to initiate a case against one or both non-resident parents (NPCs).

The CSA could not get involved, even upon request, in the following circumstances (except in cases where the parent with care claims Income Support or Jobseekers Allowance):
 * if the non-resident parent lives abroad;
 * if a written agreement made prior to 5 April 1993, is in place;
 * if a court order regarding maintenance was made before 3 March3 2003.

Calculation and systems
A new method of child maintenance calculation came into effect on 3 March 2003. The previous method used a "complex formula of up to 108 pieces of information", by first calculating the total child maintenance required based on the children's ages, then calculating the non-resident parents income after various allowances were subtracted, and finally working out what portion of the calculated maintenance was to be paid by the non-resident parent, based on their income.

Under the new method the formula for child maintenance was simplified, with a fixed percentage basic rate being calculated using the NRPs net income (of £200 to £2,000 per week), and deductions of 15% for one child, 20% for two, and 25% for three or more. Where maintenance is calculated using the basic rate, the amount of maintenance is also reduced if the non-resident parent has children in their current family. Where this is relevant, the CSA would not take into account: 15% of their net weekly income if there is one child living with them, 20% if they are two children living with them, and 25% for three or more.

Criticism
The Independent Case Examiner (ICE) was set up in 1997 as an independent body to deal with complaints about the CSA. Three recurring themes are mentioned in multiple previous annual reports, namely delay (51% of complaints in 2004-2005), error (24% of complaints in 2004-2005) and no action taken (14% of complaints in 2004-2005). According to Department for Work and Pensions statistics, the average length of time for a case to be cleared under the new scheme has increased from an average of 18 days in March 2003, to 287 in December 2005.

Updated statistics published in the Child Maintenance and Enforcement Commission Annual Report and Accounts 2010/11 showed that, whilst payments were being made in 65% of CSA cases for the year April 2006 – March 2007, this had increased to 78% by March 2011.

Assessments based on the same financial criteria can give different results, depending on which rules the case is judged under. Non-resident parents who would pay less under the new rules could not get reassessed, except in special circumstances. While the CSA planned to move everyone to the same system in due course, in the interim different people with identical situations would pay different amounts, based solely on when the case was first assessed. One father, whose monthly payments would have dropped from £250 to £150 under the new rules, decided to take the CSA to the European Court of Human Rights, claiming that this discrepancy amounted to discrimination under article 14 of the convention. However, official statistics showed that the average weekly liability was slightly more under the new scheme. For the years 2006—2007, the average new scheme liability was constantly £23 per week, whereas the old scheme varied from £22 to £23.

In November 2004, the head of the CSA resigned amid widespread criticism of the CSA systems. Sir Archy Kirkwood, chairman of Work and Pensions Committee, described the situation as "a systemic, chronic failure of management right across the totality of the agency." In November 2005, Prime Minister Tony Blair, admitted that the CSA is "not properly suited" to its job, amid reports that for every £1.85 that gets through to children, the CSA spend £1 on administration.

Even prior to its opening, the CSA was subject to criticism, with MP David Tredinnick describing the CSA as a "sequel to 1984" due to concerns about "CSA Snooping". In February 2006, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions John Hutton asked Sir David Henshaw to redesign the child support system with three key areas of focus; how best to ensure parents take financial responsibility for their children when they are apart, the best arrangements for delivering this outcome cost effectively and the options for moving to new structures and policies, recognising the need to protect the level of service offered to the current 1.5 million parents with care.

On 24 July 2006, the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, John Hutton MP, announced that the CSA was not working and as a result would be axed and replaced by a "smaller, more focused" body.

In March 2008 a website, CSAhell.com, allowed people to publicly post their stories and receive feedback. The website was quoted in the national press on CSA-related stories. Since its creation, the website has published almost 2,500 stories and complaints about the CSA, and has itself been criticised by the Public and Commercial Services Union.

Outstanding debt
CSA arrears accumulated since 1993 totals just under £3.8bn. This total remained largely unchanged between 2008 and 2011.

Replacement
In December 2006, the Department for Work and Pensions published its Child Support white paper outlining its plans for the future of Child Support.

On 1 November 2008, the Child Maintenance and Enforcement Commission took management responsibility for the CSA. In October 2011, the Department for Work and Pensions launched a public consultation on plans to abolish CMEC and transfer its functions back to the Department. This was approved after consultation and agreement by both Houses of Parliament. Responsibility for staff and functions passed from CMEC back to the Department for Work and Pensions on 30 July 2012, becoming the 'Child Maintenance Group'.

From 10 December 2012, a new system of child maintenance began operation, initially for specific applicants. It is known as the 'Child Maintenance Service', and operates within the legislation provided under the Welfare Reform Act 2012. Existing cases continue under previous legislation at present.

From 25 November 2013, all new applications for child maintenance must be made through the 'Child Maintenance Service' using the new statutory '2012 Scheme' and associated legislation. No new applications are accepted by the Child Support Agency, and existing cases are being closed on a planned progression basis, which is intended to finish by 2017/18.

title: Child Support Agency


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MacCormick v Lord Advocate

MacCormick v Lord Advocate 1953 SC 396 was a Scottish constitutional law case and Scottish legal action on whether Queen Elizabeth II was entitled to use the numeral "II" as her regnal number in Scotland, as there had never been an earlier Elizabeth reigning in Scotland.

Facts
John MacCormick (the Rector of the University of Glasgow) and Ian Hamilton (then part of the Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association) contested the right of Queen Elizabeth II to style herself 'Elizabeth II' within Scotland. They claimed it was a breach of the Act of Union 1707 between England and Scotland, since Elizabeth I had been Queen of England but not of Scotland. The action was brought against the Crown, which was represented by the Lord Advocate, who is the most senior law officer in Scotland.

Judgment
The petition first came before Lord Guthrie, sitting as Lord Ordinary in the Outer House (the court of first instance in the Court of Session). He dismissed it; this was appealed to the Inner House. The appeal was heard by the Lord President (Lord Cooper of Culross), Lord Carmont, and Lord Russell. There, MacCormick and Hamilton lost their case: it was held that the treaty had no provision concerning the numbering of monarchs—it was part of the royal prerogative, and that they had no title to sue the Crown. The Lord President did give his opinion that "the principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law". The case was thus constitutionally interesting as the Lord Advocate "conceded this point by admitting that the Parliament of the United Kingdom 'could not' repeal or alter [certain] 'fundamental and essential' conditions" of the Act of Union. However, the Lord President also held that "there is neither precedent nor authority of any kind for the view that the domestic Courts of either Scotland or England have jurisdiction to determine whether a governmental act of the type here in controversy is or is not conform to the provisions of a Treaty" and "it has not been shown that the Court of Session has authority to entertain the issue sought to be raised".

Significance
The outcome of this case has had continuing relevance, most notably in 1999, when the British Parliament discussed the creation of the Scottish Parliament. It has been discussed in a number of later decisions of the courts, notably Gibson v Lord Advocate 1975 SC 136, and the English case of Jackson v Attorney General, [2005] 3 WLR 733.

Winston Churchill suggested that British sovereigns would use either the English or the Scottish number, whichever was higher.

title: MacCormick v Lord Advocate


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Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

Andrew Comyn "Sandy" Irvine (8 April 1902 – 8 or 9 June 1924) was a British mountaineer who took part in the 1924 British Everest Expedition, the third British expedition to the world's highest (8,848 m) mountain, Mount Everest.

While attempting the first ascent of Mount Everest, he and his climbing partner George Mallory disappeared somewhere high on the mountain's northeast ridge. The pair were last seen alive a few hundred metres from the summit, and it is unknown whether one or both of them reached the summit before they perished. Mallory's body was found in 1999, but Irvine's body has never been found.

Early life
Irvine was born in Birkenhead, Cheshire, one of six children of historian William Fergusson Irvine (1869–1962) and Lilian Davies-Colley (1870–1950). His father's family had Scottish and Welsh roots, while his mother was from an old Cheshire family. He was a cousin of journalist and writer Lyn Irvine, and also of pioneering female surgeon Eleanor Davies Colley and of political activist Harriet Shaw Weaver.

He was educated at Birkenhead School and Shrewsbury School, where he demonstrated a natural engineering acumen, able to improvise fixes or improvements to almost anything mechanical. During the First World War, he created a small stir at the War Office by sending them a design for a synchronisation gear to allow a machine gun to fire from a propeller-driven aeroplane through the propeller without damaging its blades, and also a design for a gyroscopic stabiliser for aircraft.

He was also a keen sportsman and particularly excelled at rowing. His prodigious ability as a rower made him a star of the 1919 'Peace Regatta' at Henley with the Royal Shrewsbury School Boat Club, and propelled him to Merton College, Oxford, to study engineering. At Oxford, he joined the Oxford University Mountaineering Club, and was also a member of the Oxford crew for the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race in 1922 and a member of the winning crew in 1923, the only time Oxford won between 1913 and 1937.

Irvine had an affair with a former chorus girl named Marjory Agnes Standish Summers (née Thompson). Marjory was married to the steel magnate Henry Hall Summers and was 33 years younger than her husband. Summers was one of the sons of founder John Summers, of John Summers & Sons, a steel company. While Irvine was on Everest, Henry began divorce proceedings against Marjory.

Everest expedition

In 1923, Irvine took part in the Merton College Arctic Expedition to Spitsbergen, where he excelled on every front. The expedition's leader, Noel Odell, and he discovered that they had met before, in 1919 on Foel Grach, a 3,000-foot-high Welsh mountain, when Irvine had ridden his motorcycle to the top and surprised Odell and his wife Mona, who had climbed it on foot. Subsequently, on Odell's recommendation, Irvine was invited to join the forthcoming third British Mount Everest expedition on the grounds that he might be the "superman" that the expedition felt it needed. He was at the time still a 21-year-old undergraduate student.

Irvine set sail for the Himalaya from Liverpool on board SS California on 29 February 1924, along with three other members of the expedition, including George Mallory. Mallory later wrote home to his wife that Irvine "could be relied on for anything except perhaps conversation".

During the expedition, he made major and crucial innovations to the expedition's professionally designed oxygen sets, radically improving their functionality, lightness, and strength. He also maintained the expedition's cameras, camp beds, primus stoves, and many other devices. He was universally popular, and respected by his older colleagues for his ingenuity, companionability, and unstinting hard work.

The expedition made two unsuccessful attempts on the summit in early June, and time remained for one more before the heavy snowfall that came with the summer monsoon would make climbing too dangerous. This last chance fell to the expedition's most experienced climber, George Mallory. To the surprise of other expedition members, Mallory chose the 22-year-old inexperienced Irvine above the older, more seasoned climber, Noel Odell. Irvine's proficiency with the oxygen equipment was obviously a major factor in Mallory's decision, but some debate has occurred ever since about the precise reasons for his choice.

Mallory and Irvine began their ascent on 6 June, and by the end of the next day, the pair had established a final two-man camp at 8168 m, from which to make their final push on the summit. What time they departed on 8 June is unknown, but circumstantial evidence suggests that they did not have the smooth, early start that Mallory had hoped for.

Odell, who was acting in a supporting role, reported seeing them at 12:50 pm—much later than expected—ascending what he believed was the Second Step of the northeast ridge and "going strongly for the top", although in the years that followed, exactly which of the Three Steps Odell had sighted the pair climbing became extremely controversial.

Discovery of the ice axe
In 1933, nine years after the disappearance of Mallory and Irvine, Percy Wyn-Harris, a member of the fourth British Everest Expedition discovered an ice axe around 8460 m, about 20 m below the ridge and some 230 m before the First Step. It was found lying loose on brown 'boiler-plate' slabs of rock, which though not particularly steep, were smooth and in places had a covering of loose pebbles. The Swiss manufacturer's name matched those of a number supplied to the 1924 expedition, and since only Mallory and Irvine had climbed that high along the ridge route, it must have belonged to one of them.

Hugh Ruttledge, leader of the 1933 expedition, speculated that the ice axe marked the scene of a fall, during which it was either accidentally dropped or that its owner put it down, possibly to have both hands free to hold the rope. Noel Odell, the last man to see Mallory and Irvine on their ascent in 1924, offered a more benign explanation: that the ice axe had merely been placed there on the ascent to be collected on the way back since the climbing ahead was almost entirely on rock under the prevailing conditions.

In 1963, a characteristic triple nick mark on a military swagger stick, found among Andrew Irvine's possessions, was found to match a similar mark on the ice axe's shaft, suggesting the axe belonged to Irvine. In an interview with PBS, Wyn Harris, who discovered the ice axe claimed, “When I picked up the axe there was no mark on it. The cross, over which there has been so much controversy, was not put on either by Mallory or Irvine. It was in fact cut by my personal Sherpa porter, Kusang Pugla, who did it under threats from me that it must not be lost or mixed up with other axes.”

Discovery of the oxygen cylinder
In May 1991, a 1924 oxygen cylinder was found around 8480 m, some 20 m higher and 60 m closer to the First Step than the ice axe found in 1933. Since only Mallory and Irvine had been on the northeast ridge in 1924, this oxygen cylinder marked the minimum altitude they must have reached on their final climb. The oxygen cylinder was recovered in May 1999.

Discovery of Mallory
In May 1999, Mallory's body was found at 8155 m by the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition, in a funnel-shaped basin on the "8,200 m Snow Terrace", some 300 m below and about 100 m horizontal to the location of the ice axe found in 1933. The remains of a rope still encircled his waist, which exhibited serious haemorrhaging, indicative of a strong rope-jerk injury, and strongly suggesting that at some point either Mallory or Irvine fell while they were still roped together. Mallory was found with relatively few major injuries, compared to a number of modern climbers who had fallen the full distance from the northeast ridge and who were found to have sustained numerous fractures, suggesting he had survived this initial fall, and suffered a further accident. A golf ball-sized puncture wound in his forehead seemed to be the likely cause of death, and could have been inflicted by an ice axe. It has subsequently been speculated that an injured Mallory was descending in a self-arrest "glissade", sliding down the slope while dragging his ice axe in the snow to control the speed of his descent, and that his ice axe may have struck a rock and bounced off, striking him fatally.

A search of the body revealed two pieces of circumstantial evidence that suggested that Mallory might have possibly reached the summit:

 * Firstly, Mallory's daughter had always said that Mallory carried a photograph of his wife on his person with the intention of leaving it on the summit when he reached it, and no such photograph was found on the body. Given the excellent state of preservation of the body and the artifacts recovered from it, the absence of the photograph suggests that he may have reached the summit and deposited it there.
 * Secondly, Mallory's snow goggles were in his pocket when the body was found, indicating that he died at night, that he and Irvine had made a push for the summit and were descending very late in the day. Given their known departure time and movements, had they not made the summit, it is unlikely that they would have still been out by nightfall.

The search revealed no trace of the two Vest Pocket Kodak cameras that Irvine's diaries said he and Mallory were carrying, leading to speculation that one or more of the cameras might yet be found with Irvine's body. Experts from Kodak have said that there is a good chance that the cameras' black-and-white film could be developed to produce "printable images", due to its chemical nature and its likely preservation in subzero temperatures. Such images could illuminate the fate of Mallory and Irvine. Irvine's body has never been found.

Sighting by Wang Hong-bao
In 1979, Ryoten Hasegawa, the leader of the Japanese contingent of a Sino-Japanese reconnaissance expedition to the north side of Everest, had a brief conversation with a Chinese climber named Wang Hong-bao, in which Wang recounted that while on the 1975 Chinese Everest Expedition, he had seen the body of an "English dead" at 8100 m, lying on his side as if asleep at the foot of a rock. Wang knew the man was British, he said, by the old-fashioned clothing, rotted and disintegrating at the touch, and poked his finger into his cheek to indicate an injury. However, Wang was killed in an avalanche the following day before more information could be obtained.

Further confirmation of this sighting was provided by a 1986 conversation that American Everest historian Tom Holzel had with Zhang Junyan, Wang's tent-mate from the 1975 expedition. Zhang said Wang returned from a 20-minute excursion and described finding "a foreign mountaineer" at 8,100 meters. Since no other European climber was known to have died at that elevation on the north side of Everest, it was almost certain that the body was either Mallory or Irvine.

Wang's 1975 sighting was the key to the discovery of Mallory's body 24 years later in the same general area, although his reported description of the body he found—"hole in cheek"—is not consistent with the condition and posture of Mallory's body, which was face down, his head almost completely buried in scree, and with a golfball-sized puncture wound on his forehead. One possibility is that Wang actually saw Irvine. Another is that Wang discovered Mallory face up and turned his body over to effect a simple burial.

In 2001, the second Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition discovered Wang's 1975 campsite location and made an extensive search of its surroundings, and found that Mallory's remained the only body in the vicinity.

Sighting by Xu Jing
In 2001, Eric Simonson, leader of the 1999 Mallory and Irvine Expedition, and German researcher Jochen Hemmleb, who inspired it, travelled to Beijing to interview some of the remaining survivors of the 1960 Chinese Everest expedition, which had been the first expedition back to the north side since the British attempts of the 1920s and 1930s.

During their meeting, the deputy leader of the expedition, Xu Jing, said that on his descent from the First Step, he spotted a dead climber lying on his back, feet facing uphill, in a hollow or slot in the rock. Since no one other than Mallory and Irvine had ever been lost on the north side of Everest before 1960, and Mallory had been found much lower down, it was almost a certainty that Xu had discovered Irvine. However, the sighting was brief, and Xu was in desperate straits during the descent, and while he clearly remembered seeing the body, he was unclear about where it was.

Sighting by Wang Fu-chou
A more contemporary account, not dulled by the passage of 40 years, has subsequently surfaced. In 1965, a member of the 1960 Chinese expedition, Wang Fu-chou, gave a lecture in the headquarters of the USSR Geographical Society in Leningrad. While describing the expedition, he made a sensational remark: "At an altitude of about 8,600 meters, we found a corpse of a European". Asked how he could be sure the dead man was European, the Chinese climber replied simply, "He was wearing braces".

Recent searches
In 2010, a team informally dubbed the Andrew Irvine Search Committee and led by Holzel searched for Irvine in a computer-assembled montage of aerial photographs taken in 1984 by Brad Washburn and the National Geographic Society. They identified a possible object at about 8425 m, less than 100 m from the ice-axe location, consistent with a body lying in a slot of rock, feet pointing toward the summit, just as Xu described his sighting.

A new expedition organised by Holzel was due to explore the upper slopes of Everest in December 2011, presumably with a view to determining the nature of this possible object. By conducting the expedition in winter, it was hoped that there would be much less snow on the upper slopes, increasing the chances of finding Irvine, as well as the camera that it is hoped will be with him.

In 2019, Mark Synnott led a party that investigated the 'crevice' identified by Holzel as the potential resting place of Irvine, but discovered that it was merely an optical illusion. Synnott later reported on the possibility that the 1975 Chinese expedition may have found both Irvine and the camera.

In popular culture
The deaths of Mallory and Irvine inspired Baku Yumemakura to author the 1998 novel The Summit of the Gods, which in turn inspired a manga series of the same name published from 2000-2003, which was adapted into a French-made anime-influenced animation film, Le Sommet des Dieux, that was released in 2021.

title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)


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Synarchism

Synarchism generally means "joint rule" or "harmonious rule". Beyond this general definition, both synarchism and synarchy have been used to denote rule by a secret elite in Vichy France, Italy, China, and Hong Kong, while being used to describe a pro-Catholic Theocracy movement in Mexico.

Origins
The earliest recorded use of the term synarchy is attributed to Thomas Stackhouse (1677–1752), an English clergyman who used the word in his New History of the Holy Bible from the Beginning of the World to the Establishment of Christianity (published in two folio volumes in 1737). The attribution can be found in the Webster's Dictionary (the American Dictionary of the English Language, published by Noah Webster in 1828). Webster's definition for synarchy is limited entirely to "joint rule or sovereignty". The word is derived from the Greek stems syn meaning "with" or "together" and archy meaning "rule".

The most substantial early use of the word synarchy comes from the writings of Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre (1842–1909), who used the term in his book La France vraie to describe what he believed was the ideal form of government. In reaction to the emergence of anarchist ideologies and movements, Saint-Yves elaborated a political formula which he believed would lead to a harmonious society. He defended social differentiation and hierarchy with collaboration between social classes, transcending conflict between social and economic groups: synarchy, as opposed to anarchy. Specifically, Saint-Yves envisioned a Federal Europe (as well as all the states it has integrated) with a corporatist government composed of three councils, one for academia, one for the judiciary, and one for commerce.

Rule by a secret elite
The word synarchy is used, especially among French and Spanish speakers, to describe a shadow government or deep state, a form of government where political power effectively rests with a secret elite, in contrast to an oligarchy where the elite is or could be known by the public.

In Vichy France
According to former OSS officer William Langer, some French industrial and banking interests even before the war, had turned to Nazi Germany and had looked to Hitler as the savior of Europe from Communism.

This theory allegedly originated with the discovery of a document called Pacte Synarchique following the death (May 19, 1941) of Jean Coutrot, former member of Groupe X-Crise, on May 15, 1941. According to this document, a Mouvement Synarchique d'Empire had been founded in 1922, with the aim of abolishing parliamentarianism and replacing it with synarchy. This led to the belief that La Cagoule, a far-right organisation, was the armed branch of French synarchism, and that some important members of the Vichy Regime were synarchists. The Vichy government ordered an investigation, leading to the Rapport Chavin but no evidence for the existence of the Mouvement Synarchiste d'Empire was found. Most of the presumed synarchists were either associated with the Banque Worms or with Groupe X-Crise; they were close to Admiral François Darlan (Vichy prime minister 1941–1942), and this has led to the belief that synarchists had engineered the military defeat of France for the profit of Banque Worms.

This belief system has been dismissed as a "work of a paranoid imagination which wove together the histories of three disparate groups of activists, creating a conspiracy among them where none existed". Most historians         affirm that the Pacte Synarchique was a hoax created by some French collaborators with Nazi Germany to weaken Darlan and his Vichy technocrats. Only the far-left historian Annie Lacroix-Riz defends the idea that the synarchy existed.

Lyndon LaRouche
Lyndon LaRouche, leader of the LaRouche movement, describes a wide-ranging historical phenomenon, starting with Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre and the Martinist Order followed by important individuals, organizations, movements and regimes that are alleged to have been synarchist, including the government of Nazi Germany. He claims that during the Great Depression an international coalition of financial institutions, raw materials cartels, and intelligence operatives installed fascist regimes throughout Europe (and tried to do so in Mexico) to maintain world order and prevent the repudiation of international debts. LaRouche identifies the former U.S. vice president and former PNAC member Dick Cheney as a modern "synarchist", and claims that "synarchists" have "a scheme for replacing regular military forces of nations, by private armies in the footsteps of a privately financed international Waffen-SS like scheme, a force deployed by leading financier institutions, such as the multi-billions funding by the U.S. Treasury, of Cheney's Halliburton gang."

Qing China
Harvard historian and sinologist John K. Fairbank used the word synarchy in his 1953 book Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854, and in later writings, to describe the mechanisms of government under the Qing dynasty in China. Fairbank's synarchy is a form of joint rule by co-opting existing Manchu and Han Chinese elites and bringing the foreign powers into the system and legitimizing them through a schedule of rituals and tributes that gave them a stake in the Qing dynasty rule. He believed that the Qing, who were considered outside rulers because of their Manchu origins, developed this strategy out of necessity because they did not have a strong political base in China.

Hong Kong
The term is also used by some political scientists to describe the British colonial government in Hong Kong (1842–1997). Ambrose King, in his 1975 paper Administrative Absorption of Politics in Hong Kong, described colonial Hong Kong's administration as "elite consensual government". In it, he claimed, any coalition of elites or forces capable of challenging the legitimacy of Hong Kong's administrative structure would be co-opted by the existing apparatus through the appointment of leading political activists, business figures and other elites to oversight committees, by granting them British honours, and by bringing them into elite institutions like Hong Kong's horse racing clubs. He called this synarchy, by extension of Fairbank's use of the word.

Mexican synarchism
Synarchy is also the name of the ideology of a political movement in Mexico dating from the 1930s. In Mexico, it was historically a movement of the Roman Catholic extreme right, in some ways akin to fascism, violently opposed to the populist and secularist policies of the revolutionary (PNR, PRM, and PRI) governments that ruled Mexico from 1929 to 2000.

The National Synarchist Union (Unión Nacional Sinarquista, UNS) was founded in May 1937 by a group of Catholic political activists led by José Antonio Urquiza, who was murdered in April 1938, and Salvador Abascal. In 1946, a faction of the movement loyal to deposed leader Manuel Torres Bueno regrouped as the Popular Force Party (Partido Fuerza Popular). Synarchism revived as a political movement in the 1970s through the Mexican Democratic Party (PDM), whose candidate, Ignacio González Gollaz, polled 1.8 percent of the vote at the 1982 presidential election. In 1988 Gumersindo Magaña polled a similar proportion, but the party then suffered a split, and, in 1992, lost its registration as a political party. It was dissolved in 1996.

There are now two organisations, both calling themselves the Unión Nacional Sinarquista, one aligning to Francoist policies, the other following the National Syndicalism of Primo De Rivera. Carlos Abascal, son of Salvador Abascal, was Mexico's Secretary of the Interior during Vicente Fox's presidency. Many sinarquistas are now militant in the National Action Party, PAN, of former presidents Vicente Fox (2000–2006) and Felipe Calderón (2006–2012).

title: Synarchism


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List of The Sopranos episodes

The Sopranos is an American crime drama television series created by David Chase. The series follows Tony Soprano (James Gandolfini), an Italian-American mobster, as he struggles with various personal and professional obstacles. It also explores Tony's relationships with members of his biological and criminal families, most notably his wife Carmela (Edie Falco) and his protégé, Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli). The show begins when Tony begins therapy with Dr. Jennifer Melfi (Lorraine Bracco) after suffering a panic attack.

The series premiered on January 10, 1999, on HBO and concluded on June 10, 2007. Broadcast syndication followed in the United States and internationally. The first five seasons of the series each consisted of 13 episodes, while the final season consisted of twenty-one episodes aired in two parts. Unlike most American shows at the time, which typically took a four-month hiatus between seasons, The Sopranos took longer hiatuses between its seasons. Season four, for example, premiered 16 months after the third season finale, and the sixth season returned almost two years after the end of season five. Episodes were broadcast on Sundays at 9:00 pm Eastern Time with an average length of 55 minutes per episode. All six seasons are available on DVD and Blu-ray, with the sixth season being sold in two parts. During the course of the series, 86 episodes of The Sopranos aired over six seasons.

The series was released to widespread critical acclaim and received numerous accolades. It is often credited with ushering in the Second Golden Age of Television and is considered among the most influential series ever. The Sopranos Golden Age of Television

 * Since its conclusion, The Sopranos has been cited by some as the greatest television series of all time, with TV Guide and Rolling Stone naming it the best series of all time in 2013 and 2022 respectively.
 * Since its conclusion, The Sopranos has been cited by some as the greatest television series of all time, with TV Guide and Rolling Stone naming it the best series of all time in 2013 and 2022 respectively.
 * Since its conclusion, The Sopranos has been cited by some as the greatest television series of all time, with TV Guide and Rolling Stone naming it the best series of all time in 2013 and 2022 respectively.
 * Since its conclusion, The Sopranos has been cited by some as the greatest television series of all time, with TV Guide and Rolling Stone naming it the best series of all time in 2013 and 2022 respectively.
 * Since its conclusion, The Sopranos has been cited by some as the greatest television series of all time, with TV Guide and Rolling Stone naming it the best series of all time in 2013 and 2022 respectively.

Season 3 (2001)

 * Notes

title: List of The Sopranos episodes


text:
Dan and Frank Carney

Brothers Dan (born 1931) and Frank Carney (April 26, 1938 – December 2, 2020) were American businessmen who founded Pizza Hut.

Early years
Dan and Frank Carney were born into a blended family of twelve children, and raised in Wichita, Kansas, where Dan still lives today. Although Frank Carney dropped out of Wichita State University, where he studied engineering, he later returned to the university to receive a degree in general studies and mathematics.

Pizza Hut
In 1958, the brothers borrowed $600 from their mother and opened a pizza restaurant catering to students after a local real estate agent with an unrented building convinced them that pizza would be a promising business. Although they knew little about pizza-making or business, they learned quickly and the business started to grow. Their first franchise opened in Topeka, Kansas, in 1959. The Pizza Hut in Aggieville, Kansas, was the first to have delivery, an innovation. By 1977, Pizza Hut had grown to 4,000 outlets and the brothers decided to sell the business to PepsiCo for over $300 million USD. Frank remained the president and a board member of Pizza Hut until 1980.

The Carney brothers have been featured in the History Channel series The Food That Built America.

Frank
Frank became a franchisee of Papa John's Pizza in 1994. By 2001, he owned 133 locations. Based in Houston, his company runs stores in Kansas, Arizona, Missouri, California, Texas and Hawaii, including several in his hometown of Wichita and the suburbs of Derby and Andover, under the franchise name PJ Wichita LLC., before selling the franchise to then Franchise President Terry Newman. During legal struggles with Pizza Hut in the late 1990s, Papa John's ran commercial advertisements highlighting the fact, including a dramatization showing Frank coming to a Pizza Hut stockholders' meeting wearing a Papa John's apron, saying, "Sorry, guys. I found a better pizza."

Frank sat on the board of Intrust Financial Corp., Intrust Bank, N.A. He was the past president of the International Franchise Association (IFA) and the Wichita Area Chamber of Commerce. Industry honors include the 1975 Silver Plate Award from the International Foodservice Manufacturers Association, and the 1974 Man Of The Year in the Multi-Unit Foodservice Organization. He was a 1991 inductee into the IFA Hall of Fame.

Frank was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2009. He died from pneumonia following a recovery from COVID-19, at 4:30am on December 2, 2020, at the age of 82.

Dan
Dan spent several years of his adult life playing recreational polo along with his son, professional polo player, Mike Carney, president of Fairfield Polo Club in Wichita, Kansas. In 2001 he was awarded the Junior Achievement Wichita Business Hall of Fame.

title: Dan and Frank Carney


text:
Talk:Orange Free State

Suitable candidate for deletion
This unreferenced article is a suitable candidate for deletion.

Needs proper editing and a general overhaul
1. Trying to follow the history is very confusing

2. seems to be written by 1st language non English speakers full of improper sentences that make no sense or are very hard to understand —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.10.148.118 (talk) 17:34, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

On the "Postage stamps" section
What is the whole section about the stamps doing here? It seems very out of place. tpahl 00:36, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Where else would one put it? The Free State was its own country, as much as Ethiopia or Afghanistan, and had its own stamps that are collected by lots of people today. At some point I expect to scan in a couple that are in my collection as illustrations. Stan 03:27, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree that having a third of the article be about stamps is strange, as if the OFS's most important feature was its publishing of stamps. But this should be solved by lengthening the rest of the article - about the history, geography, cities and so on - not by removing the stamps section. See, for example, the Transvaal article that I've been working on. Nyh 08:24, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Look at the article in the Afrikaans Wikipedia, which is the origin of the English-language version. I agree. Eventually this section needs to be taken out, possibly made into a separate article.Michel Doortmont (talk) 17:02, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

 * The philatelists have a strange and undying love for the Republics; the books on their stamps come close to overtaking the books on the actual societies in numbers. That's part of the origin.  I agree that it is of limited importance historically. 67.85.38.120 (talk) 06:08, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

On the origin of "Orange"
The "orange" of its title may come from the partially Dutch, Protestant origins of its Boer founders.

Can anyone confirm this? 213.202.166.238 18:33, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Yes, confirmed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.239.102.75 (talk) 17:32, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Orange comes from the river, Orange Free State is accross the Orange river.
 * lodellpdx —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lodellpdx (talk • contribs) 10:16, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Both are correct. Rhe Orange River was named by Robert Jacob Gordon in honour of the dutch house of Orange The new Republic was therefore a reference to both: The Orange River as well as the Royal Dutch House of Orange Vrij (Dutch) of Free was used to add to the name, to strenghten the fact that it was not a colony but a free Republic.

Racist Capitalist?
"The white settlers built their racist society with military raids against African villages to capture African women and children to work as slave labor and cattle to establish extensive capitalist farming."

I am not disputing the facts here, yes they did raid for slaves and cattle, and they did establish large farms. However the tone sounds like a line from Mugabe. Do we have a better way of putting this together?

"The white settlers built their society with military raids against African villages to capture African women and children to work as slave labor and cattle to establish extensive commercial farms."

The racist part was already established earlier. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lodellpdx (talk • contribs) 10:19, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Agree it could do with a rewrite! Greenman 23:08, 20 August 2006 (UTC)

 * IIRC the Orange Free State as a Republic was established in 1852 after it moved from British control (exercised by the Governor of the Cape Colony [Bloemfontein being built as a strange sort of outpost and all], at that point slavery had already been abolished in the Cape Colony and that the Republic subsequently inherited British laws on slavery. Whilst segregation clearly existed it is a gross misrepresentation to claim slavery. Secondly the Republic was based on pastoral farming of little commercial value, it may be accurate to claim that the . However to argue that there was some sort of capitalist drive is obscene. The only real commercial happenings appear to have occured in the English dominated capital Bloemfontein. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.36.9.146 (talk • contribs) 07:55, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree, the type of exploitation of Black African labour in the Orange Free State (OFS) could perhaps be more accurately described as some kind of serfdom and not slavery. Additionally, the attempt to connect it to some kind of capitalist exploitation is some what absurd in my opinion as (as it has been previously mentioned) the OFS was more of a pre-capitalist, pre-industrial society that was economically speaking overwhelmingly reliant on agriculture and had little commercial activity and almost no industrial activity going on out side of "the English dominated capital Bloemfontein." Of course this is also reliant on what exactly one means when one talks of a capitalist and/or industrial society.--Discott (talk) 07:21, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

This is factually incorrect, as the Groot Trek of 1838 and the ebolishment of slavery had occured. Raids ? More than likely, for slaves ? Highly unlikely —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nixcroft (talk • contribs) 13:35, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

 * The abolition of slavery was part of the rationale for some voortrekkers to go (and not a few natrekkers as well). The idea (much stronger in the later South African Republic) was that labor relations had been severely disrupted by abolition.  In any case, the conventions of 1852 and 1854/8 abolished slavery in principle but in practice the informal slavery of apprenticeship and inboekeling "orphans" continued for some time.  Again, this was less in the Free State after the 1860s but systems of coerced labor servitude remained important lest laborers from Thaba Nchu and on local farms simply go to the mines where more money could be made (as the baSotho of Thaba Bosiu chose, so they could then buy guns).  See E. A. Eldredge and F. Morton, eds., Slavery in South Africa: Captive Labor on the Dutch Frontier (PMB: U-Natal, 1994) and a number of other works on rural labor history on the Highveld (I'm thinking of T. J. Keegan's Rural Transformations especially).  Whether one calls a person a slave de jure has little connection with the de facto reality of unfree black labor in the Republics, which even when not unfree was heavily coerced through dispossession of land and restriction of movement, just as it was in the British colonies.  That said, there is little need to hammer it home with over-the-top adjectival repetition of the point. -L F Braun, Dept of History, Rutgers University 67.85.38.120 (talk) 06:02, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

"bushmen,hottentots,bechuana"
aren't there better terms?? --Severino 08:08, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

In fact, these terms are official. These tribes are also named like this in German school books about South Africa. Indeed, it says: San hunter-gatherers (Bushmen) and Khoikhoi cattle herderers (Hottentots)

 * "Official" according to whom? The term "San" comes from the Khoi diminutive term for those without cattle.  Thus most "San" communities have been retaking "Bushmen" as their own.  "Hottentot" is completely derogatory and Khoikhoi (or Khoekhoe) is the preferred usage.  "Bechuana" is the 19th-century transliteration of baTswana, the plural of muTswana, literally "People of Tswana."  Thus the name "Botswana" (boTswana is "land of the Tswana"). So preferably you would use Bushmen, Khoikhoi, and Batswana (or baTswana or simply Tswana).  L F Braun, Dept of History, Rutgers University 67.85.38.120 (talk) 06:06, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Why would it be derogatory? These terms are commonly used in South Africa as well as in many other languages. The terms you are suggesting are mostly political and not natural names. — Adriaan (T★C) 23:00, 24 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Hottentot is highly derogatory in modern South Africa. The San/Bushmen one is less clear-cut, as both are commonly used. San was originally derogatory (from the Khoi), and Bushmen seems to be more acceptable to most of the people themselves, even though it also has a derogatory connotation, and San was actually preferred for this reason by some academics. The Bechuana case is clearer - it's just a dated usage. Greenman (talk) 12:14, 25 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Hmm, I'm not so sure about that. I guess it depends on where you are living (a regional issue), even though I am not too sure about that either. History books refer to the Dutch settlers contact with the Hottentots, places are called after the Hottentots, schools are called after them, hospitals, etc. Maybe they themselves feel it's derogatory, but I don't know how well that is documented and even if it was derogatory to some individuals it was still an accepted term. I don't have a personal preference for "Hottentot" or "Bush man" but I would be worried if we chose certain terms to be used in Wikipedia on the basis of censorship. — Adriaan (T★C) 16:03, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

The mountins around us in Somerset West, Western Cape, South Africa are still called the Hottentots-Holland mountins and the high school I attended is still to today called Hottentots-Holland High School, it is just political correctness, it is not offensive but an term used by settelers and not the people themselves--196.23.52.172 (talk) 08:56, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

President in exile
The infobox mentions that the president was in exile after 28 May 1900. This is factually incorrect. On that date the government left Bloemfontein, but reorganised itself as best as it could in the field. Most of the time President Steyn and the better part of the government remained on Free State soil until the end of the South African War. Factually nor technically was the president in exile. I therefore removed this line from the infobox. Information on the exact state of affairs can be / is included in the main body of the text. Michel Doortmont (talk) 19:51, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Major rewrite needed
Going over this article in detail, it has become clear to me that it needs a major rewrite, not just references and sources added. For the time being the article can stay, awaiting further edits. I will do my best to address all the problems, but help is definitely required here. Michel Doortmont (talk) 21:56, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Have not come around to this yet, but did add a POV banner, as some of the texts on the Boer War are very much biased. I believe this is not any editors' mistake, but is because this text is very much a copy from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Brittannica. Michel Doortmont (talk) 08:13, 2 May 2008 (UTC)

Consistency in names of countries
I feel that in this article about a former state, it is necessary to adhere to the proper historical name of that state throughout the article, i.e. not Free State, but Orange Free State, as the abbreviated form of Republic of the Orange Free State.

Likewise, it seems advisable to consistently use South African Republic (as English form of the official Dutch name: Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek) when refering to the state, rather than the generic Transvaal. Michel Doortmont (talk) 21:56, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed and, this is the former country page... It should follow the Wikipedia former countries template. This page is confusing and needs lots of improvement Zarpboer (talk) 06:13, 22 September 2014 (UTC)

State presidents of the Orange Free State
Added section on state presidents in conformity with other articles. Work on dates and sources is necessary! Michel Doortmont (talk) 16:58, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

Corrections Made : ( 20 March 2009)
Mzilikazi and his Zulus : Corrected to refer to "and his Matabele" with the correct link. The Matabele are descendants of the zulu as can be read in the relative article. - Uwe Klopfer —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nixcroft (talk • contribs) 13:39, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

Orange Free State Tit-bits
Found in an Afrikaans booklet called: Gidskaart van ons wêreld in een Land (dated: 1985): Winburg: is the first Capital of the Orange Free State Republic. The town was established in 1842, 3 km out of town is the old birth house of M.T. Steyn, the last president of that Republic. Philippolis is established in 1825, by Adam Kok and his Griqua's, and is therefore the oldest town in the Orange Free State. The town was bought from said Griqua's in 1861, and their church was replaced with a NG church. Flagman (talk) 10:22, 3 December 2009 (UTC)

Demographics
Confusing demographics. I assume that the text means Bloemfontein when it states that 75% of the population is white. That must be wrong, as in the 1904 census, whites are 34% of the population. I am new to wikipedia, and unclear on how to do so, but the demographics section should be changed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jebshark (talk • contribs) 19:54, 28 March 2016 (UTC)

Rural urban migration
sr 105.245.20.179 (talk) 11:45, 22 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Orange Free State


text:
Talk:MacCormick v Lord Advocate

Mainly from stuff Google could find. If someone with access to a decent law library could confirm and expand things, that would be helpful. Marnanel 00:36, May 20, 2004 (UTC)

Importance?
Quoth the article:

 * The outcome of this case became of great relevance in 1999, when the British parliament was proposing the creation of a Scottish parliament.

Can someone explain why this is so? --Jfruh 7 July 2005 13:45 (UTC)

 * I think that text is confusing different bills. The legislation creating the Scottish Parliament was passed in 1998. There were, I think, some clauses that changed provisions previously set down by the Act of Union - I think the minimum number of Scottish seats in the Commons was one. There is also popular confusion about just where sovereignty does lie in the Scottish constitutional set-up and whether or not Westminster could unilaterally abolish the Scottish Parliament if the Scottish political or popular will (how formally expressed?) is hostile - it can clearly repeal the legislation but would that have force in Scotland?
 * In 1999 the issue wasn't the Scottish Parliament but rather the House of Lords. The Act of Union included provisions for a minimum number of Scottish hereditary peers to sit in the Lords. There were concerns that the abolition of the right of all hereditary peers to sit would disadvantage Scotland especially and whether that removal would be contrary to the Act of Union. Timrollpickering (talk) 15:27, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Copyright question
On 13 November 2005, I added the text of the Lord President's opinion in this case. I noted that "Opinions of the Scottish courts are nominally crown copyright, but copyright is waived so long as quotation is accurate." On 9 December, however, Cynical deleted this with an assertion that this text was in some way the copyright of a commercial publisher, Westlaw. That assertion is wrong. I have reverted the deletion. This note is to explain the true copyright position.

in the UK, judicial opinions are generally accepted to be Crown copyright (though there is an argument that they are copyright of individual judges, or that they were so until 1988; see 'Crown Copyright in the United Kingdom'). This opinion was issued in 1953, so it passed out of copyright in 2003 (Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, section 163(2)). In any event, it has been agreed since at least the mid-nineteenth century that judgments (as opposed to added-value material such as headnotes, footnotes) may be freely reproduced so long as the reproduction is accurate, and no publisher has ever sought permission to reproduce judgements; section 45(2) of the 1988 Act is generally accepted as authorising this, but to avoid any doubt HMSO has made this right clear informally. Nor has any publisher ever suggested that reproduction of the text of judgments breaches their copyright; they would be cutting their own throats if they did so!

All that was added was the text of the opinion itself. What I think Cynical may have had in mind is the commentary in the Session Cases edition of the report, which was not reproduced. Until 1957, the Session Cases were published by the Faculty of Advocates, which accordingly holds the copyright in the commentary on this case (and on its typography, also not reproduced). From 1958, Session Cases were published by the Scottish Council of Law Reporting (SCLR), which accordingly holds that copyright (and which asserts it). Since 2003, the SCLR has contracted with a number of commercial publishers to publish electronic versions of the Session Cases back to 1930. One of these (not the first) is Westlaw, who Cynical refers to as copyright-holder in the text of the judgment. In fact, none of these publishers have any more than a non-exclusive licence to publish in the first place; SCLR continues to retain copyright in its original work. But neither the commercial publishers, nor SCLR, have, or claims to have, any copyright in the work which SCLR, and before it the Faculty of Advocates, took from the judges with neither express permission nor payment (as they were entitled to, because neither were ever sought by the judges or by the Crown).

What was added, and now reinstated, is accordingly copyright-free. Ariwara 18:46, 5 January 2006 (UTC).

 * I would agree with that statement. Astrotrain 11:07, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

 * If we can use it, it ought to be in Wikisource, not here. Hairy Dude 05:15, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Link Problem
The external link "Discussion of the case" pointing to www.lawscot.org.uk/whatis/case8.html results in a 404 error (at this time at least). Possibly the page might be restricted to Law Society members, or perhaps it's gone. Perhaps someone who knows could resolve this? slàinte Anihl 01:00, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Obiter Dictum?
The comment about Parliamentary Supremacy appears to have been made obiter dictum and are not binding on future judges.Google books result — Preceding unsigned comment added by Thom2002 (talk • contribs) 19:04, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:MacCormick v Lord Advocate


text:
Surgical strike

A surgical strike is a military attack which is intended to damage only a legitimate military target, with no or minimal collateral damage to surrounding structures, vehicles, buildings, or the general public infrastructure and utilities.

Description
A swift and targeted attack with the aim of minimum collateral damage to the nearby areas and civilians is a surgical strike. Neutralization of targets with surgical strikes also prevents escalation to a full-blown war. Surgical strike attacks can be carried out via air strike, airdropping special ops teams or a swift ground operation or by sending special troops.

Precision bombing is another example of a surgical strike carried out by aircraft – it can be contrasted against carpet bombing, the latter which results in high collateral damage and a wide range of destruction over an affected area which may or may not include high civilian casualties. The bombing of Baghdad during the initial stages of the 2003 invasion of Iraq by US forces, known as "shock and awe" is an example of a coordinated surgical strike, where government buildings and military targets were systematically attacked by US aircraft in an attempt to cripple the Ba'athist controlled Iraqi government under Saddam Hussein.

Azerbaijan
On October 14, 2020, during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan carried out surgical strikes against Armenian forces and destroyed three R-17 Elbrus tactical ballistic missile launchers in Kalbajar District, de jure part of Azerbaijan, but under de facto independent Artsakh's control. According to Azerbaijan, the missile launchers had been targeting Ganja and Mingachevir, and the strike was in retaliation of the 11 October Ganja ballistic missile attack, which resulted in ten civilians getting killed and 40 more getting injured, with women and children being among the victims. Armenia confirmed that sites within Armenia had been struck while continuing to deny it had attacked Azerbaijan.

Israel
Israel's Entebbe raid in 1976, through which Israeli passengers were freed from a hijacked plane that landed in Uganda, is considered a successful surgical strike. Even though it did not involve taking out a specific military target, the operation was carried out deep inside foreign territory and the IDF commandos travelled 5,000 miles from start to finish without engaging any other forces or causing any collateral damage to the country where the operation took place, thus befitting the term.

Israel's 1981 bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor Osirak is considered a prime example of a surgical strike.

United States
The 1986 bombing of targets in the Libyan cities of Tripoli and Benghazi were carried out using surgical strike tactics, with both ground-based and carrier-based attack aircraft striking airports, barracks, and military training centers. The stated goals of the attack were to cripple Libya's ability to train and support terrorists, but it has been rumored that the attack was also an assassination attempt on Muammar Gaddafi.

The United States carried out numerous surgical strikes against Al-Qaeda targets in Afghanistan using cruise missiles. It also used the same technology against a purported chemical weapons facility in Sudan.

title: Surgical strike