text:
Talk:Dishwashing

Article History
''This page was listed on Votes for deletion in May, 2004. The result of that discussion was to replace the article with a rewritten version. For an archive of the discussion, see Talk:Washing dishes/Delete.''
 * see Articles for Deletion/Washing dishes

''This page was listed on Votes for deletion in November, 2004. The result of that discussion was to keep the article. For an archive of the discussion, see Votes for deletion/Dishwashing.''

Comments
Now here's a cautious statement: "If one does not use a dishwashing machine to wash dishes, then one will usually wash dishes by hand." And then again, what about Homer Simpson and Santa's Little Helper? Wetman 01:35, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I think there's a lot that could be said about the science of washing up liquid - but sadly it's been too long since I did GCSE chemistry... :( Martin 15:46, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * That's an article in itself. I'm going to start an article at washing-up liquid soon. Proto t c 14:04, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

Anyone else find it mildly amusing that the article on Dishwashing has a cleanup tag on it? :) GeeJo (t)⁄(c) • 10:05, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm a bit of a noob to wikipedia but not to washing dishes. If someone wishes to assist me in the writing or rewriting of this article I'm all ears. -Pherring 07:47, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

I think that the person who was written this article, or edited large sections of it, is most likely British. I think that is the case because it generalizes British habits (such as not rinsing, which I find disgusting, and washing in a sinkfull of water) as being general Western washing methods. At the same time it generalizes healthier and safer methods (such as washing and rinsing under running water without using the same water used for other dishes) as being Asian methods. Americans tend to wash and rinse (if they don't own a dishwasher) under hot running water, as do Romanians, Jordanians, Bulgarians, Turks, Syrians and many other nations in the world. The reason behind a double sink is merely practicality. You put the dishes in one sink and wash&rinse in the other. This is a very poorly written article about an unrelevant topic with a clear British bias and weasel words. PS: I agree with one of the posters above "If one does not use a dishwashing machine to wash dishes, then one will usually wash dishes by hand." I think that that is highly indicative of a moron, someone trying to use wording they perceive as being upper-class in the UK. Absolutely useless. Sufitul (talk) 00:26, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

I agree with the lack of rinsing being a very peculiarly British trait, and I have edited the article to reflect this. I have asked people of all provenance about this non-rinsing and everybody, including Australian, New Zealanders, Americans and other people from the Commonwealth, have been surprised at the British usage, which they mostly hadn't noticed. (And yes, I must admit that as well as baffling me, it disgusts me a little). I don't know if Asians really use cold water (damned difficult to wash dishes with cold water, I speak from experience!), but it's very interesting. I do find the article useful, by the way, and applaud the original author for writing it. I'd be really interested in knowing when, how and why this non-rinsing thing started, and why only in Britain, and why only in dishwashing, since clothes, floors, and bodies are all rinsed. Annafdd (talk) 06:15, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

 * I have removed the section "British people are rather unique in avoiding rinsing, putting the items directly on the rack or in a storage area from the dishwasher, sometimes after wiping them with a cloth." As it is original research. A claim like this really needs a citation. I recall some research being done in the early noughties on European washing up habits comparing various european nations. If I can find it, I will stick it in. 60.240.207.146 (talk) 12:09, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

What is meant by Asians here? Are we talking about Asian in the British sense of south-Asian or Asian in the American sense of east-Asian or Asian in the technical sense to include Uzbeks, Yemenis, etc? My instinct is that less-developed places in warmer climates might have both less access to hot water and warmer cold water. Living through the summer in Egypt I often felt the cold water wasn't cold enough to be comfortable to bathe in. That sort of warm cold water would be much more effective for washing dishes than the nearly frozen water that comes from cold pipes in cold climates. So perhaps we should change Asian to less-developed tropical places? Also, did someone above here really say that running water is more hygienic for washing than standing water, even if rinsed in running hot? That seems both wasteful and ignorant. --Zachbe (talk) 09:46, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

Redirect phail
....why does washing up redirect here? "washing up" means to clean your body, particularaly the upper-half. Can someone at least make a disaumbigation page?
 * Dialect variation in English. American English is but one of many. In English, washing up refers to washing dishes. "I'm doing the washing up." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.240.207.146 (talk) 15:51, 22 April 2014 (UTC)

Requested move 22 December 2014

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved. Number   5  7  12:54, 30 December 2014 (UTC)

Dishwashing → Dish washing – No such dictionary word as "Dishwashing." – GeorgeLouis (talk) 20:03, 22 December 2014 (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request (permalink). Anthony Appleyard (talk) 21:48, 22 December 2014 (UTC)

 * American Heritage Dictionary says: dish·wash·ing (dĭshwŏsh′ĭng, -wô′shĭng), n., The act or process of washing dishes. Dekimasu よ! 22:33, 22 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose. I need to see some overwhelming evidence from a greater sample of various reliable sources, especially for WP:ENGVAR and WP:COMMONALITY purposes, not from a handful of dictionaries that may only give one national variety of English. Doing a google search, "dish washing" only gives about 712,000 results while "dishwashing" gets more than 8 million. Otherwise we should retain the current title. Zzyzx11 (talk) 02:38, 23 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose WP:NOT Wikipedia is not a dictionary. And clearly it is a real world word Ikea, Martha Stewart , U.S. government agency "EPA" , Alberta (Canada) government agency "Health Alberta" , Prince Edward Island (Canada) government ,  these guys from Australia, etc -- 67.70.35.44 (talk) 04:20, 23 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose per evidence that dishwashing is actually much more common. Dicklyon (talk) 07:26, 23 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose WP:ENGVAR.--Labattblueboy (talk) 19:53, 23 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose – Definitely seems like a WP:ENGVAR issue. --IJBall (talk) 03:31, 28 December 2014 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Dishwashing


text:
Wikipedia:Election Notice

Election Notice
Given the response of many respected users, we have decided to adopt a new election system.

Each voter will be allowed to vote for as many of the candidates as they see fit for each position. The candidate with the most votes for each position, will be declared the winner.

In the event of a tie, a run off election will be announced.

We encourage everyone to vote only for the candidates you think would be best suited to serve on the board.

Thank you,

Danny 23:37, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

Imran

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikipedia:Election Notice


text:
Hoxha (surname)

Hoxha is an Albanian surname, derived from the Persian title khawaja ("master") via Turkish hoca. It is the most common surname in Albania. "Hoxha" could refer to several people:

 * Enver Hoxha (1908–1985), Communist leader of Albania in 1944–1985
 * Iljas Mirahori (Iljaz Hoxha), 15th-century Albanian Janissary, scientist, and teacher of an Ottoman sultan
 * Hysen Hoxha (1861–1934), a signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence; uncle of Enver Hoxha
 * Fadil Hoxha (1916–2001), Yugoslav politician and Kosovo's leader during the time of Tito
 * Nexhmije Hoxha (1921–2020), Albanian politician, wife of Enver Hoxha
 * Luan Hoxha (born 1960), Chief of General Staff of the Armed Forces of Albania in 2006–2008
 * Anna Hoxha (stage name: Anna Oxa) (born 1961), Italian singer
 * Ferit Hoxha (born 1967), Albanian diplomat
 * Dritan Hoxha (1968–2008), Albanian businessman
 * Erand Hoxha (born 1985), Albanian footballer
 * Rigers Hoxha (born 1985), Albanian footballer
 * Alban Hoxha (born 1987), Albanian football goalkeeper
 * Yll Hoxha (born 1987), Kosovar football player
 * Altin Hoxha (born 1990), Albanian footballer
 * Sulejman Hoxha (born 1990), Albanian footballer
 * Hamels Hoxha (born 1992), Albanian footballer
 * Sidni Hoxha (born 1992), Albanian swimmer
 * Zulfi Hoxha (born 1992), Albanian-American terrorist
 * Bedri Hoxha, Albanian politician
 * Bujar Hoxha, Albanian chess master
 * Fatos Hoxha, Albanian politician
 * Ismail Hoxha, Albanian politician
 * Rajmond Hoxha, Albanian politician
 * Joe Hoxha, American politician

title: Hoxha (surname)


text:
New Alliance Party

The New Alliance Party (NAP) was an American political party formed in New York City in 1979. Its immediate precursor was an umbrella organization known as the Labor Community Alliance for Change, whose member groups included the Coalition of Grass Roots Women and the New York City Unemployed and Welfare Council. These groups were all associated with controversial psychologist and political activist Fred Newman, whose radical healthcare collectives, Centers for Change and Marxist International Workers Party, were active in grassroots politics in New York City.

The NAP's first chairperson was then-South Bronx City Councilman Gilberto Gerena-Valentin, a veteran political activist from Puerto Rico. The party is notable for getting African-American psychologist Lenora Fulani on the ballot in all 50 states during her first presidential campaign in 1988, making her both the first African-American and woman to do so.

Background and ideas
From 1974 to 1979, Fred Newman acquired some experience in politics managing the International Workers Party. The New Alliance Party was founded as an independent electoral party for the purpose of creating new alliances among groups marginalized by the American electoral process, namely people of color, the LGBT community, progressives, and women. The NAP described itself as "pro-socialist". The party supported the PLO and was antagonistic to the state of Israel; it also worked with Nation of Islam.

Electoral politics
The New Alliance Party's first impact on New York City politics was its participation in the early stages of the "Dump Koch" movement, which focused on then-Mayor Edward I. Koch, a former liberal Congressman who had moved steadily toward the right.

1984 presidential election
During the 1984 presidential election, the NAP made its debut on the presidential campaign scene. Its candidate was Dennis L. Serrette, an African-American union activist who would later leave the NAP alleging questionable methods used by Newman and others. Serrette's running mate was Nancy Ross, a NAP leader who had served on a community school board on Manhattan's Upper West Side.

In 1985, the NAP began an unusual political relationship with Jesse Jackson. While Newman was initially dismissive of Jackson, Fulani had praised the popular activist during his 1984 presidential run. After Jackson founded his Rainbow Coalition group, Newman and Fulani created the Rainbow Alliance, which lobbied for the benefit of small political parties. The Rainbow Alliance later changed its name to the Rainbow Lobby and expanded its scope to include opposing the US-backed dictatorships of Joseph Mobutu in Zaire and Prosper Avril in Haiti. When asked about his political relationship with Fulani in the press, Jackson claimed that there was no relationship at all. The Rainbow Lobby continued its lobbying activities into the early 1990s while Fulani repeatedly rebuked Jackson for his support of the Democratic Party.

1988 presidential election
The 1988 presidential election was a major step for the NAP. The Fulani campaign ran under the slogan "Two Roads are Better than One", supporting Jesse Jackson's campaign within the Democratic Party while launching Fulani's own run designed to challenge the African-American community to sever their historic relationship with the Democratic Party and embrace an independent path. In the previous election, the NAP was able to secure ballot spots in only 33 states. For the 1988 election, NAP pursued every avenue possible to gain ballot access, including attempts to gain the nomination of small independent parties which existed around the country, such as the Solidarity Party in Illinois. Fulani had six different running mates in different states, including Joyce Dattner and, in Oregon only, Harold Moore, each of whom represented "different constituencies". When asked which one would become vice president if she won, Fulani answered: "If elected, [they would] figure it out." Fulani's vote total throughout the country was 217,221, or 0.2% of the vote, coming in fourth place. She was the second-most successful third-party presidential candidate that year, behind Libertarian Ron Paul. Also in the 1988 election, the NAP ran candidates for other offices, including US Senate candidates in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Nebraska. Though the party had its strongest roots in the east coast, the best result for the NAP was in Nebraska, where independent state senator Ernie Chambers received 1.6% of the vote.

In 1990, Fulani ran unsuccessfully for governor of New York. She was endorsed by Nation of Islam leader, minister Louis Farrakhan, who had been politically involved with Jesse Jackson's 1988 campaign only to be dropped at the recommendation of Jackson's campaign advisors. This was in the wake of Farrakhan being characterized in the press as antisemitic, as well as Jackson's gaffe wherein he called New York City "Hymietown". Fulani and Newman embraced Farrakhan, eliciting the anger of the Anti-Defamation League. In the wake of this criticism, Fulani moderated a historic conference on Black–Jewish relations, featuring the Jewish Marxist Newman conversing with African-American activist Reverend Al Sharpton.

1992 presidential election
During the 1992 presidential election, Fulani again ran for president on the NAP ticket. Maria Elizabeth Muñoz, a Chicano activist, was chosen as her running mate. Muñoz had previously run for Senate and governor in California on Peace and Freedom Party tickets. Fulani lost the party's nomination to Ron Daniels of Jesse Jackson's Rainbow Coalition. Fulani also entered the New Hampshire primary for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 1992, gaining some press coverage for her frequent heckling of Bill Clinton's campaign appearances after she was excluded from the New Hampshire Democratic debates. In 1992, the NAP also ran some candidates in other races, including US Senate candidates in Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, and New York. The best-performing NAP Senate presidential candidate was Mohammad T. Mehdi in New York, who came in fourth place with 0.8% of the vote.

Disbanding
By the mid-1990s, the NAP and its weekly newspaper The National Alliance had been disbanded. In 1994, Fulani and Newman joined the Patriot Party for a period, one of many groups which competed for control over Ross Perot's Reform Party in the years to come. The same year, Fulani and former The National Alliance editor Jacqueline Salit formed the Committee for a Unified Independent Party, an organization dedicated to bringing various independent groups together to challenge the bipartisan nature of American politics. The Fulani and Newman operatives later became associated with the Independence Party of New York.

title: New Alliance Party


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Livonians

The Livonians, or Livs, are a Balto-Finnic people indigenous to northern and northwestern Latvia. Livonians historically spoke Livonian, a Uralic language closely related to Estonian and Finnish. Initially, the last person to have learned and spoken Livonian as a mother tongue, Grizelda Kristiņa, died in 2013, making Livonian a dormant language. In 2020, it was reported that newborn Kuldi Medne had once again become the only living person who speaks Livonian as their first language. As of 2010, there were approximately 30 people who had learned it as a second language.

Historical, social and economic factors, together with an ethnically dispersed population, have resulted in the decline of Livonian identity, with only a small group surviving in the 21st century. In 2011, there were 250 people who claimed Livonian ethnicity in Latvia.

Prehistory
The exact date of migration of Livonians to the region has been disputed. "The Livonians claim to have inhabited their present homeland for over 5,000 years." "The Finnic tribes were pushed into the coastal regions by the Slav migrations of the sixth and seventh centuries AD."

The Middle Ages

Historically, the Livonians lived in two separate areas of Latvia, one group in Livonia and another on the northern coast of Courland. The latter were referred as Curonians, together with the Balts living there. The Livonians referred to themselves as rāndalist 'coast dwellers' and supported themselves mainly by fishing, but also by agriculture and animal husbandry. Since they controlled an important trade route, the Daugava River (Livonian: Vēna), their culture was highly developed through trade with the Gotlanders, Russians and Finns, and, from the end of the first millennium AD onwards, with the Germans, Swedes and Danes.

However, with the traders came missionaries from Western Europe who wanted to convert the pagan Livonians to Christianity. One of the first people to convert some Livonians to Christianity was the Danish archbishop Absalon, who supposedly built a church in the Livonian village today known as Kolka. In the 12th century, Germans invaded Livonia and established a base in Uexküll, known today as Ikšķile. Archbishop Hartwig II converted some Livonians in the surrounding area, including the local chieftain Caupo of Turaida, who later allied himself with the Germans.

After Meinhard died in 1196, his place was taken by Berthold. Berthold tried to convert the Livonians by force, launching two raids on Livonia. The first took place in 1196, but he was forced to retreat to Germany after being ambushed near Salaspils. He tried again in 1198, but this time he was killed by the Livonian soldier Ymaut.

Berthold was followed by Albert von Buxhövden, who forced the Livonian leaders at the mouth of the Daugava River to give him land to build a Christian settlement. Building started in 1201. From this settlement, the city of Riga grew.

When this did not immediately induce the Livonians, Estonians, and Baltic peoples in the hinterland to convert, a knightly order was formed, the Knights of the Sword, primarily consisting of Germans, to bring salvation to the pagans by force. In a campaign that was part of the wars known as the Livonian Crusade, these knights defeated, subdued and converted the Livonians. In 1208, Pope Innocent III declared that all Livonians had been converted to Christianity. Afterwards they were obliged to join the Knights of the Sword as infantry during the wars against the Estonians and the Latvian tribes, which continued until 1217.

Before the German Conquests Livonian inhabited territory was divided in lands of Daugava Livonians, Satezele, Turaida, Idumeja, Metsepole.

During the Livonian Crusade, once prosperous Livonia was devastated, and whole regions were almost completely depopulated. This vacuum was filled by Latvian tribes – Curonians, Semigallians, Latgallians and Selonians – who started to move into the area around 1220, and continued to do so for at least thirty years. They settled mostly in the Daugava Valley, so that the Livonians of Livonia in the east were cut off from those living on the peninsula of Curonia in the west.

Because of their defeat at the battle of Saule the Knights of the Sword eventually had to look for support to the much more powerful Teutonic Order, which up until then had been active primarily in Poland and Lithuania. Having been reorganized as a subdivision of the Teutonic Order and renamed the Livonian Order in 1237, the former Knights of the Sword finally overpowered the Curonians in 1267, and subsequently the Semigallians in 1290. From then on most of Latvia remained under German control until the 16th century, with the city of Riga and several other cities existing as independent German-ruled bishoprics, and the Livonian Order ruling the rest of the land.

Under foreign powers (1558–1795)
In the middle of the 16th century, the Livonian Order and the independent bishoprics were in turmoil because of the growing influence of Martin Luther's Reformation. Seeing a chance in the resulting military weakness of the Order, Czar Ivan the Terrible of Russia invaded Livonia in 1558, seeking access to the Baltic Sea. However, Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered the war as allies of the Livonian Order, resulting in almost a quarter of a century of war. The outcome of this Livonian War (1558–1582) was a Russian defeat, but also the dissolution of the Livonian Order. Livonia and south-eastern Latvia were claimed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Curonia became an independent duchy (Courland), with Gotthard Kettler, the Livonian Order's last Grandmaster, as its first duke.

After only ten years of peace, a new series of wars between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden, which had claimed Estonia after the Livonian War, ravaged Livonia from 1592. Eventually, the Swedes were victorious. In 1629, they could finally call Livonia and the city of Riga their own. Under the 17th Century Swedish Kings Gustav II Adolf and Charles XI, general elementary education was introduced, the Bible was translated in Estonian and Latvian, and a university was founded in Tartu in southern Estonia.

Although Sweden kept the Poles and the Danes at a distance, this could not be said of the Russians. In the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Czar Peter the Great utterly destroyed Sweden's pretensions to being a regional superpower. In the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, Estonia and Livonia, which had again been completely devastated after more than twenty years of war, were claimed by Russia. Curonia continued to be ruled by its dukes for another three-quarters of a century, but in 1795, that region also became a Russian possession as part of the Third Partition of Poland.

Assimilation and isolation (1795–1914)
Partly because of the recurring devastation of war and the resultant mingling of refugees, the Livonians of Livonia were eventually completely assimilated by the Latvians. The last remnant of this once vibrant nation was made up of several families living along the river Salaca (Livonian: Salatsi), but in the second half of the 19th century, the Livonian language and culture completely disappeared from the region known to this day as Livonia; the last known speaker of the eastern Livonian dialect died in 1864, though according to some reports, there were still some people in the early 20th century in the Polish area In the Latvian dialect spoken in Livonia, a large number of Livonian loanwords have survived, and other traces of Livonian can be found in many geographical names in the region.

In Curonia, the Livonian language and culture also came under heavy pressure, but here it retained a last foothold on the outermost tip of the Curonian Peninsula. Several factors made sure that in this area, known as Līvõd rānda, the Livonian Coast, Latvian culture was too weak to assimilate the Livonians. For one thing, the society of the Livonians living in this area was exclusively sea-oriented and based on fishing, while that of the Latvians in the interior was exclusively land-oriented and mostly agricultural. This meant there was not a lot of interaction between the two groups. Also, the Livonian Coast was separated from the interior of Curonia by dense forests and impassable marshlands, which made regular interaction even less likely. The people of the Livonian Coast had much closer ties to the inhabitants of the Estonian island of Saaremaa, across the Gulf of Riga to the north. In their isolated fishing villages, these Livonians kept to themselves for centuries. It was not until the 20th century that the outside world intruded on their quiet existence.

At the beginning of 20th century many local Livs converted to the Russian Orthodox faith. A new Russian Orthodox church was built in Kolka along with a grammar school nearby and navy school in Mazirbe. Many graduates in later years became sea captains first in the Russian Empire, and later in independent Latvia.

World War I
In 1914, Russia entered the First World War by attacking the Germans and the Austrians from the east, but soon it was pushed back in a series of devastating German victories, which eventually left almost the entire Baltic region in German hands. The Livonian Coast was occupied by the Germans in 1915. At their approach, many Livonians fled their homes, often never to return. Their main destinations were Estonia and inner parts of Latvia. The rest of the people were driven from their homes by the Germans and had to wait until 1919 before they were allowed to return.

The Russian defeat and the subsequent abdication of Czar Nicholas II opened the door for Vladimir Lenin and the communists to make a grab for power in Russia, leading to the establishment of the Soviet government in Russia in 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the following year ended the war between Germany and Soviet Russia and left the Baltic region firmly in German hands. However, after the German capitulation in 1919, the Baltic peoples rose up and established the independent republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

The interwar years
The Livonian Coast became part of independent Latvia. Actions by the Latvian government during the interwar years towards supporting the Livonian minority has been seen as lacking or non-existent, with claims that the Latvian government did not see the topic of Livonian culture as important enough. Nevertheless, the Livonian language and culture experienced a revival between the two World Wars (beginning with the term of the Latvian president Jānis Čakste through the term of the last interwar president Kārlis Ulmanis). The clearest expression of this revival was the establishment on April 2, 1923 of the Livonian Society (Līvõd Īt, Līvu savienība), which considered itself the representative of the Livonian people. Also, a Livonian language choir was founded and Livonian song festivals were held along the entire Livonian Coast. Furthermore, a Livonian flag was adopted, with the colours green (for the forests), white (for the beaches) and blue (for the sea), and a division similar to the Latvian flag (three horizontal bars with the middle one-half as wide as the outer ones).

In 1923, the Latvian government prohibited the formation of an ethnic Livonian parish within the Lutheran Church. It did approve the introduction of the Livonian language as an optional subject in elementary schools in the villages of the Livonian Coast that same year. In the 1930s, the first Livonian language reader, poetry collections of several Livonian writers, and a monthly magazine in the Livonian language, called "Līvli" ("The Livonian") were published. Also, contact was made with related peoples such as the Estonians and the Finns — spurred by the Finnish promotion of closer ties with the kindred Baltic Finns — and in 1939, the Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe (Irē) was founded with subsidies from the Estonian and Finnish governments.

This cultural revival of the Interbellum years served to give the Livonian people for the first time a clear consciousness of their ethnic identity. Before, they had always referred to themselves as rāndalist ("coast dwellers") or kalāmīed ("fishermen"). From the 1920s and 1930s on, though, they began to call themselves līvõd, līvnikad, or līvlist ("Livonians").

The Second World War
In 1940, Latvia, like Estonia and Lithuania, was occupied by the Soviet Union. This occupation and the subsequent German invasion of 1941 ended all progress the Livonians had made in the preceding twenty years. All cultural expressions were prohibited and just like twenty years before, the inhabitants of the Livonian Coast were driven from their homes. Most of them spent the war years in Riga or western Latvia, but some fled across the Baltic Sea to Gotland. The Curonian Peninsula was one of the areas where the Germans held out until the general capitulation of May 9, 1945, which meant that often there was not a house left standing when the Livonians returned home after the war.

Repression by the Soviet Union
In the Soviet era, the Livonians were hard-hit by repressive measures from Moscow. For one thing, they were not allowed to sail far enough from shore to continue their fishery. For another, like the Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians, large numbers of them were deported to Siberia between 1945 and 1952, with a clear peak in 1949, when agriculture was collectivized in the Baltic states. Also, in 1955 a Soviet military base was constructed in the middle of the Livonian Coast. To accomplish this, some Livonians were forcibly relocated to villages farther from the coast. Subsequently, the western villages of the Livonian Coast had to be almost completely evacuated when the Soviet Union made its Baltic coastline (its western border) a "closed border area" of the Iron Curtain where no one was allowed to live.

Livonian culture was repressed during the Soviet period. For example, the Livonian Society was banned and the Livonian Community Centre expropriated and given to others. Within the Latvian SSR, the Livonians were not recognized as a separate ethnic group.

Modern situation
It was not until early the early 1970s that Livonian singers were allowed to found a choir named "Līvlist" ("The Livonians") in the western Latvian city of Ventspils. The 1980s, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika opened the Iron Curtain, bringing change. In 1986, the Livonian Cultural Society was founded. It was later renamed the Livonian Union (Livonian: Līvõd Īt).

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Latvia became once again an independent country. In this new nation, Livonians were finally recognised as an indigenous ethnic minority, whose language and culture must be protected and advanced. All rights and possessions which had been taken away from them during the Soviet era were now returned to them. For example, the old Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe (Irē) was given back and transformed into a historical museum, called the House of the Livonian People. Also, the Livonian language was reintroduced in the elementary schools in Riga, Staicele, Ventspils, Dundaga and Kolka. The first research body dedicated to Livonian studies, the Livonian Institute at the University of Latvia was established in 2018.

Furthermore, on February 4, 1992, the Latvian government created a cultural historic protected territory called Līvõd rānda – the Livonian Coast – which included all twelve of the Livonian villages: Lūžņa (Livonian: Lūž), Miķeļtornis (Pizā), Lielirbe (Īra), Jaunciems (Ūžkilā), Sīkrags (Sīkrõg), Mazirbe (Irē), Košrags (Kuoštrõg), Pitrags (Pitrõg), Saunags (Sǟnag), Vaide (Vaid), Kolka (Kūolka), and Melnsils (Mustānum). The Latvian government discourages settlement of ethnic Latvians and other non-Livonians in this area and prohibits alterations to historic village sites. Also, it is prohibited for anyone to start a hotel, restaurant, or other public establishment which might adversely influence the Livonian culture or draw outsiders into the area.

Today, many Latvians claim to have some Livonian ancestry. However, there are only 176 people in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian. According to data from 1995, the Livonian language was spoken by no more than 30 people, of whom only nine were native speakers. An article published by the Foundation for Endangered Languages in 2007 stated that there were only 182 registered Livonians and a mere six native speakers. "The last Livonian", who had learned the Livonian language as a part of an unbroken chain of Livonian generations, was Viktors Bertholds (b. 1921). He was buried on 28 February 2009 in the Livonian village of Kolka in Courland.

The Livonian Dāvis Stalts was elected into the Latvian parliament, the Saeima in 2011. In 2018, after being re-elected to the Saeima, Janīna Kursīte-Pakule delivered her oath in Livonian before being asked to retake it in Latvian, which she did in the Livonian dialect of Latvian. In 2018, the Livonian Institute at the University of Latvia (Lețmō Iļīzskūol Līvõd institūt) was established to promote research and awareness of the language. It is led by linguist and activist Valts Ernštreits.

In 2020, it was reported that newborn Kuldi Medne had become the only living person who speaks Livonian as their first language. Her parents are Livonian language revival activists Jānis Mednis and Renāte Medne. In October 2022, they published ''Kūldaläpš. Zeltabērns'' ('Golden Child'), a book in Livonian and Latvian for children and parents, with plans for subsequent books and an audio version. Currently, the Livonian language is being revived, with some 210 persons having some knowledge of the language at a A1 or A2 level.

2023 was proclaimed as Livonian Heritage Year by the UoL Livonian Institute in cooperation with the UNESCO Latvian National Commission and the Latvian National Cultural Center, with various events held by individuals and institutions. In 2023, the first of 171 approved road signs in Latvia with Latvian and Livonian text were placed on the border of Talsi Municipality. During the 2023 Latvian Song and Dance Festival, for the first time in the history of the event, a song with Livonan lyrics was featured.

Notable Livonians

 * Viktors Bertholds, one of the last Livonian speakers
 * Caupo of Turaida, leader of the Livonian people in the beginning of the 13th century
 * Pētõr Damberg, linguist, poet and educator
 * Uļi Kīnkamäg, nationalist
 * Grizelda Kristiņa, the last native Livonian speaker
 * Kōrli Stalte, teacher, cantor and Livonian cultural activist
 * Edgar Vaalgamaa, Lutheran pastor and translator

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Talk:Jannar

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Page must be renamed to "Janar".

spelling?
I can't find a canonical spelling for Janar. Can someone help with this, and move the page as well? Christopherlin 07:53, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

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Wikipedia talk:Election Notice

For those confused about the whole voting systems business, the Wikipedia article has a good overview. Unless I'm mistaken, the originally-proposed system for this election was first past the post, and it has now been replaced with approval voting. --Delirium 23:41, May 13, 2004 (UTC)

I have protected this page because it is related to Elections for the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation which is also protected from election related tampering. --"D ICK " C HENEY 20:55, 29 May 2004 (UTC)

Please mark this as Historical
Please add {{historical}} to this page, so it will be well-catagorized, and we can take it off Topical index. Thanks! JesseW 23:03, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Ta da. --Dmcdevit·t 23:30, July 25, 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Election Notice


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Osmeterium

The osmeterium is a defensive organ found in all papilionid larvae, in all stages. The organ is situated in the prothoracic segment and can be everted when the larva feels threatened. The everted organ resembles a fleshy forked tongue (not unlike a snake tongue), and this along with the large eye-like spots on the body might be used to startle birds and small reptiles. The osmeterial organ remains inside the body in the thoracic region in an inverted position and is everted when the larva is disturbed in any way emitting a foul, disagreeable odor which serves to repel ants, small spiders and mantids. To humans, this odour is rather strong but not unpleasant, usually smelling like a concentrated scent of the caterpillar's food plant and pineapple.

The constitution of the osmeterial secretion varies from species to species and contains monoterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpenic compounds or a mixture of aliphatic acids and esters.

The fine structure of the osmeterium of Papilio demoleus libanius Fruhstorfer has been studied and found to contain 3 types of specialised cells for synthesis, acid secretion, and storage of the osmeterial secretion.

Structure

The fine structure of the osmeterium gland of Papilio larvae consists of the following cell types. Specific study of Papilio demoleus libanius Fruhstorfer shows the possible existence of a third type of cell
 * Ellipsoid gland cells have an extensively infolded basal plasma membrane, abundant ribosomes and whorls of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The apical plasma membrane bears long microvilli extending into a mass of granular material containing electron-lucid cavities. Tangential slits occur in the epicuticle. These cells are presumed to be organic acid-secreting cells.
 * Tubular arm cells contain heterogeneous, electron-dense inclusions, extensively-branched nuclei and large mitochondria, sometimes distended with electron-dense material. The apical plasma membrane bears short microvilli. The inner, dense epicuticle forms a complex ramifying system. These glandular cells presumably synthesize and secrete the mature secretion.
 * Slack cells, loosely surround the ellipsoid gland cells. These cells possess papillae, well-developed, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and numerous secretory vacuoles of various sizes and electron density. They may function as storage cells.

Osmeterial secretion
The osmetrial secretion consists of a mixture of volatile organic acids, such as isobutyric acid and 2-methylbutyric acid.

The secretion of Papilio demodocus pre-final larval instar contains methyl 3-hydroxybutanoate, 3-hydroxybutanoic acid, α-pinene, myrcene, limonene, β-phellandrene, (Z)-ocimene, (E)-ocimene, β-caryophyllene, (E)-β-farnesene, and germacrene A, as well as a number of unidentified sesquiterpenoids. and that of its final instar contains 2-methylpropanoic acid, 2-methylbutanoic acid, and their methyl and ethyl esters as major constituents.

Volatile components of the secretion of Parnassius glacialis (Parnassiinae, Parnassiini) consisted of isobutyric acid, 2-methylbutyric acid, and their methyl esters. That of Sericinus montela (Parnassiinae, Zerynthiini) was characterized as monoterpene hydrocarbons comprising β-myrcene (major), α-pinene, sabinene, limonene, and β-phellandrene, and of Pachliopta aristolochiae (Papilioninae, Troidini) was composed of numerous sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, including α-himachalene, α-amorphene, and germacrene A, and a few oxygenated sesquiterpenoids.

Studies on osmeterial secretion makes it possible to classify the Papilionid species into two large categories on the basis of the chemical property of osmeterial secretion.
 * One is a group in which the chemical constitution of osmeterial secretion of the last larval instar markedly differs in quality from those of the younger larvae. The results derived from Papilio protenor, P. demodocus and other Papilio species (P. helenus, P. machaon, P. memnon, P. bianor, P. maccki, P. xuthus, etc., unpublished work) may assign the genus Papilio (tribe Papilionini) to this group, which can be termed 'heterogeneous type'.
 * The genera Luehdorfia (tribe Zerynthiini), Graphium (tribe Graphiini) and Atrophaneura (tribe Troidini) apparently belong to the other group, in which no qualitative change of osmeterial secretion occurs at the last larval ecdysis. This group can be designated as 'homogeneous type', which is further subdivisible into three types.
 * Monoterpene - Luehdorfia (Zerynthiini, Parnassiinae)
 * Sesquiterpene - Atrophaneura (Troidini, Papilionnae)
 * Aliphatic acid and ester - Graphium (Graphiini, Papilioninae)

Function
Eversion of the osmeterial gland is demonstrably effective in reducing predation by ants and small spiders, and its chemical constituents have been shown to repel or kill ants, and mantids.

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Grünwald

Grünwald (transliterated Gruenwald) is German for "green forest" and may refer to:

Places

 * Grünwald, Austria, town in Aigen-Schlägl municipality, Rohrbach, Austria
 * Grünwald, Bavaria, municipality south of Munich, Germany

People

 * Alfred Grünwald (librettist) (1884–1951), Austrian librettist
 * Béla Iványi-Grünwald (1867–1940), Hungarian painter
 * Béla Grünwald (1839–1891), Hungarian politician and historian
 * Géza Grünwald (1910–1943), Hungarian mathematician
 * Johannes Theodor Baargeld (1892–1927; legal name: Alfred Emanuel Ferdinand Grünwald), German painter and poet
 * Mark Gruenwald (1953–1996), American comic book writer
 * Malchiel Gruenwald (1882–1958), Israeli hotelier, amateur journalist and stamp collector
 * Sidonie Grünwald-Zerkowitz (1852–1907), Austro-Hungarian writer, translator and fashion designer

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William Clarke (English politician)

Sir William Clarke (died 1666) was an English politician. Born about 1623 in London of obscure parentage, he was admitted as a student to Inner Temple in 1645 and called to the bar in 1653. On 28 January 1661 he was appointed Secretary at War, after having served for at least the previous twelve years as secretary to General Monck. Clarke served as Secretary to the Council of the Army, 1647–1649, and Secretary to General Monck and the Commanders of the Army in Scotland, 1651-1660. Clarke served as the Secretary at War from 1661 to his death in 1666, as a casualty of war with the Dutch. With the Restoration, both Monck and Clarke had great favour with Charles II, who bestowed knighthood upon Clarke and gave him the use, for a term of some years, of the great lodge and 60 acres within Marylebone Park. His widow was Dorothy Clarke, and they had one son, George Clarke.

Circumstances related to Clarke's death
In November 1652 Monck became a general at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War, which was concluded with an English victory in the Battle of Scheveningen in August 1653, although a peace treaty was not signed for another eight months. The Commonwealth government of Oliver Cromwell tried to avoid further conflict with the Dutch Republic, but the Treaty of Westminster planted the seeds of future conflict.

The Restoration government of Charles II negotiated a new treaty with the Dutch Republic in 1661, concluding the treaty by 1662. By 1664, however, English ships had begun provoking Dutch ships, and the English invaded the Dutch colony of New Netherland in North America on 24 June 1664, and had control of it by October. This Second Anglo-Dutch War was to cost Clarke his life. In the winter of 1666 the Dutch created a strong anti-English alliance. On 26 January, Louis declared war. In February Frederick III of Denmark did the same after having received a large sum. By the spring of 1666, the Dutch had rebuilt their fleet with much heavier ships — thirty of them possessing more cannon than any Dutch ship in early 1665 — and threatened to join with the French.

The result was the Four Days' Battle, one of the longest naval engagements in history. Despite administrative and logistic difficulties, a fleet of eighty ships under General-at-Sea Monck, the Commonwealth veteran, (after the Duke of Albemarle) set sail at the end of May 1666. In his official capacity Clarke attended Monck aboard the Royal Charles. The Four Days' Battle began on June 1. On the 2nd day, Clarke's right leg was shattered by a cannonball. Monck reported that "he bore it bravely" but, two days later, Clarke died. His body was buried at Harwich.

The Clarke Papers
The Clarke Papers are Sir William's working papers for 1623/24 to 1666, bequeathed by George Clarke, Sir William's son, to Worcester College, Oxford. These papers, an important primary source for the English Civil War and the Interregnum, were first brought to wide public attention by the historian Charles Harding Firth. He edited and published a four volume selection entitled The Clarke Papers (1891–1901). The papers themselves are 51 bound volumes with a large amount of unbound material. In 2005, the historian Frances Henderson published a new selection of Clarke's working papers taken from the large collection of his writings in shorthand.

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Peter Shields

Peter Shields may refer to:

 * Peter Joseph Shields (1862–1962), helped found the University of California at Davis and superior court judge for the State of California
 * Peter Shields (footballer) (born 1960), Scottish football player
 * Peter Shields (cricketer) (born 1979), Irish cricketer

 * See also
 * Pete Shields (1891–1961), American baseball player

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Governance

Governance is the overall complex system or framework of processes, functions, structures, rules, laws and norms borne out of the relationships, interactions, power dynamics and communication within an organized group of individuals which not only sets the boundaries of acceptable conduct and practices of different actors of the group and controls their decision-making processes through the creation and enforcement of rules and guidelines, but also manages, allocates and mobilizes relevant resources and capacities of different members and sets the overall direction of the group in order to effectively address its specific collective needs, problems and challenges. The concept of governance can be applied to social, political or economic entities (groups of individuals engaged in some purposeful activity) such as a state and its government (public administration), a governed territory, a society, a community, a social group (like a tribe or a family), a formal or informal organization, a corporation, a non-governmental organization, a non-profit organization, a project team, a market, a network or even the global stage. Governance can also pertain to a specific sector of activities such as land, environment, health, internet, security, etc. The degree of formality in governance depends on the internal rules of a given entity and its external interactions with similar entities. As such, governance may take many forms, driven by many different motivations and with many different results. Whereas smaller groups may rely on informal leadership structures, effective governance of a larger group typically relies on a well-functioning governing body, which is a specific group of people entrusted with the authority and responsibilities to make decisions about the rules, enforcing them and overseeing the smooth operation of the group within the broader framework of governance. The most formal type of a governing body is a government, which has the responsibility and authority to make binding decisions for a specific geopolitical system (like a country) through established rules and guidelines. A government may operate as a democracy where citizens vote on who should govern towards the goal of public good. Beyond governments, other entities can also have governing bodies. These can be legal entities or organizations recognized by a government, such as corporations, companies or non-profit organizations governed by small boards of directors pursuing more specific aims. They can also be socio-political groups including hierarchical political structures, tribes, religious subgroups, or even families. In the case of a state, governance expresses a growing awareness of the ways in which diffuse forms of power and authority can secure order even in the absence of state activity. A variety of external actors without decision-making power can influence this system of state governance. These include lobbies, think tanks, political parties, non-government organizations, community and media. It is also shaped by external factors such as globalization, social movements or technological progress.

From a normative perspective, good, effective and fair governance is a well-organized system that fairly represents stakeholders' interests and needs. It guides the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of the group's objectives, policies, and programs, ensuring smooth operation in various contexts. It fosters trust by promoting transparency, responsibility, and accountability, and employs mechanisms to resolve disputes and conflicts for greater harmony. It adapts to changing circumstances, keeping the group responsive and resilient. By delivering on its promises and creating positive outcomes, it fosters legitimacy and acceptance of the governing body, leading to rule compliance, shared responsibility, active cooperation, and ultimately, greater stability and long-term sustainability.

Most institutions of higher education offer governance as an area of study, such as the Balsillie School of International Affairs, Munk School of Global Affairs, Sciences Po Paris, Graduate Institute Geneva, Hertie School, and London School of Economics, among others. Many social scientists prefer to discuss the process of governing by using the term governance because it covers the whole range of institutions and relationships involved in it.

Origin of the word
Like government, the word governance derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb kubernaein [kubernáo] (meaning to steer, the metaphorical sense first being attested in Plato ). Its occasional use in English to refer to the specific activity of ruling a country can be traced to early-modern England, when the phrase "governance of the realm" appears in works by William Tyndale and in royal correspondence from James V of Scotland to Henry VIII of England. The first usage in connection with institutional structures (as distinct from individual rule) appears in Charles Plummer's The Governance of England (an 1885 translation from a 15th-century Latin manuscript by John Fortescue, also known as The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy). This usage of "governance" to refer to the arrangements of governing became orthodox including in Sidney Low's seminal text of the same title in 1904 and among some later British constitutional historians.

However, the use of the term governance in its current broader sense, encompassing the activities of a wide range of public and private institutions, acquired general currency only as recently as the 1990s, when it was re-minted by economists and political scientists and disseminated by institutions such as the UN, the IMF and the World Bank. Since then, the term has gained increasing usage.

Types
Governance often refers to a particular level of governance associated with a type of organization (including public governance, global governance, non-profit governance, corporate governance, and project governance), a particular 'field' of governance associated with a type of activity or outcome (including environmental governance, internet governance, and information technology governance), or a particular 'model' of governance, often derived as an empirical or normative theory (including regulatory governance, participatory governance, multilevel governance, metagovernance, and collaborative governance).

Governance can also define normative or practical agendas. Normative concepts of fair governance or good governance are common among political, public sector, voluntary, and private sector organizations.

Governance as process
In its most abstract sense, governance is a theoretical concept referring to the actions and processes by which stable practices and organizations arise and persist. These actions and processes may operate in formal and informal organizations of any size; and they may function for any purpose, good or evil, for profit or not. Conceiving of governance in this way, one can apply the concept to states, to corporations, to non-profits, to NGOs, to partnerships and other associations, to business relationships (especially complex outsourcing relationships), to project teams, and to any number of humans engaged in some purposeful activity.

Most theories of governance as process arose out of neoclassical economics. These theories build deductive models, based on the assumptions of modern economics, to show how rational actors may come to establish and sustain formal organizations, including firms and states, and informal organizations, such as networks and practices for governing the commons. Many of these theories draw on transaction cost economics.

Public governance
There is a distinction between the concepts of governance and politics. Politics involves processes by which a group of people (perhaps with divergent opinions or interests) reach collective decisions generally regarded as binding on the group, and enforced as common policy. Governance, on the other hand, conveys the administrative and process-oriented elements of governing rather than its antagonistic ones. This distinction assumes the possibility of the traditional separation between "politics" and "administration". Contemporary governance practice and theory sometimes questions this distinction, premising that both "governance" and "politics" involve aspects of power and accountability.

In general terms, public governance occurs in various ways:
 * through networks involving public-private partnerships (PPP) or with the collaboration of community organisations
 * through the use of market mechanisms whereby market principles of competition serve to allocate resources while operating under government regulation
 * through the formation and execution of consensus
 * through top-down methods that primarily involve governments and their state bureaucracy

Private governance
Private governance occurs when non-governmental entities, including private organizations, dispute resolution organizations, or other third party groups, make rules and/or standards which have a binding effect on the "quality of life and opportunities of the larger public." Simply put, private—not public—entities are making public policy. For example, insurance companies exert a great societal impact, largely invisible and freely accepted, that is a private form of governance in society; in turn, reinsurers, as private companies, may exert similar private governance over their underlying carriers. The term "public policy" should not be exclusively associated with policy that is made by government. Public policy may be created by either the private sector or the public sector. If one wishes to refer only to public policy that is made by government, the best term to use is "governmental policy", which eliminates the ambiguity regarding the agent of the policy making.

Global governance
Global governance is defined as "the complex of formal and informal institutions, mechanisms, relationships, and processes between and among states, markets, citizens and organizations, both inter- and non-governmental, through which collective interests on the global plane are articulated, rights and obligations are established, and differences are mediated". In contrast to the traditional meaning of "governance", some authors like James Rosenau have used the term "global governance" to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authority. The best example of this is the international system or relationships between independent states. The term, however, can apply wherever a group of free equals needs to form a regular relationship.

Governance Analytical Framework
The Governance Analytical Framework (GAF) is a practical methodology for investigating governance processes, where various stakeholders interact and make decisions regarding collective issues, thus creating or reinforcing social norms and institutions. It is postulated that governance processes can be found in any society, and unlike other approaches, that these can be observed and analysed from a non-normative perspective. It proposes a methodology based on five main analytical units: problems, actors, norms, processes and "nodal points". These logically articulated analytical units make up a coherent methodology aimed at being used as a tool for empirical social policy research.

Nonprofit governance
Nonprofit governance has a dual focus: achieving the organization's social mission and ensuring the organization is viable. Both responsibilities relate to fiduciary responsibility that a board of trustees (sometimes called directors, or Board, or Management Committee—the terms are interchangeable) has with respect to the exercise of authority over the explicit actions the organization takes. Public trust and accountability is an essential aspect of organizational viability so it achieves the social mission in a way that is respected by those whom the organization serves and the society in which it is located.

Corporate governance
Corporate organizations often use the word governance to describe both:
 * 1) The manner in which boards or their like direct a corporation
 * 2) The laws and customs (rules) applying to that direction

Corporate governance consists of the set of processes, customs, policies, laws and institutions affecting the way people direct, administer or control an organization. Corporate governance also includes the relationships between people within an organization, (the stakeholders) and the corporate goals. The principal players include the shareholders, management, and the board of directors. Other stakeholders include employees, suppliers, customers, banks and other lenders, regulators, the environment and the community at large.

The first documented use of the word "corporate governance" is by Richard Eells (1960, p. 108) to denote "the structure and functioning of the corporate polity". The "corporate government" concept itself is older and was already used in finance textbooks at the beginning of the 20th century (Becht, Bolton, Röell 2004).

Project governance
Project governance is the management framework within which project decisions are made and outcomes of a project are realized. Its role is to provide a repeatable and robust system through which an organization can manage its capital investments—project governance handles tasks such as outlining the relationships between all groups involved and describing the flow of information to all stakeholders.

Environmental governance
Governance in an environmental context may refer to:

 * a concept in political ecology which promotes environmental policy that advocates for sustainable human activity (i.e. that governance should be based upon environmental principles).
 * the processes of decision-making involved in the control and management of the environment and natural resources. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), define environmental governance as the "multi-level interactions (i.e., local, national, international/global) among, but not limited to, three main actors, i.e., state, market, and civil society, which interact with one another, whether in formal and informal ways; in formulating and implementing policies in response to environment-related demands and inputs from the society; bound by rules, procedures, processes, and widely accepted behavior; possessing characteristics of 'good governance'; for the purpose of attaining environmentally-sustainable development."

Land governance
Land governance is concerned with issues of land ownership and tenure. It consists of the policies, processes and institutions by which decisions about the access to, use of and control over land are made, implemented and enforced; it is also about managing and reconciling competing claims on land. In developing countries, it is relevant as a tool to contribute to equitable and sustainable development, addressing the phenomenon that is known as ‘land grabbing’. The operational dimension of land governance is land administration.

Security of land tenure is considered to contribute to poverty reduction and food security, since it can enable farmers to fully participate in the economy. Without recognized property rights, it is hard for small entrepreneurs, farmers included, to obtain credit or sell their business – hence the relevance of comprehensive land governance.

There is constant feedback between land tenure problems and land governance. For instance, it has been argued that what is frequently called 'land grabbing', was partly made possible by the Washington Consensus-inspired liberalization of land markets in developing countries. Many land acquisition deals were perceived to have negative consequences, and this in turn led to initiatives to improve land governance in developing countries.

The quality of land governance depends on its practical implementation, which is known as land administration: ‘the way in which rules of land tenure are made operational’. And another factor is accountability: the degree to which citizens and stakeholder groups are consulted and can hold to account their authorities.

The main international policy initiative to improve land governance is known as the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (VGGT), endorsed by the Committee on World Food Security (CFS).

Landscape governance
Landscape governance roughly refers to the rules, processes and institutions according to which decisions regarding the protection, management and planning of the landscape are made. Landscape governance differs from country to country according to the national context (e.g., political system, organization of public administration, economy, culture etc.). Generally, landscape governance could be described as"both an empirical observation and a normative idea based on the principles of place-based multi-stakeholder dialogue, negotiation and spatial decision-making, and aims to achieve environmental, economic and social objectives simultaneously."The current discourse about landscape governance calls for participatory and inclusive processes, that take into account the local realities (i.e. biophysical, cultural, social parameters), and the local needs and concerns of the multiple landscape agents; and effectively deal with cases of conflicting interests, ensuring the democratic and just treatment of the landscape.

The introduction of holistic approaches to landscape governance is the focus of the evolving interdisciplinary landscape research. Such an approach is the conceptualization of landscape as a commons. The discussion about commons-based landscape governance puts forward the need for open technologies (i.e. accessible, under creative commons licenses, open-source) that can facilitate public access to landscape data (e.g., maps/satellite images for the study and monitoring of landscape change) and the distributed participation in the decision making, mapping and planning (e.g. open platforms).

Health governance
According to the WHO, "governance in the health sector refers to a wide range of steering and rule-making related functions carried out by governments/decisions makers as they seek to achieve national health policy objectives that are conducive to universal health coverage." A national health policy is a complex and dynamic process, which changes from State to State according to the political, historical and socio-economic situation prevailing in the country. Mainly it seeks to strengthen the health system, making sure that they are capable of meeting the health needs of targeted populations.

More broadly, health governance requires a synergistic set of policies, many of which reside in sectors other than health as well as governors beyond the national governments, which must be supported by structures and mechanisms that enable collaboration. For instance, in the European context, it was developed a health policy framework called Health 2020 as a result of the collaboration between State members in the region. It gives policy-makers a vision, a strategic path and a set of priorities to improve health, guaranteeing that it is more equitable and sustainable.

In the 21st century, global trends (e.g., changing population demographics and epidemiology, widening social inequalities, and a context of financial uncertainty) have influenced health system priorities and subsequently the setting of the health governance function. These trends have resulted in the emergence of joint actions of all stakeholders to achieve seminal changes in 21st-century societies. It is also important to consider that people have witnessed a global shift from traditional and reactive healthcare to proactive care, mainly enabled by investment in advanced technologies. Recent artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine learning have made possible the automation as well as the standardisation of many processes in healthcare, which have also brought to light challenges to the existing governance structures. One of these challenges concerns the ownership of health data.

Internet governance
Internet governance was defined by the World Summit on the Information Society as "the development and application by Governments, the private sector and civil society, in their respective roles, of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programmes that shape the evolution and use of the Internet." Internet governance deals with how much influence each sector of society should have on the development of the Internet, such as to what extent the state should be able to censor it, and how issues on the Internet, such as cyber-bullying and criminal behavior should be approached.

Information technology governance
IT governance primarily deals with connections between business focus and IT management. The goal of clear governance is to assure that investment in IT generates business value and mitigates the risks that are associated with IT projects.

Blockchain governance
Blockchains offer a novel way to enforce agreements and achieve cooperation and coordination. The main technical features of blockchains support transparency and traceability of records, information immutability and reliability, and autonomous enforcement of agreements. As such, blockchains will affect traditional forms of governance—most notably, contractual and relational governance—and may change the way to organize collaborations between individuals and between organizations. Blockchain governance relies on a set of protocols and code-based rules. As an original governance mode, it departs from an enforcement through the law (as in contractual governance) or through the value of future relationships (as in relational governance).

Regulatory governance
Regulatory governance reflects the emergence of decentered and mutually adaptive policy regimes which rests on regulation rather than service provision or taxing and spending. The term captures the tendency of policy regimes to deal with complexity with delegated system of rules. It is likely to appear in arenas and nations which are more complex, more global, more contested and more liberally democratic. The term builds upon and extends the terms of the regulatory state on the one hand and governance on the other. While the term regulatory state marginalize non-state actors (NGOs and Business) in the domestic and global level, the term governance marginalizes regulation as a constitutive instrument of governance. The term regulatory governance therefore allows us to understand governance beyond the state and governance via regulation.

Participatory governance
Participatory governance focuses on deepening democratic engagement through the participation of citizens in the processes of governance with the state. The theoretical framework of participatory governance as a variant of governing can be dated back to the early 1990s when academics began to stress the need for citizen participation in the government process. This decentralization of state power "strength[ens] vertical accountability" improving the relationship between citizens and municipal governments. The idea is that citizens should play a more direct roles in public decision-making or at least engage more deeply with political issues. Government officials should also be responsive to this kind of engagement. In practice, participatory governance can supplement the roles of citizens as voters or as watchdogs through more direct forms of involvement.

The role of citizens in participatory governance is to be afforded a form of state power as an elected group of non-political citizens to contribute to the public policy process. Different manifestations of participatory governance include participatory budgeting, councils, and community organizations involved at the state level, taking on state studies or participating in social issues. Over the last two decades, the most rapidly growing form of participatory governance has been participatory budgeting. In 2004, the British Columbia Citizens Assembly was the first form of direct citizen engagement created to envision the provincial electoral system. Adopted by Brazil, participatory budgeting was used to "enhance citizens' empowerment and the quality of [their] democracy." Both examples contributed to the discussion of increasing citizen engagement as a mechanism to increase the effectiveness, legitimacy, and social justice of democratic governance.

Action through participatory governance impacts policy at the municipal level. An example is the use of municipal housing councils in Brazil to impact policy adoption, which finds that housing councils are associated with a greater likelihood of program adoption beneficial to the needs reflected by the citizens. The mechanism of participatory governance links the social sphere to the political to produce policies directly molded by or influenced by citizens. Therefore, participatory governance potentially improves public service delivery and the allocation of resources.

Contract governance
(See also contract management.) Emerging thinking about contract governance is focusing on creating a governance structure in which the parties have a vested interest in managing what are often highly complex contractual arrangements in a more collaborative, aligned, flexible, and credible way. In 1979, Nobel laureate Oliver Williamson wrote that the governance structure for a contract is the "framework within which the integrity of a transaction is decided", adding further that "because contracts are varied and complex, governance structures vary with the nature of the transaction."

Multi-level governance
Multi-level governance is the concept and study of the fact that many intertangled authority structures are present in a global political economy. The theory of multi-level governance, developed mainly by Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, arose from increasing European integration, particularly through the European Union. José Manuel Barroso, former President of the European Commission, has stated that "the multilevel system of governance on which our European regional policy is based provides a key boost to the Union's competitive edge" and that, in times of economic crisis, "multilevel governance must be a priority."

Metagovernance
"Metagovernance" is the "governing of governing". It represents the established ethical principles, or 'norms', that shape and steer the entire governing process.

There are no clearly defined settings within which metagoverning takes place, or particular persons who are responsible for it. While some believe metagovernance to be the role of the state which is assumed to want to steer actors in a particular direction, it can "potentially be exercised by any resourceful actor" who wishes to influence the governing process. Examples of this include the publishing of codes of conduct at the highest level of international government, and media focus on specific issues at the sociocultural level. Despite their different sources, both seek to establish values in such a way that they become accepted 'norms'. The fact that 'norms' can be established at any level and can then be used to shape the governance process as whole, means metagovernance is part of both the input and the output of the governing system.

Collaborative governance
A collaborative governance framework uses a relationship management structure, joint performance and transformation management processes and an exit management plan as controlling mechanisms to encourage the organizations to make ethical, proactive changes for the mutual benefit of all the parties.

Security sector governance
Security sector governance (SSG) is a subpart concept or framework of security governance that focuses specifically on decisions about security and their implementation within the security sector of a single state. SSG applies the principles of good governance to the security sector in question.

Fair governance
When discussing governance in particular organizations, the quality of governance within the organization is often compared to a standard of good governance. In the case of a business or of a non-profit organization, for example, good governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and decision-rights for a given area of responsibility, and proper oversight and accountability. "Good governance" implies that mechanisms function in a way that allows the executives (the "agents") to respect the rights and interests of the stakeholders (the "principals"), in a spirit of democracy.

Good governance
Good governance is an indeterminate term used in international development literature to describe various normative accounts of how public institutions ought to conduct public affairs and manage public resources. These normative accounts are often justified on the grounds that they are thought to be conducive to economic ends, such as the eradication of poverty and successful economic development. Different organisations have defined governance and good governance differently.

The World Bank defines governance as: "the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources for development."

The Worldwide Governance Indicators project of the World Bank defines governance as: "the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised."

This considers the process by which governments are selected, monitored and replaced; the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement sound policies and the respect of citizens and the state of the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them.

An alternate definition sees governance as: "the use of institutions, structures of authority and even collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate or control activity in society or the economy."

According to the United Nations Development Programme's Regional Project on Local Governance for Latin America:

"Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality). It has also been used to describe the 'proper functioning of institutions and their acceptance by the public' (legitimacy). And it has been used to invoke the efficacy of government and the achievement of consensus by democratic means (participation)."

Effective governance
The effectiveness of governments is not a straightforward and consentient type of governance. Measurement and conceptualization of effectiveness is controversial and often used interchangeably with good governance. However, during the period of 1996–2018, an effort was made by the World Bank to create a comparable measure of the performance of governments; the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI). The WGI is constituted by over 30 databases which are rescaled and categorized into six categories; among these is government effectiveness. According to this category, effective governance is composed by five aspects: the quality of public services, the quality of the civil service, the degree of the government's independence from political pressures, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government's commitment to such policies. In short, effective governance is about quality of service, the independence of government and the quality of policies and implementation.

Adding to these components, one might argue that responsiveness to citizen's needs is high in an effective government. Acting according to these needs, effectiveness is achieved by transparent, decentralized and neutral structures, that are consistent and disciplined. Therefore, efficient financial management, high-quality and committed personnel and formalized and standardized ways of processes is needed. For the latter, governments became much more efficient with the arise of bureaucracies. Nevertheless, governments in a rapidly changing environment need to be able to adapt quickly, so being bounded by rigid structures of functioning could work as a detriment.

Since the conceptualization of effective governance is not onefold, some more components that might constitute it are suggested: “It should be small in extent with limited intervention in the economy; a clear vision and processes; committed quality personnel that can formulate and implement policies and projects; comprehensive participation with the public; efficient financial management; responsive, transparent and decentralized structures and political stability”.

Internal and external effective governance

The components of effective governance described above all have a domestic character, within the boundaries of the national territory, national policies and about the inhabitants of a country. This is the internal aspect of effective governance, which mainly focuses on national services and policies. The external aspect of effective governance on the other hand, exclusively focuses on the international domain of politics. It entails the state's capacity to exercise its rights and fulfil its duties in alignment with international law, the representation of its people in the international political landscape and its participation in international relations.

The purpose of effective governance in the internal aspect is to be the sovereign within its national territory; in the external aspect to wield sovereignty over international relations. For this reason, it is a necessary characteristic of the state to have unrestricted capacity to act, without any form of dependence in both state and international law. This independency is the core of statehood.

Effects of effective governance

In an attempt to identify predictors of effective government, a study was conducted to investigate what characteristics of the state are more deeply established by effective governance. The most striking conclusion was that effective governance has a big share in the economic growth and developing, although on the long term. However, this is a bi-directional relationship: economic growth does lead to more effective governance as well. Moreover, effective governance does have a positive influence on reducing corruption, strengthening political stability, contribution to improved rule of law and improved government spending and accountability. As is the case with economic development, it is plausible the argue that effective governance and the named predictors are a positive feedback cycle: they reinforce each other, and so indirectly themselves.

Absence of effective governance

When a state fails to govern effectively, this does not simply imply the absence of the characteristics of effective governance. First of all, the absence of effective governance is lack of capacity of the state to supply its inhabitants with political goods, such as rights and freedoms. Zartman describes how absence of effective governance comes about: “as the disintegration ofstate structure, authority (legitimate power), law, and political order”. Five main characteristics are to be differentiated in the absence of effective governance: disorganizing of the structure of the processes in the state, violent conflicts, violations of human rights and social fragmentation, all of which have an endogenous character.

Measurement and assessment
Since the early years of the 2000s (decade), efforts have been conducted in the research and international development community to assess and measure the quality of governance of countries all around the world. Measuring governance is inherently a controversial and somewhat political exercise. A distinction is therefore made between external assessments, peer assessments and self-assessments. Examples of external assessments are donor assessments or comparative indices produced by international non-governmental organizations. An example of a peer assessment is the African Peer Review Mechanism. Examples of self-assessments are country-led assessments that can be led by government, civil society, researchers and/or other stakeholders at the national level.

One of these efforts to create an internationally comparable measure of governance and an example of an external assessment is the Worldwide Governance Indicators project, developed by members of the World Bank and the World Bank Institute. The project reports aggregate and individual indicators for more than 200 countries for six dimensions of governance: voice and accountability, political stability and lack of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, control of corruption. To complement the macro-level cross-country Worldwide Governance Indicators, the World Bank Institute developed the World Bank Governance Surveys, which are country-level governance assessment tools that operate at the micro or sub-national level and use information gathered from a country's own citizens, business people and public sector workers to diagnose governance vulnerabilities and suggest concrete approaches for fighting corruption.

A Worldwide Governance Index (WGI) was developed in 2009 and is open for improvement through public participation. The following domains, in the form of indicators and composite indexes, were selected to achieve the development of the WGI: Peace and Security, Rule of Law, Human Rights and Participation, Sustainable Development, and Human Development. Additionally, in 2009 the Bertelsmann Foundation published the Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI), which systematically measure the need for reform and the capacity for reform within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The project examines to what extent governments can identify, formulate and implement effective reforms that render a society well-equipped to meet future challenges, and ensure their future viability. Section 10 of the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) Modernization Act requires U.S. federal agencies to publish their strategic and performance plans and reports in machine-readable format.

The International Budget Partnership (IBP) launched the Open Budget Initiative in 2006 with the release of the first Open Budget Survey (OBS). The OBS is a comprehensive analysis and survey that evaluates whether central governments give the public access to budget documents and provide opportunities for public participation in the budget process. To measure the overall commitment to transparency, the IBP created Open Budget Index (OBI), which assigns a score to each country based on the results of the survey. While the OBS is released biannually, the IBP recently released a new OBS Tracker, which serves as an online tool for civil society, the media, and other actors to monitor in real time whether governments are releasing eight key budget documents. The Open Budget Index data are used by the Open Government Partnership, development aid agencies, and increasingly investors in the private sector as key indicators of governance, particularly fiscal transparency and management of public funds. Examples of country-led assessments include the Indonesian Democracy Index, monitoring of the Millennium Development Goal 9 on Human Rights and Democratic Governance in Mongolia and the Gross National Happiness Index in Bhutan.

Section 10 of the Government Performance and Results Act Modernization Act (GPRAMA) requires U.S. federal agencies to publish their performance plans and reports in machine-readable format, thereby providing the basis for evaluating the quality of their performance of the governance functions entrusted to them, as specified in their strategic objectives and performance indicators. Publishing performance reports openly on the Web in a standard, machine-readable format is good practice for all organizations whose plans and reports should be matters of public record.

title: Governance