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Genotoxicity

Genotoxicity is the property of chemical agents that damage the genetic information within a cell causing mutations, which may lead to cancer. While genotoxicity is often confused with mutagenicity, all mutagens are genotoxic, but some genotoxic substances are not mutagenic. The alteration can have direct or indirect effects on the DNA: the induction of mutations, mistimed event activation, and direct DNA damage leading to mutations. The permanent, heritable changes can affect either somatic cells of the organism or germ cells to be passed on to future generations. Cells prevent expression of the genotoxic mutation by either DNA repair or apoptosis; however, the damage may not always be fixed leading to mutagenesis.

To assay for genotoxic molecules, researchers assay for DNA damage in cells exposed to the toxic substrates. This DNA damage can be in the form of single- and double-strand breaks, loss of excision repair, cross-linking, alkali-labile sites, point mutations, and structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations. The compromised integrity of the genetic material has been known to cause cancer. As a consequence, many sophisticated techniques including Ames Assay, in vitro and in vivo Toxicology Tests, and Comet Assay have been developed to assess the chemicals' potential to cause DNA damage that may lead to cancer.

Mechanism

Genotoxic substances induce damage to the genetic material in the cells through interactions with the DNA sequence and structure. For example, the transition metal chromium interacts with DNA in its high-valent oxidation state, incurring DNA lesions which lead to carcinogenesis. The metastable oxidation state Cr(V) is achieved through reductive activation. Researchers performed an experiment to study the interaction between DNA with the carcinogenic chromium by using a Cr(V)-Salen complex at the specific oxidation state. The interaction was specific to the guanine nucleotide in the genetic sequence. In order to narrow the interaction between the Cr(V)-Salen complex with the guanine base, the researchers modified the bases to 8-oxo-G so to have site specific oxidation. The reaction between the two molecules caused DNA lesions; the two lesions observed at the modified base site were guanidinohydantoin and spiroiminodihydantoin. To further analyze the site of lesion, it was observed that polymerase stopped at the site and adenine was inappropriately incorporated into the DNA sequence opposite of the 8-oxo-G base. Therefore, these lesions predominately contain G→T transversions. High-valent chromium is seen to act as a carcinogen as researchers found that "the mechanism of damage and base oxidation products for the interaction between high-valent chromium and DNA... are relevant to in vivo formation of DNA damage leading to cancer in chromate-exposed human populations". Consequently, it shows how high-valent chromium can act as a carcinogen with 8-oxo-G forming xenobiotics.

Another example of a genotoxic substance causing DNA damage are pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). These substances are found mainly in plant species and are poisonous to animals, including humans; about half of them have been identified as genotoxic and many as tumorigenic. The researchers concluded from testing that when metabolically activated, "PAs produce DNA adducts, DNA cross-linking, DNA breaks, sister chromatid exchange, micronuclei, chromosomal aberrations, gene mutations, and chromosome mutations in vivo and in vitro." The most common mutation within the genes are G:C → T:A tranversions and tandem base substitution. The pyrrolizidine alkaloids are mutagenic in vivo and in vitro and, therefore, responsible for the carcinogenesis prominently in the liver. Comfrey is an example of a plant species that contains fourteen different PAs. The active metabolites interact with DNA to cause DNA damage, mutation induction, and cancer development in liver endothelial cells and hepatocytes. The researchers discovered in the end that the "comfrey is mutagenic in liver, and PA contained in comfrey appear to be responsible for comfrey-induced toxicity and tumor induction,".

Test techniques
The purpose of genotoxicity testing is to determine if a substrate will influence genetic material or may cause cancer. They can be performed in bacterial, yeast, and mammalian cells. With the knowledge from the tests, one can control early development of vulnerable organisms to genotoxic substances.

Bacterial Reverse Mutation Assay
The Bacterial Reverse Mutation Assay, also known as the Ames Assay, is used in laboratories to test for gene mutation. The technique uses many different bacterial strains in order to compare the different changes in the genetic material. The result of the test detects the majority of genotoxic carcinogens and genetic changes; the types of mutations detected are frame shifts and base substitutions.

in vitro toxicology testing
The purpose of in vitro testing is to determine whether a substrate, product, or environmental factor induces genetic damage. One technique entails cytogenetic assays using different mammalian cells. The types of aberrations detected in cells affected by a genotoxic substance are chromatid and chromosome gaps, chromosome breaks, chromatid deletions, fragmentation, translocation, complex rearrangements, and many more. The clastogenic or aneugenic effects from the genotoxic damage will cause an increase in frequency of structural or numerical aberrations of the genetic material. This is similar to the micronucleus test and chromosome aberration assay, which detect structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells.

In a specific mammalian tissue, one can perform a mouse lymphoma TK+/- assay to test for changes in the genetic material. Gene mutations are commonly point mutations, altering only one base within the genetic sequence to alter the ensuing transcript and amino acid sequence; these point mutations include base substitutions, deletions, frame-shifts, and rearrangements. Also, chromosomes' integrity may be altered through chromosome loss and clastogenic lesions causing multiple gene and multilocus deletions. The specific type of damage is determined by the size of the colonies, distinguishing between genetic mutations (mutagens) and chromosomal aberrations (clastogens).

The SOS/umu assay test evaluates the ability of a substance to induce DNA damage; it is based on the alterations in the induction of the SOS response due to DNA damage. The benefits of this technique are that it is a fast and simple method and convenient for numerous substances. These techniques are performed on water and wastewater in the environment.

in vivo testing
The purpose for in vivo testing is to determine the potential of DNA damage that can affect chromosomal structure or disturb the mitotic apparatus that changes chromosome number; the factors that could influence the genotoxicity are ADME and DNA repair. It can also detect genotoxic agents missed in in vitro tests. The positive result of induced chromosomal damage is an increase in frequency of micronucelated PCEs. A micronucleus is a small structure separate from the nucleus containing nuclear DNA arisen from DNA fragments or whole chromosomes that were not incorporated in the daughter cell during mitosis. Causes for this structure are mitotic loss of acentric chromosomal fragments (clastogenicity), mechanical problems from chromosomal breakage and exchange, mitotic loss of chromosomes (aneugenicity), and apoptosis. The micronucleus test in vivo is similar to the in vitro one because it tests for structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells, especially in rats' blood cells.

Comet assay
Comet assays are one of the most common tests for genotoxicity. The technique involves lysing cells using detergents and salts. The DNA released from the lysed cell is electrophoresed in an agarose gel under neutral pH conditions. Cells containing DNA with an increased number of double-strand breaks will migrate more quickly to the anode. This technique is advantageous in that it detects low levels of DNA damage, requires only a very small number of cells, is cheaper than many techniques, is easy to execute, and quickly displays results. However, it does not identify the mechanism underlying the genotoxic effect or the exact chemical or chemical component causing the breaks.

Cancer
Genotoxic effects such as deletions, breaks and/or rearrangements can lead to cancer if the damage does not immediately lead to cell death. Regions sensitive to breakage, called fragile sites, may result from genotoxic agents (such as pesticides). Some chemicals have the ability to induce fragile sites in regions of the chromosome where oncogenes are present, which could lead to carcinogenic effects. In keeping with this finding, occupational exposure to some mixtures of pesticides are positively correlated with increased genotoxic damage in the exposed individuals. DNA damage is not uniform in its severity across populations because Individuals vary in their ability to activate or detoxify genotoxic substances, which leads to variability in the incidence of cancer among individuals. The difference in ability to detoxify certain compounds is due to individuals' inherited polymorphisms of genes involved in the metabolism of the chemical. Differences may also be attributed to individual variation in efficiency of DNA repair mechanisms

The metabolism of some chemicals results in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is a possible mechanism of genotoxicity. This is seen in the metabolism of arsenic, which produces hydroxyl radicals, which are known to cause genotoxic effects. Similarly, ROS have been implicated in genotoxicity caused by particles and fibers. Genotoxicity of nonfibrous and fibrous particles is characterized by high production of ROS from inflammatory cells.

Genotoxins implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide
Major genotoxic agents responsible for the four most common cancers worldwide (lung, breast, colon and stomach) have been identified. Lung cancer is the most frequent cancer in the world, both in terms of yearly cases (1.61 million cases; 12.7% of all cancer cases) and deaths (1.38 million deaths; 18.2% of all cancer deaths). Tobacco smoke is the main cause of lung cancer. Risk estimates for lung cancer indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers in the United States. Tobacco smoke contains more than 5,300 identified chemicals. The most significant carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a "Margin of Exposure" approach. By this approach, the tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene. In general, these compounds are genotoxic and cause DNA damage. As examples, DNA damaging effects have been reported for acrolein, formaldehyde, and acrylonitrile. Breast cancer is the second most frequent cancer worldwide on a yearly basis [(1.38 million cases, 10.9% of all cancer cases), and ranks 5th as cause of death (458,000, 6.1% of all cancer deaths)]. Breast cancer risk is associated with persistently high blood levels of estrogen. Estrogen likely contributes to breast carcinogenesis by the following three processes; (1) metabolic conversion of estrogen to genotoxic, mutagenic carcinogens, (2) stimulation of growth of tissues, and (3) repression of phase II detoxification enzymes that metabolize genotoxic reactive oxygen species, thus resulting in increased oxidative DNA damage. The principal human estrogen, estradiol, can be metabolized to quinone derivatives that form DNA adducts. These derivatives can cause the removal of bases from the phosphodiester backbone of DNA (e.g. depurination). This removal may be followed by inaccurate repair or replication of the apurinic site leading to mutation and eventually cancer. Colorectal cancer is the third most frequent cancer worldwide [1.23 million cases (9.7% of all cancer cases), 608,000 deaths (8.0% of all cancer deaths)]. In the United States, tobacco smoke may be responsible for up to 20% of colorectal cancers. In addition, bile acids are implicated by substantial evidence as an important genotoxic factor in colon cancer. In particular, the bile acid deoxycholic acid acid causes the production of DNA-damaging reactive oxygen species in human and rodent colon epithelial cells. Stomach cancer is the fourth most common cancer worldwide [990,000 cases (7.8% of all cancer cases), 738,000 deaths (9.7% of all cancer deaths )]. Infection by Helicobacter pylori is the main causative factor in stomach cancer. Chronic inflammation due to H. pylori, if untreated, is often long-standing. H. pylori infection of gastric epithelial cells causes increased production of genotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS cause oxidative damage to DNA that includes the major base alteration 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine. In a recent retrospective study it was found that use of a bile acid sequestrant was associated with a significant reduction in gastric cancer risk, suggesting that bile acids may be a contributory factor in stomach cancer.

Genotoxic chemotherapy
Genotoxic chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with the use of one or more genotoxic drugs. The treatment is traditionally part of standardized regime. By utilizing the destructive properties of genotoxins treatments aims to induce DNA damage into cancer cells. Any damage done to a cancer is passed on to descendent cancer cells as proliferation continues. If this damage is severe enough, it will induce cells to undergo apoptosis.

Risks
A drawback of treatment is that many genotoxic drugs are effective on cancerous cells and normal cells alike. Selectivity of a particular drug's action is based on the sensitivity of the cells themselves. So, while rapidly dividing cancer cells are particularly sensitive to many drug treatments, often normal functioning cells are affected.

Another risk of treatment is that, in addition to being genotoxic, many of the drugs are also mutagenic and cytotoxic. So the effects of these drugs are not limited to just DNA damage. In addition, some of these drugs that are meant to treat cancers are also carcinogens themselves, raising the risk of secondary cancers, such as leukemia.

Different treatments
This table depicts different genotoxic-based cancer treatments along with examples.

Kidney
Genotoxic DNA damage in the kidney has been implicated in both acute and chronic kidney injury, as well as in renal cell carcinoma. Studies of humans with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair pathways have revealed that their kidneys are particularly vulnerable to DNA damages such as DNA crosslinks, DNA breaks and transcription-blocking damage.

title: Genotoxicity


text: User talk:204.113.181.52

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:204.113.181.52


text:
Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art

The Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art (abbreviated as the PDF) holds a collection of Chinese ceramics and related items assembled by Percival David that are on permanent display in a dedicated gallery in Room 95 at the British Museum. The foundation's main purpose is to promote the study and teaching of Chinese art and culture. The collection has some 1,700 pieces, mostly of Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty porcelain from the 10th century to the 18th. It includes a painting, Scroll of Antiquities (古玩圖, 1728, Yongzheng's reign).

The collection concentrates on pieces in the "Chinese taste" rather than export ware, and on Imperial porcelain, much of it Jingdezhen ware. It includes examples of the rare Ru and Guan wares and two important Yuan dynasty blue and white porcelain temple vases (the "David Vases"), the oldest dated blue and white porcelain pieces, from 1351. The Foundation also has a large library of Western and East Asian books related to Chinese art; this and archival material are housed in the library of School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London.

In 1950, the collection was presented to the University of London by Sir Percival David. It was displayed in a house at 53 Gordon Square and used as a focus for the teaching of Chinese art and culture at SOAS. The collection has been on display in a special room at the British Museum since 2009.

History
Percival David started collecting Chinese art some time around 1913, and he continued to do so until his death in 1964. He first visited China in 1923, and there he gained an appreciation of Chinese ceramics. In 1925 he helped finance and mount an exhibition of many of the best items of the imperial collection in the Forbidden City in Beijing. In 1927, he acquired some items that were originally from the Forbidden City when they came onto the market. Many of these items were sold off by members of the Imperial Household Department during the late Qing dynasty, and Empress Dowager Cixi allegedly used these items as collateral for loans from the Yuin Yeh Bank in 1901. David managed to buy some forty pieces one way or the other and export them to the United Kingdom. In 1930, he again returned to China and helped with various exhibitions and produced a series of catalogues of the pieces. However, much of the acquisition history of David's collection was unrecorded, but he may have acquired many of the items through various dealers, auctions and other collectors. The Yuan dynasty 'David Vases' in the collection were acquired from two separate sources. Many pieces were likely once owned by the Qing dynasty emperors, and several pieces have inscriptions added by the orders of the Qianlong Emperor (1736–95). The pieces assembled by Percival David form the most important single collection of Chinese ceramics outside China and Taiwan.

In 1931, David's collection was displayed in the Dorchester Hotel in London. It remained there until it was evacuated to the countryside during World War II. David also created a Chair in Chinese Art and Architecture at the Courtauld Institute of Art, which is part of the University of London. Towards the end of his life, he was determined to keep the collection together, and to this end entered negotiations with the University of London. An agreement was reached to keep the collection and the library together in a foundation attached to SOAS.

The chair that David had created was also moved to SOAS. Previous holders of the chair, called the Percival David Professor of Chinese and East Asian Art, include William Watson, Roderick Whitfield and Craig Clunas. The current incumbent is Shane McCausland. The collection was opened to the public on 10 June 1952 in a house at 53 Gordon Square, Bloomsbury.

The foundation has lent many of its pieces to other countries. It lent many items of Yuan dynasty porcelain to Venice's 700th-anniversary celebration of Marco Polo's expedition. It has also sent other items to places as far away as Japan and the United States.

The library collection was a working library, open to researchers from around the world, and is now accessible through SOAS.

Relocation

Due to a funding crisis, 53 Gordon Square closed at the end of 2007. The ceramics collection is on long-term loan to the British Museum, where the whole collection, about 1,700 objects, is on permanent public display in a specially designed gallery (Room 95, British Museum) opened on 23 April 2009, sponsored by Sir Joseph Hotung. The public gallery is part of the Sir Joseph Hotung Centre for Ceramic Studies, which includes facilities to use the collection for teaching.

Chinese Ceramics: Highlights of the Sir Percival David Collection, by Regina Krahl and Jessica Harrison-Hall, was published in April 2009 by the British Museum Press to coincide with the opening of the new display.

Collection
David focused his collection of Chinese ceramics on stonewares and porcelain from the 10th to the 18th centuries (Song to Qing dynasties), with a few earlier pieces from the Six Dynasties to the Tang. The earliest piece in the collection dates from the third-century Western Jin. There are no pieces from the earlier periods of Chinese history because David chose not to collect any Chinese earthenware; the development of earthenware is found all around the world, and David's collection aims to give a representative overview of the development of ceramics that is unique to China. He chose the pieces based on the quality of the workmanship and historical importance with a view towards education. Many pieces were imperial wares of the Ming and Qing dynasty, and he collected an unusual number of the rare Song dynasty Ru ware. Just before the opening of the collection in 1952, the foundation was also given a small collection of mostly monochrome porcelain belonging to Mountstuart Elphinstone.

At the British Museum, the collection of the 1,700 items starts with the David Vases placed before the main space of Room 95. Around two hundred of the best pieces are displayed in cases in the centre of the room, with the remaining 1,500 pieces arranged more compactly in rows of glass shelves around the room.


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Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases

Emmanuel-Augustin-Dieudonné-Joseph, comte de Las Cases (21 June 1766 – 15 May 1842) was a French atlas-maker and author, famed for an admiring book about Napoleon, Le Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène ("The Memorial of Saint Helena").

Life and career
He was born at the castle of Las Cases near Revel in Languedoc. He was educated at the military schools of Vendôme and Paris. He entered the navy and took part in various engagements during the years 1781–1782. The outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 caused him to go into exile. He spent some years in Germany and England, participating in the disastrous Quiberon expedition (1795). He was one of the few survivors and returned to London, where he lived in poverty, until finding his vocation as a private tutor.

In 1801, in London and under the pseudonym, A. Lesage, he published in English the original edition of his famous atlas, which immediately proved a great success. Returning to Paris after the Peace of Amiens (1802), and having received amnesty, he issued the first French edition in 1803–1804, called Atlas historique, genealogique, chronologique et geographique de A. Lesage. Multiple editions, translations, spin-offs, several pirated, followed down to the 1850s. The atlas made Las Cases rich. It came to Napoleon's notice only when, in Las Cases's company, he went into exile on St Helena (1815).

The Peace of Amiens (1802) made provision for an amnesty for émigrés. Renouncing his hereditary title of marquis, Las Cases availed himself of this amnesty to repatriate himself. He returned to France during the Consulate with other royalists who rallied to the side of Napoleon, and stated afterwards to the emperor that he was conquered by his glory. Not until 1810 did he receive much notice from Napoleon's government, which then made him a chamberlain and created him a count of the empire. After the first abdication of the emperor (April 11, 1814), Las Cases retired to England, but returned to serve Napoleon during the Hundred Days.

The second abdication opened up for Las Cases the most noteworthy part of his career. He withdrew with the ex-emperor and a few other trusty followers to Rochefort. It was Las Cases who first proposed and strongly urged the emperor to throw himself on the generosity of the British nation. Las Cases made the first overtures to Captain Maitland of HMS Bellerophon and received a guarded reply, the nature of which he afterwards misrepresented. Las Cases and his son accompanied the ex-emperor to Saint Helena. He then acted informally but very assiduously as his secretary, taking down numerous notes of his conversations, which thereafter took form in the famous Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène. The Mémorial should today be read with great caution, as the compiler did not hesitate to insert his own thoughts and to colour the expressions of his master. In some cases, he misstated facts and even fabricated documents. Pages corrected in the hand of Napoleon are in the Wisbech & Fenland Museum in Wisbech, England.

It is far less trustworthy than the record penned by Gaspard Gourgaud in his Journal. Disliked by Montholon and Gourgaud, Las Cases seems to have sought an opportunity to leave the island when he had accumulated sufficient literary material. However that may be, he infringed the British regulations in such a way as to lead to his expulsion by the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe (November 1816). He was sent first to the Cape of Good Hope and thence to Europe, but was not at first allowed by the government of Louis XVIII to enter France. He resided in Brussels. Having gained permission to come to Paris after the death of Napoleon, he took up residence there, published the Mémorial, and soon made a fortune from it. In 1840, when the expedition set sail for St Helena to bring back Napoleon's remains, he was too ill to go, but his son who had shared his captivity was able to go. Las Cases died in 1842 at age 75, in Passy, and is buried in Passy Cemetery.

title: Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases


text:
Aden Adde

Aden Abdulle Osman Da’ar (Aadan Cabdulle Cismaan Dacar, آدم عبد الله عثمان دعر) (9 December 1908 – 8 June 2007), popularly known as Aden Adde, was a Somali politician who served as the first president of the Somali Republic from 1 July 1960 to 6 July 1967. He had previously served in the Somali Youth League in 1944.

In 1946, he was named Secretary of the party's section in Beledweyne, Somalia. In 1951, the Mudug Regional Council appointed him for the Regional Council, and two years later, he became Vice President of the Regional Council. From 1954 until 1956, he was the President of the Somali Youth League. He was re-elected in May 1958, and he continued to hold this position simultaneously along with that of Speaker of the Legislative Assembly until 1960.

Osman Daar was born in Beledweyne, Somalia. He studied at government schools, and worked as a community organizer. Somalia was colonized by the Italian government from 1889 to 1941. From 1929 to 1941, he served in the Italian Colonial Administration advocating for Somalia's independence from colonization. He was a proponent for the unity of all Somalis.

In 1960, Osman Daar garnered national attention, and won the favor of the Somali people. He was formally and democratically elected as the first president of Somalia on 1 July 1960, on which date the United Nations recognised Somalia's independence, and subsequently united with the former British protectorate of British Somaliland, which had already obtained its independence on 26 June 1960. His administration was focused on dismantling the legacy of colonialism and fostering unity among the Somali people.

Early life and career
Daar was born on 9 December 1908 in Beledweyne, situated in the south-central Hiraan region of Somalia. He hailed from the Udejeen, Abdile Afarah clan of Hawiye. He was an orphan, who lost his parents at a young age. Daar, was an avid reader, and self taught on many subjects. He spoke Arabic, Somali, Italian and English.

Somali Youth League
Daar joined the incipient Somali Youth League (SYL) political party in 1944, a nationalist organization that campaigned for an independent Somalia. Quickly rising through the ranks, he became the local secretary of the SYL's Beledweyne branch in 1946. A decade later, he became Chairman of the National Legislative Assembly, and would eventually lead the SYL itself two years afterwards.

Presidency
By the time Somalia gained its independence in 1960, Daar had attained widespread prominence as a nationalist figure. In short order, he was elected the country's first President, a position he would assume from 1960 to 1967. During his tenure, he proactively pursued an irredentist national policy for the restoration of lost Somali territories. Notable incidents include the 1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War, the Shifta War of Kenya, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis battle for Djiboutian Independence as well as support for the ELF in Eritrea and the Bale Revolt of the Oromo in Ethiopia. His rivals in Kenya and Ethiopia had subsequently signed a defence pact in 1965 in order to curb what they deemed as expansion on their doorstep. In line with these policies, President Aden also enrolled Somalia into a number of organisations to advocate for the freedom and liberties of all colonised nations such as the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of African Unity and the World Muslim Congress in which Somalia hosted the Congress' 6th conference in 1966. Notable countries which Somalia in his time advocated for and supported with men or material include South Africa and Palestine during the Six Day War.

Known as the Switzerland of Africa for its free market and democracy, Somalia under President Aden pursued modest economic planning to improve domestic revenue. His publicised First Five Year Plan (1963-1967) demonstrated its simple development strategy concentrated on a handful of projects: an increased output of sugar through expanding the productive capacity of the existing factory at Jowhar; the development of meat packing, fish processing, milk and dairy products, textiles, and a few other industries; the construction or improvement of a number of roads; building three seaports at Kismayo, Berbera, and Mogadiscio; the expansion of irrigation for crops and fodder; the formation of a number of state farms; certain improvements in social services, including education and health. Sectoral allocations of planned investment outlays reflected a greater priority for physical infrastructure than agricultural development or population settlement. Though the Plan was essentially a public expenditure programme, it also gave considerable encouragement to private enterprise, offering incentives in the form of protection, exemption from certain taxes for a limited period and the grant of loans on favourable terms to those firms prepared to invest in industries which have a reasonable scope for becoming profitable and the establishment of which is desirable in the national interest. In the 1967 presidential election, Aden was defeated by Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, his former Prime Minister. His term as president ended on July 6, 1967. Aden accepted the loss graciously, making history as the first head of state in Africa (excluding Liberia) to peacefully hand over power to a democratically elected successor.

Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. The slaying led to an unopposed, bloodless coup d'état by the Somali Army on 21 October 1969, the day after Shermarke's funeral. Spearheading the putsch was Major General Muhammad Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.

Manifesto
In 1990, with the start of the civil war, Daar along with former Minister of Information Ismail Jim'ale Osoble, former Minister of Education Hassan Ali Mire, and about 100 other Somali politicians signed a manifesto expressing concern over the violence and advocating reconciliation. Daar was summarily arrested, and remained imprisoned until the ultimate collapse of Barre's regime the following year.

Later years
After his release, Daar spent the better part of his later years on his farm in Janale, in southern Somalia.

On 22 May 2007, it was erroneously reported that he had died in a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. He was, however, in critical condition and on life support. Daar died in hospital on 8 June 2007, at the age of 98.

The Transitional Federal Government, then headed by former President of Somalia Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, declared 21 days of mourning, complete with a national memorial service, and issued a statement that Daar would receive a state funeral. It also renamed Mogadishu International Airport to Aden Adde International Airport in his honor.

title: Aden Adde


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Low-level waste

Low-level waste (LLW) or low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) is nuclear waste that does not fit into the categorical definitions for intermediate-level waste (ILW), high-level waste (HLW), spent nuclear fuel (SNF), transuranic waste (TRU), or certain byproduct materials known as 11e(2) wastes, such as uranium mill tailings. In essence, it is a definition by exclusion, and LLW is that category of radioactive wastes that do not fit into the other categories. If LLW is mixed with hazardous wastes as classified by RCRA, then it has a special status as mixed low-level waste (MLLW) and must satisfy treatment, storage, and disposal regulations both as LLW and as hazardous waste. While the bulk of LLW is not highly radioactive, the definition of LLW does not include references to its activity, and some LLW may be quite radioactive, as in the case of radioactive sources used in industry and medicine.

LLW includes items that have become contaminated with radioactive material or have become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation. This waste typically consists of contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing, wiping rags, mops, filters, reactor water treatment residues, equipments and tools, luminous dials, medical tubes, swabs, injection needles, syringes, and laboratory animal carcasses and tissues. The radioactivity can range from just above background levels found in nature to very highly radioactive in certain cases such as parts from inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant.

The definition of low-level waste is set by the nuclear regulators of individual countries, though the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides recommendations. Some countries, such as France, specify categories for long-lived low- and intermediate-level waste. U.S. regulations do not define the category of intermediate-level waste.

Disposal

Depending on who "owns" the waste, its handling and disposal is regulated differently. All nuclear facilities, whether they are a utility or a disposal site, have to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations. The four low-level waste facilities in the U.S. are Barnwell, South Carolina; Richland, Washington; Clive, Utah; and as of June 2013, Andrews County, Texas. The Barnwell and the Clive locations are operated by EnergySolutions, the Richland location is operated by U.S. Ecology, and the Andrews County location is operated by Waste Control Specialists. Barnwell, Richland, and Andrews County accept Classes A through C of low-level waste, whereas Clive only accepts Class A LLW. The DOE has dozens of LLW sites under management. The largest of these exist at DOE Reservations around the country (e.g. the Hanford Reservation, Savannah River Site, Nevada Test Site, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Idaho National Laboratory, to name the most significant).

Classes of wastes are detailed in 10 C.F.R. § 61.55 Waste Classification, enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, reproduced in the table below. These are not all the isotopes disposed of at these facilities, just the ones that are of most concern for the long-term monitoring of the sites. Waste is divided into three classes, A through C, where A is the least radioactive and C is the most radioactive. Class A LLW is able to be deposited near the surface, whereas Classes B and C LLW have to be buried progressively deeper.

In 10 C.F.R. § 20.2002, the NRC reserves the right to grant a free release of radioactive waste. The overall activity of such a disposal cannot exceed 1 mrem/yr and the NRC regards requests on a case-by-case basis. Low-level waste passing such strict regulations is then disposed of in a landfill with other garbage. Items allowed to be disposed of in this way include glow-in-the-dark watches (radium) and smoke detectors (americium).

LLW should not be confused with high-level waste (HLW) or spent nuclear fuel (SNF). C Class low level waste has a limit of 100 nano-Curies per gram of alpha-emitting transuranic nuclides with a half life greater than 5 years; any more than 100 nCi, and it must be classified as transuranic waste (TRU). These require different disposal pathways. TRU wastes from the U.S. nuclear weapons complex is currently disposed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, New Mexico, though other sites also are being considered for on-site disposal of particularly difficult to manage TRU wastes.

General references

 * Fentiman, Audeen W. and James H. Saling. Radioactive Waste Management. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002. Second ed.
 * Jorge L. Contreras, "In the Village Square: Risk Misperception and Decisionmaking in the Regulation of Low-Level Radioactive Waste", 19 Ecology Law Quarterly 481 (1992) (SSRN)

title: Low-level waste


text: User talk:206.110.20.2

title: User talk:206.110.20.2


text:
Inverell

Inverell is a large town in northern New South Wales, Australia, situated on the Macintyre River, close to the Queensland border. It is also the centre of Inverell Shire. Inverell is located on the Gwydir Highway on the western slopes of the Northern Tablelands. It has a temperate climate. In the, the population of Inverell was 12,057 and the Inverell Shire population was 17,853.

History
Prior to British colonisation, the Jukambal and Weraerai Aboriginal peoples lived in and occupied this region. Around 1838, colonist Peter MacIntyre directed his employee, Alexander Campbell, to take up land in the area for his sheep and cattle. Campbell subsequently laid claim to a large section of pastureland along the Macintyre River, which he called 'Byron Plains' after Peter Byron, one of MacIntyre's stockmen. Campbell later staked out 50,000 acres for himself on the southern side of Byron Plains. He named his run 'Inverell', the word being of Gaelic origin, and signifies "meeting place of the swans"; from Inbhir, a confluence, and eala, a swan. In the initial years, the local Aboriginal people resisted this occupation by spearing MacIntyre's shepherds and taking his livestock.

Inverell is at the junction of the MacIntyre River and Swanbrook Creek and was also known as "Green Swamp" in the 1850s. Wheat growers, Colin and Rosanna Ross established a store there in 1853, and it was proposed that a town be surveyed. In 1858, this was done and in the following years the plan was approved and the first land sale was held. Byron Post Office (open since 1855) was replaced by the Inverell Post Office on 15 September 1859. The municipality was proclaimed in March 1872. The last section of the Inverell branchline, from Delungra to Inverell, was opened on 10 March 1902. The last train ran to Inverell on 22 June 1987, and the Delungra to Inverell section of the line was closed on 2 December 1987.

In 1871, the population of Inverell was 509, this increased to 1,212 in 1881. After Federation, the population of Inverell was 1,230 in 1911, and grew to 6,530 (1947) and 8,209 (1961 census).

Myall Creek Massacre
The massacre of at least 28 Wirrayaraay people by European convicts and settlers took place at Myall Creek near Inverell on 10 June 1838 was notable in that it was one of the very rare cases in colonial Australia for which white people were subsequently executed for the murder of Indigenous people. The crime became known as the Myall Creek Massacre. On 18 December 1838, seven men were publicly hanged at the Sydney Gaol for the atrocity.

Every year on the Sunday of the June long weekend, hundreds of people, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, gather at the Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site to attend an annual memorial service.

Mining
Diamonds were discovered at Copes Creek in 1875 and were mined at Copeton from 1883 to 1922. Commercial sapphire mining was commenced in 1919 at Frazers Creek near Inverell. Rich alluvial deposits in streams were worked initially by hand miners, but this ceased in the 1930s due to the economic effects of the Great Depression. There was little recorded production up until approximately 1960, when commercial sapphire mining resumed due to a worldwide sapphire shortage. During the 1970s there were over 100 active mining operations in the New England region, however this number declined significantly in the 1980s due to weakening demand and exhaustion of the previously rich alluvial sources. Currently there are only a small number of commercially active mines in the area.

Heritage listings
Inverell has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * 56 Byron Street: Inverell Shire Council Building
 * 97 Otho Street: Inverell Post Office
 * Flepper Place

Population
According to the 2016 census of Population, there were 11,660 people in Inverell.
 * Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 9.5% of the population.
 * 86.0% of people were born in Australia. The most common other countries of birth were Philippines 1.4% and England 1.2%.
 * 89.8% of people spoke only English at home.
 * The most common responses for religion were Anglican 28.8%, Catholic 22.9% and No Religion 20.2%.

Industry
The Inverell district is in a fertile agricultural region which produces a wide range of crops, including wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, wine grapes and maize. There are also some mining activities with tin, sapphires, zircons and diamonds (mainly industrial) being found. Inverell is known as the "Sapphire City" because of the sapphires that have been found throughout the local district, which contributed a significant amount of Australia's sapphire production in the 1970s.

Copeton Dam, the region's main water supply, was completed in 1976. While being smaller than Sydney Harbour, it can hold nearly 2 times the capacity of Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour). The Inland Fishing Festival is held there every year.

Culture and tourism
The Grafton to Inverell Cycle Classic is an annual one day cycling race. Beginning in Grafton, passing through Glen Innes and finishing in Inverell, the Classic is a 230 km ride over the demanding Gibraltar Range. The race starts at 23 metres above sea level and climbs to 1260 metres, before finishing in Inverell at 630 metres. The race is six to seven hours long, depending on weather conditions. Inverell is home to the Bruderhof, an Anabaptist community who share all their possessions. They run a publishing business.

The National Transport Museum comprises more than 120 vehicle exhibits ranging from vintage, veteran, classic and motorcycles in a purpose-built structure on Rifle Range Road.

Inverell is the last place in Australia to have a Coles New World supermarket. It has resisted external pressure to rename the supermarket since the early 90s.

Education
There are two primary schools in Inverell; Ross Hill School and Inverell Public School. The two local high schools are Inverell High School and Macintyre High School. Holy Trinity School is a Roman Catholic School in Inverell which caters for students from Kindergarten to Year Ten.

Transport
Inverell is served by Inverell Airport.

Inverell lies on the Gwydir Highway, one of the primary east–west routes through New South Wales. Thunderbolts Way terminates at Copes Creek, 16 km south of the Gwydir Highway intersection at Inverell.

Bus services in Inverell are provided by Inverell Bus Service, which operates two town loops, to the east and west. Interurban bus service is provided by Symes Coaches to Glen Innes.

NSW TrainLink operates three Coach services in and out of Inverell: between Moree and Grafton, between Inverell and Tamworth via Manilla and between Inverell and Armidale via Tingha.

Sports
The most popular sport in Inverell is Rugby league. The local team are the Inverell RSM Hawks, who compete in the Group 19, playing out of Varley Oval. The club has won six first grade titles in the competition and its predecessor, Group 5, with the last coming in 2016. The club has produced numerous National Rugby League players, including Owen Craigie and Phil and Chris Bailey.

Other sports teams include the Inverell Highlanders RUFC and Inverell Saints AFC.

Climate
Inverell, like most of the North West Slopes features a textbook subtropical climate with a marked summer peak in rainfall. The town is located on the boundary region between the cool, wet Northern Tablelands of the Great Dividing Range and the hot, dry plains of Outback New South Wales, having climate characteristics of both regions.

The highest maximum temperature recorded at Inverell was 43.7 C on 4 January 1903 at the Inverell Comparison site. The lowest maximum temperature for any of the Inverell weather sites was 3.0 C on 3 July 1984 at Inverell Research Centre. In September 1892, the town had its biggest snowfall, with 4 to 5 inch falling. On 5 August 1923, snow fell in parts of the Inverell district.

Over the years, Inverell has had three weather stations run by government astronomers (prior to 1908) or the Bureau of Meteorology (after 1908), or both. These stations are:
 * Inverell Comparison (began observations in 1874, ceased observations in November 1997)
 * Inverell Research Centre (began observations in 1949, still operational; converted to an Automatic Weather Station in recent years)
 * Inverell (Raglan Street) (began observations in March 1995, still operational; observations done by human observer)

Notable people
Notable people from or who have lived in Inverell include:
 * Chris Bailey (born 1982), rugby league player
 * Phil Bailey (born 1980), former professional rugby league player
 * Owen Craigie (born 1978), former rugby league player
 * Lucien Lawrence Cunningham (1889–1948), Farmer and politician
 * Steve Elkington (born 1962), golfer, 1995 US PGA Champion.
 * Susan Hampton (born 1949), poet, winner of the Judith Wright Award
 * Heinrich Haussler (born 1984), cyclist
 * Peter Hewat, former rugby union player
 * George Kneipp (1922–1993), a judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland in Townsville, Queensland (1969–1992)
 * Colin Madigan (1921–2011), architect
 * Rick McCosker (born 1946), cricketer and Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1976
 * Leon Punch (1928–1991), former Deputy Premier of New South Wales
 * Ivan Sen (born 1971), filmmaker
 * Leo Senior (1887–1975), former rugby league player
 * Scott Sunderland (born 1966), former cyclist.
 * John Williams (born 1955), NSW Nationals Senator
 * Bronwyn Oliver, née Gooda (1958–2006), Sculptor. Considered one of Australia’s most significant artists. Works commissioned for private, public and corporate spaces and held in the National Gallery of Australia, National Gallery of Victoria and Art gallery of NSW.

title: Inverell


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Hudson Lowe

Sir Hudson Lowe (28 July 1769 – 10 January 1844) was an Anglo-Irish General during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars who is best known for his time as Governor of St Helena, where he was the jailor of Emperor Napoleon.

Early life
The son of John Lowe, an army surgeon, he was born at Galway in Ireland, his mother's native country. His childhood was spent in various garrison towns, particularly in the West Indies, but he was educated chiefly at Salisbury Grammar. He obtained a post as ensign in the East Devon Militia when he was eleven. In 1787 he entered his father's regiment, the 50th Foot, which was then serving at Gibraltar under Governor-General Charles O'Hara. In 1791, he was promoted to Lieutenant. The same year he was granted eighteen months' leave, and chose to spend the time travelling through Italy rather than return to Britain. He chose to avoid travelling to France because the French Revolution had recently broken out.

Corsica
Lowe arrived back at Gibraltar shortly after the outbreak of war between Britain and France in early 1793. The 50th were sent to take part in the Defence of Toulon which had been seized by an Allied force under Lord Hood after an invitation by French Royalists in the city. The 50th arrived too late to assist the defence, as the Allied forces had already withdrawn from the city. They were then redirected to Corsica, a French-owned island, where British troops had been sent to join with Corsicans under Pasquale Paoli. Lowe's regiment served as part of General Dundas's force during the Siege of Bastia and Siege of Calvi driving the French from the island. The regiment was stationed in Bastia. Lowe volunteered to fetch supplies from Livorno in Italy, but nearly died of malaria during the journey there.

When he recovered, Lowe returned to Corsica, and was stationed in the citadel at Ajaccio as an aide to the Governor, Colonel Wauchope, close to where Napoleon Bonaparte's sisters had recently been living before they fled to mainland France. In October 1796 it was decided to abandon Corsica and the force at Ajaccio was embarked and taken to Elba. The following year Elba was also abandoned and Lowe was evacuated with his regiment first to Gibraltar and then to Lisbon. He spent the next two years as part of a British force which was placed to deter an invasion by French and Spanish forces.

Lowe later saw active service successively in Elba, Portugal, and Menorca, where he was entrusted with the command of a battalion of volunteer Corsican exiles in the British Army, the Royal Corsican Rangers, who were armed with Baker rifles and trained as light infantry. In Corsica he was actually billeted in the Casa Buonaparte. He led the Corsican Rangers in Egypt in 1800–1801.

Napoleonic Wars
After the peace of Amiens, Lowe, now a Major, became assistant quartermaster-general. On the renewal of war with France in 1803, he was charged, as a lieutenant-colonel, to raise the Corsican battalion again and with it assisted in the defense of Sicily. On the capture of Capri, he proceeded there with his battalion and a Maltese regiment; but in October 1808, Joachim Murat ordered an attack upon the island, which was organized by General Lamarque. Lowe, owing to the unreliability of the Maltese troops and no hope of help by sea, had to agree to evacuate the island. Sir William Napier criticized him, but his garrison consisted of only 1,362 men, while the assailants numbered between 3,000 and 4,000.

In the course of 1809, Lowe and his Corsicans helped in the capture of Ischia and Procida, as well as of Zante, Cephalonia and Cerigo. For some months, he acted as governor of Cephalonia and Ithaca, and later of Santa Maura. He returned to Britain in 1812, and in January 1813, was sent to inspect a Russo-German legion then being formed. He accompanied the armies of the allies through the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present at thirteen important battles. He won praise from Blücher and Gneisenau for his gallantry and judgment, and was chosen to bear to London the news of the first abdication of Napoleon in April 1814.

Lowe was knighted and promoted to major-general; he also received decorations from the Russian and Prussian courts. Charged with the duties of quartermaster-general of the army in the Netherlands in 1814–1815, he was about to take part in the Belgian campaign when he was offered the command of the British troops at Genoa; but while still in the south of France, on 1 August 1815 he received news of his appointment to the position of custodian of Napoleon, Emperor of the French, who had surrendered to Captain Frederick Lewis Maitland on board HMS Bellerophon off Rochefort. Lowe was to be Governor of Saint Helena, the place of the former Emperor's exile. At the time of Lowe's appointment, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Lord Bathurst, wrote to Wellington:"I do not believe we could have found a fitter person of his rank in the army willing to accept a situation of so much confinement, responsibility and exclusion from society."

Saint Helena
On his arrival at Plantation House, he found that Napoleon had an uneasy relationship with Admiral Sir George Cockburn, who had been responsible for conveying Napoleon to St. Helena, and was in charge of him pending the arrival of a new Governor. Napoleon and Governor Lowe had a stormy relationship, and only met half a dozen times. To a large extent, Lowe's hands were tied by his instructions from The 3rd Earl Bathurst, but Lowe's characteristic lack of tact doubtless exacerbated the friction between them.

The news that rescue-expeditions were being planned by Bonapartists in the United States led to the enforcement of stricter regulations in October 1816. Lowe ordered sentries to be posted round the garden of Napoleon's residence, Longwood House, at sunset instead of at 9 p.m. He assigned a British officer the task of catching sight of Napoleon every day. Lowe created a set of petty rules that included restricting Napoleon to the Longwood Estate and requiring that the British not address Napoleon by his Imperial titles but only as a general. He demanded that Napoleon pay for part of his imprisonment, so Napoleon offered up some Imperial silver for sale. This created such a backlash in Europe that the demand had to be cancelled. Then he reduced the amount of firewood for Longwood. News that Napoleon was burning his furniture to stay warm again caused such a backlash of public sympathy that the supply of firewood was restored.

All of this and more offended Napoleon and his followers, who campaigned against Lowe. Barry Edward O'Meara, the Irish surgeon, while initially providing information for Lowe, ultimately sided with Napoleon, and joined in criticisms from Las Cases and Montholon. The French, Russian and Austrian commissioners on St. Helena, while hostile to Napoleon, were also very critical of Lowe's conduct and found it impossible to get on with him.

In addition, modern scholars have debated Lowe's role in Napoleon's death. Lowe's restriction of the former Emperor of the French to what amounted to house arrest rather than simply exile certainly affected Napoleon's ability to exercise and his general health. Some sources have gone so far as to suggest that Lowe may have had him poisoned. Napoleon himself claimed just three weeks before his death that he had been "murdered by the English oligarchy and its hired assassin". However, an autopsy conducted after his death concluded that Napoleon died from natural causes, specifically complications arising from "stomach cancer".

After the death of the Emperor Napoleon in May 1821, Lowe returned to England. On the publication of O'Meara's book, Lowe resolved to prosecute the author, but his application was too late. Ironically, O'Meara's book was softer on Lowe than what the doctor really thought of him and of his role as "executioner" at St. Helena. His true attitudes are revealed in the letters he passed clandestinely to a clerk at the Admiralty.

Apart from the thanks of George IV, at a levee, he received little reward from the British Government, whose orders he had obeyed to the letter. His treatment of Napoleon and the subsequent public relations problems for the British Government remained an underlying issue for the rest of his career. Field Marshal The Duke of Wellington later said that Lowe was "a very bad choice; he was a man wanting in education and judgment. He was a stupid man. He knew nothing at all of the world, and like all men who knew nothing of the world, he was suspicious and jealous."

One of Lowe's lesser-known accomplishments was his contribution to the abolition of slavery on the island of St. Helena.

After Saint Helena
In June 1822 he was appointed Colonel in Chief of the Sutherland Highlanders in place of Sir Thomas Hislop.

In 1825–30, he commanded the forces in Ceylon but was not appointed to the Governorship when it became vacant in 1830. He was appointed to the colonelcy of the 56th (West Essex) Regiment of Foot in 1831, and in 1842 transferred to the colonelcy of his old regiment, the 50th (Queen's Own) Regiment of Foot. He was also made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG).

Lowe died at Charlotte Cottage, near Sloane Street, Chelsea, of paralysis, on 10 Jan. 1844, aged 74.

Family
In London on 30 December 1815 Lowe married Susan Johnson, daughter of Stephen De Lancey, sister of William Howe De Lancey, and widow of Colonel William Johnson. She had previously had two daughters, one of whom had died, and the other married Count Balmain. They had five children, two sons, Hudson Lowe, born in 1816, and Edward William Howe de Lancey Lowe, born in 1820, and three daughters, Camilla, Francis, Clara Maria Susanna Lowe, born on 26 August 1818. Lady Lowe died in Hertford Street, Mayfair, London, on 22 August 1832.

Portrayals in fiction
Sir Hudson Lowe was portrayed by Orson Welles in Sacha Guitry's film Napoléon (1955), by Ralph Richardson in Eagle in a Cage (1972), by Vernon Dobtcheff in L'Otage de l'Europe (1989), by David Francis in the Napoleon miniseries (2002), and by Richard E. Grant in Monsieur N. (2003). He appears in the play La Dernière Salve by Jean-Claude Brisville (1995). He is a character in Tom Keneally’s book Napoleon’s Last Island (2015).

title: Hudson Lowe


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Landing platform helicopter

Landing platform helicopter (LPH) is a term used by some navies to denote a type of amphibious warfare ship designed primarily to operate as a launch and recovery platform for helicopters and other VTOL aircraft. As such, they are considered a type of helicopter carrier.

Under the NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG) document for reporting vessels, LPH is a short form designator used for "Amphibious Assault Ship, Helicopter" defined as a "large helicopter carrier" for carrying and deploying around 1,800 assault troops using its own aircraft, but for which use of landing craft is "not a principal function". For ships of this hull classification in the Royal Navy, LPH is a direct acronym for "Landing Platform Helicopter", while the United States Navy referred to its vessels within this classification as "Landing ship, Personnel, Helicopter", and after 2006 as "amphibious assault ships". The etymology is L for amphibious, P for transport, and H for helicopter. Regardless of the terminology, all vessels classified as an LPH possess essentially similar capabilities.

The Royal Navy also used the term "Commando Carrier", which it applied to aircraft carriers converted to helicopter only operations. Prior to selling the vessel to the Brazilian Navy in 2018, the RN operated HMS Ocean (L12) as an LPH. Following the British government's decision to withdraw its Harrier aircraft at the end of 2010, the former light fleet carrier HMS Illustrious (R06) also performed this role until decommissioning in 2014.

The LPH classification was used by the U.S. Navy for the amphibious assault ships of the Iwo Jima-class amphibious assault ship, a converted Casablanca-class escort carrier and three converted Essex-class aircraft carriers. No ships of this classification are currently in active service with the U.S. Navy, having been replaced with multi-purpose ships classified under NATO naming conventions as landing helicopter dock or landing helicopter assault ships.

Brazilian Navy

 * BRAZILIAN AIRCRAFT CARRIER Atlântico (ex HMS Ocean (L12))

Republic of Korea Navy

 * Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship
 * ROKS Dokdo
 * ROKS Marado

Royal Navy
Royal Navy "Commando Carriers" and "Amphibious Helicopter Carriers"
 * HMS Ocean (R68) – 1956 only, emergency minimal conversion for Suez Crisis Colossus-class aircraft carrier - Broken up
 * HMS Theseus (R64) – 1956 only, emergency minimal conversion for Suez Crisis Colossus class. Placed into reserve until broken up in 1962
 * HMS Albion (R07) – 1962–1972, converted Centaur-class aircraft carrier - Converted to a Commando carrier in 1961/62. Decommissioned 1972 and scrapped.
 * HMS Bulwark (R08) – 1960–1980, converted Centaur class. Converted to an anti-submarine warfare carrier 1979. Kept in service until HMS Invincible entered service. Due to accumulated damage she was not fit for emergency use in the Falklands War and was later broken up.
 * HMS Hermes (R12) – 1973–1976, Centaur-class aircraft carrier converted for amphibious operations, then in 1976 as a helicopter anti-submarine warfare carrier and later still as a BAe Sea Harrier-equipped VSTOL light carrier. During the Falklands operated helicopters for both anti-submarine and troop movements Sold to the Indian Navy, as the INS Viraat.
 * HMS Ocean (L12) – 1998–2018 designed and built as a commando carrier based on the Invincible-class STOVL carrier hull. Decommissioned in March 2018 sold to Brazil, who renamed it BRAZILIAN AIRCRAFT CARRIER Atlântico.
 * HMS Illustrious (R06) - 2011–2014, Invincible-class aircraft carrier equipped and re-purposed as a commando carrier while HMS Ocean was in refit. Decommissioned in 2014 and scrapped in Turkey.

United States Navy

 * USS Block Island (CVE-106) – Commencement Bay-class escort carrier – Conversion to LPH cancelled -Scrapped
 * USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2) – Iwo Jima-class amphibious assault ship – First ship to be designed and built from the keel up as an amphibious assault ship - Scrapped
 * USS Okinawa (LPH-3) – Iwo Jima class - Sunk in SINKEX
 * USS Boxer (CV-21) – converted straight deck Essex-class aircraft carrier - Scrapped
 * USS Princeton (CV-37) – converted straight deck Essex-class aircraft carrier - Scrapped
 * USS Thetis Bay – converted Casablanca-class escort carrier - Scrapped
 * USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7) – Iwo Jima-class - Sunk in SINKEX
 * USS Valley Forge (CV-45) – converted straight deck Essex-class aircraft carrier - Scrapped
 * USS Guam (LPH-9) – Iwo Jima class - Sunk in SINKEX
 * USS Tripoli (LPH-10) – Iwo Jima class – Scrapped
 * USS New Orleans (LPH-11) – Iwo Jima class - Sunk in SINKEX off of the coast of Oahu, Hawaii.
 * USS Inchon – Iwo Jima class - Stricken from the list and sunk east of Virginia Beach, Virginia on 5 December 2004.

title: Landing platform helicopter


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RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta

RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta ("Radio of the Gaeltacht"), abbreviated RnaG, is an Irish language radio station owned and operated by Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ). The station is available on FM in Ireland and via satellite and on the Internet. It celebrated 40 years on air on 2 April 2012. In 2022, Raidio na Gaeltachta celebrated its 50th year in broadcasting. The station's main-headquarters are in Casla, County Galway with major studios also in Gaoth Dobhair, County Donegal and Ballydavid, County Kerry.

Background
After the Irish Free State was formed and the Irish Civil War was concluded, the new state set up a single radio channel named 2RN in 1926, launched by Douglas Hyde. This was run by the Irish Post Office and was not a private enterprise. The radio program, operating out of Dublin, largely served the Anglophone population and at best reached as far as County Tipperary; a situation which did not change until more powerful transmitters were adopted in the 1930s at Athlone. Those involved in setting up 2RN and J. J. Walsh (Minister for Posts and Telegraphs from 1923 to 1927) discussed the possibility of setting up an Irish-language radio service for the Gaeltacht community and more widely were sympathetic to Irish culture which included language revival, but the project was frustrated due to economic reasons and came to little. "If we do not revive and develop Irish, we must inevitably be assimilated by one of these two communities (United Kingdom or the United States), or by the combined power by which they must eventually form and in that case our name and tradition and history will vanish out of human ken and our national individuality will be lost."

As the Irish language was valued as part of Irish national identity and a marker of the young state's independence, there were some broadcasts in the language such as Nuacht and Tréimhseachán Teann (shows with English equivalents), the latter written by Séamus Ó Néill and Ciarán Ó Nualláin (brother of Brian Ó Nualláin). These featured alongside focus on Gaelic games, Irish traditional music and Catholic religious programming as part of a general nation-building content focus. In the 1940s, there were shows which sought to proactively teach the language such as Is Your Irish Rusty? and Listen and Learn. Irish-language programming suffered from a shortage of materials and for audience figures. In 1943, Taoiseach Éamon de Valera – whose wife Sinéad Ní Fhlannagáin was a keen Conradh na Gaeilge activist – promoted the idea of a Gaeltacht station again, but there was no breakthrough. By this time, 2RN had become Radio Éireann and still only had one channel, with limited broadcasting hours, often in competition for listeners with BBC Radio and Radio Luxembourg.

In the 1950s, a general liberalisation and commercialisation, indeed Americanisation began to occur in Ireland, as a push was made to move Ireland from a rural-agrarian society with a protectionist cultural policy, towards a market economy basis, with supply and demand the primarily basis of public communications. This brought Ireland into line culturally with the Western powers and eventually paved the way for its entrance into the European Economic Community. In 1960, RTÉ was established and direct control of communications moved from a government ministry position to a non-governmental RTÉ Director-General position, first filled by the American, Edward Roth. Previous cultural policies, including broadcasting in Irish, reduced in percentage, as ratings and profit became key. Eventually, in the late 1960s, a civil rights movement in the Gaeltacht, particularly Conamara emerged, seeking development and services for Irish-speakers, including a radio service. Out of the Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta's advocacy came the pirate radio station Saor Raidió Chonamara in 1970. This set the subsequent discourse for Irish-language and Gaeltacht issues as a civil rights and minority rights imperative.

Foundation
Gerry Collins, the Minister for Posts and Telegraphs, announced in the Dáil in February 1971 that a new radio station for the Gaeltacht would be created. Raidió na Gaeltachta began broadcasting at 3pm on 2 April 1972 as part of Easter Sunday programming. During the very first broadcast, the main station at Casla, County Galway was not yet finished and the studios in County Kerry and County Donegal were still in construction, so it was broadcast from Galway. The first Ceannaire (Controller) Pádraic Ó Raghallaigh opened the show, which was followed by a recording from President Éamon de Valera. A recording of Seán Ó Riada's Irish-language Mass, Ceol an Aifrinn (which includes the hymn Ag Críost an Síol) from the Seipéal Mhic Dara at Carraroe was also played.

At foundation, the station began with a staff of seven, including six former teachers and a businessman: Ó Raghallaigh, Breandán Feiritéar, Timlín Ó Cearnaigh, Máirtín Ó Fátharta, Seán Ó Tuairisg, Maidhc P. Ó Conaola, Mícheál Ó Sé and Feardorcha Ó Colla. Initially, Raidió na Gaeltachta broadcast for only two hours a day and was only available in or near the three largest Gaeltacht districts. The local studio at Derrybeg in Gweedore, County Donegal, under the direction of Ulstermen, Ó Cearnaigh and Ó Colla, aided the native Irish music scene there. In the 1970s, Raidió na Gaeltachta gave early coverage to Clannad and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh (later the singer for Altan). These groups would gain popularity not only in Ireland, but on the international stage, selling millions of records during the 1980s especially. The station was dedicated to bringing the listener general news, both national and international (which, in the context of the times meant Donegal reporters with Gaelic names having to cross British Army checkpoints into Northern Ireland), as well as Gaelic sports coverage and more localised affairs of significance to the community in the Gaeltacht.

21st century
Following the putting in place of a fourth RTÉ national radio transmitter network (used for RTÉ lyric fm), the station expanded to 24 hours from 1 October 2001. Listenership figures are hard to come by, as the station does not make payments to be included covered in the JNLR listenership survey. It is claimed that – as it doesn't carry advertising (the only Irish radio station not to do so) – paying to be included in a survey organised mainly for the benefit of the Irish advertising industry would be a waste of scarce funds. It is generally believed that listenership is high amongst fluent Irish speakers but its appeal among those learning the language is not as high as TG4 because (despite being available nationally) it is widely perceived as being oriented (as its name suggests) towards Gaeltacht residents.

For many years, Raidió na Gaeltachta was the only Irish-language broadcaster in the country; from the 1990s, it was joined by a television service, Telefís na Gaeilge (now known as TG4), and by regional community radio stations: Raidió na Life in Dublin, Raidió Fáilte in Belfast and Raidió Rí-Rá.

English-language music
In March 2005, RTÉ announced that RnaG would allow songs with English lyrics to be played between 21:00 and 01:00, as part of a new popular music strand. In April 2005, it was announced that the name of this strand would be Anocht FM (Tonight FM). On weeknights the strand includes a new programme, Géill Slí (Give Way), as well as the existing long-running An Taobh Tuathail slot. The new service was launched on 2 May 2005. The first track with English-language lyrics played was "Blister in the Sun" by the Violent Femmes, chosen by public vote.

Pay parity
On 12 July 2024, staff at RTÉ Raidio na Gaeltachta won the right to pay parity with journalists working through the medium of the English language in Ireland. "The development follows a long running campaign by the NUJ, SIPTU and the RTÉ Group of Unions and is in line with the recommendations in the report by the Expert Advisory Committee on Contractor Fees, HR and other matters, the report by the Joint Oireachtas Media Committee and the report of the Future of Media Commission." After campaigning for several years for pay parity with equivalent posts working within the English language, the three Irish language grades at Raidio na Gaeltacha will be moved in line with their counterparts in the English language grades. These three Irish language job grades are: Clár Reachtaire, Reachtaire Rúnaíochta Grade 1 and Reachtaire Rúnaíochta Grade 2, and the National Union of Journalists press release on the matter notes that the job grades combine a range of journalistic and production skills and that they differ only in title from their equivalents working through English.

Locations
RnaG is based in Casla, County Galway. It also has studios at Gaoth Dobhair (Gweedore), County Donegal; Baile na nGall in Ard na Caithne, County Kerry; Castlebar, County Mayo; with a smaller studio in Ring, County Waterford and the RTÉ Radio Centre in Dublin. The station is operated by RTÉ, but has a separate advisory council, Comhairle Raidió na Gaeltachta, which is appointed by the RTÉ Authority. RTÉ also appoints the Ceannaire, or Controller, of RnaG, who has day-to-day responsibility for the service.

Audience
According to the 2011 JNLR survey, RnaG then had a weekly listenership of 100,000 which equates to a 3% market share. This is similar to Welsh-language BBC Radio Cymru, with 116,000 listeners and a 2.4% share.

title: RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta


text:
WIPP

WIPP may refer to:

 * Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, a deep geological repository for nuclear waste
 * Women in Periodical Publishing (today known as Exceptional Women in Publishing)
 * The ICAO airport code assigned for Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport in Palembang, Indonesia

title: WIPP


text: User talk:24.105.166.19

title: User talk:24.105.166.19


text:
User:Imran/zeitgeist

The 100 pages whose popularity increased the most between March and April:

Absolute increase in ranking
(So 12 would be the 12th most popular article)

 * 1) Short term memory up 42730 places to 12
 * 2) Declaration of Arbroath up 41242 places to 3273
 * 3) 420 (drug culture) up 41222 places to 629
 * 4) Queen Mary 2 up 39096 places to 2252
 * 5) Mengele up 39054 places to 2483
 * 6) RIAA equalization up 38056 places to 4881
 * 7) Vedic mathematics up 38054 places to 6159
 * 8) Earth Day up 36639 places to 1362
 * 9) Roland Ratzenberger up 36368 places to 2150
 * 10) List of baseball pitches up 36339 places to 2338
 * 11) Suicide note up 35489 places to 5416
 * 12) Flag of Iraq up 35406 places to 8404
 * 13) Ludlow Massacre up 34930 places to 2167
 * 14) Hyperlexia up 34655 places to 2985
 * 15) San Serriffe up 33915 places to 6339
 * 16) U.S.A. up 33725 places to 10967
 * 17) Luvox up 33387 places to 9300
 * 18) Bill Atkinson up 33129 places to 7837
 * 19) Pocahontas up 33084 places to 1798
 * 20) Benita Ferrero-Waldner up 32866 places to 5921
 * 21) Medieval medicine up 32776 places to 6764
 * 22) ANZAC Day up 32719 places to 5442
 * 23) Kremvax up 32605 places to 1759
 * 24) Albert Hofmann up 32419 places to 2036
 * 25) Eephus pitch up 32275 places to 12254
 * 26) Pony Express up 32226 places to 8415
 * 27) Harold Schechter up 32199 places to 6638
 * 28) U.S. Air Force enlisted rank insignia up 32193 places to 12232
 * 29) Soyuz 1 up 32085 places to 6459
 * 30) Placebo up 31969 places to 4201
 * 31) King James Bible up 31939 places to 9133
 * 32) Air America Radio up 31760 places to 9184
 * 33) Tiffany Towers up 31659 places to 10176
 * 34) Holy Blood, Holy Grail up 31317 places to 4608
 * 35) Security cracking up 31301 places to 11879
 * 36) Cyprus dispute up 31114 places to 9885
 * 37) Independent State of Croatia up 31096 places to 13474
 * 38) Conic sections up 31006 places to 12776
 * 39) Missingno up 30982 places to 12401
 * 40) Richard Pryor up 30892 places to 5664
 * 41) Buddhist texts up 30796 places to 12473
 * 42) Brunette up 30787 places to 12241
 * 43) Five Elements up 30723 places to 7100
 * 44) Introspection up 30708 places to 13376
 * 45) Buster up 30603 places to 11726
 * 46) Curveball up 30567 places to 8245
 * 47) Changeup up 30566 places to 8879
 * 48) Ottawa Senators up 30541 places to 9008
 * 49) Italian musical terms up 30472 places to 9267
 * 50) Spanish boot up 30419 places to 8954
 * 51) Mayday up 30361 places to 10251
 * 52) Carnation Revolution up 30020 places to 9186
 * 53) IS-2000 up 29836 places to 8013
 * 54) Battle of Culloden up 29720 places to 3642
 * 55) Al Jazeera up 29380 places to 4275
 * 56) Roger Andrew Taylor up 29324 places to 13164
 * 57) List of aircraft weapons up 29264 places to 9195
 * 58) John Maynard Smith up 29122 places to 3193
 * 59) List of Hillsborough disaster casualties up 29116 places to 12625
 * 60) Rat Snake up 29104 places to 10462
 * 61) Transportation in South Korea up 29070 places to 14895
 * 62) Greco-Buddhism up 29042 places to 2948
 * 63) Tenes Empanadas Graciela up 29002 places to 7199
 * 64) Waylon Smithers up 28990 places to 13299
 * 65) U.S. Navy officer rank insignia up 28980 places to 9771
 * 66) Cinco de Mayo up 28968 places to 12246
 * 67) Gia Marie Carangi up 28913 places to 12788
 * 68) Tunku Abdul Rahman up 28882 places to 13640
 * 69) Keith Haring up 28874 places to 15220
 * 70) Duke Nukem 3D up 28622 places to 4138
 * 71) Adrian Lamo up 28612 places to 11885
 * 72) Portuguese Creole up 28593 places to 14812
 * 73) Logarithmic timeline up 28587 places to 15754
 * 74) London Marathon up 28517 places to 2209
 * 75) The Funniest Joke in the World up 28443 places to 567
 * 76) Ampere's law up 28300 places to 15444
 * 77) Thomas the Tank Engine up 28211 places to 2433
 * 78) Vladimir Komarov up 28116 places to 11501
 * 79) Bob Sapp up 28109 places to 1928
 * 80) Elena Filatova up 28077 places to 9357
 * 81) Alan Kay up 28077 places to 10897
 * 82) List of songs whose title includes personal names up 28026 places to 7581
 * 83) Olympic Airlines up 27868 places to 3740
 * 84) Hans Asperger up 27807 places to 12566
 * 85) Hentai games up 27783 places to 5778
 * 86) Arachnid up 27722 places to 9474
 * 87) Reliant Energy up 27679 places to 9832
 * 88) Phillip II of Spain up 27599 places to 9139
 * 89) Charles Fort up 27582 places to 8494
 * 90) Enigma machine up 27456 places to 13315
 * 91) Flag of Florida up 27404 places to 16648
 * 92) List of cities in Maryland up 27381 places to 14804
 * 93) William Strauss up 27297 places to 9493
 * 94) Apollo 6 up 27157 places to 11018
 * 95) Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline up 27125 places to 14598
 * 96) Timeline of United States history (1990-present) up 27091 places to 15182
 * 97) 99 Names of God up 27049 places to 17409
 * 98) French hip hop up 27043 places to 12207
 * 99) Pit bull up 26997 places to 8233
 * 100) Salwar Kameez up 26990 places to 11532

Relative increase in popluarity (by hits)

 * 1) Short term memory up 7431% to 13330 hits
 * 2) Bond (finance) up 2571% to 8041
 * 3) Jew up 1457% to 70058
 * 4) Channel tunnel up 1167% to 6910
 * 5) Mordechai Vanunu up 1130% to 7250
 * 6) Pictures up 1123% to 10519
 * 7) 420 (drug culture) up 1032% to 2039
 * 8) Battle of Blenheim up 860% to 3418
 * 9) B up 757% to 4947
 * 10) The Funniest Joke in the World up 733% to 2133
 * 11) Colossal Cave Adventure up 685% to 4374
 * 12) Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold up 603% to 3229
 * 13) Earth Day up 583% to 1354
 * 14) Epistolary novel up 581% to 3379
 * 15) Parthenogenesis up 516% to 2384
 * 16) Antoine de Saint-Exupéry up 513% to 2514
 * 17) DOOM up 512% to 7441
 * 18) Stan Laurel up 457% to 1561
 * 19) Labour economics up 457% to 1578
 * 20) Queen Mary 2 up 455% to 1017
 * 21) Korea Train Express up 442% to 1892
 * 22) Kremvax up 435% to 1168
 * 23) Pocahontas up 435% to 1151
 * 24) Roland Ratzenberger up 431% to 1041
 * 25) Mengele up 428% to 962
 * 26) Jahre Viking up 422% to 6313
 * 27) A up 415% to 11255
 * 28) Joshua A. Norton up 412% to 4929
 * 29) Ludlow Massacre up 411% to 1038
 * 30) List of baseball pitches up 411% to 997
 * 31) Crushing by elephant up 405% to 6620
 * 32) Lord Haw-Haw up 397% to 2362
 * 33) Albert Hofmann up 393% to 1071
 * 34) Declaration of Arbroath up 380% to 812
 * 35) TANSTAAFL up 349% to 1205
 * 36) Bob Sapp up 347% to 1106
 * 37) Aftermath of the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks up 343% to 1220
 * 38) Priory of Sion up 338% to 1395
 * 39) Pin up up 332% to 1193
 * 40) Hyperlexia up 330% to 861
 * 41) London Marathon up 324% to 1027
 * 42) Googlebomb up 317% to 4420
 * 43) Trench warfare up 316% to 4124
 * 44) April 20 up 312% to 6851
 * 45) Hypercard up 311% to 1669
 * 46) Thomas the Tank Engine up 301% to 976
 * 47) April Fool's Day up 287% to 5901
 * 48) April 19 up 286% to 3551
 * 49) Fountain pen up 275% to 2037
 * 50) Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi up 274% to 6255
 * 51) Greco-Buddhism up 272% to 868
 * 52) Asperger's syndrome up 268% to 5543
 * 53) Plan 9 up 263% to 1418
 * 54) Brains up 261% to 1251
 * 55) RIAA equalization up 260% to 634
 * 56) John Maynard Smith up 257% to 825
 * 57) April 1st RFC up 255% to 991
 * 58) Atlantis up 248% to 4558
 * 59) Calorie up 242% to 1772
 * 60) April 23 up 241% to 2626
 * 61) Bahá'í Faith up 239% to 917
 * 62) Battle of Culloden up 239% to 761
 * 63) April 22 up 238% to 2376
 * 64) Graham's number up 237% to 1026
 * 65) Hutt River Province up 237% to 1149
 * 66) Voice actor up 236% to 1297
 * 67) Placebo up 235% to 698
 * 68) Dharma up 233% to 1763
 * 69) Manfred von Richthofen up 231% to 2274
 * 70) Technology of DOOM up 230% to 832
 * 71) Stairway to Heaven up 224% to 1417
 * 72) Rock, Paper, Scissors up 222% to 2007
 * 73) April 21 up 220% to 2623
 * 74) Congo Free State up 220% to 3230
 * 75) Suicide note up 219% to 591
 * 76) Vedic mathematics up 218% to 544
 * 77) Olympic Airlines up 216% to 747
 * 78) Holy Blood, Holy Grail up 214% to 658
 * 79) Major world religions up 213% to 1122
 * 80) Eric Harris up 213% to 13622
 * 81) Underpants Gnomes up 213% to 2374
 * 82) Al Jazeera up 210% to 690
 * 83) Duke Nukem 3D up 208% to 703
 * 84) Mount Rainier up 207% to 948
 * 85) Tom Delonge up 205% to 1270
 * 86) ANZAC Day up 198% to 588
 * 87) Haile Selassie of Ethiopia up 195% to 993
 * 88) Paul Morphy up 194% to 1402
 * 89) The Newlywed Game up 194% to 759
 * 90) Ed Gein up 193% to 7358
 * 91) Mu-metal up 192% to 1538
 * 92) Benita Ferrero-Waldner up 187% to 557
 * 93) Ford Mustang up 184% to 2913
 * 94) East-West Schism up 184% to 852
 * 95) San Serriffe up 183% to 533
 * 96) Intelligent design up 183% to 1665
 * 97) 2003 invasion of Iraq casualties up 183% to 1368
 * 98) History of GameFAQs boards up 182% to 930
 * 99) High-speed rail up 181% to 670
 * 100) Straw purchase up 181% to 1603

Absolute increase in popluarity (by hits)

 * 1) Jew up 65559 hits to 70058 hits.
 * 2) Short term memory up 13153 hits to 13330
 * 3) Pictures up 9659 hits to 10519
 * 4) Eric Harris up 9271 hits to 13622
 * 5) A up 9071 hits to 11255
 * 6) Columbine High School massacre up 9070 hits to 22294
 * 7) Diana, Princess of Wales up 8527 hits to 13277
 * 8) Bond (finance) up 7740 hits to 8041
 * 9) Mordechai Vanunu up 6661 hits to 7250
 * 10) Channel tunnel up 6365 hits to 6910
 * 11) DOOM up 6227 hits to 7441
 * 12) Crushing by elephant up 5310 hits to 6620
 * 13) April 20 up 5192 hits to 6851
 * 14) Jahre Viking up 5105 hits to 6313
 * 15) Ed Gein up 4851 hits to 7358
 * 16) Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi up 4585 hits to 6255
 * 17) April Fool's Day up 4379 hits to 5901
 * 18) B up 4370 hits to 4947
 * 19) Asperger's syndrome up 4038 hits to 5543
 * 20) Joshua A. Norton up 3967 hits to 4929
 * 21) Colossal Cave Adventure up 3817 hits to 4374
 * 22) Googlebomb up 3362 hits to 4420
 * 23) Rachel Scott up 3313 hits to 5750
 * 24) Atlantis up 3251 hits to 4558
 * 25) Trench warfare up 3135 hits to 4124
 * 26) Battle of Blenheim up 3062 hits to 3418
 * 27) Kurt Cobain up 2988 hits to 8105
 * 28) Epistolary novel up 2883 hits to 3379
 * 29) Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold up 2770 hits to 3229
 * 30) April 19 up 2633 hits to 3551
 * 31) Cassie Bernall up 2503 hits to 4479
 * 32) List of HIV-positive individuals up 2430 hits to 4159
 * 33) The Simpsons up 2353 hits to 5308
 * 34) Congo Free State up 2222 hits to 3230
 * 35) Antoine de Saint-Exupéry up 2104 hits to 2514
 * 36) Eric David Harris up 2050 hits to 3954
 * 37) Parthenogenesis up 1997 hits to 2384
 * 38) Hinduism up 1933 hits to 5319
 * 39) Byzantine Empire up 1890 hits to 5097
 * 40) Ford Mustang up 1890 hits to 2913
 * 41) Lord Haw-Haw up 1887 hits to 2362
 * 42) The Funniest Joke in the World up 1877 hits to 2133
 * 43) 420 (drug culture) up 1859 hits to 2039
 * 44) April 23 up 1857 hits to 2626
 * 45) Vietnam war up 1829 hits to 3846
 * 46) April 21 up 1804 hits to 2623
 * 47) April 4 up 1772 hits to 2852
 * 48) April 22 up 1674 hits to 2376
 * 49) Underpants Gnomes up 1616 hits to 2374
 * 50) RFID up 1613 hits to 3277
 * 51) Manfred von Richthofen up 1589 hits to 2274
 * 52) Drawing up 1571 hits to 2788
 * 53) Korea Train Express up 1543 hits to 1892
 * 54) Bukkake up 1538 hits to 4607
 * 55) Assassin up 1496 hits to 3199
 * 56) Tetrahydrocannabinol up 1495 hits to 2422
 * 57) Fountain pen up 1494 hits to 2037
 * 58) Rock, Paper, Scissors up 1384 hits to 2007
 * 59) Greek fire up 1360 hits to 2270
 * 60) Abd Al-Aziz Rantisi up 1317 hits to 2108
 * 61) List of aircraft up 1300 hits to 2242
 * 62) Labour economics up 1295 hits to 1578
 * 63) April 15 up 1284 hits to 2392
 * 64) Stan Laurel up 1281 hits to 1561
 * 65) Platypus up 1268 hits to 2200
 * 66) Hypercard up 1263 hits to 1669
 * 67) Calorie up 1255 hits to 1772
 * 68) Dharma up 1234 hits to 1763
 * 69) Voice over IP up 1169 hits to 2290
 * 70) Earth Day up 1156 hits to 1354
 * 71) Hillsborough disaster up 1113 hits to 2475
 * 72) Intelligent design up 1077 hits to 1665
 * 73) Priory of Sion up 1077 hits to 1395
 * 74) April 16 up 1070 hits to 1777
 * 75) L. Paul Bremer up 1070 hits to 2269
 * 76) April 5 up 1038 hits to 1956
 * 77) Straw purchase up 1034 hits to 1603
 * 78) Titanium up 1032 hits to 3510
 * 79) List of U.S. federal prisons up 1030 hits to 4480
 * 80) Plan 9 up 1028 hits to 1418
 * 81) Mu-metal up 1013 hits to 1538
 * 82) Stairway to Heaven up 980 hits to 1417
 * 83) April 18 up 973 hits to 1670
 * 84) April 17 up 971 hits to 1705
 * 85) Wolfenstein 3D up 954 hits to 1638
 * 86) Kremvax up 950 hits to 1168
 * 87) Aftermath of the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks up 945 hits to 1220
 * 88) TANSTAAFL up 937 hits to 1205
 * 89) Pocahontas up 936 hits to 1151
 * 90) Paul Morphy up 926 hits to 1402
 * 91) Pin up up 917 hits to 1193
 * 92) Voice actor up 912 hits to 1297
 * 93) Brains up 905 hits to 1251
 * 94) 2003 invasion of Iraq casualties up 885 hits to 1368
 * 95) April 6 up 873 hits to 1782
 * 96) System/360 up 872 hits to 1370
 * 97) Perfect number up 871 hits to 1566
 * 98) Bob Sapp up 859 hits to 1106
 * 99) Albert Hofmann up 854 hits to 1071
 * 100) Tom Delonge up 854 hits to 1270

title: User:Imran/zeitgeist


text:
Julia Neuberger

Julia Babette Sarah Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger, (née Schwab; born 27 February 1950) is a British rabbi and politician. She previously took the Liberal Democrat whip, but resigned from the party and became a crossbencher in 2011 upon becoming the full-time senior rabbi of the West London Synagogue, from which she retired in 2020. She became the chair of University College London Hospitals (UCLH) in 2019. She is a member of the House of Lords.

Neuberger was the second woman to be ordained as a rabbi in the UK, the first being Jackie Tabick.

Early life
Neuberger was born Julia Babette Sarah Schwab in the Hampstead area of London on 27 February 1950, the daughter of art critic Liesel ("Alice") and civil servant Walter Schwab. Her mother was a German-Jewish refugee who had fled the Nazis, arriving in England at the age of 22 in 1937, while her father was born in England to German-Jewish immigrants who had settled there before World War I. The Schwab Trust, which supports and educates young refugees and asylum seekers, was later set up in her parents' name.

She attended South Hampstead High School and Newnham College, Cambridge, where she first studied Assyriology. After she was refused entry to Turkey because she was British, and then to Iraq because she was Jewish, she had to change her subject and instead studied her second language of Hebrew full-time. Her lecturer at Cambridge, Nicholas de Lange, suggested she should become a rabbi. She obtained her rabbinic diploma at Leo Baeck College.

Religious roles
Neuberger taught at her alma mater, Leo Baeck College, from 1977 to 1997. She later became Britain's first female rabbi to have her own synagogue. She was rabbi of the South London Liberal Synagogue from 1977 to 1989 and is president of West Central Liberal Synagogue. On 1 February 2011, the West London Synagogue (a Movement for Reform Judaism synagogue) announced that she had been appointed as senior rabbi of the synagogue. She retired from her West London Synagogue role in March 2020. She also regularly appears on the Pause for Thought section on BBC Radio 2.

Public sector activity
Neuberger was Chair of Camden and Islington Community Health Services NHS Trust from 1992 to 1997, and Chief Executive of the King's Fund from 1997 to 2004. She was also chancellor of the University of Ulster from 1994 to 2000. Who's Who lists a large number of voluntary and philanthropic roles she has undertaken. Her book, The Moral State We're In, a study of morality and public policy in modern Britain (ISBN 0-00-718167-1), was published in 2005. The title is an allusion to Will Hutton's 1997 book, The State We're In.

Political and parliamentary roles
Neuberger was the Social Democratic Party candidate for Tooting in the 1983 general election, coming third with 8,317 votes (18.1%). She was appointed a DBE in the New Year Honours of 2003. In June 2004, she was created a life peer as Baroness Neuberger, of Primrose Hill in the London Borough of Camden. She served as a Liberal Democrat Health spokesperson from 2004 to 2007. On 29 June 2007, Neuberger was appointed by the incoming Prime Minister Gordon Brown as the government's champion of volunteering. She resigned from the Liberal Democrats upon becoming senior rabbi of the West London Synagogue.

Controversy
In 1997, Neuberger criticised education in Northern Ireland as "sectarian" at the opening of Loughview Integrated Primary School. The Irish News claimed she had criticised Catholic schools as sectarian, leading to criticism from the Director of the Catholic Council for Maintained Schools. However, she said that the report from the Irish News had given a misleading impression and that she had been quoted out of context: "In fact, I think in what I actually said at the opening I didn't mention Catholic schools. I think I actually mentioned Protestant, Muslim and Jewish but then I was interviewed afterwards and I certainly said to the reporter that what I said applied just as much to Catholic schools as to Protestant or Jewish or Muslim or whatever."

Charity work
In January 2013, Neuberger was appointed chair of an Independent Review of the Liverpool Care Pathway for the Dying Patient. The impartiality of the appointment was questioned by some of the bereaved families, due to her previous endorsement of the pathway, which was written by Dr John Ellershaw, medical director of the Marie Curie Palliative Care Institute in Liverpool, in a 2003 BMJ article, and her widely publicised support of the Marie Curie Institute. The results of the review were published in July 2013; accepting the review's recommendations, the government advised that NHS hospitals should phase out the use of the LCP.

Neuberger was elected vice-president of Attend, a charity that supports and expands the roles volunteers play in creating healthy communities, in 2006 and held the position until she retired in 2011.

Neuberger was appointed to the board of Irish health insurers Vhi Healthcare for a five-year period from 2005 by Mary Harney, the Tánaiste and Minister for Health and Children.

Neuberger is a Vice President of the Jewish Leadership Council.

Personal life
Neuberger married professor Anthony Neuberger on 17 September 1973. They have a son named Matthew and a daughter named Harriet.

In the wake of the Brexit vote in 2016, Neuberger stated that she would apply for a German passport, for which she is eligible through her parents. She said, "My decision has nothing at all to do with anti-Semitism, but with my origins, my admiration for how today's Germany has dealt with its past, and my sense of being European as well as British."

Publications

 * The Story of Judaism (for children), 1986, 2nd edition 1988.
 * Days of Decision (Edited four in series), 1987.
 * Caring for Dying Patients of Different Faiths, 1987, 3rd edition 2004 (edited, with John A. White).
 * A Necessary End, 1991.
 * Whatever’s Happening to Women?, 1991.
 * Ethics and Healthcare: the role of Research Ethics Committees in the UK, 1992.
 * The Things That Matter (anthology of women's spiritual poetry, Edited by JN), 1993.
 * On Being Jewish, 1995.
 * Dying Well: a guide to enabling a better death, 1999, 2nd edition 2004.
 * Hidden Assets: values and decision-making in the NHS today, (edition with Bill New), 2002.
 * The Moral State We’re In, 2005.
 * Report on Volunteering, 2008.
 * Antisemitism: What it is; What it isn't and why it matters, 2019.

title: Julia Neuberger


text:
Bifid cipher

In classical cryptography, the bifid cipher is a cipher which combines the Polybius square with transposition, and uses fractionation to achieve diffusion. It was invented around 1901 by Felix Delastelle.

Operation
First, a mixed alphabet Polybius square is drawn up, where the I and the J share their position: 1 2 3 4 5 1 B G W K Z 2 Q P N D S 3 I O A X E 4 F C L U M 5 T H Y V R The message is converted to its coordinates in the usual manner, but they are written vertically beneath: F L E E A T O N C E 4 4 3 3 3 5 3 2 4 3 1 3 5 5 3 1 2 3 2 5 They are then read out in rows: 4 4 3 3 3 5 3 2 4 3 1 3 5 5 3 1 2 3 2 5 Then divided up into pairs again, and the pairs turned back into letters using the square: 44 33 35 32 43 13 55 31 23 25 U A  E  O  L  W  R  I  N  S In this way, each ciphertext character depends on two plaintext characters, so the bifid is a digraphic cipher, like the Playfair cipher. To decrypt, the procedure is simply reversed.

Longer messages are first broken up into blocks of fixed length, called the period, and the above encryption procedure is applied to each block. One way to detect the period uses bigram statistics on ciphertext letters separated by half the period. For even periods, p, as in the example above (p=10), ciphertext letters at a distance of p/2 are influenced by two plaintext letters (e. g., U and W are influenced by F and T), but for odd periods, p, ciphertext letters at distances of p/2 (rounded either up or down) are influenced by three plaintext letters. Thus, odd periods are more secure than even against this form of cryptanalysis, because it would require more text to find a statistical anomaly in trigram plaintext statistics than bigram plaintext statistics.

title: Bifid cipher


text:
Whit Taylor (American football)

Whit Taylor (born January 8, 1960) is a former college and professional football quarterback. He was an all-Southeastern Conference quarterback for Vanderbilt University from 1979–1982, a period which included a trip to the 1982 Hall of Fame Bowl. His career at Vanderbilt led in 2003 to his recognition as an SEC Football Legend.

After attempting a career in the National Football League (NFL), he became a backup quarterback for the Michigan Panthers of the United States Football League (USFL) and then became quarterback of the Denver Dynamite of the Arena Football League (AFL) in 1987. In that year he became the first player ever to pass for ten touchdowns in any professional game of American football, a record which stood for over a decade.

Taylor was a principal at Shelbyville Central High School. He is now a vice principal at a local elementary school.

Professional career
In 1987, Taylor lead the Denver Dynamite to a 45–16 victory over the Pittsburgh Gladiators in ArenaBowl I. Taylor threw four touchdowns during the game, three of them to future Arena Football Hall of Famer Gary Mullen.

After football
Taylor got his start in coaching at the collegiate level, serving as quarterbacks coach at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga in 1988–1989. He worked as a high school football coach and teacher in the Middle Tennessee area at Shelbyville's Central High School, his high school alma mater.

In 2006, he left coaching to go into educational administration. He served as the Harris Middle School Assistant Principal for a few years. He was the Principal of Shelbyville Central High School. He was the vice principal of Eastside Elementary. Whit has now retired from his education career starting in the 2020–2021 school year

title: Whit Taylor (American football)