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European School

A European School (Schola Europaea) is a type of international school emphasising a multilingual and multicultural pedagogical approach to the teaching of nursery, primary and secondary students, leading to the European Baccalaureate as their secondary leaving qualification. Each European School is set up, financed, and operated by the international organisation, the "European Schools", controlled jointly by the member states of the European Union and the European Commission. The schools prioritise, for enrolment purposes, the children of EU staff.

The first European School, founded in Luxembourg, in 1953, had the objective of providing an education to the children of employees of the institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community — a forerunner of today's European Union. Originally, a private initiative of employees of the ECSC, the concept attracted the attention of EU founding father, Jean Monnet as capturing the spirit of the post-war effort to reconcile and integrate Europe.

As of September 2017, there are thirteen European Schools located in six EU member states in close proximity to European institutions.

Since 2005, upon a recommendation of the European Parliament, the title of an "Accredited European School" has been available for schools under national jurisdiction and financing, which have been approved, by the Board of Governors of the European Schools, to offer the European Schools' curriculum and the European Baccalaureate.

Legal status
The schools, despite their close connection to the EU, are neither EU bodies, nor under the full jurisdiction of the individual member states of the European Union. They are instead administered and financed through the international organisation "The European Schools", established by means of an intergovernmental treaty, the 1957 Statute of the European School, since repealed and replaced by the 1994 Convention Defining the Statute of the European Schools. All EU member states, as well as the EU itself, and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) are party to this agreement. As part of the UK's withdrawal from the EU, it will remain party to the convention until the end of the academic year ongoing at the end of the transition period. The Schools are legally recognised in all participating jurisdictions as public bodies.

Locations
There are thirteen European Schools, (sometimes designated as "Type 1" European Schools in official documents) found in eight municipalities, across six EU countries, in close proximity to EU institutions, or in the case of the European School, Munich, the European Patent Organisation. There are currently five European Schools in Belgium (four in Brussels and one in Mol) and discussions are currently being held about building a fifth school in Brussels, to open in 2027.

In 2017, with the relocation of European Union-seconded researchers and their families following the formation of the successor project to the Joint European Torus fusion energy research programme, the European School, Culham was closed. The school affirmed this move was not connected with Brexit.

On 9 July 2021 the decision was made to move the Netherlands-based school from Bergen, to Alkmaar.

Curriculum
The curriculum is common to all thirteen schools and is centrally controlled by the Board of Inspectors and the Board of Governors.

Secondary level
Compulsory subjects for Years 1–7 of the secondary school: Compulsory for Years 1–3 of the secondary school: Compulsory subjects for Years 1–5 of the secondary school: Compulsory subjects for Years 6–7 of the secondary school: Optional subjects:
 * First language (normally mother tongue)
 * Second language (Usually one of English, French or German, with some schools providing a local language such as Spanish, Italian, Danish or Dutch as alternate option)
 * Mathematics
 * History (instructed in second language from Year 3)
 * Geography (instructed in second language from Year 3)
 * Ethics/religion (instructed in second language from Year 3)
 * Physical education (instruction in second language is possible from year 3)
 * Art
 * Music
 * Third language (any EU official language, as long as a minimum number of students choose it in the same school)
 * Natural sciences: physics, chemistry and biology (usually combined for Years 1–3)
 * Philosophy
 * Physics and/or chemistry and/or biology (at least one science subject is obligatory)
 * ICT (instructed in second language) and Latin in Year 3
 * Economics (instructed in second language), music, or a fourth and fifth language in Years 4–7

Foreign language education
All modern foreign languages offered are taught using the direct method where the lessons are taught in the language being learned, and the use of the student's native tongue is discouraged. These foreign languages lessons are shared with pupils from other language streams. The idea is to encourage the pupils to use the language they are learning as a means of crossing the communication barrier between themselves and pupils from other language streams. From Year 3 onwards of the secondary school, History and Geography as well as other secondary subjects such as Music are taught in each student's second language. Many of the pupils find themselves in a foreign country, so are surrounded by a foreign language. Some pick it up through language immersion, hence some lessons are taught in the national language of the host country.

European Baccalaureate
The European Baccalaureate is the leaving certification of the European Schools, and should be distinguished from the International Baccalaureate (IB) and the baccalaureates of various national systems. It is a two-year course assessing the performance of students in the subjects taught in Years 6–7, and culminating in a final series exams taken at the end of Year 7. As per the multilingual ethos of the Schools, certain subjects are instructed and assessed in each student's respective second language. Details of the examinations are set out in the Annex of the Statute of the European School and in the regulations for the European Baccalaureate.

Those students undertaking the European Baccalaureate are required to study at least 8 and up to a maximum of 11 academic subjects, in addition to physical education and moral/religion, with different weightings according to the course choices made when commencing the Baccaluareate. The final mark is calculated as a percentage, where 50% is the minimum for a pass.

The European Baccalaureate is administered and directly supervised by an external examining board appointed annually by the Board of Governors. The examining board consists of up to three representatives of each member state, who must satisfy the conditions governing the appointment of equivalent examining boards in their respective countries. It is presided over by a senior university educator appointed by each member state in turn, assisted by a member of the Board of Inspectors of the Schools.

Article 5 (2) of the Statute provides that holders of the Baccalaureate shall:

 * enjoy, in the Member State of which they are nationals, all the benefits attaching to the possession of the diploma or certificate awarded at the end of secondary school education in that country; and
 * be entitled to seek admission to any university in the territory of any Member State on the same terms as nationals of that Member State with equivalent qualifications.

The first awards of the European Baccalaureate were made in 1959.

Common extracurricular activities and events
Sports teams of the European Schools compete in the biennial Eurosport event, with the schools alternating as hosts. In addition, students of the schools have the opportunity to take part in the annual European Schools Science Composium, the winners of which represent the European Schools in the European Union Contest for Young Scientists.

The European Schools also cooperate to take advantage of their unique relationship to EU institutions to provide students on an annual basis with the opportunity to take part in political simulations of EU meetings, held on the premises of the institutions themselves. Students get the opportunity to role-play as delegates of EU member state governments in a Model European Council, MEPs in a Model European Parliament, or international journalists covering the meetings.

The federation of student representatives of the schools, CoSup, organises a "Europarty", held in a different European city each academic year, and open to any student of the European Schools over 16 years of age to attend.

Notable alumni

 * Chris Adami (Brussels I) is a German professor of microbiology and molecular genetics, as well as professor of physics and astronomy at Michigan State University.
 * Tommaso Allan (Culham) is a rugby union player for Italy and Perpignan
 * Dick Annegarn (Brussels I) is a Dutch songwriter who worked most of the time in France. In his youth he lived in Brussels and he celebrated this city in his most famous song, called "Bruxelles".
 * Juan Becerra Acosta (Brussels I) is a Mexican journalist and TV anchor.
 * Henry Brett (Culham) is a British champion polo player.
 * Ulrich Daldrup (Brussels I) is a German politician and academic. He is Professor of Business Administration and International Management at the Aachen University of Applied Sciences and a former Mayor of Aachen (1994–1999).
 * Eric Everard (Brussels and Luxembourg I) is a Belgian manager, who created in 1988 the European Student's Fair. In 1997 he founded Artexis, one of the largest organizers of exhibitions and trade fairs in Europe.
 * Giovanni Ferrero (Brussels) is an Italian business manager, chief executive of Ferrero SpA
 * Max Gazzè (Brussels II) is an Italian songwriter and musician who worked in Belgium, France and in Italy. He has worked with many European artists including Stephan Eicher and Stewart Copeland.
 * Karin Giegerich (Varese) is a German actress, who worked in Italy, Germany, Switzerland and France.
 * Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck (Brussels I) is a German film director who worked in Germany and in the United States. He is best known for writing and directing the 2007 Oscar-winning film The Lives of Others and The Tourist.
 * Boris Johnson (Brussels I) is a British politician, former leader of the Conservative Party, and former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (July 2019 - September 2022). He previously held the offices of Mayor of London (2008–2016), and Foreign Secretary of the UK (July 2016 – July 2018).
 * Jo Johnson (Brussels I) is a British politician and former UK Minister for Universities and Science (May 2015 – January 2019) (July 2019 - September 2019), and Transport (January 2018 - November 2018).
 * Rachel Johnson (Brussels I) is a British editor, journalist, television presenter, and author.
 * Bas Kast (Munich) is a German journalist and writer.
 * Christian Keysers (Munich) is a German neuroscientist. In 2004 he received the Marie Curie Excellence Award for outstanding research.
 * Thomas Larkin (Varese) is an ice hockey defender. He played with the Italian national ice hockey team.
 * Viktor Lazlo (real name Sonia Dronier) (Mol) is a French singer, actress and writer. She worked in Belgium and France.
 * Mark Leonard (Brussels I) is a British political scientist, author, and the co-founder and director of the European Council on Foreign Relations.
 * Stella Maxwell (Brussels II) is a Victoria's Secret model.
 * Elizabeth May (Luxembourg I) is a lawyer and athlete, who is the 2011 ITU Aquathlon World Champion and 2009 European Triathlon Championships silver medalist. She competed in the triathlon event at the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics.
 * Margherita Missoni (Varese) is the niece of Ottavio Missoni and the daughter of Angela, founders of the Missoni fashion house. After having worked for some years as a model, including for Estée Lauder Companies, she became the icon of the "Missoni acqua" perfume in 2006, thus becoming an active member of the Missoni family group.
 * Brian Molko (Luxembourg I) is a songwriter, guitarist and lead vocalist of the band Placebo.
 * Morten Helveg Petersen (Brussels I) is a Danish politician for the Danish Social Liberal Party and Member of the European Parliament (2014 - ). He previously served as a member of the Folketing (1998–2009).
 * Sarah Teichmann (Karlsruhe) is a scientist at the University of Cambridge, UK.
 * Ursula von der Leyen (Brussels I) is German politician and President of the European Commission (December 2019 - ). She was formerly a member of the Bundestag (2009 - 2019), and member of the German government under Chancellor Merkel, holding the positions of Federal Minister of Defence (2013 - 2019), Federal Minister of Labour and Social Affairs (2009 - 2013) and Federal Minister of Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (2005 - 2009).
 * Marina Wheeler QC (Brussels I) is a British lawyer, author and columnist.
 * Diederik Wissels (Brussels I) is a Dutch jazz pianist who has received many awards such as the Grand Prix de l’Académie Charles Cros, the Prix Adami and the Prix du Musicien Européen de l’Académie du Jazz.
 * Mathias Olesen (Luxembourg II) plays for Bundesliga team FC Köln and the Luxembourg national football team.
 * Marta Estevez Garcia (Luxembourg I) Spanish-Luxembourgish footballer player, playing for Luxembourg women's national football team.
 * Christos Floros (Luxembourg I and later on Luxembourg II) - Greek-Luxembourgish politician.

title: European School


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Conan the Adventurer

Conan the Adventurer may refer to:

 * Conan the Barbarian, the fictional barbarian from stories by Robert E. Howard
 * Conan the Adventurer (short story collection), a 1966 collection of four fantasy short stories by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp
 * Conan the Adventurer (1992 TV series), a 1990s animated series
 * Conan the Adventurer (1997 TV series), a live-action television series starring Ralf Möller
 * Conan the Adventurer (comics), a 1994 comic book series

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Conan the Adventurer


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Bob Nieman

Robert Charles Nieman (January 26, 1927 – March 10, 1985) was an American professional baseball player and scout. An outfielder, he spent all or parts of a dozen Major League Baseball seasons with the St. Louis Browns (1951–52), Detroit Tigers (1953–54), Chicago White Sox (1955–56), Baltimore Orioles (1956–59), St. Louis Cardinals (1960–61), Cleveland Indians (1961–62) and San Francisco Giants (1962). He also played one season in Japan for the Chunichi Dragons (1963). He threw and batted right-handed, stood 5 ft tall and weighed 195 lb.

Minor leagues
Nieman was born in Cincinnati. After attending Kent State University, he was signed by his hometown Reds as an amateur free agent in 1948. He spent three full seasons and part of a fourth in the Cincinnati farm system, although he played only 38 games above the Class A level. In June 1951, he was acquired by the unaffiliated Oklahoma City Indians from the Reds' Tulsa Oilers farm team, and he played 109 games for the 1951 Indians and batted .328. (His combined average, his tenure with Tulsa included, of .324 won him the batting title of the Texas League.)

Major leagues
Nieman then was purchased by the Browns and was added to their active roster in September 1951, setting the stage for his dramatic big league debut. On September 14, at Fenway Park, Nieman hit two home runs in his first two major league at-bats. The blows—a solo home run in the second inning and a two-run shot in the third—were hit off Red Sox left-hander Mickey McDermott. Nieman added a single and drove in three runs on the day, but Boston won the game, 9–6. Nieman became the first player in big league history to hit two homers in his first game. Bert Campaneris (1964), Mark Quinn (1999), J.P. Arencibia (2010) and Trevor Story (2016) are the only others to accomplish the feat. Also, Nieman is one of two players in MLB history to homer in each of his first two big league at bats. Keith McDonald, in 2000, became the other.

Nieman became an everyday outfielder for the Browns, later played regularly for the Tigers and Orioles, and overall he fashioned a 12-year career as a semi-regular outfielder and pinch hitter. In his 1,113-game career he batted .295, with 125 home runs, 544 RBI, 455 runs, 1,018 hits, 180 doubles, 32 triples and 10 stolen bases. He batted over .300 three times, twice as a regular outfielder with more than 400 at bats.

In his final MLB campaign, he collected eight pinch hits to help the Giants win the 1962 National League pennant. In the 1962 World Series, and in his only postseason opportunity and last big-league plate appearance, Nieman pinch hit for Ed Bailey in the seventh inning of Game 4 at Yankee Stadium. He drew a base on balls against left-hander Marshall Bridges and was removed for a pinch runner, Ernie Bowman. Bowman would soon score when Giants' second baseman Chuck Hiller hit the first grand slam home run ever struck by a National League player in World Series history. The Giants won that contest, 7–3, but dropped the series in seven games.

Scout
After retiring from the field, Nieman served as a scout for over two decades, working for the Indians, Dodgers, Athletics, White Sox and Yankees. He died from a heart attack in Corona, California, at 58 years of age.

title: Bob Nieman


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Keith McDonald (baseball)

William Keith McDonald (born February 8, 1973) is a former Major League Baseball catcher and right-handed batter. He made his debut with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2000. He attended Esperanza High School in Anaheim, California.

On July 4, 2000 McDonald became the third player in St. Louis history to hit a home run in his first major league at-bat. On July 6, he homered in his second at-bat, becoming only the second player in MLB history to hit home runs in each of his first two big league at bats. Bob Nieman, in 1951, is the other. McDonald hit a third home run that year. McDonald has the most home runs of any MLB player not to have had any other hits.

In his first season McDonald batted .429 (3-7), with three homers, five RBI and three runs in six games. He returned the following season as a September call-up, and was hitless in two at-bats.

title: Keith McDonald (baseball)


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User:Hugh Mason

Articles I started have collectively attracted > 8.6 million page views, representing an average 3,400 daily.

title: User:Hugh Mason


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Simon Marks, 1st Baron Marks of Broughton

Simon Marks, 1st Baron Marks of Broughton (9 July 1888 – 8 December 1964), was an English retail businessman and baron, the son of Michael Marks, the co-founder of major British multinational company Marks & Spencer.

Early life
Marks was born in the Leylands, Leeds, on 9 July 1888, son of Michael Marks and Hannah Cohen, and educated at Manchester Grammar School.

Career
In 1907, he inherited a number of "penny bazaars" from his father, which had been established with Thomas Spencer. With the help of Israel Sieff, he built Marks & Spencer into an icon of British business.

He was knighted on 4 July 1944 and on 10 July 1961 was raised to the peerage as Baron Marks of Broughton, of Sunningdale in the Royal County of Berkshire.

Death and legacy
Marks died 8 December 1964, in London, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. His ashes and memorial are housed within the internal columbarium (visible by arrangement). The ashes of his wife Miriam Marks (née Sieff, sister of Israel Sieff), and those of his business partner Israel Sieff, rest with his.

He was succeeded in the barony by his only son, Michael Marks, 2nd Baron Marks of Broughton, who died in 1998 and was succeeded in the title by his own son, Simon Marks, 3rd Baron Marks of Broughton.


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Vic Buckingham

Victor Frederick Buckingham (23 October 1915 – 26 January 1995) was an English football player and manager.

He played for Second Division side Tottenham Hotspur. As manager he won the 1954 FA Cup final with West Bromwich Albion and finished runners-up in the First Division. He had two periods as manager of Ajax, leading the side to the Dutch Championship of 1960. In 1964, Johan Cruyff made his league debut under him.

In 1971, Buckingham's Barcelona side finished as league runners-up and won the Spanish Cup. He also held manager positions with Fulham, Sheffield Wednesday and in Greece. Buckingham is considered to have been a pioneer of the footballing philosophy known as Total Football, later further developed by his protégé Johan Cruyff.

Career
Buckingham joined Tottenham Hotspur in 1934 and played the first season (1934–35) for Tottenham Hotspur nursery club Northfleet United. After that single season he returned to Tottenham, then playing in the Second Division, where he accumulated 230 matches as a defensive midfielder and later defender before leaving in 1949.

He started his managerial career at Oxford University 1949–50. After this, he headed the joint amateur team of Oxford and Cambridge Universities, Pegasus, with which he won in 1951 the FA Amateur Cup, defeating Bishop Auckland in the final 2–1 in front of a crowd of 100,000 at Wembley Stadium, playing an "attractive push-and-run style of football where they worked hard for one another, kept it simple and passed the ball quickly".

Between 1951 and 1953, he managed Bradford Park Avenue, then playing in the Third Division North of the Football, reaching upper midtable places.

In 1953, he was hired at West Bromwich Albion as successor to Jesse Carver, who returned to Italy. He became the club's longest-serving post-war manager, almost leading them to the "double" in 1954 when they won the FA Cup, defeating Preston North End 3–2, and finished second in the league.

In 1959, he became manager of Ajax, succeeding the Austrian Karl Humenberger in the dugout. There he won the 1959–60 Eredivisie. For personal reasons he left the club at the end of May 1960, a couple of weeks before the end of the 1960–61 season. With the only 28-year-old Keith Spurgeon, who was recommended to Ajax by the English FA, another Englishman, the sixth in the history of the club, became trainer of Ajax. He would stay until the end of the following season.

Initially, it was rumored Buckingham might join Plymouth Argyle, but he ended up at Sheffield Wednesday, runners-up in the 1960–61 First Division, where he replaced Harry Catterick, who was lured to Everton two games before the end of the season. Under Buckingham's management, Sheffield Wednesday finished in sixth place in three consecutive seasons. On 9 April 1964, he was sacked from his £3,000 a year job with the club. Jack Mansell, who was suspended by Buckingham from the first team's coaching staff, replaced him as caretaker manager.

Buckingham was never thought to be personally involved in the British betting scandal of 1964, which was revealed on 12 April 1964, however the club management alleged in the aftermath, that lax discipline under him may have played a role. Three of his players at Wednesday – Peter Swan, Tony Kay and David Layne – were accused of taking bribes to fix a match with Ipswich Town on 1 December 1962 and betting on their team to lose, which then lost 2–0.

For the 1964–65 season he returned to Ajax. This time, the only success was the league debut of the 17-year-old Johan Cruijff in November. Poor results, including a 9–4 defeat in Rotterdam to Feijenoord, saw Ajax just three points above the relegation zone. By January 1965, Buckingham had left the club. In Amsterdam, this was the beginning of the era of Rinus Michels.

In later years, Johan Cruijff would speak about Vic Buckingham and Keith Spurgeon: "They were open-minded but, tactically, you have to see where we were at that time. Football in Holland then was good but it was not really professional. They gave us some professionalism because they were much further down the road. But the tactical thinking came later with Michels. It started then."

Back in England, Buckingham joined First Division side Fulham in January 1965. The club was struggling at the time and were later relegated in 1968. It is said that the purchase of Allan Clarke from Walsall was one of his best decisions in that time. With 45 goals in 86 matches until 1968, Clarke contributed to the club staying up as long as it did and after relegation he was sold for £150,000, then the record British transfer fee.

After a brief stint in Greece, he was hired in 1969 by Barcelona in Spain. There, he won the Spanish Cup, the Copa del Generalísimo of 1970–71, in a 4–3 win after extra time against Valencia in the final. In the same season, Barcelona were runner up in the league, behind Valencia. They were equal on points, but Valencia prevailed due to the results of the matches against each other: Barça lost 2–0 at home and drew 1–1 away. After this season, it was once more that Rinus Michels replaced him. Amongst the stars of this Barcelona side were Joaquim Rifé, Carles Rexach, Josep Maria Fusté and Juan Manuel Asensi.

In February 1972, he joined Sevilla, but was unable to avoid relegation with the club. Thereafter, he had two more engagements in Greece. When he was hired by Greek champions Olympiacos in 1975, he finished the season to 1976 in third place and did not gain an extension to his contract. His last job was with Rodos, another Greek First Division side, where he joined at the beginning of the 1979–80 season. The team was relegated at the end of the season.

Personal life
Buckingham was born in Greenwich, the son of Annie Elizabeth Jenkins and William George Buckingham. He was married to Lilian Emma King and had three children. He died aged 79 in Chichester, England.

Managerial honours
West Bromwich Albion
 * Football League First Division runner-up: 1953–54
 * FA Cup: 1954
 * FA Charity Shield: 1954 (shared with Wolverhampton Wanderers)

Ajax
 * Eredivisie: 1959–60; runner-up 1960–61

Barcelona
 * Copa del Generalísimo: 1970–71
 * Primera División runner-up: 1970–71

title: Vic Buckingham


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President's Intelligence Advisory Board

The President's Intelligence Advisory Board (PIAB) is an advisory body to the Executive Office of the President of the United States. According to its self-description, it "provides advice to the President concerning the quality and adequacy of intelligence collection, of analysis and estimates, of counterintelligence, and of other intelligence activities."

The PIAB, through its Intelligence Oversight Board (IOB), also advises the President on the legality of foreign intelligence activities.

History
In January 1956 President Dwight D. Eisenhower created the agency, originally known as the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities (PBCFIA). The first board, under chair James Killian, included the following members:

 * Richard Conolly
 * Jimmy Doolittle
 * Benjamin Fairless
 * John Hull
 * Joseph P. Kennedy
 * Robert Lovett
 * Edward Ryerson

In May 1961, President John F. Kennedy renamed it to the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB).

The board exists at the pleasure of the President, who can change its size and portfolio so in 1977 President Jimmy Carter abolished the PFIAB, but President Ronald Reagan re-established it later.

On February 29, 2008, President George W. Bush renamed the agency to President's Intelligence Advisory Board, its present form.

Most of the board's work is secret, but one very public investigation involved the loss of U.S. nuclear secrets to China from the Los Alamos National Laboratory during the 1990s.

Intelligence Oversight Board
President Gerald Ford created the IOB following a 1975–76 investigation by the US Congress into domestic spying, assassination operations, and other abuses by intelligence agencies. His executive order doing so went into effect on March 1, 1976. In 1993, the IOB became a committee of the PFIAB, under Executive Order #12863 of President Bill Clinton.

One of the IOB's functions is to examine violations of the laws and directives governing clandestine surveillance. The IOB received quarterly and annual reports from most US intelligence activities. Thirteen cases involving FBI actions between 2002 and 2004 were referred to the IOB for its review.

In an executive order issued on February 29, 2008, President George W. Bush terminated the IOB's authority to oversee the general counsel and inspector general of each U.S. intelligence agency, and erased the requirement that each inspector general file a report with the IOB every three months. The order also removed the IOB's authority to refer a matter to the Justice Department for a criminal investigation, and directed the IOB to notify the president of a problem only if other officials are not already "adequately" addressing that problem.

In August 2013 it was reported that the membership of the IOB had been reduced from 14 to 4 under President Barack Obama, possibly starting in early May at the beginning of the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures by Edward Snowden. The membership had not been increased as of July 2014.

Membership
During the administration of President George W. Bush, the PIAB had 16 members selected from among distinguished citizens outside the government who were qualified "on the basis of achievement, experience, independence, and integrity." The members were not paid.

PIAB membership is generally considered public information; for example, the Clinton Administration posted the names of the members on a PFIAB web page, and the Trump Administration issued a press release announcing the nominations of new members.

George W. Bush
In August 2002, Randy Deitering, the executive director of PFIAB, confirmed the membership list released by the White House press office in October 2001:
 * Brent Scowcroft, the chair
 * Pete Wilson, former governor of California
 * Cresencio S. Arcos Jr., AT&T executive and former US ambassador
 * Jim Barksdale, former head of the internet company Netscape
 * Robert Addison Day, chairman of the TWC Group, a money management firm
 * Stephen Friedman, past chairman of Goldman Sachs
 * Alfred Lerner, chief executive of MBNA
 * Ray Lee Hunt, scion of the Texas oil fortune
 * Rita Hauser, lawyer
 * David E. Jeremiah, retired admiral
 * Arnold Kanter, national security official in the George H. W. Bush administration and a founding member of the Scowcroft Group
 * James C. Langdon Jr., a power-lawyer in Texas
 * Elisabeth Pate-Cornell, chair of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford University
 * John Harrison Streicker, real estate magnate
 * Philip Zelikow, National Security Council staffer during the George H.W. Bush administration and later a counselor to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice

In 2003, there were indications of spying on members of the board by a foreign intelligence asset.

Barack Obama
The entire PIAB membership that served under the administration of George W. Bush resigned as part of an agreed-upon move in the presidential transition of Barack Obama.

President Obama appointed Chuck Hagel, former United States Senator from Nebraska, and current University of Oklahoma President David Boren as PIAB co-chairs.

The following other members were appointed to the board under President Obama:

 * Roel Campos
 * Richard Danzig appointed on December 1, 2010
 * Lee H. Hamilton
 * Rita Hauser
 * Paul G. Kaminski
 * Ellen Laipson, president and CEO of the Henry L. Stimson Center
 * Les Lyles
 * Daniel Meltzer appointed on December 1, 2010
 * Jami Miscik appointed December 23, 2009
 * Mona Sutphen appointed on September 6, 2011
 * Philip Zelikow appointed on September 6, 2011
 * Tom Wheeler appointed on April 27, 2011

In May 2013, the White House dismissed 10 members of the board. The four remaining members of the PIAB were:
 * Richard Danzig
 * Daniel Meltzer
 * Jami Miscik
 * Mona Sutphen

In August 2014, President Obama nominated six new members:
 * James S. Crown
 * Scott Davis
 * Jamie Dos Santos
 * Julius Genachowski
 * Shirley Ann Jackson
 * Neal Wolin

Donald Trump
President Donald Trump named the following persons to the PIAB:
 * Steve Feinberg, chair
 * Samantha Ravich, vice chair
 * Safra Catz
 * Saxby Chambliss
 * Jim Donovan
 * Kevin Hulbert
 * Jeremy Katz
 * David Robertson

In February 2019, President Trump named three additional members:
 * Charles E. Allen
 * Daniel Hoffman
 * John K. Hurley

In May 2019, President Trump named Ray Washburne as an additional member.

Joe Biden
In May 2022, President Joe Biden named the below persons to the PIAB.

 * Sandy Winnefeld
 * Gilman Louie
 * Janet Napolitano
 * Richard Verma

In June 2022, he named Evan Bayh to the PIAB.

In October 2022, he named Anne Finucane to the PIAB.

In November 2022, he named Mark Angelson to the PIAB.

In January 2023, he named Margaret Hamburg, Kim Cobb, and Kneeland Youngblood to the PIAB.

In March 2023, he named Hamilton E. James and Julia Santucci to the PIAB.

PIAB chairs
PIAB chairpersons have been:

IOB chairs
These are chairs of the Advisory Board's committee of Intelligence Oversight Board

Board executive directors

 * 1956–1959: John Cassidy
 * 1959–1961, 1961–1970: Patrick Coyne
 * 1970–1973: Gerard Burke
 * 1973–1977: Wheaton Byers
 * 1977: Lionel Olmer
 * 1977–1981: Board abolished
 * 1981–1983: Norman Wood
 * 1983–1984: Fred Demech
 * 1984–1988: Gary Schmitt
 * 1988–1989: Fred Demech
 * 1989–1991: Nina Stewart
 * 1991–1992: Vacant
 * 1992–1995: Eugene Yeates
 * 1995–2003: Randy Deitering (Acting: 1995–1998)
 * 2003–2005: Joan Dempsey
 * 2005–2017: Stefanie Osburn

Board members

 * David Abshire: 1981–1983
 * Stephen Ailes: 1976–1977 (IOB)
 * Lew Allen: 1990–1999 (IOB)
 * Brooke Anderson: 2015–present
 * George Anderson: 1969–1970; 1976–1977
 * Martin Anderson: 1982–1985
 * Cresencio Arcos: 1999–2003
 * Leslie Arends: 1976–1977
 * Anne Legendre Armstrong: 1981–1990, Chairman
 * Zoë Baird: 1993–2001
 * Howard Baker: 1985–1987; 1988–1990
 * William Baker: 1959–1961; 1961–1977; 1981–1990
 * Jim Barksdale: 2001–2009
 * Robert Barrow: 1984–1985
 * Richard Bloch: 1996–1998
 * Alfred Bloomingdale: 1981–1982
 * David Boren: 2009–2013 (IOB)
 * Frank Borman: 1981–1982
 * Denis Bovin: 2006–2010
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 * Neal Wolin: 2014–present (IOB)
 * Philip Zelikow: 2001–2003; 2011–2013
 * Bud Zumwalt: 1996–2000

title: President's Intelligence Advisory Board


text:
Pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension (PH or PHTN) is a condition of increased blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs. Symptoms include shortness of breath, fainting, tiredness, chest pain, swelling of the legs, and a fast heartbeat. The condition may make it difficult to exercise. Onset is typically gradual.

According to the definition at the 6th World Symposium of Pulmonary Hypertension in 2018, a patient is deemed to have pulmonary hypertension if the pulmonary mean arterial pressure is greater than 20mmHg at rest, revised down from a purely arbitrary 25mmHg, and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) greater than 3 Wood units.

The cause is often unknown. Risk factors include a family history, prior pulmonary embolism (blood clots in the lungs), HIV/AIDS, sickle cell disease, cocaine use, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, sleep apnea, living at high altitudes, and problems with the mitral valve. The underlying mechanism typically involves inflammation and subsequent remodeling of the arteries in the lungs. Diagnosis involves first ruling out other potential causes.

there was no cure for pulmonary hypertension, although research to find a cure is ongoing. Treatment depends on the type of disease. A number of supportive measures such as oxygen therapy, diuretics, and medications to inhibit blood clotting may be used. Medications specifically used to treat pulmonary hypertension include epoprostenol, treprostinil, iloprost, bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan, and sildenafil, tadalafil, selexipag, riociguat. Lung transplantation may be an option in severe cases.

The frequency of occurrence is estimated at 1,000 new cases per year in the United States. Females are more often affected than males. Onset is typically between 20 and 60 years of age. Pulmonary hypertension was identified by Ernst von Romberg in 1891.

Classification
According to WHO classification there are 5 groups of PH, where Group I (pulmonary arterial hypertension) is further subdivided into Group I ' and Group I'' classes. The WHO classification system in 2022 (with adaptations from the more recent ESC/ERS guidelines shown in italics) can be summarized as follows:

WHO Group I – Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) WHO Group I' – Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD), pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH) WHO Group I" – Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn
 * Caused by narrowing and thickening of tiny arteries of the lung
 * Idiopathic in most cases (heritable in some cases)
 * Heritable (BMPR2, ALK1, SMAD9, caveolin 1, KCNK3 mutations)
 * Drug- and toxin-induced (e.g., methamphetamine, amphetamine, or cocaine use )
 * Associated conditions:Connective tissue disease, HIV infection, Portal hypertension, Congenital heart diseases, Schistosomiasis
 * Idiopathic
 * Heritable (EIF2AK4 mutations)
 * Drugs, toxins and radiation-induced
 * Associated conditions:connective tissue disease, HIV infection

WHO Group II – Pulmonary hypertension secondary to left heart disease WHO Group III – Pulmonary hypertension due to lung disease, chronic hypoxia WHO Group IV – chronic arterial obstruction WHO Group V – Pulmonary hypertension with unclear or multifactorial mechanisms
 * Left ventricular systolic dysfunction
 * Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction
 * Valvular heart disease
 * Congenital/acquired left heart inflow/outflow tract obstruction and congenital cardiomyopathy
 * Congenital/acquired pulmonary venous stenosis
 * Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
 * Interstitial lung disease
 * Mixed restrictive and obstructive pattern pulmonary diseases
 * Sleep-disordered breathing
 * Alveolar hypoventilation disorders
 * Chronic exposure to high altitude
 * Developmental abnormalities
 * Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH)
 * Other pulmonary artery obstructions
 * Angiosarcoma or other tumor within the blood vessels
 * Arteritis
 * Congenital pulmonary artery stenosis
 * Parasitic infection (hydatidosis)
 * Hematologic diseases: chronic hemolytic anemia (including sickle cell disease)
 * Systemic diseases: sarcoidosis, pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis: lymphangioleiomyomatosis, neurofibromatosis, vasculitis
 * Metabolic disorders: glycogen storage disease, Gaucher disease, thyroid diseases
 * Others: pulmonary tumoral thrombotic microangiopathy, fibrosing mediastinitis, chronic kidney failure, segmental pulmonary hypertension (pulmonary hypertension restricted to one or more lobes of the lungs)

Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of pulmonary hypertension include the following: • Shortness of breath

• Fatigue

• Chest pain

• Palpitations (heartbeat rate increased)

• Right-sided abdominal pain

• Poor appetite

• Lightheadedness

• Fainting

• Swelling (legs/ankles)

• Cyanosis

Less common signs/symptoms include non-productive cough and exercise-induced nausea and vomiting. Coughing up of blood may occur in some patients, particularly those with specific subtypes of pulmonary hypertension such as heritable pulmonary arterial hypertension, Eisenmenger syndrome and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary venous hypertension typically presents with shortness of breath while lying flat or sleeping (orthopnea or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea), while pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) typically does not.

Other typical signs of pulmonary hypertension include an accentuated pulmonary component of the second heart sound, a right ventricular third heart sound, and parasternal heave indicating a hypertrophied right ventricle. Signs of systemic congestion resulting from right-sided heart failure include jugular venous distension, ascites, and hepatojugular reflux. Evidence of tricuspid insufficiency and pulmonic regurgitation is also sought and, if present, is consistent with the presence of pulmonary hypertension.

Causes
Pulmonary hypertension is a pathophysiologic condition with many possible causes. Indeed, this condition frequently accompanies severe heart or lung conditions. A 1973 World Health Organization meeting was the first attempt to classify pulmonary hypertension by its cause, and a distinction was made between primary PH (resulting from a disease of the pulmonary arteries) and secondary PH (resulting secondary to other, non-vascular causes). Further, primary PH was divided into the "arterial plexiform", "veno-occlusive" and "thromboembolic" forms. In 1998, a second conference at Évian-les-Bains addressed the causes of secondary PH. Subsequent third, fourth, and fifth (2013) World Symposia on PAH have further defined the classification of PH. The classification continues to evolve based on improved understanding of the disease mechanisms.

Most recently in 2015, the WHO guidelines were updated by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and European Respiratory Society (ERS). These guidelines are endorsed by the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, and provide the current framework for understanding and treatment of pulmonary hypertension.

Genetics
Mutations in several genes have been associated with this condition these include bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 (BMPR2) and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 4 gene (EIF2AK4). 80% of familial pulmonary arterial hypertension and 20% of sporadic variants have mutations in BMPR2. BMPR2 is involved in endothelial proliferation and remodeling. Other mutations associated with PAH include ACVRL1 (which encodes activin receptor–like kinase 1) and ENG encoding endoglin, two proteins which also participate in BMPR2 signaling. The SMAD transcription factor family, including SMAD1, SMAD4, and SMAD9 are involved in signaling pathways downstream from BMPR2 and are also implicated in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension (WHO Group I) involves the narrowing of blood vessels connected to and within the lungs. This makes it harder for the heart to pump blood through the lungs, as it is much harder to make water flow through a narrow pipe as opposed to a wide one. Over time, the affected blood vessels become stiffer and thicker, in a process known as fibrosis. The mechanisms involved in this narrowing process include vasoconstriction, thrombosis, and vascular remodeling (excessive cellular proliferation, fibrosis, and reduced apoptosis/programmed cell death in the vessel walls, caused by inflammation, disordered metabolism and dysregulation of certain growth factors). This further increases the blood pressure within the lungs and impairs their blood flow. In common with other types of pulmonary hypertension, these changes result in an increased workload for the right side of the heart. The right ventricle is normally part of a low pressure system, with systolic ventricular pressures that are lower than those that the left ventricle normally encounters. As such, the right ventricle cannot cope as well with higher pressures, and although right ventricular adaptations (hypertrophy and increased contractility of the heart muscle) initially help to preserve stroke volume, ultimately these compensatory mechanisms are insufficient; the right ventricular muscle cannot get enough oxygen to meet its needs and right heart failure follows. As the blood flowing through the lungs decreases, the left side of the heart receives less blood. This blood may also carry less oxygen than normal. Therefore, it becomes harder and harder for the left side of the heart to supply sufficient oxygen to the rest of the body, especially during physical activity. During the end-systolic volume phase of the cardiac cycle, the Gaussian curvature and the mean curvature of right ventricular endocardial wall of PH patients was found to be significantly different as compared to controls.

In PVOD (WHO Group I'), pulmonary blood vessel narrowing occurs preferentially (though not exclusively) in post-capillary venous blood vessels. PVOD shares several characteristics with PAH, but there are also some important differences, for example differences in prognosis and response to medical therapy.

Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn occurs when the circulatory system of a newborn baby fails to adapt to life outside the womb; it is characterized by high resistance to blood flow through the lungs, right-to-left cardiac shunting and severe hypoxemia.

Pathogenesis in pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease (WHO Group II) is completely different in that constriction or damage to the pulmonary blood vessels is not the issue. Instead, the left heart fails to pump blood efficiently, leading to pooling of blood in the lungs and back pressure within the pulmonary system. This causes pulmonary edema and pleural effusions. In the absence of pulmonary blood vessel narrowing, the increased back pressure is described as 'isolated post-capillary pulmonary hypertension' (older terms include 'passive' or 'proportionate' pulmonary hypertension or 'pulmonary venous hypertension'). However, in some patients, the raised pressure in the pulmonary vessels triggers a superimposed component of vessel narrowing, which further increases the workload of the right side of the heart. This is referred to as 'post-capillary pulmonary hypertension with a pre-capillary component' or 'combined post-capillary and pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension' (older terms include 'reactive' or 'out-of-proportion' pulmonary hypertension).

In pulmonary hypertension due to lung diseases and/or hypoxia (WHO Group III), low levels of oxygen in the alveoli (due to respiratory disease or living at high altitude) cause constriction of the pulmonary arteries. This phenomenon is called hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and it is initially a protective response to stop too much blood flowing to areas of the lung that are damaged and do not contain oxygen. When the alveolar hypoxia is widespread and prolonged, this hypoxia-mediated vasoconstriction occurs across a large portion of the pulmonary vascular bed and leads to an increase in pulmonary arterial pressure, with thickening of the pulmonary vessel walls contributing to the development of sustained pulmonary hypertension. Prolonged hypoxia also induces the transcription factor HIF1A, which directly activates downstream growth factor signaling that causes irreversible proliferation and remodeling of pulmonary arterial endothelial cells, leading to chronic pulmonary arterial hypertension.

In chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, or CTEPH (WHO Group IV), the initiating event is thought to be blockage or narrowing of the pulmonary blood vessels with unresolved blood clots; these clots can lead to increased pressure and shear stress in the rest of the pulmonary circulation, precipitating structural changes in the vessel walls (remodeling) similar to those observed in other types of severe pulmonary hypertension. This combination of vessel occlusion and vascular remodeling once again increases the resistance to blood flow and so the pressure within the system rises.

Molecular pathology
The molecular mechanism of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is not known yet, but it is believed that the endothelial dysfunction results in a decrease in the synthesis of endothelium-derived vasodilators such as nitric oxide and prostacyclin. Moreover, there is a stimulation of the synthesis of vasoconstrictors such as thromboxane and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These result in a severe vasoconstriction and vascular smooth muscle and adventitial hypertrophy characteristic of patients with PAH.

Nitric oxide-soluble guanylate cyclase pathway
In normal conditions, the vascular endothelial nitric oxide synthase produces nitric oxide from L-arginine in the presence of oxygen.

This nitric oxide diffuses into neighboring cells (including vascular smooth muscle cells and platelets), where it increases the activity of the enzyme soluble guanylate cyclase, leading to increased formation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The cGMP then activates cGMP-dependent kinase or PKG (protein kinase G). Activated PKG promotes vasorelaxation (via a reduction of intracellular calcium levels), alters the expression of genes involved in smooth muscle cell contraction, migration and differentiation, and inhibits platelet activation. Nitric oxide–soluble guanylate cyclase signaling also leads to anti-inflammatory effects.

Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), which is abundant in the pulmonary tissue, hydrolyzes the cyclic bond of cGMP. Consequently, the concentration of cGMP (and thus PKG activity) decreases.

Endothelin
Endothelin-1 is a peptide (comprising 21 amino acids) that is produced in endothelial cells. It acts on the endothelin receptors ETA and ETB in various cell types including vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, leading to vasoconstriction, hypertrophy, proliferation, inflammation, and fibrosis. It also acts on ETB receptors in endothelial cells; this leads to the release of both vasoconstrictors and vasodilators from those cells, and clears endothelin-1 from the system.

Prostacyclin and thromboxane
Prostacyclin is synthesized from arachidonic acid in endothelial cells. In vascular smooth muscle cells, prostacyclin binds mainly to the prostaglandin I receptor. This sends a signal to increase adenylate cyclase activity, which leads to increased synthesis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). This in turn leads to increased cAMP-dependent protein kinase or PKA (protein kinase A) activity, ultimately promoting vasodilation and inhibiting cell proliferation. Prostacyclin signaling also leads to anti-thrombotic, anti-fibrotic, and anti-inflammatory effects. Levels of cAMP (which mediates most of the biological effects of prostacyclin) are reduced by phosphodiesterases 3 and 4. The vasoconstrictor thromboxane is also synthesized from arachidonic acid. In PAH, the balance is shifted away from synthesis of prostacyclin toward synthesis of thromboxane.

Other pathways
The three pathways described above are all targeted by currently available medical therapies for PAH. However, several other pathways have been identified that are also altered in PAH and are being investigated as potential targets for future therapies. For example, the mitochondrial enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) is pathologically activated in PAH, causing a metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis and leading to increased cell proliferation and impaired apoptosis. Expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide, a potent vasodilator with anti-inflammatory and immune-modulatory roles, is reduced in PAH, while expression of its receptor is increased. Plasma levels of serotonin, which promotes vasoconstriction, hypertrophy and proliferation, are increased in patients with PAH, although the role played by serotonin in the pathogenesis of PAH remains uncertain. The expression or activity of several growth factors (including platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor) is increased and contributes to vascular remodeling in PAH. Other factors underlying the proliferative state of pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells include OPG and TRAIL. Focusing only on the pulmonary vasculature provides an incomplete picture of PAH; the ability of the right ventricle to adapt to the increased workload varies between patients and is an important determinant of survival. The molecular pathology of PAH in the right ventricle is therefore also being investigated, and recent research has shifted to consider the cardiopulmonary unit as a single system rather than two separate systems. Importantly, right ventricular remodeling is associated with increased apoptosis; this is in contrast to pulmonary vascular remodeling which involves inhibition of apoptosis.

Even though the primary cause of PAH is unknown, inflammation and oxidative stress have been shown to have a key role in vascular remodeling. These factors are known to cause DNA damage, and may also promote the proliferative and apoptosis-resistant phenotype that is observed in PAH vascular cells. Elevated levels of DNA damage have been reported to occur in PAH lungs and remodeled arteries, and also in animal models of PH, indicating that DNA damage likely contributes to PAH pathogenesis.

Diagnosis
In terms of the diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension, it has five major types, and a series of tests must be performed to distinguish pulmonary arterial hypertension from venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or unclear multifactorial varieties. PAH is diagnosed after exclusion of other possible causes of pulmonary hypertension.

Physical examination
A physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension (described above), and a detailed family history is established to determine whether the disease might be heritable. A history of exposure to drugs such as benfluorex (a fenfluramine derivative), dasatinib, cocaine, methamphetamine, ethanol leading to cirrhosis, and tobacco leading to emphysema is considered significant. Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy (particularly late pregnancy) is associated with an increased risk of the baby developing persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn.

Echocardiography
If pulmonary hypertension is suspected based on the above assessments, echocardiography is performed as the next step. A meta-analysis of Doppler echocardiography for predicting the results of right heart catheterization reported a sensitivity and specificity of 88% and 56%, respectively. Thus, Doppler echocardiography can suggest the presence of pulmonary hypertension, but right heart catheterization (described below) remains the gold standard for diagnosis of PAH. Echocardiography can also help to detect congenital heart disease as a cause of pulmonary hypertension.

Exclude other diseases
If the echocardiogram is compatible with a diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension, common causes of pulmonary hypertension (left heart disease and lung disease) are considered and further tests are performed accordingly. These tests generally include electrocardiography (ECG), pulmonary function tests including lung diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide and arterial blood gas measurements, X-rays of the chest and high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scanning.

Ventilation/perfusion scintigraphy
If heart disease and lung disease have been excluded, a ventilation/perfusion scan is performed to rule out CTEPH. If unmatched perfusion defects are found, further evaluation by CT pulmonary angiography, right heart catheterization, and selective pulmonary angiography is performed.

CT scan
Signs of pulmonary hypertension on CT scan of the chest are:
 * Enlargement of the pulmonary trunk (measured at its bifurcation). It is, however, a poor predictor of pulmonary hypertension in patients with interstitial lung disease.
 * A diameter of more than 27 mm for women and 29 mm for men is suggested as a cutoff.
 * A cutoff of 31.6 mm may be a more statistically robust in individuals without interstitial lung disease.

 * Increased ratio of the diameter of the main pulmonary artery (pulmonary trunk) to the ascending aorta (measured at its bifurcation).
 * A ratio of 1.0 is suggested as a cutoff in adults.
 * Cutoff ~1.09 in children.

 * Increased diameter ratio of segmental arteries to bronchi. This finding in three or four lobes, in the presence of a dilated pulmonary trunk (≥29 mm), and absence of significant structural lung disease confers a specificity of 100% for pulmonary hypertension.
 * Mural calcification in central pulmonary arteries is most frequently seen in patients with Eisenmenger's syndrome.

Right heart catheterization
Although pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) can be estimated on the basis of echocardiography, pressure measurements with a Swan-Ganz catheter inserted through the right side of the heart provide the most definite assessment.[42] Pulmonary hypertension is defined as a mean PAP of at least 20 mm Hg (3300 Pa) at rest, and PAH is defined as precapillary pulmonary hypertension (i.e. mean PAP ≥ 20 mm Hg with pulmonary arterial occlusion pressure [PAOP] ≤ 15 mm Hg and pulmonary vascular resistance [PVR] > 3 Wood Units). PAOP and PVR cannot be measured directly with echocardiography. Therefore, diagnosis of PAH requires right-sided cardiac catheterization. A Swan-Ganz catheter can also measure the cardiac output; this can be used to calculate the cardiac index, which is far more important in measuring disease severity than the pulmonary arterial pressure. Mean PAP (mPAP) should not be confused with systolic PAP (sPAP), which is often reported on echocardiogram reports. A systolic pressure of 40 mm Hg typically implies a mean pressure of more than 25 mm Hg. Roughly, mPAP = 0.61•sPAP + 2. Due to the invasive nature of this procedure, the use of computational fluid dynamics based hemodynamic indices have been postulated.

Other
For people considered likely to have PAH based on the above tests, the specific associated condition is then determined based on the physical examination, medical/family history and further specific diagnostic tests (for example, serological tests to detect underlying connective tissue disease, HIV infection or hepatitis, ultrasonography to confirm the presence of portal hypertension, echocardiography/cardiac magnetic resonance imaging for congenital heart disease, laboratory tests for schistosomiasis, and high-resolution CT for PVOD and pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis). Routine lung biopsy is discouraged in patients with PAH, because of the risk to the patient and because the findings are unlikely to alter the diagnosis and treatment.

Treatment
Treatment of pulmonary hypertension is determined by whether the PH is arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or miscellaneous. If it is caused by left heart disease, the treatment is to optimize left ventricular function by the use of medication or to repair/replace the mitral valve or aortic valve. Patients with left heart failure or hypoxemic lung diseases (groups II or III pulmonary hypertension) should not routinely be treated with vasoactive agents including prostanoids, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, or endothelin antagonists, as these are approved for the different condition called primary pulmonary arterial hypertension., which cites
 * To make the distinction, doctors at a minimum will conduct cardiac catheterization of the right heart, echocardiography, chest CT, a seven-minute walk test, and pulmonary function testing. Using treatments for other kinds of pulmonary hypertension in patients with these conditions can harm the patient and wastes substantial medical resources.
 * To make the distinction, doctors at a minimum will conduct cardiac catheterization of the right heart, echocardiography, chest CT, a seven-minute walk test, and pulmonary function testing. Using treatments for other kinds of pulmonary hypertension in patients with these conditions can harm the patient and wastes substantial medical resources.
 * To make the distinction, doctors at a minimum will conduct cardiac catheterization of the right heart, echocardiography, chest CT, a seven-minute walk test, and pulmonary function testing. Using treatments for other kinds of pulmonary hypertension in patients with these conditions can harm the patient and wastes substantial medical resources.

High-dose calcium channel blockers are useful in only 5% of IPAH patients who are vasoreactive by Swan-Ganz catheter. Unfortunately, calcium channel blockers have been largely misused, being prescribed to many patients with non-vasoreactive PAH, leading to excess morbidity and mortality. The criteria for vasoreactivity have changed. Only those patients whose mean pulmonary artery pressure falls by more than 10 mm Hg to less than 40 mm Hg with an unchanged or increased cardiac output when challenged with adenosine, epoprostenol, or nitric oxide are considered vasoreactive. Of these, only half of the patients are responsive to calcium channel blockers in the long term.

A number of agents have recently been introduced for primary and secondary PAH. The trials supporting the use of these agents have been relatively small, and the only measure consistently used to compare their effectivity is the "six-minute walk test". Many have no data on mortality benefit or time to progression.

Sotatercept (Winrevair) was approved for medical use in the United States in March 2024.

Exercise-based rehabilitation

A 2023 Cochrane review found that exercise-based rehabilitation may lead to a large increase in exercise capacity and an improvement in health related quality of life, without significantly increasing adverse events.

Vasoactive substances
Many pathways are involved in the abnormal proliferation and contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the pulmonary arteries in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Three of these pathways are important since they have been targeted with drugs — endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) inhibitors, and prostacyclin derivatives.

Prostaglandins
Prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2) is commonly considered the most effective treatment for PAH. Epoprostenol (synthetic prostacyclin) is given via continuous infusion that requires a semi-permanent central venous catheter. This delivery system can cause sepsis and thrombosis. Prostacyclin is unstable, and therefore has to be kept on ice during administration. Since it has a half-life of 3 to 5 minutes, the infusion has to be continuous, and interruption can be fatal. Other prostanoids have therefore been developed. Treprostinil can be given intravenously or subcutaneously, but the subcutaneous form can be very painful. An increased risk of sepsis with intravenous Remodulin has been reported by the CDC. Iloprost is also used in Europe intravenously and has a longer half life. Iloprost was the only inhaled form of prostacyclin approved for use in the US and Europe, until the inhaled form of treprostinil was approved by the FDA in July 2009.

Endothelin receptor antagonists
Moderate quality evidence suggests that endothelin receptor antagonists improve exercise capacity and decrease symptoms severity. The dual (ETA and ETB) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan was approved in 2001. Macitentan is another ETA and ETB dual endothelin receptor blocker that is used. Sitaxentan (Thelin) was approved for use in Canada, Australia, and the European Union, but not in the United States. In 2010, Pfizer withdrew sitaxentan worldwide because of fatal liver complications. A similar drug, ambrisentan (which is a ETA endothelin receptor blocker) is sold under the brand name Letairis in the US by Gilead Sciences.

Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors
The US FDA approved sildenafil, a selective inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), for the treatment of PAH in 2005. It is marketed for PAH as Revatio. In 2009, they also approved tadalafil, another PDE5 inhibitor, marketed under the name Adcirca. PDE5 inhibitors are believed to increase pulmonary artery vasodilation, and inhibit vascular remodeling, thus lowering pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance.

Tadalafil is taken orally, as well as sildenafil, and it is rapidly absorbed (serum levels are detectable at 20 minutes). The T1/2 (biological half-life) hovers around 17.5 hours in healthy subjects. Moreover, if we consider pharmacoeconomic implications, patients that take tadalafil would pay two-thirds of the cost of sildenafil therapy. However, there are some adverse effects of this drug such as headache, diarrhea, nausea, back pain, dyspepsia, flushing and myalgia.

The combination medication macitentan/tadalafil (Opsynvi) was approved for medical use in Canada in October 2021, and in the United States in March 2024.

Activators of soluble guanylate cyclase
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the intracellular receptor for NO. , the sGC activators cinaciguat and riociguat were undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of PAH.

Surgical
Atrial septostomy is a surgical procedure that creates a communication between the right and left atria. It relieves pressure on the right side of the heart, but at the cost of lower oxygen levels in blood (hypoxemia). Lung transplantation replaces a chronic condition with the ongoing need for treatment. There is a post-surgical median survival of just over five years.

Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy (PTE) is a surgical procedure that is used for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. It is the surgical removal of an organized thrombus (clot) along with the lining of the pulmonary artery; it is a very difficult, major procedure that is currently performed in a few select centers.

Monitoring
Established clinical practice guidelines dictate the frequency of pulmonary nodule evaluation and surveillance, patients are normally monitored through commonly available tests such as: • Pulse oximetry

• Arterial blood gas tests

• Chest X-rays

• Serial ECG tests

• Serial echocardiography

• Spirometry or more advanced lung function studies

• Six-minute walk test

Prognosis
PAH is considered a universally fatal illness, although survival time may vary between individuals. The prognosis of pulmonary arterial hypertension (WHO Group I) has an untreated median survival of 2–3 years from time of diagnosis, with the cause of death usually being right ventricular failure (cor pulmonale). The survival time is variable and depends on many factors. A recent outcome study of those patients who had started treatment with bosentan (Tracleer) showed that 89% of patients were alive at 2 years. With new therapies, survival rates are increasing. For 2,635 patients enrolled in The Registry to Evaluate Early and Long-term Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Disease Management (REVEAL Registry) from March 2006 to December 2009, 1-, 3-, 5-, and 7-year survival rates were 85%, 68%, 57%, and 49%, respectively. For patients with idiopathic/familial PAH, survival rates were 91%, 74%, 65%, and 59%. Levels of mortality are very high in pregnant women with severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (WHO Group I). Pregnancy is sometimes described as contraindicated in these women.

Epidemiology
The epidemiology of IPAH is about 125–150 deaths per year in the U.S., and worldwide the incidence is similar at 4 cases per million. However, in parts of Europe (France), indications are 6 cases per million of IPAH. Females have a higher incidence rate than males (2–9:1). Other forms of PH are far more common. In systemic scleroderma, the incidence has been estimated to be 8 to 12% of all patients; in rheumatoid arthritis it is rare. However, in systemic lupus erythematosus it is 4 to 14%, and in sickle cell disease, it ranges from 20 to 40%. Up to 4% of people who develop a pulmonary embolism go on to develop chronic thromboembolic disease including pulmonary hypertension. A small percentage of patients with COPD develop pulmonary hypertension with no other disease to explain the high pressure. On the other hand, obesity-hypoventilation syndrome is very commonly associated with right heart failure due to pulmonary hypertension.

Research
For people that inherited the disease, gene therapy is being studied.

Notable cases

 * Elaine Kaufman, American restaurateur
 * Ina Balin, American Broadway and TV actress
 * Chloe Temtchine, American singer-songwriter
 * Natalie Cole, American singer

title: Pulmonary hypertension


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Mark Quinn

Mark David Quinn (born May 21, 1974) is an American former Major League Baseball outfielder and right-handed batter who played for the Kansas City Royals and former coach for the Baltimore Orioles. Quinn was drafted in the 11th round of the 1995 Amateur Draft after playing two seasons for the Rice University Owls. He played for the Royals between 1999–2002. He retired for good in 2007 after spring training with the Yomiuri Giants.

Career
In 1998, Quinn led the Texas League in batting average when he hit .349 for the Wichita Wranglers. He captured a second minor league batting crown the following year, posting a .360 average for the Omaha Golden Spikes of the Pacific Coast League.

On September 14, 1999, Quinn made his major league debut and became just the third player in MLB history to hit two home runs in his major league debut, joining Bob Nieman (1951) and Bert Campaneris (1964). In 17 games in September, Quinn hit .333 with 6 home runs and 18 RBIs.

In 2000, Quinn became the Royals regular leftfielder. He hit .294 with 20 home runs and 78 RBIs in 135 games, earning him the Sporting News American League Rookie Player of the Year and a spot on the 2000 Topps All-Star Rookie Team. Quinn finished 3rd in AL Rookie of the Year voting, behind Kazuhiro Sasaki and Terrence Long, garnering four first-place votes.

Quinn split the 2001 season between right field, left field, and designated hitter. His production at the plate dropped to 17 homers and a .269 average due to nagging hamstring injuries.

The 2002 campaign was plagued by injuries that forced Quinn to spend 156 total days on the injured list that season. He appeared in just 23 games in the major leagues, hitting .237 with 2 home runs and 11 RBIs.

During 2003 Spring Training, Quinn was released by the Royals after going just 1-for-8 in his appearances and suffering another setback with his hamstring.

In four seasons with the Royals, Quinn batted .282 with 45 home runs, 167 RBI, 153 runs, 72 doubles, five triples, and 17 stolen bases in 293 games.

Following his release, Quinn played in the San Diego Padres, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, St. Louis Cardinals, and Chicago White Sox organizations, along with a stint with the Long Beach Armada of the independent Golden Baseball League, but was never able to return to the major leagues.

Coaching
Mark Quinn owns The Baseball School in Houston, Tx, and coaches the Houston Royals select teams.

On January 6, 2016 Quinn was hired to become the assistant hitting coach for the Baltimore Orioles.

title: Mark Quinn


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North/South Ministerial Council

The North/South Ministerial Council (NSMC) (An Chomhairle Aireachta Thuaidh-Theas, Ulster-Scots: North South Meinisterlie Council) is a body established under the Good Friday Agreement to co-ordinate activity and exercise certain governmental powers across the whole island of Ireland.

The Council takes the form of meetings between ministers from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland and is responsible for twelve policy areas. Six of these areas are the responsibility of corresponding North/South Implementation Bodies. The body is based in the city of Armagh in Northern Ireland.

The North/South Ministerial Council and the Northern Ireland Assembly are "mutually inter-dependent" institutions: one cannot exist without the other. When the Northern Ireland Assembly is suspended, responsibility for areas of co-operation fall to the British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference.

Organisation
The Ministerial Council consists of representatives of both the Northern Ireland Executive and the Government of Ireland. The Ministerial Council may meet in either a plenary or, more commonly, sectoral format. In a plenary meeting a Northern Ireland delegation is led by the First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland while the Republic's delegation is led by the Taoiseach and Tánaiste.

A meeting in a sectoral format deals only with one particular policy area, and consists of the minister from Dublin with responsibility for the area under discussion, and two ministers from Northern Ireland (usually one unionist and one nationalist), including the minister with the relevant competence. The council is supported by a standing joint secretariat, consisting of members of the civil services of both Northern Ireland and the Republic.

The council also has occasional meetings in an "institutional" format to consider other business and technical matters, such as appointments to boards.

Areas for co-operation
The council is responsible for twelve "areas for co-operation". Six of these are in areas where co-operation must be agreed together but implemented separately in each jurisdiction. Six more are in areas where co-operation is agreed together and implemented through shared all-Ireland "implementation bodies".

Areas for co-operation where implementation is carried out separately:

 * Agriculture: Common Agricultural Policy issues, animal and plant health, agricultural research and rural development.
 * Education: Education for children with special needs, educational under-achievement, teacher qualifications and school, youth and teacher exchanges.
 * Environment: Environmental protection, pollution, water-quality management and waste management.
 * Health: Accident and emergency planning, co-operation on high-technology equipment, cancer research and health promotion.
 * Tourism: The promotion of the island of Ireland as a tourist destination for overseas visitors via the establishment of a new company, known as Tourism Ireland.
 * Transport: Co-operation on strategic transport planning including road and rail infrastructure and public transport services and road and rail safety.

The six all-Ireland implementation bodies are:

 * Waterways Ireland: Management of specific and chiefly recreational inland waterways.
 * Food Safety Promotion Board: Food safety awareness.
 * Special European Union Programmes Body: Management and oversight of EU programmes and common chapters of the National Development Plan (Republic of Ireland) and the Northern Ireland Structural Funds Plan.
 * The North/South Language Body: Promotion of the Irish and Ulster Scots languages through two separate agencies, Foras na Gaeilge (Irish) and Tha Boord o Ulstèr-Scotch (Ulster Scots).
 * InterTradeIreland: all-Ireland trade and business development.
 * Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission: The management and development of Lough Foyle and Carlingford Lough and coastal lights through two separate agencies, The Loughs Agency and Lights Agency

Additional areas for co-operation may be added by agreement among the council and with the endorsement of the Northern Ireland Assembly and Oireachtas.

Originally, a new jointly owned agency, Lights Agency, was intended to replace the Commissioners of Irish Lights, which is funded from the UK Department for Transport-managed General Lighthouse Fund to provide coastal aids to navigation throughout the island of Ireland. However, complexities arising from the transfer of functions have meant that this has had to be reconsidered.

Operation
Twenty-one plenary meetings were held between 1999 and 2015: one each year from 1999 to 2002, and 2007 to 2008; and on average two each year thereafter. Meetings alternate between north and south, usually in Armagh and Dublin. Sectoral meetings occur more frequently at various locations.

The level of co-operation differs across areas. For example, co-operation on tourism proceeded very rapidly (creating Tourism Ireland in 2000). On the other hand, there was initially little co-operation in the area of transport. At first because of resistance from the relevant minister in Northern Ireland and later because, after the restoration of the Council following suspension of the Northern Ireland Assembly, because the British and Irish governments had already done much of the work during a period of direct rule.

In 2007, the joint secretariat number 25 personnel, comprising 10 from Ireland and 15 from Northern Ireland. In 2010, the secretariat took up new, permanent office in Armagh. Budgets, staff numbers and headquarters for the six implementation bodies (including Tourism Ireland) in 2008 were as follows:

title: North/South Ministerial Council


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List of northernmost settlements

The most northern settlements on Earth are communities close to the North Pole, ranging from about 70° N to about 89° N. This is a list showing all of the northernmost settlements on Earth, which are all south of latitude 90° N.

There are no permanent civilian settlements north of 79° N, the furthest north (78.55° N) being Ny-Ålesund, a permanent settlement of about 30 (in the winter) to 130 (in the summer) people on the Norwegian island of Svalbard. Just below this settlement at 78.12° N is Svalbard's primary city, Longyearbyen, which has a population of over 2,000.

When occupied for a few weeks some years, the northernmost temporary settlement in the world is Camp Barneo, a Russian tourist attraction located near 88°11'00" N. As of 2022, it had not been occupied since 2018.

The tables below shows the settlements, towns, and cities that are the northernmost in the world of their kind.

Cities and towns
This is a list of the northernmost cities and towns in the world.

Larger cities
Northernmost cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The population data may include municipalities, urban areas or metropolitan areas.

Northernmost cities with more than 250,000 inhabitants.

title: List of northernmost settlements


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Barry Moore (baseball)

Robert Barry Moore (born April 3, 1943) is an American former Major League Baseball pitcher. The left-hander was signed by the Washington Senators as an amateur free agent before the 1962 season and played for the Senators (1965–1969), Cleveland Indians (1970) and Chicago White Sox (1970).

Career
Moore led the Eastern League with 155 bases on balls (in 165 innings) while playing for the York White Roses in 1964.

Moore made his major league debut in relief on May 29, 1965 against the Minnesota Twins. He entered the game in the top of the 9th with the Senators behind, 10-7, and gave up one unearned run in his one inning of work. Washington scored a run in the bottom of the inning, and the game ended, 11-8. He earned his first big league win on July 23, 1966 by pitching a three-hit complete game against the Kansas City Athletics in front of a home crowd of only 2,777. The score was 8-1.

His finest major league effort was against the Twins on April 30, 1967 (Game # 2). He pitched a one-hit complete game shutout at D.C. Stadium that day, walking only two batters. The Twins had such players as César Tovar, Rod Carew, Harmon Killebrew, Bob Allison, and Zoilo Versalles in the lineup, but Moore was almost untouchable. Tovar got the only Minnesota hit, a 6th-inning single, as the Senators won 3-0. This time there were 18,555 in attendance. On May 30, 1967 he gave up Jim "Catfish" Hunter's first major league home run.

Even though he pitched just 141 innings in 1970, Moore tied for third among American League hurlers with 9 hit batsmen. By contrast, it took the other four pitchers who were tied with him for third an average of 240.1 innings to hit the same number of batters. He was traded along with Bob Miller from the Indians to the White Sox for Buddy Bradford and Tommie Sisk before the trade deadline on June 15, 1970. After a 3–9 campaign with a 5.30 earned run average (ERA), he was dealt from the White Sox to the New York Yankees for Bill Robinson on December 3, 1970.

Moore did have a tendency to be wild, as he gave up 300 walks in just 599.2 innings pitched, for a BB/9IP of 4.50, much higher than the American League average at that time. Often, a pitcher who walks a lot of batters strikes out a lot, too, but that wasn't the case with Moore. With 278 strikeouts, his K/9IP was 4.17, which was lower than the American League average.

Career totals for 143 games played (140 as a pitcher) include a 26-37 record, 99 games started, 8 complete games, 1 shutout, 14 games finished, and 3 saves. He allowed 277 earned runs in his 599.2 innings, giving him a lifetime ERA of 4.16.

title: Barry Moore (baseball)


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Wroxeter

Wroxeter is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Wroxeter and Uppington, in the Shropshire district, in the ceremonial county of Shropshire, England. It is beside the River Severn, 5 mi south-east of Shrewsbury. In 1961 the parish had a population of 657.

Viroconium Cornoviorum, the fourth largest city in Roman Britain, was sited here, and is gradually being excavated.

The village contains one of Shropshire's commercial vineyards.

History
Roman Wroxeter, near the end of the Watling Street Roman road that ran across Romanised Celtic Britain from Dubris (Dover), was a key frontier position lying on the bank of the River Severn whose valley penetrated deep into what later became known as Wales, and also on a route south leading to the Wye valley.

Archaeology has shown that the site of the later city first was established about AD 55 as a frontier post for a Thracian legionary cohort located at a fort near the Severn river crossing. A few years later a legionary fortress (castrum) was built within the site of the later city for the Legio XIV Gemina during their invasion of Wales.

The local British tribe of the Cornovii had their original capital (also thought to have been named *Uiroconion) at the hillfort on the Wrekin. When the Cornovii were eventually subdued their capital was moved to Wroxeter and given its Roman name.

This legion XIV Gemina was later replaced by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix which in turn relocated to Chester around AD 88. As the military abandoned the fortress the site was taken over by the Cornovians' civilian settlement.

The name of the settlement, meaning "Viroconium of the Cornovians", preserves a native Brittonic name that has been reconstructed as *Uiroconion ("[the city] of *Uirokū"), where *Uiro-ku (lit. "man"-"wolf") is believed to have been a masculine given name meaning "werewolf".

Viroconium prospered over the next century, with the construction of many public buildings, including thermae and a colonnaded forum. At its peak, it is thought to have been the 4th-largest settlement in Roman Britain, with a population of more than 15,000.

The Roman city is first documented in Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography as one of the cities of the Cornovii tribe, along with Chester (Deva Victrix).

Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain around AD 410, the Cornovians seem to have divided into Pengwern and Powys. The minor Magonsæte sub-kingdom also emerged in the area in the interlude between Powysian and Mercian rule. Viroconium may have served as the early post-Roman capital of Powys prior to its removal to Mathrafal sometime before 717, following famine and plague in the area. The city has been variously identified with the Cair Urnarc and Cair Guricon which appeared in the 9th-century History of the Britons's list of the 28 cities of Britain.

N. J. Higham proposes that Wroxeter became the eponymous capital of an early sub-Roman kingdom known as the Wrocensaete, which he asserts was the successor territorial unit to Cornovia. The literal meaning of Wrocensaete is 'those dwelling at Wrocen ', which Higham interprets as Wroxeter. It may refer quite specifically to the royal court itself, in the first instance, and only by extension to the territory administered from the court.

The Roman city was rediscovered in 1859 when workmen began excavating the baths complex. A replica Roman villa was constructed in 2010 for a Channel 4 television programme called Rome Wasn't Built in a Day and was opened to the public on 19 February 2011.

On 1 April 1986 the parish was abolished and merged with Uppington to form "Uppington & Wroxeter".

St Andrew's
At the centre of Wroxeter village is Saint Andrew's parish church, some of which is built from re-used Roman masonry. The oldest visible section of the church is the Anglo-Saxon part of the north wall which is built of Roman monumental stone blocks. The chancel and the lower part of the tower are Norman. The gatepiers to the churchyard are a pair of Roman columns and the font in the church was made by hollowing out the capital of a Roman column. Later additions to the church incorporate remains of an Anglo-Saxon preaching cross and carvings salvaged from nearby Haughmond Abbey following the Dissolution of the Monasteries.

St. Andrew's was declared redundant in 1980 and is now managed by The Churches Conservation Trust. St. Andrew's parish is now united with that of St. Mary, Eaton Constantine.

Literary reference
A. E. Housman visited the site and was impressed enough to write of "when Uricon the city stood", the poem ending "Today the Roman and his trouble Are ashes under Uricon."

Bernard Cornwell has the main character of The Saxon Stories visit Wroxeter in Death of Kings, referring to it as an ancient Roman city that was "as big as London" and using it as an illustration of his pagan beliefs that the World will end in chaos.

Sport
The village previously had a football team named Wroxeter Rovers. In 2017, the club relocated to nearby Shrewsbury and was renamed to Shrewsbury Juniors, in order to provide a senior football team for children progressing through the club's junior football system to take part in after the age of 16–17. The club were champions of the Shropshire County League Premier Division in 2020-21.

title: Wroxeter


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Japanese Baseball League

The Japanese Baseball League (日本野球連盟) was a professional baseball league in Japan which operated from 1936 to 1949, before reorganizing in 1950 as Nippon Professional Baseball.

The league's dominant team was Tokyo Kyojin (renamed the Yomiuri Giants in 1947), which won nine league championships, including six in a row from 1938 to 1943, when many of Japan's best players were serving in the Imperial Japanese Army.

Standout players from the Japanese Baseball League era included Haruyasu Nakajima, Tetsuharu Kawakami, and Kazuto Tsuruoka; pitchers Hideo Fujimoto, Eiji Sawamura, Victor Starffin, and Tadashi Wakabayashi; and two-way players Fumio Fujimura, Shosei Go, Masaru Kageura, and Jiro Noguchi.

League structure
Unlike American pro teams, Japanese Baseball League teams were usually named after their corporate owners/sponsors rather than the cities or regions in which they played. This was because Japanese franchising does not have strong territorial requirements as in the Major Leagues; as a result, the JBL teams clustered in metropolitan areas in Japan's center (Tokyo, Nagoya) and south (Osaka). As a result, teams were notorious for how often they changed their names, often because of changes in ownership/sponsorship (and also because of nationalistic regulations imposed during wartime, such as the outlawing of English team names). (The Yomiuri Giants, the Chunichi Dragons, and the Hanshin Tigers are the only surviving major clubs that have always been based in their respective cities. Additionally, the current Orix Buffaloes are a merger of two clubs which never left their hometown.)

Most Japanese Baseball League teams did not have an "official" home stadium; instead, teams played at any stadium in the area in which they were based. All league championships went to whoever had the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played.

History
The league was established on February 5, 1936, as the Japan Occupational Baseball League, with an initial complement of seven teams. Three of the teams were based in Tokyo, two in Osaka, and two in Nagoya.

Due to a lack of position players, a number of players in the league both pitched and batted. At first (until after World War II), the JBL was a "dead ball" league, due to Japan conserving rubber (including inside baseballs) for its war efforts; instead it used Balatá inside the balls. Initially, the league played split seasons, doing so from 1936 to 1938. In the debut 1936 season, it split into spring, summer, and fall seasons, only keeping track of the standings in the fall season. The league played spring and fall seasons in 1937 (c. 100-game schedule in total) and 1938 (total 75-game schedule), adding one new team each year.

The league was renamed the Japanese Baseball League in 1939, playing a 96-game schedule. Before the 1940 season, one of the founding teams, Nagoya Kinko (originally the Nagoya Golden Dolphins), merged with the Tokyo Senators. The 1940 season featured a 104-game schedule.

In October 1940 (responding to rising hostility toward the West due to World War II), the league outlawed the use of English in Japanese baseball. In response, the Korakuen Eagles became "Kurowashi", the Osaka Tigers became "Hanshin", the Tokyo Senators became "Tsubasa", and (eventually) Lion became "Asahi."

In 1941, the JBL appointed its first president, Jiro Morioka (formerly VP of Dai Tokyo). Morioka negotiated with the Japanese Imperial Army to keep professional baseball going through the early years of the Second World War. The league played a 90-game schedule in 1941, a 104-game schedule in 1942, and an 84-game schedule in 1943.

Two Tokyo-based teams dissolved before the 1944 season: the Yamato Baseball Club (originally the Korakuen Eagles) and the Nishitetsu Baseball Club (originally the Tokyo Senators).

Due to the Pacific War, the 1944 season was truncated to c. 35 games, and the 1945 season was skipped entirely. Many players enlisted in the Japanese Imperial Army, with 72 of them losing their lives in the war.

The league restarted on November 6, 1945, and a full season of 105 games was played the next year, with two new teams (both based in Tokyo) joining the league. One of the new teams, Gold Star, was owned by textile manufacturer Komajiro Tamura, who also owned Pacific (formerly Asahi).

A rival four-team league, known as the Kokumin League (国民リーグ), played a 30-game summer season in 1947. Unable to compete against the more established JBL, however, the Kokumin League disbanded a few games into the 1947 fall season.

The Japanese Baseball League played a 119-game schedule in 1947. That year, baseball personality Sōtaro Suzuki proposed that JBL teams should have pet names like the Yomiuri Giants', whose pet name was "Kyojin", and names such as the Osaka Tigers' alias "Mouko" (fierce tiger), the revived Tokyo Senators' "Seito" (bluestockings) and the Pacific's "Taihei" (tranquility) began to be used by the press. However, some teams rejected the use of these pet names, so they were never fully adopted. The 1948 season had a 140-game schedule, and the 1949 season had a 134-game schedule.

After the 1949 season, the league reorganized into today's Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). The four earliest-established clubs formerly in the Japanese Baseball League were placed in NPB's Central League, while the four later surviving franchises went to the Pacific League.

Foreign players
Victor Starffin, an ethnic Russian pitcher, was a dominant player of the era and the first professional pitcher in Japan to win 300 games.

Shosei Go, nicknamed "The Human Locomotive", was a speedy player from Taiwan who played in the league for the Kyojin and the Tigers. He won the 1943 JBL Most Valuable Player award as a member of the champion Kyojin. Hiroshi Oshita was another Taiwanese player who starred in the JBL. From 1946 to 1949 he played for the Tokyo Senators/Tokyu Flyers. (After reorganization, Oshita stayed with the Flyers until 1951, and then moved to the Nishitetsu Lions, finishing his Japanese professional career with a .303 lifetime batting average, 201 home runs, and 861 RBI.)

Andrew "Bucky" Harris McGalliard (Japan's "Bucky Harris"), Herbert "Buster" North, and James E. "Jimmy Bonna" Bonner became the first Americans to play in Japan's professional baseball league in 1936. (Bonner was African-American, thus beating Jackie Robinson to professional baseball 11 years before Robinson broke in with the Brooklyn Dodgers.) They were joined by the Japanese-American players Kiyomi "Slim" Hirakawa, Fumito "Jimmy" Horio, Kazuyoshi "George" Matsuura, Yoshio "Sam" Takahashi, and Tadashi "Bozo" Wakabayashi.

MVPs

 * 1937 (spring): Eiji Sawamura, Tokyo Kyojin, P
 * 1937 (fall): Harris McGalliard, Korakuen Eagles, C
 * 1938 (spring): Hisanori Karita, Tokyo Senators, 2B
 * 1938 (fall): Haruyasu Nakajima, Tokyo Kyojin, OF
 * 1939: Victor Starffin, Tokyo Kyojin, P
 * 1940: Victor Starffin, Tokyo Kyojin, P
 * 1941: Tetsuharu Kawakami, Tokyo Kyojin, 1B
 * 1942: Shigeru Mizuhara, Tokyo Kyojin, 2B
 * 1943: Shosei Go, Tokyo Kyojin, OF
 * 1944: Tadashi Wakabayashi, Hanshin, P
 * 1945: No league play because of World War II
 * 1946: Kazuto Tsuruoka, Kinki Great Ring, 3B
 * 1947: Tadashi Wakabayashi, Osaka Tigers, P
 * 1948: Kazuto Tsuruoka, Nankai, 3B
 * 1949: Fumio Fujimura, Osaka Tigers, 3B

Season-by-season standings
Season champion in bold.

title: Japanese Baseball League


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New Florence

New Florence is the name of several towns in the United States:

 * New Florence, Missouri
 * New Florence, Pennsylvania

title: New Florence


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Scott Sheldon

Scott Patrick Sheldon (born November 28, 1968) is an American former professional baseball third baseman/shortstop and right-handed batter who played for the Oakland Athletics and Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB). He also played for the Orix BlueWave of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB).

Career
In his 141-game MLB career from 1997 through 2001, Sheldon batted .235, with 8 home runs and 33 runs batted in. He then spent two seasons in NPB, batting .255 with 34 homers and 83 RBI.

On September 6, 2000, while playing for the Texas Rangers, Sheldon became the third player in MLB history to play all nine positions in a single game, joining Bert Campaneris (Kansas City Athletics, September 8, 1965, and César Tovar (Minnesota Twins, September 22, 1968). Sheldon entered the game in the 4th inning and performed the feat in just five frames. He was later joined by Shane Halter (Detroit Tigers, October 1, 2000), and Andrew Romine (Detroit Tigers, September 30, 2017) in the list of players to play all nine positions in the same game.

title: Scott Sheldon