text:
Talk:Profiles in Courage

ghost writer controversy
Did Kennedy actually write this? Kingturtle 03:10, 23 May 2004 (UTC)

It was ghostwritten, probably by Ted Sorenson. See http://www.tvrundown.com/cases/lostfil6.html. RickK 03:17, 23 May 2004 (UTC)

The link you refer to strongly suggests that it wasn't ghostwritten. As much as we might like to think that Kennedy paid a proxy to write a Pulitzer Prize winning book for him, the evidence seems to indicate that he did, in fact take the lead in writing this, with Sorenson acting as an acknowledged and paid researcher. --67.171.28.197 03:54, 3 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Why exactly are there two indentical links listed? Its the same article. I'm removing one of them. --Kross 17:27, Mar 27, 2005 (UTC)

Uhh, User:67.171.28.197|67.171.28.197] maybe you have a different interpretation of the linked article, but it definitely does not “strongly suggest” that Kennedy was the author. It suggests that ABC wanted to avoid a lawsuit with no upside and plenty of downside and instead gave a retraction that was considered a “craven gesture” by Mike Wallace. My reading makes me wonder why the elder Kennedy was so touchy... I think the most important info about the book is the gostwriter charge and should be included in this article 221.28.55.68 04:15, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

Why is the Mike Wallace quote inculded here? There is no suggestion that he had any information other than that stated elsewhere in the section. Plazak 18:02, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

agreed. I suggest removal of it on grounds of redundancy. 64.215.225.254 20:58, 27 October 2007 (UTC)Wellesradio also, I removed the citation tag for Sorensen's alleged defense of Kennedy since the Straight Dope link also argues the same. We can't link it as a source if we only agree with part of it. And, no, I don't believe Kennedy wrote it. But, meh, that's life. It obviously didn't bother Sorensen.64.215.225.254 21:10, 27 October 2007 (UTC)Wellesradio

It looks as if Sorensen himself has ended the controversy...in his 2008 memoir Counselor he admits that he wrote most of the book and that in the 1950s he even bragged privately at Washington parties that he was the author (he claimed in Counselor that he regrets having bragged about it). JFK paid Sorensen a healthy sum of money (over half the book's royalties), which Sorensen says led him to tell JFK that he was "disinclined" to claim authorship of the book. Although he states that JFK wrote most of the first and last chapters, Sorensen wrote most of the rest of the book, with some "editorial guidance" from Kennedy. I think that should pretty much settle the issue, as it's now clear that Sorensen did indeed "ghost write" the book for JFK, and that JFK was not the main author. 2602:304:691E:5A29:844C:6BF6:6BAB:253 (talk) 04:28, 23 January 2014 (UTC)

 * The fact is, no one knows for sure. We know what Sorensen claims, which may or may not be true, but that's all we know, and all that is worthy of note in an encyclopedia article. Attempts to say in the article it is a fact that Sorensen wrote the book or any part of it should be deleted, and I have fixed the lede to reflect this. It may be that the article needs additional trimming, since a substantial portion is not about the substance of the book but about the claims of authorship made by various parties.   Jus  da  fax   01:28, 12 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Your statement: "We know what Sorensen claims, ... but that's all we know." is inaccurate. There had been doubts about Kennedy's authorship long before Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. There is also the account of historian Jules Davids, who also worked on the book, and the material in the Kennedy Library that convinced historians Garry Wills and Herbert Parmet that Kennedy organized and supervised, but did little of the actual writing. You are correct that "no one knows for sure", and therefore it should not be stated as a fact, but the preponderance of evidence appears to support a limited role for Kennedy in the actual writing of the book. Plazak (talk) 20:08, 13 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Plazak is correct about this. Both Garry Wills and Herbert Parmet wrote extensively about Sorensen's involvement in writing the book as far back as the early 1980s. In numerous interviews over the years, Sorensen, as he admitted, never stated directly that he hadn't written large sections of the book, but instead essentially claimed that the author of a book is the person who puts their name on the cover, and thus JFK was the author. I would think if Ted Sorensen, one of JFK's closest aides, described in detail in his own autobiography the role he played in the creation of Profiles in Courage, then that should be strong evidence of what actually occurred in the production of the book. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.145.229.162 (talk) 00:42, 18 December 2016 (UTC)

 * “The fact is, no one knows for sure. We know what Sorensen claims, which may or may not be true, but that's all we know, and all that is worthy of note in an encyclopedia article.” Jusdafax 01:28, 12 September 2015 (UTC)

 * There are countless cases historically where we don’t know for sure what happened. This is not one of them. Maybe you ought to study the matter, instead of harrumphing about things about which you know nothing. 2604:2000:1580:4139:0:D54B:FA08:974D (talk) 08:15, 18 June 2018 (UTC)

 * The first post here has the word controversy in it. The discussion has been about the controversy for over 14 years. There has even been disagreement over whether it is a controversy or not. Someone explain to me how it's accepted as a controversy yet the prase in the lead of the article includes "In his 2008 autobiography, Kennedy's speechwriter Ted Sorensen said he had written most of the book under Kennedy's guidance." with absolutely no source given at all. I need an explanation to keep me from removing it as a total violation of Wikipedia's most basic guidelines about proper sourcing claims with reliable sources. It doesn't even line up with the wiki page on Sorenson's book or the sole reference on that page to a Washington Post piece about political memoirs that mentions the book in passing. Nobody uses Sorenson's actual book. It can be seen as revisionist because it claims that Sorenson wrote most of the book, regardless of whether it was under Kennedy's guidance at all. The claims as written is not anywhere to be found, not even in the Washinton Post article. The book Profiles in Courage has Kennedy name on it as an author. I may be accepted lore that Sorenson played some role because he was a brilliant speech writer but to extend that to a claim that he wrote most of the book is. But Wikipedia doesn't traffic in lore about recent important history figues. If the kind of thing if it should be anywhere in the article, it should not be in the lead. It can be seen as an attempt to undermine Kenedy before discussion fo the book even begins.Jackhammer111 (talk) 05:48, 9 February 2019 (UTC)

 * There is indeed a controversy about whether Kennedy wrote the book, and has been for decades. The phrase in the lead you criticize is from Sorensen's 2008 memoir Counselor, and is thus certainly a credible source under Wikipedia guidelines and should not have been removed. To claim that "nobody uses Sorensen's actual book" is simply absurd; as Kennedy's main speechwriter, and one of his top aides throughout his presidency, Sorensen is most certainly a credible source. There are numerous other JFK biographies by legitimate historians which have also concluded that Sorensen and historian Jules Davids did nearly all of the writing, including Garry Wills, Herbert Parmet, and Robert Dallek. Indeed, it is not too much to say that the general consensus among historians today is that while Kennedy provided the idea for the book and named the politicians to be profiled, it was Sorensen and Davids that did most of the actual research and writing. Richard Aldous, in his recent biography of historian and JFK aide Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., also gives an extended discussion of Sorensen's role in writing Profiles in Courage. Personal opinions or admiration for an historical figure should not lead to credible sources or claims being arbitrarily deleted because an editor doesn't like what the sources are saying. The "controversy" over the authorship of Profiles in Courage is well-discussed in historical literature at this point and, frankly, not mentioning the controversy at all in the lead is rather misleading, as is flatly stating that "Kennedy is credited as the author", especially given the evidence cited in later sections of the article. His name is certainly on the cover as the author, but the story is rather more complicated than that, and some mention of the controversy should be included in the lead section, given its historical prominence. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2606:A000:1011:C156:4884:1355:5AF3:1F7B (talk) 05:33, 22 August 2019 (UTC)

Jackie Kennedy seems to also have been extensively assisting with this book. Researching, taking notes, discussing passages, critically reading manus versions, etc... As we know Sorensen did the researche in the archives, and thus not Jackie as hinted by her biographer. We may perhaps presume Jackie helped John with the instructions to Sorensens; what he shall look after... My source is the biography by Katherine Pancol "Une si belle image - Jackie Kennedy". I have read the swedish translation. And I believe this, because Jackie had a good enough background. A solid university education, mainly in French language and culture, but also courses in American history. She was a good writer and an ex journalist... Very energetic and very able when she wanted to. So, the tale Jackie had a good share in the books forthcomings sounds very possible - and thus sounds true. Not even mentioning it was Jackie whom was at Johns side when he was bound to the hospital bed and afterwards./StefanZ, Sweden90.231.255.39 (talk) 13:44, 27 June 2020 (UTC)/StefanZ

misc
Why is there no ISBN?

John Quincy Adams WAS a Senator...he served the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the U.S senate from 1803 until 1808 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.37.2.237 (talk) 04:55, 10 May 2008 (UTC)

Profile in the Preface?

Pardon me if I'm wrong, but I would swear that the book's preface contains what could be called a profile in courage of President John Tyler as an example followed by the other profiles.

Oscar W. Underwood?
I thought I remembered him being in there; perhaps he was mentioned but not totally profiled? Or was there a later edition? Or am I just thinking of someplace else?99.97.81.20 (talk) 00:23, 29 May 2011 (UTC)

Date
When was this book first published? The first paragraph has 1957, the infobox 1955, the categories 1956. The first date in the WorldCat entry is 1948. ––– Robina Fox (talk) 02:54, 25 November 2015 (UTC)

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I Do Not Consider Frederick Logevall To Be A Qualified Or Reliable Source
His work promotes the legendary status of Kennedy in a way that is far from neutral.2601:447:4100:1BE0:C0B5:5AFD:35B8:7A5 (talk) 17:49, 22 April 2023 (UTC)

Agreed. The fact is that the great majority of modern historians who have written about the controversy over Profiles in Courage - Dallek, Wills, Parmet, Fehrman, etc. - have all clearly stated that while Kennedy may have developed the idea for the book and edited the book and perhaps wrote (or helped write) the foreword, that it was Sorensen and Jules Davids who did most of the writing. As Garry Wills put it, the Pulitzer was a writer's prize, and Kennedy did not actually write the book - his role was more that of an editor than the main writer.

However, one cannot tell that from this article, in which the last three paragraphs consist of nothing but Logevall's arguments that Kennedy deserved to be called the author because Kennedy gave Sorensen more direction and assistance than, in his opinion, other writers have admitted. It definitely appears that Logevall's account is a minority view among historians, yet his argument dominates the last quarter of the article. IMO, the sections describing his argument should be trimmed back and edited to give it less weight compared to the majority view of historians described in earlier paragraphs in this article. It definitely seems as if a JFK enthusiast is using Logevall's argument to try and discredit all of the historians and writers mentioned earlier in this article by giving him the last word on the subject. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2603:6080:C402:2A45:1005:B898:CF18:E7D2 (talk) 04:51, 28 October 2023 (UTC)

Jules Davids Should Be Included More In The Article Too
Please don't erase information about him that is reliable and constructive.2601:447:4100:1BE0:C0B5:5AFD:35B8:7A5 (talk) 18:35, 22 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Profiles in Courage


text:
The Union

The Union may refer to:

Politics

 * The Union (Germany) or CDU/CSU, the partnership of the German political parties the Christian Democratic Union and the Christian Social Union
 * The Union (Italy), a former coalition of political parties in Italy

Political entities

 * The European Union, a political and economic union of 27 member states primarily in Europe
 * The Soviet Union, a federal socialist state that spanned much of Europe and Asia from 1922 to 1991
 * The Indian Union, a federal parliamentary republic located in South Asia consisting of 28 states and 8 union territories
 * Union Government (India), government empowered by the constitution of India as the central legislative, executive, and judicial authority
 * The United Kingdom, a country that includes Great Britain, Northern Ireland, and many islands within the British Isles
 * The Act of Union 1707, which united the kingdoms of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain
 * The Act of Union 1800, which united the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom
 * The United States, a country primarily located in North America comprising 50 states and several territories, districts, and possessions
 * Union (American Civil War), the federal government of the United States and the states loyal to it during the American Civil War (1861–1865)

Film

 * The Union (2011 film), a 2011 documentary film by Cameron Crowe
 * The Union (upcoming film), an upcoming film starring Mark Wahlberg
 * The Union: The Business Behind Getting High, a 2007 documentary about the Canadian marijuana industry
 * A fictional company in the 2010 science fiction film Repo Men

Books and newspapers

 * The Union (James Bond), a fictional criminal organization in three Raymond Benson novels
 * The Union (Marvel Team), a Marvel Comics UK superhero team and Marvel comic book series
 * The Union (newspaper), a newspaper in Grass Valley, California, United States
 * The Union or Ohio Enterprise, a newspaper for African Americans established in Cincinnati, Ohio by Wendell Dabney

Music

 * The Union (Elton John and Leon Russell album), 2010
 * The Union (band), an English rock band formed in 2009
 * The Union (The Union album), their 2010 album
 * The Union (The Glorious Sons album), a 2014 rock album

Other uses

 * Cambridge Union, a debating and free speech society in Cambridge, England
 * Oxford Union, a debating society in the city of Oxford, England, drawn primarily from the University of Oxford
 * The Union (professional wrestling), a stable of wrestlers in the late 1990s
 * International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, a global scientific organization headquartered in Paris
 * Informal neologism for a labour union

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Union


text:
James Lenox

James Lenox (August 19, 1800 – February 17, 1880) was an American bibliophile and philanthropist. His collection of paintings and books eventually became known as the Lenox Library and in 1895 became part of the New York Public Library.

He inherited a fortune from his merchant father and spent much of his life amassing a collection of art and literature unparalleled in value. Lenox's collection included rare items such as the Gutenberg Bible. His library, valued at nearly a million dollars, stood on what is now the site of the Frick Collection. Lenox also generously donated to institutions like the Presbyterian Hospital and American Bible Society. He never married, and became increasingly reclusive after a broken romance.

Early life
Lenox was born in New York City on August 19, 1800. He was the only surviving son of six children born to Rachel (née Carmer) Lenox and Robert Lenox (1759–1839). His father was a wealthy merchant who was born in Kirkcudbright, Scotland, emigrated to America during the Revolutionary War, and settled in New York in 1783. Of his five sisters, four married and one remained single, like Lenox, throughout her life.

His maternal grandfather was Nicholas Carmer, a New York cabinet maker. Upon his father's death in 1839, Lenox inherited a fortune of over a million dollars and 30 acres of land between Fourth and Fifth Avenues. A graduate of Columbia College, he studied law and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced. He retired from business when his father died.

Career
Lenox went to Europe soon after his admission to the bar and, while abroad, began collecting rare books. This, along with collecting art, became the absorbing passion of his life. For half a century, he devoted much of his time and talent to forming a library and gallery of paintings, unsurpassed in value by any other private collection in the New World. In 1870 these, together with many rare manuscripts, marble busts and statues, mosaics, engravings, and curios, became the Lenox Library in New York City. Lenox served as its first president.

The library occupied the crest of the hill on Fifth Avenue, between 70th and 71st Streets, overlooking Central Park. On May 23, 1895, the Lenox Library was consolidated with the Astor Library and the Tilden Trust to form the New York Public Library.

The collection of Bibles, including the Gutenberg Bible —both in number and rarity—was believed to be unequaled even to those of the British Museum; while its Americana, incunabula, and Shakespeariana, surpassed those of any other American library, public or private. The collection was valued at nearly a million dollars; including the $900,000 for the land, building, and endowment, it totaled above $2,000,000. The Frick Collection stands on the Lenox Library's former site.

Lenox was a founder of the Presbyterian Hospital in New York City. His gifts to it amounted to $600,000. He also made important gifts to Princeton College and Seminary, and gave liberally to numerous churches and charities connected with the Presbyterian Church. Lenox was also the president of the American Bible Society, to which he was a liberal donor. James Grant Wilson reports passing on several anonymous gifts from Lenox to needy scholars. He joined the American Philosophical Society in 1854. That same year, he was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society, and served as the society's vice-president from 1868 to 1880.

Lenox occasionally reprinted limited editions, restricted to ten or twenty copies, of rare books, which he placed in some of the great public libraries and notable private collections, for example, that of John Carter Brown. Portraits of Lenox were painted by Francis Grant in 1848, and by G. P. A. Healy three years later. He was also painted by Daniel Huntington in 1874.

Personal life
Lenox never married. An early love, the only woman to whom he was romantically attached, refused him and remained unmarried following her death. The broken romance spurred his increasing reclusiveness. He declined proffered visits from the most distinguished men of the day. An eminent scholar, who was occupied for many weeks in consulting rare books not to be found elsewhere, failed to obtain access to Lenox's library. He was assigned an apartment in Lenox's spacious mansion, and the works were sent in installments without him ever entering the library or meeting Lenox.

In 1855, there were 19 millionaires in New York. He was the third richest man in New York, worth approximately three million dollars.

Lenox died at his home, 53 Fifth Avenue in New York City, on February 17, 1880. He was buried in the New York City Marble Cemetery. Two of his seven sisters outlived him. Henrietta Lenox, the last survivor, gave the Lenox Library 22 valuable adjoining lots and $100,000 to purchase books. Lenox Avenue in Harlem is named for James Lenox. In addition to several charities, his estate was left to his relations, including his sister, Henrietta A. Lenox, Mary Lenox Sheafe, another sister, and various nephews and nieces, including Elizabeth S. Maitland, James Lenox Belknap, Robert Lenox Banks, James Lenox Banks, Robert Lenox Kennedy (who succeeded him as president of trustees of the Lenox Library), Rachel Lenox Kennedy, and Mary Lenox Kennedy. A portion was also left to grand-nieces and grand-nephews including Alexander Maitland, Eliza Lenox Maitland, Robert Lenox Maitland, and Henry Van Rensselaer Kennedy.

title: James Lenox


text: User talk:69.240.183.125

title: User talk:69.240.183.125


text:
Lenox Library

Lenox Library may refer to:

 * Lenox Library (Massachusetts), a public library located in Lenox, Massachusetts
 * Lenox Library (New York City), a former library founded by James Lenox which was a predecessor of the New York Public Library

title: Lenox Library


text:
Craton

A craton (, , or  ;   from κράτος  "strength") is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere, which consists of Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle. Having often survived cycles of merging and rifting of continents, cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates; the exceptions occur where geologically recent rifting events have separated cratons and created passive margins along their edges. Cratons are characteristically composed of ancient crystalline basement rock, which may be covered by younger sedimentary rock. They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that extend as much as several hundred kilometres into Earth's mantle.

Terminology
The term craton is used to distinguish the stable portion of the continental crust from regions that are more geologically active and unstable. Cratons are composed of two layers: a continental shield, in which the basement rock crops out at the surface, and a platform which overlays the shield in some areas with sedimentary rock.

The word craton was first proposed by the Austrian geologist Leopold Kober in 1921 as Kratogen, referring to stable continental platforms, and orogen as a term for mountain or orogenic belts. Later Hans Stille shortened the former term to Kraton, from which craton derives.

Examples
Examples of cratons are the Dharwar Craton in India, North China Craton, the East European Craton, the Amazonian Craton in South America, the Kaapvaal Craton in South Africa, the North American Craton (also called the Laurentia Craton), and the Gawler Craton in South Australia.

Structure
Cratons have thick lithospheric roots. Mantle tomography shows that cratons are underlain by anomalously cold mantle corresponding to lithosphere more than twice the typical 100 km thickness of mature oceanic or non-cratonic, continental lithosphere. At that depth, craton roots extend into the asthenosphere, and the low-velocity zone seen elsewhere at these depths is weak or absent beneath stable cratons. Craton lithosphere is distinctly different from oceanic lithosphere because cratons have a neutral or positive buoyancy and a low intrinsic density. This low density offsets density increases from geothermal contraction and prevents the craton from sinking into the deep mantle. Cratonic lithosphere is much older than oceanic lithosphere—up to 4 billion years versus 180 million years.

Rock fragments (xenoliths) carried up from the mantle by magmas containing peridotite have been delivered to the surface as inclusions in subvolcanic pipes called kimberlites. These inclusions have densities consistent with craton composition and are composed of mantle material residual from high degrees of partial melt. Peridotite is strongly influenced by the inclusion of moisture. Craton peridotite moisture content is unusually low, which leads to much greater strength. It also contains high percentages of low-weight magnesium instead of higher-weight calcium and iron. Peridotites are important for understanding the deep composition and origin of cratons because peridotite nodules are pieces of mantle rock modified by partial melting. Harzburgite peridotites represent the crystalline residues after extraction of melts of compositions like basalt and komatiite.

Formation
The process by which cratons were formed is called cratonization. There is much about this process that remains uncertain, with very little consensus in the scientific community. However, the first cratonic landmasses likely formed during the Archean eon. This is indicated by the age of diamonds, which originate in the roots of cratons, and which are almost always over 2 billion years and often over 3 billion years in age. Rock of Archean age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, this suggests that only 5 to 40 percent of the present continental crust formed during the Archean. Cratonization likely was completed during the Proterozoic. Subsequent growth of continents was by accretion at continental margins.

Root origin
The origin of the roots of cratons is still debated. However, the present understanding of cratonization began with the publication in 1978 of a paper by Thomas H. Jordan in Nature. Jordan proposes that cratons formed from a high degree of partial melting of the upper mantle, with 30 to 40 percent of the source rock entering the melt. Such a high degree of melting was possible because of the high mantle temperatures of the Archean. The extraction of so much magma left behind a solid peridotite residue that was enriched in lightweight magnesium and thus lower in chemical density than undepleted mantle. This lower chemical density compensated for the effects of thermal contraction as the craton and its roots cooled, so that the physical density of the cratonic roots matched that of the surrounding hotter, but more chemically dense, mantle. In addition to cooling the craton roots and lowering their chemical density, the extraction of magma also increased the viscosity and melting temperature of the craton roots and prevented mixing with the surrounding undepleted mantle. The resulting mantle roots have remained stable for billions of years. Jordan suggests that depletion occurred primarily in subduction zones and secondarily as flood basalts.

This model of melt extraction from the upper mantle has held up well with subsequent observations. The properties of mantle xenoliths confirm that the geothermal gradient is much lower beneath continents than oceans. The olivine of craton root xenoliths is extremely dry, which would give the roots a very high viscosity. Rhenium–osmium dating of xenoliths indicates that the oldest melting events took place in the early to middle Archean. Significant cratonization continued into the late Archean, accompanied by voluminous mafic magmatism.

However, melt extraction alone cannot explain all the properties of craton roots. Jordan notes in his paper that this mechanism could be effective for constructing craton roots only down to a depth of 200 km. The great depths of craton roots required further explanation. The 30 to 40 percent partial melting of mantle rock at 4 to 10 GPa pressure produces komatiite magma and a solid residue very close in composition to Archean lithospheric mantle, but continental shields do not contain enough komatiite to match the expected depletion. Either much of the komatiite never reached the surface, or other processes aided craton root formation. There are many competing hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.

Repeated continental collision model
Jordan's model suggests that further cratonization was a result of repeated continental collisions. The thickening of the crust associated with these collisions may have been balanced by craton root thickening according to the principle of isostacy. Jordan likens this model to "kneading" of the cratons, allowing low density material to move up and higher density to move down, creating stable cratonic roots as deep as 400 km.

Molten plume model
A second model suggests that the surface crust was thickened by a rising plume of molten material from the deep mantle. This would have built up a thick layer of depleted mantle underneath the cratons.

Subducting ocean slab model
A third model suggests that successive slabs of subducting oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton, underplating the craton with chemically depleted rock.

Impact origin model
A fourth theory presented in a 2015 publication suggests that the origin of the cratons is similar to crustal plateaus observed on Venus, which may have been created by large asteroid impacts. In this model, large impacts on the Earth's early lithosphere penetrated deep into the mantle and created enormous lava ponds. The paper suggests these lava ponds cooled to form the craton's root.

Evidence for each model
The chemistry of xenoliths and seismic tomography both favor the two accretional models over the plume model. However, other geochemical evidence favors mantle plumes. Tomography shows two layers in the craton roots beneath North America. One is found at depths shallower than 150 km and may be Archean, while the second is found at depths from 180 to 240 km and may be younger. The second layer may be a less depleted thermal boundary layer that stagnated against the depleted "lid" formed by the first layer. The impact origin model does not require plumes or accretion; this model is, however, not incompatible with either.

All these proposed mechanisms rely on buoyant, viscous material separating from a denser residue due to mantle flow, and it is possible that more than one mechanism contributed to craton root formation.

Erosion
The long-term erosion of cratons has been labelled the "cratonic regime". It involves processes of pediplanation and etchplanation that lead to the formation of flattish surfaces known as peneplains. While the process of etchplanation is associated to humid climate and pediplanation with arid and semi-arid climate, shifting climate over geological time leads to the formation of so-called polygenetic peneplains of mixed origin. Another result of the longevity of cratons is that they may alternate between periods of high and low relative sea levels. High relative sea level leads to increased oceanicity, while the opposite leads to increased inland conditions.

Many cratons have had subdued topographies since Precambrian times. For example, the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia was flattish already by Middle Proterozoic times and the Baltic Shield had been eroded into a subdued terrain already during the Late Mesoproterozoic when the rapakivi granites intruded.

title: Craton


text:
Chiastic Slide

Chiastic Slide is the fourth studio album by the British electronic music group Autechre, released 17 February 1997 by Warp Records. The album saw the duo continue to move further away from the ambient techno sound of their early releases, employing harsher, glitchier beats. Though not initially met with the same critical acclaim as Tri Repetae or LP5, Chiastic Slide was eventually recognized by critics as an innovative and "enormously influential" album.

Release
Chiastic Slide was released on 17 February 1997. It did not receive a release in the United States until Warp Records began distributing its own releases there in 2001. Autechre referenced the fourth track, "Cichli", in the name of their subsequent EP Cichlisuite (1997). The sleeve was designed by Sheffield-based design agency The Designers Republic. On 19 November 2021, Chiastic Slide was re-released by Warp on vinyl, along side their next album LP5.

Reception
Allmusic critic John Bush panned Chiastic Slide as being an underwhelming follow-up to 1995's Tri Repetae, saying it was too repetitive and lacked ideas. Tim Barr in Techno: the Rough Guide called Chiastic Slide "The aural equivalent of being at the bottom of the sea." He went on to say the album was "Dark, claustrophobic... yet full of strange beauty".

A 2017 FACT Magazine retrospective described Chiastic Slide as "an enduring classic" that marks "the axis point around which all of Autechre's work revolves," representing a "break from contemporaneous orthodoxy" in electronic music and sound composition. In an interview with Popular 1 Magazine, guitarist Kavus Torabi of Cardiacs named Chiastic Slide as one of his favourite albums.

title: Chiastic Slide


text:
Hudson–Bergen Light Rail

The Hudson–Bergen Light Rail (HBLR) is a light rail system in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Owned by New Jersey Transit (NJT) and operated by the 21st Century Rail Corporation, it connects the communities of Bayonne, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, Union City, at the city line with West New York, and North Bergen.

The system began operating its first segment in April 2000, expanded in phases during the next decade, and was completed with the opening of its southern terminus on January 31, 2011. The line generally runs parallel to the Hudson River and Upper New York Bay, while its northern end and its western branch travel through the lower Hudson Palisades. HBLR has 24 stations along a total track length of 17 mi for each of its two tracks and serves over 52,000 weekday passengers. Despite its name, the system does not serve Bergen County, into which long-standing plans for expansion have not advanced due to repeated requests for new environmental review reports since 2007.

The project was financed by a mixture of state and federal funding. With an eventual overall cost of approximately $2.2 billion to complete its initial operating segments, the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail was one of the largest ever public works projects in New Jersey. The system is a component of the state's "smart growth" strategy to reduce auto-ridership and to revitalize older urban and suburban areas through transit-oriented development.

History
Hudson County, New Jersey, is the sixth-most densely populated county in the U.S. and has one of America's highest percentages of public transportation use. During the 1980s and early 1990s, planners and government officials realized that alternative transportation systems needed to be put in place to relieve increasing congestion along the Hudson Waterfront, particularly in the vicinity of the Hudson River crossings. After extensive studies, it was decided that the most efficient and cost-effective system to meet the growing demands of the area would be a light rail system, constructed in several phases.

The design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the system is part of a public-private partnership. In 1996, New Jersey Transit awarded a "DBOM" (design/build/operate/maintain) contract to the 21st Century Rail Corporation, a subsidiary of Washington Group International, an engineering and construction consulting firm later acquired by URS, then AECOM. Under the contract, 21st Century Rail would deliver a fleet of vehicles, a guaranteed completion date, and 15 years of operation and maintenance of the system, for a fixed price. The agreement was later extended to a 20-year period.

Original plans called for extending the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail north to the Vince Lombardi Park & Ride in Ridgefield, south to 5th Street in Bayonne, and west to Droyer's Point in Jersey City. In Hoboken, the line was to have originally been configured as a through-running operation, with an alignment built closer to the river which would have given closer access to both the PATH station entrance and the bus terminal. This was shelved in favor of the current stub-end station in the southern end of Hoboken Terminal and the current route along an existing right-of-way at the foot of the Hudson Palisades on the city's west side.

The light rail opened to the public on April 15, 2000, with an initial operating segment connecting Bayonne 34th Street and Exchange Place, as well as the spur line to West Side Avenue. Later that year, on November 18, the service was extended northward to Pavonia-Newport. On September 29, 2002, service was extended to Hoboken Terminal, which completed MOS-1, the first Minimum Operating Segment (MOS) of the project, at the cost of $992 million.

MOS-2 involved several extensions costing a combined $1.2 billion. The first extension as part of MOS-2, which brought the light rail system southward to 22nd Street in Bayonne, was opened on November 15, 2003. It also involved extending the line west and north of Hoboken Terminal into Weehawken. The line was completed to Lincoln Harbor on September 7, 2004, and to Port Imperial on weekends only on October 29, 2005. The line was extended from Port Imperial to Tonnelle Avenue in North Bergen on February 25, 2006, and light rail vehicles began running seven days a week to Tonnelle Avenue. Bus service on connecting routes was modified so that there would be more direct connections to Hudson-Bergen Light Rail stations. The extension to a southern terminal at 8th Street opened January 31, 2011, at a cost of $100 million.

In early 2019, it was announced that service on the West Side Branch would be suspended for nine months starting in June 2019 to allow for repairs to a sewer line running along the right-of-way and that service would instead be provided by NJ Transit shuttle buses. Partial service was restored on the branch in April 2020 to the Garfield Ave. and Martin Luther King Dr. stations while the West Side Ave. station remained closed due to ongoing Bayfront-Route 440 extension construction. Full service to the West Side Ave. station resumed in May 2020.

Routes

There are 24 stations along the routes within the system. Trains run from approximately 5 a.m. to 1 a.m. daily.

 * West Side–Tonnelle between West Side Avenue in Jersey City and Tonnelle Avenue in North Bergen
 * Hoboken–Tonnelle (weekdays only) between Hoboken Terminal and Tonnelle Avenue
 * 8th Street–Hoboken, between 8th Street in Bayonne and Hoboken Terminal
 * Bayonne Flyer, (weekday rush hours) between 8th Street in Bayonne and Hoboken Terminal, stopping at all Bayonne stations, Liberty State Park (southbound only), Essex Street, Exchange Place, Harborside Financial Center, and Newport

Stations
Many of the stations feature public art. A total of 30 artists have created 50 art works with various themes for the stations. For example, the Liberty State Park station features glass tiles representing a number of "fallen flag" railroad logos.

Park and ride lots are available at East 22nd Street, East 34th Street, West Side Avenue, Liberty State Park and Tonnelle Avenue. In total, there are 3,880 parking spaces.

Paid transfer to the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) is possible at Exchange Place, Newport and Hoboken Terminal, where connections to NJT commuter rail service are also available. Paid transfer to New York Waterway ferries is also available at some stations. NJT and other buses serve most stations.

Fares
Like most other light rail services in the United States, the HBLR operates on a proof-of-payment system, in which riders must present their tickets upon request during random fare inspections. Passengers must purchase tickets at NJ Transit ticket vending machines (TVMs) on or near station platforms or from the NJ Transit app. One-way, round-trip, and ten-trip tickets must then be validated at automated validators located near the TVMs, which date and time stamp the ticket for 60 minutes of use. NJ Transit's fare inspectors randomly check tickets on trains and at stations;, the fine for fare evasion is $100.

, a one-way adult fare is $2.25. A monthly, unlimited pass is $70; holders of monthly passes can transfer to NJ Transit buses without an additional fare. Senior citizens (62 and older; valid ID may be requested), passengers with disabilities, and children under 12 may travel on the light rail at a reduced fare of $1.10. Customers who purchase one-way tickets can purchase "tickets with transfer" at a cost of $3.00. When validated, these tickets may be used for travel on the light rail system, plus a one-zone transfer to any connecting NJ Transit intrastate bus. Conversely, transfers purchased on intrastate buses are accepted on the HBLR. Valid NJ Transit weekly and monthly rail passes, as well as 2-zone or greater bus passes, are also good for travel and do not need validation. Like the rest of NJ Transit's other transportation modes, it does not accept the MetroCard nor OMNY although it has plans to create a new fare payment system in the future.

In May 2012, NJ Transit and NY Waterway introduced a monthly or ten-trip discounted combination fare for passengers using the HBLR and ferry at Weehawken Port Imperial. Monthly joint tickets are also available for ferry passengers using slips at Lincoln Harbor and 14th Street (Hoboken).

In February 2013, NJ Transit began offering free weekend parking at Tonnelle Avenue, Liberty State Park, West Side Avenue, 34th Street and 45th Street stations.

Infrastructure
The Hudson–Bergen Light Rail system uses a combination of old rail and new exclusive rights-of-way for most of its length, with some grade separation in certain areas. It shares a lane with automobiles on a portion of Essex Street in downtown Jersey City, but for the most part, does not operate with other traffic. At-grade crossings are equipped with transit-signal priority signals to automatically change traffic lights in favor of the light rail.

A new curved viaduct was constructed eastward from 8th Street to 11th Street in Bayonne to join the existing right-of way to Liberty State Park, which was once the main line of the Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ), parts of which rest on the bed of the Morris Canal; CNJ's Newark and New York Railroad right-of-way was used for the line west to West Side Avenue. From Liberty State Park to Hoboken Terminal the line uses a new right-of-way. From the terminal to the curve south of 2nd Street, the line runs parallel to NJT yard and tracks, formerly the main line of the Lackawanna Railroad; north of the curve it uses what had been Conrail's River Line, and was originally the New Jersey Junction Railroad. In order to obtain the right-of-way for the line north from Hoboken, NJT paid to upgrade the Northern Running Track, allowing Conrail to shift its operations. The tunnel and cut through the Palisades were originally the West Shore Railroad's main line.

Rolling stock

The Hudson–Bergen Light Rail system has 52 electrically powered air-conditioned vehicles built by Kinki Sharyo and numbered in the 2000 series. The cars were assembled in Harrison, New Jersey. The original fleet consisted of 54 cars, but 2 cars were transferred to the Newark Light Rail. Each vehicle is 90 ft long and has four sets of double-opening doors on each side, with seats for 68 passengers and standing room for another 122 passengers.

The Newark Light Rail system uses the same type of vehicle, with slight modifications to the trucks and wheels due to the different rails used.

On July 3, 2013, NJ Transit released lengthened light rail car 2054 as a prototype. The expanded car consists of two new sections, increasing length by 37 ft to a total of 127 ft. Seating capacity is increased from 68 passengers to 102 passengers, with standing capacity increased accordingly as well. Overall capacity increases from approximately 200 per vehicle to 300 per vehicle. The prototype was placed on rotations through the three lines of the system over the next 6 months, after which, NJ Transit started to expand 26 cars in total, or half of the total fleet. The contract to expand the remaining balance of 25 cars was approved on July 9, 2014. The expanded cars were renumbered to the 5000 series.

Route 440/Bayfront
In May 2011 NJT announced a plan for 0.7 mi extension of the West Side Branch. The project, which requires the approval of the metropolitan planning organization, North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, to be eligible for federal funding, is estimated to cost $171.6 million. The extension is part of a broader plan to transform the far West Side of Jersey City from previous industrial uses to mixed-use communities that also includes the development of the West Campus of New Jersey City University (currently under construction) and conversion of Route 440 to an urban boulevard.

As of March 2017, funding for final design and engineering work was appropriated. In December 2017, NJ Transit approved a $5 million preliminary engineering contract for the extension project. Construction on the first phase of the extension began in March 2020.

18th Street, Jersey City
The results of the Jersey City/Hoboken Connectivity Study published in June 2011 identified the target area at southwestern Hoboken, Lower Jersey City, and Jersey City Heights as a potential site for a new station. The HBLR runs at the foot the Hudson Palisades under NJT's Hoboken Terminal lines with the 2nd Street station north of the ROW. The district is characterized as having an irregular street grid (including colonial-era Paterson Plank Road and Newark Plank Road),  being heavily congested (often with Holland Tunnel–bound traffic) and undergoing transition to a residential/commercial uses. In September 2012, a walkway/bike path was completed near the site of the proposed station, providing better pedestrian access to it and the nearby 2nd St. station. It was announced in October 2012 that NJT had received a $400,000 grant to study the possibility of building a new station at 18th Street in Jersey City, just south of the municipal border and  NJT commuter rail ROW.

In January 2020, the City of Jersey City began to consider 3.5% tax on public and private parking facilities to help fund the construction of a new light rail station at 18th Street.

Northwest Hoboken
According to The New York Times, NJT approved plans in June 2013 for a new light rail station in northwestern Hoboken, near property owned by the Rockefeller Group, which wants to build a 40-story office tower in that area near the city's northern border with Weehawken. This agreement was not made known to the local government. but came to light after Mayor of Hoboken Dawn Zimmer, appearing on MSNBC on January 18, 2014, claimed that Lt Governor Kim Guadagno and Richard Constable, director of the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, had earlier insinuated to her that more Sandy relief funds would be released to the city if it approved the project proposed by Rockefeller. The agreement is dated June 21, 2014. The plans show a station at 17th Street and Clinton Street.

In January 2020, Mayor Ravinder Bhalla met with representatives of NJ Transit to discuss a potential new station in the area. It included in city's North End master plan.

Northern Branch/Bergen County
Despite its name, the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail only serves Hudson County. The Northern Branch is a proposed extension from the current northern terminus at Tonnelle Avenue using the right of way of the former Erie Northern Branch into eastern Bergen County with a new terminus at the Englewood Hospital and Medical Center. Stops would be added at 91st Street in North Bergen, Fairview, Ridgefield, Palisades Park, Leonia, and Englewood, with stops at Englewood Route 4 and Englewood Town Center.

An earlier proposal to use diesel multiple unit (DMU) vehicles was later abandoned in favor of the electrically operated system used by HBLR as were proposals to extend the line into Tenafly. The estimated cost of the project is $1.18 billion, though funding has not been secured. An initial $40 million has been allocated for design, engineering and environmental studies. The project requires approval of an environmental impact statement and Federal Transit Administration approval. Funding for completion if the environmental study, expected to take two years, was approved by NJ Transit in May 2013. After being stalled funding for the project was thought to finally be proceeding in 2017, but no progress was made.

Canal Crossing
The two branches of the HBLR system create the northern and eastern borders of Canal Crossing, a planned New Urbanist community in Jersey City. A new station at Caven Point Avenue is proposed on the Bayonne line along its eastern perimeter between current stations at Richard Street and Liberty State Park. A feasibility study conducted in 2012 found that though the construction of a station at Caven Point Avenue was theoretically possible, it would be much more expensive than the average light rail station, while the projected ridership would be relatively low in the near-term.

Secaucus Junction/Meadowlands
There have been discussions to extend the system westward to either or both Secaucus Junction, a major interchange station of New Jersey Transit rail operations, and to the Meadowlands Sports Complex (MSC). Possible routes include one from Downtown Jersey City, via the Harsimus Stem Embankment and Bergen Arches, or an extension of the line from Tonnelle Avenue.

Several studies have been conducted to determine the best future use of the Bergen Arches, the former Erie Railroad cut through Bergen Hill in Jersey City. A freeway proposed in 1989 by Governor Thomas Kean was strongly supported by then-Mayor Bret Schundler. In 1998, this project was allocated $26 million in the federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century. During the 2001 mayoral race candidates instead lobbied for a mass transit line, and in 2002 the plans were dropped during Mayor Cunningham's administration. In that year, Parsons Brinckerhoff, a consulting firm, released another report commission by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) describing the conditions and analysis of various options. NJDOT has continued to fund studies for the project. In March 2011, an additional $13.4 million was allocated to advance the project.

In the first decade of the 21st century, studies sponsored by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority were conducted to address mass transit options to the MSC, including the possible extension of HBLR from its northern terminus through Secaucus and across the Hackensack River. At the time it was estimated that the extension would cost $1 billion. When it was decided to build a rail spur in 2004, state officials said that an HBLR extension was not ruled out as a future possibility. The Meadowlands Rail Line was eventually opened in 2009.

In 2022, state introduced a plan for a new east-bound Route 3 Bridge over the Hackensack River. Pilings would support a light rail extension, though no there is no projected timeline for service.

Bayonne Bridge/Staten Island
The Bayonne Bridge connects Bayonne and Staten Island, a borough of New York City. The bridge was originally built to accommodate two extra lanes that could be used for light rail service. In the 2010s the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey raised the roadbed of the bridge by 64 ft, in order to provide the 215 ft clearance required by the newer post-panamax container ships to pass under it. Final plans for the reconstructed bridge eventually did not include a rail element.

In September 2007, the S89 limited-stop bus service was introduced between Richmond Avenue in Staten Island and the 34th Street HBLR station. , it runs only during the weekday peak period.

While not having begun any studies, New Jersey Transit investigated the feasibility of extending HBLR from the 8th Street Station across the raised bridge. An academic study has been produced in the Journal of Public Transportation. Completing any such extension would involve a collaboration between NJ Transit, New York State, and New York City. The development of a Staten Island light rail system which could connect with the HBLR system gained political support in New York. US Senator Robert Menendez supported the HBLR extension conceptually, but questioned the benefit for New Jersey. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority's 2015–2019 Capital Plan was amended in May 2017 to allocate $4 million to study the potential extension.

Liberty State Park trolley
Shuttle bus service formerly operated from the Liberty State Park station to the waterfront Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal in Liberty State Park. However, this service no longer runs, and as a result, there is a relatively long walk to access the Central Railroad terminal via mass transit. Since at least 2010, there have been proposals to build a trolley line to the Central Railroad terminal building and other points in the park from the Liberty State Park Station light rail station to improve access. The Liberty Historic Railway organization is also attempting to jump start the construction of this trolley line. As of 2020, the Liberty Historic Railway Organization has ceased all work on the Liberty State Park trolley proposal as a result of the damage the park received from Hurricane Sandy and how vulnerable any rail infrastructure within the park associated with the proposed trolley would be to future storm surges.

Transit-oriented development and urban revitalization
The light rail has been a catalyst for both residential and commercial development along the route and has played a significant role in the revitalization of Hudson County. Many of the stops are sited in vacant or underutilized areas, which are now beginning to see intense residential and mixed-use development. The line running along Essex Street in downtown Jersey City has spawned 3,000 residential units in five years. An 86 acre tract of land bordering Liberty State Park is being redeveloped into a transit-oriented development known as Liberty Harbor North, which will consist of 6,000 residential units and millions of square feet of commercial space. Two New Urbanism projects in Jersey City, Bayfront and Canal Crossing, are being planned with the expectation that new stations will be built in conjunction with their development. Other developments are either planned or already underway in Hoboken, Union City, Bayonne, and Weehawken, in areas very near to light rail stations.

title: Hudson–Bergen Light Rail


text:
User:IanH

Hiyall :)

I'm Ian, aka 'Tubby Coat-Wearing Mother Fucker' (See Dogma (movie)).

I am:
 * A child of the 1980's
 * Gay
 * Australian
 * Generally annoying. :)

title: User:IanH


text:
Continental crust

Continental crust is the layer of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks that forms the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial because its bulk composition is richer in aluminium silicates (Al-Si) and has a lower density compared to the oceanic crust, called sima which is richer in magnesium silicate (Mg-Si) minerals. Changes in seismic wave velocities have shown that at a certain depth (the Conrad discontinuity), there is a reasonably sharp contrast between the more felsic upper continental crust and the lower continental crust, which is more mafic in character.

Most continental crust is dry land above sea level. However, 94% of the Zealandia continental crust region is submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean, with New Zealand constituting 93% of the above-water portion.

Thickness and density

The continental crust consists of various layers, with a bulk composition that is intermediate (SiO2 wt% = 60.6). The average density of the continental crust is about, 2.83 g/cm3, less dense than the ultramafic material that makes up the mantle, which has a density of around 3.3 g/cm3. Continental crust is also less dense than oceanic crust, whose density is about 2.9 g/cm3. At 25 to 70 km in thickness, continental crust is considerably thicker than oceanic crust, which has an average thickness of around 7 to 10 km. Approximately 41% of Earth's surface area and about 70% of the volume of Earth's crust are continental crust.

Importance
Because the surface of continental crust mainly lies above sea level, its existence allowed land life to evolve from marine life. Its existence also provides broad expanses of shallow water known as epeiric seas and continental shelves where complex metazoan life could become established during early Paleozoic time, in what is now called the Cambrian explosion.

Origin
All continental crust is ultimately derived from mantle-derived melts (mainly basalt) through fractional differentiation of basaltic melt and the assimilation (remelting) of pre-existing continental crust. The relative contributions of these two processes in creating continental crust are debated, but fractional differentiation is thought to play the dominant role. These processes occur primarily at magmatic arcs associated with subduction.

There is little evidence of continental crust prior to 3.5 Ga. About 20% of the continental crust's current volume was formed by 3.0 Ga. There was relatively rapid development on shield areas consisting of continental crust between 3.0 and 2.5 Ga. During this time interval, about 60% of the continental crust's current volume was formed. The remaining 20% has formed during the last 2.5 Ga.

Proponents of a steady-state hypothesis argue that the total volume of continental crust has remained more or less the same after early rapid planetary differentiation of Earth and that presently found age distribution is just the result of the processes leading to the formation of cratons (the parts of the crust clustered in cratons being less likely to be reworked by plate tectonics). However, this is not generally accepted.

Forces at work
In contrast to the persistence of continental crust, the size, shape, and number of continents are constantly changing through geologic time. Different tracts rift apart, collide and recoalesce as part of a grand supercontinent cycle.

There are currently about 7 e9km3 of continental crust, but this quantity varies because of the nature of the forces involved. The relative permanence of continental crust contrasts with the short life of oceanic crust. Because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust, when active margins of the two meet in subduction zones, the oceanic crust is typically subducted back into the mantle. Continental crust is rarely subducted (this may occur where continental crustal blocks collide and overthicken, causing deep melting under mountain belts such as the Himalayas or the Alps). For this reason the oldest rocks on Earth are within the cratons or cores of the continents, rather than in repeatedly recycled oceanic crust; the oldest intact crustal fragment is the Acasta Gneiss at 4.01 Ga, whereas the oldest large-scale oceanic crust (located on the Pacific Plate offshore of the Kamchatka Peninsula) is from the Jurassic (≈180 Ma), although there might be small older remnants in the Mediterranean Sea at about 340 Ma. Continental crust and the rock layers that lie on and within it are thus the best archive of Earth's history.

The height of mountain ranges is usually related to the thickness of crust. This results from the isostasy associated with orogeny (mountain formation). The crust is thickened by the compressive forces related to subduction or continental collision. The buoyancy of the crust forces it upwards, the forces of the collisional stress balanced by gravity and erosion. This forms a keel or mountain root beneath the mountain range, which is where the thickest crust is found. The thinnest continental crust is found in rift zones, where the crust is thinned by detachment faulting and eventually severed, replaced by oceanic crust. The edges of continental fragments formed this way (both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, for example) are termed passive margins.

The high temperatures and pressures at depth, often combined with a long history of complex distortion, cause much of the lower continental crust to be metamorphic – the main exception to this being recent igneous intrusions. Igneous rock may also be "underplated" to the underside of the crust, i.e. adding to the crust by forming a layer immediately beneath it.

Continental crust is produced and (far less often) destroyed mostly by plate tectonic processes, especially at convergent plate boundaries. Additionally, continental crustal material is transferred to oceanic crust by sedimentation. New material can be added to the continents by the partial melting of oceanic crust at subduction zones, causing the lighter material to rise as magma, forming volcanoes. Also, material can be accreted horizontally when volcanic island arcs, seamounts or similar structures collide with the side of the continent as a result of plate tectonic movements. Continental crust is also lost through erosion and sediment subduction, tectonic erosion of forearcs, delamination, and deep subduction of continental crust in collision zones. Many theories of crustal growth are controversial, including rates of crustal growth and recycling, whether the lower crust is recycled differently from the upper crust, and over how much of Earth history plate tectonics has operated and so could be the dominant mode of continental crust formation and destruction.

It is a matter of debate whether the amount of continental crust has been increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant over geological time. One model indicates that at prior to 3.7 Ga ago continental crust constituted less than 10% of the present amount. By 3.0 Ga ago the amount was about 25%, and following a period of rapid crustal evolution it was about 60% of the current amount by 2.6 Ga ago. The growth of continental crust appears to have occurred in spurts of increased activity corresponding to five episodes of increased production through geologic time.

title: Continental crust


text:
Pet Rock

Pet Rock was a collectible toy made in 1975 by advertising executive Gary Dahl. They were rocks packaged in custom cardboard boxes complete with ventilation holes and straw bedding imitating a pet carrier. The fad lasted about six months, ending after a short increase in sales during the Christmas season of December 1975. Although by February 1976 they were discounted due to lower sales, Dahl sold over one million Pet Rocks for $4 each, and became a millionaire.

With his money, Dahl opened a bar named "Carry Nations" (in reference to radical temperance advocate Carrie Nation) in downtown Los Gatos, California. Dahl continued to work in advertising; however, he avoided interviews for years. He has said this was because "a bunch of wackos" harassed him with lawsuits and threats.

Development
Gary Dahl came up with the idea in a bar while listening to his friends complain about their pets; this gave him the idea for the perfect "pet": a rock. A rock would not need to be fed, walked, bathed, or groomed, and it would not die, become sick, or be disobedient. Dahl said that they were to be the perfect pets and joked about it with his friends. Dahl took his "pet" idea seriously, however, and drafted an instruction manual for a pet rock. The manual was full of puns and gags that referred to the rock as an actual pet.

Dahl's biggest expense was the die-cutting and manufacture of the boxes. The rocks cost only one cent each, and the straw was nearly free. For the initial run of booklets, Dahl had a printing job for a client, and "tacked" the pet rock booklet onto the main job. This resulted in a batch requiring only a cut and trim, at almost no cost to him.

Training manual
A 32-page official training manual titled The Care and Training of Your Pet Rock was included, with instructions on how to properly raise and care for one's new Pet Rock (notably lacking instructions for feeding, bathing, changing, and so on). The instruction manual contained gags, puns and jokes, and listed several commands that could be taught to the new pet. While "sit" and "stay" were effortless to accomplish, "roll over" usually required a little extra help from the trainer. "Come," "stand" and "shake hands" were found to be near-impossible to teach; however, "attack" was fairly simple (with some help from the owner's force).

In popular culture

 * In episode seven of the third season of Arthur (1998), the titular character cannot find a store that stocks Woogles, a fad toy, and instead briefly plays with Rocky, his father's old Pet Rock.
 * Topic of conversation in the movie Office Space (1999).
 * In Spongebob Squarepants (Season 3 episode 27 aired in 2003), Patrick appears to have a Pet Rock named Rocky, in which he ended up putting in a snail race, resulting in Rocky winning at the end of the episode.
 * In My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic and the spin-off My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Rainbow Rocks, Maud Pie has a pet rock, named it Boulder.
 * Zoe from Sesame Street owns a pet rock called Rocco. A video of Elmo from Sesame Street shouting at Rocco went viral in early 2022.
 * A24 produced an official licensed Pet Rock as a tie-in for the film Everything Everywhere All at Once. This version of the Pet Rock has a pair of googly eyes attached in reference to a scene from that film. Also included are the straw bedding and instructions of the original, and a new version of the ventilated box printed with scenery from the film.
 * Otto acquires a Pet Rock in Minions: The Rise of Gru, released in 2022. He trades the zodiac stone for it, an integral point of the plot. To promote the film, Sabec Limited released an official Pet Rock game for Nintendo Switch and mobile phones. A Funko Pop of Otto with his Pet Rock was also released, as well as customisable Pet Rock plush.
 * In an episode of the animated series Bluey, Bandit Heeler adopts a rock he found in the park near a seesaw and named it Rodney. This angers his daughters, Bluey and Bingo, as well as friends Chloe, Coco and Snickers. Bandit further upsets the kids by picking up a smaller rock and telling Rodney "you can have your own pet rock".
 * In Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality, it is revealed that Harry Potter had a pet rock when he was younger, and that it had subsequently died. The book later sheds light on this incident.

title: Pet Rock


text:
Mood ring

A mood ring is a finger ring that contains a thermochromic element, or "mood stone", that changes colors based on the temperature of the finger of the wearer. Finger temperature, as long as the ambient temperature is relatively constant, is significantly determined by peripheral blood flow, which is modulated by the autonomic nervous system. A mood ring contains liquid crystals that change color depending on the temperature.

History
The idea to use thermosensitive elements in jewelry first arose from the American jeweler Marvin Wernick in 1974 after reading a magazine article about the use of liquid crystal elements in medical thermometers. He found a compound that changed color from black to green, blue and deep blue in the range of 32–38 °C and in January 1975 developed a technique for using it in pendants and rings. Sales began in February. Wernick called the jewelry "magical", and his promotional materials claimed that the color of the pendant or ring is an indicator of the warmth of the wearer's character. Since Wernick did not patent the invention, other jewelers adopted the idea and began to produce their thermosensitive jewelry. Soon someone came up with a successful term "mood ring", which was quickly adopted by all manufacturers, including Wernick.

An important producer of "mood rings" was Joshua Reynolds; some sources call him their inventor. Reynolds called the rings "a real biofeedback tool" that allows a person to get additional information about their body. In December 1975 the total value of the rings sold reached $15 million. However, in mid-December, the demand for rings suddenly fell as the market was oversaturated, and companies that did not have time to sell rings suffered losses. After a couple of years, "mood rings" went out of fashion.

title: Mood ring


text:
Na'aman River

The Na'aman (נחל נעמן, Nahal Na'aman) or Na'mein River (نهر النعامين, Nahr Na'mein) is a stream in northwestern Israel. To the ancient writers Pliny, Tacitus, and Josephus, it was known as the Belus (Latin) or Belos River (Βῆλος, Bē̂los) of Phoenicia.

Course
The Na'aman River originates from springs near Ein Afek (primarily Ein Nymphit) and flows through the Zebulun Valley from south to north before emptying into the Bay of Haifa (formerly Bay of Acre) south of Acre (Akko) on the Mediterranean Sea. It previously flowed directly south of Tel Akko (the site of ancient Acre) but has shifted over time to be about 800 m away.

The En Afek Nature Reserve near the Haifa Bay suburb of Kiryat Bialik, is the last remnant of the Nahal Na'aman wetlands.

History
Once known as Belus or Belos, the river is mentioned by Isidore of Seville. According to the legend, this is where glass-making was invented. Tacitus also mentions glassmaking at the Belus. Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 5.19), using the name 'Pacida', mentions that the river flowed from Lake Cendevia (now below Mount Carmel) for 5 mi to the sea near "Ptolemais Ace" (Acre, Israel), and that it was celebrated for its vitreous sands. The name is based on Baal.

title: Na'aman River


text: Talk:Joubiniteuthis portieri

title: Talk:Joubiniteuthis portieri


text:
Belus (Assyrian)

Belus or Belos in classical Greek or classical Latin texts (and later material based on them) in an Assyrian context refers to one or another purportedly ancient and historically mythical Assyrian king, such king in part at least a euhemerization of the Babylonian god Bel Marduk. It is likely that this Assyrian Belus should mostly not be distinguished from the euhemerized Babylonian Belus, but some chronographers make a distinction between them.

Father of Ninus
Belus most commonly appears as the father of Ninus, who otherwise mostly appears as the first known Assyrian king. Ctesias provides no information about Ninus' parentage. But already in Herodotus there is a Ninus son of Belus among the ancestors of the Heraclid dynasty of Lydia, though here Belus is strangely and uniquely made a grandson of Heracles. See Omphale for discussion.

Belus elsewhere is a vague, ancestral figure. It was suggested in The Two Babylons by Alexander Hislop that he was originally a conqueror who fathered king Ninus the first, and that after Ninus' death his wife Semiramis began to claim Ninus as a Sun god, Cush (Belus) as the Lord God, herself as the mother goddess and her son Tammuz as the god of love, in an effort to control her subjects better after the death of her husband, and to allow her to rule as her newborn son's regent.

Other mentions
Some versions of the tale of Adonis make Adonis the son of Theias or Thias the King of Assyria, who is the son of Belus.

Ovid's Metamorphoses (4.212f) speaks of King Orchamus who ruled the Achaemenid cities of Persia as the 7th in line from ancient Belus the founder. But no other extant sources mention either Orchamus or his daughters Leucothoe and Clytie.

Nonnus in his Dionysiaca (18.5f) brings in King Staphylus of Assyria and his son Botrys who entertain Dionysus, characters unknown elsewhere. Staphylus claims to be grandson of Belus.

Sibling
Diodorus Siculus (6.5.1) introduces the Roman god Picus (normally son of Saturn) as a king of Italy and calls him brother of Ninus (and therefore perhaps son of Belus).

Titanomachy
The odd connection between Picus and Ninus appears in John of Nikiû's Chronicle (6.2f) which relates that Cronus was the first king of Assyria and Persia, that he married an Assyrian woman named Rhea. They had two sons, Picus (who was also called Zeus), and Ninus who founded the city of Ninus (Nineveh). Cronus removed to Italy but was then slain by his son Zeus Picus because he devoured his children. Then Zeus became the father of Belus by his own sister. After the disappearance of Zeus Picus (who apparently reigned over both Italy and Assyria), Belus son of Zeus Picus succeeded to the throne in Assyria (later Faunus who is elsewhere always the son of Picus reigns in Italy before moving to Egypt and turning into Hermes Trismegistus father of Hephaestus). Upon the death of Belus, his uncle Ninus became king and then married his own mother who was previously called Rhea but is now reintroduced under the name of Semiramis. It is explained that from that time on this custom was maintained so that Persians allegedly thought nothing of taking a mother or sister or daughter as a wife. A fragment by Castor of Rhodes, preserved only in the Armenian translation of Eusebius of Caesarea, makes Belus king of Assyria at the time when Zeus and the other gods fought first the Titans and then the Giants. Castor says Belus was considered a god after his death, but that he does not know how many years Belus reigned.

Later accounts
Later historians and chronographers make no mention of such stories. They either do not mention Belus at all or accept him as father of Ninus. They also dispute as to whether the Biblical Nimrod was the same as Belus, the father of Belus or a more distant ancestor of Belus.

title: Belus (Assyrian)


text:
Talk:Martin

My Favorite Martian
Wasn't there an Uncle Martin in My favorite martian? M.e 03:53, 23 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Martin movie 2409:40F0:100:8D2C:CCF3:62A3:C714:C84C (talk) 15:30, 5 May 2024 (UTC)

Martins waiting in the wings
The following people whose family name is Martin are mentioned somewhere in Wikipedia but have not yet got their own articles:

It is found in central Uganda and is believed to be more than 700years old. He was assassinated on a Wednesday morning in 1945 while he had gone for morning prayer at Namirembe Cathedral as was his practice every morning. It is believed he was assassinated for giving away land on which the current Makerere University was built.212.88.103.198 10:56, 29 August 2007 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.88.103.198 (talk) 13:51, August 28, 2007 (UTC) -|l'KF'l| 23:18, Aug 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * Martin, Antonio (died 1994), Spanish cyclist
 * Martin, Christian, dramatist, author
 * Martin, Daniel, US governor
 * David Martin, the English politician
 * David Martin, a former governor-general of New South Wales
 * David Martin, a United States representative from New York
 * David Martin, associated with the Royal Academy of Music
 * Martin, Dewey, (born 1942), drummer
 * Martin, Gayle h., keyboardist
 * Martin, Jacques, French journalist and TV animator
 * Martin, Jim, a Muppeteer who worked on Sesame Street
 * Martin, Joseph, Pulitzer Prize winning reporter for the New York Daily News
 * Martin, Master, scholastic philosopher
 * Paul Martin, Member of Scottish Parliament
 * Paul Martin, Swiss Olympic Runner
 * Martin, Roland, host of American fishing show on Outdoor Life Network
 * [[Martin Luther NSIBIRWA (Katiikiro (Prime Minister)-former 2 time Prime Minister in the Buganda Kingdom.

 * Moved those with existing articles to article namespace. — Jeandré, 2005-08-27t17:46z

 * I would suggest adding them all. Seeing red links will likely encourage knowledgeable folks to fill out the articles themselves. Bastie 21:18, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Martin, John Alexander
10th Governor of Kansas,1884-1889. Secretary of Wyandotte Constitutional Convention 7/5/1895.

Splitting up
The surname Martin section is certainly large enough to warrant its own page. Also, I'd favour a single alphabetical list. Getting fancy with subdivision always has disadvantages, when people are looking without the assumed attribute information. Charles Matthews 16:18, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

Not true
I have never heard of a child being named after The Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King Jr. Velocicaptor 17:00, 16 September 2006 (UTC). I have - me! Martinj6523 09:19, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

ther is no history on the name or anything like that and I believe that if people visiting this page might want to know background info on the name and its origin

Martin Offiah... forballer
Could someone please correct the spelling of footballer? 75.212.132.47 23:26, 24 August 2007 (UTC)Mr. Not-A-Foorballer
 * Done. Someguy1221 23:32, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

Thank you. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Eire

 * M966.8 - Ruaidhri, son of Maelmartain, lord of Fotharta, was slain. Fergananim (talk) 03:49, 14 November 2010 (UTC)
 * M1055.3 - Maelmartan, son of Assidh, successor of Comhghall; Fergananim (talk) 09:12, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Martin


text:
User talk:Xoddf2

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Orphaned non-free media (Image:Seamonkey.png)
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IntelliStar
Do you happen to have a screenshot or know of where I can get a screen shot for the new lower display line on the IntelliStar that's being beta tested in Atlanta and Pittsburgh? Just curious... Figured I'd ask you, because you're the one who made the edit, heh... —TRAiNER4 (talk • contrib)  18:16, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

My user page
Thanks for reverting the vandalism to my page! Thanks also for updating the number. ;) – Zntrip 18:49, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Xoddf2