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Letterpress printing

Letterpress printing is a technique of relief printing for producing many copies by repeated direct impression of an inked, raised surface against individual sheets of paper or a continuous roll of paper. A worker composes and locks movable type into the "bed" or "chase" of a press, inks it, and presses paper against it to transfer the ink from the type, which creates an impression on the paper.

In practice, letterpress also includes wood engravings; photo-etched zinc plates ("cuts"); linoleum blocks, which can be used alongside metal type; wood type in a single operation; stereotypes; and electrotypes of type and blocks. With certain letterpress units, it is also possible to join movable type with slugs cast using hot metal typesetting. In theory, anything that is "type high" (i.e. it forms a layer exactly 0.918 inches thick between the bed and the paper) can be printed using letterpress.

Letterpress printing was the normal form of printing text from its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century through the 19th century, and remained in wide use for books and other uses until the second half of the 20th century. The development of offset printing in the early 20th century gradually supplanted its role in printing books and newspapers. More recently, letterpress printing has seen a revival in an artisanal form.

History

Movable type printing was first invented in China using ceramic type in AD 1040 during the Northern Song dynasty by the inventor Bi Sheng (990–1051).

Johannes Gutenberg is credited with the development in the West, in about 1440, of modern movable type printing from individually cast, reusable letters set together in a "forme" (frame or chase). Gutenberg also invented a wooden printing press, based on the extant wine press, where the type surface was inked with leather-covered ink balls and paper laid carefully on top by hand, then slid under a padded surface and pressure applied from above by a large threaded screw. It was Gutenberg's "screw press" or hand press that was used to print 180 copies of the Bible. At 1,282 pages, it took him and his staff of 20 almost 3 years to complete. 48 copies remain intact today. This form of presswork gradually replaced the hand-copied manuscripts of scribes and illuminators as the most prevalent form of printing. Printers' workshops, previously unknown in Europe before the mid-15th century, were found in every important metropolis by 1500. Later metal presses used a knuckle and lever arrangement instead of the screw, but the principle was the same. Ink rollers made of composition made inking faster and paved the way for further automation.

Industrialization
With the advent of industrial mechanisation, inking was carried out by rollers that passed over the face of the type, then moved out of the way onto an ink plate to pick up a fresh film of ink for the next sheet. Meanwhile, a sheet of paper slid against a hinged platen (see image), which then rapidly pressed onto the type and swung back again as the sheet was removed and the next sheet inserted. As the fresh sheet of paper replaced the printed paper, the now freshly inked rollers ran over the type again. Fully automated 20th-century presses, such as the Kluge and "Original" Heidelberg Platen (the "Windmill"), incorporated pneumatic sheet feed and delivery.

Rotary presses were used for high-speed work. In the oscillating press, the forme slid under a drum around which each sheet of paper was wrapped for the impression, sliding back under the inking rollers while the paper was removed and a new sheet inserted. In a newspaper press, a papier-mâché mixture called a flong was used to make a mould of the entire form of type, then dried and bent, and a curved metal stereotype plate cast against it. The plates were clipped to a rotating drum and could print against a continuous reel of paper at the enormously high speeds required for overnight newspaper production. This invention helped aid the high demand for knowledge during this time period.

Canada
Letterpress printing was introduced in Canada in 1752 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, by John Bushell in the newspaper format. This paper was named the Halifax Gazette and became Canada's first newspaper. Bushell apprenticed under Bartholomew Green in Boston. Green moved to Halifax in 1751 in hopes of starting a newspaper, as there had never been one in the area. Two weeks and a day after the press he was going to use for this new project arrived in Halifax, Green died. Upon receiving word about what happened, Bushell moved to Halifax and continued what Green had started. The Halifax Gazette was first published on March 23, 1752, making Bushell the first letterpress printer in any of the areas that later became Canada. There is only one known surviving copy of the first number, which was found in the Massachusetts Historical Society.

United States
One of the first forms of letterpress printing in the United States was Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick started by Benjamin Harris. This was the first form of a newspaper with multiple pages in the Americas. The first publication of Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick was September 25, 1690.

Revival and rise of craft letterpress
Letterpress started to become largely out-of-date in the 1970s because of the rise of computers and new self-publishing print and publish methods. Many printing establishments went out of business from the 1980s to 1990s and sold their equipment after computers replaced letterpress's abilities more efficiently. These commercial print shops discarded presses, making them affordable and available to artisans throughout the country. Popular presses include, in particular, Vandercook cylinder proof presses and Chandler & Price platen presses. In the UK there is particular affection for the Arab press, built by Josiah Wade in Halifax. Letterpress recently has had a rebirth in popularity because of the "allure of hand-set type" and the differences today between traditional letterpress and computerized printed text. Letterpress is unique and different from standard printing formats that we are currently used to. Letterpress commonly features a relief impression of the type, although this was considered bad printing in traditional letterpress. Letterpress's goal before the recent revival of letterpress was to not show any impression. The type touched the paper slightly to leave a transfer of ink, but did not leave an impression. This is often referred to as "the kiss". An example of this former technique would be newspapers. Some letterpress practitioners today have the distinct goal of showing the impression of type, to distinctly note that it is letterpress, but many printers choose to maintain the integrity of the traditional methods. Printing with too much impression is destructive to both the machines and to the type. Since its revival letterpress has largely been used for fine art and stationery as its traditional use for newspaper printing is no longer relevant for use.

Letterpress is considered a craft as it involves using a skill and is done by hand. Fine letterpress work is crisper than offset litho because of its impression into the paper, giving greater visual definition to the type and artwork, although it is not what letterpress traditionally was meant for. Today, many of these small letterpress shops survive by printing fine editions of books or by printing upscale invitations, stationery, and greeting cards. These methods often use presses that require the press operator to feed paper one sheet at a time by hand. Today, the juxtaposition of this technique and offbeat humor for greeting cards has been proven by letterpress shops to be marketable to independent boutiques and gift shops. Some of these printmakers are just as likely to use new printing methods as old, for instance by printing using photopolymer plates on restored vintage presses.

Evidence of the range and strength of contemporary letterpress printing across North America was documented in The Itinerant Printer, a 320-page book with 1,500 color photos by Christopher Fritton. From 2015 - 2017 Fritton, a poet, printer, and artist, crisscrossed the United States and Canada traveling 47,000 miles as a “tramp printer” visiting 137 presses, recording his impressions of each studio and documenting the proprietors and their work. A full set of prints and postcards from his travels while researching the book is in the collection of the Library of Congress. Included in many libraries, the book was the subject of Fritton's talks at a Buffalo, New York TED (conference), at the Library of Congress, and at the Los Angeles Printers Fair 2018.

Martha Stewart's influence
Letterpress publishing has recently undergone a revival in the US, Canada, and the UK, under the general banner of the "Small Press Movement". Renewed interest in letterpress was fueled by Martha Stewart Weddings magazine, which began using pictures of letterpress invitations in the 1990s. In 2004 they state "Great care is taken in choosing the perfect wedding stationery – couples ponder details from the level of formality to the flourishes of the typeface. The method of printing should be no less important, as it can enliven the design exquisitely. That is certainly the case with letterpress." In regards to having printed letterpress invitations, the beauty and texture became appealing to couples who began wanting letterpress invitations instead of engraved, thermographed, or offset-printed invitations.

Education
The movement has been helped by the emergence of a number of organizations that teach letterpress such as Columbia College Chicago's Center for Book and Paper Arts, Art Center College of Design and Armory Center for the Arts both in Pasadena, Calif., New York's Center for Book Arts, Studio on the Square and The Arm NYC, the Wells College Book Arts Center in Aurora, New York, the San Francisco Center for the Book, Bookworks, Seattle's School of Visual Concepts, Olympia's The Evergreen State College, Black Rock Press, North Carolina State University, Washington, D.C.'s Corcoran College of Art and Design, Penland School of Crafts, the Minnesota Center for Book Arts, the International Printing Museum in Carson, CA, Western Washington University in Bellingham, WA, Old Dominion University in Norfolk, VA, and the Bowehouse Press at VCU in Richmond, VA.

Economical materials
Affordable copper, magnesium and photopolymer platemakers and milled aluminum bases have allowed letterpress printers to produce type and images derived from digital artwork, fonts and scans. Economical plates have encouraged the rise of "digital letterpress" in the 21st century, allowing a small number of firms to flourish commercially and enabling a larger number of boutique and hobby printers to avoid the limitations and complications of acquiring and composing metal type. At the same time there has been a renaissance in small-scale type foundries to produce new metal type on Monotype equipment, Thompson casters and the original American Type Founders machines.

Process
The process of letterpress printing consists of several stages: composition, imposition and lock-up, and printing. In a small shop, all would occur in a single room, whereas in larger printing plants, such as with urban newspapers and magazines, each might form a distinct department with its own room, or even floor.

Composition

Composition, or typesetting, is the stage where pieces of movable type are assembled to form the desired text. The person charged with composition is called a "compositor" or "typesetter", setting letter by letter and line by line.

Traditionally, as in manual composition, it involves selecting the individual type letters from a type case, placing them in a composing stick, which holds several lines, then transferring those to a larger type galley. By this method the compositor gradually builds out the text of an individual page letter by letter. In mechanical typesetting, it may involve using a keyboard to select the type, or even cast the desired type on the spot, as in hot metal typesetting, which are then added to a galley designed for the product of that process. The first keyboard-actuated typesetting machines to be widely accepted, the Linotype and the Monotype, were introduced in the 1890s.

The Ludlow Typograph Machine, for casting of type-high slugs from hand-gathered brass matrices, was first manufactured in Chicago in 1912 and was widely used until the 1980s. Many are still in use and although no longer manufactured, service and parts are still available for them.

The Elrod machine, invented in 1920, casts strip material from molten metal; leads and slugs that are not type-high (do not print) used for spacing between lines and to fill blank areas of the type page.

After a galley is assembled to fill a page's worth of type, the type is tied together into a single unit so that it may be transported without falling apart. From this bundle a galley proof is made, which is inspected by a proof-reader to make sure that the particular page is accurate.

Imposition

Broadly, imposition or imposing is the process by which the tied assemblages of type are converted into a form (or forme) ready to use on the press. A person charged with imposition is a stoneman or stonehand, doing their work on a large, flat imposition stone (though some later ones were instead made of iron).

In the more specific modern sense, imposition is the technique of arranging the various pages of type with respect to one another. Depending on page size and the sheet of paper used, several pages may be printed at once on a single sheet. After printing, these are cut and trimmed before folding or binding. In these steps, the imposition process ensures that the pages face the right direction and in the right order with the correct margins.

Low-height pieces of wood or metal furniture are added to make up the blank areas of a page. The printer uses a mallet to strike a wooden block, which ensures tops (and only the tops) of the raised type blocks are all aligned so they will contact a flat sheet of paper simultaneously.

Lock-up is the final step before printing. The printer removes the cords that hold the type together, and expands the quoins with a key or lever to lock the entire complex of type, blocks, furniture, and chase (frame) into place. This creates the final forme, which the printer takes to the printing press. In a newspaper setting, each page needs a truck to be transported – 2 pages need 2 trucks hence the term double truck. The first copy is proofed again for errors before starting the printing run.

Printing
The working of the printing process depends on the type of press used, as well as any of its associated technologies (which varied by time period).

Hand presses generally required two people to operate them: one to ink the type, the other to work the press. Later mechanized jobbing presses require a single operator to feed and remove the paper, as the inking and pressing are done automatically.

The completed sheets are then taken to dry and for finishing, depending on the variety of printed matter being produced. With newspapers, they are taken to a folding machine. Sheets for books are sent for bookbinding.

The output of traditional letterpress printing can be distinguished from that of a digital printer by its debossed lettering or imagery. A traditional letterpress printer made a heavy impression into the stock and producing any indentation at all into the paper would have resulted in the print run being rejected. Part of the skill of operating a traditional letterpress printer was to adjust the machine pressures just right so that the type just kissed the paper, transferring the minimum amount of ink to create the crispest print with no indentation. This was very important as when the print exited the machine and was stacked having too much wet ink and an indentation would have increased the risk of set-off (ink passing from the front of one sheet onto the back of the next sheet on the stack).

Photopolymer plates
The letterpress printing process remained virtually unchanged until the 1950s when it was replaced with the more efficient and commercially viable offset printing process. The labor-intensive nature of the typesetting and need to store vast amounts of lead or wooden type resulted in the letterpress printing process falling out of favour.

In the 1980s dedicated letterpress practitioners revived the old craft by embracing a new manufacturing method which allowed them to create raised surface printing plates from a negative and a photopolymer plate.

Photopolymer plates are light sensitive. On one side the surface is cured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light and the other side is a metal or plastic backing that can be mounted on a base. The relief printing surface is created by placing a negative of the piece to be printed on the photosensitive side of the plate; the light passing through the clear regions of the negative causes the photopolymer to harden. The unexposed areas remain soft and can be washed away with water.

With these new printing plates, designers were no longer inhibited by the limitations of handset wooden or lead type. New design possibilities emerged and the letterpress printing process experienced a revival. Today it is in high demand for wedding stationery however there are limitations to what can be printed and designers must adhere to some design for letterpress principles.

Variants on the letterpress
The invention of ultra-violet curing inks has helped keep the rotary letterpress alive in areas like self-adhesive labels. There is also still a large amount of flexographic printing, a similar process, which uses rubber plates to print on curved or awkward surfaces, and a lesser amount of relief printing from huge wooden letters for lower-quality poster work.

Rotary letterpress machines are still used on a wide scale for printing self-adhesive and non-self-adhesive labels, tube laminate, cup stock, etc. The printing quality achieved by a modern letterpress machine with UV curing is on par with flexo presses. It is more convenient and user friendly than a flexo press. It uses water-wash photopolymer plates, which are as good as any solvent-washed flexo plate. Today even CtP (computer-to-plate) plates are available making it a full-fledged, modern printing process. Because there is no anilox roller in the process, the make-ready time also goes down when compared to a flexo press. Inking is controlled by keys very much similar to an offset press. UV inks for letterpress are in paste form, unlike flexo. Various manufacturers produce UV rotary letterpress machines, viz. Dashen, Nickel, Taiyo Kikai, KoPack, Gallus, etc. – and offer hot/cold foil stamping, rotary die cutting, flatbed die cutting, sheeting, rotary screen printing, adhesive side printing, and inkjet numbering. Central impression presses are more popular than inline presses due to their ease of registration and simple design. Printing of up to nine colours plus varnish is possible with various online converting processes. But as the letterpress machines are the same like a decade before, they can furthermore only be used with one colour of choice simultaneously. If there are more colours needed, they have to be exchanged one after the other.

Craftsmanship
Letterpress can produce work of high quality at high speed, but it requires much time to adjust the press for varying thicknesses of type, engravings, and plates called makeready. The process requires a high degree of craftsmanship. It is used by many small presses that produce fine, handmade, limited-edition books, artists' books, and high-end ephemera such as greeting cards and broadsides. Because of the time needed to make letterpress plates and to prepare the press, setting type by hand has become less common with the invention of the photopolymer plate, a photosensitive plastic sheet that can be mounted on metal to bring it up to type high.

To bring out the best attributes of letterpress, printers must understand the capabilities and advantages of the medium. For instance, since most letterpress equipment prints only one color at a time, printing multiple colors requires a separate press run in register with the preceding color. When offset printing arrived in the 1950s, it cost less, and made the color process easier. The inking system on letterpress equipment is the same as offset presses, posing problems for some graphics. Detailed, white (or "knocked out") areas, such as small, serif type, or very fine halftone surrounded by fields of color can fill in with ink and lose definition if rollers are not adjusted correctly.

Current initiatives

Several dozen colleges and universities around the United States have either begun or re-activated programs teaching letterpress printing in fully equipped facilities. In many cases these letterpress shops are affiliated with the college's library or art department, and in others they are independent, student-run operations or extracurricular activities sponsored by the college. The College & University Letterpress Printers' Association (CULPA) was founded in 2006 by Abigail Uhteg at the Maryland Institute College of Art to help these schools stay connected and share resources. Many universities offer degree programs such as: Oregon College of Art and Craft, Southwest School of Art, Middle Tennessee State University, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Indiana University, Miami University, Corcoran College of Art and Design, and Rochester Institute of Technology.

The current renaissance of letterpress printing has created a crop of hobby press shops that are owner-operated and driven by a love of the craft. Several larger printers have added an environmental component to the venerable art by using only wind-generated electricity to drive their presses and plant equipment. Notably, a few small boutique letterpress shops are using only solar power.

In Berkeley, California, letterpress printer and lithographer David Lance Goines maintains a studio with a variety of platen and cylinder letterpresses as well as lithography presses. He has drawn attention both from commercial printers and fine artists for his wide knowledge and meticulous skill with letterpress printing. He collaborated with restaurateur and free speech activist Alice Waters, the owner of Chez Panisse, on her book 30 Recipes Suitable for Framing. He has created strikingly colorful large posters for such Bay Area businesses and institutions as Acme Bread and UC Berkeley. Another Berkeley letterpress printer is Peter Rutledge Koch, who focuses on artist books and small published books.

In London, St Bride Library houses a large collection of letterpress information in its collection of 50,000 books: all the classic works on printing technique, visual style, typography, graphic design, calligraphy and more. This is one of the world's foremost collections and is located off Fleet Street in the heart of London's old printing and publishing district. In addition, regular talks, conferences, exhibitions and demonstrations take place.

The St Bride Institute, Edinburgh College of Art, Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, The Arts University Bournemouth, Plymouth University, University for the Creative Arts Farnham, London College of Communication and Camberwell College of the Arts London run short courses in letterpress as well as offering these facilities as part of their Graphic Design Degree Courses.

The Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum in Two Rivers, Wisconsin, houses one of the largest collections of wood type and wood cuts in the world inside one of the Hamilton Manufacturing Company's factory buildings. Also included are presses and vintage prints. The museum holds many workshops and conferences throughout the year and regularly welcomes groups of students from universities from across the United States.

In 2015, the New York Times reported a renaissance of letterpress printing as an art form.

Videos

 * Heidelberg Windmill Letterpress Printing demo
 * Firefly Press demo
 * Chandler and Price 10 x 15 letterpress demo

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John Tortorella

John Tortorella (born June 24, 1958) is an American professional ice hockey coach and former player who is the head coach for the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Tortorella was previously the head coach of the NHL's Columbus Blue Jackets, New York Rangers, Tampa Bay Lightning, and Vancouver Canucks. He led Tampa Bay to the 2004 Stanley Cup championship.

He is the first American-born NHL coach to reach 500 wins and as of the end of the 2023–24 he is ninth all-time in wins with 742. He has twice won the Jack Adams Award as the NHL's top coach.

Tortorella is well known for his outspoken and sometimes confrontational nature, which has included criticizing his own players and members of the media. Tortorella is also known for his system of regularly rotating goaltending duties during his time in Tampa Bay, a system which was discontinued when he became head coach of the New York Rangers and used Henrik Lundqvist as the regular starting goalie. This system returned in the 2019–20 NHL season with the Columbus Blue Jackets, with the emergence of Joonas Korpisalo and Elvis Merzļikins as the goaltender tandem.

Playing career
Tortorella attended Concord-Carlisle High School in Concord, Massachusetts, and he is listed on the school's athletic Hall of Fame wall (1976). John's brother, Jim, a goaltender, is also listed on the wall.

Nicknamed "The Paper Italian", Tortorella played right wing for three years (1978–1981) at the University of Maine. While at Maine, he played with his brother Jim, who later became assistant coach for the Harvard Crimson.

After college, Tortorella went to Sweden to play a year on Kristianstads IK (1981–1982). After his season in Sweden, he came back to the United States to play four years of minor professional ice hockey (1982–1986) in the Atlantic Coast Hockey League (ACHL). During these years, he played for the Hampton Roads Gulls, Erie Golden Blades and the Virginia Lancers. Tortorella never played a game in the NHL.

ECHL and AHL teams
Tortorella's coaching career began with the American Hockey League (AHL)'s Rochester Americans and the East Coast Hockey League (ECHL)'s Virginia Lancers. He won the Calder Cup with the 1996 Rochester Americans.

Tortorella has been credited by ECHL founders Henry Brabham and Bill Coffey for coming up with the name for the league during a meeting at a Ramada Inn in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. At the time, Tortorella was the head coach of Brabham's Virginia Lancers, but he left the Lancers to become the assistant coach of the American Hockey League (AHL)'s New Haven Nighthawks before the ECHL's inaugural season in 1988.

Tampa Bay Lightning
Tortorella took over the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2000–01 as a midseason head coach replacement. He inherited a team that had been among the dregs of the league for four years, having lost 50 games or more in every season during that time. The team won only 12 of its last 43 games under his watch, finishing last in the division. The following season, the team finished well out of playoff contention despite finishing third in the Southeast Division. However, they showed signs of life for the first time in five years, cracking the 60-point barrier for the first time since 1996–97.

The 2002–03 season marked Tortorella's first winning season as an NHL head coach, as the Lightning won their first Southeast Division title, losing to the New Jersey Devils four games to one in the second round of the 2003 playoffs. At the end of the season he was also recognized as a finalist for the Jack Adams Award as coach of the year, losing out to Minnesota's Jacques Lemaire.

In 2003–04, Tortorella's fourth season with the team, the Lightning ran away with the Southeast Division title, tallying 106 points—the second-best record in the league. The Lightning were the top seed in the Eastern Conference and proceeded to defeat the New York Islanders, the Montreal Canadiens, and the Philadelphia Flyers to win the Prince of Wales Trophy. In the 2004 Stanley Cup Finals, they defeated the Western Conference champion Calgary Flames four games to three, winning the first Stanley Cup in franchise history. In doing so Tortorella became just the third American-born coach to win it and the first in 13 years. The team was in its eleventh year of existence. It was the last Stanley Cup won before the 2004–05 NHL lockout. A few days after winning the Stanley Cup, Tortorella won the 2004 Jack Adams Award as coach of the year.

Before the start of the 2005–06 season – the NHL's first post-lockout campaign – Tampa Bay's starting goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin left the team due to the newly implemented salary cap restrictions. Tortorella was hard on Lightning goaltender John Grahame for much of the 2005–06.

Grahame subsequently signed with the Carolina Hurricanes before the start of the 2006–07 season. Despite the Lightning winning a 2nd-team best 44 games in 2006–07, the Lightning were unable to defend their division title.

On March 11, 2008, with the Lightning defeat of the New York Islanders, Tortorella passed Bob Johnson as the most successful American-born NHL coach with 235 victories.

After getting fired by the Lightning in the 2008 off-season, Tortorella was an in-studio panelist on the NHL on TSN. During this time, on November 7, 2008, Peter Laviolette would overtake his victory total for an American coach.

New York Rangers
Tortorella was named head coach of the New York Rangers on February 23, 2009, replacing Tom Renney, who was relieved of his duties earlier that day. On March 17, he again became the American-born coach with the most wins in NHL history, this time surpassing Laviolette. Tortorella was suspended one game by the NHL for an altercation with several Capitals fans behind the bench in the third period of Game 5 in the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs. Replays show a fan clearly heckling Tortorella, before Tortorella responded by throwing a water bottle at a fan and then grabbing a stick from Aaron Voros and trying to spear the fan through a space between two panes of glass. He did not receive a penalty on the play despite the fact that NHL rules state any physical altercation with fans results in ejection from the game; however, the next day the NHL suspended him.

When Laviolette became coach of the Philadelphia Flyers in 2009, the rivalry between the two teams became further heated with Tortorella and Laviolette being the winningest U.S.-born coaches in NHL history. On November 20, 2010, Tortorella became the first American-born coach to reach 300 NHL victories when the Rangers defeated the Minnesota Wild.

In the 2011–12 season he guided the Rangers to the franchise's third ever 50-win season and the best record in the Eastern Conference with a total of 51–24–7 for 109 points. New York lost in the Conference Finals however, to the New Jersey Devils in six games. At season's end, Tortorella became a finalist for the Jack Adams Award for a third time, losing to Ken Hitchcock of the St. Louis Blues.

On March 26, 2013, with a 5–2 defeat of Laviolette's Flyers, Tortorella became the first U.S.-born coach to reach 400 career victories.

The Rangers fired Tortorella on May 29, 2013, four days after New York was eliminated from the second round of the Stanley Cup playoffs by the Boston Bruins.

Vancouver Canucks
The Vancouver Canucks announced Tortorella as the team's new coach on June 25, 2013. He replaced Alain Vigneault, who coincidentally had been hired by the Rangers to replace Tortorella.

Tortorella earned his first victory with the Canucks against the Edmonton Oilers on October 5, 2013, with a final score of 6–2.

During the first intermission of a game on January 18, 2014, Tortorella entered the Calgary Flames dressing room area in an apparent attempt to confront Flames coach Bob Hartley; after a line brawl in the opening seconds of the 1st period, Tortorella angrily attempted to confront Hartley, accusing him of starting a lineup with intent to injure a star Canuck player. Tortorella had to be physically restrained by several players and coaches. The NHL subsequently suspended him for 15 days without pay, barring him from being in contact with the team during his suspension. Canucks assistant coach Mike Sullivan took over the head coaching job during Tortorella's suspension.

On March 2, 2014, Tortorella sparked controversy when he chose to start Eddie Läck in the 2014 Heritage Classic held in Vancouver over Roberto Luongo Luongo was openly disappointed and was traded two days later.

He lived full-time in Point Roberts, Washington instead of in Vancouver. Tortorella was criticized by his players for the inadequate amount of practice days, of which he would drive in for a brief appearance, then leave his assistants to handle everything else before returning home. This arrangement frustrated general manager Mike Gillis who had a bed built into Tortorella's office so he could take naps there instead of driving home.

Tortorella's tenure with the Canucks would last only a single season, as the team missed the playoffs for the first time since 2008. On May 1, 2014, Tortorella and assistant coach Mike Sullivan were fired as part of a management overhaul that had also seen General Manager Mike Gillis let go several weeks prior.

Columbus Blue Jackets
On October 21, 2015, Tortorella was hired to replace Todd Richards as the Columbus Blue Jackets' head coach, after the Blue Jackets started the 2015–16 season with a 0–7–0 record. As compensation for hiring Tortorella, the Vancouver Canucks received the 55th overall pick (used to select Jonah Gadjovich) in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft from the Blue Jackets. On March 19, 2016, the Blue Jackets faced the New Jersey Devils and Tortorella became the 26th head coach in NHL history, and the first born in the United States, to coach 1,000 games.

On December 18, 2016, the Blue Jackets defeated the Canucks in overtime 4–3, making Tortorella the first American-born coach with 500 victories. His success in the 2016-17 NHL season resulted in his second Jack Adams Award.

On January 10, 2019, Tortorella became the first American-born coach, and 19th overall, to reach 600 victories when the Blue Jackets defeated the Nashville Predators. In the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs, Tortorella's Blue Jackets won their first playoff series in franchise history by eliminating his old team, the Tampa Bay Lightning; also being the first time that the Presidents' Trophy-winning team failed to win any playoff game despite the Lightning matching the record of 62 regular season wins.

On January 2, 2020, Tortorella was fined $20,000 by the NHL for negative comments he made about the on-ice officials on December 29, 2019, after they mishandled the clock in overtime, causing the Blue Jackets to lose 3–2 against the Chicago Blackhawks. The NHL required Tortorella to refrain from similar behavior for the remainder of the year or be fined $25,000; however, on August 25, 2020, Tortorella was fined an additional $25,000 for his actions during virtual media availability following the Blue Jackets' elimination from the playoff bubble by the eventual champion Tampa Bay Lightning. In spite of the controversy, he was named a Jack Adams finalist for the second time as Blue Jackets coach and fifth overall.

On May 9, 2021, Tortorella agreed to mutually part ways with the Blue Jackets after the expiration of his contract. Tortorella finished his tenure with the Blue Jackets with the most wins of any head coach in franchise history.

Philadelphia Flyers
Tortorella was named the head coach of the Philadelphia Flyers on June 17, 2022. On December 29, 2023, Tortorella coached his 1,500th NHL regular season game becoming the eighth head coach in NHL history, and the first American-born coach to reach the mark.

On March 9, 2024, Tortorella was ejected from a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning following a verbal dispute with referees Wes McCauley and Brandon Schrader. Despite this, Tortorella stalled and stayed on the Flyers bench for several minutes, continuing his altercation with McCauley and Schrader before eventually leaving. The following day, Tortorella was suspended for two games and was fined $50,000.

United States national men's team
Tortorella was the assistant coach of the United States men's national ice hockey team in 2008–2009, replacing Peter Laviolette, which included leading the squad at the 2008 IIHF World Championship, where they finished sixth.

Tortorella was tapped to coach Team USA at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey. In the lead-up to the tournament, he said he would "sit" any player who protests during the playing of the national anthem. The team ultimately failed to make it out of the group stage, losing all three games.

Head coaching record
* – Mid-season replacement

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title: John Tortorella


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Blackhouse

A blackhouse (teach dubh ; t(a)igh-dubh ) is a traditional type of house which used to be common in Ireland, the Hebrides, and the Scottish Highlands.

Origin of the name
The origin of the name blackhouse is of some debate. On the Isle of Lewis, in particular, it seems to have been used to distinguish the older blackhouses from some of the newer white-houses (teach bán, teach geal ; taigh-geal ), with their harled (rendered) stone walls. There may also be some confusion arising from the phonetic similarity between the dubh, meaning black, and tughadh, meaning thatch.

Description
The buildings were generally built with double wall dry-stone walls packed with earth, and were roofed with wooden rafters covered with a thatch of turf with cereal straw or reed. The floor was generally flagstones or packed earth and there was a central hearth for the fire. There was no chimney for the smoke to escape through. Instead the smoke made its way through the roof. This led to the soot blackening of the interior which may also have contributed to the adoption of the name blackhouse.

The blackhouse was used to accommodate livestock as well as people. People lived at one end and the animals lived at the other with a partition between them.

Lewis blackhouse

Although the Lewis blackhouses have a look of real antiquity, most of the upstanding ruins were built less than 150 years ago. Many were still roofed until the 1970s but without the necessary annual repairs deteriorated rapidly; as people moved into more modern dwellings with indoor plumbing and better heating, most have fallen into ruin. However, blackhouses are increasingly being restored, especially for use as holiday accommodation.

The blackhouses on Lewis have roofs thatched with cereal straw over turf and thick, stone-lined walls with an earthen core. Roof timbers rise from the inner face of the walls providing a characteristic ledge at the wall head (tobhta). This gives access to the roof for thatching. Both the animals and occupants shared the same door, living at different ends of the same space. Several long ranges, or rooms, were usually built alongside each other, each one having its own ridgeline giving them the very distinctive look of the Lewis blackhouse.

The immediate origins of the blackhouse are unclear as few pre-eighteenth century examples have ever been excavated. One reason for this is that, unlike their later counterparts, the early examples may have been made of turf and thatch and quickly returned to the earth once abandoned. As one of the most primitive forms of the North Atlantic longhouse tradition it is very probable that the roots of the blackhouse, in which cattle and humans shared the same roof, is well over 1000 years old. The Lewis examples have clearly been modified to survive in the tough environment of the Outer Hebrides. Low rounded roofs, elaborately roped, were developed to resist the strong Atlantic winds and thick walls to provide insulation and to support the sideways forces of the short driftwood roof timbers.

title: Blackhouse


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Online poker

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Online poker.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to keep the rewritten article, located at online poker.

List of commercial poker sites. ElBenevolente 02:35, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Please give a reason for deletion,
 * Delete. Ad.  RickK 02:36, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Nonsense. The list is of all different commercial entities that compete with each other. It is patently not an ad. The number of comparisons that can be made with other lists are huge. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:51, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Yuck. Like there aren't enough advertisements for online gambling already? Isomorphic 03:12, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Deletion because you have an anti-gambling POV is not an option. As above this is no more ad-dy than a lot of other lists. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:51, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Yuck, yuck. We don't need to encourage the spread of the all ready too large online gambling sector. Delete. DO'Neil 07:12, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Deletion because you have an anti-gambling POV is not an option. That you even think this is a valid reason makes me go "Yuck". Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:51, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I created this page, not for advertisement, but for comparison. I never got around to completing it, and no one else seems to care; so if people want it deleted I have no objection. Delete. Vik Reykja 07:24, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Vik, sites go out of business and others pop up. Wikipedia is not a links repository. JFW | T@lk  23:19, 18 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Point taken, I offer my apologies. Those in power, please delete that page. Vik Reykja 10:32, 19 May 2004 (UTC)
 * The sites on that list are all the long established ones (i.e. established before the dot-com boom) and are stable. Maintenance of this page would be no more difficult than tens of thousands of other pages. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:51, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Or at the very least merge into an online poker article. Poker online has boomed massively recently and has had a huge impact on "real life" poker in terms of booming tv coverage and sponsorship. I will update to avoid the link repositry charge. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:51, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I moved the list and wrote at a new article at online poker. Previous votes should be considered void until the original voter sees the new article and comments again. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 13:15, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I added to the new online poker page, which is certainly an appropriate topic in a fleshed out state.

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Renault 7

The Renault 7 (or "R7") is a 4-door saloon version of the Renault 5 supermini, produced and sold in Spain by Renault's subsidiary, FASA-Renault from 1974 to 1984.

It was very similar to the R5 hatchback (which had been launched two years earlier), and identical mechanically, but offered with a smaller range of engines. The R7 had four doors and a saloon-style boot in place of the original car's three (and later five) doors including hatchback. This involved extending the wheelbase by just under 6 cm though it retained the wheelbase difference between left and right sides, characteristic of several Renault models, resulting from the use of full-width torsion bars placed one behind the other, ahead of the rear wheels.

Another difference between the Renault 7 and the 5 was the use, on the 7, of 'conventional' chromed metal bumpers instead of off-body colour plastic ones, giving the car a more refined appearance. Initially powered by a 1037 cc engine, it was mostly sold in Spain. A total 159,533 units were produced; its success outside its home market was limited because Renault offered the larger Renault 12 for a small price premium.

The R7 was introduced two years after the launch of the R5, then restyled in 1979, followed by an engine upgrade to 1108 cc in 1980. Its production ended in 1984, after the R9 entered the worldwide market. A five-door version of the R5 was launched in 1980 using the door pattern of the Spanish R7. In 1984, the R5 had been substantially redesigned (now based on the R9/R11 floorpan) and R7 sales did not justify the investment necessary to develop a new version of the R7.

title: Renault 7


text:
User talk:Xiao Fei

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia. I'm glad to see another contributor to articles on mathematics, especially if you can continue to add good graphics. Michael Hardy 02:38, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Xiao Fei


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Talk:Yuuzhan Vong

Appearance
I have yet to see a description of the Yuuzhan Vong. V_V; What do they look like?! (P.S.: I have not read any EU stuff, so all my knowledge is from the Wiki. I'd do it if I knew what they looked like.) -- 64.254.203.123 07:06, 11 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Replies

http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Yuuzhan_Vong what they look like

Casualties
One thing that struck me was the frightenly high number of people that died in the war. 360 trillion people. It's so high as to be almost uncomprehensible. -- JesseG 02:38, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah, most were civilians. -- JediMaster16 01:31, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't mean to downplay what happened to Alderaan, which was simply evil to kill all those billions of people at once. But it was almost literally a drop in the bucket compared to the number of people killed in the war. -- JesseG 03:28, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Maybe there should be a page for the biggest number of casualties in a sci-fi conflict? -- pomegranate 21:48, Sep 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * I've started a page called Sci-Fi Conflict Casualties for those conflicts that had huge number of casualties. Would anyone know what the final death toll was in the Dominion War in the Star Trek universe?  I know 800 million Cardassians died when the Jem Ha'Dar turned against them, but I don't know how many more died besides that.  What about the Romulan War of 2161?  Or Independance Day?  If people could add to that I'd appreciate it. -- JesseG 18:56, Sep 23, 2004 (UTC)

 * You have to keep in mind that the number of deaths in this conflict is so large because it is GALAXY wide, i mean, just put your mind around that......an entire GALAXY divied in two.

 * Don't be Sad, its not real :-)

 * I would now like to know- Approximately how many Earth-type worlds are estimated to occupy the Star Wars Galaxy?
 * According to Matthew Stover's "Shatterpoint," there are at least 1.1 million habitable planets in the Republic alone. (The actual passage was something like: "The Republic army has 1.2 million clone troopers, enough to put a lone trooper on every planet in the Republic and have only a handful of thousands remaining.") Add to that the several thousand (approx) worlds in the CIS during the Clone Wars, plus worlds not involved either way, and I think an estimate of 1.2-1.5 million planets is absolutely reasonable. BinaryTed 19:25, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

Also, since Cloning appears to have been well-established in the SW Galaxy, will many have been cloned back to life?

--Shultz 06:07, 11 November 2005 (UTC) (Please reply to my User Talk page, as well as here. Thank you.)

 * When you clone someone it only clones their body, not their memories or thoughts. So, a clone of, say, Han Solo, would just look like him but not actually be Han Solo. The Emperor was only able to transfer his consciousness to his hosts through use of the dark side.Atinoda 20:29, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Cloning has been established as possible, but neither practical or heavily used. Indeed, the only two major cloning projects that have ever been mentioned would be the clong army of the Republic and Thrawn's clone army (who was, actually, able to make it practical).  While there has been the odd cloning project (eg, Hand of Thrawn: Thrawn clone), it happens so rarely that it would be false to assume that people will just be cloned back to life. Forgottenlord 19:16, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Isn't there something called "flash learning" to imprint the original's brain patterns on a clone? Something like that was mentioned in the Hand of Thrawn duology. Custodes 07:24, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

It says trillion in the overseas books as well, meaning that the number is 365,000,000,000,000,000,000 (365*10^18), not 365,000,000,000,000 (365*10^12). Given that the galactic population is "quadrillions" according to the ROTS novel, and the Confederate army numbered in the "quintillions" the loss of life from the Yuuzhan Vong War is negligible on the whole. Comments about the frequency of Base Delta Zero operations and orbital bombardment and bio and chemical warfare make it clear the Clone Wars were far more devestating. --Lowkey13

Linked articles
Should more attention be paid to articles in Wikipedia linked to the Yuuzhan Vong? Apparently not much editing has been directed at articles linked to the Yuuzhan Vong. A.L.
 * Just today, I did a fair amount of work on the weapons article to fix grammar and verb tense. I've been casually looking at the other articles as time allows. Having not read that era of the fiction myself, I can't do much to it as far as information.BinaryTed 19:26, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

NJO deaths
I personally don't think very highly of the New Jedi Order series, particularily because many of the main characters are killed. I think that the movies are TONS better. -- Scorpionman 01:37, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * The whole point of their deaths was to make it clear that the Yuuzhan Vong were a serious threat and not a three or four book threat.--Kross 04:42, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC)

 * What's the relevance of this comment? Forgottenlord 19:22, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Canonicity
Exactly how canonical is the New Jedi Order series considered? -- Scorpionman 15:15, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Its C-Level, the second highest rung on the perverbial ladder. -- Kross 04:26, Jun 26, 2005 (UTC)

It's not cannon at all. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 118.250.4.69 (talk) 15:07, 31 December 2014 (UTC)

Yuuzhan Vong physical appearance
Despite their lethality, based on pictures, does anyone else think the Yuuzhan Vong somewhat resemble the Insane Clown Posse? Maybe they should've sent Eminem in to stop them-then less people would've died and Slim Shady's wife and mom would have less black eyes.

 * Humor aside, does anyone have any pictures of the Yuuzhan Vong?Atinoda 20:45, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

 * There are images on Lucas arts via http://starwars.com/databank/character/nomanor/eu.html which has an image of Nom Anor who is a Yuuzhan-Vong, i've disabled the link because it's an External Link but if you place it on the browser it'll show the page. →Yun-Yuu zhan→ 18:24, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

Zerg
The Yuuzhan Vong sound to me a lot like the zerg in starcraft. How many years after the battle of endor did the alliance defeat the Yuuzhan Vong? And are there any books telling of enemies of the republic after the Yuuzhan Vong? -- Agent js03 16:44, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Official timeline puts NJO 25-30 years ABY, so 21-26 years after Endor. They have also announced and begun releasing books that occur after NJO, but I haven't read them so I can't say what enemies there are.  As for the Zerg, I suppose their origins could be a bit closer to the Zerg, certainly their love for battle and preference for organics is definately a parallel, but societally, they are a lot different.  When they lived on the original Yuuzhan'Tar, it might be a bit closer, but we don't quite know the societal structure from then and how much it has changed.  Forgottenlord 19:26, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

ROTS
"They also make an appearance in Return of the Sith." I don't think so. In fact, i severley doubt so. Plus, it's called Revenge of the Sith. So i'm deleting this line. But if anyone can find proof, i'll put it back up. --Quadraxis 16:17, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

Chop up this article!
This page has gotten WAY too long. Maybe we could start a Yuuzhan Vong technology page and move a chunk of stuff over there.--StAkAr Karnak 13:06, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Relatedly, the History section covers about one paragraph of their history and then describes in detail the war. I think we should leave a brief overview of the war, and move the details to a second-level Yuuzhan Vong war or Yuuzhan Vong invasion article and link to that from the History section. What's the word? Cheers. !mAtt™ 18:33, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * God I'm dumb. !mAtt™ 18:37, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I was actually thinking that as I read the history section, so regardless of relevance, I don't think its a bad idea. Forgottenlord 19:28, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

 * No no, it's a perfectly excellent idea; I'm dumb because it had already been done. !mAtt™ 20:17, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

I HATE the Yuuzhan Vong!!!
Whenever I hear the Yuuzhan Vong mentioned, I have to recoil in disgust. Is it just me, or does anyone else realize that the Yuuzhan Vong turn Star Wars into some weird version of Alien??? I find it horrible to think that all the writers of the expanded universe could think of was some weird lizard-like species of extra-galactic foe. This is sacreligious to star wars! Star wars is about inventive creatures, not stupid weird alien monsters!!! I am ASHAMED OF THE EXPANDED UNIVERSE!!! --138.130.223.236 11:15, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Regardless of your personal feelings towards the Yuuzhan Vong, Wikipedia is not the place to express it. A more appropriate place would be a blog, if you have one. Firestorm 20:42, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Um... yeah, your comment, besides being totally off topic, was factually wrong (insofar as anything from a fictional universe can be considered facts...). Yuuzhan Vong are not lizard-like, they're mostly like humans with slight changes and bodily tatoos and implants. For whatever reason you might hate the NJO I'd suggest you either keep it to yourself or find some other outlet, perhaps writing talk segment about Vong controversies... --StarkRG 08:51, 15 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I completely agree. They are so out-of-place it isn't even funny...69.242.43.60 00:15, 3 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Regardless or not wikipedia isn't a forum, and besides the Yuuzhan Vong was nearly mentioned in certain books and games before they appeared, in the future please redirect your concern to Lucas Arts forum. →Yun-Yuu zhan→ 18:06, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

I think that subconsciously the Yuuzhan Vong is a protest by long term fans who are fed up with Lucas persisting in selling an infantilised Star Wars to grown men. They are one of the few redeeming characters that have given the EU a depth and gravitas that has eluded Lucas for the last 20 years. Has a side not do the Yuuzhan Vong come from an alternate/parallel universe and not a galaxy? Needless to say if the Vong were ever to reach celluloid we would need David Lynch to do it justice!! --Ickesshadow (talk) 16:13, 15 March 2011 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
I thought the Ssi-Ruuk were also of extra-galactic origins? Horus Kol 12:29, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

 * from the first sentance in the Ssi-Ruuk article: "The Ssi-Ruuk are a saurian race that invaded from the 'Unknown Regions' of the galaxy" --StarkRG 08:55, 15 March 2006 (UTC)

What about the Nagai? Or the Tof? Custodes

What about being labelled as simply "sentient"? Sentience only qualifies a creature's/being's ability to discernably sense things, not any indication of human-level cognisance. T.J. Fuller, Jr. (talk) 22:41, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

Cannot be felt with the force?
The article's second paragraph ends with "later in the New Jedi Order Series it is explained why they cannot be felt by most Jedi". Yet, nowhere in the article does it expound on this fact. Should we really leave everyone hanging on the question of "why" after stating that there is infact an answer?

Real Life Inspiration?
The CD that came with the hardcover edition of The Unifying Force contained a lot of behind the scenes information that is most likely appropriate for this article. Also I'm pretty sure there's an intentional Mayan/Mesoamerican influence. This might be original research, but the Vong veneration of Twins, the autosacrifice, the sacrifice of slaves taken in combat, the pointed teeth all apply to the Maya.

Um... what happened?
What happened to the article? Was it completely replaced for a reason, or something else? The article now seems to be in the completely wrong area, but I don't want to do a massive revert without knowing what exactly happened, in case the article is, by some chance, correct. R.H._Jesus_Freak40 02:20, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

Somebody appears to have deleted most of hte article and replaced it with "this never happened". Can someone fix it...I am not sure if there is a way to just revert it. --BCapp 12:45, 16 August 2007 (GMT)

pronunciation in IPA
How is the name Yuuzhan Vong pronounced?

Question about a sentence about the Intendent Class
I found this sentence that seems questionable.

"The Intendant Caste (unlike the priest and warrior castes) do not have a battle cry, but as observed by Nom Anor, if they did it would probably be along the lines of: "Have you triple checked your orders with your superiors?""

Could someone tell me which source this come from or is this original research or an attempt at a joke.

Azn Clayjar 20:02, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

Its in the book when Nom Anor is first called into Shimra's court...where the first mention of the intendant cast also occurrs...If you want I can figure out which book it was BCapp 12:33, 16 August 2007 (GMT)

It's in destiny's way. When the Supreme Overlord first gets to Coruscant / Yuuzhan'tar. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.97.136.61 (talk) 22:40, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

What happened too them?
I couldn't see in the article what happened too them? I hope they were exterminated- they are the opposite of starwars. If we wanted crappy bio- idiots, we would read something else. Starwars is about huge starships and blowing shit up! but DOES anyone know what happned too them? And If Mr Lucas is reading this, PLEASE would he make a new movie or write some new books which have a different order of events after the collapse of the empire? I mean sorry, but we are supposed to belive that after all that work by Luke, Yoda, Leia etc, the New Rwpublic lasts only twenty years before before being destroyed? And Coruscant- which remained undamaged all the way from 5000 ABY, through the whole proper saga, was destroyed? The thing that an empire with millions of starships and a death star could not defend- was destroyed by a couple of HIPPIES! Sorry, Mr lucas, but you've let us fans down. Now, if you just goe over to your Indy Jones franchise, and make him have a posh UK accent, live in a country house and face the challange of "The staircase of Doom" and "Raiders of the cookie jar", you can do the same to him!

 * George Lucas never wrote these books, they're not his creation. - Kacen —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.125.91.186 (talk) 21:15, 11 September 2009 (UTC)

Well, it looks like Mr Lucas has read your comment and green lighted new material that will be 'actual' (lol) Star Wars. Thank Goodness. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 118.250.4.69 (talk) 15:11, 31 December 2014 (UTC)

Expansion
There's some information on how the Yuuzhang Vong were developed here, citing a round-robin interview in The Unifying Force. I don't know what it actually says, but it sounds like it might be useful. At a surface look, I can't find much in-depth reception on the Vong, but then I'm not familiar with them and have no real clue on where to look. – The Millionth One (talk) (contribs) 08:27, 12 June 2015 (UTC)

Assessment comment
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title: Talk:Yuuzhan Vong


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Renault 12

{{Infobox automobile Renault Virage (Australia) Renault Toros (Turkey) Dacia 1300 (Romania) | 1289 cc 810 I4 | 1397 cc 847/C1J I4 | 1565 cc C2L I4 (RA/TR) | 1565 cc A2L/807-20 I4 (US/Gordini) | 1596 cc 807-G I4 (Gordini) | 1647 cc A2M I4 (USA) }} | 1969–1980 (France) | 1969–2006 (Romania) | 1971–1994 (Argentina) | 1971–2000 (Turkey) }} Guarda, Portugal Santa Isabel, Argentina (IKA) Heidelberg, Australia Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville, Quebec, Canada (SoMA) Novo Mesto, Yugoslavia (IMV) Los Andes, Chile Duitama and Envigado, Colombia Ciudad Sahagún, Mexico Mioveni, Romania Valladolid, Spain (FASA-Renault) Bursa, Turkey (Oyak-Renault) (Toros) Mariara, Venezuela Haren-Vilvoorde, Belgium (RIB) Thames, New Zealand Aïn Sebaâ, Morocco (Somaca) Small van }} The Renault 12 is a mid-size family car introduced by French automaker Renault at the Paris Motor Show in October 1969 and produced in France until 1980. Available as a saloon (Berline) and estate (Break), it was also produced under licence in many countries around the globe into the early 21st century.
 * image = R12TL.JPG
 * name = Renault 12
 * aka = Renault 1.4 Litre (Australia)
 * related = {{ubl |Dacia 1310/1410 |Ford Corcel |Ford Del Rey}}
 * manufacturer = Renault
 * engine = {{ubl|
 * production = {{ubl
 * model_years = 1971–1995 (Argentina)
 * assembly = Boulogne-Billancourt, France
 * class = Large family car (D-segment)
 * layout = FF layout
 * body_style = {{ubl |4-door saloon |5-door estate |3-door car derived van}}
 * length = {{ubl |{{convert|4345|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} (saloon) |{{convert|4410|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} (estate)}}
 * wheelbase = {{convert|2440|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
 * width = {{convert|1616|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}{
 * height = {{convert|1435|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} (empty)
 * predecessor = Renault 8 and 10
 * successor = Renault 18

In its first few years the 12 received praise from the European press for its spacious, comfortable interior, its styling, its performance and its low fuel consumption. However it fared worse in the North American press: in a test of the 1974 model, Road & Track was critical of the engine's "obtrusive" noise, and called the heavy, non-power steering "a serious design flaw". They also gave it "very poor marks" for the ventilation system.

Renault 12 production and sales ended in western Europe in 1980, but the model continued to be produced and sold by Renault affiliates elsewhere. The last R12 was produced in 2000 in Turkey, while Romanian automaker Dacia continued producing the R12-based 1310 saloon and estate until 2004 and the R12-based Dacia Pick-Up until December 2006.

Commercially the Renault 12 was a successful car, selling 2.5 million units.

Project
In January 1964, the Styling Center began the design of the 117 model. This was a new model to bridge the gap between the Renault 8 and the Renault 16. The demands for Project 117 were:

 * "The car had to be economical, not very sophisticated. It had to have a roomy interior, and a large boot, and a small engine will suffice. The car had to be easy to produce, so it could be made all over the world. It had to be reliable for the export markets, and comfortable enough for France. It should be usable as a base for multiple variations."

Body
The Renault 12's design dates back to the genesis of the Renault 16; indeed, some initial R16 concept designs resemble the R12 more than the ultimate design of the R16. However, the R12 was technically quite different from either the R16 or the smaller Renault 4. Like all new Renaults at the time (and in common, by now, with more than 60% of the cars produced in France) the car had front wheel drive, but the R12 had a very different layout from Renault's existing fwd models. The engine was placed longitudinally ahead of the front wheels, while it was behind the wheels on the R4 and R16.

At the time of its launch in October 1969 at the Paris Motor Show, the Renault 12 was only available as a 4-door saloon, in L and TL specifications. The more expensive TL featured two separate reclining front seats instead of one front bench seat, armrests on the doors, lights in the boot and glovebox, a heated rear window, and extra warning lights.

Engine
It would have been a simple matter to install the light weight engine from the Renault 16 in the Renault 12, and this was later done for some high-end versions. However Renault had successfully built European market share since 1945 by competing aggressively on price. In the closely contested 1300cc category it was left to the new Peugeot 304 to attract customers willing to pay a premium price, while for the Renault 12, at launch, the aluminium block of the Renault 16 was rejected on cost grounds. Instead, Renault specified an enlarged version of the iron Cléon unit, used since 1962 in the Renault 8/10. The engine's size was increased to 1289 cc for use in the 12. Listed power output was 60 PS SAE (54 PS DIN) which provided for a respectable top speed of 145 km/h (90 mph).

The new version of the five-bearing engine initially fitted on the Renault 12 retained the removable cylinder liners that Renault had long favoured. It rejected the "oversquare" cylinder dimensions that had become fashionable with some European auto-makers during the 1960s. Many components, such as the oil pump and the distributor were unchanged, while others, including the cylinder head, the valve gear and the engine block itself were only minimally updated. The only completely reworked elements were the cylinder liners, the connecting rods, the pistons themselves and the crankshaft. In the 1962 version of the engine the cylinders had been unevenly spaced in two groups of two, but in this new application they were equidistant in order to allow for the cylinder diameter, here increased to 73 mm, to be combined with space for sufficient coolant to circulate around the cylinders.

The longitudinal placement of the engine, most of its mass positioned ahead of the front wheels, allowed the R12 to have a very simple design of the gear-selector that was placed on the floor of the car, and not on the dashboard as with the R4 or on the steering column as with the R16. On the early cars the handle to operate the handbrake was placed under the dashboard. The handbrake was later relocated to a position between the two front seats.

Suspension
The R12's suspension also differed from that of the R4 and R16, using a rigid (but light) rear axle as opposed to four-wheel independent suspension. The use of a rigid rear axle from a manufacturer that had championed all-round independent suspension for twenty-five years was seen by many commentators as a retrograde step.

Later developments

In 1970, two new variants were introduced. The estate was launched with the same trim levels and engines as in the saloon and a high performance Renault 12 Gordini model was introduced equipped with the all-aluminium 1565 cc block from the R16 TS fitted with two double-barrel Weber carburettors producing 125 PS, a reinforced crankshaft, a five speed gearbox, ventilated disc brakes on the front wheels and normal disc brakes on the rear wheels, as well as a tuned suspension. The Gordini was able to reach 185 km/h and was sold with paint schemes comprising a solid pastel colour (there were several to choose from) with double white stripes added on, the most famous combination being French Blue with stripes. 2225 Renault 12 Gordinis were sold in 1971 but after that sales began a freefall. Renault stopped production of the Gordini in 1974 after 5188 had been sold (compared to 11,607 Renault 8 Gordinis).

In October 1972, the more upmarket R12 TS was introduced. It used the same 1289 cc engine as in other R12s, but was equipped with a single, double barrel Weber carburettor, which increased power to 64 PS and raised the top speed to 150 km/h. Aesthetically, the car was distinguishable from other R12s by its special Gordini-style wheels, a chrome strip along the side of the car, and in some countries, two extra headlights. The TS also featured integrated headrests, a tachometer and a cooling-fluid temperature gauge. October 1972 was also when the hand brake lever was relocated from a position ahead of the driver to a floor-mounted location between the front seats. This became possible because now, even on the base "L" version of the car, after the front bench seat was replaced by two individual seats.

In October 1973, at the Paris Motor Show, the R12 TR appeared. This model slotted between the TL and TS, and had automatic transmission as standard. This three-speed, torque converter unit was developed by Renault themselves and was notable for being electronically (rather than hydraulically) controlled. It had already been available in the Renault 16 for a few years, and in the 15/17 coupés since several months earlier.

The whole range was facelifted in 1975 with a simplified grille, new rear lamps and dashboard. The Renault 12's successor, the Renault 18, was launched in 1978, but French production of the Renault 12 continued for two more years in spite of its successor's instant popularity.

Across the world
The 12 was a global car, built in at least a dozen countries and marketed across all continents. It was even the basis for the GNW Duiker, a stillborn sporting convertible with a fiberglass body intended as the beginning of a Rhodesian national car project. The bankers disagreed and the plug was pulled in late 1972. A few examples seem to have been built.

Romania

Dacia acquired the tooling and basic designs of the Renault 12 and manufactured it in various body styles in Romania, as the Dacia 1300, between 1969 and 1979. Also, the successor of this car, named Dacia 1310, was based on Dacia 1300. The production of the 1310 started in 1979 and stopped in 2004.

The 35 years of production saw the manufacturing of a total of 1,959,730 vehicles plus, between 1975 and 2006, a total of 318,969 vehicles belonging to the range that came to be known under the generic name of Dacia Pick-Up.

Turkey
A Renault 12-based car was made in Turkey by Oyak-Renault between 1971 and 2000. The earlier models were similar to the original R12, then the car underwent a facelift in 1989 and was marketed under the name Renault Toros until it was discontinued due to stricter European emissions standards coming into effect. The name "Toros" has a dual etymology: one is the Taurus mountains (Toros dağları), the other is the submodel designation TS. Sold as a sedan or a station wagon (TSW), it has a 1.4 litre carburetted C1J (Cléon) engine with 61.5 PS and came with either a four- or a five-speed transmission.

Renault 12 is the first Turkish-built automobile to be exported abroad and started to be exported to Lebanon in 1973. Turkish-built Renault 12s also exported to Algeria, Azerbaijan, Congo, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Northern Cyprus, Niger, Senegal, Togo, Tunisia and Upper Volta.

Australia
The Renault 12 won Australia's Wheels magazine's Car of the Year award in 1970. It was built at Renault Australia's assembly plant in the Melbourne suburb of Heidelberg from CKD kits. Various components such as seats were sourced locally.

The Australian range generally followed the UK models, including the facelift (which arrived in 1976) but, from about 1971, when new Australian Design Rules were introduced, had to have a special local wiper mechanism with a conventional right hand drive pattern (parking on the passenger side). This also affected locally assembled Peugeot 504 and Triumph 2.5 models. By the mid-1970s, local parts content had increased to represent about fifty percent.

In October 1976 the 1,289 cc engine was replaced by a larger capacity 1,397 cc version; the new model was marketed as the Renault 1.4 Litre, sometimes referred to simply as the "Renault 1.4". This model incorporated the same facelift introduced in France earlier in the year, with a new grille and dashboard. The 1.4 engine had hitherto been reserved for the Swedish and Canadian markets and was equipped with various emissions controls equipment, allowing it to meet the new ADR27A emissions requirements. While heavier than the 1.3-liter Renault 12XL, power also increased by about ten percent, with torque figures up 13 percent. It produced a modest 49 kW at 5750 rpm, with a maximum speed of 150 km/h and returned around 9 litres / 100 km in mixed driving. The Renault 1.4 saloon weighed 920 kg, while the station wagon was somewhat heavier.

In May 1978 it was renamed again and became the Renault Virage. This was identical to the 12, with no changes to the engine or performance, but incorporated twin round headlamps. Production in Australia ended in 1980.

New Zealand
The Renault 12 was assembled from CKD kits at importer Campbell group's own assembly plant in Thames, New Zealand, which later became a Toyota NZ factory and is now used to recondition used cars imported from Japan. The Campbell-built 12s had about 50 percent local content (glass, upholstery, tyres, carpet, paint, radiator, battery, etc.). One trim level was available and both sedans and wagons were made.

Yugoslavia
In 1972, Renault made a strategical partnership with Yugoslav manufacturer IMV from Novo Mesto, SR Slovenia, which had earlier been producing several Austin Motor Company models, to start producing besides Renault 4, also the Renault 12, Renault 16, Renault 18 and Renault 5 for the Yugoslav market.

North America
In Canada, the Renault 12 was assembled locally by SoMA in Québec from CKD kits from 1970 until summer 1973. The first two years' production the cars had small side marker lights, rectangular Cibié headlamps and the 60 HP SAE gross 1289 cc engine with single barrel Solex carb. La Presse newspaper reported in 1970 that a few 12 Gordinis were also imported to Canada before the stricter 1972 emission controls kicked in. From then on, the Renault 12 was imported fully built-up from France, and equipped with the 1647 cc all aluminium engine and 4 150 mm sealed beam headlights. Starting in late 1977, Canada received a 1.4-liter engine, the same as was also used in Sweden, to meet more stringent emissions standards than those used in most European markets. Power was 66.5 hp SAE Gross at 5000 rpm. The R12 sold in Canada was available in base, L, TL, or GTL versions, as well as a Station Wagon (largely equivalent to the TL trim). The L, TL, and Station Wagon were also available with the automatic transmission. In total, 25,662 Renault 12 were sold in Canada: 1477 basic models from 1973-1976; 3935 12L models between 1970 and 1976; 10,270 12 TL/GTL models between 1970 and 1976; 1731 12L Automatics between 1971 and 1976; 2004 12TL Automatics between 1971 and 1976; 4029 R12 Station Wagons between 1971 and 1976; 1300 R12 Automatic Station Wagons between 1971 and 1976; and finally only 916 R12 Nordic sedans and station wagons in 1977-1979. The foregoing data from M.C. Fertey, former head of Renault Canada Ltée does not include figures by model for 1978, but roughly 900 R12 Nordics were likely sold that year. The Canada-only "Nordic" special edition was available in 1978 and 1979, and played up the commonalities between the Canadian and Scandinavian markets. Period advertising made mention of the shared 1.4-liter engine and offering Scandinavian-market equipment such as headlight washers and Finnish-developed aluminum front inner fenders. This version was only available in Metallic Blue, with mock-wood trim on the Station Wagon model. Sales the last few years were desultory, with 654 Renault 12s sold in Canada in 1979, 225 in 1980, and a final 37 cars delivered in 1981.

The United States-market Renault 12 was presented in the Bois de Boulogne in May 1971, followed by a presentation to American Renault dealers at the Doral Country Club, near Miami, shortly thereafter. The federalized R12 originally only came as a TL sedan or a Station Wagon (the first wagon to be sold by Renault in the US), but later a plain base version and the 12 L trim lines were added. They ranged in price from the introductory US$ 2195 to US$4498 for the final Station Wagon. US models differ in their quad headlamps and side marker lights, as well as by having a bump in the bonnet to clear the larger engine and its associated emissions hardware.

The 12 was a slightly larger car than most European imports, and the longitudinal front wheel drive layout contrasted with most. The engine, an all-aluminum 1565 cc unit with steel cylinder liners was shared with the Renault 16 and was specific to the U.S. market, although the 12 received a double-barrel Solex carburettor and slightly more power. Power was originally 73 hp SAE at 5000 rpm with a 8.6:1 compression ratio. For 1973, the engine was upgraded to the larger 1647 cc version with a single-barrel carburettor, featuring hemispherical heads, although power decreased to 69 hp at the same engine speed as emissions regulations were tightened. For 1974, the compression ratio was dropped to 7.5:1, with power slipping to 65 hp. For the 1976 model year a two-barrel carburettor and a somewhat higher compression ratio meant that 72 hp were on offer, while a more luxurious GTL model topped the lineup. Sales were marginal due to the growing popularity of Japanese imports, with their growing reputation of dependability and cost effective operation. The Renault 12 was introduced late in the 1971 model year, with sales continuing through 1977.

South America
In Brazil, a version of the 12 was sold as the Ford Corcel and later the Ford Del Rey, when Ford do Brasil acquired the factory and rights to build the car from Willys-Overland, which had jointly developed the Brazilian version with Renault in the late 1960s. The Corcel was in fact launched in Brazil in 1968, before the Renault 12 was launched in France.

The Renault 12 was popular in Argentina and Colombia, during the 1970s and 1980s. In Colombia, this car was assembled at the plant of Renault SOFASA between 1973 and 1981, from CKDs that came from Argentina and France. In Argentina, the local versions being made at the "Santa Isabel" plant of Renault Argentina in the province of Córdoba. Production ran from November 1971 to the same month of 1994. The Break was built from 1973 to 1992; the total of both bodystyles was around 450,000 units.

Drivetrains began as 1,289 cc, switching effectively to 1,397 cc for all versions in 1977, with a last increase in bore and stroke in 1992 reaching 1,565 cc. In Brazil, Ford offered a similar 1,555 cc version with its Corcel II in 1980, which later offered an ethanol version of this engine with a 12:1 compression ratio. Gearboxes were four-speed manuals until 1988, and five-speed boxes thereafter. The R12 had a slightly higher status in this country than other places, given the fact that the Argentine Renault cars lineup was narrow at the time (R4, R6 and Renault Torino). This caused the factory to add extras such as air conditioning and quality upholstery to close the gap between this car and the Torino until the arrival of the R18 in 1982. For this same reason, virtually all of the estate models (Break) were built with the TS's mechanical and comfort features.

The Argentine Renault 12 also saw competition success in South America, with a celebrated class (up to 1,600 cc) win in the 1978 South American Marathon with Argentinian driver Jorge Recalde and co-driver Jorge Baruscotti. Recalde finished before any of the cars in the two-litre category, and Renault 12s occupied the first six positions in their category.

The R12 Alpine was a sports version designed to improve the marque's image at local rallying. The main features were the 1397 cc engine from the R5 Alpine (built locally with imported parts), bulbous fiberglass bonnet, competition-tuned suspension, and custom paint schemes. The engine turned out 110 PS, giving the Alpine a top speed of around 175 km/h. The new suspension was also as good as the power plant, being rated at the time as "outstanding" and "Goes like on rails" (CORSA Magazine). Renault was not interested in volume production, though, and only 493 units were made between 1977 and 1980 (sold from 1978 onwards). Plus, the Alpine's hand-building process and imported parts made it cost about 40% more than the basic TL version. R12 Alpine parts were sometimes used by rallying R12 TS's, as they gave the car quite desirable characteristics but, like the R12 Alpine itself, these parts were rare.
 * Renault 12 Alpine

title: Renault 12


text:
Endoskeleton

An endoskeleton (From Greek ἔνδον, éndon = "within", "inner" + σκελετός, skeletos = "skeleton") is a structural frame (skeleton) on the inside of an animal, overlaid by soft tissues and usually composed of mineralized tissue. Endoskeletons serve as structural support against gravity and mechanical loads, and provide anchoring attachment sites for skeletal muscles to transmit force and allow movements and locomotion. Vertebrates and the closely related cephalochordates are the predominant animal clade with endoskeletons (made of mostly bone and sometimes cartilage), although invertebrates such as sponges also have evolved a form of endoskeletons made of diffuse meshworks of calcite/silica structural elements called spicules, and echinoderms have a dermal calcite endoskeleton known as ossicles. Some coleoid cephalopods (squids and cuttlefish) have an internalized vestigial aragonite/calcite-chitin shell known as gladius or cuttlebone, which can serve as muscle attachments but the main function is often to maintain buoyancy rather than to give structural support, and their body shape is largely maintained by hydroskeleton.

Compared to the exoskeletons of many invertebrates, endoskeletons allow much larger overall body sizes for the same skeletal mass, as most soft tissues and organs are positioned outside the skeleton rather than within it. Being more centralized in structure also means more compact volume, making it easier for the circulatory system to perfuse and oxygenate, as well as higher tissue density against stress. The external nature of muscle attachments also allows thicker and more diverse muscle architectures, as well as more versatile range of motions.

Overview
An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of a body, like humans, dogs, or some fish. The endoskeleton develops within the skin or in the deeper body tissues. The vertebrate endoskeleton is basically made up of two types of tissues (bone and cartilage). During early embryonic development the endoskeleton is composed of notochord and cartilage. The notochord in most vertebrates is replaced by the vertebral column and cartilage is replaced by bone in most adults. In three phyla and one subclass of animals, endoskeletons of various complexity are found: Chordata, Echinodermata, Porifera, and Coleoidea. An endoskeleton may function purely for support (as in the case of sponges), but often serves as an attachment site for muscle and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue. Such a skeleton is present in echinoderms and chordates. The poriferan "skeleton" consists of microscopic calcareous or siliceous spicules or a spongin network. The Coleoidea do not have a true endoskeleton in the evolutionary sense; there, a mollusk exoskeleton evolved into several sorts of internal structure, the "cuttlebone" of cuttlefish being the best-known version. Yet they do have cartilaginous tissue in their body, even if it is not mineralized, especially in the head, where it forms a primitive cranium. The endoskeleton gives shape, support, and protection to the body and provides a means of locomotion.

title: Endoskeleton


text:
Heterojunction

A heterojunction is an interface between two layers or regions of dissimilar semiconductors. These semiconducting materials have unequal band gaps as opposed to a homojunction. It is often advantageous to engineer the electronic energy bands in many solid-state device applications, including semiconductor lasers, solar cells and transistors. The combination of multiple heterojunctions together in a device is called a heterostructure, although the two terms are commonly used interchangeably. The requirement that each material be a semiconductor with unequal band gaps is somewhat loose, especially on small length scales, where electronic properties depend on spatial properties. A more modern definition of heterojunction is the interface between any two solid-state materials, including crystalline and amorphous structures of metallic, insulating, fast ion conductor and semiconducting materials.

Manufacture and applications
Heterojunction manufacturing generally requires the use of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technologies in order to precisely control the deposition thickness and create a cleanly lattice-matched abrupt interface. A recent alternative under research is the mechanical stacking of layered materials into van der Waals heterostructures.

Despite their expense, heterojunctions have found use in a variety of specialized applications where their unique characteristics are critical:
 * Solar cells: Heterojunctions are formed through the interface of a crystalline silicon substrate (band gap 1.1 eV) and amorphous silicon thin film (band gap 1.7 eV) in some solar cell architectures. The heterojunction is used to separate charge carriers in a similar way to a p–n junction. The Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer (HIT) solar cell structure was first developed in 1983 and commercialised by Sanyo/Panasonic. HIT solar cells now hold the record for the most efficient single-junction silicon solar cell, with a conversion efficiency of 26.7%.
 * Lasers: Using heterojunctions in lasers was first proposed in 1963 when Herbert Kroemer, a prominent scientist in this field, suggested that population inversion could be greatly enhanced by heterostructures. By incorporating a smaller direct band gap material like GaAs between two larger band gap layers like AlAs, carriers can be confined so that lasing can occur at room temperature with low threshold currents. It took many years for the material science of heterostructure fabrication to catch up with Kroemer's ideas but now it is the industry standard. It was later discovered that the band gap could be controlled by taking advantage of the quantum size effects in quantum well heterostructures. Furthermore, heterostructures can be used as waveguides to the index step which occurs at the interface, another major advantage to their use in semiconductor lasers. Semiconductor diode lasers used in CD and DVD players and fiber optic transceivers are manufactured using alternating layers of various III-V and II-VI compound semiconductors to form lasing heterostructures.
 * Bipolar transistors: When a heterojunction is used as the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor, extremely high forward gain and low reverse gain result. This translates into very good high frequency operation (values in tens to hundreds of GHz) and low leakage currents. This device is called a heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT).
 * Field effect transistors: Heterojunctions are used in high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) which can operate at significantly higher frequencies (over 500 GHz). The proper doping profile and band alignment gives rise to extremely high electron mobilities by creating a two dimensional electron gas within a dopant free region where very little scattering can occur.

Energy band alignment

The behaviour of a semiconductor junction depends crucially on the alignment of the energy bands at the interface. Semiconductor interfaces can be organized into three types of heterojunctions: straddling gap (type I), staggered gap (type II) or broken gap (type III) as seen in the figure. Away from the junction, the band bending can be computed based on the usual procedure of solving Poisson's equation.

Various models exist to predict the band alignment.
 * The simplest (and least accurate) model is Anderson's rule, which predicts the band alignment based on the properties of vacuum-semiconductor interfaces (in particular the vacuum electron affinity). The main limitation is its neglect of chemical bonding.
 * A common anion rule was proposed which guesses that since the valence band is related to anionic states, materials with the same anions should have very small valence band offsets. This however did not explain the data but is related to the trend that two materials with different anions tend to have larger valence band offsets than conduction band offsets.
 * Tersoff proposed a gap state model based on more familiar metal–semiconductor junctions where the conduction band offset is given by the difference in Schottky barrier height. This model includes a dipole layer at the interface between the two semiconductors which arises from electron tunneling from the conduction band of one material into the gap of the other (analogous to metal-induced gap states). This model agrees well with systems where both materials are closely lattice matched such as GaAs/AlGaAs.
 * The 60:40 rule is a heuristic for the specific case of junctions between the semiconductor GaAs and the alloy semiconductor AlxGa1−xAs. As the x in the AlxGa1−xAs side is varied from 0 to 1, the ratio $$\Delta E_C/\Delta E_V$$ tends to maintain the value 60/40. For comparison, Anderson's rule predicts $$\Delta E_C / \Delta E_V = 0.73/0.27$$ for a GaAs/AlAs junction (x=1).

The typical method for measuring band offsets is by calculating them from measuring exciton energies in the luminescence spectra.

Effective mass mismatch
When a heterojunction is formed by two different semiconductors, a quantum well can be fabricated due to difference in band structure. In order to calculate the static energy levels within the achieved quantum well, understanding variation or mismatch of the effective mass across the heterojunction becomes substantial. The quantum well defined in the heterojunction can be treated as a finite well potential with width of $$ l_w$$. In addition, in 1966, Conley et al. and BenDaniel and Duke reported a boundary condition for the envelope function in a quantum well, known as BenDaniel–Duke boundary condition. According to them, the envelope function in a fabricated quantum well must satisfy a boundary condition which states that $$ \psi (z) $$ and $$ {\frac {1} {m^*} }{\partial \over {\partial z}} \psi (z) \,$$ are both continuous in interface regions.

Using the Schrödinger equation for a finite well with width of $$l_w $$and center at 0, the equation for the achieved quantum well can be written as:

 * $$-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m_b^*} \frac{\mathrm{d}^2 \psi(z)}{\mathrm{d}z^2} + V \psi(z) = E \psi(z) \quad \quad \text{ for } z < - \frac {l_w}{2} \quad \quad (1)$$
 * $$ \quad \quad -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m_w^*} \frac{\mathrm{d}^2 \psi(z)}{\mathrm{d}z^2} = E \psi(z) \quad \quad \text{ for } - \frac {l_w}{2} < z < + \frac {l_w}{2} \quad \quad (2)$$
 * $$-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m_b^*} \frac{\mathrm{d}^2 \psi(z)}{\mathrm{d}z^2} + V \psi(z) = E \psi(z) \quad \text{ for } z > + \frac {l_w}{2} \quad \quad (3)$$

Solution for above equations are well-known, only with different(modified) k and $$\kappa $$

 * $$ k = \frac {\sqrt{2 m_w E}} {\hbar} \quad \quad \kappa = \frac {\sqrt{2 m_b (V-E)}} {\hbar} \quad \quad (4)$$.

At the z = $$ + \frac {l_w} {2} $$ even-parity solution can be gained from
 * $$ A\cos(\frac {k l_w} {2}) = B \exp(- \frac {\kappa l_w} {2}) \quad \quad (5)$$.

By taking derivative of (5) and multiplying both sides by $$ \frac {1} {m^*}$$

 * $$ -\frac {kA} {m_w^*} \sin(\frac {k l_w} {2}) = -\frac {\kappa B} {m_b^*} \exp(- \frac {\kappa l_w} {2}) \quad \quad (6)$$.

Dividing (6) by (5), even-parity solution function can be obtained,

 * $$ f(E) = -\frac {k} {m_w^*} \tan(\frac {k l_w} {2}) -\frac {\kappa } {m_b^*} = 0 \quad \quad (7)$$.

Similarly, for odd-parity solution,

 * $$ f(E) = -\frac {k} {m_w^*} \cot(\frac {k l_w} {2}) +\frac {\kappa } {m_b^*} = 0 \quad \quad (8)$$.

For numerical solution, taking derivatives of (7) and (8) gives

even parity:
 * $$ \frac {df}{dE} = \frac {1}{m_w^*} \frac {dk}{dE} \tan(\frac {k l_w} {2}) + \frac {k} {m_w^*} \sec^2(\frac {k l_w} {2}) \times \frac {l_w} {2} \frac {dk} {dE} - \frac {1}{m_b^*} \frac {d \kappa} {dE} \quad \quad (9-1)$$

odd parity:
 * $$ \frac {df}{dE} = \frac {1}{m_w^*} \frac {dk}{dE} \cot(\frac {k l_w} {2}) - \frac {k} {m_w^*} \csc^2(\frac {k l_w} {2}) \times \frac {l_w} {2} \frac {dk} {dE} + \frac {1}{m_b^*} \frac {d \kappa} {dE} \quad \quad (9-2)$$

where $$ \frac {dk}{dE} = \frac {\sqrt {2 m_w^*}}{2 \sqrt E \hbar} \quad \quad \quad \frac {d \kappa}{dE} = - \frac {\sqrt {2 m_b^*}}{2 \sqrt {V-E} \hbar}$$.

The difference in effective mass between materials results in a larger difference in ground state energies.

Nanoscale heterojunctions
In quantum dots the band energies are dependent on crystal size due to the quantum size effects. This enables band offset engineering in nanoscale heterostructures. It is possible to use the same materials but change the type of junction, say from straddling (type I) to staggered (type II), by changing the size or thickness of the crystals involved. The most common nanoscale heterostructure system is ZnS on CdSe (CdSe@ZnS) which has a straddling gap (type I) offset. In this system the much larger band gap ZnS passivates the surface of the fluorescent CdSe core thereby increasing the quantum efficiency of the luminescence. There is an added bonus of increased thermal stability due to the stronger bonds in the ZnS shell as suggested by its larger band gap. Since CdSe and ZnS both grow in the zincblende crystal phase and are closely lattice matched, core shell growth is preferred. In other systems or under different growth conditions it may be possible to grow anisotropic structures such as the one seen in the image on the right.

The driving force for charge transfer between conduction bands in these structures is the conduction band offset. By decreasing the size of CdSe nanocrystals grown on TiO2, Robel et al. found that electrons transferred faster from the higher CdSe conduction band into TiO2. In CdSe the quantum size effect is much more pronounced in the conduction band due to the smaller effective mass than in the valence band, and this is the case with most semiconductors. Consequently, engineering the conduction band offset is typically much easier with nanoscale heterojunctions. For staggered (type II) offset nanoscale heterojunctions, photoinduced charge separation can occur since there the lowest energy state for holes may be on one side of the junction whereas the lowest energy for electrons is on the opposite side. It has been suggested that anisotropic staggered gap (type II) nanoscale heterojunctions may be used for photocatalysis, specifically for water splitting with solar energy.

title: Heterojunction