text:
Talk:Scafell Pike

Pronunciation
I seem to remember reading that it is "U" to say, "Scaw-fell" (or "Scawf-ell") and "non-U" to say, "Scar-fell" or "Scaff-ell". Does anybody know about this?--Oxonian2006 21:21, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

As someone who grew up 5 miles from Wasdale it is pronounced Score (Scaw) Fell, regardless of what others say, it is often incorrectly pronounced now, even locally, due to the proportion of true locals plummeting, people from further afield in the lakes may pronounce it differently but as with all place names the local pronunciation is correct.

Speaking as an ex-pat Lakes resident, I can say with confidence that saying "Scaw-fell" would be a one-way street to ridicule. "Scar-fell" is the correct local pronunciation. That's not what you asked of course, but if you want a guide to pronunciation, it's definitely "Scar-fell". 203.96.78.190 20:28, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

 * It's hard to be prescriptive and define "correct" pronunciations in this case. Most Lakes residents these days may say "Scarfell", but Wainwright is equally adamant that it should be "Scawfle", which was presumably the usual pronunciation in his day. The spelling "Scawfell" is found in many older sources, as a Google search suggests, indicating that this was considered "correct" not so long ago. As with Shrewsbury, though, spelling pronunciation seems to be taking over. --Blisco 22:33, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

In the local area it's refered to as "Scawfl" (Scorefl) in line with the original spelling of “Scawfell”. Most of the country however refer to it as Scarfell in line with modern spelling of Scafell. When I return home to the area and use Scafell, like the rest of the country, I'm accused of forgetting where I come from. The original name was/is Scawfell, and this is the name that was used by the WWII Naval ship, a Street in London, and an island off the Coast of Queensland Australia. All of these are named after the mountain. I’ve heard the spelling of Scafell was the result of an Ordinance Survey error, but I don’t know if this is accurate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.14.86.101 (talk) 09:18, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

I wonder if it is to do with the Scandinavian "å" which would make "skå" indeed sound like "scaw"? Simon Grant (talk) 13:14, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

Contemporary guidebooks show that Scafell was called "Scawfell" until the mid-nineteenth century. Language changes, however, and from around the 1880s onwards it has more commonly been called Scafell.

The natural pronunciation, and in my experience the most common, is "scar-fell". The trend to say "scaw-fell" (as though the modern name had a silent "w") may originate in a misreading of Wainwright. Wainwright points out that Scafell was traditionally called "Scawfell" and adds that the traditional pronunciation was "Scawfle". But he is probably just talking about the old name here. I don't think he intends to suggest that the modern name should be pronounced in the same way. Jgb37 (talk) 10:17, 28 August 2011 (UTC)

 * The switch in spelling from Scawfell to Scafell occurred in the early 1920s. You can confirm this for yourself if you have access to the British Newspaper Archive and a few spare evenings. (Note that searching for "Scafell" in newspapers will pick up the place in Wales of that name, including railway timetables in local papers - national papers will pick up the dramatic rail disaster that happened near there). It was driven largely by the guidebooks and they were driven by the Ordnance Survey error: if they included maps they had to change the text to match the maps. This is what happened to the very popular Martineau guide with the edition printed in the year of the author's death.
 * The pronunciation change has been much slower and, for instance, Radio Cumbria still prefer the phonetic "Scaw", as do those who live in the vicinity who have a long connection with the region. The mountain rescue team use "Scar" as that is the commonest pronunciation among those who get lost in that area.ThoughtIdRetired (talk) 11:40, 25 November 2016 (UTC)

Volcano?
I'm not sure whether it is strictly accurate to say (as the new box does) that Scafell Pike is an extinct volcano. My (limited, since I'm no geologist!) understanding is that while the rock itself is of volcanic origin, the present peaks were formed by subsequent glaciation, and don't bear any relation to the original volcanoes that formed the rocks. Does anyone know more about this? Cambyses 14:42, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

My very rudimentary knowledge of the geology of the Lake District suggests that you are quite correct. Trilobite 18:52, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I am 99% confident you are both right. Funny how we all appear a little hesitant on this! Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 22:38, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

This clearly proves that it's more difficult to disbelieve something when it comes in an impressive-looking box. I have overcome my inhibitions and removed it the claim ;-). Best wishes, Cambyses 00:21, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

Hill or mountain?
Admittedly Scafell Pike is tiny by international standards, but that's no reason to call it a hill instead of a mountain. Most Enlgish people would consider it to be a mountain - the idea that it isn't would imply that there are no mountains in England, which runs contrary to popular understanding of British geography. Furthermore Scafell Pike is one of the Cumbrian mountains - the tallest of them in fact. The idea that the tallest of a range of mountains is not a mountain makes no sense. It is sometimes said that to qualify as a mountain in this country 1000 feet is a minimum, and I notice this was cited as a reason for the reversion of the edit which relagated Scafell Pike to a mere hill. Whether or not this cut-off height is accepted (and I would tend to favour a less rigid definition based on subjective judgement informed by people's understanding of the words 'hill' and 'mountain'), Scafell Pike is commonly regarded as a mountain and not a hill. It might not be very big, but it is a mountain. Trilobite 18:56, 7 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok I was a bit fast and loose with the 1,000 feet thing. Thinking it about more I agree that people tend to use it as a "rough guide" to what might be considered a mountain in UK terms, rather than an absolute. We should continue that practice here. However we are in agreement, SP is unquestionably a mountain. However somewhere like the Long Mynd in Shropshire is over 1,000 feet but doesn't have that mountain aura about it. Pcb21| Pete 19:06, 7 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I think the 1000ft rule is what the OS use to decide wether to mark a peak as a mountain on a map. NPWJones 12:43, 24 August 2004

"the Encyclopædia Britannica requires a prominence of 610 m (2,000 ft)." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.209.25.123 (talk • contribs) 00:21, 30 June 2006

 * The OS doesn't distinguish between hills and mountains on its maps (indeed it doesn't mark them as "hills" or "mountains" at all, it just shows the lie of the land), and nor does any other geographer. The EB doesn't "require" a prominence of 2,000 feet either (see Mountain). The distinction is completely subjective, and the terms are not even mutually exclusive, especially in the UK. 2,000 feet is just a popular rule of thumb that often works in Britain, but rarely in other countries. --Blisco 14:24, 22 October 2006 (UTC) (A bit belated but I thought it was worth saying!)

Geolinks-UK-mountain
Added to the External Links Section — Preceding unsigned comment added by Snozzer (talk • contribs) 11:54, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

View
I added a list of the major peaks visible, with the degree bearings you can see each one at. Hope it's OK. Comments welcome. --Mark J 16:36, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Well my only problem is its unsourced. I'm rather skeptical about this claim to be able to see the mountains of Ireland from its peak - this would have to be on a very very clear day and with eyesight rather better than my own... --Pretty Green 20:16, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

 * If you want a source, try here and here. (These do take into account the curvature of the Earth.)  As the Mountains of Mourne poke out from behind the Isle of Man, it's quite hard to be sure whether it's really Ireland that you're looking at, or just part of Man.  There no doubt, though, that you can see Snowdon on a fine day, and that's a similar distance to Slieve Donard.  — ras52 10:09, 11 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I don't believe any Irish mountains are visible from Scafell Pike. Maybe someone who knows about the curavature of the earth could calculate whether it's physically possible to see these mountains. Also, some of the general directions are definitely wrong. Mountains in Northern Ireland are certainly not south of Scafell, visible or not. I'll see if someone has any other ideas but should the section be trimmed back to take out the distant mountains? Pikemaster (talk) 21:53, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

I would take the viewfinder panoramas with a pinch of salt. One shows "Oubas Hill" on the outskirts of Ulverston, which in reality is no more than a low hump on the A590 road and it certainly isn't possible to see Scafell Pike from there. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.175.189.18 (talk) 01:20, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I walk over Oubas Hill most days of my life and (weather permitting) I can assure this contributor that Scafell Pike is visible very clearly from there. By climbing the 130 ft Hoad Monument the view becomes even more spectacular and in addition the monument can clearly be seen from Scafell and the Pike, providing a distinctive marker. .92.18.222.118 (talk) 21:37, 14 January 2016 (UTC)Tylexman (talk) 21:44, 14 January 2016 (UTC)

It seems that Ordnance Survey used the visibility of Slieve Donard from Scafell for the triangulation of GB and Ireland in the early 19 century. Map diagram 8 here: http://osi.ie/OSI/media/OSI/Content/Publications/The-Irish-Grid-A-Description-of-the-Coordinate-Reference-System-Used-in-Ireland_1.pdf — Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.30.125.32 (talk) 12:52, 26 December 2012 (UTC)

Heights
Is there a Wikipedia standard in which to state heights above sea level - in feet or metres? We're not quite metric yet in England. I notice some articles put feet first others give priorty to metres. Pikemaster (talk) 18:36, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Parent peak?
I see the parent peak for Scafell Pike shows in the box as Snowdon - Surely this is not correct? 86.143.67.69 (talk) 22:42, 3 March 2017 (UTC) Ah, no - I see there are different ways of calculating this. My apologies - Please disregard. 86.143.67.69 (talk) 23:07, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Anyone wondering about what Parent Peak means should follow the link to the definition and read it. It is a geographical term to do with ranking peaks by connecting their ridgelines. It has nothing to do with geological relationship or political boundaries. So it is quite normal for one mountain's parent to be in a different country and/or orogeny. For example, Snowdon's parent is Ben Nevis! --Oscar Bravo (talk) 07:09, 30 January 2020 (UTC)

Technical Term
In the topography section of the article is the following phrase, "Ill Crag having little footing(clarify) in Wasdale." This sounds like a request for clarification of the technical term 'footing'. Do we need clarification or is the term self explanatory? It doesn't seem to be a good place to add a long winded explanation of a fairly common term. Meta-texts such as (clarify) or (citation needed) tend to reduce the readability of the article. Often they are essential but sometimes, as here, they may be superfluous. OrewaTel (talk) 12:47, 15 March 2019 (UTC)

 * The solution to the problem would be if there was a Wikipedia article that explained the meaning of "footing" - I am guessing that it would be a list of terminology applied to mountains/mountaineering. Perhaps such a page already exists. Then the Scafell Pike page could show a link to that term and there would be no intrusive a "clarify" tag. (I note, though, that there is still a "citation needed" tag.) If you have the necessary sources and no such article already exists, you may be well placed to write such an article.ThoughtIdRetired (talk) 12:00, 18 March 2019 (UTC)

 * Wainwright used exactly that phrase in his description of Ill Crag in the Scafell Pike chapter of his Guide so I can add a citation. The trouble is that the first time I read the description, I understood exactly what was meant and so I never searched for a definition. Maybe there is a list of geological or mountaineering terms on which we can tack 'footing'.OrewaTel (talk) 07:23, 16 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Would you mind if I asked you to explain what you do think it means, please? As a walker, scrambler and climber, I've been up on Scafell and nearby peaks over many decades, and Wainwright's use of that term means little to me, unless it means "has few footholds", and that's how many readers would probably interpret it. AW was not even a scrambler, so for him 'no footing' might well mean that. Far better to say something like 'AW described Ill crag as 'having no footing in Wasdale"', meaning xxx'. Having refreshed my memory by looking at the OS map, I'm wondering if it means Ill Crag doesn't have its base in Wasdale, in which case it really doesn't need saying at all, does it? ...because I would had said its footing (i.e. its base) is in Eskdale. Footing is not a term I'm familiar with in 50 years of hillwalking, except for the odd case of losing one's footing (slipping). I suspect this is just one of AW's poetic turn of phrases which has no specific meaning, either topographical, geological or in mountaineering circle. Nick Moyes (talk) 14:13, 14 May 2021 (UTC)
 * As I understand it, a fell has a footing in a valley if there is a direct line from the fell to the valley floor that runs downhill at all times. Superficially it looks like the Sca Fell ridge comprises Great End, Ill Crag, Broad Crag, Scafell Pike, Scafell and Slight Side in a row but that is not true. Ill Crag is off to one side and overlooks Esk Valley. The Northern arm of Broad Crag and the Southern arm of Blunt Top (a 900 metre fell that doesn't appear on most lists) cut it off from Wasdale. Having a footing is a term that is obvious when you look at a map or look at the fell itself but it is damn difficult to define exactly. OrewaTel (talk) 22:13, 14 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks, . I have searched and can find no mention whatsoever of the term 'footing' in any search on Google/Google books in the context of mountains or geography, so it sounds like its just some loosely applied word that has no formal meaning. I can sort of understand what you're getting at. In other words, wouldn't "Ill Crag is off to the side of the main ScaFell ridge, and looks Eskdale" be a lot clearer? If so, let's just say that. (BTW: I'm itching to go back and spend a few days bivvying up there this summer if I can make it.) Cheers, Nick Moyes (talk) 22:38, 14 May 2021 (UTC)
 * , I suspect this is a Wainwright special. AW used this expression quite a lot. It is appropriate here because Ill Crag is generally regarded as a 'Wasdale Fell' (Please don't ask me what that means) and yet it actually overlooks Eskdale.OrewaTel (talk) 01:10, 15 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Hmmm. Now you've convinced me more than ever that this statement should, assuming it is actually relevant here, be a properly sourced quotation from his book. That would fit in better with an encyclopaedia that anyone from around the world might read, as they would not have the prior knowledge and  context of knowing about Wainwright. Would you not agree? Nick Moyes (talk) 10:37, 15 May 2021 (UTC)
 * I've written an alternative sentence that should be clearer - it doesn't use the term 'footing'. Please revert if it doesn't reflect this discussion.OrewaTel (talk) 13:11, 15 May 2021 (UTC)
 * That reads so much better now. Nick Moyes (talk) 13:30, 15 May 2021 (UTC)

Herdy website
I really don't think the Herdy website can be regarded as a WP:RS for this article. Their site's purpose is to sell the mugs and other "Herdy" branded material that they sell. I have therefore substituted the section that had many references to the Herdy website with older material that has other references (and a more complete story of what happened). ThoughtIdRetired (talk) 17:45, 14 May 2021 (UTC)

Over-precise heights
The over-precise heights being added to this article by user Vegibagger are (a) without any supporting references and (b) different from the heights given in established RSs. Please stop adding this data and explain why you think this is an improvement. ThoughtIdRetired (talk) 23:09, 14 May 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scafell Pike


text:
Iyengar

Iyengars (also spelt Ayyangar or Aiyengar, pronounced ) are an ethnoreligious community of Tamil-speaking Hindu Brahmins, whose members follow Sri Vaishnavism and the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanuja. Found mostly in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, Iyengars are divided into two denominations, the Vadakalai and the Tenkalai. The community belongs to the Pancha Dravida Brahmana classification of Brahmins in India.

Etymology
There are several opinions regarding the etymology of the term Iyengar, which is the anglicized form of the Dravidian word Aiyaṅgār (ஐயங்கார், ).

One is that it derives from the Proto-Dravidian word ayya-gāru (𑀅𑀬𑀕𑀭𑀼), which became Ayyangāru (அய்யங்காரு), and later Ayengar. The term ayya is the Tamil equivalent of the Sanskrit word ārya, (𑀆𑀭𑁆𑀬/आर्य) which in Sanskrit means noble. Gāru refers to a form of the Pali term gārava, and later gaurava, meaning respect or esteem.

Another is that the word ayyangār was first used by Kandhādai Ramanuja Ayyangār of Tirupati, around 1450 CE.

Common origins
The Iyengar community traces its philosophical origins to Nathamuni, the first Sri Vaishnava acharya, who lived around 900 CE. He is traditionally believed to have collected the 4,000 works of Nammalvar and other alvars, the poet-saints of Southern India who were intensely devoted to Vishnu on both an emotional and intellectual plane. The belief is that he set this collection - commonly called the Tamil Prabhandams - to music, and he introduced the devotional hymns of the alvars into worship, thus mixing their Tamil Veda with the traditional Vedas written in Sanskrit. A scriptural equivalence was accepted by the community that formed from his works. The Sanskrit texts are considered to be metaphysical truth and the Tamil oral variants to be based on human experience of the same. This community became immersed in the dual-language worship in temples where issues of varna were of no concern.

A century or so later, Ramanuja became the principal amongst religious leaders who formalized the efforts of Nathamuni as a theology. Ramanuja developed the philosophy of Visishtadvaita and is described by Harold Coward as "the founding interpreter of Sri Vaisnavite scripture," while Anne Overzee says that he was a collator and interpreter rather than an original thinker. Although showing originality in his method of synthesizing the Tamil and Sanskrit sources, Ranjeeta Dutta said that the two sets of sources "continued to be parallel to each other and not incorporative" at this time.

Nathamuni and Ramanuja were both Brahmins, while Nammalvar was of the Vellala community. All three men were Tamils, although Ramanuja documented his thoughts in Sanskrit.

Schism
Ramanuja was initially a proponent of the traditional bhakti philosophy that demanded adherents have a good command of Sanskrit texts and a ritualized approach to life and devotion. This outlook marginalized women and members of the Shudra Varna because they were barred from learning the Sanskrit Vedas. Ramanuja later changed his position and became more receptive to a more inclusive theory. His metaphorical devices suggested that devotion through ritual "earned" salvation but also that salvation was given through the grace of God. Subsequently, some time around the fourteenth century, the Iyengar community divided into two sects. Both sects maintained a reverence for his works but were increasingly divided due to the doctrinal uncertainties evident in them.

The Vadakalai sect is referred to as the "Northern" culture or school, and the Tenkalai sect is the "Southern" culture or school. These cultures reference the perceived prominence given by the sects to the terse style of Sanskrit traditions and the lyrical Tamil Prabhandams, respectively. S. M. Srinivasa Chari believes this linguistic differentiation to be overstated. The Vadakalai favour Vedanta Desika as their acharya and the Tenkalai prefer instead the teachings of Manavala Mamuni. Chari notes that the sects share a common allegiance to Nammalvar and Ramanuja. and that their subsequent significant thinkers "wholly accepted the authority and importance" of both linguistic styles. Harold Schiffman says that the linguistic schism reflects wider underlying doctrinal differences between the populist southern school and the social conservatism of the north, with Tamil historically being a language understood by the masses. while Sanskrit was elitist and "caste-bound".

Vedic philosophy holds that the supreme goal in life is to attain the blissful state of Brahman through moksha, being the process of liberation of the suffering soul from the cycle of reincarnation. Although eighteen points of difference between the two Iyengar sects are generally recognised, being referred to as the ashtadasa bhedas, most of these are minor. Abraham Eraly describes a principal difference, being "... their views on the nature of divine grace - while the Thenkalai holds that devotion is all that is necessary and that god will on his own initiative carry the devotee to salvation, like a cat carrying a kitten, the Vadakalai holds that man has to win god's grace through his efforts and he has to cling on to god, like an infant monkey clinging on to its mother." Coward considers this to be the difference between the two schools of thought, and Carman says that "... both [sects] accord primacy to divine grace, but one group feels it necessary to insist that there is no human contribution at all to the attainment of salvation." These variations in interpretation of the nature of prapatti – loosely translated "self-surrender to god" – are called marjara nyaya and markata nyaya, referring to the young of cats and monkeys. They give rise to another naming convention for the two sects, being the "monkey school" and the "cat school".

Unlike the Vadakalai, the Tenkalai Iyengar sect reject the varna system, and accepted those of lower castes into their temples. The sect was founded by Pillai Lokacharya.

Vadakalai Iyengars believe that it is necessary to offer obeisance/prostration to God multiple times, while Tenkalai Iyengars believe that it is enough if you offer obeisance/prostration to God once. This is the reason why a Vadakalai Iyengar is often seen prostrating four times, while Tenkalai Iyengars are seen prostrating only once.

Sectarian rivalry
The sectarian rivalry has at times been bitter and, according to Andre Beteille, "aggressive". Thomas Manninezhath notes an intensification of disputes at the time of Thayumanavar in the eighteenth century and on other occasions legal processes have been used in attempts to settle the control of temples.

Relations with other communities
See Also: Criticism of Iyers, Brahminism, Anti-Brahminism, varna-Based Reservations in Tamil Nadu

Prior to the independence of India, Brahmins had a significant presence in the government posts and education system of Madras province, a part of which is now Tamil Nadu. Since independence, grievances and alleged instances of discrimination by Brahmins in Tamil Nadu are believed to be the main factors which fueled the Self-Respect Movement and marginalised them. This, in combination with the depressed economic and social conditions of non-Brahmins, led the non-Brahmins to agitate and form the Justice Party in 1916, which later became the Dravidar Kazhagam. The Justice Party banked on vehement anti-Hindu and anti-Brahmin propaganda to ease Brahmins out of their privileged positions. Gradually, the non-Brahmin replaced the Brahmin in every sphere and destroyed the monopoly over education and the administrative services which the Brahmin had previously held.

There were also accusations that they were Sanskritists who had a contemptuous attitude towards Tamil language, culture and civilisation. Kamil Zvelebil, a Dravidologist, argues from a study of the history of Tamil literature that this accusation is inaccurate and factually wrong. He notes that the Brahmin was chosen as a scapegoat to answer for the decline of Tamil civilisation and culture in the medieval and post-medieval periods.

Hebbar
Hebbar Iyengar or Hebbari Srivaishnava is a caste of Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin whose members follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanuja. They are found primarily in the Indian state of Karnataka especially in Southern Districts.

Mandayam
Mandayam Iyengars are a subgroup of Iyengars, settled in various parts of Karnataka, predominantly Melkote. Mandayam Iyengars also speak a different dialect of Tamil called as Mandayam Tamil. Mandayam Iyengars follow Ramanujacharya and Manavala Mamunigal. Mandyam Iyengars do not celebrate the popular Hindu festival of Diwali in remembrance of the day Tipu Sultan massacred close to 1500 men, women and children of this community on Diwali of 1773 in Srirangapatna.

Chelluru / Selvanallur

Chelluru Iyengars are a subgroup of Tenkalai Iyengars, believed to have migrated from Selvanallur ( a village in banks of Godavari) and settled in and around Madurai as early as 9th Century. Chelluru Iyengars follow Ramanujacharya and Manavala Mamunigal.

Wedding customs
Tamil Brahmin weddings are held to a distinct standard of religious orthodoxy in comparison to the ceremonies of other communities. They consist of age-old traditions, enactments, time-bound customs, as well as practices for securing kinship affiliations for the sacred initiation of the bride into her new family. These are performed in an elaborate fashion that are intended to secure the blessings of both God and one's ancestors. A typical Iyengar wedding is made up of the following events:
 * Vethalaipakku Exchange of gifts between the bride and groom
 * Pandalkal Blessing the wedding venue
 * Janavasam Heralding the arrival of the groom and inviting him to the mandapam
 * Nischayathartham Commitment to be married is made and announced to all
 * Jadhaga Naamagaranam Re-naming of bride
 * Nandi or Vratham Anointing the bride and groom
 * Kashiyathrai The groom embarks on a mock pilgrimage before the father of the bride requests him to come back to the wedding
 * Oonjal The couple exchanges garlands and sit on a decorated swing while ladies sing songs
 * Piddishuttal The couple is protected from 'dhrishti' evil eye
 * Kanyadaanam The father gives away the bride
 * Mangalya Dharanam The groom ties the sacred 'thaali' on the bride
 * Akshathai The couple is blessed with the showering of coloured rice
 * Sesha Homam Lighting of the sacred fire
 * Saptapadi The groom and bride take seven steps around the sacred fire
 * Nagoli Vasthra The bride' s family welcomes the son-in-law
 * Gruhapravesham The bride is welcomed into her marital home
 * Sambandhi Virandhu The wedding is followed by a feast for the new families
 * Reception Post-wedding celebrations
 * Nalangu The bride and groom play games while the guests sing songs

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Iyengar


text:
Passifloraceae

The Passifloraceae are a family of flowering plants, containing about 750 species classified in around 27 genera.

They include trees, shrubs, lianas, and climbing plants, and are mostly found in tropical regions. The family takes its name from the passion flower genus (Passiflora) which includes the edible passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), as well as garden plants such as maypop and running pop.

Passiflora vines and Dryas iulia (among other heliconian butterflies) have demonstrated evidence of coevolution, in which the plants attempted to stop their destruction from larval feeding by the butterflies, while the butterflies tried to gain better survival for their eggs.

The former Cronquist system of classification placed this family in the order Violales, but under more modern classifications systems such as that proposed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, this is absorbed into the Malpighiales and the family has been expanded to include the former Malesherbiaceae and Turneraceae.

Subfamily Malesherbioideae

 * Malesherbia Ruiz & Pav.

Subfamily Pibirioideae

 * Pibiria Maas

Excluded genera

 * Abatia Ruiz & Pav. → Salicaceae
 * Aphaerema Miers → Salicaceae

== Phylogeny ==

title: Passifloraceae


text:
User:Drdolittle

Drdolittle

title: User:Drdolittle


text:
User talk:Drdolittle

Paul it's bad form to write your own biography on Wikipedia. For one thing it's a conflict of interest. If you revert the page again I'll move for it to be deleted altogether. AndyL 06:17, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

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text:
Aporia

In philosophy, an aporia (ᾰ̓πορῐ́ᾱ) is a conundrum or state of puzzlement. In rhetoric, it is a declaration of doubt, made for rhetorical purpose and often feigned.

Philosophy
In philosophy, an aporia is a philosophical puzzle or a seemingly irresoluble impasse in an inquiry, often arising as a result of equally plausible yet inconsistent premises, i.e. a paradox. It can also denote the state of being perplexed, or at a loss, at such a puzzle or impasse. The notion of an aporia is principally found in Greek philosophy, but it also plays a role in post-structuralist philosophy, as in the writings of Jacques Derrida and Luce Irigaray, and it has also served as an instrument of investigation in analytic philosophy.

Plato's early dialogues are often called his 'aporetic' (Greek: ἀπορητικός) dialogues because they typically end in aporia. In such a dialogue, Socrates questions his interlocutor about the nature or definition of a concept, for example virtue or courage. Socrates then, through elenctic testing, shows his interlocutor that his answer is unsatisfactory. After a number of such failed attempts, the interlocutor admits he is in aporia about the examined concept, concluding that he does not know what it is. In Plato's Meno (84a-c), Socrates describes the purgative effect of reducing someone to aporia: it shows someone who merely thought he knew something that he does not in fact know it and instills in him a desire to investigate it.

In Aristotle's Metaphysics, aporia plays a role in his method of inquiry. In contrast to a rationalist inquiry that begins from a priori principles, or an empiricist inquiry that begins from a tabula rasa, he begins the Metaphysics by surveying the various aporiai that exist, drawing in particular on what puzzled his predecessors: "with a view to the science we are seeking [i.e., metaphysics], it is necessary that we should first review the things about which we need, from the outset, to be puzzled" (995a24). Book Beta of the Metaphysics is a list of the aporiai that preoccupy the rest of the work.

In Pyrrhonism, aporia is intentionally induced as a means of producing ataraxia.

Contemporary academic studies of the term further characterize its usage in philosophical discourses. In "Aporetics: Rational Deliberation in the Face of Inconsistency" (2009), Nicholas Rescher is concerned with the methods in which an aporia, or "apory", is intellectually processed and resolved. In the Preface, Rescher identifies the work as an attempt to "synthesize and systematize an aporetic procedure for dealing with information overload (of 'cognitive dissonance', as it is sometimes called)" (ix). The text is also useful in that it provides a more precise (although specialized) definition of the concept: "any cognitive situation in which the threat of inconsistency confronts us" (1). Rescher further introduces his specific study of the apory by qualifying the term as "a group of individually plausible but collectively incompatible theses", a designation he illustrates with the following syllogism or "cluster of contentions":

"1. What the sight of our eyes tells us is to be believed. 2. Sight tells us the stick is bent.

3. What the touch of our hand tells us is to be believed.

4. Touch tells us the stick is straight. (2)"

The aporia, or "apory" of this syllogism lies in the fact that, while each of these assertions is individually conceivable, together they are inconsistent or impossible (i.e. they constitute a paradox). Rescher's study is indicative of the continuing presence of scholarly examinations of the concept of aporia and, furthermore, of the continuing attempts of scholars to translate the word, to describe its modern meaning.

Rhetoric
Aporia is also a rhetorical device whereby the speaker expresses a doubt—often feigned—about their position or asks the audience rhetorically how the speaker should proceed. One aim of aporia may be to discredit the speaker's opponent. Aporia is also called dubitatio. For example:

"I am at no loss for information about you and your family; but I am at a loss where to begin. Shall I relate how your father Tromes was a slave in the house of Elpias, who kept an elementary school near the Temple of Theseus, and how he wore shackles on his legs and a timber collar round his neck? Or how your mother practised daylight nuptials in an outhouse next door to Heros the bone-setter, and so brought you up to act in tableaux vivants and to excel in minor parts on the stage?"

- Demosthenes, On The Crown, 129

title: Aporia


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Cairns State High School

Cairns State High School (CSHS) is an independent public secondary school located near the centre of Cairns, Queensland, Australia. It was founded in 1917 and is the oldest high school in Cairns. The school caters for grades 7 though 12 and has the capacity for 1,607 enrolled students. The principal of the school is Christopher Zilm.

History
Cairns State High School was founded in 1917 as an annex of the Cairns Central State School, and moved to its current location in 1924 as a joint high school and technical college. In 1980, the technical college relocated, thus the site became solely a high school. In May 2014, Block A of Cairns State High School - the Cairns Technical College and High School Building - was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register. This building was designed by Nigel Laman Thomas of the Department of Housing and Public Works in 1938, and built in 1939 though 1941.

Curriculum
Cairns State High School participates in various interschool and representative sport associations, including Peninsula School Sport. The school also performs dance, drama, and music productions, hosts study tours and student exchanges, and operates programmes for high-achieving students in STEM, sports, and the arts.

As of 2021, Cairns State High School no longer offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program which was introduced in 2011.

Campus
The facilities available on site include:
 * Auditorium
 * Events hall
 * Sports complex
 * Volleyball and multi-purpose courts
 * Science and computer laboratories
 * Art rooms (including kiln, printing, and photography rooms)
 * Practical arts rooms
 * Performing arts rooms (including dance studios)
 * Swimming pool

Awards and recognition
The school has received the following awards:
 * Best Orchestra Regional Area 2006 – The Orchestras of Australia Network Awards
 * Finalists – Minister’s Awards for Excellence in Art
 * Two High Distinctions, 25 Distinctions – Australasian English Competition
 * Three Distinctions, Three Credits – Australasian Schools Writing Competition
 * Cairns State High School Symphony Orchestra has also been winners of the competition FANFARE in 1992, 1994, 1996, 2002, 2004, 2016
 * Cairns State High School Chorale has won the Creative Generation Choral Fanfare in 2017, 2019 and 2021

Notable alumni

 * Aron Baynes, NBA basketball player
 * Cam Cairncross, former Major League Baseball player
 * Matthew Deane, Thai-Australian singer, model, actor and television presenter
 * Charlie Dixon, AFL player for the Suns and Power
 * Erin Holland, beauty pageant model
 * Bob Manning, ex-mayor of the Cairns Regional Council
 * Dan Sultan, musician and activist
 * Brenton Thwaites, actor

title: Cairns State High School


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Nilgiri flowerpecker

The Nilgiri flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor) is a tiny bird in the flowerpecker family. Formerly a subspecies of what used to be termed as the plain flowerpecker although that name is now reserved for Dicaeum minullum. Like others of the group, it feeds predominantly on nectar and fruits. They forage within the canopy of forests and are found in India. They are non-migratory and the widespread distribution range includes several populations that are non-overlapping and morphologically distinct, some of which are recognized as full species. They are important pollinators and dispersers of mistletoes in forests.

Description
These birds are tiny (9 cm long) and there is no marked difference between the males and females. It is found in hill forests of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri hills of southern India. It is pale brown on the upperside and the underside is whitish. The whitish brow in front of the eye is wider than in Dicaeum erythrorhynchos. This subspecies has been raised to full species by Pamela Rasmussen. The subspecies found in northeastern India, extending into Myanmar, Laos and southern China is called olivaceum by earlier authors but is treated by Rasmussen and other taxonomists now as a separate species Dicaeum minullum (which includes the population minullum from Hainan Island and is now termed as the plain flowerpecker in the more restricted sense). This is very olive above and the black bill is finer and slightly curved. The population found in the Andaman Islands virescens is also considered a separate species Dicaeum virescens (the Andaman flowerpecker) in the newer treatment. This is bright olive-green on the upperside with dark speckling on the crown. The centre of the belly has a bright patch of pale yellow.

Behaviour and ecology
The Nilgiri flowerpecker is a common resident breeding bird of woodland edges, cultivation and isolated stands of trees, often in hilly country. The call of the Nilgiri flowerpecker is a sharp check or a rapid series of ticks, while the song is a high-pitched trill. The breeding season of concolor in the Nilgiris is January to April possibly with a second brood in May and June. Two or three eggs are laid in a purse-like nest suspended from a tree or bush. Like other flowerpeckers they have a feathery tongue that allows them to sip nectar, but they feed on soft berries as well as small insects.

They are important pollinators and dispersers of mistletoes in tropical forests.

title: Nilgiri flowerpecker


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title: User:Redux


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Dicaeum

Dicaeum is a genus of birds in the flowerpecker family Dicaeidae, a group of passerines tropical southern Asia and Australasia from India east to the Philippines and south to Australia. The genus Dicaeum is closely related to the genus Prionochilus and forms a monophyletic group.

Its members are very small, stout, often brightly coloured birds, 10 to 18 cm in length, with short tails, short thick curved bills and tubular tongues. The latter features reflect the importance of nectar in the diet of many species, although berries, spiders and insects are also taken.

2-4 eggs are laid, typically in a purse-like nest suspended from a tree.

Taxonomy
The genus Dicaeum was introduced by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1816. The name is from the Ancient Greek dikaion. Cuvier claimed that this was a word for a very small Indian bird mentioned by the Roman author Claudius Aelianus but the word probably referred instead to the scarab beetle Scarabaeus sacer. The type species was designated as the scarlet-backed flowerpecker by George Robert Gray in 1840.

The genus contains the following 48 species:
 * Golden-rumped flowerpecker (Dicaeum annae)
 * Thick-billed flowerpecker (Dicaeum agile)
 * Striped flowerpecker (Dicaeum aeruginosum)
 * Brown-backed flowerpecker (Dicaeum everetti)
 * Whiskered flowerpecker (Dicaeum proprium)
 * Yellow-vented flowerpecker (Dicaeum chrysorrheum)
 * Yellow-bellied flowerpecker (Dicaeum melanozanthum)
 * Legge's flowerpecker (Dicaeum vincens)
 * Yellow-sided flowerpecker (Dicaeum aureolimbatum)
 * Olive-capped flowerpecker (Dicaeum nigrilore)
 * Yellow-crowned flowerpecker (Dicaeum anthonyi)
 * Flame-crowned flowerpecker (Dicaeum kampalili)
 * Bicolored flowerpecker (Dicaeum bicolor)
 * Red-keeled flowerpecker (Dicaeum australe)
 * Black-belted flowerpecker (Dicaeum haematostictum)
 * Scarlet-collared flowerpecker (Dicaeum retrocinctum)
 * Cebu flowerpecker (Dicaeum quadricolor)
 * Orange-bellied flowerpecker (Dicaeum trigonostigma)
 * Buzzing flowerpecker (Dicaeum hypoleucum)
 * Pale-billed flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythrorhynchos)
 * Nilgiri flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor)
 * Plain flowerpecker (Dicaeum minullum)
 * Andaman flowerpecker (Dicaeum virescens)
 * Pygmy flowerpecker (Dicaeum pygmaeum)
 * Crimson-crowned flowerpecker (Dicaeum nehrkorni)
 * Buru flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythrothorax)
 * Halmahera flowerpecker (Dicaeum schistaceiceps)
 * Ashy flowerpecker (Dicaeum vulneratum)
 * Olive-crowned flowerpecker (Dicaeum pectorale)
 * Red-capped flowerpecker (Dicaeum geelvinkianum)
 * Louisiade flowerpecker (Dicaeum nitidum)
 * Red-banded flowerpecker (Dicaeum eximium)
 * Midget flowerpecker (Dicaeum aeneum)
 * Mottled flowerpecker (Dicaeum tristrami)
 * Black-fronted flowerpecker (Dicaeum igniferum)
 * Red-chested flowerpecker (Dicaeum maugei)
 * Pink-breasted flowerpecker (Dicaeum keiense) – split from D. hirundinaceum
 * Mistletoebird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum)
 * Grey-sided flowerpecker (Dicaeum celebicum)
 * Black-sided flowerpecker (Dicaeum monticolum)
 * Fire-breasted flowerpecker (Dicaeum ignipectus)
 * Cambodian flowerpecker (Dicaeum cambodianum) – split from D. ignipectus
 * Sumatran flowerpecker (Dicaeum beccarii) – split from D. ignipectus
 * Fire-throated flowerpecker (Dicaeum luzoniense) – split from D. ignipectus
 * Blood-breasted flowerpecker (Dicaeum sanguinolentum)
 * Scarlet-backed flowerpecker (Dicaeum cruentatum)
 * Scarlet-headed flowerpecker (Dicaeum trochileum)
 * Spectacled flowerpecker (Dicaeum dayakorum)

title: Dicaeum


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Thai art

Thai art refers to a diverse range of art forms created in Thailand from prehistoric times to the present day, including architecture, sculpture, painting, textiles, decorative arts, crafts, ceramics, and more. While Buddhism has played a significant role in Thai art, with many sculptures and paintings depicting Buddha images and religious themes, nature, including flora and fauna, as well as mythical creatures, has been a major inspiration for Thai art, with colorful motifs appearing in various types of art forms. In contemporary Thai art, traditional works remain significant and continue to influence artists' concepts.

Prehistory
One of the earliest examples of artistic expression in Thailand can be found in over 410 documented rock art sites across the country, featuring both prehistoric and historic art. The majority of these sites showcase monochrome red pictograms that depict animals, humans, geometric shapes, and handprints. While the dating of many sites remains unknown, some rock art sites have been reported to date back 3,000–5,000 years ago.

Nong Ratchawat, situated in Suphanburi province, is an important prehistoric site that provides valuable insights into the lifestyles of the people who settled in the area around 2000–500 BCE. Excavations have unearthed evidence of rice cultivation, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, building construction, the creation of polished stone axes and pottery using locally available materials. The inhabitants were skilled in weaving textiles from plants possessing strong fibers, such as flax, hemp, and ramie. During the Iron Age, Nong Ratchawat became a prominent trading hub in the Mae Klong River Basin and the Tha Chin River Basin, attracting merchants from different parts of the world and leading to cultural and ethnic diversity. The river watersheds surrounding the site have yielded a plethora of artifacts, including pottery, bronze and iron tools, glass beads, ivory dice, Roman coins, and Lingling-o earrings. Ban Chiang is another important archaeological site in Thailand, located in Udon Thani province. It showcases the artistic achievements of a prehistoric culture that existed from about 2000 BCE to 300 CE. The people of Ban Chiang were skilled metalworkers, and evidence of early metallurgy, including copper and bronze artifacts, has been found at the site. The site also features diverse ceramics, some of which are decorated with distinctive red-on-buff swirl designs painted by hand.

Dvaravati art
The Dvaravati period, lasting from the 6th to the 12th centuries CE, witnessed the spread of Theravada Buddhism throughout central, northern, northeastern, and southern Thailand. While Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion during this time, there is also evidence of other religious influences, including Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism. Dvaravati art, which employed hard blue limestone or quartzite to produce intricate sculptures, stucco, and terracotta decorations, featured symmetrical Buddha images standing or seated on thrones and the Wheel of the Law. The art style of Dvaravati owed its influence to the art of the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods in northern India, as well as the Buddhist art of Amaravati in southern India. People of Dvaravati were likely the Mons, as evidenced by various inscriptions during this period. The Dvaravati period played a significant role in the dissemination of Buddhism across the region, with noteworthy examples of Dvaravati towns including Nakhon Pathom ancient city in Nakhon Pathom province, U-Thong in Suphanburi province, Chan Sen in Nakhon Sawan province, Si Thep in Phetchabun province, Hariphunchai in Lamphun province, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang in Kalasin province, Champasi in Maha Sarakham province, Sema in Nakhon Ratchasima province, Baan Dong Lakorn in Nakhon Nayok province, Ku Bua in Ratchaburi province, and Yarang in Pattani province.

Srivijaya art
During the 8th-13th centuries CE, Southern Thailand may have been influenced by the Srivijaya Kingdom, which encompassed Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. This resulted in similarities between Srivijaya art in Southern Thailand and Central Java art in Indonesia, specifically in bronze sculptures and votive tablets. The ancient sites in Chaiya, Southern Thailand, also bear resemblances to Central Java art, with Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya being the most similar. The majority of sculptures discovered in Southern Thailand are of religious significance, depicting figures such as the Avalokitesvara, Buddha protected by a Nāga, and clay votive tablets with Buddhist iconography. Srivijaya art in Southern Thailand, from Surat Thani to Songkhla, displays the influence of Indian art styles such as Gupta, post-Gupta, and Pala–sena, indicating a strong connection to Mahayana Buddhism.

U-Thong art
U-Thong art, also known as Suphannaphum-Ayothaya art, emerged in central Thailand between the 12th and 15th centuries CE, contemporaneously with Chiang Saen and Sukhothai art. This style received its name from the U-Thong Kingdom, which was centered in the U Thong District, although this kingdom's existence is ambiguous. It is characterized by a Buddha image style influenced by Dvaravati, Lopburi, and Sukhothai arts, with the Dvaravati influence being the most prominent. The resulting architecture and fine arts are collectively referred to as U-Thong and can be found in various provinces, including Suphanburi, Nakhon Pathom, Chai Nat, Lopburi, and Ayutthaya.

U-Thong architecture is closely related to Theravada Buddhism and features low-roofed ubosot, vihāra, and chedis constructed with wood. A unique style of U-Thong chedi has an octagonal base, eight-sided structure, lotus crystal-adorned roof, and bell. These chedis are commonly found at various temples, such as Sankhaburi in Chai Nat province or some temples in Suphanburi. Another type of U-Thong chedi is found at Wat Phra Borommathat in Chai Nat province and shows similarities to Srivijaya art.

Bronze sculptures from the U-Thong period exemplify elaborate casting, inheriting from the earlier Dvaravati art. Sukhothai art mixed with U-Thong art, resulting in lighter Buddha statues with flame auras, eventually becoming characteristic of early Ayutthaya art. The U-Thong or Ayothaya Kingdom was dissolved with the establishment of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.

Sukhothai art
Sukhothai art emerged in the 13th to 15th centuries CE, coincided with the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom. This art form was influenced by Theravada Buddhism, which was propagated from Lanka through Nakhon Si Thammarat. One of the most notable characteristics of Sukhothai art is the authentic Sukhothai-style chedi, also referred to as Phum khao bin, which has a distinct lotus-shaped design.

Another defining feature of Sukhothai art is the Buddha images' graceful and elegant form, which exhibits refined proportions, a distinctive flame-like halo around the head, and a serene expression. These Buddha images are typically seated in the half-lotus posture with the right hand performing the earth-touching gesture or walking with one foot forward and the right hand raised to the chest. The walking Buddha, in particular, is a unique style closely associated with Sukhothai.

The Sukhothai Kingdom was also renowned for its exceptional glazed ceramics, which were produced in the Sangkhalok style. These ceramics featured delicate blue-green or grayish-green tints and intricate designs painted in black or a darker hue of the glaze. They were fired at high temperatures, resulting in a durable and robust body. Despite its short-lived existence, the Sukhothai Kingdom's artistic legacy remains influential to this day. The kingdom's artistry and craftsmanship were absorbed into the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which succeeded it.

Lanna art
Lanna art, also known as Chiang Saen art, denotes an artistic tradition that emerged in northern Thailand, spanning the period from the 14th to the 19th century AD. Its inception was in Chiang Saen; however, the establishment of the Lanna Kingdom with Chiang Mai as its capital caused a shift in artistic production. Lanna art is deeply entrenched in Theravada Buddhism, which was the dominant religion in the region. While initially, it drew inspiration from Hariphunchai art, it gradually evolved its distinct style.

Lanna chedis are typically bell-shaped, evolving from a round plan to a polygonal plan as seen in the pagoda at Wat Phra That Doi Suthep. Some chedis, for example, the one containing King Tilokaraj's ashes at Wat Chet Yot, were influenced by Sukhothai architecture. The Buddha images of Lanna are frequently depicted with specific attributes like a round face, a smiling expression, and curled-up hair or an egg-shaped face with a halo of flames.

Ayutthaya art
Ayutthaya art thrived between the 14th and 18th centuries CE, during the rise and dominance of the Ayutthaya Kingdom across much of mainland Southeast Asia. It inherited the artistic traditions of late U-Thong art and developed a distinctive style that blended various cultural influences from Sukhothai, Lopburi, India, Persia, China, Japan, and Europe. Ayutthaya also exerted its artistic influence over its vassal states of Angkor and Lanna.

The art of Ayutthaya was characterized by a diverse array of techniques and styles, including the grand palaces and monasteries decorated with chedis, prangs, and Buddha images. Religious icons were often adorned with regal attire and crowns, emphasizing the close relationship between the king and the Buddha. Artisans showcased their expertise in the creation of lacquerware and mother-of-pearl inlay, producing functional and decorative objects with intricate designs and vivid paintings. These techniques were frequently used to decorate religious objects such as Buddha images.

Chang Sip Mu, which means Ten Essential Traditional Craftsmanship, played a crucial role in both civilian and military fief houses during the Ayutthaya period. This is evidenced by its recognition under the Three Seals Law implemented by King Borommatrailokkanat. Despite the name suggesting only ten groups of highly skilled craftsmen, the group actually comprised more than ten groups who were experts in various fields. However, after the Burmese army burned down the city in 1767 CE, various branches of fine arts that had thrived during the late Ayutthaya period had to disperse because craftsmen were taken away. Despite this unfortunate event, the city's artistic heritage can still be appreciated today at the archaeological site of the historic city and in various museums.

Rattanakosin art
Rattanakosin art is a style of art that emerged in 1780, when the Rattanakosin Kingdom was founded by King Rama I. The king wanted to revive the artistic traditions that had been lost during the destruction of the Ayutthaya Kingdom by the Burmese. He re-established Chang Sip Mu, a group of ten craftsmen who were responsible for creating fine art in Bangkok. Later, this group became part of the Fine Arts Department.

The early Rattanakosin art was influenced by the late Ayutthaya art, which was characterized by the use of bright colors, gold leaf, and solid backgrounds in paintings. The artists also restored some of the art forms that had been damaged or lost, such as lacquerware and mother-of-pearl inlay.

During the reign of King Rama III, Rattanakosin art began to incorporate elements from other cultures, such as European and Chinese. This was especially evident in architectural art, which blended Thai and Chinese styles. For example, the Grand Palace and Wat Pho were built with Chinese-style roofs and decorations.

King Rama IV introduced more changes to Rattanakosin art, as he was interested in Western science and culture. He adopted European architectural styles and techniques, such as Gothic and neoclassical, and also learned about linear perspective from Western paintings. He hired Khrua In Khong, a talented painter who applied linear perspective to Thai paintings and created realistic scenes of nature and society.

King Rama V continued the modernization and westernization of Rattanakosin art, as he traveled to Europe and brought back new ideas and materials. He commissioned many buildings that combined Thai and European styles, such as the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall and the Vimanmek Mansion and mixed-style such as Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall. He also supported the production of Benjarong, a type of porcelain with colorful patterns that had previously been imported from China with Thai patterns but later began to be produced locally.

Contemporary art
Contemporary Thai art emerged in the 1990s, blending old and new Thai cultural features with a diverse color palette and patterns to create modern and appealing art. However, its roots can be traced back to Khrua In Khong, the first Thai artist to adopt the Western realist style in his paintings, which added more depth and realism to his works.

Silpa Bhirasri, an Italian sculptor who came to Thailand in 1923 and founded the School of Fine Arts, which later became Silpakorn University, played a pivotal role in introducing modern art concepts and techniques to Thai artists and students. He taught them perspective, anatomy, composition, and color theory, and established the National Art Exhibition in 1949, providing a platform to showcase and promote Thai art. Silpa Bhirasri's famous sculptures and paintings reflected his artistic vision and appreciation of Thai culture and history, making him widely regarded as the father of Thai contemporary art.

Silpa Bhirasri's influence can be seen in the works of Fua Haripitak and Sawasdi Tantisuk, who were Thailand's avant-gardes in the 1950s and 1960s. These artists challenged the conventional norms and expectations of Thai art by creating abstract and expressive works that explored their personal feelings and experiences. They used bold colors, shapes, and textures to convey their emotions and ideas, incorporating elements of Thai culture and spirituality, such as Buddhist symbols, folk motifs, and astrological signs, into their works. Their trailblazing efforts paved the way for many more artists of later generations, such as Damrong Wong-Upraj, Manit Poo-Aree, Pichai Nirand, and Anant Panin, to experiment with new forms and styles of expression.

In the mid-1990s, a group of artists created the Chiang Mai Social Installation, which brought art and performance out of the traditional gallery setting and into the streets of Chiang Mai.

The Bangkok Art Biennale, launched in 2018, provides a platform for artists to showcase their work on an international stage. These developments reflect a growing interest in Thai contemporary art and the increasing willingness of artists to experiment with new forms of expression

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Traditional
Traditional Thai painting is an ancient art form that has been passed down through generations in Thailand. The art form evolved through the Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and Rattanakosin periods, with each era contributing unique elements to the style. The paintings typically feature flat images with lines as the main boundaries, and use secondary elements such as trees, mountains, streams, and rocks as dividing events or areas of the image. The use of color is flat paint and does not show shadows. Natural colors derived from earth elements, minerals, rocks, metals, plants, and some parts of animals are used in traditional Thai painting. The colors are often monochromatic, but there are also five-color variations called benjarong.

During the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods, traditional Thai painting evolved and was influenced by elements of the culture, including monochromatic and various colors. The paintings were found at various locations such as the ubosot, prang, viharn, sermon hall, ho trai, kuti, dharma cabinet, samut khoi, and phra bat. Ayutthaya period has more surviving examples of paintings, with many found in the form of murals on temple walls featuring Buddhism-related subjects such as history of the Buddha, Mahanipata Jataka, and Thep Chumnum.

In the Rattanakosin period traditional Thai painting was inspired by the events of the country, life, society, traditions, costumes, houses, temples, castles, palaces, nature, and various animals. Portraits and architecture stand out in groups, using strong colors and strongly contrasting opposite colors. The contrasting colors are balanced and harmonized. The composition of the picture often features the Tri Bhum image behind the principal Buddha image and a picture telling the story of the Lord Buddha and the Jataka tales on the side. Traditional Thai painting from this period is characterized by a heavy dark background and a heavy use of gold leaf.

From the end of the reign of King Rama III, the influence of Western painting began to flow into Thailand. This resulted in a modification of traditional Thai painting styles in various Buddhist places. The original flat images were transformed into deep, three-dimensional images that look more realistic, influenced by the Western style of painting. An important painter during the reign of King Rama IV was Khrua In Khong. He was one of the first Thai painters to experiment with the Western style of painting while maintaining the traditional Thai art form.

Many of the images in traditional Thai painting tell stories of the Lord Buddha, the Jataka tales, or important events in Thai history. The paintings often feature intricate details and designs that are specific to Thai culture, such as the traditional Thai costumes and architecture. Traditional Thai painting is still practiced today, with modern artists combining the traditional art form with contemporary techniques and styles.

Contemporary
One of the pioneers of modern Thai painting is Khrua In Khong, who is highly regarded for his expressive and atmospheric works that break free from traditional painting rules. His art emphasizes the value of painting beyond just theoretical reasons, inspiring future generations of Thai artists to create unique and innovative works. Starting from 1957, the influence of European art movements such as Impressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism became more evident in the works of Thai painters, including Fua Haripitak, Sawat Tantisuk, Kiettisak Chanonnart, Ithipol Thangchalok, Tuan Thirapichit, and Decha Warachoon.

Sculpture
Thai sculpture is a diverse and intricate art form that encompasses various styles and techniques, from the shallow depths of bas relief to the three-dimensional forms of high relief and floating round reliefs, and is often used for religious purposes as well as for decorative and functional objects such as pottery.

Wood carving
Wood is one of the most commonly available materials in tropical regions. In Thailand, the most commonly used woods for carving are teak, takhian, rosewood, padu, and makha. Wood carving has been a traditional craft in Thailand for centuries, with skilled artisans creating a wide variety of objects, including decorative items and functional pieces such as doors, windows, Buddha images, and decorative patterns for buildings and furniture.

Stone carving
Thai sculpture almost exclusively depicts images of the Buddha, being very similar with the other styles from Southeast Asia, such as Khmer. Most of the sculptures depict Buddha. An exception is the dvarapala.

Crafts and decorative arts
Chang Sip Mu refers to ten different types of craftsmen highly respected in Thai culture. The term "Chang" means a skilled artisan or technician, while "Sip Mu" means ten groups. This tradition dates back to the Ayutthaya period, where there were even more groups of craftsmen. Each group has a specific skill set, including drawing and painting, carving, engraving, turning, casting, molding and sculpting, model building, lacquering, metal beating, and plastering. For centuries, these craftsmen have passed down their skills through generations. Their works of art include Buddha images, lacquerware, metalwork, and decorative patterns.

Basketry
Wicker weaving has been an integral part of Thailand's handicraft tradition for centuries. Thai craftsmen have honed their skills in creating wicker products made from various materials such as bamboo, rattan, palm leaves, coconut leaf, krajood leaf, lipao, and other plant-based materials. These products are commonly found in Thai households and range from furniture pieces like chairs and tables to smaller items like baskets, trays, lamps, and other. The craft is typically passed down through families and small workshops, where the next generation of craftsmen learns the techniques and intricacies of wicker weaving.

Glass blowing
Glass blowing has evolved over time, with the introduction of new techniques to enhance the beauty and artistic value of the work. Sandblasting is used to create a turbid surface, while gilding with gold leaves and coating with flaxseed oil are common methods to create a value-added product that is more attractive and worthy of collection. These tactics have contributed to the popularity of glass blowing as an art form, with a range of works produced in Thailand since its introduction in 1977. Today, there are training courses and institutions that produce scientific tools, making glass blowing accessible to both children and adults. The works produced vary in price and complexity, ranging from inexpensive animal figures to collectible sculptures like the mythical Royal Barge Suphannahong and other creatures.

Patterns and motifs
Patterns in Thai art and design are often inspired by nature, including plants and animals. These patterns are commonly used to adorn buildings, clothing, and household items for various occasions. Thai artists and craftspeople draw inspiration from a variety of natural elements, such as lotus flowers, garlands, smoke, incense, and candle flames, to create unique and diverse patterns. Lotuses, including the sacred lotus, double red lotus, and magnolia lotus, have served as inspiration for many of these patterns, while others have been inspired by the swaying flames.

Kranok pattern: The pattern is usually represented as a triangular shape with unequal sides or a lotus bud shape and is composed of three parts: the body, the tail, and the top. Skilled craftsmen create the intricate designs using knotting techniques. Kranok is derived from nature, based on the four elements of earth, water, wind, and fire, and must consist of the five elements of flora, which include clumps, sheaths, branches, and leaves. These elements are tied together in a pattern to form Kranok. The pattern has been widely used in Thai art, architecture, and crafts and is still celebrated today as a symbol of Thai heritage and culture.

Krajung pattern: The structure of the pattern is in the form of an equilateral triangle, resembling the petals of a lotus or sugarcane leaves. The sides are pointed and separated, as if being pulled apart. This pattern is commonly used as a decorative border, such as on traditional Thai wooden furniture or on the top of Thai architectural features.

Prajam yam pattern: The structure of the pattern is in the form of a square, resembling a four-petal flower. It is a popular decorative motif in Thai art and can be used to create continuous patterns or as individual floating flowers. The Prajam yam pattern is commonly used as a repeating motif in decorative patterns, such as on textiles, pottery, and architecture.

Phum khao bin pattern: The structure of the pattern is in the shape of a cluster of rice seeds, or the shape of a lotus bud. This pattern is often seen in Thai architecture, such as the chedi dated to the Sukhothai period.

Kap pattern: A tall pattern used to decorate or wrap around the base of poles or various rectangular shapes in architectural works. It resembles sugarcane or bamboo, and the pattern itself has protruding parts.

Nok khab and Nak khob pattern: This pattern features the face of a bird or naga with its beak covering or incorporating other patterns. The design is typically located at the joint where the stem connects to the flower or leaf, and is a common decorative element in Thai art and architecture.

Damascene
Damasceneware, also known as Kram in Thai, involves inlaying refined silver or gold stripes into a carved pattern on steel objects like scissors, cane heads, and royal weapons. It is believed to have been influenced by the Persians who traded with Thailand during the Ayutthaya period. The method of inlaying silver is called Kram Ngern and gold is called Kram Thong. As the weapons of troop leaders during the Ayutthaya and early Rattanakosin periods were also used by the kings, they needed to be beautifully decorated. However, as the weapons were made of iron, it was impossible to use precious stones or enamel for decoration. The only option was to use inlay work. This technique was also used for decorating the costumes of royal family members and auspicious royal articles like regalia, which symbolized regal authority.

Niello
Nielloware, also known as Thom in Thai, is a technique used to decorate silverware and goldware. The technique involves carving intricate patterns onto a metal surface and filling the grooves with a black mixture, making the pattern more visible. Historically, nielloware was used as rank decorations and was considered exclusive to the upper class. There are several categories of nielloware, including silver or black nielloware, gold nielloware, Thom Ta Thong, and Thom Chuthathut. Thom Ta Thong involves silver nielloware with gold painted on certain places, while Thom Chuthathut is an inlay technique on silver plates. The art of nielloware has been passed down through generations of artisans. To create nielloware, the artisan carves the desired pattern onto the metal surface, then applies a black mixture to the grooves, making the pattern more visible. The technique requires a steady hand and a great deal of patience to produce the intricate designs that are characteristic of nielloware.

Lai rot nam
The art of Lai rot nam is a time-honored tradition in Thailand that involves using gold leaf and black lacquer to decorate various objects with intricate and delicate designs. This art form requires exceptional skill and precision to execute properly, as the gold leaf must be applied in various designs that can range from simple geometric patterns to intricate depictions of mythical creatures and scenes from Buddhist mythology. The use of black lacquer, which is made from the resin of the Rak tree, creates a contrast against the gold leaf and enhances the visual impact of the overall design.

Long rak pid thong
Long rak pid thong is a refined and intricate Thai art form that employs gold leaf to embellish lacquered surfaces. This technique involves layering Rak resin onto a chosen material and allowing each layer to dry before proceeding to the next. Once the surface is smooth, artisans meticulously apply gold leaf by hand or brush, carefully following engraved lines and intricate patterns. Long rak pid thong is used to adorn various objects, including furniture, utensils, religious artifacts, and architectural elements such as chofa, bairaka, and arches.

Mother-of-pearl inlay
Mother-of-pearl inlay, also referred to as Muk or Pradab muk in Thai, involves the meticulous process of engraving and decorating small pieces of shell onto utensils using a binder called Rak. The iridescent colors produced by the reflecting shells create a stunning contrast against the black background. In the past, Muk was mainly used in royal institutions and Buddhist sacred sites. Today, the craft is primarily utilized for creating small souvenirs like pedestal bowls, trays, cigarette cases, and lighters due to its time-consuming production process.

Pradab krachok
Another variation of Thai lacquer art is Pradab krachok, which involves the use of lacquer and mosaic decorations on traditional utensils, Khon apparel, and architectural details. Thai craftsmen follow a traditional method of first coating the chosen material with Rak lacquer before placing small glass pieces. They then apply a special mixture of boiled resin and powder made from burnt coconut shell, bricks, dried banana leaf, or rak samuk, which is a mixture of Rak resin and the ashes of dried banana leaves or grass. As the mixture seeps between the glass pieces and forms a seal, it prevents water from entering.

Lacquer painting
Lacquer painting, or Lai kammalor in Thai, is a technique that involves the use of powdered color and Rak varnish or its sun-dried raw form to create intricate works of art. The black resin board serves as the painting's background, and it is often accentuated by gold leaf or powder. Lacquer paintings are typically found on doors, windows, cabinets, partitions, and gold-gilded surfaces in Thailand. Although the technique had disappeared after the fall of Ayutthaya, it was revived successfully during the reign of King Rama III. However, the art form slowly declined again after his death.

Khrueang khoen
Khrueang khoen involves a lacquering technique that creates wooden and rattan items with a Rak resin latex surface. The surface is decorated with motifs created through scratching techniques or the application of vermillion or gold leaves. The craft originated from the Khün people who migrated into Northern Thailand from Kengtung in Shan state, Myanmar.

Paper
Samut khoi is an ancient type of Thai book that has been crafted for centuries from the bark of the Streblus asper tree. This type of paper is highly valued for its durability and is perfect for writing important documents and texts. Thai paper-making also involves the use of mulberry tree fibers to create Sa paper. This paper is known for its strength and versatility, making it ideal for use in traditional crafts such as lanterns, umbrellas, and parasols, which are often embellished with vibrant patterns and colors. Mulberry paper is also used in the intricate art of khon mask-making, as well as in the creation of wao, colorful kites that are flown during festivals and competitions.

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title: Thai art


text:
Thick-billed flowerpecker

The  thick-billed flowerpecker  (Dicaeum agile) is a tiny bird in the flowerpecker group. They feed predominantly on fruits and are active birds that are mainly seen in the tops of trees in forests. It is a resident bird with a wide distribution across tropical southern Asia from India east to Indonesia and Timor with several populations recognized as subspecies some of which are sometimes treated as full species.

Description
This species flowerpecker is about 10 cm long and has a dark stout beak and short tail. They are dark grey brown above and dull greyish with diffuse streaking on light buffy underparts. The rump is slightly more olive in the nominate race. The bill is dark, somewhat stout and heavy and the iris is reddish. The sexes are not distinguishable in the field and the juvenile has a paler base to the mandible and less streaks on the underside. There are whitish spots at the tip of the tail feathers. The nominate race is found on the plains of the mainland of the Indian Subcontinent. The Sri Lankan population, zeylonense (=zeylonicum, zeylonica), is smaller and darker above. and Subspecies modestum (including pallescens) is found in northeastern India and extends into Burma. Several island forms have been described but some of them are only tentatively kept within this species. These include atjehense of Sumatra, finschi of western Java, tinctum of Sumba, Flores and Alor, obsoletum from Timor, striatissimum, aeruginosum and affine from the Philippines. Several of these such as aeruginosum are considered as full species as they are reproductively isolated and distinct in morphology.

Behaviour and ecology
Like other flowerpeckers they feed mainly on berries, nectar but sometimes take insects. Many of the subspecies are found in dense lowland forests with the exception of the nominate race which is found mainly in cultivated areas or open forest.

Unlike the pale-billed flowerpecker, it does not swallow the berries of Loranthus (some species now in genus Dendrophthoe) and instead wipes the seeds on a branch and feeds on the epicarp. This makes it disperse the parasitic mistletoe locally unlike the other species. In Sri Lanka, they forage at a greater height in the canopy than the pale-billed flowerpecker.

Foraging birds produce a spick call frequently and the tail is jerked from side to side when perched. When displaying the male twitters and flutters over the female. The song is rambling and is mixed with notes that resemble that of the ashy prinia. The feathers of the crown are erected in display and the white bases of the feathers become visible as a crown stripe.

The nest has been described as appearing camouflaged like a dry leaf. It is a pendant purse like structure made of cobwebs or fine plant fibres and is located from 3 to 15 metres high suspended from a thin horizontal branch. Said to frequently nest among the nests of Oecophylla smaragdina ants. The breeding season in southern India is December to March. Both male and female participate in nest building. The usual clutch is about 3 eggs but can vary from 2 to 4. The incubation period is around 13 days and the chick takes around 18 days to fledge.

title: Thick-billed flowerpecker


text:
Hugh Kennedy (judge)

Hugh Edward Kennedy (11 July 1879 – 1 December 1936) was an Irish judge, politician and barrister who served as Chief Justice of Ireland from 1924 to 1936, a judge of the Supreme Court from 1924 to 1936 and Attorney General of Ireland from 1922 to 1924. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Dublin South constituency from 1923 to 1924. As a member of the Irish Free State Constitution Commission, he was also one of the constitutional architects of the Irish Free State.

Early life and education
Kennedy was born in Dublin in 1879. He was the son of the surgeon Hugh Boyle Kennedy and Mary Kate Kennedy (née Kennedy; not related), from County Tipperary. His younger sister was the journalist Mary Olivia Kennedy. He studied for the examinations of the Royal University while a student at University College Dublin and King's Inns, Dublin, and was called to the Bar in 1902. He was appointed King's Counsel in 1920 and became a Bencher of King's Inn in 1922.

He married Clare Murphy (died 1975) in Dublin in 1911. They had no children. She was the daughter of a successful Liverpool Irish timber merchant, John Murphy.

Legal career
During 1920 and 1921, Kennedy was a senior legal adviser to the representatives of Dáil Éireann during the negotiations for the Anglo-Irish Treaty. He was highly regarded as a lawyer by Michael Collins, who later regretted that Kennedy had not been part of the delegation sent to London in 1921, to negotiate the terms of the treaty.

On 31 January 1922, Kennedy became the first Attorney General in the Provisional Government of the Irish Free State. Later that year he was appointed by the Provisional Government to the Irish Free State Constitution Commission to draft the Constitution of the Irish Free State. The Irish Free State was established on 6 December 1922. The functions of the Provisional Government were transferred to the Executive Council of the Irish Free State. Kennedy was appointed Attorney General of the Irish Free State on 7 December 1922.

In 1923, he was appointed to the Judiciary Commission by the Government of the Irish Free State, on a reference from the Government to establish a new system for the administration of justice in accordance with the Constitution of the Irish Free State. The Judiciary Commission was chaired by Lord Glenavy, who had also been the last Lord Chancellor of Ireland. It drafted the Courts of Justice Act 1924 for a new court system, including a High Court and a Supreme Court, and provided for the abolition, inter alia, of the Irish Court of Appeal and the Irish High Court of Justice. Most of the judges were not reappointed to the new courts. Kennedy personally oversaw the selection of the new judges, and made impressive efforts to select them on merit alone. The results were not always happy: his diary, of which some extracts have been published, reveal the increasingly unhappy atmosphere in the Supreme Court itself, due to frequent clashes between Kennedy and his colleague Gerald Fitzgibbon, since the two men proved to be so different in temperament and political outlook that they found it almost impossible to work together harmoniously. In a similar vein, Kennedy's legal opinion and choice of words could raise eyebrows amongst legal colleagues and fury in the Executive Council, for example regarding the Kenmare incident.

He was also a delegate of the Irish Free State to the Fourth Assembly of the League of Nations, between 3 and 29 September 1923.

Political career
He was elected to Dáil Éireann on 27 October 1923, as a Cumann na nGaedheal TD at a by-election in the Dublin South constituency. He was the first person to be elected in a by-election to Dáil Éireann. He resigned his seat in June 1924 when he was appointed Chief Justice of Ireland.

Judicial career
On 5 June 1924, he was appointed Chief Justice of Ireland, thereby becoming the first Chief Justice of the Irish Free State. He is also the youngest person appointed Chief Justice of Ireland. When he was appointed he was 44 years old. Although the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal had been abolished and replaced by the High Court and the Supreme Court respectively. Kennedy campaigned for the replacement of the wigs and gowns traditionally worn by judges and barristers, which he regarded as the trappings of an alien regime. He received little support from the judges or the government and the traditional dress was retained. He held the position of Chief Justice, until his death on 1 December 1936.

In September 2015, a biography by Patrick Kennedy (no relation) was written on him called Hugh Kennedy: The Great But Neglected Chief Justice.

title: Hugh Kennedy (judge)


text:
Talk:Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire

map improvement request
A better map would be nice. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 15:33, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

1831
The Ottoman Empire was hardly at the height of its power in 1831. --The Phoenix 06:42, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

single list of Beylerbeylik
The provincial administration of the Ottoman Empire changed as the wars, the conquests of lands and later territorial losses occurred. So to state one list of Beylerbeylik (governor-generalship or province) does not give a clear picture of the provincial administration of an Empire that has lasted from 1300 to 1924. To state 'at the height of power' is again is very controversial. Was it in 15th Century or 16th Century or even 17th Century?

The following summary table, although not perfect and not fully informative, is the list of Beylerbeylik (Province governed by a Beylerbeyi) of the Ottoman state 'at the height of its power  at the end of 16. Century'.

There were also number of autonomous provinces, whose ruler was a hereditary 'head' and whose revenues also belonged to that 'head'. There were two different types of vassal autonomous provinces:
 * Christian vassal states: Moldavia (Bogdan), Wallachia (Eflak), Transylvania (Erdel), Ragusa (Dubrovnik), Georgia and Circassia. Sometime in 17. century the Cossack Hetman.
 * Muslim principalities: Khanate of Crimea and  Sherifate of Mecca. For a time the following frontier provinces also were governed as autonomous Moslem principalities: Gilan, Trablus-Garb, Tunus,  Cezayir.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.101.65.248 (talk • contribs) 13:16, 23 December 2004

more

 * Wasn't the vylayet of Silistra a province too? [anonymous] - yes it was : Silistire/Silistra*, 1812 - 1864 (now Bulgaria) Fastifex 08:14, 23 May 2006 (UTC)
 * please more info is needed how ethiopia become one of the province of ottoman empire, the name of the capital city and who was the ruler of ethiopia at the time? 				   --207.200.116.10 00:16, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

- it turns out the term only refers to Eritrea, which was shortly wrested from the Abessinian orthodox empire, not that major Ethipian state. Quite interesting (e.g. Turkish names) seems this German-language specialised site I consulted for moth answers: osmanischesreich.com Fastifex 08:14, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

Map needed.
This whole thing seems odd and vauge without a map. Zazaban 18:48, 24 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree, the map is terrible, impossible to read, and only shows cities, not provinces. We don't need massive detail, just an area map that shows one or two cities. See Kosovo_Province, Ottoman Empire for a decent example. A sequence of vali or governors would be nice too, so people studying this history can tell what the heck is going on. Why do these provinces given in the table above have a different name (beylerbeylik) than "vilayet"? None of the articles on this subject are very coherent with each other. 216.231.46.147 01:20, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Actually, when I made the comment there was no map. Zazaban 03:04, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Rumelia Vilayet was in Manasdır
The vilayet of Rumelia was in Manasdır (or Bitola). But it did not covered today's Turkey .look at vilayet-i selase. Plaese be correct.--3210 16:35, 28 December 2006 (UTC)

Vilayet vs Province
There seems to have been a consensus to use the Turkish word Vilayet for identifying subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, but this seems to have been changed by several users to province. It seems to me that consistency requires one or the other, and given previous consensus, the articles that have been named Province need to be renamed Koakhtzvigad (talk) 10:50, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Most are converted to Vilayet and Eyalet, they were originally created as Province articles. But please help at Talk:Temeşvar_Province,_Ottoman_Empire
 * I think Category:Provinces of the Ottoman Empire should be emptied. In case of doubt disambiguation pages can be created like Erzurum Province, Ottoman Empire disambiguating between Erzurum Eyalet and Erzurum Vilayet.
 * I created Category:Sanjaks of the Ottoman Empire. GRprefectures-have-been-dissolved (talk) 12:00, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Sure, but I think you mean redirects (rather than disambiguation) can be created for those who don't know the words Vilayet and Eyalet? Koakhtzvigad 14:22, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Read Erzurum Province, Ottoman Empire and then I think you know what I meant? GRprefectures-have-been-dissolved (talk) 16:04, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

Ottoman history by country
I created Category:History of the Ottoman Empire by country and I think all by country articles should be moved, History of Ottoman Kosovo->Ottoman Kosovo, Cyprus under the Ottoman Empire->Ottoman Cyprus. GRprefectures-have-been-dissolved (talk) 12:01, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure why you created this Category. It seems to me history of various modern states during their Ottoman periods would conventionally be described in their history sections/articles. No such categories exist for the Category:History of the British Empire by country or Category:History of the Russian Empire by country Koakhtzvigad 14:26, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * It seems to me that the title Cyprus under the Ottoman Empire is also not very appropriate. After all, it wasn't under anything, but was a part of the Ottoman Empire. Perhaps consider renaming to Cyprus as a province of the Ottoman Empire? Koakhtzvigad (talk) 14:31, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * There were several articles like Ottoman Greece these are now collected in the new category. I wanted to have them in one category. For Cyprus: Exactly, see my proposal. GRprefectures-have-been-dissolved (talk) 16:03, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

dead link?
The link to "Lazistan" in the article under Eyalets that disappeard before 1609 is dead because it does not link to Lazistan but to *Lazistan However an article "Lazistan" exists that seems to describe what is meant here and is certainly better than linking to a dead end. I tried to link Lazistan to Lazistan - but that was undone: Takabeg (talk | contribs) (16,060 bytes) (Undid revision 440105379 by ConjurerDragon (talk) this was a province.) (undo) Why? ConjurerDragon (talk) 06:06, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

 * First of all, this is "abnormal" edit. Do I have to explain this abnormality ? And if the article Lazistan explains Lazistan as a geographical area, the article "District of Lazistan" (Sanjak of Lazistan, Liva of Lazistan) that explains "Lazistan" as a administrative units. But if, we want to explain "Lazistan" as a administrative units, we have to change title (Sanjak of Lazistan, like German Wikipedia Sandschak Lazistan and contents (like Sanjak of Niš, Sanjak of Smederevo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar etc.). As long as I understand, there is disambiguation in the article Lazistan, which is one of the sourceless articles. Takabeg (talk) 06:59, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

That seems wrong to me. First you have a link that leads nowhere instead of leading to the existing article about Lazistan. And then you start talking here about changing that articles name to fit your link. If you want the name of the Lazistan article changed you should suggest that in the discussion about that article. As long as no specific article about the administrative unit Lazistan of the OE exists the existing article about Lazistan (that mentions the Ottoman period briefly) is better than nothing. If you don´t want to link to Lazistan - then what about redirecting the not existing article "Lazistan Province, Ottoman Empire" to Lazistan as it is done with Lorri or Moldavia? ConjurerDragon (talk) 08:26, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

I have now created a redirect from the not existing "Lazistan Province, Ottoman Empire" article to the existing article Lazistan. Practically the same as linking directly to Lazistan and better than linking to an article that does not exist with a dead link. ConjurerDragon (talk) 07:20, 1 August 2011 (UTC)

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