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Kunihiko Kodaira

Kunihiko Kodaira (小平 邦彦) was a Japanese mathematician known for distinguished work in algebraic geometry and the theory of complex manifolds, and as the founder of the Japanese school of algebraic geometers. He was awarded a Fields Medal in 1954, being the first Japanese national to receive this honour.

Early years
Kodaira was born in Tokyo. He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1938 with a degree in mathematics and also graduated from the physics department at the University of Tokyo in 1941. During the war years he worked in isolation, but was able to master Hodge theory as it then stood. He obtained his PhD from the University of Tokyo in 1949, with a thesis entitled Harmonic fields in Riemannian manifolds. He was involved in cryptographic work from about 1944, while holding an academic post in Tokyo.

Institute for Advanced Study and Princeton University
In 1949 he travelled to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey at the invitation of Hermann Weyl. He was subsequently also appointed Associate Professor at Princeton University in 1952 and promoted to Professor in 1955. At this time the foundations of Hodge theory were being brought in line with contemporary technique in operator theory. Kodaira rapidly became involved in exploiting the tools it opened up in algebraic geometry, adding sheaf theory as it became available. This work was particularly influential, for example on Friedrich Hirzebruch.

In a second research phase, Kodaira wrote a long series of papers in collaboration with Donald C. Spencer, founding the deformation theory of complex structures on manifolds. This gave the possibility of constructions of moduli spaces, since in general such structures depend continuously on parameters. It also identified the sheaf cohomology groups, for the sheaf associated with the holomorphic tangent bundle, that carried the basic data about the dimension of the moduli space, and obstructions to deformations. This theory is still foundational, and also had an influence on the (technically very different) scheme theory of Grothendieck. Spencer then continued this work, applying the techniques to structures other than complex ones, such as G-structures.

In a third major part of his work, Kodaira worked again from around 1960 through the classification of algebraic surfaces from the point of view of birational geometry of complex manifolds. This resulted in a typology of seven kinds of two-dimensional compact complex manifolds, recovering the five algebraic types known classically; the other two being non-algebraic. He provided also detailed studies of elliptic fibrations of surfaces over a curve, or in other language elliptic curves over algebraic function fields, a theory whose arithmetic analogue proved important soon afterwards. This work also included a characterisation of K3 surfaces as deformations of quartic surfaces in P3, and the theorem that they form a single diffeomorphism class. Again, this work has proved foundational. (The K3 surfaces were named after Ernst Kummer, Erich Kähler, and Kodaira).

Later years
Kodaira left Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study in 1961, and briefly served as chair at the Johns Hopkins University and Stanford University. In 1967, he returned to the University of Tokyo. He was awarded a Wolf Prize in 1984/5. He died in Kofu on 26 July 1997.

He was honoured with the membership of the Japan Academy, the Mathematical Society of Japan and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1978. He was the foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1975, member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences in 1974 and honorary member of the London Mathematical Society in 1979. He received the Order of Culture and the Japan Academy Prize in 1957 and the Fujiwara Prize in 1975.

title: Kunihiko Kodaira


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Catherine Jagiellon

Catherine Jagiellon (Katarzyna Jagiellonka; Katarina Jagellonica, Lithuanian: Kotryna Jogailaitė; 1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583) was a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth princess and Queen of Sweden from 1569 as the wife of King John III. Catherine had significant influence over state affairs during the reign of her spouse. She negotiated with the pope to introduce Counter-Reformation in Sweden. She was the mother of Sigismund, King of Poland (1587-1632) and Sweden (1592-1599).

Early life
Catherine Jagiellon was born in Kraków as the youngest daughter of King Sigismund I the Old of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and his wife, Bona Sforza of Milan.

Catherine was given a thorough Renaissance education by Italian tutors: she was taught to read, write and speak Latin, German and Italian, instructed in conversation, riding, dancing, singing, and playing several musical instruments.

After the death of her father in 1548, she and her unmarried sisters Anna and Sophia moved to Masovia with their mother. In 1556, when her sister Sophia married and left for Germany and her mother departed for Italy, Catherine and her sister Anna were moved to the Palace of Vilnius by their brother Sigismund II Augustus of Poland, to ensure a royal presence in Lithuania. Their stay in Vilnius was described as happy, living in a palace and a court strongly influenced by the Italian Renaissance: Catherine and Anna were allowed to compose their own separate households and socialized with the aristocracy.

Marriage negotiations
Catherine was described as the most beautiful of her sisters, but she was married late for a princess of the era because her family wanted to ensure a marriage of the highest political status for Poland, and the marriages proposed to her demanded protracted negotiations which ultimately came to nothing. In 1548, she was proposed marriage to by both Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Duke Albert of Prussia, who both preferred her to her sisters Anna and Sophia. Her brother was inclined to the latter, but after lengthy negotiations, the Pope refused the marriage because they were related to each other. Next, she was proposed to by Archduke Ferdinand II of Austria, but her brother, who had himself married a member of the Habsburg dynasty by then, ultimately decided against it.

In the 1550s, her brother the king wished for an alliance between Poland and Sweden against the Tsardom of Russia due to growing tension around Livonia. The religious issue was not considered a serious obstacle by her brother, and the Catholic policy in Poland was at that time still tolerant toward Protestantism. The Polish-Swedish alliance was a wish her brother entertained for several years, and it had in fact been suggested already in 1526, that time between her half-sister Hedwig and King Gustav I of Sweden. In 1555–56, Sigismund II Augustus suggested to King Gustav I that one of the four Swedish princes, preferably Eric or his brother John, should marry either his sister Anna or Catherine, and he sent portraits of the princesses to the Swedish royal court. Eric was at that time proposing to marry the future queen Elizabeth I of England, however, a proposal he was not willing to give up for several years. There was talk of Catherine marrying John, but Sigismund II Augustus was somewhat reluctant to allow his younger sister to marry before the eldest, Anna, and this created a problem. The negotiations were drawn out, and in 1560, Gustav I died and all negotiations were closed.

In August 1560, during the Livonian war, Czar Ivan the Terrible, recently widowed, suggested a marriage between himself and Catherine in order to create peace and settle the differences between Poland and Russia. Her brother viewed the proposal favourably and a Russian delegation visited the Polish court in Vilnius. The Russian envoy reported to Ivan the Terrible that Catherine was beautiful, but that she was crying. Ultimately, Poland and Russia could not agree on the political terms of the marriage and the negotiations were discontinued in January 1561.

In July 1561, Sigismund II Augustus suggested to King Eric XIV that his sisters Catherine and Anna should be married to the king's brothers, John and Magnus. Erik XIV gave no definite answer. John was willing to marry Catherine, but not Anna. Sigismund II Augustus was still somewhat reluctant to allow his younger sister to marry before his older one, which created a problem. Magnus eventually expressed himself willing to marry Anna to enable John to marry Catherine, but the negotiations initially led to nothing and the Swedish king was not willing to take a stand on the issue. In October, John resumed the negotiations of marriage between himself and Catherine on his own initiative and without the consent of Eric XIV, during a time when Sweden under Eric XIV was fighting Poland in the Livonian war. John viewed the Polish king as an important ally and Catherine's Italian inheritance from her mother as important assets in his personal ambitions.

Duchess of Finland
On 4 October 1562, Catherine was married in the Lower Castle of Vilnius, Lithuania, to Duke John of Finland, the second son of Gustav I and half-brother of the then-reigning King Eric XIV. John had not received his brother's permission for the marriage and there were already tensions between them since John pursued an independent foreign policy. The marriage was conducted in a Catholic ceremony. Catherine brought a large entourage and luxurious possessions, but the inheritance from her mother was actually never given to her. The material dowry she brought with her to Finland, however, greatly impressed her contemporaries: she brought with her an impressive amount of silver items, among them the first forks used in Finland; hundreds of garments in black, yellow, red and purple satin, silk and velvet; as well as an entourage of Poles, Italians and Germans, among them a Polish cook and an Italian vine master.

The couple set up house in Turku Castle in Turku, Finland. Duke John's dealings in Livonia caused King Eric XIV to declare war on his brother. Eric sent 10,000 men to besiege the castle. On 12 August 1563, the castle capitulated; Catherine and John were taken to Sweden and imprisoned in Gripsholm Castle. Eric offered to allow Catherine to return to Poland, but she chose to accompany John in prison. Tradition claims that when the king made the offer, Catherine pointed to the inscription in her wedding ring, which said: Nemo nisi mors ("Nothing but death [shall separate us]"). Catherine was used as a valuable hostage by Eric, but because of her, the imprisonment was lenient. She was personally treated with consideration by king Eric, who allowed her greater freedom than John, such as walking in the area around the castle, and generally granted all requests she made in order to make her imprisonment more comfortable, with the exception of anything that had to do with her Catholic religion, such as the access to Catholic priests, which he denied. She asked for the larger part of her entourage to be sent home, only keeping some Polish ladies-in-waiting and her Court dwarf and personal confidante Dorothea Ostrelska. During her incarceration, Catherine gave birth first to her eldest daughter Isabella in 1564 (died 1566), then to her son Sigismund in 1566. In October 1567, John reconciled with Eric, and the couple was released. Catherine and John apparently developed a close relationship during the years of imprisonment. Catherine's unsuccessful suitor Tsar Ivan was in negotiations with Eric in hopes of separating her from John and sending her to marry him in Russia. This caused alarm among Catherine and her relations. In popular opinion, this discussion was one of the reasons for the Swedish people's growing dissatisfaction with the increasingly insane Eric. King Eric agreed to hand over Catherine to Ivan, but the Swedish king was deposed before Catherine could be sent away. As his brother John succeeded him, the problem disappeared. Catherine was at Vadstena during the rebellion.

Another reason which agitated the nobility against Erik XIV and made them encourage the rebellion of Duke John and his brother Duke Charles was the marriage of Erik to the commoner Karin Månsdotter, which the nobility regarded as an insult. Catherine played some part in the rebellion: she was a friend of one of Erik's enemies, Ebba Lilliehöök, who had an influential position within the nobility, and she was also directly approached by Pontus De la Gardie, who appealed to her to persuade the indecisive John to join the rebellion against the King in protest of his scandalous marriage. According to a witness, she answered: "'Pontus! I have heard your advice and the reasons you present well and good, and they are all very correct and just, but hard to realise. My dear friend, show me the courtesy of allowing this to remain between us, and I will speak to my lord and husband.'"After the fall of Stockholm, she made her entrance to the city in a grand procession on 7 November 1568.

Queen consort

Catherine was crowned queen of Sweden in the spring of 1569. Her relationship with John III continued to be very good during her lifetime, and there are no extramarital partners known on either side. Her ladies-in-waiting were supervised by Karin Gyllenstierna and her household by chamberlain Pontus De la Gardie, with whom she reportedly had a very good personal relationship (she gave him power of attorney to act as her agent and envoy in Italy regarding her Sforza inheritance). She had her own personal Catholic chapel at court as well as several Catholics in her private household, among them several Catholic monks and priests, which shocked the Protestants. Despite the controversy around her regarding her role in religious policy, she does not appear to have been subjected to much personal slander. She received many supplicants from both Catholics and Protestants, asking her for charity as well as to act as mediary to the king, and fulfilled these duties as was expected by a contemporary queen consort. Her fervent Protestant brother-in-law, the future Charles IX mentioned her in his propaganda chronicle Hertig Karls rimkrönika, in which he slanders the names of her spouse, son and daughter, but with only mild disapproval toward Catherine, acknowledging her personal qualities: "She was a Princess full of virtue and piety, still her faith did come from Rome".

Queen Catherine had political influence and influenced the monarch in many areas, such as his foreign policy and his interest in Renaissance art. It is a revealing fact that the king's diplomatic contacts with the Catholic powers quickly diminished after her death. Foremost, however, she is known to have influenced John III in his religious policy in favour of Catholicism and the Counter-Reformation, just as the next queen and spouse of John III, Gunilla Bielke, would influence his religious policy in favour of Protestantism. John III named Catherine the prospective regent of Sweden during the minority of his son, should he die while his son was a minor.

Another significant matter of interest were the rights of her son Sigismund to the Polish throne. She brought up both her children in the Catholic faith, which made Sigismund acceptable as a Polish monarch. After the death of her childless brother Sigismund II Augustus in 1572, she considered her son to have rights to the Polish throne through her. However, after 1569, Poland had become an elective monarchy. This matter, however, also made her significant internationally.

In 1582, she received the former queen, Karin Månsdotter, and saw to it that her confiscated jewellery was returned to her.

In her final years, Catherine suffered from gout. She fell sick in the spring of 1583, died in Stockholm on 16 September 1583 and was buried in the royal crypt of the Uppsala Cathedral.

Religious policy
After having become queen, she attracted international attention as a Catholic queen in a Protestant nation, with the position of being able to introduce the Counter-Reformation. In the Papal curia in Rome, she was seen as a Catholic in heretic surroundings.

The same year she became queen, her Polish adviser coadjutor Martin Kromer encouraged her to convert John III to Catholicism. She answered that she was willing, but that the monarch and the public would not accept it. Cardinal Commendone asked her sister, the Queen of Poland Anna Jagiellon, to support her in her religious-political task, and through Anna, she made contact with the Papal Curia in Rome. A conflict arose between Catherine and Pope Pius V after it became known that she had received the communion "sub utraque", something which had been banned in the Council of Trent and since then regarded as a sign of heresy. In 1572, she asked for two papal advisers and was given the Polish Jesuit Johan Herbst as her confessor. From 1572, Queen Catherine was in direct contact with Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, who declared that he would serve as her support and ally in the work of counter-reformation in Sweden and her messenger to the Pope.

In the autumn of 1572, Catherine applied for dispensation to be given the right to receive the communion "sub utraque" and certain dispensations regarding fasting. Her demands are seen as a way for John III to investigate how far the Catholic church would be willing to go to introduce the Counter-Reformation, as certain changes would have to be made to make it possible. John III launched a new church order called "Röda Boken" ("The Red Book"). This was a sort of mix between Protestantism and Catholicism that reintroduced numerous Catholic customs in the ceremonial life of the Swedish church, one of them being the use of Latin, which aroused a great deal of opposition and resulted in the Liturgical struggle, which was not to end for twenty years. Queen Catherine, Queen Anna, Cardinal Hosius and the pope negotiated for several years about this, and Catherine pointed out, that without certain dispensations for Sweden, a counter-reformation would not be possible. In 1574, she was given absolution and dispensation regarding fasting, but as the pope refused dispensation regarding communion, she refused to take communion altogether. Her agent in Rome was Paolo Ferrari. The papal curia had serious hopes for a counter-reformation in Sweden through her. In 1574, she received the Polish Jesuit Stanislaus Warszewicki, sent to her as an ambassador from the pope and king Philip II of Spain. Queen Catherine had the son of the deposed Eric XIV sent to the Jesuit order in Poland in 1573. In 1575, the ban for the remaining convents in Sweden to accept novices was lifted. In 1576, she sent her son to be educated by the Jesuits in Braunsberg. She welcomed the Norwegian Jesuit Laurentius Nicolai from Rome and housed him in the former Franciscan monastery in Stockholm, which had been closed during the Reformation, and allowed him to open a Catholic school there (the Protestants stormed and closed the school in 1583). Queen Catherine strongly supported the old Vadstena Abbey, where the last nuns still lived, and often visited it. A new shrine was made for the relics of King Eric the Saint in the cathedral of Uppsala.

The counter-reformatory efforts contributed to tension in connection to the imprisoned Erik XIV, who came to be a symbol of Protestantism in prison. During the imprisonment of Eric, three major conspiracies were made to depose John III: the 1569 Plot, the Mornay Plot and the 1576 Plot, among which at least the last was heavily influenced by religious considerations.

Sforza inheritance
Catherine and John III were both eager to be given possession of her part of the Sforza inheritance from her mother in Italy. Queen Catherine had her own personal ambassadors in Rome to protect her interests, Petrus Rosinus and Ture Bielke. The papal curia was willing to help them in this issue, but as her inheritance was situated in the Kingdom of Naples, then belonging to Spain, the pope did not succeed. During the reign of King Stephen Báthory in Poland, the relation between Sweden and Poland affected Catherine's power position in Sweden and placed her in a difficult situation. In 1578-79 and 1579–80, she received the papal ambassador Antonio Possevino. He had been given the task of providing Catherine with her Sforza inheritance, mediating between Poland and Sweden and converting John III. He failed on all accounts. He did, however, confirm the marriage between the royal couple, which had been dubious in Rome, as it had lacked the dispensation which was necessary for Rome to consider a marriage between a Catholic and a Protestant as valid. In 1582, Catherine received the Polish ambassador Alamanni and explained that she was not in a position to convince John to make peace with Poland. At her next audience with the ambassador, she received him in the presence of her children Sigismund and Anna and stated that Poland seldom had seen to her interests.

Catherine was, by testament, one of the heirs of her nephew John Sigismund Zápolya, ruler of Transilvania.

Legacy
The infusion of Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth blood into the Swedish royal lineage that began with Catherine would cause considerable strife after her death in the context of the ongoing European wars of religion. Her son Sigismund inherited the thrones of both the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (in 1587) and Sweden (in 1592) but ruled the latter only seven years before being deposed in 1599. Sigismund and his descendants, as Catholic kings, would continue to lay claim to de facto Protestant Sweden over the following century. The succession dispute contributed to the outbreak of several destructive wars until a massive Swedish invasion in the 1650s (known as the Deluge) nearly broke up the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Polish claims to the Swedish throne were finally relinquished in the 1660 Treaty of Oliva.

The image of Catherine Jagiellon enjoyed a resurgence in the 19th and 20th centuries Finnish culture and art. John and Catherine were the only Swedish monarchs to reside in the Finnish part of the Swedish realm for any length of time, and their alleged fondness for the land inspired Finnish nationalists. The religious issues that made Catherine unpopular with her contemporaries were by then long obsolete, and it has instead become traditional to depict her as a compassionate and loyal queen.

The first version of the later famous royal Drottningholm Palaca (The Queen's Islet) was founded for and named after her.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Catherine Jagiellon


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Ursynów

Ursynów is the southernmost district of Warsaw. With a surface area of 43.7 km², it is the third largest district in Warsaw, comprising 8.6% of the city. The district has a population of over 150,000, and is one of the fastest-growing neighbourhoods in Warsaw. Nearly 25% of its inhabitants are below 18 years of age.

The eastern section of Ursynów is heavily built up with blocks of flats, while its western and southern sections are often referred to as Green Ursynów due to its lower population density and broad open spaces and green areas. The neighbourhood is considered the bedroom of Warsaw, and is home to nearly a quarter of the city's post-1989 construction.

Ursynów's southern extremity comprises Kabaty Forest, covering more than 9.2 km². Other popular attractions include the Vistula river escarpment, Natolin palace and Służewiec horseracing track (built in 1939), used not only for its original purpose, but for open-air exhibitions, pop concerts, etc.

Ursynów is served by the Ursynów, Stokłosy, Imielin, Natolin and Kabaty stations of the Warsaw Metro. The Kabaty depot is located in the south of the borough.

Neighbourhoods within the district

 * Dąbrówka
 * Grabów, Warsaw
 * Jeziorki Północne
 * Jeziorki Południowe
 * Kabaty
 * Natolin
 * North Ursynów
 * Pyry
 * Skarpa Powsińska
 * Old Służew
 * Old Imielin
 * Ursynów-Centrum
 * Wyczółki

Nature
There are two nature reserves in the district: Stefan Starzyński Kabacki Forest and Skarpa Ursynowska. At Nowoursynowska Street grows Mieszko I, the oldest oak in the Province.

Mayors

 * Stanisław Faliński 1994–2002
 * Tomasz Sieradz 2002–2003
 * Andrzej Machowski 2003–2006
 * Tomasz Mencina 2006–2009
 * Urszula Kierzkowska 2009–2010
 * Piotr Guział 2010–2014
 * Robert Kempa 2014–

title: Ursynów


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Down House

Down House is the former home of the English naturalist Charles Darwin and his family. It was in this house and garden that Darwin worked on his theory of evolution by natural selection, which he had conceived in London before moving to Down.

The Grade I listed building stands in Luxted Road, 1/4 mi south of Downe, a village 14+1/4 mi south-east of London's Charing Cross. The village was still known as Down when Darwin moved there in 1842. In his day, Downe was a parish in Kent, but it subsequently came under Bromley Rural District. Since 1965, it has lain within the London Borough of Bromley.

The house, garden and grounds are in the guardianship of English Heritage. They have been restored and are open to the public.

1651–1842: early history
In 1651, Thomas Manning sold a parcel of land including most of the current property to John Know the elder, from a Kentish yeoman family, for £345 (equivalent to £0 today). It has been debated whether this price is likely to have included a house, but, if not, it was Know who built the first farmhouse on the property: some surviving flint walls may date from this period. In 1653, John Know gave the house to his son Roger, probably as a wedding present; and in 1743, the marriage of Mary Know passed the property to the family of Bartholomew of West Peckham in the Weald. In 1751, Leonard Bartholomew sold the uninhabited house on to Charles Hayes of Hatton Garden.

The property was acquired by the businessman and landowner George Butler in 1778, and it is thought that he rebuilt and enlarged the house: in 1781, he paid the highest window tax in the village. Around this time, it was apparently called the Great House. After Butler died in 1783, the property changed hands several times, then in 1819, it went to Lieut.-Col. John Johnson, C.B., colonel of engineers in the Hon. East India Company, Bombay establishment. In 1837, Johnson migrated to "Lake Erie near Dunville in Upper Canada", and passed what was now called Down House on to the incumbent parson of the parish, the Rev. James Drummond. The house was re-roofed and brought into good order under the supervision of Edward Cresy, an architect who lived nearby. Around 1840, Drummond left the property vacant and put it up for auction, but it was unsold and lay empty for two years.

1842–1906: Darwin occupancy
The Darwin family in 1841 was finding their London house increasingly cramped: both Charles and his wife Emma preferred living in the countryside, as they were disturbed by the constant noise and severe coal smoke air pollution of central London, and they had two young children, William (b. 1839) and Anne (b. 1841). Darwin approached his father Robert Darwin for financing, and with the caution that he should try living in an area for some time before being committed to a move, was given approval to start house hunting. Charles and Emma sought somewhere about 20 mi from London with railway access, such as Windsor, Berkshire, and came close to buying one near Chobham, Surrey.

On Friday 22 July 1842, Charles and Emma visited Down House. They slept at "a little pot-house" in the village, which was also "a grocers-shop & the land-lord is the carpenter", and returned to London on Saturday afternoon, then on the Sunday Darwin wrote to tell his sister of their first impressions. Though there were plenty of trains on the 10 mi line from London to the nearest station, from there it was a long, slow and hilly 8.5 mi drive to Downe. The small quiet village was away from main roads, and though local scenery was beautiful on a good day, the house "being situated on rather high table-land, has somewhat of desolate air ... The charm of the place to me is that almost every field is intersected (as alas is our's) by one or more foot-paths— I never saw so many walks in any other country".

The three-storey house itself stood "very badly close to a tiny lane & near another man's field", and was "ugly, looks neither old nor new" but on the ground floor it had a "Capital study" and a dining room facing east, and a large drawing room facing west, with plenty of bedrooms upstairs. Darwin believed that the price was about £2,200 (equivalent to £0 in present-day terms) and he could lease it for one year to try it out.

That Friday was cold and gloomy, and Emma was at first disappointed with the "desolate" scenery as well as being "dreadfully bad with toothache, headache", that evening, but liked the house and grounds better than Charles, finding it "not too near or too far from other houses". On the Saturday the weather changed, and "she was so delighted with the scenery for the first few miles from Down, that it has worked great change in her".

The house had obvious faults, but they were both weary of house-hunting, and it was cheap. Emma preferred a more expensive house in Surrey, and may have hoped that Darwin's father would increase the loan, but life in crowded dirty London was becoming more unpleasant and she was pregnant so unable to continue the search that year.

With advice from the architect and surveyor Edward Cresy, Darwin opened negotiations, but the Rev. James Drummond refused to lease the property and wanted £2,500 to pay off his mortgage on it. Cresy suggested a bid of £2,100, but Darwin remembered an unsuccessful earlier attempt at purchase, and made an offer of about £2,200 which was accepted. At the end of August they were almost ready to move, and Emma moved in on 14 September 1842, followed by Charles three days later. Emma gave birth to Mary Eleanor on 23 September, and they were all getting on well – even Darwin's brother Erasmus who had said the place should be called "Down-in-the-Mouth" had altered his opinion, but they were saddened when baby Mary died on 16 October.

Darwin made extensive alterations to the house and grounds. An angled bay forming a large bow front extending up through all three storeys at the west elevation of the house extended the drawing room and rooms over it, giving improved views and lighting: Darwin wrote telling his cousin that the first brick was laid on 27 March 1843. By 27 April, work was in hand to lower the lane by as much as 2 ft and build new flint boundary walls, which together with earth mounds and shrubbery made the east garden more private. A strip of the field was made into a kitchen garden including the experimental plot of ground, and later the greenhouses.

In September 1843, the Darwin family increased with the birth of "Etty" in the house, where all their remaining children were born: George in 1845, "Bessy" in 1847, Francis in 1848, Leonard in 1850, Horace in 1851, and their 10th child Charles Waring Darwin who was born in 1856, but died in 1858.

Between 1845 and 1846, Darwin altered the service wing to the south of the main block, getting the kitchen area rebuilt with the addition of a butler's pantry, and a schoolroom and two small bedrooms on upper floors. The outhouses were rebuilt, and a mound to the west side was removed with a new mound being added to the east to give protection from the wind.

On their first visit, Darwin had noted that "The great Astronomer Sir J. Lubbock is owner of 3000 acres [12 km2] here, & is building a grand house a mile off", but thought that he would be too reserved or proud to visit them. In fact, Sir John William Lubbock had brought home a "great piece of news", and while his son was initially disappointed that the news was just that Darwin was coming to Down House and not a new pony, young John Lubbock soon became close friends with Darwin and a frequent visitor to Down House.

In 1846, Darwin rented from Sir John William Lubbock a narrow strip of land of 1.5 acre adjoining the Down House grounds to the southwest, and had it planted. He named it the Sandwalk Wood. One side was shaded by an old shaw with oak trees, and the other looked over a hedge to a charming valley. Darwin had a variety of trees planted, and ordered a gravel path known as the "sandwalk" to be created around the perimeter. Darwin's daily walk of several circuits of this path served both for exercise and for uninterrupted thinking. He set up a number of small stones at one point on the walk so that he could kick a stone to the side each time he passed, so that he did not have to interrupt his thoughts by consciously counting the number of circuits he had made that day. The sandwalk also served as a playground for his children. A wooden summerhouse was built at the lower end of the sandwalk. In 1874, Darwin gave a piece of pasture land to Sir John Lubbock (the son) in exchange for ownership of the Sandwalk Wood. From 1849, Darwin used it to continue his walking exercise on return from Dr. Gully's hydrotherapy treatment.

A new extension at the north end of the house was added in 1858, providing a large new drawing room facing west which became a comfortable family room, and two bedrooms over. The former drawing room was converted into a new dining room, and the old dining room next to the kitchen became a billiard room.

Darwin's interest in the fertilisation of orchids led him to get a new heated greenhouse constructed under the supervision of John Horwood, the gardener of Mr Turnbull at The Rookery: this was completed in February 1863. It includes a tunnel passageway that allows bees to fly in and out. Darwin spent 16 years growing sundews and other carnivorous plants in his greenhouse, feeding them proteins like roast beef and boiled egg. This research became the basis for his pioneering book Insectivorous Plants (1875).

In 1872, a verandah was added to the west side of the new drawing room, and in 1877, a new billiard room was added to the east of this block, with the hallway being extended to form a new entrance hall and Georgian-style porch facing east. The new billiard room was converted to a new study in 1881, and the old study where Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species was converted into a smoking room. In the same year, Darwin bought a strip of land to the north of the property, beyond his orchard, and had a hard tennis court and a new wall built.

After the death of Frank's first wife Amy, their son Bernard Darwin was brought up by Charles and Emma at Down. Charles Darwin died at the house on 19 April 1882, aged 73. Emma also died there in 1896.

In February 1897, the house was advertised to be let, furnished, at a rent of "12 guineas per week, including gardeners". From 1900 to 1906, George Darwin rented the house out to a Mr. Whitehead, who was the first owner of a motor car in Downe.

1907–1922: Downe School for Girls
A girls' boarding school was established at the house in February 1907, co-founded by the headmistress Olive Willis (1877–1964) with her friend Alice Carver. The school began with five mistresses and one girl, but was soon successful and grew to around 60 pupils. Various corrugated iron outbuildings were erected around the house at this time, to serve as the school's chapel, gymnasium, music-rooms and lavatories: these were later removed. The school occupied the house until 1 April 1922, when it moved to larger premises at Hermitage Rd, Cold Ash, Newbury, where it remains. The present school is still named Downe House School, and one of its houses is still named Darwin. The novelist Elizabeth Bowen, who was a pupil at the school during the First World War, wrote after revisiting Down House in the 1930s: "I have never liked scientific people very much, and it mortifies me to think of them trampling reverently around there on visiting days, thinking of Charles Darwin and ignorant of my own youth."

1927–1996: Darwin Museum
From 1924, another girls' school was run in the house by a Miss Rain, but this was unsuccessful and closed in 1927. Following an appeal at that year's Annual Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science by its president Sir Arthur Keith, the surgeon Sir George Buckston Browne (1850–1945) bought Down from the Darwin heirs for £4,250 in 1927 (equivalent to £0 in present-day terms). He spent about £10,000 on repairs and on 7 January 1929 presented it to the British Association together with an endowment of £20,000 to ensure its preservation in perpetuity as a memorial to Darwin, to be used for the benefit of science and open to visitors free of charge. Down House was formally opened to the public as a museum at a tea on 7 June 1929. In 1931, Buckston Browne gave the Royal College of Surgeons of England (RCS England) an endowment fund and land adjacent to the Down House property to establish the Buckston Browne Research Farm, a surgical research station. For his efforts in saving the historic house, Buckston Browne received a knighthood in the 1932 New Year Honours.

Buckston Browne's endowment for the house proved insufficient and the expense of maintenance led to the British Association in turn donating the house to the RCS England in October 1953. In 1962, Sir Hedley Atkins (1905–1983), later President of the RCS England, moved into the house together with his wife and assumed the role of honorary curator.

In May 1954, Down House itself was designated as a Grade I listed building, and in September 1988 the garden and Sandwalk were added to the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England at Grade II.

1996 to present: restored house and garden
Down House was acquired in 1996 by English Heritage, with a grant from the Wellcome Trust. It was restored with funds raised by the Natural History Museum from many trusts, and from a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund, and reopened to the public in April 1998. In 2009, the Darwin Bicentenary Project created a new exhibition on the first floor of the house, telling the story of Darwin's life and work. A video guide outside focuses on how Darwin used his garden as an outdoor laboratory and features clips from David Attenborough, Professor Steve Jones and Melvyn Bragg. Darwin's notebooks were digitised using Turning the Pages software and put online.

Down House and the surrounding area has been nominated by the UK government's Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) to become a World Heritage Site. It originally went through public consultation in 2006 and a decision had been expected in the last three days of June 2007. However, ICOMOS warned the DCMS that the House might not meet the criteria for scientific sites on the register, and so in May 2007, the DCMS announced that it was withdrawing the bid with the intention of resubmitting it later. The bid was resubmitted unsuccessfully in January 2009.

The master bedroom was restored, and opened to the public for the first time in June 2016. The restoration included a reconstruction of the Darwins' collection of fine art prints, with Biblical scenes by Raphael, Titian, and Sebastiano del Piombo, as well as a Raphael self-portrait in the bedroom, and a self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci in Darwin's study together with portraits of Charles Lyell and Erasmus Darwin.

Visiting
Down House, its garden and grounds are open to the public daily from April to October; from November through to March, it opens on weekends. The house and garden undergoes routine conservation work during its closed periods.

The house can be reached by public transport from central London, as it is located within Transport for London travel Zone 6. The 146 bus service from Bromley North railway station (daily) terminates nearby at Downe Village, and the R8 bus from Orpington railway station (excluding Sundays) stops on request outside Down House. The closest Tramlink station is New Addington.

title: Down House


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Westbury White Horse

Westbury White Horse or Bratton White Horse is a hill figure on the escarpment of Salisbury Plain, approximately 1.5 mi east of Westbury in Wiltshire, England. Located on the edge of Bratton Downs and lying just below an Iron Age hill fort, it is the oldest of several white horses carved in Wiltshire. It was restored in 1778, an action which may have obliterated another horse that had occupied the same slope. A contemporary engraving from around 1772 appears to show a horse facing in the opposite direction that was rather smaller than the present figure. There is, however, no documentation or other evidence for the existence of a chalk horse at Westbury before 1772.

The horse is 180 ft tall and 170 ft wide and has been adopted as a symbol for the town of Westbury, appearing on welcome signs and the logo of its tourist information centre. It is also considered a symbol for Wiltshire as a whole.

Origins

Although it is the oldest of the Wiltshire white horses, the origin of Westbury White Horse is obscure. It is often claimed to commemorate King Alfred's victory at the Battle of Ethandun in 878, and while this is quite plausible, there is no trace of such a legend before the second half of the 18th century. Perhaps more believable is a theory that it was created at a much later date to commemorate this early "English victory", particularly as King Alfred had a very strong following in England from the 17th century onwards, see for example King Alfred's Tower.

Historians have generally located the battle of Ethandun or Edington on the high ground, somewhere within a few kilometres of the white horse, which would have been a strong defensive position for Alfred and the Saxons of Wessex, marching north-east from Egbert's Stone (popularly believed to be located at Kingston Deverill or King Alfred's Tower nearby), whilst facing the Danes led by Guthram, advancing south-west from their stronghold in Chippenham. It is popularly believed that Bratton Castle, the Iron Age hillfort immediately adjacent to the white horse may have played some part in the battle, but there is no evidence of this, and the 'fortress' referenced in Medieval texts is much more likely to have been the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Chippenham, which had been occupied by Guthram's Danes as their headquarters. Local legend asserts that the defeated Danes fled down the slopes to the springs that rise between the villages of Bratton and Edington (after which the battle was named), and the slopes on which the white horse is located. Again, according to local legend, many exhausted Danes were massacred in the woods and boggy ground there by pursuing Saxons, the survivors fleeing north-eastwards, pursued by Alfred's men all the way to Chippenham. However, there are some who dispute this account and believe this key battle was fought elsewhere, as there is very little real evidence either way, it remains contested, although the majority agree the vicinity of Edington is the most likely, and logical site.

A local site, just to the north-east of the white horse is Luccombe Vale, which has a locally famed 'bloodstone' said to be connected with the massacre of Danish prisoners after the battle.

According to local tradition, the current white horse was cut in 1778 by a Mr Gee, who overlaid a smaller, older chalk figure, believed to also have been a horse, the only surviving image of which dates to 1772, and shows a figure facing the other way with a long tail. During the 19th and early 20th Centuries the figure was periodically reshaped and repaired.

Another hillside chalk figure, the Uffington White Horse, featured in King Alfred's early life. He was born in the Vale of White Horse, not far from Uffington in Oxfordshire. Unlike the recorded history of Westbury, documents as early as the eleventh century refer to the "White Horse Hill" at Uffington ("mons albi equi"), and archaeological work has dated the Uffington White Horse to the Bronze Age, although it is not certain that it was originally intended to represent a horse.

A white horse war standard was associated with the continental Saxons in the Dark Ages, and the figures of Hengest and Horsa who, according to legend, led the first Anglo-Saxon invaders into England, are said to have fought under a white horse standard (a claim recalled in the heraldic badge of the county of Kent).

During the 18th century, the white horse was a heraldic symbol associated with the new British royal family, the House of Hanover, and it is argued by some scholars that Westbury White Horse may have first been carved in the early 18th century as a symbol of loyalty to the new Protestant reigning house.

In Alfred and the Great White Horse of Wiltshire (1939), the Downside Abbey monk Dom Illtyd Trethowan debunked the suggested connection of the White Horse with Alfred and the Battle of Ethandune. Paul Newman suggests in his book Lost Gods of Albion (2009) that the horse may have been inspired by the popularity of folly buildings in the 18th century.

Wiltshire folklore has it that when the nearby Bratton church clock strikes midnight, the white horse goes down to the Bridewell Springs, below the hill, to drink.

Modern history
By 1872 the horse was considered to have lost its shape, by the chalk repeatedly growing over and being re-cut. In 1873 it was remodelled by a committee, and at the same time substantial edging-stones were added all around the perimeter, to prevent the shape from changing again.

During the Second World War, the chalk of the horse was turfed over to prevent German pilots from using it for navigation. Nearby Westbury was considered to be a potential target as a railway hub.

The horse was illuminated at night in 1900 and again in 1950, both times using army equipment. For the 1950 event, which used World War Two searchlights, traffic in Westbury and Bratton came almost to a standstill as drivers slowed down to look. In 1928, the horse was used as inspiration for the design of the Litlington White Horse in East Sussex, which until 1983, when it was changed from a standing position to a prancing position, was visually similar to the Westbury horse.

In 1957 the horse was concreted over and painted white by Westbury Urban District Council, in an attempt to save on long-term maintenance costs, as the chalk of the face was eroding and unstable, due to the steepness of the slope. Since then, the concrete has tended to turn grey and deteriorate over time, requiring regular cleaning, as well as periodic repairs and repainting. It was thoroughly cleaned in 1993 and in 1995, the concrete facing from 1957 was replaced and repainted.

In 2003, the horse was vandalised when "Stop This War" was written in yellow across the horse in capital letters in protest of the Iraq War. After the words were removed, the horse was noticeably grey with a white horizontal strip where the message had been. In November 2006, the horse was repaired and repainted again. The newly whitened horse was illuminated on the night the repairs were finished, by Second World War searchlights, as in 1950.

In July 2010, the neck of the horse was vandalised when the word "wonkey" was written across it. This part of the neck had to be re-whitened in 2010, leading to the horse having a whiter neck than the rest of the body.

The BBC reported that the horse was to be cleaned again in 2012. Work began on 11 April 2012 and was completed on 19 April 2012. The cleaning coincided with the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. Celebrating the completion of the work, again the horse was lit up with searchlights. Since the annual Village Pump Festival moved from Farleigh Hungerford to the White Horse Country Park beneath the horse in 2012, the horse has been illuminated at night whilst the festival has been taking place. This is achieved via a tinted spotlight which changes colour every couple of seconds, so the horse appears different colours.

Two visitor information signs, on the hill above the horse and in the viewing area car park, were placed in 1999 following the completion of Devizes White Horse; the signs show all eight Wiltshire White Horses. Also on the side of the hill is a toposcope dated 1968, mounted on a small stone structure, which identifies the towns and cities that can be seen from the hillside. For the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, a fire beacon was placed to the side of the road on the top of the hill leading to the car park on 3 June 2002, that resembles the millennium beacons. It is lit to mark occasions such as the 70th anniversary of VE Day on 8 May 2015.

BBC News had a video in June 2018 showing the horse being cleaned with high pressure water jets by up to 18 volunteer abseilers. The cost was given as £3,000, paid for by Westbury Town Council. It stated that the previous clean was in 2016. In July 2023 the horse was cleaned, repainted and repaired again, with water used to clean off algae and dirt in a project funded by English Heritage. The cost was not made public, but the paint alone cost £25,000.

Views
The Horse can be viewed from up to 16–17 mi in all directions. From the horse, Westbury and Trowbridge can be closely observed. The Mendip TV Mast on the Mendip Hills in Somerset can be seen clearly to the west, particularly at night. From the top of the horse and Bratton Castle, Devizes White Horse and Alton Barnes White Horse can both be viewed. The horse itself cannot be seen from other hill figures. Two of the furthest views of the horse are said to be from Beckford's Tower in Bath and from the tower of St Michael's Church, Dundry near Bristol.

A car park on Bratton Road (B3098) which passes beneath the horse is known as Westbury White Horse Viewing Area. It has fifteen parking spaces and information boards on the horse.

In 1961 a 400 ft chimney was built at the Blue Circle cement works about a mile and a half from the horse. The Blue Circle company was bought in 2001 by Lafarge and the chimney was last used in 2010: it was demolished on 18 September 2016. Some considered it an eyesore whilst others considered it a local icon, a debate covered by a BBC Wiltshire radio broadcast in 2011. The chimney was the most prominent feature of the view from the horse; some considered it to spoil views from the hill.

The landscape of the horse was threatened in 2013 when Wiltshire Council revealed plans for a potential three-lane bypass that would run within half a mile of the horse, with a 35 acre business park and 550 new homes on green belt land. Some local residents, together with many from outside the town, were against the "Swindonisation" of their corner of West Wiltshire, although many residents felt that Westbury, as the only town on the A350 without a bypass and whose medieval heart was blighted by pollution and HGVs needed a bypass.

Battle of Ethandun memorial
Although the horse is only presumed to commemorate King Alfred's victory at the Battle of Ethandun, an official monument to the victory was erected atop the hill, adjacent to Bratton Camp. The monument does not have an official name but is known as the Battle of Ethandun memorial. It consists of a large sarsen stone (stone of remembrance) with a pebbled base, on which lies a metal commemorative plaque. The monument was unveiled 5 November 2000 by the 7th Marquess of Bath.

King Alfred's Tower, near Stourhead, is the best known monument that was definitely built to celebrate King Alfred and his victory. The folly tower was erected in 1772, six years before the white horse was redesigned.

In popular culture
The White Horse was referenced in G. K. Chesterton's epic poem The Ballad of the White Horse (1911) and the books The Tontine (1955) by Thomas B. Costain, The Emigrants (1980) by Caribbean author George Lamming, and in the novel The English Patient (1992) by Michael Ondaatje, as the place where the sapper Kip learned how to deactivate bombs. Michael Morpurgo mentioned it as one of the inspirations for The Butterfly Lion.

The figure can be seen in the music video for Scottish guitarist Midge Ure's 1996 single "Breathe", and is featured in the current opening titles of the regional television news programme ITV News West Country. Furthermore, it featured in a 2015 Visit England tourist advertisement produced in association with the England rugby team.

The horse lends its name to White Horse Business Park outside Trowbridge and White Horse Country Park outside Westbury. The horse overlooks both parks. White Horse Way is also a name of a street in Westbury, and the town's visitor centre features the horse in its logo, as does its golf club.

The horse was depicted by artist Eric Ravilious (1903–1942) in his watercolour paintings "Train Landscape" and "The Westbury Horse" 1939.

title: Westbury White Horse


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Benjamin Andrew

Benjamin Andrew (c. 1730—December 16, 1790) was an American planter and statesman from Midway, Georgia.

Benjamin was the son of John Andrew and was born in Dorchester County, South Carolina. In 1754 he moved to Georgia and started his plantation near Midway in what is now Liberty County.

Andrew served on the Governor's Council in John Houstoun's rebel government in 1778 and in 1779 he was president of the council. When a royal government was revived in 1780 (at least in Savannah), they declared him a traitor. That same year the revolutionary government elected him as a delegate for Georgia to the Continental Congress, but he could not attend, because the British had destroyed his rice plantation in Sunbury, and he had escaped to Charleston.

Andrew was later elected to the Georgia House of Representatives, and died on the floor of the House in Augusta, which was the state capital in 1790.

title: Benjamin Andrew


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Skeuomorph

A skeuomorph (also spelled skiamorph, ) is a derivative object that retains ornamental design cues (attributes) from structures that were necessary in the original. Skeuomorphs are typically used to make something new feel familiar in an effort to speed understanding and acclimation. They employ elements that, while essential to the original object, serve no pragmatic purpose in the new system. Examples include pottery embellished with imitation rivets reminiscent of similar pots made of metal and a software calendar that imitates the appearance of binding on a paper desk calendar.

Definition and purpose
The term skeuomorph is compounded from the Greek skeuos (σκεῦος), meaning "container or tool", and morphḗ (μορφή), meaning "shape". It has been applied to material objects since 1890. With the advent of computer systems in the 1980s, skeuomorph is used to characterize the many "old fashioned" icons utilized in graphic user interfaces.

A similar alternative definition of skeuomorph is "a physical ornament or design on an object made to resemble another material or technique". This definition is broader in scope, as it can be applied to design elements that still serve the same function as they did in a previous design.

Skeuomorphs may be deliberately employed to make a new look more familiar and comfortable or may be the result of cultural influences and norms on the designer. They may be the artistic expression on the part of the designer. The usability researcher and academic Don Norman describes skeuomorphism in terms of cultural constraints: interactions with a system that are learned only through culture. Norman also popularized perceived affordances, where the user can tell what an object provides or does based on its appearance, which skeuomorphism can make easy.

The concept of skeuomorphism overlaps with other design concepts. Mimesis is an imitation, coming directly from the Greek word. Archetype is the original idea or model that is emulated, where the emulations can be skeuomorphic. Skeuomorphism is parallel to, but different from, path dependence in technology, where an element's functional behavior is maintained even when the original reasons for its design no longer exist.

Physical examples

Many features of wooden buildings were repeated in stone by the Ancient Greeks when they transitioned from wood to masonry construction. Decorative stone features in the Doric order of classical architecture in Greek temples such as triglyphs, mutules, guttae, and modillions are supposed to be derived from true structural and functional features of the early wooden temples. The triglyph and guttae are seen as recreating, respectively, the carved beam-ends and six wooden pegs driven in to secure the beam in place. Historically, high-status items such as the Minoans' elaborate and expensive silver cups were recreated for a wider market using pottery, a cheaper material. The exchange of shapes between metalwork and ceramics, often from the former to the latter, is near-constant in the history of the decorative arts. Sometimes pellets of clay are used to evoke the rivets of the metal originals.

There is also evidence of skeuomorphism in material transitions. Leather and pottery often carry over features from the wooden counterparts of previous generations. Clay pottery has also been found bearing rope-shaped protrusions, pointing to craftsmen seeking familiar shapes and processes while working with new materials. Another example is the tiny, non-functional handle on glass maple syrup bottles, which evoke stoneware jug handles. In this context, skeuomorphs exist as traits sought in other objects, either for their social desirability or psychological comforts.

In the modern era, cheaper plastic items often attempt to mimic more expensive wooden and metal products, though they are only skeuomorphic if new ornamentation references the original functionality, such as molded screw heads in molded plastic items. Another well-known skeuomorph is the plastic Adirondack chair. The lever on a mechanical slot machine, or "one-armed bandit", is a skeuomorphic throwback feature when it appears on a modern video slot machine, since it is no longer required to set physical mechanisms and gears into motion. Articles of clothing are also given skeuomorphic treatment; for example, faux buckles on certain strap shoes, such as Mary Janes for small children, which permit the retention of the original aesthetic.

Automotive design has historically been full of physical skeuomorphisms, such as the transformation from wooden framed and bodied early vehicles produced by coachworks to those which incorporated both functional wood and steel (referred to as "woodies") to, ultimately, simulated vinyl woodgrain cladding entirely for style by the 1960s. Other examples include thinly faux chrome-plated plastic components and imitation leather, gold, interior wood, pearl, or crystal jeweled elements. In The Design of Everyday Things, Don Norman notes that early automobiles were designed after horse-drawn carriages. Indeed, the early automobile design Horsey Horseless even included a wooden horse head on the front to try to minimize scaring the real animals. In the 1970s, opera windows and vinyl roofs on many luxury sedan cars similarly imitated carriage work from the horse and buggy era. , most electric cars feature prominent front grilles, even though there is little need for intake of air to cool an absent internal combustion engine.

Virtual examples

Many computer programs have a skeuomorphic graphical user interface that emulates the aesthetics of physical objects. Examples include a digital contact list resembling a Rolodex, and IBM's 1998 RealThings package. A more extreme example is found in some music synthesis and audio processing software packages, which closely emulate physical musical instruments and audio equipment complete with buttons and dials. On a smaller scale, the icons of GUIs may remain skeuomorphic representations of physical objects, such as an image of a physical paper folder to represent computer files in the desktop metaphor. This is even the case for items that are no longer directly applicable to the task they represent (such as a drawing of a floppy disk to represent "save").

Apple Inc., while under the direction of Steve Jobs, was known for its wide usage of skeuomorphic designs in various applications. This changed after Jobs' death when Scott Forstall, described as "the most vocal and high-ranking proponent of the visual design style favored by Mr. Jobs", resigned. Apple designer Jonathan Ive took over some of Forstall's responsibilities and had "made his distaste for the visual ornamentation in Apple's mobile software known within the company". With the announcement of iOS 7 at WWDC in 2013, Apple officially shifted from skeuomorphism to a more simplified design, thus beginning the so-called "death of skeuomorphism" at Apple. Skeuomorphism is a key component of Frutiger Aero, an Internet aesthetic derived from mid-2000s user interface designs.

Other virtual skeuomorphs do not employ literal images of some physical object; but rather allude to ritual human heuristics or heuristic motifs, such as slider bars that emulate linear potentiometers and visual tabs that behave like physical tabbed file folders. Another example is the swiping hand gesture for turning the "pages" or screens of a tablet display.

Virtual skeuomorphs can also be auditory. The shutter-click sound emitted by most camera phones when taking a picture is an auditory skeuomorph. Another familiar example is the paper-crumpling sound when a document is trashed.

In design
Retrofuturism incorporates visual motifs from old predictions of the future, especially  Skeuomorphic design is frequently incorporated in retrowave or synthwave illustrations. Skeuomorphic design is closely linked with metamodernism.

Skeuomorphic design seems to be preferred by older recipient groups, often referred to as "digital immigrants", while "digital natives" tend to favor flat design over skeuomorphisms. However, younger people are still able to understand the signifiers that skeuomorphic design employs. A better user experience could be measured for each respective design philosophy among digital natives and immigrants.

Arguments in favor
An argument in favor of skeuomorphic design in digital devices is that signifiers to affordances help those familiar with the original item learn to use the digital version. Interaction paradigms for computer devices are culturally entrenched; proposals for change often spawn debate. Don Norman describes this process as a form of cultural heritage, and credits skeuomorphism with easing transitions to newer technology, stating that it "gives comfort and makes learning easier" until the newer devices no longer need to resemble their predecessors.

Compared to flat design, skeuomorphic design seems to facilitate a fast navigation through graphic user interfaces, because icons are more easily recognized and less abstract than their minimalistic counterparts found in flat design.

Arguments against
The arguments against virtual skeuomorphic design are that skeuomorphic interface elements are harder to operate and take up more screen space than standard interface elements, that this breaks operating system interface design standards, that it causes an inconsistent look and feel between applications, that skeuomorphic interface elements rarely incorporate numeric input or feedback for accurately setting a value, that many users may have no experience with the original device being emulated, that skeuomorphic design can increase cognitive load with visual noise that after a few uses gives little or no value to the user, that skeuomorphic design limits creativity by grounding the user experience to physical counterparts, and that skeuomorphic designs often do not accurately represent underlying system state or data types due to inappropriate mimesis. For example, an analog gauge interface may be read less precisely than a digital one.

General references

 * Flecker, M., "An Age of Intermateriality: Skeuomorphism and Intermateriality between the Late Republic and Early Empire", in: A. Haug – A. Hielscher – T. Lauritsen (Hrsg.), Materiality in Roman Art and Architecture: Aesthetics, Semantics and Function (Berlin 2021) 265–283 (Open Access).
 * Freeth, C. M., & Taylor, T. F. (2001). Skeuomorphism in Scythia: Deference and Emulation, Olbia ta antichnii svit. Kiev: British Academy; Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. p. 150.

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Kachaks

Kachaks (kaçak, качаци / kačaci) is a term used for the Albanian rebels active in the late 19th and early 20th century in northern Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo and Macedonia, and later as a term for the militias of Albanian revolutionary organizations against the Kingdom of Serbia (1910–18) Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–24), called the "Kachak Movement".

Etymology
The word is derived from Turkish kaçak for "outlaw".

1920–24 Kachak movement
The Committee for the National Defense of Kosovo was created in Shkodër, under Hasan Prishtina, in 1918. The committee organizationally and financially supported the kachaks in Albanian-populated areas of Yugoslavia, in Kosovo and Skopje (the former Kosovo vilayet). Kachaks were also active around Ohrid and Bitola. On 6 May 1919 the Committee called for a general uprising in Kosovo and other Albanian-inhabited regions in Yugoslavia. The Kachaks were popular among Albanians, and local support to them increased in the 1920s when Hasan Prishtina became a member of the Albanian parliament, Kadri Prishtina ("Hoxhe Kadriu") became Minister of Justice, and Bajram Curri became Minister of war (1921). All three were Kosovar Albanians.

During this time, Kosovar Albanians under Azem Galica began an armed struggle, also known as the "Kachak movement", a large-scale revolt in Drenica involving around 10,000 people under Galica. The uprising was quelled by the Royal Yugoslav Army Armed conflicts between the Royal Yugoslav Army and the Kachaks took place in the years 1920 and 1921, 1923, with a revival in 1924. One of the achievements was the creation of the "neutral zone" around Junik, which would serve to jeopardize the frontier and provide ammunition and other logistical support for the Kachaks.

Legacy
They are widely depicted in Albanian folklore. Albanian collaborationists in Yugoslavia during World War II were also sometimes known as Kachaks.

Notable people

 * Bajram Curri (1862–1925)
 * Azem Galica (1889–1924)
 * Qerime Shotë Galica (1895–1927)
 * Zef Kol Ndoka (1883–1924)
 * Hysni Curri (?–1925)
 * Ajet Sopi Bllata (1861–1938)
 * Agan Koja (1892–1929)
 * Mehmet Pashë Deralla (1843–1918)
 * Sali Butka (1852–1938)
 * Osman Taka (?–1887)
 * Asllan Curri (?–1925)
 * Idriz Seferi (1847–1927)
 * Bajram Balota (?–?)
 * Sadik Rama (1879–1944)
 * Isa Boletini (1864–1916)
 * Jusuf Mehonja (1883–1926)

title: Kachaks


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James Frain

James Frain (born 14 March 1968) is an English stage and screen actor. His best known television roles include Thomas Cromwell in the Showtime/CBC historical drama The Tudors (2007–2009), Franklin Mott in the HBO drama True Blood (2010), Warwick the Kingmaker in the BBC drama serial The White Queen (2013), John Sumner in the Sky/Canal+ crime drama The Tunnel (2013), Ferdinand Chevalier in the BBC/Space sci-fi thriller Orphan Black (2015–2017), Theo Galavan/Azrael in Fox's Gotham (2015–2016), and Sarek in Star Trek: Discovery (2017–2019). He also played leading roles in the BBC dramas Armadillo (2001), The Buccaneers (1995) and The Mill on the Floss (1997).

In film, he is best known for playing Daniel Barenboim and Álvaro de la Quadra in the biographical dramas Hilary and Jackie and Elizabeth, respectively (both 1998), Bassianus in the Shakespeare adaptation Titus (1999), and Gérard de Villefort in the historical drama The Count of Monte Cristo (2002).

Early life
Frain was born in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire, and brought up in Stansted Mountfitchet, near Bishop's Stortford, Essex, the eldest of eight children of a teacher mother and a stockbroker father. He was educated at Newport Free Grammar School, studied Drama and Film at the University of East Anglia and trained as an actor at the Central School of Speech and Drama in London.

Career
In 1993, while in his final year of drama school, he made his film debut in Shadowlands, after being spotted by the film director Richard Attenborough. In 1995, He starred as a Northern Irish terrorist in the Thaddeus O'Sullivan directed film, Nothing Personal.

In 2000, Frain was nominated for Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor at the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television's 20th Genie Awards in Toronto, for his performance as Gustave Sonnenschein in the István Szabó directed film Sunshine.

He has been a regular on the stage in the United Kingdom, appearing with the Royal Shakespeare Company and Royal Court Theatre, as well as on the West End. He has also appeared on Broadway and was a recipient of the 2008 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Ensemble Performances along with the rest of the cast of The Homecoming (2007).

He has appeared in a number of television series, such as Soldier Soldier (1993); Armadillo (2001); 24 (2005); Invasion (2006); and The Closer (2006). His more recent roles include Thomas Cromwell in Showtime's The Tudors; the villainous billionaire 'Chess' in the NBC superhero/crime drama series The Cape; heroic Templar Sir Gregory in the Syfy original film Dark Relic (2010); and vampire Franklin Mott in the HBO drama True Blood. In season 2 of Grimm, Frain joined the cast as a mysterious recurring character named Eric Renard.

He appeared in the second season of Gotham as Azrael, and portrayed Sarek, the father of Spock, on Star Trek: Discovery, the second prequel TV series in the Star Trek franchise.

Personal life
In 2004, Frain married director Marta Cunningham; they have two children. The couple announced their separation in February 2023.

title: James Frain


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Don Alias

Charles "Don" Alias (December 25, 1939 – March 28, 2006) was an American jazz percussionist.

Alias was best known for playing congas and other hand drums. He was, however, a capable drum kit performer: for example, Alias played drums on the song "Miles Runs the Voodoo Down" from trumpeter Miles Davis's album Bitches Brew (1969) when neither Lenny White nor Jack DeJohnette was able to play the marching band-inspired rhythm requested by Davis.

Alias performed on hundreds of recordings and was perhaps best known for his associations with Miles Davis and saxophonist David Sanborn, though he also performed or recorded with Weather Report, singer Joni Mitchell, pianist Herbie Hancock, the Brecker Brothers, Jaco Pastorius, Pat Metheny, Nina Simone and many others. Alias was born in New York City and arrived in Boston in the early 1960s intending to study medicine, but after playing congas in a number of local bands, made an abrupt career switch.

As sideman
With Philip Bailey With Cheryl Bentyne With Carla Bley With Blood, Sweat & Tears With Jonathan Butler With Uri Caine With David Clayton-Thomas With Marc Cohn With Miles Davis With Jack DeJohnette With Klaus Doldinger With Eliane Elias With Joe Farrell With Roberta Flack With Dan Fogelberg With Michael Franks With Bill Frisell With Hal Galper With Kenny Garrett With Don Grolnick Group With Herbie Hancock With Ian Hunter With Elvin Jones With Dave Liebman With Joe Lovano With Pat Metheny Group With Bob Mintzer With Joni Mitchell With Jane Monheit With Pages With Jaco Pastorius With Weather Report With Lou Reed With Sanne Salomonsen '''With Carlos Santana and John McLaughlin With Lalo Schifrin With Marlena Shaw With Nina Simone With Jeremy Steig With Ira Sullivan With Steve Swallow With James Taylor With The Tony Williams Lifetime
 * Soul on Jazz (Heads Up International, 2002)
 * Talk of The Town (Paddle Wheel, 2002)
 * The Lights Still Burn (Paddle Wheel, 2003)
 * Moonlight Serenade (King, 2003)
 * The Book of Love (Telarc, 2006)
 * Sextet (Watt, 1987)
 * Fleur Carnivore (Watt, 1988)
 * The Very Big Carla Bley Band (Watt, 1990)
 * Looking for America (Watt, 2002)
 * More Than Ever (Columbia, 1976)
 * Heal Our Hand (Jive, 1990)
 * Head to Head (Mercury, 1993)
 * Toys (JMT, 1996)
 * Bloodlines (DCT, 1999)
 * Marc Cohn (Atlantic, 1991)
 * Bitches Brew (Columbia, 1970)
 * On the Corner (Columbia, 1972)
 * Amandla (Warner Bros., 1989)
 * Miles Davis at Newport 1955-1975: The Bootleg Series Vol. 4 (Columbia Legacy, 2015)
 * Oneness (ECM, 1997)
 * Doldinger in New York – Street of Dreams (WEA, 1994)
 * So Far So Close (Blue Note, 1989)
 * Penny Arcade (CTI, 1973)
 * Oasis (Atlantic, 1988)
 * The Christmas Album (Capitol, 1997)
 * The Innocent Age (Full Moon, 1981)
 * Abandoned Garden (Warner Bros., 1995)
 * Unspeakable (Elektra Nonesuch, 2004)
 * The Guerilla Band (Mainstream, 1971)
 * Black Hope (Warner Bros, 1992)
 * Medianoche (Warner Bros., 1995)
 * The Complete London Concert (Fuzzy Music, 2000)
 * The New Standard (Verve, 1996)
 * All American Alien Boy (Columbia, 1976)
 * Merry-Go-Round (Blue Note, 1971)
 * Sweet Hands (Horizon, 1975)
 * Tenor Legacy (Blue Note, 1993)
 * Imaginary Day (Warner, 1997)
 * One Music (DMP, 1991)
 * Don Juan's Reckless Daughter (Asylum, 1977)
 * Mingus (Asylum, 1979)
 * Shadows and Light (Asylum, 1980)
 * In the Sun (N-Coded, 2002)
 * Future Street (Epic, 1979)
 * Jaco Pastorius (Epic, 1976)
 * Word of Mouth (Warner Bros., 1981)
 * Weather Report (Columbia, 1971) – uncredited
 * Black Market (Columbia, 1976)
 * Ecstasy (Sire, 2000)
 * In a New York Minute (Virgin, 1998)
 * Love Devotion Surrender (Columbia, 1973)
 * Black Widow (CTI, 1976)
 * Love is in Flight (Verve, 1988)
 * To Love Somebody (RCA, 1969)
 * Legwork (Solid State, 1970)
 * Wayfaring Stranger (Blue Note, 1971)
 * Energy (Capitol, 1971)
 * Fusion (Groove Merchant, 1972)
 * Ira Sullivan (Horizon, 1976)
 * Carla (Xtra Watt, 1987)
 * Swallow (Xtra Watt, 1991)
 * New Moon Shine (Columbia, 1991)
 * Ego (Polydor, 1971)

title: Don Alias


text:
Georges Guynemer

Georges Guynemer (, 24 December 1894 – 11 September 1917 MIA) was the second highest-scoring French fighter ace with 54 victories during World War I, and a French national hero at the time of his death. Guynemer's death was a profound shock to France.

Early life and military career
Georges Marie Ludovic Jules Guynemer was born in Paris to a wealthy and aristocratic family. His father was Paul Guynemer (1860-1922), a former officer of Saint-Cyr. His mother, Julie Noémi Doynel de Saint-Quentin's (1866-1957) ancestry included King Louis XIV. Guynemer experienced an often sickly childhood. Nevertheless, he succeeded as an aviator through his enormous drive and self-confidence.

He was originally rejected five times for military service due to frailty, but was accepted for training as a mechanic in late 1914. With determination, he gained acceptance to pilot training, joining Escadrille MS.3 on 8 June 1915. He remained in the same unit for his entire service. The first plane allocated to him was a Morane-Saulnier L monoplane previously flown by Charles Bonnard, and accordingly named Vieux Charles (Old Charles). Guynemer kept the name and continued to use it for most of his later aircraft. On 19 July 1915, he shot down his first plane, a German Aviatik.

On 5 December 1915, the Escadrille MS.3 was renamed the Escadrille N.3, after being re-equipped with new Nieuport 10 fighters. Flying the more effective plane, Guynemer quickly established himself as one of France's premier fighter pilots. He became an ace, with his fifth victory coming in February 1916, and was promoted to lieutenant in March. On 12 March 1916 he scored his 8th victory. At the end of the year, his score had risen to 25. Capitaine Brocard, commander of Escadrille N.3 (Storks), described Guynemer at that time as "...my most brilliant Stork." Less than a year later, Guynemer was promoted to captain and commander of the Storks squadron.

Guynemer became influential enough to affect French fighter aircraft design. In December 1916, he wrote a letter to the chief designer at Spad, criticizing the Spad VII as inferior to the German Halberstadt that was its contemporary. As a consequence, Spad developed two new but very similar models, the SPAD XII and SPAD XIII. The new models were promising, but had teething problems with the reduction gear between engine and propeller.

On 23 January 1917 Guynemer scored a "double" credit of victories 26 and 27, first shooting down an Albatros C piloted by Captain Martin Korner, who was killed, followed by a Rumpler C I of Flieger-Abteilung (A) 216 piloted by Lt. Bernhard Röder and his observer Lt. Otto von Schanzenbach who were both killed. On 26 January 1917 Guynemer forced down an Albatros C.VII of Flieger-Abteilung (A) 226 whose crew was captured for his 30th credit. On 8 February 1917, flying a SPAD VII, Guynemer became the first Allied pilot to shoot down a German Gotha bomber, his 31st victory. On 16 March 1917 he brought down his 32nd credit, a Roland D.II of Jasta 32 whose pilot was captured. On 14 April 1917 he downed his 36th credit, by killing a crew from Flieger-Abteilung (A) 254. His highest scoring month was May 1917, when he downed seven German aircraft including a quadruple credit on 25 May. By July, he began to fly the Spad XII; his avion magique was, at his behest, armed with a 37 mm cannon whose barrel fired through the propeller shaft. It was also armed with a .30 in air-cooled Vickers machine gun. Although the cannon promised devastating firepower, the new plane was a handful because of it, as the cannon's rearwards-protruding breech mandated separate aileron and elevator controls split from each other on opposing sides of the cockpit. The single shot cannon had to also be manually reloaded in flight; it had a heavy recoil when fired and filled the canopy with fumes with every shot. The Spad XII was not a plane for a novice pilot. However, Guynemer used it to down an Albatros fighter on 27 July, and a DFW the next day. The latter triumph made him the first French ace to attain 50 victories, with headlines such as "Fifty machines destroyed! This had been Guynemer's dream!" written in the newspapers.

Death
Guynemer failed to return from a combat mission on 11 September 1917. The previous week had been one of mechanical ills, in both his assigned aircraft and the ones he borrowed. At 08:30, with rookie pilot Jean Bozon-Verduraz, Guynemer took off in his Spad XIII S.504 n°2. His mission was to patrol the Langemark area. At 09:25, near Poelkapelle, Guynemer sighted a lone Rumpler, a German observation plane, and dove toward it. Bozon-Verduraz saw several Fokkers above him, and by the time he had shaken them off, his leader was nowhere in sight, so he returned alone. Guynemer never came back.

Guynemer was confirmed missing in action by his squadron commander Major Brocard; it was officially announced in Paris by the French War Department on 25 September 1917. Unofficial confirmation came from a captured German pilot who was shot down behind Canadian lines the evening of 29 September. A German sergeant from the 413th Regiment swore he had witnessed the crash and identified Guynemer's corpse; he also certified that he had died from a bullet through the head, with other injuries including a broken leg and a finger shot away. The German party retrieving the body was driven away by Allied artillery fire before they could bury or remove the body. The 25 September details released by the French War Department were unclassified and became public knowledge as described by one of his flying comrades (name withheld due to security reasons):

"Guynemer sighted five machines of the Albatros type D-3. Without hesitation, he bore down on them. At that moment enemy patrolling machines, soaring at a great height, appeared suddenly and fell upon Guynemer. There were forty enemy machines in the air at this time, including Baron von Richthofen and his circus division of machines, painted in diagonal blue and white stripes. Toward Guynemer's right some Belgian machines hove in sight, but it was too late. Guynemer must have been hit. His machine dropped gently toward the Earth, and I lost track of it. All that I can say is that the machine was not on fire."

Additional details were furnished by Major Brocard, as listed in an article from the Paris Le Matin:

"The last fight of the French aviator occurred four or five miles inside the German lines northeast of Ypres and opposite the British lines. Captain Guynemer was accompanied by Lieutenant Bozon Verduraz, who says that they were flying at a height of 15,000 feet when Guynemer sighted an enemy two-seater, which he attacked. Almost at the same moment Verduraz saw four German monoplanes approaching and turned toward them instantly so as to draw them off. They circled around for a while and then disappeared. Verduraz then returned to the place where he had left Guynemer engaged with the German biplane, but Guynemer had vanished."

The two-seater, described as a Rumpler type by Bozon-Verduraz, has never been identified, but recent research shows that it could have been a machine flown by Lt. d. R. Max Psaar (observer) and Fl. Georg Seibert (pilot) from FA(A)224. German ace Kurt Wissemann of Jasta 3 was credited with the victory. Wissemann would himself be killed in action little more than two weeks later on 28 September 1917.

According to an American Red Cross communique from the French front, the death of Guynemer was determined to be "definitely confirmed". This Red Cross report provided these details:

"Information received by the Red Cross says Guynemer was shot through the head north of Poelcapelle, on the Ypres front. His body was identified by a photograph on his pilot's license found in his pocket. The burial took place at Brussels in the presence of a guard of honor, composed of the 5th Prussian Division. Such is the story told by a Belgian, who has just escaped from the Germans. The burial was about to take place at Poelcapelle, when the bombardment preceding the British attack at Ypres started. The burying party hastily withdrew, taking the body with them. The German General chanced to be an aviation enthusiast with a great admiration for Captain Guynemer's achievements. At his direction the body was taken to Brussels in a special funeral car. Thither the captain was carried by non-commissioned officers and was covered with floral tributes from German aviators. The Prussian Guards stood at salute upon its arrival and during the burial, which was given all possible military honors. The French Government has been invited to place in the Pantheon, where many great Frenchmen are buried, an inscription to perpetuate the memory of Captain Guynemer as 'a symbol of the aspirations and enthusiasm of the Army.' A resolution to this effect has been introduced in the Chamber of Deputies by Deputy Lasies."

Guynemer had 54 victories at the time of his death.

Legacy
Guynemer was lionized by the French press and became a national hero. The French government encouraged the publicity to boost morale and take the people's minds off the terrible losses in the trenches. Guynemer was embarrassed by the attention, but his shyness only increased the public's appetite to know everything about him. This was quite different later in 1918 with the French top ace René Fonck, who despite having 75 confirmed victories, had bad publicity for his arrogance and shameless self-promotion. Guynemer's death was a profound shock to France; nevertheless, he remained an icon for the duration of the war. Only 22 at his death, he continued to inspire the nation with his advice, "Until one has given all, one has given nothing."

The Paris street rue Guynemer is named after him as is a school in Compiègne, the Institution Guynemer. A statue is erected in Poelcapelle in commemoration of Georges Guynemer.

The episode "The Last Flight" (1960) from season one of the American television series The Twilight Zone was loosely based on the disappearance of Guynemer put to fictional speculation as to what happened to him.

He was decorated Order of Karađorđe's Star with swords and a number of other decorations.

title: Georges Guynemer


text:
Talk:Hill fort

Comments
This seems like a dup of hill fort; if not, it needs to explain the distinction. Stan 16:51, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

 * drat should have checked though in my defence the author(s) of hill fort refer to them as hillforts and even hill-forts. They are the same thing though. I'd argue hillfort is the proper archaeological rendering anyway but then I wrote that one. Probably needs a debate somewhere adamsan 16:58, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

 * A Google sniff, plus a check of which seems most common in books by searching Amazon, should be sufficient - I doubt anybody will make a big deal either way. (What I find amusing is to Google both together, see how many pages use both on the same page!) Stan 17:36, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

Well, I pulled as much text as would fit into the hill fort article, which gave me an excuse to reorganize the materials there. (When I wrote the original article, my sources claimed that hill forts were unique to Britain -- a claim I should have known better than to accept.) At least now it gives more attention to the rest of Europe, & ought to stand until someone insists that the Acropolis is a hill fort, yet only called by another name.

I didn't turn this article into a redirect to the other because (1) folks should discuss which is the better term, & (2) some may think that I have a conflict of interest here. (A space, a hyphen, or compounding into one word? I really don't care, but would like to see some evidence of use or preferred style before I bow to anyone's argument.) -- llywrch 02:53, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Splendid. I have started a discussion in Talk:Archaeology to see what everyone there thinks there. adamsan 14:17, 11 May 2004 (UTC)~

title: Talk:Hill fort


text:
List of Canadian short story writers

This is a list of Canadian short story writers.

A

 * Gil Adamson
 * Caroline Adderson
 * Jean Marc Ah-Sen
 * Kelley Aitken
 * Donald Alarie
 * André Alexis
 * Nada Alic
 * Lisa Alward
 * Timothy J. Anderson
 * Gail Anderson-Dargatz
 * David Arnason
 * Margaret Atwood
 * Mona Awad

B

 * Arjun Basu
 * Peter Behrens
 * Moe Berg
 * Kris Bertin
 * David Bezmozgis
 * Shashi Bhat
 * Sandra Birdsell
 * Dennis Bock
 * Maxime Raymond Bock
 * Kenneth Bonert
 * George Bowering
 * Joseph Boyden
 * Frances Boyle
 * Lois Braun
 * Krista Bridge
 * Ernest Buckler
 * Kayt Burgess
 * Bonnie Burnard

C

 * Morley Callaghan
 * Roch Carrier
 * Kate Cayley
 * Michael Christie
 * Joan Clark
 * Austin Clarke
 * Lynn Coady
 * Devon Code
 * Matt Cohen
 * Christy Ann Conlin
 * Paige Cooper
 * Ann Copeland
 * Archie Crail
 * Isabella Valancy Crawford
 * Eva Crocker
 * Michael Crummey

D

 * Robertson Davies
 * Elisabeth de Mariaffi
 * Anthony de Sa
 * Don Dickinson
 * Kildare Dobbs
 * Nina Dunic
 * Norma Dunning

E

 * Evelyn Eaton
 * Caterina Edwards
 * George Elliott
 * Marina Endicott
 * Sharon English
 * Gloria Escomel

F

 * M. A. C. Farrant
 * Timothy Findley
 * Stephen Finucan
 * Jon Paul Fiorentino
 * Anne Fleming
 * Cynthia Flood
 * Tess Fragoulis
 * Raymond Fraser
 * Kathy Friedman

G

 * Mavis Gallant
 * Hugh Garner
 * Zsuzsi Gartner
 * Elyse Gasco
 * Bill Gaston
 * Connie Gault
 * Margaret Gibson
 * John Patrick Gillese
 * Danuta Gleed
 * John Gould
 * Katherine Govier
 * Barbara Gowdy
 * R. W. Gray
 * Robert Joseph Greene
 * Stephen Guppy

H

 * Rawi Hage
 * Jane Eaton Hamilton
 * Kevin Hardcastle
 * Sydney Hegele
 * Lee Henderson
 * Lawrence Hill
 * Greg Hollingshead
 * Hugh Hood
 * David Huebert

I

 * George K. Ilsley
 * Dionne Irving

J

 * Lorna Jackson
 * Mark Anthony Jarman

K

 * Greg Kearney
 * Julie Keith
 * Susan Kerslake
 * W. P. Kinsella
 * Greg Kramer
 * Aaron Kreuter
 * Kathryn Kuitenbrouwer

L

 * Angélique Lalonde
 * Margaret Laurence
 * Karen Lawrence
 * Stephen Leacock
 * John B. Lee
 * Catherine Leroux
 * Alex Leslie
 * Carrianne Leung
 * Norman Levine
 * Billie Livingston
 * Sidura Ludwig

M

 * Alexander MacLeod
 * Alistair MacLeod
 * Paul Marlowe
 * Émile Martel
 * Yann Martel
 * Derek McCormack
 * Oonah McFee
 * Robert McGill
 * Robin McGrath
 * Stuart McLean
 * Eugene McNamara
 * Marianne Micros
 * Lisa Moore
 * Alice Munro
 * Sheila Murray
 * Téa Mutonji

N

 * Darlene Naponse
 * André Narbonne
 * Saleema Nawaz
 * Jen Neale
 * Alden Nowlan

O

 * Heather O'Neill

P

 * Fawn Parker
 * Kevin Patterson
 * Fred Pellerin
 * Amanda Peters
 * H. R. Percy
 * Susan Perly
 * Casey Plett

Q

 * Andy Quan
 * Marion Quednau

R

 * Kenneth Radu
 * Ahmad Danny Ramadan
 * Zalika Reid-Benta
 * Maria Reva
 * Mordecai Richler
 * Spider Robinson
 * Patrick Roscoe
 * Rebecca Rosenblum
 * Sinclair Ross
 * Stuart Ross
 * Andrea Routley
 * Naben Ruthnum

S

 * Sandra Sabatini
 * Arthur Scaife
 * Jasmine Sealy
 * Sarah Selecky
 * Carol Shields
 * Mireille Silcoff
 * Antanas Sileika
 * Andy Sinclair
 * Jaspreet Singh
 * Neil Smith
 * Caro Soles
 * Rae Spoon
 * Eva Stachniak
 * Joel A. Sutherland
 * Shawn Syms

T

 * Darcy Tamayose
 * Saeed Teebi
 * Souvankham Thammavongsa
 * Madeleine Thien
 * Matthew J. Trafford
 * Catharine Parr Traill

U

 * Jane Urquhart

V

 * W.D. Valgardson
 * Guy Vanderhaeghe
 * Anuja Varghese

W

 * Tracey Waddleton
 * Jack Wang
 * Martin West
 * Ethel Wilson

Z

 * Robert Zend
 * Daniel Zomparelli

title: List of Canadian short story writers


text:
Spacewarp

Spacewarp or Space Warp may refer to:

Toys

 * Spacewarp (toy), a 1980s build-it-yourself marble coaster originally sold by Bandai.
 * Spacewarp (transformer), a female Decepticon originally based on Jetfire.

Video games

 * Spacewarp, a software product by Bug-Byte.
 * Space Warp, an ASCII game loosely based on Star Trek.

Other media

 * "Spacewarp", a 2015 song by Mark Sherry.
 * "Space Warp", the 39th episode of Space: 1999.
 * "The Invaders from the Space Warp", a story in Detective Comics which introduced Zook.

Science and technology

 * Asynchronous SpaceWarp, a framerate smoothing technique used on the Oculus Rift.
 * Hyperspace, a method of traveling in science fiction.
 * Warp drive a fictitious spacecraft propulsion system.

title: Spacewarp


text:
Bc (programming language)

bc, for basic calculator, is "an arbitrary-precision calculator language" with syntax similar to the C programming language. bc is typically used as either a mathematical scripting language or as an interactive mathematical shell.

Overview
A typical interactive usage is typing the command  on a Unix command prompt and entering a mathematical expression, such as (1 + 3) * 2, whereupon 8 will be output. While bc can work with arbitrary precision, it actually defaults to zero digits after the decimal point, so the expression 2/3 yields 0 (results are truncated, not rounded). This can surprise new bc users unaware of this fact. The -l option to bc sets the default scale (digits after the decimal point) to 20 and adds several additional mathematical functions to the language.

History
bc first appeared in Version 6 Unix in 1975. It was written by Lorinda Cherry of Bell Labs as a front end to dc, an arbitrary-precision calculator written by Robert Morris and Cherry. dc performed arbitrary-precision computations specified in reverse Polish notation. bc provided a conventional programming-language interface to the same capability via a simple compiler (a single yacc source file comprising a few hundred lines of code), which converted a C-like syntax into dc notation and piped the results through dc.

In 1991, POSIX rigorously defined and standardized bc. Four implementations of this standard survive today: The first is the traditional Unix implementation, a front-end to dc, which survives in Unix and Plan 9 systems. The second is the free software GNU bc, first released in 1991 by Philip A. Nelson. The GNU implementation has numerous extensions beyond the POSIX standard and is no longer a front-end to dc (it is a bytecode interpreter). The third is a re-implementation by OpenBSD in 2003. The fourth is an independent implementation by Gavin Howard that is included in Android (operating system),  FreeBSD as of 13.3-RELEASE,   and macOS as of 13.0.

POSIX bc
The POSIX standardized bc language is traditionally written as a program in the dc programming language to provide a higher level of access to the features of the dc language without the complexities of dc's terse syntax.

In this form, the bc language contains single-letter variable, array and function names and most standard arithmetic operators, as well as the familiar control-flow constructs (,  and  ) from C. Unlike C, an   clause may not be followed by an  .

Functions are defined using a   keyword, and values are returned from them using a   followed by the return value in parentheses. The   keyword (optional in C) is used to declare a variable as local to a function.

All numbers and variable contents are arbitrary-precision numbers whose precision (in decimal places) is determined by the global   variable.

The numeric base of input (in interactive mode), output and program constants may be specified by setting the reserved   (input base) and   (output base) variables.

Output is generated by deliberately not assigning the result of a calculation to a variable.

Comments may be added to bc code by use of the C   and   (start and end comment) symbols.

Exactly as C
The following POSIX bc operators behave exactly like their C counterparts:

+    -     *     / +=    -=    *=    /= ++    --    <     > ==    !=    <=    >=     [ ]   { }

Similar to C
The modulus operators,  and   behave exactly like their C counterparts only when the global   variable is set to 0, i.e. all calculations are integer-only. Otherwise the computation is done with the appropriate scale. is defined as. Examples:

Conflicting with C
The operators

^    ^=

superficially resemble the C bitwise exclusive-or operators, but are in fact the bc integer exponentiation operators.

Of particular note, the use of the  operator with negative numbers does not follow the C operator precedence. gives the answer of 4 under bc rather than −4.

"Missing" operators relative to C
The bitwise, boolean and conditional operators:

&    |     ^     &&    || &=    |=    ^=    &&=   ||= <<    >> <<=   >>= ?:

are not available in POSIX bc.

Built-in functions
The   function for calculating square roots is POSIX bc's only built-in mathematical function. Other functions are available in an external standard library.

The   function for determining the precision (as with the   variable) of its argument and the   function for determining the number of significant decimal digits in its argument are also built-in.

Standard library functions
bc's standard math library (defined with the -l option) contains functions for calculating sine, cosine, arctangent, natural logarithm, the exponential function and the two parameter Bessel function J. Most standard mathematical functions (including the other inverse trigonometric functions) can be constructed using these. See external links for implementations of many other functions.

The -l option changes the scale to 20, so things such as modulo may work unexpectedly. For example, writing  and then the command   outputs 0. But writing  after   and then the command   will output 1.

Plan 9 bc
Plan 9 bc is identical to POSIX bc but for an additional   statement.

GNU bc
GNU bc derives from the POSIX standard and includes many enhancements. It is entirely separate from dc-based implementations of the POSIX standard and is instead written in C. Nevertheless, it is fully backwards compatible as all POSIX bc programs will run unmodified as GNU bc programs.

GNU bc variables, arrays and function names may contain more than one character, some more operators have been included from C, and notably, an   clause may be followed by an  .

Output is achieved either by deliberately not assigning a result of a calculation to a variable (the POSIX way) or by using the added   statement.

Furthermore, a   statement allows the interactive input of a number into a running calculation.

In addition to C-style comments, a   character will cause everything after it until the next new-line to be ignored.

The value of the last calculation is always stored within the additional built-in   variable.

Extra operators
The following logical operators are additional to those in POSIX bc:

&&    ||      !

They are available for use in conditional statements (such as within an   statement). Note, however, that there are still no equivalent bitwise or assignment operations.

Functions
All functions available in GNU bc are inherited from POSIX. No further functions are provided as standard with the GNU distribution.

Example code
Since the bc  operator only allows an integer power to its right, one of the first functions a bc user might write is a power function with a floating-point exponent. Both of the below assume the standard library has been included:

Calculating π to 10000 digits
Calculate pi using the builtin arctangent function, a:

A translated C function
Because the syntax of bc is similar to that of C, published numerical functions written in C can often be translated into bc quite easily, which immediately provides the arbitrary precision of bc. For example, in the Journal of Statistical Software (July 2004, Volume 11, Issue 5), George Marsaglia published the following C code for the cumulative normal distribution:

With some necessary changes to accommodate bc's different syntax, and noting that the constant "0.9189..." is actually log(2*PI)/2, this can be translated to the following GNU bc code:

Using bc in shell scripts
bc can be used non-interactively, with input through a pipe. This is useful inside shell scripts. For example: In contrast, note that the bash shell only performs integer arithmetic, e.g.: One can also use the here-string idiom (in bash, ksh, csh):

title: Bc (programming language)


text:
Talk:Rinkeby

Rinkebysvenska
I don't know if it's correct to call Rinkebysvenska a "variety" of Swedish. "Rinkebysvenska" is basically a term used for broken Swedish with foreign (non-Nothern-European) influence which has become more or less de facto. Also I doubt that Rinkebysvenska is specifically influenced by Turkish. Where does this information come from? In any case there isn't a single Rinkebysvenska. There are many different ways of speaking that would be labeled as such. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.217.91.4 (talk) 17:04, May 10, 2004 (UTC)

Fork out "Crime in Rinkeby"
Please someone, fork out "Crime in Rinkeby".

The following might be added to the forked out text: At the end of August 2020, two gangs imposed a curfew after 6 PM while bodily harm supposedly was the punishment for those who got caught breaking the curfew; the matter became public in October. 89.8.181.153 (talk) 19:21, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rinkeby