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Talk:Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems

Untitled
Maybe we could add a sentence about the meaning of this? Even I as physicist (however never having properly studied general raltivity) am unsure about whether this is to mean: There can be black holes, e.g. region in spacetime from which escape is impossible. Sanders muc 21:57, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

The Gromov theorem as it is presented is wrong. For exemple take a paboloid with induced metric of R^3. It as a scalar curvature everywhere positiv (and even a ricci tensor positiv) but isn't compact. The true hypothesis is that the spectrum of the ricci tensor is uniformaly minored by a strictly positiv number on the manifold. The scalar curvature it self give no information: The Yamabé problem says that there exists a conformably diffeomorphic manifold with constant scalar cuvature. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.77.128.142 (talk) 17:35, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Right-- the correct constraint is that the curvature is bounded away from zero, I'll fix it. The Ricci curvature condition is correctly stated in the article, as the convergence property of geodesics. This is the way physicists state it, and it is directly related to the proof.Likebox (talk) 01:30, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Actually, on rereading, it is correct as stated--- the condition of positive curvature is defined in the article by the convergence properties of geodesics, and this is the same as the statement that the Ricci tensor is "uniformly minored" by a strictly positive number. There is no statement about the scalar curvature.Likebox (talk) 01:35, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

Energy-mass limit in given finite space
Need a little more clarification for laymen: there's a bound for the amount of information in a finite region of space (Bekenstein bound, which depends on the amount of energy-mass in that region. Does it mean if there's an infinite amount of energy in a region of space then there's an infinite amount of information? Should there be an upper bound for energy-mass if Pauli exclusion principle really holds true? Also, if that's the case then singularity is ruled out?Mastertek (talk) 14:53, 23 October 2011 (UTC)

Proof
Instead of citing the sources, I wanted to prove the theorems. They are easy. The best source is "Large Scale Structure of Space Time", but it wastes your time by reviewing everything and the kitchen sink, and then in the interesting new parts, it is written densely and unclearly. But that's the source I read.

You were complaining about Gromov's theorem. I stated the theorem and sketched the proof--- it says that if a manifold has the property that when you extend any geodesic it will collide with a neighbor after a finite time, then the manifold is compact. I don't know the math literature well enough to know the actual cite. I heard this theorem while auditing a class.Likebox (talk) 22:32, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

Attribution of mathematical results
I have a very crappy knowledge of the mathematics literature, so I was attributing results without knowing the whole story. Sorry about that--- somebody please fix this. The important thing is to make sure that the analogous Riemannian geometry results remain--- the focusing theorems in Riemannian geometry are naturally parallel to Penrose's method, which uses the same type of ideas to prove something more surprising.Likebox (talk) 01:29, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

Einstein Maxwell Dirac
Somebody added this sentence to the lead:

(This doesn't hold for the Einstein-Maxwell-Dirac system, which is the (super)classical limit of quantum electrodynamics in a curved space-time.)

And the "this" refers to the statement that light rays are always focused by gravity. The weak energy condition is just that the projection of the stress energy tensor onto null vectors is nonnegative. This is certainly true in all models of matter, including Einstein Maxwell Dirac, or even with scalars. The dominant energy condition, on the other hand, is violated by scalars with a VEV. Maybe what the person meant here is that with Einstein Maxwell Dirac including positrons and electrons of arbitrary charge and mass, one could imagine forming a scalar positronium condensate which violates the dominant energy condition?

Another possibility is that the person just meant that classical Dirac spinors have solutions of positive and negative energy. This is true, but is physically spurious--- this type of negative energy is well understood to go away in second quantization.Likebox (talk) 00:26, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

Weird paragraph

 * Metric Completeness and Singularity

Understanding the definition of the singularity is very important, since our universe has started from singularity and, and all black holes contain singularity. It is not reasonable to define a space-time singularity as a point where the metric tensor was undefined or was not suitably differentiable. However the trouble with this is that one could simply cut out such points and say that the remaining manifold represented the whole of space-time, which would then be non-singular. Although we define the singularity of any black hole as a place which space time is undefined in many occasions, such as the singularity of Kerr black hole, note that in reality this is not true. Indeed, it would seem inappropriate to regard such singular points as being part of spacetime, for the normal equations of physics would not hold at them and it would be impossible to make any measurements. The most important mathematical definition in the singularity theorem is the geodesic completeness. In the case of a manifold (M,g) with a positive definite metric g one can define a distance function ρ(x,y) which is the greatest lower bound of the length of curves from x to y. The distance function is a metric in the topological sense; that is, a basis for the open sets of M is provided by the sets B(x,r) consisting of all points y which are element to M such that ρ(x,y)0 there is a number N such that ρ(x(n),x(m))<ε whenever n and m are greater than N. Therefore we define m-completeness implies geodesic completeness (g-completeness), that is every geodesic can be extended to arbitrary values of its affine parameter. This is because if (M,g) is m-complete if every differentiable(at least once) of finite length has an endpoint(a definition from the causal structure) Timelike geodesic incompleteness has an important property; there could be freely moving observers or particles whose histories did not exist after a finite interval of proper time. So it is appropriate to regard such a space as singular. Even though the affine parameter on a null geodesic does not have quite the same physical significance as proper time does on timelike geodesics, one should regard that a null geodesically incomplete space time as singular both because null geodesics are the histories of zero rest mass particles and because there are some examples(such as RN solution) which one would think of as singular but which are timelike but not null geodesically complete(meaning that there are freely-falling particles whose motion cannot be determined at a finite time at the point of reaching the singularity). Therefore if a space time is timelike or null geodesically complete, we shall say that it has a singularity. A theorem that were provided by Penrose in 1965 is very important. Before he provided the theorem to be proven, it was possible to hope that collapse to a Schwarzschild singularity was an artifact of spherical symmetry, and typical geometries would remain nonsingular. But they provided a fact that once a collapse reaches a certain point, evolution to a singularity is inevitable.(For more detailed disscusion see http://cafe.daum.net/grelativitycosmology)

 * This just repeats many of the points made earlier in an opaque way, although perhaps the statement that the singularities are not an artifact of spherical symmetry could be emphasized more in the article. I cleaned it up below:

In special exact solutions, the coordinate values where the metric diverges in an essential way describe a singularity. But it seems inappropriate to regard the actual points described by these coordinate values as a part of spacetime, because the normal laws of physics do not hold there, in particular, the spacetime no longer looks like Minkowski space locally. One could cut out such points and say that the remaining manifold represented the whole of space-time.

For a Euclidean manifold with a positive definite metric g one can define a distance function ρ(x,y) which is the greatest lower bound of the length of curves from x to y. This distance function makes the manifold into a topological metric space. The manifold is metrically complete if every Cauchy sequence using ρ as a metric converges to a point in M. Metric completeness implies geodesic completeness, that is every geodesic can be extended to arbitrary values of its arclength. The reason is that if a geodesic g is inextendible past a certain arclength p, points on the geodesic which approach the inextensible limit form a Cauchy sequence which cannot have a limit on the manifold, else the geodesic could be extended a little bit further.

For Minkowski manifolds, where the metric is not positive definite, timelike geodesic incompleteness has a physical interpretation. Timelike geodesics are the paths of freely moving particles or observers whose history ends after a finite interval of proper time. The physical interpretation shows that it is appropriate to regard a geodesically incomplete space as singular.

Even though the affine parameter on a null geodesic does not quite have the same physical significance as proper time, a null geodesically incomplete space time is considered singular too. This is because null geodesics are the histories of zero rest mass particles and can be approximated by specially accelerated observers. The singular exact Reissner-Nordström solution and Kerr solution are timelike but not null geodesically complete.

Penrose's 1965 singularity theorem established that any spacetime with a closed trapped surface is singular. Before Penrose proved his result, it was conceivable that typical geometries could remain nonsingular for all time. But since a small perturbation of a closed trapped surface is still closed and trapped, geodesic incompleteness is a general property of any spacetime which develops a gravitational horizon which vaguely resembles the Schwartschild horizon.Likebox (talk) 01:00, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Please restore cleaned up versions to appropriate places instead of restoring the original text.Likebox (talk) 01:00, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

deleted incorrect statement
I've removed the following sentence from the lead: "It is still an open question whether time-like singularities ever occur in the interior of real charged or rotating black holes, or whether they are artifacts of high symmetry and disappear when realistic perturbations are added." Actually one of the most important applications of the theorems is to show that the development of a singularity is robust with respect to perturbations and asymmetry.--75.83.69.196 (talk) 01:38, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

 * The theorem tells you that there is a singularity, but it doesn't tell you if the singularity is spacelike. The 'timelike'' singularities in exact solutions might be artifacts of high symmetry. The sentence is correct, and I will restore it.Likebox (talk) 17:54, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

another incorrect statement
The last part of the last sentence in the introduction is wrong:

"inflationary cosmologies avoid the initial big-bang singularity, rounding them out to a smooth beginning."

Inflation is just a phase of accelerated expansion and it has to begin at some time (there is no past eternal inflation). Hence without invoking some sort of Quantum Gravity inflation can in no way remove the initial Big Bang singularity. Someone should confirm this and remove the statement. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.174.126.27 (talk) 20:37, 22 August 2010 (UTC)

Arguements against a point singularity and infinite density
(1) The contents of a black hole would be expected to be relativistic. If the pressure P of relativistic material is given as (rho)(c^2)/3, the total thermal energy of this star would be ∫PdV = (Mc^2)/3, meaning a whopping 1/3 of the mass energy of the star would be used just to oppose the force of gravity. Interestingly, using the viral equation, if (Mc^2)/3 is equal to 1/2 the (newtonian) gravitational potential energy, or G(M^2)/2R, the radius R of this star equals 1.5GM/(c^2), or 3/4 of the Schwarzchild radius. Because of relativistic gravity the gravitational binding energy and radius would be somewhat larger. (2) Black holes have spin. If a 5 solar mass object of 10 kilometers radius spins at 500 revolutions per second, the surface velocity is 10% of the speed of light. If a 5 solar mass object of 1 centimeter radius spins at 500 revolutions per second, angular momentum isn't conserved. 172.162.110.224 (talk) 21:34, 1 January 2013 (UTC)BG

deleted nonsense claiming "It does not hold for matter described by a super-field, i.e., the Dirac field"
Someone added the following nonsense:
 * (It does not hold for matter described by a super-field, i.e., the Dirac field)

I deleted it. The only condition that has to hold on the matter field is the null energy condition. For the Penrose singularity theorem, see Hawking and Ellis, p. 263.--76.169.126.143 (talk) 17:42, 13 January 2020 (UTC)


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Duo

Duo may refer to:

Places

 * Duo, West Virginia, an unincorporated community and coal town in Greenbrier County, West Virginia
 * Duo, Tampere, a shopping centre in Hervanta, Tampere, Finland
 * DUO, a twin-tower development in Singapore

Fictional characters

 * Duo (Mega Man), a fictional protagonist in the Capcom video game series Mega Man
 * Duo Maxwell, a fictional protagonist in the television series Gundam Wing
 * Duo, the fictional owl mascot of the language learning website and mobile application Duolingo

Films

 * Duo (2006 film), a Canadian romantic comedy film directed by Richard Ciupka
 * Pas de deux (film), a 1969 Canadian film also known as Duo

Music

 * Duet or duo, a musical piece performed by two musicians
 * Musical duo, a musical ensemble composed of two musicians

Albums

 * Duo (Kenny Drew and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen album), 1973
 * Duo 2, Kenny Drew and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen album, 1974
 * Duo (Marilyn Crispell and Gerry Hemingway album), 1992
 * Duo (Richard Marx and Matt Scannell album), 2008
 * Duo (Merzbow album) box set, 2012
 * Duo (Peter Ostroushko and Dean Magraw album), 1991
 * Duo (Cedar Walton and David Williams album), 1990
 * Duo (Hank Jones and Red Mitchell album), 1987
 * In duo, Mina album, 2003

Other media

 * Duo (novel), a novel by Colette
 * The Duo, a 2011 South Korean television series
 * Comedy duo, also known as a double act

Computing

 * Core 2 Duo, a computer processor from manufacturer Intel
 * Google Duo, a video chat app made by Google
 * PowerBook Duo, a laptop computer from computer maker Apple
 * Duo Security, a multifactor authentication service now owned by Cisco

Other uses

 * Duo Airways, a defunct UK airline
 * Duo Interpretation, a speaking event
 * TL Ultralight TL-22 Duo, Czech ultralight trike design
 * Duo, a clone of Uno (card game)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Duo


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Gold fingerprinting

Gold fingerprinting is a method of identifying an item made of gold based on the impurities or trace elements it contains.

Importance
This technique has been used to lay claim to stolen or relocated gold, including gold that has undergone salting can be identified by its multiple sources. Gold fingerprinting also assists in understanding the origins of gold artifacts.

This method is used to characterize gold or a gold-containing item by its trace elements, a.k.a. fingerprinting the sample by mineralizing event and to the particular mine or bullion source. Elements that measure above the detection limits include : Ag, Cu, Ti, Fe, Pt, Pd, Mn, Cr, Ni, Sn, Hg, Pb, As and Te can be used for gold fingerprinting and geochemical characterization. In order for this technique to be used to identify the origins of the gold in question a database made from fingerprinting samples of gold from mines and bullion sources is required.

Method
Electron microprobe (EMP), Synchrotron micro-XRF (SR-M-XRF), Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), Atomic emission spectrometry, x-ray fluorescence spectrometry with higher energy synchrotron radiation (SR-XFS) and Laser ablation-Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) are all methods of gold fingerprinting.

The most common method is LA-ICP-MS primarily because it is quasi-nondestructive, allowing for the preservation of the samples and convenient as samples require little to no preparation. Laser ablation allows for high spatial resolution sampling while the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry provides high sensitivity to identify extremely small amounts of trace elements within the gold. This method can also be conducted outside of a lab with the assistance of a portable device that uses a diode pumped solid state laser and fiber-optics, making fingerprinting more convenient as it eliminates the need for transfer of gold to a specific lab.

Advantages of LA-ICP-MS include reduced sample preparation, no sample size requirements, reduced spectral interference and increased sample throughput. Over the past 32 years, LA-ICP-MS has been used for archaeological, biological and forensic purposes. For example a group of gold foil fragments dating back to the 5th Century B.C.E. were analysized by LA-ICP-MS uncovering information on their manufacturing process, function and relationship to one another.

Complications
LA-ICP-MS function optimally with gold particles greater than 60 μm in diameter to avoid any contamination during measurements. Although LA-ICP-MS has a lower detection limit, its overall precision was lower than other analysis techniques for trace element concentrations such as field emission-electron probe microanalysis (FE-EPMA) and synchrotron micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SR-l-XRF).

Due to the small size of gold (<5μm-250μm) small fragments of minerals need to be separated from the gold before analysis can occur.

Gold fingerprinting has limitations including elemental fractionation (the non-sample related analyte) and calibration requires matrix-matched standards.

A few other problems exist that limit actual sourcing or provencancing of gold in relation to manufactured art objects. These problems include: a lack of an extensive database of elemental profiles in gold ores, the natural differences that coexist in ore geology and the difficulties of accurately analyzing trace elements. Also, trading, looting and re-melting of so called “precious” metal objects add to the problem of sourcing.

title: Gold fingerprinting


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User:Redwalker

It would seem that this is my user page.

I'm still quite new to the whole Wiki thing, so this user page is probably lacking expected features.

title: User:Redwalker


text:
Ettan

Ettan might refer to:

 * Ettan (football), Swedish third division
 * Ykkönen, or Ettan in Swedish, Finnish 3rd football division
 * Ettan snus, tobacco product

title: Ettan


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Seney

Seney may refer to:

Places
In the United States:
 * Seney, Iowa, an unincorporated community
 * Seney Township, Michigan
 * Seney, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Seney Township
 * Seney, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * Seney National Wildlife Refuge, surrounding the community of Seney, MI
 * Seney Stretch, a 25-mile straight route along M-28 between Seney and Shingleton, MI

People

 * Brett Seney (1996-) Canadian ice hockey player in the National Hockey League
 * George E. Seney (1832–1905), nineteenth century politician, lawyer and judge from Ohio
 * Joshua Seney (1756–1798), American farmer, lawyer, and politician

Other uses

 * The Seney Syndicate, which linked together several short railroads in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to form the Lake Erie and Western Railroad

title: Seney


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Leo Navratil

Leo Navratil (3 July 1921 in Türnitz, Lower Austria – 18 September 2006 in Vienna) was an Austrian psychiatrist and author.

He worked in the hospital in Gugging. He called the works, paintings, and texts of his patients "Zustandsgebundene Kunst" (state-bound art). To Navratil, patients make only in the acute stage of their mental illness artistically relevant works. These works have been exhibited in Berlin, Vienna, Salzburg and Heidelberg. Navratil supported the creativity of his patients and showed their works in the art context and published some of their texts. One of his best known artists is Oswald Tschirtner, also known as O.T.

Books

 * Die Federzeichnungen des Patienten O.T. (Munich, 1974)
 * Schizophrenie und Sprache (Munich 1976)
 * Alexanders poetische Texte (Munich 1977)
 * Art brut and Psychiatrie, Gugging 1946-1986; Wien: Brandstätter 1999 ISBN 3-85447-876-3

title: Leo Navratil


text:
Sennett

Sennett may refer to:

 * Blake Sennett (born 1973), American musician
 * George Burritt Sennett (1840–1900), American ornithologist and businessman
 * Mack Sennett (1880–1960), Canadian movie director
 * Maud Arncliffe Sennett (1862–1935) British suffragette
 * Richard Sennett (born 1943), American sociologist
 * Sennett, New York, a town in New York, United States

title: Sennett


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Robert E. Ornstein

Robert Evan Ornstein (August 21, 1942 – December 20, 2018) was an American psychologist, researcher and author.

He taught at the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, based at the University of California Medical Center in San Francisco, and was professor at Stanford University and founder and chairman of the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK).

Early life and education
Robert Evan Ornstein was born in 1942 in Brooklyn, New York, USA, and grew up in the city. He was twice high school math champion in a city-wide contest, and "wavered between physics and poetry before compromising on psychology" at the City University of New York's Queens College.

In 1964 he was awarded a bachelor's degree in psychology at Queens College, and went on to gain a PhD at Stanford University, California in 1968. His doctoral thesis was On the Experience of Time.

Career
Ornstein was involved in reconciling the scientific understanding of mind and consciousness with other scientific and cultural traditions. His work has been featured in a 1974 Time magazine article entitled Hemispheric Thinker.

In 1969 Ornstein founded the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK) an educational 501(c) (3) non-profit organization dedicated to cross-cultural understanding and to bringing important research on human nature to the general public, most recently The Human Journey website. He was the President of ISHK until his death.

Ornstein's book The Right Mind deals with split-brain studies and other experiments or clinical evidence revealing the abilities of the right cerebral hemisphere.

He also wrote on the brain's role in health in The Healing Brain with David Sobel of Kaiser Permanente; the way in which human consciousness is unable to understand the fast paced modern world in New World New Mind: Moving Toward Conscious Evolution with Paul Ehrlich; and the way in which our current consciousness has developed in The Axemaker's Gift, with James Burke, a book that addressed the way in which Western culture has developed and our minds along with it.

Ornstein worked to reconcile the wisdom traditions of the East and science in The Psychology of Consciousness and was interested in promoting the modern Sufism of Idries Shah. Shah and Ornstein met in the 1960s. Ornstein's The Psychology of Consciousness (1972) was enthusiastically received by the academic psychology community, as it coincided with new interests in the field, such as the study of biofeedback and other techniques designed to achieve shifts in mood and awareness.

The Psychology of Consciousness and The Evolution of Consciousness introduced the two modes of consciousness of the left and right brain hemispheres and a critical understanding of how the brain evolved. Ornstein considered these, along with his latest book, God 4.0: On the Nature of Higher Consciousness and the Experience Called "God", his most important writings. The three books together provide a fundamental reconsideration of ancient religious and spiritual traditions in the light of advances in brain science and psychology, exploring the potential and relevance of this knowledge to contemporary needs and to our shared future.

Death
Robert Ornstein died on December 20, 2018. He is survived by his wife, Sally Mallam; his brother Alan Ornstein; sister-in-law Rachel Hawk, and niece Jessie Ornstein.

Books written

 * On the Experience of Time (Penguin Books, 1969)
 * The Psychology of Consciousness (Harcourt Brace, 1972). ISBN 0670581984
 * 4th rev. ed. (Penguin Books, 1986)
 * On the Psychology of Meditation, coauthor to Claudio Naranjo (Allen & Unwin, 1973)
 * The Mind Field (Viking Press, 1976)
 * paperback (Malor Books, 1996)
 * The Amazing Brain, with Richard F. Thompson (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984)
 * Multimind (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986)
 * The Healing Brain, with David Sobel (Simon & Schuster, 1987). ISBN 0671619454
 * New World, New Mind: Moving Towards Conscious Evolution, co-authored with Paul R. Ehrlich (Methuen, 1989)
 * The Evolution of Consciousness, illustrated by Ted Dewan (Prentice-Hall US, 1991)
 * The Roots of the Self, illustrated by Ted Dewan (HarperCollins US, 1993)
 * The Axemaker’s Gift, with James Burke, illustrated by Ted Dewan (G. P. Putnam's Sons US, 1995)
 * The Right Mind: Making Sense of the Hemispheres (Harcourt Brace & Company, 1997)
 * MindReal: How the Mind Creates its Own Virtual Reality illustrated by Ted Dewan (Malor Books, 2008)
 * Humanity on a Tightrope: Thoughts on Empathy, Family, and Big Changes for a Viable Future co-author Paul R. Ehrlich (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010))
 * God 4.0: On the Nature of Higher Consciousness and the Experience Called "God", with Sally M. Ornstein (Malor Books, 2021)

Books edited

 * (Hardcover)
 * (Paperback)

Academic monographs

 * Physiological Studies of Consciousness (Institute for Cultural Research, 1973)

title: Robert E. Ornstein


text:
Sextet

A sextet (or hexad) is a formation containing exactly six members. The former term is commonly associated with vocal ensembles (e.g. The King's Singers, Affabre Concinui) or musical instrument groups, but can be applied to any situation where six similar or related objects are considered a single unit.

Musical compositions with six parts are sextets. Many musical compositions are named for the number of musicians for which they are written. If a piece is written for six performers, it may be called a "sextet". Steve Reich's "Sextet", for example, is written for six percussionists. However, much as many string quartets do not include "string quartet" in the title (though many do), many sextets do not include "sextet" in their title. See: string sextet and piano sextet.

In jazz music a sextet is any group of six players, usually containing a drum set (bass drum, snare drum, hi-hat, ride cymbal), string bass or electric bass, piano, and various combinations of the following or other instruments: guitar, trumpet, saxophone, clarinet, trombone.

In heavy metal and rock music, a sextet typically contains, but is not restricted to, a lead vocalist, two guitarists, a bassist, drummer, and keyboardist.

In classical music

 * Antonín Dvořák
 * String Sextet in A major
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
 * Souvenir de Florence
 * Lennox Berkeley
 * Sextet for Clarinet, Horn, and String Quartet
 * John Ireland
 * Sextet for Clarinet, Horn, and String Quartet
 * Francis Poulenc
 * Sextet for Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon, Horn, and Piano
 * Ernst von Dohnányi
 * Sextet for Clarinet, Horn, String Trio, and Piano
 * Krzysztof Penderecki
 * Sextet for Clarinet, Horn, String Trio, and Piano

In rock, heavy metal, and hip hop

 * The Allman Brothers Band
 * Amaranthe
 * The Birthday Massacre
 * Bleeding Through
 * Blondie
 * Bury Tomorrow
 * Butcher Babies
 * Chimaira
 * Cradle of Filth
 * Dark Tranquillity (since 1998)
 * Dr. Teeth and the Electric Mayhem
 * Delain
 * The Devil Wears Prada
 * Dimmu Borgir
 * The Doobie Brothers
 * Electric Six
 * Epica
 * Fleshgod Apocalypse
 * Foo Fighters
 * Foreigner
 * GFriend
 * Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
 * Guns N' Roses (1990–1998)
 * Haken
 * The Human League (1981–1995)

 * Ill Niño
 * INXS
 * Iron Maiden (since 1999)
 * Jackson 5 (1975–1976, 1983–1985)
 * Jefferson Airplane
 * Kansas
 * King Crimson
 * King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard (since 2020)
 * Leaves' Eyes
 * Linkin Park
 * Mayday Parade
 * Mink DeVille
 * Nappy Roots
 * Neurosis
 * New Edition
 * Nightwish
 * Procol Harum
 * The Pussycat Dolls (2008–2010, 2019–2022 quintet)
 * Rammstein
 * Soilwork
 * Styx
 * Success Will Write Apocalypse Across the Sky
 * Underoath
 * Whitechapel
 * Whitesnake

title: Sextet


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Web standards

Web standards are the formal, non-proprietary standards and other technical specifications that define and describe aspects of the World Wide Web. In recent years, the term has been more frequently associated with the trend of endorsing a set of standardized best practices for building web sites, and a philosophy of web design and development that includes those methods.

Overview
Web standards include many interdependent standards and specifications, some of which govern aspects of the Internet, not just the World Wide Web. Even when not web-focused, such standards directly or indirectly affect the development and administration of web sites and web services. Considerations include the interoperability, accessibility and usability of web pages and web sites.

Web standards consist of the following:
 * Recommendations published by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), such as HTML/XHTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), image formats such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) and Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), as well as accessibility technologies like WAI-ARIA
 * Standards and "Living standards" published by the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG), such as the HTML Living Standard, DOM Standard, Encoding Standard and URL Standard.
 * Standards published by Ecma International (formerly ECMA) such as JavaScript (also known as ECMAScript) and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
 * Standards published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), such as JPEG

More broadly, the following technologies may be referred to as "web standards" as well:

 * Request for Comments (RFC) documents published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 * The Unicode Standard and various Unicode Technical Reports (UTRs) published by the Unicode Consortium
 * Name and number registries maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

Web standards are evolving specifications of web technologies. Web standards are developed by standards organizations—groups of interested and often competing parties chartered with the task of standardization—not technologies developed and declared to be a standard by a single individual or company. It is crucial to distinguish those specifications that are under development from the ones that already reached the final development status (in case of W3C specifications, the highest maturity level).

The web standards movement
The earliest visible manifestation of the web standards movement was the Web Standards Project, launched in August 1998 as a grassroots coalition fighting for improved web standards support in browsers.

The web standards movement supports concepts of standards-based web design, including the separation of document structure from a web page or application's appearance and behavior; an emphasis on semantically structured content that validates (that is, contains no errors of structural composition) when tested against validation software maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium; and progressive enhancement, a layered approach to web page and application creation that enables all people and devices to access the content and functionality of a page, regardless of personal physical ability (accessibility), connection speed, and browser capability.

Prior to the web standards movement, many web page developers used invalid, incorrect HTML syntax such as "table layouts" and "spacer" GIF images to create web pages — an approach often referred to as "tag soup". Such pages sought to look the same in all browsers of a certain age (such as Microsoft Internet Explorer 4 and Netscape Navigator 4), but were often inaccessible to people with disabilities. Tag soup pages also displayed or operated incorrectly in older browsers, and required code forks such as JavaScript for Netscape Navigator and JScript for Internet Explorer that added to the cost and complexity of development. The extra code required, and the lack of a caching page layout language, made web sites "heavy" in terms of bandwidth, as did the frequent use of images as text. These bandwidth requirements were burdensome to users in developing countries, rural areas, and wherever fast Internet connections were unavailable.

The Web Standards movement pioneered by Glenn Davis, George Olsen, Jeffrey Zeldman, Steven Champeon, Todd Fahrner, Eric A. Meyer, Tantek Çelik, Dori Smith, Tim Bray, Jeffrey Veen, and other members of the Web Standards Project replaced bandwidth-heavy tag soup with light, semantic markup and progressive enhancement, with the goal of making web content "accessible to all".

The Web Standards movement declared that HTML, CSS, and JavaScript were more than simply interesting technologies. "They are a way of creating Web pages that will facilitate the twin goals of sophisticated and appropriate presentation and widespread accessibility." The group succeeded in persuading Netscape, Microsoft, and other browser makers to support these standards in their browsers. It then set about promoting these standards to designers, who were still using tag soup, Adobe Flash, and other proprietary technologies to create web pages.

In 2007, Douglas Vos initiated the Blue Beanie Day, inspired by Jeffrey Zeldman, who is shown with a blue cap on the book cover of his 2003 book Designing with Web Standards. Since then, the 30 November is the annual international celebration of web standards and web accessibility.

Common usage
When a web site or web page is described as complying with web standards, it usually means that the site or page has valid HTML, CSS and JavaScript. The HTML should also meet accessibility and semantic guidelines. Full standard compliance also covers proper settings for character encoding, valid RSS or valid Atom news feed, valid RDF, valid metadata, valid XML, valid object embedding, valid script embedding, browser- and resolution-independent codes, and proper server settings.

When web standards are discussed, the following publications are typically seen as foundational:
 * Recommendations for markup languages, such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML), and Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) from W3C.
 * Recommendations for stylesheets, especially Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), from W3C.
 * Standards for ECMAScript, more commonly JavaScript, from Ecma International.
 * Recommendations for Document Object Models (DOM), from W3C.
 * Properly formed names and addresses for the page and all other resources referenced from it (URIs), based upon RFC 2396, from IETF.
 * Proper use of HTTP and MIME to deliver the page, return data from it and to request other resources referenced in it, based on RFC 2616, from IETF.

Web accessibility is normally based upon the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines published by the W3C's Web Accessibility Initiative.

Work in the W3C toward the Semantic Web is currently focused by publications related to the Resource Description Framework (RDF), Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Languages (GRDDL) and Web Ontology Language (OWL).

Standards publications and bodies
A W3C Recommendation is a specification or set of guidelines that, after extensive consensus-building, has received the endorsement of W3C Members and the Director.

An IETF Internet Standard is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community. A specification that reaches the status of Standard is assigned a number in the IETF STD series while retaining its original IETF RFC number.

Non-standard and vendor-proprietary pressures
HTML 5 contains numerous "willful violations" of other specifications, in order to accommodate limitations of existing platforms.

Web Standards Compliance Testing
There are compliance tests both for HTML code generated by websites as well as for the faithful interpretation of HTML code by web browsers.

Compliance tests for website code
W3C offers online services to test websites directly for both web site developers, as well as for website users. These include:
 * Markup Validation Service to check the markup (HTML, XHTML, ...) of Web documents
 * CSS Validation Service to check Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and (X)HTML documents with style sheets

Compliance tests for web browsers
The Web Standards Project (WaSP), although development is officially inactive, continues to offer two levels of testing services for web browsers:
 * Acid2 Browser Test
 * Acid3 Browser Test

title: Web standards


text:
Martin H. Glynn

Martin Henry Glynn (September 27, 1871 – December 14, 1924) was an American politician. He was the 40th governor of New York from 1913 to 1914, the first Irish American Roman Catholic head of government of what was then the most populated state of the United States. A Democrat, he signed a number of important reforms, including the direct primary and labor laws.

Life
Glynn was born in Kinderhook, New York and grew up in Valatie, one of Kinderhook's villages. He was the son of Martin Glynn (son of Martin Glynn and Catherine de Burke) and Ann Scanlon, who were both born in Ireland.

He graduated from Fordham University in 1894, then studied at Albany Law School of Union University, New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1897. From 1896 on, he wrote for the Albany Times-Union daily newspaper, becoming eventually its editor, publisher and owner. In 1898, Fordham awarded Glynn the honorary degree of Master of Arts. Over the course of his career, Glynn received honorary LL.D. degrees from Fordham, Syracuse, Georgetown, and Union Universities.

Glynn was elected as a Democrat to the 56th United States Congress, and served from March 4, 1899, to March 3, 1901. When he took his seat at age 26, Glynn was the youngest member of the House. He was New York State Comptroller from 1907 to 1908, elected in 1906, but defeated for re-election in 1908 by Republican Charles H. Gaus.

At the New York state election of 1912, Glynn was the running mate of the successful Democratic candidate for Governor, William Sulzer. Glynn was sworn in as Lieutenant Governor of New York on January 1. Following friction with the dominant Tammany Hall faction, Sulzer was impeached and in August 1913, Glynn was appointed Acting Governor. On October 17, following Sulzer's formal removal from office, Glynn was sworn in as Governor. He was the first Catholic Governor of New York and showed an interest in Irish-American affairs. However, Glynn was forced to manage conflict in his own party between Tammany Hall and reformers/progressives led by Sulzer, who became a critic of Glynn's administration. After a year in office Glynn was defeated at the 1914 election, by the Republican candidate, Charles S. Whitman. Sulzer was later active in the Progressive Party. Glynn was active in the progressive movement. David Sarasohn calls him "an able and progressive governor" who signed numerous reforms. Glynn was a delegate to the 1916 and 1924 Democratic National Conventions. As the keynote speaker at the 1916 National Democratic Convention, Glynn delivered one of his most famous speeches, praising the accomplishments of President Woodrow Wilson and the platform of the Democratic Party.

He committed suicide by gunshot in 1924, after having suffered throughout his adult life from chronic back pain caused by a spinal injury. Though the cause of death was listed on his death certificate, the local media reported that Glynn died of heart trouble. The true story of his death was publicized in Dominick Lizzi's 1994 biography. He was buried at the St. Agnes Cemetery in Menands, New York.

"The Crucifixion of Jews Must Stop!"
Glynn's article "The Crucifixion of Jews Must Stop!" was published in the October 31, 1919, issue of The American Hebrew; in it he lamented the poor conditions for European Jews after World War I. Glynn referred to these conditions as a potential "holocaust" and asserted that "six million Jewish men and women are starving across the seas". Robert N. Proctor says that "[this] oddity has been exploited by Holocaust deniers but is simply a remarkable coincidence and nothing more."

title: Martin H. Glynn


text:
Talk:Conveyor belt

General
what is the exactally detail of belt' plz send me,Bold text —Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.11.103.11 (talk • contribs) 22:12, 16 May 2004

'''Conveyor belts and belt conveyors are still mixed in this article. There should be a separate article on belt conveyors! See first paragraph of the article!'''

Difference
There is a difference between conveyor belt and belt conveyor. A conveyor belt is made of a tensile member (steel or fabric) and rubber or PVC covers. Several variations including special protection systems are there.A belt conveyor is the entire system consisting of the conveyor belt, idlers, pulleys, motors, gearboxes etc.

In Sahara it is the longest conveyor belt system, consisting of several belt conveyors. However, the longest single belt conveyor is crossing the Indian/Bangladeshi border. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Squink (talk • contribs) 14:26, 17 June 2005

 * Agree - we need to change the title!--Graham Proud 11:59, 21 April 2006 (UTC)

Good resources for conveyors include these: www.cisco-eagle.com (a commercial site with a ton of data and articles). Also, http://www.cisco-eagle.com/systems/conveyors/conveyor-articles/index.htm for articles and other conveyor stuff. Also, http://inventoryops.com/pics_conveyor.htm has some basic package conveyor breakdowns. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.185.242.161 (talk • contribs) 01:56, 13 August 2005

Longest single flight
The longest single flight conveyor in the world is a Cable Belt rope driven conveyor installed at Worsley Aluminium in Western Australia. It is 30km long and is one of two conveyor belts making up a 50km system.

The longest single flight conveyor in India is at NALCO Damanjodi,situated in Koraput district which is 14.3 km long.

The Cable Belt conveyor was invented in Scotland by Mr Thompson for primarily high lift duty such as drift conveyors in coal mines. Various records are held in terms of length overland (Western Australia), tightest radii curve (Canada), longest underground system (UK), steepest angle of incline (Israel), longest downhill regenerative (Venezuala)Keefysher 22:29, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

Carryback
Conveyor belts when used in certain industries such as the Construction Aggregate and Coal-Mining may build up a substance on the belt called “carryback”. Carryback is fugitive material that sticks to the belt past the conveyor belt discharge point and then drops off along the conveyor’s return run.[1] This may lead to problems such as reduced operating efficiency, material buildup on rolling components leading to seizure of equipment, reduced work environment safety, and certain health hazards associated with fugitive airborne material. To prevent this, conveyor belt cleaner systems are employed in an attempt to make conveyor systems cleaner, safer, and more productive. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 1jtwidell (talk • contribs) 15:39, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

Wrong Graphic
The animated graphic in the upper right titled Conveyor Belt is not a conveyor belt. It's a drive belt to transmit power to something. A conveyor belt is wide and various things (boxes, people, coal, etc.) ride on it as it moves along. foobar (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 21:21, 21 July 2013 (UTC)

Copy-Paste
I noticed that the article did not have the usual encyclopedic tone of Wikipedia, and added and later edited the cleanup tag, a google search revealed that much of the text is an exact match of articles such as this: https://terpco.com/conveyor-belts/ Something must be done to fix this and write a proper article without the "infomercial" tone that it currently has. 2601:546:C300:8FF0:21AE:7747:36E5:5E77 (talk) 14:52, 29 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conveyor belt


text:
Oswald Tschirtner

Oswald Tschirtner (1920 in Perchtoldsdorf, Lower Austria – 20 May 2007) was an artist from Austria who had schizophrenia. He was known by the "pseudonym" of O.T.

Life
Oswald Tschirtner was raised by an aunt and uncle in Vienna, and being very religious, attended a seminary school from the age of ten. He intended to become a priest, but was drafted into the German army in 1937. He fought at Stalingrad, and subsequently spent time in a prison camp in southern France. After the war, he was stricken by periods of religious fervor and violent episodes, and was sent to a psychiatric institute in 1947.

In 1957, he was sent to the Klosterneuburg Hospital near Vienna, and it was there that he began to draw, albeit reluctantly, under the supervision of Leo Navratil and other hospital staff. He displayed a unique approach to his works through his selective use of line and detail. His figures, particularly in his drawings from the 1980s onwards, are extremely reductive, and he arrives at the essential essence of portrayal through the conveyance of a minimal amount of visual detail.

Tschirtner lived at the Haus der Künstler (House of Artists) since its opening in 1981. Located on the grounds of the Klosterneuburg Hospital in Maria-Gugging, Austria, this is a domicile where patients who show significant artistic talent live very independently and focus on their creative work.

Solo exhibitions

 * 1980 Museum Moderner Kunst Wien

Books

 * illustration in "Bebende Herzen im Leibe der Hunde", München 1979

title: Oswald Tschirtner


text:
Ezekiel Cheever

Ezekiel Cheever (1614–1708) was a schoolmaster, and the author of "probably the earliest American school book", Accidence, A Short Introduction to the Latin Tongue. Upon his death, it was said that "New England [had] never known a better teacher." He has been called "the chief representative of the colonial schoolmaster".

Biography
Cheever came to Boston, Massachusetts in June 1637. Not much later, he went to New Haven, Connecticut and taught school. In 1650, Cheever moved the family back to Massachusetts. On December 29, 1670, he was invited to become Head Master of the Boston Latin School. He taught for seventy years, the last thirty-eight as master of the Boston Latin School. Cotton Mather gave the eulogy at his funeral. In it Mather praised Cheever for his "untiring abjuration of the devil."

Family
In 1638, Cheever married Mary Culverwell, his first wife. She was the daughter of Ezekiel Culverwell, niece of Nathaniel Culverwell and cousin of William Gouge. Ezekiel and Mary had six children. Their daughter, Elizabeth, was grandmother of Ezekiel Goldthwait. Their son, Rev Samuel, graduated from Harvard in 1659. Mary died on January 20, 1649.

On November 18, 1652, Ezekiel married Ellen Lathrop who was the sister of Capt Thomas Lathrop, a casualty during King Philip's War. Ezekiel and Ellen had five children. Their son, Rev Thomas, graduated from Harvard in 1677. Their son, Ezekiel Cheever, was a resident at Salem Village during the time of the Witch Trials.

Ezekiel was an ancestor of author John Cheever.

Legacy

 * Ezekiel Cheever School was named in his honor.

title: Ezekiel Cheever


text:
McKenzie friend

A McKenzie friend assists a litigant in person in a court of law in England and Wales, Hong Kong, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, Canada and Australia by prompting, taking notes, and quietly giving advice. They need not be legally trained or have any professional legal qualifications.

The right to a McKenzie friend was established in the 1970 case of McKenzie v McKenzie. Although in many cases a McKenzie friend may be an actual friend, it is often somebody with knowledge of the area and the presumption is heavily in favour of admitting a McKenzie friend into court. He or she may be liable for any misleading advice given to the litigant in person but is not covered by professional indemnity insurance.

A similar, modified principle exists in Singapore. The role is distinct from that of a next friend or of an amicus curiae.

Origin
McKenzie v. McKenzie was a divorce case in England in 1969. Levine McKenzie, who was petitioning for divorce, had been legally aided but the legal aid had been withdrawn before the case went to court. Unable to fund legal representation, McKenzie had broken off contact with his solicitors, Jeffrey Gordon & Co. However, one day before the hearing, Jeffrey Gordon sent the case to an Australian barrister in London, Ian Hanger, whose qualifications in law in Australia did not allow him to practise as a barrister in London. Hanger hoped to sit with his client to prompt him, take notes and suggest questions in cross-examination, thereby providing what quiet assistance he could from the bar table to a man representing himself. The trial judge ordered Hanger not to take any active part in the case (except to advise McKenzie during adjournments) and to sit in the public gallery of the court. Hanger assumed his limited role was futile and did not return for the second day of the trial.

The case went against McKenzie, who then appealed to the Court of Appeal on the basis that he had been denied representation. On 12 June 1970, the Court of Appeal ruled that the judge's intervention had deprived McKenzie of the assistance to which he was entitled and ordered a retrial.

As of 2022, Ian Hanger AM KC, the original McKenzie friend, is a King's Counsel (KC) at the Queensland Bar.

Singapore
In September 2006, the Subordinate Courts of Singapore started a pilot project called the Lay Assistant Scheme in which persons, usually with some legal knowledge, attend hearings with litigants who are not represented by lawyers to advise them on non-legal issues and help them with administrative tasks. The scheme, a modification of the UK's McKenzie friend system, is intended to assist litigants who are not eligible for legal aid as they have an annual salary exceeding S$10,000 but cannot afford a lawyer. For the litigant to qualify, the other party must be legally represented.

Lay assistants are not allowed to act as lawyers and may not address the court; any breach of court rules may render them liable to a maximum fine of $1,000 or imprisonment of up to six months.

Plans for introducing McKenzie friends in court proceedings were first announced by Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong in May 2006. Students from the Pro Bono Group of the Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore, have been participating in the scheme.

England and Wales
In English courts, where a case is being heard in private, the use of a McKenzie friend has sometimes been contentious. This is a particular problem in family court hearings, where it has been held that the nature of the case is so confidential that no one other than the litigants and their professional legal representatives should be admitted to the court.

A 2005 Court of Appeal case, In the matter of the children of Mr O'Connell, Mr Whelan and Mr Watson, clarified the law in this area. The result of the appeal has legitimised the use of McKenzie friends in the family court and allowed the litigant to disclose confidential court papers to the McKenzie friend.

England and Wales allow fee charging McKenzie friends, who may charge for their services, including the giving of legal advice. A recent report by the Legal Service Consumer Panel found that fee charging McKenzie friends were a net benefit. The report stated, "They should be viewed as providing valuable support that improves access to justice in the large majority of cases."

Scotland
The legal system in England and Wales differs from that in Scotland. The first recorded use of McKenzie friends in Scotland was in April 2007 in the case TB & AM v The Authority Reporter. The one major difference between England and Scotland is that in Scotland McKenzie friends are not permitted to receive remuneration.

title: McKenzie friend


text:
Sesser

Sesser may refer to:
 * Sesser (grape), a Romanian/Moldovan wine grape variety that is also known as Băbească neagră
 * Sesser, Illinois

title: Sesser


text:
Seth Ward

Seth Ward may refer to:

 * Seth Ward, Texas, an unincorporated community
 * Jimmy Dean (1928–2010), entertainer, mistakenly identified with the birth name of Seth Ward, which was actually the above town in Texas where he grew up
 * Seth Ward (bishop of Salisbury) (1617–1689), English astronomer and mathematician, and the Bishop of Exeter and Salisbury
 * Seth Ward (priest) (1645–1690), English clergyman, Archdeacon of Wilts
 * Seth Ward (businessman) (1820–1903), parlayed an Oregon Trail supply business into large Kansas City real estate holdings including the Country Club Plaza and for whom Ward Parkway is named
 * Seth Ward (Methodist bishop) (1858–1909), American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South
 * Seth Ward (Whitewater), Arkansas businessman

title: Seth Ward


text:
Jacob Ljunglöf

Jacob Fredrik Ljunglöf (1796 – 1860) was a Swedish tobacco producer who took over a slow-going tobacco factory in Stockholm in 1826. The factory was put back to standard and the efficiency was increased. Until the late 1820s, it was the leading tobacco factory in Sweden. In 1839, Ljunglöf started producing cigars and cigarettes in addition to tobacco and chewing tobacco. When he died, Ljunglöf had become one of the richest men in Sweden.

title: Jacob Ljunglöf


text:
Septet

A septet is a formation containing exactly seven members. It is commonly associated with musical groups but can be applied to any situation where seven similar or related objects are considered a single unit, such as a seven-line stanza of poetry.

Classical and romantic period
One of the most famous classical septets is Beethoven's Septet in E♭ major, Op. 20, composed around 1799–1800, for clarinet, bassoon, horn, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. The popularity of Beethoven's septet made its combination of instruments a standard for subsequent composers, including Conradin Kreutzer (Op. 62, 1822), Franz Berwald, and Adolphe Blanc (Op. 40, ca. 1864), and, with small changes in the instrumentation, Franz Lachner (1824; violin, viola, violoncello, contrabass, flute, clarinet, horn), and Max Bruch (1849; No Opus; Clarinet, Horn, Bassoon, two Violins, Cello and Contrabass). When Franz Schubert added a second violin in 1824 for his Octet, he created a standard octet that influenced many other subsequent composers. Camille Saint-Saëns's Septet in E♭ major, Op. 65 (1881) is for trumpet, piano, string quartet, and double bass. The English composer Percy Hilder Miles composed his "Jupiter" Septet in Eb (1897) for the same forces as the Beethoven.

20th century
The modern composer Bohuslav Martinů wrote three septets: a group of six dances called Les Rondes for oboe, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, two violins, and piano (1930); a piece called Serenade No. 3 for oboe, clarinet, four violins, and cello (1932); and Fantasie for theremin, oboe, piano, and string quartet (1944). Darius Milhaud composed a string septet in 1964 for string sextet and double bass. Paul Hindemith composed a wind septet in 1948 for flute, oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, horn, and trumpet. Hanns Eisler composed two septets, both scored for flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet: Septet No. 1 Op. 92a ("Variations on American Children's Songs") (1941), and Septet No. 2 ("Circus") (1947), after Chaplin’s 1928 movie The Circus. Two component works in the series of Chôros by the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos are scored for seven instruments: No. 3 (1925), subtitled "Pica-páo" (Woodpecker), is for clarinet, bassoon, saxophone, 3 horns, and trombone (or for male chorus, or for both together), and No. 7 (1924), actually subtitled "Septet", is for flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, bassoon, violin, and cello (with tam-tam ad lib.).

There are some 20th-century works for seven instruments for which it is difficult to be certain that the term "septet" should be extended, if they are not obviously chamber music and may have titles pointing in other directions. Examples include Maurice Ravel's Introduction and Allegro (1905), Rudi Stephan's Music for Seven String Instruments (1911), Leoš Janáček's Concertino (1925), Arnold Schoenberg's Suite, Op. 29 (1925–26), Isang Yun's Music for Seven Instruments (1959), Aribert Reimann's Reflexionen (1966), and Dieter Schnebel's In motu proprio canon for seven instruments of the same kind (1975). John Adams wrote his string septet, Shaker Loops, in 1978.

Jehan Alain composed the Messe modale en septuor in 1938 for seven parts, soprano, alto, flute and string quartet.

Popular music
BTS, one the most popular K-pop groups from, Seoul, South Korea

title: Septet


text:
Talk:McKenzie friend

Is this in US law?
Is ths in US law? Could that be made clear? RickK 22:18, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I have now addressed this point in the text but welcome contributions from other common law perspectives. Note general point that many (legal) pages on Wikipedia do not clarify jurisdiction - and hence default assumption is USA.

 * JohnF —Preceding unsigned comment added by John Foley (talk • contribs) 22:36, 16 May 2004

If so, that is inaproppriate and should be corrected. RickK 23:06, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Speaking as a UK lawyer, I found this entry very useful and accessibly written (and, of course, I didn't assume it related to US law). Lawbot 10:07, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Most US states follow the Common Law - though a rather quaint and primitive version of it. McKenzie Friends are certainly known in the USA203.184.41.226 (talk) 23:05, 29 June 2013 (UTC)

I have acted as a McKenzie Friend for tenant-defendants in eviction court in Maryland. The Unauthorized Practice of Law (UPL) statutes in this state do not expressly forbid non-lawyers such as myself from acting as a McKenzie Friend, but they don't clearly permit it either. And McKenzie Friends are relatively unheard of here. The first time I actually took a seat behind my tenant-defendant "friend"/"client" in court - the bailiff ordered me to go back to the gallery saying "you can't assist them if you're not a lawyer" - that's when the judge chimed in to overrule the bailiff saying "No, no. It's OK. Let him stay where he is." Another Judge was fine with me sitting by my clients and understood that I had helped them to prepare their defense, but told me that I couldn't advise them during trial...not unlike what Ian Hanger was told by the judge in the original McKenzie v. McKenzie case. So as to the question "Is this US law"? I'd have to say, no, it has yet to become a well-established and accepted practice. Qdiderot (talk) 07:26, 26 February 2015 (UTC) 14:03, 15 November 2014 (UTC)

Cleanup
Hi

I have added a cleanup template here as I think it might be useful to have a couple of more expert editorial eyes on the article.

To me it seems as if the citations are not wiki and the intro para is easy reading. The whole thing sounds more a like a law review article.

I'll try and make a start later. Frelke 08:26, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I believe that the statement "but are not covered by professional indemnity insurance" is irrelevant and misleading. PI insurance only applies to those professionals who take out such cover.  An amateur legal adviser will not fall into this category.  The present wording implies that there is some sort of professional indemnity cover automatically available to advisers in courts.203.184.41.226 (talk)  —Preceding undated comment added 23:08, 29 June 2013 (UTC)

Moved from article page.
''I need a Mckenzie friend to take notes for me in Manchester during an assessment. I am coming forward as the carer for my two grandsons who would be adopted if I dont fight for them. Please contact Marlene on 07971896145 if there is anyone to be with me during my difficult struggle against social services of Bury Manchester.'' --84.71.123.88 09:48, 23 September 2008 [signature added by Abd]

 * I removed this from the article. It probably doesn't belong here, either, but I'll leave that for someone else to decide. --Abd (talk) 14:37, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

McKenzie's Friend
As a former lawyer (yes I know!) We always refrerrd to them as a McKenzie's friend. I have just done a google for both terms and it looks like the term without the s is more common so I am going to add it as an alternative. DavidFarmbrough (talk) 04:05, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

What are your qualifications? Your Talk page does not list an LLB, a JD, nor any other legal qualification. 203.13.3.81 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 03:36, 19 December 2011 (UTC).

External links modified
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McKenzie's Friend in New Zealand Law
I added New Zealand to the jurisdictions permitting a McKenzie Friend. This is according to the Ministry of Justice.

--125.239.21.75 (talk) 04:06, 8 December 2018 (UTC)

McKenzie friends in Canadian Law
McKenzie friends are permitted in Canada, according to according to Courthouse Libraries BC and the Self-Represented Litigants Project. However, there is no right to a McKenzie friend in Canada and I am doubtful that this is true for all of the countries cited as having McKenzie friend provisions. Cyali (talk) 07:45, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:McKenzie friend


text:
Seven Mile

Seven Mile may refer to:

Places

 * Seven Mile, Arizona, USA
 * Seven Mile, Ohio, USA
 * Seven Mile Beach (disambiguation)
 * Seven Mile Bridge, Florida, USA
 * Seven Mile Creek (disambiguation)
 * Seven Mile Dam, British Columbia, Canada
 * Seven Mile Ford, Virginia, USA
 * Seven Mile Island (disambiguation)
 * Seven Mile River (disambiguation)

Other

 * The Seven Mile Journey, Danish post-rock band
 * 7 Mile (band), American R&B group
 * 7 Mile (album), the group's eponymous album

title: Seven Mile


text:
Pat Barker

Patricia Mary W. Barker, ( Drake; born 8 May 1943) is a British writer and novelist. She has won many awards for her fiction, which centres on themes of memory, trauma, survival and recovery. Her work is described as direct, blunt and plainspoken. In 2012, The Observer named the Regeneration Trilogy as one of "The 10 best historical novels".

Personal life
Barker was born to a working-class family in Thornaby-on-Tees in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, on 8 May 1943. Her mother Moyra died in 2000; her father's identity is unknown. According to The Times, Moyra became pregnant "after a drunken night out while in the Wrens." In a social climate where illegitimacy was regarded with shame, she told people that the resulting child was her sister, rather than her daughter. They lived with Barker's grandmother Alice and step-grandfather William, until her mother married and moved out when Barker was seven. Barker could have joined her mother, she told The Guardian in 2003, but chose to stay with her grandmother "because of love of her, and because my stepfather didn't warm to me, nor me to him." Her grandparents ran a fish and chip shop which failed and the family was, she told The Times in 2007, "poor as church mice; we were living on National Assistance – 'on the pancrack', as my grandmother called it." At the age of eleven, Barker won a place at grammar school, attending King James Grammar School in Knaresborough and Grangefield Grammar School in Stockton-on-Tees.

Barker, who says she has always been an avid reader, studied international history at the London School of Economics from 1962-65. After graduating in 1965, she returned home to nurse her grandmother, who died in 1971.

In 1969, she was introduced, in a pub, to David Barker, a zoology professor and neurologist 20 years her senior, who left his marriage to live with her. They had two children together, and were married in 1978, after his divorce. Their daughter Anna Barker Ralph is a novelist. Barker was widowed when her husband died in January 2009.

Early work
In her mid-twenties, Barker began to write fiction. Her first three novels were never published and, she told The Guardian in 2003, "didn't deserve to be: I was being a sensitive lady novelist, which is not what I am. There's an earthiness and bawdiness in my voice.”

Her first published novel was Union Street (1982), which consisted of seven interlinked stories about English working class women whose lives are circumscribed by poverty and violence. For ten years, the manuscript was rejected by publishers as too "bleak and depressing." Barker met novelist Angela Carter at an Arvon Foundation writers' workshop. Carter liked the book, telling Barker "if they can't sympathise with the women you're creating, then sod their fucking luck," and suggested she send the manuscript to feminist publisher Virago, which accepted it. The New Statesman hailed the novel as a "long overdue working class masterpiece," and The New York Times Book Review commented Barker "gives the sense of a writer who has enormous power that she has scarcely had to tap to write a first-rate first novel." Union Street was later adapted as the Hollywood film Stanley & Iris (1990), starring Robert De Niro and Jane Fonda. Barker has said the film bears little resemblance to her book. As of 2003, the novel remained one of Virago's top sellers.

Barker's first three novels – Union Street (1982), Blow Your House Down (1984) and Liza's England (1986; originally published as The Century's Daughter) – depicted the lives of working-class women in Yorkshire. BookForum magazine described them as "full of feeling, violent and sordid, but never exploitative or sensationalistic and rarely sentimental." Blow Your House Down portrays prostitutes living in a North of England city, who are being stalked by a serial killer. Liza's England, described by the Sunday Times as a "modern-day masterpiece," tracks the life of a working-class woman born at the dawn of the 20th century.

Regeneration Trilogy
Following the publication of Liza's England, Barker felt she “had got myself into a box where I was strongly typecast as a northern, regional, working class, feminist—label, label, label—novelist. It's not a matter so much of objecting to the labels, but you do get to a point where people are reading the labels instead of the book. And I felt I'd got to that point,” she said in 1992. She said she was tired of reviewers asking “'but uh, can she do men?' – as though that were some kind of Everest."

Therefore, she turned her attention to the First World War, which she had always wanted to write about due to her step-grandfather's wartime experiences. Wounded by a bayonet and left with a scar, he would not speak about the war. She was inspired to write what is now known as the Regeneration Trilogy—Regeneration (1991), The Eye in the Door (1993), and The Ghost Road (1995)—a set of novels that explore the history of the First World War by focusing on the aftermath of trauma. The books are an unusual blend of history and fiction, and Barker draws extensively on the writings of First World War poets and W.H.R. Rivers, an army doctor who worked with traumatised soldiers. The main characters are based on historical figures, such as Robert Graves, Alice and Hettie Roper (pseudonyms for Alice Wheeldon and her daughter Hettie) with the exception of Billy Prior, whom Barker invented to parallel and contrast with British soldier-poets Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. As the central fictional character, Billy Prior is in all three books.

“I think the whole British psyche is suffering from the contradiction you see in Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, where the war is both terrible and never to be repeated and at the same time experiences derived from it are given enormous value," Barker told The Guardian. "No one watches war films in quite the way the British do."

Barker told freelance journalist Wera Reusch "I think there is a lot to be said for writing about history, because you can sometimes deal with contemporary dilemmas in a way people are more open to because it is presented in this unfamiliar guise, they don't automatically know what they think about it, whereas if you are writing about a contemporary issue on the nose, sometimes all you do is activate people's prejudices. I think the historical novel can be a backdoor into the present which is very valuable."

The Regeneration Trilogy was extremely well received by critics, with Peter Kemp of the Sunday Times describing it as "brilliant, intense and subtle", and Publishers Weekly saying it was "a triumph of an imagination at once poetic and practical." The trilogy is described by The New York Times as "a fierce meditation on the horrors of war and its psychological aftermath." Novelist Jonathan Coe describes it as "one of the few real masterpieces of late 20th century British fiction." British author and critic, Rosemary Dinnage reviewing in The New York Review of Books declared that it has "earned her a well-deserved place in literature" resulting in its re-issue for the centenary of the First World War. In 1995 the final book in the trilogy, The Ghost Road, won the Booker–McConnell Prize.

Awards and recognition
In 1983, Barker won the Fawcett Society prize for fiction for Union Street. In 1993 she won the Guardian Fiction Prize for the Eye in the Door, and in 1995 she won the Booker Prize for The Ghost Road. In May 1997, Barker was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Open University. In 2000, she was named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE).

In the review of her novel Toby's Room, The Guardian stated about her writing, "You don't go to her for fine language, you go to her for plain truths, a driving storyline and a clear eye, steadily facing the history of our world".

The Independent wrote of her, "she is not only a fine chronicler of war but of human nature".

In 2019, Barker was shortlisted for the Women's Prize for Fiction for The Silence of the Girls. In their review of the novel, The Times wrote, "Chilling, powerful, audacious . . . A searing twist on The Iliad. Amid the recent slew of rewritings of the great Greek myths and classics, Barker's stands out for its forcefulness of purpose and earthy compassion". The Guardian stated, "This is an important, powerful, memorable book that invites us to look differently not only at The Iliad but at our own ways of telling stories about the past and the present, and at how anger and hatred play out in our societies."

List of works

 * Union Street (1982)
 * Blow Your House Down (1984)
 * The Century's Daughter (also known as Liza's England; 1986)
 * The Man Who Wasn't There (1988)
 * Regeneration Trilogy:
 * Regeneration (1991)
 * The Eye in the Door (1993)
 * The Ghost Road (1995)
 * Another World (1998)
 * Border Crossing (2001)
 * Double Vision (2003)
 * Life Class (2007)
 * Toby's Room (2012)
 * Noonday (2015)
 * The Silence of the Girls (2018)
 * The Women of Troy (2021)

title: Pat Barker


text:
Seven Mile Creek

Seven Mile Creek or Sevenmile Creek is a place name. It may refer to

Communities

 * Seven Mile Creek, Wisconsin, a town in Juneau County
 * Lamartine, Wisconsin, formerly called Seven Mile Creek or Seven-Mile-Creek

Streams

 * Sevenmile Creek (Ohio), in Preble County and Butler counties
 * Sevenmile Creek (South Dakota)
 * Sevenmile Creek (Tennessee), a tributary of Mill Creek
 * Sevenmile Creek (Wisconsin River tributary), a stream in Wisconsin

title: Seven Mile Creek


text:
Seven Lakes

Seven Lakes may refer to any of the following:

 * Locations
 * Seven Lakes of San Pablo in Laguna
 * Seven Lakes, Colorado, for the former area in El Paso County, Colorado, United States
 * Seven Lakes, Jackson County, Colorado in Mount Zirkel Wilderness
 * Seven Lakes, North Carolina, United States
 * Sete Lagoas, city in Minas Gerais, Brazil
 * Yedigöller National Park in Bolu province, Turkey
 * Seven Rila Lakes area, Bulgaria
 * Seven Lakes State Park in Holly, Michigan, United States

 * Others
 * Road of the Seven Lakes, Argentine Patagonia
 * Seven Lakes, Chile, a chain of seven lakes in southern Chile
 * Seven Lakes Drive, New York state, United States
 * Seven Lakes High School, Fort Bend County, Texas, United States

title: Seven Lakes


text:
Litigant in person

In England and Wales, a litigant in person is an individual, company or organisation that has rights of audience (this is, the right to address the court) and is not represented in a court of England and Wales by a solicitor or barrister. Instructing a barrister and not a solicitor, for example through the Public Access Scheme, however, does not prevent the party on whose behalf the barrister had been instructed from being a litigant in person.

It is possible nevertheless for litigants in England and Wales to obtain free legal advice and in some cases representation from the Citizens Advice Bureau (CAB).

The term litigant in person is also used in the similar (but separate) legal systems of Irish law and Northern Irish law.

The equivalent in Scotland is a party litigant and in the United States is pro se legal representation.

Civil defendant
The defendants in the McLibel case (McDonald's Corporation v Steel & Morris, [1997] EWHC QB 366) represented themselves in person both at first instance and on appeal during a libel lawsuit which lasted nearly ten years.

Criminal defendant
A special category of litigant in person arises when a defendant in a criminal case dismisses their defence counsel and chooses to defend the case themselves. This is almost invariably an inadvisable course of action, since the law and procedure can be complex and the penalties if convicted can be severe. Furthermore, in some jurisdictions the litigant in person is restricted from cross-examining the alleged victim in rape and other serious sexual offences. The underlying policy is that an alleged victim should not have to answer directly to an alleged rapist. The right of the individual to defend themselves is in conflict with the need to protect the alleged victim from any further humiliation. In the UK this conflict is resolved by the court appointing a special counsel at public expense to conduct cross-examination.

High-profile cases in Scotland where the accused conducted his own defence and lost were Peter Manuel (who was hanged) and Tommy Sheridan.

Appellant in person
An appellant in person is someone who by their own choice, or because their former counsel is criticised and has withdrawn, is conducting their own appeal at a Crown Court or at the Court of Appeal Criminal Division. The number of appellants who choose to do this is exceptionally small, mainly due to the inherent risks involved, appellants who serve a custodial sentence can have part of that sentence ordered to be served again if the court is of the view that the application is without merit. They must also understand highly complex court procedures, prepare detailed legal paperwork and orally argue a full legal appeal case in front of three High Court judges and a full court.

Representing companies
In Battle v Irish Art Promotion Centre Ltd, the Supreme Court of Ireland ruled that a company cannot be represented by a corporate officer in lieu of a barrister or solicitor. The "Battle rule" has been slightly relaxed by later decisions.

title: Litigant in person


text: User talk:81.153.50.165

title: User talk:81.153.50.165


text:
User:Redfax

I graduated from the Degree in International Economics and Management program at Bocconi university this october.

I'm originally from Palermo, Italy. webpage: www.oocities.com/redfax84

thesis: www.oocities.com/redfax84/LF873943.pdf

title: User:Redfax


text:
The Book of Skulls

The Book of Skulls is a science fiction novel by American writer Robert Silverberg, first published in 1972. It was nominated for the Nebula Award in 1972, and both the Hugo and Locus Awards in 1973.

Synopsis
The plot concerns four college students who discover a Catalan manuscript, The Book of Skulls, dealing with an order of monks living in a monastery in the Arizona desert, whose members claim the power to bestow immortality on those who complete their bizarre initiation rite. Most morbid among the order's mysteries is the ninth: for each group of four initiates, only two will become immortal; one will sacrifice himself; and one will be sacrificed by the others. The boys travel across America to the monastery, where they are accepted as a "Receptacle" and told that if one was to leave after swearing their life to the order, the three others would be forfeit.

The narrative switches back and forth between the viewpoints of the four students as each confronts his personal demons on the way to completing the ritual. Timothy, star athlete and prodigal son of a wealthy family, quickly grows disillusioned with austere monastic life. Ned, an openly gay poet, finds himself fascinated with the philosophical contrast between eternity and extinction. Eli, the gifted but awkward young man who discovered the manuscript, forces himself to divest the surety of the mundane for faith in the extraordinary. Oliver, the handsome over-motivated farm kid, works himself harder than ever out of a powerful lust for life. Their teachings include a history of immortality, alluding to prehistoric shamans and advanced Atlantean scholars.

One of the mentor monks puts them through a trial of confession: each student privately confessing their darkest moment to only one other. Ned confesses to Timothy about his gleeful role in a gay double affair, leading to a double suicide. Timothy confesses to Oliver about social belittlement and rejection leading to him drunkenly raping his sister. Oliver confesses to Eli about the day he was seduced into a homosexual fling as a teenager, and how he suppresses his desires. But on his turn Eli breaks confidentiality and tells Ned about Oliver's confession — a convenient "ad-hoc sin". Rejecting this, Ned forces Eli to give up his real guilt: his entire academic career is based on the brilliant but uncredited manuscript of a dead colleague.

Sent into a dissociative episode by the moment, Eli wanders the monastery throughout the night and begins to truly understand the spiritual components of the monks' teachings. As the sun rises, a disgusted Timothy attempts to convince Eli to leave one last time before walking back towards nearby Phoenix himself. Eli, knowing the consequences and feeling the time is at hand, bashes Timothy's head in with a carved stone skull. Shortly after, Oliver, who was approached in the night by an aggressive Ned, is found dead and castrated by many self-inflicted knife wounds, unable to handle the reality of his sexual orientation. With one initiate dead by murder and one by suicide, the monks declare the ninth mystery fulfilled and welcome the remaining two into eternal life.

Reception
Baird Searles found the novel well-crafted but unsatisfying, saying of the viewpoint characters that "none [were] particularly likeable, interesting, or convincing."

James Blish, despite finding the novel a "noble failure," described it as "so unobtrusively, flawlessly written that even at its most puzzling it comes as perilously close to poetic beauty as any of the contemporary novels I've ever read."

Film adaptation
The cover of the 2006 paperback edition stated that the novel is "Soon to be made into a major motion picture". While there has been speculation on various film-related websites, plans for production failed to materialize.

In 2003, Paramount Pictures optioned the film rights, with William Friedkin to direct and Jeff Davis adapting. No further development has been made.

title: The Book of Skulls


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Groucho Club

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Groucho Club.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to keep the article.

Advertisement. RickK 21:43, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep, encyclopedic (though this isn't obvious from the current page). This is the leading (supposedly) showbiz/celeb place in London, founded in opposition to the more stuffy gentlemen's clubs. Has no need at all to advertise, anyway. Charles Matthews 21:48, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Charles is correct. This is a club whose members have significant impact on the UK media industry. Keep. -- The Anome 22:36, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course keep. I can't believe anyone would suggest deleting it. Mintguy (T) 21:53, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Unjustified personal attack. RickK 22:06, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * ?!? - Mintguy (T) 16:56, 17 May 2004 (UTC)~
 * Agree. Just a reminder, this is not welcome. Andrewa 04:07, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I think Mintguy's remark was more a comment on the article, rather than a personal attack. MK 04:36, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * You may be right. Maybe I'm getting a bit jumpy after having seen some stuff in other debates, and received a bit myself (Andrewa obviously doesn't get out much). Let's all make an effort to respect each other's views. Part of that is not criticising anyone for listing, or for voting in a particular way. Disagree by all means, that's what the page is here for. Andrewa 06:47, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Merge information into Groucho Marx article, then delete. Dpbsmith 22:30, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * It's a distinct and notable entity in its own right. The only connection to Groucho Marx is the name. - TB 10:45, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. If policy were to merge namesakes into the parent article then I guess Lincoln Memorial, Rockefeller Center, etc, etc, would need deleting too :-) --Avaragado 22:44, May 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * If the club is as influential as has been suggestion then someone write that into the article, slap a stub message on, and keep. --Starx 23:55, 16 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Everyking 04:18, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, it's quite famous. Certainly a good article could be written about it. Be nice if Julie Burchill could write it. --Stormie 06:36, May 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Often referred to in UK newspapers (Google advanced search gives 133 hits for the exact phrase 'Groucho Club' from Guardian.co.uk), and they often just expect you to already know what it is. Average Earthman 08:36, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and expand. It'll make an interesting article when fleshed out. - TB 10:45, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Cadr

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Template:Subdivisions of British Columbia


text:
Durham Castle

Durham Castle is a Norman castle in the city of Durham, England, which has been occupied since 1837 by University College, Durham after its previous role as the residence of the Bishops of Durham. Designated since 1986 as a cultural World Heritage Site in England, along with Durham Cathedral, the facility is open to the general public to visit, but only through guided tours, since it is in use as a working building and is home to over 100 students. The castle stands on top of a hill above the River Wear on Durham's peninsula, opposite Durham Cathedral.

Early history
Construction of the Castle, which follows the usual motte and bailey design favoured by the Normans, began in 1072 under the orders of William the Conqueror, six years after the Norman conquest of England, and soon after the Normans first came to the North. The construction took place under the supervision of Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, until he rebelled against William and was executed in 1076. Stone for the new buildings was cut from the cliffs below the walls and moved up using winches.

The holder of the office of the bishop of Durham, Bishop Walcher at the time, was appointed by the king to exercise royal authority on his behalf, with the castle being his seat. According to UNESCO:

"Walcher 'purchased the earldom [of Northumbria] and thus became the first of the Prince-Bishops of Durham, a title that was to remain until the 19th century, and was to give Durham a unique status in England. It was under Walcher that many of the Castle’s first buildings were constructed. As was typical of Norman castles, it consisted of a motte (mound) and an inner and outer bailey (fenced or walled area). Whether the motte and inner bailey were built first is unknown. There is also debate about whether or not Durham Castle was originally a stone or a wooden structure. Historic sources mention that its keep (fortified tower) was built of wood, but there is enough archaeological evidence to indicate that even in the late 11th century when it was first built, it had numerous stone buildings."

A UNESCO site describes the role of the bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland": "From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of his role of protecting England’s northern frontier."

The Bishops of Durham would not be stripped of their temporal powers until the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 returned them to the Crown.

Another UNESCO report more specifically explains the need for a castle at this location: "In defensive terms, Durham Castle was of strategic importance both to defend the troublesome border with Scotland and to control local English rebellions, which were common in the years immediately following the Norman Conquest, and led to the so-called Harrying of the North by William the Conqueror in 1069. ... the Castle was constructed 'to keep the bishop and his household safe from the attacks of assailants'. This makes sense – Robert de Comines (or Cumin), the first earl of Northumberland appointed by William the Conqueror, was brutally murdered along with his entourage in 1069."

In May 1080, the castle was attacked and besieged for four days by rebels from Northumbria; Bishop Walcher was killed. In 1177, King Henry II of England seized the castle after a disagreement with the then-bishop, Hugh de Puiset (sometimes known as Pudsey). In the 12th century, Bishop Pudsey (Hugh de Puiset) built the Norman archway and the Galilee of the cathedral. Other major alterations were made by Bishop Thomas Hatfield in the 1300s, including a rebuilding of the keep and enlargement of the keep mount.

The castle has a large Great Hall, originally called a Dining Hall, created by Bishop Antony Bek in the early 14th century; Bishop Hatfield added a wooden minstrels' gallery. The Hall was modified and enlarged, then reduced, in size by subsequent bishops. Today, the Hall is 14 m high and over 30 m long.

University College
The Castle remained the bishop's palace for the Bishop of Durham until Auckland Castle was made the bishops' residence in 1832; the current bishop still maintains offices at that castle, roughly ten miles to the south. Subsequently, Durham castle was donated to the University of Durham by Bishop William Van Mildert and would later become the college. The college did not occupy the castle until 1837, after the next Bishop, Edward Maltby, had completed renovations of the building.

Chapels
The Norman Chapel is the oldest accessible part of the castle built about 1078. Its architecture is Anglian in nature, possibly due to forced Anglian labour being used to build it. In the 15th century, its three windows were all but blocked up because of the expanded keep. It thus fell into disuse until 1841 when it was used as a corridor through which to access the keep. During the Second World War, it was used as a command and observation post for the Royal Air Force when its original use was recognised. (The cathedral was targeted for a Baedeker Blitz or bombing raid by Germany but escaped because fog rolled in and blocked the pilots' view.)

The chapel was re-consecrated shortly after the war and is still used for weekly services by the college.

Tunstall's Chapel, named after Cuthbert Tunstall, was built in the 16th century and is used for worship within the college. It was modified in the 17th century by Bishop Cosin.

World Heritage Site
Durham Castle is jointly designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site with Durham Cathedral, a short distance across Palace Green.

The UNESCO report provides specifics about the Castle's important aspects: "Within the Castle precinct are later buildings of the Durham Palatinate, reflecting the Prince-Bishops’ civic responsibilities and privileges. These include the Bishop’s Court (now a library), almshouses, and schools. Palace Green, a large open space connecting the various buildings of the site once provided the Prince Bishops with a venue for processions and gatherings befitting their status, and is now still a forum for public events."

title: Durham Castle