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Japanese submarine I-25

I-25 (イ-25) was a B1 type (I-15-class) submarine of the Imperial Japanese Navy that served in World War II, took part in the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and was the only Axis submarine to carry out aerial bombing on the continental United States in World War II, during the so-called Lookout Air Raids, and the shelling of Fort Stevens, both attacks occurring in the state of Oregon.

I-25, displaced 2584 long tons surfaced and 3654 long tons submerged and was 108 m long, with a range of 25928 km, a maximum surface speed of 43.5 km/h and a maximum submerged speed of 15 km/h. She carried a two-seater Yokosuka E14Y reconnaissance floatplane, known to the Allies as "Glen". It was disassembled and stowed in a hangar in front of the conning tower.

First patrol
In World War II, I-25 served under the command of Lieutenant Commander Akiji Tagami who had graduated from Class 51 at Etajima, Hiroshima. 26-year-old Lieutenant Tatsuo Tsukudo was the executive officer(XO) on I-25. I-25 departed Yokosuka on 21 November 1941 in preparation for hostilities.

I-25 and three other submarines patrolled a line 222 km north of Oahu during the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor. After the Japanese aircraft carriers sailed west following the attack, I-25 and eight other submarines sailed eastwards to patrol the west coast of the United States. I-25 patrolled off the mouth of the Columbia River. A scheduled shelling of American coastal cities on Christmas eve of 1941 was canceled because of the frequency of coastal air and surface patrols.

I-25 attacked SS Connecticut 16 km off the US coast. The damaged tanker managed to escape but ran aground at the mouth of the Columbia River. I-25 then returned to Kwajalein, arriving on 11 January 1942 to refuel and be refurbished.

Second patrol
I-25 left Kwajalein atoll in the Marshall Islands on 5 February for its next operational patrol in the south Pacific. Tagami's orders were to reconnoitre the Australian harbours of Sydney, Melbourne and Hobart followed by the New Zealand harbours of Wellington and Auckland.

I-25 travelled on the surface for nine days, but as she approached the Australian coastline, she only travelled on the surface under the cover of night.

On Saturday 14 February, I-25 was within a few miles of the coast near Sydney. The searchlights in Sydney could clearly be seen from the bridge of I-25. Tagami then took I-25 to a position 190 km south east of Sydney.

A number of days of rough swell prevented an immediate launch of the "Glen" floatplane. They stayed submerged during the day and went back to the surface at night. Finally on Tuesday, 17 February, Warrant Flying Officer Nobuo Fujita took off in the "Glen" for a reconnaissance flight over Sydney Harbour. The purpose was to look at Sydney's airbase. By 0730, Fujita had returned to I-25 and disassembled the "Glen" and stowed it in the watertight hangar. Commander Tagami then pointed I-25 southwards on the surface at 26 km/h. By midday on Wednesday 18 February, they were nearly 740 km south east of Sydney still heading southwards.

Their next mission was a similar flight over Melbourne. Tagami decided to launch the aircraft from Cape Wickham at the northern end of King Island at the western end of Bass Strait about halfway between Victoria and Tasmania. The floatplane was launched on 26 February for its reconnaissance flight to Melbourne over Port Phillip Bay.

Fujita's next reconnaissance flight in Australia was over Hobart on 1 March. I-25 then headed for New Zealand where Fujita flew another reconnaissance flight over Wellington on 8 March. Fujita next flew over Auckland on 13 March, followed by Fiji on 17 March.

I-25 returned to its base at Kwajalein on 31 March and then proceeded to Yokosuka for refit. I-25 was in Yokosuka drydock number 5 on 18 April 1942 when one of the Doolittle Raid B-25 Mitchell bombers damaged Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūhō in adjacent drydock number 4.

Third patrol
While outbound past the Aleutian Islands for a third war patrol off the west coast of North America, I-25's Glen seaplane overflew United States military installations on Kodiak Island. The surveillance on 21 May 1942 was in preparation for the northern diversion of the Battle of Midway.

Shortly after midnight on 20 June 1942, I-25 torpedoed the new, coal-burning Canadian freighter SS Fort Camosun off the coast of Washington. The freighter was bound for England with a cargo of war production materials including zinc, lead, and plywood. One torpedo struck the port side below the bridge and flooded the 2nd and 3rd cargo holds. Canadian corvettes HMCS Quesnel (K133) and HMCS Edmundston (K106) reached the stricken freighter after dawn and rescued the crew from lifeboats. Fort Camosun was towed back into Puget Sound for repairs, and later survived a second torpedo attack by I-27 in the Gulf of Aden in the fall of 1943.

On the evening of 21 June 1942, I-25 followed a fleet of fishing vessels to avoid minefields near the mouth of the Columbia River, in Oregon. I-25 fired seventeen 14-cm (5.5-inch) shells at Battery Russell, a small coastal army installation within Fort Stevens which was later decommissioned. Fort Stevens was equipped with two 10-inch disappearing guns, some 12-inch mortars, 75 mm field guns, .50-caliber machine guns, and associated searchlights, observation posts, and secret radar capability. Damage was minimal. In fact, the only items of significance damaged on the fort were a baseball backstop and some power and telephone lines.

The incoming shell fire had a highly stimulative effect on the personnel at Battery Russell. Men leaped out of bed, crashing into things in the dark—turning on a light would be unthinkable—as they scrambled to battle stations in their underwear.

"We looked like hell," Capt. Jack R. Wood, commander of the battery, told historian Bert Webber later. "But we were ready to shoot back in a couple of minutes."

But when gunners requested permission to open fire, they were firmly refused. In part, this was because the submarine's location remained uncertain because of difficulties evaluating reports from different observation points; it was, after all, 10 mi from shore. Furthermore, authorities later stated they wished to avoid revealing the locations of their guns to what they believed to be a reconnaissance mission. The sub may also have been out of range of Battery Russell's artillery; the mechanism used with the 10-inch disappearing guns limited their upward travel, which limited their effective range to less than 10 mi. If the guns opened fire, the sub would be able to report back to Tokyo that a fleet of surface ships could simply heave to, 10 mi from shore, and pound Battery Russell with impunity, then sail right on into the Columbia—where, among other valuable targets, upstream at Portland, Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation, one of Henry Kaiser's shipyards, was cranking out Liberty ships at a rate of more than one a week. This, obviously, was not something the Navy could take a chance on.

In the end, Battery Russell sat there and absorbed the fire without a single shot in reply. It was a turning point for American coastal artillery, and the failure to respond caused re-evaluation of men and artillery allocated to coastal defense.

Fourth patrol
Following his successful observation flights on the second and third patrols, Warrant Officer Nubuo Fujita was specifically chosen for a special incendiary bombing mission to create forest fires in North America. I-25 left Yokosuka on 15 August 1942 carrying six 76 kg incendiary bombs. On 9 September, the crew again deployed the "Glen", which dropped two bombs over forest land near Brookings, Oregon. This attack by an enemy airplane was later called the "Lookout Air Raids", and was the only time that the mainland United States was ever bombed by enemy aircraft and the second continental territory to be bombed as such during wartime, after the bombing of Dutch Harbor in Unalaska, Alaska.

Warrant Officer Fujita's mission had been to trigger wildfires across the coast; at the time, the Tillamook Burn incidents of 1933 and 1939 were well known, as was the destruction of the city of Bandon, Oregon by a smaller out-of-control wildfire in 1936. But light winds, wet weather conditions and two quick-acting fire lookouts kept the fires under control. In fact, had the winds been sufficiently brisk to stoke widespread forest fires, the lightweight Glen may have had difficulty navigating through the bad weather. Shortly after the Glen seaplane had landed and been disassembled for storage, I-25 was bombed at 42.36667°N, -125.2°W by a United States Army A-29 Hudson piloted by Captain Jean H. Daugherty from McChord Field near Tacoma, Washington. The Hudson carried 300 lb general-purpose demolition bombs with delayed fuzes rather than depth charges. The bombs caused minor damage, but quick response by a Coast Guard cutter and three more aircraft caused I-25 to be more cautious on a second bombing raid on 29 September 1942. The Glen seaplane was assembled and launched in pre-dawn darkness using Cape Blanco Light as a reference. The plane was heard at 0522 by a work crew at the Grassy Knob Lookout 7 mi east of Port Orford, Oregon; but fire crews from the Gold Beach Ranger Station were unable to locate any evidence of the two incendiary bombs dropped. The Glen seaplane was again recovered, but I-25 decided not to risk a third flight with the two remaining incendiary bombs. Captain Tagami took I-25 to rest "...on the bottom [of the harbor of Port Orford ] until night time.

At 0415 4 October 1942 I-25 torpedoed the 6600 LT tanker Camden en route from San Pedro, California, to Puget Sound with a cargo of 76000 oilbbl of gasoline. The damaged tanker was towed to the mouth of the Columbia River. When its draft was discovered to be too great to reach repair facilities in Portland, Oregon, another tow was arranged to Puget Sound; but the tanker was destroyed on 10 October by a fire of unknown origin during the second tow.

On the evening of 5 October 1942 I-25 torpedoed the Richfield Oil Company tanker Larry Doheny, which sank the next day. The cargo of 66000 oilbbl of oil was lost with 2 of the tanker's crew and 4 members of the United States Navy Armed Guard. Survivors reached Port Orford, Oregon on the evening of 6 October.

Two submarines were sighted on 11 October 1942 about 800 mi off the coast of Washington as I-25 was returning to Japan. I-25 fired its last torpedo at the lead submarine, which sank in 20 seconds with the loss of all hands. I-25 reported sinking a U.S. submarine, but the submarine was actually Soviet L-16 which was sailing with L-15 en route from Vladivostok to the Panama Canal via Unalaska, Alaska, and San Francisco. United States Navy Chief Photographer's Mate Sergi Andreevich Mihailoff of Arcadia, California, was aboard L-16 as a liaison officer and interpreter, and was killed with the remainder of the submarine crew. The United States Navy Western Sea Frontier denied loss of any submarine and withheld information about the Soviet loss because, at the time, the Soviet Union was officially neutral in the war between Japan and the United States.

SS H.M. Storey was bringing fuel oil from Noumea, New Caledonia, in the South Pacific Ocean to Los Angeles. On May 17, 1943, I-25 torpedoed and fired shells at the ship. The attack killed two of the crew; 63 of the crew made it in to the ship's lifeboats before she sank. US destroyer USS Fletcher rescued the crew in the lifeboats and took them to Port Vila Efate, Vanuatu, in the South Pacific.

Loss
I-25 was sunk less than a year later by one or more of the destroyers USS Ellet (DD-398), USS Patterson (DD-392), USS Wadsworth (DD-516) or USS Saufley (DD-465) which were involved in a series of naval engagements from late August to mid September 1943 off the New Hebrides islands, approximately 150 mi northeast of Espiritu Santo. Which American ship sank the I-25 (or any of the other IJN submarines in the vicinity) remains unknown. On 24 October 1943, the Imperial Japanese Navy announced that I-25 was presumed lost with all 100 men on board in the Fiji area, and it was struck from the Navy List on 1 December 1943.

title: Japanese submarine I-25


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Bohemian Club

The Bohemian Club is a private club with two locations: a city clubhouse in the Nob Hill district of San Francisco, California, and the Bohemian Grove, a retreat north of the city in Sonoma County. Founded in 1872 from a regular meeting of journalists, artists, and musicians, it soon began to accept businessmen and entrepreneurs as permanent members, as well as offering temporary membership to university presidents (notably Berkeley and Stanford) and military commanders who were serving in the San Francisco Bay Area. Today, the club has a membership of many local and global leaders, ranging from artists and musicians to businessmen. Membership is restricted to men only.

Clubhouse
The City Club is located in a six-story masonry building at the corner of Post Street and Taylor Street, two blocks west of Union Square, and on the same block as both the Olympic Club and the Marines Memorial Club. The clubhouse contains dining rooms, meeting rooms, a bar, a library, an art gallery, a theater, and guest rooms.

Bohemian Grove
Every year, the club hosts a two-week-long (three weekends) camp at Bohemian Grove, which is notable for its illustrious guest list and its eclectic Cremation of Care ceremony which mockingly burns an effigy of "Care" (the normal woes of life) with grand pageantry, pyrotechnics, and brilliant costumes, all done at the edge of a lake and at the base of a forty-foot "stone" owl statue (actually made of concrete). In addition to that ceremony, devised by co-founder James F. Bowman in 1881, there are also two outdoor performances (dramatic and comedic plays), often with elaborate set design and orchestral accompaniment. The more elaborate of the two is the Grove Play, or High Jinks; the more ribald is called Low Jinks. More often than not, the productions are original creations of the Associate members, but active participation of hundreds of members of all backgrounds is traditional.

Nathanial Brittan Party House
Nathaniel J. Brittan co-founded the Bohemian Club of San Francisco in 1872 and by 1892 was the president of the club. He built the Nathanial Brittan Party House in San Carlos, California, in order to entertain his friends from the club and to use as a hunting lodge.

Bohemianism
In New York City and other American metropolises in the late 1850s, groups of young, cultured journalists flourished as self-described "bohemians", until the American Civil War broke them up and sent them out as war correspondents. During the war, reporters began to assume the title "bohemian", and newspapermen in general took up the moniker. "Bohemian" became synonymous with "newspaper writer". California journalist Bret Harte first wrote as "The Bohemian" in The Golden Era in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings. Harte described San Francisco as a sort of Bohemia of the West. Mark Twain called himself and poet Charles Warren Stoddard bohemians in 1867.

Founding
The Bohemian Club was originally formed in April 1872 by and for journalists who wished to promote a fraternal connection among men who enjoyed the arts. Michael Henry de Young, proprietor of the San Francisco Chronicle, provided this description of its formation in a 1915 interview:

"The Bohemian Club was organized in the Chronicle office by Tommy Newcombe, Sutherland, Dan O'Connell, Harry Dam, J.Limon and others who were members of the staff. The boys wanted a place where they could get together after work, and they took a room on Sacramento street below Kearny. That was the start of the Bohemian Club, and it was not an unmixed blessing for the Chronicle because the boys would go there sometimes when they should have reported at the office. Very often when Dan O'Connell sat down to a good dinner there he would forget that he had a pocketful of notes for an important story."

Journalists were to be regular members; artists and musicians were to be honorary members. The group quickly relaxed its rules for membership to permit some people to join who had little artistic talent, but enjoyed the arts and had greater financial resources. Eventually, the original "bohemian" members were in the minority and the wealthy and powerful controlled the club. Club members who were established and successful, respectable family men, defined for themselves their own form of bohemianism, which included men who were bon vivants, sometime outdoorsmen, and appreciators of the arts. Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition:

"Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a Bohemian. But that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism. The first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts; the other is poverty. Other factors suggest themselves: for instance, I like to think of my Bohemians as young, as radical in their outlook on art and life; as unconventional, and, though this is debatable, as dwellers in a city large enough to have the somewhat cruel atmosphere of all great cities." Despite his purist views, Sterling associated very closely with the Bohemian Club and caroused with artist and industrialist alike at the Bohemian Grove.

Oscar Wilde, upon visiting the club in 1882, is reported to have said, "I never saw so many well-dressed, well-fed, business-looking Bohemians in my life."

Membership
A number of past membership lists are in the public domain, but modern club membership lists are private. Some prominent figures have been given honorary membership, such as Richard Nixon and William Randolph Hearst. Members have included some U.S. presidents (usually before they are elected to office), many cabinet officials, and CEOs of large corporations, including major financial institutions. Major military contractors, oil companies, banks (including the Federal Reserve), utilities, and national media have high-ranking officials as club members or guests. Many members are, or have been, on the board of directors of several of these corporations; however, artists and lovers of art are among the most active members. The club's bylaws require ten percent of the membership be accomplished artists of all types (composers, musicians, singers, actors, lighting artists, painters, authors, etc.). During the first half of the 20th century, membership in the club was especially valued by painters and sculptors, who exhibited their work on the premises, in both permanent displays and special exhibitions, and did not pay any commissions on sales to members. Many of the club's artists were nationally recognized figures, such as William Keith, Arthur Frank Mathews, Xavier Martinez, Jules Eugene Pages, Edwin Deakin, William Ritschel, Jo Mora, Maynard Dixon and Arthur Putnam.

The club motto is "Weaving Spiders Come Not Here", a line taken from Act 2, Scene 2, of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The club motto implies that outside concerns and business deals are to be left outside. When gathered in groups, Bohemians usually adhere to the injunction, though discussion of business often occurs between pairs of members.

Bret Harte Memorial
A bronze relief by Jo Mora is installed on the exterior of the building. It serves as a memorial to author and poet Bret Harte. The relief, which is 3 ft by 7 ft by 2+1/2 in, was first dedicated on August 15, 1919, as a tribute by Mora, who was a member, to fellow Bohemian Club member Harte. The relief shows fifteen characters from books by Harte. It is inscribed:

Proper left, upper corner:
 * J J MORA AUGUST 15, 1919

Proper left, lower edge:
 * L. DE ROME BRONZE FOUNDRY

Top center wreath:
 * IN MEMORIAM BRET HARTE 1836–1902 AD

followed by the founder's mark for L. De Rome. When the original building was torn down, the relief was removed. In 1934, it was reinstalled on the building that stands today.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bohemian Club


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Talk:Dofetilide

DOFETILIDE drug safety
It should be noted that DIAMOND study is the only known case of a death in a clinical trial being reported to the FDA *BEFORE it happened*.

The pharmacovigilance for the DIAMOND study produced more serious adverse event data than all other Pfizer studies combined at the time: SAEs were reported direct to Pfizer Sandwich for the 3000 patients in the cohort for each "Death" being defined for thus "sudden death prevention" study as "cardiac arrhythmia requiring cardioversion or resuscitation" where the patient could have died without intervention, and reported actual death: This meant the cohort produced around a massive 7,000 "deaths", for 3000 patients - all of which needed to be reported to the FDA in an expedited manner. All of this work was managed by *one* person (a contractor)' who also managed any reports arriving from ongoing VIAGRA (Sildenafil) studies worldwide.

An average of 30 *Serious* Adverse Events a day arose from the three year : these reports were often made within hours of the event: This lead to an enquiry and Audit of the Drug Safety operation by Legal Compliance team of the FDA who travelled in a team from the USA to Sandwich, at short notice, certain that errors had been made:  On arrival to a slightly panicked Pfizer they stated that an error *must* have been made because the death of a patient had been reported to the FDA *before it happened*. Luckily the entire DIAMOND safety data load was being managed by the one person (note a contractor *not* a Pfizer employee) who explained the apparent error was due to the time difference between Denmark and The FDA in the USA being 7 hours at the time, and the entire process of 1) patient dying 2) Site investigator reporting to Sandwich by fax 3) fax received, processed and checked and 4) raised as a SAE report to the FDA and 5) submitted had taken less than 6 hours. Accepting this perfectly valid and calmly delivered explanation, the FDA team (who had been booked for several days to investigate) returned to The Bell Hotel in Sandwich.  The next day they had to be educated by the contractor that 20 fluid ounce pints in England as opposed to 16 oz in the USA, combined with drinking 5% alcohol beer as opposed to domestic strength US (3.5%) was probably the reason for their collective hangovers.l despite "only having 4 or 5 beers".

Incidentally, the study was also the first where "continuing ongoing reconciliation" of the separate SAE/FDA reports were reconciled with the AE reports in the study database (recorded on Pfizer in house software PFIZERCLIN, running on VAX/VMS) Somewhat amazingly this was also handled by the *same* contractor as managed the SAE reports *at the same time* by running periodic data comparison routines that *they had worked out themselves* "on the fly".

Pfizer later set up a task group to look at ongoing reconciliation of SAE Vs Study AE databases to compress the long delays at database close out. The working party realised somewhat incredulously that this process had actually already been successfully invented and implemented for the single largest SAE database ever generated, and by one person who was not even a Pfizer employee. The contractor was phoned and asked "...er ... How did you do it?" Rather generously in hindsight, the contractor explained the process in detail, and was then replaced by a team of 6 Pfizer employees, but the work had already largely been done for DIAMOND. It may be noted that the contractor did decline a permanent position employed by Pfizer (at substantial pay CUT) and went on to a successful career in Pharma consulting Business Development, while the site at Sandwich (with new building capital projects paid for mainly from profits of Viagra) was gradually mothballed closed and even demolished, but not before Brad Pitt and Co used the cafeteria and other buildings for "World War Z". Funny old world... Dofetikide (talk) 08:59, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dofetilide


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Spörer's law

In solar physics, Spörer's law is an empirical law for the variation of heliographic latitudes at which solar active regions form during a solar cycle. It was discovered by the English astronomer Richard Christopher Carrington around 1861. Carrington's work was refined by the German astronomer Gustav Spörer.

At the start of a solar cycle, active regions tend to appear around 30° to 45° latitude on the Sun's surface. As the cycle progresses, they appear at lower and lower latitudes, until they average 15° at solar maximum. The average latitude then continues to drift lower, down to about 7° and then while the old sunspot cycle fades, active regions of the new cycle start appearing at high latitudes.

title: Spörer's law


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Talk:Goiânia accident

Sv·h−1
The article systematically uses negative exponents like "Sv·h−1" instead of simply "Sv/h". Is there a reason why? 111.220.239.198 (talk) 03:14, 3 February 2023 (UTC)

This article contradicts itself(Note, relates to section flagged for needing citation)
In the initial section it's stated "All of the objects from within those houses, including personal possessions, were seized and incinerated" while under cleanup it's stated that care was put in to recover personal possessions in those particular houses. Along with not citing anything overall in how the situation was handled under cleanup. 131.125.11.1 (talk) 16:37, 28 February 2023 (UTC)

Opening sections with run-on sentences as poor form for encylopedic content.
As of this posting, the opening sentence of the "Legal" section of this article reads as follows

In addition to a public civil action for damages to the environment was brought in September 1995 by the Federal Public Prosecution Service (Department of Justice), together with the State of Goiás’ Public Prosecution Service, before the 8th Federal Court of Goiânia, legal proceedings were also brought against the Federal Union; the National Nuclear Energy Commission; the State of Goiás (through its Health Department); the Social Security Institute for Civil Servants in the State of Goiás – IPASGO, which at the time of the accident was the private owner of the land where the IGR was located; the four medical doctors who owned IGR; and the clinic’s physicist, who was also the supervisor.

As one who has studied a sufficient level of English can see, this is an incredibly overloaded sentence who's very opening context is quickly upset and lost in the weeds amidst multiple tangents by induction of commas. Or put most simply, it reads poorly. It requires attention to separation of details. It has sufficient content to compose at least three statements. It is ostensibly a paragraph by volume alone. I'm pretty confident we can strive for better on Wikipedia.

I'm sure this statement is supposed to tell me something in relation to the rest of the article it presents from. However it instead reads as a poorly formed list with a fragment of context. By the end of it, I'm left wondering precisely what actions correlate with which parties. Even after several minutes of struggling to decipher it, I have become compelled to ask of anybody else who does comprehend what it's saying to improve upon it's terribly muddled structure. 99bluefoxx (talk) 02:44, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

 * An IP editor was responsible for the addition of nearly all the information under the Legal matters section heading, as seen in this edit. It could be reverted to the state it was in before if it's beneficial to the article. I will look at it. The grammar is awkward to parse. Recon  rabbit  22:20, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Goiânia accident


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Richard Cockburn Maclaurin

Richard Cockburn Maclaurin (June 5, 1870 – January 15, 1920) was a Scottish-born U.S. educator and mathematical physicist. He was made president of MIT in 1909, and held the position until his death in 1920.

During his tenure as president of MIT, the Institute moved across the Charles River from Boston to its present campus in Cambridge. In Maclaurin's honor, the buildings that surround Killian Court on the oldest part of the campus are sometimes called the Maclaurin Buildings.

Earlier, he was a foundation professor of the then Victoria College of the University of New Zealand from 1899 to 1907. A collection of lecture theatres at the Kelburn campus of that university were named after him. He was also a professor at Columbia University from 1907 to 1908.

Personal
Maclaurin was born in Scotland, and was related to the noted Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin. He emigrated to New Zealand with his family at the age of four. In 1904 he married Alice Young of Auckland, and they had two sons. His brother James Scott Maclaurin (1864–1939) was a noted chemist, who invented a process for extracting gold with cyanide.

Education

 * University Entrance Scholar, 1887, Auckland Grammar School
 * B.Sc. (Hons), Mathematics, 1890, Auckland University College.
 * BA, 1895 (12th wrangler); LL.D., 1904, St John's College, University of Cambridge.

Publications

 * On the Nature and Evidence of Title to Realty, 1901
 * Treatise on the Theory of Light, 1908

Honors

 * Smith's Prize in Mathematics, 1896
 * Yorke Prize in Law, University of Cambridge, 1898
 * Elected member of the American Philosophical Society, 1910
 * Elected member of the America Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1911

title: Richard Cockburn Maclaurin


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Mary Decker

Mary Teresa Slaney (formerly Tabb, née Decker, born August 4, 1958) is an American retired middle-distance and long-distance runner. During her career, she won gold medals in the 1500 meters and 3000 meters at the 1983 World Championships and was the world-record holder in the mile, 5000 meters and 10,000 meters. In total, she set 17 official and unofficial world records, and she was the first woman to break 4:20 for the mile. She also set 36 U.S. national records at distances ranging from 800 meters to 10,000 meters, and has held the U.S. record in the 2000 meters and 3000 meters since the early 1980s, while her 1500 meters record stood for 32 years and her mile record stood for 38 years. In 2003, she was inducted into the National Track and Field Hall of Fame.

Early life
Decker was born in Bunnvale, New Jersey. A decade later, her family moved to Garden Grove in Southern California, where Decker started running. A year later at the age of 11, she won her first local competition.

She joined her school athletics club and a local track club and completely immersed herself in running. At age 12, she completed a marathon and four middle- and long-distance races in one week, ending the week with an appendectomy operation.

Career
In her early teens, Decker was already recognized as a world-class runner. Unable to attend the 1972 Olympics as she was too young at 14, Decker, who ran wearing pigtails and at the weight of 89 lbs, won international acclaim in 1973 with a win in the 800 meters at a U.S.-USSR meet in Minsk, beating the reigning Olympic silver medalist Nijolė Sabaitė.

In 1973, she set her first world record, running an indoor mile in 4:40.1. By 1974, Decker was the world indoor record holder with 2:02.4 for 880 yards, and 2:01.8 for 800 meters.

By the end of 1974, Decker had developed a case of the muscle condition compartment syndrome. This resulted in a series of injuries that prevented her from competing in the 1976 Summer Olympics because of stress fractures in her lower leg. In 1978, she underwent an operation to address her compartment syndrome, which kept her out of competition for a period. After recovering from surgery, she spent two seasons at the University of Colorado at Boulder on a track scholarship. In 1979, she became the second American woman (the first was Francie Larrieu) to break the 4:30 mile. Decker was the first woman to break the 4:20 barrier for the mile in 1980 when she ran it in 4:17.55. However, this time was never ratified by the IAAF. Decker did not compete at the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics because of the American boycott. However, she received one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the American athletes.

In 1981, Decker married fellow American distance runner Ron Tabb. The couple divorced in 1983. In 1982, under the name Mary Tabb, she ran the mile in 4:18.08, breaking the official record of 4:20.89 by the Lyudmila Veselkova of the USSR, and this time was ratified.

Career peak
In 1982 Decker-Tabb set six world records at distances ranging from the mile run to 10,000 meters. She received the James E. Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States.

The following year she achieved the "Double Decker," winning both the 1500 meters and 3000 meters events at the World Championships in Helsinki, Finland. Her history of relatively easy wins in the United States left her tactical abilities suspect in Helsinki, as she chose not to run in close order because so few athletes could keep up with her, a situation that the Soviet runners hoped to use to their advantage. Her wins against Soviet World Record holders proved a redemption of her competitive guile. After her double win she won the Jesse Owens Award from USA Track and Field and Sports Illustrated magazine named her Sportsperson of the Year. Shortly before her World Championship victories, Decker improved her U.S. 1500 meters record to 3:57.12 in Stockholm on July 26, 1983. This record stood for 32 years until Shannon Rowbury ran 3:56.29 on July 17, 2015.

The 1984 Olympic incident
Decker was heavily favored to win a gold medal in the 3000 meters run at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. In the final, barefoot runner Zola Budd, representing Great Britain, had been running even with Decker for three laps and then moved ahead. In an attempt to place pressure on Budd, Decker remained close by in a crowded space. However, Decker collided with Budd and fell to the curb, injuring her hip, and she did not finish the race, which was won by Maricica Puică of Romania (Budd finished seventh). Decker was carried from the track in tears by her boyfriend (and later husband), British discus thrower Richard Slaney. At a press conference, she pinned the blame for the collision on Budd. While it is generally the trailing runner's responsibility to avoid contact with the runner ahead, it is also an accepted convention among most distance runners that the leader should be at least one full stride ahead before the trailing runner moves directly behind her. International track officials initially disqualified Budd for obstruction, but she was reinstated just one hour later after officials viewed films of the race. Despite the fact that she had been running behind Budd, Decker's claim that Budd had bumped into her leg was supported by a number of sports journalists. The claim was not accepted by the director of the games or by the IAAF.

Decker and Budd next met in July 1985 for a 3000-meter race at Crystal Palace National Sports Centre in London. Decker won the race, and Budd finished in fourth place. After the race, the women shook hands and reconciled. Decker later claimed that she was robbed of the 1984 Olympics 3000-meter gold medal by Budd, but many years after the event said: "The reason I fell, some people think she tripped me deliberately. I happen to know that wasn't the case at all. The reason I fell is because I am and was very inexperienced in running in a pack." Budd and Decker later reunited for a 2016 documentary about the incident, The Fall.

Decker had a successful 1985 season, winning 12-mile and 3000-meter races in Europe, including a new official world record for the women's mile of 4:16.71 in Zurich (Natalya Artyomova's 4:15.8 in 1984 was not ratified by the IAAF), a race in which she beat both Budd and Puică. Since that race in 1985, Decker's time has only been bettered four times.

Decker missed the 1986 season to give birth to her only child, daughter Ashley Lynn (born May 30, 1986) and then missed the 1987 season because of injury. She qualified for the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, competing at 1500 meters and 3000 meters, but finished in 8th and 10th respectively, failing to win a medal. She did not qualify for the 1992 Summer Olympics.

Doping controversy
In 1996, at the age of 37, as she qualified for the 5000 meters at the Atlanta Olympics, a urine test taken in June at the Olympic trials showed a testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E) ratio greater than the allowable maximum of 6:1. At the time of the positive test, Decker was being coached by Alberto Salazar.

Decker and her lawyers contended that the T/E ratio test is unreliable for women, especially women in their late 30s or older who take birth-control pills. In the meantime, Decker was eliminated in the heats at the Olympics.

In June 1997, the IAAF banned Decker from competition. In September 1999, a USATF panel reinstated her. The IAAF cleared her to compete but took the case to arbitration. In April 1999, the arbitration panel ruled against Decker, and although she was cleared to compete, the IAAF instituted a retroactive ban that stripped her of the silver medal that she had won in the 1500-meter race at the 1997 World Indoor Championships.

In April 1999, Decker filed suit against both the IAAF and the U.S. Olympic Committee that had administered the test, arguing that the test is flawed and cannot distinguish between androgens caused by the use of banned substances and those resulting from the use of birth-control pills. The court ruled that it had no jurisdiction, and the decision was upheld on appeal.

The T/E test threshold has since been tightened to a 4:1 ratio, and laboratories now also run a carbon isotope ratio test (CIR) if the T/E ratio is unusually high.

Later life
Throughout her later career, Decker had suffered a series of stress-induced fractures. After the loss of her 1999 legal case, she underwent more than 30 orthopedic procedures, mainly on her legs and feet, in an attempt to enable her to run competitively in marathons. However, after the surgeries, she continued to experience injuries. As a result, she retired with her husband to a 55 acre property in Eugene, Oregon, where she jogs every other day.

title: Mary Decker


text:
Jewish Combat Organization

The Jewish Combat Organization (Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa, ŻOB; Yidishe Kamf Organizatsie; often translated to English as the Jewish Fighting Organization) was a World War II resistance movement in occupied Poland, which was instrumental in organizing and launching the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. ŻOB took part in a number of other resistance activities as well.

Offshoot of Jewish youth groups
The ŻOB was formed on 28 July 1942, six days after the German Nazis under SS General Jurgen Stroop began the Grossaktion Warsaw sealing the fate of the Jews confined in the Warsaw Ghetto: "All Jewish persons living in Warsaw, regardless of age and gender, [would] be resettled in the East." Thus began massive "deportations" of about 254,000 Jews, all of whom were sent to the Treblinka extermination camp. The Grossaktion lasted until 12 September 1942. Overall it reduced the once thriving Warsaw Jewish community of some 400,000 to a mere 55,000 to 60,000 inhabitants.

The youth groups that were instrumental in forming the ŻOB had anticipated German intentions to annihilate Warsaw Jewry and began to shift from an educational and cultural focus to self-defense and eventual armed struggle.

Unlike the older generation, the youth groups took these reports seriously and had no illusions about the true intentions of the Germans. A document published three months before the start of the deportations by Hashomer Hatzair declared: "We know that Hitler's system of murder, slaughter and robbery leads steadily to a dead end and the destruction of the Jews."

A number of the left Zionist youth groups, such as Hashomer Hatzair and Dror, proposed the creation of a self-defense organization at a meeting of Warsaw Jewish leaders in March 1942. The proposal was rejected by the Jewish Labour Bund who believed that a fighting organization would fail without the help of the Polish resistance. Others rejected the notion of armed insurgency saying that there was no evidence of a threat of deportation. Moreover, they argued any armed resistance would provoke the Germans to retaliate against the whole Jewish community.

In November 1942, ŻOB officially became part of and subordinated its activities to the High Command of the Armia Krajowa. In return the Home Army (Armia Krajowabegan) providing ŻOB with weapons and training, with the first shipment of guns and ammunition being provided in December 1942. The organization was spied upon by Jewish collaborators with the Nazis called the Society of Free Jews (Towarzystwo Wolnych Żydow).

ŻOB resistance to the second deportation
On 18 January 1943, the Nazis began a second wave of deportations. The first Jews the Germans rounded up included a number of ŻOB fighters who had intentionally crept into the column of deportees. Led by Mordechai Anielewicz they waited for the appropriate signal, then stepped out of formation, and fought the Nazis with small arms. The column scattered and news of the ŻZW and ŻOB action quickly spread throughout the ghetto. During this small deportation, the Nazis only managed to round up about 5,000 to 6,000 Jews.

The deportations lasted four days during which the Germans met other acts of resistance from the ŻOB. When they left the ghetto on 22 January 1943, the remaining Jews regarded it as a victory, however Israel Gutman, a member of the ŻOB who subsequently became one of the leading authors on Jewish Warsaw wrote, "It [was] not known [to the Jews] that the Germans had not intended to liquidate the entire ghetto by means of the January deportations." However, Gutman concludes that the "[January] deportations... had a decisive influence on the ghetto's last months."

Final deportation and uprising

The final deportation began on the eve of Passover, 19 April 1943. The streets of the ghetto were vacant; most of the remaining 30,000 Jews were hiding in carefully prepared bunkers including their headquarters located in Ulica Miła 18, many of which had electricity and running water, however they offered no route of escape.

When the Germans marched into the ghetto, they met fierce armed resistance from fighters attacking from open windows in vacated apartments. The defenders of the ghetto used guerrilla warfare tactics and had the strategic advantage not only of surprise but also of being able to look down on their opponents. This advantage was lost when the Germans began systematically burning all of the buildings of the ghetto forcing the fighters to seek cover in the underground bunkers. The fires above consumed much of the available oxygen below ground, turning the bunkers into suffocating death traps.

On May 8 in the bunker at 18 Mila Street, Jurek Wilner called on the fighters to commit mass suicide to avoid falling into Germans' hands. As the first one, Lutek Rotblat initially shot his mother and then himself. In the bunker most of the members of the Combat Organization found their deaths, including Commander Mordechaj Anielewicz.

By 16 May 1943, the German Police General Jürgen Stroop, who had been in charge of the final deportation, officially declared what he called the Grossaktion, finished. To celebrate he razed Warsaw's Great Synagogue. The ghetto was destroyed and what remained of the uprising was suppressed.

Epilogue
Even after the destruction of the ghetto, small numbers of Jews could still be found in the underground bunkers on both sides of the ghetto wall. In fact, during the last months of the ghetto some 20,000 Jews fled to the Aryan side. Some Jews who escaped the final destruction of the ghetto, including youth group members and leaders Kazik Ratajzer, Zivia Lubetkin, Yitzhak Zuckerman and Marek Edelman, would participate in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising against the Nazis.

While many members and leaders of the youth groups perished in the Warsaw Ghetto, Zionist and non-Zionist youth movements remain active. One can still find the left Zionist youth groups Hashomer Hatzair and Habonim Dror in countries such as Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, Switzerland, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. There are still remnants of the non-Zionist Jewish Labour Bund's S.K.I.F. in Australia, the United Kingdom, France and the United States. The right youth group Betar operates in Australia, Brazil, Western Europe and the United States, and Bnei Akiva, a religious Zionist organization, operates worldwide.

Similar organizations
A second Jewish resistance organization called the Jewish Military Union (Żydowski Związek Wojskowy, ŻZW), formed primarily of former officers of the Polish Army in late 1939, operated side by side with ŻOB & was also instrumental in the Jewish armed struggle.

title: Jewish Combat Organization


text:
Talk:The Algebraist

Untitled
Some mistake, surely.

Charles Matthews 20:47, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

So. will be published. Is this encyclopedic?

Charles Matthews 07:13, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * It will be, in 5 months' time.
 * We can delete and then ressurect it, if you want. But that does seem a little pointless.
 * James F. (talk) 09:10, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

OK - I read Bsnks too. But, isn't this really just an advertisement, as it stands?

Charles Matthews 09:11, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, I suppose, but you could say that about most of the entries on books on the Wikipedia right now.
 * I've added a small amount of text extracted from the pre-print blurb, but it's still... non-optimal.
 * Thoughts?
 * James F. (talk) 10:40, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

Could redirect to Iain M. Banks and place this plot summary there, for now.

Charles Matthews 10:52, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm. I'm pretty much happy either way; you decide — be bold! ;-)
 * James F. (talk) 16:38, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

As this book will be released very soon, I have given this book it's own page again. --Dan Huby 15:58, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I remember reading in an interview somewhere that The Algebraist might be the first of a series of books - but I can't for the life of me remember where. Anyone better at Googling than me able to find it?

I was reminded of this book when looking through Cassini pictures earlier. Here, have the original photo for the front cover! 194.247.44.210 3 July 2005 15:18 (UTC)

 * Found it - he says "It was always going to be a long book anyway, and it’s actually longer than I intended. It probably could become a trilogy, but for now it’s a standalone novel." So there you go, a possibility rather than a probability... 194.247.44.210 3 July 2005 17:12 (UTC)

Cover picture
This library catalog ([here]) has a thumbnail-sized cover picture (and a larger one available on clicking). Can we use this picture? Can we use pictures from there in general (there are cover pictures for most, if not all books in the catalog)? I'm not sure of the copyright status. Golwengaud 05:29, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

The truth
Guinnog: perhaps read the book again? http://www.hex4.com/ Joncolvin

Not a Culture novel?
I take it this is not set in the Culture universe?
 * Correct. Psychobabble 22:32, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, but there are some startling similarities! For example, the Beyonders seem to be a grouping that very much resembles the origins of the society that became the the culture (as described in Banks' notes on the culture essay). The Mercatoria is thus much like the oppressive regimes that were seeking to stifle the 'proto-culture'...

 * The AIs are very much like the Minds of the culture.

 * All a bit moot I suppose, since the history of the culture is older than that of Earth bound civilisations (which are explicitly referenced in the Algebraist) and the culture is known to have visited Earth (State of the Art).

 * Having said that though, the Algebraist does make reference to two strands of humanity the 'remainder humans' stuck on Earth and the ones who were kidnapped and 'mentored' as part of the galactic culture.

 * Even so, the timelines quoted for this book an the culture novels don't seem to tally, so what I think is a nice idea, doesn't seem to work! :-( 82.211.95.178 15:58, 14 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Couldn't possibly be in the Culture universe, because the Culture has hyperspace and no wormholes. It's a bit of a stretch to suggest that the laws of physics drastically changed at some point,or that everyone just forgot that hyperspace/wormholes had ever existed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.168.175.190 (talk) 22:40, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Ah yes, but FTL travel (hyperspace) might only be known by a subset of the space faring community. Wormholes might be considered more primitive and less useful. E.g. FTL travel depends only on the propulsion system of the ship and can take you anywhere. Wormhole travel requires a wormhole, thus can only take you point to point. It is also vulnerable to attack... Anyway, I had thought when reading the book that FTL travel might be available to the gas giant dwellers. The reason was that the journeys made by the main protagonist seemed to take longer when he was travelling further (ie FTL travel is not instantaneous). Perhaps that was deliberate on Banks' part? A red herring to throw us off the scent?! Also, I'm not sure on this, but perhaps wormholes could also exist in the Culture universe? Even if they are not mentioned, it doesn't mean they are not there. They may not be mentioned much because the Culture regards them as an obsolete technology?82.211.95.178 (talk) 10:41, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Wormholes are explicitly mentioned in the context of Displacers in Excession. 37.14.206.78 (talk) 23:01, 26 January 2021 (UTC)

Dwellers vs Wikipedians
Has anyone else noticed some eerie similarities between the Dweller society and wikipedia?
 * Neither has any real system to motivate people, as in everyone just kind of does what they want in the hope of getting respect from others.
 * Both lack formal power structures. If a job needs doing, someone just does it. (Whether it's blasting ships out of orbit or deleting cruft).
 * Both settle disputes via arcane logistical structures that may or may not accomplish anything :)

hmm... any other ideas?

-- B figura (talk) 04:31, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Both exercise totally effective defense systems.WolfKeeper 05:14, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Both conduct Formal Wars about aesthetic points that usually happen to be moot by the time they're settled. -- B figura (talk) 05:26, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Excellent suggestions. It is of course perfectly possible that Banks has edited Wikipedia. Or at least is conversant with such things. --John 06:10, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Both hold grudges, and sometimes act on them. "Picking a fight with a species as widespread, long-lived, irascible and - when it suited them - single-minded as the Dwellers too often meant that just when - or even geological ages after when - you thought that the dust had long since settled, bygones were bygones and any unfortunate disputes were all ancient history, a small planet appeared without warning in your home system, accompanied by a fleet of moons, themselves surrounded with multitudes of asteroid-sized chunks, each of those riding cocooned in a fuzzy shell made up of untold numbers of decently hefty rocks, every one of them travelling surrounded by a large landslide's worth of still smaller rocks and pebbles, the whole ghastly collection travelling at so close to the speed of light that the amount of warning even an especially wary and observant species would have generally amounted to just about sufficient time to gasp the local equivalent of 'What the fu—?' before they disappeared in an impressive if wasteful blaze of radiation." htom (talk) 19:16, 23 June 2010 (UTC)

Plot introduction
There was this section below at the beginning: Plot introduction

The book largely focuses on the challenges of interacting with intelligences that operates at different timescales than humans. Banks covers common themes in his work, such as cultural activity in post-scarcity societies, identity construction in a post-death society, with a special focus on different forms that intelligence might take and how cultural constructions might evolve in alien societies.

It's full of undefined terms ("post-death society"??) and the parts that are intelligible are either original research or some unnamed person's opinion. And it seems quite unnecessary, so I deleted it. Any revival, please try to address these points. Barsoomian (talk) 16:44, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

 * "Post-death society" makes perfect sense within the context of Banks' SF novels: it's a society where death has become (except in unusual circumstances, or over periods of time far longer than a current human lifespan) optional. The parallel with "post-scarcity" is pretty much exact. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.67.215.114 (talk) 12:11, 31 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Within the context of the novels, yes. Within the context of the article it made no sense at all. Geoff B (talk) 12:58, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

AI and AI wars
Significant in the novel - but I read it a while ago. Anyone with wider knowledge able to add a section in? Regards Springnuts (talk) 18:35, 20 September 2010 (UTC)

Stupidity of the twist
Ah, this might not strike most maintainers of this article as particularly relevant, but I was wondering if there was any reviews which underlined the sheer stupidity of the plot "twist"? Anyone that's taken a first year, extremely basic course in differential equations (enough to solve Poisson's equation) can see from the very first chapter how the resolution is going to play out; it beggars belief that an entire spacefaring civilisation wouldn't come to the same conclusion in about five seconds. Especially with the stupid and unnecessary hint about "water moons". I accept that I might not be the target audience for the book, but it puts a quite different complexion on things when you have to assume every single character is severely mentally impaired. 7daysahead (talk) 12:58, 27 September 2010 (UTC)

 * You absolutely cannot make a statement that starts with "Anyone thats...", then state a *first year university course* as the requirement and retain any credibility.178.15.151.163 (talk) 17:09, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

 * I suspect most readers capable of such thought, thought "I wonder if he's going to ..." and read on, thinking "Yup!" to themselves when he did. That most would think the every single character in the book to be severely mentally impaired, not so much. htom (talk) 22:19, 27 September 2010 (UTC)

bollocks Derekbd (talk) 17:10, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

I could see how the Merc. might disregard the possibility due to "thinking in a box" plus the very significant engineering involved. Banks carefully sets up the Dwellers as appearing to be technologically inept. 1Z (talk) 18:05, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

 * The Mercatoria (and everyone else) don't see the blindingly obvious because it has never occurred to them that a Wormhole might be on a planet. To them, wormholes are things in space so space is where they look for the Dweller network: if the information that they have doesn't seem to indicate that, then they think they are processing it wrongly - as the old cliche goes "there's none so blind as those who won't see".  62.196.17.197 (talk) 14:54, 1 November 2013 (UTC)

Similarities to The Saga of the Seven Suns
I was wondering if there have been any sources commenting on the similarity between the Dwellers and the hydrogues in Kevin Anderson's series. Hidden Empire was published two years before this novel, and it contains many similar aspects. Large spherical ships. Portals at the centers of gas giants. Seems like it would be worth a mention, if there's a reliable source out there. 209.169.104.28 (talk) 14:54, 2 May 2015 (UTC)

"Quick" Vs "Slow" Species
My take from reading the book was that 'quick' species are those which may wipe themselves out within so many millenia (or even '00,000s or some millions of years), and hence 'come and go' with relative speed compared to the billions-year-old Dweller civilization. Hence humans were considered quicks as humans have only been around ~200,000 years. The Dwellers appeared to have no problems living at 'normal' speed, although some of the older Dwellers preferred to live more slowly and Taak etc were able to slow down to accommodate this. Much of the 'action' in the novel does appear to occur within short time frames, and it is explicitly mentioned when Taak slows down to converse with a Dweller. Other time lapses in the book occur due to various short sub-light trips in spacecraft, not due to Dwellers living at below normal speed. I think the following lines from the article are wrong:

"Dweller societies try not to get involved with "Quick" species, those with sentient beings who experience life at around the speed human beings experience it. Dwellers are one of the "Slow" species who experience life at a much slower temporal rate."

59.102.77.142 (talk) 08:07, 12 February 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Algebraist


text:
Alex Prieto

Alejandro Antonio Prieto [pre-ay'-toh] (born June 19, 1976) is a former Venezuelan middle infielder and third baseman in Major League Baseball who played for the Minnesota Twins in part of two seasons spanning 2003–2004. Listed at 5' 10" [1.78 m], 200 lb. [91 k], Prieto batted and threw right-handed. He was born in Caracas.

Career
Prieto was originally signed by the Kansas City Royals as an amateur free agent in 1992 and played in their Minor League system through 2002, when he joined the Twins organization until 2004. After that, he spent six seasons in the minors with several teams, including stints with the Royals, Phillies and Red Sox organizations, retiring in 2010.

Better known for his defensive abilities than for his bat, Prieto hit an average of .209 with one home run and four RBI in 24 games for the Orioles. His most productive season in the minors came in 2001, when he posted a .282/.344/.418 slash line with eight homers and 44 RBI for Triple–A Omaha Golden Spikes.

In between, Prieto played winter ball in the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League during 14 seasons between 1993 and 2009, collecting a .261 average with eight homers and 117 RBI in 482 game appearances.

Following his playing days, Prieto began his coaching career as an infield instructor and evaluator.

title: Alex Prieto


text:
Dentures

Dentures (also known as false teeth) are prosthetic devices constructed to replace missing teeth, supported by the surrounding soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Conventional dentures are removable (removable partial denture or complete denture). However, there are many denture designs, some of which rely on bonding or clasping onto teeth or dental implants (fixed prosthodontics). There are two main categories of dentures, the distinction being whether they fit onto the mandibular arch or on the maxillary arch.

Medical uses
Dentures can help people via:
 * Mastication: chewing ability is improved by the replacement of edentulous (lacking teeth) areas with denture teeth.
 * Aesthetics: the presence of teeth gives a natural appearance to the face, and wearing a denture to replace missing teeth provides support for the lips and cheeks and corrects the collapsed appearance that results from the loss of teeth.
 * Pronunciation: replacing missing teeth, especially the anteriors, enables patients to speak better, enunciating more easily sibilants and fricatives in particular.
 * Self-esteem: improved looks and speech boost confidence in patients' ability to interact socially.

Stomatitis
Denture stomatitis is an inflammatory condition of the skin under the dentures. It can affect both partial and complete denture wearers, and is most commonly seen on the palatal mucosa. Clinically, it appears as simple localized inflammation (Type I), generalized erythema covering the denture-bearing area (Type II) and inflammatory papillary hyperplasia (Type III). People with denture stomatitis are more likely to have angular cheilitis. Denture stomatitis is caused by a mixed infection of Candida albicans (90%) and a number of bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Fusobacterium and Bacteroides species. Acrylic resin is more susceptible for fungal colonization, adherence and proliferation. In poor fitting dentures, these inflammations can be identified and referred to as a common sore of the mouth and are dependent on the severity of the inflammation.

It's crucial to acknowledge that denture stomatitis ranks among the most prevalent conditions affecting denture wearers, affecting approximately 70% of this population. Early recognition of the signs and symptoms of denture stomatitis is vital for prompt treatment. Some of these symptoms include oral white or red patches, sore throat, pain or discomfort when swallowing, or sores in mouth. Common risk factors for denture stomatitis include denture trauma, poor denture hygiene and nocturnal denture wear. Additionally, systemic risk factors such as nutritional deficiencies, immunosuppression, smoking, diabetes, use of steroid inhalers, and xerostomia play a significant role. Therefore, it's important to conduct thorough examinations to detect any underlying systemic diseases.

Precautions denture wearers should take care improving the fit of ill-fitting dentures to eliminate any dental trauma. Stress on the importance of good denture hygiene including cleaning of the denture, soaking the dentures in disinfectant solution and not wearing it during sleeping at night is the key to treating all types of denture stomatitis. Topical application and systemic use of antifungal agents can be used to treat denture stomatitis cases that fail to respond to local conservative measures.

Ulceration
Mouth ulceration is the most common lesion in people with dentures. It can be caused by repetitive minor trauma like poorly fitting dentures including over-extension of a denture. Pressure-indicating paste can be used to check the fitting of dentures. It allows the areas of premature contact to be distinguished from areas of physiologic tissue contact. Therefore, the particular area can be polished with an acrylic bur. Leaching of residual monomer methyl methacrylate from inadequately cured denture acrylic resin material can cause mucosal irritation and hence oral ulceration as well. Patients are advised to use warm salt water mouth rinses and a betamethasone rinse can heal ulcer. Review of persisting oral ulcerations for more than 3 weeks is recommended.

Tooth loss
People can become entirely edentulous for many reasons, the most prevalent being removal due to dental disease, which typically relates to oral flora control, i.e., periodontal disease and tooth decay. Other reasons include pregnancy, tooth developmental defects caused by severe malnutrition, genetic defects such as dentinogenesis imperfecta, trauma, or drug use.

Periodontitis is defined as an inflammatory lesion mediated by host-pathogen interaction that results in the loss of connective tissue fiber attachment to the root surface and ultimately to the alveolar bone. It is the loss of connective tissue to the root surface that leads to teeth falling out. The hormones associated with pregnancy increases the risk of gingivitis and vomiting.

Hormones released during pregnancy softens the cardia muscle ring that keeps food within the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is the acid involved in gastric reflux, also known as morning sickness. This acid, at a pH of 1.5-3.5, coats the enamel on the teeth, mainly affecting the palatal surfaces of the maxillary teeth. Eventually the enamel is softened and easily wears away.

Dental trauma refers to trauma (injury) to the teeth and/or periodontium (gums, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone). Strong force may cause the root of the tooth to completely dislocate from its socket, mild trauma may cause the tooth to chip.

Removable partial dentures
Removable partial dentures are for patients who are missing some of their teeth on a particular arch. Fixed partial dentures, also known as "crown and bridge" dentures, are made from crowns that are fitted on the remaining teeth. They act as abutments and pontics, and are made from materials resembling the missing teeth. Fixed bridges are more expensive than removable appliances but are more stable.

Another option in this category is the flexible partial, which takes advantage of innovations in digital technology. Flexible partial fabrication involves only non-invasive procedures. Dentures can be difficult to clean and can affect oral hygiene.

Complete dentures
Complete dentures are worn by patients who are missing all of the teeth in a single arch—i.e. the maxillary (upper) or mandibular (lower) arch—or, more commonly, in both arches. The full denture is removable because it is held in place by suction. They are painful at first and can take some time to get used to. There are two types of full dentures: immediate dentures and conventional dentures.

Copy dentures
Copy dentures can be made for either partial, but mainly complete denture patients. These dentures require fewer visits to make and usually are made for older patients, patients who would have difficulty adjusting to new dentures, would like a spare pair of dentures or like the aesthetics of their dentures already. This requires taking an impression of the patient's current denture and remaking it.

Materials
Dentures are mainly made from acrylic due to the ease of material manipulation and likeness to intra-oral tissues, i.e. gums. Most dentures are composed of heat-cured acrylic polymethyl methacrylate and rubber-reinforced polymethyl methacrylate. Coloring agents and synthetic fibers are added to obtain the tissue-like shade, and to mimic the small capillaries of the oral mucosa, respectively. However, dentures made from acrylic can be fragile and fracture easily if the patient has trouble adapting neuromuscular control. This can be overcome by reinforcing the denture base with cobalt chromium (Co-Cr). They are often thinner (therefore more comfortable) and stronger (to prevent repeating fractures).

History
As early as the 7th century BC, Etruscans in northern Italy made partial dentures out of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands. The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC.

Wooden full dentures were invented in Japan around the early 16th century. Softened beeswax was inserted into the patient's mouth to create an impression, which was then filled with harder bees wax. Wooden dentures were then meticulously carved based on that model. The earliest of these dentures were entirely wooden, but later versions used natural human teeth or sculpted pagodite, ivory, or animal horn for the teeth. These dentures were built with a broad base, exploiting the principles of adhesion to stay in place. This was an advanced technique for the era; it would not be replicated in the West until the late 18th century. Wooden dentures continued to be used in Japan until the Opening of Japan to the West in the 19th century.

In 1728, Pierre Fauchard described the construction of dentures using a metal frame and teeth sculpted from animal bone. The first porcelain dentures were made around 1770 by Alexis Duchâteau. In 1791, the first British patent was granted to Nicholas Dubois De Chemant, previous assistant to Duchateau, for "De Chemant's Specification": "... a composition for the purpose of making of artificial teeth either single double or in rows or in complete sets, and also springs for fastening or affixing the same in a more easy and effectual manner than any hitherto discovered which said teeth may be made of any shade or colour, which they will retain for any length of time and will consequently more perfectly resemble the natural teeth."

He began selling his wares in 1792, with most of his porcelain paste supplied by Wedgwood.

17th century London's Peter de la Roche is believed to be one of the first 'operators for the teeth', men who advertized themselves as specialists in dental work. They were often professional goldsmiths, ivory turners or students of barber-surgeons.

In 1820, Samuel Stockton, a goldsmith by trade, began manufacturing high-quality porcelain dentures mounted on 18-carat gold plates. Later dentures from the 1850s onwards were made of Vulcanite, a form of hardened rubber into which porcelain teeth were set. In the 20th century, acrylic resin and other plastics were used. In Britain, sequential Adult Dental Health Surveys revealed that in 1968 79% of those aged 65–74 had no natural teeth; by 1998, this proportion had fallen to 36%.

George Washington
George Washington (1732–1799) suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life, and historians have tracked his experiences in great detail. He lost his first adult tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became president. He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood. None of the sets, contrary to popular belief, were made from wood or contained any wood. The set made when he became president were carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs. Prior to these, he had a set made with real human teeth, likely ones he purchased from "several unnamed Negroes, presumably Mount Vernon slaves" in 1784.

Manufacturing
Modern dentures are most often fabricated in a commercial dental laboratory or by a denturist using a combination of tissue shaded powders polymethyl methacrylate acrylic (PMMA). These acrylics are available as heat-cured or cold-cured types. Commercially produced acrylic teeth are widely available in hundreds of shapes and tooth colors.

The process of fabricating a denture usually begins with an initial dental impression of the maxillary and mandibular ridges. Standard impression materials are used during the process. The initial impression is used to create a simple stone model that represents the maxillary and mandibular arches of the patient's mouth. This is not a detailed impression at this stage. Once the initial impression is taken, the stone model is used to create a 'custom impression tray', which is then used to take a second and much more detailed and accurate impression of the patient's maxillary and mandibular ridges. Polyvinyl siloxane impression material is one of several very accurate impression materials used when the final impression is taken of the maxillary and mandibular ridges. A wax rim is fabricated to assist the dentist or denturist in establishing the vertical dimension of occlusion. After this, a bite registration is created to marry the position of one arch to the other.

Once the relative position of each arch to the other is known, the wax rim can be used as a base to place the selected denture teeth in correct position. This arrangement of teeth is tested in the mouth so that adjustments can be made to the occlusion. After the occlusion has been verified by the dentist or denturist and the patient, and all phonetic requirements are met, the denture is processed.

Processing a denture is usually performed using a lost-wax technique whereby the form of the final denture, including the acrylic denture teeth, is invested in stone. This investment is then heated, and when it melts the wax is removed through a spruing channel. The remaining cavity is then either filled by forced injection or pouring in the uncured denture acrylic, which is either a heat-cured or cold-cured type. During the processing period, heat cured acrylics—also called permanent denture acrylics—go through a process called polymerization, causing the acrylic materials to bond very tightly and taking several hours to complete. After a curing period, the stone investment is removed, the acrylic is polished, and the denture is complete. The end result is a denture that looks much more natural, is much stronger and more durable than a cold-cured temporary denture, resists stains and odors, and will last for many years.

Cold-cured or cold-pour dentures, also known as temporary dentures, do not look as natural, are less durable, tend to be highly porous and are only used as a temporary expedient until a more permanent solution is found. These types of dentures tend to cost much less due to their quick production time (usually minutes) and composition of low-cost materials. It is not suggested that a patient wear a cold-cured denture for a long period of time, as they are prone to cracks and can break rather easily.

Support
Support is the principle that describes how well the underlying mucosa (oral tissues, including gums) keeps the denture from moving vertically towards the arch in question during chewing, and thus being excessively depressed and moving deeper into the arch. For the mandibular arch, this function is provided primarily by the buccal shelf, a region extending laterally from the back or posterior ridges, and by the pear-shaped pad (the most posterior area of keratinized gingival formed by the scaling down of the retro-molar papilla after the extraction of the last molar tooth). Secondary support for the complete mandibular denture is provided by the alveolar ridge crest. The maxillary arch receives primary support from the horizontal hard palate and the posterior alveolar ridge crest. The larger the denture flanges (that part of the denture that extends into the vestibule), the better the stability (another parameter to assess fit of a complete denture). Long flanges beyond the functional depth of the sulcus are a common error in denture construction, often (but not always) leading to movement in function, and ulcerations (denture sore spots).

Stability
Stability is the principle that describes how well the denture base is prevented from moving in a horizontal plane, and thus sliding from side to side or front to back. The more the denture base (pink material) is in smooth and continuous contact with the edentulous ridge (the hill upon which the teeth used to reside, but now only residual alveolar bone with overlying mucosa), the better the stability. Of course, the higher and broader the ridge, the better the stability will be, but this is usually a result of patient anatomy, barring surgical intervention (bone grafts, etc.).

Retention
Retention is the principle that describes how well the denture is prevented from moving vertically in the opposite direction of insertion. The better the topographical mimicry of the intaglio (interior) surface of the denture base to the surface of the underlying mucosa, the better the retention will be (in removable partial dentures, the clasps are a major provider of retention), as surface tension, suction and friction will aid in keeping the denture base from breaking intimate contact with the mucosal surface. It is important to note that the most critical element in the retentive design of a maxillary complete denture is a complete and total border seal (complete peripheral seal) in order to achieve 'suction'. The border seal is composed of the edges of the anterior and lateral aspects and the posterior palatal seal. The posterior palatal seal design is accomplished by covering the entire hard palate and extending not beyond the soft palate and ending 1–2 mm from the vibrating line.

Prosthodontists use a scale called the Kapur index to quantify denture stability and retention.

Implant technology can vastly improve the patient's denture-wearing experience by increasing stability and preventing bone from wearing away. Implants can also aid retention. Instead of merely placing the implants to serve as blocking mechanism against the denture's pushing on the alveolar bone, small retentive appliances can be attached to the implants that can then snap into a modified denture base to allow for tremendously increased retention. Available options include a metal "Hader bar" or precision ball attachments.

Fit, maintenance and relining
Generally speaking, partial dentures tend to be held in place by the presence of the remaining natural teeth and complete dentures tend to rely on muscular co-ordination and limited suction to stay in place. The maxilla very commonly has more favorable denture-bearing anatomy, as the ridge tends to be well formed and there is a larger area on the palate for suction to retain the denture. Conversely, the mandible tends to make lower dentures much less retentive due to the displacing presence of the tongue and the higher rate of resorption, frequently leading to significantly resorbed lower ridges. Disto-lingual regions tend to offer retention even in highly resorbed mandibles, and extension of the flange into these regions tends to produce a more retentive lower denture. An implant supported lower denture is another option for improving retention.

Dentures that fit well during the first few years after creation will not necessarily fit well for the rest of the wearer's lifetime. This is because the bone and mucosa of the mouth are living tissues, which are dynamic over decades. Bone remodeling never stops in living bone. Edentulous jaw ridges tend to resorb progressively over the years, especially the alveolar ridge of the lower jaw. Mucosa reacts to being chronically rubbed by the dentures. Poorly fitting dentures hasten both of those processes compared to the rates with well-fitting dentures. Poor fitting dentures may also lead to the development of conditions such as epulis fissuratum. In addition, the occlusion (chewing surfaces of the teeth) tends to wear away over time, which reduces chewing efficacy and decreases the vertical dimension of occlusion (the "openness" of the jaws and mouth).

Costs
In countries where denturism is legally performed by denturists, it is typically a denturist association that publishes the fee guide. In countries where it is performed by dentists, it is typically a dental association that publishes the fee guide. Some governments also provide additional coverage for the purchase of dentures by seniors. Typically, only standard low-cost dentures are covered by insurance and because many individuals would prefer to have a premium cosmetic denture or a premium precision denture they rely on consumer dental patient financing options.

A low-cost denture starts at about $300–$500 per denture, or $600–$1,000 for a complete set of upper and lower dentures. These tend to be cold-cured dentures, which are considered temporary because of the lower quality materials and streamlined processing methods used in their manufacture. In many cases, there is no opportunity to try them on for fit before they are finished. They also tend to look artificial and not as natural as higher quality, higher priced dentures.

A mid-priced (and better quality) heat-cured denture typically costs $500–$1,500 per denture, or $1,000–$3,000 for a complete set. The teeth look much more natural and are much longer-lasting than cold-cured or temporary dentures. In many cases, they may be tried out before they are finished to ensure that all the teeth occlude (meet) properly and look esthetically pleasing. These usually come with a 90-day to two-year warranty and in some cases a money-back guarantee if the customer is not satisfied. In some cases, the cost of subsequent adjustments to the dentures is included.

Premium heat-cured dentures can cost $2,000–$4,000 per denture, or $4,000–$8,000 or more for a set. Dentures in this price range are usually completely customized and personalized, use high-end materials to simulate the lifelike look of gums and teeth as closely as possible, last a long time and are warrantied against chipping and cracking for 5–10 years or longer. Often the price includes several follow-up visits to fine-tune the fit.

In the United Kingdom, as of 13 March 2018, an NHS patient must pay £244.30 for a denture to be made. This is a flat rate and no additional charges may be made regarding material used or appointments needed. Privately, the cost can lie upwards of £300.

Care
Daily cleaning of dentures is recommended. Plaque and tartar can build up on false teeth, just as they do on natural teeth. Cleaning can be done using chemical or mechanical denture cleaners. Dentures should not be worn continuously, but rather taken out of the mouth during sleep. This is to give the tissues a chance to recover: wearing dentures at night is likened to sleeping in shoes. The main risk is the development of fungal infections, especially denture-related stomatitis. Dentures should also be removed while smoking, as the heat can damage the denture acrylic, and overheated acrylic can burn the soft tissues.

Deposits such as microbial plaque, calculus and food debris can accumulate on the dentures, which may lead to issues such as angular stomatitis, denture stomatitis, undesirable odors and tastes as well as staining. These deposits can also quicken the degradation of some of the denture materials. Due to the presence of these deposits, there is an increased risk of the denture wearer and other people around them developing a systemic disease by organisms such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), but research shows that denture cleaners are effective against MRSA. Therefore, denture cleaning is imperative for the overall health of the denture wearers as well as for the health of people they come into contact with.

Brushing
After receiving dentures, the patient should brush them often with soap, water and a soft nylon toothbrush which has a small head, as this will enable the brush to reach into all the areas of the denture surface. The bristles must be soft in order for them to easily conform to the contours of the dentures for adequate cleaning: stiff bristles will not conform well and are likely to cause abrasion of the denture acrylic resin. If a patient finds it difficult to utilize a toothbrush, e.g. a patient with arthritis, a brush with easy-grip modifications may be used.

Disclosing solutions can be used at home to make less obvious plaque deposits more visible to ensure thorough cleaning of plaque. Food dyes can be utilized as a disclosing solution when used correctly.

Instead of brushing their dentures with soap and water, patients can use pastes designed for dentures or conventional toothpaste to clean their dentures. However, the American Dental Association advises against using toothpaste as it can be too harsh for cleaning dentures.

Immersion
Patients should combine the brushing of their dentures with soaking them in an immersion cleaner from time to time as this combined cleaning strategy has been shown to control denture plaque. Due to microbial invasion, the lack of use of immersion cleaners and inadequate denture plaque control will cause rapid deterioration of the soft linings of the denture.

Cleansers and methods
Liquid cleansers that dentures can be immersed in include: bleaches e.g. sodium hypochlorite; effervescent solutions e.g. alkaline peroxides, perborates and persulfates; acid cleaners.

Sodium hypochlorite cleansers
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) cleansers have a disinfectant action and remove non-viable organisms and other deposits from the surface, but they are weak for eliminating calculus from the denture surface. Immersing dentures in a hypochlorite solution for more than 6 hours occasionally will eliminate plaque and staining. Furthermore, as microbial invasion is prevented, the deterioration of the soft lining material does not occur. Corrosion of cobalt chromium has occurred when hypochlorite cleansers have been used, and they may also result in the fading of the acrylic and silicone lining, but the softness or elastically of the linings are not greatly changed.

Effervescent cleansers
Effervescent cleansers are the most popular immersion cleansers and include alkaline peroxides, perborates and persulfates. Their cleansing action occurs by the formation of small bubbles which displace loosely-attached material from the surface of the denture. They are not very effective as cleansers and have a restricted ability to eliminate microbial plaque. Moreover, they are safe for use and do not cause deterioration of the acrylic resin or the metals used in denture construction. Despite this, they are able to cause rapid damage to some short-term soft lining. Discoloration of the acrylic resin to a white denture often occurs; however, this can be due to the use of very hot water with cleaning agents against manufacturer instructions.

Acid cleansers
Sulfamic acid is a type of acid cleanser that is used to prevent the formation of calculus on dentures. Sulfamic acid has a very good compatibility with many denture materials, including the metals used in denture construction. 5% hydrochloric acid is another type of acid cleanser. In this case, the denture is immersed in the hydrochloric cleanser to soften the calculus so that it can be brushed away. The acid can cause damage to clothes if accidentally spilt, and can cause corrosion of cobalt-chromium or stainless steel if immersed in the acid often and for long periods of time.

Other denture cleaning methods
Other denture cleaning methods include enzymes, ultrasonic cleansers and microwave exposure. A Cochrane Review found that there is weak evidence to support soaking dentures in effervescent tablets or in enzymatic solutions, and while the most effective method for eliminating plaque is not clear, the review shows that brushing with paste eliminates microbial plaque better than inactive methods. There is a need for studies to provide reports about the cost of materials and the negative effects that may be associated with their use, as these factors could affect the acceptability of such materials by patients which will in turn affect their effectiveness in a daily setting in the long term. Putting dentures into a dishwasher overnight can be a useful shortcut when away from home. Additionally, further studies comparing the different methods of cleaning dentures are needed.

Broken dentures
Dentures sometimes break, often during eating or when dropped during cleaning. A repair or replacement should be sought as soon as possible to restore function and aesthetics; the continued wearing of a broken denture results in unnecessary intra-oral tissue irritation, which may result in an increased risk of infection and other pathologies including malignancies.

title: Dentures


text:
Berkshire (disambiguation)

Berkshire is a county in England.

Berkshire may also refer to:

 * Berkshire (UK Parliament constituency) (1265–1885)
 * Earl of Berkshire, an Earldom based on the county
 * As "The Berkshires," the Royal Berkshire Regiment

Other places

 * Berkshire Lunatic Asylum (aka Berkshire Mental Hospital), England, UK

Places in the United States

 * The Berkshires, or Berkshire Mountains, a mountain range and high tourism area in Massachusetts
 * Berkshire, Connecticut, an unincorporated community in Fairfield County located in the foothills of the Berkshire Mountains
 * Berkshire, New York
 * Berkshire, Ohio
 * Berkshire, Vermont
 * Berkshire County, Massachusetts
 * Berkshire Township, Ohio

Other people

 * John Berkshire (1832–1891), Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court

Vehicles and transportation

 * Berkshire Concept 70, a competition glider designed and built in the 1970s in New Jersey
 * Berkshire Flyer, present day seasonal Amtrak passenger train to Pittsfield
 * Berkshire Hills Express, former New York Central passenger train to the Berkshires
 * Berkshire locomotive, a railroad steam locomotive type; in the Whyte notation, it is a 2-8-4 type
 * Berkshire (NH train), former New Haven Railroad passenger train to the Berkshires

Groups, organizations, companies

 * Berkshire Hathaway, an American investment and holding company
 * Berkshire Publishing Group, a publisher of academic and educational books

Other meanings

 * Berkshire (soil), soil type
 * Berkshire pig, a breed of domestic pig from the English county
 * Berkshire Cottages, homes built in the Berkshires during the Gilded Age

title: Berkshire (disambiguation)


text:
Roca

Roca or ROCA may refer to:

Places

 * Roca (archaeological site), an archaeological site in Salento, Italy
 * Roca, Nebraska, a village in Nebraska, USA
 * Cabo da Roca

People

 * Alain Roca (born 1976), Cuban volleyball player
 * Blas Roca (1908–1987), Cuban politician
 * Joan Roca i Caball (1898-1976), Catalan politician
 * Joan Roca i Fontané (b. 1964), Catalan gourmet chef
 * Jordi Roca i Fontané (b. 1978), Catalan gourmet chef
 * Josep Roca i Fontané (b. 1966), Catalan sommelier
 * Julio Argentino Roca (1843–1914), Argentine president
 * Vladimiro Roca (1942–2023), Cuban dissident

Businesses and organizations

 * Roca (company), a Spanish multinational producer of sanitary products
 * Republic of China Army
 * Rockland Center for the Arts, West Nyack, NY
 * Royal Observer Corps Association, an association of former ROC members in the UK
 * Russian Orthodox Church Abroad

Other uses

 * Almond Roca, brand of toffee made by Brown and Haley
 * Roca Formation (disambiguation), geologic units of that name
 * Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area
 * Risk of Ovarian Cancer Algorithm, an unproven ovarian cancer screening test
 * Roca Skolia, a fictional character from Catherine Asaro's Saga of the Skolian Empire
 * ROCA vulnerability, a cryptographic vulnerability
 * ROCA (Web programming), a web development architectural style for front-end applications.

title: Roca