text:
Naum Gabo

Naum Gabo,  born Naum Neemia Pevsner (Russian: Наум Борисович Певзнер, Hebrew: נחום נחמיה פבזנר) (5 August 1890 – 23 August 1977) was an influential sculptor, theorist, and key figure in Russia's post-Revolution avant-garde and the subsequent development of twentieth-century sculpture. His work combined geometric abstraction with a dynamic organization of form in small reliefs and constructions, monumental public sculpture and pioneering kinetic works that assimilated new materials such as nylon, wire, lucite and semi-transparent materials, glass and metal. Responding to the scientific and political revolutions of his age, Gabo led an eventful and peripatetic life, moving to Berlin, Paris, Oslo, Moscow, London, and finally the United States, and within the circles of the major avant-garde movements of the day, including Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, the Bauhaus, de Stijl and the Abstraction-Création group. Two preoccupations, unique to Gabo, were his interest in representing negative space—"released from any closed volume" or mass—and time. He famously explored the former idea in his Linear Construction works (1942-1971)—used nylon filament to create voids or interior spaces as "concrete" as the elements of solid mass—and the latter in his pioneering work, Kinetic Sculpture (Standing Waves) (1920), often considered the first kinetic work of art.

Gabo elaborated many of his ideas in the Constructivist Realistic Manifesto, which he issued with his brother, sculptor Antoine Pevsner as a handbill accompanying their 1920 open-air exhibition in Moscow. In it, he sought to move past Cubism and Futurism, renouncing what he saw as the static, decorative use of color, line, volume and solid mass in favor of a new element he called "the kinetic rhythms (…) the basic forms of our perception of real time." Gabo held a utopian belief in the power of sculpture—specifically abstract, Constructivist sculpture—to express human experience and spirituality in tune with modernity, social progress, and advances in science and technology. After working on a smaller scale in England during the war years (1936-1946), Gabo moved to the United States, where he received several public sculpture commissions, only some of which he completed. These include Constructie, a 25 m commemorative monument in front of the Bijenkorf Department Store (1954, unveiled in 1957) in Rotterdam, and Revolving Torsion, a large fountain outside St Thomas' Hospital in London. The Tate Gallery, in Millbank, London, held a major retrospective of Gabo's work in 1966 and holds many key works in its collection, as do the Museum of Modern Art and Guggenheim Museum in New York. Work by Gabo is also included at Rockefeller Center in New York City and The Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection in Albany, New York, US.

Early life and education
Gabo grew up in a Jewish family of six children in the provincial Russian town of Bryansk, where his father, Boris (Berko) Pevsner, worked as an engineer. Gabo's older brother was the fellow Constructivist artist Antoine Pevsner, leading Gabo to change his name to avoid any confusion. He was fluent in German, French, and English, in addition to his native Russian. The command of several languages contributed greatly to Gabo's mobility throughout his career.

In 1910, after schooling in Kursk, Gabo entered Munich University to study medicine. He then switched to natural science, as well as having attended art history lectures by the historian Heinrich Wölfflin. In 1912, Gabo transferred to an engineering school in Munich, where he discovered abstract art and met the noted painter Wassily Kandinsky. A year later, Gabo moved to Paris to join Antoine, who was already established as a painter. Engineering training was key to the development of Gabo's sculptural work that often integrated machined elements. During this time, he was highly acclaimed by many critics and won awards such as the Logan Medal of the Arts (1954) and the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts (1959).

Constructivism
After the outbreak of war, Gabo moved first to Copenhagen then Oslo with his older brother Alexei, making his first constructions under the name Naum Gabo in 1915. These earliest constructions originally in cardboard or wood were figurative such as the Head No.2 in the Tate collection. He moved back to Russia in 1917, to become involved in politics and art, spending five years in Moscow with his brother Antoine.

Gabo contributed to the Agit-prop open air exhibitions and taught at 'VKhUTEMAS' the Higher Art and Technical Workshop, with Tatlin, Kandinsky and Rodchenko. During this period the reliefs and construction became more geometric and Gabo began to experiment with kinetic sculpture though the majority of the work was lost or destroyed. Gabo's designs had become increasingly monumental but there was little opportunity to apply them; as he commented, "It was the height of civil war, hunger and disorder in Russia. To find any part of machinery … was next to impossible". Gabo wrote and issued jointly with Antoine Pevsner in August 1920 a "Realistic Manifesto" proclaiming the tenets of pure Constructivism – the first time that the term was used. In the manifesto Gabo criticized Cubism and Futurism as not becoming fully abstract arts and stated that the spiritual experience was the root of artistic production. Gabo and Pevsner promoted the manifesto by staging an exhibition on a bandstand on Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow and posted the manifesto on hoardings around the city.

In Germany Gabo came into contact with the artists of the de Stijl and taught at the Bauhaus in 1928. During this period he realised a design for a fountain in Dresden (since destroyed). Gabo and Antoine Pevsner had a joint exhibition at the Galerie Percier, Paris in 1924 and the pair designed the set and costumes for Diaghilev's ballet La Chatte (1926) for the Ballets Russes that toured in Paris and London. To escape the rise of the Nazis in Germany the pair stayed in Paris in 1932–35 as members of the Abstraction-Creation group with Piet Mondrian.

Gabo visited London in 1935, and settled in 1936, where he found a "spirit of optimism and sympathy for his position as an abstract artist". At the outbreak of World War II he followed his friends Barbara Hepworth and Ben Nicholson to St Ives in Cornwall, where he stayed initially with the art critic Adrian Stokes and his wife Margaret Mellis. While in Cornwall he continued to work, albeit on a smaller scale. His influence was important to the development of modernism within St Ives, and it can be seen most conspicuously in the paintings and constructions of John Wells and Peter Lanyon, both of whom developed a softer more pastoral form of Constructivism.

In 1946, Gabo and his wife and daughter emigrated to Connecticut in the United States, where they resided first in Woodbury, and later in Middlebury. Gabo died in Waterbury, in 1977 and his wife in 1993.

Gabo's theory of art
The essence of Gabo's art was the exploration of space, which he believed could be done without having to depict mass. His earliest constructions such as Head No.2 were formal experiments in depicting the volume of a figure without carrying its mass. Gabo's other concern as described in the Realistic Manifesto was that art needed to exist actively in four dimensions including time.

Gabo's formative years were in Munich, where he was inspired by and actively participated in the artistic, scientific, and philosophical debates of the early years of the 20th century. Because of his involvement in these intellectual debates, Gabo became a leading figure in Moscow’s avant garde, in post-Revolution Russia. It was in Munich that Gabo attended the lectures of art historian Heinrich Wölfflin and gained knowledge of the ideas of Einstein and his fellow innovators of scientific theory, as well as the philosopher Henri Bergson. As a student of medicine, natural science and engineering, his understanding of the order present in the natural world mystically links all creation in the universe. Just before the onset of the First World War in 1914, Gabo discovered contemporary art, by reading Kandinsky’s Concerning the Spiritual in Art, which asserted the principles of abstract art.

Gabo’s vision is imaginative and passionate. Over the years his exhibitions have generated immense enthusiasm because of the emotional power present in his sculpture. Gabo described himself as "making images to communicate my feelings of the world." In his work, Gabo used time and space as construction elements and in them solid matter unfolds and becomes beautifully surreal and otherworldly. His sculptures initiate a connection between what is tangible and intangible, between what is simplistic in its reality and the unlimited possibilities of intuitive imagination. Imaginative as Gabo was, his practicality lent itself to the conception and production of his works. He devised systems of construction which were not only used for his elegantly elaborate sculptures but were viable for architecture as well. He was also innovative in his works, using a wide variety of materials including the earliest plastics, fishing line, bronze, sheets of Perspex, and boulders. He sometimes even used motors to move the sculpture.

Caroline Collier, an authority on Gabo’s work, said, "The real stuff of Gabo’s art is not his physical materials, but his perception of space, time and movement. In the calmness at the ‘still centre’ of even his smallest works, we sense the vastness of space, the enormity of his conception, time as continuous growth." In fact, the element of movement in Gabo’s sculpture is connected to a strong rhythm, more implicit and deeper than the chaotic patterns of life itself. The exactness of form leads the viewer to imagine journeying into, through, over and around his sculptures.

Gabo wrote his Realistic Manifesto, in which he ascribed his philosophy for his constructive art and his joy at the opportunities opened up by the Russian Revolution. Gabo saw the Revolution as the beginning of a renewal of human values. Five thousand copies of the manifesto tract were displayed in Moscow streets in 1920.

Gabo had lived through a revolution and two world wars; he was also Jewish and had fled Nazi Germany. Gabo’s acute awareness of turmoil sought out solace in the peacefulness that was so fully realized in his “ideal” art forms. It was in his sculpture that he evaded all the chaos, violence, and despair he had survived. Gabo chose to look past all that was dark in his life, creating sculptures that though fragile are balanced so as to give us a sense of the constructions delicately holding turmoil at bay.

Printmaking
Gabo began printmaking in 1950, when he was persuaded to try out the medium by William Ivins, a former curator of prints at the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art, New York. His first print was a wood engraving in a section of wood taken from a piece of furniture and printed onto a piece of toilet paper. He went on to produce a significant and varied body of graphic work, including much more elaborate and lyrical compositions, until his death in 1977.

Rejecting the traditional notion that prints should be made in editions of identical impressions, Gabo instead preferred to use the monoprint format as a vehicle for artistic experimentation.

Art conservation challenges
Gabo pioneered the use of plastics, such as cellulose acetate, in his sculptures. The Tate Gallery in London, which has the world's largest collection of his early works, is battling their chemical degradation. They have commissioned replicas of some sculptures to preserve a visual record of their appearances.

Writings

 * Of Divers Arts (1962). New York: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-05231-8

title: Naum Gabo


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User:Andrewa/probably not famous people

''Copied from [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Wikipedia:Probably_not_famous_people&oldid=3111241! this history] to here to archive and perhaps revive someday. Many things to fix following copy and paste. Andrewa 21:17, 12 May 2004 (UTC)''

''This page is a proposal only, and has so far received only negative feedback. So it needs more work and/or discussion before it should be used. See the talk page. Andrewa 01:39, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)''

Pages describing people who are alleged to be not famous link here. What does this mean? Just read on!

Wikipedia contains articles on people who are famous for many different reasons. But in order for someone to be the subject of an article in Wikipedia, only two things need to have happened:
 * 1) Someone has written the article.
 * 2) There has been no consensus to delete it, at least not yet.

That's all. So from time to time Wikipedia contains articles on people who are not famous at all. Most commonly these are articles written by the subjects themselves. There are several reasons they do this:
 * To promote a career in music or other forms of entertainment.
 * To help to create an identity, perhaps to support fraud.
 * Because of delusions that they are famous, which may be mere eccentricity or may be a sign of mental illness.
 * Because they haven't yet read or understood what Wikipedia is not.

Any one of these is sufficient on its own, but often it is a combination of two or more, or even all of them. And there are other reasons too, but these are the main ones.

Wikipedia discourages people (however famous they may be) from contributing articles about themselves. Genuinely famous people will have others wanting to write about them. However, it's very hard to police this, especially as we are very happy to have genuinely famous people update existing articles about themselves.

Less commonly, these articles may be written by other people, again for various reasons, some of them more innocent than others.

Wikipedia practices a limited amount of tolerance towards these articles, whoever writes them. Exactly how much tolerance is good is the subject of a vigorous and ongoing (and possibly never-ending) debate. Some challenges these articles present are:
 * Some people create multiple websites and userids in order to give a false impression of fame. They may write unfavourable as well as favourable reviews of their privately published or non-existent work. (Genuinely famous people are most unlikely to find the time for such things, of course.) While we have methods of identifying these, they are time-consuming and fallible.
 * The definition of exactly who is famous is problematic, and as Wikipedia is not paper there is no reason to delete genuinely borderline cases.
 * Some borderline cases are people who are not yet famous but will be soon, and it is impossible to predict who these are.

Articles which link to this page are ones that someone has suggested are about a person who does not really qualify for a Wikipedia article. But again, this is no guarantee that the subject of the article in question is not famous. It just means that someone thinks they are not and wants to warn you to consider this carefully. Whoever this is should have put their reasons in the article's talk page, which is accessible through the Discuss this page link at the bottom of the article in question.

The suggested text for linking to this page is:

''It has been suggested that this article is about someone who is not famous. You should exercise caution in relying on this information.''

which is produced by:

''It has been suggested that this article is about someone who is not famous. You should exercise caution in relying on this information.''

As yet there is no Wikipedia approval mechanism. Whether there should be, and what form it should take if so, is also the subject of ongoing discussion.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Andrewa/probably not famous people


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User talk:Psi36

Hi psi36, thanks for your message on my talk page about the Technics SL-1200 article. I have done a little more work on it since yesterday. David Thrale 21:19, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

Breakcore Gives Me Wood
I deleted the initial article for having no assertion of notability. It basically said it was a bunch of guys who threw some parties. The new stub is slightly better, and shouldn't be speedied, though I can't promise it will meet encyclopedic standards to esacpe an AfD. I have no opinion at the moment. -R. fiend 15:55, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Username change
Your request has been fulfilled. Regards — Dan | talk 00:27, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

The Gigglin Dildas
The guideline for inclusion of bands in Wikipedia are WP:MUSIC, and the article didn't make any assertion to meet them. To be fair, I will not deleted it again, but I suspect that, unless the article is added some more notability assertion, someone else will deleted it. Regarding the Google test, I'd add that 7 hits are really too low (some people would set a notability bar at 300 or more). However, the Google test is only one way to establish notability. Take a look at WP:MUSIC, and see if there is some other criteria this band meets. Regards. - Liberatore(T) 14:41, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

FFF (artist)
A tag has been placed on FFF (artist), requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done because the article seems to be about a person, group of people, band, club, company, or web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable, that is, why an article about that subject should be included in Wikipedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not assert notability may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, and if you can indicate why the subject of this article is notable, you may contest the tagging. To do this, add  on the top of the page (below the existing db tag) and leave a note on the article's talk page explaining your position. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would confirm its subject's notability under the guidelines.

For guidelines on specific types of articles, you may want to check out our criteria for biographies, for web sites, for bands, or for companies. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. Mhking 12:08, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I only nominated the article for a speedy delete, as I felt it did not meet WP:MUSIC. The admin who actually did the deleting should have read the talk page and governed him/herself accordingly. Conversely, if the article had been deleted previously (had it? I'm not certain) and reposted, there may have been some issue there. --Mhking 18:14, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

 * As far as I know, it will need to have some empirical sources in English that can be referenced in order to provide notability. I would strongly suggest you bring this up on the talk page of WP:MUSIC. Many people who have hammered together the guidelines keep an eye on that page, and discuss related issues there. I'm sure this is something that they may be able to come with a solution for. --Mhking 18:34, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Breakcore Gives Me Wood logo.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Breakcore Gives Me Wood logo.gif. You've indicated that the image meets Wikipedia's criteria for non-free content, but there is no explanation of why it meets those criteria. Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. If you have any questions, please post them at Media copyright questions.

Thank you for your cooperation. NOTE: once you correct this, please remove the tag from the image's page. STBotI (talk) 14:28, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:Clash Records logo.gif)
Thanks for uploading Image:Clash Records logo.gif. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

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Articles for deletion nomination of Chevron (artist)
I have nominated Chevron (artist), an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Chevron (artist). Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Kittybrewster  ☎  17:27, 25 January 2010 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of DJ Scud
A tag has been placed on DJ Scud requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a person or group of people, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, as well as our subject-specific notability guideline for biographies. You may also wish to consider using a Wizard to help you create articles - see the Article Wizard.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the page that has been nominated for deletion (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag - if no such tag exists then the page is no longer a speedy delete candidate and adding a hangon tag is unnecessary), coupled with adding a note on the talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the page meets the criterion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the page that would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Lastly, please note that if the page does get deleted, you can contact one of these admins to request that they userfy the page or have a copy emailed to you. Codf1977 (talk) 08:53, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of DJ Scud

The article DJ Scud has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Non-notable person - No indication how this DJ meets WP:MUSIC or WP:GNG

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

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Speedy deletion nomination of Patric Catani

A tag has been placed on Patric Catani requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a band or musician, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding to the top of the page that has been nominated for deletion (just below the existing speedy deletion, or "db", tag; if no such tag exists, then the page is no longer a speedy delete candidate and adding a hang-on tag is unnecessary), coupled with adding a note on the talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the page meets the criterion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the page that would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, you can contact one of these administrators to request that the administrator userfy the page or email a copy to you. -- Gnowor TC 16:16, 17 December 2010 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Breakcore Gives Me Wood

The article Breakcore Gives Me Wood has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Could not find any significant third-party coverage to establish the notability of this record label, and so fails WP:CORP, WP:GNG, and WP:N at the very least.

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Speedy deletion nomination of DJ Scud

A tag has been placed on DJ Scud requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a band or musician, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

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Speedy deletion nomination of Widerstand Records

A tag has been placed on Widerstand Records requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about an organization or company, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

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Nomination of Eiterherd for deletion
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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Nomination of Knifehandchop for deletion
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Nomination of Clash Records for deletion
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title: User talk:Psi36


text:
State bird

A state bird is the insignia of a nation or a state (sub-national entity).

For lists of these animals, see:
 * List of national birds, national birds on country level
 * List of Australian bird emblems, for the Australian states
 * List of Indian state birds, for the Indian states
 * List of U.S. state birds, for the U.S. states

"State bird" may also refer to:
 * State Bird Provisions, a restaurant in San Francisco, California.

title: State bird


text:
Klagenfurt Airport

Klagenfurt Airport (Flughafen Klagenfurt ) is a primary international airport near Klagenfurt, the sixth-largest city in Austria. The operator calls it Airport Klagenfurt in English. It is located in the borough of Annabichl, 1.5 NM north-north-east of the city centre.

Early years
In 1905, Georg Count of Khevenhüller from Hochosterwitz Castle and in 1907 Dipl.-Ing. Joseph Sablatnig (Joseph Sablatnig was owner of the Fokker-Sablatnig, Deutsche Flugzeuge, Deutsche Motoren, Flugzeug Gesellschaft mbH, Berlin) were the first men in the sky over Carinthia and Klagenfurt.

In World War I and II, the airport of Klagenfurt was operated as a military airfield, and indeed Klagenfurt Airport was founded in 1914 as a military airport. The civil opening of Klagenfurt Airport on 17 May 1925, was an event for the City of Klagenfurt as well as for Carinthia. In June 1929, the pilot hero of World War I, Julius Fedrigoni Edler von Etschthal, has the function of flight director of the airport until 1939. After the end of World War II, Julius Fedrigoni was returned to Annabichl, he worked with low-budget flight operations. On 1 January 1952, Korv. Kpt. Julius Fedrigoni founded the Committee city of Klagenfurt and he was flight director until 1956.

From 1926 to 1938, seven airlines operated from Klagenfurt Airport. Countries like Germany, Italy, Yugoslavia and of course domestic flights to all major cities in Austria were connected with Klagenfurt.

Reduction of operations
In the spring of 2014, the airport's home carrier, Austrian Airlines, announced the closure of their ticketing and service counters at Klagenfurt Airport due to decreasing demand. Services were instead to be provided directly at the check-in counters. In April 2015, Austrian Airlines also announced that a closure of their domestic route to Vienna was under consideration within the next few years based on economic reasons. In the same year, the state government announced plans to partly sell its stakes in the airport to private investors.

As the airport suffered from a major decrease of passenger numbers in recent years, it was suggested by the management to establish major logistics and cargo operators here, which might be supported by the freight shipment operations handled at the relatively closely located harbours of the Adriatic Sea. The airport already features road and rail connections. However, Austrian Airlines stated later that the airport would not work for cargo operations due to noise complaints and the night curfew.

In October 2015, the Austrian Air Force announced it would end all operations and close its helicopter base at Klagenfurt Airport by the end of 2015.

Developments since 2020
In August 2020, Ryanair announced plans to leave the airport and terminate their route to Palma de Mallorca Airport, which had been operated as a wetlease by Lauda. However, Ryanair returned with four destinations in 2023.

In 2022, the airport's then majority owner, Lilihill Group, announced the creation of a new regional airline based in Klagenfurt, Liliair. With a proposed launch in April 2023, the carrier was supposed to expand the airport's connection with major European destinations. However the announced flights were not open for booking for any date on or before the day of the launch and no operating carrier had been confirmed. Previously there was ongoing controversy between Lilihill and the state of Carinthia, which proposed to buy back the airport, leaving the Liliair project in doubt. In April 2023, Lilihill Group announced that a Liliair home base in Klagenfurt has become unlikely due to the ongoing dispute. In May 2023, the city of Klagenfurt and the state of Carinthia announced to execute a buy-back option and re-acquired the majority ownership of the airport after longstanding debate.

Facilities
Klagenfurt Airport consists of one small passenger terminal building which features some shops and restaurants as well as a visitors terrace. The apron provides several stands for mid-sized planes such as the Airbus A320 as well as smaller general aviation aircraft. As there are no jet bridges, buses are used for boarding.

Airlines and destinations
The following airlines offer year-round and seasonal scheduled and charter flights at Klagenfurt Airport:

The nearest larger international airport is Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport in Slovenia, approximately 70 km to the south.

Train
The train station "Klagenfurt-Annabichl" is a 5–10 minutes (750 meters) walk from the terminal and offers suburban rail services every half-hour to St.Veit (and beyond), to Klagenfurt main station, to the villages along Lake Wörthersee, and to Villach (and beyond).

Road
The airport has its own exit named Klagenfurt Flughafen on the nearby motorway A2, which leads to Vienna and Italy. A regular suburban bus service connects the airport with the city centre including the Klagenfurt central station. There is also a coach connection between Klagenfurt Airport and Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport, which is served several times a day.

title: Klagenfurt Airport


text:
Aztec Code

The Aztec Code is a matrix code invented by Andrew Longacre, Jr. and Robert Hussey in 1995. The code was published by AIM, Inc. in 1997. Although the Aztec Code was patented, that patent was officially made public domain. The Aztec Code is also published as ISO/IEC 24778:2008 standard. Named after the resemblance of the central finder pattern to an Aztec pyramid, Aztec Code has the potential to use less space than other matrix barcodes because it does not require a surrounding blank "quiet zone".

Structure
The symbol is built on a square grid with a bull's-eye pattern at its centre for locating the code. Data is encoded in concentric square rings around the bull's-eye pattern. The central bull's-eye is 9×9 or 13×13 pixels, and one row of pixels around that encodes basic coding parameters, producing a "core" of 11×11 or 15×15 squares. Data is added in "layers", each one containing two rings of pixels, giving total sizes of 15×15, 19×19, 23×23, etc.

The corners of the core include orientation marks, allowing the code to be read if rotated or reflected. Decoding begins at the corner with three black pixels, and proceeds clockwise to the corners with two, one, and zero black pixels. The variable pixels in the central core encode the size, so it is not necessary to mark the boundary of the code with a blank "quiet zone", although some barcode readers require one.

The compact Aztec code core may be surrounded by 1 to 4 layers, producing symbols from 15×15 (room for 13 digits or 12 letters) through 27×27. There is additionally a special 11×11 "rune" that encodes one byte of information. The full core supports up to 32 layers, 151×151 pixels, which can encode 3832 digits, 3067 letters, or 1914 bytes of data.

Whatever part of the symbol is not used for the basic data is used for Reed–Solomon error correction, and the split is completely configurable, between limits of 1 data word, and 3 check words. The recommended number of check words is 23% of symbol capacity plus 3 codewords.

Aztec Code is supposed to produce readable codes with various printer technologies. It is also well suited for displays of cell phones and other mobile devices.

Encoding
The encoding process consists of the following steps:
 * 1) Converting the source message to a string of bits
 * 2) Computing the necessary symbol size and mode message, which determines the Reed–Solomon codeword size
 * 3) Bit-stuffing the message into Reed–Solomon codewords
 * 4) Padding the message to a codeword boundary
 * 5) Appending check codewords
 * 6) Arranging the complete message in a spiral around the core

All conversion between bits strings and other forms is performed according to the big-endian (most significant bit first) convention.

Character set
All 8-bit values can be encoded, plus two escape codes:
 * FNC1, an escape symbol used to mark the presence of an application identifier, in the same way as in the GS1-128 standard.
 * ECI, an escape followed by a 6-digit Extended Channel Interpretation code, which specifies the character set used to interpret the following bytes.

By default, codes 0–127 are interpreted according to ANSI X3.4 (ASCII), and 128–255 are interpreted according to ISO/IEC 8859-1: Latin Alphabet No. 1. This corresponds to ECI 000003.

Bytes are translated into 4- and 5-bit codes, based on a current decoding mode, with shift and latch codes for changing modes. Byte values not available this way may be encoded using a general "binary shift" code, which is followed by a length and a number of 8-bit codes.

For changing modes, a shift affects only the interpretation of the single following code, while a latch affects all following codes. Most modes use 5-bit codes, but Digit mode uses 4-bit codes.

 * Initial mode is "Upper"
 * x/S = Shift to mode x for one character; B/S = shift to 8-bit binary
 * x/L = Latch to mode x for following characters
 * Punct codes 2–5 encode two bytes each
 * The table lists ASCII characters, but it is the byte values that are encoded, even if a non-ASCII character set is in use

B/S (binary shift) is followed by a 5-bit length. If non-zero, this indicates that 1–31 8-bit bytes follow. If zero, 11 additional length bits encode the number of following bytes less 31. (Note that for 32–62 bytes, two 5-bit byte shift sequences are more compact than one 11-bit.) At the end of the binary sequence, the previous mode is resumed.

FLG(n) is followed by a 3-bit n value. n=0 encodes FNC1. n=1–6 is followed by 1–6 digits (in digit mode) which are zero-padded to make a 6-bit ECI identifier. n=7 is reserved and currently illegal.

Mode message
The mode message encodes the number of layers (L layers encoded as the integer L−1), and the number of data codewords (D codewords, encoded as the integer D−1) in the message. All remaining codewords are used as check codewords.

For compact Aztec codes, the number of layers is encoded as a 2-bit value, and the number of data codewords as a 6-bit value, resulting in an 8-bit mode word. For full Aztec codes, the number of layers is encoded in 5 bits, and the number of data codewords is encoded in 11 bits, making a 16-bit mode word.

The mode word is broken into 2 or 4 4-bit codewords in GF(16), and 5 or 6 Reed–Solomon check words are appended, making a 28- or 40-bit mode message, which is wrapped in a 1-pixel layer around the core.

Because an L+1-layer compact Aztec code can hold more data than an L-layer full code, full codes with less than 4 layers are rarely used.

Most importantly, the number of layers determines the size of the Reed–Solomon codewords used. This varies from 6 to 12 bits: The codeword size b is the smallest even number which ensures that the total number of codewords in the symbol is less than the limit of 2b−1 which can be corrected by a Reed–Solomon code.

As mentioned above, it is recommended that at least 23% of the available codewords, plus 3, are reserved for correction, and a symbol size is chosen such that the message will fit into the available space.

Bit stuffing
The data bits are broken into codewords, with the first bit corresponding to the most significant coefficient. While doing this, code words of all-zero and all-ones are avoided by bit stuffing: if the first b−1 bits of a code word have the same value, an extra bit with the complementary value is inserted into the data stream. This insertion takes place whether or not the last bit of the code word would have had the same value or not.

Also, note that this only applies to strings of b−1 bits at the beginning of a code word. Longer strings of identical bits are permitted as long as they straddle a code word boundary.

When decoding, a code word of all zero or all one may be assumed to be an erasure, and corrected more efficiently than a general error.

This process makes the message longer, and the final number of data codewords recorded in the mode message is not known until it is complete. In rare cases, it may be necessary to jump to the next-largest symbol and begin the process all over again to maintain the minimum fraction of check words.

Padding
After bit stuffing, the data string is padded to the next codeword boundary by appending 1 bit. If this would result in a code word of all ones, the last bit is changed to zero (and will be ignored by the decoder as a bit-stuffing bit). On decoding, the padding bits may be decoded as shift and latch codes, but that will not affect the message content. The reader must accept and ignore a partial code at the end of the message, as long as it is all-ones.

Additionally, if the total number of data bits available in the symbol is not a multiple of the codeword size, the data string is prefixed with an appropriate number of 0 bits to occupy the extra space. These bits are not included in the check word computation.

Check codewords
Both the mode word, and the data, must have check words appended to fill out the available space. This is computed by appending K check words such that the entire message is a multiple of the Reed–Solomon polynomial (x−2)(x−4)...(x−2K).

Note that check words are not subject to bit stuffing, and may be all-zero or all-one. Thus, it is not possible to detect the erasure of a check word.

Laying out the message
A full Aztec code symbol has, in addition to the core, a "reference grid" of alternating black and white pixels occupying every 16th row and column. These known pixels allow a reader to maintain alignment with the pixel grid over large symbols. For up to 4 layers (31×31 pixels), this consists only of single lines extending outward from the core, continuing the alternating pattern. Inside the 5th layer, however, additional rows and columns of alternating pixels are inserted ±16 pixels from the center, so the 5th layer is located ±17 and ±18 pixels from the center, and a 5-layer symbol is 37×37 pixels.

Likewise, additional reference grid rows and columns are inserted ±32 pixels from the center, making a 12-layer symbol 67×67 pixels. In this case, the 12th layer occupies rings ±31 and ±33 pixels from the center. The pattern continues indefinitely outward, with 15-pixel blocks of data separated by rows and columns of the reference grid.

One way to construct the symbol is to delete the reference grid entirely and begin with a 14×14-pixel core centered on a 2×2 pixel-white square. Then break it into 15×15 pixel blocks and insert the reference grid between them.

The mode message begins at the top-left corner of the core and wraps around it clockwise in a 1-bit thick layer. It begins with the most significant bit of the number of layers and ends with the check words. For a compact Aztec code, it is broken into four 7-bit pieces to leave room for the orientation marks. For a full Aztec code, it is broken into four 10-bit pieces, and those pieces are each divided in half by the reference grid.

In some cases, the total capacity of the matrix does not divide evenly by full code words. In such cases, the main message is padded with 0 bits in the beginning. These bits are not included in the check word calculation and should be skipped during decoding. The total matrix capacity for a full symbol can be calculated as (112+16*L)*L for a full Aztec code and (88+16*L)*L for a compact Aztec code, where L is the symbol size in layers. As an example, the total matrix capacity of a compact Aztec code with 1 layer is 104 bits. Since code words are six bits, this gives 17 code words and two extra bits. Two zero bits are prepended to the message as padding and must be skipped during decoding.

The padded main message begins at the outer top-left of the entire symbol and spirals around it counterclockwise in a 2-bit thick layer, ending directly above the top-left corner of the core. This places the bit-stuffed data words, for which erasures can be detected, in the outermost layers of the symbol, which are most prone to erasures. The check words are stored closer to the core. The last check word ends just above the top left corner of the bull's eye.

With the core in its standard orientation, the first bit of the first data word is placed in the upper-left corner, with additional bits placed in a 2-bit-wide column left-to-right and top-to-bottom. This continues until 2 rows from the bottom of the symbol when the pattern rotates 90 degrees counterclockwise and continues in a 2-bit high row, bottom-to-top and left-to-right. After 4 equal-sized quarter layers, the spiral continues with the top-left corner of the next-inner layer, finally ending one pixel above the top-left corner of the core.

Finally, 1 bit are printed as black squares, and 0 bits are printed as white squares.

Transport
Aztec codes are widely used for transport ticketing.

The Aztec Code has been selected by the airline industry (IATA's BCBP standard) for electronic boarding passes. Several airlines send Aztec Codes to passengers' mobile phones to act as boarding passes. These are often integrated with apps on passengers' phones, including Apple Wallet.

Aztec codes are also used in rail, including by Tehran Metro, British National Rail, Eurostar, Deutsche Bahn, TCDD Taşımacılık, DSB, SJ, České dráhy, Slovak Railways, Slovenian Railways, Croatian Railways, Trenitalia, Nederlandse Spoorwegen, Pasažieru vilciens, PKP Intercity, VR Group, Via Rail, Swiss Federal Railways, SNCB and SNCF for tickets sold online and printed out by customers or displayed on mobile phone screens. The Aztec code is scanned by a handheld scanner by on-train staff or at the turnstile to validate the ticket.

Governmental
Car registration documents in Poland bear a summary, compressed by NRV2E algorithm, encoded as Aztec Code. Works are underway to enable car insurance companies to automatically fill in the relevant information based on digital photographs of the document as the first step of closing a new insurance contract.

Federal Tax Service in Russia encodes payment information in tax notices as Aztec Code.

Commercial
Many bills in Canada are now using this technology as well, including EastLink, Shaw Cable, and Bell Aliant.

title: Aztec Code


text:
Denmark Vesey

Denmark Vesey (also Telemaque) (c. 1767–July 2, 1822) was a free Black man and community leader in Charleston, South Carolina, who was accused and convicted of planning a major slave revolt in 1822. Although the alleged plot was discovered before it could be realized, its potential scale stoked the fears of the antebellum planter class that led to increased restrictions on both enslaved and free African Americans.

Likely born into slavery in St. Thomas, Vesey was enslaved by Captain Joseph Vesey in Bermuda for some time before being brought to Charleston. There, Vesey won a lottery and purchased his freedom around the age of 32. He had a good business and a family but was unable to buy his first wife, Beck, and their children out of slavery. Vesey worked as a carpenter and became active in the Second Presbyterian Church. In 1818, he helped found an independent African Methodist Episcopal (AME) congregation in the city, today known as Mother Emanuel. The congregation began with the support of white clergy and, with over 1,848 members, rapidly became the second-largest AME congregation in the nation.

In the summer of 1822, Vesey allegedly used his substantial influence among the black community to plan a major slave revolt. According to the accusations, Vesey and his followers planned to kill slave-holders in Charleston, liberate slaves, and sail to the newly independent black republic of Haiti for refuge. By some contemporary accounts, the revolt would have involved thousands of enslaved Charlestonians and others who lived on nearby plantations. City officials sent a militia to arrest the plot's leaders and many suspected followers before the rising could begin, and no white people were killed or injured. Vesey and five slaves were rapidly judged guilty by the secret proceedings of a city-appointed court and executed by hanging on July 2, 1822. Vesey was about 55 years old. In later proceedings, some 30 additional followers were also executed. Several others, including his son Sandy, were convicted of conspiracy and deported from the United States. City authorities ordered that Vesey's church be razed, and its minister was expelled.

Early life
Manuscript transcripts of testimony at the 1822 court proceedings in Charleston, South Carolina, and its report after the events constitute the chief documentation source about Denmark Vesey's life. The court judged Vesey guilty of conspiring to launch a slave rebellion and executed him by hanging.

The court reported that he was born into slavery about 1767 in St. Thomas, at the time a colony of Denmark. Captain Joseph Vesey renamed him Telemaque; historian Douglas Egerton suggests that Vesey could have been of Coromantee (an Akan-speaking people) origin. Biographer David Robertson also suggests that Telemaque may have been of Mandé origin.

Telemaque was purchased around 14 by Joseph Vesey, a Bermudian sea captain and slave merchant. Little is known of the life of Joseph Vesey, though the Vesey family is one of some influence in Bermuda, more recently producing notable businessmen and politicians including master mariner Captain Nathaniel Arthur Vesey (1841–1911; MCP for Devonshire Parish), and his sons, Sir Nathaniel Henry Peniston Vesey, CBE (known as Henry Vesey; 1901–1996, MCP for Smith's Parish) and John Ernest Peniston Vesey, CBE (1903–1993), MP for Southampton Parish, and grandson Ernest Winthrop Peniston Vesey (1926–1994). After a time, Vesey sold the youth to a planter in French Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti). When the youth was found to suffer epileptic fits, Captain Vesey took him back and returned his purchase price to the former master. Biographer Egerton found no evidence of Denmark Vesey having epilepsy later in life, and he suggests that Denmark may have faked the seizures to escape the particularly brutal conditions on Saint-Domingue.

Telemaque worked as a personal assistant for Joseph Vesey and served Vesey as an interpreter in slave trading, a job which required him to travel to Bermuda (an archipelago on the same latitude as Charleston, South Carolina, but nearest to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and originally settled as part of colonial Virginia by the Virginia Company) for extended periods; as a result, he was fluent in French and Spanish as well as English. Following the Revolutionary War, the captain retired from his nautical career (including slave trading), settling in Charleston, South Carolina, which had been settled from Bermuda in 1669. In 1796, Captain Vesey wed Mary Clodner, a wealthy "free East Indian woman", and the couple used Telemaque as a domestic at Mary's plantation, The Grove, just outside Charleston on the Ashley River.

Freedom
On November 9, 1799, Telemaque won $1500 (~$ in ) in a city lottery. At the age of 32, he bought his freedom for $600 from Vesey. He took the surname Vesey and the given name of 'Denmark' after the nation ruling his birthplace of St. Thomas. Denmark Vesey began working as an independent carpenter and built up his own business. By this time, he had married Beck, an enslaved woman. Their children were born into slavery under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, by which children of an enslaved mother took her status. Vesey worked to gain freedom for his family; he tried to buy his wife and their children, but her master would not sell her. This meant their future children would also be born into slavery.

Along with other slaves, Vesey had belonged to the Second Presbyterian church and chafed against its restrictions on Black members.

In 1818, after becoming a freedman, he was among the founders of a congregation on what was known as the "Bethel circuit" of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME Church). This had been organized in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1816 as the first independent black denomination in the United States.

The AME Church in Charleston was supported by leading white clergy. In 1818, white authorities briefly ordered the church closed for violating slave code rules that prohibited black congregations from holding worship services after sunset. The church attracted 1,848 members by 1818, making it the second-largest AME church in the nation. City officials always worried about slaves in groups; they closed the church again for a time in 1821, as the City Council warned that its classes were becoming a "school for slaves" (under the slave code, slaves were prohibited from being taught to read). Vesey was reported as a leader in the congregation, drawing from the Bible to inspire hope for freedom.

Background
By 1708, a majority of South Carolinians were enslaved, reflecting the numerous enslaved Africans imported to the state as laborers on the rice and indigo plantations. Exports of these commodity crops and cotton from the offshore Sea Islands produced the wealth South Carolina's planters enjoyed. This elite class controlled the legislature for decades after the American Revolution. The state, the Lowcountry, and the city of Charleston had a majority of the population who were enslaved Africans. By the late 18th century, slaves were increasingly "country born," native to the United States. They were generally considered more tractable than newly enslaved Africans. Connections of kinship and personal relations extended between slaves in the city of Charleston and those on plantations in the Lowcountry, just as those connections existed among the planter class, many of whom had residences (and domestic slaves) in both places.

From 1791 to 1803, the Haitian Revolution of enslaved and free people of color on Saint-Domingue embroiled the French colony in violence; Black people gained independence and created the republic of Haiti in 1804. Many whites and free people of color had fled to Charleston and other port cities as refugees during the uprisings and brought the people they enslaved with them. In the city, the new slaves were referred to as "French Negroes". Their accounts of the revolts and their success spread rapidly among enslaved Charlestonians. The free people of color occupied a place between the mass of Black people and the minority of whites in Charleston.

In the early 1800s, the state legislature had voted to reopen its ports to import slaves from Africa. This decision was highly controversial and opposed by many planters in the Lowcountry, who feared the disruptive influence of new Africans on the people they enslaved. Planters in Upland areas were developing new plantations based on short-staple cotton and needed many workers, so the state approved the resumption of the Atlantic trade. The profitability of this type of cotton had been made possible by the invention of the cotton gin just before the turn of the 19th century. From 1804 to 1808, Charleston merchants imported some 75,000 slaves, more than the total brought to South Carolina in the 75 years before the Revolution. Some of these slaves were sold to the Uplands and other areas, but many of the new Africans were held in Charleston and on nearby Lowcountry plantations.

Planning
Even after gaining his freedom, Vesey continued to identify and socialize with many slaves. He became increasingly set on helping his new friends break from the bonds of slavery. In 1819, Vesey became inspired by the congressional debates over the status of the Missouri Territory and how it should be admitted to the United States since slavery appeared to be under attack.

Vesey developed followers among the mostly enslaved Black people in the Second Presbyterian Church and then the independent AME African Church. The latter's congregation represented more than 10% of the Black people in the city. They resented the harassment by city officials. Economic conditions in the Charleston area became difficult since an economic decline affected the city. In 1821, Vesey and a few slaves began to conspire and plan a revolt. For the revolt to be successful, Vesey had to recruit others and strengthen his army. Because Denmark Vesey was a lay preacher, when he had recruited enough followers, he would review plans of the revolt with his followers at his home during religious classes. Vesey inspired slaves by connecting their potential freedom to the biblical story of the Exodus, God's delivery of the children of Israel from Egyptian slavery.

In his 50s, Vesey was a well-established carpenter with his own business. He reportedly planned the insurrection on Bastille Day, July 14, 1822. This date was notable in association with the French Revolution, whose victors had abolished slavery in Saint-Domingue. News of the plan was said to be spread among thousands of Black people throughout Charleston and for tens of miles through plantations along the Carolina coast. (Both the city and county populations were majority black; Charleston in 1820 had a population of 14,127 Black people and 10,653 white people.) Within the black population was a growing upper class of free people of color or mulattos, some of whom were slave-holders.

Vesey held numerous secret meetings and eventually gained the support of both enslaved and free Black people throughout the city and countryside who were willing to fight for their freedom. He was said to have organized thousands of slaves who pledged to participate in his planned insurrection. By using intimate family ties between those in the countryside and the city, Vesey created an extensive network of supporters.

His plan was first to make a coordinated attack on the Charleston Meeting Street Arsenal. Once they secured these weapons, these Freedom Fighters planned to commandeer ships from the harbor and sail to Haiti, possibly with Haitian help. Vesey and his followers also planned to kill white slave-owners throughout the city, as had been done in Haiti, and liberate the slaves. According to records of the French Consulate in Charleston, his group was reported to have numerous members who were "French Negroes," slaves brought from Saint-Domingue by refugee slave-holders.

Failed uprising
Due to the vast number of slaves who knew about the planned uprising, Vesey feared that word of the plot would get out. Vesey reportedly advanced the date of the insurrection to June 16. Beginning in May, two slaves opposed to Vesey's scheme, George Wilson and Joe LaRoche, gave the first specific testimony about a coming uprising to Charleston officials, saying a "rising" was planned for July 14. George Wilson was a mixed-race slave intensely loyal to his master. The testimonies of these two men confirmed an earlier report coming from another slave named Peter Prioleau. Though officials didn't believe the less specific testimony of Prioleau, they did believe Wilson and LaRoche due to their unimpeachable reputations with their masters. With their testimony, the city launched a search for conspirators.

Joe LaRoche originally planned to support the rising and brought the slave Rolla Bennett to discuss plans with his close friend George Wilson. Wilson had to decide whether to join the conspiracy described by Bennett or tell his master that there was a plot in the making. Wilson refused to join the conspiracy and urged both Laroche and Bennett to end their involvement in the plans. Wilson convinced LaRoche that they must tell his master to prevent the conspiracy from being acted out.

The Mayor James Hamilton was told, and he organized a citizens' militia, putting the city on alert. White militias and groups of armed men patrolled the streets daily for weeks until many suspects were arrested by the end of June, including 55-year-old Denmark Vesey. As suspects were arrested, they were held in the Charleston Workhouse until the newly appointed Court of Magistrates and Freeholders heard evidence against them. The Workhouse was also the place where punishment was applied to slaves for their masters and likely where Plot suspects were abused or threatened with abuse or death before giving testimony to the Court. The suspects were allowed visits by ministers; Dr. Benjamin Palmer visited Vesey after he was sentenced to death, and Vesey told the minister that he would die for a "glorious cause".

Court of Magistrates and Freeholders
As leading suspects were rounded up by the militia ordered by Intendant/Mayor James Hamilton, the Charleston City Council voted to authorize a Court of Magistrates and Freeholders to evaluate suspects and determine crimes. Tensions in the city were high, and many residents had doubts about actions taken during the widespread fears and quick rush to judgment. Soon after the Court began its sessions, in secret and promising secrecy to all witnesses, Supreme Court Justice William Johnson published an article in the local paper recounting an incident of a feared insurrection of 1811. He noted that an slave was mistakenly executed in the case, hoping to suggest caution in the Vesey affair. He was well respected, having been appointed Justice by President Thomas Jefferson in 1804. Still, his article appeared to produce a defensive reaction, with white residents defending the Court and the militancy of city forces.

From June 17, the day after the purported insurrection was to begin, to June 28, the day after the court adjourned, officials arrested 31 suspects and in more significant numbers as the month went on. The Court took secret testimony about suspects in custody and accepted evidence against men not yet charged. Historians acknowledge that some witnesses testified under threat of death or torture, but Robertson believes that their affirming accounts appeared to provide details of a plan for rebellion.

Newspapers were nearly silent while the Court conducted its proceedings. While bickering with Johnson, the Court first published its judgment of the guilt of Denmark Vesey and five enslaved Black people, sentencing them to death. The six men were executed by hanging on July 2. None of the six had confessed, and each proclaimed his innocence to the end. Their deaths quieted some of the city residents' fears, and the tumult in Charleston about the planned revolt began to die down. Officials made no arrests in the next three days as if wrapping up their business.

Concerns about proceedings
Learning that the proceedings were largely conducted in secret, with defendants often unable to confront their accusers or hear testimony against them, Governor Thomas Bennett, Jr., had concerns about the legality of the Court, as did his brother-in-law Justice Johnson. The slave-holders of accused slaves and their attorneys, however, were allowed to attend the proceedings. Bennett had served almost continuously in the state legislature since 1804, including four years as Speaker of the House. He did not take any action at first because four people that he enslaved were among those accused in the first group with Vesey, and three of these men were executed with the leader on July 2.

Bennett consulted in writing with Robert Y. Hayne, Attorney General for the state, expressing his concerns about the conduct of the Court. He believed that it was wrong for defendants to be unable to confront their accusers yet be subject to execution. Hayne responded that, under the state's constitution, slaves were not protected by the rights available to freemen of habeas corpus and the Magna Carta. Vesey, however, was a free man.

Further arrests and convictions
On July 1, an editorial in the Courier defended the work of the Court. After that, in July, the cycle of arrests and judgments sped up, and the pool of suspects greatly expanded. As noted by historian Michael P. Johnson, most Black people were arrested and charged after the first group of hangings on July 2; this was after the actions of the Court had been criticized by both Justice William Johnson and Governor Bennett. The Court recorded that they divided the suspects into groups: one was those who "exhibited energy and activity"; if convicted, these were executed. Other men who seemed to "yield their acquiescence" to participating were deported if convicted. For five weeks, the Court ordered the arrest of a total of 131 black men, charging them with conspiracy.

In July, the pace of arrests and charges more than doubled, as if authorities were intent on proving a large insurrection needed controlling. But, the court "found it difficult to get conclusive evidence." It noted in its report covering the second round of court proceedings that three men sentenced to death implicated "scores of others" when they were promised leniency in punishment.

In total, the courts convicted 67 men of conspiracy and hanged 35, including Vesey, in July 1822. Thirty-one men were deported, 27 were reviewed and acquitted, and 38 were questioned and released.

Vesey's family
Vesey had at least one child, Denmark Vesey, Jr., who remained in Charleston. He later married Hannah Nelson. The remainder of Vesey's family was also affected by the crisis and Court proceedings. His enslaved son Sandy Vesey was arrested, judged to have been part of the conspiracy, and included among those deported from the country, probably to Cuba. Vesey's third wife, Susan, later emigrated to Liberia, which the American Colonization Society had established as a colony for formerly enslaved Americans and other free Black people. Two other sons, Randolph Vesey and Robert Vesey, both children of Beck, Denmark's first wife, survived past the end of the American Civil War and were emancipated. Robert helped rebuild Charleston's African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1865 and also attended the transfer of power when US officials retook control of Fort Sumter.

White involvement
On October 7, 1822, Judge Elihu Bay convicted four white men for a misdemeanor in inciting slaves to insurrection during the Denmark Vesey slave conspiracy. These four white men were William Allen, John Igneshias, Andrew S. Rhodes, and Jacob Danders. The men were sentenced to varied fines and reasonably short jail time. Historians have found no evidence that any of these men were known abolitionists; they do not seem to have had contact with each other or any of the plotters of the rebellion. William Allen received twelve months in prison and a $1,000 fine, the harshest punishment of the four. When tried in court, Allen admitted to trying to help the slave conspiracy but said that he did so because he was promised a large sum of money for his services. Reports from the judge show that the court believed that Allen was motivated by greed rather than sympathy for the slaves.

The other white conspirators' punishments were far more lenient than Allen's. John Igneshias was sentenced to a one hundred dollar fine and three months in prison, as was Jacob Danders. Igneshias was found guilty of inciting slaves to insurrection, but Danders was charged for saying that he "disliked everything in Charleston, but the Negroes and the sailors." Danders had said this publicly after the plot had been revealed; city officials thought his comment suspicious. Danders was found guilty of showing sympathy to the slaves who had been caught ostensibly as part of the conspiracy. The final white defendant, Andrew S. Rhodes, received a sentence of six months and a five hundred dollar fine; there was less evidence against him than any of the other whites.

White residents of Charleston feared there could be more whites who wanted to help Black people fight against slavery. They were already concerned about the growing abolitionist movement in the North, which spread its message through the mail and via antislavery mariners, both white and black, who came ashore in the city. Judge Bay sentenced the four white men as a warning to any other whites who might think of supporting slave rebels. He also pushed state lawmakers to strengthen laws against both mariners and free Black people in South Carolina in general and anyone supporting slave rebellions in particular. Judge Bay thought these four white men were spared from hanging only because of a "statutory oversight." The convictions of these men enabled some white men of the pro-slavery establishment to believe that the people they enslaved would not stage rebellions without the manipulation of "alien agitators or local free people of color."

Aftermath
In August, Governor Bennett and Mayor Hamilton published accounts of the insurrection and Court proceedings. Bennett downplayed the danger posed by the alleged crisis and argued that the Court's executions and lack of due process damaged the state's reputation. But Hamilton captured the public with his 46-page account, which became the "received version" of a narrowly avoided bloodbath and citizens saved by the city's and Court's zeal and actions. Hamilton attributed the insurrection to the influence of black Christianity and the AME African Church, an increase in slave literacy, and misguided paternalism by slave-holders toward slaves. In October, the Court issued its Report, shaped by Hamilton.

Lacy K. Ford notes that: "the most important fact about the Report was (and remains) that it tells the story that Hamilton and the Court wanted told. It shaped the public perception of events, and it was certainly intended to do just that. As such, it makes important points about the Vesey Court's agenda, regardless of the larger historical truth of the document's claims about the alleged insurrection and accused insurrectionists."Ford noted that Hamilton and the Court left a significant gap in their conclusions about the reasons for the slave revolt. The importation of thousands of enslaved Africans to the city and region by the early 1800s was completely missing as a factor. However, fears of slave revolt had been a significant reason for opposition to the imports. He suggests this factor was omitted because that political battle was over; instead, Hamilton identified reasons for the rising that could be prevented or controlled by legislation which he proposed.

Governor Bennett's criticism continued, and he made a separate report to the legislature in the fall of 1822 (he was in his last year in office). He accused the Charleston City Council of usurping its authority by setting up the court, which he said violated the law by holding secret proceedings without protection for the defendants. The court took testimony under "pledges of inviolable secrecy" and "convicted [the accused] and "sentenced [them] to death without their seeing the persons, or hearing the voices of those, who testified to their guilt." Open sessions could have allowed the court to distinguish among varying accounts.

Believing that "black religion" contributed to the uprising and believing that several AME Church officials had participated in the plot, Charleston officials ordered the large congregation to be dispersed and the building razed. Church trustees sold the lumber, hoping to rebuild in later years. Rev. Morris Brown of the church was forced out of the state; he later became a bishop of the national AME Church. No independent black church was established in the city again until after the Civil War, but many black worshippers met secretly. In the 21st century, the congregations of Emanuel AME Church and the Morris Brown AME Church carry on the legacy of the first AME Church in Charleston.

In 1820, the state legislature had already restricted manumissions by requiring that both houses approve any act of manumission (for an individual only). This discouraged slave-holders from freeing the people they enslaved and made it almost impossible for slaves to gain freedom independently, even in cases where an individual or family member could pay a purchase price. After the Vesey Plot, the legislature further restricted the movement of free Black people and free people of color; if one left the state for any reason, that person could not return. In addition, it required each free black to have documented white "guardians" to vouch for their character.

The legislature also passed the Negro Seamen Act in 1822, requiring free black sailors on ships that docked in Charleston to be imprisoned in the city jail for the period that their ships were in port. This was to prevent them from interacting with and influencing slaves and other Black people in the city. This act was ruled unconstitutional in federal court, as it violated international treaties with the United Kingdom. The state's right to imprison free black sailors became one of the issues in the confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government over states' rights.

Following the passage of the Seaman's Act, the white minority of Charleston organized the South Carolina Association, which was essentially to take over enforcement in the city of control of enslaved and free Black people. In late 1822, the City petitioned the General Assembly "to establish a competent force to act as a municipal guard for the protection of the City of Charleston and its vicinity." The General Assembly agreed and appropriated funds to erect "suitable buildings for an Arsenal, for the deposit of the arms of the State, and a Guard House, and for the use of the municipal guard" or militia. The South Carolina State Arsenal, which became known as the Citadel, was completed in 1829, when white fears of insurrection had subsided for a time. Rather than establish the municipal guard authorized in the act, the State and city agreed with the US War Department to garrison the Citadel from those soldiers stationed at Fort Moultrie.

Historical debate
The Court published its report in 1822 as An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes ... This was the first full account, as newspaper coverage had been very restricted during the secret proceedings. In particular, the Court collected all the information available on Vesey in the last two weeks of his life and eight weeks following his hanging. Their Report has been the basis of historians' interpretations of Vesey's life and the rebellion. Since the mid-20th century, most historians have evaluated the conspiracy in terms of black resistance to slavery, with some focusing on the plot, others on the character of Vesey and his senior leaders, and others on the black unity displayed. Despite the threats from whites, few enslaved Black people confessed, and few provided testimony against the leaders or each other. Philip D. Morgan notes that by keeping silent, these slaves resisted the whites and were the true heroes of the crisis.

In 1964, historian Richard Wade examined the Court's report compared to manuscript transcripts of the court proceedings, of which two versions exist. Based on numerous discrepancies he found and the lack of material evidence at the time of the "trials," he suggested that the Vesey Conspiracy was mostly "angry talk" and that the plot was not well founded for action. He noted how little evidence was found for such a plot: no arms caches were discovered, no firm date appeared to have been set, and no well-organized underground apparatus was found, but both Black and white people widely believed there was a well-developed insurrection in the works. Claiming, erroneously, that both Justice William Johnson and his brother-in-law Governor Thomas Bennett Jr. had strong doubts about the existence of a conspiracy, Wade concluded that among black and white Charleston residents, there were "strong grievances on one side and deep fears on the other," creating a basis for belief in a broad rebellion. Wade's conclusion that the conspiracy was not well-formed was criticized later by William Freehling and other historians, particularly as Wade was found to have overlooked some material.

In 2001, Michael P. Johnson criticized three histories of Vesey and the conspiracy that was published in 1999. Based on his study of the primary documents, he suggested that historians had overinterpreted the evidence gathered at the end of Vesey's life from the testimony of witnesses under tremendous pressure in court. He said historians too wholeheartedly accepted such witness testimony as fact and noted specific "interpretive improvisations." For instance, historians have described Vesey's physical appearance, which was not documented in the court record. However, the free black carpenter Thomas Brown, who occasionally worked with Vesey, described him as a "large, stout man."In response to Johnson's work, Philip D. Morgan notes that in the 19th century, Vesey was once described as a mulatto or free person of color by William Gilmore Simms, who however, never had met Vesey and incorrectly placed him in Haiti during the 1791 revolt. Trial records, moreover, identified him as a free "black" man. Some historians from 1849 to the 1990s described him as a mulatto. The free black carpenter Thomas Brown, who knew and sometimes worked with Vesey, described him as having dark skin. Lacking substantial documentation to refute Thomas Brown's recollections, since the later 20th century historians have described him as black. Despite Brown's recollections, however, Philip Morgan suggests this transformation in ancestry represents modern sensibilities more than any evidence.

Johnson found that the two versions of the court manuscript transcripts disagreed and contained material not in the court's official report. He concluded that the report was an attempt by the Court to suggest that formal trials had been held since the proceedings had not followed accepted procedures for trials and due process. Their proceedings had been held secretly, and some defendants could not confront their accusers. After Vesey and the first five conspirators were executed, the Court approved the arrest of another 82 suspects in July, more than twice as many as had been arrested in June. Johnson suggested that, after public criticism, the Court was motivated to prove there was a conspiracy.

Morgan notes that two prominent men indicated concerns about the Court. In addition, he notes that Bertram Wyatt-Brown in his Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (p. 402) said that prosecutions of slave revolts were typically so arbitrary that they should be considered a "communal rite" and "celebration of white solidarity." "a religious more than a normal criminal process." Morgan thinks that historians have too often ignored that warning and supports Johnson's close examination of the variations among the Vesey court records.

Wade and Johnson suggest that Mayor James Hamilton, Jr., of Charleston may have exaggerated rumors of the conspiracy to use as a "political wedge issue" against moderate Governor Thomas Bennett Jr. in their rivalry and efforts to attract white political support. Hamilton knew that four people that Bennett enslaved had been arrested as suspects; three men were executed on July 2 together with Vesey. Mayor Hamilton supported a militant approach to controlling slaves. He believed that the paternalistic approach of improving the treatment of slaves, as promoted by moderate slave-holders such as Bennett, was a mistake. He used the crisis to appeal to the legislature for laws, which he had already supported, to authorize restrictions on enslaved and free Black people.

Hamilton's article and the Court Report examine various reasons for the planned revolt. Extremely dependent on slavery, many Charleston residents had been alarmed about the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which restricted slavery from expansion to the western territories, and they felt that it threatened the future of slavery. Some local people suggested that slaves had learned about the compromise and thought they were to be emancipated. Whites blamed the AME Church, they blamed rising slave literacy, and the African slaves brought from Haiti during the Haitian Revolution. In 1822, beleaguered whites in Charleston uniformly believed that Black people had planned a large insurrection; such a scenario represented their worst fears.

Wade noted the lack of material evidence: no arms caches or documents related to the rebellion. Johnson's article provoked considerable controversy among historians. The William and Mary Quarterly invited contributions to a "Forum" on the issue, published in January 2002. Egerton noted that the free Black carpenter Thomas Brown and other Black people familiar with Vesey or the Reverend Morris Brown, the leader of the AME Church, continued to speak or write about Vesey's plot in later years, supporting conclusions that it did exist. In 2004, historian Robert Tinkler, a biographer of Mayor Hamilton, reported that he found no evidence to support Johnson's theory that Hamilton conjured the plot for political gain. Hamilton ruthlessly pursued the prosecution, Tinkler concluded, because he "believed there was indeed a Vesey plot." Ford noted that Hamilton presented those aspects of and reasons for the insurrection that enabled him to gain control of slavery, which he had wanted before the crisis.

In a 2011 article, James O'Neil Spady said that by Johnson's criteria, the statements of witnesses George Wilson and Joe LaRoche should be considered credible and evidence of a developed plot for the rising. Neither slave was coerced nor imprisoned when he testified. Each volunteered his testimony early in the investigation, and LaRoche risked making statements that the court could have construed as self-incriminating. Spady concluded that a group had been about to launch the "rising" (as they called it) when their plans were revealed. Perhaps it was of a smaller scale than in some accounts, but he believed men were ready to take action.

In 2012, Lacy K. Ford gave the keynote address to the South Carolina Historical Association; his subject was an interpretation of the Vesey Plot. He said, "The balance of the evidence clearly points to the exaggeration of the plot and the misappropriation of its lessons by Hamilton, the Court, and their allies for their own political advantage." Charleston officials had a crisis in which not one white person had been killed or injured. Ford contrasted their actions to the approach of Virginia officials after the 1831 Nat Turner's Slave Rebellion, in which slaves killed tens of whites. Charleston officials said the "brilliant" Vesey led a large, complex, and sophisticated conspiracy; but Virginia officials downplayed Turner's revolt, stressing that he and his few followers acted alone. Ford concludes, Enlarging the threat posed by Vesey allowed the Lowcountry white elite to disband the thriving AME church in Charleston and launch a full-fledged, if ultimately unsuccessful, counter-attack against the insurgency. The local elite's interpretation of the Vesey scare prepared the state for politics centered on the defense of slavery. The agenda reinforced tendencies toward consensus latent in the Palmetto state's body politic; tendencies easily mobilized for radicalism by perceived threats against slavery.

Legacy and honors

 * The Denmark Vesey House in Charleston, although almost certainly not the historic home of Vesey, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 by the Department of Interior.
 * In 1976, the city of Charleston commissioned a portrait of Vesey. It was hung in the Gaillard Municipal Auditorium, but was controversial.
 * From the 1990s, African-American activists in Charleston proposed erecting a memorial to Denmark Vesey to honor his effort to overturn slavery in the city. The proposal was controversial because many white residents did not want to memorialize a man whom they considered a terrorist. Others believed that in addition to acknowledging his leadership, a memorial would also express the slave's struggles for freedom. By 2014 the demographics of the city and nation had changed and white objections were no longer considered important. The Denmark Vesey Monument, representing Vesey as a carpenter and holding a Bible, was erected in Hampton Park, at some distance from the main tourist areas.
 * During the 2020 NFL season, Arizona Cardinals wide receiver DeAndre Hopkins wore a decal on his helmet with Vesey's name.

In popular culture
Literature
 * The title character in Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1855) is an escaped slave and religious zealot who aids fellow slave refugees and spends most of the novel plotting a slave rebellion. He is a composite of Denmark Vesey and Nat Turner.
 * Martin Delany's serialized novel, Blake; or the Huts of America (1859–61), referred to Vesey and Nat Turner, as well as having a protagonist who plans a large-scale slave insurrection.
 * Denmark Vesey is the name and basis for a character in Orson Scott Card's The Tales of Alvin Maker, an alternate history series of books set in the United States, which have been published from 1987 to 2014.
 * Sue Monk Kidd's 2014 novel, The Invention of Wings, includes Denmark Vesey as a character; the slave revolt and its reaction are major plot points. The novel perpetuates the myths that Vesey practiced polygamy and that he was hanged alone from a large tree in Charleston.
 * Denmark Vesey is spoken about in John Jakes' historical novel Charleston (2002).

Theatre
 * Dorothy Heyward's drama Set My People Free (1948) refers to Vesey's life.
 * After Denmark, a play by David Robson, is a 21st-century exploration of the historical Denmark Vesey.

Radio
 * Vesey's life is retold in the 1948 radio drama "The Denmark Vesey Story", presented by Destination Freedom, written by Richard Durham
 * The same script was retooled for The CBS Radio Workshop, retitled Sweet Cherries in Charleston and with some dialogue changes. Broadcast August 25, 1957, it tells the story of the aborted 1822 rebellion.

Television
 * Vesey was the subject of the 1982 made-for-television drama A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion, in which he was played by actor Yaphet Kotto.
 * Several PBS documentaries have included material on Denmark Vesey, particularly Africans in America and This Far By Faith.
 * Vesey was portrayed by Carl Lumbly in the 1991 television film Brother Future. Vesey's planned uprising plays a crucial role in the film's plot.

Music
 * Vesey was the subject of a 1939 opera named after him by novelist and composer Paul Bowles.
 * Joe McPhee's composition "Message from Denmark", featured on the 1971 album Joe McPhee & Survival Unit II at WBAI's Free Music Store, refers not to the country, but to Vesey.

title: Denmark Vesey


text:
Talk:Championship Manager (video game)

NPOV
The article reads like a brochure or fansite. And are the sales figures verifiable? A Kiand 16:38, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I'd get rid of the last paragraph about FM2005 in China. This has nothing to do with CM at all. --Smoothy 10th March, 2005

Can I suggest that now the disputed text has been agreed I or someone removes the NPOV banner? --DanGravell

I think the main thing to bear in mind is that the sales records indicated are for England rather than any other territory ...

There is a completely SI-biased approach to the BGS/Eidos release CM5 which I aim to correct.--Dan 14:20, 8 September 2005 (UTC)
 * In English?--DanGravell (Also, use your second name please)

Individual CM games
Shouldn't this be split into separate articles for each version of the game - as they are very different. And have one page for "Championship Manager Series" as well, like with certain other videogame series in Wikipedia (eg Starfox)--Ukdan999 8 July 2005 18:19 (UTC)

Happy with that if that's the new standard --DanGravell

Will CM 03/04 article be made soon? arsenalwwerulz 16:06, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

There doesn't seem to be any mention of the CM93/4 based games, like Championship Manager Italia, Championship Manager Bundesliga etc. Where these unofficial mods or have they just been overlooked? Rollo Tomasi 18:13, 12 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Good spot. I can't see any mention of them either. Oh what I'd give for today's memory-intensive versions to run like those of the early '90s. - Dudesleeper · Talk 18:24, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

Vandalism
Some idiot has put a list of his favourite players into the article. I would do the revert myself but not sure how to.--Ukdan999 16:03, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

The split
Someone seemed to take exception to this sentence of the article and heavily edited it:

"Although under a different name, Football Manager is very similar in gameplay terms to the previous CM games, whereas CM5 is a totally new gaming experience due to the game being written almost from scratch by a new development team."

Am I wrong in thinking this statement is perfectly true and fair. --Ukdan999 13:48, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Re-structuring
I have moved the Champ 5 section to its very own article (and modified this article accordingly). Both need a bit more work done though. The aim is for each increment of the CM series to have its own article and leave this one as an overview of the entire series. See the Legend of Zelda series article for a better idea of what I mean.--Ukdan999 13:57, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:CM1 screen.jpg
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Fair use rationale for Image:CM1 screen.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 06:51, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Championship Manager (video game)