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Sámi history

The Sámi people (also Saami) are a Native people of northern Europe inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses northern parts of Sweden, Norway, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. The traditional Sámi lifestyle, dominated by hunting, fishing and trading, was preserved until the Late Middle Ages, when the modern structures of the Nordic countries were established.

The Sámi have co-existed with their neighbors for centuries, but for the last two hundred years, especially during the second half of the 20th century, there have been many dramatic changes in Sámi culture, politics, economics and their relations with their neighboring societies. During the late 20th century, conflicts broke out over the use of natural resources, the reaction to which created a reawakening and defense of Sámi culture in recent years. Of the eleven different historically attested Sámi languages (traditionally known as "dialects"), only nine have survived to the present day but with most in danger of disappearing too.

It is possible that the Sámi people's existence was documented by such writers as Tacitus. They have on uncertain grounds, but for a very long time, been associated with the Fenni. However, the first Nordic sources date from the introductions of runes and include specifically the Account of the Viking Othere to King Alfred of England.

Prehistory

The area traditionally inhabited by the Sámi people is known in Northern Sámi as Sápmi, and typically includes the northern parts of Fennoscandia. Previously, the Sámi have probably inhabited areas further south in Fennoscandia. A few Stone Age cultures in the area had been speculated, especially in the 18th and early 19th centuries, to be associated with the ancestors of the Sámi, though this has been dismissed by modern scholars and extensive DNA testing.

Stone Age
The commonly held view today is that the earliest settlement of the Norwegian coast belongs to one cultural continuum comprising the Fosna culture in southern and central Norway and what used to be called the Komsa culture in the north. The cultural complex derived from the final Palaeolithic Ahrensburg culture of northwestern Europe, spreading first to southern Norway and then very rapidly following the Norwegian coastline when receding glaciation at the end of the last ice age opened up new areas for settlement. The rapidity of this expansion is underlined by the fact that some of the earliest radiocarbon dates are actually from the north.

The term "Fosna" is an umbrella term for the oldest settlements along the Norwegian coast, from Hordaland to Nordland. The distinction made with the "Komsa" type of stone-tool culture north of the Arctic Circle was rendered obsolete in the 1970s. "Komsa" itself originally referred to the whole North Norwegian Mesolithic, but the term has since been abandoned by Norwegian archaeologists who now divide the northern Mesolithic into three parts, referred to simply as phases 1, 2, and 3. The oldest Fosna settlements in Eastern Norway are found at Høgnipen in Østfold. A Neolithic individual from Steigen and other Scandinavian individuals revealed admixture from Eastern Hunter-Gatherers and Western Hunter-Gatherers, suggesting migrations from the core regions of both populations into Northern Norway and Scandinavia as a whole. This mixed ancestry prevailed all the way to the Late Neolithic as evidenced by an individual from Tromsø.

Origin
The genetic origin of the Sámi is still unknown, though recent genetic research may be providing some clues.

Lamnidis et al. 2018 discovered the earliest recorded introgression of Nganasan related Siberian ancestry and Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup N1c into northeastern Europe. Saami people's Siberian ancestry varies between 20%-25%, while the bronze age individuals from Bolshoy Oleny Island by the Kola peninsula had around 40% of similar ancestry, accompanied with roughly 50% Mesolithic Eastern Hunter-Gatherer ancestry. This admixture event was estimated to have occurred around 2000 BCE by ALDER dating. Sarkissian et al. 2013 reporting on a larger array of individuals from Bolshoy Oleny Island showed the prevalence of the mtDNA haplogroup U5a1 and other subclades of U and C typical to the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of the time, but also atypical D, T and Z.

Archeological evidence suggests that people along the southern shores of Lake Onega and around Lake Ladoga reached the River Utsjoki in Northern Finnish Lapland before 8100 BC. However, it is not likely that Sami languages are so old. According to the comparative linguist Ante Aikio, the Sami proto-language developed in South Finland or in Karelia around 2000–2500 years ago, spreading then to northern Fennoscandia.

The genetic lineage of the Sami is unique, and may reflect an early history of geographic isolation, genetic drift, and genetic bottle-necking. The uniqueness of the Sami gene pool has made it one of the most extensively studied genetic populations in the world. The most frequent Sami MtDNA (female) haplotype is U5b1b1 comprising nearly half of all haplotypes, with type V in around the same quantities, with some minor D, H and Z.

Before the 15th century
Historically, the Sámi inhabited all of Finland and Eastern Karelia for a long time, though the Eastern Sámi became assimilated into the Finnish and Karelian populations after settlers from Häme, Savo, and Karelia migrated into the region. Place names, such as Nuuksio on the south coast of Finland, have been claimed to prove former Sámi settlement. However, the Sámi people increasingly mixed with Finnish and Scandinavian settlers, losing their culture and language. Placename evidence suggesting a former Sámi presence in northwestern Russia (Arkhangelsk Region and the Vologda Region) has also been identified. However, this may alternatively indicate a former population speaking a language related to but distinct from Sami proper.

How far south the area of Sámi population in Norway extended in the past is an uncertain topic, and is currently debated among historians and archeologists. The Norwegian historian Yngvar Nielsen was commissioned by the Norwegian government in 1889 to determine this question in order to settle the contemporary question of Sámi land rights. He concluded that the Sámi had lived no further south than Lierne in Nord-Trøndelag county until around 1500, when they had started moving south, reaching the area around Lake Femunden in the 18th century. This hypothesis is still accepted among many historians, but has been the subject of scholarly debate in the 21st century. In favour of Nielsen's view, it is pointed out that no Sámi settlement to the south of Lierne in medieval times has left any traces in written sources. This argument is countered by pointing out that the Sámi culture was nomadic and non-literary, and as such would not be expected to leave written sources. In recent years, the number of archaeological finds that are interpreted as indicating a Sámi presence in Southern Norway in the Middle Ages has increased. These include foundations in Lesja, in Vang in Valdres and in Hol and Ål in Hallingdal. Proponents of the Sámi interpretations of these finds assume a mixed population of Norse and Sámi people in the mountainous areas of Southern Norway in the Middle Ages.

Up to around 1500 the Sámi were mainly fishermen and trappers, usually in a combination, leading a nomadic lifestyle decided by the migrations of the reindeer. Around 1500, due to excessive hunting, again provoked by the Sámi needing to pay taxes to Norway, Sweden and Russia, the number of reindeer started to decrease. Most Sámi then settled along the fjords, on the coast and along the inland waterways to pursue a combination of cattle raising, trapping and fishing. A small minority of the Sámi then started to tame the reindeer, becoming the well-known reindeer nomads, who, although often portrayed by outsiders as following the archetypical Sami lifestyle, only represent around 10% of the Sami people.

It is believed that since the Viking Age, Sámi culture has been driven further and further north, perhaps mostly by assimilation since no findings yet support battles. However, there is some folklore called stalo or 'tales', about non-trading relations with a cruel warrior people, interpreted by Læstadius to be histories of Vikings interactions. Besides these considerations, there were also foreign trading relations. Animal hides and furs were the most common commodities and exchanged with salt, metal blades and different kinds of coins. (The latter were used as ornaments).

Along the Northern Norwegian coast, the Sámi culture came under pressure during the Iron Age by expanding Norse settlements and taxation from powerful Norse chieftains. The nature of the Norse-Sami relationship along the North-Norwegian coast in the Iron Age is still hotly debated, but possibly the Sámi were quite happy to ally themselves with the Norse chieftains, as they could provide protection against Finno-Ugric enemies from the area around the White Sea.

However, in the early Middle Ages, this is partly reversed, as the power of the chieftains is broken by the centralized Norwegian state. Another wave of Norse settlement along the coast of Finnmark province is triggered by the fish trade in the 14th century. However, these highly specialized fishing communities made little impact on the Sámi lifestyle, and in the late Middle Ages, the two communities could exist alongside each other with little contact except occasional trading.

Sámi art
Traditionally, Sámi art has been distinguished by its combination of functional appropriateness and vibrant, decorative beauty. Both qualities grew out of a deep respect for nature, embodied in the Sámi's animism. Sámi religion found its most complete expression in Shamanism, evident in their worship of the seite, an unusually shaped rock or tree stump that was assumed to be the home of a deity. Pictorial and sculptural art in the Western sense is a 20th-century innovation in Sámi culture used to preserve and develop key aspects of a pantheistic culture, dependent on the rhythms of the seasons.

An economic shift
From the 15th century on, the Sámi came under increased pressure. The surrounding states, Denmark-Norway, Sweden and Russia showed increased interest in the Sámi areas. Sweden, at the time blocked from the North Sea by Dano-Norwegian territory, was interested in a port at the Atlantic coast, and Russian expansion also reached the coasts of the Barents Sea. All claimed the right to tax the Sámi people, and Finnish-speaking tax collectors from the northern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia reached the northern coasts, their Russian colleagues collected taxes as far west as the Harstad area of Norway and the Norwegian tax collectors collected riches from the inland of the Kola peninsula.100 AD: The first written mention of the Sami appears in Tacitus’s work

Hence the hunting intensified, and the number of wild reindeer declined. The Sámi were forced to do something else. Reindeer husbandry started in a limited way. These tamed reindeer were trained to divert wild reindeer over a cliff or into hunting ditches. Reindeer husbandry intensified.

The majority of Sámi settled along the inland rivers, fjords or coast. They started augmenting their diet and income by fishing, either sea or freshwater, hunting other game and keeping cows, sheep and goats.

Reindeer and other animals play a central part in Sami culture, though today reindeer husbandry is of dwindling economic relevance for the Sámi people. There is currently (2004) no clear indication when reindeer-raising started, perhaps about 500 AD, but tax tributes were raised in the 16th century. Since the 16th century, Samis have always paid taxes in monetary currency, and some historians have proposed that large scale husbandry is not older than from this period.

Lapponia (1673), written by the rhetorician Johannes Schefferus, is the oldest source of detailed information on Sámi culture. It was written due to "ill-natured" foreign propaganda (in particular from Germany) claiming that Sweden had won victories on the battlefield by means of Sámi magic. In attempts to correct the picture of Sámi culture amongst the Europeans, Magnus de la Gardie started an early 'ethnological' research project to document Sámi groups, conducted by Schefferus. The book was published in late 1673 and quickly translated to French, German, English, and other languages (though not to Swedish until 1956). However, an adapted and abridged version was quickly published in the Netherlands and Germany, where chapters on their difficult living conditions, topography, and the environment had been replaced by made-up stories of magic, sorcery, drums and heathenry. But there was also criticism against the ethnography, claiming Sámi to be more warlike in character, rather than the image Schefferus presented.

Swedish advances into Sápmi
Since the 15th century, the Sámi people have traditionally been subjects of Sweden, Norway, Russia and for some time Denmark. In the 16th century Gustav I of Sweden officially claimed that all Sámi should be under Swedish realm. However, the area was shared between the countries (i.e. only Sweden and Norway—at that time the Baltic-Finnic tribes of the region that is now Finland were also subjects of Sweden) and the border was set up to be the water flux line in Fennoscandia. After this "unification", the society, a structure with a few ruling and wealthy citizens called birkarls, ceased to exist, especially with the new king Charles IX who swore by his crown to be the "... Lappers j Nordlanden, the Caijaners" king 1607. During the enforced Christianization of the Sámi people, yoiking, drumming and sacrifices were now abandoned and seen as (juridical terms) "magic" or "sorcery", something that was probably aimed at removing opposition against the crown. The hard custody of Sámi peoples resulted in a great loss of Sámi culture.

In the 1630s Swedish authorities imposed a corveé system on Sámi communities near the Nasa silver mine. Mining at the Nasa silver mine proved unprofitable and ended in 1659 it nevertheless caused many Sámi to move to Torne lappmark in the 1640s and 1650s to avoid forced labour. There are reports of Sámi who served in the mining activities becoming extremely impoverished, becoming beggars in consequence.

The boundary agreement between Sweden and Norway (Stromstad Treaty of 1751) had an annex, frequently called Lapp Codicil of 1751, Lappkodicillen or "Sami Magna Carta". It has the same meaning for Sámi even today (or at least till 2005), but is only a convention between Sweden and Norway and does not include Finland and Russia. It regulates how the land is shared by Sámi peoples between the border of Sweden and Norway.

After the 17th century, many Sámi families lost the right to use Swedish land since they were poor and could not pay tribute for it like other subjects. The state also took the Sámi area in tighter control with specific Lappmark Regulations, enforcing non-Sámi settlements on the area. This fostered opposition among Sámi groups that wanted hunting, fishing, and pastoralistic areas back. Instead other groups often took over to put more use to the land. It was also at this time the county of Lappland was established in Sweden.

Russian interest
In the 16th century, as part of a general expansion period for the Russian empire, missionaries were sent to the far reaches of the empire, and several Russian Orthodox chapels were built on the Kola Peninsula. The westernmost advance was St. George's chapel in Neiden/Njavdam near Kirkenes in the Norwegian/Russian borderlands.

Dano-Norwegian policies in the North
On the Norwegian side, the Sámi were converted to the Lutheran faith around 1720. Thomas von Westen was the leading man of the missionary effort, and his methods included the burning of shamanic drums. However, economically the Sámi were not that badly off, compared to the Norwegian population. They were free to trade with whom they wanted, and entertained trade links with Norwegians and Russians alike. However, the crumbling economy of the Norwegian communities along the outer coast led to increased pressure on the land and conflicts between the two communities.

19th century: Increased pressure
The 19th century led to increased interest in the far north.

New borders in an old land
In 1809, Finland was seized by Russia, creating a new border right through the Sámi area. In 1826, the Norwegian/Russian border treaty finally drew the border between Norway and Finland-Russia, where large tracts of land had previously been more or less governing themselves under very light joint control from Russia, Sweden and Denmark-Norway. This meant that reindeer herders who until now had stayed in Finland in Winter and on the Norwegian coast in Summer, could no longer cross the borders. The Norwegian/Swedish border, however, could still be crossed by reindeer herders until 1940.

The Sámi crossed the borders freely until 1826, when the Norwegian/Finnish/Russian border was closed. Sámi were still free to cross the border between Sweden and Norway according to inherited rights laid down in the Lapp Codicil of 1751 until 1940, when the border was closed due to Germany's occupation of Norway. After World War II, they were not allowed to return. Their summer pasturages are today used by Sámi originating in Kautokeino.

For long periods of time, the Sámi lifestyle reigned supreme in the north because of its unique adaptation to the Arctic environment, enabling Sámi culture to resist cultural influences from the South. Indeed, throughout the 18th century, as Norwegians of Northern Norway suffered from low fish prices and consequent depopulation, the Sámi cultural element was strengthened, since the Sámi were independent of supplies from Southern Norway.

Economic marginalization
In all the Nordic countries, the 19th century was a period of economic growth. In Norway, cities were founded and fish exports increased. The Sámi way of life became increasingly outdated, and the Sámi were marginalized and left out of the general expansion.

Christianization and the Laestadius Movement
In the 1840s, the Swedish Sámi minister, Lars Levi Laestadius, preached a particularly strict version of the Lutheran teachings. This led to a religious awakening among the Sámi across every border, often with much animosity towards the authorities and the established church. In 1852, this led to riots in Kautokeino Municipality, where the minister was badly beaten and the local tradesman slain by fanatic "crusaders". The leaders of the riots were later executed or condemned to long imprisonment. After this initial violent outbreak, the Laestadius movement continued to gain ground in Sweden, Norway and Finland. However, the leaders now insisted on a more cooperative attitude with the authorities.

Cultural pressure
In Norway, the use of Sámi in teaching and preaching had initially been encouraged. However, with the rise in nationalism in Norway from the 1860s onward, the Norwegian authorities changed their policies in a more nationalistic direction. From around 1900 this was intensified, and no Sámi could be used in public school or in the official church.

The early 20th century through World War II
In the 20th century, Norwegian authorities put the Sámi culture under pressure in order to make the Norwegian language and culture universal. A strong economical development of the north also took place, giving Norwegian culture and language status. On the Swedish and Finnish side, the authorities were much less militant in their efforts; however, strong economic development in the north led to a weakening of status and economy for the Sámi.

The strongest pressure took place from around 1900 to 1940, when Norway invested considerable money and effort to wipe out Sámi culture. Notably, anyone who wanted to buy or lease state lands for agriculture in Finnmark, had to prove knowledge of the Norwegian language. This also ultimately caused the dislocation in the 1920s, that increased the gap between local Sámi groups, something still present today, and sometimes bears the character of an internal Sámi ethnic conflict.

Just as every portion of the European continent, the circumpolar lands of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Soviet Union were not spared the wrath of World War II. For the Sámi, who had no concept of national sovereignty, the concept of nations fighting over land was alien. Nevertheless, the Sámi would become entrapped in the conflict from all sides. Another factor was the heavy war destruction in northern Finland and northern Norway in 1944–45, destroying all existing houses and visible traces of Sámi culture. After World War II, the pressure was relaxed somewhat.

Prewar hardliners in Norway
The 20th century started with increased pressure on the Norwegian side of the border. In the name of progress, Norwegian language and culture was promoted, and Sámi language and culture were dismissed as backward, uncultured, downright ridiculous and even the product of an inferior race. Land that previously belonged to no one, and was used according to age-old principles, was considered state property. Settlers had to prove they could speak Norwegian well before they could claim new land for agriculture.

Sweden
In Sweden, the policies were at first markedly less militant. Teachers followed Sámi reindeer herders to provide education for the children, but Sámi areas were increasingly exploited by the then new mines in Kiruna and Gällivare and the construction of the Luleå-Narvik railway.

Later, with the founding of the Swedish Race Biology Institute, Sámi graves were plundered to provide research material.

Russia
In Russia, the age-old ways of life of the Sámi were brutally interrupted by the collectivization of the reindeer husbandry and agriculture in general. Most Sámi were organized in a single kolkhoz, located in the central part of the Peninsula, at Lovozero (Sámi: Lojavri). The Soviet state made an enormous effort to develop this strategically important region, and the Sámi people witnessed their land being overrun by ethnic Russians and other Soviet nationalities, including Nenets and other Arctic peoples.

Winter War (1939–40)
The first fighting Saami became entangled in was between Finland and the Soviet Union during the Winter War in 1939 when the Soviet Union invaded Finland after the Soviets were denied the ability to construct military bases there. The Red Army, believing that they could easily march across Finland to the Gulf of Bothnia, made the mistake of invading Finland during an unusually cold winter and suffered 27,000 casualties compared to the Finnish mere 2,700. However, as the weather warmed in March 1940, the Finnish line was breached and facing the far larger Soviet forces, was forced to sue for peace on March 12.

German invasion and occupation of Norway
On April 9, 1940, Hitler began Operation Weserübung and invaded Norway. With assistance from former Norwegian Defense Minister and Nazi sympathizer Vidkun Quisling, the Germans were quickly able to gain a foothold. The Nazis viewed ethnic “Nordic Norwegians”, who are Germanic and oftentimes blonde-haired and blue-eyed, as Aryans just like Germans. Quisling shared their view and proposed the complete eradication of the Sámi people, who he viewed as ethnically inferior. Despite the urging of Winston Churchill, British support for the Norwegians was appallingly slow, an action that was responsible for making him prime minister. As a result, the Nazis easily captured the northern port of Narvik. Despite a blockade by the British Royal Navy, the German Wehrmacht were able to hide in the mountains by forcing local Sámi to serve as guides.

On April 20, 1940, King Haakon and the Norwegian government fled to London along with most of the Allied troops stationed there and formed a government in exile. However, Norwegians continued fighting the Nazis through underground resistance. These resistance fighters included many Sámi who had formerly served as part of the Norwegian Ski Brigade and were instrumental in destroying a secret German nuclear base in Telemark in 1944. However, many other Norwegian Sámi were forced into labor by the SS to mine iron ore and build a railway from Narvik to Finland through Finnmark. Forced sterilizations and deportations were also not uncommon.

Continuation War
At the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, Hitler offered Finland assistance in recapturing the lost territory to the Soviets (some of which, e.g. Pachenga/Petsamo Finland conquered for the first time in the midst of the Russian Revolution). However, Finland never formally joined the Axis powers, but did closely cooperate with the Germans – including deporting at least some Jews to German camps. The Finns with assistance from the SS Nord invaded Kola on June 1, 1941. Most Finnish Saami served as part of the “Long Distance Patrol” because of their abilities on skis and familiarity with the terrain.

Unfortunately, Finnish Saami, being supplied by forced labor of Norwegian Saami, were forced to fight Russian Saami during the Continuation War. With Finnish assistance, many Saami villages in the Soviet territory were evacuated for the remainder of the war. However, other Saami were not so lucky and along with many other Soviet soldiers and civilians were placed in prison and even concentration camps. This angered the Finnish government, who also refused to assist the Wehrmacht in seizing Leningrad. Eventually the tide turned in favor of the Red Army and Soviet troops marched back into Finland and on June 9, 1944, the Red Army got within striking distance of Helsinki. The Finns sued for peace and lost much territory, including a large part of Saami.

Lapland War (1944–45)
As a result of Finland's peace deal with the Soviets, German troops were required to leave the country. The withdrawal of the German Wehrmacht from Northern Finland and far north of Norway meant that all houses, roads and infrastructure were destroyed. This meant forced evacuation, destruction, an economic setback and the loss of all visible history. The Germans committed many atrocities against the Norwegians and Norwegian Saámi during the Lapland War, including raping hundreds of women, many of whom committed suicide because of the trauma. The Finnmark province, the north-eastern municipalities of Troms province and all of the northern areas of Finland were but smoking ruins. Eventually Soviet troops fully invaded Sampi with the assistance of the Norwegian Army in Exile and liberated Finnmark. On April 26, 1945, Finnmark was liberated.

Renewed interest
News in Sámi on national radio in Norway started in 1946. At about the same time, experiments were being done with bilingual teachings of the alphabet in the first and second grade, to ease the learning process. However, the presence of a Sámi minority in Norway was largely ignored. Education, communication, industrialization, all contributed to integrating Sámi communities into Norwegian society at the point of losing identity.

The conflicts between Sámi and the Nordic governments continued into the mid 20th century. The proposed construction of the hydro power dam in the 1960s and 1970s contained controversial propositions such as putting a village (Máze) and a cemetery under water.

Only a minor part is today working with reindeer husbandry. There are also minor groups working as fishermen, producing Sámi arts and serving tourism. Besides having a voting length in the Sámi parliaments (with differing levels of authority and autonomy in various countries) or influence in any Sámi language, the rest are ordinary citizens, adhering to the Scandinavian culture. In Sweden, major parts of Norrland (and not only Sámi villages) are also experiencing major emigration to larger towns.

With the creation of the Republic of Finland in the first half of the 20th century, the Sámi inhabiting this area were no longer under the rule of the Russian Empire, but instead citizens of the newly created state of Finland. The Sámi Parliament of Finland was created in 1973. One recent issue concerning Sámi rights in Finland is the foresting of traditional Sámi land by state-owned Finnish companies.

Since 1992, the Sámi have had their own national day; the February 6.

In 1898 and 1907/08 some Sámi emigrated to Alaska and Newfoundland, respectively, due to requests from the American government. Their mission was to teach reindeer herding to Native Americans.

Assimilated Sámi
[[File:Viking_Expansion.svg|thumb|right|Map showing area of Scandinavian settlement in

{{legend|#800000|eighth century}} {{legend|#f00|ninth century}} {{legend|#ff8000|tenth century}} {{legend|#eded00|eleventh century}} {{legend|#0f0|denotes areas subjected to frequent Viking raids but with little or no Scandinavian settlement}}]]

Kainuu Sámi was spoken in Kainuu, but became extinct in the 1700s. Kainuu Sámi belonged to the Eastern Sámi language group. It died out when the Kainuu Sámi assimilated and was replaced by Finnish.

The original inhabitants of Kainuu were Sámi hunter-fisherers. In the 17th century, the Governor General of Finland Per Brahe fostered the population growth of Kainuu by giving a ten-year tax exemption to settlers. It was necessary to populate Kainuu with Finnish farmers because the area was threatened from the east by the Russians.

There are only 14,600 Sámi living in Sweden today.

"Already the ancient Romans knew about the Phinnoi, the people that hunted with arrowheads made from bone. The Scandinavian historical sources from the Middle Ages praise the archery skills of the Sámi as well as their strong bows which a Norwegian “could not string”. The North Sámi called this bow juoksa. A boy turned into a man when he was able to string the bow. At that point, he also had to start paying taxes."

Lapland War 1944–1945 in World War II
Waffen-SS (6. SS-Gebirgs-Division Nord) were fighting in the Lapland War. There were encounters between the Sámi people and the Germans. The assimilated Sámi would have been fighting in the Finnish army.

title: Sámi history


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/TENS

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled TENS.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to keep the article.

From Cleanup: TENS - no content (imported from Cleanup by SimonP)

 * Keep (I've expanded it). Widely used and with wide following. Perhaps move to Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation, although even Health Professionals rarely refer to it by any other name than TENS. JFW | T@lk  21:12, 30 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Looks good now, keep. Thue 23:12, 30 May 2004 (UTC)
 * It's a stub. We like stubs. Also, it has the potential to be a really odd but interesting article if both its medical and sexua uses are expanded on. Snowspinner 21:00, May 31, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep the sexual uses of TENS units are widely known in the BDSM community and curiosity may lead any number of people to seek out an explanation to the term.JimD 01:48, 2004 Jun 3 (UTC)
 * Yep, keep. Looks good now. DS 00:40, 4 Jun 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/TENS


text:
Category:Brass instruments

A brass instrument is a musical instrument that uses a cupped mouthpiece shaped in a way that allows the player's lips to vibrate to generate the instrument's sound.

title: Category:Brass instruments


text:
Category:Content management systems

A content management system (CMS) is a system used to organize and facilitate collaborative content creation. Recently, the term has been used specifically to refer to programs on WWW servers, but it can also refer to hardware devices that manage documents on a large network.

title: Category:Content management systems


text:
Category:Star Control

The Star Control series is a trilogy of computer games with a cult following. Based around a space combat game modelled after Spacewar!, each of the three games adds to this a strategic or adventure game. Star Control II is frequently cited as one of the best games of the 1990s. __NOGALLERY__

title: Category:Star Control


text: Category:Star Trek: Voyager episodes

title: Category:Star Trek: Voyager episodes


text:
Talk:Jade Tree (record label)

Untitled
I think it's kind of silly to list every band that has been on the label. A lot of them only released one or two albums/ep's and never became that succesful. Listing only the better known, or more recent bands would be best. Then we could add a link to the Jade Tree site for further info on bands. Milk 15:52, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

This page should be retitled "Jade Tree" the word "Records" is not part of the name.
 * Done. AdRock (talk) 16:56, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jade Tree (record label)


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User:Plop/Some equations

Here are some equations which are probably only useful to me.

"Easy" reaction rate formula

 * $$\mbox{reaction rate}={\mbox{change in mass or concentration}\over\mbox{time taken}}$$

Example

\begin{matrix} \mbox{reaction rate} & = & {\mbox{change in mass of magnesium}\over\mbox{time taken}} \\ & = & \frac{0.1}{10} \mbox{g magnesium used up per second} \\ & = & 0.01 \mbox{gs} ^{-1} \\ & \mbox{or} & 0.01 \frac{\mbox{g}}{\mbox{s}} \\ & \mbox{or} & 0.01 \mbox{ grams per second} \\ \end{matrix} $$

title: User:Plop/Some equations


text:
User:Muke/monobook.css

/* use browser prefs for text size and font */ body, #globalWrapper { font: inherit !important; }

title: User:Muke/monobook.css


text:
Talk:Spanglish

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 18 August 2021 and 10 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Juanc101.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 09:55, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

etymologies
Have deleted this as hopelessly confused. All it really says is that Spanish isn't a mirror of English, which we know. Words like car and carro clearly have the same Latin root, and indeed were content from this paragraph to return to the article it would need to be in the context of the shared Latin root, which effects 33% of words, some subtle like tapar and tap, SqueakBox 00:37, Jun 9, 2005 (UTC)

A list of common mistakes with etymologies:

-You're wrong. Carro is a word used in all Latin America, not just in Mexico.
 * 1) The words "parcar" and "parquero" are a mishearing of the perfectly accepted Spanish words aparcar and parqueadero, and do not reflect English influence. When these last two are pronounced quickly they may sound different, like for instance, "parquea'ro", and may seem similar to the English word "to park".
 * But initially aparcar or parquear were Anglicisms in Spanish. The neologism estacionar has had limited success. --Error 22:35, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 1) Carro comes from the Latin word "carrus", as does the English word "car". Carro does not come from car.
 * But carro is mainly "carriage". It means "car" in Mexico. In Spain, it coche (originally, a particular kind of carriage, coach, from Hungarian kocsi). Could it be an influence of American English? --Error 22:35, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * The word for "car" in Portugal is carro, cognate to the Latin American word. I don't think anybody seriously suggests that the Portuguese got their word for car as a borrowing; it's clearly an independent development, and as such, it demonstrates that it's possible for Latin American Spanish carro to also be that. -- 209.204.188.184 29 June 2005 06:07 (UTC)

 * 1) Bus is a short word for "autobús", although it doesn't matter from if it is from direct English influence. It is now a common word in various Spanish speaking countries.
 * 2) Aseguranza is a correct term in the Spanish language (used only in Salamanca, Spain). It originally means "seguridad" (that is "security") and, as it is a word in disuse, speakers have changed 'naturally' its meaning to that of "insurance". "Seguridad" is a similar word to "seguro". There is no English influence whatsoever in this change.
 * Could it be an influence of French assurance? --Error 22:35, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * The word aseguranza is common among immigrant Mexican workers in Northern California, and in that case, it's certainly not French influence, nor influence from the Spanish of Salamanca. The word for insurance in Mexico is seguro; try Googling for "México seguros" and you'll see it clearly (e.g., there's a link to a yellow pages section in the first page of results).  If you google for "México aseguranza," the hits you get are in the USA.  What's happening is that aseguranza is calqued from English insurance.  It's morphological analogy: sure : seguro; insure : asegurar; insurance : aseguranza. -- 209.204.188.184 29 June 2005 06:07 (UTC)

Chatear
The word 'chatear' is now considered to be part of Standard Spanish since it is already included in the RAE dictionary. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Robgomez (talk • contribs) 20:38, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Writ 2 - Academic Writing
— Assignment last updated by Icecream209 (talk) 07:07, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spanglish


text:
Category:String instruments

A string instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound with vibrating strings amplified by one or more of three main methods:
 * Vibration of a sounding board via a bridge
 * Resonance of air in a sound box, often through a sound hole
 * Electric pickup for an instrument amplifier driving a loudspeaker

title: Category:String instruments


text: Category:Star Wars films

title: Category:Star Wars films


text: Category:Star Wars

title: Category:Star Wars


text:
Talk:Coat of arms of Albania

Untitled section
Is the Albanian eagle emblem in any way related to the Byzantine eagle ?

http://www.unl.edu/efa/courses/315/eagle.gif

Also, could that 'helmet' be a phrygian cap ? Bogdan | Talk 16:00, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm, not sure, but I doubt it. The double headed eagle has been seen in many places. In the case of Albania, it came from the time of Skanderbeg, and his clan's flag. The helmet also comes from him. There is a legend/story that once he was helped by a goat find a path through the mountains and escape the Turkish armies, so that's where that comes from. Dori | Talk 04:01, Jun 1, 2004 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 16:34, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Emblem vs. CoA
Why is this called "emblem", and not "Coat of arms"? This is not like France, Belarus or other soviet emblems that took the place of the coats of arms. ES Vic (talk) 17:05, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Not sure. This is clearly a coat of arms. I'd recommend a move.-- Eva  b  d  19:17, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I've made a move.-- Eva  b  d  15:04, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

Image:Albania state emblem.svg
Question copied from User talk:Sgt bilko: Image:Albania state emblem.svg has a yellow border. Is that border part of the coat of arms, or is it just a graphical nicety? --Palnatoke 08:58, 21 May 2008 (UTC)

confusion of tongues

 * "Turkish: Arnaut, Greek: Arbanas, Arbanensis, Italian: Albanian, Epirotarum, Albanensis, Albanian: Arber, Arben, Arberesh, Epirotas."

–ensis is Latin, not Greek, not Italian. Epirotarum is Latin genitive plural, 'of the Epirotes'. Albanian is not a normal Italian form, though Albaniano may be. I don't know about Arbanas. —Tamfang (talk) 17:56, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

Coat of arms of Albania 1992 version
I've found that from 1992 until 1998 it was used without the Skanderbeg's helmet, and after it was replaced. I saw it from this video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJPkD5R8xKc it is about the first assassination of the albanian deputy Azem Hajdari, you can see the emblem in the front of the building 2:16 min, 2:27 min as he is taking his speech in the podium after he survived, then you can see it again hanging on the wall of the Parliament from 3:52 min. AceDouble (talk) 15:37, 30 January 2013 (UTC).

Title terminology
The page name should be "coat of arms of Albania". It is referred as such in the constitution, using the Albanian word "stema", meaning "coat of arms". It is only referred to as an "emblem" in unofficial English translations. The constitution contains the blazon, and the state symbols law only provides further non-heraldic specifications. The same shield was used historically too. Dughorm (talk) 12:36, 5 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You are incorrect. The exact translation of the word "stema" is "emblem". You don't have to be a native speaker such as myself to know this. Google Translate can do that for you. Also, the official website of the President of the Republic also uses the word Emblem https://president.al/simbolet Kj1595 (talk) 17:57, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Based on what you linked, the Albanian word specifically for an emblem is "emblema". "Stema" is derived from Italian "stemma" meaning a coat of arms, which the symbol of Albania is. You don't have to be a heraldist such as myself to know this. Google Translate is in no way reliable, and people who are not familiar with proper heraldic practice, especially in former socialist states, misuse the words for coats of arms in their respective languages for any kind of a state emblem, even if it is not heraldic. The coat of arms of Albania is a coat of arms by all definitions, and its article's name should reflect that. — Dughorm (talk) 08:43, 6 April 2021 (UTC)

 * As a native Albanian speaker, and as evidenced by Google Translate, the exact translation of the word Stema is indeed Emblem. The word is derived from Italian, true. But in Albanian, that is the translation. Coat of arms terminology does not exist in Albanian language or Albanian heraldry for that matter. The official website of the President of the Republic refers to it as Emblem. Your only argument is that because this word comes from the italian Stemma that it must mean that. Well, no. Different countries use different word terminologies. Official sources refer to it as Emblem. Kj1595 (talk) 09:41, 6 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Try inserting "stemë" into Google Translate instead. It outputs a range of synonyms, including "coat of arms", which the Albanian symbol is. What you consider to be the only correct translation is irrelevant. The proof you provide is cherrypicked and biased with attempts to confirm your conviction. Also stop reverting my edits without even bothering to check the typos and faulty translation I have fixed and calling it "removing content for no reason". Dughorm (talk) 11:44, 6 April 2021 (UTC)

 * I inserted that and it gave as a 6th suggestion the word "arms". Not "coat of arms" like you stubbornly keep insisting. So, your argument once again fails. In both versions, "stema" and "stemë" the word EMBLEM is the 1st suggestion. I gave you an official source which is the office of the President of the Republic and you call it cherrypicking? Really? Kj1595 (talk) 23:33, 6 April 2021 (UTC)

 * "Arms" and "coat of arms" mean the same, as well as "blazon" and "blazonry" being synonymous to those (https://i.imgur.com/uoO2Gaj.png). This is a clear indicator of you not being qualified to talk of heraldic terminology, whether native or not in Albanian. The website of the president may be an official source but it is not the definitive source - and the regulating laws clearly use "stema" and not "emblema", as the presidential website does in both English and Albanian with no respect to the law. And, as I have said numerous times, the coat of arms of Albania is a coat of arms, thus its English article's name should reflect that and not your conviction. Being a "native speaker", Google Translate translation result order and strong convictions are not sufficient of an argument. Lastly, each coat of arms is an emblem, but all of those that are specifically arms are named as such on English Wikipedia regardless of their designation in foreign languages. Please let those who care about heraldry and not nationalism handle the heraldic section of Wikipedia. — Dughorm (talk) 08:46, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Again, in both translations of the word, EMBLEM is the 1st suggestion. The word "arms" is a 6th suggestion. How can you argue that? What exactly is your argument? You have yet to make one. Your only assertion is that it must be "coat of arms" because it cannot be anything else? I mean, where is your argument? Kj1595 (talk) 19:21, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * How about we completely ignore how you believe "stema" would have to be translated and call it a coat of arms in English because it is a coat of arms? "Stema" may refer to an emblem, but here it means "coat of arms". Why do you even keep insisting on this minor detail you don't even understand yourself? You are also the one who added the "blazon" to the infobox after I removed it much earlier in favor of a translation of the official descriptions. If it is a shield with a blazon, it's a coat of arms. It's not the only of your self-contradictions, just to note. Dughorm (talk) 20:23, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

Vandalism
User:Kj1595 has been vandalizing the article for months, making hundreds of edits over a short amount of time, moving the article to include "emblem" in the name despite having no solid reason except their own convictions, and in spite of numerous cases of users disagreeing in the past, removing content, and reducing the quality of formatting. I am currently in the process of restoring it to the previous state as of 14:16, 4 July 2020 while preserving the few good contributions made by that user. — Dughorm (talk) 10:20, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You are the one vandalizing this thread without providing any sound arguments. Kj1595 (talk) 19:17, 7 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I have provided all the needed evidence. You keep unilaterally making significant changes and dismissing all the arguments. Once again, cease making changes and let other people who know better contribute. — Dughorm (talk) 19:48, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * What evidence have you provided? And how can you know better than me when I have authored more than 90% of Albanian heraldry images in Commons? Kj1595 (talk) 19:52, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You have been reported to the Admin Noticeboard for vandalism. Kj1595 (talk) 20:08, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You are the one who is doing vandalism. I'm merely undoing it. Stop pretending like you own this article and cease reverting productive contributions. Dughorm (talk) 20:10, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * That's up for an admin to decide. Kj1595 (talk) 20:12, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You are the one with a history of cancelling other people's work. I'll admit, I'm not familiar with all the reporting stuff so you saved me the trouble of looking for a way to report your behavior. Dughorm (talk) 20:16, 7 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Do you realize that all the emblems that you brought back are mostly the product of the fantasy of the fans or with significant changes from the original emblems. The version you propose to return has only 3 references which are all integrated in the new version and supported by official or reliable sources. I understand the fact that everyone can create an emblem in their own way, but here we are talking about an article that talks about the official emblems of the state and that most of them are protected by special laws up to constitutional laws as well. Bes-ART Talk  20:49, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

 * I have not undone any of the positive contributions by Kj1595, nor have I proposed to remove the content. On a different note, I doubt your being unbiased, as even your Wikipedia user page screams "Albanian nationalism". If you have any contributions to provide without biases, feel free to add new information with sources to back it up. — Dughorm (talk) 21:05, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

You are not in a position to say what I am or I am not. I suggest you read more about the behavior on wikipedia, like WP:CIV or otherwise you will be reported for offensive attacks on other users. Bes-ART Talk  21:17, 7 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I am sorry for any offence I may have caused. I am merely being cautious of nationalist biases due to the natural controversy of political topics, and would prefer articles on heraldry to be written by those who care about heraldry first of all. I apologize for somewhat insensitive wording I've employed. — Dughorm (talk) 21:27, 7 April 2021 (UTC)
 * As I said, most of the article is built based on emblems created entirely by someone's fantasy and in some cases have been reported as disputed images. From the edit history of it seems that the article is a work un progress and is slowly being completed with additional emblems vectorized by him and supporting sources. If something is not agreed upon there are much more civil ways to resolve disputes, first and foremost WP:AGF, WP:COMPROMISE, and than you can use WP:DRN or WP:3O. Bes-ART  Talk  21:48, 7 April 2021 (UTC)
 * You do not have the authority to call sourced files "fictional emblems". There wouldn't have been a dispute if Kj1595 didn't keep reverting any changes as if they own a monopoly on the article. They also made reverts while a dispute is open, which does not do them any good. Dughorm (talk) 11:52, 8 April 2021 (UTC)

 * What sources are you speaking of? Give me each source for each image you want to put in this article and let's analize its credibility?? Do you really believe the House of Kastrioti coat of arms to be a legitimate historical image? Just look at the sources in that image. Or the Kingdom of Albania under italian occupation emblem which is a composite of two fictional images that even the source itself indicates? Or Wied's emblem that has as a source "own work"??? Kj1595 (talk) 18:10, 8 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Ever heard of this thing called "heraldry"? The coat of arms of George Castrioti is known, and any depiction of it is valid as long as it follows the blazon. Go read the article on heraldry, maybe then you would know the coat of arms of Albania is a coat of arms. Dughorm (talk) 17:26, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * It's not about what you believe or want it to be called. Official sources use the word Emblem. Until that changes, there is little to argue here. Kj1595 (talk) 18:07, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Even our sister country, Kosovo, uses the same official terminology for their state symbol. It's the same terminology used in the local government as well. Example:https://kk.rks-gov.net/mitroviceejugut/mitrovice-4/emblema-e-komunes-se-mitrovices — And we speak the same language so that should be telling. Kj1595 (talk) 18:15, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * France, Israel, Eritrea, Kazakhstan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, North Macedonia all use the word Emblem. Are you going to change the name in those articles as well? Kj1595 (talk) 18:40, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * There's this thing called contextual translation. Stema may be de facto used to refer to any emblem, but when it is used to refer to a coat of arms, it should be translated accordingly. Whichever symbol the unrecognized state of Kosovo uses does not have roots in heraldry, and does not have any kind of a description, so that one may be called an emblem. The emblem of France is not even official, the emblem of Israel does not have a description and is monochrome, the emblem of Eritrea is not supposed to be a coat of arms. While the emblems of Kazakhstan and the DRC are officially called with the words for a coat of arms, neither of them is one, and stems from the same misuse for the word for any kind of a state emblem as is present in Albanian. As such, it's translated based on the context: while both Russia and Belarus use the same word for their symbols, its original meaning being "coat of arms", they are called respectively "coat of arms of Russia" and "national emblem of Belarus" on Wikipedia. Again, look on the talk page above - there is a decision to rename the article to call the symbol a coat of arms, which you have unilaterally overridden for no reason except your personal conviction based on misuse of certain words. All the Wikipedia precedents support my position and you have proven not to be knowledgeable in heraldry or translation theory. — Dughorm (talk) 20:45, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm tired of arguing about this. Go ahead and change it to "Coat of arms" but please do not undo the layout changes of the article without giving a good reason. Kj1595 (talk) 21:41, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Glad we have finally reached an agreement at least on something. The page must be moved to "Coat of arms of Albania", as it includes symbols from before the republic, but making that move is for some reason impossible. — Dughorm (talk) 08:16, 13 April 2021 (UTC)

 * @Dughorm Request WP:3O and let others decide. But if Italy which uses Emblema, I would leave it as it is. Bes-ART Talk  22:10, 12 April 2021 (UTC)
 * The emblem of Italy is not heraldic — no shield, thus it's called "emblema", while San Marino calls their coat of arms "stemma". Ones with shields following the rules of heraldry are titled coats of arms even if the native language does not differentiate between the two. — Dughorm (talk) 08:11, 13 April 2021 (UTC)

the question of Fraktur

 * The transverse part of the letter ‘t’ is from a calligraphic font called Fraktur,

Sadly I don't have an image, but I'm guessing that this sentence means to say that one stroke of one letter (!) is consistent with the calligraphic style called Fraktur … which is a range of styles, not a single fixed style, let alone a single font (did fonts have names at that time?). —Tamfang (talk) 18:58, 22 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coat of arms of Albania


text:
Talk:Nuclear fallout

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 15 January 2019 and 2 May 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Amillionlittlethings, Getinthevann, Chardeemaccdenniss, Dukesilver4ever.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 05:27, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Seven Ten Rule
I have rewritten this section. The previous writeup said a number of things that are not supported by the source document. I found a few online references (e.g. https://emilms.fema.gov/IS3/FEMA_IS/is03/REM0504050.htm) that also make unsupported inferences or factual errors about the data in the source document.

I'm not sure it needs to be mentioned in this section, but the "seven ten rule" is not the same exponential relation that describes decay of individual radionuclides: that relation describes an exponential decrease in radioactivity from a linear increase in time. The "seven ten rule" describes a geometric decrease in radiation dose from a geometric increase in time. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Echawkes (talk • contribs) 23:29, 3 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Hello Echawkes, the entire Seven-Ten Rule section is fukacta. Yes, the key line is a direct quote from the reference, but the reference is wrong.  The updated explanation you found of the Seven-Ten Rule in a more recent FEMA document  has an arithmetically correct example.  The Kearny book (and the government documents he lifted from) describe the decrease in radiation in chunky terms because it assumes that the reader has only basic math skills.  You are correct, radioactive decay is an exponential function.  Half-life is a well defined function in the form p(t) = p(0)e^(-rt). The problem is that half-life is defined only for a single isotope.  Fallout, such as it is, is a million parts radioactive dirt (mostly light elements) and one part Plutonium nastiness. If I have the time, I will derive the formula, not that we would publish it.
 * What is more to the point is that three quarters of what is written above is false. I would go so far as to say pseudoscience. In the 1950s we tested ground burst. They might be used against missile silos. They will never be used against industrial or strategic targets.  It's a waste of the bomb. Air bursts use the power of the device more efficiently. As long as the fireball doesn't touch the ground, there will not be local fallout.  We made air bursts over Japan (2000' altitude). There was no significant fallout.  All of the hand wringing is for naught.  The bomb proper will blast itself into the stratosphere and spread all over the earth, but we're talking about warheads that weigh 375 lbs.
 * Take for example the comment about gamma radiation. Yes, it's a photon. Photons from your phone are low energy. They won't hurt you. Gamma radiation is by definition ionizing radiation with energy in excess of 100KeV. From radioactive decay a photon can have an energy as high as 8MeV. That will shit sure hurt you. The alpha and beta particles can be stopped by paper. Rhadow (talk) 01:08, 5 December 2018 (UTC)
 * If the rule is, "With each seven-fold increase in time since detonation, there is a ten-fold reduction in radiation," then the math is:
 * $$\text{radiation}_t = 10^{\log_{10}(\text{radiation}_1) - 1.183 \times \log_{10}(\text{time})}$$
 * I suspect that the rule of thumb came from an engineer who plotted radiation v time on log-log paper and derived the seven-ten rule.
 * The result of this formula, in case anyone want to discuss it, is as follows:
 * - At 1 hour since blast, radiation = 1000 {for example}
 * - At 7 hours 100
 * - At 49 hours 10
 * - At 343 hours 1
 * - At 2401 hours 0.1
 * I hope this we never need this knowledge. Rhadow (talk) 17:28, 5 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Your formulation of the mathematical relationship looks right to me. Thank you for providing it. Although, to nitpick a little, the relationship is between dose rate and time, not between radiation and time.
 * I don't understand why you claim "what is written above is false... or pseudoscience." There was certainly fallout from the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki - I don't think there is any scientific controversy about that. Your comment about gamma radiation is basically correct, but doesn't contradict the ORNL reference's statement that exposure to gamma rays can be reduced by shielding. You weren't specific about what else you think is wrong. If you think the data or the math is wrong, please state why, and/or cite a reference to support your assertion.
 * I don't understand why you say that the FEMA web page is more accurate. Most of the content of the FEMA page you linked to looks the same as the ORNL publication cited in the article. I've been assuming that the FEMA page is based on the ORNL publication, but I don't know for sure, since it doesn't cite any references.
 * Further, I disagree that the FEMA page is more correct. Its statement that "The exposure rate must be expressed in the same unit as the time increase" is nonsense: the relation is exactly the same, regardless of the exposure rate units.
 * Echawkes (talk) 03:52, 9 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Hello Echawkes, we are generally in agreement. That's a good thing. On the topic of fallout in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, I found only one article in a quick search.  Yes, there was black rain . There is no discussion of local fallout because the air bursts were high enough that the fireball did not touch the ground, a condition necessary to create large amounts of fallout.  There is global fallout from high altitude bursts, but it is limited to a small multiples of the mass of the device, not thousand of tons.
 * My comments about pseudoscience were about the talk, not the article. For example, one editor claimed that gamma radiation was less harmful because it was mass-less photons. Gamma radiation that penetrates lead scares me more than an alpha particle that can be stopped by paper.
 * You are correct about the units, as long as the units are proportional to one another, as the Roentgen, Gray, and Sievert, and hour, minute, and second are. It is astounding that the government prints this sort of stuff. Rhadow (talk) 17:37, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Tiger-like structure?
The article states that nuclear fallout "is orange in colour and has a tiger-like structure." Tiger-like structure? What is that supposed to mean? --2601:18A:C500:C00:21BA:160B:F3A0:8DED (talk) 03:31, 9 June 2021 (UTC)

Nuclear fallout is exclusively a product of nuclear weapons
Mess created from Chernobyl is not fallout. It is a special type of radiological contamination.

There is a huge difference between fallout and reactor contamination, both chemically and in sense of radioisotopic content, which in the end produces different effects on biological organisms.

Nuclear reactor accidents have no place in this article and mentioning them seems like pure antinuclear scaremongering. Lajoswinkler (talk) 18:25, 14 February 2024 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Fallout (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 21:04, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nuclear fallout


text:
Santissima Annunziata, Florence

The Basilica della Santissima Annunziata (Basilica of the Most Holy Annunciation) is a Renaissance-style, Catholic minor basilica in Florence, region of Tuscany, Italy. This is considered the mother church of the Servite Order. It is located at the northeastern side of the Piazza Santissima Annunziata near the city center.

History
The church was founded in 1250 by the seven original members of the Servite Order. In 1252, a painting of the Annunciation had been begun by a friar Bartolomeo, commissioned by the Servite monks. It is said he despaired about being able to paint a virgin with a beautiful enough face, and fell asleep, only to find the painting completed. This miracle he attributed to an angel. The painting now housed in the church, acquired increasing veneration, such that in 1444 the Gonzaga family from Mantua financed a special tribune. Initially Michelozzo, who was the brother of the Servite prior, was commissioned to build it, but since Ludovico III Gonzaga had a special admiration for Leon Battista Alberti, this latter architect was given the commission in 1469. Alberti's designs were constricted by the pre-existing foundations. Construction was completed in 1481, after Alberti's death. Though the structure was refurbished in Baroque-style in the seventeenth century, the basic scheme of a domed circular space flanked by altar niches is still evident.

The facade of the church was added in 1601 by the architect Giovanni Battista Caccini, imitating the Renaissance-style of Brunelleschi's facade of the Foundling Hospital, which defines the eastern side of the piazza. The building across from the Foundling Hospital, designed by Sangallo the Elder, was also given a Brunelleschian facade in the 1520s.

Veneration
Pilgrims who came to the church to venerate the miraculous painting often left wax votive offerings, many of them life-size models of the donor (sometimes complete with horses). In 1516, a special atrium was built to house these figures, the Chiostrino dei Voti. By the late 18th century there were some six hundred of these images and they had become one of the city's great tourist attractions. In 1786, however, they were all melted down to make candles.

Pope Alexander VI, in appreciation for the survival of Rome after French occupation, paid homage and gifted a silver effigy to the church.

The Florentine brides traditionally visit the shrine to leave their bouquets.

Interior
This church is entered from the Chiostrino dei Voti. The Baroque decoration of the church interior was begun in 1644, when Pietro Giambelli frescoed the ceiling with an Assumption as a centerpiece based on designs by Baldassare Franceschini.

The 1st chapel to right contains a Madonna in Glory by Jacopo da Empoli, with walls frescoed by Matteo Rosselli. The 5th chapel on the right contains a Monument to Orlando de' Medici (1456) by Bernardo Rossellino. The right transept has a small side chapel has a Pietà (1559) by Baccio Bandinelli and graces his tomb.

The chapel-surrounded tribune or choir, known as the Rotonda, was designed in turn by Michelozzo and Alberti between 1444 and 1476. Notable among the chapels is the fifth (aligned to nave axis), which has a crucifix (1594–8) by Giambologna for his tomb, with statues of the "Active and Contemplative Lives" by his pupil Francavilla, saints and angels by Pietro Tacca, and murals by Bernardino Poccetti. The next chapel has a Resurrection (1548–52) by Bronzino with a statue of St Roch attributed to Veit Stoss. The next chapel has a Madonna with Saints by a follower of Perugino.

In the sixth chapel to the left of the nave is a SS Ignatius, Erasmus and Blaise by Raffaellino del Garbo; the next chapel has one of the panels of Annunziata Altarpiece (1507) by Perugino, once at the high altar of the church (the Deposition, begun by Filippino Lippi, is now at the Gallerie dell'Accademia, while other panels are divided between other collections in the world). The altarpiece of the next chapel has a Trinity with Saint Jerome and two saints (c. 1455) by Andrea del Castagno, who also painted the mural of The Vision of St. Julian in the next chapel, called the Feroni chapel. This chapel was elaborately decorated in a baroque fashion by Gianbattista Foggini in 1692. The first chapel just to the left of the entrance has a tabernacle of the Annunciation (1448–52) by Michelozzo and the sculptor Pagno di Lapo Portigiani.

The organ built by Domenico Di Lorenzo da Lucca in 1509–1521 is the oldest in Florence and the third oldest in Italy. Today the titular organist of the church is Simone Stella. The church contains the tomb of the Italian writer Maria Valtorta. A memorial was erected in the church to the painter Giovanna Tacconi Messini by her husband after her death.

Cloisters
The Chiostrino dei Voti was designed by Michelozzo. The center of this small cloister in front of the basilica facade is now sheltered by a glass roof. Baldovinetti painted the first lunette in the chiostro in c. 1460. In about 1476, Rosselli began its decoration with a lunette dedicated to the then blessed Filippo Benizzi, fifth Prior General of the Servites. Further lunettes were added (1509–1510) by Andrea del Sarto.

The large cloister, known as the Chiostro Grande or dei Morti, flanking the northwest of the church, contains the famous frescoed lunette depictiong the Madonna del Sacco (1525) by del Sarto.

The Capella di San Luca, which opens off it, has belonged to the artists confraternity or the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno since 1565. Many artists are buried in its vault, including Benvenuto Cellini, Pontormo, Franciabigio, Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli and Lorenzo Bartolini. Inside is Pontormo’s Holy Family (c. 1514) painted for church of St. Ruffillo and murals by Alessandro Allori: Trinity; Vasari: St. Luke paints Madonna; and Santi di Tito: Solomon directs the construction of the temple of Jerusalem. The ten large stucco figures were sculpted by Vincenzo Danti, Montorsoli and others.

Most part of the Cloister of SS. Annunziata is today the seat of Istituto Geografico Militare (IGM). In 2007, in the west part of the cloister occupied by the Istituto, the group found a monumental stair by Michelozzo, previously hidden, an Annunciation attributed to Paolo Uccello, and some 'Grottesche' frescoes by Morto da Feltre.

title: Santissima Annunziata, Florence


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User:Svante~enwiki

I'm active on it.wiki. My user page is here.

title: User:Svante~enwiki


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Digital sound revolution

The digital sound revolution (or digital audio revolution) refers to the widespread adoption of digital audio technology in the computer industry beginning in the 1980s.

Software-based pulse-width modulation
Some of the first computer music was created in 1961 by LaFarr Stuart, who wrote software to modulate the duration of and between pulses (pulse-width modulation or "PWM", via a process now often referred to as "bit banging") on a bus line that had been connected to an amplified speaker originally installed to monitor the functioning of Iowa State University's CYCLONE computer, a derivative of the Illiac. The entire computer was used to create simple, recognizable tunes using digital audio.

The speakers in the IBM PC (released in 1981) and its successors may be used to create sounds and music using a similar mechanism.

Programmable sound generators
Programmable sound generators were the first specialized audio circuits in computers included simple analog oscillators that could be set to desired frequencies, generally approximating tones along the musical scale. An example of this is the 1978 POKEY custom ASIC used in the Atari 8-bit computers.

FM synthesis
The next development was to produce a base frequency, and then modulating it with another frequency to create desired effects; this process of audio waveform synthesis using frequency modulation is usually referred to as FM synthesis. This technology was introduced in the early 1980s by Yamaha, which began manufacturing FM synth boards for Japanese computers such as the NEC PC-8801 and PC-9801 in the early 1980s. This allowed personal computer game audio to have greater complexity than the simplistic beeps from internal speakers. These FM synth boards produced a "warm and pleasant sound" that musicians such as Yuzo Koshiro and Takeshi Abo utilized to produce video game music that is still highly regarded within the chiptune community.

Early integrated circuit devices to incorporate FM synthesis methods include the Yamaha OPL2 chip set (YM3812 and external digital-to-analog converter) was included on the AdLib sound card (1987), on the Creative Technology Sound Blaster (1989), and on the Media Vision Pro AudioSpectrum (1991); these were replaced by the next generation Yamaha OPL3 chip set on the Pro AudioSpectrum 16 and Sound Blaster 16.

Digital-to-analog converters
As they became more cost-effective, digital-to-analog converter (often called "D-to-A"—abbreviated "D/A", or "DAC") integrated circuits augmented and ultimately replaced FM synthesis devices. These devices enabled computers to play digital audio using an encoding technique known as pulse-code modulation ("PCM"). Unlike pulse-width modulation ("PWM"), which turns a signal on and off, pulse-code modulation also allows the level of a signal to be set to several intermediate levels; in this regard, PWM is similar to black-and-white images, PCM is similar to grayscale images.

Digital audio compact discs (using PCM) were introduced in 1982. Starting in 1985, the medium was adapted for the storage of computer data via the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard and the High Sierra Format (which evolved in ISO 9660).

The Macintosh 128K (1984) and Atari ST (1985) could produce digital audio via software. Without dedicated audio hardware, digital audio on these machines were usually limited to title screens in games (at higher sampling rates) or games which did not feature heavy animation which left enough CPU time to play lower quality samples.

The first computer to with a digital sound processor was the Amiga released in 1985. The MOS Technology 8364 Paula chip has four independent 8-bit DACs and can play either four mono audio channels or two combined stereo channels. It could play digital samples from memory with virtually no CPU usage or any clever software tricks.

In 1989, the Creative Technology Sound Blaster included a processor and digital-to-analog converter, plus the Yamaha OPL2 chip set FM synthesis devices for compatibility with the AdLib sound card. In 1991, Media Vision introduced the original Pro AudioSpectrum, which offered similar functionality but introduced stereo sound, an audio mixer and CD-ROM interface (SCSI and many variants); its 16-bit successor, the Pro AudioSpectrum 16, offered CD-quality sound via its 16-bit compressor-decompressor ("CODEC").

In 1997, Intel created its Audio CODEC standard AC'97, which was superseded in 2004 by Intel High Definition Audio (HD Audio).

Compression
High fidelity audio hardware became inexpensive faster than data storage media, driving the development of compression techniques.

A popular early variant of pulse-code modulation ("PCM") was a compressed version called adaptive differential pulse-code modulation ("ADPCM").

Sound module files (originally Amiga .MOD files) enabled music to be created and shared via compact files and played back with high quality (using four channels, each at half the sampling rate of audio compact discs). Soon after the release of its Pro AudioSpectrum 16, Media Vision included with it a MOD file player and sample music files.

In the late 1990s, the MP3 format emerged, allowing music to be stored in relatively small files by using high compressions rates through a predictive synthesis technique. Modern computer CD-ROM drives allowed the Red Book CD-DA data to be read in digital format (versus earlier drives that merely output analog audio), which allows entire volumes of music to be copied and encoded many times faster than normal playback speed.

Non-moving storage
After the year 2000, strong demand for small portable music players such as Apple's iPods drove competition in component sales, resulting in data storage devices becoming increasingly economical.

Online music distribution
The popularity of high-quality compressed music and the widespread availability of Internet access enabled widespread copyright infringement (most notably through Napster) followed by widespread legitimate sales of music online through the Apple iTunes Music Store, Amazon.com, Walmart.com and others.

Tapeless recording
Until the early 1990s, music was generally recorded and processed by recording studios with the use of analog tape machines, which were essential in recording, editing, mixing and finalizing audio productions. At the beginning of the 1980s, programmable synthesizers and music workstations like the New England Digital Synclavier and the Fairlight CMI appeared, which allowed for parts of a production to be stored digitally within the system's mainframe without the need for audio tape. However, a music production in itself which used such synthesizers usually still involved mixing and editing using analog tape machine equipment.

The first computer applications to offer fully digital tapeless recording, mixing and editing were Cubase and Notator for the Atari ST platform around 1989. In the 1990s, these and similar systems began gaining more ground among recording studios, and as computer processing and storing capacity increased, analog tape equipment was gradually replaced by fully computerized recording, in which every step in the production chain is carried out using software and digital storage.

title: Digital sound revolution


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Doubleheader

Doubleheader or double header may refer to:
 * Doubleheader (baseball), two baseball games played between the same two teams on the same day
 * Doubleheader (television), a broadcast of two games back-to-back
 * Double heading, using two railway locomotives to pull a long or heavy train
 * A fish of the Wrasse family Coris bulbifrons
 * Double Header (Seattle), a gay bar in Seattle, United States
 * "Double Header", a story from The Railway Series story, "The Eight Famous Engines"
 * "Double Header", a 1994-1995 episode of the Ren & Stimpy Show

title: Doubleheader


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Category:Laws in the United Kingdom

 * Laws passed by parliaments in the United Kingdom and predecessor states.

 * Statutes passed before 1707, by the pre-Union Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland are only listed under Category:Acts of the Parliament of England and Category:Acts of the Parliament of Scotland respectively. Laws passed by the Parliament of Great Britain or the Parliament of the United Kingdom that primarily apply only in England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland are listed under both those categories and the relevant categories United Kingdom Acts of Parliament by year and Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain by year.

title: Category:Laws in the United Kingdom


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Treaty of Saginaw

The Treaty of Saginaw, also known as the Treaty with the Chippewa, was made between Gen. Lewis Cass and Chief Mash Kee Yosh, Chief John Okemos, Chief Wasso and other Native American tribes of the Great Lakes region (principally the Ojibwe, but also the Ottawa and Potawatomi) in what is now the United States, on September 24, 1819, proclaimed by the President of the United States on March 25, 1820, and placed in law as.

Native Americans ceded a large tract of land (more than six million acres (24,000 km2) in the central portion of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. The southern boundary of the tract extended from a few miles northeast of Jackson west to just northeast of Kalamazoo. The line then ran directly to the head of the Thunder Bay River in south-central Montmorency County and then along the river to the mouth in Thunder Bay, near Alpena. From there it extended northeast to the international boundary line between the United States and the British Province of Upper Canada and then along the boundary south to the boundary line established by the Treaty of Detroit in 1807, which ran from the shore of Lake Huron in northeast Sanilac County southwest to a point several miles northeast of Lansing and then due south the point of origin. The treaty reserved several smaller tracts of land for Indian use within the ceded territory.

Background
The United States had recently signed the Treaty of Greenville and was looking to further expand. Lewis Cass, territorial governor of Michigan, had sought to bring "civilization" to the territory. While the Detroit area had been previously ceded with the Treaty of Detroit, he had interest in the Saginaw region. He described it as "of first quality" and claimed it would "undoubtedly settle with great rapidity".

The Michigan territory was at the time sparsely settled. The Anishinaabeg people living in the area were allied with British Canada, being major participants in the North American fur trade. The United States saw this alliance as a threat to national security, and sought to end the fur trade and thus Britain's influence in the area.

Signing of the treaty
The Saginaw Ojibweg were unwilling to cede their land at first, after the substantial losses from the Treaty of Greenville. Undeterred, Cass and Louis Campau sent two large boats to Saginaw with soldiers and supplies and built a council house for the meeting. Also arriving at Saginaw were some traders, subagents, and interpreters who journeyed across the territory via horse and canoe. They were joined by around 4,000 Anishinaabeg, consisting of Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi peoples.

Cass himself arrived at Saginaw on September 10, 1819, and called for a meeting the next morning at the newly constructed council house. At their first meeting, the governor made statements regarding the necessity of agriculture as civilization encroached and game became scarce. He concluded by stating they would be better off "confining themselves to reservations" and ceding the territory to the American government.

The Anishinaabeg responded with shock and anger. Ogamawkeketo, a representative of the Anishinaabeg, delivered a rousing rebuttal, decrying the Americans for being greedy and invasive compared to the British.

"Your young men have invited us to come and light the Council fire. We are here to smoke the pipe of peace, but not to sell our lands. Our American Father wants them. Our English Father treats us better. He has never asked for them. Your people trespass upon our hunting grounds. You flock to our shores. Our waters grow warm. Our land melts like a cake of ice. Our possessions grow smaller and smaller. The warm wave of the white man rolls in upon us and melts us away. Our woman reproach us. Our children want homes. Shall we sell from under them the spot where they spread their blankets? We have not called you here. We smoke with you the pipe of peace."

This angered Cass, who informed the council that the United States had reigned victorious in the War of 1812 and thus could easily take over Saginaw without payment. The meeting concluded with a general sense of disappointment and anxiety.

Over the following days, the Americans began to hand out an immense quantity of brandy and whiskey. The intoxicated leadership of the Anishinaabeg fought bitterly against the settlers where they could, with some of the fiercest opposition too drunk to participate in the debates. Eventually Neome, an influential Saginaw Ojibwe leader from the Flint basin, started talks with trader Jacob Smith. After some discussion, Neome agreed to cede some land in exchange for a reservation for his children, believing that resistance would implore the Americans to forcibly annex the land with no compensation. After this, more Anishinaabeg started to enter agreements to reserve their own reservation land, culminating in a scramble to secure land grants.

The land cession was to be carried out in exchange for private reserves for Anishinaabeg people and land grants set aside for mixed-race children of traders and subagents. As a condition, the Saginaw Ojibwe demanded their annuity be paid in full, unlike the delayed payments of the Treaty of Detroit. Fistfights broke out after negotiations over annuity payments floundered. The Americans handled out fifteen barrels of whiskey to quell the situation, leading to the eventual albeit tense resolution of the debate and the signing of the Treaty of Saginaw, ceding most of the land in question to the United States.

The signing of the treaty caused the influence of the Native nations in the old northwest to substantially weaken as the fur trade collapsed, their historic lands were settled, and they became forcibly dependent on annuity payments from the United States.

title: Treaty of Saginaw


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NAL Saras

The NAL Saras (Sanskrit: "Crane") is the first Indian multi-purpose civilian aircraft in the light transport aircraft category as designed by the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL).

In January 2016, it was reported that the project had been cancelled. But in February 2017, the project was revived. In February 2019, India's Ministry of Finance approved inr 60000000000 for the production of the airliner.

Development
In the mid-1980s, the Research Council recommended that the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) should study the civil aviation requirements of India and recommended ways of establishing a viable civil aviation industry. It further recommended that NAL should carry out a formal techno-economical feasibility study of a multi role light transport aircraft (LTA – renamed SARAS in October 1993). The feasibility study (November 1989) showed that there was a significant demand for a 9–14 seat multi-role LTA in the country and estimated a market potential of about 250–350 aircraft in the next 10 years. NAL submitted the feasibility study report to the Research Council in November 1990 and started its search for an industrial partner.

The project began in 1991 as a collaboration with Russia (Myasishchev had a similar project called the Duet), but financial trouble led the Russians to drop out early in the project. The project almost came to a halt when it was hit by US-imposed sanctions in 1998, after India's nuclear tests in Pokhran. The Saras project was sanctioned on 24 September 1999 with initial schedule of its maiden flight by March 2001. The first Saras (PT1) completed its maiden flight at the HAL airport in Bangalore on 29 May 2004.

The original design target parameters included a maximum take-off weight of 6,100 kg and a maximum payload of 1,232 kg, a high cruise speed of over 600 km/h, an endurance of six hours, a maximum flight altitude of 12 km (cruise altitude 10.5 km), short take-off and landing distances of about 600 m, a maximum rate of climb of 12 m/s, a low cabin noise of 78 dB, a range of 600 km with 19 passengers, 1,200 km with 14 passengers and 2,000 km with eight passengers, a high specific range of 2.5 km/kg and a low cost of operation of ₹ 5/km.

While the designed empty weight of the aircraft is around 4,125 kg, the first prototype weighed in around 5,118 kg. This issue is sought to be addressed by including composite wings and tail by the third prototype. The airframe of Saras-PT2 was built with lighter composites to reduce its overall weight by about 400 kg from its first prototype, which was overweight by about 900 kg. The aircraft is powered by two Canadian Pratt & Whitney turbo-prop engines mounted in the pusher configuration.

The first prototype will be upgraded to meet the latest design criteria including higher-power 1,200 hp (895 kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-67A engines and improvements to the flight control and flight operations systems. The upgraded PT1 is due to make its first flight by the end of 2011 leading to certification and first deliveries in 2013 and 2014 respectively.

Revised version
As of 20 January 2016 National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) had stopped all work on Saras as the funding for the project stopped by end of 2013. Engineers who were working on NAL Saras got redeployed to other ongoing similar projects with higher strategic importance.

The second prototype of the aircraft was overweight by 500 kg against the specified design weight of 4125 kg. The third prototype has yet to take flight. NAL was hoping to revive funding for the project.

In October 2016, it was reported that government is mulling a revival plan. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), that had almost shelved the plan, is on a rethink mode with additional funding in the pipeline.

As of 14 February 2017, the reconfigured first prototype had been handed over to the IAF's Aircraft & Systems Testing Establishment (ASTE), which had conducted a few low-speed ground runs. The National Aerospace Lab's (NAL) director Jitendra J. Jadhav is said to be looking at putting the Saras back into the air by June–July, though officers on the programme seem to think August–September was a more likely timeframe.

An upgraded Saras undertook high speed taxi trial on 2 January 2018 at Bangalore.

The revised version with 14 seats instead of 19, Saras-PTN1, has improved avionics, radar, linear wing flap actuator, environmental control system, engine flap actuators and flight control system.

The revised prototype first flew on 24 January 2018 from HAL Airport for 40 minutes, reaching 8,500 ft and 145 knots before evaluating system performance over 20 flights to freeze the production design. In a press conference during Aero India 2019, it was revealed that ₹6,000 crores were released for the production of the aircraft as NAL had got the certification for its improved version recently. Weight was no longer an issue as team was successful in cutting down weight by 0.9 tonnes. The new version will also be fitted with better avionics. The second test flight lasted for 25 minutes was completed on 21 February 2018. Additional improvements include a pair of 1200 shaft horsepower engines and 104-inch diameter propeller to cater the requirement of second segment climb gradient. CSIR will collaborate with Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in developing an indigenous turboprop engine for Saras. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) will manufacture Saras at its Kanpur facility.

Mark 2
In collaboration with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, NAL is also engaged development of Saras Mk2, a 19-seater version of the airliner. Government has given clearance and fund requirement to NAL for development of same. NAL has completed basic testing for pre-production standard and aims for certification in 4 years to produce first aircraft in following one-and-a-half-year. Dassault Systèmes announced that NAL will be using 3DEXPERIENCE and DraftSight for cabin design, 2D/3D modelling, prototyping and laser cutting. Mark 2 will undergo wind tunnel testing in November 2019 with tractor configuration. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) demanded an additional grant of ₹100 crore for 2021–22. NAL is targeting ₹50 crore per unit cost for Saras Mk2 against ₹55 crore for Dornier 228 that has unpressurized cabin with altitude restriction. NAL wants the government to purchase 50-60 units to make manufacturing viable.

On 27 March 2022, NAL unveiled 16-seater air ambulance variant of Saras Mk2 at Wings India 2022. International Critical Care Air Transfer Team (ICATT) from Bengaluru signed letter of intent to purchase 2 units.

On 14 May 2022, NAL started taxi trials of locally developed digital anti-skid braking system on Saras PT1N that will help landing on shorter runways. A total of 15-20 trials are planned to check system performance. It is a state-of-art brake-by-wire electro-hydraulic braking system that is controlled by high-performance flight control computer. Upon validation, the system will be transferred on Saras Mk2. Paras Defence supplied complete glass avionics suite for Saras MK2 in March 2023.

Orders
The IAF has signed up with National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore for the purchase of 15 Saras aircraft and may need 45 more. "NAL signed a memorandum of understanding with IAF to sell 15 Saras aircraft. The Kanpur unit of Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd will manufacture these planes", The aircraft would be used for coastal surveillance as well as training young cadets on transport flying.

₹6,000 crores were initially released in early 2019 for the production of aircraft. Initial order of 15 aircraft by IAF may go up to 120–140 in upcoming years.

Operators
Indian Air Force – 60 aircraft (intended)

 * Phase 1 – 15 aircraft
 * Phase 2 – 45 aircraft

Incidents and accidents
On 6 March 2009, 2 Indian Air Force test pilots, Wing Commander Praveen Kotekoppa and Wing Commander Dipesh Shah along with a Flight Test Engineer Squadron Leader Ilayaraja, were killed when the second prototype Saras aircraft operating Flight 49, crashed and caught fire in an open field near Bidadi, about 30 km from Bangalore. A court of inquiry found that wrong engine relight drills given to the pilots contributed to the crash, concluding that an "Incorrect relight procedure devised by the designer and adopted by the crew at insufficient height leading to rapid loss of altitude and abnormal behaviour of aircraft resulted into accident."

title: NAL Saras