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Raphael Lemkin

Raphael Lemkin (Rafał Lemkin; 24 June 1900 – 28 August 1959) was a Polish lawyer of Jewish descent who is known for coining the term genocide and campaigning to establish the Genocide Convention. During the Second World War, he campaigned vigorously to raise international awareness of atrocities in Axis-occupied Europe. It was during this time that Lemkin coined the term "genocide" to describe Nazi Germany's extermination policies against Jews and Poles.

Following the German invasion of Poland, Lemkin fled Europe and sought asylum in United States, where he became an academic at Duke University.

Lemkin coined genocide in 1943 or 1944 from two words: genos (γένος, 'family, clan, tribe, race, stock, kin') and -cide (-cīdium, 'killing'). The term was included in the 1944 research-work "Axis Rule in Occupied Europe", wherein Lemkin documented mass-killings of ethnic groups deemed "untermenschen" by Nazi Germany. In particular, the concept of "genocide" was defined by Lemkin to refer to the vicious extermination campaign launched by Nazi Germany to wipe out Jews in the Holocaust.

After the Second World War, Lemkin worked on the legal team of Robert H. Jackson, Chief US prosecutor at the Nuremberg Tribunal. The concept of "genocide" was non-existent in any international laws at the time, and this became one of the reasons for Lemkin's view that the trial did not serve complete justice on prosecuting Nazi atrocities targeting ethnic and religious groups. Lemkin committed the rest of his life to push for an international convention, which in his view, was essential to prevent the rise of "future Hitlers". On 9 December 1948, the United Nations approved the Genocide Convention, with many of its clauses based on Lemkin's proposals.

Early life
Lemkin was born Rafał Lemkin on 24 June 1900 in Bezwodne, a village in the Volkovyssky Uyezd of the Grodno Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Belarus). He grew up in a Polish Jewish family on a large farm near Wolkowysk and was one of three children born to Józef Lemkin and Bella née Pomeranz. His father was a farmer and his mother an intellectual, painter, linguist, and philosophy student with a large collection of books on literature and history. Lemkin and his two brothers (Eliasz and Samuel) were homeschooled by their mother.

As a youth, Lemkin was fascinated by the subject of atrocities and would often question his mother about such events as the Sack of Carthage, Mongol invasions and conquests and the persecution of Huguenots. Lemkin apparently came across the concept of mass atrocities while, at the age of 12, reading Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz, in particular the passage where Nero threw Christians to the lions. About these stories, Lemkin wrote, "a line of blood led from the Roman arena through the gallows of France to the Białystok pogrom." In his writings, Lemkin demonstrated a belief central to his thinking throughout his life: the suffering of Jews in eastern Poland was part of a larger pattern of injustice and violence that stretched back through history and around the world.

The Lemkin family farm was located in an area in which fighting between Russian and German troops occurred during World War I. The family buried their books and valuables before taking shelter in a nearby forest. During the fighting, artillery fire destroyed their home and German troops seized their crops, horses and livestock. Lemkin's brother Samuel eventually died of pneumonia and malnutrition while the family remained in the forest.

After graduating from a local trade school in Białystok Lemkin began the study of linguistics at the Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). He was a polyglot, fluent in nine languages and reading fourteen. His first published book was a 1926 translation of the Hayim Nahman Bialik Hebrew novella "Behind the Fence" into Polish, with the title Noah and Marinka. It was in Białystok that Lemkin became interested in laws against mass atrocities after learning about the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire,     then later the experience of Assyrians massacred in Iraq during the 1933 Simele massacre. He became interested in war crimes upon learning about the 1921 trial of Soghomon Tehlirian for the assassination of Talaat Pasha.

After reading about the 1921 assassination of Talat Pasha, the main perpetrator of the Armenian genocide, in Berlin by Soghomon Tehlirian, Lemkin asked Professor Juliusz Makarewicz why Talat Pasha could not have been tried for his crimes in a German court. Makarewicz, a national-conservative who believed that Jews and Ukrainians should be expelled from Poland if they refused to assimilate, answered that the doctrine of state sovereignty gave governments the right to conduct internal affairs as they saw fit: "Consider the case of a farmer who owns a flock of chickens. He kills them, and this is his business. If you interfere, you are trespassing." Lemkin replied, "But the Armenians are not chickens". His eventual conclusion was that "Sovereignty, I argued, cannot be conceived as the right to kill millions of innocent people".

Lemkin then moved on to Heidelberg University in Germany to study philosophy, returning to Lwów to study law in 1926.

During the 1920s Lemkin was involved in Zionist activities. He was a columnist in the Warsaw based Yiddish Zionist newspaper Tsienistishe velt (The Zionist world). Some scholars think that his Zionism had an influence on his conception of the idea of genocide, but there is a debate about the nature of this influence.

Career in inter-war Poland

Lemkin worked as an Assistant Prosecutor in the District Court of Brzeżany (since 1945 Berezhany, Ukraine) and Warsaw, followed by a private legal practice in Warsaw. From 1929 to 1934, Lemkin was the Public Prosecutor for the district court of Warsaw. In 1930 he was promoted to Deputy Prosecutor in a local court in Brzeżany. While Public Prosecutor, Lemkin was also secretary of the Committee on Codification of the Laws of the Republic of Poland, which codified the penal codes of Poland. During this period Lemkin also taught law at the religious-Zionist Tachkemoni College in Warsaw, and took part in Zionist fund raising. Lemkin, working with Duke University law professor Malcolm McDermott, translated The Polish Penal Code of 1932 from Polish to English.

In 1933 Lemkin made a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law. In 1934 Lemkin, under pressure from the Polish Foreign Minister for comments made at the Madrid conference, resigned his position and became a private solicitor in Warsaw. While in Warsaw, Lemkin attended numerous lectures organized by the Free Polish University, including the classes of Emil Stanisław Rappaport and Wacław Makowski.

In 1937, Lemkin was appointed a member of the Polish mission to the 4th Congress on Criminal Law in Paris, where he also introduced the possibility of defending peace through criminal law. Among the most important of his works of that period are a compendium of Polish criminal fiscal law, Prawo karne skarbowe (1938) and a French-language work, La réglementation des paiements internationaux, regarding international trade law (1939).

During World War II
He left Warsaw on 6 September 1939 and made his way north-east towards Wolkowysk. He was caught between the invaders, the Germans in the west, and the Soviets who then approached from the east. Poland's independence was extinguished by terms of the pact between Stalin and Hitler. He barely evaded German capture, and traveled through Lithuania to reach Sweden by early spring of 1940. There he lectured at the University of Stockholm. Curious about the manner of imposition of Nazi rule he started to gather Nazi decrees and ordinances, believing official documents often reflected underlying objectives without stating them explicitly. He spent much time in the central library of Stockholm, gathering, translating and analysing the documents he collected, looking for patterns of German behaviour. Lemkin's work led him to see the wholesale destruction of the nations over which Germans took control as an overall aim. Some documents Lemkin analysed had been signed by Hitler, implementing ideas of Mein Kampf on Lebensraum, new living space to be inhabited by Germans. With the help of his pre-war associate McDermott, Lemkin received permission to enter the United States, arriving in 1941.

Although he managed to save his own life, he lost 49 relatives in the Holocaust; The only members of Lemkin's family in Europe who survived the Holocaust were his brother, Elias, and his brother's wife and two sons, who had been sent to a Soviet forced labor camp. Lemkin did however successfully help his brother and family to emigrate to Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1948. After arriving in the United States, at the invitation of McDermott, Lemkin joined the law faculty at Duke University in North Carolina in 1941. During the Summer of 1942 Lemkin lectured at the School of Military Government at the University of Virginia. He also wrote Military Government in Europe, a preliminary version of what would become, in two years, his magnum opus, entitled Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. In 1943 Lemkin was appointed consultant to the US Board of Economic Warfare and Foreign Economic Administration and later became a special adviser on foreign affairs to the War Department, largely due to his expertise in international law.

In November 1944, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. This book included an extensive legal analysis of German rule in countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the course of World War II, along with the definition of the term genocide. Lemkin's idea of genocide as an offence against international law was widely accepted by the international community and was one of the legal bases of the Nuremberg Trials. In 1945 to 1946, Lemkin became an advisor to Supreme Court of the United States Justice and Nuremberg Trial chief counsel Robert H. Jackson. The book became one of the foundational texts in Holocaust studies, and the study of totalitarianism, mass violence, and genocide studies.

Postwar

After the war, Lemkin chose to remain in the United States. Starting in 1948, he gave lectures on criminal law at Yale University. In 1955, he became a Professor of Law at Rutgers School of Law in Newark. Lemkin also continued his campaign for international laws defining and forbidding genocide, which he had championed ever since the Madrid conference of 1933. He proposed a similar ban on crimes against humanity during the Paris Peace Conference of 1945, but his proposal was turned down.

Lemkin presented a draft resolution for a Genocide Convention treaty to a number of countries, in an effort to persuade them to sponsor the resolution. With the support of the United States, the resolution was placed before the General Assembly for consideration. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was formally presented and adopted on 9 December 1948. In 1951, Lemkin only partially achieved his goal when the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide came into force, after the 20th nation had ratified the treaty.

Lemkin's broader concerns over genocide, as set out in his Axis Rule, also embraced what may be considered as non-physical, namely, psychological acts of genocide. The book also detailed the various techniques which had been employed to achieve genocide.

Although Lemkin was a Zionist through his entire life, during this period he downplayed his Zionist sympathies in order to convince the Arab and Muslim delegates in the UN to support the UN genocide convention. Between 1953 and 1957, Lemkin worked directly with representatives of several governments, such as Egypt, to outlaw genocide under the domestic penal codes of these countries. Lemkin also worked with a team of lawyers from Arab delegations at the United Nations to build a case to prosecute French officials for genocide in Algeria.

Lemkin also applied the term 'genocide' in his 1953 article "Soviet Genocide in Ukraine", which he presented as a speech in New York City. Although the speech itself does not use the word "Holodomor", Lemkin asserts that an intentional program of starvation was the "third prong" of Soviet Russification of Ukraine, and disagrees that the deaths were simply a matter of disastrous economic policy because of the substantially Ukrainian ethnic profile of small farms in Ukraine at the time.

Death and legacy
In the last years of his life, Lemkin was living in poverty in a New York apartment. In 1959, at the age of 59, he died of a heart attack in New York City. Only several close people attended his funeral at Riverside Church. Lemkin was buried in Flushing, Queens, at Mount Hebron Cemetery. At the time of his death, Lemkin left several unfinished works, including an Introduction to the Study of Genocide and an ambitious three-volume History of Genocide that contained seventy proposed chapters and a book-length analysis of Nazi war crimes at Nuremberg.

The United States, Lemkin's adopted country, did not ratify the Genocide Convention during his lifetime. He believed that his efforts to prevent genocide had failed. "The fact is that the rain of my work fell on a fallow plain," he wrote, "only this rain was a mixture of the blood and tears of eight million innocent people throughout the world. Included also were the tears of my parents and my friends." Lemkin was not widely known until the 1990s, when international prosecutions of genocide began in response to atrocities in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and "genocide" began to be understood as the worst crime of all crimes.

Recognition
For his work on international law and the prevention of war crimes, Lemkin received a number of awards, including the Cuban Grand Cross of the Order of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes in 1950, the Stephen Wise Award of the American Jewish Congress in 1951, and the Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955. On the 50th anniversary of the Convention entering into force, Lemkin was also honored by the UN Secretary-General as "an inspiring example of moral engagement." He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize ten times.

In 1989 he was awarded, posthumously, the Four Freedoms Award for the Freedom of Worship.

Lemkin is the subject of the plays Lemkin's House by Catherine Filloux (2005) and If The Whole Body Dies: Raphael Lemkin and the Treaty Against Genocide by Robert Skloot (2006). He was also profiled in the 2014 American documentary film, Watchers of the Sky.

Every year, The Rabbinic Call for Human Rights (T’ruah) gives the Raphael Lemkin Human Rights Award to a layperson who draws on his or her Jewish values to be a human rights leader.

On 20 November 2015, Lemkin's article Soviet genocide in Ukraine was added to the Russian index of "extremist publications", whose distribution in Russia is forbidden.

On 15 September 2018 the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Foundation (www.ucclf.ca) and its supporters in the US unveiled the world's first Ukrainian/English/Hebrew/Yiddish plaque honouring Lemkin for his recognition of the tragic famine of 1932–1933 in the Soviet Union, the Holodomor, at the Ukrainian Institute of America, in New York City, marking the 75th anniversary of Lemkin's address, "Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine".

Works

 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.
 * Lemkin, Raphael (2014). Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine. Kingston: Kashtan Press.

Books

 * Lemkin, Raphael, author; Frieze, Donna-Lee, editor (2013). Totally Unofficial: The Autobiography of Raphael Lemkin. Yale University Press, ISBN 0300186967.

 * Beauvallet, Olivier (2011). Lemkin: face au génocide, with a French translation of "The legal case against Hitler" released in 1945. Paris: Éditions Michalon, "Le bien commun" series, ISBN 9782841865604.
 * Bieńczyk-Missala, A. & Dębski, S., red. (2010). Rafał Lemkin: A Hero of Humankind. Warsaw: The Polish Institute of International Affairs.
 * Bieńczyk-Missala, Agnieszka, scientific editor (2017). Civilians in contemporary armed conflicts: Rafał Lemkin's heritage (in English). Warsaw: University of Warsaw Publishing House
 * Redzik, Adam & Zeman, Ihor. "Masters of Rafał Lemkin: Lwów school of law". pp. 235–240, ISBN 9788323527008.
 * Redzik, Adam. "Rafał Lemkin (1900–1959) – co-creator of international criminal law. Short biography". p. 70, ISBN 978-83-931111-3-8.
 * Cooper, John (2008). Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention. Palgrave/Macmallin. ISBN 0-230-51691-2.
 * Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (2017). Raphaël Lemkin and the Concept of Genocide. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812293418.
 * Shaw, Martin (2007). What is Genocide? (Chapter 2). Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-3183-5.
 * Shaw, Martin (2007). What is Genocide? (Chapter 2). Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-3183-5.

Articles

 * Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
 * Totally Unofficial: Raphael Lemkin and the Genocide Convention A study guide on Lemkin and his contributions to human rights law and activism, downloadable pdf at facinghistory.org
 * Key writings of Raphael Lemkin on Genocide, 1933–1947, at preventgenocide.org
 * Acts Constituting a General (Transnational) Danger Considered as Offenses Against the Law of Nations (for definitions of "barbarity" and "vandalism"), at preventgenocide.org
 * Lemkin Discusses Armenian Genocide In Newly-Found 1949 CBS Interview, in: armeniapedia.org

 * - Published on 1 April 2013
 * Bieńczyk-Missala, A. (2020). "Raphael Lemkin's Legacy in International Law", in: M. Odello, P. Łubiński, The Concept of Genocide in International Criminal Law. Developments After Lemkin. Routledge.
 * Browning, Christopher R. (24 November 2016). "The Two Different Ways of Looking at Nazi Murder" (review of Philippe Sands, East West Street: On the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity", Knopf.
 * Elder, Tanya. Guide to the Papers of Raphael Lemkin. The Center for Jewish History, New York
 * Gerlach, Christian (24 November 2016). The Extermination of the European Jews, Cambridge University Press, The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18, pp. 56–58. Discusses Hersch Lauterpacht's legal concept of "crimes against humanity", contrasted with Rafael Lemkin's legal concept of "genocide". All genocides are crimes against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of proof, as they entail intent to destroy a particular group.
 * Hartwell, L. (2021). Raphael Lemkin: The Constant Negotiator". Negotiation Journal.
 * Also here.
 * Marrus, Michael R. (20 November 2015). "Three Roads from Nuremberg". Tablet magazine.
 * Szawłowski, Ryszard (2015). Rafał Lemkin, warszawski adwokat (1934–1939), twórca pojęcia "genocyd" i główny architekt konwencji z 9 grudnia 1948 r. ("Konwencji Lemkina"). W 55-lecie śmierci (in Polish). [Rafał Lemkin, lawyer from Warsaw (1934–1939), creator of the term "genocide" and chief architect of the convention of December 9, 1948 (the "Lemkin Convention"). On the 55th anniversary of his death.]. Warsaw.
 * Szawłowski, Ryszard (2015). Rafał Lemkin, warszawski adwokat (1934–1939), twórca pojęcia "genocyd" i główny architekt konwencji z 9 grudnia 1948 r. ("Konwencji Lemkina"). W 55-lecie śmierci (in Polish). [Rafał Lemkin, lawyer from Warsaw (1934–1939), creator of the term "genocide" and chief architect of the convention of December 9, 1948 (the "Lemkin Convention"). On the 55th anniversary of his death.]. Warsaw.

title: Raphael Lemkin


text:
Fay Godwin

Fay Godwin (17 February 1931 – 27 May 2005) was a British photographer known for her black-and-white landscapes of the British countryside and coast.

Career
Godwin was introduced to the London literary scene. She produced portraits of dozens of well-known writers, photographing almost every significant literary figure in 1970s and 1980s England, as well as numerous visiting foreign authors. Her subjects, typically photographed in the sitters' own homes, included Kingsley Amis, Saul Bellow, Angela Carter, Margaret Drabble, Günter Grass, Ted Hughes, Clive James, Philip Larkin, Doris Lessing, Robert Lowell, Edna O'Brien, Anthony Powell, Salman Rushdie, Jean Rhys, and Tom Stoppard.

After the publication of her first books—Rebecca the Lurcher (1973) and The Oldest Road: An Exploration of the Ridgeway (1975), co-authored with J.R.L. Anderson—she was a prolific publisher, working mainly in the landscape tradition to great acclaim and becoming the nation's best-known landscape photographer. The Oldest Road sold over 25,000 copies. Her work was informed by the sense of ecological crisis present in late 1970s and 1980s England.

In the 1990s she was offered a Fellowship at the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television (now the National Media Museum) in Bradford, which pushed her work in the direction of colour and urban documentary.

She also began taking close-ups of natural forms. A major exhibition of that work was toured by Warwick Arts Centre from 1995 to 1997; Godwin self-published a small book of that work in 1999, titled Glassworks & Secret Lives, which was distributed from a small local bookshop in her adopted hometown of Hastings in East Sussex.

Published work
The first edition of Remains of Elmet: A Pennine Sequence, her book collaboration with poet Ted Hughes, was published by Rainbow Press in 1979. The book was also published in popular form by Faber and Faber (with poor reproduction of the images), and then re-published by them in 1994 simply as Elmet with a third of the book being new additional poems and photographs. Hughes called the 1994 Elmet the "definitive" edition. She also said, in a 2001 interview, that this was the book she would like to be most remembered for.

In an obituary for The Guardian, art critic Ian Jeffrey called her 1985 book Land, the "book for which she will be most remembered", and described it:

"Designed by Ken Garland, it is stylish in the classic mode, but what sets Land apart is the care that Fay gave to the combining and sequencing of its pictures. Working with contact prints on a board, she put together a picture of Britain as ancient terrain—stony, windswept and generally worn down by the elements....[a work] in the neo-romantic tradition...[that] gives an oddly desolate account of Britain, as if reporting on a long abandoned country."

Godwin's last major retrospective was at the Barbican Centre, London in 2001. A retrospective book, Landmarks, was published by Dewi Lewis in 2002.

Awards and recognition
Godwin was the subject of a documentary, broadcast on The South Bank Show on 9 November 1986.

She was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 1990 and had a major retrospective at the Barbican Centre in London in 2001.

Personal life
Godwin was born Fay Simmonds in Berlin, Germany, the daughter of Sidney Simmonds, a British diplomat, and Stella MacLean, an American artist. She attended nine different schools before beginning a career as a travel representative. She moved to London in the 1950s. She married publisher Tony Godwin in 1961; the couple had two sons, Jeremy and Nicholas. They split up in 1969 and later divorced.

Godwin was less active in her final years; in a December 2004 interview for Practical Photography, she blamed "the NHS. They ruined my life by using some drugs with adverse affects [sic] that wrecked my heart. The result is that I haven't the energy to walk very far."

Godwin died on 27 May 2005, in Hastings, England at the age of 74. After her death, the Ramblers' Association, an organisation led by Godwin from 1987 to 1990, described her presidency as a time when its "long-running right-to-roam campaign was turned up to the full-strength pressure which ultimately resulted in the access provisions enshrined in the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 and the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003."

Godwin's archive, including approximately 11,000 exhibition prints, the entire contents of her studio, and correspondence with some of her subjects, was given to the British Library.

Publications

 * Rebecca the Lurcher. Barrie & Jenkins 1973. With Andrew Simpson..
 * The Oldest Road: An Exploration of the Ridgeway. 1975. With J.R.L. Anderson.
 * Remains of Elmet. Rainbow Press, 1979. With poems by Ted Hughes.
 * Remains of Elmet. Faber and Faber, 1979. ISBN 9780571278763.
 * Elmet. Faber and Faber, 1994. With new additional poems and photographs.
 * Remains of Elmet. Faber and Faber, 2011. ISBN 9780571278763.
 * The Saxon Shore Way. Hutchinson (publisher), 1983. With Alan Sillitoe. ISBN 0091514606.
 * Land. Heinemann, 1985. With John Fowles. ISBN 0434303054.
 * Glassworks & Secret Lives. Stella Press 1999. ISBN 0953454517.
 * Landmarks: A Survey Dewi Lewis, 2001. ISBN 1-899235-73-6. With an introduction by Simon Armitage and an essay by Roger Taylor.
 * Our Forbidden Land. Jonathan Cape 1990.
 * Islands. Jonathan Cape 1978. With John Fowles.
 * The Secret Forest of Dean, Redcliffe Press 1986.
 * Glassworks and Secret Lives, Stella Press 1999. With Ian Jeffrey.
 * Bison at Chalk Farm. Routlege & Kegan Paul 1982.
 * Romney Marsh and the Royal Military Canal. Wildwood House 1980. With Richard Ingrams.
 * The Whisky Roads of Scotland. Norman & Hobhouse 1982. With Derek Cooper.
 * The Edge of the Land, Jonathan Cape 1995.
 * The Oldest Road, an exploration of the Ridgeway. Whitlett Books 1987. With J.R.L. Anderson.
 * Thorne Moors. Sumach Press 1991. With Catherine Caufield.
 * The Drovers' Roads of Wales. Wildwood House 1977. With Shirley Toulson.
 * This Scepter'd Isle, Shakespeare in Praise of Britaiin. Souvenir Press 1989.
 * The Countryside we want: A manifesto for the year 2000. Green Books.1987.
 * Wessex: A National Trust Book, Hamish Hamilton 1985. With Patricia Beer,
 * Tess the story of a Guide Dog, Gollancz 1981 With Peter Purves.
 * Oil Rush. Quartet Books 1976. With Mervyn Jones.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fay Godwin


text:
Talk:Garage rock

Overlinking
This article suffers from overlinking, in violation of WP:LINKING. I spent time fixing most of the issues but reverted me wholesale because they didn't like my infobox changes. I'm not going to re-do all my work, so I'm just leaving a note here about the MoS problems. They will have to be fixed if the article is ever nominated at FAC. -- Laser brain  (talk)  18:13, 29 July 2018 (UTC)

You even removed links from the see also section. That is way overboard. Dimadick (talk) 18:18, 29 July 2018 (UTC)

All-inclusive information
I know that garage rock isn't a parameterized subgenre, but there are stylistic criteria we go by in addition to "knowing it when you hear it". We shouldn't include everything (whether psychedelia, pop, folk) unless the song in question shares more than half of its characteristics with the generally accepted characteristics of garage rock. One that does not, for example, is "Laugh Laugh" by the Beau Brummels...not musically nor as a recording. Why it was included on the re-edition of Nuggets baffles me. If you took a poll among garage-rock fans and critics alike, I believe most would concur it isn't garage rock. Just because a source says it is, doesn't necessarily means it's true. Someone could write an article/blog post claiming The Fifth Estate pioneered garage rock, and you could list it as a source, but obviously we both know that isn't true. Allmusic is not considered an authoritative source. Nor are the critics. A critic's opinions are no better than a loyal fan's opinions, unless the critic is unanimously considered an expert on the subject.

Anyhow, I know a lot about garage rock. And I know you do. I see you've contributed a great deal of information to this topic and numerous wiki pages, gone through all that protracted talk-page conflict, so I commend your hard effort. I wouldn't have the patience for all that. We just seem have a different view of what constitutes garage rock. (I for one wouldn't call "Incense and Peppermints" garage.) Ah well, sorry for this rather digressive post. I wish there were a team of us obscure 60s buffs here to provide consensus rulings. --'60sMusicMan (talk) 16:38, 31 December 2019 (UTC)

More comments
@garagepunk66

The Fifth Estate aren't mentioned anywhere in the article, so I replaced their photo with The Seeds, who were well-known and influential.

The Fifth Estate also weren't as pivotal as some critics would have you believe. "Love is all a Game" was the only single they released in 1966, and it certainly wasn't a prototype of garage. Most of their 1967 stuff was barely garage rock, with "That's Love" being one of the few exceptions. It's a shame they aren't more known for that song as it's clearly their best, especially in comparison to that novelty cut they had a top 20 hit with. Their D-Men singles in '65 weren't really garage rock either (mostly beat music), unless you want to count the amateur songwriting and recording quality.

I would additionally downplay the "influence" of "96 Tears" on the development of the genre. Yes, it was a short-time hit, but contrary to Dave Marsh calling it a "landmark exposition", it was actually late to the party (August release). The only thing it could've done is inspire more prominent use of electric organ, even though other bands were concurrently using them. But organ usage really didn't kick off until 1967. So I just don't see the connection. For example, Strawberry Alarm Clock, whose music relies heavily on electric organ, never claimed to be inspired by "96 Tears" to include organs in their music. To my ears, "96 Tears" also somewhat rips the tune and organ riff of "Double Shot of My Baby's Love" by The Swingin' Medallions, which came out a few months prior. I think the inclusion of "96 Tears" on Nuggets, which was merely Lenny Kaye's personal collection/favorites, is the reason people pay so much attention to it and overpraise it. It's also pretty funny as the rest of their output leaves much to desire. It seems they couldn't stray much from the formula of "96 Tears".

--'60sMusicMan (talk) 18:22, 4 January 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello, '60sMusicMan, I really appreciate your passion for the genre. Keep it up!  I do agree with you, by the way.  I do wish that there were more garage enthusiasts here like you and myself, but for the sake of trying to make the article paletable to a consensus of editors, I have to separate myself from my enthusiasm, and be a "good Wikipedian".  I do understand your point about the Fifth Estate.  Their picture has been in the article for a long time—preceding my existence here.  You may find this crazy, but back then, it was only one of three pictures in the whole article--the only one of an actual 60s band!

 * Back then, it was my feeling—and I had heard others on the talk page express it too—that the article was way too short and did not capture the fullness and richness of this genre, that was so desperately deserved. So, eventually, I began to work on helping expand the article.  The expansion offered a chance to add a lot more text and pictures covering a lot of bands.  So, I was eventually able to take the previous statements describing the stylistic characteristics of the genre, and grow them into a full section of their own (that also captures the social milieu).

 * I asked myself, too, whether the picture of the Fifth Estate should be retained. But, by now having the new Stylistic Characteristics section, the photo gave a perfect opportunity to illustrate what a typical 60s garage band looked like.  The reader can see this little unknown band with the Farfisa organ, etc.  Perfect!  Because, the idea of the section was not to highlight the most important bands (that comes later), but to capture the homegrown essence of the genre as a first impression.  So, the picture of the Fifth Estate photo works perfectly in that context as a "case in point", not an actual feature of the band itself.  As, for the Seeds, I made sure to put their picture in the California section, but someone deleted the picture file, and a bot came over and removed it's last vestige there.  Well, I tried.  Incidentally, I'd like to get a couple of "guitar-oriented" sound files in here (they are now mostly organ-centric).

 * I also see your point about "96 Tears", (I agree about the Beau Brummell's too, but other editors would object if I took the statement out). The main purpose of mentioning Dave Marsh's quote there was not to prove how groundbreaking "96 Tears" was, but to illustrate the first time a major rock critic referred to the music as "punk rock", the original name for the genre.  I could try change the statement from a quote to a paraphrase, but the quote may need to be retained for the sake of its historical value (in relation to how the genre came to be classified).  Best wishes to you! Garagepunk66 (talk) 05:14, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * I removed the word "landmark..." in the quote. That is not in any way to denigrate the the band, but rather to put focus on classification of the genre, which is the purpose of the section (not ranking of acts).  I hope this was a good way to address your concern and better serve the needs of the section.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 05:45, 5 February 2020 (UTC)

A genre?
As a 40-year veteran of both professional, and many, many garage bands, "garage band" has always meant a band that spent more time rehearsing than gigging -- and typically rehearsing in a make-shift space, like some band-member's garage.

I never heard the term "garage rock" used to refer to an alleged genre of music prior to about 2010. It is not clear from the article when the term actually began to be used as a genre descriptor, but is is surely not correct to apply it to commercial music of the 1960s. 1970s, or 1980s. When I first heard the term used in this way it was by a music commentator who seemingly misheard (or thought he misheard) "grunge", and turned it into "garage".

In any event, the term is still used among musicians to refer to essentially amateur wannabe bands, who spend most or all of their time rehearsing for the gigs that never seem to come. Despite all the verbiage in this article, I question whether this "genre" exists at all. It seems to be a very recent collective term for a wide variety of music that someone seems to think should be a distinctive genre -- but which really isn't. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.95.43.253 (talk) 21:53, 13 April 2022 (UTC)

 * With all due respect, you are confusing the terms "garage bands" and "garage rock", which though largely co-dependent, are not necessarily the same thing. "Garage bands" has a broader meaning.  You are correct to note that the term "garage bands" can be applied irrespective of genre—after all, there are plenty of garage bands out there today attempting to do amateur versions of heavy metal riffs.  But, such acts would not be called "garage rock."

 * The term "garage rock" designates a style of rock music that emerged in the 1960s that was eventually identified in the early 1970s as a genre by a handful of influential rock critics and collectors. The article goes into detail about this development in the "Recognition and classification" section and cites numerous reliable sources.  The review for the Nuggets LP in the January 1973 issue of Rolling Stone speaks of this form literally as a "genre" (at that time, the term "punk rock" was the favored term for the genre, pre-dating the more familiar use of that term for the later post-1974 phenomenon).  The "Recognition" section goes on to explain how the term "Garage rock" became the favored term for this genre in the 1980s.  The genre name can also be applied to later movements that have attempted to re-enact or update this style.

 * The music of this genre, while by no means exclusively amateur, is nonetheless typified by a generalized simplicity and brevity of form, and has nurtured a whole cottage industry of several thousand LP and CD compilations that has a worldwide following—and has been written about continually in rock magazines for the last 50 years. So, this is indeed a genre, as I hope that you will have the immense pleasure to discover through listening to the music—I'd recommend to start with the 4-disc Nuggets box set on Rhino Records and then go on the plethora of others such as the the Pebbles series.  By the way, there is a chapter devoted to this genre in the Rolling Stone History of Rock & Roll.

 * And, while though the term "garage bands" can certainly be used to designate acts outside of this genre, it takes on a special meaning when applied to the 1960s acts of this style, because the music then was so prevalent, and its many recordings of such surprisingly enduring quality—it was the glorified era of the garage band, particularly in America, and it was then that the whole thing crystallized into a recognizable form. Garagepunk66 (talk) 17:39, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Garage rock


text:
Tianjin University

Tianjin University (TJU; ), previously Peiyang University, is a national public research university in Tianjin, China. Established in 1895 by a royal charter from Guangxu Emperor, Tianjin University is the oldest university in China, leading the country's significant shift towards modernization and development. The university is affiliated with and funded by the Ministry of Education of China. It is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.

Originally as Imperial Tientsin University and later Peiyang University, the university was founded with the goal of providing modern education in engineering and mining, and it later expanded to include programs in science, business, law, humanities, and other fields. The establishment of Tianjin University marked a turning point in Chinese history, as it represented a significant shift towards modernization and the adoption of Western educational models.

In 1951 after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, by an order of the Chinese Communist government, the university was renamed Tianjin University. It serves as one of the largest multidisciplinary engineering universities in China and one of the first 16 national key universities accredited by the central government in 1959.

History
In 1895, Sheng Xuanhuai submitted his memorial to the Guangxu Emperor to request for approval to set up a modern higher education institution in Tianjin. After approval on October 2, 1895, Peiyang Western Study College was founded by him and American educator Charles Daniel Tenney and later developed to Peiyang University. It was the first university providing four year degree modern higher education in China. The university modeled itself on the famous American Universities and aimed to rejuvenate China by training qualified personnel with new scientific and technological knowledge. After the PR China's foundation and university restructures, Peiyang University was renamed Tianjin University in 1951.

Peiyang University / Tianjin University contributes greatly to the Chinese society. In its early days, undergraduates had the permission to directly pursue graduate study at Harvard and Yale without any entrance exams. Its Law School, which is the first (and also the best at that time) Law School in China, was merged into Peking University and gave Peking University a fresh new start. Peiyang's Department of Aeronautics was separated and developed into Beihang University.

Timeline

 * 1895 Peiyang University founded
 * 1900 The first modern diploma in China granted
 * 1907 Developed into a comprehensive university integrating Engineering with Liberal Arts, Law and Education.
 * 1935 The first group of graduate students enrolled
 * 1937 The first master's degree conferred
 * 1951 Merged with Hebei Institute of Technology, renamed as Tianjin University
 * 1958 The first library (floor area of 14423 m2) established
 * 1959 Became one of the first 16 National Key Universities
 * 1981 The first group of PhD students enrolled
 * 1984 The graduate school founded
 * 1985 The first doctor's degree conferred
 * 1995 100th anniversary
 * 1999 National University Science Park built to facilitate knowledge transfer
 * 2000 Became one of the first batch of universities under “985” Project
 * 2009 Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) degree program in Chemical Engineering accredited by IchemE (Institution of Chemical Engineers)
 * 2010 Tianjin University New Campus Plan Launched
 * 2013 Tianjin Co-Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (COIC_CSE) became one of the first 14 collaborative innovation centers of the "2011" Project
 * 2015 120th anniversary and new campus (Peyang Yuan) completed
 * 2017 Listed by "the World First Class University and First Class Academic Discipline Construction"
 * 2021 Listed by "the World First Class University and First Class Academic Discipline Construction" again

Building of disciplines
A discipline layout, with stress on engineering, incorporating science, engineering, economics, management, humanities, education, law and art has been formed in the university. The university now has 6 national key disciplines and 17 municipal key disciplines. Some disciplines with advantages and characteristics such as power machinery and engineering, optical engineering, testing and measuring technology and instruments, chemical engineering, chemical technology, management science and engineering, mechanics, architecture, material science and engineering, are all leading disciplines in China and have international influence.

For the time being, the university has 12 first-grade disciplines and 49 second-grade disciplines that confer Doctoral degree, 87 disciplines conferring master's degree, 17 engineering disciplines conferring master's degree in engineering. The university also confers master's degrees in business administration (MBA) and public administration (MPA). At present there are 15 postdoctoral research programs, 4 national key laboratories, 1 national engineering research center, 2 technology research and promotion centers of national scientific and technological achievements, 7 engineering technological R&D centers and open laboratories at ministerial level.

In June 2001, the university was evaluated by the expert panel of the Ministry of Education as having successfully completed all the construction items set by “211-Project” for the Ninth Five-Year Plan Period.

Scientific and technological achievements
The university boasts a strong team of professional and concurrent researchers. There are five key national laboratories, one national engineering research center, two national promotion centers for scientific and technological achievements, seven engineering research and development centers and open laboratories at ministerial level. There are over 80 laboratories, 110 research institutes, 15 experimental research and engineering development centers at the university.

Since the policy of reform and opening up to the outside world, hundreds of scientific and technological achievements of the university have won prizes. Among them, 70 won the National Natural Science Award, the National Invention Award, or the Award of National Science and Technology Progress, and 510 won the awards of science and technology progress of the Ministry of Education or at provincial or ministerial level. 393 have applied for patents, of which 278 have been patented. In 2001, the Science and Technology Park of Tianjin University became one of the 22 university sci-tech parks in China. A scientific research system consisting of basic research, applied research and R&D has been formed at the university. The university's annual amount of financial aid received from the National Natural Science Foundation always ranks top among China's engineering institutions of higher learning. Great achievements have been made in transforming scientific and technological achievements into productive forces. The university has established extensive cooperative relations with many large and medium-sized enterprises at home. In 2000 the university's funds for science and technology amounted to RMB 280 million.

Since the 1980s, hundreds of scientific and technological achievements of the university have won prizes. During the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, 159 scientific and technological achievements of the university won prizes. Among them, six are the National Invention Award, nine the Award of National Science and Technology Progress, one the National Natural Science Foundation Award, 56 the Science and Technology Progress Prize of the Ministry of Education, 81 the Science and Technology Progress Award of Tianjin City, 22 other provincial or ministerial Science and Technology Progress prizes. 134 achievements were patented, in which 35 were inventions and 99 practical new-type patents.

During the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, the university's scientific research funds amount to RMB 1.055 billion, a record high in the university's history, and come out front among universities nationwide. In October 1999, Tianjin University, in cooperation with Tianjin Economic and Development Area, established the University Sci-tech Park. The park, evaluated by the Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Education, has been named as a trial national university park for science and technology.

In recent years, its students have won more than 100 prizes in competitions on different subjects, of which four are international prizes, 50 are national prizes. In the International architectural design competition for University Students held in 1994 and 2000, participated by over 180 colleges and universities from more than 50 countries including world-famous universities like MIT, Harvard and Cambridge University, the participants from the School of Architecture of Tianjin University won twice the highest prize which indicates the university's educational quality and level.

High-tech industries
The university industries are characterized by bringing forth new ideas to technology, initiating high-tech enterprises, and transforming scientific and technological achievements into industries. Tiancai Co. Ltd. is the representative of the university's industries, which takes advantage of the university's superiority in science and technology. The university's industries include computer information, packed towers, industrial crystallization, and opto-electronic integration and have made good economic as well as social benefits.

In 2020 professor Zhang Hao (張浩) was convicted in the US on charges of stealing trade secrets on behalf of his firm and Tianjin University. The stolen trade secrets allowed his company and Tianjin to unfairly compete in the global radio frequency filter market. In 2009 Zhang Hao and his accomplice Pang Wei (龐慰) who were both professors at Tianjin University cooperated with the university to found a company named Novana using the stolen information.

Campus culture
Tianjin University has formed a rich campus cultural atmosphere by promoting its education in ideology, politics, science and technology, culture and art. In recent years, the university has attached great importance to quality education of its students. The Students’ Union, the Students’ Scientific Society, Peiyang Art Team, and the Youth Volunteers’ Society have played active roles in organizing cultural and art festivals, science and technology festivals, sport festivals, work-study programs, and social activities in the forms of lectures, seminars, contests, soliciting articles, training and weekend music parties. The university, as a trial unit and base of national cultural quality education for undergraduates, has made remarkable achievements in cultural quality education. In 2000, Vice Premier Li Lanqing made important comments on the art education report submitted to the Ministry of Education by Tianjin University, making Tianjin University's art education model one of the three in China. Tianjin University was chosen as a National Advanced Unit of Art education.

Rankings and reputation
Tianjin University is one of the former Project 985 Chinese institutions that made it into the top 500 universities in the world rankings. As of 2023, Tianjin University was ranked 189th worldwide in 2023 in terms of aggregate performance from the three most widely observed university rankings (THE+ARWU+QS) as reported by the Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities.

In the 2022 US News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, a number of disciplines and subjects at Tianjin University are ranked in the global top 300th including:
 * Polymer Science #9
 * Energy and Fuels #14
 * Nanoscience and Nanotechnology #14
 * Chemical Engineering #15
 * Physical Chemistry #17
 * Mechanical Engineering #20
 * Condensed Matter Physics #20
 * Chemistry #23
 * Civil Engineering #36
 * Engineering #38
 * Materials Science #45
 * Electrical and Electronic Engineering #48
 * Optics #53
 * Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology #69
 * Computer Science #129
 * Mathematics #223
 * Environment/Ecology #230
 * Biology and Biochemistry #273
 * Geosciences #302

Cooperation and exchanges
Tianjin University was one of the first universities in China to explore cooperation with external organizations, and conducts extensive international exchanges and cooperation, keeping close relations with many institutions of higher learning, educational institutions, and transnational enterprises worldwide. The university has established cooperative relations with provinces and cities such as Hebei Province, Jilin Province, Xinjiang, Tibet, and Chongqing Municipality. Its scientific and technological cooperation can be found all over the country. The university strengthens its cooperation with transnational industrial groups in the high-tech fields. Meanwhile, the university has signed cooperation agreements with more than 20 transnational companies, and with 80 institutions of higher learning from 28 countries, conducting academic exchanges, cooperative scientific research and joint training programs.

The university invites famous scholars and celebrities to be its honorary or guest professors. To name a few, Prof. Herbert A. Simon, Nobel Prize winner of the Psychology Department of Carnegie Mellon University; Professor Gerald Vizenor, Emeritus professor of American literature at the University of New Mexico (Vizenor portrayed Tianjin University in his novel Griever: An American Monkey King in China); Dr. Yang Zhenning, famous physicist of the State University of New York; academician, world-famous mathematician Lin Jiaqiao; Mazuopin Kalin, professor of the Electrical Machinery Department of Yale University; Li Dingyi, professor of AT&T Bell Laboratory. In recent years, the university has sponsored or undertaken more than a dozen large international academic conferences, which create more channels for the university to promote international exchanges and cooperation.

Tianjin University also cooperated with University of South Australia to build China-Australia Centre for Sustainable Urban Development at October 27, 2012.

Notable alumni

 * Wang Ch'ung-hui, jurist, diplomat and politician
 * Tang Shaoyi, assassinated statesman
 * Ma Yinchu, economist
 * Shu-tian Li, engineer and president of Peiyang
 * Xu Zhimo, poet
 * Jinlong Gong, chemist and professor
 * Zhang Tailei, leader of the Guangzhou Uprising
 * Chen Lifu, bureaucrat, politician, and anti-communist
 * Wang Zhengting, diplomat
 * Huang Jiqing, geologist
 * Jia Qinglin, retired senior leader of the People's Republic of China and of its ruling Communist Party
 * Larry Yung, former chairman of CITIC Pacific
 * Sun Guangxin, billionaire businessman
 * XinMo Li, contemporary artist
 * Feigang Fei, restaurateur

Notable faculty

 * Hou Debang, chemical engineering expert
 * Mao Yisheng, structural engineering expert
 * William S.W. Lim, architect
 * Feng Jicai, writer

title: Tianjin University


text:
Buick Special

The Buick Special was an automobile produced by Buick. It was usually Buick's lowest-priced model, starting out as a full-size car in 1936 and returning in 1961 (after a two-year hiatus) as a mid-size. The Special was built for several decades and was offered as a coupe, sedan and later as a station wagon. When GM modernized their entry level products in the 1960s, the Special introduced the modern Buick V6 that became a core engine for GM for several decades and lived on in upgraded form until 2006.

By 1970, Special was no longer offered as a standalone model but the name would later be used for the entry trim on 1975 to 1979 and 1991 to 1996 Century models.

The entry level Buick can trace its heritage to the Buick Model 10, a companion to Buick's first car, the Buick Model B. The Model 10 started out as one of the independent brands merged into Buick, called the Janney.

Series 40 (1930, 1934–1935)
When the Series 40 was introduced, it had the 4220 cc overhead valve Buick Straight-6 engine that produced 80.5 bhp of power at 2,800 rpm, and 74,257 examples were made, being the highest number of Buicks for 1930. For the year 1931, the Series 40 was temporarily discontinued, with the introduction of the Marquette Model 30 and the Series 50 being repositioned as the Buick entry level product. The 1935 version returned with the 3818 cc Buick Straight-8 engine and 93 bhp. Starting with this generation, all GM cars shared a corporate appearance as a result of the Art and Color Section headed by Harley Earl and modest yearly changes were introduced to freshen the appearance.

1933 was the first year all GM vehicles were installed with optional vent windows which were initially called “No Draft Individually Controlled Ventilation” later renamed "Ventiplanes" which the patent application was filed on Nov. 28, 1932. It was assigned to the Ternstedt Manufacturing Company, a GM subsidiary that manufactured components for Fisher Body and they were added to the Special when it was introduced in 1935. Additional manufacturing locations also opened across the country under the Buick-Oldsmobile-Pontiac Assembly Division. The Series 40 was the most affordable Buick offered, with 6 body styles offered, and the five passenger Sedan Model 41 was US$925 ($0 in dollars ), while a LaSalle Series 50 was US$1,000 ($0 in  dollars ) more. A standard feature offered on all Buicks was a dashboard mounted selector handle that would alter spark timing and allow either low grade or premium fuel to be used. In 1936 the name changed to "Special".

1936–1942, 1946–1949
Starting with 1936, the Buick Special Series 40 model range represented the marque's entry level full-size automobile. The '36 was a very successful year for Buick and also marked the first time of using names rather than the simple serial numbers which had been in use before. The first Specials rode on a 118 in wheelbase, but for the next model year this was increased to 122 in as all Buicks grew for that year. The eight cylinder engine was also new, and was now of 248 cid rather than 233 cid. The Special (and all other Buicks as well) underwent a full restyling for 1939, with a more enclosed nose and a wider grille. The wheelbase was also two inches shorter.

For 1940, there was the usual restyle and the wheelbase increased by an inch. This was also the only model year that a four-door convertible Special ("Sport Phaeton") was offered, although only 552 were built. Prices started at US$795 ($0 in dollars ) for the Business Coupe to US$925 ($0 in  dollars ) for either the 4-door Touring Sedan or 2-door Convertible.

For 1941 the bodywork was again all new, with the front fenders now very closely integrated into the cars overall design. The Estate Wagon migrated from being a Super into the Special lineup. A fastback was offered in Century and 40 Special trim as a four-door touring sedan and two-door business coupe and the 46S sedanette. Also new was the 40-A series (the regular Special now being the 40-B), a version on a three inches shorter wheelbase which shared its body with the 1941 Oldsmobile Series 70. These two series, with a restyle reminiscent of the 1939 Y-Job, continued into the abbreviated 1942 model year. Production ended on 4 February 1942. The Special was now offered as the entry-level luxury vehicle that the LaSalle previously held.

After production resumed, only the larger 1946 B-body Special range remained available, which is rare, representing less than two percent of Buick's production that year. The Special continued with minor changes until the prewar body was finally replaced halfway through the 1949 model year. Post-war Specials were only available as a four-door sedan or a two-door "sedanet", until the new 1949 models arrived.

In the movie Mildred Pierce, Veda Pierce, Mildred's daughter, played by actress Ann Blyth, was given a 1940 Buick Special convertible as a gift, valued at US$1,077 for the Model 46C ($0 in dollars ).

The movie Small Town Conspiracy features a 1939 Buick Special 8 that the main character of the film John Haleran (Zen Gesner) drives as his official police car. The car remained the property of director Ralph Clemente and was untouched for many years until sold to Florida restorer and car collector Axel Caravias.

1949–1958
Halfway into the 1949 model year, the Specials received all-new bodywork to include a dramatically styled grille where nine grille bars also served as bumper guards and extended over the front bumper, and the first fully postwar design for the series. New was also the 40D-series, a better equipped version called the Special DeLuxe. The engine remained the 248 cid which had been used since 1937, but for 1951 this was replaced by the larger "Fireball" straight-eight. A two-door hardtop coupe was also new for 1951, but the unusual grille was revised with the grill bars shortened. The 1954 Specials had an all-new body and chassis, much wider and lower, and were now equipped with the all-new, more powerful "Fireball" V8 engines. In 1953 The Buick-Berle Show introduced product placement commercials on TV, and later in 1955 The Honeymooners was one of the sponsors.

Introduced in the middle of the 1955 model year the four-door Buick Special Riviera (along with the Century Riviera, the Oldsmobile 98 Holiday, and the 88 Holiday) were the first four-door pillarless hardtops ever produced. By then, the Buick Special was one of America's best selling automotive series. For 1956 the larger 322 cid V8 engine was shared with the rest of the range, although it was replaced by the bigger, 250 hp 364 V8 for 1957. This year also brought all-new bodywork, as well as a four-door hardtop station wagon called the Buick Riviera Estate. The 1957 wheelbase remained 122 inches. In the June, 1957 issue of Popular Mechanics, the Special was rated with a 0-60 mph time of 11.6 seconds, fuel economy of 17.4 mpgus at 50 mi/h, and ground clearance of 6.9 in. 1958 brought the most chrome yet and twin headlights, as the car grew longer and wider, albeit on an unchanged chassis.

1949-1957 Buick Specials had three VentiPorts on each side while more senior Buicks (with the partial exception of the Buick Super, which switched from three to four in 1955) had four. Earlier versions had a "Sweepspear" inspired character line alongside the body, while later versions had the "Sweepspear" moulding attached to the side of all models. GM renamed the Buick Special the LeSabre for the 1959 model year, taking the name from the 1951 Le Sabre concept car.

1961–1963
In 1961, the car returned after a short absence of two years, but this time it was on the brand new unibody compact GM Y platform. The Special was powered by a 155 hp innovative aluminum-block 215 in³ V8, and had Dual Path transmission and power steering. In mid-year a Skylark option was released with special trim, optional bucket seats and a four-barrel version of the 215 that made 185 hp.

In 1962, the Special was the first American car to use a V6 engine in volume production; it earned Motor Trend's Car of the Year for 1962. This 198 cid Fireball was engineered down from the 215 and used many of the same design parameters, but was cast in iron. Output was 135 hp (gross) at 4600 rpm and 205 lbft at 2400 rpm. In their test that year, Road & Track was impressed with Buick's "practical" new V6, saying it "sounds and performs exactly like the aluminum V8 in most respects." In 1963, the Special's body was restyled. Mechanically, however, the car was identical to the 1962 model. There was also some minor interior restyling, particularly to the dash and instrument cluster. The 1963 Special was available as a 2-door pillared hardtop coupe, a four dour sedan, a convertible, and a station wagon. Engine choices were a standard 198 cid V6 with a twin-barrel carburetor and optional 215 cid V8 with 155 hp (two-barrel) or more powerful four-barrel (190 hp in 1962, 200 hp in 1963). Transmission choices were a three speed column shift manual transmission, a floor shift Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed manual, or a two-speed Turbine Drive automatic. The two speed "Dual Path Turbine Drive" automatic was a Buick design and shared no common parts with the better known Chevrolet Power-Glide transmission.

The 1962 model sold 153,763, including 42,973 Skylarks.

The 1963 body was only produced for one year; it sold 148,750 copies, including 42,321 Skylarks. The entire car was redesigned for 1964. After that, the 215 found its way into the Rover P6 3500S in 1968, but was never sold in North America in any great numbers. It was also employed in other British cars, including the Morgan Plus 8, MG MGB GTV8, Land Rover, and Triumph TR8, as well as retrofits into MGAs and MGBs. The engine had really earned its stripes as being the sole engine powering the Range Rover for a couple decades and eventually finding its way into the original Series/Defender Land Rover; and several other Land Rover Models including the Discovery and the Forward Control.

The Skylark became a separate series for 1962.

1964–1967
The Special, along with the upscale Skylark, were redesigned for the 1964 model year with separate body-on-frame construction—renamed the A-body—and marketed as an intermediate-sized car. The Skylark was expanded to a full top-line series that now included two- and four-door sedans, two-door hardtop coupe and convertible, along with a station wagon. The other series models included the base Special and the slightly fancier Special Deluxe, in a more limited range of bodystyles.

Also new for 1964 were engines. The capacity of the V6 engine was increased from 198 to 225 cubic inches, while the aluminum V8 was replaced by a new cast iron-block 300 cubic inch V8 with aluminum cylinder heads. In 1965, cast iron heads replaced the problematic aluminum ones. This reliable engine, produced until 1967, was based on the aluminum V8, and many parts (such as the cylinder heads) were interchangeable.

1968–1969
The Special nameplate was used on lower-priced intermediate-sized Buicks through the 1969 model year. In 1968 and 1969, the Buick Special was dropped and only Special Deluxes were manufactured. In 1970, the end of the Special came about when the Special Deluxe was dropped too in favor of the slightly upscale Buick Skylark.

The 1968 model year was one of significant change for the Buick Special and Skylark. Although still using the same basic chassis, all of GM's mid-sized cars adopted a policy of using two different length wheelbases. Two-door models used a shorter wheelbase of 112 in, while four-door models used a longer wheelbase of 116 in (the Buick Sport Wagon and Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser used an even longer wheelbase of 121 in). All of GM's mid-sized cars received all-new sheet metal, incorporating a semi-fastback appearance, which was a revival of a streamlining on all GM products from 1942 until 1950 as demonstrated on the Buick Super Club Coupe (sedanette). More Federally mandated safety features improved occupant protection and accident avoidance, including side marker lights, shoulder belts (on all models built after January 1, 1968), and parking lights that illuminated with headlights.

In a reshuffling of models in the lineup, the Special Deluxe replaced the previous Special. The Skylark nameplate was shuffled down a notch to replace the previous Special Deluxe. The previous Skylark was replaced by a new Skylark Custom.

The Special Deluxe was available as a pillared two-door coupe, a pillared four-door sedan, or a 2-row station wagon.

The previous V6 was discontinued and the associated tooling was sold to Kaiser Industries, which used the V6 in its Jeep trucks and sport utility vehicles. The base engine in the Buick Special (and Buick Skylark) coupes & sedans) became a 250-cubic-inch 250 cuin Chevrolet I6, that produced 155 hp at 4200 rpm using a single-barrel Rochester carburetor.

Optional on the Special Deluxe coupe & sedan and standard on the Special Deluxe station wagon was a new 350-cubic-inch V8 derived from the 340, using a two-barrel Rochester carburetor that produced 230 hp at 4400 rpm. Optional on the Special Deluxe was a 350-cubic-inch V8 using a four-barrel Rochester carburetor that produced 280 hp at 4600 rpm. The Buick Special name was dropped after the 1969 model year. A locking steering column with a new, rectangular ignition key became standard on all 1969 GM cars (except Corvair), one year ahead of the Federal requirement.

For 1970, the Buick Skylark name was moved down another notch, replacing the previous entry-level Buick Special.

1975–1977
The Special returned briefly to the GM A platform as an entry level subseries of the Buick Century. Although officially sold as the Buick Century Special, it was sometimes also referred to as just the Buick Special.

Century Specials were usually powered by Buick's own 231 V6; a V8 (from either Buick, Oldsmobile, or Chevrolet) was offered but rarely optioned. It used the "colonnade" roofline but was fitted with a landau roof that covered most of the rear quarter windows. The opening that was left was the same shape as the windows on the higher series formal-roof cars.

1978–1979
In 1978 and 1979, the Special trim continued on the redesigned Century fastback and wagon models.

1991–1996

Special returned once again as the entry level trim on the Century sedan (starting 1991) and wagon (starting 1993). The "Special" designation was discontinued with the Century's redesign in 1997.

title: Buick Special


text:
Ottawa Public Library

The Ottawa Public Library (OPL; Bibliothèque publique d'Ottawa) is the library system of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The library was founded in 1906 with a donation from the Carnegie Foundation.

Services

 * Information and reference services
 * Access to full text databases
 * Community information
 * Reader's advisory services
 * Programs for children, youth and adults
 * Delivery to homebound individuals
 * Interlibrary loan

Information technology
The library originally provided Windows 95 computers to use with some preloaded applications such as Office 2000 and WordPerfect. In January 2005, it upgraded three branches to Windows XP. The rest received that operating system by April of that year. In March 2014, Windows 7 was rolled out and the software was upgraded to Office 2007, but WordPerfect is now absent. Children accounts are filtered, while adults have the option of choosing unfiltered or filtered Internet access.

Later, they added Wi-Fi hotspots at their branches.

It is also possible to obtain free downloadable e-books, Zinio magazines, audiobooks and MP3 music from the library.

Origin of the OPL
Prior to the twentieth century, Ottawa had a few reading rooms in hotel lobbies, and also some small fee-based libraries for working men such as the Bytown Mechanics' Institute, but no truly free place in which anyone could read. The city's active Local Council of Women took up the cause of a free library for all. The first definite step taken for founding a Free Public Library was that of the Ottawa women in the early part of 1895. To attain this end, the Committee obtained the co-operation of the Evening Journal. The proprietor generously placed his paper at the disposal of the ladies for a Woman's Issue. Mary McKay Scott was Managing Editor. The paper was issued April 13, 1895, and a profit of $500.00 realized. To secure municipal assistance, a by-law was submitted in January, 1896. The by-law was defeated. They announced, just before the election of 1896, that the mansion of George Perley, a local lumber baron, was donated in his will as a home for the library. However, the city voted down the motion to build a library, as well as another motion to build a firehall; the city just didn't have any money to spare for "luxuries".

Only in 1901, when letters were mailed to Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie replied that he would offer $100,000 to the city to build the library if they provided a site and a pledge of $7,500 a year to maintain it. They eventually agreed in January 1903, and within a few years the library was built and open to the public.

The day after its official opening, in 1906, the original Carnegie library opened several hours later than expected, because the mass of people who had come to the opening day left the entire library in complete disarray, and had walked off with many items.

Present day OPL
The Main Library is located in Downtown Ottawa at the corner of Metcalfe Street and Laurier Avenue West, at the same spot as the original Carnegie library, although nothing remains of the original building but a stained glass window. Several of the Corinthian columns from the old Carnegie library survive in the Rockeries in Rockcliffe Park, a rock garden maintained by the National Capital Commission. The library now has thirty-three branches spread throughout urban and rural Ottawa.

Before the City of Ottawa's amalgamation in 2001, which resulted in the merging of eleven separate municipal library systems, the Ottawa Public Library itself only had eight libraries, including Sunnyside, Rideau, and Rosemount. Today, the library is divided into district branches Nepean Centrepointe, Cumberland and Greenboro, community branches such as Sunnyside, Ruth E. Dickinson and Carlingwood and several rural branches.

Patrons throughout the new city have greatly benefited from the 2001 merger as they can now easily order almost items from another branch, and return books to any branch in the city. Ordering items via the library website for pickup at a local branch has been very popular, with over 5 million visitors to the website in 2007. The new system is very centralized, which has meant a loss of decision-making power in many ways, including the choice of books for purchase and the old, local ways of running the smaller libraries. Patrons can however suggest items for the library to purchase.

The current CEO of OPL is Sonia Bebbington as of October 31, 2022. The OPL is governed by a board of nine part-time members appointed by the City of Ottawa, five city councillors and four members of the public. The Library is funded mainly by the city through local tax revenues. Some revenue also comes from the province, and traditional library sources of fees, fines, and fundraising.

The library system has 2.3 million items, 91.7% percent of which are books. The library also has a large audio-visual collection including DVDs, CDs, and downloadable books and music. Since Ottawa has a significant francophone population, a large portion of the collection is in French, with some branches such as Vanier working almost exclusively in French. Smaller collections offer a wide array of other languages, notably Chinese, Hindi, and Arabic. According to the latest Ontario library statistics, only the Toronto Public Library has larger holdings. The library hosts a full range of programming for both adults and children, with children's programming being extremely popular. There are also 359 public internet stations and 79 electronic databases.

The Library's two bookmobiles, which operated out of the Sunnyside branch for almost 50 years, stop at regularly scheduled places throughout the city in an effort to reach areas without library branches. Many of these neighborhoods are poorer, more remote, or simply too far from a branch. During a funding crisis in 2004, the older bookmobile was nearly decommissioned, but it was kept in service with a second, new bookmobile added in 2005. The Bookmobile headquarters was moved to the new Greenboro District Library in June 2006.

The large new Greenboro District Library, built in the city's rapidly growing South end, opened on June 7, 2006, replacing the Blossom Park Branch established by the former City of Gloucester.

New central library
In recent years, numerous cities such as Vancouver, Seattle and Salt Lake City, have had great success in constructing new central libraries as part of downtown revitalization efforts. These urban landmarks have created new civic spaces that both create community and are key component of an information society. Accordingly, there is pressure for Ottawa to have a great design and follow other Canadian cities such as Calgary and Halifax, who have erected new libraries in recent years. There was an offer to the City Council from a developer for a partnership to build in the still-mostly-empty Lebreton Flats. The joint OPL-LAC Joint Facility (Ottawa Public Library and Library and Archives of Canada) will be located at 555 Albert Street at the edge of LeBreton Flats.

City of Ottawa Central Archives and Ottawa Public Library Materials Centre
The City of Ottawa Central Archives and Ottawa Public Library Materials Centre is located at 100 Tallwood Dr. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) building was designed by Shoalts and Zaback Architects, and Barry J. Hobin and Associates Architects. The building features a variety of energy-saving technologies and renewable resources. The Archives includes a public reference room, exhibition gallery, conservation laboratory, and art vaults. The Library Materials Centre, features an Automated Materials Handling System, which helps sort and deliver the library materials to all 33 branches and the Bookmobile. The central archives and library materiels center was included amongst other architecturally interesting and historically significant buildings in Doors Open Ottawa, held June 2 and 3, 2012.

title: Ottawa Public Library


text: File:Moseley Shoals.jpg

title: File:Moseley Shoals.jpg


text:
Moseley Shoals

Moseley Shoals is the second album by the British rock group Ocean Colour Scene which was released during the Britpop era. The album reached #2 in the UK charts, and amassed 92 weeks on chart, making it the band's most successful album in terms of weeks on chart, despite a later album reaching #1.

Album
The first single taken from the album was "The Riverboat Song", which was popularised by Chris Evans on TFI Friday. "The Day We Caught the Train" reached number four in the charts, with "You've Got It Bad" and "The Circle" also reaching the top 10. "One for the Road" was also due to be released, but the band decided to concentrate on the 1997 album release Marchin' Already. By November 1997, Moseley Shoals had sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide.

The word Moseley is taken from a suburb of the same name in south Birmingham, UK. The album title as a whole is a punning nod to the city of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, the location of several famous 1960s soul recording studios including FAME Studios and Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in nearby Sheffield, Alabama.

The album was produced by Brendan Lynch, and was recorded and mixed at the band's studio in Birmingham (Moseley Shoals).

In April, 2016, the album was re-released as part of the Record Store Day celebrations, on limited edition red vinyl, charting at No.5 on the vinyl album chart.

The memorial by which the band can be seen standing on the front cover is the Jephson Memorial in The Jephson Gardens, Leamington Spa, UK.

Accolades
In 1998, Q magazine's readers voted Moseley Shoals the 33rd greatest album of all time. The album was placed at number 42 on Pitchfork's 2017 poll of "The 50 Best Britpop Albums."

Moseley Shoals: Deluxe Edition
Released on 7 March 2011, the remastered album contained the original track list, plus all the B-sides from the four singles released ("The Riverboat Song", "The Day We Caught the Train", "The Circle" and "You've Got It Bad"). Most of these (all except "You've Got It Bad (demo)", "Men of Such Opinion", "I Need a Love Song" and "Justine") appeared on the B-side compilation album B-sides, Seasides and Freerides.

Personnel
Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.
 * Ocean Colour Scene
 * Simon Fowler – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, harmonica
 * Steve Cradock – guitar, backing vocals, piano
 * Damon Minchella – bass
 * Oscar Harrison – drums, backing vocals, piano
 * Additional personnel
 * Paul Weller – organ (track 1), guitar (track 3) , piano (track 7) , backing vocals (track 7)
 * Brendan Lynch – production
 * Martyn Heyes – engineering
 * Tony Keach – engineering assistance
 * Tim Young – mastering
 * Gerard Saint – sleeve design
 * Lord Antony Mark Briggs – photography

title: Moseley Shoals