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Enos T. Throop

Enos Thompson Throop (August 21, 1784 – November 1, 1874) was an American lawyer, politician, and diplomat who was the tenth governor of New York from 1829 to 1832.

Early life and career
Throop was born in Johnstown, New York on August 21, 1784, the eldest child of George Bliss Throop and Abiah Thompson. He studied law in Albany with attorney George Metcalfe, where he became friendly with his fellow student Martin Van Buren. His nephew and namesake, Enos Thompson Throop Martin, married Cornelia Williams Martin, a prominent philanthropist and social activist in Auburn, New York.

Throop was admitted to the bar in 1806, and began to practice law in Auburn, New York. He joined the Democratic-Republican Party, and was appointed postmaster of the village, and in 1811 county clerk of Cayuga County.

In 1814, he married Evelina Vredenburgh, who died in 1834; she was the daughter of William Vredenburgh, an early landholder and investor in the area. None of their children survived infancy. The same year he was elected to the 14th United States Congress as a supporter of the war measures of the administration. He took part in the debates upon the measures to which the close of the war and the prostration of public and private credit gave rise. He also supported and voted for the act changing the compensation of congressmen from six dollars a day to $1,800 per annum, a course which temporarily clouded his political fortunes. Popular dissatisfaction with his actions was such that he was defeated at the congressional elections of April 1816, and resigned his seat on June 4, 1816. In April 1823, he was appointed Judge of the Seventh Circuit and remained on the bench until 1828 when he resigned.

Governor
In 1828, he joined his friend Martin Van Buren's ticket for the gubernatorial election as the Democratic-Republican candidate for lieutenant governor, a step that rendered it necessary for him to resign his judicial office. It was expected that Andrew Jackson would be elected president at the same election, in which event Van Buren would be made secretary of state and would, if his appointment were confirmed, have to resign the office of governor and the leadership of the party, and with Throop as his lieutenant would keep both offices in the hands of a friend. These expectations were fulfilled, and Throop succeeded to the office of governor on March 12, 1829. He was re-elected governor in 1830, defeating again Francis Granger, who had been the contender for the lieutenant-governorship at the previous election. At this time the construction of the Chenango Canal became one of the chief questions of state policy. He opposed the plan, raising such a vehement opposition to him in the localities through which the proposed canal would pass, that in 1832 he declined to seek a third term. The French observer of America Alexis de Tocqueville visited Throop on his farm near Auburn and was amazed to find that the governor engaged in farming half the year to supplement his small salary.

Later life
In 1833 he was appointed by President Jackson naval officer at the Port of New York, which office he held until February 6, 1838, when President Van Buren appointed him Chargé d'affaires of the United States to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. On this post he remained until January 12, 1842. After spending two years in Paris, he returned to the United States, and resided upon an estate on the banks of Owasco Lake near Auburn. In 1847 he moved to Kalamazoo, Michigan, where he purchased a farm of 800 acre, and became noted among agriculturists. Advancing years compelled him to give up farming, and in 1857 he returned to his former home, removing in 1868 to New York City, but a few years later again returning to his residence near Auburn.

He died on his estate of Willowbrook, near Auburn, on November 1, 1874, aged 90. He was buried in the churchyard of St. Peter's Episcopal Church (now Sts. Peter and St. John Church) in Auburn.

There is a memorial to him at the Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York) (see image on this page) that states in Latin, integer vitae scelerisque purus, which means "upright of life and free from wickedness."

The Town of Throop, New York in Cayuga County is named after him.

Throop Avenue in Brooklyn (Kings County) and Throop Avenue in the Bronx are named after him.

title: Enos T. Throop


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Convection oven

A convection oven (also known as a fan-assisted oven, turbo broiler or simply a fan oven or turbo) is an oven that has fans to circulate air around food to create an evenly heated environment. The increased air circulation causes a fan-assisted oven to cook food faster than a conventional non-fan oven, which relies only on natural convection to circulate the hot air. Fan-assisted convection ovens are commonly used for baking as well as non-food, industrial applications. Small countertop convection ovens for household use are often marketed as air fryers.

When cooking using a fan-assisted oven, the temperature is usually lower compared to that of a non-fan oven, often by 20 C-change, to avoid overcooking the outside of the food.

Culinary convection ovens
Convection ovens distribute heat evenly around the food, removing the blanket of cooler air that surrounds food when it is first placed in an oven and allowing food to cook more evenly in less time and at a lower temperature than in a conventional oven.

History
The first oven with a fan to circulate air was invented in 1914 but it was never launched commercially.

The first convection oven in wide use was the Maxson Whirlwind Oven, invented in 1945.

Design
A convection oven has a fan with a heating element around it. A small fan circulates the air in the cooking chamber.

One effect of the fan is to reduce the thickness of the stationary thermal boundary layer of cooler air that naturally forms around the food. The boundary layer acts as an insulator and slows the rate that the heat reaches the food. By moving the cool air (convecting it) away from the food the layer is thinned, and cooking occurs faster. To prevent overcooking before the middle is cooked, the temperature is usually reduced by about 20 C-change. In addition, because the air gets well mixed, the oven has a very even temperature.

Convection ovens may include radiant heat sources at the top and bottom of the oven, which improves heat transfer and speeds cooking from initial cold start. On the other hand, some ovens have all the heating elements placed in an outside enclosure and hidden from the food. This reduces the effect of radiant heat on the food; however, the walls of the oven will also be heated by the circulating hot air, and though the resulting temperature is much lower than that of a radiant heat source, it is still hot enough to provide some heating of the food by radiation from the walls.

Effectiveness
A convection oven allows a reduction in cooking temperature compared to a conventional oven. This comparison will vary, depending on factors including, for example, how much food is being cooked at once or if airflow is being restricted, for example by an oversized baking tray. This difference in cooking temperature is offset as the circulating air transfers heat more quickly than still air of the same temperature. In order to transfer the same amount of heat in the same time, the temperature must be lowered to reduce the rate of heat transfer in order to compensate.

Variants
Another form of a convection oven is called an impingement oven. This type of oven is often used to cook pizzas and lightly toast bread in restaurants, but it can also be used for other foods. Impingement ovens have a high flow rate of hot air from both above and below the food. The air flow is directed onto food that usually passes through the oven on a conveyor belt.

Impingement ovens can achieve a much higher heat transfer than a conventional oven, and fully enclosed models can also use dual magnetrons, like a microwave oven. The most notable manufacturer of this type of oven is Turbochef. The differences between an impingement oven (with magnetrons) and a convection microwave oven are cost, power consumption, and speed. Impingement ovens are designed to be used in restaurants, where speed is essential and power consumption and cost are less of a concern.

There are also convection microwave ovens which combine a convection oven with a microwave oven to cook food with the speed of a microwave oven and the browning ability of a convection oven.

A combi steamer is an oven that combines convection functionality with superheated steam to cook foods even faster and retain more nutrients and moisture.

Air fryer

An air fryer is a small countertop convection oven designed to simulate deep frying without submerging the food in oil. A fan circulates hot air at a high speed, producing a crisp layer via browning reactions such as the Maillard reaction. Some product reviewers find that regular convection ovens or convection toaster ovens produce better results, or say that air frying is essentially the same as convection baking.

The original Philips Air fryer used radiant heat from a heating element just above the food and convection heat from a strong air stream flowing upwards through the open bottom of the food chamber, delivering heat from all sides, with a small volume of hot air forced to pass from the heater surface and over the food, with no idle air circulating as in a convection oven. A shaped guide directed the airflow over the bottom of the food. The technique was patented as Rapid Air technology.

Traditional frying methods induce the Maillard reaction at temperatures of 140 to 165 °C by completely submerging foods in hot oil, well above the boiling point of water. The air fryer works by coating the food in a thin layer of oil and circulating air at up to 200 °C to apply sufficient heat to cause the reaction.

Most air fryers have temperature and timer adjustments that allow more precise cooking. Food is typically cooked in a basket that sits on a drip tray. The basket must be periodically agitated, either manually or by the fryer mechanism. Convection ovens and air fryers are similar in the way they cook food, but air fryers are generally smaller and give off less heat.

There are several types of air fryers that are on the market today for household use.

Paddle
In this type, a paddle machine moves throughout the heating chamber to move the air around more evenly. This is more convenient for the user because other types of air fryers require manual stirring throughout to ensure that all sides are fully cooked.

Cylindrical basket
A cylindrical basket is a small, single function air fryer that includes a drawer with a removable basket. A fan circulates from the top, and the food is cooked through holes in the basket. It can accommodate 2.8 L of food or less on average. Because of its compact size, it preheats faster than other types of air fryers.

Countertop convection oven
Countertop convection ovens come with an air frying feature that work the same way as basket type air fryers. They usually have multiple trays or racks, so multiple things can be cooked at the same time. It holds 24 L of food on average. They are more versatile than single function type because they have multiple features like baking, rotisserie, grilling, frying, broiling, and toasting.

Halogen
This type of air fryer cooks food with a halogen light from above. The heat is spread evenly throughout with a fan like other types of air fryers. This type usually looks like a large glass bowl with a hinged lid because the clear glass works as an easy and fast heat conductor.

Oil-less turkey fryer
These are large, barrel shaped air fryers used to cook whole turkeys and other large amount of meat. It circulates air around the drum to cook the turkey evenly.

History
Convection ovens have been in wide use since 1945.

In 2006, Groupe SEB introduced the world's first air fryer, under the Actifry brand of convection ovens in the French market.

In 2010, Philips introduced the Airfryer brand of convection oven at the IFA Berlin consumer electronics fair. By 2018, the term "airfryer" was starting to be used generically.

In the United States convection ovens experienced a surge in popularity in the late 2010s and early 2020s with a reported 36% of U.S. households having one in 2020 and an estimated 60% of U.S. households having one in 2023. Food manufacturers have responded by adding air frying instructions on a number of products and pre air-fried products also coming to market.

Industrial convection ovens
Industrial convection ovens can be very large-sized and are typically used for manufacturing various items.

Hot air ovens are used to sterilize medical equipment.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Convection oven


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Battle of Megiddo (1918)

The Battle of Megiddo was fought between 19 and 25 September 1918, on the Plain of Sharon, in front of Tulkarm, Tabsor and Arara in the Judean Hills as well as on the Esdralon Plain at Nazareth, Afulah, Beisan, Jenin and Samakh. Its name, which has been described as "perhaps misleading" since very limited fighting took place near Tel Megiddo, was chosen by British commander Edmund Allenby for its biblical and symbolic resonance.

The battle was the final Allied offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. The contending forces were the Allied Egyptian Expeditionary Force, of three corps including one of mounted troops, and the Ottoman Yildirim Army Group which numbered three armies, each the strength of barely an Allied corps. The series of battles took place in what was then the central and northern parts of Ottoman Palestine and parts of present-day Israel, Syria and Jordan. After forces of the Arab Revolt attacked the Ottoman lines of communication, distracting the Ottomans, British and Indian infantry divisions attacked and broke through the Ottoman defensive lines in the sector adjacent to the coast in the set-piece Battle of Sharon. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the breach and almost encircled the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth armies still fighting in the Judean Hills. The subsidiary Battle of Nablus was fought virtually simultaneously in the Judean Hills in front of Nablus and at crossings of the Jordan River. The Ottoman Fourth Army was subsequently attacked in the Hills of Moab at Es Salt and Amman.

These battles resulted in many tens of thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory being captured by the Allies. Following the battles, Daraa was captured on 27 September, Damascus on 1 October and operations at Haritan, north of Aleppo, were still in progress when the Armistice of Mudros was signed ending hostilities between the Allies and Ottomans.

The operations of General Edmund Allenby, the British commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, achieved decisive results at comparatively little cost, in contrast to many offensives during the First World War. Allenby achieved this through the use of creeping barrages to cover set-piece infantry attacks to break a state of trench warfare and then use his mobile forces (cavalry, armoured cars and aircraft) to encircle the Ottoman armies' positions in the Judean Hills, cutting off their lines of retreat. The irregular forces of the Arab Revolt also played a part in this victory.

Background
The ancient fortress of Megiddo stands on Tell el-Mutesellim (Tel Megiddo), at the mouth of the Musmus Pass near al-Lajjun, controlling the routes to the north and the interior by dominating the Plain of Armageddon or of Megiddo. Across this plain several armies, from the ancient Egyptians to the French under Napoleon, had fought on their way towards Nazareth in the Galilean Hills. By 1918 this plain, known as the Plain of Esdraelon (the Jezreel Valley in Israeli terms) was still strategically important as it linked the Jordan Valley and the Plain of Sharon 40 mi behind the Ottoman front line, and together, these three valleys formed a semicircle round the main Ottoman positions in the Judean Hills held by their Seventh and Eighth armies.

Allied situation
The Entente Powers had declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. In early 1915 and in August 1916 the Ottomans, with German commanders, aid and encouragement, had attacked the Suez Canal, a vital link between Britain and India, Australia and New Zealand. Under General Archibald Murray, the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) stopped the Ottoman army at the Battle of Romani and drove them back to Magdhaba and across the Sinai to Rafa to reoccupy Egyptian territory and secure the safety of the Suez Canal. Having constructed a railway and water pipeline across the desert, Murray then attacked southern Palestine. In the First Battle of Gaza and the Second Battle of Gaza in March and April 1917, the British attacks were defeated.

In 1916, the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule had broken out in the Hejaz, led by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca. Although the Ottomans defended Medina, at the end of the Hejaz Railway against them, part of the Sherifian Army, led by Hussein's son, the Emir Feisal, and British liaison officer T. E. Lawrence, extended the revolt northwards. Finally, Lawrence and bedouin tribesmen won the Battle of Aqaba in July 1917. The capture of the port of Aqaba allowed the Allies to supply Feisal's forces and deprived the Ottomans of a position behind the right flank of the EEF.

General Allenby had been appointed to succeed Murray in command of the EEF, and was encouraged to renew the offensive. After receiving reinforcements, he broke through the Ottoman defences in the Third Battle of Gaza and defeated an Ottoman attempt to make a stand to the north at the Battle of Mughar Ridge. Despite Ottoman counter-attacks, the EEF captured Jerusalem in the second week in December 1917.

After a pause of several weeks caused by bad weather and the need to repair his lines of communication, Allenby advanced eastward to capture Jericho in February 1918. However, in March, the Germans launched their spring offensive on the Western Front, intending to defeat the Allied armies in France and Belgium. Allenby was ordered to send reinforcements (two complete divisions, another 24 infantry battalions from other divisions and nine dismounted yeomanry regiments) to the Western Front. Allenby's tank force was also returned to France. In total approximately 60,000 officers and men were transferred to the Western Front in 1918.

However, Allenby maintained pressure on the Ottoman armies by twice sending mounted and infantry divisions across the Jordan. The first attack briefly cut the Hejaz Railway near Amman before the attackers retreated. In the second attack, Allenby's troops captured Es Salt on the road to Amman, but fell back when their communications were threatened. Despite these failures, Allenby had established two bridgeheads across the Jordan north of the Dead Sea which were retained during the ensuing occupation of the southern Jordan Valley.

Ottoman situation
At the same time (effectively from 8 March 1918), the Ottoman command changed. The highest level Ottoman headquarters in Palestine was the Yıldırım Army Group. The army group had originally been formed to recapture Baghdad which had been captured by the British in March 1917. Instead, it had been diverted to Palestine where the British were close to capturing Jerusalem. The army group's commander was the German general, Erich von Falkenhayn, who wished to continue a policy of "yielding defence" rather than hold all positions at all costs. He was also prepared to retreat to shorten his lines of communication and reduce the need for static garrisons. However, he was unpopular among Ottoman officers, mainly because he relied almost exclusively on German rather than Ottoman staff officers, and was blamed for the defeats at Gaza and Jerusalem. He was replaced by another German General, Otto Liman von Sanders, who had commanded the Ottoman defence during the Gallipoli Campaign. Liman reasoned that continued retreat in Palestine would demoralise the troops, ruin their draught animals, encourage the Arab Revolt to spread further north into the Ottoman rear areas and also lead to all the Ottoman forces to the south in the Hejaz being finally isolated. His forces halted their retreat and dug in to resist the British, even reoccupying some ground near the Jordan as Allenby's two raids across the Jordan were repulsed.

Until late September 1918, the strategic situation of the Ottoman Empire appeared to be better than that of the other Central Powers. Their forces in Mesopotamia were holding their ground, while in the Caucasus they had captured Armenia, Azerbaijan and much of Georgia in an advance towards the Caspian Sea. Liman von Sanders was expected to repeat his defence of Gallipoli and defeat the British invasion in Palestine.

However, some other commanders were worried about an assault on their extended front in Palestine. They wished to pull their troops back, so an attack would have to cross undefended ground and lose any tactical surprise. However, Liman would have had to abandon what seemed to be good defences and he decided that it was too late to pull back.

Allied reorganisation
During the summer of 1918, Allenby's forces were built back up to full strength. Two British Indian Army cavalry divisions, the 4th Cavalry Division and 5th Cavalry Division, arrived from the Western Front and were reorganised to include one British yeomanry regiment in five of their six brigades. Two Indian infantry divisions, the 3rd (Lahore) Division and the 7th (Meerut) Division, were transferred from the Mesopotamian Campaign to replace two divisions which had been sent to the Western Front. Four of Allenby's infantry divisions (the 10th, 53rd, 60th and 75th) were reformed on the pattern of British Indian Army, with three Indian and one British infantry battalion in each brigade except one brigade in the 53rd Division which had one British, one South African and two Indian battalions. The remaining British infantry division, the 54th (East Anglian) Division, retained its all-British composition, although the brigade-sized Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie was attached to the division.

There was a comparative lull in activity while Allenby's divisions were reorganised and retrained, but some local attacks were made, especially in the Judean Hills. On 19 July, the Ottomans and Germans mounted a brief attack at Abu Tellul near the Jordan, but were defeated by Australian Light Horse regiments with heavy casualties to the German 11th Reserve Jäger battalion, which was subsequently withdrawn from Palestine.

Arab Northern Army
As Allenby's reorganisation proceeded, the Arab Northern Army (part of the Arab Revolt) was operating east of the Jordan under the overall leadership of the Emir Feisal. Feisal's headquarters were at Aba el Lissan, about 15 mi south-west of the Ottoman position at Ma'an, and his army received support from the British through the port of Aqaba. Assistance to Feisal included liaison officers, detachments of armoured cars, Indian machine gunners and a French Algerian mountain battery, 2,000 camels from three disbanded battalions of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade, weapons, ammunition and above all, money (almost always in coin). In mid-1916, this had started as a monthly subsidy of £30,000. By the time Allenby launched his Megiddo offensive, it had grown to £220,000 a month.

The 2,000 regular soldiers of the Arab Northern Army maintained a blockade of the Ottoman garrison at Ma'an after an unsuccessful attack at Khirbet es-Samra earlier in the year. They were commanded by Jaafar Pasha, formerly an Ottoman officer who had been sent to lead a rebellion against the British by the Senussi in Egypt, but had joined the Arab Revolt after being captured. Most of these regulars were former Arab conscripts in the Ottoman Army who had deserted or, like Jaafar, had changed sides after becoming prisoners of war.

Meanwhile, Arab irregulars raided the Hejaz Railway from Aba-el-Lissan and Aqaba, often accompanied by Lawrence and other British liaison officers. In particular, in the weeks following the failure of Allenby's second attack across the Jordan, they carried out demolitions on an 80 mi stretch of line around Mudawara, due east of Aqaba, effectively closing the line for a month and ending Ottoman operations around Medina at the end of the railway.

"I do not for one moment denigrate the good name of Lawrence, nor detract from his leadership in the 'Arab Revolt' in Arabia in harassing the Turks, blowing up trains, etc. but when it came to co–operation with Allenby's forces, the Arabs under Lawrence had in my experience, nuisance value only."

Allenby's plan
Allenby intended to break through the western end of the Ottoman line, where the terrain was favourable to cavalry operations. His horsemen would pass through the gap to seize objectives deep in the Ottoman rear areas and isolate their Seventh and Eighth Armies.

As a preliminary move, the Arab Northern Army would attack the railway junction at Daraa beginning on 16 September, to interrupt the Ottoman lines of communication and distract the Yildirim headquarters.

The two divisions of XX Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode, would make an attack in the Judean Hills beginning on the night of 18 September, partly to further distract Ottoman attention to the Jordan Valley sector, and partly to secure positions from which their line of retreat across the Jordan could be blocked. Once the main offensive by XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps was launched, XX Corps was to block the Ottoman escape route from Nablus to the Jordan crossing at Jisr ed Damieh and if possible capture the Ottoman Seventh Army's headquarters in Nablus.

The main breakthrough was to be achieved on the coast on 19 September by four infantry divisions of XXI Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin, massed on a front 8 mi wide. The fifth division of XXI Corps (the 54th) was to make a subsidiary attack 5 mi inland of the main breach. Once the breakthrough was achieved, the corps, with the 5th Light Horse Brigade attached, would advance to capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army at Tulkarm and the lateral railway line by which the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were supplied, including the important railway junction at Messudieh.

The strategic move was to be made by the Desert Mounted Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel. Its three mounted divisions were massed behind the three westernmost infantry divisions of XXI Corps. As soon as XXI Corps had breached the Ottoman defences, they were to march north to reach the passes through the Carmel Range before Ottoman troops could forestall them, and pass through these to seize the communication centres of Al-Afuleh and Beisan. These two communication centres were within the 60 mi radius of a strategic cavalry "bound", the distance mounted units could cover before being forced to halt for rest and to obtain water and fodder for the horses. If they were captured, the lines of communication and retreat for all Ottoman troops west of the Jordan would be cut.

Finally, a detachment consisting of the Anzac Mounted Division, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, two battalions of the British West Indies Regiment, and two battalions of Jewish Volunteers in the Royal Fusiliers, amounting to 11,000 men commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor and known as Chaytor's Force, was to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge and fords in a pincer movement. This important line of communication between the Ottoman Armies on the west bank of the Jordan with the Ottoman Fourth Army at Es Salt, was required by Allenby before Chaytor could proceed to capture Es Salt and Amman.

Entente deceptions
Secrecy was an essential part, as it had been at the Battle of Beersheba the preceding year. It was feared that the Ottomans could thwart the preparations for the attack by making a withdrawal in the coastal sector. Laborious efforts were therefore made to prevent the Ottomans discerning Allenby's intentions and to persuade them that the next Entente attack would be made in the Jordan Valley. All westward movements of personnel and vehicles from the Jordan Valley towards the Mediterranean coast were made during the night while all movements eastwards were made during daytime. The detached Anzac Mounted Division in the Jordan Valley simulated the activity of the entire mounted corps. Troops marched openly down to the valley by day, and were secretly taken back by lorry at night to repeat the process the next day. Vehicles or mules dragged harrows along tracks to raise dust clouds, simulating other troop movements. Dummy camps and horse lines were constructed and a hotel in Jerusalem was ostentatiously commandeered for an Expeditionary Force headquarters.

Meanwhile, the 2nd (British) Battalion of the Imperial Camel Corps joined Arab irregulars in a raid east of the Jordan. They first captured and destroyed the railway station at Mudawara, finally cutting the Hejaz Railway, and then mounted a reconnaissance near Amman, scattering corned beef tins and documents as proof of their presence. Lawrence sent agents to openly buy up huge quantities of forage in the same area. As a final touch, British newspapers and messages were filled with reports of a race meeting to take place on 19 September, the day on which the attack was to be launched.

Though Allenby's deceptions did not induce Liman to concentrate his forces against the River Jordan flank, Allenby was nevertheless able to concentrate a force superior to the Ottoman XXII Corps by nearly five to one in infantry and even more in artillery on the Mediterranean flank, where the main attack was to be made, undetected by the Ottomans. Earlier in the year (on 9 June), units of the 7th (Meerut) Division had captured two hills just inland from the coast, depriving the Ottomans of two important observation points overlooking the Allied bridgehead north of the Nahr-el-Auja. Also, the Royal Engineers had established a bridging school on the Nahr-al-Auja much earlier in the year, so the sudden appearance of several bridges across it on the eve of the assault did not alert any other Ottoman observers.

Entente air superiority
These various deceptions could not have been successful without the Entente forces' undisputed air supremacy west of the Jordan. The squadrons of the Royal Air Force and the Australian Flying Corps outnumbered and outclassed the Ottoman and German aircraft detachments in Palestine. During the weeks before the September attack, enemy aerial activity dropped markedly. Although during one week in June hostile aeroplanes crossed the British front lines 100 times, mainly on the tip–and–run principle at altitudes of 16000 –, by the last week in August this number had dropped to 18 and during the three following weeks of September it was reduced to just four enemy aircraft. During the 18 days before the start of the battle, only two or three German aircraft were seen flying. Eventually, Ottoman and German reconnaissance aircraft could not even take off without being engaged by British or Australian fighters, and could therefore not see through Allenby's deceptions, nor spot the true Allied concentration which was concealed in orange groves and plantations.

Ottoman dispositions
Under the Yildirim Army Group were, from west to east: the Eighth Army (Jevad Pasha) which held the front from the Mediterranean coast to the Judean Hills with five divisions (one of which had recently arrived at Et Tire, a few miles behind the front lines), a cavalry division and the German "Pasha II" detachment, equivalent to a regiment; the Seventh Army (Mustafa Kemal Pasha) which held the front in the Judean Hills to the Jordan River with four divisions and a German regiment; and the Fourth Army (Jemal Mersinli Pasha), which was divided into two groups: one faced the bridgeheads which Allenby's forces had seized over the Jordan with two divisions, while the other defended Amman and Ma'an and the Hejaz Railway against attacks by Arab forces with two divisions, a cavalry division and some miscellaneous detachments.

In August 1918, the Yildirim Army Group's front-line strength was 40,598 infantrymen armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns, and 402 guns.

Although the Ottomans had fairly accurately estimated the total Allied strength, Liman lacked intelligence on the Allied plans and dispositions and was forced to dispose his forces evenly along the entire length of his front. Moreover, almost his entire fighting strength was in the front line. The armies' only operational reserves were the two German regiments and the two understrength cavalry divisions. Further back there were no strategic reserves other than some "Depot Regiments", not organised as fighting units, and scattered garrisons and line of communication units.

After four years of warfare, most Ottoman units were understrength and demoralised by desertions, sickness and shortage of supplies (although supplies were not short at Damascus when Desert Mounted Corps arrived there on 1 October 1918. It was possible to find food and forage for three cavalry divisions; 20,000 men and horses "without depriving the inhabitants of essential food." ). Liman nevertheless relied on the determination of the Turkish infantry and the strength of their front-line fortifications. Although the numbers of artillery pieces and especially of machine guns among the defenders were unusually high, the Ottoman lines had only thin belts of barbed wire compared with those on the Western Front, and Liman was unable to take into account the improved British tactical methods in set-piece offensives, involving surprise and short but accurate artillery preparation based on aerial reconnaissance.

Opening attacks
On 16 September 1918, Arabs under T. E. Lawrence and Nuri as-Said began destroying railway lines around the vital rail centre of Daraa, at the junction of the Hedjaz Railway which supplied the Ottoman army at Amman and the Palestine Railway which supplied the Ottoman armies in Palestine. Lawrence's initial forces (a Camel Corps unit from Feisal's Army, an Egyptian Camel Corps unit, some Gurkha machine gunners, British and Australian armoured cars and French mountain artillery) were soon joined by up to 3,000 Ruwallah and Howeitat tribesmen under noted fighting chiefs such as Auda abu Tayi and Nuri al-Shaalan. Although Lawrence was ordered by Allenby only to disrupt communications around Daraa for a week and Lawrence himself had not intended a major uprising to take place in the area immediately, to avoid Ottoman reprisals, a growing number of local communities spontaneously took up arms against the Turks.

As the Ottomans reacted, sending the garrison of Al-Afuleh to reinforce Daraa, the units of Chetwode's Corps made attacks in the hills above the Jordan on 17 and 18 September. The 53rd Division attempted to seize ground commanding the road system behind the Ottoman front lines. Some objectives were captured but a position known to the British as "Nairn Ridge" was defended by the Ottomans until late on 19 September. Once it was captured, roads could be constructed to link the British road systems with those newly captured.

At the last minute, an Indian deserter had warned the Turks about the impending main attack. Refet Bey, the commander of the Ottoman XXII Corps on the Eighth Army's right flank, wished to withdraw to forestall the attack but his superiors Jevad Pasha, commanding the Ottoman Eighth Army, and Liman (who feared that the deserter was himself an attempted intelligence bluff) forbade him to do so.

At 1:00 am on 19 September, the RAF Palestine Brigade's single Handley Page O/400 heavy bomber dropped its full load of sixteen 112 lb bombs on the main telephone exchange and railway station in Al-Afuleh. This cut communications between Liman's headquarters at Nazareth and Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies for the following vital two days, dislocating the Ottoman command. DH.9s of No. 144 Squadron also bombed El Afule telephone exchange and railway station, Messudieh railway junction and the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus.

Breakthrough of Ottoman line
At 4:30 am, Allenby's main attack by XXI Corps opened. A barrage by 385 guns (the field artillery of five divisions, five batteries of 60-pounder guns, thirteen siege batteries of medium howitzers and seven batteries of the Royal Horse Artillery), 60 trench mortars and two destroyers off the coast fell on the Ottoman 7th and 20th Divisions' front-line positions defending Nahr el Faliq. As the opening bombardment turned to a "lifting" barrage at 4:50 am, the British and Indian infantry advanced and quickly broke through the Ottoman lines. Within hours, the Desert Mounted Corps were moving north along the coast, with no Ottoman reserves available to check them.

"From 10.00 hours onwards, a hostile aeroplane observer, if one had been available, flying over the Plain of Sharon would have seen a remarkable sight – ninety–four squadrons, disposed in great breadth and in great depth, hurrying forward relentlessly on a decisive mission – a mission of which all cavalry soldiers have dreamed, but in which few have been privileged to partake."

According to Woodward, "concentration, surprise, and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby". By the end of the first day of battle, the left flank unit of the British XXI Corps (the 60th Division) had reached Tulkarm and the remnants of the Ottoman Eighth Army were in disorderly retreat under air attack by Bristol F.2 Fighters of No. 1 Australian Squadron, through the defile at Messudieh and into the hills to the east, covered by a few rearguards hastily organised by the Gernan Asia Korps headquarters and its commander, Oberst Gustav von Oppen. The headquarters of the Ottoman XXII Corps had been overrun and captured, although Refet Bey, the corps commander, escaped. Jevad Pasha, the army commander, had fled, and Mustafa Kemal Pasha at Seventh Army headquarters was unable to re-establish control over Eighth Army's troops.

Throughout the day, the RAF prevented any of the German aircraft based at Jenin from taking off and interfering with the British land operations. Relays of two S.E.5s from Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons, armed with bombs, circled over the German airfield at Jenin all day on 19 September. Whenever they spotted any movement on the ground, they bombed the airfield. Each pair of aircraft were relieved every two hours, machine-gunning the German hangars before departing.

Encirclement of two Ottoman Armies

During the early hours of 20 September 1918, the Desert Mounted Corps secured the defiles of the Carmel Range. The 4th Mounted Division passed through these to capture Afulah and Beisan, complete with the bulk of two depot regiments. A brigade of the 5th Mounted Division attacked Nazareth, where Liman von Sanders's HQ was situated, although Liman himself escaped. In the late afternoon a brigade from the Australian Mounted Division occupied Jenin, capturing thousands of retreating Ottomans. The 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade, of the 5th Mounted Division, captured the port of Haifa on 23 September.

Once nothing stood between Allenby's forces and Mustafa Kemal's Seventh Army in Nablus, Kemal decided that he lacked sufficient men to fight the British forces. With the railway blocked, the Seventh Army's only escape route lay to the east, along the Nablus-Beisan road that led down the Wadi Fara into the Jordan valley.

On the night of 20–21 September the Seventh Army began to evacuate Nablus. By this time it was the last formed Ottoman army west of the Jordan and although there was a chance that Chetwode's XX Corps might cut off their retreat, its advance had been slowed by Ottoman rearguards. On 21 September, the Seventh Army was spotted by aircraft in a defile west of the river. The RAF proceeded to bomb the retreating army and destroyed the entire column. Waves of bombing and strafing aircraft passed over the column every three minutes and although the operation had been intended to last for five hours, the Seventh Army was routed in 60 minutes. The wreckage of the destroyed column stretched over 6 mi. British cavalry later found 87 guns, 55 motor-lorries, 4 motor-cars, 75 carts, 837 four-wheeled wagons, and scores of water-carts and field-kitchens destroyed or abandoned on the road. Many Ottoman soldiers were killed and the survivors were scattered and leaderless. Lawrence later wrote that "the RAF lost four killed. The Turks lost a corps."

According to Chauvel's biographer, Allenby's plan for the Battle of Megiddo was as "brilliant in execution as it had been in conception; it had no parallel in France or on any other front, but rather looked forward in principle and even in detail to the Blitzkrieg of 1939." Over the next four days, the 4th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Division rounded up large numbers of demoralised and disorganised Ottoman troops in the Jezreel Valley. Many of the surviving refugees who crossed the Jordan were attacked and captured by Arabs as they approached or tried to bypass Daraa.

Liman deployed a rearguard to hold Samakh, on the Sea of Galilee. This town was to be the centre of a line stretching from Lake Hula to Daraa. A charge by one and a half Australian Light Horse regiments before dawn on 25 September, followed by intense hand-to-hand fighting, eventually captured the town. This victory broke the proposed defensive line and ended the Battle of Sharon.

Judean Hills fighting
As the Desert Mounted Corps and XXI Corps achieved their objectives, the units of XX Corps resumed their advance. Nablus was captured about noon on 21 September by the 10th Division and the Australian 5th Light Horse Brigade from XXI Corps. The British 53rd Division halted its advance towards the Wadi el Fara road when it became clear that the retreating Ottomans had effectively been destroyed by aerial attacks.

Later operations around Daraa
German and Ottoman aircraft had continued to operate from Daraa, harassing the Arab irregulars and insurgents still attacking railways and isolated Ottoman detachments about the town. At Lawrence's urging, British aircraft began operating from makeshift landing strips at Um el Surab nearby from 22 September. Three Bristol F.2 Fighters shot down several of the Ottoman aircraft. The Handley Page 0/400 ferried across petrol, ammunition and spares for the fighters and two Airco DH.9s, and itself bombed the airfield at Daraa early on 23 September and nearby Mafraq on the following night.

Capture of Amman
On 22 September, on the western side of the Jordan River, the Ottoman 53rd Division was attacked at its headquarters near the Wadi el Fara road, by units from Meldrum's Force. This force consisted of the New Zealand Mounted Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General W. Meldrum), the Machine Gun Squadron, the mounted sections of the 1st and 2nd British West Indies Regiment, the 29th Indian Mountain Battery and Ayrshire (or Inverness) Battery RHA. Meldrum's force captured the commander of the 53rd Division, its headquarters and 600 prisoners, before defeating determined Ottoman rearguards to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge.

The Ottoman Fourth Army had remained in its positions until 21 September, apparently unaware of the destruction of the Ottoman armies west of the Jordan until refugees reached them. That day, Liman ordered the Fourth Army to retreat to Daraa and Irbid, about 18 mi to the west. The Fourth Army began to retreat from the Jordan and Amman on 22 September in increasing disorder due to attacks by British and Australian aircraft on 23 September which caused heavy casualties to the retreating troops on the roads between Es Salt and Amman. On the same day, Chaytor's Force advanced across the Jordan River to capture Es Salt.

On 25 September the Ottoman troops who had reached Mafraq by train from Amman, but who could proceed no further because the railway ahead was demolished, came under heavy aerial attack which caused many casualties and much disorder. Many Ottoman soldiers fled into the desert but several thousand maintained some order and, having abandoned their wheeled transport, continued to retreat northwards towards Daraa on foot or horseback, under constant air attack.

Chaytor's Force captured Amman on 25 September. The Ottoman detachment from Ma'an, also trying to retreat northwards, found its line of retreat blocked at Ziza, south of Amman, and surrendered intact to the Anzac Mounted Division on 28 September, rather than risk slaughter by Arab irregulars.

I desire to convey to all ranks and all arms of the Force under my command, my admiration and thanks for their great deeds of the past week, and my appreciation of their gallantry and determination, which have resulted in the total destruction of the VIIth and VIIIth Turkish Armies opposed to us. Such a complete victory has seldom been known in all the history of war.

Capture of Damascus
Allenby now ordered his cavalry to cross the Jordan, to capture Daraa and Damascus. Meanwhile, the 3rd (Lahore) Division advanced north along the coast towards Beirut and the 7th (Meerut) Division advanced on Baalbek in the Beqaa Valley, where the rearmost Ottoman depots and reinforcement camps were situated.

On 27 September, the 4th Mounted Division moved to Daraa, which had already been abandoned to Arab forces, and then advanced north on Damascus in company with them. The retreating Ottomans committed several atrocities against hostile Arab villages; in return, the Arab forces took no prisoners. Almost an entire Ottoman brigade (along with some German and Austrians) was massacred near the village of Tafas on 27 September, with the commander Jemal Pasha narrowly escaping. The Arabs repeated the performance the next day, losing a few hundred casualties while wiping out nearly 5,000 Turks in these two battles.

The 5th Mounted and Australian Mounted Divisions advanced directly across the Golan Heights towards Damascus. They fought actions at Benat Yakup, Kuneitra, Sasa and Katana, before they reached and closed the north and north-west exits from Damascus on 29 September. On 30 September, the Australians intercepted the garrison of Damascus as they tried to retreat through the Barada gorge. Damascus was captured the next day, with the Allies capturing 20,000 prisoners. Jemal Pasha fled, having failed to inspire last-ditch resistance.

Overall, the campaign to the fall of Damascus resulted in the surrender of 75,000 Ottoman soldiers.

Pursuit to Aleppo
After the fall of Damascus, the 5th Mounted Division and some detachments of the Arab Northern Army advanced north through Syria, capturing Aleppo on 26 October. They subsequently advanced to Mouslimmiye, where Mustafa Kemal (who had replaced Liman von Sanders in command of the Yıldırım Army Group) had rallied some troops under XXII Corps HQ. Kemal held his positions until 31 October, when hostilities ceased following the signing of the Armistice of Mudros.

Effects
The successful action at Megiddo resulted in the battle honour "Megiddo" being awarded to units of the British, Dominion and Empire forces participating in the battle. Battle honours for the two subsidiary battles of Sharon and Nablus were also awarded.

Edward Erickson, a historian of the Ottoman Army, later wrote: "The Battle of the Nablus Plain ranks with Ludendorff's Black Days of the German Army in the effect that it had on the consciousness of the Turkish General Staff. It was now apparent to all but the most diehard nationalists that the Turks were finished in the war. In spite of the great victories in Armenia and in Azerbaijan, Turkey was now in an indefensible condition, which could not be remedied with the resources on hand. It was also apparent that the disintegration of the Bulgarian Army at Salonika and the dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian Army spelled disaster and defeat for the Central Powers. From now until the Armistice, the focus of the Turkish strategy would be to retain as much Ottoman territory as possible."

The battle is commemorated in Thomas Hardy’s poem Jezreel: on its Seizure by the English under Allenby, September 1918.

title: Battle of Megiddo (1918)


text:
Talk:Khaki election

Untitled
It's a bit disappointing that this article sat here for six months before anyone noticed that it was completely wrong. Adam 04:41, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Khaki election


text:
Savo Island

Savo Island is an island in Solomon Islands in the South Pacific ocean. Administratively, Savo Island is a part of the Central Province of Solomon Islands. It is about 35 km from the national capital of Honiara. The principal village is Alialia, in the north of the island.

The indigenous language of Savo is the Savosavo language, an East Papuan language. Savo Island also has a minority of Gela speakers.

The waters surrounding the island were the site of five of the seven major naval battles during the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Pacific War of World War II. As a result of these battles, many shipwrecks are located southeast of the island; the bay is known as Ironbottom Sound. The wrecks near the coast are very popular with wreck divers.

Geography
Savo is approximately circular, measuring approximately 6 km by 7 km. It is located 15 km northeast of Cape Esperance, the northern tip of Guadalcanal. The highest elevation is a 485 m stratovolcano, which last erupted between 1835 and 1847. The eruption was so strong that it wiped out all life on the island. An older eruption occurred in 1568. According to the World Organization of Volcanic Observatories (WOVO), the volcano is active every 100 to 300 years. On the island are geysers, hot mud lakes and hot springs.

The "egg fields"
Savo Island is known for the "egg fields" of the megapode, a bird which lays its eggs here and buries them in the warm sand to incubate. The eggs are excavated by local people and are considered a local food specialty. The eggs are slightly larger than a duck egg and are used for preparing omelettes and other dishes.

European discovery and exploration
The first recorded sighting of Savo Island by European explorers was by the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña in April 1568. More precisely the sighting was due to a local exploration voyage done by a small boat, in the accounts the brigantine, commanded by maestre de campo Pedro de Ortega Valencia and having Hernán Gallego as pilot. They charted the volcanic island as Sesarga. Considering the expedition leaders Mendaña and cosmographer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa were both from Galicia in Spain, it was probably so named after the island of the same name in this region.

On 15 March 1893, Savo Island was declared part of the British Solomon Islands protectorate. The island was occupied by the Empire of Japan in the early stages of the Pacific War.

World War II
Because of its proximity to Guadalcanal Island and the hotly contested nature of the battles for control of the Solomon Islands, Savo Island figured in many of the naval engagements of the Solomon Islands campaign. It is most well known as the location of several naval battles fought in the adjacent "Ironbottom Sound" during World War II, between the Allied naval forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy.

List of World War II naval battles fought in the vicinity of Savo Island:
 * Battle of Savo Island, 8-9 August 1942
 * Battle of Cape Esperance (originally known as the "Second Battle of Savo Island"), 11–12 October 1942
 * Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 13–15 November 1942
 * Battle of Tassafaronga, 30 November 1942

Since 1978, the island has been part of the independent state of Solomon Islands.

title: Savo Island


text: Talk:Fast Times at Ridgemont High

title: Talk:Fast Times at Ridgemont High


text:
William C. Bouck

William Christian Bouck (January 7, 1786 – April 19, 1859) was an American politician from New York. He was the 13th Governor of New York, from 1843 to 1844.

A native of Fultonham, New York, Bouck was educated in the local schools while working on his family's farm and became a farmer himself. Originally a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and later a Democrat, he began a government and politics career with election as town clerk of Fulton (1807–1808), town supervisor (1808–1809) and sheriff of Schoharie County (1812–1813). Bouck served in the militia from 1809 to 1822 and rose through the ranks to become commander of New York's 18th Regiment with the rank of colonel.

As Bouck's career progressed, he served in the New York State Assembly (1814–1816, 1817–1818) and New York State Senate (1821–1822). From 1821 to 1840, Bouck served on the Erie Canal Commission, and during his long tenure, he oversaw construction of the western portion of the canal and several branch canals.

In 1842, Bouck was elected governor, and he served from 1843 to 1844. His term was largely occupied with responding to the Anti-Rent War, and he was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1844. After leaving office, Bouck served on the state Board of Regents (1845 to 1847) and from 1846 to 1849 was Assistant Treasurer of the United States at the New York City sub-treasury.

Bouck died in Fulton, New York, on April 19, 1859. He was buried at Middleburgh Cemetery in Middleburgh, New York.

Early life
Bouck was born in Fultonham, New York, on January 7, 1786, a son of Christian Bouck (1753–1836) and Margaret (Borst) Bouck (1762–1806). His siblings included Joseph Bouck, who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives. He was raised on his father's farm and educated in the local schools of Schoharie County. Bouck became a farmer and began a long career in government and public service in 1807, when he was elected as Fulton's town clerk. From 1808 to 1809, Bouck was Fulton's town supervisor. He served as Sheriff of Schoharie County from 1812 to 1813.

Military service
In 1809 Bouck was appointed adjutant of the New York Militia's 18th Regiment, a post he held until he was appointed sheriff. Bouck continued his service in the militia; he was appointed quartermaster of the 28th Brigade in 1815. In 1817, he was promoted to major in the 113th Regiment. Later in 1817, Bouck was promoted to lieutenant colonel in the 28th Brigade. From 1819 to 1822, Bouck commanded the 18th Regiment with the rank of colonel.

Continued career
As a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Bouck served in the New York State Assembly from 1813 to 1816 and again from 1817 to 1818. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1821 to 1822. From 1821 to 1840, he was a member of the Erie Canal Commission, first selected to fill a newly created seat. When the Federalist Party became dormant and the Democratic-Republican followers of Andrew Jackson began calling themselves Democrats, Bouck became a leader of the Albany Regency, the clique led by Martin Van Buren which dominated New York state's Democratic Party.

Erie Canal Commissioner
While serving as a canal commissioner, Bouck developed a strong reputation for both competence and integrity. During the nineteen years he served on the commission, he oversaw construction of the Erie Canal west of the Genesee River. In addition, he supervised design and building of several branch canals connected to the Erie, including the Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked Lake, Chemung and Chenango Canals. The canal projects overseen by Bouck required the expenditure of more than $8 million in state funds (more than $243 million in 2019), all of which he was able to account for during audits of his work.

During his service as a canal commissioner, Bouck frequently carried large sums of cash from Albany in order to pay construction crews in western New York. Both well-known and highly visible as he traveled alone on his favorite mount, he earned the nickname "White Horse Bouck", and was held in such great esteem that he was never accosted or robbed. When the Whig Party came to power in New York in 1840, Bouck was so strongly identified with the Erie Canal that he could have obtained reappointment to the commission despite his party affiliation if he had desired it.

Governor of New York
During the New York Democratic Party's factional dispute between the Barnburners and Hunkers, Bouck was identified with the conservative Hunker faction, causing him to fall out with President Martin Van Buren, who was the leader of the Barnburners. In November 1840, Bouck was the Democratic nominee for governor and Daniel S. Dickinson the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor, and they were defeated by the Whig incumbents, William H. Seward and Luther Bradish.

In November 1842, Bouck and Dickinson ran again. They won the November general election by defeating Whig candidates Bradish for governor and Gabriel Furman for lieutenant governor. Bouck's term was occupied primarily with the state's response to the Anti-Rent War. Tenants who held perpetual leases under the patroon system first implemented when New York was a Dutch colony objected to the "quarter sale" provision of their leases. Under this provision if a tenant sold his lease, he had to pay his patroon one quarter of the sale price or one additional year's rent. In addition, while the wealthiest patroon, Stephen Van Rensselaer, had generally proved a benevolent landlord usually willing to accept partial or late payments rather than evict tenants who fell behind on their rent, after his death in 1839 his heirs attempted to collect long-overdue payments. When the tenants could not pay and could not negotiate for favorable repayment terms, they were threatened with eviction and a revolt ensued. Bouck was sympathetic to the tenants, but as part of the effort to restore order during a violent demonstration, near the end of his term he sent units of the state militia to Hudson, which was viewed unfavorably by the tenants and their supporters.

In 1844, the Democratic Party desired to nominate a candidate who would consistently enforce the law against the rioters. Rather than renominate Bouck, they nominated Silas Wright, who won the general election. During his term, Wright also used the militia to restore order, and in 1846 he was defeated for a second term by Whig nominee John Young, who had taken the side of the tenants.

Later career
After completing his term as governor, Bouck served as a delegate to the 1846 state constitutional convention. He served as a member of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York from 1845 to 1847. From 1846 to 1849 he served as Assistant United States Treasurer in New York City.

Death and burial
In retirement, Bouck was a resident of Bouck's Island, his family's Boucks Island farm on the Schoharie Creek in Fulton. He died at his Bouck's Island home on April 19, 1859 and was buried at Middleburgh Cemetery in Middleburgh.

Family
In 1807, Bouck married Catherine Lawyer (1787–1865). They were the parents of 13 children, including:
 * James Madison (1808–1865)
 * Joseph William (1809–1886)
 * Margaret (1811–1837)
 * Ann (1813–1890), the wife of Lyman Sanford
 * Christina (1818–1836)
 * Christian (1818–1909)
 * Catherine (1820–1899), the wife of Erskine Danforth
 * Caroline (1822–1913), the wife of Dr. Volney Danforth
 * Elizabeth (1825–1826)
 * Phillip (1822–1895)
 * Gabriel (1828–1904)
 * Charles (1829–1910)
 * Nelson

Gabriel Bouck commanded the 18th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the American Civil War. He later served as Speaker of the Wisconsin State Assembly, Attorney General of Wisconsin and a member of the U.S. House from Wisconsin's 6th congressional district.

Legacy
The hamlet of Bouckville in the town of Madison, New York, is named for Bouck. Bouck Hall, the student activities building at the State University of New York at Cobleskill is also named after him. Bouck's Island, the Bouck family farm and home, is a New York State Historic Site.

Additional reading

 * William C. Bouck: New York's Farmer Governor by Edward A. Hagan, Mark Sullivan and Lester Hendrix (Heritage Books, 2007, ISBN 0-7884-3836-0, ISBN 978-0-7884-3836-3)
 * The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough (pages 31, 42, 124, 138, 188, 190, 194, 260 and 407; Weed, Parsons and Co., 1858)

title: William C. Bouck


text:
Talk:Heptadecagon

Correct nomenclature?
John Conway (no crank or nut) insists "heptadecagon" is wrong and should be called "Heptakaidecagon", anyone know about this?
 * I don't, but I think that it's fine how it is, as it seems to me that -kai- adds length without adding clarity. Jonathan48 21:56, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * If we favor heptadecagon over the kai version, shouldn't the triskaidecagon worry? —Herbee 23:38, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Construction animation
There are links on this article to a Korean heptadecagon construction animation, which is good besides being unable to read it. But I'm wondering, since Wikipedia should be a repository of knowledge and not a collection of links to other places with that knowledge, should I post a heptadecagon construction animation as I have for other polygons? I'm hesitant because it'd be messy and about 360KB. Jonathan48 21:56, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I think it would be a really good thing to do. I like what you put in dodecagon. The size of the image doesn't matter: many photos are larger than this (and less interesting!). Even if it is "messy", I think it would be entertaining! Thincat 12:53, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * For better or worse, I've posted it. I'm hoping that everyone doesn't think "messy" was an understatement. :) Jonathan48 02:46, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

Too many decimals
I wonder who had the idea of writing ".... 158.823529411765 degrees" on one of the first lines of the article... Of course this is not exact, and at least half of the digits are completely useless. Why not write 2700/17 = 158 \frac{14}{17} \approx 158.82 ? Or, say, "approximately 158.82" ? — MFH: Talk 22:15, 17 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Done.--Patrick 00:52, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

Too many radicals
Gauss must have known how to handle simplifications like
 * $$\sqrt{34-2\sqrt{17}}+2\sqrt{34+2\sqrt{17}}=\sqrt{170+38\sqrt{17}}$$

so why did he write that expression the way he did? What information would be lost or hidden by this simplification? —Herbee 23:23, 31 October 2006 (UTC)
 * As the original version has smaller numbers, Gauss may have considered it simpler. It is usual to write
 * $$2\sqrt{2}$$ rather than $$\sqrt{8}$$. But why did he not ask the stonemason to inscribe a {17/4} star polygon on his tombstone? Bo Jacoby 12:34, 31 December 2006 (UTC).
 * Because the the stonemason would have been able to do that. Not nearly as funny as the (apocryphal?) original request. --88.66.10.176 (talk) 22:52, 15 February 2010 (UTC)

Question marks
There are ??? in the description at the bottem —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.126.230.225 (talk) 20:16, 10 September 2007 (UTC)
 * And it repeats half of what is said in the top part, probably a copy/paste. Let's see if I clean it up some time.Balrog-kun (talk) 18:06, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

Hate to break it to you guys
But the Fermat prime for n=5 is 4294967297 2^5 = 32 2^32 = 4294967296 4294967296 + 1 = 4294967297 and n=6: 2^6 = 64 2^64 = 18446744073709551616 18446744073709551616 + 1 = 18446744073709551617

So the statement that "only the Fermat primes for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4" is incorrect. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Taktoa (talk • contribs) 21:06, 1 April 2010 (UTC)

 * 2^2^5 + 1 = (2^7 × 5 + 1) × (2^7 × 3 × (2^3 × 3 × (2 × 3 × 11^2 + 1) + 1)
 * 2^2^6 + 1 = (2^8 × 3^2 × 7 × 17 + 1) × 67280421310721
 * What's your point? —Tamfang (talk) 07:20, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * There are infinite Fermat numbers, but only 5 of them are demonstrated to be also prime numbers (just for n=0, 1, 2, 3 and 4). So the statement "only the Fermat primes for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4" is more or less a non-sense. --Aldoaldoz (talk) 20:13, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Well, the article doesn't contain that phrase, let alone such a "statement" (what's the verb?). It says "The only known Fermat primes are F_n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4."  Taktoa and Aldoaldoz seem to be reading that as "Fermat numbers exist only for 0≤n≤4," which it does not say. —Tamfang (talk) 04:13, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Actually, only after editing here I noticed such phrase is not contained in the main article. Nevertheless, "The only known Fermat primes are F_n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4." is correct, while "only the Fermat primes for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4" seems to say there are also other Fermat numbers that are prime. --Aldoaldoz (talk) 06:02, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Heptadecagon


text:
Talk:Music of Oregon

1990s
Quick note to the young hipsters around here... you guys are forgetting the huge scene in the 1990's. Of course, most people still think most of that music came from Seattle back then, but Oregon had a huge part in it. So long as it has nothing to do with Courtney Love, it's all good. -- davidwhunt 01:11, 7 Fed 2006 (UTC)

Satryricon
I made a link to the late nightclub, The Satyricon (yes, named after the movie). In its heyday, it was where one went to see & hear decent music in Portland; it was equivalent to such. Someone who knows more about Portland music than I (& that doesn't require much knowledge) needs to write that article.

However, I've never heard of "The Met"; while I was never seriously into going to the local clubs, I think I would have heard of it (I can recall places like "The Euphoria", "Earthquake Ethel's", "Urban Noize" & "Starry Night"). Could someoneverify that it actually did exist here in Puddletown? -- llywrch 04:49, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

 * In American Hardcore, Steven Blush wrote "Most Hardcore types who played Portland first played the local club The Met (booked by Bill Hicks) and then at the Satyricon". Tuf-Kat 05:13, May 5, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, I took a look in the local phone book, & there's no listing for The Met. One of my neighbors is very much into the local music scene, so I'll ask him if he has heard of this night club. (The alternative plan is to comb thru several years of back issues of Willamette Weekly & The Rocker.) -- llywrch 02:00, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

 * This information comes from Chris Newman of Napalm Beach. In the early 1980s The Met (Metropolitan) was an all-ages club located in downtown Portland where a club called Dante's is today. (350 West Burnside Ave.) The stage was "over by where the kitchen is now" here was a 21+ bar where the side bar still is today. It was a favorite hangout of teenage scensters. Here is a passage from Poppy Z. Brite's book Courtney Love : The Real Story "Courtney's haven was the Metropolitan, and all-ages disco where drag queens mothered her and taught her how to be glamorous." Napooi (talk) 17:08, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

Removed bits
I removed some bits inserted by an anonymous editor. To the author, please read over our policy of NPOV and write contributions in a non-personal, objective, encyclopedic format. I have removed everything that does not meet our standards. Thank you for contributing. Tuf-Kat 21:29, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)

Nomination as part of World Music for version 0.7
This article needs an extensive rewrite/cleanup before inclusion. Katr67 20:15, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Omission
This artical does not include country music at all. For example, the Oregon Jamboree should be listed www.oregonjamboree.com and major label recording artist Joni Harms www.joniharms.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.182.244.12 (talk • contribs) 16:39, June 9, 2007

Examples to emulate
Two FA music articles out of all the 50 states:

 * Music of Maryland
 * Music of Minnesota

Katr67 23:47, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Ideas for expansion
Outdoor music festivals are pretty big, and of course the Grateful Dead/Jam band influence is still around. Horning's Hideout and the Northwest String Summit, Pickathon, Oregon Country Fair, River City Bluegrass Festival, many small regional bluegrass festivals and jams in old grange halls across the state, Oregon Oldtime Fiddler's Association ... There was a pretty big folk scene in Eugene in the early 1990s, big enough to catch the attention of Fast Folk; I can't think of any big names to emerge from that off the top of my head, though the already somewhat notable Tom Intondi, who instigated the Fast Folk recording, was based in Eugene before he died. Not sure how much of this is notable on its own but a passing mention if reliably sourced would be good. Katr67 (talk) 20:36, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Along the same lines, maybe a summary of the bands performing at the Bite of Beaverton, Mount Hood Jazz Festival, Waterfront Blues Festival, and all the summer concert series at Washington Park, Sellwood Waterfront Park, Lake Oswego's Millennium Park, etc. would make a good addition. Maybe the per capita attendance figures?  —EncMstr (talk) 20:55, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Should we reorganize away from the city-based organizational structure? Based on other state articles, we could break this down instead into sections like Institutions/Festivals/Venues, Education, Music Labels, and Band/Musicians. Or a breakdown by genre. Or some kind of hybrid form. However, in doing so, I wouldn't want to move away from the focus on popular music in this article. One thing I don't like about the Maryland and Minnesota articles is that they put the emphasis on highbrow/middlebrow cultural institutions rather than on the popular music that has had greater cultural impact. Seems to me that Portland's punk/grunge/indie contribution to American music and its jam-band/hippie festivals are more notable than, say, the University of Oregon's music education department.Northwesterner1 (talk) 21:27, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I'll give it some thought. I haven't really thought about it beyond "not looking like crap". Katr67 (talk) 21:38, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

My bro has this to say, and the fact that John Bellushi got the idea for the Blues Brothers while filming Animal House in Eugene is fairly notable. Portland has quite the jazz scene and Eugene does a little bit. Alt.country is fairly well represented (Richmond Fontaine, Pete Krebs) but do we have any well-known mainstream country acts? Katr67 (talk) 23:57, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I am working on this. Bluelinks are all clearly Oregon-related except one, redlinks may be producers, engineers, promoters or musicians. Katr67 (talk) 01:40, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

 * We also need some more work on Robert Cray, which doesn't even mention Oregon, if we're going to claim him as one of our notables... Northwesterner1 (talk) 02:07, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Here's some structural examples. Emphasis on genre: Music of Washington. Emphasis on institutions: Music of Maryland. Emphasis on timeline: Music of California. Emphasis on city: Music of Arizona. Hybrid: Music of Minnesota. What fits Oregon's history the best? I like Minnesota's hybrid approach, but I think the state's most notable contributions -- (a) the Bob Dylan, Red House Records, and Prairie Home Companion-style folk lineage, (b) the Replacements > Husker Du > Soul Asylum > Jayhawks lineage, and (c) PRINCE! -- get lost at the end of the article.Northwesterner1 (talk) 00:41, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Hmph. I couldn't even find the Jayhawks, but they're only important to me... I agree with the hybrid approach between city/genre with a bit of a timeline, naturally, within genre but kind of flip it from the way MN does it. The California approach is kind of listy/choppy. Having say, a section on "venues", lumped together doesn't make sense--those should be handled by city, but a section on festivals would be good. A few words about Oregon record labels in relation to the indie scene seems important. By the way, here's another musician who relocated to Oregon. Pow-wows, Céilidhs and contra dancing (I think square dancing not so much) might be worth mentioning as the music is as important as the dancing. I guess there's a lot of hip-hop, but I know very little about it. We've also left out Latin music. Katr67 (talk) 02:16, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

Third wave ska
This was big for a while. The Crazy 8's and the Cherry Poppin' Daddies are the groups people have heard of. There were a couple more but that was a long time ago... Katr67 (talk) 21:38, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Garage bands
PNW Bands has a bit of everything, but a lot on the 1960s. Oh and let's not forget the Neighb'rhood Childr'n. Katr67 (talk) 21:38, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Posters?
Anybody have some old band posters, you know the kind that used to be everywhere before they banned them? It used to be quite an artform. I've ditched most of mine and the only ones I have are for R.E.M., who aren't local, Philomath notwithstanding... Katr67 (talk) 21:38, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Hip hop
Just found this article: Northwest hip hop --Tesscass (talk) 23:15, 3 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Good find. Very few WikiProject Oregon articles link there. We should work on tying it into the project.Northwesterner1 (talk) 04:35, 4 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Indeed. I'll go ahead and add it as a see also for now. Looks like that article could use some cleanup too. I don't much about hip hop, but surely not all those redlinks are notable? Katr67 (talk) 16:07, 4 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Portland Hip Hop had an hour long program done on it via OPB radio for Think Out Loud. The program was probably done within the last two months.Leitmotiv (talk) 05:08, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

By the way, anyone know what to make of this: Grind house? Katr67 (talk) 16:25, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

How about some composers living in Oregon?
Robert Kyr and David Crumb teach at the Univesity of Oregon. I'm not sure how to incorporate them into the article though. --Tesscass (talk) 21:13, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Tess, just because some of us would like to focus on rock music, etc. doesn't mean your suggestion isn't valued. I just hadn't gotten to responding yet. I don't know much about classical. My brother is a big fan, I'll see if he has any input. Katr67 (talk) 21:43, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Guess I'm just a bit offended by "...one thing I don't like about the Maryland and Minnesota articles is that they put the emphasis on highbrow/middlebrow cultural institutions rather than on the popular music that has had greater cultural impact. Seems to me that Portland's punk/grunge/indie contribution to American music and its jam-band/hippie festivals are more notable than, say, the University of Oregon's music education department..." by Northwesterner1. And his remark seemed to appear soon after I posted.  There is hardly anything mentioned about "highbrow" music here, and there's no danger its going get that any time soon.  I'm ok with that.  I don't actually have a paragraph to contribute to the article on any genre of music.  I was only looking for a little balance.  --Tesscass (talk) 21:51, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Tess, my biggest apologies. My comment was an edit conflict with yours, and I hadn't read your comment when I wrote it. (If I had, I would have picked a different example.) The state's classical music institutions should definitely be here, including the U of O music department. I only mean to suggest--and should have done so on friendlier terms--that the lead and structure of the article should focus on what's "unique" about Oregon's contribution to music history. (i.e.). Definitely doesn't mean we should ignore everything else. My comment was influenced by my reading of the Maryland/Minnesota articles and was in no way a response to yours. Sorry!Northwesterner1 (talk) 21:54, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Indeed, when I read Northwesterner1's comment, I took it to mean Oregon doesn't have any Mozarts or Gershwins, and so there isn't much to write about for classical music. —EncMstr (talk) 21:58, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Thank you all. I overreacted a bit also.  I personally know several people from classical music organizations, (although none from the UO).  Just like pops musicians, most of them struggle to get any recognition.  --Tesscass (talk) 22:06, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Tess, do you feel qualified to write a section on classical institutions/musicians/composers? I think that could be a single genre section, unless it makes more sense to have a subsection each in Portland and Eugene (Marin Alsop, former music director and conductor laureate of the Eugene Symphony should be mentioned). And Pendleton!: Oregon East Symphony. Katr67 (talk) 16:24, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm really not broadly knowledgeable about this topic. (I moved to Oregon after Marin Alsop left.)  But I'll keep my eyes and ears open for usable info.  --Tesscass (talk) 17:01, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

I ran across this last night Oregon Symphony conductors, which quietly arrived sometime this year. There's probably some good info in those articles. Katr67 (talk) 19:14, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

More possibly notable current UO music profs
(source) Katr67 (talk) 22:17, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Don Latarski-jazz guitar, cited here
 * Steven Pologe-cello, part of Oregon String Quartet, hagiography/copyvio deleted but might merit an article
 * Brian McWhorter-trumpet, part of Meridian Arts Ensemble
 * Marc Vanscheeuwijck-cello, baroque musicologist, maybe? and not just because he gave me an A in humanities...

More classical + jazz folks
To check for notability:. Northwesterner1 (talk) 02:58, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

Lists of bands
If you would like to include the name of a/your/your favorite band/musician in one of the sections in this article, please bear the following points in mind:

1) This article is in a state of transition. That means it would be preferable to turn the remaining lists of musicians into prose, and not continue to add to the lists. Since we also have Category:Oregon musicians and Category:Oregon musical groups, the lists shouldn't be used to replace those categories. The lists currently serve, in my opinion, as a placeholder/reminder of bands that might merit mention and a sentence or two in a comprehensive article about music in Oregon.

2) Additions to the lists, should you choose to make them, should alphabetized (by last name in the case of solo artists), and the artist should already have an article on Wikipedia. Though there is nothing inherently wrong with redlinks, the agreed-upon standard for WikiProject Oregon is to only include links in lists of notables that already have articles. We've found that this keeps the addition of non-notable bands, vanity and advertisement to a minimum. If you think a/your/your favorite band passes the list of criteria at notability of bands, and you need help writing or formatting the article, just ask!

3) Inclusion of a bluelink in this list does not imply that the article has been examined for notability.

Possible inclusions for discussion
(in no particular order)
 * Nero's Rome
 * Henry's Child
 * Jolly Mon (band)
 * Sweaty Nipples
 * Snakepit (punk band)
 * Crackerbash
 * Oswald Five-O
 * Pete Miser
 * Hitting Birth see King Black Acid
 * The American Girls (band)
 * On the Rocks (University of Oregon)

Feel free to discuss any additions you think we should have. Katr67 (talk) 16:55, 4 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, from my hazy memory I'd say Crackerbash and Sweaty Nipples were pretty well noted in the early '90s. Don't know the rest. I added Pete Miser to your list, the Five Fingers were pretty big in Portland back then. Also, I'd really like to weave the X-Ray into some prose about early '90s indie rock explosion, but I'm not sure I'm most qualified to do that. But it seems so wrong for such an important institution to be relegated to the "See also" section. -Pete (talk) 07:23, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Snakepit (late-1980s) and Oswald 5-0 (early 1990s) were Eugene bands, both of which had Robert Christie, who also played in Some Velvet Sidewalk, which started in Eugene. At least three people from Snakepit went on to noteworthy things. I don't know how notable Oswald Five-0 was but I'm hoping they are, but I'm biased. (see the thread on my talk page). Henry's Child is apparently a pre-cursor to Floater, and Nero's Rome and the Five Fingers of Funk I dimly recall the name. I've been living under a rock for a while... I added another one, and by the way, to practice what I preach, I've got a draft of an article on Foghorn. They have loads of non-trivial press coverage, including national music magazines, like No Depression. Oh yeah, found these just now: I-5 Killers, Volume 2, Northwest Post-Grunge, Northwestern Presents... Rock Stars Attack!, Subject to Change (compilation album). I see a common thread on these... Katr67 (talk) 08:57, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Nero's Rome may have had brief MTV popularity, but were definitely on the local late night music video program Bohemia Afterdark. They may have even been nominated. Jolly Mon should also be added to that list, having released four albums, three under Elemental Records that I know of. Apparently, Jimmy Buffett filed a cease and desist order and they had to change their name to Goat Head. From then on, they pretty much never recovered. Sweaty Nipples had one semi-famous single and started to tour nationally before they imploded. And Hitting Birth/King Black Acid has a long history from the Seattle scene to Portland. American Girls was another Elemental Records band that was starting to get radio play and attention from major record labels, but I don't understand why they imploded either. Katr67, don't forget about Northwest Ungrunge, another compilation of Oregon musicians. You know, there really should be mention of The Rocket newspaper somewhere in the main page. It had a big influence on the Oregon and Washington music scene. WOAH! and we totally missed On the Rocks! Man I just keep thinking of more stuff to add: The NXNW Music Festival conference which is centered in the Pacific Northwest (esp. Portland) should be mentioned, but it strangely does not have its own page. SXSW does! Leitmotiv (talk) 05:04, 29 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I think we should get rid of the list now, and put the list in the discussion page. Otherwise it will be a perpetual maintenance nightmare. The prose for incorporating the list will have to come later. Until then, users keep adding bands in the list that are already mentioned in the lede. The list looks pretty horrific too.Leitmotiv (talk) 03:54, 16 November 2009 (UTC)

I believe Heart was also from Oregon. Jsarao (talk) 04:16, 8 January 2010 (UTC)

List of American folk musicians in Oregon
This appeared today (which I clumsily retitled) and I think it's a great idea that should be merged into this article. Unfortunately, as much as I like many of those musicians, most them aren't likely to pass the notability criteria at WP:BAND. Thoughts? Katr67 (talk) 05:51, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I liked your points above about converting lists of musicians into prose, given that the Oregon musicians category already exists. I would suggest redirecting the list to Music of Oregon and inviting the editor to help expand it in prose form. If it gets too big, we can fork it off into a separate article Folk music in Oregon. I have an inclusionist bias, and I've argued elsewhere that the notability criteria at WP:BAND are much more inclusive than many folks realize, but I agree that some of these musicians are unlikely to pass the criteria at this time. All that means is that they don't yet merit their own articles and thus don't need redlinks. But if they are "noteworthy" (as opposed to notable) in the context of the genre -- for example, if they are important contributors to the larger scene -- then they can certainly appear in prose form without being wikilinked.Northwesterner1 (talk) 06:52, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * That works for me. At least half those groups have played at the River City Bluegrass fest so I see no problem mentioning them. Flat Mountain Girls might be OK as a redlink, though someone more mainstream like Misty River probably has more press. Katr67 (talk) 09:04, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

This is just the initial attempt as I see it - there's a lot to add about these separate and yet overlapping music scenes in Oregon (and the rest of the northwest). I'm just getting started, and hopefully other contributors will too. Breffni Whelan (talk) 01:32, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

List of Oregon Musicians
Needs it's own separate page. Which it already has right? Or no... I think it's high time we made a separate page for a List of Oregon Musicians. Music of Oregon is turning into nothing but a list and is constantly being maintained for that purpose only as of late. Leitmotiv (talk) 20:59, 23 November 2011 (UTC)
 * List of bands from Oregon was deleted along with all the other states back in 2006 and shouldn't be recreated. Ideally the lists within the article would instead be turned into prose and once too long the city or genre sections could be split out as needed. The current state of the article is a compromise solution. Valfontis (talk) 06:00, 2 February 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Music of Oregon


text:
Lina Stern

Lina Solomonovna Stern or Shtern (Лина Соломоновна Штерн; 26 August 1878 – 7 March 1968) was a Soviet biochemist, physiologist and humanist whose medical discoveries saved thousands of lives at the fronts of World War II. She is best known for her pioneering work on the blood–brain barrier, which she described as hemato-encephalic barrier in 1921.

Early life
On August 26, 1878, Lina Stern was born in Liepāja (today Liepāja, Latvia), the largest city in the Courland Region situated in western Latvia (Other sources noted she was born in Vilijampole district of Kaunas in 1875 and studied in Liepāja at high school). She was from wealthy large Jewish family. In 1898, Stern studied at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. However, before going to Switzerland, she tried to gain admission to Moscow University. Due to her Jewish background, it was very difficult for her to gain admission into Russian Universities, which is why she had to study abroad instead. Stern became friends with wives of Georgi Plekhanov and Aleksei Bach in Switzerland.

Career
In 1903, she wrote her doctoral dissertation on motor function of the urethra and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine. Despite the fact that Switzerland was more liberal than other European countries, Stern still had no professional prospects there. She returned to her Liepāja. There, she passed the exams to get her Doctor of Medicine degree in Russia. The reason she did this was because the policies at the time did not view a certificate from a foreign university to be acceptable. She was preparing to search for a medical job in Russia, but Jean-Louis Prévost (the head of the Department of Physiology at the University of Geneva) invited her to work as his assistant at the department. She accepted his invitation.

From 1904 to 1922, Stern worked with Frédéric Battelli to conduct original research into chemio-physiology. During that time period, they published 54 articles on the problem of cellular metabolism. In 1912, Battelli and Stern, along with Torsten Thunberg, “discovered that minced animal tissues contain substances that can transfer hydrogen atoms from specific intracellular organic acids to methylene blue dye, reducing it to a colorless form.” Their research was later on able to help Hans Krebs (biochemist) and his groundbreaking work on cellular respiration

Due to her groundbreaking research and hard work, the University of Geneva allowed her to add Physiological Chemistry as an independent field of study to the curriculum of the medical faculty. In 1918, In 1918 a new department of Physiological Chemistry was established, and Lina Stern became the head of it. This mades her the first ever woman to be awarded professional rank at the University of Geneva.

It was from there that her research into the physiology of the central nervous system began – partly influenced by her friendship with Constantin von Monakow. Initially, Giuseppe Pagano, Professor of Chemical Physiology at the Medical School of University of Palermo, started experimenting on animals to learn more about motor response and the cerebellum. “Stern and her associate E. Rothlin replicated Pagano's experiment using more accurate methods.” This was the start of Stern’s lifelong research into the cerebrospinal fluid. Her research led her to groundbreaking conclusions about the blood-brain barrier.

"In April 21, 1921, Stern introduced the term “blood-brain barrier” at the Medical Society of Geneva”. At that time, she was already well known in the world of academic science. However, she also worked as a consultant for several pharmaceutical companies.

After Stern receives an invitation to head the chair of physiology at the Second Moscow State University in 1924, she accepts and arrives in Moscow on March 31, 1925. She was 48 years old in 1925. Her entire life was devoted to science, and she accomplished quite a lot in her first three years as the chair of the department. On April 1, 1929, a new Institute of physiology was opened in the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, and Stern became the director. She was very active in the scientific community and well-known amongst her colleagues. In 1939, she became the first female full member, academician, of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. In 1943 she won the Stalin Prize.

Defeat of the Anti-Fascist Committee

She was accused of cosmopolitanism and admiration for the West by the Soviet government in 1948. Her Institute in Moscow was closed. Stern was arrested in 1949 by Ministry of State Security (MGB) and interrogated by the head of MGB Viktor Abakumov.

Soviet government decided to eradicate Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAC) in the late 1940s as anti-Soviet organization. A member of the Antifascist Committee of Soviet Women and the JAC since the outbreak of World War II, Stern was the sole survivor out of 15 arrested and convicted to death sentence when the JAC was eradicated in January 1949. Her death sentence was changed to a prison term by Joseph Stalin, followed by five-year exile. The exile was in Dzhambul (current Taraz), Kazakhstan.

Life after exile
After Stalin's death in 1953, life became easier. She returned from exile to Moscow. Stern continued to research for blood–brain barrier. Finally, she was exonerated by the Presidium in 1958. She headed the Department of Physiology at the Biophysics Institute between 1954 and 1968.

Lina Stern died on March 7, 1968.

Research on the blood–brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier refers to a diffusion barrier formed by the endothelial walls of the blood vessels and capillaries in the brain. This barrier prevents most substances in the blood from entering the brain while allowing small molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse freely. While working at the University of Geneva, Stern published a series of studies demonstrating the existence of the blood-brain barrier with colleague Raymond Gautier. Beginning in 1918, the two performed systematic experiments on the movement of various substances from the blood into the nervous system and estimated the extent to which these substances were able to permeate the brain. From these studies they were able to conclude that there exists a barrier between the blood and brain, which they termed in French "barrière hématoencéphalique". In a 1934 paper, Stern also independently introduced the notions of barrier selectivity and barrier resistance, realizing that the blood–brain barrier both selectively allows certain substances to enter the brain and protects the internal milieu of the brain from that of the blood. Today these are acknowledged as two of the main functions of the blood–brain barrier.

title: Lina Stern