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Heimwehr

The Heimwehr (, lit. 'Home Guard') or Heimatschutz (, lit. 'Homeland Protection') was a nationalist, initially paramilitary group that operated in the First Austrian Republic from 1920 to 1936. It was similar in methods, organization, and ideology to the Freikorps in Germany. The Heimwehr was opposed to parliamentary democracy, socialism and Marxism and fought in various skirmishes against left-wing and foreign groups during the 1920s and 1930s. Some of its regional groups also opposed Nazism while others favored it. In spite of its anti-democratic stance, the Heimwehr developed a political wing called the Heimatblock ('Homeland Bloc') that was close to the conservative Christian Social Party and took part in both the cabinet of Chancellor Carl Vaugoin in 1930 and in Engelbert Dollfuss' right-wing government from 1932 to 1934. In 1936 the Heimwehr was absorbed into what was at the time the only legally permitted political party in Austria, the Fatherland Front, and then later into the Frontmiliz, an amalgamation of militia units that in 1937 became part of Austria's armed forces.

Origins
After the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, local residents' militias and self-defense associations formed mainly from demobilized soldiers sprang up across Austria. Their purpose initially was to protect the local population from dangers such as those posed by soldiers trying to make their way to their home countries who, driven by hunger and largely without leadership, sometimes looted and assaulted the population in the areas they passed through. Such local self-defense associations over time formed individual Heimwehr units.

Beginning in April 1919, the Vorarlberg provincial government approved and promoted active paramilitary people's militias to combat Austromarxism, either equipping the militia members with weapons or allowing them to use their own. They were led by the Christian Socialist provincial governor Otto Ender and financed primarily by local industry. In the summer of 1920 they had about 3,000 members, whereas the Austrian army in the province had only 800 soldiers under arms. The Vorarlberg Heimwehr subsequently emerged from the militia groups.

The first association of the Heimatwehr ('Homeland Guard'), as the Heimwehr was called in Tyrol, was founded on 12 May 1920 by Richard Steidle, a member of the Tyrolean parliament from the Christian Social Party who was the regional leader of the Heimatwehr in Tyrol until 1936. His deputies either supported or held parliamentary seats with the Greater German People's Party (Großdeutsche Volkspartei), an Austrian political party calling for unification with Germany. The group's statutes listed four program points:
 * protection of the constitution and defense against any attempt to change the constitution by force
 * protection of persons, employment and property
 * support of the existing state authority in maintaining peace and order
 * intervention in the case of fundamentally important events

Their program also emphasized the "exclusion of all party politics" and stated that as a private association, it was "not concerned with military matters". The Heimatwehr was thus not a party organization but an independent, politically right-wing paramilitary unit. It saw its political enemy in the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, or SDAP (the name that was used by the Social Democratic Party of Austria before 1945).

The Heimwehr was involved early on in border disputes with troops from the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. When it turned its opposition primarily against Austromarxism, from which it wished to protect the middle class, the Social Democrats in response formed the Republikanischer Schutzbund ('Republican Protection League') in 1923 as a defensive counterweight to the Heimwehr.

The Heimwehr registered significant gains after the SDAP published its militant Linz Program in November 1926. Because it used the language of Marxism and class conflict to provide the theoretical basis for political confrontation with the Christian Social Party and the Heimwehr, it caused many in the middle class, including some who were merely not socialist minded, to fear a domestic political turn toward a dictatorship of the proletariat.

Years of rapid growth 1927–1930
On 30 January 1927 members of the SDAP who were holding a meeting at Schattendorf in Burgenland were fired on by a group from the right-wing Front Fighters Association of German Austria (Frontkämpfer), leaving two dead and five wounded. When the men who had been accused of the deaths were acquitted by a jury, protestors in what came to be known as the July Revolt of 1927 burned the Vienna Palace of Justice. More than 80 demonstrators died in the subsequent clashes with the police, leading the Social Democrats to speak of it as the "July Massacre" of workers. When they engaged in transportation strikes, the Heimwehr stepped in to break them, especially in areas outside Vienna.

In the years from 1927 to 1930, the Heimwehr movement experienced a period of rapid growth and became a significant part in the increasingly radicalized domestic political situation. It aspired to be more than what Richard Steidle called a watchdog let off its leash when needed by the middle-class parties. Many Heimwehr leaders began to develop a more political profile and demanded a fundamental change in Austria's political system that would move it towards authoritarianism and corporatism – that is, a society similar to the type favoured by Italian fascism that was organized around corporate groups such as agriculture, manual labour, the military, business, trade and the like. In 1927 the various provincial Heimwehr associations joined to form an umbrella organization, the Federation of Austrian Self-Defense Associations. The Heimwehr's leaders attempted to implement the political change they wanted both through ongoing agitation in the streets – mainly in the form of massive Sunday marches – and behind the scenes through political pressure on the federal government. A large march on 7 October 1928 in Wiener Neustadt, an industrial area of Vienna that was a stronghold of the SDAP, was a self-confident demonstration of strength. Many in the middle class cheered the Heimwehr as a "saviour in the time of need".

The Heimwehr was supported financially, logistically, and with arms by industry and large landowners, especially from Styria, as well as by Italian fascists, the Hungarian regime of Miklós Horthy and groups on the Bavarian right (e.g. the Organization Chancellor). Numerous World War I front-line officers served as military "advisors" and functionaries. Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg, who became the Heimwehr's national leader in 1930, approached right-wing circles in Great Britain, including the fascist politician Oswald Mosley, from whom he was able to receive no financial support. Konstantin Kammerhofer, leader of the Styrian Heimwehr, received money from the German Reich government until mid-1932. When the Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini came to believe that the Heimwehr would not achieve its goal of making Austria fascist, he stopped his financial contributions in October 1933.

Inability to unify
In 1929 the government of Chancellor Ernst Streeruwitz, a coalition of the Christian Social Party, Greater German People's Party and the agrarian Landbund, engaged the Heimwehr in negotiations regarding constitutional reform. They and the Social Democrats were close to a compromise when in late September, the Heimwehr and Christian Social Party brought down the government. Ignaz Seipel, leader of the Christian Socialists, chose to install the independent Johannes Schober as chancellor. Schober, who had been Vienna's police chief during the 1927 July Revolt and had approved firing on the demonstrators, was seen by the Heimwehr as strong and a beacon of hope. He proved, however, to be a bitter disappointment to them. In the dispute over the 1929 amendment to the Austrian constitution that strengthened the position of the federal president, he worked out a compromise with the Social Democrats that was completely unacceptable to the Heimwehr, and in addition he was unwilling to give in to their other demands. It represented a significant setback for the movement, which until then had seen itself moving in a steadily upward arc.

The Heimwehr's failure in the constitutional dispute and the onset of the world economic crisis in Austria in the early 1930s ushered in a period of stagnation and increasing drifting apart within the Heimwehr movement. Its national leader Richard Steidle hoped to overcome the problems in May 1930 with the so-called Korneuburg Oath, which he read out at a general assembly of the Lower Austrian Heimatschutz. It included statements that pointed in the direction of Austrofascism such as "We want to seize power … and bring a new order to the state and the economy" and "We reject Western democratic parliamentarianism and the party-state!". The oath established Austrian conservative nationalism – as distinct from the pan-German nationalism of the Nazi Party – as a basic part of its ideology.

Such attempts to unite the Heimwehr under an integrated leadership failed in the long run due to the differing objectives of the individual Heimwehr associations and the rivalries of their various leaders. The Styrian and Carinthian Heimwehr in particular rejected the Christian, corporatist course of the federal leadership and moved increasingly close to the Nazis. They were also openly anti-Semitic, calling for a boycott of Jewish businesses and banning Jews as members after 1933. The attitude of the rest of the Heimwehr was less definite. Although anti-Semitism was brought into play as a political weapon, as it was against refugees from eastern Europe and the allegedly "Jewish" social democracy, its use was more opportunistic than ideological and did not play a dominant role as an integrative element of the movement.

Heimatblock
After Schober's resignation on 25 September 1930, the new Christian Socialist Chancellor Carl Vaugoin offered the Heimwehr a share in his minority cabinet. Although the national leadership of the Heimwehr at first rejected the offer, it was forced to agree under pressure from provincial functionaries. On 1 October 1930, Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg, the Heimwehr's newly elected national leader, became Minister of the Interior and Franz Hueber Minister of Justice in Vaugoin's cabinet. Vaugoin hoped that this would lead to an alliance with the Heimwehr in the next election.

The Heimwehr's national leadership contemplated the electoral alliance and one with the Greater German People's Party, the Landbund and the Austrian National Socialists. There was considerable disagreement over questions of ideology and political strategy. Starhemberg advocated a separate Heimwehr list for the 1930 National Council election, while the Styrian Heimwehr rejected the idea. Walter Pfrimer, leader of the Heimwehr in Styria, was fundamentally opposed to participating in the election, while his chief of staff, Rauter, pursued the idea of an electoral alliance with the National Socialists. Rauter met with the German Nazi Party's organizational leader, Gregor Strasser, to discuss cooperation in early October 1930. Because there were not enough supporters for such an alliance in the movement, they drew up their own electoral list, the Heimatblock.

1930 election
Since the National Council elections were scheduled for 9 November 1930, there was very little time for preparation. The election campaign was characterized by considerable confusion. The Viennese, Lower Austrian, and Burgenland provincial associations preferred to stand in combination with the Christian Socialists, while the Vorarlberg provincial association abstained from any political participation in accordance with its statutes. Some Heimwehr newspapers had to advertise for two lists. In a very short time, the Heimatblock, with generous financial support from the fascist Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, had to improvise the management for the election campaign, develop a party program and schedule election events. Their unexpected participation in the party process, which had previously been so extensively criticized, also had to be explained to members and made palatable to them.

The Heimatblock received 6.2% of the total vote and 8 seats. Entry into the National Council was made possible by the achievement of a 'basic mandate' in Upper Styria – that is, they attained a sufficient minimum percent of the votes in a region to qualify for entry into parliament. In the provincial elections in Styria, which took place at the same time, the Heimatblock won 12.5% of the votes and 6 seats. In national politics, the election results achieved the opposite of what had been wanted. The Heimatblock cost the Christian Socialists votes and thus played into the hands of the Social Democrats, who won the largest number of votes. The new federal government was nevertheless built by the Christian Socialist Otto Ender as a coalition of middle-class parties. Members of the Heimatblock took their seats in the National Council on the opposition bench, on the far right and in Heimwehr uniform.

The election results further weakened the internal cohesion of the Heimwehr. Starhemberg eventually made way for Walter Pfrimer as the new national leader. He represented a radical course within the Heimwehr and had already used violence several times in Styria to push through political demands. Pfrimer saw that all previous attempts to bring about the desired change in the political system had failed, that the Heimwehr was continuing to break apart and that it was coming under increasing pressure from the growing strength of the Austrian National Socialists. As a result, he decided to risk everything in a coup d'état which was to finally implement the Heimwehr's demands and thus solve all the group's problems with one blow. Pfrimer's coup attempt in September 1931 failed completely and ultimately led to the Heimwehr movement splitting into a pro-government wing around Steidle and Starhemberg and an anti-government wing around Konstantin Kammerhofer, the leader of the Styrian Heimwehr, which made up the largest segment within the movement.

Martial speeches nevertheless continued to be made at voter meetings and in newspapers. The election appeal in the newspaper of the Heimatschutz stated that the Heimatblock had to "conquer parliament ... in order to build the new state, the Heimatwehr state, on the ruins of the party-political parliament." In Linz, the Heimwehr functionary Karl Gallian called the Heimatblock "the political machine gun of the Heimatwehr movement". In the National Council, however, internal disputes and squabbles weakened the Block's opposition activities. It was known more for noise and fisticuffs than for political work.

In the Dollfuss government
When the Christian Socialist government of Karl Buresch had to resign on 6 May 1932, new elections appeared to be necessary. Since the Nazi Party had already made large gains in the regional elections earlier in the year, the Christian Socialists tried to avoid holding one. The Social Democrats and the Greater Germans rejected coalition offers, which left only the Heimatblock and the Landbund to enable Engelbert Dollfuss, then still of the Christian Social Party, to form a government with a majority of just one seat. In the coalition negotiations, the Heimatblock had demanded that Anton Rintelen, the Christian Social governor of Styria and an outspoken friend of the Heimwehr, become chancellor but in the end had to be satisfied with him becoming Minister of Education. Guido Jakoncig, a member of the Heimatblock ranks, became Minister for Trade and Transport.

The Heimwehr's involvement in the new government had little support from its rank and file. The provincial leadership of the Styrian Heimwehr even declared its "state of political independence" on 19 May. The Heimatblock was not easy to work with inside the coalition, where it repeatedly objected to proposals made by Chancellor Dollfuss. A motion of no confidence by the Greater German People's Party was supported by two Heimatblock deputies and was defeated by 81 votes to 81. The narrow majority made it difficult for the government to pass legislation. A deputy who was out sick, or the voting behaviour of individual Heimatblock members that deviated from the party line, could determine success or defeat in the National Council.

Before the parliamentary summer recess on 19 August 1932, the Social Democratic Arbeiter-Zeitung (Workers' Newspaper) wrote: "But in October when Parliament reconvenes, either it will have to be dissolved or another government formed. This governing which depends daily on the respective whims of Mr. Werner or Mr. Hainzl is impossible, untenable, intolerable."

On 16 October, during a march by National Socialists in Vienna, gunfire broke out between members of the SDAP's Republican Protection League, Communists, Nazis and the police. Four people died and many more were wounded. In response, the government the next day created the new position of State Secretary for Security and filled it with the leader of the Vienna Heimatschutz, Emil Fey. He immediately arranged for a ban on marches in Vienna by the political movements involved in the violence.

Dollfuss' authoritarian course pleased the Heimwehr, and on 5 November 1932 the Österreichische Heimatschutzzeitung (Austrian Heimatschutz Newspaper) ran the headline: "Commitment to fascism!" and on 25 February 1933: "Away with Parliament!" Seven days later, the wish was fulfilled. With the so-called "Self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament" of 4 March 1933, the way was paved for the dictatorship of Austrofascism. On 24 March, Fey imposed preliminary censorship on the Social Democratic party newspapers Arbeiter-Zeitung and Das Kleine Blatt, and on 31 March the Republican Protection League was dissolved. The traditional May Day march was also banned.

On 10 May Fey was appointed Minister of Security, and the Heimwehr ideologue Odo Neustädter-Stürmer was appointed State Secretary for Labor Procurement, Labor Service, Roads and Tourism. On 20 May the Fatherland Front was founded, in large part at Starhemberg's suggestion. It absorbed Christian Social Party, the Landbund and the Heimwehr and was conceived as a rallying organization in which all political movements except Austromarxism and National Socialism were to be represented. Since the hoped-for movement of the Fatherland Front towards fascism did not proceed to the extent hoped for by much of the Heimwehr, relations with the movement remained contradictory and distrustful. On 19 June 1933, Dollfuss banned the Styrian Heimatschutz alongside the Austrian Nazi Party.

On 11 September 1933, Dollfuss announced the end of the party-state and introduced plans to institute a corporatist order and to change the constitution, with the goal of creating a "social, Christian, German state of Austria on a corporatist basis and under strong authoritarian leadership". The Heimwehr was thus able to say that its Korneuburg Oath had become a state program. They therefore no longer saw any need to have their own political party, and the Heimatblock was dissolved on 27 September 1933. Before that, it had joined the Fatherland Front so that Emil Fey could be part of the new Dollfuss II government as Vice-Chancellor. Entry of the Heimwehr into the Fatherland Front was agreed on, but a corresponding accord was never signed by Ernst Starhemberg. The resistance within the movement, which did not want to give up its position as an independent political force, was too great.

Even when the corporatist state under Chancellor Dollfuss began to become a reality in 1933, the Heimwehr continued to cause unrest. On 30 January 1934 they staged large-scale armed marches in numerous towns in Tyrol and made demands for the establishment of an authoritarian provincial committee with the participation of Heimwehr members. The Heimwehr also participated in the February Uprising of 12–15 February 1934 that pitted government forces against the Social Democrats and ended with the victory of the Fatherland Front.

Final years
After the Social Democratic Party was outlawed on 12 February 1934, the Nazi Party became the new enemy of those Heimwehr associations that supported the political course of the federal government, while the associations of Styria and Carinthia moved more and more in the direction of the Nazis and eventually merged organizationally with them.

During the period of the Austrofascist Federal State of Austria (1934–1938), the Heimwehr performed police and security duties as part of the Schutzkorps. During the February uprising and the failed National Socialist July Putsch, they not only took on reconnaissance, guard and security tasks but also independently carried out smaller combat missions, thus relieving other groups such as the gendarmerie and the federal army that were fighting on the government side. When all defence associations (Wehrverbände) were disbanded in 1936 under Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg, the Heimwehr was for the most part absorbed into the Fatherland Front and the Front Militia (Frontmiliz).

Uniforms
A standard uniform was intended for Heimwehr members, but it never came about because members generally had to pay for their own clothing. The men were dressed in both military and civilian dress of all types. Only the mobile Heimwehr formations known as Jägerbataillone, which were intended to function as a kind of rapid reaction force, were completely and relatively similarly dressed, something that was made possible primarily by the fact that Starhemberg paid for their equipment with his own funds.

Because of their headgear, a hat or cap with a "Spielhahnstoß" (a hunter's term for the black grouse's tail feathers; see the picture of Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg above) that was adopted by the Tyrolean provincial riflemen, they were also called "Hahnenschwanzler" ('one with a rooster tail'). The following mocking verse circulated among their opponents: "Hahnenschwanzler, Hahnenschwanzler such a poor devil you are.

What a cock has on his behind, you wear with pride on your head."

title: Heimwehr


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Digital raster graphic

A digital raster graphic (DRG) is a digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS topographic map for use on a computer. DRGs created by USGS are typically scanned at 250 dpi and saved as a TIFF. The raster image usually includes the original border information, referred to as the "map collar". The map file is UTM projected and georeferenced to the surface of the Earth. DRG's are regularly used in GIS applications. DRGs were first produced in 1995.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Digital raster graphic


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User:Fintor

Thanks for visiting my User page ☺

Fintor > talk > articles > sandbox | July 29 • UTC •  SAST

 * I live in Johannesburg, South Africa, and work in insurance. I have experience in banking, finance, consulting and mining - mainly in analyst and modelling roles.

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title: User:Fintor


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Hiroshima University

Hiroshima University (広島大学) is a Japanese national research university located in Higashihiroshima and Hiroshima, Japan. Established in 1929, it was chartered as a university in 1949 following the merge of a number of national educational institutions.

History
Under the National School Establishment Law, Hiroshima University was established on May 31, 1949. After World War II, the school system in Japan was entirely reformed and each of the institutions of higher education under the pre-war system was reorganized. As a general rule, one national university was established in each prefecture, and Hiroshima University became a national university under the new system by combining the pre-war higher educational institutions in Hiroshima Prefecture.

The following eight schools were integrated or merged into Hiroshima University under the new system of education.
 * Hiroshima University of Literature and Science
 * Hiroshima Higher Normal School
 * Hiroshima Women's Higher Normal School
 * Hiroshima Higher School
 * Hiroshima Normal School
 * Hiroshima Youth Normal School
 * Hiroshima Higher Technical School
 * Hiroshima Municipal Higher Technical School

In 1953-1956, Hiroshima Medical College consolidated into Hiroshima University.

Some of these institutions were already notable. Above all, Hiroshima School of Secondary Education, founded in 1902, had a distinguished place as one of the nation's two centers for training middle school teachers. The Hiroshima University of Literature and Science was founded in 1929 as one of the national universities and, with the Hiroshima School of Secondary Education which was formerly affiliated to it, were highly notable.

The present Hiroshima University, which was created from these two institutions as well as three other "old-system" training institutions for teachers, continues to hold an important position among the universities and colleges in Japan. Hiroshima Higher Technical School, which has many alumnae in the manufacturing industry, was founded in 1920 and was promoted to a Technical College (Senmon Gakko) in 1944. Hiroshima Higher School was founded in 1923 as one of the pre-war higher schools which prepared students for Imperial and other government-supported universities. Although these institutions suffered a great deal of damage due to the atomic bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, they were reconstructed and combined to become the new Hiroshima University. Graduate schools were established in 1953. After completing the reconstruction, in order to seek wider campus, the relocation to local area(Higashihiroshima) was planned and decided by 1972. Hiroshima University relocated to Higashihiroshima from Hiroshima City between 1982 and 1995. In Hiroshima City, there are still some Campuses (School of Medicine, School of Dentistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Graduate School in these fields in Kasumi Campus and Law School and Center for Research on Regional Economic System in Higashi-Senda Campus).

Schools

 * School of Integrated Arts and Sciences
 * School of Letters
 * School of Education
 * School of Law
 * School of Economics
 * School of Science
 * School of Medicine
 * School of Dentistry
 * School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
 * School of Engineering
 * School of Applied Biological Science
 * School of Informatics and Data Science

Graduate schools

 * Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences
 * Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering
 * Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life
 * Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences
 * Graduate School of Innovation and Practice for Smart Society

Research institutes

 * Miyajima Natural Botanical Garden

Campus

 * Higashi-Hiroshima Campus, Kagami-yama 1-chome, Higashihiroshima
 * Kasumi Campus, 1-2-3, Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima
 * Higashisenda Campus, 1-1-89, Higashi-senda-machi, Naka-ku, Hiroshima

Notable alumni

 * Politics
 * Wataru Kubo - member of the National Diet, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Finance
 * Osamu Fujimura - member of the National Diet, Chief Cabinet Secretary, Minister of State
 * Yoshinobu Ohira - member of the National Diet
 * Chōbyō Yara - Chief Executive of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture
 * Yura Halim - Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Brunei, Brunei Ambassador to Japan

 * Business
 * Takeshi Taketsuru - President of Nikka Whisky Distilling

 * Academic
 * Kuniyoshi Obara - scholar of education, education reformer, founder of Tamagawa Gakuen and Tamagawa University
 * Shintaro Uda - engineer, Professor Emeritus at Tohoku University, IEEE Milestone, Japan Academy Prize
 * Yoshio Koide - theoretical physicist, Professor Emeritus at University of Shizuoka
 * Tsutomu Yanagida - physicist, Professor Emeritus at University of Tokyo, Humboldt Prize, Nishina Memorial Prize
 * Tomoyuki Nishita - engineer, Professor Emeritus at University of Tokyo, Steven A. Coons Award
 * Akinori Noma - physiologists, Professor Emeritus at Kyoto University
 * Katsuya Kodama - peace researcher and sociologist, Vice-President of International Social Science Council at UNESCO
 * Tsuguo Hongo - mycologist, Professor Emeritus at Shiga University
 * Akira Miyawaki - botanist, Professor Emeritus at Yokohama National University, Blue Planet Prize
 * Makoto Nishimura - biologist
 * Shigeru Nakayama - historian of science, Professor Emeritus at Kanagawa University
 * Kazuyoshi Kino - Buddhist scholar

 * Culture
 * Hiroko Oyamada - author of fiction, Akutagawa Prize
 * Fumiyo Kōno - manga artist
 * Kōhei Kiyasu - voice actor, actor, scriptwriter
 * Akira Sakata - free jazz saxophonist
 * Kenzō Tange - architect, Pritzker Architecture Prize, AIA Gold Medal, Praemium Imperiale, Legion of Honour, Order of Culture
 * Hiroyuki Agawa - author of fiction and literary critic, Kikuchi Kan Prize, Noma Literary Prize, Mainichi Publishing Culture Award, Yomiuri Prize for Literature, Japan Art Academy Prize & Imperial Prize of the Japan Art Academy, Person of Cultural Merit, Order of Culture
 * Toshiyuki Kajiyama - author of fiction and journalist

 * Others
 * Sunao Tsuboi - anti-nuclear and anti-war activist

title: Hiroshima University


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User talk:Mklimstra

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in editing pages or creating new ones: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

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Again, welcome! --ALargeElk 12:55, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

authors: Template namespace initialisation script

title: User talk:Mklimstra


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Slugger

A slugger most often means a baseball or softball player with a high slugging percentage.

Slugger or Sluggers may also refer to:

 * Silver Slugger Award, an annual baseball award presented to the best offensive player at each position in both the American League and the National League
 * Louisville Slugger, a brand of baseball bat
 * Louisville Slugger Field, a baseball stadium in Louisville, Kentucky
 * Berlin Sluggers, a German baseball team founded in 1985
 * Abbeville Sluggers, an American minor league baseball team in 1920
 * Slugger Labbe (born 1968), American NASCAR crew chief
 * Slugger, a boxing style
 * The Louisville Sluggers, also known as The Sluggers, a former Australian Swing Revival band formed in the late 1990s

title: Slugger


text:
DES

DES or Des may refer to:

Computing

 * Data Encryption Standard, a block cipher that is no longer secure for today's standards
 * DirectShow Editing Services, an Application Programming Interface
 * Discrete event simulation, a kind of scientific modelling

Education

 * Deccan Education Society, a private education institution based in Pune, India.
 * Department of Education and Science (UK), the former name of the Department for Education and Skills
 * Diplôme d'études supérieures, a former degree used in France and French-speaking countries

Medical

 * Diethylstilbestrol, a synthetic estrogen and the origin of the phrase "DES daughter"
 * DES gene, which encodes the desmin protein
 * Diffuse esophageal spasm, a disorder of the esophagus
 * Dissociative Experiences Scale, a questionnaire to screen for dissociative identity disorder
 * Drug-eluting stent, a medical device
 * Dry eye syndrome, also known as keratoconjunctivitis sicca
 * Dysequilibrium syndrome, a congenital disorder of the nervous system

Other uses

 * Dar es Salaam
 * Dark Energy Survey, an astronomy project
 * Deep Ecliptic Survey, an astronomy project
 * Deep eutectic solvent, an ionic solvent
 * Defence Equipment and Support, British MOD's defence procurement arm
 * Delivered Ex Ship, an international sales term
 * Detached eddy simulation, a model in fluid dynamics
 * Des, a three-part British series about serial killer Dennis Nilsen
 * Desroches Airport, by IATA code
 * Arizona Department of Economic Security, a US government organization providing a variety of social support services to Arizona residents
 * Desmond (name), a male given name in shortened form
 * Desiree (given name), a female given name in shortened form
 * Diethyl sulfate, an organic chemical

title: DES


text:
Symmetrical inflation target

A symmetrical inflation target is a requirement placed on a central bank to respond when inflation is too low as well as when inflation is too high.

For example, the Bank of England and the Bank of Canada have symmetrical inflation targets. Following the strategy review led by the new president Christine Lagarde and finalised in July 2021, also the European Central Bank adopted a symmetric inflation target of two per cent over the medium term and officially abandoned the asymmetric "below but close to two percent" definition.

title: Symmetrical inflation target


text:
Simferopol

Simferopol, also known as Aqmescit, is the second-largest city on the Crimean Peninsula. The city, along with the rest of Crimea, is internationally recognised as part of Ukraine, controlled by Russia, and is considered the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea.

Since 2014 it has been under the de facto control of Russia, which annexed Crimea that year and regards Simferopol as the capital of the Republic of Crimea.

Simferopol is an important political, economic and transport hub of the peninsula, and serves as the administrative centre of both Simferopol Municipality and the surrounding Simferopol District. Its population was

After the 1784 annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire, the Russian empress decreed the foundation of a city named Simferopol on the location of the Crimean Tatar town of Aqmescit ("White Mosque").

Etymologies
The name Simferopol (Сімферо́поль ; Симферо́поль ) comes from the Greek Sympheropoli (Συμφερόπολη. The spelling Symferopil (Симферопіль) is also used.

In Crimean Tatar, the name of the city is Aqmescit (or in Cyrillic,, from Aq "white", and mescit "mosque"). But aq does not refer to the colour of the mosque, but rather to its location in cosmology. The Turkic peoples give a colour designation to the cardinal points, and white is the west. Thus, the exact translation of the name of the town is "the Western Mosque."

In English, the name was often given as Akmechet or Ak-Mechet (e.g. in Encyclopædia Britannica),. This was a transliteration from the Russian spelling of Crimean Tatar word Акмечет, Ак-Мечеть, where Mechet (Мечеть) is the Russian word for "mosque".

Early history
Archaeological evidence in the Chokurcha cave shows the presence of ancient people living in the territory of modern Simferopol. The Scythian Neapolis, known by its Greek name, is also located in the city, which is the remnants of an ancient capital of the Crimean Scythians who lived in the territory from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.

Later, the Crimean Tatars founded the town of Aqmescit. For some time, Aqmescit was the residence of the Qalğa-Sultan, the second most important position in the Crimean Khanate after the Khan himself. The area of the city once known as Aqmescit is today called Old Simferopol.

Russian Empire
In 1784 modern Ukrainian Simferopol was founded after the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire by Catherine II of Russia. The name Simferopol is in Greek, Συμφερόπολις (Simferopolis) and literally means "the city of usefulness." The tradition of Greek place names in newly acquired southern territories began with the Greek Plan of Russian Empress Catherine the Great. In 1802, Simferopol became the administrative centre of the Taurida Governorate. During the Crimean War of 1854–1856, the Russian Imperial Army reserves and a hospital were stationed in the city. After the war, more than 30,000 Russian soldiers were buried in the city's vicinity.

20th-century wars
In the 20th century, Simferopol was once again affected by wars and conflicts in the region. At the end of the Russian Civil War, the headquarters of General Pyotr Wrangel, leader of the anti-Bolshevik White Army, were located there. On 13 November 1920, the Red Army captured the city and on 18 October 1921, Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

During World War II, Simferopol was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1 November 1941 to 13 April 1944. Retreating NKVD police shot a number of prisoners on 31 October 1941 in the NKVD building and the city's prison. Germans perpetrated one of the largest war-time massacres in Simferopol, killing in total over 22,000 locals—mostly Jews, Russians, Krymchaks, and Romani. On one occasion, starting 9 December 1941, the Einsatzkommando 11b, which was under the command of Werner Braune, whose main unit and superior were Einsatzgruppe D and Otto Ohlendorf, respectively, command killed an estimated 14,300 Simferopol residents, mostly Jewish.

In April 1944 the Red Army liberated Simferopol. On 18 May 1944 the Crimean Tatar population of the city, along with the whole Crimean Tatar nation of Crimea, was forcibly deported to Central Asia as collective punishment for the perceived collaboration of Tatars with Nazi Germany.

Ukraine
On 26 April 1954, Simferopol, together with the rest of the Crimean Oblast, was transferred from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev.

An asteroid, discovered in 1970 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova, is named after the city (2141 Simferopol).

Following a referendum on 20 January 1991, the Crimean Oblast was upgraded to an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on 12 February 1991 by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR. Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Simferopol became the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine. Today, the city has a population of 340,600 (2006) most of whom are ethnic Russians, with the rest being Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar minorities.

After the Crimean Tatars were allowed to return from exile in the 1990s, several new Crimean Tatar suburbs were constructed, as many more Tatars returned to the city compared to number exiled in 1944. Land ownership between the current residents and returning Crimean Tatars is a major area of conflict today with the Tatars requesting the return of lands seized after their deportation.

Russian annexation
After Russia occupied and formally annexed Crimea on 18 March 2014, Simferopol was named the capital of a new federal subject of the Russian Federation encompassing the majority of the peninsula by decree of Russian president Vladimir Putin, with the exception of Sevastopol, which became a federal сity.

Prior to the seizure of the city by Russia, a mass protest was organised by the city's Crimean Tatars in support of Crimea remaining as part of Ukraine.

Location
Simferopol is located in the south-central Crimean Peninsula. The city lies on the Salhir River near the artificial Simferopol Reservoir, which provides the city with clean drinking water. The Simferopol Reservoir's earth dam is the biggest in Europe.

Climate
The city experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa), near the boundary of the humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa). The average temperature in January is 0.4 C and 23 C in July. The average rainfall is 501 mm per year, and there is a total of 2,529 hours of sunshine per year.

Politics and administrative divisions

As the capital of Crimea, Simferopol houses its political structure including the Supreme Council of Crimea and the Council of Ministers. Simferopol is also the administrative centre of the Simferopol Raion (district), but is directly subordinate to the Crimean authorities rather than to the district authorities housed in the city itself.

The city of Simferopol is administratively divided into three urban districts (Zaliznychnyi, Kyivskyi and Tsentralnyi), four urban-type settlements (Ahrarne, Aeroflotskyi, Hresivskyi, Komsomolske) and the village of Bitumne.

Viktor Ageev became city mayor on 11 November 2010 and was then elected chairman of the Simferopol City Council on 29 September 2014.

Igor Lukashyov was installed as the head of Simferopol City administration (i.e. local executive) after Russia annexed the region in 2014. He served in this position until his dismissal on 9 November 2018.

Transportation
Simferopol has a major railway station, which serves millions of tourists each year. In December 2014 Ukraine cut the railway line to Crimea at the border with mainland Ukraine (Kherson Oblast). Currently, the station serves only a commuter (regional) passenger train and the Moscow – Simferopol train every day.

The city is also connected via the Simferopol International Airport, which was constructed in 1936. Zavodskoye Airport is situated southwest of Simferopol.

The city has several main bus stations, with routes towards many cities, including Sevastopol, Kerch, Yalta, and Yevpatoriya. The Crimean Trolleybus connects Simferopol to the city of Yalta on Crimean Black Sea coast. The line is the longest trolleybus line in the world with a total length of 86 km (since 2014 again 96 km).

The streets of Simferopol have a rare house numbering – the odd numbers are on the right side of the road, looking in the direction in which the numbers increase.

Demographics
At the last census in 2014, the population of Simferopol was 332,317, the highest of any city in the Republic of Crimea and second only to Sevastopol within the Crimean peninsula.

Economy
When it existed, Crimea Air had its head office on the grounds of Simferopol Airport. A new 19-gate terminal for the airport finished construction in 2018. The terminal was designed in the shape of a wave by Samoo Architects & Engineers, after their successful bid as part of an international competition.

Industry
Simferopol is home to a number of industrial plants, including the following:

 * Fiolent (two locations), producer of power tools and other electrical systems
 * Simferopol chemical industry plants
 * PO Foton
 * SEM SElktroMash SELMZ
 * Plastotekhnika and else plastics related
 * Santekhprom SSTP
 * PEK PromElektroKontakt and PromSchitKontakt, ChPO Sfera IzmertelnPribor, SELTZ ElectroTechnical Plant
 * Pnevmatika, other pneumatics tires etc. related industry
 * Monolit SMZKon, TsSI Tavrida SKMKZ, Slava Truda SCMNG, SiMZ Motor Plants
 * Chornomornaftogaz
 * Digital Valley (Tsifrovaya Dolina): silicon industry, computers, wafers and microelectronics, it, other related. It will located (most likely) near the airport for convenience.

Education
The largest collection of higher education institutions in Crimea is located in Simferopol. Among them is the largest university in Simferopol and Crimea, the Taurida V.Vernadsky National University, which was founded in 1917. Crimea State Medical University named after S. I. Georgievsky, also located in Simferopol, is one of the most prominent medical schools of Ukraine. The Crimean Medical University is situated on the plot, where in 1855 a nursery garden was planted by the founder of the Nikita Botanical Gardens Ch.Ch.Steven (1781–1863). In 1863–66 a school for girls was built here and in 1931 a medical institute was opened. On the same plot P.Krzhizhanovsky built a three-storey hostel for medical students after the design in 1934. The building with clear geometric masses was completed in 1938. A new federal university campus was opened 4 August 2014.

Sports
Simferopol is home to the football club FC TSK Simferopol which plays in the Crimean Premier League. It was formed as a Russian club in 2014, following the 2014 Crimean Conflict, to replace the Ukrainian club Tavriya Simferopol which had been the first winners of the Ukraine Premier League, and also won the Ukrainian Cup in 2010.

Houses of worship

 * Kebir-Jami Mosque, Simferopol
 * Holy Trinity Cathedral, Simferopol

Notable people

 * Max Alpert (1899–1980) a Soviet photographer, front-line work during WWII
 * Andrei Abrikosov (1906–1973) a Soviet stage and film actor.
 * Reşat Amet (1975–2014) a Crimean Tatar activist
 * Denis Bouriakov (born 1981), principal flautist of the Los Angeles Philharmonic
 * Rachel Devirys (1890–1983) French film actress, starred in some 50 films from 1916 to 1956.
 * Nadia Volodymyrivna Dorofeeva, professionally known as Dorofeeva (born 1990), female vocalist of the pop duo Vremya i Steklo
 * Roman Filippov (1936–1992) a Soviet theatre and film actor
 * Viktor Grebennikov (1927–2001) scientist, naturalist, entomologist and paranormal researcher
 * Adolph Joffe (1883–1927) Communist revolutionary, Bolshevik politician and Soviet diplomat
 * Sergey Karjakin (born 1990), Chess prodigy and grandmaster at age 12 years, 7 months
 * Olexandr Kolchenko (born 1989) a Ukrainian left-wing anarchist, ecologist and archaeologist
 * Oleg Kotov (born 1965), Air Force colonel, 15 Soyuz flight commander and flight engineer
 * Andrey Kozenko (born 1981), a Russian and former Ukrainian statesman and politician.
 * Nicolai Ivanovich Kravchenko (1867–1941) a Russian battle painter, journalist and writer.
 * Anna Kuliscioff (1857–1925) Russian born Italian feminist, anarchist and Marxist socialist militant.
 * Zara Levina (1906–1976) a Soviet pianist and composer.
 * Saint Luke of Simferopol (1877–1961), born Valentin Felixovich Voino-Yasenetsky, Russian surgeon and Archbishop of Simferopol
 * Musa Mamut (1931–1978) a deported Crimean Tatar who immolated himself in Crimea
 * Yuri Manin (1937–2023) a Russian specialist in algebraic & diophantine geometry
 * Alisa Melekhina (born 1991), chess master, attorney and classically trained ballerina
 * Sergey Mergelyan (1928–2008), a Soviet Armenian mathematician and scientist
 * Gennady Samokhin (born 1971) a Crimean speleologist, holds the depth world record of cave diving
 * Ilya Selvinsky (1899–1968) was a Soviet Jewish poet, dramatist, memoirist and essayist
 * Oleg Sentsov (born 1976) a Ukrainian filmmaker, writer and activist from Crimea.
 * Valery Sigalevitch (born 1950), a Russian classical concert pianist, lives in La Rochelle.
 * Bob Sredersas (1910–1982) a Lithuanian-Australian art collector.
 * Alexei Stepanov (1858–1923), a Russian genre painter, illustrator and art teacher.
 * Evhen Tsybulenko (born 1972), Estonian professor of international law
 * Georges Vitaly (1917–2007), French actor, theatre director and theatre manager.
 * Evgenii Wulff (1885–1941) a Crimean Russian Soviet biologist, botanist and plant geographer.
 * Diana Tishchenko (born 1990), Ukrainian classical violinist

Sport

 * Gleb Bakshi (born 1995) boxer, bronze medallist at the 2020 Summer Olympics.
 * Lyudmila Blonska (born 1977), Ukrainian heptathlete, banned after 2 doping offences
 * Serhiy Dotsenko (born 1979) Russian boxer, silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics
 * Andriy Hryvko (born 1983), a Ukrainian cyclist who rides for Astana
 * Daniil Khlusevich (born 2001), Russian international footballer who plays for Spartak Moscow
 * Yana Klochkova (born 1982), a Ukrainian swimmer with five Olympic medals, four being gold
 * Natalia Popova (born 1993) former figure skater, five-time Ukrainian national champion
 * Hanna Rizatdinova (born 1993), individual rhythmic gymnast, bronze medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 * Kateryna Serebrianska (born 1977), individual rhythmic gymnast, gold medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics
 * Oleksandr Usyk (born 1987), heavyweight boxer, gold medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics

Twin towns – Sister cities
Simferopol is currently twinned with:
 * 🇺🇸 Salem, Oregon, United States (1986)
 * 🇩🇪 Heidelberg, Germany (1991)
 * 🇭🇺 Kecskemét, Hungary (2006)
 * 🇹🇷 Tepebaşı, Turkey (2007)
 * 🇹🇷 Bursa, Turkey
 * 🇷🇺 Irkutsk, Russia (2008)
 * 🇷🇺 Moscow, Russia (2008)
 * 🇷🇺 Novocherkassk, Russia (2008)
 * 🇷🇺 Omsk, Russia (2008)
 * 🇧🇬 Ruse, Bulgaria (2008)
 * 🇷🇺 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (2016)

title: Simferopol


text:
Canada and the American Civil War

At the time of the American Civil War (1861–1865), Canada did not yet exist as a federated nation. Instead, British North America consisted of the Province of Canada (parts of modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec) and the separate colonies of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, British Columbia and Vancouver Island, as well as a crown territory administered by the Hudson's Bay Company called Rupert's Land. Britain and its colonies were officially neutral for the duration of the war. Despite this, tensions between Britain and the United States were high due to incidents such as the  Trent Affair, blockade runners loaded with British arms supplies bound for the Confederacy, and the Confederate Navy commissioning of the CSS Alabama from Britain.

Canadians were largely opposed to slavery, and Canada had recently become the terminus of the Underground Railroad. Close economic and cultural links across the long border, also encouraged Canadian sympathy towards the Union. Between 33,000 and 55,000 men from British North America enlisted in the war, almost all of them fighting for Union forces. Some press and churches in Canada supported the secession, and some others did not. There was talk in London in 1861–62 of mediating the war or recognizing the Confederacy. Washington warned this meant war, and London feared Canada would quickly be seized by the Union army.

Trent Affair
In November 1861 tensions escalated between Washington and London when an American warship stopped the British mail ship RMS Trent on the high seas and seized two Confederate diplomats, James Mason and John Slidell. London demanded their return and an apology, and to signal its intention to defend its possessions sent 14,000 combat troops to Canada and the Maritimes, while the Canadians planned to raise 40,000 militia. President Abraham Lincoln defused the crisis by releasing the diplomats, though he did not issue an apology. He cautioned his Secretary of State William H. Seward, "One war at a time." The British decided that unification of the North American colonies was now a high priority, as a new strong dominion would relieve London of the need to station large British forces to defend British North America.

The Grand Trunk Railway Brigade
Rising concerns over the security of railways in Canada while the Civil War raged in the United States led to the 1862 creation of the Grand Trunk Railway Brigade. This unit of Canadian Volunteer Militia recruited amongst railway employees had infantry and artillery companies deployed along the railway lines in Canada East and Canada West.

Confederate activity in British North America
Confederate operators secretly used Canada and particularly the Maritimes as a base against the North, in violation of British neutrality. The Maritimes' struggle to maintain their independence from Canada led some Maritimers to be sympathetic to the South's desire to maintain its independence from the North. For example, Halifax merchant Benjamin Wier (1805–1868) acted as Halifax agent for many of the Confederate blockade runners carrying British arms during the Civil War. In return for ship repair facilities in Halifax, the Confederates supplied him with valuable cotton for re-export to Britain, a lucrative but hazardous course for Wier which required severing his business connections with New England. Halifax's role in arms trafficking for the South was so noticeable that the Acadian Recorder in 1864 described the city's effort as a "mercenary aid to a fratricidal war, which, without outside intervention, would have long ago ended." U.S. Secretary of State Seward complained on March 14, 1865:

Halifax has been for more than one year, and yet is, a naval station for vessels which, running the blockade, furnish supplies and munitions of war to our enemy, and it has been made a rendezvous for those piratical cruisers which come out from Liverpool and Glasgow, to destroy our commerce on the high seas, and even to carry war into the ports of the United States. Halifax is a postal and despatch station in the correspondence between the rebels at Richmond and their emissaries in Europe. Halifax merchants are known to have surreptitiously imported provisions, arms, and ammunition from our seaports, and then transshipped them to the rebels. The governor of Nova Scotia has been neutral, just, and friendly; so were the judges of the province who presided on the trial of the Chesapeake. But then it is understood that, on the other hand, merchant shippers of Halifax, and many of the people of Halifax, are willing agents and abettors of the enemies of the United States, and their hostility has proved not merely offensive but deeply injurious.

Confederate Secret Service agents operating in Canada were considerable enough to be widely tolerated. For example, in Toronto,

Southern agents operated freely and openly with little to no concern from local authorities who were governed by British North America’s official policy of neutrality. Indeed, Southerners enjoyed the sympathy of most of Toronto’s political, social, and business elite—although few were as enthusiastic in supporting the Confederate cause as George Taylor Denison III.

Canadian banks funded their activities and Toronto, Montreal, St. Catharines, and Halifax were among the centers of well-financed Confederate networks by Confederate agents and sympathizers in these cities. Several Canadian hotels across the territory, including the Queen's Hotel, Toronto and St. Louis hotel in Quebec City, acted as informal headquarters for Confederate Secret Service activities.

Chesapeake
On 7 December 1863, while the new Union tug Chesapeake was preparing for service in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 17 Canadians disguised as passengers seized it off Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Word of the takeover reached Portland on the morning of 9 December and quickly spread from there. The news prompted federal officials at northern ports along the coast to speedy action.

On 17 December, the recently captured blockade runner Ella and Annie — which had been hastily manned, armed and sent to sea — caught up with the Chesapeake at Sambro, Nova Scotia. Shortly thereafter, the Northern gunboat USS Dacotah arrived on the scene; and its commanding officer prevented Ella and Annie from taking the recaptured tug back to Boston, lest such action seriously undermine British–U.S. relations. Instead, to observe diplomatic protocols, he escorted Chesapeake to Halifax where he asked the colonial Admiralty court to restore it to its owner. The court ruled the Confederate attack was illegal and returned SS Chesapeake to its Union owners but the Confederate sympathizers escaped with the help of some Haligonians, creating tensions that received international attention.

CSS Tallahassee
On 18 August 1864, the Confederate States Ship CSS Tallahassee under the command of John Taylor Wood sailed into Halifax harbour for supplies, coal and to make repairs to its mainmast. Wood could only stay 48 hours under neutrality laws and began loading coal at Woodside, on the Dartmouth shore. Union ships Nansemont and Huron were making their way toward Halifax when Wood slipped out of the harbor at 9 p.m. on 19 August. It is believed he departed by the seldom-used Eastern Passage between McNabs Island and the Dartmouth shore to avoid Union warships in case they had arrived. The channel was narrow and crooked with a shallow tide, so Wood hired a local pilot, Jock Flemming. All the lights were out, but the residents on the Eastern Passage mainland could see the dark hull moving through the water, successfully evading capture.

St. Albans Raid
The most-controversial incident was the St. Albans Raid. Montreal was used as the secret base for a team of Confederates attempting to launch covert and intelligence operations from Canada against the United States. To finance their cause in October 1864, they robbed three banks in St. Albans, Vermont, killed an American citizen, and escaped with US$170,000. They were pursued across the Canada–U.S. border by Union forces, creating an international incident. The Canadians then arrested the Confederate raiders, but the judge ruled the raid was an authorized Confederate government operation, not a felony, which would have permitted extradition via the Webster–Ashburton Treaty.

Many Americans falsely suspected that the Canadian government knew of the raid ahead of time. There was widespread anger when the raiders were released by a local court in Canada. U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward let the British government know, "it is impossible to consider those proceedings as either legal, just or friendly towards the United States."

Canadian volunteers

The best recent estimates are that between 33,000 and 55,000 men from British North America (BNA) served in the Union army, and a few hundred in the Confederate army. Many of them already lived in the United States and were joined by volunteers signed up in Canada by Union recruiters. About 2,500 of those British North Americans were Black, with most serving in the US Army and a few hundred in the navy.

Canada refused to return about 15,000 American deserters and draft dodgers.

Calixa Lavallée was a French-Canadian musician and Union officer during the American Civil War who later composed the music for "O Canada", which officially became the national anthem of Canada in 1980. In 1857, he moved to the United States and lived in Rhode Island where he enlisted in the 4th Rhode Island Volunteers of the Union army during the American Civil War, attaining the rank of lieutenant.

Canadian-born Edward P. Doherty was a Union Army officer who formed and led the detachment of Union soldiers that captured and killed John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Lincoln, in a Virginia barn on April 26, 1865, 12 days after Lincoln was fatally shot.

Canadian-born Sarah Emma Edmonds was a noted Union spy.

One of the longest-living Canadians to have fought in the American Civil War was James Beach Moore, who died on August 29, 1931.

Anderson Ruffin Abbott was a Toronto-born son of free people of color who had fled Alabama after their store was ransacked. Canada's first Black physician, he applied for a commission as an assistant surgeon in the Union Army in February 1863, but his offer was evidently not accepted. That April, he applied to be a "medical cadet" in the United States Colored Troops, but was finally accepted as a civilian surgeon under contract. He served in Washington, D.C., from June 1863 to August 1865, first at the Contraband Hospital which became Freedmen's Hospital. He then went to a hospital in Arlington, Virginia. Receiving numerous commendations and becoming popular in Washington society, Abbott was one of only 13 black surgeons to serve in the Civil War, a fact that fostered a friendly relationship between him and the president. On the night of Lincoln's assassination, Abbott accompanied Elizabeth Keckley to the Petersen House and returned to his lodgings that evening. After Lincoln's death, Mary Todd Lincoln presented Abbott with the plaid shawl that Lincoln had worn to his 1861 inauguration.

At least 29 Canadian-born men were awarded the Medal of Honor.

Economic effects
The Civil War period was one of booming economic growth for the BNA colonies. The war in the United States created a huge market for Canada's agricultural and manufactured goods, most of which went to the Union. Maritime shipbuilders and owners prospered in the wartime trade boom.

Political effects
The American Civil War had decisive political effects on the BNA colonies. The tensions between the United States and Britain, which had been ignited by the war and made worse by the Fenian raids, led to concern for the security and independence of the colonies, helping to consolidate momentum for the confederation of the colonies in 1867.

In this regard, the conflict also had an important effect on discussions concerning the nature of the emerging federation. Many Fathers of Confederation concluded that the secessionist war was caused by too much power being given to the states, and thus resolved to create a more centralized federation. It was also believed that too much democracy was a contributing factor and the Canadian system was thus equipped with checks and balances such as the appointed Senate and powers of the British appointed Governor General. The guiding principles of the legislation which created Canada – the British North America Act – were peace, order, and good government. This was a collectivist antithesis to American individualism that became central to Canadian identity.

title: Canada and the American Civil War


text:
Allen Lee

Allen Lee Peng-fei, CBE, JP (24 April 1940 – 15 May 2020) was a Hong Kong industrialist, politician and political commentator. He was a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, serving from 1978 to 1997 and was the Senior Member of the legislature from 1988 to 1991. He was also an unofficial member of the Executive Council of Hong Kong from 1986 to 1992. He was the founding chairman of the Liberal Party, a pro-business party in 1993 until he retired after he lost the 1998 election. After his retirement, he became a political commentator and hosted Legco Review, a RTHK weekly TV programme on the news about Legislative Council, among several other posts.

Early life and education
Lee was born on 24 April 1940 in Yantai, Shandong, China to a Chinese businessman. His parents had four children. He followed his family when they moved to Shanghai to evade war and spent most of his childhood there. His father became a merchant in Shanghai and had represented General Motors, among other US companies in China. He later moved to the United States in 1948. Lee had led an independent life and did not know much about his absent father because they seldom stayed together. Lee knew that his father had married several times, which made him feel rather uneasy.

At the age of 14, he was a leader of the Communist Youth League, and organised marches denouncing the United States because of its involvement in the Korean War. In May 1954, his mother sent him to Hong Kong where he attended and graduated from Pui Ying Secondary School. After graduation, he had planned to continue his studies at National Taiwan University but his father intended for him to go to the United States. Subsequently, he was sent to the United States and began learning English in Dayton, Ohio. He was later enrolled in the University of Michigan and studied electronics engineering there.

Business career
After his graduation, he worked at the Lockheed Aircraft's Electronics Department in California. In 1966, he was appointed by the company to open a branch factory in Hong Kong. Due to a shortage of talented manpower, Lee was invited to serve as the factory's Test Engineer and Training Engineer.

In 1970, Lee moved on to work for Ampex as Test Engineering Manager through a friend's introduction and was promised the position of general manager after two years of satisfactory performance. He helped the company to set up a factory in Taiwan and a new Design Engineering Department. In 1973/74, Lee became the first Chinese to have ever been appointed general manager. During the time when he was general manager, the 1973 Oil Crisis occurred, which resulted in a sharp decrease in the number of orders. He managed to arrange the workers to take a three-day work week and survived the dire situation after half-year. He also improved the working environment by installing air-conditioning and waxing the floor tiles. He offered the workers a remuneration package with a wage that was 10% above the industry average.

He left Ampex and became Tang Hsiang Chien's business partner in 1985, establishing the Meadville Holdings Limited to produce printed circuits board (PCB). Lee and Tang were then chairman and deputy chairman of the Federation of Hong Kong Industries respectively. Lee also set up a copper-clad laminate factory in Dongguan for Meadville.

Simultaneously, Lee and his ex-colleagues from Ampex set up a trading firm that sold copper foils to manufacturers PCBs and cooper-clad laminates. In 1991, he cooperated with a Japanese buyer and set up Jada Electronics Limited, focusing on selling cooper-clad laminates and copper foils, in which partnership had continued until today.

Member of Executive and Legislative Councils
In the late 1970s, Hong Kong Governor Sir Murray MacLehose established the Committee of Economic Diversification to advance Hong Kong's high technology development. Governor MacLehose visited Ampex in 1977 and listened to Lee's outlook on Hong Kong's electronic industry. Lee recommended the Governor to build a technology park, but he was snubbed because high technology may incur a high risk. Hong Kong as a result failed to take a head start and was surpassed by South Korea and Taiwan which had built the Hsinchu Science Park. Lee denounced the government for mismatching talents by appointing an Administrative Officer to be the Secretary for Trade and Industry.

In 1978, Lee became the youngest appointee to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong by Sir Murray MacLehose, at the age of 38. He had sat on the Consumer Council and Electronics Industry Training Board before. He also held many public positions, including chairman of the Hong Kong Productivity Council and member of the Vocational Training Council. In 1986, Governor Sir Edward Youde asked him to serve on the Executive Council of Hong Kong.

During his political career, he witnessed the Sino-British negotiations over Hong Kong's future after 1997. In May 1983, Allen Lee led a delegation of young professionals to Beijing, which included legislators Stephen Cheong and Selina Chow, as well as barristers Martin Lee and Andrew Li, architect Edward Ho, doctor Natalus Yuen, journalist Mary Lee, Wing On Bank's Dr. Philip Kwok and Albert Kwok, financier Leung Kwok-kwong and merchant Christopher Leong. They were greeted by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China Xi Zhongxun. In the delegation, they expressed their wish to keep the status quo in Hong Kong as it was "the best guarantee to maintaining the prosperity and stability of Hong Kong". They also sought to extend the British rule by 15 to 30 years. He returned to Beijing in October 1983 and was met by the National Security Bureau Zhuang Xin and former Foreign Trade Minister Li Qiang. In the meeting he was told the demands of the young professionals were rejected.

During the Sino-British negotiations over the future of Hong Kong and the drafting of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in December 1984, Lee joined the delegation of Office of the Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils (UMELCO) to meet with the British politicians in London and raised concerns about the Joint Declaration. The UMELCO also attempted to mobilise public opinion on the terms of the Sino-British agreement and made known Hong Kong's views to both the British and Chinese governments. Legislative Council member Roger Lobo moved a motion to demand a debate in the Legislative Council on the draft of Sino-British Joint Declaration in February 1984. It was backed by Allen Lee.

Senior member and Liberal Party chairman
From 1988 to 1991, Lee was the Senior Member of the Legislative Council, succeeding retiring Dame Lydia Dunn. After the Tiananmen Square massacre in June 1989, Lee joined the liberals to launch the Hong Kong People Saving Hong Kong campaign to press Britain to open its doors to all its colonial subjects here and grant them full British passports before the colony is handed back to China in 1997. He and the UMELCO also made concession to the liberals, to agree on a compromised model of a more democratic political system after 1997 in the drafting of the Hong Kong Basic Law.

In the wake of the landslide victory of the liberal forces led by the United Democrats of Hong Kong (UDHK) in the first ever direct election of the Legislative Council in 1991, Lee formed the Co-operative Resources Centre (CRC), a conservative parliamentary group with other appointed and indirectly elected members from the business sectors. He subsequently resigned as Senior Member among accusation of conflict of roles. The CRC later transformed into the Liberal Party in 1993, where he was the founding chairman.

In 1992, he resigned from the Executive Council with other unofficial members after Governor Chris Patten took office. He soon found himself aligned with the Beijing government in opposition to Patten's reform proposals which largely expanded the electorates for the 1995 Legislative Council election. He sought to resolve the Sino-Hong Kong confrontation through negotiations. Allen Lee's Liberal Party and its allies tried to amend the Patten proposals and was backed by Lu Ping, Director of the Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office. However, with the support of the pro-democracy camp, Patten's proposals were narrowly passed. For this event, Jonathan Dimbleby described him as a "weather vane" in his book The Last Governor.

In the 1995 Legislative Council election, Lee ran in the New Territories North-east. He returned to the Legislative Council by receiving 15,216 votes, 34.82% of the ballots, gaining the only seat for the Liberal Party and becoming the sole conservative candidate to be directly elected. He became closer to the Beijing authorities, being appointed as Hong Kong Affairs Adviser, member of the Preparatory Committee and became member of the Provisional Legislative Council (PLC), a provisional legislature installed by Beijing countering the 1995 elected colonial legislature. He was also made a delegate of the Chinese national legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC) in late 1997.

In 1998, Lee ran in New Territories East in the first Legislative Council election after the handover of Hong Kong but was narrowly beaten by pro-democratic candidate Cyd Ho, receiving 33,858 votes, 10.25% of the ballots. The defeat marked the end of his political career, as he announced his retirement as Liberal Party chairman after the election results. He stepped down in December 1998 and was succeeded by James Tien.

Media career and later life
After his retirement, he became involved in the mass media, taking up posts as TV presenter and radio host. Lee hosted Legco Review, a RTHK weekly TV programme on the news about Legislative Council from 2001 until his retirement in March 2018, among several other posts. He became more open to speaking out about his support in democracy and universal suffrage and his criticism of the HKSAR and Chinese governments. He joined the democrats in the 1 July massive protest of 2003 against the legislation of the Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23. He quit the Liberal Party in 2003 over the party leadership's decision to drop its commitment to support universal suffrage of the Chief Executive election in 2007 in its manifesto.

In 2004, Lee temporarily replaced Albert Cheng as the host of Teacup in the Storm, Hong Kong's most prominent current affairs programme on Commercial Radio Hong Kong. Cheng resigned because he had been under pressure from pro-Beijing businessmen to stop being critical of the Beijing government. Lee also resigned two weeks later on 19 May as the radio host citing the same reason, following another anti-government critic Wong Yuk-man who also worked at the Commercial Radio as a talk show host. Lee claimed that one Mainland official had called him at night, praising his wife and daughter before saying that he wanted to talk about his radio show. Lee said his decision to quit was also driven by the fear of possible harassment of his family. The successive resignations of the three hosts sparked a heated political controversy related to press freedom and media self-censorship. Simultaneously, Lee also quit as the delegate of the National People's Congress in 2004, saying that he had faced pressure not to speak openly.

In 2013, Lee joined the political group Hong Kong 2020 spearheaded by former Chief Secretary Anson Chan to provide a platform for soliciting views towards consensus on the constitutional changes needed to achieve full universal suffrage in the Chief Executive election in 2017 and the Legislative Council elections in 2020. Lee quitting after a year, citing conflict of interest concerns.

In July 2019, Lee issued a joint statement with other Liberal Party grandees calling on Chief Executive Carrie Lam to officially withdraw the controversial extradition bill which sparked the massive anti-government protests since June, as well as set up an independent commission of inquiry and engage in meaningful dialogue with the public.

Death
On 19 May 2020, his family announced that Allen Lee had died on 15 May, at the age of 80.

Publications

 * 不准錄音 ("No Recording"). SCMP Smart Publishing. 2002. ISBN 978-9621784575
 * 風雨三十年──李鵬飛回憶錄 (Memoirs by Allen Lee). Cup Magazine Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-9889775476

title: Allen Lee


text:
Select (SQL)

The SQL SELECT statement returns a result set of rows, from one or more tables.

A SELECT statement retrieves zero or more rows from one or more database tables or database views. In most applications,  is the most commonly used data manipulation language (DML) command. As SQL is a declarative programming language,  queries specify a result set, but do not specify how to calculate it. The database translates the query into a "query plan" which may vary between executions, database versions and database software. This functionality is called the "query optimizer" as it is responsible for finding the best possible execution plan for the query, within applicable constraints.

The SELECT statement has many optional clauses:

 * list is the list of columns or SQL expressions to be returned by the query. This is approximately the relational algebra projection operation.
 * optionally provides an alias for each column or expression in the  list. This is the relational algebra rename operation.
 * specifies from which table to get the data.
 * specifies which rows to retrieve. This is approximately the relational algebra selection operation.
 * groups rows sharing a property so that an aggregate function can be applied to each group.
 * selects among the groups defined by the GROUP BY clause.
 * specifies how to order the returned rows.

Overview
is the most common operation in SQL, called "the query". retrieves data from one or more tables, or expressions. Standard  statements have no persistent effects on the database. Some non-standard implementations of  can have persistent effects, such as the   syntax provided in some databases.

Queries allow the user to describe desired data, leaving the database management system (DBMS) to carry out planning, optimizing, and performing the physical operations necessary to produce that result as it chooses.

A query includes a list of columns to include in the final result, normally immediately following the  keyword. An asterisk (" ") can be used to specify that the query should return all columns of all the queried tables. is the most complex statement in SQL, with optional keywords and clauses that include:

 * The  clause, which indicates the table(s) to retrieve data from. The   clause can include optional   subclauses to specify the rules for joining tables.
 * The  clause includes a comparison predicate, which restricts the rows returned by the query. The   clause eliminates all rows from the result set where the comparison predicate does not evaluate to True.
 * The  clause projects rows having common values into a smaller set of rows.   is often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation functions or to eliminate duplicate rows from a result set. The   clause is applied before the   clause.
 * The  clause includes a predicate used to filter rows resulting from the   clause. Because it acts on the results of the   clause, aggregation functions can be used in the   clause predicate.
 * The  clause identifies which column[s] to use to sort the resulting data, and in which direction to sort them (ascending or descending). Without an   clause, the order of rows returned by an SQL query is undefined.
 * The  keyword eliminates duplicate data.

The following example of a  query returns a list of expensive books. The query retrieves all rows from the Book table in which the price column contains a value greater than 100.00. The result is sorted in ascending order by title. The asterisk (*) in the select list indicates that all columns of the Book table should be included in the result set.

The example below demonstrates a query of multiple tables, grouping, and aggregation, by returning a list of books and the number of authors associated with each book.

Example output might resemble the following:

Title                 Authors -- --- SQL Examples and Guide 4 The Joy of SQL        1 An Introduction to SQL 2 Pitfalls of SQL       1

Under the precondition that isbn is the only common column name of the two tables and that a column named title only exists in the Book table, one could re-write the query above in the following form:

However, many vendors either do not support this approach, or require certain column-naming conventions for natural joins to work effectively.

SQL includes operators and functions for calculating values on stored values. SQL allows the use of expressions in the select list to project data, as in the following example, which returns a list of books that cost more than 100.00 with an additional sales_tax column containing a sales tax figure calculated at 6% of the price.

Subqueries
Queries can be nested so that the results of one query can be used in another query via a relational operator or aggregation function. A nested query is also known as a subquery. While joins and other table operations provide computationally superior (i.e. faster) alternatives in many cases (all depending on implementation), the use of subqueries introduces a hierarchy in execution that can be useful or necessary. In the following example, the aggregation function  receives as input the result of a subquery:

A subquery can use values from the outer query, in which case it is known as a correlated subquery.

Since 1999 the SQL standard allows WITH clauses, i.e. named subqueries often called common table expressions (named and designed after the IBM DB2 version 2 implementation; Oracle calls these subquery factoring). CTEs can also be recursive by referring to themselves; the resulting mechanism allows tree or graph traversals (when represented as relations), and more generally fixpoint computations.

Derived table
A derived table is a subquery in a FROM clause. Essentially, the derived table is a subquery that can be selected from or joined to. Derived table functionality allows the user to reference the subquery as a table. The derived table also is referred to as an inline view or a select in from list.

In the following example, the SQL statement involves a join from the initial Books table to the derived table "Sales". This derived table captures associated book sales information using the ISBN to join to the Books table. As a result, the derived table provides the result set with additional columns (the number of items sold and the company that sold the books):

Examples
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 1em" border="1" !Table "T" !Query !Result
 * align="center"|
 * SELECT * FROM T;
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|

 * align="center"|
 * SELECT C1 FROM T;
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|

Given a table T, the query SELECT * FROM T will result in all the elements of all the rows of the table being shown.
 * SELECT * FROM T WHERE C1 = 1;
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|
 * SELECT * FROM T ORDER BY C1 DESC;
 * align="center"|
 * align="center"|does not exist
 * SELECT 1+1, 3*2;
 * align="center"|
 * }
 * align="center"|
 * }

With the same table, the query SELECT C1 FROM T will result in the elements from the column C1 of all the rows of the table being shown. This is similar to a projection in relational algebra, except that in the general case, the result may contain duplicate rows. This is also known as a Vertical Partition in some database terms, restricting query output to view only specified fields or columns.

With the same table, the query SELECT * FROM T WHERE C1 = 1 will result in all the elements of all the rows where the value of column C1 is '1' being shown – in relational algebra terms, a selection will be performed, because of the WHERE clause. This is also known as a Horizontal Partition, restricting rows output by a query according to specified conditions.

With more than one table, the result set will be every combination of rows. So if two tables are T1 and T2, SELECT * FROM T1, T2 will result in every combination of T1 rows with every T2 rows. E.g., if T1 has 3 rows and T2 has 5 rows, then 15 rows will result.

Although not in standard, most DBMS allows using a select clause without a table by pretending that an imaginary table with one row is used. This is mainly used to perform calculations where a table is not needed.

The SELECT clause specifies a list of properties (columns) by name, or the wildcard character (“*”) to mean “all properties”.

Limiting result rows
Often it is convenient to indicate a maximum number of rows that are returned. This can be used for testing or to prevent consuming excessive resources if the query returns more information than expected. The approach to do this often varies per vendor.

In ISO SQL:2003, result sets may be limited by using
 * cursors, or
 * by adding a SQL window function to the SELECT-statement

ISO SQL:2008 introduced the  clause.

According to PostgreSQL v.9 documentation, an SQL window function "performs a calculation across a set of table rows that are somehow related to the current row", in a way similar to aggregate functions. The name recalls signal processing window functions. A window function call always contains an OVER clause.

ROW_NUMBER window function
may be used for a simple table on the returned rows, e.g. to return no more than ten rows:

ROW_NUMBER can be non-deterministic: if sort_key is not unique, each time you run the query it is possible to get different row numbers assigned to any rows where sort_key is the same. When sort_key is unique, each row will always get a unique row number.

RANK window function
The  window function acts like ROW_NUMBER, but may return more or less than n rows in case of tie conditions, e.g. to return the top-10 youngest persons:

The above code could return more than ten rows, e.g. if there are two people of the same age, it could return eleven rows.

FETCH FIRST clause
Since ISO SQL:2008 results limits can be specified as in the following example using the  clause.

This clause currently is supported by CA DATACOM/DB 11, IBM DB2, SAP SQL Anywhere, PostgreSQL, EffiProz, H2, HSQLDB version 2.0, Oracle 12c and Mimer SQL.

Microsoft SQL Server 2008 and higher supports, but it is considered part of the  clause. The,  , and   clauses are all required for this usage.

Non-standard syntax
Some DBMSs offer non-standard syntax either instead of or in addition to SQL standard syntax. Below, variants of the simple limit query for different DBMSes are listed:

Rows Pagination
Rows Pagination is an approach used to limit and display only a part of the total data of a query in the database. Instead of showing hundreds or thousands of rows at the same time, the server is requested only one page (a limited set of rows, per example only 10 rows), and the user starts navigating by requesting the next page, and then the next one, and so on. It is very useful, specially in web systems, where there is no dedicated connection between the client and the server, so the client does not have to wait to read and display all the rows of the server.

Data in Pagination approach

 * = Number of rows in a page
 * = Number of the current page
 * = Number of the row - 1 where the page starts = (page_number-1) * rows

Simplest method (but very inefficient)

 * 1) Select all rows from the database
 * 2) Read all rows but send to display only when the row_number of the rows read is between   and

Other simple method (a little more efficient than read all rows)

 * 1) Select all the rows from the beginning of the table to the last row to display
 * 2) Read the   rows but send to display only when the row_number of the rows read is greater than

Method with positioning

 * 1) Select only   rows starting from the next row to display
 * 2) Read and send to display all the rows read from the database

Method with filter (it is more sophisticated but necessary for very big dataset)

 * 1) Select only then   rows with filter:
 * 2) First Page: select only the first   rows, depending on the type of database
 * 3) Next Page: select only the first   rows, depending on the type of database, where the   is greater than   (the value of the   of the last row in the current page)
 * 4) Previous Page: sort the data in the reverse order, select only the first   rows, where the   is less than   (the value of the   of the first row in the current page), and sort the result in the correct order
 * 5) Read and send to display all the rows read from the database

Hierarchical query
Some databases provide specialised syntax for hierarchical data.

A window function in SQL:2003 is an aggregate function applied to a partition of the result set.

For example,

calculates the sum of the populations of all rows having the same city value as the current row.

Partitions are specified using the OVER clause which modifies the aggregate. Syntax:

The OVER clause can partition and order the result set. Ordering is used for order-relative functions such as row_number.

Query evaluation ANSI
The processing of a SELECT statement according to ANSI SQL would be the following:

Window function support by RDBMS vendors
The implementation of window function features by vendors of relational databases and SQL engines differs wildly. Most databases support at least some flavour of window functions. However, when we take a closer look it becomes clear that most vendors only implement a subset of the standard. Let's take the powerful RANGE clause as an example. Only Oracle, DB2, Spark/Hive, and Google Big Query fully implement this feature. More recently, vendors have added new extensions to the standard, e.g. array aggregation functions. These are particularly useful in the context of running SQL against a distributed file system (Hadoop, Spark, Google BigQuery) where we have weaker data co-locality guarantees than on a distributed relational database (MPP). Rather than evenly distributing the data across all nodes, SQL engines running queries against a distributed filesystem can achieve data co-locality guarantees by nesting data and thus avoiding potentially expensive joins involving heavy shuffling across the network. User-defined aggregate functions that can be used in window functions are another extremely powerful feature.

Generating data in T-SQL
Method to generate data based on the union all

SQL Server 2008 supports the "row constructor" feature, specified in the SQL:1999 standard

title: Select (SQL)


text:
Bad Godesberg

Bad Godesberg (Bad Jodesbersch) is a borough (Stadtbezirk) of Bonn, southern North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. From 1949 to 1999, while Bonn was the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, most foreign embassies were in Bad Godesberg. Some buildings are still used as branch offices or consulates.

Geography
Bad Godesberg is located along the hills and cliffs of the west bank of the Rhine river, in west central Germany. Godesberg is also the name of the steep hill, of volcanic origin, on the top of which are the ruins of the Godesburg, a castle destroyed in 1583 during the Cologne War.

History
The following events occurred, per year:
 * 722 - First official record of the town, which was named after a nearby mountain, the Woudenesberg (later Godesberg), a basalt cone where the Ubii, a Germanic tribe, worshipped the god Wotan.
 * 1210 - On 15 October, Archbishop of Cologne Dietrich I lays the foundation stone of the Godesburg fortress on the Godesberg mountain.
 * 1583 - On 17 December, the Godesburg was destroyed by Bavarian troops after Archbishop Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg converted to Protestantism (see Cologne War).
 * 1792 - Godesberg becomes a spa resort, with the opening of the Redoute, which later saw receptions of the President of Germany.
 * 1925 - Godesberg is allowed to call itself "Bad" Godesberg, identifying it as a spa.
 * 1935 - Bad Godesberg attains the status of a town.
 * 1938 - Neville Chamberlain meets with Hitler over the Sudetenland crisis at the Rheinhotel Dreesen in Bad Godesberg. Hitler's demands concerning Czechoslovakia expressed in Godesberg Memorandum.
 * 1944–1945 - Bad Godesberg was the location of a Nazi-operated forced labour camp.
 * 1945 - On March 8, Bad Godesberg was the first major German urban district to be transferred to Allied forces control without a battle.
 * 1959 - The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) decided on a new party program, the Godesberg Program.
 * 1969 - Godesberg was incorporated into the city of Bonn. Since that time, it has been referred to as the "posh part of Bonn".

Infrastructure
Bonn-Bad Godesberg station is on the Left Rhine line and the line 16 and 63 of the Bonn Stadtbahn.

Circa 2018 a new police station was being built on former Haribo property.

List of twin cities/sister cities

Bad Godesberg is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Saint-Cloud, France (1957)
 * 🇮🇹 Frascati, Italy (1960)
 * 🏴 Windsor and Maidenhead, England, United Kingdom (1960)
 * 🇧🇪 Kortrijk, Belgium (1964)

Friendly cities
Bad Godesberg has friendly relations with:
 * 🇩🇪 Steglitz-Zehlendorf (Berlin), Germany (1962)
 * 🇹🇷 Yalova, Turkey (1969)

Public facilities

 * Schauspielhaus Bad Godesberg (Theater Bad Godesberg), the biggest theater of Bonn’s city stages
 * Kleines Theater im Park (Small Park Theater), venue for theater, boulevard theater, and musicals with few actors
 * Haus an der Redoute (House at the Redoute), previously an electoral theater, is nowadays a facility for changing/rotating art galleries
 * Piccolo Puppenspiele (Piccolo’s Puppet Show), puppet theater that also travels
 * Small Beethoven hall as the headquarters of the Heimatbühne Muffendorf (Home stage of Muffendorf)

Bad Godesberg in Literature
A whole series of literary works take place in Bad Godesberg. The protagonist of Juli Zeh’s novel “Spieltrieb” (Gaming instinct) are students at the school Päda. Occurring locations in the novel are the school and the villa district. Heinrich Böll’s novel “Frauen vor Flußlandschaft” is set in the villa district between Bonn and Bad Godesberg. On October 30 the documentary piece “Zwei Welten” (“Two worlds”) by Ingrid Müller-Münch had its premiere as a chamber play. The author explains that it shows Bad Godesberg in the change of time. It is a city where the worlds of “rich German people” and Migrants collide. Nine actors perform excerpts from a protocol of mostly young inhabitants of Bad Godesberg, that Müller Münch took record of. In the pre-report of the piece, the Frankfurter Rundschau called it a “Bad-Godesberg-Phänomen” (Bad Godesberg phenomenon). According to Müller-Münch, these two worlds were closer in Bad Godesberg than they were anywhere else.

Recurring events
Over the course of each year, there are always many diverse events and festivals that are being organized by the Stadtmarketing Bad Godesberg e.V. (city marketing department of Bad Godesberg). Some of which are flea and antique markets, a French market, a kids’ rally (“Tag der Kleinen Bad Godesberger”/”Day of the small Bad Godesbergers”), a city party, a Christmas Market, and a street food festival. The 23rd German Fire department day took place in Bad Godesberg from June 21 until June 25, 1961. The first CTIF Games took place in Bad Godesberg, since then the International Association of Fire and Rescue Services CTIF organizes the event every four years in different cities.
 * Rhein in Flammen on the first Saturday of May: Large Firewokrs and a Ship tour from the Linz am Rhein along Erpel, Unkel, Remagen, Rheinbreitbach, Rhine island Nonnenwerth at Rolandswerth/Bad Honnef, Bad Godesberg, Königswinter to the Rheinaue in Bonn
 * FeenCon

Rhenish traditions
Several Carnival clubs have devoted themselves to the upkeep of Rhenish traditions, especially the Godesberger Stadtsoldatenkorps (city soldier corps), the Fidelen Burggrafen (merry burgraves) and the AKP (Allgemeine Karnevals Gesellschaft, General Carnival Society). The Coordination Committee of each Carnival Association is the FAGK (Festausschuss Godesberger Karneval, Festival Committee of Godesberger Carnival). In the carnival season, the clubs also organize a variety of meetings, and on the carnival Sunday a lavish parade. All clubs engage in youth work.

Secondary schools

 * Nicolaus-Cusanus-Gymnasium (NCG)
 * Aloisiuskolleg (AKO), partnerschool of the CFG
 * Amos-Comenius-Gymnasium Bonn (AMOS/ACG) (DE)
 * Clara-Fey-Gymnasium (CFG), partnerschool of the AKO
 * Konrad-Adenauer-Gymnasium (KAG) (DE)
 * Pädagogium Godesberg - Otto-Kühne-Schule (PÄDA)

International schools

 * Bonn International School (BIS)
 * Independent Bonn International School (IBIS)
 * King Fahd Academy (closed)

Notable residents

 * Paul Kemp (1896–1953), stage and film actor
 * Klaus Barbie (1913–1991), SS and Gestapo functionary during WW II, war criminal known as "the butcher of Lyon".
 * Michaela Endler (born 1945), former cross-country skier
 * Harald Weinberg (born 1957), politician (The Linke)
 * Johannes B. Kerner(born 1964), television host and journalist.

Trivia

 * John le Carré's novel The Little Drummer Girl begins with the bombing of the house of the Israeli labour attaché in Bad Godesberg.

title: Bad Godesberg