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Chevrolet El Camino

The Chevrolet El Camino is a coupé utility vehicle that was produced by Chevrolet between 1959–1960 and 1964–1987. Unlike a standard pickup truck, the El Camino was adapted from the standard two-door Chevrolet station wagon platform and integrated the cab and cargo bed into the body.

Introduced in the 1959 model year in response to the success of the Ford Ranchero coupé utility, its first run, based on the Biscayne's B-body, lasted only two years. Production resumed for the 1964–1977 model years based on the Chevelle platform, and continued for the 1978–1987 model years based on the GM G-body platform.

Although based on corresponding General Motors car lines, the vehicle is classified in the United States as a pickup. GMC's badge engineered El Camino variant, the Sprint, was introduced for the 1971 model year. Renamed Caballero in 1978, it was also produced through the 1987 model year.

Background
The concept of a two-door vehicle based on a passenger car chassis with a tray at the rear began in the United States in the 1920s with the roadster utility (also called "roadster pickup" or "light delivery") models.

Ford Australia was the first company to produce a coupé utility as a result of a 1932 letter from the wife of a farmer in Victoria, Australia, asking for "a vehicle to go to church in on a Sunday and which can carry our pigs to market on Mondays". Ford designer Lew Bandt developed a suitable solution, and the first coupé utility model was released in 1934. Bandt went on to manage Ford's Advanced Design Department, being responsible for the body engineering of the XP, XT, XW, and XA series Ford Falcon utilities. General Motors’ Australian subsidiary Holden also produced a Chevrolet coupé utility in 1935, and Studebaker produced the Coupé Express from 1937 to 1939. The body style did not reappear on the American market until the release of the 1957 Ford Ranchero.

Both the coupé utility and the similar open-topped roadster utility continued in production, but the improving economy of the mid- to late-1930s and the desire for improved comfort saw coupé utility sales climb at the expense of the roadster utility until, by 1939, the latter was all but a fading memory.

In 1957, Ford introduced the Ranchero, and established a new market segment in the U.S. of an automobile platform based coupé utility. In 1959, Chevrolet responded with the El Camino to compete with Ford's full-sized Ranchero. The original El Camino and Ranchero would compete directly only in the 1959 model year.

1959
The El Camino was introduced for the 1959 model year two years after the Ford Ranchero. According to Chevrolet stylist Chuck Jordan, GM Harley Earl had suggested a coupé pickup in 1952.

Like the Ranchero, it was based on an existing and modified platform, the new-for-1959 Brookwood two-door station wagon, itself based on the redesigned full-sized Chevrolet of that year. Highly stylized, it initially sold 50% more briskly than the more conservative Ranchero, some 22,000 to 14,000.

Unlike the Brookwood wagon and a sedan delivery variant, the El Camino was available with any full-sized Chevrolet drivetrain. It came in a single trim level, its exterior using the mid-level Bel-Air's trim, and the interior of the low-end Biscayne. Its chassis featured Chevrolet's "Safety-Girder" X-frame design and a full-coil suspension, both introduced in the 1958 model year. The 119 in wheel-base was 1.5 in longer, and overall length for all 1959 Chevrolets was up to 210.9 in. The El Camino's payload rating ranged from 650-1150 lb, with gross vehicle weights ranging from 4400-4900 lb depending on powertrain and suspension. The somewhat soft passenger car suspension of the base model left the vehicle level without a load, in contrast the Ranchero, where standard 1100-pound rated heavy duty rear springs gave it a distinct rake when empty. The quirky Level Air suspension option, in its second and final year, was listed as available, but was almost never seen on any Chevrolet model, much less an El Camino. The 1959 El Camino was promoted as the first Chevrolet pickup built with a steel bed floor instead of wood. The floor was a corrugated sheetmetal insert, secured with 26 recessed bolts. Concealed beneath it was the floor pan from the Brookwood two-door wagon, complete with foot wells. Box capacity was almost 33 cuft.

Among the performance engines offered were a 283-cid Turbo-Fire V8 with two- or four-barrel carburetion, several Turbo-Thrust 348-cid V8s with four-barrel or triple two-barrel carburetors producing 335 bhp, and 250- and 290-bhp 283-cube Ramjet Fuel Injection V8s.

Hot Rod magazine conducted a test of an El Camino equipped with the hottest powertrain combination available in early 1959—a 315 bhp, triple-carb, solid-lifter 348 V8 mated to a four-speed. Staff testers clocked 0-60 mph times of around seven seconds, estimated top speed at 130 mi/h, and predicted 14-second/100-mph quarter-mile performance with a rear-axle ratio suitable for drag racing installed.

A total of 22,246 El Caminos were produced for 1959. That bested the count of 21,706 first-year Rancheros made in 1957 and the 14,169 Ford sedan pickups built in direct competition for the 1959 model year.

1960
The similar but less flamboyant 1960 model started at $2366 for the six-cylinder model; another $107 for a V8 with the two-barrel 283. At first glance, the exterior once again had a Bel Air look, with that series' bright-metal "jet" appliqué and narrow trailing molding used to accent the rear quarters. Inside, Biscayne/Brookwood appointments also persisted. The seat was now covered in striped-pattern cloth with vinyl facings. Available interior trim shades were once again gray, blue, and green. Floor coverings were in medium-tone vinyl. Mid-1959 powertrain availability was carried over with minimal changes for 1960: The base 283-cid V8 was detuned a bit for fuel economy and was now rated at 170 bhp, and the fuel-injected engines were officially gone.

Orders plummeted by a third, to just 14,163, at which point Chevrolet discontinued the model; meanwhile, Ford moved 21,027 Rancheros, which were now based on the brand-new Falcon compact. The pioneering American sedan pickups just did not connect with enough car-buying Americans. Perhaps these early "crossovers" didn't carry enough passengers; in a time when baby-boomer families dominated the market, three across was the best they could offer. Cargo volume was meager compared with pickup trucks. The low-level trim and marketing efforts focused almost exclusively on commercial customers may have inhibited sales, as well.

Between the discontinuation of the first generation and the introduction of the second, the Chevrolet Greenbrier, based on the Corvair platform, replaced the El Camino as Chevrolet’s car-based pickup.

Second generation (1964–1967)
Chevrolet reintroduced the El Camino four years later based on the mid-size Chevrolet Chevelle. The 1964 model was similar to the Chevelle two-door wagon forward of the B-pillars and carried both "Chevelle" and "El Camino" badges, but Chevrolet marketed the vehicle as a utility model and the Chevelle's most powerful engines were not available. Initial engine offerings included six-cylinder engines of 194 and 230 cubic inches with horsepower ratings of 120 and 155 hp, respectively. The standard V8 was a 283 cubic-inch Chevrolet small block with two-barrel carburetor and 195 hp with optional engines including a 220 hp 283 with four-barrel carburetor and dual exhausts. Added to the El Camino's option list during the course of the 1964 model year were two versions of the 327 cubic-inch small block V8 rated at 250 and 300 hp—the latter featuring a higher compression ratio of 10.5:1, larger four-barrel carburetor and dual exhausts. El Caminos also featured Air shocks in the rear, as well as fully boxed frames. The shocks were continued over all generations, the frames only thru 1967.

1965
The 1965 El Camino received the same facelift as the 1965 Chevelle, with a more pronounced V-shaped front end, and a higher performance L79 version of the 327 engine rated at 350 hp that was also available in Chevelles. Most of the other engines were carried over from 1964, including the 194 and 230 cubic-inch Turbo Thrift sixes, the 195 hp 283 cubic-inch Turbo-Fire V8 and 327 cubic-inch Turbo-Fire V8s of 250 and 300 hp.

1966
In 1966, GM added a 396 cuin V8 engine to the lineup rated from 325 to 375 hp. The 1965 327 would run low 15s in the 1/4 mile (at some 90 mph), while 1966 to 1969 models were easily into the mid- to upper-14s. New sheetmetal highlighted the 1966 El Camino, identical to the Chevelle. A new instrument panel with horizontal sweep speedometer was featured. Inside, the standard version featured a bench seat interior and rubber floor mat from the low-line Chevelle 300 series, while the Custom used a more upscale interior from the Chevelle Malibu with plusher cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl bench seats and deep twist carpeting. A tachometer was optional.

1967
The 1967 El Camino followed the Chevelle's styling facelift with a new grille, front bumper, and trim. Air shocks remained standard equipment on the El Camino, allowing the driver to compensate for a load. The 1967 model year also brought the collapsible steering column and options of disc brakes and Turbo Hydramatic 400 3-speed automatic transmission. It was the second year the 396 (L35, L34, and L78) could be had in the El Camino (both 13480 300 Deluxe base and 13680 Malibu series). Since the L35 396/325 hp engine was the base for the SS396 series, the number of L35 engines reported sold by Chevrolet in 1967 (2,565) were sold in one of the two El Camino series, which were the only other series the engine could be ordered in. Since the L34 (350 hp) & L78 (375 hp) were available in either El Camino series as well as the two SS396 body styles, there is no way of knowing how many of these optional engines went to which body style. Chevrolet does report 17,176 L34 and 612 L78 engine options were sold in 1967 Chevelles, but there is no breakdown of body styles. The TH400 3-speed automatic was now available as an option (RPO M40) with the 396 engine in both the SS396 series and the 396-equipped El Caminos. The 3-speed manual transmission remained the standard transmission with a heavy duty (RPO M13) also available along with the 2-speed Powerglide and either M20 wide ratio or M21 close ratio 4-speed transmissions. Although there was no actual factory El Camino Super Sport until 1968, many owners have "cloned" '67 SS396s using 1967 Chevelle SS396 badges and trim.

1968–1969
Chevrolet introduced a longer El Camino in 1968, based on the Chevelle station wagon/four-door sedan wheelbase (116 in, overall length: 208 in); it also shared Chevelle Malibu exterior and interior trims. The interior was revamped including cloth and vinyl or all-vinyl bench seats and deep twist carpeting. All-vinyl Strato bucket seats and center console were an $111 option. Power front disc brakes and Positraction were optional. A new, high-performance Super Sport SS396 version was launched. The Turbo-Jet 396 was offered in 325 bhp or 350 bhp versions. Returning to the official options list for the first time since late 1966 was the 375 bhp L78. It had solid lifters, big-port heads, and an 800 cfm Holley four-barrel on a low-rise aluminum manifold. A three-speed manual was standard with all engines, and a four-speed or automatic was optional. In 1968, the SS was a separate model (the "SS-396").

The 1969 models showed only minor changes, led by more-rounded front-end styling. A single chrome bar connected quad headlights, and a slotted bumper held the parking lights. New round instrument pods replaced the former linear layout. For the first time, the Chevrolet 350 V8 was used in an El Camino. The Super Sport group included a 265 or 325 hp 396-cubic-inch V8 beneath a double-domed hood, along with a black-out grille displaying an SS emblem. More potent editions of the 396 engine, developing 350 or 375 hp also made the options list. Options included power windows and locks. Curiously, back-up lights moved from the rear bumper to the tailgate, where they were ineffective when the gate was down.

1970
The 1970 models received sheet metal revisions that gave the bodies a more squared-up stance, and interiors were also redesigned. The new SS396, which actually displaced 402 cuin (although all emblems read 396) was available. Chevrolet's largest and most-powerful engine of the time was also put into a select few El Caminos. The LS6 454 CID engine, rated at 450 hp and 500 lbft of torque, gave the El Camino 1/4-mile times in the upper 13-second range at around 106 mi/h.

1971–1972
The 1971 El Camino got fresh front-end styling (again shared with the Chevelle) that included large Power-Beam single-unit headlights, a reworked grille and bumper, and integral park/signal/marker lights. For 1971, mandated lower-octane unleaded fuel necessitated a reduction in engine compression, and GM's A.I.R. system, a "smog pump", was added to control tailpipe emissions. Power and performance were reduced. Engine offerings for 1971 included the 250-6, small-block V8s of 307 and 350 cubic inches; and big block V8s of 402 and 454-cubic-inch displacements. Horsepower ratings of those engines for 1971 ranged from 145 for the six to 365 for the RPO LS5 454 – all in gross figures. The LS6 454 V8 was gone forever. A rebadged El Camino, the GMC Sprint debuted in 1971. It shared the same engine and transmission offerings as its Chevrolet counterpart.

The 1972 El Caminos wore single-unit parking and side marker lights on their front fenders, outside of a revised twin-bar grille, but little changed. For 1972, horsepower measurements were switched to the "net" figures as installed in a vehicle with all accessories and emission controls hooked up. Engine offerings included the 110 hp 250-6, a 307 V8, a 175 hp 350-cubic-inch V8, and big block V8s of 402 and 454 cubic-inch displacements. The 402-cubic-inch (still known as a 396) produced 240 hp; the 454 managed to put out 270 hp under the net rating system. Super Sport equipment could now be ordered with any V8 engine, including the base 307-cubic-inch version. All 1972 El Caminos with the 454 ci engine have a "W" as the fifth digit in the VIN, and the 454 was only available with Super Sport trim.

1973–1975
For 1973, the El Camino was redesigned. Matching the Chevelle line and using the wagon chassis, it was the largest El Camino generation. Energy-absorbing hydraulic front bumper systems on these vehicles added more weight. There were two different trim levels of El Caminos during this period. The base model and SS option shared interior and exterior appointments with the Chevelle Malibu, while the El Camino Classic (introduced for 1974) shared its trim with the more upscale Chevelle Malibu Classic.

The chassis design was as new as the bodies with 1 in a wider wheel track, front and rear. The left wheel was adjusted to have slightly more positive camber than the right, which resulted in a more uniform and stable steering feel on high-crown road surfaces while maintaining excellent freeway cruise stability. Clearances for spring travel were also improved for a smoother ride over all types of surfaces; the coil springs at each wheel were computer-selected to match the individual car's weight. Front disc brakes were now standard on all '73 El Caminos. Additional new features were an acoustical double-panel roof, tighter-fitting glass, flush-style outside door handles, molded full-foam seat construction, flow-through power ventilation system, inside hood release, refined Delcotron generator and sealed side-terminal battery, a larger 22 usgal fuel tank, and "flush and dry" rocker panels introduced first on the redesigned 1971 full-size Chevrolets. New options included swivel bucket seats (with console) and Turbine I urethane (backed by steel) wheels, as was the instrument gauge cluster. A benefit of the new body designs was much better visibility to which the unusually thin windshield pillars contributed. A structural improvement was a stronger design for the side door guard beams. El Caminos shared the "Colonnade" frameless door glass with other Chevelles, and would continue this feature into the next generation as well.

The 307 2-barrel V8 with 115 hp was the base engine. Options included a 350 2-barrel V8 with 145 hp, a 350 4-barrel V8 with 175 hp, and a 454 4-barrel V8 with 245 hp. Hardened engine valve seats and hydraulic camshafts made these engines reliable for many miles, and allowed them to accept the increasingly popular unleaded regular gasoline. The three-speed manual transmission was standard; 4-speed manual and Turbo Hydra-Matic 3-speed automatic transmissions were optional. Crossflow radiators and coolant reservoirs prevented overheating.

The SS, then a trim option, included a black grill with SS emblem, bodyside striping, bright roof drip moldings, color-keyed dual sport mirrors, special front and rear stabilizer bars, rally wheels, 70-series raised white-lettered tires, special instrumentation and SS interior emblems. The SS option was available with a 350 or 454 V8 with the 4-speed or Turbo Hydra-Matic transmissions. Also it was not widely known, but a Laguna S-3 front end could be fitted on these cars, and was available through the Central Office Production Option (COPO) system as code 6H1. It was not widely ordered by many however, more than likely due to limited information both on the part of customers and many dealers at the time.

The Estate (1973–1976), an option package, was first offered on the El Camino Standard and El Camino Custom, later only the El Camino Custom.

The 1974 El Caminos sported an elongated, Mercedes-type grille. Inside, the new top-of-the-line El Camino Classic featured luxurious interiors with notchback bench seats (or optional Strato bucket seats) upholstered in cloth or vinyl, carpeted door panels and woodgrain instrument panel trim. The 350 V8 became the base engine and a 400 V8 engine was new this year. The 454, the top engine, was available with the Turbo Hydra-Matic 400 automatic or 4-speed manual transmission.

The 1975 models featured a new grill, providing a fresh appearance. Suspension upgrades offered a quieter ride, and radial-ply tires became standard. Dual remote mirrors, new twin sport mirrors, intermittent wipers, and cruise control were among new convenience features this year. The 1975 high energy ignition (HEI) provided spark to the spark plugs with minimal maintenance and increased power. The larger distributor cap also provided better high-RPM performance by decreasing the likelihood of the spark conducting to the wrong terminal. The 250-cubic-inch in-line six of 105 hp was offered as the base engine. The 454-cubic-inch V8, downrated yet again to 215 hp, made it into 1975 as an El Camino option, but this would be its last go-around. It was not available in California, and the optional four-speed stick was no longer offered. Buyers could now choose an Econominder instrument package that included a vacuum gauge to point out when optimum fuel economy was being attained.

1976–1977
For 1976, El Camino Classic models now featured the new rectangular headlights that other high-end GM cars were sporting. These were quad units in stacked arrangement. The base model retained the previously used dual round headlights. Engines included the base 250 I6 engine, a new 140 hp 305-cubic-inch V8, two- and four-barrel 350s (with availability still depending on California delivery), and the 400-cubic-inch V8, still good for 175 hp. All engines except the 250 I6 came with the Turbo Hydra-matic automatic transmission as the only transmission available. The 250 I6 came with a 3-speed manual or an optional Turbo Hydra-matic.

The 1977 models were little changed, except the 400 V8 was gone. The El Camino Classic was again the top model and the SS option continued.

1978–1981
A new, trimmer El Camino was unveiled in 1978, adopting the new, more sharp-edged Malibu styling, and a one-inch longer wheelbase of 117.1 in. The front end sheet metal and doors were shared with the Malibu, and the rear bumper was shared with the Malibu station wagon. For the first time, though, the El Camino had a unique chassis – it was shared with no other Chevrolet. The front end featured a new single rectangular headlight design. The base engine was a 200-cubic-inch (3.3-liter) V6 that developed 95 hp, except in California where, to meet emissions standards, the 231-cubic-inch Buick engine was the base engine. Two upgrades could be ordered: a 305-cubic-inch V8 with 145 hp, or a 350-cubic-inch V8 with 170 hp that was only available in El Caminos and Malibu station wagons. It was not available on Malibu passenger cars (with exception to coupe and sedan Malibu 9C1 police vehicles).

The El Camino trims started with the base model, then the Conquista (meaning 'Conquest' in Spanish) which mainly consisted of a special paint treatment and finally the Super Sport which was the sports model available with six-cylinder and V8 engines. Chevrolet later offered a Black Knight model in 1978 which ended production after only 1,200 examples were produced due to legal problems with the rights holders over the use of the name. This model featured a large hood emblem of two dragons and a knight, and would be reworked and relaunched for 1979 as the Royal Knight option for Super Sport models.

Following its debut as a redesigned "new-size" model in 1978, the 1979 model received minimal changes, which amounted to a little more than a new divided grille. However, a "small-block" 267-cubic-inch (4.4-liter) V8 joined the options list and slotted between the standard 3.3-liter V6 and the optional 5.0-liter four-barrel V8. The 350-cubic-inch (5.7-liter) V8, developing 170 hp was again available. Both three- and four-speed manual transmissions had floor shifters. The Royal Knight option for the Super Sport debuted.

The 1980 El Camino started out the 1980s with few changes, though engine choices were shuffled a little. The base V6 displaced 229 cubic inches, up from 200 the year before. Horsepower increased from 94 to 115 hp. Optional again were a 267-cubic-inch V8 with 125 hp and a 305 V8, now with 155 hp (down five). The 350 with 170 hp offered in 1979 was dropped. A three speed floor shifted manual transmission was standard, but most got the optional three-speed automatic.

The 1981 models received a new horizontal tube grill. The 1981 engines mostly continued from 1980, but now used GM's Computer Command Control (CCC) emission system. The base 229-cubic-inch V6 made 110 hp (down from 115 hp), as did the California-only 231-cubic-inch Buick V6. Optional engines were the 267-cubic-inch V8 with 115 hp and The 305-cubic-inch V8, now with 150 hp. The three-speed automatic added a lock-up torque converter to aid highway mileage.

1982–1987

The 1982 (through the final 1987) El Camino sported a new frontal appearance with a crosshatch grille flanked by quad rectangular headlights. New under the hood for 1982 was a 105 hp 5.7-liter (350-cubic-inch) Diesel V8, which was also offered in Chevrolet's full-size cars. Though mileage with the diesel was commendable, it was an expensive option and would eventually amass a dismal repair record. Gasoline-engine choices were unchanged, except Chevrolet's 229-cubic-inch (3.8-liter) V6 was now standard in California-bound cars, replacing Buick's 231-cubic-inch V6.

In 1983, the 4.4-liter V8 was gone, leaving the 5.0-liter version as the only optional gas V8. The standard engine was again Chevrolet's 3.8-liter V6 with 110 hp, though California cars, once again, got a Buick V6 with similar specifications. Continuing on the options list was the 5.7-liter V8 Diesel with 105 hp. The sister Malibu sedan and wagon were discontinued after the 1983 model year. The Royal Knight package was also discontinued in 1983.

The 1983–87 El Camino was also offered as a cosmetic conversion through select dealers (completed by Choo-Choo Customs Inc., of Chattanooga, Tennessee). Modifications included an aerodynamic front end similar to the Monte Carlo SS, side exhaust skirts, and aluminum wheels. The conversion also included the addition of SS decals on the exterior of the body. However, the majority of El Caminos sent for customizing weren't actual Super Sports. That distinction was only obtained by ordering the 'SS Sport Decor' option package from the factory which carries an RPO code of Z15.

For 1985, GM shifted El Camino production to Mexico, and the new fuel-injected 4.3 L V6 became the base engine through 1987. El Camino production ended quietly in late 1987. Some model year 1987s (420 El Caminos and 325 GMC Caballeros) are listed as new car retail deliveries in calendar year 1988 based on their date of first retail sale. Speculation in online forums indicates 3GCCW80H2HS915586 "may" be the final vehicle. The GM Media Archive/Heritage Center confirmed that no 1988 El Caminos or Caballeros were ever produced.

South Africa
A range of Chevrolet models, based on the Holden HK, was introduced onto the South African market in 1969. A coupe utility version was released in 1971 under the Chevrolet El Camino name and was offered with imported Holden 186 six and 308 V8 engines. A version of the later Holden HQ utility was marketed in South Africa as the Chevrolet El Camino AQ. A facelifted El Camino AJ was released in 1976 with production ceasing in 1978.

Concept vehicles
In 1974, Chevrolet's sister division, Pontiac, reportedly took an El Camino body, grafted on the urethane-nose front end from its Grand Am series, added the GA's instrument panel, reclining Strato-bucket seats with adjustable lumbar support along with Pontiac's Rally II wheels. This was a styling exercise for a possible Pontiac version of the El Camino; the concept never reached production.

In 1992, GM unveiled an El Camino concept, basically a pickup variant of the Chevrolet Lumina Z34. The concept received mixed, mostly negative reviews, mostly because of its front wheel drive layout.

During the 1995 model year, GM had a concept El Camino based on the full-size Caprice station wagon using the grille of a 1994–96 Impala SS; this concept was destined for production, but was shelved when GM decided to discontinue the B-platform car line at the end of 1996.

The Pontiac G8 ST was shown at the New York International Auto Show in March 2008. Based on the Holden Commodore Ute, it shared the G8 platform with a 73 in cargo bed. The Sport Truck had the same 361 hp, 6.0-liter V8 used in the G8 GT, as well as the 3.6-liter, 300 hp direct-injection V6. The G8 ST was slated for release as a 2010 model, but in January 2009, GM announced to dealers the G8 ST was cancelled due to budget cuts and restructuring, as well as the Pontiac brand being discontinued. In 2011, GM again considered bringing back the El Camino under the Chevrolet brand as early as 2015.

title: Chevrolet El Camino


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Bangka Lungshan Temple

Bangka Lungshan Temple    (also Lungshan Temple of Manka, Mengjia Longshan Temple) is a Chinese folk religious temple in Wanhua District (alternately known as Bangka/Mengjia), Taipei, Taiwan. The temple was built in Taipei in 1738 by settlers from Fujian during Qing rule in honor of Guanyin. It served as a place of worship and a gathering place for the Chinese settlers. In addition to its Chinese Buddhist elements, it includes halls and altars to Chinese folk deities such as Mazu and Guan Yu.

History
"This temple originated its name from the ancient Lungshan Temple established in Chin-chiang county of Fukien province in the seventh century. Immigrants from the three counties Chin-chiang, Nan-an and Hui-an of Fukien came to Manka in the beginning of the eighteenth century. As they were pious followers of that ancient Lungshan Temple in their home town, they erected this one as a branch temple at Manka and named it after the root temple when they created a new settlement here in Taipei. Lungshan Temple of today is no longer in the original buildings constructed in 1738. It was rebuilt in 1919 and completed in 1924."

The temple has been destroyed either in full or in part in numerous earthquakes and fires but Taipei residents have consistently rebuilt and renovated it. The temple was rebuilt during Japanese rule. Most recently, it was hit by American bombers during the Taihoku Air Raid on May 31, 1945, during World War II because the Japanese were reportedly hiding armaments there. The main building and the left corridor were damaged and many precious artifacts and artworks were lost. It was rebuilt after the end of World War II a few months later.

Transportation
The temple is accessible within walking distance North from Longshan Temple Station of the Taipei Metro.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bangka Lungshan Temple


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Ponce massacre

The Ponce massacre was an event that took place on Palm Sunday, March 21, 1937, in Ponce, Puerto Rico, when a peaceful civilian march turned into a police shooting in which 17 civilians and two policemen were killed, and more than 200 civilians wounded. None of the civilians were armed and most of the dead were reportedly shot in their backs. The march had been organized by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to commemorate the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico by the governing Spanish National Assembly in 1873, and to protest the U.S. government's imprisonment of the Party's leader, Pedro Albizu Campos, on sedition charges.

An investigation led by the United States Commission on Civil Rights put the blame for the massacre squarely on the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Blanton Winship. Further criticism by members of the U.S. Congress led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to remove Winship as governor in 1939.

Governor Winship was never prosecuted for the massacre and no one under his chain of command – including the police who took part in the event, and admitted to the mass shooting – was prosecuted or reprimanded.

The Ponce massacre remains the largest massacre in US imperial history in Puerto Rico. It has been the source of many articles, books, paintings, films, and theatrical works.

Chronology of events

Several days before the scheduled Palm Sunday march, the Nationalists had received legal permits for a peaceful protest from José Tormos Diego, the mayor of Ponce. According to a 1926 Puerto Rico Supreme Court ruling, government permits were not necessary for the use of plazas, parks or streets for meetings or parades. As a courtesy to the Ponce municipal government, the Nationalists nevertheless requested the permit.

Upon learning about the march, the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, General Blanton Winship, ordered the new Insular Police Chief, Colonel Enrique de Orbeta, to contact Mayor Tormos and have him cancel the parade permit. He ordered the police chief to increase the police force in the southern city, and to stop, "by all means necessary", any demonstration conducted by the nationalists in Ponce. Without notice to the organizers, or any opportunity to appeal, or any time to arrange an alternate venue, the permits were abruptly withdrawn, just before the protest was scheduled to begin.

Following Governor Winship's orders, Colonel de Orbeta went to Ponce where he concentrated police units from across the island sporting "the latest riot control equipment", among which he included the machine gunners in the island. Winship intended to crush the activities of the Nationalists and their leader, Pedro Albizu Campos. The Insular Police, a force somewhat resembling the National Guard, was under the direct military command of Governor Winship and ultimate responsibility for the massacre fell on Winship, who controlled the National Guard and Insular Police, "and ordered the massacre."

Police Chief Guillermo Soldevilla of the municipality of Juana Díaz, with 14 policemen, took a position in front of the marchers. Chief Perez Segarra and Sgt. Rafael Molina, commanding nine policemen armed with Thompson submachine guns and tear gas bombs, stood in the back. Chief of Police Antonio Bernardi, heading 11 policemen armed with machine guns, stood in the east; and another group of 12 police, armed with rifles, was placed in the west. According to some reports, police numbered "over 200 heavily armed" guards. As La Borinqueña, Puerto Rico's national song, was being played, the Ponce branch of the Cadets of the Republic under the command of Tomás López de Victoria and the rest of the demonstrators began to march.

The Insular Police started firing on the marchers – killing 17 unarmed civilians, two policemen, and wounding over 200 civilians, including women and children. Police firing went on for over 15 minutes. The dead included 17 men, one woman, and a young girl. Some of the dead were demonstrators/cadets, while others were passersby. As of 2009, only two survivors were known to be alive, siblings Fernando and Beatriz Vélez.

The flag-bearer of the Cadets of the Republic was shot and killed during the massacre. A young girl, Carmen Fernández proceeded to take the flag, but was shot and gravely injured. A young Nationalist cadet named Bolívar Márquez dragged himself to the wall of Santo Asilo de Damas and wrote with his blood the following message before dying:

Many were chased by the police and shot or clubbed at the entrance of their houses as they tried to escape. Others were taken from their hiding places and killed. Leopold Tormes, a member of the Puerto Rico legislature, claimed to reporters that a policeman had murdered a nationalist with his bare hands. Dr. José Gandara, a physician who assisted the wounded, testified that wounded people running away were shot, and that many were again wounded by the clubs and bare fists of the police. No arms were found in the hands of the civilians wounded, nor on the dead ones. About 150 of the demonstrators were arrested immediately afterward; they were later released on bail.

Official version of the events
The next day, Winship radioed Washington and reported, officially, that the Nationalists had initiated the shooting. Part of his radiogram report stated that "two shots were fired by the Nationalists ... with Nationalists firing from the street, and from roofs and balconies on both sides of the street ... [the police] showed great patience, consideration and understanding of the situation, as did the officers and men under him [the Police Chief]."

The following day, as a result of this misinformation, the New York Times and Washington Post reported that a Nationalist political revolt had claimed the lives of more than eighteen people in Puerto Rico.

The Puerto Rican senator Luis Muñoz Marín traveled to the city of Ponce to investigate the event. After examining the photograph taken by Carlos Torres Morales of El Imparcial, which had not yet been published, he wrote a letter to Ruth Hampton, an official at the Department of the Interior. He said that the photograph showed that the policemen were not shooting at the uniformed Nationalists (Cadets), but at a terrified crowd in full flight.

Investigation and the Hays Commission
Initial investigations of the event differed on whether the police or the marchers fired the first shots. Governor Winship applied pressure on the district attorney's office in charge of the investigation. He requested that the public prosecutor from Ponce, Rafael Pérez Marchand, "arrest more Nationalists", and that no charges be filed against the police. The prosecutor resigned as a result of being denied the opportunity to conduct a proper investigation.

A Puerto Rican government investigation into the incident drew few conclusions. A second, independent investigation ordered by the United States Commission on Civil Rights led by the ACLU's Arthur Garfield Hays, together with Puerto Rican citizens Fulgencio Piñero, Emilio Belaval, José Davila Rice, Antonio Ayuyo Valdivieso, Manuel Díaz García, and Francisco M. Zeno took place. This investigation concluded that the events on 21 March constituted a massacre and mob action by the police. The report harshly criticized the repressive tactics and massive civil rights violations by Governor Winship.

After viewing the photograph taken by Carlos Torres Morales, Hays in his report to the American Civil Liberties Union questioned why the governor's investigation had not used the photography, which was among two that were widely published. According to Hays, the photograph clearly showed 18 armed policeman at the corner of Aurora and Marina streets, ready to fire upon a group of innocent bystanders. The image showed the white smoke in the barrel of a policeman's revolver as he fired upon the unarmed people. The Hays Commission questioned why the policemen fired directly at the crowd, and not at the Nationalist Cadets.

Casualties
The following are the names of those killed: • Cotal Nieves, Juan Delgado

• Hernández de Rosario, María

• Jiménez Morales, Luis

• Loyola López, Ceferino (Insular Police Officer)

• Maldonado, Georgina (12-year-old)

• Márquez Telechea, Bolívar

• Ortiz Toro, Ramón

• Perea, Ulpiano

• Delgado Pietrantoni, José Antonio (National Guard)

• Reyes Rivera, Juan

• Rivera López, Conrado

• Rodríguez Figueras, Iván G.

• Rodríguez Méndez, Jenaro

• Rodríguez Rivera, Pedro Juan

• Rosario, Obdulio

• Sánchez Pérez, Eusebio (Insular Police Officer)

• Santos Ortiz, Juan

• Torres Gregory, Juan

• Vélez Torres, Teodoro

Lack of convictions
In the aftermath of the massacre, no police officer was convicted or sentenced to jail. No police were demoted or suspended and Governor Winship never issued a public apology.

Reaction in the U.S. Congress
The Ponce massacre reverberated through the U.S. Congress. On the House floor, Congressman John T. Bernard expressed his shock and outrage. He said: "The police in Ponce, probably with the encouragement of the North American police chief and even the governor, opened fire on a Palm Sunday Nationalist march, killing seventeen and wounding more than two hundred."

Congressman Vito Marcantonio joined in the criticism, filing charges against Governor Winship with President Roosevelt. In his speech before Congress titled "Five Years of Tyranny", Congressman Vito Marcantonio reported that "Ex-Governor Blanton Winship, of Puerto Rico, was summarily removed by the President of the United States on May 12, 1939" after charges were filed against Mr. Winship with the President. In his speech, the Congressman detailed the number of killings by the police and added, "the facts show that the affair of March 21 in Ponce was a massacre ... Governor Winship tried to cover up this massacre by filing a mendacious report" and the congressman called Governor Winship a "tyrant".

Attempt on Governor Winship's life
The year following the Ponce massacre, on 25 July 1938, Governor Winship wanted to mark the anniversary of the US 1898 invasion of Puerto Rico with a military parade. He chose the city of Ponce to demonstrate that his "Law and Order" policy had been successful against the Nationalists. During the parade, shots were fired at the grandstand where Winship and his officials were sitting in an attempt to assassinate him. It was the first time that an attempt was made on the life of a Governor of Puerto Rico. Winship escaped unharmed but two men, the assailant and a police officer, were killed, and 36 people were wounded.

The dead were the Nationalist Ángel Esteban Antongiorgi and National Guard Colonel Luis Irizarry. The Nationalist Party denied participation in the attack, but the government arrested several Nationalists and accused nine of "murder and conspiracy to incite violence." Among the nine Nationalists charged and convicted were Tomás López de Victoria, captain of the Ponce branch of the Cadets of the Republic, and fellow cadets Elifaz Escobar, Santiago González Castro, Juan Pietri and Prudencio Segarra. They served eight years in the Puerto Rico State Penitentiary. The four were pardoned by the next full-term US-appointed governor, Rexford Guy Tugwell.

Winship tried to repress the Nationalists. Jaime Benítez Rexach, a student at the University of Chicago at the time and later long-time chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico, wrote to President Roosevelt stating, "Governor [Winship] himself through his military approach to things has helped keep Puerto Rico in an unnecessary state of turmoil. He seems to think that the political problem of Puerto Rico limits itself to a fight between himself and the Nationalists, that no holds are barred in that fight and that everybody else should keep out." Winship was replaced in 1939.

ACLU Chapter

One of the by-products of the Ponce Massacre and the Hays Commission was the creation in Puerto Rico of a chapter of the ACLU on May 21, 1937. It was named "Asociación Puertorriqueña de Libertades Civiles" (Puerto Rican Association of Civil Liberties). Its first president was Tomás Blanco, Felipe Colón Díaz and Antonio Fernós Isern were its vice-presidents, the treasurer was Inés María Mendoza, the Secretary was attorney Vicente Géigel Polanco, and the association's legal counsel was attorney Ernesto Ramos Antonini. Luis Muñoz Marin and many leaders from Ponce, including attorney Pérez Marchand and some of the members of the Hays Commission were also among the founders.

Today, the Ponce massacre is commemorated annually.

Ponce Massacre Museum The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture, an agency of the Government of Puerto Rico, operates the Ponce Massacre Museum. It is located at the intersection where the events took place (corner of Marina and Aurora streets). The museum houses photographs and various artifacts from the Ponce massacre. A section of the museum is dedicated to Pedro Albizu Campos.

In popular culture
The book Revolucion en el Infierno (Revolution in Hell) was published in 2002, and the television film by the same name was released in 2004. It illustrates the events of the Ponce massacre through the life of one of the victims, Ulpiano Perea. The film is an adapted from the playwright by Roberto Ramos Perea, Ulpiano's nephew.

title: Ponce massacre


text: User talk:80.177.39.142

title: User talk:80.177.39.142


text:
Studley, Warwickshire

Studley is a large village and civil parish in the Stratford-on-Avon district of Warwickshire, England. Situated on the western edge of Warwickshire near the border with Worcestershire, it is 3.5 mi southeast of Redditch and 13 mi northwest of Stratford-upon-Avon. The Roman road of Ryknild Street, now the A435, passes through the village on its eastern edge, parallel to the River Arrow. The name derives from the Old English leah, being a meadow or pasture, where horses, stod, are kept.

The United Kingdom Census 2021 reported Studley's population as being 6,040.

History
The manor of Studley is recorded twice in the Domesday Book mostly as part of the lands of William son of Courbucion; who was appointed Sheriff of Warwick soon after 1086; where it reads, "In Ferncombe Hundred in Stodlei (Studley) 4 hides. Land for 11 ploughs. In lordship 2; 3 slaves. 19 villagers with a priest and 12 smallholders have 9 ploughs. A mill at 5s; meadow, 24 acres; a salt house which pays 19 packloads of salt; woodland 1 league long and ½ a league wide. The value was and is 100s. Swein held it freely." A further holding is listed as part of the land of William Bonavallet "William holds 1 hide in Stodlei from William. Land for 2 ploughs. In lordship 1 plough. Meadow 4 acres; woodland 3 furlongs long and 2 furlongs wide. Value 10s. Godric held it freely."

In the medieval period it was the site of a castle, the old castle was located just north of what is now St Mary's Church, and was possibly built around 1135-40, all that remains now is a circular rampart and ditch. This castle is unrelated to the nearby 19th-century house called Studley Castle. There is also the remains of a medieval priory. The Augustinian priory was founded in the 12th century by Peter Corbizun but was closed at the dissolution under Henry VIII and was used as a source of stone for other local buildings. Nothing remains today apart from the use of the name priory in a few local building names such as Priory Farm, which now much modernised, embodies a few fragmentary portions of a conventual building. A gabled west wall of stone rubble contains the remains of a large 14th-century window. A few medieval sculptured fragments are built on to the walls.

Economy
Studley is also known for being the site of a sewing needle and surgical needle making industry. This specialisation started when Elizabeth I permitted a number of Huguenot refugees to settle here, bringing this rare craft with them.

From the 19th century, precision-made surgical needles were in demand, and, with advances in manufacturing technology, such was the demand that over 3,000 workers were employed. In 1977 the old factory where needles were made was burnt down, and the production of "Aero" needles moved to a nearby site. The original factory site now contains a supermarket, other retail outlets, and housing. One of the streets in the village is named "Crooks Lane", ostensibly because the crooked needles from the original factory were dumped at the end of this lane, but the road was there before the village had a needle factory.

Governance
Studley is a ward of Stratford on Avon District Council and represented by Councillors Justin kerridge, Conservative and Hazel Wright, Liberal Democrat. Nationally it is part of Stratford-on-Avon (UK Parliament constituency), whose current Member of Parliament is Nadhim Zahawi of the Conservative Party. Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was included in the West Midlands electoral region of the European Parliament.

Geography
Studley is surrounded on the north, east and west by hills rising to about 500 ft. The River Arrow flows across the south-west corner, through flat ground, but the country north and east of the brook is for the most part undulating and well wooded. The main village lies on the west bank of the river, along the Roman Rykneild Way, which is now the A435, Alcester-Birmingham main road. The fact that the church and the site of the castle are about half a mile away on the opposite side of the river indicates that the original settlement was, at some distance from the Roman road. At Washford, half a mile north of Studley village, the main road bears right from the Rykneild Street and continues through the hamlet of Mappleborough Green and up Gorcott Hill, which marks the northern extremity of the parish. The Rykneild Street (which between Washford and Ipsley diverges considerably from its original line) was, until the end of the 18th century, the main road to Birmingham; the present road between Spernall Ash (on the southern boundary of Studley parish) and Digbeth in Birmingham was turnpiked by an Act of 1721.

Notable buildings

The parish church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin consists of a chancel, nave, south aisle and west tower. It features a 12th-century north wall and window of Norman date, fine surviving examples of opus spicatum or herringbone masonry, a medieval rood screen, Elizabethan era table and dug out chest, Jacobean era pulpit and brasses and other points of interest.

The survey of the clergy by the puritans in 1586 described the then vicar, Thomas Penford as; "dumbe & vnlearned, a verie aged man, he can scarce reade, yet he hath learning enough for 2 benefices ; for he reapeth the fruite of Studley & Coughton both, he hath of late gotten him a certaine hireling to serue his turne at both places, one Robt. Cathell a seelie Welshman that can scarce reade English distinctlie. The valew of both is better then xx'' by the yeare".

There is also St Mary's Church, a Roman Catholic church dating from 1853, designed by Charles Hansom, this is grade II listed.

Education
Studley has 3 primary and one secondary school within the Warwickshire Local Education Authority (LEA) area.

Sports and leisure
Studley is often noted as having many pubs, 17 within one square mile.

As well as having a number of football teams, including Studley BKL and Studley Juniors, founded a few years ago by Kevin Sanders and Mike Imms, (formed when the Redditch United Youth Teams broke away and were taken on by Studley BKL), the village also gives its name to Studley Musical Theatre and Operatic group which has been going for over 100 years. They perform twice a year, once in April in a spring show, performing Oliver in 2010 and Fiddler on the Roof in April 2011 and a summer concert.

Just outside the village on the Birmingham road is Studley Cricket Club, home to a social and sports club, members of the Birmingham and District Premier League, (top of the regional midlands structure).

There is also a large mixed sports and social club in Eldorado Close (Studley Sports & Social Club, commonly known as the Entaco). This is home to a number of football teams across its 2 pitches, as well as being one of the bases of Redditch Entaco Cricket Club. The club also has a number of tennis courts and a bowling green.

Transport
The A435 road passes through the village. Between 1868 and 1962, the village was served by Studley & Astwood Bank railway station on the former Evesham Loop Line. The nearest railway station today is Redditch.

Notable people

 * Hannah Hampton, professional association footballer, grew up in the village.
 * Andy Smith, a former Professional Darts Corporation lives in the village.
 * Freddie Starr, singer, had a home in Studley.

title: Studley, Warwickshire


text:
Talk:Tourism in France

RIP
See France now before the security situation spirals out of control, and major airlines suspend all transit. Think carefully before bringing any female family members.

Untitled
and its tourist industry, are just Paris and the Alpine ski resorts. Vast tracts of the country are peppered with rental accommodation and small hotels which greet a faithful clientele from all over the world. For example, the English like to spend their summers in the Dordogne valley, the Spanish come to party in Biarritz and St Jean de Luz on the Basque coast ... and the Irish have made Lourdes their first home. In short: there is something for everyone in France and even if you stray off the beaten tourist track you will find good accommodation, a professional welcome and lots of good food.

Agreed, but why not alter the article to say that? You are allowed to edit!- Adrian Pingstone 09:51, 4 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Well, no one else has added it so I will. I'm rewording it slightly, but otherwise it's the first comment's words.

How the hell can Adolf Hitler be considered a "tourist" in France? :) – ugen64 04:47, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

Interesting page for statistics
http://www.tourisme.gouv.fr/fr/z2/stat/chiffres/att00009212/ChiffresCles2005_anglais.pdf and http://www.tourisme.gouv.fr/fr/z2/stat/chiffres/chiffres_cles.jsp

Tourists from Luxembourg
The article says 1.500.000 tourists from Luxembourg, while Luxembourg population is around 550.000 (maybe it's their number of stays?).79.43.198.185 (talk) 04:11, 16 April 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tourism in France


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Aircraft flight control system

A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system (AFCS) consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered flight controls as they change speed.

The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics. This article centers on the operating mechanisms of the flight controls. The basic system in use on aircraft first appeared in a readily recognizable form as early as April 1908, on Louis Blériot's Blériot VIII pioneer-era monoplane design.

Primary controls
Generally, the primary cockpit flight controls are arranged as follows:
 * A control yoke (also known as a control column), centre stick or side-stick (the latter two also colloquially known as a control or joystick), governs the aircraft's roll and pitch by moving the ailerons (or activating wing warping on some very early aircraft designs) when turned or deflected left and right, and moves the elevators when moved backwards or forwards.
 * Rudder pedals, or the earlier, pre-1919 "rudder bar", control yaw by moving the rudder; the left foot forward will move the rudder left for instance.
 * Thrust lever or throttle, which controls engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft.

The control yokes also vary greatly among aircraft. There are yokes where roll is controlled by rotating the yoke clockwise/counterclockwise (like steering a car) and pitch is controlled by moving the control column towards or away from the pilot, but in others the pitch is controlled by sliding the yoke into and out of the instrument panel (like most Cessnas, such as the 152 and 172), and in some the roll is controlled by sliding the whole yoke to the left and right (like the Cessna 162). Centre sticks also vary between aircraft. Some are directly connected to the control surfaces using cables, others (fly-by-wire airplanes) have a computer in between which then controls the electrical actuators.

Even when an aircraft uses variant flight control surfaces such as a V-tail ruddervator, flaperons, or elevons, because these various combined-purpose control surfaces control rotation about the same three axes in space, the aircraft's flight control system will still be designed so that the stick or yoke controls pitch and roll conventionally, as will the rudder pedals for yaw. The basic pattern for modern flight controls was pioneered by French aviation figure Robert Esnault-Pelterie, with fellow French aviator Louis Blériot popularizing Esnault-Pelterie's control format initially on Louis' Blériot VIII monoplane in April 1908, and standardizing the format on the July 1909 Channel-crossing Blériot XI. Flight control has long been taught in such fashion for many decades, as popularized in ab initio instructional books such as the 1944 work Stick and Rudder.

In some aircraft, the control surfaces are not manipulated with a linkage. In ultralight aircraft and motorized hang gliders, for example, there is no mechanism at all. Instead, the pilot just grabs the lifting surface by hand (using a rigid frame that hangs from its underside) and moves it.

Secondary controls
In addition to the primary flight controls for roll, pitch, and yaw, there are often secondary controls available to give the pilot finer control over flight or to ease the workload. The most commonly available control is a wheel or other device to control elevator trim, so that the pilot does not have to maintain constant backward or forward pressure to hold a specific pitch attitude (other types of trim, for rudder and ailerons, are common on larger aircraft but may also appear on smaller ones). Many aircraft have wing flaps, controlled by a switch or a mechanical lever or in some cases are fully automatic by computer control, which alter the shape of the wing for improved control at the slower speeds used for take-off and landing. Other secondary flight control systems may include slats, spoilers, air brakes and variable-sweep wings.

Mechanical
Mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic method of controlling an aircraft. They were used in early aircraft and are currently used in small aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive. Very early aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer I, Blériot XI and Fokker Eindecker used a system of wing warping where no conventionally hinged control surfaces were used on the wing, and sometimes not even for pitch control as on the Wright Flyer I and original versions of the 1909 Etrich Taube, which only had a hinged/pivoting rudder in addition to the warping-operated pitch and roll controls. A manual flight control system uses a collection of mechanical parts such as pushrods, tension cables, pulleys, counterweights, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces applied to the cockpit controls directly to the control surfaces. Turnbuckles are often used to adjust control cable tension. The Cessna Skyhawk is a typical example of an aircraft that uses this type of system. Gust locks are often used on parked aircraft with mechanical systems to protect the control surfaces and linkages from damage from wind. Some aircraft have gust locks fitted as part of the control system. Increases in the control surface area, and the higher airspeeds required by faster aircraft resulted in higher aerodynamic loads on the flight control systems. As a result, the forces required to move them also become significantly larger. Consequently, complicated mechanical gearing arrangements were developed to extract maximum mechanical advantage in order to reduce the forces required from the pilots. This arrangement can be found on bigger or higher performance propeller aircraft such as the Fokker 50.

Some mechanical flight control systems use servo tabs that provide aerodynamic assistance. Servo tabs are small surfaces hinged to the control surfaces. The flight control mechanisms move these tabs, aerodynamic forces in turn move, or assist the movement of the control surfaces reducing the amount of mechanical forces needed. This arrangement was used in early piston-engined transport aircraft and in early jet transports. The Boeing 737 incorporates a system, whereby in the unlikely event of total hydraulic system failure, it automatically and seamlessly reverts to being controlled via servo-tab.

Hydro-mechanical
The complexity and weight of mechanical flight control systems increase considerably with the size and performance of the aircraft. Hydraulically powered control surfaces help to overcome these limitations. With hydraulic flight control systems, the aircraft's size and performance are limited by economics rather than a pilot's muscular strength. At first, only-partially boosted systems were used in which the pilot could still feel some of the aerodynamic loads on the control surfaces (feedback).

A hydro-mechanical flight control system has two parts:
 * The mechanical circuit, which links the cockpit controls with the hydraulic circuits. Like the mechanical flight control system, it consists of rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains.
 * The hydraulic circuit, which has hydraulic pumps, reservoirs, filters, pipes, valves and actuators. The actuators are powered by the hydraulic pressure generated by the pumps in the hydraulic circuit. The actuators convert hydraulic pressure into control surface movements. The electro-hydraulic servo valves control the movement of the actuators.

The pilot's movement of a control causes the mechanical circuit to open the matching servo valve in the hydraulic circuit. The hydraulic circuit powers the actuators which then move the control surfaces. As the actuator moves, the servo valve is closed by a mechanical feedback linkage - one that stops movement of the control surface at the desired position.

This arrangement was found in the older-designed jet transports and in some high-performance aircraft. Examples include the Antonov An-225 and the Lockheed SR-71.

Artificial feel devices
With purely mechanical flight control systems, the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces are transmitted through the mechanisms and are felt directly by the pilot, allowing tactile feedback of airspeed. With hydromechanical flight control systems, the load on the surfaces cannot be felt and there is a risk of overstressing the aircraft through excessive control surface movement. To overcome this problem, artificial feel systems can be used. For example, for the controls of the RAF's Avro Vulcan jet bomber and the RCAF's Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow supersonic interceptor (both 1950s-era designs), the required force feedback was achieved by a spring device. The fulcrum of this device was moved in proportion to the square of the air speed (for the elevators) to give increased resistance at higher speeds. For the controls of the American Vought F-8 Crusader and the LTV A-7 Corsair II warplanes, a 'bob-weight' was used in the pitch axis of the control stick, giving force feedback that was proportional to the airplane's normal acceleration.

Stick shaker
A stick shaker is a device that is attached to the control column in some hydraulic aircraft. It shakes the control column when the aircraft is approaching stall conditions. Some aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 are equipped with a back-up electrical power supply that can be activated to enable the stick shaker in case of hydraulic failure.

Power-by-wire
In most current systems the power is provided to the control actuators by high-pressure hydraulic systems. In fly-by-wire systems the valves, which control these systems, are activated by electrical signals. In power-by-wire systems, electrical actuators are used in favour of hydraulic pistons. The power is carried to the actuators by electrical cables. These are lighter than hydraulic pipes, easier to install and maintain, and more reliable. Elements of the F-35 flight control system are power-by-wire. The actuators in such an electro-hydrostatic actuation (EHA) system are self-contained hydraulic devices, small closed-circuit hydraulic systems. The overall aim is towards more- or all-electric aircraft and an early example of the approach was the Avro Vulcan. Serious consideration was given to using the approach on the Airbus A380.

Fly-by-wire control systems
A fly-by-wire (FBW) system replaces manual flight control of an aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires (hence the term fly-by-wire), and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface to provide the expected response. Commands from the computers are also input without the pilot's knowledge to stabilize the aircraft and perform other tasks. Electronics for aircraft flight control systems are part of the field known as avionics.

Fly-by-optics, also known as fly-by-light, is a further development using fiber-optic cables.

Research
Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions of flight control systems such as ailerons, elevators, elevons, flaps, and flaperons into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose with the advantages of less: mass, cost, drag, inertia (for faster, stronger control response), complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance), and radar cross section for stealth. These may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics.

Flexible wings
In flexible wings, also known as "morphing aerofoils", much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow much like an ornithopter. Adaptive compliant wings are a military and commercial effort. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing was a US Air Force, NASA, and Boeing effort. Notable efforts have also been made by FlexSys, who have conducted flight tests using flexible aerofoils retrofitted to a Gulf stream III aircraft.

Active Flow Control
In active flow control systems, forces in vehicles occur via circulation control, in which larger and more complex mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler fluidic systems (slots which emit air flows) where larger forces in fluids are diverted by smaller jets or flows of fluid intermittently, to change the direction of vehicles. In this use, active flow control promises simplicity and lower mass, costs (up to half less), and inertia and response times. This was demonstrated in the Demon UAV, which flew for the first time in the UK in September 2010.

title: Aircraft flight control system


text:
45 Commando

45 Commando Royal Marines (pronounced "four-five commando") is a battalion sized unit of the British Royal Marines and subordinate unit within 3 Commando Brigade Royal Marines, the principal Commando formation, under the Operational Command of the Fleet Commander.

Tasked as a Commando amphibious unit, 45 Cdo RM is capable of a wide range of operational tasks. Based at RM Condor, their barracks in Arbroath, personnel regularly deploy outside the United Kingdom on operations or training.

All personnel have completed the Commando course at the Commando Training Centre at Lympstone in Devon, entitling them to wear the green beret, with attached personnel having completed the All Arms Commando Course.

5th RM Battalion
The 5th RM Battalion was originally raised for a brief period at the end of World War I (September 1918-February 1919), and was again raised on 2 April 1940 following mass mobilisation and the influx of "hostilities only" (HO) marines. The battalion was raised at Cowshot Camp in Brookwood (now part of the Pirbright Camp complex), being incorporated into 101 RM Bde, along with the 1st RM Battalion. Between August and October 1940 the battalion took part in operations in Dakar. On return until August 1943 the battalion conducted extensive training in Wales, Scotland, the Isle of Wight and Burley, where the battalion reformed as 45 RM Commando on 1 August 1943. It was commanded between March 1940 and February 1942 by Arnold Reading.

45 RM Commando

After reforming and retitling, the unit transitioned to the Commando role as a formed unit, by-passing the individual volunteer and selection process undertaken by Army Commando candidates. Personnel undertook, and completed, the Commando Basic Training Course at Achnacarry, Scotland. As part of the 1st Special Service Brigade, the Commando participated in Operation Overlord (the D-Day Normandy landings), before going on to move through Europe into Germany, including Brachterbeek on 23 January 1945. During the Ardennes Offensive, the retitled 1st Commando Brigade was given the task of holding a stretch of the River Meuse; it was during this period of operations that Lance Corporal H. Harden, a medical orderly of the RAMC attached to 45 (RM) Commando, won the Victoria Cross.

Post-World War II reorganisation
Following the Second World War both 1st Commando Brigade (Nos 3, 4 and 6 Army Commandos and 45 RM Commando) and 2nd Commando Brigade (Nos 2 and 9 Army Cdos and 40 and 43 RM Cdos) disbanded, leaving 3 Cdo Bde (then comprising 1 and 5 Army Cdos and 42 and 44 RM Cdos) in place in the Far East. 3 Cdo Bde reorganised, disbanding 1 and 5 Army Cdos, and took on 45 RM Cdo, which joined the Bde in Hong Kong, from the UK, in January 1946. In order to preserve the heritage of a 2 Cdo Bde unit, as well as that of 1 Cdo Bde (45 RM Cdo), 44 Commando was retitled 40 Commando (which had been disbanded in UK in October 1945) and took on 40 RM Cdo's colours, battle honours and traditions, albeit with 44 RM Cdo's manpower. The three remaining commandos were restyled 40, 42 and 45 Commandos RM in March 1946.

1940s/1950s
The Commando unit was based in Hong Kong between January 1946 and May 1947, conducting internal security duties, as part of 3 Cdo Bde RM. Between May 1947 and December 1948 the Commando moved to Malta, during which time it deployed to Libya, Palestine, Suez and Jordan. The Commando unit returned to Hong Kong in December 1948 and from there deployed to Malaya between 1950 and 1952 taking part in operations during the Emergency. Between 1952 and 1959 the Commando was once again based in Malta. In September 1955 45 Commando was deployed to Cyprus to undertake anti-terrorist operations against the EOKA guerrillas who were fighting against British control of the island. EOKA were a small, but powerful organisation of Greek Cypriots, who had great local support from the Greek community. The unit traveled to the Kyrenia mountain area of the island and in December 1955 launched Operation Foxhunter, an operation to destroy EOKA's main base.

Then in 1956 the unit deployed to Egypt as part of the response to the Suez Crisis, conducting the first helicopter assault in history.

1960s
Between 1960 and 1967 the Commando was based in Aden, from where it conducted 10 operational tours in the Radfan during the Aden Emergency. The Commando unit also deployed briefly to Kuwait following an Iraqi threat to her Independence in 1961. In January 1964, part of then Tanganyika, later to become the Tanzanian Army mutinied. 45 Commando who were in Aden boarded HMS Centaur and sailed to East Africa and anchored off-shore from Dar es Salaam. The revolt was put down after 45 Commando landed by helicopter at Colito Barracks with other operations around the country over the coming days.

The last elements of the 45 Commando left Aden on 29 November 1967 to return to the UK for the first time since the end of World War II. They set up home in Stonehouse Barracks, Plymouth.

1970s/1980s
In 1970 the Commando began Arctic training for the first time, taking on the role of Britain's mountain and Arctic warfare experts (joined later by the other Commandos). 45 Cdo RM deployed to Norway for the first of many winters in 1971, which coincided with a move of the unit from Stonehouse, Plymouth to the old Naval Air Station, RNAS Arbroath (now RM Condor) in Arbroath, Scotland, where the unit still remains. This period in the unit's history is characterised by the alternation of Northern Ireland tours and winters in Norway, protecting NATO's northern flank.

Falklands War
Following the Argentine invasion of 2 April 1982, 45 Cdo RM, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Andrew F. Whitehead RM, had their Easter leave cancelled and hastily deployed to the Falklands, travelling in a mix of Royal Navy (RN) and Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) ships. Having made a tactical landing at Red Beach, Ajax Bay on 21 May 1982, the men of 45 Cdo RM yomped across East Falkland, via Port San Carlos, New House, Douglas Settlement, Teal Inlet and Mount Kent to take part in the Battle for Port Stanley. They conducted a night attack on the Two Sisters feature over the 11/12 June 1982, during which the Commando unit lost 8 men killed and 17 wounded. The Argentinians surrendered on 14 June 1982. Lt. Col Whitehead was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO).

1990s
The Commando unit deployed to Northern Iraq on Operation Haven at the end of the Gulf War, where it spent 2 months in the Zakho area, withdrawing at the end of June. In 1993 The Commando unit was deployed to Belize for the last operational jungle tour in that country. In a mirror image of its 1961 deployment to Kuwait, the Commando returned on Operation Driver in 1994, in support of Kuwait, following some threatening troop movements by the Iraqis on their side of the border. In 1998 the Commando unit was redirected from an exercise in Belize, to assist Nicaragua and Honduras following the devastation caused by Hurricane Mitch.

2000s
At the turn of the Millennium, the Commando unit was deployed to Kosovo under KFOR as part of 3 Cdo Bde RM on Operation Agricola IV. From April 2002, the unit deployed to Afghanistan on Operation Jacana, and also took part in Operation Telic 1, the 2003 invasion of Iraq. X-Ray Company Group was attached to the Special Boat Service (SBS), Whisky Company Group attached to the Special Air Service (SAS).

In September 2003, 45 Commando was granted the Freedom of Angus in recognition of their service in Iraq and Afghanistan and contribution to the local economy of Arbroath, where they are based.

In January 2004 the unit deployed to Northern Ireland (Operation Banner) for 6 months in support of peacekeeping operations, returning home in June. On return, it became the Spearhead Lead Commando, a role assumed on a rotational basis. The Lead Commando is at a high level of readiness, able to deploy at short notice on operations worldwide.

In September 2004, whilst still Lead Commando unit, the Group deployed to the United States on Exercise BLACKHORSE. This was split into two phases, the first of which took place with the United States Marines Corps Ground-Air Combat Centre at 29 Palms, California. This 900 square miles of desert, allowed realistic live firing, involving artillery and air strikes. The second phase took place at the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Centre, high in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. An early snowfall meant the Commando was able to carry out cold weather warfare training, operating between 7000 and 11000 ft. 2006 saw the Unit deploy to Norway for further Arctic training which culminated with a NATO led exercise.

The focus switched to preparation for deploying to Afghanistan on Operation HERRICK 5 in late 2006. This deployment saw the Commando take on a number of different roles, the principal one being that of the Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT). The OMLT task was to work alongside the Afghan National Army and develop it into a self-sufficient organisation. The Unit returned from Afghanistan in April 2007.

October 2008 saw the Commando unit return to Afghanistan as Northern Battle Group in Helmand Province on Operation HERRICK 9. The operational area of responsibility was the Upper Sangin Valley which extended for 80 km along the length of the Helmand River. The Battle Group was in excess of 1200 strong, half of whom came from 45 Commando.

April/May 2009 saw the return of the Commando to Arbroath in Scotland for reorganisation ahead of a winter deployment to Norway to practice cold weather and amphibious tactics.

2010s
45 Commando deployed to Afghanistan again, as part of 3 Commando Brigade, for 6 months in March 2011 on Operation Herrick 14. They returned home in October 2011.

45 Commando was the lead commando group for the UK until May 2013, able to deploy at short notice. In October 2013 Whisky Company from 45 Commando exercised in Ghana with US, Dutch and Spanish Marines.

45 Commando Royal Marines provided the guard of honour during the Beating Retreat Ceremony of the Royal Marines Band Service to celebrate the birthday of their Captain General Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh at Horse Guards Parade in May 2016.

It became clear in 2018 that 45 Commando would, as would 40 Commando, form the infantry component of a Littoral Response Group, as part of restructuring in the Future Commando Force programme.

2020s
In 2022, 350 marines from 45 Commando supported diplomats from the British embassy in Ukraine, and a small number may have provided weapons and training to Ukrainian troops.

Structure
The structure is as follows:
 * Command Company, RM Condor
 * Logistics Company
 * Whisky Company (W Coy)
 * X-Ray Company (X Coy)
 * Yankee Company (Y Coy)
 * Zulu Company (Z Coy)

Commanding officers
Commanders have included:

As 5 RM Bn

 * 1940–1942 Lt Col H E Reading RM
 * 1942–1942 Lt Col S G Cutler RM (February – September)
 * 1942–1943 Lt Col K Hunt RM

As 45 RM Commando

 * 1943–1944 Lt Col N C Ries RM
 * 1944–1945 Lt Col W N Gray DSO RM
 * 1945–1945 Lt Col A L Blake MC RM (March – April)
 * 1945–1945 Lt Col W N Gray DSO RM (April – July)
 * 1945–1945 Lt Col I D De'ath DSO MBE RM (July – December)
 * 1945–1946 Lt Col R D Houghton MC RM

As 45 Commando RM

 * 1946–1948 Lt Col T M Gray DSO MC RM
 * 1948–1948 Lt Col E C E Palmer DSO RM (January – July)
 * 1948–1948 Lt Col P L Norcock RM (July – November)
 * 1948–1950 Lt Col N C Ries OBE RM
 * 1950–1952 Lt Col R C de M Leathes MVO OBE RM
 * 1952–1954 Lt Col F A Eustace OBE RM
 * 1954–1956 Lt Col N H Tailyour DSO RM
 * 1956–1956 Lt Col R D Crombie RM (November – December)
 * 1956–1957 Lt Col N H Tailour DSO RM
 * 1957-1958 Lt Col J Richards OBE RM
 * 1958–1958 Lt Col R D Crombie RM (July – September)
 * 1958–1960 Lt Col F C Barton RM
 * 1960–1962 Lt Col L G Marsh MC RM
 * 1962–1963 Lt Col N S E Maude RM
 * 1963–1964 Lt Col T M P Stevens MC RM
 * 1964–1966 Lt Col R J McGarel Groves RM
 * 1966–1967 Lt Col F C E Bye RM
 * 1967–1968 Lt Col J I H Owen OBE RM
 * 1968–1969 Lt Col J C C Richards RM
 * 1969–1971 Lt Col R J Ephraums OBE RM
 * 1971–1974 Lt Col Sir Steuart Pringle Bt RM
 * 1974–1976 Lt Col L E Hudson RM
 * 1976–1978 Lt Col J St J Grey RM
 * 1978–1981 Lt Col B H B Learoyd RM
 * 1981–1983 Lt Col A F Whitehead DSO RM
 * 1983–1985 Lt Col I M H Moore RM
 * 1985–1987 Lt Col A M Keeling RM
 * 1987–1989 Lt Col S J Pack RM
 * 1989–1991 Lt Col J J Thompson OBE RM
 * 1991-1993 Lt Col D V Nicolls RM
 * 1993-1995 Lt Col D Wilson OBE RM
 * 1995–1997 Lt Col R A Fry MBE RM
 * 1997–1999 Lt Col J H Thomas RM
 * 1999–2001 Lt Col G S Robison RM
 * 2001–2003 Lt Col S T Chicken OBE RM
 * 2003–2004 Lt Col T J Bevis RM
 * 2004–2006 Lt Col N P Lindley RM
 * 2006–2007 Lt Col D A Dewar RM
 * 2007–2009 Lt Col J A J Morris DSO RM
 * 2009-2012 Lt Col O A Lee MBE RM
 * 2012-2013 Lt Col M J Tanner RM
 * 2013-2015 Lt Col D J Cheesman MBE RM
 * 2015-2017 Lt Col A R Turner RM
 * 2017-2019 Lt Col D G Forbes RM
 * 2019-2021 Lt Col I Catton RM
 * 2021-Present Lt Col E Hall MBE RM

Battle honours
The following Battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War.

 * Adriatic
 * Alethangyaw
 * Aller
 * Anzio
 * Argenta Gap
 * Burma 1943–45
 * Crete
 * Dieppe
 * Dives Crossing
 * Djebel Choucha
 * Flushing
 * Greece 1944–45
 * Italy 1943–45
 * Kangaw
 * Landing at Porto San Venere
 * Landing in Sicily
 * Leese
 * Litani
 * Madagascar
 * Middle East 1941, 1942, 1944
 * Monte Ornito
 * Myebon
 * Normandy Landing
 * North Africa 1941–43
 * North-West Europe 1942, 1944–1945
 * Norway 1941
 * Pursuit to Messina
 * Rhine
 * St. Nazaire
 * Salerno
 * Sedjenane 1
 * Sicily 1943
 * Steamroller Farm
 * Syria 1941
 * Termoli
 * Vaagso
 * Valli di Comacchio
 * Westkapelle

title: 45 Commando


text:
Gabardine

Gabardine is a durable twill worsted wool. It is a tightly woven waterproof fabric, and used to make outerwear and various other garments, such as suits, overcoats, trousers, uniforms, and windbreakers. It is often associated with the Burberry fashion house and their trench coats. The name is related to "gaberdine", a type of long, cape-like dress worn during the Middle Ages.

History
The word gaberdine or gabardine has been used to refer to a particular item of clothing, a sort of long cassock but often open at the front, since at least the 15th century. In the 16th century the term began to be used for outer garments of the poor, later narrowed to a rain cloak or protective smock-frock.

The modern use to describe a fabric rather than a garment dates to Thomas Burberry, founder of the Burberry fashion house in Basingstoke, Hampshire, England, who invented the fabric and revived the name gabardine in 1879. It was introduced by Burberry Clothing, and patented in 1888.

Compared to fabrics which preceded it, gabardine was lightweight, durable, and breathable. Its ability to shed water and break wind helped revolutionize outerwear.

Production
The original fabric was worsted wool, sometimes in combination with cotton, and was waterproofed using lanolin before weaving. Today the fiber may also be pure cotton, texturized polyester, or a blend.

Gabardine is woven as a warp-faced steep or regular twill, with a prominent diagonal rib on the face and smooth surface on the back. Gabardine always has many more warp than weft yarns.

Gabardine is tightly woven and water-repellent but more comfortable and breathable than rubberised fabrics.

Applications
Burberry clothing of gabardine was worn by polar explorers, including Roald Amundsen, the first man to reach the South Pole, in 1911 and Ernest Shackleton, who led a 1914 expedition to cross Antarctica. A jacket made of this material was worn by George Mallory on his attempt on Mount Everest in 1924.

Gabardine was also used widely in the 1950s to produce colourful patterned casual jackets, trousers and suits. Companies like J. C. Penney, Sport Chief, Campus, Four Star, Curlee, Towncraft, and Oxford Clothes produced short-waisted gabardine jackets, sometimes reversible, commonly known as "Ricky jackets" or "Gab jackets," along with the famous Hollywood leisure jackets that had been made since the 1930s.

Cotton gabardine is often used by bespoke tailors to make pocket linings for suits, where the pockets' contents would quickly wear holes in flimsy pocket lining material.

Clothing made from authentic wool gabardine generally requires dry cleaning.

title: Gabardine


text:
One Tree Hill

One Tree Hill may refer to:

 * "One Tree Hill" (song), a 1987 song by U2 referencing One Tree Hill, New Zealand volcanic peak
 * One Tree Hill (TV series), a 2003–2012 American drama series named for the U2 song
 * One Tree Hill (soundtrack), a 2005 soundtrack album from the series

Australia

 * One Tree Hill (Australian Capital Territory), a peak on the ACT-NSW border, near Hall
 * One Tree Hill (Blue Mountains), a peak at Mount Victoria in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales
 * One Tree Hill, Ferntree Gully in the Dandenong Ranges National Park, Victoria
 * One Tree Hill, South Australia, a suburb on the northern outskirts of Adelaide, South Australia
 * One Tree Hill, former name of Mount Coot-tha, Queensland, in Brisbane
 * One Tree Hill, former name of Table Top Mountain near Toowoomba, Queensland
 * Site of the Battle of One Tree Hill (1843), Queensland

India

 * One Tree Hill Point, a location in Matheran Hill Station near Mumbai

New Zealand

 * Maungakiekie / One Tree Hill, a volcanic peak in Auckland
 * One Tree Hill, New Zealand, a suburb in Auckland at the base of the volcanic peak
 * One Tree Hill College, Auckland

Sri Lanka

 * One Tree Hill, Sri Lanka, a hill in the Nuwara Eliya District

United Kingdom

 * One Tree Hill Country Park in Basildon, Essex
 * One Tree Hill, Honor Oak, in London

Other

 * One Tree Hill, a codename of the Mozilla Firefox 0.9 release

title: One Tree Hill


text:
Grace Under Pressure

Grace Under Pressure may refer to:

 * Grace Under Pressure (Rush album), a 1984 music album by Rush
 * Grace Under Pressure (John Scofield album), a 1992 music album by John Scofield
 * "Grace Under Pressure" (Stargate Atlantis), a Stargate Atlantis episode
 * "Grace Under Pressure", song by Elbow, from the album Cast of Thousands
 * "Grace Under Pressure", song by Eternal, from the album Before the Rain
 * "Grace Under Pressure", an episode of the TV series Hill Street Blues celebrating a founding cast member who had died

title: Grace Under Pressure


text:
Paul Mattick

Paul Mattick Sr. (March 13, 1904 – February 7, 1981) was a German-American Marxist political writer, political philosopher and social revolutionary, whose thought can be placed within the council communist and left communist traditions.

Throughout his life, Mattick continually criticised Bolshevism, Vladimir Lenin and Leninist organisational methods, describing their political legacy as "serving as a mere ideology to justify the rise of modified capitalist (state-capitalist) systems, which were [...] controlled by way of an authoritarian state".

Early life
Born in Słupsk, Pomerania in 1904 and raised in Berlin by class-conscious parents, Mattick was already at the age of 14 a member of the Spartacists' Freie Sozialistische Jugend. In 1918, he started to study as a toolmaker at Siemens AG, where he was also elected as the apprentices' delegate on the workers' council of the company during the German Revolution.

Implicated in many actions during the revolution, arrested several times and threatened with death, Mattick radicalized along the left and oppositional trend of the German communists. After the "Heidelberg" split of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD; a successor to the Spartacist League) and the formation for the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD) in the spring of 1920, he entered the KAPD and worked in the youth organization Rote Jugend, writing for its journal. In March 1920 he participated in street fighting against the rightist Kapp Putsch, in which his lifelong friend Reinhold Klingenberg was shot and lost a leg.

In 1921, at the age of 17, Mattick moved to Cologne to find work with Klockner for a while, until strikes, insurrections and a new arrest destroyed every prospect of employment. He was active as an organizer and agitator in the KAPD and the AAU in the Cologne region, where he got to know Jan Appel among others. He also established contacts with intellectuals, writers and artists working in the AAUE founded by Otto Rühle. These included the Cologne Progressives, a group formed around Franz Seiwert.

With the continuing decline of radical mass struggle and revolutionary hopes, especially after 1923, and having been unemployed for a number of years, Mattick emigrated to the United States in 1926, whilst still maintaining contacts with the KAPD and the AAUE in Germany.

In the United States
In the United States, Mattick carried through a more systematic theoretical study, above all of Karl Marx. In addition, the publication of Henryk Grossman's principal work, Das Akkumulations - und Zusammenbruchsgesetz des Kapitalistischen Systems (1929), played a fundamental role for Mattick, as Grossman brought Marx's theory of accumulation, which had been completely forgotten, back to the centre of debate in the workers' movement. To Mattick, Marx's "critique of political economy" became not a purely theoretical matter but rather directly connected to his own revolutionary practice. From this time, Mattick focused on Marx's theory of capitalist development and its inner logic of contradictions inevitably growing to crisis as the foundation of all political thoughts within the workers' movement.

Towards the end of the 1920s, Mattick had moved to Chicago, where he first tried to unite the different German workers' organisations. Taking night classes to improve his English, Mattick fell into the orbit of the Proletarian Party, a cliquish grouping of independent Marxists which had been successively drummed out of the Socialist Party (in 1919) and the Communist Party (in 1920), now going it alone with their own party organization. Mattick participated in their meetings and contributed to their party publications for several years, during which he also sometimes spoke in the nighttime lecture series at the bohemian Dil Pickle Club, an IWW hangout. In 1931, under the sponsorship of a local federation of German-speaking socialist clubs and sports groups, he took over as editor of the defunct German-language Chicagoer Arbeiter-Zeitung, a newspaper steeped in radical tradition and at one time edited by August Spies and Joseph Dietzgen. Mattick put out 10 monthly issues between February and December 1931, writing much of the paper's content himself, but the paper failed to achieve a large enough readership to be self-sustaining, and folded at the end of the year. For a period, he joined the Industrial Workers of the World (known as the IWW or Wobblies), who were the only revolutionary union organization existing in America that, in spite of national or sectoral differences, assembled all workers in One Big Union, so as to prepare the general strike to bring down capitalism. However, the golden age of the Wobblies' militant strikes had already passed by the beginning of the thirties, and only the emerging unemployed movement again gave the IWW a brief regional development. In 1933, Paul Mattick drafted a programme for the IWW trying to give the Wobblies a more solid 'Marxist' foundation based on Grossman's theory, although it did not improve the organization's condition. In 1934, Mattick, some friends from the IWW as well as some expellees from the Leninist Proletarian Party formed the United Workers Party, later to be renamed Group of Council Communists. The group kept close contacts with the remaining small groups of the German/Dutch Left communism in Europe and published the journal International Council Correspondence, which through the 1930s became an Anglo-American parallel to the Rätekorrespondenz of the Dutch GIC(H). Articles and debates from Europe were translated along with economic analysis and critical political comments of current issues in the United States and elsewhere in the world.

Apart from his own factory work, Mattick organized not only most of the review's technical work but was also the author of the greater part of the contributions which appeared in it. Among the few willing to offer regular contributions was Karl Korsch, with whom Mattick had come into contact in 1935 and who remained a personal friend for many years from the time of his emigration to the United States at the end of 1936.

As European council communism went underground and formally "disappeared" in the second half of the 1930s, Mattick changed Correspondence's name from 1938 to Living Marxism and from 1942 to New Essays.

Like Karl Korsch and Henryk Grossman, Mattick had some contact with Max Horkheimer's Institut fur Sozialforschung (the later Frankfurt School). In 1936, Mattick wrote a major sociological study on the American unemployed movement for the Institute, although it remained in the Institute's files, to be published only in 1969 by the SDS publishing house Neue Kritik.

World War II and after
After the United States' entry into World War II and the post-war Mccarthyism, the left in America experienced repression. Mattick retired at the beginning of the 1950s to the countryside, as part of the rustic "back to the land" colony clustered around Scott Nearing near Winhall, Vermont, where he managed to survive through occasional jobs and his activity as a writer. In the postwar development Mattick took part in only small and occasional political activities, writing small articles for various periodicals from time to time. From the forties and up through the fifties, Mattick went through a study of John Maynard Keynes and compiled a series of critical notes and articles against Keynesian theory and practice. In this work, he developed Marx's and Grossman's theory of capitalist development further to meet the new phenomena and appearances of the modern capitalism critically.

With the general changes of the political scene and the re-emergence of more radical thoughts in the sixties, Paul Mattick made some more elaborated and important political contributions. One main work was Marx and Keynes: The Limits of Mixed Economy from 1969, which was translated into several languages and had quite an influence in the post-1968 student movement. Another important work was Critique of Herbert Marcuse: The one-dimensional man in class society, in which Mattick forcefully rejected Marcuse's thesis that the proletariat, as Marx understood it, had become a mythological concept in advanced capitalist society. Although he agreed with Marcuse's critical analysis of the ruling ideology, Mattick demonstrated that the theory of one dimensionality itself existed only as ideology. Marcuse subsequently affirmed that Mattick's was the best critique to which his book was subjected.

Later life
Up through the seventies, many old and new articles by Mattick were published in different languages for various publications. In the academic year 1974-75, Mattick was engaged as visiting professor at the "Red" Roskilde University in Denmark. Here, he held lectures on Marx' critique of political economy, on the history of the workers movement and served as critical co-referent at seminars with other guests such as Maximilien Rubel, Ernest Mandel, Joan Robinson and others. In 1977, he completed his last important lecture tour of the University of Mexico City. He spoke in West Germany only twice: in 1971 at Berlin and in 1975 at Hanover.

In his last years, Mattick thus succeeded in getting a small audience within the new generations for his views. In 1978, a major collection of articles from over forty years appeared as Anti-Bolshevik Communism. Mattick died in February 1981 leaving an almost finished manuscript for another book, which was later edited and published by his son, Paul Mattick, Jr., as Marxism - Last Refuge of the Bourgeoisie?.

title: Paul Mattick


text:
Brennschluss

Brennschluss (a loanword, from the German Brennschluss) is either the cessation of fuel burning in a rocket or the time that the burning ceases: the cessation may result from the consumption of the propellants, from deliberate shutoff, or from some other cause. After Brennschluss, the rocket is subject only to external forces, notably that due to gravity.

According to Walter Dornberger, Brennschluss literally meant "end of burning," He goes on to state, "the German word is preferred to the form 'all-burnt,' which is used in England, because at Brennschluss considerable quantities of fuel may still be left in the tanks."

Cultural references
The term Brennschluss is used in various English literary works, including:
 * The science fiction short story Honeymoon in Hell (1950) by Fredric Brown
 * The science fiction short story Desire No More (1954) by Algis Budrys
 * The novel Gravity's Rainbow (1973) by Thomas Pynchon
 * The science fiction novel Rip Foster Rides the Gray Planet (1952) written by Harold L. Goodwin (under the pseudonym Blake Savage)
 * The science fiction novel The Rolling Stones (also called Space Family Stone) (1952) by Robert A. Heinlein
 * The science fiction novel Double Star (1956) by Robert A. Heinlein
 * The science fiction short story ‘’Delivery Guaranteed’’ by Robert Silverberg
 * The science fiction novel ''Fiasco (1986) by Stanislaw Lem

title: Brennschluss


text:
Talk:Research Triangle Institute

This article is in the process of being merged with RTI International, per Wikipedia's suggestion. Aks091810 (talk) 21:07, 20 January 2011 (UTC) -- I agree with the sentiments of the other posters, this page is biased to the point of being useless. RTI's Iraq contract is only one very small segment of their total work, and even that has been misrepresented here.

Rather than being beholden to "corporate" interests as this uninformed poster argues, RTI has actually given several major Cancer drugs such as Taxol to the public by renouncing patent rights and placing the compounds in the public domain. See: http://www.rti.org/page.cfm?objectid=0098D2DD-3FBE-4FD5-BAB462E2C7EE789C

The poster is pursuing his own political agenda and seems to know virtually nothing about what RTI actually does. -

While there is certainly disagreement about RTI's role in Iraq, RTI itself is a large institution that has made may contributions to society in its history, and is generally well respected, if not considered a pillar of the North Carolina research community.

In an attempt to improve neutral point of view, I've added a general description of the RTI, and removed sneer quotes and revised language such as "claims to" to be clear it is the company's position without implying if it is true or not.

To further help NPOV, text on other projects of RTI (of which there have been many) would be helpful. I think the counter-argument on its Iraq contracts could also use enhancement. Erich Fabricius 08:35, 4 Jun 2004 (UTC)

---

What imbecile put this page together? 60% of it is devoted to RTI's percieved problems and less than 40% to what RTI actually is. One sentence or even paragraph devoted to the issue would have been enougth BUT A WHOLE SECTION AND FOUR PARAGRAPHS? Go stand on your podium somewhere else, this is supposed to be an encyclopedia not a friggin' rally.

User: Anon

RTI is an incredible research institute
This article should be entirely rewritten. The person who put this together failed to mention that RTI has numerously been national recognized for many of its projects. Did the author realize that RTI is the place of the discoveries of two of the most important natural products used in cancer medicine today? Or is the cure for cancer a controversial topic as well? Please never let that author write anything else.

Further Info
If you take a look at the this link, read the whole thing thru, think about who is funding and running things, then research the reasons for the statements made about litigation at the bottom of the page, I think you can understand why some of the things that the Bermuda, ahh, Research Triangle Institute is really all about are in-credible.
 * http://www.publicintegrity.org/wow/bio.aspx?act=pro&ddlC=49

This page and the one for RTI International should probably be merged in some way.

title: Talk:Research Triangle Institute