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East Godavari district

East Godavari is a district in the Coastal Andhra region of Andhra Pradesh, India. Its district headquarters is at Rajamahendravaram.

In the Madras Presidency, the District of Rajamahendravaram was created in 1823. It was reorganised in 1859 and was bifurcated into Godavari and Krishna districts. During British rule, Rajamahendravaram was the headquarters of Godavari District, which was further bifurcated into East Godavari and West Godavari districts in 1925. When the Godavari district was divided, Kakinada became the headquarters of East Godavari and Eluru became headquarters of West Godavari. In November 1956, Andhra Pradesh was formed by merging Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State. In 1959, the Bhadrachalam revenue division, consisting of Bhadrachalam and Naguru Taluqs (2 Taluqas in 1959 but later subdivided into Wajedu, Venkatapruram, Charla, Dummugudem, Bhadrachalam, Nellipaka, Chinturu, Kunavaram, and Vara Rama Chandra Puram Mandals) of the East Godavari district were merged into the Khammam district. After June 2014's reorganisation and division of Andhra Pradesh, the mandals of Bhadrachalam (with the exception of Bhadrachalam Temple), Nellipaka, Chinturu, Kunavaram and Vara Rama Chandra Puram were re-added back to the East Godavari district.

Geography
This district is surrounded by:
 * North East: Alluri Sitharama Raju district
 * North West: Eluru district
 * South: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Konaseema district
 * South East: Kakinada district
 * South West: West Godavari district.

Early kingdoms
The district, like the rest of the Deccan, was under the Nandas and Mauryas in its early history. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the district was under the Satavahanas until the 3rd century under the famous poet king Haala. Coins found during excavations have revealed the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vaasisthi-puttra Pulumaavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni. Gupta emperor Samudragupta invaded during the rule of both Pishtapura and Avamukta in the district in 350 AD Samudragupta's invasion was followed by the rule of the Mathara dynasty from 375 to 500. The earliest known ruler of the dynasty was Saktivarman.

The district passed into the hands of Vishnukundinas during the rule of Vikramendra Varma I during the 5th century. The records indicate that their domain extended over Visakhapatnam, West Godavari, Krishna and Guntur districts in addition to East Godavari. Indra Bhattaraka defeated the rulers of Vasistha Kula and re-established Vihsnukundina authority, but was shortly defeated by Kalinga armies. Indra Bhattaraka was followed to the throne by a few others, including Madhava Varma III and Manchana Bhattaraka, who tried to restore their kingdom. Madhava Varma III was the last important ruler of this family.

Chalukyas and Cholas
The Pulakesi II of Badami Chalukyas and his brother Kubja Vishnu Vardhana acquired Pishtapura in the 7th century. The Eastern Chalukya dynasty, founded by Kubja Vishnu Vardhana, ruled at first form Pishtapura, then from Vengi, and later from Rajamahendravaram. Many rulers held sway over the kingdom and their history is at times largely a record of disputes over succession. Chalukya Bhima I of this dynasty built a Shiva temple at Draksha Ramam. Jata Choda Bhima of PedaKallu (Kurnool District) killed Daanaarnava of this dynasty and occupied Vengi in 973 AD Daanaarnava's two sons, Sakti Varma I and Vimala Aditya, fled from the kingdom and took refuge in the court of the Chola king Rajaraja Chola I. Rajaraja invaded Vengi on behalf of the sons of Daanaarnava and killed Jata Choda Bhima. Satya Raya of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani did not like the Chola influence in Vengi and the area witnessed many wars between the Cholas and Chalukyas. After the death of Vijaya Aditya VII in 175 AD, the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.

Kulottunga Chola I (Rajendra Chalukya), a rival of Vijay Aditya VII, fought along the sides of Cholas and established the Chalukya Cholas province. The district along with the rest of the Vengi kingdom became part of their empire. Major portions of the district were under Velanati Chodas, trustworthy chieftains to his. Rulers of this dynasty included Gonka I, Rajendra Choda I, Gonka II and Rajendra Choda II. Vikram Aditya vii of Western Chalukyas occupied this region for a short period, but it was recovered by Chalukya Cholas and Velanati Chodas. Velanati chiefs also suppressed rebellions from Haihayas of Kona, Gonka II and Rudra of the Kakatiya dynasty.

Kakatiyas and Delhi Sultanate
Inscriptions at this region including the ones at Draksha Ramam in 13th-century throw light on their history. Prola II of the Kakatiya dynasty declared independence from the western Chalukyas and became a subject of Chalukya Cholas. His son Rudra obtained the Godavari delta as a gift from the Rajaraja II of Chalukya Cholas. Rudra's authority over the Godavari delta was challenged by the Velanadu Chodas. The Velanati king Rajendra Choda II sent an army under his minister Davana Preggada against Rudra. Rudra was succeeded by his younger brother Mahadeva who died in a conflict with the Yadavas of Devagiri. His son Ganapati succeeded to the Kakatiya throne. Ganapati defeated Kalinga armies on the north, Pandyas of Madura and Cholas with the help of Nellooru Chodas. The Kakatiya power remained undisturbed in the Godavari region throughout the reign of Ganapati and her daughter Rudrama devi. Pratapa Rudra ascended the throne in 1295 and faced many attacks from Sultans of Delhi. After his defeat by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1323, the district came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq divided South India into five provinces and appointed governors.

Nayakas, Reddi, Telagas (Kapus) and other kingdoms
Delhi sultans faced rebellions from the confederacy of local chiefs under the authority of Prolaya of the Musunuri Nayaks clan. The Reddis of Addanki, Koppula Telagas of Pithapuram and the Recharla Velamas of Rachakonda actively helped him. Warangal was liberated and Telugu land enjoyed freedom for fifty years. Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka appointed his relatives Toyyeti Anavota Nayaka and Mummadi Nayaka (Korukonda) as governors in Godavari region. Mummadi Nayaka married the niece of Kapaya Nayaka. Mummadi Nayaka lived until 1388. He had three sons who ruled for a period of 40 years and later they were reduced to submission by the Reddis of Kondaveedu and their principality was merged in the kingdom of Kondaveedu. Subsequently, Narasimha Deva IV of Kalinga succeeded in conquering this region, but was repulsed by Anavota Reddi of Rajamahendravaram. He was succeeded by Anavema Reddi and Kumaragiri of the same dynasty.

Kumaragiri fought many wars with the Recharlas of Rachakonda and the Kalinga rulers. He sent his general Kataya Vema along with Prince Anavota to conquer the eastern region. This resulted in the annexation of a large tract in the north as far as Simhachalam. The newly acquired territory was annexed to the Reddi Kingdom and constituted into a separate province called the eastern kingdom. Prince Anavota ruled this province with Raja-Mahendra-Varam as his capital. He died a premature death around 1395 and Kataya Vema, the general and brother-in-law of Kumara Giri, was given Raja Mahendra Rajya in appreciation of the services rendered by him to the State. Kataya Vema's departure to Raja Mahendra Varam led to the seizure of the throne of Kondaveedu by force by Peda Komati Vema.

Peda Komati Vema's authority was defined by Kataya Vema. Kataya Vema was also involved in a conflict with Eruva chief Annadeva Choda, who managed to occupy a large portion of the Raja Mahendra Rajya. He was, however, defeated and driven back by Kataya Vema. Later, Kataya Vema died in a battle with Anna Deva Choda. After his death, Allada Reddi placed Kataya Vemas' son Komaragiri on the throne of Rajamahendravaram and ruled the kingdom as his regent. Komarigiri died a premature death. Allada Reddi ruled this region until his death in 1420. About 1423, the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II defeated Veera Bhadra, who was then ruling this kingdom and reduced it to subjection.

After the death of Kapilendra Deva Gajapati in 1466, there was a fight between his sons Hamveera Deva and Purushottama Deva for succession. Hamveera succeeded in occupying the throne with the help of Bahmanis but he could not retain it for long. Purushottama overthrew Hamveera and tried to reconquer Rajamahendravaram and other places. But Muhammad Shah III led the forces to Rajamahendravaram. This battle, however, ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. After the death of Muhammad Shah III, Purushottama Gajapati overran the whole of the Godavari-Krishna do-ab and drove the Bahmani forces as far south as Kondaveedu. Purushottama was succeeded by his son Pratapa Rudra. The Vijayanagar monarch Krishnadevaraya invaded his kingdom and brought Rajamahendravaram under subjugation. However, a treaty was concluded wherein Pratapa Rudra agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Krishna Deva Raya in return of the territory north of the Krishna conquered by Krishna Deva Raya.

Muslim kingdoms
Taking advantage of the disturbed conditions, the Qutab Shahi ruler of Golkonda, Sultan Quli Qutab Shah, invaded the coastal region and took possession of Rajamahendravaram and the neighboring kingdoms. Sultan Quli was murdered and he was succeeded to the throne by his son Jamshid Qutab Shah and then by his grandson Subhan Qutab Shah. During his reign, Ibrahim Qutab Shah had to ward off challenges from Shitab Khan and Vidyadhar. The last ruler of this dynasty was Abdul Hasan Tana Shah, who ruled from 1672 to 1687.

Aurangzeb conquered the sultanate of Golaconda in 1687, and Golaconda, including East Godavari, became one of the twenty-two provinces of the Mughal Empire. The Nizam-ul-Mulk (viceroy of Golaconda) looked after the administration through military officers called Fauzdars. Pusapati Ananda Gajapati Raju, the new Raja of Vizianagaram, invited the French to occupy the Northern Circars. The tussle that ensued between the French and the English ended with the French losing all possessions in Northern Circars except Yanam.

Salabat Jung was subsequently deposed by his brother Nizam Ali Khan, who leased out Rajamahendravaram and Chicacole to Hasan Ali Khan. Lord Robert Clive, entered into negotiations with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam and obtained a firmana ceding the Northern Circars to the British East India Company in August 1765, but it was kept a secret until March 1766. The fort of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and General Cillaud was sent to Machilipatnam to undertake military operations, if necessary. The Nizam also made brisk preparations for war. War was prevented by the signing of a treaty on 12 November 1766 by which the company, in return for occupying the Circars, undertook to maintain troops for the Nizam's assistance.

British rule (1768–1947)
By a second treaty, signed on 1 March 1768 the Nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's grant and resigned the Circars to the company, receiving as a mark of friendship an annuity of 50,000. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the Nizam over the Northern Circars were bought outright by the company, and they became a British possession. In the Madras Presidency, the District of Rajamahendravaram was created in 1823. It was reorganised in 1859 and was bifurcated into Godavari and Krishna districts. During British rule, Rajamahendravaram was the headquarters of Godavari district, which was further bifurcated into East Godavari and West Godavari districts in 1925. When the Godavari district was divided, Kakinada became the headquarters of East Godavari and Eluru became headquarters of West Godavari.

In 1839 during the British Raj, a colossal cyclone struck Coringa and toppled buildings, therefore over 300,000 people were killed.

Post-independence
After India's independence in 1947, the former Madras Presidency of British India became India's Madras State. In 1953, the northern districts of Madras state, including the Godavari district, became the new state of Andhra. Yanam was relinquished by the French in 1954, but one condition of the cession treaty was the retention of the district's separate and distinct identity, which also applied to the other South Indian enclaves constituting today's Puducherry state.

Early history
The "Godavari district" was formed with its headquarters at Rajamundry later the district was divided into two East Godavari and West Godavari at its headquarters at Eluru but the district headquarters of East Godavari was shifted from Rajamundry to Kakinada.On 4 April 2022 the East Godavari again divided in two Kakinada and East Godavari,Kakinada remains the district headquarters of Kakinada district and again the district headquarters was shifted to Rajamundry.

Geography and climate
East Godavari occupies an area of 12805 km2, comparatively equivalent to Indonesia's Sumba Island. The district is bounded on north by Visakhapatnam district, Malkangiri district of Orissa on the northwest by Khammam district and Sukma district of Chhattisgarh, on the east and south by the Bay of Bengal and on the west by West Godavari. It has a coastline of 144 km. The small enclave (30 km2) of the Yanam district of Puducherry state lies within this district. The topography consists of hills in the north west and fertile plains in the central part and towards the east. The plains are drained by Godavari River and its landscape is filled with evergreen paddy fields all along the delta. It is the largest producer of Paddy in whole of Andhra Pradesh. Papikondalu part of Eastern Ghats is the hilly terrain in located the north western part of this district, it consists of hills running on both the sides of river Godavari until Bhadrachalam, Telangana. The temperature remains humid for most of the months as it is located in the coastal belt. This district is referred as the green belt of Andhra due to its greenery spread all around. There are abundant deciduous forests in the Northwest part near Maredumilli and to the east near Kakinada there are mangrove forests.

Demographics
According to the 2011 census East Godavari has a population of 5,154,296. This gives it a ranking of 19th in India (out of a total of 640 districts) and 1st in the state. The district has a population density of 477 PD/sqkm. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 5.1%. East Godavari has a sex ratio of 1005 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 71.35%.

East Godavari has a total population of 5,151,549; 2,569,419 and 2,582,130 male and female respectively. There was a change of 5.10 percent in the population compared to population as per 2001 census. The census data states a density of 477 in 2011 compared to 454 in 2001. Average literacy rate of East Godavari in 2011 was 71.35% compared to 65.48% in 2001. On a gender basis, male and female literacy was 74.91% and 67.82% respectively. With regards to sex ratio in East Godavari, it stood at 1005 per 1000 males compared to the 2001 census figure of 993. The average national sex ratio in India is 940 as per the 2011 census.

There were total 492,446 children under the age of 0–6 against 613,490 of 2001 census. Of total 492,446 male and female were 250,086 and 242,360 respectively. The child sex ratio as per census 2011 was 969 compared to 978 in 2001. In 2011, children under 0-6 formed 9.56% of East Godavari compared to 12.52% in 2001.

After reorganization, the district had a population of 18,32,332, of which 560,349 (30.58%) lived in urban areas. East Godavari district had a sex ratio of 1010 females per 1000 males. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes made up 365,972 (19.97%) and 19,702 (1.08%) of the population respectively.

At the time of the 2011 census, 97.36% of the population spoke Telugu and 1.84% Urdu as their first language.

Household indicators
In 2007–2008 the International Institute for Population Sciences interviewed 1019 households in 38 villages across the district. They found that 92.5% had access to electricity, 96.7% had drinking water, 50.4% toilet facilities, and 30.9% lived in a pucca (permanent) home. 28.6% of girls wed before the legal age of 18 and 79% of interviewees carried a BPL card.

Administrative divisions
The district has two revenue divisions namely, Rajamahendravaram and Kovvur with 19 mandals.

Parliament segment
Rajamahendravaram

Assembly segments
Rajamahendravaram Lok Sabha constituency presently comprises the following Legislative Assembly segments:

Mandals

East Godavari has the following mandals:

Erstwhile Talukas
Before the formation of Mandals, administration was done through the Taluka system. The erstwhile Talukas in the district are given below.

In 1978, the number of Talukas in East Godavari district was increased from 14 to 19. Later, in 1985, these 19 Talukas were divided into 60 Mandals.

In 2014, as per the Polavaram Ordinance, 4 Mandals from Telangana were merged with East Godavari District. Thus, the number of Mandals increased to 64.

Villages

 * Bhimakrosupalem
 * Kondukuduru
 * Mutyalapalem
 * Ramaraopet
 * Thammavaram

Culture
The culture of East Godavari and West Godavari districts is a rich traditional one in all parts of the district and reflects the true culture of Andhra Pradesh. It is known for Veda-pandits, the Godavari River and the hospitality of the people. Rajamahendravaram city is known as the "Cultural Capital of Andhra Pradesh". Durga Cinetone is the first South Indian film studio constructed in the city of Rajamahendravaram. The government of Andhra Pradesh is constructing film studios in Kakinada and Rajamahendravaram cities on PPP mode. East Godavari has produced several stalwarts in an area of culture, music, art, and cinema.

Economy
Agriculture and its allied activities is the backbone of East Godavari district's economy. Rajamahendravaram is a major business centre and Kakinada are the major industrial zone. It is the largest producer of paddy and tender coconuts in Andhra Pradesh. The gross district domestic product (GDDP) of East Godavari is inr 522940000000.00006 and it contributes 10% to the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP). For the FY 2013–14, the per capita income at current prices was inr 78255. The primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the district contribute inr 160930000000, inr 108570000000 and inr 253430000000 respectively. The major products contributing to the GVA of the district from agriculture and allied services are, paddy, sugarcane, betel leaves, coconut, milk, meat and fisheries. The GVA to the industrial and service sector is contributed from construction, electricity, manufacturing, unorganised trade and transport.

Floriculture
East Godavari is also famous for flowers. Various varieties of flowers are cultivated here. Nurseries here are spread more than 3500 acre in Kadiam, Rajamahendravaram Rural Mandals in Rajamahendravaram. Floriculture is expanding to Mandapeta, Alamuru, Atreyapuram, and Ravulapalem mandals. Floriculture Institute and Research Centre is in construction at Vemagiri in Rajamahendravaram. The government is trying to export these flowers from Rajamahendravaram Airport through cargo planes.

Roadways
The total road length of state highways in the district is 1271 km. The total rail network of the district is 171.34 km. The National Highway 16 connecting Chennai and Howrah passes through Tuni, Rajamahendravaram. NH 216 connects Kakinada with Ongole via Yanam, Mummidivaram, Amalapuram, Razole, Narasapuram. The National Highway NH-516E connects Rajamahendravaram with Vizianagaram via Rampachodavaram, Addateegala, Rajavommangi. The National Highway NH-216A connects Rajamahendravaram with Gundugolanu near Eluru via Ravulapalem, Tanuku, Tadepalligudem. National Highways NH-365BB, NH-516D connects Rajamahendravaram with Suryapet in Telangana via Jangareddygudem, Aswaraopeta, Khammam. ADB (Asian Development Bank) Road and SH-40 (Canal Road) connect Rajamahendravaram and Kakinada. Rajamahendravaram–Kakinada Canal Road is being developed on PPP (Public Private Partnership) mode. NHAI is constructing Kakinada-Annavaram Highway along the coast under Sagaramala Project. SH-41 connects Rajamahendravaram with Chinturu, Bhadrachalam, Malkangiri, Jagdalpur.

Railways
Rajamahendravaram, Dwarapudi, Anaparti, Samalkot Junction, Pithapuram, Annavaram, Tuni, and Kakinada Town are the Major Railway stations in the district. The Chennai to Howrah rail line also passes through this district. Pithapuram-Kakinada, Kotipalli-Narsapur, 2nd lane on Godavari Arch Bridge, Kovvur-Bhadrachalam, Rajamahendravaram–Raipur railway lines are important railway projects in district. Indian Railway Department is developing Kakinada, Rajamahendravaram Railway Stations commercially like construction of malls, multiplexes, hotels, lounges, parks, new platforms.

Airways
Rajamahendravaram Airport, situated at Rajamahendravaram. The airport's runway is the biggest runway in the state. People here are requesting to develop this airport as an international airport. The state government is very keen in developing the airport as an international airport. The government is constructing IAF base in this airport. This airport plays a crucial role in the economy of the Godavari districts. The government of Andhra Pradesh is keen in exporting flowers through this airport from nurseries in Kadiam mandal in Rajamahendravaram and agricultural products from the district. Heli tourism has been introduced in the airport to see tourist places in both the Godavari districts. This airport is used by Oil Companies like ONGC, GAIL, IOCL, Reliance etc. It is playing major role in industrialisation of Godavari districts.

Waterways
National Waterway 4 was declared on 24 November 2008, which connects the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and the union territory of Puducherry. It passes through Kakinada, Rajamahendravaram, Tadepalligudem, Eluru, Puducherry and also part of Krishna and Godavari rivers. It is being developed by Inland Waterways Authority of India. APTDC and other private agencies's boats and launches are available daily from Pushakar Ghat to Papikondalu and Bhadrachalam. Kakinada Port is a major port. GMR is constructing new commercial port at Kona area in Thondangi mandal of Kakinada which consists of 1200acre land.

Education
The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the School Education Department of the state. As per the school information report for the academic year 2015–16, there are a total of 5,986 schools. They include, 29 government, 3,452 mandal and zilla parishads, 1 residential, 1688 private, 2 model, 12 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV), 285 municipal and 517 other types of schools. The total number of students enrolled in primary, upper primary and high schools of the district are 722,123.

The district has universities located at Rajamahendravaram such as Adikavi Nannaya University, Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University. There are numerous educational institutes with Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University in Kakinada, District Institute of Education and Training (DIET) in Rajamahendravaram, established in 1989 for the benefit of teacher trainees and in-service teachers. There are many educational institutions that provide education in different fields such as Engineering, Medical, Law, Pharmacy, Polytechnic and Postgraduate colleges etc. Some of the notable universities, colleges are Rangaraya Medical College in Kakinada and Government Pithapuram Rajah College, Kakinada.

National Center for Disease Control (NCDC), Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI), National Academy of Constructions are established in Rajamahendravaram.

Central Floriculture Research Centre and Institute is in construction at Vemagiri in Rajamahendravaram. Science City is being established at Kakinada, Rajamahendravaram.

After the Reorganization of Andhra Pradesh State the following institutes are sanctioned for district:

 * 1) Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), Kakinada
 * 2) Indian Institute of Packaging (IIP), Kakinada
 * 3) National Institute of Drama (NID), Rajamahendravaram
 * 4) National Civil Aviation Academy, Rajamahendravaram
 * 5) AP State Forest Academy, Rajamahendravaram

Tourism

East Godavari has many places worth visiting, such as temples and nurseries.

 * Historical temples are located at:
 * Someswaram
 * Amalapuram
 * Annavaram
 * Antarvedi
 * Draksharamam
 * Kotipalli
 * Pithapuram
 * Rajamahendravaram
 * Samarlakota

are located in Kakinada. are located at Rajamahendravaram.
 * Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
 * NTR Beach
 * Hope Island
 * Kadiam Mandal in Rajamahendravaram is the location of many plant nurseries.
 * Sir Arthur Cotton Museum
 * Dowleswaram Barrage
 * Havelock Bridge

 * Ecotourism projects are located at:
 * Maredumilli
 * Papikondalu
 * Rampa
 * Tuni.

 * Talupulamma lova is a temple in East Godavari.
 * The government of Andhra Pradesh is keen on developing Rajamahendravaram Airport as an international airport, so that the two Godavari districts get a major boost in tourism.
 * Polavaram Project is another tourist place.

People from East Godavari district

 * S. B. P. Pattabhirama Rao, industrialist, politician, zamindar of Kapileswarpuram
 * Sukumar Bandreddi, Indian film director, producer and screenwriter
 * Duvvuri Venkata Ramana Shastri, Telugu - Sanskrit scholar

title: East Godavari district


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Navojoa

Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.

History
The city name derives from the native Mayo language meaning "Cactus House" or "Cactus Place" ("Navo"= Cactus, "Jova"= House). The valley has been continuously inhabited since pre-Hispanic times by the Mayo people.

In September 1536, Diego de Guzmán, a Spaniard, became the first known European to reach the valley. The first Jesuit missionaries started settling in the region in 1614, founding Mission Santa Catalina Camoa. Several geoglyphs from the Mayo tribe can be found along the Mayo River.

Due to the city's distant location from Mexico City, the difficult times of Mexico's independence in the early 19th century were largely absent from the region. However, the city had some importance after the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The Mexican Revolutionary Álvaro Obregón was born in Hacienda Siquisiva, a small town near Navojoa. Álvaro Obregón became president of Mexico after the revolt and initiated an agricultural revolution in the Mayo/Yaqui Valley, introducing modern agricultural techniques and making this valley one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in Mexico.

Economy
Navojoa is part of the large economic center known as the Mayo Valley, which together with Ciudad Obregón and the Yaqui Valley, form one of the most productive agricultural regions in Mexico.

Although agriculture remains the main source of income, the Navojoa region is increasingly dependent on industrial foreign investment and aquaculture, especially shrimp farming.

Two large swine production companies that export mainly to the United States, Germany and Japan, a recycled containerboard mill and box factory privately owned by Sonoran investors, as well as one brewery belonging to the FEMSA group (recently acquired from Heineken), are among the main industries in Navojoa.

The city gains importance through its geographic diversity featuring close access to coastal, desert, and southwest mountainous areas as well as its close proximity to the United States and the neighboring state of Sinaloa. Navojoa is 64 km south of Ciudad Obregón connected primarily by a toll highway (Mex. 15) that extends north across the state of Sonora to the Arizona border.

Airports
Ciudad Obregón International Airport (CEN) is the nearest commercial airport, 48 km north of Navojoa. It receives flights from Guadalajara, Hermosillo, La Paz, Loreto, Los Cabos, Mexico City, Monterrey, and, internationally, from Los Angeles, Tucson, Phoenix and Houston in the United States. Airlines serving this airport include Aeromexico, AeroCalafia, Interjet, Volaris and low-cost airline VivaAerobus.

Alternate Airports to CEN are Hermosillo Intl. Airport (IATA: HMO) and in a lower sense Los Mochis (IATA: LMM). HMO also receives low cost airlines' flights incoming from the main cities of the Republic such as: Mexico City, Guadalajara, Querétaro, Monterrey, Tijuana, Puebla among others.

Navojoa also has a local airport (see: Navojoa Airport) next to the industrial sector, which is suitable for light private planes. It is about 8 km south of the city center.

Buses
Several companies offer low, mid and luxury class bus services from Navojoa to the Mexican Republic and international destinations such as Tucson, Phoenix and Los Angeles in the US. Connections are offered by foreign partner companies to other USA and Canada destinations. A bus station was built in the north of the city; however it is not used and small stations in the city center are used instead.

Old public city buses have been replaced with new models with air conditioning, called SUBA. They run every few minutes and provide simple and cheap transport.

Railroad
A north-south freight-only railroad is in operation, connecting to the Mexican border in Nogales and to Guadalajara, Jalisco.

Highways
The most important highway serving Navojoa is Mexican Federal Highway 15, a four-lane highway which connects it to north to Ciudad Obregón, Guaymas, Hermosillo, Nogales and the United States of America; and to the south to the states of Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Michoacán, State of Mexico and Mexico City.

The main state routes serving Navojoa are Sonora State Highway 149 and Sonora State Highway 162.

Also, the Periférico is a semi-beltway encompassing some of Navojoa's southern and western neighborhoods and it is used as a truck route or bypass for Mexican Federal Highway 15. It is enlarged from 2 to 4 lanes in the western section between Centenario Boulevard and Sosa Chávez Boulevard with the project ending in december of 2017.

Others
Although Navojoa's streets are almost all paved, horse-drawn carts are still used by the residents of the small surrounding communities (San Ignacio Cohuirimpo, etc.). Horse carts are numerous enough that there is a parking lot reserved for them on Hidalgo Avenue near the City Market in central Navojoa.

Education
The following institutions of higher education are based in Navojoa:
 * Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON)
 * Universidad de Sonora - Unidad Navojoa
 * Universidad Pedagógica Nacional Campus Navojoa (UPN)
 * Universidad de Navojoa - Affiliated with the Seventh-day Adventist Church; also known as Colegio del Pacifico
 * Universidad Estatal de Sonora (UES)
 * Instituto Pedagógigo de Postgrado de Sonora (IPPSON)
 * Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) - Campus Obregón/Unidad Navojoa
 * Atelier Sonorense
 * Universidad TecMilenio Campus Navojoa.
 * Universidad del Desarrollo Profesional (UNIDEP) Campus Navojoa.

Tourism
Navojoa has many hotels with a range of cost and quality. Most hotels are located off Pesqueira Street, mainly between the 1-km-long area between Tecnológico Avenue and Centenario Boulevard.

Museums
The "Museo Regional del Mayo" (Mayo's Regional Museum) is located in the former railroad station building opposite Santa Fe Springs square. The Museum has 5 rooms which exhibit temporary paint, handicraft and sculpture expositions, pre-Hispanic and colonial objects, ethnographic expositions dedicated to the Mayos' culture and other objects related to Navojoa's history.

The Tehuelibampo Museum is an eco-museum with 89 petroglyphics carved in the stones over 500 years ago by the Mayo people. It is located next to the Mayo river, some kilometers north-west of Navojoa.

Beaches
The city is near the Gulf of California which offers a variety of beaches. The surrounding country is also popular for hunting ducks, doves and deer.

Las Bocas, 30 miles south of Navojoa, is a small beach community on the Gulf of California that is frequently visited by the local residents of Navojoa during spring. (April–May). It is particularly popular during "Semana Santa" (Holy Week), when campers stay for seven days and then return to Navojoa for Easter celebrations.

Many people from Navojoa own a second house in Las Bocas.

Although one of the closer beaches to Navojoa is located about one hour away in a small town called Huatabampo. The beach is named after the town, hence the name, "Huatabampito" where many families gather year long to enjoy the beauty of the ocean.

Adolfo Ruiz Cortinez dam
The Adolfo Ruiz Cortines Dam, also called Mocúzarit, is a popular fishing spot and stores water used for irrigating the valley via the Mayo River. Other uses include kayaking, water-skiing, geoglyph-viewing and other leisure activities.

Others
Navojoa also acts as a hub for those visiting the colonial town of Álamos, which is 48 km inland toward the mountains of the Sierra Madre.

Climate
Navojoa has a borderline semi-arid climate/desert climate (Köppen climate classification BSh/BWh) with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is scarce, but is more common during the summer months during the monsoon season.

Sister cities

 * [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] Santa Fe Springs, California, United States
 * [[Image:Flag of Spain.svg|25px]] Almería, Almería, Spain.
 * 🇲🇽 Mexicali, Baja California

Sports
There are two main public sports facilities in Navojoa.

One is "Unidad Deportiva Faustino Félix Serna" with many different baseball, baseball and softball fields, basketball courts, a pool, a professional baseball stadium, a professional basketball arena and many other sport facilities.

The other main sports center, "Unidad Deportiva Oriente" is located in the eastern part of the city.

Private sports centers are available too, one of them is the "Casino Social de Navojoa", located near downtown. Another one is "La Quinta Racquet Club" located in Los Naranjos neighborhood.

The city of Navojoa has its own baseball team called Mayos de Navojoa which is a member of the Liga Mexicana del Pacífico, the most important baseball league in México.

Well-known native baseball players, all of them played in MLB:

 * Gabriel "Gabe" Alvarez, Detroit Tigers.
 * Luis Alfonso "Cochito" Cruz, LA Dodgers.
 * Francisco "Paquín" Estrada, New York Mets.
 * Isidro Márquez, Chicago White Sox.
 * Fernando Valenzuela, LA Dodgers.

Other famous natives

 * Valentín Elizalde, Banda singer
 * Ignacio Almada, writer
 * Javier Alatorre, journalist and anchor for Hechos, a news show for TV Azteca
 * Álvaro Obregón, President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924
 * Luis Ramón "Yori Boy" Campas, boxer, former IBF World Jr. Middleweight champion
 * Beatriz Adriana, folk music singer
 * Manuel Echeverría, baseball player
 * Arturo Chacón Cruz, tenor
 * Rafael Moreno, Catholic singer
 * Rodolfo Coronel, popular folk music singer
 * Juan Manuel González Flores, vice-president of the International University Sports Federation
 * Ana Patricia Gámez, winner of Nuestra Belleza Latina 2010
 * Fausto Isidro Meza Flores, drug lord and high-ranking leader of the Beltran-Leyva Cartel
 * Maria Mazon, Competitor on Top Chef Season 18

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Navojoa


text:
Arch Linux

Arch Linux is an independently developed x86-64 general-purpose Linux distribution that strives to provide the latest stable versions of most software by following a rolling-release model. The default installation is intentionally minimal so that users can add only the packages they require.

pacman, a package manager written specifically for Arch Linux, is used to install, remove and update software packages.

Arch Linux uses a rolling release model, meaning it has no major releases. An Arch Linux installation is kept up-to-date by regularly updating the individual pieces of software that it comprises. The only "releases" are up-to-date snapshots of main system components released monthly.

Arch Linux has comprehensive documentation in the form of a community-run wiki known as the ArchWiki.

History
Inspired by CRUX, another minimalist distribution, Judd Vinet started the Arch Linux project in March 2002. The name was chosen because Vinet liked the word's meaning of "the principal," as in "arch-enemy".

Originally only for 32-bit x86 CPUs, the first x86_64 installation ISO was released in April 2006.

Vinet led Arch Linux until 1 October 2007, when he stepped down due to lack of time, transferring control of the project to Aaron Griffin.

The migration to systemd as its init system started in August 2012, and it became the default on new installations in October 2012. It replaced the SysV-style init system, used since the distribution's inception.

The end of i686 support was announced in January 2017, with the February 2017 ISO being the last one including i686 and making the architecture unsupported in November 2017. Since then, the community derivative Arch Linux 32 can be used for i686 hardware.

On 24 February 2020, Aaron Griffin announced that due to his limited involvement with the project, he would, after a voting period, transfer control of the project to Levente Polyak. This change also led to a new 2-year term period being added to the Project Leader position.

In March 2021, Arch Linux developers were thinking of porting Arch Linux packages to x86_64-v3, roughly correlating to the Intel Haswell era of processors.

In April 2021, Arch Linux installation images began including a guided installation script by default.

In late 2021, the Arch Linux developers released Pacman 6.0, which enabled parallel downloads.

In February 2022, the Arch Linux developers began offering debug packages.

Repository security
Until pacman version 4.0.0, Arch Linux's package manager lacked support for signed packages. Packages and metadata were not verified for authenticity by Pacman during the download-install process. Without package authentication checking, tampered-with or malicious repository mirrors could compromise the integrity of a system. Pacman 4 allowed verification of the package database and packages, but it was disabled by default. In November 2011, package signing became mandatory for new package builds, and as of March 2012, every official package is signed. In June 2012, package signing verification became official and is now enabled by default in the installation process.

Design and principles
Arch is largely based on binary packages. Packages target x86-64 microprocessors to assist performance on modern hardware. A ports/ebuild-like system is also provided for automated source compilation, known as the Arch build system.

Arch Linux focuses on simplicity of design, meaning that the main focus involves creating an environment that is straightforward and relatively easy for the user to understand directly, rather than providing polished point-and-click style management tools –the package manager, for example, does not have an official graphical front-end. This is largely achieved by encouraging the use of succinctly commented, clean configuration files that are arranged for quick access and editing. This has earned it a reputation as a distribution for "advanced users" who are willing to use the command-line interface.

"Relying on complex tools to manage and build your system is going to hurt the end-users. [...] 'If you try to hide the complexity of the system, you'll end up with a more complex system'. Layers of abstraction that serve to hide internals are never a good thing. Instead, the internals should be designed in a way such that they NEED no hiding."

Installation
The Arch Linux website supplies ISO images that can be run from CD or USB. After a user partitions and formats their drive, a simple command line script (pacstrap) is used to install the base system. The installation of additional packages which are not part of the base system (for example, desktop environments), can be done with either pacstrap, or Pacman after booting (or chrooting) into the new installation. An alternative to using CD or USB images for installation is to use the static version of the package manager Pacman, from within another Linux-based operating system. The user can mount their newly formatted drive partition, and use pacstrap (or Pacman with the appropriate command-line switch) to install base and additional packages with the mountpoint of the destination device as the root for its operations. This method is useful when installing Arch Linux onto USB flash drives, or onto a temporarily mounted device which belongs to another system.

Regardless of the selected installation type, further actions need to be taken before the new system is ready for use, most notably by installing a bootloader and configuring the new system with a system name, network connection, language settings, and graphical user interface.

Arch Linux does not schedule releases for specific dates but uses a "rolling release" system where new packages are provided throughout the day. Its package management allows users to easily keep systems updated.

Occasionally, manual interventions are required for certain updates, with instructions posted on the news section of the Arch Linux website.

Guided automated install script
An experimental guided installer named archinstall is included in all Arch ISO images released since 2021. It allows users to easily install and configure Arch Linux including drivers, disk partitioning, network configuration, accounts setup, and installation of desktop environments.

pacman
All packages are managed using Pacman, a package manager written specifically for Arch Linux. Pacman handles package installation, upgrades, downgrades, removal and features automatic dependency resolution. The packages for Arch Linux are obtained from the Arch Linux package tree and are compiled for the x86-64 architecture.

Pacman typically uses binary packages with a  extension, (for zstd compression), with  placed before this to indicate that it is a Pacman package (giving  ); though other compression formats are also valid, such as.

For example, packages can be installed via, and    can be used to perform a full system upgrade.

As well as Arch Linux, Pacman is also used for installing packages under MSYS2 (a fork of Cygwin) on Windows.

Repositories
The following official binary repositories exist: Additionally, there are testing repositories which include binary package candidates for other repositories. Currently, the following testing repositories exist: The core-staging and extra-staging repositories are used for some rebuilds to avoid broken packages in testing. The developers recommend not using these repositories for any reason, stating that any system updating from them will "unquestionably break."
 * core, which contains all the packages needed to set up a base system. Packages in this repository include kernel packages and shell languages.
 * extra, which holds packages not required for the base system, including desktop environments and programs.
 * multilib, a centralized repository for x86-64 users to more readily support 32-bit applications in a 64-bit environment. Packages in this repository include Steam and Wine.
 * core-testing, with packages for core.
 * extra-testing, with packages for extra.
 * multilib-testing, with packages for multilib.

There are also two other repositories that include the newest version of certain desktop environments. The unstable repository was dropped in July 2008 and most of the packages moved to other repositories. The community repository was merged with extra and the testing and staging repositories were split in May 2023. In addition to the official repositories, there are a number of unofficial user repositories.
 * gnome-unstable, which contains packages of a new version of the software from GNOME before being released into testing.
 * kde-unstable, which contains packages of a new version of KDE software before being released into testing.

The most well-known unofficial repository is the Arch User Repository, or AUR, hosted on the Arch Linux site. The AUR does not host binary packages but instead a collection of build scripts known as PKGBUILDs. PKGBUILD scripts are executed by the  command, which downloads the necessary files from the software's repository and builds them using the Arch build system.

The Arch Linux repositories contain both libre and nonfree software, and the default Arch Linux kernel contains nonfree proprietary blobs, hence the distribution is not endorsed by the GNU project. The linux-libre kernel can be installed from the AUR or by enabling Parabola's repositories.

Arch build system (ABS)
The Arch build system (ABS) is a ports-like source packaging system that compiles source tarballs into binary packages, which are installed via Pacman. The Arch build system provides a directory tree of shell scripts, called PKGBUILDs, that enable any and all official Arch packages to be customized and compiled. Rebuilding the entire system using modified compiler flags is also supported by the Arch build system. The Arch build system  tool can be used to create custom   packages from third-party sources. The resulting packages are also installable and trackable via Pacman.

Arch User Repository (AUR)
In addition to the repositories, the Arch User Repository (AUR) provides user-made PKGBUILD scripts for packages not included in the repositories. These PKGBUILD scripts simplify building from source by explicitly listing and checking for dependencies and configuring the install to match the Arch architecture. Arch User Repository helper programs can further streamline the downloading of PKGBUILD scripts and associated building process. However, this comes at the cost of executing PKGBUILDs not validated by a trusted person; as a result, Arch developers have stated that the utilities for automatic finding, downloading and executing of PKGBUILDs will never be included in the official repositories.

Users can create packages compatible with Pacman using the Arch build system and custom PKGBUILD scripts. This functionality has helped support the Arch User Repository, which consists of user contributed packages to supplement the official repositories.

The Arch User Repository provides the community with packages that are not included in the repositories. Reasons include:
 * Licensing issues: software that cannot be redistributed, but is free to use, can be included in the Arch User Repository since all that is hosted by the Arch Linux website is a shell script that downloads the actual software from elsewhere. Examples include proprietary freeware such as Google Earth and RealPlayer.
 * Modified official packages: the Arch User Repository also contains many variations on the official packaging as well as beta versions of software that is contained within the repositories as stable releases.
 * Popularity of the software: rarely used programs have not been added to the official repositories (yet).
 * Betas or "nightly" versions of the software which are very new and thus unstable. Examples include the "firefox-nightly" package, which gives new daily builds of the Firefox web browser.

PKGBUILDs for any software can be contributed by ordinary users. Any PKGBUILD that has 10 or more votes or more than 1% usage from pkgstats can be promoted into the extra repository.

Reproducible builds
Arch Linux is working on making all official packages reproducible. This means that when a package is rebuilt in a different environment it should be bit-by-bit identical. This allows users and researchers to verify the integrity of the packages found in the official repository. The status of this effort can be monitored on the dedicated status page.

Derivatives
There are several projects working on porting the Arch Linux ideas and tools to other kernels, including PacBSD (formerly ArchBSD) and Arch Hurd, which are based on the FreeBSD and GNU Hurd kernels, respectively. There is also the Arch Linux ARM project, which aims to port Arch Linux to ARM-based devices, including the Raspberry Pi, as well as the Arch Linux 32 project, which continued support for systems with 32-bit only CPUs after the mainline Arch Linux project dropped support for the architecture in November 2017.

Various distributions are focused on providing an Arch base with an easier install process, such as EndeavourOS, CachyOS, Manjaro and Garuda Linux.

SteamOS 3.0, the version of SteamOS used in the Steam Deck by Valve, is based on Arch Linux.

Logo
The current Arch Linux logo was designed by Thayer Williams in 2007 as part of a contest to replace the previous logo.

Reception
OSNews reviewed Arch Linux in 2002. OSNews also has five later reviews about Arch Linux.

LWN.net wrote a review about Arch Linux in 2005. LWN.net also has two later reviews about Arch Linux.

Tux Machines reviewed Arch Linux in 2007.

Chris Smart from DistroWatch Weekly wrote a review about Arch Linux in January 2009. DistroWatch Weekly reviewed Arch Linux again in September 2009 and in December 2015.

The Linux kernel developer and maintainer Greg Kroah-Hartman (GKH) has stated that he uses Arch Linux and that it "works really really well". He has also praised the Arch Wiki, the distribution's rolling release model, and the feedback loop with the community.

In a 2023 DistroWatch poll, about half of the responders maintained that they were running either Arch (17%) or an Arch derivative (30%). As of 2023, Arch also enjoys the highest average rating of any Linux distribution on DistroWatch with a rating of 9.34.

title: Arch Linux


text:
Boyle Roche

Sir Boyle Roche, 1st Baronet (October 1736 – 5 June 1807) was an Irish politician. After a distinguished career in North America with the British Army, Roche became a member of the Irish House of Commons in 1775, generally acting in support of the viceregal government. He is better remembered for the language of his speeches than for his politics – they were riddled with mixed metaphors ("Mr Speaker, I smell a rat; I see him forming in the air and darkening the sky; but I'll nip him in the bud"), malapropisms and other unfortunate turns of phrase ("Why we should put ourselves out of our way to do anything for posterity, for what has posterity ever done for us?" ). Roche may have been Richard Brinsley Sheridan's model for Mrs Malaprop. While arguing for a bill, Roche once said, "It would surely be better, Mr. Speaker, to give up not only a part, but, if necessary, even the whole, of our constitution, to preserve the remainder!"

While these Irish bulls have led many writers to portray Roche as a buffoon, other biographers have interpreted them not as blunders, but as calculated attempts to disarm opposition to ministerial policies through humour. Roche ended his political career with the passage of the Act of Union 1800, which he supported. He chose not to attempt to enter the British House of Commons and retired on a government pension until his death, married but childless, in 1807.

Early life, family background and military service
Boyle Roche was born, the youngest of three sons, to Jordan Roche and Ellen White in County Galway in 1736. His was an old and respectable Protestant family, said to be a junior branch of the ancient baronial house of Roche, Viscount Fermoy from which Diana, Princess of Wales, descended. The family were also no strangers to politics: Roche's great-grandfather had been elected mayor of Limerick four times. Roche's older brother was Tiger Roche, a celebrated duellist and adventurer.

Boyle Roche entered the army at an early age, and served in the so-called American war (that is, the American portion of the Seven Years' War). There are reports of a Lieutenant Boyle Roche in Rogers' Rangers who was captured by the French during The Battle on Snowshoes (near what is now Lake George, New York in March 1758) and later returned to his regiment. It is possible that Roche served with Wolfe at the Siege of Quebec in 1759; it is a certainty that he distinguished himself in 1762 during the capture of El Morro in Havana. By 1770 he had become a major in the 28th Foot. He was knighted for his bravery at El Morro in 1776.

Retiring from the army, he obtained an office in the Irish revenue department in 1775. In the same year, Boyle Roche entered the Irish House of Commons as Member of Parliament (MP) for Tralee, a seat he held until 1776.

Although he was one of the first volunteers to fight the rebellious colonials in 1776, his contribution to that conflict was mainly in the area of recruitment—he successfully enlisted 500 volunteers in one weekend in Limerick alone, a feat which so gratified Lord Kenmare that he paid Roche an additional bounty of half a guinea per man. Roche's flamboyant recruiting methods were described by the Edinburgh Advertiser as follows: Yesterday Major BOYLE Roche, representative in parliament for Tralee (who is raising a body of men for his Majesty's service) began recruiting here, and met with great success, which is not surprising, if we consider his connexions, and the uncommon support he has received from the noblemen and gentlemen of this province. His method of enlisting was as uncommon as it was pleasing to those who viewed the procession, which was as follows: Major Roche, bearing a large purse of gold. Captain Cowley. A great number of likely recruits. An elegant band of music, consisting of French horns, hautboys [oboes], clarionets, and bassoons, playing God Save the King. A large brewer's dray, with five-barrels of beer, the horse richly caparisoned and ornamented with ribbands. Two draymen with cockades to serve the beer, The recruiting serjeant. Drums [and] fifes. Another division of recruits. The returning soldiers. Prodigious concourse of [spectators?]. The following speech was made by Major Roche to the populace: Being appointed, through the favour of [our] most excellent governor, to raise a body of men for the service of his Majesty, I think it [a] most happy circumstance of my life to be the instrument of leading you to honour and renown. The laurels fought for and obtained in all parts [of] the globe [through] war, have procured us a fame so glorious as not to be equalled by people in any fame not to be sullied by the assaults of prejudice, nor the effects of time: not an action in which we were not victorious, not a siege in which we were not honoured. Will you, my dear countrymen, permit those laurels to fade, or those actions to be forgotten? No, forbid it, heaven! Let us now that we have it in our power convey to later posterity a renewal of our fidelity, and a confirmation of our loyalty. A more critical period never presented itself, nor had we ever a fairer opportunity of shewing our attachment to the illustrious house of Hanover, than the present, as his Majesty's deluded subjects in America are in open rebellion, and like unnatural children, wound their ever indulgent parent, forgetting the torrents of blood spilt, and heap of treasure expended for their preservation. His Sacred Majesty now calls and our fidelity obliges us, and I hope your instinct prompts you, to obey the dictates of so [grand] a master. Let us then, my brave and loyal countrymen, join hearts and hands and cheerfully step forth in the glorious cause of our Creator, our King and our Country.

In Dublin, Roche was a member of the Kildare Street Club.

Member of Parliament
Roche continued on in the Grattan Parliament, representing Gowran from 1777 to 1783, Portarlington from 1784 to 1790, Tralee (again) from 1790 to 1798 and Old Leighlin from 1798 until the union with Great Britain in 1801. From the beginning of his parliamentary career Roche ranged himself on the side of the government, and for his services he was granted a pension, appointed chamberlain to the viceregal court, and on 30 November 1782 was created a baronet. For the office of chamberlain he was thought to be "eminently qualified by his handsome figure, graceful address and ready wit, qualities which were set off by a frank, open and manly disposition."

It was during this period (in 1782) that Roche coined the term "Protestant Ascendancy".

Apparently, members of the cabinet wrote speeches for Sir Boyle which he somewhat imperfectly committed to memory, in general mastering the substance but frequently producing, through his love of language and ornament, travesties on the original words. Through this he gained his lasting reputation as an inveterate perpetrator of Irish bulls.

Boyle's memory was indeed excellent. On one occasion he illustrated both the accuracy of his memory and the audacity of his character at the expense of a brother member. Edmond Stanley, anxious to produce an effect in an important debate, had been at pains to reduce his speech to writing. Unluckily, Stanley happened to drop his manuscript in the coffee-room, and walked back into the House unconscious of his loss. Sir Boyle, finding the document, speedily mastered its contents, and, rising at the first opportunity, delivered the speech almost verbatim in the hearing of its dismayed and astonished author. His apology afterward only added insult to injury:

"Here, my dear Stanley, is your speech again, and I thank you kindly for the loan of it. I never was so much at a loss for a speech in the whole course of my life, and sure it is not a pin the worse for the wear."

On another occasion, he amused and relieved the House, irritated by the prospect of being obliged to listen to the reading of a mass of documents as a preliminary to a resolution, by suggesting that a dozen or so clerks be called in who might read the documents simultaneously and thus dispose of the business in a few minutes.

Beyond these efforts, he was also the author of a bill to enact, among other things, that "Every quart bottle should contain a quart."

The Volunteer Convention
The chief service Boyle Roche rendered his government was in connection with the Volunteer Convention of November 1783, in which he "acted a part only less remarkable than his immunity from the opprobrium which might have been expected to attach to it." The question of admitting the Roman Catholics to the franchise was at the time being agitated, and found many warm supporters in the convention. The proposal was extremely obnoxious to the Irish government, and on the second day of the meeting the secretary of state, George Ogle, announced that the Roman Catholics, in the person of Lord Kenmare, had relinquished the idea of making any claim further than the religious liberty they then enjoyed, and gave as his authority for this extraordinary statement Sir Boyle Roche, by whom it was confirmed!

Ten days later Lord Kenmare (who had not been in Dublin at the time) denied that he had given the least authority to any person to make any such statement in his name. However, his disavowal came too late: the anti-Catholic party in the convention had found time to organize themselves, and when the intended Reform Bill took shape it was known that the admission of Roman Catholics to the franchise was not to form part of the scheme.

Several months later (on Valentine's Day), Sir Boyle explained himself in a public letter, starting with a description of his alarm upon hearing that the bishop of Derry (then Frederick Hervey) and his associates were bent on extending the legislative privilege:

I thought a crisis was arrived in which Lord Kenmare and the heads of that body should step forth to disavow those wilde projects, and to profess their attachment to the lawful powers. Unfortunately, his lordship was at a great distance, and most of my other friends were out of the way. I therefore resolved on a bold stroke, and authorized only by the sentiments of the persons in question, [took action].

He added that while he regretted that his message had been disowned by Lord Kenmare, that was of less consequence, since his manoeuvre had succeeded to admiration. Some believe that Sir Boyle, who was related to Lord Kenmare and often represented his views in Commons, was also stating Lord Kenmare's true views on this occasion and doing so with his full knowledge, but in a way that provided Kenmare plausible deniability.

Sir Boyle fought hard for the Union:

Gentlemen may tither, and tither, and tither, and may think it a bad measure; but their heads at present are hot, and will so remain till they grow cool again, and so they can't decide right now, but when the day of judgement comes then honourable gentlemen will be satisfied with this most excellent union.

For himself, he declared that his love for England and Ireland was so great that he "would have the two sisters embrace like one brother."

His life in politics
Those who placidly accept the judgement that Boyle Roche was "the Fool of the Grattan Parliament" should reflect on the fact that for almost 25 years he served as Gentleman Usher and Master of Ceremonies to the Irish Court, "an office for which a dignified and decorous demeanor is among the chief essentials."

Roche was also capable of humour which was both subtle and unquestionably intentional. Once, upon hearing his opponent John Philpot Curran expostulate that he could be "the guardian of his own honour", Sir Boyle offered his "congratulations to the honourable member on his possession of a sinecure." On another occasion, when the Opposition tried to cough him down in a debate, Sir Boyle met the interruption by producing some bullets, with the observation "I have here some excellent pills to cure a cough." His personal courage being beyond dispute, this jest was quite sufficient in those duelling days to procure attention for the remainder of his speech.

Marriage, retirement and death

On 20 October 1778, Boyle Roche married Mary Frankland of Great Thirkleby Hall, near Thirsk, Yorkshire, daughter of Admiral Sir Thomas Frankland, Bt, whose family name goes back to the time of William the Conqueror. Although childless, Boyle and Lady Mary appeared to have lived a life of uninterrupted happiness.

After the Union and the dissolution of the Irish Parliament, Boyle received a £400 pension, and in addition £300 annually in his capacity as "Surveyor of Kenmare River," a post which had been invented as a reward and required no work. Thus provided for, he was able to spend the rest of his days in comfort.

Boyle Roche died at his house in 63 Eccles Street, Dublin, on 5 June 1807, and was buried in St. Mary's Church, Dublin, on 9 June. Mary lived on until 1831.

Boyle Roche's bird
Roche is perhaps best known for once excusing an absence in Parliament thus: "Mr. Speaker, it is impossible I could have been in two places at once, unless I were a bird." This quotation was referenced by Ambrose Bierce in The Devil's Dictionary in his definition of ubiquity: In recent times ubiquity has not always been understood—not even by Sir Boyle Roche, for example, who held that a man cannot be in two places at once unless he is a bird. But Roche was not uttering a malapropism here, he was quoting, and quoting correctly. The line appears in Jevon's play, The Devil of a Wife, as follows:

 * Wife: I cannot be in two places at once.

 * Husband (Rowland): Surely no, unless thou wert a bird.

title: Boyle Roche


text:
Ashley Johnson

Ashley Suzanne Johnson (born August 9, 1983) is an American actress. She became known as a child actress for her role as Chrissy Seaver on the sitcom Growing Pains (1990–1992). As an adult, her television roles include Amber Ahmed on The Killing (2011–2012) and Patterson on Blindspot (2015–2020). She has appeared in films such as What Women Want (2000), The Help (2011), and Much Ado About Nothing (2012), and is a cast member on the Dungeons & Dragons web series Critical Role (2015–present). She became the president of the show's charity branch, the Critical Role Foundation, upon its launch in 2020.

As a voice actress, Johnson is known for providing the voice and motion capture of Ellie in The Last of Us (2013), The Last of Us: Left Behind (2014), and The Last of Us Part II (2020). She also voiced animated television characters Gretchen Grundler on Recess (1997–2001), Terra on Teen Titans (2004–2006) and Teen Titans Go! (2013–present), Jinmay on Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! (2004–2006), Gwen Tennyson in the Ben 10 franchise (2008–2014), Renet Tilley on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012), Shiseru on Naruto: Shippuden (2015), and Tulip Olsen and Lake on Infinity Train (2019–2020), as well as the video game characters Gortys in Tales from the Borderlands (2014) and Petra in Minecraft: Story Mode (2015–2016) and its sequel (2017).

Johnson has won two BAFTA Games Awards for Performer, winning once each for her performances in The Last of Us and The Last of Us: Left Behind and becoming the only person to have won the award more than once. She also received multiple nominations for her performance in The Last of Us Part II.

Early life
Ashley Suzanne Johnson was born in Camarillo, California, on August 9, 1983, the daughter of former test pilot Nancy (née Spruiell) and exploration ship captain Cliff Johnson. She is of Norwegian descent. She has an older brother named Chris and an older sister named Haylie, both of whom have also worked as actors. Her sister later married singer and musician Jonny Lang. Her father was often away for months at a time and would bring back souvenirs from countries such as Japan. He started a new job nine days after Johnson was born and subsequently moved the family to Franklin, Michigan, where they lived for a few years before returning to California and settling in Los Angeles. Johnson attended school in nearby Burbank when her acting career allowed, but otherwise had an on-set teacher. She later studied violin and piano at the International School of Music in Glendale. When she was 16, her father died of complications from hepatitis C and cancer of the liver and lungs. Johnson needed a back brace for three years due to scoliosis and kyphosis, which affected her high school years.

Career
Johnson's career began at age six, when she played the role of Chrissy Seaver on the sitcom Growing Pains from 1990 to 1992. The character's age was accelerated from a toddler between seasons for plotting purposes. By the time she was 12, Johnson had been in the casts of eight television series. She later reprised her role as Chrissy in The Growing Pains Movie and Growing Pains: Return of the Seavers. In the one season series Phenom (1993–94), she played the mischievous younger sister of a rising teenage tennis star. She appeared in the 1994 sitcom All-American Girl, which also lasted for only one season. She played DJ's overbearing girlfriend Lisa in the Roseanne episode "The Blaming of the Shrew". During the 1995–96 ABC lineup, she played Gracie Wallace in the sitcom Maybe This Time. She played Alex Marshall in the 2000 comedy What Women Want. In 2008, she became a regular on the drama Dirt as Sharlee Cates. In 2009, Johnson appeared in "Omega", the first-season finale of Joss Whedon's Dollhouse.

In 2012, she appeared in The Avengers (also directed by Whedon) as Beth, the waitress who is saved by Captain America. She was intended to appear in future films as his newest love interest (as implied in a brief scene in the film), but that plan was shelved and instead actress Emily VanCamp's Sharon Carter character became involved with Rogers. Although her role was minor, the Blu-ray edition of The Avengers contains some deleted scenes that expand her role in the film and further her interactions with Rogers. From 2015 to 2020, Johnson played FBI forensic specialist Patterson in the NBC drama series Blindspot.

As a voice actress, Johnson's earlier roles included Sean in the English dub of The First Snow of Winter, Gretchen Grundler on Disney's Recess, Terra in the second and fifth seasons of Teen Titans, Jinmay on Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! and Gwen Tennyson in the Ben 10 franchise. A major voice role came when she provided the voice and motion capture for Ellie in the PlayStation action-adventure game The Last of Us, which was released to critical acclaim and commercial success. She won a video game BAFTA for Best Performer, a VGX Award for Best Voice Actress, and a D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Character Performance for her role in the game. On March 12, 2015, she won another BAFTA for Best Performer for the same role in the game's downloadable content, The Last of Us: Left Behind. In 2015, she voiced Petra the Warrior in Minecraft: Story Mode by Telltale Games and Mojang. In 2016, she voiced Tulip Olsen in the pilot for Infinity Train and reprised the role for the series in 2019, additionally voicing Lake and the Steward.

In 2020, Johnson reprised the role of Ellie in The Last of Us Part II. For her performance, she was nominated for Best Performance at The Game Awards 2020, for Outstanding Achievement in Character at the 24th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, and for Best Performer in a Leading Role at the 17th British Academy Games Awards. She portrayed Ellie's mother, Anna, in the live-action adaptation of The Last of Us. On her performance in the adaptation, The Daily Beast commented that "with less than 10 minutes of screen time, Johnson gives us one of the best scenes of The Last of Us".

Johnson appeared in several Geek & Sundry shows, including playing occult specialist Morgan on the web series Spooked, as well as the Alhambra and Dead of Winter episodes on the board gaming web series TableTop. In 2015, she began playing Pike Trickfoot on the Dungeons & Dragons actual play show Critical Role; in 2018, she began playing Yasha Nydoorin in the show's second campaign. Critical Role was both the Webby Winner and the People's Voice Winner in the "Games (Video Series & Channels)" category at the 2019 Webby Awards; the show was also both a finalist and the Audience Honor Winner at the 2019 Shorty Awards. After becoming hugely successful, the Critical Role cast left the Geek & Sundry network in early 2019 and set up their own production company, Critical Role Productions. Soon after, they aimed to raise $750,000 on Kickstarter to create an animated series of their first campaign, but ended up raising over $11 million. In November 2019, Amazon Prime Video announced that they had acquired the streaming rights to this animated series, now titled The Legend of Vox Machina; Johnson reprised her role as Pike Trickfoot. In late 2020, she was made president of the Critical Role Foundation, the studio's charity branch. In June 2021, she was added to the cast of Exandria Unlimited, an anthology spinoff of Critical Role. Three months later, she served as gamemaster for The Nautilus Ark, her own one-shot episode on the Critical Role channel. In October 2021, Johnson's Exandria Unlimited character Fearne returned in Critical Role's third campaign.

Johnson set up a photography company called Infinity Pictures with Mila Shah, her childhood best friend who works as a production assistant and occasional actress; there have been no updates on the company for many years, though it is still registered as being active as of 2022. Johnson and Shah also co-hosted a podcast called Wildly Hot & Bothered, which ran for 13 episodes from 2012 to 2014. In 2015, they created and starred in Little Things, a web miniseries on YouTube about two friends living in Los Angeles and their habit of making awkward everyday situations even worse. The series was not released on YouTube until 2018.

Personal life
The first campaign of Critical Role began two years prior to the start of the series as a one-off, simplified Dungeons & Dragons game for Liam O'Brien's birthday. The players enjoyed the game so much that they continued to play it and brought in additional friends, including Johnson, who joined in the second game. After Felicia Day heard about the private home game from Johnson, she approached the group about playing it in a live-streamed format for Geek & Sundry.

Johnson enjoys singing and can play the guitar, piano, violin, and cello; she occasionally posted covers of songs on her SoundCloud page until late 2012. Her performance as Ellie in The Last of Us Part II included acoustic guitar covers of "Future Days" by Pearl Jam, "Take On Me" by A-ha, "True Faith" by New Order, and "Through the Valley" by Shawn James. She also joined co-star Troy Baker (in character as Ellie and Joel) to perform a cover of Johnny Cash's rendition of "Wayfaring Stranger", which plays over the end credits of the game. She later provided vocals for the Critical Role theme songs "Your Turn to Roll" and "It's Thursday Night".

In 2012, Johnson began dating writer and musician Brian W. Foster, who also went on to host the Critical Role after-show Talks Machina. Johnson was first introduced to Foster by Troy Baker when working on The Last of Us; Foster and Baker were then room-mates. The couple announced their engagement in December 2018. In May 2023, it was reported that Johnson had separated from Foster and filed a restraining order against him, citing abuse and threats. All videos and mentions of Foster were subsequently wiped from the online profiles of Critical Role. In October 2023, Johnson and six other women (including her sister and two Critical Role employees) filed a lawsuit against Foster that alleged assault, domestic violence, gender violence, sexual battery, stalking, civil rights violations, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.

title: Ashley Johnson


text:
Will Friedle

William Alan Friedle (born August 11, 1976) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Eric Matthews on the ABC sitcom Boy Meets World (1993–2000).

In animation, Friedle's first voice acting role was the lead role in Batman Beyond (1999–2001) where he provided the voice of Terry McGinnis / Batman. He also voiced Kim Possible 's sidekick, Ron Stoppable (2002–07), Doyle Blackwell on The Secret Saturdays (2008), Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle on Batman: The Brave and the Bold (2008–11), Lion-O on the 2011 reboot of ThunderCats (2011–12), Bumblebee in the Transformers franchise (2013–16), Star-Lord on Guardians of the Galaxy (2015–19), and Kashaw Vesh in The Legend of Vox Machina (2022).

Early life
Friedle was born in Hartford, Connecticut, the youngest of three boys of Patricia Joan (née Leary) and Gary Allen Friedle, both lawyers. His older brothers are Gary and Greg Friedle. After committing himself to becoming an actor, Friedle continually commuted from Avon, Connecticut, to New York City for auditions. He graduated from Avon High School in 1994.

Friedle is allegedly credited on school brochures as having attended Occidental College. However, when interviewed on the February 11, 2019, episode of Critical Role: Between The Sheets, he admitted having never attended the school. He stated that he learned he was being inaccurately credited by Occidental College as being an alumnus when his nephew visited the school and showed him the information package. Occidental College is not able to confirm that Friedle was ever used on marketing brochures; however, co-star Rider Strong attended Occidental College briefly during the filming of Boy Meets World. Additionally, he stated that he studied Latin for six years because he intended to become an archaeologist eventually. In the July 4, 2006, issue of People, Friedle mentioned he had thought about attending culinary school.

Career
After co-hosting Nickelodeon's Don't Just Sit There for three seasons (1988–1991), Friedle's breakthrough came when he was cast as Cory Matthews's likeable but underachieving elder brother Eric on the long-running TV sitcom Boy Meets World from 1993 to 2000. In 1998, he starred with Elizabeth Harnois, Dabney Coleman, and Jay Thomas in My Date with the President's Daughter as part of The Wonderful World of Disney.

In 2004, he co-starred with Chris Owen in the independent film National Lampoon's Gold Diggers (originally titled Lady Killers). He also appeared in a supporting role in the 2005 ABC Family movie Everything You Want. Friedle was cast as Mike in the WB sitcom Off Centre, but could not accept the role because of a previous commitment to the UPN series The Random Years. The role ended up going to Eddie Kaye Thomas.

In December 2013, in spite of initial reluctance, it was announced that Friedle would reprise his Boy Meets World role of Eric Matthews on the sequel series Girl Meets World.

Voice acting

Friedle's first voice acting role was the lead role in Batman Beyond (1999–2001) where he provided the voice of Terry McGinnis / Batman. He has reprised this role in multiple DC animated projects such as The Zeta Project (2001), Static Shock (2004), Justice League Unlimited (2004), and Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths (2024). In April 2014, it was confirmed that Friedle reprised his Batman Beyond role of Terry McGinnis on the Batman Beyond short made by Darwyn Cooke to commemorate the 75th Anniversary of Batman.

Friedle voiced Seifer Almasy in the English-language version of the video game Kingdom Hearts II (2005), Gideon Wyeth in the English-language version of the video game Advent Rising (2005), and Jaster Rogue in the English-language version of the video game Rogue Galaxy (2005). From 2008 to 2011, he voiced Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle on Batman: The Brave and the Bold.

In 2013, Entertainment Weekly commented that "Friedle has largely ditched on-camera acting for voiceover work" although the "prolific voice actor" is "nevertheless best known as Eric Matthews, Cory's cute but dim brother on Boy Meets World". In 2015, Bustle highlighted that "after Boy Meets World was over, Friedle mostly went on to do mainly animated voice roles" and that he has "provided the voice of characters like Ron Stoppable (Kim Possible), Fang (Teen Titans), Ken Tennyson (Ben 10: Alien Force), and Kid Flash (Teen Titans Go!) — which is literally just a small handful of the numerous cartoons his voice can be heard in, either as a series regular or just for a single episode".

From 2015 to 2019, he starred as Star-Lord on Guardians of the Galaxy.

In 2022, he reprised his role of Kashaw Vesh in The Legend of Vox Machina, an adaptation of the web series Critical Role; he originally appeared as Kashaw in the first campaign (2015–2017) of the actual play as a guest player. On June 15, 2022, Friedle voiced the character Radiant Black in a promotional short for the comic's fifteenth issue. The short can be viewed on the official Black Market Narrative YouTube channel.

Podcasts and web series
From July 2017 to November 2018, Friedle hosted three seasons of the web series Geek & Sundry Painters Guild. The show originated from Friedle "painting" a miniature with "magic marker" and, after discovering this, Marisha Ray pitched Friedle on a show where he would be taught to paint miniatures correctly by various experts. After the conclusion of that series, Ray reached out to pitch Mini Primetime (2019) where Friedle would host a similar painting show for Critical Role's new YouTube channel. On June 27, 2019, the premiere episode of Christy's Kitchen Throwback featuring Friedle was uploaded to Christy Carlson Romano's YouTube channel.

Friedle and Romano co-hosted the podcast called I Hear Voices from 2022 to 2023 which was available on Romano's YouTube channel and other podcast providers. In June 2022, the podcast did a Kim Possible 20th anniversary special episode with creators Mark McCorkle and Bob Schooley and voice actors John DiMaggio (Drakken) and Nicole Sullivan (Shego), as well as a brand new Kim Possible scene with the four actors written by McCorkle and Schooley and directed by original voice director Lisa Schaffer. He has hosted the Boy Meets World rewatch podcast Pod Meets World with Danielle Fishel and Rider Strong.

In 2024, he began to co-host the rewatch podcast Magical Rewind with Sabrina Bryan which focuses on Disney Channel Original Movies.

Personal life
In 1997, Friedle dated actress Jennifer Love Hewitt, and co-starred with her in the romantic teen comedy Trojan War. Hewitt made a guest appearance as Jennifer Love "Feffy" Fefferman in the Boy Meets World episode "And Then There Was Shawn".

Friedle is best friends with actor Jason Marsden and was the best man at Marsden's wedding in October 2004. The two have also worked together in numerous productions: Boy Meets World (until Marsden's departure from the series in season 3 and his character Jason Marsden was eventually replaced by Matthew Lawrence's character Jack Hunter starting in season 5), Trojan War, Static Shock, Kim Possible, Batman Beyond, Justice League Unlimited, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, ThunderCats, Transformers: Rescue Bots and Mad.

He married his girlfriend, Susan Martens, on September 25, 2016, in Connecticut. His affectionate name for her is Mrs. Squirrels, referencing Eric's nickname "Plays With Squirrels" from the final season of Boy Meets World.

title: Will Friedle


text:
Sonora (disambiguation)

Sonora is a state in Mexico.

Sonora may also refer to:

Cities and towns

 * Sonora, Arizona
 * Sonora, Arkansas
 * Sonora, California
 * Sonora, Kentucky
 * Sonora, Missouri, a ghost town
 * Sonora, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Sonora, Texas
 * Sonora, Mato Grosso do Sul, a town in Brazil
 * Sonora, Nova Scotia, Canada

Other geography

 * Republic of Sonora, a former federal republic in northern Mexico
 * Sonoran Desert, a desert in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States
 * Sonora Island, one of the Discovery Islands in British Columbia, Canada
 * Sonora Reef, a reef off the west coast of Grays Harbor County, Washington
 * Sonora River, a river in Sonora, Mexico

Other uses

 * Sonora (snake), genus of snakes in the family Colubridae
 * Sonora High School (disambiguation)
 * Sonora, a Spanish schooner captained by Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra
 * Sonora (Mexico City Metrobús), a BRT station in Mexico City

title: Sonora (disambiguation)


text:
Indian River (Delaware)

The Indian River is a river and estuary, approximately 15 mi long, in Sussex County in southern Delaware in the United States. The river is named after a Native American reservation that was located on its upper reaches.

The Indian River rises approximately 2 mi southwest of Georgetown and flows east, past Millsboro, its head of navigation. It enters Indian River Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean south of Cape Henlopen. The lower 6 mi of the river form a navigable tidal estuary stretching westward from Indian River Bay, which is protected from the open ocean by two sand bar peninsulas. East of the bay is its mouth, the Indian River Inlet. Until 1928, the Indian River Inlet was a natural waterway that shifted up and down a two-mile (3.2 km) stretch of the coast. Dredging kept the inlet open in its current location between 1928 and 1937, and in 1938 the United States Army Corps of Engineers built jetties that hold it in place.

Roads cross the river in three places, at U.S. Route 113 (in Millsboro), Delaware Route 24/Delaware Route 30 (also in Millsboro), and Delaware Route 1 (at Indian River Inlet in the Delaware Seashore State Park). With the Indian River Inlet in a fixed place beginning in 1928, it became possible to build a bridge to span it, and the completion of the Ocean Highway (present-day Delaware Route 1 and now known as Coastal Highway) between Rehoboth Beach and Bethany Beach in 1933 prompted Delaware to build a span to connect the northern and southern segments of the highway. Since 1934, six bridges have spanned the inlet, all known informally as the Indian River Inlet Bridge, although all but the first officially were named the Charles W. Cullen Bridge. The current Indian River Inlet Bridge opened in 2012.

title: Indian River (Delaware)


text:
User:Vskjefst

I'm Vegard Skjefstad, currently living in Nesoddtangen, Norway. Visit me on the web at www.vegard.net.

title: User:Vskjefst


text:
Battle of Kharkov

The Battle of Kharkov was any one of four World War II battles in and near the Soviet city of Kharkov in modern Ukraine. In usage the term is sometimes indistinct, perhaps meaning the collection of all fighting at Kharkov including and in between the four named battles, or perhaps meaning just one of the battles without specifying which. For example, soldiers have received awards "for their action in the Battle of Kharkov".

The four named battles are:
 * First Battle of Kharkov, an October 1941 battle in which German troops captured the city
 * Second Battle of Kharkov, a May 1942 battle in which Soviet forces attempted to retake the city
 * Third Battle of Kharkov, a February 1943 battle in which Soviet forces were driven out again, and the Germans forces retook the city
 * Belgorod–Kharkov offensive operation, an August 1943 battle in which Soviet forces retook the city. In German nomenclature, the operation is usually referred to as the Fourth Battle of Kharkov.

title: Battle of Kharkov


text:
Mass trespass of Kinder Scout

The mass trespass of Kinder Scout was a trespass protest at Kinder Scout in the Peak District, Derbyshire, England, on 24 April 1932. The protest sought to highlight that walkers were denied access to areas of open countryside which had been fenced off by wealthy landowners who forbade public access. It was organised by communist leader and Jewish anti-fascist Benny Rothman, the secretary of the British Workers' Sports Federation and a member of the Young Communist League.

Although the mass trespass was a controversial strategy at the time, the imprisonment of some of the trespassers led to public outrage, which increased public support for open access land. Some of the trespassers went on to become successful activists and politicians, and some later died fighting against fascism during the Spanish Civil War.

Many details of the event such as the exact turnout of protesters, whether the trespass helped the cause of public access in the immediate aftermath of the event, and even whether some of the trespassers ever made it to the summit, have been heavily debated by historians.

Background
In the early 1800s the moorland of Kinder Scout was a popular area for hikers (known as ramblers) to visit and enjoy the natural beauty of the area. However, wealthy landowners began to guard the land zealously, forcefully evicting members of the public, leading to Kinder Scout being nicknamed "forbidden Kinder". All legal attempts to open the land failed as the landowners were unwilling to compromise, and landowners began attacking members of the public with dogs. Without any evidence, the landowners claimed that hikers disturbed grouse bird nesting, which the landowners sought to profit from.

During the 1930s, there was increasing pressure for greater public freedom to access mountains and moorlands as members of the public sought to escape the grim conditions of towns and cities. There was also a massive increase in sports clubs led by Marxist political activists, who opposed the private ownership of large areas of countryside. Frustrated by the lack of progress achieved through lobbying parliament to grant the public free access to the countryside, some activists took to illegally trespassing on privately owned countryside as a form of protest against wealthy landowners.

The mass trespass of Kinder Scout, 1932
The 1932 trespass was a coordinated protest involving three groups of walkers who approached Kinder Scout from different directions at the same time. Accounts of the numbers involved vary widely: a Times article at the time reported that it was about 100, Benny Rothman claimed it was between 600 and 800, and poet and folk singer Ewan MacColl, who participated in the walk and wrote a song sung by the walkers, remembered it as over 3,000. The generally accepted figure is that reported by the Manchester Guardian at the time, of an estimated 400 people. The trespassers began at Bowden Bridge quarry near Hayfield. They proceeded via William Clough to the plateau of Kinder Scout, where there were violent scuffles with gamekeepers. The ramblers were able to reach their destination and meet with another group at Ashop Head. On the return, five ramblers were arrested, with another detained earlier. Trespass was not and is not a criminal offence in England, but some received jail sentences of two to six months for offences relating to violence involving the keepers.

Political effects
According to the Hayfield Kinder Trespass Group website, this act of civil disobedience was one of the most successful in British history. It arguably led to the passage of the National Parks legislation in 1949 and helped pave way for the establishment of the Pennine Way and other long-distance footpaths. Walkers' rights to travel through common land and uncultivated upland were eventually protected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act (CROW Act) of 2000. Though controversial when it occurred, it has been interpreted as the embodiment of "working class struggle for the right to roam versus the rights of the wealthy to have exclusive use of moorlands for grouse shooting."

The Kinder mass trespass was one of a number of protests at the time seeking greater access to the moorlands of the northern Peak District. What set it apart from the others was it marked a new and more radical approach to the problem which was not universally popular with rambling groups. The harshness of the sentences imposed on the leaders of the protest was headline news in local and national newspapers, resulting in the issue gaining public attention and sympathy. The subsequent access rally staged in Winnats Pass attracted 10,000 people to attend in support of greater access to the adjacent moorland. An unintended consequence of the mass trespass was greater interest being paid to ramblers' behaviour and potential ways to regulate it. This resulted in a 'Code of Courtesy for the Countryside' being produced, which was a forerunner of the modern Countryside Code.

Revisionism on the Kinder Scout trespass
A number of writers have criticised the narrative of the success of the Kinder Scout trespass. In 2011, historian David Hey questioned the narrative of the Kinder Scout trespass as "a simple explanation of the triumph of the 'right to roam' movement". According to Hey, the trespass on balance did "more harm than good". In 2002, Philip Day of the Manchester Ramblers' Federation stated the trespass was commonly used by opponents of the access movement as an argument for denying access even into the 1950s and 1960s, bringing a "positive hindrance" to the efforts of the movement. In 1989, walkers' rights activist Tom Stephenson challenged the assertion that the trespassers had reached the summit of Kinder Scout, saying they made it only as far as Ashop Head. In 2013, historian John K. Walton questioned the absolutism of this revisionism. He advocated for a post-revisionist stance on the mass trespass, acknowledging its positive effects both in the short and long term. He pointed to its symbolic role in the access campaign over the rest of the century that led to the CROW act.

Commemoration

Ewan MacColl (then known by his real name, Jimmie Miller) anticipated these events in his 1932 song "The Manchester Rambler". The events form the subject of the song "You Can (Mass Trespass, 1932)" on Chumbawamba's 2005 album A Singsong and a Scrap and inspiration for "Walking in the Footsteps of Giants" by northern folk band Harp and a Monkey.

Each year, a combination of wardens and rangers from both The National Trust and the Peak District National Park Authority hold a walking event to mark the anniversary of the trespass. A commemorative plaque marks the start of the trespass at Bowden Bridge quarry near Hayfield, now a popular area for ramblers. It was unveiled in April 1982 by Benny Rothman (then aged 70) during a rally to mark the 50th anniversary.

The Young Communist League hikes up Kinder Scout every year on their annual Communist Summer Camp to commemorate their involvement in the trespass.

title: Mass trespass of Kinder Scout


text:
George Cubitt, 1st Baron Ashcombe

George Cubitt, 1st Baron Ashcombe, (4 June 1828 – 26 February 1917) of Denbies House, Dorking, Surrey, was a British politician and peer, a son of Thomas Cubitt, the leading London builder and property developer of his day.

Education and career
Cubitt was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated with first a BA and later took his honorary MA. He won election as a Conservative MP for West Surrey from 1860 to 1885, and then for Epsom until 1892, when elevated to the Lords as Baron Ashcombe, of Dorking, in the County of Surrey and of Bodiam Castle, in the County of Sussex, having been invested as a Privy Counsellor in 1880. He also served as Honorary Colonel of the 5th Battalion, Royal West Surrey Regiment, and Deputy Lieutenant of the counties of both Surrey and Middlesex.

Hansard shows he made 81 speeches or questions in Parliament, from 1863 to 1909, including contributing in four years of the 1890s and two years of the 1900s.

Legacies
Denbies, a large hillside north of Dorking, Surrey was part of the inheritance from his father; Cubitt lived in the mansion built by his father there until 1905, much of which has been taken up by a viticulture centre, spa hotel, restaurant and vineyard.

Upmarket street Ashcombe Road in Dorking is named after his peerage as is its amenity The Ashcombe School, the town's main senior school.

Through his funds he founded a landmark, hilltop church of St Barnabas, Ranmore Common, provided for the Denbies Estate's owners and employees. Collaborative historians' work the Victoria County History states it is "a handsome stone church, with chancel, nave, and aisles in 13th-century style".

Cubitt purchased Bodiam Castle and its 24 acre from Fuller's grandson in 1849, possibly local farmer Thomas Levett, descendant of an old Sussex family and owner of Court Lodge Farm a seller in a later smaller sale nearby, for over £5,000 (£0 today).. Lord Curzon decided that "so rare a treasure [as Bodiam Castle] should neither be lost to our country nor desecrated by irreverent hands". Curzon made enquiries about buying the castle, but Cubitt did not wish to sell. However, after Cubitt's death, Curzon was able to make a deal with Cubitt's son; he bought the castle and its lands in 1916. Curzon began a programme of investigation at Bodiam in 1919, and with architect William Weir more greatly restored parts of the castle. Its museum, design and authenticity make it a significant English tourist attraction.

While an MP for West Surrey, Cubitt and his wife Laura, Lady Ashcombe were among the founders and benefactors of St Catherine's School in Bramley, Surrey in 1885. One of the schoolhouses was named in his honour after his death. His wife's gift to the school was a Sanatorium, which cared for sick pupils. A stained glassed window in the school chapel, dedicated to St Cecilia, was created by Cubitt in remembrance of his wife after she died in 1904. The patron of the school is their great-great-granddaughter Queen Camilla.

His will passed assets worth GB£42168 1917 its executor being his surviving son.

Death and burial
He died on 26 February 1917 and was buried in the churchyard of St Barnabas's.

Family
Cubitt married Laura Joyce, daughter of James Joyce, Vicar of Dorking, on 14 June 1853 and with her had 9 children; 3 sons, though only the third, Henry, survived beyond infancy, and 6 daughters, one of whom died in infancy:

 * Geoffrey George Cubitt (born 31 May 1854, died 6 June 1855)
 * Thomas Edmund Wilfred Cubitt (born 5 August 1859, died 17 May 1865)
 * Henry Cubitt (born 14 March 1867, died 27 October 1947) - succeeded his father as the 2nd Baron Ashcombe
 * Helen Laura Cubitt (died 16 August 1939)
 * Mary Agnes Cubitt (died 6 February 1944) - married Rev. Edward Arthur Chichester
 * Adelaide Laura Cubitt (died 3 November 1922) - married Richard Anthony Fuller-Maitland
 * Mildred Sophia Cubitt (died 9 March 1930) - married George William Tallents
 * Mabel Georgina Cubitt (died 5 November 1865)
 * Beatrice Hayward Cubitt (died 12 February 1963) - married William Archibald Calvert

He is the maternal great-great grandfather of Queen Camilla, wife of King Charles III.

title: George Cubitt, 1st Baron Ashcombe