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Northern Illinois University

Northern Illinois University (NIU) is a public research university in DeKalb, Illinois. It was founded as Northern Illinois State Normal School in 1895 by Illinois Governor John P. Altgeld, initially to provide the state with college-educated teachers. In addition to the main campus in DeKalb, it has satellite centers in Chicago, Naperville, Rockford, and Oregon, Illinois.

The university is composed of seven degree-granting colleges and has a student body of approximately 16,000. NIU is one of seven public universities in Illinois that compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's, Division I. The athletic teams are known as the Huskies and compete in the Mid-American Conference (MAC).

History

Northern Illinois University was founded as part of the expansion of the normal school program established in 1857 in Normal, Illinois. In 1895, the state legislature created a board of trustees for the governance of the Northern Illinois State Normal School, which would grow into what is today known as NIU.

In July 1917, the Illinois Senate consolidated the boards of trustees for the five state normal schools (Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Illinois State Normal School, Northern Illinois State Normal School, Southern Illinois State Normal University, and Western Illinois State Normal School) into one state Normal School Board.

Over the next fifty-eight years, the school and the governing board changed their names several times. In 1921, the legislature gave the institution the name Northern Illinois State Teachers College and empowered it to award the four-year Bachelor of Education degree. In 1941, the Normal School Board changed its name to the Teachers College Board. In 1951 the Teachers College Board authorized the college to grant the degree Master of Science in education, and the institution's Graduate School was established. On July 1, 1955, the state legislature renamed the college Northern Illinois State College and authorized the college to broaden its educational services by offering academic work in areas other than teacher education. The Teachers College Board granted permission for the college to add curricula leading to the degrees Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science. On July 1, 1957, the Seventieth General Assembly renamed Northern Illinois State College as Northern Illinois University in recognition of its expanded status as a liberal arts university.

In 1965, the Illinois State Teachers College Board became the Board of Governors of State Colleges and Universities and was reorganized to include Northeastern University, Governor's State, and Chicago State Universities. In 1967 authority for Northern Illinois University, Illinois State University, and Sangamon State University were passed on to a newly formed board of regents. In 1984, the board created the position of chancellor for the three regent universities to act as a chief executive for all three schools. In 1996, authority for each of the three regency universities was transferred to three independent boards of trustees, each concerned with only one university.

In 2008, the university drew international attention when a gunman opened fire in a crowd of students on campus, killing five students and injuring 17 more people before fatally shooting himself.

University presidents
13 presidents have served at the university.

 * John Williston Cook (1899–1919)
 * J. Stanley Brown (1919–1927)
 * Joseph Clifton Brown (1927–1929)
 * Karl L. Adams (1929–1948)
 * Leslie A. Holmes (1949–1967)
 * Rhoten A. Smith (1967–1971)
 * Richard J. Nelson (1971–1978)
 * William R. Monat (1978–1984)
 * Clyde Wingfield (1985–1986)
 * John E. La Tourette (1986–2000)
 * John G. Peters (2000–2013)
 * Douglas D. Baker (2013–2017)
 * Lisa C. Freeman (2017–present)

Academics

NIU has seven degree-granting colleges that together offer more than 60 undergraduate majors, 70 minors, nine pre-professional programs, and 79 graduate programs, including a College of Law, and 24 areas of study leading to doctoral degrees. Many of NIU's academic programs are nationally accredited for meeting the highest standards of academic quality and rigor, including business, engineering, nursing, visual and performing arts, and all teacher certification programs. New interdisciplinary academic programs in Environmental Studies and Community Leadership and Civic Engagement were established in FY 2012.

Rankings
In 2021, Northern Illinois University was ranked the 97th top college in the United States by Payscale and CollegeNet's Social Mobility Index college rankings. In 2024, NIU was classified as a National University by U.S. News & World Report and ranked number 269 out of 339 in the category. The same publication also ranked NIU as 57th best in the country for Public Affairs programs, and within that field, NIU was ranked 4th for Local Government Management and 11th for Public Finance & Budgeting. Forbes magazine placed NIU as number 386 on its list of 600 universities in 2021.

Science and research
NIU is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". The university is also a member of the Universities Research Association that manages several federal physics laboratories including Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. The university is expanding its program in accelerator technology.

Established in 1963, Northern Illinois University's Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS) is currently one of seven federally recognized National Resource Centers (NRC) for Southeast Asian foreign language and area studies. NIU has been awarded the Title VI Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) Fellowships since 1974 and Undergraduate NRC grants since 1997. NIU's CSEAS operates within the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and offers an undergraduate minor and a graduate concentration in Southeast Asian studies, enrolling more than 1,500 students each year.

Campus
The main campus sits on 756 acres in DeKalb and includes 64 major buildings. Additional campus sites include, the Lorado Taft Field Campus (144 acres), Rockford Campus (10 acres), and the Naperville Campus (11.2 acres).

One of the most prominent buildings on campus is the castle-like Altgeld Hall. It is one of the five castle-themed buildings built according to the suggestion of Governor John Peter Altgeld. The auditorium in Altgeld Hall, which was designed to also function as a ballroom, was restored and can seat up to 500. On the level below the auditorium, the original gym was transformed into a computer classroom. Also on the same level is the NIU Art Museum which occupies two large spaces.

The East Lagoon near Altgeld is a recreation spot on campus. The Holmes Student Center also houses a 78-room hotel.

Residence halls
NIU's residence halls (including two complexes with four 12-story towers each) provide several living options to on-campus students. Living-learning floors include the Health Professions House; Business Careers House; Teacher Education and Certification House (TEACH); Honors House; International House; Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics (STEM) House; and Fine Arts House. Other floor options include all-men, all-women, transfers, quiet lifestyle and alcohol-free.

Northern View Community, which opened in 2008, offers apartments to undergraduate students who are at least two years post-high school, graduate students, law students, or any student who has a dependent and/or a partner or spouse.

The Fanny Ruth Patterson Complex, a 1,000-bed complex just north of Lincoln Hall, opened to all students in the fall of 2012. It features two residential buildings where students can live in clusters of 12.

After an extensive renovation, Grant C Tower reopened in the fall of 2011 with completely new accommodations and furnishings for NIU students. Gilbert Hall, which had not been used as a residence hall since 1995, underwent a complete renovation and re-opened in the fall of 2013. Grant D Tower was renovated and re-opened in the fall of 2013.

Douglas Hall, a part of the pair of residence halls Lincoln-Douglas, was demolished by the spring of 2016. Lucinda Avenue has been extended and used since the spring of 2016. This is a part of the master plan to create a new campus.

Residence halls in use:
 * Gilbert Hall
 * Grant Towers
 * Neptune Hall
 * Fanny Ruth Patterson Complex
 * Northern View
 * Stevenson Tower

Athletic facilities
On the west side of campus is Brigham Field at Huskie Stadium, the home of NIU football games, which also often hosts other outdoor events. Huskie Stadium, which has a seating capacity over 23,000, is surrounded by large open grassy areas which provide recreation, and also serve as the tailgating lots for football games. There is also a baseball field, Ralph McKinzie Field; a softball field, Mary M. Bell Field; a soccer field, Huskie Soccer Complex; and tennis courts, Gullikson Tennis Courts, which flank Huskie Stadium.

At the stadium's north end zone are two athletic buildings. The first is the Jeffrey and Kimberly Yordon Academic and Athletic Performance Center. The facility opened in August 2007. The second is the Kenneth and Ellen Chessick Indoor Practice Center, an 80,600-square-foot practice facility that houses the football, baseball, and softball teams.

On the far west side of campus is the Convocation Center, a 10,000-seat arena opened in 2002. The Convocation Center hosts NIU men's and women's basketball, gymnastics, wrestling, and volleyball, Victor E. Court, games, the opening convocation ceremony for incoming freshmen, music concerts, and a variety of events throughout the year including job fairs, internship fairs, and other expositions.

At the corner of Annie Glidden Road and Lucinda Avenue is the Chick Evans Field House, home to two large activity rooms with mirrors often used by dance clubs; a three-lane, 1/7-mile jogging and walking track; four multipurpose courts for basketball, volleyball, indoor soccer and floor hockey; and a cardio- and strength-training room, which has been under-used since the basketball team moved to the Convocation Center. The field house continues to host expositions and sporting events of a smaller scale, and is the headquarters for the campus ROTC program.

Two swimming pools are located in Anderson and Gabel Halls.

Facilities
NIU's Campus Child Care Center offers care to children aged two months to five years, along with a summer school program for children ages 6 to 8. Enrollment is secured on a first-come, first-served basis, with priority given first to currently enrolled families, followed by NIU students, NIU faculty and staff, and the community. The center is licensed through the State of Illinois and accredited through the Academy of Early Childhood Program Accreditation.

The Peters Campus Life Building is home to the Campus Activities Board, Career Services, the Counseling and Student Development Center, the Honors Program, the Northern Star student newspaper, the Student Association, and Student Involvement and Leadership Development.

Organizations
NIU has more than 400 student organizations, including recreational sports clubs such as lacrosse, volleyball, rugby, swimming, and ice hockey. Groups embrace interests from academics, advocacy, athletics and the arts to community service, ethnicity, politics, language studies, and religion. There are dozens of fraternities and sororities.

Each year, several of the Greek organizations at NIU host IFC Tugs, a bracket-style athletic tournament competition similar to tug-of-war with a long history at Northern Illinois University. NIU Tugs was captured on film in a 1996 documentary, Tugs Untied, about NIU's unique version of the sport; the 37-minute documentary won the "Best of Arizona" award at the 2000 Arizona International Film Festival.

Arts and culture

Students, faculty and guest artists in NIU's College of Visual and Performing Arts host more than 200 art exhibitions, music concerts and theatrical and dance productions throughout each year. Ticketed events are free of charge to all NIU students.

The NIU Art Museum is located on the main floor of Altgeld Hall and features a number of exhibitions every year including visiting exhibitions, exhibitions from the art museum's collection and from faculty of the NIU School of Art and Design. Jack Arends Hall, the home of the visual arts at NIU features three gallery spaces, the main Jack Olson Gallery, the Annette and Jerry Johns Student Art Gallery and the Backspace Gallery.

NIU's Pick Museum is located in Cole Hall and features works from the university's anthropology collection with a focus on North American native collections and cultural artifacts from throughout Southeast Asia. NIU is home to a large collection of Burmese art, maintained by the university's Center for Burma Studies.

Theres is a School of Art and Design, a School of Music, and a School of Theatre and Dance.

Theatre performances are held in the newly renovated Stevens Building which features four theatre spaces, O'Connell Theatre, a 440-foot proscenium theatre, the 220 seat Sally Stevens Players Theatre, a flexible "Black Box" Theatre that can be configured in many different seating and stage arrangements and the 150 seat Corner Theatre.

The Department of Communication sponsors the annual Reality Bytes Film Festival, created in 2002 by media studies professor Laura Vazquez to give NIU students the ability to competitively screen their work. The 2011 festival received more than 40 entries from across the country and as far away as Cuba, South Africa and Australia.

Affiliation
NIU was a member of the Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference from 1920 to 1967. Currently, the NIU Huskies compete in NCAA Division I, FBS (I-A) for Football, in the Mid-American Conference.

NIU's athletic department experienced large growth in reputation in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Almost completely unknown to observers from outside of Illinois before the mid-1990s, the Huskies were ranked as high as 10th in the 2003 AP College Football poll after victories against BCS opponents number 14 Maryland (who finished that season at number 17), number 21 Alabama and Iowa State. In 2010, NIU football had its first undefeated MAC regular season (8-0), and cracked the top 25 in Associated Press and coaches' polls. In 2012, NIU football, after winning another MAC Football Championship earned a place in the Orange Bowl and was the first team to participate in a BCS Bowl from the Mid-American Conference.

title: Northern Illinois University


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Talk:Pegasos

Good job with that Jid. That actually makes the entry more coherent, thanks.

"For hard disk drive booting the Open Firmware requires an RDB boot partition that contains either an affs1 or ext2/ext3 partition."
 * affs1 should be "Fast File System" or simply "FFS". affs is the name used by the Linux kernel filesystem module. Considering that the majority of people using a Pegasos are running MorphOS and not Linux, it is more appropriate to use the term used by those people, FFS. Kegon (talk) 23:01, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

"Genesi discontinued production of the Pegasos II in 2006, as the result of new European Union legislation requiring the use of more expensive and inferior lead-free solder,[3] imposed despite the fact that replacing normal solder delivers no environmental benefits.[4]"
 * This should be described from a more neutral point of view. 31.19.221.7 (talk) 12:42, 17 June 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes. Thanks! -- Henriok (talk) 13:16, 17 June 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 6 one external links on Pegasos. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081002114847/http://www.gentoo.org/doc/en/handbook/hb-install-ppc-disk.xml to http://www.gentoo.org/doc/en/handbook/hb-install-ppc-disk.xml
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090226192803/http://en.opensuse.org:80/PegasosQuickStart to http://en.opensuse.org/PegasosQuickStart
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090224084526/http://www.theinquirer.net:80/inquirer/news/786/1025786/the-amiga-is-dead-long-live-the-amiga to http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/786/1025786/the-amiga-is-dead-long-live-the-amiga
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20071025060852/http://ati.amd.com:80/products/certified/genesi.html to http://ati.amd.com/products/certified/genesi.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070203085609/http://www-304.ibm.com:80/jct09002c/gsdod/solutiondetails.do?solutionId=10567&lc=en to http://www-304.ibm.com/jct09002c/gsdod/solutiondetails.do?solutionId=10567&lc=en
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070222032149/http://www.terrasoftsolutions.com:80/products/faq/mac-os.shtml to http://www.terrasoftsolutions.com/products/faq/mac-os.shtml

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Pegasos


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Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy is an American news publication founded in 1970 focused on global affairs, current events, and domestic and international policy. It produces content daily on its website and app, and in four print issues annually.

Foreign Policy magazine and ForeignPolicy.com are published by The FP Group, a division of Graham Holdings Company (formerly The Washington Post Company). The FP Group also produces FP Events, Foreign Policy's events division, launched in 2012.

History
Foreign Policy was founded in late 1970 by Samuel P. Huntington, professor of Harvard University, and his friend Warren Demian Manshel to give a voice to alternative views about American foreign policy at the time of the Vietnam War. Huntington hoped it would be "serious but not scholarly, lively but not glib".

In early 1978, after six years of close partnership, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace acquired full ownership of Foreign Policy. In 2000, a format change was implemented from a slim quarterly academic journal to a bimonthly magazine. It also launched international editions in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Latin America.

In September 2008, Foreign Policy was bought by The Washington Post Company (now Graham Holdings Company). In 2012, Foreign Policy grew to become the FP Group—an expansion of Foreign Policy magazine to include ForeignPolicy.com and FP Events.

Style
According to its submission guidelines, Foreign Policy articles "strike the balance" between informed specialist research and general readability, and tend to be written in plain rather than "wonky" language.

Editorial stance
Foreign Policy endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the 2016 US presidential election. This was the first time in its 50-year history the magazine endorsed a candidate.

Awards
Since 2003, Foreign Policy has been nominated for eight National Magazine Awards, winning six: three for its print publication and three for its digital publication at ForeignPolicy.com. FP is the only independent magazine that has won consecutive digital national magazine awards every year from being established in 2009.

2003
 * Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for Outstanding Achievement and General Excellence in the under 100,000 circulation category.

2007
 * Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category.
 * Foreign Policy was presented as a Gold Winner by the Eddie Awards for "Who Wins in Iraq", in the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category.

2008
 * Folio Magazine Gold Editorial Excellence (Eddie) Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest (single article), "What America Must Do" by Kenneth Rogoff, Jan/Feb 2008.
 * FP's "What America Must Do" feature received the Eddie Award as a Gold Winner for the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category for a Single Article.
 * Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence (Eddie) Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest (single article), "A World Enslaved" by Benjamin Skinner, Mar/Apr 2008.
 * Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence (Eddie) Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest (full issue), May/June 2008.
 * Media Industry Newsletter's (min) "Best of the Web" Award in the blog category for Passport a blog by the editors of Foreign Policy.

2009
 * Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category.
 * Forbes RealClearWorld designated ForeignPolicy.com as a top international news site.

2010
 * Foreign Policy's "The Best Defense" column authored by Tom Ricks received the Digital National Magazine Award for best blog.

2011
 * Foreign Policy and former editor-in-chief Susan Glasser were presented with a special citation for the Edward Weintal Prize for Diplomatic Reporting.
 * "Turtle Bay", the reported blog by journalist Colum Lynch, won the Digital National Magazine Award for best reporting for a series of hard-hitting investigative articles about the United Nations.

2012
 * Foreign Policy won an Overseas Press Club award for General Excellence for the best overall international coverage on a website.
 * FP's "Qaddafi Files" won the National Magazine Award for Multimedia

2014
 * Foreign Policy received its first design recognition for "The Surveillance State", appearing in its annual Global Thinkers issue in December 2013. The illustration by Oliver Munday accompanied the marquee story by novelist William T. Vollmann, who discussed "the surveillance state" we knowingly live in after the revelations of wide-reaching surveillance by the NSA. Munday's illustration for FP appeared in the American Illustration annual award book (#33).
 * Foreign Policy writers won multiple awards from the United Nations Correspondents Association. Senior diplomatic reporter Colum Lynch received the silver medal for the Elizabeth Neuffer Memorial Prize for his three-part series on the UNAMID peacekeeping mission in Darfur. FP contributor James Reinl won the gold medal in The United Nations Foundation Prize for print for his reporting on Somalia and Kenya, including his story in Foreign Policy titled "Crazy Town" about PTSD in Somalia.

2016
 * Foreign Policy contributors received two Overseas Press Club awards for excellence in international reporting. Honorees included Tristian McConnell for his 2015 piece called "Close Your Eyes and Pretend to be Dead", detailing the deadly attack on Nairobi's Westgate Mall in 2013. Christina Larson also received the award for her profile of the entrepreneur Zhao Bowen entitled "The Zhao Method" and featured FP's September/October 2015 print edition.
 * Foreign Policy and photographer Andrew Quilty received the George Polk Award in photography for the three part photo series titled "The Man on the Operating Table", showing the destruction following airstrikes on Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) hospital in Kunduz, Afghanistan in October 2015.

title: Foreign Policy


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Nicolas Collins

Nicolas Collins (born March 26, 1954, in New York City) is a composer of mostly electronic music, a sound artist and writer. He received his BA and MA from Wesleyan University, and his PhD from the University of East Anglia. Upon graduating from Wesleyan, he was a Watson Fellow.

Biography
In the 1980s Collins was "a pioneer in the use of microcomputers in live performance, and has made extensive use of 'home-made' electronic circuitry, radio, found sound material, and transformed musical instruments." Trained in the experimental compositional tradition of Alvin Lucier, David Behrman, and David Tudor, all of whom he worked with closely, Collins also immersed himself in the New York Improvised Music scene of the 1980s. Using home-built instruments that combined circuitry, simple computers and traditional instruments such as trombones and slide guitars, he collaborated and performed with Tom Cora, Shelley Hirsch, Christian Marclay, Zeena Parkins, John Zorn and others. Collins's compositions frequently ask performers to respond to unpredictable musical cues, as in Devil's Music (1985), in which the performer DJs with snippets of live scanning radio, or Still Lives (1993), in which a solo trumpet player improvises against a skipping CD of Renaissance brass music. More recent works include In Memoriam Michel Waiswicz (2008), in which a birthday candle 'plays' a light-sensitive circuit until it burns down; and Speak, Memory (2016) in which the digital data of photographic images is played as sound in a room, where it is allowed to decay, and the decay is reflected in the photograph, which changes and eventually disappears as sound fades to silence.

As a studio artist at PS1 in 1983-84, Collins exhibited sound sculptures of 'backwards guitars'—found instruments modified so the pick-ups resonated the guitar strings with live radio signals. Subsequent installation projects at Musée Malraux (Le Havre), Gemeente Museum Hague (den Haag), ZKM (Karlsruhe); and the Sonambiente sound art festival (Berlin), featured performing devices such a model train that 'plays'a long amplified wire, as well as multi-channel video works.

Collins' musical compositions have been presented at venues around the world, ranging from CBGB to the Concertgebouw. As a composer-performer he has presented concerts and workshops on every continent save Antarctica.

He has also been active as a curator, policy adviser, and board member for numerous cultural organizations, since first taking on the post of Curator of Music Performances and Sound Installations at PS1/The Clocktower (now MoMA PS1) in 1985. In 1992 he left New York to become Artistic Director of STEIM (Studio for Electro Instrumental Music) in Amsterdam, and later moved to Berlin on a German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) composer-in-residence fellowship. From 1997 to 2017 Collins served as Editor-in-Chief of the Leonardo Music Journal, a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the MIT Press., and he sits on the editorial boards of Resonance: the Journal of Sound and Culture (University of California Press), Acoustic Arts & Artifacts: Technology, Aesthetics, Communication (Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Venice), the Journal of Sound Studies (The Netherlands), and Resonancias – Revista de Investigación Musical (Chile).

Collins is Professor of Sound at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and has been guest professor at Institute of Sonology, Royal Conservatory of The Hague; Kunsthochschule Kassel, Germany; Universität der Künste Berlin; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago; and Technische Universität Berlin, among other locations.

In 2006 Collins' book Handmade Electronic Music: The Art of Hardware Hacking was published by Routledge, and a second edition was published in 2009. A broadly expanded third edition, released in the summer of 2020, documents the grass-roots spread of 'Hardware Hacking' through local art and music organizations and collectives, often in conjunction with feminist and/or regional cultural concerns, from Brazil to Indonesia. He was a major influence on the establishment of the Musical Electronics Library in New Zealand.

Collins lives and works in Berlin, Chicago and rural Massachusetts.

Discography

 * 1982 - Going Out With Slow Smoke, compiled with Ron Kuivila's works (Lovely Music)
 * 1984 - Let The State Make The Selection (Lovely Music)
 * 1986 - Devil's Music (Lovely Music)
 * 1988 - Real Landscape (Banned Productions)
 * 1988 (with Robert Poss) - Inverse Guitar (Trace Elements)
 * 1989 - 100 of the World's Most Beautiful Melodies (Trace Elements)
 * 1992 - It Was a Dark and Stormy Night (Trace Elements)
 * 1999 - A Host, Of Golden Daffodils, collaboration with Peter Cusack (Plate Lunch)
 * 1999 - Sound Without Picture (Periplum)
 * 2004 - Pea Soup (Appelstaartje)
 * 2009 - Devil's Music (EM Records)
 * 2015 - Salvaged (Trace Elements Records)

title: Nicolas Collins


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Gary L. Francione

Gary Lawrence Francione (born May 1954) is an American academic in the fields of law and philosophy. He is Board of Governors Professor of Law and Katzenbach Scholar of Law and Philosophy at Rutgers University in New Jersey. He is also a visiting professor of philosophy at the University of Lincoln (UK) and honorary professor of philosophy at the University of East Anglia (UK). He is the author of numerous books and articles on animal ethics.

Biography
Francione graduated with a BA in philosophy from the University of Rochester, where he was awarded the Phi Beta Kappa O'Hearn Scholarship, allowing him to pursue graduate study in philosophy in the UK. He received his MA in philosophy and his JD from the University of Virginia, where he was articles editor of the Virginia Law Review. After graduation, he clerked for Judge Albert Tate, Jr., U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, and for Justice Sandra Day O'Connor of the U.S. Supreme Court.

After practicing law at the New York firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore, he joined the faculty at the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1984, and received tenure in 1987. He began to teach animal rights theory as part of his course in jurisprudence in 1985. In 1989, he joined the Rutgers faculty, and in 1990, he and his colleague Anna E. Charlton started the Rutgers Animal Rights Law Project, in which law students were awarded academic credit for working on actual cases involving animals. Francione and Charlton closed the clinic in 2000, but continue to teach courses in animal rights theory, animals and the law, and human rights and animal rights. Francione also teaches criminal law, criminal procedure, and legal philosophy. In 1989, Francione taught the first course in an American law school on animal rights and the law.

Francione has been a professor at Rutgers since at least 1995, when The New York Times reported that the Rutgers' Animal Rights Law Center, the only one in the United States, was receiving 200 calls a week, and that Francione was losing "well over half the lawsuits the clinic brings", as they were taking a strict abolitionist approach.

Animal rights theory
Francione is known for his work on animal rights theory, and in 1989, was the first academic to teach it in an American law school. His work has focused on three issues: the property status of animals, the differences between animal rights and animal welfare, and a theory of animal rights based on sentience alone, rather than on any other cognitive characteristics.

He is a pioneer of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, arguing that animal welfare regulation is theoretically and practically unsound, serving only to prolong the status of animals as property by making the public feel comfortable about using them. He argues that non-human animals require only one right, the right not to be regarded as property, and that veganism—the rejection of the use of animals as mere resources—is the moral baseline of the animal rights movement. He rejects all forms of violence, arguing that the animal rights movement is the logical progression of the peace movement, seeking to take it one step further by ending conflict between human and non-human animals, and by treating animals as ends in themselves.

Francione is the author or co-author of several books about animal rights, including Animals, Property, and the Law (1995), Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (1996), Animals as Persons (2008), and The Animal Rights Debate: Abolition or Regulation? (2010, with Robert Garner). "He has also written in the areas of copyright, patent law, and law and science".

Property status of animals
In Animals, Property, and the Law (1995), Francione argues that because animals are the property of humans, laws that supposedly require their "humane" treatment and prohibit the infliction of "unnecessary" harm do not provide a significant level of protection for animal interests. For the most part, these laws and regulations require only that animals receive that level of protection that is required for their use as human property. Animals only have value as commodities and their interests do not matter in any moral sense. As a result, despite having laws that supposedly protect them, Francione contends that we treat animals in ways that would be regarded as torture if humans were the ones being used. He argues that we could choose to provide some greater measure of protection to animals even if they were to remain our property, but only up until the point where it becomes too costly for us to continue. Legal, social, and economic forces militate strongly against recognizing animal interests unless there is an economic benefit to humans.

Comparison of animal rights and animal welfare
In Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (1996), Francione argues that there are significant theoretical and practical differences between animal rights, which he maintains requires the abolition of animal exploitation, and animal welfare, which seeks to regulate exploitation to make it more humane. Francione contends that the theoretical difference between these two approaches is obvious. The abolitionist position is that we cannot justify our use of nonhumans however "humanely" we treat animals; the regulationist position is that animal use is justifiable and that only issues of treatment are relevant.

Francione describes as "new welfarists" those who claim to support animal rights, but who support animal welfare regulation as the primary way to achieve incremental recognition of the inherent value of nonhumans. He argues that there is no factual support for this position because not only do regulations seldom if ever go beyond treating animals as economic commodities with only extrinsic value, but the perception that regulation has improved the "humane" treatment of animals may very well facilitate continued and increased exploitation by making the public feel more comfortable about its consumption of animal products.

A central tenet of Francione's philosophy is that the most important form of incremental change within the abolitionist framework is veganism. Francione has also long argued that the animal rights movement is the logical extension of the peace movement and should embrace a non-violent approach. He maintains that an abolitionist/vegan movement is truly radical and that violence is reactionary.

Relevance of sentience
In his Introduction to Animal Rights: Your Child or the Dog? (2000), Francione argues that a theory of abolition should not require that animals have any cognitive characteristic beyond sentience to be full members of the moral community, entitled to the basic, pre-legal right not to be the property of humans. He rejects the position that animals have to have humanlike cognitive characteristics, such as reflective self-awareness, language ability, or preference autonomy in order to have the right not to be used by humans as resources. Francione derives this right from the principle of equal consideration in that he maintains that if animals are property, their interests can never receive equal consideration.

As part of this discussion, Francione identifies what he calls our "moral schizophrenia" when it comes to nonhumans. On the one hand, we say that we take animal interests seriously. Francione points to the fact that many of us even live with nonhuman companions whom we regard as members of our families and whose personhood—their status as beings with intrinsic moral value—we do not doubt for a second. On the other hand, because animals are property, they remain things that have no value other than what we choose to accord them and whose interests we protect only when it provides a benefit—usually economic—to do so. According to Francione, if animals are going to matter morally and not be things, we cannot treat them as property. Francione debated the sentience of plants with Michael Marder in a debate organized by Columbia University Press.

Animal rights movement
In 2008, Francione opposed California's Proposition 2, which was a ballot proposition to prohibit the confinement of certain farm animals in a manner that does not allow them to turn around freely, lie down, stand up, and fully extend their limbs.

Francione opposes violence in the struggle for animal rights. He has been criticized for this stance by Steven Best, who refers to those in the movement who reject violence as "Franciombes" and supports the more permissive attitude to violence of groups such as Negotiation is Over.

Francione maintains that the ideology commonly associated with Transgender Rights Activists (TRA) violates Principle Five of his Six Principles of the Abolitionist Approach to Animal Rights; he compares TRA ideology to the "extreme religious zealotry" of Christianity. He argues that transgender ideology is discriminatory towards women, gays, and lesbians, and is a threat to the welfare of children.

Personal life
His wife, Anna E. Charlton, is an adjunct professor of law at Rutgers University, is active in the same field, and has co-authored several publications with Francione. In 2015, Gary Francione was involved in a multimillion-dollar tax dispute with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). , he lives with six dogs, calling them "non-human refugees" who share his home—four suffered cruelty at the hands of past owners.

title: Gary L. Francione


text:
User talk:Fastred

Hello Fastred, welcome to Wikipedia. Thanks for introducing yourself at the new users page. You might be interested in editing the articles on the list of economics topics, or perhaps getting involved in the New Zealand Places project.

If you have any questions, see the tutorial or ask at the help desk or on my talk page. Two useful tips are that you can sign your name using four tildes ( ~ ) and you can preview your changes before you save using the show preview button. You can regularly find new tips on the Community Portal. I look forward to reading your great articles and I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. :) Angela. 23:31, May 3, 2004 (UTC)

New Zealand
Another Wellingtonian! Welcome aboard, sport! You may care to add your name to the list of Kiwis. And if you have any feeling for the tangata whenua, please have a look at the fledgling Maori version - the chat page will let you ease in painlessly. Doubtless we will exchange friendly words from time to time! Robin Patterson 09:16, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Category:Wikipedians in New Zealand
Hi, You might want to consider adding User NZ res to the top of your user page, which will add you to this category automatically and also add a nice graphic. Onco_p53 08:30, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Auckland meetup
Just to let you know that a meetup is planned in Auckland for the 25th of June (see Meetup/Auckland for more details), and that you are cordially invited. GeorgeStepanek\talk 00:21, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

Graham Linehan
Hi! Can you explain what you mean by this edit summary? If you mean that the internal hyperlink wasn't working then it was working for me and I don't see how the wikitext could have an error in it, so then it might be on your end and the unlinking would not be a solution. Let me know what the situation is—just a bit confused. — Bilorv ( talk ) 19:55, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

Invitation to an in-person meetup in Mohua / Golden Bay
Thinking about your summer break? Think about joining other Wikipedians and Wikimedians in Golden Bay / Mohua! Details are on the meetup page. There's heaps of interesting stuff to work on e.g. the oldest extant waka or New Zealand's oldest ongoing legal case. Or you may spend your time taking photos and then upload them.

Golden Bay is hard to get to and the airline flying into Tākaka uses small planes, so we are holding some seats from and to Wellington and we are offering attendees a $200 travel subsidy to help with costs.

Be in touch with Schwede66 if this event interests you and you'd like to discuss logistics.  Schwede 66  09:14, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fastred


text:
Warren D. Manshel

Warren Demian Manshel (January 6, 1924 – February 25, 1990) was an investment banker; an editor and publisher; and a diplomat.

Early life, education and career
Warren Manshel was born in France and immigrated to the United States from Germany with his family prior to World War II. He enlisted in and served in the U.S. Army during World War II, ultimately licensing several Allied-influenced newspapers and a new German news agency. Following World War II, Manshel enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned his bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees in government. As a teaching fellow at Harvard, he shared an office and friendship with Henry Kissinger, later to receive the Nobel Peace Prize as U.S. Secretary of State. Upon earning his doctorate, Manshel was awarded Harvard's prestigious 1952 Chase Prize in International Relations for the "most publishable document advancing peace" for his preemptive, scholarly work on the unification of post-war Europe.

Shortly after Harvard, Manshel became director and chief administrative officer at the Council for Cultural Freedom, an anti-Communist organization of American and European intellectuals (1954-1955). He then joined Coleman & Company in New York in 1955, eventually becoming its managing partner and director of institutional research; and retired from the firm in 1977. An expert investment banker, Manshel also co-founded the European Options Exchange in Belgium in 1978, now a unit of Euronext. He also was a member of the Board of Overseers at Harvard University. Following his diplomatic service in 1981, Manshel served as a member of the board of directors for a Dreyfus Funds company.

The Public Interest and Foreign Policy magazines
Manshel, a neo-liberal, continued to cultivate his influential role as a social, political and international relations intellectual throughout the 1960s and 1970s. In 1965, he co-founded and published The Public Interest magazine with Irving Kristol. During Warren Manshel's tenure as its publisher, The Public Interest gave voice to leading and emerging intellectuals, including Seymour Martin Lipset, Peter Drucker, Leon Kass, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Francis Fukuyama.

In 1970, Manshel launched the influential Foreign Policy magazine with his friend Samuel P. Huntington, later the author of Clash of the Civilizations, and in conjunction with Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Manshel hired Richard Holbrooke as the first managing editor for Foreign Policy - later to become a U.S. Assistant Secretary of State, U.S. Ambassador to Germany, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, peace negotiator for the Dayton Accords, and U.S. Presidential Envoy to the Middle East. Manshel served as editor and publisher of Foreign Policy until his death in 1990. Under his direction, Foreign Policy gave voice to intellectuals in academia, finance, politics and government. Foreign Policy is now owned by The Slate Group, a business unit of The Washington Post Company.

Political advisor, diplomat
A member of the Council on Foreign Relations, and an expert in social, economic and political affairs, and international relations, Manshel was tapped to serve as confidante to prominent national political figures in the United States including Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (D-NY); Senator and presidential candidate Eugene McCarthy (D-MN); Senator and presidential candidate Frank Church (D-ID); and Vice President and Democratic Nominee for President Walter Mondale (D-MN). In recognition of his body of work, President Jimmy Carter appointed Warren Demian Manshel as U.S. Ambassador to Denmark, a position he held with distinction from 1978 to 1981.

Manshel Lecture on American Foreign Policy, Harvard University
To underscore the importance that Ambassador Warren Demian Manshel and his wife and partner Anita Coleman placed on social and political justice, and international relations, friends and family endowed the Warren and Anita Manshel Lecture on American Foreign Policy at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs (WCFIA) at Harvard University. To date, Manshel Lecturer and honorees have included:

 * Irving Kristol, co-founder, The Public Interest, The National Interest
 * Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (D-New York)
 * Anthony Lake, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs
 * Ambassador Richard C. Holbrooke, former Assistant Secretary of State
 * Jorge Castañeda, former Secretary of Foreign Relations of Mexico
 * Richard W. Fisher, President, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas
 * The Most Reverend Desmond Tutu, Archbishop, Nobel Laureate for Peace
 * Baroness Shirley Williams, Privy Councillor; Liberal Democrats, House of Lords
 * Seymour Hersh, Investigative Journalist, The New Yorker

title: Warren D. Manshel


text:
Ingrid Newkirk

Ingrid Elizabeth Newkirk (née Ward; born June 11, 1949) is a British-American animal activist, author and the president of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), the world's largest animal rights organization.

Newkirk founded PETA in March 1980 with fellow animal rights activist Alex Pacheco. They came to public attention in 1981, during what became known as the Silver Spring monkeys case, when Pacheco photographed 17 macaque monkeys being experimented on inside the Institute of Behavioral Research in Silver Spring, Maryland. The case led to the first police raid in the United States on an animal research laboratory and to an amendment in 1985 to the Animal Welfare Act. Since then, Newkirk has led campaigns to stop the use of animals in crash tests, convinced companies to stop testing cosmetics on animals, organized undercover investigations that have led to government sanctions against companies, universities, and entertainers who use animals.

Newkirk has been criticized for her support of actions carried out in the name of the Animal Liberation Front. Newkirk and PETA have also been criticized for euthanizing many of the animals taken into PETA's shelters, including healthy pets, and opposition to the whole notion of pets,  and her position that "There's no rational basis for saying that a human being has special rights. A rat is a pig is a dog is a boy," as well as seemingly seeing eradication as a goal. PETA has responded to this line of criticism.

Early life

Born in Kingston upon Thames, England, in 1949, Newkirk was the only child of Noel Oswald Wodehouse Ward (1917–2000) and Mary Patricia Ward (née Dudley, 1921–2013). Newkirk spent her early years in the Orkney Islands, Scotland and in Ware, Hertfordshire. Her father was a navigational engineer, and when she was seven, the family moved to New Delhi, India, where her father worked for the government, while her mother volunteered for Mother Teresa in a leper colony and a home for unwed mothers. Newkirk attended a convent boarding school in the Himalayas for well-to-do Indian nationals and non-natives. "It was the done thing for a British girl in India", she told Michael Specter for The New Yorker. "But I was the only British girl in this school. I was hit constantly by nuns, starved by nuns. The whole God thing was shoved right down my throat."

Newkirk helped her mother out in the leper colony—packing pills and rolling bandages, stuffing toys for orphans, and feeding strays—and says that this informed her view that anyone in need, including animals, was worthy of concern, along with her mother's advice that it does not matter who suffers, but how. She tells the story of an early experience of trying to rescue an animal, when she heard laughter in the alleyway behind the family home in New Delhi. A group of people had bound a dog's legs, muzzled him, then lowered him into a muddy ditch, laughing as they watched him try to escape. Newkirk asked her servant to bring the dog to her, and tried to get him to drink some water, but someone had packed his throat with mud, and he died in her arms. She told the Financial Times that it was a turning point. She later attended Ware Grammar School, which was established for members of the Church of England.

When she was eighteen, the family moved to Florida, where her father worked on designing bombing systems for the United States Air Force. It was there that she met her husband, Steve Newkirk; the couple married in 1968 and divorced in 1980. He introduced her to Formula One racing, which—along with sumo wrestling—remains one of her great passions, according to The New Yorker: "It's sex. The first time you hear them rev their engines, my God! That noise goes straight up my spine."

Introduction to animal protection
Until she was 21, Newkirk had given no thought to animals rights or even vegetarianism. In 1970, she and her husband moved to Poolesville, Maryland, where she studied to become a stockbroker. A neighbor abandoned some kittens, and Newkirk decided to take them to an animal shelter. She told Specter:

"When I arrived at the shelter, the woman said, 'Come in the back and we will just put them down there.'... I thought, How nice—you will set them up with a place to live. So I waited out front for a while, and then I asked if I could go back and see them, and the woman just looked at me and said, 'What are you talking about? They are all dead.' I just snapped when I heard those kittens were dead. The woman was so rude. The place was a junk heap in the middle of nowhere. It couldn't have been more horrible. For some reason, and even now I don't know what it was, I decided I needed to do something about it. So I thought, I'm going to work here."

Newkirk took a job in the kennels, witnessing the mistreatment of the animals, including physical abuse. Kathy Snow Guillermo writes that Newkirk disinfected kennels by day, and by night studied animal care, animal behavior, and animal-cruelty investigations.

"I went to the front office all the time, and I would say, 'John is kicking the dogs and putting them into freezers.' Or I would say, 'They are stepping on the animals, crushing them like grapes, and they don't care.' In the end, I would go to work early, before anyone got there, and I would just kill the animals myself. Because I couldn't stand to let them go through that. I must have killed a thousand of them, sometimes dozens every day. Some of those people would take pleasure in making them suffer."

She blew the whistle on the shelter and became an animal-protection officer, first for Montgomery County, Maryland, then for the District of Columbia. She became D.C.'s first female poundmaster, persuading the city to fund veterinary services and to set up an adoption program, an investigations department, and a pet sterilization program. By 1976, she was head of the animal-disease-control division of the District of Columbia Commission on Public Health.

Founding of PETA
In 1980, Newkirk met Alex Pacheco in a D.C. shelter where he was working as a volunteer. It was Pacheco who introduced Newkirk to the concept of animal rights. Pacheco presented her with a copy of Peter Singer's Animal Liberation (1975). She has said that Singer had put into words what she had felt intuitively for a long time, and she called Pacheco "Alex the Abdul", a name given to messengers in Muslim stories.

The concept of animal rights was at that time almost unheard of in the U.S. The modern animal rights movement had started in England eight years earlier, in 1972, when a group of Oxford University scholars, particularly philosophers, had formed the "Oxford group" to promote the idea that discrimination against individuals on the basis of their species is as irrational as discrimination on the basis of race or sex. In March 1980, Newkirk and Pacheco decided to form a group to educate the American public about these ideas, at first consisting of what Newkirk called "five people in a basement". The couple also fell in love and began living together, although they were very different. Newkirk was older, practical, and very organized, whereas Pacheco spent his time in white painter's overalls eating vegetarian hot dogs straight from the can.

Silver Spring monkeys
The case of the Silver Spring monkeys, an animal-research controversy that lasted ten years, transformed PETA from just Newkirk, Pacheco, and a small group of friends into an international movement.

In mid-1981, Pacheco took a job as a volunteer inside the Institute of Behavioral Research in Silver Spring, Maryland, so that he and Newkirk would have some firsthand knowledge on which to base their campaigns. Edward Taub, a psychologist, was working there on 17 monkeys. He had cut sensory ganglia that supplied nerves to their arms and legs, then used physical restraint, electric shock, and withholding of food to force them to use the limbs. The idea was to see whether monkeys could be induced to use limbs they could not feel.

Pacheco repeatedly went into the lab at night to take photographs and to escort scientists, including veterinarians and a primatologist, through it to secure their testimony. Newkirk lay crouched on the back seat of a car outside, hidden under a large cardboard box with holes for her eyes, using a walkie-talkie from a toy store to alert Pacheco if anyone else entered the building. The monkeys' living conditions documented by Pacheco were graphically disturbing. Having collected the evidence, Newkirk and Pacheco alerted the police, who raided the lab, removed the monkeys, and charged Taub with 113 counts of cruelty to animals and six counts of failing to provide adequate veterinary care. Taub maintained that he had been set up by Newkirk and Pacheco while he was on vacation and that several of the photographs had been staged. The judge found Taub guilty of six counts of cruelty to animals for failing to provide adequate veterinary care and fined him $3,000. A later jury trial saw five of these counts dismissed, and the sixth was overturned on appeal because of a technicality. The National Institutes of Health, which had funded Taub's research, was among the scientists and other professionals who criticized the conditions in which Taub had kept the monkeys, though the NIH later reversed its decision when the charges against Taub were overturned.

Newkirk and Pacheco found themselves thrust overnight into the public eye. The images of the restrained animals became iconic after The Washington Post published one of them on its front page. It was the first police raid on an animal-research facility in the U.S. and the first conviction (subsequently overturned) of an animal researcher. The controversy led to an amendment to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act, became the first animal-rights case to be heard before the United States Supreme Court, and established PETA as an internationally known animal-rights group, with Newkirk as its outspoken president.

Attitude toward the ALF
Newkirk has been criticized for publicizing actions carried out in the name of the Animal Liberation Front (ALF). She has said that she does not support criminal acts such as arson:

"I do support getting animals out in the same way I would have supported getting human slaves out, child labor, sex slaves, the whole lot. But I don't support burning. I don't support arson. I would rather that these buildings weren't standing, so on some level I understand. I just don't like the idea of that. Maybe that is wishy-washy of me, because I don't want those buildings standing if they are going to hurt anyone. And the ALF has never hurt mice nor mare."

She has been accused of having had advance knowledge of one ALF action. During the 1995 trial of Rod Coronado, in connection with an arson attack at Michigan State University (MSU), U.S. Attorney Michael Dettmer alleged that Newkirk had arranged, in advance of the attack, to have Coronado send her stolen documents from the university and a videotape of the action.

Public image

Newkirk is known, in particular, for the media stunts that she organizes to draw attention to animal-protection issues. In her will, for example, she has asked that her skin be turned into wallets, her feet into umbrella stands, and her flesh into "Newkirk Nuggets", then grilled on a barbecue. "We are complete press sluts", she told The New Yorker in 2003: "It is our obligation. We would be worthless if we were just polite and didn't make any waves."

Newkirks' actions have caused strong feelings, both positive and negative. Michael Specter, who did not see eye to eye with her, wrote:

"Newkirk is well read, and she can be witty. When she is not proselytizing, denouncing, or attacking the ninety-nine per cent of humanity that sees the world differently from the way she does, she is good company. After years of detestable public behavior, however, she has the popular image of a monster. Whenever I mentioned her name to friends, they would recoil. And she becomes more disliked with every peta [ sic] stunt; she can't walk through an airport without accosting any woman who is wearing fur. She no longer takes vacations in tropical or poor countries like Mexico, because 'I spend the whole time rescuing animals from their horrid owners.'"

Specter also questioned her about a 2003 letter that she wrote to Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat to protest the use of a donkey as a suicide bomber. "We are named People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals", she replied. "There are plenty of other groups that worry about the humans."

Elsewhere, Newkirk has said:

"In this business I am very easy to cubby hole. As someone said to me the other day—they had seen the HBO special—and they said, 'Are you really a sad obsessed person?' And I thought, No, I'm not really a sad person, except when I lie awake at night in winter thinking about all the animals out without shelter, and then I'm sad! Who wouldn't be? Wouldn't anybody be sad if they have a heart? It's just that I've seen so much."

Newkirk has had celebrity friends and admirers who have spoken highly of her. Sam Simon said in an interview: "I learned about animal rights from my favorite person in the whole world, Ingrid Newkirk at PETA." Also, Alec Baldwin contributed the following blurb to Newkirk's book Making Kind Choices: "Ingrid Newkirk is not only a thoughtful animal rights and environmental activist. She is an inspirational leader. A heroine. A woman upon whom so many depend, around the world, for information and guidance. In a world where all animals, everywhere, are more threatened than ever, Ingrid Newkirk is their champion."

Newkirk has been accused of employing a double standard for her organization's practice of euthanizing animals for which it has neither the space nor resources to shelter. Debra Saunders, a critic of Newkirk, argues that "PETA assails other parties for killing animals for food or research. Then it kills animals – but for really important reasons, such as running out of room". Newkirk explains on PETA's website that, "As long as animals are still purposely bred and people aren't spaying and neutering their companions, open-admission animal shelters and organizations like PETA must do society's dirty work. Euthanasia is not a solution to overpopulation but rather a tragic necessity given the present crisis."

Newkirk and PETA both oppose animal testing out of principle as well as on practical grounds. Specter asked whether she would be opposed to experiments on five thousand rats, or even chimpanzees, if it was needed to cure AIDS. She replied: "Would you be opposed to experiments on your daughter if you knew it would save fifty million people?"

Awards

 * Washingtonian of the Year, 1980
 * Courage of Conscience Award, 1995
 * Shining World Compassion Award, 2007
 * Ahimsa Award, 2014
 * Peter Singer Prize for Strategies to Reduce the Suffering of Animals, 2016

Works

 * Animalkind: Remarkable Discoveries About Animals and Revolutionary New Ways to Show Them Compassion. Co-author Gene Stone, Simon & Schuster (2020). ISBN 978-1501198540
 * The PETA Practical Guide to Animal Rights - Simple Acts of Kindness to Help Animals in Trouble. St. Martin's Griffin (2009). ISBN 978-0-312-55994-6
 * One Can Make a Difference: Original stories by the Dalai Lama, Paul McCartney, Willie Nelson, Dennis Kucinich, Russell Simmons, Brigitte Bardot ... . Co-author Jane Ratcliffe, Adams Media (2008). ISBN 1-59869-629-7
 * Let's Have a Dog Party!: 20 Tail-wagging Celebrations to Share With Your Best Friend. Adams Media Corporation (2007). ISBN 1-59869-149-X
 * 50 Awesome Ways Kids Can Help Animals. Warner Books (2006). ISBN 0-446-69828-8
 * Making Kind Choices: Everyday Ways to Enhance Your Life Through Earth- and Animal-Friendly Living. St. Martin's Griffin (2005). ISBN 0-312-32993-8
 * Peta 2005 Shopping Guide For Caring Consumers: A Guide To Products That Are Not Tested On Animals. Book Publishing Company (2004). ISBN 1-57067-166-4
 * Speaking Up For the Animals. DVD, PETA (2004).
 * Animal Rights Weekend Warrior. Lantern Books (2003). ISBN 1-59056-048-5
 * Free the Animals: The Story of the Animal Liberation Front. Lantern Books (2000). ISBN 1-930051-22-0
 * You Can Save the Animals: 251 Simple Ways to Stop Thoughtless Cruelty. Prima Lifestyles (1999). ISBN 0-7615-1673-5
 * 250 Things You Can Do to Make Your Cat Adore You. Fireside (1998). ISBN 0-684-83648-3
 * Compassionate Cook: Please don't Eat the Animals. Warner Books (1993). ISBN 0-446-39492-0
 * Kids Can Save the Animals: 101 Easy Things to Do. Warner Books (1991). ISBN 0-446-39271-5
 * A chapter of Lisa Kemmerer's anthology Sister Species: Women, Animals, and Social Justice (2011). ISBN 978-0-252-07811-8

title: Ingrid Newkirk


text:
Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

Ashur-nadin-ahhe II (Aššur-nādin-aḫḫē II)  was king of Assyria from c. 1400 to 1391 BC. Preceded by Ashur-rim-nisheshu, he was succeeded by his brother, Eriba-Adad I.

Ashur-nadin-ahhe is an Assyrian personal name meaning “the god Ashur has given a brother” in the Akkadian language. Two Assyrian kings ruling in the 15th or early 14th century BC were called Ashur-nadin-ahhe. Hardly anything is known about these kings, but one of them is mentioned in one of the Amarna letters. In the letter from king Ashur-uballit of Assyria to the Pharaoh of Egypt, numbered EA 16, Ashur-nadin-ahhe is referred to as his ancestor who wrote to Egypt and received gold in return. This would imply an earlier diplomatic marriage and alliance between Assyria and Egypt during his reign. The name Ashur-nadin-ahhe mentioned in EA 16 has recently been contested as a faulty writing of Ashur-nadin-apli, another Assyrian king.

title: Ashur-nadin-ahhe II


text:
Westmount–Ville-Marie

Westmount—Ville-Marie was a federal electoral district in Quebec, Canada, that was represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1997 to 2015. Its population in 2001 was 97,226.

Geography
The district included the City of Westmount as well as Old Montreal and the southwestern part of Downtown Montreal in the Borough of Ville-Marie, the western part of The Plateau in the Borough of Le Plateau-Mont-Royal and the part of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce east of Hingston Avenue in the Borough of Côte-des-Neiges—Notre-Dame-de-Grâce in the City of Montreal.

Political geography
The Liberals were strong throughout this riding, but had their strongest support in Westmount. In the 2008 election, the NDP saw their second-strongest result on the island in this riding. Much of their support was concentrated in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce, where they won a handful of polls. In the 2011 election, the NDP surge held the Liberals to a tight margin of victory of 642 votes.

Demographics

 * According to the 2001 Canadian census

 * Ethnic groups: 75.9% White, 5.9% Chinese, 5.1% Arab, 3.7% Black, 2.4% South Asian, 1.8% Latin American, 1.1% West Asian
 * Languages: 37.8% English, 29.6% French, 29.3% Others, 3.2% Multiple responses
 * Religions: 40.2% Catholic, 12.5% Protestant, 11.9% Jewish, 7.3% Muslim, 4.0% Christian Orthodox, 2.0% Other Christian, 1.3% Buddhist, 19.3% No religion
 * Average income: $44,790

History
The electoral district was created in 1996 from parts of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and Saint-Henri—Westmount ridings.

Member of Parliament
This riding has elected the following members of Parliament:

Election results
Note: Change is from 2000 redistributed results. Conservative vote is compared to the total of the Canadian Alliance vote and Progressive Conservative vote in 2000 election.

title: Westmount–Ville-Marie


text:
Carbon steel

Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states:

 * no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect;
 * the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40%;
 * or the specified maximum for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65%; silicon 0.60%; copper 0.60%.

The term carbon steel may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. High carbon steel has many different uses such as milling machines, cutting tools (such as chisels) and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which improves the toughness.

As the carbon content percentage rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.

Properties
Carbon steel is often divided into two main categories: low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, which can affect its properties. Carbon steel can be easily machined and welded, making it versatile for various applications. It can also be heat treated to improve its strength, hardness, and durability.

Carbon steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion, especially in environments with high moisture levels and/or salt. It can be shielded from corrosion by coating it with paint, varnish, or other protective material. Alternatively, it can be made from a stainless steel alloy that contains chromium, which provides excellent corrosion resistance. Carbon steel can be alloyed with other elements to improve its properties, such as by adding chromium and/or nickel to improve its resistance to corrosion and oxidation or adding molybdenum to improve its strength and toughness at high temperatures.

It is an environmentally friendly material, as it is easily recyclable and can be reused in various applications. It is energy-efficient to produce, as it requires less energy than other metals such as aluminium and copper.

Mild or low-carbon steel
Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. Surface hardness can be increased with carburization.

The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 and the Young's modulus is 200 GPa.

Low-carbon steels display yield-point runout where the material has two yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develops Lüder bands. Low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Typical applications of low carbon steel are car parts, pipes, construction, and food cans.

High-tensile steel
High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range, which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear properties or specifically tensile strength. These alloying ingredients include chromium, molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel, and vanadium. Impurities such as phosphorus and sulfur have their maximum allowable content restricted.

 * 41xx steel
 * 4140 steel
 * 4145 steel
 * 4340 steel
 * 300M steel
 * EN25 steel – 2.521% nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel
 * EN26 steel

Higher-carbon steels
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can significantly affect the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly at high working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melt around 1426 –. Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight. There are two types of higher carbon steels which are high carbon steel and the ultra high carbon steel. The reason for the limited use of high carbon steel is that it has extremely poor ductility and weldability and has a higher cost of production. The applications best suited for the high carbon steels is its use in the spring industry, farm industry, and in the production of wide range of high-strength wires.

AISI classification
The following classification method is based on the American AISI/SAE standard. Other international standards including DIN (Germany), GB (China), BS/EN (UK), AFNOR (France), UNI (Italy), SS (Sweden), UNE (Spain), JIS (Japan), ASTM standards, and others.

Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:

Low-carbon steel
Low-carbon steel has 0.05 to 0.15% carbon (plain carbon steel) content.

Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has approximately 0.3–0.5% carbon content. It balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance. It is used for large parts, forging and automotive components.

High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel has approximately 0.6 to 1.0% carbon content. It is very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires.

Ultra-high-carbon steel
Ultra-high-carbon steel has approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes such as (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles, and punches. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.

Heat treatment

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's modulus (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid temperature (about 727 C) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a fine grained pearlite and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with α-ferrite (nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella) of cementite formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever rule. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:

 * Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.
 * Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 400 C for 1 hour; this ensures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although cementite might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 20 °C (36 °F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure, which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.
 * Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3% C. The steel is usually heated to 550 to 650 C for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The image above shows the process annealing area.
 * Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature. This temperature is maintained for a time and then reduced to below the lower critical temperature and is again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature. This method eliminates any temperature gradient.
 * Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 550 C for 1 hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.
 * Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three times harder (four with more carbon) than normalized steel.
 * Martempering (marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term marquenching. It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases impact resistance.
 * Tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the eutectoid temperature and then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts spheroidite to form, which restores ductility but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition.
 * Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the quench is interrupted and the steel is held in the molten salt bath at temperatures between 205 and 540 C, and then cooled at a moderate rate. The resulting steel, called bainite, produces an acicular microstructure in the steel that has great strength (but less than martensite), greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion than martensite steel. The disadvantage of austempering is it can be used only on a few sheets of steel, and it requires a special salt bath.

Case hardening
Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear-resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very hardenable meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they can be through-hardened and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core flexible and shock-absorbing.

title: Carbon steel


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Josiah Tongogara

Josiah Magama Tongogara (4 February 1938 – 26 December 1979) was a prominent Zimbabwean guerrilla commander during the Rhodesian Bush War. He was the brother of the current Zimbabwean President Emmerson Mnangagwa's first wife, Jayne. He attended the Lancaster House conference that led to Zimbabwe's independence and the end of white minority rule.

Early life
Tongogara and his parents lived on the farm owned by the parents of Ian Smith, Rhodesia's last prime minister. It was where Tongogara first met Ian Smith.

In politics
Tongogara was one of several rebel commanders operating from outside of Rhodesia's borders to free the country from white rule. In 1973 he took over command from Herbert Chitepo of the armed forces of the Zimbabwe African National Union. And in 1975, he put down an internal revolt by members of the Manyika tribe and consolidated that control with the assistance of Mujuru, aka Rex Nhongo. Herbert Chitepo, who may have encouraged the Manyika revolt, was killed by a car bomb that year, and a Special International Commission in Zambia found Tongogara, among others, responsible.

At the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979, Tongogara was a crucial "moderating" force, according to Lord Carrington, the then British Foreign Secretary, who chaired the talks. By then Tongogara openly favoured unity between ZANU and Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU. "Robert Mugabe referred to unity with Zapu as sharing the spoils with those who had not shouldered the burden of fighting," says Wilfred Mhanda, a former ZANLA commander who was imprisoned in Mozambique for allegedly leading an internal revolt within the party. As Lancaster House concluded, Tongogara returned to Mozambique, where ZANLA was based, to inform his soldiers of the ceasefire. Among them was Margaret Dongo, who, aged fifteen, had crossed into Mozambique to join the guerrillas, adopting the chimurenga (liberation war) name of Tichaona Muhondo ("we shall see/resolve this in the battle").

Death
Six days after the Lancaster House Agreement was signed Robert Mugabe, on the Voice of Zimbabwe radio station, conveyed "an extremely sad message" to "all the fighting people of Zimbabwe": the forty-one-year-old Tongogara was dead, killed in a car accident in Mozambique on 26 December 1979.

Josiah Tungamirai, the ZANLA High Command's political commissar, relates that on the night of the fatality, he and Tongogara had been travelling with others in two vehicles from Maputo to Chimoio. Tungamirai said he was in the front vehicle. It was dark and the roads were bad. Tungamirai's car passed a military vehicle that had been carelessly abandoned, with no warning signs at the side of the road. After that, he could no longer see the headlights of the following car in his rear view mirror. Eventually he turned back, and, as he had feared, they found Tongogara's car had struck the abandoned vehicle. Tongogara was sitting in the front passenger seat. Tungamirai told me that he had struggled to lift Tongogara out of the wrecked car. He said that as he was doing so, Tongogara heaved a huge sigh and died in his arms.

Margaret Dongo was one of the last people to see him alive. "We were eighteen girls who were having a function and he came to say a few words to bless the occasion."

ZANU released a statement from the undertaker, Mr K.J Stokes (not Mr R Silke) saying his injuries were consistent with a road accident, but no autopsy results or pictures were released.

Theories on death
A CIA intelligence briefing of 28 December 1979 said Tongogara was a potential political rival to Mugabe because of his "ambition, popularity and decisive style". On the same day, the US embassy in Zambia reported, "Almost no one in Lusaka accepts Mugabe's assurance that Tongogara died accidentally. When the ambassador told the Soviet ambassador the news, the surprised Soviet immediately charged 'inside job'".

Ian Smith also insisted in his memoirs that Tongogara's "own people" killed him and that he had disclosed at Lancaster House that Tongogara was under threat. Smith wrote, "I made a point of discussing his death with our police commissioner and head of special branch, and both assured me that Tongogara had been assassinated".

A former Detective in the Law and Order Section of the former British South Africa Police saw photographs of Tongogara's body. There were three wounds, consistent with gunshot wounds, to his upper torso. The undertaker's statement was not a "formal" autopsy report and so was dismissed by all but the senior politburo of ZANU.

In spite of all the rumours, Mr. R. Silke, the pathologist for Mashfords Funeral Home in Zimbabwe, insisted in a 1982 television documentary, "Tongo", that the theory of gunshot wounds on Tongogara's body was false, as he had personally inspected the body and that the injuries that he found were consistent with road accident trauma.

Legacy
In 1990, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Zimbabwe's independence, streets were renamed in Tongogara's honour, including North Avenue in Harare, which became Josiah Tongogara Avenue, and Wilson Street in Bulawayo, which became Josiah Tongogara Street.

In 2005, Tongogara was honoured on a stamp of Zimbabwe.

In 2012 it was revealed that Tongogara's wife was not receiving war veteran's widow benefits.

On 6 December 2017, the King George VI Barracks, which houses the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) and Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) headquarters, was officially renamed Josiah Magama Tongogara Barracks.

title: Josiah Tongogara


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Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge

Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (8 February 1794 – 25 March 1867) was a German analytical chemist. Runge identified the mydriatic (pupil dilating) effects of belladonna (deadly nightshade) extract, identified caffeine, and discovered the first coal tar dye (aniline blue).

Early life
Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge was born near Hamburg on 8 February 1794. From a young age, Runge conducted chemical experiments, serendipitously identifying the mydriatic (pupil dilating) effects of belladonna (deadly nightshade) extract.

Career
In 1819, Runge was invited to show Goethe how belladonna caused dilation of the pupil, which Runge did, using a cat as an experimental subject. Goethe was so impressed with the demonstration that

 * "Nachdem Goethe mir seine größte Zufriedenheit sowol über die Erzählung des durch scheinbaren schwarzen Staar Geretteten, wie auch über das andere ausgesprochen, übergab er mir noch eine Schachtel mit Kaffeebohnen, die ein Grieche ihm als etwas Vorzügliches gesandt. "Auch diese können sie zu Ihren Untersuchungen brauchen," sagte Goethe. Er hatte recht; denn bald darauf entdeckte ich darin das, wegen seines großen Stickstoffgehaltes so berühmt gewordene Coffein."

 * "After Goethe had expressed to me his greatest satisfaction regarding the account of the man whom I'd rescued [from serving in Napoleon's army] by apparent "black star" [i.e., amaurosis, blindness] as well as the other, he handed me a carton of coffee beans, which a Greek had sent him as a delicacy. "You can also use these in your investigations," said Goethe. He was right; for soon thereafter I discovered therein caffeine, which became so famous on account of its high nitrogen content."

A few months later, Runge identified caffeine.

Runge studied chemistry in Jena and Berlin, where he obtained his doctorate. After touring Europe for three years, he taught chemistry at the University of Breslau until 1831. From then on he worked for a state-owned chemical company in Oranienburg near Berlin, but was dismissed at the age of 58 when the company was privatised in 1852. He lost his pension and company flat in 1855 due to a dispute over intellectual property with the new management of the company. He died twelve years later in Oranienburg. He is commemorated by the plant genus Rungia named after him in 1832 by the botanist Nathaniel Wallich.

Discoveries
His chemical work included purine chemistry, the identification of caffeine, the discovery of the first coal tar dye (aniline blue), (Runge called aniline blue "Kyanol" (blue-oil))  coal tar products (and a large number of substances that derive from coal tar), paper chromatography, pyrrole, chinoline, phenol, thymol and atropine. Runge placed drops of reactant solutions on blotting paper and then added a drop of a second reactant solution on top of the first drop. The solutions would react as they spread through the blotting paper, often producing colored patterns. His results were published in two books, ''Farbenchemie. Musterbilder für Freunde des Schönen und zum Gebrauch für Zeichner, Maler, Verzierer und Zeugdrucker, dargestellt durch chemische Wechselwirkung and Der Bildungstrieb der Stoffe, veranschaulicht in selbstständig gewachsenen Bilder''.

In 1855, he was the first to notice the phenomenon of Liesegang rings, observing them in the course of experiments on the precipitation of reagents in blotting paper.

Honours
In 1832 botanist Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck published Rungia, a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Acanthaceae (about 82 species worldwide), with its name honouring Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge.

On February 8, 2019, Google celebrated his 225th birthday with a Google Doodle.

title: Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge


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Pholidoteuthis

Pholidoteuthis is a genus of squid in the monotypic family Pholidoteuthidae, comprising at least two species. The defunct genus Tetronychoteuthis was previously incorporated into Pholidoteuthidae based upon a singular taxon known as Tetronychoteuthis massyae. Following the discovery of Pholidoteuthis boschmai in 1950, T. massaye was placed into Pholidoteuthis, with Tetronoychoteuthis considered a nomen dubium. P. boschmai is now considered a junior synonym of P. massyae.

Species

 * Pholidoteuthis adami Voss, 1956
 * Pholidoteuthis massyae (Pfeffer, 1912) – coffeebean scaled squid

title: Pholidoteuthis


text: Talk:Pholidoteuthis

title: Talk:Pholidoteuthis


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Tool steel

Tool steel is any of various carbon steels and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools and tooling, including cutting tools, dies, hand tools, knives, and others. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion and deformation, and their ability to hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures. As a result, tool steels are suited for use in the shaping of other materials, as for example in cutting, machining, stamping, or forging.

Tool steels have a carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%. The presence of carbides in their matrix plays the dominant role in the qualities of tool steel. The four major alloying elements that form carbides in tool steel are: tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. The rate of dissolution of the different carbides into the austenite form of the iron determines the high-temperature performance of steel (slower is better, making for a heat-resistant steel). Proper heat treatment of these steels is important for adequate performance. The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching.

There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-work, shock-resistant, high-speed, hot-work, and special purpose. The choice of group to select depends on cost, working temperature, required surface hardness, strength, shock resistance, and toughness requirements. The more severe the service condition (higher temperature, abrasiveness, corrosiveness, loading), the higher the alloy content and consequent amount of carbides required for the tool steel.

Tool steels are used for cutting, pressing, extruding, and coining of metals and other materials. Their use in tooling is essential; injection molds for example require tool steels for their resistance to abrasion- an important criterion for mold durability which enables hundreds of thousands of moldings operations over its lifetime.

The AISI-SAE grades of tool steel is the most common scale used to identify various grades of tool steel. Individual alloys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc.

Water-hardening group
W-group tool steel gets its name from its defining property of having to be water quenched. W-grade steel is essentially high carbon plain-carbon steel. This group of tool steel is the most commonly used tool steel because of its low cost compared to others. They work well for parts and applications where high temperatures are not encountered; above 150 C it begins to soften to a noticeable degree. Its hardenability is low, so W-group tool steels must be subjected to a rapid quenching, requiring the use of water. These steels can attain high hardness (above 66 Rockwell C) and are rather brittle compared to other tool steels. W-steels are still sold, especially for springs, but are much less widely used than they were in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This is partly because W-steels warp and crack much more during quench than oil-quenched or air hardening steels.

The toughness of W-group tool steels is increased by alloying with manganese, silicon and molybdenum. Up to 0.20% of vanadium is used to retain fine grain sizes during heat treating.

Typical applications for various carbon compositions are for W-steels:

 * 0.60–0.75% carbon: machine parts, chisels, setscrews; properties include medium hardness with good toughness and shock resistance.
 * 0.76–0.90% carbon: forging dies, hammers, and sledges.
 * 0.91–1.10% carbon: general purpose tooling applications that require a good balance of wear resistance and toughness, such as rasps, drills, cutters, and shear blades.
 * 1.11–1.30% carbon: files, small drills, lathe tools, razor blades, and other light-duty applications where more wear resistance is required without great toughness. Steel of about 0.8% C gets as hard as steel with more carbon, but the free iron carbide particles in 1% or 1.25% carbon steel make it hold an edge better. However, the fine edge probably rusts off faster than it wears off, if it is used to cut acidic or salty materials.

Cold-work group
The cold-work tool steels include the O series (oil-hardening), the A series (air-hardening), and the D series (high carbon-chromium). These are steels used to cut or form materials that are at low temperatures. This group possesses high hardenability and wear resistance, and average toughness and heat softening resistance. They are used in production of larger parts or parts that require minimal distortion during hardening. The use of oil quenching and air-hardening helps reduce distortion, avoiding the higher stresses caused by the quicker water quenching. More alloying elements are used in these steels, as compared to the water-hardening class. These alloys increase the steels' hardenability, and thus require a less severe quenching process and as a result are less likely to crack. They have high surface hardness and are often used to make knife blades. The machinability of the oil hardening grades is high but for the high carbon-chromium types is low.

Oil-hardening: the O series
This series includes an O1 type, an O2 type, an O6 type and an O7 type. All steels in this group are typically hardened at 800 C, oil quenched, then tempered below 200 C.

Air-hardening: the A series
The first air-hardening-grade tool steel was mushet steel, which was known as air-hardening steel at the time.

Modern air-hardening steels are characterized by low distortion during heat treatment because of their high-chromium content. Their machinability is good and they have a balance of wear resistance and toughness (i.e. between the D and shock-resistant grades).

High carbon-chromium: the D series
The D series of the cold-work class of tool steels, which originally included types D2, D3, D6, and D7, contains between 10% and 13% chromium (which is unusually high). These steels retain their hardness up to a temperature of 425 C. Common applications for these tool steels include forging dies, die-casting die blocks, and drawing dies. Due to their high chromium content, certain D-type tool steels are often considered stainless or semi-stainless, however their corrosion resistance is very limited due to the precipitation of the majority of their chromium and carbon constituents as carbides.

Shock-resisting group
The high shock resistance and good hardenability are provided by chromium-tungsten, silicon-molybdenum, silicon-manganese alloying. Shock-resisting group tool steels (S) are designed to resist shock at both low and high temperatures. A low carbon content is required for the necessary toughness (approximately 0.5% carbon). Carbide-forming alloys provide the necessary abrasion resistance, hardenability, and hot-work characteristics. This family of steels displays very high impact toughness and relatively low abrasion resistance and can attain relatively high hardness of 58 to 60 HRC. In the US, toughness usually derives from 1 to 2% silicon and 0.5–1% molybdenum content. In Europe, shock steels often contain 0.5–0.6% carbon and around 3% nickel. A range of 1.75% to 2.75% nickel is still used in some shock-resisting and high-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA), such as L6, 4340, and Swedish saw steel, but it is relatively expensive. An example of its use is in the production of jackhammer bits.

Hot-working group
Hot-working steels are a group of steel used to cut or shape material at high temperatures. H-group tool steels were developed for strength and hardness during prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. These tool steels are low carbon and moderate to high alloy that provide good hot hardness and toughness and fair wear resistance due to a substantial amount of carbide. H1 to H19 are based on a chromium content of 5%; H20 to H39 are based on a tungsten content of 9-18% and a chromium content of 3–4%; H40 to H59 are molybdenum based.

Examples include DIN 1.2344 tool steel (H13).

Special-purpose group

 * is short for plastic mold steels. They are designed to meet the requirements of zinc die casting and plastic injection molding dies.
 * L-type tool steel is short for low alloy special purpose tool steel. L6 is extremely tough.
 * F-type tool steel is water hardened and substantially more wear resistant than W-type tool steel.

title: Tool steel