text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Leaders by year/To-do

For a systematic approach to this WikiProject, here is an alphabetical list of the countries to be covered.

Key
Albania - Those countries which are covered EVERY year from the state's foundation to its end (or present) may be crossed out. If a country appears complete but is not crossed out, do not cross it out. Scroll through all of the pages on which the state SHOULD be listed, so as to ensure no more work needs be done.

Africa

 * Angola (1575-present)
 * Ashanti Confederacy (1701 to 1900)
 * Benin
 * Botswana
 * Burkina Faso
 * Burundi
 * King of Burundi (1680 or earlier to 1899)
 * President of Brundi (1963-present)
 * Prime Minister of Burundi (1963-present)
 * Cameroon
 * Cape Verde
 * Central African Republic
 * Chad
 * Comoros
 * Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Republic of the Congo
 * Côte d'Ivoire
 * Djibouti
 * Equatorial Guinea
 * Eritrea
 * Ethiopia (c. 1 AD-present)
 * Gabon
 * The Gambia
 * Ghana
 * Guinea
 * Guinea-Bissau
 * Kenya (1963-present)
 * Kush
 * Lesotho
 * Liberia
 * Madagascar
 * Malawi
 * Mali
 * Mauritania
 * Mauritius
 * Mozambique (1975-present)
 * Namibia (1990-present)
 * Numidia
 * Niger
 * Nigeria
 * Puntland
 * Rwanda
 * São Tomé and Príncipe
 * Senegal (1960-present)
 * Seychelles
 * Sierra Leone
 * Somalia
 * Somaliland
 * South Africa
 * Sudan
 * Swaziland
 * Tanzania
 * Togo
 * Uganda
 * Western Sahara
 * Zambia
 * Zimbabwe

Americas

 * Ancient Pueblo Peoples
 * Aztec Empire
 * Cahokia (Mississippean Culture)
 * Incan Empire
 * Iroquois Confederation
 * Maya civilization
 * Teotihuacan Empire
 * Toltecs

Asia

 * Abkhazia7
 * Afghanistan
 * Bangladesh (1971-present)
 * Cambodia
 * Bhutan
 * Brunei
 * China (?-1949)
 * People's Republic of China (1949-present)
 * Republic of China
 * East Timor (1975, 2002-present)
 * India
 * Indonesia (1945-present)
 * Japan completed through 1200
 * Kazakhstan (1991-present)
 * Korea, North
 * Korea, South
 * Kyrgyzstan
 * Laos
 * Malaysia
 * Maldives
 * Mongolia
 * Myanmar
 * Nepal
 * Pakistan
 * Philippines
 * Singapore
 * South Ossetia
 * Sri Lanka
 * Tajikistan
 * Thailand
 * Tibet (1912-1950)
 * Turkmenistan (1991-present)
 * Uzbekistan (1991-present)
 * Vietnam
 * North Vietnam
 * South Vietnam

Europe

 * Albania
 * Andorra
 * Armenia
 * Austria (1918-1938, 1945-present)
 * Azerbaijan
 * Belarus
 * Belgium
 * Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Bulgaria
 * Chechnya7
 * Croatia
 * Czech Republic (1993-present)
 * Denmark Country completed through 1700
 * Estonia
 * Finland
 * France
 * Georgia
 * Germany (1870-present)
 * Greece
 * Hungary
 * Iceland
 * Republic of Ireland (1928-present)
 * Italy
 * Latvia
 * Liechtenstein
 * Lithuania
 * Luxembourg
 * Republic of Macedonia (1991-present)
 * Malta
 * Moldova
 * Monaco
 * Netherlands
 * Norway
 * Poland
 * Portugal
 * Romania
 * Russia
 * San Marino
 * Serbia and Montenegro
 * Slovakia
 * Slovenia
 * Sweden
 * Switzerland
 * Spain
 * Ukraine
 * United Kingdom
 * Vatican City

Middle East and North Africa

 * Akkad
 * Empire of Alexander the Great
 * Algeria
 * Assyria
 * Babylonia
 * Bahrain
 * Carthage
 * Chaldea
 * Cyprus
 * Egypt (really long ago-present)
 * Iran
 * Iraq
 * Israel (1948-present)
 * Kingdom of Israel
 * Kingdom of Judah
 * Jordan
 * Kuwait
 * Lebanon
 * Libya
 * Lydia (Mæonia)
 * Media
 * Morocco
 * Oman
 * Palestine (see West Bank, Gaza Strip)
 * Persian Empire
 * Pontus
 * Qatar
 * Saudi Arabia
 * Syria
 * Tunisia
 * Turkey
 * United Arab Emirates
 * United Arab Republic (1958-1961)
 * Yemen
 * North Yemen
 * South Yemen
 * Democratic Republic of Yemen in southern Yemen and including Aden seceded briefly in 1994

North America and the Caribbean

 * Antigua and Barbuda (1981-present)
 * Bahamas (1973-present)
 * Barbados (1966-present)
 * Belize (1981-present)
 * Canada (1867-present)
 * Monarch of Canada
 * Governor-General of Canada
 * Prime Minister of Canada
 * Costa Rica (1825-present)
 * Cuba
 * Dominica (1978-present)
 * Dominican Republic
 * El Salvador
 * Grenada
 * Guatemala
 * Haiti
 * Honduras
 * Jamaica
 * Newfoundland (1907-1934)
 * King of Newfoundland
 * Governor-General of Newfoundland
 * Prime Minister of Newfoundland
 * Saint Kitts and Nevis
 * Saint Lucia
 * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * Mexico
 * New Connecticut - Name of Vermont for several months in 1777.
 * Nicaragua
 * Panama
 * Trinidad and Tobago
 * United States of America

Oceania

 * Australia (1901-present)
 * Monarch of Australia
 * Governor-General of Australia
 * Prime Minister of Australia
 * Fiji
 * Kiribati (1979-present)
 * Marshall Islands (1986-present)
 * Federated States of Micronesia (1979-present)
 * Nauru (1968-present)
 * New Zealand
 * Palau (1994-present)
 * Papua New Guinea
 * Samoa
 * Solomon Islands (1978-present)
 * Tuvalu
 * Vanuatu (1980-present)
 * Tonga

South America

 * Argentina
 * Bolivia
 * Brazil
 * Chile
 * Colombia
 * Ecuador
 * Guyana
 * Paraguay
 * Peru
 * Suriname
 * Venezuela
 * Uruguay (1830-present)

Ancient Afro-Eurasian Civilizations
Territories that disappeared in ancient history.
 * Adiabene
 * Commagene
 * Dacia
 * Etruria
 * Hellenic city-states (Athens, Sparta, Syracuse, etc) and their allied cities/colonies/territories.
 * Hellenistic Empires (Ptolemaic, Seleucid, Antigonid,etc.)
 * Hittites
 * Hurrians
 * Ancient Illyria
 * Indus Valley Civilisation (Harappa, Mohenjo Daro in present Pakistan) South Asia
 * Mauretania
 * Roman Republic, Roman Empire
 * Scythia
 * Sumer
 * Urartu

Middle Ages to modern times

 * Byzantine Empire (395-1453)
 * Empire of Nicaea (1204-1261)
 * Great Bulgaria (632-660)
 * Volga Bulgaria (660-1236)
 * First Bulgarian Kingdom (681-1018)
 * Bulgarian Khanate (681-864)
 * Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1186-1396)
 * Third Bulgarian Kingdom (1878-1944)
 * Principality of Bulgaria (1878-1908)
 * Crusader States (1098-1291)
 * County of Edessa (1098-1149)
 * Kingdom of Jerusalem
 * Principality of Antioch
 * County of Tripoli
 * Kingdom of Cyprus (1192-1489)
 * Latin Empire of Constantinople
 * Kingdom of Thessalonica (1204-1224)
 * Principality of Achaea
 * Duchy of Athens
 * Kingdom of Etruria (1801-1807)
 * Frankish Kingdom (~419-843)
 * Hanseatic League -- note that, while no longer sovereign, the League is not dissolved
 * Holy Roman Empire (843-1806)
 * List of Reichstag participants (1792)
 * Pomerania ruled by the Dukes of Pomerania (1121-1637)
 * Brandenburg-Prussia (1660 - 1701)
 * Kingdom of Prussia (1701 - 1918)
 * Habsburg Empire (1282-1867)
 * Khazar Empire (652-1016)
 * Kievan Rus (860 - 12th century)
 * States in Medieval Britain
 * Mongol Empire (1200-1266)
 * Mutawakkalite Kingdom of Yemen (1918-1970)
 * Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (1043-1410, 1442-1500, 1735-1860)
 * Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1815 - 1860)
 * Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th century)
 * Grand Duchy of Lithuania (-1795)
 * Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795)
 * Kingdom of Poland (1815-1918)
 * Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815)
 * Free State of Gdansk Legal Name Freistadt Danzig (1807-1815) (1920-1939)
 * Republic of Krakow (1815-1846)
 * Duchy of Courland (1561-1795)
 * Duchy of Masovia (-1561)
 * Spanish states
 * Aragon (1035-1479)
 * Kingdom of Asturias (718-925)
 * Castile (11th century - 1469)
 * Kingdom of León (913-1037, 1195-1230)
 * Republic of Venice (727-1797)
 * Republic of Ragusa/Dubrovnik (1358-1808)
 * Mediæval Irish gaelic states and polity
 * Lordship of Ireland (1171-1541)
 * Kingdom of Ireland (1541-1800)
 * Kingdom of England (-1707)
 * Principality of Wales (-1282, 1400-1536)
 * Kingdom of Scotland (-1707)
 * Ifriqiya
 * Tahert
 * Sijilmassa
 * Nubia (Dongola)
 * Kingdom of the Berghouata (also spelled Barghwata, Barghawata)
 * Kingdom of Nekor
 * Kingdom of Ceuta - in particular, the Banu Isam
 * Taifa states in al-Andalus
 * Banu Sumadih

Dissolved countries
These states are now dissolved into a number of countries.
 * Austria-Hungary - This double monarchy was formed in 1867 from the Habsburg empire, having an Austrian and a Hungarian part. In 1918, the empire was split into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia, with other territories going to Italy and Romania
 * Yugoslavia - State created from parts of Austria-Hungary and Kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro in 1918/1929. Re-created after World War II, dissolved when four out of six constituent republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina) seceded in 1990s. Remaining two republics officially renamed back into Serbia and Montenegro in 2003.
 * Czechoslovakia - State created from parts of Austria-Hungary, which dissolved after World War I. In 1993, the country was split into two parts, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
 * West Indies Federation - Federal state created by Britain in 1952 that simultaneously granted independence to all former British colonies in the Caribbean. The federation collapsed after Jamaica voted to separate.
 * Mali Federation - In 1959 formed by Senegal and French Sudan, both parts of French West Africa, as an independent nation. It fell apart in 1960 into Senegal and Mali.
 * Soviet Union or USSR - Formed after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1918, made up of several republics which have since become independent as Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Belarus, Ukraine, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Russia.
 * United Provinces of Central America . (1823-1839)
 * Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (or The Commonwealth of the Two Nations) partitioned in 1772-1795 among Russia, Prussia and Austria. These lands are distributed today among Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, Belarus, and partly Russia.

Renamed countries
These country names have been replaced.
 * Burma - Name of Myanmar until 1989.
 * Central African Empire - temporary phase (1977 - 1979) in the existence of the Central African Republic.
 * Ceylon - Name of Sri Lanka until 1972.
 * Éire - received the legislative description of the Republic of Ireland in 1949.
 * Irish Free State - renamed Éire in 1937.
 * Ivory Coast - became Côte d'Ivoire in 1985, the French name being used in all languages thereafter
 * Kampuchea - Name of Cambodia from 1980 to 1989, before reverting to the original (1949 to 1975) name.
 * Khmer Republic - Name of Cambodia from 1975 to 1980
 * Persia - Name of Iran until 1935.
 * Republic of the Congo - Name of Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1960 to 1966.
 * Siam - Name of Thailand until 1938.
 * Upper Volta - Name of Burkina Faso until 1984.
 * United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland renamed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927. (Most of Ireland had left in 1922.)
 * Federal Republic of Yugoslavia renamed into Serbia and Montenegro in 2003.
 * Zaire - Name of Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1971 to 1997.

"Independent" Homelands of South Africa
These homelands, for black people, were granted "independence" from South Africa. Not recognised by other nations, they were officially re-incorporated in 1994.
 * Bophuthatswana - Made "independent" in 1977, reincorporated in 1994.
 * Ciskei - Made "independent" in 1981, reincorporated in 1994.
 * Transkei - Made "independent" in 1976, reincorporated in 1994.
 * Venda - Made "independent" in 1979, reincorporated in 1994.

Secessionist states
These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country.

 * Biafra . (1967-1970)
 * Confederate States of America . (1861-1865)
 * Crimea, declared independence from Ukraine in 1992 but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine.
 * Katanga - Declared its independence of the newly formed Republic of the Congo in 1960, was incorporated again in 1963.
 * Republic of California - declared independence from Mexico in June 1846, claimed by U.S. Navy for United States in July 1846.
 * Republic of Rio Grande declared independence in 1840, brought back into Mexico by force less than a year later, encompassed the land of the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and parts of the USA state of Texas.
 * Republic of Texas - Declared independence in 1835 from Mexico, and annexed into the United States in 1845. (1836-1845)
 * The Great Republic of Rough and Ready - Declared independence from United States on April 7th, 1850 rejoined into the State of California in the United States July 4th, 1850.
 * The Conch Republic - In 1982 the mayor of Key West, Florida declared independence from the U.S. in protest of the U.S. Border Patrol roadblock placed further up in the Florida Keys to stop drug trafficking and illegal immigration, and surrendered one minute later asking for "foreign aid" to the Keys.

Countries now part of other countries
These nations, once separate, are now part of another country.

 * Anhalt - became part of the German Empire in 1871
 * Anhalt-Bernburg - merged with Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen to form Anhalt in 1863
 * Anhalt-Dessau - merged with Anhalt-Köthen to form Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen in 1847
 * Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen - merged with Anhalt-Bernburg to form Anhalt in 1863
 * Anhalt-Köthen - merged with Anhalt-Dessau to form Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen in 1847
 * Baden - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Bavaria - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Bremen - joined German Empire in 1871
 * British Somaliland - became part of Somalia, but has since asserted its independence as the Somaliland republic.
 * Brunswick - joined German Empire in 1871.
 * California Republic - became part of the United States in 1846
 * Chan Santa Cruz Maya state in eastern Yucatan peninsula, recognized as independent nation by British Empire in 1850s; now part of Mexico.
 * Regency of Carnaro in 1919 and Free State of Fiume in 1920, two short-lived states in the port city of Fiume/Rijeka proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Following World War I, the city was disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia, and eventually captured by Italy in 1921. The city passed to Yugoslavia after World War II and is now in Croatia.
 * East Germany - Joined West Germany in 1990 to form re-unified Germany again.
 * Eastern Rumelia - province of the Ottoman Empire unified with Bulgaria in 1886
 * Frankfurt - annexed by Prussia in 1866
 * Kingdom of Great Britain - merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801
 * Hamburg - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Kingdom of Hanover - annexed by Prussia in 1866
 * The Kingdom of Hawaii was unified in 1810 under Kamehameha I, and was recognized by the United States as an independent nation from 1826 until January 17, 1893. Following the overthrow of the monarchy it existed as the independent Republic of Hawaii until annexation by the United States in 1898.
 * Hesse-Darmstadt - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Hesse-Homburg - annexed by Prussia in 1866
 * Hesse-Kassel - annexed by Prussia in 1866
 * Hohenzollern-Hechingen - annexed by Prussia in 1850
 * Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen - annexed by Prussia in 1850
 * Ifni - A Spanish possession until 1969, when it was ceded to and incorporated in Morocco.
 * Indian Princely States
 * Kingdom of Ireland - merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801
 * Italian Somaliland - Became part of Somalia.
 * Kalat (princely state) - Became part of Pakistan.
 * Kongo - African kingdom, divided between the colonial powers in 1885 at the Conference of Berlin. Now part of Angola (incl. Cabinda), Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 * Lippe - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Lübeck - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Manchukuo - Japanese puppet state 1931-1945. Became part of China.
 * Mecklenburg-Schwerin - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Mecklenburg-Strelitz - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Moldavia - Now divided between Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.
 * Moresnet - A tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of Belgium.
 * Nassau - annexed by Prussia in 1866.
 * Oldenburg - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Papal States - annexed by Italy in 1870.
 * Duchy of Parma - annexed by Piedmont-Sardinia in 1860
 * Prussia - Joined German Empire in 1871
 * Puerto Rico - Caribbean Territory of the United States.
 * Republic of Indian Stream - 1832-1835, now part of U.S.
 * Republic of Hawaii - Became territory, then state of United States.
 * Republic of Taiwan - Lasted from May to October 1895 after the island was ceded by China to Japan and the natives declared independence
 * Republic of Texas - After becoming independent of Mexico in 1836, Texas sought annexation by the United States, which occurred in 1845.
 * Ryukyu Kingdom - united from Chuzan, Nanzan, Hokuzan, now all Okinawa Prefecture of Japan.
 * Kingdom of Sardinia - became part of Italy in 1861.
 * Saxe-Altenburg - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Saxe-Coburg and Gotha - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld - merged with Saxe-Gotha in 1826 to form Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
 * Saxe-Gotha - merged with Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in 1826 to form Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
 * Saxe-Hildburghausen - annexed by Saxe-Meiningen in 1826
 * Saxe-Meiningen - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Saxony - joined German Empire in 1871.
 * Schaumburg-Lippe - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Schleswig-Holstein - annexed by Prussia in 1866
 * Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Schwarzburg-Sondershausen - joined German Empire in 1871
 * Tuva (also known as Tannu Tuva) - now part of Russia after the dissolution of the USSR
 * Transylvania - Semi-independent part of the Kingdom of Hungary until the 19th century. Became part of Romania after World War I.
 * Grand Duchy of Tuscany - annexed by Piedmont-Sardinia in 1860.
 * Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - part of Italy from 1861.
 * Vermont Republic - Republic of Vermont existed from 1777 until 1791, when Vermont became the 14th state of the United States.
 * Waldeck-Pyrmont - joined German Empire in 1871.
 * Wallachia - United with Moldavia to form Romania in 1859.
 * West Germany - Joined by East Germany in 1990 to form Germany again.
 * Württemberg - German state, joined German Empire in 1871
 * Republic of Yucatan became part of Mexico
 * Zanzibar - Zanzibar merged in 1964 with Tanganyika to become Tanzania.

Former Colonies, possessions, protectorates and territories
These were all colonies, most of which were renamed after their independence.
 * Aden - British colony, now part of Yemen
 * Afars and Issas - French territory between 1967 and 1977, called French Somaliland before that. Became independent as Djibouti.
 * Basutoland - Since 1868 a British protectorate, later colony (governed from South Africa). Became independent as Lesotho in 1966.
 * Bechuanaland - Since 1884 a British protectorate, later colony (governed from South Africa). Became independent as Botswana in 1966.
 * Belgian Congo - Belgian colony from 1908 until 1960, when the it became independent as the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
 * British Guiana - became Guyana
 * British Honduras - became Belize
 * Congo Free State - Name of the state owned from 1884 by King Léopold II of Belgium, later mostly annexed by his country in 1908, then known as Belgian Congo.
 * Dahomey - This African kingdom was acquired by France. In 1904, it was made part of the French West African federation. It became independent in 1960, changing its name in 1975 to Benin.
 * Danish West Indies - Danish colony, sold in 1917 to the United States. Now known as the United States Virgin Islands.
 * Dutch Guiana - became Suriname
 * Ellice Islands - separate colony in 1975, became Tuvalu upon independence in 1978
 * French Equatorial Africa - A French federation of colonies, formed in 1910, containing the colonies of Gabon, Middle Congo, Chad and Ubangi-Shari. The territories became autonomous parts of France in 1958, and the federation was dissolved.
 * French Somaliland - became Afars and Issas then independent Djibouti
 * French Sudan - A French colony, part of the French West African federation since 1904. In 1959 it formed the independent Mali Federation together with Senegal, which fell apart in 1960, after which the country was renamed Mali.
 * French West Africa - dissolved into Mali, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Upper Volta, Niger, Guinea, Dahomey, and Togo
 * German East Africa - became Tanganyika, now in Tanzania
 * German New Guinea - protectorate from 1884 until conquered by Australia in 1914.
 * German South-West Africa - A German colony from 1884 to 1915, after which it became South African held territory until 1990, when the country became independent as Namibia.
 * Gold Coast - A British colony since 1874, it became independent as Ghana in 1957.
 * Hong Kong - colony of the United Kingdom, sovereignty transferred to the People's Republic of China on July 1, 1997.
 * Indo-China - French territory until 1949. Became independent as Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
 * Italian East Africa - Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland together with occupied Ethiopia.
 * Italian North Africa - became Libya
 * Macau - colony of Portugal, sovereignty transferred to the People's Republic of China on December 20, 1999.
 * Middle Congo - A French colony, previously named French Congo, became independent as the Republic of the Congo in 1960.
 * Netherlands East Indies - A collection of Dutch colonies, officially since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, up to 1799 controlled by the Dutch East India Company but occupied and administered by the British in an interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars under the authority of the Kew Letters. Became independent as Indonesia in 1949.
 * Netherlands Guiana - became Suriname
 * Netherlands New Guinea - adjacent to the Netherlands East Indies until 1949, became part of Indonesia in 1969 as Irian Jaya.
 * New France was conquered by Britain; various parts of it later became part of Canada and the United States.
 * New Hebrides - Condominium until 1980. Became independent as Vanuatu.
 * New Netherlands - A Dutch colony in the present-day United States, mainly in and around the state of New York. It was conquered by Great Britain in 1664.
 * Northern Rhodesia - became Zambia in 1964.
 * North-Eastern Rhodesia - united with North-Western Rhodesia in 1911.
 * North-Western Rhodesia - united with North-Eastern Rhodesia in 1911.
 * Nyasaland - British protectorate, previously called British Central Africa, it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. It became part of a federation with Rhodesia in 1953, and became independent as Malawi in 1964.
 * Oubangui-Chari - became Central African Republic
 * Panama Canal Zone - US territory until 1979. Became part of Panama.
 * Portuguese East Africa - became Mozambique
 * Portuguese Guinea - became Guinea-Bissau
 * Portuguese India - became part of India
 * Portuguese Timor - The eastern side of the island of Timor was a Portuguese colony until 1975, when independence was declared as East Timor. Indonesian troops seized the country, but the country was finally declared independent in 2002.
 * Portuguese West Africa - became Angola
 * Rhodesia - name for Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) while unilaterally claiming independence, 1965-1979.
 * Río Muni - Former Spanish colony, then part of territory of Spanish Guinea until 1968. Became independent as Equatorial Guinea.
 * Riviéres du Sud - French colony, renamed Guinea
 * Ruanda-Urundi - UN Trusteeship until 1962. Became independent as Burundi and Rwanda.
 * Federation of South Arabia - 1962 to 1967, consisting of British colony of Aden and numerous protectorates. Became independent as People's Republic of South Yemen (from 1970 People's Democratic Republic of Yemen).
 * South-West Africa - In 1915, South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa, which it held under mandate until 1922, after which they remained ruling the territory until its independence in 1990 as Namibia.
 * Southern Rhodesia - British colony, unilaterally declared itself independent as Rhodesia in 1965, renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia 1979, then gained international recognition as Zimbabwe 1980.
 * Spanish Guinea - became Equatorial Guinea. Consisted of two former colonies of Río Muni and Fernando Po.
 * Spanish Sahara - now generally known as Western Sahara, but claimed by and divided between Morocco and Mauritania in 1976, later entirely by Morocco.
 * The Straits Settlements - British colony until 1946. Became independent as Malaya and Singapore.
 * Tanganyika - British territory until 1961. From then independent until 1964, when it became part of Tanzania.
 * The colonies of Vancouver Island, New Caledonia, Upper Canada and Lower Canada (later, the Province of Canada), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland, plus the territory of Rupert's Land, spent much time reorganizing themselves into various patterns; they all eventually became part of Canada.
 * Newfoundland Existed as an autonomous colony of Great Britain from 1855 to 1907, then a sovereign dominion until 1934 when it reverted to a crown colony. It joined in Confederation with Canada in 1949.

To be classified
These should probably be included in one of the above categories - to be done.

 * Barbary States - see Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania (nominal Ottoman tributaries) and Morocco (independent)
 * Java (island)
 * Magadhan Empire
 * Majapahit Empire
 * Tavolara island, (now in Sardinia), smallest kingdom in the world
 * Papal States, before independence as Vatican City in 1929


text:
HMS Aisne (D22)

HMS Aisne (D22) was a 1943 or later Battle-class destroyer fleet destroyer of the Royal Navy. She was named after one of the Battles of the Aisne.

Vickers-Armstrongs built Aisne at High Walker on the River Tyne. She was launched on 12 May 1945, the first warship since VE Day, and commissioned on 20 March 1947.

Service history
Aisne joined the Home Fleet upon commission, but in 1950 she was temporarily laid-up. The following year, Aisne joined the 4th Destroyer Squadron, where she would subsequently have spells with the Home and Mediterranean Fleets. In 1953, Aisne took part in the Fleet Review at Spithead to celebrate the Coronation of HM Queen Elizabeth II. Aisne was positioned in the middle of her sister-ships HMS Corunna (D97) and HMS Barrosa (D68).

In 1954, Aisne, as part of the 4th Destroyer Squadron, deployed to the Mediterranean, remaining there until 1955. In 1959, Aisne began a conversion to a Radar Picket, in effect extending the service life of Aisne, as well as those of the other converted ships, for just a little while longer than the rest of the class. The conversion gave her new radar, as well as the SeaCat missile system and new AA weaponry.

In 1962, Aisne joined the 7th Destroyer Squadron, and the following year joined the 23rd Escort Squadron, and subsequently the 30th Escort Squadron, deployed to the Mediterranean in 1964, before deploying to join the Far East Fleet. In 1967, Aisne deployed to the West Indies remaining there until the following year. In that same year, 1968, Aisne was decommissioned, and was then scrapped by ship breakers Thos. W. Ward at Inverkeithing in 1970.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: HMS Aisne (D22)


text:
Sergei Novikov (mathematician)

Sergei Petrovich Novikov (Russian: Серге́й Петро́вич Но́виков ; 20 March 1938 – 6 June 2024) was a Soviet and Russian mathematician, noted for work in both algebraic topology and soliton theory. He became the first Soviet mathematician to receive the Fields Medal in 1970.

Biography
Novikov was born on 20 March 1938 in Gorky, Soviet Union (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia). He grew up in a family of talented mathematicians. His father was Pyotr Sergeyevich Novikov, who gave a negative solution to the word problem for groups. His mother, Lyudmila Vsevolodovna Keldysh, and maternal uncle, Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh, were also important mathematicians.

Novikov entered Moscow State University in 1955 and graduated in 1960. In 1964, he received the Moscow Mathematical Society Award for young mathematicians and defended a dissertation for the Candidate of Science in Physics and Mathematics degree (equivalent to the PhD) under Mikhail Postnikov at Moscow State University. In 1965, he defended a dissertation for the Doctor of Science in Physics and Mathematics degree there.

Novikov died on 6 June 2024, at the age of 86.

Career
In 1966, Novikov became a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. In 1971, he became head of the Mathematics Division of the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1983, Novikov was also appointed the head of the Department of Higher Geometry and Topology at Moscow State University. He became President of the Moscow Mathematical Society in 1985 and remained in that role until 1996, when he moved to the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences at the University of Maryland, College Park. He continued to maintain research appointments at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics, Moscow State University, and the Department of Geometry and Topology at the Steklov Mathematical Institute after his move to Maryland.

Research
Novikov's early work was in cobordism theory, in relative isolation. Among other advances he showed how the Adams spectral sequence, a powerful tool for proceeding from homology theory to the calculation of homotopy groups, could be adapted to the new (at that time) cohomology theory typified by cobordism and K-theory. This required the development of the idea of cohomology operations in the general setting, since the basis of the spectral sequence is the initial data of Ext functors taken with respect to a ring of such operations, generalising the Steenrod algebra. The resulting Adams–Novikov spectral sequence is now a basic tool in stable homotopy theory.

Novikov also carried out important research in geometric topology, being one of the pioneers with William Browder, Dennis Sullivan, and C. T. C. Wall of the surgery theory method for classifying high-dimensional manifolds. He proved the topological invariance of the rational Pontryagin classes, and posed the Novikov conjecture. From about 1971, he moved to work in the field of isospectral flows, with connections to the theory of theta functions. Novikov's conjecture about the Riemann–Schottky problem (characterizing principally polarized abelian varieties that are the Jacobian of some algebraic curve) stated, essentially, that this was the case if and only if the corresponding theta function provided a solution to the Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation of soliton theory. This was proved by Takahiro Shiota (1986), following earlier work by Enrico Arbarello and Corrado de Concini (1984), and by Motohico Mulase (1984).

Awards and honours
In 1967, Novikov received the Lenin Prize. In 1970, Novikov became the first Soviet mathematician to be awarded the Fields Medal. He was not allowed to travel to the International Congress of Mathematicians in Nice to accept his medal by the Soviet government due to his support for people who had been arrested and sent to mental institutions for speaking out against the regime, but he received it in 1971 when the International Mathematical Union met in Moscow. In 2005, he was awarded the Wolf Prize for his contributions to algebraic topology, differential topology and to mathematical physics. He is one of just eleven mathematicians who received both the Fields Medal and the Wolf Prize. In 2020, he received the Lomonosov Gold Medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

In 1981, he was elected a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Russian Academy of Sciences since 1991). He was elected to the London Mathematical Society (honorary member, 1987), Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (honorary member, 1988), Accademia dei Lincei (foreign member, 1991), Academia Europaea (member, 1993), National Academy of Sciences (foreign associate, 1994), Pontifical Academy of Sciences (member, 1996), European Academy of Sciences (fellow, 2003), and Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts (honorary member, 2011).

He received honorary doctorates from the University of Athens (1988) and University of Tel Aviv (1999).

Writings

 * with Dubrovin and Fomenko: Modern geometry- methods and applications, Vol.1-3, Springer, Graduate Texts in Mathematics (originally 1984, 1988, 1990, V.1 The geometry of surfaces and transformation groups, V.2 The geometry and topology of manifolds, V.3 Introduction to homology theory)
 * Topics in Topology and mathematical physics, AMS (American Mathematical Society) 1995
 * Integrable systems – selected papers, Cambridge University Press 1981 (London Math. Society Lecture notes)
 * with V. I. Arnold as editor and co-author: Dynamical systems, 1994, Encyclopedia of mathematical sciences, Springer
 * Topology I: general survey, V. 12 of Topology Series of Encyclopedia of mathematical sciences, Springer 1996; 2013 edition
 * Solitons and geometry, Cambridge 1994
 * as editor, with Buchstaber: Solitons, geometry and topology: on the crossroads, AMS, 1997
 * with Dubrovin and Krichever: Topological and Algebraic Geometry Methods in contemporary mathematical physics V.2, Cambridge ISBN 9780415299190,
 * My generation in mathematics, Russian Mathematical Surveys V.49, 1994, p. 1
 * as editor, with Buchstaber: Solitons, geometry and topology: on the crossroads, AMS, 1997
 * with Dubrovin and Krichever: Topological and Algebraic Geometry Methods in contemporary mathematical physics V.2, Cambridge ISBN 9780415299190,
 * My generation in mathematics, Russian Mathematical Surveys V.49, 1994, p. 1

title: Sergei Novikov (mathematician)


text:
Lillian Copeland

Lillian Copeland (née Drossin; November 24, 1904 – July 7, 1964) was an American track and field Olympic champion athlete, who excelled in discus, javelin throwing, and shot put, setting multiple world records. She has been called "the most successful female discus thrower in U.S. history". She also held multiple titles in shot put and javelin throwing. She won a silver medal in discus at the 1928 Summer Olympics, a gold medal in discus at the 1932 Summer Olympics, and gold medals in discus, javelin, and shot put at the 1935 Maccabiah Games in Mandatory Palestine.

In 1928, The New York Times reported that Copeland was "considered by many the all around best woman athlete in the country." Until the 2008 Beijing Games 74 years after she became an Olympic champion, she was the only American woman to win the discus throw at a modern Olympics. She has been inducted into the USATF Hall of Fame, the Helms Athletic Hall of Fame, the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame, and the Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.

Early and personal life
Copeland was born Lillian Drossin to Polish-Jewish immigrants in New York City. Her mother was from Grodno (now in Belarus). Her father died when she was young, and after her mother remarried they moved to Los Angeles, California, and changed their surnames to Drossin. Her stepfather was Abraham Copeland, the manager of a fruit and produce company. She lived in Boyle Heights, Los Angeles, and later in Pasadena, California, and attended Los Angeles High School, graduating in 1923.

She attended the University of Southern California, where she was a member of the Xi Chapter of Alpha Epsilon Phi sorority and joined the track & field team in 1924. While at USC, she won every track event she entered. She had a role as a basketball player in the silent 1927 comedy film The Fair Co-Ed. She received a BA degree in political science in 1928. She was the first Olympian who was an alumna of Los Angeles High School and the University of Southern California.

Athletic career
Copeland competed during the formative decades of women's competition in track and field. Consequently, her accomplishments are not fully reflected by the two Olympic medals she won in the discus throw. She competed first for the Pasadena Athletic and Country Club beginning in 1925, and from 1931 on for the Los Angeles Athletic Club. She also competed in running; in 1928 she was part of a women's relay team that set the US record in the quarter-mile. One of the track & field events in which she competed, which is no longer contested, was the baseball throw, in which she was second in the nation in 1926. She won nine Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) championships between 1925 and 1932. A feature article in the May 18, 1926, Pasadena Post noted that she "with all of her athletic prowess ... is very ... feminine in her conduct."

She excelled in all throwing events. She won the AAU shot put championships 5 times (1924–28, 1931). She also won the AAU discus throw title in 1926 (a year in which she set the world record; she began competing in discus because the shot put was not yet an Olympic event) and 1927, and set a new world record in the discus throw at the 1938 Olympic trials. In addition, she won the AAU javelin throw title in 1926 (setting a world record) and 1931. In the javelin, she broke the world record three times in 1926 and 1927. Between 1928 and 1931, she took a hiatus from competing, to focus on her law school studies.

In 1928, The New York Times reported that Copeland was "considered by many the all around best woman athlete in the country." Both Great Athletes in Olympic Sports (Salem Press; 2010), by Kjetil André Aamodt and Laura Flessel-Colovic, and the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame report that she set the world record six times each in shot put, javelin, and discus from 1925–32.

1928 Olympics
The 1928 Summer Olympics were the first Olympics to include women's track and field events. In weight throwing Copeland could only compete in the discus throw, because the javelin throw and shot put were not yet on the program (they would follow in 1932 and 1948, respectively).

She set a new world record in the discus throw at the Olympic trials, at 115 feet, 8.5 inches.

Prior to the Olympiad, in February 1928 she ran the lead leg in the 440 yd relay in the 1928 Olympic trials. In so doing, she helped the US Women's team set a new record in the event of 50.0 seconds, and actually qualified for the Olympics in that event. Sources disagree, however, whether it was a world or US national record.

Once she arrived in Amsterdam, however, she only competed in the discus throw at the 1928 Olympics, where she finished second to Poland's Halina Konopacka, winning a silver medal. Inasmuch as it was the first time the event had been held, she was the sport's first Olympic silver medalist. Two weeks later, at a competition in Brussels, Belgium, she set a new world record in the shot put.

Returning to America, she attended and ultimately graduated from the University of Southern California Law School, and became less focused on sports for a number of years. Nevertheless, Copeland qualified for the US 1932 Olympic team for the discus throw.

1932 Olympics
She competed in her home town in the 1932 Summer Olympics after beating out Babe Didrikson to qualify, and won the gold medal in the discus with her last throw. A Los Angeles Record reporter wrote: "Confident, calm and perfectly poised, [she] made a perfect throw." In doing so she also set a new Olympic record. That throw of 133.16 ft was also a new world record. The 27-year-old Copeland was at the time the oldest American woman to have won an Olympic gold medal in a track & field event.

The shot put, which she excelled in, was not included in the women's events at the Olympic Games until 1948, depriving her of a chance to compete in it for additional Olympic medals.

1936 Olympics
Although she had begun preparations to defend her Los Angeles gold medal at the 1936 Berlin Games in Nazi Germany, and was invited to compete for the United States at the Games, she ultimately chose to boycott them. Her plans to boycott the 1936 Olympic Games arose in 1933, just as the Nazi Party was obtaining more power. She was one of 24 former U.S. Olympic champions who petitioned the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1933 to move the Games from Germany. Copeland suggested that the situation of Nazi Germany was serious enough to warrant a change in location for the 1936 Olympics. She supported a reputed idea to substitute the location of the 1936 Games to Tokyo instead of Germany. As a Jew, she was strongly opposed to Adolf Hitler's edict barring Jews from the German Olympic team. She accused International Olympic Committee (IOC) president Avery Brundage of "deliberately concealing the truth" about Hitler and Nazi Germany. She also argued that Brundage had little respect for the harmful effects of Nazi Germany's intense regime on members of the Jewish community. Copeland raised awareness on the danger of ignoring religious and racial hatred perpetrated by Nazi Germany. She wanted people to know that the racial discrimination encouraged by members of Nazi Germany should not be overlooked, even in sports. The boycott movement fell through, however, and the 1936 Games proceeded in Germany.

Maccabiah Games
Copeland competed at the 1935 Maccabiah Games in Tel Aviv in Mandatory Palestine. There, she won the gold medals in her three events, the shot put, the javelin, and the discus throw.

Halls of fame
In view of her contributions to women's track and field, she was made a member of the USA Track & Field Hall of Fame, the Helms Athletic Hall of Fame, the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (1980), the Woman’s Track and Field Hall of Fame, and the Los Angeles High School Sports Hall of Fame (2010). In 1990 she was inducted into the Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.

Later career
Copeland joined the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department in 1936, and worked there until she retired in 1960. At the Sheriff's Department, she worked in the Lennox and Firestone Juvenile divisions.

She died on July 7, 1964, in Los Angeles, at 59 years of age at Sunset Hospital after a lengthy illness. At the time of her death, she was one of only eight American women to have won an Olympic gold medal.

title: Lillian Copeland


text:
Bandwidth-limited pulse

A bandwidth-limited pulse (also known as Fourier-transform-limited pulse, or more commonly, transform-limited pulse) is a pulse of a wave that has the minimum possible duration for a given spectral bandwidth. Bandwidth-limited pulses have a constant phase across all frequencies making up the pulse. Optical pulses of this type can be generated by mode-locked lasers.

Any waveform can be disassembled into its spectral components by Fourier analysis or Fourier transformation. The length of a pulse thereby is determined by its spectral components, which include not just their relative intensities, but also the relative positions (spectral phase) of these spectral components. For different pulse shapes, the minimum duration-bandwidth product is different. The duration-bandwidth product is minimal for zero phase-modulation. For example, $$\mathrm{sech^2}$$ pulses have a minimum duration-bandwidth product of 0.315 while gaussian pulses have a minimum value of 0.441.

A bandwidth-limited pulse can only be kept together if the dispersion of the medium the wave is travelling through is zero; otherwise dispersion management is needed to revert the effects of unwanted spectral phase changes. For example, when an ultrashort pulse passes through a block of glass, the glass medium broadens the pulse due to group velocity dispersion.

Keeping pulses bandwidth-limited is necessary to compress information in time or to achieve high field densities, as with ultrashort pulses in modelocked lasers.

title: Bandwidth-limited pulse


text:
Talk:Ronnie Lott

Untitled
Since someone posted this in the Cleanup section, I am in need of some info on what should be added?--Wood162001 11:18, 1 May 2004 (UTC)

 * They may have been put off by the general lack of capitalization, etc. It's much better now; please see also the note on your talk page. MisfitToys

Clean up the article!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.34.199.34 (talk) 02:31, 30 December 2010 (UTC)

Hardest Hitting?
"He is most well known for his hard hits on opposing players, rivaling fellow safeties Steve Atwater and Jack Tatum as the hardest hitter of all time."-This is unsubstantiated, untrue, and arbitrary. It should be removed.

College Cheating
If Ronnie Lott brags about cheating on video then I think that is a credible source. --Gbleem 19:53, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Super Bowl XXIII
I saw this line in the "Other Facts" section and removed it: "His devastating hit against Ickey Woods was one of the early turning points of Super Bowl XXIII." I checked the play-by-play, and Lott only tackled Woods twice in that game. The first was on a 3rd-and-3 play where Woods gained six yards. The second was on a 1st-and-10 play late in the first quarter where Woods was stopped for a 2-yard gain. Maybe it was a devestating hit, but it's hard to say that this play was a turning point in the game. The Bengals went on to tie the game and eventually take the lead, and Woods ended up as the game's leading rusher. Anson2995 16:46, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Pinkie amputation
Ronnie Lott amputated his own pinky so I put that on here and it was reverted. I used the words "well known and that was the reason it was reverted. Can I put it back on there that he chopped of his own pinky? Toouchdoooown Jags 3/15/2009

Philanthropy
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/about/king-institute

In 2005, with an initial $1 million endowment pledge from Hall of Fame football star Ronnie Lott and his All Stars Helping Kids organization, Dr. Clayborne Carson founded the Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute to provide a permanent financial base for the King Papers Project and a broad range of other educational activities.

[snip][end]

50.139.122.251 (talk) E. Wolf, 1/19/2015

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Ronnie Lott. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101124055949/http://www.jeffersonawards.org/board to http://www.jeffersonawards.org/board

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 07:23, 14 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ronnie Lott


text:
Asino

Asino (А́сино) is a town and the administrative centre of Asinovsky District in Tomsk Oblast, Russia. Population: It was previously known as Kseniyevsky (until 1930).

History
It was founded in 1896 as the transmigratory settlement of Kseniyevsky (Ксениевский); in 1930 the construction of the railway to Tomsk started. The settlement was renamed Asino in 1930 after the railway station, and the town status was granted to it in 1952.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Asino serves as the administrative centre of Asinovsky District, to which it is directly subordinated. As a municipal division, the town of Asino is incorporated within Asinovsky Municipal District as Asinovskoye Urban Settlement.

Economy
There is a port on the Chulym River and a railway station.

Important economic industries include forestry, wood working, large scale wood shipping, and tractor repair. In addition, the area also has combines (meat and milk) and a flax mill.

Agriculture in Asino in dominated by rye, wheat, flax grasses, and breeding cattle and pigs. Mineral deposits of peat, sand, and clay are found in the vicinity.

title: Asino


text:
British Construction Industry Awards

The British Construction Industry Awards (BCI Awards or BCIA) were launched by New Civil Engineer magazine and Thomas Telford Ltd in 1998, at the time both owned by the Institution of Civil Engineers.

The awards seek to recognise outstanding achievement in the construction of buildings, taking account of a wide range of factors including architectural and engineering design, but also consideration of the construction process, delivery to time and budget, and client satisfaction.

In 2012, Network Rail chief executive Sir David Higgins was the chair of the British Construction Industry Awards judging panel which celebrated its 25th anniversary of rewarding excellence in UK construction delivery.

In June 2017 owners of New Civil Engineer, Ascential, sold the title to Metropolis International who now operate the BCIAs in association with the Institution of Civil Engineers.

The awards are typically held in October each year. In 2020, the British Construction Industry Awards will be held on the evening of Wednesday 28 October at the JW Marriott Grosvenor House Hotel on Park Lane in London.

title: British Construction Industry Awards


text:
Chulym

Chulym or Cholym can refer to:
 * Chulyms, an ethnic group in Russia
 * Chulym language
 * Chulym (Ob), a river in Krasnoyarsk Krai and Tomsk Oblast, Russia; a tributary of the Ob
 * Chulym (Lake Malye Chany), a river in Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia
 * Chulym (inhabited locality), name of several inhabited localities in Russia

title: Chulym


text:
Xavier Grall

Xavier Grall (1930–1981) was a journalist and poet from Brittany, France, who was a strong advocate of Breton nationalism during the Third Emsav. His work glorifies a mystical Brittany.

Early career
Xavier Grall was born in Landivisiau in Finistère, but moved to Paris. He worked as a journalist for Catholic publications, including the journals La Vie catholique, of which he was editor, and Témoignage chrétien. He also wrote for Le Monde and Bretagne.

Bretonism
Grall rediscovered his Breton identity in the 1970s, leaving Paris permanently in 1973, returning to Brittany to live at Bossulan Farm in Nizon, just outside Pont-Aven. Grall's reassertion of Breton identity followed a period of disillusionment with France following the Algerian War. He later wrote that the war undermined his belief in the idea of France:

"I had done the Algerian War, in the wolfish sun my eyes were opened. Heartbreaking revelation. From Djebel Amour [in Algeria] to Montagnes Noires [in Brittany], there were similarities. Same tyrant: the French state. Same victim: the peasant. Same cops: CRS .... When we saw France torture, we could not put that song on the level to which we'd been lulled .... The image of France that I had formed, very high and almost mystical, found itself forever tarnished."

In response he defined himself as Breton in opposition to French identity: "You discover Bretonness as it is not allowed to be. ... And you think that your country does exist, dear God, terribly. You recover. You look straight ahead. You are decolonized. You are Berber, Kabyle, Breton."

From this point on his work emphasises a multicultural ideal, building a unique example of Breton literature in French.

Activism
With his friends Alain Guel and the protest singer Glenmor, he founded éditions Kelenn, where he published Barde imaginé (1968), Keltia Blues (1971), La Fête de la nuit (1972) and Rires et pleurs de l'Aven (1978). Alain Guel, who followed his early steps in literature, and kept up a voluminous correspondence with him, gave him support and friendship throughout his life.

Reconnecting with his past as a columnist, Grall published Le Cheval couché (the lounging horse), a scathing response to Pierre-Jakez Hélias's popular autobiographical novel Cheval d'orgueil (Horse of Pride), which he called "fossilized folkism". He also vilified earlier Breton poets and singers, notably Theodore Botrel, whom he described as the creator of a "pitiable" image of Brittany born "from the depths of his idiocy". Botrel later expressed regret for having written the book.

Grall continued to work from a distance for Le Monde and La Vie catholique. He published pamphlets and occasional pieces; Le Billet d'Olivier presented his passions and his moods on current topics. He also wrote essays on François Mauriac, James Dean and others.

In the early 1970s, Grall founded the Breton separatist newspaper Le Nation bretonne with Alain Guel and Glenmor, where he published lyrics under the pseudonym of "Saint HERBOTS", among others.

He died in Quimperlé in 1981.

Commemorations
A bronze sculpture to his memory stands on the Promenade Xavier Grall, on the banks of the river Aven in Pont-Aven.

Each year in Carhaix a Festival des Vieilles Charrues bears his name.

A literary prize was created in his name at the Festival de la Parole Poétique (Pays de Quimperlé). Le Prix Xavier-Grall is awarded to a poet for his life's work. Recipients have included:
 * Jean-Paul Kermarrec in 2006.
 * Jacqueline Saint-Jean in 2007
 * Marie-Josée Christien in 2009
 * Alain Jégou in 2008
 * Pierre Colin in 2010

Publications

 * James Dean et notre jeunesse, 1958
 * Mauriac journaliste, 1960
 * La génération du Djebel, 1962
 * Africa blues, 1962
 * Cantiques à Mélilla, 1964
 * Le rituel breton, 1965
 * Barde imaginé, Éditions KELENN, 1968
 * Keltia Blues, Éditions KELENN, 1971
 * Glenmor, 1972
 * La fête de la nuit, Éditions KELENN, 1972
 * Rires et pleurs de l'Aven, Éditions KELENN, 1978
 * La Sône des pluies et des tombes, Éditions Kelenn 1976
 * Le Cheval couché, 1977
 * Stèle pour Lamennais, 1978
 * Entendras-tu le vent chanter dans le grand chêne ?, 1979
 * Si loin de toi, Tristan…, 1979
 * Arthur Rimbaud, la marche au soleil, 1980
 * Solo et autres poèmes, 1981
 * Genèse et derniers poèmes, 1982
 * La marche des calvaires
 * Les vents m'ont dit, 1982
 * Et parlez-moi de la terre..., 1983
 * L'Inconnu me dévore, Calligrammes, 1984
 * Les billets d'Olivier, éditions Calligrammes, 1985
 * Chroniques de l'Indien I et II, 1995 et 1996
 * Mémoires de ronces et de galets, 2002. Textes donnés à la revue Sav Breizh. An Here. 2002
 * Au nom du père. Recueil de textes parus dans La Vie An Here. 2003, 486 p.
 * Œuvre Poétique, éditions Rougerie, 2010

title: Xavier Grall


text: Talk:Confessions (Dweezil Zappa album)

title: Talk:Confessions (Dweezil Zappa album)


text:
Optical coherence tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an imaging technique that uses interferometry with short-coherence-length light to obtain micrometer-level depth resolution and uses transverse scanning of the light beam to form two- and three-dimensional images from light reflected from within biological tissue or other scattering media. Short-coherence-length light can be obtained using a superluminescent diode (SLD) with a broad spectral bandwidth or a broadly tunable laser with narrow linewidth. The first demonstration of OCT imaging (in vitro) was published by a team from MIT and Harvard Medical School in a 1991 article in the journal Science. The article introduced the term "OCT" to credit its derivation from optical coherence-domain reflectometry, in which the axial resolution is based on temporal coherence. The first demonstrations of in vivo OCT imaging quickly followed.

The first US patents on OCT by the MIT/Harvard group described both a time-domain OCT (TD-OCT) system and a Fourier-domain OCT (FD-OCT) system of the swept-source variety. These patents were licensed by Zeiss and formed the basis of the first generations of OCT products until 2006. Tanno et al. obtained a patent on optical heterodyne tomography (similar to TD-OCT) in Japan in the same year.

In the decade preceding the invention of OCT, interferometry with short-coherence-length light had been investigated for a variety of applications. The potential to use interferometry for imaging was proposed, and measurement of retinal elevation profile and thickness had been demonstrated.

The initial commercial clinical OCT systems were based on point-scanning TD-OCT technology, which primarily produced cross-sectional images due to the speed limitation (tens to thousands of axial scans per second). Fourier-domain OCT became available clinically 2006, enabling much greater image acquisition rate (tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands axial scans per second) without sacrificing signal strength. The higher speed allowed for three-dimensional imaging, which can be visualized in both en face and cross-sectional views. Novel contrasts such as angiography, elastography, and optoretinography also became possible by detecting signal change over time. Over the past three decades, the speed of commercial clinical OCT systems has increased more than 1000-fold, doubling every three years and rivaling Moore's law of computer chip performance. Development of parallel image acquisition approaches such as line-field and full-field technology may allow the performance improvement trend to continue.

OCT is most widely used in ophthalmology, in which it has transformed the diagnosis and monitoring of retinal diseases, optic nerve diseases, and corneal diseases. It has greatly improved the management of the top three causes of blindness – macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and glaucoma – thereby preventing vision loss in many patients. By 2016 OCT was estimated to be used in more than 30 million imaging procedures per year worldwide.

OCT angioscopy is used in the intravascular evaluation of coronary artery plaques and to guide stent placement. Beyond ophthalmology and cardiology, applications are also developing in other medical specialties such as dermatology, gastroenterology (endoscopy), neurology, oncology, and dentistry.

Introduction
Interferometric reflectometry of biological tissue, especially of the human eye using short-coherence-length light (also referred to as partially-coherent, low-coherence, or broadband, broad-spectrum, or white light) was investigated in parallel by multiple groups worldwide since 1980s. In 1991, David Huang, then a student in James Fujimoto laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, working with Eric Swanson at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory and colleagues at the Harvard Medical School, successfully demonstrated imaging and called the new imaging modality "optical coherence tomography". Since then, OCT with micrometer resolution and cross-sectional imaging capabilities has become a prominent biomedical imaging technique that has continually improved in technical performance and range of applications. The improvement in image acquisition rate is particularly spectacular, starting with the original 0.8 Hz axial scan repetition rate to the current commercial clinical OCT systems operating at several hundred kHz and laboratory prototypes at multiple MHz. The range of applications has expanded from ophthalmology to cardiology and other medical specialties. For their roles in the invention of OCT, Fujimoto, Huang, and Swanson received the 2023 Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award and the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. These developments have been reviewed in articles written for the general scientific and medical readership.

It is particularly suited to ophthalmic applications and other tissue imaging requiring micrometer resolution and millimeter penetration depth. OCT has also been used for various art conservation projects, where it is used to analyze different layers in a painting. OCT has interesting advantages over other medical imaging systems. Medical ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), confocal microscopy, and OCT are differently suited to morphological tissue imaging: while the first two have whole body but low resolution imaging capability (typically a fraction of a millimeter), the third one can provide images with resolutions well below 1 micrometer (i.e. sub-cellular), between 0 and 100 micrometers in depth, and the fourth can probe as deep as 500 micrometers, but with a lower (i.e. architectural) resolution (around 10 micrometers in lateral and a few micrometers in depth in ophthalmology, for instance, and 20 micrometers in lateral in endoscopy).

OCT is based on low-coherence interferometry. In conventional interferometry with long coherence length (i.e., laser interferometry), interference of light occurs over a distance of meters. In OCT, this interference is shortened to a distance of micrometers, owing to the use of broad-bandwidth light sources (i.e., sources that emit light over a broad range of frequencies). Light with broad bandwidths can be generated by using superluminescent diodes or lasers with extremely short pulses (femtosecond lasers). White light is an example of a broadband source with lower power.

Light in an OCT system is broken into two arms – a sample arm (containing the item of interest) and a reference arm (usually a mirror). The combination of reflected light from the sample arm and reference light from the reference arm gives rise to an interference pattern, but only if light from both arms have traveled the "same" optical distance ("same" meaning a difference of less than a coherence length). By scanning the mirror in the reference arm, a reflectivity profile of the sample can be obtained (this is time domain OCT). Areas of the sample that reflect back a lot of light will create greater interference than areas that don't. Any light that is outside the short coherence length will not interfere. This reflectivity profile, called an A-scan, contains information about the spatial dimensions and location of structures within the item of interest. A cross-sectional tomogram (B-scan) may be achieved by laterally combining a series of these axial depth scans (A-scan). A face imaging at an acquired depth is possible depending on the imaging engine used.

Layperson's explanation
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a technique for obtaining sub-surface images of translucent or opaque materials at a resolution equivalent to a low-power microscope. It is effectively "optical ultrasound", imaging reflections from within tissue to provide cross-sectional images.

OCT has attracted interest among the medical community because it provides tissue morphology imagery at much higher resolution (less than 10 μm axially and less than 20 μm laterally ) than other imaging modalities such as MRI or ultrasound.

The key benefits of OCT are:
 * Live sub-surface images at near-microscopic resolution
 * Instant, direct imaging of tissue morphology
 * No preparation of the sample or subject, no contact
 * No ionizing radiation

OCT delivers high resolution because it is based on light, rather than sound or radio frequency. An optical beam is directed at the tissue, and the small portion of this light that reflects directly back from sub-surface features is collected. Note that most light scatters off at large angles. In conventional imaging, this diffusely scattered light contributes background that obscures an image. However, in OCT, a technique called interferometry is used to record the optical path length of received photons, allowing rejection of most photons that scatter multiple times before detection. Thus OCT can build up clear 3D images of thick samples by rejecting background signal while collecting light directly reflected from surfaces of interest.

Within the range of noninvasive three-dimensional imaging techniques that have been introduced to the medical research community, OCT as an echo technique is similar to ultrasound imaging. Other medical imaging techniques such as computerized axial tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, or positron emission tomography do not use the echo-location principle.

The technique is limited to imaging 1 to 2 mm below the surface in biological tissue, because at greater depths the proportion of light that escapes without scattering is too small to be detected. No special preparation of a biological specimen is required, and images can be obtained "non-contact" or through a transparent window or membrane.

The laser output from the instruments used is low – eye-safe near-infrared or visible-light – and no damage to the sample is therefore likely.

Theory
The principle of OCT is white light, or low coherence, interferometry. The optical setup typically consists of an interferometer (Fig. 1, typically Michelson type) with a low coherence, broad bandwidth light source. Light is split into and recombined from reference and sample arms, respectively.

Time domain

 * $$ F _ODT \left ( \nu \right ) = 2S_0 \left ( \nu \right ) K_r \left ( \nu \right ) K_s \left ( \nu \right )  \qquad \quad (3) $$

In time domain OCT the path length of the reference arm is varied in time (the reference mirror is translated longitudinally). A property of low coherence interferometry is that interference, i.e. the series of dark and bright fringes, is only achieved when the path difference lies within the coherence length of the light source. This interference is called autocorrelation in a symmetric interferometer (both arms have the same reflectivity), or cross-correlation in the common case. The envelope of this modulation changes as path length difference is varied, where the peak of the envelope corresponds to path length matching.

The interference of two partially coherent light beams can be expressed in terms of the source intensity, $$I_S$$, as

 * $$ I = k_1 I_S + k_2 I_S + 2 \sqrt { \left ( k_1 I_S \right ) \cdot \left ( k_2 I_S \right )} \cdot Re \left [\gamma \left ( \tau \right ) \right] \qquad (1) $$

where $$k_1 + k_2 < 1$$ represents the interferometer beam splitting ratio, and $$ \gamma ( \tau ) $$ is called the complex degree of coherence, i.e. the interference envelope and carrier dependent on reference arm scan or time delay $$ \tau $$, and whose recovery is of interest in OCT. Due to the coherence gating effect of OCT the complex degree of coherence is represented as a Gaussian function expressed as

 * $$ \gamma \left ( \tau \right ) = \exp \left [- \left ( \frac{\pi\Delta\nu\tau}{2 \sqrt{\ln 2} } \right )^2 \right] \cdot \exp \left ( -j2\pi\nu_0\tau \right ) \qquad \quad (2) $$

where $$ \Delta\nu $$ represents the spectral width of the source in the optical frequency domain, and $$ \nu_0 $$ is the centre optical frequency of the source. In equation (2), the Gaussian envelope is amplitude modulated by an optical carrier. The peak of this envelope represents the location of the microstructure of the sample under test, with an amplitude dependent on the reflectivity of the surface. The optical carrier is due to the Doppler effect resulting from scanning one arm of the interferometer, and the frequency of this modulation is controlled by the speed of scanning. Therefore, translating one arm of the interferometer has two functions; depth scanning and a Doppler-shifted optical carrier are accomplished by pathlength variation. In OCT, the Doppler-shifted optical carrier has a frequency expressed as

 * $$ f_{Dopp} = \frac { 2 \cdot \nu_0 \cdot v_s } { c } \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \quad (3) $$

where $$ \nu_0 $$ is the central optical frequency of the source, $$ v_s $$ is the scanning velocity of the pathlength variation, and $$ c $$ is the speed of light.

The axial and lateral resolutions of OCT are decoupled from one another; the former being an equivalent to the coherence length of the light source and the latter being a function of the optics. The axial resolution of OCT is defined as

 * $$ \, {l_c} $$
 * $$=\frac {2 \ln 2} {\pi} \cdot \frac {\lambda_0^2} {\Delta\lambda}$$
 * $$\approx 0.44 \cdot \frac {\lambda_0^2} {\Delta\lambda} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (4) $$
 * }
 * $$\approx 0.44 \cdot \frac {\lambda_0^2} {\Delta\lambda} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (4) $$
 * }
 * }

where $$ \lambda_0 $$ and $$ \Delta\lambda$$ are respectively the central wavelength and the spectral width of the light source.

Fourier domain
Fourier-domain (or Frequency-domain) OCT (FD-OCT) has speed and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) advantages over time-domain OCT (TD-OCT) and has become the standard in the industry since 2006. The idea of using frequency modulation and coherent detection to obtain ranging information was already demonstrated in optical frequency domain reflectometry and laser radar in the 1980s, though the distance resolution and range were much longer than OCT. There are two types of FD-OCT – swept-source OCT (SS-OCT) and spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT) – both of which acquire spectral interferograms which are then Fourier transformed to obtain an axial scan of reflectance amplitude versus depth. In SS-OCT, the spectral interferogram is acquired sequentially by tuning the wavelength of a laser light source. SD-OCT acquires spectral interferogram simultaneously in a spectrometer. An implementation of SS-OCT was described by the MIT group as early as 1994. A group based in the University of Vienna described measurement of intraocular distance using both tunable laser and spectrometer-based interferometry as early as 1995. SD-OCT imaging was first demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo by a collaboration between the Vienna group and a group based in the Nicholas Copernicus University in a series of articles between 2000 and 2002. The SNR advantage of FD-OCT over TD-OCT was analyzed by multiple groups of researchers in 2003.

Spectral-domain OCT
Spectral-domain OCT (spatially encoded frequency domain OCT) extracts spectral information by distributing different optical frequencies onto a detector stripe (line-array CCD or CMOS) via a dispersive element (see Fig. 4). Thereby the information of the full depth scan can be acquired within a single exposure. However, the large signal-to-noise advantage of FD-OCT is reduced due to the lower dynamic range of stripe detectors with respect to single photosensitive diodes, resulting in an SNR advantage of ~10 dB at much higher speeds. This is not much of a problem when working at 1300 nm, however, since dynamic range is not a serious problem at this wavelength range.

The drawbacks of this technology are found in a strong fall-off of the SNR, which is proportional to the distance from the zero delay and a sinc-type reduction of the depth-dependent sensitivity because of limited detection linewidth. (One pixel detects a quasi-rectangular portion of an optical frequency range instead of a single frequency, the Fourier transform leads to the sinc(z) behavior). Additionally, the dispersive elements in the spectroscopic detector usually do not distribute the light equally spaced in frequency on the detector, but mostly have an inverse dependence. Therefore, the signal has to be resampled before processing, which cannot take care of the difference in local (pixelwise) bandwidth, which results in further reduction of the signal quality. However, the fall-off is not a serious problem with the development of new generation CCD or photodiode array with a larger number of pixels.

Synthetic array heterodyne detection offers another approach to this problem without the need for high dispersion.

Swept-source OCT
Swept-source OCT (Time-encoded frequency domain OCT) tries to combine some of the advantages of standard TD and spectral domain OCT. Here the spectral components are not encoded by spatial separation, but they are encoded in time. The spectrum is either filtered or generated in single successive frequency steps and reconstructed before Fourier transformation. By accommodation of a frequency scanning light source (i.e. frequency scanning laser) the optical setup (see Fig. 3) becomes simpler than spectral domain OCT, but the problem of scanning is essentially translated from the TD-OCT reference arm into the swept source OCT light source. Here the advantage lies in the proven high SNR detection technology, while swept laser sources achieve very small instantaneous bandwidths (linewidths) at very high frequencies (20–200 kHz). Drawbacks are the nonlinearities in the wavelength (especially at high scanning frequencies), the broadening of the linewidth at high frequencies and a high sensitivity to movements of the scanning geometry or the sample (below the range of nanometers within successive frequency steps).

Scanning schemes
Focusing the light beam to a point on the surface of the sample under test, and recombining the reflected light with the reference will yield an interferogram with sample information corresponding to a single A-scan (Z axis only). Scanning of the sample can be accomplished by either scanning the light on the sample, or by moving the sample under test. A linear scan will yield a two-dimensional data set corresponding to a cross-sectional image (X-Z axes scan), whereas an area scan achieves a three-dimensional data set corresponding to a volumetric image (X-Y-Z axes scan).

Single point
Systems based on single point, confocal, or flying-spot time domain OCT, must scan the sample in two lateral dimensions and reconstruct a three-dimensional image using depth information obtained by coherence-gating through an axially scanning reference arm (Fig. 2). Two-dimensional lateral scanning has been electromechanically implemented by moving the sample using a translation stage, and using a novel micro-electro-mechanical system scanner.

Line-field OCT
Line-field confocal optical coherence tomography (LC-OCT) is an imaging technique based on the principle of time-domain OCT with line illumination using a broadband laser and line detection using a line-scan camera. LC-OCT produces B-scans in real-time from multiple A-scans acquired in parallel. En face as well as three-dimensional images can also be obtained by scanning the illumination line laterally. The focus is continuously adjusted during the scan of the sample depth, using a high numerical aperture (NA) microscope objective to image with high lateral resolution. By using a supercontinuum laser as a light source, a quasi-isotropic spatial resolution of ~ 1 μm is achieved at a central wavelength of ~ 800 nm. On the other hand, line illumination and detection, combined with the use of a high NA microscope objective, produce a confocal gate that prevents most scattered light that does not contribute to the signal from being detected by the camera. This confocal gate, which is absent in the full-field OCT technique, gives LC-OCT an advantage in terms of detection sensitivity and penetration in highly scattering media such as skin tissues. So far this technique has been used mainly for skin imaging in the fields of dermatology     and cosmetology.

Full-field OCT

An imaging approach to temporal OCT was developed by Claude Boccara's team in 1998, with an acquisition of the images without beam scanning. In this technique called full-field OCT (FF-OCT), unlike other OCT techniques that acquire cross-sections of the sample, the images are here "en-face" i.e. like images of classical microscopy: orthogonal to the light beam of illumination.

More precisely, interferometric images are created by a Michelson interferometer where the path length difference is varied by a fast electric component (usually a piezo mirror in the reference arm). These images acquired by a CCD camera are combined in post-treatment (or online) by the phase shift interferometry method, where usually 2 or 4 images per modulation period are acquired, depending on the algorithm used. More recently, approaches that allow rapid single-shot imaging were developed to simultaneously capture multiple phase-shifted images required for reconstruction, using single camera. Single-shot time-domain OCM is limited only by the camera frame rate and available illumination.

The "en-face" tomographic images are thus produced by a wide-field illumination, ensured by the Linnik configuration of the Michelson interferometer where a microscope objective is used in both arms. Furthermore, while the temporal coherence of the source must remain low as in classical OCT (i.e. a broad spectrum), the spatial coherence must also be low to avoid parasitical interferences (i.e. a source with a large size).

Selected applications
Optical coherence tomography is an established medical imaging technique and is used across several medical specialties including ophthalmology and cardiology and is widely used in basic science research applications.

Ophthalmology
Ocular (or ophthalmic) OCT is used heavily by ophthalmologists and optometrists to obtain high-resolution images of the retina and anterior segment. Owing to OCT's capability to show cross-sections of tissue layers with micrometer resolution, OCT provides a straightforward method of assessing cellular organization, photoreceptor integrity,   and axonal thickness in glaucoma, macular degeneration, diabetic macular edema, multiple sclerosis, optic neuritis, and other eye diseases or systemic pathologies which have ocular signs. Additionally, ophthalmologists leverage OCT to assess the vascular health of the retina via a technique called OCT angiography (OCTA). In ophthalmological surgery, especially retinal surgery, an OCT can be mounted on the microscope. Such a system is called an intraoperative OCT (iOCT) and provides support during the surgery with clinical benefits. Polarization-sensitive OCT was recently applied in the human retina to determine optical polarization properties of vessel walls near the optic nerve.

Retinal imaging with PS-OCT demonstrated how the thickness and birefringence of blood vessel wall tissue of healthy subjects could be quantified, in vivo. PS-OCT was subsequently applied to patients with diabetes and age-matched healthy subjects, and showed an almost 100% increase in vessel wall birefringence due to diabetes, without a significant change in vessel wall thickness. In patients with hypertension however, the retinal vessel wall thickness increased by 60% while the vessel wall birefringence dropped by 20%, on average. The large differences measured in healthy subjects and patients suggest that retinal measurements with PS-OCT could be used as a screening tool for hypertension and diabetes.

Cardiology
In the settings of cardiology, OCT is used to image coronary arteries to visualize vessel wall lumen morphology and microstructure at a resolution ~10 times higher than other existing modalities such as intravascular ultrasounds, and x-ray angiography (intracoronary optical coherence tomography). For this type of application, 1 mm in diameter or smaller fiber-optics catheters are used to access artery lumen through semi-invasive interventions such as percutaneous coronary interventions.

The first demonstration of endoscopic OCT was reported in 1997, by researchers in Fujimoto's laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The first TD-OCT imaging catheter and system was commercialized by LightLab Imaging, Inc., a company based in Massachusetts in 2006. The first FD-OCT imaging study was reported by Massachusetts General Hospital in 2008. Intracoronary FD-OCT was first introduced in the market in 2009 by LightLab Imaging, Inc. followed by Terumo Corporation in 2012 and by Gentuity LLC in 2020. The higher acquisition speed of FD-OCT enabled the widespread adoption of this imaging technology for coronary artery imaging. It is estimated that over 100,000 FD-OCT coronary imaging cases are performed yearly, and that the market is increasing by approximately 20% every year.

Other developments of intracoronary OCT included the combination with other optical imaging modalities for multi-modality imaging. Intravascular OCT has been combined with near-infrared fluorescence molecular imaging (NIRF) to enhance its capability to detect molecular/functional and tissue morphological information simultaneously. In a similar way, combination with near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been implemented.

Neurovascular
Endoscopic/intravascular OCT has been further developed for use in neurovascular applications including imaging for guiding endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke and brain aneurysms.

Initial clinical investigations with existing coronary OCT catheters have been limited to proximal intracranial anatomy of patient with limited tortuosity, as coronary OCT technology was not designed for the tortuous cerebrovasculature encountered in the brain. However, despite these limitations, it showed the potential of OCT for the imaging of neurovascular disease. An intravascular OCT imaging catheter design tailored for use in tortuous neurovascular anatomy has been proposed in 2020. A first-in-human study using endovascular neuro OCT (nOCT) has been reported in 2024.

Oncology
Endoscopic OCT has been applied to the detection and diagnosis of cancer and precancerous lesions, such as Barrett's esophagus and esophageal dysplasia.

Dermatology
The first use of OCT in dermatology dates back to 1997. Since then, OCT has been applied to the diagnosis of various skin lesions including carcinomas. However, the diagnosis of melanoma using conventional OCT is difficult, especially due to insufficient imaging resolution. Emerging high-resolution OCT techniques such as LC-OCT have the potential to improve the clinical diagnostic process, allowing for the early detection of malignant skin tumors – including melanoma – and a reduction in the number of surgical excisions of benign lesions. Other promising areas of application include the imaging of lesions where excisions are hazardous or impossible and the guidance of surgical interventions through identification of tumor margins.

Dentistry
Researchers in Tokyo medical and Dental University were able to detect enamel white spot lesions around and beneath the orthodontic brackets using swept source OCT.

Research applications
Researchers have used OCT to produce detailed images of mice brains, through a "window" made of zirconia that has been modified to be transparent and implanted in the skull. Optical coherence tomography is also applicable and increasingly used in industrial applications, such as nondestructive testing (NDT), material thickness measurements, and in particular thin silicon wafers and compound semiconductor wafers thickness measurements  surface roughness characterization, surface and cross-section imaging  and volume loss measurements. OCT systems with feedback can be used to control manufacturing processes. With high speed data acquisition, and sub-micron resolution, OCT is adaptable to perform both inline and off-line. Due to the high volume of produced pills, an interesting field of application is in the pharmaceutical industry to control the coating of tablets. Fiber-based OCT systems are particularly adaptable to industrial environments. These can access and scan interiors of hard-to-reach spaces, and are able to operate in hostile environments—whether radioactive, cryogenic, or very hot. Novel optical biomedical diagnostic and imaging technologies are currently being developed to solve problems in biology and medicine. As of 2014, attempts have been made to use optical coherence tomography to identify root canals in teeth, specifically canal in the maxillary molar, however, there is no difference with the current methods of dental operatory microscope. Research conducted in 2015 was successful in utilizing a smartphone as an OCT platform, although much work remains to be done before such a platform would be commercially viable. Photonic integrated circuits may be a promising option to miniaturized OCT. Similarly to integrated circuits silicon-based fabrication techniques can be used to produce miniaturized photonic systems. First in vivo human retinal imaging has been reported recently. In 3D microfabrication, OCT enables non-destructive testing and real-time inspection during additive manufacturing. Its high-resolution imaging detects defects, characterizes material properties and ensures the integrity of internal geometries without damaging the part.

title: Optical coherence tomography


text:
Talk:Confessions (Usher album)

My Boo Sample?
Was My Boo Sampled? If So What Was It Sampled From? It Definetly Sounds Sampled To Moi. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.186.229.37 (talk) 03:13, 13 March 2010 (UTC)

Errors
"To date Confessions has been Ceftificated 4x Platinum in the UK and has sold over 1,400,000 million ciopies."

I'm going to go right ahead and correct these

Faith Evans?
Are Faith Evans's vocals featured on Superstar?

Yes. She sings background on the bridge.

Weird Al
He made a parody of Confessions in his 2006 Album

Augustine of Hippo
I admit, I put this bit in many, many versions ago as a joke. There is no way Usher, for all his sophistication, knows shit about St. Augustine...so if it's true, that's cool, but i doubt it, so could someone remove that or fact check it? xoxo
 * Removed. --Efe (talk) 08:38, 18 May 2008 (UTC)

GA review
The GA review of this article is currently taking place at /GA1, and is transcluded below.

Please leave a note on my talk page when you're done with these comments. Cheers, dihydrogen monoxide (H2O) 06:05, 25 May 2008 (UTC)
 * The copyedit worked wonders; looking much better so passed. dihydrogen monoxide (H2O) 10:31, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

Damn
Oh, i missed all the fun! ;-) -- Realist 2 ( Come Speak To Me ) 15:10, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

deluxe tracklist?
I need that dumbasses.. how can i torrent the whole album now dumbos.

Ps, :P. Special will be good enough, just a suggestion, as you say it exists.81.155.84.207 (talk) 21:36, 16 October 2008 (UTC)

Washigton Post review
Transcription using Google News Advanced News Archive Search. The Washington Post (Berry, Elizabeth Mendez. C.05. April 14, 2004) review of Confessions (2004):

"In the three years since his last album, Usher Raymond has been working on more than just those abdominal muscles. A total-package entertainer -- with dance moves and a love life that are almost as interesting as his hits and starring roles in such dubious teen flicks as "The Faculty" -- the young singer has allowed his musical sensibilities to mature as well. That's for the best, because another artist has been trying to muscle in on his heartthrob territory in the interim: Justin Timberlake, whose 2002 "Justified" offered a pale imitation of Usher's fancy footwork and falsetto flirtations. With big-budget production and high-profile endorsements, Timberlake occupied teen dreams for a time, but now Usher is back to reclaim his "TRL" throne. "Yeah," the sweaty lead single from "Confessions" has been generating electricity since it first broke on the mix-tape circuit months ago, and the rest of the album keeps that spark alive. Usher's strongest recording to date, it's a mix of addictive, candied R&B that ranges from dance floor dazzlers (the bittersweet "Take Your Hand") to bashful come-ons ("Superstar"). In the lead-up to the mega-selling album, Usher hasn't kept the spotlight on his music alone. At 25, he just emerged from a three- year relationship with TLC's Chilli, and now this ex-choirboy seems intent on proving that he has plenty to cop to -- hence the album's title and his public allusions to closeted skeletons. Clearly this was part of the singer's publicity strategy, and too often on the album the attempt to part ways with his once squeaky-clean image comes off as forced. When he sings on the title track that "my chick on the side says she's got one on the way," he sounds inspired by Jerry Springer, not personal experience. But when he's not trying to conjure baby-mama drama out of thin air (he recently admitted that the title song is fictional after milking it for months), [Usher Raymond] shines. He works with some of his favorite old producers -- Jermaine Dupri, Jam and Lewis -- as well as a new crop of stars. The Just Blaze-produced "Throwback" is a rich combination of the vintage hip-hop aesthetic (patented by Blaze and Kanye West at Roc-A-Fella) now current and Usher's soaring vocals. With a Dionne Warwick sample as punctuation, and loose, warm drums, the song captures an evocative wistfulness. New Philly sound architects Dre and Vidal are behind the slithering bass line of the exhilarating "Caught Up," along with the delicate, guitar-laced underpinnings of the gorgeous "Superstar." Several heavy-breathing moments on "Confessions" are corny ("That's What It's Made For," "Can U Handle It"), and one can only hope he'll outgrow them. And unlike Timberlake's bedroom drawl, Usher's doesn't feel forced, just unimaginative. The straightforward sensuality that he displays on other songs makes one forgive him these youthful indiscretions -- though not those the album is named for."

- Elizabeth Mendez Berry

Dan56 (talk) 21:57, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

Confessions Album Sales
There is no link for the claim that Usher has sold 20 million copies of ConfessionsColette89 (talk) 16:20, 7 April 2010 (UTC)
 * In December 2009 Billboard reported in their "Artists of the Decade (2000s)" list that Confessions had sold over 20 million copies worldwide. Here's the link as well. https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/266420/artists-of-the-decade 26 Aug 2020 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Crazyone32 (talk • contribs) 01:21, 27 August 2020 (UTC)

Lead Section
I think a lot of notable information should be added to the lead section. Looking at I Am Sasha Fierce which is way longer but not nearly as successful I do not believe its a very big deal. And could be required.Lilian Diane Moore (talk) 19:59, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

I agree to an extent. I think there could be more information added to the lead. Just not to much as we risk over bloating the the lead section. So I vote to keep how it is but without adding anymore information.John Stewart 9087 (talk) 20:04, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

I see no reason not to add to lead section however it is beginning to get a bit long. Keep it as it is yes but no more information after that should be added. Only the major achievements should be mention in the lead. And considering how much longer the lead is and less successful I Am Sasha Fierce is by Beyonce I see no harm in it.HookemHorns12345 (talk) 20:11, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

 * The lead is fine per the WP:LEAD standards, and it was this way when it was reviewed as a GA. Wikipedia is not for fancruft. And don't use I Am...Sasha Fierce as an example. It is not a high quality article and is not a GA, unlike Confessions is. Confessions is the better article, it is a GA. If anything, the SF article should look like this. Candy  o32  20:48, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

 * For the record, the three users Lilian Diane Moore, John Stewart 9087, and HookemHorns12345 were all blocked on 15 October as sockpuppets of User:Tony254trill. — JohnFromPinckney (talk) 00:46, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Makes sense now. Smh. Candy  o32  13:59, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

Protection
I've protected the page so that the discussion that's just beginning above doesn't fall apart by someone reverting before they see it. Hopefully you can agree a position in the next 3 days. Ged UK  20:52, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

Edit request by JohnFromPinckney: Revert Chart peaks and Certs corruption
Please revert this series of six edits, primarily by 72.178.94.184, which changed all of the chart peaks to number 1 (contrary to sources), pasted in the certs table from a Beyoncé article, and then monkeyed with some but not all of the refs. This reversion would have the effect of losing the non-bogus addition of a Diamond certification in the US (added by Lilian Diane Moore), but the RIAA ref currently shown doesn't support that anyway. After the dust has settled and the page is unprotected, we can add appropriate actual certs including

This request has nothing, AFAICT, to do with the Lead Section disputes which led to the page's protection. — JohnFromPinckney (talk) 21:41, 13 October 2010 (UTC)
 * ✅ — Martin (MSGJ · talk) 10:06, 14 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I'm watching and waiting to fix up the certs table. — JohnFromPinckney (talk) 23:12, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

Edit request from Dan56, 14 October 2010
Can u salvage the information that was removed w/out explanation in this edit? In embelishing about the album's commercial success, the editor removed sourced material from the lead (suspect to WP:NPOV).

Dan56 (talk) 20:34, 14 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Are you talking about As a strategy to boost its sales amid threats of bootlegging, a special edition was issued with the hit single "My Boo".? As this seems to be contentious, would you mind discussing and getting a consensus about whether this sentence is appropriate? — Martin (MSGJ · talk) 14:08, 15 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Its in the body of the article, was removed from the lead by amateurish users without nuetral POV, and was part of the lead in the article when it was peer-reviewed for GA assessment. Dan56 (talk) 19:56, 15 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I echo Dan56's statements. Candy  o32  00:47, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

Certifications
Confessions got Platin in Macau and Venezuela. look at this link: http://recordsales.2xik.com/index.htm and this link:  https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usher/Diskografie  (Joey929292 (talk) 20:33, 1 May 2015 (UTC)).

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Confessions (Usher album). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20121024133954/http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/ to http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080119122454/http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/index3.jhtml to http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/index3.jhtml

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 22:16, 20 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on Confessions (Usher album). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080501235813/http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_031904/ to http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_031904/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120720033330/http://blogs.villagevoice.com/music/2012/07/sales_slump_usher_chris_brown.php?page=2 to http://blogs.villagevoice.com/music/2012/07/sales_slump_usher_chris_brown.php?page=2
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120406004732/http://danishcharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Usher&titel=Confessions&cat=a to http://danishcharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Usher&titel=Confessions&cat=a
 * Added tag to http://www.promusicae.org/files/listassemanales/albumes/historial/TOP%20100%20ALBUMES%2004_20.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150322121433/http://recordsales.2xik.com/index.htm to http://recordsales.2xik.com/index.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 21:06, 24 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 external links on Confessions (Usher album). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081106222550/http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/index2.jhtml to http://www.mtv.com/bands/u/usher/news_feature_052404/index2.jhtml
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081224011406/http://www.vh1.com/news/editorial/?page=3&contentId=1585275 to http://www.vh1.com/news/editorial/?page=3&contentId=1585275
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110524225110/http://www.villagevoice.com/2004-04-13/music/infidelity-aware-r-b-cutie-pie-proves-he-d-be-a-crummy-boyfriend/1/ to http://www.villagevoice.com/2004-04-13/music/infidelity-aware-r-b-cutie-pie-proves-he-d-be-a-crummy-boyfriend/1
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://music.ca.music.yahoo.com/read/news/12178986
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080518070551/http://www.vh1.com/news/editorial/?page=1&contentId=1585275 to http://www.vh1.com/news/editorial/?page=1&contentId=1585275

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:51, 3 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Confessions (Usher album)


text:
Talk:Indestructible Object

"Am I Awake?"
I'm pretty sure that "Am I Awake?" is the theme song for TLCs, now-defunct show, Resident Life. If I am correct in this, should this be added to the article? --Thaddius 14:16, 20 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Just to add, TMBG's website lists making a theme for "Resident Life" as one of the randoms facts about the band: They Might Be Giants have also written and performed theme songs for “The Oblongs,” "Higglytown Heroes," "Resident Life," and ABC’s “Nightline Primetime," as well as songs for “The Simpsons,” "Home Movies," "Dexter's Laboratory" and "Courage the Cowardly Dog." But of course it does not mention which song was used as the theme. --Thaddius 14:21, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Indestructible Object


text:
Xavier Saint-Macary

Xavier Saint-Macary (June 7, 1948 – March 13, 1988) was a French actor, brother of Hubert Saint-Macary.

Saint-Macary played in La Nuit américaine (1973) directed by François Truffaut and Le Château perdu (1973). American audiences will remember him as the enthusiastic but bumbling Detective Fontenoy in the Disney movie Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo (1977).

Saint-Macary died of a sudden heart attack in 1988, a few months short of his 40th birthday.

Partial filmography

 * Le Château perdu (1973, TV Movie) - Le comte de Guiche
 * La Nuit américaine (1973) - Christian
 * L'oiseau rare (1973) - Francis, l'amant de Renée
 * Le Plein de Super (1976) - Philippe
 * Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo (1977) - Detective Fontenoy
 * Dites-lui que je l'aime (1977) - Michel Barbet
 * Animal (1977) - Le chauffeur de Saint-Prix
 * Pourquoi pas ! (1979) - Paul, le play-boy
 * Le Cavaleur (1979) - Georges Jussieu
 * Martin et Léa (1979) - Martin
 * La Mémoire courte (1979) - Le mari de Judith
 * Us Two (1979)
 * Ce répondeur ne prend pas de message (1979) - L'homme
 * Le point douloureux (1979) - Le serveur restaurant
 * Ras le cœur (1980) - Roland
 * Loulou (1980) - Bernard
 * Du blues dans la tête (1981) - Jacky
 * Men Prefer Fat Girls (1981) - Ronald
 * Ma femme s'appelle reviens (1982) - Philippe
 * Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1982) - Dorante
 * Confidentially Yours (1983) - Bertrand Fabre
 * Signes extérieurs de richesse (1983) - Bianchi
 * Détective (1985) - Accountant
 * Le Débutant (1986) - Philippe Rivière
 * Corps z'a corps (1988) - M. de Villecresne
 * A Few Days with Me (1988) - Paul (final film role)

title: Xavier Saint-Macary