text:
Talk:A Night at the Opera (Queen album)

Lazing on a sunday afternoon
Is Lazing On A Sunday Afternoon Queen's shortest song?

 * Yes.  The Stig  13:25, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Nope. “Yeah” is their shortest with 4 seconds 98.116.218.68 (talk) 17:50, 13 August 2023 (UTC)

Inconsistency on Bohemian Rhapsody release date?
from the article: 1976	"Bohemian Rhapsody"	Pop Singles	9

and

"Bohemian Rhapsody"/"I'm In Love With My Car" - Elektra E45297; released December, 1975

If these are US and UK release dates perhaps this should be made clearer..

NPOV?
Freddies piano solo on "Death on..." is described as "wonderful" Not exactly NPOV :p Grymsqueaker

"There are some very nice backing vocals by Freddie as well as very high and fairly low harmonies by Roger, and some falsettos by Brian." doesn't seem to be very NPOV either... humanoidboogie

People tend to gush when it comes to a band this awesome. lol 65.248.164.214 (talk) 22:31, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

Queen prog or not?
...as they say... No Synthesisers! (Just massive overdubbing.) I would not call it prog. --Fantailfan 12:11, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

I definentally think it's progressive. They made progress with the rock sound and did not even used synths. Synths is not really needed for music to be progressive.

You don't need synths to make Prog Rock...they just help. Yes, ELP, Rush, Kansas, Dream Theatre...synth heavy bands there. 65.248.164.214 (talk) 22:30, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Prog and synth are NOT synonymous. At all. Seriously. I'd say this is progressive rock, or at least art rock. Awesomebriks (talk) 18:56, 21 August 2013 (UTC)

 * For me, only the two epics, Bo Rhap and Prophet's Song are actually prog songs. However, the album certainly exhibits prog influences in other places too, as Stephen Lambe's book acknowledges. AllMusic states that 39 is prog, but that appears to be more due to its mystical subject matter than anything else. Rodericksilly (talk) 22:02, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

Rejected Songs
where do you find these rejected songs like "woe" and others.

No pauses?
Re this quote:

"There are no pauses between the songs. This gives the album as a whole a collage effect. The songs seem to play continuously without stopping in between."

Is this just the original vinyl version? Both the remastered casette and CD versions definitely have pauses between the tracks, except between "The Prophets' Song" and "Love of my life". Can anyone provide any back-up for this? Stejsmith 06:57, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

Not to be a stinker but stejsmith is half wrong. He is right about the "prophet's song/love of my life" no puase thing. Where he is wrong is as follows : Just after the song titled "Death On Two Legs(Dedicated To...)" is yet another song from the album ( on the cd and LP of "A Night At The Opera") called "Lazing On A Sunday Afternnon". There is not any pauses between these two tracks either. I have the LP cassette and CD versions of "A Night At The Opera" and have listened to them thoroughly. STejsmith is right about there not being a pause between The Prophet's Song" & "Love Of My Life". I am also certain that there is no actuall pause between the "DeathOn Two Legs" song  and the "Lazing On A Sunday Afternoon" track. Now, as far as the rest of he recording  there isnt any other pauses that I can tell on the cd or cassette. (The Vinman)

Rock opera?!
Okay, if this is a rock opera, I dare you to work out the plot. Twin Bird 02:45, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Alright, I like dares. A man kills a guy on a Saturday night(Death On Two Legs), followed by lazing around on a Sunday afternoon(Lazying On A Sunday Afternoon). He then decides to go for a ride in his car(I'm In Love With My Car) where he drives to his girl friends house(You're My Best Friend). The two drive on the countryside, in the good ol' year of '39('39). They go dancing(Sweet Lady), and afterwards to a dock where they are taking a boat ride(Seaside Rendezvous). While out on the water, the police capture the man, and take him to prison, where he awaits his sentence(Prophets Song). The man, who knows he is guilty, shows his effections to the woman(Love Of My Life) before remenising on his past(Good Company). He is then sent into the trial, crying to his momma, and regreting his bad mistakes. But lifes choices have conciquences and he is excicuted and the last line, Any Way The Wind Blows(Bohemian Rhapsody). God Save The Queen is just there to make it cooler!(forgive my spelling) BS 0013

 * You made that up on the spot, didn't you? :)
 * Twin Bird, it's not rock opera in the sense that Tommy, The Wall or American Idiot are rock opera, but rather a rock 'n' roll homage to opera. Some of the songs do have very operatic themes, and many of them have their own self contained plots:
 * Lazing on a Sunday Afternoon tells the story of a week in the life of a purportedly "ordinary guy" (although he doesn't appear to be terribly ordinary!).
 * '39 is the story of a group of volunteer space travellers in the unspecified year of [something]39 who return to Earth to find that, due to time dilation, 100 years have passed and everyone they knew is dead, except for the singer's daughter, who looks like her mother. The volunteers despair and leave Earth together for "a new home".
 * The Prophet's Song tells the story of a disconcerting seer who tells everyone of his apocalyptic vision of God, and gives a warning to all mankind. One listener jeers that the prophet is mad, breaking the spell, but the singer is unnerved by what he has heard, and is still unable to "laugh at the madman".
 * Good Company is a whole life story for the singer. As a child, the singer's father, an old man puffing a pipe, advises him to "take care of what you've got" and "keep good company".  He grows up happily, surrounded by close friends, and marries Sally J, "the girl from Number 4".  As they grow closer together, however, he loses all his friends.  He begins to devote his life to his work, working longer and longer hours, and ends up running his own Limited Company.  This comes at the expense of his marriage, and he hardly notices when his wife leaves him.  At the end of the song, the singer is an old man, puffing his pipe.  He is alone and friendless, and advises the listener to "take care of those you call your own and keep good company".
 * Bohemian Rhapsody is mock opera in its own right. The story is not really clear, but seems to be along the following lines:  It opens with some musings on the nature of fantasy and reality.  The singer, a "poor boy" who needs "no sympathy" explains that nothing matters to him because he is "easy come, easy go".  Then (possibly after time has passed) he confesses to his "mama" that he has shot a man, and bemoans having thrown away his life so soon.  He is scared of dying, but feels he must "face the truth".  What follows (the really operatic bit) is a strange vision of thunder and lightning, with dancing and appearences by Gallileo, Scaramouche and Figaro.  The terrified singer pleads that he is "just a poor boy".  Supernatural forces begin to struggle for his soul, with God's name invoked, and references to Beelzebub setting a devil aside for the singer.  The singer becomes defiant, and attempts his escape.  There doesn't appear to be any conclusion to the story, which just ends back at the start, with the singer once again expressing the sentiment that "Nothing really matters to me.  Any way the wind blows..."
 * So you see, a lot of the songs could quite reasonably be considered rock opera, but the album itself does not have an underlying story (in fact the songs were often written independantly without reference to one another). The question is now whether the album itself is "rock opera".  I think not, but I'm not the one who's been applying these genre classifications to the albums on these articles.  RobbieG 12:25, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Surely there can be no doubt this is not a Rock Opera. It only appeared on that radar due to the title of the album. MrMarmite 10:31, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

This is no rock opera. When Queen did the We Will Rock You stage musical, they drew from ANATO, but chose instead to place its concepts within a larger dystopian Matrix/THX-1138/1984-esque framework of "music as revolution against tyranny." If ANATO was truly a rock opera, they could have done the musical solely on that basis (and made a much stronger production as well, IMO). I have loved Queen for 18 years, so there is no hating going on here, BTW. 65.248.164.214 (talk) 16:58, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Ok, that first one was pulled right out of a public toilet. Awesomebriks (talk) 18:57, 21 August 2013 (UTC)

 * Bismillah? No, I will not let you go. Let HiM go? Bismillah? I will not let him go. Bismillah, Bismillah [X infinity], yeah, yeah,

. Everyone in Iran gets the joke, or they should. I'm late for a date, set long, long ago -- for the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month, to end this shit forever. Vesuvius Dogg (talk) 04:06, 12 November 2016 (UTC)

Prophet's Song
Not sure if this is necessarily true, but it seems pretty obvious from what I've heard of the song: The Prophet's song was written about May's dream of The Great Flood (or the story of Noah, hence the dove). I've read this somewhere, but I can't remember where, but it makes sense. I'm pretty sure, but not sure enough to write it in. MaddenedMan 09:06, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

Wrong
"The title was apparently chosen because if the tracks on Queen's original studio albums are numbered in sequential order starting with their first, this would be the 39th song in the sequence."

The band denies this on their website. They say the fact that it was their 39th studio song was merely a coincidence they noticed after the album had been released. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.82.35.51 (talk • contribs).

"39 does indeed appear to deal with the time-dilation effect of near-lightspeed travel. However, at risk of being a little pedantic, there is nothing in the lyrics to suggest that 100 years have passed (tried to include link but spam-filtered, so find your own...). It is not even explicitly stated that the narrator's loved one is dead - the reprise of the line "Don't you hear my call though you're many years away" could suggest this, but then "your mother's eyes in your eyes cry to me" merely suggests a gap of a generation or so (which would still scupper most relationships!). All somewhat subjective admittedly." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.31.202.145 (talk) 09:50, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

"OK, I'm being dense - I suppose the two successive 'years of 39' could indicate a gap of a century, which in turn would strongly suggest his loved one was no more. However I'd always interpreted this as meaning that (from the crew's perspective) they returned the same year they left. Both of these could be true I guess. Personally I never picked up on the death angle." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.31.202.145 (talk) 09:58, 2 April 2012 (UTC)

Name
Shouldn't it be "A Night At The Opera" the way it's written on the album cover? 84.108.245.222 18:09, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

 * See Naming conventions. – Candyfloss 22:36, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Queen A Night At The Opera.png
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BetacommandBot (talk) 10:43, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

 * ✅ Donny (talk) 14:57, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Full song writing list
A number of well known albums such as Led Zeppelin IV and The Beatles' White Album have a page for every song. As this is widely considered Queen's Magnum Opus, would you reckon it would be deserving for the same to happen with this album? It's a very popular album as the article suggests, and I think it should. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.32.41.11 (talk) 01:14, 26 April 2008 (UTC)
 * In general, a song should only have its own article if it fulfills the notability criteria for songs. If you plan to write an article for a given song, be prepared to argument for its notability. – IbLeo (talk) 07:15, 28 May 2009 (UTC)
 * None of the songs on the album are just 'typical' in any way, all of them have something unique or notable about them. For further detail, I've written out my reasonings below.

 * Death on Two Legs: Meaning of the song caused controversy which is a notable topic.
 * Lazing on a Sunday Afternoon: Used a very creative recording process and is one of Queen's most unique works, commentary is notable.
 * I'm In Love With my Car: B-side. 'nuff said.
 * You're My Best Friend: single.
 * '39: B-side.
 * Sweet Lady: Eventually evolved into the faster version of "We Will Rock You", so such an article would be necessary to give that commentary in an appropriate place, and is a very notable topic.
 * Seaside Rendezvous: A very intricate recording process using Mercury's and Taylor's voices for an a capella segment. Notable topic with a lot to say about it, too much for just a sub-section in this article.

 * The Prophet's Song: Was originally to be released as a single for this album, and is quite an epic number with plenty of notable commentary to go with it.
 * Love of My Life: Is an explanation really necessary?
 * Good Company: Similar reasoning to Prophet's Song and Seaside Rendezvous.
 * Bohemian Rhapsody: ...
 * God Save the Queen: Notable because of its role in Queen's live shows.

TheStig t · c  23:47, 24 April 2010 (UTC)

Vandalism?
is someone vandalizing this page? The pages for Death on Two Legs (Dedicated to...), Lazing o a Sunday Afternoon, I'm in Love with My Car, 39, Sweet Lady, Seaside Rendezvous, The Prophet's Song, Good Company, and God Save the Queen are gone completly. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.56.253.215 (talk) 01:49, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

 * First of all, that's not vandalism. Second, yes. If you look at the page history, Wiki libs removed them yesterday. The links didn't go anywhere. They just redirected back to this page. Friginator (talk) 02:13, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

Charts section/table?
Dear all,

I noticed that there is no Charts section/table like the one in, e.g., the Innuendo or The Miracle article (with chart peak position by country, platinum/gold certification and sales). Does anyone else feel like this is missing? Should we work on adding this?

Looking forward to your opinions, Ben

--Georgepauljohnringo (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 19:13, 16 February 2011 (UTC).

Track listing isn't correct for all cassette releases.
I first had A Night at the Opera on a UK release cassette so it came as a surprise when I later had the LP and CD releases and Good Company and Seaside Rendezvous had swapped positions in the track listing (I always preferred the track listing the way I first heard it). This perhaps ought to be noted on the main page but I don't know whether this different track listing was widespread or just on certain releases. Grunson (talk) 20:01, 14 April 2011 (UTC)

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5938174/the_rs_500_greatest_albums_of_all_time/3
 * In Doolittle (album) on 2011-03-17 14:34:47, 404 Not Found
 * In Grateful Dead on 2011-03-22 12:07:44, 404 Not Found
 * In A Night at the Opera (Queen album) on 2011-06-20 02:17:19, 404 Not Found

--JeffGBot (talk) 02:18, 20 June 2011 (UTC)

'39
Hello, I deleted the reference to Mägo de Oz as I don't think it's related to the said song. The creator may link his article to this section, but I don't think it's necessary to include this on the article. Thanks. Lynisganda01 (talk) 23:49, 22 March 2013 (UTC)

Possible merger of individual track articles into album article?
All the tracks from this album currently have their own articles, and I'm wondering whether some of these are actually worth keeping as individual articles, or whether it would be better to merge them into this one. For example, "Good Company" contains just two references, one of which is to confirm John Deacon as bass guitarist (big deal!). The quotes by Brian May about the song are fascinating and would be worthy of keeping, but they are unsourced – anybody know where they are from? If you look at "Death on Two Legs (Dedicated to...)" or "'39" most of the discussion of the song's meaning is essentially replicated in this album article, and the only extra information is about when the song has been played live. It appears that many of the song articles were created by and his reasoning for them is given in Talk:A Night at the Opera (Queen album) above.

As an important album there's a good case for the individual song articles to be kept, but they need to be improved and the substantial overlap removed. It goes without saying that "Bohemian Rhapsody" and "You're My Best Friend" should keep their own articles, as the singles from the album and with their own chart placings, certifications, etc. Pinging, , , and anyone else interested in this article for their thoughts. Richard3120 (talk) 20:46, 30 March 2016 (UTC)

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Assessment comment
Substituted at 06:18, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Release date
Do we have a reliable source that says the album was released on 21 November 1975? It charted w/e 13 December, which would actually suggest a release date a week later on 28 November, because at the time fifteen days was the standard difference between release date and chart date. Richard3120 (talk) 17:40, 31 July 2016 (UTC)

Could this link be of some help for the release dat possibly? http://www.albumoftheyear.org/ratings/35-rolling-stone-highest-rated/1975/1 combatchuck29 (talk) 22:25 26 October 2017

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No contemporary UK reviews
I've had a look in the British Library for reviews of A Night at the Opera from the four major UK music magazines of the time (NME, Melody Maker, Sounds and Record Mirror), and astonishingly, it doesn't seem to have been reviewed in any of them. Whether this was because EMI refused to send copies of the album to the media for review, or whether the generally anti-Queen UK music press simply didn't bother, I have no idea – there's a review in Rolling Stone from early 1976, but I think most reviews for the "critical reception" section are going to have to be legacy ones. Richard3120 (talk) 16:55, 28 October 2017 (UTC)

Melody Maker review
I don't believe the review in the "Reception and legacy" section comes from Melody Maker in 1975. Firstly, it's obvious from reading the first sentence in the source ("Queen was well-known at the time of this album's debut for hard rock") that the use of the past tense shows that this is a legacy review. Secondly, the majority of the review focuses on the quality of the new mix. This isn't the type of thing Melody Maker would have covered, either in 1975 or on a subsequent reissue, despite where the source claims the article has come from – it's far more likely that this review has come from Record Collector or a specialist audiophile magazine such as Hi-Fi Choice. Richard3120 (talk) 21:24, 28 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Found it – I knew it was from an audiophile magazine by the way they were talking... in this case, Audio Video Revolution: http://www.avrev.com/music-disc-reviews/dvd-audio/queen-a-night-at-the-opera-2.html. Richard3120 (talk) 22:28, 31 January 2018 (UTC)

Suggestions
I am really excited about the WikiProject Albums and would like to help improve this Queen Album article so that it can get it's GA rating. Is there any suggestions of things I could do to help? --Dragonriderski (talk) 00:41, 2 November 2017 (UTC)

 * the major issues with this article as it stands are in the composition section... many of the assertions made regarding "facts" about each song are either completely unreferenced, or referenced to unreliable fan sites, e.g. Queen Online, Queenzone, Ultimate Queen, etc. What is really needed is the original source for information about these songs... that might come from interviews in the music press at the time, or retrospective appraisals of the album, or biographies about the band. Richard3120 (talk) 10:59, 2 November 2017 (UTC)

I added to composition section of "Bohemian Rhapsody" from the print book "Freddie Mercury" by Lesley-Ann Jones. Dragonriderski (talk) 02:37, 9 November 2017 (UTC)
 * it might be a better idea to add those details to the article about "Bohemian Rhapsody" itself, instead of here – this article is meant to give an overview of the album, rather than detailed descriptions of each song. And did Jones really describe Galileo and Beelzebub as "obscure"? Richard3120 (talk) 20:59, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

Yes, she did describe them as obscure.

So, I should concentrate more on good solid citations in the composition area and not worry as much about actual additions to the article. I actually had to order books from out of our library system because there wasn't anything available. It's like pulling teeth to find printed works on Queen. Dragonriderski (talk) 23:53, 9 November 2017 (UTC)
 * She has a bizarre view of what constitutes an "obscure" character then... Anyway, I wasn't suggesting your addition was wrong or not useful, more that it was better suited to the article about the song in question, where you can go into more detail about it. Yes, you're right - what will stop this article reaching GA status is a lack of good citations. At least there are biographies about both Queen and Mercury – probably the best source will be the documentary made as part of the "Classic Albums" series by Eagle Rock for VH1.
 * If you think it's hard finding sources about Queen, you should try finding information about the postpunk/new wave and alternative groups of the late 70s and early 80s... Richard3120 (talk) 00:22, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

George Michael performed "'39" at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert on April 20th,[4] 1992.[5][6] Dragonriderski (talk) 01:09, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

I made a minor change adding the actual date (20th) of the tribute concert and my citation (4). I have no idea how to how to get rid of the two Queenzone citations (5,6). Dragonriderski (talk) 01:09, 10 November 2017 (UTC)
 * You just delete them if you have a better source, which you do – thanks for that. In fact the Queenzone source didn't even mention Michael's performance of "'39", as far as I could see, so it wasn't very useful as a citation. I made some minor alterations to the date (British band, so the convention is to use the British dating system) and I moved the reference to the end of the sentence, because it looks strange splitting up a date with a citation number in the middle of it – see WP:CITEFOOT for information where to place a citation (in general, at the end of a sentence after the full stop/period, or after the comma that ends a clause). Richard3120 (talk) 01:22, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

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Genre
I don't understand why was pop genre added to this album and "A Day At The Races". All the same, the source says that the genre of the album is pop in the sense that it is more a mass product, not in terms of the musical component. Alex katsenelson (talk) 00:11, 07 September 2018 (UTC)

full of Original Research and fan-boy POV
Un-referenced material, non-encyclopedic language, etc., etc. Where to start fixing this atrocity of an article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.111.44.55 (talk • contribs) 10:02, 13 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Really? Would you like to be more specific about where the problems are? What would you do to improve it? Because the only section which is generally full of unreferenced or poorly-referenced material is the "Songs" section - I agree that this should be cut down a lot to take out the unsourced material and that many of the songs do not deserve their own individual articles. But otherwise I don't see much evidence of POV, OR or unencyclopedic writing. Richard3120 (talk) 13:41, 13 June 2021 (UTC)
 * You could start as I've just done, trimming the song entries down to simply "Side one" and "Side two" (with a sub-section for "Bohemian Rhapsody" which I think is unavoidable - but none of the other songs warrant such an in-depth examination based on the sources), adding some decent book sources and trimming out a load of fancruft. More to come, I suspect. Ritchie333 (talk) (cont)  21:18, 7 February 2022 (UTC)
 * excellent work, thank you. I still feel there's a lot of unsourced and trivial material in the "Songs" section, especially the parts discussing on which tours each track was subsequently performed... is this really notable? And I think apart from the two singles, most of the other songs could be redirected to this article – the individual song articles mostly just repeat what is already here, padded out with unsourced OR or non-RS fansite sources. Richard3120 (talk) 16:33, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

Release date (part 2)
I suggested in the "Release date" thread above that 28 November was a more likely release date than 21 November for this album, based on charting date, and now I see the Sounds review also states that the album would be released on 28 November. Unless someone can provide a source for 21 November being the release date (which isn't sourced anywhere in the article), I'm going to change it to 28 November and cite the source. Richard3120 (talk) 17:38, 26 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:A Night at the Opera (Queen album)


text:
Bernhard Lichtenberg

Bernhard Lichtenberg (3 December 1875 – 5 November 1943) was a German Catholic priest who became known for repeatedly speaking out, after the rise of Adolf Hitler and during the Holocaust, against the persecution and deportation of the Jews. After serving a jail sentence, he died in the custody of the Gestapo on his way to Dachau concentration camp. Raul Hilberg wrote: "Thus a solitary figure had made his singular gesture. In the buzz of rumormongers and sensation seekers, Bernhard Lichtenberg fought almost alone."

He was beatified by the Catholic Church in 1996 and recognized as Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem in 2004.

Early life and education
Lichtenberg was born in Ohlau (now Oława), Prussian Silesia, near Breslau (now Wrocław), the second of five children. He studied theology in Innsbruck, Austria-Hungary. He also studied in Breslau and was ordained in 1899.

Appointments
Lichtenberg began his ministry in Berlin in 1900, as the pastor of Charlottenburg. He served as a military chaplain during World War I. During the period of 1913-1930 he was a minister at the cathedral Herz-Jesu-Gemeinde (Sacred Heart) in Charlottenburg, Berlin. In 1932, the Bishop of Berlin appointed him as a canon of the Cathedral chapter of St. Hedwig.

Activism
Lichtenberg's encouragement of Catholics to view a screening of the film version of Erich Maria Remarques' anti-war novel All Quiet on the Western Front prompted a vicious attack by Joseph Goebbels' paper Der Angriff. In 1933 the Secret State Police of Germany (Gestapo) had searched his house for the first time.

Active in the Centre Party, in 1935 he went to Hermann Göring to protest against the cruelties of the Esterwegen concentration camp.

Named provost of the cathedral, in 1938, Lichtenberg was put in charge of the Relief Office of the Berlin episcopate, which assisted many Catholics of Jewish descent in emigrating from the Third Reich. After Kristallnacht, the first organized Nazi pogrom in Germany, Lichtenberg warned at the Berlin Church of Saint Hedwig: "The synagogue outside is burning, and that is also a house of God!" Until his arrest in October 1941, Lichtenberg would pray publicly for the persecuted Jews at the daily Vespers service. Bishop Konrad von Preysing later entrusted him with the task of helping the Jewish community of the city.

He protested in person to Nazi officials against the arrest and killing of the sick and mentally ill, as well as the persecution of the Jews. At first, the Nazis dismissed the priest as a nuisance. Father Lichtenberg was warned that he was in danger of being arrested for his activities, but he continued nonetheless.

In 1941, Lichtenberg protested against the involuntary euthanasia programme by way of a letter to the chief physician of the Reich, Minister of Public Health Leonardo Conti (1900-1945): "I, as a human being, a Christian, a priest, and a German, demand of you, Chief Physician of the Reich, that you answer for the crimes that have been perpetrated at your bidding, and with your consent, and which will call forth the vengeance of the Lord on the heads of the German people."

The euthanasia in the health institutions of Nazi Germany was purportedly stopped soon after the church protests against euthanasia headed by the bishops Clemens August Graf von Galen and Theophil Wurm. "Nazi leaders faced the prospect of either having to imprison prominent, highly admired clergymen and other protesters – a course with consequences in terms of adverse public reaction they greatly feared – or else end the programme".

Arrest and imprisonment
Lichtenberg was arrested on 23 October 1941 and sentenced to two years in prison for violation of the Pulpit Law and the Treachery Act of 1934. He asked to accompany Jews to the East in order to provide comfort there. Because he was considered incorrigible, he was picked up in 1943 by the Gestapo to be taken to the Dachau concentration camp. He fell ill and died of pneumonia in hospital in Hof, Bavaria.

Veneration
On 23 June 1996, Pope John Paul II declared Lichtenberg and Karl Leisner blessed martyrs. The beatification ceremony took place during a Mass celebrated in the Olympic Stadium in Berlin. The date of his death, November 5 was designated as the liturgical memorial day of Bernard Lichtenberg by Pope John Paul II.

Lichtenberg's tomb is situated in the crypt of St. Hedwig's Cathedral in Berlin. After the war, the building with the office of the archbishop of Berlin was named Bernhard Lichtenberg house. In the memorial area of the former Esterwegen Concentration Camp, a memorial plaque was installed to honor Lichtenberg for his activities for the prisoners of the camp.

In the historic center of the town of Hof, the area in front of St. Mary's church has been named Bernhard-Lichtenberg-Platz since 2013 and on the initiative of pastor Hans-Jürgen Wiedow, a new parish center named after Bernhard Lichtenberg was constructed in 2016/17 under the St. Konrad's church in the town.

On 7 July 2004, Yad Vashem recognized Bernhard Lichtenberg as a Righteous Among the Nations.

Compositions

 * Motet: Psalm 59. Mit zwei Meditationen von Bernhard Lichtenberg. For soprano solo, choir, organ and instruments, from Helge Jung, Berlin 1988. (Prolog: Die grüne Saat, Psalm: Errette mich, mein Gott, beschütze mich, Epilog I: Gott ist die Liebe, Epilog II: ''Wer mich vor den Menschen bekennt). First performance: Choir of the St. Hedwig's Cathedral Berlin, direktor: Michael Witt.
 * Song: Dein Volk die dunklen Zeiten. Text and music: Florian Wilkes, Berlin 1995.
 * Song: Lasst uns den sel'gen Bernhard loben. Words: Josef Steiner, Berlin 1996. Melody: Gotteslob, no. 262, tune according to Loys Bourgeois 1551. In: Diözesananhang zum Gotteslob des Erzbistums Berlin.
 * Cantata: Wer glaubt kann widerstehn. For Spiker, vocal-solo, choir (SATB) and instruments from Ludger Stühlmeyer, Hof 1999. First performance: 31. Oktober 1999, ZDF, conzertchoir of the Hofer Symphoniker, director: Gottfried Hoffmann.
 * Song: Gepriesen bist du, herrlicher Gott, für Bernhard, den seligen Priester. Word: Alois Albrecht, Bamberg 2012, melody: Ludger Stühlmeyer, Hof 2012.
 * Vespers: Ludger Stühlmeyer, Gerechter unter den Völkern. Vesper zu Ehren des seligen Bernhard Lichtenberg. Mit einer Biografie und Zitaten. Geleitwort von Nuntius Eterovic. Verlag Sankt Michaelsbund, München 2017, ISBN 978-3-943135-90-9.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bernhard Lichtenberg


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Hipólito Yrigoyen

Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Yrigoyen (12 July 1852 – 3 July 1933) was an Argentine politician of the Radical Civic Union and two-time President of Argentina, who served his first term from 1916 to 1922 and his second term from 1928 to 1930. He was the first president elected democratically by means of the secret and mandatory male suffrage established by the Sáenz Peña Law of 1912. His activism was the prime impetus behind the passage of that law in Argentina.

Known as "the father of the poor", Yrigoyen presided over a rise in the standard of living of Argentina's working class together with the passage of a number of progressive social reforms, including improvements in factory conditions, regulation of working hours, compulsory pensions, and the introduction of a universally accessible public education system. Yrigoyen was the first nationalist president, convinced that the country had to manage its own currency and, above all, it should have control of its transportation and its energy and oil exploitation networks.

Between the 1916 general election and the 1930 coup d'etat, political polarization was on the rise. Personalist radicalism was presented as the "authentic expression of the nation and the people" against the "oligarchic and conservative regime". For the ruling party, the will of the majorities prevailed over the division of powers. The opposition, on the other hand, accused the Executive Branch of being arrogant and demanded greater participation from Congress, especially in matters such as the conflictive federal interventions.

Early life
Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Yrigoyen was born on 12 July 1852, a few months after the Battle of Caseros. He was baptized four years later, on 19 October 1856 in the church of Nuestra Señora de Piedad.

His father, Martín Yrigoyen Dodagaray, was a Basque-French immigrant who in 1847 married Marcelina Alén Ponce, daughter of Leandro Antonio Alén (who was also the father of Leandro N. Alem), a member of the Mazorca during the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas who would be shot and hanged in the Plaza de Mayo. During his youth, Yrigoyen lived in a house in the neighborhood of Balvanera and had four siblings: Roque, Martín, Amalia, and Marcelina. In 1861, at the age of nine, he entered the San José of Buenos Aires School, run by the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram, although he continued his studies at the School of South America, where his uncle Leandro N. Alem was a professor of philosophy. Yrigoyen was not a standout student, though he did demonstrate an introspective personality. Early on, he had an inclination towards studying to be a priest, though he soon began to study law instead. For some time, Yrigoyen and Alem shared a household, and the latter tried to introduce his nephew to Freemasonry.

At fifteen years old, Yrigoyen paused his studies to help his father, who had acquired a fleet of trolleys to work in the port. He worked for a short time in a store and also had a job in the trolley. At his young age, he had already had extensive though diverse work experience.

In 1867, he worked at a judicial office that Leandro Alem and Aristóbulo del Valle shared.

According to researcher Roberto Etchepareborda, his original last name – as opposed to Bernardo de Irigoyen – was Hirigoyen, Hirigoien in Standard Basque, which means "city of the high". In the French Basque country, the "h" is pronounced as it is in English, while in the Spanish Basque country, it is not pronounced, which is why the surname Hirigoyen probably has its origin in France, while its variants (Yrigoyen and Irigoyen) have their origins in Spain. Formerly, Spanish orthography used $⟨Y⟩$ for uppercase $⟨I⟩$.

The radical leader used "Yrigoyen" and "Irigoyen" interchangeably. The use of "Yrigoyen" was a political tool used in the 1920s. Gabriel del Mazo, leader of the Fuerza de Orientación Radical de la Joven Argentina (FORJA), recommended he use "Yrigoyen" as opposed to "Irigoyen", which Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear's sectors used.

Early political career

When he finished his secondary education in 1869, along his with his uncle Leandro N. Alem, he began his political life as a member of the Autonomist Party, led by Adolfo Alsina, a party with a popular base that faced off with the National Party of Bartolomé Mitre. In his participation in the Electoral Club, he demanded free suffrage, division of rural property, and reform of the judicial power, among other measures.

In 1870, he entered public administration as a scribe for the General Accounts of the Office of Balances and Information, though he did not remain at this job for very long. Two years later, when Alem was elected provincial deputy, Yrigoyen, twenty years old, was named Police Commissioner of Balvanera thanks to the influence of his uncle, and placed in charge of Section 14. Meanwhile, he continued his studies in law and in March 1874 finished his fourth year, while also participating in the revolution that took place that year led by Bartolomé Mitre. In 1877, Alem, Artistóbulo del Valle, and Yrigoyen, in protest of Adolfo Alsina's tendencies towards Mitre's party, formed the Republican Party, which proposed del Valle as a candidate and positioned itself in opposition to any agreements between leaders of Alsina's party and Mitre's pitre. The internal conflict ended with the expulsion of Yrigoyen from his police duties in 1877. In 1878, at 25 years old, he was elected Provincial Deputy for the Republican Party and sat on the Budget Committee, but his term ended in 1880 as a result of the Federalization of Buenos Aires. That year he was named general administrator of Stamps and Patents, though he did not remain long in that position either. Upon the federalization of Buenos Aires and the arrival of Julio A. Roca to the presidency, Alem resigned from his position as Deputy in protest against the federalization and left politics, allowing Yrigoyen, who was not opposed to the new law, to be elected Deputy to the National Congress. This was the first discrepancy that emerged between the two. In 1878, he ended his studies, having never completed his thesis. Three years later, a new law was passed that eliminated the requirement for a thesis to become a lawyer in such a way that Yrigoyen was able to graduate.

He began to work as a professor of Argentina history, civic instruction, and philosophy in 1880, and the Normal School for Teachers, though he was first named President of the Balvanera School Council by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, then president of the National Council of Education. He taught these subjects for around twenty-four years, until he was expelled by President Manuel Quintana as a result of the Revolution of 1905, led by Yrigoyen. Despite the unfavorable economic situation, he donated his salary of 150 pesos to the Children's Hospital and the Asylum for Defenseless Children. Testimonies from the time signal that he was not a good professor, but his method is of particular interest: he gave his own students responsibility over the classes while he acted as a moderator and observer. By 1882, Yrigoyen had finished his classes in theory at the University of Buenos Aires Law School. At this time, through the Spanish Krausists Julián Sanz del Río and Francisco Giner de los Ríos, he discovered the works of philosopher Karl Krause, who influenced his thinking considerably.

During the 1880s, he began a series of rural projects that would give him great economic wealth. He purchased and rented estancias in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, and San Luis, and fattened cattle to sell them to refrigeration businesses. These activities not only earned him great wealth, but also landholdings of his own. In total he owned almost 25 leagues of land. He was the owner of Estancia El Trigo, near Las Flores, one of the best shepherding lands in the country; Seña de Anchorena in the province of San Luis; and El Quemado, near General Alvear. Thanks to his business experience, Yrigoyen had direct contact with the people of the countryside – both creoles and gringos – and he became familiar with their problems and sentiments. In a few years, Yrigoyen had accumulated a considerable fortune, which was to help him achieve his political aspirations.

Yrigoyen never hosted anyone, not even his friends, at his estancias. He spent time working in the fields alongside his workers, and in his free time he would walk or read. When he became a more popular political personality, he would retreat to his estancias to rest. He advised his workers to buy small properties for their old age. The workers at Yrigoyen's estancias received higher salaries then was typical for the time, and they received a share of the earnings, in proportion to the work and responsibility of each employee, and he would regularly give his workers articles of clothing. He collected a fortune of several million pesos, which he used almost entirely to fund his political activity, to the point that he was in debt when he died.

The 1880s marked the consolidation of a landowning elite and commercial sector, tied together in a balance guaranteed by President Roca, first from within the government, and later from outside. The agreement between these distinct dominant sectors brought about the exclusion of any organized opposition. In this context, the opposition formed a new party, dissolving the Civic Union of the Youth and forming the new Civic Union in 1890, emerging from a heterogeneous movement linked together by the ideology of suffragism and the fight against Roca's regime. Following the success of the meeting held in the Florida Garden on 1 September 1889, which helped popularize Leandro N. Alem among the youth of Buenos Aires, and though he was retired from political life since the 1880s, he helped plan the Revolution of the Park. Yrigoyen hesitated to join the movement at first since he believed the fight was not against a person (President Miguel Juárez Celman), but rather against a whole system. But prior to the revolution of 1890, he was pressured to join the movement and quickly became the Chief of Police of the Provisional Government. But the movement would be quickly repressed by the government, and the pacts between the more conservative factions of the Civic Union collapsed due to a deep internal crisis. This led to the rupture of the Civic Union on 26 June 1891, forming two new parties: the National Civic Union, led by Bartolomé Mitre and in favor of negotiating with Roca's party, and the Radical Civic Union (Unión Civica Radical, UCR), led by Alem and radically opposed to Roca. That same year, Yrigoyen was named head of the Radical Committee of the Province of Buenos Aires, and in March 1881, he was named head of the Department of Argentine History Civic Instruction at the Normal School for Teachers. The five-year stint at this position influenced Yrigoyen notably, giving him a more global vision.

In 1889, Yrigoyen moved into a house of his own, facing what is today Plaza Congreso in the City of Buenos Aires, on the street that is now named after him, on the 1600 block. Just prior to this move, his brother, Roque, died after suffering a long illness. That event prompted him to close himself off to the world even more, a state in which he suffered a religious crisis. Little is known about this, due to his reserved nature. During his brother's illness, Yrigoyen befriended two of his brother's friends, Carlos Pellegrini and Roque Sáenz Peña, who would play significant roles in the institutional changes that would eventually bring Hipólito Yrigoyen to the presidency.

Armed rebellion

On 10 April 1892, Luis Sáenz Peña was elected President of Argentina. One week before, President Carlos Pellegrini had declared a state of siege and, with the justification of a radical conspiracy, sent Leandro N. Alem to prison and practically all of the radical leaders were arrested over a period of two months, with the exception of Yrigoyen. In November of that year, the National Convention of the Civic Radical Union (UCR) was convened, in which Alem and Yrigoyen made a declaration that called for an armed uprising against the regime. The Convention approved a manifesto that labeled the source of the government's power as "based in fraud and violence". On 17 November, the Civic Radical Union issued its charter, the first document of its kind in the history of the party. This was the first in a series of events that began the new radical revolution.

On 29 July 1893, the governor of San Luis was overthrown by Juan Sáa, and on 31 July, after a day of bloody conflict, they took the city of Rosario. Meanwhile, in Buenos Aires, Yrigoyen decided to put his plan into practice. Several radical leaders left the city, heading towards the interior of the province, each one assigned a specific task to carry out the new rebellion. At his El Trigo estancia, he met with his friends and some of his workers, some sixty people in all, and they headed towards the Las Flores police station, which they took without resistance. He arrived in Temperley on the morning of 3 August alongside 1,200 men and established their encampment for the revolution, led and organized by Marcelo T. Alvear. The encampment housed as many as 2,800 armed citizens, who arrived in columns to take adjacent towns. On 4 August, the head of the rebellion created several battalions to defend the settlement in Temperley, whose forces had grown to 4,500 men, divided into eighteen battalions. Facing this situation, the governor resigned that same day. Two days later, the Committee of the Province was formed, with Yrigoyen presiding over it, and met in Lomas de Zamora with the attendance of some seventy members. Domingo Demaría requested Yrigoyen to be provisional governor of the province, but he denied emphatically, believing that he had participated in the revolution to end an illegal government, not to install another one. Before the insistence of his fellow revolutionaries, he told them, "Neither provisional, nor definitive"

After a crisis in the ministry that led to the resignation of several ministers, on 3 July 1893, Luis Sáenz Peña called on Aristóbulo del Valle, who had been retired from politics since the fracture of the Civic Union, to reorganize it. Del Valle first attempted to invite the UCR Committee to participate in the new ministry, to no avail. He then attempted to call on a number of radical figures to join some of the ministries, but they all forcefully rejected the offer. He came up with a plan to disarm the paramilitary forces that existed in several provinces that some governors were using to retain their power in their provinces. He also asked Congress to use federal intervention to replace the governors of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and San Luis, which were the provinces mostly controlled by the oligarchy. Given his proximity to the government, del Valle could have staged a coup d'état, as Alem had asked him to, but his legal convictions stopped him from taking action even when it would mean the failure of the revolution.

On 8 August, a railway formation left from Temperley to take La Plata, the capital of the Province of Buenos Aires. Colonel Martín Yrigoyen, Hipólito's brother, led 3,500 civilians who after some fighting overthrew Governor Carlos Costa and took the city of La Plata. Martín and Hipólito's forces combined, and around 4,500 people marched between 13th and 44th street. The Yrigoyen brothers marched to the front of the revolutionary troop to an ovation from the people of La Plata. They decided to use the hippodrome near the train station as an encampment, bringing to an end the peaceful capture of La Plata. That same day, the Provincial Committee met in Lomas de Zamora to elect a provisional governor, Juan Carlos Begrano, who chose Marcelo T. de Alvear as his Minister of Public Works. The provisional government would only last nine days. When the national government sent troops to intervene, Belgrano did not resist and turned his power over to Eduardo Olivera. The national government designated Manuel Quintana as Minister of the Interior, who sent a powerful military force to defeat the revolution. On 25 August, the Committee of the Province officially announced that it would drop arms. Alem insisted on ordering a new uprising throughout the country, but Yrigoyen disagreed because he believed that Quintana would crush the revolution by any means necessary. This was the beginning of the dwindling of the relationship between the two leaders. By October, the revolution had been totally defeated. Yrigoyen was advised that he was to be arrested and when he left his house in the early morning, he was detained by the police force. This was the first time in his life that he was arrested. He was transferred to an old war boat and then to a pontoon that was holding several radical prisoners, where they suffered nausea from the poor hygienic conditions. Soon after, they were sent to Montevideo, Uruguay, the only foreign land to which Yrigoyen ever travelled, where they remained until December. He returned to Uruguay many years later after being overthrown.

It was just prior to this revolution that Yrigoyen met Alvear, more specifically when there was an opening for Chief of Police of the city of Buenos Aires. Artistóbulo del Valle proposed a relative of Alem, who had been commissioner. This is how he made contact with Alvear and other civic figures such as Le Breton, Apellániz, and Senillosa. Alvear and Yrigoyen would see each other at the Paris Café and at committee meetings. He would always hold a special appreciation for Alvear, even in the later years of the caudillo's life, after the radical leaders had come into conflict with each other. As an anecdote about the two leaders, it can be mentioned that in 1897, Lisandro de la Torre challenged Yrigoyen to a fencing duel. Alvear had a few days to teach his friend the basics of fencing, since Yrigoyen had no knowledge of fencing and de la Torre was an expert. The duel took place on 6 September and Yrigoyen was able to achieve several touches on de la Torre's face and won the duel. During his presidency, he would continue to practice fencing, a pastime that he never gave up, even in his 70s. In 1897, he joined the Jockey Club and went several times, and although he never set foot in the institution after 1900, he continued to be a member until his death.

On 1 July 1896, Leandro Alem committed suicide in the middle of the street. Aristóbulo del Valle had died prematurely in January of that year, leaving the leadership of the party to Yrigoyen. However, on the night of Alem's wake, he announced that the loss of his uncle was too grave to be able to lead the party, and he asked those present to return to their provinces of origin until further notice.

When the National Convention of the UCR issued the so-called "parallel policy" on 6 September 1897, to hold elections with the mitristas, after a meeting UCR Provincial Committee meeting 29 September at Alvear's house in which they voted to dissolve the committee in order to defeat the bernardistas, radicalism would enter a state of disorganization until the party's reorganization in 1904. This was a total contradiction of the pact with the mitristas that the president of the National Committee, Bernardo de Iriogyen, had signed as a tactic to fight against Julio A. Roca during his second presidency in 1898.

Revolution of 1905
There were several signs in early February 1905 that a new radical revolution was coming, and in late January, the revolutionaries left for their destinations throughout the country to begin their revolt. However, both the government and the police suspected that there were plans of a conspiracy against them and so they broke into several buildings and arrested civilians who resorted to their weapons. Alarmed, General Smith, the Army Chief of Staff, headed to the armory to fortify his unit and defend the city's arsenal. Thirty-three unarmed revolutionaries entered at 4 a.m. and were arrested when they asked for Martín Yrigoyen. The revolutionaries' failure to capture the arsenal reduced hope for the revolution, as the plan had been to arm civilians with weapons from the arsenal. At 3:45, President Manuel Quintana arrived at the Governor's Palace to convene an emergency meeting of his cabinet and declared a state of siege throughout the country. Successful uprisings took place in Bahía Blanca, Mendoza, Córdoba and Rosario, but the capital was kept under the government's control. In Mendoza, the governor was deposed and José Néstor Lencinas, the head of the Revolutionary Junta, took the command of provisional governor. In Córdoba, an infantry led by Delfor Del Valle Vice President José Figueroa Alcorta, President Roca's son Julio Argentino Pascual Roca, and several government leaders who happened to be in Córdoba. Del Valle attempted to capture President Roca, but he managed to escape to Santiago del Estero. In La Plata, there were rumors of suspected movements, but no revolution happensd there. Several revolutionary leaders escaped to Chile or Uruguay, but some, such as Delfor Del Valle, were captured when they tried to leave the country, and others turned themselves in. Some 70 civil prisoners were held on the naval ship Santa Cruz and confined into small spaces with poor living conditions. On 5 March, the state of siege was extended for 70 days, and the prisoners were quickly tried with punishments of up to eight years in prison, and on 2 May, they were sent on the Patria to a prison in Ushuaia.

Yrigoyen had maintained his anonymity during the last few weeks of the uprising. It was announced that at the end of February, he would appear at the Federal Court. On 28 February, there was a large crowd and significant police presence waiting for him, but he did not appear, and the government ended up exonerating him. Yrigoyen was able to support the leaders financially in exile because of the success of his estancias. A few months after the revolution ended, a civic association appeared, the Association of May, which started a pro-amnesty movement supported by the National Party of Uruguay. Yrigoyen began to run the association to gain freedom for the imprisoned revolutionaries, but that clashed with Quintana's inflexibility. However, Quintana died in March 1906, and José Figueroa Alcorta became president from the modernist National Autonomist Party (PAN), which passed a law of amnesty proposed by former President Carlos Pellegrini among others. Yrigoyen met with President Figueroa Alcorta in 1907 and 1908 to try to convince him to call for corruption-free elections, but he found little success. Yrigoyen revealed the conversations in the Convention of 1909.

In the 1910 presidential elections, the modernist National Autonomist Party elected Roque Sáenz Peña as its candidate. Sáenz Peña was for establishing an election system that would put an end to electoral fraud, and he was not only a friend of Yrigoyen but also had cofounded the defunct Republican Party with Yrigoyen 30 years before.

Path to electoral reform
The long-postponed political change began its process with the arrival to the presidency of Roque Sáenz Peña, an internal opponent of the National Autonomist Party. He focused all of his governmental management into passing a law to guarantee secret, universal, and mandatory elections for all citizens. After overcoming resistance from the conservatives, who were opposed to the exercise of total democracy, his plan became the so-called Sáenz Peña Law. The issue of suffrage was dealt with in three laws: Law Nº 4161, on 29 December 1902, which made possible the first representation of the Socialist Party; Law Nº 4578, on 24 July 1905, intended to calm that year's revolution; and Nº 8871, the famous Sáenz Peña Law, passed on 10 February 1912. While this was predictable, the attitude of President Sáenz Peña is notable for attending to the demands of the people, knowing that it would gravely affect the dominance of the conservatives. It is worth mentioning, however, that the new law applied only to elections for national offices: president, vice-president, national deputies, and national senators. The rest of the elections would continue to be held according to the laws in each province. However, the governor of Santa Fe was replaced in 1912 by federal intervention, and the new governor organized elections for provincial governor and the provincial legislature in accord with the new electoral reform. The Radical Civic Union decided to participate and won the election, bringing to power Manuel Menchaca, the first Argentine governor to be elected in secret elections.

In early March 1916, the National Committee of the Radical Civic Union met to call a Convention, which would take place on 20 March at the Casa Suiza, with the attendance of 138 delegates. At the session, the committee designated a commission made up of delegates Vicente Gallo, José Camilo Crotto, Pelagio Luna, José Saravia, and Isaías Amado. At the same time, it named another commission, made up of Eudoro Vargas Gómez, Crotto, Luna, and Marcelo T. de Alvear, tasked with meeting with President Victorino de la Plaza with the goal of demanding a clean and free election. The following day, while the first commission was debating over whether to put the Constitution into effect after years of institutional disorder, the second commission that met with President De La Plaza did not return with encouraging news. That divided the opinions of the delegates, leading them to suspend the session to be continued on 22 March at Onrubia Theater, where they would also have to choose their candidates for president and vice-president.

Starting at eight in the morning, the theater was packed with people and taken over by nerves because although it was known that Yrigoyen would win unanimously, the delegates knew that he would not accept the candidacy. In regards to the vice-presidency, there were demands by the "blue" group to be on the ticket, and finally, Pelagio Luna, from La Rioja, was designated the vice-presidential candidate. At 10:30 am, the voting began: Yrigoyen received 150 votes, with two for Leopoldo Meto and one each for Alvear, Crotto, and Gallo. Crotto rejected the vote that he was given, standing by his position that only Yrigoyen could be the candidate. In the vice-presidential selection, Luna received 81 votes with Gallo receiving 59, and Joaquín Castellanos and Melo received one each. While the delegates waited for the acceptances of the candidacies, a demonstration gathered outside Yrigoyen's house, but there is no indication that anyone was able to enter. Yrigoyen had gone to meet with the board of directors of the Convention in Crotto's study on the Avenida de Mayo, where he declined to accept the candidacy. Crotto proposed to form a commission to meet with Yrigoyen with the goal of convincing him to accept the candidacy. The delegates Guido and Oyhanarte headed to the residency on Avenida Brasil 1039 and communicated to Yrigoyen that if he rejected the candidacy, it would be the end of the fight. At 6:30 pm, Yrigoyen accepted. The news prompted a celebration in front of the house on Avenida Brasil 1039.

Presidential elections of 1916
The presidential elections on 2 April 1916 were the first in the history of Argentina to adopt the Sáenz Peña Law, which guaranteed a secret and mandatory vote for men, and it is thus considered to have resulted in the first democratic government in the history of Argentina, with the clarification that the first completely democratic government was the second presidency of Juan Domingo Perón in 1951, when women were able to exercise their right to vote and be voted for.

The first effects of the law were unexpected for the reformers: radicals and socialists turned out in almost every corner of the country, with the exception of the Province of Buenos Aires, which was fervently controlled by the traditional political apparatus. The provincial parties that controlled the old regime failed in their attempt to form a new conservative political force.

The Hipólito Yrigoyen–Pelagio Luna ticket prevailed over the Conservative Party ticket (Ángel Rojas–Juan Eugenio Serú) in the popular vote with 339,332 votes, versus 153,406 votes for the Conservative Party. They also won in the Electoral College with 152 votes. The Congress was composed of 45 radicals and 75 opponents in the Chamber of Deputies; in the Senate there were only 4 radicals and 26 opponents. A total of eleven provinces were still being represented by members of the previous regime. After swearing in before the Legislative Assembly, the new president was literally carried by a deluge of people to the Casa Rosada, without any kind of security detail. Historian Luis Alberto Romero notes that something had truly changed when "100,000 people accompanied the new president on his way from the Congress to the Palace of Government. The opponents were horrified by the presence of the 'sandal-wearing riffraff', a prejudice, certainly, but one that marked the beginning of a new age of democracy." When thirteen electors were needed for radicalism to triumph, the conservatives went to Santa Fe to try to persuade electors who were enemies with the party's authorities. When Yrigoyen was asked about this, he said the famous quote, "Let one thousand elections be lost before we sacrifice our principles."

The Spanish Ambassador to Argentina attended the event on behalf of his country and wrote the following for the newspaper La Época:"In my diplomatic career I have attended famous celebrations in different European courts; I have been present for the ascent of a President of France and a King of England; I have seen popular spectacles extraordinary in number and enthusiasm. But I cannot remember anything comparable to the incredible scene of a Head of State thrown into the arms of his people, carried back and forth by the electrified crowd, to the high seat of honor of the first mandate of his homeland (...). But all that pales in comparison to the reality of the immense plaza, of the human ocean mad with joy, of the president dedicated to his people with his heart and soul, without guards, without an army, without police." Yrigoyen had suggested to President Figueroa Alcorta at the time to intervene in fourteen federal states where fraud was still in practice, and had been since the creation of the League of Governors, from which his primary mentors Miguel Ángel Juárez Celman and Julio Argentino Roca came. The federal interventions, called for "civic hygiene", were carried out slowly by the executive branch in times of legislative recess. With the exception of the provinces governed by radicals who had come into power legitimately, the rest were put into power through intervention. The intervention's goal was to call for legal elections and for the winners to become the new governor. In many districts, radicalism won, although in provinces such as Corrientes and San Luis, the conservatives prevailed, and in those cases the popular decision was respected. Additionally, were no interventions in the provinces of Santa Fe, Buenos, Aires, or Jujuy.

The electoral victory meant that, for the first time, a large social class that had until then been excluded from public office was running different state functions. This was the middle class, without great economic resources, nor connections to the upper classes. The presence of "nameless" civil servants was a subject of much satire in the conservative press. During the first years of his government, Yrigoyen led through decrees, since many of the initiatives he sent to Congress failed due to the conservative majority that still prevailed. Only after the 1918 Legislative Elections did radicalism obtain the majority in the lower chamber.

Despite the congressional minority, Yrigioyen maintained an attitude inclined towards dialogue and negotiation, not only with the traditional conservative parties that controlled the Senate, but also with the new popular parties that had gained prominence from the secret vote: the Socialist Party and the Democratic Progressive Party. He developed radicalism as a "religion of redemption" for the "liberation of Argentina", he was not seen as a politician but as an "apostle", and he believed that the Radical Civic Union was not a party but rather "a motherland itself":

1918 and 1920 legislative elections
In 1918, the UCR received 367,263 votes, and in 1920, the party received 338,723 votes. Although the UCR won a considerable number of seats in the national legislature, the Senate's slow constitutional turnover meant that the upper chamber did not yet represent the electorate. The death of Pelagio Luna in 1919 had a notable influence on the legislative body and the fact that many radical senators were not aligned with Yrigoyen's government were a few of the factors that stopped several of Yrigoyen's proposals in the Senate.

First presidency, 1916–1922
Yrigoyen was the nation's first president to sustain a nationalist ideology, convinced that the country had to manage its own currency and credit, and most of all, control over its transports, energy networks, and petroleum exploitation. To this end, he designed the plans for a Central Bank in order to nationalize foreign trade, founded the energy company YPF, and placed controls on the concessions of the foreign businesses that managed the country's railroads. Gabriel del Mazo, historian of radicalism, says that Yrigoyen's government was characterized by his "Petroleum and Land Plan". In addition to the defense of domestic assets, Yrigoyen was able to contain the expansionism of the large foreign economic groups that were active in the country. Facing the aggressive interventionist policy of the United States in Latin America, he defended his non-interventionist principles, going as far as ordering Argentina's war boats in one case to wave the flag of the Dominican Republic rather than that of the U.S., who had hoisted theirs on the island after the 1916 occupation.

As far as the railroads were concerned, Yrigoyen placed rigorous controls on the railways in British hands, especially in regards to tariffs and fixation of capital accounts. He also promoted State Railways, looking for a way to reach the Pacific Ocean to facilitate transport of goods from the northwest and southwest of the country to reach Perú, Chile, and Bolivia.

The initial push to achieve complete democratic rights was stopped, since the UCR neither controlled the Senate nor the governorships in many provinces. Yrigoyen resorted in several cases to federal intervention in the provinces, which deepened the confrontation with the conservative sectors. During his first presidency, he intervened in the provinces twenty times; only five by law, and ten in provinces governed by radicals. The government argued that the provinces whose governors had been chosen in elections prior to the electoral reform were illegitimate.

Various reforms were also enacted during Yrigoyen's first presidency. In 1918 a law was enacted fixing the conditions of homework, providing "that a minimum wage for such work shall be fixed by mixed committees of employers and employees." A law was passed in 1919 providing the building of workers' houses at reasonable prices, while in 1921 a maximum increase in rent was fixed by law as a means of tackling an exorbitant rise in rents. A 1917 homestead law provided for grants of 500 acres of public land in the far north and far south, while from 1919 the National Mortgage Bank was permitted to make funds available for landless farmers to purchase rural property. In 1921 a tenant rental law was passed "spelling out rights and limitations of rental contracts and working conditions." In 1919 a railroad worker pension plan was amended, and was further amended in 1921 "to create a fund to build houses for railroaders and in that way helped to alleviate the decided shortage of decent affordable housing." A law of 1921 prohibited the manufacture, sale or importation of matches containing white or yellow phosphorus. More than 3,000 new schools were founded while illiteracy was combated, and the government helped set up an extensive consumer cooperative for employees of the state railways. A presidential decree was signed concerning the work of women and children. In accordance with this decree, "every hall in stores, warehouses, millinery and other commercial establishments must have chairs, provided with backs, equal in number to two-thirds of the female workers employed." In 1921 a fund was established for old age, disability and survivors' pensions for personnel working at various public utilities owned by foreign corporations, along with those working in hospitals and clinics. Various public health initiatives were carried out For instance, Law 10,998 of October 21, 1919, authorised the Board of Sanitary Works of the Nation to construct water works and sewage systems in all towns of the Republic with over 8,000 inhabitants. According to a presidential message from 1921 "The Executive Power has dedicated its greatest care to the development of social assistance services, being its constant desire that they correspond to the needs of the population. Within the limited means available to it, its action has been rapid, tending to reduce the ills that afflict the needy, concurring in some cases with the requested aid, reaching out to other means of aid to the populations and expanding the capacity of the hospital establishments with the essential elements for their regular operation."

Economic policy
The economic expansion that Argentina experienced during the period known as the "radical republic" (1916–1930), with an average annual expansion of 8.1%, is still today one of the greatest periods of economic growth in the history of the country. However, Yrigoyen had to confront problems arising from World War I. His policy was maintaining neutrality, which meant in economic terms continuing supply to its traditional allies and customers. The nations at war demanded cheap supplies, such as blankets and canned meat, which saw their exports triple between 1914 and 1920. This was nothing compared to the exports of corn and refrigerated meat (which was of higher quality than the canned meat). In turn, the import of manufactured goods from Europe stopped as the warring nations focused their resources on war industry. This caused industries to emerge to produce the products that were previously being imported. Between 1914 and 1921, commerce grew with the United States, as England and other European nations had nothing to offer Argentina.

When the war began, President Victorino de la Plaza ordered the suspension of the exchange of gold for paper currency that the Caja de conversión began in 1889 as a temporary solution for the Baring crisis and to prevent a capital outflow. This allowed the Argentine currency to maintain a gold standard. Fourteen million pesos in gold came back into the country from Paris and London, where it had been deposited by European merchants in the name of Argentine exporters. Thanks to this, the Argentine peso reached an 80% gold standard by the end of Yriogyen's first government. The government attempted, to no avail, to create the Bank of the Republic in 1917, a financial entity whose objective would be to regulate the economy and national finances. In a five-year period, it did not issue debt instruments, and external debt was reduced to 225,000,000 pesos, the reason for which many public positions were left vacant to reduce public spending. Congress did not levy taxes on returns, though the administration requested this in 1919. In the same year, Congress passed regulations over conciliation and arbitration in workers' conflicts, establishing a junta presided over by the chair of the National Labor Department, and made up of a representative of each party in the conflict, to arrive at a viable understanding for workers and employers. Also in 1919, a law was brought to Congress regulating work in manufacturing and the production of yerba mate, citing that the conditions of the workers were inhumane. This law, Nº 11.728, was passed in the following radical administration in 1925, but it was vetoed by Marcelo T. de Alvear at the insistence of the Congress.

The prices on the international market began to decline slowly starting 1914, while the prices of manufactured products that Argentina was importing began to climb in relation to the price of grains. This created an increasingly difficult situation that became an economic crisis, eventually resulting in a global economic crisis in 1929. An industry with little development, created during World War I but shrunk afterwards, an economic organization that obtained almost all its resources from customs duties, and a budget with a negative balance, among other things, characterized the Argentine economy during the radical period from 1916 to 1930.

Violence
During his first presidency workers' strikes were violently suppressed in events such as La Forestral massacre, the Tragic Week and the suppression of the Patagonia Rebelde. The anti-labor violence was often assisted by the paramilitary nationalist group Argentine Patriotic League.

Second presidency, 1928–1930
On the expiration of Alvear's term in 1928, Yrigoyen was overwhelmingly elected President for the second time.

In December of that year, U.S. President-elect Herbert Hoover visited Argentina on a goodwill tour, meeting with President Yrigoyen on policies regarding trade and tariffs. Radical anarchist elements attempted to assassinate Hoover by attempting to place a bomb near his rail car, but the bomber was arrested before he could complete his work. President Yrigoyen accompanied Hoover thereafter as a personal guarantee of safety until he left the country.

Domestic Policy
In domestic policy, additional reforms were introduced during Yrigoyen's second presidency. On June 12, 1929, Yrigoyen authorized funding for the establishment of primary schools throughout the nation (4,514,470 pesos for the establishment of primary schools in Buenos Aires, the Provinces and National Territories). An act of 29 August 1929, which came into force on 12 March 1930, established the eight-hour workday and forty-eight hour workweek for all salaried employees and workers A resolution passed on August 7, 1929, added a registry to the Ministry of Agriculture, whose purpose, as noted by one study, was "to compile and distribute information concerning agricultural lands, such as prices, distance from important market and railway centers, and other data of interest to farm owners and to other persons wishing to purchase land."

Fall From Power
In the fallout of the Great Depression, Yrigoyen's presidency ended due to conspiracies by rival factions who capitalized on flaws in his government. and conservative sectors of the army plotted openly for a regime change, as did American corporations, such as the Standard Oil of New Jersey, who opposed the president's efforts to curb oil smuggling from Salta Province to Bolivia, as well as the existence of YPF itself. Yrigoyen, in his seventies, was also kept uninformed of the true state of the nation by aides who censored his access to news reports of the global depression's impact. On 24 December of this year he survived an assassination attempt.

On 6 September 1930, Yrigoyen was deposed in a military coup led by General José Félix Uriburu. This was the first military coup since the adoption of the Argentine constitution. After the coup d'état, Enrique Pérez Colman, Minister of Finance in the Yrigoyen cabinet; General Moscini, former Director of YPF; General Baldrich, and a number of Yrigoyenist deputies were arrested by the provisional government of General Uriburu.

The new government of Uriburu adopted the most severe measures to prevent reprisals and counter-revolutionary tactics by friends of the ousted administration. The aforementioned Yrigoyenist personalities were later released.

Later life and death
After his overthrow, Yrigoyen was placed under house arrest and confined several times to Martín García Island. He died in Buenos Aires on 3 July 1933 and was buried in La Recoleta Cemetery.

title: Hipólito Yrigoyen


text:
Michaelhouse, Cambridge

Michaelhouse is a former college of the University of Cambridge, that existed between 1323 and 1546, when it was merged with King's Hall to form Trinity College. Michaelhouse was the second residential college to be founded, after Peterhouse (1284). Though King's Hall was established earlier in 1317, it did not acquire actual premises until its re-foundation by Edward III in 1336. The name Michaelhouse is now used for St Michael's Church.

Foundation and early history
Established formally on Michaelmas Day 1324 as a college for scholars in Holy Orders, Michaelhouse is named after the parish church of the same name located on Cambridge's magna strata or High Street (today's Trinity Street). Founded by Hervey de Stanton, Edward II's Chancellor of the Exchequer and Lord Chief Justice (Chief Justice of the Pleas) of England, the college was established between spring 1323 and autumn 1324. On 28 May 1323, de Stanton obtained from Dera de Madingley the advowson (or right of presentation) to the parish of St Michael as well as her messuage on the High Street 'for a hundred silver marks.' On 16 March 1323/4, de Stanton purchased for another hundred silver marks an extensive property located on St Michael's Lane, complete with walled garden and a quay on the wharves of the River Cam owned by Robert Buttetourte.

Charter and establishment
In May 1324, Edward II granted a royal charter to the new college. On 31 August 1324, the Bishop of Ely, John Hotham, granted his own charter. The following day, John de Crauden, prior of the monastic foundation of Ely, added his agreement under the chapter seal. King, bishop and prior left de Stanton free hand in the appointment of the college’s first Master and the drafting of statutes for his college. On Michaelmas Day that year, Walter de Buxton, priest, was appointed the College's first Master.

Expansion of the college
On 11 November 1324 Hervey de Stanton obtained the properties of Adam de Trumpington, rector of Buckland, for his college. At about the same time, he ordered the rebuilding of the parish church in the Decorated style for use as a chapel. Following his death on All Souls' Day 1325, de Stanton was buried in the unfinished chancel. His executors, John de Illegh and Alexander Walsham, continued the expansion of the College by purchasing further properties between St Michael's Lane (today's Trinity Lane), and the river, an area now occupied by the southwest corner of Trinity's Great Court, and Neville Court. These included the purchase, in 1329, of two hostels South of St Michael's lane and Milne Street (today's Trinity Hall lane), Ovyng and Garret Hostel. The latter gave its name to the lane leading to the river.

At Michaelmas 1337, de Illegh acquired another hall of residence adjacent to the King's Hall, known as Crouched Hall or Newmarket Hostel. Two properties located on St Michael's lane complete the early expansion: the bequest by Joan de Refham in 1549 of her home and shops led to the establishment of St Katherine's Hostel, and the acquisition in 1353 of a house owned by Archdeacon of Norfolk that gave way to St Gregory's Hostel. The latter almost certainly took its name from the dedication of one of the chapels at St Michael's Church. By the mid-14th century, Michaelhouse took up most of the present south-west corner of Trinity College's Great Court and New Court, further acquiring lands now occupied by Trinity's Scholars' Lawn and the Wren Library. The college's core property included a navigable stream and a ditch which formed a natural boundary with the adjacent common, and the King's Hall. The College benefited from a number of other local properties and further endowments. Indeed, although its buildings were never grand but of a size suitable to the small fellowship (the Hall measured only around 26 metres by 12 metres), by the time of its dissolution Michaelhouse had an annual income in excess of £140, some £50 higher than that of St Peter's Monastery in Westminster (Westminster Abbey).

Masters of the College of St Michael
Walter de Buxton, priest, 1324 Henry Granby, fl. 1418 John Fisher, 1497-1505

Reformation and dissolution
Throughout its existence, the college remained a study house for clergy with a conservative theological ethos. The main exponent of this thinking is probably John Fisher, who served as Master between 1497 and 1505. As Chancellor of the university, Fisher was instrumental in the foundation of St John's and Christ's. As Bishop of Rochester he maintained the conservative stance on the royal supremacy and the reformation measures of king Henry VIII shared by much of the Michaelhouse fellowship which, more prominent and vociferous in his case, ultimately led to Fisher's execution in 1535.

Ironically, Henry VIII made use of the same measures challenged by the Michaelhouse fellowship to dissolve the college. Following the dissolution of religious houses in England, Cambridge University rightly feared for the future of its colleges, many of which were religious foundations or study houses for clergy. The university was able to make use of its contacts to petition the queen, Katharine Parr who, in turn, persuaded Henry to spare most colleges. Indeed, the two colleges facing dissolution, together with vast tracts of land acquired from the dissolution of the monasteries, would eventually endow a new royal foundation befitting his grandeur. Consequently, in 1546 Michaelhouse was dissolved by act of Parliament, and merged with its neighbour King's Hall to form Trinity College. Further endowed by Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I, Trinity remains one of the largest and the wealthiest college in the university.

Unlike the few remaining remnants of King's Hall north of King Edward's Tower, following the building of Great Court at the end of the 16th century, nothing much remains of the original Michaelhouse buildings, though its stones probably served as ready building materials. While the Hall was adapted for use by the new college in 1546, its walls are now hidden behind the 18th-century ashlaring of the kitchens and combination rooms south of the present Dining Hall.

St Michael's Church
The parish church of St Michael probably dates back to the foundation of the city of Cambridge itself, though no written records survive prior to a valuation of the living in 1217. Substantially rebuilt by Hervey de Stanton in the Decorated style, the Church was designed to serve both the parish and the college. The chancel is three bays long, a bay larger than the nave; both chancel and nave have sizeable side aisles. In 1324, de Stanton had suggested to the bishop of Ely that the master and fellows, who were all members of the clergy, could provide daily worship for the parish, since they already used the church as their chapel. Consequently, on 18 March 1324/5, the first Master of Michaelhouse, Walter de Buxton was inducted as vicar of St Michael's Church.

Parish church and chapel for three colleges
The church's nave would have been used for parish worship, regular preaching, university debates and lectures. Until the completion of a chapel for neighbouring Gonville Hall in 1396, both Michaelhouse and Gonville shared in the use of the two aisles; Gonville making use of the north aisle of the church, Michaelhouse using the south. Since Gonville Hall was dedicated to the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the north aisle altar was also dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The south aisle altar was known as that of "St Gregory of Pity", indicating that it would have been surmounted by an image of the Pity, that is, Christ and the instruments of the Passion. Its association with St Gregory derives from a vision by Pope Gregory the Great when celebrating mass of Christ's real presence and sacrifice in the eucharistic bread. One of the later Hostels of Michaelhouse shared the dedication of the College chapel. While the altarpiece may have survived the reformation, it certainly would not have survived local Cromwellian iconoclasm, and was most likely destroyed, alongside other images in St Michael's, on Boxing Day 1643. However, a late-medieval scutum sancti Trinitatis (Shield of the Trinity), in the middle ages widely believed to be the Shield of St Michael and probably used as the College's coat of arms, has survived in the chapel's stained glass window.

Michaelhouse clergy served the parish until the dissolution of the College in 1546. From the time of the demolition of the King's Hall Chapel in 1550, until the completion, on the same site, of Trinity College Chapel under Elizabeth I of England in 1565, the scholars of Trinity made use of St Michael's Church as their chapel. In the process of establishing a new chapel, 36 scholars' stalls created in 1485 by 'John Day, Carvar' for the King's Hall Chapel, some with carved misericords, were removed to St Michael's, where they remain to date. As successor of Hervey de Stanton's foundation, Trinity College continues to hold the patronage of the living of St Michael's and, during the 16th to 18th centuries, fellows in Holy Orders at Trinity College ministered as clergy (so-called 'chaplains') of St Michael's. The present minister retains this title.

Diocesan church
From the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century, the church was used as a venue of the episcopal and archidiaconal visitations for the Diocese of Ely. Similarly, diocesan confirmation services would be held at St Michael's rather than in Ely Cathedral. On 11 November 1849, as the congregation was gathering for Sunday worship, the heating system caused the church roof to catch fire, resulting in the careful rebuilding of the roof by George Gilbert Scott and the restoration of the church the following year. Scott's renovation did not extend beyond introducing a new stone porch at the north side of the church, the major restructuring of the church fell to Scott's son, George Gilbert Scott, Jr.

Scott's refurbishment
From 1870 to 1872, George Gilbert Scott Jr was asked to design a fine new east window in memory of one of the parish clergy, William Beamont. In the process, Scott proposed the complete remodelling of the sanctuary, including the creation of an ascent of four steps to match the levels of the 14th-century sedilia, and the creation of a tall new altarpiece that would extend 'up to three feet above the window cill [sic] level'. For his three-tiered new reredos, Scott made use of parts of the existing, much smaller, altarpiece created between 1864 and 1868 by Louvain woodcarver Michiel Abeloos. Abeloos had previously collaborated with George Gilbert Scott on the carved choir stalls at Ely Cathedral. Abeloos' figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the Last Supper and the College motto were all incorporated into a much grander piece, the work of local carpenters Rattee and Kett and artist F. R. Leach. In Cambridge, Leach also collaborated with George Frederick Bodley on the ceiling and frescoes of All Saints' Church, Jesus Lane, the ceiling of Jesus College Chapel, and the dining hall ceiling at Queens'. In 1874, Leach painted the Chancel ceiling and arches of St Michael's to designs of Scott as a thank-offering, without accepting any payment. Parts of the north aisle had been painted previously to designs by Holman Hunt.

Michaelhouse Centre
Ultimately, the parish proved too small to be sustainable. Indeed, from as early as 1550, when it was suggested that it should be united with the parish of All Saints in the Jewry, St Michael's parish was threatened with fusion with neighbouring parishes. It was finally united with that of Great St Mary's in 1908. Substantially refurbished in 2001–2002, the church now bears the College's name, Michaelhouse Centre, Cambridge. It serves as a lively weekday church, community centre, art gallery and a café managed by a charitable trust on behalf of the church council of the united parish. The chapel adjacent to de Stanton's grave is named in his memory and now, as then, forms the focal point for daily devotions at the church he built.

In popular culture
Michaelhouse is the setting for the Matthew Bartholomew Chronicles, a series of Mediaeval mystery novels by Susanna Gregory.

title: Michaelhouse, Cambridge


text:
Fox (disambiguation)

A fox is a medium-sized, omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae.

Fox may also refer to:

Automotive companies

 * Fox (automobile company), 1921–1923
 * Fox Factory, a racecar component manufacturer
 * Fox Automotive Switzerland AG, who modified the Mia electric minivan

Entertainment and media companies

 * Fox Networks Group, a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company
 * Fox (international), a brand of television channels
 * Fox Film, later part of 20th Century-Fox
 * Fox Feature Syndicate, a comicbook publisher (1930s–1950s)
 * Fox Corporation, a media company controlled by Rupert Murdoch
 * Fox Broadcasting Company

Other businesses

 * Fox (clothing), an Israel-based clothing company
 * Fox Brothers, an English clothmaker
 * Fox Racing, an apparel maker
 * Fox Software, publisher of FoxPro

Fictional characters

 * Fox (comics), one of two related superheroes (from 1940)
 * Fox Crane, in the soap opera Passions (2002–2007)
 * Fox McCloud, from the Star Fox video game series (1993–2017)
 * Fox Mulder, in The X-Files sci-fi TV series (1993–2018)
 * Fox, in Disney animated series Gargoyles (1994–1997)
 * Fox, a 2007 character in soap opera Neighbours
 * Fox, on the Canadian comedy Son of a Critch
 * Yusuke Kitagawa (codename: Fox), from the 2016 Persona 5 video game

Film and television

 * Fox (TV series), a 1980 British TV drama
 * Fox (film), a 2009 Hindi thriller

Music

 * Fox (band), a British rock band of the 1970s
 * Fox (album), 1975
 * Fox, an Australian rock band of the 1970s that recorded the album What the Hell Is Going On?
 * "Fox" (song), by Millencolin, 2000
 * The Fox (Elton John album), 1981

Radio stations

 * Fox Radio (disambiguation), several uses
 * Fox FM (Melbourne), in Australia
 * Fox FM Ghana
 * Heart Oxfordshire, formerly Fox FM, in England
 * Port FM, formerly Fox FM, in New Zealand
 * CFGW-FM, in Yorkton, Saskatchewan, Canada
 * WBAF, in Barnesville, Georgia, United States
 * WBML, in Warner Robins, Georgia, United States
 * WFDR (AM), in Manchester, Georgia, United States
 * WQJJ-LP, in Jasper, Alabama, United States

Other uses in arts, entertainment and media

 * Fox (Marc), a 1911 painting by Franz Marc
 * Fox games, a category of asymmetric board games for two players
 * The Fox (magazine), an American arts magazine (1975–76)
 * Fox, a pornographic magazine published by Magna Publishing Group
 * Fox (book), a children's book by Margaret Wild

Computing

 * Fox toolkit, software for building graphical user interfaces
 * IDEA NXT, formerly FOX, a block cipher

People

 * Fox (surname), including a list of people with the name
 * Fox (gamer) (Ricardo Pacheco (born 1986), Portuguese professional game player
 * Fox Butterfield (born 1939), American journalist
 * Fox Conner (1874–1951), American major-general and mentor of Dwight D. Eisenhower
 * Fox Fisher (born 1980), Indian-British artist, film maker, author and trans campaigner
 * Fox Harris (1936–1988), American actor
 * Fox Henderson (1853–1918), American businessman and banking entrepreneur
 * Fox Maule-Ramsay, 11th Earl of Dalhousie (1801–1874), British politician
 * W. Fox McKeithen (1946–2005), American politician
 * "Fox Ryder", stage name of Sean Paul Lockhart (born 1986), American film actor and director
 * Fox Stanton (1874–1946), American football player and coach
 * Fox Stevenson (born 1993), English singer-songwriter

United States

 * Fox, Alaska
 * Fox, Arkansas
 * Fox, Illinois
 * Fox, Indiana
 * Fox, Kentucky
 * Fox, Minnesota
 * Fox, Montana
 * Fox, Ohio
 * Fox, Oklahoma
 * Fox, Oregon
 * Fox, Virginia

Elsewhere

 * Fox (crater), on the Moon
 * Fox, South Australia

Land

 * Audi 80, or Audi Fox, a compact executive car
 * Volkswagen Fox, a subcompact car
 * Volkswagen Gol, or VW Fox, a subcompact car
 * Fox, a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive
 * NSU Fox, a light motorcycle
 * Fox armoured reconnaissance vehicle, a British armoured car
 * Fox Armoured Car, a Canadian wheeled armoured fighting vehicle
 * M93 Fox, an armored personnel carrier

Sea

 * Fox (boat), built in 1896 to be rowed across the Atlantic
 * Fox (ship), an 1854 steam yacht
 * Fox, the name of two Hudson's Bay Company vessels
 * HMS Fox, several British ships and shore installations

Air

 * Fox (code word), a brevity code for air-to-air munitions release
 * Fairey Fox, a British light bomber and fighter biplane

Other uses

 * Fox (rabbit), a breed of rabbit
 * Fox (tribe), a Native American people
 * FOX proteins, a family of transcription factors
 * Formosan languages, spoken in Taiwan (ISO 639-5: fox)

title: Fox (disambiguation)


text:
House of Nobles

House of Nobles can refer to:

 * House of Nobles (Hawaii), a political institution in the Kingdom of Hawaii, part of the Legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom
 * House of Nobles, an alternate name for the House of Knights, a corporation of the Swedish nobility

title: House of Nobles