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Nikkor

Nikkor is the brand of lenses produced by Nikon Corporation, including camera lenses for the Nikon F-mount. The Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a Westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō (日光), an abbreviation of the company's original full name Nippon Kōgaku ("Japan Optics"; 日本光学工業株式会社). (Nikkō also means "sunlight" and is the name of a Japanese town.) In 1933, Nikon marketed its first camera lens under the Nikkor brand name, the "Aero-NIKKOR," for aerial photography.

Nikon originally reserved the Nikkor designation for its highest-quality imaging optics, but in recent history almost all Nikon lenses are so branded.

Notable Nikkor branded optics have included:
 * F-mount lenses for 35mm SLR and DSLR photography (for a full list see Nikon F-mount).
 * Z-mount lenses for Nikon mirrorless cameras.
 * 1-mount lenses for Nikon 1 series cameras.
 * Lenses for Zenza Bronica and Plaubel Makina medium format cameras.
 * Lenses for Nikon S-mount and Leica rangefinder cameras, as well as very early Canon cameras.
 * Amphibious lenses for Nikonos underwater cameras.
 * Lenses for large format photography.
 * EL-Nikkor photographic enlarger lenses.
 * Microscope objectives.
 * Industrial lenses, including lenses in support of the Japanese war effort during World War II.

Nikon Z-mount
Nikon introduced the Z-mount in 2018 for their system of digital full-frame and APS-C (DX) mirrorless cameras. All of Nikon's Z-mount lenses are Nikkors.

Nikon F-mount
Nikkors constitute the majority of lenses available for the Nikon F-mount, which is itself the largest system of interchangeable flange-mount photographic lenses in history. These lenses are designed for the 135 (35mm) and Nikon DX formats. Over 400 different F-mount Nikkor models are known to exist.

Nikon 1-mount
Nikon introduced the compact mirrorless Nikon 1 camera system using 2.7x-crop sensors in 2011. The Nikon 1 system was effectively discontinued in 2018 with the introduction of the full-frame Nikon Z system.

Nikonos
The original Nikonos system introduced in 1963 is a scale-focus and rangefinder system for underwater photography. The 1992 Nikonos RS system is an underwater autofocus SLR system based on the F-mount.

Nikon S-mount

Rangefinder camera system dating to the late 1940s which became popular with the 1951 Nikon S.

 * Nikkor-O 2.1 cm 4.0
 * W-Nikkor 2.5 cm 4.0
 * W-Nikkor 2.8 cm 3.5
 * W-Nikkor 3.5 cm 1.8
 * W-Nikkor 3.5 cm 2.5
 * W-Nikkor 3.5 cm 3.5
 * Nikkor-N 5 cm 1.1
 * Nikkor-S 5 cm 1.4
 * Nikkor-H 5 cm 2.0
 * Micro-Nikkor-P 5 cm 3.5
 * Nikkor-S 8.5 cm 1.5
 * Nikkor-P 8.5 cm 2.0
 * Nikkor-P 10.5 cm 2.5
 * Nikkor-T 10.5 cm 4.0
 * Nikkor-Q 13.5 cm 3.5
 * Nikkor-Q 13.5 cm 4.0
 * Nikkor-H 18 cm 2.5
 * Nikkor-Q 25 cm 4.0
 * Nikkor-T 35 cm 4.5
 * Nikkor-T 50 cm 5.0
 * Reflex-Nikkor 100 cm 6.3

Lenses for other camera systems
Note: In the case of the Nikkor wides, "W" just means "wide". Prior to approximately 1976, most Nikon lenses had a suffix appended directly after the "Nikkor" name that was used to denote the number of optical elements in the lens design. For example, a lens with eight elements would be marked "Nikkor-O", and a lens with eleven elements "Nikkor-UD".

Zenza Bronica SLR

 * Nikkor-D 40mmF4
 * Nikkor-H 50mmF3.5
 * Nikkor-O 50mmF2.8
 * Nikkor-P 75mmF2.8 (two versions)
 * Nikkor-HC 75mmF2.8
 * Nikkor-Q 105mmF3.5 LS
 * Nikkor-Q 135mmF3.5
 * Nikkor-P 200mmF4 (two versions)
 * Nikkor-PC 300mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-Q 400mmF4.5
 * Nikkor-P 600mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-P 800mmF8
 * Nikkor-P 1200mmF11

Leica "L" rangefinder

 * W-Nikkor 35mmF1.8
 * W-Nikkor 35mmF2.5
 * Nikkor-S 50mmF1.4
 * Nikkor-H 50mmF2
 * Nikkor-Q 50mmF3.5
 * Nikkor-P 85mmF2
 * Nikkor-P 105mmF2.5
 * Nikkor-Q 135mmF3.5
 * Nikkor-P 135mmF3.5

Plaubel Makina

 * Nikkor 80mmF2.8 (Makina 67/670)
 * Wide Nikkor 55mmF4.5 (Makina W67)

Airesflex TLR

 * Nikkor-Q 7.5 cmF3.5 (taking lens)
 * View-Nikkor 7.5 cmF3.2 (viewing lens)

Marshal Press

 * Nikkor-Q 105mmF3.5

Hansa Canon rangefinder

 * "Kasyapa" 50mmF3.5 (origin of this lens uncertain)
 * Nikkor 50mmF3.5

Nikkor-SW
Four-group wide-angle lens series, consisting of six, seven, or eight elements:
 * Nikkor-SW 65mmF4
 * Nikkor-SW 75mmF4.5
 * Nikkor-SW 90mmF4.5
 * Nikkor-SW 90mmF8
 * Nikkor-SW 120mmF8
 * Nikkor-SW 150mmF8

Nikkor-W
Six-element, four-group series:
 * Nikkor-W 100mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 105mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 135mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 150mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 180mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 210mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 240mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 300mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-W 360mmF6.5

Nikkor-M
Compact, 4-element, 3-group series.
 * Nikkor-M 105mmF3.5
 * Nikkor-M 200mmF8
 * Nikkor-M 300mmF9
 * Nikkor-M 450mmF9

Nikkor-AM
8-element, 4-group true Apochromat macro lens series, optimized for 1:1 reproduction.
 * Nikkor-AM*ED 120mmF5.6
 * Nikkor-AM*ED 120mmF5.6S
 * Nikkor-AM*ED 210mmF5.6

Nikkor-T
Telephoto series. The 360 mm / 600 mm are triple-convertible lenses with 500 mm and 720 mm / 800 mm and 1200 mm interchangeable rear elements which were available separately.
 * Nikkor-T ED 270mmF6.3
 * Nikkor-T ED 360mmF8
 * Nikkor-T ED 500mmF11
 * Nikkor-T ED 720mmF16
 * Nikkor-T ED 600mmF9
 * Nikkor-T ED 800mmF12
 * Nikkor-T ED 1200mmF18

Apo-Nikkor
true Apochromat series, designed for the printing industry, optimized for 1:1 reproduction. With Waterhouse type Filter Slot.

Apo-Nikkor / Early type
Lens Construction 4 elements in 3 groups / Tessar Type Lenses.
 * Apo-Nikkor 12cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1961)
 * Apo-Nikkor 15cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1960) - φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount
 * Apo-Nikkor 18cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1962) - Image circle φ250mm.
 * Apo-Nikkor 21cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1959)
 * Apo-Nikkor 24cmF9 - Image circle φ350mm.
 * Apo-Nikkor 30cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1949)
 * Apo-Nikkor 38cmF9 (Manufacture start Year : 1946)
 * Apo-Nikkor-Q.C 45cmF9 (Product Year : 1948) - φ72P=1.0mm Screw Mount
 * Apo-Nikkor 60cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1948)
 * Apo-Nikkor 75cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1957)
 * Apo-Nikkor 90cmF9 (Release of drawing Year : 1953)

Apo-Nikkor / Later type
Lens Construction 4 elements in 4 groups / Double Gauss Type Lenses.
 * Apo-Nikkor 180mmF9 - 7inch. φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. - Image circle φ300mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 240mmF9 - 9.5inch. φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. - Image circle φ410mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 305mmF9 - 12inch. φ72mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ520mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 360mmF9 - 14inch. φ72mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ600mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 420mmF9 - 16.5inch. φ90mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ710mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 455mmF9 - 18inch. φ90mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ770mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 480mmF9 - 19inch. φ90mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ820mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 610mmF11 - 24inch. φ110mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ1030mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 760mmF11 - 30inch. φ110mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ1170mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 890mmF11 - 35inch. φ162mmP=1.5mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ1360mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 1210mmF12.5 - 47.5inch. φ162mmP=1.5mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ1750mm
 * Apo-Nikkor 1780mmF14 - 70inch. φ213mmP=1.5mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ2310mm

Wide-Angle-Apo-Nikkor
Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lenses. The wide angle version Apo-Nikkor lens was developed for small-scale platemaking cameras.
 * W.A.Apo-Nikkor 150mmF8 - φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. - Image circle φ350mm.
 * W.A.Apo-Nikkor 210mmF8 - φ72mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ460mm.
 * W.A.Apo-Nikkor 240mmF10
 * W.A.Apo-Nikkor 300mmF9 - φ90mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ610mm.
 * W.A.Apo-Nikkor 360mmF9 - φ90mmP=1.0mm Screw Mount. - Image circle φ730mm

EL-Nikkor
The EL-Nikkor series of lenses are designed for photographic enlargers. Most feature 39mm Leica thread mounts, although some feature a 50mm screw mount. Most are 6-element, 4-group designs. Some slower, lower-cost designs (marked †) are 4-element, 3-group designs. Newer versions of these lenses are marked with an "N" (focal lengths to 105mm) or "A" (focal lengths from 135mm). (Per Nikon, Inc. Technical and Service Support (800-645-6689), manufacture and sale of all enlarging lenses has been discontinued.)
 * EL-Nikkor 40mmF4
 * EL-Nikkor 5cmF2.8/50mmF2.8 (Release of drawing Year : 1956) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * EL-Nikkor 5cmF3.5C - "El-NIKKOR-C"
 * EL-Nikkor 5cmF3.5 (Release of drawing Year : 1945)
 * EL-Nikkor 50mmF4† (Release of drawing Year : 1967) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Helmes 5.5cmF3.5 (Release of drawing Year : 1936) - Tessar Type
 * EL-Nikkor 63mmF2.8
 * EL-Nikkor 6.3 cm/63mmF3.5(Sale Year : 1966) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * EL-Nikkor 68mmF3.5 - M39 Screw Mount.
 * EL-Nikkor 75mmF4 †
 * EL-Nikkor 80mmF5.6 (introduced in 1966) - M39 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 105mmF5.6 (introduced in 1966) - M39 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 135mmF5.6 (introduced in 1966) - M39 Screw Mount & φ45mmP=0.5 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 150mmF5.6 (introduced in 1968) - φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 180mmF5.6 (introduced in 1972) - φ62mmP=1 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 210mmF5.6 (introduced in 1968) - φ72mmP=1 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 240mmF5.6 (introduced in 1972) - φ82mmP=1 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 300mmF5.6 (introduced in 1972) - φ100mmP=1 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 360mmF5.6 (introduced in 1972) - φ130mmP=1.5 Screw Mount. (6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)

EL-Nikkor N

 * EL-Nikkor 40mmF4N(Sale Year : 1984) - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / Biogon Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 50mmF2.8N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / Double Gauss Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 50mmF4N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 4 elements in 3 groups / Tessar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 63mmF2.8N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / EL-Nikkor Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 75mmF4N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 4 elements in 3 groups / Tessar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 80mmF5.6N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)
 * EL-Nikkor 105mmF5.6N - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups / Orthometar Type Lens)

EL-Nikkor A

 * EL-Nikkor 135mmF5.6A - M39 Screw Mount & φ50mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * EL-Nikkor 150mmF5.6A - M39 Screw Mount & φ50mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * EL-Nikkor 180mmF5.6A - φ72mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * EL-Nikkor 210mmF5.6A - φ72mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * EL-Nikkor 240mmF5.6A - φ90mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * EL-Nikkor 300mmF5.6A - φ90mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)

Apo-EL-Nikkor
The Apo-EL-Nikkor series of lenses are true Apochromat photo enlarging lenses with chromatic aberration corrected not only for the entire visible range of the spectrum, but also in near ultraviolet and near infrared ranges (380-700 nm). They are all 8-element, 4-group designs with maximum-minimum aperture of 5.6-45.

 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 105mmF5.6
 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 170mmF5.6
 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 210mmF5.6
 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 300mmF5.6
 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 480mmF5.6

Apo-EL-Nikkor N

 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 105mmF5.6N
 * Apo-EL-Nikkor 210mmF5.6N

EL-Zoom-Nikkor

 * EL-Zoom-Nikkor 45-91mmF5.6-11.4 - Mount φ86mm (Lens Construction 15 elements in 12 groups)
 * EL-Zoom-Nikkor 77-111mmF5.6-9.8 - Mount φ125mm (Lens Construction 10 elements in 10 groups)

Ortho-EL-Nikkor

 * Ortho-EL-Nikkor 105mmF5.6
 * Ortho-EL-Nikkor 135mmF5.6

Fax-Nikkor
Designed for 1:1 reproduction with a usable magnification range from 0.3x to 3x. Transmission from 350 to 700 nm, no focus shift between visible and actinic light used for photoresists. Completely symmetric lenses with no distortion.

 * Fax-Nikkor 160mmF5.6 - φ62mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * Fax-Nikkor 210mmF5.6 - φ72mmP=1.0 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * Fax-Nikkor 210mmF7
 * Fax-Nikkor 260mmF10 - (Lens Construction 4 elements in 4 groups / Topogon Type Lens)
 * Fax-Nikkor 300mmF7 - φ95mmP=1.0 Screw Mount.

Fax-Ortho-Nikkor
Designed for 10:1 reproduction. Field size varies from 200x200 mm to 400x400 mm with correspondingly larger image sizes and very long back-focal distances (several meters). Completely symmetric lenses with no distortion.

 * Fax-Ortho-Nikkor 250mmF5.6
 * Fax-Ortho-Nikkor 400mmF5.6 - (Lens Construction 6 elements in 4 groups)
 * Fax-Ortho-Nikkor 500mmF5.6

Fish-Eye-Nikkor

 * Fish-Eye-Nikkor 16.3mmF8 - (March, 1941 manufacture)

Pro-Fish-Eye-Nikkor

 * Pro-Fish-Eye-Nikkor 2mm F1.5 - (Projection Lens)

Aero-Nikkor
The lens for aerial photographs produced at prewar days

Aero-Nikkor

 * Aero-Nikkor 7.5 cm F3.5 (Sale Year : 1937)
 * Aero-Nikkor 10 cm F5.6 (Sale Year : 1939)
 * Aero-Nikkor 18 cm F4.5 (Sale Year : 1933)
 * Aero-Nikkor 20 cm F3.5
 * Aero-Nikkor 50 cm F4.8 (Sale Year : 1932) - (Lens Construction 3 elements in 3 groups)
 * Aero-Nikkor 70 cm F5 (Sale Year : 1932) - (Lens Construction 3 elements in 3 groups)

R-Aero-Nikkor

 * R-Aero-Nikkor 50cmF5.6

COM-Nikkor
for Computer Output Microfilming Lens
 * COM-Nikkor 37mmF1.4 - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 8 elements in 6 groups)
 * COM-Nikkor 88mmF2

CRT-Nikkor
for Oscilloscope Output Microfilming Lens
 * Oscillo-Nikkor 55mmF1.2/CRT-Nikkor 55mmF1.2 - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 8 elements in 6 groups)
 * CRT-Nikkor 58mmF1.0 - Nikon F Mount.

Micro-Nikkor

 * Micro-Nikkor 55mm f3.5
 * Micro-Nikkor 70mmF5 - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 5 elements in 4 groups / Xenotar Type Lens)
 * Micro-Nikkor 150mmF5.6 - φ72mmP=1 Screw Mount.

Ultra-Micro-Nikkor
for Microfilming Lens
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 28mmF1.7e - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 10 elements in 8 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 28mmF1.7g - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 10 elements in 8 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 28mmF1.8(Sale Year : 1965) - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 7 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 28mmF1.8e - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 7 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 28mmF1.8h(Sale Year : 1967) - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 7 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 29.5mmF1.2(Sale Year : 1964) - (Lens Construction 9 elements in 6 groups, used fluorite.)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 30mmF1.2 - M39 Screw Mount, φ50mmP=0.75 Screw Mount & φ55mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 6 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 30mmF1.2h(Sale Year : 1969) - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 6 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 50mmF1.8e(Sale Year : 1969) - φ52mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 12 elements in 9 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 50mmF1.8h(Sale Year : 1969) - φ52mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 12 elements in 9 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 55mmF2(Sale Year : 1965) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 55mmF2h(Sale Year : 1967) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 125mmF2.8(Sale Year : 1965) - φ62mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 7 elements in 6 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 135mmF4(Sale Year : 1965) - φ62mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 7 elements in 4 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 155mmF4 - φ72mmP=1 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 7 elements in 4 groups)
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 225mmF1g(Sale Year : 1969) - φ122mmP=1 Screw Mount.
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 250mmF4
 * Ultra-Micro-Nikkor 300mmF1.4g(Sale Year : 1969) - φ122mmP=1 Screw Mount.

Macro-Nikkor
The interchangeable lens only for large-sized macro photography equipment "Multiphot"
 * Macro-Nikkor 19mmF2.8 - RMS Mount.
 * Macro-Nikkor 35mmF4.5 - RMS Mount.
 * Macro-Nikkor 65mmF4.5 - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Macro-Nikkor 12cmF6.3 - M39 Screw Mount.

Printing-Nikkor
Was developed as an optical lens for optical printing, as demand occurs after the line sensor lenses. Thoroughly eliminate various aberrations in the reference scale, with a high color fidelity and resolution. Has now been redesigned for the Eco-glass, like the current product.

Printing-Nikkor

 * Printing-Nikkor 75mmF2.8 - (Lens Construction 12 elements in 4 groups)
 * Printing-Nikkor 95mmF2.8 - (Lens Construction 12 elements in 4 groups)
 * Printing-Nikkor 105mmF2.8 - (Lens Construction 12 elements in 4 groups)
 * Printing-Nikkor 150mmF2.8 - (Lens Construction 10 elements in 4 groups)

Printing-Nikkor N

 * Printing-Nikkor 150mmF2.8N

Printing-Nikkor A

 * Printing-Nikkor 95mmF2.8A - φ45mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Printing-Nikkor 105mmF2.8A - φ45mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.

Process-Nikkor
The lens for table type small platemaking cameras. Lens Construction 4 elements in 4 groups. Topogon Type Lens. Standard magnification is ×1. A 400 to 650 nm chromatic aberration compensation wavelength band.
 * Process-Nikkor 180mmF10 - φ62mmP=1.0 Screw Mount.
 * Process-Nikkor 210mmF10 - φ72mmP=1.0 Screw Mount.
 * Process-Nikkor 240mmF10 - φ82mmP=1.0 Screw Mount.
 * Process-Nikkor 260mmF10 - φ90mmP=1.0 Screw Mount.

Rayfact
Rayfact is the current industrial lens brand of Tochigi-Nikon, which doesn't use the Nikkor brand any more.

Rayfact

 * Rayfact ×7 OFM70350HN-TS - φ72mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact ×7 OFM70350HN-TS - φ72mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact ×3.5 OFM35162MN - φ67mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact ×2 OFM20119MN(Sale Year : 2006) - φ45mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact ×1 OFM10090MN(Sale Year : 2006) - φ45mmP=0.75 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact PF10545MF-UV - The succeeding kind which made "Ai UV-Nikkor 105mmF4.5S" eco-glass specification.
 * Rayfact 25mmF1.4(Sale Year : 2001) - C Mount.

Rayfact IL
The succeeding kind of "EL-Nikkor" which ended sale in 2006.
 * Rayfact IL40mm PF4040ML(Sale Year : 2007) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact IL50mm PF5028ML(Sale Year : 2007) - M39 Screw Mount.
 * Rayfact IL63mm OF6328ML(Sale Year : 2007) - M39 Screw Mount.

Rayfact VL
The succeeding kind of "Printing-Nikkor". Use by a line sensor was designed as a premise from the beginning.
 * Rayfact VL ×0.5 OFM05042MN - Real focus distance 119.3mm
 * Rayfact VL ×0.7 OFM07052MN - Real focus distance 121.0mm
 * Rayfact VL ×1 OFM10064MN - Real focus distance 123.9mm
 * Rayfact VL ×1.4 OFM14074MN - Real focus distance 121.0mm

Repro-Nikkor
It is designed supposing the use as x1 copy or a relay lens.
 * FR-Nikkor 75mmF1.0
 * Repro-Nikkor 85mmF1.0 - φ53mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 12 elements in 8 groups)
 * Repro-Nikkor 100mmF2.8
 * Repro-Nikkor 170mmF1.4 - φ73mmP=0.75 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 10 elements in 6 groups)

Regno-Nikkor
The lens for X-rays indirect photograph equipment.
 * Regno-Nikkor 10cmF1.5

TV-Nikkor
The lens for fluoroscopy of an X-ray.
 * TV-Nikkor 35mmF0.9 - M39 Screw Mount. (Lens Construction 9 elements in 7 groups)

Xero-Nikkor
The lens for about doubling the enlarging radiography of the documents displayed on CRT.
 * Xero-Nikkor 13.5cmF2 / 135mmF2
 * New Xero-Nikkor 135mmF2

title: Nikkor


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Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station

Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station is a Washington Metro station in Arlington, Virginia on the Blue and Yellow Lines. The station platform is elevated and covered and is the last above-ground station on the Yellow Line in Virginia, heading into Washington, D.C. It is one of only two stations in the system to have three tracks (the other being West Falls Church). The station is located across Smith Boulevard from Terminal 2 at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport; the mezzanine is directly connected to Level 2 of the terminal (security checkpoints/gates level) by two pedestrian bridges. Airport shuttle buses or a walkway connect the station and Terminal 1. The airport's Abingdon Plantation historical site is near the station.

History
The station opened on July 1, 1977. Its opening coincided with the completion of 11.8 mi of rail between National Airport and RFK Stadium and the opening of the Arlington Cemetery, Capitol South, Crystal City, Eastern Market, Farragut West, Federal Center SW, Federal Triangle, Foggy Bottom–GWU, L'Enfant Plaza, McPherson Square, Pentagon, Pentagon City, Potomac Avenue, Rosslyn, Smithsonian and Stadium–Armory stations.

When service began on July 1, 1977, it was the southern terminus of the Blue Line. After the Yellow Line extension to Huntington opened on December 17, 1983, the station remained the southern terminus for the Blue Line until the Van Dorn Street station opened in 1991.

During construction of a second canopy at the station, Metro began running trains through the center track even though it had not been constructed for standard operations, and on January 20, 2003, a Blue Line train derailed at the switch. No injuries resulted, but the accident delayed construction by a number of weeks. The center track was originally intended for relaying trains.

In 2014, a train was temporarily parked in the middle track while one of the elevators in the station was repaired, creating a "train bridge" to allow passengers to walk through the train to transfer between directions.

In May 2018, Metro announced an extensive renovation of platforms at twenty stations across the system. The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station served as a temporary southern terminal for the Blue and Yellow Lines from May to September 2019, while the stations south of the National Airport station were closed. The platforms at the National Airport station itself were rebuilt from August to December 2020.

Between May 25 and September 8, 2019, all trains terminated at this station due to the Platform improvement project which closed stations south of Ronald Reagan Airport. Between September 10 until November 5, 2022, all trains also terminated at Ronald Reagan airport due to the Potomac Yard station tie-in, closing all stations south of the station.

Renaming controversy
The station retained its original name after the airport was renamed in 1998 from "Washington National Airport" to "Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport". In early 2001, a letter signed by 24 members of Congress requested WMATA rename the station to conform. However, according to a Metro policy adopted in 1987, groups seeking to rename a station were required to pay the cost of replacing signs and maps. The Arlington County government, which could have made the change, demurred—the price was estimated at $400,000—and WMATA subsequently declined to rename the station on April 19, 2001. In response, Republican Congressman Bob Barr of Georgia threatened to withhold federal funding from the agency unless the station was renamed. Congress ultimately voted to require the renaming on November 30, 2001. According to then-General Manager Richard A. White, Metro paid to complete the renaming.

Station layout
The station has two island platforms serving three tracks, with the northbound track not used for regular service while the escalators are closed to the northbound platform.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Sweet Eros

Sweet Eros is a one-act, two-character play by Terrence McNally, which premiered Off-Broadway in 1968.

Productions
Sweet Eros opened Off-Broadway at the Gramercy Arts Theatre on November 21, 1968, on a double bill with another McNally play, Witness. The two plays closed on January 26, 1969. Directed by Larry Arrick, the cast starred Sally Kirkland as "The Girl" and Robert Drivas as the "Young Man" (to whom McNally dedicated the work).

Regional and international
Some U.S. productions of Sweet Eros (as of 2008) have been produced:

A May 2005 revival in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, was staged by and featured Robert Braiden and Veronica Smith.
 * Washington, D.C., by Source Theatre Company and Yellow Taxi Productions (Feb.-March 2004), directed by Dominic A. D'Andrea, featuring Justin Benoit and MaryBeth Fritzky
 * Madison, Wisconsin, by Mercury Players Theatre (MercLab) (July 2006), directed by Cara Peterson and featuring Kelly Lee Kriesel and R. Peter Hunt
 * Austin, Texas, by Tongue and Groove Theatre (Sept. 2006), directed by David Yeakle and featuring Mark Stewart and Hilah Johnson
 * Tucson, Arizona, by Live Theatre Workshop (May 2008), directed by Danielle Dryer and featuring Miranda McBride and Christopher Johnson

Plot
A disturbed young man, soured by two failed romantic relationships, has kidnapped a young woman (a complete stranger) and taken her to his home in the country. As the play opens, the woman is seated in a chair, bound and gagged, the man sitting opposite, observing her. The man explains to the woman his reasons for kidnapping her, saying he had long fantasized about doing such a thing to a young woman. He methodically strips his captive naked, presumably rapes her, then proceeds to subject her to an ongoing series of rants, ruminations and reflections on life and love as he seeks to force the woman to understand him – and, ultimately, to submit to him.

Nudity
Sweet Eros caused a sensation when it first opened in New York because its female star, Sally Kirkland, was nude for nearly the entire length of the play, which lasts approximately 45 minutes. Because of this play, Kirkland has claimed to be the first actress to perform completely naked in legitimate New York theatre, but this claim is undercut by the fact that the rock musical Hair, with its notorious group nude scene, had opened on Broadway seven months earlier.

According to an article in the Daytona Beach Morning Journal, "The event was duly noted as the first completely nude role."

title: Sweet Eros


text:
Institute for Research on Public Policy

The Institute for Research on Public Policy (IRPP; Institut de recherche en politiques publiques) is an independent, national, bilingual, not-for-profit organization based in Montreal, Quebec. Its mission is to "improve public policy in Canada by generating research, providing insight and informing debate on current and emerging policy issues facing Canadians and their governments." It publishes peer-reviewed research and acts as a convenor of policy debates by organizing conferences, round tables and panel discussions among stakeholders, academics, policy-makers and the general public. It is also the publisher of Policy Options magazine and the home of the Centre of Excellence on the Canadian Federation.

The institute's current research agenda is focused on five issues: Canadian federalism, the social safety net for working-age adults, unlocking demand for Canadian innovation, skills development and adult learning, and the challenges of an aging population.

The IRPP was created as a result of a commitment the government of Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau made in a Speech from the Throne in 1968 to establish an "independent and autonomous" institute for public policy research, whose work would be "available to all governments.

The IRPP is financed by an endowment fund, to which federal and provincial governments and the private sector contributed in the early 1970s. The Institute is a registered charity under the Income Tax Act, and is incorporated under Part II of the Canada Corporations Act.

Elizabeth Roscoe is the current Chair of the Board of Directors and Jennifer Ditchburn is the current President and CEO.

Purpose and mission
The IRPP's stated mission is to "improve public policy in Canada by generating research, providing insight and informing debate on current and emerging policy issues facing Canadians and their governments."

Although Prime Minister Trudeau's original proposal for the institute was as a resource to be drawn on by the federal and provincial governments, Ronald S. Ritchie – who accepted an invitation from the federal government to prepare a study on the concept – broadened this scope in a commissioned report published in 1969. Ritchie proposed that the IRPP should provide research and analysis "designed to improve the basis for informed choice and decisions by the public of Canada and its leaders on questions of public policy," and specified that "its intended audience should rather be opinion leaders, public servants and political leaders," and not only "academics."

The research agenda defined by its second president, Michael Kirby, aimed to conduct research "where existing policies were inadequate, where the need for change was recognized and where other institutions could not satisfy the need."

The IRPP's research is sometimes released with a direct aim of influencing policy-makers. For example, a September 2000 report titled Recommendations to First Ministers was issued a few days before the First Ministers' Meeting that year. This report was the product of an eight-person task force of expert practitioners and academics convened by the IRPP to advise on health care policy.

Governance
The board of directors has 16 members, hailing from across Canada. Directors of the board are appointed by the members of the institute. Elizabeth Roscoe is board chair

Past chairs of the board:
 * Anne McClellan
 * Graham W. S. Scott (2012–2018)
 * Janice MacKinnon (2006–2012)
 * Bob Rae (2001–2006)
 * Peter White (1997–2001)
 * Donald S. Macdonald (1992–1997)
 * Roger Charbonneau (1988–1992)
 * Robert Stanfield (1981–1988)
 * John Aird (1974–1981)

Presidents are selected by the board of directors. Jennifer Ditchburn has been president and CEO since 2021.

Past presidents:
 * Graham Fox (2011–2021)
 * Mel Cappe (2006–2011)
 * Hugh Segal (1999–2006)
 * Monique Jérôme-Forget (1991–1998)
 * Rod Dobell (1984–1991)
 * Gordon Robertson (1980–1983)
 * Michael Kirby (1977–1979)
 * Fred Carrothers (1974–1976)

Political orientation
The founding principles of the IRPP state that "the Institute should dedicate itself to impartial service of the national cultures, the various regions and the various governments of the people of Canada in its research and analysis on public policy questions." According to former acting secretary Peter Dobell, the IRPP's non-partisan position aims to "let the research speak for itself."

Hilary Clark of TVO's Inside Agenda blog places the IRPP in the political centre, while a report prepared by George Fetherling for the Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership describes the Institute as centre-right.

Academic Evert Lindquist describes the IRPP as "Canada's equivalent to the Brookings Institution." According to Lindquist, the Institute is generally perceived as a moderate supporter of the market system, free trade and limited government. However, the IRPP is often considered to be slightly to the left because of its links to prominent Liberals and the reformist views expressed in some of its publications.

Regarding the IRPP's plurality, Maclean’s and Globe and Mail journalist Mary Janigan has said that "the reason the IRPP is fabulous is that they allow every idea to enter the fray." The IRPP's board of directors and staff have had members with ties to all of the major Canadian political parties, and has had numerous unaffiliated members.

Finances
The IRPP is financed by an endowment fund, to which federal and provincial governments and the private sector contributed in the early 1970s. This endowment fund was conceived with the goal of ensuring the institute's independence.

In addition to its endowment, the IRPP accepts donations from both public and private donors – to the extent that these donations do not come with conditions. The Institute strives to invest its own resources in all of its projects and to seek a diversity of donors, so that no single source of funding becomes indispensable. The IRPP's endowment fund is overseen by an investment committee and managed by professional investment firms. This committee advises the Board of Directors on investment strategies that aim to maintain the real value of the fund (after inflation).

History
Following Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau’s commitment to establish the Institute, Ronald S. Ritchie was tasked to prepare a study in this direction. His report titled An Institute for Research on Public Policy was submitted to the federal government in December 1969. It touched on questions of financing, governance and the mission of the Institute. In addition, the report proposed the establishment of an endowment fund to ensure the Institute's independence. It also recommended that the Institute seek incorporation as a nonprofit corporation under the direction of a Board of Directors composed of "a small number of distinguished citizens."

In the spring of 1971, the Canadian government accepted the core ideas of Ritchie's report. Deputy Secretary of the Cabinet Michael Pitfield qualified Ritchie's proposal of an endowment by requiring a council of trustees to be established. This council of trustees, with about 50 members, would include a representative from each government in Canada, and would oversee the annual election of the board of directors and the governance of the institute.

The founding board of directors applied for incorporation on March 16, 1972, and the letters patent were approved on April 11. The founding Board of Directors was made up of J.V. Clyne (a Vancouver businessman), Louis Armand Desrochers (a lawyer from Edmonton), Louis Lorrain (a union executive from Montreal), Reverend Joseph MacNeil (bishop of Saint John), the Hon. John Robarts (former premier of Ontario), and Jeanne Sauvé (then a broadcaster in Montreal). Peter Dobell served as acting secretary, and Ron Ritchie was elected chair of the board.

Policy Options
Policy Options is the digital magazine published by the IRPP. The first issue of Policy Options was published in March 1980 under the leadership of founding editor Tom Kent. In 2016 the magazine transitioned from a print to a digital publication.

Policy Options features daily articles on issues of public policy by English- and French-language contributors from academia, research institutions, the political world, the public service and the nonprofit and private sectors. Its stated goal is to provide a window into some of the discussions that key decision-makers are having or should be having, and to feature a diversity of viewpoints. The magazine also has a biweekly podcast, called the Policy Options Podcast.

In 2017 Policy Options regular contributor Tim Caulfield received gold in the Digital Publishing Awards’ Best Blog or Online-Only Column category for his column The Cure. Policy Options was also a silver medalist in the 2017, 2018 and 2019 Canadian Online Publishing Awards, in the categories for best blog/column and best podcast.

Les Perreaux is the current editor-in-chief of Policy Options. He began his post in 2021.

Previous editors of the magazine:
 * Jennifer Ditchburn (2016–21)
 * Dan Gardner (2015–16)
 * Bruce Wallace (2012–14)
 * L. Ian MacDonald (2002–12)
 * William Watson (1999-2002)
 * Alfred Leblanc (1994–98)
 * Mathew Horsman (1991–93)
 * Walter Stewart (1987–90)
 * Thomas Worrall Kent (1980–87)

Centre of Excellence on the Canadian Federation
In 2020, the Institute launched its Centre of Excellence on the Canadian Federation, a permanent research body “that will build a deeper understanding of Canada as a federal community,” led by Charles Breton. It is financed by a $10 million commitment from the Government of Canada.

title: Institute for Research on Public Policy


text:
User:Spuzzum

Just a random browser who occasionally does something marginally helpful. Spuzzum 05:53, 2004 May 18 (UTC)

title: User:Spuzzum


text:
United States of America Mathematical Olympiad

The United States of America Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO) is a highly selective high school mathematics competition held annually in the United States. Since its debut in 1972, it has served as the final round of the American Mathematics Competitions. In 2010, it split into the USAMO and the United States of America Junior Mathematical Olympiad (USAJMO).

Qualification for the USAMO or USAJMO is considered one of the most prestigious awards for high school students in the United States. Top scorers on both six-question, nine-hour mathematical proof competitions are invited to join the Mathematical Olympiad Program to compete and train to represent the United States at the International Mathematical Olympiad.

Eligibility
In order to be eligible to take the USAMO, a participant must be either a U.S. citizen or a legal resident of the United States or Canada. Only US citizens and permanent residents could be invited to the USAMO until 2003, other students legally residing in the US can be invited since 2004. Starting from IMO 2022, only U.S. permanent residents and citizens may join the American IMO team. In addition, all participants, regardless of geographic location, must meet qualification indices determined by previous rounds of the AMC contests. Entry to the USAMO is by invitation only.

History
The USAMO was created in 1972 at the initiative of Nura D. Turner and Samuel L. Greitzer,  and served as the next round to the AHSME until 1982. In 1983, the American Invitational Mathematics Examination was introduced as a bridge between the AHSME and USAMO. In 2010, the USAMO split into the USAMO and USAJMO.

Historical participant selection process
The USAMO (and the USAJMO since 2010) is restricted to approximately 500 (250 prior to 2006) participants combined each year. To keep this quota constant, the AMC Committee uses a selection process, which has seen a number of revisions in the competition's history.

Present
AMC 12 based indices are determined by taking AMC 12 Score + 10*(AIME Score). AMC 10 based indices are determined by taking AMC 10 Score + 10*(AIME Score). Cutoffs, based on AMC 12 indices, are determined so that approximately 260-270 students qualify for the USAMO. Cutoffs, based on AMC 10 indices, are determined so that approximately 230-240 students qualify for the USAJMO. If a student took the AMC 10 and 12 (i.e. AMC 10A and 12B or AMC 12A and 10B) and qualified for both the USAMO and USAJMO, the student must take the USAMO. In 2020, due to grading constraints caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, lower numbers of students were admitted (223 USAMO qualifiers and 158 USAJMO qualifiers). To increase the limited pool of female students for team selection, females received a lower cutoff than males. This policy change was never officially announced by the MAA and was decided upon a week before the administration of the exam. In addition, students who qualify for the AIME through scoring at least 68/75 on the United States of America Mathematical Talent Search but neither AMC 10 nor 12 can qualify for the USAMO by scoring at least 11 on the AIME or the USAJMO by scoring 9-10 on the AIME, provided the student is eligible.

2011
Since 2011, the goal has been to select approximately 500 students total for the two Olympiads where 270 students qualify for the USA Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO) and 230 students qualify for the 2011 USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad (USAJMO). Selection for the USAMO and USAJMO are made according to the following rules:

1. U.S. citizens and students residing in the United States and Canada (with qualifying scores) are eligible to take the USAMO and USAJMO.

2. Selection to the USAMO will be based on the USAMO index which is defined as AMC 12 Score + 10 * AIME Score. Selection to the USAJMO will be based on the USAJMO index which is defined as AMC 10 Score + 10 * AIME Score.

3. Only AMC 12 A or AMC 12 B takers who are U.S. citizens and students residing in the United States and Canada will be eligible for the USAMO.

4. Only AMC 10 A or AMC 10 B takers who are U.S. citizens and students residing in the United States and Canada will be eligible for the USAJMO. This automatically limits Junior Math Olympiad participation to 10th graders and below. Students who take ONLY the AMC 10 test, whether AMC 10 A or AMC 10 B or both, will NOT be eligible for the USAMO regardless of their score on the AMC 10 or the AIME.

5. The approximately 260-270 individual students with the top AMC 12 based USAMO indices will be invited to take the USAMO. These indices will be selected from the pool of AMC 12 takers with an AIME score.

6. The approximately 230-240 individual students with the top AMC 10 based USAMO indices will be invited to take the USAJMO. These indices will be selected from the pool of AMC 10 takers with an AIME score after removing students who also took an AMC 12 test and qualified for the USAMO in rule 5. This means young students MUST take the USAMO if they qualify through an AMC 12 index.

7. We will select the student with the numerically largest index, whether AMC 10 based USAJMO index or AMC 12 based USAMO index, from each US state not already represented in either the USAMO or the USAJMO. The student will be invited to the USAMO if the numerically highest index in the state is AMC 12 based, and invited to the USAJMO if the index is AMC 10 based.

2010
Starting in 2010, the USA Mathematical Olympiad is split into two parts. The USA Mathematical Olympiad will be administered to approximately 270 students, mostly selected from top ranking AMC12 participants. The AMC10 only participants will take part in USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad.

1.Selection to the USAMO and JMO will be based on the USAMO index which is defined as AMC score + 10 * AIME score.

2.Only AMC 12A or AMC 12B takers are eligible for the USAMO (with the slight exception mentioned in item 5 below).

3.Only AMC 10A and AMC 10B takers are eligible for the JMO. (This automatically limits Junior Math Olympiad participation to 10th graders and below.)

4.Approximately the top 260 AMC12 based USAMO indices will be invited to the USAMO.

5.In order to find unrecognized young talent, AMC 10 takers who score 11 or more on the AIME will be invited to the USAMO. (In 2008 and 2009 this was 5 or 6 students).

6.Select the top index from any state not already represented in the USAMO.

7.Approximately the top 220-230 students with AMC10 based USAMO indices and not already selected to the USAMO via an AMC12 based index will be invited to the JMO.

Source:

2008
Selection for the USAMO will be made according to the following rules:

1. The goal is to select about 500 of the top scorers from this year's AIME and AMC 12A, AMC 12B, AMC 10A and AMC 10B contests to participate in the USAMO.

2. Selection will be based on the USAMO index which is defined as 10 times the student's AIME score plus the student's score on the AMC 12 or the AMC 10.

3. The first selection will be the approximately 330 highest USAMO indices of students taking the AMC 12A or AMC 12B contest.

4. The lowest AIME score among those 330 first selected will determine a floor value. The second selection of approximately 160 USAMO participants will be among students in the 10th grade and below who received an AIME score at least as high as the floor value. If there are more than 160 young students with a score above the floor value, then approximately 160 students will be selected from this group by using the USAMO index.

5 The student with the highest USAMO index from each state, territory, or U.S. possession not already represented in the selection of the first and second groups will be invited to take the USAMO.

6. To adjust for variations in contest difficulty, the number of students selected from A & B contests will be proportional to the number of students who took the A & B Contests.

7. In advising young students (in grade 10 or below) who desire to be selected for the USAMO whether to take the AMC 12 contest or the AMC 10 contest, please be aware of the following facts:

a. In 2007, among 506 students invited to take the USAMO, 229 were in 10th grade and below. Those students had scored 6 or greater on the AIME.

b. Among those 229 students, 87 had their AIME qualifying high score based on the AMC 12 and 142 had their AIME qualifying high score based on the AMC 10.

c. In 2007, among 8,312 students who took the AIME, 2,696 were in grades 10 and below. Of those, 998 qualified for the AIME from the AMC 12 and 1,698 qualified from the AMC 10.

2006-2007
Beginning in 2006, the USAMO was expanded to include approximately 500 students (around 430 were actually invited, read below) due to a proposal and sponsorship from the Art of Problem Solving website: Source: American Mathematics Competitions
 * 1) The goal is to select about 500 of the top scorers from this year's AIME and AMC 12A, AMC 12B, AMC 10A and AMC 10B contests to participate in the USAMO.
 * 2) Selection will be based on the USAMO index which is defined as 10 times the student's AIME score plus the student's score on the AMC 12 or the AMC 10.
 * 3) The first selection will be the approximately 240 highest USAMO indices of students taking the AMC 12A or AMC 12B contest.
 * 4) The lowest AIME score among those 240 first selected will determine a floor value. The second selection of approximately 120 USAMO participants will be among students in the 10th grade and below who received an AIME score at least as high as the floor value. If there are more than 120 young students with a score above the floor value, then approximately 120 students will be selected from this group by using the USAMO index.
 * 5) The student with the highest USAMO index from each state, territory, or U.S. possession not already represented in the selection of the first and second groups will be invited to take the USAMO.
 * 6) To adjust for variations in contest difficulty, the number of students selected from A & B contests will be proportional to the number of students who took the A & B Contests.
 * 7) The selection process is designed to favor students who take the more mathematically comprehensive AMC 12A and AMC 12B contests.*

 * Statement 7 above (quoted from the AMC website) has recently come under controversy. During the selection for the 2006 USAMO, students who qualified by the floor value (in grades seven through ten) were qualified based on AMC scores as well (see * below) as their AIME scores, yet no distinction was made between the AMC 12 contest and the generally easier AMC 10 contest, giving those who took the AMC 10 an advantage over those who took the AMC 12. Students in grades seven through ten who were in the first selection of qualifiers (see 3. above) would still have qualified even if they had taken the AMC 10, except in the rare case that they set the floor themselves, making the AMC 12 still non-advantageous.

2002-2005
Since 2002, the following set of guidelines have been adopted for use in determining each year's USAMO participants:

 * 1) The goal is to select about 250 of the top scorers from the prior AIME and AMC 12A, AMC 12B, AMC 10A and AMC 10B contests to participate in the USAMO.
 * 2) Selection will be based on the USAMO index which is defined as 10 times the student's AIME score plus the student's score on the AMC 12 or the AMC 10.
 * 3) The first selection (consisting of participants from all grade levels) will be the approximately 160 highest USAMO indices of students taking the AMC 12A or AMC 12B contest.
 * 4) The lowest AIME score among those 160 first selected will determine a floor value. The second selection of USAMO participants will be from the highest USAMO indices among students in grades seven through ten who got an AIME score at least as high as the floor value. To note, during 2002-2005 period, this included all students in grades seven through ten.
 * 5) The student with the highest USAMO index from each state, territory, or U.S. possession not already represented in the selection of the first and second groups will be invited to take the USAMO.
 * 6) To adjust for variations in contest difficulty, the number of students selected from A & B contests will be proportional to the number of students who took the (A & B) Contests.
 * 7) The selection process is designed to favor students who take the more mathematically comprehensive AMC 12A and AMC 12B contests.

Source: American Mathematics Competitions

2001 and earlier
From 1998 to 2001, the following guidelines were used:

 * First Group: The top 120 students.
 * Second Group: The next 20 students in grades 11 and below.
 * Third Group: The next 20 students in grades 10 or below.
 * Fourth Group: The next 20 students in grades 9 or below.
 * Fifth Group: One student from each state, one student from the combined U.S.A. Territories, and one student from the APO/FPO schools- if not represented in the first four groups.

Source: American Mathematics Competitions

Recent qualification indices
* In 2020, the AIME I took place as normal on March 11, 2020. However, the escalating COVID-19 Pandemic which had just shut down most U.S. Schools forced the postponement of the AIME II, which was scheduled for March 19, and the USA(J)MO which was scheduled for mid-April. Both competitions were eventually rescheduled in June as online competitions which students participated in at home and were renamed as the AOIME (American Online Invitational Mathematics Examination) and the USO(J)MO (United States Online (Junior) Mathematical Olympiad) respectively. They were sponsored by Art of Problem Solving (AoPS).

Post-2002
Since 2002, the USAMO has been a six-question, nine-hour mathematical proof competition spread out over two days. (The IMO uses the same format.) On each day, four and a half hours are given for three questions.

Each question is graded on a scale from 0 to 7, with a score of 7 representing a proof that is mathematically sound. Thus, a perfect score is 42 points. The number of perfect papers each year has varied depending on test difficulty. The top scorers are published by MAA and the recognition changes over the years. Please refer to Award section for more details.

The scale of 0 to 7 goes as follows:
 * 0 - No work, or completely trivial work
 * 1-2 - Progress on the problem, but not completely solved
 * 3-4 - All steps are present, but may lack clarity. (These scores are very rare.)
 * 5-6 - Complete solution with minor errors
 * 7 - Perfect solution

1996 to 2001
The test consisted of two three-problem sets. Three hours were given for each set; one set was given in the morning (9:00-12:00), and the other in the afternoon (1:00-4:00).

1995 and earlier
The test consisted of five problems to be solved in three and a half hours (earlier, three hours). Each problem was worth 20 points, for a perfect score of 100.

Test procedures
In most years, students have taken the USAMO at their respective high schools. Prior to 2002, the problems were mailed to the schools in sealed envelopes, not to be opened before the appointed time on the test day. Since 2002, test problems have been posted on the AMC website (see links below) fifteen minutes prior to the official start of the test. Student responses are then faxed back to the AMC office at the end of the testing period.

In 2002, the Akamai Foundation, as a major sponsor of the American Mathematics Competitions, invited all USAMO participants to take the test at a central event at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, all expenses paid. In addition, Akamai invited all 2002 USAMO participants who were not high school seniors (approximately 160 students) to take part in an enlarged Mathematical Olympiad Program (also known as "MOP") program. Since holding this central event every year would be prohibitively expensive, it has been discontinued. In 2004 and 2005, however, funding was found to send 30 rising freshmen to MOP as well, in a program popularly called "Red MOP."

Top USAMO and USAJMO participants are selected to MOP through multiple criteria of entry. As of 2016, the IMO team members, the next approximately 18 non-graduating USAMO students, the next approximately 12 USAMO students in 9th or 10th grade, the top approximately 12 students on the USAJMO, as well as some varying number of female contestants from the USAMO or USAJMO are invited to MOP, with middle school students invited on a case-by-case basis.

Exam content for USAMO
Here are the subjects on the test in different years by problem number (i.e. what subject each problem was from). Calculus, although allowed, is never required in solutions. 2023: 2022: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2016:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Geometry
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Combinatorics
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Algebra
 * 6) Geometry
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Number theory
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Algebra
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Number theory
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Algebra
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Number theory
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Algebra
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Algebra
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Number theory
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Combinatorics

2015: 2014: 2013:
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Algebra
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Number theory
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Geometry

2012:
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Number theory
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Combinatorics

2011:
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Algebra

2010:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Geometry
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Combinatorics

2009:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Number theory

2008:
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Combinatorics

2007: 2006:
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Graph theory
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Geometry
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Number theory
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Geometry

2005:
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Number theory
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Number theory

2004:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Number theory
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Algebra
 * 6) Algebra

2003: 2002: 2001: 2000:
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Geometry
 * 5) Algebra
 * 6) Combinatorics
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Combinatorics
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Geometry
 * 5) Number theory
 * 6) Combinatorics
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Algebra

Exam Content for USAJMO
Here are the subjects on the test in different years by problem number (i.e. what subject each problem was from). Calculus, although allowed, is never required in solutions.

2017:
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Combinatorics

2016:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Number theory
 * 3) Combinatorics
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Algebra

2015: 2014: 2013:
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Number theory
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Algebra
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Combinatorics
 * 1) Algebra
 * 2) Geometry
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Number theory
 * 5) Combinatorics/Game theory
 * 6) Geometry
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Combinatorics
 * 3) Geometry
 * 4) Combinatorics/Number theory
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Algebra

2012:
 * 1) Geometry
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Geometry/Algebra
 * 5) Algebra
 * 6) Geometry

2011:
 * 1) Number theory
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Geometry/Algebra
 * 4) Combinatorics
 * 5) Geometry
 * 6) Number theory

2010:
 * 1) Combinatorics
 * 2) Algebra
 * 3) Algebra
 * 4) Geometry
 * 5) Combinatorics
 * 6) Geometry

USAMO Awards

 * USAMO: 2022 -
 * 1) USAMO Gold Award: at least approximately 6% of competitors    (approximately 16)
 * 2) USAMO Silver Award: at least approximately 12% of competitors (approximately 32)
 * 3) USAMO Bronze Award: at least approximately 18% of competitors (approximately 48)
 * 4) USAMO Honorable Mention: competitors who score 14 points or more, provided they did not receive a different award. (year 2023 - present)

 * USAMO: 2021 and before
 * 1) USAMO Winners: the top 12 performers
 * 2) USAMO Honorable Mentions: the next approximately 12 performers

USAJMO Awards

 * USAJMO: 2024
 * 1) USAJMO Top Honors: Top 9 competitors
 * 2) USAJMO Honors: the next 48 competitors
 * 3) USAJMO Honorable Mention: competitors who score 14 points or more, provided they did not receive a different award.

 * USAJMO: 2023
 * 1) USAJMO Top Winners: at least 12 highest scoring competitors (actual number: 13)
 * 2) USAJMO Winners: the next approximately 20% of competitors (actual number: 36)
 * 3) USAJMO Honorable Mention: competitors who score 14 points or more, provided they did not receive a different award.

 * USAJMO: 2022
 * 1) USAJMO Winners: approximately top 70 competitors
 * 2) USAJMO Honorable Mentions: the next approximately 70 competitors

 * USAJMO: 2021 and before
 * 1) USAJMO Winners: the top 12 performers
 * 2) USAJMO Honorable Mentions: the next approximately 12 performers


text:
User:Arrowhead~enwiki/Apismellifera

Honeybees are classified in the phylum Arthopoda, class Insecta, order Hymenoptera, family Apidae, genus Apis, and species mellifera. Bees, ants, and wasps are in the group Hymenoptera which have four wings, chewing mouthparts and complete metamorphosis.

Body parts
Bees are insects, which have chitinous exoskeleton, six legs, and one pair of antennae. The bee's body parts are divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen.

The bee's head has two large compound eyes. The bee's vision is totally different than human vision. The honeybee's eye can detect all colors except for color red. The bee's mouth parts are complex. The mandibles are hanging from the head between of the mouth. It is used to handle objects such as pollen. The bee's tongue is covered by hairs.

The thorax is the middle portion of the bee's body. The body contains the legs and wings which are attached. The front legs are used to clean the eyes, head, and mouth. The middle legs are used to clean the body and wings. The hind legs are used for pollen collection. The wings are attached to the thorax. It is used for flying.

Honeybees can build nests, combs, or wax which is secreted by glands in the abdomen. The bee's abdomen contains the digestive, and reproductive organs.

title: User:Arrowhead~enwiki/Apismellifera


text:
User:Arrowhead~enwiki/Apis mellifera life cycle

The Apis Mellifera (honeybee) goes through the larva and pupa stages as it emerges toward as an adult. A bee colony has 3 castes: queen, drones (male), and workers (sterile female). The worker bees feeds the larva. The pupa is preserved into the cell. Unfertilized eggs are developed into drones while fertilized eggs are developed into workers. If the larva is fed royal jelly, the fertilized egg can become a queen.

As hives become overpopulated by bees, the old queen can establish a new colony. The old colony can have a new queen. A new queen can mate with the drones. The drone injects millions of sperm which are stored in a pouch of her body. The drone dies while the queen returns to the hive where she will keep on laying eggs.


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FBI Counterterrorism Division

The Counterterrorism Division (CTD) is a division of the National Security Branch of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. CTD investigates terrorist threats inside the United States, provides information on terrorists outside the country, and tracks known terrorists worldwide. In the wake of the September 11 attacks in 2001, CTD's funding and manpower have significantly increased.

The Division employs counterterrorism field operations organized into squads, the number of which varies according to the amount and diversity of activity in the local field office's jurisdiction. Larger field offices, such as Los Angeles, maintain counterterrorism squads for each major terrorist group, as well as for domestic terrorism and terrorist financing, while smaller field offices combined such responsibilities across two to three squads.

Leadership
The Counterterrorism Division is headed by an assistant director, who reports to the executive assistant director of the FBI National Security Branch.

Organization
The Counterterrorism Division has several branches:
 * Intelligence Branch
 * Operations Branch I
 * Operations Branch II
 * Operations Branch III
 * Analytical Branch
 * Operational Support Branch

Operations Branch I is composed of two sections: International Terrorism Operations Section I (ITOS-I) and International Terrorism Operations Section II (ITOS-II). The ITOS-I covers al Qaeda terrorist activity on a regional basis in the United States and abroad. ITOS-II focuses on four non-al Qaeda groups: Palestinian rejectionist groups, Iran and Hezbollah, Iraq/Syria/Libya, and other global terrorist groups. ITOS II has a Central Intelligence Agency officer serving as Deputy Section Chief, and an FBI agent is detailed to the CIA's Counterterrorism Center as that unit's Deputy Director.

Operations Branch II includes three more disparate sections: the Domestic Terrorism Operations Section (DTOS), Exploitation Threat Section (XTS), and Terrorist Financing Operations Section (TFOS).
 * The DTOS mission is overseeing and providing operational support to FBI domestic terrorism investigations nationwide.
 * The TFOS is an operational and coordinating entity. It directs terrorism financing investigations and works jointly with partners to block and freeze assets. However, its primary role is to coordinate and support the financial components of terrorism investigations conducted by ITOS I and II. The TFOS mission is to identify, investigate, prosecute, disrupt, and incrementally dismantle all terrorist-related financial and fund-raising activities. The section is composed of four units:
 * Radical Fundamentalist Financial Investigative Unit
 * Domestic WMD and Global Financial Investigations Unit
 * Global Extremist Financial Investigations Unit
 * Financial Intelligence Analysis Unit.

The Analytical Branch includes two sections: the Counterterrorism Analysis Section (which supports Operations I and II) and the Terrorism Reports and Requirements Section (TRRS). The Branch also includes a Strategic Assessment and Analysis Unit, Production and Publications Unit.

The Operational Support Branch manages the CTD's administrative and resource functions, FBI detailees to other agencies, and the Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force. The various local Joint Terrorism Task Forces falls under the domain of this branch.

Notable former members

 * Mark F. Giuliano, former assistant director of the FBI Counterterrorism Division, former 15th Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
 * Andrew McCabe (born 1968), former agent in the FBI Counterterrorism Division, former acting Director of the FBI
 * Max Wise (born 1975), former agent in the FBI Counterterrorism Division, serving as a member of the Kentucky Senate

title: FBI Counterterrorism Division


text:
Pentagon City station

Pentagon City station is an underground Washington Metro station in the Pentagon City neighborhood of Arlington, Virginia, United States. It serves the Blue and Yellow Lines.

History
The station was opened on July 1, 1977, along with 16 other stations as part of the opening of the 11.8 mi National Airport–Stadium–Armory segment.

On April 17, 2016, the Metroway bus rapid transit system was extended to Pentagon City, with the station becoming the northern terminus.

In February 2021, the Arlington County Board awarded a $6.5 million construction contract to add a second surface elevator to the station, with expected completion in spring 2023.

Station layout
Pentagon City station has two underground side platforms serving two tracks. The station has four entrances from the mezzanine level, which runs under Hayes Street: entrances from the east and west sides of Hayes Street via escalator, a direct entrance from the Fashion Centre at Pentagon City, and an entrance from the northeast corner of the 12th and Hayes Street intersection. The pedestrian tunnel for the latter entrance was built in 1984 but did not open to the public until 2018. Additionally, a provision exists at the station's south end for a future second mezzanine, with knock-out panels visible above the tracks on the station's south wall.

title: Pentagon City station


text:
User:Wheresmysocks

My name is wheresmysocks (aka Kendrick Erickson). I recently graduated from the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities with a degree in computer science. I  currently work at the U for the College of Liberal Arts, Student Services as an application developer as well as maintaining a few jobs on the side for various individuals, including Ancient Imports.

I've done this online volunteer thing a few times before. The first was when GeoCities still had a Community Leader program. After that fiasco, I started editing at the Open Directory Project where I eventually became an editall. I was a perennial nominee for the 'Oddest Nickname' award. I no longer edit there, as I've asked for complete removal of my account. Today, I'm mostly working or attending class, but I've found myself editing Wikipedia articles more and more often.

I occasionally tinker with scripts and programs (including my own installation of MediaWiki), and it's evolved into a paying hobby. Probably the biggest collection of scripts would be the weather page. Way back when, I wrote a freeware program called RGBhex. When I'm not monkeying around with Wikipedia or other computer related projects, I'm generally at the Xcel Energy Center watching a Minnesota Wild hockey game as a season ticket holder, listening to other NHL games over XM Satellite Radio, or watching them on Center Ice. I also have a small metal sign collection.

You can find more about me at wheresmysocks.net or kendrickerickson.com.

To Do List
I tend to float around editing what seems interesting at the moment. Generally I find threads between articles that I move along and add what things I can. Below is just a bunch of stuff I want to do in the future.

Images

 * Images on Campus:
 * Northrop_Auditorium, right next to Johnston Hall where I work...
 * Inside and/or outside of the McNamara Alumni Center.
 * Some other part of the Gopher Way.

Expand

 * Grand Marais, MN
 * Gunflint Trail
 * Woodbury, MN
 * Let's Bowl
 * Most Minnesota Wild player pages, probably other hockey related articles.

Create

 * Canal Park (A park located by the lift bridge in Duluth, MN, which will need to be disambiguated with the existing page.)

title: User:Wheresmysocks


text:
Agave americana

Agave americana, commonly known as the century plant, maguey, or American aloe, is a flowering plant species belonging to the family Asparagaceae. It is native to Mexico and the United States, specifically Texas. This plant is widely cultivated worldwide for its ornamental value and has become naturalized in various regions, including Southern California, the West Indies, South America, the Mediterranean Basin, Africa, the Canary Islands, India, China, Thailand, and Australia.

Despite being called "American aloe" in common parlance, Agave americana is not a member of the same family as Aloe, although it falls under the same order, Asparagales.

Description
The common name "century plant" stems from its semelparous nature of flowering only once at the end of its long life. After flowering, the plant dies but produces adventitious shoots from the base, allowing its growth to continue. Although it is called the century plant, it typically lives only 10 to 30 years. It has a spread around 6-10 ft with gray-green leaves measuring 3-5 ft in length, each with a prickly margin and a heavy spike at the tip that can pierce deeply. Towards the end of its life, the plant produces a tall, branched stalk adorned with yellow blossoms, which can reach a height of 25 –.

Taxonomy and naming
Taxonomically, A. americana was described by Carl Linnaeus in the 1753 edition of Species Plantarum, and its binomial name is still in use today.

Cultivation
A. americana is cultivated as an ornamental plant, particularly valued for its large, dramatic mature form. It is often found in modernist, xeriscapes (drought-tolerant), and desert-style cactus gardens. It is popularly used in hot climates and areas prone to drought. The plant's presence can evoke the ambiance of 18th- to 19th-century Spanish colonial and Mexican provincial areas in the Southwestern United States, California, and xeric regions of Mexico. In dry beach gardens in Florida and coastal areas of the Southeastern United States, it is a favored choice for landscaping.

When grown as a houseplant, A. americana is tolerant of light levels ranging from direct sunlight to shade and requires minimal watering. It undergoes a winter resting period at temperatures around 10 to 12 C. It thrives in a highly porous, sandy potting soil, should be allowed to dry out between waterings, and should be repotted annually in the spring.

Subspecies and varieties
The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognizes two subspecies and two varieties of A. americana. Additionally, there are several cultivars, including 'Marginata,' 'Mediopicta,' 'Mediopicta Alba,' 'Mediopicta Aurea,' 'Striata,' and 'Variegata.' Some of these cultivars, along with the parent species, have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Two subspecies and two varieties of A. americana are: Cultivars include: (those marked, as well as the parent species, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit).
 * A. americana subsp. americana
 * A. americana subsp. protamericana Gentry
 * A. americana var. expansa (Jacobi) Gentry
 * A. americana var. oaxacensis Gentry
 * A. americana var. marginata Trel. in L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 1: 235 (1914).
 * A. americana var. picta (Salm-Dyck) A.Terracc., Prim. Contr. Monogr. Agave (1885).
 * 'Marginata' with yellow stripes along the margins of each leaf
 * 'Mediopicta' with a broad cream central stripe
 * 'Mediopicta Alba' with a central white band
 * 'Mediopicta Aurea' with a central yellow band
 * 'Striata' with multiple yellow to white stripes along the leaves
 * 'Variegata' with white edges on the leaves.

Cuisine
Agave americana has various uses starting in pre-Columbian Mexico. If the flower stem is cut before flowering, a sweet liquid known as aguamiel (“lit. 'honey water') can be collected from the plant's hollowed heart. This liquid can be fermented to produce the alcoholic drink called pulque or octli used in pre-Columbian Mexico.

In the tequila-producing regions of Mexico, agaves are known as mezcales. Mezcal refers to the high-alcohol product obtained through fermented agave distillation, and A. americana is among the several Agave species used for this purpose. The specific mezcal known as tequila is produced from Agave tequilana, commonly referred to as "blue agave." Mezcal comes in various types, some of which may be flavored with the intensely pungent mezcal worm.

It is important to note that mezcal and tequila, despite being produced from agave plants, differ from pulque in their sugar extraction techniques and classification as distilled spirits. In mezcal and tequila production, the sugars are obtained by heating the piñas (or hearts) of the plants in ovens, as opposed to collecting aguamiel from the cut stalk of the plant. Therefore, if pulque were to be distilled, it would not be classified as mezcal but rather as a distinct beverage.

Agaves are also found throughout Latin America and are used in similar ways. In Ecuador, the equivalent of pulque is known as guarango, which has recently been distilled as miske.

Agave nectar is marketed as a natural sweeteners with a low glycemic index, primarily due to its high fructose content.

Fibers
The leaves of A. americana yield fibers called pita, which are suitable for making ropes, nets, bags, sacks, matting, and coarse cloth. They are also used for leather embroidery in a technique known as piteado. Both pulque and maguey fiber played significant roles in the pre-Columbian economy of Mexico.

Medicine
Agave americana contains agavose, a sugar that is isomeric (similar) to sucrose but with reduced sweetening power, as well as agavasaponins and agavosides. It is used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments, and as a laxative, diuretic, and diaphoretic. However, a comprehensive review of research literature using systematic methods (scientific review) did not find sufficient data to support its effectiveness or safety. It is important to note that A. americana can cause severe allergic dermatitis.

Heraldry
The plant holds heraldic significance and is featured in the coat of arms of Don Diego de Mendoza, a Native American governor of the village of Ajacuba, Hidalgo.

Art
Additionally, the Aztecs used the pulped leaves of A. americana to create paper. The fragments known as the Humboldt fragments were made using this technique.

title: Agave americana


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White-throated guenon

The white-throated guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster), also known as the red-bellied monkey and the red-bellied guenon, is a diurnal primate that lives on trees of rainforests or tropical areas of Nigeria and Benin.

The white-throated guenon is usually a frugivore but insects, leaves, and crops are also in its diet. It usually lives in small groups of four to five individual monkeys however, there have been groups of 30 discovered, and in cases, some males wander alone. It is arboreal, living in moist tropical forest and the wettest parts of dry tropical forest, however it can also be found in secondary bush and old farmland.

Males weigh from 3.5–4.5 kg and females weigh 2–4 kg. Females give birth to one offspring, which is a factor of decreasing population.

The white-throated guenon was once considered extinct due to constant hunting for the fur of its unique red belly and white front legs. Yet, a small group was found near the Niger River in 1988.

The white-throated guenon is still considered an endangered species due to its decreasing population. It is present within Nigerian forest reserves and sacred groves in Benin but hunting and logging restrictions are difficult to enforce or nonexistent. It is one of the species that live in the Guinean Forests of the West Africa Biodiversity Hotspot.

There are two subspecies of white-throated guenon:
 * Red-bellied guenon, Cercopithecus erythrogaster erythrogaster
 * Nigerian white-throated guenon, Cercopithecus erythrogaster pococki

title: White-throated guenon


text: User:Eric B. and Rakim/tmp

title: User:Eric B. and Rakim/tmp


text:
Talk:Pentheus

Comments
So User:Jketola claims Euripides is Mecedonian! I've learned not to interfere with these nationalistic rubes. But Macedonian Euripides! Wetman 06:14, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

Do you think his name is a play on the Ancient Greek "πενθος" - "suffering, grief"? Must be. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.2.185.249 (talk) 11:40, 25 October 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pentheus


text:
ANZCA

ANZCA may refer to:
 * Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists
 * Australian and New Zealand Cultural Arts

title: ANZCA


text:
The Scots Magazine

The Scots Magazine is a magazine containing articles on subjects of Scottish interest. It claims to be the oldest magazine in the world still in publication, although there have been several gaps in its publication history. It has reported on events from the defeat of the Jacobites through the Napoleonic wars to the Second World War and on to the creation of the new Scottish Parliament.

History
The Scots Magazine was originally published in January 1739. It was intended as a rival to the London-based Gentleman's Magazine, in order that "our countrymen might have the production of every month sooner, cheaper and better collected than before". Its first issue, dated Monday 9 February 1739, cost 6d. and appeared in a blue cover with the motto Ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid veri non audeat. Popular through the 18th century, it innovated a register of births, marriages and deaths, which other journals soon copied. From 1759 until 1765 it was edited by William Smellie.

In 1801 Archibald Constable bought the magazine, and three years later amalgamated it with the Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany. Its popularity, however, was eroded by competition with serious literary journals such as the Edinburgh Review and Blackwood's Magazine. By 1826 sales had declined to such a point that it was withdrawn. Attempts to revive the name as the New Scots Magazine in 1828 and the Scots Weekly Magazine in 1832 were unsuccessful.

In December 1887 publication resumed as a partial successor to The Scottish Church under a new owner (S. Cowan, Perth) and continued until 1893 when once again it was withdrawn. It was published between 1922 and 1924 as The Scottish Church. In 1924 publication as The Scots Magazine resumed, this time by the St Andrew's Society (Glasgow). In 1927 D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd took over and have continued to publish it ever since.

With a monthly average readership of over 178,000, The Scots Magazine is the world's best-selling Scottish-interest publication, containing articles on culture, history, nature, etc., and is targeted at Scots at home and abroad. In 2013, the magazine moved to a B5 format.

title: The Scots Magazine


text:
Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists

The Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (ANZCA) is responsible for examining and qualifying anaesthetists in Australia and New Zealand. The College maintains standards of practice in anaesthesia.

Membership
The College has approximately 3200 fellows; about a fifth are female. Among current trainees, the gender ratio is nearly even. In addition to Australia and New Zealand, the College has accredited training hospitals in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia. In all, nearly eight hundred trainees learn in 140 ANZCA-accredited hospitals worldwide.

History
In 1952, the Australian Society of Anaesthetists, which had been established in 1934 to represent the emerging medical specialty of anaesthesia, was successful in establishing the Faculty of Anaesthetists within the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons to undertake higher professional training in the specialty. An interim board was made up of five Society nominees: Drs Renton, Travers and Gillespie from Victoria, Dr. Daly of Sydney and Dr. Troup of Perth; and two College nominees, Sir Victor Hurley and Mr Henry Searby. An Acting Board was constituted in June 1953 with Dr. Douglas Renton as Dean and Dr. Harry Daly as Vice-Dean. By 1992, the Faculty of Anaesthetists had grown to 2100 Fellows and five hundred trainees, and represented Australia's third-largest group of medical specialists. This group dissociated itself from the College of Surgeons in that year, forming the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists. The College continues to train anaesthetists and maintain standards of practice in Australia and the region, while the Society continues as the member-based professional organisation for the specialty.

Training with the Australia and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists
Completion of the Fellowship of the ANZCA requires:
 * Completion of 5 years training in accredited training position in a hospital.
 * Completion of the Primary Examination
 * Completion of the Final Examination
 * Completion of all specialised study units; including areas such as neuroanaesthesia, cardiac anaesthesia, paediatrics and obstetrics.

Most accredited hospitals are in Australia and New Zealand, and such hospitals are grouped into training rotations. Registrars move between two or more hospitals to complete the 5-year training period. The fifth and final year sees the trainee take on increasing responsibility and autonomy. Such final year trainees may be appointed to positions as "Provisional Fellows" if certain ANZCA requirements are met.

Those completing the above are eligible to become a Fellow of the ANZCA.Fellows of the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists are permitted to use the post nominals FANZCA.


text:
First Battle of Zurich

The First Battle of Zurich, from 4 to 7 June 1799, forced French General André Masséna to yield the city of Zurich to the Austrians, under Archduke Charles, and to retreat beyond the Limmat, where he managed to fortify his positions, which resulted in a stalemate.

The Helvetic Republic in 1798 became a battlefield of the French Revolutionary Wars. During the summer, Russian troops, under General Alexander Korsakov, replaced the Austrian troops, and at the Second Battle of Zurich, the French regained control of the city, along with the rest of Switzerland.

Political and diplomatic situation
Initially, the rulers of Europe viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects, and not something in which they should interfere. As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident, they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family; this Declaration of Pillnitz threatened ambiguous, but quite serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. The French position became increasingly difficult. Compounding problems in international relations, French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria. In this War of the First Coalition (1792–1798), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun, Kaiserslautern, Neerwinden, Mainz, Amberg and Würzburg, the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben (17 April 1797) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio (17 October 1797).

The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details. Convened at a small town in the mid-Rhineland, Rastatt, the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing. The French demanded more territory. The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories. Compounding the Congress's problems, tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies. Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed-upon tribute to France, and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion. The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopean Republic. Encouraged by the French Republic, a republican uprising in the Swiss cantons led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic. The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were planning to start another war. Indeed, the weaker France seemed, the more seriously the Austrians, the Neapolitans, the Russians, and the English discussed this possibility. In mid-spring, the Austrians reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would come out of retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60,000 troops.

Outbreak of war in 1799
The French Directory's military strategy in 1799 called for offensive campaigns on all fronts: central Italy, northern Italy, the Swiss cantons, the upper Rhineland, and Holland. Theoretically, the French had a combined force of 250,000 troops, but this was on paper, not in the field. As winter broke in 1799, General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and the Army of the Danube, at a paper strength of 50,000 and an actual strength of 25,000, crossed the Rhine between Basel and Kehl on 1 March. This crossing officially violated the Treaty of Campo Formio. The Army of the Danube advanced through the Black Forest and, by mid-March, established an offensive position at the western and northern edge of the Swiss Plateau by the village of Ostrach. André Masséna had already pushed into Switzerland with his force of 30,000, and successfully passed into the Grison Alps, Chur, and Finstermünz on the Inn river. Theoretically, his left flank was to link with Jourdan's right flank, commanded by Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino, at the far eastern shore of Lake Constance. The Austrians had arrayed their own army in a line from the Tyrol to the Danube. A force of 46,000 under command of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde formed the defence of the Tyrol. Another small Austrian force of 26,000 commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze guarded the Vorarlberg. The main Austrian Army—close to 80,000 troops under the command of Archduke Charles—had wintered in the Bavarian, Austrian, and Salzburg territories on the eastern side of the Lech river. At the battles of Ostrach (21 March) and Stockach (25 March), the main Austrian force pushed the Army of the Danube back into the Black Forest. Charles made plans to cross the upper Rhine at the Swiss town of Schaffhausen. Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze brought a portion (approximately 8,000) of his force west, leaving the rest to defend the Vorarlberg. At the same time, Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf, brought the left wing of the main Austrian force across the Rhine by Eglisau. They planned to unite with the main Austrian army, controlling the northern access points of Zürich and forcing an engagement with Masséna.

By mid-May, French morale was low. They had suffered terrible losses at Ostrach and Stockach, although these had been made up by reinforcements. Two senior officers of the Army of the Danube, Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen and Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul, were facing courts-martial on charges of misconduct, proffered by their senior officer, Jourdan. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte and Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr were sick, or claimed they were, and had left the army's encampments to recover their health. Masséna's force had been repelled by Hotze's army at Feldkirch, and forced to fall back, and LeCourbe's failure to push through against Bellegarde's Austrian force in the Tyrol, meant Masséna had to pull his southern wing back as well as his center and northern wing, to maintain communication with the retreating armies on his flanks. At this point, also, the Swiss revolted again, this time against the French, and Zürich became the last defensible position Masséna could take.

Dispositions
After pushing the Army of the Danube out of the northern portion of the Swiss Plateau—the territory north of the Rhine and south of the Danube—following the battles at Ostrach and Stockach, Archduke Charles' sizable force—about 110,000 strong—crossed the Danube west of Schaffhausen, and prepared to join with the Vorarlberg Corps of Friedrich, Baron von Hotze before Zürich. During the month of May André Masséna, now commander of both the French Army of Helvetia and the Army of the Danube began pulling back his forces to concentrate towards Zürich. Charles crossed the Rhine at Stein with an advanced corps of 21 battalions and 13 squadrons under Nauendorf on 20 May, while two days later in the evening, Hotze crossed at Meiningen and Balzers with 18 battalions and 13 squadrons. On the 23rd the Archduke led 15 more battalions and 10 squadrons over the Rhine at Büsingen.

Learning of the double-pronged advance, Masséna seized the opportunity to drive a wedge between the two Austrian commands and on 25 May launched attacks against Hotze's Corps to the east and Nauendorf's to the north. Hotze's advance troops under Petrasch were driven from Frauenfeld by Soult, while against the Archduke Michel Ney erupted from Winterthur, seized Andelfingen and threw back Nauendorf from Pfyn. Although the French were forced to withdraw on the appearance of Austrian reserves, nevertheless for a loss of 771 men they'd inflicted some 2,000 casualties and 3,000 prisoners on the Austrians.

On the 27th Ney was wounded and his men driven from Winterthur, Masséna thereafter concentrated his forces at Zürich, closely pressed by the Archduke Charles and Hotze.

By the end of the month the French were positioned: Soult's Division was on the Zürichberg overlooking the open country to the north from an entrenched camp constructed by Andréossi. To his left Oudinot's Division lay in support, with Gazan's brigade in the town of Zürich itself. Tharreau's Division continued the line across the Aare, with troops under Lorge' guarding the left of the Rhine to Basel. To Soult's right Chabran guarded the south of Lake Zürich, with outposts stretched to link with the troops of Lecourbe' at Lucerne and the Andermatt valley. In all some 52,000 French and Swiss troops. The entrenchments on the Zürichberg were in a 5-mile long semi-circle from Riesbach to Hongg, but were incomplete.

Charles decided to launch his main attack by the surest (though difficult) route, directly against the Zürichberg with his left and centre, holding his right wing back to protect his line of retreat.

Jelačić's advance against Witikon
On 2 June, Archduke Charles became aware that Hotze's advance guard under Jelačić was advancing up against the main French positions near Witikon, and sent a message ordering him not to attack until all his other troops were ready; however, from 3:00 am on the 3rd, Jelačić was already engaged against Humbert's brigade by the time these instructions arrived and the action soon grew into a desperate fight. After 4 hours Soult's men were driven from Witikon and the fighting continued all through the day. As things began to look serious for Soult, Masséna, musket in hand, led a counter-attack at the head of his reserve grenadiers. The combined effort eventually pushed back the Austrians and secured the camp after a bloody fight, the French losing 500 killed and wounded, including Masséna's Chief of Staff Chérin mortally wounded.

Attack on the Zürichberg
The next day on 4 June, Charles crossed the Glatt and launched a broad attack in five columns:
 * On the Austrian left, the First column under Jelačić (five battalions and three squadrons) marched against Zürich along the high road and succeeded in breaking through the Rapperswil gate but was driven back by Gazan's brigade of Oudinot's Division, and despite repeated attacks made no further headway.
 * To its right, the Second Column under Bey (four battalions and three squadrons) seized the village of Hirslanden and attempted to climb the slopes; however, the French under Brunet counterattacked and forced the Austrians back to join the First Column.
 * The Third Column under the Prince of Lorraine found its direct route of march impractical and was diverted via Fällanden and Pfaffhausen. However, the attack failed before a murderous fire from the entrenchments.
 * The Fourth Column under Hotze (seven battalions and 12 squadrons) crossed the Glatt at Dübendorf behind the third column, and advancing through Stettbach, drove the French from Schwamendingen.
 * The Fifth Column under the Prince of Reuss (10 battalions and 20 squadrons) carried Seebach and Oerlikon then detached part of its command under Rosenberg on its left at Oerlikon to join in the assault on Zürich.

Oudinot, though missing half of his force in Zürich, nevertheless threw himself on Rosenberg, attempting to drive in the Austrian flank. After a desperate fight, the French were driven back, Oudinot carried from the field wounded by a ball in the chest. Charles' right flank under Nauendorf (15 battalions and 9 squadrons) remained held back to guard Glattfelden.

On the Zürichberg, Soult's Division was assailed by three columns and pinned down to their trenches. Repeated assaults were beaten off and the fighting bogged down into an intense firefight. At 2:00 pm, Charles assembled five battalions from his reserve including his own Guard of honour and directed Olivier, Count of Wallis to lead these storming up the hill. Leaving one battalion to watch the bridges, Wallis led the other four up a steep and narrow ravine against the French defences. The combat degenerated into close hand-to-hand fighting, with soldiers using the butts of their muskets against the French abatis.

At last at 8:00 pm, after a desperate fight, the Austrians were able to break through and pour into the camp behind. Sword in hand, Soult and his staff placed themselves at the head of a few companies of troops, launched a counter-attack against the rear of the Austrian column and drove them back to the bottom of the hill. Masséna urged his artillery to redouble their efforts and brought up his reserve of grenadiers. The Austrian attack crumbled; those in the camp were scattered, those behind driven back.

Over the course of the day, Charles lost 2,000 men, including three generals wounded, and 1,200 prisoners. The French lost more than 1,200 killed and wounded.

Aftermath
After the bloody fighting on the 4th Charles fell back a short distance to recover and devise a second attack for the 6th. Masséna used the time on the 5th to regroup, and that night as the Austrians assembled for their attack, he withdraw to a strong position in front of Zürich, abandoning 28 guns commandeered from Zürich. His forces were now more concentrated, while the lake would oblige his opponent to divide his forces.

The second day of battle never came. At noon on the 6th, following a parley, the French were allowed to leave Zürich, Masséna withdrew to the Uetliberg and arrange his line along the banks of the Limmat. In Zürich, Charles found 150 cannons of various calibers. The outcome of the battle also damaged Austro-Russian relations, because Charles failed to follow up on the French defeat.

In terms of personnel, both sides lost a general: Louis Nicolas Hyacinthe Chérin and Olivier Wallis.

title: First Battle of Zurich