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Royal School (Hawaii)

The Royal School is a historic school founded in 1839 in Honolulu, Hawaii, as the Chiefs' Children's School. The school was renamed as the Royal School in 1846. After the boarding closed in 1850, it became a day school for children. It later became a public elementary school, and moved to its present campus in 1967.

The present Royal Elementary School continues to educate children from kindergarten to Grade 5 and has been named a Blue Ribbon School several times.

History
The Chiefs' Children's School was founded by King Kamehameha III of the Kingdom of Hawaii as a boarding school to educate the children of the Hawaiian royalty (aliʻi). The school was first located where the ʻIolani Barracks stand now. The need for the school was agreed upon during the general meeting of the mission in June 1839. The buildings were ready by 1840, and two more students were added in 1842.

An 1844 article in the Polynesian listed all children with the exception of John William Pitt Kīnaʻu, who had just enrolled, as "princes and chiefs eligible to rulers."

The main goal of this school was to educate the next generation of Hawaiian royalty to govern. Seven families that were eligible under succession laws stated in the 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii and that had converted to Christianity, who were Kamehameha's closest relatives, made up the majority of the school. They were:
 * From the sister of Kamehameha III: Kīnaʻu's children, Lot, Victoria Kamāmalu, Moses Kekuaiwa and Alexander Liholiho;
 * From his half-brother Pauli Kaʻōleiokū's great-granddaughter and great-great-grandson: Bernice Pauahi and John William Pitt Kīnaʻu;
 * From his father's younger brother, Keliʻimaikaʻi: his great-great-granddaughter, Emma Naʻea and great-great-grandson, Peter Young Kaʻeo;
 * From the younger brother of his father, Kalaimamahu: his great-grandson, William Charles Lunalilo;
 * From his father's eldest brother, Kalokuokamaile: his great-granddaughter, Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau Laʻanui;
 * From his grandfather's cousin, a direct line from one of the royal twins, Kameʻeiamoku's great-great-grandchildren: David Kalākaua, Lydia Kamakaeha and James Kaliokalani;
 * Also from his grandfather's cousin, Kahekili, daughters of Liliha with Kalaniulumoku: Jane Loeau; and with Namaile: Abigail Maheha.

It was run by Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. It was a long, two-story frame building with a large dining room and separate sleeping quarters for the children and for the Cooke family. There was also the New England parlor, furnished with handmade and treasured furniture sent from home, and with much brought from China. It resembled nothing Hawaiian in its appearance nor its atmosphere. The royal children were taught how to speak and act like Americans. The Hawaiian kahu (traditional caretaker of children) John Papa ʻĪʻī was selected as assistant teacher.

In 1846 the Kingdom government took over funding of the school under the Minister of Public Instruction Richard Armstrong and the school was renamed the "Royal School". By 1848 the school declined as the children graduated or married. For example, Moses left school in 1847 to live with his father and died in the 1848 measles epidemic. Jane married Mr. Jasper. Missionary children were also allowed to attend in 1849. It was moved to its present location in 1850 and became a day school instead of a boarding school for the general public. The next principal was Edward Griffin Beckwith (1826–1909) until he became president of Oahu College (now Punahou School) in 1854. In 1853 it had 121 students, of whom 8 were pure Hawaiian and 18, part Hawaiian.

Current day
It is now a public elementary school, Royal Elementary School, the oldest school on the island of Oʻahu. It serves grades K-5 and is located at 1519 Queen Emma Street, coordinates 21.31167°N, -157.85361°W. A sculpture by Kim Duffett "Mai ka Hina Kua a ka Hina Alo" was added in 2005. It was partially funded by a foundation named for the Cooke Family.

Ruling alumni

 * Queen Liliuokalani
 * Queen Emma, wife of Kamehameha IV
 * King David Kalākaua
 * King Kamehameha IV
 * King Kamehameha V
 * Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, Kuhina Nui
 * King William Charles Lunalilo

Aliʻi alumni

 * Aliʻi Bernice Pauahi Bishop
 * Aliʻi Abigail Maheha
 * Aliʻi Mary Polly Paʻaʻāina
 * Aliʻi Peter Young Kaeo
 * Aliʻi Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau Pratt
 * Prince Moses Kekūāiwa
 * Prince John William Pitt Kīnaʻu
 * Ali'i James Kaliokalani

Aliʻi alumni as day school

 * Gideon Kailipalaki Laanui
 * Nancy Sumner
 * Jane Swinton
 * Martha Swinton
 * Julia Moemalie
 * Mary Ann Kiliwehi
 * John Mahiʻai Kāneakua

title: Royal School (Hawaii)


text:
Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun

Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun is a grand strategy videogame by Paradox Entertainment (now known as Paradox Interactive), released in 2003. It covers primarily its namesake the Victorian period (1837–1901) and beyond, specifically 1836–1920 for the main game, and extends until 1936 if the expansion is installed. The game runs on a modified version of the Europa Engine, and the lead game programmer was Johan Andersson. It was later ported to Macintosh by Virtual Programming.

Unlike previous Paradox Games, which either focused on diplomacy or war, Victoria focuses on internal management, covering the industrialization and social/political changes in a country. The game itself gives a lot of importance to the economy of a country, having a complex market system which is described as being one of the best economic simulators ever made. Fans of Paradox's games have noted this one for being the deepest game Paradox had yet made, making it quite popular with the Paradox fanbase. However, Victoria received largely indifferent reviews on release, averaging only 60.4% on GameRankings. Critics cited reasons such as the game's steep learning curve and its relatively dated graphics. A sequel, Victoria II, was released in August 2010, and another sequel, Victoria 3, was released in October 2022.

Gameplay
The economic system in Victoria attempts to simulate the flow of resources in a world market. Every province in the game produces a resource. Some resources, such as wheat, are demanded principally by POPs (population units), and can be sold directly. Other materials, such as timber, are consumed mostly by industry - but can nonetheless be sold directly for less profit. The player possesses a wide range of options with which to build their economy, provided they have access to the proper raw materials. All resources can be collected or produced by industry. They can also be acquired on the world market. Access to the world market is granted based on a country's prestige rating.

Victoria has 47 separate resources, produced by collection or production (or in one case both). The game focuses on industrialization in a country, which is driven by technological research. The acquisition of machine parts is crucial to industrialization, as they are needed to build factories.

Diplomacy is managed bilaterally; nations can engage in diplomacy using a variable yearly supply of diplomats, offering various treaties and entreaties to other states. Players can use money to improve relations with the other powers; offer to negotiate for technology, territory, colonial claims, and money; sign pacts of unilateral or mutual defense or full alliances; demand the cessation of colonization of certain areas; and, if all other efforts fail, declare war.

Warfare in Victoria is a special circumstance of diplomacy wherein two players attempt to invade one another's (national or colonial, depending on the war) territory. It is abstract, and consists of divisions marching to hostile territory and fighting a hands-off battle that the player has no control over save by sending reinforcements or withdrawing. Combat efficiency, however, can be influenced decisively by the player. Appointing generals or admirals influences the morale and organization of the troops, as do technological improvements. An advanced railroad system in a province grants the province's owner bonuses in combat, as well as increased mobility. Provinces can also be fortified and troops will entrench when left alone long enough, both giving enormous combat benefits.

The ultimate objectives in warfare is dramatically different from those of other strategy games: it is generally very difficult to do severe damage to an enemy's economy in a single war, occupied territory is only temporarily in the hands of the occupier, and post-war territorial gains are generally modest and difficult to subdue. However, there are other conditions to peace such as War Indemnities and Humiliation.

Declaring war or seizing provinces from civilized countries without pre-existing claims makes diplomacy more difficult and can eventually lead to preemptive war from other powers. Warmongers tend to discover themselves radically isolated from the rest of the world and forced to engage in warfare almost continuously, which can lead to neglect of industry and prestige.

Military units in Victoria are divided into two types: land and naval. Land units fight against enemy land units, and can occupy enemy provinces. They are the key to military supremacy. Naval units provide a more supportive role; bombarding enemy land units and fighting sea battles. Some naval units can also transport land units.

Reception
Victoria got mostly mixed reviews from critics. GameSpot commented on its "wonderful depth" and "great alternate-history ambiance." However, GameSpot also commented that the game was "more work than play," citing its steep learning curve and overall scope of options. IGN commented that the game had unique potential, but was crushed by its "bugginess" and lack of tutorial. Barry Brenesal ended his IGN review, explaining, "There's an excellent game struggling to surface in Victoria, and I look forward to playing it just as soon as the requisite patches appear. Now would some kindly soul please create an accurate, intelligent manual for the game?"

Computer Gaming World found the game more challenging and involved compared to the earlier Europa Universalis games, but echoed the other reviews by saying that the "lack of a tutorial or at least a thicker manual [was] inexcusable." The reviewer then concluded that at the time of the initial release, before patches, players were in essence "paying Paradox to beta test their game."

Victoria: Revolutions
Victoria: Revolutions is the expansion pack for Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun. It was released on August 17, 2006 through GamersGate, and on CD in October 2006.

New features

 * 15 extra years of game play, extending Victoria into the interbellum.
 * An expanded tech tree to cover the interwar period, including aircraft and carriers.
 * A Doomsday converter which allows players to continue their game in Hearts of Iron II: Doomsday.
 * A revamped election and politics system, adding a new level of realism to the game.
 * A new ideology, fascism
 * An overhauled military system, which will be linked with the player's policy decisions.
 * A new economic system that brings more realism through various economic models.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun


text: User talk:68.119.170.91

title: User talk:68.119.170.91


text:
Doves (band)

Doves are an English indie rock band, formed in Manchester in 1998. The band is composed of twin brothers Jez (guitar, vocals) and Andy Williams (drums, vocals), and Jimi Goodwin (lead vocals, bass, guitar). Additionally, the band employs Martin Rebelski, as a touring and session musician on keyboards. The band released five studio albums between 2000 and 2020, three of which reached #1 on the UK album charts. A compilation album, The Places Between: The Best of Doves, was released in April 2010.

Doves went on hiatus in 2010. During this time, Goodwin released his first solo album, Odludek (2014), while the Williams brothers regrouped as Black Rivers. In December 2018, Doves announced they were ending their hiatus by performing for the Teenage Cancer Trust at London's Royal Albert Hall on 29 March 2019. Further festivals, including some dates with Noel Gallagher, were subsequently announced. The band released two new songs: "Carousels" and "Prisoners", in June and July 2020 respectively. Their fifth studio album The Universal Want was released in September 2020.

Formation as Sub Sub (1991–1998)
The Williams brothers and Goodwin met at high school at age 15. All three members played in various local bands during the timeframe, with their paths occasionally crossing. After meeting again at The Haçienda in 1989, the three formed Sub Sub, releasing their first single "Space Face" in 1991. In 1993 they released "Ain't No Love (Ain't No Use)," which reached No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart. On the Williams twins' birthday in February 1996, the band's Ancoats studio caught fire and burned down, leading the band members to abandon their previous dance-oriented style and start afresh as alternative rock band Doves in 1998. On the band's change of direction, Jez Williams said: "We were faced with a really black and white decision: throw the towel in or carry on. And if you're going to carry on, you've got to put everything into it to justify it, because before that you've lost everything. That was quite a liberating feeling, actually."

Lost Souls and The Last Broadcast 1998–2003
The band released three EPs in 1998 and 1999 on Casino Records, a subsidiary of Rob Gretton's Rob's Records, which established the group's new sound and met with a warm critical response. Their debut album Lost Souls in April 2000 was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize, which they lost to fellow Mancunian and former collaborator Badly Drawn Boy.

Doves' second album The Last Broadcast was released two years later, reaching No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart, and was again nominated for the Mercury Music Prize. The album's first single "There Goes the Fear" became the band's highest-charting single to date, reaching No. 3 on the UK Singles Chart despite only being released for one day before it was deleted. The album's second single "Pounding" reached No. 21 on the Singles Chart and was used in the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics With Glowing Hearts/Des Plus Brillants Exploits advertisement campaign and in pre-event intros.

In 2003, the band released a B-sides compilation, Lost Sides, and a DVD entitled Where We're Calling From. The DVD included all of their music videos to date, as well as incidental videos played before the start of their Lost Souls and The Last Broadcast tours. Also on the DVD was a live concert video of the band's gig at Cornwall's Eden Project, recorded in Summer 2002, as well as documentary videos about Doves as well as Sub Sub.

Some Cities and Kingdom of Rust (2003–2009)
Doves recorded Some Cities, their third studio album, away from urban influences, and in cottages tucked away in the countryside of Snowdonia, Darlington, and around Loch Ness. "Lyrically, the theme of cities and towns and change started cropping up a lot... which was strange because we were recording and writing in the countryside, but it started taking this real urban shape," said Jimi Goodwin. Some Cities was released in February 2005 and went straight to No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart, aided by some of the strongest reviews they had received to date. The album was preceded by the single "Black and White Town," which reached No. 6 on the Singles Chart. On 18 June 2005, the band opened for U2 at Twickenham Stadium in London. They also supported Oasis at the City of Manchester Stadium on their triumphant return to Manchester, and Coldplay at the Reebok Stadium in Bolton, both during their respective 2005 tours.

The band's fourth album, Kingdom of Rust, was released in April 2009. Prior to the new release, Doves offered a free download of the album's lead track "Jetstream" on their website. On 27 January 2009 the band announced a week's worth of tour dates from 12–19 March, in which new album tracks made their debuts. The eleven songs on the album were described by Jez Williams as "schizophrenic, but... also strangely cohesive." The band have subsequently stated that writing and recording the album was the most difficult and fractious of their career. Worldwide tours, including multiple tours of the United Kingdom, United States and Canada, followed the album's release. On 12 July 2009 the band appeared on the Radio 1 stage at T in the Park and the festival Latitude in Southwold. They also appeared with the London Bulgarian Choir as part of the BBC Electric Proms series in October 2009.

The band's first best of compilation, entitled The Places Between: The Best of Doves was released on 5 April 2010.

An interview with the band regarding their history and Jodrell Bank performance was posted on The Guardian's website on 4 April 2010. Doves toured the UK throughout May 2010, and performed at the Isle of Wight Festival 2010.

Hiatus and side projects (2010–2018)
The band took a break from recording in 2010, according to an interview with The Daily Record. Jimi Goodwin stated: "It's nice just to have a bit of breathing space... We just wanted to get off that whole album-tour-album-tour treadmill. None of us are ready to face going into the studio for another two years. This is wiping the slate clean, we have nothing else in the vaults now. That is it. Whatever we do from now on will be a new start."

On 2 October 2012, EMI International released a Doves anthology titled 5 Album Set featuring all four studio albums from Lost Souls to Kingdom of Rust and the 2003 re-issue of Lost Sides.

In March 2014, Jimi Goodwin released his first solo album, entitled Odludek. Jez and Andy Williams began working on music again in 2012, recording in Andy's home studio in Glasgow, Jez's home studio in Salford, and in an Anglesey cottage. In summer 2014, their project was announced under the name Black Rivers, who began playing live shows with new material, and in February 2015 released a self-titled album.

Reformation and The Universal Want (2018–2021)
At the end of 2018 the band members announced a series of gigs for 2019 and a tentative plan to explore new music together. As the series neared conclusion, Doves posted on Facebook that the 31 August 2019 and 6 September 2019 shows would be the last two concerts until they completed their new album.

On 18 June 2020, the band released their first new music in ten years with a song entitled "Carousels". It and "Prisoners", released on 9 July, are from their new album, The Universal Want, which was released on 11 September 2020 and charted at number 1 in its first week. In October 2021, the band cancelled their upcoming tour due to Goodwin's mental health, making a statement that "performing live isn't possible for us at this time or in the immediate future".

Band members

 * Jez Williams – guitar, vocals, percussion, programming
 * Jimi Goodwin – lead vocals, bass guitar, acoustic guitar, samples, occasional drums
 * Andy Williams – drums, vocals, percussion, harmonica, melodica, samples

 * Touring and session musicians
 * Martin Rebelski – keyboards

Discography
Studio albums
 * Lost Souls (2000)
 * The Last Broadcast (2002)
 * Some Cities (2005)
 * Kingdom of Rust (2009)
 * The Universal Want (2020)

title: Doves (band)


text: User talk:165.29.100.97

title: User talk:165.29.100.97


text:
Hveragerði

Hveragerði (, "hot-spring yard") is a town and municipality in the south of Iceland, 45 km east of Reykjavík on Iceland's main ringroad, Route 1. The river Varmá runs through the town. Hveragerði is the third smallest municipality in Iceland by size.

Overview
The surrounding area is part of the Hengill central volcano, and is geothermally active and experiences very frequent (usually minor) earthquakes. The town is known for its greenhouses, which are heated by hot water from volcanic hot springs. The first greenhouse was built in 1923. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, that are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments. Close to the church is a hot spring called Sandhólshver (, "sand hill hot-spring"), formed during the violent South Iceland earthquake of 1896. A fenced-off geothermal area in the town has numerous hot springs and fumaroles.

Hveragerði contains a number of greenhouses and is a hotbed for Icelandic horticulture.

To the south of Hveragerði, there is the small port of Þorlákshöfn, winter point of departure for the ferry to the Westman Islands.

History
Water from hot springs has been used for heating in this area since 1929. Hveragerði had 121 inhabitants in 1940 and 399 in 1946. Hveragerði was awarded municipal status (kaupstaðuréttindi) on 1 July 1987. In 1989 the town had 1.593 inhabitants. On 29 May 2008 people were injured and many buildings in Hveragerði and its surroundings were damaged by a earthquake.

Buildings and Culture
Hveragerðiskirkja, a modern Protestant church, was built 1967–72. Listasafn Árnesinga is a museum of arts founded in 1963 where about 500 pieces of art are exhibited. The exhibition Skjálftinn 2008 in Sunnumörk shopping centre refers to the earthquake of 2008. There is also a swimming pool there called Laugasgarður which is the largest one in Iceland tied with Laugardalslaug which has two 50 m long swimming pools.

Parks
Hveragarðurinn is a park with various hot springs and fumaroles and information boards providing explanations on the occurrence. In Lystigarðurinn Fossflöt, a park which was founded in 1983, a hydroelectric power station can be visited which was built as early as 1902 beside the waterfall Reykjafoss.

Sport
The local football club is Hamar, who play in Iceland's fourth tier.

Twin towns – sister cities
Hveragerði is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇮 Äänekoski, Finland
 * Ikast-Brande, Denmark
 * 🇸🇪 Örnsköldsvik, Sweden
 * 🇳🇴 Sigdal, Norway
 * 🇩🇪 Tarp, Germany

title: Hveragerði


text:
Supreme Court of Ireland

The Supreme Court of Ireland (Cúirt Uachtarach na hÉireann) is the highest judicial authority in Ireland. It is a court of final appeal and exercises, in conjunction with the Court of Appeal and the High Court, judicial review over Acts of the Oireachtas (Irish parliament). The Supreme Court also has appellate jurisdiction to ensure compliance with the Constitution of Ireland by governmental bodies and private citizens. It sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.

Establishment
The Supreme Court was formally established on 29 September 1961 under the terms of the 1937 Constitution of Ireland. Prior to 1961, a transitory provision of the 1937 Constitution permitted the Supreme Court of the Irish Free State to continue, though the justices were required to take the new oath of office prescribed by the 1937 Constitution. The latter court was established by the Courts of Justice Act 1924 under the terms of the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State. Prior to 1924, a transitory provision of the 1922 Constitution permitted the Supreme Court of Judicature to continue, the latter established in 1877 in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Whereas the 1924 act was a comprehensive revision of the court's foundation preserving little of the 1877 arrangement, the 1961 act was a brief formal restatement in terms of the 1937 Constitution.

Composition
The Supreme Court consists of its president called the Chief Justice, and not more than nine ordinary members. There are two ex officio members: the President of the Court of Appeal who normally sits in the Court of Appeal, and the President of the High Court who normally sits in the High Court. The Supreme Court sits in divisions of three, five or seven judges. Two or more divisions may sit at the same time. When determining whether the President is permanently incapacitated within the meaning of Article 12 of the constitution, ruling on the constitutionality of a bill referred to it by the President under Article 26, or ruling on the constitutionality of any law the court must consist of at least five members.

Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of Ireland in accordance with the binding advice of the Government (cabinet), who, since 1995, act in turn on the non-binding advice of a judicial advisory board.

Former members

 * List of judges of the Supreme Court of Ireland

Tenure
Under the Courts and Court Officers Act 1995, the retirement age of ordinary judges of the Supreme Court was reduced from 72 years to 70 years. Judges appointed prior to the coming into operation of that Act continued in office until aged 72. The Courts (No. 2) Act 1997 limited the term of office of a person appointed to the post of Chief Justice after the coming into operation of the Act to a period of seven years. A former Chief Justice may continue as a member of the Court until reaching the statutory retirement age.

Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court hears appeals from the Court of Appeal, and as part of the transitional arrangements following the establishment of the Court of Appeal, from the High Court, the Court of Criminal Appeal and the Courts-Martial Appeal Court, where cases have not been transferred from the Supreme Court to the Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to hear leapfrog appeals directly from the High Court in exceptional circumstances.

The Court's power to hear appeals can be severely restricted (as it is from the Court of Criminal Appeal and the Courts-Martial Appeal Court) or excluded altogether, with the exception of appeals concerning the consistency of a law with the constitution. The Supreme Court also hears points of law referred to it from the Circuit Court.

The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two circumstances: when a Bill is referred to it by the President under Article 26 of the Constitution for an opinion on its constitutionality before promulgation, or when the court must determine under Article 12 of the Constitution whether the President has become incapacitated.

The Supreme Court originally had little discretion to determine which cases it hears as requirements to seek the leave of either the trial court or the Supreme Court itself before an appeal could be brought were rare. After the Thirty-third Amendment created the Court of Appeal, however, the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction is entirely by leave; the Supreme Court can refuse to hear any appeal (similar to the certiorari process in the Supreme Court of the United States).

Judicial review
The Supreme Court exercises, in conjunction with the High Court, the power to strike down laws which are inconsistent with the constitution. The courts also grant injunctions against public bodies, private bodies and citizens to ensure compliance with the constitution. The Irish constitution explicitly provides for the judicial review of legislation. Acts passed after the coming into force of the constitution, are invalid if "repugnant" to the constitution, while laws in force prior to the coming into force of the constitution are invalid if "inconsistent" with the constitution. The constitution also provides, under Article 26, for the judicial review of bills before they are (or would have been) signed into law. The power to refer bills is personally exercised by the President after consulting the Council of State. When the Supreme Court upholds the constitutionality of a bill referred to it under Article 26, its constitutionality can never again be questioned in any court whatsoever.

Supreme Court judges are normally free to deliver their own judgements, whether dissenting and concurring. There is an exception when considering the constitutionality of a bill referred by the President under Article 26 of the Constitution, for which only a single judgment can be delivered. Formerly, the single-judgment rule also applied when considering the constitutionality of an Act of the Oireachtas passed under the 1937 Constitution; this was removed by the 33rd Amendment in 2013. Acts passed prior to 1937 have always permitted multiple judgments.

Jurisprudence
After a slow start in its first two decades of the Constitution, the Supreme Court has expounded a significant constitutional jurisprudence. This slow start was partly because, prior to 1922, the whole of Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom, and Supreme Court judges had been trained in British jurisprudence, which stresses the sovereignty of parliament and deference to the legislature. It was also the case that under the 1922 Constitution there was a right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which was exercised on a number of occasions.

Nonetheless from the 1960s onwards, the Court has made a number of significant decisions. It has, for example:

 * Developed a doctrine of unenumerated rights based on an expansive reading of Article 40.3.1°, with elements of natural law and liberal democratic theory.
 * Developed and defended the separation of powers.
 * Ruled that major changes to the treaties establishing the European Union may not be ratified by the state unless allowed by a previously passed constitutional amendment.
 * Ruled that Articles 2 and 3 (as they stood before 1999) did not impose obligations upon the state that were enforceable in a court of law.
 * Discovered a broad right to privacy in marital affairs implicit in Article 41.
 * Discovered a right to an abortion where there is a risk to the life of the mother through suicide in Article 40.3.3°.
 * Imported the doctrine of proportionality into Irish law.

Significant rulings

 * 1940 – State (Burke) v. Lennon, imprisonment without trial
 * 1950 – Buckley v. The Attorney General (also known as the Sinn Féin Funds case) (right to property)
 * 1965 – Ryan v. The Attorney General (doctrine of unenumerated rights)
 * 1966 – The State (Nicolaou) v. An Bord Uchtála (constitutional family only that based on marriage)
 * 1967 – Wunder v. Hospitals Trust
 * 1971 – Byrne v. Ireland (unconstitutionality of state immunity in tort)
 * 1974 – McGee v. The Attorney General (marital privacy and contraceptives)
 * 1976 – De Búrca v. The Attorney General (equality)
 * 1979 – East Donegal Co-operative v. The Attorney General (natural justice)
 * 1983 – Norris v. The Attorney General (criminalisation of homosexuality upheld)
 * 1987 – Crotty v. An Taoiseach (ratification of European Union treaties)
 * 1988 – Attorney General (Society for the Protection of the Unborn Child) v. Open Door Counselling (information relating to abortion)
 * 1988 – Webb v. Ireland (non-survival of Crown prerogatives)
 * 1989 – Kennedy v. Ireland (right to privacy)
 * 1992 – Attorney General v. X, more commonly the "X case" (abortion and risk of suicide)
 * 1993 – Attorney General v. Hamilton (separation of powers)
 * 1993 – Meagher v. The Minister for Agriculture (European Communities Act)
 * 1994 – Heaney v. Ireland (doctrine of proportionality)
 * 1995 – In re Article 26 and the Regulation of Information (Services outside the State for Termination of Pregnancies) Bill 1995 (supremacy of written constitution over natural law)
 * 1995 – Re a Ward of court (right to die)
 * 1995 – McKenna v. An Taoiseach (referendum campaign finance)
 * 2001 – Sinnott v. Minister for Education (limitations on right to education)
 * 2003 – Lobe and Osayande v. Minister for Justice (deportation of the parents of citizens)
 * 2006 – Curtin v. Dáil Éireann (removal of judges)
 * 2006 – A. v. The Governor of Arbour Hill Prison (unconstitutionality of a law does not retrospectively invalidate all actions taken under it)
 * 2009 – McD v. L (established parental rights for sperm donors)
 * 2013 – Marie Fleming v Ireland and the Attorney General (upheld the ban on assisted suicide)
 * 2018 – M. v. Minister for Justice (constitutional rights of unborn)
 * 2022 – ''Costello v. Government of Ireland (ratification of CETA)
 * 2023 – Heneghan v. Minister for Housing, Planning and Local Government (enactment of the Seventh Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland)

Sharing of sovereignty
Today the Supreme Court shares its authority with two supra-national courts: the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). In matters relating to the correct interpretation of European Union law, decisions of the ECJ take precedence over those of the Irish Supreme Court.

The relationship between the Irish courts and the ECtHR is more complicated. The European Convention on Human Rights is a treaty binding on the state in international law. However, as a matter of Irish domestic law, the Convention is enshrined only in statute and does not have the status of constitutional law. Under the terms of the European Convention on Human Rights Act, passed by the Oireachtas in 2003, ordinary statutes must, when possible, be interpreted in line with the Convention. However, in Irish courts, the Convention must give way both to clear legislative intent and to any countermanding requirement of the Constitution. Furthermore, convention provisions cannot be relied upon as separate causes of action.

Supreme Court decisions cannot be appealed, as such, to either court. The ECJ hears cases referred to it by the Irish Courts by way of preliminary ruling and while unsuccessful litigants before the Supreme Court can apply to the ECtHR, the latter court's decision does not have the effect of voiding the Supreme Court's decision. As a matter of Irish domestic law, a decision of the ECtHR does not override acts of the Oireachtas, but instead, it must be brought to the attention of the Oireachtas, which may decide upon legislation or perhaps even a constitutional referendum to implement it.

title: Supreme Court of Ireland


text:
Startup (disambiguation)

Startup commonly refers to:
 * Startup company, a newly emerged, fast-growing business

Startup or start-up may also refer to:

 * Booting, an initialization period that computers and electronics go through when first turned on
 * Project commissioning, the act of starting for the first time a technical installation
 * Sign-on, when broadcasters start transmissions on a day

Geography

 * Startup, Washington, a census-designated place in Snohomish County, Washington

Film and TV

 * Start-Ups: Silicon Valley, a reality television series about startup companies that premiered in 2012
 * Startup.com, a 2001 documentary film about the dot-com start-up phenomenon
 * Start Up (2013 TV series), a 2013 American docuseries that aired on public television
 * Antitrust (film), a 2001 American film also known as "Startup"
 * StartUp (TV series), an American television drama series from 2016 with Martin Freeman and Ron Perlman that was released on Crackle
 * StartUp (podcast), an American podcast from Gimlet Media hosted by Alex Blumberg and Lisa Chow
 * Start-Up (film), a 2019 South Korean film written and directed by Choi Jung-yeol
 * Start-Up (South Korean TV series), a 2020 South Korean television drama series
 * Start-Up PH, a Philippine television drama series based on the South Korean drama of the same name

Other

 * Start-Up (video game), a 2000 video game
 * Startups.co.uk, a British website
 * "Startup!", a 2014 song by South Korean boy band Boyfriend
 * "Start Up", a song by Ikara Colt
 * "Start Up", a song by Steve Swell
 * "Start Up", a song by Scott 4 (band)

title: Startup (disambiguation)


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Shaolin Wooden Men

Shaolin Wooden Men (Shao Lin mu ren xiang) is a 1976 Hong Kong martial arts film directed by Chen Chi-hwa, written by Gam Yam, and produced by Lo Wei. The film stars Jackie Chan, with a supporting cast of Doris Lung Chun-erh, Chiang Kam, Kam Kong, and Yuen Biao. It was made at Lo Wei's studio at Golden Harvest, during the post-Bruce Lee era.

The film was also released internationally under several alternative titles, including:
 * "36 Wooden Men"
 * "Shaolin Chamber of Death" (initial UK releases)
 * "Shaolin Wooden Men - Young Tiger's Revenge" (USA)
 * "Wooden Man" (Germany)

Plot
Little Mute (Jackie Chan) is a new Shaolin student who is mute. He struggles to keep up with the other students and to complete the grueling tasks assigned to him by his instructor. He is haunted by the memory of his father's murder at the hands of a masked bandit who was skilled in martial arts.

One night, a drunken monk leads Little Mute to a secret cave behind a waterfall. A man is imprisoned there. Over time, Little Mute befriends the violent prisoner by bringing him food and wine that he steals from the monastery. He learns that the prisoner is a deadly martial artist who is developing a technique called the Lion’s Roar, which he will use to escape his captivity. Little Mute convinces the prisoner to train him. The prisoner's style aims to kill the opponent as fast as possible. A Shaolin nun sees Little Mute practicing these killing techniques. She tells him that martial arts are not for killing; rather, they are for self-development, with self-defense employed only when necessary and with minimal violence. She trains him in the Gliding Snake style, the ideals of which clash with those of the prisoner's killing style. Nevertheless, Little Mute continues to study both styles. Finally the prisoner judges that Little Mute is ready to attempt to pass the test of the Shaolin Wooden Men Alley, a narrow hallway containing thirty-six Shaolin Wooden Men, which are mechanical wooden dummies that attack anyone who enters the hallway. Little Mute successfully fights his way through the Wooden Men Alley.

Shortly after Little Mute's triumph, the prisoner perfects his Lion's Roar technique and uses it to escape. He resumes his former role as the leader of the infamous Green Dragon Gang, murdering the men who were responsible for his imprisonment. It is revealed that he was a Shaolin student who went renegade, and was then captured and imprisoned. The head abbot of Shaolin felt responsible for the student's misdeeds, so the abbot blinded himself and left the Shaolin Monastery to live as a hermit, appointing a new abbot in his place. However, he promised to help Shaolin in the future if it was needed.

Little Mute and the current head abbot of Shaolin seek out the hermit monk. The escaped prisoner has killed all those responsible for his imprisonment except the monks of Shaolin, and he is now on his way to destroy the monastery. The hermitic monk hands over a book containing the "ultimate" martial arts style, and Little Mute masters this style under the guidance of the current head abbot. When the escaped prisoner comes to destroy Shaolin, Little Mute stands ready to defend it against his former instructor. It is also revealed that the escaped prisoner was the murderer of Little Mute's father. Little Mute reveals that he is not mute, but he swore never to speak until he had found his father's killer.

Little Mute counters his opponent's killing techniques, since he knows all of them. He creates multiple openings, but fails to exploit them due to the Shaolin nun's teachings, which said never to kill his opponent. Despite this, he manages to win. He offers to spare his former instructor on the condition that he returns to Shaolin for the remainder of his life. The escaped prisoner says that he is beyond salvation, but that it makes him proud that his student has learned so well. However, he then makes a final attempt to kill Little Mute. He grabs Little Mute from behind and attempts to crush his throat, but Little Mute moves out of the way, and the villain's strike hits his own throat, causing him to kill himself. Deprived of its leader, the Green Dragon Gang flees.

Little Mute returns to the Shaolin monastery and is ordained as a monk.

Cast

 * Jackie Chan
 * Doris Lung Chun-erh
 * Chiang Kam
 * Kam Kong
 * Yuen Biao
 * Kong Kim
 * Tu Wei Ho
 * Tien Miao
 * Lo Wei

1976/1980 versions
Two differently edited versions of the film may have been made - a Mandarin version (1976), and a slightly shortened version featuring a Cantonese dub in 1980 (the cut used for all known releases to date). In terms of the score, the English dub on all available releases matches the Cantonese version. However, it is not known if an English dub was ever recorded to sync to the Mandarin version.

When playing the Mandarin audio on existing (Cantonese version) releases, during a scene after Little Mute has tattooed his arms, the music jumps ahead to another part of the track. When played with the Cantonese soundtrack, the music plays without problem (revealing the segment of the music cut in the Mandarin soundtrack).

During the final fight scene, there are some abrupt jump cuts and as a result, the sound effects drop out of sync. It is possible that the film's action was tightened up in preparation for release (or the 1980 re-release) as it appears rather slowly executed by the actors.

Box office
In Hong Kong, the film grossed HK$476,950.70 (US$). Upon its 1982 release in South Korea, it sold 223,207 tickets in Seoul, equivalent to an estimated gross revenue of approximately million KRW (US$). This adds up to an estimated total of approximately US$ in East Asia, equivalent to US$million adjusted for inflation.

In France, the film sold 152,277 tickets upon release in 1983. This adds up to 0 tickets sold overseas in Seoul and France.

Home media

 * Winners Video released a DVD containing both Cantonese and Mandarin soundtracks and English subtitles. However, it is missing roughly 30 seconds, has very poor image quality and the aspect ratio is cropped from 2.35:1 to 1.33:1.
 * On 15 February 2001, Seven 7 released the French-language theatrical version on DVD entitled L'impitoyable. It contains no Chinese or English options, but it was the first release to contain the full 2.35:1 image.
 * On 27 December 2001, Eastern Heroes released an uncut version of the film on DVD under the title Shaolin Chamber Of Death. However, it was cropped from 2.35:1 to 1.78:1 and only contained an English dub. The first reel of the English-dubbed version was reportedly found to be damaged, so the first two scenes contain the original Mandarin soundtrack with English subtitles.
 * On 17 September 2002, Columbia Tri-Star released the first Western DVD in its original Mandarin language, with newly translated English subtitles. However, the ratio was cropped from 2.35:1 to 1.78:1, the first 10 minutes was missing, and featured very poor video quality.
 * On 24 February 2006, Universal Japan released the first uncut DVD in 2.35:1 (using newly restored materials from Fortune Star). However, this release contains the Cantonese dub, rather than the original Mandarin soundtrack.
 * On 23 April 2007, Hong Kong Legends released an uncut DVD (again using newly restored materials from Fortune Star). However, despite the 2.35:1 video and newly translated subtitles, it contained the Cantonese dub (mono option also downmixed from the remix) in place of the original audio, and the English dub uses new voice artists for the first two scenes on account of the film's damaged first reel.
 * Dragon Dynasty intended to release a Region 1 DVD of the film, originally scheduled for release on 30 October 2008, but the release has been postponed indefinitely.
 * A Blu-ray release from 88 Films was released on November 9, 2020 in the United Kingdom. It features a new 2K restoration of the film.

Influence

 * The training dummies in this film are the inspiration for the character Mokujin in the Tekken series. They also make an appearance in the manga of Negima.
 * At least three Kill Bill references originate with this film: Pai Mai's introduction scene references the stairway and water training scene; Pai Mai himself though in white in Kill Bill is the blind orange master monk (who in Kill Bill blinds Elle); and, finally, the five point finger exploding hand technique comes from the end battle scene of Shaolin Wooden Men where the villain uses a special punch technique on the protagonists but is only able to deliver 4 of the 5 blows (with the protagonist holding his heart, as Bill does, right before dying).

title: Shaolin Wooden Men


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Carnegia

Carnegia may refer to:

 * Carnegiea, a cactus genus
 * Carnegia (moth), a moth genus
 * 671 Carnegia, a minor planet

title: Carnegia


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Finns

Finns or Finnish people (suomalaiset, ) are a Baltic Finnic ethnic group native to Finland.

Finns are traditionally divided into smaller regional groups that span several countries adjacent to Finland, both those who are native to these countries as well as those who have resettled. Some of these may be classified as separate ethnic groups, rather than subgroups of Finns. These include the Kvens and Forest Finns in Norway, the Tornedalians in Sweden, and the Ingrian Finns in Russia.

Finnish, the language spoken by Finns, is closely related to other Balto-Finnic languages, e.g. Estonian and Karelian. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger Uralic family of languages, which also includes Hungarian. These languages are markedly different from most other languages spoken in Europe, which belong to the Indo-European family of languages. Native Finns can also be divided according to dialect into subgroups sometimes called heimo (lit. 'tribe'), although such divisions have become less important due to internal migration.

Today, there are approximately 6–7 million ethnic Finns and their descendants worldwide, with the majority of them living in their native Finland and the surrounding countries, namely Sweden, Russia and Norway. An overseas Finnish diaspora has long been established in the countries of the Americas and Oceania, with the population of primarily immigrant background, namely Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Brazil, and the United States.

Terminology
The Finnish term for Finns is suomalaiset (sing. suomalainen).

It is a matter of debate how best to designate the Finnish-speakers of Sweden, all of whom have migrated to Sweden from Finland. Terms used include Sweden Finns and Finnish Swedes, with a distinction almost always made between more recent Finnish immigrants, most of whom have arrived after World War II, and Tornedalians, who have lived along what is now the Swedish-Finnish border since the 15th century. The term "Finn" occasionally also has the meaning "a member of a people speaking Finnish or a Finnic language".

Etymology
Historical references to Northern Europe are scarce, and the names given to its peoples and geographic regions are obscure; therefore, the etymologies of the names are questionable. Such names as Fenni, Phinnoi, Finnum, and Skrithfinni / Scridefinnum appear in a few written texts starting from about two millennia ago in association with peoples located in a northern part of Europe, but the real meaning of these terms is debatable. It has been suggested that this non-Uralic ethnonym is of Germanic language origin and related to such words as ; ; and  pedestrian, wanderer. Another etymological interpretation associates this ethnonym with fen in a more toponymical approach. Yet another theory postulates that the words Finn and Kven are cognates. The Icelandic Eddas and Norse sagas (11th to 14th centuries), some of the oldest written sources probably originating from the closest proximity, use words like and  inconsistently. However, most of the time they seem to mean northern dwellers with a mobile life style. Current linguistic research supports the hypothesis of an etymological link between the Finnish and the Sami languages and other modern Uralic languages. It also supports the hypothesis of a common etymological origin of the toponyms and  and the Finnish and Sami names for the Finnish and Sami languages (suomi and saame). Current research has disproved older hypotheses about connections with the names and Proto-Baltic  / Slavic  meaning land. This research also supports the earlier hypothesis that the designation Suomi started out as the designation for Southwest Finland (Finland Proper, Varsinais-Suomi) and later for their language and later for the whole area of modern Finland. But it is not known how, why, and when this occurred. Petri Kallio had suggested that the name Suomi may bear even earlier Indo-European echoes with the original meaning of either "land" or "human", but he has since disproved his hypothesis.

The first known mention of Finns is in the Old English poem Widsith which was compiled in the 10th century, though its contents are believed to be older. Among the first written sources possibly designating western Finland as the land of Finns are also two rune stones. One of these is in Söderby, Sweden, with the inscription finlont (U 582), and the other is in Gotland, a Swedish island in the Baltic Sea, with the inscription finlandi (G 319 M) dating from the 11th century.

Origins
As other Western Uralic and Baltic Finnic peoples, Finns originated between the Volga, Oka, and Kama rivers in what is now Russia. The genetic basis of future Finns also emerged in this area. There have been at least two noticeable waves of migration to the west by the ancestors of Finns. They began to move upstream of the Dnieper and from there to the upper reaches of the Väinäjoki (Daugava), from where they eventually moved along the river towards the Baltic Sea in 1250–1000 BC. The second wave of migration brought the main group of ancestors of Finns from the Baltic Sea to the southwest coast of Finland in the 8th century BC.

During the 80–100 generations of the migration, Finnish language changed its form, although it retained its Finno-Ugric roots. Material culture also changed during the transition, although the Baltic Finnic culture that formed on the shores of the Baltic Sea constantly retained its roots in a way that distinguished it from its neighbors.

Finnish material culture became independent of the wider Baltic Finnic culture in the 6th and 7th centuries, and by the turn of the 8th century the culture of metal objects that had prevailed in Finland had developed in its own way. The same era can be considered to be broadly the date of the birth of the independent Finnish language, although its prehistory, like other Baltic Finnic languages, extends far into the past.

Language
Just as uncertain are the possible mediators and the timelines for the development of the Uralic majority language of the Finns. On the basis of comparative linguistics, it has been suggested that the separation of the Finnic and the Sami languages took place during the 2nd millennium BC, and that the Proto-Uralic roots of the entire language group date from about the 6th to the 8th millennium BC. When the Uralic languages were first spoken in the area of contemporary Finland is debated. It is thought that Proto-Finnic (the proto-language of the Finnic languages) was not spoken in modern Finland, because the maximum divergence of the daughter languages occurs in modern-day Estonia. Therefore, Finnish was already a separate language when arriving in Finland. Furthermore, the traditional Finnish lexicon has a large number of words (about one-third) without a known etymology, hinting at the existence of a disappeared Paleo-European language; these include toponyms such as niemi. Because the Finnish language itself reached a written form only in the 16th century, little primary data remains of early Finnish life. For example, the origins of such cultural icons as the sauna, and the kantele (an instrument of the zither family) have remained rather obscure.

Livelihood
Agriculture supplemented by fishing and hunting has been the traditional livelihood among Finns. Slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced in the forest-covered east by Eastern Finns up to the 19th century. Agriculture, along with the language, distinguishes Finns from the Sámi, who retained the hunter-gatherer lifestyle longer and moved to coastal fishing and reindeer herding. Following industrialization and modernization of Finland, most Finns were urbanized and employed in modern service and manufacturing occupations, with agriculture becoming a minor employer (see Economy of Finland).

Religion
Christianity spread to Finland from the Medieval times onward and original native traditions of Finnish paganism have become extinct. Finnish paganism combined various layers of Finnic, Norse, Germanic and Baltic paganism. Finnic Jumala was some sort of sky-god and is shared with Estonia. Belief of a thunder-god, Ukko or Perkele, may have Baltic origins. Elements had their own protectors, such as Ahti for waterways and Tapio for forests. Local animistic deities, haltia, which resemble Scandinavian tomte, were also given offerings to, and bear worship was also known. Finnish neopaganism, or suomenusko, attempts to revive these traditions.

Christianity was introduced to Finns and Karelians from the east, in the form of Eastern Orthodoxy from the Medieval times onwards. However, Swedish kings conquered western parts of Finland in the late 13th century, imposing Roman Catholicism. Reformation in Sweden had the important effect that bishop Mikael Agricola, a student of Martin Luther's, introduced written Finnish, and literacy became common during the 18th century. When Finland became independent, it was overwhelmingly Lutheran Protestant. A small number of Eastern Orthodox Finns were also included, thus the Finnish government recognized both religions as "national religions". In 2017 70.9% of the population of Finland belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, 1.1% to the Finnish Orthodox Church, 1.6% to other religious groups and 26.3% had no religious affiliation. Whereas, in Russian Ingria, there were both Lutheran and Orthodox Finns; the former were identified as Ingrian Finns while the latter were considered Izhorians or Karelians.

Subdivisions
Finns are traditionally assumed to originate from two different populations speaking different dialects of Proto-Finnic (kantasuomi). Thus, a division into Western Finnish and Eastern Finnish is made. Further, there are subgroups, traditionally called heimo, according to dialects and local culture. Although ostensibly based on late Iron Age settlement patterns, the heimos have been constructed according to dialect during the rise of nationalism in the 19th century.

 * Western
 * Southwest Finland and Satakunta: Finns proper (varsinaissuomalaiset)
 * Tavastia: Tavastians (hämäläiset)
 * Ostrobothnia: Ostrobothnians (pohjalaiset)
 * Southern Ostrobothnians (eteläpohjalaiset)
 * Central Ostrobothnians (keskipohjalaiset)
 * Northern Ostrobothnians (pohjoispohjalaiset)
 * Lapland: Lapland Finns (lappilaiset)
 * Eastern
 * Karelia: Finnish Karelians (karjalaiset); Karelian dialects of Finnish are distinct from the Karelian language spoken in Russia, and most of North Karelia actually speak Savonian dialects
 * Savonia: Savonians (savolaiset)
 * Kainuu: Kainuu Finns (kainuulaiset)
 * Finnish minority groups outside Finland
 * Tornedalians (länsipohjalaiset) of Norrbotten, Sweden
 * Forest Finns (metsäsuomalaiset) of Sweden and Norway
 * Kvens (kveenit) of Finnmark, Norway
 * Ingrian Finns (inkerinsuomalaiset) of Ingria, Russia
 * Finnish diaspora (ulkosuomalaiset)
 * Sweden Finns (ruotsinsuomalaiset), Finnish minority in Sweden

The historical provinces of Finland can be seen to approximate some of these divisions. The regions of Finland, another remnant of a past governing system, can be seen to reflect a further manifestation of a local identity.

Journalist toured Finland in 1984 and looked into people's traditional and contemporary understanding of the heimos, listing them as follows: Tavastians (hämäläiset), Ostrobothnians (pohjalaiset), Lapland Finns (lappilaiset), Finns proper (varsinaissuomalaiset), Savonians (savolaiset), Kainuu Finns (kainuulaiset), and Finnish Karelians (karjalaiset).

Today the importance of the tribal (heimo) identity generally depends on the region. It is strongest among the Karelians, Savonians and South Ostrobothnians.

The Sweden Finns are either native to Sweden or have emigrated from Finland to Sweden. An estimated 450,000 first- or second-generation immigrants from Finland live in Sweden, of which approximately half speak Finnish. The majority moved from Finland to Sweden following the Second World War, contributing and taking advantage of the rapidly expanding Swedish economy. This emigration peaked in 1970 and has been declining since. There is also Meänkieli, a language developed in partial isolation from standard Finnish, spoken by three minorities, Tornedalians, Kvens and Lantalaiset, in the border area of northern Sweden. The Finnish language as well as Meänkieli are recognized as official minority languages in Sweden.

Genetics

The use of mitochondrial "mtDNA" (female lineage) and Y-chromosomal "Y-DNA" (male lineage) DNA-markers in tracing back the history of human populations has been gaining ground in ethnographic studies of Finnish people (e.g. the National Geographic Genographic Project and the Suomi DNA-projekti.) The most common maternal haplogroup among Finns is H, as 41.5% of Finnish women belong to it. One in four carry the haplogroup U5. It is estimated to be the oldest major mtDNA haplogroup in Europe and is found in the whole of Europe at a low frequency, but seems to be found in significantly higher levels among Finns, Estonians and the Sami people. The older population of European hunter-gatherers that lived across large parts of Europe before the early farmers appeared are outside the genetic variation of modern populations, but most similar to Finns.

With regard to the Y-chromosome, the most common haplogroups of the Finns are N1c (58–60.4%), I1a (26.2–28%), R1a (5–6%), and R1b (3.5–4.9%). N1c, which is found mainly in a few countries in Europe (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia), is a subgroup of the haplogroup N distributed across northern Eurasia and suggested to have entered Europe from Siberia.

Finns are genetically closest to Karelians, a fellow Balto-Finnic group. Finns and Karelians form a cluster with another Balto-Finnic people, the Veps. They show relative affinity to Northern Russians as well, who are known to be at least partially descended from Finno-Ugric-speakers who inhabited Northwestern Russia before the Slavs.

When not compared to these groups, Finns have been found to cluster apart from their neighboring populations, forming outlier clusters. They are shifted away from the cline that most Europeans belong to towards geographically distant Uralic-speakers like the Udmurts and Mari (while remaining genetically distant from them as well). Their distance from Western Europeans is about the same as their distance from Komis. The Balto-Finnic Estonians are among the genetically closest populations of Finns, but they are drawn towards the Lithuanians and Latvians. Swedes, while being distinct from the Finns, are also closer to Finns than most European populations. Finns being an outlier population has to do with their gene pool having reduced diversity and differences in admixture, including Asian influence, compared to most Europeans. In general, Europeans can be modelled to have three ancestral components (hunter-gatherer, farmer and steppe), but this model does not work as such for some northeastern European populations, like the Finns and the Sami. While their genome is still mostly European, they also have some additional East Eurasian ancestry (varies from 5 up to 10 –13 % in Finns). This component is most likely Siberian-related, best represented by the north Siberian Nganasans. The specific Siberian-like ancestry is suggested to have arrived in Northern Europe during the early Iron Age, linked to the arrival of Uralic languages. Finns have high steppe or Corded Ware culture-like admixture, and they have less farmer-related and more hunter-gatherer-related admixture than Scandinavians and West and Central Europeans. Finns share more identity-by-descent (IBD) segments with several other Uralic-speaking peoples, including groups like Estonians, the Sami and the geographically distant Komis and Nganasans, than with their Indo-European-speaking neighbours. Finnish genes being often described as homogeneous does not mean that there is no regional variation within Finns. Finns can be roughly divided into Western and Eastern (or Southwestern and Northeastern) Finnish sub-clusters, which in a fine-scale analysis contain more precise clusters that are consistent with traditional dialect areas. When looking at the fixation index (FST) values, the distance within Finns from different parts of the same country is exceptional in Europe. The distance between Western and Eastern Finns is higher than the distance between many European groups from different countries, such as the British people and Northern Germans. This is also noticeable in the distances of Finns from other Europeans, as the isolation is even more profound in Eastern Finns than in Western Finns. The division is related to the later settlement of Eastern Finland by a small number of Finns, who then experienced separate founder and bottleneck effects and genetic drift. Eastern Finns also have a higher portion of autosomal Siberian admixture and a higher frequency of the Y-haplogroup N1c (71.6%). While N1c is the most common haplogroup in Western Finland as well (53.8%), the haplogroup I1a is found more often there (30.9%) than it is in Eastern and Northern Finland (19%). This suggests that there is an additional Western component in the Western Finnish gene pool. Despite the differences, the IBS analysis points out that Western and Eastern Finns share overall a largely similar genetic foundation.

Theories of the origins of Finns

In the 19th century, the Finnish researcher Matthias Castrén prevailed with the theory that "the original home of Finns" was in west-central Siberia.

Until the 1970s, most linguists believed that Finns arrived in Finland as late as the first century AD. However, accumulating archaeological data suggests that the area of contemporary Finland had been inhabited continuously since the end of the ice age, contrary to the earlier idea that the area had experienced long uninhabited intervals. The hunter-gatherer Sámi were pushed into the more remote northern regions.

A hugely controversial theory is so-called refugia. This was proposed in the 1990s by Kalevi Wiik, a professor emeritus of phonetics at the University of Turku. According to this theory, Finno-Ugric speakers spread north as the Ice age ended. They populated central and northern Europe, while Basque speakers populated western Europe. As agriculture spread from the southeast into Europe, the Indo-European languages spread among the hunter-gatherers. In this process, both the hunter-gatherers speaking Finno-Ugric and those speaking Basque learned how to cultivate land and became Indo-Europeanized. According to Wiik, this is how the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic languages were formed. The linguistic ancestors of modern Finns did not switch their language due to their isolated location. The main supporters of Wiik's theory are Professor Ago Künnap of the University of Tartu, Professor Kyösti Julku of the University of Oulu and Associate Professor Angela Marcantonio of the University of Rome. Wiik has not presented his theories in peer-reviewed scientific publications. Many scholars in Finno-Ugrian studies have strongly criticized the theory. Professor Raimo Anttila, Petri Kallio and brothers Ante and Aslak Aikio have rejected Wiik's theory with strong words, hinting strongly to pseudoscience, and even alt-right political biases among Wiik's supporters. Moreover, some dismissed the entire idea of refugia, due to the existence even today of arctic and subarctic peoples. The most heated debate took place in the Finnish journal Kaltio during autumn 2002. Since then, the debate has calmed, each side retaining their positions. Genotype analyses across the greater European genetic landscape have provided some credibility to the theory of the Last Glacial Maximum refugia. But this does not in any way corroborate or prove that these 'refugia' spoke Uralic/Finnic, as it belies wholly independent variables that are not necessarily coeval (i.e. language spreads and genetic expansions can occur independently, at different times and in different directions).

title: Finns


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Manolis Andronikos

Manolis Andronikos (Μανόλης Ανδρόνικος) (October 23, 1919 – March 30, 1992) was a Greek archaeologist and a professor at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

Biography
Andronikos was born on October 23, 1919, at Bursa (Προύσα). His father originated from the island of Samos, while his mother was from Imbros. Later, his family moved to Thessaloniki.

He studied philosophy at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and in 1952 became a professor of Classical Archeology at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Later he continued his studies at Oxford University with professor Sir John D. Beazley (1954–1955). He came back to the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in 1957 where he taught Archeology first as instructor and later (1964) as professor.

He was married to the school teacher Olympia Kakoulidou and loved reading poetry, especially Kostis Palamas, Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elitis. He was the founder of a local cultural group named Art (Η τέχνη).

Manolis Andronikos conducted archaeological research in Veroia, Naousa, Kilkis, Chalkidiki and Thessaloniki, but his main research was done in Vergina, where his teacher, professor K. Rhomaios had founded in 1937 the Aristotle University Excavation at Vergina. His greatest discovery occurred on November 8, 1977, when he found a tomb at Vergina which he identified as that of Philip II of Macedon. It was unplundered and contained many valuable items, such as a golden larnax. The finds from this tomb were later included in the travelling exhibit "The Search for Alexander" displayed at four cities in the United States from 1980 to 1982. While the discovery is of great archaeological importance, the identification of the tomb with Philip has been disputed by some archaeologists; that said, if the tomb is not Philip's, one of the others in the same complex probably is.

Andronikos was a member of the Archaeological Council (1964–1965), the Athens Archaeological Association, the Macedonian Studies Association, the Association Internationale des Critiques d' Art and the German Archaeological Institute at Berlin. He lived permanently in Thessaloniki on Papafi Street and died on March 30, 1992, having suffered a stroke and been diagnosed with liver cancer.

Necrology

 * Eugene N. Borza. "Manolis Andronikos, 1919–1992." American Journal of Archaeology 96.4 (Oct., 1992) 757–758.

title: Manolis Andronikos


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sarrogit

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled SARROGIT.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to keep the article.

Another freaking ad, and not a very good one at that. - Lucky 6.9 17:07, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Not a vote either way: They do show up on Google, and the article isn't that awful as a stub. - David Gerard 20:08, May 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep now - David Gerard 08:09, May 25, 2004 (UTC)
 * Someone went through and NPOV'd this nicely. Keep new stub. - Lucky 6.9 21:15, 20 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Stub looks good, keep. --Starx 03:36, 21 May 2004 (UTC)
 * If kept, move it to Sarrogit. RickK 03:48, 21 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. 60 google hits do not convince me that they are notable. Andris 04:59, May 22, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Alpine orogeny

The Alpine orogeny or Alpide orogeny is an orogenic phase in the Late Mesozoic (Eoalpine) and the current Cenozoic that has formed the mountain ranges of the Alpide belt.

The cause of Alpine orogeny
The Alpine orogeny is caused by the continents Africa, Arabia and India and the small Cimmerian Plate colliding (from the south) with Eurasia in the north. Convergent movements between the tectonic plates (the African Plate, the Arabian Plate and the Indian Plate from the south, the Eurasian Plate and the Anatolian Sub-Plate from the north, and many smaller plates and microplates) had already begun in the early Cretaceous, but the major phases of mountain building began in the Paleocene to Eocene. The process continues currently in some of the Alpide mountain ranges.

The Alpine orogeny is considered one of the three major phases of orogeny in Europe that define the geology of that continent, along with the Caledonian orogeny that formed the Old Red Sandstone Continent when the continents Baltica and Laurentia collided in the early Paleozoic, and the Hercynian or Variscan orogeny that formed Pangaea when Gondwana and the Old Red Sandstone Continent collided in the middle to late Paleozoic.

Mountain ranges included
These mountains include (from west to east) the Atlas, the Rif, the Baetic Cordillera, the Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennine Mountains, the Dinaric Alps, the Accursed Mountains (Albanides), the Pindus (Hellenides), the Carpathians, the Balkanides (the Balkan Mountains and Rila-Rhodope massifs), the Pontic Mountains, the Taurus, the Antitaurus, the Armenian Highlands, the Caucasus, the Alborz, the Zagros, the Hajar, the Hindu Kush, the Pamir, the Karakoram, and the Himalayas.

Sometimes other names occur to describe the formation of separate mountain ranges: for example Carpathian orogeny for the Carpathians, Hellenic orogeny for the Pindus, Altai orogeny for the Altai Mountains or the Himalayan orogeny for the Himalayas.

The Alpine orogeny and more distant mountains
The Alpine orogeny has also led to the formation of more distant and smaller geological features such as the Weald–Artois Anticline in Southern England and northern France, the remains of which can be seen in the chalk ridges of the North and South Downs in southern England. Its effects are particularly visible on the Isle of Wight, where the Chalk Group and overlying Eocene strata are folded to near-vertical, as seen in exposures at Alum Bay and Whitecliff Bay, and on the Dorset coast near Lulworth Cove. Stresses arising from the Alpine orogeny caused the Cenozoic uplift of the Sudetes mountain range and possibly faulted rocks as far away as Öland in southern Sweden during the Paleocene.

title: Alpine orogeny


text:
Henry Eliot, 5th Earl of St Germans

Henry Cornwallis Eliot, 5th Earl of St Germans (11 February 1835 – 24 September 1911)

Henry Cornwallis Eliot was born in London on 11 February 1835 to Edward Granville Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans and his wife Jemima née Cornwallis (24 December 1803 – 2 July 1856).

Henry was educated at Eton College from 1845 to 1847, and served as a Midshipman in the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean Sea from 1848 to 1853. He was appointed as a Junior Clerk in the Foreign Office on 28 January 1855, where he worked until he succeeded to the Peerage in 1881.

In July 1867, he was Secretary to a special mission of Earl Vane to St Petersburg to invest the Emperor of Russia with the Order of the Garter. He was an Assistant Clerk from 1872 until the death of his older brother William Gordon Cornwallis Eliot, 4th Earl of St Germans on 19 March 1881 when he succeeded as 5th Earl of St Germans. In the 1881 Census, he was living at 13 Grosvenor Gardens, St George Hanover Square, London

Family
Henry married on 18 October 1881 at the Chapel Royal, Savoy Street, London to Emily Harriett Labouchere (24 June 1844 – 18 October 1933), the daughter of Henry Labouchere, the first and last Baron Taunton. They had two sons:
 * 1) Edward Henry John Cornwallis Eliot, Lord Eliot (30 August 1885 – 24 August 1909)
 * 2) John Granville Cornwallis Eliot, 6th Earl of St Germans (11 June 1890 – 31 March 1922)

Henry died on 24 September 1911 at Port Eliot, Cornwall and is buried at St Germans Church. His titles passed to his second son, John, since the eldest son had predeceased him without male issue.

title: Henry Eliot, 5th Earl of St Germans


text: User talk:68.36.92.144

title: User talk:68.36.92.144


text:
Jesús Carranza

Jesús Carranza Neira (June 16, 1813 – May 25, 1899) was a Mexican mule driver, rancher, and landowner. He was a veteran who fought in the Mexican–Apache Wars, on the side of Benito Juárez and the liberals during the Reform War, and for the republicans against the French intervention in Mexico. He supplied Mariano Escobedo with weapons and horses and provided Juárez himself an interest-free loan in 1866. He was named political chief of Monclova and was repaid with a large land grant in Coahuila after Juárez emerged victorious against the French. A patriarch with 15 children, his second son and eleventh child was Venustiano Carranza, who later became president of Mexico.

Personal life
Born on June 16, 1813, in Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, he was the son of Rafael Carranza Ramón and María Ignacia Neira. His paternal grandfather was Juan José Carranza, the town's founder. As a child, he was orphaned by his mother and mistreated by his father's second wife, so he left home at the age of 12 with some Americans who arrived at the transit village for the city of Chihuahua, where they were going, to establish a trading house. Jesús Carranza was married to María de Jesús Garza and had 15 children.

Legacy
The Veracruz town of Jesús Carranza was named in his honor.

title: Jesús Carranza


text:
Caspar Brötzmann

Caspar Brötzmann (born 13 December 1962) is a German guitarist, vocalist and bandleader.

Brötzmann typically performs with the power trio lineup of Caspar Brötzmann Massaker (his early band), with guitar, bass guitar and drums. He uses rock and roll and heavy metal music as a basis for his music, which often features lengthy songs that start slow and quiet but gradually build to a ferocious climax. Brötzmann's technique has been praised: "...his attack on the instrument — explosive, obstreperous, large scale, textural, timbral — asserts the material facts of string-pickup-amplifier more bluntly than anyone else currently involved in rock".

Brötzmann's father, Peter Brötzmann, was a free jazz saxophone player. In 1990 they recorded the album Last Home as a duo.

Discography

 * Caspar Brötzmann Massaker
 * The Tribe (1987)
 * Black Axis (May 1989)
 * Der Abend der schwarzen Folklore (July 1992)
 * Koksofen (June 1993)
 * Home (January 1995)
 * Mortar – various artists compilation (2014)

 * Caspar Brötzmann & Peter Brötzmann
 * Last Home (1990) – with Peter Brötzmann.

 * Caspar Brötzmann & FM Einheit
 * Merry Christmas (April 1994) – with F.M. Einheit of Einstürzende Neubauten.

 * Caspar Brötzmann & Page Hamilton
 * Zulutime (November 1996) – with Page Hamilton, of the band Helmet.

 * Caspar Brötzmann
 * Mute Massaker (June 1999)

 * Other activity
 * Die Alliierten – Ruhm und Ehre (1982) – Skinhead band from Wuppertal, Germany; Caspar Brötzmann plays guitar
 * The März Combo – Live in Wuppertal (April 1993) – Live recording of the Peter Brötzmann Tentet
 * Guitar on Thomas D's (of Die Fantastischen Vier) album Reflektor Falke (2001). Also guitarist on the accompanying tour.
 * Ende Gut – Ein Klangwerk (July 2005) – Sibylle Berg reads, Caspar Brötzmann plays guitar
 * Live music (guitar) for dance performance Execution Ground, Premiere 24 March 2007 at the Kunsthaus Rhenania, Cologne.

title: Caspar Brötzmann


text:
Municipalities of Slovenia

Slovenia is divided into 212 municipalities (Slovene: občine, singular – občina), of which 12 have urban (metropolitan) status. Municipalities are further divided into local communities and districts.

Slovene is the official language of all the municipalities. Hungarian is the second official language of three municipalities in Prekmurje: Dobrovnik/Dobronak, Hodoš/Hodos, and Lendava/Lendva. Italian is the second official language of four municipalities (of which one has urban status) in the Slovene Littoral: Ankaran/Ancarano, Izola/Isola, Koper/Capodistria, and Piran/Pirano.

In the EU statistics, the municipalities of Slovenia are classified as "local administrative unit 2" (LAU 2), below 58 administrative units (upravne enote), which are LAU 1.

Names
The Slovene names of the municipalities as territorial/administrative units have the word občina 'municipality', followed by a nominative form, usually the seat of the municipality; for example, Občina Ajdovščina 'Municipality of Ajdovščina'. The word občina should be capitalised as Občina when it refers to the official designation of the community or the legal person representing the community, whereas it should be uncapitalised if it is meant as a generic term. In case of towns or major settlements, the term used is mestna občina (generic name) or Mestna občina (proper name).

List of Slovenian municipalities
Slovenia is divided into 212 municipalities, 12 of which have urban status.

title: Municipalities of Slovenia


text:
User:Remino

Rémino is a user of Wikipedia and author of the same-name Web site, RÉMINO.

title: User:Remino


text:
Municipal borough

A municipal borough was a type of local government district which existed in England and Wales between 1836 and 1974, in Northern Ireland from 1840 to 1973 and in the Republic of Ireland from 1840 to 2002. Broadly similar structures existed in Scotland from 1833 to 1975 with the reform of royal burghs and creation of police burghs.

Municipal Corporations Act 1835
Boroughs had existed in England and Wales since medieval times. By the late Middle Ages they had come under royal control, with corporations established by royal charter. These corporations were not popularly elected: characteristically they were self-selecting oligarchies, were nominated by tradesmen's guilds or were under the control of the lord of the manor. A Royal commission was appointed in 1833 to investigate the various borough corporations in England and Wales. In all 263 towns were found to have some form of corporation created by charter or in existence by prescription. The majority had self-elected common councils, whose members served for life. Where there was an election, the incumbent members of the corporation often effectively nominated the electorate. Eleven boroughs were manorial court leets. Following the report of the royal commission, legislation was introduced to reform borough corporations.

The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 provided for a reformed form of town government, designated a municipal borough. The Act introduced a uniform system of town government in municipal boroughs, with an elected town council, consisting of a mayor, aldermen and councillors to oversee many local affairs. The legislation required all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise, based on property ownership. The Act reformed 178 boroughs with effect from 1 January 1836. At the same time, a procedure was established whereby the inhabitant householders of a town could petition the Crown via the privy council to grant a charter of incorporation, constituting the area a municipal borough. The attempts to incorporate large industrial towns such as Birmingham, Bolton, Manchester and Sheffield by Whig and Radical "incorporationists" were bitterly contested by Tory "anti-incorporationists". The Tory objections to the legality of the charters led to them boycotting elections to the new boroughs until the enactment of the Borough Charters Confirmation Act 1842.

A number of further acts of parliament amended the 1835 legislation. All of these were repealed and replaced by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. The 1882 Act and the consolidating Local Government Act 1933 provided the statutory basis for municipal boroughs up to their abolition. An important change in the 1933 legislation removed the right to petition for incorporation from inhabitant householders. In future, petitions could only be made by existing urban or rural district councils.

The boroughs unreformed by the Act were not immediately abolished. Several of them subsequently sought new charters as municipal boroughs; those that did not were finally abolished in 1887 by the Municipal Corporations Act 1886. Only the City of London Corporation survived as a local authority in an unreformed state; the City undertook a major reform of its democratic structure in 2005.

In 1873 the Association of Municipal Corporations was formed to represent the interests of the boroughs collectively; its membership included both county and non-county boroughs. The AMC was later to be a strong advocate for expanding county boroughs and unitary local government, and it was at the annual conference of the AMC in 1965 that Richard Crossman called for a reform of all local government. This speech eventually led to the Redcliffe-Maud Report recommending large unitary councils for all England.

Corporation and council
Each municipal borough possessed a corporation uniformly designated as the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the town. The only exception was where the borough enjoyed city status; in this case "burgesses" became "citizens". In a handful of cities the chief magistrate was granted the further dignity of lord mayor.

The corporation was a body corporate with perpetual succession, and included all registered electors or "burgesses" of the borough. However, the actual administration was carried out by a town council, which was in effect a committee representative of the community at large. All those eligible to vote were entered in the "burgess roll", which was compiled by the town clerk annually.

Town councils
The town council of each municipal borough consisted of a mayor, aldermen, and councillors. The councillors were directly elected by the burgesses for a three-year term, with one-third of their membership retiring each year. Boroughs with a population of more than 6,000 were divided into wards with separate elections held in each ward annually. One-quarter of the council were aldermen, who were elected by the council for a six-year term. Half of the aldermen were elected every third year at the council's annual meeting. It was originally envisaged that the council would choose persons from outside of the municipal body. In practice, however, the aldermanic benches were almost exclusively filled by the promotion of long-serving councillors. The mayor of the borough was elected for a one-year term, although he was eligible for re-election indefinitely. Under the original legislation the mayor was required to be a councillor or alderman. The Municipal Corporations Act 1882 empowered the council to elect any suitably qualified inhabitant of the borough as mayor. However, the mayoralty continued to be almost universally conferred on a senior alderman or councillor.

Municipal elections were originally held on 1 November, with the mayoral election and filling of aldermanic vacancies on 9 November. Elections were cancelled during the First and Second World Wars, and the November 1948 elections were postponed until May 1949. From that date, municipal elections were held on the second Thursday of May. In view of the forthcoming local government reorganisation, the 1972 elections were rescheduled to 4 May, with no elections in 1973 and all sitting councillors and aldermen holding their seats until midnight on 31 March 1974.

Functions
The municipal boroughs created under the 1835 Act had powers relating to electoral registration, providing a watch, making byelaws, and holding various civil and criminal courts. The types of courts which could be held depended on whether the borough had been given a separate commission of the peace or its own quarter sessions; those which had their own quarter sessions were also required to appoint a coroner. The mayor was ex officio made a justice of the peace. The mayor was also required to serve as returning officer for parliamentary elections, except in those boroughs which were counties corporate, where the borough council appointed a sheriff whose duties included serving as returning officer. To fund their work the borough council was allowed to set and collect rates.

Municipal boroughs were not automatically given powers to provide or maintain infrastructure under the 1835 Act. Many boroughs were covered by separate bodies of improvement commissioners responsible for matters such as paving, lighting and cleaning streets, supplying water and providing sewers. These improvement commissioners continued to exist alongside the borough councils unless the commissioners chose to transfer their powers to the council.

From 1848 onwards local boards could also be established for providing infrastructure and overseeing public health. Where local board districts were created covering municipal boroughs the borough council was often, but not always, appointed to serve as the local board. In some places it was deemed necessary for the local board district to cover a larger or smaller territory than the borough, in which case a separate local board was elected. The overlapping functions of borough councils, improvement commissioners and local boards were gradually consolidated. Many boroughs took over the functions of commissioners or separate local boards under the Public Health Act 1872, which established urban sanitary districts, with borough councils usually being designated as the urban sanitary authority. There were a handful of exceptions where commissioners and local boards continued to operate alongside borough councils until the Local Government Act 1888 required the remaining anomalies to be addressed; from 1889 all borough councils were sanitary authorities with powers to provide infrastructure and oversee public health.

County and non-county boroughs
In 1889, county councils were created across England and Wales under the Local Government Act 1888. Boroughs were divided into two sorts, with some becoming county boroughs which were entirely self-governing and independent from county council administration.

The non-county boroughs had more limited powers of self-government, and shared power with county councils. In 1894, towns which had not been incorporated as boroughs became urban districts with similar powers to municipal boroughs.

The title of "borough" was considered to be more dignified than "urban district", and so many larger urban districts petitioned to be granted the status of a municipal borough, and many were granted this right. Borough status did not substantially increase local government powers, although municipal boroughs above a certain size had the right to run primary education.

Abolition
Under the Local Government Act 1958, small municipal boroughs could be absorbed by surrounding rural districts to become rural boroughs, with the powers of a parish council. Seven small boroughs in Cornwall, Devon and Shropshire underwent this process.

The remaining municipal boroughs, of which there were over 200, were abolished on 1 April 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972. In England, they were replaced by metropolitan or non-metropolitan districts and in Wales by districts.

In most cases, the civic privileges and coat of arms of the abolished boroughs were inherited by one of the new local authorities. District councils were permitted to apply for a charter to receive borough status, while small municipal boroughs became successor parishes with town councils headed by a town mayor. In a few cases charter trustees, a special committee of district councillors, were formed to perpetuate the mayoralty of a town or city.

Ireland
The Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840 followed the example of the legislation in England and Wales. Unlike the 1835 Act, the Irish Act abolished nearly all of the country's boroughs, reforming just 10. Inhabitants of the larger of the abolished boroughs or of any town with a population of 3,000 could petition the crown for incorporation under the Act. In the event, only one additional borough was created when Wexford received a charter of incorporation in 1846. The corporation and town council were identical in their constitution to the English boroughs, and each borough was divided into wards with three, six or nine councillors per ward and one alderman for every three councillors.

The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 designated the six largest municipalities (Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Limerick, Derry and Waterford) as county boroughs. The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1919 introduced a system of proportional representation into municipal elections. Wards were replaced by electoral areas, and the entire council was to be elected triennially. Separate elections of aldermen and councillors were ended, with all members of the council elected by popular vote. One-quarter of the elected members were entitled to the title of "alderman", which was used to designate the first candidates elected in each area. The remaining successful candidates being "councillors".

Under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Ireland was partitioned in 1921, between Northern Ireland, which would remain in the United Kingdom, and the remainder, which left the United Kingdom in 1922 as the Irish Free State.

Northern Ireland
On establishment, Northern Ireland contained the county boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, with no municipal boroughs. The Parliament of Northern Ireland abolished proportional representation in local government elections in 1922, and amended the 1840 Act in 1926, allowing urban districts to petition the Governor for a charter of incorporation. Accordingly, by 1972 the number of boroughs had increased to 12 in number.

The system of local government was reorganised in 1973, with 26 local government districts replacing all county and municipal boroughs as well as urban and rural districts. The city or borough status conferred by the municipal charters passed to the new district councils.

Irish Free State and the Republic of Ireland
Nine boroughs (four county boroughs and five municipal boroughs) were within the territory of the Irish Free State in 1922. Two new boroughs were created by statute. In 1930, the borough of Dún Laoghaire was created by the amalgamation of the four urban districts of Blackrock, Dalkey, Kingstown, and Killiney and Ballybrack in County Dublin. This borough was later abolished in 1994. In 1937 the town of Galway was reconstituted as a municipal borough. It became a county borough in 1986.

The Local Government Act 2001 abolished municipal boroughs. County boroughs were replaced by statutory "cities", while the title of "borough" was retained for the other towns holding the status.

title: Municipal borough


text: User talk:68.8.82.235

title: User talk:68.8.82.235


text:
Joseph Bartlett Eastman

Joseph Bartlett Eastman (June 26, 1882 – 1944) was a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission from 1919 until his death in 1944.

Biography
Joseph Bartlett Eastman was born in Katonah, New York on June 26, 1882, to John Huse and Lucy (King) Eastman.

He prepared at Pottsville Area High School in Pennsylvania, then matriculated to Amherst College, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in the class of 1904.

In 1905 he was the Amherst Fellow at South End House in Boston, Massachusetts; from 1906 to 1913 he was secretary of the Public Franchise League in Boston. From 1907 to 1908 he attended Boston University Law School. He made his reputation as counsel in various wage arbitrations from 1913 to 1914.

From 1915 to 1918 he was a member of the Public Service Commission of Massachusetts; in 1918 he was chairman of the War Committee National Association of Railway and Public Utility Commissioners; and he was appointed a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1919.

In 1933, he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt, and confirmed by the Senate, to the position of Federal Coordinator of Transportation.

He died on March 15, 1944. The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College holds his papers.

title: Joseph Bartlett Eastman


text:
Public Franchise League

The Public Franchise League was "a small informal group of high-minded citizens formed by Boston lawyer Louis D. Brandeis and Boston merchant Edward A. Filene."

Its secretary from 1906 to 1913 was Joseph Bartlett Eastman.

title: Public Franchise League