text:
Leichter Panzerspähwagen

The Leichter Panzerspähwagen (German: "light armoured reconnaissance vehicle") was a series of light four-wheel drive armoured cars produced by Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1944.

Development history
The Sd.Kfz. 221 was the first in a series of light reconnaissance vehicles designed to meet operational requirements including reliability, an ability to run on a variety of grades of fuel, simple construction and good off-road performance. However, this type proved too small and too lightly armed, so in 1936-37 a heavier version was planned, using one of two standard chassis for four-wheeled armoured cars - one with a front-mounted engine, the other rear-mounted. The latter was used in the '''Sd.Kfz. 222''', which then became the standard light armoured car in German army service until the defeat of Nazi Germany.

The vehicles were developed by Eisenwerk Weserhütte of Bad Oeynhausen by using the chassis of the type Horch 108 (one of the  Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht  standardised designs of heavy off-road car for the armed forces) with an angled armoured body and turret.

Chassis were built by Horch (Auto Union) in Zwickau and assembled by F. Schichau of Elbing and Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen in Hanover-Linden.

The rear-mounted petrol engine was originally a 3.5 Litre Horch V8 with 75 PS (Ausf. A chassis); from 1942, this was replaced by a 3.8 Litre with 90 PS (Ausf. B chassis), giving it a road speed of 80 km/h and a cross-country speed of 40 km/h. It had a maximum range of 300 km.

Used by the reconnaissance battalions (Aufklärungs-Abteilung) of the Panzer divisions, the type performed well enough in countries with good road networks, like those in Western Europe. However, on the Eastern Front and in the deserts of the North African campaign, this class of vehicle was hampered by its relatively poor off-road performance.

The Sd.Kfz. 222 was fitted with heavier armament and a larger turret than the Sd.Kfz. 221 but it was still comparatively cramped and lacked top protection other than a wire screen designed to allow grenades to roll off, but this made using the main armament problematic. The machine gun was mounted co-axially with the autocannon, and both weapons were pintle-mounted, and fitted with an elevation and traverse mechanism and floor-mounted firing mechanisms. The turret was rotated by the traversing weapons rather than the weapons being fixed to a traversing turret. There was thus no bearing-ring and no turret basket, only a fighting compartment largely obstructed by the breeches of the weapons.

When the limitations of the vehicle were highlighted during the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 the Sd.Kfz. 222 was gradually replaced in the reconnaissance role by the Sd.Kfz. 250 half-track, but the turret and armament of the Sd Kfz 222 was sometimes retained, despite its shortcomings (the Sd.Kfz. 250/9 variant was a Sd.Kfz. 250 fitted with a top plate surmounted by the same turret and gun combination of the Sd.Kfz 222 fitted to the half-track) Captured Sd.Kfz 222s were examined by Soviet designers before they created the similar BA-64 light armoured car.

Front and sides were made of 8 mm RHA; thinner 5 mm plates protected the top, rear, and bottom. Cast vision ports later replaced ports cut into the armour. The open-topped turret was fitted with wire mesh anti-grenade screens. Beginning in 1939, the front armour was increased to 14.5 mm. In 1942, the Ausf. B chassis was introduced; this had 30 mm of frontal armour, as well as a more powerful engine.

Variants
Base model and first production series of light armoured car built on a standardised chassis for military use; full designation was Leichter Panzerspähwagen (M.G.) The Sd.Kfz. 221 was armed with a single 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr (MG) 13 machine gun, replaced from 1938 onwards with a Maschinengewehr (MG) 34. It had a two-man crew (driver and commander/gunner), and was equipped with four-wheel drive. Production ran from 1935 to 1940 with at least 339 vehicles produced. It was only produced with Ausf. A chassis and a maximum frontal armour of 14.5 mm. Some Sd. Kfz 221 were rearmed with a 2.8 cm sPzB 41 heavy anti-tank rifle in a modified turret.
 * Sd. Kfz. 221

This version of the vehicle was armed with a 2 cm KwK 30 L/55 autocannon and one MG 13 machine gun; full designation was Leichter Panzerspähwagen (2 cm). The crew was increased to three by the addition of a gunner, relieving the commander of that task. In 1938, the MG 13 was replaced by an MG 34, and in 1942 the KwK 30 was replaced by the faster-firing KwK 38 of the same calibre. Production ran from 1937 to late 1943, with at least 990 vehicles produced.
 * Sd. Kfz. 222

An armoured car with similar features to the Sd. Kfz. 221, but with the addition of a frame antenna and a 30-watt FuG 10 medium-range radio set; full designation was Leichter Panzerspähwagen (Fu). Later versions of the vehicle were equipped with an improved 80-watt FuG 12 radio set. It was originally armed with an MG 13 machine gun, but in 1938 this was changed to an MG 34. The three-man crew consisted of a driver, commander and radio operator. Production ran from 1936 to January 1944, with at least 567 vehicles produced.
 * Sd. Kfz. 223

Unarmed radio car versions with long-range radio equipment and a large "bed-frame" antenna over the vehicle. Generally for signals use, three were used as armoured cars in Finland. The Sd. Kfz 260 was equipped with radio sets to communicate with aircraft, and the Sd.Kfz. 261 with radio sets to communicate with other ground units. By 1 September 1940, the manufacturers had orders for 36 Sd.Kfz. 260 and 289 Sd.Kfz. 261. Production ran from April 1941 to April 1943, with 483 vehicles of both types produced.
 * Kleiner Panzerfunkwagen Sd. Kfz. 260/261

Users

 * Nazi Germany
 * undefined (15 in total, mostly SdKfz 222, two SdKfz 221, at least one SdKfz 260)
 * Kingdom of Bulgaria
 * Kingdom of Romania (see Romanian armored cars during World War II)

Notes and references

title: Leichter Panzerspähwagen


text:
Tony Granato

Anthony Lewis Granato (born July 25, 1964) is an American former professional ice hockey left winger and former head coach of the Wisconsin Badgers men's ice hockey team. He served as head coach of the United States men's national ice hockey team at the 2018 Winter Olympics. Previously, he also served as head coach of the National Hockey League (NHL)'s Colorado Avalanche, as well as with the Detroit Red Wings and Pittsburgh Penguins as an assistant coach.

New York Rangers
Following high school, Granato was drafted by the New York Rangers in the sixth round, 120th overall, in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft. After a college career at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Granato made an immediate impact in his first season with the Rangers in 1988–89, leading the team in goals scored (36), which still stands as the team record for goals by a rookie. In what Rangers at the time called "the biggest [deal] in club history", Granato was traded with teammate Tomas Sandström to the Los Angeles Kings on January 20, 1990, in exchange for center Bernie Nicholls.

Los Angeles Kings
Granato continued to be a prolific goal scorer with the Kings and was a key player in their run to the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, contributing 17 points over the course of the playoffs. During a February 9, 1994, game in Los Angeles, Granato, after receiving a hard hit from the Chicago Blackhawks' Neil Wilkinson, retaliated by hitting Wilkinson in the head with a two-handed slash. Granato was subsequently suspended by the NHL for 15 games. As of 2012, this was the seventh-longest suspension in NHL history. On January 25, 1996, Granato suffered a serious head injury in a game against the Hartford Whalers that resulted in a bleeding on the left lobe of his brain. He underwent surgery and although there was speculation he would not play again, he returned to the ice in the 1996–97 NHL season after being traded to the San Jose Sharks.

San Jose Sharks
Granato returned to the ice in the 1996–97 NHL season with San Jose. Due to concerns of further brain injury, Granato wore a specially padded helmet as a precautionary measure. He had a productive first season in San Jose registering 25 goals and 15 assists in 76 games. In 1997, Granato received the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. However, his productivity steadily declined, with only 59 collective points in his remaining four seasons with the Sharks. He retired as a player after the 2001 season.

Coaching career
Granato joined the Colorado Avalanche as an assistant coach prior to the 2002–03 NHL season. After a sub-par start to the season, the Avalanche fired head coach Bob Hartley on December 18, 2002, and Granato was subsequently promoted to replace him. Following the slow start under Hartley, the Avalanche went 32–11–4–4 under Granato and captured their ninth consecutive division title (including one title as the Quebec Nordiques). However, they lost in the first round of the 2003 Stanley Cup playoffs to the Minnesota Wild in seven games after a 3–1 series lead. In his first full season behind the bench, Granato led Colorado to a 40–22–20 record, finishing second in their division. During the 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Avalanche defeated the Dallas Stars in five games in the quarter-finals, but lost to the Sharks in six games in the semi-finals.

After the disappointing playoff loss to the Sharks, Granato was replaced by Joel Quenneville. Granato was reassigned and agreed to stay on as an assistant, holding that position for three seasons. On May 22, 2008, Granato was renamed head coach of the Avalanche after the departure of Quenneville for the 2008–09 NHL season. The Avalanche posted a record of 32–45–5, the worst since the team moved from Quebec in 1995, and Granato was fired on June 5, 2009.

On August 5, 2009, Granato joined the coaching staff of the Pittsburgh Penguins, signing on as an assistant coach. Granato guided the Penguin's defense (2.49 goals against per game, tenth) and penalty killing (85.0 percent, fifth) to top-ten league finishes during the 2013–14 NHL season.

On June 25, 2014, it was announced the Penguins would not retain their coaching staff for the 2014–15 season.

On July 15, 2014, Granato was hired as an assistant coach for the Detroit Red Wings.

On March 30, 2016, Granato was named the head coach at his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

On August 4, 2017, Granato was announced as the head coach for the United States national team during the 2018 Winter Olympics. His team eventually placed seventh.

On March 6, 2023, University of Wisconsin Director of Athletics Chris McIntosh announced that Granato would not return for the 2023-24 season.

Personal life
Granato is the older brother of Hall of Fame hockey player Cammi Granato, and is the brother-in-law of former NHL player Ray Ferraro. Tony and his wife, Linda, are the parents of four children. Tony still has a lot of personal connections to his hometown, Downers Grove. Siblings Don, Rob, and Cammi were influenced by the Chicago Blackhawks and the 1980 Winter Olympics USA gold medal. He is now (2023) a TV analyst for both the NHL and the Chicago Blackhawks.

On December 11, 2023, Granato announced that he had been diagnosed with Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and that he would be taking a leave of absence from his television career to begin treatment on the cancer that same week. After a four week absence, Granato returned to broadcasting for the first time on January 7, 2024.

Granato is a Christian.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tony Granato


text:
Pro Evolution Soccer 3

Pro Evolution Soccer 3 (known as World Soccer: Winning Eleven 7 in Japan and World Soccer: Winning Eleven 7 International in North America) is a football simulation video game developed and produced by Konami as part of the Pro Evolution Soccer series. Initially released for the PlayStation 2, it is also the first in the series to be released on Microsoft Windows.

The cover features the image and signature of iconic Italian referee Pierluigi Collina, who had previously officiated the 2002 FIFA World Cup Final. This was unusual, as football games had come to almost exclusively feature only players and managers on their covers; plus, referees only appear in cutscenes in this game (they would only be integrated to the playing field in the next entry of the series). PES 3 was succeeded by Pro Evolution Soccer 4, which was released in 2004.

New features

 * New graphics engine.
 * Improved gameplay, control, ball physics, animation and AI.
 * New Shop mode, where points can be traded in for hidden items.
 * Master League expanded to four divisions, with tons of new players.
 * Support for 1–4 players (multitap required for 3 or 4 players).

Licenses
The game does not include any full leagues but 64 clubs from various European countries. 6 clubs are fully licensed, which are the five Italian Serie A clubs Milan, Roma, Juventus, Lazio and Parma, as well as Feyenoord from the Dutch Eredivisie. All other clubs have fictional team names, logos and jerseys. Also player names are fictional, but only if the player is part of an unlicensed national team. Noticeable cases are for example Dutch players (e.g. Von Mistelroum instead of Ruud van Nistelrooy) and German players (e.g. Kalm instead of Oliver Kahn).

Reception
In Europe, Pro Evolution Soccer 3 sold 1 million copies on its first day of release, setting a launch sales record. The PlayStation 2 version of Pro Evolution Soccer 3 had surpassed 1 million units sold by November 2003. It was a significant hit in Italy, which purchased more than 200,000 units in under one month, for revenues of €8 million or US$,000,000 2003. The PS2 version went on to sell 1.16million units in Japan and 1.55million units in Europe for a combined 2.71 million by the end of 2003. The PlayStation 2 version of Pro Evolution Soccer 3 received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In the United States, it sold 33,403 units by January 2005, adding up to at least 0 units sold worldwide.

The "International" version of World Soccer: Winning Eleven 7 received "universal acclaim" for both platforms in all regions except the European PC version, which received "favorable" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. It received a runner-up position in GameSpot's 2004 "Best Traditional Sports Game" award category across all platforms, losing to ESPN NFL 2K5. During the 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Pro Evolution Soccer 3 for "Console Sports Simulation Game of the Year", which was ultimately awarded to ESPN NFL 2K5.

title: Pro Evolution Soccer 3


text:
List of Privy Counsellors (1679–1714)

This is a List of Privy Counsellors of England and Great Britain appointed between the reorganisation of the Privy Council in 1679 and the death of Queen Anne in 1714.

1679

 * The Earl of Shaftesbury (1621–1683) (expelled 1679)
 * The Lord Finch (1621–1682)
 * The Earl of Anglesey (1614–1686)
 * The Duke of Albemarle (1653–1688)
 * The Duke of Monmouth (1649–1685)
 * The Marquess of Winchester (1624–1699)
 * The Earl of Arlington (1618–1685)
 * The Earl of Salisbury (1648–1683) (expelled 1681)
 * The Earl of Bridgewater (1623–1686)
 * The Earl of Sunderland (1679–1702) (expelled 1681; readmitted 1682)
 * The Earl of Essex (1631–1683)
 * The Earl of Bath (1628–1701)
 * The Viscount Halifax (1633–1695) (expelled 1685)
 * The Hon. Henry Compton (1632–1713)
 * The Lord Robartes
 * Lord Russell (1639–1683)
 * Lord Cavendish (1641–1707)
 * The Hon. Henry Coventry (1619–1686)
 * Sir Francis North (1637–1685)
 * Sir Henry Capel (1638–1696)
 * Sir John Ernle (1620–1697)
 * Sir Thomas Chicheley (1618–1699) (expelled 1687)
 * Sir William Temple, Bt (1628–1699)
 * Sir Edward Seymour, Bt (1633–1708)
 * Henry Powle (1630–1692)
 * William Sancroft (1617–1693)
 * The Duke of Lauderdale (1616–1682)
 * The Marquess of Worcester (1629–1699)
 * The Viscount Fauconberg (1628–1700)
 * The Duke of Newcastle (1630–1691)
 * The Lord Holles (1599–1680)
 * The Hon. Laurence Hyde (1642–1711)

1680

 * The Hon. Daniel Finch (1647–1730)
 * Sidney Godolphin (1645–1712)
 * Sir Leoline Jenkins (1623–1685)
 * The Earl of Ossory (1634–1680)
 * The Earl of Clarendon (1638–1709)
 * Sir Robert Carr, Bt (1637–1682)

1681

 * The Earl of Oxford (1626–1703)
 * The Earl of Chesterfield (1634–1714)
 * The Earl of Ailesbury (1638–1685)
 * The Earl of Conway (1623–1683)
 * The Earl of Craven (1606–1697)

1682

 * George Legge (1648–1691)
 * The Duke of Ormonde (1610–1688)
 * The Earl of Lindsey (1630–1701)
 * Sir Francis Pemberton (1625–1697)

1683

 * The Earl of Huntingdon (1650–1701)
 * The Earl of Peterborough (1624–1697)
 * Sir George Jeffreys (1648–1689)

1684

 * The Earl of Moray (1634–1701)
 * The Earl of Middleton (1650–1719)

1685

 * John Drummond (1650–1715)

James II, 1685–1688

 * Prince George of Denmark (1653–1708)
 * The Duke of Queensberry (1637–1695)
 * The Earl of Perth (1648–1716)
 * The Earl of Mulgrave (1648–1721)
 * The Earl of Berkeley (1628–1698)
 * Sir Edward Herbert (1648–1698)
 * The Viscount Preston (1648–1695)
 * The Earl of Plymouth (1627–1687)

1688

 * The Lord Crew (1633–1721)
 * The Earl of Powis (1617–1696)
 * The Lord Arundell of Wardour (1606–1694)
 * The Lord Belasyse (1614–1689)
 * The Lord Dover (1636–1708) (Earl of Dover in the Jacobite Peerage)
 * The Earl of Tyrconnell (1630–1691)
 * The Earl of Castlemaine (1634–1705)
 * The Duke of Hamilton (1635–1694)
 * Sir Nicholas Butler
 * Edward Petre (1631–1699)

1688

 * Silius Titus (1623–1704)

1689

 * The Earl of Danby (1631–1712)
 * The Duke of Norfolk (1653–1701)
 * The Marquess of Winchester (1625–1699)
 * The Marquess of Halifax (1633–1695)
 * The Earl of Lindsey (1630–1701)
 * The Earl of Devonshire (1640–1707)
 * The Earl of Dorset (1638–1706)
 * The Earl of Oxford (1626–1703)
 * The Earl of Shrewsbury (1660–1718) (expelled 1692; re-admitted 1694)
 * The Earl of Bedford (1613–1700)
 * The Earl of Macclesfield (1618–1694)
 * The Viscount Fauconberg (1628–1700)
 * The Earl of Monmouth (1658–1735)
 * The Viscount Newport (1620–1708)
 * The Lord Lumley (1650–1721)
 * The Hon. Henry Compton (1632–1713)
 * The Lord Montagu (1638–1709)
 * The Lord Delamere (1652–1694)
 * The Lord Churchill (1650–1722)
 * William Bentinck (1649–1709)
 * The Hon. Henry Sydney (1641–1704)
 * The Hon. Sir Robert Howard (1626–1698)
 * Sir Henry Capell (1637–1696)
 * Henry Powle (1630–1692)
 * Edward Russell (1653–1727)
 * Richard Hampden (1631–1695)
 * Hugh Boscawen (1625–1701)
 * The Hon. Thomas Wharton (1648–1715)
 * Sir John Lowther, Bt (1655–1700)
 * Arthur Herbert (1647–1716)
 * William Harbord (1635–1692)
 * The Duke of Schomberg (1615–1690)
 * Sir John Holt (1642–1710)
 * The Earl of Pembroke (1656–1733)

1690

 * Sir Henry Goodricke, Bt (1642–1705)
 * The Marquess of Winchester (1661–1722)
 * The Lord Godolphin (1645–1712)

1691

 * Sir John Trevor (1637–1717)
 * The Earl of Bridgewater (1646–1701)
 * John Tillotson (1630–1694)

1692

 * The Earl of Rochester (1641–1711)
 * The Earl of Ranelagh (1636–1712)
 * The Lord Cornwallis (1655–1698)
 * Sir Edward Seymour, Bt (1633–1708)
 * The Viscount Falkland (1656–1694)
 * The Lord Lexinton (1661–1723)

1693

 * Sir John Somers (1651–1716)
 * Sir John Trenchard (1649–1695)
 * The Lord Coningsby (1657–1729) (expelled 1724)

1694

 * Viscount Dursley (1649–1710)
 * The Earl of Stamford (1654–1720)
 * Charles Montagu (1661–1715)

1695

 * Thomas Tenison (1636–1715)
 * Sir William Trumbull (1639–1716)
 * The Duke of Schomberg (1641–1719)
 * The Earl of Tankerville (d. 1701)
 * The Hon. Peregrine Bertie (1663–1711)
 * John Smith (1655–1723)

1696

 * The Duke of Ormonde (1665–1745) (expelled 1715)
 * Sir Joseph Williamson (1633–1701)

1697

 * The Earl of Jersey (1656–1711)
 * James Vernon (1646–1727)

1698

 * The Earl of Manchester (1660–1722)

1699

 * The Lord Ferrers (1650–1717)

1700

 * Sir Nathan Wright (1654–1721)
 * Sir Charles Hedges (1650–1714)

1701

 * The Hon. Henry Boyle (1669–1725)
 * The Earl of Lindsey (1660–1723)
 * The Earl of Carlisle (1669–1738)
 * The Duke of Somerset (1662–1748)

1702

 * The Earl of Radnor (1660–1723)
 * The Earl of Burlington (1660–1704)

1702

 * The Marquess of Normanby (1648–1721)
 * The Earl of Abingdon (1672–1743)
 * Sir John Leveson-Gower, Bt (1675–1709)
 * John Grobham Howe (1657–1722)
 * The Earl of Nottingham (1647–1730)
 * The Earl of Northampton (1664–1727)
 * The Viscount Weymouth (1640–1714)
 * The Lord Dartmouth (1672–1750)
 * John Granville (1665–1707)
 * Sir Thomas Trevor (1658–1730)
 * Sir George Rooke (1650–1709)
 * The Lord Poulett (1663–1743)

1703

 * John Sharp (1645–1714)
 * The Earl of Thanet (1644–1729)
 * The Lord Guernsey (1649–1719)

1704

 * The Earl of Kent (1671–1740)
 * Robert Harley (1661–1724)
 * Thomas Mansell (1667–1723)

1705

 * The Duke of Newcastle (1662–1711)
 * The Earl of Peterborough (1658–1735)
 * The Lord Cholmondeley (1662–1724)
 * Thomas Erle (1650–1720)
 * William Cowper (1665–1723)

1706

 * The Earl of Derby (1664–1736)
 * The Earl of Sunderland (1675–1722)

1707

 * The Duke of Devonshire (1672–1729)

1708

 * The Marquess of Dorchester (1665–1726)
 * The Earl of Bindon (1670–1718)
 * The Earl of Mar (1675–1732)
 * The Viscount Townshend (1674–1738)
 * The Duke of Queensberry (1662–1711)
 * The Earl of Seafield (1664–1730)
 * The Duke of Montrose (1682–1742)
 * The Earl Rivers (1654–1712)
 * The Earl of Essex (1670–1709)
 * The Earl of Loudoun (d. 1731)
 * Thomas Coke (1674–1727)

1709

 * The Duke of Argyll (1680–1743)
 * The Duke of Roxburghe (1680–1741)
 * Sir John Holland, Bt (d. 1724)
 * The Earl of Orford (1653–1727)

1710

 * The Earl of Bradford (1644–1723)
 * Sir Thomas Parker (1666–1732) (expelled 1725)
 * Sir Richard Onslow (1654–1717)
 * The Earl of Anglesey (1676–1710)
 * Henry St John (1678–1751)
 * Sir Simon Harcourt (1661–1727)
 * Lord Hyde (1672–1753)
 * The Earl of Anglesey (1678–1737)
 * The Duke of Beaufort (1684–1714)

1711

 * The Earl of Orrery (1674–1731)
 * The Earl of Orkney (1670–1737)
 * The Marquess of Annandale (d. 1721)
 * The Earl of Winchilsea (1672–1712)
 * Robert Benson (1676–1731)
 * The Hon. Henry Paget (1663–1743)
 * The Earl of Strafford (1672–1739)
 * William Bromley (1663–1732)
 * John Robinson (1650–1723)
 * The Earl of Clarendon (1661–1723)
 * The Earl of Islay (1659–1724)
 * The Lord North (1678–1734)

1712

 * The Duke of Atholl (1660–1724)
 * The Lord Lansdowne (1666–1735)
 * The Earl of Portmore (1656–1730)
 * Major-General John Hill (d. 1735)
 * The Lord Guilford (1673–1729)

1713

 * The Duke of Northumberland (1665–1716)
 * Sir John Stonehouse (c. 1672–1733)
 * Sir William Wyndham, Bt (1688–1740)

title: List of Privy Counsellors (1679–1714)


text:
Talk:Peter the Hermit

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): TheGrandMasterofTheUniverse.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:29, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

why
Why was he called Peter the Hermit? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.183.125.231 (talk • contribs)

 * It's a good question. Our current article is from a 1911 encyclopedia and doesnt go into it. This probably should be explained. Id have to research it, but I believe he was like many poverty striken priests of his time, he gave up all worldly goods and lived a solitary and lowly life, perhaps living off the kindness of strangers, a proto-Franciscan. A poor homeless monk preaching to anyone who would listen. Perhaps called a "hermit" because he once was, or was called thus generally, since he was not part of a monastic community. --Stbalbach 05:43, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

 * According to Runciman, "His contemporaries knew him as Little Peter - chtou or kiokio in the Picard dialect - but later the hermit's cape that he habitually wore brought him the surname of 'the Hermit', bu which he is better known to history." Anna Comnena calls him "Koukoupetros", William of Tyre says "he was known, both in fact and in name, as the Hermit", Guibert of Nogent calls him "a certain Peter the Hermit" who "lived as a hermit, dressed as a monk", and Albert of Aix says he is "Peter by name, formerly a hermit." That's all I have here; we'll have to check the First Crusade chronicles more carefully. (I don't know where Runciman got the cape from, unless he's extrapolating from Guibert's statement, but it would not be surprising if it's just an embellishment he invented himself.) Adam Bishop 07:17, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Numbers
The article is lacking numeric estimates (crusaders, casualties). This page gives number 300,000 (sourced). I came here to check it and found nothing. Pavel Vozenilek 00:42, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Numeric estimates for the crusades (and for the Middle Ages in general) are usually very difficult. Unfortunately that page is...well, that page sucks. And so do his sources, when he is quoting from other encyclopedias or popular histories. (But partial credit for using the primary sources sometimes, I guess.) Just because something is "sourced" doesn't mean the source is any good. Adam Bishop 02:41, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Yeah, expected. Pavel Vozenilek 09:31, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

Peter the Hermit, mistake in the date of his death
Pierre did not die in 1131 but the 8 July 1115 in Neufmoutier (Belgium). Peter the Hermit Papydenis

 * Well that's strange...that page has the same 1911 Britannica article as us, but the date is changed to 1115 for some reason. Why should we trust that date? Note that the online 1911 Britannica currently says 1151, which could be a typo for either 1131 or 1115. What does Albert of Aix actually say? Adam Bishop 17:47, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Peter the Hermit legend
In his legend in 1375, the french poet Jehan-le-Bouteiller sings the memory of a certain Pierre the Hermit descending of a count of Clermont by a lord of Herimont and being granted for wife a daughter of Montaigu. At the time of the first Crusade, at the end of the 11th century, exist in Wallonie/Belgium ''near Huy-(where he died on July,8th 1115) a seigneurie de Clermont and not far from there in Rochefort, a seigneurie de Montaigu and a place called Hérimont'. There was born myPeter the Hermit in a legendary novel under the title:"Pierre d'Hérimont dit l'Ermite" by Freddy Van Daele/2008.freddy (talk) 16:53, 26 October 2008 (UTC)

Massacre of jewish communities
The section on the massacre of the Jewish communities of the Rhineland reads very ... dry? to me. Like, a lot of odd circumlocutions, rather than saying, in this section as well as in the first paragraph about him, that he led the massacres of the Rhineland Jewish communities.

Example: "In the spring of 1096 Peter was one of the prominent involved in the Rhineland massacres against civilians adherent to the Jewish religion." Problems with this sentence: 1) "was one of the prominent involved"? The typo "was one of the prominent" aside, just say he was a leader of the massacres. Not that he was "involved", or "was one of" - he led the massacres. No need to prevaricate or obfuscate. 2) "civilians adherent to the Jewish religion" - this is an awkward phrase, but it's also a bit misleading in its implicit characterization of medieval anti-Jewish sentiment. While medieval Christian anti-Judaism certainly involved religious differences, the animosity was broader than the fact of someone being an "adherent" of a different "religion". Even the term "religion" wouldn't really be applicable in the way we use it now (as one aspect of multi-faceted identity, a set of beliefs and practices consciously chosen). Religious identity as relates to inter-community animosity was much less about points of faith and more about points of identity. That is, the Crusaders were not marching to wipe out adherents of the Jewish religion, they were looking to wipe out Jews. Although they did not yet use the racialized language they would later develop, in the eyes of Crusaders, Jewish people were thought of almost as a different species, and certainly as subhuman. So this phrase should be altered, but also, the paragraph does very little to convey the sentiment expressed by Peter and those he influenced, and says almost nothing about why they massacred these communities.

"Peter and his troops participated in the torture and slaughter of Jews in Lorraine, Cologne, Worms, Speyer and Mainz". These were some of the major centers of Judaism in all of Europe, both in terms of academies/thought leaders who were produced there, and in terms of population. The gravity of these massacres needs to be conveyed. This wasn't some far-off town, these were the major centers of Jewish life.

"In Mainz, Peter's followers killed a large group of Jews that had been granted refuge by a local bishop in exchange for money." Awkward phrasing that makes it sound as if the Jews were on the run and paid for refuge. Why not say "a bishop extorted the Jewish community in exchange for protection, who were then murdered by Peter and his followers"?

"Death toll estimations vary from 2,000 - 2,800 civilians, some speak about 5,000 or even 10,000 people killed." "Civilians" is an odd choice here. This was not a war. There were no combatants and no armies. This was a massacre of settled communities. Every person killed was a civilian, 130.44.133.254 (talk) 03:07, 11 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peter the Hermit


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W. H. Murray

William Hutchison Murray, (18 March 1913 – 19 March 1996) was a Scottish mountaineer and writer, one of a group of active mountain climbers, mainly from Clydeside, before and just after World War II.

Life
Murray was born in Liverpool, the son of William Hutchison Murray (1878–1915), of Cairndhu, Queens Drive, Mossley Hill, H.M. Inspector of Mines for Liverpool and North Wales, who was killed at Gallipoli whilst serving as a sapper with the Royal Marines, and his wife Helen (née Robertson). He was subsequently raised at Huntly Terrace, North Kelvinside, Glasgow. His paternal grandparents, William Hutchison Murray (b. 1850; a wool manufacturer who, on losing all the money he had invested in the 1878 collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank, became a respected music teacher at Anderson College, Glasgow, later becoming Music Inspector for the Glasgow Board of Education, and conductor of the Glasgow Choral Society) and Margaret Hesketh (née Jenkins), lived at Giffnock, East Renfrewshire.

Murray did much of his most influential climbing in the period just before World War II. He climbed on many occasions with the slightly older J. H. B. Bell.

At the outbreak of World War II, he joined the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders and was posted to the Middle East and North Africa. He was captured south of Mersa Matruh during the Western Desert Campaign in a retreat to El Alamein in June 1942 by a tank commander from the 15th Panzer Division who was armed with a machine-pistol. A passage in Mountain magazine (#67, 1979) describes the moments after his capture:
 * To my astonishment, he [the German tank commander] forced a wry smile and asked in English, 'Aren't you feeling the cold?' ... I replied 'cold as a mountain top'. He looked at me, and his eyes brightened. 'Do you mean – you climb mountains?' He was a mountaineer. We both relaxed. He stuffed his gun away. After a few quick words – the Alps, Scotland, rock and ice – he could not do enough for me.

He then spent three years in prisoner of war camps in Italy (Chieti), Germany (Moosberg, Brunswick) and Czechoslovakia (Marisch Trubeau Oflag VIII-F). While imprisoned, Murray wrote a book entitled Mountaineering in Scotland. The first draft of the work was written on the only paper available to him – rough toilet paper. The manuscript was found and destroyed by the Gestapo. To the incredulity of his fellow prisoners, Murray's response to the loss was to start again, despite the risk of its loss and his physical condition being so poor from the near starvation diet that he believed he would never climb again. The rewritten work was finally published in 1947 and was followed by the sequel, Undiscovered Scotland, in 1951. Both concentrate on Scottish winter climbing and were widely credited with helping to inspire the post-war renaissance in the sport.

Murray was deputy leader to Eric Shipton on the 1951 Everest Reconnaissance Expedition, but failed to acclimatise at altitude and so was not included in the 1953 team. He also explored part of the Api group in Nepal with John Tyson in 1953. He was an active campaigner to protect wilderness areas of Scotland from ill-considered development. In 1961, a major success was the defeat of plans to build a hydroelectric scheme in Glen Nevis.

He won many awards, including the Literary Award of the U.S.A. Education Board, an honorary doctorate from Stirling University and the Mungo Park Medal for Himalayan exploration. He settled with his wife, Anne B. Murray (née Clark), in Argyll. He was appointed O.B.E. in the 1966 New Years Honours for services to Mountaineering in Scotland.

His autobiography, The Evidence of Things Not Seen, won the Grand Prize of the Banff Mountain Book Festival (2002). . The book was completed on his death by his wife Anne, who also contributed some of her poetry and it's title links to the title of the penultimate chapter of his earlier book Mountaineering in Scotland where Murray quoted a passage from the KJV translation of the New Testament which states that "faith is the evidence of things not seen" (Epistle to the Hebrews, chapter 11, verse 1).

Honours

 * 1966 – O.B.E.
 * 1970 – Honorary Doctorate, Stirling University, Scotland
 * 1991 – Doctor of Letters (DLitt), University of Strathclyde, Scotland: – William H Murray, Mountaineer and Author July 1991

Scottish decorations

 * Royal Scottish Geographical Society: – Mungo Park Medal, 1952

Goethe
A quotation by Murray is widely misattributed to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The following passage occurs near the beginning of Murray's The Scottish Himalayan Expedition (1951):
 * ... but when I said that nothing had been done I erred in one important matter. We had definitely committed ourselves and were halfway out of our ruts. We had put down our passage money— booked a sailing to Bombay. This may sound too simple, but is great in consequence. Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness. Concerning all acts of initiative (and creation), there is one elementary truth, the ignorance of which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely commits oneself, then Providence moves too. All sorts of things occur to help one that would never otherwise have occurred. A whole stream of events issues from the decision, raising in one's favour all manner of unforeseen incidents and meetings and material assistance, which no man could have dreamt would have come his way. I learned a deep respect for one of Goethe's couplets:
 * Whatever you can do or dream you can, begin it.
 * Boldness has genius, power and magic in it!

The "Goethe couplet" referred to here is from an extremely loose translation of Goethe's Faust lines 214-30 made by John Anster in 1835.

Mountaineering in Scotland and the Greater Ranges

 * Mountaineering in Scotland (1947) ISBN 1-898573-23-9
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150
 * Scotland's Mountains (1987) ISBN 0907521150

Scottish Culture, Nature & Wildlife

 * Companion Guide to the Western Highlands of Scotland (1968 and revised in 1969, 73, 72, 73 and 74 – ISBN 0-00-211135-7)
 * The Islands of Western Scotland (1973) ISBN 9780413261007
 * The Scottish Highlands (1976) ISBN 9780901516831
 * Beautiful Scotland (1976) ISBN 9780713432176
 * The Curling Companion (1981) ISBN 9780002168649
 * Beautiful Scotland (1976) ISBN 9780713432176
 * The Curling Companion (1981) ISBN 9780002168649
 * The Curling Companion (1981) ISBN 9780002168649

Historical Biography

 * Rob Roy MacGregor – His Life and Times (1982) ISBN 0862415381

Autobiography

 * The Evidence of Things Not Seen: A Mountaineer's Tale (2002) (autobiography) ISBN 1-898573-24-7

Biography

 * "The Sunlit Summit: The Life of W. H. Murray" by Robin Lloyd-Jones (Author), Robert Macfarlane (Forward) (Sandstone Press Ltd, 2013), ISBN 1908737387 and ISBN 978-1908737380

title: W. H. Murray


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Talk:Caloric restriction mimetic

Untitled
All:

I recently added the term "cr mimetic" to Wiki, later to find it removed due to copyright issues:

"Text that was previously posted here is the same as the text from the source below:

http://www.cron-web.org/cr-mimetics.html "

I own that domain. The content on that site is original except that which is in quotes or properly footnote-referenced. I am also one of the original officers of The Calorie Restriction (CR) Society (www.calorierestriction.org), the only organization devoted to human CR.

You may do a standard Google search for me, "Khurram Hashmi" and "Calorie Restriction" for references.

Thank You, Khurram Hashmi -- calorierestriction.org CRON-WEB.org

Title
The title of the page should read "C.R. mimetic", not "Cr mimetic". Ideally, it should be spelled out: "Caloric Restriction Mimetic". Unfortunately, I don't know how to change the title of a page, so I leave it to those more knowlegeable than I to do so. Lorangriel 20:59, 3 April 2007 (UTC)

Cannabanoid Antagonists
These aren't true C.R. mimetics. They are appetite inhibitors, and I don't think they belong in this article. Debate? RGK (talk) 09:22, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Inviting Comments and Debate before Endeavoring to Significantly Expand/Edit this Article
I've been working on a paper with working title of either: (1) ''How the Future of Medicine is Linked to Our History of Famine: Plant Polyphenols As Epigenetic Activators for Calorie Restriction Mimetics, or (2) Why Bacteria Laden, Moldy, Fungi Infected Food Crops will Probably Prevent Cardiovascular Disease, Prevent Cancer from Spreading, Make Your Skin Beautiful, Prevent Metabolic Syndrome and Diabides Type 2, Slow Down the Aging Process and Extend Your Life. (Assuming it Doesn't Almost Immediately Kill You First.) '' 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC) But, seriously. I'm developing quite a database of articles and knowledge on this subject; however, I've published/modified articles before (unilaterally) and didn't really enjoy the time-consuming, post editing debates that followed. (See Afd SOD/CAT) So, this time I'd like to reach a consensus--of at least greater than one--before I'd personally alter anything in the existing article. Whose with me? I say we keep all the comments on this discussion page for convenience. Anyone whose ever done any creative brainstorming knows that the initial process should non-judgmentally evaluate any reasonable hypothesis related to the subject matter. I would like to see a discussion evolve that promoted a broad range of insights into this subject matter, and I would hope that participants would reserve judgment so as not to stifle the initial brainstorming process. RGK (talk) 09:45, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Sirtris Pharmaceutical
The sirtuin drug candidates under development at Sirtris warrant an extensive discussion here. The fact that GlaxoSmithKline paid $720 million a few months ago for this company is a very strong endorsement for the future of this technology for medicine.

C.R. Mimetics: Medicine or Missing Non-Nutritive, Essential Cell Signalling Componets
I've been working with these phytochemicals for twenty-five years. Anecdotally, I see dramatic effects on humans and companion animals by the restoration of one or more of these calorie restriction mimetic compounds to the diet. I believe that there are many, many C.R. mimetic polyphenol compounds in unprocessed foods when their symbiotic (non-pathogenic) soil bacterium are allowed to remain a component of the food crops. However, the economic reality is that it is far cheaper to sterilize or nearly sterilize a raw grain or fresh vegetable food crop, than it would be to perform multiple, specialized tests for specific pathogens. Modern food processing techiques started with Pastuer's work eliminating pathogens from milk, and in the aggregate, we are grateful, because nothing can kill us faster than pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, the fact that C.R. mimetics may be simply the side effects of a plants defenses, evolved primarily to target and suppress predation through growth inhibiting cellular signalling mimetics, suggests that what's good for fully grown higher animals, may not be good at all for very young children, and depending on inter-uterine, and lactation barriers, (excuse my made up terms there) may Not be a good idea for gestating/lactating females. So, we have a lot of work to do here. An explosion of published, peer reviewed papers are appearing in the journals about this subject. Each of these reasonable hypotheses can probably be resolved with a little research into newly published, peer reviewed journals. I think it would not be a bad idea to brain storm here, given the rapidly evolving insights published daily on this subject. So, an informal Request for Hypothesisseems a reasonable way to start work on this subject. I'm requesting all interested contributors to propose their resonable hypotheis here on this page, for the purpose of promoting discussion and debate, and then appropriate supporting the outcome of that process with well documented, peer reviewed articles on the subject. Under this plan, only after a reasonable consensus is reached, and only after a well referenced, peer reviewed journal article basis of support, should the work product migrate to the article page. That might be a way to cut down on time consuming debate. (Or maybe it will just double the work.) RGK (talk) 09:33, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Circadian regulator CLOCK and C.R. Mimetics.
Professor Sassone-Corsi's work on the relationship of the Circadian regulator clock to sirtuin 1 activation is a fertile area for discussion. See http://www.faculty.uci.edu/profile.cfm?faculty_id=5402 and Doi, M., Hirayama, J. and Sassone-Corsi, P. (2006) Circadian regulator CLOCK is a Histone Acetyltransferase. Cell 125, 497-508. RGK (talk) 09:59, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Hypothesis: Modern food processing and sterilization techniques have decimated C.R. Mimetic Compounds from the Western Diet
What I think has happened is that the absense of the C.R. Mimetic phytochemicals, including but not limited to, flavones, isoflavones, polyphenols, and bacterial defenses like rapamycin, and in such a short time, has caused a marked reduction in antioxidant enzyme induction, along with modern day stress, this has exacerbated ROS acting on increasing adipose lipid deposits, as will as lipid peroxidation in general. The effect on tumor and other cancer formations has been profound, primarily due to mechanisms described in the theories of mitogenesis and angiogenesis.

''Over the last roughly 50 years of increasing diet alteration / processing, we have been increasing the consumption of xenohormetic substances that increase cellular stress, while decreasing the consumption of whole grain, legume, fruits and vegetables rich in phytochemicals that improve the cellular resilience to stress. Even if we do consume fruits and vegetables, the modern agricultural methods have utilized pesticides and synthetic fertilizers that the food crops do not produce the same amount of beneficial phytochemicals.'' extracted from an article written by Jeffery Bland Ph.D., Metagenics RGK (talk) 09:59, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Sub-hypothesis: Sirtuin 1 Activation Invokes MnZn Superoxide Dismutase(SOD2) Induction
More than anything else, this has convinced me of the merits C.R. mimetics. 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Sub-Hypothesis: Effect of Chemical Subsidies in Modern Agriculture
To maximize crop yields, we have fundimentally changed the natural expression of various naturally occurring chemicals in all agricultural products. When a plant has not been stressed by competitive predation because of the presence of xeno-antibiotic compounds (agricultural chemicals and fertilizers), logic suggests that the plant is less likely, or unlikely to express its own protective polyphenols (e.g. resveratrol). Thus, the undocumented side effect of the use of (xeno-chemos?) chemical subsidies has been devastating to presense of C.R. inducing flavones, isoflavones, probiotics, and polyphenols even in fresh produce. This would suggest that organically grown, and sustainable agricultural technology offer greater benefits to the consumer than previously thought If it can be documented here, this hypothesis may be the strongest supporting science for the use of organic and sustainable agriculture. Certainly, anecdotal observation supports the hypotheis. People who grow their own food look great. Native Japonese, strong equol producers, look much better than their non-equol producing cousins in Hawaii, etc. Anecdotal? Yes, Untrue. probably not. We need researchers to ferret this stuff out. 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC) RGK (talk) 09:38, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Sub-Hypothesis: C.R. Mimetics, The Missing Essential Nutrients
There is strong evidence emerging from research on cell signalling pathways that C.R. Mimetics may actually be more like 'essential nutrients' rather than non-nutritive static background chemicals. The overall effect of removing these phytochemicals over such a short period of time, and in such dramatic amounts is strongly suspected as a cause underlying increasing rates of metabolic syndrome, diabetes II, reactive oxygen species induced inflammatory responses, and more importantly, a major instigator of cell proliferation in what would otherwise have been minor incidence of self resolving cancers. Increased tumor formation from ROS via mitogenesis and the reduction of growth inhibiting cellular signalling may promote angiogenesis as well. Increased incidences of these diseases in both human and companion animal health is irrefutible. Now, we need to document evidence and support the hypothesis with peer reviewed journal articles. 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Xenohomesis
It's probably impossible to have an respectable article about C.R. mimetics without mentioning both Sinclair, et. al.'s xenohomesis hypothesis and competing but not mutually exclusive, naturally occuring plant and bacteria, anti-growth defenses; e.g. substances like estrogenic isoflavones, polyphenols including resveratrol, symbiotic-soil-bacterium producing rapamycin, all primarily appearing in plants and symbiotic bacteria ecosystems as competitive defenses against parasitic fungi, insects, etc. The proliferation of these strong anti growth factor throughout the plant genome, resulted in a beneficial, anti-aging cell signalling epigenetic activator in older, higher animals. Some good references are Sarah L. Hands, Christopher G. Proud, Andreas Wyttenbach, mTOR’s role in ageing: protein synthesis or autophagy, AGING, July 2009, Vol. 1. No 7 ;Blagosklonny; Inhibition of S6K by resveratrol: In search of the purpose 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

'' "Xenohormesis" is derived from the word root "xeno" (foreign) and "hormesis" (control). Xenohormesis means altered cellular function due to exposure to foreign chemicals in the food supply, water and air. Our food contains countless potentially bioactive substances which are beyond the traditionally recognized macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates and fats) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Interestingly, some of these xenohormetic substances are beneficial while many are detrimental.'' citation extracted from an article by J.Bland Ph.D Metagenics. RGK (talk) 10:05, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

I am agree with this suggestion. I have found in my own experiments many effects in the direction of preventing body weight increase, lower hepatic lipid accumulation, etc. when a polyphenolic-rich extract was administered to a High-fat fed mice. Also in "Resultados Preliminares" section. (Thesis in Spanish). Regards Gustafmaler (talk) 11:17, 1 July 2017 (UTC)

Soy Isoflavone Diadzein and Metabolite S-Equol
Evidence is suggesting that diadzein and perhaps its metabolite s-equol are SIRT 1 activators. Ions, et. al; title something like=Is Soyabean an Activator of SIRT 1; British Journal of Nutrition, Sept or Oct 2009 (I'll find the citation) and their work was based upon Kyle A. Rasbach and Rick G. Schnellmann's 2008 paper Isoflavones Promote Mitochondrial Biogenesis. 71.105.250.25 (talk) 09:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

PPARy in Other candidate section
This sentence "Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma inhibitors, such as Rosiglitazone and ..." must be edited. Rosiglitazone is a full agonist fo PPARy, not an antagonist. As an example. Regards Gustafmaler (talk) 11:22, 1 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Caloric restriction mimetic


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User:TonyW

I joined Wikipedia in May 2004.

My main interests are computers, Doctor Who, magic, and reading.

I live in Southport in the UK.

title: User:TonyW


text:
Basileus

Basileus (βασιλεύς) is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs in history. In the English-speaking world it is perhaps most widely understood to mean monarch, referring to either a king or an emperor. The title was used by sovereigns and other persons of authority in ancient Greece (especially during the Hellenistic period), the Byzantine emperors, and the kings of modern Greece. The name Basileios (Basil), deriving from the term basileus, is a common given name in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches.

The feminine forms are basilissa (βασίλισσα), basillis (βασιλίς) or the archaic basilinna (βασιλίννα), meaning queen or empress. The related term basileia (βασίλεια) means 'kingdom' or 'royal realm'.

Etymology
The etymology of basileus is uncertain. The Mycenaean form was *gʷasileus (Linear B:, qa-si-re-u), denoting some sort of court official or local chieftain, but not an actual king. Its hypothetical earlier Proto-Greek form would be *gʷatileus. Some linguists assume that it is a non-Greek word that was adopted by Bronze Age Greeks from a pre-existing linguistic Pre-Greek substrate of the Eastern Mediterranean. Schindler argues for an inner-Greek innovation of the -eus inflection type from Indo-European material rather than a Mediterranean loan.

Original senses encountered on clay tablets
The first written instance of this word is found on the baked clay tablets discovered in excavations of Mycenaean palaces originally destroyed by fire. The tablets are dated from the 15th century BCE to the 11th century BCE and are inscribed with the Linear B script, which was deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 and corresponds to a very early form of Greek. The word basileus is written as qa-si-re-u and its original meaning was "chieftain" (in one particular tablet the chieftain of the guild of bronzesmiths is referred to as qa-si-re-u). Here the initial letter q- represents the PIE labiovelar consonant */gʷ/, transformed in later Greek into /b/. Linear B uses the same glyph for /l/ and /r/, now transcribed with a Latin "r" by uniform convention. (Similarly, the Old Persian word vazir also has almost the same meaning as "chieftain".) Linear B only represents syllables of single vowel, or of a consonant-vowel form, therefore any final -s is omitted.

Basileus vs. wanax in Mycenaean times
The word can be contrasted with wanax, another word used more specifically for "king" and usually meaning "High King" or "overlord". With the collapse of Mycenaean society, the position of wanax ceases to be mentioned, and the basileis (the plural form) appear the topmost potentates in Greek society. In the works of Homer wanax appears, in the form ánax, mostly in descriptions of Zeus (ánax andrōn te theōn te, "king of men and of the gods") and of very few human monarchs, most notably Agamemnon. Otherwise the term survived almost exclusively as a component in compound personal names (e.g., Anaxagóras, Pleistoánax) and is still in use in Modern Greek in the description of the anáktoron / anáktora ("[place or home] of the ánax"), i.e. of the royal palace. The latter is essentially the same word as 𐀷𐀩𐀏𐀳𐀫 wa-na-ka-te-ro, wanákteros, "of the wanax / king" or "belonging to the wanax / king", used in Linear B tablets to refer to various craftsmen serving the king (e.g. the "palace", or royal, spinner, or the ivory worker), and to items belonging or offered to the king (javelin shafts, wheat, spices, precincts etc.).

Most of the Greek leaders in Homer's works are described as basileís, which is rendered conventionally in English as "kings". However, a more accurate translation may be "princes" or "chieftains", which would better represent conditions in Greek society in Homer's time, and also the roles ascribed to Homer's characters. Agamemnon tries to give orders to Achilles among many others, while another basileus serves as his charioteer. His will, however, is not to be obeyed automatically. In Homer the wanax is expected to rule over the other basileis by consensus rather than by coercion, which is why Achilles rebels (the main theme of the Iliad) when he decides that Agamemnon is treating him disrespectfully.

Archaic basileus
A study by R. Drews demonstrates that even at the apex of Geometric and Archaic Greek society, basileus did not automatically translate to "king": In a number of places authority was exercised by a college of basileis drawn from a particular clan or group, and the office had term limits. However, basileus could also be applied to the hereditary leaders of "tribal" states, like those of the Arcadians and the Messenians, in which cases the term approximated the meaning of "king".

Pseudo-Archytas' definition of the basileus as "sovereign" and "living law"
According to pseudo-Archytas's treatise "On justice and law" Basileus is more adequately translated into "Sovereign" than into "king". The reason for this is that it designates more the person of king than the office of king: the power of magistrates (arkhontes, "archons") derives from their social functions or offices, whereas the sovereign derives his power from himself. Sovereigns have auctoritas, whereas magistrates retain imperium. Pseudo-Archytas aimed at creating a theory of sovereignty completely enfranchised from laws, being itself the only source of legitimacy. He goes so far as qualifying the Basileus as nomos empsykhos, or "living law", which is the origin, according to Agamben, of the Führerprinzip and of Carl Schmitt's theories on dictatorship.

Use of basileus in classical times
In classical times, most Greek states had abolished the hereditary royal office in favor of democratic or oligarchic rule. Some exceptions existed, namely the two hereditary Kings of Sparta (who served as joint commanders of the army, and were also called arkhagetai), the Kings of Cyrene, the Kings of Macedon and of the Molossians in Epirus and Kings of Arcadian Orchomenus. The Greeks also used the term to refer to various kings of "barbaric" (i.e. non-Greek) tribes in Thrace and Illyria, as well as to the Achaemenid kings of Persia. The Persian king was also referred to as Megas Basileus/Basileus Megas (Great King) or Basileus Basileōn, a translation of the Persian title xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām ("King of Kings"), or simply "the king". There was also a cult of Zeus Basileus at Lebadeia. Aristotle distinguished the basileus, constrained by law, from the unlimited tyrant (tyrannos), who had generally seized control.

At Athens, the archon basileus was one of the nine archons, magistrates selected by lot. Of these, the archon eponymos (for whom the year was named), the polemarch (polemos archon = war lord) and the basileus divided the powers of Athens' ancient kings, with the basileus overseeing religious rites and homicide cases. His wife had to ritually marry Dionysus at the Anthesteria festival. Philippides of Paiania was one of the richest Athenians during the age of Lycurgus of Athens, he was honoured archon basileus in 293–292 BCE. Similar vestigial offices termed basileus existed in other Greek city-states.

By contrast, the authoritarian rulers were never termed basileus in classical Greece, but archon (ruler) or tyrannos (tyrant); although Pheidon of Argos is described by Aristotle as a basileus who made himself into a tyrannos.

Many Greek authors, reconciling Carthaginian supremacy in the western Mediterranean with eastern stereotypes of absolutist non-Hellenic government, termed the Punic chief magistrate, the sufet, as basileus in their native language. In fact, this office conformed to largely republican frameworks, being approximately equivalent in mandate to the Roman consul. This conflation appears notably in Aristotle's otherwise positive description of the Carthaginian Constitution in the Politics, as well as in the writings of Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, and Diogenes Laertius. Roman and early Christian writings sourced from Greek fostered further mischaracterizations, with the sufet mislabeled as the Latin rex.

Alexander the Great
Basileus and Megas Basileus/Basileus Megas were exclusively used by Alexander the Great and his Hellenistic successors in Ptolemaic Egypt, Asia (e.g. the Seleucid Empire, the Attalid kingdom and Pontus) and Macedon. The feminine counterpart is basilissa (queen), meaning both a queen regnant (such as Cleopatra) and a queen consort. It is at this time that the term basileus acquired a fully royal connotation, in stark contrast with the much less sophisticated earlier perceptions of kingship within Greece.

Romans and Byzantines

Under Roman rule, the term basileus came to be used, in the Hellenistic tradition, to designate the Roman Emperor in the ordinary and literary speech of the Greek-speaking Eastern Mediterranean. Although the early Roman Emperors were careful to retain the façade of the republican institutions and to not formally adopt monarchical titles, the use of basileus amply illustrates that contemporaries clearly perceived that the Roman Empire was a monarchy in all but name. Nevertheless, despite its widespread use, due to its "royal" associations the title basileus remained unofficial for the Emperor, and was restricted in official documents to client kings in the East. Instead, in official context the imperial titles Caesar Augustus, translated or transliterated into Greek as Kaisar Sebastos or Kaisar Augoustos, and Imperator, translated as Autokratōr, were used.

By the 4th century however, basileus was applied in official usage exclusively to the two rulers considered equals to the Roman Emperor: the Sassanid Persian shahanshah ("king of kings"), and to a lesser degree the King of Axum, whose importance was rather peripheral in the Byzantine worldview. Consequently, the title acquired the connotation of "emperor", and when barbarian kingdoms emerged on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, their rulers were referred to in Greek not as basileus but as rēx or rēgas, the hellenized forms of the Latin title rex, king.

The first documented use of basileus Rhomaíōn in official context comes from the Persians: in a letter sent to Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) by Chosroes II, Maurice is addressed in Greek as basileus Rhomaíōn instead of the habitual Middle Persian appellation kēsar-i Hrōm ("Caesar of the Romans"), while the Persian ruler refers to himself correspondingly as Persōn basileus, thereby dropping his own claim to the Greek equivalent of his formal title, basileus basileōn ("king of kings"). The title appears to have slowly crept into imperial titulature after that, and Emperor Heraclius is attested as using it alongside the long-established Autokratōr Kaisar in a letter to Kavadh II in 628. Finally, in a law promulgated on 21 March 629, the Latin titles were omitted altogether, and the simple formula πιστὸς ἐν Χριστῷ βασιλεύς, "faithful in Christ Emperor" was used instead. The adoption of the new imperial formula has been traditionally interpreted by scholars such as Ernst Stein and George Ostrogorsky as indicative of the almost complete Hellenization of the Empire by that time. In imperial coinage, however, Latin forms continued to be used. Only in the reign of Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741) did the title basileus appear in silver coins, and on gold coinage only under Constantine VI (r. 780–797). "BASILEUS" was initially stamped on Byzantine coins in Latin script, and only gradually were some Latin characters replaced with Greek ones, resulting in mixed forms such as "BASIΛEVS".

Until the 9th century, the Byzantines reserved the term basileus among Christian rulers exclusively for their own emperor in Constantinople. This usage was initially accepted by the "barbarian" kings of Western Europe themselves: Despite having neglected the fiction of Roman suzerainty from the 6th century onward, they refrained from adopting imperial titles.

The situation began to change when the Western European states began to challenge the Empire's political supremacy and its right to the universal imperial title. The catalytic event was the coronation of Charlemagne as imperator Romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800, at St. Peter's in Rome. The matter was complicated by the fact that the Eastern Empire was then managed by Irene (r. 797–802), who had gained control after the death of her husband, the Emperor Leo IV (r. 775–780), as regent for their nine-year-old son, Constantine VI (r. 780–797). After Constantine's coming of age, Irene eventually decided to rule in her own name. In the conflict that ensued, Irene was victorious, and Constantine was blinded and imprisoned, to die soon afterward. The revulsion generated by this incident of filicide cum regicide was compounded by the traditional (and especially Frankish) aversion to the idea of a female sovereign. Although it is often claimed that, as monarch, Irene called herself in the male form basileus, in fact she normally used the title basilissa.

The Pope would seize this opportunity to cite the imperial throne being held by a woman as vacant and establish his position as able to divinely appoint rulers. Leading up to this, Charlemagne and his Frankish predecessors had increasingly become the Papacy's source of protection while the Byzantine's position in Italy had weakened significantly. In 800 CE, Charlemagne, now a king of multiple territories, was proclaimed "Emperor of the Romans" by the Pope. Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title of the Romans began a prolonged diplomatic controversy which was resolved only in 812 when the Byzantines agreed to recognize him as "basileus", while continuing to refuse any connection with the Roman Empire. In an effort to emphasize their own Roman legitimacy, the Byzantine rulers thereafter began to use the fuller form basileus Rhomaíōn (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων, "emperor of the Romans") instead of the simple "basileus", a practice that continued in official usage until the end of the Empire. The title autokratōr was also revived by the early 9th century (and appears in coins from 912 on). It was reserved for the senior ruling emperor among several co-emperors (symbasileis), who exercised actual power. The term Megas Basileus/Basileus Megas ("Great Emperor") was also sometimes used for the same purpose. By the Palaiologan period, the full style of the Emperor was finalized in the phrase "X, in Christ the God faithful Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans" ("Χ, ἐν Χριστῷ τῷ Θεῷ πιστὸς βασιλεὺς καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ Ῥωμαίων", "Χ, en Christō tō Theō pistós basileus kai autokratōr Rhōmaíōn").

The later German emperors were also conceded the title "basileus of the Franks". The Byzantine title in turn produced further diplomatic incidents in the 10th century, when Western potentates addressed the emperors as "emperors of the Greeks". A similar diplomatic controversy (this time accompanied by war) ensued from the imperial aspirations of Simeon I of Bulgaria in the early 10th century. Aspiring to conquer Constantinople, Simeon claimed the title "basileus of the Bulgarians and of the Romans", but was only recognized as "basileus of the Bulgarians" by the Byzantines. From the 12th century however, the title was increasingly, although again not officially, used for powerful foreign sovereigns, such as the kings of France or Sicily, the tsars of the restored Bulgarian Empire, the Latin emperors and the emperors of Trebizond. In time, the title was also applied to major non-Christian rulers, such as Tamerlane or Mehmed II. Finally, in 1354, Stefan Dušan, king of Serbia, assumed the imperial title, based on his Bulgarian mother's Theodora Smilets of Bulgaria royal line, self-styling himself in Greek as basileus and autokratōr of the Romans and Serbs which was, however, not recognized by the Byzantines.

New Testament and Jesus
While the terms used for the Roman emperor are Kaisar Augustos (Decree from Caesar Augustus, Dogma para Kaisaros Augoustou, Luke 2:1) or just Kaisar (see Render unto Caesar...), and Pontius Pilate is termed Hegemon (Matthew 27:2), Herod is referred to as basileus (in his coins also Basileōs Herodou, "of King Herod", and by Josephus).

Regarding Jesus, the term basileus acquired a new Christian theological meaning out of the further concept of basileus as a chief religious officer during the Hellenistic period. Jesus is titled both Basileus Basileōn (Βασιλεὺς βασιλέων = King of Kings, Revelation 17:14, 19:16, a previous Near Eastern phrase for rulers of empires, and Basileus tōn basileuontōn (Βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων = literally King of those being kings, 1 Timothy 6:15) in the New Testament. Other titles involving basileus include Basileus tōn Ouranōn, translated as King of Heaven, and Basileus tōn Ioudaiōn, i.e. King of the Jews (see INRI). In Byzantine art, standard depictions of Jesus included Basileus tēs Doxēs (King of Glory), a phrase derived from Psalms 24:10, and Kyrios tēs Doxēs (Lord of Glory), from 1 Corinthians 2:8.

Modern Greece
During the post-Byzantine period, the term basileus, owing to the renewed influence of classical writers on the language, reverted to its earlier meaning of "king". This transformation had already begun in informal usage in the works of some classicizing Byzantine authors. In the Convention of London in 1832, the Great Powers agreed that the new Greek state should become a monarchy, and chose the Wittelsbach Prince Otto of Bavaria as its first king.

The Great Powers furthermore ordained that his title was to be "Βασιλεὺς τῆς Ἑλλάδος" Vasilefs tes Elládos, meaning "King of Greece", instead of "Βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων" Vasilefs ton Ellénon, i.e. "King of the Greeks". This title had two implications: first, that Otto was the king only of the small Kingdom of Greece, and not of all Greeks, whose majority still remained ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Second, that the kingship did not depend on the will of the Greek people, a fact further underlined by Otto's addition of the formula "ἐλέῳ Θεοῦ" eléo Theou, i.e. "By the Grace (Mercy) of God". For 10 years, until the 3 September 1843 Revolution, Otto ruled as an absolute monarch, and his autocratic rule, which continued even after he was forced to grant a constitution, made him very unpopular. After being ousted in 1862, the new Danish dynasty of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg began with King George I. Both to assert national independence from the will of the Great Powers, and to emphasize the constitutional responsibilities of the monarch towards the people, his title was modified to "King of the Hellenes", which remained the official royal title, until the abolition of the Greek monarchy in 1924 and 1973.

The two Greek kings who had the name of Constantine, a name of great sentimental and symbolic significance, especially in the irredentist context of the Megali Idea, were often, although never officially, numbered in direct succession to the last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI, as Constantine XII and Constantine XIII.

title: Basileus


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Talk:Dorsal fin

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 7 September 2020 and 11 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): JonA288.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:15, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Joe.Perez.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 19:46, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Standards
I just read this page for the first time. Saying that dorsal fins are infamous seems somewhat biased. Also there are a lot of sentence fragments, and other grammatical errors that make the last paragraph difficult to understand. I am not a serious editor, but someone should work to clean up this page. 70.127.68.125 (talk) 17:42, 21 February 2009 (UTC) JAHIIIWolf (non member).

 * I think it reads fine, now. I don't really see a problem with that mention of the "infamous dorsal sign". --Swift (talk) 22:53, 30 December 2009 (UTC)

What about discussing the material(s) that comprise dorsal fins? What exactly are they made of? Throughout the internet I've come across a lot of references to "fibrous tissue" relative to marine mammals, but this seems a little vague. Also, I know that fish have bones/cartilaginous structures called "pterygiophores" that support their dorsal fins; do marine mammals have them too? Maybe an expert could elaborate on this? From what I can tell, the dorsal fins, pectoral fins and flukes of all marine mammals are made of the same material, so it might be advisable to create a new page, or perhaps link to an existing page? - Myrddin_Wyllt 9/18/2010

Article Modification
Hello, I read the article and was wondering if the addition of a developmental section has been considered. I see that this was brought up in a previous Talk page post. I understand for teleost fish, the dorsal fin, and others, is composed of the endoskeleton and dermal finrays. Please refer to the article I have cited as a potential starting point for this addition.

Also, I'm curious if the addition of additional practical applications of the dorsal fin could be added. The article notes the use of dorsal fins to identify cetaceans, but what about potential research uses of fish dorsal fins?

Please let me know your thoughts!Joe.Perez (talk) 02:36, 11 March 2017 (UTC)==

Structure Section
Hello, I have been working on writing a structural section to add to this article. I am only adding a portion of what I have written just to see if it fits the style and plan for this page. Please let me know what else I can add, or if this section is worth writing. I am hoping to have an image up to label sections of the dorsal fin in bony fish. I appreciate any comments. Thanks!Joe.Perez (talk) 05:36, 19 April 2017 (UTC)==

Want to understand
help I read the whole article. And I didn't understand the first paragraph. Which is A dorsal fin is a fin located on the backs of various unrelated marine and freshwater vertebrates, including most fish, cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), and the (extinct) ichthyosaurs. I want to know that what the unrelated word actually means. Should not the word be placed by a word related??? Fahim fanatic (talk) 06:24, 27 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Yes, it's not clear what the word "unrelated" means in that context. I've reworded the first paragraph so it is perhaps more clear (and less inaccurate). --Epipelagic (talk) 08:13, 27 January 2018 (UTC)

Discussion
Discuss. Nothing more 85.21.6.194 (talk) 21:07, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dorsal fin


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Salmon River (Idaho)

The Salmon River, also known as "The River of No Return", is a river located in the U.S. state of Idaho in the western United States. It flows for 425 mi through central Idaho, draining a rugged, thinly populated watershed of 14000 sqmi. The river drops more than 7000 ft from its headwaters, near Galena Summit above the Sawtooth Valley in the Sawtooth National Recreation Area, to its confluence with the Snake River. Measured at White Bird, its average discharge is 11060 cuft/s. The Salmon River is the longest undammed river in the contiguous United States.

Settlements located along the Salmon River include Stanley, Clayton, Challis, Salmon, Riggins, and White Bird. Redfish Lake and Little Redfish Lake, which flow into the river via Redfish Lake Creek, are the termini of the longest Pacific sockeye salmon migration in North America. The lower half of the river provides the time zone boundary for the state, with northern Idaho on Pacific Time and the rest of the state on Mountain Time.

Course
The Salmon River originates from and flows through the mountains of central and eastern Idaho (Lemhi Range, Sawtooth, Salmon River Mountains, Clearwater and Bitterroot Range). The main stem rises in the Sawtooth Range at over 9200 ft in elevation, several miles northwest of Norton Peak. For the first 30 mi, it flows north through the Sawtooth Valley, then turns east at Stanley, receiving the Yankee Fork shortly below that point and the East Fork further downstream. The river then flows northeast, receiving the Pahsimeroi River at Ellis and then the Lemhi River at Salmon east of the Lemhi Range.

North of Salmon, the river is joined at its North Fork, before turning west into over 200 mi of continuous canyons through the Salmon River and Clearwater Mountains – some of the most rugged and isolated terrain in the contiguous United States. Exhibiting upwards of 7000 ft of vertical relief, the Salmon River canyons are some of the deepest in the U.S., surpassing the Grand Canyon and second only to the Snake River's Hells Canyon, nearby on the Idaho–Oregon border. Here, the river is joined by its two largest tributaries, the Middle Fork and South Fork. 10 mi downstream (west) of its confluence with the Middle Fork, the Salmon River becomes the dividing line for the two time zones in Idaho: Mountain Time to the south, Pacific Time to the north, bisecting the state at approximately 45½ degrees north latitude.

The river turns abruptly north at the confluence with the Little Salmon River at Riggins, about 87 mi above its mouth. From there the river flows almost due north, with U.S. Route 95 crossing the river on the "Time Zone Bridge" just north of Riggins, and then travels on its east bank until a few miles before White Bird. The highway splits north to climb White Bird Hill while the river loops northwest and then south to its confluence with the Snake River north of Hells Canyon, 15 mi south of the Washington border and 40 mi upstream of Lewiston. Excluding Alaska, the Salmon River is the longest river system contained entirely within a single U.S. state.

Anthropology
The Salmon River area has been home to people for at least the last 8,000 years. Much of the area was inhabited by several tribes, including the Nez Perce. The river was considered sacred ground and a rich source of food for the indigenous people of the area, who relied on the abundant salmon species and other wildlife.

Exploration
In August 1805, just after crossing the Continental Divide, Lewis and Clark ventured down the Salmon River, but found it to be too rough to be navigable. Clark wrote:

"... I shall in justice to Capt. Lewis who was the first white man ever on this fork of the Columbia Call this Louis's river. ... The Westerly fork of the Columbia River [the present Salmon River] is double the size of the Easterley fork [the present Lemhi River] & below those forks the river is ... 100 yd wide, it is very rapid & Sholey water Clear but little timber."

The honor didn't last long; by 1810, maps of the area were already referring to "Louis' River" as the Salmon. Clark had thought that the Salmon River was the Snake River, thus he called it the "Westerly fork of the Columbia". The Snake River retained the variant name "Lewis River" or "Lewis Fork" longer than did the Salmon.

In the Early to Mid 20th Century other explorers arrived to the Salmon River and ultimately stayed. These early explorers included Frank Lance, Francis, Hank the Hermit, and most well known and storied Buckskin Bill. Sylvan Ambrose Hart (Buckskin Bill) was one of the last Mountain Men to inhabit the Salmon River Canyon at 5 Mile Bar. He arrived to the canyon in/around 1928 from the Oklahoma Territory. For nearly 50 years he lived at 5 Mile Bar and spent less than 50 dollars a year on staples like coffee, tea, chocolate, sugar, flour, etc. Buckskin was a true craftsman in his own right forging his own knives, pistols, rifles, kettles, pots, and pans. Buckskin died in 1980 and his cabin at 5 mile bar has been turned into a museum.

Gold
In the 1860s, placer deposits of gold were found along the river, and a gold rush began. Miners came to the area, causing clashes with the Nez Perce on their ancestral tribal lands. Many historic and present day mines (including dredging operations) can be seen while traveling along the river.

Recreation
Several national forests and Sawtooth National Recreation Area provide for numerous recreation opportunities within the river's watershed. Two segments (the Middle Fork and a section of the main Salmon River, known as the Main Fork) are protected as National Wild and Scenic Rivers. The Middle Fork was one of the original eight rivers designated Wild and Scenic in 1968, and is often considered the "crown jewel" of the Wild and Scenic system.

The Salmon is a popular destination for whitewater kayaking, canoeing, and rafting. The canyons of the Salmon allow for magnificent views of the complex geology of the region. The Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness Area includes one of the deepest canyons in the continental United States, which at roughly 7000 ft of vertical relief, is deeper than the Grand Canyon. Outdoor Lodges dot the main canyon of the Salmon River from Salmon, Idaho to Riggins, Idaho. Often the only way to access these lodges is either by motorized boats, rafting trips, hiking, and even some isolated airstrips.

Both the Middle Fork and Main Fork travel through the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness Area. The Middle Fork is about 110 mi long, while the Main Fork is about 81 mi in length. The Middle Fork raft trip run ends 7 mi prior to the beginning of the Main Fork run; Corn Creek is the start of the Main Fork section of the Salmon River.

The South Fork of the Salmon flows through Payette National Forest and enters the Wild and Scenic Main Fork at Mackay Bar. The Main Fork raft trip ends about 25 mi east of Riggins, either at Vinegar Creek or Carey Creek, marking the beginning of the Lower Salmon rafting section. Boating companies offer both single and multiple day trips on the river.

The Middle Fork of the Salmon River is known as one of the best catch and release fly fisheries in the nation. Other recreational activities along the river include camping, hiking and mountain biking.

Wildlife
The Salmon River historically produced 45% percent of all the steelhead (ocean-going rainbow trout) and 45 percent of all the spring and summer chinook salmon in the entire Columbia River Basin. The Salmon River basin contains most (up to 70 percent) of the remaining salmon and steelhead habitat in the Columbia River Basin. Despite abundant, excellent salmon habitat in the Salmon River basin, chinook, steelhead, and sockeye salmon populations have not significantly recovered, despite listings under the federal Endangered Species Act since the mid-1990s. Populations remain at risk in large part because of the negative effects of four federal dams and reservoirs on the lower Snake river, through which both juvenile salmon and returning adults must pass. Many Northwest salmon advocates, commercial & sportfishermen call for removal of the Lower Granite, Little Goose, Lower Monumental, and Ice Harbor dams to address survival problems. As of November 2015, controversy continues in NW Politics, public discourse, and in federal court, where federal salmon recovery plans are under legal challenge.

USGS stations
The United States Geological Survey operates four stream gauge water level monitoring stations on the main stem of the Salmon River and 17 others on its tributaries. Real time data is available for each station on the USGS website. For a map of these see Salmon River USGS Station Map or in the box at right.

title: Salmon River (Idaho)


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University Botanical Garden (Oslo)

The University Botanical Garden (Botanisk hage) is Norway's oldest botanical garden. It was first established in 1814 and is administered by the University of Oslo. It is situated in the neighborhood of Tøyen in Oslo, Norway.

Tøyen Manor
The Tøyen estate is rich in history, and the main wing is probably the oldest wooden building in greater Oslo. Tøyen i Aker was originally an estate owned by the Nonneseter Abbey. Norway's Chancellor Jens Bjelke acquired the property about 1640.

King Frederik VI of Denmark later acquired the estate and subsequently gifted the property to the University of Christiania in 1812. In 1814, work began on the University Botanical Garden. The University of Oslo's oldest building, Tøyen Manor (Tøyen hovedgaard), is located in the garden. Today the historic Tøyen Manor houses temporary exhibitions and a café for staff and visitors.

Botanical Garden
The University Botanical Garden (Oslo), founded in 1814, belongs to the Natural History Museum of the University of Oslo. Through research, education and plant conservation, the garden seeks to increase public awareness of the importance of plant diversity. The plant collections contain approx. 7500 species. Johan Siebke was the botanical gardener at the Botanical Garden from the date of establishment. He contributed greatly to the planning and construction of the botanical garden and to the operation during the next first 40 years. The garden originally covered 75,000 square metres, but has since doubled in size. Botanical Museum (Botanisk museum) which dated to 1863 was merged with the Botanical Garden in 1975. The collection includes roughly 35,000 plants of about 7,500 unique species.

Museums
The Natural History Museum at the University of Oslo is Norway's most comprehensive natural history collection. A selection of specimens are on display for the general public, in the Geological Museum and the Zoological Museum. The Natural History Museum in Oslo is where you can see the famous fossil known as "Ida", the oldest primate fossil known and the most complete fossil of an early primate. She was bought by the museum in 2007, and presented to the world in 2009.

The geological museum was established in 1917 by Waldemar Christofer Brøgger.

title: University Botanical Garden (Oslo)


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Mengo

Mengo can refer to:
 * Mengo, Uganda
 * Mengo Hospital
 * Mengo Senior School
 * Clube de Regatas do Flamengo
 * Letin Mengo, an electric car
 * Mengo Yokoyari, Manga artist

title: Mengo


text:
FLA

FLA may refer to:

Business and labour

 * Fair Labor Association
 * Fellow of the Library Association
 * Finance and Leasing Association, in the United Kingdom
 * Florida Library Association, association for librarians in Florida
 * Free Luxembourger Workers' Union (German: Freie Lëtzebuerger Arbechterverband)
 * Florida Library Association

Education

 * First language acquisition
 * First language attrition
 * Foreign Language Assistant
 * Forest Lake Academy, in Apopka, Florida, United States
 * Fraternity Leadership Association

Government and politics

 * Argentine Libertarian Federation (Spanish: Federación Libertaria Argentina)
 * Azores Liberation Front (Portuguese: Frente de Libertação dos Açores)
 * Family Law Act (disambiguation)
 * Football Lads Alliance, UK campaign group

Music

 * Fight Like Apes, an Irish shoegaze band
 * Front Line Assembly, a Canadian electro-industrial band

People

 * Jens P. Flå (1923–2002), Norwegian politician

Places

 * Flå, a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway
 * Flå Station, a railway station in Buskerud county, Norway
 * Flå, Sør-Trøndelag, a former municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway
 * Flå Church, Trøndelag, a church in Melhus municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway
 * Fla., an abbreviation for Florida, a state in the United States

Sport

 * Clube de Regatas do Flamengo, a Brazilian sports association
 * Flå IL, a Norwegian sports club
 * Florida Panthers, an ice hockey team based in Sunrise, Florida, United States
 * Luxembourg Athletics Federation (French: Fédération Luxembourgeoise d’Athlétisme)

Other uses

 * Air Florida, a defunct American airline
 * Faire: L'amour, a French drama film
 * Free-living Amoebozoa infection
 * Gustavo Artunduaga Paredes Airport in Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia
 * Salish-Spokane-Kalispel language, an indigenous language of the United States
 * Fasciclin-like arabinogalactan protein, a class of plant proteins
 * Full-load amps, the maximum current of an electric motor
 * .FLA file format for Adobe Flash Player

title: FLA