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Albert Brewer

Albert Preston Brewer (October 26, 1928 – January 2, 2017) was an American lawyer and Democratic Party politician who served as the 47th governor of Alabama from 1968 to 1971. He previously served as the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the speaker of the Alabama House of Representatives, and as an Alabama state representative representing Morgan County from 1955 to 1967.

Early life
Albert Preston Brewer was born on October 26, 1928, in Bethel Springs, Tennessee, United States, to Daniel A. Brewer, a farmer, and Clara Albert Brewer. While Albert was a child, the family moved to Decatur so his father could take a job with the Tennessee Valley Authority. Brewer stayed there and attended Lafayette Street School, Decatur Jr. High School, and Decatur High School, until he left for the University of Alabama in 1946 to study history and political science. He earned his law degree from the University of Alabama School of Law in 1952 and returned to Decatur to practice law. From 1956 to 1963 he served as Chairman of the Decatur Planning Commission, and in 1963 he was selected as Decatur's “Outstanding Young Man of the Year” and was selected by the Alabama Junior Chamber of Commerce as one of the four “Outstanding Young Men in Alabama.”

Brewer married Martha Helen Farmer in 1950 and had two children, Rebecca Anne and Beverly Allison. He was a Baptist.

House of Representatives
In 1953, Brewer chaired the "Young Democrats" chapter for Alabama's 8th congressional district. In 1954, the incumbent legislator serving Morgan County in the Alabama House of Representatives announced his retirement. Local community leaders recruited Brewer to run. He won the Democratic primary and, facing no opposition in the general election, was seated the following year. He was reelected in 1958 and 1962.

With the support of Governor-elect George Wallace, he was elected Speaker at the opening of the 1963 legislative session on January 8 without opposition. The speakership also made him ex officio chairman of the House Rules Committee. Under Brewer's leadership, the House was generally supportive of Wallace's goals. During the session, a bill to increase education spending, coupled with new tax increases, was introduced and passed through the legislature. Brewer, wary of Wallace's campaign promises to block tax increases, met with the governor to ask when he would veto the bill and send it back to the legislature. Wallace stated that he did not intend to veto the bill to preserve his campaign pledge, instead saying that he would "just yell nigger" to avoid scrutiny. After this, Brewer began to have doubts about Wallace's merits.

In 1964, Brewer and the future U.S. Senator James B. Allen, then the lieutenant governor, were among the unpledged presidential electors on the Alabama ballot. They lost to the Republican slate committed to Barry M. Goldwater. No electors pledged to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson were permitted on the Alabama ballot. While national Democrats balked over Johnson's exclusion, most supported the unpledged slate, which competed directly with the Republican electors. As The Tuscaloosa News explained, loyalist electors would have offered a clearer choice to voters than did the unpledged slate.

Lieutenant governor
In 1966 Brewer considered running for the office of governor, as incumbent Governor George Wallace was constitutionally restricted from seeking another term. The governor's wife, Lurleen Wallace, entered the race and Brewer, convinced a gubernatorial candidacy would be futile, decided to run for the office of lieutenant governor of Alabama. With a coalition of Wallace supporters, organized labor, and urbanites, he overwhelmingly defeated his opponent in the Democratic primary and faced no opposition in the general election. He was sworn in on January 16, 1967. Lurleen Wallace also won and was inaugurated that month. As lieutenant governor, he convinced the legislature to create an Education Study Commission.

In early July 1967 Lurleen Wallace traveled to Texas for cancer treatment. State law stipulated that if the governor was out of state for 21 days, the lieutenant governor officially assumed their responsibilities as acting governor. This went into effect at the beginning of July 24, and Brewer served as acting governor for about 15 hours, meeting with some state officials, signing extradition papers, and appointing 25 honorary colonels, before Wallace was flown back to Alabama.

Executive action
Though aware of Lurleen Wallace's affliction with cancer, Brewer was not familiar with the severity of her condition until shortly before she died. Wallace succumbed on May 7, 1968, and, as stipulated in the constitution, Brewer succeeded to the office of governor. Taking the oath before only his family and George Wallace, Brewer remained very guarded about his feelings and views early in his new tenure, and delayed moving into the governor's mansion until Wallace had found a new home for his family. Wallace's erstwhile legal counsel, Cecil Jackson, directed all executive cabinet members to offer their resignations to Brewer to allow him to build a team of his choosing. Brewer ended up retaining most of the cabinet, though he fired the public safety director and the director of the Department of Conservation after they refused to offer their resignations (and after the latter became involved in a physical altercation with another state employee).

Fairly soon after taking office, Brewer and his new state finance director, Bob Ingram, uncovered the large extent to which the Wallace administration had favored supporters in conducting state business, including alleged kickbacks for road construction contracts and asking state troopers to funnel stranded motorists to preferred tow truck services. Brewer was personally bothered by these improprieties but, wanting to seek election to his own gubernatorial term in 1970, felt it would be unwise to anger Wallace supporters by publicly exposing and denouncing these practices. As part of their attempt to quietly reform the executive branch, Brewer and Ingram tapped experienced public servants who they viewed as ethical, such as Tom Brassell, who was made assistant finance director. Despite this commitment to reform, he sometimes intervened in hiring and other state business to assist friends and dole out favors. On the whole, politicization in Brewer's administration was more muted than his predecessors', and civil servant morale improved during his tenure.

Unlike his two predecessors, Brewer held weekly press conferences. At one such meeting in June 1968, Brewer called for the establishment of a state motor pool, saying he would create one by executive order and then ask for the legislature to affirm it. The motor pool system, which he hoped would limit inappropriate use of state vehicles for personal purposes, required all vehicles to be checked out and all fuel to be purchased from the state. He also had state insignia prominently affixed to all motor pool vehicles to increase their visibility as government property. All vehicles deemed unnecessary—totaling about 1,000—were requisitioned from various agencies and listed for sale, including the governor's limousine. In the end, the reforms only generated minor cost savings for the government. He also had excess copy machines sold, consolidated the state's computer systems, eliminated 12 senior assistant positions, and dispatched various staff the Wallaces' had loaned to the governor's office back to their agencies of origin to handle their official competencies. George Wallace was critical of some of the reforms, particularly the motor pool, complaining that they reflected a de facto rebuke of his late wife. While originally cautious about besmirching the Wallaces, the complaints annoyed Brewer and led him to abandon his earlier concerns. The governor also initiated an investigation into commissions collections by agents of the Alcohol Beverage Control Board. While the practice had been de jure eliminated by law in 1963 supported by both Wallace and Brewer, many board agents were purportedly collecting commissions on distillery sales without authorization during the Wallaces' tenures. George Wallace denied any knowledge of the impropriety and Brewer affirmed his innocence, but Wallace still criticized Brewer for the publicity the scandal received.

Brewer also took actions in accordance with his own socially conservative views which were popular among most Alabamians. After being informed by his wife that pornographic movies were being displayed in Bessemer, he authorized a series of state raids on theatres. He also initiated crackdowns on alcohol and narcotics abuse. Following a series of influence peddling scandals in the legislature, Brewer issued an executive order creating an ethics commission tasked with drafting a code of ethics for potential adoption by the legislature. Among his suggested points were the prohibition of gifts for officials, a ban on officials working for and receiving compensation from entities they regulated, and establishing conflict of interest disclosure rules. He offered funds from his office budget to support the commission's work.

To promote economic development, Brewer pursued industrial recruitment, traveling to New York to speak with corporate executives and hosting various in-person meetings with company representatives. He created the Alabama Program Development Office to link federal grant applications with local government's development efforts. Following a series of major fish kills on state rivers caused by dumping of chemicals, Brewer encouraged the state to take action against Geigy Chemical Company and create new anti-pollution laws.

Legislative action
In legislative and policy disputes, Brewer preferred negotiation and finding common ground rather than public spats or power plays with patronage, as George Wallace had. In anticipation of the first legislative session being convened while he was governor, he decided to focus on improving education, consolidating bureaucratic procedures, trimming unnecessary spending, and improving Alabama's national image. He investigated the state of education in Alabama, and found that overall the system was not improving relative to other states, despite efforts at reform during the Wallace administrations. He informed state education officials that he wanted to alter the state's strategy for responding to federal school desegregation orders; in contrast to Wallace's flagrant hostility and refusals, Brewer would "try to do it in a way that will let us do the most palatable thing for the people, the patrons of our system."

Brewer believed that a school choice policy which permitted integrated schooling options could satisfy the federal government's demands and be accepted by most Alabamians, thus preserving popular support for his goal of improving the public education system. Many school choice proponents in the South had advocated for choice policies to deliberately stall integration and preserve segregated schools, and by that point many federal courts were dissatisfied with such proposals. Several weeks after Brewer communicated to President Lyndon B. Johnson that he would engage the federal government in good faith on school segregation issues, the United States Attorney General sued in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama to replace school choice options. After the court ordered new measures be taken to further integration, Johnson ordered the schools integrate their faculty at a specific ratio and directed that some black schools be closed. The governor responded by engaging in similar rhetoric as segregationist, complaining of bureaucratic interference and social engineering. He also warned that under a more directed desegregation plan, most white parents would simply enroll their children in private schools. Despite this, he pledged to respect any court orders on racial matters. His request that Johnson reconsider his order was rejected.

Meanwhile, the Education Study Commission released a report on education in Alabama which outlined numerous deficiencies including overcrowded schools, inadequate instructional materials, underqualified educators, and uncompetitive pay rates for teachers. The commission recommended that additional funding was needed to improve the situation. In 1969 he called the legislature into special session to consider 30 bills aimed at improving education. Despite resistance from some urban legislators who thought the package did more to improve rural areas, the proposals were passed, increasing education spending by $132 million, raising teacher salaries by over 20 percent over two years, making the state and local superintendent positions appointive, granting the Education Study Commission statutory status, and creating the Alabama Commission on Higher Education.

At the beginning of the 1969 session, Brewer announced that he would push for new pollution control laws. With industrial groups heavily lobbying the legislature, only a weak bill was passed. More focused on education reform, Brewer decided against pushing for stronger regulations in a matter which would anger corporate interests and, in his view, earn him few additional votes in the 1970 election. More fish kills and serious mercury pollution in 1970 led for Brewer to appeal for federal assistance a commission a water quality survey and, as a lame duck, he briefly considered convening a special session to address inadequate pollution controls before ruling it unfeasible. His efforts during the 1969 session to strengthen consumer credit protections or schedule the legislature for annual sessions (instead of biannual) also failed. Despite this, Brewer's administration was able to obtain funding for a state Medicaid program, a state employee pay hike, new highway safety legislation, two anti-pornography measures, a meat inspection law, and a requirement that all workers contracted by the state for construction be guaranteed standard wages.

1970 gubernatorial campaign
Brewer supported Wallace's 1968 presidential campaign, soliciting donations and delivering speeches on his behalf. Within months of Brewer assuming office, Wallace assured him privately and stated publicly that he would not seek the governor's office in 1970. Around the Thanksgiving holiday in 1968, Wallace confronted Brewer about the alcohol agents scandal, and told Brewer in a meeting at the governor's mansion, "If you keep talking about it, it's going to reflect on me and I may just have to run against you in 1970." Brewer countered, "[Y]ou never have had a better friend than I've been to you and [your wife], and you told me [so] yourself when she died." The two spoke infrequently after the meeting, and Brewer continued with his preparations to be elected as governor in his own right in 1970, and, mindful of the possibility of another Wallace candidacy, took increasingly bolder policy positions and actions.

In that effort, he gained an important ally in U.S. President Richard M. Nixon, who had defeated Wallace in the 1968 presidential election and sought to neutralize Wallace as a potential adversary in 1972. Brewer's 1970 gubernatorial campaign, however, was revolutionary in many respects. Although earlier in his political career he was regarded as a segregationist but not a race-baiter, Brewer refused to engage in racist rhetoric and courted newly registered black voters. He hoped to build a coalition of black people, educated middle-class whites, and working-class whites from northern Alabama, traditionally a more liberal part of the state. He unveiled a platform calling for more funding for education, an ethics commission and a commission to revise Alabama's 1901 state constitution, which had been deliberately framed to disenfranchise black people and poor whites.

Brewer led Wallace in the Democratic primary but failed to win an outright majority. He then faced Wallace in a runoff. Wallace, whose presidential ambitions would have been destroyed with a defeat, ran a very aggressive and dirty campaign using racist rhetoric while proposing few ideas of his own. The Wallace campaign aired TV ads with slogans such as "Do you want the black block electing your governor?" and circulated an ad showing a white girl surrounded by seven black boys, with the slogan "Wake Up Alabama! Blacks vow to take over Alabama." Wallace called Brewer a sissy and promised not to run for president a third time. Wallace narrowly won the Democratic runoff with 51.6 percent of the vote to Brewer's 48.4% and won the general election by a wide margin. He was succeeded by Wallace on January 18, 1971, after 987 days in office.

Later life
After leaving office in January 1971, Brewer joined a law firm in Montgomery. He considered challenging Wallace again in the 1974 gubernatorial election, hoping that the salience of racial politics would decline by that point, but decided against it as Wallace's popularity persisted unabated after the 1972 assassination attempt on Wallace by Arthur Bremer. Instead, Brewer ran for governor again in 1978, but lost the Democratic primary, missing the runoff by almost 2 percentage points. When Wallace ran again in 1982, Brewer endorsed Republican Emory Folmar in the general election. In 1987 he became a professor of law and government at Samford University's Cumberland School of Law. Before his death, he taught a course on Professional Responsibility at the Cumberland School of Law. He was also an active leader with the Alabama Citizens for Constitutional Reform since 2000.

On January 2, 2017, Brewer died in Jackson Hospital, Montgomery, Alabama, at 88.

Legacy
Albert P. Brewer High School in eastern Morgan County is named in honor of Brewer. The school opened in 1972.

Historian Gordon E. Harvey wrote, "Brewer did more to improve education in Alabama than most of his predecessors and all but a few of his successors."

title: Albert Brewer


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Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

"Nightfall" is a 1941 science fiction short story by the American writer Isaac Asimov about the coming of darkness to the people of a planet ordinarily illuminated by sunlight at all times. It was adapted into a novel with Robert Silverberg in 1990. The short story has appeared in many anthologies and six collections of Asimov stories. In 1968, the Science Fiction Writers of America voted "Nightfall" the best science fiction short story written prior to the 1965 establishment of the Nebula Awards and included it in The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume One, 1929–1964.

Background
Written from March 17 to April 9, 1941 and sold on April 24, the short story was published in the September 1941 issue of Astounding Science Fiction under editor John W. Campbell. It was the 32nd story by Asimov, written while he was a graduate student in chemistry at Columbia University. Campbell asked Asimov to write the story after discussing with him a quotation from Ralph Waldo Emerson: "If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how would men believe and adore, and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of God!" Campbell's opinion was to the contrary: "I think men would go mad". He and Asimov chose the title together.

Campbell bought the story at a bonus rate of $1 1⁄4$ cents per word and at more than 13,000 words, "Nightfall" was Asimov's longest story yet. Consequently, Asimov received US$166 ($0 in present-day dollars), more than twice any previous payment for a story. He later said that before "Nightfall" neither he nor anyone else other than perhaps Campbell considered him more than a "third rater"; his name appeared on the cover of Astounding for the first time, and the story made him one of the field's top writers. Asimov believed that the unusual plot of "Nightfall" distinguished it from others, but "The Last Question" was his own favorite story.

In 1988, Martin H. Greenberg suggested Asimov find someone who would take his 47-year-old short story and — keeping the story essentially as written — add a detailed beginning and a detailed ending to it. This resulted in the 1990 publication of the novel Nightfall by Isaac Asimov and Robert Silverberg. As Asimov relates in the Robert Silverberg chapter of his autobiography, "Eventually, I received the extended Nightfall manuscript from Bob [Silverberg] ... Bob did a wonderful job and I could almost believe I had written the whole thing myself. He remained absolutely faithful to the original story[,] and I had very little to argue with."

Plot summary
The planet Lagash ("Kalgash" in the novel) is constantly illuminated by the six suns of its multiple-star system. Areas of darkness exist in enclosed areas on Lagash, such as caves, tunnels, and windowless rooms, but night never falls, because at least one sun is present in the sky at any given time.

A skeptical journalist visits a university observatory to interview a group of scientists who warn that civilization on Lagash will soon end. The researchers explain that they have discovered evidence of numerous ancient civilizations on the planet, all destroyed by fire, with the collapses occurring about 2,000 years apart. Furthermore, the religious writings of a doomsday cult claim that Lagash periodically passes through an enormous cave where mysterious "stars" appear. The stars are said to rain down fire from the heavens and rob people of their souls, reducing them to beast-like savages.

The scientists use this apparent myth, along with recent discoveries in gravitational research, to develop a theory about the repeated collapse of society. A mathematical analysis of Lagash's orbit around its primary sun reveals irregularities caused by the presence of a previously undiscovered moon that cannot be seen in the light of day. Calculations indicate that this "invisible" moon will soon obscure one of Lagash's suns when it is alone in the sky, resulting in a total eclipse that recurs every 2,049 years. Having evolved on a planet with no diurnal cycle, all Lagashians possess an intense, instinctive fear of the dark. Psychological experiments involving darkness have revealed that Lagashians may suffer permanent mental illness or even death after as little as 15 minutes of exposure and the eclipse is projected to last for over half a day. This, coupled with the diameter of the umbra being at least as great as that of the planet, ensures that the entire world population will experience an unprecedented period of prolonged, widespread darkness.

The scientists theorize that earlier civilizations on Lagash were destroyed by people who went insane during previous eclipses and, desperate for any light source, started large fires that destroyed cities. Oral accounts of the resulting chaos from crazed survivors and their children were passed down through the ages and formed the basis for the doomsday cult's sacred texts. Present-day civilization is doomed for the same reasons, but the researchers hope that saving a few hundred sane people in a hideout lit by newly invented torches and conducting detailed observations of the upcoming eclipse will help to break the cycle of societal collapse.

The scientists are unprepared for the stars. Because of the perpetual daylight on Lagash, its inhabitants are unaware of the existence of stars apart from their own; Lagashian astronomers estimate that the entire universe is no more than a few light-years in diameter and may hypothetically contain a small number of other suns. However, Lagash is located in the center of a giant cluster and, during the eclipse, the night sky, the first that any living person on Lagash has ever seen, is filled with the dazzling light of more than 30,000 newly visible stars.

Learning that the universe is far vaster and Lagash far more insignificant than they believed, coupled with the worldwide darkness produced by the eclipse, drives everyone, including the scientists, insane. Outside the observatory, in the direction of the city, the horizon begins glowing with the light of spreading fires as "the long night" returns to Lagash.

Setting and novel
The system of Lagash has six stars named Alpha, Beta, etc., in the original short story, whereas each has a proper name in the novel.

In the novel, Onos is the primary sun of Lagash and is located 10 light-minutes away, similar to the distance from Earth to the Sun. The other five suns are minor in comparison, but provide enough light to prevent the inhabitants of Lagash from defining "night". The only other distance given is that Tano and Sitha form a binary star system about 11 times as far away as Onos.

 * Onos — yellow dwarf, similar to the Sun
 * Dovim — red dwarf
 * Trey and Patru — class A or F main sequence stars, described as "white", a binary star system
 * Tano and Sitha — class A, B, or O main sequence stars, described as "blue", a binary star system

From what can be drawn from the text, Onos, the star appearing brightest and largest in Lagash's sky, is the star that Lagash orbits. Onos, in turn, orbits around the binary system Trey and Patru, the other binary system Tano and Sitha, and the red dwarf star Dovim. In addition to these stars, the only other celestial object mentioned is Lagash's moon, dubbed Lagash Two by the scientists of Lagash. Lagash Two follows an eccentric orbit around Lagash and every 2049 years it eclipses Dovim, during a period when from one part of Lagash, Dovim is the only star that would be visible.

The characters of the novel travel to three separate locations on Lagash. Most of the book is set in Saro City, which is situated near a large forest with trees, bushes, and graben (scavenger animals). As stated in the book's introduction, the weather in the book is often appropriate to the mood swings of the characters in the book, and the region of Saro City receives rains that last several days. The first major weather fluctuation mentioned in the book is the sandstorm that Siferra 89 avoided by hiding under a tarpaulin with her crew. The other weather event was the monsoon-like rains that occurred after Sheerin 501 returned from a consultation in Jonglor, which is described as a northern city. Siferra 89 travels to Beklimot, which is described as half a world away from Jonglor. Beklimot is located on the Sagikan Peninsula, near mountains. Beklimot is in a sandy, arid desert region.

Adaptations in other media
In the 1950s, the story was adapted for the radio programs Dimension X and X Minus One.

In 1976, Analog Records, as their only release, presented a further dramatization of "Nightfall" on a $33 1⁄3$ rpm vinyl record, produced by James Cutting and recorded at American Learning Center. After the story, it includes a dialog between Isaac Asimov and Ben Bova.

Dawn is a 1981 novel written by Dean McLaughlin as a re-imagining of Nightfall.

In 1988, Nightfall, a low-budget movie, was produced based upon the story. The movie was shot on location at the Arcosanti Project, using the resident community members as background actors. Another film version, Nightfall, was made in 2000.

In 1989, George Alec Effinger wrote a parody of the original short story, titled "Maureen Birnbaum After Dark." This story was included in the collections Foundation's Friends and Maureen Birnbaum, Barbarian Swordsperson.

In April 2007, the story was the 100th episode of Escape Pod, a science-fiction podcast.

In popular culture
In a 2022 episode of the comedy series Young Sheldon, after the death of Asimov the main character Sheldon Cooper sets up a book club to discuss Asimov's works as a tribute to him. "Nightfall" is chosen to be the first book to be discussed at the club.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)


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David McGuinty

David Joseph McGuinty (born February 25, 1960) is a Canadian lawyer and politician who has served as the Member of Parliament for Ottawa South since 2004. He currently chairs the National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians, an executive agency allowing legislator oversight of the Canadian intelligence community. A member of the Liberal Party of Canada, he has been elected or reelected seven times, most recently in the 2021 federal elections.

McGuinty is the brother of former Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty (born 1955) and the son of former Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) Dalton McGuinty Sr. (1926–1990).

Early life
David McGuinty was born and raised in Ottawa, Ontario in a family of twelve. His parents are politician and professor Dalton McGuinty, Sr. and full-time nurse Elizabeth McGuinty (née Pexton). Being the son of a Francophone mother and an Anglophone father, McGuinty is bilingual. He earned a Diploma in Agriculture from the Kemptville College of Agriculture, a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature at the University of Ottawa, specialized diplomas in Civil and Comparative Law at Université de Sherbrooke in Quebec, a Bachelor of Laws at the University of Ottawa, and finally a Master of Laws at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

An environmental lawyer by profession, he has long been closely involved in Liberal politics. He was chosen to serve as president and chief executive officer (CEO) of the Prime Minister's National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, a government think-tank concerned with sustainable development.

Personal life
McGuinty is the son of former Ontario MPP Dalton McGuinty Sr., and the brother of former Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty. He is married to Brigitte Bélanger and has four children.

In government (2004-2006)
While not invited to join Paul Martin's Cabinet, McGuinty served on the House of Commons Standing Committee on the Environment and Sustainable Development. He also served as chairman of the Liberal Party's National Capital Region Caucus.

In opposition (2006-2015)
On May 30, 2006, interim Liberal leader Bill Graham appointed McGuinty as the Official Opposition critic for Transport.

In the 2006 Liberal leadership contest, McGuinty endorsed the candidacy of Michael Ignatieff.

With the election of Stephane Dion as leader of the Liberal Party McGuinty became the critic for Environment in January 2007.

With the appointment of Michael Ignatieff as leader of the party, McGuinty was named Environment and Energy critic when Ignatieff announced his shadow cabinet on January 22, 2009. In September 2010, McGuinty was promoted to the role of Opposition House Leader.

Following the resignation of Michael Ignatieff, Interim leader Bob Rae named McGuinty as the Liberal Party's Critic for Natural Resources in June 2011, a demotion from his previous position as Opposition House Leader.

Leadership aspirations
As the younger brother of former Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty, David McGuinty has been rumoured to be a potential leadership candidate at some point.

In 2008, following the failed leadership of Stephane Dion and his pending resignation, McGuinty was considered a potential candidate to succeed him but announced in November 2008, that he would not seek the leader and instead endorsed Michael Ignatieff, Dion later appointed him as the critic for International Trade.

In 2011, when Ignatieff led the Liberal Party to their worst result in its history, McGuinty's name was again mentioned as a possible candidate to succeed Ignatieff.

At the Liberal Party's biennial convention in January 2012, McGuinty announced he was considering a bid for the leadership of the party and that he would make his decision over the coming months. However, on November 15, 2012, McGuinty confirmed he would not be seeking the Liberal leadership.

International work
In 2012 McGuinty was elected to head the Canadian chapter of an international alliance of lawmakers, Globe International, that presses governments to address global environment and economy challenges. He received all-party support to become the president of Globe Canada on June 12.

In 2012 McGuinty was invited by the National Democratic Institute to join their Pre-Election Assessment Mission to Ukraine.

Anti-Alberta comments
On November 20, 2012, following a meeting of the Natural Resources Committee, McGuinty stated, among other things, that Conservative MPs were "shilling" for the oil and gas industry, did not belong in the national legislature, and should "go back to Alberta."

The Conservative response was critical, as exemplified by Prime Minister Stephen Harper who said: "I find it shameful, I guess not surprising, but shameful, that 30 years after the National Energy Program, these anti-Alberta attitudes are so close to the surface in the Liberal party." Interim leader Bob Rae apologized on behalf of the Liberal Party and said McGuinty was away on family business for the following week.

The following day McGuinty resigned as Natural Resources critic. He apologized saying, "As member of Parliament for Ottawa South, I would like to unreservedly and unequivocally apologize for comments which I made with respect to parliamentary colleagues from the province of Alberta. My words in no way reflect the views of my party or leader, and I offer my apology to them as well as my colleagues from Alberta. I hold all parliamentarians in high esteem, and I regret my choice of words, as I can understand the offence they have caused."

Attendance record
In early 2014, McGuinty was accused of being a "part-time" Member of Parliament by the Conservative Riding Association, who were subsequently unable to explain how they calculated McGuinty's time in the House of Commons, given that the House does not keep attendance records.

Electoral record

 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Difference
 * align="right"|4,124
 * align="right"|6.71
 * align="right"|-2.29
 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Rejected Ballots
 * align="right"|298
 * align="right"|0.5
 * align="right"|-0.1
 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Turnout
 * align="right"|61,808
 * align="right"|71.71
 * align="right"|+2.00
 * - bgcolor="white"

 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Difference
 * align="right"|5,334
 * align="right"|8.95
 * align="right"|-17.9
 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Rejected Ballots
 * align="right"|361
 * align="right"|0.61
 * align="right"|+0.2
 * - bgcolor="white"
 * align="right" colspan=3|Turnout
 * align="right"|59,591
 * align="right"|69.67
 * align="right"|+7.7
 * - bgcolor="white"

title: David McGuinty


text:
Global digital divide

The global digital divide describes global disparities, primarily between developed and developing countries, in regards to access to computing and information resources such as the Internet and the opportunities derived from such access.

The Internet is expanding very quickly, and not all countries—especially developing countries—can keep up with the constant changes. The term "digital divide" does not necessarily mean that someone does not have technology; it could mean that there is simply a difference in technology. These differences can refer to, for example, high-quality computers, fast Internet, technical assistance, or telephone services.

Statistics
There is a large inequality worldwide in terms of the distribution of installed telecommunication bandwidth. In 2014 only three countries (China, US, Japan) host 50% of the globally installed bandwidth potential (see pie-chart Figure on the right). This concentration is not new, as historically only ten countries have hosted 70–75% of the global telecommunication capacity (see Figure). The U.S. lost its global leadership in terms of installed bandwidth in 2011, being replaced by China, which hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential in 2014 (29% versus 13% of the global total).

Versus the digital divide
The global digital divide is a special case of the digital divide; the focus is set on the fact that "Internet has developed unevenly throughout the world" causing some countries to fall behind in technology, education, labor, democracy, and tourism. The concept of the digital divide was originally popularized regarding the disparity in Internet access between rural and urban areas of the United States of America; the global digital divide mirrors this disparity on an international scale.

The global digital divide also contributes to the inequality of access to goods and services available through technology. Computers and the Internet provide users with improved education, which can lead to higher wages; the people living in nations with limited access are therefore disadvantaged. This global divide is often characterized as falling along what is sometimes called the North–South divide of "northern" wealthier nations and "southern" poorer ones.

Obstacles to a solution
Some people argue that necessities need to be considered before achieving digital inclusion, such as an ample food supply and quality health care. Minimizing the global digital divide requires considering and addressing the following types of access:

Physical access
Involves "the distribution of ICT devices per capita…and land lines per thousands". Individuals need to obtain access to computers, landlines, and networks in order to access the Internet. This access barrier is also addressed in Article 21 of the convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by the United Nations.

Financial access
The cost of ICT devices, traffic, applications, technician and educator training, software, maintenance, and infrastructures require ongoing financial means. Financial access and "the levels of household income play a significant role in widening the gap"

Socio-demographic access
Empirical tests have identified that several socio-demographic characteristics foster or limit ICT access and usage. Among different countries, educational levels and income are the most powerful explanatory variables, with age being a third one.

While a Global Gender Gap in access and usage of ICT's exist, empirical evidence shows that this is due to unfavorable conditions concerning employment, education and income and not to technophobia or lower ability. In the contexts understudy, women with the prerequisites for access and usage turned out to be more active users of digital tools than men. In the US, for example, the figures for 2018 show 89% of men and 88% of women use the Internet.

Cognitive access
In order to use computer technology, a certain level of information literacy is needed. Further challenges include information overload and the ability to find and use reliable information.

Design access
Computers need to be accessible to individuals with different learning and physical abilities including complying with Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act as amended by the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 in the United States.

Institutional access
In illustrating institutional access, Wilson states "the numbers of users are greatly affected by whether access is offered only through individual homes or whether it is offered through schools, community centers, religious institutions, cybercafés, or post offices, especially in poor countries where computer access at work or home is highly limited".

Political access
Guillen & Suarez argue that "democratic political regimes enable faster growth of the Internet than authoritarian or totalitarian regimes." The Internet is considered a form of e-democracy, and attempting to control what citizens can or cannot view is in contradiction to this. Recently situations in Iran and China have denied people the ability to access certain websites and disseminate information. Iran has prohibited the use of high-speed Internet in the country and has removed many satellite dishes in order to prevent the influence of Western culture, such as music and television.

Cultural access
Many experts claim that bridging the digital divide is not sufficient and that the images and language needed to be conveyed in a language and images that can be read across different cultural lines. A 2013 study conducted by Pew Research Center noted how participants taking the survey in Spanish were nearly twice as likely not to use the internet.

Examples
In the early 21st century, residents of developed countries enjoy many Internet services which are not yet widely available in developing countries, including:

 * Mobile phones and small electronic communication devices;
 * E-communities and social-networking;
 * Fast broadband Internet connections, enabling advanced Internet applications;
 * Affordable and widespread Internet access, either through personal computers at home or work, through public terminals in public libraries and Internet cafes, and through wireless access points;
 * E-commerce enabled by efficient electronic payment networks like credit cards and reliable shipping services;
 * Virtual globes featuring street maps searchable down to individual street addresses and detailed satellite and aerial photography;
 * Online research systems which enable users to peruse newspaper and magazine articles that may be centuries old, without having to leave home;
 * Electronic readers such as Kindle, Sony Reader, Samsung Papyrus and Iliad by iRex Technologies;
 * Price engines which help consumers find the best possible online prices and similar services which find the best possible prices at local retailers;
 * Electronic services delivery of government services, such as the ability to pay taxes, fees, and fines online.
 * Further civic engagement through e-government and other sources such as finding information about candidates regarding political situations.

Proposed remedies
There are four specific arguments why it is important to "bridge the gap":

 * Economic equality – For example, the telephone is often seen as one of the most important components, because having access to a working telephone can lead to higher safety. If there were to be an emergency, one could easily call for help if one could use a nearby phone. In another example, many work-related tasks are online, and people without access to the Internet may not be able to complete work up to company standards. The Internet is regarded by some as a basic component of civic life that developed countries ought to guarantee for their citizens. Additionally, welfare services, for example, are sometimes offered via the Internet.
 * Social mobility – Computer and Internet use is regarded as being very important to development and success. However, some children are not getting as much technical education as others, because lower socioeconomic areas cannot afford to provide schools with computer facilities. For this reason, some kids are being separated and not receiving the same chance as others to be successful.
 * Democracy – Some people believe that eliminating the digital divide would help countries become healthier democracies. They argue that communities would become much more involved in events such as elections or decision making.
 * Economic growth – It is believed that less-developed nations could gain quick access to economic growth if the information infrastructure were to be developed and well used. By improving the latest technologies, certain countries and industries can gain a competitive advantage.

While these four arguments are meant to lead to a solution to the digital divide, there are a couple of other components that need to be considered. The first one is rural living versus suburban living. Rural areas used to have very minimal access to the Internet, for example. However, nowadays, power lines and satellites are used to increase the availability in these areas. Another component to keep in mind is disabilities. Some people may have the highest quality technologies, but a disability they have may keep them from using these technologies to their fullest extent.

Using previous studies (Gamos, 2003; Nsengiyuma & Stork, 2005; Harwit, 2004 as cited in James), James asserts that in developing countries, "internet use has taken place overwhelmingly among the upper-income, educated, and urban segments" largely due to the high literacy rates of this sector of the population. As such, James suggests that part of the solution requires that developing countries first build up the literacy/language skills, computer literacy, and technical competence that low-income and rural populations need in order to make use of ICT.

It has also been suggested that there is a correlation between democrat regimes and the growth of the Internet. One hypothesis by Gullen is, "The more democratic the polity, the greater the Internet use...The government can try to control the Internet by monopolizing control" and Norris et al. also contends, "If there is less government control of it, the Internet flourishes, and it is associated with greater democracy and civil liberties.

From an economic perspective, Pick and Azari state that "in developing nations…foreign direct investment (FDI), primary education, educational investment, access to education, and government prioritization of ICT as all-important". Specific remedies proposed by the study include: "invest in stimulating, attracting, and growing creative technical and scientific workforce; increase the access to education and digital literacy; reduce the gender divide and empower women to participate in the ICT workforce; emphasize investing in intensive Research and Development for selected metropolitan areas and regions within nations".

There are projects worldwide that have implemented, to various degrees, the remedies outlined above. Many such projects have taken the form of Information Communications Technology Centers (ICT centers). Rahnman explains that "the main role of ICT intermediaries is defined as an organization providing effective support to local communities in the use and adaptation of technology. Most commonly, an ICT intermediary will be a specialized organization from outside the community, such as a non-governmental organization, local government, or international donor. On the other hand, a social intermediary is defined as a local institution from within the community, such as a community-based organization.

Other proposed remedies that the Internet promises for developing countries are the provision of efficient communications within and among developing countries so that citizens worldwide can effectively help each other to solve their problems. Grameen Banks and Kiva loans are two microcredit systems designed to help citizens worldwide to contribute online towards entrepreneurship in developing communities. Economic opportunities range from entrepreneurs who can afford the hardware and broadband access required to maintain Internet cafés to agribusinesses having control over the seeds they plant.

At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the IMARA organization (from Swahili word for "power") sponsors a variety of outreach programs which bridge the Global Digital Divide. Its aim is to find and implement long-term, sustainable remedies which will increase the availability of educational technology and resources to domestic and international communities. These projects are run under the aegis of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and staffed by MIT volunteers who give training, install and donate computer setups in greater Boston, Massachusetts, Kenya, Indian reservations the American Southwest such as the Navajo Nation, the Middle East, and Fiji Islands. The CommuniTech project strives to empower underserved communities through sustainable technology and education. According to Dominik Hartmann of the MIT's Media Lab, interdisciplinary approaches are needed to bridge the global digital divide.

Building on the premise that any effective solution must be decentralized, allowing the local communities in developing nations to generate their content, one scholar has posited that social media—like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter—may be useful tools in closing the divide. As Amir Hatem Ali suggests, "the popularity and generative nature of social media empower individuals to combat some of the main obstacles to bridging the digital divide". Facebook's statistics reinforce this claim. According to Facebook, more than seventy-five percent of its users reside outside of the US. Moreover, more than seventy languages are presented on its website. The reasons for the high number of international users are due to many the qualities of Facebook and other social media. Amongst them, are its ability to offer a means of interacting with others, user-friendly features, and the fact that most sites are available at no cost. The problem with social media, however, is that it can be accessible, provided that there is physical access. Nevertheless, with its ability to encourage digital inclusion, social media can be used as a tool to bridge the global digital divide.

Some cities in the world have started programs to bridge the digital divide for their residents, school children, students, parents and the elderly. One such program, founded in 1996, was sponsored by the city of Boston and called the Boston Digital Bridge Foundation. It especially concentrates on school children and their parents, helping to make both equally and similarly knowledgeable about computers, using application programs, and navigating the Internet.

Free Basics
Free Basics is a partnership between social networking services company Facebook and six companies (Samsung, Ericsson, MediaTek, Opera Software, Nokia and Qualcomm) that plans to bring affordable access to selected Internet services to less developed countries by increasing efficiency, and facilitating the development of new business models around the provision of Internet access. In the whitepaper realised by Facebook's founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg, connectivity is asserted as a "human right", and Internet.org is created to improve Internet access for people around the world.

"Free Basics provides people with access to useful services on their mobile phones in markets where internet access may be less affordable. The websites are available for free without data charges, and include content about news, employment, health, education and local information etc. By introducing people to the benefits of the internet through these websites, we hope to bring more people online and help improve their lives."

However, Free Basics is also accused of violating net neutrality for limiting access to handpicked services. Despite a wide deployment in numerous countries, it has been met with heavy resistance notably in India where the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India eventually banned it in 2016.

Satellite constellations
Several projects to bring internet to the entire world with a satellite constellation have been devised in the last decade, one of these being Starlink by Elon Musk's company SpaceX. Unlike Free Basics, it would provide people with a full internet access and would not be limited to a few selected services. In the same week Starlink was announced, serial-entrepreneur Richard Branson announced his own project OneWeb, a similar constellation with approximately 700 satellites that was already procured communication frequency licenses for their broadcast spectrum and could possibly be operational on 2020.

The biggest hurdle to these projects is the astronomical, financial, and logistical cost of launching so many satellites. After the failure of previous satellite-to-consumer space ventures, satellite industry consultant Roger Rusch said "It's highly unlikely that you can make a successful business out of this." Musk has publicly acknowledged this business reality, and indicated in mid-2015 that while endeavoring to develop this technically-complicated space-based communication system he wants to avoid overextending the company and stated that they are being measured in the pace of development.

As of 2023, Starlink is being actively deployed with the goal to clear licensure hurdles in every country open to its services.

One Laptop per Child
One Laptop per Child (OLPC) was an attempt by an American non-profit to narrow the digital divide. This organization, founded in 2005, provided inexpensively produced "XO" laptops (dubbed the "$100 laptop", though actual production costs vary) to children residing in poor and isolated regions within developing countries. Each laptop belonged to an individual child and provides a gateway to digital learning and Internet access. The XO laptops were designed to withstand more abuse than higher-end machines, and they contained features in context to the unique conditions that remote villages present. Each laptop was constructed to use as little power as possible, had a sunlight-readable screen, and was capable of automatically networking with other XO laptops in order to access the Internet—as many as 500 machines can share a single point of access. The project went defunct in 2014.

World Summit on the Information Society
Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society convened by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003 directly address the digital divide.

title: Global digital divide


text:
User talk:Scovetta

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I find useful

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Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Cheers, Sam [Spade] 21:57, 24 May 2004 (UTC)

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text:
Former Yan

Yan, known in historiography as the Former Yan (337–370), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Murong clan of the Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.

Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Eastern Jin-created title "Prince of Yan", but subsequently, in 352, after seizing most of the former Later Zhao territory, Murong Jun would declare himself emperor, and after that point, the rulers of the Former Yan declared themselves "emperors".

Background
With the decline of the Xianbei confederation, the Murong tribe resettled themselves around the Liaoxi region, where they feuded with the neighbouring Duan and Yuwen tribes. During the Three Kingdoms period, when the Cao Wei commander, Sima Yi, campaigned against Gongsun Yuan in 237, the Murong offered their assistance, and after the campaign, they were allowed to move into northern Liaodong. The Murong became vassals to the Wei and later to Wei's successor, the Western Jin dynasty.

In 285, Murong Hui was installed as the new chieftain of his tribe. Although Hui rebelled against Jin shortly after ascending, he resubmitted in 289 and was given the office of Commander of the Xianbei. Hui moved his tribe inwards, eventually settling at Jicheng (棘城, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) and making it their capital, where they adopted an agricultural lifestyle and the Jin governing system. In 307, he declared himself Grand Chanyu of the Xianbei.

During the upheaval of the Five Barbarians, Murong Hui welcomed many refugees fleeing from the disorder into his territory and recruited Han Chinese scholar-officials into his administration. The refugees not only provided the Murong with manpower, but also introduced them to Central Plains culture and advanced agricultural techniques. As the Jin was driven out of the north, Hui effectively held independent control over his territory, but retained his status as a Jin vassal. Between 317 and 318, the Jin court in Jiankang acknowledged his positions and offered him the title of Duke of Changli. Hui initially rejected his ducal title, but in 321, accepted the other title of Duke of Liaodong.

Reign of Murong Huang
Murong Hui died in 333 and was succeeded by his son, Murong Huang. The Murong attempted to establish the Chinese succession rule from father to eldest son of the main wife, but this was in conflict with their traditional practice of lateral succession. Shortly after ascending, Huang's brother, Murong Ren rebelled in eastern Liaodong and split the domain into two. Huang defeated Ren in 336, but the issue of succession continued to persist for the Murong even after they established their states.

In 337, he took the title of Prince of Yan through the support of his officials. Most historians regard this event as the start of the Former Yan dynasty, with the name "Former Yan" being used to distinguish it between the other Yan states that came after it. In 341, Huang pressured the Jin court into formally recognizing his imperial title, but throughout his reign, he never explicitly declared independence and continued to consider himself as a Jin vassal.

Murong Huang's reign saw Former Yan rapidly expanding its influence. In 338, Yan allied with the Later Zhao dynasty to conquer the Duan tribe in Liaoxi. Though the campaign was a success, Zhao then betrayed Yan and laid siege on Jícheng. Despite heavy odds, Yan was able to repel the Zhao forces. In 340, Yan carried out a massive raid on Zhao, reaching all the way to Gaoyang Commandery (高陽郡; around present-day Gaoyang County, Hebei) and capturing 30,000 households before withdrawing.

In 342, Murong Huang moved the capital to Longcheng. Later that year, Former Yan invaded Goguryeo and sacked the capital Hwando, forcing their king Gogugwon into submission. In 344, they attacked the Yuwen tribe and destroyed their power base, while in 346, they invaded Buyeo and captured their king, Hyeon. As a result of these campaigns, the Former Yan became the sole military power in northeastern China. Huang also abolished the Eastern Jin era names within his domain in 345, instead claiming that they were now in the 12th year of his reign since he first succeeded his father.

Reign of Murong Jun
After Murong Huang's death in 348, his son Murong Jun took the throne. In 349, the Later Zhao descended into civil war between members of the imperial family. Taking advantage of the confusion, Murong Jun began an invasion of the Central Plains, during which he moved the capital to Jìcheng (薊城; modern day Beijing) in 350. Soon, the Former Yan went head-to-head with the Ran Wei state, which superseded the Later Zhao, and in 352, the Wei emperor, Ran Min was captured by Murong Jun's brother, Murong Ke at the Battle of Liantai. A few months later, Ran Min's Crown Prince, Ran Zhi, surrendered to Former Yan at Ye.

The destruction of Ran Wei established Former Yan as a regional power on the North China Plain, competing with the Di-led Former Qin in the west and the Eastern Jin in the south. In 353, Murong Jun declared himself emperor and formally broke away from Jin. He continued to entrust Murong Ke with defeating the remnants of the Later Zhao, including the Duan Qi state in Shandong. As the situation stabilized on the Central Plains, Jun once again shifted his capital, this time to Ye in 357. Jun also had ambitions to conquer Jin by mobilizing an army of 1.5 million strong, but died of illness before realizing it in 360.

Reign of Murong Wei
Murong Jun's son, Murong Wei was still a child when he ascended the throne and was assigned with multiple regents. Before his death, Jun had offered to pass the throne to Murong Ke, but Ke refused and settled with becoming one of his nephew's regents. Still, Ke held considerable power under Murong Wei, and traditional historians regarded him as one of the most exceptional statesmen and commanders of his period. In 365, he captured the ancient capital, Luoyang from Jin and brought the empire to its peak.

However, although Ke's regency was marked with political stability and military might, corruption was also beginning to take its toll on the empire. One notable issue stemming from corruption was the decline of the state's fiscal revenue due to the nobility's practice of amassing commoners within their private fiefs. These commoners only had to pay taxes to their lords and not to the state, and so the imperial treasury was stretched thin, with many officials having unpaid salaries and the public grain stores being exhausted. Ke's leadership initially mitigated the issue, but the situation quickly deteriorated after his untimely death in 367. Real power was then passed down to his notoriousy corrupt uncle, Murong Ping.

While Murong Ke was entrusted with real power, another brother of Murong Jun, Murong Chui, was viewed with extreme suspicion by the emperor's inner circle throughout Jun and Murong Wei's reigns. In 369, the Eastern Jin commander, Huan Wen, launched an expedition to conquer the Former Yan. As the Yan court was thrown into a panic, Chui volunteered to lead the defense and decisively defeated Huan Wen at the Battle of Fangtou. However, his newfound success made Murong Ping apprehensive of him. After Ping attempted to kill him, Chui defected to the Former Qin.

During the Jin invasion, Yan had agreed to cede the Luoyang region to Qin for reinforcements, but went back on their promise after repelling the attack. Chui’s defection only further prompted Qin to begin their own conquest of Yan. Despite their numerical advantage, the incompetently-led main Yan force was destroyed by Wang Meng's army at the Battle of Luchuan. Qin forces eventually reached Ye and Murong Wei was captured in 370. The destruction of the Former Yan established Former Qin as the main hegemon in the north, beginning their rapid unification of northern China.

Despite the Former Yan's demise, Murong Huang's descendants would go on to establish three more states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. In the wake of the Former Qin's collapse following the Battle of Fei River in 383, the Yan was restored as the Later Yan (384–407/409), founded by Murong Chui, and the Western Yan (384–394), founded by Murong Wei's brother, Murong Hong. The Southern Yan (398–410) was a Murong state founded by a son of Murong Huang, Murong De.

title: Former Yan


text:
Spuyten Duyvil

Spuyten Duyvil may refer to:
 * Spuyten Duyvil Creek, a channel connecting the Hudson River to the Harlem River Ship Canal, and on to the Harlem River in New York City
 * Spuyten Duyvil, Bronx, a neighborhood just north of the Creek
 * Spuyten Duyvil station, a commuter railroad station that serves the residents of the Spuyten Duyvil neighborhood of the Bronx, New York via the Hudson Line
 * Spuyten Duyvil Bridge, a swing bridge that carries Amtrak's Empire Corridor line across the Spuyten Duyvil Creek between Manhattan and the Bronx, in New York City
 * December 2013 Spuyten Duyvil derailment, a commuter train accident which occurred near Spuyten Duyvil station
 * Spuyten Duyvil and Port Morris Railroad, a precursor railway to the New York Central Railroad
 * USS Spuyten Duyvil, a torpedo boat built in 1864 for service toward the end of the American Civil War

title: Spuyten Duyvil


text:
User talk:Exia

Exia.

title: User talk:Exia


text: File:Eric Clapton OMCOMR.jpg

title: File:Eric Clapton OMCOMR.jpg


text:
Talk:Languages of Iran

Iranian Languages redirect to Languages of Iran
I'm removing the redirect from 'Iranian Languages' to 'Languages of Iran'. There's a big difference between the two, and they should be separate articles. Iranian languages is a specific language group, like Germanic languages (eg. Icelandic). Languages of Iran is the languages found in the country of Iran, like the languages of Germany (eg. Upper Sorbian). This article is about the languages of Iran (eg. Azeri), not Iranian languages (eg. Pashto). --jonsafari 03:23, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Important note: Discrepancy in figures!
 * Total sum: 72,423,703
 * Population: 67,503,205
 * Discrepancy: 4,920,498 The sum of the figures is almost 5 million more than the population despite the fact that many languages are still unknown! What a mess! What a research! Kiumars

Important note: Khoikhoi
 * Total sum: 72,423,703 Answer: Just take a calculator and add them up yourself!
 * Population: 67,503,205 Answer: See the first line of *Ethnologue report for languages of Iran that these figures came from; it says Islamic Republic of Iran, Jomhouri-e-Eslami-e-Irân. 67,503,205.
 * Discrepancy: 4,920,498 The sum of the above figures is almost 5 million more than the population despite the fact that many languages are still unknown. Answer: Just subtract the two above figurs! All it needs is a calculator!Kiumars

Ok guys I have been told that we cannot take a calculator and add up the figures on this article because that is counted as Original research! Well, I just don’t know what to say! I need time to digest all these! Kiumars

 * The thing is Kiumars, Wikipedia is supposed to be based on reliable sources. You and I unfortunately do not meet that criteria. We have to find sources that are verifiable. Khoikhoi 08:16, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Khoikhoi 08:16, 3 February 2007; I think you are pulling my leg. We all can use a calculator to add up a few figures based on simple arithmetic (i.e. addition and subtraction!). Do we need reliable sources to confirm this kind of mistakes and discrepancies for us? I am simply checking the figures and proving their inconsistency and inaccuracy. It will be too silly if I have to find someone else to confirm a simple arithmetic mistake, don’t you think so? If Wiki is like that then I am wasting my time here. Kiumars

 * Yes, pointing out the discrepancy, something that you apparently thought of on your own, is indeed original research. If there are any other publications that note this, then please provide them. Khoikhoi 08:49, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Adding new unsourced information to an article is WP:OR. Pointing out an internal logical consistency is not. However, the interpretation of the figure as an internal logical inconsistency is original research, and unjustified given that many people speak multiple languages. Stephen B Streater 09:41, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Stephen B Streater 09:41, 3 February 2007; Farsi is the official language of Iran and everybody speaks the language either as mother tongue or as the second language; as education is in Farsi and so are almost all (I dare to mention a figure but I think saying over 95% is very safe) books and News Papers and other publications and Radio and TV are in Farsi. So if we take your point that some people speak more than one language (which I agree with) then the number of the people who speak Farsi as their first or second language must be close to 67 million in the report. The list does not simply add up no matter how one tries to read it. Kiumars
 * According to Persian language there are 71m Persian speakers in Iran, so I think your population figures may be out of date. If people speak an average of two languages, this allows for 140m total. The current total is much less than this. What is the exact problem that you have with the figures? Stephen B Streater 14:15, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Ok guys, how about changing it with : It is worth noting that adding up the figures given by Ethnologue (see the list above) does not correspond with the figure that Ethnologue reports for the Iran’s population and there is a significant discrepancy between these two figures which is not explained  by Ethnologue  article. Kiumars

 * I can't see your explanation of why you think the figures should add up to the same value. Stephen B Streater 14:32, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Stephen B Streater 14:15, 3 February 2007; I think you only read part of the sentence! It actually says “ According to CIA World Factbook, based on old data, there are 71 million native speakers of Persian in Iran [1], Afghanistan [2], Tajikistan [3] and Uzbekistan [4] and …” i.e. in several countries (not only Iran!). Iran’s population according to Ethnologue itself was (See the first line of Ethnologue report for languages of Iran that these figures came from; it says 67,503,205.) at the time (and that corresponds with Iranian center of statistics and UN and World Bank and CIA).
 * So, as for your question asking what the problem is; firstly I am arguing on the opposite side to what you think! I am saying that if Ethnologue report is based on the total number of people who spoke a language then the total number of people who speak Farsi in Iran must be much higher (probably very close to the total population of Iran), am I expressing myself? Am I getting thru?

 * Stephen B Streater 14:32, 3 February 2007; Ok, let’s be more specific. We have two ways of looking at the figures; one way is to say that the figures show the number of people whose mother tongue is xx and the second way which says all people who speak a language (as first or second language). The first case also corresponds to ethnic composition and must give a total equal to the population. The second case is far more complicated because in Iran most people speak at least 2 (and some 3 or 4) languages. I personally speak Farsi, Kurdish and some Azeri; in addition to a bit of English, French; German and Spanish but I would not put these on my resume!). So if we look at the number of people who speak different native languages in Iran it must be well over 200 millions! But the discrepancies of Ethnologue are only 5 million (indicating that they are talking about those whose mother tongues are a specific language).  Is it clear now?   Kiumars

 * Yes - I understand now. Your English is very good. The figure of 22,000,000 looks low to me given that it is the official language. The next step is to find other sources of information to cross check. Do you know where we might find these? Does the Iranian government publish this sort of information on their website? Stephen B Streater 15:41, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Stephen B Streater; Iranian Government does not believe in language or color or race or nationality or manmade borders; according to Islam we are all the same (and I do not disagree with that and I believe that people have more in common to link them than separate them); but for the sake of argument on this article we must stick to logic and reasoning more than relying on official data (and that seems to be a hard work here!).The only thing we have is provisional statistics (which can be a bit confusing because Iran is a very mixed country and people have mixed and migrated a lot) but it still can be an indicative factor. I recommend you take a look at the Talk:Azerbaijani people and read my posts and alidoostzadeh’s posts on that article; also read the archives especially Archive 4. (PS: I bet you didn’t expect it to be such a hard work! But I appreciate your efforts).  Kiumars

Khoikhoi; It may be a silly question but how do you add items to the References on the article page? Kiumars

 * See Citing sources. Khoikhoi 19:46, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Khoikhoi; the numbers of people who speak certain languages are still “unknown” according to this list.[citation needed]. It is what the list says itself! so the list/source is the citation itself! Kiumars

Are educated younger iranians fluent in Arabic?
Are educated younger iranians fluent in Arabic?LeUrsidae96 (talk) 10:32, 28 July 2009 (UTC)
 * No, not usually. They know quite a few Arabic words and expressions due to religious studies and loans into Persian, but they can't hold a conversation in Arabic. Of course this doesn't include the parts of Iran where Arabic is a common language. Astarabadi (talk) 11:30, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

Removed text
 Ethnologue) although the site is controversial due its wide variation from its 1996 edition as well as the fact that it does not provide sources for their statistics.

This material, if it is encyclopedic at all, belongs in the Ethnologue article, not here. Andrewa (talk) 11:20, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

Absolutely inaccurate
1. Hormozgan and Bushehr provinces have an absolute majority of Persian speakers. Bandar Abbas and other districts as well as Bushehr and the related communes are colored in pink, this is absolutely incorrect!

Also, Khuzestan province (where Ahvaz is the center) should be indicated in stripe colors indicating Lori, Arabic and Persian mix since most of the areas are populated by speakers of these three languages. Niarad (talk) 15:07, 15 July 2012 (UTC)

map
the map is incorrect, you can see the true map hereFarvartish (talk) 17:44, 14 December 2012 (UTC)

map uncertainty
I've just removed two maps from this article which are not from the Wiki world. They both yielded google/bing searches when clicked on so might be subject to copyright problems. --Taivo (talk) 19:55, 24 July 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on Languages of Iran. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html to https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130723044939/http://www.terrorfreetomorrow.org/upimagestft/TFT%20Iran%20Survey%20Report%200609.pdf to http://www.terrorfreetomorrow.org/upimagestft/TFT%20Iran%20Survey%20Report%200609.pdf
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Languages of the Bakhtar province
Since we don't have an article for the languages of the Bakhtari Province, here is the best place for it. We can add other provinces as well.--Persian Lad (talk) 21:59, 29 May 2019 (UTC)

List of languages
Turkmen and Qashqai languages were written two times where the languages are listed in the current version. Could it be corrected? Because I am not sure perhaps it's to be specified somehow in the future.--A.Khamidullin (talk) 12:12, 10 October 2022 (UTC)

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Bullseye (British game show)

Bullseye is a British darts-themed television game show created by Andrew Wood and Norman Vaughan. The show features three pairs of contestants, each consisting of an amateur darts player and a quizzer, competing in darts games and quizzes to win cash and prizes.

The original series aired on the ITV network and was produced by ATV in 1981, then by Central from 1982 until 1995. Jim Bowen presented the show during its initial 14-year run. A revival produced by Granada Yorkshire for the Challenge TV network, hosted by Dave Spikey, aired in 2006.

The show sported an animated mascot named Bully, an anthropomorphic large brown bull who wore a red and white striped shirt and blue trousers. Bullseye attracted audiences of up to 20 million viewers at its peak.

History
Bullseye was created and owned by Andrew Wood (with comedian Norman Vaughan), who came up with the idea after research into aspects of game shows with mass appeal. Programme associates on the show were Mickey Brennan and Roger Edwards.

The series was centred on darts. Three teams of contestants, each consisting of one amateur darts player and one trivia/quizzing expert, competed against one another to win cash and prizes. Available items ranged from major prizes such as new cars, caravans and luxury holidays to consolation prizes that included sets of darts, tankards/goblets (for male and female contestants respectively) and "Bendy Bully" rubber dolls of the show's mascot.

The show originally aired on Monday nights in September 1981 and was produced by ATV. In 1982, Bullseye was moved to Sunday afternoons, and a new co-host, Tony Green, a professional darts referee and commentator, was brought in to keep track of the scores; this helped to achieve around 17 million viewers.

Bullseye was moved from Sunday afternoons to Saturday afternoons from 1993 to 1995. A 15th series was planned in 1996, however this was cancelled after Andrew Wood deemed that various changes and additions that Carlton and the ITV network centre were pressing for to update and 'modernise' the show to be unsuitable for the series and he believed it would lose its appeal as a result. At the end of its original run, Bullseye was still attracting audiences of up to 10 million viewers. After an eleven-year hiatus, Bullseye was revived for a new series, which was recorded for the digital channel Challenge. It was produced by Granada at Yorkshire Television in the Leeds Studios, and was hosted by Dave Spikey. Tony Green also returned to the show as co-host, reprising his role from the original series.

On screen, the show evolved as follows:

The first three series had the players throwing (from the point of view of the viewers and the audience) towards the right for the first round and to the left for all subsequent rounds. From the fourth series, all three boards in use rotated on a single pillar, and all throws were to the audience's right. The first four series featured opening titles of Bully jumping out of a sign and walking into a pub to play darts; this was shortened from series 2 onwards, with new theme music and musical beds from series 4. The opening credits of series 1, much longer than the version used from series 2 onwards, although containing numerous elements of what would become the show's familiar theme, feature a noticeably different arrangement of the theme tune.

From series 5, the entire set was essentially inverted. The studio audience would now be seen in shot throughout the show, and the viewers would see all darts being thrown to the left. From the studio audience's point of view, everybody continued to throw to the right. Series 5 also saw Bully driving the team bus in the opening titles and ejecting himself from the driver's seat to ride a flying dart. These titles also featured cartoon depictions of Bowen at the front of the coach, and Eric Bristow, John Lowe, Dave Whitcombe, Keith Deller, Cliff Lazarenko, Bob Anderson, Jocky Wilson and Mike Gregory at the back. This same title sequence was used for the revived series, but featuring depictions of presenter Dave Spikey at the front of the coach and professional darts players of the 2000s at the back.

A new set was introduced in the 11th series, with Bowen – who since the second series had opened the show by coming through the audience – now making his entrance through the opening that would then drop a panel behind which the star prize would be hidden. Once the show moved to Saturday afternoons, the opening titles consisted of Bully jumping out of the logo at the back of the studio and charging about to cause chaos on the set, introduced in the 13th series.

For Comic Relief in March 1993, a special crossover between Bullseye and the BBC's snooker-based game show Big Break (the creation of which had been partly influenced by Bullseye) was planned, with guest comedians as contestants, and with Bowen and Big Break host Jim Davidson, along with scorers Tony Green and Big Break's John Virgo, effectively taking their counterpart's role within the game for humorous effect. Bowen and Davidson were both very enthusiastic about the idea; however the proposal never came to fruition, reportedly after ITV wanted the rights to repeat broadcasts as a self-contained programme, to which the BBC declined.

Bowen once described Bullseye as "the second-best darts-based game-show on television". There were no others at the time.

John Cooper appearance
In 1989, John Cooper appeared on the show. He was later convicted of multiple burglaries, armed robberies, and, in 2011, following advances in forensic science, two double murders, one rape, and another sexual assault. Footage of his appearance on the show was later used by the prosecution to match him to witness reports at the time.

Bully's Category Board
A dartboard divided into 10 sectors was used, each representing a different category and further subdivided into outer, middle and inner areas. Three rounds were played, with every team receiving one turn in each. On a team's turn, the darts player threw one dart and attempted to hit either the bullseye or a category chosen by their partner. Doing so awarded a cash bonus to the team and allowed the partner to answer a question in the chosen category. However, if the dart hit a different category that was still in play, no bonus was awarded and the partner had to answer a question in that category instead. Hitting a category that was out of play or failing to hit the board at all forfeited the team's turn. Questions were worth £30 each in Round 1, £50 in Round 2, and £100 in Round 3. The values on the board (working inward from the edge) were £30, £50, and £100; the bullseye awarded £200 and was always in play. Categories were removed from play after one question had been asked.

In the first series, the board values were £20, £10, and £30, working inward from the edge. The result of each throw determined the category and value of the question to be asked; no bonus was awarded for hitting the bullseye or the category chosen by the non-darts player. A bullseye allowed that contestant to select any question value and awarded £50 for a correct answer.

Starting in series 3, if the contestant in control missed the question, the first opponent to buzz-in could answer and attempt to steal the money. In early series, the opponents could silently buzz-in during the question and/or while the contestant was thinking, but were only asked for a response if the contestant missed. Later, they could only buzz-in after a miss, triggering an audible signal. If neither opponent buzzed-in, or if the first to do so also missed, the host gave the correct answer and the game continued.

For the first seven series, the lowest-scoring team was eliminated from the game after the third round. In the event of a tie for low score, the darts players for the tied teams each threw three darts at a standard matchplay board and the high scorer's team advanced. From series 8 on, all three teams continued to the next portion of the game.

Categories used during this round, in alphabetical order:

 * Affairs (Series 2–14)
 * Art (Series 1)
 * Bible (Series 1)
 * Books
 * Britain (Series 2–15)
 * Faces (Series 5–15)
 * Food (Series 1–3)
 * History
 * Myths (Series 1)
 * Places (Series 1–14)
 * Pot Luck (Series 4)
 * Science (Series 15)
 * Showbiz
 * Spelling
 * Sport
 * Words (Series 2–15)
 * World (Series 15)

Pounds for Points
Each darts player threw three darts at a standard matchplay board, and the one who achieved the highest score won control of a question for their partner. Starting in series 2, an incorrect response passed the question to the team with the second-highest score, then the third if necessary; the first team to respond correctly won £1 per point scored by their darts player. After three questions, the team with the highest cash total from the first two rounds went through to play Bully's Prize Board. All three teams received their accumulated cash totals, as well as show-themed souvenirs that included darts, pens, key rings, patches, tankards (or goblets for female contestants), and "Bendy Bully" rubber dolls in the likeness of the show's mascot.

Initially, if two or more darts players achieved the same total, a re-throw was held and the high scorer won control of the question, for the value of the original throw. Later, the re-throw was eliminated and the question was played on the buzzer by the tied partners.

During the first series, the partner of the highest-scoring darts player in each round could choose to answer a question worth £25, £50, or £101. In the event of a tie, the darts players each threw one dart at a board divided into concentric circles, and the one who hit closer to the centre won control of the question. The team who won the most money in this round alone went through to Bully's Prize Board.

Charity interlude
At the beginning of part two, a professional darts player (or occasionally a celebrity during the first four series and the 2006 revival) would throw nine darts at the matchplay board. The show donated £1 per point scored to a charity of the winning team's choice, or £2 per point if the total was 301 or higher. Celebrity players often performed badly and would contribute some of their own money to the donation.

One episode of series four originally broadcast on 3 December 1984, featured comedienne Carol Lee Scott as the celebrity guest darts thrower. Bowen and Scott had known each other for many years prior after both having appeared on the same bill at various working clubs. However, as mentioned in Bowen's 1998 biography From a Bundle of Rags: Autobiography of Jim Bowen, the pair had a backstage exchange after filming of the episode, with Bowen commenting on Scott's performance which led to the pair trading several offhand comments, after which they refused to ever speak again.

Bronze Bully Trophy
During series 5 through 13 (1985 to 1994), the professional who recorded the highest score in the charity interlude over the course of an individual series won a Bronze Bully Trophy. The winners:

 * 1985–86: John Lowe
 * 1986–87: Lionel Smith
 * 1987–88: Ray Farrell
 * 1988–89: Mike Gregory
 * 1989–90: Eric Bristow
 * 1990–91: Bob Anderson
 * 1991–92: Mandy Solomons
 * 1992–93: Mike Gregory
 * 1994: Kevin Painter

Bully's Prize Board
The team with the highest cash total from both rounds (or from Pounds for Points only in series 1) faced a board divided into eight pairs of alternating narrow red and wide black sectors, with a bullseye at the centre. The red sectors were numbered 1 through 8, each corresponding to a different prize, and the bullseye represented a larger item, "Bully's Special Prize." The team threw nine darts, the first and last three by the darts player and the middle three by their partner, and won the prizes for all red sectors they hit. Black sectors awarded nothing, and hitting the same red sector twice forfeited that prize—hence the show's catchphrase, "Keep out of the black and in the red, nothing in this game for two in a bed." A third hit to the same sector awarded the prize once again.

For most of the programme's original run, prize values were restricted by the Independent Broadcasting Authority, which may explain the perceived poor quality of prizes on offer. Although some prizes (such as a remote-controlled toy car or legendary "TV with wired remote control") were laughed at by the studio audience even then, smaller prizes were taken for granted at the time, and they seemed relatively lavish compared to those on offer in BBC game shows such as Blankety Blank. In a 2006 episode, Bully's Special Prize was a fully functional show-themed Fruit Machine.

Bully's Star Prize Gamble
After throwing their nine darts at Bully's Prize Board, the winning team had to decide whether to risk their prizes for a chance at "Bully's Star Prize," a large mystery prize hidden behind a screen in the studio. For the first ten series, the money they had won for themselves was not at risk; beginning with series 11, they had to put up both their money and prizes in order to play. (The team's souvenirs and the money won by the professional for their charity were never at risk.) If they chose to try for the Star Prize, they were given six darts (three per person; non-darts player throwing first) to score 101 or more on a standard matchplay dartboard. If they succeeded, they received the Star Prize and kept their previous winnings; if not, they lost all cash/prizes they had risked. When money was at stake during Bowen's tenure as host, he would tell the team that they would receive nothing except their "BFH" (bus fare home) if they lost.

If the winning team declined to play, the second-place team had the option to risk their money and try to win the prize; if this pair also declined, the third-place team was given the same choice. The actual prize was only revealed after a team had played the round, win or lose, or if all three teams chose not to play.

Bully's Star Prize was usually a holiday (especially in later series), a car, a caravan or a speedboat. Less lavish Star Prizes (fitted kitchens and the like) were sometimes given away in the early series, so as to fit within the IBA's prize limits at the time. In an episode from 1987, the Star Prize was a £2,000 fashion spree. After the prize limits were abolished in 1993, the Star Prize in Bowen's final two series would sometimes be "Bully's Treasure Chest," a cash award of £5,000.

From series 8 onwards, if the second- and third-place teams had the same total, both were asked if they wanted to gamble. If both said yes, the two darts players threw three darts each at the matchplay board and the higher score won the right to play for the Star Prize.

On the show, it was never made clear if the two winning contestants had to share the Star Prize or if they got one each.

On charity Christmas specials, in which celebrities and professional darts players teamed up to play for nominated charities, the winning team's accumulated cash total and prizes were not at risk. The cash would be doubled if they won Bully's Star Prize Gamble.

Remakes
In 2005, it was announced that programme creator Andrew Wood had signed a contract with Granada Media for Granada to produce a one-hour long celebrity special Bullseye show to be hosted by Ant & Dec. This special was part of Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon, in turn part of ITV's 50th anniversary celebrations, and was aired on ITV on 22 October 2005. Vernon Kay and Coronation Street star William Roache were the contestants, accompanied by professional darts players Eric Bristow and Andy Fordham, while Tony Green reprised his role as co-host.

Subsequently, Granada decided that a new series of Bullseye would be produced early the following year on Challenge and that the show was to be hosted by comedian Dave Spikey. Bully was also redesigned for the new series, albeit very similar to the Bully used in the original series.

The new series of Bullseye returned on Challenge in April 2006. The show maintained the style of prizes from the original, bar white goods; none of the cash prizes had increased in value since the second series in 1982, although the bullseye on the category board had decreased to £150 from the £200 of the original series. Some of the prizes from Bully's Prize Board were of more modern gameshow standard, such as a TFT television and an MP3 player. Dave Spikey and Tony Green commented on BBC Radio 1's Colin and Edith show on 19 April 2006: "...[Bullseye is] The only gameshow on the television in which the prizes get a round of applause...".

The revived series was strikingly similar to the original series. Whilst refreshed, the show maintained the original theme music and stings and used a remade version of the original's second title sequence, Bully driving the team bus. A cartoon version of Dave Spikey replaced Jim's in the titles. The Challenge revival ran for thirty episodes.

On 19 May 2007, another one-hour long celebrity special was aired on ITV, this time as part of Vernon Kay's Gameshow Marathon. This time the contestants were newsreader Andrea Catherwood, footballer Graeme Le Saux and another Coronation Street star, Michael Le Vell, paired with professional darts players Martin Adams, Phil Taylor and Raymond van Barneveld respectively. Once again, Tony Green reprised his co-host role. Jim Bowen did not appear on the Bullseye episode; instead, he appeared on the marathon's remake of The Golden Shot, acting as "Bowen the Bolt" (instead of "Bernie the Bolt"). At one point, he did make the comment to Kay, "Vernon, this is a bit like Bullseye used to be...throwing arrows for prizes!"

In March 2018, it was rumoured that Vernon Kay would front a reboot of Bullseye. However, he later denied that he was fronting the new reboot of Bullseye. In June 2019 it was announced that Bullseye, as one of the country's five all-time favourite game shows, was to be "supersized and rebooted" in a new series, Alan Carr's Epic Gameshow for broadcast on 4 July 2020. Commissioned by ITV, the series was filmed at dock10 studios and presented by Alan Carr.

Although not strictly a remake but more of a show influenced by the original, Welsh language TV channel S4C has a darts gameshow called Oci, Oci, Oci, which uses the concept of darts and questions to win prizes. Instead of in a studio, the show is at various social clubs and pubs each week. The show has two people who handle the questions and two playing darts.

Merchandise
For the Christmas 2005 season, a Bullseye DVD game was released by board game manufacturer Upstarts. Although the game did not feature Bowen or Green, it did feature a redesigned Bully. A second DVD game titled "Classic Bullseye" was released by ITV DVD for the 2006 Christmas season, which featured both Bowen and the voice of Green, and also classic footage from the show. An updated version, "All New Bullseye", was released in 2007.

Several board games based on the show have also been released.

A video game adaption for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 was developed and published by Sabec, and released in June 2021.

title: Bullseye (British game show)