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Cardiff City (disambiguation)

Cardiff City F.C. (commonly referred to as just Cardiff City) is a professional association football club based in Cardiff, Wales.

Cardiff City may also refer to:
 * Cardiff, the capital of and most-populated city in Wales
 * Cardiff city centre, centre and central business district of Cardiff
 * Cardiff City Council, governing body and county council of Cardiff
 * Cardiff City F.C. (women), women's football club based in Cardiff and women's section of Cardiff City F.C.
 * Cardiff City Ladies F.C., Welsh women's association football club based in Cardiff with no relation to Cardiff City F.C.
 * Cardiff City Stadium, home stadium of Cardiff City and the Wales national football team

title: Cardiff City (disambiguation)


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Resistance distance

In graph theory, the resistance distance between two vertices of a simple, connected graph, $G$, is equal to the resistance between two equivalent points on an electrical network, constructed so as to correspond to $G$, with each edge being replaced by a resistance of one ohm. It is a metric on graphs.

Definition
On a graph $G$, the resistance distance $Ωi,j$ between two vertices $vi$ and $vj$ is

\Omega_{i,j}:=\Gamma_{i,i}+\Gamma_{j,j}-\Gamma_{i,j}-\Gamma_{j,i}, $$
 * where $$\Gamma = \left(L + \frac{1}{|V|}\Phi\right)^+,$$

with $+$ denotes the Moore–Penrose inverse, $L$ the Laplacian matrix of $G$, $|V|$ is the number of vertices in $G$, and $Φ$ is the $|V| × |V|$ matrix containing all 1s.

Properties of resistance distance
If $i = j$ then $Ωi,j = 0$. For an undirected graph
 * $$\Omega_{i,j}=\Omega_{j,i}=\Gamma_{i,i}+\Gamma_{j,j}-2\Gamma_{i,j}$$

General sum rule
For any $N$-vertex simple connected graph $G = (V, E)$ and arbitrary $N×N$ matrix $M$:

 * $$\sum_{i,j \in V}(LML)_{i,j}\Omega_{i,j} = -2\operatorname{tr}(ML)$$

From this generalized sum rule a number of relationships can be derived depending on the choice of $M$. Two of note are;

 * $$\begin{align}

\sum_{(i,j) \in E}\Omega_{i,j} &= N - 1 \\ \sum_{i<j \in V}\Omega_{i,j} &= N\sum_{k=1}^{N-1} \lambda_k^{-1} \end{align}$$

where the $λk$ are the non-zero eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix. This unordered sum
 * $$\sum_{i<j} \Omega_{i,j}$$

is called the Kirchhoff index of the graph.

Relationship to the number of spanning trees of a graph
For a simple connected graph $G = (V, E)$, the resistance distance between two vertices may be expressed as a function of the set of spanning trees, $T$, of $G$ as follows:

\Omega_{i,j}=\begin{cases} \frac{\left | \{t:t \in T,\, e_{i,j} \in t\} \right \vert}{\left | T \right \vert},  & (i,j) \in E\\ \frac{\left | T'-T \right \vert}{\left |  T \right \vert},  &(i,j) \not \in E \end{cases} $$

where $T'$ is the set of spanning trees for the graph $G' = (V, E + ei,j)$. In other words, for an edge $$(i,j)\in E$$, the resistance distance between a pair of nodes $$i$$ and $$j$$ is the probability that the edge $$(i,j)$$ is in a random spanning tree of $$G$$.

Relationship to random walks
The resistance distance between vertices $$u$$ and $$u$$ is proportional to the commute time $$C_{u,v}$$ of a random walk between $$u$$ and $$v$$. The commute time is the expected number of steps in a random walk that starts at $$u$$, visits $$v$$, and returns to $$u$$. For a graph with $$m$$ edges, the resistance distance and commute time are related as $$C_{u,v}=2m\Omega_{u,v}$$.

As a squared Euclidean distance
Since the Laplacian $L$ is symmetric and positive semi-definite, so is
 * $$\left(L+\frac{1}{|V|}\Phi\right),$$

thus its pseudo-inverse $Γ$ is also symmetric and positive semi-definite. Thus, there is a $K$ such that $$\Gamma = KK^\textsf{T}$$ and we can write:

 * $$\Omega_{i,j} = \Gamma_{i,i} + \Gamma_{j,j} - \Gamma_{i,j} - \Gamma_{j,i} = K_iK_i^\textsf{T} + K_j K_j^\textsf{T} - K_i K_j^\textsf{T} - K_j K_i^\textsf{T} = \left(K_i - K_j\right)^2$$

showing that the square root of the resistance distance corresponds to the Euclidean distance in the space spanned by $K$.

Connection with Fibonacci numbers
A fan graph is a graph on $n + 1$ vertices where there is an edge between vertex $i$ and $n + 1$ for all $i = 1, 2, 3, …, n$, and there is an edge between vertex $i$ and $i + 1$ for all $i = 1, 2, 3, …, n – 1$.

The resistance distance between vertex $n + 1$ and vertex $i ∈ {1, 2, 3, …, n}$ is
 * $$\frac{ F_{2(n-i)+1} F_{2i-1} }{ F_{2n} }$$

where $Fj$ is the $j$-th Fibonacci number, for $j ≥ 0$.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Resistance distance


text:
Talk:Steve Biko

About the photo
The main photo here is fair use. It should be noted that Wikipedia prohibits fair use photos from press agencies that would allow the use of such photos for money, because then it violates the policy concerning commercial use. The main photo appears to be a derivative of this Getty images photograph. It may very well have to be changed in order to comply with the fair use standards. I don't mention this to be nit-picky, I was scoping this to see if I wanted to initiated the GA review but I'd rather this get handled first. -Indy beetle (talk) 17:43, 30 April 2017 (UTC)
 * I just say this message, Indy beetle, and thanks for raising this issue. I will try to deal with it in the next few days. Midnightblueowl (talk) 22:40, 20 May 2017 (UTC)
 * I've switched the image to File:Steve Biko Photograph.jpg, which is not a copyright free image either, although none of the available images are (unfortunately). It is, however, a clearer and (in my opinion) better image for the infobox. Midnightblueowl (talk) 23:16, 20 May 2017 (UTC)

Prose edits/questions
I would suggest an addition in the commemoration section. Something along the lines of "The main building of the University of Mancheter Students' Union (UK) is named the Steve Biko Building  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 5.148.77.18 (talk) 09:29, 3 January 2019 (UTC)

MBO, I'm probably going to make a string of prose changes, mostly to what seems more readable to me; feel free to quibble/revert if you disagree. Also, I will dump some questions here as and when I come across them; I have access to some of the sources, but not all. Vanamonde (talk) 07:36, 10 July 2017 (UTC)

 * Do we know how Biko's father went from being a policemen to a clerk?
 * Mangcu (p. 88) simply says that he resigned from the police force and briefly worked at the Fort Cox Agricultural College before becoming a clerk in the Native Affairs office. I did not really think that the resignation and college work was relevant enough for inclusion in this article, particularly given that Biko's father did not appear to play a central role in Biko's own life. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:57, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I've gone with the very brief "after resigning from the police force..." which is enough to quell any raised eyebrows.

 * "Bantu means people" I've been trying to figure out whether this is true in all Bantu languages, or just in Xhosa, or something else, but struggling a bit at the moment. The original source is unhelpful.
 * I'm in the same boat here. We could always trim out the "Bantu means people" bit? Instead we could have something like "Biko interpreted his given name, "Bantu", in terms of the saying..."? Midnightblueowl (talk) 12:02, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * On the balance I'd say we should leave it in, since multiple sources mention it; we can just remain on the lookout for other sources.

 * Woods and Mangcu appear to be at odds over the "moderation" of NUSAS; Woods says many of their leaders had been arrested and prosecuted in past years. Worth mentioning, you think?
 * If I understand correctly, NUSAS went in a more radical direction after the split with SASO. As with most student union organisations, the turnover of leadership was swift and thus the general ideological direction of the group changed rapidly. I did not really want to go into too much detail on NUSAS after Biko had departed from it (in part because the section about SASO and NUSAS is already quite lengthy and also because I did not think it particularly relevant). However, if you have a proposed sentence or something that you would be interested in adding then I would certainly be up for discussing it. Midnightblueowl (talk) 12:06, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Fair enough. I don't think the picture of NUSAS is unfair at the moment, so I'll drop this.

 * Dorian Lynskey argues that Biko was the first anti-apartheid activist to gain widespread attention outside SA; do you know if this is a view supported by his biographers? I'll look for sources as well.
 * As far as I am aware, this may well be true (Mandela did not really gain substantial levels of international fame until the 1980s), however I have not come across this claim in any of the biographies. Midnightblueowl (talk) 23:05, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Okay. Lynskey seems a decent source (I mean, he's writing in the guardian, but has a reputation as a music journalist) so I will add a statement to this effect. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * "Although NUSAS officially opposed apartheid, it moderated its opposition in order to maintain the support of conservative white students" This seems a trifle vague to me, and I haven't access to the source. What does Mangcu say here?
 * Mangcu says: "[NUSAS] was essentially a student body led by privileged white students from elite universities such as Wits, UCT and Natal. Its opposition to apartheid was tempered by the desire to maintain a strong presence among conservative white students." Not hugely helpful if we want further detail. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:53, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Fair enough.

 * "The government regarded Black Consciousness as a threat." Do you have this source (Hadfield)? This statement is a bit bald. I think it would be more helpful if we include the time period somehow.
 * Hadfield says: "By the time Biko had been banned to King William's Town, the government had deemed Black Consciousness a threat." Not a lot to go on, unfortunately. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:48, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * True. I've added a "by 1973", which makes it slightly more readable.

 * I'd like to remove the link to "reverse racism", as in my view it links to a term and a controversy with little relevance to South Africa. Thoughts?
 * That's fine be me. If I recall correctly, I initially put in a link to "anti-white racism" or something like that, but that simply redirects to Reverse racism (which is, strictly speaking, a different phenomenon). Midnightblueowl (talk) 15:51, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Done. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * Do we know when Woods and Biko first met? I'll try to find a source as well. Woods doesn't seem to say. Vanamonde (talk) 14:31, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately not—I have not seen any of the sources mention a particular year. However, it does seem clear that it happened while Biko was banned, which is why I included it at that juncture of the article. Midnightblueowl (talk) 15:51, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes, that's been made clear. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * More generic question to which I have searched for and not received a satisfactory answer; why is "Coloured" capitalized, but "white" and "black" not? Seems strange, does it not? Vanamonde (talk) 17:06, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * I'm not really sure why the convention is as it is... perhaps because "Coloured" is used alongside "African", "European", and "Asian" in many Southern African contexts and thus copies their capitalisation? Midnightblueowl (talk) 19:07, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Hmm. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * The first mention of the BCM does not contain an introduction, so to speak, and I think it needs one: wondering where to put one in. Vanamonde (talk) 17:08, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * We do however introduce both SASO and the ideas underpinning Black Consciousness. Do we really need to explicitly introduce the BC movement itself? Midnightblueowl (talk) 19:15, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Fair enough. I've just moved the first use up a bit. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * Could you take a look at this? Vanamonde (talk) 17:23, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Fine by me, although there is now a space missing between this sentence and the next - will add it back. Midnightblueowl (talk) 19:07, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * Nearly done working through the prose. I'll go through some sources after that, and might add stuff, but I think we can nominate some time tomorrow. Vanamonde (talk) 18:21, 10 July 2017 (UTC)
 * MBO I've been through the prose now: I think you can go ahead and nominate whenever you are ready. FYI at FAC I should be able to respond to things involving Hill, Wilson, Lynskey, Woods, and a couple of others, but some sources, like Mangcu and Hadfield, I will have to leave entirely to you. Regards, Vanamonde (talk) 04:30, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Actually I was a bit dissatisfied with the last paragraph of the lead, and restructured it somewhat. Take a look . Vanamonde (talk) 05:06, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * I'm happy with that. Looks good. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:46, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

- Are you okay if I go ahead and start the FAC? Midnightblueowl (talk) 15:16, 11 July 2017 (UTC)
 * By all means, I think your latest edits addressed some of the material I would have added myself, so quite happy to go for it. Full warning, my participation here is going to be limited (not non-existent, but limited) until approximately the 21st of July. Given that an average FAC takes more than a month, though, that's not reason to delay. Vanamonde (talk) 16:39, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

 * MBO, I'm wondering if Gabriel's song is worth a mention in the lead, given the role it had in making him a known figure in the west. I'm still debating this, though. Vanamonde (talk) 04:17, 30 July 2017 (UTC)
 * I don't really think that it is lede-worthy, to be honest. It was only part and parcel of the wider package of publicising Biko after his death. Midnightblueowl (talk) 22:47, 30 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Yeah I think you're right. I looked it over again after adding the material to the lead, and I think it's fine as is. I do think, though, that the lead needs to mention the fact that his death made him well known. Vanamonde (talk) 04:11, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

 * regarding this; I'm fine with your previous structural changes to the lead, but I really did not like this edit; I'd much rather stick with the previous version, which was the earlier prose plus one sentence from me. The issues I had with the new version are threefold; our sources say quite clearly that it was not his writings which made him famous, but his death and its cultural aftermath; that though his legacy is contested, it wasn't his influence over BC that is contested; and that he was the earliest icon, which IMO is important enough to include. If you're concerned over length, I've made a less dramatic trim. Vanamonde (talk) 06:36, 18 August 2017 (UTC)
 * that's okay by me. You make a very point regarding it not being his writings which made him famous. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:16, 18 August 2017 (UTC)

 * "He believed that even when well-intentioned, white liberals failed to comprehend the black experience and often acted in a paternalistic manner." - As it stands, the wording is unclear. I'd prefer a more direct form: "He believed that well-intentioned, white liberals failed to comprehend the black experience, and often acted in a paternalistic manner." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.103.21.75 (talk) 20:31, 17 December 2017 (UTC)

Seeking consensus on a possible new section
I am wondering what the thoughts are of those who help maintain this article regarding a possible new section covering a belief of Steve Biko. The following is a statement that Steve Biko made to a judge while Biko was on trial for fighting apartheid, "...the term black is normally in association also with negative aspects, in other words you speak of the black market, you speak of the black sheep of the family, you speak of---you know, anything which is supposed to be bad is also considered to be black". Does anyone feel that this belief would be relevant for this article? The modern relevance of this prescient belief can presently (Jan 11, 2018) be seen at: Talk Page 173.56.74.61 (talk) 03:00, 12 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Which is my talk page. Before responding, and I have no comments on the request, editors might wish to note the IP's question "Doug Weller and ᛗᛁᛟᛚᚾᛁᚱPants, do either of you have any objection to having your commentary in this section be published widely?". Doug Weller  talk 08:55, 12 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Doug Weller's point about the IP's comments at their Talk Page concern me; it does come across as if they were trying to intimidate other editors, although I accept the possibility that that was never their intention. As for the IP's original point, it needs to be borne in mind that Biko discussed a lot of different subjects in his writings. Giving each and every one a sub-section or section to themselves would be excessive. If Reliable Sources can be found discussing Biko's views on the use of the word "black" in this manner can be found, I certainly see no objection to including a sentence or two on the matter at the appropriate juncture, although an entire section would be undue. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:21, 12 January 2018 (UTC)

Midnightblueowl, you said, "it does come across as if they were trying to intimidate other editors." It is not clear what the intimidation is that you speak of. What is the full nature of the intimidation? 68.129.183.213 (talk) 13:53, 29 April 2018 (UTC)

 * No, let's start with where you were planning to publish the comments. You're clearly the same editor. Doug Weller  talk 16:54, 29 April 2018 (UTC)

Birthplace - three alternatives?
Right now, there is a contradiction about Biko's birthplace in this article and beyond. The box states Ginsberg Location near King Wlliams Town, the text gives Tarkastad. Then there is Tylden, Eastern Cape, where according to that article Biko was born. Outside Wikipedia, there is similar confusion between these three places. Does anyone have reliable sources or other information pertaining to Biko's birthplace? --Vanellus (talk) 20:20, 11 August 2018 (UTC)
 * The infobox claim is not cited, so it should be standardised to duplicate the (properly referenced) claim in the main article body, which states that Biko was born in Tarkastad. As far as the most recently published accounts hold, Tarkastad was indeed his place of birth. Midnightblueowl (talk) 21:27, 11 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I've also removed the totally unreferenced claim that is being made on the Tylden article. Perhaps someone mistook it for Tarkastad. Midnightblueowl (talk) 21:31, 11 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I'm not so sure about that, certainly it is unlikely that Tarkastad and Tylden have been mixed up. Google search of "Steve Biko Tylden" gives quite a number of reasonable hits for Tylden as Biko's birthplace, among them the Steve Biko Foundation website and sahistory.org.za. In de:Steve Biko we have given both alternatives without deciding which one is true (which is unsatisfactory, though). --Vanellus (talk) 19:56, 13 August 2018 (UTC)

Capitalisation of "Coloured" and "Black"
I see that throughout the article, "black" and "white" as adjectives applied to people are not capitalised, but "Coloured" is. Is there a reason for this? If not, I suggest downcasing the word "Coloured" wherever it's an adjective applied to people. Maproom (talk) 06:35, 12 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Coloured has a specific meaning in South Africa, which is different from the way coloured is used as a race descriptor in the US for example and by not capitalizing it we will perhaps lose that distinction. My feeling is that when we say, "Adam is a black person"; black is working as an adjective, it's simply describing Adam. To say "Buhle is a Coloured" is saying Buhle belongs to the Coloured racial identity group. In principle I am against the overuse of capitals especially for job titles and adjectives, "Clive is the chief executive officer" NOT "Clive is the Chief Executive Officer", and further I'm no fan of Identity politics, but in this case I think we may lose some precision and meaning by not using the capital for Coloureds Wayne Jayes (talk) 07:20, 12 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks – that makes sense. Maproom (talk) 10:34, 12 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Actually, that doesn't make sense. Black and Coloured, or black and coloured. The two describe "racial identity", but are not capitalized. By all means, introduce "coloured" with a link, but capitalizing it is inconsistent. Billyshiverstick (talk) 20:46, 14 September 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 26 February 2019
Wasn't his name Steve Bantu Biko, instead of Bantu Steve Biko? If that is correct, can we change the name? Jfrommass (talk) 01:41, 26 February 2019 (UTC)
 * ❌ Do you have any reliable sources to back that claim up? The ones I have read describe him as "Bantu Steve Biko". Vanamonde (Talk) 04:25, 26 February 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:41, 2 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Peter Gabriel performing Biko (Boston, 2011).jpg

National Socialist
African Nationalist + African Socialist - Does that make him an African National Socialist? --105.0.3.68 (talk) 12:45, 21 May 2020 (UTC)
 * No. Midnightblueowl (talk) 14:17, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 21 May 2020
Add this sentence to the legacy section about songs: A Tribe called Quest paid homage to Biko in the title of their "Steve Biko (Stir it up)" on their album Midnight Marauders. Lilraskalnikov (talk) 13:40, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

 * ❌. Please provide a reliable source that supports this addition. Really it should say something about how this song has had some sort of significance, rather than simply existing.  –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 13:48, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

2020 Revisions
Hi all. If people are wondering, I am just tightening up the lead to make it more powerful, and inclusive of Steve's accomplishments. Wikipedia articles are great, but the final writing can be repetitive and disjointed. Please don't revert my changes in a knee-jerk reaction. Think about what I am trying to accomplish. If you can improve on it, by all means. "Revise, don't revert". I'm a huge Biko fan. Billyshiverstick (talk) 20:42, 14 September 2020 (UTC)
 * The lede exists in an FA-rated state. Substantial alterations would require consensus at the talk page before being introduced into the article. Midnightblueowl (talk) 09:43, 18 September 2020 (UTC)

Pronunciation of Surname
How is the surname pronounced? Does it begin like bee or like bye? Maybe we could add some IPA symbols to the first section. --2001:16B8:189F:9100:B1F0:6CCC:2A1C:41BE (talk) 22:14, 30 May 2022 (UTC)

Police Commissioner General Hendrik de Wit
I don't think Police Commissioner General Hendrik de Wit has the correct wikilink as it is a botanist not a police commissioner general. 31.94.59.64 (talk) 13:12, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

The Duncan Innes linked is not the right person.
2001:569:5644:D000:E998:19D:CECD:995F (talk) 06:27, 24 June 2023 (UTC)

Coloured
Some disable language.❤ 41.114.188.90 (talk) 08:09, 12 August 2023 (UTC)

History research
Research of history 41.114.159.108 (talk) 15:55, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

 * What steve biko influenced 41.115.103.241 (talk) 18:29, 21 April 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 27 August 2023
"Hendrik de Wit" links to the wiki of the Dutch botanist rather than the South African General. This ought to be changed. Limidawr (talk) 21:30, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I have removed the link for now. There is no article for the police commissioner. It may warrant a red link. It seems from a quick search that the commissioner's surname was spelt with a double T (de Witt, even though Hill has only one) and that he was commonly known as Hennie eg here and here, so any red link/article should perhaps be Hennie de Witt? JennyOz (talk) 02:37, 28 August 2023 (UTC)

Steve Monument materials
Can I know that? 102.38.78.179 (talk) 12:45, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Steve Biko


text: Category:Nepal

title: Category:Nepal


text: Category:Latvian mythology

title: Category:Latvian mythology


text: Category:Chemical compounds

title: Category:Chemical compounds


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Category:Lists of musicians

These are lists of musicians.

See lists of musicians for a structured list. See also Category:Musicians and Category:Musical groups for other entries.

title: Category:Lists of musicians


text: Category:Nuclear chemistry

title: Category:Nuclear chemistry


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Reuben Fenton

Reuben Eaton Fenton (July 4, 1819 – August 25, 1885) was an American merchant and politician from New York. In the mid-19th century, he served as a U.S. Representative, a U.S. Senator, and as Governor of New York.

Early life
Fenton was born near Frewsburg, in Chautauqua County, New York, on July 4, 1819. He was the son of a farmer, and schoolteacher, George Washington Fenton (1783–1860) and Elsey (née Owen) Fenton (1790–1875). He had four siblings: Roswell Owen Fenton, George Washington Fenton Jr., William H.H. Fenton, and John Freeman Fenton.

His paternal grandparents were Roswell Fenton and Deborah (née Freeman) Fenton and his maternal grandfather was John Owen of Carroll, New York. His paternal aunt, Hannah Fenton was the wife of Lambert Van Buren of Kinderhook, New York.

He was educated in the district school, Cary's Academy near Cincinnati, Ohio, and the Fredonia Academy.

Career
In 1840, he was named commander of the New York Militia's 162nd Infantry Regiment with the rank of colonel. He became a lumber merchant, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1841. Fenton entered politics as a Democrat. He was Town Supervisor of Carroll from 1843 to 1850.

U.S. House of Representatives
He was elected as a Democrat to the 33rd United States Congress, and served from March 4, 1853, to March 3, 1855. In his first term in Congress, Fenton strongly opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and unsuccessfully tried to persuade President Franklin Pierce and U.S. Secretary of State William L. Marcy to oppose the bill. He was defeated for re-election that year. He left the Democratic Party to help organize the Republican Party, and was later elected, as a Republican, to the 35th, 36th, 37th and 38th United States Congresses, and served from 1857 to 1865. During the 36th Congress, he served on the Committee on Invalid Pensions and in the 37th Congress, he served on the Committee on Claims. He served a total of five terms as congressman.

Governor of New York
He was the Governor of New York from 1865 to 1868, elected in 1864 and 1866. "During his tenure, Cornell University was founded; a free public school system was initiated; and relief measures were sanctioned that benefited veterans." After serving two terms as governor, Fenton lost the November 1868 election to John T. Hoffman, a Tammany-backed Democrat. In 1868, he was among the candidates to be Vice President but the nomination went eventually to Schuyler Colfax, whom Fenton had previously been allied with in discussing "growing public agitation about" General George B. McClellan's inactivity with President Abraham Lincoln during the U.S. Civil War.

U.S. Senator
In January 1869, he was elected a U.S. Senator from New York, succeeding Edwin D. Morgan and serving from 1869 to 1875 when Francis Kernan replaced him. While in the Senate, he served as Chair of the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses during the 42nd Congress while also serving on the Committee on Manufactures and the Committee on Territories. In 1872, he was among the Republicans opposed to President Ulysses S. Grant who joined the short-lived Liberal Republican Party.

Later life
In 1878, Fenton represented the United States at the International Monetary Conference in Paris. He was known as "The Soldiers' Friend" for his efforts to help returning Civil War veterans. He worked to remove tuition charges for public education, helped to establish six schools for training teachers, and signed the charter for Cornell University.

Personal life
In 1840, Fenton was married to Jane W. Frew (1821–1842), the daughter of John Frew. They had one daughter, Jane Frew Fenton. After his first wife's death in 1842 Jane went to live with her maternal grandparents. Reuben got remarried on June 12, 1844, to Elizabeth Scudder (1824–1901). Together, they were the parents of:

 * Josephine Fenton (1845–1928), who married Frank Edward Gifford (1845–1934).
 * Jeannette Fenton (1849–1924), who married Albert Gilbert (1851–1912).
 * Reuben Earle Fenton (1865–1895), who married Lillian Mai Hayden, daughter of Charles H. Hayden in 1890.

Fenton died on August 25, 1885, in Jamestown, and was buried in Lake View Cemetery.

Legacy
The town of Fenton in Broome County, New York, is named After Reuben Fenton.

Fenton's family home was an Italian Villa style house built in 1863. He and his family lived there until the passing of Fenton's wife. After her passing the house was abandoned before it became city property in 1919. It has been home to the Fenton History Center since 1964 and is now used as a museum dedicated to the local history of Chautauqua county. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.

After his death, a building at The State University of New York at Fredonia, Fenton Hall, was named in his honor because he had attended the previous incarnation of the school, Fredonia Academy.

Fenton Avenue in The Bronx, New York, is named for him.

title: Reuben Fenton


text:
List of federal subjects of Russia by population

The following is a list of 83 of the 89 federal subjects of Russia in order of population according to the 2010 and 2021 Russian Census. The totals of all federal subjects do not include nationals living abroad at the time of census.


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Scale invariance

In physics, mathematics and statistics, scale invariance is a feature of objects or laws that do not change if scales of length, energy, or other variables, are multiplied by a common factor, and thus represent a universality.

The technical term for this transformation is a dilatation (also known as dilation). Dilatations can form part of a larger conformal symmetry.

 * In mathematics, scale invariance usually refers to an invariance of individual functions or curves. A closely related concept is self-similarity, where a function or curve is invariant under a discrete subset of the dilations. It is also possible for the probability distributions of random processes to display this kind of scale invariance or self-similarity.
 * In classical field theory, scale invariance most commonly applies to the invariance of a whole theory under dilatations. Such theories typically describe classical physical processes with no characteristic length scale.
 * In quantum field theory, scale invariance has an interpretation in terms of particle physics. In a scale-invariant theory, the strength of particle interactions does not depend on the energy of the particles involved.
 * In statistical mechanics, scale invariance is a feature of phase transitions. The key observation is that near a phase transition or critical point, fluctuations occur at all length scales, and thus one should look for an explicitly scale-invariant theory to describe the phenomena. Such theories are scale-invariant statistical field theories, and are formally very similar to scale-invariant quantum field theories.
 * Universality is the observation that widely different microscopic systems can display the same behaviour at a phase transition. Thus phase transitions in many different systems may be described by the same underlying scale-invariant theory.
 * In general, dimensionless quantities are scale-invariant. The analogous concept in statistics are standardized moments, which are scale-invariant statistics of a variable, while the unstandardized moments are not.

Scale-invariant curves and self-similarity
In mathematics, one can consider the scaling properties of a function or curve $f (x)$ under rescalings of the variable $x$. That is, one is interested in the shape of $f (λx)$ for some scale factor $λ$, which can be taken to be a length or size rescaling. The requirement for $f (x)$ to be invariant under all rescalings is usually taken to be
 * $$f(\lambda x)=\lambda^\Delta f(x)$$

for some choice of exponent Δ, and for all dilations $λ$. This is equivalent to $f$   being a homogeneous function of degree Δ.

Examples of scale-invariant functions are the monomials $$f(x)=x^n$$, for which $Δ = n$, in that clearly

 * $$f(\lambda x) = (\lambda x)^n = \lambda^n f(x)~.$$

An example of a scale-invariant curve is the logarithmic spiral, a kind of curve that often appears in nature. In polar coordinates $(r, θ)$, the spiral can be written as

 * $$\theta = \frac{1}{b} \ln(r/a)~.$$

Allowing for rotations of the curve, it is invariant under all rescalings $λ$; that is, $θ(λr)$ is identical to a rotated version of $θ(r)$.

Projective geometry
The idea of scale invariance of a monomial generalizes in higher dimensions to the idea of a homogeneous polynomial, and more generally to a homogeneous function. Homogeneous functions are the natural denizens of projective space, and homogeneous polynomials are studied as projective varieties in projective geometry. Projective geometry is a particularly rich field of mathematics; in its most abstract forms, the geometry of schemes, it has connections to various topics in string theory.

Fractals
It is sometimes said that fractals are scale-invariant, although more precisely, one should say that they are self-similar. A fractal is equal to itself typically for only a discrete set of values $λ$, and even then a translation and rotation may have to be applied to match the fractal up to itself.

Thus, for example, the Koch curve scales with $∆ = 1$, but the scaling holds only for values of $λ = 1/3^{n}$ for integer $n$. In addition, the Koch curve scales not only at the origin, but, in a certain sense, "everywhere": miniature copies of itself can be found all along the curve.

Some fractals may have multiple scaling factors at play at once; such scaling is studied with multi-fractal analysis.

Periodic external and internal rays are invariant curves.

Scale invariance in stochastic processes
If $P(f )$ is the average, expected power at frequency $f$, then noise scales as
 * $$P(f) = \lambda^{-\Delta} P(\lambda f)$$

with Δ = 0 for white noise,  Δ = −1  for pink noise, and Δ = −2  for Brownian noise (and more generally, Brownian motion).

More precisely, scaling in stochastic systems concerns itself with the likelihood of choosing a particular configuration out of the set of all possible random configurations. This likelihood is given by the probability distribution.

Examples of scale-invariant distributions are the Pareto distribution and the Zipfian distribution.

Scale-invariant Tweedie distributions
Tweedie distributions are a special case of exponential dispersion models, a class of statistical models used to describe error distributions for the generalized linear model and characterized by closure under additive and reproductive convolution as well as under scale transformation. These include a number of common distributions: the normal distribution, Poisson distribution and gamma distribution, as well as more unusual distributions like the compound Poisson-gamma distribution, positive stable distributions, and extreme stable distributions. Consequent to their inherent scale invariance Tweedie random variables Y demonstrate a variance var(Y) to mean E(Y) power law:
 * $$\text{var}\,(Y) = a[\text{E}\,(Y)]^p$$,

where a and p are positive constants. This variance to mean power law is known in the physics literature as fluctuation scaling, and in the ecology literature as Taylor's law.

Random sequences, governed by the Tweedie distributions and evaluated by the method of expanding bins exhibit a biconditional relationship between the variance to mean power law and power law autocorrelations. The Wiener–Khinchin theorem further implies that for any sequence that exhibits a variance to mean power law under these conditions will also manifest 1/f noise.

The Tweedie convergence theorem provides a hypothetical explanation for the wide manifestation of fluctuation scaling and 1/f noise. It requires, in essence, that any exponential dispersion model that asymptotically manifests a variance to mean power law will be required express a variance function that comes within the domain of attraction of a Tweedie model. Almost all distribution functions with finite cumulant generating functions qualify as exponential dispersion models and most exponential dispersion models manifest variance functions of this form. Hence many probability distributions have variance functions that express this asymptotic behavior, and the Tweedie distributions become foci of convergence for a wide range of data types.

Much as the central limit theorem requires certain kinds of random variables to have as a focus of convergence the Gaussian distribution and express white noise, the Tweedie convergence theorem requires certain non-Gaussian random variables to express 1/f noise and fluctuation scaling.

Cosmology
In physical cosmology, the power spectrum of the spatial distribution of the cosmic microwave background is near to being a scale-invariant function. Although in mathematics this means that the spectrum is a power-law, in cosmology the term "scale-invariant" indicates that the amplitude, $P(k)$, of primordial fluctuations as a function of wave number, $k$, is approximately constant, i.e. a flat spectrum. This pattern is consistent with the proposal of cosmic inflation.

Scale invariance in classical field theory
Classical field theory is generically described by a field, or set of fields, φ, that depend on coordinates, x. Valid field configurations are then determined by solving differential equations for φ, and these equations are known as field equations.

For a theory to be scale-invariant, its field equations should be invariant under a rescaling of the coordinates, combined with some specified rescaling of the fields,
 * $$x\rightarrow\lambda x~,$$
 * $$\varphi\rightarrow\lambda^{-\Delta}\varphi~.$$

The parameter Δ is known as the scaling dimension of the field, and its value depends on the theory under consideration. Scale invariance will typically hold provided that no fixed length scale appears in the theory. Conversely, the presence of a fixed length scale indicates that a theory is not scale-invariant.

A consequence of scale invariance is that given a solution of a scale-invariant field equation, we can automatically find other solutions by rescaling both the coordinates and the fields appropriately. In technical terms, given a solution, φ(x), one always has other solutions of the form

 * $$\lambda^\Delta \varphi(\lambda x).$$

Scale invariance of field configurations
For a particular field configuration, φ(x),  to be scale-invariant, we require that
 * $$\varphi(x)=\lambda^{-\Delta}\varphi(\lambda x)$$

where Δ is, again, the scaling dimension of the field.

We note that this condition is rather restrictive. In general, solutions even of scale-invariant field equations will not be scale-invariant, and in such cases the symmetry is said to be spontaneously broken.

Classical electromagnetism
An example of a scale-invariant classical field theory is electromagnetism with no charges or currents. The fields are the electric and magnetic fields, E(x,t) and B(x,t), while their field equations are Maxwell's equations.

With no charges or currents, these field equations take the form of wave equations

\begin{align} \nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial t^2} \\[6pt] \nabla^2\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{B}}{\partial t^2} \end{align} $$ where c is the speed of light.

These field equations are invariant under the transformation

\begin{align} x\rightarrow\lambda x, \\[6pt] t\rightarrow\lambda t. \end{align} $$

Moreover, given solutions of Maxwell's equations, E(x, t) and B(x, t), it holds that E(λx, λt) and B(λx, λt) are also solutions.

Massless scalar field theory
Another example of a scale-invariant classical field theory is the massless scalar field (note that the name scalar is unrelated to scale invariance). The scalar field, $φ(x, t)$ is a function of a set of spatial variables, x, and a time variable, $t$.

Consider first the linear theory. Like the electromagnetic field equations above, the equation of motion for this theory is also a wave equation,
 * $$\frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 \varphi}{\partial t^2}-\nabla^2 \varphi = 0,$$

and is invariant under the transformation
 * $$x\rightarrow\lambda x,$$
 * $$t\rightarrow\lambda t.$$

The name massless refers to the absence of a term $$\propto m^2\varphi$$ in the field equation. Such a term is often referred to as a `mass' term, and would break the invariance under the above transformation. In relativistic field theories, a mass-scale, $m$ is physically equivalent to a fixed length scale through
 * $$L=\frac{\hbar}{mc},$$

and so it should not be surprising that massive scalar field theory is not scale-invariant.

φ4 theory
The field equations in the examples above are all linear in the fields, which has meant that the scaling dimension, Δ, has not been so important. However, one usually requires that the scalar field action is dimensionless, and this fixes the scaling dimension of $φ$. In particular,
 * $$\Delta=\frac{D-2}{2},$$

where $D$ is the combined number of spatial and time dimensions.

Given this scaling dimension for $φ$, there are certain nonlinear modifications of massless scalar field theory which are also scale-invariant. One example is massless φ4 theory for $D$ = 4. The field equation is
 * $$\frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 \varphi}{\partial t^2}-\nabla^2 \varphi+g\varphi^3=0.$$

(Note that the name $φ$4 derives from the form of the Lagrangian, which contains the fourth power of $φ$.)

When $D$ = 4 (e.g. three spatial dimensions and one time dimension), the scalar field scaling dimension is Δ = 1. The field equation is then invariant under the transformation
 * $$x\rightarrow\lambda x,$$
 * $$t\rightarrow\lambda t,$$
 * $$\varphi (x)\rightarrow\lambda^{-1}\varphi(x).$$

The key point is that the parameter $g$ must be dimensionless, otherwise one introduces a fixed length scale into the theory: For $φ$4  theory, this is only the case in $D$ = 4. Note that under these transformations the argument of the function $φ$ is unchanged.

Scale invariance in quantum field theory
The scale-dependence of a quantum field theory (QFT) is characterised by the way its coupling parameters depend on the energy-scale of a given physical process. This energy dependence is described by the renormalization group, and is encoded in the beta-functions of the theory.

For a QFT to be scale-invariant, its coupling parameters must be independent of the energy-scale, and this is indicated by the vanishing of the beta-functions of the theory. Such theories are also known as fixed points of the corresponding renormalization group flow.

Quantum electrodynamics
A simple example of a scale-invariant QFT is the quantized electromagnetic field without charged particles. This theory actually has no coupling parameters (since photons are massless and non-interacting) and is therefore scale-invariant, much like the classical theory.

However, in nature the electromagnetic field is coupled to charged particles, such as electrons. The QFT describing the interactions of photons and charged particles is quantum electrodynamics (QED), and this theory is not scale-invariant. We can see this from the QED beta-function. This tells us that the electric charge (which is the coupling parameter in the theory) increases with increasing energy. Therefore, while the quantized electromagnetic field without charged particles is scale-invariant, QED is not scale-invariant.

Massless scalar field theory
Free, massless quantized scalar field theory has no coupling parameters. Therefore, like the classical version, it is scale-invariant. In the language of the renormalization group, this theory is known as the Gaussian fixed point.

However, even though the classical massless φ4 theory is scale-invariant in D = 4, the quantized version is not scale-invariant. We can see this from the beta-function for the coupling parameter, g.

Even though the quantized massless φ4 is not scale-invariant, there do exist scale-invariant quantized scalar field theories other than the Gaussian fixed point. One example is the Wilson–Fisher fixed point, below.

Conformal field theory
Scale-invariant QFTs are almost always invariant under the full conformal symmetry, and the study of such QFTs is conformal field theory (CFT). Operators in a CFT have a well-defined scaling dimension, analogous to the scaling dimension, ∆, of a classical field discussed above. However, the scaling dimensions of operators in a CFT typically differ from those of the fields in the corresponding classical theory. The additional contributions appearing in the CFT are known as anomalous scaling dimensions.

Scale and conformal anomalies
The φ4 theory example above demonstrates that the coupling parameters of a quantum field theory can be scale-dependent even if the corresponding classical field theory is scale-invariant (or conformally invariant). If this is the case, the classical scale (or conformal) invariance is said to be anomalous. A classically scale-invariant field theory, where scale invariance is broken by quantum effects, provides an explication of the nearly exponential expansion of the early universe called cosmic inflation, as long as the theory can be studied through perturbation theory.

Phase transitions
In statistical mechanics, as a system undergoes a phase transition, its fluctuations are described by a scale-invariant statistical field theory. For a system in equilibrium (i.e. time-independent) in $D$ spatial dimensions, the corresponding statistical field theory is formally similar to a $D$-dimensional CFT. The scaling dimensions in such problems are usually referred to as critical exponents, and one can in principle compute these exponents in the appropriate CFT.

The Ising model
An example that links together many of the ideas in this article is the phase transition of the Ising model, a simple model of ferromagnetic substances. This is a statistical mechanics model, which also has a description in terms of conformal field theory. The system consists of an array of lattice sites, which form a $D$-dimensional periodic lattice. Associated with each lattice site is a magnetic moment, or spin, and this spin can take either the value +1 or −1. (These states are also called up and down, respectively.)

The key point is that the Ising model has a spin-spin interaction, making it energetically favourable for two adjacent spins to be aligned. On the other hand, thermal fluctuations typically introduce a randomness into the alignment of spins. At some critical temperature, $T_{c}$, spontaneous magnetization is said to occur. This means that below $T_{c}$ the spin-spin interaction will begin to dominate, and there is some net alignment of spins in one of the two directions.

An example of the kind of physical quantities one would like to calculate at this critical temperature is the correlation between spins separated by a distance $r$. This has the generic behaviour:
 * $$G(r)\propto\frac{1}{r^{D-2+\eta}},$$

for some particular value of $$\eta$$, which is an example of a critical exponent.

CFT description
The fluctuations at temperature $T_{c}$ are scale-invariant, and so the Ising model at this phase transition is expected to be described by a scale-invariant statistical field theory. In fact, this theory is the Wilson–Fisher fixed point, a particular scale-invariant scalar field theory.

In this context, $G(r)$ is understood as a correlation function of scalar fields,
 * $$\langle\phi(0)\phi(r)\rangle\propto\frac{1}{r^{D-2+\eta}}.$$

Now we can fit together a number of the ideas seen already.

From the above, one sees that the critical exponent, $η$, for this phase transition, is also an anomalous dimension. This is because the classical dimension of the scalar field,
 * $$\Delta=\frac{D-2}{2}$$

is modified to become
 * $$\Delta=\frac{D-2+\eta}{2},$$

where $D$ is the number of dimensions of the Ising model lattice.

So this anomalous dimension in the conformal field theory is the same as a particular critical exponent of the Ising model phase transition.

Note that for dimension $D ≡ 4−ε$, $η$ can be calculated approximately, using the epsilon expansion, and one finds that
 * $$\eta=\frac{\epsilon^2}{54}+O(\epsilon^3)$$.

In the physically interesting case of three spatial dimensions, we have $ε$=1, and so this expansion is not strictly reliable. However, a semi-quantitative prediction is that $η$ is numerically small in three dimensions.

On the other hand, in the two-dimensional case the Ising model is exactly soluble. In particular, it is equivalent to one of the minimal models, a family of well-understood CFTs, and it is possible to compute $η$ (and the other critical exponents) exactly,
 * $$\eta_{_{D=2}}=\frac{1}{4}$$.

Schramm–Loewner evolution
The anomalous dimensions in certain two-dimensional CFTs can be related to the typical fractal dimensions of random walks, where the random walks are defined via Schramm–Loewner evolution (SLE). As we have seen above, CFTs describe the physics of phase transitions, and so one can relate the critical exponents of certain phase transitions to these fractal dimensions. Examples include the 2d critical Ising model and the more general 2d critical Potts model. Relating other 2d CFTs to SLE is an active area of research.

Universality
A phenomenon known as universality is seen in a large variety of physical systems. It expresses the idea that different microscopic physics can give rise to the same scaling behaviour at a phase transition. A canonical example of universality involves the following two systems:
 * The Ising model phase transition, described above.
 * The liquid-vapour transition in classical fluids.

Even though the microscopic physics of these two systems is completely different, their critical exponents turn out to be the same. Moreover, one can calculate these exponents using the same statistical field theory. The key observation is that at a phase transition or critical point, fluctuations occur at all length scales, and thus one should look for a scale-invariant statistical field theory to describe the phenomena. In a sense, universality is the observation that there are relatively few such scale-invariant theories.

The set of different microscopic theories described by the same scale-invariant theory is known as a universality class. Other examples of systems which belong to a universality class are:
 * Avalanches in piles of sand. The likelihood of an avalanche is in power-law proportion to the size of the avalanche, and avalanches are seen to occur at all size scales.
 * The frequency of network outages on the Internet, as a function of size and duration.
 * The frequency of citations of journal articles, considered in the network of all citations amongst all papers, as a function of the number of citations in a given paper.
 * The formation and propagation of cracks and tears in materials ranging from steel to rock to paper. The variations of the direction of the tear, or the roughness of a fractured surface, are in power-law proportion to the size scale.
 * The electrical breakdown of dielectrics, which resemble cracks and tears.
 * The percolation of fluids through disordered media, such as petroleum through fractured rock beds, or water through filter paper, such as in chromatography. Power-law scaling connects the rate of flow to the distribution of fractures.
 * The diffusion of molecules in solution, and the phenomenon of diffusion-limited aggregation.
 * The distribution of rocks of different sizes in an aggregate mixture that is being shaken (with gravity acting on the rocks).

The key observation is that, for all of these different systems, the behaviour resembles a phase transition, and that the language of statistical mechanics and scale-invariant statistical field theory may be applied to describe them.

Newtonian fluid mechanics with no applied forces
Under certain circumstances, fluid mechanics is a scale-invariant classical field theory. The fields are the velocity of the fluid flow, $$\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{x},t)$$, the fluid density, $$\rho(\mathbf{x},t)$$, and the fluid pressure, $$P(\mathbf{x},t)$$. These fields must satisfy both the Navier–Stokes equation and the continuity equation. For a Newtonian fluid these take the respective forms

$$\rho\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t}+\rho\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla \mathbf{u} = -\nabla P+\mu \left(\nabla^2 \mathbf{u}+\frac{1}{3}\nabla\left(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{u}\right)\right)$$
 * $$\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}+\nabla\cdot \left(\rho\mathbf{u}\right)=0$$

where $$\mu$$ is the dynamic viscosity.

In order to deduce the scale invariance of these equations we specify an equation of state, relating the fluid pressure to the fluid density. The equation of state depends on the type of fluid and the conditions to which it is subjected. For example, we consider the isothermal ideal gas, which satisfies
 * $$P=c_s^2\rho,$$

where $$c_s$$ is the speed of sound in the fluid. Given this equation of state, Navier–Stokes and the continuity equation are invariant under the transformations
 * $$x\rightarrow\lambda x,$$
 * $$t\rightarrow\lambda^2 t,$$
 * $$\rho\rightarrow\lambda^{-1} \rho,$$
 * $$\mathbf{u}\rightarrow\lambda^{-1}\mathbf{u}.$$

Given the solutions $$\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{x},t)$$ and $$\rho(\mathbf{x},t)$$, we automatically have that $$\lambda\mathbf{u}(\lambda\mathbf{x},\lambda^2 t)$$ and $$\lambda\rho(\lambda\mathbf{x},\lambda^2 t)$$ are also solutions.

Computer vision
In computer vision and biological vision, scaling transformations arise because of the perspective image mapping and because of objects having different physical size in the world. In these areas, scale invariance refers to local image descriptors or visual representations of the image data that remain invariant when the local scale in the image domain is changed. Detecting local maxima over scales of normalized derivative responses provides a general framework for obtaining scale invariance from image data. Examples of applications include blob detection, corner detection, ridge detection, and object recognition via the scale-invariant feature transform.

title: Scale invariance


text:
User:Davelewis

Hi,

Dave was the President of Reading University Students' Union between 2005-7, a recent graduate of Modern History and Politics and a fan of football.

Dave was first elected as President of Reading University Students' Union in February 2005. He stood for re-election in February 2006 and was successful with a four vote margin. Whilst President of Reading Dave has also been the Chair of students' unions' buying consortium NUSSL. In March 2007, Dave was elected as the National Treasurer of the National Union of Students, winning with a five vote margin.

He lives in London where he now works for NUS as National Treasurer.

title: User:Davelewis


text: User talk:68.54.140.36

title: User talk:68.54.140.36


text:
Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy

The Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy is awarded annually by the American Astronomical Society to a young astronomer (aged less than 36, or within 8 years of the award of their PhD) for a significant contribution to observational or theoretical astronomy.

List of winners
This list is from the American Astronomical Society's website. • 1954 Aden Meinel

• 1955 George Herbig

• 1956 Harold Johnson

• 1957 Allan Sandage

• 1958 Merle F. Walker

• 1959 E. Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge

• 1960 Halton Arp

• 1961 Joseph W. Chamberlain

• 1962 Robert Kraft

• 1963 Bernard F. Burke

• 1964 Maarten Schmidt

• 1965 George W. Preston

• 1966 Riccardo Giacconi

• 1967 Pierre Demarque

• 1968 Frank J. Low

• 1969 Wallace L. W. Sargent

• 1970 John N. Bahcall

• 1971 Kenneth Kellermann

• 1972 Jeremiah P. Ostriker

• 1973 George Carruthers

• 1974 Dimitri Mihalas

• 1975 Patrick Palmer, Ben Zuckerman

• 1976 Stephen E. Strom

• 1977 Frank Shu

• 1978 David Schramm

• 1979 Arthur Davidsen

• 1980 Paul C. Joss

• 1981 William H. Press

• 1982 Roger Blandford

• 1983 Scott D. Tremaine

• 1984 Michael S. Turner

• 1985 Lennox L. Cowie

• 1986 Simon D. M. White

• 1987 Jack Wisdom

• 1988 Mitchell C. Begelman

• 1989 Nicholas Kaiser

• 1990  Ethan T. Vishniac

• 1991 Shrinivas Kulkarni

• 1992 Edmund Bertschinger

• 1993 John F. Hawley

• 1994  David N. Spergel

• 1995 E. Sterl Phinney

• 1996 Fred C. Adams

• 1997 Charles C. Steidel

• 1998 Marc Kamionkowski

• 1999 Lars Bildsten

• 2000 Wayne Hu

• 2001 Uroš Seljak

• 2002 Adam Riess

• 2003 Matias Zaldarriaga

• 2004 William Holzapfel

• 2005 Christopher Reynolds

• 2006 Re’em Sari

• 2007 Sara Seager

• 2008 Eliot Quataert

• 2009 Scott Gaudi

• 2010  Scott Ransom

• 2011 Steven R. Furlanetto

• 2012 Eric B. Ford

• 2013 Mark Krumholz

• 2014 Christopher M. Hirata

• 2015 Ruth Murray-Clay

• 2016 Philip F. Hopkins

• 2017 Charlie Conroy

• 2018 Yacine Ali-Haïmoud

• 2019 Jo Bovy

• 2020 Smadar Naoz

• 2021 Rebekah Dawson

• 2022 Brett McGuire

• 2023 Ana Bonaca

• 2024 Carl Rodriguez

title: Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy


text:
Home Alone 3

Home Alone 3 is a 1997 American family comedy film directed by Raja Gosnell in his directorial debut, written and co-produced by John Hughes, and starring Alex D. Linz and Haviland Morris. A standalone sequel to Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992), it follows Alex Pruitt, an 8-year-old boy who defends his home from a dangerous band of international criminals working for a terrorist organization. It is the third film in the Home Alone franchise, the only one not set during Christmas, and the first not to feature actor Macaulay Culkin, director Chris Columbus, or composer John Williams; Gosnell had previously served as editor on the first two Home Alone films. It is also the final film in the Home Alone franchise to receive a theatrical release.

The film received mixed to negative reviews, with critics praising Linz's performance but criticizing the film's departure from the previous installments, including its themes and cast. Home Alone 3 was followed by a made-for-television sequel, Home Alone 4: Taking Back the House, in 2002.

Plot
Peter Beaupre, Alice Ribbons, Burton Jernigan, and Earl Unger are four internationally wanted criminals working for a Hong Kong-based terrorist organization linked to North Korea. In Silicon Valley, California, they steal a $10 million missile-cloaking microchip and hide it inside a remote-controlled toy car to sneak it past security at San Francisco International Airport. However, a luggage mix-up causes a Chicago-bound elderly passenger named Mrs. Hess to inadvertently take the criminals' bag containing the car. The criminals arrive in Chicago and systematically search every house in Hess's suburban neighborhood to find the chip.

Eight-year-old Alex Pruitt is given the toy car by Hess as payment for shoveling her driveway. He returns home and discovers that he has chicken pox and must stay home from school. The next day, Alex discovers the criminals while spying on his neighbors and involves the police, but they are unable to help. Alex attaches a camera to the car and uses it to spy on them, leading to the criminals chasing it when they spot it. Wondering what they want with the toy car, Alex opens it and discovers the stolen chip. He calls the local U.S. Air Force Recruitment Center about the discovery and asks if they can forward the information about the chip to the right authorities.

The criminals realize that Alex has been watching them and decide to break into the Pruitt house. Alex rigs the house with handmade booby traps with help from his pet rat Doris and his brother Stan's loud-mouthed parrot. The criminals break in and suffer various injuries from the traps. While the quartet pursues Alex around the house, he flees and rescues Hess, who has been duct taped to a chair in her garage by Ribbons. Beaupre ambushes Alex, but the latter uses a bubble gun resembling a Glock to scare him off.

FBI agents and the police later arrive and arrest Ribbons, Jernigan, and Unger, having received a tip from the recruitment center. However, Beaupre hides in a makeshift snow fort in the backyard. Stan's parrot discovers him and threatens to light fireworks, which are lined around the inside. Beaupre offers a cracker in exchange for silence, but the parrot demands two. Since Beaupre has only one, the parrot lights the fireworks, alerting the authorities to Beaupre's location.

That evening, the Pruitts, Mrs. Hess, and the authorities hold a celebration for Alex as the Pruitt house is being repaired, with Alex's father Jack returning home from a business trip. At the police department, the criminals are shown to have contracted Alex's chicken pox during their mugshots.

Production
Home Alone 3 was pitched at the same time as Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, and both films were meant to be produced simultaneously; however, those plans fell through. The idea for a third Home Alone movie was revived in the mid-1990s; early drafts called for Macaulay Culkin to reprise the role of Kevin McCallister as a teenager. However, by 1994, Culkin had taken a hiatus from acting. As a result, the idea was reworked, centering on a new cast of characters.

It was filmed in Chicago and Evanston, Illinois, with the airport scenes at the beginning of the film being shot at two different concourses at O'Hare International Airport.

Principal photography began on December 2, 1996, and filming concluded on March 22, 1997.

Fox Family Films was the division of 20th Century Fox responsible for the production on the film.

Home media
Home Alone 3 was released on VHS and Laserdisc on June 2, 1998, and on DVD on November 3, 1998, which was later reissued in December 2007 (and, as part of Home Alone multi-packs, in 2006 and 2008). While the DVD presents the film in its original Widescreen format (1.85:1), it is presented in a non-anamorphic 4:3 matte.

Box office
The film grossed $79,082,515 worldwide.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on  reviews, with an average rating of. The site's critical consensus reads: "Macaulay Culkin's precocious charisma is sorely missed in this hollow sequel, which doubles down on the broad comedy while lacking all the hallmarks that made the original a classic." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and said that he found it to be "fresh, very funny, and better than the first two."

Accolades
The film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Remake or Sequel, losing to Speed 2: Cruise Control.

Novelization
A novelization based on the screenplay was written by Todd Strasser and published by Scholastic in 1997 to coincide with the film. ISBN 0-590-95712-0

title: Home Alone 3


text:
Lethal Weapon 3

Lethal Weapon 3 is a 1992 American buddy cop action film directed by Richard Donner and written by Jeffrey Boam and Robert Mark Kamen. The sequel to Lethal Weapon 2 (1989), it is the third installment in the Lethal Weapon film series and stars Mel Gibson, Danny Glover, Joe Pesci, Rene Russo, and Stuart Wilson.

In Lethal Weapon 3, LAPD Sergeants Martin Riggs (Gibson) and Roger Murtaugh (Glover) pursue Jack Travis (Wilson), a former LAPD lieutenant turned ruthless arms dealer, during the six days prior to Murtaugh's retirement. Riggs and Murtaugh are joined by Leo Getz (Pesci) as well as internal affairs Sergeant Lorna Cole (Russo).

The film was a box office success, grossing over $320 million worldwide. It was the fifth-highest-grossing film of 1992 and the highest-grossing installment in the series overall. The film was followed by Lethal Weapon 4 in 1998.

Plot
A week before his retirement, L.A.P.D. Sergeant Roger Murtaugh and his partner Martin Riggs are demoted to uniform duties after failing to defuse an office building bomb. While on street patrol they witness the theft of an armored car, and help to thwart the crime assisted by armored car driver Delores. One of the two thieves gets away, but the other is taken into police custody. The suspect is found to be a known associate of Jack Travis, a former LAPD lieutenant who is running an arms smuggling ring in Los Angeles. The department is further concerned that the thieves were using armor-piercing bullets. Riggs and Murtaugh are re-promoted and assigned to work with Sergeant Lorna Cole from internal affairs to track down Travis.

Travis is currently negotiating with mobster Tyrone regarding his arms deal. The armored car thief that escaped is brought to Travis, who subsequently kills him in front of Tyrone for putting the police on his trail. Travis then uses his old police credentials to enter the interrogation room and kill the suspect in custody before he can be interviewed. Travis is unaware that closed-circuit cameras have been installed in the station, and Cole is able to confirm Travis' identity. While the three are reviewing the footage, their good friend Leo Getz, who has been helping Murtaugh sell his house, arrives and immediately recognizes Travis from several prior business deals and his love of ice hockey. Murtaugh, Riggs, and Getz narrowly miss capturing Travis at a hockey match, and Getz is wounded. However, Getz manages to provide them with information of a warehouse Travis owns, which they suspect is where he has stored his arms shipments.

Riggs and Murtaugh contact Cole for backup before they raid the warehouse, and stop at a food truck to wait for her. As they wait for their food, they witness a drug deal and attempt to stop it. Murtaugh kills a gunman who fired at them, while the rest escape. Murtaugh recognizes the gunman, Darryl, a close friend of his son Nick. With Murtaugh emotionally distraught, Riggs and Cole head to the warehouse, where they successfully secure his next arms shipment delivery. That night, Riggs and Cole find they have feelings for each other and sleep together. Riggs later finds a guilt-ridden Murtaugh drunk in his boat and consoles him in time for Darryl's funeral. There, Darryl's father passionately insists that Murtaugh find the person responsible for giving Darryl the gun.

Cole finds that Darryl's gun, the armor-piercing bullets, and the arms they recovered were originally in police custody, meant to be destroyed, and were stolen by Travis; they revoke his credentials from the system. They further tie the guns to Tyrone and interrogate him. Tyrone directs them to an auto garage where many of his henchmen work from. Riggs, Murtaugh, and Cole are able to arrest several of the men. Meanwhile, Travis has one of his men hack into the computer system to find another arms storage area. He then forces Captain Murphy under gunpoint to take him to this new facility so he can steal the guns using Murphy's credentials. Cole finds the evidence of hacking and Murphy's absence, and the three, along with a rookie cop, Edwards, who looks up to Riggs and Murtaugh, intercept Travis. They are able to rescue Murphy and stop Travis and his men before he can take the weapons, but Edwards is killed during their pursuit.

Getz provides information on a housing development owned by Travis's shell company. Riggs, Murtaugh, and Cole infiltrate the site at night and enter a large-scale gunfight. Riggs sets the construction site on fire and most of Travis' men are killed, while Travis wounds Cole. When Travis uses a bulldozer to chase down Riggs, using its blade as a bullet shield, Murtaugh tosses Daryl's gun, now loaded with the armor-piercing bullets, to Riggs, who then shoots and kills Travis through the blade. After finding out Cole wore two layers of kevlar vests, Riggs admits his love for her as she is taken away in a chopper.

The next day, Murtaugh's family is celebrating his retirement, when Murtaugh reveals to Getz that he has decided to not sell the house and stay with the force, preserving his partnership with Riggs, who announces his relationship with Cole to Murtaugh.

Cast
In addition, Delores Hall appears as Delores, the armoured car driver. Other series regulars, who appear in minor roles in all four films of the franchise, include: Damon Hines and Ebonie Smith as Murtaugh children Nick and Carrie, respectively; and Mary Ellen Trainor as psychologist Stephanie Woods.

Production
The movie was filmed from October 1991 to January 1992.

Richard Donner, an animal-rights and pro-choice activist, placed many posters and stickers for these causes in the film. Of note are the T-shirt worn by one of Murtaugh's daughters (the actress's idea), an 18-wheeler with an anti-fur slogan on the side, and a sticker on a locker in the police station.

Demolition scenes
In the film's first scene, Riggs accidentally sets off a bomb that destroys the ICSI Building. The ICSI Building was actually the former City Hall building of Orlando, Florida, located at the intersection of Orange Avenue and South Street in Downtown Orlando. Warner Bros. decided to use the destruction of the building in the film, and as a result paid $500,000 for the demolition. From August to October 1991, the production crew fitted the old Orlando City Hall building featured in the opening scene with carefully placed explosives to create the visual effect of a bomb explosion. Bill Frederick, then mayor of Orlando, Florida, was the policeman who sarcastically claps and said "Bravo!" to Murtaugh and Riggs after the explosion.

The building was demolished so that it would collapse slightly forward (toward Orange Avenue), minimizing the chances of it damaging the new City Hall building, built directly behind it. The space was cleared out and became a plaza for the new City Hall, with a fountain and a monument.

The film's climax scene, where an under-construction housing development is set ablaze, was filmed at an unfinished housing development in Lancaster, California. The unfinished houses, which had been sitting abandoned and slated to be torn down, were coated in flame retardant and propane gas lines to ensure that the houses could withstand re-shoots. The original homes were eventually demolished and was eventually redeveloped into another housing development.

During the closing credits, Riggs and Murtaugh drive up to an old hotel where another bomb has been placed. Before they (their doubles) can exit the car, the bomb explodes and destroys the building. The hotel was actually the former Soreno Hotel in downtown St. Petersburg, Florida. The film's producers agreed to help with the cost of the 68-year-old building's implosion for the purposes of their film.

Hockey game
A November 26, 1991 NHL game between the Los Angeles Kings and the Toronto Maple Leafs at the Great Western Forum served as the basis for the hockey scene featured in the movie. The league allowed production to capture the real-life action, although goaltender Kelly Hrudey eventually became annoyed with the additional lights used by the crew and asked filming to stop.

The NHL also let Donner stage part of the scene, where Riggs commandeers the arena's PA system to lure out Jack Travis, during the game's second intermission. It was completed in two takes. However, the director was not allowed to film the segment where Riggs chases down Travis onto the ice that evening. It was completed after a Kings practice. In closer shots, these sequences used extras dressed in unlicensed jerseys that only roughly resemble those worn by the actual teams. A contemporary AP report cites Lethal Weapon's excessive violence as the reason why the NHL limited its collaboration. However, the organization took a relaxed stance towards the more intense Sudden Death a few years later. The Los Angeles Kings later featured in a season three episode of the Lethal Weapon TV series, entitled "What The Puck?".

Writing
Jeffrey Boam's first two drafts of the script were different from the final film. The character of Lorna for example was not a woman in original drafts, but the original character still had the same personality and was just as lethal and crazy as Riggs, making him his match. Riggs also had an affair with Roger's daughter Rianne, and a few parts in the final film where Roger suspects that Riggs and Rianne are interested in each other are only parts left from the original drafts.

Director Richard Donner demanded some big changes on the script which included changing the original character of Lorna (who had a different name in earlier drafts) into a woman and turning her into Riggs's girlfriend. He also re-worked the script to be less story-oriented and not focus on the main villains but instead on the relationship between Riggs and Murtaugh. He also toned down action scenes from the script and brought back Leo Getz into the story. All of his scenes were written in afterwards. In the original script Leo had left L.A. for New York. Boam had some disagreements with changes that Donner made, but he was not against them. Boam was fired after he wrote his first two drafts of the script. One of the reasons for this was because Donner wasn't interested in the script and he disagreed with some parts of Boam's original draft. After another writer, Robert Mark Kamen, was hired to re-write the script, Boam was called to return to work on it again. The filmmakers realized that Kamen's re-writes were not working. Boam asked to work alone on the script and ended up constantly changing it from October 1991 until January 1992 while filming was taking place. These types of changes also occurred during the filming of Lethal Weapon 2.

According to Kamen in a 2012 interview, many of his writing contributions ended up in the final film. Kamen also wrote many parts of the previous film in the series, with the most significant portions being the South African villains.

Screenwriter Jeffrey Boam is credited twice in the 'screenplay by' credits. This is because he did one draft by himself (granting him the first credit) and a second draft collaborating with Robert Mark Kamen (granting him the second credit). In this rare scenario, Boam was hired to rewrite his own script with a second writer. After receiving the unusual writing credits, the advertising department assumed it was a misprint and produced posters with the credits "Story by Jeffrey Boam, Screenplay by Jeffrey Boam and Robert Mark Kamen". After a few of the posters had been sent out, the WGA contacted the department, telling them that the initial credits were the correct ones, and ordering the posters to be recalled and destroyed.

Carrie Fisher was an uncredited script doctor on the film.

Martial arts
Russo received martial arts training for a month before shooting from Cheryl Wheeler-Dixon, who had a karate background and was a former kickboxing champion, and Wheeler-Dixon was also her stunt double. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu instructor Rorion Gracie, who had taught Gibson and Gary Busey in the first movie of the series in 1987, also provided training to Russo and acted as stuntman for a fight scene.

Promotion
To promote the film, theater lobbies featured a 3-D cutout of the film poster of Riggs and Murtaugh posing with their guns and Leo Getz peeking from the background. On the display, there was a motor which helped Leo's head bob up and down from behind them.

Box office
Lethal Weapon 3 made $33.2 million during its opening weekend. The $35 million film was a big box-office success, earning $145 million. Although slightly less than the $150 million domestic gross of the first sequel, it was nevertheless the second-most successful summer film of 1992 (after Batman Returns) and the fifth most profitable film of the year, as well as the highest-grossing in the film series worldwide with $320 million worldwide.

After the film's success, Warner Bros. head Robert A. Daly bought Land Rovers for Gibson, Glover, Pesci, Russo, Donner, Boam, and producer Joel Silver. Daly later said "It cost us $320,000 to buy those Land Rovers, and we were criticized left and right for the expense. Do you know what it got us? Lethal Weapon 4, which made $285 million".

Critical reception
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a positive review, awarding it 3 out of 4 stars.

Home media
Lethal Weapon 3 has been released on VHS and DVD numerous times. The first DVD was released in 1997 and featured the film's theatrical version. The 1997 DVD contains both the widescreen and the pan and scan editions. The Director's Cut was released in 2000. Since then, numerous sets have been released that contain all four films in the series (featuring the same DVDs). The film was released on Blu-ray Disc in 2011.

Soundtrack
Lethal Weapon 3 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released on June 9, 1992, on audio cassette and CD. The soundtrack was performed and composed by Michael Kamen, Eric Clapton, and David Sanborn. Its title songs, "It's Probably Me", and "Runaway Train" were written and performed by Eric Clapton with the assistance of Sting and Elton John respectively.

In 2013 La-La Land Records issued the complete score on a two-disc set as part of Lethal Weapon Soundtrack Collection.

Original album

 * 1) "It's Probably Me" by Sting and Eric Clapton
 * 2) "Runaway Train" by Elton John and Eric Clapton
 * 3) "Grab the Cat"
 * 4) "Leo Getz Goes to the Hockey Game"
 * 5) "Darryl Dies"
 * 6) "Riggs and Rog"
 * 7) "Roger's Boat"
 * 8) "Armour Piercing Bullets"
 * 9) "God Judges Us by Our Scars"
 * 10) "Lorna – A Quiet Evening by the Fire"

La-La Land album
Tracks with one asterisk are previously unreleased, tracks with two asterisks contain previously unreleased material.

 * Disc one
 * 1) "Trust Me" – 3:34 *
 * 2) "Afterglow" – 0:57
 * 3) "Jaywalker" – 2:01 *
 * 4) "Armoured Car Chase" – 4:33 *
 * 5) "Leo Getz" – 3:20 **
 * 6) "Concrete Death" – 1:59 **
 * 7) "Rianne's Big Break" – 2:16 *
 * 8) "Locker Room" – 0:43 *
 * 9) "Firing Range" – 0:59 *
 * 10) "Jack Kills Billy" – 3:15 *
 * 11) "Hockey Game" – 0:58 *
 * 12) "Dum-Dum Wound" – 1:07 *
 * 13) "Shooting Darryl, Part 1" – 3:12 **
 * 14) "Shooting Darryl, Part 2/Step into My Office" – 2:17 **
 * 15) "Man's Best Friend/Lorna's First Fight" – 6:41 **, *
 * 16) "Scars/Love Scene" – 3:45 *
 * 17) "Roger's Boat" – 5:28 **
 * 18) "Shaving" – 1:17 *
 * 19) "Gun Montage/Lorna's Second Fight" – 3:33 *
 * 20) "Captain Abducted/Captain and Travis" – 1:34 *
 * 21) "Unauthorized Access" – 1:57 *
 * 22) "Gun Battle" – 3:47 **
 * 23) "Riggs Falls" – 2:11 *
 * 24) "Drive to Housing Development/On Three" – 3:34 *
 * 25) "Fire/Fire Battle/A Quiet Evening by the Fire" – 7:01 *

Original album as above, followed by: Additional tracks
 * Disc two
 * 1) "Leo Getz" (alternate) – 2:38 *
 * 2) "Armoured Car Chase" (no overlay) – 4:33 *
 * 3) "Gun Battle" (alternate) – 5:26 *
 * 4) "I Can't Retire" – 1:30 **

Video games
Several versions of a Lethal Weapon video game were released in conjunction with this sequel's release, appearing on the NES, SNES, Game Boy, Amiga, Atari ST, and Commodore 64 platforms.

Also released was a Lethal Weapon 3 pinball game.

title: Lethal Weapon 3


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Tyrin Turner

Tyrin Turner is an American actor. He is best known for playing the lead role of Caine Lawson in the critically acclaimed 1993 urban drama Menace II Society.

Career
Turner is best known for playing the main character, Kaydee "Caine" Lawson, in the 1993 film Menace II Society. He also has made guest appearances on television shows such as Chicago Hope and Hangin' with Mr. Cooper and made numerous cameo appearances in urban music videos throughout the 1990s. Turner played the central character in Janet Jackson's 1989 long-form music video for her single Rhythm Nation.

For over twenty years, Turner has been working behind the scenes writing comedy material for his close friend Jamie Foxx and for comedian Affion Crockett.

Turner was nominated at the 1993 Independent Spirit Awards for playing the lead role character as Kaydee "Caine" Lawson in the Hughes Brothers debut 1993 film Menace II Society.

Personal life
Turner is married to Amina Garner. He is the father to fraternal twins, daughter Tai and son Tyrin Jr.

Turner joined Jamie Foxx and Stephen Jackson when they both spoke out in Minneapolis following the murder of George Floyd.

Guest appearances

 * 1989: "Rhythm Nation 1814" (Janet Jackson)
 * 1995: "Lockdown" (D.E.E.P.)
 * 1995: "Illusions" (Cypress Hill)
 * 1996: "Can't Be Wasting My Time" (Mona Lisa feat. Lost Boyz)
 * 1998: "Dawn 2 Dusk" (Geto Boys feat. DMG, & Yukmouth)
 * 1998: "Money By The Ton" (C-Bo feat. Mississippi)
 * 1998: "Menace Niggas Never Die" (Scarface feat. Menace Clan & Caine)
 * 2013: "Tired Of Running" (Snoop Dogg)
 * 2015: "Dumb Shit" (Tyrese) feat. Snoop Dogg

title: Tyrin Turner


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Lethal Weapon 4

Lethal Weapon 4 is a 1998 American buddy cop action film directed and produced by Richard Donner, and starring Mel Gibson, Danny Glover, Joe Pesci, Rene Russo, Chris Rock, and Jet Li (in his international film debut). It is the fourth installment in the Lethal Weapon film series. It is the last film in the series directed by Donner before his death, and the latest to be released theatrically.

The film was released on July 10, 1998, by Warner Bros. Pictures. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $285 million worldwide, becoming the tenth highest-grossing film of 1998.

A sequel titled Lethal Finale is in development for the streaming service Max. Glover and Gibson will reprise their roles as Riggs and Murtaugh, with Gibson also in talks to direct.

Plot
Lorna Cole is pregnant with LAPD Sergeant Martin Riggs's baby; they are not married, but both are thinking about it. LAPD Sergeant Roger Murtaugh's daughter Rianne is also pregnant. Due to issues with the department's insurance carrier over Riggs and Murtaugh's actions as sergeants, the Police Chief has Captain Murphy promote them to captains.

The officers, along with Leo Getz, come upon a Chinese immigrant smuggling ring after running an oceangoing vessel aground, though the captain of the boat escapes. In the subsequent investigation, Murtaugh finds the Hong family hiding from US Immigration officers to avoid deportation. Murtaugh offers them shelter in his home, and their families, along with Riggs and Cole, quickly bond. Grandfather Hong reveals he is looking for his uncle, a skilled engraver, who had paid for their passage to the United States. Riggs discovers through Lorna that the father of Rianne's unborn child is Detective Lee Butters. The family is hiding this from Murtaugh, as he would not approve of his daughter being with a police officer.

Continued investigation of the smuggling ring leads the officers to "Uncle" Benny Chan, a crime boss operating from a Chinatown restaurant. There, they are introduced to high-ranking Triad negotiator Wah Sing Ku. Chan forces them out of his restaurant when the officers show no probable cause. Riggs pulls the fire alarm so that the sprinklers can go off, forcing all the restaurant customers to flee. Outside, Riggs spots the escaped ship captain and tries to give chase but fails to capture him. However, Ku later intercepts the captain and kills him as punishment for attracting the police's attention. Chan and Ku take steps to eliminate all those in on their plans.

Hong is able to contact his uncle, but this leads the Triads to Murtaugh's house. Ku and the Triad thugs kidnap the Hongs, tie up Murtaugh, his family, Riggs, and Cole and set the house ablaze. Ping, Hong's grandson, has evaded capture and helps to free the others in time. Though Riggs and Murtaugh chase down and kill some of the Triad members, Ku escapes. Ku brings Mr. Hong to his uncle at a warehouse, where he has been engraving plates for a counterfeiting operation for Ku and Chan in exchange for transit for his family. Ku kills Hong in front of his uncle to assure his continued work.

With Getz serving as a distraction, the officers confront Chan at his dentist's office to interrogate him with laughing gas for more information but are unable to get any leads, and during which Riggs and Butters accidentally reveal the family secret to Murtaugh. Later, as they discuss what they know with Detective Ng, who has worked on cases involving the Chinese government before, Ng recognizes that Ku must be trying to negotiate with a corrupt Chinese general for the release of the Four Fathers, high-ranking Triad members that include Ku's brother. New information leads them to the abandoned warehouse where they find the bodies of Hong, his uncle, and Chan, the latter two killed by Ku after they served their usefulness. Knowing that Ku plans to use counterfeit money, the police intercept the exchange between Ku and the general, telling the general that the money is fake. The enraged general reacts by executing most of the Four Fathers before being shot and killed by the Triads, at which a firefight breaks out between the Triad, the general's private army, and the police; most of the Triad and army are killed, and Butters is wounded shielding Murtaugh. Ku attempts to escape with his brother, but his brother is shot and killed by Murtaugh. Riggs and Murtaugh pursue Ku to a pier where they engage him in a brutal fistfight. Murtaugh impales Ku through the stomach with a rebar before being knocked out by Ku, after which the pier collapses and sends Riggs and Ku into the water. Riggs is able to find a Kalashnikov assault rifle and finish off Ku, while Murtaugh recovers in time to rescue Riggs from a piece of concrete that had pinned him underwater.

Later, Riggs visits his dead wife's grave and asks her for advice about his impending marriage with Lorna, about which he still has doubts; Getz arrives and offers a heartfelt childhood story that gives Riggs both a new light on the situation and a new perspective of Getz. They soon discover Lorna is about to give birth and race to the hospital, where Riggs and Lorna are ceremonially married by a rabbi just before she enters labor. Their son and Rianne's daughter are born, and Murtaugh accepts Butters as his son-in-law. Murphy gives Riggs and Murtaugh their rank of sergeant back since the city is insured again and Hong's family is granted asylum.

Cast
In addition, series regulars – who appear in minor roles in all four films of the franchise – include: Damon Hines and Ebonie Smith as Murtaugh children Nick and Carrie, respectively; and Mary Ellen Trainor as psychologist Stephanie Woods.

Production
In early 1993, after the release and big success of Lethal Weapon 3, Warner Bros. and producer Joel Silver tried buying a new spec script titled Simon Says in hopes of rewriting it into a script for Lethal Weapon 4. Written by Jonathan Hensleigh, the story was about a police detective and a shop owner forced to find and stop bombs planted all over a city as part of a mad bomber's revenge plot against the detective.

However, 20th Century Fox purchased the script first, planning a project for Brandon Lee's next film after The Crow. It was considered for a standalone film or to be re-written into a sequel to his 1992 action film, Rapid Fire, when Lee was killed during filming on The Crow. Fox would then use the script as the basis for a third Die Hard film they were having trouble developing. After many rewrites by several writers, it was finally made into Die Hard With a Vengeance (1995).

In July 1993, Warner Bros. and Silver started working on not just the fourth Lethal Weapon film but a fifth as well. Screenwriter and script doctor Jonathan Lemkin, who had just done some uncredited work for them on Demolition Man (1993), was hired to write the script for Lethal Weapon 4 while another writer worked on the script for Lethal Weapon 5. According to Silver, the plan was to shoot both films back-to-back, with the possibility of using the best parts of both scripts for a single film.

In June 1994, Richard Donner was still planning on making both films. Asked about them in an interview at the time, however, Mel Gibson said he was not interested in doing any more Lethal Weapon sequels.

Between late 1994 and early 1995, screenwriter Jeffrey Boam was brought in to rewrite the script for the fourth film. Boam had previously done uncredited work on the first Lethal Weapon, rewrote an original script by Shane Black and Warren Murphy called Play Dirty into Lethal Weapon 2, and wrote the story and script for Lethal Weapon 3. He was initially unsure of working on the film, as he had problems with the script and following a bad experience on the third film: he had to keep rewriting that script all through filming and was fired at one point only to be rehired later. Agreeing to work on the fourth script, he tossed out the existing story and began work on his own. His first draft was completed in January 1995, focusing on Riggs and Murtaugh fighting neo-Nazi survivalists committing terrorist attacks on L.A., including using Stinger missiles to attempt to shoot down a jet carrying the Los Angeles Lakers. He said in an interview at the time that he would probably have to write at least three more drafts. By October 1995, Boam was still working on the script, while at the same time also working on a fourth Indiana Jones film which went unproduced.

Peter Bart's book The Gross: The Hits, The Flops -- The Summer That Ate Hollywood offered many details regarding Lethal Weapon 4's troubled production, from writing to release. While Boam was still working on his version of the story, other writers were brought in to pen their own versions, all of which were rejected. Though many were positive on the darker, edgier, more serious tone of Boam's script that recalled the first film, it was ultimately rejected because of the tone. Finally, Warner Bros. decided that they wanted to focus on a storyline involving the Chinese Triads. Boam would later say he felt that the main plot about counterfeiting Chinese money was not a good or suspenseful enough plot for a Lethal Weapon sequel.

Jonathan Lemkin was once again brought in to write the first version of the script involving the Triads, about four years after he wrote his first rejected script. Although his new script was received very positively, Warner Bros. again had other writers work on their own versions of the story. Alfred Gough and Miles Millar wrote one of the unused scripts; they would be credited with Lemkin for the story of the finished film.

Silver ultimately brought in TV writer Channing Gibson to work on the script, after he was impressed by Gibson's rewrite of a spec script titled Sandblast, an action adventure thriller by screenwriter Steven Maeda described as "Die Hard (1988) meets Cliffhanger (1993)". Gibson took the gig thinking it would be a more relaxed writing job than anything he did for TV. However, much like the previous two sequels, the script kept getting changed and rewritten over and over again. Gibson would end up doing more work and revisions on it than on all of his TV work put together. Production even started with only half of the script. The ending was not written until it was finally time to film it.

The characters of Leo Getz and Lee Butters were not in the original scripts. Joe Pesci was hired and paid $1 million for three weeks of work, forcing rewrites. Gibson was "three-fourths" through his newest draft when Chris Rock was hired, which caused yet another rewrite. Butters was originally written to be a homosexual detective. When they started filming the police station scene between Riggs, Murtaugh, Leo, and Butters, everyone felt the character did not work. He was changed to be Rianne's husband and father to her unborn child. The two only share one scene in the final film with no written dialogue, due to last minute changes made to his character.

Besides Lemkin, Gibson, Gough and Millar, other writers did uncredited work on the script, including Michael Curtis, Greg Malins, Fred Dekker (who came up with the scene where Riggs and Murtaugh drive their car off the freeway and through the building), and even Boam was brought in to work on the script.

The film entered production in early January 1998 with a planned summer release of that same year. Due to issues during filming, including the script changes, production ended around mid May, less than two months before its scheduled July release. Editors had to work very quickly to have the film ready, which is why the trailers feature some deleted and alternate scenes which are not in the film. Despite this, the film was finished and released as planned.

Box office
Lethal Weapon 4 debuted at No. 1 at the box office with $34.05 million. Although the film grossed $130 million in the U.S., it was not considered a runaway financial success as the previous three films had been.

Shooting began in January 1998, just months before the film's release, with a production budget estimated at $120–$150 million (although Warner Bros. maintained it cost less than $100 million) and an additional $50 million spent on marketing and distribution. This made the fourth film the most expensive entry of the series. Its profit margin was saved in part due to the combined foreign box office sales making the film gross approximately $285 million in total, making the second highest-grossing film in the Lethal Weapon film series behind, Lethal Weapon 3 (1992). Still, like its predecessors, Lethal Weapon 4 was among the top ten grossing films of its release year.

Critical reception
James Berardinelli gave the film three stars out of four, writing: "Given the expectations that constrain it, Lethal Weapon 4 is probably the best motion picture that could possibly result from another teaming of Martin Riggs and Roger Murtaugh. The series has lost a lot of steam since the first two entries, and, although the fourth movie ratchets up the energy level from the moribund state of the disappointing Lethal Weapon 3, there's no sense of spontaneity."

Roger Ebert gave Lethal Weapon 4 two stars out of four, writing: "Lethal Weapon 4 has all the technical skill of the first three movies in the series, but lacks the secret weapon, which was conviction. All four movies take two cop buddies and put them into spectacular and absurd action sequences, but the first three at least went through the motions of taking the plot seriously (and the first one did such a good job, it made my 'best 10' list of that year). This time, we're watching an exercise."

Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post called it a "stupid and violent delicacy" that balances a "patented blend of high action and low comedy".

The film was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor for Pesci.

Home media
Lethal Weapon 4 has been released on VHS and DVD numerous times. It has been re-released in numerous sets that contain all four films in the series. Lethal Weapon 4 was released on Blu-ray Disc as part of a box set with the additional Lethal Weapon films on May 22, 2012.

Soundtrack
The film's music was composed by Michael Kamen, Eric Clapton, and David Sanborn. This was the only film in the series not to have a soundtrack album released alongside it, but in 2013 La-La Land Records released the score as discs seven and eight of its limited edition Lethal Weapon Soundtrack Collection.

Sequel
There had long been talk of a fifth Lethal Weapon film, although both Mel Gibson and Danny Glover had initially expressed a lack of interest. In 2007, Moviehole.net received word from sources that Warner Bros. were in the early stages of trying to relaunch the Lethal Weapon series sometime in 2009 or later. A spec script treatment was written by Shane Black and Chuck Mondry, leading to rumors that the sequel was on fast track by Warner Bros. with Black in the director's chair. In 2008, Richard Donner said, "Mel turned it down. I would like to think that Mel turned it down because I wasn't involved." Donner said that he and Lethal Weapon 4 writer Channing Gibson "had an incredibly strong story for the fifth movie" but that the studio had opted to work with Joel Silver instead.

In November 2017, Mel Gibson hinted that a fifth movie might happen and that he, Richard Donner, and Danny Glover have discussed the idea to return. In December 2017, Donner confirmed in an interview on the Spocklight podcast that Gibson and Glover have agreed to return as Riggs and Murtaugh respectively and that he has a story all set. The only obstacle is Warner Bros. greenlighting the film. Channing Gibson remains involved as screenwriter. The story will take place in present-day and is intended to be the final film in the series. In February 2018, Donner revealed the film's official title to be Lethal Finale; while also stating that the film is being held up by the production company and story. In January 2020, producer Dan Lin confirmed that Lethal Weapon 5 is in active development, with Mel Gibson and Danny Glover confirmed to return, and Richard Donner returning to direct, but that a script had not yet been finalized. In December 2020, Richard Donner confirmed that he was developing the sequel and would produce and direct it, adding that it would be the last film he directs. However, Donner died on July 5, 2021, leaving the fate of the film unknown. Mel Gibson has been approached for potentially directing the film.

On November 15, 2021, Gibson confirmed that he is in talks to direct and star in the fifth Lethal Weapon film, saying that he would be helming the film to honor Donner. It was also revealed that Richard Wenk (The Equalizer, Jack Reacher: Never Go Back) had drafted a screenplay. The production will be exclusive to Max with no theatrical release.

title: Lethal Weapon 4


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User:Ramenkage

Ramenkage's user page!
To be updated... at some point...

title: User:Ramenkage