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Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment ) is defined as "the spreading of urban developments (such as houses, dense multi family apartments, office buildings and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a more or less densely populated city". Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated. In addition to describing a special form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city. Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates.

In Europe, the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, but the term urban sprawl is currently being used by the European Environment Agency. There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl by residential density, using the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. Others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well-defined centre), discontinuity (leapfrogging development, as defined below), segregation of uses, and so forth.

The term urban sprawl is highly politicized and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, intensifying segregation, and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, and is attacked on aesthetic grounds. The pejorative meaning of the term means that few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a rallying cry for managing urban growth.

Definition

The term urban sprawl was often used in the letters between Lewis Mumford and Frederic J. Osborn, firstly by Osborn in his 1941 letter to Mumford and later by Mumford, generally condemning the waste of agricultural land and landscape due to suburban expansions. The term was used in an article in The Times in 1955 as a negative comment on the state of London's outskirts. Definitions of sprawl vary; researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision. Batty et al. defined sprawl as "uncoordinated growth: the expansion of community without concern for its consequences, in short, unplanned, incremental urban growth which is often regarded unsustainable". Bhatta et al. wrote in 2010 that despite a dispute over the precise definition of sprawl, there is a "general consensus that urban sprawl is characterized by [an] unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by a multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization".

Reid Ewing has shown that sprawl has typically been characterized as urban developments exhibiting at least one of the following characteristics: low-density or single-use development, strip development, scattered development, and/or leapfrog development (areas of development interspersed with vacant land). He argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using "accessibility" and "functional open space" as indicators. Ewing's approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics.

What constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. Ewing has also argued that suburban development does not, per se, constitute sprawl depending on the form it takes, although Gordon & Richardson have argued that the term is sometimes used synonymously with suburbanization in a pejorative way.

Examples and counterexamples
According to the National Resources Inventory (NRI), about 44 e6acre of land in the United States was developed between 1982 and 2017. Presently, the NRI classifies approximately 100,000 more square kilometres (40,000 square miles) (an area approximately the size of Kentucky) as developed than the Census Bureau classifies as urban. The difference in the NRI classification is that it includes rural development, which by definition cannot be considered to be "urban" sprawl. Currently, according to the 2000 Census, approximately 2.6 percent of the U.S. land area is urban. Approximately 0.8 percent of the nation's land is in the 37 urbanized areas with more than 1,000,000 population. In 2002, these 37 urbanized areas supported around 40% of the total American population.

Nonetheless, some urban areas like Detroit have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in "Cities and Automobile Dependence" by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in Amsterdam, Netherlands; Brussels, Belgium; Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich, Germany; and Zürich, Switzerland, albeit without the dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States.

Despite popular notions of being a sprawling city, Metropolitan Los Angeles is the densest major urban area (over 1,000,000 population) in the US, being denser than the New York urban area and the San Francisco urban area. Most of metropolitan Los Angeles is built at more uniform low to moderate density, leading to a much higher overall density for the entire region. This is in contrast to New York, San Francisco or Chicago which have compact, high-density cores surrounded by areas of very low-density suburban periphery, such as eastern Suffolk County in the New York metro area and Marin County in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Some cases of sprawl challenge the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. Metropolitan regions such as Greater Mexico City, Delhi National Capital Region Beijing, and the Greater Tokyo Area are often regarded as sprawling despite being relatively dense and mixed use.

History
Many theories speculate as to the reason for the creation of urban sprawl. The theory of "flight from blight" explains that aspects of living in urban areas, such as high taxes, crime rates, poor infrastructure and school qualities lead to many people moving out of urban areas and into surrounding suburban areas. According to The Limits to Growth, reasons why wealthier people move to suburbs include noise, pollution, crime, drug addiction, poverty, labor strikes, and breakdown of social services.

Others suggest that Urban Sprawl is a natural product of population increases, higher wages, and therefore better access to housing. Improvement in transportation also means that individuals are able to live further from large cities and industrial hubs, thus increasing demand for better housing further from the noise of cities. This leads to the creation of sprawling residential land development surrounding densely packed urban areas.

Characteristics
Despite the lack of a clear agreed upon description of what defines sprawl most definitions often associate the following characteristics with sprawl.

Single-use development
This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As a result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking, transit use and bicycling are impractical, so all these activities generally require a car. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is often used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject.

According to this criterion, China's urbanization can be classified as "high-density sprawl", a seemingly self-contradictory term coined by New Urbanist Peter Calthorpe. He explains that despite the high-rise buildings, China's superblocks (huge residential blocks) are largely single-use and surrounded by giant arterial roads, which detach different functions of a city and create an environment unfriendly to pedestrians.

Job sprawl and spatial mismatch

Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities. It is defined as low-density, geographically spread-out patterns of employment, where the majority of jobs in a given metropolitan area are located outside of the main city's central business district (CBD), and increasingly in the suburban periphery. It is often the result of urban disinvestment, the geographic freedom of employment location allowed by predominantly car-dependent commuting patterns of many American suburbs, and many companies' desire to locate in low-density areas that are often more affordable and offer potential for expansion. Spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Spatial mismatch is defined as the situation where poor urban, predominantly minority citizens are left without easy access to entry-level jobs, as a result of increasing job sprawl and limited transportation options to facilitate a reverse commute to the suburbs.

Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways. It has been shown to be a growing trend in America's metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published multiple articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5 mi radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U.S. Census data. Other ways of measuring the concept with more detailed rings around the CBD include a 2001 article by Edward Glaeser and Elizabeth Kneebone's 2009 article, which show that sprawling urban peripheries are gaining employment while areas closer to the CBD are losing jobs. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35 mi radius around the CBD: 3 mi or less, 3 to 10 mi, and 10 to 35 mi. Kneebone's study showed the following nationwide breakdown for the largest metropolitan areas in 2006: 21.3% of jobs located in the inner ring, 33.6% of jobs in the 3–10 mile ring, and 45.1% in the 10–35 mile ring. This compares to the year 1998 – 23.3%, 34.2%, and 42.5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings.

Low-density
Sprawl often refers to low-density development. There is no precise definition of "low density", but it might commonly mean Single-family homes on large lots. Such buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns, landscaping, roads or parking lots. In the United States 2–4 houses per acre (5–10 per hectare) might be considered low-density while in the UK 8–12 per acre (or 20–30 per hectare) would still be considered low-density. Because more automobiles are used in the USA, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized" land is increasing at a faster rate than the population is growing.

Overall density is often lowered by "leapfrog development". This term refers to the relationship, or lack of it, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large green belts, i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an overall density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per-acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a local government built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had condemnation power. Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on the tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location.

Some research argues that religious ideas about how humans should live (and die) promote low-density development and may contribute to urban sprawl.

Conversion of agricultural land to urban use
Land for sprawl is often taken from fertile agricultural lands, which are often located immediately surrounding cities; the extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land, as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas. In the United States the seller may avoid tax on profit by using a tax break exempting like-kind exchanges from capital gains tax; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a "swap" or trade of like assets and no tax is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code. In China, land has been converted from rural to urban use in advance of demand, leading to vacant rural land intended for future development, and eventual urban sprawl.

Housing subdivisions
Housing subdivisions are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly built residences. New Urbanist architectural firm Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company state that housing subdivisions "are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighbourhoods by their developers, which is misleading since those terms denote places that are not exclusively residential". They are also referred to as developments.

Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and cul-de-sacs. These subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets. All trips, no matter how short, must enter the collector road in a suburban system.

Lawn
After the Second World War, residential lawns became commonplace in suburbs, notably, but not exclusively in North America. The development of country clubs and golf courses in the early 20th century further promoted lawn culture in the United States. Lawns now take up a significant amount of land in suburban developments, contributing to sprawl.

Commercial developments
In areas of sprawl, commercial use is generally segregated from other uses. In the U.S. and Canada, these often take the form of strip malls, which refer to collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot, usually built on a high-capacity roadway with commercial functions (i.e., a "strip"). Similar developments in the United Kingdom are called Retail Parks. Strip malls consisting mostly of big box stores or category killers are sometimes called "power centers" (U.S.). These developments tend to be low-density; the buildings are single-story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. This character is reflected in the spacious landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. Some strip malls are undergoing a transformation into Lifestyle centers; entailing investments in common areas and facilities (plazas, cafes) and shifting tenancy from daily goods to recreational shopping.

Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the shopping mall. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more department stores. The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of 1 e6sqft. Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centres of nearby cities since the shopping malls act as a surrogate for the city centre. Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own.

Fast food chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. Eric Schlosser, in his book Fast Food Nation, argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture (65). Duany Plater Zyberk & Company believe that this reinforces a destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it.

Effect
Urban sprawl is associated with a number of negative environmental outcomes.

One of the major environmental problems associated with sprawl is land consumption, habitat loss and subsequent reduction in biodiversity. A review by Czech and colleagues finds that urbanization endangers more species and is more geographically ubiquitous in the mainland United States than any other human activity. Urban sprawl is disruptive to native flora & fauna and introduces invasive plants into their environments. Although the effects can be mitigated through careful maintenance of native vegetation, the process of ecological succession and public education, sprawl represents one of the primary threats to biodiversity.

Regions with high birth rates and immigration are therefore faced with environmental problems due to unplanned urban growth and emerging megacities such as Kolkata.

Other problems include:

 * flooding, which results from increased impervious surfaces for roads and parking (see urban runoff)
 * increased temperatures from heat islands, which leads to a significantly increased risk of mortality in elderly populations.

At the same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S., "white flight", sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living.

Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with impervious surfaces (concrete and asphalt) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the groundwater aquifers. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads.

Gordon & Richardson have argued that the conversion of agricultural land to urban use is not a problem due to the increasing efficiency of agricultural production; they argue that aggregate agricultural production is still more than sufficient to meet global food needs despite the expansion of urban land use.

Health
Sprawl leads to increased driving, which in turn leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to air pollution and its attendant negative impacts on human health. In addition, the reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health-related quality of life, but not mental health disorders. The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension. Loud vehicles can cause stress, prevent sleep, and minimize social interactions in public for people living in cities (especially homeless people).

In the years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving, as well as larger homes.

Sprawl also reduces the chance that people will take the bicycle for their commute which would be better for their health. Bicycles are a common mode of transportation for those living in urban centers due to many factors. One major factor many people consider relates to how, when one rides a bike to, say, their workplace, they are exercising as they do so. This multi-tasking is better for one's health than automatic transport.

Safety
A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic throughout the city as well as automobile crashes, pedestrian injuries, and air pollution. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty-four and is the leading accident-related cause for all age groups. Residents of more sprawling areas are generally at greater risk of dying in a car crash due to increased exposure to driving. Evidence indicates that pedestrians in sprawling areas are at higher risk than those in denser areas, although the relationship is less clear than for drivers and passengers in vehicles.

Research covered in the Journal of Economic Issues and State and Local Government Review shows a link between sprawl and emergency medical services response and fire department response delays.

Economy
Living in larger, more spread out spaces generally makes public services more expensive. Since car usage becomes endemic and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build highway and parking infrastructure, which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases the desirability of the area adjacent to such structures. Providing services such as water, sewers, road maintenance, and electricity is also more expensive per household in less dense areas, given that sprawl increases lengths of power lines, roads, and pipes, necessitating higher maintenance costs.

Residents of low-density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas. The unplanned nature of outward urban development is commonly linked to increased dependency on cars. In 2003, a British newspaper calculated that urban sprawl would cause an economic loss of £3,905 per year, per person through cars alone, based on data from the RAC estimating that the average cost of operating a car in the UK at that time was £5,000 a year, while train travel (assuming a citizen commutes every day of the year, with a ticket cost of 3 pounds) would be only £1,095. Additionally, increased density increases the supply of housing in desirable areas, and thus, it also decreases housing prices in those areas (by the logic of supply and demand).

Social
Urban sprawl may be partly responsible for the decline in social capital in the United States. Compact neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl creates barriers. Sprawl tends to replace public spaces with private spaces such as fenced-in backyards.

Critics of sprawl maintain that sprawl erodes quality of life. Duany and Plater-Zyberk believe that in traditional neighborhoods the nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and convenience stores with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. Furthermore, they state that the closeness of the workplace to homes also gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school and that without this kind of interaction between the different components of life the urban pattern quickly falls apart. James Howard Kunstler has argued that poor aesthetics in suburban environments make them "places not worth caring about", and that they lack a sense of history and identity.

Urban sprawl has class and racial implications in many parts of the world; the relative homogeneity of many sprawl developments may reinforce class and racial divides through residential segregation.

Numerous studies link increased population density with increased aggression. Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It is argued that human beings, while social animals, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive. However, the relationship between higher densities and increased social pathology has been largely discredited.

Debate
According to Nancy Chin, a large number of effects of sprawl have been discussed in the academic literature in some detail; however, the most contentious issues can be reduced "to an older set of arguments, between those advocating a planning approach and those advocating the efficiency of the market". Those who criticize sprawl tend to argue that sprawl creates more problems than it solves and should be more heavily regulated, while proponents argue that markets are producing the economically most efficient settlements possible in most situations, even if problems may exist. However, some market-oriented commentators believe that the current patterns of sprawl are in fact the result of distortions of the free market. Chin cautions that there is a lack of "reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl". She mentions that the lack of a common definition, the need for more quantitative measures "a broader view both in time and space, and greater comparison with alternative urban forms" would be necessary to draw firmer conclusions and conduct more fruitful debates.

Arguments opposing urban sprawl include concrete effects such as health and environmental issues as well as abstract consequences including neighborhood vitality. American public policy analyst Randal O'Toole of the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, has argued that sprawl, thanks to the automobile, gave rise to affordable suburban neighborhoods for middle class and lower class individuals, including non-whites. He notes that efforts to combat sprawl often result in subsidizing development in wealthier and whiter neighborhoods while condemning and demolishing poorer minority neighborhoods.

Groups that oppose sprawl
The American Institute of Architects, American Planning Association, and Smart Growth America recommend against sprawl and instead endorses smart, mixed-use development, including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well-designed neighborhoods. The Sierra Club, the San Francisco Bay Area's Greenbelt Alliance, 1000 Friends of Oregon and counterpart organizations nationwide, and other environmental organizations oppose sprawl and support investment in existing communities. NumbersUSA, a national organization advocating immigration reduction, also opposes urban sprawl, and its founder, Roy Beck, specializes in the study of this issue.

Consumer preference
One of the primary debates around suburban sprawl is the extent to which sprawl is the result of consumer preference. Some, such as Peter Gordon, a professor of planning and economics at the University of Southern California's School of Urban Planning and Development, argue that most households have shown a clear preference for low-density living and that this is a fact that should not be ignored by planners. Gordon and his frequent collaborator, Harry Richardson have argued that "The principle of consumer sovereignty has played a powerful role in the increase in America’s wealth and in the welfare of its citizens. Producers (including developers) have responded rapidly to households’ demands. It is a giant step backward to interfere with this effective process unless the benefits of intervention substantially exceed its cost." They argue that sprawl generates enough benefits for consumers that they continue to choose it as a form of development over alternative forms, as demonstrated by the continued focus on sprawl type developments by most developers. However, other academics such as Reid Ewing argue that while a large segment of people prefer suburban living that does not mean that sprawl itself is preferred by consumers, and that a large variety of suburban environments satisfy consumer demand, including areas that mitigate the worst effects of sprawl. Others, for example Kenneth T. Jackson have argued that since low-density housing is often (notably in the U.S.) subsidized in a variety of ways, consumers' professed preferences for this type of living may be over-stated.

Automobile dependency
Whether urban sprawl increases the problems of automobile dependency or not, policies of smart growth have been fiercely contested issues over several decades. An influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology, but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America, has been largely accepted, although the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar.

Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense suburban and ex-urban residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and income. This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection:  people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behavior. More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally refuted these findings: density, land use and public transport accessibility can influence travel behavior, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence.

Those not opposed to low density development argue that traffic intensities tend to be less, traffic speeds faster and, as a result, ambient air pollution is lower. (See demographia's report.) Kansas City, Missouri is often cited as an example of ideal low-density development, with congestion below the mean and home prices below comparable Midwestern cities. Wendell Cox and Randal O'Toole are leading figures supporting lower density development.

Longitudinal (time-lapse) studies of commute times in major metropolitan areas in the United States have shown that commute times decreased for the period 1969 to 1995 even though the geographic size of the city increased. Other studies suggest, however, that possible personal benefits from commute time savings have been at the expense of environmental costs in the form of longer average commute distances, rising vehicles-miles-traveled (VMT) per worker, and despite road expansions, worsening traffic congestion.

Transportation inequality
Critics of urban sprawl say that the United States' improper treatment of minority groups' access to transportation is a major downside to the continuation of urban sprawl. In many urban centers, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco, transportation in minority areas is lacking. As found by Kate Baldridge of Golden Gate University Law, areas with high minority populations typically see less than adequate transportation options, leading to overcrowded and unsafe transportation routes that do not provide a comprehensive means of transportation. This disparity is made more evident because minority residents are more reliant on public transportation. According to Baldridge, this means that minority groups cannot move from urban areas, while people with higher incomes and thus better access to transportation can move out of urban areas and into surrounding suburbs.

Paradox of intensification
Reviewing the evidence on urban intensification, smart growth and their effects on travel behaviour Melia et al. (2011) found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of smart growth measures to counteract urban sprawl. Planning policies that increase population densities in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one, so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use.

These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification, which states:

"Ceteris paribus, urban intensification which increases population density will reduce per capita car use, with benefits to the global environment, but will also increase concentrations of motor traffic, worsening the local environment in those locations where it occurs."

Risk of increased housing prices
There is also some concern that anti-sprawl policies will increase housing prices. Some research suggests Oregon has had the largest housing affordability loss in the nation, but other research shows that Portland's price increases are comparable to other Western cities.

In Australia, it is claimed by some that housing affordability has hit "crisis levels" due to "urban consolidation" policies implemented by state governments. In Sydney, the ratio of the price of a house relative to income is 9:1. The issue has at times been debated between the major political parties.

Proposed alternatives
Many critics concede that sprawl produces some negative externalities; however there is some dispute about the most effective way to reduce these negative effects. Gordon & Richardson for example argue that the costs of building new public transit is disproportionate to the actual environmental or economic benefits, that land use restrictions will increase the cost of housing and restrict economic opportunity, that infill possibilities are too limited to make a major difference to the structure of American cities, and that the government would need to coerce most people to live in a way that they do not want to in order to substantially change the impact of sprawl. They argue that the property market should be deregulated to allow different people to live as they wish, while providing a framework of market based fees (such as emission fees, congestion charging or road pricing) to mitigate many of the problems associated with sprawl such as congestion and increased pollution.

Early attempts at combatting urban sprawl
Starting in the early 20th century, environmentalist opposition to urban sprawl began to coalesce, with roots in the garden city movement, as well as pressure from campaign groups such as the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE).

Under Herbert Morrison's 1934 leadership of the London County Council, the first formal proposal was made by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee "to provide a reserve supply of public open spaces and of recreational areas and to establish a green belt or girdle of open space". It was again included in an advisory Greater London Plan prepared by Patrick Abercrombie in 1944. The Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 expressly incorporated green belts into all further national urban developments.

New provisions for compensation in the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act allowed local authorities around the country to incorporate green belt proposals in their first development plans. The codification of Green Belt policy and its extension to areas other than London came with the historic Circular 42/55 inviting local planning authorities to consider the establishment of Green Belts. The first urban growth boundary in the U.S. was in Fayette County, Kentucky, in 1958.

Maryland
Maryland underwent many "Smart Growth" initiatives, starting in 1997 with the Smart Growth Areas Act. This act allocated funding towards areas that either were already undergoing growth, or areas that had plans of growth. Maryland also implemented the 1997 Rural Legacy Act, which distributed grants to private land owners and allowed them to purchase development rights. Brownfields Voluntary Cleanup and Revitalization Incentive Programs also incentivized the usage of previously contaminated properties by allowing property owners to avoid liability for the property. The state also offered incentives, such as tax breaks and loans for repairs to contaminated areas. Another program created by the state of Maryland was the Job Creation Tax Credit Program, which encouraged businesses to relocate into select areas, reducing the intensity of urban sprawl in some areas. The Live Near Your Work Program also incentivized employees to purchase homes in areas closer to their work. This led to a reduced commute time, and more of an emphasis on homeownership rather than renting.

Contemporary anti-sprawl initiatives

The term "smart growth" has been particularly used in North America. The terms "compact city" and "urban intensification" are often used to describe similar concepts in Europe, and particularly in the UK, where it has influenced government policy and planning practice in recent years.

The state of Oregon enacted a law in 1973 limiting the area urban areas could occupy, through urban growth boundaries. As a result, Portland, the state's largest urban area, has become a leader in smart growth policies that seek to make urban areas more compact (they are called urban consolidation policies). After the creation of this boundary, the population density of the urbanized area increased somewhat (from 1,135 in 1970 to 1,290 per km2 in 2000. ) Although the growth boundary has not been tight enough to vastly increase density, the consensus is that the growth boundaries have protected great amounts of wild areas and farmland around the metro area.

Much of San Francisco Bay Area has also adopted urban growth boundaries; 25 of its cities and 5 of its counties have urban growth boundaries. Many of these were adopted with the support and advocacy of Greenbelt Alliance, a non-profit land conservation and urban planning organization.

In other areas, the design principles of New Urbanism have been employed to combat urban sprawl. The concept of circular flow land use management has been developed in Europe to reduce land take by urban sprawl through promoting inner-city and brownfield development.

Although cities such as Los Angeles are well known for sprawling suburbs, policies and public opinion are changing. Transit-oriented development, in which higher-density mixed-use areas are permitted or encouraged near transit stops, is encouraging more compact development in certain areas: particularly those with light and heavy rail transit systems.

Bicycles are the preferred means of travel in many countries: Also, bicycles are permitted in public transit. Businesses in areas of some towns in which bicycle use is high are thriving. Bicycles and transit contribute in two important ways toward the success of businesses:
 * 1) People living the closest to these business districts on average have more money to spend locally because they spend less on their cars.
 * 2) Because such people rely more on bicycling, walking, and transit than on driving, they tend to focus more of their commerce on locally-owned neighborhood businesses that are convenient for them to reach.

Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, evaluating walkability is challenging because it requires the consideration of many subjective factors. Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths, sidewalks, or other pedestrian right-of-ways, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others. Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design.

Land use policies are one potential avenue to reduce the effects of urban sprawl. These policies take the form of boundaries to urban growth, regional development rights, and development centralized in urban areas. Housing policies, such as inclusionary zoning, rental vouchers in suburban areas, and a focus on employer-assisted housing are another approach to combatting urban sprawl. Gasoline taxes and increased funding towards the construction of public transportation also help to reduce the necessity of commuting in and out of urban areas.

Articles and reports

 * Baumeister, M (2012) Managing Urban Sprawl: Reconsidering Development Cost Charges in Canada
 * Ontario College of Family Physicians. (2005) Report on Public Health and Urban Sprawl in Ontario: A Review of Pertinent Literature
 * Rybczynski, Witold (November 7, 2005). "Suburban Despair". Slate.
 * Rybczynski, Witold (November 7, 2005). "Suburban Despair". Slate.

Video

 * Radiant City, is a 2006 National Film Board of Canada documentary on suburban sprawl

title: Urban sprawl


text:
Gas (disambiguation)

Gas is one of the four main physical states of matter (plural "gases" or "gasses").

Gas or GAS may also refer to:

Biology and healthcare

 * Streptococcus pyogenes, a bacterium commonly known as Group A Strep, or GAS
 * Gas, slang for an anaesthetic
 * Gender-affirming surgery, a surgical procedure also known as sex reassignment surgery
 * General Adaptation Syndrome, a model describing responses to stress
 * Global Assessment Scale, later Global Assessment of Functioning, in mental health
 * Goal attainment scaling, a method for monitoring client progress in therapy
 * Group A streptococcal infection
 * Intestinal gas

Chemistry, physics, and energy

 * Gas, short for gasoline
 * Fuel gas
 * Coal gas
 * Natural gas
 * Oil and gas
 * GaS, chemical formula for gallium(II) sulfide

People

 * Gas Lipstick, the drummer for the Finnish rock band HIM
 * Gunnar A. Sjögren, a Swedish engineer

Films

 * Gas (1944 film), a Private Snafu animated short
 * Gas (1981 film), a Canadian comedy film
 * Gas (2004 film), an American film
 * Gas-s-s-s (1971), also called Gas! or It Became Necessary to Destroy the World in Order to Save It, a Roger Corman movie

Music

 * Pseudonym of English electronic musician Mat Jarvis
 * Gas (musician), musical project of German producer Wolfgang Voigt
 * Gas (Feedtime album), 2017

Television

 * "Gas" (Bottom), an episode of the UK series Bottom
 * "Gas", an episode of the UK series Casualty
 * Nickelodeon Games and Sports for Kids (Nick Gas), a former TV network

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * Gas (painting), by Edward Hopper, 1940.
 * Gas (comic), a British adult comic.
 * Cinema Unit Gas, founded in 1988 by Akira Takatsuki.
 * Gas — short story by Alfred Hitchcock.

Brands and enterprises

 * Galpin Auto Sports, a US customizing garage
 * Gas Jeans, an Italian clothing label

Computing and technology

 * Gas (app), a former American anonymous social media app
 * Transaction pricing mechanism in Ethereum
 * Generalized audit software
 * Getaway Special, an experiment bay on the NASA Space Shuttle
 * GNU Assembler, a software tool
 * Gunner's Auxiliary Sight of the M1 Abrams tank

Geography

 * Gas, Eure-et-Loir, France, a commune
 * Gas, Iran (disambiguation), various villages
 * Gas, Kansas, United States, a town

Sports

 * Bristol Rovers FC, England, nickname
 * Grêmio Atlético Sampaio, a Brazilian football club

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gas (disambiguation)


text:
User:Zigger/Sandbox

Ten types of reversion issues
Recent examples of various different issues from major pages:
 * 1) (me) [ rv United States Senate elections, 2010] Added name was a real USA Senator, pointed out to me (by reviewing admin). Should have used Template:uw-test1 instead of Template:uw-vandalism1[], i.e. failed to assume good faith in this case, (in lieu of researching every name added to an article). (Should have been alerted by the lack of an assertion as to the Senator's preferences.) (apologised[])
 * 2) … Low-volume recent changes in [ Image] & [ Template] namespaces ignored by RC patrollers …
 * 3) (rb-er) [ rv Law] Used "HG", missed [ prev edit] which was also vandalism ("sneaky" in that it changed a quotation, but very misspelt) and only picked up two days later ([ fixed]).  FWIW, the quote was also used on two other pages, and none had a correct reference (new ref found & all three fixed[][][]). Also saw a Wikipedia article as the main link in a ref (on Law, Constitutional law). (to fix…)
 * 4) … Category:Poetry by Robert Browning … Reverted multiple changes with insufficient summary … User talk:Kevinalewis … (left comment[] and rv rv[], followed by edit with one change & good summary[])
 * 5) (rb-er) [ rv Feldspar] Used "HG", … (rv good missing area with silliness) … (fixed[])
 * 6) (admin) … Chuck Berry … (anon tried twice to correct quote based on ref, personal attack) … (apology, alert, apology)
 * 7) … various … didn't check/revert other "contributions" by same account/address … (fixed)
 * 8) … various … didn't notify/warn on talk page, delaying an eventual block
 * 9) [ rv Norway] Could have removed offending "reference", wikified it, or improved it. (to do…)
 * 10) [ rv Norway]. (Actually an edit rather than a revert, judging by the summary.) Summary praised the joke vandalism.  Failed to notice the ungrammatical placement of the word whilst fixing  it's  misspelling. (fixed[], but to do other fifalife checks/cleanup…)

title: User:Zigger/Sandbox


text:
HMS Solebay (D70)

HMS Solebay was a Battle-class destroyer of the Royal Navy (RN). She was named after the Battle of Solebay which took place in 1672 between an Anglo-French force and the Dutch Navy during the Third Anglo-Dutch War. Solebay was built by R. & W. Hawthorn, Leslie & Company Limited on the Tyne. She was launched on 22 February 1944 and commissioned on 25 September 1945.

History
Solebay was intended to join the 19th Destroyer Flotilla of the British Pacific Fleet, but the war against Japan ended while Solebay was working up in the Mediterranean, and so she returned to Home Waters. She subsequently became Captain (D), or leader, of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla, part of the Home Fleet which was based in the United Kingdom. Solebay also took part in Operation Deadlight, the large-scale destruction of the German U-boat fleet, and which resulted in over one hundred of the boats being sunk in a variety of ways.

In June 1953, Solebay was involved in the 1953 Fleet Review at Spithead, which took place in celebration of the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Solebay was positioned in the middle of her sister ships HMS Cadiz (D79) and HMS Corunna (D97). In July that year, Solebay was placed in Reserve with the rest of her flotilla.

In 1957, Solebay returned to active service, becoming Captain (D) of the 1st Destroyer Squadron, which saw service with the Home and Mediterranean Fleets. In 1959, while still part of that squadron, Solebay deployed to the Far East. While there, tragedy struck her sister-ship, HMS Hogue (D74), which had collided with the Indian light cruiser INS Mysore (C60). Solebay, along with another sister-ship, towed the heavily damaged Hogue to a nearby base.

After returning home in 1960, Solebay subsequently saw service once more in the Mediterranean, when she and the rest of the 1st Destroyer Squadron deployed to that region to relieve the 5th Destroyer Squadron. During this deployment Solebay accidentally rammed her sister-ship HMS Trafalgar (D77), leader of the 7th Destroyer Squadron, while at Malta, delaying that Squadron's departure from the Mediterranean. While there, Solebay acted as escort for the royal yacht HMY Britannia, carrying Queen Elizabeth, accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh, who were visiting Italy on a state visit. Solebay subsequently joined the Home Fleet.

She once more joined up with the yacht Britannia and the Queen in November–December 1961, when Solebay formed part of the escort during the Queen's visit to West Africa.

Decommissioning and disposal
In 1962, Solebay's eventful career came to an end, when she was decommissioned and placed on the disposal list, becoming the Harbour Training Ship, being based at Portsmouth. She arrived at Troon for breaking up on 11 August 1967.

title: HMS Solebay (D70)


text:
Soares Sambú

Soares Sambú (c. 1975) is a Bissau-Guinean engineer and politician who was deputy of the National People's Assembly and minister of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, an agency that accumulates the functions of deputy head of government.

Biography and career
He graduated in engineering with focus on the agricultural area still in the former Soviet Union.

He joined the political career by joining the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), gaining positions quickly in the 1990s. He was promoted to the position of first vice-president of the National People's Assembly in the second multi-party legislature in 1999. It was in office until 2002, when parliament was dissolved.

He was the campaign manager for the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) during the March 2004 parliamentary election, in which PAIGC won a plurality of seats; following the election, he became Minister of External Affairs on May 12, 2004, as part of the government of the new Prime Minister, Carlos Gomes Júnior. Carlos Gomes's government was dismissed in November 2005, and Sambu was replaced as Foreign Minister.

In the government of Prime Minister Martinho Ndafa Kabi, named on April 17, 2007, Sambú was appointed as Minister of Natural Resources; he was retained as Minister of Natural Resources and the Environment in the government of Prime Minister Carlos Correia, appointed on August 9, 2008. In the November 2008 legislative election, PAIGC won a majority of 67 out of 100 seats in the National People's Assembly, and Sambú was elected to a seat as a PAIGC candidate in the 12th constituency, Bafata e Cosse.

On June 7, 2013, he took over the Ministry of Economy and Regional Integration, one of the key branches of the transitional government of Prime Minister Rui Duarte de Barros, leaving office in 2014 to contest the legislative elections.

He was re-elected as a deputy in the general elections in Guinea-Bissau in 2014, having become one of 15 dissident MPs of the PAIGC, which formed the independent wing of the party.

On 16 June 2016 he became, for the second time, Minister for Foreign Affairs, International Cooperation and Communities, appointed by Prime Minister Baciro Djá.

To Umaro Sissoco Embaló to assume like prime minister, in 2016, became political-diplomatic adviser of this one; on August 2, 2017 José Mário Vaz appoints him as Minister of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, a position that in practice exercises the functions of deputy prime minister.

He has been an MP for nearly 20 years, where he held the positions of the Chairman of the Permanent Commission for Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, Fisheries and Tourism; President of the Technical Commission of the Elaboration of the Law of the Earth between other functions of relief inside and outside Guinean State.

title: Soares Sambú


text:
Western fiction

Western fiction is a genre of literature set in the American Old West frontier and typically set from the late eighteenth to the late nineteenth century. Well-known writers of Western fiction include Zane Grey from the early 20th century and Louis L'Amour from the mid-20th century. The genre peaked around the early 1960s, largely due to the popularity of televised Westerns such as Bonanza. Readership began to drop off in the mid- to late 1970s and reached a new low in the 2000s. Most bookstores, outside a few west American states, only carry a small number of Western fiction books.

Pre-1850s
The predecessor of the Western in American literature emerged early with tales of the frontier. The most famous of the early 19th-century frontier novels were James Fenimore Cooper's five novels comprising the Leatherstocking Tales. Cooper's novels were largely set in what was at the time the American frontier: the Appalachian Mountains and areas west of there. As did his novel The Prairie (1824), most later westerns would typically take place west of the Mississippi River.

The notable writer Washington Irving was inspired by Cooper and wrote tales of the American frontier beginning with A Tour on the Prairies which related his recent travels on the frontier. In 1834, he was approached by fur magnate John Jacob Astor, who convinced him to write a history of his fur trading colony in Astoria, Oregon. Irving made quick work of Astor's project, shipping the fawning biographical account Astoria in February 1836.

1850s–1900
The Western as a specialized genre got its start in the "penny dreadfuls" and later the "dime novels". Published in June 1860, Malaeska; the Indian Wife of the White Hunter is considered the first dime novel. These cheaply made books were hugely successful and capitalized on the many stories that were being told about the mountain men, outlaws, settlers, and lawmen who were taming the western frontier. Many of these novels were fictionalized stories based on actual people, such as Billy the Kid, Buffalo Bill, Wyatt Earp (who was still alive at the time), Wild Bill Hickok, and Jesse James.

1900s–1930s
By 1900, the new medium of pulp magazines helped to relate these adventures to easterners. Meanwhile, non-American authors, like the German Karl May, picked up the genre, went to full novel length, and made it hugely popular and successful in continental Europe from about 1880 on, though they were generally dismissed as trivial by the literary critics of the day. One of the most famous pulp works of the era was Johnston McCulley's first Zorro novel, The Curse of Capistrano (1919).

Popularity grew with the publication of Owen Wister's novel The Virginian (1902) and especially Zane Grey's Riders of the Purple Sage (1912). The first Hopalong Cassidy stories by Clarence Mulford appeared in 1904, both as dime novels and in pulp magazines. When pulp magazines exploded in popularity in the 1920s, Western fiction greatly benefited (as did the author Max Brand, who excelled at the western short story). Pulp magazines that specialised in Westerns include Cowboy Stories, Ranch Romances, Star Western, West, and Western Story Magazine. The simultaneous popularity of Western movies in the 1920s also helped the genre.

1940s–1960s
In the 1940s several seminal Westerns were published, including The Ox-Bow Incident (1940) by Walter van Tilburg Clark, The Big Sky (1947) and The Way West (1949) by A.B. Guthrie Jr., and Shane (1949) by Jack Schaefer. Many other Western authors gained readership in the 1950s, such as Ray Hogan, Louis L'Amour, and Luke Short.

The genre peaked around the early 1960s, largely due to the tremendous number of Westerns on television. The burnout of the American public on television Westerns in the late 1960s seemed to have an effect on the literature as well, and interest in Western literature began to wane. In 1968 Charles Portis published True Grit, which became the most successful work of the era.

Western comics
Western novels, films and pulps gave birth to Western comics, which were very popular, particularly from the late 1940s until c. 1967, when the comics began to turn to reprints. This can particularly be seen at Marvel Comics, where Westerns began c. 1948 and thrived until 1967, when one of their flagship titles, Kid Colt Outlaw (1949–1979), ceased to have new stories and entered the reprint phase. Other notable long-running Marvel Western comics included Rawhide Kid (1955–1957, 1960–1979) Two-Gun Kid (1948–1962), and Marvel Wild Western (1948–1957).

DC Comics published the long-running series All-Star Western (1951–1961) and Western Comics (1948–1961), and Charlton Comics published Billy the Kid (1957–1983) and Cheyenne Kid (1957–1973). Magazine Enterprises' Straight Arrow ran from 1950 to 1956, and Prize Comics' Prize Comics Western ran from 1948 to 1956.

Fawcett Comics published a number of Western titles, including Hopalong Cassidy from 1948 to 1953. They also published comics starring actors known for their Western roles, including Tom Mix Western (1948–1953) and Gabby Hayes Western (1948–1953). Similarly, Dell Comics published Roy Rogers comics from 1948 to 1961, and Magazine Enterprises published Charles Starrett as the Durango Kid from 1949 to 1955.

The Franco-Belgian comic-series Lucky Luke by Morris (cartoonist) and René Goscinny is one of the most famous and estimated Western-comics in Europe.

The popular Western comic strip Red Ryder was syndicated in hundreds of American newspapers from 1938 to 1964.

1970s and 1980s
In the 1970s, the work of Louis L'Amour began to catch hold of most western readers and he has dominated the western reader lists ever since. George G. Gilman also maintained a cult following for several years in the 1970s and 1980s. Larry McMurtry's and Cormac McCarthy's works remain notable. Specifically, McMurtry's Lonesome Dove and McCarthy's Blood Meridian (both published in 1985) are recognized as major masterpieces both within and beyond the genre. Elmer Kelton, mostly noted for his novels The Good Old Boys and The Time it Never Rained, was voted by the Western Writers of America as the "Best Western Writer of All Time". Early in the 1970s Indiana novelist Marilyn Durham wrote two popular Western novels, The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing and Dutch Uncle.

Western readership as a whole began to drop off in the mid- to late 1970s. A partial exception was an innovation, the so-called "adult western". As Robert J. Randisi puts it, "it's a western novel with sex in it. That's right, the cowboy has sex with women. A new idea? Probably not, but heretofore this had not been seen in western novels (certainly not by Max Brand, Zane Grey, Owen Wister or Louis L'Amour). What these books actually showed was that men and women really did have sex in the old west. (Back when I started the series a rigidly traditional western writer of my acquaintance insisted to me that "women did not have orgasms in the old west.")."

1990s and 2000s
Readership of western fiction reached a new low in the first decade of the twenty-first century, and most bookstores, outside a few western states, only carry a small number of Western fiction books. Nevertheless, several Western fiction series are published monthly, such as The Trailsman, Slocum, Longarm and The Gunsmith; these are all "adult westerns". Canadian author Guy Vanderhaeghe wrote a trilogy of Western novels: The Englishman's Boy, The Last Crossing, and A Good Man. Other more recent Western authors include Ivan Doig and William Kittredge. The genre has seen the rumblings of a revival, and 2008 saw the publication of an all-Western short story magazine Great Western Fiction which was published by Dry River Publishing in Colorado. Nevertheless, the magazine was short-lived and folded after only two issues. One of the most successful Western novels in recent times was The Sisters Brothers (2011) by Patrick deWitt.

Organizations
Western authors are represented by the Western Writers of America, who present the annual Spur Awards and Owen Wister Award for Lifetime Achievement. The organization was founded in 1953 to promote the literature of the American West. While the founding members were mostly western fiction writers, the organization began getting a number of other members from other backgrounds such as historians, regional history buffs, and writers from other genres.

Western Fictioneers, founded in 2010, is a professional writers' group that encourages and promotes the traditional Westerns. It is the only professional writers' organization composed entirely of authors who have written Western fiction. Fans of the genre may join as patron members. The Western Fictioneers' annual Peacemakers competition awards prizes in many categories of Western writing.

title: Western fiction


text:
Bidens tripartita

Bidens tripartita is a common and widespread species of flowering plant in the sunflower family, Asteraceae, commonly known as three-lobe beggarticks, three-part beggarticks, leafy-bracted beggarticks or trifid bur-marigold. It is native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and North America, with naturalized populations in Australia and on some Pacific Islands.

Distribution and abundance
Bidens tripartita is native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and North America, with naturalized populations in Australia and on some Pacific Islands. Bidens tripartita is considered relatively rare in southwestern British Columbia and was likely introduced from eastern North America and Europe.

Morphology
Bidens tripartita is an annual species with rigid stems and fibrous roots. Leaves are often deeply lobed. Flower heads are discoid and lacking ray flowers. Fruits are achenes.

Subspecies and varieties

 * Bidens tripartita subsp. bullatus (L.) Rouy
 * Bidens tripartita var. repens (D.Don) Sherff
 * Bidens tripartita subsp. tripartita
 * Bidens tripartita var. tripartita

title: Bidens tripartita


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Pharmacology/Classification

Standard classifications

 * Antiarrhythmics
 * Class I agents
 * Class Ia agents
 * Disopyramide
 * Moricizine
 * Procainamide
 * Quinidine
 * Class Ib agents
 * Lidocaine
 * Mexilitine
 * Phenytoin
 * Tocainide
 * Class Ic agents
 * Flecainide
 * Moricizine
 * Propafenone
 * Class II agents (Beta 1 blockers)
 * Esmolol
 * Metoprolol
 * Propranolol
 * Class III agents
 * Amiodarone
 * Bretylium
 * Dofetilide
 * Ibutilide
 * Sotalol
 * Class IV agents
 * Diltiazem
 * Verapamil
 * Class V agents
 * Adenosine
 * Digoxin

 * Antibiotics (see Category:Antibiotics for existing categories)
 * Aminoglycosides
 * amikacin
 * dibekacin
 * gentamicin
 * kanamycin
 * neomycin
 * netilmicin
 * paromomycin
 * sisomycin
 * streptomycin
 * tobramycin
 * β-lactam antibiotics
 * carbapenems
 * ertapenem
 * imipenem
 * meropenem
 * cephalosporins and cephamycins
 * cefalexin
 * cefuroxime
 * cefadroxil
 * ceftazidime
 * monocyclic beta-lactams
 * penicillins
 * glycopeptide antibiotics
 * vancomycin
 * teicoplanin
 * ramoplanin
 * decaplanin
 * macrolides
 * erythromycin
 * azithromycin
 * clarithromycin
 * roxithromycin
 * Tacrolimus
 * ketolides
 * telithromycin
 * oxazolidinones
 * linezolid
 * quinupristin/dalfopristin
 * polymyxins
 * polymyxin B
 * colistin
 * quinolones (fluoroquinolones)
 * nalidixic acid
 * ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
 * ofloxacin
 * norfloxacin (Norflox)
 * levofloxacin (Levaquin)
 * trovafloxacin (Trovan)
 * streptogramins
 * sulfonamides
 * tetracyclines
 * other important antibiotics:
 * chloramphenicol
 * clindamycin
 * fusidic acid
 * trimethoprim

 * Anticholinergics
 * Muscarinic receptor antagonists
 * Belladonna alkaloids
 * Atropine (D/L-Hyosycamine)
 * Scopolamine (L-Hyoscine)
 * Synthetic and Semisynthetic
 * Dicyclomine
 * Flavoxate
 * Ipratropium
 * Oxybutynin
 * Pirenzepine
 * Tolterodine
 * Tropicamide
 * Nicotinic receptor antagonists
 * Ganglionic blocking agents
 * Trimethaphan
 * Nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents
 * Atracurium
 * Doxacurium
 * Mivacurium
 * Pancuronium
 * Tubocurarine
 * Vecuronium
 * Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents
 * Suxamethonium chloride

 * Anticonvulsants
 * Barbiturates
 * Methylphenobarbital
 * Phenobarbital
 * Phenobarbitone
 * Phenobarbitone sodium
 * Primidone
 * Barbexaclone
 * Metharbital
 * Hydantoins
 * Ethotoin
 * Phenytoin
 * Mephenytoin
 * Fosphenytoin
 * Oxazolidines
 * Paramethadione
 * Trimethadione
 * Ethadione
 * Succinimides
 * Ethosuximide
 * Phensuximide
 * Mesuximide
 * Benzodiazepines
 * Alprazolam (Xanax)
 * Bromazepam
 * Chlordiazepoxide (Librium)
 * Clonazepam (Klonopin)
 * Clorazepate
 * Diazepam (Valium)
 * Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol)
 * Lorazepam (Ativan)
 * Medazepam
 * Midazolam (Versed)
 * Nimetazepam (Erimin)
 * Oxazepam
 * Prazepam
 * Temazepam (Restoril)
 * Triazolam (Halcion)
 * Carboxamides
 * Carbamazepine
 * Oxcarbazepine
 * Valpromide
 * Fatty acids
 * Valproic acid
 * Valpromide
 * Aminobutyric acid
 * Vigabatrin
 * Progabide
 * Tiagabine
 * Others
 * Sultiame
 * Phenacemide
 * Lamotrigine
 * Felbamate
 * Topiramate
 * Gabapentin
 * Pheneturide
 * Levetiracetam
 * Beclamide
 * Potassium bromide

 * Antidiarrheoeals
 * Loperamide (Lopex/Imodium)

 * Antipsychotics
 * Atypical antipsychotics
 * Aripiprazole (Abilify)
 * Clozapine (Clozaril)
 * Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
 * Quetiapine (Seroquel)
 * Risperidone (Risperdal)
 * Ziprasidone (Geodon)
 * Typical antipsychotics
 * Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
 * Fluphenazine (Prolixin)
 * Haloperidol (Haldol)
 * Loxapine (Loxitane)
 * Perphenazine (Trilafon)
 * Pimozide (Orap)
 * Thioridazine (Mellaril)
 * Trifluoperazine (Stelazine)
 * Partial dopamine agonists
 * Aripiprazole
 * Lithium salts
 * Phenothiazines

 * Antispasmodics

 * Depressants
 * Alcohol
 * Benzodiazepines
 * Alprazolam (Xanax)
 * Bromazepam
 * Chlordiazepoxide (Librium)
 * Clonazepam (Klonopin)
 * Clorazepate
 * Diazepam (Valium)
 * Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol)
 * Lorazepam (Ativan)
 * Medazepam
 * Midazolam (Versed)
 * Nimetazepam (Erimin)
 * Oxazepam
 * Prazepam
 * Temazepam (Restoril)
 * Triazolam (Halcion)
 * Imidazopyridines
 * alpidem
 * zolpidem (Ambien)
 * GHB
 * Barbiturates

 * Dissociatives
 * NMDA and Sigma receptor antagonists
 * DXM
 * Ketamine
 * PCP
 * Kappa opioid receptor agonists
 * Salvinorins (Salvia divinorum, Salvinorin-A)
 * Nitrous oxide

 * Diuretics
 * Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
 * Acetazolamide
 * Dorzolamide
 * Loop diuretics
 * Furosemide
 * Osmotic diuretics
 * Mannitol
 * Potassium-sparing diuretics
 * Amiloride
 * Spironolactone
 * Thiazides
 * Hydrochlorothiazide

 * Hallucinogens
 * Anticholinergic deliriants
 * Cholinergics
 * Muscimol (CNS depressant, GABA agonist)
 * Ibotenic acid
 * Dissociatives
 * Empathogens/Entactogens
 * Substituted amphetamines (should go under phenethylamines!)
 * MDMA, Ecstasy
 * Psychedelics (serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists)
 * Tryptamines
 * Lysergamides
 * Phenethylamines
 * Cannabinoids (CB-1 cannabinoid receptor agonists)

 * Hypnotics
 * Chloral hydrate
 * Ethchlorvynol
 * Methaqualone (Quinazolinone, Quaalude) (sedative hypnotic)
 * Novel hypnotic agents
 * Imovane

 * Inhalants

 * Nootropics
 * Racetams
 * Piracetam (Nootropil)
 * Aniracetam
 * Etiracetam
 * Nefiracetam
 * Oxiracetam
 * Pramiracetam
 * Rolziracetam
 * Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine)
 * DMAE (Centrophenoxine)

 * Performance-enhancing drugs
 * anabolics
 * steroid
 * Taurine

 * Phenethylamines
 * Substituted phenethylamines
 * Mescaline
 * 2C-B
 * 2C-C
 * 2C-E
 * 2C-I
 * 2C-T-2
 * 2C-T-4
 * 2C-T-7
 * 2C-T-21
 * Substituted amphetamines
 * DOM, also known as STP
 * DOB
 * DOI
 * DragonFLY

 * Sedatives
 * Methaqualone (Quinazolinone, Quaalude) (sedative hypnotic)

 * Statins
 * atorvastatin
 * cerivastatin
 * fluvastatin
 * lovastatin
 * pravastatin
 * rosuvastatin
 * simvastatin

United Kingdom

 * Class A drugs
 * Hydrocodone
 * Methamphetamine

 * Class B drugs
 * Amphetamine

United States

 * Illegal drugs
 * Ephedrine - regulated OTC by the DEA, FDA recently banned its sale, important precursor chemical, clarify status?

 * Over-the-counter drugs
 * Acetaminophen
 * Aspirin
 * Alcohol
 * Caffeine
 * Dimenhydrinate
 * Diphenhydramine
 * DXM/dextromethorphan
 * Nicotine

Federal scheduling system

 * Schedule I (US)
 * Opiates
 * Alpha-methylfentanyl
 * Opium derivatives
 * Heroin
 * Hallucinogenic substances
 * 2C-B
 * 2C-T-7
 * Alpha-ethyltryptamine (AET)
 * Bufotenin (5-HO-DMT)
 * DET
 * DMT
 * DOM (STP)
 * Ibogaine
 * LSD
 * MDA
 * MDMA
 * Mescaline
 * PCP
 * Peyote
 * Psilocybin
 * Psilocin
 * THC
 * Depressants
 * GHB
 * Mecloqualone
 * Methaqualone
 * Stimulants
 * Aminorex
 * Benzylpiperazine (N-Benzylpiperazine, BZP)
 * Cathinone
 * Cocaine
 * Methcathinone
 * 4-methylaminorex ((+/-)cis-4-methylaminorex, 4-Mar)
 * Temporary listing of substances subject to emergency scheduling
 * AMT
 * benzylfentanyl
 * thenylfentanyl
 * 5-MeO-DIPT

 * Schedule II (US)
 * Opium and opium salts
 * Opium
 * Codeine
 * Dihydroetorphine
 * Ethylmorphine
 * Etorphine hydrochloride
 * Hydrocodone
 * Hydromorphone
 * Metopon
 * Morphine
 * Oxycodone
 * Oxymorphone
 * Thebaine
 * Opiates
 * Alfentanil
 * Alphaprodine
 * Carfentanil
 * Dihydrocodeine
 * Diphenoxylate
 * Fentanyl
 * Isomethadone
 * Levo-alphacetylmethadol (levo-alpha-acetylmethadol, levomethadyl acetate, LAAM)
 * Levomethorphan
 * Levorphanol
 * Metazocine
 * Methadone
 * Pethidine (meperidine)
 * Phenazocine
 * Piminodine
 * Racemethorphan
 * Racemorphan
 * Remifentanil
 * Sufentanil
 * Stimulants
 * Amphetamine
 * Methamphetamine
 * Phenmetrazine
 * Methylphenidate
 * Depressants
 * Amobarbital
 * Glutethimide
 * Pentobarbital
 * Phencyclidine
 * Secobarbital
 * Hallucinogenic substances
 * Nabilone
 * Immediate precursors
 * Phenylacetone (phenyl-2-propanone; P2P; benzyl methyl ketone; methyl benzyl ketone)
 * 1-phenylcyclohexylamine
 * 1-piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile (PCC)

 * Schedule III (US) (mostly deals with allowable quantities of depressants and opiates)
 * Stimulants
 * Benzphetamine
 * Chlorphentermine
 * Clortermine
 * Phendimetrazine
 * Depressants
 * Amobarbital
 * Secobarbital
 * Pentobarbital
 * Barbituric acid
 * Chlorhexadol
 * GHB
 * Ketamine
 * Lysergic acid
 * Lysergic acid amide
 * Tiletamine and zolazepam (Telazol)
 * Nalorphine
 * Narcotic drugs
 * Buprenorphine
 * Anabolic steroids
 * Hallucinogenic substances
 * Dronabinol (Marinol)

 * Schedule IV (US)
 * Depressants
 * Chloral hydrate
 * Fenfluramine
 * Stimulants
 * Cathine
 * Other substances
 * Pentazocine
 * Butorphanol

 * Schedule V (US)
 * Stimulants
 * Pyrovalerone

 * Schedule VI (not in USA federal law - certain states implement a schedule VI to control various chemicals that have gained notoriety)
 * Amyl nitrite
 * Butyl nitrite
 * Nitrous oxide
 * Toluene
 * Cannabis
 * THC
 * Hashish
 * Hash oil

Concepts

 * recreational drug use
 * responsible drug use
 * Responsible Drug User's Oath

 * drug addiction
 * Drug overdose

 * generic drug
 * Substance
 * medication
 * narcotic

 * War on Drugs
 * illegal drug trade
 * Clandestine chemistry
 * Zero-tolerance policy
 * Drug prohibition
 * Conservatism

 * Harm reduction
 * Needle-exchange programme

 * Medical marijuana

 * Head shop

 * Poison
 * Truth drug

 * The Doha Declaration
 * orphan drug
 * xenobiotic

 * Informed consent
 * Victimless crime

 * Handicap theory

 * Self-medication

 * Drug design
 * Drug-resistance

 * Club drugs
 * Chemical abortion

Preparation and delivery of drugs

 * Pharmacy
 * Controlled Substances Act
 * Over-the-counter drug
 * Prescription
 * United States Pharmacopoeia
 * Pharmacognosy

 * Pharmacokinetics
 * Route of administration
 * Intravenous drip

 * Pharmaceutical Companies and Manufacturers
 * Good Manufacturing Practice
 * Schering Plough
 * Takeda

Researchers

 * Jerome Horowitz
 * Percy Julian
 * Timothy Leary
 * Terence McKenna
 * Alexander Shulgin
 * John Sperling (funds cloning research and medical marijuana initiatives)
 * Richard Evans Schultes
 * David E. Nichols

Artists, writers, musicians, filmmakers

 * Farid al-Din Attar
 * Darren Aronofsky
 * Nigel Buxton
 * Pete Doherty
 * Richey James Edwards
 * Aldous Huxley
 * Ernst Jünger
 * Thomas Overbury
 * D.B.C. Pierre
 * Nicholas Ray
 * Robert Shea
 * W. Eugene Smith
 * Gary Stewart (singer)
 * Scott Weiland
 * Brett Whiteley
 * Hunter_S._Thompson

Politicians and statespeople

 * Carlos Santiago Nino
 * John P. Walters

Modern celebrities

 * List of famous deaths by accidental drug overdose
 * Bobby Brown
 * Montgomery Clift
 * Andrea Feldman
 * Trevor Goddard
 * Dorothy Kilgallen
 * Lex Luger
 * Diego Maradona
 * Jaco Pastorius
 * Charlie Parker
 * Dana Plato
 * Bambi Woods

Other
Are these people notable?
 * Nils Bejerot (psychiatrist and criminologist)
 * George Chuvalo (lectures against drugs)
 * William Withey Gull (physician)
 * Alexandre de Merode (was head of drug testing for the IOC)
 * Bernhard van Treeck (psychiatrist)

Drug slang

 * Drug slang
 * Street name
 * Mickey Finn
 * Keif
 * Joint

Uncategorized chaos
Digest(?) of "What links here" for drug (some redundant):

--- Antiacne
 * Anorectic
 * Antipyretic
 * Corticosteroid
 * Cytoprotectant
 * Decongestant
 * Diaphoretic
 * Entactogen
 * Tranquilizer
 * Research chemical
 * Vasodilator
 * Isotretinoin (Accutane)

Antianemics
 * Darbepoetin

Anticancer
 * Imatinib
 * Paclitaxel (Taxol)

Antiemetics
 * Thalidomide

Antiparasitics
 * antihelminthics
 * Diethylcarbamazine

Anti-tardive dyskinesic?
 * Benztropine

Beta-adrenergic agonists/bronchodilators
 * Salbutamol (Albuterol, Ventolin)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Erectile_dysfunction_drugs
 * Sildenafil (Viagra)
 * Tadalafil (Cialis)
 * Vardenafil (Levitra)

Immunosuppresives - see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Immunosuppressive_agents

Hormones
 * Melanotan
 * Adrenochrome (psychoactive)

Uncategorized ---
 * Disulfiram (Antabuse)
 * Proton pump inhibitor
 * Phosphodiesterase inhibitor
 * Aldose reductase inhibitor
 * Reflux suppressant
 * Farnesyltransferase inhibitor

 * Agonist
 * Neurotransmitter

 * Epinephrine

 * Psychopharmacology
 * Rosenhan experiment

 * Morning glory
 * Convolvulaceae
 * Ipomoea

 * Ephedra

 * Erowid

 * Soma

 * Merck Index

 * Modern world

 * Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds

 * Benzene

 * Nucleus accumbens

 * S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM-e)

 * Local analgesia

 * Hashshashin

 * Book of Revelation

 * Gun, with Occasional Music

 * Clinical depression
 * Ergotism
 * Hemolysis
 * Akathisia
 * Iatrogenesis
 * Hepatotoxicity

 * People Against Gangsterism and Drugs
 * Narcotics Anonymous
 * McGruff

 * Nazi human experimentation

 * Tonic
 * Patent medicine
 * Paregoric (opium tincture (laudanum) with camphor, effective against diarrhea and cough)

 * Altered States (movie)


text:
Weak interpretability

In mathematical logic, weak interpretability is a notion of translation of logical theories, introduced together with interpretability by Alfred Tarski in 1953.

Let T and S be formal theories. Slightly simplified, T is said to be weakly interpretable in S if, and only if, the language of T can be translated into the language of S in such a way that the translation of every theorem of T is consistent with S. Of course, there are some natural conditions on admissible translations here, such as the necessity for a translation to preserve the logical structure of formulas.

A generalization of weak interpretability, tolerance, was introduced by Giorgi Japaridze in 1992.

title: Weak interpretability


text:
Ivan's Childhood

Ivan's Childhood (Ива́ново де́тство), sometimes released as My Name Is Ivan in the US, is a 1962 Soviet war drama film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky. Co-written by Mikhail Papava, Andrei Konchalovsky and an uncredited Tarkovsky, it is based on Vladimir Bogomolov's 1957 short story "Ivan". The film features child actor Nikolai Burlyayev along with Valentin Zubkov, Evgeny Zharikov, Stepan Krylov, Nikolai Grinko, and Tarkovsky's wife Irma Raush.

Ivan's Childhood tells the story of orphaned boy Ivan, whose parents were killed by the invading German forces, and his experiences during World War II. Ivan's Childhood was one of several Soviet films of its period, such as The Cranes Are Flying and Ballad of a Soldier, that looked at the human cost of war and did not glorify the war experience as did films produced before the Khrushchev Thaw. In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky stated that in making the film he wanted to "convey all [his] hatred of war", and that he chose childhood "because it is what contrasts most with war."

Ivan's Childhood was Tarkovsky's first feature film. It won him critical acclaim and made him internationally known. It won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1962 and the Golden Gate Award at the San Francisco International Film Festival in 1962. The film was also selected as the Soviet entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 36th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. Famous filmmakers such as Ingmar Bergman, Sergei Parajanov and Krzysztof Kieślowski praised the film and cited it as an influence on their work.

Plot
After a brief dream sequence, Ivan Bondarev, a 12-year-old Russian boy, wakes up and crosses a war-torn landscape to a swamp, then swims across a river. On the other side, he is seized by Russian soldiers and brought to the young Lieutenant Galtsev, who interrogates him. The boy insists that he call "Number 51 at Headquarters" and report his presence. Galtsev is reluctant, but when he eventually makes the call, he is told by Lieutenant-Colonel Gryaznov to give the boy pencil and paper to make his report, which will be given the highest priority, and to treat him well. Through a series of dream sequences and conversations between different characters, it is revealed that Ivan's mother and sister (and probably his father, a border guard) have been killed by German soldiers. He got away and joined a group of partisans. When the group was surrounded, they put him on a plane. After the escape, he was sent to a boarding school, but he ran away and joined an army unit under the command of Gryaznov.

Burning for revenge, Ivan insists on fighting on the front line. Taking advantage of his small size, he is successful on reconnaissance missions. Gryaznov and the other soldiers grow fond of him and want to send him to a military school. They give up their idea when Ivan tries to run away and rejoin the partisans. He is determined to avenge the death of his family and others, such as those killed at the Maly Trostenets extermination camp (which he mentions that he has seen).

Finally, Kholin and Galtsev ferry Ivan across the river late at night. He disappears through the swampy forest. The others return to the other shore after cutting down the bodies of two Soviet scouts hanged by the Germans.

The final scenes then switch to Berlin under Soviet occupation after the fall of the Third Reich. Captain Kholin has been killed in action. Galtsev finds a document showing that Ivan was caught and hanged by the Germans. As Galtsev enters the execution room, a final flashback of Ivan's childhood shows the young boy running across a beach after a little girl in happier times. The final image is of a dead tree on the beach.

Cast

 * Nikolai Burlyayev as Ivan Bondarev
 * Valentin Zubkov as Capt. Kholin
 * Evgeny Zharikov as Lt. Galtsev
 * Stepan Krylov as Cpl. Katasonov
 * Valentina Malyavina as Masha
 * Nikolai Grinko as Lt. Col. Gryaznov
 * Dmitri Milyutenko as Old Man
 * Irma Raush as Ivan's mother
 * Andrei Konchalovsky as Soldier

Production
Ivan's Childhood was Tarkovsky's first feature film, shot two years after his diploma film The Steamroller and the Violin. The film is based on the 1957 short story "Ivan" (Иван) by Vladimir Bogomolov, which was translated into more than twenty languages. It drew the attention of the screenwriter Mikhail Papava, who changed the story line and made Ivan more of a hero. Papava called his screenplay Second Life (Вторая жизнь, Vtoraya Zhizn). In this screenplay Ivan is not executed, but sent to the Majdanek concentration camp, from where he is freed by the advancing Soviet army. The final scene of this screenplay shows Ivan meeting one of the officers of the army unit in a train compartment. Bogomolov, unsatisfied with this ending, intervened and the screenplay was changed to reflect the source material.

Mosfilm gave the screenplay to the young film director Eduard Abalov. Shooting was aborted and the film project was terminated in December 1960, since the first version of the film drew heavy criticism from the arts council, and the quality was deemed unsatisfactory and unusable. In June 1961 the film project was given to Tarkovsky, who had applied for it after being told about Ivan's Childhood by cinematographer Vadim Yusov. Work on the film resumed in the same month. The film was shot for the most part near Kanev at the Dnieper River.

Tarkovsky continued his collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov, who was the cameraman in Tarkovsky's diploma film The Steamroller and the Violin. Nikolai Burlyayev had played a role in Andrei Konchalovsky's student film The Boy and the Pigeon. Konchalovsky was a friend and fellow student of Tarkovsky at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK), and thus Burlyayev was also cast for the role of Ivan. He had to pass several screen tests, but according to Burlyayev it is unclear whether anyone else auditioned for the role. Burlyayev would later play Boriska in Tarkovsky's second feature, Andrei Rublev.

Style
Nature takes up an important role in Ivan's Childhood. Before the film’s release, the Stalinist viewpoint on war cinema in the 1930s and 40s was that of instrumentalizing nature as a means to serve human agency in context of violence. Ivan's Childhood is produced during the stagnating period of Khrushchev thaw, and as a result instead is considered pioneer in its use of extensive and predominant representation of nature. In the film, nature is omnipresent and is captured both in Ivan’s dreams and in scenes of violence, it’s portrayed as an active witness of human violence, but also as a rebellious force itself entangled in battle, namely as a victim of war. Furthermore, Tarkovsky’s framing of nature in tracking shots was also intended as visual poetry adding a layer of artistic elegance to the film. The way in which he balances poetic representations of nature and violent narratives of war unveils his pursuit of an aesthetic representation of war, and thus also exhibiting his distinguishing cinematographic signature.

Box office
Ivan's Childhood was one of Tarkovsky's most commercially successful films, selling 16.7 million tickets in the Soviet Union. Tarkovsky himself was displeased with some aspects of the film; in his book Sculpting in Time, he writes at length about subtle changes to certain scenes that he regrets not implementing.

Critical response
The film received international acclaim on its release. Ivan's Childhood has an approval rating of 100% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 25 reviews, and an average rating of 8.9/10.The website's critical consensus states, "Ostensibly an atypical Tarkovsky work (less than 100 minutes!), Ivan's Childhood carries the poetry and passion that would characterize the director from here on". It attracted the attention of many intellectuals, including Ingmar Bergman who said, "My discovery of Tarkovsky's first film was like a miracle. Suddenly, I found myself standing at the door of a room the keys of which had, until then, never been given to me. It was a room I had always wanted to enter and where he was moving freely and fully at ease."

Jean-Paul Sartre wrote an article on the film, defending it against a highly critical article in the Italian newspaper L'Unità written by Alberto Moravia and saying that it was one of the most beautiful films he had ever seen. In a later interview, Tarkovsky (who did not consider the film to be among his best work) admitted to agreeing with Moravia's criticisms at the time, finding Sartre's defense "too philosophical and speculative". Filmmakers Sergei Parajanov and Krzysztof Kieślowski praised the film and cited it as an influence on their work.

Awards and nominations
Ivan's Childhood received numerous awards, including the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival and the Golden Gate Award at the San Francisco International Film Festival in 1962. The film was also selected as the Soviet entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 36th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.

Film restoration
In 2016 the film was digitally restored. The newest version was highly praised by The Independent who called it "The most lyrical war movie ever made pristinely restored".

title: Ivan's Childhood


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Moloko-Vellocet

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled Moloko Vellocet.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article.

New, utterly POV, but if it really exists there might be something worth writing. -- Jmabel 04:08, 15 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Cyrius|&#9998 05:05, May 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * They're the greatest band that never was. Delete. - Lucky 6.9 05:28, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue or the deletion should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Doryteuthis plei

Doryteuthis plei, also known as the slender inshore squid or arrow squid, is a medium-sized squid belonging to the family Loliginidae. It occurs abundantly in coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean, from Argentina northward to North Carolina.

Description
As both common names imply, these squid have elongate, cylindrical bodies with a length to width ratio of 7:1. The arms are in contrast short and weak; the two tentacles are somewhat less than the mantle length. The rhombus-shaped fins are large, up to about 50 percent of the mantle length. Running the ventral length of the mantle is a noticeable ridge. The squid are a reddish orange colour with a large complement of chromatophores.

The suckers of the arms possess blunt teeth. On the meaty ends (clubs) of the tentacles, there are four rows of suckers; the inner two (mesial) rows are three times as large as the outer two (marginal) rows. The larger suckers have horny rings with up to 45 teeth.

These squid reach a maximum mantle length of 33 centimetres in males and 22 centimetres in females. Sexual dimorphism is apparent, with the left ventral arm in males modified into a hectocotylus; this is used to facilitate fertilization during mating. Males also have a number of purple stripes running lengthwise on the ventral side of the mantle; along with other visual cues produced by chromatophores, these stripes are used in elaborate courtship displays.

Ecology
Due to their abundance, slender inshore squid are important to both commercial and subsistence fisheries. During the annual summer mating season, the squid congregate in large numbers near shore. During the austral summer in waters off Brazil, annual catches may reach 763 metric tonnes.

While there may be safety in their numbers, the squid are an important prey item for large fish such as tuna and sharks and a number of cetaceans: pygmy killer whales, orcas, Atlantic spotted dolphins, rough-toothed dolphins, and bottlenose dolphins are all known predators of slender inshore squid. Other predators include South African and Antarctic fur seals.

The squid prey upon several species of estuarine fish, including: killifish, mosquitofish and mollies. Small crustaceans such as grass shrimp are also taken.

title: Doryteuthis plei


text:
Blixa Bargeld

Blixa Bargeld (born Christian Emmerich, 12 January 1959) is a German musician who has been the lead singer of the band Einstürzende Neubauten since its formation in 1980. Bargeld was also a founding member of the Australian rock band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, serving as a member from 1983 until his departure in 2003.

Early life
Bargeld left school prior to completion, and is self-taught. He experimented with audio equipment as a teenager, including the disassembling of tape recorders. The first album that he owned was by Pink Floyd, but he quickly moved on to German krautrock acts such as Kraftwerk, Neu! and Can, which he described as his biggest influences at the time.

Bargeld is from the Tempelhof area of West Berlin and he moved out of his parents' home in the late 1970s. A 2008 documentary featured him visiting his mother and talking to her about his childhood and the relationship that he had with his parents.

Career
In 1980, Bargeld founded the group Einstürzende Neubauten. Bargeld spoke of the early days of Neubauten in 2010:

The starting point for Neubauten was more that we didn't have anything, so I didn't really have the choice to say 'I am doing this, I am doing that, or maybe I should play organ'. I didn't have any of these things, and I could not afford any of these things, and neither could anybody else in the group. It was more of the logical consequence of what can we obtain, and that's how it turned out. It certainly didn't start out as an artistic concept to say "let's do something different", it started as an extension of the live situation as it already was.

Around this time, Bargeld became involved with the German film scene, appearing in Kalt wie eis in 1981 and Berlin Now in 1984, performing music in both.

From 1983 to 2003, Bargeld was a guitarist and backing vocalist with Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds. He also sang lead vocals with Cave on several songs, such as "The Carny" and "The Weeping Song". Cave first saw Bargeld performing with Einstürzende Neubauten on TV while the Birthday Party, Cave's band at the time, were touring in Amsterdam. He described the music as "mournful", Bargeld as looking "destroyed", and his screams as: "a sound you would expect to hear from strangled cats or dying children."

Bargeld played guitar on the Gun Club song "Yellow Eyes" from their 1987 album Mother Juno. He also played on the album Novice by Alain Bashung in 1989.

Since the mid-1990s, Bargeld has appeared live with his solo Rede/Speech Performances. During these performances, usually supported by Neubauten's sound engineer Boris Wilsdorf, he works with microphones, sound effects, overdubbing with the help of sampler loops and speaks English or German. The performed pieces include a vocal creation of the DNA of an angel and a parody of a techno song.

In 2000 he worked together with Oliver Augst on the music for the plays Rosa Melonen Schnitt Freude based on words by Gertrude Stein and Rom, Blicke by Rolf Dieter Brinkmann, which they also performed together in Italy, Germany and Austria.

In 2007, Bargeld started a collaborative project with Alva Noto (a.k.a. Carsten Nicolai) called ANBB, an abbreviation of Noto's and Bargeld's initials. An EP, Ret Marut Handshake, was released on 26 June 2010, followed later that year by a full-length album, Mimikry.

In June 2013, Bargeld collaborated with Italian composer Teho Teardo for an album called Still Smiling, which was released on the Specula record label. A music video for the song "Mi Scusi" was created and an Italian tour was scheduled.

In early October 2014, Neubauten announced 24 November 2014 as the release date for their next album, Lament, described as a "concept album based on a live performance and installation commissioned by the Flemish city of Diksmuide, Belgium to mark the centenary of the start of the First World War in 1914." Bargeld explained in the official press release: "The Second World War is nothing but the elongation of the first one … As a child of the post Second World War era, and the resulting division of Germany and Berlin, I’m of course hugely influenced in my upbringing about the results of that."

Bargeld explained in October 2014 that Neubauten is essentially a materialistic band, leading them to employ two scientific researchers to seek out material to support the development of Lament after the album received financial backing in August 2013. The band opened their 2014 European tour in support of Lament with a performance in Diksmuide, Belgium.

Instruments
Bargeld's guitars of choice are a Fender Jaguar and a Fender Mustang, as seen on the concert DVD God Is in The House and at various media appearances. Initially he used a battered Höfner Model 173 and a red Höfner Colorama II until they "broke down." After his effect pedals were stolen in the early 1980s, he relied exclusively on the Fender floating/dynamic tremolo (like the Höfner units), which both raise and lower pitch, along with Fender Twin amplifiers, metal slides and changing his amp settings for each individual song to create a unique guitar sound.

Personal life
Bargeld is married to Chinese-American mathematician Erin Bargeld (née Zhu), daughter of the entrepreneur Min Zhu. Together they developed the concept of web-based fan subscriptions as a new business model for musicians. The couple is featured among 37 other design and media figures in the 2010 book Designing Media by designer and IDEO co-founder Bill Moggridge. The couple resides in San Francisco, Beijing and Berlin. They have a transgender son.

Bargeld was a vegetarian for 30 years, but stopped as a result of difficulties that he encountered while practicing vegetarianism in China.

Albums

 * 2010 – Mimikry (with Alva Noto as ANBB; Raster-Noton)
 * 2013 – Still Smiling with Teho Teardo (Specula Records)
 * 2016 – Nerissimo with Teho Teardo (Specula Records / Rough Trade)

EPs

 * 2010 – "Ret Marut Handshake" 12" single (with Noto as ANBB; Raster-Noton)
 * 2014 – Spring by Teho Teardo & Blixa Bargeld
 * 2017 – Fall by Teho Teardo & Blixa Bargeld

Soundtrack compilation

 * 1995 – Commissioned Music
 * Dumpfe stimmen – theatre play (1994)
 * Jahre der kälte – film (1994)

Other appearances

 * 1999 – "Ein gleiches" (from Rosebud: Songs of Goethe and Nietzsche)
 * 1999 – "Soul Desert" (from Pop 2000: Das gibt's nur einmal)

 * 2000/2001 – "Allein machen sie dich ein" (from Die erben der scherben: Keine macht)

 * 2001 – "Bilbao Song" (from Kurt Weill: Die musik zum film)
 * 2005 – "The Fight" (from Sound of ?!?!?!?)
 * 2006 – "Little Yellow" (from Jukebox Buddha)
 * 2013 – "Grand Hotel Tbilisi" (from Songs of Decadence: A Soundtrack to the Writings of Stanisław Przybyszewski)

Band work

 * Bargeld performed on all Einstürzende Neubauten recordings.
 * Bargeld played guitar and sang on all studio recordings for Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds from 1984 to 2003.

Session work

 * 1993 – actor in radio play Radio Inferno
 * 1996 – "Die Sonne" (for Gudrun Gut and Members of the Ocean Club single)
 * 1998 – vocals on Bad Blood album by Ice
 * 2001 – actor in Elementarteilchen (audioplay based on Michel Houellebecq's novel Les Particules élémentaires)
 * 2009 – guitars on Novice LP by Alain Bashung
 * 2015 – Marcher sur la tête by KiKu feat. Blixa Bargeld & Black Cracker, composed by Yannick Barman (Everest Records)
 * 2017 – Eng, Düster und Bang by KiKu feat. Blixa Bargeld & Black Cracker, composed by Yannick Barman yannickbarman.com(everest records) kikusound.com everestrecords.ch
 * 2021 – Bright Magic by Public Service Broadcasting feat. Blixa Bargeld on the track Der Rhythmus der Maschinen

Readings

 * 2006 – Blixa Bargeld liest Bertolt Brecht Erotische Gedichte (spoken voice recording in German of Bertolt Brecht's erotic poems)

Compositions

 * 1996 – To Have and to Hold (with Nick Cave & Mick Harvey)
 * 2000 – Recycled (composed by Blixa Bargeld, arranged by Tim Isfort and performed by his orchestra)
 * 2001 – Elementarteilchen (score)

Filmography

 * Bad Blood for the Vampyr
 * Recycled (2000)
 * Die totale Therapie
 * Die Terroristen!
 * Wings of Desire (as himself, during the Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds performance)
 * Dandy (1987, directed by Peter Sempel)
 * Nihil oder Alle Zeit der Welt (as himself, 1988, directed by Uli M Schueppel)
 * Strike Back (1981 film) (1981)
 * Jahre der Kälte/Frozen Stories (filmmusic, 1993, directed by Uli M Schueppel)
 * Liebeslieder (1995)
 * Code Red (1997)
 * The Mummy (1999) (Mummy sounds)
 * Palast der Republik (2004)
 * Halber Mensch (2005)
 * On Tour with Neubauten.org (2006)
 * Listen With Pain (2006)
 * Blixa Bargeld: Rede / Speech DVD (2006)
 * Elektrokohle – von wegen (as himself, filmmusic, (1994, directed by Uli M Schueppel)
 * Hornbach commercials (German hardware store) reading tool catalogs as spoken word
 * 20,000 Days on Earth (2014)
 * B-Movie: Lust & Sound in West-Berlin
 * Swans: Where Does a Body End? (as himself, 2020, directed by Marco Porsia)

title: Blixa Bargeld