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Vihti

Vihti (Vichtis) is a municipality in Finland, located in the southern interior of the country. Vihti is situated in the Uusimaa region. The population of Vihti is approximately 0. It is the most populous municipality in Finland. Vihti is part of the Helsinki metropolitan area, which has approximately 0 million inhabitants.

Vihti is located approximately 50 km northwest of the capital city of Helsinki. Vihti has an area of undefined km2 of which undefined km2 is water. The population density is undefined PD/km2. Its seat is Nummela, which is the most populated urban area in the municipality.

Vihti's neighbouring municipalities are, clockwise from the north, Karkkila, Loppi, Hyvinkää, Nurmijärvi, Espoo, Kirkkonummi, Siuntio and Lohja. There are several important road connections through Vihti, the most notable being the Pori Highway between Pori and Helsinki, the Hanko Highway between Hanko and Hyvinkää, and the Vihti Road between Vihti and Helsinki. The largest lake in Vihti is Lake Hiidenvesi, which is connected to the Gulf of Finland by Lake Lohja and the Karis River.

History
The oldest literal mark of Vihti is from the 15th century. The old parish church, St. Bridget's Church, was also built during this time. After the deterioration of the old church, a new current church was built in Vihti and was completed in 1772.

Politics
Results of the 2019 Finnish parliamentary election in Vihti:

 * Finns Party  20%
 * Social Democratic Party  18%
 * National Coalition Party  17.9%
 * Centre Party  14.2%
 * Green League  10.1%
 * Movement Now  5.2%
 * Left Alliance  4.8%
 * Christian Democrats  3.4%
 * Swedish People's Party  2.4%
 * Other parties  3.8%

Economy
The electronics contract manufacturer DICRO Oy is one of its main employers, along with the local forestry companies and farmers.

Villages
Haimoo, Härkälä, Jokikunta, Oinasjoki, Ojakkala, Palajärvi, Siippoo, Tervalampi, Haapkylä, Huhmari, Hulttila, Hynnölä, Härtsilä, Irjala, Jokikunta, Jättölä, Kaharla, Kaukola, Kauppila, Kirkonkylä, Kirvelä, Koikkala, Korkaniemi, Korppila, Kourla, Köykkälä, Lahnus, Lahti, Lankila, Leppärlä, Lusila, Maikkala, Merramäki, Niemenkylä, Niemi, Niuhala, Nummela, Olkkala, Ollila, Otalampi, Oravala, Pakasela, Pietilä, Pääkslahti, Ruskela, Salmi, Selki, Suksela, Suontaka, Taipale, Tarttila, Torhola, Tuohilampi, Vanhala, Vanjoki, Vanjärvi, Vesikansa, Vihti, Vihtijärvi, Vähäkylä

Sights

 * Vihti Church, an 18th century lutheran church
 * St. Bridget's Church, a medieval church ruin
 * Vihti Museum, history museum showcasing local history of the municipality
 * Lake Hiidenvesi, one of the largest lakes of the Uusimaa region

Friendship cities

 * 🇯🇵 Fukui Prefecture, Japan (since 1980)

title: Vihti


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Gumball machine

A gumball machine is a type of bulk vending machine that dispenses individual gumballs in exchange for money. They were developed around the early twentieth century.

History
Although vending machines for stick or block-shaped gum were seen as early as 1888, the first machines to carry actual gumballs were not seen until 1907 (probably released first by the Thomas Adams Gum Co. in the United States). Patented in 1923, the Norris Manufacturing Company produced their "Master" line of chrome gumball machines during the 1930s. These machines could accept either pennies or nickels.

Founded in 1934, the Ford Gum and Machine Company of Akron, New York was another early manufacturer of gum for gumball machines in the U.S. The Ford brand of gumball machines had a distinct shiny chrome color; sales of gum from Ford gumball machines went to local service organizations such as the Lions Club and Kiwanis International.

Founded in 1909, Northwestern Corporation started with kitchen matches and eventually came out with the Northwestern Model 33 in 1933 (naming for the year which it came out) and eventually the Model 60 and Model 80, both of which are still sold today.

Design and operation
Generally, a gumball machine consists of a clear sphere (originally glass, now most often plastic) which is filled with gumballs, sitting on top of a metal base. It has a locked metal top which can be removed and gumballs can be put in. The coin is inserted into the base and a handle is turned around clockwise 360 degrees, depositing the coin in the base of the machine and allowing a gumball or trinket to be dispensed into a chute at the bottom of the machine that is closed off by a metal flap.

Most gumball machines have a simple mechanism for dispensing the gumball, to the point of the actual dispensation being largely invisible (after turning the handle the gumball is deposited behind the door). However, some gumball machines have more elaborate methods. Most of them utilize the potential energy of the gumball's location above the base, by, for instance, causing it to roll down a spiral ramp, or a set of diagonal disks (each one is tilted in the opposite direction than the preceding one) with holes in lowest point. The most elaborate mechanisms also use electricity to power various forms of transit (e.g. lifts and pulleys) as well as ramps and drops for the gumball upon its way to dispensation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gumball machine


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Cypress Hills—Grasslands

Cypress Hills—Grasslands is a federal electoral district in Saskatchewan, Canada, that has been represented in the House of Commons of Canada since 1997.

Following the 2022 Canadian federal electoral redistribution, this riding will be renamed Swift Current—Grasslands—Kindersley at the first election held after April 22, 2024. It will lose the Rural Municipalities of Stonehenge, Lake of the Rivers, Willow Bunch, Old Post and Poplar Valley, and all enclosed towns and villages to Souris—Moose Mountain, lose the Rural Municipalities of Maple Bush, Enfield, Chaplin, Wheatlands, Caron, Shamrock, Rodgers, Hillsborough, Gravelbourg, Sutton, and Lake Johnston plus all enclosed towns and villages to Moose Jaw—Lake Centre—Lanigan, gains the Rural Municipalities of Eye Hill, Grass Lake, Tramping Lake, Reford, Rosemount, Heart's Hill, Progress, Mariposa, Grandview, Antelope Park, Prairiedale, Oakdale, Winslow and all enclosed towns and villages in those RMs from Battlefords—Lloydminster, and gain the Rural Municipalities of Biggar, Perdue, Mountain View, Marriott, Harris, Montrose, Pleasant Valley, St. Andrews, Milden and Fertile Valley, including all enclosed towns and villages from Carlton Trail—Eagle Creek.

Geography
The district is in the southwestern corner of the Province of Saskatchewan.

History
The electoral district was created in 1996 from Kindersley—Lloydminster, Moose Jaw—Lake Centre and Swift Current—Maple Creek—Assiniboia ridings.

This riding lost territory to Carlton Trail—Eagle Creek and gained territory from Battlefords—Lloydminster and Palliser during the 2012 electoral redistribution.

Members of Parliament
This riding has elected the following members of the House of Commons:

title: Cypress Hills—Grasslands


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Warrington Borough Council

Warrington Borough Council is the local authority of Warrington, Cheshire, England. It is a unitary authority, having the powers of a non-metropolitan county and district council combined. It provides a full range of local government services including Council Tax billing, libraries, social services, processing planning applications, waste collection and disposal, and it is a local education authority.

History
The town of Warrington was made a municipal borough in 1847, governed by a body formally called the "mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the borough of Warrington", generally known as the corporation, town council or borough council. This first incarnation of the borough council replaced an earlier body of improvement commissioners which had governed the town since 1813. From its creation in 1847 the borough straddled Lancashire and Cheshire, with the county boundary being the River Mersey; the town centre and most of the built-up area was on the north bank of the river in Lancashire, but the borough also included the built-up parts of Latchford on the south bank of the river in Cheshire.

In 1889 boroughs which straddled county boundaries were placed entirely in the county which had the majority of the population, and so the part of the borough south of the Mersey was transferred from Cheshire to Lancashire. The borough boundaries were subsequently enlarged on several occasions, notably in 1890, 1933 and 1954.

In 1900 Warrington was made a county borough, making it independent from Lancashire County Council, whilst remaining part of Lancashire for ceremonial purposes.

The borough was substantially enlarged in 1974, taking in a number of surrounding parishes from both Lancashire and Cheshire, including Lymm, which had been a separate urban district. The enlarged borough was transferred from Lancashire to Cheshire and was redesignated as a non-metropolitan district, with Cheshire County Council providing county-level services. The borough regained control of county-level functions 24 years later in 1998 when it was made a unitary authority. It remains part of Cheshire for ceremonial purposes.

Governance
As a unitary authority, Warrington Borough Council has the functions of a county council and district council combined. In its capacity as a district council it is a billing authority collecting Council Tax and business rates, it processes local planning applications, it is responsible for housing, waste collection and environmental health. In its capacity as a county council it is a local education authority, responsible for social services, libraries and waste disposal. Parts of the borough are also covered by civil parishes, which form a second tier of local government for their areas.

Political control
The council has been under Labour majority control since 2011.

Political control of the council since the 1974 reforms has been as follows:

Non-metropolitan district

Unitary authority

Leadership
The role of Mayor of Warrington is largely ceremonial. Political leadership is instead provided by the leader of the council. The leaders since 1985 have been:

The Mayors since 1998 have been:

The Mayor's role is to perform civic duties across the Borough, such as attending large events in different communities and taking the lead on certain recognised days, such as Remembrance Sunday. The Mayor has no power over policies, as that is the job of the Leader. The Mayor also chairs Full Council meetings. Though elected as a Councillor representing a particular Party, the Mayor remains impartial when chairing but also has a vote of their own (often voting with their Party line).

Composition
Following the 2024 election, the composition of the council was:

The next elections are due in May 2028.

Elections
Since the last boundary changes in 2016 the council has comprised 58 councillors representing 22 wards, with each ward electing two or three councillors. Elections are held every four years.

Premises
The council generally meets at Warrington Town Hall on Sankey Street. The building was originally built in 1750 as a large house, and was formerly called Bank Hall. It was bought by the borough council in 1870 and converted into a town hall, with its grounds becoming a public park.

The council's main offices are at 1 Time Square which was completed in 2020, replacing earlier offices at New Town House on Scotland Road which have since been demolished.

Investments
Elected members have approved a number of significant commercial investments by the local authority. In September 2016, Warrington Borough Council became one of the first local councils in the UK to buy clean-tech bonds in Swindon Solar Park through its owner, specialist investment management firm Rockfire Capital.

In September 2019, the council acquired a 50% shareholding in Clydebank-based energy retailer Together Energy for £18m. In September 2020, Bristol Energy's brand and residential accounts – 155,000 meter points – were sold by Bristol City Council to Together Energy for £14 million. In August 2021, Warrington Council's total financial exposure to Together Energy was reported to be £41.2m. In October 2021, Ofgem issued a provisional order to several suppliers, including Together Energy, who had not made Renewables Obligation payments; Together Energy's obligation was over £12m. Following sharp increases in wholesale gas and electricity prices which began in autumn 2021, Together Energy Retail Ltd announced on 18 January 2022 that it was ceasing to trade.

Other loans and investments include almost £30 million paid in stages between 2017 and 2019 for a 33% stake in Redwood Bank, a "challenger bank" which has a Warrington office. In 2021 a £202m loan facility, secured against commercial property, was provided to Matt Moulding, founder of Cheshire-based e-commerce business The Hut Group.

In September 2021, the council confirmed that its borrowing had reached £1.7 billion, but that the current value of its investment assets were £2.173 billion.

In May 2024, just after the local election, it was announced by the Government that they had commissioned a "Best Value" inspection into the council's finances. In June 2024 Moody's Ratings withdrew its credit rating from the council after it failed to provide accounts signed-off by an auditor.

title: Warrington Borough Council


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Hydrogenolysis

Hydrogenolysis is a chemical reaction whereby a carbon–carbon or carbon–heteroatom single bond is cleaved or undergoes lysis (breakdown) by hydrogen. The heteroatom may vary, but it usually is oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. A related reaction is hydrogenation, where hydrogen is added to the molecule, without cleaving bonds. Usually hydrogenolysis is conducted catalytically using hydrogen gas.

History
The term "hydrogenolysis" was coined by Carleton Ellis in reference to hydrogenolysis of carbon–carbon bonds. Earlier, Paul Sabatier had already observed the hydrogenolysis of benzyl alcohol to toluene, and as early as 1906, Padoa and Ponti had observed the hydrogenolysis of furfuryl alcohol. Homer Burton Adkins and Ralph Connor were the first to call the carbon–oxygen bond cleavage "hydrogenolysis".

In the petrochemical industry
In petroleum refineries, catalytic hydrogenolysis of feedstocks is conducted on a large scale to remove sulfur from feedstocks, releasing gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The hydrogen sulfide is subsequently recovered in an amine treater and finally converted to elemental sulfur in a Claus process unit. In those industries, desulfurization process units are often referred to as hydrodesulfurizers (HDS) or hydrotreaters (HDT). Catalysts are based on molybdenum sulfide containing smaller amounts of cobalt or nickel. Hydrogenolysis is accompanied by hydrogenation.

Another hydrogenolysis reaction of commercial importance is the hydrogenolysis of esters into alcohols by catalysts such as copper chromite.

The hydrodeoxygenation reaction used in the Neste Renewable Diesel process, the vegetable oil refining process of largest production capacity, is a hydrogenolysis of triglycerides into alkanes.

In the laboratory
In the laboratory, hydrogenolysis is used in organic synthesis. Debenzylation is most common and involves the cleavage of benzyl ethers:

 * R-OCH2C6H5 + H2 -> R-OH + CH3C6H5

Thioketals undergo hydrogenolysis using Raney nickel in the Mozingo reduction.

Laboratory hydrogenolysis is operationally similar to hydrogenation, and may be accomplished at atmospheric pressure by stirring the reaction mixture under a slight positive pressure of hydrogen gas, having flushed the apparatus with more of this gas. The hydrogen may be provided by attaching a balloon to a needle, filling it from a bottle, and inserting the needle into the reaction flask via a rubber septum. At high pressure, a hydrogenation autoclave (i.e., a Buchi or Parr hydrogenator) or similar piece of equipment is required.

title: Hydrogenolysis


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Fugitive Slave Act of 1793

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 was an Act of the United States Congress to give effect to the Fugitive Slave Clause of the U.S. Constitution (Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3), which was later superseded by the Thirteenth Amendment, and to also give effect to the Extradition Clause (Article 4, Section 2, Clause 2). The Constitution's Fugitive Slave Clause guaranteed a right for a slaveholder to recover an escaped slave. The subsequent Act, "An Act respecting fugitives from justice, and persons escaping from the service of their masters", created the legal mechanism by which that could be accomplished.

Passage and later amendment
The Act was passed by the House of Representatives on February 4, 1793, by a vote of 48–7, with 14 abstaining. The "Annals of Congress" state that the law was approved on February 12, 1793.

The Act was written amidst a controversy about a free black man named John Davis who was kidnapped from Pennsylvania and brought to Virginia. However, the Act failed to resolve that controversy; the kidnappers from Virginia were never extradited to Pennsylvania, and John Davis remained a slave.

The Act was later strengthened at the insistence of the slave states of the American South by the Compromise of 1850, which required state governments and the residents of free states to enforce the capture and return of fugitive slaves. The enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 outraged Northern public opinion.

Excerpts
"SEC. 3. And be it also enacted, That when a person held to labor in any of the United States, or in either of the Territories on the Northwest or South of the river Ohio, under the laws thereof, shall escape into any other part of the said States or Territory, the person to whom such labor or service may be due, his agent or attorney, is hereby empowered to seize or arrest such fugitive from labor, and to take him or her before any Judge of the Circuit or District Courts of the United States, residing or being within the State, or before any magistrate of a county, city, or town corporate, wherein such seizure or arrest shall be made, and upon proof to the satisfaction of such Judge or magistrate, either by oral testimony or affidavit taken before and certified by a magistrate of any such State or Territory, that the person so seized or arrested, doth, under the laws of the State or Territory from which he or she fled, owe service or labor to the person claiming him or her, it shall be the duty of such Judge or magistrate to give a certificate thereof to such claimant, his agent, or attorney, which shall be sufficient warrant for removing the said fugitive from labor to the State or Territory from which he or she fled.

SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That any person who shall knowingly and willingly obstruct or hinder such claimant, his agent, or attorney, in so seizing or arresting such fugitive from labor, or shall rescue such fugitive from such claimant, his agent or attorney, when so arrested pursuant to the authority herein given and declared; or shall harbor or conceal such person after notice that he or she was a fugitive from labor, as aforesaid, shall, for either of the said offences, forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars. Which penalty may be recovered by and for the benefit of such claimant, by action of debt, in any Court proper to try the same, saving moreover to the person claiming such labor or service his right of action for or on account of the said injuries, or either of them."

The full text of the Act is available from the Library of Congress (and online) in the Annals of Congress of the 2nd Congress, 2nd Session, during which the proceedings and debates took place from November 5, 1792, to March 2, 1793. The specific Act and the Congressional vote is on pages 1414–1415.

Effects
This law put fugitive slaves at risk for recapture the rest of their lives, but some slave-owners did not think that it was strong enough. It also classified children born to fugitive slave mothers as slaves and the property of their mother's master for the rest of their lives.

Ona Maria Judge, sometimes referred to by the diminutive 'Oney' by her owners, was one of Martha Washington's slaves and chambermaids. She served the Washingtons in Virginia and at the President's House in Philadelphia when George Washington was President (the city was the temporary capital from 1790 to 1800). She escaped on May 21, 1796. Washington made two attempts to seize her shortly afterwards, even enlisting the help of the Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott Jr. in a letter written on September 1, 1796. Later, his nephew visited her and asked for her to return. Neither attempt was successful. Washington acted discreetly to avoid controversy in Philadelphia, which had a strong Quaker abolitionist community.

Having settled in New Hampshire, married and had a child, Oney Judge was interviewed by Rev. Benjamin Chase in the 1840s. He published the account in a "letter to the editor" in the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator on January 1, 1847. He described how under the law, she and her child were still at risk for being seized as a fugitive slave at any time, even 50 years after her escape, if Martha Washington's descendants decided to make a legal claim. Legally, they had inherited the pair as part of their mother's estate:

"This woman is yet a slave. If Washington could have got her and her child, they were constitutionally his; and if Mrs. Washington's heirs were now to claim her, and take her before Judge Woodbury, and prove their title, he would be bound, upon his oath, to deliver her up to them."

Many northern states enacted legislation to protect free black Americans (who could otherwise be abducted, brought before court without the ability to produce a defense, and then lawfully enslaved) as well as runaway slaves. Those laws came to be known as personal liberty laws and required slave owners and fugitive hunters to produce evidence that their captures were truly fugitive slaves, "just as southern states demanded the right to retrieve runaway slaves, northern states demanded the right to protect their free black residents from being kidnapped and sold into servitude in the south" (Finkelman 399).

One controversy was the case of Prigg v. Pennsylvania. Edward Prigg, a citizen of Maryland, was indicted by a Pennsylvania court for attempting to kidnap a black woman in York County to return her to Maryland as a fugitive slave. He was tried and convicted by a local court in Pennsylvania, but the case was eventually appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States. Prigg had originally shown his legal warrant to the Pennsylvania court, but it had been unlawfully ignored, which demonstrated that the Fugitive Slave Act really depended on state judges, not federal law.

The slave-catching industry expanded as a result of the law, with men who were effectively bounty hunters capturing and returning many slaves to their owners.

In addition, the high demand for slaves in the Deep South and hunt for fugitives caused free blacks to be at risk of being kidnapped and sold into slavery, even if they had their "free" papers. There were numerous instances of people who were legally free and had never been slaves being captured and brought south to be sold into slavery. The historian Carol Wilson documented 300 such cases in Freedom at Risk (1994) and estimated there were likely thousands of others. A prominent example of this was Solomon Northup, born free around 1808 to Mintus Northup and his wife in Essex County, New York state. (In his memoir, Solomon did not name his mother but described her as of mixed race and a quadroon.) In 1841, Northup was tricked into going to Washington, DC, where slavery was legal. He was drugged, kidnapped, and sold into slavery, and he was held as a slave in Louisiana for 12 years. One of the very few to regain freedom under such circumstances, he later sued the slave traders involved in Washington, DC. Its law prohibited Northup from testifying against the white men because he was black and so he lost the case. The New York Times published an article on the trial on January 20, 1853. Northup published his memoir, Twelve Years a Slave (1853), a slave narrative of plantation life on the Red River in Louisiana, and a description of Washington, D.C.'s slave trade. The memoir was adapted as a feature film by British director Steve McQueen in 2013, winning three Academy Awards, including Best Picture. The critics praised the screenplay and the performances, but there were conflicting views about the historical accuracy of the events, both in the film and in the book.

title: Fugitive Slave Act of 1793


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All Hallows-by-the-Tower

All Hallows-by-the-Tower, at one time dedicated jointly to All Hallows (All Saints) and the Virgin Mary and sometimes known as All Hallows Barking, is an ancient Anglican church on Byward Street in the City of London, England, overlooking the Tower of London.

According to the church website and other sources it is "the oldest church in the City of London" and was founded in AD 675, although recent research has questioned these claims. The church survived the Great Fire of London in 1666, but was badly damaged during the Blitz in World War II. Following extensive reconstruction, it was rededicated in 1957. From 1922 until 1962 the vicar was Tubby Clayton, and the church is still the guild church of Toc H, the international Christian organisation that he founded.

History
The origin and early history of All Hallows-by-the-Tower church are obscure. At the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539 the church belonged to Barking Abbey, a wealthy Benedictine nunnery in Barking, Essex, originally established in the 7th century. The association with Barking was a long one, and All Hallows church was already known as "Berkyncherche" in the 12th century. According to Domesday Book in 1086, Barking Abbey possessed "28 houses and half a church" in London: although the church is not named, it is usually identified with All Hallows.

The original Anglo-Saxon abbey of Barking was founded by Earconwald or Erkenwald, along with Chertsey Abbey, before he became Bishop of London in 675, and it has been claimed that the land on which All Hallows stands was granted to the abbey, under Abbess Æthelburh (Ethelburga), Erkenwald's sister, at that time. A charter dated to 687, listing properties belonging to Barking Abbey, includes two pieces of land in or near London. One of these was simply described as "iuxta Lundoniam", near/next to London, the other as "supra vicum Lundoniae", that is, in "Lundenwic", the Anglo-Saxon town that had grown up in the area of the Strand, a mile to the west of the old Roman city of Londinium; neither of these, though, accurately describes the location of All Hallows church, inside the wall of the Roman city on the eastern side.

In 1940, during World War II, the clearance after destruction caused by bombing revealed an archway built of reused Roman tiles and stonework, set in a surviving wall of the medieval church. The reuse of Roman building materials, and comparison with arches in the early Anglo-Saxon church at Brixworth, Northamptonshire, suggested that the All Hallows arch was very early in date, and that an original church could have been built as early as the 7th century. This seemed to confirm the belief that the church had been founded as a daughter church of Barking Abbey at about the same time as the abbey itself was established, although it is doubtful that the first construction on the site would have been in stone. It is more likely that the stone church, of which the arch is a remnant, superseded an earlier wooden building. Recent research, and archaeological evidence that Roman tiles and stone were being used in the construction of other London churches as late as the 11th century, suggest that the arch could have been constructed at any time between the 7th century and the arrival of the Normans. Fragments of three 11th-century stone crosses also found during archeological work in the 1930s and clearance works after the bombing, now displayed in the crypt, also date from this first church.

The church was expanded and rebuilt several times between the 11th and 15th centuries, with various elements of the Norman, 13th-century and 15th-century constructions still visible today. Its proximity to the Tower of London meant that it acquired royal connections, with Edward IV making one of its chapels a royal chantry and the beheaded victims of Tower executions being sent for temporary burial at All Hallows, Sir Thomas More being one of the most eminent of these.

The church was badly damaged by an explosion in 1650 caused when some barrels of gunpowder being stored in a warehouse adjacent to the church exploded; its west tower and some 50 nearby houses were destroyed, and there were many fatalities. The tower was rebuilt in 1658. It only narrowly survived the Great Fire of London in 1666 and owes its survival to Admiral William Penn, father of William Penn of Pennsylvania fame, who had his men from a nearby naval yard blow up the surrounding buildings to create firebreaks. During the Great Fire, Samuel Pepys climbed the church's tower to watch the progress of the blaze and what he described as "the saddest sight of desolation".

Restored once more in the late 19th century, All Hallows was gutted by German bombers during the Blitz in World War II and required extensive reconstruction, and was rededicated in 1957. The church now included carving by the Tasmanian born wood carver Ellen Nora Payne.

Many portions of the old church survived the War and have been sympathetically restored. Its outer walls are 15th-century, with the Anglo-Saxon arch doorway surviving from the original church. Many brasses remain in the interior. (The brass rubbing centre which used to be located at All Hallows is now closed). Three outstanding wooden statues of saints dating from the 15th and 16th centuries can also be found in the church, as too an exquisite Baptismal font cover which was carved in 1682 by Grinling Gibbons for £12, and which is regarded as one of the finest pieces of carving in London. The main-altar's reredos mural is a post-war work by Brian Thomas.

In 1999 the AOC Archaeology Group excavated the cemetery and made many significant discoveries.

The church has a museum in its crypt, containing portions of a Roman pavement which together with many artefacts was discovered many feet below the church in 1926/27. The exhibits focus on the history of the church and the City of London, and include Anglo-Saxon and religious artefacts as well as the 17th-century church plate. Also on display are the church's registers dating back to the 16th century, and notable entries include the baptism of William Penn, the marriage of John Quincy Adams, and the burial of Archbishop William Laud. Laud remained buried in a vault in the chapel for over 20 years; his body was moved during the Restoration to St John's College, Oxford. The crypt also houses the church's chapels dedicated to St Francis (14th century) and St Clare (early 17th century) as well as the columbarium, created in 1933.

The altar in the crypt is of plain stone from the castle of Richard I at Athlit in The Holy Land.

All Hallows-by-the-Tower has been the guild church of Toc H since 1922. The church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950.

The church also has a chime which was brought back to working order in the 1970s by Philip Blewett, then a priest at the church, and Desmond Buckley over many weekends.

The Knollys Rose Ceremony, held annually in June, starts at the church and processes to the Mansion House, where a single rose is presented to the Lord Mayor as a 'quit rent'. The parish's annual beating the bounds ceremony also includes a boat trip to the middle of the Thames to 'beat' the water that forms the southern boundary.

Notable people associated with the church

 * John Quincy Adams, sixth president of the United States: (married to Louisa Catherine Johnson in 1797)
 * Lancelot Andrewes: baptised 1555
 * Philip Clayton, also known as 'Tubby', former vicar and founder of Toc H
 * Cecil Jackson-Cole, founder of Help the Aged, Action Aid, co-founder of Oxfam and supporter of Toc H
 * John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, beheaded at the Tower 22 June 1535: (buried)
 * Judge Jeffreys, notorious "hanging judge": (married 1667)
 * William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury: beheaded at the Tower, (buried 1645)
 * Thomas More, beheaded at the Tower for refusing to sign Henry VIII's Act of Supremacy: (buried 1535)
 * William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania: (baptised 1644)
 * Albert Schweitzer, made organ recordings at All Hallows
 * Cecil Thomas, a sculptor who provided several funerary figures between the Wars

Vicars

 * 1269 John de S Magnus
 * 1292 William de Gattewicke
 * 1312 Gilbert de Wygeton
 * 1317 Walter Grapynell
 * 1333 Maurice de Jenninge
 * 1351 John Foucher
 * 1352 Nicholas Janing
 * 1365 Thomas de Broke
 * 1376 Thomas de Dalby
 * 1379 Laurence de Kagrer
 * 1387 William Colles
 * 1387 Robert Caton
 * 1390 Nicholas Bremesgrove
 * 1419 John Harlyston
 * —— John Clerke
 * 1427 William Northwold
 * 1431 John Iford
 * 1434 Thomas Virley
 * 1454 John Machen
 * 1454 John Wyne
 * —— John Walker
 * 1468 Thomas Laas
 * 1475 Robert Segrym
 * 1478 Richard Baldry
 * 1483 William Talbot
 * 1492 Edmund Chaderton
 * 1493 Rad Derlove
 * 1504 William Gedding
 * 1512 William Pattenson
 * 1525 Robert Carter
 * 1530 John Naylor
 * 1542 William Dawes
 * 1565 Richard Tyrwhit
 * 1585 Richard Wood
 * 1591 Thomas Ravis
 * 1598 Robert Tyghe
 * 1616 Edward Abbott
 * 1635 Edward Layfield (deprived)
 * 1643 Thomas Clendon
 * 1662 Edward Layfield (restored)
 * 1680 George Hickes
 * 1686 John Gascarth
 * 1733 William Geekie
 * 1767 George Stinton
 * 1783 Samuel Johnes Knight
 * 1852 John Thomas
 * 1884 Arthur James Mason
 * 1895 Arthur W. Robinson
 * 1917 Charles Lambert
 * 1922 Philip (Tubby) Clayton
 * 1963 Colin Cuttell
 * 1977 Peter Delaney
 * 2005 Bertrand Olivier
 * 2018 Katherine Hedderly

Organ
The earliest records of an organ in All Hallows is one by Anthony Duddyngton dating from 1521. This was presumably lost during the English Civil War.

An organ was installed in 1675 by Thomas and Renatus Harris. In 1720 a new case was built by Gerard Smith. The organ was restored and improved by George Pike England in 1813, Bunting in 1872 and 1878, and Gray and Davison in 1902. There was further work by Harrison and Harrison in 1909 and 1928. After destruction in 1940, a new organ by Harrison and Harrison was installed in 1957.

Organists

 * Albertus Bryne II (or Bryan) 1675–1713
 * Charles Young 1713–1758
 * Charles John Frederick Lampe 1758–1767
 * Samuel Bowyer 1767–1770
 * Charles Knyvett and William Smethergell 1770–1783
 * William Smethergell 1783–1823
 * Mary Morrice 1823–1840
 * Lisetta Rist 1840–1880
 * Arthur Poyser
 * Gordon Phillips 1956–1991
 * Jonathan Melling

title: All Hallows-by-the-Tower


text:
Omega (Doctor Who)

Omega is a fictional character created by Bob Baker and Dave Martin for the British science fiction television series, Doctor Who. In the context of the series, Omega is known as one of the founders of the Time Lords of the planet Gallifrey, and is a revered figure in Time Lord history together with the equally legendary Rassilon; the Third Doctor refers to him as the Time Lords' "greatest hero". Omega first appeared in the 10th anniversary story, The Three Doctors.

The character was portrayed in The Three Doctors by Stephen Thorne and in Arc of Infinity by both Ian Collier and Fifth Doctor actor Peter Davison.

Character history
Omega was a stellar engineer and a member of the High Council on Gallifrey who developed the Hand of Omega, a remote stellar manipulator which could be used to control the reactions within a star. Using the Hand, Omega performed adjustments on a star near Gallifrey's in an attempt to provide a power source for the time travel experiments he conducted with Rassilon. However, Omega was thought to have been killed in the resulting supernova, which then collapsed into a black hole.

Rassilon subsequently captured the nucleus of the black hole and used its power to perfect time travel technology. Rassilon then took control of Gallifrey as Lord President. The nucleus eventually became known as the Eye of Harmony, and Omega's name passed into heroic legend.

Millennia later, during the events of the Doctor Who serial The Three Doctors, it was revealed that Omega had not died, but had rather been sent through the event horizon into an antimatter universe and had been trapped there since then; although he was able to shape that universe according to his will, it meant that he could not leave that universe. His exile and solitude turned him quite insane, and he sought revenge on the Time Lords for "abandoning" him. Despite the Third Doctor's assurances that he was revered among the Time Lords and still remembered fondly, Omega still sought retribution. He made two attempts in the television series to re-enter the positive matter universe: in The Three Doctors where he attempted to force the Doctor to take his place in the antimatter universe so that he could depart it, and in the serial Arc of Infinity where he attempted to create a new body for himself using the Doctor's biological data. Both attempts were thwarted by the Doctor, with his universe being destroyed in The Three Doctors when he was tricked into touching the Second Doctor's recorder—which had remained matter when the others were converted into antimatter—and his new body was seemingly destroyed in Arc of Infinity before it could convert back to antimatter and destroy Earth.

Other appearances
Omega appears as a nemesis to the Sixth Doctor in the 1986 book Search for the Doctor (written by his co-creator Dave Martin), which was part of the Make your own adventure with Doctor Who book series (Find Your Fate in the United States). In this book, the reader must make the right choices in order to rescue the Sixth Doctor from Omega. Dave Martin's 1982 juvenile novel K9 and the Time Trap featured a character called Omegon, whose back story and role in Time Lord history is very similar to that of Omega and who also claims to have previously met the Doctor.

In the New Adventures tie-in Doctor Who novels published in the 1990s, the partnership of Rassilon and Omega in Time Lord history is rounded off by the shadowy figure of the Other, in accordance with the storyline set up in the final years of the TV series by Andrew Cartmel. Some accounts suggest that Rassilon misled Omega into believing that he would survive the stellar experiment. The Doctor Who Monthly comic strip Star Death by Alan Moore (DWM #47) attributed the supernova to an attack by the Order of the Black Sun, an enemy of the Time Lords from 30,000 years in their future, the first strike (from the Time Lords' point of view) of a time war. The same story also identified the star as Qqaba.

Omega also appears in the 1998 BBC Books Doctor Who novel The Infinity Doctors by Lance Parkin (which also mentioned Qqaba), although as it is never quite specified if the novel takes place in the actual Doctor Who universe or an alternate reality, whether this was the "real" Omega or an alternative version is unclear. The novel reprises various events from both television appearances, although it creates an original story from them. In this story Omega exists behind a locked door inside the light-year-long space station, the Needle, which sticks out of a black hole at the end of the universe. The Needle was formed from the remains of a TARDIS originally owned by the Time Lord Savar, who had been trying to rescue Omega from the anti-matter universe. However, once Savar arrived, Omega offered him his heart's desire. Savar panicked and tried to leave, but his TARDIS could not escape. Savar abandoned it in an escape unit. From the Needle, Omega learns how to create and control "the effect", a space-time anomaly that allows him to rewrite history. The novel also established the existence of Omega's wife, who after his accident became the Doctor's wife and the mother of his thirteen children. After she was shot in the matter universe (in Parkin's Virgin Missing Adventures novel Cold Fusion), Omega rescued her and brought her to his universe.

The 2003 audio play Omega featured Omega as a central character and revealed that Omega's real name was Peylix, Omega being the grade he received at the Time Lord Academy for writing a theory about time in his exam paper that his examiner disagreed with—the lowest possible grade—which stuck to him as a cruel nickname. This story also gives one of many accounts of Omega's entrapment in the antimatter universe; he uses the amputated hand of Vandekirian, a colleague opposed to Omega's plans as the system he is targeting for destruction contains sentient life, to launch his stellar manipulator. The result is an impurity in the fusion reactor which causes Omega's ship to explode, consigning him to his anti-matter prison. However, in addition to issues concerning the canonicity of the spin-off media and the fact that in most media, Time Lord society was founded after the supposed death of Omega, the story is largely told from the point of view of an insane Omega with confused memories. This makes the accuracy of this information uncertain.

In Chris Roberson's short story "Annus Mirabilis" from the second volume of Tales of the Shadowmen in 2005, it is strongly indicated that the French science fiction character Doctor Omega is the First Doctor, with him assuming the name Omega as a reference to Omega the Time Lord.

In the 50th Anniversary Special, the location of "The Moment", a powerful weapon, is stored on Gallifrey in the Omega Arsenal which was created by Omega himself.

In February 2015, Omega returned in audio play Gallifrey: Intervention Earth, played once again by Stephen Thorne. Here, he manipulates the Adherents of Ohm, a cult that worshipped him as a god, into ensuring his return. He possesses one of their members, Taurus, played by Daniel Brocklebank, and returns to Gallifrey. The follow-up release, Enemy Lines, does not feature Omega, but does reveal his return heralded a devastating war, which is erased by these events.

On 24 October 2015, Bob Baker and Paul Tams announced the film K9: TimeQuake; this was planned for release in cinemas in 2017 to feature K-9 facing off against Omega in deep space. However, as of 2020 this movie remains in development.

In 2021 the limited series comic book Omega debuted, which depicted the character in a story that acts as a prequel to The Three Doctors and Underworld, two of the Doctor Who serials written by Bob Baker and Dave Martin.

List of television appearances

 * "The Three Doctors" (1972–73)
 * "Arc of Infinity" (1983)

title: Omega (Doctor Who)


text:
Talk:Web of trust

Privacy Issues?
Are there any privacy issues when publishing a public key with several signatures on a key server? Without knowing much about it I would guess that anybody could find out with whom this person have contact by downloading her key and checking the signatures. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.190.200.171 (talk) 17:27, 15 January 2009 (UTC)
 * From this page:
 * "If you sign the public key of XY, this means: I confirm, that the key I signed realy belongs to person XY..
 * Such a signature does not state anything about the integrity of a person or your personal relationship to that person."
 * Though, I would assume, people would be more likely to sign the keys of people they know in person rather than strangers'. I'm guessing key signing parties help prevent this, by spreading the web of trust to as many strangers as possible, hiding which people are your personal friends among them. Is there any expert here who can confirm this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.216.131.26 (talk) 23:55, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

reason for contrasting discussion
The discussion in this article on non Web of Trust schemes is included to contrast with Web of Trust. Many readers will not see, merely from an account of one, its vices/virtues with respect to the other. In this sense it is neither extraneous nor off-topic for this article. ww 18:01, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

 * It is certainly valuable info. I forsee a time in which it is augmented and put in an article of its own, and this article can focus on the comparisons rather than the meat. Thanks for your other edits.  NealMcB 21:05, 2004 May 8 (UTC)
 * You're welcome. There are several other articles on PKI, X.509, certificates, and such. This being the only one on Web of Trust, the reasons for preferring it (being in contrast to the main alternative) needed to be made evident to the reader. Whether one agrees with them (or should or shouldn't) or not. ww 15:05, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

'collapse of comm PKIs' phrase
Many commercial PKIs are no longer functional as the companies which controlled them have collapsed

I don't think of a PKI as being a distinct thing formed by each root cert, but as a broader thing based on a particular technology and set of interlocking certs, servers, etc. And the heirarchies are unfortuately still functional in the sense that people trust the certs in them - that is the danger. NealMcB 21:05, 2004 May 8 (UTC)
 * Nealmcb, This was mine. I was attempting to convey in a word (and seem to have failed to do so) that the reason for said (now failed) PKIs to exist -- providing trust for users in the validity of public keys in certificates for which they vouch -- has become non functional. The sense in which you took it wasn't intended. Can you suggest an alternative wording which doesn't miscarry but achieves the intent? ww 15:05, 10 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I knew that was what you meant, but I think the other point is more important, and this consequence is obvious once the other is pointed out. NealMcB 20:53, 2004 May 10 (UTC)
 * Neal, I have looked at your rev and don't think Our Reader (the not so crypto guy) will see it as obvious as you suggest. I've added some explicit phrasing. See what you think. ww 16:23, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for pluggin' away. Some improvement, but also some regression, I think.  In particular, calling a rooted hierarchy of certs a "PKI" goes against all the usage I see, since the infrastructure includes so many other things.
 * Neal, What we do with a cert is our choice, but the PKI exists to attest to the binding (and fix various goofs, as in a CRL) so that what we do can have some credibility to various observers including ourselves. All else is 'syntactic sugar', sort of. At least in conceptual terms. Surely, there's much else, but is it needed here? Can't see how to be correct without also being a red herring in some sense. At least an 'unnecessary' detour, by some definition of necessary. Ideas? ww 14:40, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I also think we need to avoid suggesting that a pgp cert binds a key to a user. It just binds a key to a description of the key,  usually an email addr, or many of them.  They may indicate different roles of one user, or many users may hold shared responsibility for a key (e.g. via secret sharing), etc.  Ellison's SPKI literature elaborates on this notion, which affects X.509 even worse.  I'll try to add some more comments when I get a chance.  NealMcB 18:26, 2004 May 11 (UTC)
 * Neal, I was trying so hard to avoid getting into what a 'user' was. Sigh... You are clearly correct that the binding is not to an entity (person, virtual person, dog, goldfish, ...) but to a description of some such. But if we fall into this, many will be the troubles we'll be heir to. On the one hand brevity and lucidity (if fog and some inaccuracy), on the other precision and prolix obscurity. You takes your choice of poisons. Perhaps a reference to an article discussing the meaning of identity in electronic terms (including cert binding and attestations thereto)? Your turn to gyre and gimble in the wabe of the briar patch. (yonder be Harris and Dodgson, spinning). ww 14:40, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

'PGP WofT chugs on' phrase
The PGP web of trust, in contrast, has continued regardless

Having modified the antecedent as noted above, I took this out. Also because certainly many PGP keys are also no longer well managed and at risk. But we could say lots about the robustness benefits of a multiply-connected PKI vs a single heirarchy. NealMcB 21:05, 2004 May 8 (UTC)
 * N, The intent was to note that (whether or not you like it) PGP's WofT, warts and all, was unaffected by the commercial upheaval. Still a point worth making for the reader, I think. ww 15:05, 10 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I love the PGP WoT. But it is also used by commercial entities some of which have surely gone out of business or stopped maintaining their certs.  That's why I think a discussion of architectural issues is the way to go. NealMcB 20:53, 2004 May 10 (UTC)
 * Neal, Well.... I'm not sure I love it, I just think it doesn't centralize something that's not best done centrally. If you don't know how to design a system/scheme/protocol that's bullet proof, let folks do it themselves. If they then shoot themselves in the foot, it's sad, but the best available. But anyway, the point that the WofT has continued despite the burst bubble is, I think still worth making. That many PGP keys (including one of Schneier's -- see Practical Crypto) are no longer valid is not really apposite here, I think. True though, and probably should be pointed out. I've made a change which tries to do so. Comment? ww 16:23, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

Major real-world application
Debian! All Debian packages are signed - if you check the keyanalyze results, many of the top 50 are Debian maintainers - including our very own Sam Hocevar! So, it does have it's applications. Alphax τεχ 11:17, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

User:JzG
User:JzG is acting belligerently, but I want to air out his concerns for all to review. Essentially, Jason Harris' site is down often, sometimes for months at a time, so I have done the proper thing and removed the link. JzG says that the removal of this broken link constitutes original research, and promptly reverted my change. This is in spite of the fact that no original research was added to the article, only a broken link was removed. Further, it is absurd to use WP:OR as an excuse to revert the removal of any material. By that logic, I could add obscenities to the article and revert their removal under WP:OR, which is an absurd outcome. Any thoughts? --Namescases (talk) 23:00, 2 January 2008 (UTC)
 * This is the edit I reverted (my sole edit to this article, hardly qualifies as "acting belligerently" I'd say): . I have no problem with removing the link, but a little homily on how there used to be this really great site is simply inappropriate. Guy (Help!) 17:58, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

How does this apply to an Internet Browser Add-on?
It seems this phrase "web of trust" applies in some way to internet browser add-ons, which is how I came here. I assume the browser add-on allows a group of people to trust a web-site (or not). Nor sure. Someone on a Tech Forum said that having a "Web of Trust" add-on to your browser allows you to know whether or not an unknown web-site is dangerous or not. It would be useful if this article included some explanation of this. I'm still not sure what it is exactly, or how the encryption "web of trust" relates to the browser.

99.137.251.249 (talk) 02:50, 10 December 2010 (UTC)Jimmy Rapid

Intelligence not allowed
The article states that "Intelligence is normally neither required nor allowed" in a CA-based PKI. Obviously one can choose which CAs to trust: for example, don't trust a Chinese CA on sites that serve the U.S. market. --Damian Yerrick (talk | stalk) 21:04, 6 August 2011 (UTC)

PGP acronym not explained anywhere
I feel uncomfortable about heavily using the acronym PGP throughout the article (42 instances in 4 page-lengths); including the introduction (4 instances in 5 text-lines); without stating what it stands for, despite being a rare neologism (238 kilo-hits for "PGP" on books.google.com, cf. 907 Mega-hits for "Wi-Fi"). 139.216.253.90 (talk) 04:29, 23 January 2017 (UTC)
 * The first reference to PGP links to the Pretty Good Privacy article, which unpacks the term comprehensively. Is this sufficient? David McBride (talk) 09:45, 9 February 2017 (UTC)

Clarification and possible contraction in § Mean shortest distance
Drew Streib's analysis states: "It is desirable to have as short as possible an MSD to your key". The graphic seems to contradict this stating: "The more trusted certificate would be B, because it has the highest MSD." Is Streib's phrasing incorrect? Is MSD (Total Trusts/Total Hops) as the graphic states, or the reciprocal, (Total Hops/Total Trusts)?

KeelyHill (talk) 20:50, 8 November 2017 (UTC)

Problems of "Problems" section
There are some issues with this fragment:

"When original author or developer also publishes or shares their updated original public-key (or file-signing pub-key) in their own keyserver under their own domain webserver, inside their own premise: own-home or own-home-office or own-office, and forces HKPS encrypted connection usage for public-key delivery, only then users can get correct and trusted and unmodified key."

I understand what the author is trying to convey (don't trust keyservers) but there are several problems with what was described here:

 * 1) How would the user know about this special custom keyserver? The only place to put "use this keyserver" is on the developer's site, but if that was so the developer could just put "download key $FINGERPRINT" instead and then any keyserver can be used
 * 2) OpenPGP was specifically designed no to rely on CAs, here an implicit trust in CAs is needed for HKPS
 * 3) It's not clear what "own-home" protection would achieve, if the attacker could modify one's infrastructure they could e.g. replace DNS records or edit the "use my own keyserver" page with something entirely different
 * 4) Web Key Directory better suits the "let's use HTTPS for key discovery model" - it's used and enabled by default in GnuPG and doesn't require any special keyserver parameters
 * 5) The only way to get "correct and trusted" key is from the developer himself. I think it would be better if this fragment used rather weaker phrases like "downloading the key using HTTPS and a correct domain name increases the likelihood of obtaining the correct key".

I'm new to Wikipedia so I'd rather avoid direct edits to the article (to avoid decreasing the quality ratio) but I'd be glad to listen to how to approach this matter. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wiktor-kw (talk • contribs) 12:45, 24 October 2018 (UTC)

strong set is not strongly connected
Sorry for the drive-by comment here, just wasn't sure what edit was appropriate. The definition of "strong set" claims that it is strongly connected. (This is indeed what is claimed by the linked citation.) However, if you follow the link to strongly connected, you will see that its definition is not what's meant here.

Strongly connected: Each node is directly connected to every other node. For the web of trust, that would mean that each member of the strong set has signed the key of every single other one of the 55000 members. This is both obviously untrue and contradicted by the following sentences in the section.

Connected is the correct notion here. This means that there is some path between any two members of the strong set, not that they are necessarily directly connected. 205.220.129.226 (talk) 20:27, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Web of trust


text:
Calgary Southwest

Calgary Southwest was a federal electoral district in Alberta, Canada, that was represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1988 to 2015. The district was in the southwest part of the City of Calgary, south of Glenmore Trail and west of the Canadian Pacific Kansas City Railway line.

Former Prime Minister Stephen Harper represented the riding during his leadership.

History
The electoral district was created in 1987 from parts of the Bow River, Calgary West, Calgary East, Calgary South and a small piece of Calgary Centre ridings.

The riding was abolished during the Canadian federal electoral redistribution, 2012, 80% into Calgary Heritage and 20% into Calgary Midnapore.

Members of Parliament
This riding has elected the following members of the House of Commons of Canada:

Members of Parliament
All three of the riding's MPs were prominent: Bobbie Sparrow served in the cabinet led by Kim Campbell, while Preston Manning was the leader of the Reform Party of Canada from 1987 and Leader of the Opposition from 1997 to 2000. Its final MP in the Southwest configuration was Prime Minister Stephen Harper, an economist and a lecturer outside politics. He was elected to Calgary Southwest, shortly after becoming leader of the Canadian Alliance and thus leader of the Opposition, in a 2002 by-election occasioned by Manning's retirement. From 2003, Harper was the leader of the re-formed Conservative Party of Canada, and from 2006, prime minister; he ceased to be both after the 2015 Canadian federal election.

Election results
''Note: Change is compared to redistributed 2000 results. Conservative vote is compared to the combined Alliance and Progressive Conservative vote.''

Note: Alliance vote is compared to the Reform vote in 1997.

title: Calgary Southwest


text:
Servant of the servants of God

"Servant of the servants of God" (servus servorum Dei) is one of the titles of the Pope and is used at the beginning of papal bulls.

History
Pope Gregory I (pope from 590 to 604), the first Pope to use this title extensively to refer to himself, deployed it as a lesson in humility for the archbishop of Constantinople John the Faster (in office 582-595), who had been granted the traditional title "Ecumenical Patriarch" by a Council convened in Constantinople in 587. Gregory reportedly reacted negatively to the Patriarch's title, claiming that "whoever calls himself universal bishop [the imprecise Latin translation of "Ecumenical Patriarch"], or desires this title, is, by his pride, the precursor to the Antichrist."

title: Servant of the servants of God


text:
Talk:Ethanol fuel

By volume or by weight
When discussing the percents mixtures, may I suggest that you editors be more explicit and specify percent by volume or by weight. --JohnHerbster — Preceding unsigned comment added by JohnHerbster (talk • contribs) 17:22, 3 March 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Energy Balance
Dear All,

The energy balance quoted in this article is based on a single source (National Geographic Article) and may not be accurate as there are other sources (USDA and published scientific papers) that give different numbers. I propose to update this, maybe in a week or two, if there are no objections. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.206.125.120 (talk) 17:43, 14 August 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Cellulosic ethanol
The article’s references to cellulosic ethanol frame it as a subject of contemporary research and interest. I find this framing somewhat problematic as the references cited on the subject are from 2009 or earlier. Is it valid to indicate cellulosic ethanol science as the current state of research when references are more than 10 years old?

Hithigon (talk) 00:29, 23 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Good point. Please see the updated section.  Sandcherry (talk) 17:00, 23 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethanol fuel


text:
Talk:Croke Park

Untitled
what does the gaa have do to prevent the goverment using corke park should the goverment use corke park for other sports events? build a new stadium? or should the Gaa preserve the right to refuse the goverment use croke park? unsigned question

 * It's not so straightforward... there are restrictions on how often it can be used, due to the disturbance caused to local residents. unsigned answer

 * The GAA own Croke Park outright (see the History section), so have as much right as any private citizen or group to decide what goes on on their own private property. --Aaron McDaid 19:21, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The history section doesn't mention anything about funding - was it raised entirely by the GAA or was there some government funding? Autarch 14:49, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
 * It entirely private but the government did give the gaa a 30 million grant if that makes sence. Basicly the grant was to the GAA not spefically for the building of cp but it went too the building of cp (Gnevin 15:00, 18 October 2006 (UTC))

Im glad to see that Croke Park are opening its doors to facilitate international rugby and soccer during the Lansdowne Road redevelopement. Hopefully there can be just as great an atmosphere during these games as there is in All Ireland finals.
 * Hopefully there can be just as great an atmosphere during these games as there is in All Ireland finals Thats never going to happen.

Pitch copyvio

 * The "Pitch" section of this article appears to be a verbatum copy of part of this page, which is in breach of the site's copyright terms. I have removed the offending text. Guinness 14:19, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

uefa 5 star ranking
croke park got this a while ago so i think it should be included as it is not in the group of 5 star stadiums

Added to cat (Gnevin 16:33, 11 June 2006 (UTC))

 * what the hell it has now been romoved from the uefa 5 star category Neilchamp
 * Appartently its not a five star stadium and will out proof too say it is . i cant re add (Gnevin 18:15, 19 June 2006 (UTC))

Croker seems to fulfill all the criteria for a UEFA 5 star ranking but maybe the fact that it's not a soccer ground yet, could be the reason it doesn't have an official ranking. Afn 18:08, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

Are you sure that croker has floodlights? I know there's a plan to put them in, but I don't believe they are there yet.. wmcnamara. Sept 10th 2006.

Croke park does NOT have UEFA 5 star rating. Star ratings are only applied by UEFA once a stadium has applied to host a UEFA Cup or Champions League final. Croke park never has. So the fact it may meet the criteria doesnt matter. Willy turner 18:14, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Fixture table
I understand why User:Gnevin removed the table but I think that in context it has some real relevance. He talked about none of the peer stadia having fixture lists. Correct, but none of the peer stadia have allowed foreign sports to be played on their grass for the first time ever and are proposing to revert their temporary rule change that allowed this to happen.

If the GAA revert to their previous attitude, then I think a list of the 6 (or whatever) games that were played there would be appropriate for inclusion. And given that, I think its appropriate to include the list now. So I have reverted the revert. Frelke 20:54, 7 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I still dont see what the point is, yes its worth mentioning that fact that 'foreign game' will be played their but Republic of Ireland national football team doesnt even include it (Gnevin 23:36, 7 November 2006 (UTC))
 * I see it as being about notability. I think it is notable that these were/are/will be the only non-gaelic games (plus the american football) played at Croke Park. But if, for instance, the GAA decided to open up Croke Park to "foreign games" for the foreseeable future. I wouldn't see it as notable anymore. Do you get my drift?Frelke 14:01, 8 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, but it is entirely likely that, once the IRFU and FAI have finished building their brand spanking new stadium that is going to cost them €365 million, they're not likely to want to use Croke Park anymore are they? As for the excuse "the fixtures aren't listed on the IRFU and FAI pages", that's spurious at best. These fixtures, for the time that they last, are historic and a list of them should be maintained. Hammersfan 22/02/07, 09.55 GMT

Capacity
I previously corrected the capacity to 82,300. This is the figure on the official Croke Park website. User Gnevin has since reverted it to 82,500, citing the fact that the wikipedia article says it once had an attendance of 82,500. That is irrelevant. Any stadium capacity figure should be taken where possible from an official club or stadium website Willy turner 18:08, 12 January 2007 (UTC)
 * (Gnevin 18:09, 12 January 2007 (UTC))

It says 82,500 on the very link you give. 87.194.61.149 10:57, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

The article suggests that Croke park is the 5th largest stadium (in terms of capacity) in the EU, listed behind Camp Nou, Wembley, San Siro and Rome's stadio olympico.

However the link for the rome stadium suggests it has a capacity of 82000. This is smaller than Croke Park's stated capacity of 82300/82500. So that makes it the 4th largest surely. Is there some other info about the rome stadium to suggest it has a larger capacity than 82000.--89.100.40.221 10:25, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

Original Construction Cost
If the Irish pound didn't exist between 1826 and 1928. Why is this the currency used to quote the original construction costs? Fasach Nua 19:50, 12 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Good point changing it to what ever it was back then (Gnevin 20:51, 12 January 2007 (UTC))
 * On a basic google search [] it is throwing up £3,500 STG to purchase the ground, which is where I suspect this figure came from! It is obviously not the construction cost, I have blanked this value until the right number can be found Fasach Nua 21:15, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

bloody sunday
Inonsistency with Bloody Sunday (1920) page. That page regards the Auxilary involvement to be a misconception wheras the Croke Park page has the Auxilary as the cause.

To quote:

"The Croke Park Massacre on the afternoon of Bloody Sunday is usually blamed on the Auxiliaries. While the police raiding party was composed in part of Temporary Cadets from Depot Company and commanded by an Auxiliary officer, Major Mills, eyewitness reports make it clear that ordinary police did most of the shooting at Croke Park.[22]"

Inconsistency needs to be addressed.
 * I dont see the problem both articles seem to be consistent with each other (Gnevin 01:22, 5 February 2007 (UTC))

 * How can they be consistent? One is saying the Auxhiliaries were the cause, the other is saying that the Auxhilary involvement is a misconcption. If the Auxhilaries involvement is a misonception, then surely they were not the cause?!

Is anyone going to deal with this contradiction, or are we just going to ignore it indefinitely?

I propose:

''During the Irish War of Independence on November 21, 1920 Croke Park was the scene of a massacre by the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). The Police, supported by British Army Auxillaries (Black & Tans) entered the ground, shooting indiscriminately into the crowd killing or fatally wounding 12 during a Dublin-Tipperary gaelic football match. The dead included 11 spectators and Tipperary's captain, Michael Hogan. Posthumously, the Hogan stand built in 1924 was named in his honour. These shootings, on the day which became known as Bloody Sunday, were a reprisal for the assassination of 14 British Intelligence officers, known as the Cairo Gang, by Michael Collins's 'squad' earlier that day. ''

It's essentially an edit of the existing text, restored to match Bloody Sunday article. I removed 'massacre' as the dictionary definition is "the indiscriminate killing of a large number of human beings", I edited the dead from the shootings to 12 (2 were trampled) and changed the perpatrators to the Royal Irish Constabulary, without the detail of Mills being in command. If someone wants to know that I'm sure they'll check the full article. I think the above is more accurate, anyone disagree? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.76.189.10 (talk) 23:20, 3 February 2010 (UTC)

Edited to restore 'massacre', seems that's the accepted phrase 'Croke Park Massacre'.

'the largest owned by an amateur organisation'
Does this mean its the largest amateur ground in Ireland, Europe, the 6 nations or the world?--Play Brian Moore 16:42, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I've edited that to read 'outside the United States'. Listened to Micheál O'Muireacheartaigh talking about Croke Park and it's history on, I think Sunday 11th Feb, on RTÉ Radio 1, and he mentioned that it was the largest amateur stadium outide the US.  Unfortunately I can't remember if he mentioned the name of the stadium in the US that's larger, but Googling for "largest amateur stadium" gives this result. Bastun 12:36, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that National Sports Center link refers to largest acreage rather than spectator capacity. The word amateur is vague when applied to players; when applied to organisations, doubly so. Given the vagueness, I think the text  should be omitted entirely, or qualified as "is described by X as the largest...". Other contenders include Michigan Stadium (111,000) or Rungrado May Day Stadium (150,000).  There's also Hampden Park, which has held crowds of up to 149,000. jnestorius(talk) 14:25, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

National stadium
Is Croke Park a national stadium ? Or in other words is Croke Park the the primary or exclusive home for one or more of a country's national representative sports teams .In my opinion its only the temperory home of Soccer and Rugby and so doesn't pass this def Gnevin (talk) 08:37, 21 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Yeah I'd have to agree with you. The only places you could really say are national stadiums in Ireland are Lansdowne Road, Dundalk Ice Dome, National Basketball Arena, arguably National Stadium (Ireland) and whereever Ireland play cricket, hockey, etc which I can't find. Derry Boi (talk) 09:26, 21 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Until such time as Landsdowne is open Croke Park is it. It is also the home of the Compromise Rules team, lest ye forget. Sarah777 (talk) 19:22, 21 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Ooh, a technical knock-out, I think! Bastun BaStun not BaTsun 19:27, 21 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Bastun, I sincerely hope you are not...eh....pulling my chain. Sarah777 (talk) 22:59, 21 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Nope. Its certainly the "primary" (if not necessarily exclusive - but it only needs to be one of them) home for International Rules football. Bastun BaStun not BaTsun 23:18, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Redevelopment
The article mention future work, but does anyone know what changes in capacity this would result in? Lord Cornwallis (talk) 20:20, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

Capacity
I've changed the capacity to 82,300 according to the GAA website: http://www.crokepark.ie/page/venue_information.html --HighKing (talk) 00:10, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

Welsh spelling
Someone has just added cy:Parc Croke. Is 'Croke' the correct spelling in Welsh? That's the Anglicised spelling, I would have thought that the name originated in Irish as Crocaigh, so a Welsh translation would surely be closer to that. --Eamonnca1 (talk) 17:41, 15 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Crocaigh is a gaelised spelling of Croke ,I'd say Croke is correct Gnevin (talk) 20:32, 17 October 2008 (UTC)
 * On the contrary, a Google search suggests that Croke (in Ireland) actually originates as an Anglicised version of the Irish Cróc, which itself comes from Old Norse Krokr. However if Parc Croke is what's actually used in Welsh then that's what they should call the article; making their own translation would be OR and breach commonname. Tameamseo (talk) 10:26, 23 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Hi guys. This conversation should really be happening on the CY project. If there is an issue with the title of an article on that Wiki, it should be addressed with a move/rename request on that Wiki. Discussing it here isn't going result in any change... Cheers Guliolopez (talk) 10:47, 23 October 2008 (UTC)

 * I've mentioned and linked to this conversation over at the Welsh page. Derry Boi (talk) 11:39, 23 October 2008 (UTC)

125th Anniversary: photos?
I was at the celebration in Croke Park last night along with 80,000 other souls. Not a bad attendance for a very wintry Saturday night (especially at the top of the Hogan where the wind would cut you). Aside from the match (which was superb), the fireworks, lights, concerts and everything made Croker look last night like it has never looked before. Does anybody have photos of it that they could add to this article? That would be a fantastic addition. My photos were taken with my phone so they would be a bit crap for this article to be honest. There must be brilliant photos! 86.42.73.225 (talk) 19:12, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

The Ban
It may be worth expanding on the following sentence:
 * The belief was that rugby and soccer were in competition with football and hurling.

Perhaps it could be replaced with:
 * The justification was that rugby and soccer were in competition with football and hurling. Though it was suggested by ... that it was a specifically anti-English rule as there was no such ban on sports which did not originate in England.

Needless to say it would need the relevant citation and a short list of some of those who made the allegation. Pnelnik (talk) 09:31, 4 August 2009 (UTC)
 * It certainly would need a citation, because I don't remember seeing any rule that singled out English-originated sports. --Eamonnca1 (talk) 17:44, 4 August 2009 (UTC)
 * The only sports mentioned by rule 27 were of English origin, was that just a coincidence?
 * However, perhaps the best place in wikipedia for a mention of controversy of the (xenophobic) rules that the GAA had, is on the main GAA page, rather than in the Croke Park article. Indeed the main GAA article already mentions rule 42, which concerns banning the named English / foreign sports from GAA property. Though currently there are some inconsistencies between this article and that regarding what rules 27 and 42 actually contained. Pnelnik (talk) 00:04, 5 August 2009 (UTC)

Reprisal?
It is surely wrong to say that the Croke Park 'bloody Sunday' shootings were 'in reprisal' for anything.

'In reprisal' sounds as if the deaths were planned and the deaths premeditated.

Nothing in the Wikipedia main bloody Sunday article, or any other source, suggests that the deaths were planned or premeditated. What happened looks more like a classic balls up by frightened policemen on a day when many other people had already been killed by the IRA - deaths which were premeditated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.5.0.208 (talk) 20:04, 19 May 2011 (UTC)

 * More seriously, what does it need to make this article a "B"? Sarah777 (talk) 22:15, 18 June 2011 (UTC)

Future concerts
I have reverted addition of concerts that have not yet taken place, but there are several editors continuing to add the Chilli Peppers event next June. I would argue against this inclusion: this is an encyclopaedia of facts, not a listing magazine, and the frequency of concert cancellation is such that it is difficult to say more than that this is scheduled. I would maintain therefore that it should not be in the article until it occurs, or at least that, if retained, it should be in a separate table. Opinions? Kevin McE (talk) 08:08, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

I dont think it makes any difference whether future concerts are listed on the article, but if users are continuing to add the events then maybe its better to leave them and make a seperate table like you suggested. Handsopened (talk) 12:59, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Croke Park


text:
All Hallows-on-the-Wall

All Hallows-on-the-Wall is a Church of England church located in the City of London. Its name refers to its location, inside and adjacent to London Wall, the former city wall.

Current use
From 2014 All Hallows became the headquarters of the urban youth charity XLP, and the home of City Gates Church, London. XLP creates positive futures for young people in impoverished urban areas. It combats bullying and intimidation, weapons, and gangs. It develops a response to boredom due to a lack of organised activities, absent parents, and living in areas with a high crime rate. The church is often used to host XLP events and has received an annual visit from the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.

City Gates Church is a congregation with roots in the British New Church Movement, and Ichthus Christian Fellowship. It meets at All Hallows at 11am every week, and is the first community to hold regular services there since 1941. City Gates builds on All Hallows’ previous traditions of serving the poor. It runs the Better Job Project, English Conversation Classes, live music nights and other events. Covid19 brought activities to a halt. The church resumed its meetings in September 2021, and returned to serving the community with its projects in December 2022.

History
The present church was constructed by George Dance the Younger in 1767, replacing an earlier church built some time in the early 12th century on a bastion of the old Roman wall. It became renowned for its hermits, who lived in cells in the church. All Hallows escaped destruction in the Great Fire of London in 1666 due to its position under the wall, but subsequently fell into dereliction.

Dance rebuilt the church when he was only 24 years old. He had recently returned from Italy where he had conducted detailed studies of Classical buildings. The new All Hallows took its inspiration from the Classical world and was remarkably simple in form, with no aisles; its interior consists solely of a barrel-vaulted nave with a half-dome apse at the far end, with decoration deriving from the ancient Temple of Venus and Rome in the city of Rome. Attached Ionic columns support a frieze, rather than the usual entablature. The exterior is plain and of brick, except for the stone-faced tower above the porch at the west end.

The church was noted for its work in offering its services to the poor; many workers, including women in domestic service, would take the early trains into the City to avoid peak fares. A demand for services and refreshment in the Parish led to the vicar of the church, the Reverend Sir Montague Fowler, 4th Baronet, third son of Sir John Fowler, to operate services for their benefit. This was a popular initiative (which also had tents constructed in the churchyard to provide refreshments) which led to the construction of the buildings behind the church which were to be used as an educational institute. Because of this the church had one of the largest congregations in the City at a time when many City churches were beginning to seem redundant.

All Hallows was damaged during the Second World War but was restored in the early 1960s. It is a guild church associated with the Worshipful Company of Carpenters, which has held its annual elections in the church for over 600 years. Until 1994, it was the headquarters of the Council for the Care of Churches. On 14 December 1994 the Council for the Care of Churches and the Cathedrals Fabric Commission for England moved out of All Hallows, leaving the church empty for two and a half years. Then in April 1997 the London and South East Team of Christian Aid were given use of the building and Garth Hewitt, the Team Leader, was appointed Guild Vicar and licensed by the Bishop of London on 18 June 1997. All Hallows went on to become the centre of a thriving community for Christian Aid and its supporters, becoming a centre for issues of Justice, Development and Peace. Under the wing of Christian Aid other organisations have been based at All Hallows, including the Community Fundraising Unit of Christian Aid, the Amos Trust (a small charity with a commitment to justice issues), The Time of Our Lives (the archbishop of Canterbury's Millennium youth event organised from the crypt of All Hallows), and Greenbelt festivals (an arts festival with a Christian viewpoint and a partner of Christian Aid). The church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950.

Notable parishioners

 * Robert Woodford, a lawyer who is best known as the author of an extensive diary that covers the period 1637-1641, married Hannah Haunch at All Hallows in 1635.
 * Samuel John Stone was Rector of All Hallows until 1900.

title: All Hallows-on-the-Wall