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Erica Kane

Erica Kane is a fictional character from the American ABC Daytime soap opera All My Children. The character was portrayed by actress Susan Lucci from her debut on January 16, 1970, until the last broadcast television episode on September 23, 2011. Lucci was expected to guest star on Prospect Park's continuation of All My Children in 2013, but the appearance never came to fruition due to the show's second cancellation.

Erica is considered to be the most popular character in American soap opera history. TV Guide calls her "unequivocally the most famous soap opera character in the history of daytime TV," and included her in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time.

Background
Agnes Nixon created Erica Kane in the 1960s as part of the story bible for All My Children, a light-hearted soap opera focusing on social issues and young love. Nixon unsuccessfully attempted to sell the series to NBC, then to CBS, and once again to NBC through Procter & Gamble. With Procter & Gamble unable to make room for the new series in its line up, she put All My Children on hold. Nixon became head writer of Another World where she used the model of the Erica character to create a brand new character: Rachel Davis. Nixon said Rachel was Erica's "precursor to the public." She detailed Rachel's goals as less "stratospheric" in nature since her primary motivation involved marrying Dr. Russ Mathews or a man with money while Erica wanted love, independence, and fame. "What Erica and Rachel have in common is they thought if they could get their dream, they'd be satisfied," Nixon said. "But that dream has been elusive."

After the success of One Life to Live, a series Nixon created in 1968, ABC asked her to create another soap opera for them. She used the story bible for All My Children to create the new program. The Erica character officially debuted in 1970 once All My Children made it onto the air.

Casting
At the time, soap operas featured mostly older casts. To add a contemporary feel to the show, Nixon focused on younger characters, while also mixing in older ones so as not to lose traditional viewers. The youths on All My Children were Tara Martin (Karen Lynn Gorney), Phillip Brent (Richard Hatch), Chuck Tyler (Jack Stauffer), and Erica Kane (Susan Lucci). For those parts, the show wanted to cast unknown actors.

In 1969, Susan Lucci responded to a casting call for All My Children. She initially auditioned for the role of Tara Martin. The "character that we were all interested in was not Erica, but Tara," said Doris Quinlan, the show's former executive producer. "She was the sweet young ingenue — the one with all the problems that everyone was supposed to care about... I certainly couldn't cast [Lucci] as a young, innocent, sweet little Irish girl. That's not what comes out. She's much more sophisticated – at least she gives that appearance. She was perfect to play Erica." After a meeting with a casting director, they promised to call her back in six months. One of hundreds of people they called back in, Lucci progressed on from each reading of the part until she received the role. "I saw the audition tapes, and she just stood out," said Agnes Nixon. "There was never a question, ever."

Before being cast as Erica Kane, Lucci did not have much success in her acting career. A casting director discouraged her from pursuing roles on television because her hair, skin, and eyes were too dark. Though Lucci's olive complexion held her back from other acting opportunities, it worked in her favor while up for the role of Erica. "Agnes Nixon, the show's creator, really wanted somebody dark to play this part. She has always been ahead of her time," Lucci said. Lucci debuted in episode 10 of the series. In portraying Erica, the actress drew on the "self-centered" and "haughty" traits she recognized in herself while in college. Lucci said, "I love playing her. I enjoyed playing her when she was a 15-year-old high school girl, the naughty girl in town, and I enjoy playing her now, when she's still the naughty girl, but she's broadened her area of operation to include the entire world."

Archetypes
Over the years, Erica developed into different character archetypes. Soap operas once featured only one-dimensional characters who were either good or bad. By the 1970s, characters were written with more depth, fitting into archetypes consisting of the young-and-vulnerable romantic heroine, the old-fashioned villain, the rival, the suffering antagonist, Mr. Right, the former playboy, the meddlesome and villainous mother/grandmother, the benevolent mother/grandmother, and the career woman. Erica was established as the rival to Tara Martin's young-and-vulnerable romantic heroine. As the rival, Erica was written as money and status-conscious as well as sexually aggressive. Erica was generally positioned as the antagonist keeping true love pairings, such as Tara and Phillip Brent, apart.

By the late 1970s, a different set of character types were established, including the chic suburbanite, the subtle single, the traditional family person, the successful professional, and the elegant socialite. Erica was in the chic suburbanite category which comprised "flashy," achievement-oriented characters with little interest in family and friends. Like others in this category, Erica was written as "flamboyant, frivolous and carefree, with little commitment other than [her] own selfish enjoyment of life."

Overall, Erica is the embodiment of "the bitch goddess," a soap opera archetype that "transformed and defined" the soap opera genre. Irna Phillips, Nixon, and William J. Bell created the archetype in the 1960s and it became one of their defining legacies. The archetype is an assertive Cinderella who goes after material things. This was a change from the heroines of the radio soap operas who waited to be rescued by men. Erica started out as "a conniving teenage vixen" and transformed into "the femme fatale incarnate." The characters in this category are outrageous, exaggerated, financially disadvantaged and determined to change that. Other characters in this archetype are Lisa Grimaldi (As the World Turns), Rachel Davis (Another World) and Belle Clemons (The Secret Storm).

Characteristics
"'You gotta go where the action is, Mona. Isn't that right, Erica?' When there is any. I mean, Pine Valley isn't exactly the corner of Hollywood and Vine." Erica is a headstrong and selfish 15-year-old when All My Children begun in 1970. Although Nixon designed her as one of the bad characters, she was not intended to come off as evil or menacing. Since Nixon created All My Children as a "light hearted" soap opera, the series' villains, Erica included, came across as more fun and funny, than wicked. Over time, Erica evolved into a "heroine-vixen" who still did bad things, but was also a character the audience rooted for. Former associate producer Felicia Minei Behr said, "The Erica that [Lucci] started with, was a kid who was one-dimensional, who was the rotten seed, and she turned her into a very fascinating character- the character that everybody loves to hate." Characterized as the "naughty girl in town" from the start, her motivations stem from her relationship with her father. Her abandonment by him led her to be written as sexually aggressive with men. She needs to receive love from men to prove she is not unlovable.

One of Erica's defining features is her extreme self-centered point of view. Erica is described as "imaginative, adventurous, and brilliant", yet writers detailed her as appearing "scarcely rational enough to cope with adulthood." Despite this, the character represents independence and power. "I think of Erica as a go-getter," Lucci said, "someone who's impatient to have a terrific life and have it yesterday. I think a lot of people can identify with that." She always controls her business whether involved with a man or not. Some of the jobs she has been given during her storylines include a high fashion model, a cosmetics tycoon, and a magazine publisher.

When Charles Pratt, Jr. took over as head writer of All My Children in 2008, one of his goals for improving the series involved making Erica the focus of the show again. "[A]bove all, the show is, and should always revolve around, Erica," he said in an interview with Soap Opera Digest. "I can see the temptation to split her off and put her in jail and put her on the run. We did it on Ugly Betty! But to me, she is the Scarlett O'Hara of this show and she must always be that, be the center and the heart of the show. Challenging that character that way, making her the powerful woman she should be, is important."

Family
When All My Children debuts, the Kane family consists of Erica, her mother, Mona (Frances Heflin), and her absent father, film director Eric Kane (Albert Stratton). Mona spoils Erica to fill the void Eric left behind. Despite this, the writers scripted the relationship between Mona and Erica as tumultuous, with Mona disapproving of Erica's behavior and Erica blaming Mona for her father's desertion. The relationship is later developed into a strong bond. The writers layered their interactions with "raw edges" and humor. "Erica idealized her father.  Heflin said. Whenever Eric disappoints Erica, she blames her mother. "Then, of course, would come the moment of breakdown when she would cry on [Mona's] shoulder," Helfin said. "So it's more or less human. Really, more human and less saccharine than most of the mother/children relationships on soaps. It has an awful lot of bit in it." After Mona's death in 1994, Erica continues to put Eric on a pedestal, refusing to acknowledge his flaws.

From the start of the series, the lack of a relationship with her father serves as motivation for Erica's actions. She is an example of the Nixon staple of the "lost daddy's girl." Eric abandons her and her mother before the start of the show, when Erica is nine years old. As a result, she develops a severe abandonment complex. Since Eric leaves his family for a successful career in Hollywood, Erica also longs for a life of fame and a successful man. This motivation is maintained in the character decades into the series. "Susan added a lot of Erica's background," Behr said. "Rather than playing it as if Erica's just a rotten character, she added the pathos of this child who was deserted by her father. Every time she did a scene about how 'My father loves me. I know that he loves me and nobody is going to tell me differently,' she colored it with the knowledge that she had really been deserted. It worked so well that the writers reached the point where they said we have to play this out." In 1989, Eric makes his first appearance as Erica goes in search of him and finds him working as a clown at a circus. She attempts to help him out of his current circumstances, but he ends up betraying her and leaving Pine Valley.

The 1993 arrival of Kendall Hart (Sarah Michelle Gellar) prompted the reveal that, prior to the series' debut, Erica had been raped at age 14 by Eric's friend, film star Richard Fields. Eric had allowed Richard, who had a "crush" on Erica, to be alone with her and had done nothing to prevent the rape from occurring. A revisitation of the event during Erica's 2004 alcohol intervention storyline introduced the fact Eric had actually offered up Erica for sex with Richard to convince the actor to star in one of Eric's films. Erica represses all memory of the rape until 16-year-old Kendall, a child conceived by it and revealed to be Erica's first born daughter she gave up for adoption to the Harts, appears in 1993. Viewer reaction to the discrepancy created by Erica's having a 16-year-old daughter conceived in a 24-year-old rape prompted the series to immediately adjust Kendall's age to 23. The mother-daughter relationship between Erica and Kendall was designed as antagonistic and complex, with Kendall, unaware of the rape, seeking revenge against Erica in feeling she "abandoned" her as an infant, while wanting her mother's approval. Kendall's attempted seduction of Erica's love interest, Dimitri Marick, creates conflict between him and Erica, and Kendall also brings Richard Fields to town to torment her mother. Kendall later makes peace with her mother and leaves town in 1995. She returns in 2002, portrayed by a new actress, Alicia Minshew, as Kendall's birth year was revised to 1976. The later story between Erica and Kendall displayed each character's point of view as they both deal with the ramifications of how Kendall's conception traumatized them, which Lucci praised. A reconciliation later occurs for the characters wherein they bond as mother and daughter.

In a topical 1972 storyline, Erica aborts the baby she conceives with her first husband, Jeff Martin (Charles Frank). This is the first legal abortion aired on American television prior to the landmark Supreme Court Roe v. Wade ruling as Erica sought an abortion in the state of New York which had legalized the procedure in July 1970. Erica was chosen for this storyline as a way to prevent controversy. Since she was a bad girl and not one of the heroines, her choice would not be viewed as something the show supported. The show also protected themselves from controversy by writing Erica as mentally blocking out the abortion and, for a time, believing she miscarried. Viewers loved the story and Erica became a symbol of free choice. Erica develops a potentially fatal infection after having the abortion. "Erica's abortion was simply because she didn't want to have a child, and I think if you do that now, you would perhaps hurt your character," said former All My Children head writer Megan McTavish. McTavish later rewrote the story so the doctor, Greg Madden (Ian Buchanan), transplants the aborted fetus into his infertile wife. They raise the child, Josh Madden (Colin Egglesfield), as their son without Erica's knowledge. Inkling Magazine pointed out how unrealistic this storyline was because "the techniques by which abortion is performed don't exactly lend themselves to excising an embryo viable enough to survive in another woman's womb." The magazine said more likelihood existed in the possibility that Madden harvested Erica's eggs during the procedure, though an invasive surgery like that going unnoticed appeared unlikely as well. Egglesfield gained different information on the probability of the story. In an interview with Soap Opera Digest, he said, "Actually, my father is an obstetrician/gynecologist and my brother is a doctor, as is one of my best friends, and their collective opinion is that this is possible; it is possible to take a fetus out of one woman and place it into the womb of another woman, but it's only possible within the first week of pregnancy, before the fetus actually starts attaching itself to the uterine lining." In the storyline, Greg harbors an obsession with Erica, which motivates him to choose her for the transplant in the first place. Greg and Josh make their first appearances in 2005. Greg's wife recently died and he moves to Pine Valley for closer proximity to Erica under the guise of opening a clinic. Josh follows him soon afterward and, not knowing Erica is his mother, attempts to destroy Erica in order to steal her fame for himself. Erica discovers the truth and is eventually able to form a relationship with him. In 2009, All My Children let Egglesfield go and killed off Josh. Zach Slater (Thorsten Kaye) shoots him and Erica is then forced to decide whether or not to donate Josh's heart to a seriously ill Kendall. "The first thought that came to my mind when I was told the storyline and read the script was Sophie's Choice," said Lucci. Erica reluctantly agrees to the transplant. Lucci said she believed this decision would "haunt" Erica because, if Kendall's life was not in the balance, she would have put more effort into saving Josh.

Erica's youngest child, Bianca Montgomery, enters the series in 1988. At that time, Bianca is Erica's first and only child since the Kendall and Josh characters were not created yet. In the storyline, Erica becomes pregnant with Travis Montgomery's child and develops toxemia. The story was written to inform and educate the audience on the details of the condition. Inkling Magazine looked into the plausibility of her developing toxemia and found it believable. The magazine said, "[W]omen who were born small for their gestational age have a higher risk of developing pre-eclampsia during their own pregnancies. The petite form of [Susan Lucci as Erica] seems to fit that description well. Also, given the character's storyline, which included shooting her sister's mother, Goldie, and the attraction she feels for Jack, her husband's brother, she could have had high blood pressure from stress. That hypertension increases the risk of toxemia." Erica overcomes the medical difficulties and gives birth to Bianca. As she grows up, Erica sees her through Reye's syndrome and anorexia nervosa. In 2000, All My Children cast Eden Riegel in the role of a teenage Bianca. The character comes out as a lesbian to her mother. Erica has trouble accepting the revelation, but eventually does. This storyline was inspired by the real life coming out story of Chaz Bono, and the initial reaction by his famous mother Cher.

Erica's other relatives include half-siblings Mark Dalton (Mark LaMura) and Silver Kane (Mary LeSeene). In 1977, Mark and Erica begin a romance, which leads Mona to reveal Mark had also been fathered by Eric Kane, who had engaged in an affair with Mark's mother, Maureen Dalton Tiller, Eric's secretary. In 1982, while working in New York City as a model, Erica discovers a half-sister named Silver. Unlike Mark, Silver is the product of a secret marriage between Eric and a woman named Goldie. Silver secretly plots against Erica while pretending to form a bond with her. Silver is later exposed as an impostor named Connie, but the real Silver shows up soon after, only to be killed.

Marriages and relationships
The character has been married to multiple men, some more than once. Seven of her marriages to six different men have been valid, while four of her other marriages are invalid. Generally, the number of times Erica has been married is named as ten, though the total of her valid and invalid marriages, plus her 1991 vow renewal with Adam Chandler, would come up to eleven. Along with the marriages, the character is also given a number of other love interests. The motivation behind the multiple romances stems from the character's need to fill the void her father left when he abandoned her.

As the series begins, Erica's romantic role is as the rival keeping the "true love" pairings apart. The first story she is used this way in is the teenage love quadrangle between Erica, Phillip Brent, Tara Martin, and Chuck Tyler. In that story, Erica is used as one of the devices separating Tara and Phil. She breaks them up in 1970, but does not get him for herself until years later. Other couples she is used as a roadblock for are Jeff Martin and Mary Kennicott, Linc Tyler and Kitty Shae, and Chuck Tyler and Donna Beck.

Erica's first two marriages, first to Dr. Jeff Martin in 1971 and then to Phil Brent in 1975, end because both men want her as a housewife instead of a career woman. Also, Erica is more interested in marrying them to spite Tara. Lucci described Jeff as a "trophy" and gaining Phil as "a matter of pride for Erica." The marriage to Jeff ends when she leaves him for her modeling manager, Jason Maxwell, who Mona later kills in self-defense. Erica and Phil marry to give the baby they conceive a name. In the 1970s, pregnancy on a soap opera was romanticized so it was more influenced by the emotions and actions of the characters than by modern medicine. Since Phil and Erica do not conceive their baby for love, they are "rewarded" with a miscarriage, which was typical of loveless unions in that time. Phil wants a divorce after their baby's stillbirth. Though her interest turns to pursuing richer men like Linc Tyler, she refuses to let him go because she does not want Tara to have him. Erica agrees to divorce Phil after his father, Nick Davis, offers her a job as a hostess at his restaurant, the Chateau, in exchange for letting his son go. Erica and Nick develop a romance. The relationship displays antagonistic yet loving qualities. It is the first time Erica meets her match in a man. Erica sees Nick as both a father figure and a lover. Though he loves her, he refuses to marry her, which infuriates Erica. She begins a romance with Tom Cudahay (Richard Shoberg) in the hopes of making Nick jealous. Even though it works, Nick fails to act on his jealousy and instead moves to Chicago. On Erica and Tom's wedding day she hopes he will come back to interrupt the ceremony, but he does not.

All My Children shot Tom and Erica's honeymoon on location in St. Croix, the location where Nixon wrote the bible for the series. This was the first daytime location shoot filmed outside of the United States. The location shoot involved activities never seen in daytime soap operas up to that point, such as snorkeling and horseback riding. They used the steady-cam technique, which was new at the time. The cameraman Nick Udack "could walk or jog along side us on the beach," Shoberg said. "The steady-cam had a gyroscope that would keep it from bouncing when you took steps". The stumbling blocks designed for Erica and Tom's marriage involve the same as her last two since Erica puts her modeling career ahead of starting a family with Tom. They divorce after he discovers that she uses birth control pills.

Erica becomes involved with Mike Roy (Nicholas Surovy and then Hugo Napier), the man writing her biography, Raising Kane. "He was Erica's first great love," Lucci said. "They were very different. He was very intellectual and she was not, and still he loved her for who she was." Mike and Erica fall in love and are kept apart by Adam Chandler (David Canary), the man producing a film adaptation of Raising Kane. Adam sends Mike away to Tibet to separate him and Erica. While Mike is away, Adam offers Erica the lead role in the movie if she marries him. She agrees and they marry in 1984, but Adam casts another actress in the role. After Mike returns, Adam tests Erica's feelings for him by faking his death. She responds to his supposed demise by marrying Mike. Adam reveals he is alive, making their marriage invalid, and forces Erica to choose between him and Mike. She chooses Mike. They plan to marry but before they can he is shot. On his deathbed, he and Erica exchange vows.

Erica's next love interest is the Tibetan monk Jeremy Hunter (Jean Leclerc). The Jeremy Hunter character was created as a polar opposite of Erica, in part, because he swore a vow of celibacy which contrasted with her sexuality. He is described as "caring, creative, vulnerable, nurturing, patient, and tender." The maternal nature of the character was balanced by his physical and public power. Their relationship was written to reflect a form of protective dominance. Within the storyline, from the summer of 1985 to the summer of 1986 Jeremy rescues her from Adam, his father and Latin American terrorists, all of whom kidnap and attempt to sexually assault Erica. He also saves her from Natalie Marlow, who holds her at gun point. The relationship does not go both ways as they break up when Erica attempts to rescue him. In the story, Jeremy is convicted for a crime he did not commit, so Erica stages a wedding ceremony in prison as a way to break him out by escaping on a helicopter from the roof. Jeremy refuses to let her help him escape, ending their relationship. During the story where Jeremy rescued Erica from Adam, All My Children went on location to Canada to film the scenes. Later, the show again went on location, this time to New York's West Chester County's Wingdale hospital, which provided the setting for Erica's attempt to break Jeremy out of prison.

In 1987, Erica becomes involved with the politician Travis Montgomery (Larkin Malloy). Erica and Travis are portrayed as sexually equal and infused with elements of romance and fantasy. Erica becomes pregnant with his child, but does not tell him for fear that it will disrupt his political career. In 1988, when Travis finds out about the baby, they get married. She becomes attracted to his brother, Jackson Montgomery (Walt Willey), but does not act on the feeling until after she and Travis divorce. They have "a very hot romance" and fall in love, but Erica remarries Travis in 1990 at their daughter Bianca's insistence. Travis and Erica's second marriage is not a happy one. "I think after they got back together," said Lucci, "it was never the same again. There was always this rift. He became bitter and sort of cruel to Erica." Their second marriage ends after Travis catches her cheating on him with Jack. During the custody hearing over Bianca, Jack refuses to lie about their affair, resulting in Erica losing custody of her daughter.

In 1991, Adam reveals to Erica that they are still married. He blackmails her into staging another wedding ceremony and living with him as his wife. During this marriage, she meets and falls in love with Dimitri Marick (Michael Nader). She fights her feelings for him while he pursues her despite their marriages to other people. Adam eventually grants Erica a divorce, freeing her to be with Dimitri. Erica and Dimitri carry on a long relationship involving two failed marriages and a miscarriage. The pairing was imbued with fairytale elements that were reflected in the wardrobe designs for Erica's wedding dresses. Once Erica and Dimitri separate for a final time in 1997, Erica reunites with Jackson. They become engaged right before Mike Roy is revealed to be alive. Erica is torn between them. Though she chooses Jack, she and Mike engage in sex one last time before he leaves Pine Valley. Jack finds out and breaks things off with her.

In 1999, a car accident with David Hayward (Vincent Irizarry) leaves Erica's face disfigured. This storyline unintentionally mirrored a similar car accident Lucci was involved in, in 1966 which almost permanently scarred her face. Like Erica, she needed plastic surgery. In the storyline, Erica and David fall in love while he helps her through her recovery. The obstacles designed to come between them are her continued feelings for Dimitri and his inability to fully give himself to a woman because of what happened to his father when he loved his mother too much. They become engaged to be married but Erica calls it off. She next falls in love with Chris Stamp (Jack Scalia). "I really think that she found someone very special in Chris Stamp," Lucci said. "They are a pretty hot combination, and he seems strong and capable enough of being with her." In the story, after becoming engaged to Chris, Erica cheats on him with Jack and Chris is killed. She and Jack marry in 2005. They form a family unit including all of their combined children. The union does not last, as they grow apart and Erica cheats on him with Jeff Martin.

All My Children hired Mario Van Peebles in 2008 to portray Samuel Woods, Erica's new love interest. The writers based the story on Martha Stewart's insider trading scandal. Erica buys Chandler Enterprises stock based on privileged information Adam Chandler shares with her. U.S. Attorney, Sam Woods brings charges up against her. They develop an attraction while he prosecutes her and she goes to prison for the crime. The relationship goes no further than dating before Sam leaves Pine Valley to campaign for a seat on the Senate.

Charles Pratt, Jr. took over as head writer of All My Children in 2008. The next year, he decided to put Erica and Ryan Lavery (Cameron Mathison) together as a couple. News outlets labeled her a "cougar" since Erica is older than Ryan. Pratt defended the story and said what they have "isn't a relationship that's borne out of anything except true respect and a growing affection for each other as Erica becomes Ryan's pillar of support. [He] offers her an escape from what her life has become, which is digging her various daughters out of trouble." He described the couple as "a very odd but natural coming together of two people [who are] pushed apart by the attitudes of society."

On July 25, 2011, Erica stabs David after she escapes from the clutches of her look-alike Jane Campbell that posed as her. She is taken to Oak Haven and there she first sees Janet "from another Planet" Green Dillon, then Annie Lavery, then Marian Colby Chandler, and finally she sees Dixie Cooney Martin. On August 11, 2011, Jane takes the blame for stabbing David so Erica can remain free. During the last few episodes of the show Erica is offered a chance to write a movie about her book (much to the dismay of Jack who wants to marry her). This leads to a falling-out between the two at Stuart Chandler's welcome home party. As Jack leaves the party, Erica admits in front of everyone that she needs and loves Jack, to which he replies by bitterly telling her, Rhett Butler-style, that "frankly," he doesn't give a damn about what she needs. "This is not the ending I wanted," Erica says to Opal. "Oh, you've done it, now you'll never get it back," Opal tells her. "Just watch me," says Erica. As Erica goes after Jack, JR fires his pistol, ending the show. It is implied that the bullet has hit Erica as she is last to be shown before the screen blacks out.

In a conversation between Kate Howard and Todd Manning on General Hospital, Erica is mentioned as someone else Todd could have talked to about the job he was offering to Kate, implying she survived the final episode of All My Children. On the June 20, 2013 episode of the Prospect Park version of All My Children, Opal Cortlandt tells Dimitri Marick, one of Erica's ex-husbands that Erica was out of town last seen getting on an airplane to some exotic location without saying when she would be back.

In a 2018 episode of General Hospital Maxie Jones is seen on the phone arguing with someone over a bill, and later warns Nina Clay that Erica Kane might be calling her about Maxie's negotiations, suggesting Erica is still alive and working in the fashion industry at this point.

Cultural impact
The Associated Press reported in 1986 that 60 students at California State University, Fullerton of a group of 100 could recognize Erica Kane but not historical figures such as Alexander Hamilton, Geoffrey Chaucer and Desmond Tutu when asked by English instructor Judith Remy Leder.

Susan Lucci hosted the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live on October 6, 1990. In one sketch, Lucci played Kane as a contestant on the fictional game show "Game Breakers". She seduced fictional game show host Jack Morgan (portrayed by Phil Hartman), thus enabling her to soundly beat her opponent. Morgan came close to marrying Kane (in a ceremony presided over by Don Pardo), but the wedding was interrupted by real-life game show host (and "current husband") Gene Rayburn. The sketch ended with Kane being mauled by a panther owned by Siegfried and Roy (portrayed by Kevin Nealon and Dana Carvey).

The Erica Kane character provided inspiration for three songs, all of which were named after her. Alternative rock band Urge Overkill titled a song after the character on their album Saturation. The late R&B musical artist Aaliyah recorded a song about drug addiction called "Erica Kane", where the character's name was used as a metaphor for a cocaine. The song was released posthumously on the album I Care 4 U. The band B5 also recorded a song about Erica Kane titled "Erika Cain." The song talks about how they're in a relationship with a beautiful girl, but she is crazy. The group contacted All My Children's producers about doing a cameo on the show. They appeared in the April 25, 2008 episode as activists rallying for Erica's release from prison. During the appearance, the group performed "Erika Cain." They also taped a video for the song with Susan Lucci. Rapper Lil' Kim at times refers to herself as "the black Erica Kane."

Mattel created two dolls based on Erica Kane as part of the company's Daytime Drama Collection. They released the first one in 1998. Mattel modeled that doll after the character's appearance during the Crystal Ball, an annual event in All My Children's storylines. After that doll met with success, they released the second in 1999 called the Champagne Lace Wedding Erica Kane Doll. This one was based on the character as she was during the 1993 wedding to Dimitri Marick.

Over the years, Susan Lucci became known for gaining Daytime Emmy Award nominations for her portrayal of Erica, but never winning. Almost every year from 1978 to 1998, Lucci received nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama series and never won. Her negative reactions to the losses, including pounding her fist on the table and leaving one ceremony in tears, were mentioned in tabloids. Her losses also caused her fellow castmate Ruth Warrick to speak out to the press. In 1983, when Lucci lost to All My Children newcomer Dorothy Lyman (Opal), Warrick said, "It seemed impossible that Susan wouldn't win this year. We are all very puzzled, amazed, and disgruntled." She later added, "It was a slap in the face to Susan that Dorothy should walk off with it after being on the show such a short time. And of course her role was so outrageous and so, well, it was a caricature. That's not in any way to put down what Dorothy did, but it really was a supporting role rather than a leading role." The losing streak became a "long-running gag" in the entertainment community. Jay Leno on The Tonight Show used it as a joke as did Saturday Night Live. The author of The Emmy, Tom O'Neil, attributed the losses to the material she submitted for consideration. "In the episodes she sent in last year, she was crying 75 percent of the time," he said. "She drowned her chances in a tsunami of tears. Lucci eventually won the Daytime Emmy Award in 1999, receiving a two-minute standing ovation at the win and again after the show in the press room. A reporter in the press room questioned whether she would miss the attention she got for losing, to which Lucci responded, "Oh, not for a minute. Winning is definitely better." The entries Lucci submitted for the 1999 Daytime Emmy Awards involved scenes from Erica's storyline where she helps Bianca deal with her anorexia.

title: Erica Kane


text:
Miguel García (baseball)

Miguel Angel García Sifontes (born April 3, 1967) is a former Major League Baseball left-handed relief pitcher who played for the California Angels (1987) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1987–1989).

In two seasons, García compiled a 0–2 record with 11 strikeouts and an 8.41 earned run average in 20⅓ innings pitched.

Personal life
Garcia and his wife Adrianna have two grown daughters, Mariangelica and Anacorina.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Miguel García (baseball)


text:
Stu Hodgson

Stuart Milton Hodgson OC (April 1, 1924 – December 18, 2015 ) was the commissioner of the Northwest Territories (NWT) from March 2, 1967 until April 6, 1979. The first Commissioner to actually reside in the Northwest Territories, he was a leader in the construction of a semiautonomous, responsible self-government run by residents of the territory. He was appointed as a citizenship judge in British Columbia in December 1997 and served until 2005. Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, the second son of Allan and Mary Hodgson, Hodgson was one of the founders of the Arctic Winter Games - which began in Yellowknife in 1970 for athletes from Alaska, Yukon, and the NWT – and which now also include Greenland, parts of Arctic Russia, as well as Northern Alberta and Nunavik (Northern Quebec), and the new territory Nunavut which was formed from NWT in 1999. He was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Canada on December 18, 1970 for his service to labour and government. Subsequently he received the Queen's commemorative medals for her silver, golden, and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal (2012); as well as the Canada 125 medal in 1992.

When rapid changes in socio-economic conditions threatened the continuity of Inuit oral history, Commissioner Hodgson urged the taping of elders' stories. In 1974, the residents of Pangnirtung (since then becoming part of Nunavut) presented the Commissioner with eleven stories which were later compiled into a book. Hodgson was nicknamed "Umingmak" by the Inuit.

For his services in the NWT, he was presented the public service's Outstanding Achievement Award in 1976. From 1942-45 he served with the Royal Canadian Navy on convoy duty in the North Atlantic for which he received the 1939–1945 Star, Atlantic Star and other World War II medals. From 1979 to 1981 he was Canadian co-chairman of the U.S.-Canadian International Joint Commission. He was recruited by Premier William R. Bennett of British Columbia to run BC Ferries for a time in the 1980s. He was appointed chairman and chief executive officer of the BC Transit in 1985. Hodgson died on December 18, 2015, aged 91.

Legacy
The Hodgson Trophy was created and awarded beginning in 1978 for fair play and team spirit during the Arctic Winter Games.

title: Stu Hodgson


text:
Ubaldo Heredia

Ubaldo José Heredia Martínez (born May 4, 1956 in Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela) is a former Major League Baseball right-handed starting pitcher who played for the Montreal Expos in 1987.

Heredia compiled a 0–1 record with six strikeouts and a 5.40 of ERA in 10 innings.

title: Ubaldo Heredia


text: User talk:212.179.54.217

title: User talk:212.179.54.217


text:
Talk:Computer Space

First?
"it is generally regarded as the first coin-op video game." Is it? I thought that would be Pong. --Furrykef 23:25, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Galaxy Game may have come before Computer Space.

This was definitely before Pong. However, not sure on Galaxy Game. That said, pulled a comment from a mailing list I'm on; essentially, Nutting Associates only manufactured this; it was designed/developed by Syzygy, Nolan's company. Can anyone confirm that? --Dean 16:54, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Galaxy Game does predate Computer Space, but not my much. I have added a note in the Trivia section, although perhaps it should be more prominant? Maury 12:35, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

there is no article for galaxy game - i'm dubious that it should be explained here, especially with the conflicting detail about which came first. Aaronbrick 21:12, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Done. Galaxy Game.  Pr oh ib it O ni o n s   (T) 21:35, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

13" or 15" monitor?
Pages that mention computerspace uses a 13" monitor include .  Pages that mention 15" include. Does anybody know better than that? There's a manual for the unit posted at KLOV, but I can't find anything relevant there, though it's very difficult to search through. --Interiot 23:32, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

This game was cloned/bootlegged in 1972 by For-Play as "Star Trek"

Star Trek for PC?
I have played at least one version of this game, called Star Trek like the "bootleg" arcade version mentioned in the article, but it was a program for a personal computer, using ASCII graphics. B7T (talk) 08:51, 20 August 2008 (UTC)

Conflicting Info at an External Link
Some infomation with videos at, which is listed in External Links seems to not quite match the article. Specifically the black-to-white change, and the scoring after 9 becoming 0. Someone with more expert knowledge than me should address this. Donimo (talk) 08:34, 19 May 2009 (UTC)

"Non notable per guidelines"?
Why the lines ''A unit being used as a working prop and actual game play can be seen near the beginning of the original releases of the movie Soylent Green. A young lady is seen playing the game in her apartment and thanking her sugar daddy for the gift'' are "non-notable"? The famous appearence of the unit of Computer Space in a worldwide known cult movie why shouldn't be notable? And why instead the appearence in an obscure TV show should? --217.203.143.179 (talk) 06:08, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Because it doesn't meet the video game Pop Culture guidelines for notability. Something appearing briefly in the background, and that could be any video game, is considered not notable.  Something that is a regular part of a show, and in this case an integral part of the episode is. --Marty Goldberg (talk) 14:15, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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Specific claims need citations
If the opening of the article is going to make specific claims, like "it was the first arcade video game as well as the first commercially available video game" and "possibly the first video game to spread to multiple computer installations", then those assertions need a citation. It does not matter if the claim is made in the introduction or the body. Once something specific is asserted, then it needs a citation.

The second claim of "possibly the first video game to spread to multiple computer installations" is especially dubious. It sounds a lot like the author's opinion or wishful thinking to me.
 * You are wrong and this article passed a full FA review in this state because a bunch of editors who know Wikipedia policy inside and out were fine with it. I would point you to WP:Lead for more.  To summarize though, while citations are absolutely present in a lead sometimes, they are generally not necessary for info unlikely to be controversial or challenged unless that info is not cited anywhere else in the article. Everything of note found in the lead is cited to a source in the body and none of it is controversial to anyone with a solid grasp of the subject matter.

 * As for this so-called “dubious” Spacewar claim, I grant you that a chess experiment or two may have been shared around if one wants to count AIs trained to play a game as “games,” and it’s certainly possible there is some primordial program that has yet to be discovered, but the very few known games created in the 1950s were all pretty much built for unique hardware and did not travel. The “possibly” in the statement takes into account that something else might have snuck out first, but anything that did was irrelevant to the grand scheme of things. Spacewar is the first game that mattered that spread beyond its original confines, and that is really all the article and the source it is citing to are trying to convey. Indrian (talk) 08:18, 23 December 2020 (UTC)

Discrepancy for Units Sold
The current article claims "ultimately 1,300–1,500 units" sold, however a 2001 New York Times article gives a sales figure of 2,000 units. That said, while I don't have access to the source "They Create Worlds" used for the current figure, I'm inclined to believe that a video game historian may give a more accurate figure then one given in a retrospective news article. Basically I'm not sure what, if anything, should be done, but figured I'd note it here. --Mbrickn (talk) 05:57, 23 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I don't have access to my copy of They Create Worlds, but TCW is just quoting Nolan Bushnell for the 1300-1500 figure. Bushnell was well known for exaggerating, so if it had actually sold 2000, I expect he would have said a number of at least that, not misremember a lower one. It also says, in addition to the cited Benj Edwards source, that the game had an initial production run of 1500, and nothing ever says that they had a second run (since the first one didn't sell out- they sold 1000 by the spring, and had to push distributors to get more sold). I don't know where the NYT got the 2000 number, but it doesn't match the other sources we have. -- Pres N  11:12, 23 June 2022 (UTC)
 * That makes sense. In that case I trust the existing figures more. Thanks for your help! Mbrickn (talk) 18:15, 23 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer Space


text:
Germán González (baseball)

Germán José González (born March 7, 1962, in Río Caribe, Sucre State, Venezuela) is a former Major League Baseball relief pitcher who played for the Minnesota Twins (1988–89). He batted and threw right-handed.

In a two-season career, González compiled a 3–2 record with 44 strikeouts and a 4.41 ERA in 50.1 innings.

title: Germán González (baseball)


text:
Tenleytown

Tenleytown is a historic neighborhood in Northwest, Washington, D.C.

History
In 1790, locals began calling the neighborhood "Tennally's Town" after area tavern owner John Tennally. Over time, the spelling has evolved and by the 19th century the area was commonly known by its current name, although the spelling Tennallytown continued to be used for some time in certain capacities, including streetcars through the 1920s.

The area is the site of Fort Reno, one of the forts that formed a ring around Washington, D.C. during the American Civil War to protect the capital against invasions. It proved to be the crucial lookout point for preventing a siege of Washington, because it is the highest natural elevation point in the District of Columbia.

Fort Reno was decommissioned with the surrender of the Confederate army. The last remains of Fort Reno were removed about 1900, when the land owned by the Dyer family was being prepared for a reservoir.

Due to its elevation it is also the site of the oldest home in Washington, D.C., Charles Jones's home, called “The Rest,” is believed to have originally been built around 1700 and significantly expanded around 1800. This home stayed in the Jones family until 1920 when the Magruders (local grocers) bought the home. In 1974, the current family owning the home bought the house and still own it today.

After the American Civil War, what is now Fort Reno Park developed into an African-American community. This community existed in tension with the white residents of Tenleytown, as well as major landholders. Eventually, a coalition of groups persuaded the unelected government of D.C. and the Federal Government to clear the community for segregated neighborhood resources: Deal Middle School, a park, and a water tower. The Reno School building, built in 1903 for African-American students, is one of the few remaining traces of this community.

Within the park boundaries lies the highest natural point in the District of Columbia, 409 feet above sea level. Fort Reno also hosts community gardens, free rock concerts in the summer, sledding in the winter, and tennis courts, playing fields, and dog-walkers year round. Jackson-Reed HS baseball now uses the ball field for its home games.

Tenleytown was transformed on October 2, 1941, when Sears Roebuck opened its department store on Wisconsin Avenue at Albemarle Street. At the time the store was notable for its size and for its 300-car rooftop parking lot. In the 1990s, Sears abandoned its retail operation at the location and the building was used by Hechinger hardware until its demise in the late 1990s. In the 2000s, the building was converted to a mixed-use development complex called Cityline at Tenley, with luxury condominiums (The Cityline) on the top levels, a Best Buy (later closed and replaced by a Target store) and The Container Store at street level, and an Ace Hardware underground, located within the parking garage that serves the aforementioned stores. The west entrance to the Metro station is at the front of the building across from Whole Foods Market.

In 2010, the Top of the Town: Tenleytown Heritage Trail opened. Starting at the Tenleytown–AU metro station, the trail passes neighborhood landmarks such as American University, Fort Reno Park, and the studios of WRC-TV, Washington's NBC-affiliated station.

Geographic impact
The neighborhood is home to the highest point in Washington, Fort Reno Park, which houses a baseball field and a soccer field. Due to the high altitude, the neighborhood is home to nearly all of the city's radio masts and towers including the studios and/or towers for WRC-TV, WTTG, WUSA, WETA-TV, WHUT-TV, WDCA, WPXW-TV, WJLA-TV, and radio stations WAMU and WTOP-FM. American Tower started to build an even higher tower, 756 feet (about 230 meters) tall, which could support 169 transmitters, but the District of Columbia government reversed its position, and the incomplete tower was demolished in August 2006.

Transportation
Tenleytown and adjacent American University Park are served by the Tenleytown–AU stop on the Washington Metro Red Line. American University offers a free shuttle bus between campus and the Tenleytown metro station at 40th and Albemarle Street, runs between the Metro stop and American University's main campus. The station is located in the heart of the neighborhood at the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue and Albemarle Street. Metrobus routes 31, 32, 36, 33, 30S, 30N, 37, D32, H2, H3, H4, M4, W45, and W47 serve the neighborhood, all making stops at the station.

The neighborhood is defined by Tenley Circle which lies at the intersection of Nebraska Avenue, Wisconsin Avenue, and Yuma Street. On Tenley Circle itself is St. Ann's Catholic Church, a large imposing stone church which serves area Catholics. On the opposite side of the circle is Wisconsin Avenue Baptist Church. American University's Washington College of Law, on the site of the former Immaculata School, also bounds the western edge of the circle.

Education
The area is served by the District of Columbia Public Schools. Tenleytown is zoned to:
 * Janney Elementary School
 * Alice Deal Middle School
 * Jackson-Reed High School

Tenleytown is the location of several independent schools, including National Presbyterian School (PS-6) and Georgetown Day School, whose 2021 campus expansion allowed its lower and middle schools to join the high school in Tenleytown.

The District of Columbia Public Library system operates the Tenley-Friendship Neighborhood Library, whose 2011 building sits at the corner of Wisconsin Avenue and Albemarle Streets.

Historic landmarks
Several Tenleytown landmarks are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Residential listings include the N. Webster Chappell House, Dumblane, and Grant Road Historic District. Commercial properties listed on the NRHP include the Sears, Roebuck and Company Department Store and Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company, Cleveland-Emerson Exchange. Religious listings include Convent de Bon Secours, the Immaculata Seminary Historic District, and the Eldbrooke United Methodist Church and its adjoining Methodist Cemetery. There are two educational properties listed on the NRHP: Jackson-Reed High School and Janney Elementary School.

title: Tenleytown


text: User talk:65.87.166.153

title: User talk:65.87.166.153


text:
Tony Castillo (pitcher)

Antonio José Castillo Jiménez (born March 1, 1963) is a Venezuelan former relief pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB), who played for the Toronto Blue Jays, Atlanta Braves, New York Mets and Chicago White Sox. Listed at 5' 10" [1.78 m.], 177 lb. [80 k.], he batted and threw left-handed.

Castillo played in ten MLB seasons spanning 1988–1998, pitching in 403 games, 218 of them with the Blue Jays. Castillo posted an overall record of 28–23 with a 3.93 ERA and 22 saves, striking out 333 batters while walking 179 in $526 2/3$ innings of work. Castillo played in four career playoff games, all with Toronto in 1993, posting a 1–0 record with a 5.06 ERA, and helping the Jays win the 1993 World Series.

Toronto Blue Jays (1988–1989)
Castillo signed with the Toronto Blue Jays as an amateur free agent on February 16, 1983, and worked his way through the Blue Jays farm system before making his Major League Baseball debut with the club on August 14, 1988, where he pitched a scoreless inning out of the bullpen in a 6–0 loss to the Kansas City Royals. He earned his first career strikeout against Royals shortstop Kurt Stillwell. On September 3, Castillo earned his first career victory, pitching $2 1/3$ innings, allowing no hits and walking two batters, while striking out one in a 7–4 win over the Texas Rangers. Castillo played in 14 games with Toronto, going 1–0 with a 3.00 ERA in 15 innings pitched.

Castillo began the 1989 season with the Blue Jays, however, he struggled with the team, going 1–1 with a 6.11 ERA in 17 games. He did earn his first career save on April 16 against the Kansas City Royals, pitching $4 2/3$ innings of scoreless baseball out of the bullpen in a 15–8 win. On August 24, the Blue Jays traded Castillo and Francisco Cabrera to the Atlanta Braves for Jim Acker.

Atlanta Braves (1989–1991)
Castillo finished the 1989 season with the Atlanta Braves, getting into getting into 12 games with the club, going 0–1 with a 4.82 ERA in $9 2/3$ innings pitched.

In 1990, Castillo made his first career start on July 24 in the second game of a doubleheader against the Houston Astros, and allowed two runs in $4 1/3$ innings pitched, as he had a no-decision in a 9–8 victory. He played in 52 games with Atlanta, starting three of them, as Castillo had a 5–1 record with a 4.23 ERA in $76 2/3$ innings pitched.

Castillo began the 1991 season in the Braves bullpen, where he went 1–1 with a 7.27 ERA in seven games before being traded with Joe Roa to the New York Mets for Alejandro Peña on August 28.

New York Mets (1991)
Castillo finished the 1991 season strong with the New York Mets, playing in 10 games, starting three of them, as he went 1–0 with a 1.90 ERA in $23 2/3$ innings pitched. On January 22, 1992, the Mets traded Castillo and Mark Carreon to the Detroit Tigers in exchange for Paul Gibson and minor leaguer Randy Marshall.

Detroit Tigers (1992)
Castillo ran into injury problems in the 1992 season, and did not play in any games with the Tigers. He then spent some time with their Triple-A affiliate, the Toledo Mud Hens of the International League, where he was primarily used as a starting pitcher. On October 15, Castillo was granted free agency.

Toronto Blue Jays (1993–1996)
On January 11, 1993, Castillo rejoined his original team, the Blue Jays. Castillo made 51 appearances as part of the bullpen, going 3–2 record with a 3.38 ERA in $50 2/3$ innings pitched en route to the 1993 American League East title. In the championship series, he pitched two scoreless innings in two games, as the Blue Jays defeated the Chicago White Sox and advanced to the 1993 World Series to face the Philadelphia Phillies. Castillo earned the victory in the fourth game of the series, as Toronto won the game 15–14. Overall, Castillo was 1–0 with an ERA of 8.10, allowing three runs in $3 1/3$ innings, while Toronto won the World Series championship in six games.

Castillo had a very strong 1994 season, going 5–2 with a 2.51 ERA in 68 innings pitched, before the season ended early due to the 1994 strike.

Castillo had another solid season in 1995, despite posting a 1–5 record in 55 games, collecting an ERA of 3.22 in $72 2/3$ innings and leading the Blue Jays with 13 saves.

In 1996, Castillo had a record 2–3 with a 4.23 ERA in 40 games out of the bullpen. In August, he was traded by Toronto along Domingo Cedeño to the Chicago White Sox for Luis Andújar and minor leaguer Allen Halley.

Chicago White Sox (1996–1998)
Castillo finished the 1996 season with the White Sox strong, going 3–1 with a 1.50 ERA in 15 games pitched.

In 1997, Castillo pitched in a career-high 64 games, going 4–4 with a 4.91 ERA and four saves. But he struggled in 1998, as he was 1–1 with an 8.10 ERA in 25 appearances. He was released in June of that year.

title: Tony Castillo (pitcher)


text:
Rottenrow

The Rottenrow is a street in the Townhead district of Glasgow, Scotland. One of the oldest streets in the city, it underwent heavy redevelopment in the 20th century and now forms part of the University of Strathclyde's John Anderson Campus. The street runs along the summit of a drumlin known historically as Balmanno Brae, although this name has long fallen from use.

History
The Rottenrow is one of eight streets which formed the medieval burgh of Glasgow. It was recorded as le Ratonraw de Glasgw in 1283. The name was once a common one in British towns and cities and literally means "rat row" (from Middle English ratton raw), suggesting a tumbledown row of houses infested with rats. The original alignment of Rottenrow stretched from High Street at its east to John Street in the west.

The original premises of the University of Glasgow were situated in the Rottenrow, in a building known as the "Auld Pedagogy".

Townhead was once a densely populated residential area, but in 1962 the Glasgow Corporation earmarked it for redevelopment as part of its policy of slum clearance. The tenements and other buildings surrounding the Rottenrow were swept away to make room for the new University of Strathclyde, formed in 1964 from the Royal College of Science and Technology, and their inhabitants were moved into high rises. Much of the surrounding street grid was either lost completely or realigned between the new campus buildings. The western section between Montrose and John Streets disappeared after the demolition of John Street Ironworks in the 1950s, the new Engineering Block and Chemistry Block of the Royal College were constructed over this portion in the early 1960s. The western continuation of Rottenrow - a footpath known as Love Loan which ran behind St Paul's Church parallel to Martha Street - also disappeared around this period.

Today, the Rottenrow itself is now divided into two sections. The eastern part which starts at High Street is designated Rottenrow East, and terminates at Taylor Street where it becomes a pedestrian footpath around the Architecture Building and Wolfson Centre. The western section then continues as Rottenrow from North Portland Street to Montrose Street, following the original alignment where it terminates on Montrose Street.

The Rottenrow is perhaps best known as the site of the Royal Maternity Hospital, the birthplace of generations of Glaswegians. Opened in 1860 to replace an older maternity hospital in St Andrew's Square, it continued to function until 2001, when it was replaced by the Princess Royal Building at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. The University of Strathclyde subsequently purchased and demolished the hospital, turning it into a park, Rottenrow Gardens. A few parts of the building, including the main entrance portico, the arch on North Portland Street, and sections of basement wall were spared destruction. The area's heritage is commemorated by a giant metal nappy pin at the centre of the gardens, created by sculptor George Wyllie.

In 2023, the University of Strathclyde reached an agreement with Glasgow City Council to take full possession of the Rottenrow along with neighbouring North Portland Street and Richmond Street. The land, which carried a nominal value of £50,000 was transferred to the university at no cost. The three streets will be pedestrianised, to allow for the expansion of Rottenrow Gardens and to create an uninterrupted public space for students and staff. A new Love Loan is also being created parallel to its original alignment but further south, between John Street and North Frederick Street in 2024.

title: Rottenrow


text:
Mount Bryce

Mount Bryce is a mountain at the southwestern corner of the Columbia Icefield, in British Columbia, Canada, near the border with Alberta. It can be seen from the Icefields Parkway.

The mountain was named in 1898 by J. Norman Collie after Viscount James Bryce, who was President of the Alpine Club in London at the time.

Mount Bryce is the fifteenth-highest peak in British Columbia. To the north, it is connected by ridges to the Columbia Icefield. The mountain is rarely climbed due to difficult access although recently built (test)logging roads are alleviating some of the access problems.

title: Mount Bryce


text: Talk:Mount Bryce

title: Talk:Mount Bryce


text:
Graham Holdings

Graham Holdings Company (formerly The Washington Post Company) is a diversified American conglomerate holding company. Headquartered in Arlington County, Virginia, and incorporated in Delaware, it was formerly the owner of The Washington Post newspaper and Newsweek magazine.

Its current holdings include the digital marketing company Code3 (formerly SocialCode); online and print media entities including Slate Magazine, and the FP Group (which includes Foreign Policy magazine and ForeignPolicy.com), Graham Media Group (formerly Post-Newsweek Stations), a group of seven television stations, education company Kaplan; manufacturing operations (Hoover Treated Wood Products, Dekko, Joyce/Dayton Corp, Forney Corporation);   Graham Healthcare Group, which provides home health, hospice and palliative care services through joint ventures with health systems and physicians groups as well as other services; Graham Automotive, which includes eight automotive dealerships around the Washington, D.C. region; content and marketplace company World of Good Brands (formerly Leaf Group), and the now-defunct Trove (formerly WaPo Labs)—the developers of a news reader app. Graham Holdings Company also owned cable television and internet service provider Cable One until it was spun off in 2015.

Corporate history
The history of Graham Holdings Company dates back to 1877, when The Washington Post was first published. The Washington Post Company was incorporated in the District of Columbia in 1889, and remained a District of Columbia corporation until it changed its place of incorporation to Delaware in 2003. It is a public company and its Class B common stock trades on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol GHC; it went public in 1971.

Descendants of the late Eugene Meyer (including Chairman Donald E. Graham, his sister Lally Weymouth, and the beneficiaries of various family trusts) collectively control the company through their ownership of the unlisted Class A common stock that selects 70% of the company's board of directors. it forms more than 90% of the family's assets. Prior to 2014, Berkshire Hathaway was a substantial holder of the public Class B common stock that selects 30% of the company's board of directors, but exchanged most of that stock for WPLG-TV, one of Graham Holdings' television stations, and other assets, in 2014.

Since 1950, the company had been based in the Washington Post building in Washington, D.C., which was sold off separately in 2014. Its new headquarters are at 1300 North 17th Street in Arlington, Virginia, with the choice of state motivated (according to Don Graham) by the proximity to Congress and the fact that two of the holding's activity areas, education and health care, are subject to federal regulation.

In 1984, The Washington Post Company purchased Stanley H. Kaplan Education Centers, Ltd., a Brooklyn-based tutoring company which in subsequent decades would grow its footprint and expand its offerings beyond test prep to become Kaplan, Inc.

On August 5, 2013, it was announced that the Washington Post Company would sell the flagship newspaper for $250 million to Jeff Bezos, founder and chief executive of Amazon.com. The Washington Post Company agreed to adopt a new corporate name once the sale was finalized. It adopted Graham Holdings Company as the new name effective November 29, 2013. Amazon.com was not involved in the sale. Nash Holdings LLC, a company owned by Bezos, closed the purchase of the newspaper and affiliated publications on October 1, 2013. Graham Holdings Company retained ownership of WaPo Labs, its technology innovation group, since rebranded as Trove.

In 2014, Tim O'Shaughnessy, founder of LivingSocial and a son-in-law of CEO Don Graham, joined GHC as president. O'Shaughnessy became CEO in November 2015.

In November 2014, Graham Holdings said it would spin off Cable ONE as a separate, publicly traded company in 2015. The spin-off was completed on July 1, 2015.

In March 2018, Graham sold Kaplan University, Kaplan’s online higher education operation, to the Purdue University system, and it was rebranded Purdue University Global, a new public university to serve adult learners.

In 2019, children's podcasting company Pinna spun out of the Slate Group as a separate Graham Holdings subsidiary.

In June 2021, Graham Holdings completed their acquisition of Leaf Group, a consumer internet company, at a valuation of approximately $323 million.

Broadcasting
Through its Graham Media Group subsidiary (formerly Post-Newsweek Stations), Graham Holdings owns a group of seven television stations. Led by chief executive officer Catherine Badalamente, the company is based in Detroit, co-located with its local NBC affiliate WDIV-TV.

Stations are arranged in alphabetical order by state and city of license.

Graham Holdings Company also owns several companies active in various capacities on the World Wide Web. These include The Slate Group, which publishes Slate, Slate V, ForeignPolicy.com and World of Good Brands (formerly the Leaf Group). The Root, an online magazine focusing on African American culture, was owned by The Slate Group until Graham Holdings sold it to Univision Communications in 2015. Graham Holdings Company also owns SocialCode, an advertising agency specializing in social media/ID-based marketing, and is an investor in Pinna, a children's podcast company.

In November 2014, Graham Holdings Company acquired Social News Desk, a social media management platform for newsrooms, through its subsidiary, Graham Media Group.

In June 2021, Graham Holdings acquired Leaf Group, a consumer internet company that runs both online consumer-orientated brands and marketplace brands. In 2023, the Leaf Group was restructured to become World of Good Brands, separating Leaf’s lifestyle publishing websites – Well+Good, Livestrong, Hunker and OnlyInYourState — from its marketplace businesses, Saatchi Art and Society6.

Health care
In October 2012, the firm purchased Celtic Healthcare Inc. for an undisclosed sum. Celtic Healthcare, based in Pennsylvania, provides home health care in western, central, and northeastern Pennsylvania as well as Montgomery and Baltimore County, Maryland. It also provides home hospice services in the same areas, as well as owns a 10-bed inpatient hospice in Dunmore, Pennsylvania. In 2014, it had around 558 full-time and 45 part-time employees.

In 2014, Graham Holdings bought a majority stake in Troy, Michigan-based Residential Healthcare Group, the parent company of Residential Home Health and Residential Hospice, which provides at-home and on-site health care and hospice services in Michigan and Illinois.

Graham Healthcare Group provides home health, hospice and palliative care services through joint ventures with health systems and physicians groups. The subsidiary designs business and technology solutions aimed at streamlining hospice and home health operations and improving quality of care. Graham Healthcare Group includes Residential Healthcare Group, Allegheny Health Network-Healthcare @ Home, Mary Free Bed at Home, Clarus and InTeliCare.

Graham Healthcare Group also operates a nationwide specialty pharmacy licensed in 38 states that serves patients suffering from chronic illness through its Clinical Specialty Infusions, LLC (CSI Pharmacy) business located in Texarkana, Texas. Through its Clarus Care, LLC (Clarus) business in Nashville, Tennessee, GHG provides call management solutions to physician groups and hospitals.

Manufacturing
In July 2013, Graham Holdings purchased Forney Corp. for an undisclosed sum. The company, which is based in Addison, Texas, manufactures equipment that monitors and controls the combustion of coal, natural gas, and other materials. This equipment is sold to electric utilities for use in power generation plants.

In June 2014, Graham Holdings acquired Joyce/Dayton Corp., a Dayton, Ohio-based manufacturer of screw jacks and other linear-motion systems.

In November 2015, Graham Holdings acquired Group Dekko, a Garrett, Indiana-based electrical manufacturer.

In 2017, Graham acquired Hoover Treated Wood Products, Inc, a supplier of lumber and plywood products for fire retardant and preservative applications.

In May 2020, Graham Holdings announced that it had acquired Framebridge.

Restaurants
In July 2019, Graham Holdings acquired Clyde's Restaurant Group, the owner and operator of several restaurants in the Washington metropolitan area, including Old Ebbitt Grill.

Automotive
In January 2019, Graham Holdings acquired 90% of two automobile dealerships from Sonic Automotive. The company's latest acquisition — its fourth auto dealership to date — is located at 8820 Centreville Road in Manassas. Christopher J. Ourisman of Ourisman Automotive will operate and manage the dealership, which the Arlington holding company purchased from the Battlefield Automotive Group. Terms of the deal were not disclosed.

Education
In 1984, Graham Holdings (then The Washington Post Company), acquired Stanley H. Kaplan Educational Centers. In the 1990s, the company expanded abroad and grew beyond test preparation, expanding its training and publishing businesses, diversifying into English language training, higher education, pathways programs, online learning and other services. It launched the first online law school, Concord Law School, in 1998. Over the years, it has purchased several other educational companies and schools worldwide, expanding its operations and delivery of courses and programs in key markets beyond North America including the UK, Ireland, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand.

Kaplan today offers a variety of test preparation, professional training, career development, language training, university and student support services.

Kaplan has over 10,000 employees in 27 countries, and partners include more than 12,000 businesses and 4000 educational institutions.

title: Graham Holdings


text:
Saturn I

The Saturn I was a rocket designed as the United States' first medium lift launch vehicle for up to 20000 lb low Earth orbit payloads. Its development was taken over from the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958 by the newly formed civilian NASA. Its design proved sound and flexible. It was successful in initiating the development of liquid hydrogen-fueled rocket propulsion, launching the Pegasus satellites, and flight verification of the Apollo command and service module launch phase aerodynamics. Ten Saturn I rockets were flown before it was replaced by the heavy lift derivative Saturn IB, which used a larger, higher total impulse second stage and an improved guidance and control system. It also led the way to development of the super-heavy lift Saturn V which carried the first men to landings on the Moon in the Apollo program.

President John F. Kennedy identified the Saturn I, and the SA-5 launch in particular, as being the point where US lift capability would surpass the Soviets, after being behind since Sputnik.

Origins
The Saturn project was started as one of a number of proposals to meet a new Department of Defense (DoD) requirement for a heavy-lift vehicle to orbit a new class of communications and "other" satellites. The requirements called for a vehicle capable of putting 20000 to 40000 lb into orbit, or accelerating 6000 to 11900 kg to trans-lunar injection. Existing U.S. launchers could place a maximum of about 3900 lb in orbit, but might be expanded to as much as 9900 lb with new high-energy upper stages. In any event, these upper stages would not be available until 1961 at the earliest, and would still not meet the DoD requirements for heavy loads.

Wernher von Braun's team at the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) started studying the problem in April 1957. They calculated that a rocket with the required performance would require a lower-stage booster with a thrust of about 1.5 million pound-force (6.7 MN) thrust at takeoff. As it happened, the Air Force had recently started work on just such an engine, eventually emerging as the F-1. But the F-1 would not be available in the time frame that the DoD was demanding and would be limited to about 1 million lbf in the short term anyway. Another possibility was a Rocketdyne engine, then known as the E-1, which provided about 360000 to 380000 lbf, four of which would reach the required thrust levels. This approach became the favorite and was paired with a first stage built from a cluster of nine tanks placed atop a thrust plate where the engines and plumbing would be attached. The design envisaged eight rocket tanks similar to the Redstone stage strapped around a central larger tank derived from a Jupiter rocket. The design and diameter similarities would enable the use of the same tooling and facilities used to produce the older tanks, speeding up the design and production phases of the new stage. Contrary to what was reported to the press at the time (and propagated commonly ever since), the tanks were not simply Redstone and Jupiter tanks, but much longer versions built anew at the same diameter. However the perception that the first stage was a cluster of propellant tanks engineered from older rocket designs, leading critics to jokingly refer to it as "Cluster's Last Stand", a play on the nickname for the Battle of the Little Bighorn, "Custer's Last Stand".

Von Braun returned the design to DoD in December 1957 as A National Integrated Missile and Space Vehicle Development Program, outlining the new design, then known simply as "Super-Jupiter". Several variations were proposed, using a common clustered first stage, and upper stages based on either the Atlas or Titan I. ABMA favored the Titan as the Atlas production was extremely high-priority and there was little or no excess capacity to spare. They proposed using the existing Titan tooling at 120 in diameter, but lengthening it to produce a new 200 ft-long stage. A Centaur would be used as a third stage, which was expected to be ready for operational use in 1963, right when the lower two stages would have completed their testing. The resulting three-stage design was much taller and skinnier than the Saturn design that was eventually built.

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was formed in February 1958 as part of DoD and was in charge of the requirements. ARPA asked for only one change to the design; concerned that the E-1 was still in early development, they suggested looking at alternatives in order to ensure the rocket would enter production as soon as possible. ABMA quickly responded with a slightly modified design replacing the four E-1's with eight H-1 engines, a minor upgrade to the S-3D engine used on Thor and Jupiter missiles. They estimated that changing the engines would save about $60 million and as much as two years of research and development time.

von Braun had earlier referred to Redstone and Jupiter rockets being used as space launchers as the Juno I and Juno II, respectively, and had submitted proposals for multi-stage versions as the Juno III and IV. He changed the name of the new design to Juno V. The total development cost of $850 million ($5.6 billion in year-2007 dollars) between 1958 and 1963 also covered 30 research and development flights, some carrying crewed and uncrewed space payloads.

Work begins
Satisfied with the outcome, ARPA Order Number 14-59, dated 15 August 1958, ordered the program into existence:

 * Initiate a development program to provide a large space vehicle booster of approximately 1,500,000-lb. thrust based on a cluster of available rocket engines. The immediate goal of this program is to demonstrate a full-scale captive dynamic firing by the end of CY 1959.

This was followed on 11 September 1958 with another contract with Rocketdyne to start work on the H-1. On 23 September 1958, ARPA and the Army Ordnance Missile Command (AOMC) drew up an additional agreement enlarging the scope of the program, stating "In addition to the captive dynamic firing..., it is hereby agreed that this program should now be extended to provide for a propulsion flight test of this booster by approximately September 1960". Further, they wanted ABMA to produce three additional boosters, the last two of which would be "capable of placing limited payloads in orbit".

von Braun had high hopes for the design, feeling it would make an excellent test-bed for other propulsion systems, notably the F-1 if it matured. He outlined uses for the Juno V as a general carrier vehicle for research and development of "offensive and defensive space weapons". Specific uses were forecast for each of the military services, including navigation satellites for the Navy; reconnaissance, communications, and meteorological satellites for the Army and Air Force; support for Air Force crewed missions; and surface-to-surface logistics supply for the Army at distances up to 6400 kilometers. von Braun also proposed using the Juno V as the basis of a crewed lunar mission as part of Project Horizon. Juno could lift up to 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg) into low Earth orbit, and he proposed launching 15 of them to build a 200000 lb lunar spacecraft in Earth orbit.

Even by this point the name "Saturn", as "the one after Jupiter" was being used. One early ARPA report noted: "The SATURN is considered to be the first real space vehicle as the Douglas DC-3 was the first real airliner and durable work-horse in aeronautics". The name change became official in February 1959.

Transfer to NASA
The formation of NASA on 29 July 1958 led to an effort to collect the existing heavy-launch rocket programs and select a single set of designs for future work. At the time, both the Air Force and US Army had teams developing such vehicles, the Army's Saturn and the Air Force's Space Launching System (SLS). The SLS used a set of common modular components with solid fuel boosters and hydrogen/oxygen upper stages to allow a wide variety of launch configurations and payload weights. Both groups had also developed plans for crewed lunar bases, ABMA's Horizon with its Earth Orbit Rendezvous method of building a large lunar rocket in Earth orbit, and the Air Force's Lunex Project which planned on launching a single huge lander using the largest of the SLS configurations. As if this were not enough, NASA's own engineers had started the design of their own Nova design series, planning to use it in the direct ascent profile similar to the Air Force's approach.

Von Braun was asked to chair a committee to study the existing efforts and write up recommendations. The committee presented their report on 18 July 1958, starting with a criticism of how the US program had been mishandled to date and pointing out that the Soviet program was definitely ahead. It went on to describe five "generations" of rockets, starting with the early Vanguard, through the Juno, ICBMs like Atlas and Titan, clustered designs like the Saturn, and finally, the ultimate development, a cluster using the F-1 with 6 e6lbf of thrust. The report went on to outline a crewed exploration program using these rockets as they become available; using existing ICBMs a small four-man space station could be operational 1961, the clusters would support a crewed lunar landing in 1965-1966 and a larger 50-man space station by 1967, while the largest of the rockets would support large Moon expeditions in 1972, set up a permanent Moon base in 1973–1974, and launch crewed interplanetary trips in 1977.

In December 1958, all of the teams gathered to present their designs. NASA selected von Braun's proposal on 6 January 1959, giving it a vital boost. At the end of January, NASA outlined their complete development program. This included the Vega and Centaur upper stages, as well as the Juno V and their own Nova boosters. Vega was later cancelled when information on the formerly secret Agena upper stage was released (then known as "Hustler"), and it had performance roughly comparable to NASA's design.

Near-cancellation
Progress on the Saturn design seemed to go smoothly. In April 1959, the first H-1 engines started arriving at ABMA, and test firings started in May. Construction of the Complex 34 launch sites started at Cape Canaveral in June.

Then, quite unexpectedly, on 9 June 1959, Herbert York, Director of Department of Defense Research and Engineering, announced that he had decided to terminate the Saturn program. He later stated that he was concerned that the project was taking ARPA money from more pressing projects, and that as it seemed upgrades to existing ICBMs would provide the needed heavy-lift capability in the short term. As ABMA commander John B. Medaris put it:

 * By this time, my nose was beginning to sniff a strange odor of "fish". I put my bird dogs to work to try to find out what was going on and with whom we had to compete. We discovered that the Air Force had proposed a wholly different and entirely new vehicle as the booster for Dynasoar, using a cluster of Titan engines and upgrading their performance to get the necessary first-stage thrust for take-off. This creature was variously christened the Super Titan, or the Titan C. No work had been done on this vehicle other than a hasty engineering outline. Yet the claim was made that the vehicle in a two-stage or three-stage configuration could be flown more quickly than the Saturn, on which we had already been working hard for many months. Dates and estimates were attached to that proposal which at best ignored many factors of costs, and at worst were strictly propaganda.

Looking to head off the cancellation, Saturn supporters from the DoD and ARPA drafted their own memo arguing against the cancellation. Working against them was the fact that neither the Army nor NASA had any in-writing requirement for the booster at that time. A three-day meeting between 16 and 18 September 1959 followed, where York and Dryden reviewed Saturn's future and discussed the roles of the Titan C and Nova. The outcome was equally unexpected; York agreed to defer the cancellation and continue short-term funding, but only if NASA agreed to take over the ABMA team and continue development without the help of the DoD. NASA was equally concerned that by relying on third parties for their boosters they were putting their entire program in jeopardy, and were very open to the idea of taking over the team.

As the parties continued discussions over the next week an agreement was hammered out; von Braun's team at ABMA would be kept together and continue working as the lead developers of Saturn, but the entire organization would be transferred to NASA's management. By a presidential executive order on 15 March 1960, ABMA became NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

Selecting the upper stages
In July 1959, a change request was received from ARPA to upgrade the upper stage to a much more powerful design using four new 20000 lbf liquid hydrogen / liquid oxygen powered engines in a larger-diameter 160 in second stage, with an upgraded Centaur using two engines of the same design for the third stage. On this change Medaris noted:

 * For reasons of economy we had recommended, and it had been approved, that in building the second stage, we would use the same diameter as the Titan first stage – 120 inches. The major costs of tooling for the fabrication of missile tanks and the main structure is related to the diameter. Changes in length cost little or nothing in tooling. How the tanks are divided internally, or the structure reinforced inside, or the kind of structural detail that is used at the end in order to attach the structure to a big booster below, or to a different size stage above, have very little effect on tooling problems. However, a change in diameter sets up a major question of tools, costs, and time.

 * Suddenly, out of the blue came a directive to suspend work on the second stage, and a request for a whole new series of cost and time estimates, including consideration of increasing the second stage diameter to 160 inches. It appeared that Dr. York had entered the scene, and had pointed up the future requirements of Dynasoar as being incompatible with the 120-inch diameter. He had posed the question of whether it was possible for the Saturn to be so designed as to permit it to be the booster for that Air Force project.

 * We were shocked and stunned. This was no new problem, and we could find no reason why it should not have been considered, if necessary, during the time that the Department of Defense and NASA were debating the whole question of what kind of upper stages we should use. Nevertheless, we very speedily went about the job of estimating the project on the basis of accepting the 160-inch diameter. At the same time, it was requested that we submit quotations for a complete operational program to boost the Dynasoar for a given number of flights. As usual, we were given two or three numbers, rather than one fixed quantity, and asked to estimate on each of them.

In order to reach some sort of accommodation, a group pulled from NASA, Air Force, ARPA, ABMA, and the Office of the Department of Defense Research and Engineering formed under the Silverstein Committee in December. von Braun was skeptical of liquid hydrogen as an upper stage fuel, but the Committee convinced him that it was the way to go on future upper stage development. Once these changes had been made, NASA's booster project was now entirely free of any dependence on military developments. At that point any sort of upper stage was fair game, and "If these propellants are to be accepted for the difficult top-stage applications", the committee concluded, "there seem to be no valid engineering reasons for not accepting the use of high-energy propellants for the less difficult application to intermediate stages".

The Committee outlined a number of different potential launch configurations, grouped into three broad categories. The "A" group were low-risk versions similar to the Saturn designs proposed prior to the meeting; the original design using Titan and Centaur upper stages became the A-1, while another model replacing the Titan with a cluster of IRBMs became A-2. The B-1 design proposed a new second stage replacing the A-2s cluster with a new four-engine design using the H-1 like the lower stage. Finally, there were three C-series models that replaced all of the upper stages with liquid hydrogen ones. The C-1 used the existing S-I clustered lower, adding the new S-IV stage with four new 15000 to 20000 lbf engines, and keeping the two-engine Centaur on top, now to be known as the S-V stage. The C-2 model added a new S-III stage with two new 150000 to 200000 lbf engines, keeping the S-IV and S-V on top. Finally, the C-3 configuration added the S-II stage with four of these same engines, keeping only the S-III and S-IV on top. The C models easily outperformed the A's and B's, with the added advantage that they were interchangeable and could be built up in order to fit any needed payload requirement.

Saturn emerges
Of these new stage designs, only the S-IV would ever be delivered, and not in the form that was drawn up in the Committee report. In order to meet development schedules a cluster of six Centaur engines were placed in the new 220 in stage to produce the "new" S-IV of roughly the same performance as the original four upgraded engines. A large number of small engines are less efficient and more problematic than a smaller number of large engines, and this made it a target for an early upgrade to a single J-2. The resulting stage, the S-IVB, improved performance so much that the Saturn was able to launch the Apollo CSM, proving invaluable during the Apollo Project.

In the end, the Titan C was never delivered, and the Air Force instead turned to "thrust augmented" Titan IIs using clustered solid-fuel rockets. These new designs, the Titan IIIs, became the DoD's main heavy-lift launch vehicle for decades afterward as it cost significantly less to manufacture and fly, in part due to using hypergolic propellants that could be stored at room temperature. An important factor in this decision was that the DoD preferred to have a launch vehicle that they were in complete control of instead of having to share the Saturn with NASA (of all Titan III/IV vehicles launched during its 40-year run, only a handful carried NASA payloads). Likewise, the development of the Titan III eliminated the need for the "flexible" staging concepts of the Saturn, which was now only intended to be used for crewed launches in the Apollo program. With the need for flexibility in launch configuration removed, most of these designs were subsequently dropped. Only the S-V survived in its original form, while the S-IV would appear in modified form and the Saturn V would feature an entirely different S-II stage.

The Saturn I made its maiden flight on 27 October 1961 with a dummy upper stage and partially fueled first stage. Tension in the blockhouse was high as no launch vehicle to date had been successful on the first attempt and there was the widespread fear of a pad explosion. As the Saturn was the largest booster yet flown, such an event was sure to be extremely destructive, possibly putting the launch complex out of use for six months.

In the end, however, these worries subsided as the booster lifted and performed a flawless test flight. Three more flights with dummy upper stages followed over the next 17 months, which were all completely or mostly successful. Two of them had the S-IV filled with water and detonated at high altitude after stage separation to form an ice cloud that was then photographed.

Flight #5 in January 1964 was the first to carry a live S-IV, which restarted its engine in orbit to boost to a high altitude where it would remain until decaying two years later. Another two flights followed during the year with boilerplate Apollo CSMs.

By this point, however, the advent of the Titan III had robbed the Saturn of a role as a DoD launcher and with the newer, improved Saturn IB in development (as the Apollo CSM ended up being heavier than originally expected and so needed a more powerful launch vehicle), the booster quickly became orphaned and no practical use could be found for it.

Uses in service
The main payload of the Saturn I was the boilerplate version of the Apollo Command and Service Modules and Launch Escape System. The final three also carried Pegasus micrometeoroid satellites in the second stage-spacecraft adapter.

The Saturn I was considered for launch of the X-20 Dyna-Soar spaceplane, and later, for launching a Gemini capsule on a proposed circumlunar mission. With funding of the Dyna-Soar cut in 1963 and Apollo development already far progressed, these proposals were however never realized.

Much later, Saturn I was also considered as a short range ballistic missile system in the TABAS concept. TABAS armed the Saturn with 25 MT of conventional weapons in a mechanical carrier system that ensured that the missile would hit and destroy an enemy runway, knocking it out of action for three days. The system was considered too dangerous to deploy; when launched it would appear to be a nuclear strike and might invite a response-in-kind.

Specifications
The S-V third stage was developed as the Centaur rocket stage, It was flown inactively four times on the Saturn I with the tanks filled with water. It never flew an active mission. The S-V would become an upper stage for the Atlas-Centaur and Titan III launch vehicles and their derivatives.

S-I stage
The S-I first stage was powered by eight H-1 rocket engines burning RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidizer. The propellant tanks consisted of a central Jupiter rocket tank containing LOX, surrounded by a cluster of eight Redstone rocket tanks: four painted white, containing LOX; and four painted black, containing the RP-1 fuel. The four outboard engines were mounted on gimbals, allowing them to be steered to guide the rocket. On the Block II vehicles (SA-5 through SA-10), eight fins provided aerodynamic stability in the flight through the atmosphere.

S-IV stage

The S-IV stage was powered by six LOX / LH2-fueled RL10 engines, mounted on gimbals. The propellant tanks used a single, common bulkhead to separate the LOX and LH2 propellant tanks, saving 20% of structural weight along with the associated length and complexity of construction.

Saturn I Instrument Unit

Saturn I Block I vehicles (SA-1 to SA-4) were guided by instruments carried in canisters on top of the S-I first stage, and included the ST-90 stabilized platform, made by Ford Instrument Company and used in the Redstone missile. These first four vehicles followed ballistic, non-orbital trajectories, and the dummy upper stages did not separate from the single powered stage.

The Block II vehicles (SA-5 to SA-10) included two powered stages, and went into orbits. Beginning with SA-5, the guidance instruments were carried on the instrument unit (IU), just ahead of the S-IV stage. The first version of the IU was 154 in in diameter and 58 in high, and was both designed and built by Marshall Space Flight Center. Guidance, telemetry, tracking, and power components were contained in four pressurized, cylindrical containers attached like spokes to a central hub. This version flew on SA-5, SA-6, and SA-7.

MSFC flew version 2 of the IU on SA-8, SA-9, and SA-10. Version 2 was the same diameter as version 1, but only 34 in high. Instead of pressurized containers, the components were hung on the inside of the cylindrical wall, achieving a reduction in weight.

The guidance computer for Block II was the IBM ASC-15. Other instruments carried by the IU included active components, that guided the vehicle; and passenger components, that telemetered data to the ground for test and evaluation for use in later flights. The ST-90 stabilized platform was the active IMU for SA-5 and the first stage of SA-6. The ST-124 was the passenger on SA-5 and active for the second stage of SA-6 and subsequent missions. The IU had an optical window to allow alignment of the inertial platform before launch.

S-V stage
The S-V stage was intended to be powered by two RL-10A-1 engines burning liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as oxidizer. The propellant tanks used a common bulkhead to separate the propellants. The S-V stage was flown four times on missions SA-1 through SA-4; all four of these missions had the S-V's tanks filled with water to be used a ballast during launch. The stage was never flown in an active configuration on any Saturn launch vehicle. This stage was also used on the Atlas-LV3C as the Centaur, modern derivatives of which are still flown today, making it the only Saturn rocket stage still currently operating.

Saturn I launches

For further launches of Saturn-1 series vehicles, see the Saturn IB page.

Saturn I rockets on display
, there are three locations where Saturn I test vehicles (or parts thereof) are on display:

Block 1 test vehicles
SA-T First Saturn I Static Test stage. Manufactured at Marshall Space Flight Center, used in several MSFC static firing tests from 1960, then shipped and used at the Michoud Assembly Facility for fit testing, before being returned to Alabama. Now on horizontal display, next to the static test tower at Marshall Space Flight Center. In 2019, it was reported that this stage has been made available by NASA for donation to an organization, with the only provision being an approximately $250,000 "shipping fee" for transportation costs.

With apparently no inquiries by qualified institutions to obtain the SA-T stage, the booster was demolished on or around April 4, 2022.

Block 2 test vehicle
SA-D5 Block 2 Dynamic Test Vehicle - consists of S-I-D5 Booster stage and S-IV-H/D hydrostatic/dynamic upper stage, used in tests at MSFC dynamic stand in 1962. It was also shipped and used for checkout at LC-37B at Cape Canaveral in 1963. It was returned to Alabama and modified for use as an S-IB dynamic test stage. Donated by NASA/MSFC to the State of Alabama at the same time as the Saturn V dynamic test vehicle and now on display in a vertical position at the U.S. Space and Rocket Center (formerly Alabama Space and Rocket Center), Huntsville, Alabama, where it has become a very familiar local landmark.

title: Saturn I