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Schola Medica Salernitana

The Schola Medica Salernitana (Scuola Medica Salernitana) was a medieval medical school, the first and most important of its kind. Situated on the Tyrrhenian Sea in the south Italian city of Salerno, it was founded in the 9th century and rose to prominence in the 10th century, becoming the most important source of medical knowledge in Western Europe at the time.

Arabic medical treatises, both those that were translations of Greek texts and those that were originally written in Arabic, had accumulated in the library of Montecassino, where they were translated into Latin; thus the received lore of Hippocrates, Galen and Dioscorides was supplemented and invigorated by Arabic medical practice, known from contacts with Sicily and North Africa. As a result, the medical practitioners of Salerno, both men and women, were unrivaled in the medieval Western Mediterranean for practical concerns.

Overview
Founded in the 9th century, the school was originally based in the dispensary of a monastery. It achieved its greatest celebrity between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, from the last decades of Lombard power, during which its fame began to spread more than locally, to the fall of the Hohenstaufen. The arrival in Salerno of Constantine Africanus in 1077 marked the beginning of Salerno's classic period. Through the encouragement of Alfano I, Archbishop of Salerno and translations of Constantine Africanus, Salerno gained the title of "Town of Hippocrates" (Hippocratica Civitas or Hippocratica Urbs). People from all over the world flocked to the "Schola Salerni", both the sick, in the hope of recovering, and students, to learn the art of medicine.

The school was based on the synthesis of the Greek-Latin tradition supplemented by notions from Arab and Jewish cultures. The approach was based on the practice and culture of prevention rather than cure, thus opening the way for the empirical method in medicine.

Legend of the foundation
The foundation of the school is traditionally linked to an event narrated by a legend. It is reported that a Greek pilgrim named Pontus had stopped in the city of Salerno and found shelter for the night under the arches of the Arcino aqueduct. There was a thunderstorm and another Italian runner, named Salernus, wandered in the same place. He was hurt and the Greek, at first suspicious, approached to look closely at the dressings that the Latin applied to his wound. Meanwhile, two other travellers, the Jew Helinus and the Arab Abdela had come. They also showed interest in the wound and at the end it was discovered that all four were dealing with medicine. They then decided to create a partnership and to give birth to a school where their knowledge could be collected and disseminated.

The first period: 9th–10th centuries
The origins of the "School" should date back to the 9th century, though the documentation for this first period is rather poor. Little is known about the nature, lay or monastic, of doctors who were part of it, and it is unclear whether the "School" already had an institutionalized organization. Antonio Mazza dates the foundation of the school in 802. The Historia inventionis ac translationis et miracula Sanctae Trophimenae chronicle narrates that in the period in which Pulcari was prefect of Amalfi (867–878 c.) a young woman by the name of Theodonanda fell seriously ill. Her husband and relatives took her to Salerno to be treated by the great archiater Hyerolamus, who visits her and consults a great amount of books ("immensa volumina librorum").

From the 9th century there was a great legal culture in Salerno as well as the existence of lay teachers and an ecclesiastical school. Alongside the masters of the law there were also those who cared for the body and taught the dogmas of the art of health. By the 10th century the city of Salerno was already very famous for its healthy climate and its doctors, and the fame of the medical school had reached northern Europe. We are told that "they were devoid of literary culture but provided with great experience and innate talent", and their fame was based more on their practical, observational, and experimental knowledge of medicine and successful cures rather than from ancient books and learning. In 988, Adalbero II of Verdun went to Salerno to have himself cured by the famed Salerno physicians, as told in the Gesta episcoporum Virdunensium. Richerus tells the story of a Salernitan physician at the French court in 947, whose medical knowledge he describes rooted in practical experience rather than books. In his Historia Ecclesiastica, Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. 1142) states that in Salerno "the most ancient school of medicine has long flourished".

The second period: 11th–13th centuries
Geographic location certainly played a key role in the growth of the School: Salerno, a Mediterranean port, fused influences of Arab and Eastern Roman culture. Books of Avicenna and Averroes arrived by sea, and the Carthaginian physician Constantine the African (or Ifrīqiya) who arrived in the city for several years came to Salerno and translated many texts from Arabic: Aphorisma and Prognostica of Hippocrates, Tegni and Megategni of Galen, Kitāb-al-malikī (i.e. Liber Regius, or Pantegni) of Alī ibn'Abbās (Haliy Abbas), the Viaticum of al-Jazzār (Algizar), the Liber divisionum and the Liber experimentorum of Rhazes (Razī), the Liber dietorum, Liber urinarium and the Liber febrium of Isaac Israel the Old (Isaac Iudaeus).

Johannes (d. February 2, 1161) and Matthaeus Platearius, possible father and son, resided in Salerno at this time when they apparently published their famous "Liber de Simplici Medicina" (a.k.a. "Circa Instans") which is first recorded in Salerno under their name early in the 13th Century. Subsequent incarnations—c.1480 now found in Brussels; and in the early 1500s, published in Paris with art by Robinet Testard and now found in both Paris and St. Petersburg—bore the name "Livre des simples medecines". Facsimiles with commentary for both editions have been published by Opsomer and Stearn (1984) and by Moleiro (2001).

Under this cultural thrust are rediscovered the classical works long forgotten in the monasteries. Thanks to the "Medical School", medicine was the first science discipline to come out of the abbeys to confront again with the world and experimental practice.

Monks of Salerno and of the nearby Badia di Cava were of great importance in Benedictine geography, for we note in the city in the eleventh century the presence of three important figures of this order: Pope Gregory VII, the Abbot of Montecassino Desiderio (future Pope Victor III) and bishop Alfano I.

In this context, the "School" of Salerno grew until it became a point of attraction of both sick and students from all over Europe. The prestige of doctors in Salerno is largely witnessed by the chronicles of the time and the numerous manuscripts kept in the major European libraries.

In 1231, the authority of the school was sanctioned by Emperor Federico II. In his constitution of Melfi it was established that the activity of a doctor could only be carried out by doctors holding a diploma issued by the Medical School Salernitana. In 1280 Charles II of Anjou approved the first statute in which the School was recognized as a General Study in Medicine.

Its fame crossed borders, as proved by the Salernitan manuscripts kept in many European libraries, and by historical witnesses. The twelfth- or thirteenth-century author of the poem Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum gave a Salernitan provenance to his poem in order to advertise his work and give validity to it. The school kept the Greek-Latin medical tradition going, merging it with the Arab and Jewish medical traditions. The meeting of different cultures led to a synthesis and the comparison of different medical knowledge, as evidenced by a legend that ascribes the foundation of the school to four masters: the Jewish Helinus, the Greek Pontus, the Arab Abdela, and the Latin Salernus. In the school, besides the teaching of medicine (in which women too were involved, as both teachers and students), there were courses of philosophy, theology, and law.

The most famous female doctor and medical author at the school is Trota or Trotula de Ruggiero, who is accredited with several books on gynaecology and cosmetics, collectively known as The Trotula. De Passionibus Mulierum Curandorum was first published around 1100 AD and was a prominent text until a major revision by Louise Bourgoise, a midwife whose husband worked as assistant to Ambrose Paré in the early 1600s. A further 19 less definitive manuscripts by Trota can be found in European libraries today. Additional women physicians who attended this school became known as the "Women of Salerno", or the mulieres Saleritanae, and included women such as Abella, Constance Calenda, Rebecca de Guarna, and Mercuriade.

Books made the Salernitan school famous. They had a strong start with the Pantegni, Constantine's translation and adaptation of the Al-malaki of Haly Abbas, ten volumes of theoretical medicine and ten of practical medicine. He had also translated a treatise on the ophthalmology of Hunayn bin Ishaq and the Viaticus of Ibn al-Jazzar. The most famous pharmacopeia of the Middle Ages, the Antidotarium Nicolai, also was written in the circles of the school.

Among the physicians who trained at the Schola Medica Salernitana is Gilles de Corbeil.

The third period: 14–19th centuries
With the emergence of the University of Naples, the "School" began to lose importance. Over time its prestige was obscured by that of younger universities, especially Montpellier, Padua, and Bologna. The Salernitan institution, however, remained alive for several centuries until, on November 29, 1811, it was abolished by Gioacchino Murat during the reorganization of public education in the Kingdom of Naples. The last seat was the Palazzo Copeta.

The remaining "Doctors of Medicine and Law" at the Salerno Medical School operated in Salerno's "National Convitto Tasso" for fifty years, from 1811 until their closure in 1861, by Francesco De Sanctis, the minister of public instruction for the newborn Kingdom of Italy.

Medical studies
The curriculum studiorum consisted of 3 years of logic, 5 years of medicine (including surgery and anatomy), and a year of practice with an experienced physician. Also, every five years, an autopsy of a human body was planned.

Lessons consisted in the interpretation of the texts of ancient medicine. But while medicine was slow, in Salerno there appeared the new art of surgery which was elevated to the dignity of a true science by Ruggiero di Fugaldo. He wrote the first treatise on national surgery that spread throughout Europe. Therefore, since the 12th century, Salerno was the target of particularly German students. But with Arabic books becoming more common, the scientific influence of the school, which was believed to be of a Latin tradition, was decreasing, superseded by universities in Northern Italy. Alumni such as Bruno da Longobucco also helped disseminate its teaching. The "School", besides teaching medicine (where women were admitted as both teachers and students), also taught philosophy, theology and law, and that is why some also consider it as the first University ever founded.

The teaching subjects in the Salernitan Medical School are known to us through a special statute. School teachers distinguished medicine in theory and practice. The first gave the necessary lessons to know the body structures, the parts that compose it, and their qualities; the second gave the means to preserve the health and to fight disease. And, in common with all other medical schools of the time, the basis of medical teaching was the principles of Hippocrates and Galen. The ancient texts of Salerno's masters do not deviate from this tradition.

The spread of Salernitan medical doctrines to distant regions is attested by documents such as a codex that is kept in the Capitolare di Modena from the abbey of Nonantola. These confirm the antiquity of medical teaching in Salerno, and prove that the tradition of Latin culture had not switched off and its dissemination center was Salerno.

The most famous treatise produced by the school is Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum. The work, in Latin verse, appears to be a collection of hygiene rules, based on its doctrine.

Almo Collegio Salernitano
The Medical College was an independent academic body of the School. Its aim was to submit students who had completed the required years of study to a rigorous examination to obtain the doctorate, not only to practice medicine but also to teach it.

The Medical College was a professional organization for the defense of the medics' interests and dignity, and also to put a brake on the pesky work of medicines.

The first sovereign act validating the college's prerogatives by granting legal recognition to the academic titles issued by it dates back to Emperor Frederick II in 1200. All the doctors in the city were "Alunni" and they also gradually had the right to enter the college. Usually the function of conferring graduates took place either in the Church of St. Peter at Court, or of St. Matthew or in the Chapel of St. Catherine. But at the beginning of the year 1000 the conferment took place in the palace of the city.

The oath represented the highest moral conception of the doctor's function, who swore to give his help to the poor without asking for anything and at the same time was a sublime affirmation before God and men to maintain an honest life and strict conduct. In order to obtain a pharmacy license, that is to say in arte aromatariae, the candidate was required to be of a moral and honest character, qualities which the School held in high esteem. Such a diploma was often held as evidence of the 'religious' character of a young graduate. The authenticity of the doctoral privileges, issued by the Collegio di Salerno, was attested by the notary, and was necessary to teach the subject. A doctorate not only had the examination date but also the year of the Pope's accession. This was because the civil calendar varied by state, but not the papal date, especially as regards the diplomas of graduates in foreign countries. The diplomas always bore the seal of the college in wax. In the middle of these circular seals is clearly visible the coat of arms of the city, represented by the patron Saint Matthew in the act of writing the Gospel.

Many Salernitan works were lost. The masters of the school have the great merit of dictating for the first time the norms that the doctor must follow when he is at the patient's bed. They are a precious document that reveals how dedicated were these teachers to the physician's mission and their spirit of observation and profound knowledge of the human body.

School professors
It is necessary to make a distinction between medicus and medicus et clericus because they mark two distinct periods of Salerno medicine. A medicus was the traditional physician who practiced empiricism, and he uses concoctions to help the patient. Medicus et clericus is a doctor in the original sense of a scholar of art and doctrine. With Garioponto (who studied the ancient Latin writers who followed Hippocrates and Galen) Salernitan medicine begins its golden age. We see for the first time a woman, the famous Trotula de Ruggiero, who ascends to the honors of the chair, and gives instructions to women in labor. At the beginning of 1000 A.D. in Salerno there was a well-ordered school or society which arose by practitioners of medical disciplines. The first constitution of the Societas was formed by those jatrophysici, who took office on the hill Bonae diei and Salernitam Scholam scripsere, laid the foundations of that school and leaving to posterity the Flos Medicinae, a monument of greatness and piety.

The teaching of medicine in Salerno in the Middle Ages was carried out by private professors whose name was assigned to doctors. At that time the number of doctors was low, and many simply followed the traditional family cure from several generations. The Schola was an institute with an independent organization, consisting of teachers with particular merit and was responsible for the Praeses. It was a merit of seniority when the Prior was created as the supreme dignity of the college. But the Praeses had nothing in common with the Prior, since its authority came later within the college.

The medical doctrines spread by Garioponto and his contemporaries did not disappear with them; other masters followed their footsteps. In the second half of the twelfth century three illustrious masters honored their predecessors: Master Salerno, Matteo Plateario junior and Musandino. Salerno's Tabulae Salernitanae and Compendium formulated a general therapy and drug preparation treatment. Matteo Plateario junior wrote Glosse Platearium, where he describes plants and various medicinal products.

Musandino is the renowned master, destined to spread the dogmas of medicine. Other eminent figures were Romualdo Guarna, who was called twice to the bedside of William I of Sicily, and Antonio Solimena, who treated Queen Joanna II of Naples at the end of the 14th century. Distinguished for his doctrine, he was raised to the high office of Maestro Razionale della Magna Curia. Another noble figure was Giovanni da Procida.

There are many Salernitan masters in the centuries who lent their work to war operations. At the service of the army of Robert of Anjou, Duke of Calabria, operating in Sicily in 1299 there are Bartolomeo de Vallona and Filippo Fundacario.

List of famous professors

 * Garioponto (10–11th century)
 * Peter Cleric (10–11th century)
 * Alfano I (11th century)
 * Constantine the African (11th century)
 * Trota de Ruggiero (11th century, the most famous of the mulieres Saleritanae)
 * Pietro da Eboli (11th century)
 * Giovanni Afflacio
 * Nicolò Salernitano (12th century)
 * Saladino d'Ascoli (12th century)
 * Giovanni Plateario, husband of Trota and his children:
 * Giovanni Plateario the Young and Matte Plateary (12th century)
 * Niccolò da Reggio (Nicola Deoprepio – 13th century)
 * Ruggero Frugardi (13th century)
 * Giovanni da Procida (13th century)
 * Abella (14th century, one of the mulieres Saleritanae)
 * Matteo Silvatico (14th century)
 * Mercuriade (14th century, probably a pseudonym, was one of the mulieres Saleritanae)
 * Constance Calenda (15th century, one of the mulieres Salernitanae)
 * Rebecca de Guarna (15th century, one of the mulieres Saleritanae)
 * Vincenzo Braca (16–17th century)
 * Domenico Cotugno (18th–19th century)
 * Giuseppe Gaimari (18–19th century)

Legend of the Poor Henry
This most celebrated legend was handed down by the medieval German minstrels, and written in the 1190s as the narrative poem Der arme Heinrich (Poor Henry) by Hartmann von Aue. The story was then "rediscovered" by Longfellow and published as The Golden Legend (1851). Henry, prince of Germany, was a beautiful and strong young man, engaged with the young princess Elsie. One day, however, he was struck by leprosy and began to swell quickly, so that the subjects, seeing him now destined to certain death, renamed him "Poor Henry". The prince had a dream one night: the devil personally suggested that he be taken care of by the Salernitian doctors, intimating to him that he would only be healed if he had bathed in the blood of a young virgin who had died for him voluntarily. Though Elsie was immediately offered for the horrific sacrifice, Henry refused disdainfully, preferring to listen to the doctors' opinion. After a long voyage, the whole court came to Salerno and Henry, before attending the Medical school, wanted to go to the Cathedral to pray on the tomb of St. Matthew. Here, in a vision, he found himself miraculously cured of evil and married Elsie on the same altar of the saint.

Legend of Robert and Sibylla
Another tradition is that of the Legend of Robert of Normandy and Sibylla of Conversano. During the crusades, Robert was struck by a poisoned arrow. Because his condition had become serious, he returned to Salerno to consult physicians, whose response was drastic: the only way to save his life was to suck away the poison from the wound, but who would have done it would have died in his place. Roberto dismissed everyone, preferring to die, but his wife Sibylla of Conversano sucked his poison over the night, dying for her beloved husband. This legend is depicted in a miniature on the cover of the Canon of Avicenna, in which one sees Roberto with his court, who greets and thanks the doctors at the gates of the city, while in the background the ships are ready to go; on the left, four other doctors deal with Sibylla, recognizable by the crown, struck down by poison.

title: Schola Medica Salernitana


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Jumblatt family

The Jumblatt family (جنبلاط, originally جان‌پولاد Canpolad, meaning "steel-bodied" or "soul of steel"), also transliterated as Joumblatt and Junblat) is a Sunni-Muslim that became dominant in Druze politics after 1960s with the weakening of the Arslan family based in the Chouf area of Mount Lebanon that began to ascend in the Druze politics following the end of the Shihabi Emirate. The current head of the family is veteran politician Walid Jumblatt, the son and successor of Kamal Jumblatt, one of the most influential figures in modern Lebanese politics. Other members of the family have contributed to cultural, economic and social life in Lebanon. Khaled Jumblatt, a distant cousin of Walid Jumblatt, held the position of minister of economy and was a prominent politician in Lebanon for many years until his death in 1993. Besides the Chouf, the family owns mansions and villas within the distinguished Clemenceau area of Beirut and in the northwest area of Sidon.

Origins
The scholarly consensus of the Jumblatts' origins is based on the history of the local, 19th-century chronicler Tannus al-Shidyaq, with some variation. Shidyaq cited genealogical records and oral traditions, sourced mainly to the Druze chief Sheikh Khattar Talhuq. Kamal Jumblatt, the head of the Jumblatt family in the mid-20th century, generally accepts this narrative to be authentic.

In the main, the Jumblatts are regarded as descendants or relatives of Ali Janbulad, the Kurdish tribal leader and rebel Ottoman governor of Aleppo, who settled in the Chouf region of Mount Lebanon not long after Ali's defeat, imprisonment, and execution in 1607–1611. 'Jumblatt', or rather 'Junblat', is the Arabic version of the Kurdish 'Janbulad'. Ali had been an ally of the paramount Druze emir, the governor and tax farmer Fakhr al-Din II of the Ma'n dynasty. Shidyaq holds that after Ali's defeat, the Janbulad family was dispersed, and names two members, Janbulad ibn Sa'id and his son Rabah, as having sought shelter in Fakhr al-Din's territory, arriving in Beirut in 1630. While Shidyaq calls Janbulad a nephew of Ali, the historian Pierre Rondot speculates that he was Ali's grandson. The father and son were invited by the local notables to settle in the village of Mazraat al-Shuf. Rabah remained in the village as a reputable figure after his father's death and was survived by his sons Ali, Faris and Sharaf al-Din.

The family's social status was raised when Ali married a woman of the noble Tanukh family, the daughter of Qabalan al-Qadi, the chief of the Chouf, however there had not been a solid foundation to this claim and no documentation. Ali then moved to the village of Baadarane and built his residence there. When Qabalan died, the Druze sheikhs of the Chouf requested and paid 25,000 piasters to the Ma'ns' successor, the Shihab emir Haydar, to make Ali the paramount sheikh and tax farmer for their region. As the inheritor of Qabalan's fortune, Ali used his newfound wealth and prestige to push older Druze aristocratic families. He backed Haydar against his Yamani opponents in the decisive Battle of Ain Dara in 1711 and thus became part of the Qaysite confedaration, albeit without historical ties. The modern sources offer variant dates for the events of Ali's life, with Shidyaq claiming Qabalan died in 1712, Rondot claiming Ali died in 1712, the historian Selim Hichi claiming Ali married Qabalan's daughter in 1712, and Kamal Jumblatt claiming Rabah had married the daughter.

The historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn has cast doubt about every aspect of the conventional narrative, however this had been due to his pronounce bias against the historical Lebanese polity due to his Palestinian nationalist stances. He cites the existence of a leading Druze sheikh in the Chouf named 'Junblat' around 1614, who is mentioned by Ahmad al-Khalidi, the contemporary chronicler and court historian of Fakhr al-Din. This Junblat and his following were in conflict with a rival Druze sheikh of the Chouf, Fakhr al-Din's close ally Yazbak ibn Abd al-Afif, during that year, when the governor of Damascus, Hafiz Ahmed Pasha, was leading a campaign against the Ma'ns. Khalidi hints that the Junblat-Yazbak conflict, which may have been tribo-political in nature, preceded Ahmed Pasha's campaign, however scholarly consensus dates the emergence of this conflict after the battle of Ain Dara. Fakhr al-Din's brother Yunus imprisoned Junblat in the Ma'nid fortress of Shaqif Arnun for attacking Yazbak; according to the account of a local Maronite sheikh, Shayban al-Khazen, Junblat's specific offense was physically beating Yazbak. After a short period, Yunus released Junblat, whose partisans are mentioned by Khalidi as having answered summons by a victorious Ahmed Pasha and then returning to their villages with "striped robes of honor". In the assessment of Abu-Husayn, Junblat had used Ahmed Pasha's campaign against the Ma'ns as an opportunity to act against their ally Yazbak and "embarrass" them, for which the Ma'ns temporarily imprisoned him. In his chronicle, Shidyaq changed the facts of this event into Fakhr al-Din appointing Janbulad ibn Sa'id to guard Shaqif Arnun for one year against the Bedouin ruler and governor of northern Palestine, Turabay ibn Ali, in 1631.

Seeking to bridge the conflicting narratives, Hichi proposes that Sheikh Junblat was an emigrant from the Janbulad family who arrived in the Chouf before his other relatives, the Janbulad ibn Sa'id and Rabah of Shidyaq's chronicle. The historian William Harris notes that there is "no information on the origin" of Sheikh Junblat "or any link" to the Kurdish Janbulads of Aleppo, but that the name 'Junblat' does not surface in the historical record before the Ma'n-backed rebellion of Ali Janbulad.

Regarding their religion, Kamal Jumblatt speculated that the family had already been Druze in the Aleppo region before their arrival in the Chouf and thus did not convert to the Druze religion, which prohibits converts. Abu-Husayn considers this erroneous, as the Kurdish Janbulads were avid Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school, according to the 17th-century Aleppine historian Abu Wafa al-Urdi. As an apparently well-established chief of the Druze, the most closed off religious group in the Levant, Sheikh Junblat would likely have been from a Druze family rather than a recent convert from Sunni Islam, according to Abu-Husayn.

Historical documents, chronicles, material culture and the oral histories holds that the Shihabs conferred on the Jumblatts the status of 'sheikh', second to that of 'emir' in the ranking system of Mount Lebanon's feudal nobility. Abu-Husayn also considers this implausible, as the Kurdish Janbulads held administrative titles, which Abu-Husayn erronously cited as "princely," such as bey or beylerbey (Turkish, which were not equivalent to the Arabic princely title of Emir and bestowed by the Ottoman government to official as a non-hereditary governmental position. Furtheremore, Abu-Husayn's narrative is self conflicting as he previously claims that the family was already in Lebanon before in his work. Thus, his claim that the Jumblatts, as descendants of this family, would have regarded themselves as emirs, which was not recognized by the local aristocracy at any point in history, rather than holding the inferior title of 'sheikh' seems to be due to well-known protectorship of the Palestinian historian Abu-Husayn by Jumblatt family. Furthermore, Abu-Husayn's interpretation fails to explain societal station of the Jumblatt family in the local tribal and aristocratic context as the princely title Emir Shihab family used was due to their origins from the Quraish tribe, which was enforced with their marital ties to Ma'ans, as well as their leadership of the tribal Qaysite tribal confedariton, whereas the title "Beylerbey" was only an administrative title in the Ottoman context.

Abu-Husayn further notes that neither Khalidi nor the prominent 17th-century Maronite historian, Istifan al-Duwayhi, mentions members of the Kurdish Janbulads moving to Mount Lebanon. Abu-Husayn claims it to be unlikely that Sheikh Junblat, had he been a descendant of Janbulad, would have been a major local opponent of Fakhr al-Din, as presented by Khalidi. Rather, as an outsider living under Fakhr al-Din's protection, presumably would have been a natural ally. In sum, most sources, except for Abu-Husayn's attempt at deconstruction and unsuccessful, inflated reinterpretation of Jumblatt's role in the history of the Lebanese Emirate, points out the "outsider" status of this Kurdish Sunni family in the Lebanese history and their later initiation into Lebanese aristocracy by Emir Haydar al Shihabi after the Battle of Ain Dara to balance the older Druze families such as Abu Nakads, Arslans and Imads.

Modern
Today, Walid Jumblatt is a prominent Lebanese politician and the leader of the Druze of Lebanon. His son, Taymoor, is being prepared to succeed his father. After the assassination of the Lebanese prime-minister Rafik Al-Hariri, Walid Jumblatt sent his children to France. Although Walid is presently the best known and most influential figure of the family, there are other Jumblatt family members who contribute to the cultural, economic and social life in Lebanon. Besides the Chouf, the family has a visible presence in mansions and villas within the distinguished Clemenceau area of Beirut and in the north-west upscale area of Sidon.

Cultural references
Samir Habchi's 2003 documentary film Lady of the Palace examines the history of the Jumblatt family from the 17th century onwards. The film focuses on the life of Nazira Jumblatt and the late nineteenth/early twentieth century.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jumblatt family


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Bifundamental representation

In mathematics and theoretical physics, a bifundamental representation is a representation obtained as a tensor product of two fundamental or  antifundamental representations.

For example, the MN-dimensional representation (M,N) of the group
 * $$SU(M) \times SU(N)$$

is a bifundamental representation.

These representations occur in quiver diagrams.

title: Bifundamental representation


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Erhard Schmidt

Erhard Schmidt (13 January 1876 – 6 December 1959) was a Baltic German mathematician whose work significantly influenced the direction of mathematics in the twentieth century. Schmidt was born in Tartu (Dorpat), in the Governorate of Livonia (now Estonia).

Mathematics
His advisor was David Hilbert and he was awarded his doctorate from University of Göttingen in 1905. His doctoral dissertation was entitled Entwickelung willkürlicher Funktionen nach Systemen vorgeschriebener and was a work on integral equations. Together with David Hilbert he made important contributions to functional analysis. Ernst Zermelo credited conversations with Schmidt for the idea and method for his classic 1904 proof of the Well-ordering theorem from an "Axiom of choice", which has become an integral part of modern set theory.

After the war, in 1948, Schmidt founded and became the first editor-in-chief of the journal Mathematische Nachrichten.

National Socialism
During World War II Schmidt held positions of authority at the University of Berlin and had to carry out various Nazi resolutions against the Jews—a job that he apparently did not do well, since he was criticized at one point for not understanding the "Jewish question". At the celebration of Schmidt's 75th birthday in 1951 a prominent Jewish mathematician, Hans Freudenthal, who had survived the Nazi years, spoke of the difficulties that Schmidt faced during that period without criticism. Schmidt was, however, a conservative and a nationalist, and defended Hitler after Kristallnacht, telling Issai Schur that "Suppose we had to fight a war to rearm Germany, unite with Austria, liberate the Saar and the German part of Czechoslovakia. Such a war would have cost us half a million young men. But everybody would have admired our victorious leader. Now, Hitler has sacrificed half a million Jews and has achieved great things for Germany. I hope some day you will be recompensed but I am still grateful to Hitler".

title: Erhard Schmidt


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Talk:Common subexpression elimination

This problem seems much more complicated than the article suggests. For example,

$$ x^3+3 x^2 y+3xy^2+y^3-x^2-2xy+2xc-y^2+2yc-c^2 $$

takes 19 multiplications and 9 additions to evaluate, but it can be rewritten as

$$ (x+y)^3 + (x+y-c)^2 $$

which only requires 3 multiplications and 3 additions. How does subexpression elimination know how to do this?

title: Talk:Common subexpression elimination


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Talk:Sea Wolf (missile)

VLS Variant
The Type 23 frigate article seems to have some useful background information that may explain the motivation for introducing the previously abandoned concept of vertical launch. It appears that deployment of a missile system on the Type 23 was an after-thought, motivated by the Falklands losses to Exocets. Perhaps the VLS system could be more easily assimilated into the existing Type 23 frigate design?

I have vague recollections of discussions during the Falklands related to a "containterised" missile system for deployment on commercial ships being used for transport of supplies in war zones. The VLS missile silos are sort of containerised.

With regard to the increased range of VL Seawolf, it is presumably due to the additional boost motor used for vertical launch.

 * This is my recollection as well. GWS 25 has relatively high "ship impact" (it needs quite a lot of ship to be designed around it). The idea discussed in the aftermath of the Falklands was for a simpler, cheaper version which could be bolted on to (for example) mercantile shipping in time of war.

But I very much doubt whether this "bolt-on" version was Vertical Launch. VLS (GWS 26) was added to the T23 design after the Falklands, when T23 was evolving from a cheap towed array tug (with flight deck but no hangar) into a more self-sufficient warship. My recollection is that the bolt-on version of Sea Wolf was going to be a four-box launcher. --Vvmodel (talk) 16:01, 11 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Hmmm very interesting, I'd love to include this merchant shipping thing in the article. Justin seems to be Wikipedia's resident missile expert. Ryan 4314   (talk) 16:18, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Sorry guys but the VLS on the Type 23 has nothing to do with deployment on commercial ships or a containerised system. The requirement stems from the introduction of supersonic Russian sea skimming missiles, the VLS is necessary to have the reaction time to intercept a sea skimming missile at supersonic speeds coming over the horizon.  A traverse system doesn't have the reaction time.  Secondly the original Sea Wolf launcher had six missiles, they had to be loaded by hand.  The VLS makes more ready rounds available.  Justin talk 21:42, 11 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Wow so the vertical system actually actually reacts quicker than a system that turns and points the missile towards the taget? Ryan 4314   (talk) 22:54, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes it does in the case of Sea Wolf but there is a very big boost motor and Thrust Vector Control (TVC) system to enable it to happen. Its quite a tricky control problem.  And I see someone referred to the 4 round launcher, that was a reduced weight version that was supposed to be installed on the Batch 3 Type 42 destroyer but was cancelled to save money.   Justin talk 10:29, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Aw I do remember hearing about the 42's having Sea Wolf fitted, but assumed it was bullshit. Ryan 4314   (talk) 14:51, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Think it was supposed to go on the Invincible class as well. Its a shame it would have made for a more balanced ship design.  The Type 42 was badly compromised by treasury cuts and they're making exactly the same mistake again now with the Type 45.  Justin talk 16:01, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Hang on, did I just read on the T45 article that it's fitted "for but not with" Phalanx's? What CIWS do they plan to have then, apart from x2 30 mm? Found an interesting article online recently about Exeter being 'on tour' without any Sea Darts, in her latter years. Ryan 4314   (talk) 16:09, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Wasn't sure if that had been approved or not. Its an unbelievably stupid decision, they should have some spare Block 1B Phalanx available from the Type 42 scrapping but they were cut as a cost-cutting exercise as "the missile can do it all".  Exactly the same decision in the '70s led to the shortened Type 42 design without CIWS and the Falklands is history.  Madness, simply madness. Justin talk 16:26, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * OMG, I've just read this n all, I need to take my nose out of the cold war and pay more attention to what's happening now! I knew Joint Force Harrier was a pretty silly idea, but I assumed the RAF Harriers were at least attempting to do air defence. No offence to you, but it seems SAM operators always believe their own bullshit. So is this new Aster missile meant to act as a CIWS as well then? Ryan 4314   (talk) 16:35, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Its utter madness, defence in depth involved Sea Harrier on CAP directed by AEW Sea King, Outer layer of Sea Dart, Inner Layer of Sea Wolf and CIWS as the final layer. Now the first opportunity to engage will probably be Sea Wolf or Aster as a sea skimmer comes over the horizon and thats it.  Shit happens, computers crash at inopportune moments and the lunacy of the Type 45 is the command system runs under Windows XP - a blue screen of death could be literal.  Justin talk 19:59, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * LOL yes I'd heard that "PAAMS" uses Windows, before you know it they'll be using wiki syntax ! Do the GR9s even carry Amraam or Sidewinder? Speaking of AEW, are we getting AEW planes with these new huge carriers, or still relying on Sea Kings. Ryan 4314   (talk) 21:13, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * There is supposed to be an AEW capability but as the carriers have a ski jump we can't use the E2 Hawkeye. Current favourite is likely to be a Merlin based derivative of the Sea King AEW but a tilt rotor solution based on the V-22 Osprey was mooted.  Justin talk 22:23, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

(undent) I didn't realise they had a ski-jump, can the F-35's do a short take off then? Ryan 4314  (talk) 22:38, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes it can, main operational mode will be STOVL as per the Sea Harrier. Justin talk 09:04, 13 January 2009 (UTC)
 * O rly, I was under the impression these were super carriers like the American ones. Ryan 4314   (talk) 16:28, 13 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Provision for but not fitted with catapults - another cost cutting measure. Ho hum.  We're being the F-35B STOVL version, along with the USMC.  Justin talk 16:59, 13 January 2009 (UTC)
 * These cost cutting measures seem awfully planned out. In regards to the F-35B, we've invested all this money in a "stealth" plane with internal weapon systems, only to then have whacking great big gun pods stuck on the carrier versions. Also I heard something about our Eurofighters not having cannons, but lumps of concrete instead??? Ryan 4314   (talk) 18:55, 13 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Eurofighter will have a cannon as it would be too expensive to rewrite the aircraft flight control software for the revised mass characteristics but they won't buy any ammunition. Justin talk 23:03, 13 January 2009 (UTC)

 * LOL that was it, and the concrete makes up the weight of the would-be bullets

 * Welcome to the world Ryan. Procurement takes a long time and a lot of horse trading.  Cash is king and we end up compromising on military capability just so that the gimps in Treasury can balance the books in the short term, regardless of the fact that most of the compromise ends up costing more in the medium to long term.
 * T45 is a nice looking empty shell with a very good radar and a pretty good combat system. CVF is not a competent replacement for the CVS.
 * ALR (talk) 08:59, 15 January 2009 (UTC)
 * LOL stop it! I keep imagining Russian marines running across my garden. ;) ALR I've also posted something interesting about blinding lasers on Justin's talk page that you might be able to help us with. Ryan 4314   (talk) 13:07, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Text of Sea Wolf missile by User:Hammersfan 1, needs merging into main article:
"Sea Wolf is an advanced point defence missile in service aboard general purpose frigates of the Royal Navy. The weapon is 1.9m long and weighs 82kg, including a 13.4kg warhead. In the Royal Navy, it is used in two versions; on the Type 22 frigate, it is carried in two 6-cell launchers that are set at about 20 degrees above horizontal, giving a range of approximately 6.5km; on the Type 23 frigate, it is carried in a 32-cell vertical launch system, which increases the missile's range to approximately 10km. The weapon is used to defend against both aircraft and anti-ship missiles. To this end, the entire system (tracking radars, fire control computers, missiles) are all completely automated."

David Newton 15:31, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Falklands Kills

 * "Modern Combat Ships 4: Type 22" Leo Marriot, 1986 - Brilliant 2 confirmed, 1 possible. Broadsword 4 claims
 * "Royal Navy Frigates 1945-1983" Leo Marriot, 1983 - Brilliant 2 confirmed, 1 possible. Broadsword 3 claims
 * "BATTLE ATLAS of the FALKLANDS WAR 1982, by Land, Sea, Air" Gordon Smith, 2006 (on http://www.naval-history.net/F64argaircraftlost.htm]) - Brilliant 2 confirmed, 1 possible. Broadsword 2 claims;
 * Wednesday 12th May - Two A-4B Skyhawks of FAA Grupo 5 shot down off Stanley by Sea Wolf fired by HMS Brilliant and third aircraft hit sea trying to evade missile (1.45 pm). All three pilots, Lt Bustos, Lt Ibarlucea and Lt Nivoli killed.
 * Friday 21st May - Dagger A of FAA Grupo 6 shot down near Fanning Head by Sea Cat fired by HMS Argonaut or Plymouth, or more likely Sea Wolf from HMS Broadsword (10.30 am). Lt Bean killed.
 * Sunday 23rd May - A-4B Skyhawk of FAA Grupo 5 shot down over San Carlos Water by unknown SAM (1.50 pm). Claims that day include "Broadsword" Sea Wolf, "Antelope" Sea Cat, and land-based Rapiers and Blowpipe. Lt Guadagnini killed.

These sources all indicate 2 confirmed kills, and at least 3 further possibles. I have therefore changed the text in the article to indicate this. Emoscopes Talk 13:35, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

seawolf missle
ive always had the opinion that the seawolf was a good short range defence missle and most sources say that it is good at its job. however i have recently bought a book called "Lions,donkeys and dinosaurs" by lewis page which says that sea wolf isnt that good and thats why were the only country that uses it. like i said every other information ive read about it says its a good missle thats effective at its job. in the book as well he critises both army and raf expediture even though he was a royal navy officer who served on the minesweepers so does he really have the expertise to critise these things that he wasnt invovled in also he left the RN and never served on frigates and destroyers which he also sees as a waste of money.Corustar 15:33, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

 * If he thinks frigates and destroyers are a waste of money why does he care about a whether a short range missile which is used from frigates and destroyers is any good or not? Sounds like a real genius.  BTW according to the article there are at least two foreign users, I don't have any info as to whether that is correct or not.  Riddley 11:04, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

its an interesting read but it is biased. he was a minesweeper and when it comes to talking about the navy he doesnt mention these in his views or the patrol boats. also theres no mention of LCS or other small ship escourts. hes got some interesting views on both how many brass there are in the forces "enough colonels to make a battalion" and BAE. hes also talks about getting rid of the RAF and having it as a part of both the army and the navy without the seperate service which is interesting but would never happen.Corustar 18:31, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

"Citation Needed": In the 'Combat Performance' section?
In the text, it notes that HMS Coventry turned in front of HMS Broadsword just as the latters Seawolf missile system computed a 'solution' on the oncoming Argentine aircraft, thus forcing the ship not to fire the missile system.

Citation needed? This is mentioned in the Book 'Battle For The Falklands' by Max Hastings & Simon Jenkings. Pan Books, 1983. p259. Coventry was fatally damaged due to the above engagment and sank.

Would this be acceptable as a source? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.42.43.176 (talk) 22:30, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes Ryan 4314   (talk) 16:18, 11 January 2009 (UTC)

My understanding was that a tracking fault was discovered in the Sea Wolf system early in the Falklands conflict. When presented with (say) two targets, Sea Wolf would compromise between them rather than select a single target. Technicians were flown to the South Atlantic in order to apply minor corrections. --Vvmodel (talk) 15:56, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Have got a source for that because it sounds like urban legend or Hollywood to me. Track confusion can be a problem but its not a unique problem to Sea Wolf.  Justin talk 11:28, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I think I heard a bloke say something similar to this in "Sea of Fire", I'll have to watch it on YouTube again. Ryan 4314   (talk) 14:51, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

 * IIRC, Coventry swung in front of Broadsword physically coming between the missile and target, thus the missile refused to fire, as Coventry was in the way. The attacking aircraft were at low-level and therefore behind Coventry from Broadsword's point-of-view at the time.

 * A 1976 Flight article on "Seawolf" (one word) here:

Originally a 'hittile'?
I distinctly recall that at the time of the Falklands conflict the Sea Wolf was described in the media as a 'hittile', i.e. a missile weapon that relies on precisely hitting the target, and not on a proximity fuse. This seems to be borne out by an article from 1982, which states that 'Rapier [a land-based missile] and Sea Wolf are impact-only missiles' https://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/1982/1982%20-%201899.PDF But the present Wikipedia article states that the Sea Wolf has a proximity fuse. Is this correct, and if so was the missile modified after the Falklands experience? The Rapier was certainly modified in this way, because in the heat of battle for various reasons it tended to miss the target, which made it about as much use as a chocolate teapot. There was also much concern about the performance of Sea Wolf as a close-defence system, and the Royal Navy hastily equipped its ships with the American Vulcan Phalanx Gatling gun.109.150.6.198 (talk) 18:05, 29 September 2017 (UTC)

 * The Royal Navy's guided weapons systems of the time were designed for defending NATO convoys from North America while in the open ocean of the North Atlantic, not defending ships within the narrow confines of small harbours and inlets where hills and other ground clutter get in the way. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.144.50.176 (talk) 18:59, 16 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sea Wolf (missile)


text: User talk:80.58.34.237

title: User talk:80.58.34.237


text:
Yang–Mills theory

Yang–Mills theory is a quantum field theory for nuclear binding devised by Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills in 1953, as well as a generic term for the class of similar theories. The Yang–Mills theory is a gauge theory based on a special unitary group $SU(n)$, or more generally any compact Lie group. A Yang–Mills theory seeks to describe the behavior of elementary particles using these non-abelian Lie groups and is at the core of the unification of the electromagnetic force and weak forces (i.e. $U(1) × SU(2)$) as well as quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force (based on $SU(3)$). Thus it forms the basis of the understanding of the Standard Model of particle physics.

Gauge theory in electrodynamics
All known fundamental interactions can be described in terms of gauge theories, but working this out took decades. Hermann Weyl's pioneering work on this project started in 1915 when his colleague Emmy Noether proved that every conserved physical quantity has a matching symmetry, and culminated in 1928 when he published his book applying the geometrical theory of symmetry (group theory) to quantum mechanics. Weyl named the relevant symmetry in Noether's theorem the "gauge symmetry", by analogy to distance standardization in railroad gauges.

Erwin Schrödinger in 1922, three years before working on his equation, connected Weyl's group concept to electron charge. Schrödinger showed that the group $$U(1)$$ produced a phase shift $$e^{i\theta}$$ in electromagnetic fields that matched the conservation of electric charge. As the theory of quantum electrodynamics developed in the 1930's and 1940's the $$U(1)$$ group transformations played a central role. Many physicists thought there must be an analog for the dynamics of nucleons. Chen Ning Yang in particular was obsessed with this possibility.

Yang and Mills find the nuclear force gauge theory
Yang's core idea was to look for a conserved quantity in nuclear physics comparable to electric charge and use it to develop a corresponding gauge theory comparable to electrodynamics. He settled on conservation of isospin, a quantum number that distinguishes a neutron from a proton, but he made no progress on a theory. Taking a break from Princeton in the summer of 1953, Yang met a collaborator who could help: Robert Mills. As Mills himself describes: "During the academic year 1953–1954, Yang was a visitor to Brookhaven National Laboratory ... I was at Brookhaven also...and was assigned to the same office as Yang. Yang, who has demonstrated on a number of occasions his generosity to physicists beginning their careers, told me about his idea of generalizing gauge invariance and we discussed it at some length...I was able to contribute something to the discussions, especially with regard to the quantization procedures, and to a small degree in working out the formalism; however, the key ideas were Yang's."

In the summer 1953, Yang and Mills extended the concept of gauge theory for abelian groups, e.g. quantum electrodynamics, to non-abelian groups, selecting the group $$SU(2)$$ to provide an explanation for isospin conservation in collisions involving the strong interactions. Yang's presentation of the work at Princeton in February 1954 was challenged by Pauli, asking about the mass in the field developed with the gauge invariance idea. Pauli knew that this might be an issue as he had worked on applying gauge invariance but chose not to publish it, viewing the massless excitations of the theory to be "unphysical 'shadow particles'". Yang and Mills published in October 1954; near the end of the paper, they admit: "We next come to the question of the mass of the $b$ quantum, to which we do not have a satisfactory answer." This problem of unphysical massless excitation blocked further progress.

The idea was set aside until 1960, when the concept of particles acquiring mass through symmetry breaking in massless theories was put forward, initially by Jeffrey Goldstone, Yoichiro Nambu, and Giovanni Jona-Lasinio. This prompted a significant restart of Yang–Mills theory studies that proved successful in the formulation of both electroweak unification and quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The electroweak interaction is described by the gauge group $SU(2) × U(1)$, while QCD is an $SU(3)$ Yang–Mills theory. The massless gauge bosons of the electroweak $SU(2) × U(1)$ mix after spontaneous symmetry breaking to produce the 3 massive weak bosons ($$, $$, and $$) as well as the still-massless photon field. The dynamics of the photon field and its interactions with matter are, in turn, governed by the $U(1)$ gauge theory of quantum electrodynamics. The Standard Model combines the strong interaction with the unified electroweak interaction (unifying the weak and electromagnetic interaction) through the symmetry group $SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)$. In the current epoch the strong interaction is not unified with the electroweak interaction, but from the observed running of the coupling constants it is believed they all converge to a single value at very high energies.

Phenomenology at lower energies in quantum chromodynamics is not completely understood due to the difficulties of managing such a theory with a strong coupling. This may be the reason why confinement has not been theoretically proven, though it is a consistent experimental observation. This shows why QCD confinement at low energy is a mathematical problem of great relevance, and why the Yang–Mills existence and mass gap problem is a Millennium Prize Problem.

Parallel work on non-Abelian gauge theories
In 1953, in a private correspondence, Wolfgang Pauli formulated a six-dimensional theory of Einstein's field equations of general relativity, extending the five-dimensional theory of Kaluza, Klein, Fock, and others to a higher-dimensional internal space. However, there is no evidence that Pauli developed the Lagrangian of a gauge field or the quantization of it. Because Pauli found that his theory "leads to some rather unphysical shadow particles", he refrained from publishing his results formally. Although Pauli did not publish his six-dimensional theory, he gave two seminar lectures about it in Zürich in November 1953.

In January 1954 Ronald Shaw, a graduate student at the University of Cambridge also developed a non-Abelian gauge theory for nuclear forces. However, the theory needed massless particles in order to maintain gauge invariance. Since no such massless particles were known at the time, Shaw and his supervisor Abdus Salam chose not to publish their work. Shortly after Yang and Mills published their paper in October 1954, Salam encouraged Shaw to publish his work to mark his contribution. Shaw declined, and instead it only forms a chapter of his PhD thesis published in 1956.

Mathematical overview
Yang–Mills theories are special examples of gauge theories with a non-abelian symmetry group given by the Lagrangian

 * $$\ \mathcal{L}_\mathrm{gf} = -\tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{tr}(F^2) = - \tfrac{1}{4} F^{a\mu \nu} F_{\mu \nu}^a\ $$

with the generators $$\ T^a\ $$ of the Lie algebra, indexed by $A$, corresponding to the $z$-quantities (the curvature or field-strength form) satisfying
 * $$\ \operatorname{tr}\left( T^a\ T^b \right) = \tfrac{1}{2} \delta^{ab}\, \qquad \left[ T^a,\ T^b \right] = i\ f^{abc}\ T^c ~.$$

Here, the $a$ are structure constants of the Lie algebra (totally antisymmetric if the generators of the Lie algebra are normalised such that $$\ \operatorname{tr}(T^a\ T^b)\ $$ is proportional to $$\ \delta^{ab}\ $$), the covariant derivative is defined as

 * $$\ D_\mu = I\ \partial_\mu - i\ g\ T^a\ A^a_\mu\ ,$$

$F$ is the identity matrix (matching the size of the generators), $$\ A^a_\mu\ $$ is the vector potential, and $f ^{abc}$ is the coupling constant. In four dimensions, the coupling constant $I$ is a pure number and for a $dx^{1}⊗σ_{3}$ group one has $$\ a, b, c = 1 \ldots n^2-1 ~.$$

The relation

 * $$\ F_{\mu \nu}^a = \partial_\mu A_\nu^a - \partial_\nu A_\mu^a + g\ f^{abc}\ A_\mu^b\ A_\nu^c\ $$

can be derived by the commutator

 * $$\ \left[ D_\mu, D_\nu \right] = -i\ g\ T^a\ F_{\mu\nu}^a ~.$$

The field has the property of being self-interacting and the equations of motion that one obtains are said to be semilinear, as nonlinearities are both with and without derivatives. This means that one can manage this theory only by perturbation theory with small nonlinearities.

Note that the transition between "upper" ("contravariant") and "lower" ("covariant") vector or tensor components is trivial for a indices (e.g. $$\ f^{abc} = f_{abc}\ $$), whereas for μ and ν it is nontrivial, corresponding e.g. to the usual Lorentz signature, $$\ \eta_{\mu \nu } = {\rm diag}(+---) ~.$$

From the given Lagrangian one can derive the equations of motion given by

 * $$\ \partial^\mu F_{\mu\nu}^a + g\ f^{abc}\ A^{\mu b}\ F_{\mu\nu}^c = 0 ~.$$

Putting $$\ F_{\mu\nu}=T^aF^a_{\mu\nu}\ ,$$ these can be rewritten as

 * $$\ \left( D^\mu F_{\mu\nu} \right)^a = 0 ~.$$

A Bianchi identity holds

 * $$\ \left( D_\mu\ F_{\nu \kappa} \right)^a + \left( D_\kappa\ F_{\mu \nu} \right)^a + \left( D_\nu\ F_{\kappa \mu} \right)^a = 0\ $$

which is equivalent to the Jacobi identity

 * $$\ \left[ D_{\mu}, \left[ D_{\nu},D_{\kappa} \right] \right] + \left[ D_{\kappa}, \left[ D_{\mu},D_{\nu} \right] \right] + \left[ D_{\nu}, \left[ D_{\kappa},D_{\mu} \right] \right] = 0\ $$

since $$\ \left[ D_{\mu},F^a_{\nu\kappa} \right] = D_{\mu}\ F^a_{\nu\kappa} ~.$$ Define the dual strength tensor $$\ \tilde{F}^{\mu\nu} = \tfrac{1}{2}\varepsilon^{\mu\nu\rho\sigma}F_{\rho\sigma}\ ,$$ then the Bianchi identity can be rewritten as

 * $$\ D_{\mu}\tilde{F}^{\mu\nu} = 0 ~.$$

A source $$\ J_\mu^a\ $$ enters into the equations of motion as

 * $$\ \partial^\mu F_{\mu\nu}^a + g\ f^{abc}\ A^{b\mu}\ F_{\mu\nu}^c = -J_\nu^a ~.$$

Note that the currents must properly change under gauge group transformations.

We give here some comments about the physical dimensions of the coupling. In $g$ dimensions, the field scales as $$\ \left[A\right]=\left[ L^{\left(\tfrac{2-D}{2}\right)} \right]\ $$ and so the coupling must scale as $$\ \left[g^2\right] = \left[L^{\left(D-4\right)}\right] ~.$$ This implies that Yang–Mills theory is not renormalizable for dimensions greater than four. Furthermore, for $(x^{1},x^{2})$, the coupling is dimensionless and both the field and the square of the coupling have the same dimensions of the field and the coupling of a massless quartic scalar field theory. So, these theories share the scale invariance at the classical level.

Quantization
A method of quantizing the Yang–Mills theory is by functional methods, i.e. path integrals. One introduces a generating functional for $g$-point functions as

 * $$\ Z[j] = \int [\mathrm{d}A]\ \exp\left[- \tfrac{i}{2} \int \mathrm{d}^4x\ \operatorname{tr}\left( F^{\mu \nu}\ F_{\mu \nu}\right) + i\ \int \mathrm{d}^4x\ j^a_\mu(x)\ A^{a\mu}(x) \right]\ ,$$

but this integral has no meaning as it is because the potential vector can be arbitrarily chosen due to the gauge freedom. This problem was already known for quantum electrodynamics but here becomes more severe due to non-abelian properties of the gauge group. A way out has been given by Ludvig Faddeev and Victor Popov with the introduction of a ghost field (see Faddeev–Popov ghost) that has the property of being unphysical since, although it agrees with Fermi–Dirac statistics, it is a complex scalar field, which violates the spin–statistics theorem. So, we can write the generating functional as

 * $$\begin{align}

Z[j,\bar\varepsilon,\varepsilon] & = \int [\mathrm{d}\ A] [\mathrm{d}\ \bar c] [\mathrm{d}\ c]\ \exp\Bigl\{ i\ S_F\ \left[\partial A, A\right] + i\ S_{gf}\left[\partial A\right] + i\ S_g\left[\partial c, \partial\bar c, c,\bar c, A \right] \Bigr\} \\ &\exp\left\{i\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ j^a_\mu(x)A^{a\mu}(x)+i\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ \left[\bar c^a(x)\ \varepsilon^a(x) + \bar\varepsilon^a(x)\ c^a(x)\right]\right\} \end{align}$$

being

 * $$S_F=- \tfrac{1}{2} \int \mathrm{d}^4 x\ \operatorname{tr}\left( F^{\mu \nu}\ F_{\mu \nu} \right)\ $$

for the field,

 * $$S_{gf} = -\frac{1}{2\xi} \int \mathrm{d}^4 x\ (\partial\cdot A)^2\ $$

for the gauge fixing and

 * $$\ S_g = -\int \mathrm{d}^4 x\ \left(\bar c^a\ \partial_\mu\partial^\mu c^a + g\ \bar c^a\ f^{abc}\ \partial_\mu\ A^{b\mu}\ c^c \right)\ $$

for the ghost. This is the expression commonly used to derive Feynman's rules (see Feynman diagram). Here we have $D$ for the ghost field while $n$ fixes the gauge's choice for the quantization. Feynman's rules obtained from this functional are the following

These rules for Feynman's diagrams can be obtained when the generating functional given above is rewritten as

 * $$\begin{align}

Z[j,\bar\varepsilon,\varepsilon] &= \exp\left(-i\ g\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ \frac{\delta}{i\ \delta\ \bar\varepsilon^a(x)}\ f^{abc}\partial_\mu\ \frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^b_\mu(x)}\ \frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ \varepsilon^c(x)} \right)\\ & \qquad \times \exp\left(-i\ g\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ f^{abc}\partial_\mu\frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^a_\nu(x)}\frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^b_\mu(x)}\ \frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^{c\nu}(x)}\right)\\ & \qquad \qquad \times \exp\left(-i\ \frac{g^2}{4}\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ f^{abc}\ f^{ars}\frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^b_\mu(x)}\ \frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^c_\nu(x)}\ \frac{\ i\delta}{\delta\ j^{r\mu}(x)} \frac{i\ \delta}{\delta\ j^{s\nu}(x)} \right) \\ & \qquad \qquad \qquad \times Z_0[j,\bar\varepsilon,\varepsilon] \end{align}$$

with

 * $$ Z_0[j,\bar\varepsilon,\varepsilon] = \exp \left( -\int \mathrm{d}^4x\ \mathrm{d}^4y\ \bar\varepsilon^a(x)\ C^{ab}(x-y)\ \varepsilon^b(y) \right)\exp \left( \tfrac{1}{2} \int \mathrm{d}^4x\ \mathrm{d}^4y\ j^a_\mu(x)\ D^{ab\mu\nu}(x-y)\ j^b_\nu(y) \right)\ $$

being the generating functional of the free theory. Expanding in $c^{a}$ and computing the functional derivatives, we are able to obtain all the $ξ$-point functions with perturbation theory. Using LSZ reduction formula we get from the $g$-point functions the corresponding process amplitudes, cross sections and decay rates. The theory is renormalizable and corrections are finite at any order of perturbation theory.

For quantum electrodynamics the ghost field decouples because the gauge group is abelian. This can be seen from the coupling between the gauge field and the ghost field that is $$\ \bar c^a\ f^{abc}\ \partial_\mu A^{b\mu}\ c^c ~.$$ For the abelian case, all the structure constants $$\ f^{abc}\ $$ are zero and so there is no coupling. In the non-abelian case, the ghost field appears as a useful way to rewrite the quantum field theory without physical consequences on the observables of the theory such as cross sections or decay rates.

One of the most important results obtained for Yang–Mills theory is asymptotic freedom. This result can be obtained by assuming that the coupling constant $n$ is small (so small nonlinearities), as for high energies, and applying perturbation theory. The relevance of this result is due to the fact that a Yang–Mills theory that describes strong interaction and asymptotic freedom permits proper treatment of experimental results coming from deep inelastic scattering.

To obtain the behavior of the Yang–Mills theory at high energies, and so to prove asymptotic freedom, one applies perturbation theory assuming a small coupling. This is verified a posteriori in the ultraviolet limit. In the opposite limit, the infrared limit, the situation is the opposite, as the coupling is too large for perturbation theory to be reliable. Most of the difficulties that research meets is just managing the theory at low energies. That is the interesting case, being inherent to the description of hadronic matter and, more generally, to all the observed bound states of gluons and quarks and their confinement (see hadrons). The most used method to study the theory in this limit is to try to solve it on computers (see lattice gauge theory). In this case, large computational resources are needed to be sure the correct limit of infinite volume (smaller lattice spacing) is obtained. This is the limit the results must be compared with. Smaller spacing and larger coupling are not independent of each other, and larger computational resources are needed for each. As of today, the situation appears somewhat satisfactory for the hadronic spectrum and the computation of the gluon and ghost propagators, but the glueball and hybrids spectra are yet a questioned matter in view of the experimental observation of such exotic states. Indeed, the $n$ resonance is not seen in any of such lattice computations and contrasting interpretations have been put forward. This is a hotly debated issue.

Open problems
Yang–Mills theories met with general acceptance in the physics community after Gerard 't Hooft, in 1972, worked out their renormalization, relying on a formulation of the problem worked out by his advisor Martinus Veltman. Renormalizability is obtained even if the gauge bosons described by this theory are massive, as in the electroweak theory, provided the mass is only an "acquired" one, generated by the Higgs mechanism.

The mathematics of the Yang–Mills theory is a very active field of research, yielding e.g. invariants of differentiable structures on four-dimensional manifolds via work of Simon Donaldson. Furthermore, the field of Yang–Mills theories was included in the Clay Mathematics Institute's list of "Millennium Prize Problems". Here the prize-problem consists, especially, in a proof of the conjecture that the lowest excitations of a pure Yang–Mills theory (i.e. without matter fields) have a finite mass-gap with regard to the vacuum state. Another open problem, connected with this conjecture, is a proof of the confinement property in the presence of additional fermions.

In physics the survey of Yang–Mills theories does not usually start from perturbation analysis or analytical methods, but more recently from systematic application of numerical methods to lattice gauge theories.

title: Yang–Mills theory


text:
BSC

BSC may refer to:
 * Bachelor of Science, an educational degree, holders sometimes using post-nominal BSc

Education

 * Bentleigh Secondary College, in Melbourne, Australia
 * Brentwood Secondary College, in Melbourne, Australia
 * Birmingham–Southern College, in Alabama, United States
 * Bismarck State College, in North Dakota, United States
 * Bridgewater State University, in Massachusetts, United States
 * Buffalo State College, in New York, United States
 * Bluefield State College, in West Virginia, United States
 * Bryant & Stratton College, a for-profit college chain in the United States
 * Berkeley Student Cooperative, a housing organization at University of California, Berkeley
 * Bishop's Stortford College, in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom

Companies

 * Boston Scientific Corporation, a medical device company
 * British Steel Corporation, a metal manufacturer
 * Bear Stearns, an investment bank, by stock symbol
 * British Sugar, formerly British Sugar Corporation
 * Boston Sports Clubs, a fitness club chain owned by Town Sports International Holdings

Other

 * Barcelona Supercomputing Center, a research facility
 * Bird Studies Canada, a nature conservation organization
 * Border Security Command, a law enforcement agency in the United Kingdom
 * British Security Co-ordination, a British World War II intelligence and propaganda operation in the United States
 * British Society of Cinematographers, a movie craft organization, members sometimes using post-nominal BSC
 * Broadcasting Standards Commission, a British government agency incorporated into Ofcom
 * California Building Standards Commission, a US state agency responsible for building codes

Science and technology

 * Binary symmetric channel, a data transmission error model
 * Binary Synchronous Communications, a computer networking protocol
 * Biological safety cabinet, a laboratory pathogen housing
 * Biological Stain Commission, an independent quality-control service for dyes
 * Bright Star Catalogue, a list of stars visible to the naked-eye
 * Bristol stool chart, a medical assessment scale for feces
 * British Standard Cycle, a screw thread standard
 * Biological species concept, a rule for distinguishing species
 * Base station controller, part of a mobile telephone network
 * Basic Spacing between Centers, in IC package

Sport

 * Barcelona Sporting Club, an Ecuadorian football club
 * Basra Sports City, a sports complex in Iraq
 * Bay State Conference, a high school athletic conference in Massachusetts, United States
 * Big Sky Conference, a western United States college conference
 * Big South Conference, a southeastern United States college conference
 * Bi-State Conference, an Arkansas and Oklahoma junior college conference
 * Bohemian Sporting Club, a Filipino football club
 * Hertha BSC, a German football club
 * BSC Glasgow F.C., a Scottish football club

Music

 * Black Stone Cherry, an American hard rock band
 * Blood Stain Child, a Japanese melodic death metal band
 * Bundesvision Song Contest, a German music contest
 * The Beacon Street Collection, a ska punk album by No Doubt

Other uses

 * Balanced scorecard, an organizational performance analysis tool
 * Best supportive care, a term for palliative care used in clinical trials
 * Broglio Space Centre, a spaceport
 * The Baby-sitters Club, a series of books
 * Building Service Cleaners
 * Binance Smart Chain, a cryptocurrency by Binance

title: BSC


text:
Sandra Kalniete

Sandra Kalniete (born 22 December 1952) is a Latvian politician, author, diplomat and independence movement leader. She served as Foreign Minister of Latvia 2002–2004 and as European Commissioner for Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries in 2004. Since 2009, she has served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the European People's Party.

She is currently a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs (AFET) and a substitute member of the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development (AGRI). Additionally she is a member on the Delegation for relations with the countries of Southeast Asia and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and a substitute member on the Delegation to the EU-Ukraine Parliamentary Cooperation Committee and on the Delegation to the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly.

After her reelection in 2014, she became Vice-Chair of the Group of the European People's Party in the European Parliament.

Kalniete is also the chairperson of the Reconciliation of European Histories Group, an all-party group in the European Parliament involved in promoting the Prague Process. The group includes 40 MEPs from across the political spectrum including the European People's Party, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats, the Greens, and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats.

She has previously served as Ambassador to the United Nations (1993–97), France (1997–2000) and UNESCO (2000–02). Beside her native Latvian language, she is also fluent in English, French and Russian.

Early life and education
Kalniete was born in, Kolpashevsky District, Tomsk Oblast, Siberia, Russia, where her family had been deported from Latvia by the Soviet secret police during the occupation of her country by the Soviet Union, for use as slave labour. Her mother Ligita Kalniete (née Dreifelde, 1926-2006) was first deported together with her mother and father in 1941, after which Ligita returned in 1948, just to be deported again in 1949. Her father Aivars Kalnietis (born 1931) was deported together with his mother in 1949 as well. She only saw her native country when she was five years old, when the family was allowed to return in 1957.

She studied art at the Latvian Academy of Art from 1977 to 1981 and worked as an art historian, publishing a book, Latvian Textile Art, in 1989.

Early career
She entered politics in 1988, during Latvia's independence movement, and was a deputy chairwoman and one of the founders of Latvian Popular Front, the main pro-independence political organization. Ms. Kalniete graduated from the Department of Art History and Art Theory at the Art Academy of Latvia (1981), the Institute for International Studies at the University of Leeds (1992), The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies - now Geneva Graduate Institute - (1995), and has a Master of Arts from the Art Academy of Latvia (1996). The Geneva Graduate Institute later dedicated to her a place in its Hall of Inspiring Stories.

After Latvia declared independence, Kalniete worked in Latvia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and served as Latvia's ambassador to the UN (from 1993 to 1997), France (from 1997 to 2000) and UNESCO (from 2000 to 2002).

Political career
Kalniete became Foreign Minister of Latvia in November 2002 and served in this position until in 2004 when she was appointed the first Latvian Commissioner of the European Union in charge of Agriculture and Fisheries.

She was not re-nominated as Latvia's EU Commissioner.

At the beginning of 2006, Kalniete joined the New Era Party. In October 2006, she was elected to the Latvian parliament. She was the 2007 candidate of the New Era Party for the post of Latvian president, before withdrawing in favor of Aivars Endziņš on 24 May 2007.

Between 2006 and 2007, Kalniete served as member of the Amato Group, a group of high-level European politicians unofficially working on rewriting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe into what became known as the Treaty of Lisbon following its rejection by French and Dutch voters.

In 2008, Kalniete announced she was leaving the New Era Party. She joined the newly founded Civic Union and became the party's leader. In the 2009 European Parliament election she was elected as a Member of the European Parliament and reelected in the 2014 European Parliament election in Latvia. She put herself forward as a potential candidate to succeed Andris Bērziņš as President of Latvia after his decision to step down in 2015.

She was reelected as a Member of the European Parliament and in the 2019 European Parliament election in Latvia.

She was mentioned as a possible candidate for the 2023 Latvian presidential election.

She was reelected once again as a Member of the European Parliament and in the 2024 European Parliament election in Latvia.

Human rights activism
Kalniete is involved in many human rights causes pertaining to totalitarian crimes. She is the chair of the Reconciliation of European Histories Group, an all-party group in the European Parliament aimed at coming to terms with the totalitarian past in many countries of Europe.

In 2004, she argued that "behind the Iron Curtain the Soviet regime continued to commit genocide against the peoples of Eastern Europe and, indeed, against its own people [...] the two totalitarian regimes—Nazism and Communism—were equally criminal." She elaborated on this in 2006 when she came up with death counts for the two regimes, pointing out that the Soviet Union killed around 94.5 million people.

Publications
She is an author of four books:
 * Latviešu tekstilmāksla (Latvian Textile Art), 1989.
 * Es lauzu, tu lauzi, mēs lauzām. Viņi lūza (I Broke, You Broke, We Broke. They Fell Apart), a book about Latvia's independence movement, published in 2000.
 * Ar balles kurpēm Sibīrijas sniegos (With Dancing Shoes in Siberian Snows), a book about the deportation of her family to Siberia during the Joseph Stalin era and her family's efforts to return to their home country, first published in 2001.
 * "Prjaņiks. Debesmannā. Tiramisū." (Pryanik. Semolina mousse. Tiramisu), Rīga, Zelta grauds, 2012.

The French translation of With Dancing Shoes in Siberian Snows published in 2003 by Editions des Syrtes as En escarpins dans les neiges de Sibérie was nominated for the Aocumentary Book of the Month for December by the readers of Elle magazine. Since its publishing it has been translated into more than ten languages.

Translations
The book Ar balles kurpēm Sibīrijas sniegos, Riga, Latvia: Atēna, 2001 (ISBN 9984-635-78-3) has been translated into several languages:

 * Albanian: "Këpucë balerine mbi dëborën siberiane". Transl.: Durim Taçe. Skopje, Macedonia: Shkupi (2010). ISBN 978-608-216-022-1
 * French: En escarpins dans les neiges de Sibérie. Transl.: Velta Skujina. Paris, France: Editions des Syrtes, 2003. ISBN 2-84545-079-6
 * German: Mit Ballschuhen im sibirischen Schnee. Transl.: Matthias Knoll. München, Germany: Herbig Verlag, 2005. ISBN 3-7766-2424-8
 * Italian: Scarpette da ballo nelle nevi di Siberia. Transl.: G. Weiss. Milano, Italy: Libri Scheiwiller, 2005. ISBN 88-7644-445-9
 * Japanese: Dansu shûzu de yuki no Shiberia e. Transl.: Ayumi Kurosawa. Tôkyô: Shinhyôron, 2014. ISBN 978-4-7948-0947-6
 * Czech: V plesových střevíčkách sibiřským sněhem. Transl.: Michal Škrabal. Praha, Czech Republic: Lubor Kasal, 2005. ISBN 80-903465-5-3
 * Swedish: Med högklackade skor i Sibiriens snö. Transl.: Juris Kronbergs. Stockholm, Sweden: Atlantis, 2005. ISBN 91-7353-066-2
 * English: With Dance Shoes in Siberian Snows. Transl.: Margita Gailītis. Riga, Latvia: The Latvian Occupation Museum Association, 2006. ISBN 9984-9613-7-0
 * Russian: В бальных туфельках по сибирским снегам. Riga, Latvia: Atēna, 2006. ISBN 9984-34-183-6
 * Finnish: Tanssikengissä Siperiaan. Transl.: Hilkka Koskela. Helsinki, Finland: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö, 2007. ISBN 978-951-0-32096-9
 * Dutch: Op dansschoenen in de Siberische sneeuw. Transl.: Marijke Koekoek. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij van Gennep, 2006. ISBN 978-90-5515-702-0
 * Arabic: Cairo, Egypt: Sphinx Agency for Arts and Literature, 2009.
 * Spanish: Con zapatos de fiesta en las nieves de Siberia. Transl.: Jānis Kleinbergs; text editor: María Maestro; iluustrator: Agnese Čemme, Lasītava, 2019
 * Tamil: ஸைபீரியப் பனியில் நடனக் காலணியுடன். Transl: C. S. Lakshmi (Ambai), Kalachuvadu Publications, 2019. ISBN 978-93-8982-065-2

Career experience and political activities

 * June 2014 – Member of the European Parliament (Committee on Foreign Affairs, Agricultural un Rural Development committee)
 * June 2009 – Member of the European Parliament (Internal Market and Consumer Protection committee, Agricultural un Rural Development committee, Women's Rights and Gender Equality committee)
 * April 2008 – Leader of the "Civic Union" party
 * January 2008 – Left party "New Era"
 * October 2006 – Member of Parliament of Republic of Latvia (Foreign Affairs commission and European Affairs commission)
 * January 2006 – Member of right conservative party "New Era"
 * March 2005 – Ambassador, Special Adviser to EU Commissioner for Energy
 * March 2005 – Member of the Board of Trustees of the independent think tank Friends of Europe, Member of Editorial Board of Europe's World
 * December 2004 – Member of the Administrative Board of Robert Schuman Fondation (France)
 * 1 May – 20 November 2004 – the European Commissioner
 * 7 November 2002 – 9 March 2004 – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * 2000 – 2002 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and Permanent Representative of the Republic of Latvia to UNESCO
 * 1997 – 2002 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Latvia to France
 * 1993 – 1997 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Latvia to the United Nations in Geneva
 * 1990 – 1993 Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Chief of Protocol, Deputy Foreign Minister
 * 1988 – 1990 Latvian Popular Front (LPF): General Secretary of the LPF Coordinating Council, Deputy Chairman
 * 1987 – 1988 Latvian Artists' Union: General Secretary

Awards

 * 1995 – Commander of the Order of the Three Stars (Latvia)
 * 2000 – Cabinet of Ministers Award (Latvia)
 * 2001 – Commander of the Legion of Honor (France)
 * 2002 – Commander of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (France)
 * 2004 – Commander's Grand Cross of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas (Lithuania)
 * 2005 – Commander of the Great Cross of the Cross of Recognition (Latvia)
 * 2009 – Order "Mérite Européen" in Gold (Fondation du Mérite Européen, Luxembourg): for promoting a stronger and more united Europe
 * 2009 – Medal of the Baltic Assembly: for organizing and coordinating the Baltic Way manifestation, for developing and strengthening unity among the Baltic Nations, and for the support and work lent to the people of the Baltic Nations
 * 2012 – Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 2nd degree (Estonia)
 * 2018 – Truman-Reagan Medal of Freedom
 * 2020 – Order of Princess Olga, 1st Class (Ukraine)

Board-member/affiliations

 * La Fondation pour l’innovation politique
 * Rural Investment Support for Europe (RISE) Foundation
 * Friends of Europe
 * Fondation Robert-Schuman
 * Koknese Fund (Kokneses Fonds)
 * Notre Europe
 * European Movement – Latvia
 * Baltic - Black Sea Alliance (Baltijas-Melnās jūras alianse)
 * Board of the Friends of EUROCLIO Foundation
 * Advisory board member of the European Network Remembrance and Solidarity

title: Sandra Kalniete


text:
Jonny Storm

Jonathan Whitcombe (born 19 April 1977) is an English professional wrestler, better known by his ring name Jonny Storm. He has worked for many independent promotions across the United Kingdom, including the Frontier Wrestling Alliance, Real Quality Wrestling and One Pro Wrestling. He has also worked in the United States, for promotions such as Ring of Honor, Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, Combat Zone Wrestling, and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, as well as working in Japan.

British and other European promotions
At the start of his career, Storm became a mainstay in the Frontier Wrestling Alliance (FWA). He also competed for All-Star Wrestling. Storm began wrestling for Irish Whip Wrestling in March 2005, where he had a series of matches against M-Dogg 20. Storm was one of the trainers for ITV's Celebrity Wrestling in 2005. Although the show was considered a failure, Storm enjoyed it and said it was "a really good experience". Storm has wrestled for numerous other European promotions, including German Stampede Wrestling, Real Quality Wrestling, Rings of Europe and Dutch Championship Wrestling. Also in 2005, he won the Féderation Francophone de Catch promotion's top championship, which he has held since.

One of Storm's most enduring feuds has been with his real-life best friend Jody Fleisch, with whom he has wrestled against in American and British promotions. He has also wrestled regularly for One Pro Wrestling, where, with Fleisch, he was the one half of the first 1PW Tag Team Champions, after they defeated A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels in a tournament final on 27 May 2006. On 1 January 2007, he won the Athletik Club Wrestling Wrestling Challenge Championship from Toby Nathland, but Nathland defeated him to win it back on 15 December 2007. On 23 March 2007, Storm defeated Maddog Maxx to win the Celtic Wrestling Heavyweight Championship, but he lost it to Maxx in July of that year.

In 2015, Storm began appearing for Insane Championship Wrestling. In 2019, he lost to Kieran Kelly at 	ICW I Ain't Yer Pal, Dickface! and challenged for the ICW Tag Team Championships. Storm runs his own wrestling holiday camp events between 6 and 12 times a week during summer, Easter and Christmas Holidays. Meanwhile, in the FWA he is currently part of the Flyweight Title Round Robin Tournament, having gained entry into the tournament thanks to another wrestler suffering an injury. He was involved in a bitter feud with Rockstar Spud, an obnoxious flyweight who believed he is the new "Wonderkid" of British wrestling.

American promotions
Storm competed in Xtreme Pro Wrestling (XPW), and was in the tournament to decide the first XPW European Champion, which was created in 2003 through a working relationship between XPW and the FWA. He won the tournament and the championship by defeating Jerry Lynn in the finals at a FWA show in England. Storm made his first appearance for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) on 12 March 2003, by competing in a triple threat match for TNA X Division Championship match, against the champion Kid Kash and Amazing Red, in which Kash retained. In May 2003, Storm competed in a cross-promotional show between Ring of Honor and FWA, entitled ROH/FWA Frontiers of Honor, where he lost to A.J. Styles. In September 2003, Storm competed as a member of Team UK during the TNA 2003 Super X Cup Tournament, losing to Teddy Hart in the first round. At the Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) show, Respect, on 23 August 2003, Storm challenged Sonjay Dutt for the IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship, but was unsuccessful. He made further appearance for CZW in January 2004. He returned to the States in 2005, wrestling against Petey Williams and Kevin Steen for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, and against Trik Davis for Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South. He was supposed to be a member of Team UK in the TNA 2006 World X Cup Tournament, however, two of the other members of the team, Nigel McGuinness and Doug Williams were already booked in Japan, and so they were replaced by Team Canada.

Overall Storm worked for more than 80 promotions across the world, working in 16 different countries.

Trainer
Storm has also trained other wrestlers, most notably Erin Marshall.

Championships and accomplishments

 * All Star Wrestling
 * ASW People's Championship (1 time)
 * Alternative Wrestling World
 * AWW British Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * ABC Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Ronin Rider
 * Athletik Club Wrestling
 * ACW Cruiserweight Championship (4 times)
 * ACW German Championship (1 time)
 * ACW Wrestling Challenge Championship (1 time)
 * ACW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Jody Fleisch
 * Best Of British Wrestling
 * BOBW Championship (1 time)
 * British Titles
 * British Middleweight Championship (1 time)
 * Celtic Wrestling
 * CW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Championship Xtreme Wrestling
 * CXW World Championship (1 time)
 * Combat Zone Wrestling
 * CZW Match of the Year (2002) - vs. Jody Fleisch
 * Falling Starr Wrestling
 * FSW Limitless Championship (1 time)
 * Féderation Francophone de Catch
 * 2FC Championship (1 time)
 * Frontier Wrestling Alliance / XWA
 * British Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * FWA All England Championship (2 times)
 * FWA Gold Rush Fifteen Man #1 Contender Battle Royal (2005)
 * British Inter-Federation Cup (2006)
 * Future Championship Wrestling
 * FCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Global Wrestling Force
 * GWF Championship (1 time)
 * International Catch Wrestling Alliance
 * ICWA Cruiserweight Championship (1 time, current)
 * ICWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * International Pro Wrestling: United Kingdom
 * IPW:UK World Championship (1 time)
 * IPW:UK Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Andreas Corr
 * Extreme Measures Tournament (2004)
 * International Wrestling Association: Switzerland
 * IWA Switzerland Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current)
 * Ligaunabhängig
 * Dragonhearts Championship (1 time)
 * Nitro Pro Wrestling Alliance
 * NPWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Gary Wild
 * One Pro Wrestling
 * 1PW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Jody Fleisch
 * Playhouse Wrestlefest
 * Wrestlefest Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Jody Fleisch
 * Plex Wrestling
 * Plex-ceed Championship (1 time)
 * Plex Wrestling British Championship (1 time)
 * Premier Promotions
 * PWF Lightweight Championship (3 times, current)
 * One Night Tournament (2009)
 * Rumblemania Trophy (2008)
 * Rings Of Europe
 * RoE King Of Europe Championship (1 time)
 * Scottish School Of Wrestling
 * SSW Hardcore Championship (1 time)
 * SLAM Wrestling
 * SLAM Championship (1 time)
 * Sliced Bread Wrestling
 * SBW The Golden Toaster
 * The Wrestling Alliance
 * TWA British Commonwealth Championship (2 times)
 * TWA British Welterweight Championship (2 times)
 * United Kingdom Pro Wrestling
 * UKPW Inter-Regional Championship (1 time)
 * Vertigo Pro Wrestling
 * VPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Westside Xtreme Wrestling
 * wXw World Lightweight Championship (1 time)
 * World Association of Wrestling
 * WAW British Lightweight Championship (2 times)
 * World Stars Of Wrestling
 * WSW Tag Team Championship (1 time) with- Jody Fleisch
 * Xtreme Pro Wrestling
 * XPW European Championship (1 time)

title: Jonny Storm


text:
Talk:Sputnik 2

Untitled
This article is very close to the one on this page: http://home.cwru.edu/~sjr16/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html. Isn't there a right problem?

Public reactions
This article could use a section on public reactions to the fate of Laika. I've only come across it tangentially in the course of my research, but I've got the impression that many people in Britain were upset by the lack of a return mechanism for the dog. If anyone knows more, it'd be great if they could add it in.--131.111.193.40 22:39, 3 November 2005 (UTC)

Radiation Belts
The comments about Sputnik-2 and -3 and the radiation belts is inaccurate, but a discussion of that topic probably belongs in the Sputnik 3 page. It should be noted that Sputnik 3 was launched two months before Explorer-4, so it was not simply verifying the results from the first high-latitude American satellite. Sputnik-3 was the first to probe the upper latitudes of the radiation field, which Vernov called the "polar belts". The spatial structure of the "high-altitude radiation" was not fully understood until a number of probes had explored higher latitudes and greater distances (as Luna-1 and 2 and some Pioneer probes later did). Vernov's contributions were not really properly credited and cited by American scientists at that time. DonPMitchell 23:31, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Poisoned Food?
I have never seen any claim by Yazdovsky or anyone else that Laika was planned to be euthanized by poison. I don't believe that is correct. The food and oxygen supply were designed for 7 days. DonPMitchell 09:15, 29 July 2007 (UTC)

Korabl Sputnik 2 vs. Sputnik 2
Another thing to keep in mind is that many facts are confused between Sputnik-2 (Object PS-2), and the launch of Belka and Strelka aboard Korabl Sputnik 2 (spaceship satellite), which was actually Sputnik-5. The report of 40 degree temperature is from an article about Sputnik-5, and television pictures of Belka and Strelka are commonly misidentified as Laika. There was no television camera in Sputnik-2. DonPMitchell 20:47, 29 July 2007 (UTC)

Don, I'm curious about your source for the lack of cameras in Sputnik-2, because NASA seems to think otherwise.

From http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1957-002A : A television camera was mounted in the passenger compartment to observe Laika. The camera could transmit 100-line video frames at 10 frames/second. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.38.118.110 (talk) 18:19, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

Minor Wiki Cleanup
The edit boxes for the different subsections (4 as of today) have all piled up at the bottom of the article. Does someone know how to clean this up and have the edit boxes appear correctly next to their headings? I've confirmed this on two separate browsers (Safari and Firefox) and believe it may have to do with the wikimarkup in this article.VoxMoose 20:38, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

C'mon! You shouldn't call Laika the Dog AN INSTRUMENT... More like a passenger... - Navelfluffman —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.251.207.228 (talk) 20:50, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Detail, citations, and references
I have worked this over to give it some additional detail, correct a few minor problems, and provide citations and references.Mark Lincoln (talk) 19:08, 17 August 2011 (UTC)

Detail, citations, and references
I have worked this over to give it some additional detail, correct a few minor problems, and provide citations and references.Mark Lincoln (talk) 19:09, 17 August 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified (January 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150211174207/http://www.cosmo.org/mu_artifacts.htm to http://www.cosmo.org/mu_artifacts.htm
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Source for orbital parameters
The article has orbital parameters for the mission but the only source given in that section (footnote 1) doesn't include any information on several of the data points, eg. the inclination. Does anyone have a good source for any of these parameters? Also, the eccentricity, apogee and the perigee don't seem to match up, as an eccentricity of 0.0990965 would indicate a more circular orbit while an apogee of 1,659 kilometers and a perigee of 211 kilometers would indicate a highly elliptical orbit. Burakalp34 (talk) 12:48, 10 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I just revamped the article. I used NSSDC for parameters, which do not quite match other sources. --Neopeius (talk) 04:18, 1 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sputnik 2


text:
Jeddo

Jeddo may refer to:

 * Jeddo, Japan
 * Jeddo, Michigan, a populated place in St. Clair County
 * Jeddo, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * Jeddo, Pennsylvania, a borough in Luzerne County
 * Jeddo, Texas, a populated place in Bastrop County

title: Jeddo


text:
FWA

FWA may refer to:

Places

 * Fwa River, in the Congo Basin
 * French West Africa, a former colony

Entertainment and recreation

 * Film Writers Association
 * Florida Writers Association
 * Frontier Wrestling Alliance, a British wrestling promotion
 * Furry Weekend Atlanta, a fandom convention
 * Federation of Welsh Anglers
 * Football Writers' Association
 * Free Weezy Album, a 2015 album by Lil Wayne

Government and politics

 * Fair Work Commission, formerly Fair Work Australia
 * Federal Works Agency of the United States
 * Fédération wallonne de l'agriculture, a farmers' association in Wallonia
 * Flexible work arrangement
 * Free Wales Army, a defunct Welsh nationalist paramilitary organization
 * Free West Alliance, an American libertarian organization

Science and technology

 * Fireworks algorithm
 * Fixed Wireless Access, another name for Wireless local loop
 * Fluorescent whitening agent
 * TheFWA, awards

Transportation

 * Fort Wayne International Airport, in Indiana, United States
 * Interstate Airlines, a defunct Dutch airline

Other

 * Fwâi language, spoken in New Caledonia
 * Financial Women's Association, in the United States

title: FWA