text:
List of rivers of Iceland

On an island like Iceland, the rivers are short in length. None of the rivers are important as a means of navigation due to the impracticality of settlements in the Highlands of Iceland where they originate.

South

 * Hvítá
 * Krossá
 * Kúðafljót
 * Markarfljót
 * Mustafl
 * Ölfusá (the Icelandic river with the greatest flow)
 * Rangá
 * Skaftá
 * Skeiðará
 * Skógá
 * Sog
 * Þjórsá (the longest river in Iceland, 230 km)
 * Tungnaá

West

 * Fossá
 * Hvítá
 * Kjarrá–Thervá
 * Norðurá

Westfjords

 * Dynjandi
 * Kolbeinsá
 * Staðará

North

 * Blanda
 * Eyjafjarðará
 * Eystri Jökulsá
 * Fnjóská
 * Glerá
 * Héraðsvötn
 * Hörgá
 * Jökulsá á Fjöllum
 * Laxá
 * Norðurá
 * Skjálfandafljót
 * Vatnsdalsá

East

 * Hamarsá
 * Hofsá
 * Jökulsá á Dal
 * Jökulsá í Fljótsdal
 * Jökulsá í Lóni
 * Lagarfljót
 * Selfljót

title: List of rivers of Iceland


text:
Socialism with a human face

Socialism with a human face (socialismus s lidskou tváří, socializmus s ľudskou tvárou) is a slogan referring to the reformist and democratic socialist programme of Alexander Dubček and his colleagues, agreed at the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April 1968, after he became chairman of the KSČ in January 1968.

The first author of this slogan was Radovan Richta, and it was a process of moderate democratization, economic modernization, and political liberalization that sought to build an advanced and modern socialist society that valued democratic Czechoslovak tradition while still allowing the Communist Party to continue governing.

Socialism with a human face was vital in initiating the Prague Spring, a period of national democratization and economic decentralization. It was, however, rolled back by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia on August 21, 1968.

Background
The programme was an attempt to overcome the disillusionment of the people of Czechoslovakia with the political and economic situation at the time. As the name suggests, the plan was to breathe new life into the ideals of socialism, which had lost popular support due to the government policies of the previous two decades. While it never intended to bring back market capitalism, Alexander Dubček proposed trade with both Western and Soviet powers and a ten-year transition to a multiparty democratized Socialism.

Dubček Speech
At the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia's "Victorious February", Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. He emphasized the need to "enforce the leading role of the party more effectively" and acknowledged that, despite Klement Gottwald's urgings for better relations with society, the Party had too often made heavy-handed rulings on trivial issues. Dubček declared the party's mission was "to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations ... a socialism that corresponds to the historical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia, in accordance with the experience of other communist parties ..."

One of the most important steps towards the reform was the reduction and later abolition of the censorship on 4 March 1968. It was for the first time in Czech history the censorship was abolished and it was also probably the only reform fully implemented, although only for a short period. Changing from an instrument of party propaganda, media quickly became the instrument of criticism of the regime.

Action Programme
In April, Dubček launched an "Action Programme" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of movement, with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the possibility of a multiparty government. The programme was based on the view that "Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations, but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy." It would limit the power of the secret police and provide for the federalization of the ČSSR into two equal nations. The programme also covered foreign policy, including both the maintenance of good relations with Western countries and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations. It spoke of a ten-year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of social democracy and democratic socialism would replace the status quo.

Those who drafted the Action Programme were careful not to criticize the actions of the post-war Communist regime, only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness. For instance, the immediate post-war situation had required "centralist and directive-administrative methods" to fight against the "remnants of the bourgeoisie." Since the "antagonistic classes" were said to have been defeated with the achievement of socialism, these methods were no longer necessary. Reform was needed for the Czechoslovak economy to join the "scientific-technical revolution in the world", rather than relying on Stalinist-era heavy industry, labour power, and raw materials. Furthermore, since internal class conflict had been overcome, workers could now be duly rewarded for their qualifications and technical skills without contravening Marxism-Leninism. The Programme suggested it was now necessary to ensure important positions were "filled by capable, educated socialist expert cadres" in order to compete with capitalism.

The programme of "socialism with a human face"
Although it was stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately. Radical elements became more vocal: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press on 26 June 1968, the Social Democrats began to form a separate party, and new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged repressive measures, but Dubček counselled moderation and re-emphasized KSČ leadership. At the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April, Dubček announced a political programme of "socialism with a human face". In May, he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September. The congress would incorporate the Action Programme into the party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect a new Central Committee.

Dubček's reforms guaranteed freedom of the press, and political commentary was allowed for the first time in mainstream media. At the time of the Prague Spring, Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness, and Dubček's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing planned and market economies. Within the party, there were varying opinions on how this should proceed; certain economists wished for a more mixed economy while others wanted the economy to remain mostly planned. Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule.

On 27 June Ludvík Vaculík, a leading author and journalist, published a manifesto titled The Two Thousand Words. It expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and so-called "foreign" forces. Vaculík called on the people to take the initiative in implementing the reform programme. Dubček, the party Presidium, the National Front, and the cabinet denounced this manifesto.

Publications and media
Dubček's relaxation of censorship ushered in a brief period of freedom of speech and the press. The first tangible manifestation of this new policy of openness was the production of the previously hard-line communist weekly Literární noviny, renamed Literární listy.

Freedom of the press also opened the door for the first honest look at Czechoslovakia's past by Czechoslovakia's people. Many of the investigations centered on the country's history under communism, especially in the instance of the Joseph Stalin-period. In another television appearance, Goldstücker presented both doctored and undoctored photographs of former communist leaders who had been purged, imprisoned, or executed and thus erased from communist history. The Writers' Union also formed a committee in April 1968, headed by the poet Jaroslav Seifert, to investigate the persecution of writers after the Communist takeover in February 1948 and rehabilitate the literary figures into the Union, bookstores and libraries, and the literary world. Discussions on the current state of communism and abstract ideas such as freedom and identity were also becoming more common; soon, non-party publications began appearing, such as the trade union daily Prace (Labour). This was also helped by the Journalists' Union, which by March 1968 had already persuaded the Central Publication Board, the government censor, to allow editors to receive uncensored subscriptions to foreign papers, allowing for a more international dialogue around the news.

The press, the radio, and the television also contributed to these discussions by hosting meetings where students and young workers could ask questions of writers such as Goldstücker, Pavel Kohout, and Jan Prochazka and political victims such as Josef Smrkovský, Zdenek Hejzlar, and Gustáv Husák. Television also broadcast meetings between former political prisoners and the communist leaders from the secret police or prisons where they were held. Most importantly, this new freedom of the press and the introduction of television into the lives of everyday Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialogue from the intellectual to the popular sphere.

During Gorbachev's visit to Prague in 1987, his spokesman Gennady Gerasimov was asked what was the difference between the Prague Spring and perestroika, and he replied: "Nineteen years."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Socialism with a human face


text:
Palos Verdes Peninsula

The Palos Verdes Peninsula (Palos Verdes, Spanish for "Green Sticks [trees]") is a peninsula and sub-region of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, located within southwestern Los Angeles County in the U.S. state of California. Located in the South Bay region, the peninsula contains a group of cities in the Palos Verdes Hills, including Palos Verdes Estates, Rancho Palos Verdes, Rolling Hills and Rolling Hills Estates, as well as the unincorporated community of Westfield/Academy Hill. The South Bay city of Torrance borders the peninsula on the north, the Pacific Ocean is on the west and south, and the Port of Los Angeles is east. As of the 2010 Census, the population of the Palos Verdes Peninsula is 65,008.

The hill cities on the peninsula are known for dramatic ocean and city views, distinguished schools, extensive horse trails, and high value homes.

Native Americans

The peninsula was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieliño Native Americans people for thousands of years. In other areas of the Los Angeles Basin archeological sites date back 8,000 years. Their first contact with Europeans occurred in 1542 with João Cabrilho (Juan Cabrillo). Chowigna and Suangna were two Tongva settlements of many in the peninsula area, which was also a departure point for their rancherías on the Channel Islands.

Spanish and Mexican era

In 1846, José Dolores Sepúlveda and José Loreto received a Mexican land grant from Alta California Governor Pío Pico for a parcel from the huge original 1784 Spanish land grant of Rancho San Pedro to Manuel Dominguez. It was named Rancho de los Palos Verdes, or "ranch of the green trees", which was used primarily as a cattle ranch. It was also briefly used as a whaling station in the mid-19th century.

American era
By 1882, ownership of the land had passed from the Sepulveda family through various mortgage holders to Jotham Bixby of Rancho Los Cerritos, who leased the land to Japanese farmers.

Frank Vanderlip, representing a group of wealthy east coast investors, purchased 25 square miles of land on the Palos Verdes Peninsula in 1913 for $1.5 million. In 1914, Vanderlip vacationed at Palos Verdes in order to recover from an illness, and he was astounded by scenery he compared to "the Sorrentine Peninsula and the Amalfi Drive". He quickly initiated development of Palos Verdes. He hired the Olmsted Brothers, the landscaping firm of John Charles Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., to plan and landscape a new subdivision. The Olmsted Brothers contracted Koebig & Koebig to perform engineering work, including surveying and road planning. However, the project stalled as World War I started, and Vanderlip accepted a chairmanship to the War Savings Committee in Washington, D.C. in 1916.

By 1921, Vanderlip had lost interest in overseeing development of Palos Verdes and enticed Edward Gardner Lewis to take over the project with an option to buy the property for $5 million. Lewis was an experienced developer, but lacked the capital to purchase and develop Palos Verdes. Instead, he established a real estate trust, capitalizing the project through the sale of notes which were convertible to Palos Verdes property. Under the terms of the trust, Lewis sought to raise $30 million for infrastructure improvements, effectively borrowing from investors for both the land and the improvements. He succeeded in attracting $15 million in capital, but far short of the $35 million needed. The trust dissolved and ownership of Palos Verdes reverted to Vanderlip.

Vanderlip established a new real estate trust to purchase 3,200 acres from his land syndicate and establish the subdivision of Palos Verdes Estates. The new trust assumed not just the land, but also the improvements made by Lewis. They were not complete, but they were substantial: improvements included many sewers, water mains, and roads; landscaping, parks, and a golf course. They opened Palos Verdes for public inspection in June 1923.

Palos Verdes Estates was organized and landscaped by the Olmsted Brothers and in their planning, they dedicated a quarter of the land area to permanent open undeveloped space.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Palos Verdes has a Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csa" on climate maps.

Reef Restoration
The reef restoration began in May 2020 involving over 30 acres of new habitat. Located off the coast, this restoration consists unique designs and locations with of rock relief habitats which provide habitat for marine life. It avoids existing functioning reefs and instead uses those areas as inspiration These habitats have been impacted by deposited or settling sediment such as sand. The main goals of the restoration project is to restore the rocky-reef territory and maximize ecosystem benefits. l

Reefs are productive ecosystems. Two Types of monitoring have been done for the restoration site. The first one being geophysical and oceanographic monitoring. The restoration project uses high-resolution multi-beam bathymetry data which is an instrument that uses echo-sound to measure the depth of water at different angles to create 3D maps of the ocean floor. The team used before and after pictures of the site from October 2019, the date prior to alterations, 3 different dates throughout 2020, and the final date December 2021. By 2021, the team used Edgetech 6205 MultiPhase EchoSounder, which is sends and receives audible pulses that also map the ocean's floor. Results showed net gain between 2019 and 2020. There was little net loss and fewer net gain between 2020 and 2021. Between 2019 and 2021, there were was mostly no change.

The second monitoring method was biological monitoring. The team used instruments which detected specific fish species' density and size. These instruments also showed the kelp canopy and other marine plants. By 2021, the team was able to say there was a significantly higher giant kelp density compared to the previous 3 years. There was also an increase in biotic cover, total fish density, and total fish biomass by 2021. Although kelp does function as a habitat and food source of marine species, it is not necessary for fish biodiversity. Instead, rock relief is linked to fish biodiversity.

Human caused factors such as pollution and over harvesting have altered urchin-dominated areas. Historically, pollution mitigation has been overlooked in artificial reef restoration programs. A way to mitigate issues is through assisted recovery and/or passive restoration. Experiments that have included pollution mitigation have seen a 100% success rate of achieving cleaner environments within their testing site. Heavy metals have been found in Southern California coasts. Some of these are lead, zinc, and scientists have also found DDT. The highest concentration of DDT in sediments in California have been found off the coast of Palos Verdes. 98% of sediments tested off the coast of Palos Verdes contained DDT which has contaminated 100% of two fish species. These species are the Pacific sanddab and longfin sanddab. High amounts of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrate have also been detected in the water. These factors have caused fish tissue to decrease between the 1970s and 1980s. Due to the high concentration of DDT, commercial fishing is banned off the coast of Palos Verdes. Another factor where marine restorations fall short is in accounting for multiple important variables. Some examples are nutrients, light, wave exposure, and temporal temperatures.

Another stressor that reefs and other marine ecosystems face are human population increases. Population increased in California's coast during the 1900s. It went from 200 thousand people in Southern California in 1900 to over 17 million in 1998. Palos Verdes has been identified as a hot spot for sewage found in sediments. Invertebrates, plankton, and several species have bioaccumulated increasing amounts of chlorinated hydrocarbons as they approach Palos Verdes. When there are high levels of pollution, fish diseases such as tumors and fin erosion levels also increase.

Economy
Palos Verdes Peninsula is an upper class area, and the average household income is $231,303 per year.

Commerce

Areas of commerce include historic Mediterranean Revival style Malaga Cove Plaza and the Promenade on the Peninsula. Smaller shopping centers include the Peninsula Center, Lunada Bay Plaza, and Golden Cove Plaza.

The largest peninsula commercial district is in Rolling Hills Estates, with many shopping centers including The Promenade on the Peninsula with a megaplex movie theater and an ice rink.

The Palos Verdes area has ocean views, coastline views and city light views.

The Peninsula is home to the Promenade on the Peninsula mall, originally an enclosed regional mall with two department store anchors, May Company California and Bullocks Wilshire, as well as the Peninsula Center, which originally had a Buffums department store.

Transportation

The Palos Verdes Peninsula Transit Authority provides bus service within and to the Palos Verdes Peninsula. The Palos Verdes Peninsula is within 40 minutes of both LAX and Long Beach Airport, which together provide access to most of the United States aboard all major carriers.

Education

The Palos Verdes Peninsula Unified School District has one of the highest rated API scores in California and has one of the highest average SAT scores and one of the highest percentage of students successfully completing the Advanced Placement exams in the county. There are three high schools, Palos Verdes Peninsula High School (formerly called Rolling Hills High School), Palos Verdes High School, and Rancho Del Mar High School (located in Rolling Hills). The former Marymount California University, a co-ed Roman Catholic four-year college was located in Rancho Palos Verdes. A private K–12 school, Chadwick School, is also located there. Rolling Hills Country Day School, adjacent to the Botanic Garden, offers a private K-8 education. In total, there are 11 elementary schools, 3 intermediate schools, and 3 high schools located on the peninsula.

In the Eastview neighborhood of Rancho Palos Verdes, however, residents have the option to choose either PV schools or the surrounding LAUSD schools (i.e. Dodson Middle School, Dana Middle School, San Pedro High School, etc.).

Additionally, students are also able to attend the California Academy of Mathematics and Science in Carson due to its attendance boundaries stretching to the South Bay, which is about 20-40 minutes from the peninsula itself.

Libraries
The Peninsula is served by the Palos Verdes Library District, which operates these three libraries:
 * Peninsula Center Library
 * Miraleste Library
 * Malaga Cove Library- on the National Historical Register

The 40 Families Project based at Peninsula Center Library documents the history of the Japanese-American community on Palos Verdes before World War II.

Parks and recreation

 * South Coast Botanic Garden – 35 hectare (87 acre) landscaped botanical garden, event venue, and arboretum with over 150,000 landscape plants and trees from approximately 140 families, 700 genera, and 2,000 different species. It is a classic example of land recycling by reclaiming a site that was previously a sanitary landfill and open pit diatomite mine from 1929 until 1956.
 * Point Vicente Park is a popular spot for watching the migration of gray whales to and from their breeding lagoon in Baja California.
 * Fort MacArthur Military Museum is located near Point Fermin in San Pedro.
 * Del Cerro Park is a popular spot to hike trail at end of Crenshaw Blvd.
 * Ryan Park is Rancho Palos Verdes's first established park in the city, overlooking a view of nearby island Santa Catalina. Park features include baseball diamond, picnic areas with barbecue, and a community room.

The peninsula is frequented by runners, hikers, horseback riders, bird watchers, surfers, scuba divers, fishermen, and bicyclists. The area is home to several golf courses and country clubs. In addition, nude sunbathers formerly frequented Sacreds Cove (or "Smugglers Cove") until the city of Rancho Palos Verdes enacted a 1994 ordinance that ended such use of that beach.

The infamous Palos Verdes surf spots have been in the spotlight many times over issues of localism. The most notorious surf spot for localism in Palos Verdes is Lunada Bay, which can hold any winter swell and has been known to rival Sunset Beach, Hawaii on a big day. Localism in Palos Verdes reached a turning point in 2001 when a civil rights lawsuit was filed after a particularly violent confrontation with Hermosa Beach surfers. Surveillance cameras were placed in the surfing area but were later removed. In 2016, The Coastal Commission targeted the group after "renewed reports that their unpermitted structure [built along Lunada Bay] was being used as a spot for ongoing bullying and intimidation." On July 12, 2016, City Manager Tony Dahlerbruch recommended the removal of the illegal structure after pressure from the California Coastal Commission.

The Trump National Golf Club is a Donald Trump venture with a golf course on the Ocean Trails cliffs. The 18th hole of the prior golf course fell victim to a landslide caused by a leak in the sanitary pipes underneath it. In the summer of 2006, the golf club erected a 70-foot flagpole for an American flag; critics claimed it was illegal, but the golf club was allowed to retain it after a City Council vote.

The Marineland of the Pacific site near Portuguese Bend is currently home of Terranea, a luxury oceanfront resort.

There are numerous nature reserves in Palos Verdes: Palos Verdes Estates Shoreline Preserve, Agua Amarga Reserve, and Portuguese Bend Reserve. The reserves contain coastal sage scrubs habitats, a community of fragrant and drought resistant shrubs and flowering plants. In August 2009, wildfire burned approximately 165-acres of the Portuguese Bend Reserve. As a result, restoration has been done to reinstall native plants and animals to the area.

Native plants

 * Succulents
 * Trees
 * Shrubs
 * Vines
 * Herbaceous plants
 * Marah (plant)

Native animals

 * Palos Verdes blue butterfly
 * opossum
 * gray fox
 * coyote
 * black phoebe
 * water strider
 * western fence lizard
 * red tailed hawk
 * cottontail rabbit

Notable places

 * The Wayfarers Chapel, a transparent glass chapel in a redwood forest, was designed in 1951 by the renowned architect and landscape architect Lloyd Wright. It is under the stewardship of the Swedenborgian Church, a well-known landmark on the National Register of Historic Places, and overlooking the ocean at the western entrance of Portuguese Bend.
 * Portuguese Bend is one of the most geologically unstable areas in the world. Constant shifting of the soil (approximately 1/3 of an inch a day) and rock slides mean that Palos Verdes Drive South, the main road through the bend, is under constant repair.
 * Point Vicente Lighthouse is on the National Register of Historic Places.
 * Korean Bell of Friendship is located near Point Fermin in San Pedro.
 * Marineland of the Pacific is the location of the former aquatic theme park on the coast.
 * MTV Beach House. Fox filmed some scenes of its teen drama, The OC, at locations in and around Palos Verdes.

Wrecks

 * The wreck of the SS Dominator, a freighter that ran aground in 1961, was for years an attraction for those willing to hike down the cliffs to the shoreline. Very little is left of the ship today.
 * In 2006, the 45-foot cabin cruiser Lady Hawk sank two miles from the Palos Verdes coast due to an engine fire.

Notable people

 * Sports
 * Tracy Austin, former World No. 1 female professional tennis player
 * Heather Burge, pro basketball player
 * Heidi Burge, pro basketball player
 * John Cook, pro golfer, graduated from Miraleste High School
 * Lindsay Davenport, former World No. 1 female professional tennis player
 * Taylor Fritz, professional tennis player
 * Michelle Kwan, 5-time world champion figure skater, attended Soleado elementary school
 * Seattle Seahawks head coach Pete Carroll, lived in city
 * Los Angeles Lakers head coach Luke Walton, lived in city
 * Former pro basketball player Elden Campbell of the Los Angeles Lakers, currently resides in Palos Verdes Estates
 * Bill Laimbeer, Notre Dame and NBA basketball star, WNBA coach, attended Palos Verdes High School
 * Jeremy Lin, pro basketball player of the Los Angeles Lakers, lives in city
 * Billy Martin, pro tennis player, UCLA coach, attended Palos Verdes High School
 * Joe Montana, Hall of Fame NFL quarterback of San Francisco 49ers lived in Palos Verdes Estates during off-season
 * John Morrison, professional wrestler
 * Christen Press, forward of the United States women's national soccer team
 * Pete Sampras, former World No. 1 male professional tennis player
 * Anderson Silva, UFC Middleweight Champion, lives in city
 * Eliot Teltscher, professional tennis player

 * Entertainment
 * Chester Bennington, lead singer of Linkin Park
 * Christina Crawford, actress and author of Mommie Dearest, adoptive daughter of Joan Crawford, attended Chadwick School
 * Best-selling author and neuroscientist Daniel Levitin
 * Musician Hyde, lead singer of Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel owns property in the region
 * Juan Croucier, bass player and songwriter of the bands Ratt and Dokken
 * Actor Michael Dudikoff
 * Actress Liza Minnelli, attended Chadwick School, a private K–12 school located on the Peninsula
 * Author, actor and filmmaker Scott Shaw
 * Model and actress Coco Austin, wife of actor-rapper Ice-T

 * Other
 * Christopher Boyce and Andrew Daulton Lee, who sold U.S. secrets to the Soviets, portrayed in book and movie The Falcon and the Snowman
 * Galorath Inc. CEO and President Dan Galorath
 * Natalie Pack, 2012 Miss California USA, contestant America's Next Top Model, Cycle 12
 * Frank A. Vanderlip, known as the Father of Palos Verdes

title: Palos Verdes Peninsula


text:
Necker Island (Hawaii)

Necker Island (Mokumanamana "branched island") is a small island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is located at 23.575°N, -164.70028°W in the Pacific Ocean, 430 mi northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, 155 mi northwest of Nihoa, and 8 mi north of the Tropic of Cancer. It is part of the state of Hawaii in the United States. It contains important prehistoric archaeological sites of the Hawaiian culture and is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.

The United States Census Bureau reports Necker Island's land area as 45.193 acre. The island is rocky with steep sides and has very little soil. Its highest elevation is 277 ft. The island is named after Jacques Necker, a finance minister of Louis XVI.

Administration
Politically, Necker Island is part of the City and County of Honolulu in the state of Hawaii. However, as part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, it is administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It has no resident human population.

Geography
The remnant of a volcanic cone, Necker Island is located about 120 km southeast of the French Frigate Shoals on the northwestern end of a large, shallow ocean bank. It is a hook-shaped rocky ridge about 1.3 km long and between 60 and 200 m wide. Composed of basalt, the island is steep-sided and barren, with very little soil, and its rocks are heavily scoured and eroded. It is the second-smallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, with a total area of 45.193 acre according to the United States Census Bureau or 41 acre or 39.5 acre according to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

The westernmost point on Necker Island is Mo'o Point (or Mo'o Head). The island's "hook" is Northwest Cape, a narrow spur that reaches a maximum height of 48 meters (156 ft) and juts northeastward from the west end of the island for 183 m. Northwest Cape is connected to the rest of the island by a narrow gap that is barely above sea level. Northwest Cape's tip is the northernmost point of the island.

The main ridge of the island and Northwest Cape combine to partially enclose Shark Bay along the northern shore of the island; the bay opens to the northeast and usually is subject to rough seas. Along the island's western shore, West Cove lies between Mo'o Point and the southern end of Northwest Cape. A small islet, 300 ft long and rising 10 ft above sea level, lies just off Necker Island's eastern tip.

The main ridge of Necker Island has five peaks. East to west, they are:

 * Siever's Peak, 61 m high
 * Bowl Hill (or Bryan Peak), 79 m high
 * Summit Hill (or Vaughn Peak), 84 meters (277 ft) high, the island's highest point
 * Flagpole Hill, 56.4 m high
 * Annexation Peak (also Annexation Hill or Captain Brown Peak), 75 meters (247 ft) high

Bowl Cave is located on the northern slope of Bowl Hill. It is an important archaeological site.

Necker Island has an average annual rainfall of just under 25 in.

Flora and fauna
Vegetation on Necker Island is limited to low shrubs and grasses, none more than 2 ft tall. Five species of plants are known to occur:
 * Goosefoot shrub (Chenopodium oahuense), found on the island's terraced slopes
 * Bunch grass (Panicum torridum) (i.e., kakonakona), which grows on the north slope of the ridge
 * Purslane (Portulaca lutea) (i.e., ihi weed), found on flat tops of the ridge
 * Pickle weed (Sesuvium portulacastrum), a patch of which grows on the lower northeastern slope of Annexation Hill, where ocean spray from waves breaking in Shark Bay can reach it
 * Ohai shrub (Sesbania tomentasa), which grows on the crest of the ridge

The forester of the Territory of Hawaii attempted to introduce six other species of plants to Necker Island in June 1923, but all had died out by the latter half of the 1930s, if not earlier.

The island is also noted for large numbers of birds. About 16 species of seabird nest on Necker Island; during nesting season, an estimated 60,000 birds nest on the island, and their eggs cover virtually every piece of level ground. A seabird first observed at Necker Island and at the French Frigate Shoals and Nihoa in 1902 originally was thought to be new to science and was given the scientific name Procelsterna saxatalis and the popular name "Necker Island tern," but it later was identified as a subspecies of the blue-grey noddy, already known from farther south in the Pacific. No land birds live on the island. Land animals found on the island include land snails and 15 species of insect found nowhere else, as well as wolf spiders and bird ticks.

Although it is the second-smallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Necker Island has the second-largest surrounding marine habitat among the islands, totaling 385,000 acre, with Shark Bay, West Cove, Northwest Cape, and miles of shallow reef to the southeast of the island providing large offshore habitats. Runoff from the heavily eroded rock surfaces of the island and the constant wave action that scours its underwater basalt structure interfere with the growth of corals; little coral life exists in the shallow areas surrounding the island, and it lacks a fringing reef. However, 16 species of stony coral live in the area, and Necker is the easternmost island in the Hawaiian archipelago where table corals of the genus Acropora are found. Gray reef sharks and manta rays are common off the island, and Hawaiian monk seals populate its shores, some giving birth to pups there. Green sea turtles bask on the shore in the narrow gap between the main island and Northwest Cape, but they do not breed on Necker Island because the island lacks sandy beaches in which they could lay their eggs. A great abundance and diversity of sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and lobsters live in Shark Bay. Extensive deeper "shelves" extend many miles from the island's shallow reef, especially to the southeast, and commercial fishing takes place over these shelves, which produce much of Hawaii's catch of green jobfish, known locally as gray snapper or uku. Deep sea fish types that live hundreds of meters (yards) below the surface along the underwater slopes of Necker Island include fishes of the orders Stomiiformes, Gadiformes, Myctophiformes, and Aulopiformes.

Archaeology
Necker Island is known for its numerous religious sites and cultural objects. There are few, if any, signs of long-term habitation, giving rise to the theory that people visited the island for short periods from other islands instead of settling permanently. Many anthropologists believe that the island was a ceremonial and religious site. Necker has 55 currently known sites including 33 ritual sites called heiau, while the remaining sites represent agricultural terraces, miscellaneous platforms, and shelter caves — of which Bowl Cave is the largest. Cultural sites on Necker Island are contemporaneous with those on Nihoa and appear to have been abandoned at roughly the same time several centuries prior to European contact with the Hawaiian Islands.

The heiau on Necker Island and Nihoa are unique in the Hawaiian chain representing a raised pavement of basalt stones with upright stones placed across this pavement often near the edges as opposed to the form common to other islands in the chain represented by a high stacked stone wall enclosing a central space. This difference in form represents an earlier iteration of Hawaiian monumental architecture that offers a unique perspective on cultural norms prior to the abandonment of Necker. Thanks to this difference in form, scholars often use the term 'marae' as opposed to 'heiau' in reference to these structures and some scholars argue that the shift in form represents a shift in ritual practice in Hawaii.

Artifacts excavated on Necker Island show a remarkable number of artifacts that would normally be made out of wood rendered in stone. This is especially true of the presence of a series of remarkable carved stone bowls and a bird snare that would have required far more time and effort to create from stone. Additionally, a series of human figures carved from local stone have been recovered from Necker. These statues are up to 1.5 feet (0.5 m) in length and differ in style and medium to similar sculptures (usually rendered in wood) recovered elsewhere in Hawaii. Other artifacts include adzes, fish and squid lures, hammer stones, awls, and other stone tools commonly found across the Hawaiian Islands.

According to the oral traditions of the people of Kauai, which lies to the southeast, Necker Island was the last known refuge for a race of mythical "little people" called the Menehune. According to the legend, the Menehune settled on Necker Island after being chased off Kauai by the stronger Polynesians and subsequently built the various stone structures there.

History
Geological research in the early 21st century indicates that Necker Island is about 10 million years old. While it rises only about 84 meters (277 ft) above sea level now, it reached 1,000 m in height earlier in its history and at one time was comparable in size to modern Oahu.

Hawaiians appear to have started visiting Necker Island a few hundred years after they settled the main Hawaiian Islands. Archaeologists believe that the island's poor soil for farming and its small size and relative lack of rainfall made it uninhabitable, and that the Hawaiians visited from Nihoa and other nearby islands to worship at religious sites without establishing any permanent settlements. Their visits appear to have ended a few hundred years before European contact, and by the time Europeans first visited Hawaii in the late eighteenth century, Necker Island apparently was unknown to the Hawaiians.

The French explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse was on a mission of exploration for the French Academy of Sciences aboard the ships L'Astrolabe (under command of Fleuriot de Langle) and La Boussole and had just discovered the French Frigate Shoals (Basse des Frégates Françaises) and his namesake rock La Perouse Pinnacle when on November 4, 1786, he became the first European to visit Necker Island. La Pérouse did not attempt to land on the island due to its nearly vertical sides and the violent seas breaking on its shore, but he sailed within a third of a league of it and named it after Jacques Necker, a Genevan banker and statesman who served as finance minister for Louis XVI of France. Although the expedition was lost at sea in 1788, it was able to send its logs home before its loss, bringing the island's existence to the attention of Europeans. The first people to set foot on Necker Island in modern times appear to have been the British seaman John Turnbull of the ship Margaret, who visited the Hawaiian Islands between December 17, 1802, and January 21, 1803, and two Hawaiian pearl divers in his employ; the three men landed on the island during an expedition to find pearls on a reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

Captain John or William Paty (sources disagree on Paty's first name) claimed Necker Island for the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1857, although he did not land on the island. The claim was disputed over the following decades. In January 1859, United States Navy Lieutenant J. M. Brook aboard the survey schooner USS Fenimore Cooper (1853) visited Necker Island and determined its position. During the summer of 1859, Captain N. C. Brook of the Hawaiian barque Gambia passed the island during a sealing and exploration voyage, but did not report landing on it.

As late as the early 1890s, the Kingdom of Hawaii's claim to Necker Island remained in dispute, and the United Kingdom was considering the island as a potential waypoint location for a submarine communications cable between Canada and Australia as part of the British Empire telegraph network known informally as the All Red Line. The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 and replaced by the Provisional Government of Hawaii, and when the British corvette HMS Champion (1878) arrived at Honolulu in 1894, the provisional government's president, Sanford B. Dole, became concerned that the United Kingdom was about to establish a claim to Necker Island. Wishing to curry favor with the United States rather than the United Kingdom, Dole immediately dispatched an expedition under Captain James A. King to Necker to annex the island. On May 27, 1894, a landing party of 12 men led by King went ashore on Necker for four hours, raised the flag of Hawaii on what became known as Annexation Hill, and read an annexation proclamation. The move brought international disputes over claims to the island to an end and the island was included in the Republic of Hawaii when it was founded on July 4, 1894, although the British government continued to attempt to negotiate with the Hawaiian government over use of Necker Island and on September 24, 1894, Champion landed a party on the island. On July 12, 1895, King led a Hawaiian government expedition — which also included the first director of the Bishop Museum, William Tufts Brigham, and Professor William DeWitt Alexander — to Necker to survey and map the island and conduct archaeological research. On August 12, 1898, the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands, including Necker Island, and Necker was included in the Territory of Hawaii upon its creation on April 30, 1900.

In 1902, the United States Fish Commission research ship USFC Albatross visited Necker Island, and her personnel thought they discovered the "Necker Island tern" there, as well as on Nihoa and at the French Frigate Shoals, during their visit, although the bird later was determined to be a subspecies of the blue-grey noddy, already known from farther south in the Pacific. The island was leased for commercial fishing purposes for 21 years on June 2, 1904, and on February 3, 1909, it became part of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, managed jointly by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Territory of Hawaii.

George N. Wilcox visited Necker Island twice on unrecorded dates, and the United States Revenue Cutter Service revenue cutter USRC Thetis visited the island in 1910 and 1913, as did an expedition led by H. L. Tucker in 1917. The warden of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation landed on the island on October 6, 1919, and found stone artifacts during his visit. The Tanager Expedition visited Necker Island in 1923 and 1924, and is noted for exploring the island's biology and archaeology; during its first visit, from June 12 to 29, 1923, it mapped the island and studied its flora and fauna in detail, and on its return visit from July 14 to July 17, 1924, it conducted a thorough archaeological survey.

On August 21, 1959, the state of Hawaii was created, and Necker was included in the new state. Because of Necker Island's usage by Native Hawaiians as a ceremonial and religious site in Ancient Hawaii, the United States government added the island to its National Register of Historic Places in 1988. In 1997, members of the Native Hawaiian organization Hui Mälama I Nä Kupuna O Hawaiʻi Nei ("Hawaiʻi Ancestral Care Association") visited the island to rebury human bones found there which had been transported to Honolulu and kept at Bishop Museum.

In the early 21st century, Necker Island was a place of study for benthic invertebrates and algal assemblages. On June 15, 2006, the United States established the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, with Necker Island within its boundaries.

Access
Access to Necker Island is by boat, and is quite difficult because of the island's nearly vertical coastline. Heavy surf usually precludes landings along the coast in Shark Bay, but a small lee exists west of Northwest Cape, and landing on rocky shelves there is possible in moderately calm weather but can be dangerous in high surf.

Visits to Necker Island are permitted only for scientific, educational, and cultural purposes and require the approval of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, which gives preference to scientific and cultural visits.

title: Necker Island (Hawaii)


text:
Sprint car racing

Sprint cars are high-powered open-wheel race cars, designed primarily for the purpose of running on short oval or circular dirt or paved tracks. Historically known simply as "big cars," distinguishing them from "midget cars," sprint car racing is popular primarily in the United States and Canada, as well as in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Sprint cars have very high power-to-weight ratios, with weights of approximately 1400 lb (including the driver) and power outputs of over 900 hp, which give them a power-to-weight ratio besting that of contemporary F1 cars. Typically, they are powered by a naturally aspirated, methanol-injected overhead valve American V8 engine with a displacement of 410 cubic inches (6.7L) and capable of engine speeds of 9000 rpm. Depending on the mechanical setup (engine, gearing, shocks, etc.) and the track layout, these cars can achieve speeds in excess of 160 mph. A lower-budget and very popular class of sprint cars uses 360-cubic-inch (5.9L) engines that produce up to 775 horsepower. Sprint cars do not utilize a transmission but have an in-or-out gearbox and quick-change rear differentials for occasional gearing changes. As a result, they do not have electric starters (or even electrical systems other than a ignition magneto) and require a push to be started. The safety record of sprint car racing in recent years has been greatly improved by the use of roll cages, and especially on dirt tracks, wings, which increase surface traction, to protect the drivers.

Many IndyCar Series and NASCAR drivers used sprint car racing as an intermediate stepping stone on their way to more high-profile divisions, including Indianapolis 500 winners A. J. Foyt, Mario Andretti, Johnny Rutherford, Parnelli Jones, Johnnie Parsons, Al Unser Sr., and Al Unser Jr., as well as NASCAR Cup Series champions Jeff Gordon, Tony Stewart and Kyle Larson.

The National Sprint Car Hall of Fame & Museum, located in Knoxville, Iowa, features exhibits highlighting the history of both winged and wingless sprint cars.

Wingless sprint cars
There are several sanctioning bodies for wingless sprint cars. Once dominant United States Automobile Club (USAC) became USAC/California Racing Association (USAC/CRA) after taking over the Sprint Car Racing Association (SCRA). USAC/CRA remains popular on the West Coast, East Coast and in Indiana. However, lack of leadership in much of the US has resulted in a large number of groups and sanctioning bodies supporting wingless sprint cars.

Wingless sprint cars are considered the traditional sprint cars, dating back to the first sprint cars in the 1930s and 1940s (that ultimately evolved into Indy cars). Today, they are essentially the same car as a winged sprint car, only without wings. In fact, many of them have the "stub outs" in the frame for adding wings. They generally use the same 410 cuin and 360 cuin aluminum engines as their winged counterparts (although many local tracks have rules mandating steel blocks and some 305 cuin displacements, this is mostly a cost control). Some newer regional groups, specifically POWRi and Elite have chosen to allow open engines with no limit to engine size. Their tuning and gearing are different for performance at lower RPMs than winged cars. Chassis set ups and tires are also different.

While they do not have the same top speed as a winged car (because they lack downforce for traction), they are thought by many to be more entertaining to watch. Their relative lack of grip creates different driving characteristics than their winged counterparts, causing them to be more difficult to control through the corners. This, and the lack of roll-over protection a wing provides, makes them more dangerous than winged cars and their crashes are known for their spectacular nature.

Winged sprint cars

The world's first small-track winged race car was driven by Jim Cushman at the Columbus Motor Speedway (Ohio) in 1958. Cushman drove with his winged super-modified (wing created by Gene and Floyd Miller) in several races and even won with it, starting a new trend of winged cars in sprint and super-modified racing. By 1959, up to half of the field was racing with a wing at Columbus Motor Speedway. In the early 1970s, many sprint car drivers began to put wings with sideboards on both the front and top of their cars. The added wings increase the downforce generated on the car, with the opposite direction of the sideboards helping to turn the car in the corners. The increased traction makes the car faster and easier to control.

The wing also affects safety. The added downforce lessens the likelihood of going airborne. When cars do go airborne, the wings contact the ground first and break off or crumple upon hitting the ground, lessening the impact on the driver and the car. For these reasons, winged cars are safer to drive. Often teams are able to replace the wing during the ensuing stoppage and are able to continue once the race resumes.

In 1978, Ted Johnson formed the promotional body for winged sprint cars called the World of Outlaws. Racing throughout the United States from February to November, the World of Outlaws is the premier dirt sprint car racing series. Famous tracks featured in the series included the Eldora Speedway in Rossburg, Ohio, the Lernerville Speedway in Sarver, Pennsylvania, the Knoxville Raceway in Knoxville, Iowa and Williams Grove Speedway in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania. Each August, the Knoxville Raceway holds the Knoxville Nationals.

In 1987, Australia followed suit with its own national series for winged sprint cars called the World Series Sprintcars, founded by Adelaide based sedan driver and Speedway Park track promoter John Hughes. Famous Australian tracks used in the WSS have included Speedway Park/City in Adelaide, South Australia, Claremont Speedway and later Perth Motorplex in Perth, Western Australia, Valvoline Raceway in Sydney, New South Wales, Archerfield Speedway in Brisbane, Queensland, and the Premier Speedway (home of the Grand Annual Sprintcar Classic) in Warrnambool, Victoria. There is also a single meeting Australian Sprintcar Championship which has been run since 1963 and has been run under various class names before finally settling on the Australian Sprintcar Championship in 1979. While non-Australian drivers are free to race in the WSS and other meetings including the various state championships, only Australian drivers are permitted in the Australian Championship meeting.

The Grand Annual Sprintcar Classic at Warrnambool is the largest sprint car meeting in the world; in the 2014–15 season, the 2015 Classic race outdrew the Knoxville Nationals in entries.

Until the early 2000s, sprint cars in Australia were restricted to 6200 cc (372 cui) V8 engines as opposed to the 410 cui (6.7 L) engines used in the United States and New Zealand. Brian Healey, the Sacramento-based Australian who owned Parramatta City Raceway, pushed for the change in 2003 to follow both nations to 410. Today, Australia follows the standard 410 ci formula, and has both the 410 and 360 cui (5.9 L) formulae. Both formulae have separate Australian Championship meetings.

Midget cars
Midget cars are smaller versions of a full size sprint car, normally non-wing only. Midgets date back to the 1930s as a very common form of sprint car racing, still very popular today and also sanctioned by USAC, POWRI, and others. They are powered by four-cylinder engines developing around 350 horsepower (260 kW), but are only similar to their larger cousins in appearance.

Mini sprint
Mini sprints are similarly sized to midget cars, but have upright-style chassis and center-mounted, chain-driven four-cylinder motorcycle engines with displacements between 750 and 1200 cc.

Micro sprints
Micro sprints are small racecars that are smaller versions of full sprint cars. A starter class for striving sprint car enthusiasts. 250/270cc single-cylinder two-cycle and 600 cc are the most popular micro sprint classes. They run side-mounted 600 cc motorcycle engines developing around 140 hp and are chain driven. They have chassis and bodies styled like those of full-sized sprint cars or midgets. Micro sprints are generally run on small dirt tracks that are usually a fifth of a mile or less in size, though they sometimes run on larger tracks. They can be either raced with or without wings; the latter are sometimes called "micro midgets" or "600 cc sprints". The general minimum weights for the cars to pass tech is 775 lbs for winged and 725 lbs for non-wing. Micro sprints are generally a cheaper alternative than racing mini sprints or midget sprints, but they can be as expensive as full-sized sprint cars.

Outlaw karts
Outlaw karts are go karts with roll cages and wings. They are some of the cheapest race cars that are very competitive, costing around $5,000. Most tracks are one sixth of a mile or less. Outlaw karts run side-mounted engines of various types. The beginner boxstock and boxstock divisions run pull start clone motors and are usually for the younger drivers first getting their start. The intermediate division run 250 cc dirt bike engines with the drivers or teams having the choice of running a four-stroke or a two-stroke. At some tracks, the intermediate division has to run a harder compound of tire. The biggest division in outlaw karts is the open division. The opens can run 450 cc four strokes, 500 cc two strokes, or 550 cc four-strokes. The 450 cc and 500 cc motors are the more popular options because the 550 cc motors are not run at all tracks, and the tracks that do run them make the kart weigh extra. The weight range for the karts is 150 lb to 500 lb.

Sanctioning bodies
The NOS Energy Drink World of Outlaws (WoO) is a division of 410ci (6.7L) winged sprint cars that run all over the United States and have a few events in Canada. The cars have 15 in wide right rear tires and 410 cubic inch engines with mechanical fuel injection. These sprint cars have no batteries or starters in them, necessitating push starts by a quad or truck. They also do not have flywheels, clutches or transmissions, but the direct drive systems can be engaged or disengaged from the cockpits. This is done both for weight reasons and tradition. Another tradition the WoO has pertaining their "A-main" (the last race of the event) is to have the cars line up four wide just before starting the race as a salute to fans in attendance, giving rise to the popular PA message "you want the best, now you have them four abreast".

The All Star Circuit of Champions (ASCoC) is an American motorsports sanctioning body of winged sprint car racing founded in 1970. The series sanctions 410ci sprint car races in Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, New York, and Florida. On average the series runs 40 races per year, starting February and ending in October each year.

The United States Automobile Club (USAC) National Sprint Car Championship is a division of wingless 410 cubic inch sprint cars that run throughout the United States on asphalt and dirt tracks. The USAC also sanctions regional 360ci wingless sprint car series: the USAC East Coast Sprint Cars, USAC Southwest Sprint Cars, and USAC West Coast Sprint Cars.

The United Racing Company (URC) is a division for winged sprint cars that run mainly in the northeastern part of the United States in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. The URC started in 1948 with 11 races in its season. It slowly progressed to 28 races. The URC uses a 360 cubic inch (5.9 L) engine which generates approximately 650 hp. They race with alcohol fuel and use mechanical fuel injection (MFI) to deliver it into the combustion chamber.

The American Sprint Car Series (ASCS) sanctions both winged and wingless sprint car racing within the United States. ASCS winged cars use a 360 cubic inch engine which lead to fans calling the cars "360s". The series was started by well-known racing promoter Emmett Hahn. The series national headquarters were located in Tulsa, Oklahoma for much of its history, but moved to Concord, North Carolina in 2024 following World Racing Group's purchase of the series. The all-time leader in wins for the series is Texan Gary Wright with 127 A main victories under his belt. Engine rules for the non-wing cars vary by series with some having unlimited displacement engines.

The International Motor Contest Association (IMCA) was organized in 1915, and is currently the oldest active auto racing sanctioning body in the United States. It sanctions traditional 305 non-winged and winged sprint cars under the IMCA RaceSaver Sprint Car class.

In Australia, sprint car racing is controlled by the Sprintcar Control Council of Australia (SCCA) who sanction the Australian Championships and the World Series Sprintcar series as well as the various state championships and other meetings held around the country.

Sprint Car World Championship
Despite over 50 years of sprint car racing, the category has only ever held one unofficial "world championship". This was in 1987 at the ⅓ mile (586 m) Claremont Speedway in Perth, Western Australia. The event attracted a collection of drivers from Australia, NZ, Canada, and South Africa, as well as several World of Outlaws drivers. Australian veteran Garry Rush from Sydney, a 10-time winner of the Australian Sprintcar Championship, was the winner.

United States
Wingless cars were televised first when USAC had an ESPN television contract. The first national live television deal with winged sprint cars came on The Nashville Network (TNN) in 1992–93 and again in 1993–94 with a winter-based series in Arizona, which featured Mike Joy calling the action. Live coverage of the Knoxville Nationals on The Nashville Network began in 1995. A year later, a next-day tape deal with CBS for one race at Eldora Speedway aired while TNN coverage expanded. By 2000, CBS (which owned TNN at the time) announced TNN would air 15 live events, including the King's Royal at Eldora Speedway and the Knoxville Nationals. By the 2001 season, plans were to cover 18 live races, but midway through the season MTV Networks closed the CBS motorsports operations. This move relegated the remainder of the World of Outlaws season to tape delay races. A tape delayed deal with Speed Channel followed for the next season. Television coverage began on the Outdoor Channel in 2003. Events are usually tape delayed for two weeks or more. The Knoxville Nationals were on Speed Channel. The 2005 Knoxville Nationals did not air as bad weather postponed the event, and there was not enough space for Speed to air the event, won by Kraig Kinser. In 2003, Johnson sold his organization to DIRT Motorsports. Because of complaints about DIRT Motorsports and the lack of television coverage, Northwest Sprint Tour owner Fred Brownfield formed the National Sprint Tour as a rival to the World of Outlaws Sprint for the 2006 season. Notable teams in the NST included Steve Kinser Racing (No. 11), Roth Motorsports (sometimes known as the "Beef Packers" team) (No. 83), Tony Stewart Racing (No. 20). After Brownfield Promotions' owner Fred Brownfield was killed in a crash, Kinser and principals of two other teams purchased the entire Brownfield promotion. That series folded after the 2006 season, while the Northwest tour, a regional tour, was sold. The SuperClean Summer of Money aired on ESPN2 starting in mid June 2008 with the World of Outlaws at Knoxville Raceway and for eight weeks straight leading up to the Knoxville Nationals which were live on Speed. In 2015, the World of Outlaws had several races broadcast on CBS Sports Network. Knoxville Raceway has their weekly series as well as World of Outlaws and National Sprint League events on MavTV. USAC currently has some races televised on MavTV, primarily through Jack Slash Media's Dirty 30 highlights program. Other series such as the Lucas Oil ASCS Sprint Car Series, King of the West Sprint Cars, King of the Wing Pavement Sprint Cars, and several weekly regional series on MavTV.

Australia
In Australia, the World Series Sprintcars was formerly televised on free-to-air channel One HD.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the Hydraulink War of the Wings is streamed only by RJPTV on a pay per video program.

Safety aspects
Safety in sprint car racing has continuously evolved over the years as the cars have gotten faster and teams look to garner any advantage with weight and horsepower. While many regulations are centered around the class or division, each sanctioning body typically has a section in its rulebook dedicated to safety. These can vary between sanctioning bodies, and many even set safety standards for those hosting an event.

Some of the most common safety requirements placed on the teams are: an emergency shut-off switch, a quick-detach steering wheel, aluminum seats with high impact head rests with shock absorbing materials, fire resistant suits, underwear, shoes, and gloves, a full face helmet meeting that meets or exceeds a specified Snell or SFI rating, safety harness (most common is a 5-point harness) that meets a specified SFI rating, a neck restraint that meets a given safety rating, and at any time the car and equipment may be subject to inspection. The various SFI and Snell ratings may differ between sanctioning bodies, and many rule books include additional safety recommendations to be used at team or driver discretion.

As for those hosting an event the sanctioning body will often place mandatory safety requirements on the facility including guard rails, retaining walls, concrete walls, and electronic caution lights. It is also typically the facility's responsibility of having an ambulance on site that meets DOT standards, fire equipment and staff, properly licensed medical staff and equipment, track communications, and safety equipment such as tow trucks. It is common for a facility to be visited prior to an event for inspection and updates be made prior to the event taking place.

title: Sprint car racing


text: User talk:160.5.19.26

title: User talk:160.5.19.26


text:
Talk:Murder of Gwen Araujo

Birth date
There's been some back-and-forth editing of the birth date, between "October 4" and "February 24", and I'm having trouble figuring out which date (if either!) is right. The cited obituary does say "February 24, 1985". OTOH, Tess deCarlo's Trans History (ISBN 1387846353), page 245, has "February 21st, 1985", while Lillian Faderman's Great Events from History: Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender events, 1848-2006, page 696, has "February 4, 1985". Possibly the specific date is not necessary and we could just say "1985". -sche (talk) 18:35, 26 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Considering that no source says she was born on October 4, and it's coincidentally the same date she was killed, I think we can safely assume that the IP editor is confused and incorrect. If the sources conflict, but all agree on the month, there's no reason we can't say "February 1985". -Jason A. Quest (talk) 19:00, 26 February 2019 (UTC)

Why is there no mention of her birth name?
I know what it is but won't mention it here. Why is this information unavailable. Is this per Wiki policy? (166.155.87.202 (talk) 14:23, 14 April 2022 (UTC))

Addendum: I now I understand the deadnaming policy (166.155.87.202 (talk))

An edit war
Gwen's father Edward was previously called Edward Araujo Sr. on the page. Since his daughter is called Gwen, I removed the Sr. part - as Sr. of course means the subject's child is called that too - which isn't the case here. A user called JasonQuest reverted my edit and described it as nonsense. They didn't provide an actual explanation and were just rude, so I reverted my edit back and told them to be politer. They then reverted back and said Don't make Orwellian arguments. I want to prevent an edit war which is why I am discussing the issue here but it is clear that this user has no intention of discussing this constructively - or editing the page constructively - and instead just wants to hurl insults. 92.10.13.209 (talk) 14:33, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * (I've been editing this article constructively for years.) The notion that Gwen Araujo was never named anything else is objectively false. She was originally named after her father – a fundamentally important part of her story – which is why her father legally became "Sr." after she was born. This isn't deadnaming her; it's acknowledging the name that he called himself. Jason A. Quest (talk) 15:09, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Firstly, please spell her name correctly. It's Araujo, not Arujo.
 * Whether you've been making constructive edits for years or not is irrelevant when you insulted me just now by accusing me of making 'Orwellian' arguments, and are currently trying to not edit the article constructively. And I never said she wasn't assigned anything otherwise. However - in accordance with MOS:IDENTITY - she was not notable before she was murdered, which is the subject of the article. Her name is Gwen - which voids the Sr. in Edward's name - just as Gwen's assigned name did the opposite. 92.10.13.209 (talk) 15:23, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * (Apologies for the typo; corrected. Now please check your own comments for name errors.)
 * WP policy about her name doesn't create an alternate universe in which her father never changed his. And if we respect her right to name herself, we can't take that same right from him. Jason A. Quest (talk) 16:15, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I didn't create an alternate scenario in which her father never changed his name. He changed his name to Edward Sr. However, after Gwen corrected her name - his name was not Edward Sr anymore - since he did not have a child with that name. 92.10.13.209 (talk) 17:03, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * If he changed his name to "Edward Sr." (or to anything at all), Wikipedia does not have the authority to change it back later, regardless of the attempted justification. This should be obvious. Jason A. Quest (talk) 21:12, 2 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Please don't patronize me by saying "this should be obvious", I've warned you about being rude before wrt your 'Orwellian' accusation. And this is not Wikipedia's authority - linguistically, if he does not have a child named Edward - then he is not Edward Sr. This has nothing to do with Wikipedia, it's just his name. 92.10.13.209 (talk) 06:49, 3 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I believe that names are a matter of personal choice. I'm disappointed that you won't respect that. Jason A. Quest (talk) 14:25, 3 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Agree.

title: Talk:Murder of Gwen Araujo


text:
Naval Station Newport

Naval Station Newport (NAVSTA Newport) is a United States Navy base located in the city of Newport and the town of Middletown, Rhode Island. Naval Station Newport is home to the Naval War College and the Naval Justice School. It once was the homeport for Cruiser Destroyer Force Atlantic (COMCRUDESLANT), which relocated to Naval Station Norfolk in the early 1970s. In 1989 the base was added to the National Priorities List, after contamination had been discovered years earlier. Newport now maintains inactive ships at its pier facilities, along with the United States Coast Guard and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration research vessels. In BRAC 2005 (Base Realignment and Closure), NAVSTA Newport gained over five hundred billets, in addition to receiving, again, the Officer Candidate School (OCS), the Naval Supply Corps School (in 2011 ), and several other activities, to include a few Army Reserve units.

Geography
As of 2022 Naval Station Newport, encompasses 1,063 acres on the west coast of Aquidneck Island in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Middletown, Rhode Island, and Newport, Rhode Island. The Base also encompasses the northern third of Gould Island (Rhode Island) in the Town of Jamestown, RI.

Environmental contamination
In 1983, contamination was suspected on 18 areas to pose a threat to human health and/or the environment and in 1989 the base was added to the National Priorities List (NPL). As of 2022, only two sites have no remaining activities, one (Melville North Landfill) because it doesn't belong to the Navy and the other was completed in 2009 (Melville Water Tower). In 1996, a Restoration Advisory Board (RAB) was established.

From 1955 to the mid-1970s, an 11-acre portion of the site along the shore of Narragansett Bay, McAllister Point Landfill, accepted wastes consisting of acids, solvents, paint, waste oil, and oil contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyl. Five tank farms are located in the Melville area; one is located in Midway, one tank farm is located 300 feet from a coastal wetland. Sludge from nearby tank farms was dumped on the ground or burned in chambers. Other areas of concern are an old fire fighting training area, Gould Island, Derecktor Shipyard, Carr Point Storage Area, and MRP Site 1 Carr Point Shooting Range. In 2016, DFSP Melville was added as a new site. The Melville North Landfill was classified as Formerly Used Defense Sites, and will be addressed separately. Of note, surface water and groundwater flow toward Narragansett Bay, which is used for boating and fishing. About 4,800 people obtain drinking water and 220 acres of land are irrigated from private wells located within three miles of the site and about 10,000 people live within three miles of the site.

The petroleum tanks housed at Naval Station Newport are overseen by the federal Defense Logistics Agency (DLA), but the firefighting systems were maintained by the Navy. While the land is polluted with petroleum and PFAS, the Navy has responsibility for PFAS contamination and the DLA for with petroleum. In 2021, after 2 years of the navy being "in the process" of getting permission to test land under the Portsmouth jurisdiction, little progress had been made.

History

The US Department of Navy officially founded the Newport Training Station in 1883, but the legwork between the state of Rhode Island and the Navy dated back to the late 1870s. The Training Station was intended to provide education for young men and boys for a ten month period. Initially 750 students, the training occurred initially on water, fully transitioning to being shore-based by 1887.

During the Civil War, the US Naval Academy was temporarily moved from Annapolis, Maryland to Newport to avoid any potential conflicts relating to the insurgency. Naval training ships, including the USS Constitution, USS Santee and USS John Adams were also moved to Newport Harbor during the conflict to train midshipmen for the Union.

According to the Newport Historical Society,

"With the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the first preparations for war began, and the Training Station expanded onto Coddington Point. By 1916 there were 7,215 men stationed there, and Newport became the home for a yeoman school, signal school, Hospital Corps Training School, Commissary School, Musician's School, and a Firemen's School. After the United States formally entered WWI in April 1917 the Naval Station received authority to increase capacity by 10,000 men. Temporary barracks, mess halls and auxiliary buildings were made into Camp Sadler on Coasters Island, as well as a tent city for 2,800 recruits called Camp Palmer. The enacting of the Selective Service Act of 1917 brought an average of 15,000 men each month for training, and while women were not eligible for the draft, they began enrolling in the Navy at this time. All of this led to more expansion. During WWI, Training Station Newport equipped and sent 65,000 sailors to sea, in addition to thousands of Naval reservists trained there."

In 1919, the station became known for its Newport sex scandal.

From 1900 to the mid-1970s the Newport Naval Education/Training Center (NETC) was used by the Navy as a refueling depot with tank farms and underground storage tanks.

Current operations
The station was home of the decommissioned USS Saratoga (CV-60) after the departure of the USS Forrestal (CV-59) under tow for the inactive ship storage facility in Philadelphia. On May 8, 2014, Naval Sea Systems Command announced that ESCO Marine, Brownsville, Texas, would scrap Saratoga for one cent.

As of September 2014, the Rhode Island Aviation Hall of Fame was trying to move the decommissioned USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) moored at Pier 2 at the station.

Naval Health Clinic New England provides the health care facilities.

On December 5th, 2023 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration awarded a construction contract for new Atlantic Marine Operations Center to be completed by 2027.

Tenant commands
Naval Station Newport provides the facilities and infrastructure essential to support the operations of tenant commands and visiting fleet units.
 * Navy
 * Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Unit 2, Detachment
 * Maritime Expeditionary Security Squadron 8
 * 7th Naval Construction Regiment
 * Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 27 Det 1627
 * Naval Undersea Warfare Center
 * Naval Academy Preparatory School
 * Naval Justice School
 * Navy Supply Corps School
 * Naval War College
 * Officer Candidate School (OCS)
 * Officer Development School (ODS)
 * Direct Commission Officer Indoctrination Course (DCO)
 * Senior Enlisted Academy
 * Surface Warfare Officers School
 * NAVFAC Mid-Atlantic Public Works Department Newport
 * Navy Operational Support Center Newport
 * Navy Band Northeast

 * Marine Corps
 * Marine Corps Detachment Newport (MARDET)

 * Coast Guard
 * USCGC Ida Lewis (WLM-551)
 * USCGC Juniper (WLB-201)
 * USCGC Sycamore (WLB-209)
 * USCGC Oak (WLB-211)
 * USCG Electronics Support Detachment Detal (ESDD) Castle Hill
 * USCG Maintenance Augmentation Team (MAT) Newport

 * National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
 * NOAAS Henry B. Bigelow (R 225)

title: Naval Station Newport


text:
User:Warofdreams/Most referenced

Data from Most Referenced Articles for August 7, 2003 and from User:Topbanana/Reports/This is one of the most linked to articles for 22nd May 2004.

The 2003 list filters out various topics below 24th place. If the same rules are applied to the 2004 list, the following equivalent ranks are obtained and a useful indicator of equivalent change can be found.

title: User:Warofdreams/Most referenced


text:
Þjórsá

Þjórsá is Iceland's longest river at 230 km. It is in the south of the island.

Þjórsá is a glacier river and has its source on the glacier Hofsjökull. It flows out through narrow gorges in the highlands of Iceland. Further downstream, another river, the Tungnaá, flows into it (see also Háifoss), before it enters the lowlands. There it passes the valley of Þjórsárdalur (Thjorsardalur) where the historical farm of Stöng is located. In the lowlands it flows along the eastern border of the Great Þjórsá Lava.

In the middle of the now rather wide river, there is a big island called Árnes, where there used to be a Þing. The administrative unit of Árnessýsla was named after it.

The hringvegur (Road No. 1) traverses the river via a bridge between Selfoss and Hella. Some distance to the southwest the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

'Á' signifies river while 'þjór' means bull and is cognate to Danish - tyr, Swedish - tjur and Latin - taurus. According to the Book of Settlement, the river was named after the bovine prow statue of one of the first settlement ships.

title: Þjórsá