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Interactivity

Across the many fields concerned with interactivity, including information science, computer science, human-computer interaction, communication, and industrial design, there is little agreement over the meaning of the term "interactivity", but most definitions are related to interaction between users and computers and other machines through a user interface. Interactivity can however also refer to interaction between people. It nevertheless usually refers to interaction between people and computers – and sometimes to interaction between computers – through software, hardware, and networks.

Multiple views on interactivity exist. In the "contingency view" of interactivity, there are three levels:
 * 1) Not interactive, when a message is not related to previous messages.
 * 2) Reactive, when a message is related only to one immediately previous message.
 * 3) Interactive, when a message is related to a number of previous messages and to the relationship between them.

One body of research has made a strong distinction between interaction and interactivity. As the suffix 'ity' is used to form nouns that denote a quality or condition, this body of research has defined interactivity as the 'quality or condition of interaction'. These researchers suggest that the distinction between interaction and interactivity is important since interaction may be present in any given setting, but the quality of the interaction varies from low and high.

Human to human communication
Human communication is the basic example of interactive communication which involves two different processes; human to human interactivity and human to computer interactivity. Human-Human interactivity is the communication between people. The word interactivity is related to and stems from the term interaction used by sociologists, which is the actions of at least two individuals who exchange or interplay. It requires levels of messages that respond to previous messages. Interactivity also refers to a communication systems ability to "talk back".

On the other hand, human to computer communication is the way that people communicate with new media. According to Rada Roy, the "Human Computer interaction model might consists of 4 main components which consist of human, computer, task environment and machine environment. The two basic flows of information and control are assumed. The communication between people and computers; one must understand something about both and about the tasks which people perform with computers. A general model of human - computer interface emphasizes the flow of information and control at the human computer interface." Human to Human interactivity consists of many conceptualizations which are based on anthropomorphic definitions. For example, complex systems that detect and react to human behavior are sometimes called interactive. Under this perspective, interaction includes responses to human physical manipulation like movement, body language, and/or changes in mental states.

Human to artifact communication
In the context of communication between a human and an artifact, interactivity refers to the artifact's interactive behaviour as experienced by the human user. This is different from other aspects of the artifact such as its visual appearance, its internal working, and the meaning of the signs it might mediate. For example, the interactivity of an iPod is not its physical shape and colour (its so-called "design"), its ability to play music, or its storage capacity—it is the behaviour of its user interface as experienced by its user. This includes the way the user moves their finger on its input wheel, the way this allows the selection of a tune in the playlist, and the way the user controls the volume.

An artifact's interactivity is best perceived through use. A bystander can imagine how it would be like to use an artifact by watching others use it, but it is only through actual use that its interactivity is fully experienced and "felt". This is due to the kinesthetic nature of the interactive experience. It is similar to the difference between watching someone drive a car and actually driving it. It is only through the driving that one can experience and "feel" how this car differs from others.

New Media academic Vincent Maher defines interactivity as "the relation constituted by a symbolic interface between its referential, objective functionality and the subject."

Computing science
The term "look and feel" is often used to refer to the specifics of a computer system's user interface. Using this metaphor, the "look" refers to its visual design, while the "feel" refers to its interactivity. Indirectly this can be regarded as an informal definition of interactivity.

For a more detailed discussion of how interactivity has been conceptualized in the human-computer interaction literature, and how the phenomenology of the French philosopher Merleau-Ponty can shed light on the user experience, see (Svanaes 2000).

In computer science, interactive refers to software which accepts and responds to input from people—for example, data or commands. Interactive software includes most popular programs, such as word processors or spreadsheet applications. By comparison, noninteractive programs operate without human contact; examples of these include compilers and batch processing applications. If the response is complex enough it is said that the system is conducting social interaction and some systems try to achieve this through the implementation of social interfaces.

Creating interactivity
Web interactivity refers to interactive features that are embedded on websites that offer an exchange of information either between communication technology and users or between users using technology. This type of interactivity evolves with new developments of website interfaces. Some interactive features include hyperlinks, feedback, and multimedia displays. Wikipedia is also an example of web interactivity because it is written in a collaborative way. Interactivity in new media distinguishes itself from old media by implementing participation from users rather than passive consumption.

Web page authors can integrate JavaScript coding to create interactive web pages. Sliders, date pickers, drag and dropping are just some of the many enhancements that can be provided.

Various authoring tools are available for creating various kinds of interactivities. Some common platforms for creating interactivities include Adobe Flash and Microsoft Silverlight. Notable authoring tools for creating interactivities include Harbinger's Elicitus.

eLearning makes use of a concept called an interaction model. Using an interaction model, any person can create interactivities in a very short period of time. Some of the interaction models presented with authoring tools fall under various categories like games, puzzles, simulation tools, presentation tools, etc., which can be completely customized.

title: Interactivity


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Hanley

Hanley is one of the six towns that, along with Burslem, Longton, Fenton, Tunstall and Stoke-upon-Trent, amalgamated to form the City of Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire, England. The town is the main business, commercial and cultural hub of the wider Potteries area.

Etymology
The name Hanley comes from either "haer lea", meaning "high meadow", or "heah lea" meaning "rock meadow".

Municipal origins
Hanley was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1857 and became a county borough with the passage of the Local Government Act 1888. It was based at Hanley Town Hall. In 1910, along with Burslem, Tunstall, Fenton, Longton and Stoke-upon-Trent it was federated into the county borough of Stoke-on-Trent. Hanley was the only one of the six towns to be a county borough before the merger; its status was transferred to the enlarged borough. In 1925, following the granting of city status, it became one of the six towns that constitute the City of Stoke-on-Trent.

Coal mining
At one time, there were many coal mines in North Staffordshire. Hanley Deep Pit was opened in 1854. It was the deepest pit in the North Staffordshire coalfield, reaching a depth of 1500 feet. At its peak in the 1930s it employed some 2,000 men and boys often producing 9000 long ton of coal a week. The pit was closed in 1962 but much of the headgear and spoilheaps were left in situ. Then, in the 1980s, the original site was cleared, landscaped and converted into Central Forest Park. Coal miners in the Hanley and Longton area ignited the 1842 General Strike and associated Pottery Riots. The College Road drill hall was completed in 1903.

Garden Festival
The 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival led to the reclamation of large areas of land west of the city centre area – including the former Shelton steelworks, which had been derelict since 1978. When the Garden Festival closed, the land remained derelict for some time, before being re-developed partly into public parkland and partly for retail and leisure.

Public transport
In 2013, a new bus station opened in Hanley. This replaced the former bus station, on Lichfield Street. The new bus station was the first stage in the regeneration project which will see the previous bus station demolished, and replaced with a new centre consisting of shops, restaurants and a cinema. The new bus station is bigger than its predecessor, and has seen various routes in and out of the city changed to accommodate its location. The bus station features a sheltered waiting area, Spar shop, cafe and toilets, is covered by CCTV, and has digital timetables showing information on travel times for the day, as well as Now/Next above the entrance to each bay. Access to the station is controlled by automatic doors, at both the pedestrian entrance and coach bays.

The new bus station links Hanley with towns in North Staffordshire, as well as Buxton, Crewe, Shrewsbury, and Stafford. Most services are run by First Potteries, though there are a number of smaller independent operators, such as D&G Bus, and Arriva Midlands. In addition, National Express Coaches connect Hanley with destinations including London, Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester, with additional seasonal services to holiday destinations. As part of the redevelopment of the town and wider city, a new bus interchange was opened on John Street in March 2013, allowing the current station to be demolished to make room for further redevelopment of the town.

Hanley no longer has a railway station but there was once one located on Trinity Street, on the Potteries Loop Line, which was opened by the North Staffordshire Railway for passengers on 13 July 1864. The station survived for 100 years – it was closed in 1964, as part of the Beeching Axe, and the land is now a car park. The nearest railway station is in Stoke-upon-Trent, 1.6 mi south-southwest of Hanley bus station.

Hanley is connected to the waterways network; it meets the Trent and Mersey Canal at Festival Park, it is also connected to the east of the country via the Cauldon Canal.

Cultural sites
Hanley has several cultural facilities such as the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery (a large ceramics collection, and restored Spitfire), the Victoria Hall, the Regent Theatre, BBC Radio Stoke's

Religion
Christian churches and chapels in Hanley include:
 * Bethel Evangelical Free Church (Newhall Street),
 * Bethesda Town Mission (Jasper Street),
 * Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Cardiff Grove),
 * Church of Scientology (Warner Street),
 * Congregational Independent Tabernacle Church (High Street),
 * Elim Church (Bucknall Old Road, corner of Mynors Street, Northwood),
 * Etruria Wesleyan Chapel (Etruria Old Road, Etruria),
 * Holy Trinity C of E (Lower Mayer Street, Northwood),
 * Providence Methodist Church (Junction of Town Road, and Hulton Street),
 * St. John's C of E (Town Road, Hanley),
 * St. Luke's C of E (Wellington Terrace),
 * St. Mark's C of E (Broad Street, Shelton),
 * Mt. Zion Pentecostal Faith Temple (Shelton),
 * St. Matthew's C of E (Birches Head),
 * Sacred Heart RC (Jasper Street), Trinity Methodist (Keelings Road, Northwood), and
 * St Simon and St Jude (Seaford Street, College Road (was Victoria Road), Shelton).

Notable people

 * Joseph Glass (fl.1670-1701 at least), potter, worked in slipware
 * Henry Heath (1828–1908) was a Latter-day Saint (Mormon) pioneer, explorer, settler and lawman in the frontier Utah Territory.
 * Thomas Twyford (1849–1921) pottery maker, invented the single piece, ceramic flush toilet
 * Sarah Benett (1850-1924), Suffragette, member of WSPU, social reformer worked in Hanley
 * Edward Smith (1850–1912) Merchant Navy officer, captain of the RMS Titanic, who went down with the ship.
 * Sir Albert Edward Bowen, 1st Baronet (1858–1924) businessman, spent time in Argentina.
 * Arnold Bennett (1867–1931) writer and novelist, but he also worked in the theatre, journalism, propaganda and films.
 * John Gilbert Dale (1869–1926) scientist and prominent trade union and political activist.
 * Eleanor Lodge (1869–1936) a British academic and sister of Oliver, Richard & Alfred Lodge
 * Mabel Mary Spanton (1874–1940) landscape painter, worked in watercolour.
 * Hilda Ormsby (1877–1973) a British academic and geographer.
 * Frederick Hurten Rhead (1880–1942) ceramicist, figure in the Arts and Crafts movement.
 * Raymond Coxon (1896–1997) artist, had retrospective exhibition at the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery in 1987.
 * George Henry Evans Hopkins (1898–1973) entomologist
 * Hanley Stafford (born Alfred John Austin, 1899–1968), an actor principally on radio.
 * Goddard Lieberson (1911–1977) president of Columbia Records 1956-1971 & 1973-1975
 * Henry Joseph Gallagher (1914 – 1988) was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his gallantry during the Korean War.
 * James Bostock (1917–2006) a painter, printmaker and wood engraver
 * John Forrester (1924–2007) Labour Party politician, MP for Stoke North 1966–1987.
 * Harold Perkin (1926–2004) social historian and founder of the Social History Society (1976).
 * Ken Whitmore (born 1937) a prolific author of radio and stage plays, short stories and poetry
 * Jeff Kent (born 1951) academic, musician, author and historian.

Sport

 * Bill Rowley (1865–1939) footballer, 124 appearances for Stoke City F.C. as goalkeeper.
 * Horace Austerberry (1868–1946) football manager, managed Stoke City F.C. 1897–1908.
 * Alf Underwood (1869–1928) footballer, played 130 times for Stoke City F.C.
 * Thomas Holford (1878–1964) footballer, 474 appearances for Stoke City F.C. Manchester City F.C., and Port Vale F.C.
 * Arthur Box (1884–1960) footballer who played as a goalkeeper, over 100 appearances for Port Vale F.C., Stoke City F.C. and Birmingham City F.C.
 * Sir Stanley Matthews, (1915–2000) footballer, one of the greatest players of the British game, 693 appearances for Stoke City F.C. and Blackpool F.C.
 * Les West (born 1943) cyclist, dominant figure during the 1960 and 1970's
 * Terry Alcock, (born 1946) former footballer, played 330 league games mainly for Port Vale F.C. and Blackpool F.C.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hanley


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Mark Recchi

Mark Louis Recchi (born February 1, 1968) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey winger and current assistant coach of the Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected in the fourth round, 67th overall, by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft and played a total of 22 seasons in the NHL for the Penguins, Philadelphia Flyers, Montreal Canadiens, Carolina Hurricanes, Atlanta Thrashers, Tampa Bay Lightning and Boston Bruins. Recchi won the Stanley Cup three times in his playing career: in 1991 with the Penguins, in 2006 with the Hurricanes, and in 2011 with the Bruins. During the 2010-11 season, Recchi was the last active player who had played in the NHL in the 1980s. Subsequently, in Game 2 of the 2011 Finals, Recchi became the oldest player ever to score in a Stanley Cup Finals game at age 43. On June 26, 2017, in his fourth year of eligibility, Recchi was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Playing career
Recchi played his junior hockey for the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League (WHL). His number 8 was retired by the team shortly after he left for the NHL. He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins, first playing in the NHL in 1988, and was a key player on their Stanley Cup-winning team in 1991.

The following season, Recchi was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers as part of a deal that brought Rick Tocchet and Kjell Samuelsson to Pittsburgh. He played for Philadelphia from 1992 to 1995 as part of the "Crazy Eights" line with Eric Lindros and Brent Fedyk, including a 53-goal, 70-assist and 123-point season in 1992–93, still the Flyers' single-season point-scoring record. In 1995, he was traded to the Montreal Canadiens in a deal for Éric Desjardins, Gilbert Dionne and John LeClair, but was reacquired by the Flyers late in the 1998–99 season and was consistently among their top scorers.

During the 1999–2000 season, Recchi was a finalist for the Lester B. Pearson Award as the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) MVP, and he finished third in scoring, only five points behind winner Jaromír Jágr and runner-up Pavel Bure. Recchi also finished third in voting for the NHL All-Star team right wing position behind Jágr and Bure. In 2000 and 2004, the Flyers would make the Eastern Conference Finals, but they would bow out of each series in seven games.

In 2000, Recchi was named "Kamloops Male Athlete of the 20th Century", and had a street named "Mark Recchi Way" in his honour.

In August 2004, Recchi rejoined the Pittsburgh Penguins as a free agent, signing a two-year contract with a two-way option for a third year. The first year was eventually nullified by the NHL lock-out; in the second year, with the Penguins languishing at the bottom of the NHL standings, Recchi waived his no-trade clause to be sent to the Stanley Cup-contending Carolina Hurricanes at the deadline for minor-league forward Krys Kolanos, left wing Niklas Nordgren and a 2007 second-round pick. Recchi won his second Stanley Cup with the Hurricanes that season, then re-signed with the Penguins during the summer of 2006 off-season.

On January 20, 2007, he scored his seventh career hat-trick (against the Toronto Maple Leafs), and just under a week later, Recchi scored his 500th career goal on January 26, 2007, on the power play against the Dallas Stars.

During the summer of 2007, Recchi re-signed with the Pittsburgh Penguins on a one-year, $2 million contract, but on December 4, he was placed on waivers and assigned to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, on December 6. The Penguins then placed Recchi on re-entry waivers the next day, where Recchi was claimed by the Atlanta Thrashers. In his first game against his former team, he scored the game-winning goal in a shootout.

On July 7, 2008, Recchi signed a one-year deal as a free agent with the Tampa Bay Lightning. After scoring 45 points in 62 games with the Lightning in the 2008–09 season, and with the Lightning out of playoff contention, on March 4, 2009, Recchi was traded at the trade deadline (along with a second-round pick in 2010) to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Mārtiņš Karsums and Matt Lashoff. Recchi scored his first two goals for the Bruins three days later on March 7, as the first and third Bruins goals in a 5–3 home ice defeat of the visiting Chicago Blackhawks.

On July 2, 2009, Recchi re-signed with the Bruins on a one-year contract. At the time, Recchi had stated that the 2009–10 season would be his final year. With the retirement of Joe Sakic in the summer of 2009, Recchi became the leader in points and assists among active players. Recchi would serve as an alternate captain during the season while Marc Savard was injured and out of the line-up, playing 81 of 82 games in the 2009–10 season.

During the 2010 playoffs, Recchi became the third-oldest player to score a playoff goal, behind Chris Chelios and Gordie Howe, and also became the oldest player to have a multi-goal game in the playoffs when he scored two goals in a 5–4 overtime loss to the Philadelphia Flyers in Game 4 of the second round. After suffering defeat in the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Flyers, instead of retiring, Recchi re-signed with the Bruins for a one more year.

In the 2010–11 season on November 24, 2010, Recchi scored twice against the Florida Panthers to earn his 1,500th career point.

In Game 2 of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, Recchi became the oldest ever player to score a goal in a Stanley Cup Finals, doing so at age 43. In Game 3 of the Finals, he scored the final two goals of his career. On June 15, 2011, Recchi became a three-time winner of the Stanley Cup and joined Jack Marshall, Frank Foyston, Jack Walker, Mike Keane, Claude Lemieux, Hap Holmes, Al Arbour, Gord Pettinger, Larry Hillman, and Joe Nieuwendyk in winning at least three Stanley Cups with three different teams, as the Bruins defeated the Vancouver Canucks in Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Finals. Recchi also led the team in scoring during the Finals series.

Having previously announced he would "sail off into the sunset" if Boston were victorious in the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, he announced his retirement in an interview with Ron MacLean of Hockey Night in Canada during the post-game Stanley Cup celebration. Recchi was the last player active in professional hockey who had played in the NHL in the 1980s, finishing his career fourth all-time in games played and 12th all-time in points.

Post-retirement
Recchi is a co-owner of the Kamloops Blazers, along with Dallas Stars owner Tom Gaglardi and Jarome Iginla, Shane Doan and Darryl Sydor.

In 2013, Recchi joined the Dallas Stars as a consultant along with former Stars Mike Modano and Marty Turco.

On July 18, 2014, Recchi was hired as the Pittsburgh Penguins' player development coach. He was a part of the 2016 and 2017 Stanley Cup champion teams. He was subsequently promoted to director of player development on June 15, 2017. He was named the assistant coach on July 11, 2017, following the departure of Rick Tocchet, who was named the head coach of the Arizona Coyotes.

Recchi did not have his contract renewed by the Penguins following the 2019-20 season.

Recchi was hired by the New Jersey Devils as an assistant coach on September 8, 2020. He was subsequently fired by the Devils on May 4, 2022. The Columbus Blue Jackets hired Recchi as an assistant coach on September 25, 2023.

Personal life
Mark Recchi was born on February 1, 1968, to Mel and Ruth Recchi in Kamloops, British Columbia. Mark has three brothers: Marty, Mike and Matt.

Recchi married Kim Lazur on August 20, 2016, and they have two children together. Recchi has six children in total, four from a previous marriage. The children's names are: Christina, Bella, Samantha, Brendan, Cameron and Austin.

Awards and achievements

 * Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2017

Records

 * His 123 points (53 goals, 70 assists) in the 1992–1993 season is the Flyers regular season scoring record.
 * Oldest player to record 5 assists in a game on March 1, 2009, at 41 years, 28 days.
 * Oldest player to score a Stanley Cup Finals goal on June 6, 2011, at 43 years, 126 days.

NHL transactions

 * On February 19, 1992: Traded from the Pittsburgh Penguins with Brian Benning and a first-round pick in the 1992 draft (Jason Bowen) to the Philadelphia Flyers for Kjell Samuelsson, Rick Tocchet and Ken Wregget.
 * On February 9, 1995: Traded from the Philadelphia Flyers to the Montreal Canadiens for Éric Desjardins, John LeClair and Gilbert Dionne.
 * On March 10, 1999: Traded from the Montreal Canadiens to the Philadelphia Flyers for Dainius Zubrus, a second-round pick in the 1999 draft (Matt Carkner) and a sixth-round pick in the 2000 draft (Scott Selig).
 * On March 9, 2006: Traded from the Pittsburgh Penguins to the Carolina Hurricanes for Niklas Nordgren, Krys Kolanos and a second-round pick in the 2007 draft (Kevin Marshall).
 * On December 4, 2007: Placed on waivers by the Pittsburgh Penguins
 * On December 6, 2007: Assigned to the Pittsburgh Penguins American Hockey League affiliate, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, after clearing waivers.
 * On December 7, 2007: Claimed off re-entry waivers by the Atlanta Thrashers.
 * On March 4, 2009: Traded to the Boston Bruins from the Tampa Bay Lightning with a 2010 second-round pick, for defenceman Matt Lashoff and forward Mārtiņš Karsums.
 * On June 15, 2011: Retired from the National Hockey League

title: Mark Recchi


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/SpeechWorks

This page is an archive of the discussion surrounding the proposed deletion of the page entitled SpeechWorks.

This page is kept as an historic record.

The result of the debate was to delete the article due to copyright violation in its history, and replace with User:Nohat's newly-written stub.

 * yoinked text, weird format, non-article -- Infrogmation
 * Copyvio - Belongs on Copyright problems -- Cyrius|&#9998 18:28, May 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * keep. made into sensible stub. (full disclosure: I had nothing to do with creating this article in the first place, but I am a former employee of SpeechWorks, which techincally, isn't even a company anymore) Nohat 19:15, 2004 May 9 (UTC)
 * The new version of the article looks okay to me. Keep now. -- Infrogmation 19:22, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * SpeechWorks is gone, and Speech Works redirects to it. Unless the article at SpeechWorks is undeleted, Speech Works is a candidate for speedy deletion. --Ben Brockert 21:01, May 9, 2004 (UTC)

The user restored her non-standard version over the VfD header and the version that Nohat had changed it to. Since it's obvious that she has no interest in even discussing these changes, and since she insists on keeping her spam/copyvio version, I deleted it. I can restore it, if we want to restore it back to the non-copyvio version, but do we want to bother? She's on a very thin razor's edge as it is -- see what she did to Philips, which I reverted. RickK 21:39, 9 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I restored the deleted revisions, and reverted to my version. Please don't delete my work. Nohat 22:14, 2004 May 9 (UTC)
 * Nohat's stub is worth keeping, but I still don't like the copyvio in the history. -- Cyrius|&#9998 22:53, May 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, but agree with Cyrius. IMO we're not entirely consistent in dealing with copyvios. Big issue. Andrewa 02:43, 10 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Why not copy your text, Nohat, then delete the entry and recreate it? No coyvio in history, and the page stands. --Ben Brockert 03:04, May 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * Nice new stub, and keep. If the above option works, then do it. Burgundavia 20:26, May 13, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue should be placed on other relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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West Hartlepool

West Hartlepool was a predecessor of Hartlepool, County Durham, England. It developed in the Victorian era and took the name from its western position in the parish of what is now known as the Headland.

The former town was originally formed in 1848 as an accompanying settlement for nearby railway and docks, which brought and exported coal from the area. The rail network grew, connecting to docks in Leeds and other cities. Further developments in the area led to the 1960s formation of Hartlepool as a town.

History
The town of West Hartlepool was founded by Ralph Ward Jackson who went on to become managing director of the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway in 1848.

The area known as Newburn Raw, part of the ancient village of Stranton, steadily grew into a centre for shipping and railway transport. The West Hartlepool Harbour and Dock (8 acre) opened on 1 June 1847. Five years later, also on 1 June, the Jackson dock (14 acre) opened as well as a railway connecting West Hartlepool to Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool. Massive timber trading with Baltic countries began as timber was needed for pitprops in nearby coal mines. The area's population grew quickly as a result. Eight shipbuilding yards were established. Supporting shipbuilding and repair were: a canvas manufacturing firm, Bastow Brothers and W. Taylor iron foundries, block and mast makers and other related machinery. Streets were laid out along which shops and brick homes were built. Standard town services followed including paved roads, gas and electricity, sewers, a slaughterhouse, cemetery and more.

Jackson built a large church, Christ Church, from stone excavated from the docks and the parish was consecrated in 1854 by the Bishop of Durham. Swainson Dock opened on 3 June 1856, named after Ward Jackson's father-in-law. In 1878 the William Gray & Company ship yard in West Hartlepool achieved the distinction of launching the largest tonnage of any shipyard in the world, a feat to be repeated on a number of occasions.

West Hartlepool was formerly a chapelry in the parish of Stranton, The municipal borough of West Hartlepool was created in 1887, and, with its headquarters at West Hartlepool Town Hall, on 31 December 1894 West Hartlepool became a separate civil parish, the district was promoted to the status of county borough, outside the control of Durham County Council, in 1902. On 1 April 1967, a county borough, called Hartlepool, was established by amalgamating West Hartlepool with old Hartlepool, the parish was also abolished and merged with Hartlepool. In 1961 the parish had a population of 77,035.

Sport
The town's Rugby Union football team was formed in 1881 by men who came to the area to build the railway and dig the docks, and continued until 1908 when the Hartlepool Union's round ball game was in vogue. Until 1968, the football team now known as Hartlepool United was shown in the plural - Hartlepools United - to show its links to both Hartlepool and to West Hartlepool.

Notable people

 * Margaret Green, artist, born in West Hartlepool
 * Lionel Tertis, viola player who commissioned many new works for the instrument, born in West Hartlepool

title: West Hartlepool


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County Borough of Warley

Warley was a short-lived county borough and civil parish in the geographical county of Worcestershire, England, forming part of the West Midlands conurbation. It was formed in 1966 by the combination of the existing county borough of Smethwick with the municipal boroughs of Oldbury and Rowley Regis, by recommendation of the Local Government Commission for England. It was abolished just 8 years later in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, with its area passing to the Metropolitan Borough of Sandwell.

Formation

The Local Government Act 1958 appointed a Local Government Commission to review administrative structures and boundaries in England outside London. The Act designated a "West Midlands Special Review Area" as one of five conurbations in which urgent reform was felt to be needed. The commission made its report in July 1961, recommending that the Black Country area of the West Midlands should be administered by five large county boroughs. The proposal to merge the boroughs of Oldbury, Rowley Regis and Smethwick as one of the new authorities was initially suggested by the three councils involved. The government announced that it accepted the proposals in November 1962, and it was originally intended that the County Borough of Warley should come into being on 1 April 1964. The reforms were delayed when five district councils in the review area took legal action in an attempt to prevent their implementation. The legal process was finally concluded in the Court of Appeal in July 1965, with the court ruling in the government's favour. Plans for Rowley Regis to be absorbed into an expanded Dudley borough were also considered, while Halesowen was being lined up as the third area to be absorbed into a new borough which also included Oldbury and Smethwick, but this did not happen and the borough of Halesowen survived until it was incorporated into the new Metropolitan Borough of Dudley in 1974.

The Local Government (West Midlands) Order 1965 was made on 3 November 1965, with the changes to come into effect on 1 April 1966. The Order was debated in the House of Commons on 2 December 1965. John Horner, the Labour MP for Oldbury and Halesowen stated that while the boroughs of Oldbury and Rowley Regis had supported the creation of the new county borough in 1961, they no longer did so. In contrast, Peter Griffiths, Conservative member for Smethwick stated that the working party consisting of councillors for the three boroughs had given up their opposition, and were trying to make a success of the new county borough. The group did, however, have objections to boundary changes which caused the transfer of an estate of council houses (next to the West Bromwich Albion F.C. stadium) to West Bromwich.

The borough took its name from the ancient Manor of Warley, listed in the Domesday Survey as covering much of the area. This was subsequently divided into two parts: Warley Salop (in Shropshire) and Warley Wigorn (in Worcestershire). This was united as the civil parish of Warley in 1884, but later divided between the boroughs of Oldbury and Smethwick (Warley Woods).

Smethwick and Rowley Regis had been part of Staffordshire, while Oldbury was part of Worcestershire (having been transferred from Shropshire in 1844). The new county borough was placed entirely in the geographical county of Worcestershire. Part of the Oakham area of Dudley and most of the Tividale area of Tipton were also incorporated into Warley, becoming part of the new Oldbury B69 postal district.

The archives for Warley Borough are held at Sandwell Community History and Archives Service.

Areas transferred
Source:Vision of Britain

On creation, the county borough was included in the area of the West Midlands Constabulary, which was formed to cover the five Black Country county boroughs formed in 1966. Warley was included in the area of the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive in 1969, and nominated one member of the transport authority.

Borough council
The first elections to Warley Borough Council were in February 1966, with those elected being a "shadow council" until coming into full powers on 1 April. The Labour Party initially held power, losing it to the Conservatives in 1968. Labour regained control in 1972 at the final borough election before abolition. The county borough was divided into fifteen wards, each returning three councillors and one alderman:
 * Abbey
 * Bearwood
 * Brandhall
 * Bristnall
 * Cradley Heath
 * Langley
 * Old Hill and Blackheath
 * Rounds Green
 * Rowley
 * St Paul's
 * Sandwell
 * Soho
 * Tividale
 * Uplands
 * Victoria

The political composition of the borough council was as follows following each election from 1967 to 1972:

In 1967, the first council elections in Warley saw the Labour Party gain control of the council with a narrow majority, although the following year saw the Conservatives gain control with a significant majority, reflecting the slump in popularity of the Labour government across Britain at the time. In 1972, Labour regained control of Warley.

In September 1967, the council appointed Tony O'Connor as headmaster at what was then Bearwood Junior and Infants School; he is widely held to be the UK's first black headmaster.

Coat of arms
On 30 June 1966, the College of Arms granted the new county borough armorial bearings. The design incorporated features from the arms of the three merged boroughs. The blazon of the arms was as follows:

''Per saltire vert and or, two lions rampant in pale or, in fess of either flank a club in bend sinister surmounted by a caduceus in bend proper; on a chief or a lion passant vert. And for a crest: Issuant from a Saxon crown or, a demi lion rampant double queued vert holding with the dexter paw an arrow barb downwards proper. Supporters: on the dexter side a lion gules in the mouth an arrow proper; on the sinister side a dragon gules in the mouth an anchor or.''

The "chief" or upper third of the shield bearing a lion passant came from the arms of Rowley Regis, and the "per saltire" division of the arms and green and gold colouring was found in Oldbury's insignia. The gold lions on a green background were from the arms of the Robsart family, while the crossed club and caduceus were the arms of James Watt. The crest featured a Saxon crown from which rose a green double-tailed lion, emblem of the Suttons, mediaeval lords of Dudley. The lion held an arrow from the arms of Matthew Boulton. The supporters of the arms were a red lion and dragon. The lion was from the armorial bearings of Sir James Timmins Chance, while the dragon was intended to represent the ancient Britons, founders of the "old burh" or Oldbury. Both animals held objects in their mouths as heraldic differences: an arrow (as in the crest) and an anchor (for Cradley Heath's traditional industry). The motto chosen by the borough was "Unity and Progress".

Parliamentary constituencies
The Parliamentary Constituencies (England) Order 1970 divided the county borough into two parliamentary constituencies: Warley East and Warley West. The constituencies were first used at the 1974 general election, shortly before the abolition of the borough. They were abolished in 1997, although the borough's name lives on in the modern Warley constituency which consists of Oldbury and Smethwick (formerly Warley East). The old Warley West seat was divided between the new constituency of Halesowen and Rowley Regis and an expanded West Bromwich West.

Abolition
On the formation of the West Midlands metropolitan county in 1974, the county borough of Warley merged with the county borough of West Bromwich to form the Metropolitan Borough of Sandwell. West Bromwich itself had expanded in 1966 to take in the bulk of Tipton and Wednesbury.

title: County Borough of Warley


text:
Augusto César Sandino

Augusto César Sandino (18 May 1895 – 21 February 1934), full name Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino, was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion between 1927 and 1933 against the United States occupation of Nicaragua. Despite being referred to as a "bandit" by the United States government, his exploits made him a hero throughout much of Latin America, where he became a symbol of resistance to American imperialism. Sandino drew units of the United States Marine Corps into an undeclared guerrilla war. The United States troops withdrew from the country in 1933 after overseeing the election and inauguration of President Juan Bautista Sacasa, who had returned from exile. He fought alongside the commanders Diego Zapata and Cornelio Bravo.

Sandino was assassinated in 1934 by National Guard forces of General Anastasio Somoza García, who went on to seize power in a coup d'état two years later. After being elected president by an overwhelming margin in 1936, Somoza García resumed control of the National Guard and established a dictatorship and Somoza family dynasty that ruled Nicaragua for more than 40 years. Sandino's political legacy was claimed by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), which finally overthrew the Somoza government in 1979.

Sandino is revered in Nicaragua and in 2010 its congress unanimously named him a "national hero". His political descendants, the icons of his wide-brimmed hat and boots, and his writings from the years of warfare against the USMC continue to shape Nicaragua's national identity.

Early life
Augusto Calderón was born 18 May 1895, in Niquinohomo, Masaya Department, Nicaragua. He was the illegitimate son of Gregorio Sandino, a wealthy landowner of Spanish descent, and Margarita Calderón, an indigenous servant with the Sandino family. He lived with his mother until he was nine years old, when his father took him into his own home and arranged for his education. It was then that young Augusto took on his father's surname, retaining his maternal surname, Calderón, as a middle name represented by the initial C.

In July 1912, when he was 17, Sandino witnessed an intervention of United States troops in Nicaragua to suppress an uprising against President Adolfo Díaz, regarded by many as a United States puppet. General Benjamín Zeledón of La Concordia in the state of Jinotega died that year on 4 October during the Battle of Coyotepe Hill, when United States Marines recaptured Fort Coyotepe and the city of Masaya from rebels. The Marines carried Zeledón's body on an oxcart to be buried in Catarina.

Attempted murder and exile in Mexico
In 1921 at the age of 26, Sandino shot but failed to kill Dagoberto Rivas, the son of a prominent conservative townsman, who had made disparaging comments about Sandino's mother. As a result, Sandino fled to Honduras, then Guatemala and eventually Mexico, where he found work at a Standard Oil refinery near the port of Tampico. At that time the military phase of the Mexican Revolution was drawing to an end. A new "institutional revolutionary" regime was forming, driven by a wide array of popular movements to carry out the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. Sandino was involved with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, spiritist gurus and anti-imperialist, anarchist and communist revolutionaries. He embraced the anti-clericalism of Mexico's revolution and the ideology of Indigenismo, which glorified the indigenous heritage of Latin America.

Emergence as guerrilla leader

Shortly after Sandino returned to Nicaragua, the Constitutionalist War began when Liberal soldiers in the Caribbean port of Puerto Cabezas revolted against the Conservative President Adolfo Díaz, who had recently been installed after a coup with United States involvement. The leader of this revolt, General José María Moncada, declared that he supported the claim of the exiled Liberal vice-president Juan Bautista Sacasa.

Sacasa returned to Nicaragua, arriving in Puerto Cabezas in December, and declared himself president of a "constitutional" government, which Mexico recognized. Sandino assembled a makeshift army composed largely of gold miners, and led a failed attack on the Conservative garrison nearest the San Albino mine. Afterward, he traveled to Puerto Cabezas to meet with Moncada. Because of the guerrilla's hit-and-run operations against Conservative forces, conducted independently of the Liberal army, Moncada distrusted Sandino and told Sacasa so. Sacasa denied the unknown Sandino's requests for weapons and a military commission. But after he captured some rifles from fleeing Conservative soldiers, the other Liberal commanders agreed to grant Sandino a commission.

By 1927 Sandino had returned to Las Segovias, where he recruited local peasants for his army and attacked government troops with increasing success. In April Sandino's forces played a vital role in assisting the principal Liberal Army column, which was advancing on Managua. Having received arms and funding from Mexico, Moncada's Liberal army seemed on the verge of seizing the capital. But the United States, using the threat of military intervention, forced the Liberal generals to agree to a ceasefire.

On 4 May 1927, representatives from the two warring factions signed the Espino Negro accord, negotiated by Henry L. Stimson, appointed by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge as a special envoy to Nicaragua. Under the terms of the accord, both sides agreed to disarm, Díaz would be allowed to finish his term, and a new national army would be established, to be called the Guardia Nacional (National Guard). U.S. soldiers were to remain in the country to supervise the upcoming November presidential election. A battalion of U.S. Marines under the command of Major General Logan Feland later arrived to enforce the agreement.

After the signing of the Espino Negro accord, Sandino refused to order his followers to surrender their weapons, and returned with them to the Segovia Mountains.

Marriage and family
During this period, Sandino married Blanca Stella Aráuz Pineda, a young telegraphist of the village of San Rafael del Norte, Jinotega.

Declaring war on the United States
In June 1927, Sandino organised a group of 50 men to march to the San Albino mines in Nueva Segovia, where he was formerly employed by American businessman Charles Butters. Sandino took over the mine, which held 500 pounds of dynamite he said was going to use to "kill Yankees", and forcibly drove out all foreigners. This led to foreigners criticizing America and how the Marines deployed in Nicaragua were ordered to protect only American property, not foreigners'.

At the beginning of July 1927, Sandino issued a manifesto condemning the betrayal of the Liberal revolution by the vendepatria ("country-seller") Moncada. He declared war on the United States, which he called the "Colossus of the North" and "the enemy of our race". At the height of his guerrilla campaign, Sandino claimed to have 3,000 soldiers in his army; in later years, officials estimated the number at 300.

On 16 July, Sandino's followers attacked a patrol of U.S. Marines and the Nicaraguan Guardia Nacional was sent to apprehend him at the village of Ocotal. Armed primarily with machetes and 19th-century rifles, they attempted to besiege the Marines, but were easily repulsed with the help of one of the first dive-bombing attacks in history, conducted by five Marine de Havilland biplanes. The Marine commander estimated that 300 of Sandino's men died (the actual number was about 80), while the Marines suffered two casualties, one dead and one wounded, and the Guardia three dead and four taken prisoner. Despite their heavy losses and the lopsided nature of these battles, the rebels made other attempts to swarm a small post guarded by 21 Marines and 25 guardsmen at Telpaneca. The 200 assaulting Sandinistas had 25 deaths and 50 wounded while killing one Marine, wounding another and seriously injuring a guardsman.

Later Sandino took the more official title Augusto César Sandino and renamed his insurgents "The Army in Defense of the National Sovereignty of Nicaragua". Efforts by the Marines to kill or capture him over the summer failed. In November 1927, U.S. aircraft succeeded in locating El Chipote, Sandino's remote mountain headquarters east of San Albino Mine. But when the Marines reached it, they found it abandoned and guarded by straw dummies. Sandino and his followers had long since escaped.

In January 1928 U.S. Marines found Sandino's war base in Quilalí and, though they were ambushed in their approach, the American and Nicaraguan troops had no trouble in routing the 400 rebels under Francisco Estrada's leadership. The Marines lost one man while killing 20. Sandino's penchant for exaggeration was evident in his personal report of the events: he claimed to have won the battle in three hours and that 97 Americans were killed and another 60 wounded. In reality only 66 Marines were in the operation. He further boasted the capture of six Lewis machine guns, three M1921 Thompsons and 46 Lewis automatic rifles. Also among these trophies was a codebook for communicating with aircraft.

After reaching the mountains of Nueva Segovia, Sandino smuggled a message to Mexico City saying: "I will not abandon my resistance until the ... pirate invaders ... assassins of weak peoples ... are expelled from my country. ... I will make them realize that their crimes will cost them dear. ... There will be bloody combat. ... Nicaragua shall not be the patrimony of Imperialists. I will fight for my cause as long as my heart beats. ... If through destiny I should lose, there are in my arsenal five tons of dynamite which I will explode with my own hand. The noise of the cataclysm will be heard 250 miles. All who hear will be witness that Sandino is dead. Let it not be permitted that the hands of traitors or invaders shall profane his remains."

In April the Sandinistas destroyed the equipment of the Bonanza and La Luz gold mines, the two largest mines in the country, both owned by three American brothers: James Gilmore, G. Fred, and D. Watson Fletcher, all of Manhattan, who were brothers of Henry P. Fletcher, the United States Ambassador to Italy. After destroying the Fletchers' mines, Sandino wrote that he was targeting not just U.S. Marines but also Americans in Nicaragua who "uphold the attitude of Coolidge."

With aerial support, the Marines made several riverine patrols from Nicaragua's east coast up the Coco River during the height of the rainy season, often having to use native dugout canoes. While these patrols limited Sandino's forces' movements and secured tenuous control over northern Nicaragua's principal river, the Marines failed to find Sandino or to effect a decisive victory. By April 1928 the Marines reportedly thought Sandino was finished and trying to evade capture. One month later, his army ambushed another Marine post and killed five troops. In December 1928 the Marines located Sandino's mother and convinced her to write a letter asking him to surrender. Sandino announced that he would continue to fight until the Marines left Nicaragua.

Despite massive efforts, American forces never captured Sandino. His communiqués were regularly published in American media; for instance, he was frequently quoted during 1928 in Time magazine during the Marines' offensive. At one point he staged a fake funeral to throw off pursuers. The U.S. Congress did not share Coolidge's ambition to capture Sandino and declined to fund operations to do so. U.S. Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana argued that if American soldiers intended to "stamp out banditry, let's send them to Chicago to stamp it out there ... I wouldn't sacrifice ... one American boy for all the damn Nicaraguans."

The Struggle
Having addressed his declaration of war to the whole of the "Indo-Hispanic race", Sandino saw his struggle in racial terms, as the defense not only of Nicaragua but of the whole of Latin America. At the beginning of his rebellion, Sandino appointed the Honduran poet, journalist and diplomat, Froylán Turcios, as his official foreign representative. Residing in Tegucigalpa, Turcios received and distributed Sandino's communiques, manifests and reports; he also acted as his liaison to sympathizers who provided him with arms and volunteers. Working with a number of prominent Nicaraguan exiles, Turcios sought to build support for Sandino's struggle in other Central American nations and in Mexico, which had backed the Liberals during the Constitutionalist War. In Mexico, Sandino's principal representative was the Nicaraguan exile Pedro Zepeda, who had previously served as the liaison between Sacasa and the Mexican government.

Sandino's principal demands were the resignation of President Díaz, withdrawal of U.S. troops, new elections to be supervised by Latin American countries, and the abrogation of the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty (which gave the United States the exclusive right to build a canal across Nicaragua). In October 1928, José María Moncada was elected as president, in a process supervised by the United States, which proved a major setback for Sandino's claim to be acting in defense of the Liberal revolution.

Prior to the election, Sandino had attempted, with three other marginal factions, to organize a junta to be headed by Zepeda. In an organizing pact, Sandino took the role of Generalissimo and the sole military authority of the republic. Following the election of Moncada, Sandino ruled out negotiations with his former rival and declared the elections unconstitutional. In an attempt to outmanoeuvre the general, Sandino expanded his demands to include the restoration of the United Provinces of Central America.

He made this demand a central component of his political platform. In a letter he wrote in March 1929 to the Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen, "Plan for Realizing Bolívar's Dream", Sandino outlined a more ambitious political project. He proposed a conference in Buenos Aires to be attended by all Latin American nations, which would work toward their political unification as an entity he called the "Indo-Latin American Continental and Antillean Federation". He proposed that the unified entity would resist further domination by the United States and be able to ensure that the proposed Nicaragua Canal would remain under Latin American control.

Solidarity with foreign nations
As Sandino's success grew, he began to receive symbolic gestures of support from the Soviet Union and the Comintern. The Pan-American Anti-Imperialist League, supervised by the South American Bureau of the Comintern, issued a number of statements in support of Sandino. Within the United States, the U.S. branch of the Anti-Imperialist League publicized opposition to the actions of the U.S. government in Nicaragua. Sandino's half-brother Sócrates, who lived in New York City, was featured as a speaker at several rallies against American involvement in Nicaragua, which were organized by the League and the U.S. Communist Party. The Sixth World Congress of the Comintern, meeting in Moscow in the summer of 1928, issued a statement "expressing solidarity with the workers and peasants of Nicaragua and the heroic army of national emancipation of General Sandino". In China, a division of the Kuomintang army that seized Beijing in 1928 was named "the Sandino brigade." The following June, Sandino appointed a representative to the Second Congress of the World Anti-Imperialist League in Frankfurt.

Year-long exile in Mexico
Sandino's relations with Turcios soured, as Turcios disliked the Junta proposal. Sandino criticized him for siding with Honduras in a border dispute with Guatemala, which Sandino saw as a distraction from the goal of Central American unification. Conflict between the two men led Turcios to resign in January 1929, which resulted in cutting off the flow of arms to Sandino's forces and leaving them increasingly isolated from potential supporters outside Nicaragua. Sandino's army suffered a major blow in February 1929 when Gen. Manuel María Jirón, who masterminded his raids, was captured by U.S. Marines. More defeats for Sandino's army at the hands of the Marines soon followed. In an effort to secure military and financial support, Sandino wrote letters appealing to various Latin American leaders. Sandino looked for aid from revolutionary Mexico, but the country had taken an anti-communist turn under the de facto ruler Plutarco Elías Calles. Sandino also wrote a letter that was sent to Al Capone in Chicago. Mr. Capone was uninterested in personally helping Sandino. Mr. Capone then hand delivered the letter to Tony Eduardo Delduca leader of the Purple Gang 1929 to 1935. Mr. Delduca had followed the stories of Sandino in the press and was very proud and honored to help Sandino. The Packard car in the picture is a present for Sandino from Mr. Delduca. After failing to negotiate his surrender in exchange for a withdrawal of U.S. troops, the Mexican President Emilio Portes Gil offered Sandino asylum. The leading guerrilla left Nicaragua in June 1929. In the political climate of the Maximato, Sandino's radicalism was unwelcome. To appease the United States, the Mexican government confined Sandino to the city of Mérida. Living at a hotel, Sandino was still able to maintain contact with his supporters. He traveled to Mexico City and met with Portes Gil, but his request for support was quickly rebuffed. The Mexican Communist Party offered to pay for Sandino to travel to Europe, but the offer was withdrawn after he refused to issue a statement condemning the Mexican government. In April 1930, as Sandino's relations with the Communists grew increasingly cool, they leaked information suggesting that Sandino was critical of Portes Gil's government. Put at risk in Mexico, Sandino left the country and returned to Nicaragua.

EMECU
During his period in Mexico, he had become a member of the Magnetic-Spiritualist School of the Universal Commune (EMECU). Founded in Buenos Aires in 1911 by Joaquín Trincado, a Basque electrician, the EMECU blended the political ideals of anarchism with a cosmology which was an idiosyncratic synthesis of Zoroastrianism, Kabbalah and Spiritism. Rejecting both capitalism and Bolshevism, Trincado's brand of communism was based on a "spiritism of Light and Truth," which he believed would supersede all existing religions in the final stage of human history. This stage, which would arise from the political conflicts of the 20th century, would be the time of the founding of the "universal commune", in which private property and the state would be abolished, the hatred caused by false religions would disappear, and all of humanity would be part of one race (Hispanic) and speak one language (Spanish).

Although Sandino had communicated with Trincado only through a series of letters, after his return to Nicaragua, his manifests and his personal affiliations were increasingly shaped by his applying the ideals of the EMECU. He named Tricado as one of his official representatives and replaced the former seal (with an image of a campesino beheading a U.S. Marine) with the symbol of EMECU. His distrust of his former Communist associates led him to break off relations with Farabundo Martí, a Salvadoran who was formerly one of his most trusted lieutenants, and accused Martí of spying for the Communists. In February 1931, Sandino issued his "Manifest of Light and Truth", which reflected a new millenarian tone in his beliefs. The manifest proclaimed the coming of the Last Judgment, a time of "the destruction of injustice on the earth and the reign of the Spirit of Light and Truth, that is, Love." He said that Nicaragua had been chosen to play a central role in this struggle, and his army was an instrument of divine justice. "The honor has fallen to us, brothers, that in Nicaragua we have been chosen by Divine Justice to begin the prosecution of injustice on earth."

U.S. withdrawal
Although Sandino had been unable to secure any outside aid for his forces, the Great Depression made overseas military expeditions too costly for the United States. In January 1931, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Stimson announced that all U.S. soldiers in Nicaragua would be withdrawn after the 1932 election in the country. The newly created Nicaraguan National Guard (Guardia Nacional), which continued to be commanded by U.S. officers, took over responsibility for controlling insurgencies.

In May 1931, an earthquake destroyed Managua, killing over 2,000 people. The disruption and the losses the earthquake caused weakened the central government and gave Sandino leverage to revive his fight with the Americans. In the summer of 1931, Sandinista bands were active in every department north of Managua and conducted raids into the southern and western parts of the country, the departments of Estelí, Jinotega, León and Chontales. They briefly managed to occupy several towns along the nation's principal railroad, linking Managua to the Pacific coastal port of Corinto, but did not try to capture any of the nation's urban centers. They briefly occupied some smaller cities, such as Chinandega. In accordance with the Good Neighbor Policy, the last U.S. Marines left Nicaragua in January 1933, after Juan Bautista Sacasa's inauguration as the country's president. During the Marines' tour of duty in Nicaragua, 130 of their men had been killed. After the Marines departed, Sandino said, "I salute the American people." He also vowed that he would never attack a working-class American who visited Nicaragua. Sandino met with Sacasa in Managua in February 1934, pledged his loyalty to him and agreed to order his forces to surrender their weapons within three months. In exchange, Sacasa agreed to give the soldiers who surrendered arms squatters' rights on land in the Coco River Valley, require the area to be guarded by 100 Sandinista fighters under the government's orders, and give preference in employment to Sandinistas on public works in northern Nicaragua.

Sandino remained opposed to the Nicaraguan National Guard, which he considered unconstitutional because of its ties to the U.S. military, and insisted on its dissolution. His attitude toward General Anastasio Somoza García, the National Guard leader, and his officers made Sandino unpopular with rank-and-file National Guard troops. Without consulting Sacasa, Somoza García ordered Sandino's assassination in the hope that it would help win him loyalty from the Guard's senior officers.

Death
On 21 February 1934, Sandino; his father; his brother Sócrates; two of his favorite generals, Estranda and Umanzor; and the poet Sofonías Salvatierra, Sacasa's Minister of Agriculture, attended a new round of talks with Sacasa. On leaving Sacasa's Presidential Palace, the six men were stopped in their car at the main gate by local National Guardsmen and were ordered to leave their car. The Guardsmen brushed aside Sandino's father and Salvatierra. They took Sandino, his brother Sócrates, and his two generals to a crossroads section in Larreynaga and executed them. Sandino's remains were buried in the Larreynaga neighborhood of Managua by a detachment of National Guard troops under the command of Major Rigoberto Duarte, one of General Somoza García's confidantes. Duarte was the father of Roberto Duarte Solis, Minister of Social Communication during President Arnoldo Alemán's tenure.

The following day, the National Guard attacked Sandino's army in force and, over a month, destroyed it. Two years later, General Somoza García forced Sacasa to resign and declared himself President of Nicaragua. He established a dictatorship and dynasty that dominated Nicaragua for the next four decades.

Sandino's body has never been found, and the full details of his assassination and what became of his remains are among Nicaragua's most enduring mysteries. Some theories about the disposition of Sandino’s body include:
 * Burial: witnesses to the execution claimed to have seen the guardsmen force Sandino and the three other captives to the ground and shoot and bury them. Sandino's followers are said to have later exhumed Sandino's body to rebury him in an undisclosed location.
 * Cremated: in 1944, ten years after Sandino's assassination, the remains that had been buried in the La Calavera pit were exhumed and taken near the south side of the Tiscapa lagoon to be burned, then their ashes thrown into Lake Xolotlán. This occurred due to the student protests of the Central University of Managua that took place that year, against the re-election of Somoza to the presidency.
 * Trophy: according to Sandinista lore, Somoza's assassins decapitated and dismembered Sandino and delivered his severed head to the U.S. government as a token of their loyalty.

Legacy

Sandino became a hero to many in Nicaragua and much of Latin America as a Robin Hood figure who opposed domination from wealthy elites and foreigners, such as the United States. His opposition to U.S. control was tempered by the love he said he felt toward Americans like himself. His picture and silhouette, complete with the oversized cowboy hat, were adopted as recognized symbols of the Sandinista National Liberation Front, founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca and Tomás Borge, among others, and later led by Daniel Ortega.

Sandino has been idolized by notable Latin American figures including Che Guevara, Fidel Castro and Hugo Chávez. His brand of guerrilla warfare was effectively used by Castro, FARC in Colombia, the Sandinistas, and the FMLN in El Salvador.

In 1979 Somoza's son, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, was overthrown by the Sandinistas, political descendants of Sandino. In the 1980s, they renamed Managua International Airport after him as "Augusto C. Sandino International Airport." Pro-Somoza President Arnoldo Alemán renamed it Managua International Airport in 2001 after coming to power.

In 2007, President Daniel Ortega renamed again the airport in honor of Sandino. Nicaraguan artist Róger Pérez de la Rocha has created many portraits of Sandino—whose image was banned by the Somoza dictatorship—and of his associates, adding to the country's iconography.

The Chilean-Spanish biopic Sandino (1990), directed by Miguel Littin, was filmed in Nicaragua with an international cast including Joaquim de Almeida as Sandino, Kris Kristofferson, Dean Stockwell, Victoria Abril and Ángela Molina.

Quotes

 * In an address delivered on 1 July 1927 (now referred to as the San Albino Manifesto) to the people of Nicaragua and to the American armed forces stationed in Nicaragua at that time: "Come, you pack of morphine addicts; come to kill us in our own land, and I will await you standing strong at the head of my patriotic soldiers, not caring about how many of you there are; bear in mind that when this happens, the destruction of your greatness will shake the Capitol in Washington, with your blood reddening the white sphere crowning your famous White House, the cavern where you plot your crimes."

Texts

 * Hodges, Donald C. Sandino's Communism: Spiritual Politics For The Twenty-First Century. University of Texas Press (1992)
 * Macaulay, Neil. The Sandino Affair. Duke University Press. (1985) [1967].
 * Navarro-Génie, Marco. Augusto César Sandino: Messiah of Light and Truth. Syracuse University Press (2002).
 * Ramírez, Sergio and Conrad, Robert Edgar trans., Sandino: The Testimony of a Nicaraguan Patriot 1921–1934, Princeton University Press (1990)
 * Woodward, Bob. Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987: extensive discussion of Iran–Contra affair
 * Wünderich, Volker. Sandino: Una biografía política, Editorial Nueva Nicaragua (1995). In Spanish.

title: Augusto César Sandino


text:
Telehaptics

Telehaptic is the term for computer generated tactile (tangible or touch) sensations (haptics) over a network, between physically distant human beings, or between a local user and a remote location, using sensors and effectors. Microcontrollers input information from sensors, and control effectors to create human sensations as outputs.

Sensors range from pressure, temperature and kinesthetic sensing devices, to biofeedback equipment. Haptic effectors, evoking precise perceivable sensations, range from small motors, fans, heating elements, or vibrators; to micro-voltage electrodes which gently stimulate areas of the skin (creating subtle, localized, "tingling" electrotactile sensations). Telehaptic interactivity, a form of assistive technology, may involve synesthesia; e.g. sensed inputs such as breathing, brain activity, or heartbeats might be presented as gentle, precisely variable bodily sensations in any combination, including warmth, cold, vibration, pressure, etc.; opening possibilities for levels of awareness, and interpersonal communication, difficult (or impossible) to attain prior to telehaptic (and biofeedback) technologies.

One of the challenges entailed in telehaptic applications involves the requirement for stability and the synchronized functioning of multiple tasks in order to effectively operate in a real-time environment.

Applications
Interaction using telehaptic technology offers a new approach to communication including interpersonal interaction. It can be deployed to carry out telehealth encounters and the so-called telerehabilitation. Since the technology provides sensed inputs such as brain activity, heartbeats, and breathing, it creates an effective telehealth encounter that can enable real-time examination by a health professional. Telehaptic interactivity is now being integrated in therapy such as in sampling the position of body parts and the provision of resistive forces using telehaptic virtual gloves. Once challenges involving the irregularities of the communication network, delay, jitter, and packet loss, among others are addressed, telesurgery is also expected to advance.

Telehaptic systems are also useful in different handling applications. There are researcher, for instance, who are able to utilize its interfaces to perform actions such as pushing or more complicated tasks that require dexterity like grasping micro-objects. That is why, while the technology has not been perfected yet, scientists are optimistic about its potential. It means that telehaptic applications could play an important role in the future of microassembly and biological applications (e.g. handling cells and tissues). The concept of teleoperation, which involves the remote operation of a machine, demonstrates the potential of telehaptic technology application in the case of risky activities and tasks such as nuclear waste disposal and wreckage exploration.

title: Telehaptics


text:
Higgs mechanism

In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons (one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions) would be considered massless, but measurements show that the W+, W−, and Z0 bosons actually have relatively large masses of around 80 GeV/c2. The Higgs field resolves this conundrum. The simplest description of the mechanism adds a quantum field (the Higgs field) which permeates all of space to the Standard Model. Below some extremely high temperature, the field causes spontaneous symmetry breaking during interactions. The breaking of symmetry triggers the Higgs mechanism, causing the bosons it interacts with to have mass. In the Standard Model, the phrase "Higgs mechanism" refers specifically to the generation of masses for the W±, and Z weak gauge bosons through electroweak symmetry breaking. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced results consistent with the Higgs particle on 14 March 2013, making it extremely likely that the field, or one like it, exists, and explaining how the Higgs mechanism takes place in nature. The view of the Higgs mechanism as involving spontaneous symmetry breaking of a gauge symmetry is technically incorrect since by Elitzur's theorem gauge symmetries can never be spontaneously broken. Rather, the Fröhlich–Morchio–Strocchi mechanism reformulates the Higgs mechanism in an entirely gauge invariant way, generally leading to the same results.

The mechanism was proposed in 1962 by Philip Warren Anderson, following work in the late 1950s on symmetry breaking in superconductivity and a 1960 paper by Yoichiro Nambu that discussed its application within particle physics.

A theory able to finally explain mass generation without "breaking" gauge theory was published almost simultaneously by three independent groups in 1964: by Robert Brout and François Englert; by Peter Higgs; and by Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble. The Higgs mechanism is therefore also called the Brout–Englert–Higgs mechanism, or Englert–Brout–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism, Anderson–Higgs mechanism, Anderson–Higgs–Kibble mechanism, Higgs–Kibble mechanism by Abdus Salam and ABEGHHK'tH mechanism (for Anderson, Brout, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen, Higgs, Kibble, and 't Hooft) by Peter Higgs. The Higgs mechanism in electrodynamics was also discovered independently by Eberly and Reiss in reverse as the "gauge" Dirac field mass gain due to the artificially displaced electromagnetic field as a Higgs field.

On 8 October 2013, following the discovery at CERN's Large Hadron Collider of a new particle that appeared to be the long-sought Higgs boson predicted by the theory, it was announced that Peter Higgs and François Englert had been awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Standard Model
The Higgs mechanism was incorporated into modern particle physics by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, and is an essential part of the Standard Model.

In the Standard Model, at temperatures high enough that electroweak symmetry is unbroken, all elementary particles are massless. At a critical temperature, the Higgs field develops a vacuum expectation value; some theories suggest the symmetry is spontaneously broken by tachyon condensation, and the W and Z bosons acquire masses (also called "electroweak symmetry breaking", or EWSB). In the history of the universe, this is believed to have happened about a picosecond (10−12 s) after the hot big bang, when the universe was at a temperature 159.5 ± 1.5 GeV.

Fermions, such as the leptons and quarks in the Standard Model, can also acquire mass as a result of their interaction with the Higgs field, but not in the same way as the gauge bosons.

Structure of the Higgs field
In the standard model, the Higgs field is an SU(2) doublet (i.e. the standard representation with two complex components called isospin), which is a scalar under Lorentz transformations. Its electric charge is zero; its weak isospin is $1⁄2$ and the third component of weak isospin is −$1⁄2$; and its weak hypercharge (the charge for the U(1) gauge group defined up to an arbitrary multiplicative constant) is 1. Under U(1) rotations, it is multiplied by a phase, which thus mixes the real and imaginary parts of the complex spinor into each other, combining to the standard two-component complex representation of the group U(2).

The Higgs field, through the interactions specified (summarized, represented, or even simulated) by its potential, induces spontaneous breaking of three out of the four generators ("directions") of the gauge group U(2). This is often written as SU(2)L × U(1)Y, (which is strictly speaking only the same on the level of infinitesimal symmetries) because the diagonal phase factor also acts on other fields – quarks in particular. Three out of its four components would ordinarily resolve as Goldstone bosons, if they were not coupled to gauge fields.

However, after symmetry breaking, these three of the four degrees of freedom in the Higgs field mix with the three W and Z bosons (, and ), and are only observable as components of these weak bosons, which are made massive by their inclusion; only the single remaining degree of freedom becomes a new scalar particle: the Higgs boson. The components that do not mix with Goldstone bosons form a massless photon.

The photon as the part that remains massless
The gauge group of the electroweak part of the standard model is SU(2)L × U(1)Y. The group SU(2) is the group of all 2-by-2 unitary matrices with unit determinant; all the orthonormal changes of coordinates in a complex two dimensional vector space.

Rotating the coordinates so that the second basis vector points in the direction of the Higgs boson makes the vacuum expectation value of H the spinor $( 0, v )$. The generators for rotations about the x, y, and z axes are by half the Pauli matrices $σ$$x$, $σ$$y$, and $σ$$z$, so that a rotation of angle $θ$ about the z-axis takes the vacuum to
 * $$\ \Bigl(\ 0\ ,\ v\ e^{-\tfrac{ 1 }{ 2 }\ i\ \theta}\ \Bigr) ~.$$

While the $T$$x$  and  $T$$y$  generators mix up the top and bottom components of the spinor, the  $T$$z$  rotations only multiply each by opposite phases. This phase can be undone by a U(1) rotation of angle $1⁄2$ $θ$. Consequently, under both an SU(2) $T$$z$-rotation and a U(1) rotation by an amount  $1⁄2$ $θ$, the vacuum is invariant.

This combination of generators
 * $$\ Q = T_3 + \tfrac{\ 1\ }{ 2 }\ Y_\mathsf{W}\ $$

defines the unbroken part of the gauge group, where $Q$ is the electric charge, $T$$3$ is the generator of rotations around the 3-axis in the SU(2) and  $Y$$W$ is the weak hypercharge generator of the U(1). This combination of generators (a 3 rotation in the SU(2) and a simultaneous U(1) rotation by half the angle) preserves the vacuum, and defines the unbroken gauge group in the standard model, namely the electric charge group. The part of the gauge field in this direction stays massless, and amounts to the physical photon. By contrast, the broken trace-orthogonal charge $$\ T_3 - \tfrac{\ 1\ }{ 2 }\ Y_\mathsf{W} = 2\ T_3 - Q\ $$ couples to the massive boson.

Consequences for fermions
In spite of the introduction of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the mass terms preclude chiral gauge invariance. For these fields, the mass terms should always be replaced by a gauge-invariant "Higgs" mechanism. One possibility is some kind of Yukawa coupling (see below) between the fermion field $ψ$ and the Higgs field $φ$, with unknown couplings $Gψ$, which after symmetry breaking (more precisely: After expansion of the Lagrange density around a suitable ground state) again results in the original mass terms, which are now, however (i.e., by introduction of the Higgs field) written in a gauge-invariant way. The Lagrange density for the Yukawa interaction of a fermion field $ψ$ and the Higgs field $φ$ is

 * $$\ \mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{Fermion}}(\phi, A, \psi) ~=~ \overline{\psi}\ \gamma^{\mu}\ D_{\mu}\ \psi ~+~ G_{\psi}\ \overline{\psi}\ \phi\ \psi\ ,$$

where again the gauge field $A$ only enters via the gauge covariant derivative operator $Dμ$ (i.e., it is only indirectly visible). The quantities $γμ$ are the Dirac matrices, and $Gψ$ is the already-mentioned Yukawa coupling parameter for $ψ$. Now the mass-generation follows the same principle as above, namely from the existence of a finite expectation value $$\ |\langle\phi\rangle | ~.$$ Again, this is crucial for the existence of the property mass.

Background
Spontaneous symmetry breaking offered a framework to introduce bosons into relativistic quantum field theories. However, according to Goldstone's theorem, these bosons should be massless. The only observed particles which could be approximately interpreted as Goldstone bosons were the pions, which Yoichiro Nambu related to chiral symmetry breaking.

A similar problem arises with Yang–Mills theory (also known as non-abelian gauge theory), which predicts massless spin-1 gauge bosons. Massless weakly-interacting gauge bosons lead to long-range forces, which are only observed for electromagnetism and the corresponding massless photon. Gauge theories of the weak force needed a way to describe massive gauge bosons in order to be consistent.

Discovery

That breaking gauge symmetries did not lead to massless particles was observed in 1961 by Julian Schwinger, but he did not demonstrate massive particles would eventuate. This was done in Philip Warren Anderson's 1962 paper but only in non-relativistic field theory; it also discussed consequences for particle physics but did not work out an explicit relativistic model. The relativistic model was developed in 1964 by three independent groups: Slightly later, in 1965, but independently from the other publications  the mechanism was also proposed by Alexander Migdal and Alexander Polyakov, at that time Soviet undergraduate students. However, their paper was delayed by the editorial office of JETP, and was published late, in 1966.
 * Robert Brout and François Englert
 * Peter Higgs
 * Gerald Guralnik, Carl Richard Hagen, and Tom Kibble.

The mechanism is closely analogous to phenomena previously discovered by Yoichiro Nambu involving the "vacuum structure" of quantum fields in superconductivity. A similar but distinct effect (involving an affine realization of what is now recognized as the Higgs field), known as the Stueckelberg mechanism, had previously been studied by Ernst Stueckelberg.

These physicists discovered that when a gauge theory is combined with an additional field that spontaneously breaks the symmetry group, the gauge bosons can consistently acquire a nonzero mass. In spite of the large values involved (see below) this permits a gauge theory description of the weak force, which was independently developed by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam in 1967. Higgs's original article presenting the model was rejected by Physics Letters. When revising the article before resubmitting it to Physical Review Letters, he added a sentence at the end, mentioning that it implies the existence of one or more new, massive scalar bosons, which do not form complete representations of the symmetry group; these are the Higgs bosons.

The three papers by Brout and Englert; Higgs; and Guralnik, Hagen, and Kibble were each recognized as "milestone letters" by Physical Review Letters in 2008. While each of these seminal papers took similar approaches, the contributions and differences among the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers are noteworthy. All six physicists were jointly awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for this work.

Benjamin W. Lee is often credited with first naming the "Higgs-like" mechanism, although there is debate around when this first occurred. One of the first times the Higgs name appeared in print was in 1972 when Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus J. G. Veltman referred to it as the "Higgs–Kibble mechanism" in their Nobel winning paper.

Simple explanation of the theory, from its origins in superconductivity
The proposed Higgs mechanism arose as a result of theories proposed to explain observations in superconductivity. A superconductor does not allow penetration by external magnetic fields (the Meissner effect). This strange observation implies that the electromagnetic field somehow becomes short ranged during this phenomenon. Successful theories arose to explain this during the 1950s, first for fermions (Ginzburg–Landau theory, 1950), and then for bosons (BCS theory, 1957).

In these theories, superconductivity is interpreted as arising from a charged condensate. Initially, the condensate value does not have any preferred direction. This implies it is scalar, but its phase is capable of defining a gauge, in gauge based field theories. To do this, the field must be charged. A charged scalar field must also be complex (or described another way, it contains at least two components, and a symmetry capable of rotating each into the other(s)). In naïve gauge theory, a gauge transformation of a condensate usually rotates the phase. However, in these circumstances, it instead fixes a preferred choice of phase. However it turns out that fixing the choice of gauge so that the condensate has the same phase everywhere, also causes the electromagnetic field to gain an extra term. This extra term causes the electromagnetic field to become short range.

Goldstone's theorem also plays a role in such theories. The connection is technically, when a condensate breaks a symmetry, then the state reached by acting with a symmetry generator on the condensate has the same energy as before. This means that some kinds of oscillation will not involve change of energy. Oscillations with unchanged energy imply that excitations (particles) associated with the oscillation are massless.

Once attention was drawn to this theory within particle physics, the parallels were clear. A change of the usually long range electromagnetic field to become short ranged, within a gauge invariant theory, was exactly the needed effect sought for the weak force bosons (because a long range force has massless gauge bosons, and a short ranged force implies massive gauge bosons, suggesting that a result of this interaction is that the field's gauge bosons acquired mass, or a similar and equivalent effect). The features of a field required to do this was also quite well defined - it would have to be a charged scalar field, with at least two components, and complex in order to support a symmetry able to rotate these into each other.

Examples
The Higgs mechanism occurs whenever a charged field has a vacuum expectation value. In the non-relativistic context this is a superconductor, more formally known as the Landau model of a charged Bose–Einstein condensate. In the relativistic condensate, the condensate is a scalar field that is relativistically invariant.

Landau model
The Higgs mechanism is a type of superconductivity which occurs in the vacuum. It occurs when all of space is filled with a sea of particles which are charged, or, in field language, when a charged field has a nonzero vacuum expectation value. Interaction with the quantum fluid filling the space prevents certain forces from propagating over long distances (as it does inside a superconductor; e.g., in the Ginzburg–Landau theory).

A superconductor expels all magnetic fields from its interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. This was mysterious for a long time, because it implies that electromagnetic forces somehow become short-range inside the superconductor. Contrast this with the behavior of an ordinary metal. In a metal, the conductivity shields electric fields by rearranging charges on the surface until the total field cancels in the interior.

But magnetic fields can penetrate to any distance, and if a magnetic monopole (an isolated magnetic pole) is surrounded by a metal the field can escape without collimating into a string. In a superconductor, however, electric charges move with no dissipation, and this allows for permanent surface currents, not just surface charges. When magnetic fields are introduced at the boundary of a superconductor, they produce surface currents which exactly neutralize them.

The Meissner effect arises due to currents in a thin surface layer, whose thickness can be calculated from the simple model of Ginzburg–Landau theory, which treats superconductivity as a charged Bose–Einstein condensate.

Suppose that a superconductor contains bosons with charge $q$. The wavefunction of the bosons can be described by introducing a quantum field, $$\ \psi\ ,$$ which obeys the Schrödinger equation as a field equation. In units where the reduced Planck constant, $ħ$, is set to 1:

 * $$\ i\ \frac{\partial}{\ \partial t\ }\ \psi ~=~ \frac{\ \left(\nabla - i q A \right)^2 }{2m}\ \psi ~.$$

The operator $$\ \psi(x)\ $$ annihilates a boson at the point $x$, while its adjoint $$\ \psi^\dagger\ $$ creates a new boson at the same point. The wavefunction of the Bose–Einstein condensate is then the expectation value $$\ \langle\psi\rangle\ $$ of $$\ \psi(x)\ ,$$ which is a classical function that obeys the same equation. The interpretation of the expectation value is that it is the phase that one should give to a newly created boson so that it will coherently superpose with all the other bosons already in the condensate.

When there is a charged condensate, the electromagnetic interactions are screened. To see this, consider the effect of a gauge transformation on the field. A gauge transformation rotates the phase of the condensate by an amount which changes from point to point, and shifts the vector potential by a gradient:

 * $$\begin{align}

\psi &\rightarrow e^{iq\phi(x)} \psi \\ \\   A &\rightarrow A + \nabla \phi ~. \end{align}$$

When there is no condensate, this transformation only changes the definition of the phase of $$\ \psi\ $$ at every point. But when there is a condensate, the phase of the condensate defines a preferred choice of phase.

The condensate wave function can be written as

 * $$\psi(x) = \rho(x)\ e^{i\theta(x)}\ ,$$

where $ρ$ is real amplitude, which determines the local density of the condensate. If the condensate were neutral, the flow would be along the gradients of $θ$, the direction in which the phase of the Schrödinger field changes. If the phase $θ$ changes slowly, the flow is slow and has very little energy. But now $θ$ can be made equal to zero just by making a gauge transformation to rotate the phase of the field.

The energy of slow changes of phase can be calculated from the Schrödinger kinetic energy,

 * $$\ H = \frac{1}{\ 2\ m\ }\ \Bigl| \left( i q A + \nabla \right)\psi\Bigr|^2\ ,$$

and taking the density of the condensate $ρ$ to be constant,

 * $$H \approx \frac{~ \rho^2\ }{2\ m}\ \left(q A + \nabla \theta \right)^2 ~.$$

Fixing the choice of gauge so that the condensate has the same phase everywhere, the electromagnetic field energy has an extra term,

 * $$\frac{\; q^2 \rho^2\ }{2\ m} A^2 ~.$$

When this term is present, electromagnetic interactions become short-ranged. Every field mode, no matter how long the wavelength, oscillates with a nonzero frequency. The lowest frequency can be read off from the energy of a long wavelength $A$ mode,

 * $$ E \approx \frac{\; {\dot A}^2}{2} + \frac{\ q^2 \rho^2\ }{2\ m}\ A^2 ~. $$

This is a harmonic oscillator with frequency

 * $$\sqrt{\frac{1}{\ m\ }\ q^2\ \rho^2\ } ~.$$

The quantity $$\ \left|\psi(x)\right|^2 = \rho^2\ $$ is the density of the condensate of superconducting particles.

In an actual superconductor, the charged particles are electrons, which are fermions not bosons. So in order to have superconductivity, the electrons need to somehow bind into Cooper pairs. The charge of the condensate $q$ is therefore twice the electron charge $−e$. The pairing in a normal superconductor is due to lattice vibrations, and is in fact very weak; this means that the pairs are very loosely bound. The description of a Bose–Einstein condensate of loosely bound pairs is actually more difficult than the description of a condensate of elementary particles, and was only worked out in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer in the famous BCS theory.

Abelian Higgs mechanism
Gauge invariance means that certain transformations of the gauge field do not change the energy at all. If an arbitrary gradient is added to $A$, the energy of the field is exactly the same. This makes it difficult to add a mass term, because a mass term tends to push the field toward the value zero. But the zero value of the vector potential is not a gauge invariant idea. What is zero in one gauge is nonzero in another.

So in order to give mass to a gauge theory, the gauge invariance must be broken by a condensate. The condensate will then define a preferred phase, and the phase of the condensate will define the zero value of the field in a gauge-invariant way. The gauge-invariant definition is that a gauge field is zero when the phase change along any path from parallel transport is equal to the phase difference in the condensate wavefunction.

The condensate value is described by a quantum field with an expectation value, just as in the Ginzburg–Landau model.

In order for the phase of the vacuum to define a gauge, the field must have a phase (also referred to as 'to be charged'). In order for a scalar field $Φ$ to have a phase, it must be complex, or (equivalently) it should contain two fields with a symmetry which rotates them into each other. The vector potential changes the phase of the quanta produced by the field when they move from point to point. In terms of fields, it defines how much to rotate the real and imaginary parts of the fields into each other when comparing field values at nearby points.

The only renormalizable model where a complex scalar field $Φ$  acquires a nonzero value is the 'Mexican-hat' model, where the field energy has a minimum away from zero. The action for this model is
 * $$\ S(\phi) = \int d^4x \left[ \tfrac{1}{2} \left| \partial \phi\right|^2 - \lambda \left( \left|\phi \right|^2 - \Phi^2 \right)^2 \right]\ ,$$

which results in the Hamiltonian
 * $$\ H(\phi) = \tfrac{1}{2} \left(\left|\dot\phi\right|^2 + \left|\nabla \phi\right|^2\right) + V\left(\left|\phi\right|\right) ~.$$

The first term is the kinetic energy of the field. The second term is the extra potential energy when the field varies from point to point. The third term is the potential energy when the field has any given magnitude.

This potential energy, the Higgs potential, $$~ V\left(z, \Phi\right) = \lambda \left( \left| z \right|^2 - \Phi^2 \right)^2\ ,$$ has a graph which looks like a Mexican hat, which gives the model its name. In particular, the minimum energy value is not at $z = 0$, but on the circle of points where the magnitude of $z$ is $Φ$.

When the field $Φ$ is not coupled to electromagnetism, the Mexican-hat potential has flat directions. Starting in any one of the circle of vacua and changing the phase of the field from point to point costs very little energy. Mathematically, if
 * $$\ \phi(x) = \Phi e^{i\theta(x)}\ $$

with a constant prefactor, then the action for the field $Φ(x)$, i.e., the "phase" of the Higgs field $θ(x)$ , has only derivative terms. This is not a surprise: Adding a constant to $Φ(x)$ is a symmetry of the original theory, so different values of $θ(x)$ cannot have different energies. This is an example of configuring the model to conform to Goldstone's theorem: Spontaneously broken continuous symmetries (normally) produce massless excitations.

The Abelian Higgs model is the Mexican-hat model coupled to electromagnetism:
 * $$\ S(\phi, A) = \int d^4x \left[ - \tfrac{1}{4} F^{\mu\nu} F_{\mu\nu} + \left|\left(\partial - i q A\right)\phi\right|^2 - \lambda \left( \left| \phi \right|^2 - \Phi^2 \right)^2 \right] ~.$$

The classical vacuum is again at the minimum of the potential, where the magnitude of the complex field $θ(x)$ is equal to $φ$. But now the phase of the field is arbitrary, because gauge transformations change it. This means that the field $$\ \theta(x)\ $$ can be set to zero by a gauge transformation, and does not represent any actual degrees of freedom at all.

Furthermore, choosing a gauge where the phase of the vacuum is fixed, the potential energy for fluctuations of the vector field is nonzero. So in the Abelian Higgs model, the gauge field acquires a mass. To calculate the magnitude of the mass, consider a constant value of the vector potential $V$ in the $λ$-direction in the gauge where the condensate has constant phase. This is the same as a sinusoidally varying condensate in the gauge where the vector potential is zero. In the gauge where A is zero, the potential energy density in the condensate is the scalar gradient energy:
 * $$\ E = \tfrac{1}{2} \left|\partial \left(\Phi e^{i q A x} \right) \right|^2 = \tfrac{1}{2} q^2 \Phi^2 A^2 ~.$$

This energy is the same as a mass term $Φ$ where $1⁄2m2A2$.

Non-Abelian Higgs mechanism
The Non-Abelian Higgs model has the following action

 * $$S(\phi,\mathbf A) = \int {1 \over 4g^2} \mathop{\textrm{tr}}(F^{\mu\nu}F_{\mu \nu}) + |D\phi|^2 + V(|\phi|) ,$$

where now the non-Abelian field A is contained in the covariant derivative D and in the tensor components $$F^{\mu \nu}$$ and $$F_{\mu \nu}$$ (the relation between A and those components is well-known from the Yang–Mills theory).

It is exactly analogous to the Abelian Higgs model. Now the field $$\phi$$ is in a representation of the gauge group, and the gauge covariant derivative is defined by the rate of change of the field minus the rate of change from parallel transport using the gauge field A as a connection.

 * $$D\phi = \partial \phi - i A^k t_k \phi$$

Again, the expectation value of $$\phi$$ defines a preferred gauge where the vacuum is constant, and fixing this gauge, fluctuations in the gauge field A come with a nonzero energy cost.

Depending on the representation of the scalar field, not every gauge field acquires a mass. A simple example is in the renormalizable version of an early electroweak model due to Julian Schwinger. In this model, the gauge group is SO(3) (or SU(2) − there are no spinor representations in the model), and the gauge invariance is broken down to U(1) or SO(2) at long distances. To make a consistent renormalizable version using the Higgs mechanism, introduce a scalar field $$\phi^a$$ which transforms as a vector (a triplet) of SO(3). If this field has a vacuum expectation value, it points in some direction in field space. Without loss of generality, one can choose the z-axis in field space to be the direction that $$\phi$$ is pointing, and then the vacuum expectation value of $$\phi$$ is (0, 0, $A$), where $x$ is a constant with dimensions of mass ($$c = \hbar = 1$$).

Rotations around the z-axis form a U(1) subgroup of SO(3) which preserves the vacuum expectation value of $$\phi$$, and this is the unbroken gauge group. Rotations around the x and y-axis do not preserve the vacuum, and the components of the SO(3) gauge field which generate these rotations become massive vector mesons. There are two massive W mesons in the Schwinger model, with a mass set by the mass scale $Ã$, and one massless U(1) gauge boson, similar to the photon.

The Schwinger model predicts magnetic monopoles at the electroweak unification scale, and does not predict the Z boson. It doesn't break electroweak symmetry properly as in nature. But historically, a model similar to this (but not using the Higgs mechanism) was the first in which the weak force and the electromagnetic force were unified.

Affine Higgs mechanism
Ernst Stueckelberg discovered a version of the Higgs mechanism by analyzing the theory of quantum electrodynamics with a massive photon. Effectively, Stueckelberg's model is a limit of the regular Mexican hat Abelian Higgs model, where the vacuum expectation value $m = q Φ$ goes to infinity and the charge of the Higgs field goes to zero in such a way that their product stays fixed. The mass of the Higgs boson is proportional to $H$, so the Higgs boson becomes infinitely massive and decouples, so is not present in the discussion. The vector meson mass, however, is equal to the product $H$, and stays finite.

The interpretation is that when a U(1) gauge field does not require quantized charges, it is possible to keep only the angular part of the Higgs oscillations, and discard the radial part. The angular part of the Higgs field $eH$ has the following gauge transformation law:
 * $$\begin{align}

\theta &\rightarrow \theta + e\alpha\,\\ A &\rightarrow A + \partial \alpha ~. \end{align}$$

The gauge covariant derivative for the angle (which is actually gauge invariant) is:
 * $$ D\theta = \partial \theta - e A H ~.$$

In order to keep $θ$ fluctuations finite and nonzero in this limit, $θ$ should be rescaled by $θ$, so that its kinetic term in the action stays normalized. The action for the theta field is read off from the Mexican hat action by substituting $$\ \phi = H e^{i\theta/H} ~.$$

 * $$ S = \int \bigl[ \tfrac{1}{4}F^2 + \tfrac{1}{2}(D\theta)^2\bigr] = \int\bigl[ \tfrac{1}{4}F^2 + \tfrac{1}{2}(\partial \theta - He A)^2\bigr] = \int\bigl[ \tfrac{1}{4}F^2 + \tfrac{1}{2}(\partial \theta - m A)^2\bigr]$$

since $H$ is the gauge boson mass. By making a gauge transformation to set $eH$, the gauge freedom in the action is eliminated, and the action becomes that of a massive vector field:

 * $$ S= \tfrac{1}{2}\int \bigl[ \tfrac{1}{2} F^2 + m^2 A^2 \bigr]\, .$$

To have arbitrarily small charges requires that the U(1) is not the circle of unit complex numbers under multiplication, but the real numbers $θ = 0$ under addition, which is only different in the global topology. Such a U(1) group is non-compact. The field $ℝ$ transforms as an affine representation of the gauge group. Among the allowed gauge groups, only non-compact U(1) admits affine representations, and the U(1) of electromagnetism is experimentally known to be compact, since charge quantization holds to extremely high accuracy.

The Higgs condensate in this model has infinitesimal charge, so interactions with the Higgs boson do not violate charge conservation. The theory of quantum electrodynamics with a massive photon is still a renormalizable theory, one in which electric charge is still conserved, but magnetic monopoles are not allowed. For non-Abelian gauge theory, there is no affine limit, and the Higgs oscillations cannot be too much more massive than the vectors.

title: Higgs mechanism