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Ilhabela

Ilhabela (Portuguese for Beautiful Island) is an archipelago and city situated in the Atlantic Ocean 6 km off the coast of São Paulo state in Brazil. The city is 205 km from the city of São Paulo and 340 km from the city of Rio de Janeiro. The largest island, although commonly called Ilhabela, is officially named Ilha de São Sebastião (St. Sebastian Island). It, the other islands (Búzios, Pescadores and Vitória) and the islets (Cabras, Castelhanos, Enchovas, Figueira, Lagoa and Serraria) make up the municipality of Ilhabela.

Ilhabela is part of the Metropolitan Region of Vale do Paraíba e Litoral Norte. The population is 35,591 (2020 est.). The islands in total cover 347.52 km2. During the holiday months, up to one hundred thousand people may be on the island, since it is a popular destination for tourists. To access the city, one must take a boat or ferry in São Sebastião, as there are no roads which reach it. During the summer, one may wait several hours to take the ferry boat. The ferry takes 15 minutes to cross the channel between the two cities.

Pre-colonial period and indigenous occupations
For at least 2,000 years before the arrival of the Portuguese, the archipelago had been inhabited by sambaqui indigenous peoples, and by ceramist peoples for at least 700 years.

These early inhabitants were fishermen and collectors who lived in open-air camps near beaches and bays. Their collections of shells, shellfish and ceramics are the only traces of their existence available for researchers to study them. They deduce these peoples would not consume much of the forests of the islands, probably picking no more than fruits and ingredients for remedies.

Before the Portuguese arrived, these tribes were replaced by tupi-guarani and jês peoples, who had mastered ceramic and agricultural techniques and left the only traces of an indigenous village, at the so called "Vianna site" on the main island (São Sebastião Island). These tribes would take shelter under rocks during hunting and exploration expeditions.

Colonial Brazil period: sugar cane, gold export and pirate attacks
The first documented non-indigenous visit to the island was an expedition involving Italian cosmographer Amerigo Vespucci that arrived there on 20 January 1502. As with several other geographical features discovered by the Portuguese, the island was named after the saint of the day (Saint Sebastian).

Around that time, the island would provide shelter for pirates and corsairs coming mainly from England, France and the Netherlands. They would explore the island for firewood, food and water. They carried out a number of attacks against Portuguese ships and settlements (namely Santos, São Vicente and Bertioga), which cost Portugal several quantities of gold and other precious stones until the 17th century. Such events gave birth to legends of hidden treasures scattered around the city's territory.

Between 1588 and 1590 Edward Fenton and Thomas Cavendish went to the island. The latter was accompanied by John Davis, who had sought shelter in the island following a defeat in Vitória, Espírito Santo, only to lose even more men in a battle against the Portuguese. Another source says he actually took shelter in August 1591 in Ilhabela after looting Santos and São Vicente and only went to Vitória afterwards.

The first known land grant in Ilhabela happened in 1603 and extended into the 17th century. Around that time, the most common product to be cultivated and then exported to the metropolis was sugarcane, common throughout São Paulo's coastline, and planted in the areas facing the continent and even in more distant islands, such as Vitória and Búzios. The planting of sugarcane and production of sugar gained a boost between the 17th and 18th centuries and caused considerable deforestation.

With the development of slave trade, the channel between the island and the continent became a common route for slave ships. According to accounts from that time, some enslaved Africans managed to flee and established the first quilombos in the region, in distant areas of dense forests.

Between the 17th and 18th centuries, São Sebastião village was an important port to outflow gold found in areas now within Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás. In order to provide protection for the ships leaving the coast, security around the channel was improved with forts, trenches and artilleries. The placing of these structures may have contributed to the establishment of the first white settlements in the area, still in the 17th century, which happened simultaneously to more sesmarias grants by the Portuguese. Such land would be used to grow sugarcane, tobacco and wild indigo.

Around that time, and also because of prosperous mining activities, the first whaling station of the Captaincy of São Paulo was built in Ponta das Canavieiras. It was believed to have focused on the local demand and that the facilities were granted by the Portuguese crown via a system under which the whaling station owners would invest in equipment and gear and, after ten years, everything would be claimed by the royal treasure.

The Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro restricted olive oil ships in its waters, believing that the northern coastline of São Paulo was actually devoted to gold smuggling. Therefore, from 1734 on, whales began to be killed for oil. Around 1850, as the animal became more and more rare, the hunting of whales and the whaling station were abandoned.

Transition from sugar to coffee and economic leadership
Showing increasing political, social and economical relevance, due to the boom in agricultural and commercial activities, São Sebastião Island was promoted by António José da Franca e Horta (who governed São Paulo at that time) in 1805 to village status and was then renamed as "Villa Bella da Princesa" ("Beautiful Island of the Princess").

Throughout the 19th century, activities concerning sugarcane began to decay, but they were soon replaced by coffee, following a trend seen around the rest of the Paraíba Valley. Production concentrated in Ponta do Boi, in the south part of the island, more precisely at Nossa Senhora das Galhetas, Figueira e Sombrio Farm. Growing coffee resulted in an even more intense deforestation than that caused by sugarcane, and the plants could be cultivated in altitudes higher than 500 meters, by the main island's escarpments.

In 1854, the island had a population of 10,769, concentrated on the continent-facing side. There were 225 farms in which 1775 enslaved people were forced to work; the village's production around that time was greater than that of any coastal municipality of São Paulo.

The coffee era in the area came to its end with the abolishment of slavery in Brazil and the island's economy saw a return to engenho activities (there were 36 engenhos in Ilhabela back then), only this time they would shift focus from sugar to aguardiente. Most of the latter would be exported in small quantities via the Port of Santos. The locals themselves would take the products to the port in canoes known as "vogas"; the knowledge to build them was inherited from the indigenous peoples who inhabited the area in the past. The São Paulo Geographical and Geological Commission left the following account on these boats:

It's the so called 'vogas' with two masts and a crew of six or more people that do this trip. They carry up to 18 barrels of aguardiente, in tenths or fifths, and it is by this type of load that its capacity is evaluated. They sail whenever possible, otherwise with paddles, when there's calm or contrary winds. (...) in general these vogas don't carry only aguardiente, although it constitutes the shipment of greatest quantity. Frequently a great quantity of 'greengroceries' follow, and it is one of the most curious things to see one of these 'vogas', ready to cast off. There's everything on board: lemons, coconuts and other fruits, goatlings, turkeys, hans, ducks, egs, mats and clay objects, well, an infinitude of diverse products, which are sold by the owner who trusted them to the canoe boss. Many times passengers also board, in a way that it becomes a true enigma how all that is arranged on the way...

Assembling these boats meant more deforestation, since the big and straight trees in the area - namely: ingá, custard, bocuíba-açú, coabí, Brazilian firetree, jequitibá, canela-moscada, canela-batalha, pau-d'alho, fig tree - were ideal to the vogas. Besides that, other trees had to be taken down throughout the whole process: some to open a path for the trunks to be transported, others so their trunks could be used as some sort of conveyor belt and some simply because their crowns were intertwined with the desired trees'. Production was so intense the village became the main voga manufacturing center of São Paulo coastline up to the 20th century.

A new production decline affected the island and was followed by a period of economic stagnation. By the 1920s, Japanese immigrants settled in the island ad brought international technologies; simultaneously, the arrival of the motor boat and surrounding nets gave local fishing activities a boost, since they were previously restricted to where traditional methods functioned efficiently. As such, the usage of vogas became increasingly obsolete.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century, fishing helped the island become a local power again. Saco do Sombrio, previously used as anchorage point for slave ships and for long deserted, became the largest fishing port of the island. It would provide shelter from strong winds to up to 20-25 boats at once and would be home to 450-500 people. The place became so important that it was promoted to district status in 1944, along with Búzios, Vitória and Pescadores islands (under the collective name of "Paranabi"). Aside from fishing, handicraft products and seaweed collecting also gained strength. The latter was taught by the Japanese and reached its peak between 1925 and 1932.

Economic downfall and rise with tourism
From the 1930s on, the village suffered the consequences of the world crisis consolidated around that time, which joined the Constitutionalist Revolution and the consequent sea block which São Paulo was subjected to. Japanese immigrants left the area, causing many fishermen and crew members to become unemployed. From 1933 to 1938, fish around the island suddenly disappeared, increasing their poverty. As the state's countryside became ready for exploration with the opening of new roads and railways, many migrated in search of better opportunities. This exodus contributed to a recovery trend seen on the local forests.

Local land was sold at devalued prices and, from the 1960s on, tourism rose as an option to save the island's economy. The local infrastructure was improved and Ilhabela began to be sold as "symbol of adventure, pleasure and the wild".

Tourism and real state speculation became new threats to the local forests, which prompted environmentalists to demand the creation of special reserves in the island, which gave birth to the Ilhabela State Park in the 1970s. According to a 2005 research, tourism, along with activities at the Port of São Sebastião and the local Petrobrás Terminal, became the main local vectors of environmental pressure. More recently, in 2011, exploitation points of the Pre-salt layer joined the previous vectors.

Among the current critical issues of the island, is the lack of proper sewage pipes to collect all houses' wastewater. As of January 2012, 46,6% of the buildings in the island lacked such infrastructure. In February 2016, the city hall announced R$12 million to be invested in sewer systems for the southern part of the city. By the time it was announced, Ilhabela was the worst coastal municipality in the state of São Paulo in terms of sanitary treatment, according to a research by the State Secretary of the Environment - 35% of the city's sewer is collected, pre-conditioned and released on the sea, according to the secretary, while the city hall claims 61% of the city is covered by sewer systems.

Territory
The main islands of the archipelago are São Sebastião (33737 ha), Búzios (739 ha), Vitória (219 ha) dos Pescadores (20 ha) - all of which inhabited. There are also the very small islets (das Cabras, da Sumítica, da Serraria, dos Castelhanos, da Lagoa, da Figueira and das Enchovas islands). Almost all the urbanized areas are in the very narrow plains between the sea and the mountains of the main island, preferably at the west part, facing the continent.

A short (30 km) but high mountain range forms this main island, reaching above 1,000 meters in seven different points - Pico de São Sebastião (1,378 m), Morro do Papagaio (1,302 m), Pico da Serraria (1,285 m), Morro do Ramalho (1,205 m), Morro do Simão (1,102 m), Morro das Tocas 1,079 m) and Pico do Baepi (1,048 m). Running approximately 8 km into the Atlantic Ocean off the southeast corner of the island, there is the Península do Boi (Ox Peninsula). The east side of the island is inhabited by very few people, who concentrates mainly on the Castelhanos beach, the only on this side accessible by road. Only 4x4 jeeps are able to cross this particular road, though. )

Vitória, dos Pescadores and Búzios islands are 38, 37 and 24 km off the continent, respectively. Buzios and Vitória islands, 7½ and 2½ km away from the northeastern tip of the main island, respectively, are home to 142 and 50 caiçaras, respectively. Only canoes are able to go to the island, since the piers available are in poor condition. Both islands have traces of indigenous cemeteries. The locals will plant and grow their own food, though the number of fish is decreasing, but Búzios Island has two markets. There's no drinking water and people normally urinate and defecate on the vegetation.

The islands possess no medical structures and locals depend on the periodic visits of team sent by the city hall, comprising doctors, nurses, dentists and psychologists. The islands are so isolated the government contemplated building a prison on one of them in the early 20th century. One of the engineers hired to analyze the possibility was Euclides da Cunha, who left the following comment about Vitória Island: "[the island has] capacity for a settlement several times larger, its abandonment being explained by its distance".

Fauna and flora

The fauna and flora in Ilhabela prompted the government to create the Ilhabela State Park on 20 January 1977 via the state decree 9414, establishing is area in 27,025 hectares (which corresponds to 84,3% of the municipality's territory, including a large portion of the main island, 11 other islands, three islets, three lajes and one placer). The park's importance made it be considered a bioshpere reserve by UNESCO, a Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) area of interest and an Important Bird Area (IBA).

A 2015 research by Fundação Florestal listed 1,569 flora species within the park.

Ilhabela is home to endemic species such as the Giant Atlantic tree-rat, the serpents Siphonops insulanus and Liotyphlops caissara and tegus (Tupinambis merianae sebastiani and Tupinambis merianae buzionensis, the latter is endemic to the Búzios island), also being a point of observation of 66 bird species exclusive to the Atlantic Forest (five of them considered globally endangered in 2015).

There are also historical accounts of the presence of jaguars on the island. The first dates back to 1562, when José de Anchieta wrote in a letter to King Sebastian that the island was deserted, but contained "many tigers" (Portuguese explorers were more familiar with African and Asian animals, which they would use as parameters). Another account comes from 1877, then the local population killed the last known jaguar on the island, which supposedly swam all the way from the continent. Finally, it is known that in 1912 the São Paulo Geographical and Geological Commission registered one particular place with the name "Pedra da Onça" (Jaguar Rock).

Urban occupation is seen as a potential threat to the preservation of local species. Structures such as the Castelhanos road, which allows terrestrial vehicles to access Castelhanos Beach on the other side of the island, concern specialists, who recommend caution when allowing visitors into the area.

Hydrography
2015 research by Fundação Florestal showed that, although the quality of water around is good due to the dense forests, it may be affected by intense tourism and the presence of caiçara communities lacking proper sewer systems.

Climate

Most of the city has a tropical climate, but the mountains have an oceanic climate, because of the high altitude. The Atlantic Forest covers the entire city.

A distinct feature of the local climate is the difference in the relative humidity of both sides of the island. The high mountains that form the territory of the main island function as a wall against clouds, forcing them to go up and allowing for the condensation of steam and causing orographic rains.

Tourism
Ilhabela is a popular sailing point. Several regattas take place at the city's coast. Also, it is popular for many other watersports, including scuba and free diving. The waters around the archipelago are filled with more than 50 shipwrecks, six of them being opened for visiting via diving. Cetacean diversity is rich in the areas, and whale watchings targeting such as humpback whales, bryde's whales,  minke whales,  southern right whales,   orcas,     and dolphins are also available.

There are many hiking trails with varying degrees of difficulty and 360 waterfalls in the Atlantic jungle.

Beaches
There are 41 beaches on the main island. The ones located along the channel are in general urbanized and feature calm to moderate waves. The ones facing the ocean are clean and less affected by humans, besides featuring stronger waves, which attracts surfers. These can only be reached by foot and/or by boat, the exception being Castelhanos, as explained above. Bonete was considered the ninth best beach of Brazil by The Guardian. Starting from Castelhanos and going counterclockwise, the beaches are:

 * dos Castelhanos
 * Saco do Eustáquio
 * Guanxuma
 * da Caveira
 * da Serraria
 * do Poço
 * da Fome
 * Jabaquara
 * Pacuíba
 * da Armação
 * do Pinto
 * da Ponta Azeda
 * Pedra do Sino
 * do Arrozal
 * Siriúba
 * do Viana
 * Mercedes
 * Saco do Indaiá
 * Saco Grande
 * Saco da Capela
 * Pequeá
 * Engenho d'Água
 * Itaquanduba
 * Itaguassu
 * Perequê
 * Barra Velha
 * da Pedra Miúda
 * do Oscar
 * do Portinho
 * Feiticeira
 * do Julião or Prainha
 * Grande
 * do Curral
 * do Veloso
 * Bonete
 * Enchovas
 * Indaiúba
 * Saco do Sombrio
 * da Figueira
 * Vermelha
 * Mansa

Economy
The municipality's economy is based on tourism, commerce and civil construction, with fishing, handicraft and public service coming as secondary economical activities. In 2016, it was ranked among the ten best Brazilian municipalities in terms of tax management by a FIRJAN index.

Transportation
The only way to access the island by car is via the ferry boats that cross the channel. Each boat carries up to 70 vehicles and takes 15 minutes to sail through the 2.4 kilometers that separate the two stations.

The SP-131 is the main road on the main island, running from the southwestern coast of the island to its northern coast.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia de Telecomunicações do Estado de São Paulo until 1975, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ilhabela


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Talk:645

[Untitled]
Where can there be an article about the Error 645 that sometimes appears when I try to get on the Internet?? There needs to be a link to that page somewhere on this article. 66.245.71.11 21:13, 1 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:645


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Short squeeze

In the stock market, a short squeeze is a rapid increase in the price of a stock owing primarily to an excess of short selling of a stock rather than underlying fundamentals. A short squeeze occurs when demand has increased relative to supply because short sellers have to buy stock to cover their short positions.

Overview
Short selling is a finance practice in which an investor, known as the short-seller, borrows shares and immediately sells them, hoping to buy them back later ("covering") at a lower price. As the shares were borrowed, the short-seller must eventually return them to the lender (plus interest and dividend, if any), and therefore makes a profit if they spend less buying back the shares than they received when selling them. However, an unexpected piece of favorable news can cause a jump in the stock's share price, resulting in a loss rather than a profit. Short-sellers might then be triggered to buy the shares they had borrowed at a higher price, in an effort to keep their losses from mounting should the share price rise further.

Short squeezes result when short sellers of a stock move to cover their positions, purchasing large volumes of stock relative to the market volume. Purchasing the stock to cover their short positions raises the price of the shorted stock, thus triggering more short sellers to cover their positions by buying the stock; i.e., there is increasing demand. This dynamic can result in a cascade of stock purchases and an even bigger jump of the share price. Borrow, buy and sell timing can lead to more than 100% of a company's shares sold short. This does not necessarily imply naked short selling, since shorted shares are put back onto the market, potentially allowing the same share to be borrowed multiple times.

Short squeezes tend to happen in stocks that have expensive borrow rates. Expensive borrow rates can increase the pressure on short sellers to cover their positions, further adding to the reflexive nature of this phenomenon.

Buying by short sellers can occur if the price has risen to a point where shorts receive margin calls that they cannot (or choose not to) meet, triggering them to purchase stock to return to the owners from whom (via a broker) they had borrowed the stock in establishing their position. This buying may proceed automatically, for example if the short sellers had previously placed stop-loss orders with their brokers to prepare for this possibility. Alternatively, short sellers simply deciding to cut their losses and get out (rather than lacking collateral funds to meet their margin) can cause a squeeze. Short squeezes can also occur when the demand from short sellers outweighs the supply of shares to borrow, which results in the failure of borrow requests from prime brokers. This sometimes happens with companies that are on the verge of filing for bankruptcy.

Targets for short squeezes
Short squeezes are more likely to occur in stocks with relatively few traded shares and commensurately small market capitalization and float. Squeezes can, however, involve large stocks and billions of dollars. Short squeezes may also be more likely to occur when a large percentage of a stock's float is short, and when large portions of the stock are held by people not tempted to sell.

Short squeezes can also be facilitated by the availability of inexpensive call options on the underlying security because they add considerable leverage. Typically, out of the money options with a short time to expiration are used to maximize the leverage and the impact of the squeezer's actions on short sellers. Call options on securities that have low implied volatility are also less expensive and more impactful. (A successful short squeeze will dramatically increase implied volatility).

Long squeeze
The opposite of a short squeeze is the less common long squeeze. A squeeze can also occur with futures contracts, especially in agricultural commodities, for which supply is inherently limited.

Examples
In May 1901, James J. Hill and J. P. Morgan battled with E. H. Harriman over control of the Northern Pacific Railway. By the end of business on May 7, 1901, the two parties controlled over 94% of outstanding Northern Pacific shares. The resulting runup in share price was accompanied by frenetic short selling of Northern Pacific by third parties. On May 8, it became apparent that uncommitted NP shares were insufficient to cover the outstanding short positions, and that neither Hill and Morgan nor Harriman were willing to sell. This triggered a sell-off in the rest of the market as NP "shorts" liquidated holdings in an effort to raise cash to buy NP shares to meet their obligations. The ensuing stock market crash, known as the Panic of 1901, was partially ameliorated by a truce between Hill/Morgan and Harriman.

In October 2008, a short squeeze triggered by an attempted takeover by Porsche temporarily drove the shares of Volkswagen AG on the Xetra DAX from €210.85 to over €1000 in less than two days, briefly making it the most valuable company in the world. Then-Porsche CEO Wendelin Wiedeking was charged with market manipulation but was acquitted by a Stuttgart court.

In 2012, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission charged Philip Falcone with market manipulation in relation to a short squeeze on a series of high-yield bonds issued by MAAX Holdings. After hearing that a firm was shorting the bonds, Falcone purchased the entire issue of bonds. He also lent the bonds to the short-sellers, and then bought them back when the traders sold them. As a result, his total exposure exceeded the entire issue of the MAAX bonds. Falcone then stopped lending the bonds, so that short-sellers could not liquidate their positions anymore. The price of the bonds rose dramatically. The short-sellers could only liquidate their positions by contacting Falcone directly.

In November 2015, Martin Shkreli orchestrated a short squeeze on failed biotech KaloBios (KBIO) that caused its share price to rise by 10,000% in just five trading days. KBIO had been perceived by short sellers as a "no-brainer near-term zero".

The GameStop short squeeze, starting in January 2021, was a short squeeze occurring on shares of GameStop, primarily triggered by the Reddit forum WallStreetBets. This squeeze led to the share price reaching an all-time intraday high of US$483 on January 28, 2021 on the NYSE. This squeeze caught the attention of many news networks and social media platforms.

External links and sources

 * What is a Squeeze Play?
 * "Porsche crashes into controversy in the ultimate 'short squeeze'"

title: Short squeeze


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Talk:John De Hart

Birthday Note
Many on-line and other sources list John as being born about 1728. This comes from interpreting the monument at his grave. It notes his date of death, and says that he died in his LXVII year of age. (1795 minus 67 = 1728). I do have two sources for the date and ancestry used here. Most of his family gave the name as DeHart in one word, but John used two. I've used De Hart in Wikipedia, to match the Continental Congress Journals and other sources. Also please note that John Hart who signed the Declaration of Independence for New Jersey is a separate person. Lou I 21:15, 1 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:John De Hart


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Hanken School of Economics

Hanken School of Economics (Svenska handelshögskolan, also known as Hanken) is a business school in Finland with two campuses, Helsinki and Vaasa. Founded in 1909, it is the oldest business school in Finland, and one of the oldest in the Nordic countries. Its programmes are offered in both English and Swedish.

History
Hanken was established in Helsinki on 1 September 1909, making it one of the oldest business schools in northern Europe, opening a month after the Stockholm School of Economics. The statutory meeting for Aktiebolaget Högre Svenska Handelsläroverket in Helsinki was held in December 1908, and only four months later the private community college under the name of Högre Svenska Handelsläroverket statutes were approved. In 1927, the school was given its current name, Svenska Handelshögskolan. The school introduced a bachelor's degree in economics in 1928, with professorships being introduced in 1934. The first doctoral dissertation took place in 1944.

Hanken's campus in Vaasa was established in 1980 aiming to develop business education in Osthrobotnia, a region with a large proportion of the Swedish-speaking population in Finland. In 2018, Hanken joined the Helsinki Graduate School of Economics. An initiative to bring together three Finnish universities – Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, and the University of Helsinki.

Rankings and accreditations
Hanken has received the so-called Triple Crown accreditation (assessments of quality insurance by the three largest business school accreditation organizations: AACSB, AMBA, and EQUIS). Hanken was first awarded the European Quality Improvement System accreditation (EQUIS) in 2000. The Association of MBAs accreditation (AMBA) was awarded in 2008. The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business accreditation (AACSB) was awarded in 2015.

Hanken is a member and signatory of the Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME) initiative, an initiative between the United Nations (UN) and business schools. Hanken is also a signatory of the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA), an initiative proposing a holistic assessment of scientist's contributions.

Degrees and programmes
The school offers university degrees in economics, marketing, management and accountancy at the bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. Master's degrees and Ph.D. programmes are offered in both Swedish and English languages, while the bachelor's degree programmes are in Swedish. The MSc in Economics and Business Administration programme is a two-year programme with 120 ECTS. The specialisations include Business and Management, Economics, Financial Analysis and Business Development, and Intellectual Property Law. In addition, Hanken & SSE Executive Education (a joint venture between Hanken and the Stockholm School of Economics in Sweden) offers an Executive MBA, a part-time two-year executive programme in English.

Hanken has approximately 120 partner universities for student exchange.

Governance
As for all universities in Finland, Hanken is regulated by the Universities Act (558/2009) and the Universities Decree (770/2009). The principal governance bodies of Hanken are the University Council, the Board, the Rector, and Deans.

The University Council appoints the external members of the Board, the auditors for the School, and the Academic Council. It approves the financial statement and grants the Board and the rector a discharge from liability.

The Board is the highest decision-making body of the School and is always chaired by an external person - at present Christoph Vitzthum is chair of the board. The Board decides on most issues of a strategic nature, such as the activity and economic plan as well as the budget. The Board is responsible for the economy of the School, the allocation of its funds, and appointing the Rector Ingmar Björkman. The student body is represented in each decision-making body by at least one student.

Departments
Hanken's research and teaching are organised into four departments and one centre for Languages and Business Communication. Students are represented in each Department Council by student-elected student representatives.
 * Accounting and Commercial Law
 * Finance and Economics
 * Management and Organisation
 * Marketing
 * Centre for Languages and Business Communication

Library
Hanken library is the library of Hanken School of Economics, serving staff, students and the general public. In Helsinki, the library is found in the main building of Hanken, while the book collection in Vaasa is found within the Vaasa City Library. Hanken library is a scientific library, not only open to students or staff at Hanken, but available to everyone carrying out studies or research in the field of economics and business administration.

The library services started already in 1909, when Hanken School of Economics was founded. The library's collection today is a hybrid of printed books and electronic resources, such as e-books, e-journals and databases with financial and company information. The library has a special collection on Finnish and foreign business companies' history.

Hanken library uses the open source library system Koha, and the library catalogue Hanna is part of the Finna-collaboration, through the National library of Finland.

Research and knowledge centres
Hanken hosts the following research centers.
 * CERS – Centre for Relationship Marketing and Service Management
 * CCR – Centre for Corporate Responsibility
 * EPCE – Erling-Persson Centre for Entrepreneurship
 * Hanken Centre for Accounting, Finance and Governance
 * – The Research and Development Institute on Gender, Organisation, Diversity, Equality and Social Sustainability in Transnational Times
 * HUMLOG Institute – The Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Research Institute
 * IPR – University Centre
 * WCEFIR – Wallenberg Center for Financial Research

Notable alumni
Hanken has over 15,000 alumni in 70 countries.

 * Lenita Airisto – Author, former Miss Finland and fashion model
 * Anne Berner – Business executive, board professional, and the former Minister of Transport and Communications
 * Henrik Ehrnrooth (chief executive officer) – CEO of KONE
 * Jannica Fagerholm – Finnish economist and business executive
 * Christian Grönroos – Relationship marketing professor named as a Legend in Marketing.
 * Carl Haglund – Former Minister of Defence
 * Harry Harkimo – Businessman
 * Petri Kokko – Former figure skater
 * Stefan Larsson – CEO of PVH Corporation
 * Henrik Lax – Former member of the European Parliament
 * Mikael Lilius – Former CEO of Fortum
 * Elisabeth Rehn – Former MP of the Swedish People's Party and the first woman as the Minister of Defence in Finland
 * Heidi Schauman – Economist
 * Björn Wahlroos – Professor, banker, and chairman of several boards
 * Hans Wind – Businessman and famous fighter pilot in World War II
 * Christoph Vitzthum – President and CEO, Fazer Group

Student union
The Student Union of Hanken School of Economics (SHS) was founded in 1909 under the name of Kamratföreningen Niord. Today the student union has some 2,500 members and is the only student union to represent solely business students in Finland. The student union organises events and is responsible for student representation in the school's decision-making body. In accordance to law, all students at Hanken are automatically members of the student union.

title: Hanken School of Economics


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Southern Gospel Music Association

The Southern Gospel Music Association (SGMA) is a non-profit corporation formed as an association of southern gospel music singers, songwriters, fans, and industry workers. Membership is acquired and maintained through payment of annual dues. The SGMA was formed in 1994, and states that its primary goal is "to preserve, protect and promote Southern Gospel Music, its history and heritage".

The Southern Gospel Music Association operates the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame in Pigeon Forge, a popular Tennessee tourist town, and also hosts the Southern Gospel Music Awards. The Hall of Fame and Museum was opened at the Dollywood theme park in 1999.

Leadership of the SGMA is vested in a 23-member board of directors. The SGMA is responsible for the nomination, selection, and induction into the Southern Gospel Music Hall of Fame.

History
The Gospel Music Association (GMA) was founded in 1964 to promote Gospel music. It was created as an extension of the National Quartet Convention, a convention devoted to Southern gospel that had been operating since 1956. Its founding board included Don Butler, Cecil and James Blackwood, Vestal Goodman, Charlie Lamb, Don Light, and J.D. Sumner, and its first president was Tennessee Ernie Ford. In its early years, it faced competition from the United States Gospel Music Association, a for-profit entity also focused on gospel music.

In the 1970s and 1980s, tension and conflict emerged between Southern gospel and the newer developments of Jesus music and Contemporary Christian music. Southern Gospel conservatives had been resistant to racial integration, and even as they were slowly becoming more receptive to integration, the new developments in Christian music resulted in Southern Gospel becoming increasingly marginalized by music consumers and losing influence in the GMA. Many Southern conservatives, including members of the GMA, also disapproved of rock music and felt that the newer styles of Gospel music being promoted by the GMA indicated that the organization was essentially moving into an alliance with the "enemy". The Southern Gospel industry became disenchanted with the direction that the GMA was heading and a new organization, the Southern Gospel Music Association, was formed by Charles Waller. However, in 1985, this organization was absorbed by the GMA. A new, independent Southern Gospel Music Association was formed in 1995.

Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame
The Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame is a site operated in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, by the Southern Gospel Music Association, at the Biblical Times Dinner Theater. It was established in 1997. The Hall of Fame is composed of pioneers in the field of Southern gospel music; members are selected by the SGMA annually, and are honored by a descriptive plaque and portrait in the Hall itself. The Museum contains thousands of items of memorabilia and a gift shop. Items on display include a replica of the Blackwood Brothers first bus, interactive video and sound clips, and bronze plaques of Hall of Fame inductees. It has been estimated that over one million people visit the facility annually.

Inductees
1990s 2000s

2010s

2020s

James D. Vaughan Impact Award recipients

 * 1999 Bill Gaither
 * 2000 The Cathedrals
 * 2001 James Blackwood
 * 2002 J. G. Whitfield
 * 2003 Les Beasley
 * 2004 Paul Heil
 * 2005 Mosie Lister
 * 2006 Bob Brumley
 * 2007 Eva Mae LeFevre
 * 2008 Lari Goss
 * 2009 Barbara Mandrell
 * 2010 Dolly Parton
 * 2011 The Statler Brothers
 * 2012 The Oak Ridge Boys
 * 2013 Louise Mandrell

Vaughan Templeton Lifetime Achievement Award recipients

 * 2022 Maurice Templeton

title: Southern Gospel Music Association


text:
The Bismarck Tribune

The Bismarck Tribune is a daily newspaper in Bismarck, North Dakota. Owned by Lee Enterprises, it is the only daily newspaper for south-central and southwest North Dakota.

History
Founded in 1873 by Clement A. Lounsberry, the Bismarck Tribune published its first issue on July 11, 1873. It has been known as the Bismarck Daily Tribune (1881–1916) and Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune (1875–1881).

Battle of the Little Bighorn
The Tribune's first claim to fame came in 1876, when the three-year-old paper published the first reports of George Custer's last stand at the Little Bighorn. Reporter Mark H. Kellogg accompanied Custer and his men and died during the battle. He is considered the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty.

Pulitzer Prize
In 1938, the paper won the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service after publishing a series of articles called "Self-Help in the Dust Bowl."

Notable reporters

 * Mark Kellogg

title: The Bismarck Tribune


text:
Rights of way in England and Wales

In England and Wales, excluding the 12 Inner London boroughs and the City of London, the right of way is a legally protected right of the public to pass and re-pass on specific paths. The law in England and Wales differs from Scots law in that rights of way exist only where they are so designated (or are able to be designated if not already), whereas in Scotland any route that meets certain conditions is defined as a right of way, and in addition, there is a general presumption of access to the countryside ("right to roam"). Private rights of way or easements also exist (see also Highways in England and Wales).

Inner London
Definitive maps of public rights of way have been compiled for all of England and Wales, as a result of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, except the 12 Inner London boroughs, which, along with the City of London, were not covered by the Act. Definitive maps exist for the Outer London boroughs.

Rights of way outside Inner London
Local highways authorities (usually county councils or unitary authorities) are required to maintain the definitive map of all public rights of way in their areas, which can be inspected at council offices. If a path is shown on the definitive map and no subsequent legal order (such as a stopping up order) exists then the right of way is conclusive in law. Just because a path is not shown on that map does not mean that it is not a public path, as the rights may not have been recorded – the legal principle being "once a highway, always a highway". The Countryside Agency estimated that over 10% of public paths were not yet listed on the definitive map. The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 provides that paths that are not recorded on the definitive map by 2026 and that were in use prior to 1949 will automatically be deemed stopped up on 1 January 2026.

The highway right to use a right of way is restricted to passing and re-passing, associated activities, and the taking of 'usual accompaniments'. Bedford Borough Council mentions that walkers may
 * take a pram, pushchair or wheelchair, where possible
 * take a dog as long as on a lead or under close control
 * admire the view, stop for a rest, have a small picnic on the verge
 * take a short alternative route to get round an obstruction

Highways maintainable at public expense generally remain in the ownership of the landowner, but such highways are also vested in the local highway authority; vesting being a form or ownership so long as it remains a highway. Lord Jennings, in an 'obiter' statement (not a formal judgement) suggested that ownership might be from the surface of the route to the depth of "two spits", or approximately two spade depths. Collins M.R. seems to have defined it better: 'All the stratum of air above the surface and all the stratum of soil below the surface which in any reasonable sense can be required for the purposes of the street, as street'

Public footpaths
In England and Wales a public footpath is a path on which the public have a legally protected right to travel on foot. In some areas public footpaths form a dense network of short paths. It is probable that most footpaths in the countryside are hundreds of years old. The majority of footpaths are shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 maps.

The right of access on a public footpath normally only extends to walking (there may be other unrecorded rights as well), so there is usually no right to cycle or ride a horse on a public footpath. However, it is not a criminal offence to do so unless there is a traffic order or bylaw in place specifically: it is a civil wrong to ride a bicycle or a horse on a public footpath, and action could be taken by the landowner for trespass or nuisance by the user.

Public bridleways
A public bridleway is a way over which the general public have the following, but normally (unless otherwise according to Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 s56(1)(b)) no other rights:
 * to travel on foot, and
 * to travel on bicycle, and
 * to travel on horseback or leading a horse, with or without a right to drive animals of any description along the way.

Note that although Section 30 of the Countryside Act 1968 permits the riding of bicycles on public bridleways, the act says that it "shall not create any obligation to facilitate the use of the bridleway by cyclists". Thus, the right to cycle exists even though it may be difficult to exercise on occasion. Cyclists using a bridleway are obliged to give way to other users on foot or horseback.

Public bridleways are shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 maps, but many public bridleways (as well as "roads used as public paths", "byways open to all traffic" and "restricted byways") were recorded as footpaths only, as a result of the burden of maintenance required by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, and so are now wrongly recorded on the definitive map. Definitive Map Modification Orders are needed to correct these errors.

Byways open to all traffic

A byway open to all traffic (or BOAT) is a highway over which the general public have a right to travel for vehicular and all other kinds of traffic, but which is used by the public mainly as footpaths and bridleways are used, per Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984, section 15(9)(c), as amended by Road Traffic (Temporary Restrictions) Act 1991, Schedule 1.

After the 2006 Regulations to the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, BOATs should now more properly be referred to simply as byways.

Roads used as public paths
A road used as public path (RUPP) was one of the three types of public right of way (along with footpaths and bridleways) introduced by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. The Countryside Act 1968 required all highway authorities to reclassify RUPPs in their area – occasionally as public footpaths but in practice generally as public bridleways – unless public vehicular rights were demonstrated to exist, in which case it would become a 'byway open to all traffic'.

This process was slow as it involved research into historic usage and often public enquiries, and so was not completed by the time the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 was passed. This reclassified all remaining RUPPs as 'restricted byways' on 2 May 2006.

Restricted byways
On 2 May 2006 the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006 reclassified all remaining roads used as public paths as restricted byways. The public's rights along a restricted byway are to travel:
 * on foot
 * on horseback or leading a horse
 * by any vehicle (e.g. bicycles, horse-drawn carriages) other than mechanically propelled vehicles (e.g. motorbikes or cars) unless vehicular rights pre-existed; the act did not extinguish those rights.

Permissive path
A permissive path, permitted path or concessionary path is a path (which could be for walkers, riders, cyclists, or any combination) whose use is allowed by the landowner. It would normally be a path that is not at the time on the definitive map of public rights of way, but that does not prevent it from already being a public path for any or all of those user categories mentioned. For instance it might be a historic route fallen into disuse or it might have been used for twenty years 'as of right' by the public, in both cases being a public right of way which is not yet shown on the definitive map. Some permissive footpaths and bridleways are shown on 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scale Ordnance Survey maps.

A permissive path is often closed on a specified calendar day each year (lawful only if it is not already a public right of way of some description), and clearly signed (e.g. signpost or waymark) as permissive. The act of so closing or signing it ensures that any future use of it does not count towards the 20 years' use 'as of right' needed to establish its public status. These are precautions to prevent it becoming designated as a statutory right of way in relation to its permitted use.

Right to roam
Under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 the public also has a right to walk away from rights of way on designated "access land". This right is in addition to rights of way, and does not extend to horse-riders or cyclists. Access land may be closed for up to 28 days per year, whereas rights of way must remain open at all times, except in exceptional circumstances with special permission of the local authority.

Creation of new public rights of way
A footpath, bridleway or restricted byway can be created by one of the following means.

Dedication
In England and Wales, a footpath, bridleway or restricted byway may be expressly dedicated by the owner as a public right of way. Furthermore, unchallenged use by the public, as of right, for at least 20 years, may give rise to a presumption of dedication under Section 31 of the Highways Act 1980. A presumption of dedication may arise under common law after any appropriate period of time, by way of a presumed deed that has been lost; known as the doctrine of "modern lost grant". Paths created by express dedication since 1949 are not automatically maintainable at the public expense as a result of s.49 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949.

Public path creation agreement
Section 25 of the Highways Act 1980 allows a local authority (that is, a district or county council, or a unitary authority) to enter into an agreement (known as a 'public path creation agreement') with a relevant landowner to create a footpath or bridleway over land in their area. The local authority has to consult any other local authority in whose area the path will be, but does not have to consult more widely. There is no provision for anyone else to be consulted or to object. The agreement must be advertised in the local paper, and the route is automatically maintainable at public expense.

Agreement between a parish council and landowner
Section 30 of the Highways Act 1980 allows a parish council (community council in Wales) to enter into an agreement with a relevant landowner to create a footpath, bridleway or restricted byway over land in their area or in an adjacent parish. The parish council is under no obligation to consult anyone: all they have to do is reach an agreement with the landowner. There is no provision for anyone else to be consulted or to object. The path is not automatically maintainable at the public expense.

Public path creation order
Section 26 of the Highways Act 1980 allows a local authority (that is, a district or county council, or a unitary authority) to make an order to create a footpath or bridleway over land in their area. If there are no objections, the local authority can confirm the order themselves, so bringing the path into effect. However, where objections have been made, the order will need to be considered by an inspector from the Planning Inspectorate. Depending on the number and nature of the objections, he may consider the order after an exchange of written representations between the authority and the objectors, after holding a hearing, or after a public local inquiry. People who would like to use the path should submit letters saying why they need the path.

Street works authority
Section 228 of the Highways Act 1980 is mainly used by the street works authority (county council or unitary authority) to declare a street to be a highway maintainable at public expense. The street works authority has to perform works on the route. Such street works need only be appropriate to the type of highway to which the notice relates. So for a potential bridleway, if the grass is cut, or a hedge cut back, this could constitute street works for the purpose of this section, so enabling it to be used. The authority then places s.228 "Adoption of Streets" notices at each end of the route. Only the owner of a street (or if more than one, the majority of the owners) has the power to object. If there is an objection, the street works authority can either discontinue, or it can go to a magistrates' court. A path created by this method will be maintainable at the public expense. Hampshire County Council has used this method for footpaths, and Essex County Council often uses it for new bridleways.

Rights of way improvement plans
Each highway authority in England and Wales (other than Transport for London, the City of London and Inner London boroughs) was required to produce a Rights of Way Improvement Plan under sections 60 to 62 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 within five years of the date on which Section 60 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act came into force; this deadline was 21 November 2007. Each highway authority is required to review their Rights of Way Improvement Plan at least every ten years.

title: Rights of way in England and Wales


text:
Talk:Comparative officer ranks of World War I

Missing
The Luftwaffe was formed in WWI and there were also Austrian and Ottoman Navies. Information on these should be added if anyone knows Dainamo 21:25, 1 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually, the German air force remained part of the army during WWI. -- Necrothesp 22:56, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Thank you, that has saved me some confusion in other areas to do with this Dainamo

The rank of Generaloberst (or "Colonel-General") in the German and Austrian armies would come between those of General and Field-Marshal in the British army. General/General, Lieutenant-General/Generalleutnant and Major-General/Generalmajor were all equivalent. The German and Austrian armies had no rank corresponding to that of Brigadier-General. Donald

 * It's generally considered that German ranks equated to one below apparently equivalent British ranks (Generalmajors usually commanded brigades, Generalleutnants commanded divisions and Generals commanded corps, one level below British Major Generals, Lieutenant Generals and Generals) and that Generaloberst equated to General in the British Army. But as with all rank equivalents, it's not an exact science. -- Necrothesp 20:58, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * 'generally considered' is not a term for an encyclopedia - what about a source???? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.183.213.15 (talk) 12:52, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

The Russian military ranks, just as their court ranks, were based on Prussian/German ranks. The list is wrong in showing a Russian Major-General to be senior to a German one, they, and the other similarly named ranks for both countries, were equivalent. This is also true for WW2. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 151.143.173.178 (talk) 19:53, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

translations
Is there any reason why the Russian rank names are in most cases translated (or pseudo-translated) into English but the others countries' are not? If it's just a desire to have some Latin characters in there then a transliteration would seem more appropriate.
 * I would oppose translations. 12.220.94.199 01:36, 26 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Not sure where you're coming from here. They are transliterated, not translated. Since they were generally based on German ranks, the transliteration just doesn't look very Russian. -- Necrothesp 03:40, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

Belgium and others
Here is a source for Belgium and other countries. 12.220.94.199 01:36, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Ritt baron
Rittmeister was also used (I think) by WW1 German air service; von Richthoven was Rittmeister Manfred Baron vR.

Has anybody considered a pre-WW1/historical table? Trekphiler 17:39, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

Majors in the Russian Army
The rank of Major in the Russian army was discontinued in 1884! (source: uniforminsignia.net)

Lukasz-40

Air Ranks? / German Generals
Is there any particular need to include the air ranks? At the moment only the British column has them, and they're identical to the army rank - I assume that these are representing the Royal Flying Corps, and not the Royal Naval Air Service. IIRC the RAF was the first independent air service, and not until after the war - it seems to me that air ranks, if they differ, should be handled similarly to the Germanic Rittmeister rank, as an alternative within whatever branch of service the air unit is part of.

On an unrelated topic, I was under the impression that both Germany and Austria-Hungary used the form "General der [branch]", as shown in the Austro-Hungarian column. Xt828 21:40, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

 * The British Air Ranks are legitimate since the RAF was formed before the end of the war in 1918 with military ranks up to Lieutenant General. It was not until 1919 that irs current ranks were implemented. Dainamo (talk) 18:27, 17 June 2008 (UTC)

Americans?
Why aren't Americans included? CsikosLo (talk) 14:53, 8 May 2008 (UTC)

Why are they listed first? They were only in it at the end, they cowered & hid for the first 3 years or so. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.241.222.56 (talk) 13:47, 3 August 2013 (UTC)

So you had to get saved by cowering hiders? Ouch Venqax (talk) 04:21, 9 June 2017 (UTC)

American Ranks
Why is General of the Armies listed as a World War 1 rank? It was not created till 1919, the year after the war had ended. The 4-gold stars is not really an officially recognized insignia for the rank, either, but that is a different issue obviated by that of why is it is there to begin with. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Venqax (talk • contribs) 19:09, 16 February 2019 (UTC)

Serbian ranks
What about Serbian ranks? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.2.19.32 (talk) 12:28, 9 June 2012 (UTC)

Country inclusion
Some people listed a few countries that were not included in the table (Serbia, Belgium, etc.). It seems to have been a clumsy, incomplete list that was created piecemeal. I think it makes more sense to remove the list altogether and simply state: "Not all combatant countries shown in table." I have made this change. If you feel a reversion is necessary, then please ensure that the list is complete. Otherwise it is silly to include it.Nojamus (talk) 23:14, 19 June 2012 (UTC)

Aren't Enlisted Men in the Military?
Where are the enlisted ranks?

```` — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.218.100.214 (talk) 05:12, 16 August 2012 (UTC)

Probably on a different table as appropriate: The title and subject is "Comparative officer ranks of World War I" (emphasis mine)Venqax (talk) 04:18, 9 June 2017 (UTC)

French General ranks
I suspect this is going to cause some reversions, but it seems pretty clear to me that General d'armee, General de corps d'armee, Amiral and Vice-amiral d'escadre did not exist in the WWI French military. Sources are regrettably both in French, but the gist is fairly easy to work out; http://www.defense.gouv.fr/bog/officiers-generaux/donnees/grades-officiers-generaux?nav=web and http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/Les-grades-dans-l-armee-de-terre.html

In particular "Général de corps d’armée : la première mention de ce grade, qui n’est encore qu’une fonction, apparaît dans la notice sur les uniformes du 17 mars 1921. Le grade est créé en 1939." Google translation: "The first mention of the grade, which was still a function, appears in the record on the uniforms of 17 March 1921. The grade is created in 1939."

RaiderAspect (talk) 12:04, 21 February 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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text:
Canadair CT-114 Tutor

The Canadair CT-114 Tutor (company model CL-41) is a jet trainer that was designed and produced by Canadian aircraft manufacturer Canadair. It served as the standard jet trainer of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), and later Canadian Armed Forces, between the early 1960s and 2000.

Development commenced as a private venture by the company. On 13 January 1960, the prototype performed its maiden flight; a year and a half later, the Canadian Government placed a major order for the type. The RCAF would be the dominant user of the type, but a limited number were exported as well. Specifically, the CL-41G model, which was supplied to the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF), served as a ground-attack aircraft up until its withdrawal.

The Tutor served as the Canadian Armed Forces primary jet trainer from the 1960s up until 2000, at which point it was finally retired from this role, having been replaced by a combination of the newer British-built CT-155 Hawk and American-built CT-156 Harvard II. While the majority of Tutors have been retired, a small number are still being used by the RCAF’s Snowbirds aerobatics team.

Origins
The beginnings of the CL-41 Tutor can be found in a decision by Canadian aircraft manufacturer Canadair to develop its own indigenous trainer aircraft as a private venture. The design was the product of the company’s in-house Preliminary Design department. By August 1957, the basic configuration of the design had been completed, which was of a turbojet-powered, low-wing aircraft, complete with a tricycle undercarriage and a side-by-side cockpit arrangement. From the onset of development, the aircraft was intended to be a purpose-built trainer for providing elementary jet flight training, as well as additional training up to an advanced level.

Early on, despite a lack of official backing for the endeavour from the Canadian Government, the Royal Canadian Air Force's (RCAF) Directorate of Training’s Jet Trainer Liaison Committee had closely engaged with Canadair; its involvement in the project had reportedly made a significant impact in the final design of the aircraft. Both the Canadian Government and Canadair committed financing towards the production of a pair of flight-capable prototypes, as well as multiple static airframes. This early manufacturing activity was performed in a secretive fashion at the company’s Plant 4 facility, which housed Canadair’s Missiles & Systems division.

Flight testing
On 13 January 1960, the prototype performed its maiden flight, flown by project pilot Ian MacTavish. Originally, the first flight has been scheduled to take place in early 1959, but had been delayed due to issues relating to engine development. While the prototype was powered by a single Pratt & Whitney JT12A-5 turbojet engine, this would be substituted for by a General Electric J85 powerplant for the subsequent production aircraft that followed. This change of engine had required no redesign as the fuselage had been developed to accommodate a wide range of engines without structural modification being necessary; in addition to the JT12A-5 and J85, the Armstrong-Siddeley Viper ASV11, the Continental Gabizo, the Rolls-Royce RB.108, and the Fairchild J83-R-1 had been studied during the early stages of design work.

During March 1960, an RCAF survey team performed a series of preliminary flight evaluations of the CL-41 prototype over the course of one week; prior to this, the team had evaluated various trainers from France, the United States, and the United Kingdom as well. According to aviation historian Bill Upton, those who flew the prototype universally praised the aircraft for its favourable handling and performance. The prototypes were subject to an extensive regime of tests, some of which falling outside the traditional scope of such activities.

Design
The CT-114 Tutor is a single-engine turbojet-powered trainer aircraft. It was purpose-designed for the training role, and possesses numerous favourable qualities, including a high level of reliability and favourable operating economics. It is capable of a wide performance range, possessing a top speed at altitude of 795 kmh (429 kt) and a diving speed of 885 kmh (478 kt) against a relatively low stalling speed of 71kt. The Tutor is furnished with manual flight controls, which incorporate spring tabs. It is intentionally aerodynamically stable in flight, a factor which traditionally has aided in the training of fresh pilots unfamiliar with the demands of flight.

The Tutor features a side-by-side cockpit. During standard operations, the observing instructor was seated on the right-hand side and the flying student pilot on the left; normally, only the left-hand side normally featured full flight controls. However, following experiences with the Snowbirds display team, a number of aircraft were reconfigured with extra controls so that they would be flyable from either position. The cabin, which is fitted with a rear-hinged canopy over both crew members, can be pressurized to a differential of 3 psi (20 kPa), the equivalent to an altitude of about 2,000 m, for pilot comfort.

For aerial display purposes, the Tutor was readily capable of being fitted with a smoke generator, including a pair of under-fuselage pods to house the pressurized diesel fuel used; the use of red dye in the smoke was discontinued fairly quickly as it was found to be highly corrosive. Various other modifications would also be made to display aircraft; these could be routinely installed and uninstalled as airframes would regularly be exchanged between display and training flights.

Overview

During September 1961, the Canadian government, having been impressed by the performance of the prototype and being keen to support local industry, placed a sizeable order for 190 examples of the production variant, referred to as the CL-41A, on behalf of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Upon its adoption, the aircraft received the Canadian unified aircraft designation of CT-114 Tutor. The majority of the type was stationed at CFB Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, in Western Canada; the Central Flying School at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba, also made heavy use of the Tutor.

Serving as a primary trainer platform, the Tutor was used in this capacity for over thirty years. During 1976, the Canadian Armed Forces decided to have 113 of the remaining aircraft furnished with upgraded avionics and provisions for a pair of belly-mounted 41 USgal external fuel tanks. By 1998, it was reported that around 120 examples of the type were still in regular service with the Canadian Armed Forces. During 2000, the majority of Tutors were retired, the type having been succeeded as the RCAF's principal training aircraft by a combination of the newer British-built CT-155 Hawk and American-built CT-156 Harvard II. Since then, it has continued to be used in limited numbers by the service for both experimental (by the Aerospace Engineering Test Establishment (AETE) at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta) and aerial display purposes. By 2019, there were 24 examples registered as in service with the RCAF.

Aerobatics
During 1967, a batch of ten Tutors were modified for use as a formation aerobatic aircraft by the RCAF (and later the unified Canadian Armed Forces) display team, the Golden Centennaires to celebrate Canada's centennial year. At the end of the 1967 season, the display team was disbanded, thus its aircraft returned to routine training duties. In 1971, a new formation team was formed at 2CFFTS (Two Canadian Armed Forces Flying Training School) at CFB Moose Jaw, and once again adopted the type. The following year, the name "Snowbirds" was chosen for the team; during 1978, the team received squadron status as 431 Air Demonstration Squadron.

Since its formation, the Snowbirds display team has regularly performed at air shows and special events, including the annual flypast on Canada Day over the capital city, Ottawa. According to journalist Guy Norris, a defining trait of their aerobatics is the physically-demanding formation flights performed, as well as locally-developed manoeuvres such as the ‘Big Goose’. Unlike most display teams, the Snowbirds do not have a support aircraft; all spares and useful material could be carried by the aircraft themselves in storage areas located in the nose or the wing root.

Those Tutors used by the Snowbirds feature several modifications distinguishing them from standard examples; these include a smoke generating system, a highly-recognisable paint scheme unique to the display team, and a highly-tuned engine for greater responsiveness during low-level flying. Reportedly, display pilots would deliberately fly their aircraft using an above-average level of nose-down trim so that pushing the stick down would become unnecessary. The Snowbirds' aircraft would regularly be cycled with standard training aircraft, allowing the team to operate airframes with comparatively low accumulated flight hours.

Overseas and proposed uses
Canadair also developed an armament training and light attack variant, designated CL-41G. This model was powered by an uprated engine and fitted with underwing hard points, the latter of which allowed for the carriage of various external stores, including up to 4,000 lb (1814 kg) of weapons and drop tanks. During March 1966, the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) ordered a batch of twenty (serials M-22-01 to M22-11) examples of the CL-41G-5 Tebuan (which means Wasp in the Malay language) aircraft as counterinsurgency (COIN) aircraft. In 1967, the Tebuan entered service in Malaysia. The RMAF operated the type in excess of twenty years, the last Tebuan being withdrawn from service during June 1986, having been replaced by the Italian Aermacchi MB-339A. Following their retirement, the majority of the fleet was retained and placed into local storage for over a decade.

One other experimental variant was developed, designated CL-41R, which was fitted with the nose of an F-104 Starfighter, as a proposed electronic systems trainer for future RCAF CF-104 pilots. A single airframe (CF-LTX-X) was constructed to demonstrate the concept, however, the R model did not attract any orders and thus never went into production.As of August 2019, the airframe was awaiting restoration at the Reynolds-Alberta Museum.

Variants

 * CL-41
 * Two prototypes, CF-LTW-X and CF-LTX-X used for company engineering and testing program

 * CL-41A
 * A total of 190 trainers produced for RCAF and CF use as the CT-114. A number were modified with smoke generating systems and other modifications for the Snowbirds aerobatic team

 * CL-41G
 * Unique version for the Royal Malayan Air Force (RMAF). A total of 20 ground-attack variants, known as the "Tebuan" in service with RMAF.

 * CL-41R
 * One conversion of CF-LTX-X with a CF-104 nose grafted on to demonstrate the use of CF-104/F-104G radar and avionics; no production examples were built.

Operators

 * Royal Canadian Air Force (CT-114 Tutor)
 * Golden Centennaires display team 1967
 * Canadian Armed Forces
 * 2 Canadian Forces Flying Training School 1964–1999
 * 431 Air Demonstration Squadron ("Snowbirds" display team) 1971–present
 * Royal Malaysian Air Force (CL-41G Tebuan)
 * 6 Squadron 1967–1985
 * 9 Squadron 1967–1985
 * Training Division FTC 1966 or 1967– retired and replaced with A-4 PTM Skyhawks
 * 9 Squadron 1967–1985
 * Training Division FTC 1966 or 1967– retired and replaced with A-4 PTM Skyhawks

Aircraft on display

 * CT-114000 - Portage la Prairie/Southport Airport, Portage la Prairie, Manitoba.
 * CT-114003 - Canadian Museum of Flight, Langley, British Columbia.
 * CT-114004 - Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba.
 * CT-114014 - Bagotville Cadet Training Center, CFB Bagotville, La Baie, Québec
 * CT-114015 - National Air Force Museum of Canada, Quinte West, Ontario.
 * CT-114021 - Western Development Museum, Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.
 * CT-114036 - CFB Moose Jaw, Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.
 * CT-114038 - Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, Mount Hope, Ontario.
 * CT-144075 - Shearwater Aviation Museum, Shearwater, Nova Scotia.
 * CT-114076 - Reynolds Museum, Wetaskiwin, Alberta.
 * CT-114078 - Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.
 * CT-114083 - Cold Lake, Alberta.
 * CT-114108 - Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario.
 * CT-114114 - Cold Lake Air Force Museum, Cold Lake, Alberta.
 * CT-114115 - Comox Visitor Information Centre, Comox, British Columbia.
 * CT-114153 - Base Borden Military Museum, Borden, Ontario.
 * CT-114168 - Canadian Air and Space Conservancy, Edenvale, Ontario.
 * CT-114177 - Bomber Command Museum of Canada, Nanton, Alberta.

 * CT-114187 - Millennium Park, Creston, British Columbia.

Surviving aircraft

Although the CL-41 Tutor has been retired from active training, 26 Tutors continue to fly with the Canadian Armed Forces Snowbirds and the Aerospace Engineering Test Establishment at CFB Cold Lake or are in short-term storage.

As of August 2011, there were three CL-41Gs and one CT-114 on the U.S. civil registry, while none were so registered in Canada.

During 2001, a CL-41G was given to Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona Beach, Florida, by actor John Travolta.

title: Canadair CT-114 Tutor


text:
Cued speech

Cued speech is a visual system of communication used with and among deaf or hard-of-hearing people. It is a phonemic-based system which makes traditionally spoken languages accessible by using a small number of handshapes, known as cues (representing consonants), in different locations near the mouth (representing vowels) to convey spoken language in a visual format. The National Cued Speech Association defines cued speech as "a visual mode of communication that uses hand shapes and placements in combination with the mouth movements and speech to make the phonemes of spoken language look different from each other." It adds information about the phonology of the word that is not visible on the lips. This allows people with hearing or language difficulties to visually access the fundamental properties of language. It is now used with people with a variety of language, speech, communication, and learning needs. It is not a sign language such as American Sign Language (ASL), which is a separate language from English. Cued speech is considered a communication modality but can be used as a strategy to support auditory rehabilitation, speech articulation, and literacy development.

History
Cued speech was invented in 1966 by R. Orin Cornett at Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C. After discovering that children with prelingual and profound hearing impairments typically have poor reading comprehension, he developed the system with the aim of improving the reading abilities of such children through better comprehension of the phonemes of English. At the time, some were arguing that deaf children were earning these lower marks because they had to learn two different systems: American Sign Language (ASL) for person-to-person communication and English for reading and writing. As many sounds look identical on the lips (such as and ), the hand signals introduce a visual contrast in place of the formerly acoustic contrast. Cued Speech may also help people hearing incomplete or distorted sound—according to the National Cued Speech Association at cuedspeech.org, "cochlear implants and Cued Speech are perfect partners".

Since cued speech is based on making sounds visible to the hearing impaired, it is not limited to use in English-speaking nations. Because of the demand for use in other languages/countries, by 1994 Cornett had adapted cueing to 25 other languages and dialects. Originally designed to represent American English, the system was adapted to French in 1977. , Cued speech has been adapted to approximately 60 languages and dialects, including six dialects of English. For tonal languages such as Thai, the tone is indicated by inclination and movement of the hand. For English, cued speech uses eight different hand shapes and four different positions around the mouth.

Nature and use
Though to a hearing person, cued speech may look similar to signing, it is not a sign language; nor is it a Manually Coded Sign System for a spoken language. Rather, it is a manual modality of communication for representing any language at the phonological level (phonetics).

A manual cue in cued speech consists of two components: hand shape and hand position relative to the face. Hand shapes distinguish consonants and hand positions distinguish vowel. A hand shape and a hand position (a "cue") together with the accompanying mouth shape, makes up a CV unit - a basic syllable.

Cuedspeech.org lists 64 different dialects to which CS has been adapted. Each language takes on CS by looking through the catalog of the language's phonemes and distinguishing which phonemes appear similar when pronounced and thus need a hand sign to differentiate them.

Literacy
Cued speech is based on the hypothesis that if all the sounds in the spoken language looked clearly different from each other on the lips of the speaker, people with a hearing loss would learn a language in much the same way as a hearing person, but through vision rather than audition.

Literacy is the ability to read and write proficiently, which allows one to understand and communicate ideas so as to participate in a literate society.

Cued speech was designed to help eliminate the difficulties of English language acquisition and literacy development in children who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. Results of research show that accurate and consistent cueing with a child can help in the development of language, communication and literacy but its importance and use is debated. Studies address the issues behind literacy development, traditional deaf education, and how using cued speech affects the lives of deaf and HOH children.

Cued speech does indeed achieve its goal of distinguishing phonemes received by the learner, but there is some question of whether it is as helpful to expression as it is to reception. An article by Jacqueline Leybaert and Jesús Alegría discusses how children who are introduced to cued speech before the age of one are up-to-speed with their hearing peers on receptive vocabulary, though expressive vocabulary lags behind. The writers suggest additional and separate training to teach oral expression if such is desired, but more importantly this reflects the nature of cued speech; to adapt children who are deaf and hard-of-hearing to a hearing world, as such discontinuities of expression and reception are not as commonly found for children with a hearing loss who are learning sign language.

In her paper "The Relationship Between Phonological Coding And Reading Achievement In Deaf Children: Is Cued Speech A Special Case?" (1998), Ostrander notes, "Research has consistently shown a link between lack of phonological awareness and reading disorders (Jenkins & Bowen, 1994)" and discusses the research basis for teaching cued speech as an aid to phonological awareness and literacy. Ostrander concludes that further research into these areas is needed and well justified.

The editor of the Cued Speech Journal (currently sought but not discovered) reports that "Research indicating that Cued Speech does greatly improve the reception of spoken language by profoundly deaf children was reported in 1979 by Gaye Nicholls, and in 1982 by Nicholls and Ling."

In the book Choices in Deafness: A Parents' Guide to Communication Options, Sue Schwartz writes on how cued speech helps a deaf child recognize pronunciation. The child can learn how to pronounce words such as "hors d'oeuvre" or "tamale" or "Hermione" that have pronunciations different from how they are spelled. A child can learn about accents and dialects. In New York, coffee may be pronounced "caw fee"; in the South, the word friend ("fray-end") can be a two-syllable word.

Debate over cued speech vs. sign language
The topic of deaf education has long been filled with controversy. There are two strategies for teaching the deaf that exist: an aural/oral approach or a manual approach. Those who use aural-oralism believe that children who are deaf or hard of hearing should be taught through the use of residual hearing, speech and speechreading. Those promoting a manual approach believe the deaf should be taught through the use of signed languages, such as American Sign Language (ASL).

Within the United States, proponents of cued speech often discuss the system as an alternative to ASL and similar sign languages, although others note that it can be learned in addition to such languages. For the ASL-using community, cued speech is a unique potential component for learning English as a second language. Within bilingual-bicultural models, cued speech does not borrow or invent signs from ASL, nor does CS attempt to change ASL syntax or grammar. Rather, CS provides an unambiguous model for language learning that leaves ASL intact.

Languages
Cued speech has been adapted to more than 50 languages and dialects. However, it is not clear how many of them are actually in use.
 * Afrikaans
 * Alu
 * Arabic
 * Belarusian
 * Bengali
 * Cantonese
 * Catalan
 * Czech
 * Danish
 * Dutch
 * English (different conventions in different countries)
 * American English
 * Australian English
 * British English (Standard Southern)
 * Scottish English
 * South African English
 * Trinidadian English
 * Finnish and Finnish Swedish (same conventions)
 * French
 * Canadian French
 * French (France) (Langage parlé complété, LPC)
 * German
 * German (Germany) (phonembestimmes Manualsystem, "Phonemic Manual System")
 * Swiss German
 * Greek
 * Gujarati
 * Hausa
 * Hawaiian
 * Hebrew
 * Hindustani
 * Hindi
 * Urdu
 * Hungarian
 * Idoma
 * Igbo
 * Italian
 * Japanese
 * Kiluba and Kituba (same conventions)
 * Korean
 * Lingala
 * Malagasy
 * Malay
 * Indonesian
 * Malaysian
 * Malayalam
 * Maltese
 * Mandarin
 * Marathi
 * Navajo
 * Odia
 * Polish
 * Portuguese
 * Brazilian Portuguese
 * European Portuguese (Português Falado Complementado)
 * Punjabi (Lahore dialect)
 * Russian
 * Serbo-Croatian
 * Setswana
 * Shona
 * Somali
 * Spanish (Método Oral Complementado, MOC)
 * Swahili
 * Swedish (Sweden)
 * Tagalog/Filipino
 * Telugu
 * Thai
 * Tshiluba
 * Turkish
 * Ukrainian
 * Yoruba

Similar systems have been used for other languages, such as the Assisted Kinemes Alphabet in Belgium and the Baghcheban phonetic hand alphabet for Persian.

Organizations

 * National Cued Speech Association of the USA (NCSA)
 * Language Matters (LMI)
 * Cued Speech UK
 * Testing, Evaluation, and Certification Unit (TECUnit) The cued language national testing body of the United States
 * Cue Everything See The Latest Cued Speech Videos And Why They Rock
 * On Cue Newsletter from the NCSA
 * DailyCues.com Skills Development and Training Follow Up Resource Featuring The Cuer Connector and Word Generators
 * SPK KIU SPK Pertuturan KIU
 * Pemulihan Dalam Komuniti (PDK) KIU - Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)

Tutorials and general information

 * Cued Speech Discovery/CuedSpeech.com - The NCSA bookstore. Some overview information and how to incorporate Cued Speech effectively.

 * DailyCues.com - News, Cued English Dictionary, Cuer Database, and learning resources – some free online.
 * learntocue.co.uk - Multimedia resources for learning Cued Speech (British English)
 * NCSA Mini-Documentary - A 10-minute video explaining Cued Speech. Audio, ASL, sub-titles and some cueing.
 * The Art of Cueing - extensive free course for cueing American dialects of English, containing QuickTime video samples.

Cued languages other than English

 * Cued Portuguese: Português Falado Complementado
 * Cued Spanish: Método Oral Complementado (MOC)
 * Cued French: Langage Parlé Complété (LPC)
 * Cued Polish: Fonogesty
 * Cued Persian
 * Cued Finnish
 * Cued Malay

title: Cued speech