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Gimmelwald

Gimmelwald is a small traffic free village in the Bernese Oberland in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, and is located between Stechelberg and Mürren, at an elevation of 1363 meters (4472 feet). The village is at the foot of the UNESCO World Heritage site the Jungfrau-Aletsch Protected Area. Gimmelwald is an allemanic linear village and a walser settlement first mentioned in a bill of sale in 1346. Because of its very typical and exceptional townscape, Gimmelwald is part of the inventory of Swiss heritage.

Gimmelwald is one of the few traffic-free villages in Switzerland where access by car is not possible due to a missing road connection. The Schilthorn cable car stops in Gimmelwald, where it is possible to board another cable car which runs between Gimmelwald and Mürren. Farming and tourism are the main source of income today. Farmers raise hay on tiny plots of land to feed small herds of cows. In winter, farmers often work as well for the Schilthorn cable car by performing jobs like running ski lifts or ski-slope grooming.

In the year 2003 the population of Gimmelwald was 130. The local school closed in 2010 due to the small number of students and students now attend the school in Lauterbrunnen. The school building was bought in 2019 by a cooperative to convert the school building into flats and to prevent it from being used as a holiday flat.

Traffic and accessibility
There is a walking path between Gimmelwald and Mürren, but lacking connection to the main road system, the main transportation to Gimmelwald is the Luftseilbahn Stechelberg-Mürren-Schilthorn (LSMS) aerial tramway famous for connecting the Schilthorn. The cable car connects Gimmelwald with the neighbouring elevated village Mürren and the village Stechelberg, which is situated at the floor of the Lauterbrunnen valley. From Stechelberg a bus connects Lauterbrunnen where there are connections to the rest of Switzerland.

Politics
Gimmelwald, together with Wengen, Mürren, Isenfluh, Stechelberg, and Lauterbrunnen, belongs to the municipality of Lauterbrunnen. The parish covers the entire valley.

Tourism
The main source of income for Gimmelwald is tourism, and the village has a small hotel, former pension (now a British run hotel), a bed & breakfast and the Mountain Hostel. Gimmelwald was stopped from being developed into a large ski resort by having it declared an avalanche zone which is only partly the case. In summer, Gimmelwald is mostly visited by tourists from North America, and in winter is mostly visited by European and Swiss tourists for winter sports.

Gimmelwald has a 2.2 km long via ferrata connecting the neighbouring village of Mürren.

title: Gimmelwald


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Social informatics

Social informatics is the study of information and communication tools in cultural or institutional contexts. Another definition is the interdisciplinary study of the design, uses and consequences of information technologies that takes into account their interaction with institutional and cultural contexts. A transdisciplinary field, social informatics is part of a larger body of socio-economic research that examines the ways in which the technological artifact and human social context mutually constitute the information and communications technology (ICT) ensemble. Some proponents of social informatics use the relationship of a biological community to its environment as an analogy for the relationship of tools to people who use them. The Center for Social Informatics founded by the late Dr. Rob Kling, an early champion of the field's ideas, defines the field thus:

 * Social Informatics (SI) refers to the body of research and study that examines social aspects of computerization – including the roles of information technology in social and organizational change, the uses of information technologies in social contexts, and the ways that the social organization of information technologies is influenced by social forces and social practices.

Research
Historically, Western European concepts of social informatics research has been strong in the Scandinavian countries and the UK. The beginnings can be traced to the 1980s in Norway and Slovenia. The fundamentals of social informatics in the USA were laid by Kling in 1996 with his colleagues and students from Indiana University. Within North America, the field is represented largely through independent research efforts at a number of diverse institutions. There are several approaches, which were historically named or classified as social informatics: American, Russian, British, Norwegian, Slovenian, German and Japanese. The oldest concept of social informatics was founded in the USSR by A.V. Sokolov and his colleagues in the 1970s.

Social informatics research diverges from earlier, deterministic (both social and technological) models for measuring the social impacts of technology. Such technological deterministic models characterized information technologies as tools to be installed and used with a pre-determined set of impacts on society which are dictated by the technology's stated capabilities. Similarly, the socially deterministic theory represented by some proponents of the social construction of technology (SCOT) or social shaping of technology theory as advocated by Williams & Edge (1996) see technology the product of human social forces. In contrast, some social informatics methodologies consider the context surrounding technology and the material properties of the technology to be equally important: the people who will interact with a system, the organizational policies governing work practice, and support resources. This contextual inquiry produces "nuanced conceptual understanding" of systems that can be used to examine issues like access to technology, electronic forms of communication, and large-scale networks.

Research in social informatics can be categorized into three orientations. Normative research focuses on the development of theories based on empirical analysis that may be used to develop organizational policies and work practices. The heart of such analyses lies in socio-technical interaction networks, a framework built around the idea that humans and the technologies they build are "co-constitutive", bound together, and that any examination of one must necessarily consider the other. Studies of the analytical orientation develop theory or define methodologies to contribute to theorizing in institutional settings. Critical analysis, like Lucy Suchman’s examination of articulation work, examine technological solutions from non-traditional perspectives in order to influence design and implementation.

Future
Social informatics is a young intellectual movement and its future is still being defined. However, because SST theorists such as Williams and Edge suggest that the amorphous boundaries between humans and technology that emerge in social shaping technology research indicate that technology is not a distinct social endeavor worthy of individual study, indicating that there is a need for social informatics research that bridges the gap between technological and social determinism. This observation, coupled with the many fields that contribute research, suggest a future in which social informatics theories and concepts settle to form a substrate, an "indispensable analytical foundation" for work in other disciplines. Such foundations can be found in social informatics frameworks such as The Web of Computing perspective or Socio-Technical Interaction Networks.

Relevant topics about future direction of social informatics are discussed in the book by Fichman and Rosenbaum. Conceptualization of international discourse, including current trends in research and direction of social informatics development is presented in an article by Smutny. This article discusses current possibilities of development of social informatics within the international discourse of various concepts including possible areas for future cooperation. Other topical article by Marcinkowski presents a perspective shift from studying only the effects of the implementation and use of technology to the primary discussion of what are the ideological implications of empirical work in social informatics connected with data analytics approach.

In education
Social informatics is also about teaching social issues of computing to computer science students. Depending on educational traditions, social informatics is scattered in the curriculum of different disciplines, as well as in computer science, information science, informatics (Europe) and web sociology. In some instances there might be a lack of understanding of why teaching social issues of computing is important, both by individual lecturers and students, resulting in a view that social informatics is boring and without importance. Some researchers have pointed out that in order to create awareness of the importance of social issues of computing, one has to focus on didactics of social informatics.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Social informatics


text:
Twin Dragons

Twin Dragons is a 1992 Hong Kong action comedy film directed by Ringo Lam and Tsui Hark, and starring Jackie Chan in a double role as identical twin brothers separated at birth.

The film also goes by titles such as Brother vs. Brother, Duel of Dragons, When Dragons Collide and Double Dragons.

Plot
In 1965, a Hong Kong couple are doting on their newborn identical twin boys. Meanwhile, a dangerous gang leader named Crazy Kung is being transported as a captive in the same hospital. Crazy Kung escapes and attempts to take one of the twins hostage, and in the ensuing chaos the twins are permanently separated. One of the twins, named Ma Yau, is taken to America by his parents and grows up to be a concert pianist and conductor. The other twin, Ma Wan, is found and raised by an alcoholic woman named Tsui, and becomes a street racer and martial artist named Bok Min. For years, neither of them is aware that he has an identical twin brother.

26 years later, the twins' lives intersect again: Bok Min and his best friend Tarzan get mixed up with a dangerous gang, while Ma Yau prepares to conduct a major concert in Hong Kong. In addition, the twins gain romantic interests: Bok Min meets Barbara, a club singer Tarzan is interested in, and Yau becomes acquainted with Tong Sum, a young woman from a respectable family who has a secret passion for fighter types. Eventually, the twins meet and discover that they share a strange connection with each other. As a result, a string of comedic mix-ups ensues when Ma Yau is accidentally enlisted by the gangsters to participate as an escape driver in the liberation of none other than Crazy Kung; Bok Min in turn is forced to conduct Yau's concert (which becomes a smash hit despite him having absolutely no musical talent); and the two of them end up with the other's girl as their respective love interest.

Eventually, things come to a head when the gangsters kidnap Tarzan to make Ma Yau surrender a briefcase meant for Crazy Kung, which Ma Yau had accidentally nabbed. The twins join up to defeat the gang that has turned their lives upside down, and in a showdown in a vehicle testing center Crazy Kung dies in a runaway crash test car. The film ends with the impending double wedding of the twins to their girls and Bok Min's introduction to his real parents, but when Bok Min gets cold feet and Ma Yau goes looking for him, a final gag falls into place when the wedding guests catch the two twins together and are unable to tell them apart.

Cast

 * Jackie Chan as Ma Yau / Bok Min (John Ma / Boomer in the American release)
 * Maggie Cheung as Barbara
 * Nina Li Chi as Tong Sum (Tammy in the American release)
 * Teddy Robin as Tarzan (Tyson in the American release)
 * Anthony Chan as hotel staffer
 * Philip Chan as hotel manager Chen
 * Sylvia Chang as the twins' mother
 * James Wong as the twins' father
 * Alfred Cheung as Boss Wing
 * Jacob Cheung as cafe cashier
 * Cheung Tung-jo as orchestra member
 * John Keung as hotel security officer
 * Chor Yuen as Uncle Tang (Tammy's father)
 * Lau Kar-leung as doctor
 * Kirk Wong as Crazy Kung
 * Wong Lung-wai as Wai
 * Lai Ying-chow as Tsao
 * Jamie Luk as Rocky
 * John Woo as priest
 * Tsui Siu-ming as priest
 * Eric Tsang as man talking on the phone (Man on Phone in the American release)
 * David Wu as waiter
 * Pa Shan as thug
 * Ringo Lam as car mechanic
 * Ng Sze-yuen as car mechanic
 * Tsui Hark as car mechanic
 * Clifton Ko as sports shop owner
 * Tai Kit Mak

Production
According to co-director Tsui Hark, Ringo Lam handled most of the action scenes in the film. The action in the film has a larger focus on actual martial arts than on Jackie Chan's usual comedic style.

Music
Ma Yau's Concert depicted in the movie is the Ruslan and Lyudmila Overture, by Mikhail Glinka.

Release
The film received an American release on 9 April 1999 in a dubbed version. The American release of the film cuts 16 minutes of scenes involving Wong Jing and Lau Kar-leung in a hospital and a fantasy scene involving Maggie Cheung singing.

Box office
On the film's release in Hong Kong, Twin Dragons was the ninth highest-grossing film of the year, earning HK$33,225,134 during its theatrical run. In Taiwan, it was the twelfth top-grossing film of 1992, earning. In Japan, the film grossed ¥545 million. In South Korea, it was the third top-grossing film of 1992, selling 768,951 tickets and grossing US$3.46 million.

Upon release in North America, the film grossed US$8,332,431 in the United States, ending its North American run with a total of US$8,359,717 in the United States and Canada. In total, the film grossed US$46,861,333 worldwide, equivalent to US$86,265,362 adjusted for inflation.

Critical response
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film has received an average score of 54, based on 15 reviews. The Austin Chronicle gave the film a positive review of three and a half stars out of five, noting that the film is "only for those who are fully on the bus with Jackie's approach...and who won't let a little bad (okay, execrable) English-language dubbing get in the way of their movie enjoyment". The A.V. Club gave a positive review, but noted that it "probably won't make anyone forget Dragons Forever, Wheels On Meals, Project A, or any number of other excellent Chan films". Some reviews critiqued the special effects, such as in Variety which noted that "the camera trickery is glaringly cheesy in some shots, greatly undercutting the illusion of twin brothers in the same frame. When the two brothers first meet in a hotel lavatory, it's easy to see how two shots have been overlapped". Writing for Sight and Sound, Kim Newman found the film's numerous cameo appearances to be annoying, stating that "few of the distinguished participants show much skill with double-take comedy". TV Guide gave the film one star out of four, noting that it "suffers from some very dicey twinning effects when the brothers are in frame together. Only die-hard and undemanding Chan fans need apply". Jackie Chan was unhappy with how Twin Dragons came out to be primarily based on the special effects. Chan stated that he worked with Tsui Hark who he felt would provide the film with better special effects. Chan was so soured with the results of the special effects that he decided he would only attempt more special-effect based work in his American productions.

Remakes
The film spawned several Indian film remakes. Hello Brother (1994) is a popular Telugu film based on Twin Dragons. In turn, Hello Brother was remade into the popular Hindi film Judwaa (1997) starring Salman Khan, which in turn spawned a reboot Judwaa 2 (2017). Hello Brother was also remade as the Kannada film Cheluva (1997).

title: Twin Dragons


text:
User:Bodnotbod/PMQs10042002

The idea of this is to try and analyse the British Prime Minister's Questions and draw attention to any logical fallacies.

This is a subject I'm going to be training myself in as I go along so any help is most welcome - though I'd prefer it if contributions were made on the Talk page rather than here.

Only hostile questions are used to avoid all that emotive guff Labour backbenchers come out with to flatter their idol.

At the moment I have merely copied the Hansard text to this page, and I'll start work on it soon. Atleast, that's the plan.

'10th April 2002'

Mr. Iain Duncan Smith (Chingford and Woodford Green): In the future, if left unchecked, Iraq will be able to deploy its weapons of mass destruction against targets in western Europe, including the United Kingdom. As the last head of the United Nations inspectors makes clear, development of those weapons continues unchecked. Given that, will the Prime Minister confirm reports that he told President Bush over the weekend that if military action is needed against Saddam Hussein, the British Government will support and, if necessary, contribute to it?

The Prime Minister: The time for military action has not yet arisen. However, there is no doubt at all that the development of weapons of mass destruction by Saddam Hussein poses a severe threat not just to the region, but to the wider world. I draw the House's attention to the fact that, in my first statement to the House a few days after 11 September, I made it clear that the issue of weapons of mass destruction had to be, and should be, dealt with. How we deal with it will be a matter for deliberation and consultation in the normal way. After11 September, we proceeded in a calm and sensible way, and we shall do so again, but we must confront the issue of weapons of mass destruction.

Mr. Duncan Smith: Not only is Iraq developing weapons of mass destruction, but it has also become apparent that it is a major sponsor of terrorism in the

10 Apr 2002 : Column 12

middle east, bankrolling many of the families of suicide bombers and providing terrorists with bomb-making equipment. In the United States, the Prime Minister spoke about a "regime change" in Iraq. Given his reported comments, will he confirm that getting rid of Saddam Hussein may now be an objective of the Government?

The Prime Minister: As I said in Texas, there is no doubt at all that the region would be a better place without Saddam Hussein. It is worth pointing out that the Iraqi people themselves would rejoice most at Saddam Hussein leaving office. We should never forget that that regime has a particular record: the Iran-Iraq war in which1 million people lost their lives; the annexation of Kuwait, which precipitated the Gulf war; and perhaps the most appalling act of all, the use of chemical weapons on the Kurdish people. There is no doubt whatever that the world would be a better place without Saddam. However, the method of achieving that is, as I said, open to consultation and deliberation. When the judgments are made, I have no doubt at all that this House—indeed, the whole country—will want to debate the issue thoroughly.

Mr. Duncan Smith: Does the Prime Minister believe that countering the growing threat from Saddam Hussein is about protecting lives in Britain and the lives of British forces abroad, and not just about supporting our allies? In the USA, the Prime Minister described those who refuse to accept the need to act as "utterly naive". Does he believe that they misunderstand the nature of the threat, or that they will simply refuse to accept any evidence that they are given?

The Prime Minister: I do not think that I should comment on other people's motives in relation to this matter, however kind it is of the right hon. Gentleman to offer me that opportunity—I am sure he wants to be helpful. The key issue is that this is not something that has suddenly arisen, and it is important that the House understand that. Before 11 September, a whole series of negotiations took place about potential new United Nations Security Council resolutions to put in place a better sanctions regime, and about how we try to ensure that weapons inspectors get back inside Iraq. The reason why the UN Security Council resolutions that were originally proposed and passed demand that weapons inspections take place in Iraq is precisely that the threat of weapons of mass destruction is real and present.

The issue is quite clear. As I said in my speech in Texas, Saddam Hussein has a very clear message from the international community: the weapons inspectors should go back in—anyone, any place, any time. That is the message that we must give him. Simply turning our backs on the issue of weapons of mass destruction is not an option. That is why I think it so important that we stand with the United States in saying that this issue is one that has to be, and will be, confronted. We will do so in a sensible and measured way, but we cannot allow a state of this nature to develop those weapons without let or hindrance.

--

Mr. Charles Kennedy (Ross, Skye and Inverness, West): It is reported today that 3,000 post office branches in urban areas are scheduled to close. Does the Prime Minister support that?

The Prime Minister: No, it is not correct that 3,000 offices are scheduled to close. What is correct, however, is that there needs to be a major programme of change within the Post Office, which we are prepared to support with several hundred million pounds. The reason for that is perfectly simple: the current situation is not sustainable, unless we were to spend very large sums of public money in doing so. If that is the Liberal Democrats' position, perhaps they should say so.

Mr. Kennedy: The House will notice that the Prime Minister cannot side-step the facts. Since he took office, 1,500 post office branches in rural areas have already closed. Double that number are to close in urban areas, yet Labour's last election manifesto described those facilities as "an invaluable resource". By definition, how can they be an invaluable resource if 4,500 of them are to shut?

The Prime Minister: The reason why the change in the Post Office has to come about is precisely that it is not possible, unless we are to spend very large sums of money, to say that no post office will ever close. In fact, under the restructuring proposals, 95 per cent. of people will still live within a mile of a post office in urban areas, and as a result of the restructuring package, we will of course give the best protection possible to rural post offices. [Interruption.] I know that the Liberal Democrats always like to propose a problem but never a solution, but the fact is that, in the end, the only solution is to restructure. Even that will cost somewhere in the region of £270 million. If we were to go further by guaranteeing that no post office would ever close, no matter what its circumstances, the bill would run to hundreds of millions of pounds more. I am afraid that we simply cannot do that.

--

Mr. Peter Kilfoyle (Liverpool, Walton): Given the Prime Minister's reported comment that those who take a different view from his on events in the middle east are utterly naive, may I ask him whether it is naive to be dismayed at the succour that has been given to Sharon by the mixed messages that have come from the American and British Administrations? Is it naive to be aware of the bellicosity of elements in the American Administration,

10 Apr 2002 : Column 14

based on ideology; or is it naive to believe in the centrality of the United Nations in resolving the problems of the middle east?

The Prime Minister: I have not described anyone who takes a different view from mine on Iraq as utterly naive. I said that it would be utterly naive to say that weapons of mass destruction were not an issue, and I am sure that my hon. Friend would not say that either. The issue is how we deal with that—I said what I said on Iraq a moment or two ago—but in relation to the middle east, it is not correct to say that there have been mixed messages. We are absolutely clear that we condemn entirely those things that are happening in the middle east at the moment, which is why Israel should withdraw from the occupied territories and do so now, as the American President has said; but we also—I hope that my hon. Friend would do so too—condemn without reservation the terrorist attacks on Israeli citizens: both must be condemned.

This is a difficult situation not because the messages are mixed, but because I am afraid there has to be a message of restraint and an end to violence for both sides. The only way in my judgment that we will get a resolution to this issue is not if we take sides on it, but if we actually make sure that, in a sensible way, we say to both sides that the Israelis have to withdraw from the occupied territories and cease the reprisals, and the Palestinians have to take action against those people engaged in terrorist attacks.

--

Q3. [44178]Dr. Vincent Cable (Twickenham): The Prime Minister may recall that a month ago I asked him about delays in cancer treatment. He reassured me that the Government were investing more. Is he aware of the anger and frustration felt by many cancer patients and clinicians because a high percentage of those specifically earmarked funds has been siphoned off, owing to NHS bureaucracy, and to financing low-priority activity such as reducing the debts of hospital trusts? What guarantees can he give that money specifically pledged by the Government to their top health priority is spent for the designated purpose?

The Prime Minister: We do need to make sure that money allocated to cancer treatment is spent on that. All I would say to the hon. Gentleman—to put what he has just said in a balanced perspective—is that the report that drew attention to the problem also said in specific terms that cancer services in this country were improving. More than 90 per cent. of people who are referred to a consultant are now referred within two weeks; the figure was just over 60 per cent. when we came to office.

We are investing a massive amount in cancer services, but the hon. Gentleman is right: more still needs to be done. I therefore hope that next week's Budget will give us an opportunity to make a sustained investment in cancer care—but also in other vital parts of the health service—over a considerable period. I hope the hon. Gentleman and his party will support us in that.

--

Mr. Iain Duncan Smith (Chingford and Woodford Green): Perhaps the Prime Minister would like to agree with this one. Commander Ward, the decorated squadron commander from the Falklands—a war whose 20th anniversary we now mark—said that the Prime Minister's decision to withdraw Sea Harriers would lead to the

"loss of many lives and ships".

Does the Prime Minister agree with that?

The Prime Minister: No. We are satisfied that the decisions we have made through the strategic defence review allow us to defend our country properly, and I pay tribute to the superb work done by our armed forces around the world.

Mr. Duncan Smith: The Prime Minister should know that in the strategic defence review it was proposed to phase out both the Sea Harrier and the GR7, but not before 2010, when a replacement aircraft was supposed to be available. He must also know that the aircraft that the Government are now talking about putting on the carriers—the GR7—is slower, has no air-to-air radar, and is not designed for air defence at all.

The Prime Minister may recall that Sandy Woodward, commander of the Falklands taskforce, said his decision meant that the fleet would now have to rely on United States carrier support if it ever carried out operations. In the light of that, will he not reconsider the rather stupid decision to withdraw Sea Harriers?

The Prime Minister: First, let me point out that the right hon. Gentleman is complaining about the amount that we are spending on defence. All these decisions are, in the end, about the resources available. I think people in the armed forces remember that when his party was in power it slashed defence spending. The first real-terms increase took place under this Government, when we came to office. As regards the right hon. Gentleman's specific point, I do not accept that the efficiency of our armed forces is being undermined by that.

Mr. Duncan Smith: The Prime Minister cannot go back to the pre-1997 Government, given that his own strategic defence review, on which he bases his evidence, makes it absolutely clear that that aircraft would stay in service until a replacement had been found. The Prime Minister's previous Chief of the Defence Staff, General Guthrie, recently said that

"the Defence programme was underfunded before September 11th."

10 Apr 2002 : Column 17

The Territorial Army has been cut, the Navy is short of ships and the Royal Air Force is short of pilots, yet the Prime Minister constantly increases our commitments. Surely the resolve to stand up to would-be aggressors becomes worthless if we lack the ability to do so.

The Prime Minister: I do not accept that our armed forces are at all in the state that the right hon. Gentleman describes. On underfunding, I was making exactly that point a moment or so ago. When his party was in office—[Interruption.] For 10 years, the Conservative party cut defence spending. Under this Government, the armed forces have had the first real-terms increase in defence spending for years. If Conservative Members are demanding that even more money be spent on defence, I hope that they will support the decisions that are announced in the Budget next week.

--

title: User:Bodnotbod/PMQs10042002


text:
Thrashing (computer science)

In computer science, thrashing occurs in a system with virtual memory when a computer's real storage resources are overcommitted, leading to a constant state of paging and page faults, slowing most application-level processing. This causes the performance of the computer to degrade or collapse. The situation can continue indefinitely until the user closes some running applications or the active processes free up additional virtual memory resources.

After initialization, most programs operate on a small number of code and data pages compared to the total memory the program requires. The pages most frequently accessed at any point are called the working set, which may change over time.

When the working set is not significantly greater than the system's total number of real storage page frames, virtual memory systems work most efficiently, and an insignificant amount of computing is spent resolving page faults. As the total of the working sets grows, resolving page faults remains manageable until the growth reaches a critical point at which the number of faults increases dramatically and the time spent resolving them overwhelms the time spent on the computing the program was written to do. This condition is referred to as thrashing. Thrashing may occur on a program that randomly accesses huge data structures, as its large working set causes continual page faults that drastically slow down the system. Satisfying page faults may require freeing pages that will soon have to be re-read from disk.

The term is also used for various similar phenomena, particularly movement between other levels of the memory hierarchy, wherein a process progresses slowly because significant time is being spent acquiring resources.

"Thrashing" is also used in contexts other than virtual memory systems—for example, to describe cache issues in computing or silly window syndrome in networking.

Overview
Virtual memory works by treating a portion of secondary storage such as a computer hard disk as an additional layer of the cache hierarchy. Virtual memory allows processes to use more memory than is physically present in main memory. Operating systems supporting virtual memory assign processes a virtual address space and each process refers to addresses in its execution context by a so-called virtual address. To access data such as code or variables at that address, the process must translate the address to a physical address in a process known as virtual address translation. In effect, physical main memory becomes a cache for virtual memory, which is in general stored on disk in memory pages.

Programs are allocated a certain number of pages as needed by the operating system. Active memory pages exist in both RAM and on disk. Inactive pages are removed from the cache and written to disk when the main memory becomes full.

If processes are utilizing all main memory and need additional memory pages, a cascade of severe cache misses known as page faults will occur, often leading to a noticeable lag in the operating system responsiveness. This process together with the futile, repetitive page swapping that occurs is known as "thrashing". This frequently leads to high, runaway CPU utilization that can grind the system to a halt. In modern computers, thrashing may occur in the paging system (if there is not sufficient physical memory or the disk access time is overly long), or in the I/O communications subsystem (especially in conflicts over internal bus access), etc.

Depending on the configuration and algorithms involved, the throughput and latency of a system may degrade by multiple orders of magnitude. Thrashing is when the CPU performs 'productive' work less and 'swapping' work more. The overall memory access time may increase since the higher level memory is only as fast as the next lower level in the memory hierarchy. The CPU is busy swapping pages so much that it cannot respond to users' programs and interrupts as much as required. Thrashing occurs when there are too many pages in memory, and each page refers to another page. Real memory reduces its capacity to contain all the pages, so it uses 'virtual memory'. When each page in execution demands that page that is not currently in real memory (RAM) it places some pages on virtual memory and adjusts the required page on RAM. If the CPU is too busy doing this task, thrashing occurs.

Causes
In virtual memory systems, thrashing may be caused by programs or workloads that present insufficient locality of reference: if the working set of a program or a workload cannot be effectively held within physical memory, then constant data swapping, i.e., thrashing, may occur. The term was first used during the tape operating system days to describe the sound the tapes made when data was being rapidly written to and read. A worst case might occur on VAX processors. A single  crossing a page boundary could have a source operand using a displacement deferred addressing mode, where the longword containing the operand address crosses a page boundary, and a destination operand using a displacement deferred addressing mode, where the longword containing the operand address crosses a page boundary, and the source and destination could both cross page boundaries. This single instruction references ten pages; if not all are in RAM, each will cause a page fault. The total number of pages thus involved in this particular instruction is ten, and all ten pages must be simultaneously present in memory. If any one of the ten pages cannot be swapped in (for example to make room for any of the other pages), the instruction will fault, and every attempt to restart it will fail until all eight pages can be swapped in.

A system thrashing is often a result of a sudden spike in page demand from a small number of running programs. Swap-token is a lightweight and dynamic thrashing protection mechanism. The basic idea is to set a token in the system, which is randomly given to a process that has page faults when thrashing happens. The process that has the token is given a privilege to allocate more physical memory pages to build its working set, which is expected to quickly finish its execution and release the memory pages to other processes. A timestamp is used to hand over the tokens one by one. The first version of swap-token is implemented in Linux. The second version is called preempt swap-token. In this updated swap-token implementation, a priority counter is set for each process to track the number of swap-out pages. The token is always given to the process with a high priority, which has a high number of swap-out pages. The length of the time stamp is not a constant but is determined by the priority: the higher the number of swap-out pages of a process, the longer the time stamp for it will be.

Other uses
Thrashing is best known in the context of memory and storage, but analogous phenomena occur for other resources, including:

 * Where main memory is accessed in a pattern that leads to multiple main memory locations competing for the same cache lines, resulting in excessive cache misses. This is most problematic for caches that have low associativity.
 * Where main memory is accessed in a pattern that leads to multiple main memory locations competing for the same cache lines, resulting in excessive cache misses. This is most problematic for caches that have low associativity.

 * Where the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) acting as a cache for the memory management unit (MMU) which translates virtual addresses to physical addresses is too small for the working set of pages. TLB thrashing can occur even if instruction cache or data cache thrashing is not occurring because these are cached in different sizes. Instructions and data are cached in small blocks (cache lines), not entire pages, but address lookup is done at the page level. Thus even if the code and data working sets fit into the cache, if the working sets are fragmented across many pages, the virtual address working set may not fit into TLB, causing TLB thrashing.
 * Where the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) acting as a cache for the memory management unit (MMU) which translates virtual addresses to physical addresses is too small for the working set of pages. TLB thrashing can occur even if instruction cache or data cache thrashing is not occurring because these are cached in different sizes. Instructions and data are cached in small blocks (cache lines), not entire pages, but address lookup is done at the page level. Thus even if the code and data working sets fit into the cache, if the working sets are fragmented across many pages, the virtual address working set may not fit into TLB, causing TLB thrashing.

 * Frequent garbage collection, due to failure to allocate memory for an object, due to insufficient free memory or insufficient contiguous free memory due to memory fragmentation is referred to as heap thrashing.
 * Frequent garbage collection, due to failure to allocate memory for an object, due to insufficient free memory or insufficient contiguous free memory due to memory fragmentation is referred to as heap thrashing.

 * A similar phenomenon occurs for processes: when the process working set cannot be coscheduled – so not all interacting processes are scheduled to run at the same time – they experience "process thrashing" due to being repeatedly scheduled and unscheduled, progressing only slowly.
 * A similar phenomenon occurs for processes: when the process working set cannot be coscheduled – so not all interacting processes are scheduled to run at the same time – they experience "process thrashing" due to being repeatedly scheduled and unscheduled, progressing only slowly.

title: Thrashing (computer science)


text:
User:Bassaf

Hi, my name is Bernard. I live in The United States of America.

I first edited Wikipedia on May 19, 2004, not realizing I should have created an account before doing so.

While creating an account isn't necessary to edit Wikipedia articles, there are benefits to creating an account. And it is one way to become more famous (or infamous) than one already is.

Here are all the articles or pages I've edited.

The first article I created from scratch was a promise to Ken_St._Andre to update his website. He already had an entry, but it was scant on his published works. Hence separating the works out to a separate page: Ken_St._Andre_bibliography

title: User:Bassaf


text:
Isenfluh

Isenfluh is a hamlet in Switzerland, north of the road from Wilderswil to Lauterbrunnen. It is first mentioned in 1319 as Ysenfluo and in 1401 people from the Lötschental started to settle in the small hamlet. The hamlet belonged to the monastery in Interlaken since the 14th century was administered by the bailiff of Interlaken from 1528 to 1798.

In 1973, Isenfluh, together with Wengen, Muerren, Gimmelwald, Stechelberg and Lauterbrunnen, became part of the municipality of Lauterbrunnen. The infrastructure of Isenfluh is installed, but a lot of the support comes from self-help groups. Since the village school was closed for financial reasons by the government of the Canton of Bern, the children of Isenfluh attend school in Lauterbrunnen.

The main road (and bus route), Churchischlief, to Isenfluh traverses a 1200 m spiral tunnel. This opened in 1992 and replaced a previous mountain road destroyed by a 1987 landslide.

Isenfluh is a base for hiking and sleigh-rides and ice-climbing. The Swiss Alpine Club (Schweizerischen Alpenclubs), SAC, is a few hours away.

title: Isenfluh


text:
Talk:Music of New Jersey

Untitled
The Steve Blush book is filled with historical innacuracies, and should not be taken as the final word on this subject.

Introduction
The biggest superstar from New Jersey is probably Bruce Springsteen, who became a 1980s icon with complex lyrical stories about teens growing up in Freehold and other economically depressed areas of New Jersey.

This is a horrible introduction sentence into this article. Since the article is not specifically about Bruce Springsteen, the opening sentence should be changed to be more general. In addition, the music underneath the culture section of New Jersey have to be reorganized, and some has to be moved into this page. AndyZ 00:10, 17 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I removed the POV reference to Springsteen, but I'm sure it could be improved upon. Spartacusprime 21:22, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

New Jersey Hardcore
Shouldn't we mention the rather large hardcore scene that exists in New Jersey? I know that New Jersey has spawned a large amount of groups in that genre, but I don't know if Wikipedia will allow it. Spartacusprime 21:23, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

BLONDIE: BLONDIE CLEARLY IS FROM NYC WHY THE HELL IS IT ON A NJ PAGE????? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.196.165.107 (talk) 22:26, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

This hasn't been revisited in a while, but I think it makes a lot of sense to have a section of NJ punk and hardcore bands past/present since there's so much more than what's up there now. stephaniebeth 15:50, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

RyKe
I removed that artist from the list because
 * A Google search turned up one mention on the second page,
 * There is no article about the artist,
 * The username of the person who added RyKe is "RyKenation". I sensed promotion, thus I removed it. Spartacusprime 20:23, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

p-funk
I didn't notice anything about George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic. I believe they started out in Plainfield.

George Antheil
The classical composer George Antheil who was known as the infamous 'Bad Boy of Music' was born in Trenton. His music was very percussive and important, I think he deserves a mention. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.204.255.176 (talk) 19:00, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

Free Yon
"Free Yon is from Central NJ."

Does this band really deserve to be on a list of prominent New Jersey musicians. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.89.180.65 (talk) 19:03, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

First Paragraph and MOS:BEGIN
The first paragraph says little more than that music existed in NJ before people of European descent arrived, and that European music arrived with European people. Is that really useful to say or informative for readers? Perhaps. But is there something that could be said about the pre-Colombian music other than that it existed and probably didn't sound like European music?

Additionally and perhaps more importantly, I don't know that the paragraph complies with MOS:BEGIN. The paragraph should probably be moved to later in the article. SlubGlub (talk) 05:44, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I've changed the first paragraph to be a single sentence: "The American state of New Jersey has a diverse musical culture and history reflecting its diverse population and history." This is not perfect by a long stretch, but is, I think, a vast improvement.  SlubGlub (talk) 06:20, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

Cleaning up
I've made a few edits througout. I've deleted a few artists that I could not find any secondary sources on. The only links I could find were self-promoting. Therefore, removed... if anyone can find credible secondary links and document them with in-line citations, then I'll leave them alone. I also added a few bands that were omitted (Skid Row, Trixter, and Overkill). Additionally, I went through the history and noticed that two punk artists from NJ, Blanks 77 and Patti Smith, were both deleted (along with a bunch of other less noteworthy bands) because the editor didn't LIKE them. So I'm putting them back in because 1. general consensus indicates they fall with in the genre of punk, 2. they are from NJ and 3. there are numerous secondary sources vouching for their noteriety. It doesn't matter if the editor doesn't LIKE them. They meet the criteria for inclusion. Asturnut (talk) 10:04, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 3 one external links on Music of New Jersey. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090303053124/http://www.state.nj.us:80/faqs/facts.html to http://www.state.nj.us/faqs/facts.html
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090330102339/http://www.nj.gov:80/njfacts/dance.htm to http://www.nj.gov/njfacts/dance.htm

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Jersey Shore sound article
The Jersey Shore sound article as it was, was a complete mess, so I redirected it to here:

1. There were only three sources.

2. Almost all the bands listed there did not have "Jersey Shore sound" on their respective pages (Bruce Springsteen had the genre listed on his page throughout the mid-2010's, but of course, it was unsourced, and eventually, removed altogether), and the ones that do, the claim that they're "Jersey Shore sound" is unsourced. In fact, all mentions of a band/artist being "Jersey Shore sound" is unsourced. Maybe Bruce Springsteen's 1970's material fit this genre, but his 1980's music most certainly does not as it is more in line with the music of that time (Synthpop (Dancing in the Dark, Glory Days), heartland rock (most of his material including Born in the U.S.A), rockabilly revival (I'm on Fire), funk (Pink Cadillac), and so forth).

3. Other artists from New Jersey, like Frank Sinatra and Bon Jovi are not even remotely associated with this genre, as both are jazz and glam/pop metal, respectively. In addition, Looking Glass' big hit Brandy (You're a Fine Girl) is cited as soft rock and pop, rather than Jersey Shore sound.

Either restore and clean up the Jersey Shore sound article and find sources for the claims on it, or consider keeping the redirect to "Music of New Jersey". I did add a brief blurb about the genre here, so if anybody actually is scoping out "Jersey Shore sound", they will have at least something to read. And please comment here, and not on the Jersey Shore sound article (at least right now). Moline1 (talk) 23:23, 23 August 2023 (UTC) Moline1 (talk) 22:50, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Music of New Jersey


text:
My Lucky Stars

My Lucky Stars is a 1985 Hong Kong action comedy film directed by Sammo Hung, written by Barry Wong, and starring Hung, Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao. It was released as 5 Lucky Stars in Japan and as Ninja Encounter in the Philippines. My Lucky Stars is the second film in the Lucky Stars series, and a semi-sequel to Winners and Sinners, with many of the same actors returning as the "Five Lucky Stars" troupe, albeit with different character names and slightly different roles.

Plot summary
Undercover cop Muscles (Jackie Chan) enlists his childhood friends, the "Five Lucky Stars", to travel to Japan to help him catch a yakuza group.

A corrupt Hong Kong cop (Lam Ching Ying) flees to Tokyo to join his fellow mobsters, whose headquarters are secretly built under an amusement park (filmed in Fuji-Q Highland). Two loyal cops, Ricky (Yuen Biao) and Muscle (Jackie Chan), travel there to apprehend him and uncover the mobsters’ lair, but Ricky is kidnapped in a fight.

Muscle goes into hiding and calls his supervisor to send help; since the mobsters already have information on the officers of the Hong Kong Royal Police Force, Muscle asks his supervisor to send his orphanage friends, nicknamed the Five Lucky Stars, over to assist. The supervisor agrees and collects the five friends, who are all either petty criminals or low-wage workers. They refuse to aid the police, but the supervisor cunningly sets up a false story in the media that accuses the five of robbing a bank of millions of dollars, blackmailing them into helping. They ultimately agree when the supervisor teams them up with a rookie policewoman, Swordflower, who becomes an object of lustful target to the five.

The group travels to Tokyo and that night, Kidstuff (Sammo Hung), the Stars' most rational and talented member, and Swordflower go to Muscle’s apartment. After defeating some thugs, Muscle reunites with Kidstuff. The operation is to send phony money to the mobsters to allow the five to enter their lair, and that way they can get closer to freeing Ricky and apprehending the criminals. After a prolonged battle at the bowels of the amusement park, the criminals lose and the Lucky Stars receive a place to live back at Hong Kong as their reward.

Cast
Despite being billed as one of the stars, Jackie Chan's role in the film is relatively minor until the final half hour. The major star of the film is Chan's longtime associate and former member of the Peking Opera School, Sammo Hung. The film also features another of that troupe, Yuen Biao.

In the first film, Winners and Sinners, Stanley Fung played an undercover policeman who was posing as the leader of the Lucky Stars gang. In My Lucky Stars and the third film, Twinkle, Twinkle Lucky Stars, Hung's character is the nominal leader, and Fung's character is not a cop.

John Shum ("Curly" in Winners and Sinners) was notably absent from the gang in this film, due to his commitments as a political activist. He is replaced in this film by Eric Tsang.

As with Heart of Dragon, Sammo Hung's real-life brother makes a cameo appearance as a henchman.

 * Sammo Hung - "Eric" / "Kidstuff" / "Fastbuck" / "Chi Koo Choi"
 * Sibelle Hu - "Barbara Woo" / "Swordflower" / "Ba Wong Fa"
 * Richard Ng - "Sandy" / "Dee"/ "Dai Sang Dei"
 * Charlie Chin - "Herb" (as Charlie Ching) "American Ginseng"/"Fa Kei Sam"
 * Eric Tsang - "Roundhead" / "Buddha Fruit" / "Lo Hon Gwo"
 * Stanley Fung - "Rawhide" / "Rhinohide" / "Sai Ngau Pei"
 * Jackie Chan - "Muscles"
 * Yuen Biao - "Ricky Fung"
 * Michiko Nishiwaki - Japanese Gang fighter
 * Cho Tat-wah - "Supt. Walter Tsao"
 * Paul Chang - Gang Chief
 * Dick Wei - gang member
 * Lam Ching-ying - gang member / Renegade Cop
 * Lau Kar-wing - gang member
 * James Tien - Parole Officer
 * Teresa Ha - Ping
 * Huang Ha - Prisoner No. 6377 (uncredited)
 * Tai San - Prisoner
 * San Kuai - Prisoner No. 5734
 * Bolo Yeung - Millionaire Chan (uncredited)
 * Miyuki Ono - Millionaire Chan's secretary
 * Alice Lau - Millionaire Chan's wife
 * Ho Kai-law - Dentist
 * Fruit Chan - Card Player
 * Dick Tso - Card Player
 * Billy Lau - Mental patient on Bench
 * Lau Chau-sang - Bus Driver with Funny Hair
 * Yu Chi-ming - Man with Funny Hair
 * Chu Tau - Bus Driver with Funny Hair
 * Teddy Yip Wing-cho - Mental Patient with Sandy
 * Yuen Miu - Amusement Park Ninja
 * Chow Kam-kong - Gang Thug
 * Johnny Cheung - Gang Thug
 * Yuen Wah - Gang Thug (uncredited)
 * Lee Chi-kit - Gang Thug
 * Chin Kar-lok - Gang Thug / Masked Ninja at Muscles' home
 * Siu Tak-foo - Gang Thug
 * Chow Kong - Gang Thug (uncredited)
 * Pang Yun-cheung - Gang Thug
 * Wellson Chin - Dumb Gang Thug
 * Wong Kim-ban
 * Lung Ying
 * Wu Ma
 * Tau Cheung-yeung
 * Ng Hoi-ti

Box office
During its Hong Kong theatrical run, My Lucky Stars grossed HK $30,748,643. It was the first film to pass the HK $30 million mark in Hong Kong.

Accolades

 * 1986 Hong Kong Film Awards
 * Nomination: Best Action Choreography (Yuen Biao, Lam Ching-ying)

Home media
On 23 September 2002, DVD was released by Hong Kong Legends at UK in Region 2.

title: My Lucky Stars


text:
Talk:Sammo Hung

Article Quality
Two problems, really; The writing is BAD, as if written by a clever child. What is written betrays only the barest recognition of Sammo's lifetime of work in Hong Kong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.215.115.31 (talk) 16:21, 6 June 2013 (UTC)

Filmography
Shouldn't he have a filmography too?

Someone made one. I added Directing credits when possible.

Birthday
However, IMDb lists his birthday as January 7, 1952. This article says "born 1950." Which is correct? --Feitclub 16:05, Nov 1, 2004 (UTC)

it says sometime in the 1800's now... gotta be slightly wrong

English by rote
"Reportedly he recited his English dialogue by rote." - Where is the reference for this? --Toric

WHAT THE HELL?!
The picture that is in the article couldn't possibly be Sammo Hung, looks more like Marilyn Manson Bananas 11:46, 20 June 2007 (UTC) shout at me for doing wrong!

 * Are you talking about the grayscale photo of him holding up his fist and staring into the camera? If so, you need to get your eyes checked. Besides the obvious ethnic differences, there is also the matter of half a foot and 50 pounds. —Preceding unsigned comment added by ghostexorcist (talk • contribs)

 * It was just IP vandalism. Dude switched the picture over to one of a guy named "Dead", former lead singer of a Norwegian death metal band for some unknown reason. Ghostexorcist, you need to learn to check diffs before getting righteously indignant; Supreme_Bananas' post was over a month before yours and he had already replaced the image.

Why am I doing detective work on 6-month-old (and completely unimportant) talk page semantics on an article I've never read and don't particularly care about? I really don't know. Perhaps it's the lack of sleep. Good day. Bullzeye (Ring for Service) 11:37, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Film Production
I've added in the releases by Hung's two production companies, Bo Ho and Bojon. I figured they should go in this article, as I don't have enough information about either company to make new articles. Most of this information is available in the Hong Kong Cinemagic database (http://www.hkcinemagic.com). Some of it appears to be in disagreement with iMDB, but I believe this is because if iMDB shows any "company information" at all for these films, it shows distribution rather than production companies. Presumably all Bo Ho-produced films were distributed by Golden Harvest in HK (and perhaps some of the Bojon-produced films too).

Going by the release dates, it's perhaps a little odd that Bojon started in 1989, but the last Bo Ho film was released in 1992. Did the 2 companies really operate at the same time? I know Sammo left Golden Harvest in 1991, so you'd think Bo Ho would have folded then, and Bojon would have started. Maybe the later Bo Ho films were produced but not yet released when he left GH.

Anyway, any further info on these would be good, so we could give the 2 production companies articles of their own. Gram123 09:40, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Weight
I find it impossible for a "normal" overweight person to do martial arts with such agility and not lose the weight. There's got to be something more to it than just him liking to eat, perhaps glandular or something? If anyone knows, I think it would be a fair contribution to the article.--76.216.63.33 (talk) 03:52, 26 January 2008 (UTC)

Your finding it impossible would be original research if it involved any research. The right answer is the simple one: you're wrong.

 * The line in the article which explains it, is pretty much all we've got at present:
 * "Shortly after leaving the Academy at the age of 16, Hung suffered an injury that left him bedridden for an extended period, during which time his weight ballooned."
 * Beyond this I haven't seen any more specific information of what the injury was, or why he maintained the weight. On numerous commentaries Bey Logan has mentioned that Sammo does indeed like his food, and speculation elsewhere says it may be a genetic predisposition, but no confirmed facts. Additionally, prior to filming Eastern Condors, Sammo lost a lot of weight by living on a diet of just chicken (taken from his interview on that DVD), as he thought an overweight soldier would be inappropriate. However, after the film he gradually went back to his usual weight / size. Gram123 (talk) 10:36, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Scar
I think that the scar on his upper lip is a mark of cleft lip surgery. Can someone check on this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.185.235.242 (talk) 10:46, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

It's not. The scar is the result of having the end of a broken coke bottle shoved into his face during a fight when he was a teenager. Sammo himself explains this in a interview on the Hong Kong Legends Eastern Condors DVD. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.124.84.10 (talk) 19:46, 23 February 2010 (UTC)

Third paragraph in intro
There are three paragraphs in the intro, but the third is dedicated to this "big brother" stuff which is so minor. Why is that important enough to be in the intro? It should be moved. 70.173.177.190 (talk) 17:46, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

I can't be bothered to find an English source, but Hung and his ex-wife never trained together any form of martial arts. He met his wife at a hotel in Korea whilst he was filming. I think the story goes something along the line of Hung falling in love with a hotel employee and proposing. If anyone would like to look up a source for this information and edit the article accordingly, feel free to do so.

Also, relating to Hung's weight, Jacky Chan has noted several times that Sammo enjoyed eating from a very young age and that's he's been "overweight and unable to run" as long as Jacky's known him. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.236.24.137 (talk) 16:34, 1 March 2013 (UTC)

in the section where it mentions how he is called big brother, it also claims that he is called "big yellow cawk"...this seems to be a childish play on words and euphemism. Can someone please edit this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.53.70.162 (talk) 19:29, 26 December 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Future
I'm going to delete this section. All the information is outdated. 86.45.47.235 (talk) 04:33, 28 May 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sammo Hung


text:
Stechelberg

Stechelberg is a small village in Switzerland located at the base of the Schwarzmönch mountain in the Bernese Alps, part of the district of Lauterbrunnen.

History
The name "Stächelbärg" is first recorded in 1749 to describe this part of the valley. The area was associated with iron ore mining, which led to widespread deforestation. Since then, reforestation programmes have largely restored the area around the village, which has been declared a protected natural area (Naturschutzgebiet)

The village is connected by the Luftseilbahn Stechelberg-Mürren-Schilthorn (LSMS), an aerial tramway constructed in 1965, to other amenities and locations in the area.

In February 2003, two avalanches struck the village, but did not cause significant damage.

As of 2009, Stechelberg has 255 inhabitants.

Transport
Stechelberg is accessed by Lauterbrunnen from the terminal train station, or by a small road that leads up the valley from Lauterbrunnen. The only other way to reach the village is by hiking over difficult terrain.

title: Stechelberg


text:
Toc H

Toc H (also TH) is an international Christian movement. The name is an abbreviation for Talbot House, "Toc" signifying the letter T in the signals spelling alphabet used by the British Army in World War I. A soldiers' rest and recreation centre named Talbot House was founded in December 1915 at Poperinghe, Belgium. It aimed to promote Christianity and was named in memory of Gilbert Talbot, son of Lavinia Talbot and Edward Talbot, then Bishop of Winchester, who had been killed at Hooge in July 1915. The founders were Gilbert's elder brother Neville Talbot, then a senior army chaplain, and the Reverend Philip Thomas Byard (Tubby) Clayton. Talbot House was styled as an "Every Man's Club", where all soldiers were welcome, regardless of rank. It was "an alternative for the 'debauched' recreational life of the town".

In 1920, Clayton founded a Christian youth centre in London, also called Toc H, which developed into an interdenominational association for Christian social service. The original building at Poperinghe has been maintained and redeveloped as a museum and tourist venue. Branches of Toc H were established in many countries around the world. An Australian branch was formed in Victoria in 1925 by the heretical Rev. Herbert Hayes. Another was formed in Adelaide the same year.

Toc H members seek to ease the burdens of others through acts of service. They also promote reconciliation and work to bring disparate sections of society together. Branches may organise localised activities such as hospital visits, entertainment for the residents of care homes and organising residential holidays for special groups.

The organisation suffered a progressive decline in membership and closure of branches during the later 20th century. In 2008, continued operation was ensured by dispensing with paid staff. In the 21st century, Toc H trustees have planned for it to become a stronger, voluntary movement still guided by the ethos of the original Talbot House.

Schools
Toc H runs schools in India such as Toc-H Public School. In 2004 it was reported that Toc H had decided to invest in an academy school in Bradford, England. The then chief executive, Geoff Smith, said that the academy would reflect the charity's commitment to community building. It was opened in 2008 by John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York.

Foundation in World War I
At the outbreak of World War I Neville Talbot, a senior Church of England chaplain in the British Army, sought to recruit chaplains who would minister to the battalions on the front lines. One of his recruits was the Reverend Phillip Byard Clayton, who was assigned to the East Kent and Bedfordshire regiments. In 1915 Clayton was sent to France and then on to the town of Poperinge in Belgium.

Sitting a few miles back from the trenches around Ypres (nowadays known by its Flemish name Ieper), Poperinge (or "Pops", as the soldiers called it) was a busy transfer station where troops on their way to and from the battlefields of Flanders were billeted. Clayton, universally known as "Tubby", was instructed by Neville Talbot to set up some sort of rest house for the troops.

Clayton chose the Coevoet house – temporarily vacated by its owner, a wealthy local hop merchant – to use as his base, paying rent of 150 francs a month. The house had received significant damage from shellfire, especially the hop loft and the garden. Repairs were begun in September by the Royal Engineers. It opened on 11 December 1915.

Clayton decided to steer away from the traditional church club and set up an Everyman’s House. It was named Talbot House in honour of Lieutenant Gilbert Talbot (Neville’s brother) who had been killed earlier in the year. Talbot House soon became known by its initials TH, and then, in the radio signalers’ phonetic alphabet of the day as Toc Aitch.

The focus of religious services and devotions was a chapel created in the attic, known as the "Upper Room". After the war's end, in 1918, "the interior of the Chapel was sent to London, and temporarily displayed in the crypt of All Hallows-by-the-Tower. From the concise guidebook Clayton compiled for its visitors, we learn why precisely these objects had to be taken home, and why they would return to Poperinge in 1929."

Spirit
The spirit of friendship fostered at Toc H across social and denominational boundaries inspired Clayton, the Rev. Dick Sheppard and Alexander Paterson to set out in 1920 what became known as the Four points of the Toc H compass:

 * 1) Friendship ("To love widely")
 * 2) Service ("To build bravely")
 * 3) Fairmindedness ("To think fairly")
 * 4) The Kingdom of God ("To witness humbly")

This followed the foundation of a new Toc H House in Kensington in 1919, followed by others in London, Manchester, and Southampton. The Toc H movement continued to grow in numbers and established, also, a women's league. In 1930, Clayton led Toc H into creative support of the British Empire Leprosy Relief Association.

title: Toc H


text:
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Typically the first step in using an image or other media file is to upload it to Wikimedia Commons, but for legal reasons, some files must be uploaded to the English Wikipedia instead. Upload helps you to choose between these options.

Images can be displayed directly on Wikipedia pages.

The preferred formats are JPEG for photographic images and Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) for drawings, though PNG can also be used. Vector graphics are preferred to raster graphics for drawings, because they can be scaled as needed without losing information, and can be edited more easily.

Image usage
Type " " when you want to display an image file directly. In most cases, a thumbnail is more useful: " ". See Picture tutorial for further information.

Audio
Wikipedia uses the Ogg Vorbis, FLAC and WAV format for audio, as they are not encumbered by patents (an issue that prompted the decision in 2004 that MP3 files would not be hosted at Wikipedia ). Since then, the MP3 patents have expired and Wikimedia legal has given permission to allow uploading as needed by Wikimedia or its communities.

Software supporting Vorbis exists for many platforms. Mozilla Firefox 4, Opera 10.5 and Google Chrome 3 and later each include their own support for Ogg Vorbis files. As for multimedia players, Winamp can be used to play Ogg Vorbis files. Although iTunes does not natively support Vorbis, Xiph.Org provides a QuickTime component which can be used in players that rely on QuickTime, such as iTunes, on both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS. DirectShow filters exist to decode Vorbis in multimedia players like Windows Media Player and others which support DirectShow.

Useful software for audio:
 * For audio editing, Audacity is a high quality free audio recorder/editor for Windows, Macintosh, and Linux/Unix.
 * Sweep is another free audio editor which can be used in Linux environments.
 * For encoding to Ogg Vorbis, it is recommended that you use Hydrogenaudio-recommended encoders for best results. oggenc (cross-platform) is the command-line encoder, while OggDropXPd (Windows-only) is an easy-to-use GUI for encoding to Ogg Vorbis.
 * dBpowerAMP Music Converter (proprietary, Windows-only) offers a convenient GUI for transcoding between most audio codecs, including Ogg Vorbis. The Vorbis encoder must be downloaded separately from the software, but it is freely available from the same website.
 * The easiest way to play Ogg Vorbis files on legacy Macintoshes (OS 9 and earlier) is to use JustOgg.

The Vorbis Software Players node at the xiph.org wiki has an up-to-date list of Vorbis-supporting software for all operating systems. Users can test these players using the list of Vorbis audio streams available at.

Audio usage
Most viable is to use Template:Listen, see its page for detailed description, common usage is listed here:

Example:

There are several other audio templates used primarily for demonstrating pronunciation of foreign languages or obscure terms, such as audio-IPA. When adding a sound file to an article, such as English language or Irish phonology avoid using a template that only links to the raw sound file, as this effectively hides important licensing information that allows readers to see who created and uploaded the file, its source and under what license it was published.

Lists of uploaded music

 * Sound/list
 * Sound/list/playlist

Lists of uploaded spoken articles

 * Spoken articles

Further information on audio files

 * Music samples
 * Category:Wikipedia requested audio of songs
 * WikiProject Free music
 * Wikipedia Signpost/2005-02-14/Music recordings
 * Media help (MIDI)
 * Media help (Ogg)
 * WikiProject Composers/Guidelines for using sound excerpts

Video
Wikipedia uses WebM and Ogg Theora for video because they are open source and royalty-free. Since most popular movie/audio formats are patented and require a royalty, there are no free all-purpose video converters. See also WikiCommons' Theora video conversion help page.

Limitations and implementation issues

 * Both the Wikipedia project and the Wikimedia Commons limit uploads to a maximum of 100 megabytes (though it is possible to upload larger files using chunked uploads).

Useful software

 * For video, ffmpeg2theora is a command line encoder capable of converting numerous file formats (.mov, .mpg, .mpeg, .avi) into Ogg Theora. It works on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux/Unix. (how to use ffmpeg2theora.)
 * You can also use the encoder_example application included with libtheora in combination with a program like MPlayer that is capable of dumping raw (yuv4mpeg) video and sound to encode in Ogg Theora
 * http://programmer-art.org/projects/arista-transcoder and http://www.linuxrising.org/transmageddon/ are graphical transcoders for Unix / Linux
 * Kdenlive, OpenShot, and other video programs are available for Linux that can edit Theora and WebM videos
 * The directshow filters can be used to encode Ogg Theora using GraphEdit.
 * The Xiph.org wiki has a list of Theora Software Encoders
 * handbrake is a free (GPL'd) transcoder for Windows, Mac, and Linux
 * Adobe Premiere Pro can export videos directly in WebM format by using the free fnordware plugin (Win/Mac).

For assistance with conversion, consider contacting the following editors:
 * Raul654
 * Gmaxwell (Linux only)
 * GChriss (Linux only)
 * Makaristos (macOS and Linux)
 * Alton (macOS)
 * Ivo (all platforms)

Embedding video

The easiest way to embed video directly into an article is by using the same tag as for image files. The result is on the right.

Setting a video thumbnail image
By default, a frame from the midpoint of the video is used for the initial still image. To use a different frame, use the thumbtime parameter. For instance:

Specify the time in seconds, or use colons to separate hours, minutes and seconds.

Temporal media fragments
Allows embed code to reference a segment of the video stream or set a start time. Hover over the player to see start time listed as 5s, press play and notice it stops playback at 7 seconds.

One can also use MM:SS or HH:MM:SS format for start and end.

Note: This is not yet supported on Safari and Internet Explorer.

Linking to a video
There are two types of links to a video:
 * – To create a link to the video's File Description Page,
 * use.
 * To make the text of a link to the video's File Description Page appear as some text other than the video's filename, use.
 * – To create a link that downloads the video,
 * use  or use.
 * To make the text of a link that downloads the video appear as some text other than the video's filename, use  or use.

Related WikiProjects

 * WP:WikiProject Wiki Makes Video
 * WP:WikiTV
 * List of WikiTV & WikiVideo projects

Moving files to Commons
Many files have been uploaded to Wikipedia. A long-term project under way is to move free content files—including images and audio—to Wikimedia Commons. Commons provides a central location for files for use on all Wikimedia Foundation projects.

Commons employs more restrictive policies on copyright issues than the English Wikipedia does; for instance, fair-use images such as most images of album cover art cannot be hosted on Commons.

title: Help:Creation and usage of media files


text:
Injection (medicine)

An injection (often and usually referred to as a "shot" in US English, a "jab" in UK English, or a "jag" in Scottish English and Scots) is the act of administering a liquid, especially a drug, into a person's body using a needle (usually a hypodermic needle) and a syringe. An injection is considered a form of parenteral drug administration; it does not involve absorption in the digestive tract. This allows the medication to be absorbed more rapidly and avoid the first pass effect. There are many types of injection, which are generally named after the body tissue the injection is administered into. This includes common injections such as subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous injections, as well as less common injections such as intraperitoneal, intraosseous, intracardiac, intraarticular, and intracavernous injections.

Injections are among the most common health care procedures, with at least 16 billion administered in developing and transitional countries each year. Of these, 95% are used in curative care or as treatment for a condition, 3% are to provide immunizations/vaccinations, and the rest are used for other purposes, including blood transfusions. The term injection is sometimes used synonymously with inoculation, but injection does not only refer to the act of inoculation. Injections generally administer a medication as a bolus (or one-time) dose, but can also be used for continuous drug administration. After injection, a medication may be designed to be released slowly, called a depot injection, which can produce long-lasting effects.

An injection necessarily causes a small puncture wound to the body, and thus may cause localized pain or infection. The occurrence of these side effects varies based on injection location, the substance injected, needle gauge, procedure, and individual sensitivity. Rarely, more serious side effects including gangrene, sepsis, and nerve damage may occur. Fear of needles, also called needle phobia, is also common and may result in anxiety and fainting before, during, or after an injection. To prevent the localized pain that occurs with injections the injection site may be numbed or cooled before injection and the person receiving the injection may be distracted by a conversation or similar means. To reduce the risk of infection from injections, proper aseptic technique should be followed to clean the injection site before administration. If needles or syringes are reused between people, or if an accidental needlestick occurs, there is a risk of transmission of bloodborne diseases such as HIV and hepatitis.

Unsafe injection practices contribute to the spread of bloodborne diseases, especially in less-developed countries. To combat this, safety syringes exist which contain features to prevent accidental needlestick injury and reuse of the syringe after it is used once. Furthermore, recreational drug users who use injections to administer the drugs commonly share or reuse needles after an injection. This has led to the development of needle exchange programs and safe injection sites as a public health measure, which may provide new, sterile syringes and needles to discourage the reuse of syringes and needles. Used needles should ideally be placed in a purpose-made sharps container which is safe and resistant to puncture. Some locations provide free disposal programs for such containers for their citizens.

Types
Injections are classified in multiple ways, including the type of tissue being injected into, the location in the body the injection is designed to produce effects, and the duration of the effects. Regardless of classification, injections require a puncture to be made, thus requiring sterile environments and procedures to minimize the risk of introducing pathogens into the body. All injections are considered forms of parenteral administration, which avoids the first pass metabolism which would potentially affect a medication absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract.

Systemic
Many injections are designed to administer a medication which has an effect throughout the body. Systemic injections may be used when a person cannot take medicine by mouth, or when the medication itself would not be absorbed into circulation from the gastrointestinal tract. Medications administered via a systemic injection will enter into blood circulation, either directly or indirectly, and thus will have an effect on the entire body.

Intravenous
Intravenous injections, abbreviated as IV, involve inserting a needle into a vein, allowing a substance to be delivered directly into the bloodstream. An intravenous injection provides the quickest onset of the desired effects because the substance immediately enters the blood, and is quickly circulated to the rest of the body. Because the substance is administered directly into the bloodstream, there is no delay in the onset of effects due to the absorption of the substance into the bloodstream. This type of injection is the most common and is used frequently for administration of medications in an inpatient setting.

Another use for intravenous injections includes for the administration of nutrition to people who cannot get nutrition through the digestive tract. This is termed parenteral nutrition and may provide all or only part of a person's nutritional requirements. Parenteral nutrition may be pre-mixed or customized for a person's specific needs. Intravenous injections may also be used for recreational drugs when a rapid onset of effects is desired.

Intramuscular
Intramuscular injections, abbreviated as IM, deliver a substance deep into a muscle, where they are quickly absorbed by the blood vessels into systemic circulation. Common injection sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, and ventrogluteal muscles. Medical professionals are trained to give IM injections, but people who are not medical professionals can also be trained to administer medications like epinephrine using an autoinjector in an emergency. Some depot injections are also administered intramuscularly, including medroxyprogesterone acetate among others. In addition to medications, most inactivated vaccines, including the influenza vaccine, are given as an IM injection.

Subcutaneous
Subcutaneous injections, abbreviated as SC or sub-Q, consist of injecting a substance via a needle under the skin. Absorption of the medicine from this tissue is slower than in an intramuscular injection. Since the needle does not need to penetrate to the level of the muscle, a thinner and shorter needle can be used. Subcutaneous injections may be administered in the fatty tissue behind the upper arm, in the abdomen, or in the thigh. Certain medications, including epinephrine, may be used either intramuscularly or subcutaneously. Others, such as insulin, are almost exclusively injected subcutaneously. Live or attenuated vaccines, including the MMR vaccine (measles, mumps, rubella), varicella vaccine (chickenpox), and zoster vaccine (shingles) are also injected subcutaneously.

Intradermal

Intradermal injections, abbreviated as ID, consist of a substance delivered into the dermis, the layer of skin above the subcutaneous fat layer, but below the epidermis or top layer. An intradermal injection is administered with the needle placed almost flat against the skin, at a 5 to 15 degree angle. Absorption from an intradermal injection takes longer than when the injection is given intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously. For this reason, few medications are administered intradermally. Intradermal injections are most commonly used for sensitivity tests, including tuberculin skin tests and allergy tests, as well as sensitivity tests to medications a person has never had before. The reactions caused by tests which use intradermal injection are more easily seen due to the location of the injection, and when positive will present as a red or swollen area. Common sites of intradermal injections include the forearm and lower back.

Intraosseous
An intraosseous injection or infusion is the act of administering medication through a needle inserted into the bone marrow of a large bone. This method of administration is only used when it is not possible to maintain access through a less invasive method such as an intravenous line, either due to frequent loss of access due to a collapsed vessel, or due to the difficulty of finding a suitable vein to use in the first place. Intraosseous access is commonly obtained by inserting a needle into the bone marrow of the humerus or tibia, and is generally only considered once multiple attempts at intravenous access have failed, as it is a more invasive method of administration than an IV. With the exception of occasional differences in the accuracy of blood tests when drawn from an intraosseous line, it is considered to be equivalent in efficacy to IV access. It is most commonly used in emergency situations where there is not ample time to repeatedly attempt to obtain IV access, or in younger people for whom obtaining IV access is more difficult.

Localized
Injections may be performed into specific parts of the body when the medication's effects are desired to be limited to a specific location, or where systemic administration would produce undesirable side effects which may be avoided by a more directed injection.

Injections to the corpus cavernosum of the penis, termed intracavernous injections, may be used to treat conditions which are localized to the penis. They can be self-administered for erectile dysfunction prior to intercourse or used in a healthcare setting for emergency treatment for a prolonged erection with an injection to either remove blood from the penis or to administer a sympathomimetic medication to reduce the erection. Intracavernosal injections of alprostadil may be used by people for whom other treatments such as PDE5 inhibitors are ineffective or contraindicated. Other medications may also be administered in this way, including papaverine, phentolamine, and aviptadil. The most common adverse effects of intercavernosal injections include fibrosis and pain, as well as hematomas or bruising around the injection site.

Medications may also be administered by injecting them directly into the vitreous humor of the eye. This is termed an intravitreal injection, and may be used to treat endophthalmitis (an infection of the inner eye), macular degeneration, and macular edema. An intravitreal injection is performed by injecting a medication through the pupil into the vitreous humor core of the eye after applying a local anesthetic drop to numb the eye and a mydriatic drop to dilate the pupil. They are commonly used in lieu of systemic administration to both increase the concentrations present in the eye, as well as avoid systemic side effects of medications.

When an effect is only required in one joint, a joint injection (or intra-articular injection) may be administered into the articular space surrounding the joint. These injections can range from a one-time dose of a steroid to help with pain and inflammation to complete replacement of the synovial fluid with a compound such as hyaluronic acid. The injection of a steroid into a joint is used to reduce inflammation associated with conditions such as osteoarthritis, and the effects may last for up to 6 months following a single injection. Hyaluronic acid injection is used to supplement the body's natural synovial fluid and decrease the friction and stiffness of the joint. Administering a joint injection generally involves the use of an ultrasound or other live imaging technique to ensure the injection is administered in the desired location, as well as to reduce the risk of damaging surrounding tissues.

Long-acting
Long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations of medications are not intended to have a rapid effect, but instead release a medication at a predictable rate continuously over a period of time. Both depot injections and solid injectable implants are used to increase adherence to therapy by reducing the frequency at which a person must take a medication.

Depot
A depot injection is an injection, usually subcutaneous, intradermal, or intramuscular, that deposits a drug in a localized mass, called a depot, from which it is gradually absorbed by surrounding tissue. Such injection allows the active compound to be released in a consistent way over a long period. Depot injections are usually either oil-based or an aqueous suspension. Depot injections may be available as certain salt forms of a drug, such as decanoate salts or esters. Examples of depot injections include haloperidol decanoate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and naltrexone.

Implant
Injections may also be used to insert a solid or semi-solid into the body which releases a medication slowly over time. These implants are generally designed to be temporary, replaceable, and ultimately removed at the end of their use or when replaced. There are multiple contraceptive implants marketed for different active ingredients, as well as differing duration of action - most of these are injected under the skin. A form of buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid dependence is also available as an injectable implant. Various materials can be used to manufacture implants including biodegradable polymers, osmotic release systems, and small spheres which dissolve in the body.

Pain
The act of piercing the skin with a needle, while necessary for an injection, also may cause localized pain. The most common technique to reduce the pain of an injection is simply to distract the person receiving the injection. Pain may be dampened by prior application of ice or topical anesthetic, or pinching of the skin while giving the injection. Some studies also suggest that forced coughing during an injection stimulates a transient rise in blood pressure which inhibits the perception of pain. For some injections, especially deeper injections, a local anesthetic is given. When giving an injection to young children or infants, they may be distracted by giving them a small amount of sweet liquid, such as sugar solution, or be comforted by breastfeeding during the injection, which reduces crying.

Infection
A needle tract infection, also called a needlestick infection, is an infection that occurs when pathogens are inadvertently introduced into the tissues of the body during an injection. Contamination of the needle used for injection, or reuse of needles for injections in multiple people, can lead to transmission of hepatitis B and C, HIV, and other bloodstream infections. Injection drug users have high rates of unsafe needle use including sharing needles between people. The spread of HIV, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C from injection drug use is a common health problem, in particular contributing to over half of new HIV cases in North America in 1994.

Other infections may occur when pathogens enter the body through the injection site, most commonly due to improper cleaning of the site before injection. Infections occurring in this way are mainly localized infections, including skin infections, skin structure infections, abscesses, or gangrene. An intravenous injection may also result in a bloodstream infection (termed sepsis) if the injection site is not cleaned properly prior to insertion. Sepsis is a life-threatening condition which requires immediate treatment.

Others
Injections into the skin and soft tissue generally do not cause any permanent damage, and the puncture heals within a few days. However, in some cases, injections can cause long-term adverse effects. Intravenous and intramuscular injections may cause damage to a nerve, leading to palsy or paralysis. Intramuscular injections may cause fibrosis or contracture. Injections also cause localized bleeding, which may lead to a hematoma. Intravenous injections may also cause phlebitis, especially when multiple injections are given in a vein over a short period of time. Infiltration and extravasation may also occur when a medication intended to be injected into a vein is inadvertently injected into surrounding tissues. Those who are afraid of needles may also experience fainting at the sight of a needle, or before or after an injection.

Technique
Proper needle use is important to perform injections safely, which includes the use of a new, sterile needle for each injection. This is partly because needles get duller with each use and partly because reusing needles increases risk of infection. Needles should not be shared between people, as this increases risk of transmitting blood-borne pathogens. The practice of using the same needle for multiple people increases the risk of disease transmission between people sharing the same medication. In addition, it is not recommended to reuse a used needle to pierce a medication bag, bottle, or ampule designed to provide multiple doses of a medication, instead a new needle should be used each time the container must be pierced. Aseptic technique should always be practiced when administering injections. This includes the use of barriers including gloves, gowns, and masks for health care providers. It also requires the use of a new, sterile needle, syringe and other equipment for each injection, as well as proper training to avoid touching non-sterile surfaces with sterile items.

To help prevent accidental needlestick injury to the person administering the injection, and prevent reuse of the syringe for another injection, a safety syringe and needle may be used. The most basic reuse prevention device is an "auto-disable" plunger, which once pressed past a certain point will no longer retract. Another common safety feature is an auto-retractable needle, where the needle is spring-loaded and either retracts into the syringe after injection, or into a plastic sheath on the side of the syringe. Other safety syringes have an attached sheath which may be moved to cover the end of the needle after the injection is given. The World Health Organization recommends the use of single-use syringes with both reuse prevention devices and a needlestick injury prevention mechanism for all injections to prevent accidental injury and disease transmission.

Novel injection techniques include drug diffusion within the skin using needle-free micro-jet injection (NFI) technology.

Disposal of used needles
Used needles should be disposed of in specifically designed sharps containers to reduce the risk of accidental needle sticks and exposure to other people. In addition, a new sharps container should be begun once it is $3/4$ full. A sharps container which is $3/4$ filled should be sealed properly to prevent re-opening or accidental opening during transportation. Some locations offer publicly accessible "sharps take-back" programs where a sharps container may be dropped off to a public location for safe disposal at no fee to the person. In addition, some pharmaceutical and independent companies provide mail-back sharps programs, sometimes for an additional fee. In the United States, there are 39 states that offer programs to provide needle or syringe exchange.

Over half of non-industrialized countries report open burning of disposed or used syringes. This practice is considered unsafe by the World Health Organization.

Aspiration
The aspiration is the technique of pulling back on the plunger of a syringe prior to the actual injection. If blood flows into the syringe it signals that a blood vessel has been hit.

Society and culture
Due to the prevalence of unsafe injection practices, especially among injection drug users, many locations have begun offering supervised injection sites and needle exchange programs, which may be offered separately or colocated. These programs may provide new sterile needles upon request to mitigate infection risk, and some also provide access to on-site clinicians and emergency medical care if it becomes required. In the event of an overdose, a site may also provide medications such as naloxone, used as an antidote in opioid overdose situations, or other antidotes or emergency care. Safe injection site have been associated with lower rates of death from overdose, less ambulance calls, and lower rates of new HIV infections from unsafe needle practices.

As of 2024, at least ten countries currently offer safe injection sites, including Australia, Canada, the United States, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Switzerland. In total, there are at least 120 sites operating.

Plants and animals
Many species of animals use injections for self-defence or catching prey. This includes venomous snakes which inject venom when they bite into the skin with their fangs. Common substances present in snake venom include neurotoxins, toxic proteins, and cytotoxic enzymes. Different species of snakes inject different formulations of venom, which may cause severe pain and necrosis before progressing into neurotoxicity and potentially death. The weever is a type of fish which has venomous spines covering its fins and gills and injects a venom consisting of proteins which cause a severe local reaction which is not life-threatening. Sting rays use their spinal blade to inject a protein-based venom which causes localized cell death but is not generally life-threatening.

Some types of insects also utilize injection for various purposes. Bees use a stinger located in their hind region to inject a venom consisting of proteins such as melittin, which causes a localized painful and itching reaction. Leeches can inject an anticoagulant peptide called hirudin after attaching to prevent blood from clotting during feeding. This property of leeches has been used historically as a natural form of anticoagulation therapy, as well as for the use of bloodletting as a treatment for various ailments. Some species of ants inject forms of venom which include compounds which produce minor pain such as the formic acid, which is injected by members of the Formicinae subfamily. Other species of ants, including Dinoponera species, inject protein-based venom which causes severe pain but is still not life-threatening. The bullet ant (Paraponera clavata) injects a venom which contains a neurotoxin named poneratoxin which causes extreme pain, fever, and cold sweats, and may cause arrhythmias.

Plants may use a form of injection which is passive, where the injectee pushes themselves against the stationary needle. The stinging nettle plant has many trichomes, or stinging hairs, over its leaves and stems which are used to inject a mix of irritating chemicals which includes histamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. This sting produces a form of dermatitis which is characterized by a stinging, burning, and itching sensation in the area. Dendrocnide species, also called stinging trees, use their trichomes to inject a mix of neurotoxic peptides which causes a reaction similar to the stinging nettle, but also may result in recurring flares for a much longer period after the injection. While some plants have thorns, spines, and prickles, these generally are not used for injection of any substance, but instead it is the act of piercing the skin which causes them to be a deterrent.

title: Injection (medicine)