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Autumn Harvest Uprising

The Autumn Harvest Uprising was an insurrection that took place in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces of China, on September 7, 1927, led by Mao Zedong, who established a short-lived Hunan Soviet.

After initial success, the uprising was brutally put down by Kuomintang forces. Mao continued to believe in the rural strategy but concluded that it would be necessary to form a party army.

Background
In support of the Northern Expedition, Mao was sent to survey peasant conditions in his home province of Hunan. His Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan urged support for rural revolution.

The uprising
Initially, Mao struggled to garner forces for an uprising, but Li Zhen rallied the peasantry and members of her local communist troop to join. Mao then led a small peasant army against the Kuomintang and the landlords of Hunan, successfully establishing a Soviet government. The uprising was eventually defeated by Kuomintang forces within two months after the Soviet was established. Mao and the others were forced to retreat to the Jinggang Mountains on the border between Hunan and Jiangxi provinces, where he encountered an army of miners which would help him in later battles. This was one of the early armed uprisings by the Communists, and it marked a significant change in their strategy. Mao and Red Army founder Zhu De went on to develop a rural-based strategy that centered on guerrilla tactics. This paved the way for the Long March of 1934.

Reasons for the uprising's failure
The uprising shows the overwhelming importance of an organized military force to the success or failure of an insurrection, the failure reveals that the role and question of military force was given different emphasis by operatives of different levels in the communist party and came to be a topic of serious contention and disagreement which led to the disorganization. An obvious lack of appreciation for rudimentary pre-insurrectionary military organization hints that Mao was more "putschist" (to a point) than his Chinese or Russian superiors.

Mass killings against Hunanese civilians
Nationalist anti-communist mass killings were directed against all Hunanese civilians. About 80,000 Hunanese were killed in Hunan's Liling and about 300,000 Hunanese were killed in Hunan's Chaling County, Leiyang, Liuyang and Pingjiang.

title: Autumn Harvest Uprising


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Weston Underwood

Weston Underwood may refer to:

 * Weston Underwood, Buckinghamshire, England
 * Weston Underwood, Derbyshire, England

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Weston Underwood


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Socrates programme

The SOCRATES programme was an educational initiative of the European Commission; 31 countries took part. The initial Socrates programme ran from 1994 until 31 December 1999 when it was replaced by the Socrates II programme on 24 January 2000, which ran until 2006. This, in turn, was replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013.

The countries participating in the programme were the then 25 European Union countries, the then candidate countries Romania and Bulgaria; Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Turkey.

The programme is named after the Greek philosopher Socrates.

Declared aims

 * "To strengthen the European dimension of education at all levels"
 * "To improve knowledge of European languages"
 * "To promote co-operation and mobility throughout education"
 * "To encourage innovation in education"
 * "To promote equal opportunities in all sectors of education"

Building blocks

 * The Comenius programme – relating to primary and secondary.
 * The Erasmus programme – relating to higher.
 * The Grundtvig programme – relating to adult education.
 * The Lingua programme – relating to education in European languages.
 * The Minerva programme – relating to information and communication technology in education.

European Union-funded language projects
Within the Socrates programme, funded by the European Union Directorates-General: Education and Culture (DG EAC), Information Society and Media (DG INFSO) and the EuropeAid Cooperation Office (DG AIDCO), the promotion and learning of languages is a high priority. Below is a short list of some funded projects:

 * 1) ARGuing for Multilingual Motivation in Web 2.0. – ARGuing is a project that addresses two needs by utilizing an Alternate Reality Game; firstly, how to bridge the technological gap between educators and their students and secondly, how to motivate students to understand the benefits of learning languages at a level that impacts on their existing personal lives.
 * 2) Autonomous Language Learning The Autonomous Language Learning (ALL) project, is building Blended Learning language courses in four European languages (Turkish, Romanian, Bulgarian and Lithuanian).
 * 3) Chain Stories project Young students, in their first year of language learning, can complete creative writing in their mother tongue. They then pass on their story to other schools (in other countries/languages), within a chain, for completion.
 * 4) Euromobil is an interactive multimedia language learning and information programme for nine European target languages. The EUROMOBIL project was launched in 1999 with the aim to support student mobility.
 * 5) Tool Project Tool for Online and Offline Language Learning (TOOL) project is building Blended Learning language courses in five European languages (Dutch, Estonian, Hungarian, Maltese, Slovene).
 * 6) Don't Give Up Motivating adult language learners to complete language courses.
 * 7) Lullabies of Europe Collecting the lullabies of Europe to use as a very early learning language resource.

title: Socrates programme


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Jerry Greenfield

Jerry Greenfield (born March 14, 1951) is an American businessman, philanthropist, and activist. He is a co-founder of Ben & Jerry's Homemade Holdings, Inc.

Greenfield grew up on Long Island. He attended Oberlin College, where he was a National Merit Scholar and followed a pre-med curriculum before graduating in 1973. He applied unsuccessfully for medical school before deciding to go into business with Ben Cohen, a childhood friend. After taking a course in ice-cream making from Penn State, Greenfield and Cohen opened their first ice cream store in downtown Burlington, Vermont. The company, which sold to the British-Dutch corporation Unilever in 2000 has since opened almost 200 franchised shops and reports earnings of $237 million annually.

Early life
Jerry Greenfield grew up on Long Island, to a family of Jewish roots. He attended Merrick Avenue Junior High School, where he met Ben Cohen in 1963. Greenfield and Cohen both attended Calhoun High School and remained friends until they both graduated and left Long Island to attend college.

Greenfield chose to pursue a pre-med curriculum at Oberlin College, where he began working as an ice cream scooper in the school's cafeteria.

After graduating in 1973, Greenfield failed to get into medical school. At this point, Greenfield decided to move back to New York where he shared an apartment with Cohen and worked as a lab technician. In 1974, Greenfield was again rejected from medical school and decided to move to North Carolina with his future wife, Elizabeth Skarie, and continued to work as a lab technician.

Greenfield lived with Cohen in Saratoga Springs, New York during the summer of 1977. After initially considering opening a bagel shop, they chose to open an ice cream store. They took a five-dollar correspondence course in ice-cream making and opened their first store in a former gas station in Burlington, Vermont. Ben & Jerry's opened in the summer of 1978.

During the 1980s, Greenfield left the business to support Elizabeth in Arizona as she pursued a Ph.D. in psychology. The couple returned to Vermont in 1985, when Greenfield assumed the position of Director of Mobile Promotions.

Ben & Jerry's
Greenfield and Cohen began looking for a proper location for their ice cream parlor in 1977. The criteria that they set down were that the location should be a college town, since they assumed college students ate a lot of ice cream, and that it should be warm. After comparing information from almanacs and a guide to American colleges, the pair realized that every warm college town already had an ice cream shop and settled on Burlington, Vermont in 1978, as the location for their shop.

After choosing their town, the two businessmen needed to find a suitable building. They decided on an old gas station and began looking for financing. With a combined savings totaling around $8,000, Greenfield and Cohen began searching for a bank to lend them money. Repeatedly they found themselves rejected because the gas station could only be leased for one year at a time and it was judged unwise to invest large amounts of capital in such a venture. Finally they managed to receive a $4,000 loan and began renovating the station. On May 5, 1978, the parlor opened and throughout the summer experienced success, however, the pair struggled throughout the winter.

In 1980, after experiencing initial success in their attempts to distribute their ice cream to restaurants throughout Vermont, the company moved to a larger facility and began packaging ice cream in pint size containers. In 1984, Häagen-Dazs tried to limit distribution of Ben & Jerry's in Boston, prompting Ben & Jerry's to file suit against Häagen-Dazs' parent company, Pillsbury, in its now famous "What's the Doughboy Afraid Of?" campaign. In 1987 Häagen-Dazs again tried to enforce exclusive distribution, and Ben & Jerry's filed its second lawsuit against the Pillsbury Company.

In April 2000, Ben & Jerry's was bought by the multinational food giant, Unilever. Since the purchase, Greenfield and Cohen have continued to be involved at the company but Jerry said in an interview they had "no responsibility, no authority, and very little influence."

Political activism
On April 18, 2016, Greenfield and Cohen were arrested at a Democracy Awakening protest in Washington, D.C.

Personal life
In 1987, Greenfield married Elizabeth Skarie and in 1988, they had a son Tyrone. He resides in Williston, Vermont, a small town just outside Burlington.

title: Jerry Greenfield


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Kilburn

Kilburn may refer to:

Places

 * Kilburn, London, England
 * Kilburn (Brent ward), a ward in the London Borough of Brent, England
 * Kilburn (Camden ward), a ward in the London Borough of Camden, England
 * Kilburn Lane, a street in London
 * Kilburn Priory
 * Kilburn, Derbyshire, England
 * Kilburn, North Yorkshire, England
 * Kilburn, South Australia, Australia
 * Kilburn Dam in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

People

 * Kilburn (surname), including a list of people with the name
 * Kilburn Wilmot (1911–1996), English cricketer

title: Kilburn


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Advanced Extension Award

The Advanced Extension Awards are a type of school-leaving qualification in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, usually taken in the final year of schooling (age 17/18), and designed to allow students to "demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and skills to the full". Currently, it is only available for Mathematics and offered by the exam board Edexcel.

They were introduced in 2002, in response to the UK Government's Excellence in Cities report, as a successor to the S-level examination, and aimed at the top 10% of students in A level tests. They are assessed entirely by external examinations.

Due to introduction of the A* grade for A level courses starting September 2008 (first certification 2010), they have since been phased out, with the exception of the Advanced Extension Award in Mathematics which continues to be available to students.

Results
According to EducationGuardian.co.uk, in 2004, 50.4% of the 7246 entrants failed to achieve a grade at all (fail), indicating that the awards are fulfilling their role in separating the elite. Only 18.3% of students attained the top of the two grades available, the Distinction, with the next 31.3% of students receiving the grade of Merit. Given that only the top students in the country sat these examinations, these results indicate that the AEAs were successful in rewarding only the 50-100 students that were most able in a particular subject.

It was possible to obtain an AEA distinction in more than one subject; however, given the rarity of AEA distinctions, this was uncommon.

Available subjects
Due to the small numbers of candidates for each subject, the exam boards divided the subjects offered amongst themselves, so that – unlike A-levels – each AEA was only offered by one board.
 * Biology (including Human Biology) (AQA)
 * Business (OCR)
 * Chemistry (AQA)
 * Critical Thinking (OCR)
 * Economics (AQA)
 * English (OCR)
 * French (OCR)
 * Geography (WJEC)
 * German (CCEA)
 * History (Edexcel)
 * Irish (CCEA)
 * Latin (OCR)
 * Mathematics (Edexcel)
 * Physics (CCEA)
 * Psychology (AQA)
 * Religious Studies (Edexcel)
 * Spanish (Edexcel)
 * Welsh (WJEC)
 * Welsh as a second language (WJEC)

Partial withdrawal
The last AEA examinations across the full range of subjects took place in June 2009, with results issued in August 2009. The Advanced Extension Award was then withdrawn for all subjects except mathematics. This came after the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) decided that the new A* grade being offered at A level would overlap with the purpose of the AEA, rendering them unnecessary. However, the AEA in mathematics was extended until June 2012, as confirmed by Edexcel and the QCA. This was because it met a "definite need", since the A* grade was still not viewed as being challenging enough. In June 2011 Edexcel announced that the AEA was being extended further for mathematics, until June 2015, which was later extended until 2018.

In 2018, Edexcel introduced a new specification, meaning the Advanced Extension Award in mathematics would continue to be available to students in 2019 and beyond, as a qualification aimed at the top 10% of students at A level. All other subjects remain withdrawn, though opportunity exists for examination boards to offer AEAs in other subjects should they choose to in the future, subject to certain expectations.

Effect of 2020 pandemic
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, in summer 2020 AEA (mathematics) grades were awarded according to assessments made by teachers.

title: Advanced Extension Award


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Václav Prospal

Václav "Vinny" Prospal (born 17 February 1975) is a Czech former professional ice hockey player, currently a hockey coach. He played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Philadelphia Flyers, Ottawa Senators, Florida Panthers, Tampa Bay Lightning, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, New York Rangers and Columbus Blue Jackets from. 1997 to 2013. He is currently serving as an assistant coach of the Rochester Americans in the American hockey league.

Playing career
Prospal was drafted by the Philadelphia Flyers in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft, third round, 71st overall. While with the Flyers, Prospal suffered a fractured arm during the 1997 playoffs. Prospal and another player collided during the Flyers' practice session. During the 1997–98 season, Prospal, who was named to the 1998 Czech Olympic hockey team, broke his leg while fighting for the puck with Lance Pitlick during a game with the Ottawa Senators; Prospal was unable to play in the 1998 Winter Olympics. Prospal was traded to the Senators a few months later. During the 2004–05 lockout, Prospal played for his hometown team HC České Budějovice, leading them in scoring and helping the team return to the Czech Extraliga.

At the beginning of the 2007–08 season, while with the Lightning, Prospal posted 12 goals and 10 assists making it his best career start. On February 25, 2008, Prospal was dealt back to the Flyers for defenseman Alexandre Picard and a 2009 second-round draft pick.

On June 18, 2008, the Lightning acquired the rights to Prospal in exchange for the Nashville Predators' seventh-round pick (previously acquired), 196th overall, in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. The Lightning signed Prospal to a four-year contract on June 30, in a deal worth $14 million overall to the player.

On July 28, 2009, Prospal was bought out from the remaining three years of his contract with the Lightning and became a free agent. On August 16, 2009, Prospal signed a one-year, $1.1 million contract with the New York Rangers. He was named an alternate captain of the Rangers on November 3, 2009. On July 1, 2010, Prospal was re-signed by the Rangers to another one-year deal worth $2.1 million. After he was not re-signed in 2011, he agreed to a 1-year $1.75 million deal with the Columbus Blue Jackets in the summer of 2011, followed by one-year, $2.5 million contract for the 2012–13 season. On January 24, 2014, he announced his retirement from professional hockey.

Post-hockey career
Prospal worked as a scout for the New York Rangers until the end of the 2013–14 season. He currently lives with his wife and four children in Tampa, Florida. He also served as an assistant coach for the Czech national team in the World Cup of Hockey in September 2016. Now He is Manager of HC České Budějovice in Czech Extraliga.

title: Václav Prospal


text:
Talk:Marty Feldman

Cause of death
According to several sources, he died of shellfish poisoning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:18D:4701:C4A0:9127:D9F8:A350:C296 (talk) 22:33, 18 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Dying of shellfish poisoning is quite rare. Dying of smoking is commonplace. Activist (talk) 21:38, 24 October 2019 (UTC)
 * See previous discussion on "Cause of death" above. Certainly smoking seem to have been a contributory factor. I'd suggest that this source, currently given only in "Further reading", be added as a source in the "Death" section. Martinevans123 (talk) 21:47, 24 October 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marty Feldman


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AEA

AEA or Aea may refer to:

Organisations

 * Academy of Entertainment Arts, a program at Dixie Hollins High School in St. Petersburg, Florida
 * Actors' Equity Association, a U.S. labor union
 * AeA, formerly known as the American Electronics Association, a non-profit technology trade association
 * Aerial Experiment Association, an early aeronautical research organisation
 * Aero Engineers Australia
 * Alabama Education Association
 * American Economic Association
 * American Evaluation Association
 * Arkansas Environmental Academy
 * Associação de Escuteiros de Angola
 * Association of European Airlines

Companies

 * AEA Investors, one of the oldest private equity firms in the United States
 * AEA Technology, a British company mainly specialising in environmental consulting
 * Air Europa (ICAO code)
 * AEA (airguns) Spanish manufacturer of precharged pneumatic airguns

Mythology

 * Aeaea

 * Aea, the main city of Colchis
 * Aea, a mythological huntress

Science and technology

 * Air Entraining Agent; see Foam Index
 * Arachidonoylethanolamide, an alternative name for Anandamide

Places

 * Aea (Malis), Greece
 * Kutaisi, Georgia

Other uses

 * Abemama Atoll Airport (IATA code), an airport on Abemama, Kiribati
 * Advanced Extension Award, of the British educational system
 * Alberta Emergency Alert a public warning system
 * Areba language (ISO 639-3 code)
 * Autoerotic asphyxiation, a sexual act

title: AEA


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Trans-Olza

Trans-Olza (Zaolzie, ; Záolží, Záolší; Olsa-Gebiet), also known as Trans-Olza Silesia (Śląsk Zaolziański), is a territory in the Czech Republic, which was disputed between Poland and Czechoslovakia during the Interwar Period. Its name comes from the Olza River.

The history of the Trans-Olza region began in 1918, when, after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the newly established Czechoslovakia made claims to the area with Polish majority, which gave rise to a dispute. For Poles, giving Trans-Olza to Czechoslovakia was unacceptable, so they decided to hold elections in the region to which Czechoslovakia responded by sending army to the disputed territory and annexing it in January 1919.

The area as we know it today was created in 1920, when Cieszyn Silesia was divided between the two countries during the Spa Conference. Trans-Olza forms the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia. The division again did not satisfy any side, and persisting conflict over the region led to its annexation by Poland in October 1938, following the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, the area became a part of Nazi Germany until 1945. After the war, the 1920 borders were restored.

Historically, the largest specified ethnic group inhabiting this area were Poles. Under Austrian rule, Cieszyn Silesia was initially divided into three (Bielitz, Friedek and Teschen), and later into four districts (plus Freistadt). One of them, Frýdek, had a mostly Czech population, the other three were mostly inhabited by Poles. During the 19th century the number of ethnic Germans grew. After declining at the end of the 19th century, at the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938 the Czech population grew significantly to rival the Poles. Another significant ethnic group were the Jews, but almost the entire Jewish population was murdered during World War II by Nazi Germany.

In addition to the Polish, Czech and German national orientations there was another group of Silesians, who claimed to be of a distinct national identity. This group enjoyed popular support throughout Cieszyn Silesia, though its strongest supporters were among the Protestants in the eastern part of Cieszyn Silesia (now part of Poland), not in Trans-Olza itself.

Name and territory
The Polish term Zaolzie (meaning "lands beyond the Olza") is used predominantly in Poland and by the Polish minority living in the territory. It is also often used by foreign scholars, e.g. American ethnolinguist Kevin Hannan. The term Zaolzie was first used in 1930s by Polish writer Paweł Hulka-Laskowski. In Czech it is mainly referred to as České Těšínsko/Českotěšínsko ("land around Český Těšín"), or as Těšínsko or Těšínské Slezsko (meaning Cieszyn Silesia). The Czech equivalent of Zaolzie (Zaolší or Zaolží) is rarely used. The term Zaolzie denotes the territory of the former districts of Český Těšín and Fryštát, in which the Polish population formed a majority according to the 1910 Austrian census. It makes up the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia. However, Polish historian Józef Szymeczek notes that the term is often mistakenly used for the whole Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia.

Since the 1960 reform of administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia, Trans-Olza has consisted of Karviná District and the eastern part of Frýdek-Místek District.

History
After the Migration Period the area was settled by West Slavs, which were later organized into the Golensizi tribe. The tribe had a large and important gord situated in contemporary Chotěbuz. In the 880s or the early 890s the gord was raided and burned, most probably by an army of Svatopluk I of Moravia, and afterwards the area could have been subjugated by Great Moravia, which is however questioned by historians like Zdeněk Klanica, Idzi Panic, Stanisław Szczur.

After the fall of Great Moravia in 907 the area could have been under the influence of Bohemian rulers. In the late 10th century Poland, ruled by Bolesław I Chrobry, began to contend for the region, which was crossed by important international routes. From 950 to 1060 it was under the rule of Bohemia, and from 1060 it was part of the Piast Kingdom of Poland. The written history explicitly about the region begins on 23 April 1155 when Cieszyn/Těšín was first mentioned in a written document, a letter from Pope Adrian IV issued for Walter, Bishop of Wrocław, where it was listed amongst other centres of castellanies. The castellany was then a part of Duchy of Silesia. In 1172 it became a part of Duchy of Racibórz, and from 1202 of Duchy of Opole and Racibórz. In the first half of the 13th century the Moravian settlement organised by Arnold von Hückeswagen from Starý Jičín castle and later accelerated by Bruno von Schauenburg, Bishop of Olomouc, began to press close to Silesian settlements. This prompted signing of a special treaty between Duke Vladislaus I of Opole and King Ottokar II of Bohemia on December 1261 which regulated a local border between their states along the Ostravice River. In order to strengthen the border Władysław of Opole decided to found Orlová monastery in 1268. In the continued process of feudal fragmentation of Poland the Castellany of Cieszyn was eventually transformed in 1290 into the Duchy of Cieszyn, which in 1327 became an autonomic fiefdom of the Bohemian crown. Upon the death of Elizabeth Lucretia, its last ruler from the Polish Piast dynasty in 1653, it passed directly to the Czech kings from the Habsburg dynasty. When most of Silesia was conquered by Prussian king Frederick the Great in 1742, the Cieszyn region was part of the small southern portion that was retained by the Habsburg Monarchy (Austrian Silesia).

Up to the mid-19th century members of the local Slav population did not identify themselves as members of larger ethnolinguistic entities. In Cieszyn Silesia (as in all West Slavic borderlands) various territorial identities pre-dated ethnic and national identity. Consciousness of membership within a greater Polish or Czech nation spread slowly in Silesia.

From 1848 to the end of the 19th century, local Polish and Czech people co-operated, united against the Germanizing tendencies of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria-Hungary. At the end of the century, ethnic tensions arose as the area's economic significance grew. This growth caused a wave of immigration from Galicia. About 60,000 people arrived between 1880 and 1910. The new immigrants were Polish and poor, about half of them being illiterate. They worked in coal mining and metallurgy. For these people the most important factor was material well-being; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled. Almost all of them assimilated into the Czech population. Many of them settled in Ostrava (west of the ethnic border), as heavy industry was spread through the whole western part of Cieszyn Silesia. Even today, ethnographers find that about 25,000 people in Ostrava (about 8% of the population) have Polish surnames. The Czech population (living mainly in the northern part of the area: Bohumín, Orlová, etc.) declined numerically at the end of the 19th century, assimilating with the prevalent Polish population. This process shifted with the industrial boom in the area.

Decision time (1918–1920)
Cieszyn Silesia was claimed by both Poland and Czechoslovakia: the Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego made its claim in its declaration "Ludu śląski!" of 30 October 1918, and the Czech Zemský národní výbor pro Slezsko did so in its declaration of 1 November 1918. On 31 October 1918, at the end of World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the majority of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities supported by armed forces. An interim agreement from 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation and on 5 November 1918, the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by an agreement of the two councils. In early 1919 both councils were absorbed by the newly created and independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw.

Following an announcement that elections to the Sejm (parliament) of Poland would be held in the entirety of Cieszyn Silesia, the Czechoslovak government requested that the Poles cease their preparations as no elections were to be held in the disputed territory until a final agreement could be reached. When their demands were rejected by the Poles, the Czechs decided to resolve the issue by force and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area.

The Czechoslovak offensive was halted after pressure from the Entente following the Battle of Skoczów, and a ceasefire was signed on 3 February. The new Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on historic and ethnic grounds, but especially on economic grounds. The area was important for the Czechs as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area (the Košice–Bohumín Railway, which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time). The area is also very rich in black coal. Many important coal mines, facilities and metallurgy factories are located there. The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria: a majority (69.2%) of the area's population was Polish according to the last (1910) Austrian census.

In this very tense atmosphere it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking people which country this territory should join. Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920, and after analysing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920. The situation in the area remained very tense, with mutual intimidation, acts of terror, beatings and even killings. A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere. On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of a plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision. Eventually, on 28 July 1920, by a decision of the Spa Conference, Czechoslovakia received 58.1% of the area of Cieszyn Silesia, containing 67.9% of the population. It was this territory that became known from the Polish standpoint as Zaolzie – the Olza River marked the boundary between the Polish and Czechoslovak parts of the territory.

The most vocal support for union with Poland had come from within the territory awarded to Czechoslovakia, while some of the strongest opponents of Polish rule came from the territory awarded to Poland.

View of Richard M. Watt
Historian Richard M. Watt writes, "On 5 November 1918, the Poles and the Czechs in the region disarmed the Austrian garrison (...) The Poles took over the areas that appeared to be theirs, just as the Czechs had assumed administration of theirs. Nobody objected to this friendly arrangement (...) Then came second thoughts in Prague. It was observed that under the agreement of 5 November, the Poles controlled about a third of the duchy's coal mines. The Czechs realized that they had given away rather a lot (...) It was recognized that any takeover in Cieszyn would have to be accomplished in a manner acceptable by the victorious Allies (...), so the Czechs cooked up a tale that the Cieszyn area was becoming Bolshevik (...) The Czechs put together a substantial body of infantry – about 15,000 men – and on 23 January 1919, they invaded the Polish-held areas. To confuse the Poles, the Czechs recruited some Allied officers of Czech background and put these men in their respective wartime uniforms at the head of the invasion forces. After a little skirmishing, the tiny Polish defense force was nearly driven out."

In 1919, the matter went to consideration in Paris before the World War I Allies. Watt claims the Poles based their claims on ethnographical reasons and the Czechs based their need on the Cieszyn coal, useful in order to influence the actions of Austria and Hungary, whose capitals were fuelled by coal from the duchy. The Allies finally decided that the Czechs should get 60 percent of the coal fields and the Poles were to get most of the people and the strategic rail line. Watt writes: "Czech envoy Edvard Beneš proposed a plebiscite. The Allies were shocked, arguing that the Czechs were bound to lose it. However, Beneš was insistent and a plebiscite was announced in September 1919. As it turned out, Beneš knew what he was doing. A plebiscite would take some time to set up, and a lot could happen in that time – particularly when a nation's affairs were conducted as cleverly as were Czechoslovakia's."

Watt argues that Beneš strategically waited for Poland's moment of weakness, and moved in during the Polish-Soviet War crisis in July 1920. As Watt writes, "Over the dinner table, Beneš convinced the British and French that the plebiscite should not be held and that the Allies should simply impose their own decision in the Cieszyn matter. More than that, Beneš persuaded the French and the British to draw a frontier line that gave Czechoslovakia most of the territory of Cieszyn, the vital railroad and all the important coal fields. With this frontier, 139,000 Poles were to be left in Czech territory, whereas only 2,000 Czechs were left on the Polish side".

"The next morning Beneš visited the Polish delegation at Spa. By giving the impression that the Czechs would accept a settlement favorable to the Poles without a plebiscite, Beneš got the Poles to sign an agreement that Poland would abide by any Allied decision regarding Cieszyn. The Poles, of course, had no way of knowing that Beneš had already persuaded the Allies to make a decision on Cieszyn. After a brief interval, to make it appear that due deliberation had taken place, the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris imposed its 'decision'. Only then did it dawn on the Poles that at Spa they had signed a blank check. To them, Beneš' stunning triumph was not diplomacy, it was a swindle (...) As Polish Prime Minister Wincenty Witos warned: 'The Polish nation has received a blow which will play an important role in our relations with the Czechoslovak Republic. The decision of the Council of Ambassadors has given the Czechs a piece of Polish land containing a population which is mostly Polish.... The decision has caused a rift between these two nations which are ordinarily politically and economically united' ( ...."

View of Victor S. Mamatey
Another account of the situation in 1918–1919 is given by historian Victor S. Mamatey. He notes that when the French government recognised Czechoslovakia's right to the "boundaries of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia" in its note to Austria of 19 December, the Czechoslovak government acted under the impression it had French support for its claim to Cieszyn Silesia as part of Austrian Silesia. However, Paris believed it gave that assurance only against German-Austrian claims, not Polish ones. Paris, however, viewed both Czechoslovakia and Poland as potential allies against Germany and did not want to cool relations with either. Mamatey writes that the Poles "brought the matter before the peace conference that had opened in Paris on 18 January. On 29 January, the Council of Ten summoned Beneš and the Polish delegate Roman Dmowski to explain the dispute, and on 1 February obliged them to sign an agreement redividing the area pending its final disposition by the peace conference. Czechoslovakia thus failed to gain her objective in Cieszyn."

With respect to the arbitration decision itself, Mamatey writes that "On 25 March, to expedite the work of the peace conference, the Council of Ten was divided into the Council of Four (The "Big Four") and the Council of Five (the foreign ministers). Early in April the two councils considered and approved the recommendations of the Czechoslovak commission without a change – with the exception of Cieszyn, which they referred to Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle in bilateral negotiations." When the Polish-Czechoslovak negotiations failed, the Allied powers proposed plebiscites in the Cieszyn Silesia and also in the border districts of Orava and Spiš (now in Slovakia) to which the Poles had raised claims. In the end, however, no plebiscites were held due to the rising mutual hostilities of Czechs and Poles in Cieszyn Silesia. Instead, on 28 July 1920 the Spa Conference (also known as the Conference of Ambassadors) divided each of the three disputed areas between Poland and Czechoslovakia.

Part of Czechoslovakia (1920–1938)
The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division of Cieszyn Silesia. About 12,000 to 14,000 Poles were forced to leave to Poland. It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Trans-Olza in Czechoslovakia. Estimates (depending mainly whether the Silesians are included as Poles or not) range from 110,000 to 140,000 people in 1921. The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self-declaration and many Poles filled in Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the new authorities and as compensation for some benefits. Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minorities but reality in Trans-Olza was quite different. Local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtain citizenship, while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send his children to a Czech school. Newly built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped, thus inducing some Poles to send their children there. Czech schools were built in ethnically almost entirely Polish municipalities. This and other factors contributed to the cultural assimilation of Poles and also to significant emigration to Poland. After a few years, the heightened nationalism typical for the years around 1920 receded and local Poles increasingly co-operated with Czechs. Still, Czechization was supported by Prague, which did not follow certain laws related to language, legislative and organizational issues. Polish deputies in the Czechoslovak National Assembly frequently tried to put those issues on agenda. One way or another, more and more local Poles thus assimilated into the Czech population.

Part of Poland (1938–1939)

Within the region originally demanded from Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 was the important railway junction city of Bohumín (Bogumin). The Poles regarded the city as of crucial importance to the area and to Polish interests. On 28 September, Edvard Beneš composed a note to the Polish administration offering to reopen the debate surrounding the territorial demarcation in Těšínsko in the interest of mutual relations, but he delayed in sending it in hopes of good news from London and Paris, which came only in a limited form. Beneš then turned to the Soviet leadership in Moscow, which had begun a partial mobilisation in eastern Belarus and the Ukrainian SSR on 22 September and threatened Poland with the dissolution of the Soviet-Polish non-aggression pact. The Czech government was offered 700 fighter planes if room for them could be found on the Czech airfields. On 28 September, all the military districts west of the Urals were ordered to stop releasing men for leave. On 29 September 330,000 reservists were up throughout the western USSR.

Nevertheless, the Polish Foreign Minister, Colonel Józef Beck, believed that Warsaw should act rapidly to forestall the German occupation of the city. At noon on 30 September, Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government. It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day. At 11:45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted. The Polish Army, commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski, annexed an area of 801.5 km2 with a population of 227,399 people. Administratively the annexed area was divided between two counties: Frysztat and Cieszyn County. At the same time Slovakia lost to Hungary 10,390 km2 with 854,277 inhabitants.

The Germans were delighted with this outcome, and were happy to give up the sacrifice of a small provincial rail centre to Poland in exchange for the ensuing propaganda benefits. It spread the blame of the partition of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, made Poland a participant in the process and confused political expectations. Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany – a charge that Warsaw was hard-put to deny.

The Polish side argued that Poles in Trans-Olza deserved the same ethnic rights and freedom as the Sudeten Germans under the Munich Agreement. The vast local Polish population enthusiastically welcomed the change, seeing it as a liberation and a form of historical justice, but they quickly changed their mood. The new Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various key positions from which locals were fired. The Polish language became the sole official language. Using Czech (or German) by Czechs (or Germans) in public was prohibited and Czechs and Germans were being forced to leave the annexed area or become subject to Polonization. Rapid Polonization policies then followed in all parts of public and private life. Czech organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited. The Roman Catholic parishes in the area belonged either to the Archdiocese of Breslau (Archbishop Bertram) or to the Archdiocese of Olomouc (Archbishop Leopold Prečan), respectively, both traditionally comprising cross-border diocesan territories in Czechoslovakia and Germany. When the Polish government demanded after its takeover that the parishes there be disentangled from these two archdioceses, the Holy See complied. Pope Pius XI, former nuncio to Poland, subjected the Catholic parishes in Trans-Olza to an apostolic administration under Stanisław Adamski, Bishop of Katowice.

Czechoslovak education in the Czech and German language ceased to exist. About 35,000 Czechoslovaks emigrated to core Czechoslovakia (the later Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) by choice or forcibly. The behaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czechoslovak ones before 1938. Two political factions appeared: socialists (the opposition) and rightists (loyal to the new Polish national authorities). Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often fired from work. The Polish political system was artificially implemented in Trans-Olza. The local Poles continued to feel like second-class citizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938. Zaolzie remained a part of Poland for only 11 months until the invasion of Poland started on 1 September 1939.

Reception
When Poland entered the Western camp in April 1939, General Gamelin reminded General Kasprzycki of the Polish role in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. According to historian Paul N. Hehn, Poland's annexation of Zaolzie may have contributed to the British and French reluctance to attack the Germans with greater forces in September 1939.

Richard M. Watt describes the Polish capture of Zaolzie in these words:

"Amid the general euphoria in Poland – the acquisition of Zaolzie was a very popular development – no one paid attention to the bitter comment of the Czechoslovak general who handed the region over to the incoming Poles. He predicted that it would not be long before the Poles would themselves be handing Zaolzie over to the Germans."

Watt also writes that

"the Polish 1938 ultimatum to Czechoslovakia and its acquisition of Zaolzie were gross tactical errors. Whatever justice there might have been to the Polish claim upon Zaolzie, its seizure in 1938 was an enormous mistake in terms of the damage done to Poland's reputation among the democratic powers of the world."

Daladier, the French Prime Minister, told the US ambassador to France that "he hoped to live long enough to pay Poland for her cormorant attitude in the present crisis by proposing a new partition." The Soviet Union was so hostile to Poland over Munich that there was a real prospect that war between the two states might break out quite separate from the wider conflict over Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Prime Minister, Molotov, denounced the Poles as "Hitler's jackals".

In his postwar memoirs, Winston Churchill compared Germany and Poland to vultures landing on the dying carcass of Czechoslovakia and lamented that "over a question so minor as Cieszyn, they [the Poles] sundered themselves from all those friends in France, Britain and the United States who had lifted them once again to a national, coherent life, and whom they were soon to need so sorely. ... It is a mystery and tragedy of European history that a people capable of every heroic virtue ... as individuals, should repeatedly show such inveterate faults in almost every aspect of their governmental life." Churchill also associated such behaviour with hyenas.

In 2009 Polish president Lech Kaczyński declared during 70th anniversary of start of World War II, which was welcomed by the Czech and Slovak diplomatic delegations:

"Poland's participation in the annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 was not only an error, but above all a sin. And we in Poland can admit this error rather than look for excuses. We need to draw conclusions from Munich and they apply to modern times: you can't give way to imperialism."

The Polish annexation of Zaolzie is frequently brought up by Russian media as a counter-argument to Soviet-Nazi cooperation.

World War II
On 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, starting World War II in Europe, and subsequently made Trans-Olza part of the Military district of Upper Silesia. On 26 October 1939 Nazi Germany unilaterally annexed Trans-Olza as part of Landkreis Teschen. During the war, strong Germanization was introduced by the authorities. The Jews were in the worst position, followed by the Poles. Poles received lower food rations, they were supposed to pay extra taxes, they were not allowed to enter theatres, cinemas, etc. Polish and Czech education ceased to exist, Polish organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited. Katowice's Bishop Adamski was deposed as apostolic administrator for the Catholic parishes in Trans-Olza and on 23 December 1939 Cesare Orsenigo, nuncio to Germany, returned them to their original archdioceses of Breslau or Olomouc, respectively, with effect of 1 January 1940.

The German authorities introduced terror into Trans-Olza. The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia, many of whom died during the war. Mass killings, executions, arrests, taking locals to forced labour and deportations to concentration camps all happened on a daily basis. The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in and around Żywocice on 6 August 1944. This massacre is known as the Żywocice tragedy (Tragedia Żywocicka). The resistance movement, mostly composed of Poles, was fairly strong in Trans-Olza. So-called Volksliste – a document in which a non-German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it; refusal to sign this document could lead to deportation to a concentration camp – were introduced. Local people who took them were later on enrolled in the Wehrmacht. Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to take them. The World War II death toll in Trans-Olza is estimated at about 6,000 people: about 2,500 Jews, 2,000 other citizens (80% of them being Poles) and more than 1,000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht (those who took the Volksliste). Also a few hundred Poles from Trans-Olza were murdered by Soviets in the Katyn massacre. Percentage-wise, Trans-Olza suffered the worst human loss from the whole of Czechoslovakia – about 2.6% of the total population.

Since 1945

Immediately after World War II, Trans-Olza was returned to Czechoslovakia within its 1920 borders, although local Poles had hoped it would again be given to Poland. Most Czechoslovaks of German ethnicity were expelled, and the local Polish population again suffered discrimination, as many Czechs blamed them for the discrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938–1939. Polish organizations were banned, and the Czechoslovak authorities carried out many arrests and dismissed many Poles from work. The situation had somewhat improved when the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took power in February 1948. Polish property deprived by the German occupants during the war was never returned.

As to the Catholic parishes in Trans-Olza pertaining to the Archdiocese of Breslau Archbishop Bertram, then residing in the episcopal Jánský vrch castle in Czechoslovak Javorník, appointed František Onderek (1888–1962) as vicar general for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau on 21 June 1945. In July 1946 Pope Pius XII elevated Onderek to Apostolic Administrator for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau (colloquially: Apostolic Administration of Český Těšín; Apoštolská administratura českotěšínská), seated in Český Těšín, thus disentangling the parishes from Breslau's jurisdiction. On 31 May 1978 Pope Paul VI merged the apostolic administration into the Archdiocese of Olomouc through his Apostolic constitution Olomoucensis et aliarum.

Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it existed on 1 January 1938. After the Communist takeover of power, the industrial boom continued and many immigrants arrived in the area (mostly from other parts of Czechoslovakia, mainly from Slovakia). The arrival of Slovaks significantly changed the ethnic structure of the area, as almost all the Slovak immigrants assimilated into the Czech majority in the course of time. The number of self-declared Slovaks is rapidly declining. The last Slovak primary school was closed in Karviná several years ago. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Trans-Olza has been part of the independent Czech Republic. However, a significant Polish minority still remains there.

In the European Union
The entry of both the Czech Republic and Poland to the European Union in May 2004, and especially the entry of the countries to the EU's passport-free Schengen zone in late 2007, reduced the significance of territorial disputes, ending systematic controls on the border between the countries. Signs prohibiting passage across the state border were removed, with people now allowed to cross the border freely at any point of their choosing.

The area belongs mostly to the Cieszyn Silesia Euroregion with a few municipalities in the Euroregion Beskydy.

Census data
Ethnic structure of Trans-Olza based on census results: Sources: Zahradnik 1992, 178–179. Siwek 1996, 31–38.

title: Trans-Olza


text:
Talk:Socrates programme

I moved the page from "program" to "programme" because that's how the Euro Commission spells it. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 13:35, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

I have updated the article to reflect the fact that since Jan 1 2007 the Socrates programme no longer exists; it has been replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme 2006-2013. Raggio 16:15, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

Move?

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Page moved Non-controversial. Ten Pound Hammer, his otters and a clue-bat • (Many otters • One bat • One hammer) 21:03, 3 March 2010 (UTC) SOCRATES programme → Socrates programme —
 * WP:MOSTM about the uppercasing. Anthony Appleyard (talk) 15:29, 3 March 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Socrates programme


text:
Reggio Emilia

Reggio nell'Emilia (Rèz; Regium Lepidi), usually referred to as Reggio Emilia, or simply Reggio by its inhabitants, and known until 1861 as Reggio di Lombardia, is a city in northern Italy, in the Emilia-Romagna region. It has about 171,944 inhabitants and is the main comune (municipality) of the province of Reggio Emilia.The inhabitants of Reggio nell'Emilia are called Reggiani, while the inhabitants of Reggio di Calabria, in the southwest of the country, are called Reggini.

The old town has a hexagonal form, which derives from the ancient walls, and the main buildings are from the 16th–17th centuries. The commune's territory lies entirely on a plain, crossed by the Crostolo stream.

Ancient and early Middle Ages
Reggio began as a historical site with the construction by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus of the Via Aemilia, leading from Piacenza to Rimini (187 BC). Reggio became a judicial administration centre, with a forum called at first Regium Lepidi, then simply Regium, whence the city's current name.

During the Roman age Regium is cited only by Festus and Cicero, as one of the military stations on the Via Aemilia. However, it was a flourishing city, a Municipium with its own statutes, magistrates and art colleges.

Apollinaris of Ravenna brought Christianity in the 1st century CE. The sources confirm the presence of a bishopric in Reggio after the Edict of Milan (313). In 440 the Reggio diocese was placed under the jurisdiction of Ravenna by Western Roman Emperor Valentinianus III. At the end of the 4th century, however, Reggio had decayed so much that Saint Ambrose included it among the dilapidated cities. Further damage occurred with the Barbarian invasions. After the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 Reggio was part of Odoacer's realm. In 489 it came under Ostrogothic control; from 539 it was part of the Roman Empire (Italy), but was taken by Alboin's Lombards in 569. Reggio was chosen as Duchy of Reggio seat. In 773, the Franks took Reggio. Charlemagne gave the bishop the authority to exercise royal authority over the city and established the diocese' limits (781). In 888, Reggio was handed over to the Kings of Italy. In 899, the Magyars heavily damaged it, killing Bishop Azzo II. As a result of this, new walls were built. On 31 October 900 Emperor Louis III gave authority for the erection of a castrum (castle) in the city's centre.

In 1002, Reggio's territory, together with that of Parma, Brescia, Modena, Mantua and Ferrara, were merged into the March of Tuscany, later held by Matilde of Canossa.

Free commune

Reggio became a free commune around the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century. In 1167 it was a member of the Lombard League and took part in the Battle of Legnano. In 1183 the city signed the Treaty of Konstanz, from which the city's consul, Rolando della Carità, received the imperial investiture. The subsequent peace spurred a period of prosperity: Reggio adopted new statutes, had a mint, schools with celebrated masters, and developed its trades and arts. It also increasingly subjugated the castles of the neighbouring areas. At this time the Crostolo stream was deviated westwards, to gain space for the city. The former course of the stream was turned into an avenue called Corso della Ghiara (gravel), nowadays Corso Garibaldi.

The 12th and 13th century, however, were also a period of violent internal struggle between the Scopazzati (meaning "swept away from the city with brooms", noblemen) and Mazzaperlini (meaning "lice killers", plebeians) parties, and later those of Ruggeri and Malaguzzi, involved in a bitter domestic rivalry. In 1152 Reggio also warred with Parma and in 1225 with Modena, as part of the general struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. In 1260 25,000 penitents, led by a Perugine hermit, entered the city, and this event calmed the situation for a while, spurring a momentous flourishing of religious fervour. But disputes soon resurfaced, and as early as 1265 the Ghibellines killed the Guelph's leader, Caco da Reggio, and gained preeminence. Arguments with the Bishop continued and two new parties formed, the Inferiori and Superiori. Final victory went to the latter.

To thwart the abuses of powerful families such as the Sessi, Fogliani and Canossa, the Senate of Reggio gave the city's rule for a period of three years to Obizzo II d'Este. This choice marked the future path of Reggio under the seignory of the latter's family, as Obizzo continued to rule de facto after his mandate has ceased. His son Azzo was expelled by the Reggiani in 1306, creating a republic ruled by 800 common people. In 1310 the Emperor Henry VII imposed Marquis Spinetto Malaspina as vicar, but he was soon driven out. The republic ended in 1326 when Cardinal Bertrando del Poggetto annexed Reggio to the Papal States.

The city was subsequently under the suzerainty of John of Bohemia, Nicolò Fogliani and Mastino II della Scala, who in 1336 gave it to Luigi Gonzaga. Gonzaga built a citadel in the St. Nazario quarter, and destroyed 144 houses. In 1356 the Milanese Visconti, helped by 2,000 exiled Reggiani, captured the city, starting an unsettled period of powersharing with the Gonzaga. In the end the latter sold Reggio to the Visconti for 5,000 ducats. In 1405 Ottobono Terzi of Parma seized Reggio, but was killed by Michele Attendolo, who handed the city over to Nicolò III d'Este, who therefore became seignor of Reggio. The city, however, maintained a relevant autonomy, with laws and coinage of its own. Niccolò was succeeded by his illegitimate son Lionello, and, from 1450, by Borso d'Este.

Duchy of Reggio
In 1452, Borso was awarded the title of Duke of Modena and Reggio by Frederick III. Borso's successor, Ercole I, imposed heavy levies on the city and appointed the poet Matteo Maria Boiardo, born in the nearby town of Scandiano, as its governor. Later another famous Italian writer, Francesco Guicciardini, held the same position. In 1474, Ludovico Ariosto, author of Orlando Furioso, was born in the Malaguzzi palace, near the present day townhall. He was the first son of a knight from Ferrara, who was in charge of the Citadel, and a noblewoman from Reggio, Daria Maleguzzi Valeri. As a grown man he would be sent to Reggio as governor on behalf of the dukes of Ferrara, and would spend time in a villa outside the town ("Il Mauriziano") that still stands.

In 1513, Reggio was handed over to Pope Julius II. The city was returned to the Este after the death of Hadrian VI on 29 September 1523. In 1551 Ercole II d'Este destroyed the suburbs of the city in his program of reconstruction of the walls. At the end of the century work on the city's famous Basilica della Ghiara began, on the site where a miracle was believed to have occurred. The Este rule continued until 1796, with short interruptions in 1702 and 1733–1734.

Napoleonic age and restoration

The arrival of the republican French troops was greeted with enthusiasm in the city. On 21 August 1796, the ducal garrison of 600 men was driven off, and the Senate claimed the rule of Reggio and its duchy. On 26 September, the Provisional Government's volunteers pushed back an Austrian column, in the Battle of Montechiarugolo. Though minor, this clash is considered the first one of the Italian Risorgimento. Napoleon himself awarded the Reggiani with 500 rifles and 4 guns. Later he occupied Emilia and formed a new province, the Cispadane Republic, whose existence was proclaimed in Reggio on 7 January 1797. The Italian national flag, named Il Tricolore (three-colours flag), was sewn on that occasion by Reggio women. In this period of patriotic fervour, Jozef Wybicki, a lieutenant in the Polish troops of General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, an ally of Napoleon, composed in Reggio the Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which in 1927 became the Polish national anthem.

The 1815 Treaty of Vienna returned Reggio to Francis IV of Austria-Este, but in 1831 Modena rose up against him, and Reggio followed its example organizing a corps under the command of General Carlo Zucchi. However, on 9 March, the Duke conquered the city with his escort of Austrian soldiers.

In 1848, Duke Francis V left his state fearing a revolution and Reggio proclaimed its union with Piedmont. The latter's defeat at the Novara brought the city back under the Este control. In 1859 Reggio, under dictator Luigi Carlo Farini, became part of the united Italy and, with the plebiscite of 10 March 1860, definitively entered the new unified Kingdom.

Contemporary history
Reggio then went through a period of economic and population growth from 1873 to the destruction of the ancient walls. In 1911, it had 70,000 inhabitants. A strong socialist tradition grew. On 7 July, the city hosted the 13th National Congress of the Italian Socialist Party. On 26 July 1943, the fascist régime's fall was cheered with enthusiasm by the Reggiani. Numerous partisan bands were formed in the city and surrounding countryside.

On 27 April 2023 the City of Reggio Emilia is one of the winner of the prize European Capitals of Inclusion and Diversity.

Jewish history
Jews began arriving to Reggio in the early 15th century. Many Jews were Sephardim from Spain, Portugal and other parts of Italy. Nearly all were fleeing religious persecution. The Jewish community was prosperous and enjoyed considerable growth for the next several hundred years. The Synagogue of Reggio Emilia was relocated in 1672 into the ghetto, and rebuilt in 1858.

After the Napoleonic era the Jews of Reggio gained emancipation and began to migrate to other parts of Europe looking for greater economic and social freedom. Thus, the Jewish community in Reggio began to lower. The German occupation during World War II and the Holocaust hastened the decline. Today, only one Jew remains in Reggio Emilia. The Jewish Community of Reggio Emilia was merged with Modena's. However, an unused synagogue and burial ground still exist. In 2016 the City Council posed some small street plates in front of the houses of the deported Jews to preserve their remembrance.

Many notable rabbinic scholars have resided in Reggio. These include Isaac Foa, Immanuel Sonino, Obadiah ben Israel Sforno, Nathan ben Reuben David Spira, Menahem Azariah Fano, Baruch Abraham ben Elhanan David Foa, Hezekiah ben Isaac Foa, Isaac ben Vardama Foa, Israel Nissim Foa, Israel Solomon Longhi, Isaiah Mordecai ben Israel Hezekiah Bassani, Israel Benjamin ben Isaiah Bassani, Elhanan David Carmi, Benjamin ben Eliezer ha-Kohen, Joshua ben Raphael Fermi, Moses Benjamin Foa, Abram Michael Fontanella, Judah Ḥayyim Fontanella, Israel Berechiah Fontanella, Raphael Jehiel Sanguinetti, Isaac Samson d'Angeli, R. J. Bolognese, Hananiah Elhanan Ḥai ha-Kohen, Jacob Levi, Moses Benjamin Levi, Israel Berechiah Sanguinetti, David Jacob Maroni, Giuseppe Lattes, Alessandro da Fano, Lazzaro Laide Tedesco, and Shimshon Chaim Nachmani.

Climate
The climate in Reggio Emilia is temperate continental, with hot rather moist summers (the temperatures can sometimes rise above 35 °C) (95 °F) and fairly frigid winters with frequent frosts (the temperatures can go below -10 °C) (14 °F). Precipitations are evenly distributed all year long, but October, November and April are the most rainy months, while July and January are the most arid. In the city you can rarely see snow, even though almost every year there is a period when it is snowing. Due to the rather high temperatures, it does not settle, or if it does, the layer of snow is not very consistent.

During Autumn and Winter it is very common, especially in the areas outside the city, to encounter very thick fog, even though nowadays it is less frequent than in the past. Other meteorological phenomena that one can expect in the area is the hard rain, freezing rain during winter, and hail during summer but rarely during spring.

The area is not particularly windy and there are often days of total calm, especially during the anticyclonic phases in winter, while spring is more ventilated. The most intense winds are the ones blowing from North-East (Bora) or from South-West (Libeccio). The latter, during its descent from the Northern Apennines, it sometimes tends to become a downslope wind and thus being very dry and hot. In rare and particular conditions, the downwind of the Alps, the Foehn, can reach Reggio Emilia from the North-West. In Reggio Emilia, the average annual high temperature is 18 °C, the annual low temperature is 9 °C, and the annual precipitation is 700 mm.

Childhood education
The Reggio Emilia approach to preschool education was started by the schools of Reggio Emilia after World War II and is well known around the world. It is based and inspired on theories of Malaguzzi, Bruner, Vygotsky, Dewey, Piaget and Gardner. Reggio Emilia holds the Loris Malaguzzi International Centre, a modern structure where the Reggio Emilia approach is implemented, exported and spread around the world.

Economy
The economy of the province of Reggio Emilia was for a long time based on agriculture. One typical product, known worldwide and imitated, is Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. Another is Lambrusco wine. Reggio Emilia produce also the "Balsamic Vinegar", a condiment for salad but also cheese, strawberries and many other dishes. In the twentieth century Reggio Emilia and its territory saw also a rapid development of small and medium industries, particularly in the sector of agricultural machinery. For more than 100 years, there has been a strong tradition that supported the development of consumers'cooperatives, as well as, building and banking cooperatives. New developments in mechanics and information technology are at the origin of some new companies operating in mechatronics. Another well-established sector is the ceramic tiles industry (mainly concentrated in the districts of Scandiano and Casalgrande).

Other leading sectors include: electronics (Cellular Line, Phonocar, RCF audio); finance (Credito Emiliano); fashion (Marina Rinaldi, Max Mara); food (Newlat); machinery (ARGO SpA, Emak, Interpump Group, Landi Renzo, Lombardini S.r.l.; Preston & Barbieri, Smeg (appliances)); utilities (Iren Group).

The industrial growth has attracted immigration from North and Central Africa, East Europe, and Far East (China, Pakistan, India). The immigration rate in the province is about 25%. Researches on the quality of life indicate that in recent years Reggio Emilia is in very good position among Italian provinces.

Transport
Reggio Emilia railway station, opened in 1859, forms part of the Milan–Bologna railway. It is also a terminus of three secondary railways, linking Reggio Emilia with Ciano d'Enza, Guastalla and Sassuolo, respectively. The station is situated at Piazza Guglielmo Marconi, at the eastern edge of the city centre.

The other major railway station, Reggio Emilia AV Mediopadana, is on the Milan–Bologna high-speed railway (there is also a connection with Reggio Emilia-Guastalla railway). It is located at the Mancasale locality, approximately 4 km north from the city centre.

Along with this, there is a plan to construct a tram in the city. The tram will run from the Mancasale Industrial zone in the north to Rivalta in the south, stopping at the Reggio Emilia AV Mediopadana railway station, Reggio Emilia railway station and other neighborhoods. The tram system has undergone a feasibility study, and is set to open in 2026.

Sports
Reggio Emilia is home to various professional sports clubs and arenas:
 * Pallacanestro Reggiana, which competes in basketball Serie A and has won 1 Italian Supercup and 1 Eurochallenge.
 * A.C. Reggiana 1919, which competes in Serie C.
 * Rugby Reggio, playing in Eccellenza (Italian rugby top division).
 * Volley Tricolore, playing in Serie A2.
 * Kaos Reggio Emilia, playing in futsal Serie A and formed in 2017 after the merging of F.lli Bari Reggio Emilia and Kaos Futsal Ferrara.

The main sports venues in the city are:
 * Stadio Città del Tricolore (23,717 capacity), located near the A1 highway and home to Reggiana and U.S. Sassuolo home games.
 * PalaBigi (4,500 capacity), located in city centre.
 * Stadio Mirabello (4,500 capacity), located in the city centre.
 * Palasport Fanticini, located in the Tribunal hub.
 * Stadio Canalina, located in the Canalina borough.

Religious buildings

 * Basilica della Ghiara: Main church of the city; begun in 1597, and completed in Baroque style.
 * Basilica di San Prospero: Built in the 10th century and dedicated to Prosper of Reggio, a bishop of the city, it was rebuilt by Luca Corti and Matteo Fiorentini between 1514 and 1523. The façade, with eleven statues of saints and patrones, was redesigned by Giovan Battista Cattani in the mid-18th century. It includes a pleasant belfry/tower, begun in 1535 and never quite finished, with an octagonal plant. The interior of the church has a Latin cross plant, with three naves. The apse houses the splendid fresco Last Judgement, by the Bolognese artist Camillo Procaccini. Also noteworthy are the wooden choir from 1546 and the Assumption altarpiece by Tommaso Laureti and Ludovico Carracci (1602).
 * Cathedral: Built in 9th through 12th centuries. It was rebuilt in the second half of the 16th century. It has three naves with works by Guercino, Palma the Younger, Prospero Spani and Alessandro Tiarini.
 * Baptistery of Saint John the Baptist.
 * Sant'Agostino: church once dedicated to Saint Apollinaris, its dedication was changed to St Augustine in 1268 when it was rebuilt, along with the annexed convent, by the Augustinian friars. It was restored in 1452, when the tower was also erected. The current interior dates from 1645 to 1666, while the façade (1746) was designed by Alfonso Torreggiani and built by Giovan Battista Cattani. Its restored theatre hosted Model European Parliament sessions in 2015.
 * The small Baroque Christ's Oratory.
 * San Girolamo e Vitale: church mentioned in document in 857 and rebuilt in 1646 by Gaspare Vigarani. It consists of three separate churches in the same building, two above ground and one underground; the crypt church houses a replica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.
 * San Francesco: church.
 * San Giorgio: Baroque church with cupola (1746) designed by Alfonso Torreggiani.
 * San Giovannino: (1545) church houses Baroque frescoes (1613) by Sisto Badalocchio, Lorenzo Franchi, Tommaso Sandrini, Paolo Guidotti and paintings by Tiarini.
 * Santi Pietro Apostolo e Prospero Vescovo (1586): church designed by Giulio della Torre; cupola erected in 1625, façade in 1782, while the cloisters in the 16th century (the small cloister by Bartolomeo Spani in 1520, the works in the main cloister ended in 1580). The interior is in a Latin cross shape with a single nave. It houses notable Baroque paintings by Alessandro Tiarini, Pietro Desani, Luca da Reggio, Camillo Gavasetti and Paolo Emilio Besenzi.CHIOSTRI_SAN_PIETRO_RE.JPG
 * San Filippo Neri: Baroque church dedicated to St Philip Neri.
 * San Spiridione Oratory
 * San Stefano: church first mentioned when its site was outside the city walls, as a Templars' church.
 * Synagogue of Reggio Emilia rebuilt in 1845 by Pietro Marchelli.
 * Chiesa Battista la Verità: Main Baptist church of Reggio Emilia.

Secular buildings

 * Bishop's Palace.
 * Palazzo dei Musei
 * Palazzo Ancini.
 * Palazzo Busetti.
 * Palazzo del Capitano del Popolo (1280, restored in 1432, and again in the 1920s, when its northern and western façades were embellished with Ghibelline merlons and crests of ancient Reggio's Captains and Communities. In the interior is the Sala dei Difensori, "Defenders' Room"), a wide hall once used for the council of the Reggiani people.
 * Palazzo del Carbone.
 * Palazzo Cassoli.
 * Palazzo Cassoli - Tirelli.
 * Palazzo Comunale (begun in 1414), with the Tricolore Hall and the Museum of the Italian Flag. The Torre del Bordello ("Brothel Tower"), built in 1489, houses a museum of the Reggiani's deeds of 1796–1831.
 * Palazzo Corbelli: 19th century palace, with facade designed by Pietro Marchelli
 * Palazzo Ducale (18th century) – see italian article.
 * Palazzo Fontanelli Sacrati.
 * Palazzo Magnani.
 * Palazzo Masdoni.
 * Palazzo da Mosto
 * Palazzo Pratonieri.
 * Palazzo San Giorgio
 * Palazzo Scaruffi.
 * Palazzo Spaletti-Trivelli
 * Palazzo Tirelli.
 * Palazzo Torello Malaspina.
 * Teatro Municipale: Neoclassical building
 * Teatro Ariosto - see Italian article.
 * Monumento ai Caduti, Parco del Popolo (1927)
 * Monument to the Concordi, Parco del Popolo: Ancient roman monument

Bridges

 * Autostrada A1 bridges, three bridges designed by Santiago Calatrava and opened in 2005–2006. The three bridges connect the Austostrada del Sole A1 (the main Italian north to south motorway) to the city of Reggio Emilia. A central arch bridge spans the Milan-Bologna high-speed railway line and the motorway, while twin cable-stayed bridges are at either end.  The twin bridges pass over service roundabouts and access roads to allow connections with the adjacent Reggio Emilia AV Mediopadana high-speed railway station.
 * In 2009, the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork gave the three bridges a European Steel Design Award, stating that the twin bridges' original visual effects at different angles give the two bridges "the aspect of huge musical instruments."

Painters and sculptors

 * Giacomo Benevelli
 * Francesco Burani
 * Antonio da Correggio ("Il Correggio")
 * Raffaellino da Reggio
 * Paolo da San Leocadio
 * Luca Ferrari ("Luca da Reggio")

 * Antonio Fontanesi

 * Anselmo Govi

 * Cristoforo Munari
 * Lelio Orsi
 * Prospero Spani ("Il Clemente")
 * Antonio Ligabue

People

 * Elvis Abbruscato, footballer
 * Daniele Adani, former footballer and television pundit
 * Carlo Ancelotti, football manager and former footballer
 * Luca Ariatti, former footballer
 * Ludovico Ariosto, poet
 * Stefano Baldini, marathon champion
 * Benny Benassi, musician
 * Orietta Berti, singer
 * Matteo Maria Boiardo, poet
 * Kobe Bryant, American basketball player. He lived in Reggio Emilia in his youth.
 * Riccardo Cervi, basketball player
 * Philip Corner, composer, Fluxus artist
 * Black Box (band), band
 * Graziano Delrio, politician
 * Giuseppe Dossetti, politician
 * Zucchero Fornaciari, singer
 * Sonia Ganassi, opera singer
 * Gino Giaroli, former footballer
 * Luigi Ghirri, photographer
 * Giovanni Guicciardi, opera singer
 * Nilde Iotti, politician
 * Maurizio Landini, general secretary of CGIL
 * Luciano Ligabue, singer
 * Hachim Mastour, footballer
 * Nicolo Melli, basketball player
 * Federico Mussini, basketball player
 * Antonio Pacchioni, scientist
 * Romano Prodi, economist and politician
 * Serge Reggiani, actor and singer
 * Meuccio Ruini, politician
 * Angelo Secchi, scientist
 * Marco Silvestri, footballer
 * Lazzaro Spallanzani, scientist
 * Ferruccio Tagliavini, opera singer
 * Pier Vittorio Tondelli, writer
 * Romolo Valli, actor
 * Giovanni Battista Venturi, scientist
 * Ermete Zacconi, actor
 * Iva Zanicchi, singer and politician
 * Cesare Zavattini, writer and painter
 * CCCP Fedeli alla linea, band
 * Offlaga Disco Pax, band
 * Raw Power (band), band

Frazioni (hamlets)
- Bagno - Cadè - Canali - Cavazzoli - Castellazzo - Cella - Codemondo - Corticella - Coviolo - Fogliano - Gaida - Gavassa - Gavasseto - Mancasale - Marmirolo - Masone - Massenzatico - Ospizio - Pieve Modolena - Pratofontana - Rivalta - Roncadella - Roncocesi - Sabbione - San Bartolomeo - San Maurizio - San Pellegrino - San Prospero Strinati - Sesso.

Boroughs
- Acque Chiare - Baragalla - Buco del Signore - Canalina - Centro Storico (Historical Centre) - Lungocrostolo - Mirabello - Ospedale (Hospital) - Ospizio - Quartier Giardino - Rosta Nuova - Stazione (Railway station)

International relations

 * Reggio Emilia is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission Intercultural cities programme.
 * Reggio Emilia is a member city of Eurotowns network.

Twin towns – sister cities
Reggio Emilia is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇸 Beit Jala, Palestine
 * 🇵🇱 Bydgoszcz, Poland
 * 🇲🇩 Chișinău, Moldova
 * 🇫🇷 Dijon, France
 * 🇺🇸 Fort Worth, United States
 * 🇪🇸 Girona, Spain
 * 🇷🇸 Kragujevac, Serbia
 * 🇲🇿 Pemba, Mozambique
 * Polokwane, South Africa
 * 🇩🇪 Schwerin, Germany
 * Zadar, Croatia

Friendship

 * Ekurhuleni, South Africa
 * 🇵🇸 Nablus, Palestine
 * 🇧🇷 Rio Branco, Brazil
 * 🇨🇳 Rizhao, China

title: Reggio Emilia


text:
Martha Jefferson

Martha Skelton Jefferson (née Wayles; October 30, 1748 – September 6, 1782) was the wife of Thomas Jefferson from 1772 until her death. She served as First Lady of Virginia during Jefferson's term as governor from 1779 to 1781. She died in 1782, 19 years before he became president.

Of the six children born to Thomas and Martha, only two survived to adulthood, Martha and Mary. Martha died four months after the birth of her last child. The couple's letters to one another were burned, though by whom is unknown, and Thomas rarely spoke of her, so she remains a somewhat enigmatic figure. (Similarly, Jefferson did not speak much of his mother, Jane Randolph Jefferson.)

It is widely held that as a widower, Thomas had a long-standing relationship and children with Martha's half-sister, Sally Hemings, a favored enslaved woman who was three-quarters white.

Early life and education
Martha Wayles was born on October 30, 1748 (O.S. October 19, 1748), the only surviving child born to Martha Eppes Wayles (1721–1748) and John Wayles (1715–1773), near Colonial Williamsburg in Charles City County, Virginia.

Martha's mother, Martha Eppes Wayles, had previously given birth to twins in 1746, but neither survived; the girl was stillborn and the boy died hours after his birth. Martha was nicknamed "Patsy". Martha's father John was a Lancaster-born emigrant to the Thirteen Colonies who worked as an attorney and prosperous planter and slave trader. In addition, he was an agent for the Farrell and Jones company based in Bristol, undertaking activities such as debt collection on their behalf. Martha Eppes Wayles was a daughter of Francis Eppes, a settler of the Bermuda Hundred, an early Virginian colony established along the Appomattox River. While little is known of Martha Eppes Wayles' life, she had an appreciation for fine literature, such as her favorite novel, Tristram Shandy and Les Aventures de Télémaque. (Her rebound version of the book, The Adventures of Telemachus, contains her signature on the title page and resides at the Library of Congress).

Martha Wayles had two stepmothers, neither of whom lived long after their marriages to John Wayles, and through one stepmother she had four half-sisters. Wayles married Tabitha Cocke, of Malvern Hill. They had four children: Sarah, Elizabeth, Tabitha and Anne. Sarah died in infancy. Tabitha and Anne married the Skipwith brothers, Robert and Henry, respectively. Tabitha Skipwith died with her first childbirth. Nancy Skipwith, "Aunty Skipwith" to the Jefferson children and grandchildren, died in 1798. Elizabeth married Francis Eppes, Martha's cousin, and had two sons, Richard and John Wayles Eppes, the latter of whom married Thomas Jefferson's second daughter, Mary Jefferson. Wayles' second wife died most likely after the birth of Anne in August 1756 and before he married his third wife in January 1760.

On January 26, 1760, Wayles married his third wife, Elizabeth Lomax Skelton (she was the widow of Reuben Skelton, an older brother of Bathurst Skelton, his daughter Martha's first husband). Without producing a child with Wayles, she died on February 10, 1761. John Wayles then took Betty Hemings as a mistress, and gave Martha additional half-siblings. Martha likely received her education—including literature, dance, music, French language and Bible study— from private tutors or women in the family. She became the "Lady of the House" after her second stepmother died when she was 13 years of age and was often a hostess to John Wayles' social events and helped manage his business and household affairs. She knew how to make candles, soap, butter and remedies for illnesses.

Marriages and children
Martha Wayles first married Bathurst Skelton (born 1744), an attorney, on November 20, 1766, at age 18. Their son, John, was born on November 7, 1767. Skelton died on September 30, 1768. Martha then moved back to The Forest following her husband's death. Three-year-old John died on June 10, 1771.

Thomas Jefferson
Her third cousin, Thomas Jefferson, likely began courting Martha in December 1770. They shared an interest in horse-back riding, literature, and music. As part of Martha's dowry for their January 1, 1772 wedding, Thomas and Martha received property, including the Elk Hill plantation, where Martha had lived with her first husband, and a great number of slaves, which helped Thomas complete the construction of the Monticello residence and landscaping of the estate's 5,000 acres. While Monticello was undergoing construction and Thomas was away, Martha often stayed at the Elk Hill plantation.

They had six children, but only two daughters reached adulthood. An unnamed son, Jane Randolph, and Lucy Elizabeth, who died of whooping cough, died as infants. Only the eldest, Martha "Patsy" Jefferson, survived past the age of 26:
 * Martha "Patsy" Jefferson (September 27, 1772 – October 10, 1836)
 * Jane Randolph Jefferson (April 3, 1774 – September 1775)
 * unnamed son (May 28 – June 14, 1777), lived for 17 days
 * Mary "Maria or Polly" Jefferson (August 1, 1778 – April 17, 1804)
 * Lucy Elizabeth Jefferson (November 3, 1780 – April 15, 1781)
 * Lucy Elizabeth Jefferson (May 8, 1782 – c. October 13, 1784)

Slaves and Wayles' estate
Martha and Thomas Jefferson acquired a number of slaves as part of her dowry for her marriage, and later from the estate of John Wayles, which made Thomas the second largest slave owner in Albemarle County. The dowry increased the number of slaves he owned from 52 to 187.

Among the more than 100 slaves were Betty Hemings, of mixed-race ancestry, and her 10 mixed-race children. The youngest, an infant, was Sally Hemings. The six youngest were three-quarters white in ancestry and half-siblings of Martha Wayles Jefferson, as they were fathered by her father. Betty also had four children born before those of Wayles'. All the Hemings family members gained privileged positions among the slaves at Monticello, where they were trained and worked as domestic servants, chefs, and highly skilled artisans. Sally Hemings, who was fathered by John Wayles, was the half-sister of Martha Wayles Jefferson, and the subject of a scandal about her relationship with Thomas Jefferson.

Martha's father, John Wayles, died at age 58 in 1773. He left substantial property, including slaves, but the estate was encumbered with debt. Upon Wayles' death, Betty Hemings and her six children with John Wayles were moved "without hesitancy" to Monticello to prevent the Hemings from being separated. The estate was worth £30,000, but was in debt to Farrell and Jones in Briston for £11,000. Wayles three sons-in-law, including Thomas Jefferson, decided to break up the estate and its debts. Martha and her husband Thomas Jefferson inherited the Willis Creek and Elk Hill plantations and a total of 135 people, including members of the Hemings family. They also inherited £4,000 in debt. Jefferson and other co-executors of the Wayles estate worked for years to clear the debt and the overwhelming debt led to Thomas Jefferson's financial ruin.

Contemporaneous descriptions
No contemporaneous portraits of Martha Jefferson survive, but she has been described by family members and Isaac Granger Jefferson as small, graceful, and pretty, and like her daughter, Mary Jefferson Eppes. She was described by Robert Skipwith, her sister's husband, as having possessed "... the greatest fund of good nature ... that sprightliness and sensibility which promises to ensure you the greatest happiness mortals are capable of enjoying." As Thomas was having Monticello built, he obtained a piano forte from England for Martha as a wedding present. She played the harpsichord piano forte, while Thomas Jefferson played violins. Martha reportedly played the harpsichord "very skillfully and who, is in all respects, a very agreeable sensible and accomplished lady," according to a Hessian officer, Jacob Rubsamen, who visited Monticello in 1780.

According to her daughter, Martha Jefferson was highly educated and musical, a constant reader, with a good nature and a vivacious temper that sometimes bordered on tartness. She had great affection for her husband. She was a little over 5 ft tall, with a lithe figure, auburn hair, and hazel eyes. She was an accomplished needlewoman, some of her embroidery still exists. Martha maintained a collection of notes regarding her household duties and recipes, such as butchering and curing meat and the creation of large batches of soft and hard soap, candles, and beer. During her first year of marriage, she began the practice of brewing beer, producing 170 usgal that year.

First lady of Virginia

Martha Jefferson was First Lady of Virginia from 1779 to 1781, during the American Revolution. In that capacity, and in response to a request from Martha Washington, Mrs. Jefferson led a drive among the women of Virginia to raise funds and supplies for her state's militia in the Continental Army to the extent that her health permitted. The letter to James Madison's mother, Eleanor Conway Madison, is the only letter written by Martha Jefferson known to now exist. She published an appeal in the Virginia Gazette, announcing that collections would be taken in the churches. Nationally, the Ladies Association raised $300,000 to buy linen shirts for Washington's army.

Health problems

Managing the Jefferson household became increasingly difficult for Martha Jefferson, who had endured at least one case of smallpox, may have had diabetes, and was weakened by her numerous pregnancies, which would ultimately kill her. She bore the stress of having to flee a British invasion of Richmond in early January 1781 and a raid on Monticello in June of that year, during which she had to travel with infant children, many of whom died. She was aware that the British were interested in capturing her or her husband.

Thomas limited his political service due to her health. Jefferson was in Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress in 1776, where he drafted the Declaration of Independence over a period of two weeks in June 1776. He wished to return to her as soon as possible. Thomas served as governor and in the House of Delegates in Virginia. He declined the offer to serve as the commissioner to France made by the Continental Congress while she was alive.

Death
The birth of their youngest child in May 1782 was reportedly the most difficult pregnancy for Mrs. Jefferson, having carried a very large baby. Edmund Randolph wrote in the month of her death that Thomas was "inconsolable" about Martha's declining health and pain."

Mrs. Jefferson's health worsened and she died on September 6, 1782, four months after the birth of her last child.

She was buried at Monticello and her tombstone was inscribed with words written by Thomas, the closing of which read: "Torn from him by death. September 6, 1782. This monument of his love is inscribed".

So that her children would not grow up with stepmothers, Martha had asked Thomas Jefferson to never marry again, and he never did. Her request has been attributed to her own disagreeable relationships with her step-mothers. At her death, she was 33; he was 39. Thomas Jefferson died 43 years, 9 months, and 28 days later, on July 4, 1826, at the age of 83, and was buried there as well.

Legacy
Martha Jefferson was portrayed by Blythe Danner in the 1972 film 1776.

title: Martha Jefferson


text:
User:Alsaker

I like knowledge.

--Alsaker 13:44, May 9, 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Alsaker


text:
Steve Konowalchuk

Steven Reed Konowalchuk (born November 11, 1972) is an American former professional ice hockey left winger who played in the NHL with the Washington Capitals and the Colorado Avalanche. Most recently he was the head coach of the WHL's Red Deer Rebels. Konowalchuk is the first player born and raised in Utah to make it to the NHL level.

Playing career
He was drafted by the Washington Capitals in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft, 3rd Round, 58th overall from the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League. During the 2001–02 NHL season he served as co-captain of the Capitals alongside teammate Brendan Witt. In October 2002 it was announced that he would serve as the tenth full-time captain of the Capitals. He would hold the position until he was traded to Colorado by Washington with Washington's third selection in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft in exchange for Bates Battaglia and the rights to Jonas Johansson on October 22, 2003. On September 29, 2006, Konowalchuk announced his retirement after a regular examination detected Long QT syndrome.

Coaching career
After his retirement, Konowalchuk remained within the Avalanche organization and served as an assistant coach to Joe Sacco during the 2009–10 and 2010–11 season. In June 2011, he was named head coach of the Seattle Thunderbirds of the Western Hockey League. He led the team to a WHL championship in the 2016–17 season.

In June 2017, Konowalchuk left the Seattle Thunderbirds to join the NHL's Anaheim Ducks as an assistant coach.

Konowalchuk was fired from the Ducks after just one season. In September 2018, he was hired by the NHL's New York Rangers as an amateur scout, mainly focused on prospects in the Western Hockey League.

On June 8, 2021, the Red Deer Rebels announced that Konowalchuk would take over from owner & general manager, Brent Sutter as head coach of the hockey club.

On May 20, 2024, the St. Louis Blues announced Konowalchuk as the head coach of its AHL affiliate, the Springfield Thunderbirds.

Awards

 * WHL West First All-Star Team – 1992

title: Steve Konowalchuk


text:
Spinola

Spinola is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Agostino Spinola (d. 1537), Italian cardinal
 * Alberto Spinola (born 1943), Italian water polo player
 * Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases (1569–1630), Genoese banker and nobleman who served as a Spanish general
 * António Sebastião Spínola (1875–1956), Portuguese politician
 * António de Spínola (1910–1996), Portuguese soldier and politician
 * Agustín de Spínola Basadone (1597–1649), Spanish cardinal and Archbishop of Seville
 * Battista Spinola, 16th-century Doge of Genoa
 * Benedict Spinola (1519/20–1580), a 16th-century Genoese merchant in London
 * Charles Spinola (died 1622), Beatified Spanish Jesuit missionary martyr in Japan
 * Cristina Spínola (born 1976), Spanish journalist
 * Cristoval Rojas de Spinola (died 1695), Spanish ecclesiastic
 * Felipe Antonio Spinola, 4th Marquis of the Balbases (1665 – after 1721), Spanish courtier and Viceroy of Sicily
 * Filippo Spinola (1535–1593), Italian cardinal
 * Filippo Spinola, 2nd Marquis of Los Balbases (1594–1659)
 * Francis Barretto Spinola (1821–1891), American soldier and congressman
 * Giambattista Spinola (1615–1704), Cardinal and Archbishop of Genoa
 * Giambattista Spinola, Jr (1646–1719), Italian cardinal
 * Giandomenico Spinola (1580–1646), Italian cardinal
 * Giovanni Battista Spinola (1681–1752), Italian cardinal
 * Magdalena Spínola (1896-1991), Guatemalan poet
 * Marcelo Spinola y Maestre (1835–1906), Archbishop of Seville
 * Maximilian Spinola (1780–1857), Italian entomologist
 * Oberto Spinola, 13th-century politician in Genoa
 * Opicino Spinola, early fourteenth century, political leader in Genoa
 * Paolo Spinola, 3rd Marquis of the Balbases (1628–1699), Spanish diplomat
 * Ugo Pietro Spinola (1791–1858), Italian papal diplomat and cardinal

title: Spinola


text:
Bridgeville

Bridgeville can refer to:

Canada

 * Bridgeville, Nova Scotia, in Pictou County

United States

 * Bridgeville, California, unincorporated town in Humboldt County, California, known for being the first town to be sold on eBay
 * Bridgeville, Delaware, town in Sussex County, Delaware
 * Bridgeville, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
 * Bridgeville, New York, hamlet in Sullivan County, New York
 * Bridgeville, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Bridgeville, Pennsylvania, borough in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
 * former name of Elba, Alabama, city in Coffee County, Alabama

title: Bridgeville


text:
Talk:Shamian

I'm not sure, but Shamian Island seems to be really small (see pic at http://members.fortunecity.com/shamian/ ). Should we keep the article? Or just expand it? Sid 13:53, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Small but of great historical importance, in respect to the trade of China with other nations. olivier 11:39, Apr 9, 2005 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Shamian


text:
2004 Spanish Grand Prix

The 2004 Spanish Grand Prix (officially the Formula 1 Gran Premio Marlboro de España 2004) was a Formula One motor race held on 9 May 2004 at the Circuit de Catalunya, Montmeló, Spain. It was Race 5 of 18 in the 2004 FIA Formula One World Championship. The 66-lap race was won by Michael Schumacher for the Ferrari team. His teammate Rubens Barrichello finished second with Jarno Trulli third in a Renault car.

Background
Heading into the fifth race of the season, Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher was leading the World Drivers' Championship with 40 points; Rubens Barrichello was second on 24 points, 16 points behind Schumacher. Behind Schumacher and Barrichello in the Drivers' Championship, BAR driver Jenson Button was third on 23 points, with Juan Pablo Montoya and Fernando Alonso on 18 and 16 points respectively. In the World Constructors' Championship, Ferrari were leading on 64 points and Renault were second on 31 points, with Williams third on 27 points.

Friday drivers
The bottom 6 teams in the 2003 Constructors' Championship were entitled to run a third car in free practice on Friday. These drivers drove on Friday but did not compete in qualifying or the race.

Practice and qualifying
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—two on Friday, and two on Saturday. The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour. The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes.

The qualifying session was run as a one-lap session and took place on Friday and Saturday afternoon. The cars were run one at a time; the Friday running order was determined with the Championship leading heading out first. The Saturday running order was determined by times set in Friday afternoon qualifying with the fastest heading out last and the slowest running first. The lap times from the Friday afternoon session did not determine the grid order.

Race
The race started at 14:00 local time. During the warm-up lap of the race, a man calling himself Jimmy Jump ran through the starting grid, only to be apprehended soon by the security. While he claimed to have many fans (due to his other performances at football matches), he was criticized for risking the lives of the drivers, even though the cars were still travelling at low speed at this point.

Michael Schumacher dominated a largely uneventful race leading home his team-mate Rubens Barrichello. The most notable result was that of the McLaren team, with their drivers Kimi Räikkönen and David Coulthard finishing a lap down and outside of the points scoring positions, a far cry from their usual championship-contending performance.

Championship standings after the race

 * Drivers' Championship standings

 * Constructors' Championship standings

 * Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.

title: 2004 Spanish Grand Prix