text:
Administrative divisions of Moldova

Moldova is divided administratively into two levels:

 * First level:
 * 32 districts or raions (raioane)
 * 3 municipalities (municipii)—specifically Chișinău, Bălți, and Tighina
 * 2 autonomous territorial units: Gagauzia and Left Bank of the Dniester (de facto Transnistria, which is not under control of the government of Moldova)
 * Second level:
 * Villages (sate); two or more villages can form together a commune (comună)
 * Sectors
 * 10 municipalities (municipii)
 * Cities and towns

Localities

Moldova has a total of 1,682 localities; from these 982 are incorporated (de jure with 982 mayors and 982 local councils), including 53 cities/towns, other 13 cities with municipality status (see municipiu), and 916 rural localities. They cover the entire area of the country. A number of villages are self-governed, while others 700 villages are too small to have a separate administration, and are part of either cities/towns/municipalities (41 of them) or communes (659). Few localities are inhabited.

Current divisions
In the administrative-territorial structure of Moldova are 898 second-level administrative territorial units (cities/towns, sectors and villages/communes).

The status of Chișinău, Bălți, and Tighina as municipalities and first-level territorial units of the country allows their suburb villages to have, when large enough, their own mayor and local council. By contrast, the villages that are administratively part of (some of) the other cities do not retain self-rule.

 * Districts (32):

 * District-level municipalities (3):

 * Autonomous territorial units (2):

¹ Tighina and the Administrative-Territorial Units of the Left Bank of the Dniester are under the control of the unrecognized separatist Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR, also known as Transnistria). There, Tighina is known as Bender.

Areas not under central government control

 * Transnistria, which with the exception of six communes (comprising a total of ten localities) corresponds to the geographic part of Moldova situated to the east of the Dniestr (Romanian: Nistru) river, is de jure a part of Moldova, but in fact is governed by breakaway authorities (see also: War of Transnistria). The city of Dubăsari (geographically and administratively in Transnistria, and not in the Dubăsari District), and six communes (administratively in the Dubăsari District of Moldova, and not in the administrative definition of Transnistria), all controlled by the central authorities (except the village of Roghi in commune Molovata Nouă, which is controlled by Tiraspol), form the northern part of the security zone set at the end of the war.
 * Tighina municipality (the city itself, plus the commune Proteagailovca), and three communes (five localities) of Căușeni District (Gîsca, Chițcani, and Cremenciug) are de facto controlled by the breakaway regime of Transnistria. Together with the commune Varnița of Anenii Noi District and the commune Copanca of Căușeni District under Moldovan control, these localities form the southern part of the security zone set at the end of the war. The city of Tighina has both a Moldovan police force (mostly symbolic) and a Transnistrian militsiya force (practically in charge in most instances). In Transnistria, Tighina is known as Bender.

Population

 * The smallest entity electing a mayor is the commune of Salcia, in Taraclia District (population 441). It consists of the village of Salcia, population 382, and the village of Orehovca, population 59. The largest entity is the municipality of Chișinău, electing a mayor for 712,218 inhabitants.
 * The largest number of localities governed by a single commune or city government in Moldova is 6. This is the case for:
 * city of Anenii Noi, population 11,463, of which 3,105 in the 5 suburban villages
 * commune Copăceni, Sîngerei District, population 3,315
 * commune Natalievca, Fălești District, population 2,231
 * commune Tătărăuca Veche, Soroca District, population 2,203
 * On the opposite end, 42 of the 66 cities, and about half the communes of Moldova have local administration providing services for a single locality.

 * There are four or five localities in Moldova with a zero population:
 * village Armanca, commune Vasileuți, Rîșcani District
 * village Chetrișul Nou, commune Chetriș, Fălești District
 * village Pelinia, loc. st. c. f., commune Pelinia, Drochia District
 * village Stălinești, commune Corestăuți, Ocnița District
 * The village of Schinoasa was outlined within commune Țibirica, Călărași District in 2007, and information is not available yet whether it has any population.

 * Village (hamlet) Ivanovca, commune Natalievca, Fălești District, population 19, inhabited by 14 Russians and 5 Ukrainians, is the only inhabited locality in Moldova without any ethnic Moldovans. On the opposite end, one commune, Cigîrleni, Ialoveni District, population 2,411, and 42 villages of sub-commune level (population varying from 1 to 673), have a 100% Moldovan population.

Duplicate names
There are 147 settlement names shared by multiple localities in Moldova. Most notable cases includes these:
 * A town Mărculești, and a different commune Mărculești, both situated in the Florești District
 * A city Dondușeni, and a different commune Dondușeni, both situated in the Dondușeni District
 * A city Drochia, and a different commune Drochia, both situated in the Drochia District
 * A town Costești, in Rîșcani District, with a population of 2,247 (4,109 with 4 suburb villages), the 8th smallest city in Moldova, and a commune (village) Costești, in Ialoveni District, population 11,128, the 2nd largest village in Moldova
 * A town Cornești, in Ungheni District, and a different village Cornești in the same Ungheni District, and also a village Cornești in Hîncești District
 * etc.

Regions
The first-level units (except Transnistria?) are grouped into three regions:

Northern Region
 * 1) Bălți Municipality
 * 2) Briceni
 * 3) Dondușeni
 * 4) Drochia
 * 5) Edineț
 * 6) Fălești
 * 7) Florești
 * 8) Glodeni
 * 9) Ocnița
 * 10) Rîșcani
 * 11) Sîngerei
 * 12) Soroca

Central Region
 * 1) Chișinău Municipality
 * 2) Anenii Noi
 * 3) Călărași
 * 4) Criuleni
 * 5) Dubăsari
 * 6) Hîncești
 * 7) Ialoveni
 * 8) Nisporeni
 * 9) Orhei
 * 10) Rezina
 * 11) Șoldănești
 * 12) Strășeni
 * 13) Tighina Municipality
 * 14) Telenești
 * 15) Ungheni

Southern Region
 * 1) Basarabeasca
 * 2) Cahul
 * 3) Cantemir
 * 4) Căușeni
 * 5) Cimișlia
 * 6) Leova
 * 7) Ștefan Vodă
 * 8) Taraclia
 * 9) Gagauzia

Counties (1998-2003)

Between 1998 and February 2003, Moldova was divided into 12 territorial units, including 1 municipality, 1 autonomous territorial unit, 1 territorial unit, and 9 counties (Romanian: județe; seats in brackets): In October 1999, Taraclia County was split out from the Cahul County; it coincides with the current Taraclia District.
 * 1) Chișinău municipality, surrounded by Chișinău county, but different from it
 * 2) Bălți County (Bălți)
 * 3) Cahul County (Cahul)
 * 4) Chișinău County (Chișinău)
 * 5) Edineț County (Edineț)
 * 6) Lăpușna County (Hîncești)
 * 7) Orhei County (Orhei)
 * 8) Soroca County (Soroca)
 * 9) Tighina County (Moldova) (Căușeni)
 * 10) Ungheni County (Ungheni)
 * 11) Găgăuzia, autonomous territorial unit (Comrat)
 * 12) Left Bank of the Dniester, territorial unit (Tiraspol)

Cities and districts (1991-1998)
Between 1991 and 1998, Moldova was divided into 10 cities and 40 districts:

 * Cities
 * Bălți
 * Cahul
 * Chișinău
 * Dubăsari
 * Orhei
 * Rîbnița
 * Soroca
 * Tighina
 * Tiraspol
 * Ungheni
 * Districts
 * Anenii Noi
 * Basarabeasca
 * Brinceni
 * Cahul
 * Camenca
 * Cantemir
 * Căinari
 * Călărași
 * Căușeni
 * Ceadîr-Lunga
 * Cimișlia
 * Comrat
 * Criuleni
 * Dondușeni
 * Drochia
 * Dubăsari
 * Edineț
 * Fălești
 * Florești
 * Glodeni
 * Grigoriopol
 * Hîncești
 * Ialoveni
 * Leova
 * Nisporeni
 * Ocnița
 * Orhei
 * Rezina
 * Rîbnița
 * Rîșcani
 * Sîngerei
 * Slobozia
 * Soroca
 * Strășeni
 * Șoldănești
 * Ștefan Vodă
 * Taraclia
 * Telenești
 * Ungheni
 * Vulcănești

2017 expansion
Besides Chișinău, Bălți, Tighina, Comrat, and Tiraspol, on 13 April 2017 eight more became municipalities: Cahul, Ceadîr-Lunga, Edineț, Hîncești, Orhei, Soroca, Strășeni, and Ungheni.

title: Administrative divisions of Moldova


text:
Grierson's Raid

Grierson's Raid was a Union cavalry raid during the Vicksburg Campaign of the American Civil War. It ran from April 17 to May 2, 1863, as a diversion from Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's main attack plan on Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Background
Early in 1863, Major General Charles Hamilton, the commander of the Corinth section of Grant's division, suggested what would eventually become Grierson's Raid. Subsequently, due to Hamilton's insistence on procuring a command that would garner him more glory, Hamilton offered his resignation. Grant quickly accepted.

In the Western Theater of the American Civil War, Confederate cavalry raids under commanders such as Lt. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest and Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan had harassed Union expeditions, namely at the Battle of Parker's Crossroads, where Forrest captured three hundred Union soldiers under Brig. Gen. Jeremiah C. Sullivan, but lost all of the artillery pieces belonging to his own command. The task of drawing the attention of Confederate raiders away from the Siege of Vicksburg fell to Col. Benjamin Grierson, a former music teacher who disliked horses after being kicked in the head by one as a child. Grierson's cavalry brigade consisted of the 6th and 7th Illinois and 2nd Iowa Cavalry regiments.

The Raid
Grierson and his 1,700 horse troopers, some in Confederate uniforms serving as scouts for the main force, rode over 600 mi through hostile territory (from southern Tennessee, through the State of Mississippi and into Union-held Baton Rouge, Louisiana), over routes no Union soldier had traveled before. They tore up railroads and burned crossties, freed slaves, burned Confederate storehouses, destroyed locomotives and commissary stores, ripped up bridges and trestles, burned buildings, and inflicted ten times the casualties they received, all while detachments of his troops made feints confusing the Confederates as to his actual whereabouts, intent and direction. Total casualties for Grierson's Brigade during the raid were three killed, seven wounded, and nine missing. Five sick and wounded men were left behind along the route, too ill to continue. Greirson reported to have killed and wounded 100 Confederates, captured 500, destroyed between 50 and 60 miles of railroad, destroyed over 3,000 stands of arms (a rifle plus all its accompanying kit ), and captured 1,000 horses and mules.

Confederate Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton, commander of the Vicksburg garrison, had few cavalry and could do nothing to stop Grierson. On April 21, 1863, Confederate cavalry commander Maj. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, had captured another Union raider, Col. Abel Streight, in Alabama following a poorly supplied and poorly planned raid (Streight's Raid).

Although many other Confederate cavalry units pursued Grierson vigorously across the state (most notably Wirt Adams' Cavalry Regiment and Robert V. Richardson's Tennessee Cavalry), they were unsuccessful in stopping the raid. Grierson and his troopers, exhausted by days in the saddle, ultimately rode into Union-occupied Baton Rouge, Louisiana. With an entire division of Pemberton's soldiers tied up defending the vital Vicksburg-Jackson railroad from the evasive Grierson, combined with Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's feint northeast of Vicksburg (the Battle of Snyder's Bluff), the beleaguered Confederates were unable to muster the forces necessary to oppose Grant's eventual landing below Vicksburg on the east side of the Mississippi at Bruinsburg.

In popular media
The movie The Horse Soldiers, directed by John Ford, and starring John Wayne, William Holden and Constance Towers, and the Harold Sinclair novel of the same name on which it is based, are fictional variations of Grierson's Raid.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Grierson's Raid


text:
Saint-Jean-de-Livet

Saint-Jean-de-Livet is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northern France.

title: Saint-Jean-de-Livet


text:
List of churches in Venice

This is a complete list of churches in Venice classified by "sestiere" in which the city  is divided. These are Cannaregio, San Polo,  Dorsoduro  (including the Giudecca  and Isola Sacca Fisola), Santa Croce, San Marco (including San Giorgio Maggiore) and Castello  (including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena). It also details the churches on the islands outside Venice.

Dorsoduro

 * Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute
 * Angelo Raffaele
 * Le Eremite
 * Gesuati (Santa Maria del Rosario)
 * Nome di Gesù
 * Ognissanti
 * Sant'Agnese
 * Sant'Andrea della Zirada
 * San Barnaba
 * St. George's (Anglican)
 * San Gregorio (deconsecrated)
 * Santa Maria del Carmini
 * Santa Maria della Visitazione
 * San Nicolò dei Mendicoli
 * San Sebastiano
 * San Trovaso
 * Lo Spirito Santo
 * Le Terese (deconsecrated)
 * Santa Margherita (deconsecrated)
 * San Giovanni Battista ai Catecumeni
 * Santa Maria della Carità, Venice (deconsecrated)
 * Santa Marta, Venice (deconsecrated)

Giudecca

 * Il Redentore
 * dei Santi Cosma e Damiano deconsecrated
 * Santa Croce (deconsecrated)
 * Sant'Eufemia
 * Le Zitelle

Cannaregio

 * Le Cappuccine
 * Corpus Domini (Demolished)
 * Gesuiti (Santa Maria Assunta)
 * La Maddalena
 * Madonna dell'Orto
 * Sant'Alvise
 * Santi Apostoli
 * San Canciano
 * Santa Caterina (deconsecrated)
 * San Felice
 * Santa Fosca
 * San Geremia
 * San Giobbe
 * San Giovanni Crisostomo
 * San Girolamo, Cannaregio
 * San Leonardo
 * Chiesa Luterana (Lutheran)
 * San Marcuola
 * Santa Maria dei Miracoli
 * Santa Maria dei Servi (destroyed)
 * Santa Maria della Misericordia (deconsecrated)
 * Santa Maria delle Penitenti
 * San Marziale
 * Santa Sofia
 * Scalzi (Santa Maria di Nazareth)

Castello

 * Basilica di San Zanipolo
 * Ospedaletto
 * La Pietà
 * Sant'Anna (deconsecrated)
 * Sant'Antonin
 * San Biagio
 * San Domenico di Castello (destroyed)
 * Sant'Elena
 * San Francesco di Paola
 * San Francesco della Vigna
 * San Giorgio dei Greci (Greek Orthodox)
 * San Giorgio di Malta
 * San Giovanni in Bragora
 * San Giovanni Nuovo
 * San Giuseppe di Castello
 * Santa Giustina (deconsecrated)
 * San Lazzaro dei Mendicanti
 * San Lio
 * San Lorenzo (deconsecrated)
 * Santa Maria della Fava
 * Santa Maria Formosa
 * Santa Maria del Pianto (closed)
 * Santa Maria della Pietà
 * San Martino
 * San Niccolo di Bari (destroyed)
 * San Pietro di Castello
 * San Zaccaria

San Michele

 * San Cristoforo
 * San Michele in Isola

Murano

 * Basilica di Santi Maria e Donato
 * Santa Maria degli Angeli
 * San Pietro Martire

Burano

 * San Martino

Mazzorbo

 * Santa Caterina
 * Santa Maria Valverde (destroyed)

Torcello

 * Basilica di Santa Maria Assunta
 * Santa Fosca

San Francesco del Deserto

 * San Francesco del Deserto

Lido

 * Santa Maria Elisabetta
 * San Nicolò al Lido

San Lazzaro degli Armeni

 * San Lazzaro degli Armeni (Armenian Catholic)

title: List of churches in Venice


text:
Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers

Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Val de Drôme.

title: Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers


text:
User:Jrdioko/Sandbox

This is a testing space.

testing

meta  Main Page kjhkjh french Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Read the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the Sandbox.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk or ask me on my talk page.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck! Jrdioko

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User:Jrdioko/Sandbox


text:
Akademio de Esperanto

The Akademio de Esperanto (AdE; Academy of Esperanto) is an independent body of Esperanto speakers who steward the evolution of said language by keeping it consistent with the Fundamento de Esperanto in accordance with the Declaration of Boulogne. Modeled somewhat after the Académie française and the Real Academia Española, the Akademio was proposed by L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, at the first World Esperanto Congress, and was founded soon thereafter under the name Lingva Komitato (Language Committee). This Committee had a "superior commission" called the Akademio. In 1948, within the framework of a general reorganization, the Language Committee and the Academy combined to form the Akademio de Esperanto.

The Akademio consists of 45 members and has a president, vice presidents, and a secretary. The corresponding address including e-mail is at the secretary. It is funded by a subsidy from the Universal Esperanto Association and by donations.

Members
Members are elected by their peers for a period of nine years, with elections being held every three years for a third of the members. Following the last elections in February 2022, the Akademio de Esperanto consists of the following members:

 * Javier Alcalde
 * Tatjana Auderskaja
 * Bak Giwan
 * Marc Bavant
 * Hans Becklin
 * Cyril Robert Brosch
 * Duncan Charters
 * Renato Corsetti
 * Markos Kramer (Marcos Cramer)
 * Probal Dasgupta
 * Simon Davies
 * Mariana Evlogieva
 * Grant Goodall
 * Edmund Grimley-Evans
 * Nikolao Gudskov
 * Maritza Gutiérrez González
 * Hirotaka Masaaki
 * Jesper Lykke Jacobsen
 * Ruth Kevess-Cohen
 * Boris Kolker
 * Erich-Dieter Krause
 * Jouko Lindstedt
 * Haitao Liu
 * François Lo Jacomo
 * Anna Löwenstein
 * Vilhelmo Lutermano
 * Ahmad Mamdoohi
 * Mao Zifu
 * Valentin Melnikov
 * Georgi Mihalkov
 * Lee Miller
 * Carlo Minnaja
 * Brian Moon
 * Pavel Mozhaev (Paŭlo Moĵajev)
 * Marc van Oostendorp
 * Tim Owen
 * Paul Peeraerts
 * Barbara Pietrzak
 * Fernando Pita
 * Giridhar Rao
 * Orlando E. Raola
 * Nicola Ruggiero
 * Alexander Shlafer
 * Amri Wandel
 * Bertilo Wennergren

Former members have included Gaston Waringhien, Rüdiger Eichholz, Jorge Camacho, Victor Sadler, Michel Duc-Goninaz, Lena Karpunina, and William Auld (president, 1979–1983).

title: Akademio de Esperanto


text:
Talk:James Gadsden

Untitled
The book "Pensacola: Florida's First Place City" has the lines (p40) "establishing his base at the Prospect Bluff fort, which he renames Fort Gadsden for his engineer and aide, Catp. James Gadsden" The "he" is Andrew Jackson--during First Seminole War and (p48)He leaves behind a well-organized government and friends Brackenridge, Call and James Gadsden." Here "behind" is Pensacola (when Jackson accepted Forida from the Spanish). I am not a historian. However it would seem natural to expand a bit on the brief comments about Gadsden's military career. There is currently a Gadsden, Alabama, and, in Pensacola, a Gadsden Street. My guess would be that the above were influential in choosing these names--of course the later Gadsden Purchase was a factor as well.

This comment: Gadsden had supported nullification in 1831. In 1850 he advocated secession by South Carolina when California was admitted to the Union as a free state. Gadsden considered slavery “a social blessing” and abolitionists “the greatest curse of the nation.”[6] is in an article about the Gadsden Purchase under a section about California. I think this tells something about Gadsden's character and should be included int he article about James Gadsden. I will leave that to the computer literate people.Mylittlezach (talk) 18:17, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

I took a crack at it, but it could porbably be better integrated into the article. This info definitely needs to be presented. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.153.43.136 (talk) 21:02, 30 December 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:James Gadsden


text:
Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, Calvados

Saint-Jean-le-Blanc is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Terres de Druance.

The former commune is part of the area known as Suisse Normande.

title: Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, Calvados


text:
Departments of Niger

The regions of Niger are subdivided into 63 departments (départements). Before the devolution program on 1999–2005, these departments were styled arrondissements. Confusingly, the next level up (regions) had, before 2002-2005 been styled departments. Prior to a revision in 2011, there had been 36 departments. Until 2010, arrondissements remained a proposed subdivision of departments, though none were used. The decentralisation process, begun in the 1995-1999 period replaced appointed Prefects at Departmental or Arrondissement level with elected councils, first elected in 1999. These were the first local elections held in the history of Niger. Officials elected at commune level are then selected as representatives at Departmental, regional, and National level councils and administration. The Ministry of Decentralisation was created to oversee this task, and to create a national consultative council of local officials.

On 1 August 2011, the National Assembly of Niger approved a law that created 27 new departments centered on the former appointed sub departmental Postes Administratifs, bringing the number of departments to 63. The 27 new department capitals are: Aderbissanat, Iférouane, Ingall, Bosso, Goudoumaria, N'Gourti, Dioundiou, Falmèye, Tibiri, Bermo, Gazaoua, Bagaroua, Tassara, Tillia, Abala, Ayérou, Balléyara, Bankilare, Banibangou, Gothèye, Torodi, Belbédji, Damagaram Takaya, Dungass, Takieta, Tesker. The 63 departments are broken down into communes. As of 2006, there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (urban communes: centred in or as subdivisions of cities of over 10000), communes rurales (rural communes) centred in cities of under 10,000 and/or sparsely populated areas, and a variety of traditional (clan or tribal) bodies amongst semi-nomadic populations. The former postes administratifs (administrative posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones were incorporated as full departments with borders to be determined.

Agadez Region

 * Aderbissina Department (Aderbissinat)
 * Arlit Department (Arlit)
 * Bilma Department (Bilma)
 * Iferouane Department (Iferouane)
 * In-Gall Department (In-Gall)
 * Tchirozerine Department (Tchirozerine)

Diffa Region

 * Bosso Department (Bosso)
 * Diffa Department (Diffa)
 * Goudoumaria Department (Goudoumaria)
 * Maine-soroa Department (Maine-soroa)
 * N'Gourti Department (N'Gourti)
 * N'guigmi Department (N'guigmi)

Dosso Region

 * Boboye Department (Boboye)
 * Dioundiou Department (Dioundiou)
 * Dogondoutchi Department (Dogondoutchi)
 * Dosso Department (Dosso)
 * Falmey Department (Falmey)
 * Gaya Department (Gaya)
 * Loga Department (Loga)
 * Tibiri Department (Tibiri)

Maradi Region

 * Aguie Department (Aguie)
 * Bermo Department (Bermo)
 * Dakoro Department (Dakoro)
 * Gazaoua Department (Gazaoua)
 * Guidan Roumdji Department (Guidan Roumdji)
 * Madarounfa Department (Madarounfa)
 * Maradi City (Maradi)
 * Mayahi Department (Mayahi)
 * Tessaoua Department (Tessaoua)

Tahoua Region

 * Abalak Department (Abalak)
 * Bagaroua Department (Bagaroua)
 * Bkonni Department (Bkonni)
 * Bouza Department (Bouza)
 * Illela Department (Illela)
 * Keita Department (Keita)
 * Madaoua Department (Madaoua)
 * Malbaza Department (Malbaza)
 * Tahoua Department (Tahoua)
 * Tahoua City (Tahoua)
 * Tassara Department (Tassara)
 * Tchin-Tabaraden Department (Tchin-Tabaraden)
 * Tillia Department (Tillia)

Tillabéri Region

 * Abala Department (Abala)
 * Ayourou Department (Ayourou)
 * Balléyara Department (Balléyara)
 * Banibangou Department (Banibangou)
 * Bankilaré Department (Bankilare)
 * Filingue Department (Filingue)
 * Gothèye Department (Gothèye)
 * Kollo Department (Kollo)
 * Ouallam Department (Ouallam)
 * Say Department (Say)
 * Téra Department (Téra)
 * Tillabéri Department (Tillabéri)
 * Torodi Department (Torodi)

Zinder Region

 * Belbédji Department (Belbédji)
 * Damagaram Takaya Department (Damagaram Takaya)
 * Dungass Department (Dungass)
 * Goure Department (Goure)
 * Magaria Department (Magaria)
 * Matameye Department (Matameye)
 * Mirriah Department (Mirriah)
 * Takeita Department (Takieta)
 * Tanout Department (Tanout)
 * Tesker Department (Tesker)
 * Zinder City (Zinder)

title: Departments of Niger


text:
Nathaniel Lyon

Nathaniel Lyon (July 14, 1818 – August 10, 1861) was a United States Army officer who was the first Union general to be killed in the American Civil War. He is noted for his actions in Missouri in 1861, at the beginning of the conflict, to forestall secret secessionist plans of the governor Claiborne Jackson.

He had fought in the Second Seminole War in Florida and the Mexican–American War.

In 1850 he co-led the Bloody Island Massacre of 60–200 Pomo Native American old men, women, and children as part of the wider California genocide. Several days later, Lyon was responsible for another massacre in Cokadjal, killing 75 to 100 Native Americans, albeit the number was likely double.

After being assigned to Kansas, where many residents were divided about slavery and the Union, he developed strong pro-Union views. In February 1861, Lyon was made commander of the Union arsenal in St. Louis in Missouri, another divided state. Suspicious of governor Jackson, who was working with Jefferson Davis on a secret plan for secession, Lyon forced the surrender of the pro-Confederate militia.

Some civilians rioted and Lyon's troops fired into the crowd, which came to be known as the Camp Jackson Affair. Lyon was promoted brigadier-general and given command of Union troops in Missouri. He was killed at the Battle of Wilson's Creek, while trying to rally his outnumbered soldiers. Despite his death during the first year of the war, Lyon's efforts prevented the State of Missouri from joining the Confederacy.

Early life and education

Nathaniel Lyon was born on July 14, 1818, to Amasa and Kezia Lyon. His father was a sawmill operator who also dabbled in farming, and his mother was related to Revolutionary War hero Thomas Knowlton. Raised on his father's farm, Nathaniel performed farm chores as a young child; at an early age he gained a reputation for seriousness and having a short temper. Amasa was strict and not affectionate towards his children, and Nathaniel grew quite close to his mother. Kezia was a devoted Christian, but Amasa tended towards rejecting organized Christianity, raising doubts about religion in Nathaniel's young mind. He was educated in the local school system, and briefly attended an academy in Brooklyn, Connecticut. After recommendations from family acquaintances, United States Representative Orrin Holt secured Lyon's appointment to the United States Military Academy (West Point) in early 1837.

Lyon officially entered West Point on July 1, 1837, While there, he established a record of good discipline, receiving few demerits, although he received 12 for a single incident in February 1841 related to an incident of insubordination when he angrily refused to turn over his orders to an officer. Academically, he struggled with calculus, drawing, and infantry tactics, but did well in natural philosophy, engineering, and artillery. Lyon's cousin Miner Knowlton was an assistant professor at West Point and served as a mentor for him. In 1841, he graduated from West Point ranked number 11th out of 52 cadets. Around this time, Lyon also displayed a romantic affection for a woman known as "Miss Tot"; her identity and the details of the relationship are unknown, but biographer Christopher Phillips suggests that the failure of this relationship may have contributed to Lyon's later decision to never marry. Traditionally, higher-ranked graduates of West Point were given the option to enter the United States Corps of Engineers, which was viewed as a desirable assignment, but Lyon instead chose to be assigned to the infantry, where he believed that promotion would come quicker. Briefly returning to Ashford after his graduation, Lyon received a commission as a second lieutenant on July 1.

Military career
Upon graduating from West Point, Lyon was commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant and assigned to the 2nd U.S. Infantry Regiment after graduation and served with them in the Seminole Wars and the Mexican–American War. Despite denouncing American involvement in the Mexican War, he was promoted to first lieutenant for "conspicuous bravery in capturing enemy artillery" at the Battle for Mexico City and received a brevet promotion to captain for the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. Although he was eligible for membership, Lyon did not join the Aztec Club of 1847 when it was formed in Mexico City in 1847.

After the Mexican War, Lyon was then posted to the frontier, where forces under his command perpetrated the massacre of Pomo Native Americans at Clear Lake, California, the 1850 "Bloody Island Massacre"; in which as many as 200 old men, women and children were killed. Several days later, Lyon was responsible for another massacre in Cokadjal, killing 75 to 100 people, albeit the number was likely double.

After being reassigned to Fort Riley, Kansas, Lyon became staunchly antislavery. He did not support the radicalism of the abolitionists, and came to support the Republican Party while serving in the border wars known as "Bleeding Kansas." In January 1861, he wrote about the secession crisis, "It is no longer useful to appeal to reason, but to the sword."

St. Louis Arsenal

In March 1861, shortly before the outbreak of the American Civil War, Lyon arrived in St. Louis in command of Company B of the 2nd U.S. Infantry. At the time the population and state of Missouri were relatively neutral in the dispute between North and South, but Governor Claiborne F. Jackson was a strong Southern sympathizer, as were many of the state legislators. Lyon guessed correctly that Jackson would seize the federal arsenal in St. Louis if the state seceded and that the Union had insufficient defensive forces to prevent the seizure.

He attempted to strengthen the defenses, but came into opposition from his superiors, including Brig. Gen. William S. Harney of the Department of the West. Lyon employed his friendship with Francis P. Blair, Jr., to have himself named commander of the arsenal. When the Civil War broke out and President Abraham Lincoln called for troops to put down the Confederacy, Missouri was asked to supply four regiments. Governor Jackson refused the request and ordered the Missouri State Guard to muster outside St. Louis under the stated purpose of training for home defense.

Wide Awakes
Lyon himself had been extensively involved in the St. Louis Wide Awakes, a pro-union paramilitary organization that he intended to arm from the arsenal and muster into the ranks of the federal army. Upon obtaining command of the arsenal, Lyon armed the Wide Awake units under guise of night. Lyon had most of the excess weapons in the arsenal secretly moved to Illinois.

Lyon was aware of a clandestine operation whereby the Confederacy had shipped captured artillery from the U.S. arsenal in Baton Rouge to the Missouri State Militia camp in St. Louis. Lyon allegedly disguised himself as a farm woman to spy on the State Guard's camp and then claimed that he had uncovered a plan by Jackson to seize the arsenal for Missouri troops.

Camp Jackson affair
On May 10 Lyon directed the Missouri volunteer regiments and the 2nd U.S. Infantry to the camp, forcing its surrender. Riots broke out in St. Louis as Lyon marched his prisoners through the city to the St. Louis Arsenal. The event provoked the Camp Jackson Affair of May 10, 1861, in which Lyons' troops opened fire on a crowd of civilians injuring at least 75 and killing 28.

Two federals and three militia were also killed and others were wounded. The source of the first shot is disputed, some witnesses claiming it was a drunken rioter, others claiming it was unprovoked. Lyon was nonetheless promoted to brigadier general May 17, and given command over the Union troops in Missouri May 31, 1861 as commander of the Department of the West.

Planters House Conference
On June 12, 1861 Lyon (accompanied by Congressman Colonel Francis P. Blair, Jr.) met with Governor Jackson and Major General Sterling Price of the Missouri State Guard (who both traveled under a safe conduct from Lyon) at St. Louis' Planter's House hotel to discuss the implementation and potential continuation of the Price–Harney Truce between Federal forces and the State Guard. The discussions were conducted largely between Lyon and Jackson, who were generally intransigent in their respective positions: that U.S. forces had the right to move anywhere in the state, and that Federal forces should be restricted to the St. Louis-area, respectively.

After four unproductive hours Lyon eventually halted the meeting, informing Governor Jackson and MG Price that Jackson's demanded limitations on federal authority "means war". Lyon then allowed the two to leave St. Louis for Jefferson City by train, in accordance with the safe conduct.

Pursuit of Jackson
The governor fled first to the capitol at Jefferson City (ordering the tracks destroyed behind him), and then retreated with the State Guard to Boonville. Lyon moved up the Missouri River by steamer and occupied Jefferson City without a fight on June 13. Lyon continued the pursuit and on June 17 he defeated a portion of the State Guard at the Battle of Boonville. The governor, his administration, and the Guard retreated to the southwest.

Lyon was subsequently supported by the reconvened Missouri State Convention which reconvened on July 22, 1861, declared the office of Governor and other state officials "vacant", and appointed a Unionist provisional state government under former Missouri Chief Justice Hamilton Gamble. Lyon assumed command of the Army of the West on July 2. Lyon reinforced his army before moving southwest in pursuit of Jackson, Price and the State Guard.

Battle of Wilson's Creek and death
By July 13, Lyon was encamped at Springfield, Missouri, with about 6,000 Union soldiers. The Missouri State Guard, about 75 miles southwest of Lyon and under the command of Price, met with troops under Brig. Gen. Benjamin McCulloch near the end of July. The combined Confederate forces numbered about 12,000, formed plans to attack Springfield, and marched northeast on July 31.

The armies met at dawn a few miles southwest of Springfield on the morning of August 10 in the Battle of Wilson's Creek. Lyon was wounded twice in the fighting; shot in the head and leg and his horse shot from under him. He returned to Union lines and commandeered a bay horse ridden by Maj. E.L. McElhaney of the Missouri Infantry. Lyon, badly outnumbered by Confederate forces, then dramatically led a countercharge of the 2nd Kansas Infantry on Bloody Hill, where he was shot in the heart at about 9:30 am. Although the Union Army was defeated at Wilson's Creek, Lyon's quick action neutralized the effectiveness of pro-Southern forces in Missouri, allowing Union forces to secure the state.

Fate of Lyon's remains
In the confused aftermath of the Union retreat from Wilson's Creek, Lyon's body was mistakenly left behind on the battlefield and discovered by Confederate forces. It was briefly buried on a Union soldier's farm outside Springfield until it could be returned to Lyon's relatives. Eventually the remains were interred at the family plot in Eastford, Connecticut, where an estimated crowd of 15,000 attended the funeral. A cenotaph stands in memory of Lyon in the Springfield National Cemetery, Missouri.

Legacy
On December 24, 1861, the United States Congress passed a resolution of thanks for the "eminent and patriotic services of the late Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon. The country to whose service he devoted his life will guard and preserve his fame as a part of its own glory. That the Thanks of Congress are hereby given to the brave officers who, under the command of the late general Lyon sustained the honor of the flag and achieved victory against overwhelming numbers at the battle of Springfield, Missouri."

The 24th Missouri Volunteer Infantry was recruited as "The Lyon Legion" in honor of the General, and carried a unique regimental color, depicting a Lion beneath a constellation of six stars. Counties in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and Nevada, are named in Nathaniel Lyon's honor. Two forts were also named in his honor: Fort Lyon in Colorado and Fort Lyon (Virginia), which defended Washington, D.C., during the American Civil War. Lyon Park in St. Louis, Lyon Street in San Francisco and Lyon Lane in Carson City, Nevada are also named for him. Lyon is mentioned in Stephen C. Foster's 1862 song "Better Times Are Coming".

A monument honoring Nathaniel Lyon was erected on Grand Boulevard in St. Louis in 1927. However, the monument was removed in 1960 when Harriet Frost Fordyce, a St. Louis philanthropist and youngest child of Confederate General Daniel Frost, agreed to donate one million dollars to help expand St. Louis University's campus on the condition that Lyon's statue be removed. The city quickly removed the monument in Lyon Park, a small park near Anheuser-Busch Brewery. SLU later renamed its main campus the “Frost Campus” in honor of the Confederate General Frost.

Dates of rank

 * Cadet, United States Military Academy - 1 July 1837
 * 2nd Lieutenant, 2nd Infantry - 1 July 1841
 * 1st Lieutenant, 2nd Infantry - 16 February 1847
 * Brevet Captain - 20 August 1847
 * Captain, 2nd Infantry - 11 June 1851
 * Brigadier General, Missouri Volunteers - 12 May 1861
 * Brigadier General, US Volunteers - 17 May 1861

title: Nathaniel Lyon


text:
Mechanism design

Mechanism design, sometimes called implementation theory or institutional design, is a branch of economics, social choice, and game theory that deals with designing game forms (or mechanisms) to implement a given social choice function. Because it starts with the end of the game (an optimal result) and then works backwards to find a game that implements it, it is sometimes described as reverse game theory.

Mechanism design has broad applications, including traditional domains of economics such as market design, but also political science (through voting theory) and even networked systems (such as in inter-domain routing).

Mechanism design studies solution concepts for a class of private-information games. Leonid Hurwicz explains that "in a design problem, the goal function is the main given, while the mechanism is the unknown. Therefore, the design problem is the inverse of traditional economic theory, which is typically devoted to the analysis of the performance of a given mechanism."

The 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded to Leonid Hurwicz, Eric Maskin, and Roger Myerson "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory." The related works of William Vickrey that established the field earned him the 1996 Nobel prize.

Description
One person, called the "principal", would like to condition his behavior on information privately known to the players of a game. For example, the principal would like to know the true quality of a used car a salesman is pitching. He cannot learn anything simply by asking the salesman, because it is in the salesman's interest to distort the truth. However, in mechanism design, the principal does have one advantage: He may design a game whose rules influence others to act the way he would like.

Without mechanism design theory, the principal's problem would be difficult to solve. He would have to consider all the possible games and choose the one that best influences other players' tactics. In addition, the principal would have to draw conclusions from agents who may lie to him. Thanks to the revelation principle, the principal only needs to consider games in which agents truthfully report their private information.

Mechanism
A game of mechanism design is a game of private information in which one of the agents, called the principal, chooses the payoff structure. Following, the agents receive secret "messages" from nature containing information relevant to payoffs. For example, a message may contain information about their preferences or the quality of a good for sale. We call this information the agent's "type" (usually noted $$\theta$$ and accordingly the space of types $$\Theta$$). Agents then report a type to the principal (usually noted with a hat $$\hat\theta$$) that can be a strategic lie. After the report, the principal and the agents are paid according to the payoff structure the principal chose.

The timing of the game is:

 * 1) The principal commits to a mechanism $$y$$ that grants an outcome $$y$$ as a function of reported type
 * 2) The agents report, possibly dishonestly, a type profile $$\hat\theta$$
 * 3) The mechanism is executed (agents receive outcome $$y(\hat\theta)$$)

In order to understand who gets what, it is common to divide the outcome $$y$$ into a goods allocation and a money transfer, $$y(\theta) = \{ x(\theta), t(\theta) \}, \ x \in X, t \in T $$ where $$x$$ stands for an allocation of goods rendered or received as a function of type, and $$t$$ stands for a monetary transfer as a function of type.

As a benchmark the designer often defines what should happen under full information. Define a social choice function $$f(\theta)$$ mapping the (true) type profile directly to the allocation of goods received or rendered,

 * $$f(\theta): \Theta \rightarrow Y$$

In contrast a mechanism maps the reported type profile to an outcome (again, both a goods allocation $$x$$ and a money transfer $$t$$)
 * $$y(\hat\theta): \Theta \rightarrow Y$$

Revelation principle
A proposed mechanism constitutes a Bayesian game (a game of private information), and if it is well-behaved the game has a Bayesian Nash equilibrium. At equilibrium agents choose their reports strategically as a function of type
 * $$\hat\theta(\theta)$$

It is difficult to solve for Bayesian equilibria in such a setting because it involves solving for agents' best-response strategies and for the best inference from a possible strategic lie. Thanks to a sweeping result called the revelation principle, no matter the mechanism a designer can confine attention to equilibria in which agents truthfully report type. The revelation principle states: "To every Bayesian Nash equilibrium there corresponds a Bayesian game with the same equilibrium outcome but in which players truthfully report type."

This is extremely useful. The principle allows one to solve for a Bayesian equilibrium by assuming all players truthfully report type (subject to an incentive compatibility constraint). In one blow it eliminates the need to consider either strategic behavior or lying.

Its proof is quite direct. Assume a Bayesian game in which the agent's strategy and payoff are functions of its type and what others do, $$u_i\left(s_i(\theta_i),s_{-i}(\theta_{-i}), \theta_{i} \right)$$. By definition agent i's equilibrium strategy $$s(\theta_i)$$ is Nash in expected utility:
 * $$s_i(\theta_i) \in \arg\max_{s'_i \in S_i} \sum_{\theta_{-i}} \ p(\theta_{-i} \mid \theta_i) \ u_i\left(s'_i, s_{-i}(\theta_{-i}),\theta_i \right)$$

Simply define a mechanism that would induce agents to choose the same equilibrium. The easiest one to define is for the mechanism to commit to playing the agents' equilibrium strategies for them.
 * $$y(\hat\theta) : \Theta \rightarrow S(\Theta) \rightarrow Y $$

Under such a mechanism the agents of course find it optimal to reveal type since the mechanism plays the strategies they found optimal anyway. Formally, choose $$y(\theta)$$ such that

\begin{align} \theta_i \in {} & \arg\max_{\theta'_i \in \Theta} \sum_{\theta_{-i}} \ p(\theta_{-i} \mid \theta_i) \ u_i\left( y(\theta'_i, \theta_{-i}),\theta_i \right) \\[5pt] & = \sum_{\theta_{-i}} \ p(\theta_{-i} \mid \theta_i) \ u_i\left(s_i(\theta), s_{-i}(\theta_{-i}),\theta_i \right) \end{align} $$

Implementability
The designer of a mechanism generally hopes either
 * to design a mechanism $$y$$ that "implements" a social choice function
 * to find the mechanism $$y$$ that maximizes some value criterion (e.g. profit)

To implement a social choice function $$f(\theta)$$ is to find some transfer function $$t(\theta)$$ that motivates agents to pick $$f(\theta)$$. Formally, if the equilibrium strategy profile under the mechanism maps to the same goods allocation as a social choice function,
 * $$f(\theta) = x \left(\hat\theta(\theta) \right)$$

we say the mechanism implements the social choice function.

Thanks to the revelation principle, the designer can usually find a transfer function $$t(\theta)$$ to implement a social choice by solving an associated truthtelling game. If agents find it optimal to truthfully report type,
 * $$\hat\theta(\theta) = \theta$$

we say such a mechanism is truthfully implementable. The task is then to solve for a truthfully implementable $$t(\theta)$$ and impute this transfer function to the original game. An allocation $$x(\theta)$$ is truthfully implementable if there exists a transfer function $$t(\theta)$$ such that
 * $$u(x(\theta),t(\theta),\theta) \geq u(x(\hat\theta),t(\hat\theta),\theta) \ \forall \theta,\hat\theta \in \Theta$$

which is also called the incentive compatibility (IC) constraint.

In applications, the IC condition is the key to describing the shape of $$t(\theta)$$ in any useful way. Under certain conditions it can even isolate the transfer function analytically. Additionally, a participation (individual rationality) constraint is sometimes added if agents have the option of not playing.

Necessity
Consider a setting in which all agents have a type-contingent utility function $$u(x,t,\theta)$$. Consider also a goods allocation $$x(\theta)$$ that is vector-valued and size $$k$$ (which permits $$k$$ number of goods) and assume it is piecewise continuous with respect to its arguments.

The function $$x(\theta)$$ is implementable only if
 * $$ \sum^n_{k=1} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \left( \frac{\partial u / \partial x_k}{\left|\partial u / \partial t\right|} \right) \frac{\partial x}{\partial \theta} \geq 0 $$

whenever $$x=x(\theta)$$ and $$t=t(\theta)$$ and x is continuous at $$\theta$$. This is a necessary condition and is derived from the first- and second-order conditions of the agent's optimization problem assuming truth-telling.

Its meaning can be understood in two pieces. The first piece says the agent's marginal rate of substitution (MRS) increases as a function of the type,
 * $$\frac \partial {\partial \theta} \left( \frac{\partial u / \partial x_k}{\left|\partial u / \partial t\right|} \right) = \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \mathrm{MRS}_{x,t}$$

In short, agents will not tell the truth if the mechanism does not offer higher agent types a better deal. Otherwise, higher types facing any mechanism that punishes high types for reporting will lie and declare they are lower types, violating the truthtelling incentive-compatibility constraint. The second piece is a monotonicity condition waiting to happen,
 * $$\frac{\partial x}{\partial \theta} $$

which, to be positive, means higher types must be given more of the good.

There is potential for the two pieces to interact. If for some type range the contract offered less quantity to higher types $$\partial x / \partial \theta < 0$$, it is possible the mechanism could compensate by giving higher types a discount. But such a contract already exists for low-type agents, so this solution is pathological. Such a solution sometimes occurs in the process of solving for a mechanism. In these cases it must be "ironed". In a multiple-good environment it is also possible for the designer to reward the agent with more of one good to substitute for less of another (e.g. butter for margarine). Multiple-good mechanisms are an area of continuing research in mechanism design.

Sufficiency
Mechanism design papers usually make two assumptions to ensure implementability:

$$\frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \frac{\partial u / \partial x_k}{\left|\partial u / \partial t\right|} > 0 \ \forall k$$

This is known by several names: the single-crossing condition, the sorting condition and the Spence–Mirrlees condition. It means the utility function is of such a shape that the agent's MRS is increasing in type.

$$\exists K_0, K_1 \text{ such that } \left| \frac{\partial u / \partial x_k}{\partial u / \partial t} \right| \leq K_0 + K_1 |t|$$

This is a technical condition bounding the rate of growth of the MRS.

These assumptions are sufficient to provide that any monotonic $$x(\theta)$$ is implementable (a $$t(\theta)$$ exists that can implement it). In addition, in the single-good setting the single-crossing condition is sufficient to provide that only a monotonic $$x(\theta)$$ is implementable, so the designer can confine his search to a monotonic $$x(\theta)$$.

Revenue equivalence theorem
gives a celebrated result that any member of a large class of auctions assures the seller of the same expected revenue and that the expected revenue is the best the seller can do. This is the case if
 * 1) The buyers have identical valuation functions (which may be a function of type)
 * 2) The buyers' types are independently distributed
 * 3) The buyers types are drawn from a continuous distribution
 * 4) The type distribution bears the monotone hazard rate property
 * 5) The mechanism sells the good to the buyer with the highest valuation

The last condition is crucial to the theorem. An implication is that for the seller to achieve higher revenue he must take a chance on giving the item to an agent with a lower valuation. Usually this means he must risk not selling the item at all.

Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanisms
The Vickrey (1961) auction model was later expanded by and Groves to treat a public choice problem in which a public project's cost is borne by all agents, e.g. whether to build a municipal bridge. The resulting "Vickrey–Clarke–Groves" mechanism can motivate agents to choose the socially efficient allocation of the public good even if agents have privately known valuations. In other words, it can solve the "tragedy of the commons"—under certain conditions, in particular quasilinear utility or if budget balance is not required.

Consider a setting in which $$I$$ number of agents have quasilinear utility with private valuations $$v(x,t,\theta)$$ where the currency $$t$$ is valued linearly. The VCG designer designs an incentive compatible (hence truthfully implementable) mechanism to obtain the true type profile, from which the designer implements the socially optimal allocation
 * $$ x^*_I(\theta) \in \underset{x\in X}{\operatorname{argmax}} \sum_{i \in I} v(x,\theta_i) $$

The cleverness of the VCG mechanism is the way it motivates truthful revelation. It eliminates incentives to misreport by penalizing any agent by the cost of the distortion he causes. Among the reports the agent may make, the VCG mechanism permits a "null" report saying he is indifferent to the public good and cares only about the money transfer. This effectively removes the agent from the game. If an agent does choose to report a type, the VCG mechanism charges the agent a fee if his report is pivotal, that is if his report changes the optimal allocation x so as to harm other agents. The payment is calculated
 * $$ t_i(\hat\theta) = \sum_{j \in I-i} v_j(x^*_{I-i}(\theta_{I-i}),\theta_j) - \sum_{j \in I-i} v_j(x^*_I (\hat\theta_i,\theta_I),\theta_j) $$

which sums the distortion in the utilities of the other agents (and not his own) caused by one agent reporting.

Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem
and give an impossibility result similar in spirit to Arrow's impossibility theorem. For a very general class of games, only "dictatorial" social choice functions can be implemented.

A social choice function f is dictatorial if one agent always receives his most-favored goods allocation,
 * $$\text{for } f(\Theta)\text{, } \exists i \in I \text{ such that } u_i(x,\theta_i) \geq u_i(x',\theta_i) \ \forall x' \in X$$

The theorem states that under general conditions any truthfully implementable social choice function must be dictatorial if,
 * 1) X is finite and contains at least three elements
 * 2) Preferences are rational
 * 3) $$f(\Theta) = X$$

Myerson–Satterthwaite theorem
show there is no efficient way for two parties to trade a good when they each have secret and probabilistically varying valuations for it, without the risk of forcing one party to trade at a loss. It is among the most remarkable negative results in economics—a kind of negative mirror to the fundamental theorems of welfare economics.

Shapley value
Phillips and Marden (2018) proved that for cost-sharing games with concave cost functions, the optimal cost-sharing rule that firstly optimizes the worst-case inefficiencies in a game (the price of anarchy), and then secondly optimizes the best-case outcomes (the price of stability), is precisely the Shapley value cost-sharing rule. A symmetrical statement is similarly valid for utility-sharing games with convex utility functions.

Price discrimination
introduces a setting in which the transfer function t is easy to solve for. Due to its relevance and tractability it is a common setting in the literature. Consider a single-good, single-agent setting in which the agent has quasilinear utility with an unknown type parameter $$\theta$$
 * $$u(x,t,\theta) = V(x,\theta) - t$$

and in which the principal has a prior CDF over the agent's type $$P(\theta)$$. The principal can produce goods at a convex marginal cost c(x) and wants to maximize the expected profit from the transaction
 * $$\max_{x(\theta),t(\theta)} \mathbb{E}_\theta \left[ t(\theta) - c\left(x(\theta)\right) \right]$$

subject to IC and IR conditions
 * $$ u(x(\theta),t(\theta),\theta) \geq u(x(\theta'),t(\theta'),\theta) \ \forall \theta,\theta' $$
 * $$ u(x(\theta),t(\theta),\theta) \geq \underline{u}(\theta) \ \forall \theta $$

The principal here is a monopolist trying to set a profit-maximizing price scheme in which it cannot identify the type of the customer. A common example is an airline setting fares for business, leisure and student travelers. Due to the IR condition it has to give every type a good enough deal to induce participation. Due to the IC condition it has to give every type a good enough deal that the type prefers its deal to that of any other.

A trick given by Mirrlees (1971) is to use the envelope theorem to eliminate the transfer function from the expectation to be maximized,
 * $$\text{let } U(\theta) = \max_{\theta'} u\left(x(\theta'),t(\theta'),\theta \right)$$
 * $$\frac{dU}{d\theta} = \frac{\partial u}{\partial \theta} = \frac{\partial V}{\partial \theta}$$

Integrating,
 * $$U(\theta) = \underline{u}(\theta_0) + \int^\theta_{\theta_0} \frac{\partial V}{\partial \tilde\theta} d\tilde\theta$$

where $$\theta_0$$ is some index type. Replacing the incentive-compatible $$t(\theta) = V(x(\theta),\theta) - U(\theta)$$ in the maximand,
 * $$\begin{align}& \mathbb{E}_\theta \left[ V(x(\theta),\theta) - \underline{u}(\theta_0) - \int^\theta_{\theta_0} \frac{\partial V}{\partial \tilde\theta} d\tilde\theta - c\left(x(\theta)\right) \right] \\

&{} =\mathbb{E}_\theta \left[ V(x(\theta),\theta) - \underline{u}(\theta_0) - \frac{1-P(\theta)}{p(\theta)} \frac{\partial V}{\partial \theta} - c\left(x(\theta)\right) \right]\end{align}$$ after an integration by parts. This function can be maximized pointwise.

Because $$U(\theta)$$ is incentive-compatible already the designer can drop the IC constraint. If the utility function satisfies the Spence–Mirrlees condition then a monotonic $$x(\theta)$$ function exists. The IR constraint can be checked at equilibrium and the fee schedule raised or lowered accordingly. Additionally, note the presence of a hazard rate in the expression. If the type distribution bears the monotone hazard ratio property, the FOC is sufficient to solve for t. If not, then it is necessary to check whether the monotonicity constraint (see sufficiency, above) is satisfied everywhere along the allocation and fee schedules. If not, then the designer must use Myerson ironing.

Myerson ironing

In some applications the designer may solve the first-order conditions for the price and allocation schedules yet find they are not monotonic. For example, in the quasilinear setting this often happens when the hazard ratio is itself not monotone. By the Spence–Mirrlees condition the optimal price and allocation schedules must be monotonic, so the designer must eliminate any interval over which the schedule changes direction by flattening it.

Intuitively, what is going on is the designer finds it optimal to bunch certain types together and give them the same contract. Normally the designer motivates higher types to distinguish themselves by giving them a better deal. If there are insufficiently few higher types on the margin the designer does not find it worthwhile to grant lower types a concession (called their information rent) in order to charge higher types a type-specific contract.

Consider a monopolist principal selling to agents with quasilinear utility, the example above. Suppose the allocation schedule $$x(\theta)$$ satisfying the first-order conditions has a single interior peak at $$\theta_1$$ and a single interior trough at $$\theta_2>\theta_1$$, illustrated at right.

 * Following Myerson (1981) flatten it by choosing $$x$$ satisfying $$ \int^{\phi_1(x)}_{\phi_2(x)} \left( \frac{\partial V}{\partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{1-P(\theta)}{p(\theta)} \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial \theta \, \partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{\partial c}{\partial x}(x) \right) d\theta = 0$$ where $$\phi_1(x)$$ is the inverse function of x mapping to $$\theta \leq \theta_1$$ and $$\phi_2(x)$$is the inverse function of x mapping to $$\theta \geq \theta_2$$. That is, $$\phi_1$$ returns a $$\theta$$ before the interior peak and $$\phi_2$$ returns a $$\theta$$ after the interior trough.
 * If the nonmonotonic region of $$x(\theta)$$ borders the edge of the type space, simply set the appropriate $$\phi(x)$$ function (or both) to the boundary type. If there are multiple regions, see a textbook for an iterative procedure; it may be that more than one troughs should be ironed together.

Proof
The proof uses the theory of optimal control. It considers the set of intervals $$\left[\underline\theta, \overline\theta \right] $$ in the nonmonotonic region of $$x(\theta)$$ over which it might flatten the schedule. It then writes a Hamiltonian to obtain necessary conditions for a $$x(\theta)$$ within the intervals Condition two ensures that the $$x(\theta)$$ satisfying the optimal control problem reconnects to the schedule in the original problem at the interval boundaries (no jumps). Any $$x(\theta)$$ satisfying the necessary conditions must be flat because it must be monotonic and yet reconnect at the boundaries.
 * 1) that does satisfy monotonicity
 * 2) for which the monotonicity constraint is not binding on the boundaries of the interval

As before maximize the principal's expected payoff, but this time subject to the monotonicity constraint
 * $$\frac{\partial x}{\partial \theta} \geq 0$$

and use a Hamiltonian to do it, with shadow price $$\nu(\theta)$$
 * $$H = \left( V(x,\theta) - \underline{u}(\theta_0) - \frac{1-P(\theta)}{p(\theta)} \frac{\partial V}{\partial \theta}(x,\theta) - c(x) \right)p(\theta) + \nu(\theta) \frac{\partial x}{\partial \theta} $$

where $$x$$ is a state variable and $$\partial x/\partial \theta$$ the control. As usual in optimal control the costate evolution equation must satisfy
 * $$ \frac{\partial \nu}{\partial \theta} = -\frac{\partial H}{\partial x} = -\left( \frac{\partial V}{\partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{1-P(\theta)}{p(\theta)} \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial \theta \, \partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{\partial c}{\partial x}(x) \right) p(\theta) $$

Taking advantage of condition 2, note the monotonicity constraint is not binding at the boundaries of the $$\theta$$ interval,
 * $$\nu(\underline\theta) = \nu(\overline\theta) = 0$$

meaning the costate variable condition can be integrated and also equals 0
 * $$\int^{\overline\theta}_{\underline\theta} \left( \frac{\partial V}{\partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{1-P(\theta)}{p(\theta)} \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial \theta \, \partial x}(x,\theta) - \frac{\partial c}{\partial x}(x) \right) p(\theta) \, d\theta = 0 $$

The average distortion of the principal's surplus must be 0. To flatten the schedule, find an $$x$$ such that its inverse image maps to a $$\theta$$ interval satisfying the condition above.

title: Mechanism design


text:
Governorates of Kuwait

Kuwait is divided into 6 governorates (muhafazah). The governorates are further subdivided into areas. The governorate is headed by a Governor appointed by a ministerial decree for a period of 4 years which can be renewed upon the proposal of the Prime Minister.

History
The beginning of the formation of governorates in the State of Kuwait started back in 1962 with the Emiri decree No. 6 which divided the Kuwait into three governorates i.e. Al Asimah Governorate, Ḩawallī Governorate and Al Aḩmadi Governorate. Later, Jahra Governorate, Farwaniya Governorate and Mubarak Al-Kabeer Governorate were formed in 1979, 1988 and 1999 respectively.

title: Governorates of Kuwait


text:
PPH

PPH may refer to

Medicine

 * Portopulmonary hypertension
 * Postpartum hemorrhage
 * Primary pulmonary hypertension, see Pulmonary hypertension
 * Procedure for prolapse and hemorrhoids, see Stapled hemorrhoidectomy

Science

 * Pound per hour (symbol pph), mass flow unit (used in aviation to measure fuel flow, for instance)
 * Part per hundred (percentage)
 * People per hour, a measure of the rate of flow of people moving past a fixed point or through a system
 * Propylphenidate, an analogue of methylphenidate

Organisations

 * Patent Prosecution Highway, a set of cooperation agreements between some patent offices
 * Permanent private hall, a type of educational institution affiliated to the University of Oxford
 * Palomar Pomerado Health, a public health district in San Diego County, California
 * PeoplePerHour
 * Portland Press Herald, a newspaper in Maine

Transport

 * Parai-tepuí Airport, Venezuela (by IATA code)

title: PPH


text:
User talk:CyclopsScott

Good luck! Jrdioko

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Welcome to wikipedia. I notice you are creating a whole bunch of new pages, congrats. However, as most of your pages are biographies, here is a link for your interest. Criteria for inclusion of biographies. Burgundavia 07:21, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

Image
Please label the image you uploaded, Image:Canal-Levee.jpg, with copyright information. Otherwise it will be deleted. Thanks! DDerby 02:58, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Copyright problems with Image:Canal-Levee.jpg
An image that you uploaded, Image:Canal-Levee.jpg, has been listed at Copyright problems because it is a suspected copyright violation. Please look there if you know that the image is legally usable on Wikipedia (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), and then provide the necessary information there and on its page, if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you.

Comics Collaboration of the Fortnight
As a member of WikiProject Comics, I thought you might be interested in the Comics Collaboration of the Fortnight we have set up. Please feel free to vote on the articles listed, although bear in mind that a vote for a particular article means you are pledging to help improve the article. The goal of the collaboration is to improve articles to Featured Article status, as we feel Comics is under-represented in that area. Thanks for your help. Steve block talk 15:23, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

Joss Whedon and Kitty Pryde
CyclopsScott, could you provide a source for your recent edit about Joss Whedon being heavily influenced by Kitty Pryde? And could you explain it a little better? I don't quite understand what you're trying to communicate. How could being influenced by a character cause someone to write the same character? It sounds like an ouroborous. ☺ Thanks. ~ Jeff Q (talk) 06:32, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

More vandalism
This message is regarding the page Katie Holmes. Please refrain from adding nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. --Yamla 02:24, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry, I honestly thought you were trying to vandalise the article. Your information was not cited, we already mention that her name is "Kate" (after some debate on this), and there were several grammatical mistakes in your edit (granted, not necessarily a sign of vandalism), all on a page that gets a large amount of regular vandalism.  However, I was clearly wrong here and I apologise.  --Yamla 03:33, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

Katie Holmes
Greetings! You have edited the Katie Holmes page in the past. I've completely reworked the article and have posted it on WP:PR in the hopes of advancing it to WP:FAC. I would be grateful for your comments at Peer review/Katie Holmes/archive1. PedanticallySpeaking 18:40, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Sixwiredbop.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Sixwiredbop.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

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Kay Noble
May God Bless You Always!

Hello,

I was going through Professional wrestlers and diva to tag those from Missouri with a Missouri Project Tag and I came across your article on Kay Noble. This was yesterday. Today, I notice that an unregister user has added a paragraph. Now I know nothing about this Kay Noble except what you Wrote. Would you please check what the IP Address wrote and tell me whether is is vandalism or not. Thank you.

Yours in Christ. (Steve 03:16, 15 November 2006 (UTC))

A survey you might be interested in
I noticed you wanted titles to be in PPV articles for wrestling. I agree, as do others... but some disagree. I made a survey here to decide once and for all, what should be done:Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Professional_wrestling. RobJ1981 05:45, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:IllyriaAcker.jpg
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For more information on using images, see the following pages:
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This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. 11:23, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

Short Sleeve Sampson is white, Little Boogeyman is black
How the hell can Sampson (a white guy ) be Little Boogeyman? TJ Spyke 02:41, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

I was referencing an alternate link, and didn't research it fully. SOrry about that. No need to be that rude though. CyclopsScott 02:44, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * It's not your fault, it's just been annoying since others keep adding it back in. TJ Spyke 02:51, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I took it out of Boogeyman's page as well, as Little Boogeyman was linked to Sampson there too (where I found it originally) CyclopsScott 02:53, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

marval comic
Well, your argument might support why your post is related to public interest. But do you seriously think the importance of your post is as significant as other like the Libby trial? Some comic hero dies! Big deal! If you insist on reposting this "news", you are free to do that. But other wikipedians who support my POV might delete your post again. 71.146.131.153 23:47, 7 March 2007 (UTC)
 * The death of a fictional character is not news. KazakhPol 03:07, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * CNN is an acceptable source, but I still dont see why this is notable... I wont revert, but I urge you to explain why this is notable on the talkpage because I suspect, as 71 did, that other users will remove the story. Thank you for finding a better source. Regards, KazakhPol 03:20, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

Hi Cyclops:

Wikipedia is not a corporate news agency. I strongly disagree that the fictional death of a comic book hero, however popular is worthy of the same WP Current Events coverage as realworld events such as the shakeup of the british govt or china deciding to send a man to the moon (50 years too late). Please think this through. WikiTony 05:07, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

To see how far things have come, from this 2007 Death of Captain America reaction basically driving me from bothering to edit anything on Wikipedia at any grand scale, to now where the news would absolutely be newsworthy because it is that, news, and not subject to an opinions on if something counts or not. The news wasn't "Cap died" it was "Marvel has killed its long running character in a publishing event." Just like DC and Superman in the 90's. Anyway this was fun to look back on. CyclopsScott (talk) 04:52, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

RE: Jeff Hardy
I think that was an accident, I can't exactly remember what happened, but your edits weren't vandalism. I must've had a touchy trigger finger at that point in time. My humble apologies. B mg 9 1 6 Speak to Me 00:46, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

TfD nomination of Template:WWELightHchampions
Template:WWELightHchampions has been nominated for deletion. You are invited to comment on the discussion at the template's entry on the Templates for Deletion page. Thank you. — TJ Spyke 23:06, 25 March 2007 (UTC)

Art Saaf
Hi, I've nominated an article you worked on, Art Saaf, for consideration to appear on the Main Page as part of Did you know. You can see the "hook" for the article at Template talk:Did you know where you can improve it if you see fit. Regards,  howcheng  {chat} 06:38, 25 April 2007 (UTC)

IC title and relations
Owen and Bret were not Stepbrother to Davey Boy Smith. They were Brother-in-law to him, as he married their sister Diana, and the Dynamite Kid was Davey Boy's cousin, and he married Bret's wife's sister, making him Brother-in-law to Bret's first wife, but not anyone else in the Hart family. Plus Edge married Val Venis's sister, not Val married Edge's sister, so again they were Brother-in-law. However none of that information is worth mentioning. Darrenhusted 22:55, 13 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I added Dynamite because I thought you might be interested. Darrenhusted 15:13, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

R.I.P. Robert Jordan
Say it ain't so! How are we supposed to find out the winner of Tarmon Gai'don now? Sigh. Were you a fan of the books as well? GlassCobra 05:47, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:E SLEE001CVR proof5.jpg
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Katia Corriveau
Another editor has added the "prod" template to the article Katia Corriveau, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but the editor doesn't believe it satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and has explained why in the article (see also What Wikipedia is not and Notability). Please either work to improve the article if the topic is worthy of inclusion in Wikipedia or discuss the relevant issues at its talk page. If you remove the prod template, the article will not be deleted, but note that it may still be sent to Articles for deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. BJBot (talk) 05:59, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Template:IWGPWorldHWchampions
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If the template is intended to be substituted, please feel free to remove the speedy deletion tag and please consider putting a note on the template's page indicating that it is substituted so as to avoid any future mistakes (<noinclude>{{transclusionless}}</noinclude>).

Thanks. --MZMcBride (talk) 07:23, 1 July 2008 (UTC)

Respect Thread Conversions
I'm looking for folks to help convert Respect Threads to wiki formatting on Project Fanboy: WikiFans. Respect Threads, showcase scans of feats performed by comic book characters and have gained an audience on several comic book message boards. A few other wiki editors and myself are trying to convert them from the unprofessional look of a bunch of posts on a message board to the formatting common with WikiMedia wiki's. To view an example of what we're doing, here is a link to Respect Silver Surfer.

I was wondering if you might have time to contribute your comic book knowledge and/or scans of comic book characters performing feats, and help us out with our Respect Articles project?Millennium Cowboy (talk) 02:50, 27 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Great to hear Cyclops! Thanks for helping out! Millennium Cowboy (talk) 07:14, 27 July 2008 (UTC)

D&D articles for Wikipedia 0.7
Hi there! :)

As someone who's worked on D&D and/or RPG articles before, I'm inviting you to participate in our goal to both improve articles that have been selected to be placed in the next Wikipedia DVD release, as well as nominate more to be selected for this project. Please see the WikiProject D&D talk page for more details. :) BOZ (talk) 18:20, 30 September 2008 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Liberty Girl
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Liberty Girl, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process
 * Fictional character without evidence of notability

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Orphaned non-free media (File:Libertygirl0cover.jpg)
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TNA X Champions
Thought to tell you since you created the article, but List of TNA X Division Champions is a current Featured List Candidate.-- Will C --- ( What the F*** have you done lately???!! ) 03:42, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello CyclopsScott! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 06:49, 17 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Tracy Lynn Cruz -

Fair use rationale for File:BigInJapancvr.jpg
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Speedy deletion nomination of Qaeda of Jihad

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Qaeda of Jihad listed at Redirects for discussion
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:CyclopsScott


text:
Talk:Mullet (fish)

Why do mullet jump out of the water? I have not been able to find out. Does anyone know? Because they are searching for a school of fish to swim with.They have exellent eye sight. They don't jump while swimming in schools.

I've been told many times by many people that they jump to avoid predators. Tarpon really like to eat them.. 69.22.70.211 (talk) 19:05, 11 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Shouldn't fishbase be followed? So shouldn't it be in the order of Perciformes? Dryke 19:15, 3 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, an also this whole family has had an unusual series of articles created for each genus, which doesn't follow the conventions used for all other families/genera. Anyway, can i get a go ahead to move  the Mugiliformes into the Perciformes?. I might see if i can fix up the genera articles when i have some spare time, the tables listing species etc really don't belong and need to be put in the individual species articles in my opinion. Comments would be good. Cheers Kare Kare 10:10, 1 August 2007 (UTC) THe mullet fish lives in freshwater

Anyone know the conservation status of this fish? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.80.194.85 (talk) 02:04, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

Systematic revision
It is revised as part of Perciformes, see Catalog of Fishes --Ykvach (talk) 07:56, 21 April 2012 (UTC)

I have amended the article to follow Fishbase which does place Mugilidae in its own order Mugiliformes I have also tried to reflect more recent taxonomic proposals which I think are worth noting. Quetzal1964 11:03, 25 March 2017 (UTC) (talk)

title: Talk:Mullet (fish)


text:
Brain healing

Brain healing is the process that occurs after the brain has been damaged. If an individual survives brain damage, the brain has a remarkable ability to adapt. When cells in the brain are damaged and die, for instance by stroke, there will be no repair or scar formation for those cells. The brain tissue will undergo liquefactive necrosis, and a rim of gliosis will form around the damaged area.

Scar formation
Apart from a small amount in the blood vessels, there are no fibroblasts in the brain. A scar is formed by fibroblasts producing collagen to repair an area, which will later contract. If scars did form in the brain, the contraction would cause even more damage.

Formation of a glial membrane
Around the edge of necrosis, astrocytes proliferate. These cells extend processes, and form a delicate rim of gliosis around the margin of damage. The empty space left by brain tissue fills up with cerebrospinal fluid.

Functional recovery
Brain injury will commonly be accompanied by acute swelling, which impairs function in brain tissue that remains alive. Resolution of swelling is an important factor for the individual's function to improve. The greatest factor in functional recovery after brain injury comes from the brain's ability to learn, called neuroplasticity. After injury, neuroplasticity allows intact areas of the brain to adapt and attempt to compensate for damaged parts of the brain. Although axons and the peripheral nervous system in the developing brain can regenerate, they cannot in the adult brain. This is partly because of factors produced by cells in the brain that inhibit this regeneration. Dendrites, however, will develop from intact axons, as part of the neuroplasticity process. After severe brain injury, improvement in function related to neuroplasticity is unlikely to occur without help from health professionals skilled in rehabilitation. Recent studies have found collagen is extensively distributed throughout the brain and may be essential in protecting the brain against degeneration such as that in Alzheimers.

A study done in Tel Aviv University showed severe brain damage can be reversed through oxygen rich air. Patients were treated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) in high pressure chambers containing oxygen rich air which increased oxygen levels in body tenfold.

After two months of treatment, patients who were previously unable to perform simple daily activities such as bathing, cooking, climbing stairs or reading a book regained these abilities following treatment.

title: Brain healing