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Evaporative cooler

An evaporative cooler (also known as evaporative air conditioner, swamp cooler, swamp box, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from other air conditioning systems, which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling exploits the fact that water will absorb a relatively large amount of heat in order to evaporate (that is, it has a large enthalpy of vaporization). The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation). This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.

The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet-bulb depression, the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature (see relative humidity). In arid climates, evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling. In climates not considered arid, indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity. Passive evaporative cooling strategies can offer the same benefits as mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of equipment and ductwork.

History
An earlier form of evaporative cooling, the windcatcher, was first used in ancient Egypt and Persia thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof. They caught the wind, passed it over subterranean water in a qanat and discharged the cooled air into the building. Modern Iranians have widely adopted powered evaporative coolers ().

The evaporative cooler was the subject of numerous US patents in the 20th century; many of these, starting in 1906, suggested or assumed the use of excelsior (wood wool) pads as the elements to bring a large volume of water in contact with moving air to allow evaporation to occur. A typical design, as shown in a 1945 patent, includes a water reservoir (usually with level controlled by a float valve), a pump to circulate water over the excelsior pads and a centrifugal fan to draw air through the pads and into the house. This design and this material remain dominant in evaporative coolers in the American Southwest, where they are also used to increase humidity. In the United States, the use of the term swamp cooler may be due to the odor of algae produced by early units.

Externally mounted evaporative cooling devices (car coolers) were used in some automobiles to cool interior air—often as aftermarket accessories —until modern vapor-compression air conditioning became widely available.

Passive evaporative cooling techniques in buildings have been a feature of desert architecture for centuries, but Western acceptance, study, innovation, and commercial application are all relatively recent. In 1974, William H. Goettl noticed how evaporative cooling technology works in arid climates, speculated that a combination unit could be more effective, and invented the "High Efficiency Astro Air Piggyback System", a combination refrigeration and evaporative cooling air conditioner. In 1986, University of Arizona researchers built a passive evaporative cooling tower, and performance data from this experimental facility in Tucson, Arizona became the foundation of evaporative cooling tower design guidelines.

Physical principles
Evaporative coolers lower the temperature of air using the principle of evaporative cooling, unlike typical air conditioning systems which use vapor-compression refrigeration or absorption refrigeration. Evaporative cooling is the conversion of liquid water into vapor using the thermal energy in the air, resulting in a lower air temperature. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat, which affects the temperature of the air, and converted into latent heat, the energy present in the water vapor component of the air, whilst the air remains at a constant enthalpy value. This conversion of sensible heat to latent heat is known as an isenthalpic process because it occurs at a constant enthalpy value. Evaporative cooling therefore causes a drop in the temperature of air proportional to the sensible heat drop and an increase in humidity proportional to the latent heat gain. Evaporative cooling can be visualized using a psychrometric chart by finding the initial air condition and moving along a line of constant enthalpy toward a state of higher humidity.

A simple example of natural evaporative cooling is perspiration, or sweat, secreted by the body, evaporation of which cools the body. The amount of heat transfer depends on the evaporation rate, however for each kilogram of water vaporized 2,257 kJ of energy (about 890 BTU per pound of pure water, at 95 °F (35 °C)) are transferred. The evaporation rate depends on the temperature and humidity of the air, which is why sweat accumulates more on humid days, as it does not evaporate fast enough.

Vapor-compression refrigeration uses evaporative cooling, but the evaporated vapor is within a sealed system, and is then compressed ready to evaporate again, using energy to do so. A simple evaporative cooler's water is evaporated into the environment, and not recovered. In an interior space cooling unit, the evaporated water is introduced into the space along with the now-cooled air; in an evaporative tower the evaporated water is carried off in the airflow exhaust.

Other types of phase-change cooling
A closely related process, sublimation cooling, differs from evaporative cooling in that a phase transition from solid to vapor, rather than liquid to vapor, occurs.

Sublimation cooling has been observed to operate on a planetary scale on the planetoid Pluto, where it has been called an anti-greenhouse effect.

Another application of a phase change to cooling is the "self-refrigerating" beverage can. A separate compartment inside the can contains a desiccant and a liquid. Just before drinking, a tab is pulled so that the desiccant comes into contact with the liquid and dissolves. As it does so, it absorbs an amount of heat energy called the latent heat of fusion. Evaporative cooling works with the phase change of liquid into vapor and the latent heat of vaporization, but the self-cooling can uses a change from solid to liquid, and the latent heat of fusion, to achieve the same result.

Applications
Before the advent of modern refrigeration, evaporative cooling was used for millennia, for instance in qanats, windcatchers, and mashrabiyas. A porous earthenware vessel would cool water by evaporation through its walls; frescoes from about 2500 BCE show slaves fanning jars of water to cool rooms. Alternatively, a bowl filled with milk or butter could be placed in another bowl filled with water, all being covered with a wet cloth resting in the water, to keep the milk or butter as fresh as possible (see zeer, botijo and Coolgardie safe).

Evaporative cooling is a common form of cooling buildings for thermal comfort since it is relatively cheap and requires less energy than other forms of cooling.

The figure showing the Salt Lake City weather data represents the typical summer climate (June to September). The colored lines illustrate the potential of direct and indirect evaporative cooling strategies to expand the comfort range in summer time. It is mainly explained by the combination of a higher air speed on one hand and elevated indoor humidity when the region permits the direct evaporative cooling strategy on the other hand. Evaporative cooling strategies that involve the humidification of the air should be implemented in dry condition where the increase in moisture content stays below recommendations for occupant's comfort and indoor air quality. Passive cooling towers lack the control that traditional HVAC systems offer to occupants. However, the additional air movement provided into the space can improve occupant comfort.

Evaporative cooling is most effective when the relative humidity is on the low side, limiting its popularity to dry climates. Evaporative cooling raises the internal humidity level significantly, which desert inhabitants may appreciate as the moist air re-hydrates dry skin and sinuses. Therefore, assessing typical climate data is an essential procedure to determine the potential of evaporative cooling strategies for a building. The three most important climate considerations are dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and wet-bulb depression during a typical summer day. It is important to determine if the wet-bulb depression can provide sufficient cooling during the summer day. By subtracting the wet-bulb depression from the outside dry-bulb temperature, one can estimate the approximate air temperature leaving the evaporative cooler. It is important to consider that the ability for the exterior dry-bulb temperature to reach the wet-bulb temperature depends on the saturation efficiency. A general recommendation for applying direct evaporative cooling is to implement it in places where the wet-bulb temperature of the outdoor air does not exceed 22 °C. However, in the example of Salt Lake City, the upper limit for the direct evaporative cooling on psychrometric chart is 20 °C. Despite the lower temperature, evaporative cooling is suitable for similar climates to Salt Lake City.

Evaporative cooling is especially well suited for climates where the air is hot and humidity is low. In the United States, the western and mountain states are good locations, with evaporative coolers prevalent in cities like Albuquerque, Denver, El Paso, Fresno, Salt Lake City, and Tucson. Evaporative air conditioning is also popular and well-suited to the southern (temperate) part of Australia. In dry, arid climates, the installation and operating cost of an evaporative cooler can be much lower than that of refrigerative air conditioning, often by 80% or so. However, evaporative cooling and vapor-compression air conditioning are sometimes used in combination to yield optimal cooling results. Some evaporative coolers may also serve as humidifiers in the heating season. In regions that are mostly arid, short periods of high humidity may prevent evaporative cooling from being an effective cooling strategy. An example of this event is the monsoon season in New Mexico and central and southern Arizona in July and August.

In locations with moderate humidity there are many cost-effective uses for evaporative cooling, in addition to their widespread use in dry climates. For example, industrial plants, commercial kitchens, laundries, dry cleaners, greenhouses, spot cooling (loading docks, warehouses, factories, construction sites, athletic events, workshops, garages, and kennels) and confinement farming (poultry ranches, hog, and dairy) often employ evaporative cooling. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling may have little thermal comfort benefit beyond the increased ventilation and air movement it provides.

Other examples
Trees transpire large amounts of water through pores in their leaves called stomata, and through this process of evaporative cooling, forests interact with climate at local and global scales. Simple evaporative cooling devices such as evaporative cooling chambers (ECCs) and clay pot coolers, or pot-in-pot refrigerators, are simple and inexpensive ways to keep vegetables fresh without the use of electricity. Several hot and dry regions throughout the world could potentially benefit from evaporative cooling, including North Africa, the Sahel region of Africa, the Horn of Africa, southern Africa, the Middle East, arid regions of South Asia, and Australia. Benefits of evaporative cooling chambers for many rural communities in these regions include reduced post-harvest loss, less time spent traveling to the market, monetary savings, and increased availability of vegetables for consumption.

Evaporative cooling is commonly used in cryogenic applications. The vapor above a reservoir of cryogenic liquid is pumped away, and the liquid continuously evaporates as long as the liquid's vapor pressure is significant. Evaporative cooling of ordinary helium forms a 1-K pot, which can cool to at least 1.2 K. Evaporative cooling of helium-3 can provide temperatures below 300 mK. These techniques can be used to make cryocoolers, or as components of lower-temperature cryostats such as dilution refrigerators. As the temperature decreases, the vapor pressure of the liquid also falls, and cooling becomes less effective. This sets a lower limit to the temperature attainable with a given liquid.

Evaporative cooling is also the last cooling step in order to reach the ultra-low temperatures required for Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC). Here, so-called forced evaporative cooling is used to selectively remove high-energetic ("hot") atoms from an atom cloud until the remaining cloud is cooled below the BEC transition temperature. For a cloud of 1 million alkali atoms, this temperature is about 1μK.

Although robotic spacecraft use thermal radiation almost exclusively, many crewed spacecraft have short missions that permit open-cycle evaporative cooling. Examples include the Space Shuttle, the Apollo command and service module (CSM), lunar module and portable life support system. The Apollo CSM and the Space Shuttle also had radiators, and the Shuttle could evaporate ammonia as well as water. The Apollo spacecraft used sublimators, compact and largely passive devices that dump waste heat in water vapor (steam) that is vented to space. When liquid water is exposed to vacuum it boils vigorously, carrying away enough heat to freeze the remainder to ice that covers the sublimator and automatically regulates the feedwater flow depending on the heat load. The water expended is often available in surplus from the fuel cells used by many crewed spacecraft to produce electricity.

Designs
Most designs take advantage of the fact that water has one of the highest known enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization) values of any common substance. Because of this, evaporative coolers use only a fraction of the energy of vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning systems. Except in very dry climates, the single-stage (direct) cooler can increase relative humidity (RH) to a level that makes occupants uncomfortable. Indirect and two-stage evaporative coolers keep the RH lower.

Direct evaporative cooling
Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit) is used to lower the temperature and increase the humidity of air by using latent heat of evaporation, changing liquid water to water vapor. In this process, the energy in the air does not change. Warm dry air is changed to cool moist air. The heat of the outside air is used to evaporate water. The RH increases to 70 to 90% which reduces the cooling effect of human perspiration. The moist air has to be continually released to outside or else the air becomes saturated and evaporation stops.

A mechanical direct evaporative cooler unit uses a fan to draw air through a wetted membrane, or pad, which provides a large surface area for the evaporation of water into the air. Water is sprayed at the top of the pad so it can drip down into the membrane and continually keep the membrane saturated. Any excess water that drips out from the bottom of the membrane is collected in a pan and recirculated to the top. Single-stage direct evaporative coolers are typically small in size as they only consist of the membrane, water pump, and centrifugal fan. The mineral content of the municipal water supply will cause scaling on the membrane, which will lead to clogging over the life of the membrane. Depending on this mineral content and the evaporation rate, regular cleaning and maintenance are required to ensure optimal performance. Generally, supply air from the single-stage evaporative cooler will need to be exhausted directly (one-through flow) as with direct evaporative cooling. A few design solutions have been conceived to utilize the energy in the air, like directing the exhaust air through two sheets of double glazed windows, thus reducing the solar energy absorbed through the glazing. Compared to energy required to achieve the equivalent cooling load with a compressor, single stage evaporative coolers consume less energy.

Passive direct evaporative cooling can occur anywhere that the evaporatively cooled water can cool a space without the assistance of a fan. This can be achieved through the use of fountains or more architectural designs such as the evaporative downdraft cooling tower, also called a "passive cooling tower". The passive cooling tower design allows outside air to flow in through the top of a tower that is constructed within or next to the building. The outside air comes in contact with water inside the tower either through a wetted membrane or a mister. As water evaporates in the outside air, the air becomes cooler and less buoyant and creates a downward flow in the tower. At the bottom of the tower, an outlet allows the cooler air into the interior. Similar to mechanical evaporative coolers, towers can be an attractive low-energy solution for hot and dry climate as they only require a water pump to raise water to the top of the tower. Energy savings from using a passive direct evaporating cooling strategy depends on the climate and heat load. For arid climates with a great wet-bulb depression, cooling towers can provide enough cooling during summer design conditions to be net zero. For example, a 371 m2 (4,000 ft2) retail store in Tucson, Arizona with a sensible heat gain of 29.3 kJ/h (100,000 Btu/h) can be cooled entirely by two passive cooling towers providing 11890 m3/h (7,000 cfm) each.

For the Zion National Park visitors' center, which uses two passive cooling towers, the cooling energy intensity was 14.5 MJ/m2 (1.28 kBtu/ft2;), which was 77% less than a typical building in the western United States that uses 62.5 MJ/m2 (5.5 kBtu/ft2). A study of field performance results in Kuwait revealed that power requirements for an evaporative cooler are approximately 75% less than the power requirements for a conventional packaged unit air-conditioner.

Indirect evaporative cooling
Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is a cooling process that uses direct evaporative cooling in addition to some heat exchanger to transfer the cool energy to the supply air. The cooled moist air from the direct evaporative cooling process never comes in direct contact with the conditioned supply air. The moist air stream is released outside or used to cool other external devices such as solar cells which are more efficient if kept cool. This is done to avoid excess humidity in enclosed spaces, which is not appropriate for residential systems.

Maisotsenko cycle
Indirect cooler manufacturer uses the Maisotsenko cycle (M-Cycle), named after inventor and Professor Dr. Valeriy Maisotsenko, employs an iterative (multi-step) heat exchanger made of a thin recyclable membrane that can reduce the temperature of product air to below the wet-bulb temperature, and can approach the dew point. Testing by the US Department of Energy found that a hybrid M-Cycle combined with a standard compression refrigeration system significantly improved efficiency by between 150 and 400% but was only capable of doing so in the dry western half of the US, and did not recommend being used in the much more humid eastern half of the US. The evaluation found that the system water consumption of 2–3 gallons per cooling ton (12,000 BTUs) was roughly equal in efficiency to the water consumption of new high efficiency power plants. This means the higher efficiency can be utilized to reduce load on the grid without requiring any additional water, and may actually reduce water usage if the source of the power does not have a high efficiency cooling system.

An M-Cycle based system built by Coolerado is currently being used to cool the Data Center for NASA's National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). The facility is air cooled below 70 degrees Fahrenheit and uses the Coolerado system above that temperature. This is possible because the air handler for the system uses fresh outside air, which allows it to automatically use cool outside ambient air when conditions allow. This avoids running the refrigeration system when unnecessary. It is powered by a solar panel array which also serves as secondary power in case of main power loss.

The system has very high efficiency but, like other evaporative cooling systems, is constrained by the ambient humidity levels, which has limited its adoption for residential use. It may be used as supplementary cooling during times of extreme heat without placing significant additional burden on electrical infrastructure. If a location has excess water supplies or excess desalination capacity it can be used to reduce excessive electrical demand by utilizing water in affordable M-Cycle units. Due to high costs of conventional air conditioning units and extreme limitations of many electrical utility systems, M-Cycle units may be the only appropriate cooling systems suitable for impoverished areas during times of extremely high temperature and high electrical demand. In developed areas, they may serve as supplemental backup systems in case of electrical overload, and can be used to boost efficiency of existing conventional systems.

The M-Cycle is not limited to cooling systems and can be applied to various technologies from Stirling engines to Atmospheric water generators. For cooling applications it can be used in both cross flow and counterflow configurations. Counterflow was found to obtain lower temperatures more suitable for home cooling, but cross flow was found to have a higher coefficient of performance (COP), and is therefore better for large industrial installations.

Unlike traditional refrigeration techniques, the COP of small systems remains high, as they do not require lift pumps or other equipment required for cooling towers. A 1.5 ton/4.4 kW cooling system requires just 200 watts for operation of the fan, giving a COP of 26.4 and an EER rating of 90. This does not take into account the energy required to purify or deliver the water, and is strictly the power required to run the device once water is supplied. Though desalination of water also presents a cost, the latent heat of vaporization of water is nearly 100 times higher than the energy required to purify the water itself. Furthermore, the device has a maximum efficiency of 55%, so its actual COP is much lower than this calculated value. However, regardless of these losses, the effective COP is still significantly higher than a conventional cooling system, even if water must first be purified by desalination. In areas where water is not available in any form, it can be used with a desiccant to recover water using available heat sources, such as solar thermal energy.

Theoretical designs
In the newer but yet-to-be-commercialized "cold-SNAP" design from Harvard's Wyss Institute, a 3D-printed ceramic conducts heat but is half-coated with a hydrophobic material that serves as a moisture barrier. While no moisture is added to the incoming air the relative humidity (RH) does rise a little according to the Temperature-RH formula. Still, the relatively dry air resulting from indirect evaporative cooling allows inhabitants' perspiration to evaporate more easily, increasing the relative effectiveness of this technique. Indirect Cooling is an effective strategy for hot-humid climates that cannot afford to increase the moisture content of the supply air due to indoor air quality and human thermal comfort concerns.

Passive indirect evaporative cooling strategies are rare because this strategy involves an architectural element to act as a heat exchanger (for example a roof). This element can be sprayed with water and cooled through the evaporation of the water on this element. These strategies are rare due to the high use of water, which also introduces the risk of water intrusion and compromising building structure.

Two-stage evaporative cooling, or indirect-direct
In the first stage of a two-stage cooler, warm air is pre-cooled indirectly without adding humidity (by passing inside a heat exchanger that is cooled by evaporation on the outside). In the direct stage, the pre-cooled air passes through a water-soaked pad and picks up humidity as it cools. Since the air supply is pre-cooled in the first stage, less humidity is transferred in the direct stage, to reach the desired cooling temperatures. The result, according to manufacturers, is cooler air with a RH between 50 and 70%, depending on the climate, compared to a traditional system that produces about 70–80% relative humidity in the conditioned air.

Evaporative + conventional backup
In another hybrid design, direct or indirect cooling has been combined with vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning to increase the overall efficiency and/or to reduce the temperature below the wet-bulb limit.

Evaporative + passive daytime radiative + thermal insulation
Evaporative cooling can be combined with passive daytime radiative cooling and thermal insulation to enhance cooling power with zero energy use, albeit with an occasional water "re-charge" depending on the climatic zone of the installation. The system, developed by Lu et al. "consists of a solar reflector, a water-rich and IR-emitting evaporative layer, and a vapor-permeable, IR-transparent, and solar-reflecting insulation layer," with the top layer enabling "heat removal through both evaporation and radiation while resisting environmental heating." The system demonstrated 300% higher ambient cooling power than stand-alone passive daytime radiative cooling and could extend the shelf life of food by 40% in cool humid climates and 200% in dry climates without refrigeration.

Membrane dehumidification and evaporative cooling
Conventional evaporative cooling only works with dry air, e.g. when the humidity ratio is below ~0.02 kgwater/kgair. They also require substantial water inputs. To remove these limitations, dewpoint evaporative cooling can be hybridized with membrane dehumidification, using membranes that pass water vapor but block air. Air passing through these membranes can be concentrated with a compressor, so it can be condensed at warmer temperatures. The first configuration with this approach reused the dehumidification water to provide further evaporative cooling. Such an approach can fully provide its own water for evaporative cooling, outperforms a baseline desiccant wheel system under all conditions, and outperforms vapor compression in dry conditions. It can also allow for cooling at higher humidity without the use of refrigerants, many of which have substantial greenhouse gas potential.

Materials
Traditionally, evaporative cooler pads consist of excelsior (aspen wood fiber) inside a containment net, but more modern materials, such as some plastics and melamine paper, are entering use as cooler-pad media. Modern rigid media, commonly 8" or 12" thick, adds more moisture, and thus cools air more than typically much thinner aspen media. Another material which is sometimes used is corrugated cardboard.

Water use
In arid and semi-arid climates, the scarcity of water makes water consumption a concern in cooling system design. From the installed water meters, 420938 L (111,200 gal) of water were consumed during 2002 for the two passive cooling towers at the Zion National Park visitors' center. However, such concerns are addressed by experts who note that electricity generation usually requires a large amount of water, and evaporative coolers use far less electricity, and thus comparable water overall, and cost less overall, compared to chillers.

Shading
Allowing direct solar exposure to any surface which can transfer the extra heat to any part of the air flow through the unit will raise the temperature of the air. If the heat is transferred to the air prior to flowing through the pads, or if the sunlight warms the pads themselves, evaporation will increase, but the additional energy required to achieve this will not come from the energy contained in the ambient air, but will be supplied by the sun, and this will result not only in higher temperatures, but higher humidity as well, just as raising the inlet air temperature by any means, and heating the water prior to distribution over the pad by any means, would do. In addition, sunlight may degrade some media, and other components of the cooler. Therefore, shading is advisable in all circumstances, though the vertical aspect of the pads, and insulation between the exterior and interior horizontal (upwards facing) surfaces to minimise heat transfer will suffice.

Mechanical systems
Apart from fans used in mechanical evaporative cooling, pumps are the only other piece of mechanical equipment required for the evaporative cooling process in both mechanical and passive applications. Pumps can be used for either recirculating the water to the wet media pad or providing water at very high pressure to a mister system for a passive cooling tower. Pump specifications will vary depending on evaporation rates and media pad area. The Zion National Park visitors' center uses a 250 W (1/3 HP) pump.

Exhaust
Exhaust ducts and/or open windows must be used at all times to allow air to continually escape the air-conditioned area. Otherwise, pressure develops and the fan or blower in the system is unable to push much air through the media and into the air-conditioned area. The evaporative system cannot function without exhausting the continuous supply of air from the air-conditioned area to the outside. By optimizing the placement of the cooled-air inlet, along with the layout of the house passages, related doors, and room windows, the system can be used most effectively to direct the cooled air to the required areas. A well-designed layout can effectively scavenge and expel the hot air from desired areas without the need for an above-ceiling ducted venting system. Continuous airflow is essential, so the exhaust windows or vents must not restrict the volume and passage of air being introduced by the evaporative cooling machine. One must also be mindful of the outside wind direction, as, for example, a strong hot southerly wind will slow or restrict the exhausted air from a south-facing window. It is always best to have the downwind windows open, while the upwind windows are closed.

Typical installations
Typically, residential and industrial evaporative coolers use direct evaporation, and can be described as an enclosed metal or plastic box with vented sides. Air is moved by a centrifugal fan or blower (usually driven by an electric motor with pulleys known as "sheaves" in HVAC terminology, or a direct-driven axial fan), and a water pump is used to wet the evaporative cooling pads. The cooling units can be mounted on the roof (down draft, or downflow) or exterior walls or windows (side draft, or horizontal flow) of buildings. To cool, the fan draws ambient air through vents on the unit's sides and through the damp pads. Heat in the air evaporates water from the pads which are constantly re-dampened to continue the cooling process. Then cooled, moist air is delivered into the building via a vent in the roof or wall.

Because the cooling air originates outside the building, one or more large vents must exist to allow air to move from inside to outside. Air should only be allowed to pass once through the system, or the cooling effect will decrease. This is due to the air reaching the saturation point. Often 15 or so air changes per hour (ACHs) occur in spaces served by evaporative coolers, a relatively high rate of air exchange.

Evaporative (wet) cooling towers
Cooling towers are structures for cooling water or other heat transfer media to near-ambient wet-bulb temperature. Wet cooling towers operate on the evaporative cooling principle, but are optimized to cool the water rather than the air. Cooling towers can often be found on large buildings or on industrial sites. They transfer heat to the environment from chillers, industrial processes, or the Rankine power cycle, for example.

Misting systems
Misting systems work by forcing water via a high pressure pump and tubing through a brass and stainless steel mist nozzle that has an orifice of about 5 micrometres, thereby producing a micro-fine mist. The water droplets that create the mist are so small that they instantly flash-evaporate. Flash evaporation can reduce the surrounding air temperature by as much as 35 °F (20 °C) in just seconds. For patio systems, it is ideal to mount the mist line approximately 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the ground for optimum cooling. Misting is used for applications such as flowerbeds, pets, livestock, kennels, insect control, odor control, zoos, veterinary clinics, cooling of produce, and greenhouses.

Misting fans
A misting fan is similar to a humidifier. A fan blows a fine mist of water into the air. If the air is not too humid, the water evaporates, absorbing heat from the air, allowing the misting fan to also work as an air cooler. A misting fan may be used outdoors, especially in a dry climate. It may also be used indoors.

Small portable battery-powered misting fans, consisting of an electric fan and a hand-operated water spray pump, are sold as novelty items. Their effectiveness in everyday use is unclear.

Performance
Understanding evaporative cooling performance requires an understanding of psychrometrics. Evaporative cooling performance is variable due to changes in external temperature and humidity level. A residential cooler should be able to decrease the temperature of air to within 3 to 4 C-change of the wet bulb temperature.

It is simple to predict cooler performance from standard weather report information. Because weather reports usually contain the dewpoint and relative humidity, but not the wet-bulb temperature, a psychrometric chart or a simple computer program must be used to compute the wet bulb temperature. Once the wet bulb temperature and the dry bulb temperature are identified, the cooling performance or leaving air temperature of the cooler may be determined.

For direct evaporative cooling, the direct saturation efficiency, $$\epsilon$$, measures in what extent the temperature of the air leaving the direct evaporative cooler is close to the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air. The direct saturation efficiency can be determined as follows:

 * $$\epsilon=\frac{T_{e,db}-T_{l,db}}{T_{e,db}-T_{e,wb}}$$

 * Where:
 * $$\epsilon$$ = direct evaporative cooling saturation efficiency (%)
 * $$T_{e,db}$$ = entering air dry-bulb temperature (°C)
 * $$T_{l,db}$$ = leaving air dry-bulb temperature (°C)
 * $$T_{e,wb}$$ = entering air wet-bulb temperature (°C)

Evaporative media efficiency usually runs between 80% and 90%. Most efficient systems can lower the dry air temperature to 95% of the wet-bulb temperature, the least efficient systems only achieve 50%. The evaporation efficiency drops very little over time.

Typical aspen pads used in residential evaporative coolers offer around 85% efficiency while CELdek type of evaporative media offer efficiencies of >90% depending on air velocity. The CELdek media is more often used in large commercial and industrial installations.

As an example, in Las Vegas, with a typical summer design day of 42 °C dry bulb and 19 °C wet bulb temperature or about 8% relative humidity, the leaving air temperature of a residential cooler with 85% efficiency would be:

 * $$T_{l,db}$$ = 42 °C – [(42 °C – 19 °C) × 85%] = 22.45 °C

However, either of two methods can be used to estimate performance:
 * Use a psychrometric chart to calculate wet bulb temperature, and then add 5–7 °F as described above.
 * Use a rule of thumb which estimates that the wet bulb temperature is approximately equal to the ambient temperature, minus one third of the difference between the ambient temperature and the dew point. As before, add 5–7 °F as described above.

Some examples clarify this relationship:
 * At 32 °C and 15% relative humidity, air may be cooled to nearly 16 °C. The dew point for these conditions is 2 °C.
 * At 32 °C and 50% relative humidity, air may be cooled to about 24 °C. The dew point for these conditions is 20 °C.
 * At 40 °C and 15% relative humidity, air may be cooled to nearly 21 °C. The dew point for these conditions is 8 °C.

(Cooling examples extracted from the June 25, 2000 University of Idaho publication, "Homewise").

Because evaporative coolers perform best in dry conditions, they are widely used and most effective in arid, desert regions such as the southwestern USA, northern Mexico, and Rajasthan.

The same equation indicates why evaporative coolers are of limited use in highly humid environments: for example, a hot August day in Tokyo may be 30 °C with 85% relative humidity, 1,005 hPa pressure. This gives a dew point of 27.2 °C and a wet-bulb temperature of 27.88 °C. According to the formula above, at 85% efficiency air may be cooled only down to 28.2 °C which makes it quite impractical.

Comparison to other types of air conditioning
Comparison of evaporative cooling to refrigeration-based air conditioning:

Advantages
Less expensive to install and operate
 * Estimated cost for professional installation is about half or less that of central refrigerated air conditioning.
 * Estimated cost of operation is 1/8 that of refrigerated air conditioning.
 * No power spike when turned on due to lack of a compressor.
 * Power consumption is limited to the fan and water pump, which have a relatively low current draw at start-up.
 * The working fluid is water. No special refrigerants, such as ammonia or CFCs, are used that could be toxic, expensive to replace, contribute to ozone depletion and/or be subject to stringent licensing and environmental regulations.
 * Newly launched air coolers can be operated though remote control.

Ease of installation and maintenance
 * Equipment can be installed by mechanically-inclined users at drastically lower cost than refrigeration equipment which requires specialized skills and professional installation.
 * The only two mechanical parts in most basic evaporative coolers are the fan motor and the water pump, both of which can be repaired or replaced at low cost and often by a mechanically inclined user, eliminating costly service calls to HVAC contractors.

Ventilation air
 * The frequent and high volumetric flow rate of air traveling through the building reduces the "age-of-air" in the building dramatically.
 * Evaporative cooling increases humidity. In dry climates, this may improve comfort and decrease static electricity problems.
 * The pad itself acts as a rather effective air filter when properly maintained; it is capable of removing a variety of contaminants in air, including urban ozone caused by pollution, regardless of very dry weather. Refrigeration-based cooling systems lose this ability whenever there is not enough humidity in the air to keep the evaporator wet while providing a frequent trickle of condensation that washes out dissolved impurities removed from the air.

Disadvantages
Performance
 * Most evaporative coolers are unable to reach as low a temperature as refrigerated air conditioning systems.
 * High dewpoint (humidity) conditions decrease the cooling capability of the evaporative cooler.
 * No dehumidification. Traditional air conditioners remove moisture from the air, except in very dry locations where recirculation can lead to a buildup of humidity. Evaporative cooling adds moisture, and in humid climates, dryness may improve thermal comfort at higher temperatures.

Comfort
 * The air supplied by the evaporative cooler is generally 80–90% relative humidity and can cause interior humidity levels as high as 65%; very humid air reduces the evaporation rate of moisture from the skin, nose, lungs, and eyes.
 * High humidity in air accelerates corrosion, particularly in the presence of dust. This can considerably reduce the life of electronics and other equipment.
 * High humidity in air may cause condensation of water. This can be a problem for some situations (e.g., electrical equipment, computers, paper, books, old wood).
 * Odors and other outdoor contaminants may be blown into the building unless sufficient filtering is in place.

Water use
 * Evaporative coolers require a constant supply of water.
 * Water high in mineral content (hard water) will leave mineral deposits on the pads and interior of the cooler. Depending on the type and concentration of minerals, possible safety hazards during the replacement and waste removal of the pads could be present. Bleed-off and refill (purge pump) systems can reduce but not eliminate this problem. Installation of an inline water filter (refrigerator drinking water/ice maker type) will drastically reduce the mineral deposits.

Maintenance frequency
 * Any mechanical components that can rust or corrode need regular cleaning or replacement due to the environment of high moisture and potentially heavy mineral deposits in areas with hard water.
 * Evaporative media must be replaced on a regular basis to maintain cooling performance. Wood wool pads are inexpensive but require replacement every few months. Higher-efficiency rigid media is much more expensive but will last for a number of years proportional to the water hardness; in areas with very hard water, rigid media may only last for two years before mineral scale build-up unacceptably degrades performance.
 * In areas with cold winters, evaporative coolers must be drained and winterized to protect the water line and cooler from freeze damage and then de-winterized prior to the cooling season.

Health hazards
 * An evaporative cooler is a common place for mosquito breeding. Numerous authorities consider an improperly maintained cooler to be a threat to public health.
 * Mold and bacteria may be dispersed into interior air from improperly maintained or defective systems, causing sick building syndrome and adverse effects for asthma and allergy sufferers. This can also cause a foul odor.
 * Wood wool of dry cooler pads can catch fire even from small sparks.

title: Evaporative cooler


text:
User talk:Jim Cook

Hello "Jim Cook" and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

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Thanks. I just discovered Wikipedia a few weeks ago. I've very impressed overall. I just jumped in and started adding things. I'll clean up formatting and add more info as I get a chance to look at other pages to see how some of the more complex things are done. Sometimes I get interrupted so have to break off without finishing something. I just figure anything I can add will be useful. jimc.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Jim Cook


text: User talk:63.231.148.91

title: User talk:63.231.148.91


text:
Delayed puberty

Delayed puberty is when a person lacks or has incomplete development of specific sexual characteristics past the usual age of onset of puberty. The person may have no physical or hormonal signs that puberty has begun. In the United States, girls are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack breast development by age 13 or have not started menstruating by age 15. Boys are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack enlargement of the testicles by age 14. Delayed puberty affects about 2% of adolescents.

Most commonly, puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally, in which case it is considered constitutional delay of growth and puberty, a common variation of healthy physical development. Delay of puberty may also occur due to various causes such as malnutrition, various systemic diseases, or defects of the reproductive system (hypogonadism) or the body's responsiveness to sex hormones.

Initial workup for delayed puberty not due to a chronic condition involves measuring serum FSH, LH, testosterone/estradiol, as well as bone age radiography. If it becomes clear that there is a permanent defect of the reproductive system, treatment usually involves replacement of the appropriate hormones (testosterone/dihydrotestosterone for boys, estradiol and progesterone for girls).

Timing and definitions
Puberty is considered delayed when the child has not begun puberty when two standard deviations or about 95% of children from similar backgrounds have.

In North American girls, puberty is considered delayed when breast development has not begun by age 13, when they have not started menstruating by age 15, and when there is no increased growth rate. Furthermore, slowed progression through the Tanner scale or lack of menarche within 3 years of breast development may also be considered delayed puberty.

In the United States, the age of onset of puberty in girls depends heavily on their racial background. Delayed puberty means the lack of breast development by age 12.8 years for White girls, and by age 12.4 years for Black girls. The lack of menstruation by age 15 in any ethnic background is considered delayed.

In North American boys, puberty is considered delayed when the testes remain less than 2.5 cm in diameter or less than 4 mL in volume by the age of 14. Delayed puberty is more common in males.

Although the absence of pubic and/or axillary hair is common in children with delayed puberty, the presence of sexual hair is due to adrenal sex hormone secretion unrelated to the sex hormones produced by the ovaries or testes.

The age of onset of puberty is dependent on genetics, general health, socioeconomic status, and environmental exposures. Children residing closer to the equator, at lower altitudes, in cities and other urban areas generally begin the process of puberty earlier than their counterparts. Mildly obese to morbidly obese children are also more likely to begin puberty earlier than children of normal weight. Variations in genes related to obesity, such as FTO or NEGRI, have been associated with earlier onset of puberty. Children whose parents started puberty at an earlier age were also more likely to experience it themselves, especially in women where onset of menstruation correlated well between mothers and daughters and between sisters.

Causes
Pubertal delay can be separated into four categories from most to least common:

Constitutional and physiologic delay
Children who are healthy but have a slower rate of physical development than average have a constitutional delay with a subsequent delay in puberty. It is the most common cause of delayed puberty in girls (30%) and even more so in boys (65%). It is commonly inherited, with as much as 80% of the variation in the age of onset of puberty due to genetic factors. These children have a history of shorter stature than their age-matched peers throughout childhood, but their height is appropriate for bone age, meaning that they have delayed skeletal maturation with potential for future growth.

It is often difficult to establish if it is a true constitutional delay of growth and puberty or if there is an underlying pathology because lab tests are not always discriminatory. In the absence of any other symptoms, short stature, delayed growth in height and weight, and/or delayed puberty may be the only clinical manifestations of certain chronic diseases including coeliac disease.

Malnutrition or chronic disease
When underweight or sickly children are present with pubertal delay, it is warranted to search for illnesses that cause a temporary and reversible delay in puberty. Chronic conditions such as sickle cell disease  and thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, HIV/AIDS, hypothyroidism, chronic kidney disease, and chronic gastroenteric disorders (such as coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel disease  ) cause a delayed activation of the hypothalamic region of the brain to send signals to start puberty.

Childhood cancer survivors can also present with delayed puberty secondary to their cancer treatments, especially males. The type of treatment, amount of exposure/dosage of drugs, and age during treatment determine the level by which the gonads are affected, with younger patients at a lower risk of negative reproductive effects.

Excessive physical exercise and physical stress, especially in athletes can also delay pubertal onset. Eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa can also impair puberty due to undernutrition.

Carbohydrate-restricted diets for weight loss have also been shown to decrease the stimulation of insulin which in turn does not stimulate kisspeptin neurons, vital in the release of puberty-starting hormones. This shows that carbohydrate restricted children and children with diabetes mellitus type 1 can have delayed puberty.

Primary failure of the ovaries or testes (hypergonadotropic hypogonadism)
Primary failure of the ovaries or testes (gonads) will cause delayed puberty due to the lack of hormonal response by the final receptors of the HPG axis. In this scenario, the brain sends a lot of hormonal signals (high gonadotropin), but the gonads are unable to respond to said signals causing hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism can be caused by congenital defects or acquired defects.

Congenital disorders
Congenital diseases include untreated cryptorchidism where the testicles fail to descend from the abdomen. Other congenital disorders are genetic in nature. In males, there can be deformities in the seminiferous tubule as in Klinefelter syndrome (most common cause in males), defects in the production of testicular steroids, receptor mutations preventing testicular hormones from working, chromosomal abnormalities such as Noonan syndrome, or problems with the cells making up the testes. Females can also have chromosomal abnormalities such as Turner syndrome (most common cause in girls), XX gonadal dysgenesis, and XY gonadal dysgenesis, problems in the ovarian hormone synthesis pathway such as aromatase deficiency or congenital anatomical deformities such as Müllerian agenesis.

Acquired disorders
Acquired diseases include mumps orchitis, Coxsackievirus B infection, irradiation, chemotherapy, or trauma; all problems causing the gonads to fail.

Genetic or acquired defect of the hormonal pathway of puberty (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism)
The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis can also be affected at the level of the brain. The brain does not send its hormonal signals to the gonads (low gonadotropins), causing the gonads to never be activated in the first place, resulting in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The HPG axis can be altered in two places, at the hypothalamic or at the pituitary level. CNS disorders such as childhood brain tumors (e.g. craniopharyngioma, prolactinoma, germinoma, glioma) can disrupt the communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Pituitary tumors, especially prolactinomas, can increase the level of dopamine causing an inhibiting effect to the HPG axis. Hypothalamic disorders include Prader-Willi syndrome and Kallmann syndrome, but the most common cause of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a functional deficiency in the hormone regulator produced by the hypothalamus, the gonadotropin-releasing hormone or GnRH.

Diagnosis
Pediatric endocrinologists are the physicians with the most training and experience in evaluating delayed puberty. A complete medical history, review of systems, growth pattern, and physical examination, as well as laboratory testing and imaging, will reveal most of the systemic diseases and conditions capable of arresting development or delaying puberty, as well as providing clues to some of the recognizable syndromes affecting the reproductive system.

Timely medical assessment is a necessity since as many as half of girls with delayed puberty have an underlying pathology.

Constitutional and physiologic delay
Children with constitutional delay are reported to be shorter than their peers, lacking a growth spurt, and having an overall smaller build. Their growth has begun to slow down years before the expected growth spurt secondary to puberty, which helps differentiate a constitutional delay from an HPG-axis related disorder. A complete family history with the ages at which parents hit the pubertal milestones can also provide a reference point for the expected age of puberty. Growth measurement parameters in children with suspected constitutional delay include a height, a weight, the rate of growth, and the calculated mid-parental height which represents the expected adult height for the child.

Malnutrition or chronic disease
Diet and physical activity habits, as well as history of previous serious illnesses and medication history can provide clues as to the cause of delayed puberty. Delayed growth and puberty can be the first signs of severe chronic illnesses such as metabolic disorders including inflammatory bowel disease and hypothyroidism. Symptoms such as fatigue, pain, and abnormal stooling pattern are suggestive of an underlying chronic condition. Low BMI can lead a physician to diagnose an eating disorder, undernutrition, child abuse, or chronic gastrointestinal disorders.

Primary failure of the ovaries or testes
A eunuchoid body shape where the arm span exceeds the height by more than 5 cm suggests a delay in growth plate closure secondary to hypogonadism. Turner syndrome has unique diagnostic features including a webbed neck, short stature, shield chest, and low hairline. Klinefelter syndrome presents with tall stature as well as small, firm testes.

Genetic or acquired defect of the hormonal pathway of puberty
Lacking the sense of smell (anosmia) along with delayed puberty are strong clinical indications for Kallmann syndrome. Deficiencies in GnRH, the signalling hormone produced by the hypothalamus, can cause congenital malformations including cleft lip and scoliosis. The presence of neurological symptoms including headaches and visual disturbances suggest a brain disorder such as a brain tumor causing hypopituitarism. The presence of neurological symptoms in addition to lactation are signs of high prolactin levels and could indicate either a drug side effect or a prolactinoma.

Imaging
Since bone maturation is a good indicator of overall physical maturation, an X-ray of the left hand and wrist to assess bone age usually reveals whether the child has reached a stage of physical maturation at which puberty should be occurring. X-ray displaying a bone age <11 years in girls or <13 years in boys (despite a higher chronological age) is most often consistent with constitutional delay of puberty. An MRI of the brain should be considered if neurological symptoms are present in addition to delayed puberty, two findings suspicious for pituitary or hypothalamic tumors. An MRI can also confirm the diagnosis of Kallmann syndrome due to the absence or abnormal development of the olfactory tract. However, in the absence of clear neurological symptoms, an MRI may not be the most cost-effective option. A pelvic ultrasound can detect anatomical abnormalities including undescended testes and Müllerian agenesis.

Laboratory evaluation
The first step in evaluating children with delayed puberty involves differentiating between the different causes of delayed puberty. Constitutional delay can be evaluated with a thorough history, physical, and bone age. Malnutrition and chronic diseases can be diagnosed through history and disease-specific testing. Screening studies include a complete blood count, an erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and thyroid studies. Hypogonadism can be differentiated between hyper- and hypo-gonadotropic hypogonadism by measuring serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropins to measure pituitary output), and estradiol in girls (to measure gonadal output). By the age of 10–12, children with failure of the ovaries or testes will have high LH and FSH because the brain is attempting to jump-start puberty, but the gonads are not responsive to these signals.

Stimulating the body by administering an artificial version of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, the hypothalamic hormone) can differentiate between constitutional delay of puberty and a GnRH deficiency in boys, although no studies have been done in girls to prove this. It is often sufficient to simply measure the baseline gonadotrophin levels to differentiate between the two.

In girls with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, a serum prolactin level is measured to identify if they have the pituitary tumor prolactinoma. High levels of prolactin would warrant further testing with MRI imaging, except if drugs inducing the production of prolactin can be identified. If the child has any neurological symptoms, it is highly recommended that the physician obtains a head MRI to detect possible brain lesions.

In girls with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, a karyotype can identify chromosomal abnormalities, the most common of which is Turner syndrome. In boys, a karyotype is indicated if the child may have a congenital gonadal defect such as Klinefelter syndrome. In children with a normal karyotype, defects in the synthesis of the adrenal steroid sex hormones can be identified by measuring 17-hydroxylase, an important enzyme involved in the production of sex hormones.

Management
The goals of short-term hormone therapy are to induce the beginning of sexual development and induce a growth spurt, but it should be limited to children with severe distress or anxiety secondary to their delayed puberty. Bone age must be monitored frequently to prevent precocious closure of the bone plates, thereby stunting growth.

Constitutional and physiologic delay
If a child is healthy with a constitutional delay of growth and puberty, reassurance and prediction based on the bone age can be provided. No other intervention is usually necessary, but repeat evaluation by measuring serum testosterone or estrogen is recommended. Furthermore, the diagnosis of hypogonadism can be excluded once the adolescent has started puberty by age 16–18.

Boys aged >14 years old whose growth is severely stunted or are experiencing severe distress secondary to their lack of puberty can be started on testosterone to increase their height. Testosterone treatment can also be used to stimulate sexual development, but it can close bone plates prematurely stopping growth altogether if not carefully administered. Another therapeutic option is the use of aromatase inhibitors to inhibit the conversion of androgens to estrogens as estrogens are responsible for stopping bone growth plate development and thus growth. However, due to side effects, therapy with testosterone alone is most often used. Overall, neither growth hormone nor aromatase inhibitors are recommended for constitutional delay to increase growth.

Girls can be started on estrogen with the same goals as their male counterparts.

Overall, studies have shown no significant difference in final adult height between adolescents treated with sex steroids and those who were only observed with no treatment.

Malnutrition or chronic disease
If the delay is due to systemic disease or malnutrition, the therapeutic intervention is likely to focus direction on those conditions. In patients with coeliac disease, an early diagnosis and the establishment of a gluten-free diet prevents long-term complications and allows restoration of normal maturation. Thyroid hormone therapy will be necessary in the case of hypothyroidism.

Primary failure of the ovaries or testes (hypergonadotropic hypogonadism)
Whereas children with constitutional delay will have normal levels of sex hormones post-puberty, gonadotropin deficiency or hypogonadism may require lifelong sex steroid replacement.

In girls with primary ovarian failure, estrogen should be started when puberty is supposed to start. Progestins are usually added after there is acceptable breast development, about 12 to 24 months after starting estrogen, as starting treatment with progestin too early can negatively affect breast growth. After acceptable breast growth, administering estrogen and progestin in a cyclical manner can help establish regular menses once puberty is started. The goal is to complete sexual maturation over 2 to 3 years. Once sexual maturation has been achieved, a trial period with no hormonal therapy can determine whether or not the child will require life-long treatment. Girls with congenital GnRH deficiency require enough sex hormone supplementation to maintain body levels in the expected pubertal levels necessary to induce ovulation, especially when fertility is a concern.

Males with primary failure of the testes will be on lifelong testosterone.

Pulsatile GnRH, weekly multi-LH, or hCG and FSH can be used to induce fertility in adulthood for both males and females.

Genetic or acquired defect of the hormonal pathway of puberty (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism)
Boys aged >12 years old with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism are most often treated with short-term testosterone while males with testicular failure will be on life-long testosterone. Choice of formulation (topical vs injection) is dependent on the child's and family's preference as well as on how well they tolerate side effects. Although testosterone therapy alone will result in the start of puberty, to increase fertility potential, they may need pulsatile GnRH or hCG with rFSH. hCG can be used by itself in boys with spontaneous onset of puberty from non-permanent forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and rFSH can be added in cases of low sperm count after 6 to 12 months of treatment.

If puberty has not started after 1 year of treatment, then permanent hypogonadotropic hypogonadism should be considered.

Girls with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism are started on the same sex steroid therapy as their counterparts with a constitutional delay, however doses are gradually increased to reach full adult replacement levels. Dosage of estrogen is titrated based on the woman's ability to have withdrawal bleeds and to maintain appropriate bone density. Induction of fertility must also be done through pulsatile GnRH.

Others
Growth hormone is another option that has been described, however it should only be used in proven growth hormone deficiency such as idiopathic short stature. Children with a constitutional delay have not been shown to benefit from growth hormone therapy. Although serum growth hormone levels are low in constitutional delay of puberty, they increase after treatment with sex hormones and in those cases, growth hormone is not suggested to accelerate growth.

Subnormal vitamin A intake is one of the etiological factors in delayed pubertal maturation. Supplementation of both vitamin A and iron to normal constitutionally delayed children with subnormal vitamin A intake is as efficacious as hormonal therapy in the induction of growth and puberty.

More therapies are being developed to target the more discreet modulators of the HPG axis including kisspeptin and neurokinin B.

In cases of severe delayed puberty secondary to hypogonadism, evaluation by a psychologist or psychiatrist, as well as counseling and a supportive environment are an important supplemental therapy for the child. Transition from pediatric to adult care is also vital as many children are lost during transition of care.

Outlook
Constitutional delay of growth and puberty is a variation of normal development with no long-term health consequences, however it can have lasting psychological effects. Adolescent boys with delayed puberty have a higher level of anxiety and depression relative to their peers. Children with delayed puberty also display decreased academic performance in their adolescent education, but changes in academic achievement in adulthood have not been determined.

There is conflicting evidence as to whether or not children with constitutional growth and pubertal delay reach their full height potential. The conventional teaching is that these children catch up on their growth during the pubertal growth spurt and just remain shorter before their delayed puberty starts. However, some studies show that these children fall short of their target height from about 4 to 11 cm. Factors that could affect final height include familial short stature and pre-pubertal growth development.

Pubertal delay can also affect bone mass and subsequent development of osteoporosis. Men with delayed puberty often have low to normal bone mineral density unaffected by androgen therapy. Women are more likely to have lower bone mineral density and thus an increased risk of fractures as early as even before the onset of puberty.

Furthermore, delayed puberty is correlated with a higher risk in cardiovascular and metabolic disorders in women only, but also appears to be protective for breast and endometrial in women and testicular cancer in men.

title: Delayed puberty


text:
Shōchū

Shōchū (焼酎) is a Japanese distilled beverage. It is typically distilled from rice, barley, sweet potatoes, buckwheat, or brown sugar, though it is sometimes produced from other ingredients such as chestnut, sesame seeds, potatoes, or even carrots.

Typically shōchū contains 25% alcohol by volume, which is weaker than baijiu, whiskey, or vodka, but stronger than huangjiu, sake, or wine. It is not uncommon for multiply distilled shōchū, which is more likely to be used in mixed drinks, to contain up to 35% alcohol by volume.

Etymology
The word shōchū (焼酎) is the Japanese rendition of the Chinese shaojiu (燒酒), meaning "burned liquor", which refers to the heating process during distillation. The Chinese way of writing shaojiu with the character 酒 means sake in modern Japanese, which writes shōchū using the character 酎 instead. Nevertheless, both characters mean "liquor".

Drinking

Shōchū should not be confused with sake, a brewed rice wine. Its taste is usually far less fruity and depends strongly on the nature of the starch used in the distilling process. Its flavor is often described as "nutty" or "earthy".

Shōchū is drunk in many ways according to season or personal taste:

 * neat, i.e., on its own with nothing added
 * on the rocks, i.e., mixed with ice, known as "rokku" in Japanese
 * diluted with room temperature water (水割り mizuwari) or hot water (お湯割り oyuwari),
 * mixed with oolong tea or fruit juice
 * as chūhai (shōchū highball), a mixed drink consisting of shōchū, soda water, ice and some flavoring, often lemon, grapefruit, apple or ume (East Asian plum)
 * mixed very cold with a beer-flavored mixer known as Hoppy

Shōchū is widely available in supermarkets, liquor stores, and convenience stores in Japan while canned chuhai drinks are sold in some of Japan's ubiquitous vending machines. However, it is more difficult to find shōchū outside Japan except in urban areas with large enough Japanese populations. Interest in shōchū has begun to grow in North America, particularly in cosmopolitan cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver, Toronto, and New York. Dedicated shōchū bars have begun to appear in New York and more than 100 brands are now available in the U.S. market.

In Kyūshū, the center of production, shōchū is far more common than sake. Indeed, there "sake" (酒) generally refers to shōchū, and is sometimes consumed mixed with hot water (Oyuwari), especially in cooler months. First hot water is poured into the glass, then shōchū is gently added. The liquids mix naturally and stirring is unnecessary. Typically, when serving a standard 25% ABV shōchū oyuwari, the amount of shōchū exceeds the amount of hot water and is enjoyed for its aroma. Occasionally, shōchū and water are mixed, left to stand for a day, and then gently heated. This traditional pre-dilution technique is known as maewari in Japan.

Boom
The early 21st century witnessed a consumer boom in shōchū within Japan, and in 2003 domestic shipments surpassed those of sake for the first time. Shōchū bars appeared serving shōchū exclusively, and premium brands with a focus on particular ingredients, production methods, or aging techniques entered the market. The beverage has undergone a change of image; formerly it was seen as an old fashioned drink, but now has become trendy amongst young drinkers, particularly women. The boom also had negative effects: It caused a serious shortage of sweet potatoes, a basic ingredient of some popular types of shōchū and, with the emergence of expensive premium brands, pricing scams appeared.

In 2005 the Japanese television drama Kiken na Aneki illustrated this change in drinking habits. Its plot centered on the Minagawa family of Miyazaki Prefecture, who were brewers of a sweet potato shōchū called imojōchū. The lead character Hiroko (Ito Misaki) spends the majority of the series trying to come up with enough money to save the distillery from loan sharks, but in the process becomes involved with corporate distilleries. The larger companies formulate an advertising campaign that results in the imojōchū becoming a popular drink. In this fictional account, the beverage is marketed to young women when it previously had been mostly consumed by the older male generation.

There are several reasons for shōchū's recent popularity. With increasing health-consciousness, many people see it as healthier than some alternatives. There have been well-publicized claims of medical benefits, including that it can be effective in preventing thrombosis, heart attacks, and diabetes. It is also a versatile drink that is suited to most styles of cuisine.

Shigechiyo Izumi, a Japanese citizen who apparently lived to be 120 (though the claim is disputed), made shōchū part of his daily dietary regimen. This practice was mentioned along with his record in the Guinness Book of World Records. Because of his intimate passion for shōchū, many have speculated that shōchū is healthy and can actually promote longevity. This even prompted some local Ryūkyū shōchū brewers to market a special Longevity Liquor (長寿の酒) shōchū bearing his name on the front label. Despite these claims, Izumi's personal physician strongly advised against drinking shōchū, as his kidneys were not strong enough to process shōchū in his advanced age. But Izumi went on to say: "Without shōchū there would be no pleasure in life. I would rather die than give up drinking."

History

Shōchū production has been historically attested to since the 16th century. When the missionary Francis Xavier visited Kagoshima Prefecture in 1549, he recorded that "the Japanese drink arak made from rice [...] but I have not seen a single drunkard. That is because once inebriated they immediately lie down and go to sleep."

The oldest existing direct reference to shōchū in Japan can be found at Kōriyama Hachiman shrine in Ōkuchi, Kagoshima. There, two carpenters working on the shrine in 1559 inscribed the following graffiti on a wooden plank in the roof: "The high priest was so stingy he never once gave us shōchū to drink. What a nuisance!"

From these early times through to the Edo period shōchū was produced throughout Japan in the traditional kasutori way, using single pot distillation. During the Meiji period, the column still was introduced to Japan from Great Britain, making affordable mass production of high-purity multiply distilled shōchū possible during a time of chronic rice shortages. Shōchū made the traditional way was called "old-style shōchū" and that produced using the new multiple-distillation machinery "new-style shōchū."

In the early 20th century, Hajime Katahira (1884–1936), Minosuke Kurose (1882–1967), and Tsunekichi Kurose (1885–1925) in Kasasa Village in Kagoshima Prefecture established the Kurose Toji Guild. Through their experience in both Okinawan Awamori and sake production, these men revolutionized traditional shochu production through the introduction of black koji (A. awamori) and multi-stage fermentation. Prior to this multistage fermentation process, shochu was made in the donburi style with both koji inoculated grains and the main ingredients added to a single fermentation. Today, almost all authentic shochu is made with a multi-stage fermentation. At its peak, the Kurose Koji Guild boasted more than 500 members who would travel throughout Japan to produce shochu from local agricultural ingredients. Tamaki Inui (1873–1946), a lecturer at University of Tokyo, succeeded in the first isolating and culturing aspergillus such as A. kawachii, A. awamori and a variety of subtaxa of A. oryzae. His contemporary, Genichirō Kawachi (1883–1948), who is said to be the father of modern shōchu with his development of the Kawachi Drum koji machine as well as the isolation of white koji, also known as A. kawachii, which is named after him. These discoveries results in great progress in producing high quality shochu in Japan, but the Kawachi Drum machine and other innovations led to the eventual demise of the Kurose Toji Guild, which today has just a handful of active members, but primarily continues to live on in a museum in Kasasa Village. Aspergillus developed by Kawachi has also been used for soju and makgeolli in Korea.

Definition and classification
Japan's alcohol taxation law, as revised in April 2006, defines two categories of shōchū (also called white liquor).

Multiply distilled shōchū
Alcohol distilled more than once with special machinery for that purpose, diluted for sale to an alcohol by volume level of less than 36%, that meets the following conditions:

 * 1) Fruit or grain that has been allowed to germinate is not used as a base ingredient in whole or in part (preventing brandy and malt whisky from being considered shōchū).
 * 2) It is not filtered through charcoal.
 * 3) If sugar is used as a base ingredient, in whole or in part, then the result of distillation must be at least 95% alcohol by volume (see discussion under brown sugar shōchū).
 * 4) It is not fortified at distillation time with other than expressly permitted ingredients (eliminates liqueurs).

Until the 2006 revision the law referred to this category as kōrui shōchū (焼酎甲類), sometimes abbreviated to "kōshu" (甲焼). Kōrui (Class A) in the classification of shōchū simply means classification and does not mean that the quality is superior to that of Otsurui (Class B).

It is generally distilled from a fermented liquid similar to molasses. Repeated distillation forms ethyl alcohol of high purity which is typically odorless and has a taste of little distinction. Water is then added, and the precise nature of this water has subtle effects on the taste and palatability of the shōchū.

Kōrui shōchū is made from sweet potato, potato, and corn. It is generally produced in modern large factories. Distillers make Kōrui shōchū by weakening the distilled alcohol.

The specialized distillation equipment, called a patent still lends it to mass production at low cost, so large corporations produce this kind of shōchū in high volume. In Japan, it retails in plastic bottles, cans, and paper cup form and is consumed as a cheap alcoholic drink. It forms the base of several cocktails and liqueurs such as chūhai and umeshu.

Singly distilled shōchū
Alcohol distilled using other than multiple-distillation machinery, with alcohol by volume of no more than 45%, from one of the following:

 * 1) ferment whose primary ingredient is grain or potato and their kōji
 * 2) ferment whose primary ingredient is grain kōji
 * 3) ferment whose primary ingredient is sake lees, possibly with rice and/or its kōji (see kasutori shōchū)
 * 4) ferment whose primary ingredient is sugar (restricted types) and rice kōji (see brown sugar shōchū)
 * 5) ferment whose primary ingredient is grain or potato and their kōji along with other ingredients, provided the other ingredients form no more than 50% by weight
 * 6) other substances with certain restrictions

Until the 2006 revision the law referred to this category as otsurui shōchū (焼酎乙類), sometimes abbreviated to "otsushu" (乙焼). Otsurui (Class B) in the classification of shōchū simply means classification and does not mean that the quality is inferior to that of Kōrui (Class A).

The equipment used for single distillation is called a pot still. As the shōchū is distilled just once it retains the character of the base ingredient, typically rice, barley, or sweet potato, with a strong taste and aroma. Small-to-medium size enterprises make most brands, with the island of Kyūshū famous as the center of production. Recently however larger corporations have been entering the market.

Maturation
Shōchū is shipped after maturation. Maturation techniques vary in storage vessel and location, both of which affect the character of the shōchū. The most commonly used containers for aging shōchū are stainless steel tanks, clay pots, and wooden barrels or casks.

As a result of maturation, the flavor, and aroma of shōchū settle. Maturation generally takes between one and three months. Maturation from three to six months is called beginning maturation. During this period, sharp flavors in the shōchū generally decrease. Shōchū matured from six months to three years usually has a mellow taste.

A shōchū called long-term maturation is matured for more than three years. But long-term maturation does not always improve the flavor. On the other hand, long-term maturation is particularly effective for awamori. Distillers sometimes mature awamori for longer than ten years.

Locations
Shōchū is matured in various places to impart unique flavors, typically where there are minimal variations in temperature and humidity. These places include tunnels and limestone caverns.

Honkaku shōchū
Until 2006 Japanese postwar tax law classified shōchū into "kōrui" and "otsurui" types. The terms kō (甲) and otsu (乙) are Chinese celestial stems typically used for classification, and mean something akin to "Grade A" and "Grade B" respectively.

Fearing a tendency to believe that otsurui shōchū is somehow inferior to kōrui shōchū, the Kyūshū Otsurui Shochu Producers' Association lobbied the Finance Ministry, and in 1962 succeeded in having honkaku shōchū (本格焼酎), or authentic shōchū, recognized as an alternative name. The name is believed to have been coined in 1957 by Junkichi Enatsu, the president of Kirishima Brewery of Miyakonojō, Miyazaki Prefecture.

However, since the term was not formally defined naming disputes arose. As a result, on 1 November 2002, the law was clarified and shōchū satisfying any of conditions 1 to 5 of the above definition of singly distilled shōchū can be called honkaku shōchū. Those satisfying the final condition are excluded.

Shōchū consumption in Japan by categories
2016 Shōchū consumption in Japan by categories (tax base) is as follows;

Moromitori shōchū
Most singly distilled shōchū is moromitori shōchū (もろみ取焼酎). This name derives from its production process:

 * 1) Raw material treatment. Usually, rice or barley is steeped in water, then steamed to promote starch gelatinization and cooled.
 * 2) Kōji production. kōjikin, or koji mold spores, are cultivated onto the material to form koji mold which creates enzymes as it grows. The enzymes break starch molecules down into sugar molecules that can be fermented, a process called saccharification.
 * 3) Primary fermentation. The koji is mashed by adding both water and yeast and is fermented for seven to nine days in a tank or vat to form unrefined alcohol, called moto or (first stage) moromi.
 * 4) Secondary fermentation. The steamed main ingredient and water are added to the unrefined alcohol and fermented again to form (second stage) moromi. The ingredient added during this second stage determines the variety of shōchū; for example, if sweet potato is added then it becomes sweet potato shōchū.
 * 5) Distillation. Purification of the unrefined moromi alcohol.

Kōji
Kōji (麹) mold, a kind of Aspergillus fungus, has a profound effect on the final taste of the shōchū. There are three varieties of kōji mold with distinct characteristics.
 * Yellow kōji (A. oryzae). Used to produce sake, and at one time all honkaku shōchū. However yellow kōji is extremely sensitive to temperature; its moromi can easily sour during fermentation. This makes it difficult to use in warmer regions such as Kyūshū, and gradually black and white kōji became more common. Its strength is that it gives rise to a rich, fruity refreshing taste, so despite the difficulties and great skill required it is still used by some manufacturers. It is popular amongst young people and those who previously had no interest in typically strong sweet potato shōchū, playing a role in its recent revival.  Thus, white and black kōji are mainly used in the production of shōchū, but only yellow kōji (A. oryzae) is usually used in the production of sake.
 * White kōji (A. kawachii). Discovered as a mutation from black kōji by Genichirō Kawachi in 1918. This effect was researched and white kōji was successfully grown independently. White kōji is easy to cultivate and its enzymes promote rapid saccharization; as a result, it is used to produce most shōchū today. It gives rise to a drink with a refreshing, gentle, sweet taste.
 * Black kōji (A. luchuensis) . Mainly used to produce shōchū and awamori. In 1901, Tamaki Inui of the University of Tokyo succeeded in the first isolating and culturing. In 1910, Genichirō Kawachi succeeded for the first time in culturing var. kawachi, a variety of subtaxa of A. awamori. This improved the efficiency of shochu production. It produces plenty of citric acid, which helps to prevent the souring of the moromi. Of all three kōji it most effectively extracts the taste and character of the base ingredients, giving its shōchū a rich aroma with a slightly sweet, mellow taste. Its spores disperse easily, covering production facilities and workers' clothes in a layer of black. Such issues led to it falling out of favor, but due to the development of New Kuro-kōji (NK-kōji) in the mid-1980s, interest in black kōji resurged amongst honkaku shōchū makers because of the depth and quality of the taste it produced. Several popular brands now explicitly state they use black kōji on their labels.

Water
Water is one of the most important ingredients for making shōchū. The quality of water affects that of shōchū directly. Various kinds of water are used in the process of making shōchū.

Varieties
There is a broad variety of moromitori shōchū. Four locations have achieved protection as geographical indications under World Trade Organization TRIPS article 23 and are noted below.

Rice shōchū
Rice shōchū (米焼酎) shares its base ingredient with sake. It has a fairly thick taste, and appears to have originally developed in regions too warm for sake production.

Kumamoto Prefecture is particularly well known for its production of rice shōchū. Notably Kuma shōchū (球磨焼酎) produced in Hitoyoshi-bonchi is protected as a geographical indication.

Rice shōchū is also produced in regions famous for their sake, such as Niigata and Akita prefectures.

Barley shōchū
Barley shōchū (麦焼酎) is generally less distinctive than rice shōchū and easy to drink. However, if cask-aged the taste can be quite sharp and strongly reminiscent of single-malt whisky.

Ōita Prefecture, Miyazaki Prefecture, and Iki in Nagasaki Prefecture are strong production hubs. Iki shōchū (壱岐焼酎) has also been given protection as a geographical indication.

Sweet potato shōchū
Sweet potato shōchū (芋焼酎) uses sweet potato, widely cultivated across southern Kyūshū since the Edo period, as its base ingredient. Originally it was almost exclusively produced in Kagoshima and Miyazaki prefectures, but nowadays is made across Japan using locally grown sweet potatoes.

It tends to have a strong taste and a distinctive smell; more recently producers have made varieties whose aroma is somewhat suppressed.

Kagoshima's Satsuma shōchū (薩摩焼酎) has been given protection under WTO rules as a geographical indication.

The 1956 film The Teahouse of the August Moon portrayed an American-occupied Okinawan village rebuilding its economy with sweet potato shōchū.

The taste of sweet potato shōchū is a bit smoky, evocative of some whiskeys.

Brown sugar shōchū
From the Edo period through to the time of the Pacific War, the Amami Islands produced drinks such as awamori and a distilled alcohol based on brown sugar. From the middle of the war through to the American occupation, because of a shortage of rice (the base ingredient of awamori) and an inability to export the sugar-based alcohol to the mainland, a large surplus was produced. In 1953, when the Amami Islands were returned to Japanese sovereignty, the alcohol was not classified as "shōchū" under the 1949 alcohol tax law and therefore would attract a high rate of tax. The Ministry of Finance, taking into account the desire of local residents and as part of a strategy to promote the region, gave special recognition to the local alcohol as brown sugar shōchū (黒糖焼酎). This recognition was geographically restricted to the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture and was conditional on the use of rice kōji. This regional restriction remains in place to this day; as can be seen in the legal definition of singly distilled shōchū above.

Typically, brown sugar shōchū contains 30% or 25% alcohol by volume. Contrary to what might be expected, brown sugar shōchū has a mild and not particularly sweet taste, as it contains no sugar. Nowadays it is produced in 25 breweries in 5 islands: Kikaijima, Amami Ōshima, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabujima and Yoronjima. Awamori, however, is no longer made outside Okinawa Prefecture.

Before the war, another alcoholic drink based on brown sugar was made in the Ogasawara Islands. Its name translates as "sugar alcohol" and could be seen as a form of brown sugar shōchū. Production ceased because of the war, but recently, aiming to revive its popularity, similar alcohol, using no rice kōji, has been introduced. However, as Ogasawara does not qualify for the above special regional exemption, this alcohol is instead classified as rum or spirits.

Soba shōchū
Soba, or buckwheat, shōchū (そば焼酎) has origins going back to just 1973 when Unkai Brewery Co., of Gokase, Miyazaki Prefecture, developed it using soba from the local mountainous region as its base ingredient. Since then shōchū producers across Japan have produced it, sometimes as part of a shōchū blend.

The taste is milder than barley shōchū.

Awamori

Okinawa is the home of awamori (泡盛), which uses rice as its base ingredient. Prior to April 1983, it was labeled otsurui shōchū, but is now properly called "Authentic Awamori".

Awamori is made from Thai long-grained indica crushed rice, not the usual short-grained japonica of standard shōchū. The fermentation process employs black koji mold indigenous to Okinawa rather than the standard white variety, and secondary fermentation is not performed. Fermentation is done in a way that creates plenty of citric acid, allowing it to be produced all year round despite Okinawa's hot climate. After distillation its strength is reduced with water to about 25% alcohol by volume, although some varieties go as high as 65%.

Japanese law classifies awamori as a singly distilled honkaku shōchū despite the different production processes.

With its method of production, awamori could theoretically be made anywhere in Japan, but Ryūkyū Awamori (琉球泡盛) is a protected geographical indication restricted to Okinawa.

Others
Japanese law admits a very wide range of unusual base ingredients, such as perilla leaf, sesame and chestnut, and shōchū made from most if not all of these exists. For example, there is a milk shōchū brand called Makiba-no Yume. Others are generic shōchū mixed with a particular fruit juice or extracts.

With its peculiarity, such shōchū is typically intended to catch the eye of visitors to a region and has attracted limited broader appeal. Soba shōchū is a good example of one that has managed to achieve more widespread success.

Kasutori shōchū
In contrast to moromitori shōchū, kasutori shōchū (粕取り焼酎) is made by distilling the sake lees leftover from the fermentation of sake. It is a form of honkaku shōchū.

It first became popular in the north of Kyūshū, and then spread to other areas, being manufactured during a period when it was not possible to brew refined sake across Japan. It is also widely used in sake production to stop fermentation before it is complete, which can help prevent degradation or give a dry taste. Shōchū made for this purpose is called hashira shōchū (柱焼酎).

During the Edo period shōchū lees were used as a fertilizer during the rice-planting season. Many farms, therefore, installed distillation equipment to distill sake lees to produce shōchū lees. Whilst the lees were used in the fields, the distilled alcohol was drunk, or offered to the gods, at the sanaburi (早苗響) festival held at the end of the rice-planting season to pray for a bountiful harvest. Kasutori shōchū has therefore also come to be known as sanaburi shōchū.

Owing to the recent surge in popularity of shōchū in Japan, an increasing number of manufacturers have been making kasutori shōchū.

Most kasutori shōchū is made in modern ways, shōchū made via older production processes has decreased sharply. People who wish to preserve Japanese culture call shōchū produced the historical way Seichō kasutori shōchū (正調粕取焼酎), such drinks have been revitalized by their activities.

Slang usage
Confusingly kasutori is also a slang term for a separate, inferior form of shōchū. After the Pacific War, in a chaotic society with a shortage of good alcohol, moonshine shōchū began to circulate. Its source and ingredients were not apparent, and in extreme cases contained toxic methyl alcohol diluted with water. Such shōchū with ill side-effects became known as kasutori, and the association with poor shōchū lingered, sometimes even affecting the image of "real" respectable kasutori shōchū.

The expressions kasutori literature and kasutori culture also came to be associated with the upheavals of the postwar period.

Blended shōchū
Singly distilled and multiply distilled shōchū can be mixed to form blended shōchū (混和焼酎). Formerly it was often mislabeled honkaku shōchū, or had no indication of mixing or relative volumes. Starting in 2005 the industry regulated itself and created the blended shōchū mark, with subcategorization based upon the relative volumes used.

Singly distilled shōchū makes up 50%–95% of the total volume of singly distilled blended shōchū. This category is targeted at those viewing pure singly distilled shōchū as having too strong a smell or taste, aiming to be softer and more easily drinkable.

In multiply distilled blended shōchū singly distilled shōchū makes up 5%–50% of the total volume. With a focus on price, this tries to combine the cheap mass-production benefits of multiply distilled shōchū whilst introducing some of the distinctive flavor and aroma of the singly distilled form.

title: Shōchū


text:
Talk:Professional degree (version 2)

Various meanings
Hmmm. This article is very much from the Swedish perspective. Things called "professional degrees" exist elsewhere, although the meaning may not be quite the same. Isomorphic 04:17, 13 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Lets write both meanings. "Professional degree" is a term used by Swedish goverment in the European Parlament // Rogper 20:02, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

=Proposal to merge with Academic degree= A proposal to merge with Academic degree was made in August 2006. No comments at all were received. I've removed the tag and not moved forward with the proposal. Cheers! Wassupwestcoast 23:47, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

 * reading this article I would not merge it with Academic Degree for the simple reason that you would have to find a name for academic degrees which are not professional degrees. Otherwise it would be very difficult to distinguish between the two...--VeronikaMM 08:24, 16 April 2007 (UTC)

Proposal to NOT merge with Professional studies
FYI: I believe Professional studies is a more generic term than Professional degree, and therefore they should not be merged. But we should duplicate as little information as possible, so please feel free to trim or cannibalize that article as you see fit. Vagary 01:25, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

professional vs. academic degree
A professional degree is different from an academic degree. The curriculum and purposes are completely different. One could also call a professional degree a practical study and an academic degree a theoretical or philosophical study. Isn't it so? Zoticogrillo (talk) 07:07, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Professional degree (version 2)


text:
Talk:Mount Pulag

Dwarf Bamboo
if the dwarf bamboo is endemic to mount pulag, why is it named in latin after mount niitaka on taiwan?Toyokuni3 (talk) 21:27, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Second or third highest?
In April 2009, Gubernatoria demoted Pulag from second highest to third highest in the Philippines. Even now, another part of the article calls it second highest. If Pulag is third highest, could anyone name the second highest mountain in the Philippines? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Painterjf (talk • contribs) 04:34, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

Requested move 17 February 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved. Jenks24 (talk) 06:03, 27 February 2017 (UTC)

Mount Pulag → Pulag – Same with Talk:Mayon. WP:Concise and WP:Commonname: The modifier/title is not needed since there is only one WP:Primary topic for the word "Pulag" and it is this article. The mountain is known by its proper name without the word "Mountain". Based MOS:PHIL Places, the modifier is optional for well-known places. Shhhhwwww!! (talk) 23:05, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Mount is a natural part of the name per WP:NCGN.--RioHondo (talk) 07:27, 23 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Oppose. I agree with RioHondo, plus, the mountain is much referred as "Mount Pulag". The modifier is, yes, a vital part of the mountain's name.-TagaSanPedroAko (talk) 12:32, 24 February 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Has it ever really snowed there?
It doesn't snow in Mt.Pulag, only hailstorms that look like snow, and frosts. Seriously, where's the source?- Aja675 (talk) 15:27, 24 June 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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Mt. Pulag's prominence in question
The sourced/citation used to justify Pulag's prominence is dated 2005 but it does mention that they used old soviet maps to arrive at these numbers. It even calls out for people to take it with a pinch of salt until there is 1:50,000 Philippine topographic mapping publicly available. Well, we do have that data now here and (I am no expert but it looks to me like) Mt. Pulag's col is around 1300m and that would establish its prominence at about 1600m. Inviting the experts to have their say on this but I highly doubt that the current figure of 2922m is accurate.

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 22:27, 8 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Mt pulag.jpg

Is Mount Pulag really the same as Mount Pulog
Is the redirect from Mount Pulog to this side really correct? A friend from the Philippines told me that the Mount Pulog is in SO of Luzon and another Mounten of Luzon. See here: Position of really Mount Pulog on Google Maps Drägü (talk) 08:53, 31 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Some older maps erroneously used "Mount Pulog" to refer to Mount Pulag (for example, as shown in Fast Facts about Philippine Provinces by Conrado M. Lancion). The "Mount Pulog" in Sorsogon is quite an unknown mountain. —Sanglahi86 (talk) 11:38, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Add etymology
pulag. Jidanni (talk) 07:13, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Pulag


text: User talk:142.177.230.155

title: User talk:142.177.230.155