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Studio 54

Studio 54 is a Broadway theater and former nightclub at 254 West 54th Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, United States. Opened as the Gallo Opera House in 1927, it served as a CBS broadcast studio in the mid-20th century. Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager opened the Studio 54 nightclub, retaining much of the former theatrical and broadcasting fixtures, inside the venue in 1977. Roundabout Theatre Company renovated the space into a Broadway house in 1998.

The producer Fortune Gallo announced plans for an opera house in 1926, hiring Eugene De Rosa as the architect. The Gallo Opera House opened November 8, 1927, but soon went bankrupt and was renamed the New Yorker Theatre. The space also operated as the Casino de Paree nightclub, then the Palladium Music Hall, before the Federal Music Project staged productions at the theater for three years starting in 1937. CBS began using the venue as a soundstage in 1942, then as a television studio until 1975.

Schrager and Rubell opened the Studio 54 nightclub on April 26, 1977, as disco was gaining popularity in the U.S. Infamous for its celebrity guest lists, quixotic entry policies, extravagant events, rampant drug use, and sexual hedonism, Studio 54 closed in 1980 after Schrager and Rubell were convicted of tax evasion. A scaled-back version of the nightclub continued under new management before becoming the Ritz rock club in 1989, then the Cabaret Royale bar in 1994.

The Roundabout Theatre Company renovated the space in 1998 to relocate its production of the musical Cabaret, which ran at Studio 54 until 2004. The modern theater has since hosted multiple productions each season. The main auditorium, with 1,006 seats on two levels, is complemented by two sister cabaret venues: Upstairs at 54 on the second floor since 2001, and 54 Below in the basement since 2012. The heyday of the 1970s club features in numerous exhibitions, films, and albums, with memorabilia from the nightclub appearing at auctions.

Design
Studio 54 was originally designed by Eugene De Rosa as the Gallo Opera House, which contained 1,400 seats when it opened in 1927. De Rosa's original plans called for lounges, restrooms, and promenades on three stories, as well as an opera museum below the primary floors. By 1933, when it was being used as the Casino de Paree nightclub, the theater had 650 seats on the orchestra level and 500 seats in the balcony. CBS documents show that, when the theater was used as CBS Studio 52 in the mid-20th century, it had 828 seats on three levels: 312 in the orchestra, 371 in the balcony, and 145 in a mezzanine. The modern-day theater has 1,006 seats across two levels: 519 in the orchestra and 487 in the balcony. The theater contained nightclub tables during the late 20th century, which were removed in 1998 after Studio 54's re-conversion into a theater and replaced with raked seating.

Ida Louise Killam designed the original interior with a gold, blue, and rose palette. One early observer described the theater as having "a Roxy foyer and a Paramount promenade". The orchestra seats were originally divided by five aisles. The orchestra-level walls were clad with walnut, and the trimmings at balcony level and in the mezzanine lounge were also made of walnut. The vaulted ceiling contained a dome measuring 50 ft across, as well as indirect lighting. This dome is decorated with medallions. According to CBS documents, Studio 54's proscenium arch measures 27 ft high and 43 ft wide. There was a fly system 58 ft above the stage. Backstage were six dressing rooms, as well as a 15 by rehearsal space at stage left.

To avoid disrupting the construction of the New York City Subway's Eighth Avenue Line, structural engineer David M. Oltarsh placed the Gallo Opera House's foundation, orchestra, and balcony within an enclosure that was suspended from the theater building's roof. The modern mezzanine-level promenade has an exhibit with information on the theater's current production. The theater also contains a bar in its lobby, which is a tribute to the former Studio 54 nightclub.

54 Below
The cabaret club 54 Below opened in Studio 54's basement on June 5, 2012. It was designed by architect Richard H. Lewis, set designer John Lee Beatty, lighting designer Ken Billington, and sound designer Peter Hylenski. A staircase from ground level leads to a rectangular room with leather and wood decorations, as well as a red, purple, and brown color palette. The room contains 140 seats in a cabaret-style arrangement and 16 seats in a bar to the right. Originally, 54 Below presented shows every day of the week, with 4,000 performances in its first five years. In partnership with musician Michael Feinstein, the club was renamed Feinstein's/54 Below in 2015; the club reverted to the name 54 Below when the partnership ended in July 2022.

Upstairs at Studio 54
Josh Hadar of Allied Partners created a 175-seat cabaret space on the second floor, called Upstairs at Studio 54. The space opened in February 2001 and is accessed via its own entrance at ground level. This space was used exclusively for special events. Performances occurred during nights when plays were not being staged. The musical Newsical was staged there from October 2004 to April 2005.

Gallo Opera House
In July 1926, theatrical impresario Fortune Gallo leased a site at 254 West 54th Street and hired Eugene De Rosa to design a 16-story office building at the site, with a 1,400-seat theater at its base. Z. D. Berry and Robert Podgur would build the venue at an estimated cost of $2 million. Gallo planned to present the San Carlo Grand Opera Company's productions at the theater during the autumn, renting it out for legitimate shows at other times. The venue was originally supposed to open in January 1927, but this was delayed because the opera company had an extended engagement in San Francisco. Prior to the venue's opening, Gallo transferred his interest in the San Carlo Company to his nephew Aurelio Gallo, allowing the elder Gallo to focus on operating the new theater.

The opera house opened on November 8, 1927, with the San Carlo Company's large-scale production of La bohème. The Gallo was one of three legitimate theaters to open in New York City during 1927; at the time, the city had over 200 legitimate theaters. The San Carlo Company performed for two weeks. A revival of the play Electra opened at the Gallo that December, followed the same month by Juno and the Paycock. A $660,000 mortgage was placed on the theater building in January 1928. The American Opera Company opened its season there the same month, performing there until March. Ballet Moderne also performed there for two weeks in April 1928. Philip Goodman leased the theater for five years in mid-1928. Goodman used the theater to stage a production of Laurence Stallings and Oscar Hammerstein II's musical Rainbow, which ran for less than a month in late 1928. In the meantime, the theater also hosted events such as dance performances, a violin recital, and a choir performance. Radiant Productions leased the theater in September 1929, with plans to present a dozen plays for three weeks each. Their first and only production, Ladies Don't Lie, was a critical failure. That October, Radiant transferred its lease to William R. Kane, who staged a short-lived revival of the comedy A Tailor-Made Man there. At a foreclosure auction in December 1929, the theater's mortgagee Hemphill Realty Corporation bought the theater for $1,045,000.

New Yorker Theatre
Gallo sold his lease to an unidentified buyer in January 1930, as he wanted to focus on operating a radio station. Richard Herndon took over as the theater's managing director, renaming it the New Yorker Theatre the next month. The first production at the renamed theater was the Henrik Ibsen play The Vikings, which had a short run in May 1930. The New Yorker hosted more dance recitals before the opening of its next legitimate show, Electra, in December 1930. Oliver D. Bailey signed a five-year lease for the theater in January 1931. In general, the theater suffered from low attendance during the Great Depression. Among the theater's productions in 1931 were the plays Gray Shadow, Young Sinners, Ebb Tide, and It Never Rains; the musical Fast and Furious; and performances by the New Yorker Grand Opera Company. The next year, the theater hosted several plays performed by the Spanish-speaking theatrical company La Compania Dramatic Espanola, as well as another dance festival. The Bowery Savings Bank bought the New Yorker and the adjacent office building for $650,000 in December 1932.

The bank leased the theater to Continental Music Halls Inc. for five years in September 1933. Continental announced plans to convert the theater into a nightclub called Casino de Paree (sometimes spelled Casino de Paris ), with dining areas on two stories and a kitchen in the basement. The club's operators spent $200,000 on renovations, reopening the venue on December 12, 1933. It was one of three theaters near 54th Street that were converted to nightclubs in the mid-1930s. There were 1,150 seats on two levels. The stage was used as a dance floor, accessed by steps from the orchestra level, and was flanked by two bands. Billy Rose organized two shows a night, for which guests paid $1.50 to $2 per ticket. According to Variety, the nightclub "just about satisfies the gastronomic, bibulous, and entertainment needs of any mortal".

The club's operators bought the theater and adjacent office building in March 1934. The club's cheap revues competed with Broadway musicals with higher-priced tickets. Rose withdrew from the venture in September 1934 because of disagreements over pay. The Casino de Paree was closed for renovations in February 1935, reopening two weeks later. The Casino de Paree abruptly closed after filing for bankruptcy in April 1935. That December, the Bowery Savings Bank leased the theater to the Palladium Operating Corporation, which planned to convert it into an "English"-style music hall. The Palladium Music Hall opened the next month; it was to host a new show every two weeks, with two bands performing during dinnertime. The Palladium had trouble paying wages within three weeks of its opening, and it closed permanently at the beginning of February 1936.

The Works Progress Administration (WPA)'s Federal Music Project leased the theater, as well as four of the office floors, in November 1936; the venue would host operas and concerts by the WPA's Theatre of Music. The WPA renovated the theater over the next two months, opening the Theater of Music on January 24, 1937. The WPA renewed its lease later the same year. An all-black WPA cast from Chicago presented The Swing Mikado at the New Yorker Theatre in early 1939; after two months, the production moved to the 44th Street Theatre. The play Medicine Show then premiered at the New Yorker in April 1940, closing after a month. This was the theater's last Broadway show for nearly six decades.

Broadcast studio
The Bowery Savings Bank again owned the New Yorker Theatre by late 1940, and the bank's real-estate agent Joseph O'Gara was looking to lease the venue. That October, RCA Manufacturing signed a one-year lease for the theater, exhibiting television projectors there. RCA subsidiary NBC installed a 9 by television screen by the end of 1940. Early the following year, NBC installed a 15 by projection screen on the stage, spending $25,000 to $30,000 on the project. The first public exhibition of the theater's screen was in May 1941, when over a thousand audience members watched a live broadcast of a boxing match between Billy Soose and Ken Overlin at Madison Square Garden. In September 1941, the Top Dollar Theatre company unsuccessfully tried to lease the venue from the Bowery Savings Bank. The New Yorker Theatre then briefly hosted the children's play The Adventures of Marco Polo at the end of that December.

CBS Studio 52
The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) leased the New Yorker Theatre in August 1942 for use as a radio soundstage. The theater operated as a radio and television studio for three decades, known as Radio Playhouse No. 4 or Theater No. 4., then converted for television in 1949, becoming CBS-TV Studio 52. Shielded television cameras had to be developed due to strong magnetic interference from equipment at a neighboring power substation for the New York City Subway system. The studio was one of seven that CBS operated in New York City. At that time, several Broadway theaters had been converted to TV studios due to a lack of studio space in the city.

Likely the first television show to be produced at Studio 52, was The 54th Street Revue, which premiered in May 1949. Another early show produced at Studio 52 was The Fred Waring Show in 1950. Studio 52 and the neighboring Studio 50 (now the Ed Sullivan Theater) were among CBS's busiest stages by the early 1960s. The theater hosted such shows as What's My Line?, The $64,000 Question, Video Village, Password, To Tell the Truth, Beat the Clock, The Jack Benny Show, I've Got a Secret, Ted Mack and the Original Amateur Hour, and Captain Kangaroo. Studio 52 was used to tape many of the CBS shows that involved panel discussions. Members of the public could also buy tickets to view these tapings. The New York Times said in 1965 that many of the regular audience members were older women. The soap opera Love of Life was produced at Studio 52 until 1975 and was the last show to be taped there. CBS moved most of its broadcast operations out of Studio 52 in 1976 and placed the theater up for sale.

Inception and opening
By 1976, German-born male model Uva Harden was planning to open a nightclub in New York City, which he tentatively called "Studio". Harden and Israeli entrepreneur Yoram Polany agreed to take over the old CBS Studio 52 that year. Polany and another friend of Harden's independently recommended that the nightclub be called "Studio 54" because it was on 54th Street. Harden and Polany formed a corporation to operate the nightclub, but they struggled to obtain a liquor license from the New York State Liquor Authority (NYSLA). They hired, who had hosted monthly parties at Maurice Brahms's Infinity nightclub, as the club's publicist. To finance the nightclub, the operators of the Marlborough Gallery bought nearly all of the stock in Harden and Polany's corporation in November 1976. At the time, the gallery's owner Frank Lloyd had just been ordered to pay $9 million to artist Mark Rothko's estate in the Rothko case.

After continued delays, Harden met with entrepreneurs Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager, who agreed to partner with him in the nightclub's operation. Harden was eventually forced out of the club's operation, while Polany left on his own volition. In November 1976, Billboard magazine reported that Schrager and Rubell planned to convert the theater into a nightclub called Studio 54. It would be one of several discotheques to operate in Midtown Manhattan during the late 1970s. Rubell and Schrager formed the Broadway Catering Corp., which spent $400,000 to transform the theater into a nightclub. Rubell, Schrager, and Jack Dushey each owned a one-third stake in the venture, and they had hired several people to create the club by early 1977. These included architect Scott Bromley,  interior designer Ron Doud, lighting designer Brian Thompson,  and set designer Richie Williamson. Lighting designers Jules Fisher and Paul Marantz were hired to design the dance floor and rigging system. Rubell and Schrager retained D'Alessio to promote Studio 54.

The renovation involved the construction of a dance floor, a balcony, and a disco booth, as well as the addition of mirrors, light bars, and floating vinyl platforms. The orchestra seated 250 people, and the balcony had another 500 seats. The lighting system, which required three people to operate, included a dozen 16 ft poles with flashing lights. Fisher and Marantz adapted the existing rigging system to generate special effects such as confetti, snow, fog, and weather. On the ceiling was a 30 by cyclorama, which could project images of many different galaxies. Other decorations included depictions of volcanos, sunrises, and sunsets. Aero Graphics designed a backlit moon and spoon, which became an icon of the Studio 54 nightclub. The club's promoters mailed out 8,000 invitations and made phone calls to numerous figures on "a good social list". Studio 54 officially opened on April 26, 1977, with workers rushing to finish the decorations just hours before the grand opening. Although the space could fit 2,500 guests, four thousand people attended the club on opening day. Hundreds of prospective patrons lined up around the block to enter, and several celebrities could not get in, despite having been invited.

 The scene
Studio 54 had been launched as the disco dancing and music trend was gaining popularity in the U.S. Its popularity grew rapidly, especially after the publication of a widely-circulated picture that showed actress Bianca Jagger at the club, riding a white horse. In the month after its opening, the club served an average of 2,000 guests per night, although it was only open on Tuesdays through Saturdays. By August 1977, the club had become so successful that Rubell and Schrager were considering opening similar nightclubs in Los Angeles and London. Rubell ultimately chose not to open similar clubs around the world, saying: "I'm very cautious about protecting the name and not cheapening it." In November 1977, Dan Dorfman of New York magazine quoted Rubell as saying that "only the Mafia made more money" than Studio 54, which made $7 million in its first year.

Upon Studio 54's first anniversary in April 1978, which attracted 3,000 guests, Rubell said the club's popularity contradicted sentiments that the club "wouldn't last more than a couple of months". That October, Rubell and Schrager closed the club for nine days, spending $500,000 on renovations. The work included adding spotlights and mirrored walls, as well as a movable bridge.

Admission policy
To be admitted to Studio 54 was a status symbol, even on nights when the club was open to the public. When Studio 54 opened, admission generally cost $7 or $8, but guests could pay for an annual membership in exchange for discounted tickets. Tickets were more expensive on weekends, and all ticket prices were increased on nights with performances. Rubell made the final decisions over whether guests were allowed in the club. Celebrities usually were allowed to enter immediately. According to a 1977 Wall Street Journal article, "very beautiful" members of the public were almost always admitted, while men entering alone were invariably rejected to prevent predatory behavior. Guests were divided into four categories, ranging from the "No Goods" (who could never be admitted) to the "No Fuck-ups" (important clients who were admitted instantly). Rubell bragged about the club's exclusivity, saying in a November 1977 interview with New York magazine: "I turned away 1,400 people last Saturday."

The club's doormen could be extremely selective, sometimes to the point that "they propelled themselves into a comedy universe" according to Haden-Guest. Rubell once told a "ravishingly beautiful woman" that she could enter for free if she took off all her clothes; the woman was later hospitalized for frostbitten nipples. The selective admissions policies led some guests to bypass the front door in an attempt to enter. According to Haden-Guest, one potential guest got stuck in a ventilation shaft and died, an account that Schrager later confirmed. Some of Studio 54's spurned clientele fled to other clubs such as New York, New York. When the club was renovated in 1978, Rubell and Schrager sealed its courtyard to prevent people from entering there. There was also a private entrance on 53rd Street, reflecting the "stratification" of the nightclub.

On several occasions, would-be guests attacked the doormen after being denied admission, and several guests pulled out guns when they were rejected. The club's security guards often cleared out trash cans within a several-block radius because of high concerns over violence. Some notables were denied admission. For instance, the president of Cyprus was once rejected because the doormen thought he was the president of New York City's Cypress Hills Cemetery. When one of Saudi king Khalid's sons was rejected, the Saudi embassy to the United States wrote Rubell a letter, asking that Khalid's son not be rejected again. The band Chic wrote a song in 1978, "Le Freak", after being refused entry to the club on New Year's Eve 1977, despite having been invited by Grace Jones. Even club members were not guaranteed entry. In June 1978, the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs (DCA) mandated that Rubell and Schrager stop selling memberships and refund existing members. The club failed to refund all memberships immediately, and Schrager claimed that November that only 40 members had applied for refunds.

Inside the club
The club generally opened at 10 p.m., with crowds peaking at midnight; the bar closed at 4 a.m., and the rest of the club stayed open until 6 a.m.. According to Rubell, the vast majority of the club's guests were not celebrities but, rather, members of the public who just wanted to dance. The Washington Post wrote in November 1977 that the club attracted "a mix of punks, hairdressers, socialites, and suburbanites", while The New York Times said the club was "tolerant of errant squares". Andy Warhol, a regular guest of Studio 54, said the club was "a dictatorship on the door but a democracy on the dance floor". Studio 54 enforced a photography ban to protect guests' privacy, but some images were still published, including a widely circulated image of Canadian first lady Margaret Trudeau without her underwear.

Many guests used club drugs, and they often engaged in open sexual activity on the club's balcony and in private basement rooms. The Journal characterized most of the women guests as "beneficiaries of a fabulously lucky genetic selection" and that the men guests generally had an "aura of self-esteem born in the knowledge that one can successfully choose among the select". Celebrity appearances, which were almost guaranteed, were frequently showcased in New York City's daily newspapers and in gossip columns. The nightclub was also frequented by many gay celebrities, leading Anthony Haden-Guest to write that the club became "one of the single most effective showcases for newly visible gay clout". By 1978, there was a private dance floor behind a movable scrim on the main dance floor, as well as a VIP room in the basement, which could only be accessed by a hidden stairway.

The club also hosted private parties that, at a minimum, cost tens of thousands of dollars. The invitations to the parties were extravagant, using such materials as "Cupid's arrows, inflatable hearts, [or] jars of confetti". Among the events at Studio 54 was a New Year's Eve party hosted by event planner Robert Isabell, who dumped four tons of glitter onto the floor, creating a four-inch layer that could be found in attendees' clothing and homes several months later. The organizers of a Valentine's Day party in 1979 imported 3,000 Dutch tulips, transported 4000 yd2 of sod from Bermuda, and rented eight antique sculptures that each cost $17,000. Other events at the club included fundraisers for local politicians, as well as a Halloween party hosted by the staff of People magazine. Studio 54 was also a filming location for several music videos, such as those for several songs in Musique's album Keep On Jumpin'.

Notable patrons

 * Bella Abzug
 * Woody Allen
 * Mikhail Baryshnikov
 * John Belushi
 * Leonard Bernstein
 * Jacqueline Bisset
 * David Bowie
 * Truman Capote
 * Gia Carangi
 * Allan Carr
 * Cher
 * Pat Cleveland
 * Roy Cohn
 * Salvador Dalí
 * Divine
 * Faye Dunaway
 * Doris Duke
 * Farrah Fawcett
 * Ric Flair
 * Betty Ford
 * Tom Ford
 * Diane von Fürstenberg
 * Richard Gallo
 * David Geffen
 * Martha Graham
 * Richard Gere
 * Jerry Hall
 * Halston
 * Victor Hugo
 * Anjelica Huston
 * Debbie Harry
 * Margaux Hemingway
 * Tommy Hilfiger
 * Lauren Hutton
 * Michael Jackson
 * Bianca Jagger
 * Mick Jagger
 * Rick James
 * Caitlyn Jenner
 * Elton John
 * Grace Jones
 * Tom Jones
 * Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
 * Eartha Kitt
 * Calvin Klein
 * Karl Lagerfeld
 * Timothy Leary
 * Fran Lebowitz
 * John Lennon
 * Lorna Luft
 * Bette Midler
 * Liza Minnelli
 * Freddie Mercury
 * Jack Nicholson
 * Al Pacino
 * Dolly Parton
 * Paloma Picasso
 * Richard Pryor
 * Gilda Radner
 * Lou Reed
 * Geraldo Rivera
 * Diana Ross
 * Brooke Shields
 * Frank Sinatra
 * Sylvester Stallone
 * Paul Stanley
 * Percy Sutton
 * Tallulah
 * Elizabeth Taylor
 * John Travolta
 * Margaret Trudeau
 * Donald and Ivana Trump
 * Tina Turner
 * Valentino
 * Diana Vreeland
 * Andy Warhol
 * Robin Williams

Other notables

 * Actor Al Corley was a doorman during the late 1970s.
 * Actor Alec Baldwin worked for two months as a waiter at Studio 54.
 * Sally Lippman, also known as "Disco Sally", was a 77-year-old widow and regular dancer at the club.
 * Carolina Somoza, daughter of Nicaraguan president Anastasio Somoza Debayle

License issues and other disputes
Schrager did not have a liquor license when the club opened, despite having applied to the NYSLA for such a license. Instead, the nightclub applied for a "caterers' permit" every day; these permits were intended for weddings or political events, but they technically allowed the venue to serve alcohol. The club also did not have a certificate of occupancy or a public assembly license, prompting tipsters to complain to several federal agencies. On May 21, 1977, the NYSLA raided the nightclub for selling liquor without a license. The club reopened the next night, serving fruit juice and soda instead of liquor. Studio 54 continued serving non-alcoholic drinks exclusively until a justice for the New York Supreme Court, the state's trial-level court, ordered the NYSLA to grant Studio 54 a liquor license that October. The NYSLA's chairman complied with the Supreme Court ruling but objected to it, claiming that the judge had been influenced by Studio 54's upscale clientele. The New York Court of Appeals upheld the Supreme Court's decision in June 1978.

Schrager also applied for a cabaret license from the DCA, which did not grant Studio 54 a permanent cabaret license for more than a year. A contributing factor was that the city government only employed three cabaret inspectors, who could not validate all of the city's cabaret licenses in a timely manner. Additionally, the DCA rarely fined unlicensed cabarets more than $25. At the beginning of June 1978, DCA officials said the cabaret application had not been approved because of multiple violations of fire codes, though the New York City Fire Department refused to provide further details about these violations. The DCA could also deny a permanent license because of unresolved consumer complaints, such as those concerning Studio 54's annual memberships. The DCA refused to renew Studio 54's temporary cabaret license in August 1978 because Schrager and Rubell had not refunded all of the memberships.

Also in August 1978, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) sued Rubell and Schrager, alleging that the co-owners had failed to pay licensing fees for six performances that ASCAP had staged at Studio 54 earlier that year. Studio 54 ultimately paid ASCAP for a license in November 1978. The National Labor Relations Board was also investigating the club by February 1979 after some workers alleged that the club had engaged in "unfair labor practices".

End of the first era
In December 1978, a tipster called the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), alleging that Rubell and Schrager were skimming profits. The tip came from a disgruntled ex-employee, who also alleged that cocaine was illegally being stored in the basement. Shortly after, IRS agents raided Studio 54 and arrested Rubell and Schrager. The club continued to operate the night of the raid. A federal grand jury indicted Rubell and Schrager on charges of tax evasion in June 1979, observing that the two men had skimmed $2.5 million, or as much as 60 percent of Studio 54's receipts over the past two years. In an unsuccessful attempt to lessen the charges against the club's co-owners, Schrager's lawyer Mitchell Rogovin alleged that Hamilton Jordan, chief of staff to U.S. president Jimmy Carter, had used cocaine in the club's basement. In anticipation of increasing interest in rock music, Rubell and Schrager spent $1.2 million to renovate Studio 54 in late 1979. They installed a grand chandelier and a fly system above the stage, as well as removing seats from the balcony.

Rubell and Schrager ultimately pleaded guilty to tax evasion in November 1979, after New York magazine published a cover story describing the "party favors" that the two men gave to their friends. In exchange, federal prosecutors agreed not to charge the men with obstruction of justice and conspiracy. By then, the club was in danger of losing its liquor license after the owners had pleaded guilty to tax evasion, as the NYSLA did not give liquor licenses to convicted felons. Rubell and Schrager were each sentenced to three and a half years in prison in January 1980. The two men attended a final party on the night of February 2–3, 1980, with Diana Ross and Liza Minnelli singing for numerous guests. Rubell and Schrager began serving their sentences two days afterward. Ultimately, Rubell and Schrager were paroled after a year, and Schrager received a presidential pardon decades later.

The NYSLA unanimously voted not to renew Studio 54's liquor license on February 28, 1980, citing Rubell's and Schrager's criminal convictions, although the club was allowed to continue operating. The club lost its liquor license on February 29, and the club started serving fruit punch the next day. Studio 54's lawyers also announced that they would create a board of directors to operate the club. The third co-owner, Jack Dushey, had received a $10,000 fine and had been sentenced to five years of unsupervised probation after being convicted of conspiracy charges in March 1980. By the end of that month, Rubell was considering selling the club, despite having promised just two months prior that he would never sell Studio 54. Among those who expressed interest in the club were restaurateur Mark Fleischman, television host Dick Clark, and record executive Neil Bogart. The club closed down at the end of that March, as the revocation of the liquor license had caused a sharp decrease in business. Early the next month,  Fleischman agreed to buy an option that would allow him to purchase the club for $5 million.

Fleischman and Weiss operation
Mark Fleischman announced his plan to take over Studio 54, seeking to host live shows there and obtain a liquor license from the NYSLA. Studio 54 remained shuttered through the rest of the year, in large part because Rubell and Schrager continued to file legal objections against the NYSLA's revocation of the club's liquor license. The authority would not issue a liquor license as long as the club was involved in active litigation. Mike Stone Productions leased the club from Rubell and Schrager in early 1981, and the club started hosting private events again, albeit without alcoholic drinks and only on Friday and Saturday nights. Rubell's company sold the building to Philip Pilevsky for $1.15 million in cash in August 1981, leasing back space from Pilevsky. Fleischman applied for a liquor license from the NYSLA, which agreed to grant the license on the condition that Rubell and Schrager not be involved in any way. Fleischman also repainted the interior and removed the original club's light fixtures, and he paid the New York state government $250,000 in back taxes.

Studio 54 officially reopened to the public on September 15, 1981. Fleischman and his partner Jeffrey London mailed out 12,000 invitations for Studio 54's reopening, which were delivered on 25-watt silver lightbulbs. Jim Fouratt and Rudolf Piper were hired as Studio 54's new managers. Initially, the club hosted "Modern Classix nights" during Wednesdays and Sundays, while it hosted disco music for the remainder of the week. There was also a 32-track recording studio in the basement, which was used for recording promotional videos and rock concerts. Notable figures associated with the second iteration of Studio 54 included doorman Haoui Montaug, as well as Paul Heyman, who was a photographer, producer, and promoter at the club. A notable guest during this time was Drew Barrymore, who was nine years old when her mother took her to Studio 54. Within three months of the club's reopening, Fleischman had ousted Fouratt and Piper, who opened the Danceteria nightclub.

In 1982, social activist Jerry Rubin started hosting "Business Networking Salons", a networking event for businesspeople, at the club on Wednesday nights. Prospective guests would only be admitted if they had a business card;  the networking events quickly became popular, often attracting 1,500 guests. For other events, Studio 54 implemented an invitation system, which enabled its operators to restrict some events to select guests without turning them away at the door. The club's mailing list had 200,000 names by 1984. Frank Cashman acquired the $3 million lien on the club in late 1984. The same year, Studio 54 also hosted special musical performances, starting with a series of concerts by Julie Budd. Meanwhile, the club was gradually losing long-time regulars to competing discotheques, including the Palladium, which Rubell and Schrager had opened after being released from prison. The club also faced several lawsuits from disgruntled high-profile guests, such as football player Mark Gastineau and a basketball player.

Fleischman filed for bankruptcy in November 1985; he had planned to spend $250,000 on renovations to attract guests. The club closed in April 1986 because it could not obtain liability insurance, in part because Studio 54 was losing so many of the lawsuits in which it was involved. Subsequently, Shalom Weiss took over Studio 54. The nightclub tended to attract a young and racially mixed clientele who were frequently involved in fights, prompting complaints from local residents. City officials revoked the club's cabaret license for two years in January 1989 after finding that the club's patrons frequently used cocaine illegally. The officials alleged that Studio 54 employees not only encouraged illegal drug use but also used cocaine themselves. In addition, the club admitted guests as young as 13 and had falsely advertised itself as selling alcoholic beverages.

The Ritz and Cabaret Royale
Studio 54 was dilapidated by the late 1980s; the walls had peeling paint, while the auditorium's dome had been concealed by a dropped ceiling. Neil Cohen and John Scher, owners of the Ritz nightclub, leased the space from Philip Pilevsky for 25 years in 1989. They spent $2 million to restore the theater, adding fixed seating at orchestra level and installing production equipment above the stage. Cohen and Scher anticipated that the club could fit 3,000 people, including standees, although the theater only had about 1,800 seats. The Ritz relocated from the East Village to Studio 54 on April 5, 1989. According to The New York Times, the new Ritz was more popular than the old location because both the orchestra and balcony had "excellent sound and sightlines". The Ritz was primarily a rock club, but it also hosted performances of pop music and salsa music. The Ritz was one of the most active nightclubs in the United States, with about 150 shows annually, until its promoters started booking fewer shows in mid-1991. Despite declining profits in 1992, the club's owners were planning to add a 250-seat side room next to the auditorium.

CAT Entertainment acquired Scher's interest in the Ritz in December 1992, and CAT was itself acquired by Cabaret Royale Corporation the next year. In July 1993, the Ritz announced it would close down and reopen as a topless bar. CAT Entertainment spent $3 million renovating the theater, including the stage area. CAT also resurrected both the nightclub and the Studio 54 trademark, which had never been properly registered by any of the prior owners or operators. John Neilson took over the venue with plans to reopen it as an uptown location of the Stringfellows nightclub. The remodeled nightclub opened in January 1994 and was operated as "Cabaret Royale at Studio 54". Most of the old theater's architectural detail had been covered up by then.

Meanwhile, the Bank of Tokyo had previously granted a mortgage on the theater and the adjacent office building to Pilevsky, which it foreclosed upon in June 1994. Later that month, the theater and building were auctioned off. CBS, the Manhattan Theatre Club, and Viacom were among those that showed interest in acquiring the theater and building. Allied Partners, run by the Hadar family, ultimately acquired the properties for $5.5 million. Allied then renovated the office building. Cabaret Royale closed in January 1995, and Allied announced plans to convert the space into a virtual reality gaming venue at a cost of $10 million. In anticipation of Studio 54's conversion, the nightclub hosted a final party on May 23, 1996, featuring disco star Gloria Gaynor and performers such as Crystal Waters and RuPaul. The virtual-reality complex was never built because of a lack of demand, and the club's space was instead rented out for private events. Allied Partners preferred that the Studio 54 building become "anything but a nightclub".

Roundabout Theatre at Studio 54

Since 1998, the nonprofit Roundabout Theatre Company has operated Studio 54 as a Broadway theater, branded as Roundabout Theatre at Studio 54. It is one of Roundabout's three Broadway theaters, alongside the Todd Haimes Theatre and the Stephen Sondheim Theatre.

Relocation and early productions
In July 1998, the collapse of a construction hoist at 4 Times Square blocked access to the Henry Miller Theatre (now Stephen Sondheim Theatre) on 43rd Street, where the nonprofit Roundabout Theatre Company's successful revival of the Broadway musical Cabaret was playing. Roundabout quickly began searching for alternative venues and, in September 1998, decided to move the production to Studio 54. The old nightclub required extensive renovations and was not air-conditioned, but Roundabout's artistic director Todd Haimes considered it the "only viable option" for the theatre company. Cabaret producer Sam Mendes had considered Studio 54's dilapidated condition to be an ideal setting for the production, just as the Henry Miller had been. Roundabout spent over $1 million converting the former nightclub into a 950-seat theater, buying old seats from the Imperial Theatre and installing them in the mezzanine. Cabaret moved to Studio 54 in November 1998, doubling the production's capacity.

Richard Hadar announced in early 1999 that he would operate a nightclub within the theater, which would still host performances of Cabaret during the day. By 2001, Roundabout was negotiating to buy Studio 54 from the Hadar family, which would allow the theatre company to own a Broadway theater for the first time. Early the next year, the Hadar family agreed to sell the theater for around $25 million. To fund the purchase, Roundabout would receive up to $32 million in tax-exempt bonds and $9 million from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs (DCA). Roundabout finalized its purchase in July 2003, paying $22.5 million, of which $6.75 million came from the DCA and $17.7 million came from tax-exempt bonds. Allied continued to own the office space above the theater.

2000s
Roundabout planned to use Studio 54 to host larger productions that could not be staged at the American Airlines Theatre. Haimes also wanted to renovate the theater, including expanding the orchestra pit and replacing the rigging system. After Cabaret closed in January 2004, Roundabout staged several shows a year at both theaters, and Studio 54 hosted a mixture of musicals and plays. The Stephen Sondheim and John Weidman musical Assassins was Roundabout's first new production at Studio 54, opening in April 2004. A revival of another musical by the same team, Pacific Overtures, opened that December. Following these two productions, Broadway historian Louis Botto wrote that Studio 54 "had finally fully been welcomed into the Broadway family nearly 80 years after Fortune Gallo first dreamed of it".

Roundabout completed some renovations in 2005, which involved installing raked seating and an exhibit in the promenade. The theater hosted a revival of Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire in April 2005. For the 2005–2006 season, Studio 54 staged Eugene O'Neill's A Touch of the Poet and Bertolt Brecht's The Threepenny Opera. The theater then hosted the plays The Apple Tree and 110 in the Shade in the 2006–2007 season; The Ritz and Sunday in the Park with George in the 2007–2008 season; and Pal Joey and Waiting for Godot in the 2008–2009 season. For the 2009–2010 season, the theater presented Carrie Fisher's solo performance Wishful Drinking, as well as and James Lapine and Stephen Sondheim's revue Sondheim on Sondheim.

2010s to present
During the 2010–2011 season, Studio 54 hosted Brief Encounter (an adaptation of two Noël Coward works), as well as the musical The People in the Picture. Studio 54 was supposed to host a revival of Bob Fosse's musical Dancin' during the 2011–2012 season, but this was ultimately canceled, and the theater was instead closed for renovations. The theater's next production was the play Harvey, which opened in June 2012. This was followed in November by The Mystery of Edwin Drood, the theater's only production for the 2012–2013 season. Roundabout booked a revival of Cabaret for the 2013–2014 season, although the theater remained dark for a year. Cabaret opened in April 2014, initially for a 24-week engagement, but the show was so popular that it ran for a year. The play An Act of God opened at Studio 54 in May 2015, being the theater's only production during the 2014–2015 season.

The theater then returned to presenting two productions per season. Studio 54 hosted the play Thérèse Raquin and a revival of the musical She Loves Me during the 2015–2016 season, followed by the musical Holiday Inn and the play Sweat during the 2016–2017 season. Next, the theater hosted John Leguizamo's solo show Latin History for Morons and an American Sign Language revival of Children of a Lesser God in 2017–2018. The theater staged The Lifespan of a Fact and Kiss Me, Kate for the 2018–2019 season. Studio 54 hosted Adam Rapp's play The Sound Inside, which opened in October 2019. Studio 54 was supposed to host the musical Caroline, or Change during the 2019–2020 season. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Studio 54 closed on March 12, 2020, a day before previews of Caroline, or Change were supposed to start. That show's opening had originally been delayed to early 2021, but it was pushed further due to the extension of COVID-19 restrictions.

Studio 54 reopened on October 8, 2021, with previews of Caroline, or Change, which officially opened later that month. This was followed from April to July 2022 by the Tracy Letts play The Minutes, then by the Sharr White play Pictures from Home from February to April 2023. The musical Days of Wine and Roses opened at Studio 54 in January 2024, running for three months. It followed in November 2024 by the musical A Wonderful World.

Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.

Gallo Opera House/New Yorker Theatre

 * 1927: Thirteen operas presented by the San Carlo Company
 * 1927: Electra
 * 1927: Juno and the Paycock
 * 1928: A Tailor-Made Man
 * 1930: Electra
 * 1931: Young Sinners
 * 1937: The Swing Mikado

Studio 54 (Roundabout)

 * 1998: Cabaret
 * 2004: Assassins
 * 2004: Pacific Overtures
 * 2005: A Streetcar Named Desire
 * 2005: A Touch of the Poet
 * 2006: The Threepenny Opera
 * 2006: The Apple Tree
 * 2007: 110 in the Shade
 * 2007: The Ritz
 * 2008: Sunday in the Park with George
 * 2008: Pal Joey
 * 2009: Waiting for Godot
 * 2009: Wishful Drinking
 * 2010: Sondheim on Sondheim
 * 2010: Brief Encounter
 * 2011: The People in the Picture
 * 2012: Harvey
 * 2012: The Mystery of Edwin Drood
 * 2014: Cabaret
 * 2015: An Act of God
 * 2015: Thérèse Raquin
 * 2016: She Loves Me
 * 2016: Holiday Inn
 * 2017: Sweat
 * 2017: Latin History for Morons
 * 2018: Children of a Lesser God
 * 2018: The Lifespan of a Fact
 * 2019: Kiss Me, Kate
 * 2019: The Sound Inside
 * 2021: Caroline, or Change
 * 2022: The Minutes
 * 2023: Pictures from Home
 * 2024: Days of Wine and Roses
 * 2024: A Wonderful World

Legacy
By the late 1970s, the original nightclub had spurred the creation of Studio 54-themed jeans, a record label, an album, and a Japanese club. Architectural Digest magazine described Studio 54 as "the nightclub where the velvet rope was born", its impact evident long after the venue had been converted back to a theater. GQ magazine wrote in 2020: "When you want to designate a particular brand of louche elegance on a night-time scene, Studio 54 is the natural first port of comparative call."

Cultural impact
The nightclub has been the subject of several works of popular media. The original Studio 54 was featured in the 1998 drama film 54. Studio 54, a 98-minute documentary by Matt Tyrnauer released in 2018, includes unpublished footage of the club and interviews with Ian Schrager. Additionally, the fourth season of the television series American Crime Story, announced in 2021, focuses on the club during the 1970s. Several books have also been written about the nightclub. The writer Anthony Haden-Guest published a book about Studio 54 and the disco subculture in 1997, and Mark Fleischman published his memoir Inside Studio 54 in October 2017. Schrager also published a book in 2018, Studio 54, with images of the club.

Studio 54 has also had an influence on disco music. Casablanca Records released a compilation album of disco music, A Night at Studio 54, in 1979; it peaked at No. 21 on the Billboard 200 album chart and sold close to a million copies. In 2011, Sirius XM launched Studio 54 Radio, a satellite radio station featuring classic disco and dance tracks from the 1970s to the 2000s. In 2020, it expanded into a music imprint including a record label, Studio 54 Music, which works with Sirius XM on Studio 54 Radio. The label's first release, Night Magic Vol. 1, is a four-track compilation EP of disco anthems from the club's prime days, revised by musicians from both the original scene and the modern dance music era. Studio 54 also inspired the name and overall concept of singer-songwriter Dua Lipa's 2020 concert series Studio 2054.

The club has been featured in several exhibitions. These include an exhibit of Studio 54 photographs, which Haden-Guest presented at the WhiteBox art gallery in 2015. as well as a Brooklyn Museum exhibition titled Night Magic, which premiered in 2020. In addition, multiple Studio 54-themed collections from fashion and cosmetics brands, including Calvin Klein, Michael Kors and NARS Cosmetics, were released in 2019. The collections took inspiration from the club's glamorous heyday and showcased the iconic "54" logo.

Several venues have been likened to Studio 54. Fiorucci, an Italian fashion shop formerly located on East 59th Street, became known in the late 1970s as the "daytime Studio 54". The Mutiny Hotel in Miami, Florida, was described in a PBS NewsHour interview as "kind of the closest thing to Miami's Studio 54" in the late 1970s. The nightclub also inspired the creation of a Studio 54-themed nightclub at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel and casino in 1997; that club operated until 2012.

Memorabilia and preservation
Before Rubell died in 1989, he saved "every single item" that he collected from the nightclub, such as the reservation book, invitation cards, and drink tickets. More than 400 of these items were sold at an auction in West Palm Beach, Florida, in January 2013, attracting hundreds of buyers. The auction yielded $316,680; the most expensive item was a $52,800 Andy Warhol sculpture.

The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started considering protecting Studio 54 as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC commenced a wide-ranging effort to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters in 1987, and the commission considered designating Studio 54's interior as a landmark. Ultimately, although the LPC protected 28 Broadway theaters as landmarks, Studio 54 was not one of them.

title: Studio 54


text: Category:Back to the Future (franchise)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Back to the Future (franchise)


text: Category:Comedians

title: Category:Comedians


text: Template:Other uses

title: Template:Other uses


text:
Category:Academics

An academic does peer-reviewed research and/or teaches in post-secondary education.

title: Category:Academics


text:
Goodrich, Herefordshire

Goodrich is a village and civil parish in south Herefordshire, England close to Gloucestershire and the Forest of Dean, situated near the River Wye at. It is known for its Norman and mediaeval castle built with Old Red Sandstone.

The parish includes the neighbouring hamlet of Symonds Yat East and had population at the 2011 census of 550.

The village grew up next to Goodrich Castle, a 'Marcher Castle' dating to c. 1101 which stands on a high spur of land commanding a strategic position above Kerne Bridge, an ancient crossing point of the Wye. Goodrich is on the A40 trunk road which forms part of the main route between South Wales and the West Midlands but is in a sheltered rural location. Goodrich has not retained its village shop or post office but has kept a village hall and two public houses. The village has a tennis club with three all-weather courts and an active village cricket club.

The Coppett hill nature reserve stretches along a hill above the Wye south of the village.

Church
The Church of St Giles contains the tomb of the Countess of Salisbury, who was charged by Henry Bolingbroke with bringing up his son, later to become King Henry V, after the death of Mary de Bohun his first wife. The young boy was brought up at nearby Courtfield at Welsh Bicknor.

Goodrich Castle
Goodrich Castle was first known as Castellum Godrici after Godric of Mappestone, the builder of the first castle on the site. Over time the name changed to Goodrich and the castle changed hands many times through the centuries, passing from family to family. In 1646, near the end of the English Civil War, the castle was besieged and captured, using a cannon cast in the Forest of Dean called Roaring Meg, from Sir Henry Lingen by Parliamentarians led by Colonel Birch. The castle is now in the care of English Heritage.

Goodrich Court
Goodrich Court was a country house built between 1828 and 1831 by Sir Samuel Meyrick. Goodrich Court and other nearby buildings became the evacuation home to Felsted School in the World War II years 1940–1945. Although demolished in the 1950s, Goodrich Court Stables and its walled garden still exists. Sculptor Jon Edgar lived and worked here between 2004 and 2007.

Rocklands House
Rocklands House is listed on the English Heritage Register. It was built in the 1700s and substantial additions were made in 1800 It was the home of many notable people over the next two centuries.

Role in history of aesthetics
Goodrich's prominent position overlooking the River Wye meant that both Castle and Court were stopping points on the first Wye Tour of William Gilpin in 1770. The trip from Ross-on-Wye to Monmouth was instrumental in the development of The Picturesque and Picturesque Tourism.

Railways
The village was served by the Ross and Monmouth Railway at Kerne Bridge station between 1873 and 1959 running through the scenic Wye Valley.

title: Goodrich, Herefordshire


text:
Category:Set theory

 * Set theory is any of a number of subtly different things in mathematics:

 * Naive set theory is the original set theory developed by mathematicians at the end of the 19th century, treating sets simply as collections of things.
 * Axiomatic set theory is a rigorous axiomatic theory developed in response to the discovery of serious flaws (such as Russell's paradox) in naive set theory. It treats sets as "whatever satisfies the axioms", and the notion of collections of things serves only as motivation for the axioms.
 * Internal set theory is an axiomatic extension of set theory that supports a logically consistent identification of illimited (enormously large) and infinitesimal elements within the real numbers.
 * Various versions of logic have associated sorts of sets (such as fuzzy sets in fuzzy logic).

title: Category:Set theory


text: Category:Ramsey theory

title: Category:Ramsey theory


text: Category:British comedians

title: Category:British comedians


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User talk:Matthew Vaughan

Hi Matthew, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Drop us a note at New user log so we can meet you and help you get started.

If you need editing help, visit How to edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Jim Regan 10:44, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

March 2019
Please do not add or change content without citing a reliable source. Please review the guidelines at Citing sources and take this opportunity to add references to the article. Thank you. 2601:188:180:1481:519F:8A6:A9D6:A931 (talk) 02:39, 6 March 2019 (UTC)

Hello, I'm 2601:188:180:1481:519F:8A6:A9D6:A931. I wanted to let you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. Advertising and using Wikipedia as a "soapbox" are against Wikipedia policy and not permitted; Wikipedia articles should be written objectively, using independent sources, and from a neutral perspective. Take a look at the welcome page to learn more about Wikipedia. Thank you. 2601:188:180:1481:519F:8A6:A9D6:A931 (talk) 02:39, 6 March 2019 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Nippon Acoustic Records

A tag has been placed on Nippon Acoustic Records requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a company, corporation or organization that does not credibly indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the. Jalen D. Folf  (talk)  00:46, 6 July 2019 (UTC)

Ways to improve Rinat Ibragimov (musician)
Hello, Matthew Vaughan,

Thanks for creating Rinat Ibragimov (musician)! I edit here too, under the username JamesG5 and it's nice to meet you :-)

I wanted to let you know that I have tagged the page as having some issues to fix, as a part of our page curation process and note that:-

The tags can be removed by you or another editor once the issues they mention are addressed. If you have questions, leave a comment here and prepend it with. And, don't forget to sign your reply with. For broader editing help, please visit the Teahouse.

Delivered via the Page Curation tool, on behalf of the reviewer.

JamesG5 (talk) 05:45, 16 July 2019 (UTC)

Thank you very much for the feedback James! I appreciate it. Of course I knew I was going to need to do all those things, I just didn't have the time or energy to do them at first, but your specific, helpful, and very timely feedback prompted me to get to it sooner rather than later. I hope it is at least somewhat improved now! Matthew Vaughan (talk) 04:41, 17 July 2019 (UTC)
 * You bet! You got it off to a pretty good start, I wasn't sure how familiar you are with pages so I just wanted to point the way a bit.  :)  JamesG5 (talk) 05:24, 17 July 2019 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Matthew Vaughan


text: Category:Mathematical games

title: Category:Mathematical games


text:
Vík í Mýrdal

The village of Vík, known as Vík í Mýrdal in full, is the southernmost village in Iceland. It is located on the main ring road around the island, and is around 180 km southeast of Reykjavík by road.

Despite its small size (750 inhabitants in Mýrdalshreppur as of January 2021 ) it is the largest settlement for some 70 km around and is an important staging post, and thus it is indicated on road signs from a long distance away. It is an important service center for the inhabitants of and visitors to the coastal strip between Skógar and the west edge of the Mýrdalssandur glacial outwash plain.

Overview
In 1991, the US journal Islands Magazine counted the beach at Vík as one of the ten most beautiful beaches on Earth. Its stretch of black basalt sand is one of the wettest places in Iceland. The cliffs west of the beach are home to many seabirds, most notably puffins which burrow into the shallow soils during the nesting season. Offshore lie stacks of basalt rock, remnants of a once more extensive cliffline Reynisfjall, now battered by the sea. According to folklore, the sea stacks are former trolls who tried to drag their boats out to sea only to be caught by the rising dawn. The sea around them is rather wild and stormy, and travelers will note a monument to the memory of drowned seamen on the beach.

Contemporary legends tell the story of a husband who found his wife taken by the two trolls, frozen at night. The husband made the two trolls swear to never kill anyone ever again. His wife was the love of his life, whose free spirit he was unable to provide a home for; she found her fate out among the trolls, rocks, and sea at Reynisfjara.

The village was affected by volcanic ash during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull.

Danger from the Katla volcano
Vík lies directly south of the Mýrdalsjökull glacier, which itself is on top of the Katla volcano. Katla has not erupted since 1918, and as this is longer than typical dormant period, there has been speculation that an eruption may occur soon. An eruption of Katla could melt enough ice to trigger an enormous flash flood, potentially large enough to obliterate the entire town. The town's church, located high on a hill, is believed to be the only building that would survive such a flood. The people of Vík know well that they may only have 15 minutes to evacuate to the church at the first sign of an eruption. The town has 1,400 hotel rooms for scientists and tourists, who are also briefed about Katla's dangers.

Climate
Vík í Mýrdal is the warmest place in Iceland, with an annual mean temperature of 5.3 C. Like most of coastal Iceland, Vík í Mýrdal has a subpolar oceanic climate (Koppen Cfc) with cold but not severe winters and cool, short summers. Its winters are among the warmest in Iceland, with an average winter day having a daytime high around 4 C. Because it lies on the windward side of the Gulf Stream, Vík í Mýrdal is the wettest coastal town in Iceland, with an annual rainfall of 2250 mm, which is three times more than Reykjavík, five times more than Akureyri on the north coast of the island and many times more than its far northern location would normally indicate. Precipitation on the Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull glaciers near the town is believed to be as high as 160 in of rainfall equivalent, which would mean at least 160 ft of snow at those higher altitudes.

Sports

 * Ungmennafélagið Katla is a sports club based in Vík í Mýrdal.

In popular culture
Vík í Mýrdal serves as the primary setting of Netflix's Icelandic original series Katla, which follows a group of the village's inhabitants as they struggle in the aftermath of the volcano's first eruption since 1918.

title: Vík í Mýrdal


text: Category:Mathematicians

title: Category:Mathematicians


text:
Talk:George Ritzer

Verification of Information
Hello everyone, Does anyone know where to verify the quote: “As with several of Ritzer's other principal works, many are translated into languages as diverse as Chinese, Russian, Persian, Hebrew and Portuguese”?

I have found that his texts have been translated to several languages on his faculty page for the University of Maryland but I have not found anything specific in regard to languages.

The same goes with the information that Ritzer has written a certain number of scholarly journal articles. Where is this information?

Does anyone have an idea?

Thank You! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hclili (talk • contribs) 22:00, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

Disappearing First Source
Hello everyone, The first reference cited contains a broken link. I have the link that is not broken: https://www.ailun.it/so/st/docenti/ritzer.shtml. However, I cannot seem to replace the link as when I go to the editing view, the reference completely disappears and then reappears with the broken link as soon as the page is out of the editor view. Does anyone know how to fix this issue? Thank You! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hclili (talk • contribs) 18:48, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

Cannot Verify Quotes
Hello everyone, I cannot seem to access the original sources of references 10 and 40 to verify the quotes that they supposedly include.

The quote of Reference [10] I cannot find the original source. I have found two sources where the quote is used but the website cited no longer is attached to a relevant website:

Costache, Monica. "Qualman, Eric. (2009) Socialnomics: How Social Media Transforms the Way we Live and do Business. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey." *Journal of Comparative Research in Anthropology and Sociology* 1.2 (2010): 225-8. *ProQuest.* Web. 3 Oct. 2023.

https://dokumen.pub/creativity-a-sociological-approach-recurso-electronico-9781137531223-9781137449726-9781137531216-9781349557509-1137531215-1137531223.html The quote of Reference [40] is supposed to be in this link which I am not able to access: https://sk.sagepub.com/books/the-mcdonaldization-thesis/n9.xml If anyone can find the original source for the quote related to reference [10] or access to the source of the quote in reference [40], can you please verify that the quotes are in these sources? Thank You! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hclili (talk • contribs) 19:00, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

Untitled
This is *not* a place for a complete CV. It is not common to list the "courses taught" or provide comprehensive lists of articles published. "Leadership Roles" is also questionable. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.237.201.3 (talk) 10:13, 25 October 2009 (UTC)

Also: the majority of the references in this article are from Ritzer's own web page. If I understand Wikipedia policy, these are not to be considered reliable, as it's the subject reporting on himself. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.237.201.3 (talk) 01:04, 16 October 2009 (UTC)

Okay, seriously? This article is providing more detail than that of Emile Durkheim. This is inappropriate - while not disputing that Ritzer's work is important, Wikipedia is not the place for a comprehensive bibliography! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.237.201.3 (talk) 00:58, 16 October 2009 (UTC)

I have gone through and edited this article for PoV violations and an overly autobiographical tone. Unnecessary information such as future publications and unfounded comments such as "entertainingly cheeky" have been removed to try to bring this article more in line with Wikipedia standards.

Now, question: are Ritzer's theories important enough on their own to need to be given their own pages, or should the summary of his work be left here?

Isn't this taking the current categorization craze a bit toooo far? What do you mean Ritzer is a writer? Well of course, anyone who's ever written a note or filled in a form could be called a "writer", but wouldn't we refer to Ritzer as a sociologist rather than having such an ambiguous term?  10:50, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

Yeah OK
So you don't think much of Ritzer. Lets look at his work a bit more objectivly shall we? -- 11:06, 7 November 2005 (UTC)
 * BTW, Ritzor has a new book out. Something about the "Religion of Consumerism". Seek and ye shall find. I gotta run. -- CQ 02:06, 8 November 2005 (UTC)

Information about Ritzer
Hi I'm a danish nurse student. I'm trying to locate any information about Ritzer and he's work besides The McDonaldization of the society. Can anybody help find out about his scientific methodes, where he's born. How he grew up ect.

your sincerly Christina Stisser@hotmail.com

About Ritzer
Here are some links that might prove useful and informative about Ritzer.

http://www.mcmaster.ca/socscidocs/w3virtsoclib/theories.htm sociological theories of other theorists

http://www.mcspotlight.org/people/interviews/ritzer_george.html interview with George Ritzer

http://www.mcspotlight.org/media/books/ritzer_excerpt.html book ecxcerpts from the McDonaldization of Society Merishi 09:59, 22 March 2006 (UTC) In his own books, Ritzer classifies himself among the postmodernist theorists, which means he is resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation in his approach to sociology. To understand Ritzer one may have to first understand some philosophy, such as rationalism. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.254.98.25 (talk) 18:46, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Looking for some specifics...
I've been looking all over the web for sites or books that give information pertaining to Ritzer's life such as major events in his life and so forth. Any help would be greatly appreciated. lcs02@mhc.edu

Nothing at all.
This article could use some information on Rizter's thoughts and theories on 'nothing' in consumer culture. Seems all Ritzer is ever noted for is his thesis on McDonaldization... --Meestah-k 03:12, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

Nothing new
There is no need to even consider seperate pages for what Ritzer's purports to be theories. Indeed and fact if we look at these purported theories objectively they basically apply existing theory to contemporary events only with fancy names on them. I good go through the list, but instead will just use the example of McDonaldization. A fast food restuarant did not independently develop this series of faceless efficiency which was generalized to globalization, it was the other way around. If we look at Weber's writings we see this same theme, only there were no fast fod restuarants at the time so Weber used bureaucracies. McDonalds simply applied Weber's bureaucracy theory to its business model and Ritzer renamed the theory. Personally I find Ritzer's writing somewhat entertaining, but still, renaming an exisiting theory, or applying and exisiting theory to a contemporary circumstance is the creativity of a writer, not the domain of a sociological theorist. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.47.135.131 (talk) 19:47, 20 November 2011 (UTC)

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Category:Operating systems

This category and its subcategories deal with operating systems, the system software responsible for the direct control and management of hardware and basic system operations, as well as running application software such as word processing programs and Web browsers.

An article about operating systems should be categorized with all the subcategories appropriate to that article. Only when there are no appropriate subcategories should an article be categorized in the category Operating systems (see Wikipedia:Categorization and subcategories for an explanation).

Articles about operating system concepts and components can be found in Category:Operating system technology.

title: Category:Operating systems


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Talk:188th Armored Brigade (Israel)

Page needs work
This page needs work, if anyone feels inclined to tackle it (I'm ignorant on this topic completely). For one thing, the external links in the first paragraph no longer work and the text references them like "as shown _here_". Jewbacca 10:52, May 31, 2004 (UTC)

Zvika Greengold
This is the name given in Yom Kippur War article. It was previously given as Zvika Greenfeld in this article.

Tyrenius 03:41, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Wrong info....
Barak brigade and Carmeli brigade are two absolutely different units. The mistake begins with the wrong translation of the Hebrew word "utzva" (עוצבה) which means DIVISION and not BRIGADE. If just somebody could translate the Hebrew article about Carmeli Brigade and update it here it would be nice. I can't do it 'cause my English is not good enough. Here's a link to the Hebrew page:

http://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=חטיבת_כרמלי

And here's a link to the Carmeli brigade website (in Hebrew):

http://carmeli.israweb.net

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Category:Techno-thrillers

Techno-thrillers (or technothrillers) are a hybrid literary genre, drawing subject matter generally from science fiction, thrillers, spy fiction, action and war novels. They include a disproportionate amount (relative to other genres) of technical details on their subject matter (typically military technology); only hard science fiction tends towards a comparable level of supporting detail on the technical side. The inner workings of technology and the mechanics of various disciplines (espionage, martial arts, politics) are thoroughly explored, and the plot often turns on the particulars of that exploration.

title: Category:Techno-thrillers


text:
Category:Graphs

Graphs as used in graph theory.

For graphs as charts, plots and drawings, see Category:Statistical charts and diagrams.

title: Category:Graphs


text:
The Fibonaccis

The Fibonaccis were an American art rock band formed in 1981 in Los Angeles. The band consisted of songwriters John Dentino (keyboards) and Ron Stringer (guitar), Magie Song (vocals), Joe Berardi (drums) and later Tom Corey (bass).

Formation
The Fibonaccis were formed out of the Los Angeles art punk scene which included bands such as Wall of Voodoo and Oingo Boingo. Deriving their name from 13th-century mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci and citing musical influence from Nino Rota and Ennio Morricone, the band's music was typically characterized by intricate piano and guitar lines, over-the-top and sometimes incomprehensible vocals and frequent use of unconventional instruments such as mandolins, clarinets and Mellotrons. The Fibonaccis' music was nearly impossible to categorize, fusing such disparate elements as post-punk, progressive rock, jazz, world music, cabaret, ambient, spoken word and funk, a combination one newspaper critic described as "elevator music from hell". Lyrically, the band regularly explored dark and esoteric subject matter ranging from serial killers to UFOs, presented in a satirical and surrealist fashion.

Career
The Fibonaccis released their debut EP (fi'-bo-na'-chez) in 1982, following up with a 12" single/EP, Tumor/Psycho/Slow Beautiful Sex, the next year. In 1984, the group independently filmed a music video for an unreleased cover of Jimi Hendrix's "Purple Haze". Played in an instrumentally discordant fashion and sung in screeched vocals, the psychedelic music video re-worked the song into an anthem for a cult, book-ended by audio clips from Charles Manson interviews.

By the mid-1980s, the Fibonaccis had emerged as a prominent presence in the Los Angeles art rock scene, acting as touring support for the likes of Sparks, Oingo Boingo and Wall of Voodoo and performing as part of the 1985 New Music America festival.

Throughout their career, the Fibonaccis regularly contributed their music to independent film soundtracks. In 1986, the band collaborated with composer Richard Band on the score for the horror-comedy TerrorVision, recording five tracks including the movie's theme song. Their song "Sergio Leone" was used for the closing credits of 1982's Android and the previously unrecorded track "Art Life" was featured in 1987's Slam Dance. The Fibonaccis appeared onscreen as the band "Sexy Holiday" in the 1987 comedy Valet Girls, lipsynching to "Slow Beautiful Sex" and "Purple Haze" during a party scene.

In 1987, the band released their sole studio LP, Civilization and Its Discotheques, on the Blue Yonder Sounds label. In explaining the reason for the LP's delay, the group said that various hassles and difficulties with record companies had plagued a more timely release. Their frustration over the album's recording, added with a lack of media recognition, led to their breakup in 1988.

In 1992, Restless Records released a 26-track retrospective of the band's work called Repressed - The Best of the Fibonaccis. To celebrate the release of the album, the Fibonaccis performed a one-off reunion show in Los Angeles on November 19, 1992, their final public performance with all the members.

Post-Fibonaccis
Following the Fibonaccis' disbandment, John Dentino continued to compose music independently and has recently been working on independent documentary films. Joe Berardi went on to perform and tour with Wall of Voodoo's Stan Ridgway, and has collaborated with artists including Lydia Lunch, Congo Norvell, Donovan and Rufus Wainwright. Magie Song acted in a number of independent films in the early 1990s, including Gregg Araki's The Living End and Stephen Sayadian's Dr. Caligari, and currently works as an acupuncturist in Los Angeles. Tom Corey died from a cerebral aneurysm in late 2001. Ron Stringer served as film editor and critic for the LA Weekly and later as an English professor in L.A.'s community colleges. He died from liver cancer in late 2021.

Currently, the entire Fibonaccis physical discography is out of print, with Repressed being their only work released on compact disc. In 2021, the group released the majority of their repertoire on worldwide music streaming services and created a Bandcamp page for digital download. In 2022, The Fibonaccis opened their archives and digitally released two new collections of live radio shows, club rarities, and demos.

Band members

 * Magie Song - lead vocals, percussion
 * John Dentino - keyboards, piano, synthesizer, Mellotron, vocoder
 * Joe Berardi - drums, percussion, vibes, "mortecello"
 * Ron Stringer (formation – 1986) - guitar, bass, vocals
 * Tom Corey (1983–1988) - bass, guitar, mandolin, vocals

Studio albums

 * Civilization and Its Discotheques (1987, Blue Yonder Sounds)

EPs and singles

 * (fi'-bo-na'-chez) (1982, Index Records)
 * 1. "Sergio Leone" (Dentino, Stringer) - 2:12
 * 2. "Somnambulist" (Dentino, Stringer) - 3:03
 * 3. "The Ordinary Women" (Dentino, Wallace Stevens) - 2:23
 * 4. "The Genius" (Dentino, Stringer) - 2:48
 * 5. "Second Coming" (Dentino, Stringer) - 3:31
 * 6. "Maculae" (Dentino, Song, Stringer) - 2:33
 * 7. "Rice Song" (Dentino, Song, Stringer) - 2:41
 * Tumor (1983, Enigma Records)
 * 1. "Tumor" (The Fibonaccis) - 3:25
 * 2. "Slow Beautiful Sex" (The Fibonaccis) - 2:38
 * 3. "Psycho" (Bernard Herrmann) - 3:15
 * TerrorVision: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1986, Restless Records)
 * 1. "TerrorVision" (The Fibonaccis) - 3:40
 * 2. "The Friends of Crime" (The Fibonaccis) - 2:47
 * 3. "Sack of Suit Suite" (The Fibonaccis) - 2:58
 * 4. "Advice to a Mutant" (The Fibonaccis, Hal Negro) - 2:43
 * 5. "He Can't Stop Laughing" (The Fibonaccis) - 2:50

Compilations

 * Repressed – The Best of the Fibonaccis (1993, Restless Records)

Compilation appearances

 * Film Noir: American Style (1984, Ding Dong Records and Tapes)
 * "Looking for Eddie" (Berardi) - 4:45
 * Radio Tokyo Tapes Vol. 2 (1984, Enigma Records)
 * "Purple Haze" (Jimi Hendrix) - 3:58
 * The Lives of Lhasa (1984, Lhasa Productions)
 * "Disgusting Man (live)" -
 * Slam Dance: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1987, Island Records)
 * "Art Life" (Fibonaccis) - 2:21
 * The Best of the Radio Tokyo Tapes (1987, Chameleon Music)
 * "Purple Haze" (Hendrix) - 3:58

title: The Fibonaccis


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Murray Gleeson

Anthony Murray Gleeson  (born 30 August 1938) is an Australian former judge who served as the 11th Chief Justice of Australia, in office from 1998 to 2008.

Gleeson was born in Wingham, New South Wales, and studied law at the University of Sydney. He was admitted to the New South Wales Bar in 1963 and appointed Queen's Counsel in 1974, becoming one of the state's leading barristers. Gleeson was appointed Chief Justice of New South Wales in 1988, serving until his elevation to the High Court in 1998. He and Samuel Griffith (appointed 1903) are the only people to have been elevated directly from the chief justiceship of a state to the chief justiceship of the High Court. As required by the constitution, he retired from the court when he reached his 70th birthday.

In October 2020, Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that Gleeson's daughter, Jacqueline Gleeson, will be elevated to the High Court following the retirement of Justice Virginia Bell.

Early life
Gleeson was born in Wingham, New South Wales, the eldest of four children. He was educated at St. Joseph's College, Hunters Hill, where he won the Lawrence Campbell Oratory Competition in both 1953 and 1955, before matriculating to receive first class honours degrees in Arts and Law from the University of Sydney. Among his graduating class of 1962 were John Howard, later to become Prime Minister; and Michael Kirby, who later served alongside him as a judge on the High Court.

Legal career
After graduation, Gleeson spent one year as a solicitor at Messrs Murphy & Moloney. Gleeson was admitted to the New South Wales Bar in 1963, where he read with Laurence Street and Anthony Mason - his future predecessors as Chief Justice of New South Wales and Chief Justice of Australia respectively.

His appearances as junior counsel focussed mainly on matters of taxation and commercial law, as well as important constitutional cases including Strickland v Rocla Concrete Pipes Ltd, which concerned the scope of the corporations power.

Upon his appointment as Queen's Counsel (QC) in 1974, Gleeson's career as senior counsel continued to focus on commercial and constitutional matters. However he also appeared in some high-profile criminal cases, including his successful defence before a jury of National Party MP Ian Sinclair in 1980. In the same year he appeared for the appellants in Port Jackson Stevedoring v Salmond & Spraggon, the last case granted leave to appeal to the Privy Council from the High Court. In 1981 he appeared for former Prime Minister Sir William McMahon in Evans v Crichton-Browne, excluding the rhetoric of electoral advertising from judicial scrutiny under the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918. Gleeson was President of the New South Wales Bar Association 1984–1985.

He was a methodical counsel, who prepared his cases and even his cross examinations in minute detail. Retired Justice of Appeal Roddy Meagher said jokingly of Gleeson: "He has written nothing outside his professional work. He takes no interest in either music or art. He does, however, like flowers. He stares at them to make them wilt."

Chief Justice of New South Wales
Gleeson was appointed Chief Justice of New South Wales in 1988, the first barrister to be directly elevated to the Chief Justiceship since Frederick Jordan in 1934. According to convention, he was also made Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales in 1989. During Gleeson's decade as Chief Justice of New South Wales, the court system dealt with considerable change including fast growing demand, cost constraints and delays. He sought to delineate appropriate boundaries for the political debate surrounding litigation, and was adamant that the proper administration of justice was a part of civilised government and not a free market privilege.

The tradition of the Chief Justice frequently appearing in the Court of Criminal Appeal was continued under Gleeson's tenure. In this role, he appeared as a judge in R v Birks, where it was found a trial counsel's proved incompetence was a ground of appeal, and Attorney-General (NSW) v Milat, where an indigent accused was found to be entitled to legal representation as a basic requirement of fairness in a serious legal trial.

Gleeson also frequently presided in the Court of Appeal, a forum more suited to his expertise in administrative, commercial, and constitutional law. In 1992, he presided over Greiner v Independent Commission Against Corruption, which exonerated Nick Greiner from charges of corruption, although Greiner was forced to resign as Premier months earlier by independents who controlled the balance of power in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly. Other notable cases include Ballina Shire Council v Ringland, where he endorsed the constitutionally implied right to freedom of political communication and concluded that councillors could not sue for defamation on statements about their performance, and Egan v Willis where the New South Wales Legislative Council was found to be empowered to compel the treasurer Michael Egan (then a member of the Legislative Council) to produce documents and to suspend him for non-compliance. In Egan v Chadwick, this power was found to be not limited by legal professional privilege.

Chief Justice of Australia
In May 1998, Gleeson was appointed Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia, replacing Sir Gerard Brennan. He was the first Chief Justice of a state supreme court to be appointed Chief Justice of the High Court since Samuel Griffith, whose own state Chief Justiceship preceded the formation of the High Court. He is also the first Chief Justice not to have been made a knight (however, Australia had ceased the practice of awarding knighthoods some years previously). During his tenure as Chief Justice, Gleeson actively maintained the importance of judicial independence in the face of increasing executive government power and public anger with court decisions. He also spoke out against the use of torture, forced confessions and detention without trial.

His tenure as Chief Justice was also characterised by a large number of joint judgments, and a relatively frequent number of judgments that clearly and plainly provide the Court's ratio decidendi. In 2020, at least six former associates of Dyson Heydon, another member of the bench led by Murray Gleeson, accused Heydon of sexual harassment, and one alleged that another judge, Michael McHugh had told Murray Gleeson about one of alleged acts.

On 30 July 2008, it was announced that Federal Court justice Robert French would succeed Gleeson as Chief Justice. In accordance with the Australian Constitution, he retired from the High Court on 29 August 2008, the day before his 70th birthday. The occasion was marked by a ceremonial sitting of the High Court in Canberra.

Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong
On 7 November 2008, Gleeson was appointed a non-permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. He is given a Chinese name "紀立信" (Jyutping: gei2lap6seon3) by the Hong Kong Judiciary.

Honours

 * He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) in 1986.
 * He received Australia's highest civil honour when he was made a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in 1992.
 * He was awarded the Centenary Medal in 2001.
 * Life Fellow of the Australian Academy of Law.
 * Grand Bauhinia Medal of Hong Kong in 2020.

Personal life
He married Robyn Paterson in 1965, and the couple have four children. Their eldest daughter, Jacqueline, was appointed a judge of the Federal Court of Australia in 2014, after practising law as a barrister at the Sydney Bar and as general counsel of the Australian Broadcasting Authority. In October 2020, she was appointed to the High Court of Australia by Prime Minister Scott Morrison. Another daughter, Rebecca, is married to actor Eric Bana.

In September 2006, The Australian Financial Review magazine named Gleeson Australia's seventh most overtly powerful person.

title: Murray Gleeson


text:
Transition radiation

Transition radiation (TR) is a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle passes through inhomogeneous media, such as a boundary between two different media. This is in contrast to Cherenkov radiation, which occurs when a charged particle passes through a homogeneous dielectric medium at a speed greater than the phase velocity of electromagnetic waves in that medium.

History
Transition radiation was demonstrated theoretically by Ginzburg and Frank in 1945. They showed the existence of Transition radiation when a charged particle perpendicularly passed through a boundary between two different homogeneous media. The frequency of radiation emitted in the backwards direction relative to the particle was mainly in the range of visible light. The intensity of radiation was logarithmically proportional to the Lorentz factor of the particle. After the first observation of the transition radiation in the optical region, many early studies indicated that the application of the optical transition radiation for the detection and identification of individual particles seemed to be severely limited due to the inherent low intensity of the radiation.

Interest in transition radiation was renewed when Garibian showed that the radiation should also appear in the x-ray region for ultrarelativistic particles. His theory predicted some remarkable features for transition radiation in the x-ray region. In 1959 Garibian showed theoretically that energy losses of an ultrarelativistic particle, when emitting TR while passing the boundary between media and vacuum, were directly proportional to the Lorentz factor of the particle. Theoretical discovery of x-ray transition radiation, which was directly proportional to the Lorentz factor, made possible further use of TR in high-energy physics.

Thus, from 1959 intensive theoretical and experimental research of TR, and x-ray TR in particular began.

Transition radiation in the x-ray region
Transition radiation in the x-ray region (TR) is produced by relativistic charged particles when they cross the interface of two media of different dielectric constants. The emitted radiation is the homogeneous difference between the two inhomogeneous solutions of Maxwell's equations of the electric and magnetic fields of the moving particle in each medium separately. In other words, since the electric field of the particle is different in each medium, the particle has to "shake off" the difference when it crosses the boundary. The total energy loss of a charged particle on the transition depends on its Lorentz factor $γ = E/mc^{2}$ and is mostly directed forward, peaking at an angle of the order of $1/γ$ relative to the particle's path. The intensity of the emitted radiation is roughly proportional to the particle's energy $E$.

Optical transition radiation is emitted both in the forward direction and reflected by the interface surface. In case of a foil having an angle at 45 degrees with respect to a particle beam, the particle beam's shape can be visually seen at an angle of 90 degrees. More elaborate analysis of the emitted visual radiation may allow for the determination of $γ$ and emittance.

In the approximation of relativistic motion ($$\gamma \gg 1$$), small angles ($$\theta \ll 1$$) and high frequency ($$\omega \gg \omega_p$$), the energy spectrum can be expressed as:

$$\frac{dI}{d \nu} \approx \frac{z^2 e^2 \gamma \omega_p}{\pi c} \bigg( ( 1 + 2 \nu^2) \ln(1 + \frac{1}{\nu^2}) - 2\bigg )$$

Where $$z$$ is the atomic charge, $$e$$ is the charge of an electron, $$\gamma$$ is the Lorentz factor, $$\omega_p$$ is the Plasma Frequency. This divergences at low frequencies where the approximations fail. The total energy emitted is:

$$I = \frac{z^2 e^2 \gamma \omega_p}{3 c}$$

The characteristics of this electromagnetic radiation makes it suitable for particle discrimination, particularly of electrons and hadrons in the momentum range between $1 GeV/c$ and $100 GeV/c$. The transition radiation photons produced by electrons have wavelengths in the x-ray range, with energies typically in the range from 5 to $15 keV$. However, the number of produced photons per interface crossing is very small: for particles with $γ$ = 2×103, about 0.8 x-ray photons are detected. Usually several layers of alternating materials or composites are used to collect enough transition radiation photons for an adequate measurement—for example, one layer of inert material followed by one layer of detector (e.g. microstrip gas chamber), and so on.

By placing interfaces (foils) of very precise thickness and foil separation, coherence effects will modify the transition radiation's spectral and angular characteristics. This allows a much higher number of photons to be obtained in a smaller angular "volume". Applications of this x-ray source are limited by the fact that the radiation is emitted in a cone, with a minimum intensity at the center. X-ray focusing devices (crystals/mirrors) are not easy to build for such radiation patterns.

title: Transition radiation


text:
Category:Logic

Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. It attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.

title: Category:Logic