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New York Cosmos (1970–1985)

The New York Cosmos (simply the Cosmos in 1977–1978) were an American professional soccer club based in New York City and its suburbs. The team played home games in three stadiums around New York, including Yankee Stadium in the Bronx, before moving in 1977 to Giants Stadium in nearby East Rutherford, New Jersey, where the club remained for the rest of its history.

Founded in December 1970, the team competed in the North American Soccer League (NASL) until 1984 and was the strongest franchise in that league, both competitively and financially – based largely around its backing by Warner Communications President Steve Ross, which enabled it to sign internationally famous stars such as the Brazilian forward Pelé, Italian striker Giorgio Chinaglia, the West German sweeper Franz Beckenbauer, and famous late Brazilian rightback Carlos Alberto Torres. The acquisition of these foreign players, particularly Pelé, made the Cosmos into what journalist Gavin Newsham called "the most glamorous team in world football", and contributed to the development of soccer across the United States, a country where it had previously been largely ignored.

As the Cosmos declined following Pelé's retirement, so did the NASL. Attendances fell, the league's television deal was lost, and it finally folded in 1985 after playing its last season in 1984. The Cosmos attempted to continue operations in the Major Indoor Soccer League, but attendances were so low that the club withdrew without completing a season. The team attempted an independent schedule in 1985, but also canceled that because of low attendance, and the Cosmos folded. Former club employee Peppe Pinton assumed the trademarks and property of the club when it was dissolved, in part because nobody else thought they had any value at that point. Pinton put the trophies, uniforms, and equipment into storage and operated a New Jersey day camp for children under the name "Cosmos Soccer Camp".

Attempts were made to revive the Cosmos name during the 1990s and 2000s, most notably as a Major League Soccer (MLS) club. Pinton refused to sell the name and image rights, believing that MLS would not honor the club's heritage. Following the revival of several former NASL names in MLS, Pinton sold the rights for $2 million to an international, English-based consortium in August 2009. That group ultimately chose not to join MLS, and the new Cosmos team played parts of five seasons in second- and third-tier leagues before suspending operations.

Creation and naming
The club was founded in December 1970 by Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun, renowned executives at Atlantic Records, whose parent company Warner Communications acquired the Cosmos in April 1972. The team's first recruit was the Englishman Clive Toye, a former sportswriter who had moved to the United States in 1967 to become general manager of the short-lived Baltimore Bays; he was given the same post in New York. Toye sought to convey the new team's ambitions within its name, and reasoned that he could outdo the "Metropolitans" label referenced by the then-nine-year-old New York Mets baseball team by calling his team the "Cosmos", shortened from "Cosmopolitans". However, the owners preferred other possible names: the Erteguns wished to use the name originally suggested by Nesuhi, the "New York Blues"; and another part of the ownership group wanted to adopt the name "New York Lovers". Toye then staged a rigged "name the team" contest, receiving 3,000 entries and selecting one that just happened to match his pre-determined winner. Two NYC teachers, Meyer Diller and Al Capelli, from Martin Van Buren High School in Queens, entered the contest and submitted the name "Cosmos". The two physical education teachers had independently used Toye's method of deriving it from "cosmopolitan". The two men were awarded a trip to Europe as a prize. The team name was officially unveiled on February 4, 1971.

North American Soccer League
The New York Cosmos entered the 1968-founded North American Soccer League (NASL) in 1970 and made their field debut in the league's fourth season in 1971. The first roster signing of the club was Gordon Bradley, an English professional who had moved to North America in 1963 and played for the New York Generals in 1968. He was made player-coach, a position he would hold until 1975. Bradley's team finished second in its division in its first year, playing at Yankee Stadium, home of the New York Yankees baseball team and the New York Giants football team. Randy Horton, from Bermuda, was named the league's Rookie of the Year after scoring 16 goals and 37 points, the most by any New York player. In 1972, the team moved to Hofstra Stadium where they won their first league title with a 2–1 victory over the St. Louis Stars. Horton was the league's top scorer and Most Valuable Player, with 9 goals and 22 points from the 14 regular-season games and two post-season matches. The Cosmos reached the play-offs once more in 1973, but were knocked out at the semi-final stage. Bradley coached the United States national team for six games during 1973—picking himself in one, despite not being an American citizen—but lost them all. Before the 1974 season, the Cosmos moved again, settling at Downing Stadium on Randall's Island. In their first year at their new base, they finished bottom of their division. Horton top scored for the Cosmos in every season before he was traded in 1975 to the Washington Diplomats.

Arrival of Pelé, Giorgio Chinaglia and the Cosmos' peak
It was during the 1975 season that the Cosmos acquired the Brazilian star Pelé, whom they had been attempting to sign since the team was created. Ross had apparently not heard of him before getting involved in soccer, but agreed to finance the transfer when Toye compared the Brazilian's popularity to that of the Pope. Pelé joined the Cosmos on June 10, 1975, on a salary of $1.4 million per year, an enormous wage for an athlete at that time. A number of contracts—only one of which mentioned soccer—were set up for Pelé to ensure that he paid the lowest amount of tax possible, including one as a "recording artist" with Warner subsidiary Atlantic Records. "We owned him lock, stock and barrel," Toye retrospectively boasted. They also signed Mike Dillon in 1975.

The Pelé deal was later described by Gavin Newsham, an English writer, as "the transfer coup of the century". His arrival turned the Cosmos from a motley crew of foreigners, semi-professionals and students into a huge commercial presence. The club's groundsman, on hearing that the Brazilian's début for New York was to be broadcast on CBS, spray-painted the pitch green to disguise how little grass was on it: the match, against the Dallas Tornado, was broadcast to 22 countries and covered by more than 300 journalists from all over the world.

Although New York finished third at season end, it was still too low a placing to reach the post-season. Bradley was replaced for the 1976 season by another Englishman, Ken Furphy, who paired Pelé up front with Italian international forward Giorgio Chinaglia, a new arrival from S.S. Lazio. He had been so popular at Lazio that when his move to New York was announced, supporters "threatened to throw themselves beneath the wheels of the plane". By contrast to most of the overseas stars bought by NASL teams, Chinaglia was signed in his prime. He played for the Cosmos for the rest of their history, scoring a record number of goals and points not only for the Cosmos, but for the entire league. He shared an unusual personal bond with the club's ultimate controller, Ross, and was therefore treated differently from the other players, including Pelé.

Crowds rose with the arrival of these and other European and South American international players, resulting in a move back to Yankee Stadium for the 1976 season. With numerous foreign stars arriving at the Cosmos, the team's competitive performance improved, as New York reached the play-offs at the end of the season, but lost in the divisional championship match to the Tampa Bay Rowdies. The Cosmos relocated again before the 1977 season, to the newly constructed Giants Stadium in New Jersey, and at the same time dropped the prefix "New York" and played simply as "the Cosmos", without a geographical name. The city name was restored in 1979.

Bradley returned as coach for the 1977 season in place of the dismissed Furphy, but was removed after half of the season to become the club's vice-president of player personnel. South African-born former Italy international Eddie Firmani took his place. Pelé played his last professional match on October 1, 1977, in front of a capacity crowd at Giants Stadium: in an exhibition match between New York and his former club Santos, Pelé appeared for both sides, playing one half for each. The Cosmos won the game 2–1. Pelé's compatriot, former Brazil captain Carlos Alberto was signed in 1977, at the same time as Franz Beckenbauer, who had captained the 1974 FIFA World Cup-winning West Germany national team. On the field, New York won three out of four championships, in 1977, 1978 and 1980. A playoff game against the Fort Lauderdale Strikers in 1977 drew a crowd of 77,691, a record for American club soccer. The team's average attendances, regularly over 40,000 during the late 1970s, were the biggest in the league; this helped it to become regarded as the league's "marquee club", both commercially and competitively. Firmani was fired in 1979; he claimed, after falling out with Chinaglia. His assistant, Ray Klivecka, replaced him, becoming the team's first American-born coach. He lasted a season before himself being replaced by Júlio Mazzei.

On Pelé's farewell tour in 1977, the Cosmos made history by becoming the first Western professional sports team to play in China. They drew their opening match with the Chinese national team 1-1, and lost the second game 2-1 despite Pelé scoring a free kick.

Decline of the Cosmos and the NASL
After the retirement of Pelé in 1977, much of the progress that American soccer had made during his stay was lost; there was no star at the same level to replace him as the NASL's headline act. After enduring briefly during the late 1970s, attendances dropped after 1980. The sport's popularity fell and the media lost interest. The deal with broadcaster ABC to broadcast NASL matches was also lost in 1980, and the 1981 Soccer Bowl was only shown on tape delay. All of the franchises quickly became unprofitable, and a salary cap enforced before the 1984 season only delayed the inevitable. The league folded at the end of 1984, following the loss of most of its franchises.

The Cosmos had financial problems of their own, on top of those affecting the league in general. Much of the Cosmos' ability to attract the well-known overseas players it had acquired was due to the financial resources of parent company Warner Communications. In the early 1980s, Warner was the target of a hostile takeover bid by Australian media magnate Rupert Murdoch; although this attempt did not succeed, Warner sold off several of its assets, among them Atari and Global Soccer, Inc., the subsidiary that operated the Cosmos. Chinaglia bought Global Soccer, and thus controlled the team. His group did not have the capital necessary to keep all of the players signed on expensive contracts by Warner, which resulted in many of the stars being sold. The club won its last title in 1982, and by the last season of the NASL, 1984, had missed the play-offs for the first time since 1975. The precipitous decline of the Cosmos after the 1983 season became for many fans and the media proof positive of the grave condition of the whole NASL.

Major Indoor Soccer League, demise and youth soccer
Following the collapse of the NASL, the team competed in the Major Indoor Soccer League during the 1984–85 season, with Klivecka briefly returning as coach, but withdrew after 33 games due to low attendance. The organization tried to operate as an independent team in 1985, but could not finish a single season and the club finally folded.

Former club employee Peppe Pinton, who started with the Cosmos as Giorgio Chinaglia's personal assistant and was promoted to General Manager when Chinaglia assumed control, ended up with the club's assets largely because he was the only one at the time who felt they had any value. Pinton put the trophies, uniforms, and equipment into storage and took over the club's day camp for children at Ramapo College in Mahwah, New Jersey changing the name from "Pele Soccer Camps" to "Cosmos Soccer Camp".

New Cosmos team
Since the original New York Cosmos club's demise in 1985, there had been attempts to revive it. With the rise of Major League Soccer (MLS), various New York area entities—including two different ownership groups from the Metrostars/New York Red Bulls—lobbied Pinton for the acquisition of the Cosmos name. Pinton refused to sell to an MLS team, believing that the league would not acknowledge the Cosmos' legacy. However, when old NASL names such as the San Jose Earthquakes, Seattle Sounders, Portland Timbers and Vancouver Whitecaps were revived as MLS franchises, he reconsidered. He sold the Cosmos name and brand to English businessman Paul Kemsley in 2009, whose group announced a new team with the Cosmos' name in August 2010.

Kemsley put the original club's trophies on display in the new club's office in SoHo. He and the other owners initially intended to become an MLS expansion franchise, but ultimately turned down the invitation to apply. Kemsley's team instead joined the new second-tier incarnation of the North American Soccer League, starting play in its 2013 Fall season. It played for the next four seasons before the league folded. The Cosmos then joined the third-tier National Independent Soccer Association (NISA), but played only half a season before going on hiatus.

Cultural impact and influence on U.S. soccer
When Pelé arrived at the Cosmos in 1975, American soccer was, in Newsham's phrase, "dying a slow, painful and largely unnoticed death". The sport was not taken seriously by the bulk of the American media, and was of little interest to the public. Matches were often played in front of almost-empty stands, receiving modest press coverage. The signing of Pelé by the Cosmos transformed soccer across the country almost immediately, lending credibility not only to the Cosmos, but also to the NASL and soccer in general. Within days of the Brazilian's arrival, the increased media attention had caused the Cosmos' office staff to increase from five people to more than 50. Soccer became seen as a viable alternative to more traditional "American" sports such as basketball, baseball and American football. The Cosmos, in particular, became an internationally famous club – "the most glamorous team in world football", in Newsham's words, or "soccer demigods" in those of ESPN writer David Hirshey.

The Cosmos, as the flagship team of the NASL, embodied what Hirshey labeled the "nexus of soccer and showbiz", and became Warner Communications' most culturally visible asset. After Pelé signed for New York, many other European and South American stars joined NASL teams; the Los Angeles Aztecs, for example, signed George Best and Johan Cruyff in 1976 and 1979 respectively. Cosmos road trips, described by traveling secretary Steve Marshall as "like traveling with the Rolling Stones", saw the team pack out each stadium it visited, while at home, the team attracted numerous high-profile supporters. While soccer had previously been largely ignored by the American press, the Cosmos and other NASL teams now became regular fixtures on the back pages.

However, just as Pelé had kick-started the development of soccer in the U.S., his retirement in 1977 would mark the start of a decline. With nobody of the same stature to personify the sport, the popularity that had been built up nosedived just as quickly as it had appeared. The league's television deal with ABC was lost at the end of 1980 and a salary cap, enforced before the 1984 season, caused many of the remaining overseas stars—lured to America by fat pay packets—to return to the European and South American leagues. The NASL collapsed abruptly in late 1984, and was not replaced by a new professional soccer league until Major League Soccer's first season in 1996.

A feature-length documentary about the Cosmos, called Once in a Lifetime: The Extraordinary Story of the New York Cosmos, was released in theaters in 2006. The film, narrated by Matt Dillon, featured interviews with many of the players and personalities involved with the team.

Uniforms and crest
For the team's initial uniform Cosmos general manager Clive Toye chose the green and yellow of the Brazil national team as part of his strategy to lure Pelé, one of that country's star players, to the United States. The club's initial uniform was all green with yellow trim, with the colors reversed on the road uniform. Coincidentally, the colors were the same as those of the previous New York NASL team, the New York Generals, which had folded after the 1968 season. When Pelé did come on board in 1975, the uniform was changed to all-white in imitation of his club in Brazil, Santos FC. The green and yellow elements were relegated to the trim. The green shirt was concurrently matched with white shorts to become the new away uniform. Uniforms designed by Ralph Lauren were used from 1979 to the end; the home uniform remained all-white, though with navy and yellow trim replacing the green and white trim of the previous outfit. The away uniform became navy shirts and shorts with yellow trim, paired with unusual yellow-and-navy hooped socks, which were later replaced with plain navy blue ones.

The artist commissioned by Toye to design the team's logo was Wayland Moore, a sports artist from Atlanta who had already worked on the logo, uniform and program covers of that city's soccer team, the Chiefs. Moore attempted to create a design that was simple, recognizable and inclusive of New York's many nationalities. The three colored "blades" surrounding the soccer ball in the center represent movement, while the font originally used was chosen simply because it was easily legible on the uniform. The text on the logo was shortened to "Cosmos" in 1977, concurrently with the team's dropping of the "New York" label. The city name was restored two years later, but the badge remained unchanged.

Uniform suppliers
Uniform suppliers used by the team:

Theme song
Ahmet Ertegun used his connections to recruit Atlantic Records artists the Average White Band to create a theme song for the Cosmos. The resulting "The Cosmos Theme" was written by band members Alan Gorrie and Steve Ferrone, and recorded by the band under the pseudonym "The Cosmic Highlanders".

Team management originally wanted to use "We Are the Champions" by Queen as the club's theme, but were convinced to use The Cosmos Theme in part by the cheerleaders, who enjoyed dancing to it.

The Cosmos Theme was played extensively at Giants Stadium, and on television broadcasts of Cosmos games.

Stadiums
The Cosmos' first home stadium was Yankee Stadium, home to both the New York Yankees baseball team and the New York Giants football team, where they played throughout the 1971 season. Attendances during the club's first year averaged at 4,517, less than 7% of the stadium's capacity, which was at that time 65,010. The Cosmos therefore moved before the 1972 season to the 15,000-seater Hofstra Stadium, on the campus of the namesake university 25 mi east of metropolitan New York. After two seasons of continuing low crowds at this out-of-town location, the Cosmos moved again, relocating to the 22,500-capacity Downing Stadium before the 1974 season. It was at Downing Stadium that attendances started to rise significantly, buoyed by the arrival of stars such as Pelé, who arrived in 1975. For the Brazilian's first match, the stadium was full; "there must have been another 50,000 turned away", coach Gordon Bradley later claimed.

These larger attendances necessitated another move, which occurred in 1976, when the Cosmos returned to Yankee Stadium. This time the team averaged 18,227 fans over the course of the season, over four times the average 1971 gate. The team then moved yet again before the 1977 season, to the newly built Giants Stadium, where attendances skyrocketed; crowds peaked at an average of 47,856 during 1978. The Cosmos remained at Giants Stadium for the rest of their time in the NASL. Attendances gradually fell as the league declined during the early 1980s, then finally slumped in 1984, when they dropped by more than half from the 1983 seasonal average.

The largest crowd to attend a Cosmos home game was set in 1977, when the Fort Lauderdale Strikers visited for a playoff match. The game was attended by 77,691 fans, which, at the time, was a record for American soccer. The lowest average attendance for a season was 3,578, in 1974. As of 2011, only Hofstra Stadium remains, now renamed James M. Shuart Stadium. Downing Stadium, the original Yankee Stadium and Giants Stadium were demolished in 2002, 2008 and 2010 respectively.

While playing indoor soccer, the Cosmos' home arenas were the Brendan Byrne Arena (now the Meadowlands Arena) and Madison Square Garden.

Supporters
The Cosmos sought to maximize their fanbase by appealing to as wide a demographic as possible. The club's name and badge were designed to be inclusive of New York's many immigrant communities; the logo purposefully avoided the standard American red, white and blue. In this the Cosmos succeeded, attracting noticeable support from local Europeans, Middle-Easterners and South Americans. The association of the team with the city's high society in both social and sporting contexts led to it becoming very popular among celebrities, both American and international. "We transcended everything, every culture, every socio-economic boundary," goalkeeper Shep Messing said in 2006. "We were international, we were European, we were cool, we were Americans from the Bronx. We were everything to everybody."

Players
The New York Cosmos are famous for having fielded numerous well-known players, almost all of whom were from outside the United States: examples include Pelé, Franz Beckenbauer, Giorgio Chinaglia from S.S. Lazio and Carlos Alberto. American players of note include goalkeeper Shep Messing – who was notoriously sold after posing nude for a magazine in December 1974, then brought back two years later on Pelé's insistence. The Cosmos also fielded Werner Roth, a Yugoslavian-born U.S. international defender, from 1972 to 1979. A number of Cosmos players were named in the NASL all-star teams selected by the league at the end of each season. No NASL all-star from the Cosmos was born in the United States or Canada, where all of the league's teams were based; apart from Roth, both North Americans selected—Siegfried Stritzl and John Kerr—were born in Yugoslavia and Scotland respectively.

Retired numbers

 * 10 – 🇧🇷 Pelé (Forward, 1975–77)

Head coaches
The New York Cosmos' first head coach was the English-American professional Gordon Bradley, who had played in the English Football League's lower divisions during the 1950s before moving to America in 1963. Bradley came out of retirement to become player-coach, a role he retained until his departure in 1975. Bradley's team won the league championship in 1972, but after it failed to reach the playoffs in both 1974 and 1975, he was dismissed. His replacement was another Englishman, Ken Furphy. His Cosmos succeeded in reaching the post-season, but lost the divisional championship game to Vancouver, prompting Furphy's own departure in favor of a return for Bradley, whose second spell lasted only half a season before he was promoted to an advisory role. Eddie Firmani, the South African-born former Italy forward, took over midway through the 1977 season. His star-studded team won two consecutive Soccer Bowls—1977 and 1978—but lost the National Conference championship game in 1979. Firmani lost his job after falling out with Giorgio Chinaglia, a favorite of the Cosmos hierarchy. His assistant, Ray Klivecka, who was born in Lithuania, became the team's first American head coach when he took Firmani's place midway through 1979.

Klivecka was replaced before the 1980 season by Brazilian coach Júlio Mazzei, who won the Cosmos' fourth title at the end of that campaign before being succeeded by two joint head coaches, Hennes Weisweiler & Yasin Özdenak, in 1980. This duo's team came second in the 1981 NASL before Mazzei returned in 1982 and won his second championship with the Cosmos during that year. Firmani returned in 1984, the NASL's final year, in which the Cosmos failed to make the playoffs. Firmani remained as the team entered the Major Indoor Soccer League for the 1984–85 season, but was fired in early December, halfway through the season, and replaced by Klivecka, who returned after two games under the caretaker management of goalkeeper Hubert Birkenmeier. Klivecka was retained until the team ceased competitive play.

Honors
With five championships and seven first-place finishes, the Cosmos still rank as tied for the most successful franchise in the history of North American soccer.

Friendly matches and world tour
New York Cosmos had many friendly matches in domestic and abroad.

title: New York Cosmos (1970–1985)


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Laugharne

Laugharne  (Talacharn) is a town on the south coast of Carmarthenshire, Wales, lying on the estuary of the River Tâf.

The ancient borough of Laugharne Township (Treflan Lacharn) with its Corporation and Charter is a unique survival in Wales. In a predominantly English-speaking area, just on the Landsker Line, the community is bordered by those of Llanddowror, St Clears, Llangynog and Llansteffan. It had a population at the 2021 census of 1,100.

Laugharne Township electoral ward also includes the communities of Eglwyscummin, Pendine and Llanddowror.

Dylan Thomas, who lived in Laugharne from 1949 until his death in 1953, famously described it as a "timeless, mild, beguiling island of a town". It is generally accepted as the inspiration for the fictional town of Llareggub in Under Milk Wood. Thomas confirmed on two occasions that his play was based on Laugharne although topographically it is also similar to New Quay where he briefly lived.

History
Throughout much of the Prehistoric period, human activity in the Laugharne area was centred on Coygan Bluff, a steep-sided limestone peninsula overlooking the now submerged coastal plain to the south. A natural cave on the southeast face of the promontory was excavated five times between 1865 and 1965 yielding significant evidence that its chambers acted as a temporary shelter for groups of hunter-gatherers moving through the landscape over 50,000 years ago and later material in the form of flint tools indicating an extended series of occupations from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. These discoveries suggest that the Township is probably the oldest still-inhabited settlement in Wales. Contemporary artefacts from the Mousterian period have also been found at nearby Paviland and Long Hole caves along with older hominin remains at Bontnewydd but, unlike at Laugharne, the communities associated with them are long vanished.

In the 4th century BC, a promontory fort was built at the summit of the hill. During the Bronze Age, Coygan camp is recorded as the site of an open settlement with funerary and ritual activity shown by a short-cist contracted inhumation. Further finds at a nearby round barrow on Laugharne Burrows together with Beaker burials at Plashett and Orchard Park confirm a more permanent community. Excavation in the 1960s of the defended enclosure on Coygan revealed two huts contemporary with the defensive bank and ditch and a significant quantity of pottery recovered dating to the late 3rd century AD indicating that the site was occupied deep into the Romano-British period. Another significant Iron Age settlement has also been identified at Glan-y-Mor Fort in the north of the township.

The Laugharne hoard of over 2000 coins and Roman bath remains found at Island House, together with the  substantial Romano-British group of imported 6th-century finewares, coinage and glass from Coygan Camp, described as "one of the richest from a native settlement in south-west Wales", are all part of a concentration of traditional 'Roman' finds in the area. As evidence of activity from the period is generally scarce, these discoveries confirm the site as one of importance and suggest that it continued to be a high status settlement well beyond the Roman occupation. A 6th-century inscribed stone lies within Llansadwrnen church to the north, considered to be an outlying burial site of the more important secular settlement on Coygan. Laugharne Church, which contains a 9th-century Celtic slab stone and where a long cist grave cemetery has also been recorded, is thought to be a more likely early ecclesiastical site in the immediate area.

In the Early Middle Ages Laugharne was the main settlement in the area and home to the Lords of Laugharne. It was a commote of Gwarthaf, the largest of the seven cantrefi of the Kingdom of Dyfed in southwest Wales, later to be ruled by the Princes of Deheuberth. In 1093, Deheubarth was seized by the Normans following Rhys ap Tewdwr's death. In the early 12th century, grants of lands were made to Flemings by King Henry I when their country was flooded. In 1116, when Gruffydd ap Rhys (the son and heir of Rhys ap Tewdwr) returned from self-imposed exile, the king arranged for the land to be fortified against him; according to the Brut y Tywysogyon, Robert Courtemain constructed a castle at Laugharne in that year (this is the earliest reference to any castle at or near Laugharne ). Courtemain may be the Robertus cum tortis manibus (Robert with twisted hands) mentioned in the Book of Llandaff, as one of a number of specifically named Norman magnates within the vicinity of the Llandaff diocese, who received a letter from Pope Callixtus II complaining about deprivations they had inflicted on diocesan church property; in the letter, the Pope warns he would confirm Bishop Urban's proclamations against them, if they do not rectify matters. The Brut states that Courtemain appointed a man named Bleddyn ap Cedifor as castellan; Bleddyn was the son of Cedifor ap Gollwyn, descendant and heir of the earlier kings of Dyfed (as opposed to those of Deheubarth). The castle was originally known as Abercorran Castle. When Henry I died, Anarchy occurred, and Gruffydd, and his sons, Lord Rhys in particular, gradually reconquered large parts of the former Deheubarth.

In 1154, the Anarchy was resolved when Henry II became king; two years later, Lord Rhys agreed peace terms with Henry II and prudently accepted that he would only rule Cantref Mawr, constructing Dinefwr Castle there. Henry II de-mobilised Flemish soldiers who had aided him during the Anarchy, settling them with the other Flemings. From time to time, however, King Henry had occasion to go to Ireland, or Normandy, which Lord Rhys took as an opportunity to try and expand his own holdings. Returning from Ireland after one such occasion, in 1172, King Henry made peace with Lord Rhys, making him the justiciar of "South Wales" (ie. Deheubarth). By 1247, Laugharne was held by Guy de Bryan; this is the earliest reference to his family possessing the castle, and his father (also named Guy de Bryan) had only moved the family to Wales in 1219 (from Devon). Guy de Bryan's descendants continued to hold the castle; his namesake great-grandson was Lord High Admiral of England. The latter's daughter Elizabeth inherited the castle and married an Owen of St Bride's who subsequently took his name – Owen Laugharne – from the castle despite Gerald of Wales calling the castle Talachar, and other variations on Laugharne/Talacharn appearing in ancient charters; one anonymous pre-20th-century writer erroneously claimed that Owen Laugharne gave his name to the castle rather than the other way around. Possession subsequently defaulted to the Crown, and in 1575, Queen Elizabeth granted it to Sir John Perrot. In 1644 the castle was garrisoned for the king and taken for Parliament by Major-General Rowland Laugharne, who subsequently reverted to the king's side. The population in 1841 was 1,389.

Laugharne Corporation
Laugharne Corporation is an almost unique institution and, together with the City of London Corporation, the last surviving mediæval corporation in the United Kingdom. The Corporation was established in 1291 by Sir Guy de Brian (Gui de Brienne), a Marcher Lord. Laugharne Corporation holds extensive historical records. The Corporation is presided over by the portreeve, wearing his traditional chain of gold cockle shells (one added by each portreeve, with his name and date of tenure on the reverse), the aldermen, and the body of burgesses. The title of portreeve is conferred annually, with the portreeve being sworn in on the first Monday after Michaelmas at the Big Court. The Corporation holds a court leet half-yearly formerly dealing with criminal cases, and a court baron every fortnight, dealing with civil suits within the lordship, especially in matters related to land, where administration of the common fields was dealt with. The Laugharne open-field system is one of only two surviving and still in use today in Britain.

'In Elizabeth's reign, the lordship passed to Sir John Perrott of Haroldston, a fact for which the inhabitants of Laugharne have had cause to regret. As at Carew Perrot modernised the castle, but he was the most unscrupulous "land-grabber" of his age, and in 1574 he induced the burgesses to part with three hundred acres of land in return for an annuity of £9 6s. 8d. The records say that "diverse burgesses of the said towne did not assent to same", and that it was "to the great decaying of many". It would be interesting to know by what methods of bribery or intimidation Sir John was able to accomplish his nefarious purposes.'

The most senior 76 burgesses get a strang of land on Hugden for life, to be used in a form of mediæval strip-farming.

The chief toast at the Portreeve's feast is "to the immortal memory of Sir Guido de Brian"; then the Recorder must sing the following song: "When Sir Guy de Brien lived in Laugharne, A jolly old man was he. Some pasture land he owned, which he Divided into three. Says he "There's Hugdon and the Moor They will the Commons please; And all the gentlemen shall have Their share down on the Lees.""

Governance
Since 1972, Laugharne Township Community Council has formed the lowest tier of local government for the town, represented by 11 community councillors.

For elections to Carmarthenshire County Council, Laugharne is covered by the Laugharne Township electoral ward, which also covers three neighbouring communities. The ward is represented by one county councillor. Independent councillor Jane Tremlett has represented the ward since 2004.

St Martin's Church
The parish church of St Martin was built in the 14th century by Guido de Brian, lord of the manor of Laugharne. The original dedication was to St Michael as 15th-century records use this dedication. The churchyard, rectangular in shape, has shown evidence of Cist burials. Various archaeological finds have been made during grave-digging: a wheel-topped stone; a medieval tile and a fragment of what is believed to be a tomb canopy. The churchyard's 18th- and 19th-century monuments are Grade II listed for their group value.

The interior has a cross-slab, probably dating from the 9th or 10th century, with a carved Celtic design carved onto it. It has been suggested that the design is of Viking origin.

The church is today part of the United Benefice of Bro Sancler. Welsh poet and playwright Dylan Thomas is buried in the churchyard, his grave marked by a white cross.

Landmarks
Local attractions include the 12th-century Laugharne Castle, Laugharne Town Hall and the estuary birdlife.

Laugharne Township currently has 69 listed buildings and contains several fine examples of Georgian townhouses including The Great House and Castle House together with Island House, parts of which date back to the Tudor period. All three properties are grade II* listed and a number of other early vernacular cottages have also survived.

There are a number of landmarks in Laugharne connected with the poet and writer Dylan Thomas. These include the Dylan Thomas Boathouse, where he lived with his family from 1949 to 1953, and now a museum; his writing shed; and the Dylan Thomas Birthday Walk, which was the setting for the work Poem in October.

In popular culture
Many scenes in the BBC Television series Keeping Faith (broadcast in Welsh as Un Bore Mercher) were filmed in and around Laugharne, referred to as Abercorran.

Laugharne weekend
The Laugharne Weekend, a three-day arts festival held in the spring of 2007, featured writers such as Niall Griffiths and Patrick McCabe. Headline performers since then have included Ray Davies, Will Self, Howard Marks and Patti Smith. The Millennium Hall is the main venue and smaller events are held locally such as in the Dylan Thomas Boathouse.

Notable people

 * Thomas Rede (ca.1390 – ca.1455), merchant, landholder, knight and public official of nearby Roche Castle
 * Reginald Pecock (ca.1395 – ca.1461), prelate and writer, born in Laugharne
 * Sir John Perrot (1528–1592), Lord Deputy of Ireland, Lord President of Munster and Privy Councillor to Elizabeth I, lived in Laugharne Castle
 * Sir Thomas Perrot (1553–1594), Elizabethan courtier, soldier and Member of Parliament, lived in Laugharne Castle
 * Sir James Perrot (1571–1636), writer and Member of Parliament, lived in Laugharne
 * Sir Sackville Crowe (1595–1671), English politician, lived in Laugharne
 * Rowland Laugharne (1607–1675), Parliamentary General; his 1644 siege of the castle, a former family home, left it an uninhabitable ruin
 * Bishop William Thomas (1613–1689), Vicar of Laugharne, ejected by Cromwell. Later Bishop of St Davids and Bishop of Worcester.
 * Sir John Powell (1632/3–1696), judge who presided over the trial of the Seven Bishops in 1688, lived in Laugharne
 * Sir Thomas Powell (ca.1665 – 1720), lawyer and Member of Parliament, born in Laugharne
 * Griffith Jones (1684–1761), educational pioneer, curate of Laugharne where he also resided in later years
 * Bridget Bevan (1698–1779), also known as Madam Bevan, educationalist and philanthropist, lived in Laugharne
 * Josiah Tucker (1713–1799), clergyman, economist and political writer; Dean of Gloucester, born in Laugharne
 * Peter Williams (1723–1796), Methodist leader and publisher of Welsh language bibles, born at West Marsh Farm in Laugharne
 * Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights, lived in Laugharne as a child
 * James Augustus St. John (1795–1875), author and traveller, born in Laugharne
 * Edward Falkener (1814-1896), architect, archaeologist, art historian and author, lived at the Glanymor Estate from 1866 until his death
 * Arnold Wienholt, Sr. (1826–1895), Australian politician, lived at Castle House in Laugharne
 * Edward Wienholt (1833–1904), Australian politician, lived at Castle House in Laugharne
 * Agnes Mason (1849–1941), nun, born in Laugharne
 * Joseph Arthur Hamilton Beresford (1861–1952), Australian naval commander, born in Laugharne
 * Caleb Rees (1883–1970), inspector of schools and author, lived at Island House in Laugharne from 1943 until his death
 * William Charles Fuller VC (1884–1974), soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross, born in Laugharne
 * William Thomas David (1886–1948), Professor of Engineering at University College Cardiff and at the University of Leeds, born in Laugharne
 * Raymond Jeremy (1890-1969), violist, professor of violin and viola at the Royal Academy of Music, born in Laugharne
 * Richard Hughes (1900–1976), writer, lived at Castle House, instrumental in Dylan Thomas moving to Laugharne
 * Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), poet, lived in Laugharne and is buried in the churchyard
 * Derrick Childs (1918–1987), the Anglican Bishop of Monmouth and Archbishop of Wales, born in Laugharne
 * Sir Kingsley Amis (1922–1995), novelist, poet and critic, wrote Booker Prize winner The Old Devils while living in Cliff House, Laugharne.
 * George Tremlett OBE (1939–2021), writer, former politician and bookshop owner, lived in Laugharne
 * Aeronwy Thomas (1943–2009), poet, writer and translator of Italian poetry; the second child and only daughter of Dylan Thomas
 * Gary Pearce (born 1960), rugby union and rugby league player, born in Laugharne

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Laugharne


text:
Talk:Transnistria

The article looks like a propaganda leaflet
This article was written by completely engaged and biased editors who have prejudices against Pridnestrovie. There is nothing resembling a neutral point of view here, right down to the title of the article (Transnistria), which is a dirty political insult to Pridnestrovie, not its name. I believe it needs to be removed. 2A03:F680:FE04:20E1:F404:CF37:C4DC:DEC8 (talk) 11:14, 13 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Transnistria is an English word and is not offensive. All the editors of this article are independent editors and have used reliable sources. -- LDM 2003 talk to me! 19:29, 25 December 2023 (UTC)

 * I will allow myself to express an unpopular opinion here, but the article is really biased and reflects the purely point of view of Western ideologists in the context of the confrontation with Russia, in which Pridnestrovie is presented as one of the instruments of this confrontation. I do not consider it appropriate to discuss this now, because these concerns not only the topic of Pridnestrovie. However, the article is not only biased, but downright offensive, at least by its title. In this discussion, several pages earlier, commentators clearly explained how and in what context the term "Transnistria" (in relation to Pridnestrovie) arose and how it is used, so I will not repeat this. This is a direct politically charged insult that cannot be considered a name of the real region with real living people. There is not a single article on Wikipedia that, by its title, would insult the population of any territory other than this one. 80.94.250.208 (talk) 10:08, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Ok, and any particular suggestions for improvement beyond a rant about artice title which anyway isn't going to change? — kashmīrī  TALK  11:04, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * In an article with such a title, it makes no sense to change anything; it a priori has not encyclopedic functions, but propaganda ones, and has the character of hate speech. 80.94.250.208 (talk) 11:37, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * If you have no desire to improve Wikipedia, stop writing here. — kashmīrī  TALK  12:24, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * You're not reading carefully. I wrote what needs to be improved; there is no other way. 80.94.250.208 (talk) 15:10, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Most articles need improving. Most things in the world need improving. Anything more specific? — kashmīrī  TALK  15:15, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * That is, indicating that the title of the article is unacceptable, that is, that the article cannot initially be improved because it contradicts any signs of encyclopedicity in this form, is not specific enough? How can you improve someone's insults? Add more insults? 80.94.250.208 (talk) 16:27, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

Thanks for your adequate assessment of this absurdity, friend! But this article is an excellent example of how Wikipedia has become an exclusively propaganda tool, and a very crude one at that. This stream of insults against Pridnestrovie is necessary precisely for edifying purposes, to demonstrate to people what this website has become (here, for example, is a good use case). Local politized provocateurs are doing much more harm to Wikipedia with this article than to Pridnestrovie, so I'm not sure there's any need to be outraged by these insults. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.19.215.86 (talk) 16:35, 9 April 2024 (UTC)

History before 1939
I would like to see something about the history of the area before 1939. Now it starts at that date. 2001:4C3C:DE00:A700:E9C9:5961:6918:7BA8 (talk) 19:44, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Sure. Please feel free to add relevant content, based on reliable sources of course. — kashmīrī  TALK  20:01, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

Not in this article but generally...
Why do we use Romanian/R.Moldovan designations for Romanian-language designators of things in Transnistria as opposed to Transnistrian ones (e.g. Flag of Transnistria is given as Steagul Transnistriei instead of Steagul Nistrean or Steagul Nistreniei)? Since we are giving names in the three official languages - surely it is more correct to use more official designations. Thought I should try to establish a consensus here before pushing anything myself. Bayonet-lightbulb (talk) 05:48, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I've only ever seen "Nistrenia" on Wikipedia. I am actually kind of doubtful this name exists. Not even the Moldovan Government, which surely would rather use the name if it was preferred by its inhabitants, employs it, it rather uses Stânga Nistrul ("The Left of the Dniester") or Transnistria. Super   Ψ   Dro  21:44, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I mean, the Moldovan Govt. doesn't use it for the same reason they don't typically use Приднестровье in Russian (although as that is a geographical designation like Transnistria you do sometimes see it (see section 470, in Russian)) - it is the short-form name of the de facto national state. As far as "official" (Transnistrian govt) sources go, it's used in the anthem and the constitution (Article 55, in Moldovan Cyrillic). Also in a couple of less governmental places, I found this journal article on Christmas carols and this little essay. Interested to hear people's thoughts in light of this. All the best. Bayonet-lightbulb (talk) 09:40, 13 July 2024 (UTC)

Possibly incorrect water percentage?
Hello, I was looking over various countries' water area and was unable to find any official metric for Transnistria, so I was surprised to find that this Wikipedia did list a water percentage. However, looking over the article's history, this metric seems to just have come from some random person who added up the "listed area" of the biggest lakes. This doesn't seem like a proper source of information and it likely is inaccurate, since the "listed area" is often not perennial water area and it fails to account for smaller bodies of water, such as rivers (which can contribute to a substantial amount of water area).

Has revising this value been considered? Or is it just kept for archival reasons? 99.64.160.215 (talk) 23:55, 30 June 2024 (UTC)

 * The source of this seems to be this archive? 99.64.160.215 (talk) 00:03, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * It should also be noted that this person gave no other source than "their own research." 99.64.160.215 (talk) 00:20, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay, that definitely fails WP:CALC and WP:SYNTH. Removed. –LaundryPizza03 ( d c̄ ) 00:44, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Where does the total area figure come from? –LaundryPizza03 ( d c̄ ) 00:45, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * It seems to show up constantly so I'm unsure of the actual source, but it is stated to be 4,163 km2 here which seems to be an official Transnistria page? There were other official looking pages that stated them number. 99.64.160.215 (talk) 01:11, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Transnistria


text:
Yellowhead (electoral district)

Yellowhead is a federal electoral district in Alberta, Canada, that has been represented in the House of Commons of Canada since 1979. The district is in west-central Alberta and represents: parts of the Municipal District of Greenview No. 16 including Grande Cache, Improvement District No. 25 (Willmore), the Improvement District No. 12 (Jasper), the Municipality of Jasper, Yellowhead County including Hinton and Edson, Brazeau County including Drayton Valley, Lac Ste. Anne County including Alexis 133, Parkland County, Leduc County, Clearwater County including Big Horn 144A, Sunchild 202, and O'Chiese 203, and Rocky Mountain House.

History
The electoral district was created in 1976 from Rocky Mountain, Athabasca, Edmonton West, Pembina, and Wetaskiwin ridings.

Its first and most high-profile MP was Joe Clark. Clark was Prime Minister of Canada in late 1979 and early 1980. He remained a prominent figure on the Progressive Conservative front bench after losing the premiership, in opposition and as a cabinet minister under Brian Mulroney.

This riding lost territory to Peace River—Westlock and Sturgeon River—Parkland, while gaining territory from Wetaskiwin and Wild Rose, during the 2012 Canadian federal electoral redistribution.

Following the 2012 redistribution, portions of this electoral district (notably the town of Whitecourt) joined the newly formed riding of Peace River—Westlock while the regions of Leduc County and Rocky Mountain House were added to Yellowhead.

Demographics

 * According to the 2011 Canadian census

Languages: 90.5% English, 2.6% French, 1.7% German

Religions: 58.5% Christian (20.6% Catholic, 10.3% United Church, 4.3% Anglican, 4.2% Lutheran, 2.1% Baptist, 1.9% Pentecostal, 15.3% Other Christian), 1.0% Traditional Aboriginal Spirituality, 39.7% No religion

Median income (2010): $34,679

Riding associations
Riding associations are the local branches of political parties:

Members of Parliament
This riding has elected the following members of Parliament:

title: Yellowhead (electoral district)


text:
Llantrisant

Llantrisant ("Parish of the Three Saints") is a town in the county borough of Rhondda Cynon Taf, within the historic county boundaries of Glamorgan, Wales, lying on the River Ely and the Afon Clun. The three saints of the town's name are SS. Illtyd, Gwynno, and Dyfodwg. Llantrisant is a hilltop settlement, at an altitude of 174 m above sea level. The town is home to the Royal Mint.

History
There is evidence for settlements in and around Llantrisant stretching back over three millennia. Two Bronze Age burial mounds are on Mynydd Garthmaelwg, the opposite side of the Ely Valley. A 1.05 m tall, by 1.68 m wide, possibly Bronze Age, standing stone, was discovered in Miskin during excavations prior to the M4 motorway construction. An Iron Age hillfort stands on Rhiwsaeson Hill. The enclosure, now known as Caerau Hillfort, measures 230 m by 180 m.

A settlement has existed on this site from at least the beginning of the 6th century, when the poet Aneurin wrote of 'the white houses of Glamorgan' when referring to Llantrisant. It was seized around 1246 by Richard de Clare who built Llantrisant Castle. It is thought that de Clare established the borough of Llantrisant though the exact charter occurred in 1346.

In 1346, Llantrisant was granted a Royal Charter months before the archers from the town helped Edward, the Black Prince, win a victory against the French army at the Battle of Crecy. The Llantrisant longbow men were pivotal in the adoption of the English longbow as the missile weapon of choice for the English crown during the Middle Ages.

Llantrisant was one of the eight boroughs constituting the Glamorgan borough following the Act of Union, a status it held until 1918.

Culture
An ancient tradition called the Beating the Bounds, where local children are bounced by elders on to the boundary stones of the old borough, still occurs every seven years and has its roots set as far back as the 14th century. The rite was intended as a reminder to each generation of the importance of the borough boundaries. The children in question are held under the arms and the legs, and their backside is bounced on each of the stones of the old borough. It is believed that the Beating of the Bounds started in 1346, when Llantrisant was awarded its Royal Charter. This allowed them the freedom to trade without paying tolls within the boundaries of the former borough. The last occasion of this event was in June 2017, but the event is now seen as a purely historic tradition and social community event.

At nearby Tarren Deusant is a spring with unusual petrosomatoglyph carvings of two faces, two saints (1696), but now six are present (Sharp 1979).

Old Town Llantrisant has four pubs: The New Inn, the Bear, the Wheatsheaf and the Cross Keys Hotel. Formerly in the Bull Ring was the Rock and Fountain pub, which became the home of the original Llantrisant Workingmen's Club founded in May 1953 by Seth Morgan, Freeman of Llantrisant.

Notable buildings
The focal point of the town is the Bull Ring, a commercial square in the centre of the town that was used for bull-baiting, until it was disallowed in 1827 due to unruly crowds. The square contains a statue of Dr William Price a pioneer of cremation.

Model House
The first workhouse in Glamorgan opened in Llantrisant in May 1784, using a number of adapted cottages on Swan Street and part of the Black Cock pub on Yr Allt, a road to the south west of the Bull Ring, between the parish church (to the west) and the castle (to the east).

The Union Workhouse was built in 1884 on the Bull Ring – west of where Dr Price's statue stands today and behind the town pump. It became known as The Model House, in the rather optimistic belief that its inmates would lead a life of model Christianity. Two pubs, a shop and a cottage were demolished to make way for the expansion of the workhouse.

The building closed as a workhouse in the early 1900s and first became a boarding house, then an inn and later a general store, called County Stores. They were known as a cornflour and provisions merchant, and a linen and woolen drapers, also selling boots and shoes. The site was bought in the 1950s by 'Planet Gloves', who manufactured gloves there until the late 1960s. The Model House stood empty for many years before being bought by the local authority to convert into a craft and design centre.

In 1989 the Model House re-opened as a craft and design centre. A registered charity, Model House was funded by the Arts Council of Wales since the demise of the Arts Council of Great Britain in 1994, receiving about 35,000 visitors a year. The ground floor contains galleries that include glass, ceramics and designer jewellery from established British and Welsh artists, as well as a local painter. The upper floors have workshops that are used by individual craftspeople, whose work can be purchased either from their studio or from the ground floor shop. The Model House has a programme of art and crafts exhibitions throughout the year and hosts a varied series of workshops, where adults and children may learn the basics of a wide range of contemporary craft skills.

The centre closed in December 2009 after the company which ran it, Model House Ltd, went into liquidation. The management of the building was taken over by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council, who after tackling structural problems with the roof and outer walls reopened the centre in mid 2010.

Llantrisant Castle
Llantrisant Castle stands in parkland in the centre of the town though only one wall of the raven tower remains. Although initially built as a wooden fortification it was rebuilt as a stone structure around 1246 by Richard de Clare, Lord of Glamorgan. In 1294 the castle was damaged during the uprising against the Norman overlords, led by Madog ap Llywelyn, and again in 1316 by Llywelyn Bren. It is believed that the castle was destroyed in 1404 by Owain Glyndŵr though there is no written proof of the event. John Leland reported the castle as ruined in his writings in 1536.

Llantrisant Guildhall
Llantrisant Guildhall, which was the meeting place of the borough council, was completed in 1773.

Llantrisant Parish Church and Penuel Chapel
By the early 1900s Llantrisant had eight chapels, as well as the Llantrisant Parish Church Only two religious buildings remain. The elder is the church of 'y tri sant'. The three saints to which the church is dedicated are St. Illtyd, St. Gwynno and St. Dyfodwg. The site is believed to have been a place of Christian worship since at least the 7th century, and in 1096 the parish church was built and dedicated. The church was rebuilt by Richard de Clare in 1246 in the Norman style and in the 15th century the tower was added. Its interior houses an effigy of a 13th-century warrior, believed to be Cadwgan, lord of Miskin, a valuable Welsh church monument. The interior was restored in 1874 by Welsh neo-gothic designer John Prichard. The former parish office built 1873 on George Street is now a private home.

The second religious building in Llantrisant is Tabor Baptist Chapel, built in 1828. It is in on an elevated site next to Llantrisant Castle, accessed by steps from the High Street.

Y Billy Wynt
At the highest point of Y Graig is a stone tower known locally as “Billy Wynt”. Also said to have been used as an auxiliary tower with its high up positioning it remains a focal point of history. By the early 19th century the tower was in ruins and in 1890 it was restored as a folly by the Llantrisants' town trust.

Y Pwysty
‘Y Pwysty’ the weighing house, was located on this site since medieval times. Once known as The Angel Inn, it was at Y Pwysty that the weight of goods were regulated at the markets and fairs held in the town.

The Royal Mint
The Royal Mint, which produces all British coins, moved from London to Llantrisant in 1967 in order to meet demand when the UK converted to decimal currency. In addition to British coins, the Royal Mint produces circulating coins for approximately 60 countries, as well as medals, bullion coins and bars. The Royal Mint also attracts tourists to Llantrisant to The Royal Mint Experience and the Royal Mint Museum which runs events and exhibitions around topics of interest.

Environment
Llantrisant is typical of most locations in the South Wales region, being home to typical upland habitat birds and mammals of the British Isles. The town also contains Llantrisant Common and Pastures, a 113 hectare Site of Special Scientific Interest, which is home to several rare plants.

Transport
Llantrisant is served by Pontyclun railway station three miles away, which was formerly known as Llantrisant railway station. Trains run by Transport for Wales call at the station.

Employment and economy
The town is the home of the Royal Mint, which manufactures all British coins. The Royal Mint transferred to Llantrisant in 1967 and its attractions include the Mint's museum. The Mint employs around 900 people. A number of small, independent retailers have successfully found a home in Llantrisant Old Town. In addition to the Model House Craft & Design Centre, now well-established in a former 18th-century workhouse in the town centre, there is a village shop known as the Bullring Stores, a traditional toy shop with added vintage finds, galleries, pubs and restaurants.

The history of education in Llantrisant is firmly based in the varied religious institutions and Sunday School services which rapidly flourished between the 17th and 19th centuries. The Norman parish church was the starting point for the education movement, although it was one that would take a century or more to fully develop into a successful entity.

Sport and leisure
Sport flourished in Llantrisant for centuries and the remains of a Welsh Handball court dating from the 1790s, stands at the rear of the Workingmen's Club. Llantrisant is also known as the home of Llantrisant Rugby Union Club known locally as the Black Army.

Llantrisant Male Choir
The town is home to one of the very longest established male choirs in Wales. Established at least as early as 1898, the choir is a prolific touring choir having sung in the USA, Italy, Cyprus, Slovakia, Poland, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Spain. They travel extensively in the UK supporting charity events and singing at concert engagements. The choir has appeared at many notable venues, including The Royal Albert Hall, The Santa Maria Maggiore, Wales Millennium Centre and the Hollywood Bowl. The choir has a wide-ranging membership drawn from all ages and social backgrounds. They sing a mix of music from traditional choral classics, Welsh hymns and modern pop music.

Notable people

 * See Category:People from Llantrisant

 * Sir Leoline Jenkins, politician and judge
 * William Price lived in the town.
 * Andrew Bishop, Bradley Davies and Scott Andrews, Wales' international rugby union players.

Freemen of Llantrisant

 * Sir David Evans: Lord Mayor of London in 1891
 * Sir Cennydd George Traherne: Late Lord Lieutenant of Glamorgan 17 May 1935.
 * Trevor Rees
 * Sir Brandon Meredith Rhys Williams: Late Conservative Politician

Twin towns
Llantrisant has a twinning arrangement with:
 * 🇫🇷 Crécy-en-Ponthieu, France, since 2015.

title: Llantrisant


text:
Memphis Rogues

The Memphis Rogues were a professional soccer team in the former North American Soccer League. They operated in the 1978, 1979, and 1980 seasons and played their home games in Memphis' Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium. They also played indoor soccer at the Mid-South Coliseum during the 1979–80 season.

History
In the mid-1970s, Harry T. Mangurian, Jr. and Beau Rogers joined forces to establish a new North American Soccer League (NASL) franchise. Mangurian owned a horse racing track in Florida, and Rogers was part-owner and general manager of the Tampa Bay Rowdies. As the two men searched for a city to serve as home for their new team, they looked at several locations in the southern U.S. – including New Orleans, Houston, Nashville and Atlanta – before settling on Memphis, Tennessee. Next, they decided to name the team the "Rogues" in part as an allusion to the Rowdies, as well as for a desire to have an elephant mascot (a "Rogue" elephant).

The team hired Malcolm Allison as its first coach. Allison came from Turkish powerhouse Galatasaray but his time in Memphis would be very short. Allison had achieved much controversy during his time in England, and when he had failed to sign a sufficient number of players for the inaugural season, he was dismissed without having coached a match and replaced by ex-Chelsea star Eddie McCreadie. The club finished the 1978 season in third place in its division and did not make the playoffs. Attendance averaged 8,708 a match, 17th in the 24-team league.

The second season, 1979, was disrupted by a players' strike which forced McCreadie out of retirement for a time. The team did worse on the pitch, finishing last, and worse at the box office, with 7,137 a match, with three teams doing worse.

The poor gates resulted in Mangurian and Rogers selling the team to Avron Fogelman in 1980. Fogelman owned a Memphis minor league baseball team and later became a part owner of the Kansas City Royals. Though attendance went up in 1980 to 9,864 a match, this was still 17th in the league and the team were again last in their division, though McCreadie's old Chelsea mate Charlie Cooke had taken over as coach.

The Rogues' last game ever came at Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium against the Houston Hurricane. The Rogues won, 6–1. Tony Field scored the final goal in Memphis Rogues history. He beat the goalkeeper and walked the ball into the net. When he arrived at the goal line, he got down on his knees and headed the ball into the net. More skeptical fans and that the Rogues were mathematically eliminated from the playoffs and the Hurricane only need one goal to qualify, raised an eyebrow at the result. In the 1980 NASL goals of the year video, the Hurricanes are standing still, allowing Field to give the fans one last show.

In 1981, Fogelman cut his losses and sold the Rogues to Nelson Skalbania, a Canadian businessman who moved the team to Calgary, Alberta. Skalbania renamed the team the Calgary Boomers for the 1981, but the team lasted only one year in Calgary before folding.

Indoor success
The Rogues played the 1979–80 season of NASL indoor soccer at the Mid-South Coliseum. They posted a 9–3 regular-season record, won the Western Division, and went all the way to the finals, winning Game 1 of the series, 5–4, at home in front of 9,081 fans, before losing Game 2 and the mini-game tie-breaker to the Tampa Bay Rowdies at the Bayfront Center in St. Petersburg, Florida.

Coaches

 * Malcolm Allison 1978
 * Eddie McCreadie 1978–1979
 * Charlie Cooke 1980

Honors
Championships
 * NASL indoor: 1979–80 (finalists)

Regular Season/ Division Titles
 * NASL indoor: 1979–80

Indoor Soccer Hall of Fame
 * Mike Stankovic: 2013

title: Memphis Rogues


text:
Yellowhead

Yellowhead or Yellow Head may refer to:

People

 * Tête Jaune aka. Pierre Bostonais aka. Pierre Hastination, trapper and explorer of Western Canada
 * Ozaawindib, a 19th-century Ojibwa warrior

Places

 * In Canada
 * Yellowhead Highway in Western Canada
 * Yellowhead Trail, Edmonton, Alberta
 * Yellowhead County, Alberta
 * Yellowhead (electoral district), Alberta
 * Rural Municipality of Yellowhead, Manitoba
 * West Yellowhead (electoral district), Alberta
 * Yellowhead Centre, Neepawa, Manitoba
 * Yellowhead Lake, British Columbia
 * Yellowhead Mountain, Alberta and British Columbia
 * Yellowhead Pass mountain pass and National Historic Site, Alberta and British Columbia
 * In the United States
 * Yellow Head, Maine, a village in Lincoln County, Maine
 * Yellowhead Township, Kankakee County, Illinois

Organisms

 * Yellowhead (bird)
 * Yellowhead disease
 * Yellowhead jawfish
 * Yellowhead butterflyfish
 * Inula, plants in the daisy family
 * Trichoptilium, plants in the daisy family
 * Zanthoxylum flavum, a citrus plant

Other uses

 * Yellowhead (film), a 2013 Canadian short film

title: Yellowhead


text:
Jijona/Xixona

Jijona or Xixona  is a town and municipality in the Valencian Community on the eastern coast of Spain.

Turrón
The town is famous for a type of soft nougat, known in Spanish as Turrón de Jijona and in Valencian as Torró de Xixona. This is mostly due to the extensive almond farming that has existed since the Moorish farmers originally cultivated the almond trees following the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Several factories produce turrón, which is all distributed for sale in December, although now they are trying to expand it during the other months.

This turrón is protected by European Union, through the IGP (Indicación Geográfica Protegida).

title: Jijona/Xixona


text: User talk:165.139.160.3

title: User talk:165.139.160.3


text:
URL redirection

URL redirection, also called URL forwarding, is a World Wide Web technique for making a web page available under more than one URL address. When a web browser attempts to open a URL that has been redirected, a page with a different URL is opened. Similarly, domain redirection or domain forwarding is when all pages in a URL domain are redirected to a different domain, as when wikipedia.com and wikipedia.net are automatically redirected to wikipedia.org.

URL redirection is done for various reasons:
 * for URL shortening;
 * to prevent broken links when web pages are moved;
 * to allow multiple domain names belonging to the same owner to refer to a single web site;
 * to guide navigation into and out of a website;
 * for privacy protection (such as redirecting YouTube and Twitter links to Invidious and Nitter respectively or to turn AMP links into normal links); and
 * for hostile purposes such as phishing attacks or malware distribution.

Purposes
There are several reasons to use URL redirection:

Forcing HTTPS
A website may potentially be accessible over both a secure HTTPS URI scheme and plain HTTP (an insecure URI beginning with "http://").

If a user types in a URI or clicks on a link that refers to the insecure variant, the browser will automatically redirect to the secure version in case the website is contained in the HSTS preload list shipped with the application or if the user had already visited the origin in the past.

Otherwise the website will be contacted over HTTP. A website operator may decide to serve such requests by redirecting the browser to the HTTPS variant instead and hopefully also priming HSTS for future accesses.

Similar domain names
A user might mistype a URL. Organizations often register these misspelled domains and redirect them to the intended location. This technique is often used to "reserve" other top-level domains (TLD) with the same name, or make it easier for a ".edu" or ".net" site to accommodate users who type ".com".

Moving pages to a new domain
Web pages may be redirected to a new domain for three reasons:
 * a site might desire, or need, to change its domain name;
 * an author might move their individual pages to a new domain;
 * two web sites might merge.

With URL redirects, incoming links to an outdated URL can be sent to the correct location. These links might be from other sites that have not realized that there is a change or from bookmarks/favorites that users have saved in their browsers. The same applies to search engines. They often have the older/outdated domain names and links in their database and will send search users to these old URLs. By using a "moved permanently" redirect to the new URL, visitors will still end up at the correct page. Also, in the next search engine pass, the search engine should detect and use the newer URL.

Logging outgoing links
The access logs of most web servers keep detailed information about where visitors came from and how they browsed the hosted site. They do not, however, log which links visitors left by. This is because the visitor's browser has no need to communicate with the original server when the visitor clicks on an outgoing link. This information can be captured in several ways. One way involves URL redirection. Instead of sending the visitor straight to the other site, links on the site can direct to a URL on the original website's domain that automatically redirects to the real target. This technique bears the downside of the delay caused by the additional request to the original website's server. As this added request will leave a trace in the server log, revealing exactly which link was followed, it can also be a privacy issue. The same technique is also used by some corporate websites to implement a statement that the subsequent content is at another site, and therefore not necessarily affiliated with the corporation. In such scenarios, displaying the warning causes an additional delay.

Short aliases for long URLs
Web applications often include lengthy descriptive attributes in their URLs which represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths and session information. This practice results in a URL that is aesthetically unpleasant and difficult to remember, and which may not fit within the size limitations of microblogging sites. URL shortening services provide a solution to this problem by redirecting a user to a longer URL from a shorter one.

Meaningful, persistent aliases for long or changing URLs
Sometimes the URL of a page changes even though the content stays the same. Therefore, URL redirection can help users who have bookmarks. This is routinely done on Wikipedia whenever a page is renamed.

Post/Redirect/Get
Post/Redirect/Get (PRG) is a web development design pattern that prevents some duplicate form submissions if the user clicks the refresh button after submitting the form, creating a more intuitive interface for user agents (users).

Device targeting and geotargeting
Redirects can be effectively used for targeting purposes like geotargeting. Device targeting has become increasingly important with the rise of mobile clients. There are two approaches to serve mobile users: Make the website responsive or redirect to a mobile website version. If a mobile website version is offered, users with mobile clients will be automatically forwarded to the corresponding mobile content. For device targeting, client-side redirects or non-cacheable server-side redirects are used. Geotargeting is the approach to offer localized content and automatically forward the user to a localized version of the requested URL. This is helpful for websites that target audience in more than one location and/or language. Usually server-side redirects are used for Geotargeting but client-side redirects might be an option as well, depending on requirements.

Manipulating search engines
Redirects have been used to manipulate search engines with unethical intentions, e.g., URL hijacking. The goal of misleading redirects is to drive search traffic to landing pages, which do not have enough ranking power on their own or which are only remotely or not at all related to the search target. The approach requires a rank for a range of search terms with a number of URLs that would utilize sneaky redirects to forward the searcher to the target page. This method had a revival with the uprise of mobile devices and device targeting. URL hijacking is an off-domain redirect technique that exploited the nature of the search engine's handling for temporary redirects. If a temporary redirect is encountered, search engines have to decide whether they assign the ranking value to the URL that initializes the redirect or to the redirect target URL. The URL that initiates the redirect may be kept to show up in search results, as the redirect indicates a temporary nature. Under certain circumstances it was possible to exploit this behavior by applying temporary redirects to well-ranking URLs, leading to a replacement of the original URL in search results by the URL that initialized the redirect, therefore "stealing" the ranking. This method was usually combined with sneaky redirects to re-target the user stream from the search results to a target page. Search engines have developed efficient technologies to detect these kinds of manipulative approaches. Major search engines usually apply harsh ranking penalties on sites that get caught applying techniques like these.

Manipulating visitors
URL redirection is sometimes used as a part of phishing attacks that confuse visitors about which web site they are visiting. Because modern browsers always show the real URL in the address bar, the threat is lessened. However, redirects can also take you to sites that will otherwise attempt to attack in other ways. For example, a redirect might take a user to a site that would attempt to trick them into downloading antivirus software and installing a Trojan of some sort instead.

Removing information
When a link is clicked, the browser sends along in the HTTP request a field called referer which indicates the source of the link. This field is populated with the URL of the current web page, and will end up in the logs of the server serving the external link. Since sensitive pages may have sensitive URLs (for example, ), it is not desirable for the   URL to leave the organization. A redirection page that performs referrer hiding could be embedded in all external URLs, transforming for example  into. This technique also eliminates other potentially sensitive information from the referrer URL, such as the session ID, and can reduce the chance of phishing by indicating to the end user that they passed a clear gateway to another site.

Implementation
Several different kinds of response to the browser will result in a redirection. These vary in whether they affect HTTP headers or HTML content. The techniques used typically depend on the role of the person implementing it and their access to different parts of the system. For example, a web author with no control over the headers might use a Refresh meta tag whereas a web server administrator redirecting all pages on a site is more likely to use server configuration.

Manual redirect
The simplest technique is to ask the visitor to follow a link to the new page, usually using an HTML anchor like:

This method is often used as a fall-back — if the browser does not support the automatic redirect, the visitor can still reach the target document by following the link.

HTTP status codes 3xx
In the HTTP protocol used by the World Wide Web, a redirect is a response with a status code beginning with 3 that causes a browser to display a different page. If a client encounters a redirect, it needs to make a number of decisions how to handle the redirect. Different status codes are used by clients to understand the purpose of the redirect, how to handle caching and which request method to use for the subsequent request.

HTTP/1.1 defines several status codes for redirection (RFC 7231):
 * 300 multiple choices (e.g. offer different languages)
 * 301 moved permanently (redirects permanently from one URL to another passing link equity to the redirected page)
 * 302 found (originally "temporary redirect" in HTTP/1.0 and popularly used for CGI scripts; superseded by 303 and 307 in HTTP/1.1 but preserved for backward compatibility)
 * 303 see other (forces a GET request to the new URL even if original request was POST)
 * 305 use proxy (indicates that the client's requested resource is only available through a proxy)
 * 307 temporary redirect (provides a new URL for the browser to resubmit a GET or POST request)
 * 308 permanent redirect (provides a new URL for the browser to resubmit a GET or POST request)

Status codes 304 not modified and 305 use proxy are not redirects.

All of these status codes require the URL of the redirect target to be given in the Location: header of the HTTP response. The 300 multiple choices will usually list all choices in the body of the message and show the default choice in the Location: header.

Example HTTP response for a 301 redirect
A HTTP response with the 301 "moved permanently" redirect looks like this:

Using server-side scripting for redirection
Web authors producing HTML content can't usually create redirects using HTTP headers as these are generated automatically by the web server program when serving an HTML file. The same is usually true even for programmers writing CGI scripts, though some servers allow scripts to add custom headers (e.g. by enabling "non-parsed-headers"). Many web servers will generate a 3xx status code if a script outputs a "Location:" header line. For example, in PHP, one can use the "header" function:

More headers may be required to prevent caching. The programmer must ensure that the headers are output before the body. This may not fit easily with the natural flow of control through the code. To help with this, some frameworks for server-side content generation can buffer the body data. In the ASP scripting language, this can also be accomplished using  and   HTTP/1.1 allows for either a relative URI reference or an absolute URI reference. If the URI reference is relative the client computes the required absolute URI reference according to the rules defined in RFC 3986.

Apache HTTP Server mod_rewrite
The Apache HTTP Server mod_alias extension can be used to redirect certain requests. Typical configuration directives look like:

For more flexible URL rewriting and redirection, Apache mod_rewrite can be used. E.g., to redirect a requests to a canonical domain name:

Such configuration can be applied to one or all sites on the server through the server configuration files or to a single content directory through a  file.

nginx rewrite
Nginx has an integrated http rewrite module, which can be used to perform advanced URL processing and even web-page generation (with the  directive). A showing example of such advanced use of the rewrite module is mdoc.su, which implements a deterministic URL shortening service entirely with the help of nginx configuration language alone.

For example, if a request for  were to come along, it would first be redirected internally to   with the first rewrite directive below (only affecting the internal state, without any HTTP replies issued to the client just yet), and then with the second rewrite directive, an HTTP response with a 302 Found status code would be issued to the client to actually redirect to the external cgi script of web-man:

Refresh Meta tag and HTTP refresh header
Netscape introduced the meta refresh feature which refreshes a page after a certain amount of time. This can specify a new URL to replace one page with another. This is supported by most web browsers. A timeout of zero seconds effects an immediate redirect. This is treated like a 301 permanent redirect by Google, allowing transfer of PageRank to the target page.

This is an example of a simple HTML document that uses this technique:

This technique can be used by web authors because the meta tag is contained inside the document itself. The meta tag must be placed in the "head" section of the HTML file. The number "0" in this example may be replaced by another number to achieve a delay of that many seconds. The anchor in the "body" section is for users whose browsers do not support this feature.

The same effect can be achieved with an HTTP  header:

This response is easier to generate by CGI programs because one does not need to change the default status code.

Here is a simple CGI program that effects this redirect:

Note: Usually, the HTTP server adds the status line and the Content-Length header automatically.

The W3C discourage the use of meta refresh, since it does not communicate any information about either the original or new resource, to the browser (or search engine). The W3C's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (7.4) discourage the creation of auto-refreshing pages, since most web browsers do not allow the user to disable or control the refresh rate. Some articles that they have written on the issue include W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (1.0): Ensure user control of time-sensitive content changes, Use standard redirects: don't break the back button! and Core Techniques for Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 section 7.

JavaScript redirects
JavaScript can cause a redirect by setting the  attribute, e.g.: Normally JavaScript pushes the redirector site's URL to the browser's history. It can cause redirect loops when users hit the back button. With the following command you can prevent this type of behaviour. However, HTTP headers or the refresh meta tag may be preferred for security reasons and because JavaScript will not be executed by some browsers and many web crawlers.

Frame redirects
A slightly different effect can be achieved by creating an inline frame:

One main difference to the above redirect methods is that for a frame redirect, the browser displays the URL of the frame document and not the URL of the target page in the URL bar. This cloaking technique may be used so that the reader sees a more memorable URL or to fraudulently conceal a phishing site as part of website spoofing.

Before HTML5, the same effect could be done with an HTML frame that contains the target page:

Redirect chains
One redirect may lead to another in a redirect chain. If a redirect leads to another redirect, this may also be known as a double redirect. For example, the URL "https://wikipedia.com" (with "*.com" as domain) is first redirected to https://www.wikipedia.org/ (with domain name in .org), where you can navigate to the language-specific site. This is unavoidable if the different links in the chain are served by different servers though it should be minimised by rewriting the URL as much as possible on the server before returning it to the browser as a redirect.

Redirect loops
Sometimes a mistake can cause a page to end up redirecting back to itself, possibly via other pages, leading to an infinite sequence of redirects. Browsers should stop redirecting after a certain number of hops and display an error message.

The HTTP/1.1 Standard states: A client SHOULD detect and intervene in cyclical redirections (i.e., "infinite" redirection loops).

Note: An earlier version of this specification recommended a maximum of five redirections ([RFC 2068], Section 10.3). Content developers need to be aware that some clients might implement such a fixed limitation.

Services
There exist services that can perform URL redirection on demand, with no need for technical work or access to the web server your site is hosted on.

URL redirection services
A redirect service is an information management system, which provides an internet link that redirects users to the desired content. The typical benefit to the user is the use of a memorable domain name, and a reduction in the length of the URL or web address. A redirecting link can also be used as a permanent address for content that frequently changes hosts, similarly to the Domain Name System. Hyperlinks involving URL redirection services are frequently used in spam messages directed at blogs and wikis. Thus, one way to reduce spam is to reject all edits and comments containing hyperlinks to known URL redirection services; however, this will also remove legitimate edits and comments and may not be an effective method to reduce spam. Recently, URL redirection services have taken to using AJAX as an efficient, user friendly method for creating shortened URLs. A major drawback of some URL redirection services is the use of delay pages, or frame based advertising, to generate revenue.

History
The first redirect services took advantage of top-level domains (TLD) such as ".to" (Tonga), ".at" (Austria) and ".is" (Iceland). Their goal was to make memorable URLs. The first mainstream redirect service was V3.com that boasted 4 million users at its peak in 2000. V3.com success was attributed to having a wide variety of short memorable domains including "r.im", "go.to", "i.am", "come.to" and "start.at". V3.com was acquired by FortuneCity.com, a large free web hosting company, in early 1999. As the sales price of top level domains started falling from US$50.00 per year to less than US$10.00, use of redirection services declined. With the launch of TinyURL in 2002 a new kind of redirecting service was born, namely URL shortening. Their goal was to make long URLs short, to be able to post them on internet forums. Since 2006, with the 140 character limit on the extremely popular Twitter service, these short URL services have been heavily used.

Referrer masking
Redirection services can hide the referrer by placing an intermediate page between the page the link is on and its destination. Although these are conceptually similar to other URL redirection services, they serve a different purpose, and they rarely attempt to shorten or obfuscate the destination URL (as their only intended side-effect is to hide referrer information and provide a clear gateway between other websites.) This type of redirection is often used to prevent potentially-malicious links from gaining information using the referrer, for example a session ID in the query string. Many large community websites use link redirection on external links to lessen the chance of an exploit that could be used to steal account information, as well as make it clear when a user is leaving a service, to lessen the chance of effective phishing.

Here is a simplistic example of such a service, written in PHP.

The above example does not check who called it (e.g. by referrer, although that could be spoofed). Also, it does not check the URL provided. This means that a malicious person could link to the redirection page using a URL parameter of his/her own selection, from any page, which uses the web server's resources.

Security issues
URL redirection can be abused by attackers to perform phishing attacks. If a redirect target is not sufficiently validated by a web application, an attacker can make a web application redirect to an arbitrary website. This vulnerability is known as an open-redirect vulnerability. In certain cases when an open redirect occurs as part of an authentication flow, the vulnerability is known as a covert redirect. When a covert redirect occurs, the attacker website can steal authentication information from the victim website. Open redirect vulnerabilities are fairly common on the web. In June 2022, TechRadar found over 25 active examples of open redirect vulnerabilities on the web, including sites like Google and Instagram. Open redirects have their own CWE identifier, CWE-601.

URL redirection also provides a mechanism to perform cross-site leak attacks. By timing how long a website took to return a particular page or by differentiating one destination page from another, an attacker can gain significant information about another website's state. In 2021, Knittel et al. discovered a vulnerability in the Chrome's Performance API implementation which allowed them to reliably detect cross-origin redirects.

title: URL redirection