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Constitutional Union Party (United States)

The Constitutional Union Party was a United States political party active during the 1860 elections. It consisted of conservative former Whigs, largely from the Southern United States, who wanted to avoid secession over the slavery issue and refused to join either the Republican Party or the Democratic Party. The Constitutional Union Party campaigned on a simple platform "to recognize no political principle other than the Constitution of the country, the Union of the states, and the Enforcement of the Laws".

The Whig Party had collapsed in the 1850s due to a series of sectional crises over slavery. Though some former Whigs joined the Democratic Party or the new, anti-slavery Republican Party, others joined the nativist American Party. The American Party entered a period of rapid decline following the 1856 elections, and in the lead-up to the 1860 elections John J. Crittenden and other former Whigs founded the Constitutional Union Party. The 1860 Constitutional Union Convention met in May 1860, nominating John Bell of Tennessee for president and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for vice president. Party leaders hoped to force a contingent election in the House of Representatives by denying any one candidate a majority in the Electoral College.

The 1860 election essentially consisted of two campaigns, as Republican nominee Abraham Lincoln competed with Northern Democratic candidate Stephen A. Douglas in the North, and Bell competed with Southern Democratic candidate John C. Breckinridge in the South. Ultimately, Lincoln won the election by winning nearly every Northern electoral vote. Bell took 12.6% of the nationwide popular vote, carried Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, and finished with the second highest vote total in each remaining slave state that held a popular vote. After the election, Crittenden and other Constitutional Unionists unsuccessfully sought to prevent a civil war with the Crittenden Compromise and the Peace Conference of 1861. Bell declared his support for the Confederacy following the Battle of Fort Sumter, but many other Constitutional Unionists remained loyal to the Union throughout the American Civil War.

Background

The Constitutional Union Party had its roots in the Whig Party and the sectional crises of the 1850s. The Compromise of 1850 shook up partisan alignments in the South, with elections in the Lower South being contested by Unionists and extremist "Fire-Eaters" rather than Whigs and Democrats. The victory of pro-compromise Southern politicians in these elections, along with President Millard Fillmore's attempts at diligently enforcing the Fugitive Slave Clause, temporarily quieted Southern calls for secession. The debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act again polarized legislators sectional lines, with Southern Whigs providing critical votes in the House as a narrow majority of Northern Democrats voted against it.

A new, anti-slavery party known as the Republican Party was formed in May 1854. Republican leaders, including Abraham Lincoln, generally did not call for the abolition of slavery, but instead called for Congress to prevent the extension of slavery into the territories. By 1855, Republicans had replaced the Whigs as the main opposition to the Democrats in most Northern states. The nativist American Party displaced the Whigs in the remaining states; though some Democrats joined the American Party, in many Southern states the American Party consisted almost entirely of former Whigs.

The 1856 American National Convention nominated former President Fillmore for president in the 1856 presidential election; Fillmore also received the presidential nomination at the sparsely attended 1856 Whig National Convention. Many supporters of the American Party continued to identify primarily as Whigs, and Fillmore minimized the issue of nativism, instead attempting to use his campaign as a platform for unionism and a revival of the Whig Party. He finished in second in several states in the South and carried just a single state in the 1856 election, confirming that the Republican Party, rather than the American Party, would replace the Whigs as the main opposition to the Democrats. The American Party collapsed after the 1856 elections, and many Southern officeholders who refused to join the Democratic Party organized themselves into the Opposition Party.

Formation

Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, Henry Clay's successor in border-state Whiggery, led a group of conservative, unionist congressmen in forming the Constitutional Union Party. At Crittenden's behest, fifty former and current members of Congress met in Washington, D.C. in December 1859, where they agreed to form a new party dedicated to preserving the union and avoiding debates over slavery. The new party received the blessing of the respective national committees of the Whig Party and the American Party, and was officially formed on February 12, 1860.

Among the members of the new party's executive committee were Crittenden, former Democratic Senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia, 1852 Whig vice presidential nominee William Alexander Graham of North Carolina, former Congressman John P. Kennedy of Maryland, and newspaper editor William Gannaway Brownlow of Tennessee. In the North, the party drew support from conservative former Whigs such as Edward Everett and Robert Charles Winthrop. Many of these Northerners, including Everett, were followers of Daniel Webster, a Whig senator from Massachusetts who had died in 1852.

Party leaders did not expect to win the election outright, but instead sought to win states in the Upper South and the Lower North. They were particularly focused on Maryland, the lone state won by Fillmore in 1856, as well as Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Constitutional Unionists hoped to deny an electoral vote majority to any one candidate, thereby forcing a contingent election in the House of Representatives. Party leaders hoped that, in such a contingent election, the House would reject the other eligible candidates as too extreme and instead elect the Constitutional Union nominee.

1860 national convention

The Constitutional Union national convention convened in Baltimore on May 9, 1860. Delegates came from 23 of the 33 states, though the vast majority of delegates came from the Upper South. As a large proportion of the delegates were over the age of sixty, some political opponents derided the Constitutional Unionists as the "Old Gentleman's Party". The party adopted a simple platform, stating that they would "recognize no political principle other than the Constitution...the Union...and the Enforcement of the Laws." The party also established the National Central Executive Union Committee to wage the party's election campaign; Congressman Alexander Boteler of Virginia was selected to head the committee.

Though the septuagenarian Crittenden was the acknowledged party leader, he declined to seek the presidential nomination due to his age. The two major contenders for the presidential nomination were former Senator John Bell of Tennessee and Governor Sam Houston of Texas. During his long career in the Whig Party, Bell had established a reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, opposing both the Mexican–American War and the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Houston had served in two wars and had compiled a long political record as a leading member of the Democratic Party, and like Bell he had opposed the Kansas–Nebraska Act. However, his status as a former protege of Andrew Jackson alienated many of the delegates, and Bell's backers argued that Houston would have little appeal in the North. Aside from Bell and Houston, other potential candidates for the Constitutional Union presidential nomination included Everett, 1852 Whig nominee Winfield Scott, and Edward Bates of Missouri, who ultimately chose to support the Republican Party.

On the first presidential ballot, Bell won 68 1/2 votes compared to Houston's 57, with the remainder of the delegates voting for Crittenden, Everett, and various favorite son candidates. Bell picked up support from dozens of delegates on the second ballot, thereby clinching the nomination. Houston refused to endorse Bell and ultimately declined to back any candidate in the 1860 election. Seeking to provide sectional balance to the ticket, the convention selected Everett as the party's vice presidential nominee by acclamation. Everett reluctantly accepted the vice presidential nomination, as he felt that he had had a more accomplished career than Bell. With the nomination of two former Whigs, many regarded the Constitutional Union Party as a continuation of the Whig Party; one Southern newspaper called the new party the "ghost of the old Whig Party."

1860 presidential election

A split in the Democratic Party led to the nomination of two separate Democratic presidential candidates; Senator Stephen A. Douglas had the support of most Northern Democrats, while Vice President John C. Breckinridge garnered the backing of most Southern Democrats. Meanwhile, seeking to rally support in the Deep South, a group of Constitutional Unionists meeting in Alabama issued a platform holding that Congress and territorial legislatures could not prevent individuals from bringing slaves into the territories. This platform, though not adopted by the national party, badly damaged the standing of Constitutional Unionists in the North. Bell's ownership of slaves further alienated Northerners, and his and Everett's status as former Whigs limited the party's ability to compete for the support of Northern Democrats. Thus, the 1860 presidential election essentially consisted of two separate campaigns. In the North, Republican nominee Abraham Lincoln faced Douglas, and in the South, the Constitutional Union ticket competed against Breckinridge.

Adhering to precedent, Bell remained at his home during the campaign, but Breckinridge and other party leaders gave numerous speeches. The party campaigned on the slogan, "the Union as it is, the Constitution as it is." The party's official lack of a stance on slavery positioned it between the Lincoln's Republican Party, who campaigned on a platform against extending slavery to any new states or territories, and Breckinridge's Southern Democrats, who favored allowing slavery in all territories. Historian Frank A. Towers writes that, "notwithstanding the nuances of local issues in selecting a president, voters could either endorse the compromise vision of the Union by choosing Douglas or Bell, or reject it by opting for Lincoln or Breckinridge." Southern Democrats attacked the Constitutional Union platform, arguing that the issue of slavery could not be ignored in the campaign. Constitutional Unionists responded by attacking Breckinridge (who publicly disavowed disunion) as a secessionist who had fallen under the influence of Fire-Eaters like William Lowndes Yancey. The party also attacked Lincoln as an inexperienced, sectional candidate whose election threatened to provoke the secession of the South.

Recognizing Lincoln's likelihood of winning the election, some opponents of the Republican Party discussed the possibility of Bell, Breckinridge, and Douglas dropping out in favor of a new candidate, but Douglas and possibly Bell objected to this scheme. In August, August Belmont, the chairman of Douglas's campaign, proposed an "entente cordiale" with the intent of denying Lincoln an electoral vote majority. After much negotiation, Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge agreed to form a single fusion ticket in the state of New York. In the event of a fusion victory in the state, Douglas would receive eighteen electoral votes, Bell would receive ten electoral votes, and Breckinridge would receive seven electoral votes. Similar fusion tickets were established in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Rhode Island.

Nationwide, Lincoln took 39.8% of the popular vote, while Douglas won 29.5% of the popular vote, Breckenridge won 18.1%, and Bell won 12.6%. Lincoln carried all but one Northern state, winning a majority of the electoral vote with 180 votes to 72 for Breckinridge, 39 for Bell, and 12 for Douglas. Lincoln won every county in New England and most of the remaining counties in the North, but he won just two of the 996 Southern counties. Lincoln won New York by a margin of 7.4 points; had he lost the state to the Fusion ticket, he would not have won a majority of the electoral vote and a contingent election would have been held in the House of Representatives. The vast majority of Bell's support came from Southern voters, though he did win three percent of the vote in the North. Bell won a plurality of the vote in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia, and finished within five points of Breckinridge or Douglas in North Carolina, Maryland, Missouri, and Louisiana. Bell finished a distant second to Breckinridge in all of the remaining slave states except South Carolina, which did not hold a popular vote for president.

In addition to winning the presidency, the Republican Party made moderate gains in both the U.S. Senate and House in the 1860 elections, though Republicans failed to win a majority of seats in either. However, after southern Democrats withdrew to join the Confederacy, the party gained control of both chambers prior to the start of the 37th Congress. Democrats would have the second-largest number of members in both chambers, although many members identified as Unionists rather than Democrats or Republicans.

Secession

Following Lincoln's victory, several states in the Deep South seceded and formed the Confederate States of America, but the Upper South initially remained in the Union. Although some supporters of Breckinridge opposed secession and some supporters of Bell supported it, the secession movement was generally led by those who had voted for Breckindrige in the 1860 election, and efforts to avert secession in the South were generally led by those had voted for Bell. The Senate created the Committee of Thirteen, consisting of prominent senators such as Crittenden, Douglas, Democrat Robert Toombs of Georgia, and Republican Benjamin Wade of Ohio. Working closely with Douglas, Crittenden assumed leadership of the Committee of Thirteen even though he was not officially selected as the committee's leader.

Crittenden proposed a package of six constitutional amendments, known as the Crittenden Compromise, that would forbid Congress from abolishing slavery in any state, protect slavery in federal territories south of the 36°30′ parallel, and prohibit it in territories north of that latitude. Crittenden's compromise proved unacceptable to both Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats, and it failed to win approval from the Committee of Thirteen. In another attempt to avert secession, leading politicians in the Lower North and Upper South organized the Peace Conference of 1861. The convention proposed a package of seven constitutional amendments that were largely similar to the Crittenden Compromise. On the last day of the 36th United States Congress, both the Crittenden Compromise and the separate plan proposed at the Peace Convention were rejected in the House and the Senate.

The Civil War began with the Confederate attack of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. After Lincoln called up volunteers in response to the Battle of Fort Sumter, Bell declared his support for the Confederacy. Bell's decision helped convince many other Constitutional Unionists and Southern moderates to support the Confederacy during the Civil War. Other party leaders, including Crittenden and Everett, remained loyal to the Union.

Aftermath
Constitutional Unionists were influential in the Wheeling Convention, which led to the creation of the Union loyalist state of West Virginia, as well as in the declaration of the Kentucky General Assembly for the Union and winning Congressional elections in Kentucky and Maryland in June. Many border state Constitutional Unionists, including John Marshall Harlan, joined Unconditional Union parties that sprung up during the war. In Missouri, many of the party joined the new Unconditional Union Party headed by Francis P. Blair, Jr. and remained active in that state's efforts to remain in the Union by overthrowing the elected government of Claiborne Jackson. Everett supported the Union and in 1863 gave a speech at Gettysburg before Lincoln's famous Gettysburg Address.

During Reconstruction, former Whigs and Constitutional Unionists constituted a majority of the scalawags (white members of the Republican Party) in almost every state in the South, joining the Republican Party at a higher rate than pre-war Democrats. Some of these scalawags continued to identify primarily as Whigs as late as the 1890s.


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Paul Blackburn (poet)

Paul Blackburn (November 24, 1926 – September 13, 1971) was an American poet. He influenced contemporary literature through his poetry, translations and the encouragement and support he offered to fellow poets.

Biography
Blackburn was born in St. Albans, Vermont. His parents, William Gordon Blackburn and Frances Frost (also a poet, novelist and author of children's books), separated when Blackburn was three and a half. Thereafter, he was cared for primarily by his maternal grandparents on their farm in St. Albans until he was fourteen, when his mother took him to New York City to live with her in Greenwich Village. He began writing poetry in his late teens under her encouragement.

Shortly after enrolling in New York University in 1945, Blackburn joined the army hoping to be sent overseas. The war ended soon after however, and he spent the rest of his service as a laboratory technician in Colorado. In 1947 he returned to NYU, transferring in 1949 to the University of Wisconsin, and graduating in 1950.

It was during these college years that Blackburn first became influenced by Ezra Pound, and began corresponding with him while at the University of Wisconsin. He hitchhiked to Washington, D.C. several times to visit him at St. Elizabeth's Hospital. Through Pound, he came into contact with Robert Creeley, which led to links with Cid Corman, Denise Levertov, Charles Olson, Joel Oppenheimer and Jonathan Williams. Through Creeley came an ancillary involvement with the first two issues of Creeley's magazine, Black Mountain Review, which resulted in the occasional inclusion of Blackburn in the Black Mountain school of poets. The introduction to the Collected Poems states, "Blackburn always opposed the division of poets into schools and did not like the role of Black Mountain poet into which he was cast by Donald Allen's anthology The New American Poetry (1960). He embraced all types of poetry, citing the value of 'all work, if you work 'em right.'" (E. Jarolim in The Collected Poems Of Paul Blackburn, 1985).

It was also Pound who pointed Blackburn in the direction of Provençal poetry, and he studied the languages of Provence while at the University of Wisconsin. His work on Provençal translations intensified following the 1953 publication of a slim selection of the poems from Divers Press, and the awarding the following year of a Fulbright Fellowship to study Provençal language and literature in France. He continued translating Provençal poetry for the rest of his life. It wasn't until after his death that the work was fully published.

Blackburn was also well known for his translations from Spanish of the medieval epic Poema del Mio Cid, of poetry by Federico García Lorca, Octavio Paz, and Pablo Picasso, and of the short stories of Julio Cortázar. He was for a time Cortázar's literary agent in the United States.

Blackburn played an important part in the poetry community, particularly in New York, where he helped fledgling poets develop. He provided logistical and emotional support for writers coming to the city and opportunities to read for both unknown and established writers in the various reading series with which he was involved. He organized readings that offered work from the Beats, the New York School, the Deep Image Poets, and the Black Mountain Poets. Clayton Eshleman has written, "Many, not just a few, but many poets alive today are beholden to him for a basic artistic kindness, for readings, yes, and for advice, but more humanly for a kind of comradeship that very few poets are willing to give." The readings Blackburn organized were the direct progenitors to the St. Mark's Poetry Project on Bowery. Additionally, Blackburn's commitment to recording readings that he organized and attended produced the most comprehensive oral history of the New York poetry scene between the late 1950s and 1970.

Until the mid-1960s Blackburn supported himself through various print-shop, editorial and translating jobs, including a short stint as poetry editor of The Nation. Some of his early jobs included working in-house on encyclopedias and writing free-lance reviews. In the mid-60s he had a show on WBAI with interviews of and readings by poets. He began receiving offers of teaching positions, and in 1965, 1966 and 1967 he directed workshops at the Aspen Writers' Conference. He was Poet-In-Residence at City College of New York in 1966–67. A Guggenheim Fellowship in 1967 enabled him to return to Europe to work on his translations and poetry. Upon returning to the U.S. he supported himself through reading tours and teaching at the New School and the State University of New York at Cortland.

Blackburn was married three times: to Winifred Grey McCarthy from 1954 to 1958; Sara Golden from 1963 to 1967; and Joan Diane Miller in 1968, with whom he had a son, Carlos T., in 1969.

Paul Blackburn died of esophageal cancer in Cortland, New York, September 1971.

Though Blackburn never set out to fully articulate his poetics, a good summation is the 1954 piece Statement. In his lifetime Blackburn published thirteen books of original poetry, as well as five major works of translation. Twelve other books were published posthumously.

Translations

 * Proensa (Divers Press, 1953)
 * Poem of the Cid (1966, reprinted 1998 ISBN 0-8061-3022-9)
 * End of the Game and Other Stories by Julio Cortázar (1967) (ISBN 0060906375)
 * Hunk of Skin by Pablo Picasso (1968)
 * Cronopios and Famas by Julio Cortázar (1969; 1999) (ISBN 0811214028)
 * Proensa: An Anthology of Troubadour Poetry, ed. George Economou (U of California Press, 1978)
 * Lorca/Blackburn: Poems of Federico García Lorca (Momo's Press, 1979, reprinted Stop Press, 2000)
 * The Collected Poems of Octavio Paz 1957-1987 (contributor) (1991) (ISBN 9780811211734)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Paul Blackburn (poet)


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St Clears

St Clears (Sanclêr) is a town on the River Taf and a community in Carmarthenshire, Wales. At the 2011 census, the population was 2,995. The community includes the small settlements of Bancyfelin and Pwlltrap. It is bordered by the Carmarthenshire towns and villages of Meidrim, Newchurch and Merthyr, Llangynog, Laugharne Township, Llanddowror, Eglwyscummin, Llanboidy and Llangynin.

The name
St Clare was either a church founder in the 5th/6th century (Clara), or an assembly of the Welsh bards (Clair – in Welsh).

History
The Priory Church of St Mary Magdalene (Church in Wales) is a grade II* listed building and was founded c. 1100; a Cluniac priory of St Martin-des-Champs. It is considered to have the best surviving Norman stone carving in Carmarthenshire. The church was restored in 1853-55 and again in 1883–84. The stained glass is from c. 1929.

The Norman castle was constructed in the 12th century. St Clears, a Marcher Borough, grew around it. The castle surrendered to Owain Glyndŵr in 1405.

Nearby, Trefenty House became the home of a branch of the Perrot family in the 16th century, and it was here that the amateur astronomer Sir William Lower and a neighbour, John Protheroe, set up one of Britain's first telescopes in 1609, which they used to study the craters of the Moon and Halley's Comet.

Thomas Charles (1755–1814) was a Welsh Calvinistic Methodist clergyman of considerable importance in the history of modern Wales. He was born of humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish of Llanfihangel Abercywyn, near St Clears.

In 1842, St Clears was an epicentre of the "Rebecca Riots". At least one local toll gate was destroyed there.

The building of the South Wales Railway in the 1850s was responsible for the decline of many of the small ports along the Bristol Channel coast, and St Clears was no exception. The railway passed about two miles north of the castle, and new building at the north end of the High Street spread eastwards along Pentre Road, and then northwards to the station. Pentre Road is now the main commercial centre of St Clears and was formerly part of the A40 road until the bypass opened.

The town's cattle market was important until its closure, but the town still has a large agricultural cooperative store. The town has also hosted an oil distribution centre and milk processing plant. Now, smaller industrial units provide the main local employment.

Photographer and film-maker Stanley Phillips lived in St Clears and documented life in the town and the surrounding area (active 1910–1961). His work appeared in the News Chronicle, Daily Mirror, and Sunday Mirror, as well as local newspapers. His films include The Last March of Mr. Jonah Rees at St Clears (1930), which is in the collection of the National Library of Wales. He worked closely with Colonel William Buckley (whose work is also in the National Library of Wales) and E.V. Williams, both keen filmmakers. The permanent exhibition of Phillips' photographs and film at the Mezzanine Gallery in St. Clears includes photographs of the aviator Amy Johnson, World War I flying ace Wing Commander Ira Jones, and racing drivers Sir Malcolm Campbell and J. G. Parry-Thomas, who both attempted world land speed records at nearby Pendine Sands.

Neville Hughes (1945–2015) was born in St. Clears. He was a British actor and later a successful businessman in the motor manufacturer sales and marketing sector.

Governance
St Clears is also an electoral ward, electing councillors to Carmarthenshire County Council and St Clears Town Council. St Clears Town Hall, which is no longer used for civic purposes, is a grade II listed building.

Railway
The original railway was constructed by the South Wales Railway. Although trains travel on the West Wales line through St Clears, they have not stopped since 1964. After a local campaign to persuade the Welsh Government and Network Rail to reopen St Clears railway station, funding was secured to do so by 2024.

Amenities
The town has a large bilingual primary school, Ysgol Griffith Jones.

There are a variety of local shops including two prize-winning traditional butchers and two craft centres. There are several pubs.

The surrounding countryside is mainly rolling grassland consisting of moderate-sized fields with well-kept hedges. The main agricultural enterprise is dairying, but sheep and beef are very important as well. The soils are deep and productive and will grow good crops of potatoes and cereals, and the climate allows fruit growing as well. Although most of the land is farmed commercially the area is a haven for wildlife.

The highlight of the farming year is the St Clears YFC annual show which is held in May.

Sport
St Clears AFC association football club play in the Pembrokeshire League.

title: St Clears


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Santa María de Guía de Gran Canaria

Santa María de Guía de Gran Canaria is a town and a municipality in Las Palmas province of the Canary Islands. It is located on the north side of Gran Canaria island. Its population is 13,811 (2013), and the area is 42.59 km2.

The town Santa María de Guía is situated in a valley 2 km from the coast, 19 km west of Las Palmas. The municipality stretches from the coast into the mountainous interior of the island. The GC-2 motorway passes north of the town.

Toponimy
Currently the municipality takes its name from its municipal capital, combining the invocation of its primitive hermitage founded in honor of Santa María de Guía at the end of the fifteenth century.

During the aboriginal stage of the island, which ends in the year 1483, the population nucleus received the denomination of Aguía, corresponding to the existing population in the same location of the historical center and its surroundings, and also near the aboriginal from Agaldar, capital of a guanarteme chiefdom. This denomination was maintained until 1555, as indicated in the land and water distribution documents of Gran Canaria, granted after the European conquest of the island.

After the European conquest, the historical nucleus was named as Villa de Guía, in short Guía, and it remained that way throughout the colonial period, until the 19th century. Already in the 19th century it begins to predominate the denomination of Guia de Gran Canaria, within a stream of administrative modernization, and especially to differentiate it from other homonymous populations such as Guía de Isora, on the island of Tenerife.

Already in the twentieth century and within the period of the Franco dictatorship, on December 28, 1962, the mayor of that time, Rafael Velázquez García, proposed to change the official name to that of Santa María de Guía, incorporating the invocation of the Catholic religious temple existing in the municipality since the 16th century. The change was approved in full by the local corporation on April 26, 1963, subsequently obtaining the approval of the Island Council de Gran Canaria, which had been denied in the first instance, the change being to Santa María de Guía de Gran Canaria by agreement of the Council of Ministers of the Franco government on July 23, 1963.

In 2008, the City Council promoted a debate from the municipal website for neighbors to express their opinion on whether or not to officially retake the name of Guía de Gran Canaria.

Geography
Located in the north of Gran Canaria, the municipality has a triangular shape, which places its vertex towards the south, near the  caldera of the Pinos de  Gáldar. To the east it borders the municipality of Moya defined by Barranco de Moya until its mouth. To the west, the division follows some channels, surrounds the Pico de La Atalaya or Gáldar mountain, and continues to the coast, dividing the Pico de la Atalaya in two.

The coastline is defined between Caleta de Arriba until the mouth of the Barranco de Moya. The coasts are rocky due to erosion, cliffs predominating, with exceptions such as San Felipe beach, which in summer is covered with sand.

Climatology
The climatic conditions of Santa María de Guía derive from its northern position. Thus, there are three altitudinal steps, which are:

 * The coastal zone, which reaches up to 300 meters;
 * The medians between 300 and 600 meters;
 * The high zone, from 600 meters.

As it enters the interior of the island the number of sunny days per year is less; It rains more and temperatures are generally lower.

Heritage sites
The caves of Valerón, also called cenobio de Valerón, is a property of cultural interest in the "archaeological site" category. It is the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary. Its size is representative of Gran Canaria agriculture, unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, much of these being grains, rather than by stock-breeding.

The Quintana House is a sample of the ancient architecture of the municipality of Guia de Gran Canaria in the Canarian island of Gran Canaria, located in the Plaza Mayor de Guía and its buildings date from the 16th century. The Canarian balcony is of Mudejar style, in wood and coat of arms with the surnames Guanarteme and Quintana.

title: Santa María de Guía de Gran Canaria


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User talk:Jengod/Archive 6

Archive1 Archive2 Archive3 Archive 4 Archive5

Show
Do you mind if I go ahead with a radical workover on Show-within-a-show? I posted the question on talk a week or so ago, and got no response, so assume no one minds, but, you never know... Mark Richards 21:00, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Admin
Thanks re:adminship. I will pop over & see you if & when I get around to it, but I figure on being here at least another month before contemplating it. Buttress did come together rather nicely for a random work picked off the Required list; but there's so much more to do. Best get on & see if I can convince a graphics program to give me some illustrations; lines of force are much easier to show than tell. Goof luck with your todo list --Tagishsimon

The name of several places are named
What was I thinking???older ≠ wiser 03:41, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

many national librairies within countries
If the national libraies of Quebec and Catalonia are listed as being "under" Canada and Spain then logically the national libraries of the Faeroe islands and Wales should be "under" Denmark and the United Kingdom. Or maybe it should be vice versa. AlainV 05:16, 2004 May 21 (UTC)

Rivers
You got some U.S. rivers we don't know 'bout? Gotta have 'em all on that list. :) Say, I nominated our friend Bkonrad for adminship. Thought you might want to support him. -- Decumanus | Talk 05:10, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

40 acres and a mule
Thanks for correcting the length reference into area. I looked at the Public Land Survey System article and it says that a 'tract' is 576 mile&sup2. So do you think, as I do, that there is still something wrong with saying a tract of 36 mile&sup2? Bobblewik 11:03, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

LOL
Okay, were you responsible for the following on the Main Page?

 * ...that the assassination in Sarajevo of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria led to World War I? (Okay, you probably did know that one.)

Best chunkle I've so far this day. -- llywrch 17:11, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Hi back
I got your message. Sorry for putting unfinished work on public display. I will try to make a stable release and remove the stub message asap, meaning next week or so. Peter Kwok 23:41, 2004 May 22 (UTC)~

Thanks
for the Michigan history link--lots of goodies there. I'm temporarily without net access at home until our DSL comes next week, till then I have to sneak time at my wife's office on campus, so I'll move the treaties page when I have more time. older ≠ wiser 19:37, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

Back Up For Adminship
Hello, just letting you know that I am back up for adminship. It is at the bottom under the self nominations section. ChrisDJackson

Gratuitously capitalized letters
Hello. Maybe this comes after you've already adjusted, but just in case: please don't capitalized letters merely because they're part of the title of a section. I've corrected this in several of your articles. Michael Hardy 22:30, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Did you know?
That the Humboldt River in Nevada is the longest river in the Great Basin and furnished the route of the Central Pacific segment of the transcontinental railroad? :) -- Decumanus 05:10, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the "List of U.S. states by postal abbreviation" article
Thanks for that, very handy for people not from the U.S. Sorry for putting such a list on my personal pages. I didn't think it could become an encyclopedia article but apparently it could. Could you please leave a note on my talk page when you reply to this? Paulus/laudaka (add me to your YIM/AIM/ICQ/M$N M contact list if you like!) Laudaka's talk page 02:05, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

United States history category
Hi there... I noticed you've been making a lot of additions to the United States history category recently. Unfortunately, it's turning into a bit of a mess because there are simply too many articles. Theoretically, every topic having anything to do with the U.S. could be linked to that category, but that wouldn't be a very helpful mode of organization. Nearly all of these should be put into subcategories—the National Security Council history articles seem like an easy and obvious candidate, as do any articles on Supreme Court cases. Some articles may deserve a link to the bottom level category (i.e., cases such as Brown v. Board, or wars such as the Revolutionary War—those that had an especially clear and lasting national impact), but not all, and we should exercise extreme restraint in deciding which ones. Subjects like President of the United States may have had a substantial impact on American history, but it has a more logical and direct association with the Politics of the U.S. category (though why it's called "politics" rather than "government" I have no idea). I think if we follow these sorts of organizational guidelines, these categories could turn out to be quite useful. Thanks! Postdlf 15:37 5 June 2004 (UTC)

Thanx again for the List of U.S. states by postal abbreviation article
You really made me a little more enthusiatic about editing Wikipedia.org. I just tried to enhance the List of U.S. states by postal abbreviation article. Could you have a look? Thanx in advance. You even made me so enthusiastic that I'm working on an article List of U.S. states by time zone, again especially for non-native speakers talking a lot on the net with people from the U.S.A. Thanx again ;-)

Picture of Union Station
I don't know if you have administrator capability, but I messed up when I uploaded the picture Image:Union-Station-LA-Waiting-Ro.jpg. I meant to make it Image:Union-Station-LA-Waiting-Room.jpg. Mike. Mackerm 20:06, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

BTW, Americans frequently (and with no apparant consistency) use the theatre spelling. Note my latest fantastic update to Cinerama Dome. Mackerm 20:11, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Picture of California Gull
I am not sure if the photo of the California Gull which you uploaded is in the public domain. There is a note on page http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html which says "This page is really a composite of the efforts of many people who have donated photographs, songs, and other information. The photographs, videos and songs are used with permission of the authors. Do not copy photographs, videos or songs without their permission!" Jim Stasz's Email appears on a linked page with a note saying: "Photographs displayed on this server are used with the permission of the photographers. Any other use of the photographs will also require permission. If you have an interest in using any of the photographs, please contact the photographers at the addresses given below" If you did get permission, then you should probably note that on the page for this image. --Big_Iron 21:34, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * That site is one of a few exceptions to the general rule about .gov sites. I put the image on IFD. --Big_Iron 10:10, 23 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Phil Gingrey
Could you do me a favor and look over Phil Gingrey? I'd appreciate more eyes looking over it and coming to an NPOV version. Thanks, [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 19:17, 24 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Specifically, I'm not sure whether to include the Guantanamo stuff. See Talk:Phil Gingrey.  Thanks, [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 19:30, 24 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Snellen Chart
Thanks for adding the picture of the chart! It looks great! Joyous 23:50, Jun 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd say that if you had to choose between snellen chart and powdery mildew for dyk, you definitely picked the more interesting of the two. Joyous 00:00, Jun 25, 2004 (UTC)

Trigonometry

 * I still don't care to learn trig, and have forgotten all I ever knew, but bravo on What is trigonometry used for? That's a great article.

Thank you. Michael Hardy 01:07, 26 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Anglican communion/Communion merge
I'm happy to merge the two articles, but, at present, I'm not sure which way to go. Are the naming conventions majiscule-miniscule or majiscule-majiscule? I had linked to Anglican communion, saw that it was a red link, and then created the article. I thought I had searched for an existant one first. Anyway, the older page isn't much better or worse (some of both, I think) than the new one, and I'm happy to merge the strengths of the two, if I know which way to go & what happens next. Geogre 22:43, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the Welcome to Wikipedia links
Many thanks for the links you put onto my talk page a few days back. I've been through them and there's a few things I can't find. I wonder if you're able to point me in the direction of pages on Wikipedia that would give me some guidance on three subjects:

 * Style of references: does Wikipedia have a preferred format for them to be in? Many of the articles I intend to add will have a few journal or report references, so if there is a house style for this, I'd like to know what it is.
 * Capitalization of cardinal points of the compass. I capitalize them by habit, but noted that you changed a few on my Oxford Circus fire article to lowercase:  is this a personal preference or standard Wikipedia practice?
 * My list of things to add includes expanding stubs on dead baroque composers. Do you know whether discographies are frowned upon in such articles?

Once again, thanks for taking the time to give me the links. Ecb 19:45, Jun 28, 2004 (UTC)

Hey Jennifer. Thanks for welcoming me. It's nice to know that your work doesn't goes unnoticed. I'm starting to feel the beginning of a real Wikipedia-addiction already ;) Peak Freak 21:01, 10 Jul 2004 (UTC)

newborn screening
Nice start to an article I was intending to write (some day). I added some stuff and will try to amplify further. See talk page for question about the "2 zachs" story. Alteripse 16:36, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I expanded the newborn screening article to try to explain the controversies. Does it seem clearly explained and balanced to you, especially as related to your 2 zach story? Alteripse 20:28, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Requested pictures
Hi. I added a number of photos to Bog, Heath, and Heath (habitat) (Not sure which heath you wanted). I believe the Heath (habitat) photo really is a heath, but would be glad if you could check. Thanks -- Chris 73 | Talk 12:17, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Just a head's up, since you take such good care of the "Did You Know ..." section on the Front Page -- I just contributed an article confirming that yes, there really is a place in Oregon called Wankers Corner. I expect it to be a big hit. I only hope that this article is not the high point of my career as an editor on Wikipedia. -- llywrch 23:34, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for your support
I just wanted to thank you for your support in my recent nomination to become an administrator. I really appreciate it. blankfaze | •• | •• 14:52, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC)

List of experiments from Lilo & Stitch
I need help on moving Experiments 611, and 628 to Unactive Pod (Lilo & Stitch)

Thanks.

BigT27 03:03, 27 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jengod/Archive 6


text: User talk:67.98.155.5

title: User talk:67.98.155.5


text:
Toolchain

In software, a toolchain is a set of programming tools that are used to perform a complex software development task or to create a software product, which is typically another computer program or a set of related programs. In general, the tools forming a toolchain are executed consecutively so the output or resulting environment state of each tool becomes the input or starting environment for the next one, but the term is also used when referring to a set of related tools that are not necessarily executed consecutively.

A simple software development toolchain often refers to the necessary tools to develop for a given operating system running a certain CPU architecture, consisting of a compiler and linker (which transform the source code into an executable program), libraries (which provide interfaces to the operating system), and a debugger (which is used to test and debug created programs). Cross-compilation toolchains are also available. A complex software product such as a video game needs tools for preparing sound effects, music, textures, 3-dimensional models and animations, together with additional tools for combining these resources into the finished product.

title: Toolchain


text:
Scottish Colourists

The Scottish Colourists were a group of four painters, three from Edinburgh, whose Post-Impressionist work, though not universally recognised initially, came to have a formative influence on contemporary Scottish art and culture. The four artists, Francis Cadell, John Duncan Fergusson, Leslie Hunter and Samuel Peploe, were prolific painters spanning the turn of the twentieth century until the beginnings of World War II. While now banded as one group with a collective achievement and a common sense of British identity, it is a misnomer to believe their artwork or their painterly careers were heterogeneous.

Generally however, the group shared a common interest in the artistic developments occurring in France and are shown to dabble with different styles such as Cubism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Futurism. The movement seemed to fall out of favour by the end of World War II, and did not experience a revival until the 1980s.

Their works are currently held in a number of Scottish art galleries, including the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art.

History
The Scottish Colourists combined their training in France and the work of French Impressionists and Fauvists, such as Monet, Matisse and Cézanne, with the painting traditions of Scotland. A forerunner of this movement was William McTaggart (1835–1910), a Scottish landscape painter who was influenced by Post-Impressionism. He is regarded as one of the great interpreters of the Scottish landscape and is often labelled the "Scottish Impressionist".

Largely recognised as the leading figure of the group was Samuel Peploe. The other Scottish Colourists were Francis Cadell, John Duncan Fergusson and Leslie Hunter.

The expression ‘Scottish Colourists’ according to Macmillan may have first been used as early as 1915 in the Studio magazine. Its specific association in print, again according to Macmillan, seems to have been first used by T J Honeyman, the art critic and director of Glasgow Art Gallery, in his book Three Scottish Colourists published in 1950.

The four artists did in fact exhibit together, for the first time in 1924 in Paris at an exhibition at the Galerie Barbazanges entitled ‘Les Peintres de l’Ecosse Moderne’ (Bilcliffe). The following year, they showed together at an exhibition in London at the Leicester Gallery. In total, the four artists exhibited three times over the course of their lives. The Scottish Colourists were internationally known during their lifetimes but their work fell out of favour by World War II, until they were rediscovered in the 1980s and subsequently played an influential role in the development of Scottish art.

Artistic style
While each of the four artists had a unique style, their work shared common interests in experimentation with light and shade, planar brushstrokes, bold use of colour, and a vibrant and confident tone. Their subject matter is often considered conservative compared to their French counterparts, since much of it consisted of island landscapes, Edinburgh interiors and fashionable models.

Much of their early work was influenced by the likes of Édouard Manet and the French Impressionists. Manet’s influence can be seen in both the Colourists’ early colour scheme, which used soft, muted tones, and in their thick brushstrokes. Peploe's 'White Period' shows such influence with the subtle balance of tone and colour, and a rich creaminess in the paint's texture. However, as French visual culture developed in the early 20th century, so did the Colourists' artistic style. J.D. Fergusson was the first in the group to feel the influence of the Cubists and Futurists, who experimented with rhythm as a way to connect the foreground and background of works. Rhythm became a continuous trend in his work, with critics later commenting on his outstanding ability to translate the joy and musicality of his subjects through his use of colour. Alongside Cubism, later experiments with the styles of Post-Impressionism can be seen in the Matisse-like use of green paint to convey shadows, and the structural and tonal landscape compositions influenced by Cézanne.

This is not to say that the movement only copied the styles and themes of French art. They "absorbed and reworked the strong and vibrant colours of contemporary French painting into a distinctive Scottish idiom during the 1920s and 1930s". Peploe stated that his style was an attempt to simultaneously find truth through light, form and colour, while also remain faithful to one’s own emotions and understandings of the art he is creating. The impact of the Scottish Celticism movement can be seen in the works of J.D. Fergusson. Celticism focused on abstract forms and detailed surface pattern, rearranging space, and composition in an almost Cubist capacity.

Major collections
Their work is featured in the Aberdeen Art Gallery in Aberdeen, Scotland; the J. D. Fergusson Gallery in Perth, Scotland; the University of Stirling, The Hunterian, the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh, and the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum in Glasgow. The Kirkcaldy Museum and Art Gallery is said to house the largest collection of works by Peploe and McTaggart. From 18 October 2019 - 1 February 2020 Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal, hosted an exhibition of the Scottish Colourists largely based on works from the Fleming Collection.

Notes and references

 * Book: The Scottish Colourists 1900–1930 Philip Long and Elizabeth Cumming

title: Scottish Colourists


text:
Phenanthrene

Phenanthrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with formula C14H10, consisting of three fused benzene rings. It is a colorless, crystal-like solid, but can also appear yellow. Phenanthrene is used to make dyes, plastics, pesticides, explosives, and drugs. It has also been used to make bile acids, cholesterol and steroids.

Phenanthrene occurs naturally and also is a man-made chemical. Commonly, humans are exposed to phenanthrene through inhalation of cigarette smoke, but there are many routes of exposure. Animal studies have shown that phenanthrene is a potential carcinogen. However, according to IARC, it is not identified as a probable, possible or confirmed human carcinogen.

Phenanthrene's three fused rings are angled as in the phenacenes, rather than straight as in the acenes. The compound with a phenanthrene skeleton and nitrogens at the 4 and 5 positions is known as phenanthroline.

Chemistry
Phenanthrene is nearly insoluble in water but is soluble in most low-polarity organic solvents such as toluene, carbon tetrachloride, ether, chloroform, acetic acid and benzene.

The Bardhan–Sengupta phenanthrene synthesis is a classic way to make phenanthrenes.

 * Bardhan-SenguptaPhenanthreneSynthesis.png

This process involves electrophilic aromatic substitution using a tethered cyclohexanol group using diphosphorus pentoxide, which closes the central ring onto an existing aromatic ring. Dehydrogenation using selenium converts the other rings into aromatic ones as well. The aromatization of six-membered rings by selenium is not clearly understood, but it does produce H2Se.

Phenanthrene can also be obtained photochemically from certain diarylethenes.

Reactions of phenanthrene typically occur at the 9 and 10 positions, including:
 * Organic oxidation to phenanthrenequinone with chromic acid
 * Organic reduction to 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene with hydrogen gas and raney nickel
 * Electrophilic halogenation to 9-bromophenanthrene with bromine
 * Aromatic sulfonation to 2 and 3-phenanthrenesulfonic acids with sulfuric acid
 * Ozonolysis to diphenylaldehyde

Canonical forms
Phenanthrene is more stable than its linear isomer anthracene. A classic and well established explanation is based on Clar's rule. A novel theory invokes so-called stabilizing hydrogen–hydrogen bonds between the C4 and C5 hydrogen atoms.

Natural occurrences
Ravatite is a natural mineral consisting of phenanthrene. It is found in small amounts among a few coal burning sites. Ravatite represents a small group of organic minerals.

title: Phenanthrene


text:
Courtelary

Courtelary is a municipality of the French-speaking Bernese Jura, in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. The town is the capital of the Jura bernois administrative district.

History
Courtelary is first mentioned in 968 as Curtis Alerici in a list of the properties of Moutier-Grandval Abbey. In 1179, Pope Alexander III elevated the Abbot to a Canon and confirmed the Abbots title to Courtelary.

In addition to Moutier-Granval Abbey, the Cathedral chapter of Saint-Imier owned properties in the village which were managed for them by the Lords of Fenis-Neuchâtel. However, while under the control of the Lords of Fenis-Neuchâtel, the valley became a bailiwick of the Prince-Bishop of Basel. The Prince-Bishop placed the valley under the Seigniory of Erguel. By the late 13th century, Seigniory was controlled by the town of Biel.

Due to the rising popularity of the cult of St. Imerius, in the 10th or 11th century a small Church of St. Imerius was built in the village. The original building was expanded in 1372, 1642 and finally in 1773. During a restoration in 1933–36, several 11th century murals were discovered in the building. The Courtelary parish was first mentioned in the 13th century. In 1530, Biel began forcing the entire Erguel region to accept the Protestant Reformation. This interference in local affairs pushed the residents of the valley to create an alliance with the town of Solothurn. In 1604 with Solothurn's support, the appeals court moved from Biel to Courtelary which brought limited self-rule back to the valley. Two years later the seat of the Erguel Bailiwick moved to Courtelary's New Castle (which later became the town hall). During the Thirty Years' War, in 1639, the village was plundered and partially burned by the troops of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar.

In 1726, the Prince-Bishop of Basel, Johann Konrad von Reinach-Hirzbach, attempted to modernize and consolidate his extensive land holdings. He tried to sweep away the numerous local laws, customs and rights and replace them with a central government ruled according to the principles of enlightened absolutism. Riots and revolts against the new government broke out almost immediately in the Erguel valley and the region remained a center of anti-government activity. In 1733 a meeting at the Courtelary Castle exploded into a riot and the Prince-Bishop's bailiff, Benoît-Aimé Mestrezat, was forced to flee the city. In 1792 and 1793, heavily influenced by the French Revolution, the revolutionary National Assembly of Erguel was established in Courtelary. Revolutionaries flocked to the town and established a short-lived Republic of Erguel. In 1797 the French invaded the lands of the Bishop of Basel and established the Canton of Courtelary with Courtelary as the capital. The Canton was initially part of the Department of Mont-Terrible followed by the Department of Haut-Rhin. After Napoleon's defeat, in 1815, the Erguel region became part of the Canton of Bern. Courtelary was the capital of the District of Erguel until 1831 when it became the capital of the District of Courtelary.

Courtelary remained a rural and agricultural town until the early 20th Century. The farms on the valley floor produced grain for local use. In contrast, the surrounding mountain pastures were used by Anabaptist sharecroppers to raise dairy cattle and other livestock. They then produced butter and cheese which they exported. In 1874 the Biel-Les Convers-La Chaux-de-Fonds railroad was built through the town. The lower transportation costs from the railroad allowed a wood pulp factory to be built in Courtelary. In 1935, the Camille Bloch chocolate factory moved into the old wood pulp building. Other than the chocolate factory, manufacturing developed very slowly in Courtelary. A few precision machine and watch parts factories were built during the early 20th century, but during the 1970s these industries declined. In the following decades the industrial sector rebounded and in 2000 about 47% of the working population worked in industry.

Geography
Courtelary has an area of. Of this area, 11.39 km2 or 51.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 9.66 km2 or 43.6% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.99 km2 or 4.5% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.03 km2 or 0.1% is either rivers or lakes and 0.02 km2 or 0.1% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.9%. Out of the forested land, 37.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 5.8% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 11.7% is used for growing crops and 13.1% is pastures and 26.3% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

Courtelary consists of two sections, the main village down in the valley and a number of individual farms up (about 900 m above sea level) on the mountains.

On 31 December 2009 it stopped being the capital of the District de Courtelary when it was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it became the capital of the newly created Arrondissement administratif Jura bernois.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Gules on a Bend Argent three Linden Leaves pointing to base sinister.

Demographics
Courtelary has a population of. , 13.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000-2010) the population has changed at a rate of 13%. Migration accounted for 12.3%, while births and deaths accounted for 1.5%.

Most of the population speaks French (933 or 82.8%) as their first language, German is the second most common (125 or 11.1%) and Italian is the third (21 or 1.9%). There are 6 people who speak Romansh.

, the population was 48.4% male and 51.6% female. The population was made up of 527 Swiss men (41.5% of the population) and 88 (6.9%) non-Swiss men. There were 575 Swiss women (45.3%) and 80 (6.3%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 321 or about 28.5% were born in Courtelary and lived there in 2000. There were 380 or 33.7% who were born in the same canton, while 210 or 18.6% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 162 or 14.4% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.9% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 56.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 18.8%.

, there were 440 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 545 married individuals, 73 widows or widowers and 69 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 134 households that consist of only one person and 36 households with five or more people. , a total of 451 apartments (80.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 69 apartments (12.3%) were seasonally occupied and 43 apartments (7.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 7.1 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 1.76%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 33.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Social Democratic Party (SP) (28.3%), the Green Party (12.7%) and the FDP.The Liberals (9.3%). In the federal election, a total of 302 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 34.5%.

Economy
, Courtelary had an unemployment rate of 3.53%. , there were a total of 610 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 64 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 24 businesses involved in this sector. 330 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 17 businesses in this sector. 216 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 36 businesses in this sector. There were 6 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 50.0% of the workforce.

there were a total of 532 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 43, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 312 of which 274 or (87.8%) were in manufacturing and 38 (12.2%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 177. In the tertiary sector; 25 or 14.1% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 4 or 2.3% were in the movement and storage of goods, 18 or 10.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 21 or 11.9% were the insurance or financial industry, 8 or 4.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 14 or 7.9% were in education and 41 or 23.2% were in health care.

, there were 342 workers who commuted into the municipality and 308 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.1 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 1.8% of the workforce coming into Courtelary are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 13.6% used public transportation to get to work, and 51.5% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 269 or 23.9% were Roman Catholic, while 640 or 56.8% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 4 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.35% of the population), there were 6 individuals (or about 0.53% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 70 individuals (or about 6.21% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 31 (or about 2.75% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 11 individuals who were Buddhist and 1 person who was Hindu. 92 (or about 8.16% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 38 individuals (or about 3.37% of the population) did not answer the question.

Weather
Courtelary has an average of 145.6 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives 1317 mm of precipitation. The wettest month is June during which time Courtelary receives an average of 126 mm of rain or snow. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 12.9 days. The month with the most days of precipitation is May, with an average of 14.9, but with only 121 mm of rain or snow. The driest month of the year is September with an average of 93 mm of precipitation over 9.4 days.

Education
In Courtelary about 378 or (33.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 115 or (10.2%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 115 who completed tertiary schooling, 74.8% were Swiss men, 19.1% were Swiss women.

The Canton of Bern school system provides two year of kindergarten after the harmos reform Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2010–11 school year, there were a total of 204 students attending classes in Courtelary. There was one kindergarten class with a total of 22 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 13.6% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 4.5% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 3 primary classes and 61 students. Of the primary students, 1.6% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 3.3% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 5 lower secondary classes with a total of 90 students. There were 3.3% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 5.6% have a different mother language than the classroom language.

, there were 97 students in Courtelary who came from another municipality, while 93 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Transportation
The municipality has a railway station, Courtelary. The station is located on the Biel/Bienne–La Chaux-de-Fonds line and has half-hourly service to Biel/Bienne and La Chaux-de-Fonds.

Industry
The town is also well known for the Camille Bloch chocolate factory.

Famous residents

 * Paul Miche - composer
 * Eugenio Santoro - sculptor

title: Courtelary


text:
Ystradgynlais

Ystradgynlais  in southwest Powys, Wales. It is located on the River Tawe, and was within the boundaries of the former county of Brecknockshire. The town has a high proportion of Welsh language-speakers. The community includes Cwmtwrch, Abercraf and Cwmgiedd, with a population of 8,092 in the 2011 census; it is the second-largest town in Powys. It forms part of the Swansea Urban Area where the Ystradgynlais subdivision has a population of 10,248.

History
The place-name Ystradgynlais, meaning 'vale of the river Cynlais' – Cynlais may be a personal name, or derive from cyn ('chisel') and glais ('stream') – is first recorded in 1372. In the 1600s there were only a couple of houses by the church and a pub (now the rectory). In 1801 there were only 993 residents in the town living in only 196 houses. The first documented written evidence of iron working in the area was at Ynyscedwyn and is of a deed of release dated 1729. By 1750 there were seven furnaces in south Wales, one of which was at Ynyscedwyn.

Tynycoed Chapel, located between Ynyswen and Penycae, near Ystradgynlais, was first constructed in 1774, and was rebuilt in 1829.

The first written evidence of coal mining was at Wauclawdd in 1780. Most of the coal dug up was used in the blast furnaces of the ironworks. By 1790, the full extent of the mineral resources in the valley was better known and it was realised that to exploit these to the full, improved transport would be essential.

The greatest increase in the population was between 1821 and 1841. This coincides with the coming of George Crane and the development of the Ynyscedwyn Ironworks. By 1870, the town's industrial development was in decline due to various economic factors, although coal mining carried on in the area with a few light industries.

Culture

Ystradgynlais hosted the 1954 National Eisteddfod, an annual Welsh festival of literature, dance, and music. The century-old award-winning Ystradgynlais Public Band competed in the 2005 National Eisteddfod.

Ystradgynlais's Parc-yr-Orsedd has a monument to the fallen heroes of both World Wars from Ystradgynlais, Abercrave, Cwmtwrch, Cwmgiedd, Glyntawe and Coelbren.

Dan yr Ogof caves are a short journey from the town centre, passing Craig-y-Nos Castle and country park. The caves are reputed to have once been the hideout of folk figure Twm Siôn Cati. Henrhyd Falls are also nearby.

Ystradgynlais is also home to the Miners Welfare Hall, known and promoted as 'The Welfare', which contains a cinema. In 2020 a Purple Plaque was installed at the building to mark Eunice Stallard's life and activity as a peace campaigner.

It also has a number of public houses. For 11 years, from 1944m the town was the home of Polish artist Josef Herman, who stayed for the first four years in rooms at the Pen-y-Bont Inn. He became part of the community, where he was fondly nicknamed "Joe Bach" (Little Joe). Herman is quoted as saying: "I stayed here because I found ALL I required. I arrived a stranger for a fortnight. The fortnight became eleven years."

In 2016 The Stephen Lewis Tristars Aquathlon in Ystradgynlais won the Welsh triathlon event of the Year 2016.

Transport
National Cycle Route 43 passes by the southern edge of the town on the line of the former Swansea Vale Railway which linked Swansea via the Neath and Brecon Railway at Coelbren with Brecon. Ystradgynlais railway station was operational from 1869 to 1923.

The A4067 road linking West Cross, Swansea, with Sennybridge ran through the town until the 1970s, when it was diverted onto the bypass that follows the line of the former Swansea Canal.

Ystradgynlais has a bus station, served hourly by the First Cymru-operated X6 to and from Swansea, as well as the long-distance TrawsCymru T6 between Swansea and Brecon.

Sport
The town is the home of Ystradgynlais F.C. and Ystradgynlais RFC. Ystradgynlais RFC was established in 1890 and has a fierce rivalry with Ystalyfera RFC and Abercrave RFC.

Watchmaking
In 1946, Smiths Industries Ltd, Ingersoll Ltd and Vickers Armstrong founded the Anglo-Celtic Watch Co. Ltd. producing watches on the Ynyscedwyn estate on the outskirts of Ystradgynlais. The factory was officially opened by Hugh Dalton on 15 March 1947. Vickers Armstrong sold their shares to the other two companies in 1948. The company became one of the largest producers of watches in Europe, producing up to 1.25 million watches a year until 1980 when it closed.

Notable people

 * Thomas Levi (1825–1916), Calvinistic Methodist minister
 * Adelina Patti (1843–1919), opera singer, retired to nearby Craig-y-Nos Castle
 * Daniel Protheroe (1866–1934), composer and conductor
 * John Henry Williams (1887–1980), American economist
 * Tudor Thomas (1893–1976), physician, an ophthalmic surgeon, pioneered corneal grafting
 * Josef Herman (1911–2000), Polish painter, spent 11 years living and painting in Ystradgynlais
 * Goronwy Daniel (1914–2003), academic and senior statistical civil servant
 * Menna Gallie (1919–1990), novelist and translator
 * John Howard Purnell OBE FRSC (1925–1996), former president of the Royal Society of Chemistry
 * Caerwyn Roderick (1927–2011), politician and MP for Brecon and Radnorshire
 * T. Geoffrey Flynn (born 1937) Canadian biochemist.
 * Julian Hopkin CBE (born c. 1948), physician, researcher and medical teacher.
 * Rowan Williams (born 1950), the Archbishop of Canterbury from 2002 to 2012, grew up in Ystradgynlais
 * John Griffiths (1952–2010), museum curator at the Science Museum, London
 * Ben Gunn (born 1965), prison reform campaigner
 * Steven Meo (born 1977), TV actor
 * Eve Myles (born 1978), TV and theatre actor

Sport

 * William Lewis Thomas (1913–1995), rugby union and rugby league footballer
 * Ronnie Rees (born 1944), footballer with over 430 club caps and 39 for Wales
 * Anthony Buchanan (born 1955), former rugby union prop forward with 238 caps with Llanelli RFC and 5 with Wales
 * Huw Richards (born 1960), former rugby union player for Neath RFC and Wales
 * Steve Bayliss (born 1960), former rugby union and professional rugby league footballer with 93 club caps
 * Kevin Hopkins (born 1961), retired Welsh international rugby union player

title: Ystradgynlais


text:
Abersoch

Abersoch is a village in the community of Llanengan in Gwynedd, Wales. It is a popular coastal seaside resort, with around 2,600 residents, on the east-facing south coast of the Llŷn Peninsula at the southern terminus of the A499. It is about 7 mi south-west of Pwllheli and 27 mi south-west of the county town of Caernarfon.

Etymology
The village takes its name from the river Soch, which reaches the sea in the village. 'Aber' meaning 'estuary', gives us a literal translation of the 'Soch Estuary'. The name of the village is often rendered "Rabar" in the local Welsh dialect.

Archaeology
In the dry summer of 2018, aerial photography at Fach Farm, some 1100 metres north of the bridge over the Afon Soch, identified crop marks that were reported as a possible Roman fortlet. High-resolution geophysics in 2019 revealed evidence of a complex defended enclosure, unlike Roman military structures but suggesting a pre-Roman date.

Tourism
Built upon the fishing trade, Abersoch was once a small village which grew exponentially after the 1950s with the rise of tourism. The fishing port which was guided by the Abersoch Fishermen's Society (which was replaced with the active Pysgotwyr Llŷn Fishermen's Association) is still being used for fishing, however it is no longer the village's major source of income.

It is now a tourist centre specialising in dinghy sailing and other watersports such as windsurfing and jet-skiing. Nearby Porth Neigwl is also popular for surfing; it can hold large swells in the winter which can reach 1.5 m; however, the prevailing south-westerly winds can affect quality.

The village had a lifeboat station from 1869 until 1931. A new inshore lifeboat station was opened in 1965.

Central Abersoch has a variety of small shops as well as bars, restaurants, cafes and hotels. Boat trips around St Tudwal's Islands (one of which is owned by the famous survival instructor, Bear Grylls) to see the seals and other wildlife are available from the village. Abersoch is also popular for its close proximity to Snowdonia National Park, with Snowdon being visible from Abersoch Bay on clear days. There is an 18-hole golf course. Abersoch was named one of the best places to live in Wales in 2017.

Because of Abersoch's popularity with tourists, particularly from northwest England and the western Midlands, there has been an increase in the sale of holiday homes in the area, and of the conversion of old properties into holiday lets. This has led locals, through the YesCymru campaign, to protest against rising house prices which push families away from the coastal towns where they were raised, as a result of high numbers of holiday lets compared with low numbers of families, Abersoch primary school was forced to close. Gwynedd Council has called for the Welsh government to step in to limit the number of homes allotted to each area.

Country of birth
According to the 2011 UK Census, 97.2% of the population was born in the United Kingdom. Although situated in Wales, the majority of the village's population (51.1%) was born in England, with only 44.7% having been born in Wales.

Identity
The 2011 Census demonstrated that 60.4% of the population had no Welsh identity. 34.0% of the population identified themselves as Welsh only. The surrounding community of Llanengan is considerably less Anglicised.

Welsh language
43.5% of the population aged 3 and over noted that they could speak Welsh. 52.1% noted that they had one or more skills in the Welsh language. Of those who were born in Wales, 85% of the population aged three and over noted that they could speak Welsh.

In June 2021, a Welsh language primary school 'Ysgol Abersoch' was threatened with closure, where the current school-children would be transferred to the closest school at 'Ysgol Sarn bach' which is located 1.4 miles away. In September 2021, despite over 200 objections from the public, the council unanimously voted to shut the school down. It closed at Christmas, 2021.

The neighbouring village of Sarn Bach has a Welsh-medium primary school for 3 to 11 year olds. As of 2017, the two schools between them educated 72 pupils. According to the latest Estyn reports conducted in 2017, 39% of pupils in Ysgol Abersoch primary school came from Welsh-speaking homes, with 47% of pupils of Sarn Bach pupils coming from homes where Welsh was spoken.

The closest specialist school to Abersoch is Ysgol Hafod Lon in Penrhyndeudraeth.

Ysgol Botwnnog, situated 5 mi inland from Abersoch, provides Welsh-medium secondary education to pupils from the village.

title: Abersoch


text:
Grossaffoltern

Grossaffoltern is a municipality in the Seeland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. It is known for its stork colony.

History
Grossaffoltern is first mentioned in 1216 as Affoltron.

The oldest evidence of humans in the Grossaffoltern area are neolithic objects at Vorimholz, an Early Bronze Age ax blade depot at Munimatte and Bronze Age items at Kosthofen. There are at least 38 Hallstatt era grave mounds scattered around the municipality. The area was also inhabited during the Roman era and the Early Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages it was owned by the House of Zähringen until that family died out, when it was inherited by the Kyburgs. Under the Zähringens and the Kyburgs, during the 13th and 14th centuries, it was part of the district of Oltigen. In 1412, Grossaffoltern and the surrounding villages came under Bernese control. It was originally part of the bailiwick of Oltigen until that was dissolved in 1483, when it became part of the bailiwick of Aarberg allocated. Under the Helvetic Republic, in 1798, Grossaffoltern was in the Zollikofen district before switching back to the Aarberg district in 1803.

The village church of St. Stephen was first mentioned in 1275. The current church building is from 1510 to 1524, though it was built on top of the foundations of two 12th or 13th century churches. The church tower is from the 14th century. In 1383 it was given by Anna of Kyburg-Nidau to the monastery of Klingental near Basel. The monastery sold the church in 1416 to the Abbey of Frienisberg. Under Frienisberg it became the parish church of the local parish in 1451. The parish came under Bernese control in 1528.

Even today, the economy of municipality remains strongly agrarian. In 1835-44 the cantonal road from Bern to Biel/Bienne was built passing through Grossaffoltern. This was followed in 1864 by a railroad and in 1983 by a highway, all of which boosted the local economy. Due to the good transportation connections, starting the 1960s, the number of commuters living in Grossaffoltern rose sharply. In 1967, Grossaffoltern and six surrounding villages merged into a single municipality to streamline government and centralize services.

Geography
Grossaffoltern has an area of. Of this area, 9.41 km2 or 62.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 3.93 km2 or 26.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.64 km2 or 10.9% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.1 km2 or 0.7% is either rivers or lakes and 0.02 km2 or 0.1% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 4.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 4.9%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 49.0% is used for growing crops and 11.8% is pastures, while 1.8% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality is located on the western edge of the Rapperswil Plateau in the Lyssbach valley. It consists of seven villages; the religious and administrative center of Grossaffoltern, Ammerzwil, Vorimholz, Wingarte, Suberg, Kosthofen and Ottiswil as well as a number of scattered farm houses.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or an Apple tree Vert issuant from a base of the same and fructed Gules.

Demographics
Grossaffoltern has a population of. , 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of -0.2%. Migration accounted for 0.3%, while births and deaths accounted for 1.8%.

Most of the population speaks German (2,700 or 96.4%) as their first language, French is the second most common (23 or 0.8%) and English is the third (16 or 0.6%). There are 12 people who speak Italian.

, the population was 50.6% male and 49.4% female. The population was made up of 1,336 Swiss men (48.0% of the population) and 72 (2.6%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,317 Swiss women (47.3%) and 5 (0.2%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 846 or about 30.2% were born in Grossaffoltern and lived there in 2000. There were 1,283 or 45.8% who were born in the same canton, while 413 or 14.8% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 169 or 6.0% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 25.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 60.7% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.8%.

, there were 1,135 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,421 married individuals, 136 widows or widowers and 108 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 1,105 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 256 households that consist of only one person and 79 households with five or more people. , a total of 1,075 apartments (91.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 63 apartments (5.4%) were seasonally occupied and 32 apartments (2.7%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 1.8 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 2.27%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 37.49% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS (21.18%), the FDP (14.37%) and the Green Party (12.78%). In the federal election, a total of 1,053 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.1%.

Economy
, Grossaffoltern had an unemployment rate of 0.8%. , there were 182 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 61 businesses involved in this sector. 165 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 34 businesses in this sector. 211 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 63 businesses in this sector.

the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 408. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 115, of which 113 were in agriculture and 2 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 144 of which 69 or (47.9%) were in manufacturing and 75 (52.1%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 149. In the tertiary sector; 38 or 25.5% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 8 or 5.4% were in the movement and storage of goods, 28 or 18.8% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4 or 2.7% were in the information industry, 16 or 10.7% were technical professionals or scientists, 21 or 14.1% were in education and 3 or 2.0% were in health care.

, there were 153 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,118 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 7.3 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 16.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 57.9% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 2,191 or 78.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 248 or 8.9% were Roman Catholic. Of the rest of the population, there were 11 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.39% of the population), there were 2 individuals (or about 0.07% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 144 individuals (or about 5.14% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 13 (or about 0.46% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 3 individuals who were Hindu. 187 (or about 6.68% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 72 individuals (or about 2.57% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Grossaffoltern about 1,206 or (43.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 366 or (13.1%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 366 who completed tertiary schooling, 69.4% were Swiss men, 24.9% were Swiss women, 3.6% were non-Swiss men and 2.2% were non-Swiss women.

The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2009–10 school year, there were a total of 226 students attending classes in Grossaffoltern. There were 3 kindergarten classes with a total of 48 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 10.4% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 2.1% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 9 primary classes and 178 students. Of the primary students, 5.1% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 12.4% have a different mother language than the classroom language. , there were 4 students in Grossaffoltern who came from another municipality, while 167 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Grossaffoltern is home to the Bibliothek Grossaffoltern library. The library has 7,624 books or other media, and loaned out 14,646 items in the same year. It was open a total of 165 days with average of 8 hours per week during that year.

title: Grossaffoltern


text: Talk:Die (manufacturing)

title: Talk:Die (manufacturing)


text:
File:Galarina.jpg

Summary
The classic depiction of Gala.

title: File:Galarina.jpg


text:
Ardudwy

Ardudwy is an area of Gwynedd in north-west Wales, lying between Tremadog Bay and the Rhinogydd. Administratively, under the old Kingdom of Gwynedd, it was first a division of the sub kingdom (cantref) of Dunoding and later a commote in its own right. The fertile swathe of land stretching from Barmouth to Harlech was historically used as pasture. The name exists in the modern community and village of Dyffryn Ardudwy.

History and Mythology
Ardudwy features prominently in Welsh mythology, the Triads of the Island of Britain heavily associates Ardudwy with the flooding of Cantre'r Gwaelod, stating that survivors of the flooding moved into the area in the time of Ambrosius Aurelianus, as well as surrounding areas that were previously uninhabited. In the Second Branch of the Mabinogi, Bendigeidfran holds court at Harlech, and his severed head returns there for seven years before it is taken on to Gwales. In the Fourth Branch, Lleu Llaw Gyffes is given Eifionydd and Ardudwy as his fief by Math fab Mathonwy. Lleu built his palace at "Mur y Castell" in Ardudwy. He reigned there before and after the usurpation of Gronw Pebr, whom he killed on the banks of the River Cynfael. A holed stone in Ardudwy is still known as Llech Ronw (Gronw's Stone).

Ardudwy is later associated with the 9th-century chieftain Collwyn ap Tango, the progenitor of the fifth of the Fifteen Noble Tribes of Gwynedd. He was Lord of Eifionydd, Ardudwy and part of Llŷn and is a maternal ancestor of the Anwyl of Tywyn Family. Ardudwy was a core part of the Kingdom of Gwynedd above the River Conwy throughout the early Middle Ages. After the conquest and subjugation of Gwynedd in 1283, the cantref was merged with Meirionydd to form the new county of Merionethshire. This situation was retained until 1974, when Welsh Local Government was reorganised and it became part of the reformed Gwynedd, where it remains to this day.

title: Ardudwy


text:
Llanbedr

Llanbedr is a village  and community  2.8 mi south of Harlech. Administratively, it lies in the Ardudwy area, formerly Meirionnydd, of the county of Gwynedd, Wales.

History
Ancient monuments at Llanbedr include Neolithic standing stones; the Stones of Llanbedr and Bronze Age hut circles. The village originally grew around the slate quarrying industry. Glyn Pedr is a Victorian Grade II listed residence on Maes Ffynnon.

During the first world war Marian Antonia Gamwell who was a widow (became Mrs Owen) created a British Red Cross auxiliary hospital at her new home, the country house called Aber Artro, at Llanbedr.

Church and chapel
The church of St Peter, after whom the village is named (Pedr being the Welsh for Peter), is a Grade II* listed building.

In 2019 approval was given to convert Capel Moriah in Llanbedr, which had gone out of use, into a Mosque.

About 1 mi east of the village centre is the hamlet of Pentre Gwynfryn whose chapel, Capel Salem, was the subject of a painting by the artist Sydney Curnow Vosper. The painting, entitled Salem, showed a member of the congregation, Siân Owen, in traditional Welsh costume and became famous throughout Britain in the mid-20th century.

Airport
The village is home to Llanbedr Airport, a general aviation aerodrome. Until 2004, the site was operated as a military airfield by the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) and QinetiQ as a launch site for remotely piloted drone 'aircraft' for use as aerial targets by the RAF and other UK forces. The airfield was included in the Snowdonia Enterprise Zone by the Welsh Government in January 2013.

In 2018, the airport became home to a flying school offering pleasure flights and flying lessons.

After the UK passed 2021 enabling legislation, in 2022, the Welsh Government announced plans to develop space launch capability at the site, to be named Spaceport Snowdonia.

Amenities
The Morfa Dyffryn sand dunes and Mochras (Shell Island) lie nearby. It has two public houses; Ty Mawr Hotel and The Victoria Inn.

To the north of the village is the smaller village of Pensarn, situated at the estuary of the river Artro. This is the location of Llanbedr & Pensarn Yacht Club and the Christian Mountain Centre, a residential adventure activity centre.

Railways
Llanbedr railway station, formerly known as Talwrn Bach Halt, is a little out of the village itself and is served by the Cambrian Line.

Governance
An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward also covers the Community of Llanfair. The total ward population at the 2011 Census was 1,098.

Twinning
In 2008 Llanbedr was twinned with Huchenfeld, Germany, following many years of exchanges between schools, churches, musicians and community leaders, in remembrance of the occurrences at Pforzheim and Huchenfeld during the Second World War.

Notable people

 * Henry Lloyd (ca.1718 – 1783), a Welsh army officer and military writer.
 * Katherine Mudge (1881–1975), a British archer. competed at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.
 * Sir Philip Pullman CBE FRSL (born 1946), an English writer, his formative years were spent in Llanbedr in Ardudwy

title: Llanbedr


text:
Talk:Structure of the proposed EU Constitution

Sections should link to the existing ratified treaties
Sections should be marked as either the same as existing legislation (and if so, which), or differing. Anyone familiar with the existing EU treaties? Mr. Jones 19:31, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

I read through the draft Constitution last night (!). I think this article can well develop into a worthy 'annotated' version of the Constitution with links to the Treaties and other important terminologies, etc., and can become very useful in terms of voter education when (for example) the UK referendum on EU constitution comes up. -- Kaihsu 15:13, 2004 May 12 (UTC)

"Needs attention"
What kind of attention? Anybody know? Mr. Jones 14:27, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Yeah, this article could use much more explanation of the structure (and a little less of the actual structure). Tomato 00:01, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Hendon F.C.

Hendon Football Club is a semi-professional football club based in Kingsbury in the London Borough of Brent. They are currently members of the and play at Silver Jubilee Park in Kingsbury.

History
The club was established as Christchurch Hampstead in 1908. They joined the Third Division of the Finchley & District League, which they won at the first attempt, earning promotion to Division Two. At the start of the 1909–10 season the club were renamed Hampstead Town and they went on to win Division Two at the first attempt, earning promotion to Division One. For the 1911–12 season the club entered teams into both Division One of the Finchley & District League and Division Two of the London League. They won the Finchley & District League title, and a fourth-place finish in Division Two of the London League saw the club promoted to Division One. They subsequently entered a team into the Middlesex League alongside the London League team.

In 1912–13 Hampstead Town were runners-up in Division One of the London League, earning promotion to the Premier Division (Amateur); they also won the Middlesex League. The following season saw them win both the Middlesex League and the Premier Division (Amateur) of the London League. This success saw the club admitted to the Athenian League for the 1914–15 season. However, the league was abandoned after two games due to World War I. After the war they played in the United Senior League in the 1918–19 season and won the league, before returning to the Athenian League when it restarted in 1919. The club was renamed Hampstead in 1926. They were Athenian League runners-up in 1928–29 and again in 1932–33, before being renamed Golders Green in 1933. They reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time in 1934–35, losing 10–1 at Third Division South Southend United. In 1946 the club was renamed again, adopting its current name, that of a club that existed in the 19th century.

Hendon were Athenian League runners-up in 1947–48, 1948–49 and 1951–52 before winning their first Athenian League title in 1952–53, a season which also saw them reach the first round of the FA Cup again, losing 2–0 at Northampton Town in a replay. In 1954–55 they reached the final of the FA Amateur Cup, losing 2–0 to Bishop Auckland at Wembley. They went on to win the Athenian League title again in 1955–56, also reaching the second round of the FA Cup, beating Halesowen Town 4–2 in the first round before losing 6–2 at Exeter City in the second. The club won their first Amateur Cup in 1959–60, defeating Kingstonian 2–1 in the final. A third Athenian League title was won in 1960–61. In 1963 the club switched to the Isthmian League. They were runners-up in their first season in the league. In their second season, 1964–65, the club won the Isthmian League and Amateur Cup double, defeating Whitby Town 3–1 in the final.

Hendon reached the final of the FA Amateur Cup again the following season, but lost 3–1 to Wealdstone. After winning their third Amateur Cup with a 2–0 win against Enfield in 1971–72, a second Isthmian League title was won in 1972–73. The following season they reached the third round of the FA Cup, where they drew Newcastle United; after holding them to a 1–1 draw at St James' Park, Hendon lost 4–0 in a replay played at Watford's Vicarage Road. In 1975–76 the club defeated a Football League club for the first time, beating Reading 1–0 in the first round, before losing to Swindon Town in the second round.

In 2003–04 Hendon finished fourth in the Isthmian League Premier Division but declined to join the new Conference South. Having remained in the top division of the Isthmian League since joining it in 1963, Hendon finished in the relegation zone at the end of the 2005–06 season, but were reprieved after Canvey Island's resignation from the Football Conference. During the summer of 2010, the club was bought out by the Hendon FC Supporters Trust, an Industrial and Provident Society. In 2014–15 they were Premier Division runners-up, qualifying for the promotion play-offs; after beating Metropolitan Police 2–1 in the semi-finals, they lost the final 1–0 to Margate. The 2017–18 season saw the club finish third in the Premier Division. In the subsequent play-offs, they defeated Folkestone Invicta 4–0 in the semi-finals before losing the final 4–3 on penalties to Dulwich Hamlet. The club were placed in the Premier Division South of the Southern League for the 2018–19 season as part of the restructuring of the non-League pyramid.

At the end of the 2023–24 season Hendon were transferred back to the Premier Division of the Isthmian League.

Ground

The club moved to Claremont Road in Cricklewood in 1926. The first match was played on 18 September, an FA Cup game against Berkhamsted that Hendon won 4–3. The ground was also briefly used by rugby league club London Broncos. In the mid-2000s the ground was sold to property developers and it was initially planned that the club would move to Barnet Copthall. However, the proposed move fell through and although Hendon had initially expected to leave in 2006, they were still at the ground in 2008; the final match at Claremont Road on 20 September 2008 saw local rivals Wealdstone win 4–1.

After leaving Claremont Road Hendon played at Northwood's Chestnut Avenue, Staines Town's Wheatsheaf Road for the remainder of the 2008–09 season. They then moved to Wembley's Vale Farm before relocating to Harrow Borough's Earlsmead ground in 2013. In 2016 they moved to Silver Jubilee Park in Kingsbury, groundsharing with Edgware Town.

Honours

 * European Amateur Cup Winners' Cup
 * Winners 1972–73
 * FA Amateur Cup
 * Winners 1959–60, 1964–65, 1971–72
 * Isthmian League
 * Champions 1964–65, 1972–73
 * Full Members Cup winners 1994–95, 1997–98, 1998–99
 * League Cup winners 1976–77, 2014–15
 * Athenian League
 * Champions 1952–53, 1955–56, 1960–61
 * London League
 * Premier Division (Amateur) champions 1913–14
 * United Senior League
 * Champions 1918–19
 * Finchley & District League
 * Division One champions 1910–11
 * Division Two champions 1909–10
 * Division Three champions 1908–09
 * Middlesex League
 * Champions 1912–13, 1913–14
 * London Senior Cup
 * Winners 1963–64, 1968–69, 2008–09, 2011–12, 2014–15, 2019–20
 * Middlesex Senior Cup
 * Winners 1933–34, 1938–39, 1955–56, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1985–86, 1998–99, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2003–04, 2017–18
 * Middlesex Intermediate Cup
 * Winners 1964–65, 1966–67, 1972–73
 * Middlesex Charity Cup
 * Winners 1921–22, 1926–27, 1935–36, 1944–45, 1945–46, 1946–47, 1947–48, 1953–54, 1956–57, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1984–5, 1987–88
 * London Intermediate Cup
 * Winners 1962–63, 1964–65, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1979–80
 * George Ruffell Memorial Shield
 * Winners 2001–02, 2003–04

Records

 * Attendance: 9,000 v Northampton Town, FA Cup first round, 1952
 * Most appearances: Bill Fisher, 787 (1940–1964)
 * Most goals: Freddie Evans, 176 (1929–1935)
 * Biggest win: 13–1 vs Wingate, Middlesex Senior Cup, 2 February 1957
 * Heaviest defeat: 11–2 vs Walthamstow Avenue, Athenian League, 9 November 1935
 * Record transfer fee received: £30,000 from Luton Town for Iain Dowie, 1988

title: Hendon F.C.