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Intrepid Museum

The Intrepid Museum (originally the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum) is an American military and maritime history museum in New York City. It is located at Pier 86 at 46th Street, along the Hudson River, in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood on the West Side of Manhattan. The museum is mostly composed of exhibits, aircraft, and spacecraft aboard the museum ship USS Intrepid (CV-11), a World War II–era aircraft carrier, as well as a cruise missile submarine named USS Growler (SSG-577) and exhibits on Pier 86. The Intrepid Museum Foundation, a 501(c)(3) organization established in 1979, operates the museum.

The museum was proposed in the late 1970s as a way to preserve Intrepid, and it opened on August 3, 1982. The Intrepid Museum Foundation filed for bankruptcy protection in 1985 after struggling to attract visitors. The foundation acquired USS Growler and the destroyer USS Edson in the late 1980s to attract guests and raise money, although it remained unprofitable through the 1990s. The museum received a minor renovation in 1998 after it started turning a profit. Between 2006 and 2008, the Intrepid Museum was completely closed for a $115 million renovation. A new pavilion for the Space Shuttle Enterprise opened in 2012.

The Intrepid Museum spans three of the carrier's decks; from top to bottom, they are the flight, hangar, and gallery decks. Most of the museum's collection is composed of aircraft, which are exhibited on the flight deck. Among the museum's collection are a Concorde SST, a Lockheed A-12 supersonic reconnaissance plane, and the Space Shuttle Enterprise. The hangar and gallery decks contain a variety of attractions such as exhibit halls, a theater, and flight simulators, as well as individual objects like a cockpit and an air turbine. Several craft and other objects have been sold off or removed from the museum's collection over the years. The museum serves as a space for community and national events, such as Fleet Week and awards ceremonies.

Context and founding
USS Intrepid (CV-11), an Essex-class aircraft carrier, was launched in 1943. She participated in World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, and was a recovery ship for space missions. Intrepid was supposed to be scrapped after decommissioning in the late 1970s, but Odysseys in Flight, a nonprofit organization founded by Michael D. Piccola and Bruce Sherer, wished to convert Intrepid into a museum ship. Odysseys in Flight had initially planned to salvage the carriers USS Lexington (CV-16) or USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42). The United States Navy wanted the organization to raise $3 million for the carrier's upkeep. The organization hosted an exhibit at 6 World Trade Center to raise support for the project, and Odysseys in Flight had raised $2 million by March 1979. One of the museum's largest supporters was local real estate developer Zachary Fisher, who established the Intrepid Museum Foundation in March 1978 and contributed over $25 million to the museum during his lifetime. Fisher was enthusiastic about the project, eventually attracting other high-profile supporters such as radio and TV personality Arthur Godfrey and actress Maureen O'Hara. The Navy also hoped that Intrepid could be used for recruitment.

Mayor Ed Koch announced plans for the Intrepid conversion in mid-April 1981, and the United States Department of the Navy transferred the Intrepid to Fisher, who led the nonprofit Intrepid Museum Foundation, on April 27, 1981. The conversion of the carrier's top two decks cost $22 million and was funded by $2.4 million in private donations, as well as $15.2 million of tax-exempt bonds and $4.5 million from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. After the New York City Board of Estimate gave the Intrepid Museum Foundation permission to sell tax-exempt bonds in December 1980, the bonds were sold to the public in July 1981. The federal grant was approved in January 1982, even though the project "had nothing to do with housing". The renovation involved the addition of a theater, several planes on Intrepid deck, and aviation and maritime exhibit halls. The carrier's navigation and flight bridges were also restored. The city spent around $2.5 million to renovate Pier 86 on the West Side of Manhattan, where Intrepid was to be docked. The museum leased the pier from the city for 33 years at $50,000 per year, making annual payments in lieu of taxes totaling $400,000.

Intrepid was towed to her permanent home at Pier 86 in June 1982. Following a soft opening on July 4, the museum opened on August 3, 1982, as the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum. This made Intrepid the second aircraft carrier in the U.S. to be converted into a museum, after the USS Yorktown (CV-10). Larry Sawinski was named as the museum's director of exhibits. When the Intrepid Museum opened, it showcased several aircraft and spacecraft, and it also contained an exhibit on the early history of carriers. The exhibit halls on hangar level (including Pioneer Hall and Navy Hall), as well as the theater, were not completed. Maritime and aviation schools were planned for the lower two decks, the renovation of which was expected to cost $22 million. The museum had 50 paid staff, who worked mostly in the cafeteria, gift shop, and ticket booths; another 100 volunteers were responsible for the museum's displays and expansion. The museum's opening was expected to create 469 jobs in the surrounding area, though many of these jobs never materialized.

1980s
The Intrepid Museum Foundation dedicated the Hall of Honor, the United States' first archive dedicated to Medal of Honor recipients, on December 10, 1983; the Medal of Honor Society also relocated into offices within the carrier. The museum originally was projected to attract 1.3 to 1.4 million visitors annually, but it recorded only half of this amount in its first year. This forced the museum's directors to delay payments on its debt. The museum had recorded 450,000 patrons in 1984, nearly half of the 800,000 annual patrons that were required to break even. Attendance had been negatively impacted because of the lack of nearby public transit, and the museum struggled to raise money despite increasing its ticket prices. Nonetheless, the museum planned to expand by 1984; it had received $250,000 from the Astor Foundation for classrooms and conference rooms, and the New York state government gave $850,000 for historic preservation. Film and television executive Stanley Abrams was named as the museum's president in June 1984.

The Intrepid Museum Foundation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1985, declaring $28.4 million in debt and $16.5 million in assets. Only about a third of the museum's revenues came from admissions, with the remaining two-thirds coming from grants, donations, or fundraisers and other such events. Nonetheless, museum officials planned to continue normal operations and launch a campaign to attract visitors; Lawrence Sowinski, the director of exhibits, described the museum as "too valuable a resource to close". Advertising firm McCann-Erickson was hired to promote the museum, running cheap advertisements in newspapers, on the radio, and in New York City Subway cars. The state also provided $1.024 million for the museum in its 1985 budget, though ultimately the museum got $850,000. Intrepid was officially designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986, and its annual allocation from the state was raised to $895,000 that year. Investigators announced in early 1987 that members of the Westies gang had engaged in racketeering, stealing $100,000 to $120,000 annually from the Intrepid Museum.

During the late 1980s, the museum had 400,000 annual visitors; its low attendance was attributed to competition from more popular tourist attractions. Additionally, the museum was the only major point of interest on the rundown Hudson River waterfront, in part due to delays in the construction of nearby developments such as Javits Center. The Intrepid Museum Foundation presented a reorganization plan to the U.S. Bankruptcy Court in July 1987, in which nearly half of the museum's $28.4 million debt would be forgiven, but creditors would only receive a portion of their claims. After successfully exiting bankruptcy proceedings, the museum planned to display a submarine alongside Intrepid. Fisher funded the addition of two permanent exhibits in the late 1980s, at which point Intrepid had 39 aircraft. USS Growler (SSG-577), a Grayback-class submarine that carried nuclear Regulus missiles, was towed to the museum in late 1988 and opened to the public the next May. USS Edson (DD-946), a Forrest Sherman-class destroyer that was the last all-gun destroyer in the United States Navy, was displayed at the Intrepid Museum starting in July 1989. At the time, the museum had few repeat visitors, and Fisher hoped that Growler and Edson would attract returning patrons.

1990s
The outbreak of the Gulf War in the early 1990s caused interest in the Intrepid Museum to increase; at the time, the museum was displaying an exhibit on the Gulf War. By early 1991, the museum recorded 5,000 visitors on a typical weekend, more than twice the previous year's weekend patronage. The Intrepid Museum received $900,000 from the state, $350,000 from the New York City Board of Education, and $60,000 from the city government annually. All of this funding was eliminated in 1992, forcing the museum to fire a quarter of its staff, and two young men formed the Intrepid Museum Society and raised money through various events. The Intrepid Museum held numerous fundraisers and received $1.1 million from numerous city and state agencies between 1992 and 1996. Despite this, the museum continued to struggle to remain solvent; the Village Voice wrote in 1996 that "the continued taxpayer subsidies seem hard to justify". Although the museum rented Pier 86 from the city for $252,000 annually, it paid no rent between March 1995 and October 1997.

To raise money, the museum tried to acquire the decommissioned aircraft carrier USS Guadalcanal (CVE-60) in 1994, berth her next to Intrepid, and use Guadalcanal as a heliport. Although the United States Senate approved the plan, residents of the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood objected to the fact that the heliport would cut off their access to Pier 84. That year, the museum received part of a $1 million appropriation earmarked for the restoration of the USS Constellation (1854) in Baltimore. The museum remained unprofitable, recording a $1 million loss in 1996. Annual revenue from ticket sales totaled $3 million, less than half of the museum's budget; donations and event rentals covered the rest of the budget. Agencies that had loaned planes to the Intrepid Museum, such as the Air Force Museum Foundation, expressed concerns that the museum was incapable of properly maintaining the aircraft. After the Guadalcanal plan was canceled in early 1996, the Intrepid Museum launched an advertising campaigns to attract patrons; previously, most of its publicity came from word of mouth and public service announcements.

Retired Marine Corps general Donald Ray Gardner replaced Sowinski as the Intrepid Museum Foundation's president in September 1996. Gardner laid off staff, sharply restricted expense spending, deaccessioned some costly artifacts, and reduced the number of planes on exhibit. Gardner also planned to add electronic kiosks to attract children, as well as develop an endowment fund. U.S. President Bill Clinton approved $13 million for a renovation of the Intrepid Museum in late 1997, over his staff's objections to the project; at the time, the museum had 500,000 annual visitors. The next year, Gardner closed the Intrepid Museum for a minor renovation, the first in its history; the museum reopened in February 1998 with two new exhibits. The city waived $600,000 in unpaid rent, as well as future rent payments for Pier 86, in late 1998 after Fisher donated to mayor Rudy Giuliani. By then, the museum received hundreds of thousands of dollars annually from the Navy, the state, and the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs.

In mid-1999, retired Marine Corps general Martin R. Steele took over as the Intrepid Museum Foundation's president and began planning 15 modifications to exhibits and 17 construction projects, including a $5.25 million renovation of the flight deck. Steele wished to attract students and increase annual patronage to 1.2 million, and he installed interactive kiosks within a year of taking over. Restaurant Associates took over the museum's food service the same year to accommodate the high number of after-hours parties and events at the Intrepid Museum. The Intrepid Museum constructed a new visitor center at 46th Street and 12th Avenue that year. In addition, the museum planned to improve Pier 86, build a 245-seat theater, and erect a pedestrian overpass on 12th Avenue.

2000s
As part of a project announced in May 2001, Earth Tech Inc. built a cable-stayed bridge connecting the museum to the east side of 12th Avenue. By then, nearly half of the museum's patrons hailed from foreign countries, and Steele described the Intrepid as the "largest naval museum in the world". After the September 11 attacks, the museum was temporarily closed and served as temporary field headquarters for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) while they investigated the attacks. Additionally, part of the flight deck was cleared to make way for a temporary helipad. The museum reopened after five weeks and hosted an exhibit commemorating attack victims. The footbridge across 12th Avenue was completed in May 2003 for $11 million. Its construction experienced delays because of difficulties in constructing the foundations and because of the need to decontaminate the site.

A Concorde supersonic aircraft was towed to the Intrepid Museum in November 2003, making the museum one of two in the United States with a Concorde. In conjunction with this acquisition, the museum created a new exhibit on transatlantic crossings. Also in late 2003, the Intrepid Museum offered to resell Edson back to the Navy, citing the fact that the adjacent pier needed to be repaired and could not be used for berthing Edson. After Edson was removed from the Intrepid Museum in 2004, the Navy sold the destroyer to the Saginaw Valley Naval Ship Museum. The Michael Tyler Fisher Center for Education opened within the museum in 2004, and the Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation, cofounded by the Fishers, occupied some space during the early 2000s. By the middle of that decade, the museum had 750,000 visitors per year, including over 100,000 students; it had recorded ten million all-time visitors by August 2005. The museum spent $17 million annually just on overhead costs.

Renovation

By June 2006, the Intrepid Museum Foundation executives had notified state and federal governments of their plans to renovate Intrepid, though few details of this renovation were disclosed publicly. The foundation had already asked the United States Army Corps of Engineers to help dredge the mud around the keel so tugboats could tow her to a dry dock. That July, the foundation announced that Intrepid, along with Pier 86, would undergo renovations and repairs. Initially, the project was supposed to cost $58 million and take 18 months. The project was to be funded with $31 million from the federal government, $17 million from the New York City Council, and $5 million from the state; the city later increased its share to $23 million. Intrepid closed on October 1, 2006, in preparation for being towed to a dry dock at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne, New Jersey. Museum officials had decided to tow the carrier away, as they estimated that the project would cost $100 million and take five years if Intrepid were left in place.

Just before the renovation was scheduled to begin, Newsday reported that corrupt activities may have been involved in the renovation contract for Pier 86, prompting concerns that Intrepid and the Intrepid Museum Foundation were being investigated. Furthermore, after the dry dock in Bayonne was found to be deteriorated, museum officials decided to move Intrepid to another pier in that city until the dry dock was repaired. The scheduled move on November 6, 2006, was delayed when Intrepid propellers stuck in the Hudson River mud, preventing tugboats from moving the ship out of her berth. The Navy and USACE spent $3 million to extricate the carrier, removing 39,000 yd3 of sediment and mud from the propellers and pier., Tugboats made a successful second attempt on December 5, 2006. By the end of the year, Growler was also towed to Bayonne for renovation, while the Concorde on Pier 86 was floated to Floyd Bennett Field so the pier could be repaired. The Intrepid Museum Foundation also sold $7.08 million in bonds to fund its continuing operations.

Pier 86 was demolished and rebuilt to accommodate plumbing and cables, which had not been present in the original pier. After sitting at a cruise-ship port for four months, Intrepid was towed to dry dock in April 2007 and received exterior modifications, including new paint, new propellers, and a restored hull. After exterior modifications were completed, the carrier was towed to Staten Island, New York, for interior repairs in June 2007, on the anniversary of D-Day. At Staten Island, Intrepid facilities were upgraded and expanded; for example, workers replaced 80000 ft2 on Intrepid three top decks. The fo'c'sle was restored, the starboard side and flight deck were deoxidized, a new aircraft elevator was installed, and new wiring was installed. The firm of Perkins + Will was hired to redesign several exhibits and create other exhibits within space that had been closed to the public. The exterior renovations were budgeted at $4.8 million, while the interior cost another $6 million to $8 million.

The renovation, including the cost of Pier 86, ultimately cost $115 million or $120 million. The cost overruns almost bankrupted the museum, which asked donors and politicians to contribute an additional $10 million each to the project. The carrier was towed back to Pier 86 at the beginning of October 2008, and the Concorde was moved back to Pier 86. The museum reopened to the public on November 8. Four aircraft were added to the museum's collection when the museum reopened. At the time, the Intrepid Museum planned to attract one million annual visitors, with ten percent of this figure being students. Museum officials hired advertising firm Austin & Williams to promote the museum.

2010s to present

The museum's president Bill White, who had overseen the 2000s renovation, resigned in 2010 and was succeeded the next year by Susan Marenoff-Zausner, who had been the executive director. Before resigning, White had tried to obtain a Space Shuttle for the museum's collection. The Intrepid Museum announced in May 2011 that it would acquire the Space Shuttle Enterprise. It initially planned to exhibit the Space Shuttle on Pier 86, but then announced plans to display the spacecraft in a parking lot across 12th Avenue, prompting U.S. senator Sherrod Brown to ask that NASA award the shuttle to another museum. The museum took title to the spacecraft that December, after engineers determined that it was safe to fly on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft once again. Enterprise was flown to the nearby JFK Airport in April 2012 and then moved by barge to the Intrepid Museum that June. To make room for the Enterprise display, three aircraft were transferred to the Empire State Aerosciences Museum near Schenectady, New York. The Enterprise went on public display July 19, 2012, at the Intrepid Museum's new Space Shuttle Pavilion, charging an additional fee for admission.

The museum was closed in October 2012 due to Hurricane Sandy, which damaged Enterprise. Although the museum reopened that December, the Space Shuttle Pavilion did not reopen until July 2013. Museum officials contemplated erecting a permanent pavilion for Enterprise on Pier 86 or on a parking lot across 12th Avenue. At the time, the museum had 915,000 annual visitors.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, the museum was closed between March and September 2020, though it continued to host online events during its closure. The museum's Concorde aircraft, which had been displayed on Pier 86, was removed for restoration in 2023 and towed back to the Intrepid Museum in March 2024. As part of the project, the museum added 4000 ft2 of park space to Pier 86. The Intrepid Museum dropped "Sea, Air & Space" from its official name in October 2023 as part of a rebranding. In May 2024, the museum opened 4000 ft2 of space on Pier 86 as a public park.

Description
The Intrepid Museum is located along Hudson River Park at the intersection of 46th Street and 12th Avenue, within the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood on the West Side of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Most of the collection is on board Intrepid, the third Essex-class carrier built  and one of four preserved Essex-class carriers, besides Yorktown, Lexington, and USS Hornet (CV-12). When Intrepid was converted into a museum ship, only one-quarter of her area was accessible to the public. Additionally, many of the carrier's equipment, including the large airplane elevators, were disabled. One of the carrier's former elevators, which transported planes between the flight and hangar decks, was converted into a theater. Due to regulations that require "easy passage", and to prevent theft, much of Intrepid equipment has been removed or relocated.

Flight, hangar, and gallery decks
The Intrepid Museum spans three of the carrier's decks; due to fire-safety regulations, Intrepid other decks remain closed to the public. The carrier's topmost deck, the flight deck, showcases many of the museum's craft (see ). The Space Shuttle Enterprise is housed within a pavilion on the flight deck, originally within an inflatable tent placed on the stern of Intrepid. The superstructure's command bridges are accessible to the public. There is a three-inch weapon mount on the carrier's island on the starboard side, as well as an anti-aircraft mount in a gun tub on the starboard bow. Also on the flight deck is a plaque marking the spot where a 1944 kamikaze attack killed or injured 22 soldiers.

The museum's main entrance has been through the carrier's hangar deck, below the flight deck, since 2008. The hangar deck originally contained four permanent exhibit halls, in addition to a space for temporary exhibits. The permanent exhibit halls were Pioneer Hall, which was dedicated to early air travel; Technology Hall, which contained displays about spaceflight; Navy Hall, which had Navy artifacts and a film; and Intrepid Hall, which discussed Intrepid role in World War II. The exhibits about the oldest artifacts are toward the rear or aft; the back of the carrier contains a cafeteria, bathrooms, and a terrace on the stern. The hangar deck also contains a space dedicated to Medal of Honor recipients, as well as some aviation artifacts and plaques detailing the carrier's history and exhibits. Also on the hangar deck is the Exploreum, an interactive hall with exhibits such as a full-size Bell 47 helicopter. The hangar deck also has a 17000 ft2 event space called Michael Anthony Fisher Hall, as well as the 245-seat Lutnick Theater, which shows a 16-minute film on the carrier's history.

The gallery deck houses the Combat Information Center and Men of the Intrepid exhibits. At the front of the carrier, artifacts from the officers' quarters are displayed in the fo'c'sle, which was opened to the public in 2008. The junior officers' and general berthing quarters are publicly accessible, and the crew's quarters are open to the public as well. There are replicas of two rooms that were created when the mess was subdivided in the 1970s. The middle of the carrier contains a hole that allows visitors to see through seven decks.

The museum originally displayed newsreels of pre–World War II events, dioramas of World War II battles, and models of ships. By the 1990s, the museum also featured an undersea-exploration hall, a children's ride, a flight simulator, as well as a bathysphere that was closed to the public. Following the 2008 renovation, the museum has contained three flight simulators, a 4D theater, and interactive exhibits for children. There is also a space dedicated to Zachary Fisher and his wife Elizabeth M. Fisher. The Michael Tyler Fisher Center for Education occupies a three-story 18000 ft2 space in the museum, with a meeting space, breakout rooms, and classrooms.

Other structures
There was originally two gift shops: one at the entrance to Pier 86 and one on the hangar deck. The current 17000 ft2 visitor center at 46th Street and 12th Avenue, completed in 1999, replaces the original 3000 ft2 visitor center. The new edifice had a metal and glass facade, and it incorporated about one-fourth of the old visitor center. A bridge measuring 277 ft long connects the museum to a ramp on the eastern side of 12th Avenue. This bridge contains a central 59 ft tower, as well as sail-shaped fabric canopies.

Aircraft
All of the aircraft on Intrepid flight deck are retired craft that are no longer capable of flying, either due to mechanical problems or because they had flown more than their maximum flight hours. Many of the aircraft lack engines, and some were disassembled before arriving at the museum. According to The New York Times, the vast majority of aircraft were transported to the museum by airplane, helicopter, or barge. One aircraft, a Bell AH-1J Sea Cobra gunship, flew to the museum under its own power before its engine was removed. Visitors cannot ordinarily go inside the aircraft.

Bombers/attack

 * Douglas A-1 Skyraider from the US Navy
 * Douglas A-4 Skyhawk from the US Navy, served on Intrepid between 1966 and 1969
 * Grumman A-6 Intruder from the US Navy, used as a testbed for new radar and avionics in 1988
 * Grumman TBM-3E Avenger from the US Navy

Fighters

 * Grumman F-11 Tiger from the US Navy, once jet number 5 on the Blue Angels
 * McDonnell F3H Demon from the US Navy
 * Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 from Poland
 * North American FJ-2/-3 Fury from the US Navy
 * PZL-Mielec Lim-5 (MiG-17), built in Poland and painted in North Vietnamese camouflage
 * Vought F-8 Crusader from the US Navy

Multirole

 * General Dynamics F-16A Fighting Falcon, a multi-role fighter aircraft. This particular F-16 was flown by the US Air Force in Operation Desert Storm.
 * Grumman F-9 Cougar, a carrier-based fighter from the US Navy
 * Grumman F-14 Tomcat, a carrier-based fighter/interceptor. This particular Tomcat was used in 1973 as a Super Tomcat prototype.
 * Hawker Siddeley AV-8C Harrier, a V/STOL aircraft. This particular Harrier was flown by the US Marine Corps.
 * McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, a carrier-based fighter. This particular Phantom was flown by the US Marine Corps during Operation Eagle Claw in 1980.
 * IAI Kfir (F-21A Lion) from Israel

Helicopters

 * Bell UH-1A Iroquois from the US Army
 * Bell AH-1J Sea Cobra gunship from the US Marine Corps
 * Piasecki HUP-2 Retriever, painted to resemble a similar helicopter that was once based from Intrepid
 * Sikorsky H-19 Chickasaw from the US Coast Guard
 * Sikorsky HH-52 Seaguard from the US Coast Guard

Reconnaissance and surveillance

 * Grumman E-1B Tracer from the US Navy
 * Lockheed A-12 Blackbird (#60-6925 / Article 122) flown by the CIA. This particular A-12 was the first production example of its model.

Trainers

 * Aermacchi MB-339 used by the Italian Air Force. This particular MB-339 is painted in the colors of the Frecce Tricolor.
 * Beechcraft T-34 Mentor used by the US Navy
 * Northrop T-38 Talon used by NASA

Concorde
In 2003, the museum received a Concorde, labeled G-BOAD, that had been used by British Airways. This airplane set a world speed record for passenger airliners on February 7, 1996, when it flew between London and New York in 2 hours, 52 minutes and 59 seconds. This airplane logged the most flying hours (23,397) of the 20 Concordes built; it typically occupies an exhibit space on Pier 86.

Ships
The vast majority of the museum's collection is displayed on the Essex-class aircraft carrier USS Intrepid (CV-11). Like other "long-hull" Essex-class carriers, Intrepid has a displacement of 27,100 tonnes (26,700 long tons; 29,900 short tons). She has an overall length of 872 ft, a beam of 147 ft, and a draft of 28 ft. Most of the museum's aircraft and spacecraft are on Intrepid flight deck (see ).

USS Growler (SSG-577), a diesel electric submarine which carried out nuclear deterrent patrols armed with Regulus missiles, is berthed next to Pier 86. The submarine is accessed exclusively through a series of narrow oval bulkhead doors and she can only fit roughly twenty guests at once. Due to restrictions created by fire codes, disabled visitors and individuals under forty inches tall cannot enter Growler.

Spacecraft
The museum has two pieces of spacecraft from NASA. One of these is a replica of a NASA Aurora 7 Mercury capsule. The other is the Space Shuttle Enterprise, which was used as a test orbiter and is located within a pavilion on the flight deck. The museum also contains a Russian Soyuz descent module, which had docked with the International Space Station during the Soyuz TMA-6 mission.

Other exhibits
The museum has some individual objects in its collection. These include a ram air turbine, salvaged from an F-8 Crusader and restored. as well as a Boeing 707 cockpit from El Al and a Curtiss Pusher on the hangar deck. The below-decks spaces contain several thousand artifacts, such as a helmet that belonged to an aviation machinist fighting in the Vietnam War. The New York Times estimated in 2016 that former Intrepid crew members and their families donated 10 objects to the museum every month. Artifacts donated by Intrepid crew members have included a Royal Navy uniform, gauge, dinner bell, and parachute-packing tool.

Temporary and former exhibits
The museum has hosted some attractions on a temporary basis; for example, the lightship Frying Pan (LV-115) was docked outside the museum during mid-1993. Many objects from the Intrepid Museum's collection were loaned from the Army and Navy. In the late 1990s, some of the craft were given back to their respective owners. Numerous other craft were relocated during that time, including the destroyer escort USS Slater (DE-766) and the lightship Nantucket (LV-112). The destroyer Edson was given back to the Navy in 2004. Additional objects were returned when the museum's renovation commenced in 2006, including a Saturn rocket loaned from the National Air and Space Museum. After the Enterprise was lifted onto the Intrepid flight deck in 2012, a Douglas F3D Skyknight, a Royal Navy Supermarine Scimitar, and a MiG-15 were transferred to the Empire State Aerosciences Museum. Growler was also displayed next to Intrepid until 2004.

Pier 86 formerly contained a graffitied portion of the Berlin Wall, which was displayed temporarily during the 1990s and early 2000s. This segment of the Berlin Wall weighed 7000 lb and was painted by German artist Kiddy Citny, who gave it to artist Peter Max. Felix de Weldon's 1954 sculpture Iwo Jima Monument (a smaller version of the Marine Corps War Memorial in Virginia), was installed outside the Intrepid Museum in 1995. The monument was removed after the Intrepid Museum closed for renovation in 2006, as the Intrepid Museum Foundation could not afford to buy the monument. A fiberglass model of the Statue of Liberty was given to the then-planned National September 11 Memorial & Museum when the Intrepid was renovated.

Governance
The Intrepid Museum Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization established in 1979, operates the museum. , Susan Marenoff is listed as the principal officer of the foundation. For the fiscal year that ended in December 2021, the organization recorded $23,304,017 in revenue and $23,432,181 in expenses. In addition to operating the museum, the Intrepid Museum Foundation is associated with programs such as the Intrepid Family Support Fund and the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund, and it distributes funds to families of US armed service members killed in action. The museum also employs some youth through internship programs. As part of the Free Fridays program, admission to the museum is typically waived on selected Fridays during the summer.

Recurring events
The museum serves as an event space for community and national events. For example, it started hosting annual Fleet Week activities in 1988. It continues to host Fleet Week activities every year. During past Fleet Weeks, Intrepid has hosted activities including tug-of-war, cooking, and arm wrestling contests, as well as a "Flight Deck Olympics" and exhibitions of ships. In addition, the Intrepid Museum has presented Kids' Week, a series of activities geared toward children. It held the New York Tugboat Race annually in the 1990s and early 2000s, with events such as line-throwing, nose-to-nose pushing, and spinach-eating contests. The museum has hosted sleepovers since 2009 as part of an event called Operation Slumber, and it also hosts Kids' Week events during late February.

The Intrepid Museum Foundation issues several awards each year. These include the Intrepid Freedom Award, for political leaders; the Intrepid Salute Award, for philanthropists and businesspeople; the Intrepid Salute Award for the Performing Arts, for performing-arts organizations; the Zachary & Elizabeth Fisher Award for Patriotism; the Intrepid Leadership Award, for community leaders; the Hometown Heroes Award, for residents of the New York metropolitan area who have contributed to the community; and the Intrepid Lifetime Achievement Award, for people who have helped others throughout their lifetime. Recipients of the awards have included U.S. presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush; foreign heads of state; members of U.S. presidential cabinets; U.S. Congress members; and mayors of New York City,

Other events
In the museum's first year, the Intrepid Museum Foundation hosted a party to celebrate the Intrepid 40th anniversary. Starting in 1982, the Intrepid also hosted an annual benefit called Night to Remember, described by Naval History magazine as "a black-tie affair with thousands of couples dining and dancing to a swing band's music on the flight deck and disco tempos on the hangar deck". The Intrepid Museum Foundation, in conjunction with Radio City Music Hall Productions, also hosted concerts and other events on the nearby Pier 84 during the late 1980s. Other craft such as the battleship USS Iowa (BB-61), also berthed outside Intrepid for special events in the 1980s. After the Gulf War started, the museum held events such as a tribute for the first New Yorker who died in the war, as well as a commemoration of the war's first anniversary. During the 1990s, the museum continued to host other events such as memorials, benefits, ceremonies, parties, and weddings. The museum's flight deck was temporarily converted to a 3,300-seat stadium during the 1998 Goodwill Games, when it hosted boxing and wrestling bouts.

A series of professional boxing matches commenced at the museum in 2001, and the museum's flight deck was used as a filming location for the 2004 movie National Treasure and the 2007 film I Am Legend. When the museum reopened in 2008, the New York Daily News estimated that the carrier hosted 150 events annually, ranging "from black-tie galas to bar mitzvahs, photos shoots and runway shows". It held concerts during the 2013 MLB All-Star Weekend and during Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014. In addition, the museum continued to host other events such as political fundraisers, film screenings, and social events like Astronomy Night. The museum's operators have also rented out the flight deck and halls for weddings.

title: Intrepid Museum


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Encyclopedia of Public Health

The Encyclopedia of Public Health is a reference set of four volumes covering all aspects of public health for the lay reader. It covers infectious diseases and other topics related to public health, such as causes of injury or chronic diseases. The 900 articles are written by experts in this domain.

Topics indirectly related but relevant to public health, such as the oath of Hippocrates, are covered. Controversial subjects are not avoided; an article on armed forces alcohol and drug abuse programs is followed by an article on arms control.

It has received the CHOICE 2002 award for Outstanding Academic Reference Title and has been listed in the Booklist/Reference Book Bulletin Editor's Choice of Outstanding Reference titles.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Encyclopedia of Public Health


text:
Self-Reliance

"Self-Reliance" is an 1841 essay written by American transcendentalist philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson. It contains the most thorough statement of one of his recurrent themes: the need for each person to avoid conformity and false consistency, and follow his or her own instincts and ideas. It is the source of one of his most famous quotations: This essay is an analysis into the nature of the "aboriginal self on which a universal reliance may be grounded". Emerson emphasizes the importance of individualism and its effect on a person's satisfaction in life, explaining how life is "learning and forgetting and learning again".
 * "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines."

History
The first hint of the philosophy that would become "Self-Reliance" was presented by Ralph Waldo Emerson as part of a sermon in September 1830 a month after his first marriage. His wife Ellen was sick with tuberculosis and, as Emerson's biographer Robert D. Richardson wrote, "Immortality had never been stronger or more desperately needed!"

From 1836 into 1837, Emerson presented a series of lectures on the philosophy of history at Boston's Masonic Temple. These lectures were never published separately, but many of his thoughts in these were later used in "Self-Reliance" and several other essays. Later lectures, such as "The American Scholar" and the Divinity School Address, by Emerson led to public censure of his radical views, the staunch defense of individualism in "Self-Reliance" being a possible reaction to that censure.

"Self-Reliance" was first published in his 1841 collection, Essays: First Series. Emerson helped start the beginning of the Transcendentalist movement in America. "Self-Reliance" is one of Emerson's most famous essays. Emerson wrote on "individualism, personal responsibility, and nonconformity."

Emerson had a very large background of religious affiliations. His father was a Unitarian minister; Emerson eventually followed in his father's footsteps to become a minister as well. Emerson's religious practices can be viewed as unconventional and his beliefs, non-traditional. Emerson understood that individuals are inexplicably different and ideas are constantly changing. He encouraged religious individuals to "'breathe new life into the old forms of their religion."

The Transcendentalist movement flourished in New England and proposed a revolutionarily new philosophy of life. This new philosophy drew upon old ideas of Romanticism, Unitarianism, and German Idealism as well as the American republican tradition. Some of these ideas pertained closely to the values of America at the time. These values included nature, individualism, and reform, and can be noted in Emerson's essay.

Themes
Emerson's themes include the authority of the individual, according to Anne Marie Hacht. Nothing has authority over the self, she says. One particular temptation is to find enlightenment in history but Emerson argues that it can only come from individual searching. He believes that truth is inside a person and this is an authority, not institutions like religion.

Emerson's essay focuses and consistently relates back to one major theme: "Trust thyself".

One of the most prevalent themes in the essay is nonconformity. Emerson states,
 * "Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist".

He counsels his readers to do what they think is right no matter what others think.

Haijing Liang, in her analysis of "Self-Reliance", explains how Emerson "encourages the readers to free themselves from the constraints of conformity and give themselves back to their nature".

Solitude and the community appear within the essay multiple times. Emerson wrote how the community is a distraction to self-growth, by friendly visits, and family needs. He advocates more time being spent reflecting on one's self. This can also happen in the community through strong self-confidence. This would help the counseled to not sway from his beliefs in groups of people. Emerson mentions "but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude."

Spirituality, specifically the idea that truth is within one's self, is a recurring theme in Emerson's essay. Emerson posits that reliance upon institutionalized religion hinders the ability to grow mentally as an individual.

The theme of individualism is often proposed within "Self-Reliance". Emerson explains the ultimate form of happiness is achieved when a person learns and adapts an individualistic lifestyle based on their own values. Emerson emphasizes, "Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. Nothing can bring you peace but the triumph of principles."

The conflict between originality and imitation is often an oscillating theme in the essay. Emerson emphasizes that "Envy is ignorance, imitation is suicide." Near the end, he encourages society: "Insist on yourself; never imitate."

Criticism
Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick has been read as a critique of Emerson's philosophy of self-reliance, embodied particularly in the life and death of Ahab. Melville's critique of self-reliance as a way of life is seen to lie in its destructive potential, especially when taken to extremes. Richard Chase writes that for Melville,
 * "Death – spiritual, emotional, physical – is the price of self-reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all-sufficient self."

In that regard, Chase sees Melville's art as antithetical to that of Emerson's thought, in that Melville
 * "[points] up the dangers of an exaggerated self-regard, rather than, as ... Emerson loved to do, [suggested] the vital possibilities of the self."

Newton Arvin further suggests that self-reliance was, for Melville, really the
 * "[masquerade in kingly weeds of] a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive."

Although never directly stated, Emerson's "Self-Reliance" has religious influences tied into the values and beliefs presented. Critics argue that Emerson believes the Universe is not complete without "The Spirit". Without some form of spirituality or religious tendencies, society and the universe "is sad, hopeless, and largely meaningless." In his work, the transcendentalist argues that no person, specifically individuals who are self-reliant, exists without a slight connection to a higher power. Mark Cladis, author of a published religious analysis of "Self-Reliance", argues individuals are
 * "intimately connected to that which is greater than the self alone."

Emerson encourages his readers to understand that self-reliance is
 * "freedom in a spiritual universe that is just as rule-governed as the Newtonian physical universe".

Cladis explains that individuals are not expected to endure life alone; achieving self-reliance is understanding that
 * "we are surrounded by helps and aids of all kinds, supporting us, sustaining us, journeying always with us."

In popular culture
Emerson's quote, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds", is a running joke in the 1998 film Next Stop Wonderland. A single woman (portrayed by Hope Davis), who is familiar with the Emerson quote, goes on dates with several men, each of whom tries to impress her by referencing the line, but misquotes it and misattributes it to W.C. Fields, Karl Marx, or Cicero.

This quote is also referenced in one of the episodes of the television show The Mentalist when Patrick Jane meets a crime boss and they start a dialogue. It was also stated in the 1989 film Dream a Little Dream in reference to a group of teenagers who regularly take a short cut through the backyard of an older couple, it is used as well in the 1972 comedy film What's Up, Doc?

Isaac Asimov, in author's notes to his collection of mystery short stories, Asimov's Mysteries, invokes the quote with the single word "Emerson!" whenever one story in the collection, set in a common universe, appears to contradict another. For instance, the story "The Dying Night" appears to contradict the background of "The Singing Bell". Asimov relates how he was introduced to the quotation while reviewing proofs of an article with his co-authors.

title: Self-Reliance


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René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou

René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou (25 February 1714 – 29 July 1792) was a French lawyer, politician, and chancellor of France, whose attempts at reform signalled the failure of enlightened despotism in France. He is best known for his effort to destroy the system of parlements, which were powerful regional courts, in 1770–74. When King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were restored and Maupeou lost power.

Early life
He was born in Montpellier to a family ennobled in the sixteenth century as noblesse de robe, the eldest son of René Charles de Maupeou (1688–1775), who was president of the parlement of Paris from 1743 to 1757.

In 1744 he married a rich heiress, Anne de Roncherolles (1725–1752), a cousin of Madame d'Épinay, the friend of Rousseau who moved in the circles of the Philosophes. Entering public life, he was his father's right hand in the conflicts between the parlement and Christophe de Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, who was supported by the court. Between 1763 and 1768, dates which cover the revision of the Calas case that Voltaire had championed and the trial of the comte de Lally, Maupeou was himself president of the parlement. In 1768, he became chancellor in succession to his father, who had held the office for twenty-four hours only, largely in order to permit him to retire with the prestigious title. With the disgrace of Choiseul, 24 December 1770, Maupeou was the chief minister.

He determined to support the royal authority against the parlement, the perennial block to reforms of the tax farming system or the privileges of the propertied classes, which in league with the provincial magistratures was seeking to arrogate to itself the functions of the states-general. He allied himself with the duc d'Aiguillon and the king's mistress Madame du Barry, and secured for a creature of his own, the Abbé Terray, the office of comptroller-general. The struggle erupted over the trial of the case of the duc d'Aiguillon, ex-governor of Brittany, and of La Chalotais, procureur-général of the province, who had been imprisoned by the governor for accusations against his administration.

When the parlement showed signs of hostility against Aiguillon, Maupeou read letters patent from Louis XV annulling the proceedings. Louis replied to remonstrances from the parlement by a lit de justice, in which he demanded the surrender of the procedural minutes. On 27 November 1770 appeared the Édit de règlement et de discipline, which was promulgated by the chancellor, forbidding the union of the various branches of the parlement and correspondence with the provincial magistratures. It also made a strike on the part of the parlement punishable by confiscation of goods, and forbade further obstruction to the registration of royal decrees after the royal reply had been given to a first remonstrance. This edict the magistrates refused to register, and it was registered in a lit de justice held at Versailles on 7 December, whereupon the parlement was suspended in its functions.

Coup
After five summonses to return to their duties, the magistrates were surprised individually on the night of 19 January 1771 by musketeers, who required them to sign yes or no to a further request to return. Thirty-eight magistrates gave an affirmative answer, but on the exile of their former colleagues by lettres de cachet, they retracted and were also exiled. Maupeou installed the council of state to administer justice pending the establishment of six superior courts in the provinces and of a new parlement in Paris, in which the magistrature would no longer be a hereditary prerogative but become salaried officials appointed by the Crown. The cour des aides was next suppressed. Maupeou proposed to make the judicial system more uniform throughout the country, which was a patchwork of local judicatures.

Voltaire praised this revolution, applauding the suppression of the old hereditary magistrature, but by the aristocrats and the noblesse de robe, Maupeou's policy was regarded as the triumph of tyranny. The remonstrances of the princes, of the nobles, and of the minor courts, were met by exile and suppression, but by the end of 1771, the new system of the parlements de Maupeou was established, and the Bar, which had offered a passive resistance, recommenced to plead. A renewed attempt was made to tax the privileged and exempted groups. But it was not merely the death of Louis XV in May 1774 that ruined the chancellor: Durand Echeverria characterized the dismissal of Maupeou as "the inevitable liquidation of an exhausted expedient".

Fall
The immediate restoration of the parlements by Louis XVI was followed by a renewal of the quarrels between the new king and the magistrature. Maupeou and Terray were replaced on 24 August 1774 by Miromesnil and then by Malesherbes, recalled from his exile in 1775 to be Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi, and by the economist Turgot. Maupeou is said to have remarked, "I had won for the king a case that has lasted three hundred years. He wishes to lose it again; he is the master of it."

Maupeou lived in retreat, still holding the office of Chancellor (abolished 1 July 1790) until his death at Thuit (Eure) in 1792, having lived to see the overthrow of the ancien régime. His work, in so far as it was directed towards the separation of the judicial and political functions and to the reform of the abuses attaching to a hereditary magistrature, was subsequently endorsed by the Revolution. He had aimed at securing absolute power for Louis XV, but his intrigues and the violence of his judicial actions were in reality a serious blow to the monarchy. "By pressing the issue of sovereignty to an ultimate confrontation in this way," remarks Keith Michael Baker of Maupeou's staffing his remodelled courts with men willing to exercise judicial functions within limits imposed by the royal will, "he undermined in practice exactly that belief in a constitutional middle ground between liberty and despotism that Guillaume-Joseph Saige had been concerned to deny in theory".

Issue
He had two sons:
 * 1) René Ange Augustin de Maupeou (1746–1794), who became maître de camp of the.
 * 2) Charles Victor René de Maupeou (1749–1789), who became maître des requêtes.


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User:Enrico~enwiki

Some of the articles I have worked on:

Ernie Els Retief Goosen

title: User:Enrico~enwiki


text:
Centre Steer

The Centre Steer is the name given by enthusiasts to the prototype of the Land Rover 4x4 automobile. Being a prototype, only one example was built and the production vehicle differed significantly in many ways. Developed in late 1947 by the Rover Motor Co., the Land Rover was intended to be an agricultural vehicle inspired by the wartime Willys Jeep.

Design and build
Raw materials for car building were allocated by the government based on the company's export performance (as this earned much-needed trade revenue for post-war Britain). Because of this the Land Rover was designed from the outset to be exported to the British Empire and Commonwealth. Rover viewed this 4x4 as a stopgap to get production running and so the company could return to building luxury cars. The Land Rover had to be developed and produced with minimal outlay.

The prototype was produced in September 1947. Its most distinctive feature was the centrally-mounted steering wheel, with passenger seats on either side. This was done for three reasons:
 * 1) the Land Rover was designed as an agricultural vehicle capable of performing jobs also done by tractors. Tractors had centrally mounted steering and this system would be familiar to farmers;
 * 2) with the drive in the centre of the vehicle, the space on either side could be used as additional storage space for cargo if the passenger seats were removed. The space could also be used for mounting equipment such as a generator or pump powered by the vehicle's Power Take Off (PTO) system from the main gearbox, which was under the seats;
 * 3) the centre-steer layout removed the need to produce the vehicle in both right- and left-hand drive versions, saving money in production.

The vehicle shared the Jeep's 80 inch (2 m) wheelbase that would be carried over to the final production vehicle. It had more complex body panels, with a more curved front end and a Jeep-like rear body tub (the production vehicle used generally squarer, flatter panels for ease of production).

The Centre Steer used a Rover 1.6 litre 4-cylinder petrol engine of 50 horsepower (37 kW). This was coupled to a 4-speed manual gearbox from the Rover P3 saloon. This unit was coupled to a Willys/Ford 2-speed transfer gearbox taken from a Jeep. This not only allowed the selection of a lower set of 'crawler' gears but controlled the selection of drive to the front axle as well. The production 1948 Land Rover used the P3 gearbox, but an entirely different transfer box, designed and built by Rover, was fitted. This incorporated a Rover 'freewheel' mechanism to provide a permanent 4-wheel-drive system. The freewheel could be locked out to ensure full traction at both axles when off-road.

The Centre Steer was used as a concept of the basic design and mechanical elements and was used for promotional photographs for the first Sales Brochure, however these pictures were heavily airbrushed to resemble a normal early Land Rover. The pre-production vehicles quickly developed, without the central steering and complex body panels. The design team felt the centre steering was somewhat awkward to use and impractical in certain circumstances. The concept stayed in initial development drawings of the 'Land Rover' program in October 1947. However, by December 1947 the normal Land Rover had developed on the drawing board to be a conventional right- and left-hand drive vehicle.

The centre-steer vehicle was used off-road in and around Rover's Solihull works. Pictures exist of the vehicle seen ploughing and driving a threshing machine on a farm, though most of these photos are static publicity photographs.

Research in 2011 turned up some drawings of the Land Rover design between the Centre Steer and the normal Land Rover. An article on this vehicle, the 1947 Land Rover mockup, was in the Land Rover Register 1948 to 53 April 2011 Bulletin and shows that the Land Rover Mockup was initially drawn up with central steering.

Present day status
It is not known if the Centre Steer prototype still exists. Many people, including most of the original design team, believe it was broken up shortly after production of the final Series I design started in 1948. Others say it was rescued and remains in some isolated farmyard barn waiting to be discovered. The discovery of the Centre Steer remains a 'Holy Grail' to many Land Rover enthusiasts. New research has revealed that the final Land Rover design was well advanced by early December 1947. The Centre Steer was left for use in publicity photographs that were used in the first sales brochure, though heavily air brushed to look like the production vehicle.

In 2004, a Land Rover enthusiast in the United Kingdom, Mr. Bill Hayfield, constructed a replica centre-steer vehicle after much study of remaining photographs of the original. The fully working vehicle demonstrated both the practicalities and drawbacks to the novel design. The replica used exactly the same engine and gearbox. The necessities of building such a vehicle in a home workshop also pointed towards ways the Rover company would have built their vehicle without complex pressing and cutting machinery-such as the creation of curves on the bodywork by cutting slots in a straight sheet, applying pressure to the metal, allowing it to bend at an angle allowed by the expansion slots, then welding up the slots to form a solid, strong body panel. Many previously speculated on the feasibility of constructing a centrally-mounted steering system. Mr. Hayfield simply ran a chain drive from the steering column in the centre to the steering relay mounted under the left-hand wing, as used on the Jeep. The rest of the steering system was also the Jeep's recirculating ball and trackrod system.

title: Centre Steer


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Christophe de Beaumont

Christophe de Beaumont du Repaire (26 July 1703 – 12 December 1781) was a French cleric who belonged to a cadet branch of the Les Adrets and Saint-Quentin branches of the illustrious Dauphin family of Beaumont. He became Bishop of Bayonne in 1741, then Archbishop of Vienne in 1745, and in 1746, at the age of forty-three, Archbishop of Paris. An austere man with no wish for glory, had to be summoned three times by Louis XV before he would leave his diocese of Vienne and move to Paris.

The Struggle Against Jansenism
Beaumont is noted for his struggle with the Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull Unigenitus (1713) which condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese to withhold sacraments from those who would not recognize the bull, and to deny funeral rites to those who had confessed to a Jansenist priest. This measure had severe, damning implications for Jansenists, provoking widespread outcry against such intolerance from the Jansenists themselves, the Philosophes, the parlements, and the larger public.

While other bishops sent Beaumont their adhesion to his crusade, the Parlement of Paris threatened to confiscate his temporalities. Louis XV forbade the Parlement to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its proving obdurate it was exiled (18 September 1753). The royal chamber, which was substituted, having failed to carry on the administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall the parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honorable exile to Conflans, where he remained from August 1754 until October 1757. Efforts were made to induce him to resign the active duties of his see to a coadjutor, he refused despite the most tempting offers - including a cardinal's hat. As the dispute between the king and the Parlements continued, de Beaumont was exiled from Paris a second time, from January 1758 to October 1759. He eventually returned, having conceded none of his principles. 'Let them erect a scaffold in the midst of the court' he said, 'I would ascend it to maintain my rights, fulfil my duties and obey the laws of my conscience.'

To his polemic against the Jansenists he added an attack on the philosophes, and issued a formal mandatory letter condemning Rousseau's Émile. Rousseau replied in his masterly Lettre a M. de Beaumont (1762), in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force.

Defending the Authority of the Church
Archbishop de Beaumont was a forthright and powerful voice in defence of Church authority and an opponent of anything that he saw as undermining it. This often put him at odds with statesmen and thinkers alike. He was strongly opposed to the project of Diderot, D’Alembert and others to publish the Encyclopédie, and he appointed the censors who required the modification or deletion of articles which were deemed contrary to Church teaching. At de Beaumont's request, volume 2 of the Encyclopédie was banned in 1752 because it contained material deemed to be heretical. He was so strongly opposed to Madame de Pompadour that he said he should like to see her burned, and he refused her permission to receive the sacraments in her chapel. In 1762 the Society of Jesus was suppressed in France, and de Beaumont realised that if the king and the Parlements were able to take such a drastic step the Church itself was in potential danger. In October 1763 he published a pastoral instruction condemning the encroachment of civil authority upon the spiritual. The Parlement of Paris responded by ordering the public hangman to burn the book and summoned the Archbishop to appear before it. Louis XV, anxious to avoid a major confrontation, once again banished de Beaumont from his diocese.

On 21 July 1773 the international campaign against the Jesuit Order reached the point where Pope Clement XIV issued the brief Dominus ac Redemptor which formally abolished the Order around the world. The brief was explicitly indicated that the reason for the abolition was to satisfy the King of France and the other Bourbon rulers of Europe. Archbishop de Beaumont scornfully rejected the Papal brief and wrote the following to the Pope:

''‘This brief which destroys the Company of Jesus is nothing other than an isolated and particular judgement, pernicious, reflecting little honour on the Papal tiara and deleterious to the glory of the Church and to the glory and propagation of the orthodox (i.e. Catholic) faith….. Holy Father, it is not possible for me to commit the Clergy to the acceptance of the said brief. I would not be heard on this point were I wretch enough to lend my ministry to it, which I should be dishonouring.’''

De Beaumont's Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales were published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.

title: Christophe de Beaumont


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Karabük

Karabük is a city in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is the seat of Karabük Province and Karabük District. Its population is 125,403 (2022). The town lies at an elevation of 301 m.

Karabük was built in the 1930s as the seat of the iron and steel industry of Turkey, and thus is prone to the hazardous effects of air pollution. Karabük lies in a location near Filyos River formed by the merge of Araç and Soğanlı rivers.

Name
There are no known records of the origin of its name; in Turkish kara means "black" and bük means "bush" or "blackberry bush" ("bramble"). So Karabük means "blackbush".

History
Karabük is situated on an important trade route between Amasra on the coast and central Anatolia. The history of the city goes back to the early years of the Turkish Republic, when it was a small sub-village formed by 13 houses in the Öğlebeli village of Safranbolu. There was also a small train station on the Ankara–Zonguldak route. The town started to develop with the industrialization of the country. One of the first steel factories of the Republic was built here in 1939, after which it grew rapidly and incorporated Öğlebeli village as a quarter. Karabük became a municipality and then a township in the Safranbolu district in 1941. It became a district center in 1953 and a provincial center in 1995.

Hadrianapolis (now Eskipazar), is an ancient city from the Roman Empire of the 4th century, located about 30km (68km by road) from Karabük. There are many fountains, churches, and Roman baths. Although most of it is recently excavated, illegal excavations which have been going on for many years and have damaged Eskipazar's chances of becoming a major tourist attraction.

Climate
Karabük has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa) or a relatively warm oceanic climate (Trewartha: Do) with hot, humid summers and chilly, wet winters.

Economy
Karabük has its own resources of dolomite and limestone, while coal and manganese is brought from Zonguldak and iron ore from Divriği. This allows a varied, yet basic industry in Karabük, including a coking plant, blast furnaces, a foundry and tube works. There are also chemical plants that produce sulfuric acid and phosphates. Nearby are the Zonguldak coal fields.

One of the major steel producers in Turkey, namely Kardemir (Karabük Iron and Steel Works), is located in Karabük.

title: Karabük


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Grachan Moncur III

Grachan Moncur III (June 3, 1937 – June 3, 2022) was an American jazz trombonist. He was the son of jazz bassist Grachan Moncur II and the nephew of jazz saxophonist Al Cooper.

Biography
Born in New York City, United States, (his paternal grandfather was from the Bahamas) and raised in Newark, New Jersey, Grachan Moncur III began playing the cello at the age of nine, and switched to the trombone when he was 11. In high school, he attended the Laurinburg Institute in North Carolina, the private school where Dizzy Gillespie had studied. While still at school, he began sitting in with touring jazz musicians on their way through town, including Art Blakey and Jackie McLean, with whom he formed a lasting friendship.

After high school, Moncur toured with Ray Charles (1959–62), Art Farmer and Benny Golson's Jazztet (1962), and Sonny Rollins. He took part in two Jackie McLean albums for Blue Note in 1963, One Step Beyond and Destination... Out!, to which he also contributed the bulk of compositions. He recorded two albums of his own for Blue Note, Evolution (1963) with Jackie McLean and Lee Morgan, and Some Other Stuff (1964) with Herbie Hancock and Wayne Shorter.

Moncur joined Archie Shepp's ensemble, and recorded with other avant-garde players such as Marion Brown, Beaver Harris and Roswell Rudd (another free jazz trombonist). During a stay in Paris in the summer of 1969, he recorded two albums as a leader for the BYG Actuel label, New Africa and Aco Dei de Madrugada, as well as appearing as a sideman on other releases of the label. In 1974, the Jazz Composer's Orchestra commissioned him to write Echoes of Prayer (1974), a jazz symphony featuring a full orchestra plus vocalists and jazz soloists. His sixth album as a leader, Shadows (1977) was released only in Japan. He was subsequently plagued by health problems and copyright disputes and recorded only rarely. Through the 1980s, he recorded with Cassandra Wilson (1985), played occasionally with the Paris Reunion Band and Frank Lowe, appeared on Big John Patton's Soul Connection (1983), but mostly concentrated on teaching. In 2004, he re-emerged with a new album, Exploration, on Capri Records featuring Moncur's compositions arranged by Mark Masters for an octet including Tim Hagans and Gary Bartz.

Moncur died from cardiac arrest on June 3, 2022, his 85th birthday, at his home in Newark, New Jersey.

As a leader

 * Evolution (Blue Note, 1963)
 * Some Other Stuff (Blue Note, 1964)
 * "Blue Free" and "The Intellect" on The New Wave in Jazz (Impulse!, 1965)
 * The New Breed (The Dedication Series/Vol.VXIII) Sides C and D-1 (Impulse, 1978 [recorded 1965])
 * New Africa (BYG Actuel, 1969)
 * Aco Dei de Madrugada (One Morning I Waked Up Very Early) (BYG Actuel, 1969)
 * Echoes of Prayer (JCOA, 1974 [1975])
 * Shadows (Denon, 1977)
 * Exploration (Capri, 2004)
 * Inner Cry Blues (Lunar Module, 2007)

As a sideman
with Marion Brown:
 * Juba-Lee (Fontana, 1967)
 * Three for Shepp (Impulse!, 1967)

with Dave Burrell:
 * Echo (BYG Actuel, 1969)
 * La Vie de Bohème (BYG Actuel, 1970)

with Benny Golson:
 * Here and Now (Mercury, 1962) – with Art Farmer
 * Another Git Together (Mercury, 1962) – with Art Farmer
 * Pop + Jazz = Swing (Audio Fidelity, 1962) – later version as Just Jazz!
 * Stockholm Sojourn (Prestige, 1965)

with Herbie Hancock:
 * My Point of View (Blue Note, 1963)

with Beaver Harris:
 * Safe (Red, 1979)
 * Beautiful Africa (Soul Note, 1979)
 * Live at Nyon (Cadence Jazz, 1981)

with Joe Henderson:
 * The Kicker (Milestone, 1967)

with Khan Jamal:
 * Black Awareness (CIMP, 2005)

with Frank Lowe:
 * Decision in Paradise (Soul Note, 1985)

with Jackie McLean:
 * One Step Beyond (Blue Note, 1963)
 * Destination... Out! (Blue Note, 1964)
 * 'Bout Soul (Blue Note, 1967)
 * Hipnosis (Blue Note, 1967)

with Lee Morgan:
 * The Last Session (Blue Note, 1971)

with Butch Morris:
 * In Touch... but out of Reach (Kharma, 1982)

with Sunny Murray:
 * Homage to Africa (BYG Actuel, 1969)

with Sunny Murray, Khan Jamal and Romulus:
 * Change of the Century Orchestra (JAS, 1999)

with Paris Reunion Band:
 * For Klook (Gazell, 1987)

with William Parker:
 * In Order to Survive (Black Saint, 1995)

with John Patton:
 * Soul Connection (Nilva, 1983)

with The Reunion Legacy Band:
 * The Legacy (Early Bird, 1991)

with Archie Shepp:
 * Mama Too Tight (Impulse!, 1966)
 * The Way Ahead (album) (Impulse!, 1968)
 * Poem for Malcolm (BYG Actuel, 1969)
 * For Losers (Impulse!, 1970)
 * Things Have Got to Change (Impulse!, 1971)
 * Live at the Pan-African Festival (BYG Actuel, 1971)
 * Life at the Donaueschingen Festival (MPS, 1972)
 * Kwanza (Impulse!, 1974)
 * Freedom (JMY, 1991)

with Archie Shepp and Roswell Rudd:
 * Live in New York (Verve, 2001)

with Wayne Shorter:
 * The All Seeing Eye (Blue Note, 1965)

with Alan Silva:
 * Luna Surface (BYG Actuel, 1969)

'''with Clifford Thornton:
 * Ketchaoua (BYG Actuel, 1969)

with Chris White:
 * The Chris White Project (Muse, 1993)

 with Cassandra Wilson:
 * Point of View (JMT, 1986)

title: Grachan Moncur III


text:
Talk:Carat (mass)

US spelling
I removed "(spelt karat in the U.S., to distinguish it from the unit of mass above)" because (a) I've never seen that spelling, (b) the OED states that it is an obsolete late Middle English spelling, without any note that it's still used (or ever has been used) in the US.

It is the only usage for a unit of purity in the U.S. I have ever seen. Consult a reputable American English dictionary (such as Merriam-Webster). And in fact, the OED states that it is "obs. exc. U.S." which means obsolete except in the U.S. and even gives several examples of its use in U.S. mass-market periodicals. --Grouse 13:48, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

correct mass definition
http://www.lbma.org.uk/london_glossary.html#c

defines a carat as: CARAT 1) A measure of the weight of precious stones. 1 carat = 0.2053 gm.

other places define it as 1 carat = 0.20000... grams exactly. Which is correct? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.27.190.62 (talk) 06:20, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

The above reference defines it as a weight not as a mass --208.54.14.96 (talk) 03:36, 8 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Link now at http://www.lbma.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?page_id=89#C --Rumping (talk) 03:30, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

Connection to Troy Measure
It was originally connected to the Troy system, but how many grains were in one carat?

 * In the UK, the weight of the carat was determined by the Board of Trade. For much of the 19th century, an ounce troy of 480 grains troy had exactly $$151\,\tfrac{27}{64}$$ carats; thus, during this period one carat was exactly $$3\,\tfrac{1647}{9691}$$ grains troy (about 205.4094 mg). In 1888, the Board of Trade reduced the weight of the carat so that an ounce troy had exactly 151½ carats; thus, one carat then became exactly $$3\,\tfrac{17}{101}$$ grains troy (about 205.3035 mg).

 * Kindly note that the carat was also divided into exactly four diamond grains, and that the diamond grain was not identical to the grain troy.

 * — Podagratus 20:56, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

De-Stub-ify?
Is it time that we can have this as an article, rather than a stub? Samfreed 08:28, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, it’s time — I’ve just destubbed it.
 * — Podagratus 07:57, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Perhaps, but it still reads like it was written by school children. Someone needs to start from the top and rewrite this from the sources as a cohesive piece instead of a collection of sometimes contradictory trivia. — SMcCandlish   Talk⇒ ʕ(Õلō)ˀ  Contribs. 20:57, 6 January 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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That first pic gives me no sense of scale
Can we get a photo that has another object for scale? Someone’s hand? A coin? A watch? An ear? 76.105.250.115 (talk) 14:33, 10 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Carat (mass)


text:
Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally

Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally, baron de Tollendal (13 January 1702 – 9 May 1766) was a French general of Irish Jacobite ancestry. Lally commanded French forces, including two battalions of his own red-coated Regiment of Lally of the Irish Brigade, in India during the Seven Years' War. After a failed attempt to capture Madras he lost the Battle of Wandiwash to British forces under Eyre Coote and then was forced to surrender the remaining French post at Pondicherry.

After time spent as a prisoner of war in Britain, Lally voluntarily returned to France to face charges where he was beheaded for his alleged failures in India. Ultimately the jealousies and disloyalties of other officers, together with insufficient resources and limited naval support prevented Lally from securing India for France. In 1778, he was publicly exonerated by Louis XVI from his alleged crime.

Life
He was born at Romans-sur-Isère, Dauphiné, the son of Sir Gerald Lally, an Irish Jacobite from Tuam, County Galway, who married a French lady of noble family. His title is derived from the Lally ancestral home, Castel Tullendally in County Galway, where the Lallys (originally O'Mullally) were prominent members of the Gaelic aristocracy who could trace their ancestry back to the second-century High King of Ireland, Conn of the Hundred Battles.

Entering the French army in 1721, he served in the War of the Polish Succession against Austria; he was present at the Battle of Dettingen, and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the field by Louis XV.

He was a staunch Jacobite and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward Stuart (then known in Jacobite circles as the Prince Regent, or Bonnie Prince Charlie) to Scotland, serving as aide-de-camp at the Battle of Falkirk Muir. Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the Siege of Maastricht (1748) was made a maréchal de camp.

When war broke out with Britain again in 1756, Lally was appointed governor-general of French India and commanded a French expedition to India, made up of four battalions, two of which were from his own Regiment of Lally of the Irish Brigade. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and within six weeks had pushed the British back from the coast to Madras (in modern-day Chennai), the headquarters of the English East India Company.

He was a man of courage and a capable general, but his pride and ferocity made him unpopular with his officers and men. He was unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and as he lacked French naval support he had to retire from the Siege of Madras upon the arrival of the British fleet. He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at the Battle of Wandiwash, and besieged in Pondicherry, where he was forced to capitulate in 1761.

Trial and execution
Lally was sent as a prisoner of war to England. Public opinion in France was very hostile, blaming him for the defeat by the British, and there were widespread calls for Lally to be put on trial. While in London, he heard that he was accused in France of treason, and insisted, against advice, on returning on parole to stand trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years before the trial began in 1764 and when the Advocate General of the Parlement of Paris, Joly de Fleury, began the prosecution, Lally had not received any documentation of the charges, and was not allowed a defence lawyer. Throughout the trial, which lasted for two years, Lally fought against Joly de Fleury's charges but on 6 May 1766 he was convicted and sentenced to be beheaded by Charles-Henri Sanson.

Lally made an unsuccessful attempt at suicide after his sentencing, and three days after his conviction he was gagged to prevent him from protesting his innocence further. He was transported in a garbage cart to be beheaded at the Place de Grève. The memoirs of the Sanson family record many details of the execution. According to the Sansons, after Lally said "And now, you can strike!" Charles Henri raised his weapon but failed to sever the old man's head in one blow. Lally reportedly rose to his feet, and Charles Henri's father intervened to complete the execution hastily as he promised Lally 35 years prior to this day. It is reported that Charles Jean-Baptiste Sanson finished Lally with a single strike after immediately recovering from the stroke-like condition that plagued him for years. It is highly unlikely that Charles Jean-Baptiste Sanson regained his strength to save the day. A piece written by Dr. Louis, as cited in Daniel Arasse's "The Guillotine and the Terror," recounts that during the execution, Lally knelt blindfolded and Charles-Henri Sanson struck him on the back of the neck. The blow failed to separate the head from the body, causing Lally to fall forwards. Finally, the head was detached from the body with four or five saber blows, which was witnessed with horror.

Progeny
By one Felicity Crofton, Lally had a legitimised son and heir, Trophime-Gérard, later Marquis de Lally-Tollendal, a distinguished French statesman who (as further described below) subsequently devoted much time and energy to the rehabilitation of his father's memory. Lally also had a natural daughter, Henrietta (or Harriet), who lived in Madras and died on 9 September 1836.

Voltaire's efforts at rehabilitation
Voltaire knew Lally personally, and had no liking for him. As he had investments in the East India Company, he was concerned 'this Irish hothead' might not be good for the shareholders when he was sent out to India. When he heard of his execution, he wrote to one friend, "I knew Lally-Tollendal for an absurd man, violent, ambitious, capable of pillage and abuse of power; but I should be astonished if he was a traitor", and to another he wrote, "I have just been reading up on the tragedy of poor Lally. I can easily see that Lally got himself detested by all the officers and all the inhabitants of Pondicherry, but in all the submissions to the trial there is no appearance of embezzlement, nor of treason." Voltaire had taken up a number of campaigns against miscarriages of justice, most famously that of Jean Calas. His work to expose injustice and abuse of process was often hindered by the unwillingness of the courts and other authorities to release evidence, statements, and court records. In this case too, although Voltaire wanted to investigate further, he was unable to penetrate the institutional secrecy of the court for the time being.

Voltaire was able to take no further action until in 1770 he was approached for help by Lally's natural son Gérard de Lally-Tollendal. There is an account that the shame of military failure was originally so great that this son was brought up in total ignorance of who his father had been, and only inadvertently discovered the truth of his background at the age of fifteen. However this account cannot be true, as the son was fifteen when his father was executed, so his origins must have been concealed for other reasons. Voltaire offered what assistance he could, but the campaign to release the court documents was painfully slow.

Louis XV tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his authority to save an almost friendless foreigner. The family records of his executioner stated that, while the charge of treason was clearly baseless, those of abuse of power, violence against the administrators of the colony and his soldiers, and cruelty to the natives, had ample witnesses. Lally had so impeached his officers and administrators of the colony that they could only feel safe by his condemnation and death.

When Louis XVI came to the throne in 1774 there was more inclination towards clemency. Still, it took discussion in thirty-two sessions before, in 1778, the Royal Council agreed to annul the proceedings against Lally, though the case still had to be referred to the Parlement of Rouen for formal overturning. On 24 May 1778, less than a week before he died, Voltaire learned that Gérard de Lally-Tollendal had been given leave to appeal. Deeply moved, Voltaire wrote to him: "The dying man has been revived by learning this great news; he embraces M. de Lally very tenderly; he sees that the king is the defender of justice. He will die content." It was the last letter he wrote.

The sentence was not overturned until 1781, and the conviction itself was never cleared.

When the case was considered by the Parlement de Paris, the orator Jean-Jacques d'Eprémesnil acted as spokesman of Parlement and refused to consider any rehabilitation for Lally.

References and further reading

 * Voltaire's Œuvres complètes
 * "Z's" article "The Marquis de Lally-Tollendal" in the Biographie Michaud
 * The legal documents are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale
 * Voltaire's Œuvres complètes
 * "Z's" article "The Marquis de Lally-Tollendal" in the Biographie Michaud
 * The legal documents are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale
 * Voltaire's Œuvres complètes
 * "Z's" article "The Marquis de Lally-Tollendal" in the Biographie Michaud
 * The legal documents are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale
 * "Z's" article "The Marquis de Lally-Tollendal" in the Biographie Michaud
 * The legal documents are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale

title: Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally


text:
Racing slick

A racing slick or slick tyre is a type of tyre that has a smooth tread   used mostly in auto racing. The first production slick tyre was developed by M&H Tires in the early 1950s for use in drag racing. By eliminating any grooves cut into the tread, such tyres provide the largest possible contact patch to the road, and maximize dry traction for any given tyre dimension; see Performance. Slick tyres are used on race tracks and in road racing, where acceleration, steering and braking require maximum traction from each wheel. Slick tyres are typically used on only the driven (powered) wheels in drag racing, where the only concern is maximum traction to put power to the ground, and are not used in rallying.

Slick tyres are not suitable for use on common road vehicles, which must be able to operate in all weather conditions. They are used in auto racing where competitors can choose different tyres based on the weather conditions and can often change tyres during a race.

Performance
Two stress mechanisms produce tyre grip:
 * Indentation of the viscoelastic tyre rubber adapting to the texture of the road surface
 * Molecular adhesion at the interface between the tyre rubber and the road surface

Slick tyres can provide far more traction than grooved tyres on dry roads, but typically have far less traction than grooved tyres under wet conditions. Wet roads severely diminish the traction because of aquaplaning due to water trapped between the tyre contact area and the road surface. Grooved tyres are designed to remove water from the contact area through the grooves, thereby maintaining traction even in wet conditions.

Since there is no tread pattern, slick tyre tread does not deform much under load. The reduced deformation allows the tyre to be constructed of softer compounds without excessive overheating and blistering. Modern day slick tyres have now developed particular performance qualities in a specific window of temperatures, becoming sticky when accumulating enough heat, and thus give much greater adhesion to the road surface, but they also have lower treadwear ratings; i.e. they wear out much more quickly than the harder rubber tyres used for driving on the streets. It is not uncommon for drivers in some auto sports to wear out multiple sets of tyres during a single day's driving.

Drag racing slicks
The first drag racing slick was developed by M&H Tires (Marvin & Harry Tires) in the early 1950s. It was the only company in the world that produced and sold original drag racing tyres.

Drag racing slicks vary in size, from slicks used on motorcycles to very wide ones used on "top fuel" dragsters. For "closed wheel" cars, often the car must be modified merely to account for the size of the slick, raising the body on the rear springs for the height of narrower slicks, or replacing the rear wheel housings with very wide "tubs" and narrowing the rear axle to allow room for the wider varieties of tyres. Open-wheel dragsters are freed from any such constraints, and can go to enormous tyre sizes. Some use very low pressures to maximize the tread contact area, producing the typical sidewall appearance which leads to their being termed "wrinkle wall" slicks. Inner tubes are typically used, to ensure that the air does not suddenly leak catastrophically as the tyre deforms under the stress of launching.

"Wrinkle Wall" slicks are now specifically designed for the special requirements of drag racing, being constructed in such a way as to allow the sidewall to be twisted by the torque applied at launch, softening the initial start and thus reducing the chances of breaking traction. As speed builds, the centrifugal force generated by the tyre's rotation "unwraps" the sidewall, returning the energy to the car's acceleration. Additionally, it causes the tyres to expand radially, increasing their diameter and effectively creating a taller gear ratio, allowing a higher top speed with the same transmission gearing.

Cheater slicks
Since completely slick tyres are outlawed on most roads due to their inability to handle wet pavement, the "cheater slick" became a popular item in the hot rod world in the 1960s; a typical slick type tyre, but engraved with the absolute minimum amount of tread grooves required to satisfy legal requirements. Since then, however, tyre development has progressed greatly, so that today's hot rod street cars typically use wide, grooved tyres which perform better than the slicks of the past; while the cheater slicks available today, both for nostalgic appearance of street cars and for competition use in classes where legal street tyres are required, have followed their own line of development, diverging from true slick tyre construction to become a distinct tyre design in themselves.

R compound tyres (grooved slicks)
The development in cheaper slick technology has affected the development of tyres for racing series other than drag racing as well. When other forms of auto racing similarly instituted classes which require DOT approved street tyres, some manufacturers similarly began to market tyres which superficially resembled their high performance street tyres, but with the least tread pattern permissible and with very soft, sticky rubber, intended specifically for competition because the soft tread would wear too quickly for street use. These became known as R compound tyres. With additional years of progress, this class of tyre has followed its own line of development, to the point where they have little in common with true street tyres of the same brand. This has led to new classes of racing which require not only DOT approval, but also a minimum treadwear rating, in an effort to eliminate the R compound tyres from competition and require "true" street tyres.

Formula One

In Formula One, slick tyres were introduced by Firestone at the 1971 Spanish Grand Prix. They were banned from the 1998 to 2008 seasons. Dry weather tyres with mandatory circumferential grooves intended to reduce total grip and reduce cornering speeds were used, but were still often referred to as "slicks" as the grooves were not intended to disperse water and could not be used effectively in wet conditions. Slick tyres were reintroduced from the 2009 season.

Bicycle tyres
In contrast, many bicycle tyres made for street use are slick. Aquaplaning does not present a problem for bicycles tyres due to their narrower width, higher pressure, lower speed, and circular cross section (due to the need to lean the bicycle in turns); the bicycle tyre can penetrate the water layer to contact the road much more easily. In practice, grooved bicycle tyres do not outperform slick tyres on wet roads. However, many low and medium performance bicycle tyres have substantial tread depth, because the bicycles are designed with off-road excursions in mind: in dirt, gravel or sand, the tread pattern provides significantly improved traction. In addition, high-performance bicycle tyres, although designed for road use only, often have a very fine tread pattern, which appears to provide no difference in performance versus a slick tyre and is only there for marketing purposes and as a tyre-wear indicator. This is clear not only from direct testing of tyres, but also from the fact that the texture of the road is itself coarser than the minimal tread pattern on these tyres. Some grooveless designs have small "holes" or dimples embedded in the tread as a tyre-wear indicator. This is similar to automobile tyre-wear indicator bars, which contact the road when the tyre is worn to a low tread amount, making the tyre noisy on the road.

title: Racing slick


text:
LFN

LFN may refer to:
 * La Familia Network, US Spanish TV network
 * La Femme Nikita (TV series)
 * Lingua Franca Nova, a constructed language
 * Long fat network, a data network with large bandwidth-delay
 * Long filename, longer than 8.3 bytes in Microsoft FAT

title: LFN