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Gaston Lachaise

Gaston Lachaise (March 19, 1882 – October 18, 1935) was a French-born sculptor, active in America in the early 20th century. A native of Paris, he is most noted for his robust female nudes such as his heroic Standing Woman. Gaston Lachaise was taught the fundamentals of European sculpture while living in France. While still a student, he met and fell in love with an older American woman, Isabel Dutaud Nagle, then followed her after she returned to America. There, he became profoundly impressed by the great vitality and promise of his adopted country. Those life-altering experiences clarified his artistic vision and inspired him to define the female nude in a new and powerful manner. His drawings, typically made as ends in themselves, also exemplify his remarkably new treatment of the female body.

Early life and education
Born in Paris, Lachaise was the son of Marie Barré (1856–1940), herself the daughter of a sculptor and Jean Lachaise (1848–1901), a cabinetmaker who designed furniture for the private apartment of Gustave Eiffel in the Eiffel Tower, among other commissions. At age 13 he entered a craft school, the École Municipale Bernard Palissy, where he was trained in the decorative arts, and from 1898 to 1904 he studied sculpture at the École des Beaux-Arts under Gabriel-Jules Thomas. He began his artistic career as a modeler for the French Art Nouveau designer René Lalique.

Move to America
Around 1902 or 1903 he met and fell in love with Isabel Dutaud Nagle (1872–1957), a married American woman of French Canadian descent (she eventually divorced her husband and married Lachaise). When she returned to her home near Boston in 1904, Lachaise vowed to follow her. After briefly working for the master jewelry and glass designer René Lalique in order to pay for his passage, he arrived in America in 1906, never to return to his native land. For the next fifteen years he earned a living as a sculptor's assistant. At first, in Boston and Quincy, Massachusetts, he worked for H. H. Kitson, an academic sculptor who was chiefly producing military monuments. In 1912 Lachaise moved to New York City to help Kitson in his studio at 7 MacDougal Alley. Soon after that, he went to work as an assistant to the sculptor Paul Manship, while also creating his own art. His employment with Paul Manship lasted until 1921. (Later examples of the work of both sculptors can be seen at Rockefeller Center.)

Lachaise rented many studios in Greenwich Village, namely 45 Washington Square South (1912–1913/1914, razed), 10 West 14th Street (1917–1919/1921, still standing), 461 6th Avenue (1921–1923, still standing), 20 West 8th Street (1924–1926, razed), 55 West 8th Street (1927–1933, still standing), and 42 Washington Mews (1933–shortly before his death, still standing). In 1922, Lachaise bought a summer home and studio in Georgetown, Maine, Marsden Hartley being a frequent visitor.

In America, Lachaise developed his distinctive style and portrayal of the female nude to convey his views about the world around him and healthy, fulfilling human existence. Lachaise's ample nudes, which markedly differ from the slender type then in favor, were seen by his contemporaries as, for example, images of maturity and abundance. In the words of a later critic: "The breasts, the abdomen, the thighs, the buttocks—upon each of these elements the sculptor lavishes a powerful and incisive massiveness, a rounded voluminousness, that answers not to the descriptions of nature but to an ideal prescribed by his own emotions."

Works
Lachaise's personal idiom was developed during the first decade of the twentieth century following his initial encounter with Isabel. But it was not until after he came to America, that he clearly realized his principal manifesto: his concept of "Woman" as a vital force principally inspired by his beloved. In his own words, he characterized some of his very early sculpted images of "Woman" as vigorous and robust, "radiating sex and soul," or in "forceful repose, serene and massive as earth."

Having both become an American citizen and married Isabel in 1917, Lachaise began his meteoric rise in the New York art world with his first solo show, held in 1918 at the Bourgeois Galleries. It featured the full-scale plaster model of his challenging, heroic-sized Woman (Elevation) (modeled 1912–15, copyrighted 1927, cast 1927, Art Institute of Chicago). Lachaise's most famous work, Standing Woman (modeled 1928–30, copyrighted 1932, cast ca. 1933, Museum of Modern Art, New York), is perhaps the most complete expression of his principal theme: a voluptuous, energy-filled, self-possessed female nude. Lachaise is also known as a portraitist. He executed busts of literary celebrities and famous artists and literary celebrities such as Marianne Moore, Georgia O'Keeffe, John Marin, and Lincoln Kirstein. In 1935 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City held a retrospective exhibition of Lachaise's work, the first at that institution for a living American sculptor.

Gaston Lachaise was an extremely versatile artist, technically expert in several media and accomplished with both ideal and commercial effort. His sculptures were typically carried out in bronze, although he was also passionately dedicated to carving stone. His work was chosen for several major New York architectural commissions—including those at 195 Broadway and Rockefeller Center. And the more commercial aspect of his sculptural output—the production of fountains and decorative bronzes, primarily depicting animals—also offered him financial relief. Yet Lachaise's artistic legacy is closely bound to his ideal depictions of "Woman."

Although one of America's most financially successful sculptors by 1930, largely due to wealthy, discerning patrons, Lachaise burned through most of his income by the time of his unexpected death from acute leukemia on October 18, 1935—at the height of his fame, and having been evicted from his New York studio several weeks earlier because of his failure to pay rent. His late works, which are extreme in their manipulation of human anatomy, are erotic, emotional, and avant-garde. Many of them were not seen by the public until many decades after his death, and they have encouraged a more comprehensive evaluation of his artistic achievement.

Called by ARTnews the "greatest American sculptor of his time", he played a critical role in the birth of American Modernism, pushing the boundaries of nude figuration with his innovative representations of the human body.

Collections
Public collections holding his works include: United States:
 * Amon Carter Museum of American Art
 * Art Institute of Chicago
 * Addison Gallery of American Art
 * Brooklyn Museum of Art
 * Cleveland Museum of Art
 * Currier Museum of Art
 * Detroit Institute of Arts
 * Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
 * Harvard University Art Museums
 * Honolulu Museum of Art
 * Indiana University Art Museum
 * Memorial Art Gallery
 * Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * Minneapolis Institute of Art
 * Milwaukee Art Museum
 * Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * Museum of Modern Art
 * Nasher Sculpture Center
 * National Portrait Gallery
 * New Mexico Museum of Art
 * Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
 * Phillips Collection
 * Sheldon Museum of Art
 * Smart Museum of Art
 * Smithsonian American Art Museum
 * Virginia Museum of Fine Arts
 * Walker Art Center
 * Worcester Art Museum

Australia:
 * The Australian National Gallery, Canberra, Australia
 * The National Gallery of Victoria (NGV), Melbourne, Australia

Czech Republic:
 * National Gallery Prague, Veletržní Palace, Czech Republic

France:
 * Musée Courbet, Ornans, France
 * Musée d'Art Modern de Paris, France
 * Musée d'Art et d'Industrie de Roubaix, André Diligent, "La Piscine," France

United Kingdom:
 * The Tate Modern, London, UK

Foundation
In 1963, according to the will of Lachaise's widow, Isabel, the Lachaise Foundation was established with the intention of perpetuating Gaston Lachaise's artistic legacy for the public benefit.

Since the founding of the Lachaise Foundation, the estate of the artist has been exclusively represented by the following galleries: Weyhe Gallery; Felix Landau Gallery and the Robert Schoelkopf Gallery (1962–1991); Salander-O'Reilly Galleries (1991–2007); Gerald Peters Gallery (2009–2013); David Findlay Jr. Gallery (2015–2016) until that gallery was acquired by Wally Findlay Galleries/ Findlay Galleries (2016-2021).

Since 2003, art historian Virginia Budny has been authoring a catalogue raisonné sponsored by the Lachaise Foundation.

title: Gaston Lachaise


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Government of Åland 1999–2003

2001-2003
Government members 2001–2003, Åland Centre (c), Åland liberals (lib)

Premier (lantråd): Deputy premier (vice lantråd), minister for finance: Minister of social affairs and environment: Minister of education and culture: Minister of industry and trade: Minister of transportation and energy:
 * Mr. Roger Nordlund (c)
 * Mr. Olof Erland (lib)
 * Mr. Sune Eriksson (lib)
 * Mrs. Gun Carlson (c)
 * Mrs. Ritva Sarin-Grufberg (lib)
 * Mr. Runar Karlsson (c)

1999-2001
Government members 1999–2001, Åland Centre (c), Åland Conservatives (fs), the independent group (ob):

Premier (lantråd): Deputy premier (vice lantråd), minister for finance: Minister of social affairs and environment: Minister of education and culture: Minister of industry and trade: Minister of transportation and energy: Minister of information technology and law affairs:
 * Mr. Roger Nordlund (c)
 * Mr. Olof Salmén (ob)
 * Mrs. Harriet Lindeman (fs)
 * Mrs. Gun Carlson (c)
 * Mr. Roger Jansson (fs)
 * Mr. Runar Karlsson (c)
 * Mr. Danne Sundman (ob)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Government of Åland 1999–2003


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RSA

RSA may refer to:

Academia and education

 * Rabbinical Seminary of America, a yeshiva in New York City
 * Regional Science Association International (formerly the Regional Science Association), a US-based learned society
 * Renaissance Society of America, a scholarly organization based in New York City
 * Rhetoric Society of America, an academic organization for the study of rhetoric
 * Royal Scottish Academy, a Scottish institute of the Arts
 * Royal Society of Arts, a British charitable organisation, formally the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce

Military

 * Redstone Arsenal, a United States Army post adjacent to Huntsville, Alabama
 * Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association, an organization for the welfare of veterans of New Zealand's military
 * Royal School of Artillery, a British Army training establishment for artillery warfare
 * Royal Signals Association, an organization for serving and retired members of the Royal Corps of Signals, of the British Army

Other organizations

 * RSA Insurance Group (Royal and Sun Alliance), United Kingdom
 * RSA Security, a US network security company
 * Rehabilitation Services Administration, a US Department of Education agency
 * Retirement Systems of Alabama, US
 * Ridley Scott Associates, a UK film company
 * Road Safety Authority, Ireland
 * Russian Ski Association

Places

 * Republic of South Africa, IOC country code
 * Santa Rosa Airport (Argentina), in La Pampa province (IATA code RSA)

Biology, organic chemistry, and medicine

 * Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, the heart rate variation due to respiration
 * Retrosynthetic analysis, in organic chemistry
 * Rsa RNA, partially characterised non-coding RNA from Staphylococcus aureus

Cryptography and security

 * RSA (cryptosystem) (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman), for public-key encryption
 * RSA Conference, annual gathering
 * RSA Factoring Challenge, for factoring a set of semi-prime numbers
 * RSA numbers, with two prime numbers as factors

Other uses in science and technology

 * RSA (missile), a Swiss-developed surface-to-air missile system
 * Rational Software Architect, part of IBM Rational Application Developer
 * Remote supervisor adapter, an out-of-band management interface on IBM servers
 * Revolver Stechkina-Avraamova, a designation of the Russian OTs-01 Kobalt revolver
 * Roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis, also called radiostereometric analysis, a method of calculating 3D orientation using X-ray images

Other uses

 * Ray Steadman-Allen, a composer of music
 * Repressive state apparatuses, a concept in Louis Althusser's philosophy
 * Responsible Service of Alcohol, alcohol server training in several Australian states
 * Revenu de solidarité active, French benefit for low-paid workers
 * New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated, an entire body of laws
 * Runway safety area, or runway end safety area, for aircraft

title: RSA


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Talk:Plone (software)

Regarding CVE
What is the thought here for this section ? As far as I am concerned the CVE is a valid industry comparison of security breaches known to users. You cannot track the unknown. What you can track is the known. CVE table identifies this and relates fact. Fact is that some CMS's (and all software in general) either add ons or core have inherent higher risk associated to past historical coding issues and their architectural footprint in general. It would be misleading to not give this comparison, and dismiss the issue al together. 2001:470:1F11:16E:0:0:0:1BD (talk) 23:10, 28 May 2013 (UTC)
 * For discussion of the CVE table please do that on the Drupal talk page. 217.211.59.24 (talk) 23:18, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

 * Please refrain from directing conversation outside the context at hand. 2001:470:1F11:16E:0:0:0:1BD (talk) 23:40, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

 * This is not at all outside of the context. Drupal is one of the included subjects in the table and I try to keep all the discussion at one place. Also information about Drupal and Wordpress is disputed. See the Drupal talk page for more. 217.211.59.24 (talk) 23:44, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

 * I would prefer to replace the CVE table with references to studies done on the security of various CMS systems, such as the German Government study. I don't think providing raw numbers from the NVDA is useful or appropriate MatthewWilkes (talk) 04:16, 2 January 2015 (UTC)

 * The CVE table highlighted with blue looks more and more like an advertisement, I fixed the table a few years ago when it compared "CVE's to date" and plome had 0 ? someone keeps changing this article from insdie the company. Also the CMS should be compared against similar technology made CMS's such as Mezzanine which is a django CMS done with python. 176.72.248.21 (talk) 13:57, 2 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plone (software)


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User talk:156.101.1.5

September 2012
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April 2013
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August 2014
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January 2015
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May 2016
Hello, I'm CAPTAIN RAJU. I wanted to let you know that one or more of your recent contributions to 1989 in film has been undone because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. CAPTAIN RAJU ( ✉ ) 20:17, 31 May 2016 (UTC)
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January 2020
Hello, I'm S0091. Wikipedia is written by people who have a wide diversity of opinions, but we try hard to make sure articles have a neutral point of view. Your recent edit to Dušan Bajević seemed less than neutral and has been removed. If you think this was a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thank you. S0091 (talk) 20:07, 24 January 2020 (UTC)
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Proposed deletion of Upward Bound High School

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title: User talk:156.101.1.5


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Peccatum

Peccatum was an avant-garde metal band from Norway. Their influences range from black metal, progressive metal, industrial music, symphonic metal and gothic metal to European classical music and contemporary music.

History
Peccatum was formed by singer Ihriel (Heidi Solberg Tveitan), her husband Ihsahn (of the well-known black metal band Emperor), and her brother Lord PZ. The group released three albums and two EPs. Lost in Reverie, released in 2004 after Lord PZ's departure, moved towards a more classical, avant-garde and musically opaque direction.

Lost in Reverie and the 2005 EP The Moribund People were both produced under the label Mnemosyne Productions, owned and operated by Ihriel and Ihsahn themselves.

On March 4, 2006 Peccatum split, leaving room for Ihriel to continue with Starofash and Ihsahn to work on his solo project.

Studio releases

 * Strangling from Within – (1999)
 * Oh, My Regrets (EP) – (2000)
 * Amor Fati – (2000)
 * Lost in Reverie – (2004)
 * The Moribund People (EP) – (2005)

title: Peccatum


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Chaldean Catholic Church

The Chaldean Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic particular church (sui iuris) in full communion with the Holy See and the rest of the Catholic Church, and is headed by the Chaldean Patriarchate. Employing in its liturgy the East Syriac Rite in the Syriac dialect of the Aramaic language, it is part of Syriac Christianity. Headquartered in the Cathedral of Our Lady of Sorrows, Baghdad, Iraq, since 1950, it is headed by the Catholicos-Patriarch Louis Raphaël I Sako. In 2010, it had a membership of 490,371, of whom 310,235 (63.27%) lived in the Middle East (mainly in Iraq).

The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom reports that, according to the Iraqi Christian Foundation, an agency of the Chaldean Catholic Church, approximately 80% of Iraqi Christians are of that church. In its own 2018 Report on Religious Freedom, the United States Department of State put the Chaldean Catholics at approximately 67% of the Christians in Iraq. The 2019 Country Guidance on Iraq of the European Union Agency for Asylum gives the same information as the United States Department of State.

Origin

The Chaldean Catholic Church arose following a schism within the Church of the East. In 1552, the established "Eliya line" of patriarchs was opposed by a rival patriarch, Sulaqa, who initiated what is called the "Shimun line". He, and his early successors, entered into communion with the Catholic Church, but in the course of over a century loosened their link with Rome and under Shimun XIII Dinkha, openly renounced it in 1672, by adopting a profession of faith that contradicted that of Rome, while they maintained their independence from the "Eliya line". Leadership of those who wished to be in communion with Rome then passed to the Archbishop of Amid Joseph I, recognized as Catholic patriarch, first by the Turkish civil authorities (1677), and then by Rome itself (1681).

A century and a half later, in 1830, Rome conferred headship of the Catholics on Yohannan Hormizd. A member of the "Eliya line" family: he opposed Eliya XII (1778–1804), the last of that line to be elected in the normal way as patriarch, was himself irregularly elected in 1780, as Sulaqa had been in 1552, and won over to communion with Rome most of the followers of the Eliya line. The "Shimun line" that in 1553 entered communion with Rome and broke it off in 1672, is now that of the church that in 1976 officially adopted the name "Assyrian Church of the East", while a member of the "Eliya line" family is part of the series of patriarchs of the Chaldean Catholic Church.

The description "Chaldean"
For many centuries, from at least the time of Jerome (c. 347 – 420), the term "Chaldean" was a misnomer that indicated the Biblical Aramaic language and was still the normal name in the nineteenth century. Only in 1445 did it begin to be used to mean Aramaic speakers in communion with the Catholic Church, on the basis of a decree of the Council of Florence, which accepted the profession of faith that Timothy, metropolitan of the Aramaic speakers in Cyprus, made in Aramaic, and which decreed that "nobody shall in future dare to call [...] Chaldeans, Nestorians".

Previously, when there were as yet no Catholic Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamian origin, the term "Chaldean" was applied with explicit reference to their "Nestorian" religion. Thus Jacques de Vitry wrote of them in 1220/1 that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language". The decree of the Council of Florence was directed against use of "Chaldean" to signify "non-Catholic."

Outside of Catholic Church usage, the term "Chaldean" continued to apply to all associated with the Church of the East tradition, whether they were in communion with Rome or not. It indicated not race or nationality, but only language or religion. Throughout the 19th century, it continued to be used of East Syriac Christians, whether "Nestorian" or Catholic,    and this usage continued into the 20th century. In 1852 George Percy Badger distinguished those whom he called Chaldeans from those whom he called Nestorians, but by religion alone, never by language, race or nationality.

Patriarch Raphael I Bidawid of the Chaldean Catholic Church (1989–2003), who accepted the term Assyrian as descriptive of his nationality and ethnicity, commented: "When a portion of the Church of the East became Catholic in the 17th Century, the name given to the church was 'Chaldean' based on the Magi kings who were believed by some to have come from what once had been the land of the Chaldean, to Bethlehem. The name 'Chaldean' does not represent an ethnicity, just a church [...] We have to separate what is ethnicity and what is religion [...] I myself, my sect is Chaldean, but ethnically, I am Assyrian." Earlier, he said: "Before I became a priest I was an Assyrian, before I became a bishop I was an Assyrian, I am an Assyrian today, tomorrow, forever, and I am proud of it."

The Church of the East
The Chaldean Catholic Church traces its beginnings to the Church of the East, which was founded in the Parthian Empire. The Acts of the Apostles mentions Parthians as among those to whom the apostles preached on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Thomas the Apostle, Thaddeus of Edessa, and Bartholomew the Apostle are reputed to be its founders. One of the modern Churches that boast descent from it says it is "the Church in Babylon" spoken of in 1 Peter 5:13 and that he visited it.

Under the rule of the Sasanian Empire, which overthrew the Parthians in 224, the Church of the East continued to develop its distinctive identity by use of the Syriac language and Syriac script. One "Persian" bishop was at the First Council of Nicaea (325). There is no mention of Persian participation in the First Council of Constantinople (381), in which also the Western part of the Roman Empire was not involved.

The Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon of 410, held in the Sasanian capital, recognized the city's bishop Isaac as Catholicos, with authority throughout the Church of the East. The persistent military conflicts between the Sasanians and the by then Christianized Roman Empire made the Persians suspect the Church of the East of sympathizing with the enemy. This in turn induced the Church of the East to distance itself increasingly from that in the Roman Empire. Although in a time of peace their 420 council explicitly accepted the decrees of some "western" councils, including that of Nicaea, in 424 they determined that thenceforth they would refer disciplinary or theological problems to no external power, especially not to any "western" bishop or council.

The theological controversy that followed the Council of Ephesus in 431 was a turning point in the history of the Church of the East. The Council condemned as heretical the Christology of Nestorius, whose reluctance to accord the Virgin Mary the title Theotokos "God-bearer, Mother of God" was taken as evidence that he believed two separate persons (as opposed to two united natures) to be present within Christ. The Sasanian Emperor provided refuge for those who in the Nestorian schism rejected the decrees of the Council of Ephesus enforced in the Byzantine Empire. In 484 he executed the pro-Roman Catholicos Babowai. Under the influence of Barsauma, Bishop of Nisibis, the Church of the East officially accepted as normative the teaching not of Nestorius himself, but of his teacher Theodore of Mopsuestia, whose writings the 553 Second Council of Constantinople condemned as Nestorian but some modern scholars view them as orthodox. The position thus assigned to Theodore in the Church of the East was reinforced in several subsequent synods in spite of the opposing teaching of Henana of Adiabeme.

After its split with the West and its adoption of a theology that some called Nestorianism, the Church of the East expanded rapidly in the medieval period due to missionary work. Between 500 and 1400, its geographical horizon extended well beyond its heartland in present-day northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey, setting up communities throughout Central Asia and as far as China (as witnessed by the Xi'an Stele), a Tang dynasty tablet in Chinese script dating to 781 that documented 150 years of Christian history in China. Their most lasting addition was of the Saint Thomas Christians of the Malabar Coast in India, where they had around 10 million followers. However, a decline had already set in at the time of Yahballaha III (1281–1317), when the Church of the East reached its greatest geographical extent, it had in south and central Iraq and in south, central and east Persia only four dioceses, where at the end of the ninth century it had at least 54, and Yahballaha himself died at the hands of a Muslim mob.

Around 1400, the Turco-Mongol nomadic conqueror Timur arose out of the Eurasian Steppe to lead military campaigns all across Western, Southern and Central Asia, ultimately seizing much of the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, and the declining Delhi Sultanate. Timur's conquests devastated most Assyrian bishoprics and destroyed the 4000-year-old cultural and religious capital of Assur. After the destruction brought on by Timur, the massive and organized Church of the East structure was largely reduced to its region of origin, with the exception of the Saint Thomas Christians in India.

1552 schism
The Church of the East has seen many disputes about the position of Catholicos. A synod in 539 decided that neither of the two claimants, Elisha and Narsai, who had been elected by rival groups of bishops in 524, was legitimate. Similar conflicts occurred between Barsauma and Acacius of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and between Hnanisho I and Yohannan the Leper. The 1552 conflict was not merely between two individuals but extended to two rival lines of patriarchs, like the 1964 schism between what are now called the Assyrian and the Ancient Church of the East. Dissent over the practice of hereditary succession to the Patriarchate, usually from uncle to nephew, led to the action in 1552 by a group of bishops from the northern regions of Amid and Salmas who elected as a rival Patriarch the abbot of Rabban Hormizd Monastery (which was the Patriarch's residence) Yohannan Sulaqa. "To strengthen the position of their candidate the bishops sent him to Rome to negotiate a new union". By tradition, a patriarch could be ordained only by someone of archiepiscopal (metropolitan) rank, a rank to which only members of that one family were promoted. So Sulaqa travelled to Rome, where, presented as the new patriarch elect, he entered communion with the Catholic Church and was ordained by the Pope and recognized as patriarch.

The title or description under which he was recognized as patriarch is given variously as "Patriarch of Mosul in Eastern Syria"; "Patriarch of the Church of the Chaldeans of Mosul"; "Patriarch of the Chaldeans"; "Patriarch of Mosul";  or "Patriarch of the Eastern Assyrians", this last being the version given by Pietro Strozzi on the second-last unnumbered page before page 1 of his De Dogmatibus Chaldaeorum, of which an English translation is given in Adrian Fortescue's Lesser Eastern Churches. The "Eastern Assyrians", who, if not Catholic, were presumed to be Nestorians, were distinguished from the "Western Assyrians" (those west of the Tigris River), who were looked on as Jacobites. It was as Patriarch of the "Eastern Assyrians" that Sulaqa's successor, Abdisho IV Maron, was accredited for participation in the Council of Trent. The names already in use (except that of "Nestorian") were thus applied to the existing church (not a new one) for which the request to consecrate its patriarch was made by emissaries who gave the impression that the patriarchal see was vacant.

Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa returned home in the same year and, unable to take possession of the traditional patriarchal seat near Alqosh, resided in Amid. Before being put to death at the instigation of the partisans of the Patriarch from whom he had broken away, he ordained two metropolitans and three other bishops, thus initiating a new ecclesiastical hierarchy under what is known as the "Shimun line" of patriarchs, who soon moved from Amid eastward, settling, after many intervening places, in the isolated village of Qudshanis under Persian rule.

Successive leaders of those in communion with Rome
Sulaqa's earliest successors entered into communion with the Catholic Church, but in the course of over a century, their link with Rome grew weak. The last to request and obtain formal papal recognition died in 1600. They adopted hereditary succession to the patriarchate, opposition to which had caused the 1552 schism. In 1672, Shimun XIII Dinkha formally broke communion with Rome, adopting a profession of faith that contradicted that of Rome, while he maintained his independence from the Alqosh-based "Eliya line" of patriarchs. The "Shimun line" eventually became the patriarchal line of what since 1976 is officially called the Assyrian Church of the East.

Leadership of those who wished to be in communion with Rome then passed to Archbishop Joseph of Amid. In 1677 his leadership was recognized first by the Turkish civil authorities, and then in 1681 by Rome. (Until then, the authority of the Alqosh patriarch over Amid, which had been Sulaqa's residence but which his successors abandoned on having to move eastward into Safavid Iran, had been accepted by the Turkish authorities.)

All the (non-hereditary) successors in Amid of Joseph I, who in 1696 resigned for health reasons and lived on in Rome until 1707, took the name Joseph: Joseph II (1696–1713), Joseph III (1713–1757), Joseph IV (1757–1781). For that reason, they are known as the "Josephite line". Joseph IV presented his resignation in 1780 and it was accepted in 1781, after which he handed over the administration of the patriarchate to his nephew, not yet a bishop, and retired to Rome, where he lived until 1791.

Appointment of the nephew as patriarch would look like acceptance of the principle of hereditary succession. Besides, the Alqosh "Eliya line" was drawing closer to Rome, and the pro-Catholic faction within its followers was becoming predominant. For various reasons, including the ecclesiastical as well as political turbulence in Europe after the French Revolution, Rome was long unable to choose between two rival claimants to headship of the Chaldean Catholics.

The 1672 adoption by the "Shimun line" of patriarchs of Nestorian doctrine had been followed in some areas by widespread adoption of the opposing Christology upheld in Rome. This occurred not only in the Amid-Mardin area for which by Turkish decree Joseph I was patriarch, but also in the city of Mosul, where by 1700 nearly all the East Syrians were Catholics. The Rabban Hormizd Monastery, which was the seat of the "Eliya line" of patriarchs is 2 km from the village of Alqosh and about 45 km north of the city of Mosul.

In view of this situation, Patriarch Eliya XI wrote to the Pope in 1735, 1749 and 1756, asking for union. Then, in 1771, both he and his designated successor Ishoyabb made a profession of faith that Rome accepted, thus establishing communion in principle. When Eliya XI died in 1778, the metropolitans recognized as his successor Ishoyabb, who accordingly took the Eliya name (Eliya XII). To win support, Eliya made profession of the Catholic faith, but almost immediately renounced it and declared his support of the traditionalist (Nestorian) view.

Yohannan Hormizd, a member of the "Eliya line" family, opposed Eliya XII (1778–1804), the last of that line to be elected in the normal way as patriarch. In 1780 Yohannan was irregularly elected patriarch, as Sulaqa had been in 1552. He won over to communion with Rome most followers of the "Eliyya line". The Holy See did not recognize him as patriarch, but in 1791 appointed him archbishop of Amid and administrator of the Catholic patriarchate. The violent protests of Joseph IV's nephew, who was then in Rome, and suspicions raised by others about the sincerity of Yohannan's conversion prevented this being put into effect.

In 1793 it was agreed that Yohannan should withdraw from Amid to Mosul, the metropolitan see that he already held, but that the post of patriarch would not be conferred on his rival, Joseph IV's nephew. In 1802 the latter was appointed metropolitan of Amid and administrator of the patriarchate, but not patriarch. Nonetheless, he became commonly known as Joseph V. He died in 1828. Yohannan's rival for the Alqosh title of patriarch had died in 1804, with his followers so reduced in number that they did not elect any successor for him, thus bringing the Alqosh or Eliya line to an end.

Finally then, in 1830, a century and a half after the Holy See had conferred headship of the Chaldean Catholics on Joseph I of Amid, it granted recognition as Patriarch to Yohannan, whose (non-hereditary) patriarchal succession has since then lasted unbroken in the Chaldean Catholic Church.

Later history of the Chaldean Church
In 1838, the Kurds of Soran attacked the Rabban Hormizd Monastery and Alqosh, apparently thinking the villagers were Yazidis responsible for the murder of a Kurdish chieftain, and killed over 300 Chaldean Catholics, including Gabriel Dambo, the refounder of the monastery, and other monks.

In 1846, the Ottoman Empire, which had previously classified as Nestorians those who called themselves Chaldeans, granted them recognition as a distinct millet.

The most famous patriarch of the Chaldean Church in the 19th century was Joseph VI Audo who is remembered also for his clashes with Pope Pius IX mainly about his attempts to extend the Chaldean jurisdiction over the Malabar Catholics. This was a period of expansion for the Chaldean Catholic Church.

The activity of the Turkish army and their Kurdish and Arab allies, partly in response to armed support for Russia in the territory of the Qochanis patriarchate, brought ruin also to the Chaldean dioceses of Amid, Siirt and Gazarta and the metropolitans Addai Scher of Siirt and Philippe-Jacques Abraham of Gazarta were killed in 1915). In the 21st century, Father Ragheed Aziz Ganni, the pastor of the Chaldean Church of the Holy Spirit in Mosul, who graduated from the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome in 2003 with a licentiate in ecumenical theology, was killed on 3 June 2007 in Mosul alongside the subdeacons Basman Yousef Daud, Wahid Hanna Isho, and Gassan Isam Bidawed, after he celebrated mass. Ganni has since been declared a Servant of God.

Chaldean Archbishop Paulos Faraj Rahho and three companions were abducted on 29 February 2008, in Mosul, and murdered a few days later.

21st century: international diaspora
There are many Chaldeans in diaspora in the Western world, primarily in the American states of Michigan, Illinois and California.

In 2006, the Eparchy of Oceania, with the title of 'St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney of the Chaldeans' was set up with jurisdiction including the Chaldean Catholic communities of Australia and New Zealand. Its first Bishop, named by Pope Benedict XVI on 21 October 2006, was Archbishop Djibrail (Jibrail) Kassab, until this date, Archbishop of Bassorah in Iraq.

There has been a large immigration to the United States particularly to West Bloomfield and Oakland County in Southeast Michigan. Although the largest population resides in Southeast Michigan, there are populations in parts of California and Arizona as well, which all fall under the Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit. In addition, Canada in recent years has shown growing communities in provinces such as Ontario.

In 2008, Bawai Soro of the Assyrian Church of the East and 1,000 Assyrian families were received into full communion with the Chaldean Catholic Church.

On Friday, June 10, 2011, Pope Benedict XVI erected a new Chaldean Catholic eparchy in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and named Archbishop Yohannan Zora, who has worked alongside four priests with Catholics in Toronto (the largest community of Chaldeans) for nearly 20 years and who was previously an ad hominem Archbishop (he will retain this rank as head of the eparchy) and the Archbishop of the Archdiocese (Archeparchy) of Ahvaz (since 1974). The new eparchy, or diocese, will be known as the Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai. There are 38,000 Chaldean Catholics in Canada. Archbishop Zora was born in Batnaya, Iraq, on March 15, 1939. He was ordained in 1962 and worked in Iraqi parishes before being transferred to Iran in 1969.

The 2006 Australian census counted a total of 4,498 Chaldean Catholics in that country.

Historic membership censuses
Despite the internal discords of the reigns of Yohannan Hormizd (1830–1838), Nicholas I Zaya (1839–1847) and Joseph VI Audo (1847–1878), the 19th century was a period of considerable growth for the Chaldean church, in which its territorial jurisdiction was extended, its hierarchy strengthened and its membership nearly doubled. In 1850, the Anglican missionary George Percy Badger recorded the population of the Chaldean Catholic Church as 2,743 Chaldean families, or just under 20,000 persons.

Badger's figures cannot be squared with the figure of just over 4,000 Chaldean families recorded by Fulgence de Sainte Marie in 1796 nor with slightly later figures provided by Paulin Martin in 1867. Badger is known to have classified as Nestorian a considerable number of villages in the ʿAqra district which were Chaldean at this period, and he also failed to include several important Chaldean villages in other dioceses. His estimate is almost certainly far too low.

Paulin Martin's statistical survey in 1867, after the creation of the dioceses of ʿAqra, Zakho, Basra and Sehna by Joseph Audo, recorded a total church membership of 70,268, more than three times higher than Badger's estimate. Most of the population figures in these statistics have been rounded up to the nearest thousand, and they may also have been exaggerated slightly, but the membership of the Chaldean Catholic Church at this period was certainly closer to 70,000 than to Badger's 20,000.

A statistical survey of the Chaldean Catholic Church made in 1896 by J. B. Chabot included, for the first time, details of several patriarchal vicariates established in the second half of the 19th century for the small Chaldean communities in Adana, Aleppo, Beirut, Cairo, Damascus, Edessa, Kermanshah and Teheran; for the mission stations established in the 1890s in several towns and villages in the Qudshanis patriarchate; and for the newly created Chaldean diocese of Urmi. According to Chabot, there were mission stations in the town of Serai d’Mahmideh in Taimar and in the Hakkari villages of Mar Behıshoʿ, Sat, Zarne and 'Salamakka' (Ragula d'Salabakkan).

The last survey of the Chaldean Catholic Church before the First World War was made in 1913 by the Chaldean priest Joseph Tfinkdji, after a period of steady growth since 1896. It then consisted of the patriarchal archdiocese of Mosul and Baghdad, four other archdioceses (Amid, Kirkuk, Seert and Urmi), and eight dioceses (ʿAqra, ʿAmadiya, Gazarta, Mardin, Salmas, Sehna, Zakho and the newly created diocese of Van). Five more patriarchal vicariates had been established since 1896 (Ahwaz, Constantinople, Basra, Ashshar and Deir al-Zor), giving a total of twelve vicariates.

Tfinkdji's grand total of 101,610 Catholics in 199 villages is slightly exaggerated, as his figures included 2,310 nominal Catholics in twenty-one 'newly converted' or 'semi-Nestorian' villages in the dioceses of Amid, Seert and ʿAqra, but it is clear that the Chaldean Catholic Church had grown significantly since 1896. With around 100,000 believers in 1913, the membership of the Chaldean church was only slightly smaller than that of the Qudshanis patriarchate (probably 120,000 East Syriac Christians at most, including the population of the nominally Russian Orthodox villages in the Urmi district). Its congregations were concentrated in far fewer villages than those of the Qudshanis patriarchate, and with 296 priests, a ratio of roughly three priests for every thousand believers, it was rather more effectively served by its clergy. Only about a dozen Chaldean villages, mainly in the Seert and ʿAqra districts, did not have their own priests in 1913.

Tfinkdji's statistics also highlight the effect on the Chaldean Catholic Church of the educational reforms of the patriarch Joseph VI Audo. The Chaldean Catholic Church on the eve of the First World War was becoming less dependent on the monastery of Rabban Hormizd and the College of the Propaganda for the education of its bishops. Seventeen Chaldean bishops were consecrated between 1879 and 1913, of whom only one (Stephen Yohannan Qaynaya) was entirely educated in the monastery of Rabban Hormizd. Six bishops were educated at the College of the Propaganda (Joseph Gabriel Adamo, Toma Audo, Jeremy Timothy Maqdasi, Isaac Khudabakhash, Theodore Msayeh and Peter ʿAziz).

The future patriarch Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas was trained in the seminary of Ghazir near Beirut. Of the other nine bishops, two (Addai Sher and Francis David) were trained in the Syro-Chaldean seminary in Mosul, and seven (Philip Yaʿqob Abraham, Yaʿqob Yohannan Sahhar, Eliya Joseph Khayyat, Shlemun Sabbagh, Yaʿqob Awgin Manna, Hormizd Stephen Jibri and Israel Audo) in the patriarchal seminary in Mosul.

Organization
The Chaldean Catholic Church has the following dioceses:
 * Patriarchate of Baghdad
 * Metropolitan Archdioceses of Baghdad, Kirkuk, Tehran, Urmya
 * Archdioceses of Ahwaz, Basra, Diyarbakir, Erbil, Mosul
 * Eparchies of Aleppo, Alquoch, Amadiya, Akre, Beirut, Cairo, San Diego, Detroit, Toronto, Sydney, Salmas, Sulaimaniya, Zaku
 * Territories dependent on the Patriarch: Jerusalem, Jordan

The Latin name of the church is Ecclesia Chaldaeorum Catholica.

Hierarchy
The current Patriarch is Louis Raphaël I Sako, elected in January 2013. In October 2007, his predecessor, Emmanuel III Delly became the first Chaldean Catholic patriarch to be elevated to the rank of Cardinal within the Catholic Church.

The present Chaldean episcopate (January 2014) is as follows:

 * Louis Raphaël I Sako, Patriarch of Baghdad (since February 2013)
 * Emil Shimoun Nona, Bishop of St. Thomas the Apostle Chaldean and Assyrian Catholic Diocese of Australia and New Zealand (since 2015)
 * Bashar Warda, Archbishop of Erbil (since July 2010)
 * Ramzi Garmo, Archbishop of Tehran (since 1999) and Archbishop of Amid (Diyarbakir) (since 2020)
 * Thomas Meram, Archbishop of Urmia and Salmas (since 1984)
 * Jibrail Kassab, Bishop Emeritus, former Bishop of Sydney (2006–2015)
 * Jacques Ishaq, Titular Archbishop of Nisibis and curial Bishop of Babylon (since December 2005)
 * Habib Al-Naufali, Archbishop of Basra (since 2014)
 * Yousif Mirkis, Archbishop of Kirkuk and Sulaymaniyah (since 2014)
 * Mikha Pola Maqdassi, Bishop of Alqosh (since December 2001)
 * Shlemon Warduni, curial Bishop of Babylon (since 2001)
 * Saad Sirop, auxiliary Bishop of Babylon (since 2014) and Apostolic Visitor of Chaldean Catholic in Europe (since 2017)
 * Antony Audo, Bishop of Aleppo (since January 1992)
 * Michael Kassarji, Bishop of Lebanon (since 2001)
 * Rabban Al-Qas, Bishop Emeritus, former Bishop of ʿAmadiya (2001-2022)
 * Ibrahim Ibrahim, Bishop Emeritus, former Bishop of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit (April 1982 – 2014)
 * Francis Kalabat, Bishop of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit (since June 2014)
 * Sarhad Yawsip Jammo, Bishop Emeritus of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (2002–2016)
 * Bawai Soro, Bishop Emeritus, former Bishop of St. Addai Chaldean Eparchy of Canada (2017-2021)
 * Mikhael Najib, Archbishop of Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Mosul (since 2018)
 * Saad Felix Shabi, Bishop of Zakho (since 2020)
 * Robert Jarjis, Former Auxiliary Bishop of Baghdad (2018-2022) and Titular Bishop of Arsamosata (since 2019), Bishop of St. Addai Chaldean Eparchy of Canada (since 2021)
 * Emanuel Hana Shaleta, Bishop of St. Peter the Apostle Chaldean Catholic (San Diego, USA, since 2016)
 * Basel Yaldo, Curial Bishop of Babylon and Titular Bishop of BethZabda (since 2015)
 * Paulus Thabet Mako Auxiliary Bishop of Alqosh (since 2021)
 * Azad Sabri Shaba Bishop of Dohuk and Amadiya  (since 2022)

Several sees are vacant: Archeparchy of Ahwaz, Eparchy of 'Aqra, Eparchy of Cairo.

Daughters of Mary Immaculate
Daughters of Mary Immaculate is a Chaldean Catholic apostolic order with patriarchal rights, established in Baghdad on August 7, 1922, during the reign of Patriarch Mar Youssef Emmanuel II Thomas.

Chaldean Sisters was founded by Father Anton Zebouni, born on January 17, 1883, in Mosul, Iraq. Zebouni was ordained a priest on May 15, 1907, by Patriarch Emmanuel II Toma. In the aftermath of World War I, many in Iraq faced poverty and hardship. Father Zebouni, moved by the difficult conditions, sought to create a congregation for women to support the Chaldean community. With permission from the Patriarch, the congregation was established and dedicated to Mary Immaculate. The order's mission includes a life of contemplative unity with God. The sisters engage in apostolic work and prayer, seeking to discover and follow God's will for the salvation of souls.

The Chaldean Sisters initially aimed to address the crisis of homeless Chaldean youth. In 1927, they founded an orphanage in Baghdad, which was later relocated due to security issues. The orphanage eventually settled in Alqosh. Over the years, the congregation has grown to nearly 100 sisters serving in various locations, including Iraq, Lebanon, Rome, Australia, the United Arab Emirates, Detroit, Chicago, Arizona, Turlock, and San Diego.

The Chaldean Sisters have been instrumental in various educational and social services, including running schools, orphanages, and retirement homes. Their commitment to education and social service has had a significant impact on the communities they serve. In 2022, the Chaldean Sisters celebrated their 100th anniversary with a fundraiser event to support their education expenses and the formation and novitiate home in Farmington Hills, Michigan.

The order is known for its dedication to prayer, community life, and service, guided by their motto, “With Mary to the Highest,” emphasizing humility and dedication in their service. The Chaldean Sisters continue to be a vital part of the Chaldean Catholic community, contributing to the spiritual and social well-being of the people they serve.

Liturgy
The Chaldean Catholic Church uses the East Syriac Rite.

A slight reform of the liturgy was effective since 6 January 2007, and it aimed to unify the many different uses of each parish, to remove centuries-old additions that merely imitated the Roman Rite, and for pastoral reasons. The main elements of variations are: the Anaphora said aloud by the priest, the return to the ancient architecture of the churches, the restoration of the ancient use where the bread and wine are readied before a service begins, and the removal from the Creed of the Filioque clause.

Ecumenical relations
The Church's relations with its fellow Assyrians in the Assyrian Church of the East have improved in recent years. In 1994, Pope John Paul II and Patriarch Dinkha IV of the Assyrian Church of the East signed a Common Christological Declaration. On the 20 July 2001, the Holy See issued a document, in agreement with the Assyrian Church of the East, named Guidelines for admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, which confirmed also the validity of the Anaphora of Addai and Mari.

In 2015, while the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East was vacant following the death of Dinkha IV, the Chaldean Patriarch Louis Raphaël I Sako proposed unifying the three modern patriarchates into a re-established Church of the East with a single Patriarch in full communion with the Pope. The Assyrian Church of the East respectfully declined this proposal citing "ecclesiological divergences still remaining" and proceeded with its election of a new patriarch.

2020s
In 2024, Patriarch Louis Raphaël Sako, the head of Iraq’s Chaldean Catholic Church, led the Christians of his country in a three-day fast for peace, in Iraq, Israel, Ukraine, and the rest of the world.

title: Chaldean Catholic Church


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Harrow Weald

Harrow Weald is a suburban district in Greater London, England. Located about 2 mi north of Harrow, Harrow Weald is formed from a leafy 1930s suburban development along with ancient woodland of Harrow Weald Common. It forms part of the London Borough of Harrow.

Harrow Weald is bordered by Bushey Heath (north), Stanmore (west), Wealdstone (south), and is near to Headstone and Hatch End. It is in the HA postcode area.

Etymology
The word Weald is Old English in origin, meaning woodland. It was recorded as waldis in 1303 and welde in 1382, but the name Harrow Weald is not recorded until 1553. It was then part of the great Forest of Middlesex.

Geography and locale
Ancient woodland on high ground fills most of the northern part of Harrow Weald on the border of Greater London (and the traditional county of Middlesex) with Hertfordshire. The area is one of the highest in Greater London; the highest point in Middlesex is near the woods at 502 ft. The eastern part of the woods merges into those of Stanmore and encompasses Bentley Priory. The priory's grounds are now Bentley Priory Nature Reserve, a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest. Along the southern edge of the high ground runs the road Old Redding and a car park here gives views over parts of London. The western part of the woodland forms Harrow Weald Common, which adjoins Harrow Weald SSSI, a geological Site of Special Scientific Interest. Other smaller woods surround the Grim's Dyke Hotel, the former country house of W. S. Gilbert. Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas are frequently performed here. The house is named after the nearby earthwork Grim's Ditch, a 3 mi long ancient monument that runs from Harrow Weald to Pinner Green. The monument remains largely mysterious but is known to have been named in the Saxon era. The ditch hints at a long history of habitation in the area and many artefacts have been found on the common to support this.

Boxtree Park Friends group is based at Harrow Weald Recreation Ground. It is run by a group of local volunteers who look after and maintain the park on behalf of the community and in collaboration with Harrow Council.

The south of the area is a suburban development with houses, schools, small shops, supermarkets and pubs (notably Bombay Central, formerly the Weald Stone Inn, and before that the Red Lion). The area expanded around the First World War and continued to grow quickly: the population grew from 1,517 in 1901 to 10,923 in 1931.

The Harrow Weald campus of Harrow College (previously a grammar school, then a 16+ college) and Harrow Weald Cemetery are at the northern edge of the built up area. All Saints churchyard and its extension adjoin this cemetery and their most famous interment is of Leefe Robinson, a pilot who was awarded the Victoria Cross. Also buried at All Saints is the English-born Hollywood actor George Arliss (1868-1946), who won the Academy Award for Best Actor in 1930.

Demography
The 2011 census showed that in the Harrow Weald ward, 53% of the population was white (41% British, 6% Other, 5% Irish). The largest non-white group was Indian at 19%. Of the 4,160 household tenures, 68.4% of them are owned, 15.9% are socially rented and 13.7% are privately rented. The unemployment rate of economically active people was 4.9%. The median age of the population is 39.

Transport
There are no train stations in the centre of Harrow Weald, but Headstone Lane railway station is to the west, whereas Harrow & Wealdstone station is to the south.

Buses
London Bus routes 140, 182, 186, 258, 340, 640, H12, H18, H19 and N18 operate through the area. The N140 bus also goes through Harrow Weald, it was introduced on 17 June 1972.

Governance
Harrow Weald ward is in the Harrow East constituency, represented by Conservative MP Bob Blackman. The ward is represented by Conservative Cllrs Pritesh Patel, Cllr Stephen Greek and Cllr Ramji Chauhan.

title: Harrow Weald


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Leonard Jerome

Leonard Walter Jerome (November 3, 1817 – March 3, 1891) was an American financier in Brooklyn, New York, and the maternal grandfather of Winston Churchill.

Early life
Leonard Jerome was born in Pompey in Onondaga County, New York, on November 3, 1817. He was one of nine sons and one daughter born to Aurora (née Murray) Jerome (1785–1867) and Isaac Jerome (1786–1866). Isaac was a descendant of Timothy Jerome, a French Huguenot immigrant who arrived in the New York Colony in 1717. Jerome was born on a farm in the central New York town of Pompey, near Syracuse. His paternal grandmother was Betsy Ball, a relative of George Washington. His maternal ancestry was Scottish.

He originally enrolled in Princeton University, then known as the College of New Jersey (where two of his brothers studied theology and became Presbyterian ministers), as a member of the Class of 1839, before leaving for Union College, where he studied law with his uncle, known as Judge Jerome, and set up a practice in Rochester, New York. He later moved to New York City, where he became a stock speculator and promoter.

Career
Jerome was a flamboyant and successful stock speculator. He made and lost several fortunes, and was known as "The King of Wall Street". He held interests in several railroad companies and was often a partner in the deals of Cornelius Vanderbilt. He was a patron of the arts, and joined in the founding of the Academy of Music, one of New York City's earliest opera houses.

During the New York Draft Riots, Jerome defended the New York Times office building with a Gatling Gun. Although he had significant holdings in the Times, he was not the majority shareholder as is sometimes erroneously claimed.

The Jerome Mansion, on the corner of Madison Avenue and 26th Street, had a six-hundred-seat theatre, a breakfast room which seated seventy people, a ballroom of white and gold with champagne- and cologne-spouting fountains, and a view of Madison Square Park. It was later sold and housed a series of private clubs. The mansion was demolished in 1967.

Sporting activities
Jerome was an avid sportsman. He enjoyed yachting with his friend, William K. Vanderbilt. They shared a passion for thoroughbred horse racing and helped found the American Jockey Club.

In the late 1860s, Jerome was part of several hunting trips in the American West. These trips were guided by Buffalo Bill Cody.

In 1866, Jerome bought the estate and mansion of James Bathgate near Old Fordham Village in what was then rural Westchester County, but is now The Bronx. Jerome and financier August Belmont, Sr. built Jerome Park Racetrack on the Bathgate land; the first Belmont Stakes was held there in 1867. Jerome and his brother Lawrence had a wide boulevard made from Macombs Dam to the track, which city authorities attempted to name "Murphy Avenue" after a local politician. This incensed Jerome's wife so much that she had bronze plaques saying "Jerome Avenue" made up and bolted into place along the road, forcing the city to accept the name. The racetrack was acquired and demolished by the city in 1894, to make way for Jerome Park Reservoir. The Bathgate mansion served as a summer home for the Jerome family. In the early 1900s, the mansion was razed and replaced by the Kingsbridge Armory.

Jerome became a resident of Brooklyn. He, Vanderbilt, and other investors founded the Coney Island Jockey Club which in 1884 built the Sheepshead Bay Race Track.

Personal life
On April 5, 1849, Jerome married Clarissa Hall (1825–1895), daughter of the wealthy Amos Hall, in Palmyra, New York. Together, they had four daughters. One daughter, Camille, died at age eight. The other three – Jeanette, Clarita, and Leonie – became known, in some quarters, as "the Good, the Witty and the Beautiful". Leonard Jerome's wealth afforded his daughters the opportunity to spend much time in Europe, where they associated with the aristocratic elite of the day. All three daughters married British or Anglo-Irish husbands:

 * Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jeanette Jerome; known as Jennie), who married Lord Randolph Churchill (1849–1895), younger son of the Duke of Marlborough, and was mother to Winston Churchill and John Strange Spencer-Churchill.
 * Clarita Frewen (née Clarita Jerome), known as Clara, who married Moreton Frewen (1853–1924), fifth son of Thomas Frewen MP, a charming spendthrift who ran up huge debts trying to operate a ranch in Wyoming, and through gambling, sports, and women. They had two sons, Hugh and Oswald, and one daughter, Clare Sheridan.
 * Leonie, Lady Leslie (née Leonie Jerome), who married Sir John Leslie (1857–1944), an Irish baronet, whose family estates covered 70000 acre. They had four sons. For many years, she maintained a liaison with Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn.

Jerome was also rumored to be the father of the American opera singer Minnie Hauk. He also had an affair in the 1860s with Fanny Ronalds, then separated from her husband. Ronalds later lived in London, where she remained a friend of Jerome's daughter Jennie.

Leonard Jerome died at the age of 73 in Brighton, England, surrounded by his wife and surviving daughters. He was originally buried at Kensal Green Cemetery in England, and later buried in the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn.

Legacy
Jerome Avenue in the Bronx, Jerome Avenue in Brooklyn, Jerome Park Reservoir, and the Jerome Stakes are all named after him.

In 2023 Jerome was posthumously inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame as a Pillar of the Turf for his contributions to thoroughbred racing.

title: Leonard Jerome


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Giovanni Carrara

Giovanni Carrara Jiménez (born March 4, 1968) is a Venezuelan former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Toronto Blue Jays, Cincinnati Reds, Colorado Rockies, Los Angeles Dodgers, and Seattle Mariners, and in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) for the Seibu Lions. He is currently the pitching coach for the Palm Beach Cardinals.

Career
Carrera initially struggled as a starting pitcher in the major leagues but later became an effective long reliever. He had a 90–92 MPH fastball, along with a couple of breaking balls, a deceptive slow curve, and particularly his off-speed pitch; a hard one that was somewhere between a slider and cut fastball. He controlled the running game as well, with a good move to both first base and second, and a quick delivery to the plate.

On August 15, 2001, Carrara combined with fellow Venezuelan pitchers Omar Daal, Kelvim Escobar, and Freddy García to win their respective starts: Carrara, of the Dodgers, facing Montreal, 13–1; Daal, in a Phillies victory over the Brewers, 8–6; Escobar, of the Blue Jays, over Oakland, 5–2, and García, of Seattle, against the Red Sox, 6–2. This marked the first time in major league history that four pitchers coming from Venezuela recorded a winning game in their respective starts on the same day.

On August 26, 2006, Carrara was designated for assignment by the Dodgers. He was called up in September 2006 when rosters expanded and used sparingly after re-joining the big league club. The Dodgers chose not to re-sign Carrara in the offseason.

On May 4, 2007, Carrara was signed by the Caffè Danesi Nettuno of Serie A1 in Italy. In 2008, he was 8–2 with a 2.35 ERA and 49 strikeouts.

title: Giovanni Carrara


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Street light

A street light, light pole, lamp pole, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or path. Similar lights may be found on a railway platform. When urban electric power distribution became ubiquitous in developed countries in the 20th century, lights for urban streets followed, or sometimes led.

Many lamps have light-sensitive photocells that activate the lamp automatically when needed, at times when there is little-to-no ambient light, such as at dusk, dawn, or at the onset of dark weather conditions. This function in older lighting systems could be performed with the aid of a solar dial. Many street light systems are being connected underground instead of wiring from one utility post to another. Street lights are an important source of public security lighting intended to reduce crime.

Preindustrial era
Early lamps were used in the Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilizations, where light primarily served the purpose of security, both to protect the wanderer from tripping on the path over something or keeping potential robbers at bay. At that time, oil lamps were used predominantly, as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. A slave responsible for lighting the oil lamps in front of Roman villas was called a lanternarius.

However, denizens of Beijing could be the first to use "fixed position lighting" (unlike hand-carried torches and lamps), as far back as 500 B.C., utilizing hollow bamboo as a piping and naturally occurring gas vents to create a kind of street lamp.

In the words of Edwin Heathcote: "Romans illuminated the streets with oil lamps, and cities from Baghdad to Cordoba were similarly lit when most of Europe was living in what it is now rather unfashionable to call the Dark Ages but which were, from the point of view of street lighting, exactly that."

So-called "link boys" escorted people from one place to another through the murky, winding streets of medieval towns.

Before incandescent lamps, candle lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps. According to some sources, illumination was ordered in London in 1417 by Sir Henry Barton, Mayor of London though there is no firm evidence of this.

Public street lighting was first developed in the 16th century, and accelerated following the invention of lanterns with glass windows by Edmund Heming in London and Jan van der Heyden in Amsterdam, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parliament decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Still, in the mid 17th century it was a common practice for travelers to hire a lantern-bearer if they had to move at night through the dark, winding streets. King Louis XIV authorized sweeping reforms in Paris in 1667, which included the installation and maintenance of lights on streets and at intersections, as well as stiff penalties for vandalizing or stealing the fixtures. Paris had more than 2,700 streetlights by the end of the 17th century, and twice as many by 1730. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended 20 yd apart on a cord over the middle of the street at a height of 20 ft; as an English visitor enthused in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, public street lighting was implemented around the end of the 17th century; a diarist wrote in 1712 that 'All the way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen's Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating the roads on dark nights.'

A much-improved oil lantern, called a réverbère, was introduced in 1745 and improved in subsequent years. The light shed from these réverbères was considerably brighter, enough that some people complained of glare. These lamps were attached to the top of lampposts; by 1817, there were 4,694 lamps on the Paris streets. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the revolutionaries found that the lampposts were a convenient place to hang aristocrats and other opponents.

Gas lamp lighting
The first widespread system of street lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. Stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal in 1726 and John Clayton, in 1735, called gas the "spirit" of coal and discovered its flammability by accident.

William Murdoch (sometimes spelled "Murdock") was the first to use this gas for the practical application of lighting. In the early 1790s, while overseeing the use of his company's steam engines in tin mining in Cornwall, Murdoch began experimenting with various types of gas, finally settling on coal-gas as the most effective. He first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population.

The first public street lighting with gas was demonstrated in Pall Mall, London on 4 June 1807 by Frederick Albert Winsor. In 1811, Engineer Samuel Clegg designed and built what is now considered the oldest extant gasworks in the world. Gas was used to light the worsted mill in the village of Dolphinholme in North Lancashire. The remains of the works, including a chimney and gas plant, have been put on the National Heritage List for England. Clegg's installation saved the building's owners the cost of up to 1,500 candles every night. It also lit the mill owner's house and the street of millworkers' houses in Dolphinholme.

In 1812, Parliament granted a charter to the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company, and the first gas company in the world came into being. Less than two years later, on 31 December 1813, the Westminster Bridge was lit by gas.

Following this success, gas lighting spread outside London, both within Britain and abroad. The first place outside London in England to have gas lighting, was Preston, Lancashire in 1816, where Joseph Dunn's Preston Gaslight Company introduced a new, brighter gas lighting. Another early adopter was the city of Baltimore, where the gaslights were first demonstrated at Rembrandt Peale's Museum in 1816, and Peale's Gas Light Company of Baltimore provided the first gas streetlights in the United States. In the 1860s, streetlights were started in the Southern Hemisphere in New Zealand.

The world's first city with kerosene public street lamps in 1857 – were lit the City of Bucharest (Romania) – "Bucharest made history as the first city in the world that introduced oil lighting, being illuminated with 1,000 kerosene lamps. The year before, in the winter of 1856, Romanian investor Teodor Mehedinteanu started the construction of the first refinery equipped with modern facilities in Ploiesti. He managed to complete the project in 1857", Romania yet to become the world's first country to build an industrial oil refinery according to the World Record Academy and was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics. Kerosene street lamps were invented by a Polish pharmacist Ignacy Łukasiewicz in the city of Lviv (Ukraine) in 1853. His kerosene lamps were later widely used in Bucharest, Paris, and across Europe.He went on to open the world's first mine in 1854 and the world's first kerosene refinery in 1856 in Jasło (Poland).

In Paris, public street lighting was first installed on a covered shopping street, the Passage des Panoramas, in 1817, private interior gas lighting having been previously demonstrated in a house on the rue Saint-Dominique seventeen years prior. The first gas lamps on the main streets of Paris appeared in January 1829 on the place du Carrousel and the Rue de Rivoli, then on the Rue de la Paix, place Vendôme, and rue de Castiglione. By 1857, the Grands Boulevards were all lit with gas; a Parisian writer enthused in August 1857: "That which most enchants the Parisians is the new lighting by gas of the boulevards...From the church of the Madeleine all the way to rue Montmartre, these two rows of lamps, shining with a clarity white and pure, have a marvelous effect." The gaslights installed on the boulevards and city monuments in the 19th century gave the city the nickname "The City of Light."

Oil-gas appeared in the field as a rival of coal-gas. In 1815, John Taylor patented an apparatus for the decomposition of "oil" and other animal substances. Public attention was attracted to "oil-gas" by the display of the patent apparatus at Apothecary's Hall, by Taylor & Martineau.

Farola fernandina
Farola fernandina is a traditional design of gas streetlight which remains popular in Spain. Essentially it is a neoclassical French style of gas lamp dating from the late 18th century. It may be either a wall-bracket or standard lamp. The standard base is cast metal with an escutcheon bearing two intertwined letters 'F', the Royal cypher of King Ferdinand VII of Spain and commemorates the date of the birth of his daughter, the Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier.

Arc lamps
The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the 'Electric candle', 'Jablotchkoff candle', or 'Yablochkov candle' developed by a Russian, Pavel Yablochkov, in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. In 1876, the common council of the city of Los Angeles ordered four arc lights installed in various places in the fledgling town for street lighting.

On 30 May 1878, the first electric streetlights in Paris were installed on the avenue de l'Opera and the Place de l'Étoile, around the Arc de Triomphe, to celebrate the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition. In 1881, to coincide with the Paris International Exposition of Electricity, streetlights were installed on the major boulevards.

The first streets in London lit with the electrical arc lamp were by the Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in 1878. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske. The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers.

Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.

Incandescent lighting
The first street to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, in Newcastle. The street was lit for one night by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879. Consequently, Newcastle has the first city street in the world to be lit by electric lighting. The first city in the United States to successfully demonstrate electric lighting was Cleveland, Ohio, with 12 electric lights around the Public Square road system on 29 April 1879. Wabash, Indiana lit 4 Brush arc lamps with 3,000 candlepower each, suspended over their courthouse on 2 February 1880, making the town square "as light as midday".

Kimberley, Cape Colony (modern South Africa), was the first city in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have electric streetlights – with 16 first lit on 2 September 1882. The system was only the second in the world, after that of Philadelphia, to be powered municipally.

In Central America, San Jose, Costa Rica lit 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant on 9 August 1884.

Nuremberg was the first city in Germany to have electric public lighting on 7 June 1882, followed by Berlin on 20 September 1882 (Potsdamer Platz only).

Temesvár (Timișoara in present-day Romania) was the first city in the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy to have electric public lighting on 12 November 1884; 731 lamps were used.

On 9 December 1882, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia was introduced to electricity by having a demonstration of 8 arc lights, erected along Queen Street Mall. The power to supply these arc lights was taken from a 10 hp Crompton DC generator driven by a Robey steam engine in a small foundry in Adelaide Street and occupied by J. W. Sutton and Co. In 1884 Walhalla, Victoria, Victoria, had two lamps installed on the main street by the Long Tunnel (Gold) Mining Company. In 1886, the isolated mining town of Waratah in Tasmania was the first to have an extensive system of electrically powered street lighting installed. In 1888, the New South Wales town of Tamworth installed a large system illuminating a significant portion of the city, with over 13 km of streets lit by 52 incandescent lights and 3 arc lights. Powered by a municipal power company, this system gave Tamworth the title of "First City of Light" in Australia.

On 10 December 1885, Härnösand became the first town in Sweden with electric street lighting, following the Gådeå power station being taken into use.

Later developments
Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity gas-discharge lamps. They were often operated at high-voltage series circuits. Series circuits were popular since their higher voltage produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district.

To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each streetlamp was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series streetlights were equipped with isolation transformers. that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not.

Later, the film cutout was invented. This was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power restored to the rest of the district. The streetlight circuit contained an automatic current regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above ground.

Modern lights
Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps. Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps became commonplace after World War II for their low power consumption and long life. Late in the 20th century high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps were preferred, taking further the same virtues. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity.

Two national standards now allow for variation in illuminance when using lamps of different spectra. In Australia, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. In the UK, illuminances are reduced with higher values S/P ratio.

New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights, emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens. It is a commonly accepted practice to justify and implement a lower luminance level for roadway lighting based on increased scotopic lumens provided by white light. However, this practice fails to provide the context needed to apply laboratory-based visual performance testing to the real world. Critical factors such as visual adaptation are left out of this practice of lowering luminance levels, leading to reduced visual performance. Additionally, there have been no formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on implementation of these new technologies until the standards are updated. Eastbourne in East Sussex, UK is currently undergoing a project to see 6000 of its streetlights converted to LED and will be closely followed by Hastings in early 2014. Many UK councils are undergoing mass-replacement schemes to LED, and though streetlights are being removed along many long stretches of UK motorways (as they are not needed and cause light pollution), LEDs are preferred in areas where lighting installations are necessary.

Milan, Italy, is the first major city to have entirely switched to LED lighting.

In North America, the city of Mississauga, Canada was one of the first and largest LED conversion projects, with over 46,000 lights converted to LED technology between 2012 and 2014. It is also one of the first cities in North America to use Smart City technology to control the lights. DimOnOff, a company based in Quebec City, was chosen as a Smart City partner for this project. In the United States, the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan was the first metropolitan area to fully implement LED street lighting in 2006. Since then, Sodium-vapor lamps were slowly being replaced by LED lamps.

Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments.

In 2007, the Civil Twilight Collective created a variant of the conventional LED streetlight, namely the Lunar-resonant streetlight. These lights increase or decrease the intensity of the streetlight according to the lunar light. This streetlight design thus reduces energy consumption as well as light pollution.

Measurement
Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge the scotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions,  creating a Unified System of Photometry. These mesopic visual performance models are conducted in laboratory conditions in which the viewer is not exposed to higher levels of luminance than the level being tested for. Further research is needed to bring additional factors into these models such as visual adaptation and the biological mechanics of rod cells before these models are able to accurately predict visual performance in real world conditions. The current understanding of visual adaptation and rod cell mechanics suggests that any benefits from rod-mediated scotopic vision are difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in real world conditions under the presence of high luminance light sources.

Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.

Advantages
Major advantages of street lighting include prevention of automobile accidents and increase in safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in numerous crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times more likely in the dark than in daylight. At least in the 1980s and 1990s, when automobile crashes were far more common, street lighting was found to reduce pedestrian crashes by approximately 50%. Furthermore, in the 1970s, lighted intersections and highway interchanges tended to have fewer crashes than unlighted intersections and interchanges.

Some say lighting reduces crime, as many would expect. However, others say any correlation (let alone causation) is not found in the data.

Towns, cities, and villages can use the unique locations provided by lampposts to hang decorative or commemorative banners. Many communities in the US use lampposts as a tool for fundraising via lamppost banner sponsorship programs first designed by a US based lamppost banner manufacturer.

Disadvantages
The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if misused, and cause light pollution.

Health and safety
There are three optical phenomena that need to be recognized in streetlight installations.
 * The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a streetlight their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. Additionally, research has shown that pupil reflexes are more pronounced and post-light recovery takes longer after exposure to blue light compared to red light. This poses a continually increasing risk as blue-rich light sources become more common in roadway lighting and vehicle headlights. As a person gets older, the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.
 * The loss of night vision due to visual adaptation of retinal cells to a higher luminance level provided by streetlights. Once an individual leaves the illuminated area their retinal cells require adaptation time before they are sensitive to objects and motion under the lower luminance levels of unlit areas.
 * Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle.
 * Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify lampposts and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with the post.

There are also physical dangers to the posts of streetlamps, other than children climbing them for recreational purposes. Streetlight stanchions (lampposts) pose a collision risk to motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (known as frangible, collapsible, or passively safe supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lower portions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple streetlights.

Astronomy
Light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy. In settings near astronomical telescopes and observatories, low pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky, which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light.

Ecosystems
Streetlights can impact biodiversity and ecosystems—for instance, disrupting the migration of some nocturnally migrating bird species. In the Netherlands, Philips found that birds can get disoriented by the red wavelengths in street lighting, and in response developed alternative lighting that only emit in the green and blue wavelengths of the visible spectrum. The lamps were installed on Ameland in a small scale test. If successful, the technology could be used on ships and offshore installations to avoid luring birds towards the open sea at night. Bats can be negatively impacted by streetlights, with evidence showing that red light can be least harmful. As a result, some areas have installed red LED streetlights to minimise disruption to bats. A study published in Science Advances reported that streetlights in southern England had detrimental impacts on local insect populations. Streetlights can also impact plant growth and the number of insects that depend on plants for food.

Energy consumption
As of 2017, globally 70% of all electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, a source of air pollution and greenhouse gases, and also globally there are approximately 300 million streetlights using that electricity. Cities are exploring more efficient energy use, reducing streetlight power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours and switching to LED streetlights which illuminate a smaller area to a lower level of luminance. Many councils are using a part-night lighting scheme to turn off lighting at quieter times of night. This is typically midnight to 5:30 AM, as seen by the sign on the right. There have, however, been questions about the impact on crime rates. Typical collector road lighting in New York State costs $6,400/mile/year for high pressure sodium at 8.5 kW/mile or $4,000 for light-emitting diode luminaires at 5.4 kW/mile. Improvements can be made by optimising directionality and shape, however. Transitioning to wide angle lights enabled the doubling of distance between streetlights in Flanders from 45 m to 90 m, cutting annual street lighting electricity expenditures to €9 million for the 2,150 km long network that was retrofitted, corresponding to ca. €4,186/km.

Street light control systems
A number of street light control systems have been developed to control and reduce energy consumption of a town's public lighting system. These range from controlling a circuit of street lights and/or individual lights with specific ballasts and network operating protocols. These may include sending and receiving instructions via separate data networks, at high frequency over the top of the low voltage supply or wireless.

Street light controllers are smarter versions of the mechanical or electronic timers previously used for street light ON-OFF operation. They come with energy conservation options like twilight saving, staggering or dimming. Many street light controllers come with an astronomical clock for a particular location or a Global Positioning System (GPS) connection to give the best ON-OFF time and energy saving.

Accessories
Some intelligent street light controllers also come with Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Radio frequency (RF) or General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) communication, user adjusted according to latitude and longitude (low cost type), for better street light management and maintenance. Many street light controllers also come with traffic sensors to manage the lux level of the lamp according to the traffic and to save energy by decreasing lux when there is no traffic. The United States, Canada, India, and many other countries have started introducing street light controllers to their road lighting for energy conservation, street light management and maintenance purpose.

Economics
Street light controllers can be expensive in comparison with normal timers, and can cost between $100 and $2,500, but most of them return the investment between 6 months and 2 years. As the equipment's lifetime is 7 to 10 years, it saves energy and cost after the initial investment has been recouped.

Image-based street light control
A number of companies are now manufacturing intelligent street lighting that adjust light output based on usage and occupancy, i.e. automating classification of pedestrian versus cyclist, versus automobile, sensing also velocity of movement and illuminating a certain number of streetlights ahead and fewer behind, depending on velocity of movement. Also, the lights adjust depending on road conditions, for example, snow produces more reflectance therefore reduced light is required.

Purpose
There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Using the wrong types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety.

Beacon lights
A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it, so that they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways, this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.

Roadway lights
Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (a freeway junction or exit ramp), the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well-designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.

If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multi-lane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights, it should not be lit intermittently since this requires repeated eye readjustment, which causes eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools. In this case, the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close, regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb.

Cycle path lights

Policies that encourage utility cycling have been proposed and implemented, including lighting bike paths to increase safety at night.

Usage on rail transport
Lights similar to street lights are used on railway platforms at train stations in the open air. Their purpose is similar to that of beacon lights: they help a train driver see the location of a station at night as the train comes closer to it, so that the driver can adjust the braking and know exactly where to stop. A train station light must never shine directly onto the tracks, and has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any platform for the benefit of passengers waiting there.

Maintenance
Street lighting systems require ongoing maintenance, which can be classified as either reactive or preventative. Reactive maintenance is a direct response to a lighting failure, such as replacing a discharge lamp after it has failed, or replacing an entire lighting unit after it has been hit by a vehicle. Preventative maintenance is scheduled replacement of lighting components, for example, replacing all the discharge lamps in an area of the city when they have reached 85% of their expected life. In the United Kingdom, the Roads Liaison Group has issued a Code of Practice recommending specific reactive and preventative maintenance procedures.

Some street lights in New York City have an orange or red light on top of the luminaire (light fixture) or a red light attached to the lamppost. This indicates that near to this lighting pole or in the same intersection, there is a fire alarm pull box. Other street lights have a small red light next to the street light bulb; when the small light flashes, it indicates an issue with the electric current.

Street lights as public goods
Street lights are the basic example of public goods, which are nonexcludable and nonrival. This means that the producer cannot prevent those who do not pay from consuming, and the consumption of one person cannot prevent the consumption of another person. This becomes a problem for governments, because no private company would have the incentive to produce street lights, which is why most governments are in charge of placing and maintaining street lights. For example, in Armenia, building and maintaining infrastructure is the duty of local self-governance.

title: Street light


text: User talk:216.36.182.2

title: User talk:216.36.182.2