text:
Talk:Mos maiorum

Justification for stub
I disagree. I just think it's a lazy stub which is worth having a page for someday. Doops 22:38, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

Complaints
This article is a mess and wants taking in hand. Examples: AWhiteC 07:11, 12 August 2006 (UTC)
 * What does "conscientiousness precision of conduct" mean? - is there a comma missing?
 * How come the "six cornerstones" are eight in number?
 * How come Parsimonia is uniquely capitalised? (minor point)
 * Reviewing the history of this page, it is apparent that there has been squabbling over what should and should not be in the list. The way to resolve this is to justify all inclusions with citations/references.

 * Also, I don't know Latin, but... is parsimonia really best translated as "stinginess"? That's an inherently negative word. Perhaps "frugality" would be a better translation? Narsil 00:36, 10 October 2006 (UTC)

 * That depends... "frugal", contrary to popular misconception, means neither "cheap" nor "to use very little" but rather "to make the most of". A person who takes a roasted Thanksgiving turkey and makes several meals out of it (Thanksgiving feast, turkey sandwiches, leftover stuffing, soup from the bones, etc) is being frugal, even if the turkey was an expensive gourmet bird. So, would "frugality" really be the best translation of "parsimonia"? 66.102.198.31 (talk) 13:35, 24 December 2008 (UTC)

Why was parismonia changed?
It means stinginess. not frugal

where does this list come from?
Is there an ancient source? Who made this list? - Christopher 15:27, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

You forgot Poland!
I mean dignitas... in that unsourceable list. :) --- Pichote (talk) 17:51, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

virtus?
What about virtus? Is virtus not one of the most significant of these?

.

Error in Pietas
In the section named "Pietas" the following caught my eye:
 * For example, Julius Caesar displayed pietas during his life by beginning in 42 BCE and dedicating in 48 BCE, after the battle of Pharsalus, a temple to Venus Genetrix.

Since BCE years count backwards this made no sense. I found the following in the Stambaugh reference on page 119 via Google Books:

 * The Forum Iulium ... Begun by Julius Caesar in 54 BC and dedicated in 46 BC, its architectural focus was the Temple of Venus Genetrix ...

Looks like some fact checking may be in order. Is this a simple case of swapped dates or are the dates really way off? If the Forum was dedicated in 46 BCE then when was the Temple itself dedicated? 66.102.198.31 (talk) 14:05, 24 December 2008 (UTC)

Latin version
There really should be an article about this on the Latin Wikipedia. Anyone else agree? 83.226.206.82 (talk) 16:10, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

Organization
This article could benefit from better organization; some sections overlap, repeat, and don't follow each other in any logical order. Cynwolfe (talk) 02:03, 9 September 2010 (UTC)

The stuff was quite good and informative. I agree the form and the English were bad. I was waiting for the author to complete the citations.

I disagree on your view the article is not organised: it deals with the topic from different POVs.

I would appreciate you leave a note before deleting my work: this is a rule I had always followed (well I never deleted whole articles or big chunks). But everyone has his own style.Aldrasto11 (talk) 15:15, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I'd like to offer Aldrasto a genuine apology here. I deleted more of the article than I intended to. A great deal of what I deleted was unsourced, but I would normally have left it unless it was misleading. In this case, the material was not misleading, but its relevance wasn't made explicit to the topic of mos maiorum; the individual topics, such as patria potestas, were treated at extended length as topics in and of themselves, when they're already treated elsewhere in the encyclopedia. Here, patria potestas should only be a short paragraph under a subhead something like "The mos of the Roman family", explaining the pertinence of the mos and with a "See also" to the relevant article (this is all part of "wikifying"). The same was true of the section on the patron-client relationship, which required a minimal description specifically focused on how this relationship pertains to the topic of the mos maiorum, not what that relationship is (perhaps under a heading such as "The mos and society"). Patronage, however, is currently given a greatly confused treatment on WP in no fewer than four separate articles that need to be merged into one: patronus, cliens, Client (ancient Rome), and, may the gods help us, Clientela.

 * In addition, the relation of material pertaining to the magistracies needed to be focused on illuminating the mos, not explaining the magistracies per se; this topic is extensively covered on WP under Roman Magistrates, cursus honorum, Constitution of the Roman Kingdom, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, Constitution of the Roman Republic, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Constitution of the Roman Empire, Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire, and articles on such things as elections. Again, the subhead would be something like "The mos and politics." The article needed to keep its focus on explaining what mos maiorum means, not providing a survey of Roman society. I apologize for cutting these sections altogether; I bailed. I have revisited the article once or twice since then to begin the process of restoring material with citations.

 * Another example of where I edited is the section on the Roman "virtues," where I whittled rather than deleted. Again, length and focus were at issue. Many of these have their own articles. What's needed here is simply to look at these as examples of abstractions that constitute an unwritten code of conduct, that is, the mos.

 * Actually, Aldrasto, I don't know what of the unsourced material I deleted was yours and what others had provided, but the quality of the writing was not at issue here. (Except, to repeat myself, that we often seemed not to be specifically illuminating the topic of mos maiorium, but to be writing other articles already written — this is a matter of emphasis. In this article, we're not explaining all the things that made up the mos maiorum; rather, we're explaining the mos maiorum by presenting its components, most of which are treated in separate articles.) Again, I apologize for what is no doubt rash editing here. You should not hesitate to take a section and restore it with citations from the ample English-language sources; however, I do advise that you look carefully at whether you're treating a topic at length that already has its own article on WP, and to use links and cross-referencing to stay on topic and keep the article at a readable length for a generalist encyclopedia. I can provide the links to the relevant WP guidelines and policies if you would find that helpful. Cynwolfe (talk) 16:16, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

I had a look to page history, I contributed only the final part of the article, starting with heading : History. Your remarks apply to other bits not to mine. As you can see what I contributed does not deal with issues you mention: it is a survey of the bearings of mores on Roman legal and social history, from a broad range of different viewpoints.

I wish to point out once again that the article is not my job: it has been written for Wiki.it by a student of Roman law. I checked the original but no citations have been provided as yet, thus I cannot help there. He however has given a list of very authoritative works in the bibliography.Aldrasto11 (talk) 04:36, 22 September 2010 (UTC)

After a long  time I see my contributions on the core issue of the concept of mos maiorum as the real societal and legal framework of Rome have not been restored. Law, i.e. legal procedure, legal casuistic etc. was in the hands of clergy, the pointiffs and the augurs, and they acted on the basis of their secret knowldge. This is the essential issue of the confrontation and development in the topic of m.m. that the contribution I translated adressed.Aldrasto11 (talk) 04:47, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

 * I see what you're saying, but in English scholarship, mos is usually contrasted to Roman law, and is used in a much broader sense than "religious awe" in archaic Rome to encompass, well, what Hölkeskamp says. I don't see how anyone can read the literature of the 1st centuries BC and AD and conclude that Rome society was shaped by clergy in the way that medieval Europe was. Cynwolfe (talk) 12:49, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the comment. I do not know what Hölkeskamp maintains. On the issue of Roman society being in fact a theocracy, this is the opinion of eminent scholars, e. g.. Leonhard Schmitz (perhaps also Jerzy Linderski...). Of course the nature of Roman religion or religious lore is very different from Christianity so any parallel medieval with Europe is impossible, misleading..

 * I read the articles Roman law and Jus which look insufficient in this respect. Roman law has a little info about Gn. Flavius and his making public legal procedure. However I got the impression from my readings that the whole development of Roman political history is a fight between those who were excluded from the mastership of the legal procedural trappings and those who were in charge of them. I.e. power, political and economic, lay in the hands of those who were the depositaries of these legal trappings. Or, from the opposite (also marxist) standpoint, one could argue that religiously grounded customary legal practise was a tool of political domination. Although magistrates were not priests they acted also as such. And aristocracy had a monopoly on religion (pointiffs til Tib. Coruncanius and augurs). The publication of the XII Tables was not a solution as it did not explicitate actual procedure: if you are not knowledgeable on procedural matters law is void. So in fact pointiffs and augurs were able to dominate political and social life, of course with some checks by the tribunes of the plebs. (Augurs were later elected but within a  group which had been selected-coopted).

 * What the author tried to make clear is that, unlike what the article says, the m. m. were not, or not only (and mainly) the traditional Roman virtues: they were a set of traditional lore that reached far into the field of religion, custom and law, and illegally (or perhaps uncostitutionally) dominated public life, at least until the crisis of the II-I century BC. Many scholars see Roman history as a perennial infighting against those who held the exclusive access to the knowledge and manipulation of the m. m.,  i.e. customary and religiously founded/related legal and political practise.Aldrasto11 (talk) 04:56, 23 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mos maiorum


text:
User talk:Glamourboy

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

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Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Glamourboy! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 2 of the articles that you created  are  Unreferenced Biographies of Living Persons. Please note that all biographies of living persons must be sourced. If you were to add reliable, secondary sources to these articles, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the articles are adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the list:

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Nomination of Bill Wallace (musician) for deletion
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Glamourboy


text:
Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)

Unplugged is a 1992 live album by Eric Clapton, recorded at Bray Studios, England in front of an audience for the MTV Unplugged television series. It includes a version of the successful 1992 single "Tears in Heaven" and an acoustic version of "Layla". The album itself won three Grammy awards at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in 1993 and became the bestselling live album of all time, and Clapton's bestselling album, selling 26 million copies worldwide.

Recording
Clapton performed the show in front of a small audience on 16 January 1992 at Bray Film Studios in Windsor, England. In addition to the final album tracks, the performance included early versions of "My Father's Eyes" and "Circus Left Town" along with "Worried Life Blues" and a version of "Rollin' and Tumblin'".

Shortly after telling the studio audience "that's it," Clapton said they needed to do "two – no, three - no, five" songs over again, adding "if you don't mind, I don't mind." After the second take of "My Father's Eyes" there was a brief break and cameras were off. He broke into an impromptu "Rollin' and Tumblin'", which he had last performed with Cream. The seasoned musicians quickly picked up on it and the crowd clapped along. The director signaled the crew to record, which is why there is such an abrupt start to the song mid-verse. Clapton was so pleased with it that when the song ended, he asked the director, "did you get that?"

For much of the performance, Clapton played Martin 000-42 acoustic guitars. In 2004, one of the guitars sold for $791,500 (£434,400) at auction.

Critical reception
The album was released on 25 August 1992 to some of the best reviews of his career. The album renewed the public's interest in Clapton, and boosted his popularity. Critical reception has been mixed though muted; in general, reviewers report that the album, if unremarkable, is "relaxed" and "pleasant". Stephen Thomas Erlewine for AllMusic feels that people have misrepresented and mythologised the album; that though it came after Paul McCartney's MTV Unplugged album, Unplugged (The Official Bootleg) (1991), people often mistake it for "the first-ever MTV album", that they often feel that "it alone was responsible for revitalizing Clapton's career", and that "Tears in Heaven" was first recorded here. Erlewine feels that the songs are "lively and relaxed", that Clapton turns "Layla" from an "anguished howl of pain into a cozy shuffle and the whole album proceeds at a similar amiable gait" while "Clapton is embracing his middle age". Robert Christgau was sharper in his comments, feeling that in an effort to be inoffensive "Clapton-the-electric-guitarist" has been relegated "to the mists of memory", and that "Layla" was turned into a "whispery greeting card".

Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune calls the release a "blues album for yuppies" and rates it with 2.5 of 4 stars, saying it is between fair and good. Entertainment Weekly journalist Steve Simels scores the album an A− calling the album "a charmer, a collection of blues standards and recent Clapton songs rendered with just the right combination of intensity (a deeply felt version of "Tears in Heaven") and giddy fun (Clapton actually plays kazoo on "San Francisco Bay Blues")". Steve Hochman in the Los Angeles Times felt that "Tears in Heaven" was "maudlin but moving", "Layla" was "low-key but seductive", but the blues numbers performed in an intimate setting makes the album "Clapton's most passionate collection in years". Commenting on the popularity of the album in his 2007 autobiography, Clapton wishes the reader to understand the great emotional toll he experienced around that time, and suggests that they visit the grave of his son Conor in Ripley to do so. It was voted number 788 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000).

Accolades
Clapton was nominated for nine Grammy Awards at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in 1993 and won six, including Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Performance - Male, Best Rock Vocal Performance – Male, and Best Rock Song. Although "Tears in Heaven" also earned three Grammy Awards, it was the version from Rush that the judges awarded.

Personnel

 * Eric Clapton – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, dobro, kazoo
 * Andy Fairweather Low – acoustic guitar, mandolin, harmonica, kazoo
 * Chuck Leavell – acoustic piano, harmonium, kazoo
 * Nathan East – acoustic bass, backing vocals, kazoo
 * Steve Ferrone – drums, percussion, kazoo
 * Ray Cooper – percussion, kazoo
 * Katie Kissoon – backing vocals, kazoo
 * Tessa Niles – backing vocals, kazoo

Production

 * Studio credits
 * Russ Titelman – producer
 * James "Jimbo" Barton – recording engineer
 * Steve Boyer – mixing at The Power Station (New York, NY).
 * Victor Deygilo – mix assistant
 * Ted Jensen – mastering at Sterling Sound (New York, NY).
 * Bill Smith Studio – sleeve design

 * Live credits
 * Milton Lage – film director
 * Alex Coletti – producer for MTV.
 * Joel Gallen – executive producer for MTV.
 * Mick Double – production manager, stage manager
 * Tom Kenny – lighting operator
 * Wil Roberts – head electrician engineer
 * Buford Jones – sound engineer
 * John Roden – monitor engineer
 * Doug Hall – sound technician
 * Lee Dickson – guitar technician for Eric Clapton.
 * Tom Calcaterra – guitar technician
 * Alan Rogan – guitar technician
 * Tim Myer – keyboard technician
 * John Collins – drum technician

Commercial performance
In Germany the album peaked at No. 3 in the German Albums Chart and sold a total of 1.25 million copies, becoming one of the best-selling albums in Germany. In Austria, Unplugged held itself 46 weeks in the Austrian Albums Chart and sold more than 100,000 copies in total. In Switzerland the album also reached No. 3 in the country's chart. Selling 60,000 copies in the first two weeks, the live album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry – a record for any British artist. In the U.S. the album peaked at No. 1.

Re-release
On 15 October 2013 the album and concert DVD were re-released, titled Unplugged: Expanded & Remastered. The album includes the original 14 tracks, remastered, as well as a bonus disc with six additional tracks, including two versions of "My Father's Eyes". The DVD includes a restored version of the concert, as well as over 60 minutes of unseen footage from the rehearsal.

Track listing
Notes:
 * undefinedsignifies arranged by

Single releases
The acoustic rework of "Layla" was released as the single "Layla (Acoustic)", sometimes titled as "Layla (Unplugged)" in September 1992. The release reached top positions in both 1992 and 1993, reaching No. 1 in the RPM Canadian Top Singles chart as well as peaking at No. 4 in the Canadian Adult Contemporary Tracks the same year. It also became popular in the US reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart, peaking at No. 9 in the Mainstream Rock chart and reaching place 12 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also reached the top ten five of other countries.

"Running on Faith" was not released as a single, but reached No. 15 on the Billboard Mainstream rock chart in 1993 as well as No. 28 on the Adult Contemporary chart which are based on radio airplay. "Tears in Heaven" was not released as a single from Unplugged, but from the soundtrack for the film Rush.

title: Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)


text:
Viola biflora

Viola biflora is a species of the genus Viola. It is also called alpine yellow-violet, arctic yellow violet, or twoflower violet. It is found in Europe, Siberia, Central Asia, India, Pakistan, western and northern China, North Korea, Japan, and Western North America.

title: Viola biflora


text:
Tamuz

Tamuz may refer to:

 * Tammuz (Hebrew month), in the Jewish calendar
 * Tammuz (Babylonian calendar), in the Arabic and Assyrian calendars
 * Tammuz (mythology), a supernatural creature from Assyrian-Babylonian Mesopotamian religion
 * Tamouz (band), an Israeli rock band
 * Tamuz (kibbutz), an Israeli kibbutz
 * Spike (missile) M113 Tamuz, an Israeli item of military equipment
 * Tamuz Prize, an Israeli award for Singer of the Year
 * Al Tammuz, Iraqi long range scud missile

authors: سب سے بڑی گڑبڑ

title: Tamuz


text:
Ethiopian birr

The birr (ብር) is the primary unit of currency in Ethiopia. It is subdivided into 100 santims.

In 1931, Emperor Haile Selassie formally requested that the international community use the name Ethiopia (as it had already been known internally for at least 1,600 years ) instead of the exonym Abyssinia, and the issuing Bank of Abyssinia also became the Bank of Ethiopia. Thus, the pre-1931 currency may be referred to as the Abyssinian birr and the post-1931 currency the Ethiopian birr, although neither the country nor the currency changed beyond the name.

186 billion birr ($14.7 billion or €9.97 billion) were in circulation in 2008.

First birr, 1855–1936
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Maria Theresa thalers and blocks of salt called amole tchew (አሞሌ) served as currency in Ethiopia. The thaler was known locally as the birr (literally 'silver' in Geʽez and Amharic) or talari (ታላሪ). The Maria Theresa thaler was officially adopted as the standard coin in 1855, although the Indian rupee and the Mexican dollar were also used in foreign trade.

The Ethiopian talari became the standard unit on 9 February 1893, and 200,000 were produced at the Paris Mint in 1894 for Menelik II. The talari, equivalent to the Maria Theresa thaler, was divided into 20 ghersh (also guerche or gersh, from the Ottoman qirsh) or 40 bessa (a small copper coin).

A new Ethiopian coinage appeared about 1903. The new silver birr maintained the same weight and fineness as the talari, but there was now a quarter-birr and a silver ghersh, the latter 1/16 the weight of the birr. The money of account then became 1 birr, equivalent to 16 ghersh or 32 bessa.

The Bank of Abyssinia was established in 1905 by Emperor Menelik and the European banking group behind the National Bank of Egypt; the bank was officially inaugurated by Menelik on 15 February 1906. The Ethiopian coinage gained acceptance only gradually, and the Bank of Abyssinia imported Maria Theresa thalers. By the time World War I broke out, the bank was still importing about 1,200,000 of these coins annually. The Bank of Abyssinia put banknotes into circulation in 1915. These notes were denominated birr in Amharic and thaler in English. They were used by merchants and foreigners but were not initially accepted generally. However, note circulation increased considerably after 1925.

Emperor Haile Selassie bought out the Bank of Abyssinia in 1931 for £235,000 in order to make it a purely Ethiopian institution. It was reorganized as the Bank of Ethiopia. At the same time, the currency was decimalized and token nickel and copper coins were introduced, the birr becoming equal to 100 metonnyas (often written matonas). The text on the banknotes appeared in Amharic, French, and English.

By the mid-1930s circulation consisted chiefly of Maria Theresa thalers and Menelik talaris.

Italian lira, 1936–1941
Not long after the Italian occupation and the attempted transformation of Ethiopia into Italian East Africa, the Italian lira was introduced on 15 July 1936 and Ethiopian banknotes were withdrawn from circulation at 3 lire per talari (birr). In an effort to increase the use of Italian paper money, the exchange rate for silver coins (Maria Theresa thalers) was raised to 4.50 lire, then to 5.00, and eventually, in stages, to 13.50. Still, many people kept their Ethiopian coins and banknotes.

Regular Italian coins and banknotes of Banca d'Italia circulated after 15 July 1936. Special notes with a red overprint were authorized for Italian East Africa on 12 September 1938, and a large quantity was printed. It is not clear, however, when, where, and to what extent these special notes actually circulated.

East African shilling, 1941–1945
During the East African Campaign of 1941, British forces brought with them Indian, Egyptian, British, and British East African currency, and all were received in official payments. Italian coins and notes of up to 50 lire were allowed to continue in circulation to serve as small change; higher denominations were withdrawn at a rate of 24 lire per shilling. Maria Theresa thalers were allowed to circulate with a value of 1 shilling and $1/100$ pence (or 45 lire). The East African shilling became the money of account on 1 July 1942; it eventually became the sole legal tender and remained so until 1945.

Regular notes of the East African Currency Board were used for circulation in Ethiopia.

Second birr, 1945–present
The birr was reintroduced in 1945 at a rate of 1 birr per 2 shillings. The name Ethiopian dollar was used in the English text on the banknotes. It was divided into 100 santims (derived from the French centime). Birr became the official name, used in all languages, in 1976.

Proposed birr symbol
There have been various proposals for a birr symbol, mostly based on the Geez fidel ብ (bə). One suggested symbol comprises the bə with two horizontal slashes on the left hand side.

First birr
Between 1894 and 1897 copper coins were introduced in denominations of $10 1/2$ and $1⁄100$ birr, together with silver 1 ghersh, $1⁄32$, $1/8$, $1/4$ and 1 birr, and gold $1/2$, $1/4$ and 1 werk. In 1931, a new series of coins was introduced consisting of copper 1 and 5 metonnyas, and nickel 10, 20 and 50 metonnyas.

Second birr
In 1944 (EE1936 in the Ethiopian calendar), coins were reintroduced, with copper 1, 5, 10 and 25 santim and silver 50 santim coins. A second series was issued in 1977 (EE1969). It consisted of aluminium 1 santim, brass 5 and 10 santim, cupro-nickel 25 and 50 santim, and bi-metallic 1 birr coins. The most recent issues are:
 * 5 santim 2006 (EE1998)
 * 10 santim 2004 (EE1996)
 * 25 santim 2016 (EE2008; also called semuni)
 * 50 santim 2016 (EE2008)
 * 1 birr 2016 (EE2008)

The dates, like the rest of the legend, appear in Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia.

Identification and appearance
Besides having almost all text in Amharic, there are two features that help to immediately identify an Ethiopian birr. Coins dated before 1977 (EE1969) feature a crowned rampant lion holding a cross. This can be seen in the adjacent picture. Coins dated 1977 (EE1969) or later picture the head of a roaring lion, with a flowing mane.

Coins were struck at several mints, including Paris, Berlin, and Addis Ababa. Coins without mint marks were generally struck at Addis Ababa. The coins struck at Paris have either the mintmark "A" with the cornucopia and fasces privy marks, or the cornucopia and torch privy marks without the "A".

First birr
The Bank of Abyssinia introduced banknotes for 5, 10, 100 and 500 talaris in 1915, and 280,000 talaris worth of notes were printed. The text on the notes was in Amharic and French. A 50-talari note was added in 1929, by which time over 1.5 million talaris in notes were circulating.

The Bank of Ethiopia issued notes in 1932 in denominations of 5, 10, 50, 100 and 500 talaris. A 2-talari note dated 1 June 1933 was issued in honour of the Imperial couple. By the end of 1934, some 3.3 million talaris in notes were circulating.

Second birr
On 23 July 1945, notes were introduced by the Bank of Ethiopia in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 and 500 birrs. The National Bank of Ethiopia was established by imperial proclamation 207 of 27 July 1963, and began operation on 1 January 1964. The National Bank of Ethiopia took over note production in 1966 and issued all denominations except for the 500 birr.

Banknotes have been issued in the following series:

2020 denominations
On 14 September 2020, Ethiopia announced the introduction of new banknotes of 10, 50, 100, and 200 birrs, with the latter being issued as a high denomination note to tackle inflation. Older issues of 10, 50, and 100 birr notes were demonetized in December. The federal government reported that over 113 billion birrs ($3.6 billion) remain hidden from the banks. The federal government also believes this money is being used as a catalyst to the current instability in Ethiopia. In just a month, Ethiopian banks took in 14 billion birrs (around $500 million) into their system, which is expected to increase towards the end of 2020. The measure, announced by Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, was reported as a preventative measure against hoarding, counterfeiting and other corruption affecting the economy. He also noted that the country spent 3.7 billion birrs ($101.2 million) to print the new banknotes. Companies and individuals can only cash up to 1.5 million birrs ($41,000). The cash withdrawal from banks should also not exceed 100,000 birrs ($2,737). The old 5-birr notes, while they will remain legal tender, will be replaced with a coin.

title: Ethiopian birr


text:
James G. March

James Gardner March (January 15, 1928 – September 27, 2018) was an American political scientist, sociologist, and economist. A professor at Stanford University in the Stanford Graduate School of Business and Stanford Graduate School of Education, he is best known for his research on organizations, his (jointly with Richard Cyert) seminal work on A Behavioral Theory of the Firm, and the organizational decision making model known as the Garbage Can Model.

Early life and education
Born in Cleveland, Ohio in 1928, March received his B.A. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison in 1945 in political science. He received his M.A. in 1950 and Ph.D. in 1953 from Yale University, both in political science.

James March was awarded honorary doctorate from numerous universities:
 * Copenhagen Business School (then: Copenhagen School of Economics), 1978
 * Hanken School of Economics (Helsinki), 1979
 * University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1980
 * University of Bergen, 1980; (Economics)
 * Uppsala University, 1987; (EkDhc, Faculty of Social Sciences)
 * Helsinki School of Economics, 1991
 * Dublin City University, 1994; (Economics)
 * Göteborg University, 1998
 * University of Poitiers, 2001
 * University of Trento, 2000
 * University of Southern Denmark, 2003
 * Budapest University of Economics, 2003
 * York University (Toronto), 2007
 * Hautes Etudes Commerciales (HEC Paris), 2007
 * Ramon Llull University (Barcelona), 2007
 * Lappeenranta (Finland) University of Technology, 2008
 * Stockholm (Sweden) Stockholm School of Economics, 2009

Career
From 1953 to 1964, he had served on the faculties of the Carnegie Institute of Technology as a senior research fellow and assistant professor, and later professor of industrial administration and psychology.

For the academic year of 1955-56, March was a Political Science Fellow at the Stanford University Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.

From 1964 to 1970, March joined the faculty at the University of California, Irvine as the founding Dean of the School of Social Sciences (1964–69). He was also a professor of psychology and sociology.

In 1970, March moved to Stanford University. At Stanford, he held several titles, including professor of political science and sociology, David Jacks Professor of Higher Education (1970–1978), professor of management (1978–1979), Fred H. Merrill Professor of Management (1979–1992), Jack Steele Parker Professor of International Management (1992–present). He had also served as a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution (1978–1987) and the founding director of the Scandinavian Consortium for Organizational Research (Scancor) (1989–1999).

He had been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the National Academy of Education, and had been a member of the National Science Board. He was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

He interacted and communicated in many different forms as books, articles, interactive seminars, films and poetry.

Contributions
March was highly respected for his broad theoretical perspective which combined theories from psychology and other behavioural sciences. As a core member of the Carnegie School, he collaborated with the cognitive psychologist Herbert A. Simon on several works on organization theory.

March was also known for his seminal work on the behavioural perspective on the theory of the firm along with Richard Cyert (1963).

In 1972, March worked together with Johan Olsen and Michael D. Cohen on the systemic-anarchic perspective of organizational decision making known as the Garbage Can Model.

The scope of his academic work was broad but focused on understanding how decisions happen in individuals, groups, organizations, companies and society. He explores factors that influences decision making, such as risk orientation, leadership and the ambiguity of the present and the past; politics and vested interests by stakeholders; the challenges of giving and receiving advice; the challenges of organizational and individual learning and the challenges of balancing exploration and exploitation in organizations.

Awards
March received numerous awards, including:
 * 1968 Wilbur Lucius Cross Medal, Yale University
 * 1984 Scholarly Contributions to Management Award (Irwin Award), Academy of Management
 * 1995 Walter J. Gores Award for Excellence in Teaching, Stanford University
 * 1997 John Gaus Award from the American Political Science Association
 * OMT Distinguished Scholar Award, Academy of Management
 * 2004 Viipuri Prize, Viipuri School of Economics
 * 2004 Aaron Wildavsky Enduring Contribution Award, American Political Science Association
 * 2005 Herbert A. Simon Award, Budapest University of Economics
 * 2016 Progress Medal from the Society for Progress

Personal
James March was the father of four children and a grandfather. He died on September 27, 2018, aged 90.

Bibliography: Selected Articles

 * James G. March, "The Power of Power", pp. 39–70 in David Easton, ed., Varieties of Political Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
 * James G. March, "The Technology of Foolishness", Civiløkonomen (Copenhagen), 18 (1971) 4, 4–12.
 * Martha S. Feldman and James G. March, "Information in Organizations as Signal and Symbol", Administrative Science Quarterly, 26 (1981) 171-186.
 * James G. March, "Decisions in Organizations and Theories of Choice", pp. 205–244 in Andrew Van de Ven and William Joyce, eds., Perspectives on Organization Design and Behavior. New York, NY: Wiley Interscience, 1981.
 * James G. March and Zur Shapira, "Behavioral Decision Theory and Organizational Decision Theory", pp. 92–115 in Gerardo Ungson and Daniel Braunstein, eds., Decision Making: An Interdisciplinary Inquiry. Boston, MA: Kent Publishing Company, 1982.
 * James G. March and Guje Sevón, "Gossip, Information, and Decision-Making", pp. 95–107 in Lee S. Sproull and J. Patrick Crecine, eds., Advances in Information Processing in Organizations, Vol. I. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984.
 * James R. Glenn, Jr., and James G. March, "Presidential Time Allocation 1970–1984", pp. 263–266 in Michael D. Cohen and James G. March, Leadership and Ambiguity, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1986.
 * James G. March, "Theories of Making Choice and Making Decisions", pp. 305–325 in Rolf Wolff, ed., Organizing Industrial Development - Visible Guiding Hands. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1986.
 * James G. March, "Ambiguity and Accounting: The Elusive Link between Information and Decision Making", Accounting, Organizations, and Society, 12 (1987) 153–168. Also pp. 31–49 in Barry E. Cushing, ed., Accounting and Culture, American Accounting Association, 1987.
 * James G. March and Guje Sevón, "Behavioral Perspectives on Theories of the Firm", pp. 369–402 in W. Fred van Raaij, Gery M. van Veldhoven, and Karl-Erik Wärneryd, eds., Handbook of Economic Psychology. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988.
 * James G. March and Lee S. Sproull, "Technology, Management, and Competitive Advantage", pp. 144–173 in Paul S. Goodman, Lee S. Sproull and Associates, Technology and Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The Logic of Appropriateness", pp. 689–708 in Michael Moran, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * James G. March and Zur Shapira, "Behavioral Decision Theory and Organizational Decision Theory", pp. 92–115 in Gerardo Ungson and Daniel Braunstein, eds., Decision Making: An Interdisciplinary Inquiry. Boston, MA: Kent Publishing Company, 1982.
 * James G. March and Guje Sevón, "Gossip, Information, and Decision-Making", pp. 95–107 in Lee S. Sproull and J. Patrick Crecine, eds., Advances in Information Processing in Organizations, Vol. I. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984.
 * James R. Glenn, Jr., and James G. March, "Presidential Time Allocation 1970–1984", pp. 263–266 in Michael D. Cohen and James G. March, Leadership and Ambiguity, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1986.
 * James G. March, "Theories of Making Choice and Making Decisions", pp. 305–325 in Rolf Wolff, ed., Organizing Industrial Development - Visible Guiding Hands. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1986.
 * James G. March, "Ambiguity and Accounting: The Elusive Link between Information and Decision Making", Accounting, Organizations, and Society, 12 (1987) 153–168. Also pp. 31–49 in Barry E. Cushing, ed., Accounting and Culture, American Accounting Association, 1987.
 * James G. March and Guje Sevón, "Behavioral Perspectives on Theories of the Firm", pp. 369–402 in W. Fred van Raaij, Gery M. van Veldhoven, and Karl-Erik Wärneryd, eds., Handbook of Economic Psychology. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988.
 * James G. March and Lee S. Sproull, "Technology, Management, and Competitive Advantage", pp. 144–173 in Paul S. Goodman, Lee S. Sproull and Associates, Technology and Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The Logic of Appropriateness", pp. 689–708 in Michael Moran, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * James G. March, "Ambiguity and Accounting: The Elusive Link between Information and Decision Making", Accounting, Organizations, and Society, 12 (1987) 153–168. Also pp. 31–49 in Barry E. Cushing, ed., Accounting and Culture, American Accounting Association, 1987.
 * James G. March and Guje Sevón, "Behavioral Perspectives on Theories of the Firm", pp. 369–402 in W. Fred van Raaij, Gery M. van Veldhoven, and Karl-Erik Wärneryd, eds., Handbook of Economic Psychology. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988.
 * James G. March and Lee S. Sproull, "Technology, Management, and Competitive Advantage", pp. 144–173 in Paul S. Goodman, Lee S. Sproull and Associates, Technology and Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The Logic of Appropriateness", pp. 689–708 in Michael Moran, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The Logic of Appropriateness", pp. 689–708 in Michael Moran, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The Logic of Appropriateness", pp. 689–708 in Michael Moran, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "Elaborating the 'New Institutionalism'", pp. 3–20 in R.A.W. Rhodes, S. Binder and B. Rockman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.
 * Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model", International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, Sage, forthcoming 2008.

Bibliography: Books
March wrote many books including some with different co-authors:

 * James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organizations. New York: Wiley, 1958. 2nd ed., Oxford:  Blackwell Publishers, 1993.  Translated into Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, and Spanish. Voted the seventh most influential management book of the 20th century in a poll of the fellows of the Academy of Management.
 * Richard M. Cyert and James G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963. 2nd ed., Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1992.  Translated into Chinese, French, German, Italian, and Japanese.
 * James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1965.
 * Heinz Eulau and James G. March, eds., Political Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
 * Bernard R. Gelbaum and James G. March, Mathematics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences: Probability, Calculus and Statistics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1969.
 * Michael D. Cohen and James G. March, Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1974. 2nd ed., Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1986.
 * Charles A. Lave and James G. March, An Introduction to Models in the Social Sciences. New York: Harper and Row, 1975.  2nd ed., Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993.  Translated into Dutch, Japanese, and Spanish. (1975) ISBN 0-8191-8381-4
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Ambiguity and Choice in Organizations. Bergen, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1976.  Translated into Japanese. (1980) ISBN 82-00-01960-8
 * James G. March, Autonomy as a Factor in Group Organization: A Study in Politics, New York: Arno Press, 1980. ISBN 0-405-12980-7
 * James G. March and Roger Weissinger-Baylon, eds., Ambiguity and Command: Organizational Perspectives on Military Decision Making. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1986.
 * James G. March, Decisions and Organizations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988. ISBN 0-631-16856-7. Translated into French, German, Italian, and Japanese.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1989.  Translated into Italian and Spanish. ISBN 0-02-920115-2
 * James G. March, A Primer on Decision Making: How Decisions Happen. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1994. Translated into Chinese, Greek, and Italian.   ISBN 0-02-920035-0
 * James G. March, Fornuft og Forandring: Ledelse i en Verden Beriget av Uklarhet (Danish: Reason and Change: Leadership in a World Enriched by Ambiguity), articles selected and translated by Kristian Kreiner and Marianne Risberg. Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur, 1995.
 * James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Democratic Governance. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1995. ISBN 0-02-874054-8. Translated into Italian.
 * James G. March, The Pursuit of Organizational Intelligence. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. ISBN 0-631-21102-0.
 * James G. March, Martin Schulz, and Xueguang Zhou, The Dynamics of Rules: Change in Written Organizational Codes. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.  ISBN 0-8047-3996-X.  Translated into Chinese and Italian.
 * Mie Augier and James G. March, eds., Economics of Change, Choice, and Organization: Essays in Memory of Richard M. Cyert. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, Ltd., 2002.
 * James G. March and Thierry Weil, Le leadership dans les organizations. (French: Leadership in Organizations). Paris: Les Presses de l’École des Mines, 2003.  Translated into English as On Leadership.  See below.
 * Mie Augier and James G. March, eds., Models of a Man: Essays in Memory of Herbert A. Simon. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.
 * James G. March, Valg, Vane og Vision: Perspektiver på Aspiration og Adfærd (Danish: Choice, Habit and Vision: Perspectives on Aspirations and Behavior), articles selected and translated by Kristian Kreiner and Mie Augier. Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur, 2005.
 * James G. March, Szervezeti tanulás és döntéshozatal (Hungarian: Organizational Learning and Decision Making), articles selected and translated by students at the László Rajk College. Budapest: Alinea Kiadó, 2005.
 * James G. March and Thierry Weil, On Leadership. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 2005.  ISBN 1-4051-3247-7. Translated into Spanish, Korean, Italian, Chinese.
 * James G. March, Explorations in Organizations. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.
 * James G. March, The Ambiguities of Experience. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.

Bibliography: Films

 * Passion and Discipline: Don Quixote's Lessons for Leadership. A film (67 minutes) conceived and written by James G. March, produced and directed by Steven C. Schecter.  Schecter Films (in association with the Stanford Graduate School of Business), 2003.
 * Heroes and History: The Lessons for Leadership from Tolstoy's War and Peace. A film (65 minutes) conceived and written by James G. March, produced and directed by Steven C. Schecter.  Schecter Films (in association with the Yale School of Management and the Copenhagen business School), 2008.

Bibliography: Poetry

 * James G. March, Academic Notes. London: Poets' and Painters' Press, 1974.
 * James G. March, Aged Wisconsin. London: Poets' and Painters' Press, 1977.
 * James G. March, Pleasures of the Process, London: Poets' and Painters' Press, 1980.
 * James G. March, Slow Learner. London: Poets' and Painters' Press, 1985.
 * James G. March, Minor Memos. London: Poets' and Painters' Press, 1990.
 * James G. March, Late Harvest. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2000.
 * James G. March, Footprints. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2005.
 * James G. March, Quiet Corners. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2008.
 * James G. March, Small Steps. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2010.
 * James G. March, A Collection of Words. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2011.
 * James G. March, Fermented Fruit. Palo Alto, CA: Bonde Press, 2013.

title: James G. March


text:
User talk:Doops/randompages

Pages I've reached through Special:Randompage:

 * 1) Armadale, Isle of Skye
 * 1) Armadale, Isle of Skye

title: User talk:Doops/randompages


text:
Francis Gore

Francis Gore, (1769 – 3 November 1852) was an English military officer and British colonial administrator in Bermuda and Upper Canada.

Gore was born in Blackheath, London, England in 1769 the son of Francis Gore and Caroline Beresford. Francis Gore senior was also a soldier and colonial administrator. Gore Sr became a governor of the West Indies in 1763. He had served in the Portuguese campaign of 1761 as aide-de-camp to Queen Charlotte's brother.

Gore was commissioned as an ensign into the 44th Foot in 1787 directly from school at Durham, advancing in 1793 to lieutenant. Gore transferred to the 54th Foot in 1794 and the 17th Light Dragoons in 1795. He retired with the rank of major and became Governor of Bermuda from 1805 to 1806, and then Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada from 1806 to 1811. Gore's administration built roads, reorganised the militia and founded schools.

Gore was absent on leave during the War of 1812 while military authorities ran Upper Canada. His stand-in during this time was Isaac Brock, who "sought an active role in the impending war as keenly as Gore sought to escape it".

Gore resumed his role as lieutenant-governor from 1815 to 1817. During his second term, Gore prorogued the Legislative Assembly after it challenged his ban on issuing land grants to American refugees and made other criticisms of his administration. Robert MacIntosh, in his book Earliest Toronto, describes Gore as "a man who was clearly the most incompetent and disliked Lieutenant Governor in the history of Upper Canada". Gore left Canada after his posting in 1817.

Gore married Annabella Wentworth, sister of Sir John Wentworth in 1803. They had no children. Gore died in Brighton, England, on 3 November 1852.

Legacy
Gore Vale, a north–south street on the eastern boundary of Trinity Bellwoods Park on the west side of downtown Toronto, is named after him. The lands of the park were at one time owned by Gore, who gave the ravine the name of "Gore Vale". Most historians believe that the township municipality of Gore, Quebec, was named after him. Meyer's Creek was renamed Belleville by United Empire Loyalist settlers in honour of his wife Lady Annabella Gore in 1816, after their visit to the settlement.

title: Francis Gore


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Star (game theory)

In combinatorial game theory, star, written as $$*$$ or $$*1$$, is the value given to the game where both players have only the option of moving to the zero game. Star may also be denoted as the surreal form {0|0}. This game is an unconditional first-player win.

Star, as defined by John Conway in Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays, is a value, but not a number in the traditional sense. Star is not zero, but neither positive nor negative, and is therefore said to be fuzzy and confused with (a fourth alternative that means neither "less than", "equal to", nor "greater than") 0. It is less than all positive rational numbers, and greater than all negative rationals.

Games other than {0 | 0} may have value *. For example, the game $$*2 + *3$$, where the values are nimbers, has value * despite each player having more options than simply moving to 0.

Why * ≠ 0
A combinatorial game has a positive and negative player; which player moves first is left ambiguous. The combinatorial game 0, or { | }, leaves no options and is a second-player win. Likewise, a combinatorial game is won (assuming optimal play) by the second player if and only if its value is 0. Therefore, a game of value *, which is a first-player win, is neither positive nor negative. However, * is not the only possible value for a first-player win game (see nimbers).

Star does have the property that the sum * + *, has value 0, because the first-player's only move is to the game *, which the second-player will win.

Example of a value-* game
Nim, with one pile and one piece, has value *. The first player will remove the piece, and the second player will lose. A single-pile Nim game with one pile of n pieces (also a first-player win) is defined to have value *n. The numbers *z for integers z form an infinite field of characteristic 2, when addition is defined in the context of combinatorial games and multiplication is given a more complex definition.

title: Star (game theory)


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Classic Maya language

Classic Maya (or properly Classical Chʼoltiʼ) is the oldest historically attested member of the Mayan language family. It is the main language documented in the pre-Columbian inscriptions of the classical period of the Maya civilization. It is also the common ancestor of the Cholan branch of the Mayan language family. Contemporary descendants of classical Maya include Chʼol and Chʼortiʼ. Speakers of these languages can understand many Classic Mayan words.

Classic Maya is quite a morphologically binding language, and most words in the language consist of multiple morphemes with relatively little irregularity. It shows some regional and temporal variations, which is completely normal considering the long period of use of the language. Even so, the texts make it clear that it is a single, uniform language. Classical Maya shows ergative alignment in its morphology, as well as syntactically in focus constructs. Although the descendant Cholan languages limit this pattern of ergative alignment to sentences in completive aspect, classical Mayan does not show evidence of split ergativity.

Its spoken form, the Chʼoltiʼ, from the Manche Chʼol region, is known from a manuscript written between 1685 and 1695, first studied by Daniel Garrison Brinton. This language has become of particular interest for the study of Mayan glyphs, since most of the glyphic texts are written in the classical variety of Chʼoltiʼ, known as Classical Maya by epigraphers, which is believed to have been spoken as a prestigious language form throughout the Maya region during the classic period.

History
During the Classic Period, the main branches of Proto-Mayan began to diversify into separate languages. The division between Proto-Yucatecan (in the north, the Yucatán Peninsula) and Proto-Cholan (in the south, the Chiapas highlands and the Petén Basin) had already occurred in the Classic, when most of the Mayan inscriptions existing were written. Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at Maya sites of the time, and both are commonly known as the "classical Mayan language".

Although a single prestigious language was by far the most frequently recorded in extant hieroglyphic texts, evidence of at least three different varieties of Maya has been discovered within the hieroglyphic corpus: an Eastern Ch'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands, a western Ch'olan variety spread from the Usumacinta region from the mid-7th century onwards, and a Yucatecan variety found in texts from the Yucatan Peninsula. The reason that only a few linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that they served as prestigious dialects throughout the Maya region; hieroglyphic texts would have been written in the language of the elite.

Stephen Houston, John Robertson, and David Stuart have suggested that the specific variety of Chʼolan found in most southern lowland glyphic texts was a language they called "classical Chʼoltiʼ," the ancestor language of the Chʼortiʼ languages and modern Chʼoltiʼ. They propose that it originated in the western and south-central basin of the Petén, and that it was used in inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests. However, Mora-Marín has argued that the traits shared by the Classic Lowland Maya and Chʼoltian languages are retentions rather than innovations, and that the diversification of Chʼolan is indeed Post-Classical. The language of the classical lowland inscriptions would then have been Proto-Cholan.

Relationships
It is now thought that the codices and other Classic texts were written by scribes, usually members of the Maya priesthood, in a literary form of the Chʼoltiʼ language. It is possible that the Maya elite spoke this language as a lingua franca over the entire Maya-speaking area, but also that texts were written in other Mayan languages of the Petén and Yucatán, especially Yucatec. There is also some evidence that the Maya script may have been occasionally used to write Mayan languages of the Guatemalan Highlands. However, if other languages were written, they may have been written by Chʼoltiʼ scribes, and therefore have Chʼoltiʼ elements.

Writing system
Classic Maya is the principal language documented in the writing system used by the pre-Columbian Maya, and is particularly represented in inscriptions from the lowland regions in Mexico and the period c. 200—900. The writing system (generally known as the Maya script) has some similarities in function (but is not related) to other logosyllabic writing systems such as the cuneiform originating in Sumer, in which a combination of logographic and syllabic signs (graphemes) are used. The script's corpus of graphemes features a core of syllabic signs which reflect the phonology of the Classic Maya language spoken in the region and at that time, which were also combined or complemented by a larger number of logograms. Thus the expressions of Classic Maya could be written in a variety of ways, represented either as logograms, logograms with phonetic complements, logograms plus syllables, or in a purely syllabic combination. For example, in one common pattern many verb and noun roots are given by logographs, while their grammatical affixes were written syllabically, much like the Japanese writing system.

Phonology
The classical Maya consonant system can be represented as follows:

The Latin alphabet of the classical Maya transliteration is: ’, a, b, ch, ch’, e, h, i, k, k’ (ꜭ), l, m, n, o, p, p’, s, t, t’, tz, tz’ (ꜯ), u, w, x, y.

In Classic Maya, there are five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels are written double: aa, ee, ii, oo, uu. Furthermore, no word begins with a vowel; these actually begin with a glottal stop. Because of this, the initial letter ’ is often omitted to facilitate transcription and alphabetic structuring.

The most widespread phonological process attested in Maya glyphs is the elimination of the underlying vowels in a trisyllabic word. When a sequence of the form CVCVCVC appears as a single word, the second vowel (the nucleus of the second syllable) is elided to form two CVC syllables. Examples: CHUM(mu)-la-ja 'he sits' is transcribed chumlaj. AJAW-le-le 'lordship' is transliterated ajawlel. Tu-’u-B’AAH 'in itself' is transcribed tu’b’aah. Sa-ku-WINIK-ki 'elder brother' is transliterated saku(n) winik.

Grammar
Like most other Mayan languages, Classic Maya is verb–subject–object and is an ergative–absolutive language. Being polysynthetic, it uses both prefixes and suffixes to show grammatical function. Nouns are not inflected for case or gender. There is also an entire class of intransitives that convey the object's spatial position. In addition, the language employs counter words when quantifying nouns and uses a vigesimal number system. Verbs are not conjugated according to tense, but rather are semantically altered by a series of aspect particles.

Numerals
Linguists and epigraphers still debate the accurate reading of classical Maya numerals. Numbers greater than 20 are recorded in classical Mayan inscriptions, as part of the so-called "lunar series", for example, when describing the number of days that a "lunar month" specifically has (for example, "20 + 9"; "20 + 10") or the count or order of dynasties to be counted.

List of numerals:
 * mih (0)
 * jun (1)
 * cha’ / ka’ (2)
 * ox / ux (3)
 * chan / kan (4)
 * ho’ (5)
 * wak (6)
 * huk / wuk (7)
 * waxak (8)
 * balun / bolon (9)
 * lajun (10)
 * buluch / buluj (11)
 * laj cha’ / laj ka’ (12)
 * ox lajun / ux lajun (13)
 * chan lajun / kan lajun (14)
 * ho’ lajun (15)
 * wak lajun (16)
 * huk lajun / wuk lajun (17)
 * waxak lajun (18)
 * balun lajun / bolon lajun (19)
 * winak / k'al (20).

Dependent pronouns
Ergative pronouns are morphemes prefixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark:
 * 1) the Subject of transitive constructions
 * 2) the possessor in possessive constructions
 * 3) the person in relational nouns (see below)

There are two allomorphs of ergative pronouns depending on whether the word to which they prefix begins with a consonant or a vowel

Absolutive pronouns are morphemes suffixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark:
 * 1) the Object of transitive verbs
 * 2) the Subject of intransitive and stative verbs

Independent pronouns
Independent pronouns are built with the particle haʔ plus a pronoun of the Absolutive Series. Thus haʔ-en, haʔ-at, haʔ-Ø, haʔ-oʔb’. The resultant forms, influenced by morphophonemic processes, are not predictable. Thus, haʔ-oʔb’ gives haʔoʔb’, but haʔ-at gives hat and haʔ-eʔn gives seemingly hiin.

Verbs
Many verbal roots of classical Maya have been attested. Some of these are:
 * ak' – give
 * al – speak
 * cha' – do
 * tz'ib – write, paint
 * ch'ab- / kob' – create
 * ch'am – receive
 * hul – arrive
 * pok – wash
 * chum – sit
 * jel – change
 * il – see
 * k'at – want
 * och – enter, give of eat
 * pitz – play ball
 * way – sleep, transform
 * k'ay – sing
 * tal – come
 * nak – conquer
 * pas – open
 * pay – guide
 * tzutz – finish

Nouns
Unlike verbs and positionals, most nouns do not require morphological derivation. For these words, the morpheme used to derive non-possessed forms is the suffix -Vl, although the vowel for these can vary from word to word, and some words take a suffix -is or -aas. Examples: u-ch’ahb’ 'his penance' > ch’ahb’-il 'penance', y-ohl 'his heart from him' > ohl-is 'heart'. On the other hand, other nouns are generally not possessed and require derivation when possessed, usually with the abstract suffix -V (V) l. This is written with the syllabic sign -li, but it can have two allomorphs that are mostly phonologically conditioned, -il for CVC roots and -aal for non-CVC roots. The exceptions to this appear to be lexically determined. Example: lakam-tuun 'wake' > u lakam-tuun-il 'his wake'.

Literature
Maya literature is among the oldest in the world, spanning two millennia from pre-Columbian antiquity to the present. The Maya used to draw and write on some surfaces that were not intended to be a means of graphic expression. The most abundant preserved works of this type are found within rooms of buildings whose ceilings and walls are preserved. The only place where significant effort has been made to document writing on surfaces is Tikal, Guatemala.

From the period of classical Mayan writing, which lasted from the 3rd century BC until the 13th century, the texts that have survived to the present day were painted or carved in stones, bones, resistant wood, ceramics, shells or stucco. It is possible that much more had also been written on paper, but what little has come to this day is illegible. In places dating from the Classic Period, remains of books have been found in tombs, which would have been placed in chests or next to the heads of their deceased owners. There are only four still readable books that have survived to the present time.

title: Classic Maya language


text:
Talk:Loaded language

Thanks for this article.
... just what I needed for something I'm writing. 2600:8801:BE01:7C00:8E2D:DAEA:B00E:D545 (talk) 02:52, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

Joe
Hi why are you sad 47.232.232.78 (talk) 02:28, 17 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I know this was like 8-9 months ago, and this is not necessarily the place for it, but I hope you're doing alright; hope you aren't as sad and things are going better. And even if you are still sad, just remember that you are strong and you can make it out of these times someday (even if you don't think you are/can).  I believe in you! Dantes44 (talk) 15:14, 29 November 2023 (UTC)

orwell
the reference to orwell's discussion of the term "fascism" in 1946 very much reads out of place considering the more modern discussions of the term. yeah, he's notable, yeah he's talking about loaded language, but he's talking about *literal fascism* *one year* after the takedown of fascist axis powers.

what im trying to say is that his quote being used *in the context of this article* feels to me very out of place in how the article flows and even with how the article describes loaded language. the article is describing "words that have emotional impact beyond their literal meaning" not "words that are only used for their emotional impact and mean nothing else" and feels crass and out of place here. 2600:6C47:A03F:C443:1409:5DA3:7A24:A0C4 (talk) 10:47, 24 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Loaded language


text:
User:Peterhoglund

Just a regular guy from stockholm, sweden. Born in 1984.

title: User:Peterhoglund


text:
User talk:TGregory

Sorry for reverting your edit on isolationism. --Lst27 22:55, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

Isolationism
No problem, Lst27. Thanks for checking out my work. TGregory 14 May 2004

Welcome to the 'pedia! I think you'll like working on it. - Hephaestos|§ 16:25, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Hi, Toby. I deleted the article you accidentally set up on yourself. Please don't take it personally - it was just in the wrong place. Deb 16:49, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Librarian!
Welcome aboard! If you haven't stumbled across it yet, Library and Information Science basic topics might be of interest to you. Unless you're here to get away from all that, of course... –Hajor 17:03, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:TGregory


text:
Al Albert (sportscaster)

Alan Albert (born Alan Aufrichtig in Brooklyn, New York) is a sportscaster, who formerly called basketball games for the New York Nets and Denver Nuggets, national NBA and NHL coverage for the USA Network. He was also a play-by-play sportscaster for the Indiana Pacers. He has also worked in boxing, as the blow-by-blow announcer for Tuesday Night Fights.

Education
Albert obtained his degree from Ohio University, where he played hockey and lacrosse. He played goalie for both sports. Albert was invited to training camp by the New York Rangers and ended up playing a single season for the Toledo Blades.

Career
Albert started his broadcasting career in Denver, working for a local broadcasting company called KOA and also KHOW radio and KWGN-TV. He also served as a sports anchor on WNBC in New York City and was the voice of the New York Nets and New York Islanders. He was the voice for the Nuggets for 21 years until he decided to leave Denver in 1996. In 1999, he joined the Indiana Pacers as a play-by-play man. He worked there until 2007.

On January 24, 1984, Albert, working for USA network, called what Syracuse fans call the greatest game in the Carrier Dome ever. Syracuse faced Boston College, and the teams were tied 73–73 after a missed free throw by Boston College's Martin Clark. Sean Kerins passed the rebound to Pearl Washington who took three steps and made a half court shot to win the game. Albert's call lives on as The Greatest Play-by-Play Call in the Carrier Dome ever: "Washington, two seconds, OHHHH! 'The Pearl' hits it ..at midcourt." Syracuse University basketball fans call that the greatest nine words in Syracuse history.

Awards and honors
In 1995, he won the Sam Taub Award for excellence in boxing broadcasting journalism.

Family
Albert hails from a family of broadcasters. His brothers, Marv and Steve Albert, and a nephew, Kenny, are also play-by-play sports commentators.

title: Al Albert (sportscaster)


text:
User talk:MathyGuy23

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * If you haven't already, please add your name to the new user log to let others know a little about yourself.
 * Read the article describing how to edit a page and feel free to experiment in the Sandbox.
 * When editing pages, use the preview button before submitting and try to fill in the summary box for every edit.
 * Eventually, read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk or ask me on my talk page.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck! Jrdioko

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:MathyGuy23


text:
User talk:Divadiane

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like it here and stick around. If you want, you can drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

Hope you found the tutorial useful. If you have any questions about the project then check out Help or ask a question at the Help desk. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

If you're looking for things to work on here, you'll probably find something interesting under List of musical topics.

Good luck and happy editing, Isomorphic 22:56, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Divadiane


text:
Zero game

In combinatorial game theory, the zero game is the game where neither player has any legal options. Therefore, under the normal play convention, the first player automatically loses, and it is a second-player win. The zero game has a Sprague–Grundy value of zero. The combinatorial notation of the zero game is: { | }.

A zero game should be contrasted with the star game {0|0}, which is a first-player win since either player must (if first to move in the game) move to a zero game, and therefore win.

Examples
Simple examples of zero games include Nim with no piles or a Hackenbush diagram with nothing drawn on it.

Sprague-Grundy value
The Sprague–Grundy theorem applies to impartial games (in which each move may be played by either player) and asserts that every such game has an equivalent Sprague–Grundy value, a "nimber", which indicates the number of pieces in an equivalent position in the game of nim. All second-player win games have a Sprague–Grundy value of zero, though they may not be the zero game.

For example, normal Nim with two identical piles (of any size) is not the zero game, but has value 0, since it is a second-player winning situation whatever the first player plays. It is not a fuzzy game because first player has no winning option.

title: Zero game


text: User talk:129.241.93.32

title: User talk:129.241.93.32


text:
Talk:George Wright

Organist
George Wright the Theatre Organist is not listed. He was a big influence when HI Fidelity came in. His organ records were used to demonstrate the highs and the lows of systems. He recorded on Hi Fi records. He is considered as being the best theatre organist in the world. He died a few years ago.

--OK, just added him to the disambiguation page, but have not added an article yet. Jim 02:21, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:George Wright


text:
Manchester Grammar School

The Manchester Grammar School (MGS) in Manchester, England, is the largest private day school for boys in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1515 as a free grammar school next to Manchester Parish Church, it moved in 1931 to its present site at Rusholme. In accordance with its founder's wishes, MGS remains a predominantly academic school and belongs to the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference.

In the post-war period, MGS was a direct-grant grammar school. It chose to become an independent school in 1976 after the Labour government abolished the Direct Grant System. Fees for 2023-2024 were £15,180 per annum.

Motto, coat of arms and school badges

The school's motto is Sapere Aude ("Dare to be Wise"), which was also the motto of the council of the former County Borough of Oldham (now, with the same coat of arms, the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham), granted on 7 November 1894. Sapere aude is a quotation from Horace, famously used by Immanuel Kant and also the motto of the Enlightenment.

The Senior School badge is an outline of an owl, carrying a banner with the word "dom" on it. This is a heraldic "canting" reference to its founder, Hugh Oldham, and the badge should be read as "owl-dom". This suggests that he pronounced his name, as the local accent in Oldham still tends to do, as "Ow[l]dem". Owls are also to be seen in the shield of the Borough of Oldham.

There is possibly a second significance to the "dom" of which Hugh Oldham, as a bishop, would have been very well aware. D.O.M. was and is a standard abbreviation for Deo Optimo Maximo meaning "To God, the Best and the Greatest", a phrase of dedication often required to be written by schoolboys before the Reformation and in Roman Catholic education since, at the head of a new piece of work, a practice continued into adult life by many as they committed a new undertaking into God's hands. This badge replaced the original one when the school colours changed from red, black and yellow to dark and light blue to reflect its connection with the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

The Junior School badge, which depicts the face of an owl, was introduced to blazers and ties in 2008.

Foundation
The founder, Hugh Oldham, a Manchester-born man, attended Exeter College, Oxford and Queens' College, Cambridge, after having been tutored in the house of Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby. Historical accounts suggest that he was not a particularly learned man, but was in Royal service, being a favoured protégé of Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII, and became recognised for his administrative abilities. He was appointed Bishop of Exeter in 1505. His great wealth came from his water-powered corn mills on the River Irk near Manchester, which were subsequently used to fund the school's endowment.

On 2 July 1515 he signed an endowment trust deed establishing the Manchester Free Grammar School for Lancashire Boys. A site was purchased in September 1516 and construction took place between April 1517 and August 1518. The combined cost was £218.13s.5d, largely given by Oldham, but with the help of his and the Bexwyke (Beswick) family who had provided an earlier endowment for a school within the parish church. A more elaborate deed in 1525 set the detailed rules for the school until the late 19th century.

The original deed promoted "Godliness and good learning" and established that any boy showing sufficient academic ability, regardless of background, might attend, free of charge. The school was situated between Manchester Cathedral, then a collegiate church, and the church's domestic quarters, subsequently Chetham's School of Music.

Later, Oldham's great friend Richard Foxe, the Bishop of Winchester, wished to found a monastery. Oldham, however, convinced him instead to found Corpus Christi College in Oxford and contributed 6000 marks. Oldham also had a hand in the founding of Brasenose College, Oxford.

Early history
The original foundation provided a school house in the curtilage of Manchester's Parish Church and two graduates (the 'High Master' and the 'Usher') to teach Latin and later Greek, to any children who presented themselves. The school was intended to prepare pupils for university and eventually the Church or the legal profession. Typically, pupils would have stayed for 8 to 10 years before leaving for university. There was often enough money to fund bursaries or exhibitions for pupils.

In 1654, the world's first free public library was formed next door to MGS in what had been the church's living quarters. This was facilitated by a bequest from a wealthy businessman (and ex-pupil) Humphrey Chetham, which also served to create a bluecoat orphanage there, schooling 40 poor boys.

By the 18th century, there are thought to have been between 50 and 100 boys in the grammar school at any one time, three or four of whom each year were awarded exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge. An extra room had been built onto the school house for boys who needed instruction in English before they started Latin, and another master was employed to teach them.

The 1515 building was replaced on the same site in 1776. This was on two levels, an Upper School for the Latin and Greek pupils, a Lower School for the English pupils. Boarding-houses were added and many of the Upper School pupils were boarders from surrounding counties. When De Quincy came as a boarder in 1800, classes were held at roughly 7.00am to 9.00, 9.30 to 12.00 and 3.00pm to 5.00.

By 1808 consideration was being given to moving from the site, as it was becoming insalubrious, but this proved impossible as the deed could not be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Going from the Old Church to Long Millgate ... one is in an almost undisguised working men's quarter, for even the shops and beerhouses hardly take the trouble to exhibit a trifling degree of cleanliness ... [The Irk, immediately beside the school,] is a narrow, coal black, foul smelling stream full of debris and refuse.

A commercial school, in parallel with the classical school, and more suited to Manchester's business climate, was established in the 1830s. By this time the school was getting richer on the proceeds of the mills which provided its funding and had a growing surplus on account. Its 'feoffees' (or governors) were mostly landed gentry from outside Manchester and they were heavily criticised for running the school to suit the needs of their offspring rather than as originally intended, the poor of Manchester. This led to a long running suit at the Court of Chancery, which eventually promoted the commercial side at the expense of the classical side of the school.

The area around the school continued to change. During the 1840s, Victoria Railway Station was completed opposite the school and the church became Manchester Cathedral. Then, in the 1870s, a new building, the Manchester Grammar Extension, was built, designed by Alfred Waterhouse, and including new classrooms, laboratories and a gymnasium, reflecting the wider curriculum that had developed since the 1830s. It was connected to the original by a first-storey bridge. It was said that the bridge's purpose was not for ease of movement between the parts of the school, but rather to dwarf Chetham's gatehouse both in terms of size and grandeur.

The tenure of Michael George Glazebrook as High Master, beginning in 1888, saw the introduction of three changes according to pupil Ernest Barker: a system of prefects to keep order, the singing of school songs conducted by John Farmer, and the wearing of school-caps and school-hats.

Recent history
By the early 20th century the school was increasingly receiving funding from the state. This was negligible in 1901, fees providing three quarters of the income, most of the remainder being from the foundation. But by 1931, state grants contributed nearly 30% of the total, and the number of pupils had increased to 1,100.

In 1930 the school moved out of the city centre to accommodate a growing pupil body and provide a wider range of facilities. The new location chosen was in Rusholme, off Old Hall Lane, where the school still stands today.

Both of the school's earlier buildings lay empty, and while the former was destroyed in the Second World War, the latter, renamed the Long Millgate Building, became a teacher training college in the 1950s. In 1969, Chetham's School of Music was founded and occupied what had been the orphanage. When the teacher training college closed in 1978, Chetham's took over the premises.

After the Education Act 1944, MGS became a direct grant grammar school, which meant that the bulk of funding was provided by government. Entry was by merit (based on examination) and parents were means-tested and fees paid primarily by local education authorities on a sliding scale. Fees paid by parents amounted to less than 20% of the total income. It reverted to independent status in 1976 after the Labour government – in the person of Education Secretary Shirley Williams – abolished the direct-grant funding system. Bursaries continue to support the merit based recruitment system, by abating fees for less well-off pupils.

When the Assisted Places Scheme was rescinded in the late 1990s, MGS set up a "Bursary Appeal". This has accumulated a value of over £17.5m and finances bursaries, given to boys whose parents are unable to afford the school fees (£12,930 per annum in 2019/20). Scholarships are not awarded.

In 2015 the school walked 500 miles to celebrate its 500 years anniversary. Boys and teachers were asked to raise money for the Bursary Appeal and walk a mile each. Over 240 pupils currently receive help from the fund.

Main building
The main building was designed in 1929 by Francis Jones and Percy Worthington. In keeping with the style of Oxbridge, it features a quadrangle and a grandiose Memorial Hall. Entrance to the quad is by a tripartite arch under a clock tower cupola. There is also the Paton Library (named after J. L. Paton, a former High Master), MGS Archive Room (formerly the Alan Garner Junior Library, which has since become part of the Paton Library), Common Room, Refectory, Medical Centre, Book Shop, Gymnasium and Swimming Pool. This is in addition to classrooms (subjects taught in this building are Art and Design, Mathematics, Economics, Classical Civilisation, Computing, Greek, History, Latin, Religion and Philosophy) and administrative offices.

The main building also houses the Parker Art Hall which is a three-storey arts studio, situated in the south side of the main building. It is named after former High Master J. G. Parker. It includes a ceramics department with two kilns on the ground floor and also a dark room for photography.

Since opening in 1931 the site at Fallowfield has seen many additions to the accommodation as indicated below.

Mason building
This is the school's language department, named after P. G. Mason, a former High Master, during whose tenure the building was erected. On the ground floor there are the Language Labs, two suites of listening stations, mainly used to practise the listening parts of national exams. This building was originally the school's Sixth Form block, and was built in 1966–67. The foundation stone was laid by The Queen on the occasion of her visit in 1965. By 1970 the shoddiness of the workmanship and materials used was revealed by the cracks which had already started appearing in the internal walls. It is joined to the main building on the ground floor by the Paton Library.

Marks building
Named after former pupil Simon Marks, son of Michael Marks, founder of the Marks & Spencer empire. It is just west of the main building, and was erected in 1958. Major extensions were made by addition of the first floor (after a gift of £50,000 from Lord Marks) and the Israel Sieff Lecture Theatre (after a gift of £5,000 from Lord Marks' brother-in-law), which were opened on 19 September 1962. It currently hosts the following departments: Physics, General Science (taken by Year 7 and 8 pupils – before the subject splits into the usual three divisions), Geography, Computing and Mathematics. There are five physics laboratories, including one for radioactive experimentation, on the ground floor. The main computer room is on the first floor of the Marks building.

Theatres and drama
Sieff Theatre is named after former pupil, Israel Sieff, is situated at the end of the Marks Building and was refurbished in 2006; it is used for lectures and assemblies, as well as being the venue to Muslim Friday prayers. The MGS Theatre has recently undergone extensive rebuilding, to provide a modern and comfortable auditorium, together with studios for rehearsals and drama teaching. The Drama Centre Campaign is chaired by Sir Nicholas Hytner (Director of the National Theatre and a former pupil) who brought Alan Bennett and the actors from The History Boys to launch the campaign in 2006.

Sports hall and rectory building
The Michael Atherton Sports Hall was opened by Mike Atherton (a former pupil) in 1997 and subsequently used by the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra in recording of a live CD. The sports hall was severely damaged in a gale in February 2014 and had to be demolished. There are also 2 squash courts adjacent to the sports hall. The former rectory of St James's Birch-in-Rusholme (the adjacent redundant church) is located near the Sports Hall, and is the home of the Biology Department. However, only A-level biology is taught there. A new sports hall was opened in 2016.

Music school
Located at the rear of the school, it is the building where the music department is based. There is a music library in the basement as well as a dozen or so music practice rooms, each having a piano, used for private lessons. It contains a keyboard suite allowing first and second years to learn basic keyboard playing and a hall on the west side used primarily for orchestra rehearsals. The original part of the building where the practice rooms are now located had been used in the 1950s and '60s as a bicycle shed.

Junior School buildings
In September 2008, MGS opened a Junior School for pupils in Years 5 and 6, extended to Years 3 and 4 in September 2011. Boys entering the Junior School do not sit an entrance exam but attend an assessment day and gain automatic admission into Year 7. The Junior School buildings are both state-of-the-art timber buildings, constructed from sustainable materials imported from Estonia.

Junior School pupils in Years 3, 4 and most of Year 5 are located in Plessyngton Lodge. Year 6 and one class of year 5 pupils work in Bexwyke Lodge.

Outdoor Study and Pursuits Centres
The school owns the Owls' Nest, a large hut situated in Disley, south of Manchester, near to Lyme Park. The original ex-Army hut was opened at Christmas 1920, but it was destroyed by a German bomb on 23 December 1940, and a replacement was provided in 1950. The building is used by forms and activity groups of the school as a base for outdoor trips and camping expeditions.

Academic life
The school was among the first in the UK to adopt the International Mathematics GCSE. Soon afterwards, MGS also adopted the three Sciences and today it offers the IGCSE in most subjects. The main difference between IGCSE and GCSE is that the IGCSE does not have a compulsory coursework element, primarily because it would be too costly to moderate around the world. The maths and science departments decided that pupils were finding the coursework (which forms a fifth of the marks awarded in the national GCSE) undemanding and tedious and so made the switch in 2005. In 2009 the GCSE was replaced by the IGCSE in most subjects (see below). At the same time the school began to offer additional GCSEs in Electronics and Mandarin Chinese, as well as Economics at A Level.

Subjects available at GCSE/IGCSE are:

 * Art and Design (GCSE)
 * Biology
 * Chemistry
 * Classical Civilisation (GCSE)
 * Classical Greek (GCSE)
 * Computer Science
 * Drama (GCSE)
 * English Language
 * English Literature
 * Electronics (GCSE)
 * Geography
 * History
 * Latin (GCSE)
 * Mathematics & Further Mathematics (GCSE)
 * Modern Languages (French, Spanish, Italian, German, Russian (GCSE), Mandarin Chinese (GCSE))
 * Music
 * Physics
 * Religious Studies

All the above subjects are available as Post-16 Qualifications (A-Level, International A-Level or Pre-U) as well as Politics and Economics.

The school is known for its outstanding academic results. In 2017 91% of all A-Level grades were A*-B and at GCSE/IGCSE 68% of all grades were at the A* level.

Partnerships with local schools
Two girls' schools are situated nearby: Manchester High School for Girls and Withington Girls' School. MGS often collaborates with them particularly in music and drama events.

In 2013 the school founded a primary school in partnership with Manchester City Council and Urban Splash, the New Islington Free School.

Partnerships in Africa
MGS is also twinned with a school in Uganda. MGS became linked with the Busoga College Mwiri in 1990 as a consequence of their support for the Busoga Trust. The school donated second-hand science equipment, textbooks and, in 1998, equipped the Mwiri computer centre with almost one hundred PCs. A succession of MGS pupils have been to Mwiri to teach for a term in their gap year and five members of MGS staff and the School Medical Officer have made a combined total of over 20 visits to Mwiri. Some of MGS's pupils first formers (year 7) visited the college in 2003. In return Chairmen of Governors, Headmasters and Deputy Heads from Mwiri have visited MGS. A programme has been initiated to enable one member of the Mwiri staff each year to visit MGS for three weeks in September. This scheme was the brainchild of former Head of Physics, Roger Hand, who retired in 2008.

Publications
There are three publications focusing on the school.

Ulula is an annual full-colour magazine detailing life at MGS during the year.

MGS News is an annual 20-page glossy magazine published in October. It illustrates articles on the successes of MGS pupils, along with features on Old Mancunians and school events and activities. It is produced in-house by the Public Relations Department for visitors at open events, current and prospective parents and teachers and the wider MGS community.

The New Mancunian, is the school pupil newspaper which is written and produced by pupils and has won several national awards. The name echoes the Old Mancunian which is a monthly pamphlet sent out to ex-pupils.

Specialist publications are produced by societies, such as the Philsoc and Docsoc (science and medical societies respectively) magazines.

Old Mancunians – notable alumni
The school's alumni are called "Old Mancunians", or informally Old Mancs, and include academics, politicians, mathematicians, sportsmen, such as former England cricket captain Mike Atherton, former Lancashire Captain, Mark Chilton, and former Lancashire and England batsman, John Crawley, several notable writers, such as Thomas de Quincey, playwright Robert Bolt, author Alan Garner, after whom the school's Junior Library is named, and journalist and broadcaster Martin Sixsmith. Other Old Mancunians are John Charles Polanyi (b. 1929) who won the 1986 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, chemist Michael Barber, actors Ben Kingsley and Robert Powell, historians Michael Wood and Victor Kiernan, popular science writer Brian Clegg, concert organist Daniel Moult, comic Chris Addison, and cryptographers Clifford Cocks, Peter Twinn and Malcolm J. Williamson. Theatre director Nicholas Hytner and the pianist John Ogdon are Old Mancunians. Mathematician and Fields Medalist Sir Michael Atiyah was also educated at the school for two years. One of the first Indian poets of English language, Manmohan Ghose, is also an Old Mancunian.

High Masters
For full details of High Masters up to 1990 with biographical sketches see Bentley. The names and dates of High Masters are also listed in the entrance hall of MGS.

 * 1515–
 * William Pleasington
 * William Hinde
 * James Plumtree
 * 1534–
 * Richard Bradshaw
 * Thomas Wrench
 * William Jackson
 * 1547–
 * Edward Pendleton
 * William Terrill
 * James Bateson
 * Richard Raynton
 * 1583– Thomas Cogan
 * 1597– Edward Chetham
 * 1606– Edward Clayton

 * 1616– John Rowlands
 * 1630– Thomas Harrison
 * 1637– Robert Symonds
 * 1638– Ralph Brideoake
 * 1645– Nehemiah Paynter
 * 1652– John Wickens
 * 1676– Daniel Hill
 * 1677– William Barrow
 * 1720– Thomas Colburn
 * 1722– John Richards
 * 1727– Henry Brook
 * 1749– William Purnell
 * 1764– Charles Lawson
 * 1807– Jeremiah Smith
 * 1838– Robinson Elsdale
 * 1840– John William Richards

 * 1842– Nicholas Germon
 * 1859– Frederick William Walker
 * 1877– Samuel Dill
 * 1888– Michael George Glazebrook
 * 1890– John Edward King
 * 1903– John Lewis Paton
 * 1924– Douglas Gordon Miller
 * 1945– Eric John Francis James (later Lord James of Rusholme)
 * 1962– Peter Geoffrey Mason
 * 1978– David Maland
 * 1985– James Geoffrey Parker
 * 1994– George Martin Stephen
 * 2004– Christopher Ray
 * 2013– Martin Boulton

Junior School Headmistresses

 * 2008 - Linda Hamilton
 * 2021 - Eleanor Losse

Notable staff

 * Peter Farquhar, author and murder victim.

title: Manchester Grammar School


text:
List of national birds

This is a list of national birds, including official birds of overseas territories and other states described as nations. Most species in the list are officially designated. Some species hold only an "unofficial" status. The column is marked as Yes only if the bird currently holds the position of the official national bird. Additionally, the list includes birds that were once official but are no longer, as well as birds recognized as national symbols or for other symbolic roles.

title: List of national birds