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Pál Teleki

Count Pál János Ede Teleki de Szék (1 November 1879 – 3 April 1941) was a Hungarian politician who served as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1920 to 1921 and from 1939 to 1941. He was also an expert in geography, a university professor, a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and chief scout of the Hungarian Scout Association. He descended from an aristocratic family from Transylvania.

Teleki tried to keep Hungary neutral during the early stages of the Second World War despite cooperating with Nazi Germany to regain Hungarian territory lost in the Treaty of Trianon. When Teleki learned that German troops had entered Hungary en route to invade Yugoslavia, effectively killing hopes of Hungarian neutrality, he committed suicide.

He is a controversial figure in Hungarian history because as prime minister he tried to preserve Hungarian autonomy under difficult political circumstances, but also proposed and enacted far-reaching anti-Jewish laws.

Early life

Teleki was born to Géza Teleki (1844–1913), a Hungarian politician and Interior Minister, and his wife Irén Muráty (Muratisz) (1852–1941), the daughter of a wealthy Greek merchant, in Budapest, Hungary. Irén Muráty was fluent in Greek. Her family, the Muráty (Greek: Μουράτη), originally came from Kozani, in northern Greece. Teleki attended Budapest Lutheran elementary school from 1885 to 1889, and Pest Calasanz High School ("gymnazium") from 1889 to 1897. In 1897 he started upper-division work at Budapest University studying law and political science. Teleki then studied at the Royal Hungarian Academy of Economy in Magyaróvár (Magyaróvári Magyar Királyi Gazdasági Akadémia), and after struggling to complete his studies, graduated with a PhD in 1903. He went on to become a university professor and expert on geography and socio-economic affairs in pre-World War I Hungary and a well-respected educator. For instance, Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn was one of his students. He fought in the First World War as a volunteer.

In 1918–19, he compiled and published a map depicting the ethnographic make up of the Hungarian nation. Based on the density of population according to the 1910 census, the so-called Red map was created for the peace talk in Treaty of Trianon. His maps were an excellent composition of social and geographic data, even by today's well-developed Geographic Information System's point of view. From 1911 to 1913 he was Director of Scientific Publishing for the Institute of Geography, and from 1910 to 1923 he was Secretary General of the Geographical Society. He was a delegate to the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919. Between 1937 and 1939, he was the Hungarian representative in the International committee on intellectual cooperation of the League of Nations.

Scouting
In the summer of 1927, Teleki's son Géza, a member of the Hungarian Sea Scouts, was attending a Sea Scout rally held at Helsingør, Denmark. On a sailing cruise, he ignored a reprimand from his Scoutmaster, Fritz M. de Molnár, for failure to carry out a small but necessary exercise of seamanship. Molnár tried to drive home his point by threatening to tell the boy's father on their return to Budapest. Géza replied "Oh, Dad's not interested in Scouting." This roused Molnár's mettle, and he determined to take up the subject of Scouting with Count Teleki.

Molnár's talk about Scouting intrigued Teleki, and he was instrumental in supporting Scouting within Hungary. He became Hungary's Chief Scout, a member of the International Scout Committee from 1929 until 1939, Camp Chief of the 4th World Scout Jamboree held at The Royal Forest at Gödöllő, Hungary, Chief Scout of the Hungarian Scout Association, and a close friend and contemporary of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell. His influence and inspiration were a major factor in the success of Scouting in Hungary, and contributed to its success in other countries as well.

Preserved Hungarian autonomy
Some view Teleki as a moral hero who tried to avoid Hungary's involvement in World War II. He sent Tibor Eckhardt, a high ranking Smallholders Party politician, to the United States with $5 million for the Hungarian Minister in the United States, János Pelényi, to prepare the Hungarian government in exile, for when he and Regent Horthy would have to leave the country. According to supporters of this view, his object was to save what could be saved, under political and military pressure from Nazi Germany, and like the Polish government in exile, to try to survive in some fashion during the war years to come.

Teleki holds Hungary to "Non-belligerent" status
Rejoining the government in 1938 as Minister of Education, Teleki supported Germany's take over of Czechoslovakia with the hopes that the dismemberment of Hungary completed in the 1920 Treaty of Trianon would be undone. On 16 February 1939, Hungarian Prime Minister Béla Imrédy, who had been known as a pro-fascist, anti-Semitic leader, was forced from office after it was revealed that he was of Jewish descent. Teleki became Prime minister for the second time on 15 February 1939. While he strove to close down several fascist political parties, he did nothing to end the existing anti-Semitic laws.

On 24 August 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated the Soviet Union's long-standing "interest" in Bessarabia, Romania. One week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland and demanded the use of the Hungarian railway system through Kassa (then in Hungary) so that German troops could attack Poland from the south. Hungary traditionally had strong ties with Poland, and Teleki refused Germany's demand. Horthy told the German ambassador that "he would sooner blow up the rail lines than to participate in an attack on Poland" (which would completely paralyse the only railway connection from Hungary to Poland, if the Germans decided to march through Hungary without permission). Hungary declared that it was a "non-belligerent" nation and refused to allow German forces to travel through or over Hungary to attack Poland. As a result of Teleki's refusal to co-operate with Germany, during the autumn of 1939 and the summer of 1940 more than 100,000 Polish soldiers, and hundreds of thousands of civilians, many of them Jewish, escaped from Poland and crossed the border into Hungary. The Hungarian government then permitted the Polish Red Cross and the Polish Catholic Church to operate in the open. The Polish soldiers were formally interned, but most of them managed to flee to France by spring of 1940, thanks to the indulgent or friendly attitude of officials.

However, with Germany's seizure of Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland, the buffer nations between Hungary and the belligerent nations of Germany and Soviet Union had evaporated. Germany made economic demands on Hungary to support the war, and offered to repay with arms deliveries, but because of developments in the Balkans, they were routed to the Romanian Army instead.

In his diaries, Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law, wrote that during a visit to Rome by Teleki in March 1940, Teleki "has avoided taking any open position one way or the other but has not hidden his sympathy for the Western Powers and fears an integral German victory like the plague". Ciano reported that Teleki later said that he hoped "for the defeat of Germany, not a complete defeat—that might provoke violent shocks—but a kind of defeat that would blunt her teeth and claws for a long time".

Germany demands Hungary's assistance
In 1940, Germany used the Soviet Union's imminent movement to take over Bessarabia as an excuse to prepare to occupy the vital Romanian oil fields. Germany's General Staff approached Hungary's General Staff and sought passage of its troops through Hungary and for Hungary's participation in the takeover. Germany held out Transylvania as Hungary's reward. The Hungarian government resisted, desired to remain neutral and held out some hope for assistance from the Italians. Hungary sent a special envoy to Rome: "For the Hungarians there arises the problem either of letting the Germans pass, or opposing them with force. In either case the Hungarian liberty would come to an end". Mussolini replied, "How could this ever be since I am Hitler's ally and intend to remain so?" However, Teleki allowed German troops to cross Hungarian territory into southern Romania, with the reward in August 1940 of the return to Hungary of a large part of Teleki's ancestral Transylvanian homeland in the Second Vienna Award. In November, Teleki's government signed the Tripartite Pact, a move that would come back to haunt him only a few months later.

In March 1941, Teleki strongly objected to Hungarian participation in the invasion of Yugoslavia. Hungary's resistance to aiding Germany caused German mistrust. Hungary was not informed of Hitler's top-secret preparations for invading the Soviet Union and was not initially part of the invasion. "Hungary, in the period of preparation for Barbarossa, is not to be counted as an ally beyond the present status...."

Furthermore, German troops were not to cross Hungarian territories, and Hungarian airfields were not to be used by the Luftwaffe, according to the new directives of the High Command on 22 March 1941. Teleki believed that only a Danubian Federation could help the Central and Eastern European states (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria) escape Germany's domination.

In the book, Transylvania The Land Beyond the Forest Louis C. Cornish described how Teleki, under constant surveillance by the German Gestapo during 1941, sent a secret communication to contacts in America.

"He foresaw clearly the complete defeat of Nazi Germany, and the European chaos that would result from the war. He believed that no future was conceivable for any of the minor nations in Eastern and Central Europe if they tried to continue to live their isolated national lives. He asked his friends in America to help them establish a federal system, to federate. This alone could secure for them the two major assets of national life: first, political and military security, and, second, economic prosperity. Hungary, he emphasized, stood ready to join in such collaboration, provided it was firmly based on the complete equality of all the members states."

In 1941, the American journalist Dorothy Thompson supported the statement of others: "I took from Count Teleki's office a monograph which he had written upon the structure of European nations. A distinguished geographer, he was developing a plan for regional federation, based upon geographical and economic realities". Teleki received no response to his ideas and was left to resolve the situation on his own.

Teleki must choose between Axis and Allies
The event that eventually led to Teleki's suicide began on 25 March 1941 when Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisa Cvetkovic and Yugoslav Minister for Foreign Affairs Aleksandar Cincar Marković travelled to Vienna and signed the Tripartite Pact. In the late evening on 26/27 March 1941, Air Force Generals Dušan Simović and Borivoje Mirković had executed a bloodless coup d'état, refuted signatures on the alliance and accepted a British guarantee of security instead. Germany saw its southern flank potentially exposed just as it was preparing Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Germany planned the invasion of Yugoslavia (Directive No. 25) to compel it to remain part of the Axis. Hitler used Hungary's membership in the Tripartite Pact to demand that Hungary join in. Döme Sztójay, the Hungarian ambassador to Germany, was sent home by air with a message for Horthy:

"Yugoslavia will be annihilated, for she has just renounced publicly the policy of understanding with the Axis. The greater part of the German armed forces must pass through Hungary but the principal attack will not be made on the Hungarian sector. Here the Hungarian Army should intervene, and, in return for its co-operation, Hungary will be able to reoccupy all those former territories which she had been forced at one time to cede to Yugoslavia. The matter is urgent. An immediate and affirmative reply is requested."

Teleki had signed a non-aggression pact, the Treaty of Eternal Friendship, with Yugoslavia on 12 December 1940, only five months earlier, and would not assent to assisting with the invasion. Teleki's government chose a middle ground, opting to remain out of the German-Yugoslav conflict unless either Hungarian minorities were in danger or Yugoslavia collapsed. Teleki relayed his government's position to London and sought allowance for Hungary's difficult position.

On 3 April 1941, Teleki received a telegram from the Hungarian minister in London that British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden had threatened to break diplomatic relations with Hungary if it did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory and to declare war if it attacked Yugoslavia.

Teleki's enduring desire was to keep Hungary non-aligned but he could not ignore Nazi Germany's dominant influence. Teleki was now faced with two bad choices. He could continue to resist Germany's demands for its help in the invasion of Yugoslavia although he knew that would likely mean that after Germany conquered Yugoslavia, it would next turn its attention to Hungary, as had happened to Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. He could allow German troops to cross Hungarian territory even though it would betray Yugoslavia and lead the Allies to declare war on Hungary.

Horthy, who had resisted Germany's pressure, agreed to Germany's demands. Teleki met with the cabinet council that evening. He complained that Horthy had "told me thirty-four times that he would never make war for foreign interests, and now he has changed his mind".

Before Teleki could chart a course through the political thicket, the decision was torn from him by General Henrik Werth, the chief of the Hungarian General Staff. Without the sanction of the Hungarian government, Werth, of German origin, made private arrangements with the German High Command for the transport of the German troops across Hungary. Teleki denounced Werth's action as treason.

Germany enters Hungary, Teleki commits suicide
Shortly after 9:00 p.m., he left the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for his apartment in the Sándor Palace. At around midnight, he received a call that is thought to have informed him that the German army had just started its march into Hungary. Teleki committed suicide with a pistol during the night of 3 April 1941 and was found the next morning. His suicide note said in part:

"'We broke our word, – out of cowardice [...] The nation feels it, and we have thrown away its honor. We have allied ourselves to scoundrels [...] We will become body-snatchers! A nation of trash. I did not hold you back. I am guilty.'"

Winston Churchill later wrote, "His suicide was a sacrifice to absolve himself and his people from guilt in the German attack on Yugoslavia." On 6 April 1941, Germany launched Operation Punishment (Unternehmen Strafgericht), the bombing of Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Some historians consider Teleki's suicide an act of patriotism. Britain shortly afterward broke diplomatic relations but did not declare war until December.

Befitting his commitment to Scouting and to Hungary, Teleki was buried at Gödöllő, the location of the Royal Palace.

From Philo-Semitism to anti-Semitism
Teleki is considered "one of the most consistently unaccommodating anti-Semitic politicians of the post-Trianon period". His attitude towards Jews parallels the changing demographic and social situation in Hungary before and after World War I. In the Austro-Hungarian empire the generally fiercely patriotic Hungarian Jews were securing the tenuous Hungarian majority in the Hungarian kingdom. Consequently, Teleki stated at the peace conference of 1919 that "the majority of the Hungarian Jews have completely assimilated to the Hungarians [...] from a social point of view, the Hungarian Jews are not Jews any more but Hungarians." After 1920, with a greatly reduced Hungarian territory, Teleki changed his mind about the Hungarian Jews: he regarded the Jews as a "problem of life and death for the Hungarian people". After Regent Horthy appointed Teleki Prime Minister on 19 July 1920 he introduced the first anti-Semitic laws introduced in Europe after the First World War, the so-called "Numerus clausus Act" of 22 September 1920 which allowed Jews to attend universities only in a direct relation to their proportion of the Hungarian population. He and his government resigned less than a year later on 14 April 1921 when the former king, Karl IV, attempted to retake Hungary's throne.

From 1921 until 1938, Teleki was a professor at Budapest University. While there, journalists asked him what he thought about the anti-Jewish violence that had occurred on the university campus. He replied: "This din does not bother me. In any case, the students take examinations that test their knowledge of the sea and this din is aptly suited to that of the sea."

Due to the feudal nature of pre-War Hungarian society, where both rich and impoverished aristocrats tried to maintain an "aristocratic" life style and a disadvantaged peasant class had no means of learning and social mobility, the Hungarian Jews constituted a disproportionally large part of the Hungarian middle class. In the 1930 census, Jews comprised 5.1% of the population, but among physicians 54.5 percent were Jewish, journalists 31.7%, and lawyers 49.2%. Persons of Jewish faith controlled four of the five major banks, from 19.5 to 33% of the national income, and around 80 percent of the country's industry. Already after the short lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (21 March – 1 August 1919), whose leaders, concomitantly with their middle class origins, were often of Jewish parentage, and even more after the worldwide depression struck in the late 1920s and early 1930s, which conversely was associated with Jewish wealth and financial power, the country's Jews were made scapegoats for all of Hungary's economic, political and social plights.

After a period of considerable economic turbulence and a general political turn to the far right, Teleki became Prime Minister once again on 16 February 1939. Although considered an Anglophile, one of the first things he did in Parliament was to push the Second Anti-Jewish act initiated by his predecessor Béla Imrédy. This was the first law which defined the term "Jew" in explicitly racial terms: "A person belonging to the Jewish denomination is at the same time a member of the Jewish racial community and it is natural that the cessation of membership in the Jewish denomination does not result in any change in that person’s association with the racial community." It forbade Jews to hold any government position, to be editors, publishers, producers or directors. It restated and reinforced the Numerus Clausus act of 1920 and extended its provisions (representation according to proportion of population) to the business world, regulating even the number of Jewish employees (one in five or two in nine maximum, depending on the size). These laws would affect up to 825,000 Jews, who lived in territory reacquired by Hungary in 1941.

Teleki promulgated Law No. II relating to national defense, on 11 March 1939, and signed it into law on 12 May of the same year. The text of the bill stipulated that all young Jewish men of arms-bearing age join forced-labor service. In 1940, this compulsory service was extended to all able-bodied male Jews. As a result of the laws established during Teleki's tenure, 15,000–35,000 Jews in the re-acquired part of Czechoslovakia, who had difficulty in proving their former Hungarian citizenship, were deported.

These Jews, without Hungarian citizenship, were sent to a location near Kamenets-Podolski, where in one of the first acts of mass killing during World War II, all but two thousand of these individuals were executed by the Nazi Einsatzgruppe (mobile killing unit).

Teleki wrote the preamble to the Second Anti-Jewish Law (1939) and prepared the Third Anti-Jewish Law in 1940. He also signed 52 anti-Jewish decrees during his rule, and members of his government issued 56 further decrees against Jews.

Teleki devoted a great deal of energy and political savvy to the passage of the second anti-Jewish bill, stating that he pushed it not for tactical reasons but because of his deep personal convictions. During Teleki's second term in 1940, Hungarian Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi was given amnesty, and the Nazi movement became stronger.

Although the laws of the Labor Service System were put in effect during Teleki's lifetime, they were radically enforced only after Hungary had entered the war. Then the situation of the Jewish forced laborers, which were organized in labor battalions, commanded by Hungarian military officers, became dire. They were engaged in war-related construction, often subject to extreme cold, and given inadequate shelter, food, and medical care. At least 27,000 Jewish forced laborers died before Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944, after which the Hungarian state authorities in close cooperation with the German "Sonderkommando" of Adolf Eichmann rapidly organized and implemented the mass deportation of Jews to the death camps.

While it is true that tens of thousands of young Hungarians were conscripted into military service at the same time and sent to fight on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, often ill-equipped and badly trained, and bore the brunt of the miseries of the German defeat, the Hungarian participation in the Eastern campaign was voluntary, and the suffering of its soldiers was war induced and not deliberately inflicted as with the Jewish labor battalions.

Statue controversy
In 2004, the Teleki Pál Memorial Committee, initially supported by Budapest mayor Gábor Demszky, proposed erecting a statue by Tibor Rieger in his honor on the 63rd anniversary of his death in front of the palace on Castle Hill where he governed and, finally, committed suicide. Because of his close connection with Hungarian anti-Semitism there was a strong opposition both by Hungarian liberals and Hungarian and international Jewish organizations, especially the Simon Wiesenthal Center and its leader Efraim Zuroff. Consequently, the mayor withdrew his support and the Minister of Culture István Hiller canceled the plans. On 5 April 2004, the statue was finally placed in the courtyard of the Catholic Church in the town of Balatonboglár on the shore of Lake Balaton. Balatonboglár had during World War II been host to thousands of Polish refugees who opened in that town one of only two secondary schools for Poles in Europe during 1939–1944. They credited Teleki with opening Hungary's borders to them and named a street in Warsaw for him after the war ended. In 2001 he was posthumously awarded Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland. In 2020 Teleki earned two monuments in Poland, one in Skierniewice and one in Kraków, both related to his pro-Polish stand during the Polish-Soviet war of 1920.

A street in Borča, a suburb of the Serbian capital Belgrade, was named "Ulica Pala Telekija" ("Pal Teleki Street") in 2011.

title: Pál Teleki


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New Buffalo

New Buffalo may refer to:

 * Places in the United States
 * New Buffalo, Michigan
 * New Buffalo (Amtrak station), a train station in New Buffalo, Michigan
 * New Buffalo Township, Michigan
 * New Buffalo, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * New Buffalo, Pennsylvania
 * New Buffalo (commune), commune in northern Taos County, New Mexico

 * Other uses
 * New Buffalo, former alias of musician Sally Seltmann, based in Melbourne, Australia
 * New Buffalo (EP), an EP by New Buffalo

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: New Buffalo


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Christianisation of the Germanic peoples

The Germanic peoples underwent gradual Christianization in the course of late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. By AD 700, England and Francia were officially Christian, and by 1100 Germanic paganism had also ceased to have political influence in Scandinavia.

History
Germanic peoples began entering the Roman Empire in large numbers at the same time that Christianity was spreading there. The connection of Christianity to the Roman Empire was both a factor in encouraging conversion as well as, at times, a motive for persecuting Christians. Until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes who had migrated there (with the exceptions of the Saxons, Franks, and Lombards, see below) had converted to Christianity. Many of them, notably the Goths and Vandals, adopted Arianism instead of the Trinitarian (a.k.a. Nicene or orthodox) beliefs that were dogmatically defined by the church in the Nicene Creed. The gradual rise of Germanic Christianity was, at times, voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. From the 6th century, Germanic tribes were converted (or re-converted from Arianism) by missionaries of the Catholic Church.

Many Goths converted to Christianity as individuals outside the Roman Empire. Most members of other tribes converted to Christianity when their respective tribes settled within the Empire, and most Franks and Anglo-Saxons converted a few generations later. During the centuries following the fall of Rome, as the East–West Schism between the dioceses loyal to the Pope of Rome in the West and those loyal to the other Patriarchs in the East grew, most of the Germanic peoples (excepting the Crimean Goths and a few other eastern groups) would gradually become strongly allied with the Catholic Church in the West, particularly as a result of the reign of Charlemagne.

East Germanic peoples
Most of the East Germanic peoples, such as the Goths, Gepids, and Vandals, along with the Langobards and the Suevi in Spain converted to Arian Christianity, a form of Christianity that rejected the divinity of Christ. The first Germanic people to convert to Arianism were the Visigoths, at the latest in 376 when they entered the Roman Empire. This followed a longer period of missionary work by both Orthodox Christians and Arians, such as the Arian Wulfila, who was made missionary bishop of the Goths in 341 and translated the Bible into Gothic. Initially, Gothic Christians had also faced some persecution under the Gothic King Athanaric, from 363 to 372. The Vandals appear to have converted following their entry into the Empire in 405; for other east Germanic peoples it is possible that Visigothic missionaries played a role in their conversion, although this is unclear. Each Germanic people in the Arian faith had their own ecclesiastical organization that was controlled by the king, while the liturgy was performed in the Germanic vernacular and a vernacular bible (probably Wulfila's) was used. The Arian Germanic peoples all eventually converted to Nicene Christianity, which had become the dominant form of Christianity within the Roman Empire; the last to convert were the Visigoths in Spain under their king Reccared in 587.

Franks and Alamanni

There is little evidence for any Roman missionary activity in Germania prior to the conversion of the Franks. The areas of the Roman Empire conquered by the Franks, Alemanni, and Baiuvarii were mostly Christian already, and while some bishoprics continued to operate, others were abandoned, showing a reduction in the influence of Christianity in these areas. In 496, the Frankish king Clovis I converted to Nicene Christianity. This began a period of missionizing within Frankish territory and the reestablishment of church provinces that had been abandoned within former Roman territory. The Anglo-Saxons gradually converted following a mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 595. In the 7th century, the Hiberno-Scottish mission resulted in the establishment of many monasteries in Frankish territory. At the same time, Frankish-supported missionary activity spread across the Rhine, led by figures of the Anglo-Saxon mission such as Saint Boniface. This affected peoples such as the Thuringians, Alemanni, Bavarians, Frisians, and Saxons.

Continental Saxons
The Saxons rejected Christianization, likely in part because doing so would have involved giving up their independence and becoming part of the Frankish realm. They were eventually forcibly converted by Charlemagne as a result of their conquest in the Saxon Wars in 776/777: Charlemagne thereby combined religious conversion with political loyalty to his empire. Continued resistance to conversion seems to have played a role in Saxon rebellions between 782 and 785, then again from 792 to 804, and during the Stellinga rebellion in (844).

England
The Anglo-Saxons gradually converted following the Gregorian mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 595, as well as the Hiberno-Scottish mission from the north-west. Pope Gregory I sent the first Archbishop of Canterbury, Augustine, to southern England in 597. The process of conversion usually proceeded from the top of the social hierarchy downwards, generally peacefully, with a local ruler choosing to convert, whereupon his subjects then also nominally became Christian. This process was often only partial, perhaps due to confusion as to the nature of the new religion, or for a desire to take the best of both traditions. A famous case of this was king Rædwald of East Anglia, who had a Christian altar erected within his pagan temple. His suspected burial place at Sutton Hoo shows definite influences of both Christian and pagan burial rites.

The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, the Jutish king Arwald of the Isle of Wight, was killed in battle in 686 fighting against the imposition of Christianity in his kingdom.

During the prolonged period of Viking incursions and settlement of Anglo-Saxon England pagan ideas and religious rites made something of a comeback, mainly in the Danelaw during the 9th century and particularly in the Kingdom of Northumbria, whose last king to rule it as an independent state was Eric Bloodaxe, a Viking, probably pagan and ruler until 954 AD.

Scandinavia
Attempts to Christianize Scandinavia were first systematically undertaken by Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious. In 831, he made the missionary Ansgar archbishop of the newly created Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen to undertake a mission to Scandinavia, which, however, mostly failed. Missionary activity resumed under the Ottonian dynasty. The Danish king Harald Bluetooth was baptized in the late 900s, but most Danes appear to have remained pagan and converted later under English influence during the reign of Canute the Great. Norway was converted mostly by the activity of its kings. Despite resistance such as the rule of the pagan Haakon Sigurdsson, Christianization was largely achieved by Olaf II (died 1030), who had converted in England. The settlement of Iceland included some Christians, but full conversion there did not occur until a decision of the Allthing in 1000. The last Germanic people to convert were the Swedes, although the Geats had converted earlier. The pagan Temple at Uppsala seems to have continued to exist into the early 1100s.

Characteristics
The baptism of Clovis highlights two important characteristics of the Christianization of Europe. Clovis I's wife Clotilde was a Chalcedonian Christian and had an important role in the conversion of her husband. Long before his own baptism, Clovis had allowed his sons to be baptised. However, the decisive reason for Clovis to adopt the Christian faith was the belief that he received spiritual battle aid from Christ. In the Battle of Tolbiac he prayed to Christ for victory. Clovis was victorious, and afterward he had himself instructed in the Christian faith by Saint Remigius.

That a pagan like Clovis could ask Christ for help shows the adaptability of Germanic polytheism. In the polytheistic Germanic tradition, "if Odin failed, one absolutely could try it with Christ for once." The Christian sense of religious exclusivism was unknown to the pagans. As a result, pagans could be pragmatic and almost utilitarian in their religious decisions. A good example for this are several Thor's Hammers with engraved crosses, worn as amulets, that archaeologists have found in Scandinavia. Another exemplary event happened during Ansgar's second stay in Birka, when a pagan priest demanded from the locals that they not participate in the cult of the foreign Christian God. If they did not have enough gods yet, they should elevate one of their deceased kings, Erik, to be a god.

The baptism of Clovis I also highlights the sacral role of the Germanic king. A Germanic king was not only a political ruler, but also held the highest religious office for his people. He was seen as of divine descent, was the leader of the religious cult and was responsible for the fertility of the land and military victory. Accordingly, the conversion of their leader had a strong impact on his people. If he considered it appropriate to adopt the Christian belief, this also was a good idea for them.

Conversion of the Germanic tribes in general took place "top to bottom" (Fletcher 1999:236), in the sense that missionaries aimed at converting the Germanic nobility first, who would then impose their new faith on the general population. This is attributable to the sacral position of the king in Germanic paganism: The king is charged with interacting with the divine on behalf of his people, so that the general population saw nothing wrong with their kings choosing alternate modes of worship (Padberg 1998:29; though Fletcher 1999:238 would rather attribute the motivation for conversion to the workings of loyalty-for-reward ethics that underpinned the relationship between a king and his retinue). Consequently, Christianity had to be made palatable to these Migration Age warlords as a heroic religion of conquerors, a rather straightforward task, considering the military splendour of the Roman Empire.

Thus early Germanic Christianity was presented as an alternative to native Germanic paganism and elements were syncretized, for examples parallels between Woden and Christ. A fine illustration of these tendencies is the Anglo-Saxon poem Dream of the Rood, where Jesus is cast in the heroic model of a Germanic warrior, who faces his death unflinchingly and even eagerly. The Cross, speaking as if it were a member of Christ's band of retainers, accepts its fate as it watches its Creator die, and then explains that Christ's death was not a defeat but a victory. This is in direct correspondence to the Germanic pagan ideals of fealty to one's lord.

List of missionaries
Christian missionaries to Germanic peoples:

to the Goths to the Lombards to the Alamanni to the Anglo-Saxons (see Anglo-Saxon Christianity) to the Frankish Empire (see Hiberno-Scottish, Anglo-Saxon mission) to the Bavarians to Scandinavia
 * Ulfilas (Gothic, 341-383)
 * Saint Severinus of Noricum (5th century)
 * Eugippus
 * Fridolin of Säckingen
 * Columbanus (Irish, 6th century)
 * Saint Gall
 * Liuhard of Canterbury (6th century)
 * Augustine of Canterbury (597-604)
 * Laurence of Canterbury
 * Mellitus
 * Justus
 * Chad of Mercia (7th century)
 * Saint Honorius (7th century)
 * Aidan of Lindisfarne (7th century)
 * Saint Trudpert (Irish, 7th century)
 * Saint Rumbold
 * Saint Boniface (English, 8th century)
 * Saint Walpurga, Saint Willibald and Saint Winibald (English siblings assisting St Boniface)
 * Saint Wilfried
 * Saint Willibrord
 * Saint Willehad
 * Saint Lebuin
 * Saint Liudger
 * Saint Ewald
 * Saint Suitbert of Kaiserswerth
 * Saint Pirmin (8th century)
 * Charlemagne
 * Saint Corbinian (8th century)
 * Ansgar (9th century)


text:
New Cambria

New Cambria is the name of several towns in the United States:

 * New Cambria, Kansas
 * New Cambria, Missouri

title: New Cambria


text:
Paul Di'Anno

Paul Andrews (born 17 May 1958), better known by his stage name Paul Di'Anno, is an English heavy metal singer who was the lead vocalist for Iron Maiden from 1978 to 1981. In his post-Maiden career, Di'Anno has issued numerous albums over the years, as both a solo artist and as a member of such bands as Gogmagog, Di'Anno's Battlezone, Killers, Rockfellas, and more recently, Warhorse. Together with fellow Iron Maiden member Dennis Stratton, he joined Praying Mantis for the recording of their 1990 live album Live at Last.

Iron Maiden (1978–1981)
Di'Anno was born and grew up in Chingford, East London. Because of his Brazilian father, Di'Anno holds dual British and Brazilian citizenship. He spent his teenage years singing in various rock bands and working as a butcher in Station Road and as a chef in hotels and restaurants.

According to Iron Maiden's The History of Iron Maiden – Part 1: The Early Days DVD, he was introduced to the band by drummer Doug Sampson, an old friend of Harris' from his days in the band Smiler. It was around this time that he first adopted the stage name Di'Anno, which he would later use to claim Italian descent. Their first audition with Rod Smallwood reputedly failed when Di'Anno was arrested for showing off his pocket-knife in public.

The band's 1980 self-titled release quickly became acknowledged as a classic of its genre, as the band merged punk's energy with metal's riffs and progressive rock complexity, serving as the blueprint for such future genres as thrash metal and speed metal and influencing later progressive metal bands. 1981 saw the release of their second album, Killers, as well as a stopgap live EP, Maiden Japan.

Iron Maiden decided that to progress they would have to find a singer capable of being on tour. They found a replacement in former Samson frontman Bruce Dickinson. Di'Anno's last show with the band was on 10 September 1981 at the Odd Fellow's Mansion in Copenhagen, Denmark. In 1981, Di'Anno left Iron Maiden after a meeting with the band and their manager Rod Smallwood. In Di'Anno's words: "It's like having Mussolini and Adolf Hitler run your band. Because it is Rod Smallwood and Steve Harris and that's it. There can't be anyone else and my character is too strong for that so me an' Steve was always fighting". Di'Anno was paid out by Smallwood at the time of his departure and does not receive royalties on Iron Maiden songs.

Di'Anno (1983–1985)
Di'Anno was the first project by Paul Di'Anno after he was fired from Iron Maiden. This group was originally called Lonewolf but after disagreement with a group already called Lone Wolf, they changed their name and ended up recording only one album under the simple moniker of Di'Anno. Musically the band shifted away from the NWOBHM sound at the time like Iron Maiden to a more Americanized sound similar to bands like Journey and Foreigner. On the tour, Di'Anno played "Remember Tomorrow" from his catalogue of Iron Maiden songs, along with their own songs and a few other covers (most notably The Kinks' "You Really Got Me," and "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood"). Having limited success, the six-piece band disbanded shortly after they were done touring. The only other recordings available from this band are a single of "Heartuser", a Japanese single of "Flaming Heart" and a Sweden-only VHS release called Live at the Palace (also available on DVD as Di'Anno Live from London). During the latter performance, the band played an unreleased song entitled "Spiritual Guidance", which Paul told the audience would be on the band's forthcoming album. This album was never recorded.

Last known line-up:
 * Paul Di'Anno – lead vocals
 * Lee Slater – guitars, vocals
 * P. J. Ward – guitars, vocals
 * Kevin Browne – bass, vocals
 * Mark Venables – keyboards, vocals
 * Frank Noon – drums (replacing Dave Irving from the album line-up who in turn replaced Mark Stewart)

Gogmagog (1985)
In 1985, Di'Anno joined a project that was intended to be a supergroup. The group, called "Gogmagog" (see the Biblical book Ezekiel 38:1–2), was put together by DJ and record producer Jonathan King, best known for discovering the group Genesis in the late 1960s. King assembled a star-studded lineup featuring Di'Anno, drummer Clive Burr, guitarists Janick Gers and Pete Willis and bassist Neil Murray, but the members became increasingly frustrated by a policy that forbade them from writing any original material. Gogmagog released a three-song E.P. on the independent Food For Thought label in 1985 entitled I Will Be There, with Russ Ballard writing the title song and producer King writing the other two songs. Although reviews were generally positive, the EP did not chart and the group disbanded after King began to lose interest in the project. Di'Anno has been completely dismissive of the short-lived project, referring to it as "nothing" and claiming he only got involved for the money.

Battlezone (1985–1989, 1998)
After the breakup of his self-titled band, Di'Anno formed Strike with DeeRal (guitar) who recruited drummer Bob Falck (who had used the name Sid Falck while playing drums in Overkill) and the Hurley brothers John (second guitar) and Chaz (bass). The project was eventually named Battlezone, after a name straight from a comic book, upon the vocalist's return to Britain in 1985. 1986 saw the enrollment of former Lonewolf and Tokyo Blade guitarist John Wiggins.

The band's initial line-up comprised Di'Anno, guitarists John Wiggins and John Hurley, bassist Laurence Kessler and Adam Parsons on drums. Di'Anno had previously known guitarists John Wiggins and John Hurley from bands such as Deep Machine and Iron Cross. Parsons had gone under the stage name A.D. Dynamite whilst in Aunt May. However, Parsons left shortly after to replace Vince Hoare in the London-based glam band Belladonna (formed by former Hell's Belles vocalist Paul Quigley, with Paul Lewis, Jeff Fox and Neil Criss) and Falck reappeared on the scene in time together with Danish bassist Pete West (Peter Vester) to record the band's first album Fighting Back, written entirely by John Hurley, except the title track which was credited to Bob Falck.

Battlezone performed a club tour of America in 1987 to promote the début Fighting Back, but musical differences, arguments and physical fights within the band led to the departure of John Hurley and Bob Falck after the first tour. According to Di'Anno's book The Beast, Hurley had become an "egomaniac" and the drummer Falck a "liability", so they were thrown out the band. Their places were taken by ex-Persian Risk members Graham Bath and Steve Hopgood respectively, following the tour's completion.

The second album to be released was entitled Children of Madness, and it featured a track entitled "Metal Tears", which is about a man who was unable to have a steady relationship and built a female robot, who he subsequently fell in love with. The original idea came from a book titled Clone. However, the track received criticism from the media for being very similar to a track (entitled "London") on Queensrÿche's Rage for Order album.

"Guitarist Graham Bath, who had been recruited to play second guitar, wasn't enthusiastic about touring, so he was fired from the band. Pete West, recommended a replacement Alf Batz, who joined just in time to go to New York for the video shoot." The video for "I Don't Wanna Know" was played in rotation on MTV in the US.

Drugs and infighting again put a strain on the band. Towards the end of the final tour, most members had quit leaving Di'Anno to complete the tour with a backing band in order to fulfil his contract.

Subsequently, American guitarist Randy Scott, along with Dave Harman on guitar and Eddie Davidson on bass, signed up with Battlezone. However, the band were without proper management and disbanded shortly after. Battlezone played their last concert on 10 December 1989, at Dynamo Open Air in Eindhoven, Netherlands.

Following the breakup of Battlezone, Di'Anno and Hopgood formed the power metal band Killers, releasing four albums. Hurley would later form glam rock band L.O. Girls and release the "Twelve Bore Honeymoon" single in 1990 and "Just Can't Say I Love You" in 1993. During 1990, Di'Anno fronted Praying Mantis for a tour of Japan, which was recorded for the subsequent Live at Last album release with ex-Iron Maiden guitarist Dennis Stratton. Wiggins joined a reformed Tokyo Blade in 1995.

By 1998, Di'Anno had resurrected the name Battlezone. Joining him were Wiggins and fellow ex-Tokyo Blade members bassist Colin Riggs and drummer Marc Angel. Second guitars were supplied by the Brazilian Paulo Turin. This line-up cut the album Feel My Pain, released by the fledgling "Zoom Club" label. Working titles for the album included "Spoon Face" and "Smack", both containing references to heroin use. The album had a heavier edge compared to the first two Battlezone albums. The band undertook a sold-out Brazilian tour in January 1998, with erstwhile Killers colleagues bassist Gavin Cooper and guitarist Nick Burr joining on this South American tour.

The band toured Brazil in the same year playing a three-week tour to sold-out audiences up to 6000 fans a night. Being brought back down to earth, Battlezone upon their return home put on a gig at the Walthamstow Royal Standard with an audience of only a hundred or so and a gig at JB's Dudley in the West Midlands attracting fewer than a dozen fans. A live track from the Walthamstow gig later appeared on a compilation of all three Battlezone albums, entitled Cessation of Hostilities. Ex-Battlezone bassist Gavin Cooper joined Lionsheart in December 2004, then moved onto Statetrooper in May 2005. The bassist subsequently joined the ranks of Magnum singer Bob Catley's solo band for UK dates in April 2006.

In mid-2008, a Battlezone compilation entitled The Fight Goes On was released as on the Phantom Sound & Vision label as a 3-CD box set featuring all three Battlezone studio albums.

Last known line-up:
 * Paul Di'Anno – Vocals
 * Johnny "Bravo" Wiggins – Guitars (1985–89, 1998–99)
 * Paulo Turin – Guitars (1998–99)
 * Colin Riggs – Bass (1998–99)
 * Mark Angel – Drums (1998–99)

Former/past member(s):
 * DeeRal – Guitars (1985)
 * John Hurley – Guitars (1985–87)
 * Graham Bath – Guitars (1987)
 * Alf Batz – Guitars (1987–89)
 * Randy Scott – Guitars (1989)
 * Dave Harman – Guitars (1989)
 * Nick Burr – Guitars (1998)
 * Chaz Hurley – Bass (1985–86)
 * Peter Vester – Bass (1986–88) listed as "Pete West" on the back covers of "Fighting Back" and "Children of Madness" )
 * Eddie Davidson – Bass (1989)
 * Gavin Cooper – Bass (1998)
 * Bob "Sid" Falck – Drums (1986–87)
 * J. Michael D.- Drums
 * Steve Hopgood – Drums (1987–89)

Praying Mantis (1990)
After being dropped by BMG, Praying Mantis disbanded. Then, in a Spinal Tap-ish twist of fate, Paul Di'Anno called Dennis Stratton in 1989, about the Japanese wanting to have a ten-year anniversary of the new wave of British heavy metal. The band found themselves enjoying a renaissance in Tokyo, Japan, prompting a reformation and tour in April 1990, which yielded the Live at Last LP.

Killers (1990–1997, 2001–2003)
Killers was formed back in the summer of 1991. Cliff Evans was living in New York with Arnie Goodman, the manager of Fastway. Steve Hopgood, who played in Battlezone with Di'Anno previously, called Evans and outlined his plans for a new band. Di'Anno and Hopgood flew over to New York from the U.K. where they formed a band.

Within a few days, Killers had hired John Gallagher (from Raven) to play bass on a short-term basis. Former member of Drive She Said and New York session player Ray Detone was brought in on second guitar.

Shortly afterward, a live album called Assault on South America was recorded, featuring a number of Iron Maiden and Battlezone tracks and covers of "We Will Rock You" and "Smoke on the Water". This was funded by Rock in Rio promoter Carlos Genesio and to be released primarily for the South American market. "Recorded in Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela in Summer of 1993" is splashed on the back cover. However, according to John Gallagher, the South American tour fell through so the entire album was recorded on a mobile recording truck in New York. Later, a Canada-based record company called Magnetic Air Productions issued a pirate (bootleg) release worldwide, under a different cover, with no royalties being paid to the band.

Killers then played two days of showcases at Arnie Goodman's New York City studio for several major record companies including Virgin, EMI, Sony and BMG. Representatives flew into New York from all over the world to see Killers play. They played only Iron Maiden songs because the band had not written any material. Maiden songs played included "Phantom of the Opera" and "Wrathchild" which evidently impressed a BMG representative enough to give the band a $250,000 contract. BMG were unaware that these songs had been recorded previously.

Once Killers had the record deal, they started to write the first album entitled Murder One. Rob Fraboni was recruited to produce the record. The band moved to Binghamton, where they stayed in a motel in which the owner had a set up rehearsal studio. The album was written in about in two weeks. Fraboni then took Killers to White Crow Audio (Burlington, Vermont) to record the drums which took about half a day. Finally, vocals and final mixing were performed at The Powerstation in New York.

Nick Burr left Killers after the completion of Murder One and was replaced by former Battlezone and Persian Risk guitarist Graham Bath who had also briefly played in Battlezone. For the next 18 months the band toured around the world playing to fans all over Europe, Japan and coast to coast across the USA.

After the tour of Murder One, Killers returned to the UK while Di'Anno stayed in the US. Around this time, Di'Anno married an English girl, whom he flew into New York. Drugs and alcohol took their toll and the marriage quickly fell apart. Di'Anno left New York and moved in with his new American girlfriend in L.A. A fight between him and her involving a knife caught the attention of the police, who came into the apartment and arrested him for spousal abuse, cocaine possession and firearms offences. After a court appearance, he was sentenced to spend four months in an L.A. jail and Di'Anno was branded by the judge as a 'menace to society'. It was here that Di'Anno began writing songs for the next Killers album and posting tapes back and forth to the UK, where the band were now living.

Di'Anno returned to the UK after being deported. It was here that the band was already signed to Bleeding Hearts records located in Newcastle, where they recorded their second studio album, entitled Menace to Society. The album had a more groove/thrash metal sound, and some critics compared this album to the works of Pantera and Machine Head. It was poorly received by many critics with the exception of Metal Hammer magazine in Germany who voted it as the "Best New Album" for that year.

By 2003, Di'Anno and Cliff Evans went on tour as the only original members of Killers remaining. Di'Anno hired new musicians whom he remembered from touring in Germany and Austria. Marcus Thurston joined the band as second guitarist, Darayus Kaye took over bass duties and Pete Newdeck on drums. Steve Hopgood had to retire as he developed tinnitus in his ears. The guitarist Graham Bath damaged his hands from playing so much over the years and developed arthritis. According to Di'Anno, he wanted Clive Burr (ex-Iron Maiden) on drums, but he could not get to rehearsals in time. Later on, Burr was to become severely ill from multiple sclerosis and died in 2013.

By 2004, Killers had disbanded. Cliff Evans, the former Killers guitarist and last original member of the band apart from Di'Anno, subsequently formed his own record company called Soundhouse Records and re-released the entire Killers back catalogue with the addition of another live album entitled Killers Live at the Marquee in 2008. Murder One album was reissued with 2 acoustic bonus tracks – "Wrathchild" and "Dreamkeeper". Following this, Paul Di'Anno made both Killers studio albums available for download free of charge through his own website. Following legal action, Evans was forced to cease selling any Killers material on his label.

In December 2013, Paul Di'Anno and Cliff Evans announced that the band would regroup and release a new album entitled The Lazarus Syndrome. Producer Phil Kinmanm who had worked on Tank's album War Nation was announced to be involved with the new project.

Last known line-up
 * Paul Di'Anno – Vocals (Di'Anno, ex-Battlezone, ex-Gogmagog (UK), ex-Iron Maiden)
 * Cliff Evans – Guitars (Chicken Shack, Headfirst, Tank)
 * Graham Bath – Guitars (Persian Risk, Sphinx)
 * Brad Wiseman – Bass
 * Steve Hopgood – Drums (ex-Battlezone, ex-Chinatown, ex-Jagged Edge, Persian Risk, Shy, Tank, Wild)

Former/past member(s)
 * John Gallagher – Bass (1991–1992) (Raven)
 * Ray Ditone – Guitars (1991–1992)
 * Nick Burr – Guitars (1992) (ex-Battlezone, ex-Idol Rich, ex-Tyrant, now Bad Back Band)
 * Gavin Cooper – Bass (1992–1994) (ex-Battlezone)

Nomad / Di'Anno (1999–2001, 2003–2008)
Following the demise of the new Battlezone unit put together in 1998, Di'Anno teamed up with expat Brazilian guitarist Paulo Turin and lived in São Paulo during 2000. A new band was created initially under the banner of "Nomad" and featured an all Brazilian line up. It was economically and logistically preferable for Di'Anno to live in Brazil during this period, in order to tour South America and release a self-produced album pleasing to that particular market. The album was distributed by Perris Records. However, complete worldwide distribution was not achieved.

The album was repackaged and released as The Living Dead. The package included a DVD video for the title track. This was recorded in the East London Docks and directed by Swedish director Mats Lundberg from Doom Films, who went to London to work on the concept with Di'Anno's manager Lea Hart. All of the special effects were added in Sweden and the story line was based on the lyrics and message of the song. Few previously released live Iron Maiden tracks were also added to the CD.

RockFellas (2008–2010)
Late 2008, Di'anno relocated to the southeast of Brazil and toured with a new band/project named RockFellas with three Brazilian musicians: Jean Dolabella (drummer) ex-Diesel/Udora/Sepultura, Marcão (guitarist) of Charlie Brown Jr. and Canisso of Raimundos/ex-Rodox, playing rock & roll and metal classics. There, he was nicknamed "Paulo Baiano" ("Paulo" = Paul in Portuguese, Baiano = Who was born in Bahia), being the "Paulo Baiano" nickname a pun/joke, for his name, Paul Di'Anno, is pronounced in a very similar way to the nickname above.

Norwegian live band (2008–present)
Early 2008, Di'Anno toured Norway and later Eastern Europe in 2009 with an all-Norwegian backing band consisting of musicians Henrik "Rick" Hagan (drums), Are Gogstad (bass), Jon Vegard Naess (guitar) and Anders Buaas (guitar). Anders Buaas was later replaced by guitarist Rikard Nilsen. The band went on to do several tours of Sweden, and made festival appearances at Hard Rock Hell (Wales, UK 2013), Voxbotn (Faroe Islands, Denmark 2013), Tons of Rock (Halden, Norway 2014), Sweden Rock Festival (Norje, Sweden 2014) and Rock Against Narcotics (Pune, India 2015), before doing a tour of Sweden in the summer of 2015. The band has also toured with Blaze Bayley and Tim Ripper Owens.

2010s
Di'Anno was, before being jailed in March 2011, recording a new solo album with Paulo Turin, the guitarist who worked on Feel My Pain and Nomad. The album was being produced by Dieter Roth in his studio in Germany. However, work on the album ceased due to record company problems.

He maintained an extensive world tour schedule, including two recent trips through America where traditional metal band Icarus Witch served as both his opening and backing band. In June 2012, Di'Anno was given the Freedom of the City of Bariloche in Argentina for charitable work carried out several years ago.

In 2014, Di'Anno sang on lead vocals on the bonus track "Fuck You All" on the album Big Trouble by hard rock band Hollywood Monsters. The album was released in 2014 on Mausoleum Records and featured Steph Honde on vocals and guitars, Vinny Appice on drums, Tim Bogert on bass and Don Airey on keyboards.

In August 2014, Di'Anno scrapped his retirement plans and released a new album with his new band, Architects of Chaoz, called The League of Shadows.

In 2015, he returned to Brazil on his tour "The Beast is Back", saying that this would be his last in the country. In this tour, the singer was accompanied by musicians from Rio de Janeiro, Vinnie Tex (guitar), Thiago Velasquez (bass) and drummer Braulio Drumond; they currently part of the North American Leather Leone's band. Di'Anno made eight presentations around the country. These members would be part of the new band, however due to health problems, the singer had to pause activities and the project in standby.

The same year, Di'Anno was interviewed extensively for the book Iron Maiden: 80 81, by author Greg Prato.

In May 2016, Di'Anno was hospitalized for undisclosed medical issues and was forced to cancel his previously announced June 2016 tour of Brazil. According to the tour's promoter, Blog n Roll Produções, Di'Anno is undergoing a series of tests to help ensure an accurate diagnosis and identify an appropriate course of treatment.

On 29 October 2017, Di'Anno joined The Iron Maidens on stage for their encore at the O2 Academy in Islington, London, performing "Wrathchild" and "Iron Maiden". Di'Anno appeared in a wheelchair.

2020s
Di'Anno was due to make his final performance on 30 August 2020 at the Beermageddon Festival in Bromsgrove, England before he retired from touring, though he has not clarified on whether he will continue to record music. This appearance was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the festival dates rescheduled for August 2021. However, on 7 June 2021, Paul and the Ides of March band were removed from the line up with the following statement: "We here at Beermageddon are gutted to announce Ides of March will no longer be appearing at this years festival, we had been struggling to contact the band or management and just over a week ago had the news that the planned project will not be going ahead and as such the band will not appear at Beermageddon 2021. We were so looking forward to Paul Di'Anno and a lineup of past Iron Maiden members gracing the Geddon stage, it would have been one of the most memorable festival appearances we have ever had, but sadly it isn't to be. I know many of you had huge anticipation for Di'Anno's farewell show, and we feel your pain, but we do promise Beermageddon will still be the fantastic festival it always is."

On 21 May 2022, Di'Anno performed his first live show in 7 years with the Norwegian live band at Bikers Beer Factory in Zagreb, Croatia.

In August 2023, it was announced that Di'Anno will release a new album for BraveWords Records in 2024 under the name Paul Di'Anno's Warhorse.

Autobiography
Di'Anno has released an autobiography titled The Beast (ISBN 1-904034-03-9). The book includes a chapter of stories and comments regarding Di'Anno written by former bandmates including Dennis Stratton, John Wiggins and Steve Hopgood. The book was controversial for its portrayal of his abuse of various drugs, many accounts of Di'Anno's violence towards people, and the explanation of his ban from America.

Singing style
In comparison to the operatic vocals of Bruce Dickinson, his successor in Iron Maiden, Di'Anno is remembered for having a more guttural "punk" sound to his singing, in part because he began his singing career in punk band the Paedophiles. He usually sang with a raspy and rougher sound, although he was capable of singing with a purer voice as demonstrated by slower numbers like "Remember Tomorrow", "Strange World" and "Prodigal Son".

Later in his career Di'Anno's style, along with his music, became darker and more aggressive as Iron Maiden evolved into a more progressive outfit.

Other interests
Di'Anno has had several businesses outside of the music industry, including an internet café and a hotel/restaurant in England, both of which he sold. He was last resident in Salisbury, Wiltshire.

Personal life
In February 2011, Di'Anno was convicted on eight counts of benefit fraud for claiming more than £45,000 under false pretenses. On 11 March 2011, he was jailed for nine months at Salisbury Crown Court. He only served two of the nine months to which he was sentenced, being released early for good behaviour.

Di'Anno's religious affiliation is made uncertain by his own words; he has given interviews that contradict each other on this subject, perhaps as a practical joke. He has a tattoo on the back of his head that says "666" and "GOD = SUCKER". According to his autobiography, he converted to Islam in the 1990s after reading the Qur'an. However, he has subsequently reversed that position, saying "I think religion kills everybody. I don't believe in it.... No, my father was a Muslim, I must admit. But I don't give a fuck." In later interviews Di'Anno clarifies that he never was a true Muslim, that he never stopped drinking, but tried to become a better person by applying some of the Muslim philosophies to his life. His autobiography furthers the confusion, in various passages he claims to be Muslim, Catholic, Jewish, and Aboriginal.

Di'Anno has been married five times and has six children.

A crowdfunder was launched in January 2021 to help raise money for the singer's knee surgery, following several years of poor health. In September 2021, it was reported that Di'Anno was still waiting for the surgery, and a photo surfaced of the singer showing his badly swollen leg. In October 2021, the crowdfunding had reached its target to which Di'Anno heartily thanked everyone for their support. In November 2021, Di'Anno relocated to Croatia to undergo treatment and surgery for his knee. Following the successful surgery, Di'Anno confirmed reports that Iron Maiden helped pay for the final part of his treatment in Croatia.

with Iron Maiden

 * The Soundhouse Tapes (1979)
 * Iron Maiden (1980)
 * Live!! +one (1980)
 * Killers (1981)
 * Live at the Rainbow (1981)
 * Maiden Japan (1981)
 * 12 Wasted Years (1987)
 * The First Ten Years (From There to Eternity) (1990)
 * Best of the Beast (1996)
 * Ed Hunter (1999)
 * BBC Archives (2002)
 * Best of the 'B' Sides (2002)
 * The History of Iron Maiden – Part 1: The Early Days (2004)
 * The Essential Iron Maiden (2005)

with Di'Anno

 * Live at the Palace (VHS, 1984)
 * Di'Anno (1984)
 * "Flaming Heart" (1984)
 * "Heartuser" (1984)
 * Nomad (2000)
 * Live at the Palace, recorded in 1984 (DVD, 2005)

Solo

 * The World's First Iron Man (1997)
 * As Hard as Iron (1997)
 * Beyond the Maiden (Compilation, 1999)
 * The Masters (Compilation, 1999)
 * The Beast (Live, 2001)
 * The Beast in the East (Live, 2003 DVD)
 * The Living Dead (2006)
 * The Maiden Years – The Classics (Compilation, 2006)
 * Iron Maiden Days & Evil Nights (Compilation, 2007)
 * Wrathchild – The Anthology (Compilation, 2012)
 * The Beast Arises (DVD, 2014)
 * Hell Over Waltrop – Live In Germany, Recorded in 2006)  (Live, 2020)

with Battlezone

 * Fighting Back (1986)
 * Children of Madness (1987)
 * Warchild (Compilation 1988)
 * Feel My Pain (1998)
 * Cessation of Hostilities (Compilation with all three studio albums Battlezone released + Children of madness demo tracks and one new live track, 2001)
 * The Fight Goes On (Boxset including all three Battlezone studio albums, 2008)
 * Paul Di’Anno’s Battlezone: Killers In The Battlezone (1986-2000) (3 CD Box Set, 2022)

with Killers a.k.a. Paul Di' Anno & Killers

 * Murder One (1992)
 * South American Assault Live (1994)(Recorded on summer, 1993)
 * Menace to Society (1994)
 * Live (1997)
 * New Live & Rare (1998)
 * Killers Live at the Whiskey (2001) (Recorded Whisky a Go Go, Los Angeles, 2000)
 * Screaming Blue Murder – The Very Best of Paul Di'Anno's Killers (2002)

with Gogmagog

 * I Will Be There EP (1985)

with Dennis Stratton

 * The Original Iron Men (1995)
 * The Original Iron Men 2 (1996)
 * Hard As Iron (compilation) (1996)

with Praying Mantis & Paul Di'Anno, Dennis Stratton

 * Live at Last (1991) (Recorded at Nakano Sunplaza, Tokyo, 18 April 1990)

with The Almighty Inbredz

 * The Almighty Inbredz (1999)

with Architects of Chaoz

 * League of shadows (2015)

on compilations

 * Metal for Muthas (with Iron Maiden, 1980)
 * Kaizoku (1989, Song: "Danger on the Street II")
 * All Stars Featuring The Best Of British Heavy Metal & Heavy Rock Musicians (1991, Song "She is danger")
 * True Brits (1993)
 * True Brits 2 (1994)
 * True Brits 3 (1995)
 * Rock Hard Hard Rock (1994, Songs: "No Repair", "She goes down")
 * X-Mas: The Metal Way (1994)
 * Killer Voices (1995)
 * Metal Monsters (1996)
 * Metal Christmas a.k.a. The 21st Century Rock Christmas Album (1996, Song: "Another Rock and Roll Christmas")
 * Hard 'n' Heavy Rock (2001, Song: "Lights Out")
 * Wacken Rocks (2001, Song: "Wrathchild (live)")
 * Classic Rock, Classic Rockers (2002)
 * Metal Masters – Killers (2005, Song: "Killers")
 * Rock Hard – Das Festival (2007, Song: "Prowler (live)")
 * The Many Faces of Iron Maiden – Journey Through The Inner World of Iron Maiden (2016)

on tribute albums

 * In The Name Of Satan – A Tribute To Venom (1998) (with Killers: "Black Metal")
 * 666 The Number One Beast (Iron Maiden Tribute) (1999)
 * 666 The Number One Beast Volume 2 (Iron Maiden Tribute) (1999)
 * The Maiden Years (Iron Maiden Tribute) (2000)
 * Gimme all your Top (ZZ Top Tribute) (2000) (Song: "Sleeping Bag")
 * The Boys are back (Thin Lizzy Tribute) (2000)'' (Song: "Killer On the Loose")
 * Only UFO can rock me (UFO Tribute) (2001) (Song: Shoot Shoot)
 * Another Hair of the Dog (Nazareth Tribute) (2001) (Songs: "Hair Of The Dog" and "Broken Down Angel")
 * Hangar de Almas: Tributo A Megadeth (2005) (Song: "Symphony Of Destruction")
 * Numbers from the Beast – An All Stars Tribute to Iron Maiden (2005) (Song: "Wrathchild")
 * World's Greatest Metal – Tribute to Led Zeppelin (2006) (Song: "Kashmir")
 * An '80s Metal Tribute to Van Halen (2006) (Song: "Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love")
 * A Tribute to The Rolling Stones (2007) (Songs: "I Wanna Be Your Man" and "Jumpin' Jack Flash")
 * Top Musicians Play The Rolling Stones (2010) (Song: "Paint It Black")
 * Thriller – A Metal Tribute To Michael Jackson (2013) (Song: "Bad")
 * Tribute to Rod Stewart and The Faces II (2015) (Songs: "Hot Legs" and "Cindy Incidentally")

Guest appearances

 * English Steel: Start 'em young (1993, Song: "She goes down")
 * English Steel: Lucky Streak Vol. II (1994, Songs: "Danger", "Dirty")
 * Aciarium: The Heavy Metal Superstars (1996)
 * Re-Vision: Longevity (2001) (Song: "Larvae")
 * Spearfish: Back, for the Future (2003) (Song: "Justice In Ontario")
 * Destruction: Inventor of Evil (2005) (Song: "The Alliance of Hellhoundz")
 * Michael Schenker Group: Heavy Hitters (2005) (Song: "Hair Of The Dog")
 * Ira: Gloria Eterna (2008) (Song: "Marshall Lockjaw")
 * Mantra: Building: Hell (2010) (Song: "Master Of My Life")
 * Sotajumala/Deathchain: Split CD (2010) (Sotajumala, Song: "Prowler")
 * Attick Demons: Atlantis (2011, Song: "Atlantis")
 * Legions Of Crows: Stab Me (2011) (Song: "Coventry Carol")
 * Så Jävla Metal: The History of Swedish Hard Rock and Heavy Metal (2011 Film) (Song: "Så Jävla Metal")
 * Wolfpakk: Wolfpakk (2011) (Song: "The Crow")
 * Prassein Aloga: Midas Touch (2011, "See the Bodies" und "Flesh of Life")
 * Layla Milou: Reborn (2012) (Song: "You Own Control")
 * Scelerata: The Sniper (2012) (Guest vocals, co-writing, composing)
 * Rushmore: Kingdom Of Demons (2013)
 * Red Dragon Cartel: Wasted (2014)
 * Hollywood Monsters: Big Trouble (2014, bonus track: "Fuck you all")
 * Odium: The Science Of Dying (2014) (Song: "Die With Pride")
 * Turbo: In the Court of the Lizard (2014) (Song: "Breaking the Law")
 * Maiden United: Remembrance (2015) (Song: "Prowler")
 * Mikael Fassberg: Lazy Sunday (2015)
 * Coffee Overdrive: Rocket L(A)unch (2015) (Song: "To The Top")
 * United Artists Against Terrorism: Heroes (2016)
 * Ibridoma: December (2016) (Song: "I'm a Bully")
 * Zix: Tides of the Final War (2016) (Song: "Metal Strike")
 * Mikael Fassberg: All or Nothing (2017)
 * AirForce (UK): Black Box Recordings Volume 2 (2018) (Song: "Sniper")
 * AirForce (UK): Strike Hard (2022) (Song: "Don't Look in Her Eyes")
 * Warhorse: Stop the War / The Doubt Within (2022, Single) (Song: "Stop the War")
 * Warhorse: Warhorse (2023, Single) (Song: "Warhorse")

title: Paul Di'Anno


text:
New Canton

New Canton can refer to:
 * New Canton, Illinois
 * New Canton, New Jersey
 * New Canton, Virginia

title: New Canton


text:
Timex

Timex may refer to:

Companies and brands

 * Timex Group, American–Dutch holding company, owner of several watch brands
 * Timex Group USA, American watch manufacturer, formerly known as Timex Corporation
 * Timex Audio, brand name licensed to the American company SDI Technologies

title: Timex


text:
Talk:Rachel Garrett

Untitled
I changed the wording a little bit. The article said Garret was the second female Enterprise captain when in fact, she is the second female captain and the first female Enterprise captain.

-Smylere Snape

The current version of the article claims that there are no known instances of other women captaining any of the Starfleet ships named "Enterprise". I believe that is no longer true - Dr. Beverly Crusher temporarily commanded the NCC-1701D in "Descent", the two-parter where Lore made his final appearance (last episode of the 6th season and first episode of 7th).

Dr. Crusher was not officially given the captaincy, merely the con. Deanna Troi was compelled to assume command in "Disaster". Rachel Garrett does indeed appear to be the first commissioned captain of an Enterprise. And my apologies for missing the original wording about Garrett being the first female Enterprise captain. I missed "Enterprise" in the phrasing! GBC 05:26, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Where is the captain?
I wanted to see if there was some reference to her name to be connected to that of Majel Barrett, but I find currently is not a "Rachel Garrett" article, even! --Manfariel (talk) 17:35, 7 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rachel Garrett


text:
New Chester

New Chester may refer to one of the following places:
 * Canada
 * New Chester, Nova Scotia
 * United States
 * New Chester, Wisconsin, a town
 * New Chester (ghost town), Wisconsin, a ghost town

title: New Chester


text:
New Chicago

New Chicago may refer to:
 * New Chicago, California
 * New Chicago, Indiana
 * New Chicago, Montana
 * New Chicago, Memphis, part of North Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee
 * New Chicago, Jefferson Township, Montgomery County, Ohio
 * A former nickname for Deming, New Mexico

title: New Chicago


text:
New City

New City may refer to:

Places

 * New City, Chicago, a neighborhood of Chicago
 * New City, Illinois
 * New City, Massachusetts, former name of Hudson, Massachusetts
 * New City, New York
 * New City, Wisconsin, a ghost town
 * New City, Tijuana, a high-rise residential development in Tijuana
 * a form of subdivision of Egypt

Arts and entertainment

 * New City (band), a band based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
 * New City (album), a 1975 album by Blood, Sweat & Tears
 * Newcity, an alternative weekly in Chicago

title: New City


text:
Hrvatski

In Serbo-Croatian, hrvatski is the masculine adjectival form meaning "Croatian", both in the plural and singular; it is hrvatska in the feminine singular, hrvatske in the feminine plural, hrvatsko in the neutral singular, hrvatska in the neutral plural. The word hrvatski is also used to refer to the Croatian language, whereas Hrvatska (first letter capital) is the native name for Croatia, the country. As such, all four forms (hrvatski, hrvatska, hrvatske and hrvatsko) commonly appear in native names of many Croatian government institutions, companies, political parties, organisations and sports clubs, as well as some place names.

Examples of the use of these works include:

Organisations and companies
 * Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti or HAZU, Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
 * Hrvatska elektroprivreda or HEP, national power company
 * Hrvatska pošta or HP, Croatian Post
 * Hrvatska radiotelevizija or HRT, national broadcasting corporation
 * Hrvatske autoceste or HAC, national motorways company
 * Hrvatske ceste (literally "Croatian Roads"), state-owned road maintenance company
 * Hrvatske željeznice or HŽ, Croatian Railways
 * Hrvatski autoklub or HAK, Croatian Automobile Club
 * Hrvatski nogometni savez or HNS, Croatian Football Federation
 * T-Hrvatski Telekom or T-HT, Croatian telecom company
 * Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo i protuzračna obrana or Croatian Air Force and Air Defence

Political parties
 * Hrvatska demokratska zajednica or HDZ (Croatian Democratic Union)
 * Hrvatska narodna stranka or HNS (Croatian People's Party)
 * Hrvatska seljačka stranka or HSS (Croatian Peasant Party)
 * Hrvatska stranka umirovljenika or HSU (Croatian Party of Pensioners)
 * Hrvatska stranka prava or HSP (Croatian Party of Rights)
 * Hrvatski suverenisti or HS (Croatian Sovereignists)

Places
 * Hrvatsko Zagorje, a region in northern Croatia
 * Hrvatsko primorje, a region in western Croatia
 * Hrvatska Dubica, village in central Croatia
 * Hrvatska Kostajnica, small town in central Croatia
 * Hrvatski Leskovac, village near Zagreb
 * Hrvatsko, Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, a village near Delnice, Croatia
 * Hrvatsko Selo (lit. 'Croatian village'), a village near Topusko, Croatia

The adjective is also used in:
 * NK Hrvatski dragovoljac (lit. Croatian Volunteer), association football club based in Zagreb
 * Hrvatski Band Aid, Croatian supergroup notable for recording the charity single Moja domovina in 1991
 * Hrvatski Idol, Croatian version of the television talent show Pop Idol which aired between 2003 and 2005
 * Hrvatski Top Model Croatian version of the reality television series America's Next Top Model
 * Stadion Hrvatski vitezovi, association football stadium in Dugopolje, literally meaning "Croatian Knights Stadium"

In addition, the term as such is used in:
 * Hrvatski (DJ), pseudonym of the American electronic music artist Keith Fullerton Whitman (b. 1973)

title: Hrvatski


text:
New Durham

New Durham may refer to:

Places

 * In Canada:
 * Located near Norwich, Ontario

 * In the United Kingdom:
 * New Durham, Durham, east of Durham

 * In the United States:
 * New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana
 * New Durham, New Hampshire
 * New Durham, Middlesex County, New Jersey
 * New Durham, North Bergen, New Jersey

title: New Durham


text:
2000 SQA examinations controversy

The introduction of the reformed examination system in Scotland in 2000 was criticised in the press and by the Government after a series of administrative and computer errors led to several thousand incorrect Higher and Intermediate certificates being sent out by post. The crisis took several months to resolve, and several management figures including the Chief Executive, Ron Tuck, resigned or lost their jobs as a result.

Timeline
The Scottish Qualifications Authority announces 'teething problems' with the marking system, but promises that students will receive their results on time.
 * 26 June 2000

The Scottish Qualifications Authority publicly admits that pupils sitting Higher Grade examinations may not receive the correct results.
 * 9 August 2000

Thousands of students across Scotland receive incomplete or inaccurate exam results. Schools are left in disarray as 5% of all schools have not been sent any results at all, accurate or otherwise.
 * 10 August 2000

Ron Tuck, the Chief Executive of the Scottish Qualifications Authority, resigns, stating his regret and accepting responsibility for "this unfortunate episode". The Labour/Liberal Democrat coalition Scottish Executive ignores demands by the Scottish National Party for Sam Galbraith, the Education Minister, to resign.
 * 12 August 2000

The Scottish Qualifications Authority and Scottish Executive claim that the errors are due to the correct results being incorrectly collated, due to a serious fault in the new computer programme, not exams being marked wrongly in the first place.
 * 13 August 2000

Bill Morton is appointed as acting Chief Executive, to replace Ron Tuck, who resigned.
 * 14 August 2000

Students are assured that their marks will not go down. However this leaves a problem for UCAS, which has no way of knowing if students with high grades actually earned them or not. UCAS accepted the validity of all results.
 * 15 August 2000

UCAS admits in a statement that many of the students whose certificates contained errors could lose out on a university place that they would have received had the results been accurate and on time.
 * 18 August 2000

The Scottish Qualifications Authority claims that over 2,000 students with inaccurate certificates will receive the correct ones the next day, and the rest will be fixed 'in a matter of days.'
 * 20 August 2000

Now realising that 21 August was not a realistic deadline, the Scottish Qualifications Authority vow to sort out the worst affected pupils' results by 20 September 2000.
 * 22 August 2000

The Scottish Qualifications Authority sorts out Higher Grade exam results.
 * 27 August 2000

Bill Morton orders an internal investigation at the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
 * 28 August 2000

Over 4,000 Standard Grade students are discovered to have received incorrect certificates.
 * 29 August 2000

Jack McConnell becomes the new Education Minister. Sam Galbraith is removed to Environment Minister.
 * 29 October 2000

A leak reveals that the Scottish Qualifications Authority failed to sort out non-urgent Higher Grade exam results within the planned deadline—and the new Chief Executive was not told.
 * 31 October 2000

Jack McConnell appoints a new Scottish Qualifications Authority board. 16 of the 24 members have been replaced.
 * 9 November 2000

The Scottish Qualifications Authority begins sending out accurate exam certificates to students—three months after they were supposed to be delivered.
 * 25 November 2000

Media reports suggest that the exam results fiasco cost the people of Scotland over £11,000,000.
 * 10 August 2001

 * 10 January 2002

It emerged that an eighteen-year-old student has decided to sue the Scottish Qualifications Authority for compensation after she spent her time retaking a subject she had passed in, but wasn't notified about it until nine months later.

title: 2000 SQA examinations controversy