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Thane district

Thane district (Pronunciation: [ʈʰaːɳe], previously named Taana or Thana) is a district in the Konkan Division of Maharashtra, India. At the 2011 Census it was the most populated district in the country, with 11,060,148 inhabitants; however, in August 2014 the district was split into two with the creation of a new Palghar district, leaving the reduced Thane district with a 2011 Census population of 11,060,148. The headquarters of the district is the city of Thane. Other major cities in the district are Navi Mumbai, Kalyan-Dombivli, Mira-Bhayander, Bhiwandi, Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath, Badlapur, Murbad and Shahapur.

The district is situated between 18°42' and 20°20' north latitudes and 72°45' and 73°48' east longitudes. The revised area of the district is 4,214 km2. The district is bounded by Nashik district to the north east, Pune and Ahmednagar districts to the east, and by Palghar district to the north. The Arabian Sea forms the western boundary, while it is bounded by Mumbai Suburban district to the south west, and Raigad District to the south.

Members of Parliament
(Thane) (Kalyan) (Bhiwandi)
 * Naresh Mhaske (SHS)
 * Shrikant Shinde (SHS)
 * Suresh Mhatre (NCP(SP))

History
In 1817, the territory now comprising Thane district was taken over by the British from the Peshwa and it became a part of North Konkan district, with its headquarters in Thana. Since then, it has undergone considerable changes in its boundaries. In 1830, the North Konkan district was expanded by adding parts of South Konkan district and in 1833 was renamed Thane District. In 1853, the three sub-divisions of Pen, Roha and Mahad together with Underi and Revadanda agencies of Kolaba were formed into the sub-collectorate of Kolaba, under Thana, and ultimately were separated to become an independent Kolaba district in 1869 (now known as Raigad district).

Back in 1866, the administrative sub-divisions of Thane were reorganised and renamed: Sanjan as Dahanu, Kolvan as Shahapur and Nasrapur as Karjat. Vada petha was upgraded to the level of a taluka. Uran Mahal was separated from Salsette in 1861 and was placed under Panvel. Panvel, together with its mahals of Uran and Karanja, was transferred to Kolaba district in 1883 and Karjat was transferred in 1891. A new mahal with Bandra as headquarters was created in 1917 and in 1920 Salsette was divided into two talukas — North Salsette and South Salsette. South Salsette consisting of 84 villages was separated from Thana District and included in the newly created Bombay Suburban district (present Mumbai Suburban district). North Salsette was made a mahal under Kalyan taluka in 1923 and renamed as Thane in 1926. Kelve-Mahim was renamed as Palghar. 33 villages of the Bombay Suburban district were transferred to Thana district in 1945 and 14 of them were re-transferred to the Bombay Suburban district in 1946 when the Aarey Milk Colony was constituted.

After Independence, in 1949, the Koli princely state of Jawhar was merged with Thana district and became a separate taluka. As many as twenty-seven villages and eight towns from Borivali taluka and one town and one village from Thana taluka were transferred to the Bombay Suburban district in 1956 when the limits of Greater Bombay were extended northwards in Salsette. In 1960, following the bifurcation of the bilingual Bombay State, 47 villages, and three towns in the taluka of Umbargaon were transferred to Surat district in Gujarat and its remaining twenty-seven villages were first included in Dahanu and later in 1961 made into a separate mahal, Talasari. In 1969, the taluka of Kalyan was divided into two talukas, Kalyan and Ulhasnagar.

Geography
The district is the northernmost part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra. It comprises the wide amphitheatre like Ulhas basin on the south and hilly Vaitarna valley on the north together with plateaus and the slopes of Sahyadri. From the steep slopes of the Sahyadri in the east, the land falls through a succession of plateaus in the north and centre of the district to the Ulhas valley in the south. These lowlands are separated from the coast by a fairly well-defined narrow ridge of hills that runs north–south to the east of the Thane creek, parallel to the sea, keeping a distance of about 6 to 10 km from the shores. Isolated hills and spurs dot the district area.

Rivers and hot springs
The two main rivers flowing through the district are the Ulhas and the Vaitarna. The Ulhas originates from the north of Tungarli near Lonavala, flows for a short distance before descending near Bor ghat, and meets the sea at Vasai Creek. The Ulhas River is 135 km long. The river has many tributaries; the two most important of them (within the boundaries of this district) are the Barvi and the Bhatsa. The Vaitarna, the largest of the Konkan rivers, rises in the Tryambak Hills in Nashik district, opposite to the source of the Godavari. The river flows across Shahapur, wada and Palghar talukas and enter the Arabian Sea through a wide estuary off Arnala. The Vaitarna River is 154 km long and has a drainage area that practically covers the entire northern part of the district. It has a number of tributaries; the most important of them are the Pinjal, Surya, Daherja and Tansa.

Many small creeks are found all along the western coast, in which tidal waters flood upstream and fill up much low ground. In many cases human interference has helped in converting them into mud flats. The bigger creeks are Bhiwandi, Chinchani, and Dahanu Creeks. The Thane Creek is not a creek in the true sense, but a depression engulfed by the sea.

The northern part of the Salsette Island is part of Thane District, which is separated from the mainland by the Ulhas estuary and the Thane Creek but is connected through reclaimed land with the island city of Mumbai. Arnala Island is located in Vasai taluka, at the entrance to the Vaitarna estuary.

The district has no natural lakes. Artificial lakes have been constructed mainly to supply drinking water to Mumbai. The Tansa Lake formed across the Tansa River in the hills north of Bhiwandi behind the dam completed in 1892 CE. The Modak Sagar (Lower Vaitarna) Lake on the river Vaitarna formed behind a dam completed in 1957 CE. In the upper reaches of the same river, the Upper Vaitarana Lake formed behind another dam built in 1972 CE. The Bhatsa Lake has been formed in the upper Bhatsa, north of Shahapur behind a dam built in 1981 CE. Tourism Nature lovers proudly call Thane as a “Lake City” or "city of lakes".

They are near Akloli, Ganeshpuri and Vajreshwari villages. There are some more examples: Kokner (Maswan tal-Palghar) and Sativali (Saphale tal:-Palghar). The water temperatures are in the range of 42°-55 °C.

Climate
The district has four seasons. Winter is from December to February, followed by summer from March to June. The southwest monsoon season is from June to September. October and November months constitute the post-monsoon season, which is hot and humid in the coastal areas.

In the coastal area, the average daily maximum temperature in summer is 32.9 °C (maximum recorded at Dahanu is 40.6 °C on 19 April 1955) and in winter average mean daily minimum temperature is 16.8 °C (minimum recorded at Dahanu is 8.3 °C on 8 January 1945). But in the interior parts of the district, the average daily minimum temperature is slightly lower in the winter season and the average daily maximum temperature is higher in the summer.

The average annual rainfall in the district is 2293.4 mm. The rainfall in the district increases from the coastal areas to the interior. The rainfall varies from 1730.5 mm at Mahim on the coast to 2588.7 mm at Shahapur in the interior. The rainfall during the southwest monsoon season, June to September, constitutes about 94% of the annual rainfall. July is the wettest month with a rainfall of about 40% of the annual total. The variation in the annual rainfall from year to year in the district is not large. The highest rainfall recorded in 24 hours at any station in the district was 481.1 mm at Dahanu on 1 September 1958 CE.

Divisions
Thane district comprises 7 talukas (administrative divisions), with Thane being its headquarters. The talukas, with their populations at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses are as follows

Talukas and Sub-Divisions

 * 1) Thane Sub-Division:  Thane taluka,
 * 2) Kalyan Sub-Division: Kalyan taluka, Murbad taluka
 * 3) Ulhasnagar Sub-Division:  Ulhasnagar taluka, Ambarnath taluka
 * 4) Bhiwandi Sub-Division: Bhiwandi taluka,  Shahapur taluka

Municipal Civic Bodies
Municipal Corporations:
 * Thane Municipal Corporation
 * Mira-Bhayandar Municipal Corporation
 * Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation
 * Kalyan-Dombivali Municipal Corporation
 * Ulhasnagar Municipal Corporation
 * Bhiwandi-Nizampur Municipal Corporation

Municipal Councils:
 * Ambernath
 * Kulgaon-Badlapur

Nagar Panchayats:
 * Shahapur
 * Murbad

Proposed Municipal Corporations:
 * Ambernath-Badlapur

Proposed Municipal Councils:
 * Shahapur-Asangaon (merging the Census Towns of Shahapur, Goteghar and Asangaon)
 * Murbad (merging Murbad Census Town and villages of Malinagar, Ghutyachiwadi, Deogaon, Deope, Shastrinagar)

Proposed Nagar Panchayats:
 * Vangani
 * Khadavli
 * Vasind
 * Kasara
 * Khardi
 * Vajreshwari (merging Vajreshwari and Ganeshpuri)
 * Padgha (merging Padgha and Borivali Tarf Rahur)
 * Kharbav
 * Mahapoli

Loksabha and Assembly Consistuencies
There are 18 Vidhan Sabha constituencies in Thane district, grouped into 3 Lok Sabha constituencies:
 * Bhiwandi Rural (ST), Shahapur (ST), Bhiwandi West, Bhiwandi East, Kalyan West and Murbad constituencies are part of Bhiwandi Lok Sabha constituency.
 * Ambarnath (SC), Ulhasnagar, Kalyan East, Dombivali, Kalyan Rural and Mumbra-Kalwa constituencies are part of Kalyan Lok Sabha constituency.
 * Mira Bhayandar, Ovala-Majiwada, Kopri-Pachpakhadi, Thane, Belapur and Airoli constituencies are part of Thane Lok Sabha constituency.

For a number of years up until 2013, it was proposed that the Thane district be divided and a separate Jawhar District carved out of the existing Thane district with the inclusion of the northern tribal talukas of Thane district which include Palghar, Vada, Vikramgad, Jawhar, Mokhada, Dahanu and Talasari talukas in the proposed Jawhar district. The last Princely Ruler of Jawhar State at Indian independence was His Highness Maharaja Patangshah V (Yashwantrao Martandrao) Mukne. Jawhar was the cultural capital of this rural part of Thane District which was previously known as Jawhar State ruled by Kolis. However, in June 2014, the Maharashtra State government decided to add an eighth taluka Vasai, which was previously part of Thane district to the other seven talukas, and decided that the new District would be headquartered in Palghar. In June 2014, the State Cabinet approved the bifurcation of the district into two districts - Thane and Palghar. The new Palghar district comprises the seven talukas which it had been proposed to comprise in the putative Jawhar District, with the addition of Vasai taluka. The effective date for bifurcation was 1 August 2014.

Demographics
According to the 2011 census Thane district had a population of 11,060,148, roughly equal to the nation of Cuba or the US state of Ohio. This gave it a ranking of 1st in India (out of a total of 640) and 1st in its state. The district had a population density of 1157 PD/sqkm. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 35.94%. It had a sex ratio of 880 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 86.18%. In the divided district Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are 7.97% and 5.26% of the population respectively.

Language
At the time of the 2011 Census of India in the residual district, 49.78% of the population in the district spoke Marathi, 18.65% Hindi, 9.86% Urdu, 4.27% Gujarati, 2.81% Sindhi, 2.15% Bhojpuri, 1.60% Telugu, 1.57% Marwari, 1.50% Malayalam, 1.43% Kannada, 1.20% Tamil and 1.17% Bengali as their first language.

It had a population of 8,131,849 of which 72.58% were urban as of 2001. Total literacy rate of the district is 80.67% (male 87.06% and female 73.10%). The population of Thane district in 2011 had risen to 11,054,131; this is close to 10 percent ( 9.84 ) of Maharashtra's estimated population of 112.4 million and 1% of India's total population. It was the most populated district in the country, somewhat ahead of North 24 Parganas district in West Bengal which had 10,082,852 people. The density of population was estimated at 1,157 people per square kilometre. The sex ratio i.e. number of females per 1000 male was 880 which is less than the states average of 925 and the national average of 940. The creation of the new Palghar district from the northern and western talukas has now reduced the population of Thane District to some 8,070,032 inhabitants as at the 2011 Census.

The southern talukas are mainly urban areas. Marathi is the dominant language in rural areas such as Shahapur and Murbad, while urban areas are a mixture of languages from all over India with Marathi and Hindi the main ones.

Economy
According to the 2001 Census, the total working population in the district was 11,961,704 persons, which is 47.37% of the total population of the district. Out of total working force, 51.75% were engaged in agriculture and allied activities, 6.19% in manufacturing, service and cottage industries and remaining 30.69% in other activities. Out of total working force, the female working force was 22.89% in the district.

Agriculture
The important kharif crops of the district are rice, vari and nachani (finger millet). The pulses like Urad, moong and kulith are also grown in this season. Rice is the main crop of the district. Rice is grown in all the talukas of the district but mainly in Palghar, Bhiwandi, Murbad, Shahapur, Vada, Vikramgad and Dahanu. Vari and nachani are grown in the hilly areas of the eastern part of the district, namely Jawhar, Murbad, Vikramgad, Shahapur and Mokhada talukas. Wal, chavali and gram are the main rabi crops grown in this district. Dahanu taluka is famous for fruits. Chikoos (sapotas) are grown on a large scale at Gholwad. Chikoo orchards are also found in Palghar and Talasari talukas. Chikoos grown in these areas are sent all over India. Other fruits grown in the district are guavas, mangoes, papayas, grapefruits and coconuts. Vasai and Palghar talukas are famous for different varieties of bananas such as rajeli, tambeli, mutheli and velchi. Seasonal fruits grown in the district such as bor, wild berries and litchis have great demands in the markets of Mumbai. Vegetables are also grown in the district. Among the vegetables, eggplants are grown on a large scale. There are rose gardens at Dahanu.

Industries
Thane is the third most industrialised district in the State. There are 1548 large and medium scale and 18,480 small scale industries in the district. The main products of these industries are Drugs, Textiles, Adhesives, Plastics, Rubber, Steel, Pharmaceuticals, Engineering, Fertilizers, Electronics, Chemicals and Iron & Steel. The Wagle Industrial. Estate, Thane-Belapur-Kalyan,Ambedkar industrial belt is the centre of highly sophisticated modern industries. In Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath, Bhiwandi, Badlapur, Tarapur, Palghar, Vasai and Murbad there are nearly 4000 industries which contribute towards the industrialisation of the district. Manufacture of machinery, machine tools and parts except electrical machinery together with the iron and steel industry and metal products are the most important and the biggest group of industries in the district and includes manufacture of Prime movers, Boilers, Refrigerators, Machine Tools, Computing and Accounting machinery, Industrial machinery for food and textile industries, machinery for chemicals, paper and cement industries. Manufacture of basic industrial chemicals including fertilizers, vegetable and animal oils and fats, paints, varnishes and lacquers and other miscellaneous chemical products is another important industry in the district. These industries are mainly concentrated in the Trans-Thane Creek and Belapur Road industrial area. The medium and large industries manufacturing chemicals and chemical products are Pfizer, Lubrizol India Ltd., Polyolefins Industries Ltd., NOCIL, Herdillia Chemicals Ltd., BASF (India) Ltd., Star Chemicals, INDOFIL INDUSTRIES LIMITED, and Phoenix Chemical Works. The chemical industries are also found in other parts of the district like Wagle Industrial Estate, Pokhran Road, Ambarnath and Dombivli. The cotton and non-cotton power looms are mainly located at Bhiwandi, Thane and Kalyan. Traditionally, Bhiwandi is famous for its handlooms. But the deteriorating markets for the handlooms compelled the weavers to replace their handlooms by powerlooms. Fisheries constitute an important industry in Thane district. It is carried out in sea as well as in creeks and estuaries on the western coast. Marine fishery predominates over inland fishery in the district and provides employment to about 75% of the persons engaged in the fishing industry. Fishing in sea is carried out along the coast stretching over about 110 km. The important fishing centres in the district are Dahanu, Pokharan-Uchheli, Nawapur, Murabe, Satpute, Datiware, Arnala, Vasai and Uran. Food processing industries like grain mill products, Bakery products, Cocoa, Chocolate and Sugar Confectionery, Salt, ice, slaughtering, preparation and preservation of meat, dairy products, canning and preservation of fruits and vegetables, canning, preserving and processing of fish are developed in the district. Raptakos, Brett and Co., Pfizer Ltd., Cadbury Fry (India) Ltd. which produce modified milk food and high protein food are some of the large and medium companies in the district. Wood products like plywood and veneer, wooden boxes, barrels, bamboo, cane baskets, bobbins, industrial fixtures, cork & cork products are also manufactured in the district. The Tarapur Atomic Power Station which has ushered an era of utilisation of nuclear energy for electricity generation is also situated in the district. The finance is being provided by various public sector and private sector Banks and Financial Institutions in the district. Bank of Maharashtra is one of the leading Public Sector Banks of the district, having 60 branches (2000 CE).

Transport
Thane district is well connected to other major cities and town of the country by roadways and railways. MSRTC (Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation) operates direct bus to various city like Pune, Nashik, Shirdi, Solapur, Kolhapur, Satara, Karad, Nagpur, Hyderabad etc. Private buses are operated to various cities like Mysuru, Bengaluru, Mangaluru, Hubli, Surat, Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Jaipur, Udaipur, Goa, Ratnagiri etc. Railway stations like Thane, Kalyan in the district provides connectivity to the major cities of country. The Thane Municipal Corporation started its own public transport service known as the Thane Municipal Transport (TMT) from 9 February 1989. The TMT has a fleet of 289 buses which ply on 45 routes from 2 bus-depots and 8 bus-stands ferrying approximately 2.8 lakhs commuters daily. In 2006, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation started its own transport service Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport (NMMT) on 23 January 1996 with fleet of 25 buses now having 256 buses and first hybrid bus in India. Mira Bhayandar Municipal Corporation commenced its own public transport service, known as the Mira-Bhayandar Municipal Transport (MBMT). The Kalyan-Dombivli Municipal Corporation also runs its own Kalyan-Dombivli Municipal Transport (KDMT), Ulhasnagar Municipal Corporation also runs Ulhasnagar Municipal Transport (UMT) service. Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC) buses connect Thane city to different parts of the district and also to other districts. BEST provides services to Mumbai Suburban, Thane and Mira-Bhayandar.

The total railway track length in the district is 345.73 km. spread in western and central part of the district. The Western Railway network passes through Vasai, Palghar and Dahanu talukas of the district and Central railway network passes through Thane, Kalyan, Ulhasnagar and Shahapur talukas of the district. Western Railway local trains leaving from Churchgate railway station go up to Dahanu Road railway station in the district. Central Railway local trains leaving from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus go up to Kalyan, Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath, Badlapur, Karjat and Kasara. In 1994, a new connection made from Diva Junction to Vasai. This connection joined Central Railway and Western Railway networks and its length is 41.96 km. Konkan Railway network also passes through a part of the district. Local trains have now started plying from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Mumbai to Panvel on this network. Dahanu, Satpati, Mahim, Kalyan, Vasai, and Uttan are the ports on the Arabian Sea coast. Ferry services are available between these ports. Metered Auto Rickshaws ply in Thane, Mira-Bhayander and several other towns. Metered Taxi services are also available in Thane, Mira-Bhayandar and some other towns.

One of the oldest and important railway project of Ahmednagar railway station was kalyan-Ahmednagar railway project which was in planning stage since British regime. It was referred as 3rd ghat project. The survey of this project was carried out in 1973,2000, 2006, 2014 etc. This project was in pink book in 2010. unfortunately this project could not be started. The alignment length of thus project was 184 km and it could have been shortest route for marathwada, andhra and Telangana. The major challenge for this project was malshej ghat section. Malshej Kriti samiti is following for kalyan ahmednagar railway project. Kalyan-murbad section which is first phase of this project is already under survey stage.

At present, this district has no airport. But plans are underway and proposals have been received to revive a disused airstrip for commercial operations near Kalyan.

Sports
A significant stadium in this district, Dadoji Konddev Sports Stadium, is located in Thane city, where various sports like cricket, badminton, tennis and table tennis are played. Navi Mumbai city has good sporting infrastructure as DY Patil Stadium is located at Nerul.

Villages

 * Pundhe
 * Taloli

title: Thane district


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McClelland

McClelland is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
 * Alyssa McClelland, Australian actress
 * Charles A. McClelland (1917–2006), American political systems analyst
 * Charles P. McClelland (1854–1944), New York politician, and US federal judge
 * David McClelland, American psychologist
 * Doug McClelland, Australian politician
 * George William McClelland, American educator
 * Glenn McClelland, American keyboardist
 * Helen Grace McClelland (1887–1984), United States Army nurse
 * Hugh McClelland (politician) (1875–1958), Australian politician
 * James McClelland (disambiguation), several people
 * Jim McClelland, Australian senator and judge
 * John McClelland (disambiguation), several people
 * Mac McClelland, journalist
 * Mark McClelland, bassist for Little Doses, previously for Snow Patrol
 * Mary Greenway McClelland (1853–1895), American novelist
 * Matthew McClelland, (1832-1883), Medal of Honor recipient
 * Nina McClelland (1929–2020), American chemist
 * Robert McClelland (disambiguation), several people
 * Thomas McClelland, U.S. Naval Captain
 * Tim McClelland, Major League Baseball umpire

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: McClelland


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Interrupt handler

In computer systems programming, an interrupt handler, also known as an interrupt service routine or ISR, is a special block of code associated with a specific interrupt condition. Interrupt handlers are initiated by hardware interrupts, software interrupt instructions, or software exceptions, and are used for implementing device drivers or transitions between protected modes of operation, such as system calls.

The traditional form of interrupt handler is the hardware interrupt handler. Hardware interrupts arise from electrical conditions or low-level protocols implemented in digital logic, are usually dispatched via a hard-coded table of interrupt vectors, asynchronously to the normal execution stream (as interrupt masking levels permit), often using a separate stack, and automatically entering into a different execution context (privilege level) for the duration of the interrupt handler's execution. In general, hardware interrupts and their handlers are used to handle high-priority conditions that require the interruption of the current code the processor is executing.

Later it was found convenient for software to be able to trigger the same mechanism by means of a software interrupt (a form of synchronous interrupt). Rather than using a hard-coded interrupt dispatch table at the hardware level, software interrupts are often implemented at the operating system level as a form of callback function.

Interrupt handlers have a multitude of functions, which vary based on what triggered the interrupt and the speed at which the interrupt handler completes its task. For example, pressing a key on a computer keyboard, or moving the mouse, triggers interrupts that call interrupt handlers which read the key, or the mouse's position, and copy the associated information into the computer's memory.

An interrupt handler is a low-level counterpart of event handlers. However, interrupt handlers have an unusual execution context, many harsh constraints in time and space, and their intrinsically asynchronous nature makes them notoriously difficult to debug by standard practice (reproducible test cases generally don't exist), thus demanding a specialized skillset—an important subset of system programming—of software engineers who engage at the hardware interrupt layer.

Interrupt flags
Unlike other event handlers, interrupt handlers are expected to set interrupt flags to appropriate values as part of their core functionality.

Even in a CPU which supports nested interrupts, a handler is often reached with all interrupts globally masked by a CPU hardware operation. In this architecture, an interrupt handler would normally save the smallest amount of context necessary, and then reset the global interrupt disable flag at the first opportunity, to permit higher priority interrupts to interrupt the current handler. It is also important for the interrupt handler to quell the current interrupt source by some method (often toggling a flag bit of some kind in a peripheral register) so that the current interrupt isn't immediately repeated on handler exit, resulting in an infinite loop.

Exiting an interrupt handler with the interrupt system in exactly the right state under every eventuality can sometimes be an arduous and exacting task, and its mishandling is the source of many serious bugs, of the kind that halt the system completely. These bugs are sometimes intermittent, with the mishandled edge case not occurring for weeks or months of continuous operation. Formal validation of interrupt handlers is tremendously difficult, while testing typically identifies only the most frequent failure modes, thus subtle, intermittent bugs in interrupt handlers often ship to end customers.

Execution context
In a modern operating system, upon entry the execution context of a hardware interrupt handler is subtle.

For reasons of performance, the handler will typically be initiated in the memory and execution context of the running process, to which it has no special connection (the interrupt is essentially usurping the running context—process time accounting will often accrue time spent handling interrupts to the interrupted process). However, unlike the interrupted process, the interrupt is usually elevated by a hard-coded CPU mechanism to a privilege level high enough to access hardware resources directly.

Stack space considerations
In a low-level microcontroller, the chip might lack protection modes and have no memory management unit (MMU). In these chips, the execution context of an interrupt handler will be essentially the same as the interrupted program, which typically runs on a small stack of fixed size (memory resources have traditionally been extremely scant at the low end). Nested interrupts are often provided, which exacerbates stack usage. A primary constraint on the interrupt handler in this programming endeavour is to not exceed the available stack in the worst-case condition, requiring the programmer to reason globally about the stack space requirement of every implemented interrupt handler and application task.

When allocated stack space is exceeded (a condition known as a stack overflow), this is not normally detected in hardware by chips of this class. If the stack is exceeded into another writable memory area, the handler will typically work as expected, but the application will fail later (sometimes much later) due to the handler's side effect of memory corruption. If the stack is exceeded into a non-writable (or protected) memory area, the failure will usually occur inside the handler itself (generally the easier case to later debug).

In the writable case, one can implement a sentinel stack guard—a fixed value right beyond the end of the legal stack whose value can be overwritten, but never will be if the system operates correctly. It is common to regularly observe corruption of the stack guard with some kind of watch dog mechanism. This will catch the majority of stack overflow conditions at a point in time close to the offending operation.

In a multitasking system, each thread of execution will typically have its own stack. If no special system stack is provided for interrupts, interrupts will consume stack space from whatever thread of execution is interrupted. These designs usually contain an MMU, and the user stacks are usually configured such that stack overflow is trapped by the MMU, either as a system error (for debugging) or to remap memory to extend the space available. Memory resources at this level of microcontroller are typically far less constrained, so that stacks can be allocated with a generous safety margin.

In systems supporting high thread counts, it is better if the hardware interrupt mechanism switches the stack to a special system stack, so that none of the thread stacks need account for worst-case nested interrupt usage. Tiny CPUs as far back as the 8-bit Motorola 6809 from 1978 have provided separate system and user stack pointers.

Constraints in time and concurrency
For many reasons, it is highly desired that the interrupt handler execute as briefly as possible, and it is highly discouraged (or forbidden) for a hardware interrupt to invoke potentially blocking system calls. In a system with multiple execution cores, considerations of reentrancy are also paramount. If the system provides for hardware DMA, concurrency issues can arise even with only a single CPU core. (It is not uncommon for a mid-tier microcontroller to lack protection levels and an MMU, but still provide a DMA engine with many channels; in this scenario, many interrupts are typically triggered by the DMA engine itself, and the associated interrupt handler is expected to tread carefully.)

A modern practice has evolved to divide hardware interrupt handlers into front-half and back-half elements. The front-half (or first level) receives the initial interrupt in the context of the running process, does the minimal work to restore the hardware to a less urgent condition (such as emptying a full receive buffer) and then marks the back-half (or second level) for execution in the near future at the appropriate scheduling priority; once invoked, the back-half operates in its own process context with fewer restrictions and completes the handler's logical operation (such as conveying the newly received data to an operating system data queue).

Divided handlers in modern operating systems
In several operating systems—Linux, Unix, macOS, Microsoft Windows, z/OS, DESQview and some other operating systems used in the past—interrupt handlers are divided into two parts: the First-Level Interrupt Handler (FLIH) and the Second-Level Interrupt Handlers (SLIH). FLIHs are also known as hard interrupt handlers or fast interrupt handlers, and SLIHs are also known as slow/soft interrupt handlers, or Deferred Procedure Calls in Windows.

A FLIH implements at minimum platform-specific interrupt handling similar to interrupt routines. In response to an interrupt, there is a context switch, and the code for the interrupt is loaded and executed. The job of a FLIH is to quickly service the interrupt, or to record platform-specific critical information which is only available at the time of the interrupt, and schedule the execution of a SLIH for further long-lived interrupt handling.

FLIHs cause jitter in process execution. FLIHs also mask interrupts. Reducing the jitter is most important for real-time operating systems, since they must maintain a guarantee that execution of specific code will complete within an agreed amount of time. To reduce jitter and to reduce the potential for losing data from masked interrupts, programmers attempt to minimize the execution time of a FLIH, moving as much as possible to the SLIH. With the speed of modern computers, FLIHs may implement all device and platform-dependent handling, and use a SLIH for further platform-independent long-lived handling.

FLIHs which service hardware typically mask their associated interrupt (or keep it masked as the case may be) until they complete their execution. An (unusual) FLIH which unmasks its associated interrupt before it completes is called a reentrant interrupt handler. Reentrant interrupt handlers might cause a stack overflow from multiple preemptions by the same interrupt vector, and so they are usually avoided. In a priority interrupt system, the FLIH also (briefly) masks other interrupts of equal or lesser priority.

A SLIH completes long interrupt processing tasks similarly to a process. SLIHs either have a dedicated kernel thread for each handler, or are executed by a pool of kernel worker threads. These threads sit on a run queue in the operating system until processor time is available for them to perform processing for the interrupt. SLIHs may have a long-lived execution time, and thus are typically scheduled similarly to threads and processes.

In Linux, FLIHs are called upper half, and SLIHs are called lower half or bottom half. This is different from naming used in other Unix-like systems, where both are a part of bottom half.

title: Interrupt handler


text:
Sylvia Townsend Warner

Sylvia Nora Townsend Warner (6 December 1893 – 1 May 1978) was an English novelist, poet and musicologist, known for works such as Lolly Willowes, The Corner That Held Them, and Kingdoms of Elfin. Her paternal grandfather, The Reverend George Townsend Warner was headmaster of Newton Abbot Proprietary College in Devon where he had taught Arthur Quiller Couch, Bertram Fletcher Robinson and Percy Fawcett.

Life
Sylvia Townsend Warner was born at Harrow on the Hill, Middlesex, the only child of George Townsend Warner and his wife Eleanor "Nora" Mary (née Hudleston). Her father was a house-master at Harrow School and was, for many years, associated with the prestigious Harrow History Prize which was renamed the Townsend Warner History Prize following his death in 1916. As a child, Warner was home-schooled by her father after being kicked out of kindergarten for mimicking the teachers. She was musically inclined, and, before World War I, planned to study in Vienna under Schoenberg. She enjoyed a seemingly idyllic childhood in rural Devonshire, but was strongly affected by her father's death. She moved to London and worked in a munitions factory at the outbreak of World War I.

In 1923, she met T. F. Powys, whose writing influenced her own and whose work she in turn encouraged. The two became friends, and her debut novel, Lolly Willowes, was published shortly after in 1926. From her first work, it was clear that Warner's focus was on subverting societal norms; she would later heavily use the themes of rejecting the Church, a need for female empowerment, and independence in her works. It was at Powys' home that Warner first met Valentine Ackland, a young poet; the two women fell in love, moving in together in 1930 and eventually settling at Frome Vauchurch, Dorset, in 1937. Her relationship with Ackland inspired many of Warner's works, and the couple collaborated on a collection of poems, Whether a Dove or a Seagull, published in 1933. Warner and Ackland's relationship was tumultuous in part due to Ackland's infidelity, which included an affair with fellow writer Elizabeth Wade White. Alarmed by the growing threat of fascism, they were active in the Communist Party, and Marxist ideals found their way into Warner's works. Warner participated in the II International Congress of Writers for the Defence of Culture, held in Valencia between 4 and 17 July 1937, while serving in the Red Cross during the Spanish Civil War. After the war, Warner and Ackland permanently returned to England, living together until Ackland's death in 1969. In 1950 and 1951 they rented Great Eye Folly at Salthouse, where Warner wrote her final novel, The Flint Anchor (published 1954).

After Warner's death in 1978, her ashes were buried with Ackland's at St Nicholas, Chaldon Herring, Dorset.

Work
Early in her career Warner researched 15th and 16th century music. From 1917 she was in regular employment as one of the editors of Tudor Church Music, ten volumes published by Oxford University Press in the 1920s with the support of the Carnegie UK Trust. The lead editor was initially Sir Richard Terry, who as the Master of Music at Westminster Cathedral, had been a pioneer in the revival of Tudor vocal repertoire. Warner obtained the work as the protegee of her lover and music teacher Sir Percy Buck, who was on the editorial committee.

Warner was involved in travelling to study source material and in transcribing the music into modern musical notation for publication. Warner wrote a section on musical notation for the Oxford History of Music (it appeared in the introductory volume of 1929).

Her first published book was the 1925 poetry collection The Espalier, which was praised by A E Housman and Arthur Quiller-Couch. She was encouraged to write fiction by David Garnett. Warner's novels included Lolly Willowes (1926), Mr Fortune's Maggot (1927), Summer Will Show (1936), and The Corner That Held Them (1948). Recurring themes are evident in a number of her works. These include a rejection of Christianity (in Mr Fortune's Maggot, and in Lolly Willowes, where the protagonist becomes a witch); the position of women in patriarchal societies (Lolly Willowes, Summer Will Show, The Corner that Held Them); ambiguous sexuality, or bisexuality (Lolly Willowes, Mr Fortune's Maggot, Summer Will Show); and lyrical descriptions of landscape. Mr Fortune's Maggot, about a missionary in the Pacific Islands, has been described as a "satirical, anti-imperialist novel". In Summer Will Show, the heroine, Sophia Willoughby, travels to Paris during the 1848 Revolution and falls in love with a woman. The Corner That Held Them (1948) focuses on the lives of a community of nuns in a medieval convent.

Warner's short stories include the collections A Moral Ending and Other Stories, The Salutation, More Joy in Heaven, The Cat's Cradle Book, A Garland of Straw, The Museum of Cheats. Winter in the Air, A Spirit Rises, A Stranger with a Bag, The Innocent and the Guilty, and One Thing Leading to Another. Her final work was a collection of interconnected short stories set in the supernatural Kingdoms of Elfin. Many of these stories were published in The New Yorker. In addition to fiction, Warner wrote anti-fascist articles for such leftist publications as Time and Tide and Left Review.

After the death of the novelist T. H. White, Warner was given access to his papers. She published a biography which The New York Times declared "a small masterpiece which may well be read long after the writings of its subject have been forgotten." White's long-time friend and literary agent, David Higham, however, questioned Warner's work, suggesting a bias in her approach due to her own homosexuality: he gave Warner the address of one of White's lovers "so that she could get in touch with someone so important in Tim's story. But she never, the girl told me, took that step.  So she was able to present Tim in such a light that a reviewer could call him a raging homosexual.  Perhaps a heterosexual affair would have made her blush."

Warner produced several books of poetry, including Opus 7, a book-length pastoral poem about an elderly female flower-seller. The critical and personal hostility that greeted the jointly authored Whether a Dove or a Seagull in 1933 effectively put an end to the public poetic careers of both Warner and Ackland. It was only with the posthumous publication of Warner's Collected Poems in 1982 that the extent and significance of her poetry became evident, with poems ranging in date from 1914 through to 1978. Ackland's selected poems, Journey from Winter, were not published until 2008.

Although Warner never wrote an autobiography, Scenes of Childhood was compiled after her death on 1 May 1978 at age 84, based on short reminiscences published over the years in the New Yorker. She also translated Contre Sainte-Beuve by Marcel Proust from the original French into English. In the 1970s, she became known as a significant writer of feminist or lesbian sentiment, and her novels were among the earlier ones to be revived by Virago Press. Selected letters of Warner and Valentine Ackland have been published twice: Wendy Mulford edited a collection titled This Narrow Place in 1988, and ten years later Susanna Pinney published another selection, I’ll Stand by You.

Musicology

 * Tudor Church Music. Edited by R. R. Terry, [E. H. Fellowes, S. T. Warner, A. Ramsbotham and P. C. Buck,] etc.

Novels

 * Lolly Willowes (1926)
 * Mr Fortune's Maggot (1927)
 * The True Heart (1929)
 * Summer Will Show (1936)
 * After the Death of Don Juan (1938)
 * The Corner That Held Them (1948)
 * The Flint Anchor (1954) (vt The Barnards of Loseby, 1974)

Non-fiction

 * T. H. White: A Biography (1967)

Short stories

 * The Maze: A Story To Be Read Aloud (1928)
 * Some World Far From Ours; and Stay, Corydon, Thou Swain (1929)
 * Elinor Barley (1930)
 * A Moral Ending and Other Stories (1931)
 * The Salutation (1932)
 * More Joy in Heaven and Other Stories (1935)
 * 24 Short Stories, with Graham Greene and James Laver (1939)
 * The Cat's Cradle Book (1940)
 * The Phoenix (1940)
 * A Garland of Straw and Other Stories (1943)
 * The Museum of Cheats (1947)
 * Winter in the Air and Other Stories (1955)
 * A Spirit Rises (1962)
 * A Stranger with a Bag and Other Stories (vt. ''Swans on an Autumn River) (1966)
 * The Innocent and the Guilty (1971)
 * Kingdoms of Elfin (1977)

Posthumous

 * Scenes of Childhood (1981)
 * One Thing Leading to Another and Other Stories, edited by Susanna Pinney (1984)
 * Selected Stories edited by Susanna Pinney and William Maxwell (1988)
 * The Music at Long Verney (2001)

Poetry

 * The Espalier (1925)
 * Time Importuned (1928)
 * Opus 7 (1931)
 * Whether a Dove or Seagull (1933) (jointly with Valentine Ackland)
 * Boxwood (1957) (collaboration with wood engraver Reynolds Stone)
 * Collected Poems (1982)
 * Selected Poems (Carcanet Press, 1985)
 * New Collected Poems (Carcanet Press, 2008)
 * See also
 * Ackland, Valentine, Journey from Winter: Selected Poems (Carcanet Press 2008)
 * Steinman, Michael, The Element of Lavishness: Letters of Sylvia Townsend Warner and William Maxwell (Counterpoint 2001)

title: Sylvia Townsend Warner


text:
Bleeker

Bleeker is a Dutch occupational surname. Bleeker is an old spelling of (linnen)bleker ("linen bleacher"). People with the surname include:

 * Alex Bleeker (born 1986), American musician and guitarist
 * Bernhard Bleeker (1881–1968), German sculptor
 * C. Jouco Bleeker (1898–1983), Dutch phenomenologist of religion
 * Eppie Bleeker (born 1949), Dutch speed skater
 * Horst Bleeker (born 1938), German swimmer
 * Johan Bleeker (born 1942), Dutch space technology scientist
 * Named after him: the main-belt asteroid 9693 Bleeker
 * Kevin Bleeker (born 1993), Dutch basketball player
 * Lili Bleeker (1897–1985), Dutch physicist
 * Mel Bleeker (1920–1996), American football player
 * Piet Bleeker (1928–2018), Dutch long-distance runner
 * Pieter Bleeker (1819–1874), a Dutch medical doctor, ichthyologist and herpetologist
 * Named after him: Bleeker smoothbelly sardinella, Bleeker's whipray, Bleeker's worm-eel
 * Fictional characters
 * Paulie Bleeker, a character in the film Juno played by Michael Cera

Other meanings

 * Bleeker (band), a Canadian rock band named after Bleeker Street, Orillia, Ontario
 * Bleeker: The Rechargeable Dog, a comic strip syndicated by Universal Press Syndicate

title: Bleeker


text:
L'Hôtellerie

L'Hôtellerie is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

title: L'Hôtellerie


text:
Talk:Jovinus

"Following the defeat of Constantine III"?
According to Gregory of Tours, the patrician Constantius, who was besieging Constantine III at Arles, was told of Jovinus' revolt during the fourth month of that siege. That would imply that Jovinus' elevation took place before the defeat of Constantine, not after. Abou 02:50, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jovinus


text:
Talk:Iran hostage crisis

Challenging bizarre edit based on apparent misreading of MOS:AVOIDBOLD
I'm challenging this | edit by User:Surtsicna on 12 August 2021 and proposing a revert of the lead paragraph to the prior version. The edit summary was as follows: "This lead sentence exists for no other reason than accommodating boldface. Can we not just skip to the point? See MOS:AVOIDBOLD and MOS:REDUNDANCY."

The crisis is commonly and universally known in English as the Iran hostage crisis. If you search on Google Books, there are many books with that phrase right in their title.

Accordingly, this is not one of those situations where an editor is writing bizarre, tortured or unnatural lead sentences just to start the article with the article title (the entire point of MOS:AVOIDBOLD). The original lead sentence was a readable definition of the subject of the article all along. It correctly began by saying "The Iran hostage crisis was," followed by a definition. --Coolcaesar (talk) 17:30, 31 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Fixing this mess now. Unfortunately, this is what happens when people attempt to make edits to Wikipedia articles on subjects on which they are not well-informed.  Any educated person growing up in the United States in the 1980s encountered mentions of the "Iran hostage crisis" frequently in news coverage in print and on television. Plus, there was that song that got frequent radio airplay.  --Coolcaesar (talk) 14:48, 7 March 2023 (UTC)

First time edit, pls help?
I added a link to a NYTimes story that just came out where Ben Barnes admitted that he and Former Governor John Connolly Jr conspired to stop hostages from being released until after Reagan took office. I just don’t know how to make the reference number correctly appear, also not sure if the sentence should go at the end of the section. I didn’t want to change any other parts of the article, first time out. MC

https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/18/us/politics/jimmy-carter-october-surprise-iran-hostages.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share&referringSource=articleShare MaureenPC (talk) 08:49, 19 March 2023 (UTC)

Interim Government
Should we include the Interim Government of Iran In the info box because it started during the Interim Government? Von bismarck (talk) 13:56, 27 April 2023 (UTC)

 * No, because the Interim Government of Iran was against it. Parham wiki (talk) 21:44, 1 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Iran hostage crisis


text:
Economic model

An economic model is a theoretical construct representing economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. The economic model is a simplified, often mathematical, framework designed to illustrate complex processes. Frequently, economic models posit structural parameters. A model may have various exogenous variables, and those variables may change to create various responses by economic variables. Methodological uses of models include investigation, theorizing, and fitting theories to the world.

Overview
In general terms, economic models have two functions: first as a simplification of and abstraction from observed data, and second as a means of selection of data based on a paradigm of econometric study.

Simplification is particularly important for economics given the enormous complexity of economic processes. This complexity can be attributed to the diversity of factors that determine economic activity; these factors include: individual and cooperative decision processes, resource limitations, environmental and geographical constraints, institutional and legal requirements and purely random fluctuations. Economists therefore must make a reasoned choice of which variables and which relationships between these variables are relevant and which ways of analyzing and presenting this information are useful.

Selection is important because the nature of an economic model will often determine what facts will be looked at and how they will be compiled. For example, inflation is a general economic concept, but to measure inflation requires a model of behavior, so that an economist can differentiate between changes in relative prices and changes in price that are to be attributed to inflation.

In addition to their professional academic interest, uses of models include:
 * Forecasting economic activity in a way in which conclusions are logically related to assumptions;
 * Proposing economic policy to modify future economic activity;
 * Presenting reasoned arguments to politically justify economic policy at the national level, to explain and influence company strategy at the level of the firm, or to provide intelligent advice for household economic decisions at the level of households.
 * Planning and allocation, in the case of centrally planned economies, and on a smaller scale in logistics and management of businesses.
 * In finance, predictive models have been used since the 1980s for trading (investment and speculation). For example, emerging market bonds were often traded based on economic models predicting the growth of the developing nation issuing them. Since the 1990s many long-term risk management models have incorporated economic relationships between simulated variables in an attempt to detect high-exposure future scenarios (often through a Monte Carlo method).

A model establishes an argumentative framework for applying logic and mathematics that can be independently discussed and tested and that can be applied in various instances. Policies and arguments that rely on economic models have a clear basis for soundness, namely the validity of the supporting model.

Economic models in current use do not pretend to be theories of everything economic; any such pretensions would immediately be thwarted by computational infeasibility and the incompleteness or lack of theories for various types of economic behavior. Therefore, conclusions drawn from models will be approximate representations of economic facts. However, properly constructed models can remove extraneous information and isolate useful approximations of key relationships. In this way more can be understood about the relationships in question than by trying to understand the entire economic process.

The details of model construction vary with type of model and its application, but a generic process can be identified. Generally, any modelling process has two steps: generating a model, then checking the model for accuracy (sometimes called diagnostics). The diagnostic step is important because a model is only useful to the extent that it accurately mirrors the relationships that it purports to describe. Creating and diagnosing a model is frequently an iterative process in which the model is modified (and hopefully improved) with each iteration of diagnosis and respecification. Once a satisfactory model is found, it should be double checked by applying it to a different data set.

Types of models
According to whether all the model variables are deterministic, economic models can be classified as stochastic or non-stochastic models; according to whether all the variables are quantitative, economic models are classified as discrete or continuous choice model; according to the model's intended purpose/function, it can be classified as quantitative or qualitative; according to the model's ambit, it can be classified as a general equilibrium model, a partial equilibrium model, or even a non-equilibrium model; according to the economic agent's characteristics, models can be classified as rational agent models, representative agent models etc.

 * Stochastic models are formulated using stochastic processes. They model economically observable values over time. Most of econometrics is based on statistics to formulate and test hypotheses about these processes or estimate parameters for them. A widely used bargaining class of simple econometric models popularized by Tinbergen and later Wold are autoregressive models, in which the stochastic process satisfies some relation between current and past values. Examples of these are autoregressive moving average models and related ones such as autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH) and GARCH models for the modelling of heteroskedasticity.
 * Non-stochastic models may be purely qualitative (for example, relating to social choice theory) or quantitative (involving rationalization of financial variables, for example with hyperbolic coordinates, and/or specific forms of functional relationships between variables). In some cases economic predictions in a coincidence of a model merely assert the direction of movement of economic variables, and so the functional relationships are used only stoical in a qualitative sense: for example, if the price of an item increases, then the demand for that item will decrease. For such models, economists often use two-dimensional graphs instead of functions.
 * Qualitative models – although almost all economic models involve some form of mathematical or quantitative analysis, qualitative models are occasionally used. One example is qualitative scenario planning in which possible future events are played out. Another example is non-numerical decision tree analysis. Qualitative models often suffer from lack of precision.

At a more practical level, quantitative modelling is applied to many areas of economics and several methodologies have evolved more or less independently of each other. As a result, no overall model taxonomy is naturally available. We can nonetheless provide a few examples that illustrate some particularly relevant points of model construction.
 * An accounting model is one based on the premise that for every credit there is a debit. More symbolically, an accounting model expresses some principle of conservation in the form
 * algebraic sum of inflows = sinks − sources

 * This principle is certainly true for money and it is the basis for national income accounting. Accounting models are true by convention, that is any experimental failure to confirm them, would be attributed to fraud, arithmetic error or an extraneous injection (or destruction) of cash, which we would interpret as showing the experiment was conducted improperly.

 * Optimality and constrained optimization models – Other examples of quantitative models are based on principles such as profit or utility maximization. An example of such a model is given by the comparative statics of taxation on the profit-maximizing firm. The profit of a firm is given by

 * $$ \pi(x,t) = x p(x) - C(x) - t x \quad$$

 * where $$p(x)$$ is the price that a product commands in the market if it is supplied at the rate $$x$$, $$xp(x)$$ is the revenue obtained from selling the product, $$C(x)$$ is the cost of bringing the product to market at the rate $$x$$, and $$t$$ is the tax that the firm must pay per unit of the product sold.

 * The profit maximization assumption states that a firm will produce at the output rate x if that rate maximizes the firm's profit. Using differential calculus we can obtain conditions on x under which this holds. The first order maximization condition for x is

 * $$ \frac{\partial \pi(x,t)}{\partial x} =\frac{\partial (x p(x) - C(x))}{\partial x} -t= 0 $$

 * Regarding x as an implicitly defined function of t by this equation (see implicit function theorem), one concludes that the derivative of x with respect to t has the same sign as

 * $$ \frac{\partial^2 (x p(x) - C(x))}{\partial^2 x}={\partial^2\pi(x,t)\over \partial x^2},$$

 * which is negative if the second order conditions for a local maximum are satisfied.

 * Thus the profit maximization model predicts something about the effect of taxation on output, namely that output decreases with increased taxation. If the predictions of the model fail, we conclude that the profit maximization hypothesis was false; this should lead to alternate theories of the firm, for example based on bounded rationality.

 * Borrowing a notion apparently first used in economics by Paul Samuelson, this model of taxation and the predicted dependency of output on the tax rate, illustrates an operationally meaningful theorem; that is one requiring some economically meaningful assumption that is falsifiable under certain conditions.

 * Aggregate models. Macroeconomics needs to deal with aggregate quantities such as output, the price level, the interest rate and so on. Now real output is actually a vector of goods and services, such as cars, passenger airplanes, computers, food items, secretarial services, home repair services etc. Similarly price is the vector of individual prices of goods and services. Models in which the vector nature of the quantities is maintained are used in practice, for example Leontief input–output models are of this kind. However, for the most part, these models are computationally much harder to deal with and harder to use as tools for qualitative analysis. For this reason, macroeconomic models usually lump together different variables into a single quantity such as output or price. Moreover, quantitative relationships between these aggregate variables are often parts of important macroeconomic theories. This process of aggregation and functional dependency between various aggregates usually is interpreted statistically and validated by econometrics. For instance, one ingredient of the Keynesian model is a functional relationship between consumption and national income: C = C(Y). This relationship plays an important role in Keynesian analysis.

Problems with economic models
Most economic models rest on a number of assumptions that are not entirely realistic. For example, agents are often assumed to have perfect information, and markets are often assumed to clear without friction. Or, the model may omit issues that are important to the question being considered, such as externalities. Any analysis of the results of an economic model must therefore consider the extent to which these results may be compromised by inaccuracies in these assumptions, and a large literature has grown up discussing problems with economic models, or at least asserting that their results are unreliable.

History
One of the major problems addressed by economic models has been understanding economic growth. An early attempt to provide a technique to approach this came from the French physiocratic school in the eighteenth century. Among these economists, François Quesnay was known particularly for his development and use of tables he called Tableaux économiques. These tables have in fact been interpreted in more modern terminology as a Leontiev model, see the Phillips reference below.

All through the 18th century (that is, well before the founding of modern political economy, conventionally marked by Adam Smith's 1776 Wealth of Nations), simple probabilistic models were used to understand the economics of insurance. This was a natural extrapolation of the theory of gambling, and played an important role both in the development of probability theory itself and in the development of actuarial science. Many of the giants of 18th century mathematics contributed to this field. Around 1730, De Moivre addressed some of these problems in the 3rd edition of The Doctrine of Chances. Even earlier (1709), Nicolas Bernoulli studies problems related to savings and interest in the Ars Conjectandi. In 1730, Daniel Bernoulli studied "moral probability" in his book Mensura Sortis, where he introduced what would today be called "logarithmic utility of money" and applied it to gambling and insurance problems, including a solution of the paradoxical Saint Petersburg problem. All of these developments were summarized by Laplace in his Analytical Theory of Probabilities (1812). Thus, by the time David Ricardo came along he had a well-established mathematical basis to draw from.

Tests of macroeconomic predictions
In the late 1980s, the Brookings Institution compared 12 leading macroeconomic models available at the time. They compared the models' predictions for how the economy would respond to specific economic shocks (allowing the models to control for all the variability in the real world; this was a test of model vs. model, not a test against the actual outcome). Although the models simplified the world and started from a stable, known common parameters the various models gave significantly different answers. For instance, in calculating the impact of a monetary loosening on output some models estimated a 3% change in GDP after one year, and one gave almost no change, with the rest spread between.

Partly as a result of such experiments, modern central bankers no longer have as much confidence that it is possible to 'fine-tune' the economy as they had in the 1960s and early 1970s. Modern policy makers tend to use a less activist approach, explicitly because they lack confidence that their models will actually predict where the economy is going, or the effect of any shock upon it. The new, more humble, approach sees danger in dramatic policy changes based on model predictions, because of several practical and theoretical limitations in current macroeconomic models; in addition to the theoretical pitfalls, (listed above) some problems specific to aggregate modelling are:
 * Limitations in model construction caused by difficulties in understanding the underlying mechanisms of the real economy. (Hence the profusion of separate models.)
 * The law of unintended consequences, on elements of the real economy not yet included in the model.
 * The time lag in both receiving data and the reaction of economic variables to policy makers attempts to 'steer' them (mostly through monetary policy) in the direction that central bankers want them to move. Milton Friedman has vigorously argued that these lags are so long and unpredictably variable that effective management of the macroeconomy is impossible.
 * The difficulty in correctly specifying all of the parameters (through econometric measurements) even if the structural model and data were perfect.
 * The fact that all the model's relationships and coefficients are stochastic, so that the error term becomes very large quickly, and the available snapshot of the input parameters is already out of date.
 * Modern economic models incorporate the reaction of the public and market to the policy maker's actions (through game theory), and this feedback is included in modern models (following the rational expectations revolution and Robert Lucas, Jr.'s Lucas critique of non-microfounded models). If the response to the decision maker's actions (and their credibility) must be included in the model then it becomes much harder to influence some of the variables simulated.

Comparison with models in other sciences
Complex systems specialist and mathematician David Orrell wrote on this issue in his book Apollo's Arrow and explained that the weather, human health and economics use similar methods of prediction (mathematical models). Their systems—the atmosphere, the human body and the economy—also have similar levels of complexity. He found that forecasts fail because the models suffer from two problems: (i) they cannot capture the full detail of the underlying system, so rely on approximate equations; (ii) they are sensitive to small changes in the exact form of these equations. This is because complex systems like the economy or the climate consist of a delicate balance of opposing forces, so a slight imbalance in their representation has big effects. Thus, predictions of things like economic recessions are still highly inaccurate, despite the use of enormous models running on fast computers. See.

Effects of deterministic chaos on economic models
Economic and meteorological simulations may share a fundamental limit to their predictive powers: chaos. Although the modern mathematical work on chaotic systems began in the 1970s the danger of chaos had been identified and defined in Econometrica as early as 1958:
 * "Good theorising consists to a large extent in avoiding assumptions ... [with the property that] a small change in what is posited will seriously affect the conclusions."
 * (William Baumol, Econometrica, 26 see: Economics on the Edge of Chaos).

It is straightforward to design economic models susceptible to butterfly effects of initial-condition sensitivity.

However, the econometric research program to identify which variables are chaotic (if any) has largely concluded that aggregate macroeconomic variables probably do not behave chaotically. This would mean that refinements to the models could ultimately produce reliable long-term forecasts. However, the validity of this conclusion has generated two challenges:
 * In 2004 Philip Mirowski challenged this view and those who hold it, saying that chaos in economics is suffering from a biased "crusade" against it by neo-classical economics in order to preserve their mathematical models.
 * The variables in finance may well be subject to chaos. Also in 2004, the University of Canterbury study Economics on the Edge of Chaos concludes that after noise is removed from S&P 500 returns, evidence of deterministic chaos is found.

More recently, chaos (or the butterfly effect) has been identified as less significant than previously thought to explain prediction errors. Rather, the predictive power of economics and meteorology would mostly be limited by the models themselves and the nature of their underlying systems (see Comparison with models in other sciences above).

Critique of hubris in planning
A key strand of free market economic thinking is that the market's invisible hand guides an economy to prosperity more efficiently than central planning using an economic model. One reason, emphasized by Friedrich Hayek, is the claim that many of the true forces shaping the economy can never be captured in a single plan. This is an argument that cannot be made through a conventional (mathematical) economic model because it says that there are critical systemic-elements that will always be omitted from any top-down analysis of the economy.

Examples of economic models

 * Cobb–Douglas model of production
 * Solow–Swan model of economic growth
 * Lucas islands model of money supply
 * Heckscher–Ohlin model of international trade
 * Black–Scholes model of option pricing
 * AD–AS model a macroeconomic model of aggregate demand– and supply
 * IS–LM model the relationship between interest rates and assets markets
 * Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model of economic growth
 * Gordon–Loeb model for cyber security investments

title: Economic model


text:
Hotot-en-Auge

Hotot-en-Auge (, literally Hotot in Auge) is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. It is the namesake of the Dwarf Hotot and Blanc de Hotot breeds of Rabbit

Demographics
In 2018, the commune had 297 inhabitants.

title: Hotot-en-Auge


text:
Hottot-les-Bagues

Hottot-les-Bagues is a commune in the Calvados department and Normandy region of north-western France.

Geography
Hottot-les-Bagues lies 14 kilometres south-east of Bayeux.

History
The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo. Many of the remaining place names are of Norse origin. Hottot is believed to have taken its name from the Old Norse word haugr meaning mound or low hill.

During World War II, the Allied offensive in north-western Europe began with the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944. Within the surrounding district, there was much heavy fighting through June and July 1944 as Commonwealth forces tried to press on from Bayeux in an encircling movement to the south of Caen.

Military cemetery
Hottot-les-Bagues military cemetery contains some 1,137 graves belonging to 965 British soldiers, 34 Canadians, 3 Australians, 2 New Zealanders and 1 South African, together with 132 German soldiers. Most of the war dead lost their lives in the second fortnight of June 1944, in the furious fighting around Tilly-sur-Seulles. The cemetery can be reached from Bayeux by taking the D6 southeast. After passing through Tilly-sur-Seulles, turn westward at Juvigny onto the main road (the D9) that runs from Caen towards Caumont l'Evente.

title: Hottot-les-Bagues


text:
La Houblonnière

La Houblonnière is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

title: La Houblonnière


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Houlgate

Houlgate is a small tourist resort in northwestern France along the English Channel with a beach and a casino. It is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region.

Pre-19th century
Houlgate developed as a hamlet in the commune of Beuzeval. Up until the 19th century, Beuzeval consisted of only a few small houses and farms. On the southern side of the stream was Le Hameau de la Mer, consisting of a few houses, a tile and brick works and a water mill. In 1793, only 204 inhabitants lived in the commune.

19th century: development as a resort
Between 1845 and 1850, sea bathing became popular in Beuzeval. The Pilter family opened the first guesthouse for poorer protestant families in 1851 on Rue Sébastien-de-Neufville. Numbers of tourists gradually increased, first from Caen and then Paris and so a wooden boarding house was built. The sea-side village was named Beuzeval-les-Bains and attracted much Protestant gentry. The population increased from the 1860s onwards: 270 inhabitants en 1851, 345 in 1861, 515 in 1872 and 1 011 in 1881.

The north bank of the Drochon, larger and flatter, was still undeveloped. A company called the Société de Construction Immobilière (S.C.I.) was formed in 1858 to develop that area of Beuzeval. The company was formed by three men, a financier, a lawyer and a member of parliament, who bought most of the land, divided it into properties, drew the lines for streets and built a wall protecting the developing town from the sea. Within a few years large villas (then called chalets) were built and the quality of build can be seen now as most of these properties still exist.

In 1860, the chapel of Notre-Dame de Houlgate was built. It replaced the old church which was situated too far inland and had become too small to accommodate the growing population.

After the construction and opening of the Grand Hôtel in 1859, the first casino was built and the grandly named "Hydrotherapy" baths which were managed by François Blanc. The baths' aims were to monitor swimmers and to provide cabins. At the time, it was considered imperative to go to a hot bath once out of the sea to resume normal bodily functions. The establishment was not only open to swimmers but also to anyone who wanted a hot seawater bath.

The post office dates from 1894, it housed postal and telegraphic services and the building still in use today, next to the old boys school (now a school canteen and kindergarten). Its architect was M.R. Lewicki who also built several mansions on the seafront.

In 1882, the railway arrived in Houlgate, with Houlgate station placed between Dives-sur-Mer and Houlgate. The walk below the cliffs separating Dives-sur-Mer and Houlgate soon became history when the railway line was built along the south side of the estuary of the river Dives. In fact, the railway was built on the retaining wall protecting it from the winter storms and protected a new road built behind it. In 1884 the line to Villers-sur-Mer was finished, linking Houlgate to Paris (via Trouville-Deauville). It then took 4 hours by train to travel to the Paris Saint-Lazare in Paris and did not require a change of train.

Early 20th century
In 1905, the village took the name of Houlgate, a name which comes from the hill to the north-east of the coastal village. The town continued to grow with more and more hotels and The Promenade was finished in 1911. The town then welcomed many celebrities and royalty.

Like all communes of France, Houlgate experienced a general mobilisation as men were called up to fight in the Great War in 1914. The French Army's 3rd Corps created temporary hospitals and requisitioned all hotels and some large villas. Houlgate became a hospital town where local "Houlgatais" mingled with soldiers who had been wounded from the front.

Tourist activities resumed timidly in 1917. Fortunes had been lost and Houlgate never found the bustle it had experienced during the Belle Époque. The Versailles Treaty was signed on 26 June 1919 and the war ended. In 1921 Houlgate's first mini golf was opened. In 1933, an Alsatian named Laurent Laemlé, created a beach club called the Neptune Club near the casino and quickly opened another one near the Kursaal.

Second World War
With the surrender of France, Houlgate was under German occupation until 21 August 1944. In 1943 the Wehrmacht concentrated on the construction of the Atlantic Wall, laying barbed wire, concrete bunkers, and anti-tank obstacles. In Houlgate this meant the installation of radar and a 155 mm cannon on the Butte de Houlgate. These installations were the target of several aerial and naval attacks between 26 April and 21 August 1944.

The Batterie de Tournebride on the Butte de Houlgate was the objective of Operation Sunstar, a British Commandos raid on the night of 22/23 November 1941. Ninety men of No.9 Commando travelled across the English Channel on HMS Prince Leopold and landed at the bottom of the Vaches Noires. The old ferry transported four Assault Landing Crafts (ALC) which were used for the landing. Four fast gunboats were used to provide cover.

The operation encountered difficulties and did not succeed in destroying the battery position despite being located. It did not succeed in taking any prisoners either but useful information was collected. The commandos escaped on board their ALCs.

By 21 August, the Germans had abandoned the town, and the British Army along with Belgian soldiers of the Brigate Piron entered Houlgate.

20th century
From October 1944, the long task of demining the beach began. Each site was double checked and it was not uncommon to find mines on the second run. Fifteen deminers were killed during the demining. The de-mining engineers are still remembered and celebrated each year.

The 1960s were marked with an increase in holidaymakers and in the summers, Nestlé kept three amphibious cars, called Nescannard. These rafts were used to ferry children on trips of ten minutes along the coast near the beach. In 1963 the new établissement des bains was opened.

In 1967 Houlgate's first horse riding club, the Shetland Club, was created. Philippe Bellanger, officer of the Haras Nationaux and Jean Larigauderie opened the club to promote riding that once been part of the history of Houlgate and to lead riders on trips to the beach and to the surrounding countryside. In 1971 the club moved to the Clos Guilllaume where it remains.

1971 also marked the beginning of building of holiday apartments in Houlgate.

In 1974 the Saint-Aubin church received a new pipe organ, the old one was donated to the church in Dives which did not have one until then. The new organ was inaugurated on 19 July 1974 with a concert led by André Marchal. The thirtieth anniversary of the organ was celebrated in 2004 with a concert led by Jean-François Moisson as well as an exhibition by Father Lefèvre.

The manor in Beuzeval was converted into flats in 1980 and Mr de Lovinfosse (former owner of Union Chimique Belge) bought the grounds and built a 9-hole golf course. Despite hard beginnings, the Countess de Brion, who was made administrator by Mr de Lovinfosse, opened an additional 9 holes. Profits were low and the course was taken over by Blue Green.

The Avenue de l'Europe was built and opened in 1985, leading from Place Franklin and Rue de la Vallée, near the Clos Guillaume. A new level crossing, n°83b was opened as a result.

In 1997, the Festijazz was created, a festival of jazz music concerts. The 2006 festival included 500 groups playing over three days.

In 2001, a landslide occurred on the Butte de Caumont, the slide left the lighthouse unscathed. Road circulation was hindered during the months spent cleaning the mud from the road.

In 2005, the change of the commune's name to Houlgate was celebrated with a Belle Epoque centenary festival, with many local people, including the mayor, dressed in traditional 1900s (decade) clothing. A re-enactment of seine fishing was also part of the festivities, as well as a demonstration of 1900s (decade) fire-fighting equipment, old bicycles, a cider delivery cart and a group of 1900s (decade) baigneurs.

Etymology
Houlgate is a common variation in Normandy of Norrois origin: "holr gata" "chemin creux" (deep path). Variations can also be seen in Denmark as "Hulgade" and in the United Kingdom as "Holegate".

In the Middle Ages Beuzeval was called Bovalis, which became Eclesia-de-Bovalis, then Boseval, a name that can be found written as such in 1077. Evolution of the name and variations are classic of Normandy. Some explain this name as meaning "vallée des Boeufs" (valley of oxen); others give it a Germanic origin. Examples of variations include Beuzeville, Beuzebosc and Beuzemouchel.

Geography
Houlgate is located along the English Channel in the valley of the Drochon. The valley is mostly built up or used for pasture. The town's area is 4.69 km2 and the average altitude 5 m. Despite its low average height, the town contains two hills which form the natural limits of the commune: The high parts of the town are covered by Houlgate's two woods: Le Bois de Boulogne on the Butte de Houlgate and Le Bois de la Butte de Caumont.
 * Butte de Houlgate 123 m
 * Butte de Caumont 103 m

The Drochon
The douet (Normand variation of ruisseau or stream) Drochon (once spelt Drauchon) finds its name from the Germanic Drogo or Drogone. This stream, with an irregular flow, is formed by the confluence of at least ten lesser streams and brooks; The Mennetot, des Broches, Gonneville, Riqueville, Tolleville, the Pagné, Petiot, Désert and Bougon springs and the Bérézina.

Some of the springs and fountains of the Drochon's tributary are still subject to pilgrimage; the Saint-Laurent spring at Trousseauville is said to cure skin problems. Discarded clothing can often be seen when visiting the site. Pilgrims wet items of clothing and stroke their wounds and then offer the clothes as donation to the saint.

The Drochon's estuary has always caused problems as sand accumulated. In 1880, the commune paid a labourer 135₣ a year to keep the river's bed clear and maintain the flow.

There were up to three mills, once the property of nobles or the Saint Etienne Abbey of Caen. The only mill still standing is the Moulin Landry which is privately owned. The village had one wash house built in 1885 which was restored in 1990 and still stands near the railway station.

Falaises des Vaches Noires
To the East of Houlgate and below Auberville and West of Villers-sur-Mer lie the impressive wild site of the Falaises des Vaches Noires, the cliffs of the black cows. These cliffs are a fossil necropolis underneath which lay countless ammonites. The cliffs are slowly being eaten by the sea. Areas of the cliffs have been nicknamed the Desert, the Chaos... The Chaos is prone to landslides due to the seeping of water from the ground and down to the beach, the top layers of clay slowly sliding above the layers underneath, creating an unusual terrain.

The cliffs are made of three distinct layers; Callovian, lower Oxfordian and higher Oxfordian.

Bois de Boulogne
The first photographs of the Butte de Houlgate show a barren hill, and so the SCI quickly planted trees. In 1928, the municipal council voted to create a picturesque zone, or green-belt, to protect it from further building and maintain its character. This meant that the trees would be kept and would prevent future landslides. During the Second World War, the site was heavily bombed and as a result all the conifers planted in the early 19th century were destroyed. Since then, vegetation has grown back; sycamores, horse-chestnut and ash.

Butte de Caumont
The Butte de Caumont was originally an arid area. Caumont comes from Calvus-Mons Mont Chauve, Shaved Mount and was named as such in 1260. In a charter written by Philip the Bold the hill is referred to as Chauve-Mont sur Dives.

Mayors of Houlgate
List of Mayors (Sources: References)

Lords of Beuzeval
In 1066, Jean d'Aché is made lord of Beuzeval. In 1096, Eudes, the lord of Beuzeval is also made lord of Gonneville. In 1537, Marguerite Daché, lady of Beuzeval, married Jean Lebrun. In 1607, Thomas de Séran married Jeanne de Lesnerac and the lordship. The seigneurie went to Jacques de Séran, a protestant knight, in 1667. François takes the title on in 1694. He is made Captain of the coast guards in Dives. With Marie Eléonore, they founde the Ecolettes which possessed a funding (rente) of £80 to pay for a teacher. The children of Beuzeval, in small numbers, was admitted to the school. This funding exited until the French Revolution.

The de Morel family did not live in the Manoir de Beuzeval. Around 1720, Gaspard de Morel, knight, lord and sword general of the bailiwick of Caen, captain of the coast guards in Dives and High justice lord in Beuzeval. In 1724, his daughter, Anne de Morel married Jean Bart in Douville. Again in 1724, Gaspard de Morel sells his mill (then a privileged ownership) and two items of land to Pierre Pastey, a mill grinder.

The last family to hold the title was the des Boistard de Prémagny. Guillaume François, councillor to the king, lived in Rouen. He was squire, lord of Grangues and Vauville and sold land in Beuzeval. His daughter, Marie Françoise Delphine, married Pierre Armand de Saint-Philbert. Their son, Albéric de Saint-Philbert donated the field called le Clapier to build the current church of Saint-Aubin.

Population
Houlgate is formally twinned with Axbridge, United Kingdom.

The inhabitants of Houlgate are called Houlgatais. Most Houlgatais come originally from Houlgate, Dives-sur-Mer, Cabourg, Calvados, and Paris.

Le Manoir de Beuzeval
3 km from the seaside is the Manoir de Beuzeval, built during the 19th century. It is built on the site of an older, medieval castle.

It was called the Manoir d'Aché-Beuzeval, after the family of lords that reigned over these lands. The castle was built over a motte-and-bailey of 200 paces in diameter, the moat was 12 feet wide. It had a bridge and a brook held up by a dam and mill. The castle also possessed a chapel (dedicated to Sainte-Marie-Madeleine). With its land and dependencies, its garden and park, it had an area of approximately 100 ha. The castle was lived in and transformed by the Dachey (D'Aché), de Séran, de Saint-Laurens, de Morel and Boistard de Prémagny families. Its last occupant was Louis Henry d'Agier, mayor of Beuzeval from 1818 to 1831. Old and uncomfortable it ceased being lived in.

Previously on the territory of the commune of Gonneville-sur-Mer it is in 1825 that after consideration of the many lands of the castle that it was decided to retrace the communal borders to place the castle in Beuzeval. A cadastrial survey took place and the manor, a portion of the courtyard and the garden finally become part of Beuzeval (despite the residents being lords of Beuzeval and not Gonneville).

Between 1620 and 1640, the Château de Beuzeval was part of the fiefdom of the Aché.

In 1815 after the defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and the fall of the First Empire the region was occupied by Prussian troops.

In 1866, Victor Le Cesne, council member of Beuzeval, built a new luxurious manor house. Upon his death, his brother Jules took possession of the house. It was then lived in by the Viguier family and German occupants who damaged the building and then left it abandoned.

During World War II the Germans, once again, established their local headquarters in the Manoir de Beuzeval. After seriously deteriorating the building, it lay abandoned. It was subsequently tastefully converted into apartments and is now on the edge of a golf course with ponds inhabited by swans.

Le Château de Dramard
Up the Chemin des Rouge Terres 2 km from Houlgate town centre is the Château de Dramard, a 17th-century manor house built in limestone with a large central section with two small wings. The castle was built on the site of an older, medieval castle, or Priory of Mennetot.

In 1616, the château was bought by Pierre de Dramard, then councillor to the King, who became sire of Gonneville, Beuzeval and Mennetot. In 1772, Pierre Louis Bonnet, Lord of Meautry, married demoiselle Gabrielle of Dramard. Pierre became mayor of Caen in 1791 then in 1792 was elected deputy of Calvados under the French Revolution. The château still stands and is now a bed and breakfast / hotel.

Grand Hôtel
The Grand Hotel was built in 1858 for Aubin Albin Vergnile, a financier and president of the Caisse Centrale de l'Industrie, under the direction of the architect Baumier. Initially the hotel had 120 bedrooms, which had been increased to 350 by 1896. The building includes two towers and a rotunda. Dinner was served early, usually around 6pm, and evenings usually ended at the casino. Guests accessed the casino by walking through a luxurious garden, now a mini golf.

In 1914, the hotel was requisitioned by the military authorities and was the main part of the temporary hospitals 23 and 24 of the Army 3rd corp. In 1917, the number of wounded reduced and the order of derequisition was signed. The hotel resumed its main purpose but Houlgate's golden age had ended. The big fortunes present before the great war no long came but newly found fortunes and a new clientele permitted the hotel to continue business.

In 1939 the hotel was once more requisitioned not by the military authorities but by the SNCF divisional offices in Strasbourg. In 1940 the hotel falls into the hands of the Germans and in 1941, the hotel manager, worried for his wine collection, sold his most prized bottles. After the war, the hotel tried to continue business but had to close. A short lived hotel opened in a portion of the Grand Hôtel building. The building is now divided into apartments.

Town hall
It was not until 1865 that the decision to build a town hall was made. The decision was made during a council meeting and also decided the construction of a boys school and part funding for a new church. Until then, the small municipal archives were kept by the mayor in office. At least some council meetings were held in some of the mayors' homes. When deciding to build a town hall it was stipulated that one room should be used exclusively by a library. Once built, two rooms houses the post office for letters and telegraphs (which were relayed to the semaphore on top of the Butte de Houlgate). A superb mahogany desk was donated to the commune in 1875 and was once used by the council as a meeting table; it is now the mayor's desk. In 1880 was created a permanent post office organisation and it moved to its own premises in 1895. The town hall was modified several times such as the building of a village hall. In June 1897, the municipal council voted to cover the walls of the village hall and to buy 150 chairs at a cost of 5.60₣ each. In 1980 the offices were extended, the council meeting room was extended, the vicarage was converted into a tourist office and its garden transformed into an open square.

Kursaal
During the 1870s a casino and baths called the Kursaal was built in Beuzeval-lès-Bains. It was built of wood on stilts and was situated between the William the Conqueror column and the PN83 level crossing. This complex of buildings, all in wooden planks, was built to carry two functions, a casino and baths as well as an entertainment centre for tourists. It was named the Kursaal, a word of Germanic origin, often translated in French and English as casino. Unlike Houlgate casino, there were gambling tables. It contained warm baths and a guarded beach but never succeeded in becoming a bona-fide casino. The Kursall was demolished by the Germans in 1941.

Hôtel Imbert
In 1877 was built the Hôtel Imbert, Houlgate's second grand hôtel, in Beuzeval-les-Bains. The hotel replaced the Mer-Imbert motel (Relais de l'hôtel de la Mer-Imbert) which had been built ten years earlier. In 1907, a rotunda was built, adding to the two wings. In 1921 a new wing to the building was built. The hotel was the most prestigious of Beuzeval-les-Bains and welcomed much rich Protestant gentry. Between 1914 and 1918, the Hôtel Imbert was requisitioned by the French Army's 3rd corp and used as a temporary military hospital. In 1928, the hotel was enlarged by the construction of a new level in the building's attic. Between 1939 and 1940 the hotel was once more used by the French army as a military hospital then occupied by the Germans. After the liberation, the hotel's owners, the Laout family tried to re-open it. They refurbished bedrooms in groups of ten and opened a restaurant. Their efforts were hampered in 1956 when they closed the hotel. Like many other hotels in Houlgate, it was divided into flats.

Politics and urban regeneration
Houlgate being a commune, also known as municipality it has its own mayor. The mayor, along with the municipal council, has power over the municipal budget and hands out building permits.

The council also has the power to create municipal acts. As such Houlgate currently has a no dog fouling policy act that is not applicable at low tide when dog owners are allowed to walk their dogs on the beach.

The council also allocates funds and pays the Direction Départementale de l'Equipment (D.D.E.) for the maintenance of council streets. Indeed, since the modernising of the town's streets the council has started to embellish the town by installing flower pots on most lamp posts as well as marble paving. This project started in late 1989 with the creation of a roundabout in front of the town hall. This new plaza features a fountain volcano.

During the mid-1990s, the council rebuilt the Rue du Général Leclerc and installed a one way system across the town centre.

The last road work project was the rebuilding of the Rue des Bains in late 2004. With the increase of the communal population during summer time, much of the commune's two water reservoirs are in great demand. In mid-July the council usually makes the decision to ban the unnecessary use of tap water.

An underground water basin was recently built along the Promenade Roland Garros preventing used water flowing into the English Channel. The project affects the three coastal communes of the Estuaire de la Dives Communité de Communes and aims to increase the English Channel's water quality.

Economy
The town of Houlgate is geared towards the tourism market. Many drinking establishments are open throughout the year. The Rue des Bains is Houlgate's main street and as such many bars and restaurants are open there.

Situated on Houlgate's seafront, the casino is the main establishment. Houlgate has seen two casino buildings on the site in front of the Grand Hôtel and added to the luxurious surroundings of the hotel. The first casino was built in 1860. It was a wooden construction covered in sheets of zinc. It was rented to the company owner of the Grand Hôtel and managed by a François Blanc, former manager of the casino of Monaco. It had several rooms for shows, games of luck, reading and French billiard. It existed until 1906.
 * Casino

The current casino was opened in 1907 and its looks have not changed much since its construction. Only the balustrade and iron lamp posts have disappeared. Built with tourism in mind, it offered concerts, balls, fêtes and other shows, welcoming theatre companies and at one had its own permanent company. The casino also had a round room for ladies and organised fayres for children.

The casino has American-style fruit/slot machines (as opposed to the British bandit), a boule table, a colonial-style bar, a restaurant and a seaside bar. The casino's nightclub 'Le Manhattan' closed in the early 1990s and the restaurant opened in the former club's room. The seaside bar sees many live performances throughout the summer season. The building also has a 150-seat cinema.

The town has two small supermarkets (Proxy Market and 8 à huit) and a range of typical shops such as butcher, baker, fishmonger, and newsagent. The town has an indoor market, open Thursdays and Saturdays off season and every day during the summer. Many local shop keepers have a stall in the market. Due to the proximity of the fishing fleet at Dives-sur-Mer, fishmongers and market stall keepers sell fresh seafood, usually harvested in the early morning (depending on the tide).
 * Shopping

Because the town was built for the purpose of tourism, Houlgate is not particularly known for its industry, nevertheless on 18 March 1852 the Patrelle Company was founded, specialising in aroma. Stews, sweets and ice creams are made around the world using Patrelle products.
 * Industry

Personalities

 * Émile Deschanel, writer and important politician.
 * André Maurois (Emile Salomon Wilhelm Herzog), famous writer of his time.
 * Émile Zola, famous writer.
 * Marcel Proust, writer, used to go to the Lerossignol fleurist.
 * William Taft, president of the United States (1908–1918).
 * Cecile, Grand Duchess of Hesse
 * Queen Victoria.
 * Isabelle II, Queen of Spain.
 * Alexandra Fyodorovna, wife to Nikolai II, empress of Russia.
 * Roland Garros, famous aviator, who broke the altitude flying record on Houlgate beach.
 * Claude Debussy, famous musician.
 * Bréguet, aircraft builder, who owned a villa in Houlgate.
 * Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of the moving cinema, who owned a villa in Houlgate.

In popular culture

 * Houlgate, including Villa Onexis pictured above, the former Kommandantur on boulevard de Saint Philbert, is the setting for some of the events in the novel Villa Normandie by Kevin Doherty.

title: Houlgate


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Hubert-Folie

Hubert-Folie is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune Castine-en-Plaine.

title: Hubert-Folie