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Borough of Wokingham

The Borough of Wokingham is a local government district with borough status in Berkshire, England. It is named after its main town, Wokingham. Other places in the district include Arborfield, Barkham, Charvil, Earley, Finchampstead, Hurst, Remenham, Ruscombe, Shinfield, Sonning, Spencers Wood, Three Mile Cross, Twyford, Wargrave, Winnersh and Woodley. The population of Wokingham is 177,500 according to 2021 census.

History
The district was formed on 1 April 1974 as Wokingham District, under the Local Government Act 1972, by the merger of the Municipal Borough of Wokingham and Wokingham Rural District. It is governed by Wokingham Borough Council (formerly Wokingham District Council), which has been a unitary authority since 1 April 1998, following the abolition of Berkshire County Council under the Banham Review. The district was granted borough status in 2007, following a petition to the Queen.

Government
The local authority is Wokingham Borough Council. It is a unitary authority, being a district council (but designated a borough council) also exercising the functions of a county council.

Education
State-funded schools in the Borough of Wokingham include nine secondary schools, two special schools and numerous primary schools. There are also a number of private schools.

Bracknell and Wokingham College is the main further and adult education provider for the borough, just outside the borough its headquarters is in Bracknell. The Borough's closest higher education provider is the main Whiteknights Park campus of the University of Reading immediately north-west, most of which falls within the Wokingham Borough boundary.

Geography
Elevations range between 30 and 70 metres above sea level except higher in about 5% of the borough. The highest is an escarpment containing parts of the rural and wooded northern area, the hinterland of three Thames-side villages, facing the 30-mile long Chilterns AONB, west and north. A geological part of that range of hills, Bowsey Hill reaches 137m, in Wargrave civil parish, 1 mi from the river.

Approximately a right-angled triangle, the borough is long north to south. It uses as its longest edge the course of the Loddon and Thames along its north-west, with a similarly salient-containing eastern boundary and an almost straight southern boundary. Clockwise the boundaries are approximately 10, 8 and 5 miles on a direct path from point to point. The southern boundary is approximately the Roman road from London to Bath through a highly coniferous Swinley Forest which sits in geology on the naturally acidic, Bagshot Formation.

The town in the district is Wokingham. The villages are Arborfield, Barkham, Charvil, Earley, Finchampstead, Hurst, Sonning, Remenham, Ruscombe, Shinfield, Twyford, Wargrave, Three Mile Cross, Winnersh, Spencers Wood and Woodley. Two villages have a wide range of small retail and visitor facilities: Wargrave and Twyford. In major employment areas of trading and manufacturing Winnersh and Finchampstead are prominent. The village of Crowthorne is shared between Wokingham and the neighbouring borough of Bracknell Forest.

Home ownership
The borough has the highest proportion of home ownership of the six local authorities in Berkshire: combining the social (housing association and local authority provided) and private (private landlord) rented sectors, Slough's returns recorded in 2011 that its rented sector comprised 46% of its housing, whereas 18% of Wokingham's residents rented their homes.

Excluding lower-tier districts, Central Government has classified Wokingham as the least needy Local Authority. Government funding is about £120 per head per year. This is the lowest among the combined category of county councils and unitary authorities, the basis on which it is overall assessed, and compares with over £1000 per head in others such as the London Borough of Hackney.

Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Wokingham.

Individuals

 * Stanley Leonard Bowyer: 30 January 1973.
 * Leonard Goddard Smalley: 30 January 1973.

Military Units

 * The Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers: 21 October 1978.

title: Borough of Wokingham


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Albert Carnesale

Albert Carnesale (born July 2, 1936) is an American academic and a specialist in arms control and national security. He is a former chancellor of the University of California, Los Angeles, provost of Harvard University, and dean of the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University. He was also acting president of Harvard while President Neil L. Rudenstine was on leave for three months. He has also been active in international diplomacy on nuclear arms control and nuclear non-proliferation. From 1970 to 1972, he was a member of the U.S. delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) with the Soviet Union—a major step towards controlling nuclear weapons. Carnesale teaches undergraduate and graduate courses at UCLA on topics relating to U.S. national security.

Early years
Carnesale was born on July 2, 1936, in the Bronx, New York. His father was a taxi driver; his mother was an office clerk. He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science, where admission is based solely on a competitive written exam. The first person in his family to attend college, he began his university education at the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, completing a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering in 1957. He received a master's degree in mechanical engineering at Drexel University in Philadelphia in 1961 and a PhD in nuclear engineering at North Carolina State University (NCSU) in 1966. While earning his master's degree, Carnesale also worked as a senior engineer at Martin Marietta Corporation.

North Carolina State University
Carnesale served on the nuclear engineering faculty at NCSU from 1962 to 1969 and as professor and head of the Division of University Studies from 1972 to 1974.

Harvard University
Carnesale became a member of the Harvard faculty in 1974, and concentrating on the study of international relations, national security policy, and nuclear arms control. In 1981 he became academic dean of the Harvard Kennedy School. A decade later, Carnesale became dean and was charged with restructuring the school, which faced a budget deficit, and served in that post from 1991 to 1995. According to a lecturer at the School, Carnesale was appointed "because by the force of his personality, his great sense of humor and his capacity for getting to the heart of things quickly, he defused tensions." When the New York Times announced the appointment, Harvard President Neil L. Rudenstine described Carnesale as "an exceptional human being." At the time of Carnesale's appointment, the Kennedy School faced "a debate over its identity," as tension developed between faculty who were professional scholars and those who were practitioners. Carnesale said the solution lay in finding the right balance and respecting each other's contribution. In 1994, Carnesale was tapped to fill the role of university provost, where he served until 1997. In that position he coordinated the university's central administration and oversaw academic programs that extended beyond Harvard's individual schools. He was key to the university's $2.1 billion capital campaign and efforts to apply information technology to academic and administrative operations. He also was part of the campaign to draw together Harvard's nine different faculties. In November 1994, Carnesale was appointed acting president of Harvard while President Rudenstine was on medical leave due to exhaustion. He served in that position for three months.

University of California, Los Angeles
On July 1, 1997, Carnesale was appointed chancellor of the University of California, Los Angeles, a position he held until June 30, 2006. Some of Carnesale's Harvard colleagues saw his departure as "a terrible loss." Some at both Harvard and UCLA were concerned about his ability to understand a large public university system. His response: "I have enormous interest in all things public. I spent nine years teaching at a public university. In between I was in government. I spent my academic years at Harvard in the areas of public policy and administration."

Carnesale arrived at UCLA when the UC system was facing soaring costs and sharp budget cuts. He said the university must remain affordable for all Californians. While chancellor, he wrote and spoke about the "public-private gap in higher education," presenting funding models that could potentially enable public institutions to "remain true to the basic values on which they were founded: excellence and access for qualified students, regardless of ability to pay." Throughout his tenure, Carnesale concentrated on attracting research funding and private gifts to sustain UCLA's trajectory toward the top tier of research universities in the face of declining state support. From 1997 to 2005, UCLA's annual operating budget grew from $2.2 billion to $3.5 billion, while the state's portion shrank from 20.7 percent to 15 percent.

When Carnesale was appointed at UCLA, California's Proposition 209 had just gone into effect, forbidding all state institutions from giving preference in admissions based on race or ethnicity. Carnesale believed diversity was essential in order for UCLA to fulfill its responsibilities as a public university. He cited three reasons: 1) Diversity is essential for providing the best possible education because students learn from each other. 2) Diversity is necessary in order to prepare leaders for all segments of society—a charge of public universities. 3) Education is key to social and economic mobility. He said affirmative action is just one means of achieving diversity. "We can encourage minority students whose records make them eligible to apply, and then encourage those admitted to enroll. . . .We have to get more minorities eligible [so] we have to get more engaged in the high schools. . . . Equal opportunity should be a goal, an aspiration." In May 1998, 88 UCLA students were arrested for refusing to leave a building during a 12-hour non-violent protest, demanding that Carnesale defy Prop 209. He replied that while he supported diversity on campus, he could not ignore Prop 209. "I came to this university, knowing that Prop 209 would go into effect on my watch," he said. "I made the decision that it was important to do the best we could within the law, rather than stay at Harvard and not try."

Following the events of September 11, 2001, Carnesale initiated a seminar program named for the university's motto, Fiat Lux, which means "Let there be light." The program of 200 seminars was established to help students understand the events of September 11. The seminars enabled small, interdisciplinary groups of students to explore critical issues with faculty. Carnesale taught a seminar on national security.

As chancellor, Carnesale oversaw the completion of a $3.1 billion fundraising campaign—at the time the most ambitious in the history of higher education. He also launched the California Nanosystems Institute (CNSI), the Broad Stem Cell Research Institute, the Nazarian Center for Israeli Studies, and the Institute for Society and Genetics. Under his leadership, research funding from competitively awarded grants and contracts doubled, and UCLA formed more than 100 partnerships through Carnesale's "UCLA in L.A." initiative. During this time, the university took major steps toward transformation from a commuter school to a residential campus. From 1997 to 2005, UCLA completed or had under construction new housing for more than 4,600 undergraduate and graduate students. Other additions to the campus included the UCLA Santa Monica Medical Center, Broad Art Center and new buildings for health sciences, physics, engineering, and CNSI. In addition, Glorya Kaufman Hall, Haines Hall, and the Humanities Building were renovated. Construction began on the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. UCLA Athletics added 23 NCAA titles.

When Carnesale announced that he was stepping down in 2006, he said he had missed teaching and policymaking and that his decision was prompted in part by current events. He said there were relatively few people working in national security who had Ph.D.s in fields like nuclear engineering. "If you're worried about nuclear proliferation and weapons of mass destruction and the like, and can bring that technical background as well as the policy background in international affairs and security . . . It's a comparative advantage that I have in an area that's terribly important to the country right now. When he stepped down, he took a year-long sabbatical and then resumed teaching in UCLA's Luskin School of Public Affairs and Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science. In 2013, a new building in the residential portion of the UCLA campus was named Robin and Albert Carnesale Commons in honor of the chancellor emeritus and his wife. The building houses one of the nation's first health-themed dining halls, as well as a fitness hall and multipurpose space.

Government and public policy
From 1969 to 1972 Carnesale served as chief of the Defensive Weapons Systems Division, Science and Technology Bureau of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in Washington, D.C. From 1970 to 1972, he was a member of the U.S. delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) with the Soviet Union -- a major step towards controlling nuclear weapons.

Between 1977 and 1980, he led the U.S. delegation to the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE). This 66-nation multilateral meeting was intended to investigate and ultimately make recommendations regarding the relationships between civilian and military uses of nuclear energy and materials. In 1980 Carnesale was nominated by President Carter to be chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. However, Carter's term as president ended before the nomination was brought to a Senate vote. At the time of Carnesale's nomination, one of his Harvard colleagues said, "He's really perfect for the job. First, he's got a technical background--he's not a political appointee. At the same time, he can communicate complex technical issues in a way that is understandable to lay audiences." In 1995, President Clinton appointed Carnesale to the Scientific and Policy Advisory Committee of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency.

In 2009, Carnesale chaired a National Academies committee overseeing efforts to outline "America's Climate Choices" at the request of Congress. When the committee submitted their report, in 2011, Carnesale said, [Climate change] is an urgent problem to turn to, and what we've done differently is look at this as a risk management problem. We don't know exactly when the tsunami will hit or how high it will be, but we know it is coming, and we should prepare." In 2010 the U.S. Department of Energy appointed Carnesale to a high-level national commission on nuclear waste production, the 15-person Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future. Carnesale said the issues before the commission related "not only to nuclear power and reduced dependence on fossil fuels but also to climate change and nuclear proliferation." In 2014, he was appointed to the U.S. Secretary of Energy's Advisory Board. He also chaired the National Academies Committees on NASA's Strategic Direction, on Nuclear Forensics and on the U.S. Conventional Prompt Global Strike. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the Pacific Council on International Policy.

Honors
Carnesale was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996 and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2008. In 2011 he received the Harvard Medal for service to the university. Also in 2011, he was elected to the Nation Academy of Engineering "for bringing engineering excellence and objectivity to international security and arms control, and for leadership in higher education." In 1997, he received an honorary doctor of letters degree from NCSU. He also holds honorary degrees from Harvard University (A.M.), New Jersey Institute of Technology (Sc.D.), Drexel University (LL.D.) and Pardee RAND Graduate School (D.P.P). In 1985, he received the Gano Dunn Award for Outstanding Professional Achievement from the Cooper Union.

Selected works

 * Carnesale, Albert; Doty, Paul; Hoffman, Stanley; Huntington, Samuel P.; Nye, Joseph S.; Sagan, Scott D. (1983), Living with Nuclear Weapons, Harvard University Press and Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0674536654
 * Carnesale, Albert; Allison, Graham T; Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (1985), Hawks, Doves, and Owls: An Agenda for Avoiding Nuclear War, W.W. Norton, ISBN 978-0393019957
 * Carnesale, Albert; Haass, Richard N. (1987), Superpower Arms Control: Setting the Record Straight, Ballinger Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0887302299
 * Carnesale, Albert; Allison, Graham T., Nye, Joseph S., Jr. (1988), Fateful Visions: Avoiding Nuclear Catastrophe, Ballinger Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0887302725
 * Carnesale, Albert; Blackwill, Robert D. (1993), New Nuclear Nations: Consequences for U.S. Policy, Council on Foreign Relations ISBN 978-0876091531
 * Carnesale is also the author of more than 50 scholarly articles.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Albert Carnesale


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Specularity

Specularity is the visual appearance of specular reflections.

In computer graphics
In computer graphics, it means the quantity used in three-dimensional (3D) rendering which represents the amount of reflectivity a surface has. It is a key component in determining the brightness of specular highlights, along with shininess to determine the size of the highlights.

It is frequently used in real-time computer graphics and ray tracing, where the mirror-like specular reflection of light from other surfaces is often ignored (due to the more intensive computations required to calculate it), and the specular reflection of light directly from point light sources is modeled as specular highlights.

Specular mapping
A materials system may allow specularity to vary across a surface, controlled by additional layers of texture maps.

The early misinterpretation of "Specularity" in computer graphics
Early shaders included a parameter called "Specularity". CG Artists, confused by this term discovered by experimentation that the manipulation of this parameter would cause a reflected highlight from a light source to appear and disappear and therefore misinterpreted "specularity" to mean "light highlights". In fact "Specular" is defined in optics as ''Optics. (of reflected light) directed, as from a smooth, polished surface (opposed to diffuse ).'' A specular surface is a highly smooth surface. When the surface is very smooth, the reflected highlight is easy to see. As the surface becomes rougher, the reflected highlights gets broader and dimmer. This is a more "diffused" reflection.

In seismology
In the context of seismic migration, specularity is defined as the cosine of the angle made by the surface normal vector and the angle bisector of the angle defined by the directions of the incident and diffracted rays. For a purely specular seismic event the value of specularity should be equal to unity, as the angle between the surface normal vector and the angle bisector should be zero, according to Snell's Law. For a diffractive seismic event, the specularity can be sub-unitary. During the seismic migration, one can filter each seismic event according to the value of specularity, in order to enhance the contribution of diffractions in the seismic image. Alternatively, the events can be separated in different sub-images according to the value of specularity to produce a specularity gather.

title: Specularity


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Bishopsgate railway station

Bishopsgate was a railway station located on the eastern side of Shoreditch High Street in the parish of Bethnal Green (now within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets) on the western edge of the East End of London and just outside the City of London.

It was in use from 1840 to 1875 as a passenger station and then as a freight terminal until it was destroyed by fire in 1964. Substantial remains lay derelict until they were demolished in the early 2000s to make way for Shoreditch High Street railway station which now stands on part of the site.

History of the site up to 1840
In connection with the extension of the East London Line, some archaeological excavations were undertaken on the site c. 2007-2010 by the Museum of London Archaeology Service. To the west of the site the discovery of Mesolithic struck flint suggested occupation of the banks of the River Walpole. Bishopsgate follows the line of the Roman road and burial plots were found on both sides of the road. The site remained as open fields until the 17th century although there were a number of brick quarries giving their name to Brick Lane, which were active as long ago as the 14th century. The area developed with residential and industrial premises between 1652 and 1682, and this grew up and by the time of the development had declined into one of the poorest areas of London well known for its criminal elements.

Construction (1838–1840)
When initially surveyed in 1834 the Eastern Counties Railway (ECR) considered a number of sites before settling on Shoreditch. These were reviewed in detail by engineer John Braithwaite and the more difficult sites discounted. A major reason for selecting the Shoreditch site was it was close to the financial district and land at that location was relatively cheap. The area it was being built in was by this time riven by poverty and criminality and during construction armed guards were provided.

Unfortunately for the ECR, the landowners soon realised they could extract a high price for the required land and many delayed for a better price. Although work had begun on the ECR line in late March 1837, it was not until 1838 that work commenced between Shoreditch and Bow. Meanwhile, the Northern and Eastern Railway were looking at a London terminus in Islington and had also given up negotiating access to the Commercial Railway line to Minories in 1838 The ECR invited the N&ER to share the Shoreditch site and the plan was to have two separate stations, one for each company, on the same site. As the build commenced, this plan was abandoned and the station was designed to operate as a single entity.

Description
The station was built as part of the London Viaduct engineered by John Braithwaite. The structure was a mile and a quarter long and consisted mostly of brick arches with three cast iron arches, between Shoreditch and Devonshire Street, over Dog Row, Hare Marsh and Globe Road.

When originally built the station had five tracks and these were covered with an overall roof. The two outer tracks each had a platform – one for arrivals and one for departures – whilst the three inner tracks were used for stabling carriages between services. There were a number of small turntables that were used to transfer carriages from one track to another. The carriages at this time were based on the stagecoach design and were shorter than modern day carriages so the space required to move them between tracks was less.

Arriving trains were stopped outside the station and the locomotive would run round the carriages to propel them first to one of two ticket inspection platforms, where ticket inspectors would check tickets, before the train pulled forward into the arrival platform. Later ticket inspection was transferred to the station itself.

The structure itself had three levels above street level and the railway was on the first level above the street and approached by ramps. The architect was Sancton Wood and the station building had two four-storey towers. The main roof was constructed of corrugated iron as were the two side roofs covering the arrival and departure platforms. The main roof was supported by two rows of 17 columns.

As the railways expanded, further platforms were added on the north/west side of the complex notably for the introduction of the North Woolwich services. A short bay platform was also added on the opposite side of the station.

There were a number of goods facilities on the approach to the station and over the years these expanded and stretched back to Bethnal Green. Locomotives could be turned, coaled and watered just outside the station or would run back to the nearest engine shed at Stratford.

A full description dated 1844 in The Builder magazine stated:

"'The stone-faced exterior of the station was a well composed Italianate design. The concourse was flanked on the north and south sides by long two-storeyed ranges, terminated at the west end, and probably at the east, by boldly projecting pavilions crowned with attic storeys. The western pavilions were linked by the recessed screen-wall fronting the concourse, its two storeys raised on a rusticated basement against which twin stairways rose, left and right, to a doorway in the return face of each pavilion. Before the west front was a semi-circular court or area, partly enclosed by the ramped approach roads leading from the street to the raised concourse. The rusticated basement formed a plinth for the Doric pilastered first storey, where each pavilion had three rectangular windows placed between single pilasters, and the main front had seven arch-headed windows ranged between paired pilasters. This arrangement was reversed in the second storey where the three windows of each pavilion had arched-heads linked by bard-imposts, and the seven rectangular windows of the main front were dressed with corniced architraves, the central window being emphasized with a triangular pediment. The attic windows were rectangular and each pavilion was finished with a bold bracketed entablature and a blocking-course. The two-storeyed north front was fairly simple in expression, with a triangular pediment to mark the position of the booking-hall entrance'."

History
The station was opened with the name Shoreditch (or London ) on 1 July 1840 to serve as its new permanent terminus when the railway was extended westwards from an earlier temporary terminus at Devonshire Street, near Mile End.

The Northern and Eastern Railway started operating services to and from Shoreditch on 15 September 1840.

When the station opened it was not completed and work continued on the site for many years although this is partly attributable to the fact railways grew in popularity.

In the early years the station handled goods traffic as well as passenger traffic. As the latter increased it became impractical to unload goods at the station (which included cattle) and a new goods facility was opened at Brick Lane in 1844 (although goods traffic continued until 1845 at Shoreditch).

As built the track gauge on the ECR was 5 feet but provision was made to convert it to Great Western broad gauge had that gauge been adopted as a national standard. With the extension of the ECR in the early 1840s, it became apparent that was a better choice, and in September and October 1844 gauge conversion was carried out throughout the ECR and N&ER systems.

The station was renamed Bishopsgate on 27 July 1846 with the intention of drawing more City commuters by naming it after the major thoroughfare in the heart of the financial district.

By 1847 the ticket inspection platform on the south side had been converted into an arrival platform and an additional platform was provided on the north side for the North Woolwich services. Trains used a timber viaduct built on brick piers to access the platform which had its own booking office. The ECR hoped traffic would be generated by a ferry connection to Woolwich which at that time had no rail link.

By 1850 the departure platform had been extended and widened at the expense of one of the three stabling sidings located between the arrival and departure platforms. The turntable had been enlarged reflecting that larger more powerful locomotives were operating the services, and the station buildings were also extended at this time.

A big storm on 26/27 December 1852 saw the corrugated iron roof damaged beyond repair and this was replaced during 1853. During 1853 the southern side of the viaduct was extended to enable lengthening of the 1847 arrival platform.

By the end of 1853 an additional platform had been added on the north side (near to the North Woolwich platform) and two further sidings were added. These were used as rail access to a street level coal depot.

By 1855 a further bay platform had been added on the south side.

In 1862, the ECR amalgamated with a number of other East Anglian railway companies to form the Great Eastern Railway (GER). At the time the GER also used Fenchurch Street as a terminus but with new lines planned the GER decided the Bishopsgate station was too cramped (and badly positioned) for further development as a passenger service and began building the approaches to a new station at Liverpool Street in 1865.

The GER did extend the northside of the viaduct approaching Bishopsgate which saw the N&ER Brick Lane goods depot (see below) demolished. It is thought this was to improve access to the coal depot at Bishopsgate. Continuing congestion issues saw two new platforms built as late as 1872 on the site of the former coal depot. This was then final alteration at Bishopsgate which totalled eight platforms on closure to passengers.

The new extension to Liverpool Street opened to a new station called Bishopsgate (Low Level) in 1872, before extension into the new Liverpool Street station which opened in 1874. After a brief period where both terminus stations were in operation and Bishopsgate Low Level station operated as a through station, Bishopsgate station was closed to passenger traffic on 1 November 1875.

The new line into Liverpool Street paralleled the viaduct so a number of goods facilities were demolished or altered at this time. A large bridge was constructed where the new line passed under the Braithwaite viaduct.

Passenger services
When the station opened on services were run by the Eastern Counties Railway to Romford there were 11 weekday ECR trains to Brentwood. This increased to 18 when the Northern and Eastern Railway started operation on 15 September 1840.

As new lines were built other destinations were served.

 * Bishops Stortford 1842
 * Colchester 1843
 * Hertford 1843
 * Cambridge 1845
 * Norwich (via Cambridge) 1845
 * Ipswich 1846 (via Eastern Union Railway)
 * North Woolwich 1847
 * Enfield (via Angel Road) 1849

The Bradshaw's Railway Guide dated 1 March 1850 had the following services departing Shoreditch (although the station had been renamed Bishopsgate in 1846):

Generally, there was a 15-minute time interval between services which was the journey time of a stopping train to Stratford (calling at Mile End and Victoria Park & Bow. A fast train took 10 minutes which was the minimum time allowed, and a physical barrier was placed across the track after a train had departed. Absolute block between Bishopsgate and Stratford was introduced in 1851. Some services operated together with the coaches for the rear service being slipped approaching Stratford.

Following the opening of the London Tilbury & Southend Railway (LT&SR) in 1854, services from Tilbury and, by 1856 Southend, operated via Stratford where the train would split into Bishopsgate and Fenchurch Street portions. This arrangement lasted until 1858 when the LT&SR opened a more direct route avoiding an increasingly busy Stratford station. Other ECR services to Loughton and about half of the North Woolwich operated from Fenchurch Street rather than Bishospgate. The London & Blackwall Railway charged for each train using Fenchurch Street and a dispute lasting until 1857 saw some Loughton line services using Bishopsgate for a period.

By the 1860s with the suburbs expanding and new lines being proposed the GER decided to build a new bigger terminus nearer the city at Liverpool Street. As part of this project a new station called Bishopsgate (Low Level) was opened in 1872 and acted as a temporary terminus for suburban services from the Enfield (via Seven Sisters) and Walthamstow lines. Early in 1874 the first four platforms at Liverpool Street station opened, and Bishopsgate (Low Level) station became a normal through station. However, longer distance trains continued to use Bishopsgate (High-Level) as it was referred to then.

Staffing
An 1844 report for the ECR recommended staffing levels as:

Accidents and incidents

 * On 21 November 1856, nine people were injured in a low-speed collision at Bishopsgate. The author of a Board of Trade report into the incident stated: "I have no doubt that it was occasioned by the carelessness of the driver, and a loose way of conducting the shunting in the yard; and I am of the opinion that proper instructions on the subject of signalling for the shunting of trains should form part of those issued for the guidance of drivers and shunters."
 * On 22 November 1871, a head-on collision due to a driver's error and inadequate signalling resulted in a derailment. Fourteen people were injured in the incident.
 * On 19 June 1872, the driver of a service from Enfield on its approach to Bishopsgate crossed the path of a Shenfield-bound train, resulting in a collision that injured eight people.
 * On 9 August 1872, six people were injured when a train hit the buffers at Bishopsgate. The Board of Trade reported: "The accident appears to have been caused by miscalculation on the part of the engine-driver of the speed at which he was entering the station."

Goods station
Bishopsgate was extensively reconstructed by the Great Eastern Railway between 1878 and 1880 to convert it into a goods station. "By May 1880 the old facade and side walls had been completely removed."

The new goods station opened in 1881 and became known as Bishopsgate goods yard. The existing depot at Brick Lane closed as a consequence. The new goods depot had three levels.

 * A basement at street level – this was in two separate halves with the site being bisected by Wheeler Street. Wagons could be lowered to this level and moved around by a system of rails and pulleys.
 * The rail level – hoists from this level connected to the basement level. There were ten sidings for the wagons to be loaded and unloaded grouped around five loading banks.
 * A warehouse above the rail level where incoming goods could be stored in the warehouse on-site or transferred directly to road vehicles for onward transportation to their destinations.

There was also a large cartage yard at rail level. For many years most of the goods would have gone on by horse and cart and the GER maintained stables nearby in Quaker Street.

As a goods depot, Bishopsgate handled very large volumes of goods from the eastern ports and was arranged over three levels with turntables and hoists allowing railway wagons to be moved individually around the station for loading and unloading.

London & North Eastern Railway (1923–1947)
Following the Railways Act 1921, Bishopsgate goods station become a London and North Eastern Railway facility on 1 January 1923.

During the 1920s there were 1,020 people employed on the site including 648 being employed in the delivery of goods (cartage), 200-300 clerical staff and operating staff. It is likely at times of high demand, temporary staff were taken on to assist with loading and unloading wagons.

During the 1930s typically 350 wagons per day would be dealt with, equating to between 20 and 30 trains per day. During the fruit and vegetable seasons this number might reach 850.

The nationalisation era (1948–1964)
Following nationalisation on 1 January 1948 Bishopsgate Goods station became part of the Eastern Region of British Railways.

By the 1950s the majority of trains serving Bishopsgate were transfer-freights from Temple Mills or Goodmayes yards, although direct services carrying goods from Europe operated from Parkeston Quay. To allow processing of this traffic, facilities at Bishopsgate included a bonded customs store. The bulk of the traffic was food with two fish trains arriving overnight. The yard also handled steel, machinery and small containers (the forerunner of today's intermodal container wagons). During the late 1950s/1960s it was difficult to recruit staff to work the yard as better paid opportunities were available within London.

Shunting was carried out by steam locomotives in the 1950s – generally former GER 0-6-0T locomotives from classes J67 or J69. These would have been replaced by small diesel shunters later in the decade. Some railtours used Bishopsgate in its latter years.

A major fire on 5 December 1964 destroyed the station. Within 40 minutes of the first firefighters arriving on scene, the scale of the blaze was so intense and widespread that the London Fire Brigade had mobilised 40 fire engines. In addition, 12 aerial turntable platforms, two firehose-laying vehicles and two emergency tenders as well as 235 firefighters battled the fire which killed two customs officials, Mr Thomas S. Tanner aged 44 and Mr George Humphrey aged about 60, and destroyed hundreds of railway wagons, dozens of motor vehicles and millions of pounds worth of goods. At this time 1200 people were employed on the site.

The station was subsequently closed and the upper-level structures were largely demolished.

After closure (1964–present day)
Over the next 40 years much of the site became derelict. Following an extended period of planning, the entire site was demolished in 2003–04, with the exception of a number of Grade II listed structures: ornamental gates on Shoreditch High Street and the remaining 850 ft of the so-called "Braithwaite Viaduct", one of the oldest railway structures in the world and the second-oldest in London. The demolition of the former Bishopsgate station made way for Shoreditch High Street station on the East London line extension in 2010, part of the new London Overground network, replacing Shoreditch Underground station to the east which had closed in June 2006.

The rail bridge that passed over the Liverpool Street approaches and into the site was demolished over Christmas 2007. The reference includes a time lapse video of the bridge being demolished.

A mixed-use development on the former goods yard site, named The Goodsyard, has also been proposed.

Other goods facilities
The line between Bishospgate and Bethnal Green was lined with a number of other goods facilities.

Brick Lane
The Northern and Eastern Railway opened a small goods depot here in 1843. This depot was closed in 1865 when additional tracks into Bishopsgate were provided.

This was followed by the ECR goods facility which opened slightly to the east in May or June 1844 and was located north of the line. The facility was later expanded and occupied a sizeable plot.

The shed was located at street level and a steeply graded cable worked incline saw wagons lowered from track to street level. This was later replaced by a number of wagon hoists.

The Brick Lane facility closed and was replaced by the Bishopsgate Goods station in 1882.

Pedley Street Goods depot
This was located east of the granary (below) and opened in 1848. However, the site was used by the granary expansion in the 1850s and it was demolished during 1852 and 1853.

The Granary
Located near Pedley Street this was constructed in the 1840s and is thought to have been opened in October 1846. It was located on the south side of the viaduct, and the granary was further extended taking over the goods depot site (above) and opening in October 1854.

At its greatest extent it had enough storage capacity to store 44,000 sacks of grain.

The granary was destroyed by a fire on 1 January 1919 that burned for two days.

Shoreditch Coal depot
Opened in 1868 by the GER, this was located south and west of Bethnal Green station and its main feature was a curving brick viaduct carrying six lines. At ground level, the arches were rented out by coal merchants and used for storage with coal being dropped directly into the arches from the wagons above. A couple of sidings were provided at ground level and accessed through a hoist in the granary. In 1900 a steel viaduct was built with a two-wagon hoist to serve the street level sidings and a siding on the East London Line.

Transfers to the East London Line stopped in the 1950s although the hoist was used to supply the ground-level sidings in the coal yard. The yard was run down and closed in the 1960s. A small section of the brick viaduct exists at the end of Tent Street E15.

Before Shoreditch coal depot was built a small coal depot existed on the northern side of the Bishopsgate site and it is thought this closed "c1872/3" when two new platforms were added.

title: Bishopsgate railway station


text:
KrAZ

KrAZ (Кременчуцький автомобільний завод, Kremenchutskyi Avtomobilnyi Zavod, Kremenchuk Automobile Plant, АвтоКрА́З or AvtoKrAZ) is a factory in Kremenchuk, Ukraine, that produces trucks and other special-purpose vehicles, particularly heavy-duty off-road models. The factory was incorporated as a holding company combining several other factories nationwide and becoming the industrial wing of the finance-industrial group Finance and Credit, which also held the Finance and Credit bank.

Soviet era
KrAZ was founded on 31 August 1945 when the People's Commissariat for Transportation Routes issued a warrant to build a mechanical bridge plant in Kremenchuk. The first brick was laid in the plant foundation in 1946 and during the next eight years it produced about 600 bridges with the total length of about 27 km for use on the Dnieper, Moscow, Dniester, Volga and Daugava rivers etc. In 1956 the plant has manufactured combine harvesters and other farming machines. The Kremenchuk Combine Plant has produced 11,000 agricultural machines in the first two years of its existence.

On April 17, 1958, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union decided to rebuild a plant for heavy-duty vehicle production. Heavy-duty truck manufacture was transferred from the Yaroslavl Motor Plant (YaAZ). The first two KrAZ-222 dump trucks were assembled from imported units and components on 10 April 1959, and by 1961 the plant exported over 500 vehicles in 26 countries of the world such as Argentina, Afghanistan, Bulgaria, China, India, Vietnam etc.

On December 30, 1968, 100,000th truck was assembled at the KrAZ main assembly plant

On January 26, 1971, KrAZ was awarded the Order of Lenin for completion of the five-year plan ahead of schedule and successful developments of new truck models. On January 15, 1976, the plant became "AvtoKrAZ".

On April 30, 1984, 500,000th truck was assembled at the KrAZ main assembly plant.

By 1986 the KrAZ's yearly production output totalled 30655 vehicles.

1990 the KrAZ's yearly production output totalled 27667 trucks. 1991 the KrAZ's yearly production output totalled 25094 trucks.

Ukrainian era
In March 1993 750,000th truck was assembled at the KrAZ main assembly plant.

KrAZ was registered as a Holding company in June 1996. 1996 the company's yearly production output totalled 1919 trucks.

In 1999, the privatization of KrAZ began. 1999 the company's yearly production output totalled 827 trucks

In 2001, a block of stock being purchased by a joint Ukrainian-German enterprise called  Mega-Motors.

In 2003, KrAZ opened vehicle assembly plants in Russia and Vietnam. In 2004 KrAZ was awarded an order for 2200 KrAZ vehicles to be delivered to Iraq. KrAZ received an ISO 9001:2000 for quality control.

On January 27, 2006, the 800,000th truck was assembled at the KrAZ main assembly plant. In October of the same year KrAZ won first prize among 100 Ukrainian companies with the best rate of development according to the net profit growth pursuant to the results of rating "Top 100 Most dynamic companies"

In 2007, the company's yearly production output totalled 4206 trucks

After the Financial crisis of 2007–08 orders for vehicles declined drastically as Ukraine was severely affected by the event, the factory worked at minimal capacity. 2009 the company's yearly production output totalled 280 trucks

In 2010, the company's yearly production output totalled 1002 trucks

On August 23, 2011, the KrAZ-5233 "Spetsnaz" entered into service with the Ukrainian Army.

In 2013, the company's yearly production output totalled 891 trucks.

The government of Ukraine placed large orders for new military vehicles. The Border Guards, National Guard, and Army of Ukraine have all been scheduled to receive new KrAZ armored trucks. Moreover, KrAZ partnered with the Canadian defense firm Streit Group to produce the Cougar and Spartan armored vehicles. A total of 21 Spartans were ordered with the Ministry of Defense having an option for an additional 40, 20 Cougars were also ordered.

Several Streit Group Spartan APC's were seen at the Kyiv independence day parade indicating that the order was at least partially complete.

In November 2014, the Ukrainian government placed an order for 1200 vehicles and 200 armored personnel carriers. The contract was worth ₴1 billion ($64,267,360.00).

On 19 May 2021, KrAZ signed a three-year contract to supply the United States Army Contracting Command with KrAZ 4x4 heavy-duty vehicles and spare parts.

2022 Nationalisation
On November 6, 2022, the government of President Volodymyr Zelenskyy used martial law to nationalise the company. “Such steps, which are necessary for our country in conditions of war, are carried out in accordance with current laws and will help meet the urgent needs of our defense sector.” The government of Ukraine also took control of engine maker Motor Sich, energy companies Ukrnafta and Ukrtatnafta and transformer maker Zaporozhtransformator at the same time.

Civil vehicles

 * KrAZ-214 – 6×6 cargo truck, two-stroke diesel engine
 * KrAZ-219 – 6×4, two-stroke diesel engine
 * KrAZ-222 – 6×4 dump truck, two-stroke diesel engine
 * KrAZ-250 – 6×4
 * KrAZ-255 – 6×6 cargo truck, four-stroke diesel
 * KrAZ-256 – 6×4 dump truck, four-stroke diesel
 * KrAZ-260 – 6×6
 * KrAZ-5133B2 – 4×2 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-5401 – 4×2 – 312 hp
 * KrAZ-6510 – 4×4 or 6×4 – 240 hp engine
 * KrAZ-65055 – 6×6 – 330 hp engine
 * KrAZ-65032 – all-wheel drive 6×6 dump trucks – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-6130С4 – all-wheel drive 6×6 dump trucks – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-7133С4 – 4-axle (8×4) dump trucks
 * KrAZ-7140 – 4-axle (8×6)
 * KrAZ-65053 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-7634 – all-wheel drive 8×8 – 400 hp
 * KrAZ V12.2MEH – 6×6 – ?

Chassis
These are designed to be fitted with various body equipment for paved and dirt road use.

 * KrAZ-257 – 6×4, four-stroke diesel
 * KrAZ-5133H2 – 4×2 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-5233H2 – 4×2 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-5233HE type 1 and 2 – 4×4 330 hp (off-road use)
 * KrAZ-6322 type 1, 2 and 3 – 6×6 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-63221 type 2 – 6×6 – 330 hp (off-road use)
 * KrAZ-63221 type 3 – 6×6 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-65053 – 6×4 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-65101 – 6×4 – 240 hp
 * KrAZ-7133H4 – 8×4 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-7140H6 – 8×6 – 400 hp (off-road use)
 * KrAZ H12.2 – 4×2 – 312 hp
 * KrAZ Н23.2 – 6×4 – 362 hp
 * KrAZ Н23.2M – 6×4 – 362 hp
 * KrAZ Н23.2R – 6×4 – 362 hp

Semi-tractors

 * KrAZ-221 – 6×4, two-stroke diesel engine
 * KrAZ-250V
 * KrAZ-255V
 * KrAZ-258 – 6×4, four-stroke diesel
 * KrAZ-5444 – 2-axle – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-6140TE – 3-axle – 400 hp
 * KrAZ-6443 – 3-axle
 * KrAZ-6444 – 3-axle

 * KrAZ-64431 – 3-axle

Military vehicles

 * KrAZ-5233BE 4×4 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-6322 6×6 – 330 hp
 * KrAZ-6135B6 6×6 – 350 hp
 * KrAZ-6446 6×6 – 330 hp

Special-purpose vehicles

 * KrAZ-255L – timber truck
 * KrAZ-6133M6 – timber truck
 * KrAZ-64372 – timber truck
 * KrAZ-6233R4 – concrete mixer truck
 * KrAZ-6333R4 – concrete mixer truck
 * KrAZ-7133R4 – concrete mixer truck
 * KrAZ-65055DM – dump truck/snow plow (municipal)

Armored vehicles

 * KrAZ Spartan (Спартан) – 4×4, based on Ford F550
 * KrAZ Cougar (Кугар) – 4×4, based on Toyota Land Cruiser 79
 * KrAZ-ASV Panther (Пантер) – MRAP based on KrAZ-5233 or KrAZ-6322
 * KrAZ-MPV Shrek One (Шрек) – MRAP based on KrAZ-5233
 * KrAZ Feona (Фіона) – 6×6 MRAP based on KrAZ-6322
 * KrAZ-6322 Raptor (Раптор) – 6×6
 * KrAZ Hurricane (Ураган) – 8×8 MRAP based on KrAZ H27.3 (KrAZ-7634)
 * KrAZ Convoy (Конвой) – 4×4/6×6/8×8 armored chassis cab/flatbed

Gallery
Trucks

title: KrAZ