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Ford Verona

The Ford Verona and Volkswagen Apollo are a pair of small family cars that were manufactured in Brazil by Autolatina, a joint venture between Brazilian subsidiaries of Ford and Volkswagen. The Verona was produced from 1989 to 1992 and from 1993 to 1996, initially as a direct replacement for the ageing Ford Del Rey.

The company spent US$100 million developing and producing the car, which is heavily based on the second generation Ford Orion, and competed mainly with the Chevrolet Monza in the local market. The first generation had the characteristic of being a two-door sedan with a unique rear end, and the only derivation of the fourth generation Ford Escort with this body style, and was also rebadged as the Volkswagen Apollo.

Autolatina ceased production of the Verona/Apollo in 1992, after only three years of the original release, but still produced locally the third generation Orion a year after and keeping the Verona nameplate, until it was replaced by the sixth generation Ford Escort saloon in 1996.

First generation (1989–1992)
The first generation Verona was released in November 1989, as Ford's Brazilian subsidiary wanted a stronger competitor for the mid-size segment leader at the time, the Chevrolet Monza, despite being based from a lower segment car. It was heavily based on the second generation of the European Ford Orion, which in turn was based on the "Erika" third generation Ford Escort platform of 1981. Compared to the European Orion, the Verona had a unique body style, being a two-door sedan with a higher rear design and horizontal tail lights, the styling of which strongly resembled the sedan (Sapphire) version of the European Ford Sierra. The two cars are also mechanically different, and while the Orion was only available in the four-door body style, the Verona was only available with two doors. It lacked some features available in the Orion, for example the folding rear seats, to reduce production costs.

In 1986, Argentine and Brazilian subsidiaries of Volkswagen and Ford formed the Autolatina joint venture, leading to a series of badge engineered cars. The Verona was the first model to be rebranded during the alliance and its sibling was the Volkswagen Apollo, released in 1990. The alliance also allowed Ford to have access to more powerful engines, better suited to the segment it would compete, since one of the most common complaints in the Ford Del Rey it would replace was its poor performance.

Code named Nevada, the Verona development cost US$70,000,000 to Ford do Brasil, and aimed to create a competitive car for the midsize segment without excessive spending, due to the bad financial situation of the subsidiary at the time. Another US$30,000,000 were used to update the São Bernardo do Campo assembly line, where the car was produced. It was considered to build a four-door Ford Orion in Brazil, but two-door sedans were more suitable to local demand, which led to the creation of the Verona. The final name was chosen in computer, among other 21 options, including Stallion, Novara and the proper project code name Nevada.

LX and GLX were the two trim lines available for the Verona, the first one carried by a 1.6 L CHT engine and the last by a 1.8 L Volkswagen AP engine, both with ethanol and petrol variants. Base model was the LX and could be equipped with green glasses, rear window defroster, AM/FM stereo and power mirrors, while the GLX was the upscale trim level and could be equipped with fog lights, aluminum wheels, lumbar support adjustment, Bosch radio/cassette player with code to inhibit theft and power mirrors. Air conditioning and sunroof were also optional features in the GLX trim. Unlike its Apollo twin, the Verona dashboard was identical to the Ford Escort one. The last model year offered 14 pol aluminum wheels as an optional feature. That same year, the Verona was discontinued in the South American market.

In a 1989 road test conducted by a Brazilian magazine, the Verona 1.8 L managed to go from 0 to 100 km/h in 11,72 seconds and reached a maximum speed of 168.3 km/h. In this same road test, dynamometer measurements determined that ethanol engines produced 105 PS, while Ford would publicize this engine as it only produced 99 PS. This was done to avoid a higher tax on the circulation of goods (ICM) for ethanol engines for cars with power above 100 PS.

Specifications for each engine can be found in the table below.

Note: AE is an acronym for "Alta Economia" (High Fuel-Efficiency in English), AP stands for "Alta Performance" (High Performance in English).

Volkswagen Apollo
The Apollo was essentially a re-branded Ford Verona sold from 1990 to 1992. More expensive and marketed as a sportier model, it was only available with the 1.8 L AP engine. Compared with the Verona, it has only minor differences. These are shorter gear ratios, stiffer shock absorbers, different dashboard with orange lighting (unlike the Verona, the Apollo do not share its dashboard with the Escort), smoked tail lights very similar to the ones from the Ford Sapphire, chrome-less rear window frames, fixed-height front seats, painted mirrors (GLS trim) and airfoil. During the first model years, its front turn signals had clear lenses while the Verona had orange lenses. Trim levels were GL (base model) and GLS. A special edition named VIP was released in 1991.

A recurrent complaint from Apollo owners was the usage of steel rod-operated gear shift instead of the commonly used cable-operated gear shift. Both Verona and Apollo had cambering issues as well, partially due to rear suspension's project that was not adequately designed for a saloon.

Second generation (1993–1996)
The Verona discontinued in 1992 was relaunched in late 1993, this time sharing its body style with the third generation Ford Orion and only available as a four-door sedan.

Three trims were offered, a base (LX), an intermediate (GLX) with power steering, power windows and locks and also an upscale (Ghia), the first two with the 1.8 L AP engine and the Ghia with the 2.0 L AP. The 1.6 L CHT engine was discontinued. In 1995, the 1.8 L gained electronic fuel injection, the LX version was renamed GL and the Ghia gained a new digital electronic fuel injection from FIC (standing for Ford Indústria e Comércio - Ford Industry and Trade, the brand's division of electronic components), replacing the old analog Bosch LE Jetronic fuel injection. That same year, a new version was added to the line, the sportier 2.0i S, available with Recaro seats, air conditioning, cassette player and disc brakes in four wheels.

In 1996, the Verona was facelifted, with a new hood and the oval grille. Production also shifted from São Bernardo do Campo to Pacheco, Argentina, where it was marketed as Ford Orion. That same year, the sixth generation of the Ford Escort went on sale and the Verona nameplate was dropped and replaced by the Escort Sedan.

In a 1993 road test, the Verona went from 0-100 in 11.1 s and reached maximum velocity of 186.6 km/h. Drag coefficient was 0.31.

Specifications for engines available can be found in the table below.

Sales
In 1990, the Verona was the 7th best-selling car in Brazil, the Apollo was the 17th. The following year, the Verona rose to the 6th place and the Apollo to the 8th. In the last production year, they both fell to 9th and 15th positions, respectively. Total production of the Volkswagen Apollo was 53,130 units. Sales figures from both cars in Brazil are shown below.

title: Ford Verona


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Mamaboy

Mamaboy is a 2017 comedy film directed by Aaron Leong and written and produced by Rick Kuebler. The film stars Sean O'Donnell as a teenager who decides to undergo an experimental procedure that enables him to carry his girlfriend's baby to term.

Plot
The adolescent Kelly Hankins (Sean O'Donnell) has a good life. He is admired by his peers, the star of the baseball team, and he is in a happy relationship with the beautiful Lisa Weld (Allie DeBerry), albeit one that they have to hide from her strict father Reverend Weld (Stephen Tobolowsky). However, when Lisa tells him that she is pregnant, Kelly now has to figure out a way to keep her from getting into trouble. He thinks he has found the answer when he discovers that his Uncle Theus (J.D. Rudometkin) has managed to transfer an embryo into a male monkey's abdominal cavity. Certain that this will solve all of their problems, Kelly persuades his uncle to do the same to him.

The process is successful and Kelly becomes pregnant. Over the course of several months, he goes through typical symptoms; hiding it from everyone with only his friend Ditto (Michael Eric Reid) aware of it. Everyone begins to notice Kelly's odd behavior and he loses his popularity, though the flirtatious Candy (Cassidy Ann Shaffer) continues to hit on him. Lisa breaks up with Kelly as she cannot endure seeing Kelly becoming ridiculed. The nerdy Milton (Dylan Riley Snyder) begins to suspect that something is up with Kelly and reviews his findings with Principal Miller (Eric Wheeler), though he has a little trouble believing the concept of a pregnant boy.

Lisa calls Kelly in an effort to get back together with him, on the condition that the baby be transferred back to her. They get into an argument and become even more distant. Realizing that he cannot go on without Lisa, Kelly attempts to get back together with her at the prom. She seems willing to accept him back, but Milton outs the pregnancy to everyone, humiliating Kelly. Soon, the whole town learns of it with Reverend Weld attempting to demonize Kelly, but Theus manages to persuade the congregation that Kelly was fine. As graduation approaches, Kelly is unsure of what to do with himself, but his father backs him up.

The day of graduation arrives and Kelly reluctantly gives a speech to his classmates that is uplifting and empowering. He suddenly faints as he goes into labor and his friends and family rush the stage to help him. Kelly awakens in the hospital with Lisa watching over him. Kelly learns that he has given birth to twins, a boy and a girl. Lisa apologizes for her behavior and wants to raise their children together. She shows that the whole town has been rooting for Kelly's recovery as well as her father who now approves of him.

Cast

 * Sean O'Donnell as Kelly Hankins
 * Gary Busey as Coach Dombrowski
 * Stephen Tobolowsky as Reverend Weld
 * Alexandria DeBerry as Lisa Weld
 * Dylan Riley Snyder as Milton
 * Michael Eric Reid as Ditto
 * Cassidy Ann Shaffer as Candy
 * Nick Fenske as Jeff Hankins
 * Shelley K. Booker as Gloria Hankins
 * Michael Reep as Bronco
 * Jack Shelton as Jimmy Hankins
 * Jesse Miller as Nurse Zelda
 * J.D. Rudometkin as Uncle Theus
 * Eric Wheeler as Principle Miller
 * Peter Wilmer as Baker Frank

Production
The film was largely filmed in the California counties of El Dorado and Placer and filming wrapped in October 2015.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mamaboy


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Chevrolet Cavalier

The Chevrolet Cavalier is a line of compact cars produced by Chevrolet. Serving as the replacement of the Chevrolet Monza, the Cavalier was the second Chevrolet model line to adopt front-wheel drive. Three versions of the Cavalier have been sold, including three generations sold in North America from model years 1982 to 2005, a version produced by SAIC-GM for China from 2016 to 2021, and a SAIC-GM version produced for Mexico since the 2019 model year.

The Cavalier was among the inaugural vehicles of the GM J platform. One of the first "world cars" of General Motors, the J platform was developed for use by each North American GM division (with the exception of GMC), alongside international models for Opel, Vauxhall, and Holden. Though sharing chassis underpinnings, J-body cars from Europe and Australia used slightly different body designs and different powertrains; in Europe, the Vauxhall Cavalier and Opel Ascona were marketed as mid-size cars. Initially a divisional counterpart of the Buick Skyhawk, Cadillac Cimarron, Oldsmobile Firenza, and Pontiac J2000, the Cavalier was primarily marketed alongside the Pontiac Sunbird (renamed the Pontiac Sunfire for 1995).

The 1982-2005 Cavalier was produced by multiple GM facilities across North America; all models from the 1990s on were made at Lordstown Assembly, which became synonymous with the Cavalier and compact Chevrolet modes in general from the earlier Chevrolet Vega all the way to the Chevrolet Cruze. For 2005, the Chevrolet Cobalt replaced the model line in North America.

Predecessors
The Cavalier began development in the late 1970s, as Chevrolet sought to replace the compact Monza with a front-wheel drive model line sized between the Chevrolet Chevette subcompact and the front-wheel drive Nova replacement (which was renamed the Chevrolet Citation for production). Serving as a replacement for the Vega, the Monza was offered as a 2-door notchback coupe, 3-door hatchback, and 3-door station wagon (sharing the body of the Vega wagon). Initially developed for the stillborn GM Wankel rotary engine, the rear-wheel drive Monza was reengineered to accommodate V6 and V8 engines up to 350 cuin.

Marketed as one of the smallest and lowest-price American cars, the Chevette hatchback was closer in size to the Volkswagen Beetle, competing primarily against subcompacts from Japanese-brand manufacturers, including the Honda Civic, Datsun B210 and Toyota Corolla. Following the introduction of the Dodge Omni and Ford Fiesta, American manufacturers began transitioning towards front-wheel drive in compacts and subcompacts, through both domestically produced vehicles and the use of captive imports.

Along with developing up-to-date chassis underpinnings to replace the Monza, GM sought to expand the market appeal of the new model line by expanding the number of available body styles. The notchback coupe and three-door hatchback would make a return, joined by a four-door sedan and five-door station wagon (two body styles offered in mid-size and full-size Chevrolets).

First generation (1982–1987)

The first-generation Cavalier first went on sale in the United States in May 1981 as a 1982 model. The Cavalier name originated from GM's then-British subsidiary Vauxhall, who applied it to badge engineered variants of the Opel Ascona, the third generation of which was the first J-body car to be released.

Initially, the 1.8 liter carbureted L46 inline 4 was the sole engine available, and it could be mated to either a 4-speed manual, or 3-speed automatic transmission. The Cavalier could be bought in 4 body styles: a 2-door coupe, 3-door hatchback, 4-door sedan and a 4-door station wagon. Three available trim packages included the entry level Cadet, the mid-level Base and the upscale CL, which could be optioned with two-tone paint, accent stripes and aluminum alloy wheels. The suspension was shared with the front-wheel-drive Citation and Celebrity, which consisted of MacPherson struts, lower control arms, coil springs and a stabilizer bar for the front. The rear suspension, however, was unique to the Cavalier and featured a solid beam axle, trailing arms and variable-rate coil springs on all body styles.

For 1983, the 2.0 liter throttle body fuel-injected LQ5 inline 4 replaced the L46 engine found in the 1982 Cavalier, and a 5-speed manual transmission was made available. A convertible model produced by American Sunroof was added to the lineup late in the model year; initial production totaled less than 1000 units. This Cavalier model was the first convertible produced by Chevrolet since the Caprice convertible was discontinued in 1975.

For 1984, the Cavalier's styling was lightly refreshed, featuring a new grill and quad headlight design. The Type 10 package, initially offered on only the hatchback, was made available on the coupe and convertible models. 5,161 Cavaliers that originated from South Gate Assembly were equipped with an Olympic special appearance package to celebrate the 1984 Summer Olympics.

For 1985, the 2.8 liter LB6 V6 was added as an option for the Cavalier. It was meant to debut with the Z24 package, but the Z24 package was delayed until 1986. The V6 was available as an option on all trim levels.

For 1986, the Z24 package was added as on option for the coupe and hatchback models. It featured digital gauges, sport wheels, a ground effects kit and a specific front facia. The Type 10 package was discontinued and replaced with the RS series, which was now available on all body styles.

For 1987, both available engines were refreshed for their second generation. The LQ5 inline-four was updated to the LL8 designation, which added 5 horsepower and replaced the distributor with a coil pack ignition system. The LB6 V6 added aluminum cylinder heads, different fuel injectors and electronic spark control.

Engines

 * 1982: 1.8 L L46 carbureted OHV I4
 * 1983-1986: 2.0 L LQ5 TBI OHV I4
 * 1987: 2.0 L LL8 TBI OHV I4
 * 1985–1987: 2.8 L LB6 MPFI OHV V6

Second generation (1988–1994)
The Cavalier was restyled in 1987 for the 1988 model year. The 3-door hatchback was dropped, while the coupe, sedan, wagon and convertible carried over. The sedan and wagon were unchanged from the doors back, while the coupe's exterior was completely redesigned. This resulted in different trunk designs for the coupe and sedan. Three trim levels were available for 1988: VL for Value Leader, RS, and Z24. The convertible was only available as a Z24, and the dashboard unit from the Type 10 was installed in coupes and convertibles with the Z24 appearance, while the VL and RS used the dashboard unit shared with the Sunbird and Cimarron. The VL and RS came standard with the 2.0 L OHV L4 engine, now upgraded to throttle-body injection, or TBI, producing 90 hp, while the 2.8 L V6 producing 125 hp was optional on the RS and standard on the Z24. With two-door models, a 5-speed manual transmission was standard and a 3-speed automatic was optional, however the 3-speed automatic was made standard on sedans and wagons. An electronic dashboard was available with the RS and Z24 trims, while the front suspension carried over from the previous generation and the rear suspension adopted the torsion-beam rear axle, along with coil springs and rear stabilizer bars from the discontinued Buick Skyhawk, Oldsmobile Firenza and Cadillac Cimarron.

For 1989, the steering column was redesigned. The new self-aligning steering wheel was designed so as to reduce injuries in a collision by bending to conform to the driver's chest. Also, rear shoulder belts became standard on all models. RS and Z24 custom cloth seating received a new style of front bucket seats with integral headrests. The optional V6 was retooled to 130 hp.

For 1990, the base engine was enlarged to a 2.2 L OHV L4, and power increased to 95 hp. Door-mounted automatic front seatbelts were added due to US passive restraint legislation. The optional V6 engine was also upgraded to the 3.1 L V6 and 140 horsepower. The convertible was dropped from availability to prevent internal competition with a planned Beretta convertible. However, the Beretta convertible was shelved at the eleventh hour, before a 1990 Cavalier convertible could be prepared.

Facelift (1991)
The 1991 Cavalier got a more extensive restyling that involved a new hood, bumpers, headlights, taillights, wheel covers, and a redesigned interior; however, the body style remained unchanged. Most notably, the cooling system was redesigned to draw air from the bumper, giving it a Ford Taurus-style bumper and grille-less nose. The new bumpers were unpainted, with the option to have them colored grey, black or white, the latter only available on white-colored models. The RS and the Z24 eschewed this for a color-keyed body package. Z24 models also gained the options for a height-adjustable driver's seat and a CD player. The platform and trim lines were carried over. Since the Beretta Convertible ended up not being produced, the Cavalier convertible was brought back mid-year, in RS trim only with the V6 engine standard.

Minor changes for 1991 also included the Alpha Tech ignition lock cylinder, which incorporated a dual-bit key that was larger and thicker in size in comparison to the old single-bit lock cylinder system that had been used for years. The lock system was intended to be a stronger deterrent to vehicle theft, but constant problems were reported with the lock jamming. It was dropped after an improved dual-bit single key system was introduced for the 1995 model year and redesign.

For 1992, the 2.2 L OHV standard engine adopted multi-point fuel injection, or MPFI to improve output to 110 hp, however unlike the SFI version of the 2.2L in the Chevrolet Corsica. The convertible was now available in both RS and Z24 trims, with the V6 standard in the Z24 and optional with the RS. Anti-lock brakes were added as a standard feature, as Delco Moraine had managed to develop a low-cost system. Power locks were also standard, and were designed to automatically lock when the car is shifted out of park, or if the car is traveling at least 8 miles per hour in manual transmission equipped coupe models.

Model year 1993 brought minimal changes to the Cavalier line. The convertibles received a glass rear window, allowing rear window defrost as an option. Also, the RS trim received a minor styling change, doing away with its grille slot.

The 1994 models were also carryovers, as a redesign of the Cavalier was in development. Both of the wagon's trim levels—the VL and RS—were dropped, but the body style continued to be marketed in an unnamed base trim that was essentially the same as the VL. The 2.2 L OHV L4 was now converted to the SFI version found in the Corsica, which delivered an output of 120 horsepower. Additional changes included a slightly redesigned climate control interface and the power locking system being again redesigned: the doors would still lock automatically when put into gear, but they would also unlock automatically when the ignition was switched off.

Mexico
The Chevrolet Cavalier was introduced in Mexico in model year 1990 to replace the Chevrolet Celebrity, which had been until then the entry point to the Mexican GM lineup. The initial offering consisted only of a 4-door sedan with a 2.8 L MPFI V6 with a 5-speed manual gearbox, or a 3-speed automatic as an option.

For 1991, it got the same redesign as in the United States and was now also offered as a coupé. The coupé Cavalier Z24 was also introduced in Mexico with a 3.1 L V6, with both manual or automatic transmissions. For 1992, the Mexican Cavalier continued unchanged.

For 1993, the Mexican Chevrolet Cavalier adopted the aesthetics from the Pontiac Sunbird. For 1993 and 1994, the Cavaliers sold there featured Sunbird body panels, as opposed to US-spec Cavalier panels and the Mexican Chevrolet Cavalier Z24 took on the appearance of the Pontiac Sunbird GT sold in the United States. No wagons and convertibles were offered in Mexico.

Third generation (1995–2005)

The Cavalier received its first total redesign for 1995, with expanded dimensions and more aerodynamic styling, incorporating minor design cues from the fourth generation Chevrolet Camaro. Some of the basic styling cues remained however, such as the bumper-integrated grille and the coupes' dipped beltline. Coupe, sedan, and convertible options were offered, however the wagon model was discontinued, and later replaced with the Chevrolet HHR in 2005. The car now had the available option of 15 and 16-inch wheels. By 1997, the Cavalier became the best selling car within the entire GM lineup.

For the third generation, powertrain options were limited to inline-four engines. The option for a V6 engine, which had been available in the first and second generation, was dropped and replaced by a new four-cylinder of similar power output. Base and RS models still retained the 2.2-litre pushrod four-cylinder engine (2.2 L OHV) of the previous models, which was primarily mated to a 3-speed automatic, but was available with 5-speed manual in the two-door models, in particular the RS models. As of 1996 a new 4-speed automatic became available in any trim; this had originally been intended to be introduced along with the redesign but General Motors' cash shortage delayed it. The Z24 and LS convertible used the 2.3 L LD2 Quad-4 engine in 1995, but they received a new engine in 1996, the 2.4 liter DOHC LD9. This engine could also be special ordered on a 4-door LS model. This engine produced 150 hp and 155 lbft of torque and was used until 2002.

In 2000, the car gained a minor facelift consisting of bigger headlights and an improved grille, lost the "CHEVROLET" text badge at the trunklid and gained a new "CAVALIER" badge along with new "five spoke" hubcaps. The 2.4-litre engine came mated standard with the Getrag F23 5-speed manual transmission on the Z24 models, or with the optional 4-speed automatic on both the Z24 and the LS models. The Z24 only came in 2-door coupe models until 2001 and featured a sport-tuned suspension, 16-inch tires, alloy wheels and improved interior electronics. Aesthetically little changed from the other models other than a ground effects kit and taller rear spoiler. In 2002, a 4-door Z24 Sedan debuted, featuring the same mechanics but having a less sporty body. The Z24 trim also received several other upgrades including a wider front sway bar and FE2 Sports Suspension for better handling characteristics, and less aggressive ABS anti-lock braking system.

In 2002, the 3-speed automatic was dropped from the base models equipped with the 2.2, and the 4-speed automatic became the main offering across the entire lineup, with 5-speed still available in the two-door cars. Also, the RS was replaced by the LS Sport line, which featured the new Ecotec L61 motors with 140 hp and 150 lbft torque. These engines improved fuel economy, featuring the same displacement as the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) while maintaining most of the power of the older LD9 motors. The new Ecotec motors replaced the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) in base models in 2003, and became the sole engine choice in the entire Cavalier line-up until 2005 when the Chevrolet Cavalier was replaced by the Chevrolet Cobalt.

A GM Eaton M45 Supercharger kit was also offered for the Z24 trim as well. The supercharger kit was developed and tested by General Motors and could only be installed at a GM dealer. This upgrade increased performance considerably due to a pressure of 4.7 PSI which in turn added approximately 40 hp and 40 lbft of torque increase; raising the Z24's ratings to approximately 190 hp and 195 lbft of torque.

Facelifts
The third generation Cavalier had two facelifts. There was a minor one in 1999 with new front and rear bumper fascias which included revised headlamps and taillamps for 2000 models. There was a more extensive refresh in 2002 for the 2003 model year, which included a complete new front end design, revised taillamps with a full-width rear reflector, a new rear spoiler and rear bumper fascia.

Safety
The third-generation Cavalier earned several low scores in crash tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Also, IIHS fatality risks statistics rated the Cavalier among the "highest rates of driver deaths", with 150 (four-door) to 171 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years. Average for the Cavalier class (small) was 103 (four-door) to 134 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years.

The IIHS gave the 1995-2005 Cavalier a "poor" overall score in their frontal offset collision test.

2005 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Crash Test Ratings (coupe):

 * Frontal driver:
 * Frontal passenger:
 * Side driver: *safety concern*
 * Side rear passenger:
 * Rollover:

2002 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Crash Test Ratings (sedan):

 * Frontal driver:
 * Frontal passenger:
 * Side driver: *safety concern*
 * Side rear passenger:
 * Rollover:

Toyota Cavalier

As part of a wider effort to avoid additional restrictions on exports to the US, the third generation model was briefly sold in Japan by Toyota under an agreement with GM, badged as the Toyota Cavalier.

Aside from the fact that it was right hand drive, the Toyota Cavalier also featured a leather-wrapped shift knob, steering wheel and park brake lever, wider front fenders, taillights with amber turn signals for Japanese regulations, power folding side mirrors, side turn signal repeaters on the front fenders, and carpeting on the inside of the trunk lid. Interior seats were often flecked with color, and the rear seat had a fold-down armrest. Vehicles produced from February through December 1998 were available with a leather interior equipped with an automatic transmission only.

All models featured wheels borrowed from the Pontiac Sunfire. The Toyota Cavalier was available in 2.4G and 2.4Z trim levels. While all Chevrolet-badged Cavaliers received a facelift for 2000, the Toyota did as well with the updated center console, head-lights/hood/front bumper, taillights, and colors available. TRD made a body kit and rear wing for the Cavalier, available exclusively in Japan. The car was sold only at Toyota Store Japanese dealerships.

The Cavalier was not the only GM product sold in Japan; the Saturn S-series, also with right-hand-drive, was sold at Saturn dealerships (some former Isuzu dealerships) from 1996 until 2003, and some Toyota Vista Stores also retailed Saturns.

The Cavalier was entirely produced by GM in the US at the Lordstown Assembly location, and sold from 1995 to 2000. The 1996-2000 Toyota Cavaliers came equipped with the 2.4 L LD9 engine, while the 1995 used the 2.3 L Quad 4. Due to the engine displacement and width dimensions (1740 mm for the coupe, 1735 mm for the sedan) exceeding Japanese government regulations concerning exterior dimensions and maximum engine displacement, it was not considered a "compact" so it was sold as a "normal-class car" like the Toyota Mark II and Nissan Skyline. Prices for the coupe started at 2 million yen for the coupe, and 1.81 million yen for the sedan. the final Toyota Cavalier was imported in 2000.

The introduction of the Toyota Cavalier was not the first time the Cavalier was sold in Japan. Yanase Co., Ltd., a Japanese retail dealership that started importing European and North American vehicles soon after the end of World War II, sold various GM products including the Cavalier. When the decision was made to sell the Cavalier as a Toyota, this disrupted operations at Yanase. When the Toyota Cavalier was cancelled, Yanase continued to sell Chevrolet and other GM products. Yanase also provides complete maintenance services for all vehicles sold.

Due to higher than typically average vehicle inspection costs, a fair number of these vehicles are exported out of Japan as Japanese used cars, most notably to Australia and New Zealand. Production of the Toyota Cavalier ceased in June 2000. Despite Toyota making considerable efforts to sell the Cavalier on the domestic market, the Japanese public perceived the quality of workmanship to not be up to the standard typically expected of locally built cars. The car was also introduced while Japan was in a recession following the 1991 collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble or "bubble economy."

Motorsport
Kraft, a semi-factory supported Toyota team that competed in the All Japan Grand Touring Car Championship, raced a Toyota Cavalier in the GT300 class for the 1997 and 1998 seasons. The Cavalier GT300 car retained its front-wheel drive layout, but it was fitted with Bomex racing body and aerodynamic packages along with a 3S-GTE engine from a SW20 MR2 Turbo that was restricted to meet GT300's 300 horsepower limit.

Kraft debuted the Cavalier in the fourth round of the 1997 season as their second entry, accompanying the #6 Toyota MR2 (W20) that was racing full-time that year. Minoru Tanaka was signed as one of its drivers along with, one of the only seven female racing drivers in both JGTC and Super GT. The Cavalier only finished 16th in its debut at Fuji, but Tanaka and Sato brought home a fourth place finish in the next round at Mine. The results from Mine was enough for Tanaka and Sato to finish 17th in the standings. Sato was retained for the 1998 season and was joined by in the first round, Junko Mihara in the second round and Akira Watanabe for the remainder of the year. Sato and Watanabe scored three points finishes and finished 24th in that year's championship. It was to be the Cavalier's final year in JGTC as Kraft decided to replace it with a spaceframe Toyota AE86 for the 1999 season.

Production
Most Cavaliers were built at Lordstown Assembly, although they have also been produced at South Gate Assembly (1982 model year only), Lansing Car Assembly (1995-1998 coupes), Lansing Craft Centre (1995-2000 convertibles), Janesville Assembly, Ramos Arizpe Assembly, and Leeds Assembly. The Cavalier was discontinued in 2005.

Fourth generation (2016)

Chevrolet reintroduced the Cavalier name on a new China-only compact sedan below the Cruze, with the Chinese name being Chevrolet Kewozi (科沃兹). The Cavalier was introduced at the 2016 Chengdu Auto Show on September 2, 2016. It was developed on the same platform as the first generation Cruze, the Delta II platform, and uses the 1.5-liter four-cylinder engine that powers many compact GM models in China, including the Chevrolet Sail. Its pricing sets the Cavalier exactly between the smaller Sail and the more modern second generation Cruze. Deliveries started in September, with almost 10,000 units sold in its first month, but there are indications the Cavalier cannibalizes sales of the similarly priced first-generation Cruze, which continues to be sold in China. As of 2018, the fourth-generation Cavalier is also sold in Mexico with the same name, replacing the Chevrolet Sonic. There, the 1.5 L engine produces 107 hp and 104 lbft torque.

The Cavalier was updated for the 2020 model year for Mexico with minor changes, adding three new colors, new alloy design, four airbags and ABS brakes, three-point seatbelts, and stability control as well as minor changes to the interior for the LT trim line including a 7" with Chevrolet myLink and Smartphone Integration for Apple CarPlay. The 2020 Cavalier went on sale on 23 September 2019. In 2019, the car was discontinued in the Chinese domestic market after being replaced by the Chevrolet Monza (科鲁泽), although it continued to be built for export. The 科沃兹 (kewozi) name is now used on the Chevrolet Onix, which is positioned below the Monza.

Fifth generation (2021)

The fifth-generation Cavalier is marketed in Mexico since in late 2021 as a 2022 model. It is a rebadged version of the Chevrolet Monza sedan produced in China. Reflecting the new engine, it is marketed as the Cavalier Turbo. The engine is a 1,298 cc inline-four producing 161 hp and 170 lbft.

Engines

 * 1982 — 1.8 L OHV 2-barrel inline-4, 88 horsepower
 * mid 1982–1984 — 2.0 L OHV 2-barrel inline-4, 90 horsepower
 * 1983–1989 — 2.0 L OHV TBI inline-4, 86 horsepower (1983–1984), 88 horsepower (1985–1986), 90 horsepower (1987–89)
 * 1985–1989 — 2.8 L OHV MPFI V6, 120-130 horsepower (125 in 1985, 120 in 1986, 130 in 1987, 125 in 1988, and 130 in 1989)
 * 1990–1994 — 2.8 L OHV MPFI V6, 130 horsepower (Mexico and Venezuela only, *Colombia used a version of 116 hp.
 * 1990–1991 — 2.2 L OHV TBI inline-4, 95 hp
 * 1990–1994 — 3.1 L OHV MPFI V6, 140 hp
 * 1992–2002 — 2.2 L OHV MPFI L4, 110 horsepower (1992–93), 120 horsepower (1994–97, 1994 upgrade to SFI), 115 horsepower (1998–2002)
 * 1995 — 2.3 L DOHC MPFI Quad 4, 150 hp
 * 1996–2002 — 2.4 L DOHC SFI L4, 150 hp
 * 2002–2005 — 2.2 L DOHC Ecotec SFI L4, 140 hp

title: Chevrolet Cavalier


text:
Columbia College, Columbia University

Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college of Columbia University, a private Ivy League research university in New York City. Situated on the university's main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan, it was founded by the Church of England in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King George II of Great Britain. It is Columbia University's traditional undergraduate program, offering BA degrees, and is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States.

Columbia College is distinctive for its comprehensive Core Curriculum and is among the most selective of American colleges, with an admission rate of 3.85% in 2024.

History
Columbia College was founded as King's College in 1754 in the Province of New York by royal charter from King George II of Great Britain. Owing in part to the influence of the Church of England, a site was chosen for the new college within the churchyard of Trinity Church on Broadway opposite Wall Street in New York City. The college remained at this site for less than a decade.

The college chose Samuel Johnson to be its first president. He was also the college's first (and for a time only) professor. During this period, classes and examinations, both oral and written, were conducted entirely in Latin.

Park Place Campus
By 1760, Columbia had relocated from the Trinity Church site to one along Park Place, near the city commons and today's New York City Hall.

In 1767, Samuel Bard established a medical college at the school, now known as the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, which was the first medical school to grant the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree in America.

Due to the American Revolutionary War, instruction was suspended from 1776 until 1784, but by the beginning of the war, the college had already educated some of the nation's foremost political leaders, such as Alexander Hamilton, who served as military aide to General George Washington, initiated and authored most of The Federalist Papers, and served as the first Secretary of the Treasury; John Jay, author of several of the Federalist Papers and the first Chief Justice of the United States; Robert Livingston, one of the Committee of Five who drafted the Declaration of Independence; and Gouverneur Morris, one of the Committee of Detail who finished the last draft of the United States Constitution.

Hamilton's first experience with the military came while a student during the summer of 1775, after the outbreak of fighting at Boston. Along with Nicholas Fish, Robert Troup, and a group of other students from King's College, he joined a volunteer militia company called the "Hearts of Oak" and achieved the rank of Lieutenant. They adopted distinctive uniforms, complete with the words "Liberty or Death" on their hatbands, and drilled under the watchful eye of a former British officer in the graveyard of the nearby St. Paul's Chapel. In August 1775, while under fire from HMS Asia, the Hearts of Oak (the "Corsicans") participated in a successful raid to seize cannon from the Battery, becoming an artillery unit thereafter. Ironically, in 1776 Captain Hamilton would engage in the Battle of Harlem Heights, which took place on and around the site that would later become home to his alma mater more than a century later, only to be entombed after his dueling death some years later at the original home of King's College in Trinity Church yard.

With the successful Treaty of Paris in 1783, the domestic situation was stable enough for the college to resume classes in 1784. With the new nation's independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, the name of the institution was changed from King's College to Columbia College, the name by which the institution continues to be known today. The college was briefly chartered as a state institution, lasting only until 1787, when due to a lack of public financial support the school was permitted to incorporate under a private board of trustees. This 1787 charter remains in effect. The renamed and reorganized college, located in the new national capital under the Constitution and free from its association with the Church of England, received students from a variety of denominations as a response to its growing reputation as one of the finest institutions of higher learning in the new nation.

Midtown Campus
Columbia was located at its Park Place campus near New York City Hall for nearly a century, from approximately 1760 to 1857, at which point the college moved to 49th Street and Madison Avenue in Manhattan.

During the college's forty years at this third location, in addition to granting the Bachelor of Arts and Doctor of Medicine degrees, the faculties of the college were expanded to include the Columbia Law School (founded 1858), the Columbia School of Mines (founded 1864, now known as the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science). The Columbia School of Mines awarded the first Ph.D. from Columbia in 1875.

At this time, Columbia College was now not only the name of the original undergraduate college founded as King's College, but it also encompassed all of the other colleges and schools of the institution. (Though technically known as the "School of Arts", the undergraduate division was often called "The College proper" to avoid confusion.) After Seth Low became president of Columbia College in 1890, he advocated the division of the individual schools and colleges into their own semi-autonomous entities under the central administration of the university. The complexity of managing the institution had been further increased when Barnard College for Women became affiliated with Columbia in 1889 followed by Teachers College of Columbia University in 1891. Also by this time, graduate faculties issuing the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in philosophy, political science, and the natural sciences had also developed.

Thus, in 1896, the trustees of Columbia College, under the guidance of Seth Low, approved a new name for the university as a whole, Columbia University in the City of New York. At this point, the name Columbia College returned to being used solely to refer to the original undergraduate college, founded as King's College in 1754 and renamed Columbia College in 1784.

Move to Morningside Heights
In addition to reclaiming the identity of Columbia College and making it the focus of the newly rearranged Columbia University, Low was also responsible for the monumental relocation of the university to its current location atop a hill in Morningside Heights in uptown Manhattan. A tract for the campus was purchased, which extended from 114th St. to 120th St. between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue.

Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White was selected to design the new campus, which was to be patterned after the buildings of the Italian Renaissance. While most American universities at this point had followed more medieval and Gothic styles of architecture, the neoclassical style of the new Columbia University campus was meant to reflect the institution's roots in the Enlightenment and the spirit of intellectual discovery of the period. Columbia College and Columbia University as a whole relocated to the new campus in 1897.

The academic history of traditions of Columbia College clearly had their beginnings in the classical education of the Enlightenment, and in this mold, the college's famous Core Curriculum was officially recognized and codified in 1919 with John Erskine's first seminar on the great books of the western tradition. Also in 1919, a course, War and Peace, was required of all Columbia College students in addition to the Great Books Honors Seminar.

During the 1960s, Columbia College, like many others across the United States, experienced unrest and turmoil due to the ongoing civil rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War. On April 23, 1968, more than 1,000 students forcefully occupied five campus buildings in protest to the proposed expansion of the university's campus into Morningside Park and to protest the university's sponsorship of classified military research. University officials wished to build new gymnasium facilities in the park, which, while located directly adjacent to the university, is separated by a steep cliff. Plans to create separate entrances for students and local residents was the primary objection of the student protesters to the proposed expansion plan. A fence at the site was torn down, and police arrested one student, whose release became one of the demands of the protest. After five days, the functions of the university were brought to a halt, and early on the morning of April 30 the students were forcibly removed by the New York City Police Department. As a result of the student protests, the university president Grayson L. Kirk retired, classified research projects on campus were abruptly ended, long-standing ROTC programs were expelled, and the proposed expansion plans were canceled. The university experienced financial difficulties throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, and admissions standards in the college slightly relaxed to hasten the diversification of the student body following the 1968 protests. Paralleling a national trend after 1970, Columbia classes in the 1970s and 1980s, earned lower SAT scores than did Columbia students in the late 1960s. The scores were, however, similar to other Ivy schools except Harvard, Yale, and Princeton—a position not acceptable to Columbia's ambitious administration.

After two committees reported in 1980 and 1981 that the all-male college's competitiveness with other Ivy League universities was decreasing, women were admitted in 1983. The median SAT score of the class of 1991 was the highest since the early 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, the college experienced a drastic increase in gifts and endowment growth, propelling it from the periphery to the forefront of a university historically dominated by its graduate & professional schools. During the leadership of university presidents Michael Sovern and George Erik Rupp, many of Columbia College's facilities were extensively expanded and renovated. The number of residence halls was increased to accommodate all Columbia College students for all four years of the undergraduate education. Hamilton Hall, the primary academic building of Columbia College has undergone extensive renovations, and the college's athletic facilities, located at Baker Field Athletics Complex on Manhattan's far northern tip at 218th Street, were renovated and expanded.

Admissions
Like other elite schools, Columbia has been attracting ever higher numbers of applicants, with a trend towards applicants appling to more than seven different institutions – an increasingly "scattershot approach" when compared to applications in the 1990s. Columbia College (including Columbia Engineering) has an admittance rate that places it among the most selective of American colleges. For the fall term of 2010, there were 26,178 applicants for 2,397 placements in the Class of 2014, for an acceptance rate of 9.16%. By the fall term of 2024, applications had more than doubled, with 60,248 applicants for 2,319 placements in the Class of 2028, for an acceptance rate of 3.85%.

Academics
Columbia College has long been known for its rigorous Core Curriculum, a series of mandatory classes and distribution requirements that form the heart of Columbia College students' academic experience.

Students are also required to pass a swimming test before receiving their diploma. The foreign language requirement, however, may be skipped if the student passes a placement exam or demonstrates requisite proficiency. Most students graduate within four years with a Bachelor of Arts degree.

Campus

Most of the college's facilities are located on Columbia University's Morningside Heights campus, especially in Hamilton Hall, which houses its administrative and admissions offices, as well as the directors of the Core Curriculum.

Butler Library, Columbia University's main library, is home to more than 2 million volumes of the university's humanities collection. The facility recently underwent an extensive four-year renovation, including the creation of a new wing, named Philip L. Milstein Family College Library in honor of its donor. Included is a specialized collection of approximately 100,000 volumes containing subject matter in history, literature, philosophy, and the social sciences specifically intended to complement the Columbia College curriculum. The collection of the Columbia University Libraries consists of more than 9.2 million volumes held in 25 specialized libraries as well as a digital library, however Columbia College students do not have unlimited access to all specialized libraries.

Students at Columbia College are guaranteed campus housing for four years. Residence halls, which also house undergraduate students of Columbia's engineering school, are either located on the Morningside Heights main campus or within 10 blocks of the 116th Street entrance. First-year students are housed on the main quad in John Jay, Carman, Wallach, Hartley and Furnald Halls.

The two main dining facilities are John Jay Dining Hall and Ferris Booth Commons; all freshmen are required to have a full meal plan. Other school dining facilities available on the Morningside Heights campus are located in the recently remodeled student center, Alfred Lerner Hall, Faculty House, and Uris Hall.

Governance
In 2011, after the resignation of Michele Moody-Adams, James Valentini replaced her as Dean of Columbia College. The students of Columbia College elect the Columbia College Student Council (CCSC) to serve as their primary representative, advocate, and liaison to the Columbia University community, including its administration, faculty, alumni and students, as well as to the public.

The college's board of visitors is an independent and self-governing advisory body composed of college alumni and parents. The board advocates for the interest of the college among the Columbia community, New York city and beyond. It also provides advice to the dean in identifying and addressing both immediate challenges and short-and long-term opportunities for the college. Members of the board currently include ZhenFund CEO Anna Fang, JP Morgan Chase global head of research Joyce Chang, Virtu Financial CEO Doug Cifu, Academy Award-winning producer Dede Gardner, former NYC Commissioner for Consumer and Worker Protection Peter Hatch, USRowing Chairman and president Nobuhisa Ishizuka, HEICO co-president Eric Mendelson, Sixth Street Partners co-founder Vijay Mohan, Warner Bros. General Counsel John Rogovin, Morgan Stanley's global head of technology Robert Rooney, HNA Group CEO Tan Xiangdong, former FTC Commissioner Mozelle W. Thompson, Happy Family CEO Shazi Visram, and hedge fund manager William von Mueffling.

Former members of the board count among them PBS president Lawrence K. Grossman, Thomson Reuters CEO Tom Glocer, hedge fund manager Mark E. Kingdon, Bain Capital co-managing partner Jonathan Lavine, Univision CFO Frank Lopez-Balboa, airline investor Frank Lorenzo, real estate developer Philip L. Milstein, H.I.G. Capital founder Sami Mnaymneh, KKR executive Alex Navab, C-SPAN co-founder Robert Rosencrans, Tishman Speyer CEO Rob Speyer, healthcare entrepreneur Daniel E. Straus.

List of Deans of Columbia College

 * 1) 1896–1910 John Howard Van Amringe
 * 2) 1910–1917 Frederick Paul Keppel
 * 3) 1918–1943 Herbert Hawkes
 * 4) 1943–1950 Harry J. Carman
 * 5) 1950–1958 Lawrence Henry Chamberlain
 * 6) 1958–1962 John Gorham Palfrey
 * 7) 1963–1967 David B. Truman
 * 8) 1967–1968 Henry S. Coleman (interim)
 * 9) 1968–1972 Carl Hovde
 * 10) 1972–1976 Peter Pouncey
 * 11) 1976–1977 Robert L. Belknap (acting)
 * 12) 1977–1982 Arnold Collery
 * 13) 1982–1989 Robert Pollack
 * 14) 1989–1993 Jack Greenberg
 * 15) 1993–1995 Steven Marcus
 * 16) 1995–2009 Austin Quigley
 * 17) 2009–2011 Michele Moody-Adams
 * 18) 2011–2022 James J. Valentini
 * 19) 2022–Present Josef Sorett

Noted people
Many eminent individuals have attended or taught at Columbia College or King's College, its predecessor.

Among those College alumni categorized as "remarkable" by the university during its 250th anniversary celebrations in 2004 were Founding Fathers of the United States Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and Gouverneur Morris (author of Preamble to the U.S. Constitution, "We, The People"). Other political figures in this group include statesman and educator Nicholas Murray Butler, New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, U.S. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, South African anti-apartheid leader Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Chinese diplomat Wellington Koo, many New York City mayors, including Seth Low and John Purroy Mitchel, as well as spymaster William Joseph Donovan.

Academics listed include philosophers Mortimer Adler and Irwin Edman, historians Jacques Barzun and Alfred Thayer Mahan, economist Arthur Burns, paleontologist Niles Eldredge, drama scholar Brander Matthews, art historian Meyer Schapiro and literary critic Lionel Trilling.

Public intellectuals and journalists, including broadcaster Roone Arledge, social critic Randolph Bourne, environmentalist Barry Commoner, and writers like Henry Demarest Lloyd and Norman Podhoretz are also prominent on the list. Major publishers included were Alfred Knopf, Arthur Sulzberger, and Bennett Cerf. Rabbi Stephen Wise is also considered prominent.

Columbia College graduates recognized in the arts include pianist Emanuel Ax, actor James Cagney, musician Art Garfunkel, composers Richard Rodgers and John Corigliano, lyricists Oscar Hammerstein II and Lorenz Hart, playwrights Samuel Spewack, Tony Kushner and Terrence McNally, writers Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Herman Wouk, John Berryman, Thomas Merton, Clement Clarke Moore, Ben Coes, and Clifton Fadiman, screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz, filmmaker Joseph Mankiewicz, sculptor Isamu Noguchi, and violinist Gil Shaham.

Architects James Renwick Jr., Robert A.M. Stern, engineer William Barclay Parsons, baseball player Lou Gehrig, football player Sid Luckman, and business leader John Kluge were also Columbia College students.

Additionally, highly visible former Columbia College students in recent years include former President Barack Obama, former United States Attorney General William Barr, and former Attorneys General Michael Mukasey and Eric Holder, New York Governor David Paterson, New Hampshire Senator Judd Gregg, former New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti, Texas Congressman Beto O'Rourke, New York Congressman Jerry Nadler, Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves, political advisor and commentator George Stephanopoulos, actors Maggie Gyllenhaal, Jake Gyllenhaal, Anna Paquin, Casey Affleck, Amanda Peet, Matthew Fox, Timothée Chalamet, George Segal, Julia Stiles, Cinta Laura, and Kate McKinnon, radio personality Max Kellerman, directors Jim Jarmusch, Brian De Palma and Bill Condon, television showrunners Jenji Kohan and Beau Willimon, writer Paul Auster, historian Eric Foner, and the chart-topping alt-rock band Vampire Weekend.

Among its graduates and attendees, Columbia College can count at least 16 Nobel Prize winners, 8 Emmy Award winners, 8 Tony Award winners, over 20 Academy Award winners, and 40 Pulitzer Prize winners.

title: Columbia College, Columbia University


text:
Bor, Serbia

Bor (Бор; Bor) is a city and the administrative center of the Bor District in the Timok Valley in eastern Serbia. According to the 2022 census, the city administrative area has a population of 40,845 inhabitants.(According to the 2011 census, there were 48,615 inhabitants.)

Bor has one of the largest copper mines in Europe – RTB Bor. It has been a mining center since 1904, when a French company began operations there. With 760 residential buildings, it presents the highest ration of urban area to number of citizens in the country, and is one of top-five cities in Serbia by number of buildings.

Name
The name is derived from the Serbian word  (Бор), meaning "pine".

Geography
Bor, situated in the eastern part of Serbia, is distinguished by its diverse geographical features. The town is bordered by the Kriveljska River, and in its vicinity lies Bor Lake, a scenic reservoir that adds to the town's natural beauty and serves as a recreational area.

Not far from Bor, Brestovac Spa attracts visitors with its healing mineral waters, providing a tranquil setting for wellness and relaxation.

The surrounding landscape is framed by the Carpathian Mountains, contributing to the town's picturesque surroundings. Among these, Stol Mountain and Crni Vrh, stands as a notable peak, offering panoramic views and outdoor recreational opportunities.

Incorporating Bor Lake, Brestovac Spa, and the Carpathian Mountains, including Stol Mountain, Veliki Krš and Mali Krš as well, into its geographical narrative, Bor presents a diverse and captivating environment for residents and tourists to explore.

Climate
Bor has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb) with pleasantly warm summers, cold winters and uniformly distributed precipitation throughout the year

Flora and fauna
The Lazar's Canyon is home to several rare plants – Crimean pine, relic species of Taxus and Serbian ramonda, and animals like Chamois, Golden eagles, and Peregrine falcons.

History
In 1835, Miloš Obrenović invited J.G. Herder offspring August to the Bor region to carry out geological investigations.

Đorđe Vajfert invested in exploration and sought foreign capital to initiate industrial exploitation. Managing to obtain support for this endeavour, he signed a contract with Mirabaud, and his Compagnie française des mines de Bor was established on 30 September 1903 in Paris.

On 27 March 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia. Führer’s directive No. 25 mentioned that possession of the Bor copper mines were very important, which covered 50 percent of the copper requirement of Nazi Germany's war industry until 1944. Since 1941 to 1944, Hungarian forced laborers of Jewish origin were gradually deported to this area, at least 6,000 Hungarians were used as Kapos. In May 1943, the total number of inmates (excluding Kapos) came to about 23,000 forced laborers from Serbia.

On 3 September 1944, a column of about 3,000 Kapos left the camp under supreme command of Horthy task forces and marched over a pontoon bridge between Smederovo and Požarevac to  Baja via Pančevo. Hungarian forces were supported by regional paramilitary operation echelon Deutsche Mannschaft including Banater Staatswache unit.

On 16 September, a second column of 3,000 Kapos left the camp under supreme command of SS-Polizei-Gebirgsjäger-Regiment Nr. 18 on the same route to Baja. In Pančevo, supreme command had been taken over by paramilitary operation echelon Deutsche Mannschaft and Volksdeutsche Ordnungspolizei. During both marches, exhausted prisoners were murdered by the roadside.

In Baja arrived, prisoners were either used to build the German South-east wall or transported by train to concentration camps such as Auschwitz.

Some Danube Swabian officials including family members also took the opportunity to escape by train from Baja. During both forced marches, there were several attacks carried out by Yugoslavian Partisans south of Danube river. Meanwhile, some prisoners took the opportunity to flee to the partisans and thus found life-saving protection. Notable Kapos from both death marches were people like Gyula Trebitsch, and Miklós Radnóti.

In 1947, Bor received urban status from the political authorities. At the time its population was 11,000.

In June 2018, Bor gained the status of a city, along with Prokuplje.

Settlements
Aside from the city proper area, the city includes the following settlements:

 * Brestovac
 * Bučje
 * Gornjane
 * Donja Bela Reka
 * Zlot
 * Krivelj
 * Luka
 * Metovnica
 * Oštrelj
 * Slatina
 * Tanda
 * Topla
 * Šarbanovac

Demographics
According to the 1910, 1931 and 1971 censuses, the inhabitants of the urban area of Bor numbered 2,613 in 1910, 4,749 in 1931 and 29,118 residents in 1971. According to the 2011 census, the population of Bor numbered 48,615 residents, while the urban area of Bor had 34,160 residents.

Ethnic groups
With a total of 32 different ethnic groups being represented among the population, Bor is one of the most ethnically mixed cities in Serbia. According to the 2011 census, the settlements in the city of Bor with a Serbian ethnic majority were: Bor, Brestovac, Donja Bela Reka, and Oštrelj. The settlements with an ethnic Romanian majority were: Bučje, Gornjane, Krivelj, Luka, Metovnica, Tanda, Topla, and Šarbanovac. Ethnically mixed settlements were: Zlot (relative Serb majority) and Slatina (relative Romanian majority).

The ethnic composition of the city:

Ethnic groups in Bor include Serbs, Romanians, Roma, Macedonians, Albanians, Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Gorani, Bunjevci, Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Croatians, Slovenians, Hungarians, ethnic Muslims, Germans, Greeks, Slovaks, Russians, Rusyns, Chinese, Ukrainians, Italians, Turks, Ashkali, Czechs, Poles, Jews, Canadians, and Belarusians.

Economy

Copper mining, mainly by the biggest employer Zijin Bor Copper, is the key basis of Bor's economy. On 31 August 2018, a Chinese mining company Zijin Mining took over 63% of the shares of the company RTB Bor, in a $1.26 billion deal with the Government of Serbia. A few Canadian companies operated in Bor, like Nevsun Resources, Dundee, Rakita and Avala resources, while the new smelter and sulfuric acid plant for RTB Bor were built by Canada's SNC Lavalin. Many companies from Canada, led to Canadians settling in the city and thus formed a new ethnic group in Bor. Apart from mining, some other companies that operate in Bor are Messer Tehnogas AD, Wolong ATB FOD, IT Center Bor, Metalka, Keramika Bor etc. In 2018, the average gross monthly wage in the city of Bor was US$750 (€643, 76078 RSD, 5115 CNY, 4627 Turkish liras) - as of May 2018.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Education and science
Today there are five elementary schools in the city and tree in the villages nearby:

 * 1) Elementary school "Dušan Radović" (Bor)
 * 2) Elementary school "3. Oktobar" (Bor)
 * 3) Elementary school "Branko Radičević" (Bor)
 * 4) Elementary school "Sveti Sava" (Bor)
 * 5) Elementary school "Vuk Karadžić" (Bor)
 * 6) Elementary school "Petar Radovanović" (Zlot)
 * 7) Elementary school "Đura Jakšić" (Krivelj)
 * 8) Elementary school "Stanoje Miljković" (Brestovac)
 * 9) Elementary music school "Miodrag Vasiljević" (Bor)
 * 10) Elementary and High School for special education "Vidovdan" (Bor)

Four public and one private High School:

 * 1) Grammer school "Bora Stanković" (Bor)
 * 2) Mechanical High School (Bor)
 * 3) Technical High School (Bor)
 * 4) Economic High School (Bor)
 * 5) "Dositej" Academy - School of Medicine (Bor)

Bor has a faculty of University of Belgrade, which is the only faculty that belongs to the University of Belgrade but is outside of the Belgrade. The Technical Faculty of Bor is a faculty of the University of Belgrade, with a tradition dating back to 1961. The Faculty was accredited as a scientific-research organisation in the area of technical-technological science in 2007. So far, 1,804 students graduated from this faculty, in addition to 18 students that completed specialist studies, 122 master studies, and 70 students that defended doctoral theses.

 * 1) Technical faculty of Bor, University of Belgrade
 * 2) Technical and mechanical engineering college Trstenik (department)

Mining and Metallurgy Institute Bor
Bor's Institute is dedicated to scientific-research projects in geology, mining, metallurgy, and technology. It enhances technological infrastructure in the region and local governments, specializing in mining research, material processing, and environmental protection. The Institute provides expertise, pre-investment and investment studies, and documentation for projects in geology, mining, metallurgy, technology, and environmental protection, including waste recycling.

Healthcare
Healthcare in Bor, a city in Serbia, faces unique challenges associated with significant air pollution resulting from mining activities. The city's industrial landscape, dominated by mining operations, has led to environmental concerns and, consequently, health issues for its residents.

Historical Context: The roots of healthcare in Bor trace back to the early 20th century when the city faced the impact of air pollution due to mining activities. Recognizing the pressing need for specialized medical care, the first healthcare institution in the city was established as a hospital for respiratory diseases in the 1930s. Over time, this hospital evolved into a general hospital, adapting to the changing healthcare needs of the community.

General Hospital's Evolution: Originally established to address respiratory diseases resulting from air pollution, the General Hospital in Bor has played a crucial role in adapting to the evolving health landscape. From its origins as a hospital for pulmonary diseases, it has expanded its services to cover a wide range of medical specialties, becoming a cornerstone in providing comprehensive healthcare to the community.

Air Pollution Challenges and Protest Dynamics: The city of Bor has witnessed a surge in protests fueled by the alarming levels of air pollution. The public outcry, coupled with extensive media coverage, reflects the urgency of addressing environmental issues. Residents, concerned about their well-being, have taken to the streets to demand immediate action and accountability from both industrial entities and the local government.

Health Impact and Cancer Rates: According to a report from the Institute of Public Health "Milan Jovanovic Batut" of Serbia, a staggering 25 percent of the population is reported to be grappling with some form of cancer. These concerning statistics underscore the severe health consequences of prolonged exposure to high levels of air pollution. The pressing need for comprehensive healthcare interventions and preventative measures is evident in the face of these alarming figures.

Lack of Government Action: Despite the widespread protests and escalating health concerns, there is a perceived lack of decisive action on the part of the local government. The absence of robust measures to curb pollution and address the health crisis has fuelled frustration within the community, intensifying the call for urgent and effective intervention.

Healthcare in Bor remains entwined with the ongoing struggle against air pollution. The city's healthcare institutions continue to adapt, emphasizing the critical interplay between environmental factors, public health, and the imperative for swift, collaborative solutions.

Movies
Many films have been produced in Bor. Because of that, the city has the nickname "Boriwood". Serbian and international movies produced in Bor include Tears for Sale, Tilva Roš, White White World, Man Is Not a Bird, Winning of Freedom, On the Road to Katanga, Saga o tri nevina muškarca, Save Our Souls, Volja sinovljeva, and Vivegam.

Sports

Bor Sports Center (Спортски центар Бор/Sportski centar Bor) is an indoor sporting arena. The capacity of the arena is 3,000 people in the seating area, and 4,500 in the ground level area. The Bor Skate Plaza is the first and the biggest skate park in the Balkans. It is located next to the Karting circuit and Bor Sports Center. It is opened in 2012. Next to the Bor Skate Plaza is the Karting circuit that was built in the same year. Near to them is the stadium "4. kilometer" and Bor Hippodrome.

One of the most famous clubs in the city is FK Bor football club, which spent several seasons in Yugoslavia's top division, the Yugoslav First League, participating in the European Cup Winners Cup in the season of 1968/69, and played in the national Cup Finale in season 1967/1968 against Crvena Zvezda.

FK Bor is currently part of Bor District league, which is the Fifth tier league in Serbia, while another city club, FK Slatina Bor, is in Zone League East, the fourth-level football league in Serbia. In the season 2018–2019, three clubs from Bor will take part in the top level national league competitions. ZKK Bor will play in the First Women's Basketball League of Serbia, ZJRK Bor in Serbian First League of Handball for Women, while American football team Golden Bears Bor is in the top-level American Football League of Serbia.

Under the auspices of the Public Utility "Sportski Centar Bor" is the Bor Airport, with a paved runway, where traditional sport air show "Fly in" used to be held.

Bor has hosted 2013 EBSA European Under-21 Snooker Championship.

Tourism
The city of Bor has a number of tourist destinations:

Borsko jezero (Bor Lake) is a tourist attraction for domestic and foreign tourists, and it is less than 20 km away from the city center. It is popular in the summer, when the water temperature reaches 25 °C (77 °F) and it has two beaches. There is a bus line from the city center and back, during the summer.

Crni Vrh is a mountain 30 km from the city center. Highest peak has an elevation of 1,043 m (3,422 ft) above sea level. It has several ski tracks anda ski lift. The main ski track is 1,100 m long and has height span of 260 m. Just 16 km from the city center there is another mountain Stol. Its highest peak has an elevation of 1,156 meters above sea level. Like nearby Veliki Krš and Mali Krš, Stol has a number of pronounced karst formations. It is also a destination for mountaineering. It has a ski lift and ski trails. Mountain Rtanj in Boljevac municipality is 50 km away from Bor.

The Lazareva Pećina, which translates to Lazar's Cave, is the longest explored cave in Serbia. It is located 21 km from the city center. According to 2012's Recent Landform Evolution: The Carpatho-Balkan-Dinaric Region, the cave is 9407 m long. The cave is situated near the entrance of the deep canyon carved into the mountains by the river Zlotska. Bogovina cave is also near Bor, just about 30 km away.

Lazar's Canyon is located at about 10 kilometers from Bor. This is the deepest and longest canyon in eastern Serbia. Because of its steep rocky cliffs, the canyon has not yet been fully examined. Passing through canyon it is a real adventure, at times quite challenging and arduous. In many places it is necessary to clamber over the rocks.

Brestovac Spa is one of oldest spas in Serbia, located just 8 km from the city center. Health treatment are done with slightly sulphurous and oligomineral water with temperature of 20 to 41 °C. The Spa is for treatment and curing diseases and injuries to the muscles and bones. Especially relevant cured diseases are degenerative rheumatic diseases, rheumatoid and psoriatic arthritis, swelling and pain. And also chronic joint diseases, muscle disorders lumbago – lower back pain. More gynecological diseases, upper respiratory mucous membrane inflammation, skin conditions, increased diuresis, low level of stomach acid, digestive tract diseases. Furthermore, kidney diseases and nerve diseases. Water is rich with potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, iodine, sulfate and also carbonate. Ways of treatment are drinking and bathing.

The Residence of Prince Miloš (Serbian: Конак кнеза Милоша/Konak kneza Miloša) is a royal residence in the Brestovac Spa.

Bor zoo (Serbian: Борски зоолошки врт), is a zoo located in Bor, Serbia. It was founded in 2011, and it is one of four zoos in Serbia and is also considered to be one of the most attractive public zoos in southeastern Europe. The zoo covers an area of 2.5 hectares (6.17 acres) and holds about 140 animals representing more than 70 different wild and exotic species of animals as well as domestic and indigenous ones.

Park Museum is an "open museum" located from the city center, and through the main streets "Mose Pijade" and "Zeleni bulevar" with mining exhibits. It is possible to see them from a vehicle or from a sidewalk.

Paragliding is popular in this part of Serbia, and there are several locations used for this sport near Bor, such as mountains Crni Vrh and Stol.

Politics
In the municipality of Bor, there were 40,661 eligible citizens that were able to vote in the local election. The local City Election Commission stated that the turnout was 61.2%. The Serbian Progressive Party won 15 seats, while the coalition led by the People's Party won 6 seats. The Socialist Party of Serbia and Vlach Party "Bridge" both won four seats, while the coalition led by the Party of Freedom and Justice won three seats. The Dveri–POKS coalition, Fighters for Bor, and Loud for the Youth each won one seat.

Local media

 * Newspapers:
 * Timočke "Тимочке"
 * Borski problem (Weekly magazine)
 * Kolektiv "Лист Колектив"

 * Social media and Internet media:
 * Solaris media
 * Ist media
 * Bor Info
 * Bor 030
 * Medija centar

 * Radio stations:
 * Klik FM (99.5)
 * Radio Antena (101.6)
 * Radio Bor (103.1)

 * TV stations:

 * Radio television Bor

Notable people

 * Vane Bor (1908-1993) surrealist artist.
 * Đorđe Vajfert (1850–1937), first owner of mines and donator of Saint George's Church.
 * Samu Borovszky (1860–1912), historian and editor-in-chief of works on the counties of the Kingdom of Hungary; his surname can be translated as The Boronnese (people from Bor).
 * Tanja Ćirov (1981–), was a Bulgarian - Serbian female professional basketball player, former Bulgarian national team player.
 * Nikola Ležaić (1981–), Serbian film director/screenwriter/film producer.
 * Boriša Đorđević (1953–), Serbian retired football player, winner of European Cup with Hamburger SV in 1982–1983 season, Bundesliga champion two times, and Yugoslav champion with Hajduk Split. Former national team player of Yugoslavia.
 * Ivan Gvozdenović (1978–), Serbian retired football defender who currently works as a manager.
 * Branislav Mihajlović (1953–), member of the National Assembly of Serbia, and leader of "Enough is enough" association.
 * Nikola Šainović (1948–), Prime Minister of Serbia from 1993 to 1994 and the minister of Energy and Mining of Serbia and the Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia from 1991 to 1993.
 * Bobana Veličković (1990–2020), Serbian female sport shooter, competed at Summer Olympics in 2012 and 2016.
 * Teya Dora (1992-), the singer of "Džanum", a song that became very popular worldwide due to the social platform TikTok, was born in Bor.

Twin towns and sister cities
Bor is twinned with:
 * 🇲🇪 Bar, Montenegro
 * 🇫🇷 Le Creusot, France
 * 🇺🇦 Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine
 * Kitwe, Zambia
 * Kriva Palanka, North Macedonia
 * 🇨🇳 Shanghang County, China
 * Vulcan, Romania
 * 🇧🇬 Vratsa, Bulgaria

title: Bor, Serbia


text:
Talk:C dynamic memory allocation

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"heap", "free store", etc.
Neither C90 nor C99 nor C11 nor C18 appear to indicate that there is a given region containing all memory allocated by malloc, calloc, realloc, or aligned_alloc. For example, an implementation could, conceivably, allocate objects larger than the page size used by the OS from one region of the address space, by rounding up the size to a multiple of a page size and allocating n/page_size pages aligned on a page boundary, and could allocate smaller objects from a separate pool of memory. (If I remember correctly, the Darwin memory allocator works that way.)

So allocating from a "heap" is best thought of as meaning "these allocations come from one or more places, and all of those places, considered together, constitute a 'heap'".

Note also that none of those standards use the term "heap".

(The term "heap" predates both C and Unix; it dates back at least as far as Algol 68, the Report for which says, in section 5.2.2 "Generators", that

"The use of a local-generator implies (with most implementations) the reservation of storage on a run-time stack, whereas heap-generators imply the reservation of storage in another region, termed the "heap", in which garbage-collection techniques may be used for storage retrieval. Since this is less efficient, local-generators are preferable; this is why only LOC may be omitted from sample-generators of variable-declarations."

In an answer to a StackOverflow question "What is the origin of the term 'heap' for the free store?", somebody notes that even K&R, Second Edition, didn't use the term "heap":

"N.B. I don't think it's right to blame C, as neither K&R (2nd Ed) nor the C standard say "heap" anywhere. The C++ standard only uses heap to mean the data structure, and refers to the source of dynamic memory as "the freestore"."

So perhaps neither "free store" nor "freestore" nor "heap" should be used here, as this is about C.

As for C++, C++2017 uses the phrase "free store" in three places:

 * on page 1, it says "In addition to the facilities provided by C, C++ provides additional data types, classes, templates, exceptions, namespaces, operator overloading, function name overloading, references, free store management operators, and additional library facilities.", where I assume "free store management operators" means new and delete;
 * section 15.5 "Free store", on pages 289 to 291, uses it in the section title but doesn't seem to say what "free store" is;
 * the index has, on page 1518, an entry "free store, see also new, delete, 289".

So I'm not even sure what should be said about C++.

(Darwin also offers a set of "zone" routines that take a malloc_zone_t * as an argument, where a "zone" is allocated with malloc_create_zone and destroyed, along with everything allocated in it, with malloc_destroy_zone. malloc_default_zone returns the zone from which malloc etc. allocate memory, so, at least on Darwin, I guess you could say that stuff is allocated from a "zone".

However, none of that is a reason to use "zone" here, unless it's commonly used in platforms that aren't Darwin-based.) Guy Harris (talk) 06:29, 27 July 2022 (UTC)

India Education Program course assignment
This article was the subject of an educational assignment supported by Wikipedia Ambassadors through the India Education Program.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 19:56, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

It is the compiler not glibc
The article says that glibc limits allocation up to 2^(CHAR_BIT * sizeof(ptrdiff_t) - 1) - 1. This is a compiler limitation, GCC generates non-sense (by design cannot deal with objects bigger than ptrdiff_t) for any allocation over that value, clang DCEs the code because "it can never  succeed".. 181.160.10.238 (talk) 22:23, 4 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:C dynamic memory allocation


text:
Talk:Malayalam

Inaccurate translation
From where is the Malayalam translation of the introduction to the Declaration of Human Rights sourced? The English text does not match the Malayalam text and means something slightly different. Words like 'antas' are inappropriate there. Indielov (talk) 15:58, 7 April 2022 (UTC)

 * i dont remember the exact website but its the common translation, see ml wiki for eg https://ml.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/അന്താരാഷ്ട്ര_മനുഷ്യാവകാശ_പ്രഖ്യാപനം AleksiB 1945 (talk) 08:06, 13 August 2023 (UTC)

Repeated vandalising edits by certain IP addresses
Hello     , IP address 150.129.101.116 is repeatedly removing sourced content and including content that fits their views. You can compare the following for a sample - https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malayalam&type=revision&diff=1091151253&oldid=1091128793. Such vandalism is being repeated by many other IP addresses and unfortunately some users too. Request you to block such users and help the true Wiki community. Thanks in advance! NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 12:22, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

Hello       The neutrality of this article called Malayalam is disputed. It is constantly being edited by some people with vested agendas to misinform the readers. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malayalam&type=revision&diff=1091151253&oldid=1091128793 The edit carried out in this sample is not vandalism. It is based on a sentence from the first volume of the book written by Robert Caldwell that Mr. has quoted there. The source clearly mention the points stated in that sentence. Still that edit has been reverted citing Vandalism. This article is highly misinformed by fake references added by some users. Please go through the previous user contributions of Mr. Nitin Bhargava. The user has added many unsourced misinformations in the articles Wayanad district and History of Wayanad such that the Malayalam speaking people migrated to Wayanad after 1800 and and it was full of Kannada people etc,. The sources he quoted never verify this unfounded claim. Some Malayalis (Syrian Christians) from Kottayam district have migrated into Wayanad during 1940-1970 period (Read Malabar migration.) However most of the Malayalam speakers in Wayanad were natives and it is found in all of the census right from 1871. Most of the region of Wayanad was always ruled by some tribal dynasties such as Vedas and Malayalam dynasties such as "Kurumbranad". There were Kannadigas in a few villages bordering Karnataka as seen in the 1951 census. In most of the villages, Kannada percentage is zero. I can provide you all the references for the above statements from credible sources. However some parts of Wayanad had been under Kannada kingdoms for sometime. Why does Mr. Nithin Bhargava add long sourceless statements like "Wayanad eventually became part of Kerala despite its geographical delimitations and political descent in 1956 on State’s reorganisation. Even now there is a considerable Kannada speaking population and the reminiscence of centuries old Karnataka rule is omnipresent in Wayanad. Agriculture Cultivation started broadly after 1900 A.D onwards. The British authorities opened up the plateau to cultivation of tea and other cash crops by constructing roads across the dangerous slopes of Wayanad, to Kozhikode and Thalassery. Later, they extended these new roads to the cities of Mysore and Ooty through Gudalur. Settlers emigrated from all parts of Kerala and the fecund lands proved a veritable goldmine with incredible yields of cash crops" in the article "History of Wayanad"? Settlers didn't emigrate from all parts of Kerala. Some people emigrated from Pala in Kottayam district. They emigrated to the hilly regions of Malabar, not only to Wayanad. Similarly Wayanad wasn't a district in 1957. It was a part of Malabar district (Malayalam district). It was the Malabar district that was added to Kerala. The above statements in the article "History of Wayanad" are just some opinions of the editor without any reference though it contains some half-truths. But the other half is lie. Malayalam rule was also there in the region called Wayanad from 12th century CE until the British Raj. I can give Mr. Nitin credible references. Also the settlers from Kottayam district didn't come to gold mines as Mr. Nitin have claimed there without any reference. Similarly the same author have stated in the article Attappadi that it was Kannada speaking area which is unfounded. Attappadi even doesn't have border with Karnataka. Attappad is inhabited by some tribes who speak the "Irula language", which is classified under Tamil languages. The Western Ghats area was originally inhabited by many tribes who spoke languages like Irula, Paniya, Kurichya, Badaga, Malayaraya, Yerava, etc,... 150.129.101.103 (talk) 11:21, 13 June 2022 (UTC)

Malayalam similarity with other languages
I see some words in the Russian language which are very similar to Malayalam (words in the Russian patriot song "Svyashchennaya Voyna" - even the first word of the title of this song IS Malayalam). Even more intriguing is that there are words in South American languages that bear similarity to Malayalam. For example, the Aymara people of Bolivia sounds a lot like the Iyer people of Kerala / Tamilnadu ( Iyer Mar in Malayalam). And the Incan King who built Machu Picchu is King Pacha Kutti,. And many of these South American people have a goddess called Pacha Mama, who is currently well known to the South American Roman Catholic Church. Pls check out Malayalam's ancient links to these faraway peoples. Thank you Stuthi01 (talk) 23:21, 3 January 2023 (UTC)

Classical status for malayalam
A classical status was given to malayalam by goverment of india  in 2013. Now the most accepted view is malayalam originated from proto tamil malayalam and not middle tamil. So i have made neccesary edits to reflect these views. Jino john1996 (talk) 13:28, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia follows the cited sources, not the whims of governments. You cannot change the article in a way that misrepresents the cited sources. MrOllie (talk) 13:49, 29 June 2023 (UTC)
 * What about sources that say malayalam came from proto tamil malayalam. Like govindakutty and and then asher and kumari.  Jino john1996 (talk) 14:00, 29 June 2023 (UTC)
 * And recent findings like edakkal cave inscriptions are not reflected in this article. Jino john1996 (talk) 14:06, 29 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Those sources are fringe views and not the mainstream. The most accepted view is Malayalam is derived from a Sanskritised western dialect of early Middle Tamil. It is primordial Malayali nationalists who say otherwise, including these fringe scholarly views. Metta79 (talk) 11:09, 30 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Can you show an article after the discovery of edakkal cave inscriptions in 2012 about the origin of malayalam? 106.220.248.209 (talk) 10:11, 2 December 2023 (UTC)

The Phonology Table is incomplete
The phonology table for consonants is incomplete, it should include alveolar /n/. It seems like the phonology table has been created on the basis of the writing system. Ar.ml6 (talk) 14:12, 20 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Malayalam


text:
Microsoft Query

Microsoft Query is a visual method of creating database queries using examples based on a text string, the name of a document or a list of documents. The QBE system converts the user input into a formal database query using Structured Query Language (SQL) on the backend, allowing the user to perform powerful searches without having to explicitly compose them in SQL, and without even needing to know SQL. It is derived from Moshé M. Zloof's original Query by Example (QBE) implemented in the mid-1970s at IBM's Research Centre in Yorktown, New York.

In the context of Microsoft Access, QBE is used for introducing students to database querying, and as a user-friendly database management system for small businesses.

Microsoft Excel allows results of QBE queries to be embedded in spreadsheets.

title: Microsoft Query


text:
Bar-winged flycatcher-shrike

The bar-winged flycatcher-shrike (Hemipus picatus) is a small passerine bird usually placed in the Vangidae. It is found in the forests of tropical southern Asia from the Himalayas and hills of southern India to Indonesia. Mainly insectivorous it is found hunting in the mid-canopy of forests, often joining mixed-species foraging flocks. They perch upright and have a distinctive pattern of black and white, males being more shiny black than the females. In some populations the colour of the back is brownish while others have a dark wash on the underside.

Description
The bar-winged flycatcher-shrike is black capped with black wings that contrast with the white of the body. A white slash across the wing and a white rump stand out in contrast. They sit upright on branches, flying around to glean insects. The nostril is hidden by hairs and the upper mandible of the beak has a curved tip. Males are velvety black while females tend to be greyish brown but the pattern varies across the geographic populations. Both males and females of the Himalayan H. p. capitalis have a brown back but the males have a black head. The Sri Lankan population leggei lacks sexual dimorphism in plumage. H. p. intermedius has only the females with a brownish back. The tail is black but the outer tail feathers are white while the non-central tail feathers are tipped with white.

The call is a rapid and high tsit-it-it-it or a whriri-whirriri-whirriri and sometimes a sharp chip. Male-female pairs of the subspecies leggei of Sri Lanka have been reported to duet with precision.

Young birds are said to have a broken pattern of white and grey giving the appearance of lichens.

The exact systematic family position is unclear but the genus Hemipus has been found to be closely related to the genus Tephrodornis and show affinities to the Malaconotidae of Africa.

Distribution
The nominate race is found mainly in the Western Ghats of India but becoming very rare towards the Surat Dangs. They are also found in some parts of central and eastern India, extending into Bangladesh. The subspecies capitalis is found along the Himalayas from Simla, east to Manipur and Chittagong in India and extending into northern Thailand, Myanmar and Laos.

Subspecies leggei of Sri Lanka (southern Western Ghats populations included in older works) has the sexes indistinguishable. It is found in the hill forests of Sri Lanka.

Subspecies intermedius is found in Southeast Asia in Sumatra, Borneo, and parts of the Malay Peninsula. The brownish grey wash on the breast of females is darker, contrasting with the white of the abdomens. The back is darker brown than in other subspecies. The males also have darker breasts.

Other subspecies that have been described such as Walter Koelz's pileatus (described from the Lushai Hills) and insulae (from Sri Lanka) are not considered valid.

Behaviour and ecology
This bird catches insects by gleaning foliage and making aerial sallies for flushed insects. It will associate with other small birds such as babblers, velvet-fronted nuthatch and white-eyes in feeding flocks. They move through the forest and rarely stick to a particular location.

The nesting season in Sri Lanka is mainly from February to August, March to May in India. The nest is a neat cup with rim held stiff by cobwebs binding it and the inside is lined with fine grass and fibre. Lichens cover the surface of the nest cup which is placed on the horizontal surface of a dry branch, often close to the tip of a dead branch or on a leafless tree making it appear like a knot in the wood. The usual clutch is 2 or 3 eggs which are pale greenish white and blotched with black and grey. The bird sitting at the nest appears as if it is casually perched. Both males and females incubate. The chicks at nest stay still with eyes closed and face the center of the nest while holding their bills high giving the appearance of a broken branch.

They have been said to be sensitive to forest degradation but some studies note that they are less sensitive and capable of persisting even in considerably disturbed forests.

title: Bar-winged flycatcher-shrike


text:
Drum (disambiguation)

A drum is a musical instrument.

Drum, drums or The Drum may also refer to:

Drums and drum-shaped items

 * Drum (communication), a communication device
 * Drum (container), a type of cylindrical container
 * Drum brake, an automotive braking system
 * Drum magazine, a cylindrical container for ammunition
 * Drum memory, an early form of computer memory used in the 1950s and 1960s
 * Electronic drum, in which sound is generated by an electronic waveform generator or sampler instead of by acoustic vibration
 * Talking drum, an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa
 * Drum, the photoreceptor in a laser printer
 * Drum or tholobate, in architecture, the lower part of a dome or cupola in the shape of a cylinder or prism

Great Britain

 * Drum (Wales), a mountain in Wales
 * Drum Castle, a castle in Aberdeenshire, Scotland
 * Drum railway station, a closed station in Aberdeenshire
 * Drum, Edinburgh a location
 * Drum, Perth and Kinross, a location
 * The Drum (Arts Centre) in Birmingham, England

Ireland

 * Drum, County Armagh, a townland in County Armagh, Northern Ireland
 * Drum, County Londonderry, a townland in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
 * Drum, County Monaghan
 * Drum, County Roscommon, a village in the Republic of Ireland
 * Drum Manor Forest Park, a forest close to the Sperrin Mountains and Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland

United States

 * Drum, Missouri
 * "The Drum", nickname of Frank Erwin Center, former home court of the University of Texas at Austin's basketball teams
 * Camp Drum (disambiguation), three military bases in the US
 * Fort Drum, originally named Camp Drum

Elsewhere

 * Drum Islands, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut
 * Drum, Croatia, a village in the municipality of Podbablje

Books and magazines

 * Drum, the 1962 novel by Kyle Onstott
 * DRUM!, an American drumming magazine
 * 'Drummer', an American gay BDSM magazine
 * Drum (American magazine), an American gay culture, humor, and beefcake magazine
 * Drum (South African magazine), a South African magazine
 * The Drum (novel), by A. E. W. Mason
 * Drums (comics), a 2011 supernatural comic book limited series
 * Fredric Drum, protagonist of the Fredric Drum series of novels by Norwegian author Gert Nygårdshaug
 * Drums, the 1925 debut novel by James Boyd, set in the American Revolutionary War

Film and television

 * The Drum (1934 film), a British film directed by Sinclair Hill
 * The Drum (1938 film), released in the U.S. as Drums, a British film starring Sabu, Raymond Massey and Roger Livesey
 * Drum (1976 film), a sequel to the 1975 film Mandingo
 * "Drum", a 2002 television ident for BBC Two from the 'Personality' series
 * Drum (2004 film), a film about a journalist of Drum magazine
 * Drum (2016 film), an Iranian drama film set in Tehran
 * The Drum (TV program), an Australian current affairs show that aired from 2010 until 2023

Groups

 * The Drum (band), a British musical group
 * The Drums, an American musical group

Albums

 * Drum (album), the first release from band Hugo Largo
 * Drums (Oddjobs album), an album by hip-hop group Oddjobs
 * The Drums (album), 2010 album by The Drums

Songs/tracks

 * "Drum", a song by Sugababes from The Lost Tapes
 * "Drum", a song by Kylie Minogue from Tension
 * "The Drum" (song), a 1971 hit song for Bobby Sherman
 * "The Drum", a 2022 Alan Walker track
 * "The Drum", a 1974 song by Slapp Happy from Slapp Happy
 * "Drum" (MØ song), 2016
 * "Drum" (Noa Kirel song), 2019
 * "Drums", a song by Jesus Jones from 2004 EP Culture Vulture
 * "Drums", a song by Johnny Cash from 1964 album Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian
 * "Drums", a song by P-MODEL from 1986 album One Pattern

Sport

 * Drum GAC, a Gaelic Athletic Association club based in Drum, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
 * Drums, nickname of Drumcondra F.C., an association football club in Dublin

Other

 * Drum (fish), any of several fish in the family Sciaenidae
 * Drum (surname), including a list of people with the surname
 * Drum (tobacco), a brand of tobacco, owned by parent company Imperial Tobacco
 * Drum (yacht), a maxi yacht owned by Scottish car sales group Arnold Clark Automobiles
 * Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement, Detroit, Michigan-based labor and political organization
 * DRUMS, a microsatellite designed and operated by Kawasaki Heavy Industries

title: Drum (disambiguation)