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Aberfan disaster

The Aberfan disaster was the catastrophic collapse of a colliery spoil tip on 21 October 1966. The tip had been created on a mountain slope above the Welsh village of Aberfan, near Merthyr Tydfil, and overlaid a natural spring. Heavy rain led to a build-up of water within the tip which caused it to suddenly slide downhill as a slurry, killing 116 children and 28 adults as it engulfed Pantglas Junior School and a row of houses. The tip was the responsibility of the National Coal Board (NCB), and the subsequent inquiry placed the blame for the disaster on the organisation and nine named employees.

There were seven spoil tips on the hills above Aberfan; Tip 7—the one that slipped onto the village—was started in 1958 and, at the time of the disaster, was 111 ft high. In contravention of the NCB's procedures, the tip was partly based on ground from which springs emerged. After three weeks of heavy rain the tip was saturated and approximately 140000 cuyd of spoil slipped down the side of the hill and onto the Pantglas area of the village. The main building hit was the local junior school, where lessons had just begun; 5 teachers and 109 children were killed.

An official inquiry was chaired by Lord Justice Edmund Davies. The report placed the blame squarely on the NCB. The organisation's chairman, Lord Robens, was criticised for making misleading statements and for not providing clarity as to the NCB's knowledge of the presence of water springs on the hillside. Neither the NCB nor any of its employees were prosecuted and the organisation was not fined.

The Aberfan Disaster Memorial Fund (ADMF) was established on the day of the disaster. It received nearly 88,000 contributions, totalling £1.75 million. The remaining tips were removed only after a lengthy fight by Aberfan residents against resistance from the NCB and the government on the grounds of cost. The site's clearance was paid for by a government grant and a forced contribution of £150,000 taken from the memorial fund. In 1997 the British government paid back the £150,000 to the ADMF, and in 2007 the Welsh Government donated £1.5 million to the fund and £500,000 to the Aberfan Education Charity as recompense for the money wrongly taken. Many of the village's residents developed medical problems as a result of the disaster, and half the survivors have experienced post-traumatic stress disorder at some time in their lives.

Background
Aberfan is situated toward the bottom of the western valley slope of the Taff Valley, on the eastern slope of Mynydd Merthyr hill, approximately 4 miles south of Merthyr Tydfil. When the Merthyr Vale Colliery was sunk on 23 August 1869 by John Nixon and partners, Aberfan consisted of two cottages and an inn frequented by local farmers and bargemen. By 1966 its population had grown to approximately 5,000, most of whom were employed in the coal industry. Since the nationalisation of the British coal industry in 1947, Aberfan's colliery had been under the control of the National Coal Board (NCB). Regulation in the coal industry was provided by HM Inspectorate of Mines. The inspectors had worked as engineers in the coal industry and were former employees of the NCB. The River Taff runs north-to-south through the village; at the upper side of the settlement, on the western outskirts, the bed of the disused Glamorganshire Canal and a disused railway embankment run parallel to the river.

The first spoil from the coal mine was deposited on the valley's lower slopes, east of the canal, but during the 1910s the first tip was started on the western slopes, above the canal line and the village. By 1966 there were seven spoil heaps, comprising approximately 2.6 e6cuyd of waste. Tips 4 and 5 were conical mounds at the apex of the slope, although Tip 4 was misshapen from an earlier slip; the remaining five were lower down; all were directly above the village. Tip 7 was the only one being used in 1966. About 111 ft high, it contained 297000 cuyd of spoil, which included 30000 cuyd of tailings—waste from the chemical extraction of coal, fine particles of coal and ash which took on properties similar to quicksand when wet.

Tip stability is affected by water conditions. Tips 4, 5 and 7 had been sited on streams or springs. The presence of the springs was common knowledge in the area, and they had been marked on the Ordnance Survey and Geological Society maps since 1874. Tip 4 at Aberfan, which had been used between 1933 and 1945, was large, and had been started on boggy ground between two streams. At the time of its planning, the Merthyr Tydfil borough engineer thought that despite the position, it would be unlikely to avalanche. Following some ground movements in the tip in the early 1940s, a drainage channel was dug in early 1944. In November that year part of the tip slid 1600 ft down the mountain to stop approximately 500 ft above the village. In May 1963 Tip 7 shifted slightly; in November that year there was a more substantial slide. The NCB stated that the movement had not been a "slide", but was instead a "tailings run"—a run-off of tailings from the surface of the tip—which left its stability unaffected. After the slide, the NCB stopped tipping tailings on number 7, but normal spoil continued to be deposited.

Aberfan is in an area of relatively high rainfall, an average of 60 in a year. In 1960 it was 70.5 in, the heaviest of recent years in the run-up to the disaster. Between 1952 and 1965, there was severe flooding in the Pantglas area of Aberfan on at least 11 occasions. Residents complained that the flood water was black and left a greasy residue when it receded. Complaints had been made by residents to Merthyr Tydfil County Borough Council, who corresponded with the NCB between July 1963 and March 1964 on the topic of the "Danger from Coal Slurry being tipped at the rear of the Pantglas Schools". In early 1965 meetings were held between the council and the NCB at which the Board agreed to take action on the clogged pipes and drainage ditches that were the cause of the flooding. No action had been taken by October 1966 when the tip collapsed.

Tip collapse
During the first three weeks of October 1966 there were 6.5 in of rainfall, nearly half of which was in the third week. During the night of 20–21 October the peak of Tip 7 subsided by 9 – and the rails on which the spoil was transported to the top of the tip fell into the resulting hole. The spoil movement was discovered at 7:30am by the first members of the morning shift manning the heaps. One of the workers walked to the colliery to report the slip; he returned with the supervisor for the tips, and it was decided that no further work would be done that day, but that a new tipping position would be decided on the following week.

At 9:15am a significant amount of water-saturated debris broke away from tip 7 and flowed downhill at 11 - 21 mph in waves 20 - 30 ft high. G. M. J. Williams, a consultant engineer who gave evidence at the subsequent tribunal, stated that the 9:15 am movement:

"took part of the saturated material past the point where liquefaction occurred. This initially liquefied material began to move rapidly, releasing energy which liquefied the rest of the saturated portion of the tip, and almost instantaneously the nature of the saturated lower parts of Tip No. 7 was changed from that of a solid to that of a heavy liquid of a density of approximately twice that of water. This was 'the dark glistening wave' which several witnesses saw burst from the bottom of the tip."

Approximately 140000 cuyd of spoil slid 700 yd down the mountain, destroying two farm cottages and killing the occupants. Around 50000 cuyd travelled across the canal and railway embankment and into the village. The flow destroyed two water mains buried in the embankment and the additional water further saturated the spoil. Those who heard the avalanche said the sound reminded them of a low-flying jet or thunder.

The avalanche struck Pantglas Junior School on Moy Road, demolishing and engulfing much of the structure and filling classrooms with thick mud, sludge and rubble; 109 children, from 240 attendees, and five teachers were killed in the school. The pupils of Pantglas Junior School had arrived only minutes earlier for the last day before the half-term holiday, which was due to start at 12 midday. The teachers had just begun to record the children's attendance in the registers when the landslide hit. The adjacent secondary school was also damaged, and 18 houses on surrounding roads were destroyed. Mud and water from the slide flooded other houses in the vicinity, forcing many to evacuate their homes. Once the slide material had come to a halt, it re-solidified. A huge mound of slurry up to 30 ft high blocked the area. The acting headmaster of the secondary school recalled:

"The Girls' Entrance [of the secondary school] was approximately two-thirds to three-quarters full of rubble and waste material ... I climbed onto the rubble in the doorway ... when I looked directly in front of me ... I saw that the houses in Moy Road had vanished in a mass of tip-waste material and that the Junior School gable-ends, or part of the roof, were sticking up out of this morass. I looked down to my right and I saw that the Moy Road houses had gone."

Some staff died trying to protect the children. Nansi Williams, the school meals clerk, used her body to shield five children, who all survived; Williams did not, and was found by rescuers still holding a pound note she had been collecting as lunch money. Dai Beynon, the deputy headmaster, tried to use a blackboard to shield himself and five children from the slurry pouring through the school. He and all 34 pupils in his class were killed. When the avalanche stopped, so did the noise; one resident recalled that "in that silence you couldn't hear a bird or a child".

Rescue efforts and retrieval of the bodies
After the landslide stopped, local residents rushed to the school and began digging through the rubble, moving material by hand or with garden tools. At 9:25 am Merthyr Tydfil police received a phone call from a local resident who said "I have been asked to inform that there has been a landslide at Pantglas. The tip has come down on the school"; the fire brigade, based in Merthyr Tydfil, received a call at about the same time. Calls were then made to local hospitals, the ambulance service and the local Civil Defence Corps. The first miners from the Aberfan colliery arrived within 20 minutes of the disaster, having been raised from the coal seams where they had been working. They directed the early digging, knowing that unplanned excavation could lead to collapse of the spoil and the remnants of the buildings; they worked in organised groups under the control of their pit managers.

The first casualties from the wreckage of the school arrived at St Tydfil's Hospital in Merthyr Tydfil at 9:50 am; the remaining rescued casualties all arrived before 11:00 am: 22 children, one of whom was dead on arrival, and 5 adults. A further 9 casualties were sent to the East Glamorgan General Hospital. No survivors were found after 11:00 am. Of the 144 people who died in the disaster, 116 were children, mostly between the ages of 7 and 10; 109 of the children died inside Pantglas Junior School. Five of the adults who died were teachers at the school. An additional 6 adults and 29 children were injured.

The 10:30 am BBC news summary led with the story of the disaster. The result was that thousands of volunteers travelled to Aberfan to help, although their efforts often hampered the work of the experienced miners or trained rescue teams.

With the two broken water mains still pumping water into the spoil in Aberfan, the slip continued to move through the village, and it was not until 11:30 am that the water authorities managed to turn off the supply. It was estimated that the mains added between 2 and(-) of water to the spoil slurry. With movement in the upper slopes still a danger, at 12:00 noon NCB engineers began digging a drainage channel, with the aim of stabilising the tip. It took two hours to reroute the water to a safer place, from where it was diverted into an existing water course.

An NCB board meeting that morning, headed by the organisation's chairman, Lord Robens, was informed of the disaster. It was decided that the company's Director-General of Production and its Chief Safety Engineer should inspect the situation, and they left for the village immediately. In his autobiography, Robens stated that the decision for him not to go was because "the appearance of a layman at too early a stage inevitably distracts senior and essential people from the tasks upon which they should be exclusively concentrating". Instead of visiting the scene, that evening Robens went to the ceremony to invest him as the chancellor of the University of Surrey. NCB officers covered for him when contacted by Cledwyn Hughes, the Secretary of State for Wales, falsely claiming that Robens was personally directing relief work.

Hughes visited the scene at 4:00 pm for an hour. He telephoned Harold Wilson, the Prime Minister, and confirmed Wilson's own thought that he should also visit. Wilson told Hughes to "take whatever action he thought necessary, irrespective of any considerations of 'normal procedures', expenditure or statutory limitations". Wilson arrived at Aberfan at 9.40 pm, where he heard reports from the police and civil defence forces, and visited the rescue workers. Before he left, at midnight, he and Hughes agreed that a high-level independent inquiry needed to be held. That evening the mayor of Merthyr Tydfil launched an appeal for financial donations—soon formally named the Aberfan Disaster Fund—to alleviate financial hardship and to help rebuild the area.

A makeshift mortuary was set up in the village's Bethania Chapel on 21 October and operated until 4 November, 250 yd from the disaster site; members of the Glamorgan Constabulary force assisted with the identification and registration of the victims. Two doctors examined the bodies and issued death certificates; the cause of death was typically asphyxia, fractured skull or multiple crush injuries. Cramped conditions in the chapel meant that parents could only be admitted one at a time to identify the bodies of their children. The building also acted as a missing persons bureau and its vestry was used by Red Cross volunteers and St John Ambulance stretcher-bearers. Four hundred embalmers volunteered to assist with the cleaning and dressing of the corpses; a contingent that flew over from Northern Ireland removed the seats of their plane to transport child-sized coffins. The smaller Aberfan Calvinistic Chapel nearby was used as a second mortuary from 22 to 29 October.

By the morning of Saturday 22 October, 111 bodies had been recovered, of which 51 had been identified. At daybreak the Queen's brother-in-law Lord Snowdon visited and spoke with workers and parents; at 11:00 am Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, visited the scene and talked to rescue workers. In the early afternoon light rain began falling, which became increasingly heavy; it caused further movement in the tip, which threatened the rescue work and raised the possibility that the area would have to be evacuated.

Robens arrived in Aberfan on Saturday evening. After visiting the colliery and the disaster site, he gave a press conference at which he stated that the NCB would work with any public inquiry. In an interview with The Observer, Robens said the organisation "will not seek to hide behind any legal loophole or make any legal quibble about responsibility". Robens returned to the village the following morning to see the situation in daylight. He was interviewed by a television news team while examining the tip. When asked about the responsibility of the NCB for the slide, he answered:

"I wouldn't have thought myself that anybody would know that there was a spring deep in the heart of a mountain, any more than I can tell you there is one under our feet where we are now. If you are asking me did any of my people on the spot know that there was this spring water, then the answer is, No—they couldn't possibly. ... It was impossible to know that there was a spring in the heart of this tip which was turning the centre of the mountain into sludge."

On 23 October assistance was provided by the Territorial Army. This was followed by the arrival of naval ratings from HMS Tiger (C20) and members of the King's Own Royal Border Regiment. That day Wilson announced the appointment of Lord Justice Edmund Davies as the chairman of the inquiry into the disaster; Davies had been born and schooled in the nearby village of Mountain Ash. A coroner's inquest was opened on 24 October to give the causes of death for 30 of the children located. One man who had lost his wife and two sons called out when he heard their names mentioned: "No, sir—buried alive by the National Coal Board"; one woman shouted that the NCB had "killed our children". The first funerals, for five of the children, took place the following day. A mass funeral for 81 children and one woman took place at Bryntaf Cemetery in Aberfan on 27 October. They were buried in a pair of 80 ft trenches; 10,000 people attended.

Because of the vast quantity and consistency of the spoil, it was a week before all the bodies were recovered; the last victim was found on 28 October. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited Aberfan on 29 October to pay their respects to those who had died. Their visit coincided with the end of the main rescue phase; only one contracting firm remained in the village to continue the last stages of the clear-up.

Aberfan Disaster Tribunal
On 25 October 1966, after resolutions in both Houses of Parliament, the Secretary of State for Wales formally appointed a tribunal to inquire into the disaster. Before the tribunal began, Elwyn Jones, the Attorney General, cautioned the media that commenting on matters to be investigated by the tribunal could lay them open to the same consequences as contempt of court. Sitting alongside Lord Justice Davies on the inquiry were the civil engineer Harold Harding and Vernon Lawrence, the former Clerk to the Monmouthshire County Council. The inquiry had an initial public meeting on 2 November 1966 and took evidence in public for 76 days, spread over the next five months; during that time 136 witnesses testified. The tribunal report stated "much of the time of the Tribunal could have been saved if ... the National Coal Board had not stubbornly resisted every attempt to lay the blame where it so clearly must rest—at their door".

Aberfan's MP, S. O. Davies, gave evidence to the tribunal and stated that he had long held concerns that the tip "might not only slide, but in sliding might reach the village"; he added that he had not spoken out because he had "more than a shrewd suspicion that that colliery would be closed". Brian Gibbens, QC, the counsel for the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), challenged Davies's evidence and stated that if the testament "is to be accepted as truthful and accurate in his recollection ... then he bears what must be one of the largest personal burdens of responsibility for the disaster". Gibbens requested that Davies's testimony be rejected, on the basis that he "never appreciated what in fact was the import of his words". The tribunal agreed, and stated that "we doubt that he fully understood the grave implication of what he was saying".

Initially the tribunal decided not to call Robens to testify—they took his comment to the media about the existence of the spring being unknown as hearsay, and thought that his evidence could not help. The counsel for the families, Desmond Ackner, QC, attacked Robens for making the statement about the spring, saying it was "a public scandal"; he added that "at no stage throughout this Inquiry has the National Coal Board taken the initiative to correct this sentence". Ackner also criticised Robens's absence from the inquiry, saying that "no explanation has been proffered by or on behalf of Lord Robens and his absence, therefore, and in this regard has been conspicuous." The tribunal members decided that Robens should be able to defend his position and he was invited to attend. Under cross-examination by Ackner, Robens gave evidence inconsistent with that provided by the NCB, particularly on the point of whether the disaster was foreseeable; counsel for the organisation asked the tribunal to ignore Robens's testimony.

The tribunal concluded its hearings on 28 April 1967 and published its report on 3 August. Among their findings was that "[b]lame for the disaster rests upon the National Coal Board. ... This blame is shared (though in varying degrees) among the National Coal Board headquarters, the South Western Divisional Board, and certain individuals." They added that the "legal liability of the National Coal Board to pay compensation for the personal injuries (fatal or otherwise) and damage to property is incontestable and uncontested". In its introduction the inquiry team wrote that it was their

"strong and unanimous view ... that the Aberfan disaster could and should have been prevented. ... the Report which follows tells not of wickedness but of ignorance, ineptitude and a failure in communications. Ignorance on the part of those charged at all levels with the siting, control and daily management of tips; bungling ineptitude on the part of those who had the duty of supervising and directing them; and failure on the part of those having knowledge of the factors which affect tip safety to communicate that knowledge and to see that it was applied."

Nine employees of the NCB were censured by the inquiry, with "many degrees of blameworthiness, from very slight to grave", although McLean and Johnes consider that some senior staff whom the evidence shows to have been culpable were omitted, and one junior member of staff named in the report should not have been blamed. The tribunal decided that no blame lay with Merthyr Tydfil County Borough Council or the NUM.

The tribunal made several recommendations, including the need for the extension of the Mines and Quarries Act 1954 to cover tips, and the formation of a National Tip Safety Committee to advise the government. The inquiry report also advised that "action needs to be taken to safeguard the future condition of the tips at Aberfan".

The sociologist Barry Turner, in a 1976 study, identified several errors that led to the Aberfan disaster. These included years of rigid and unrealistic disregard for the importance of the safety of the above-ground tips (as opposed to dangers within the mines); a flawed decision-making process which ignored or minimised the likelihood and the scale of the emergent danger; a dismissive attitude toward the complaints from Aberfan residents, discounting the validity of their concerns; and an incomplete and inadequate response to conditions which caused those complaints.

McLean and Johnes observe that HM Inspectorate of Mines went largely unchallenged by the tribunal, although the two consider that the organisation failed in their duty; in doing so, they created a situation of regulatory capture, where rather than protecting the public interest—in this case the citizens of Aberfan—their regulatory failures fell in line with the interests of the NCB, the organisation they were supposed to be overseeing.

Aberfan residents
During the rescue, the shock and grief of parents and villagers was exacerbated by insensitive behaviour from the media—one rescue worker recalled hearing a press photographer asking a child to cry for her dead friends because it would make a good picture. The response of the general public in donating to the memorial fund, together with over 50,000 letters of condolence that accompanied many of the donations, helped many residents come to terms with the disaster. One bereaved mother said "People all over the world felt for us. We knew that with their letters and the contributions they sent ... They helped us build a better Aberfan."

A study published in the British Journal of Psychiatry (BJP) in 2003 found that half the survivors of the disaster had experienced post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some time in their lives, that they were more than three times more likely to have developed lifetime PTSD than a comparison group of individuals who had experienced other life-threatening traumas, and that 34 per cent of survivors who took part in the study reported that they still experienced bad dreams or difficulty sleeping because of intrusive thoughts about the disaster. In 2005 Imperial Tobacco settled out of court to end an unfair dismissal suit brought against the company by an Aberfan survivor, who had been employed by the company's Rizla cigarette paper factory near Pontypridd. She had been sacked after she refused to continue working night shifts, stating that it had brought on flashbacks from 1966, when she had been buried waist-deep in the landslide while walking to school. She survived, but a friend who had been walking with her was killed.

The BJP study also found that there was no significant rise in the risk of depression or substance abuse in survivors. Some parents of deceased children reported extreme feelings of guilt, as did the pupils who survived, one of whom reported:

"There was none of the discipline we used to have ... We didn't go out to play for a long time because those who'd lost their own children couldn't bear to see us. We all knew what they were feeling and we felt guilty about being alive."

The residents of Aberfan experienced medical problems after the disaster. Many survivors reported having "sleeping difficulties, nervousness, lack of friends, unwillingness to go to school and enuresis". In the year following the tip slide, close relatives of the victims had a death rate seven times higher than the norm. One local doctor later wrote "By every statistic, patients seen, prescriptions written, deaths, I can prove that this is a village of excessive sickness." Despite these problems, during the five years after the disaster the birth rate rose considerably, in marked contrast to that of Merthyr Tydfil.

NCB and its personnel
The NCB as an organisation was not prosecuted, and no NCB staff were demoted, sacked or prosecuted as a consequence of the Aberfan disaster or for evidence given to the inquiry. During a parliamentary debate on the disaster, Margaret Thatcher—then the opposition spokeswoman on power—raised the situation of one witness, criticised by the inquiry, who had subsequently been promoted to a board-level position at the NCB by the time the report was published.

In 2000 Iain McLean, a professor of politics, and Martin Johnes, a research fellow in Welsh history, undertook a study of the Aberfan disaster and its repercussions; their work included government papers released in 1997 under the thirty-year rule. Their opinion is that "the Coal Board 'spin-doctored' its way out of trouble, controlling the public agenda from the day of the disaster until the tips were finally removed". Robens had received a copy of the inquiry report ten days before its official publication and began a campaign to strengthen his position. He went on a tour of British coalfields, giving speeches that promoted the use of coal and criticised the increasing popularity of nuclear power. All messages of support to him were catalogued by the NCB, and copies of some were leaked to the press; the manoeuvring led to criticism in an editorial in The Guardian, which stated that "the Coal Board's behaviour has ... been rather unseemly in the circumstances".

In August 1967—following the publication of the inquiry report—Robens discussed his position with the Minister of Power, Richard Marsh. After receiving assurances that his role at the NCB was secure, he offered to resign; in line with the agreement between the two men, the offer was rejected. In parliament, the Welsh MP Leo Abse said that "when I saw what I regarded as the graceless pavane danced by Lord Robens and the Minister, as the Chairman of the Coal Board coyly offered his resignation and, equally coyly, the Minister rejected the offer, I thought that it was a disgraceful spectacle".

Initially the NCB offered bereaved families £50 in compensation, but this was raised to £500 for each bereaved family; the organisation called the amount "a good offer and a ¨generous donation¨. Many families thought the amount insufficient and petitioned the NCB for an increase; NCB insurance staff advised Robens that "it is only the hard core [of bereaved parents] who are trying to capitalize".

Disaster fund
The fund set up by the mayor of Merthyr Tydfil grew rapidly, and within a few months nearly 88,000 contributions had been received, totalling £1,606,929; the final total raised was £1.75 million. No specific aims for the fund had been outlined by the mayor until it was put on a firm legal footing under the auspices of a permanent committee with clear local representation. They drew up a deed that outlined the purposes of the fund as:

"# For the relief of all persons who have suffered as a result of the said disaster and are thereby in need.
 * 1) Subject as aforesaid for any charitable purpose for the benefit of persons who were inhabitants of Aberfan and its immediate neighbourhood (hereinafter called 'the area of benefit') on the 21st day of October 1966 or now are or hereafter become inhabitants of the area of benefit and in particular (but without prejudice to the generality of the last foregoing trust) for any charitable purpose for the benefit of children who were on the 21st day of October 1966 or who now are or hereafter may become resident in the area of benefit."

In 1967 the Charity Commission advised that any money paid to the parents of bereaved families would be against the terms of the trust deed. After arguments from lawyers for the trust, they agreed that there was an "unprecedented emotional state" surrounding Aberfan, and suggested that sums of no more than £500 should be paid. Members of the trust told the commission that £5,000 was to be paid to each family; the commission agreed that the amount was permissible, but stated that each case should be examined before payment "to ascertain whether the parents had been close to their children and were thus likely to be suffering mentally", according to one member of the Charity Commission. In November 1967 the commission threatened to remove trustees of the disaster fund or make a financial order against them if they made grants to parents of children who were physically uninjured but who were suffering mentally—some surviving children complained of being afraid of the dark and loud noises, while some refused to sleep alone; the commission informed them that any payments would be "quite illegal". The decision affected 340 physically uninjured children.

Other grants made by the trust were less controversial: for those who lost their house, or whose property suffered significant damage, the trust donated £100 to assist with evacuation, and additional funds to help replace damaged effects. £100,000 was set aside for the future needs of the eight children physically injured in the disaster, and £5,000 was placed in trust for them for when they came of age. The charity funded the building of a community centre in the village and a memorial garden, which was opened by the Queen in March 1973. The garden is on the site of Pantglas Junior School and includes stone walls to show where the classrooms stood.

McLean and Johnes consider that "the Commission protected neither donors nor beneficiaries. It was caught between upholding an outdated and inflexible law ... and fulfilling the varied expectations of donors, beneficiaries and the fund's management committee". In a study of the fund, the UK government Cabinet Office judged that "as far the fund is concerned and what it achieved, it is important to note that it did help in alleviating the suffering and was a focus for the grief of many". In 1988 the Aberfan Disaster Fund was separated into two entities: the Aberfan Memorial Charity and the Aberfan Disaster Fund and Centre, the second of which is administered by Merthyr Tydfil County Borough Council. The Aberfan Memorial Charity oversees the upkeep of the memorial garden and Bryntaf Cemetery, and provides financial assistance to "all those who have suffered as a result of the Aberfan Disaster by making grants of money or providing or paying for items, services or facilities calculated to reduce the need, hardship or distress of such persons".

Remaining tips and the fund

The tribunal report quoted one expert who said that Tip 5 "has been standing and is standing at a very low factor of safety"; the quote was read out by Thatcher in the October 1967 parliamentary debate on the inquiry report. S. O. Davies spoke in the debate on the same point:

"We must be under no illusion that the Aberfan tips have been made safe by today. They have not been made safe. There are two tips right at the top of the old tip, to be seen glaring at us every day, full of threat. They might come down and cover some part of the village again. The Aberfan people insist—and I insist with them—that what is left of those tips must be removed. I hope that the Minister and the Secretary of State for Wales will be with us on this matter."

The residents of Aberfan petitioned George Thomas, who had succeeded Hughes as Secretary of State for Wales in April 1968, for the tips to be removed; they entered the Welsh Office and left a small pile of coal slurry on the table in front of him to make their point; Thomas later stated the tips "constitute a psychological, emotional danger" to the people of Aberfan. The NCB had received a range of estimated costs for removing the tips, from £1.014 million to £3.4 million. Robens informed HM Treasury that the cost would be £3 million, and informed them that the NCB would not pay for the removal; between November 1967 and August he lobbied to avoid having the NCB pay. The Chief Secretary to the Treasury also refused to pay, and said that the costs were too high. Although the government had initially favoured landscaping—an option cheaper than removal—they were eventually persuaded that removal was preferable.

To pay for the removal of the tips, £150,000 was taken from the disaster fund—lowered from the initial £250,000 first requested—the NCB paid £350,000 and the government provided the balance, with the proviso it was only up to a million. The final cost of the removal was £850,000. The trustees of the fund voted to accept the request for payment after realising that there was no alternative if they wanted the tips removed. S. O. Davies, the only member of the committee to vote against the payment, resigned in protest. There was a reminder of the danger for the residents of Aberfan when, in August 1968, heavy rain caused slurry to be washed down the village's streets. At the time, the Charity Commission made no objection to this action; the political scientists Jacint Jordana and David Levi-Faur consider the payment "unquestionably unlawful" under charity law.

Legislation
In 1969, as a result of concerns raised by the disaster, and in line with the findings of the tribunal report, the government framed new legislation to remedy the absence of laws and regulations governing mine and quarry spoil tips. The long title of the Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act 1969 was "An Act to make further provision in relation to tips associated with mines and quarries; to prevent disused tips constituting a danger to members of the public; and for purposes connected with those matters". The Act was an extension of the earlier Mines and Quarries Act 1954, which did not legislate over tips. According to McLean and Johnes, "the general commitment to public safety that the Tribunal had envisaged was not implemented" through the act, as the tribunal had advised wider legislation that should "consider the safety, health and welfare of all persons going about their lawful business in the vicinity of a mine, including the safety of their property".

In May 1970 Barbara Castle, the Secretary of State for Employment and Productivity, appointed Robens to chair the Committee on Health and Safety at Work, to review legislation in the area and recommend the provisions that should be made for workers and the general public. In 1972 the committee published its findings in the Robens Report which led to the creation of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and the formation of the Health and Safety Commission and the Health and Safety Executive.

Legacy
In addition to news and historical coverage, the Aberfan disaster and its aftermath have been described in books, including histories of what happened, personal memoirs from those involved and collections of poetry, in music, song and on screen.

Merthyr Vale Colliery closed in 1989. In 1997 Ron Davies, the Secretary of State for Wales in the incoming Labour government, repaid to the disaster fund the £150,000 that it had been induced to contribute towards the cost of tip removal. No allowance was made for inflation or the interest that would have been earned over the intervening period, which would have been £1.5 million in 1997. The payment was made in part after Iain McLean's examination of the papers released by the government. In February 2007 the Welsh Government announced a donation of £1.5 million to the Aberfan Memorial Charity and £500,000 to the Aberfan Education Charity, which represented an inflation-adjusted amount of the money taken. The money to the memorial charity was used in the upkeep of the memorials to the disaster.

In May 1997 the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh planted a tree at the Aberfan Memorial Garden. In October 2016, the fiftieth anniversary of the disaster, memorial events took place at the garden and at the cemetery; the Prince of Wales represented the Queen, and government ministers were present to pay tribute. At the time of the anniversary Huw Edwards, the BBC News journalist and presenter, described the need to continue learning lessons from Aberfan; he wrote:

"What we can do, however—in this week of the 50th anniversary—is try to focus the attention of many in Britain and beyond on the lessons of Aberfan, lessons which are still of profound relevance today. They touch on issues of public accountability, responsibility, competence and transparency."

In August 2021 a memorial sculpture by the Welsh artist Nathan Wyburn was installed at the Rhondda Heritage Museum. In January 2022 there was a call to find a permanent home for the artefacts salvaged from the disaster. These included a clock which had stopped at the exact moment the disaster occurred. In February of the same year, the cemetery, together with the memorial garden and the area of the tip and its slide path, were listed on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales. The record of the Grade II* site describes it as being of "great national importance and meaning".

title: Aberfan disaster


text:
Mouse keys

Mouse keys is a feature of some graphical user interfaces that uses the keyboard (especially numeric keypad) as a pointing device (usually replacing a mouse). Its roots lie in the earliest days of visual editors when line and column navigation was controlled with arrow keys. Today, mouse keys usually refers to the numeric keypad layout standardized with the introduction of the X Window System in 1984.

History
Historically, MouseKeys supported GUI programs when many terminals had no dedicated pointing device. As pointing devices became ubiquitous, the use of mouse keys narrowed to situations where a pointing device was missing, unusable, or inconvenient. Such situations may arise from the following:
 * precision requirements (e.g., technical drawing)
 * disabled user or ergonomics issues
 * environmental limits (e.g., vibration in car or plane)
 * broken/missing/unavailable equipment

In 1987, Macintosh Operating System 4.2 Easy Access, provided MouseKeys support to all applications. Easy access was (de)activated by clicking the shift key 5 times.

By the early 2020s, with graphics tablets becoming more common, a configuration change may be required before enabling MouseKeys.

MouseKeysAccel

The X Window System MouseKeysAccel control applies action (usually cursor movement) repeatedly while a direction key {1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9} remains depressed. When the key is depressed, an action_delta is immediately applied. If the key remains depressed, longer than mk_delay milliseconds, some action is applied every mk_interval milliseconds until the key is released. If the key remains depressed, after more than mk_time_to_max actions have been applied, action_delta magnified mk_max_speed times, is applied every mk_interval milliseconds.

The first mk_time_to_max actions increase smoothly according to an exponential.

$$ \mathrm{action\_delta} \times \mathrm{mk\_max\_speed} \times \left( \frac{ i } { \mathrm{mk\_time\_to\_max} } \right) ^{\frac{ 1000 + \mathrm{mk\_curve} } { 1000 }} $$

These five parameters are configurable.

Enabling
Under the X Window Systems X.Org and XFree86 used on Unix-like systems such as Linux, BSD, and AIX, MouseKeys (and MouseKeysAccel), when available, is nominally (de)activated by Alt+Shift+Num Lock. MouseKeys without acceleration (also known as plot mode) is sometimes available with Shift+Num Lock. This is nominally independent of the window manager in use, but may be overridden, or even made unavailable by a configuration file.

Before enabling, it may be necessary to change system configuration. The setxkbmap utility can be used to change the configuration under Xorg:

There are also various utilities to allow more precise control via user-configurable key bindings, such as xmousekeys and xdotool.

Since KDE 5, MouseKeys is enabled and configured by systemsetting5 (Hardware → Input Devices → Mouse → Keyboard Navigation)

MouseKeys for Apple Inc.'s macOS is enabled and configured via the Accessibility ([apple] → System Preferences → Accessibility → Mouse & Trackpad).

Microsoft changed the method of enabling between Windows 2000, Windows XP (added diagonal cursor movement and MouseKeysAccel), and Windows Vista.

Replacing the mouse keys
Replacing the mouse keys by the numeric keypad is as follows: Typing 5 (with the numeric keypad) is equivalent to clicking the selected button. By default, the selected button is the primary button (nominally under index finger, left button for most right-handed people and right button for most left-handed people). Typing - (with the numeric keypad) selects the alternate button (nominally under ring finger, right button for most right-handed people and left button for most left-handed people). Typing * (with the numeric keypad) selects the modifier button (nominally under the middle finger, middle button of a 3-button mouse). Typing / (with the numeric keypad) selects the primary button. The selection remains in effect until a different button is selected.

Assignment of left/middle/right button to primary/modifier/alternate, alternate/modifier/primary, or something else is settable by many means. Some mice have a switch, that swaps assignment of right and left keys. Many laptop bioses have a setting for mouse button assignment. Many window managers have a setting that permutes the assignment. Within the X Window System core protocol, permutation can be applied by xmodmap.

Moving the pointer by keys
Other than 5, all other numeric keys from the numeric keypad are used to move the pointer on the screen. For example, 8 will move the pointer upwards, while 1 will move it diagonally downwards to the left.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mouse keys


text:
Zachariah Chandler

Zachariah Chandler (December 10, 1813 – November 1, 1879) was an American businessman, politician, and one of the founders of the Republican Party, whose radical wing he dominated as a lifelong abolitionist. He was mayor of Detroit, a four-term senator from the state of Michigan, and Secretary of the Interior under President Ulysses S. Grant.

As a successful young businessman in Detroit, Chandler supported the Underground Railroad. During the Civil War, he advocated for the Union war effort, the abolition of slavery, and civil rights for freed African Americans. As Secretary of the Interior, Chandler eradicated serious corruption in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, fully endorsing President Grant's Peace Policy initiative to civilize American Indian tribes. In 1879, he was re-elected U.S. Senator and was a potential presidential candidate, but he died the following morning after giving a speech in Chicago.

Early life and career
Zachariah Chandler was born in Bedford, New Hampshire, on December 10, 1813. His father was Samuel Chandler and his mother was Margaret Orr. Through an entirely paternal line Samuel Chandler was a descendant of William Chandler who had migrated to Roxbury, Massachusetts, from England in 1637. Through this line he was the seventh generation of his family born in North America. Margaret Orr was the oldest daughter of military officer Col. John Orr. Chandler was educated in the common schools. Upon graduation, deciding not to attend college, Chandler moved west in 1833 to Detroit, at that time the capital of Michigan Territory. In Detroit, Chandler opened a general store and through trade, banking, and land speculation became one of the wealthiest men in the state of Michigan.

Marriage and family
On December 10, 1844, Chandler married Letitia Grace Douglas, a native of Baltimore, who moved to New York. A social entertainer, Letitia lived in Washington during the Winter throughout Chandler's career. Chandler and Letitia had one daughter, Mary Douglas Chandler, who married Senator Eugene Hale of Maine. Chandler's and Letitia's grandchildren included Frederick Hale, who was a long-serving U.S. Senator from Maine, and Chandler Hale, who served as a U.S. diplomat in Rome. Letitia, known to have a "gentle and kindly disposition" and to be "much beloved," died on February 19, 1899.

Political career
From his youth, Chandler had been strongly opposed to slavery, and hoped that the Northern Whig party would be able to stop Southern slave power from spreading slavery into the Western Territories. Chandler financially supported the Detroit Underground Railroad, which helped fugitive or runaway slaves find safe haven.

In 1848 Chandler began his political career by making campaign speeches for the Whig party presidential candidate Zachary Taylor. In 1851, Chandler was elected Mayor of Detroit and served one year in office. In 1852, Chandler ran as a Whig candidate for the Governor of Michigan, but he was defeated. Having supported Kansas as a free state without slavery, Chandler signed a petition that formed the Republican Party on July 6, 1854. In 1856, Chandler was a delegate at the first Republican Party National convention in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and was a member of the Republican National Committee. The Republican Convention that year nominated John C. Frémont for president, known as The Pathfinder, who wanted to rid Kansas of African American slavery, and opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise.

U.S. Senator (1857–1875)

In January 1857, Chandler ran as a Republican and was elected as a U.S. Senator for Michigan, succeeding Lewis Cass. Chandler was reelected in 1863 and again in 1869, serving from March 4, 1857, to March 3, 1875, in the 35th through the 43rd U.S. Congresses. In the Senate Chandler allied himself with the anti-slavery Radicals, although he opposed Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner. Chandler was the most outspoken Senator against secession. From March 1861 to 1875 Chandler was chairman of the Committee on Commerce that controlled powerful "pork barrel" appropriations for rivers and harbors. At the outbreak of the Civil War Chandler used his Senatorial influence to raise and equip the Michigan volunteers. Chandler was a member of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War.

On July 6, 1862, Chandler castigated General George McClellan's prosecution of the war in a speech at Jackson, Michigan. Chandler regarded his speech against McClellan as one of his most important public services. Chandler's attack on McClellan came five days after McClellan failed to capture Richmond and the withdrawal of Union troops by McClellan to the James River during the Seven Days Battle that resulted in Confederate victory. On March 3, 1863, Chandler authored legislation for the collection and administration of abandoned property in the South. On July 2, 1864, Chandler authored legislation for the regulation of intercourse with the insurrectionist Confederate states.

Chandler supported higher tariff rates, the creation of a national bank, and voted for greenbacks as an emergency war measure, but strongly condemned any inflation of the currency. Chandler supported Reconstruction Acts that gave civil rights to African Americans, but criticized reconstruction for being too lax. On January 5, 1866, Chandler authored a resolution for non-intercourse with Great Britain for refusing to negotiate the Alabama Claims, but this was rejected by the Senate. During the Civil War Great Britain secretly allowed Confederate warships to be armed in British ports. These ships, including the CSS Alabama, did much to destroy Union commerce causing great monetary damage to the Union war effort. On November 29, 1867, in retaliation to Britain, Chandler submitted a resolution that Abyssinia be recognized as a belligerent nation at war against Great Britain, demanding that Abyssinia be given the "same rights which the British had recognized to the Confederacy" during the Civil War. During the election of 1868 Chandler was chairman of the Republican Congressional Committee.

Chandler was known as one of the Radical Republicans who pushed for harsher punishment for the former rebels, and greater liberties for African-Americans. After the war he angrily stated that "Every man who murdered and stole and poisoned was a Democrat".

During his entire Senate career Chandler used his Senatorial federal patronage to increase his own political power. Chandler's methods of obtaining power were considered "openly partisan and despotic if not actually corrupt" in obtaining control of the Republican machine in Michigan. Chandler was for many years Michigan's undisputed Republican boss. The Democratic landslide during the election of 1874 broke his Senatorial power and he was defeated by Isaac P. Christiancy while seeking election for a fourth term, when the Michigan legislature deadlocked.

Secretary of Interior (1875–1877)
Chandler was appointed Secretary of the Interior by President Ulysses S. Grant in October 1875 and served until 1877. In compliance with President Grant's recommendations and authority, he implemented reforms in and reorganized the Department of the Interior during his tenure in office. The previous Secretary of the Interior, Columbus Delano, was not a reformer, and had carelessly allowed profiteering to spread throughout the Interior Department. Secretary Chandler fired corrupt agents at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and fired and replaced the Indian Commissioner and Bureau Clerk. In addition, Secretary Chandler banned "Indian Attorneys" from the Interior Department, who swindled Indian tribes into paying for bogus representation in Washington D.C. Secretary Chandler fully endorsed President Grant's Peace Policy initiative to civilize American Indian tribes. To assist in fighting corruption Chandler convinced President Grant to appoint reformers Charles T. Gorman of Michigan to Assistant Secretary of Interior and Augustus S. Gaylord Assistant Attorney-Generalship of the Department of Interior. These men were instrumental helping Chandler remove internal corruption from the Department of Interior. In February 1876 Chandler handed Indians who refused to leave their hunting grounds, concerning the encroachment in the Black Hills by miners, over to Secretary of War William W. Belknap's department.

Reformed Bureau of Indian Affairs
When Chandler took office he found the Bureau of Indian Affairs to be the most corrupt out of the federal departments under his charge. Chandler replaced the Bureau's Commissioner and the Chief Clerk. Chandler quietly investigated the Bureau and found corrupt appointees and suspicious practices by subordinates. Chandler ordered their removal, but the new commissioner said that these men were valuable to the Bureau, so Chandler held off firing the clerks. President Grant was following Chandler's activities and asked why the corrupt clerks at the Bureau had not been fired. Chandler replied to Grant that the Commissioner said it would be impossible to run the Bureau without them. Grant, then ordered Chandler to fire the corrupt clerks even if that meant shutting down the Bureau. Chandler immediately went over to the Bureau and gave orders for the suspected clerks to be fired which was promptly enforced. This was the only time Grant was directly active in reforming a federal department. Grant continued to support Chandler in his reform efforts.

Reformed Pension Bureau and Land Office
In addition to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Chandler also thoroughly investigated the Pension Bureau. The investigation resulted in removing of fraudulent claims that saved the federal government hundreds of thousands of dollars. Within one month of his administration Chandler fired all Pension Bureau clerks involved in corruption. Chandler had Gaylord and Gorman to investigate the United States General Land Office whose investigation discovered there was a "Chippewa half-breed scrip" profiteering combination. Chandler broke up the combination and fired all of the members connected to the corrupt ring.

Reformed Patent Office
During his first month in office Chandler fired all the clerks in one room of the Patent Office declaring every desk vacant believing all the clerks were involved in either corruption or lacked the integrity for reform. Chandler vacated the room and put in charge an African American porter to lock by key and keep people from entering the room until honest replacements were found. Chandler paid no attention to complaints and warned a man who believed he was fired unjustly not to complain to the press. Chandler without warning instigated an investigation by putting a new officer in charge of monthly payrolls of Patent Office employees taking the full names and addresses of everyone who signed them. Almost twenty employees were found to be fictitious created by a profiteering ring to defraud federal payroll monies. Chandler also exposed and removed corrupt unqualified clerks who profiteered by hiring out their work to underpaid replacements. Chandler simplified Patent Office rules making patents easier to obtain and lessening their costs to the public.

Banned Indian Attorneys
In December 1875 Chandler banned "Indian Attorneys", persons who claimed to represent Indians in Washington, from the Department of Interior. Bogus "agents" induced Indian tribes to pay them $8.00 a day plus expenses in exchange for fraudulent legislative representation in Washington during the Winter months. Other agents would contract Indian land acquisition arrangements as security for payments. Preying on the fears of Indians, these "attorneys" would tell the Indians their tribal rights would be taken away in Washington if they did not accept their services. Chandler banned payment to these men for alleged services to Indians saying their claims or representation were illegal and immoral. Chandler declared, "...the regularly-appointed Indian Agent, the Commission of Indian Affairs, and the Secretary of Interior are competent to protect and defend the rights of Indians in all respects...." Chandler's banning of "Indian Attorneys" saved the Indian tribes large amounts of money.

Chairman of the Republican Party
Chandler, as Chairman of the Republican National Committee, managed Rutherford B. Hayes' successful 1876 campaign for the presidency, though Hayes declined to keep Chandler as Secretary of the Interior. He became Chairman of the Michigan Republican Party in 1878.

U.S. Senator (1879)
In 1879, he was again elected to the Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Isaac P. Christiancy, who had succeeded him just four years earlier. He served in the 45th and 46th Congresses from February 22, 1879, until his death later that year.

Last speech and death
Under consideration by party leaders as a possible candidate in the 1880 presidential election, Chandler went to Chicago to deliver a political speech on October 31, 1879. Maintaining his Radical roots, Chandler spoke in front of an African American Young Men's Republican Auxiliary Club at McCormick Hall. Chandler said that he hoped one day blacks would be able to vote freely and safely, run for office, and make speeches throughout the nation including the South just as former rebels were allowed to vote, run for office, and speak in the North. Although he had earlier contracted a cold he was known to be his robust self that day. The next day he was found dead in one of his rooms at the Grand Pacific Hotel at 7:00 in the morning reclining on his bed. He is interred at Elmwood Cemetery in Detroit.

Legacy

When Chandler was appointed Secretary of Interior by President Grant in 1875, reformers were concerned that corruption and patronage in the department would continue as under Secretary Columbus Delano, Grant's previous appointment. Chandler had a reputation as a wealthy Republican partisan political boss, rather than a reformer. However, these concerns proved unwarranted, as Chandler proved to be an efficient reformer. Chandler investigated corruption in his department and reported to President Grant, who gave him approval to launch reforms. He fired many in the department who were involved in corruption and fraud, and removed from the department persons known as "Indian Attorneys."

title: Zachariah Chandler


text:
User:Taoster/Test

Note: Ohio University is a separate educational institution and not to be confused with the one described in this article.

The Ohio State University, often abbreviated to Ohio State or OSU, is one of the largest state universities in the United States, consisting of the main campus in Columbus, Ohio, and branch campuses located in Lima, Mansfield, Marion, Gibraltar Island (Stone Lab), and Newark. The university was founded in 1870 following its establishment under Abraham Lincoln's Land-Grant Act.

Campus
The Columbus campus is currently the second largest single campus in the USA, after The University of Texas at Austin; in 2002 there were 48,477 students enrolled at the Columbus campus. The university is noted especially for its linguistics department and colleges of business, education, and engineering. The medical school is home to the James Cancer Hospital, a leading cancer research institute. The university also holds the honor of being the best public university in the state of Ohio as compiled by the U.S. News and World Report magazine in their annual college rankings special issue. The Columbus campus is also home to the renowned Wexner Center for the Arts. The current president is Karen A. Holbrook, Barbara R. Snyder is the Provost.

Sports, clubs, and traditions
The school's sports teams are called the "Buckeyes" (after the state tree, the Buckeye), and participate in the NCAA's Division I-A and the Big Ten Conference. Their football team, which plays at Ohio Stadium (the Horseshoe), won the 2002 college football national championship at the 2003 Fiesta Bowl. Its men's hockey program competes in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association, and its women's hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association.

OSU's "Buckeye Bullet" electric car broke the world record for the fastest speed by an electric vehicle on August 18, 2003 with a speed of 257 mph (413.6 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. The former US record was 251.3 mph (404.4 km/h). The vehicle was designed, built and managed by a team of engineering students at the university's "Center for Automotive Research-Intelligent Transportation" (CAR-IT).

OSU operates a public television station and public radio station in Columbus, both with the call letters WOSU. There is also a shorter range, student-run radio station. The school newspaper is called The Lantern.

The school is often referred to as Ohio State University. The proper name, when used as a noun, is The Ohio State University.

Notable Ph.D.s of Ohio State University

 * Chemistry
 * Roy Plunkett (1936)
 * Fine Arts
 * Roy Lichtenstein
 * Philosophy
 * Larry Sanger (2000)
 * Sociology
 * Frank Schmalleger (1974)

Other Famous Ohio State University Alumni

 * Berenice Abbott, photographer (briefly)
 * George Wesley Bellows, painter (1905)
 * Milton Caniff, cartoonist (1930)
 * Nancy Currie, astronaut (1980)
 * Jeffrey Dahmer, serial killer (Dahmer apparently flunked out after one semester - check other sources)
 * William Fowler, Nobel Prize Laureate
 * Eddie George, Heisman Trophy winner, NFL football player
 * Archie Griffin, only two-time Heisman Trophy winner
 * John Havlicek, NBA basketball star, Basketball Hall of Famer
 * Eileen Heckart, actress (1942)
 * Kirk Herbstreit, ESPN sports analyst
 * Woody Hayes, legendary college football coach
 * Patricia Heaton, actress on Everybody Loves Raymond
 * David A. Huffman, computer scientist (1944)
 * Clark Kellogg, basketball star, TV sports analyst
 * Bobby Knight, basketball coach
 * Jerome Lawrence,
 * Curtis LeMay, United States Air Force general (WWII and Cold War)
 * Richard Lewis, comedian, actor, writer
 * Jerry Lucas, NBA basketball star, Basketball Hall of Famer
 * Erin Moriarty, CBS news correspondent (and commencement speaker Spring Quarter 2004)
 * Jack Nicklaus, often considered the greatest golfer of all time
 * Jesse Owens, four Olympic gold medals in 1936
 * Clayton Rawson, mystery writer
 * Gigi Rice, actress
 * J. K. Simmons, actor
 * R. L. Stine, children's author
 * James Thurber, author
 * Leslie Wexner, CEO and chairman of the Limited Brands corporation
 * Dwight Yoakam, country musician

title: User:Taoster/Test


text: User talk:158.152.12.77

title: User talk:158.152.12.77


text:
Soup (Blind Melon album)

Soup is the second studio album by American rock band Blind Melon, released on August 15, 1995, through Capitol Records. It is the band's last album released during the lifetime of vocalist Shannon Hoon.

Soup received generally mixed reviews from critics and fared poorly commercially, with the album only reaching number 28 on the US Billboard 200 albums chart and going on to sell 217,000 copies in the United States by October 1996. Hoon's death from a fatal drug overdose two months after the album's release resulted in the album's promotion being abruptly cut off, further affecting sales.

The album has retrospectively been considered a "dark horse" in the alternative rock genre.

Background
Thematically, the album is much darker than the band's debut. "2 X 4" is about Hoon's experience at a drug detox, while the lyrics to the acoustic ballad "Walk" cryptically reference his addiction and attempts to recovery. "Skinned" is about murderer Ed Gein. "Car Seat (God's Presents)" is about Susan Smith, who killed her children by driving her car into a lake in Union, South Carolina. "St. Andrew's Fall" is about a suicide the band allegedly witnessed in Detroit on tour. When asked about "Mouthful of Cavities", Rogers Stevens said, "It's probably about the convoluted nooks and crannies of Shannon's brain." It featured harmonies between Hoon and Jena Kraus. "New Life" is about the birth of Hoon's daughter Nico Blue. "Wilt" is about halitosis. "Galaxie" uses the subject matter of Hoon's 1963 Ford Galaxie to also explore the deeper themes of his first love and break-up. "Lemonade" is a humorous song about a bar fight.

In a 2015 interview with the Songfacts website, Christopher Thorn explained how purchasing a variety of instruments led to the writing of certain songs on the album. "While writing songs for the Soup record, I was buying different instruments, and doing some songwriting experiments with them. I bought a banjo, so I wrote 'Skinned' just for fun. I never imagined Shannon would choose to write lyrics over that music. It was odd and really just so I could learn how to play banjo."

In a 2013 interview with Songfacts, Brad Smith recalled, "But Shannon, I think, meant every word that he said on the Soup record, and that's why it's maybe even more critically acclaimed than our first record. Our first record sold many, many more units than our second record, but the second record had a lot more critical acclaim to it. People recognize it as the truth and pure. And I think that's the earmark of a great record."

Album cover
The producer of the album, Andy Wallace, is seen on the cover, eating alphabet soup. The letters in the soup spell out Blind Melon.

Critical reception
In issue 557 of Kerrang! (dated August 5, 1995), Paul Rees gave the album a "4 K review" (which means "Klassik"), saying, "Soup - bold, barmy, and borderline great."

In the August 21, 1995, issue of People, Andrew Abrahams gave the album a somewhat positive review, saying, "If Blind Melon's eclectic approach sounds a bit maddening, it can be. But at least they've accomplished an important task: establishing a musical life beyond the Bee Girl."

In issue 716 of Rolling Stone (dated September 7, 1995), Ted Drozdowski gave a scathing review of the album, ending his write-up with the statement, "With such slight fare to offer – and no kid in a bee suit – Soup puts Blind Melon in hot water."

Also in 1995, Soup was ranked number 13 in Kerrang! magazine's "Albums of the Year" list, above releases by the likes of Alice in Chains, Faith No More, Green Day, Ozzy Osbourne, and AC/DC.

Chart-wise, Soup fared best in Canada, where it held the #14 spot on the RPM Weekly chart for the weeks of September 18 & 25, 1995.

Soup was nominated for "Best Recording Package - Boxed" at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards.

Legacy
In 2005, Soup was ranked number 357 in Rock Hard magazine's book The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. In the book, Andreas Himmelstein called Soup "a beautiful album filled with magical melodies that has completely undeservedly disappeared from the focus of the rock world."

In the 2009 book, A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and Blind Melon, drummer Glen Graham is quoted as saying, "I talked to a guy from Spain yesterday [from Popular 1 Magazine], and he was saying, "Soup is the top album of the '90s according to our readers.' It was like, 'What?'"

In 2014, Soup came in at the #1 on the "Top 10 Underrated 90’s Alternative Rock Albums" list for the Alternative Nation site.

The album took the number five spot on a "Top 10 Most Overlooked and Underrated Albums of the 90s" on the V+C website and was placed number 43 on the "50 Best Alternative Albums of the '90s" list on the MetroWeekly site.

On January 17, 2017, Soup was reissued on limited edition vinyl via Analog Sparks (cut from the original stereo tapes and pressed on 180-gram vinyl).

In an interview with the Long Island Pulse website in 2018, Thorn discussed why he feels the album has developed a cult following over the years. "It's crazy. Twenty years later, I feel finally validated. We felt like it was such a great record when it originally came out. For it to be slammed so hard, a record we were so proud of, was confusing to us. It was like, 'What? I thought we did a good job.' I get that it was dark and it was different than the first record, but in the end, it really grew on people. And more importantly, it has a great shelf life because people are not over it. I’m really flattered that people still care about that record."

In 2020, the Grammy site posted an article entitled How Blind Melon Lost Their Minds & Made A Masterpiece: 'Soup' Turns 25, that stated "Soup has quietly become a dark-horse favorite of the alt-rock era among fans and critics."

Planned live performance
In the aforementioned interview with Songfacts in 2015, Thorn spoke about plans for the band to perform the Soup album in its entirety, for the first time ever. "To celebrate the 20-year anniversary of the Soup record, Blind Melon is making plans to go play shows and perform the Soup record from top to bottom. We have never done that before, but we are excited to challenge ourselves. Some of the songs from the Soup record have never been performed live before." These performances of the entire album have never taken place.

Track listing
All songs written by Blind Melon.

 * In addition to containing the hidden track "Hello, Goodbye", there is an additional hidden track in the pregap of the CD. To hear this track, listeners must stick the CD in their player, and as soon as track one begins, rewind the track to go into the negative pregap of a CD contained before index 01 in the CD's table of contents. In addition to being in the pregap, the vocals are also backmasked, while the instruments are normal. This track acts as an overture, containing elements of the song "New Life".

Personnel
Adapted credits from the liner notes of Soup.

Blind Melon
 * Shannon Hoon – vocals, guitar, harmonica, kazoo
 * Brad Smith – bass guitar, double bass, flute
 * Christopher Thorn – rhythm guitar, mandolin, banjo
 * Rogers Stevens – lead guitar, piano, Hammond organ
 * Glen Graham – drums, percussion

Additional musicians
 * Jena Kraus – backing vocals on "Mouthful of Cavities"
 * Miles Tackett – cello on "Car Seat" and "St. Andrew's Fall"

Production
 * Steve Sisco – mixing assistant
 * Andy Wallace – producer, engineer

title: Soup (Blind Melon album)


text:
Baby Vox

Baby V.O.X (베이비복스) was a South Korean K-pop group formed in 1997, whose final and best-known line-up consisted of Kim E-Z, Lee Hee-jin, Kan Mi-youn, Shim Eun-jin, and Yoon Eun-hye. It is considered one of the most prominent "first generation" K-pop girl groups of the late 1990s and early 2000s, along with S.E.S. and Fin.K.L, and is recognized as one of the groups at the forefront of the Korean Wave, having broken into the Chinese market. The group released seven studio albums and disbanded in 2006.

Debut and early years (1997–1999)
Baby V.O.X began in 1997 as a five-member group consisting of Kim E-Z, Lee Hee-jin, Jung Hyun-jeon, Cha Yu-mi and Jung Shi-woon. The group's first single, "Hair Cut", was taken from the album Equalizeher, released on July 10, 1997. The group displayed a style inspired by Spice Girls, but the first album was not successful because of the edgy concept. Cha Yumi was injured during the performance, so she was then replaced by Kan Miyoun. Hyun-jeon and Shi-woon left the group because of an internal conflict and they were replaced by Shim Eun Jin and Lee Gai. The group adopted a more modest and "cutesy" style, used by popular groups such as S.E.S. and Fin.K.L. From the album Baby V.O.X II, the single "Ya Ya Ya" became a success, reaching number seven on the Korean pop charts. It was followed by a second single, "Change". Following the release, Lee Gai was forced out by DR Music, because she lied about her age. She had first appeared with the trio Setorae over ten years before under her birth name of Lee Hee-jung.

Breakthrough years and mainstream success (1999–2003)

In June 1999, Yoon Eun Hye replaced Lee Gai and this line-up became permanent. The single "Get Up" was released. For the first time, the group reached number one on the South Korean music pop charts. Another single, "Killer", was also number one and received the Top Excellency Award in the Seoul Music Awards in 1999. The third single, "Missing You", was also included on the album Come Come Come Baby (1999).

In the years that followed, Baby VOX made a number of appearances in variety shows. After the success of the third album, the group promoted itslf internationally, including in China, Japan and other Southeast Asian countries. The fourth album, Why, included the singles "Why" and "배신 (Betrayal)", and the group hosted the television program Beautiful Sunday-Cruise to the Korea Strait. The group's fifth album, Boyish Story, was released in 2001 and included the singles "Game Over", "인형 (Doll)" and "I Wish You are My Love".

The group released a compilation album with singles 우연 ("Coincidence") and "Go"; Coincidence was the group's first number one single in three years. "Coincidence" was re-released for the 2002 World Cup and gained additional popularity. The group held a concert in Mongolia in 2004, the first South Korean idol band to do so. The group also performed in Pyongyang, North Korea in 2003, and was the second girl group to perform in North Korea.

Final albums and separation (2003–2006)

In spring 2003, Baby VOX released a sixth album, Devotion. Baby VOX topped the Chinese music chart with the Chinese single "I'm Still Loving You" and the South Korean charts with "What Should I Do".

The group's seventh and final album, Ride West, released in April 2004, had songs in English, Chinese, Japanese and Korean, as well as appearances by well-known American hip hop artists such as Tupac Shakur and Jennifer Lopez and the independent rapper Floss P, although Tupac's "appearance" was a freestyle rap that he recorded while in prison. The rights for the sample of Tupac's verse were not cleared, and this resulted in a court case pursued by the rapper's mother, Afeni Shakur. A music video for the album's feature song, "Xcstasy", was made in English and emulated the hip-hop videos popular in the United States at the time. A member of the South Korean hip-hop group DJ DOC, offended by the alleged misuse of Tupac Shakur's lyrics, denounced them in the media but later apologized. The group was forced to abandon the release of the single. A second single, "Play Remix" featuring Jennifer Lopez, was promoted for a short while, but sales were lower than from its previous albums.

Shim Eun-jin officially left the group in October 2004 and Yoon Eun-hye in April 2005. By May 2005 the group was no longer promoting, and it officially disbanded in February 2006.

Style and influence
Baby VOX has consistently stated that they were inspired by the Spice Girls, who led the girl power movement in the UK during their early days, and since the late 1990s, they have been the first South Korean girl group to attempt sex appeal by adopting the R&B and pop styles popularized by groups like TLC. The Wall Street Journal described them as "the Asian version of the Spice Girls", and Japan's Mainichi Shimbun introduced them as "expected to cause a tectonic shift in the Japanese music industry". Domestic music industry insiders have stated that "Baby Vox is considered to have laid the groundwork for today's girl groups. They were a girl group ahead of their time, such as the first foreign singer to hold a solo concert in China", solidifying their influence. In 2014, Billboard selected Baby VOX as a K-pop girl group you should know.

Signifigance and impact towards K-pop
Their first album, which made its major debut on July 3, 1997, contained a feminist message. This was a topic that was unimaginable at the time, and unlike other girl groups that imitated Japanese girl groups such as Speed, they took advantage of POP and promoted themselves as the "Spice Girls of Asia".

Endorsements
As one of the most popular groups of their time, Baby VOX endorsed many brands. Around September of 1999, the group participated in a commercial for Hardee's. The next following year of 2000, the group also were featured in the Lotte Ice Cream commercial. In 2004, the group were promotional ambassadors Korean Air.

Final members

 * Kim E-Z – leader, rapper (1997–2006)
 * Lee Hee-jin – lead vocal (1997–2006)
 * Shim Eun-jin – sub vocal (1998–2004)
 * Kan Mi-youn – main vocal (1997–2006)
 * Yoon Eun-hye – sub vocal (1999–2005)

Former members

 * Cha Yumi, sub vocal (1997)
 * Jung Hyun-jeon, lead vocal (1997–1998)
 * Jung Shi-woon, rapper, leader (1997–1998)
 * Lee Gai, sub vocal (1998–1999)

Future generations
On December 26, 2006, DR Music unveiled the members of the second generation Baby V.O.X, a spinoff group called "Baby V.O.X. Re.V" (pronounced "reeve"). Like the original group, there is one lead vocalist, three "sub-vocalists" and a singer/rapper.

RaNia debuted in April 2011 after being originally scheduled in mid-2010. However, the company, DR Music decided to rebrand the group as a new group with eight members. RaNia is the third generation of Baby V.O.X.

title: Baby Vox


text:
Heslop-Harrison

Heslop-Harrison is a surname, and can be:
 * George Heslop-Harrison (1911–1964), British entomologist
 * Jack Heslop-Harrison (1920–1998), British botanist
 * John William Heslop-Harrison (1881–1967), British academic

title: Heslop-Harrison


text:
Abitibi—Témiscamingue (electoral district)

Abitibi—Témiscamingue is a federal electoral district in Quebec, Canada, that has been represented in the House of Commons of Canada since 2004. The area was also represented by the electoral district of Témiscamingue from 1968 until 2004.

Geography
The district includes the Regional County Municipalities of Témiscamingue, Abitibi, Abitibi-Ouest, the city of Rouyn-Noranda and a small section of south western Jamésie territory.

The neighbouring ridings are Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou, Pontiac, Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke, Nipissing—Timiskaming, and Timmins-James Bay.

Demographics
According to the 2021 Canadian census

Ethnic groups: 92.8% White, 5.4% Indigenous

Languages: 94.0% French, 3.5% English

Religions: 72.4% Christian (66.9% Catholic, 5.5% Other), 26.7% None

Median income: $42,000 (2020)

Average income: $50,680 (2020)

History
Témiscamingue was created in 1968 from parts of Pontiac—Témiscamingue and Villeneuve.

It was initially defined to consist of:
 * the Cities of Noranda and Rouyn;
 * the Towns of Belleterre, Temiscaming and Ville-Marie;
 * the County of Témiscamingue (except the Townships of Béraud, Chabert, Darlens, Desroberts, Granet, Jourdan, Landanet, Laubanie, Marrias, Mazérac, Pélissier and Sabourin without local municipal organization).

In 1976, it was redefined to consist of:
 * the Cities of Noranda and Rouyn;
 * the Towns of Belleterre, Duparquet, La Sarre, Macamic, Temiscaming and Ville-Marie;
 * the County of Témiscamingue; and
 * parts of the County of Abitibi.

In 1987, it was redefined to consist of:
 * the towns of Belleterre, Duparquet, La Sarre, Macamic, Noranda, Rouyn, Témiscaming and Ville-Marie;
 * the County of Témiscamingue excluding the Territory of Témiscamingue-Lac-Granet portion;
 * parts of the County of Abitibi; and
 * the southwest part of the Municipality of James Bay.

It was renamed "Rouyn-Noranda—Témiscamingue" in 1996, and redefined to consist of:
 * the cities of Belleterre, Cadillac, Duparquet, La Sarre, Macamic, Rouyn-Noranda, Témiscaming and Ville-Marie;
 * the county regional municipalities of Abitibi-Ouest and Rouyn-Noranda;
 * the County Regional Municipality of Témiscamingue, including Timiskaming First Nation and Eagle Village First Nation-Kipawa Indian Reserve, the Indian settlements of Hunter's Point and Winneway; and
 * the southwest part of the Municipality of James Bay.

In 1997, it was renamed "Témiscamingue".

The electoral district was abolished in 2003 when it was merged into Abitibi—Témiscamingue.

Abitibi—Témiscamingue was created in 2003. 77.1% came from Témiscamingue, and 22.9% from neighbouring Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik riding.

The riding lost a small territory to Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou as a result of the 2012 electoral redistribution.

Members of Parliament
This riding has elected the following members of the House of Commons of Canada:

Abitibi—Témiscamingue, 2004–present

 * align="left" colspan=2|New Democratic Party gain from Bloc Québécois
 * align="right"|Swing
 * align="right"| +29.0
 * align="right"|

Témiscamingue, 1968–2004
By-election: On Mr. Brien's resignation, 14 March 2003:

By-election: On Mr. Réal Caouette's death, 16 December 1976


text:
Talk:Soup (Blind Melon album)

this album is so amazing, does anybody know who the guy is on the front cover? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.238.89.121 (talk) 07:20, 18 January 2008 (UTC)

That would be producer Andy Wallace, photo was taken at a deli on break during tracking.

Hmmm, I don't know how to add another star rating to the Professional Reviews section. In any case, I thought this one was relevant, as Rolling Stone gave it only two stars and I remember the album got pretty bad reviews when it first came out. Personally, however, I think it is brilliant. Anyhow, here's the link to the RS review: http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/blindmelon/albums/album/100359/review/6068205/soup —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.35.238.71 (talk) 11:12, 15 November 2009 (UTC)

hidden track
hi my version of the album has a big pregap but no music on this, does anyone else have this experience? AppleInYourEye (talk) 00:25, 5 February 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Soup (Blind Melon album)


text:
Babalawo

Babaaláwo or Babalawo  in West Africa (Babalao in Caribbean and South American Spanish and Babalaô in Brazilian Portuguese) literally means "father of secrets" in the Yoruba language. It is a spiritual title that denotes a high priest of the Ifá oracle. Ifá is a divination system that represents the teachings of the Òrìṣà Ọrunmila, the Òrìṣà of Wisdom, who in turn serves as the oracular representative of Olodumare.

History of Babalawo
The term "Babalawo" typically refers to a Yoruba religious figure, often considered a priest or diviner, within the Ifa system of the Yoruba people in West Africa. The Ifa system is a complex and ancient divination and religious practice that has its roots in Yoruba mythology and culture and is deeply rooted in Yoruba history and mythology, making it challenging to pinpoint a specific beginning. However, it is generally believed that the Ifa system has ancient origins, dating back centuries within the Yoruba civilization.

The Ifa system revolves around the worship of Orunmila, who is considered the Orisha (deity) of wisdom and divination. Orunmila is believed to have received the knowledge of Ifa from Olodumare, the supreme deity in the Yoruba pantheon. According to Yoruba mythology, Orunmila then shared this knowledge with human beings, and the practice of Ifa divination was established to guide individuals in making decisions, understanding their destiny, and seeking spiritual guidance.

Babalawos are the custodians of the Ifa knowledge and play a crucial role in performing Ifa divination ceremonies, interpreting the messages of Orunmila, and providing guidance to individuals and communities. They undergo extensive training and are initiated into the priesthood, often passing down their knowledge through apprenticeship and oral tradition.

While the specific historical details may be challenging to ascertain due to the ancient nature of the Ifa system, it is clear that the Babalawo and Ifá practice have deep cultural and religious significance within the Yoruba community. Today, Ifa continues to be practiced not only in Nigeria, where the Yoruba people are predominant but also among Yoruba diaspora communities around the world.

Functions in society
The Babalawos are believed to ascertain the future of their clients through communication with Ifá. This is done through the interpretation of either the patterns of the divining chain known as Opele, or the sacred palm nuts called Ikin, on the traditionally wooden divination tray called Opon Ifá.

In addition to this, some of them also perform divination services on behalf of the kings and paramount chiefs of the Yoruba people. These figures, holders of chieftaincy titles like Araba and Oluwo Ifa in their own right, are members of the recognised aristocracies of the various Yoruba traditional states.

People can visit Babalawos for spiritual consultations, which is known as Dafa. The religious system as a whole has been recognized by UNESCO as a “Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity."

Impacts of Babalawo
Babalawos are key custodians of the Ifa system, preserving and transmitting Yoruba cultural heritage through oral tradition, rituals, and ceremonies. This system provides a framework for understanding morality, human relationships, and the world at large. As spiritual leaders and diviners, Babalawos offer guidance to individuals and communities by employing the Ifa divination process, addressing various aspects of life such as health, relationships, and career choices.

Furthermore, the Ifa system fosters community cohesion through participatory ceremonies, contributing to a shared cultural and religious framework. Some Babalawos are also known for their knowledge of traditional healing practices, incorporating herbs, incantations, and spiritual interventions to address both physical and spiritual ailments within the community. Babalawos often play a role in conflict resolution within families or communities, drawing on the wisdom and ethical principles emphasized by the Ifa system. The impact extends to regions where the Yoruba diaspora has spread, resulting in cultural syncretism with other religious traditions, as seen in practices like Santería, Candomblé, and Vodou.

However, challenges and controversies exist. Critics may view certain practices as superstitious or express concerns about potential financial exploitation. Additionally, clashes may arise between traditional practices and modern views, particularly in societies undergoing rapid social changes.

Despite challenges, the Ifa system contributes significantly to the cultural identity of the Yoruba people, distinguishing them from other ethnic and religious groups and fostering pride in their cultural heritage. Moreover, global interest in the Ifa system from scholars, tourists, and spiritual seekers reflects its impact on a broader scale, with both positive appreciation for cultural richness and potential negative aspects related to commodification or misrepresentation of practices. The impacts of Babalawo and the Ifa system are dynamic, evolving over time within the broader dynamics of cultural and religious practices in a changing world.

In popular culture

 * "Calle Luna, Calle Sol", a salsa song by Willie Colón and Héctor Lavoe about Crime in Puerto Rico, mentions Babalawo saying "you may have a saint watching over you but you're not a Babalawo" (Tu tienes un santo pero no eres babalao).

title: Babalawo


text:
Serra

Serra (Latin for "saw") may refer to:

People

 * Serra (footballer) (born 1961), Portuguese footballer
 * Serra (surname)
 * Serra (given name)

Brazil

 * Serra, Espírito Santo, a city in the Greater Vitória area
 * Amparo do Serra, in Minas Gerais
 * Araçoiaba da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Itapecerica da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Mirante da Serra, in Rondônia
 * Natividade da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Pé de Serra, in Bahia
 * Redenção da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Rio Grande da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Santa Maria da Serra, in São Paulo
 * São Lourenço da Serra, in São Paulo
 * Serra Azul, in São Paulo
 * Serra do Navio, in Amapá
 * Serra do Navio, in Amapá
 * Serra Negra, in São Paulo
 * Serra Talhada, in Pernambuco
 * Taboão da Serra, in São Paulo

Italy

 * La Serra, San Miniato, in Tuscany
 * Serra (Rocca Santa Maria), in Abruzzo
 * Serra d'Aiello, in Calabria
 * Serra de' Conti, in Marche
 * Serra Pedace, in Calabria
 * Serra Riccò, in Liguria
 * Serra San Bruno, in Calabria
 * Serra San Quirico, in Marche
 * Serra Sant'Abbondio, in Marche
 * Vaglio Serra, in Piedmont

Mexico

 * Jalpan de Serra, in Querétaro

Portugal

 * Jardim da Serra, in the Madeira Islands
 * Pampilhosa da Serra, in Coimbra
 * Santa Margarida da Serra, in Grândola
 * Santo António da Serra (Machico), in the Madeira Islands
 * Santo António da Serra (Santa Cruz), in the Madeira Islands
 * São Marcos da Serra, in Silves
 * Serra (Tomar), in Santarém
 * Serra de Água, in the Madeira Islands
 * Serra do Bouro, in Caldas da Rainha

San Marino

 * La Serra, in Acquaviva

Spain

 * Serra, Cape Verde
 * Serra, Valencia
 * Serra de Daró, in Catalonia
 * Serra de Portaceli, in the Valencian Community
 * La Serra d'en Galceran, in the Valencian Community

United States

 * Serra, an early name of Capistrano Beach, California

Angola

 * Serra da Chela, in south-central Angola

Brazil

 * Serra da Cangalha, in northeastern Brazil
 * Serra da Cantareira, in São Paulo
 * Serra da Mantiqueira, in southeastern Brazil
 * Serra da Ibiapaba, in Piauí and Ceará
 * Serra do Araripe, in Ceará and Pernambuco
 * Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais and Bahia
 * Serra do Mar, from Espírito Santo to Santa Catarina
 * Serra do Tiracambu, in Maranhão
 * Serra dos Aimorés, in Minas Gerais
 * Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro
 * Serra Gaúcha, in Rio Grande do Sul
 * Serra Geral, in Santa Catarina and northern Rio Grande do Sul

Cape Verde

 * Serra Negra, Cape Verde, in the island of Sal

Papua New Guinea

 * Serra Hills, in Sandaun Province

Portugal

 * Serra da Arrábida, in Setúbal
 * Serra da Estrela, in Beira Alta
 * Serra da Gardunha, in Cova da Beira
 * Serra de Monchique, in the Algarve
 * Serra de Sintra, in Sintra

Spain

 * Serra de Collserola, in Catalonia
 * Serra de Granera, in Catalonia
 * Serra del Montsec, in Catalonia
 * Serra del Montsià, in Catalonia
 * Several mountains in the Valencian Community, including:
 * Serra Calderona
 * Serra d'En Celler
 * Serra de Crevillent
 * Serra d'Espadà
 * Serra de l'Espadella
 * Serra d'En Galceran
 * Serra d'Irta
 * Serra de Mariola
 * Serra de Sant Pere
 * Serra de Vallivana
 * Serra de la Vall d'àngel

National parks

 * Aparados da Serra National Park, in Brazil
 * Serra da Canastra National Park, in Brazil
 * Serra da Capivara National Park, in Brazil
 * Serra da Estrela Natural Park, in Portugal
 * Serra do Cipó National Park, in Brazil
 * Serra do Mar coastal forests, in Brazil

Fauna

 * Banksia serra, shrub endemic to Western Australia
 * Cão da Serra de Aires, Portuguese herding dog
 * Cão da Serra da Estrela, Portuguese herding dog
 * Serra do Mar tyrannulet, species of bird endemic to Brazil
 * Serra do Mar tyrant-manakin, species of bird endemic to Brazil

Stadiums

 * Estádio Barão da Serra Negra, multi-use stadium in Piracicaba, Brazil
 * Estádio Serra Dourada, football stadium in Goiânia, Brazil

Other uses

 * Serra (dance), Pontic Greek dance
 * Serra (titular see), of the Roman Catholic Church, in Tunisia

title: Serra


text:
Mingrelian language

Mingrelian, or Megrelian (მარგალური ნინა, margaluri nina) is a Kartvelian language spoken in Western Georgia (regions of Mingrelia and Abkhazia), primarily by the Mingrelians. Mingrelian has historically been only a regional language within the boundaries of historical Georgian states and then modern Georgia, and the number of younger people speaking it has decreased substantially, with UNESCO designating it as a "definitely endangered language".

Distribution and status
No reliable figure exists for the number of native speakers of Mingrelian, but it is estimated to be between 300,000 and 500,000. Most speakers live in the Mingrelia (or Samegrelo and formerly Odishi) region of Georgia, which comprises the Odishi Hills and the Colchis Lowlands, from the Black Sea coast to the Svan Mountains and the Tskhenistskali River. Smaller enclaves existed in Abkhazia, but the ongoing civil unrest there has displaced many Mingrelian speakers to other regions of Georgia. Their geographical distribution is relatively compact, which has helped to promote the transmission of the language between generations.

Mingrelian is generally written in the Georgian alphabet, but it has no written standard or official status. Almost all speakers are bilingual; they use Mingrelian mainly for familiar and informal conversation, and Georgian (or, for expatriate speakers, the local official language) for other purposes.

History
Mingrelian is one of the Kartvelian languages. It is closely related to Laz, from which it has become differentiated mostly in the past 500 years, after the northern (Mingrelian) and southern (Laz) communities were separated by Turkic invasions. It is less closely related to Georgian, the two branches having separated in the first millennium BC or earlier, and even more distantly related to Svan, which is believed to have branched off in the 2nd millennium BC or earlier. Mingrelian is mutually intelligible only with Laz.

Some linguists refer to Mingrelian and Laz as Zan languages. Zan had already split into Mingrelian and Laz variants by early modern times, however, and it is not customary to speak of a unified Zan language today.

The oldest surviving texts in Mingrelian date from the 19th century, and are mainly items of ethnographical literature. The earliest linguistic studies of Mingrelian include a phonetic analysis by Aleksandre Tsagareli (1880), and grammars by Ioseb Kipshidze (1914) and Shalva Beridze (1920). From 1930 to 1938 several newspapers were published in Mingrelian, such as Kazakhishi Gazeti, Komuna, Samargalosh Chai, Narazenish Chai, and Samargalosh Tutumi. More recently, there has been some revival of the language, with the publication of a Mingrelian–Georgian dictionary by Otar Kajaia, a Mingrelian-German dictionary by Otar Kajaia and Heinz Fähnrich, and books of poems by Lasha Gakharia, Edem Izoria, Lasha Gvasalia, Guri Otobaia, Giorgi Sichinava, Jumber Kukava, and Vakhtang Kharchilava, journal Skani, Mingrelian wikipedia, as well as books and magazines published by Jehovah's Witnesses.

Vowels
Mingrelian has five primary vowels a, e, i, o, u. The Zugdidi-Samurzaqano dialect has a sixth, ə, which is the result of reduction of i and u.

Consonants
The consonant inventory of Mingrelian is almost identical to that of Laz, Georgian, and Svan.

Vowel reduction
Certain pairs of vowels reduce to single vowels:
 * ae and ai → ee → e
 * ao, oa and oo → aa → a
 * ou → uu → u

In Zugdidi-Samurzaqano dialect the vowels i and u also often reduce to ə.

Pre-consonant change of velar g
Before consonants, g → r.

Positional change of uvular q' sound
In word-initial prevocalic and intervocalic positions, q' → ʔ. Before the consonant v, q' → ɣ/ǩ.

Regressive assimilation of consonants
The common types are:
 * voicing/devoicing of voiceless/voiced consonants before voiced/voiceless ones (respectively).
 * glottalization of consonants before the glottalized ones and the glottal stop.

Progressive dissimilation
If the stem contains r then the suffixes -ar and -ur transform to -al and -ul, e.g. xorga (, the village)→ xorg-ul-i ("Khorgan"). The rule is not valid if in the stem with r an l appears later, e.g. marṫvili ("Martvili", the town) dj marṫvil-ur-i (adj. "Martvilian")

In a stem with voiceless affricates or voiceless sibilants, a later ǯ is deaffricated to d, e.g. orcxondji dj orcxondi "comb", ç̌andji dj ç̌andi "fly (insect)", isindji dj isindi "arrow", etc.

The transformation of l

 * in all dialects of Mingrelian, before consonants l → r.
 * in the Martvili subdialect in word-initial prevocalic position, l → y  → ∅ and in intervocalic position l → ∅

Intervocalic deletion of v
Between the vowels the organic v disappears, e.g. xvavi (Geo. "abundance, plenty") → *xvai → xvee (id.), mṭevani (Geo. "raceme") → ţiani (id.), etc.

Phonetic augmentation n
Before the stops and affricates, an inorganic augmentation n may appear (before labials n → m).

Mingrelian Alphabet
Mingrelian is written in the Mkhedruli script Latin script Cyrillic script.

Dialects
The main dialects and subdialects of Mingrelian are:

 * Zugdidi-Samurzakano or Northwest dialect
 * Jvari
 * Senaki-poti or Southeast dialect
 * Martvili-Bandza
 * Abasha

Famous speakers

 * Lavrenti Beria, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's chief of secret police
 * Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, one of the most influential Georgian writers of the 20th century
 * Zviad Gamsakhurdia, first president of post-Soviet Georgia
 * Antisa Khvichava, claimed world's oldest person (purportedly 132 years old at the time of her death in 2012).
 * Khvicha Kvaratskhelia, Georgian footballer
 * Ilia Topuria, Spanish and Georgian mixed martial artist

title: Mingrelian language


text:
Kasugai, Yamanashi

Kasugai (春日居町) was a town located in Higashiyamanashi District, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 7,689 and a density of 558.39 persons per km2. The total area was 13.77 km2.

History
On October 12, 2004, Kasugai, along the towns of Ichinomiya, Isawa, Misaka and Yatsushiro, and the village of Sakaigawa (all from Higashiyatsushiro District), was merged to create the city of Fuefuki.

title: Kasugai, Yamanashi


text:
Makioka, Yamanashi

Makioka (牧丘町) was a town located in Higashiyamanashi District, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 5,797 and a density of 56.92 persons per km2. The total area was 101.85 km2.

History
On March 22, 2005 Makioka and Mitomi (also from Higashiyamanashi District) merged into the expanded city of Yamanashi.

title: Makioka, Yamanashi


text:
Mitomi, Yamanashi

Mitomi (三富村) was a village located in Higashiyamanashi District, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 1,287 and a population density of 9.54 persons per km2. The total area was 134.91 km2.

On March 22, 2005, Mitomi, along with the town of Makioka (also from Higashiyamanashi District), was merged into the expanded city of Yamanashi.

title: Mitomi, Yamanashi


text:
Katsunuma, Yamanashi

Katsunuma (勝沼町) was a town in Higashiyamanashi District, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 9,271 and a density of 255.82 persons per km2. The total area was 36.24 km2.

On November 1, 2005, Katsunuma, the city of Enzan, and the village of Yamato (also from Higashiyamanashi District), were merged to create the city of Kōshū.

Katsunuma is also popular for white wines.

title: Katsunuma, Yamanashi