text:
Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes

Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes (10 September 1788 – 5 August 1868), sometimes referred to as Boucher de Perthes, was a French archaeologist and antiquary notable for his discovery, in about 1830, of flint tools in the gravels of the Somme valley.

Life
Born at Rethel, in the Ardennes, he was the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume Boucher de Crèvecœur, botanist and customs officer, and of Étienne-Jeanne-Marie de Perthes (whose surname he was authorised by royal decree in 1818 to assume in addition to his father's). In 1802 he entered government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him for six years in Italy, but upon his returning in 1811 he found rapid promotion at home, and finally was appointed, in March 1825, to succeed his father as director of the douane (customs office) at Abbeville, where he remained for the rest of his life.

Boucher de Perthes as an archaeologist
His leisure time was chiefly devoted to the study of what was afterwards called the Stone Age and antediluvian man, as he expressed it. About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the Somme valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make public the important discovery of a worked flint implement with remains of elephant and rhinoceros in the gravels of Menchecourt. This was in 1846.

In 1847 he commenced the issue of his monumental three volume work, Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes, a work in which he was the first to establish the existence of man in the Pleistocene or early Quaternary period. His views met with little approval, partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly because the figures in his book were badly executed and they included drawings of flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship.

In 1855 Dr Marcel Jérôme Rigollot of Amiens strongly advocated the authenticity of the flint implements; but it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer saw the collection at Abbeville and induced Sir Joseph Prestwich in the following year to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely agreed that the flint implements were the work of man, and that they occurred in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct mammalia.

Charles Lyell not only confirmed the enormous geological time periods of the stratifications, but indicated that the chalk plateau of Picardy, France had once been connected to the chalk lands of Kent, England and that the Strait of Dover or Pas de Calais was the recent result of very long term complex erosion forces.

In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together with worked flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near Abbeville seemed to vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely; but doubt was thrown on the antiquity of the human remains (owing to the possibility of interment), though not on the good faith of the discoverer, who was the same year made an officer of the Légion d'honneur. However, the 'Moulin-Quigon jaw' was a hoax, planted by one of Boucher de Perthes' workers in response to an offer of a reward of 200 Francs for findings of human remains.

Although Boucher de Perthes was the first to establish that Europe had been populated by early man, he was not able to pinpoint the precise period, because the scientific frame of reference did not then exist. Today the hand axes of the Somme River district are widely accepted to be at least 500,000 years old and thus the product of Neanderthal populations, while some authorities think they may be as old as one million years and therefore associated with Homo erectus.

Other works
Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many other directions. For more than thirty years he filled the presidential chair of the Société d'Émulation at Abbeville, to the publications of which he contributed articles on a wide range of subjects. He was the author of several tragedies, two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a number of books on economic and philanthropic questions.

Aftermath
In 1954, the Museum Boucher de Perthes was opened in Abbeville, with collections covering a wide range of materials and periods.

In his novel Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), Jules Verne makes reference to Boucher de Perthes after Professor Lindenbrock, Axel and, Hans discover "antediluvian" human heads on a beach near the center of the earth.

Published writings

 * 1830: Romances, Légendes et Ballades
 * 1832: Novels
 * Chants Armoricains ou Souvenirs de Basse-Bretagne (Armorican songs, or, Souvenirs of Low-Brittany)
 * Opinions de M Christophe, I. Sur la Liberté du Commerce. (On Free Trade)
 * Opinions de M Christophe, II. Voyage Commercial et Philosophique. (Commercial and Philosophic Journey)
 * Opinions de M Christophe, III. M. Christophe à la Préfecture. (M. Christophe at the Préfecture)
 * Opinions de M Christophe, IV. Le Dernier Jour d'un Homme. (A Man's Last Day)
 * 1833: Satires, Contes et Chansonettes (Satires, Stories and Little Songs)
 * 1835: Petit Glossaire, Esquisses de Moeurs Administratives. (Little glossary, Examples of Bureaucratic manners)
 * 1841; 5 vols.: De La Création, Essai sur L'Origine et la Progression des Êtres (On Creation, An Essay on the Origin and Development of Entities)
 * 1848: Petites Solutions des Grands Mots (Little Solutions to Great Words).
 * 1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.: Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes (with 106 plates illustrating 2000 figures) (Celtic and pre-Flood Antiquities).
 * 1850-1851; 4 vols.: Hommes et Choses (Men and Things).
 * 1852: Sujets Dramatiques (Dramatic Subjects).
 * 1852: Emma ou Quelques Lettres du Femme (Emma, or Some Letters from a Woman).
 * 1855; 2 vols.: Voyage a Constantinople. (Journey to Constantinople)
 * Voyage en Danemarck, en Suède, etc. (Journey in Denmark, Sweden, etc.).
 * 1859: Voyage en Espagne et en Algérie. (Journey in Spain and Algeria).
 * 1859: Voyage en Russe, en Lithuanie, en Pologne. (Journey in Russia, Lithuania and Poland).

title: Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes


text:
Talk:Giovanni (Pokémon)

Giovani?
Giovanni is spelled as Giovani in Pokémon Stadium (see screenshot on this page) but as Giovanni in Pokémon Yellow. --Fern 19:38, May 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * That's because of technical limitations in Stadium -- characters can only have seven letters in their names (hence why "Lt. Surge" was changed to "Surge" and "Bug Catcher" was changed to "Bug Boy"). EllipsesBent 17:46, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

"obviously with red hair"
Where does this statement come from and why is it supposedly so obvious? --User:Dcomings 18:52, June 23, 2005
 * From FireRed and LeafGreen. A Rocket Grunt in Team Rocket's base in the Sevii Islands asks the player "You're not Giovanni's kid, are you? No, Giovanni's kid has red hair." This quotation is also recorded in the Fame Checker. (By the way, some theorise Giovanni's red-haired kid is the rival from Gold and Silver). I believe the word "obviously" was used in reference to Giovanni's hair approaching a colour similar to red.Sinistro 20:23, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Ah. I'd never gotten that far in FireRed. Thanks. --User:Dcomings 22:39, June 30, 2005
 * Yet in the art of the games (in which the statement is made), Giovanni has dark hair. This would mean the mother had reddish hair (there is a complicated series of genes that determine hair colour, but I don't have absolute information on them right now).  This means his kid's mom should have red hair, should she not?  However, this of course leads only to more speculation.  Also, people can have more than one child, especially if they are a crime boss without morals.
 * I have read hair, And I can tell you now, That it's most likely who ever this kid is, it's his grandparents or great grandparents that have red hair. Red hair is most likely to jump a generation most of the time. In fact about 90% of the time from what I've observed. But that's getting a little off-topic. WolfenFuhrer (talk) 07:45, 27 May 2008 (UTC)

I was thinking if the grunt(I'm pretty sure it was a rocket scientist if I can renember correctly) knows that Giovanni's son has red hair then Giovanni himself would know who his son is therefore the chance of ash being his son would be ruled out.(Marsc corfontel 16:30, 22 May 2007 (UTC))

Persian
I like to think that Giovanni's Persian is his faithful friend and pet cat. He (Persian) always protects his master, brings in dead Raticates and Pidgeys, and sleeps on his master's bed. Whenever the boss is feeling down, Persian always comes and makes him feel better. 71.111.209.99 13:40, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Unseen?
How can he be unseen if there's a picture in the article? 69.91.106.248 03:57, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

Mewtwo.
Mewtwo is not Giovanni's Pokémon, more his minion, just like Meowth is Jessie and James' assistant/minion as opposed to their Pokémon. It is never witnessed that Mewtwo was captured, and should be assumed that he was not put into a Pokéball. - A Link to the Past (talk) 23:02, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

Don?
I quoted this from the article: "Don Giovanni also has control over various Police Officer Jennys." For one thing, I've never heard anything confirming his first name as Don. Second, I don't recall Team Rocket being in charge of the law. Teamrocketspy621 00:02, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

I was under the impression that Don referred to the title of respect, not the actual name. 24.151.51.74 04:07, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Ok, whoever stated that thing involving him having control over various Officer Jennys is quite obviously wrong. Because none of them seemed to side with Giovanni, if anything, they were totally against him if they're arresting Rocket Members proves anything, I mean, if a police force allied with a crime syndicate, why would they be arresting said crime syndicate's forces. The only time we saw an Officer Jenny working with Team Rocket was when she arrested Ash and co. for C&B in "Breeding Center Secret", which even then, she didn't even know that they were Rockets until Misty pointed it out to her (she was the only one of Ash's group who wasn't arrested.), and also had JJM stay in jail.

Prostitution?
In the part of this entry talking about where Giovanni gets his money, it mentions prostitution. I don't remember prostitution ever being mentioned in Pokemon and was rather surprised to see this. Does anybody know where this came from? It sort of looks like it may just be someone trying to drive the point home that Giovanni runs corrupt business. Brandonleon 18:24, 21 April 2007 (UTC
 * The statement calls for citation. --24.62.79.31 01:11, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

picture giovanni
since giovanni is such an important character there should be a picture of him Dogsrock 16:32, 28 May 2007 (UTC)

i found a photo at the pokemon website of him its now been placed in the article danieljackson 15:40, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

????????
Why does "????????" redirect here? Seldon1 20:20, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

what are you talking about??? danieljackson 15:41, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Type in ???????? (8 question marks) in the search bar. It will automatically redirect you to this article.

For more proof, look here:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%3F%3F%3F%3F%3F%3F%3F%3F&redirect=no

Seldon1 12:52, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

This would be because when you first meet Giovanni he is called ????????. Trainra 08:37, 23 June 2007 (UTC)

Then should there be a mention of that in the article? Seldon1 14:20, 23 June 2007 (UTC)

Not really, it's not important and it doesn't affect the game. Trainra 01:09, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

Mention of mewtwo's creation
Mewtwo is not even mentioned in this article and well he should be if it werent for giovanni mewtwo would have never have exsisted fuji worked for giovanni. danieljackson 15:43, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Finished implementing a the section on mewtwo figured i'd just give a link to the movie where it already explains everything about mewtwo danieljackson 16:09, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Magna
created magna section this is not my doing somone put this under his gym leader page and i just moved it here to clean up that article feel free to clean this up further and if there are any problems dont complain to me about them due to the fact that i didnt write the section danieljackson 16:08, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

But I KNOW Giovanni is Ash's father
If you listen to the commentary of the third Pokemon movie, you will even hear the producers hinting towards Giovanni being Ash's father.209.91.61.251 03:30, 26 June 2007 (UTC)

You answered your own statement, hinting not saying. Trainra 06:33, 27 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Not exactly. Why would they have even mentioned it if Giovanni really wasn't Ash's father? Just do us all a favor and watch it yourself.209.91.61.251 22:00, 28 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I have seen it and as you said they hinted but did not say therefore it is not confirmed. Trainra 10:56, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

Ummm... Yeah... Giovanni really isn't Ash's father, since in Mewtwo Returns, Giovanni doesn't even recognise him (If they were able to have Darth Vader recognise who Luke Skywalker is by name as his son in the Star Wars films, they could do the same thing with Giovanni) and if you are referring to the dubbed version of the third movie, they aren't the creators, so they have no say of who Ash's father is. And besides which, Giovanni did not have any recognition of Ash in Mewtwo Returns in the original or the dubbed version. If 4kids was able to add Hints and alter dialogue between Ash and Misty to Make it Much More Shippy than it ever was in the original, then they can sure as heck add in hints about Giovanni being Ash's father in Mewtwo Returns that were not even there in the original if they wanted to make sure that Ash was Giovanni's Son.

 * Also Giovanni's son is Silver, as confirmed in the games and mangaTrainra 03:09, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

sigh... "Pokemon Live!" should not be counted as canon!
ok, under family it says that the only canonical evidence of Ash being Giovanni's son is in Pokemon Live where Delia and Giovanni once dated. However, I should say that Pokemon Live should not be counted as canon since the writers of the pokemon anime (and thus satoshi tajiri) had absolutely no role in writing it, that sham of a broadway musical was created entirely by americans. so please remove that from the article please (or if not, at least remove the canonical part since it is in no way, shape, or form, canon!)

Fair use rationale for Image:12 giovanni teamrocket.jpg
Image:12 giovanni teamrocket.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 05:18, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Giovanni's Persian
According to this manga (Pokémon Card Ni Natta Wake by Kagemaru Himeno) Giovanni have got his Persian since he was a child. Is this work consider a reliable source? --valepert (talk) 22:05, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Restore Single Pages PLEASE
Somebody recently deleted entire pages of characters, merging them with this page, and has very little info. Please, please fix it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.53.83.234 (talk) 22:37, 14 January 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Giovanni (Pokémon)


text:
The Earthling

The Earthling is a 1980 American-Australian adventure film directed by Peter Collinson, and starring William Holden and Ricky Schroder. It was filmed in Australia in 1979, and was the last to be directed by Collinson before his death the following year.

Plot
Patrick Foley is a jaded loner who has been a drifter for much of his life. Discovering he has terminal cancer, he decides to return to the Australian outback where he grew up to die in solitude. His plans are interrupted however when ten year old Shawn Dailey's parents die in a horrific accident leaving the boy alone and helpless. Reluctantly, Foley teaches the boy survival and they eventually bond in love before Foley dies and Shawn begins his trek back to civilization.

Production
The film was shot from September to October 1979 in the Blue Mountains, Barrington Forest and Warrumbungle National Park. It was reported that Holden and Schroder got along while filming. Schroder named one of his children Holden in honour of his co-star.

Briann Kearney was assistant to the director.

Reception
The film drew greatly mixed reviews, with some critics reviling it, while others praised it. It played to little notice in theatres, but later became something of a daytime staple on HBO and other cable-movie channels in the 1980s. It grossed $72,000 for box office in Australia.

title: The Earthling


text:
Archaeological culture

An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of types of artifacts, buildings and monuments from a specific period and region that may constitute the material culture remains of a particular past human society. The connection between these types is an empirical observation. Their interpretation in terms of ethnic or political groups is based on archaeologists' understanding. However, this is often subject to long-unresolved debates. The concept of the archaeological culture is fundamental to culture-historical archaeology.

Concept
Different cultural groups have material culture items that differ both functionally and aesthetically due to varying cultural and social practices. This notion is observably true on the broadest scales. For example, the equipment associated with the brewing of tea varies greatly across the world. Social relations to material culture often include notions of identity and status.

Advocates of culture-historical archaeology use the notion to argue that sets of material culture can be used to trace ancient groups of people that were either self-identifying societies or ethnic groups. Archaeological culture is a classifying device to order archaeological data, focused on artifacts as an expression of culture rather than people. The classic definition of this idea comes from Gordon Childe: "We find certain types of remains – pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites and house forms – constantly recurring together. Such a complex of associated traits we shall call a 'cultural group' or just a 'culture'. We assume that such a complex is the material expression of what today we would call 'a people'."

The concept of an archaeological culture was crucial to linking the typological analysis of archaeological evidence to mechanisms that attempted to explain why they change through time. The key explanations favoured by culture-historians were the diffusion of forms from one group to another or the migration of the peoples themselves. A simplistic example of the process might be that if one pottery-type had handles very similar to those of a neighbouring type but decoration similar to a different neighbour, the idea for the two features might have diffused from the neighbours. Conversely, if one pottery-type suddenly replaces a great diversity of pottery types in an entire region, that might be interpreted as a new group migrating in with this new style.

This idea of culture is known as normative culture. It relies on the assumption found in the view of archaeological culture that artifacts found are "an expression of cultural norms," and that these norms define culture. This view is also required to be polythetic, multiple artifacts must be found for a site to be classified under a specific archaeological culture. One trait alone does not result in a culture, rather a combination of traits are required.

This view culture gives life to the artifacts themselves. "Once 'cultures' are regarded as things, it is possible to attribute behavior to them, and to talk about them as if they were living organisms."

Archaeological cultures were generally equated with separate 'peoples' (ethnic groups or races) leading in some cases to distinct nationalist archaeologies.

Most archaeological cultures are named after either the type artifact or type site that defines the culture. For example, cultures may be named after pottery types such as Linear Pottery culture or Funnelbeaker culture. More frequently, they are named after the site at which the culture was first defined such as the Hallstatt culture or Clovis culture.

Since the term "culture" has many different meanings, scholars have also coined a more specific term paleoculture, as a specific designation for prehistoric cultures. Critics argue that cultural taxonomies lack a strong consensus on the epistemological aims of cultural taxonomy,

Development
The use of the term "culture" entered archaeology through 19th-century German ethnography, where the Kultur of tribal groups and rural peasants was distinguished from the Zivilisation of urbanised peoples. In contrast to the broader use of the word that was introduced to English-language anthropology by Edward Burnett Tylor, Kultur was used by German ethnologists to describe the distinctive ways of life of a particular people or Volk, in this sense equivalent to the French civilisation. Works of Kulturgeschichte (culture history) were produced by a number of German scholars, particularly Gustav Klemm, from 1780 onwards, reflecting a growing interest in ethnicity in 19th-century Europe.

The first use of "culture" in an archaeological context was in Christian Thomsen's 1836 work Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed (Guide to Northern Antiquity). In the later half of the 19th century archaeologists in Scandinavia and central Europe increasingly made use of the German concept of culture to describe the different groups they distinguished in the archaeological record of particular sites and regions, often alongside and as a synonym of "civilisation". It was not until the 20th century and the works of German prehistorian and fervent nationalist Gustaf Kossinna that the idea of archaeological cultures became central to the discipline. Kossinna saw the archaeological record as a mosaic of clearly defined cultures (or Kultur-Gruppen, culture groups) that were strongly associated with race. He was particularly interested in reconstructing the movements of what he saw as the direct prehistoric ancestors of Germans, Slavs, Celts and other major Indo-European ethnic groups in order to trace the Aryan race to its homeland or Urheimat.

The strongly racist character of Kossinna's work meant it had little direct influence outside of Germany at the time (the Nazi Party enthusiastically embraced his theories), or at all after World War II. However, the more general "culture history" approach to archaeology that he began did replace social evolutionism as the dominant paradigm for much of the 20th century. Kossinna's basic concept of the archaeological culture, stripped of its racial aspects, was adopted by Vere Gordon Childe and Franz Boas, at the time the most influential archaeologists in Britain and America respectively. Childe, in particular, was responsible for formulating the definition of archaeological culture that is still largely applies today. He defined archaeological culture as artifacts and remains that consistently occur together. This introduced a "new and discrete usage of the term which was significantly different from current anthropological usage." His definition in particular was purely a classifying device to order the archaeological data.

Though he was sceptical about identifying particular ethnicities in the archaeological record and inclined much more to diffusionism than migrationism to explain culture change, Childe and later culture-historical archaeologists, like Kossinna, still equated separate archaeological cultures with separate "peoples". Later archaeologists have questioned the straightforward relationship between material culture and human societies. The definition of archaeological cultures and their relationship to past people has become less clear; in some cases, what was believed to be a monolithic culture is shown by further study to be discrete societies. For example, the Windmill Hill culture now serves as a general label for several different groups that occupied southern Great Britain during the Neolithic. Conversely, some archaeologists have argued that some supposedly distinctive cultures are manifestations of a wider culture, but they show local differences based on environmental factors such as those related to Clactonian man. Conversely, archaeologists may make a distinction between material cultures that actually belonged to a single cultural group. It has been highlighted, for example, that village-dwelling and nomadic Bedouin Arabs have radically different material cultures even if in other respects, they are very similar. In the past, such synchronous findings were often interpreted as representing intrusion by other groups.

Criticism
The concept of archaeological cultures is itself a divisive subject within the archaeological field. When first developed, archaeologic culture was viewed as a reflection of actual human culture. "...in the traditional view we translate present into past by collecting artifacts into groups, and naming those groups as archaeological cultures. We then make the equation between an archaeological and a human culture by making the assumption that artifacts are the expressions of cultural ideas or norms. (...) This approach (...) was termed 'culture history' by many (...)." This view of culture would be "entirely satisfactory if the aim of archaeology was solely the definition and description of these entities." However, as the 1960s rolled around and archaeology sought to be more scientific, archaeologists wanted to do more than just describe artifacts, and the archaeological culture found.

Accusations came that archaeological culture was "idealist" as it assumes that norms and ideas are seen as being "important in the definition of cultural identity." It stresses the particularity of cultures: "Why and how they are different from the adjacent group." Processualists, and other subsequently critics of cultural-historical archaeology argued that archaeological culture treated culture as "just a rag-tag assemblage of ideas."

Archaeological culture is presently useful for sorting and assembling artifacts, especially in European archaeology that often falls towards culture-historical archaeology.

title: Archaeological culture


text:
Jonathan Lebed

Jonathan G. Lebed (born September 29, 1984) is an American businessman and former stock trader who reached an out-of-court civil settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) at age 15 for stock manipulation.

Early life and education
Lebed was raised in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, and graduated from Cedar Grove High School.

Career
Between September 1999 and February 2000, Lebed made hundreds of thousands of dollars from using a computer in his bedroom in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, using pump and dump by posting in internet chat rooms and message boards, encouraging people to buy penny stocks he already owned, thus, according to the SEC, artificially raising the price of the stock. Between September 1999 and February 2000, his smallest one-day gain was US$12,000, while his biggest was $74,000. Lebed became the first minor prosecuted by the SEC. In 2001, Lebed and the SEC negotiated an out-of-court settlement in which Lebed forfeited $285,000 in profit and interest he had made on 11 trades without admitting any wrongdoing, allowing him to keep close to half a million dollars.

In 2003, Lebed was an unsuccessful candidate for the Cedar Grove township council.

Lebed's legal issues were profiled in an episode of the 2001 BBC documentary The Future Just Happened.

In 2010, he was living in Wayne, New Jersey, and was the sole owner of Lebed Biz LLC, which runs a website touting penny stocks. In 2008, a company won a $2.56 million judgment against Lebed.

title: Jonathan Lebed


text:
Reni Jusis

Reni Jusis (born March 29, 1974, in Konin, raised in Mielno) is a Polish pop singer, songwriter and producer. At first, Jusis recorded R&B music, which evolved into electronic dance style in later albums. After ten years of her career, she recorded piano pop music.

Beginnings
Reni Jusis began performing on stage early as a child. Her first success was winning a local vacation song contest. Later she performed in one of the most popular child groups in Poland, Gawęda (band).

Jusis is musically educated. First she took piano lessons in music elementary school and music high school. In 1993, she performed in the musical Fatamorgana ("Mirage") with the music of her school friend Adam Sztaba at the Baltycki Teatr Dramatyczny in Koszalin. It was the first step in her career, because there she was discovered by music producer and later rapper Yaro.

Yaro offered Reni the chance to be a backing vocalist in his rock band and later he toured with her. They also were a couple. Finally Yaro changed the band's line-up and style. He began making rap music and Reni sang refrains in his songs. They were a support act for the most popular rapper in Poland, Liroy. Thanks to him they met world-famous Polish jazz musician Michal Urbaniak who took them under his artistic care. Together they even created a few songs, but they never were released. Still, Urbaniak recommended Jusis to Polish record companies which brought about her record contract with Polish division of EMI Music. In 1997 Yaro and Reni published the album Yazzda, with smash hit Rowery dwa ("Two Bikes").

Solo debut
After that success Yaro began work on Reni's solo debut album, which was released next year. The first effect was massive hit Zakrecona ("Twisted"), which gave title for her album. It was released with a mixture of R&B, funk and hip-hop music. All songs were written by Reni mainly with Yaro. In that year Jusis also graduated in choir conducting from the Academy of Music in Poznań. In 1999 the album Zakrecona earned 3 awards of Polish Music Industry Fryderyk Awards for: Best Debut Of The Year, Best Song Of The Year and Best Rap/Hip-Hop Album Of The Year. Reni gained fame and respect of the music industry. Unfortunately artistic and private conflicts caused the end of the collaboration and relationship between Yaro and Reni.

Her second album Era Renifera ("Era of the Reindeer" – a play on words, because word "reindeer" in Polish contains Reni's name) from 1999 also was a mixture of black rhythms, but this time with the addition of reggae. She produced the whole album herself, and also composed and wrote most of the songs. This album contained the very popular cover of 10CC hit Dreadlock Holiday.

Music metamorphosis
Another album Elektrenika ("Electrenic" – mix of words "electronic" and "Reni") was released after a two-year break and was the breakthrough turn in Jusis' sound for electronic music based on club rhythms, 2-step and house, inspired by the music from the 80's. Almost all lyrics were written by Reni, just like half of the compositions. Another half was composed by her with Michal Przytula, who also produced the whole album with her. Przytula earlier worked with Reni on her previous albums as a record engineer. Elektrenika was promoted by "Electrenic Night Tour" which helped her to gain popularity among the fans of club music. The album brought two big hits, Nic o mnie nie wiecie ("You Don't Know Anything About Me") and Nigdy Ciebie nie zapomnę ("I Never Forget You") known on the record as Jakby przez sen ("Like Through A Dream").

Jusis' fourth album Trans Misja ("Trance Mission" – a play on the words "trance", "mission" and "transmission"), released after another two-year break in 2003, continued the music direction from the previous album, but offered different styles – including songs in the electro-pop style. This time Jusis produced and composed the whole album and wrote almost all lyrics. Michal Przytula remained record engineer and even became Reni's manager. Trans Misja achieved more success than previous albums thanks to three huge hits Kiedyś Cię znajdę ("Someday I Find You"), Ostatni raz (nim zniknę) ("The Last Time Before I Disappear"), It's Not Enough and still more popular club tournee "Top Secret Tour". The completion of this success was another Fryderyk Award, this time for Best Dance/Electronic/Club Album of the Year.

Club icon
For Reni Jusis' fifth album Magnes ("Magnet"), her fans had to wait three years, until 2006. In the meantime, Reni left her record label and established her own, named Pink Pong Records, connected with Polish division of Universal Music. In the beginning of 2006, EMI released the 5-disc box set Dyskografia ("Discography") containing Reni Jusis' first four albums and a DVD featuring all her solo music videos.

The album Magnes was produced and almost entirely composed by Jusis and Przytuła (as Mic Microphone). Reni also penned almost all the lyrics. The lead single, Kilka prostych prawd ("A Few Simple Truths"), was released in late 2005, nine months before the album. The electro-pop song outwardly signaled that the sound of the new material would be the same as on the previous record. Still, Magnes turned out to be a radical dance album; additionally, all songs were merged into each other, like one continuous club set. This album consolidated Reni Jusis' position as an icon of Polish club music. The release of the album was accompanied by the second single, the eponymous title track Magnes ("Magnet"). Apart from seven new tracks, the album also featured new English language versions of three older hit songs (Leniviec, Nigdy Ciebie nie zapomnę (as How Can I Ever Forget You) and Kto pokocha (as Single Bite Lover) and remixes of album's first two singles. The next singles released from the album were Mixtura ("Mixture") and Niemy krzyk ("Mute Shout").

Magnes also won another Fryderyk Award in 2007 for Best Club Album of the Year. The album was supported by a major club tour, the "Magnes Live Tour". The tour was promoted by a brand new single, Motyle ("Butterflies").

Acoustic turn
After a nearly two-year break, Reni Jusis announced the release of an album of acoustic music. The album got released in 2009 under the title ''Iluzjon cz. I ("Iluzjon, Part I") and was promoted by the single A mogło być tak pięknie'' ("It Could Have Been So Lovely"). It was released by Jusis' own new record label, Amfibia Records. The new project wasn't only a stylistic turning point in her career but also a turn in the way of performing. This time the artist planned to perform in old theatres instead of clubs, because of the album's title, which is the name of the old cinema Jusis used to go to when she was young. Unfortunately sales of this album were so poor that Jusis didn't go on tour. Jusis explained that the sudden turn in her style is caused by the aim of going back to her first musical fascinations. 'The concert of Soyka & Yanina impressed me of all concerts the most,' she spoke. 'It was after this particular concert that I started to think of my own music career and founding a band consisting of eminent musicians. Not until today, after ten-year-long career, I had been ready to take up this challenge', she confessed.

While working on this album she married the vocalist and composer Tomek Makowiecki, on August 8, 2008. On January 1, 2010, Jusis gave birth to their son, Teofil.

In July 2010 Jusis recorded the song Twoją wiarę mam ("I Have Your Faith") for the Polish version of the soundtrack to Walt Disney's Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue. In February 2011 she dubbed a Polish version of the computer game Test Drive Unlimited 2.

In November 2011 Jusis released her first book, written with Magda Targosz, Poradnik dla zielonych rodziców ("A Guide For Green Parents"), promoting the raising of children in accordance with ecology.

Return to dance music
In 2016, almost seven years after her last album, Jusis released her new one with dance music, called Bang!. It was released by the Polish division of Sony Music. Her new avant-garde electronic sound was almost entirely created by producer Stendek. Jusis penned all the lyrics. The album was promoted by singles Bejbi Siter ("Babysitter"), Zombi świat ("Zombie World") and Delta, followed by club tournee "Bang! Tour".

title: Reni Jusis


text:
Shetucket River

The Shetucket River is a tributary of the Thames River, 20.4 mi long, in eastern Connecticut in the United States.

It is formed at Willimantic by the junction of the Willimantic and Natchaug rivers. It flows southeast and south. Approximately 4 mi northeast of Norwich it receives the Quinebaug River and broadens into a wide estuary which stretches southeast for approximately 5 mi and joins the Thames estuary on the south side of Norwich.

The river flows through a rural section of New England, despite the historical presence of industry in the surrounding region. Parts of the rivers have been designated by the federal government as the Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor. The National Park Service describes the river valley as the "last green valley" in the Boston-to-Washington megalopolis. In nighttime satellite photos, the valley appears distinctively dark amidst the lights of the surrounding urban and suburban regions.

Environmental issues
The Shetucket River has been tested for the presence of PFAS following the June 8, 2019 incident that spilled thousands of gallons of firefighting foam in the Farmington River. Elevated levels of PFAS were found in bass collected in the Shetucket River, Natchaug River and the Willimantic River. As of 2023, the Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection still mentions a fish consumption advisory in effect for those three rivers.

Paddling the River
The entire length of the river, as well as the lower part of the Natchaug River flowing into it, is a popular recreational paddling route.

Canoe/Kayak launch sites are located at the following locations:
 * Lauter Park off Route 195 - Willimantic (on Natchaug River 1 mile above Shetucket River)
 * Recreation Park on Plains Road - Windham
 * Baltic Riverside Park on Route 97 - Sprague
 * Occum Dam canoe portage - Sprague
 * Lisbon Canoe Launch off Route 169 - Lisbon
 * Greenville Dam canoe portage - Norwich
 * Howard Brown Park - Norwich

Short, marked portages are required at four hydroelectric dams: Scotland Dam, Occum Dam, Taftville Dam, and Greenville Dam.

title: Shetucket River


text:
Shuffleboard

Shuffleboard is a game in which players use cues to push weighted discs, sending them gliding down a narrow court, with the purpose of having them come to rest within a marked scoring area. As a more generic term, it refers to the family of shuffleboard-variant games as a whole.

History
The earliest references to shuffleboard (as table shuffleboard) appear in Tudor England. Henry VIII played "shovillabourde" for stakes, and custom "shovelboard" tables were kept in wealthy century English households until the 17th century. Examples of such tables survive at Stanway House and Tredegar House. The rising popularity of billiards in that century displaced shovelboard from high society, but variations of it continued in public houses. One of these called shove-groat was played during Henry's reign and was widespread enough to be banned by name in the Unlawful Games Act 1541. A similar game called shove ha'penny is still played today.

Travel literature and other sources describe ship passengers improvising shuffleboard games on deck (also called deck billiards or deck skittles) as early as the 1830s to pass time at sea. One account describes shuffleboard as "a kind of deck bagatelle," a then-popular billiards game with numbered scoring targets. Robert Ball is credited with bringing this "deck shuffleboard" ashore in 1913 when he added a court in front of his Lyndhurst Hotel in Daytona Beach, Florida. The game spread through Daytona Beach and around the state, prompting the establishment of clubs and regulations. The St. Petersburg Shuffleboard Club began in 1924 with two courts and, driven by the game's surging popularity, expanded to 116 courts by 1939. Efforts to develop the game as a professional sport had limited success, and by the 1960s club participation had dropped significantly. The St. Petersburg Club was down to 35 members in the early 2000s before it rebounded with an influx of younger players. The game continues throughout the United States as an amateur pastime, attractive to older players due to its combination of low physical demands and strategic complexity. The Florida version of the game is also played on cruise ships and has been adapted back into table form.

Gameplay
Players use a cue (cue-stick), to push their colored discs, down a court (a flat floor of concrete, wood or other hard material, marked with lines denoting scoring zones), attempting to place their discs within a marked scoring area at the far end of the court. The discs themselves are of two contrasting colors (usually yellow and black), each color belonging to a player or team. The scoring diagram is divided by lines, into six scoring zones, with the following values: 10, 8, 8, 7, 7, 10-off (minus ten).

After eight discs (four per team, taking alternating shots) have been played from one end of the court (a frame), the final score values of discs for each player (or team) in the scoring zones is assessed: If a disc is completely within a scoring zone without touching (overlapping) any part of the border-line of the zone, it is good and that zone value is added to the correct player's score for the frame, and then to the player's total points. Both players' good discs are added to their respective scores. Players (or teams of two players, one at each end) take turns going first during a game, so that the advantageous last shot of a frame (the hammer) also alternates between players.

The winner of the game may be the first to reach any total decided upon, or may be the higher score after playing a certain number of frames (e.g. 8, 12 or 16). There is also the 'first to 75-points' game. Ties are broken by playing extra frames (two for singles, four for doubles).

Court description
Dimensions of a floor shuffleboard court can vary to suit available space, but an official shuffleboard court is 6 ft wide by 39 ft in length plus a 6 ft shooting area at each end. Typically a scoring zone is painted at each end of the court to reduce set-up time between games. Each scoring zone comprises an isosceles triangle 6 feet × 9 feet with the short edge away from the shooter. Behind the scoring zone is the 10-off zone, an area 1½ feet deep. The court surface is usually a uniform dark green; lines are 1 inch wide except for the mid-shooting area. 1 in white lines form the scoring triangle and further divide the triangle into the separate scoring zones. (Line width is not considered in court dimensions given here.)

The court is the same from each end, including:

 * A 6 ft Player Shooting Area. The shooting area begins behind the back line of the 10-off trapezoid. This line is called the Baseline. The shooter may not step on or beyond the Baseline.
 * A "10-off" area or "kitchen" measuring 1.5 ft. The sides of the 10-off area are defined by two lines running at the same angle as the Scoring Triangle.
 * The Back-7 Line crosses the entire court.
 * A center-line runs from the middle of the Back-7-line up the middle of the court for 6 ft. The two 7 score zones are located on each side of the Center-Line, for a length of 3 feet, bounded at the top by the Back-8 line, running side to side across and within the scoring triangle;
 * The two 8 scoring zones are located one each side of the center-line for a length of 3 ft, bounded at the top by the Top-8 line running side to side across and within the scoring triangle, and forming a T with the end of the center-line.
 * The 10 scoring zone is at the peak of the overall scoring triangle, and is 3 feet in height, from the Top-8 line to the peak of the triangle. A further dead-line or lag-line runs from side to side 12 feet from the base-line. The dead-line is therefore 3 feet from the tip of the triangle.
 * There are two dead-lines, 12 feet apart. Any shot disc that does not cross or touch the furthest dead-line is then simply removed from the court (a wasted shot).

Equipment
Modern floor shuffleboard is played with eight round, hard, durable 6 in diameter plastic discs. New discs are about 1 in in thickness, weighing 15 oz. In a set of discs, there are four discs of a light color and four of a dark color. One color is used by one team. The most common colors are yellow and black, but others are occasionally used.

Each player uses a cue (or cue-stick) to push their discs down the court to the opposite end. The cue length is 6 ft or less, with hard plastic feet on the end (as metal would damage the court surface).

There are two basic types of scoreboard:
 * Resort type uses two sliders that can move up and down a numbered scale, like a thermometer, with values running from zero at the bottom to 75 at the top. Each team used their own slider to record their total score. The resort-type scoreboard is simple and durable, but provides no way to detect scoring errors from one frame to the next.
 * Blackboard (or whiteboard) type is ruled with four or eight horizontal lines and each team's total score is written after each frame, yellow on the left and black on the right. When all the lines have been filled with scores the top lines are erased and scores are again written from the top. The advantage of the blackboard type is that mistakes in adding and recording the score are easier to spot, because previous scores should always be seen. As well, it is easy to keep track of frames played using small numbers written down the scoreboard. In the western United States and western Canada, blackboard-type scoreboards run from side-to-side, but the principle is the same.

Courts are available for use on residential decks or on any solid flat surface, in the form of roll-out plastic mats, or adjustable arrays of plastic tiles. With the tile courts, the dimensions can be adapted to the space available; e.g. it is possible to play on a court 30 ft by 5 ft. The roll-out mats are available in two sizes, 39 x and 27 x. The smaller mats are designed to fit on a domestic patio or driveway. The biscuit and tang are the same standard size, regardless which court size is used.

Strategy
Discs are scored according to their final position at the end of the frame, rather than where they were originally shot, and striking any previously shot disc is permitted. These rules bring a significant strategic aspect to the gameplay. An unobstructed disc in the scoring area can be knocked out of the court or into the 10-off area by an opposing player. It is common to block the scoring area by shooting discs into the zone between the dead line and scoring triangle. A blocking disc on the opponent's side obstructs them from scoring with a straight shot, while a blocking disc on one's own side secures that side for straight shots. The last shot of a frame, called the "hammer," is a critical opportunity to change the score in one's favor.

International Shuffleboard Association
The ISA was founded March 10, 1979, in St. Petersburg, Florida. The ISA was designed to make shuffleboard more popular in countries outside the North American continent, and to foster shuffleboard through international competitions. In 1981 in Muskegon, Michigan the first ISA Team World Championships were held, starting with teams from Canada, the USA and Japan only. Australia (1991), Brazil (1997), Germany (2006), Norway (2011) Russia (2013) and lately Netherlands (2023) joined the World Championships, which take place yearly and last for one week.

Table shuffleboard variants
In table shuffleboard, the play area is most commonly a wooden or laminated surface covered with silicone beads (colloquially called 'shuffleboard wax') to reduce friction. In the United States, a long, narrow 22 ft table is most commonly used, though tables as short as 9 ft are known.

Players try to slide metal-and-plastic pucks, sometimes called weights or shuckles, to come to rest within zones at the other end of the board. Cues are not used, the pucks being propelled with the hands directly on the raised table. There are scoring zones at each end of the table so that direction of play can rotate after each frame, or so that teams can play both directions during one frame. More points are awarded for weights scoring closer to the far edge of the board. Players take turns sliding the pucks, trying to score points, bump opposing pucks off the board, and/or protect their own pucks from bump-offs. The long sides of the table are bounded by gutters into which pucks can fall or be knocked (in which case they are no longer in play for the remainder of the frame). A variant known sometimes as bankboard has rubber cushions or 'banks' running the length of both sides of the table, instead of gutters, and as in billiards, the banks can be used to gain favorable position. A common and even smaller-scale British tabletop variant is shove ha'penny, played with coins, while a somewhat larger wooden-puck variant called sjoelen, which has much in common with the ball games bagatelle and skeeball, is played principally in the Netherlands.

Object of the game
The objective of the game is to slide, by hand, all four of one's Weights alternately against those of an opponent, so that they reach the highest scoring area without falling off the end of the board into the alley. Furthermore, a player's Weight(s) must be farther down the board than his opponent's Weight(s), in order to be in scoring position. This may be achieved either by knocking off the opponent's Weight(s), or by outdistancing them. Horse collar, the most common form of the game, is played to either 15 or, more typically, 21. Only the weights in front score.

The standard size of outdoor court is 52 feet long and 10 feet wide. For playing on surface, players hold stick like paddles to propel the pucks (biscuits/discs) into a numerical area that shows lines with specific scoring points.

title: Shuffleboard


text:
User:Cprompt/Watchlist

 * Anonymous contributions from my IP address - Apparently someone using the university's proxy is doing some vandalism
 * Guru Meditation

title: User:Cprompt/Watchlist


text:
Edward Sterling

Edward Sterling (1773 – 1847) was a British journalist.

Life
He was the son of the Rev. Anthony Sterling, and was born at Waterford. He was educated at Trinity College Dublin. Called to the Irish Bar, he fought as a militia captain at the Battle of Vinegar Hill, and then volunteered with his company into the line. On the break-up of his regiment he went to Scotland and took to farming at Kames Castle.

In 1810, Sterling and his family moved to Llanblethian in the Vale of Glamorgan, and during his residence there Edward Sterling, under the signature of "Vetus," contributed a number of letters to The Times. These were reprinted in 1812, and a second series in 1814. In that year he moved to Paris, but on the escape of Napoleon from Elba in 1815 took up residence in London, obtaining a position on the staff of The Times; and during the late years of Thomas Barnes's administration he was practically editor. His fiery, emphatic and oracular mode of writing conferred those characteristics on The Times which were recognized in the nickname, the "Thunderer."

Family
In 1804 Sterling married Hester Coningham. Her uncle Walter Coningham (died 1830) had made a fortune through the sugar plantations of St Vincent, and his money, based on slave labour, supported the Sterlings. The couple had seven children, of whom five died young, The remaining sons were:

 * Colonel Sir Anthony Coningham Sterling (1805–1871). He served in the Crimean War and as military secretary to Lord Clyde during the Indian Mutiny; and was the author of The Highland Brigade in the Crimea and other books.
 * John Sterling (1806–1844), man of letters.

title: Edward Sterling


text:
Industry (archaeology)

In the archaeology of the Stone Age, an industry or technocomplex is a typological classification of stone tools.

An industry consists of a number of lithic assemblages, typically including a range of different types of tools, that are grouped together on the basis of shared technological or morphological characteristics. For example, the Acheulean industry includes hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers and other tools with different forms, but which were all manufactured by the symmetrical reduction of a bifacial core producing large flakes. Industries are usually named after a type site where these characteristics were first observed (e.g. the Mousterian industry is named after the site of Le Moustier). By contrast, Neolithic axeheads from the Langdale axe industry were recognised as a type well before the centre at Great Langdale was identified by finds of debitage and other remains of the production, and confirmed by petrography (geological analysis). The stone was quarried and rough axe heads were produced there, to be more finely worked and polished elsewhere.

As a taxonomic classification of artefacts, industries rank higher than archaeological cultures. Cultures are usually defined from a range of different artefact types and are thought to be related to a distinct cultural tradition. By contrast, industries are defined by basic elements of lithic production which may have been used by many unrelated human groups over tens or even hundred thousands of years, and over very wide geographical ranges. Sites producing tools from the Acheulean industry stretch from France to China, as well as Africa. Consequently, shifts between lithic industries are thought to reflect major milestones in human evolution, such as changes in cognitive ability or even the replacement of one human species by another. However, findings from ancient DNA studies describe several changes and periods of stasis in European populations that are not strongly reflected in the current cultural taxonomic frameworks. Therefore, artefacts from a single industry may come from a number of different cultures.

title: Industry (archaeology)


text:
Quantum well

A quantum well is a potential well with only discrete energy values.

The classic model used to demonstrate a quantum well is to confine particles, which were initially free to move in three dimensions, to two dimensions, by forcing them to occupy a planar region. The effects of quantum confinement take place when the quantum well thickness becomes comparable to the de Broglie wavelength of the carriers (generally electrons and holes), leading to energy levels called "energy subbands", i.e., the carriers can only have discrete energy values.

The concept of quantum well was proposed in 1963 independently by Herbert Kroemer and by Zhores Alferov and R.F. Kazarinov.

History
The semiconductor quantum well was developed in 1970 by Esaki and Tsu, who also invented synthetic superlattices. They suggested that a heterostructure made up of alternating thin layers of semiconductors with different band-gaps should exhibit interesting and useful properties. Since then, much effort and research has gone into studying the physics of quantum well systems as well as developing quantum well devices.

The development of quantum well devices is greatly attributed to the advancements in crystal growth techniques. This is because quantum well devices require structures that are of high purity with few defects. Therefore, having great control over the growth of these heterostructures allows for the development of semiconductor devices that can have very fine-tuned properties.

Quantum wells and semiconductor physics has been a hot topic in physics research. Development of semiconductor devices using structures made up of multiple semiconductors resulted in Nobel Prizes for Zhores Alferov and Herbert Kroemer in 2000.

The theory surrounding quantum well devices has led to significant advancements in the production and efficiency of many modern components such as light-emitting diodes, transistors for example. Today, such devices are ubiquitous in modern cell phones, computers, and many other computing devices.

Fabrication
Quantum wells are formed in semiconductors by having a material, like gallium arsenide, sandwiched between two layers of a material with a wider bandgap, like aluminum arsenide. (Other examples: a layer of indium gallium nitride sandwiched between two layers of gallium nitride.) These structures can be grown by molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapor deposition with control of the layer thickness down to monolayers.

Thin metal films can also support quantum well states, in particular, thin metallic overlayers grown in metal and semiconductor surfaces. The vacuum-metal interface confines the electron (or hole) on one side, and in general, by an absolute gap with semiconductor substrates, or by a projected band-gap with metal substrates.

There are 3 main approaches to growing a QW material system: lattice-matched, strain-balanced, and strained.

 * Lattice-matched system: In a lattice-matched system, the well and the barrier have a similar lattice constant as the underlying substrate material. With this method, the bandgap difference there is minimal dislocation but also a minimal shift in the absorption spectrum.
 * Strain-balanced system: In a strain-balanced system, the well and barrier are grown so that the increase in lattice constant of one of the layers is compensated by the decrease in lattice constant in the next compared to the substrate material. The choice of thickness and composition of the layers affect bandgap requirements and carrier transport limitations. This approach provides the most flexibility in design, offering a high number of periodic QWs with minimal strain relaxation.
 * Strained system: A strained system is grown with wells and barriers that are not similar in lattice constant. A strained system compresses the whole structure. As a result, the structure is only able to accommodate a few quantum wells.

Description and overview
One of the simplest quantum well systems can be constructed by inserting a thin layer of one type of semiconductor material between two layers of another with a different band-gap. Consider, as an example, two layers of AlGaAs with a large bandgap surrounding a thin layer of GaAs with a smaller band-gap. Let’s assume that the change in material occurs along the z-direction and therefore the potential well is along the z-direction (no confinement in the x–y plane.). Since the bandgap of the contained material is lower than the surrounding AlGaAs, a quantum well (Potential well) is created in the GaAs region. This change in band energy across the structure can be seen as the change in the potential that a carrier would feel, therefore low energy carriers can be trapped in these wells.

Within the quantum well, there are discrete energy eigenstates that carriers can have. For example, an electron in the conduction band can have lower energy within the well than it could have in the AlGaAs region of this structure. Consequently, an electron in the conduction band with low energy can be trapped within the quantum well. Similarly, holes in the valence band can also be trapped in the top of potential wells created in the valence band. The states that confined carriers can be in are particle-in-a-box-like states.

Physics
Quantum wells and quantum well devices are a subfield of solid-state physics that is still extensively studied and researched today. The theory used to describe such systems uses important results from the fields of quantum physics, statistical physics, and electrodynamics.

Infinite well model
The simplest model of a quantum well system is the infinite well model. The walls/barriers of the potential well are assumed to be infinite in this model. In reality, the quantum wells are generally of the order of a few hundred milli-electronvolts. However, as a first approximation, the infinite well model serves as a simple and useful model that provides some insight into the physics behind quantum wells.

Consider an infinite quantum well oriented in the z-direction, such that carriers in the well are confined in the z-direction but free to move in the x–y plane. we choose the quantum well to run from $$z = 0$$ to $$z = d$$. We assume that carriers experience no potential within the well and that the potential in the barrier region is infinitely high.

The Schrödinger equation for carriers in the infinite well model is:

 * $$-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m{_w}^*}\frac{\partial^2\psi(z)}{\partial z^2} = E\psi(z)$$

where $$\hbar$$ is Planck's constant divided by $$2\pi$$ and $$m^*_w$$ is the effective mass of the carriers within the well region. The effective mass of a carrier is the mass that the electron "feels" in its quantum environment and generally differs between different semiconductors as the value of effective mass depends heavily on the curvature of the band. Note that $$m^*_w$$ can be the effective mass of electrons in a well in the conduction band or for holes in a well in the valence band.

Solutions and energy levels
The solution wave functions cannot exist in the barrier region of the well, due to the infinitely high potential. Therefore, by imposing the following boundary conditions, the allowed wave functions are obtained,

 * $$\psi(0) = \psi(d) = 0.$$

The solution wave functions take the following form:

 * $$\psi_n(z) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{d}} \sin(k_nz) \qquad k_n=\frac{n\pi}{d}.$$

The subscript $$n$$, ($$n > 0$$) denotes the integer quantum number and $$k_n$$ is the wave vector associated with each state, given above. The associated discrete energies are given by:

 * $$E_n=\frac{\hbar^2k_n^2}{2m_w^*} = \frac{\hbar^2}{2m_w^*} \left(\frac{n\pi}{d}\right)^2.$$

The simple infinite well model provides a good starting point for analyzing the physics of quantum well systems and the effects of quantum confinement. The model correctly predicts that the energies in the well are inversely proportional to the square of the length of the well. This means that precise control over the width of the semiconductor layers, i.e. the length of the well, will allow for precise control of the energy levels allowed for carriers in the wells. This is an incredibly useful property for band-gap engineering. Furthermore, the model shows that the energy levels are proportional to the inverse of the effective mass. Consequently, heavy holes and light holes will have different energy states when trapped in the well. Heavy and light holes arise when the maxima of valence bands with different curvature coincide; resulting in two different effective masses.

A drawback of the infinite well model is that it predicts many more energy states than exist, as the walls of real quantum wells, are finite. The model also neglects the fact that in reality, the wave functions do not go to zero at the boundary of the well but 'bleed' into the wall (due to quantum tunneling) and decay exponentially to zero. This property allows for the design and production of superlattices and other novel quantum well devices and is described better by the finite well model.

Finite well model
The finite well model provides a more realistic model of quantum wells. Here the walls of the well in the heterostructure are modeled using a finite potential $$V_0$$, which is the difference in the conduction band energies of the different semiconductors. Since the walls are finite and the electrons can tunnel into the barrier region. Therefore the allowed wave functions will penetrate the barrier wall.

Consider a finite quantum well oriented in the z-direction, such that carriers in the well are confined in the z-direction but free to move in the x–y plane. We choose the quantum well to run from $$z = 0$$ to $$z = d$$. We assume that the carriers experience no potential within the well and potential of $$V_0$$ in the barrier regions.

The Schrodinger equation for carriers within the well is unchanged compared to the infinite well model, except for the boundary conditions at the walls, which now demand that the wave functions and their slopes are continuous at the boundaries.

Within the barrier region, Schrodinger’s equation for carriers reads:

 * $$-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m{_b}^*}\frac{\partial^2\psi(z)}{\partial z^2} + V_0\psi(z)=E\psi(z)$$

where $$m^*_b$$ is the effective mass of the carrier in the barrier region, which will generally differ from its effective mass within the well.

Solutions and energy levels
Using the relevant boundary conditions and the condition that the wave function must be continuous at the edge of the well, we get solutions for the wave vector $$k$$ that satisfy the following transcendental equations:

 * $$\tan\left(\frac{k_nd}{2}\right)=\frac{m_w^*\kappa}{m_b^*k_n}\quad\text{(even)}

$$

and

 * $$\tan\left(\frac{k_nd}{2}\right)=-\frac{m_b^*k_n}{m_w^*\kappa}\quad\text{(odd)},

$$

where $$\kappa$$ is the exponential decay constant in the barrier region, which is a measure of how fast the wave function decays to zero in the barrier region. The quantized energy eigenstates inside the well, which depend on the wave vector and the quantum number ($$n$$) are given by:

 * $$E_n=\frac{\hbar^2 k_n^2}{2m_w^*}.

$$

The exponential decay constant $$\kappa$$ is given by:

 * $$\kappa=\frac{\sqrt{2 m_b^* (V_0 - E_n)}}{\hbar}$$

It depends on the eigenstate of a bound carrier $$E_n$$, the depth of the well $$V_0$$, and the effective mass of the carrier within the barrier region, $$m^*_b$$.

The solutions to the transcendental equations above can easily be found using numerical or graphical methods. There are generally only a few solutions. However, there will always be at least one solution, so one bound state in the well, regardless of how small the potential is. Similar to the infinite well, the wave functions in the well are sinusoidal-like but exponentially decay in the barrier of the well. This has the effect of reducing the bound energy states of the quantum well compared to the infinite well.

Superlattices
A superlattice is a periodic heterostructure made of alternating materials with different band-gaps. The thickness of these periodic layers is generally of the order of a few nanometers. The band structure that results from such a configuration is a periodic series of quantum wells. It is important that these barriers are thin enough such that carriers can tunnel through the barrier regions of the multiple wells. A defining property of superlattices is that the barriers between wells are thin enough for adjacent wells to couple. Periodic structures made of repeated quantum wells that have barriers that are too thick for adjacent wave functions to couple, are called multiple quantum well (MQW) structures.

Since carriers can tunnel through the barrier regions between the wells, the wave functions of neighboring wells couple together through the thin barrier, therefore, the electronic states in superlattices form delocalized minibands. Solutions for the allowed energy states in superlattices is similar to that for finite quantum wells with a change in the boundary conditions that arise due to the periodicity of the structures. Since the potential is periodic, the system can be mathematically described in a similar way to a one-dimensional crystal lattice.

Applications
Because of their quasi-two-dimensional nature, electrons in quantum wells have a density of states as a function of energy that has distinct steps, versus a smooth square root dependence that is found in bulk materials. Additionally, the effective mass of holes in the valence band is changed to more closely match that of electrons in the valence band. These two factors, together with the reduced amount of active material in quantum wells, leads to better performance in optical devices such as laser diodes. As a result, quantum wells are used widely in diode lasers, including red lasers for DVDs and laser pointers, infra-red lasers in fiber optic transmitters, or in blue lasers. They are also used to make HEMTs (high electron mobility transistors), which are used in low-noise electronics. Quantum well infrared photodetectors are also based on quantum wells and are used for infrared imaging.

By doping either the well itself or preferably, the barrier of a quantum well with donor impurities, a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) may be formed. Such a structure creates the conducting channel of a HEMT and has interesting properties at low temperature. One such feature is the quantum Hall effect, seen at high magnetic fields. Acceptor dopants can also lead to a two-dimensional hole gas (2DHG).

Saturable absorber
A quantum well can be fabricated as a saturable absorber using its saturable absorption property. Saturable absorbers are widely used in passively mode locking lasers. Semiconductor saturable absorbers (SESAMs) were used for laser mode-locking as early as 1974 when p-type germanium was used to mode lock a CO2 laser which generated pulses ~500 ps. Modern SESAMs are III-V semiconductor single quantum well (SQW) or multiple quantum wells (MQW) grown on semiconductor distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). They were initially used in a resonant pulse modelocking (RPM) scheme as starting mechanisms for Ti:sapphire lasers which employed KLM as a fast saturable absorber. RPM is another coupled-cavity mode-locking technique. Different from APM lasers that employ non-resonant Kerr-type phase nonlinearity for pulse shortening, RPM employs the amplitude nonlinearity provided by the resonant band filling effects of semiconductors. SESAMs were soon developed into intracavity saturable absorber devices because of more inherent simplicity with this structure. Since then, the use of SESAMs has enabled the pulse durations, average powers, pulse energies and repetition rates of ultrafast solid-state lasers to be improved by several orders of magnitude. Average power of 60 W and repetition rate up to 160 GHz were obtained. By using SESAM-assisted KLM, sub-6 fs pulses directly from a Ti:sapphire oscillator was achieved. A major advantage SESAMs have over other saturable absorber techniques is that absorber parameters can be easily controlled over a wide range of values. For example, saturation fluence can be controlled by varying the reflectivity of the top reflector while modulation depth and recovery time can be tailored by changing the low-temperature growing conditions for the absorber layers. This freedom of design has further extended the application of SESAMs into mode-locking of fibre lasers where a relatively high modulation depth is needed to ensure self-starting and operation stability. Fibre lasers working at ~1 μm and 1.5 μm were successfully demonstrated.

Thermoelectrics
Quantum wells have shown promise for energy harvesting as thermoelectric devices. They are claimed to be easier to fabricate and offer the potential to operate at room temperature. The wells connect a central cavity to two electronic reservoirs. The central cavity is kept at a hotter temperature than the reservoirs. The wells act as filters that allow electrons of certain energies to pass through. In general, greater temperature differences between the cavity and the reservoirs increases electron flow and output power.

An experimental device delivered output power of about 0.18 W/cm2 for a temperature difference of 1 K, nearly double the power of a quantum dot energy harvester. The extra degrees of freedom allowed larger currents. Its efficiency is slightly lower than the quantum dot energy harvesters. Quantum wells transmit electrons of any energy above a certain level, while quantum dots pass only electrons of a specific energy.

One possible application is to convert waste heat from electric circuits, e.g., in computer chips, back into electricity, reducing the need for cooling and energy to power the chip.

Solar cells
Quantum wells have been proposed to increase the efficiency of solar cells. The theoretical maximum efficiency of traditional single-junction cells is about 34%, due in large part to their inability to capture many different wavelengths of light. Multi-junction solar cells, which consist of multiple p-n junctions of different bandgaps connected in series, increase the theoretical efficiency by broadening the range of absorbed wavelengths, but their complexity and manufacturing cost limit their use to niche applications. On the other hand, cells consisting of a p-i-n junction in which the intrinsic region contains one or more quantum wells, lead to an increased photocurrent over dark current, resulting in a net efficiency increase over conventional p-n cells. Photons of energy within the well depth are absorbed in the wells and generate electron-hole pairs. In room temperature conditions, these photo-generated carriers have sufficient thermal energy to escape the well faster than the recombination rate. Elaborate multi-junction quantum well solar cells can be fabricated using layer-by-layer deposition techniques such as molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapor deposition. It has also been shown that metal or dielectric nanoparticles added above the cell lead to further increases in photo-absorption by scattering incident light into lateral propagation paths confined within the multiple-quantum-well intrinsic layer.

Single-junction solar cells
With conventional single-junction photovoltaic solar cells, the power it generates is the product of the photocurrent and voltage across the diode. As semiconductors only absorb photons with energies higher than their bandgap, smaller bandgap material absorbs more of the sun's radiative spectrum resulting in a larger current. The highest open-circuit voltage achievable is the built-in bandgap of the material. Because the bandgap of the semiconductor determines both the Current and Voltage, designing a solar cell is always a trade-off between maximizing current output with a low bandgap and voltage output with a high bandgap. The maximum theoretical limit of efficiency for conventional solar cells is determined to be only 31%, with the best silicon devices achieving an optimal limit of 25%.

With the introduction of quantum wells (QWs), the efficiency limit of single-junction strained QW silicon devices have increased to 28.3%. The increase is due to the bandgap of the barrier material determining the built-in voltage. Whereas the bandgap of the QWs is now what determines the absorption limit. With their experiments on p-i-n junction photodiodes, Barnham's group showed that placing QWs in the depleted region increases the efficiency of a device. Researchers infer that the resulting increase indicates that the generation of new carriers and photocurrent due to the inclusion of lower energies in the absorption spectrum outweighs the drop in terminal voltage resulting from the recombination of carriers trapped in the quantum wells. Further studies have been able to conclude that the photocurrent increase is directly related to the redshift of the absorption spectrum.

Multi-junction solar cells
Nowadays, among non-QW solar cells, the III/V multi-junction solar cells are the most efficient, recording a maximum efficiency of 46% under high sunlight concentrations. Multi-junction solar cells are created by stacking multiple p-i-n junctions of different bandgaps. The efficiency of the solar cell increases with the inclusion of more of the solar radiation in the absorption spectrum by introducing more QWs of different bandgaps. The direct relation between the bandgap and lattice constant hinders the advancement of multi-junction solar cells. As more quantum wells (QWs) are grown together, the material grows with dislocations due to the varying lattice constants. Dislocations reduce the diffusion length and carrier lifetime. Hence, QWs provide an alternate approach to multi-junction solar cells with minimal crystal dislocation.

Bandgap energy
Researchers are looking to use QWs to grow high-quality material with minimal crystal dislocations and increase the efficiency of light absorption and carrier collection to realize higher efficiency QW solar cells. Bandgap tunability helps researchers with designing their solar cells. We can estimate the effective bandgap as the function of the bandgap energy of the QW and the shift in bandgap energy due to the steric strain: the quantum confinement Stark effect (QCSE) and quantum size effect (QSE).

 * $$E_{G,\text{Eff}} = E_{G}^\text{well,relaxed} + \Delta E_G^\text{Strain} + \Delta E_G^\text{QSE} + \Delta E_G^\text{QCSE}$$

The strain of the material causes two effects to the bandgap energy. First is the change in relative energy of the conduction and valence band. This energy change is affected by the strain, $$\epsilon$$, elastic stiffness coefficients, $$C_{11}$$ and $$C_{12}$$, and hydrostatic deformation potential, $$a$$.

 * $$\Delta E=-2a\left(\frac{C_{11}-C_{12}}{C_{11}}\right)\epsilon$$

Second, due to the strain, there is a splitting of heavy-hole and light-hole degeneracy. In a heavily compressed material, the heavy holes (hh) move to a higher energy state. In tensile material, light holes (lh) move to a higher energy state. One can calculate the difference in energy due to the splitting of hh and lh from the shear deformation potential, $$b$$, strain, $$\epsilon$$, and elastic stiffness coefficients, $$C_{11}$$ and $$C_{12}$$.

 * $$\Delta E_{hh} = b\left(\frac{C_{11}+2C_{12}}{C_{11}}\right)\epsilon$$

 * $$\Delta E_{lh} = -b\left(\frac{C_{11}+2C_{12}}{C_{11}}\right)\epsilon$$

The quantum confinement Stark effect induces a well-thickness dependent shift in the bandgap. If $$q$$ is the elemental charge; $$L_\text{eff,CB}$$ and $$L_\text{eff,VB}$$ are the effective width of QWs in the conduction and valence band, respectively; $$F$$ is the induced electric field due to piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization; and $$\hbar$$ is the reduced Planck's constant, then the energy shift is:

 * $$\Delta E_{G}^\text{QCSE} = \left(\frac{15-\pi^2}{24\pi^2}\right)\left(\frac{m_e^* L_\text{eff,CB}^4 + m_h^* L_\text{eff,VB}^4}{\hbar^2}\right)qF^2$$

The quantum size effect (QSE) is the discretization of energy a charge carrier undergoes due to confinement when its Bohr radius is larger than the size of the well. As the quantum well thickness increases, QSEs decrease. The decrease in QSEs causes the $$n = 1$$ state to move down and decrease the effective bandgap. The Kronig–Penney model is used to calculate the quantum states, and Anderson's rule is applied to estimate the conduction band and valence band offsets in energy.

Carrier capture and lifetime
With the effective use of carriers in the QWs, researchers can increase the efficiency of quantum well solar cells (QWSCs). Within QWs in the intrinsic region of the p-i-n solar cells, optically generated carriers are either collected by the built-in field or lost due to carrier recombination. Carrier recombination is the process in which a hole and electron recombine to cancel their charges. Carriers can be collected through drift by the electric field. One can either use thin wells and transport carriers via thermionic emission or use thin barriers and transport carriers via tunneling.

Carrier lifetime for escape is determined by tunneling and thermionic emission lifetimes. Tunneling and thermionic emission lifetimes both depend on having a low effective barrier height. They are expressed through the following equations:

 * $$\frac{1}{\tau_\text{tun.}} = \frac{n \pi \hbar}{2t_w^2m_w^*} e^{\frac{-2}{\hbar}\int_{0}^{t_b} \sqrt{2m_b^* (E_b - E(z)z)}\,dz}

$$

 * $$\frac{1}{\tau_\text{therm.}} = \frac{1}{t_w}\sqrt{\frac{kT}{2\pi m_w^*}} e^{-\frac{E_b}{kT}}$$,

where $$m_b^*$$ and $$m_w^*$$ are effective masses of charge carriers in the barrier and well, $$E_b$$ is the effective barrier height, and $$E(z)$$ is the electric field.

Then one can calculate the escape lifetime by the following:

 * $$\frac{1}{\tau_\text{esc.}} = \frac{1}{\tau_\text{tun.}} + \frac{1}{\tau_\text{therm.}}$$

The total probability of minority carriers escaping from QWs is a sum of the probability of each well,

 * $$P_\text{tot} = P_i^N$$.

Here, $$P_i = \frac{\frac{1}{\tau_\text{esc.}}}{\frac{1}{\tau_\text{esc.}}+\frac{1}{\tau_\text{rec.}}}$$, where $$\tau_\text{rec.}$$ is recombination lifetime, and $$N$$ is the total number of QWs in the intrinsic region.

For $$\tau_\text{esc.} \ll \tau_{rec.}$$, there is a high probability for carrier recollection. Assumptions made in this method of modeling are that each carrier crosses $$N$$ QWs, whereas, in reality, they cross different numbers of QWs and that a carrier capture is at 100%, which may not be true in high background doping conditions.

For example, taking In0.18Ga0.82As (125$$\AA$$)/GaAs0.36P0.64 (40$$\AA$$) into consideration, tunneling, and thermionic emission lifetimes are 0.89 and 1.84, respectively. Even if a recombination time of 50ns is assumed, the escape probability of a single quantum well and a 100 quantum wells is 0.984 and 0.1686, which is not sufficient for efficient carrier capture. Reducing the barrier thickness to 20 ångstroms reduces $$\tau_\text{tun.}$$ to 4.1276 ps, increasing the escape probability over a 100 QWs to 0.9918. Indicating that using thin-barriers is essential for more efficient carrier collection.

Sustainability of quantum well devices compared to bulk material in light of performance
In the 1.1-1.3 eV range, Sayed et al. compares the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of a metamorphic InGaAs bulk subcell on Ge substrates by Spectrolab to a 100-period In0.30Ga0.70As(3.5 nm)/GaAs(2.7 nm)/ GaAs0.60P0.40(3.0 nm) QWSC by Fuji et al. The bulk material shows higher EQE values than those of QWs in the 880-900 nm region, whereas the QWs have higher EQE values in the 400-600 nm range. This result provides some evidence that there is a struggle of extending the QWs' absorption thresholds to longer wavelengths due to strain balance and carrier transport issues. However, the bulk material has more deformations leading to low minority carrier lifetimes.

In the 1.6-1.8 eV range, the lattice-matched AlGaAs by Heckelman et al. and InGaAsP by Jain et al. are compared by Sayed with the lattice-matched InGaAsP/InGaP QW structure by Sayed et al. Like the 1.1-1.3eV range, the EQE of the bulk material is higher in the longer wavelength region of the spectrum, but QWs are advantageous in the sense that they absorb a broader region in the spectrum. Furthermore, they can be grown in lower temperatures preventing thermal degradation.

The application of quantum wells in many devices is a viable solution to increasing the energy efficiency of such devices. With lasers, the improvement has already lead to significant results like the LED. With QWSCs harvesting energy from the sun become a more potent method of cultivating energy by being able to absorb more of the sun's radiation and by being able to capture such energy from the charge carriers more efficiently. A viable option such as QWSCs provides the public with an opportunity to move away from greenhouse gas inducing methods to a greener alternative, solar energy.

title: Quantum well


text:
Talk:Carnegie Mellon University

First computer-science department in the United States
The article claims that CMU created the first computer-science department in the US. However, this claim seems incorrect; the CMU Computer Science Department was established in 1965, according to the page Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science, after the Purdue CS department was established in 1962. Thatsme314 (talk) 22:03, 9 November 2023 (UTC)

Qatar campus
Various IP addresses have been warring to exclude criticism of the Qatari campus from the article. While some of this criticism is surely due, I think what is there may be a little overwrought. I think we should follow the Washington Post more closely, which presents a nuanced picture. Gulf News gives space to a minor Qatar critic. The HuffPost article is WP:RSOPINION. Disclosing that I worked for another educational institution in Qatar for a time. Russ Woodroofe (talk) 07:26, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Carnegie Mellon University


text:
Metairie Cemetery

Metairie Cemetery is a cemetery in southeastern Louisiana. The name has caused some people to mistakenly presume that the cemetery is located in Metairie, Louisiana, but it is located within the New Orleans city limits, on Metairie Road (and formerly on the banks of the since filled-in Bayou Metairie).

1838
Before becoming a cemetery, the site, established on a high-and-dry ridge along Bayou Metairie (now Metairie Road), was a horse racing track, founded in 1838 by Col. James Garrison and Richard Adams who acquired the land from the New Orleans Canal and Banking Company. Its first president was Alexander Barrow and board of governors included: George B. Mulligan, Thomas W. Chinn, Balie Peyton, Samuel Jarvis Peters, Thomas J. Wells, George B. Ogden (President of New Orleans Canal and Banking Company), and Miner Kenner.

1839
The Spring Meeting of The Metairie Jockey Club for 1839 over the Metairie Course commenced on Tuesday, March 26, and lasted for six days. The First Day of racing Sweepstakes for 3-year olds, 2 Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $1,000, Forfeit Fee $250, Nine Subscribers: Montfort Wells' Beeswing, C.C.S. Farrar, D. Stephenson's Dublin, H.A. Tayloe, Minor Kenner's Greydoc, Ira Smith's Maria, James S. Garrison's Altorf, William R. Barrow's Picayune, James Shy's Curculia. Same Day, A match between the noted trotting horses Bird and Confidence, 2-mile heats in harnesses for $6,000. Second Day, Wednesday, March 27, Jockey Club Purse $800, 2 Mile Heats. Same Day Sweepstakes for Gentlemen Riders, 2 Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $50, the proprietors to add a silver cup, value $300. Third Day, Jockey Club Purse $1,200, 3 Mile Heats. Fourth Day, Jockey Club Purse $2,000, 4 Mile Heats. Fifth Day, Jockey Club Purse $600, Mile Heats, best 3 in 5. Same Day, Sweepstakes for 2 Year Olds, Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $500, Forfeit Fee $150, seven subscribers:Montfort Wells, A.L. Bingaman, C.C.S. Farrar, W.J. Minor, Minor Kenner, W.R. Barrow, James Shy. Sixth Day, Proprietors Purse, $1,000, 3 Mile Heats. Same Day, Match between the celebrated trotting hosrse Pompeii and Rolla, best 3 in 5, in harness for $1,000. P CENAS Secretary.

1848
In 1848 Richard Ten Broeck, later part of the syndicate that purchased Lexington, bought the course and likewise established a joint-stock company, officially founding The Metairie Jockey Club.

The race track was the site of the famous Lexington-Lecomte Race, April 1, 1854, billed as the "Great States" race. Former President Millard Fillmore attended. While racing was suspended because of the American Civil War, it was used as a Confederate Camp (Camp Moore) until David Farragut took New Orleans for the Union in April 1862. Metairie Cemetery was built upon the grounds of the old Metairie Race Course after it went bankrupt.

Conversion to a cemetery
The race track, which was owned by the Metairie Jockey Club, refused membership to Charles T. Howard, a local resident who had gained his wealth by starting the first Louisiana State Lottery. After being refused membership, Howard vowed that the race course would become a cemetery. After the Civil War and Reconstruction, the track went bankrupt and Howard was able to see his curse come true. Today, Howard is buried in his tomb located on Central Avenue in the cemetery, which was built following the original oval layout of the track itself. Mr. Howard died in 1885 in Dobbs Ferry, New York, when he fell from a newly purchased horse.

"Undoubtedly the Metairie Cemetery is destined to be the great Necropolis of the South. As far as its location, ornaments, care and poetry are concerned, we say that this great city of the dead is unrivaled."

- Staff writer

Metairie Cemetery was previously owned and operated by Stewart Enterprises, Inc., of Jefferson, Louisiana. However, in December 2013, Service Corporation International bought Metairie Cemetery and other Stewart locations.

Sights

Metairie Cemetery has the largest collection of elaborate marble tombs and funeral statuary in the city.

One of the most famous is the Army of Tennessee, Louisiana Division monument, a monumental tomb of Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. The monument includes two notable works by sculptor Alexander Doyle (1857–1922):
 * Atop the tomb is an 1877 equestrian statue of General Albert Sidney Johnston on his horse "Fire-eater", holding binoculars in his right hand. General Johnston was for a time entombed here, but the remains were later removed to Texas.
 * To the right of the entrance to the tomb is an 1885 life-size statue represents a Confederate officer about to read the roll of the dead during the American Civil War. The statue is said to be modeled after Sergeant William Brunet of the Louisiana Guard Battery, but is intended to represent all Confederate soldiers.

Other notable monuments in Metairie Cemetery include:
 * the pseudo-Egyptian pyramid;
 * Laure Beauregard Larendon's tomb, which features Moorish details and beautiful stained glass;
 * the former tomb of Storyville madam Josie Arlington;
 * the Moriarty tomb with a marble monument with a height of 60 ft tall, which required the construction of a temporary special spur railroad line to transport the monument's building materials to the cemetery; and
 * the memorial of 19th-century police chief David Hennessy, whose murder sparked a riot.

The initial construction of at least one of these elaborate final resting places – restaurateur Ruth Fertel's mausoleum – is estimated to have cost between $125,000 to $500,000 (in late 20th century dollars).

List of notable and celebrity burials

 * Calogero Minacore, also known as "Carlos Joseph Marcello", reputed crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the late-1940s to the early-1980s.
 * Silvestro Carollo, crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the 1920s to the 1940s.
 * Algernon Sidney Badger, New Orleans government official during and after Reconstruction
 * T. L. Bayne, first Tulane University football coach and organizer of first football game in New Orleans
 * P. G. T. Beauregard, Confederate general, former superintendent at West Point
 * Tom Benson, owner of New Orleans Saints and New Orleans Pelicans
 * John Bernecker, stunt performer
 * Renato Cellini, operatic conductor
 * William C. C. Claiborne, first U.S. governor of Louisiana
 * Marguerite Clark, stage and silent film actress
 * Lewis Strong Clarke, sugar planter and Republican politician
 * Isaac Cline, chief meteorologist at the Galveston, Texas, office of the US Weather Bureau from 1889 to 1901. In that role, he became an integral figure in the devastating Galveston Hurricane of 1900.
 * Hamilton D. Coleman, a businessman who held Louisiana's 2nd congressional district seat from 1889 to 1891. He was the last Republican member of the U.S. House from Louisiana until 1973.
 * Al Copeland, founder of Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen
 * Nathaniel Cortlandt Curtis Jr., architect, founder of Curtis and Davis Architects and Engineers.
 * Jefferson Davis was buried at Metairie Cemetery, but his remains were later moved to Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.
 * Dorothy Dell, film actress of the 1930s
 * Dorothy Dix, advice columnist
 * Charles E. Dunbar, New Orleans attorney and civil service reformer
 * Charles E. Fenner, founder of brokerage house that became part of Merrill Lynch, Pearce, Fenner, & Smith
 * Joachim O. Fernández, U.S. representative from Louisiana's 1st congressional district from 1931 to 1941
 * Ruth U. Fertel, founder of Ruth's Chris Steak House
 * Benjamin Flanders, Reconstruction-era state governor and New Orleans mayor
 * Jim Garrison, New Orleans district attorney
 * Edward James Gay III, U.S. senator
 * Michael Hahn, speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives and governor of Louisiana
 * William W. Heard, governor of Louisiana from 1900 to 1904
 * William G. Helis Sr., American oilman, racehorse/owner breeder
 * Andrew Higgins, inventor of the "Higgins Boat"
 * Al Hirt, jazz trumpeter
 * Ken Hollis, state senator from Jefferson Parish
 * John Bell Hood, Confederate general
 * Chapman H. Hyams, stockbroker, businessman and philanthropist
 * John E. Jackson Sr., New Orleans lawyer and state Republican chairman from 1929 to 1934
 * Grace King, author
 * Richard W. Leche, governor of Louisiana
 * Harry Lee, sheriff of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
 * Samuel D. McEnery, governor of Louisiana
 * Louis H. Marrero, Jefferson Parish Police juror & president, Jefferson Parish sheriff, senator, Lafourche Basin Levee Board
 * John Albert Morris, the "Lottery King"
 * deLesseps Story "Chep" Morrison Sr., mayor of New Orleans
 * deLesseps Story "Toni" Morrison Jr., state legislator from Orleans Parish
 * Isidore Newman, New Orleans philanthropist and founder of the Maison Blanche department store chain and the regarded Isidore Newman School
 * Elwyn Nicholson, state senator from 1972 to 1988, grocery store owner
 * Margaret Norvell, lighthouse keeper and namesake of the coastguard cutter USCGC Margaret Norvell
 * Alton Ochsner, surgeon, co-founder of Ochsner Clinic (now Ochsner Health System)
 * Lionel Ott, member of the Louisiana State Senate from 1940 to 1945 and the last New Orleans finance commissioner from 1946 to 1954
 * Mel Ott, Hall of Fame Major League Baseball player
 * Benjamin M. Palmer, pastor of First Presbyterian Church of New Orleans (1856–1902)
 * John M. Parker, governor of Louisiana
 * P. B. S. Pinchback, first African American governor of Louisiana 1872–73
 * P. G. T. Beauregard, a Confederate General who started the American Civil War
 * Louis Prima, bandleader
 * Stan Rice, poet
 * Anne Rice, author
 * John Leonard Riddell, melter and refiner of Mint 1839–1848, Postmaster 1859–1862, inventor of the binocular microscope
 * John G. Schwegmann, supermarket pioneer and member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature
 * James Z. Spearing, U.S. representative, 1924–1931, from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district
 * Edgar B. Stern, businessman and civic leader; founder of WDSU-TV
 * Edith Rosenwald Stern, philanthropist
 * Norman Treigle, opera star
 * Helen Turner, painter
 * Cora Witherspoon, stage and screen character actress

title: Metairie Cemetery