text:
Battle of Calabria

The Battle of Calabria (9 July 1940) known to the Italian Navy as the Battle of Punta Stilo, was a naval battle during the Battle of the Mediterranean in the Second World War. Ships of the Regia Marina were opposed by vessels of the Mediterranean Fleet. The battle took place 30 nmi to the east of Punta Stilo, Calabria.

The battle was one of the few in the Mediterranean campaign involving large numbers of ships on both sides. The battle was indecisive and the ships returned to base; it was the first battleship engagement between the Regia Marina and the Mediterranean Fleet.

Background
When Italy entered the Second World War, its forces in Libya were ill-equipped for offensive operations, and the Italian fleet was forced to start large supply convoys in order to bring them up to fighting condition.

On 6 July a convoy of four merchant ships left Naples on their way to Benghazi, while attempting to fool the Allies into thinking they were making for Tripoli. That evening two torpedo boats from Catania and another freighter met them off Messina and the next day their escort force joined the convoy from Taranto after being informed that the Allies had recently left port in Alexandria. The transports carried 2,190 troops, 72 Fiat M11/39 tanks, 232 other vehicles, 10445 LT of supplies and 5720 LT of fuel. The convoy's escort, commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni, consisted of three groups. The first, comprising four destroyers and six torpedo boats, sailed directly protecting the cargo ships. A second group sailed 35 mi to the east consisting of six heavy cruisers and another four destroyers. Finally, the main battle group consisted of two battleships (ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Giulio Cesare and ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Conte di Cavour), eight light cruisers and another 16 destroyers. A substantial number of the Italian destroyers didn't take part in the battle due to mechanical problems and the need to refuel.

The British were involved in a similar convoy action. The fleet sailed from Alexandria bound towards Malta where the destroyers would deliver supplies and a limited number of specialist reinforcements. Two convoys were arranged to take off fleet stores and civilians from Malta to Alexandria. Two groups of merchantmen sailed, a fast convoy at 13 kn and slow one at 9 kn. Protecting them were three groups of ships: Force A, with five cruisers and a destroyer; Force B, with the battleship HMS Warspite (03) and five destroyers, and Force C, the main battle group, with the battleships HMS Royal Sovereign (05) and HMS Malaya, the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle (1918) and eleven destroyers. One of them, HMS Imperial (D09), had to return to Alexandria with a burst steam pipe on the early hours of 8 July. All were under the direction of Admiral Andrew Cunningham.

At 14:40 on 8 July two Italian Cant Z.506 seaplanes from Tobruk spotted the British fleet and shadowed it for nearly four hours. Campioni ordered his fleet to defend the convoy by turning eastward and preparing for action. Comando Supremo (Italian Supreme Command) was reluctant to risk its warships in a night action and they ordered the fleet to avoid contact. During the initial positioning the Italians suffered technical problems on three destroyers and two light cruisers, so these ships, with several additional destroyers, were detached to refuel in Sicily. To make up for the detachments another destroyer group was summoned from Taranto. At this point, the Italian fleet had 16 destroyers.

From 10:00 to 18.40, 72 land-based bombers of the Italian Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force) from the mainland attacked the British force. Unlike the dive-bombers favoured by the Germans, Italian bombers operated in formations at high altitudes during the early stages of the war, about 12000 ft. Scores of bombs were dropped by the Italians and achieved a hit on HMS Gloucester (C62) in two attacks. The captain, six officers and eleven ratings were killed, three officers and six ratings were wounded. The forward fire control and the steering equipment was destroyed, and for the rest of the battle, she would be commanded from the emergency station.

At 15:10 on 8 July, Cunningham's fleet steamed toward Taranto, to cut the Italians' return route. At dusk, Cunningham changed course from 310° to 260° and slowed the fleet speed. During the first hours of 9 July, they took a 305° course, to avoid the Italian air reconnaissance while keeping their fleet between the Italian squadron and the Gulf of Taranto. By 12:30, the Italian Supreme Command was unaware of the situation of the British fleet. Campioni told his fleet to scramble by 14:00 about 60 nmi south east of Cape Spartivento in search of the British. Campioni eventually received reports of the British position at 13:30, and six Ro.43 floatplanes launched shortly after by the Italian cruisers spotted the British warships 30 miles closer than supposed. By late evening of 8 July, the Italian convoy had arrived in Bengazi unscathed.

Cruiser engagement
At noon on 9 July the two fleets were 90 mi apart. Vice Admiral Cunningham could not close the distance to engage with the further back formation of Malaya and the significantly slower Royal Sovereign (18 kn  vs 28 kn) and took Warspite in on its own. Meanwhile, at 13:15, Eagle launched several unsuccessful sorties by Fairey Swordfish against the Italian heavy cruisers, which they mistook for battleships. At 13:10, the Italian Supreme Command had instructed Campioni to engage one of the two enemy forces facing him, but in fact they had planned to keep the action close to Italy and were deliberately moving north in order to draw the Allies closer to their airbases. By 14:00, however, Cunningham's plans to cut off the Italian fleet from Taranto had succeeded.

The Allied cruiser group was spread out in front of Warspite and at 15:15 they caught sight of the Italian main battle force and the two groups opened fire at 21500 m. Italian rangefinding was better than the Allied, and within three minutes they had found the distance even though they were firing at extreme range. Although the Allies' rangefinding was not as good and they had trouble with their rounds falling short, the Allied gunlaying was better and they were able to place their rounds in much tighter groups. Generally the gunnery of the two forces was fairly well matched. After only a few minutes the range was down to 20000 m and the Allied guns became useful. However, by 15:22, the Italian fire came dangerously close to the Allied cruisers and Vice Admiral John Tovey decided to disengage. At this point splinters from a 6 in shell fired by the cruiser ITALIAN CRUISER Giuseppe Garibaldi hit HMS Neptune (20), damaging her catapult and the reconnaissance aircraft beyond repair. The cruisers continued to open the range and by 15:30 fire ceased.

Battleship engagement
One group of Italian light cruisers, mistaken for the heavy cruisers of the Zara-class cruiser, was on the Allied side of the battle line and was soon within range of the charging Warspite. Once again the Allied rounds fell short, and neither of her targets, ITALIAN CRUISER Alberico da Barbiano and ITALIAN CRUISER Alberto di Giussano, received any damage in the initial salvos. However, by this time Warspite was also out of position, and she circled in place in order to allow Malaya to catch up. Meanwhile, Royal Sovereign was still well to the rear.

The Italian commander decided to take on Warspite, and started moving his two battleships into position. At 15:52 Giulio Cesare opened fire at a range of 26400 m. Conte di Cavour held her fire, as Italian doctrine was for battleships to fight one-on-one. It had been discovered during the Battle of Jutland that more than one ship firing at a single target made it very difficult for the rangefinding parties to tell which rounds were fired by their ship. Conte di Cavour had been assigned to Malaya and Royal Sovereign, which did not enter the engagement.

Warspite, not aware of the Italian firing patterns, split her guns between the two ships. During the exchange one of Giulio Cesares rounds fell long and caused splinter damage to Warspites escorting destroyers HMS Hereward (H93) and HMS Decoy (H75), which had formed up on the far side of the action. At 15:54 Malaya started firing, well out of range, hoping to cause some confusion on the Italian ships. Meanwhile, the Italian heavy cruisers came into action and started firing on Warspite at 15:55 but had to break off as the Allied cruisers returned.

At 15:59 two shells from Giulio Cesare fell very close to Warspite. Almost immediately after, one of Warspite's 15 in rounds hit the rear deck of Giulio Cesare, exploding in the funnel, and setting off the stored ammunition for one of her 37 mm anti-aircraft guns. Two seamen were killed and several wounded. The fumes from the burning ammunition were sucked down into the engine room, which had to evacuate and shut down half of the boilers. Giulio Cesare's speed quickly fell off to 18 knots and Conte di Cavour took over. Giulio Cesare and Warspite were well over 24000 m apart at the time of the hit, which was one of the longest-range naval artillery hits in history.

It would appear that Warspite was in an excellent position to deal some serious blows to the slowing Giulio Cesare, but she once again executed another tight turn to allow Malaya to catch up. With her guns suddenly silenced during the turn, rangefinders on Malaya discovered what the Italians had been intending to avoid, that her rounds were falling 2700 yd short of Giulio Cesare and they had been watching Warspite's rounds, not their own.

At 16:01 the Italian destroyers generated smoke and the battleships got under cover. There is some debate about this point today, the Allied position being that the battleships were leaving battle, the Italian that they were attempting to make a torpedo attack with their destroyers from within the smoke.

Final actions
At 15:58 ITALIAN CRUISER Fiume re-opened fire on her counterpart in the Allied line, HMS Liverpool (C11), and soon two groups of Italian cruisers (ITALIAN CRUISER Zara, ITALIAN CRUISER Bolzano and ITALIAN CRUISER Pola, closely followed by ITALIAN CRUISER Gorizia and ITALIAN CRUISER Trento) entered combat range with the main Allied cruiser battle group. Firing continued as both groups attempted to form up and at 16:07 Bolzano was hit three times by 6-inch shells from HMS Neptune, temporarily locking her rudder and causing two fatalities in the torpedo room. A near miss on the destroyer ITALIAN DESTROYER Vittorio Alfieri caused minor damage.

Meanwhile, mechanics on Giulio Cesare were able to repair two of the four damaged boilers, allowing the battleship to reach 22 kn. Admiral Campioni, considering the possibility of his remaining battleship, Conte di Cavour, having to face three enemy battleships and an aircraft carrier, decided to withdraw the battleships towards Messina. Giulio Cesare was out of action for 30 days.

Over the next hour both fleets attempted to make long-range torpedo runs with their destroyer groups, without success. At 16:40, the Italian air force made an attack with 126 aircraft, reporting damage on Eagle, Warspite and Malaya; because of some misunderstanding, 50 of the Italian aircraft also attacked the Italian ships, without damage. The battle ended at 16:50 with both sides withdrawing.

One final victim was the destroyer ITALIAN DESTROYER Leone Pancaldo, sent to Augusta in Sicily, which was hit by a torpedo launched from a Swordfish at 09:40 the next day and sank in shallow water. She was refloated and returned to service in December 1941. )

Aftermath
After the battle both fleets turned for home. This allowed the Italians to claim a victory of sorts, as their cargo ships were already past the action by this time and sailed safely for Libya. Meanwhile, the Allied ships also reached Alexandria along with their escort. Although the battle was indecisive, Allied sources claimed that the Royal Navy asserted an important "moral ascendancy" over their Italian counterpart.

Other sources instead dispute those claims, pointing out that, in the immediate aftermath of the battle, the moods of the two commanders were quite different. Campioni wrote that, even having been able to employ only two old refurbished battleships, the battle gave to every man in the fleet, from the senior officers to the seamen, the impression of being able to cope with the British Fleet on equal terms. Cunningham, conversely, was dismayed by the performance of his two older units, whose lack of speed permitted the Italians to dictate the course of the action, and whose guns were out-ranged not only by those of the two Italian battleships, but by those of the heavy cruisers as well. Cunningham dismissed the Royal Sovereign as a "constant source of anxiety", and asked the Admiralty for two or three more Queen Elizabeth-class battleships, possibly equipped with radar, a new carrier with an armoured deck, the heavy cruisers HMS York (90) and HMS Exeter (68), and enough smaller ships to cover the major units.

One question is why the Italians did not send their two operational battleships of Littorio-class battleship at Taranto, both almost ready for action and only a few hours from the scene. Both capital ships were still undergoing trials, and ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Littorio had suffered an electrical mishap on one of her main turrets. Littorio and ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Vittorio Veneto would have tipped the balance of fire well onto the Italian side.

Even without these ships the fleets were fairly even. Despite Italian superiority in aircraft, due to the nearby land-based aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica, the attacks proved ineffective, achieving little apart from the damage to Gloucester. Despite this, the air arm's battle reports were inflated to the point of claiming damage to half of the Allied fleet.

Overall, Allied gunnery proved superior, while the Italian salvos were too widely dispersed due to technical reasons that were not to be overcome until the end of the conflict.

Order of battle
(F) denotes flagship, (FD) division flagship, (FS) squadron flagship

Allies

Force A – Commanded by Vice Admiral John Tovey

7th Cruiser Squadron
 * 5 light cruisers: HMS Orion (85) (FS), HMS Neptune (20) (damaged), HMAS Sydney (1934), HMS Gloucester (C62) (damaged), and HMS Liverpool (1938)

 Force B – Commanded by Vice Admiral Andrew Cunningham who was the Commander in Chief Mediterranean Fleet;
 * 1 battleship: HMS Warspite (03) (F)
 * 6 destroyers: HMS Nubian (F36), HMS Mohawk (F31), HMS Hero (H99), HMS Hereward (H93) (damaged), HMS Decoy (H75) (damaged), HMAS Stuart (D00),

Force C – Commanded by Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Pridham-Wippell.

1st Battle Squadron
 * 2 battleships: HMS Malaya, and HMS Royal Sovereign (05) (FS).
 * 1 aircraft carrier: HMS Eagle (1918).
 * 10 destroyers:  HMS Hyperion (H97), HMS Hostile (H55), HMS Hasty (H24), HMS Ilex (D61), HMS Dainty (H53), HMS Defender (H07), HMS Juno (F46), HMS Janus (F53), HMAS Vampire (D68), and HMAS Voyager (D31).

(in total, 3 battleships, 1 aircraft carrier, 5 light cruisers, 16 destroyers took part in the battle.)

Regia Marina

Italian force commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni. Pola (F)

Convoy Close Escort

2nd Light Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Ferdinando Casardi – Division Commander
 * 2 light cruisers: Giovanni delle Bande Nere, Bartolomeo Colleoni

10th Destroyer Squadron Captain Franco Garofalo – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: Maestrale, Libeccio, Grecale, Scirocco

6 Torpedo Boats: ITALIAN DESTROYER Rosolino Pilo, ITALIAN DESTROYER Giuseppe Cesare Abba, Pegaso, Procione, Orsa, Orione

1st Fleet

Admiral Inigo Campioni – Commander

5th Battleship Division Vice Admiral Bruto Brivonesi – Division Commander
 * 2 battleships: ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Conte di Cavour (F), ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Giulio Cesare (damaged)

4th (Light) Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Alberto Marenco di Moriondo – Division Commander
 * 4 light cruisers: ITALIAN CRUISER Alberico da Barbiano (F), ITALIAN CRUISER Alberto di Giussano, ITALIAN CRUISER Luigi Cadorna, ITALIAN CRUISER Armando Diaz

8th (Light) Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Antonio Legnani – Division Commander
 * 2 light cruisers: ITALIAN CRUISER Luigi di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi (FD), ITALIAN CRUISER Giuseppe Garibaldi

7th Destroyer Squadron Commander Amleto Baldo – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Freccia (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Saetta, ITALIAN DESTROYER Dardo, ITALIAN DESTROYER Strale

8th Destroyer Squadron Commander Luigi Liannazza – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Folgore (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Fulmine, ITALIAN DESTROYER Baleno, ITALIAN DESTROYER Lampo

15th Destroyer Squadron Captain Paolo Melodia – Squadron Commander
 * 2 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Antonio Pigafetta (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Nicolò Zeno

16th Destroyer Squadron Captain Ugo Salvadori – Squadron Commander
 * 3 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Nicoloso da Recco (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Antoniotto Usodimare, ITALIAN DESTROYER Emanuele Pessagno

14th Destroyer Squadron Captain Giovanni Galati – Squadron Commander
 * 3 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Ugolino Vivaldi (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Leone Pancaldo, ITALIAN DESTROYER Antonio da Noli

2nd Fleet

Admiral Riccardo Paladini – Commander

1st (Heavy) Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Pellegrino Matteucci – Division Commander
 * 3 heavy cruisers: ITALIAN CRUISER Fiume (FD), ITALIAN CRUISER Zara, ITALIAN CRUISER Gorizia

3rd (Heavy) Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Carlo Cattaneo – Division Commander
 * 3 heavy cruisers: Pola (F), ITALIAN CRUISER Trento, ITALIAN CRUISER Bolzano (damaged)

7th (Light) Cruiser Division Vice-Admiral Luigi Sansonetti – Division Commander
 * 4 light cruisers: ITALIAN CRUISER Eugenio di Savoia (FD), ITALIAN CRUISER Emanuele Filiberto Duca d'Aosta, ITALIAN CRUISER Muzio Attendolo, ITALIAN CRUISER Raimondo Montecuccoli

9th Destroyer Squadron Captain Lorenzo Daretti – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Vittorio Alfieri (FS) (damaged), ITALIAN DESTROYER Alfredo Oriani, ITALIAN DESTROYER Giosuè Carducci, ITALIAN DESTROYER Vincenzo Gioberti

11th Destroyer Squadron Captain Carlo Margottini – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Artigliere (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Camicia Nera, ITALIAN DESTROYER Aviere, ITALIAN DESTROYER Geniere

12th Destroyer Squadron Captain Carmine D'Arienzo – Squadron Commander
 * 4 destroyers: ITALIAN DESTROYER Lanciere (FS), ITALIAN DESTROYER Carabiniere, ITALIAN DESTROYER Corazziere, ITALIAN DESTROYER Ascari

(in total, 2 battleships, 6 heavy cruisers, 8 light cruisers, 23 destroyers took part in the battle.)

title: Battle of Calabria


text:
Phul Mata

Phul Mata is a Hindu goddess of disease, one of a group of seven sister goddesses with similar associations. Her sisters were Sitala Mata, Chamariya mata, Durga Kali, Maha Kali, Bhadra kali and Kalika Bhavani. As a group, they were well known in northern India, and were often represented by balls of clay. Phul Mata was specifically associated with typhoid fever.

Phul Mata is mentioned in epic and Puranic Hindu literature. She may have originally been perceived as a shakti, a personification of divine power, but in Hinduism gradually became associated with evil intent and illness. She was said to inflict sickness on children under seven years of age.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Phul Mata


text:
Gallery grave

A gallery grave is a form of megalithic tomb built primarily during the Neolithic Age in Europe in which the main gallery of the tomb is entered without first passing through an antechamber or hallway. There are at least four major types of gallery grave (complex, transepted, segmented, and wedge-shaped), and they may be covered with an earthen mound (or "tumulus") or rock mound (or "cairn").

Background
Archeologist T. Douglas Price argues that the gallery grave was a form of community burial site. Those placed in a gallery grave were most likely members of the same family or hamlet, and probably were intended to reinforce the sense of community.

Gallery graves may be straight, or they may form an ell. In some cases, a burial chamber exists at the end of the gallery. The walls of gallery graves were built of orthostats, slab-like stones set upright in the earth. They were roofed with multiple flat stones, although the burial chamber (if one existed) was usually roofed with a single large stone. Multiple burials could occur all at one time, the grave could be reopened several times to accept new burials, or the grave could remain open over an extended period of time to accept multiple burials. Burials in gallery graves were made in the gallery itself, or in small burial chambers opening off the gallery. This is known as a "complex gallery grave". When the adjacent burial chambers are paired, the structure is known as a "transepted gallery grave". Gallery graves may also have their galleries subdivided by interior stone slabs. These are known as "segmented gallery graves". When two parallel galleries lead to a single terminal burial chamber, this is known as a "parallel gallery grave".

Some gallery graves were not rectangular in shape, but rather narrowed toward the rear. These are known as wedge-shaped gallery graves. The ceilings of wedge-shaped gallery graves often sloped toward the rear, and a sill of stone set some distance inside the away from the entrance or one or two slabs set upright in the earth defined a sort of antechamber. The wedge-shaped gallery grave was usually topped by a cairn (covering of stones) rather than an earthen mound (or "tumulus"), although an earthen mound was sometimes used. The cross-sectional shape of the cairn could be round, oval, or D-shaped, and often a kerb (ring of stone) was used to help revet the cairn and keep it in place. Some wedge-shaped gallery graves had curved rear walls, while others were linear. A few had the terminal burial chamber at the rear of the gallery, although this was usually blocked off. Wedge-shaped gallery graves sometimes had a set of outer walls. These could be parallel to the inner walls, or they could be set at an even stronger angle (emphasizing the wedge-like nature of the tomb). Wedge-shaped gallery graves usually faced west, and often had a pair of upright stone slabs linking the inner and outer walls at the entrance.

The tumulus (or "barrow") covering a gallery grave may be ovate or long. The sides of the tumulus may be parallel or not. The tumulus was designed so that the end of the gallery (or the terminal burial chamber, if one existed) was at the center of the tumulus. A tumulus may contain several gallery graves radiating outward from the center. Since the earth atop the gallery grave was only loosely piled up, it often washed away due to erosion. Many gallery graves today lie exposed to the air, when originally they would have lain deep within a tumulus.

Gallery vs. passage grave
The difference between a complex gallery grave and a passage grave (which also has smaller burial chambers opening off the main passage) is two-fold. First, the gallery grave gallery will be as high and wide as the side burial chambers, while in a passage grave the passage is not as high or wide as the burial chambers. Second, gallery graves are usually topped by a V-shaped tumulus, while passage graves are almost always covered by a round tumulus.

Transepted
Transepted gallery graves have burial monuments with side rooms extending laterally from a central chamber. They are found at sites in the Loire valley of France, south west Great Britain and in Ireland and it is thought the builders had cultural links with one another.

Wedge-shaped
A wedge-shaped gallery grave or wedge tomb is a type of Irish chamber tomb. They are so named because the burial chamber narrows at one end (usually decreasing both in height and width from west to east), producing a wedge shape in elevation. An antechamber is separated from the burial area by a simple jamb or sill, and the doorway generally faces west.

A distinguishing characteristic of wedge tombs is the double-walling of the gallery. They were often covered by cairns, which could be round, oval or D-shaped, often with a kerb to revet it. More are low sized, usually about 1.5 metres high, and are generally found on mountainsides, about three-quarters the way up.

Wedge tombs were built between the Irish late Neolithic and middle Bronze Ages (about 2500 to 2000BC). Today, between 500 and 550 known wedge tombs survive in Ireland, and are found predominantly in the west and north west of the island.

Dating
Along with the dolmen and passage grave, the gallery grave is the most common megalithic tomb in western Europe.

Gallery graves were usually constructed during the Neolithic Age, which began about 10,200 BC and ended in Europe about 3,200 BC. Some, however, were constructed in the Middle and Late Bronze Age, about 2,300 BC to 600 BC. Dating of some gallery graves is difficult, as the tombs may have been constructed in the Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age, but reopened and used for burials until the Late Bronze Age.

Examples
Archeologists Ian Shaw and Robert Jameson argued in 1999 that the best-researched gallery graves are the Severn-Cotswold tombs in Wales and South West England in the United Kingdom. Other important gallery graves include:

 * Court cairn, found in western and northern Ireland and southwest Scotland
 * Giants' grave in Sardinia
 * Glantane East wedge-shaped tomb in Ireland
 * Naveta grave in Menorca
 * Seine-Oise-Marne culture allées couverte in northern France and southern Belgium
 * Severn-Cotswold tombs in Wales and South West England in the United Kingdom
 * Wartberg culture stone cist group tombs in northern Hesse, southern Lower Saxony, and western Thuringia in Germany

title: Gallery grave


text:
Nordic Folkboat

The Nordic Folkboat is a sailboat that was designed by Scandinavian Sailing Federation as a racer-cruiser and first built in 1942. Tord Sundén was hired by the Scandivian Sailing Federation to finalize the plans based on four awarded entries in the design competition. The awarded designs were done by Knud Olsen, Jac M. Iversen, Alfons Kvarnström, and O.W. Dahlström. No winning design was declared. Tord Sundén was never credited as the actual designer of the boat.

The Nordic Folkboat was developed into the Sundén-designed International Folkboat in 1967. The International Folkboat was expressly designed for fibreglass construction. The International 25 and the Olsen 26 are also based upon this design.

The Junior Folkboat designed by Erik Salander actually dates from 1929. It was originally called the "Juniors Bad" (Junior boat), but was later renamed because of its strong resemblance to the later and larger Nordic Folkboat.

Production
The design has been built by a number of different builders since the first were built in 1942 using wooden clinker construction.

By the mid 1970s, timber costs and competition from modern fibreglass boats meant that the folkboat sales were dwindling. Fibreglass versions of the traditional timber folkboat were created by Erik Andreasen and Sven Svendsen. They were molded to the exact dimensions and contours of the traditional clinker hull as well as having the same weight and weight distribution. By 2001, more than 950 glass reinforced plastic (GRP) folkboats had been built.

In the mid-2000s it was being built by Folkebådcentralen A/S of Denmark, but that company seems to be no longer in business. Today the boat is built by Haubold Yachting in Germany.

Design
In 1941, while most of Europe was immersed in the Second World War, Sweden was neutral. The Royal Swedish Sailing Association decided to hold a competition to choose a design for a new keelboat, with the support of Swedish shipping magnate Sven Salén, who had won a sailing bronze medal in the Six Meter class at the 1936 Summer Olympics held on the Bay of Kiel. Salén promoted the competition and it attracted 58 designs. The judges could not decide on a winner, instead naming six boats as all having some good attributes. As a young naval architect, Sundén was tasked by Salén with taking the best features of each design and drawing plans for a new boat that incorporated them all in the new design. The plans were published without a designer credited. Construction of the first boat was commenced at Arendals yard in Gothenburg in October 1941 and was launched the next spring, on 23 April 1942. Sundén later claimed the design as his own, but the committee disagreed on that point. Until the time of his death at age 90 in 1999, Sundén was still trying to establish his claim to the credit and the royalties for the design and the matter has never been fully resolved.

The Nordic Folkboat is a recreational keelboat, that was initially built using wooden clinker construction. It was later produced in fibreglass, with wooden trim, with the fibreglass hull simulating the clinker board construction. It has a fractional sloop rig with wooden spars. The hull has a spooned, raked stem, a sharply angled transom, a keel-mounted rudder controlled by a tiller and a fixed modified long keel, with a cut-away forefoot. Typical versions displace 4255 lb and carry 2205 lb of iron ballast.

The boat has a draft of 3.92 ft with the standard keel and may be fitted with a small outboard motor for docking and manoeuvring.

Some boats have sleeping accommodations for cruising, while others have minimal interiors, optimized for lightness for racing. Cruising-equipped boats often have sleeping accommodation for four people, with two main cabin bunks and a forward "V"-berth.

The design has a Portsmouth Yardstick DP-N racing average handicap of 103.2 and is usually raced by two to four sailors.

Variants
Numerous variants of the basic design have been built. The hull shape was largely retained, with variants being built in fibreglass, with new cabin and deck layouts and sometimes a revised keel shape.
 * International Folkboat
 * The Swedish Yard of Marieholm Bruk commissioned the original designer Tord Sundén to redesign the boat for fibreglass construction. The International Folkboat appeared in 1969 and became known in Europe as the Marieholm IF Boat. Fibreglass construction was used to create a more graceful profile, more interior space and a larger sail area was added for better light air performance.

 * Marieholm 26
 * A modification of the IF boat, also designed Tord Sundén and built by Marieholm Boats between 1976 and 1987. A further modification was the Marieholm 261 which was produced by Marieholm from 1982 to 2002 and featured a slightly wider beam.

 * Contessa 26
 * A British folkboat variant, it was drawn in 1965 by Jeremy Rodgers, who had built Folkboats for a number of years, and David Sadler. They took the classic Folkboat, modified the keel, added more sail area forward for better racing performance, changed the layout and deck structure, and built it from fiberglass instead of wood.

 * Stella
 * Designed by the yacht designer CR (Kim) Holman in 1959, this boat was made to the requirements of a customer who had seen the Nordic Folkboat. He thought that the English east coast needed a similar vessel, but modified for the North Sea, as opposed to Baltic conditions and also a competitive handicap racer.

Operational history
The boat is supported by an active class club that organizes racing events, the Nordic Folkboat International Association. It has national branches in Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Australia. There are also fleets in Finland, Latvia, Estonia and the San Francisco Bay area of the United States. By 1994, 110 boats were reportedly being sailed in the US.

In a 1994 review Richard Sherwood wrote, "the boat is noted for its seaworthy character. With an iron keel, it has raced in winds of 40 knots and often carries full sail in 20-25. Most boats have two bunks, and perhaps a vee-berth forward, with camping gear used for cooking. There are lockers. The interiors are apt to vary widely, with some minimized for racing, and others adapted for cruising."

A review in Classic Boat magazine by Steffan Meyric-Hughes wrote, "it has been described as a nautical Volkswagen Beetle. It has been hailed as a rare example of a good thing designed by a committee. But it's more: the Folkboat is the most popular, successful and influential sailing yacht of all time. It comes in various guises and has spawned several derivatives, but the Nordic Folkboat is the original."

A review by Theo Rye in Classic Boat said, "she has seakindly manners that punch far above her modest weight, and her deep cockpit and nicely balanced feel on the helm all add up to a simple but satisfying boat to really sail."

Practical Sailor magazine described the boat in 2010, saying, "the Nordic Folkboat, a clinker-built sloop with a reverse transom, a spoon bow, and a low cabin that gave it simple but pretty lines. Its long keel, slack bilges, barn-door rudder, and hefty ballast ratio (just over 50 percent) equipped it for North Sea adventures. The cockpit however—because it was not self-bailing—raised the risk quotient for any offshore ambitions. The 7/8-fractional rig gave it a conservative sail-area displacement ratio of 16.28. The length-to-beam ratio was just under 3.5. The four-foot draft appealed to the shoalwater challenged. Headroom was ideal for those wonderful creatures of Scandinavian folklore: elves."

Dieter Loibner described the boat in Soundings in 2017 as "a descendant of the sturdy Viking ships, a wind's bride that knows how to handle Erasmus’ moods".

Danish sailor, Paul Elvstrøm, said "At first nobody seemed to like them. It took a while for people to figure out how seaworthy these boats actually are and how well they perform when it is rough."

title: Nordic Folkboat


text: User talk:82.32.37.165

title: User talk:82.32.37.165


text:
Fake (Swedish band)

Fake was a Swedish synthpop band during the 1980s.

History
Fake was formed when two Swedish musicians, Erik Strömblad and Stefan Bogstedt, founded their own band, then called Size 46, in 1977. The band grew over the next few years, with metal drummer Stefan Sverin and singers Tony Wilhelmsson and Ulrika Örn being added to the lineup, and with more synthesizers added to their rock music sound. Stefan Sverin moved on as a session drummer for various acts such as American actor Cliff Taylor and Claes Muncktell from Dave and the Mistakes. He has since gave up drumming and is now working as an Art Director in Stockholm.

The group's second single, "Donna Rouge", was a major hit in Italy and the remix became a disco classic. The band performed on the Discoring television show in 1985 and Festivalbar in 1985. An album, New Art, was released in 1984. Another single, "Brick", was released a year later and was also a big success internationally, reaching #1 in Italy and #6 in France.

After the recording of "Brick", the band split up, but in 2001, plans were made for a reformation.

Album

 * New Art (1984)

Singles

 * "Dreamgirl"/"Warlord" (1981)
 * "Donna Rouge" (1983)
 * "Right" (1984)
 * "Memories of Pan"/"Frogs in Spain" (1984)
 * "Arabian Toys" (1984)
 * "Brick" (1985)

title: Fake (Swedish band)


text: File:Stay on These Roads album cover.jpg


text:
Tehillim

Tehillim (תהלים) may refer to:

 * The Hebrew name of the biblical Book of Psalms
 * Tehillim (Reich), a 1981 piece of music by Steve Reich
 * Tehilim (film), a 2007 Israeli film directed by Raphaël Nadjari
 * Tehillim, 2010 and 2014 compositions by David Ezra Okonşar

title: Tehillim


text:
Italo-Turkish War

The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (Trablusgarp Savaşı, "Tripolitanian War", Guerra di Libia, "War of Libya") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 29 September 1911, to 18 October 1912. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet, of which the main sub-provinces were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories became the colonies of Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which would later merge into Italian Libya.

During the conflict, Italian forces also occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Italy agreed to return the Dodecanese to the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912. However, the vagueness of the text, combined with subsequent adverse events unfavourable to the Ottoman Empire (the outbreak of the Balkan Wars and World War I), allowed a provisional Italian administration of the islands, and Turkey eventually renounced all claims on these islands in Article 15 of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.

The war is considered a precursor of the First World War. Members of the Balkan League, seeing how easily Italy defeated the Ottomans and motivated by incipient Balkan nationalism, attacked the Ottoman Empire in October 1912, starting the First Balkan War a few days before the end of the Italo-Turkish War.

The Italo-Turkish War saw numerous technological changes, most notably the use of airplanes in combat. On 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capitano Carlo Piazza, flew over Turkish lines on the world's first aerial reconnaissance mission, and on 1 November, the first aerial bomb was dropped by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops in Libya, from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft. The Turks, using rifles, were the first to shoot down an airplane. Another use of new technology was a network of wireless telegraphy stations established soon after the initial landings. Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of wireless telegraphy, came to Libya to conduct experiments with the Italian Corps of Engineers.

Background
Italian claims to Libya date back to the Ottoman defeat by the Russian Empire during the War of 1877–1878 and subsequent disputes thereafter. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, France and the United Kingdom had agreed to the French occupation of Tunisia and British control over Cyprus respectively, which were both parts of the declining Ottoman state.

When Italian diplomats hinted about possible opposition to the Anglo-French maneuvers by their government, the French replied that Tripoli would have been a counterpart for Italy, which made a secret agreement with the British government in February 1887 via a diplomatic exchange of notes. The agreement stipulated that Italy would support British control in Egypt, and that Britain would likewise support Italian influence in Libya. In 1902, Italy and France had signed a secret treaty which accorded freedom of intervention in Tripolitania and Morocco. The agreement, negotiated by Italian Foreign Minister Giulio Prinetti and French Ambassador Camille Barrère, ended the historic rivalry between both nations for control of North Africa. The same year, the British government promised Italy that "any alteration in the status of Libya would be in conformity with Italian interests". Those measures were intended to loosen Italian commitment to the Triple Alliance and thereby weaken Germany, which France and Britain viewed as their main rival in Europe.

Following the Anglo-Russian Convention and the establishment of the Triple Entente, Tsar Nicholas II and King Victor Emmanuel III made the 1909 Racconigi Bargain in which Russia acknowledged Italy's interest in Tripoli and Cyrenaica in return for Italian support for Russian control of the Bosphorus. However, the Italian government did little to realise that opportunity and so knowledge of the Libyan territory and resources remained scarce in the following years.

The removal of diplomatic obstacles coincided with increasing colonial fervor. In 1908, the Italian Colonial Office was upgraded to a Central Directorate of Colonial Affairs. The nationalist Enrico Corradini led the public call for action in Libya and, joined by the nationalist newspaper L'Idea Nazionale in 1911, demanded an invasion. The Italian press began a large-scale lobbying campaign for an invasion of Libya in late March 1911. It was fancifully depicted as rich in minerals and well-watered, defended by only 4,000 Ottoman troops. Also, its population was described as hostile to the Ottomans and friendly to the Italians, and they predicted that the future invasion would be little more than a "military walk".

The Italian government remained committed into 1911 to the maintenance of the Ottoman Empire, which was a close friend of its German ally. Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti rejected nationalist calls for conflict over Ottoman Albania, which was seen as a possible colonial project, as late as the summer of 1911.

However, the Agadir Crisis in which French military action in Morocco in April 1911 would lead to the establishment of a French protectorate, changed the political calculations. The Italian leadership then decided that it could safely accede to public demands for a colonial project. The Triple Entente powers were highly supportive. British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey stated to the Italian ambassador on 28 July that he would support Italy, not the Ottomans. On 19 September, Grey instructed Permanent Under-Secretary of State Sir Arthur Nicolson, 1st Baron Carnock that Britain and France should not interfere with Italy's designs on Libya. Meanwhile, the Russian government urged Italy to act in a "prompt and resolute manner".

In contrast to its engagement with the Entente powers, Italy largely ignored its military allies in the Triple Alliance. Giolitti and Foreign Minister Antonino Paternò Castello agreed on 14 September to launch a military campaign "before the Austrian and German governments [were aware] of it". Germany was then actively attempting to mediate between Rome and Constantinople, and Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal repeatedly warned Italy that military action in Libya would threaten the integrity of the Ottoman Empire and create a crisis in the Eastern Question, which would destabilise the Balkan Peninsula and the European balance of power. Italy also foresaw that result since Paternò Castello, in a July report to the king and Giolitti, laid out the reasons for and against military action in Libya, and he raised the concern that the Balkan revolt, which would likely follow an Italian attack on Libya, might force Austria-Hungary to take military action in Balkan areas claimed by Italy.

The Italian Socialist Party had a strong influence over public opinion, but it was in opposition and also divided on the issue. It acted ineffectively against military intervention. The future Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini, who was then still a left-wing Socialist, took a prominent antiwar position. A similar opposition was expressed in Parliament by Gaetano Salvemini and Leone Caetani.

An ultimatum was presented to the Ottoman government, led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), on the night of 26–27 September 1911. Through Austro-Hungarian intermediation, the Ottomans replied with the proposal of transferring control of Libya without war and maintaining a formal Ottoman suzerainty. That suggestion was comparable to the situation in Egypt, which was under formal Ottoman suzerainty but was under de facto control by the British. Giolitti refused.

Italy declared war on 29 September 1911.

Opening maneuver

The Italian army was ill-prepared for the war and was not informed of the government's plans for Libya until late September. The army had a shortage of soldiers as the class of 1889 was demobilized before the war started. Military operations started with the bombardment of Tripoli on 3 October. The city was conquered by 1,500 sailors, much to the enthusiasm of the interventionist minority in Italy. Another proposal for a diplomatic settlement was rejected by the Italians, and so the Ottomans decided to defend the province.

On 29 September 1911, Italy published the declaration of their direct interest towards Libya. Without a proper response, the Italian forces landed on the shores of Libya on 4 October 1911. A considerable number of Italians were living within the Ottoman Empire, mostly inhabiting Istanbul, Izmir, and Thessaloniki, dealing with trade and industry. The sudden declaration of war shocked both the Italian community living in the Empire as well as the Ottoman government. Depending on the mutual friendly relations, the Ottoman Government had sent their Libyan battalions to Yemen in order to suppress local rebellions, leaving only the military police in Libya.

Therefore, the Ottomans did not have a full army in Tripolitania. Many of the Ottoman officers had to travel there by their own means, often secretly, through Egypt since the British government would not allow Ottoman troops to be transported en masse through Egypt. The Ottoman Navy was too weak to transport troops by sea. The Ottomans organised local Libyans for the defence against the Italian invasion.

Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu, the capital of Italian Somaliland, served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War. Most of the Somalian troops stationed would return home only in 1935, when they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia.

Italian troops landing in Libya
The first disembarkation of Italian troops occurred on 10 October. Having no prior military experiences and lacking adequate planning for amphibious invasions, the Italian armies poured onto the coasts of Libya, facing numerous problems during their landings and deployments. After a destructive bombing of its Ottoman fortifications, the city of Tripoli and its surroundings were quickly conquered by 1,500 Italian sailors.

The Italians believed that a force of 20,000 would be able to take over Libya. The force was able to capture Tripoli, Tobruk, Derna, Bengasi, and Homs between 3 and 21 October. However, the Italians suffered a defeat at Shar al-Shatt, with at least 21 officers and 482 soldiers dead. The Italians executed 400 women and 4,000 men through firing squads and hanging in retaliation.

The corps was consequently enlarged to 100,000 men who had to face 20,000 Libyans and 8,000 Ottomans. The war turned into one of position. Even the Italian utilisation of armoured cars and air power, both among the earliest in modern warfare, had little effect on the initial outcome. In the first military use of heavier-than-air craft, Capitano Carlo Piazza flew the first reconnaissance flight on 23 October 1911. A week later, Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti dropped four grenades on Tajura (Arabic: تاجوراء Tājūrā’, or Tajoura) and Ain Zara in the first aerial bombing in history.

Trench phase

Technologically and numerically superior Italian forces easily managed to take the shores. However, the Italians still could not penetrate deep inland. The Libyans and Turks, estimated at 15,000, made frequent attacks day and night on the strongly-entrenched Italian garrison in the southern suburbs of Benghazi. The four Italian infantry regiments on the defensive were supported by the cruisers ITALIAN CRUISER San Marco and ITALIAN CRUISER Agordat. The Italians rarely attempted a sortie.

An attack of 20,000 Ottoman and local troops was repulsed on 30 November with considerable losses. Shortly afterward, the garrison was reinforced by the 57th infantry regiment from Italy. The battleship ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Regina Elena also arrived from Tobruk. During the night of 14 and 15 December, the Ottomans attacked in great force but were repulsed with aid of the fire from the ships. The Italians lost several field guns.

At Derna, the Ottomans and the Libyans were estimated at 3,500, but they were being constantly reinforced, and a general assault on the Italian position was expected. The Italian and Turkish forces in Tripoli and Cyrenaica were constantly reinforced since the Ottoman withdrawal to the interior enabled them to reinforce their troops considerably.

Lacking a considerable navy, the Ottomans were not able to send regular forces to Libya, the Ottoman government supported a great number of young officers to travel to the area in order to rally the locals and coordinate the resistance. Enver Bey, Mustafa Kemal Bey, Ali Fethi Bey, Cami Bey, Nuri Bey and many other Turkish officers managed to reach Libya, traveling under secret identities such as covering as a medical doctor, journalist among others. The Ottoman Şehzade Osman Fuad had also joined these officers, granting royal support to the resistance. During the war, Mustafa Kemal Bey, the future founder of the Republic of Turkey, was wounded by shrapnel to his eye. The cost of the war was defrayed chiefly by voluntary offerings from Muslims; men, weapons, ammunition and all kinds of other supplies were constantly sent across to the Egyptian and Tunisian frontiers, not withstanding their neutrality. The Italians occupied Sidi Barrani on the coast between Tobruk and Solum to prevent contraband and troops from entering across the Egyptian frontier, and the naval blockaders guarded the coast as well as capturing several sailing ships laden with contraband.

Italian troops landed at Tobruk after a brief bombardment on 4 December 1911, occupied the seashore, and marched towards the hinterlands facing weak resistance. Small numbers of Ottoman soldiers and Libyan volunteers were later organized by Captain Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The small 22 December Battle of Tobruk resulted in Mustafa Kemal's victory. With that achievement, he was assigned to Derna War quarters to coordinate the field on 6 March 1912. The Libyan campaign ground to a stalemate by December 1911.

On 3 March 1912, 1,500 Libyan volunteers attacked Italian troops who were building trenches near Derna. The Italians, who were outnumbered but had superior weaponry, held the line. A lack of coordination between the Italian units sent from Derna as reinforcements and the intervention of Ottoman artillery threatened the Italian line, and the Libyans attempted to surround the Italian troops. Further Italian reinforcements, however, stabilised the situation, and the battle ended in the afternoon with an Italian victory.

On 14 September, the Italian command sent three columns of infantry to disband the Arab camp near Derna. The Italian troops occupied a plateau and interrupted Ottoman supply lines. Three days later, the Ottoman commander, Enver Bey, attacked the Italian positions on the plateau. The larger Italian fire drove back the Ottoman soldiers, who were surrounded by a battalion of Alpini and suffered heavy losses. A later Ottoman attack had the same outcome. Then, operations in Cyrenaica ceased until the end of the war.

Although some elements of the local population collaborated with the Italians, counterattacks by Ottomans soldiers with the help of local troops confined the Italian army to the coastal region. In fact, by the end of 1912 the Italians had made little progress in conquering Libya. The Italian soldiers were in effect besieged in seven enclaves on the coasts of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. The largest was at Tripoli and extended barely 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) from the town.

Naval warfare
At sea, the Italians enjoyed a clear advantage. The Italian Navy had seven times the tonnage of the Ottoman Navy and was better trained.

In January 1912, the Italian cruiser Piemonte, with the Soldato class destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino, sank seven Ottoman gunboats (Ayintab, Bafra, Gökcedag, Kastamonu, Muha, Ordu and Refahiye) and a yacht (Sipka) in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay. The Italians blockaded the Red Sea ports of the Ottomans and actively supplied and supported the Emirate of Asir, which was also then at war with the Ottoman Empire.

Then, on 24 February, in the Battle of Beirut, two Italian armoured cruisers attacked and sank an Ottoman casemate corvette and six lighters, retreated and returned and then sank an Ottoman torpedo boat. OTTOMAN IRONCLAD Avnillah alone suffered 58 killed and 108 wounded. By contrast, the Italian ships took no casualties and also no direct hits from any of the Ottoman warships. Italy had feared that the Ottoman naval forces at Beirut could be used to threaten the approach to the Suez Canal. The Ottoman naval presence at Beirut was completely annihilated and casualties on the Ottoman side were heavy. The Italian Navy gained complete naval dominance of the southern Mediterranean for the rest of the war.

Although Italy could extend its control to almost all of the 2,000 km of the Libyan coast between April and early August 1912, its ground forces could not venture beyond the protection of the navy's guns and so were limited to a thin coastal strip. In the summer of 1912, Italy began operations against the Ottoman possessions in the Aegean Sea with the approval of the other powers, which were eager to end a war that was lasting much longer than expected. Italy occupied twelve islands in the sea, comprising the Ottoman province of Rhodes, which then became known as the Dodecanese, but that raised the discontent of Austria-Hungary, which feared that it could fuel the irredentism of nations such as Serbia and Greece and cause imbalance in the already-fragile situation in the Balkan area. The only other relevant military operation of the summer was an attack of five Italian torpedo boats in the Dardanelles on 18 July.

Irregular war and atrocities
With a decree of 5 November 1911, Italy declared its sovereignty over Libya. Although the Italians controlled the coast, many of their troops had been killed in battle and nearly 6,000 Ottoman soldiers remained to face an army of nearly 140,000 Italians. As a result, the Ottomans began using guerrilla tactics. Indeed, some "Young Turk" officers reached Libya and helped organize a guerrilla war with local mujahideen. Many local Libyans joined forces with the Ottomans because of their common faith against the "Christian invaders" and started bloody guerrilla warfare. Italian authorities adopted many repressive measures against the rebels, such as public hangings as retaliation for ambushes.

On 23 October 1911, over 500 Italian soldiers were slaughtered by Turkish troops at Sciara Sciatt, on the outskirts of Tripoli. As a consequence, on the next day the 1911 Tripoli massacre had Italian troops systematically murder thousands of civilians by moving through local homes and gardens one by one, including by setting fire to a mosque with 100 refugees inside. Although Italian authorities attempted to keep the news of the massacre from getting out, the incident soon became internationally known. The Italians started to show photographs of the massacred Italian soldiers at Sciara Sciat to justify their revenge.

Treaty of Ouchy
Italian diplomats decided to take advantage of the situation to obtain a favourable peace deal. On 18 October 1912, Italy and the Ottoman Empire signed a treaty in Ouchy in Lausanne called the First Treaty of Lausanne, which is often also called Treaty of Ouchy to distinguish it from the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, (the Second Treaty of Lausanne).

The main provisions of the treaty were as follows:
 * The Ottomans would withdraw all military personnel from Trablus and Benghazi vilayets (Libya), but in return, Italy would return Rhodes and the other Aegean islands that it held to the Ottomans.
 * Trablus and Benghazi vilayets would have a special status and a naib (regent), and a kadi (judge) would represent the Caliph.
 * Before the appointment of the kadis and naibs, the Ottomans would consult the Italian government.
 * The Ottoman government would be responsible for the expenses of these kadis and naibs.

Subsequent events prevented the return of the Dodecanese to Turkey, however. The First Balkan War broke out shortly before the treaty had been signed. Turkey was in no position to reoccupy the islands while its main armies were engaged in a bitter struggle to preserve its remaining territories in the Balkans. To avoid a Greek invasion of the islands, it was implicitly agreed on that the Dodecanese would remain under neutral Italian administration until the conclusion of hostilities between the Greeks and the Ottomans, after which the islands would revert to Ottoman rule.

Turkey's continued involvement in the Balkan Wars, followed shortly by World War I (which found Turkey and Italy again on opposing sides), meant that the islands were never returned to the Ottoman Empire. Turkey gave up its claims on the islands in the Treaty of Lausanne, and the Dodecanese continued to be administered by Italy until 1947, when after the Italian defeat in World War II, the islands were ceded to Greece.

Aftermath
The invasion of Libya was a costly enterprise for Italy. Instead of the 30 million lire a month judged sufficient at its beginning, it reached a cost of 80 million a month for a much longer period than was originally estimated. The war cost Italy 1.3 billion lire, nearly a billion more than Giovanni Giolitti estimated before the war. This ruined ten years of fiscal prudence.

After the withdrawal of the Ottoman army the Italians could easily extend their occupation of the country, seizing East Tripolitania, Ghadames, the Djebel and Fezzan with Murzuk during 1913. The outbreak of the First World War with the necessity to bring back the troops to Italy, the proclamation of the Jihad by the Ottomans and the uprising of the Libyans in Tripolitania forced the Italians to abandon all occupied territory and to entrench themselves in Tripoli, Derna, and on the coast of Cyrenaica. The Italian control over much of the interior of Libya remained ineffective until the late 1920s when forces under the Generals Pietro Badoglio and Rodolfo Graziani waged bloody pacification campaigns. Resistance petered out only after the execution of the rebel leader Omar Mukhtar on 15 September 1931. The result of the Italian colonisation for the Libyan population was that by the mid-1930s it had been cut in half due to emigration, famine, and war casualties. The Libyan population in 1950 was at the same level as in 1911, approximately 1.5 million.

Europe, Balkans and First World War
In 1924, the Serbian diplomat Miroslav Spalajković could look back on the events that led to the First World War and its aftermath and state of the Italian attack, "all subsequent events are nothing more than the evolution of that first aggression." Unlike the British-controlled Egypt, the Ottoman Tripolitania vilayet, which made up modern-day Libya, was core territory of the Empire, like that of the Balkans. The coalition that had defended the Ottomans during the Crimean War (1853–1856), minimised Ottoman territorial losses at the Congress of Berlin (1878) and supported the Ottomans during the Bulgarian Crisis (1885–88) had largely disappeared. The reaction in the Balkans to the Italian declaration of war was immediate. The first draft by Serbia of a military treaty with Bulgaria against Turkey was written by November 1911, with a defensive treaty signed in March 1912 and an offensive treaty signed in May 1912 focused on military action against Ottoman-ruled Southeastern Europe. The series of bilateral treaties between Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro that created the Balkan League was completed in 1912, with the First Balkan War (1912–1913) beginning by a Montenegrin attack on 8 October 1912, ten days before the Treaty of Ouchy. The swift and nearly-complete victory of the Balkan League astonished contemporary observers. However, none of the victors were happy with the division of captured territory, which resulted in the Second Balkan War (1913) in which Serbia, Greece, the Ottomans, and Romania took almost all of the territory that Bulgaria had captured in the first war. In the wake of the enormous change in the regional balance of power, Russia switched its primary allegiance in the region from Bulgaria to Serbia and guaranteed Serbian autonomy from any outside military intervention. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist and the resulting Austro-Hungarian plan for military action against Serbia was a major precipitating event of the First World War (1914–1918)

The Italo-Turkish War illustrated to the French and British governments that Italy was more valuable to them inside the Triple Alliance than being formally allied with the Entente. In January 1912, the French diplomat Paul Cambon wrote to Raymond Poincaré that Italy was "more burdensome than useful as an ally. Against Austria, she harbours a latent hostility that nothing can disarm". The tensions within the Triple Alliance would eventually lead Italy to sign the 1915 Treaty of London, which had it abandon the Triple Alliance and join the Entente.

In Italy itself, massive funerals for fallen heroes brought the Catholic Church closer to the government from which it had long been alienated. There emerged a cult of patriotic sacrifice in which the colonial war was celebrated in an aggressive and imperialistic way. The ideology of "crusade" and "martyrdom" characterised the funerals. The result was to consolidate Catholic war culture among devout Italians, which was soon expanded to include Italian involvement in the Great War (1915–1918). That aggressive spirit was revived by the Fascists in the 1920s to strengthen their popular support.

The resistance in Libya was an important experience for the young officers of the Ottoman Army, such as Mustafa Kemal Bey, Enver Bey, Ali Fethi Bey, Cami Bey, Nuri Bey and many others. These young officers were to perform important military duties and accomplishments in the First World War, led the Turkish independency war and found the Republic of Turkey.

Fate of the Dodecanese Islands
Because of the First World War, the Dodecanese remained under Italian military occupation. According to the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, which was never ratified, Italy was supposed to cede all of the islands except Rhodes to Greece in exchange for a vast Italian zone of influence in southwest Anatolia. However, the Greek defeat in the Greco–Turkish War and the foundation of modern Turkey created a new situation that made the enforcement of the terms of that treaty impossible. In Article 15 of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which superseded the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, Turkey formally recognised the Italian annexation of the Dodecanese. The population was largely Greek, and by treaty in 1947, the islands eventually became part of Greece. As the Dodecanese were part of Italy, the local population was not affected by the subsequent population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and a small community of Dodecanese Turks has remained to this day.

Literature
In his book Primo, the Turkish Child, the renowned Turkish author Ömer Seyfettin tells the fictional story of a boy living in the Ottoman city of Selânik (Salonica, today Thessaloniki), who has to choose his national identity between his Turkish father and Italian mother after the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 (Ömer Seyfettin, Primo Türk Çocuğu).

In other languages

 * Maltese, Paolo. "L'impresa di Libia", in Storia Illustrata #167, October 1971.
 * "1911–1912 Turco–Italian War and Captain Mustafa Kemal". Ministry of Culture of Turkey, edited by Turkish Armed Forces-Division of History and Strategical Studies, pp. 62–65, Ankara, 1985.
 * Schill, Pierre. Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), éd. Créaphis, 2018. 480 pages and 230 photographs. ISBN 978-2-35428-141-0
 * Awaken the archive of a colonial war. Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912). With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz.
 * "Trablusgarp Savaşı Ve 1911–1912 Türk-İtalyan İlişkileri: Tarblusgarp Savaşı'nda Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'le İlgili Bazı Belgeler", Hale Şıvgın, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2006, ISBN 978-975-16-0160-5
 * "Trablusgarp Savaşı Ve 1911–1912 Türk-İtalyan İlişkileri: Tarblusgarp Savaşı'nda Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'le İlgili Bazı Belgeler", Hale Şıvgın, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2006, ISBN 978-975-16-0160-5

title: Italo-Turkish War


text:
User:Enmity

Enmity.

title: User:Enmity


text:
De Casteljau's algorithm

In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, De Casteljau's algorithm is a recursive method to evaluate polynomials in Bernstein form or Bézier curves, named after its inventor Paul de Casteljau. De Casteljau's algorithm can also be used to split a single Bézier curve into two Bézier curves at an arbitrary parameter value.

Although the algorithm is slower for most architectures when compared with the direct approach, it is more numerically stable.

Definition
A Bézier curve $$B$$ (of degree $$n$$, with control points $$\beta_0, \ldots, \beta_n$$) can be written in Bernstein form as follows $$B(t) = \sum_{i=0}^{n}\beta_{i}b_{i,n}(t),$$ where $$b$$ is a Bernstein basis polynomial $$b_{i,n}(t) = {n \choose i}(1-t)^{n-i}t^i.$$ The curve at point $$t_0$$ can be evaluated with the recurrence relation $$\begin{align} \beta_i^{(0)} &:= \beta_i, && i=0,\ldots,n \\ \beta_i^{(j)} &:= \beta_i^{(j-1)} (1-t_0) + \beta_{i+1}^{(j-1)} t_0, && i = 0,\ldots,n-j,\ \ j= 1,\ldots,n \end{align}$$

Then, the evaluation of $$B$$ at point $$t_0$$ can be evaluated in $\binom{n}{2}$ operations. The result $$B(t_0)$$ is given by $$B(t_0) = \beta_0^{(n)}.$$

Moreover, the Bézier curve $$B$$ can be split at point $$t_0$$ into two curves with respective control points: $$\begin{align} &\beta_0^{(0)},\beta_0^{(1)},\ldots,\beta_0^{(n)} \\[1ex] &\beta_0^{(n)},\beta_1^{(n-1)},\ldots,\beta_n^{(0)} \end{align}$$

Geometric interpretation
The geometric interpretation of De Casteljau's algorithm is straightforward. The following picture shows this process for a cubic Bézier curve:
 * Consider a Bézier curve with control points $$P_0, \dots, P_n$$. Connecting the consecutive points we create the control polygon of the curve.
 * Subdivide now each line segment of this polygon with the ratio $$t : (1-t)$$ and connect the points you get. This way you arrive at the new polygon having one fewer segment.
 * Repeat the process until you arrive at the single point – this is the point of the curve corresponding to the parameter $$t$$.

Note that the intermediate points that were constructed are in fact the control points for two new Bézier curves, both exactly coincident with the old one. This algorithm not only evaluates the curve at $$t$$, but splits the curve into two pieces at $$t$$, and provides the equations of the two sub-curves in Bézier form.

The interpretation given above is valid for a nonrational Bézier curve. To evaluate a rational Bézier curve in $$\mathbf{R}^n$$, we may project the point into $$\mathbf{R}^{n+1}$$; for example, a curve in three dimensions may have its control points $$\{(x_i, y_i, z_i)\}$$ and weights $$\{w_i\}$$ projected to the weighted control points $$\{(w_ix_i, w_iy_i, w_iz_i, w_i)\}$$. The algorithm then proceeds as usual, interpolating in $$\mathbf{R}^4$$. The resulting four-dimensional points may be projected back into three-space with a perspective divide.

In general, operations on a rational curve (or surface) are equivalent to operations on a nonrational curve in a projective space. This representation as the "weighted control points" and weights is often convenient when evaluating rational curves.

Notation
When doing the calculation by hand it is useful to write down the coefficients in a triangle scheme as $$ \begin{matrix} \beta_0    & = \beta_0^{(0)}     &                   &         &               \\ &                    & \beta_0^{(1)}     &         &               \\ \beta_1    & = \beta_1^{(0)}     &                   &         &               \\ &                    &                   & \ddots  &               \\ \vdots     &                     & \vdots            &         & \beta_0^{(n)} \\ &                    &                   &         &               \\ \beta_{n-1} & = \beta_{n-1}^{(0)} &                   &         &               \\ &                    & \beta_{n-1}^{(1)} &         &               \\ \beta_n    & = \beta_n^{(0)}     &                   &         &               \\ \end{matrix} $$ When choosing a point t0 to evaluate a Bernstein polynomial we can use the two diagonals of the triangle scheme to construct a division of the polynomial $$B(t) = \sum_{i=0}^n \beta_i^{(0)} b_{i,n}(t), \quad t \in [0,1]$$ into $$B_1(t) = \sum_{i=0}^n \beta_0^{(i)} b_{i,n}\left(\frac{t}{t_0}\right)\!, \quad t \in [0,t_0]$$ and $$B_2(t) = \sum_{i=0}^n \beta_i^{(n-i)} b_{i,n}\left(\frac{t-t_0}{1-t_0}\right)\!, \quad t \in [t_0,1].$$

Bézier curve
When evaluating a Bézier curve of degree n in 3-dimensional space with n + 1 control points Pi $$\mathbf{B}(t) = \sum_{i=0}^{n} \mathbf{P}_i b_{i,n}(t),\ t \in [0,1]$$ with $$\mathbf{P}_i := \begin{pmatrix} x_i \\ y_i \\ z_i \end{pmatrix},$$ we split the Bézier curve into three separate equations $$\begin{align} B_1(t) &= \sum_{i=0}^{n} x_i b_{i,n}(t), & t \in [0,1] \\[1ex] B_2(t) &= \sum_{i=0}^{n} y_i b_{i,n}(t), & t \in [0,1] \\[1ex] B_3(t) &= \sum_{i=0}^{n} z_i b_{i,n}(t), & t \in [0,1] \end{align}$$ which we evaluate individually using De Casteljau's algorithm.

Example
We want to evaluate the Bernstein polynomial of degree 2 with the Bernstein coefficients $$\begin{align} \beta_0^{(0)} &= \beta_0 \\[1ex] \beta_1^{(0)} &= \beta_1 \\[1ex] \beta_2^{(0)} &= \beta_2 \end{align}$$ at the point t0.

We start the recursion with $$\begin{align} \beta_0^{(1)} &&=&& \beta_0^{(0)} (1-t_0) + \beta_1^{(0)}t_0 &&=&& \beta_0(1-t_0) + \beta_1 t_0 \\[1ex] \beta_1^{(1)} &&=&& \beta_1^{(0)} (1-t_0) + \beta_2^{(0)}t_0 &&=&& \beta_1(1-t_0) + \beta_2 t_0 \end{align}$$ and with the second iteration the recursion stops with $$ \begin{align} \beta_0^{(2)} & = \beta_0^{(1)} (1-t_0) + \beta_1^{(1)} t_0     \\ \            & = \beta_0(1-t_0) (1-t_0) + \beta_1 t_0 (1-t_0) + \beta_1(1-t_0)t_0 + \beta_2 t_0 t_0 \\ \            & = \beta_0 (1-t_0)^2 + \beta_1 2t_0(1-t_0) + \beta_2 t_0^2 \end{align}$$ which is the expected Bernstein polynomial of degree 2.

Implementations
Here are example implementations of De Casteljau's algorithm in various programming languages.

JavaScript
The following function applies De Casteljau's algorithm to an array of points, resolving the final midpoint with the additional properties in and out (for the midpoint's "in" and "out" tangents, respectively).

The following example calls this function with the green points below, exactly halfway along the curve. The resulting coordinates should equal $$(192, 32)$$, or the position of the centremost red point.

title: De Casteljau's algorithm


text:
Hummel (vehicle)

Hummel (German: "bumblebee") was a German self-propelled gun used by the Wehrmacht during World War II. Based on the Geschützwagen III/IV chassis and armed with the 15 cm sFH 18/1 L/30 howitzer, it saw action from early 1943 until the end of the war. Its ordnance inventory designation was Sd.Kfz. 165.

The full name was ''Panzerfeldhaubitze 18M auf Geschützwagen III/IV (Sf) Hummel, Sd.Kfz. 165. On February 27, 1944, Hitler ordered the name Hummel'' to be dropped as it was deemed inappropriate for a fighting vehicle.

Development
The Hummel was designed in 1942 after the invasion of the USSR had demonstrated the need for more capable self-propelled artillery support for Wehrmacht tank forces than those that were available at the time.

The first option considered was mounting a 10.5 cm leFH 18 howitzer on a Panzer III chassis, rejected in favour of the same gun on a Panzer IV chassis. One prototype was built.

This design was rejected in favour of mounting the more powerful 15 cm sFH 18 L/30 howitzer on the specially designed Geschützwagen III/IV, which combined the driving and steering system of the Panzer III with the chassis, suspension, and engine of the Panzer IV. The same platform was also used for the Nashorn tank destroyer.

The engine was moved to the centre of the vehicle to make room for an open-topped lightly armoured fighting compartment at the rear housing the gun breech and crew. Late models had a slightly redesigned driver compartment and front superstructure offering more room to the radio operator and driver. In all, some 700 Hummel were built.

Variants
Because the basic Hummel could carry only a limited amount of ammunition, the Munitionsträger Hummel ("ammunition carrier Hummel") was developed. This was basically a standard production Hummel without the howitzer (a 10 mm armour plate covering the gun mount) and with racks fitted to hold the ammunition. When necessary, these could still be fitted with the 15 cm howitzer of the normal Hummel; this could even be done as a field conversion.

By the end of the war 157 Munitionsträger Hummel were built.

Combat history
The Hummel first participated in large scale combat at the Battle of Kursk, when some 100 served in armored artillery battalions (Panzerartillerie Abteilungen) of the Panzer divisions. They were formed into separate heavy self-propelled artillery batteries, each with six Hummel and one ammunition carrier.

Foreign use
Foreign use of the Hummel was extremely limited. During WWII the Soviet Union deployed captured vehicles. Post-war only two nations are known to have acquired the gun, Romania (a single chassis with an inoperable weapon) and Syria (five, captured guns received from France).

Romania received one unit from the Red Army after the war ended. This was assigned to the 2nd Armoured Regiment with its military registration number as U069009. It was officially known as the Hummel TAs self-propelled gun in the army's inventory. The gun could not be used because it was missing the breech's lock. It was showcased to the public in a military parade in Bucharest of 10 May 1946 with Romanian markings. All German armour in Romania was later phased out in 1950 and finally scrapped by 1954, the army deciding on the sole use of Soviet tanks and armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) instead.

Syria received five Hummel from France between the late 1940s and the early 1950s. Only a limited supply of main gun ammunition was provided (supplemented some time later by the Soviet Union, which had produced a sizeable quantity of compatible 150mm rounds domestically). These saw service against Israel up until the 1960s and all were most likely scrapped shortly afterwards.

Surviving vehicles
Six Hummel survive in museums, at the Munster Deutsches Panzermuseum, the Artillerie Schule in Idar Oberstein and the Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum in Germany, the Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France and the Fort Sill Field Artillery Museum in Fort Sill, Oklahoma and one has been reconstructed at the Australian Armour and Artillery Museum and is awaiting the Winterketten track.

title: Hummel (vehicle)


text:
Sumo (album)

Sumo is the debut studio album by Australian alternative rock band the Superjesus, which was issued on 1 February 1998. It was produced and mixed by Matt Serletic for East West Records/Warner Music Australia and peaked at number 2 on the ARIA Albums Chart. The album was re-issued in October 1998 as Sumo II, with an additional disc of live performances. At the 1998 ARIA Music Awards Sumo won the inaugural Best Rock Album category. It was also nominated for Best Group, Breakthrough Artist – Album and Chris Tennent and William Tennent were nominated for Best Cover Art.

To celebrate 20 years since its release, Sumo was re-released in August 2018, with bonus tracks and on vinyl for the first time. The Superjesus toured the album during the second half of 2018.

Background and recording
Sumo was recorded by the Superjesus in Atlanta, Georgia from April 1997. Their debut five-track extended play, Eight Step Rail, was released in August 1996 via Aloha Records, two of its tracks are "Shut My Eyes" and "I'm Stained". After touring with visiting British band, Bush in late 1996 and performing at the 1997 Big Day Out Festival, the Superjesus began work on the album. In an August 1997 interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, guitarist Chris Tennent stated, "We did the Bush tour and the Big Day Out. Then we took time out to get some songs together before recording the album." In 2018, vocalist Sarah McLeod reflected, "we flew to Atlanta, Georgia to record our first full length record for our new label Warner. We chose Triclops Studios because that's where the Smashing Pumpkins recorded our favourite record, Siamese Dream. Once it was in the can, we came back to Australia and were asked to play at the [1997] ARIAs."

Both "I'm Stained" and "Shut My Eyes" were re-recorded for Sumo, with "Shut My Eyes" as a hidden track. McLeod and Tennent were dating prior to recording the album, Tennent was "writing songs which he recorded, complete with all the guitar parts, onto a tape" and McLeod "spent a considerable time familiarising herself with the songs. She was still writing lyrics on the plane bound for Atlanta." By the time it was released McLeod and Tennent's personal relationship was over however they continued in the band. Two singles appeared ahead of the album, "Down Again" (August 1997) and "Saturation" (November). Its third single, "Now and Then" was issued in March 1998. The fourth single, "Ashes", followed in September. The group provided a track-by-track description of the album for The iZine in February 1998. The Sumo Tour of Australia, with over 40 dates, occurred from mid-February to late April. They started the tour with an appearance on national youth radio Triple J's program Live at the Wireless in Sydney, where they recorded tracks live-in-the-studio. Sumo was released in the United States in July 1998 and the Superjesus relocated to Los Angeles to promote it. Upon return to Australia Tennent left the Superjesus and was replaced on guitar by Tim Henwood in July 1999.

Reception
Jonathan Lewis from AllMusic wrote: "Sumo was full of guitar-driven alternative radio-friendly songs." adding "Opening with the Helmet-style riffing of the excellent "Down Again", the Superjesus show that guitar rock with McLeod's vocals soaring over the top is definitely their strength. It is also their weakness, with Sumo containing too little variation in style." Lewis said "While the first half of Sumo shows plenty of promise, the second half loses its intensity."

Track listing
2018 20th Anniversary Edition

Personnel
Credits adapted from liner notes:

The Superjesus
 * Paul Berryman – drums
 * Sarah McLeod – vocals, guitar
 * Stuart Rudd – bass guitar
 * Chris Tennent – guitar, composer (strings)

Additional personnel
 * Greg Archilla – mixing engineer
 * Sophie Howarth – photography
 * Stephen Marcussen – mastering engineer
 * Brian Parker – assistant audio engineer
 * Matt Serletic – record producer, mixing engineer, arranger, composer (strings)
 * Chris Tennent, William Tennent – cover art
 * Jeff Tomei – audio engineer

title: Sumo (album)


text:
Eight Step Rail

Eight Step Rail is the debut EP by Australian rock band The Superjesus. The EP was released in May 1996.

The track "I'm Stained" was later re-recorded for their debut album, Sumo. A re-recorded version of "Shut My Eyes" was also later included as a hidden track on Sumo.

The big guitar sounds are yet another use of the infamous Sansamp from Tech 21. After the engineer (Mick Wordley of Mixmasters Studios in Adelaide, Australia) spent a day trying to get a big sound out of Marshall stacks, he could not go past the sound the band had achieved by direct injecting a Sansamp into their Fostex recorder.

At the ARIA Music Awards of 1997, the EP won two ARIA Awards, "Best New Talent" and "Breakthrough Artist – Single".

title: Eight Step Rail


text:
Pixy Stix

Pixy Stix are a sweet and sour colored powdered candy usually packaged in a wrapper that resembles a drinking straw.

The candy is lightly poured into the mouth from the wrapper, which is made out of either plastic or paper. Pixy Stix contain dextrose, citric acid, and artificial and natural flavors.

History
Pixy Stix were invented by the Sunline Inc. in St. Louis, Missouri. The concept for this powdered candy originated in 1942 and was derived from a penny drink mix sold as Fruzola Jr. by the Fruzola Company in Salt Lake City, Utah. When J. Fish Smith found that children were eating the sweet and sour powder straight from the package, he modified the formula and branded it as Lik-M-Aid.

An affiliated company, Fruzola Company of St. Louis, which later became Sunline, Inc., was founded in 1952 by Menlo F. Smith to manufacture and market Lik-M-Aid nationwide. In 1959, the product was packaged in color-striped straws and introduced as Pixy Stix. Several years later, Lik-M-Aid was modified with a multi-compartment package containing two flavors and a candy stick used to dip the candy out of the package, thereby dubbed Fun Dip. Pixy Stix are currently manufactured by Ferrero Candy Company, a division of Ferrero SpA.

In 2011, Pixy Stix was one of the candies considered a health threat by a Grand Rapids middle school, and was banned out of concern that children could use the candy to learn the habit of using illicit drugs. Inhaling the powdery candy also could increase the risk of upper sinus and upper respiratory system infections.

Flavors

 * Grape Escape
 * Maui Slap/Punch (Blue Raspberry)
 * Orange
 * Cherry
 * Strawberry
 * Cucumber Watermelon
 * Mango Lime
 * Pineapple Monkey
 * Tangerine Twist

title: Pixy Stix


text:
Tom Johnston (musician)

Charles Thomas Johnston (born August 15, 1948) is an American musician. He is a guitarist and vocalist, known principally as a founder, guitarist, lead vocalist and songwriter for the rock group the Doobie Brothers, as well as for his own solo career. He has played off and on with the Doobie Brothers for 50 years, in several styles.

He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Doobie Brothers in 2020.

Musical career
Johnston is most well known for both his lead guitar and vocal role in the Doobie Brothers, as well as for his adaptation of his own acoustic guitar style, blending a unique strum and percussive accented rhythm at the same time on one instrument. This style, interwoven with melodic hammer-ons, gave Johnston an early signature sound in popular 1970s rock music. All the rhythm structures behind "Long Train Runnin'" and "Listen to the Music" were formulated first for an acoustic guitar, and then re-applied in similar style on an electric guitar.

Early years to 1975
Johnston was born in Visalia, California. His greatest musical influences during his youth included Little Richard, Bo Diddley, Elvis Presley, James Brown, and other rhythm and blues artists featured on the radio in the 1950s. After brief school stints with the saxophone and clarinet, at the age of twelve Johnston took up guitar. He said, "I started out [on] the clarinet at seven, and I played that for eight years. I also played the saxophone for three years, drums for a year and a half, and took up the guitar when I was in the seventh grade. That was pretty much of a rebellion/image trip. But I felt at home on the guitar. I loved the saxophone and played tenor and baritone. But unfortunately, when I hung the clarinet up, I hung up all the reed instruments and just started playing guitar, and I never touched them again. I taught myself guitar and a little piano at home. I played piano on the first album The Doobie Brothers, and a little harmonica on a few others." In his early career he played in a variety of bands, including a Mexican wedding band that played half soul and half Latin music. His interest in rhythm and blues led to his singing in a soul group from a neighboring town and, eventually, his own blues band.

Johnston moved to San Jose to finish college and started playing in bands around town. It was there that he met Skip Spence, a former drummer with Jefferson Airplane, and guitarist/founding member of a group that had a major influence on the Doobie Brothers – Moby Grape. Spence introduced Johnston to John Hartman. Johnston was a graphic design art major at San José State University and wound up living at 285 South 12th Street, which was a musical center for San Jose at the time. "It didn't matter if they played B-3 or drums, guitar, bass, or horns, they all ended up in our basement," Johnston recalls. Johnston and Hartman soon formed their own band, Pud, featuring Greg Murphy on bass. Pud played many clubs in and around San Jose, including the Golden Horn Lounge (which no longer exists) in Cupertino, California. Here they met Pat Simmons. Hartman and Johnston lived in the 12th Street house for about four years; whereupon Dave Shogren joined them to replace Greg Murphy and Pat Simmons was recruited, they had the nucleus of a new band, and Pud gave way to the Doobie Brothers.

Throughout much of an initial seven-year and six-album discography, Johnston wrote and sang many of the Doobie Brothers' early hits, including "Listen to the Music" (#11 Top 100 Billboard Hit −1972), "Rockin' Down the Highway," "China Grove" (#15 Billboard Hot 100 Hit), "Long Train Runnin'" (#8 Billboard Hot 100 Hit), "Another Park, Another Sunday" (#32 Billboard Hot 100 Hit), and "Eyes of Silver" (#52 Billboard Hot 100 Hit). He also sang the hit song "Take Me in Your Arms" (#11 Billboard Hot 100 Hit −1975) (written by Holland-Dozier-Holland).

Mid and solo years 1976–1987

In December 1973, the British music magazine NME reported the relatively trivial news that Johnston had been arrested in California on a charge of marijuana possession. More seriously however, following years of a road touring lifestyle and health issues surrounding stomach ulcers which stood as a challenge since high school, Johnston became severely ill on the eve of a major tour beginning in Memphis, Tennessee in 1975 to promote Stampede. Johnston's condition was so precarious that he required emergency hospitalization for a bleeding ulcer. With Johnston convalescing and the tour already underway, fellow Doobie Brother Jeff Baxter proposed recruiting a fellow Steely Dan alum to fill the hole. This led to the emergency hiring of Michael McDonald, who became the lead singer of the band. Restored to fitness in 1976 and briefly back in the band, Johnston contributed one original song to Takin' It to the Streets ("Turn It Loose"), and also added a vocal cameo to Pat Simmons' tune "Wheels of Fortune". He also made live appearances with the band in 1976 (appearing in a concert filmed that year at Winterland in San Francisco, excerpts from which appear occasionally on VH1 Classic), but was sidelined once again in the fall due to exhaustion. None of Johnston's songs appeared on Livin' on the Fault Line, though he had written and the band had recorded five of his compositions for the album. Finally, before Fault Line was released, Johnston had his songs removed and left the band that he co-founded (though he received credit for guitars and vocals and was pictured on the album's inner sleeve band photo). After a few years of restored health but growing differences in musical direction between band members, Johnston finally left the band in 1977 to pursue a solo career that produced two albums with Warner Bros: Everything You've Heard Is True and Still Feels Good (reissued on compact disc by Wounded Bird Records), and Billboard Hot 100 hit "Savannah Nights" (#34 Top 100 Billboard Hit −1980).

Johnston toured in the late 1970s and early 1980s with the Tom Johnston Band, which featured fellow Doobie John Hartman on drums. While working on his solo projects, in 1982 Johnston rejoined the band for a farewell tour concert, after which the Doobie Brothers ceased performing as a band for the next five years.

In 1985, Johnston toured US clubs with a group called Border Patrol, that also included former Doobies Michael Hossack and briefly Patrick Simmons. This group toured but never recorded. In 1987, he contributed a tune to the Dirty Dancing soundtrack entitled "Where Are You Tonight?"

Current years 1987–present

Johnston joined the Doobie Brothers when they reunited for a brief tour in 1987. This event led to the permanent reformation of the band, with Johnston again performing alongside co-founder Simmons. With Simmons, Johnston wrote Long Train Runnin': Our Story of the Doobie Brothers (2022).

Road and studio gear outfitting
"Mine [first guitar] was an arch-back Harmony acoustic with f-holes. After that I got a Kay single-pickup electric with a cheap amplifier as that's all I could afford. Johnston now owns a mid-50s Fender Stratocaster that has been in his collection since the 1970s. He has a 1970 Les Paul Deluxe goldtop with classic white P-90 'soapbar' pickups affixed with an American Flag, that has been his primary Les Paul for 40 years. He also relies upon a 2008 PRS Custom 24 as a touring backup for his primary PRS. His primary touring guitar is a 2009 PRS 25th Anniversary Custom 24. It has a Modern Eagle inlay on the headstock and 57/08 pickups. "I've got a lot of guitars. Basically, everything I use on the road is PRS and that is what I play live. I use two basic guitars live that I trade off and I have a Martin acoustic that I play as well live. It is pretty much all about Paul Reed Smith right now. At home I have a Stratocaster and I have some older guitars I have had for a long time, an old Les Paul, an old 335, a couple Strats and a Telecaster. But live and when I am out on the road, it is strictly PRS."

While primarily an electric guitarist, Johnston also plays acoustic guitars for exploration and song writing. He started with a Gibson J-50 which was used to record all acoustic guitar parts on the first four Doobie Brother albums and after it was stolen moved to Martin guitars. In his personal collection are a 1962 Martin 00–18 and a 1975 Martin D-42, and he has written various songs on the 00-18. Johnston uses a variety of software in his home studio for writing, and Digital Performer by MOTU as his recording software program.

Johnston has employed traditionally a three finger Clapton-Hendrix lead fingerstyle, only using all four fingers for barre chords. He said, "I use my little finger to play chords, but not for playing solos. The direction in which I bend a string depends on where the string I'm bending is on the neck. The lower strings are going to be pulled down, and the high strings are going to be pushed up. I use a lot of vibrato when I play solo. And for picking, it has to be up and down if you want to do a lot of speed. It's also better for clarity. Anything faster than quarter notes, you either have to use alternating picking or play with a regular flatpick and fingers."

Johnston has traditionally employed Herco Nylon Flex 50 flatpicks (old "Herco mediums"), allowing for the right combination of flex and durability for his chukka-style rhythm. He said "I always use Herco medium because they don't break, and they take forever to wear out. Actually the worst thing you can do with a Herco is lose it. They are easy to hold on to as well and I do sweat a lot playing live. In fact, I usually eat the nickel off the strings right down to the brass (circa 1976)."

In 2007 C.F. Martin & Co. released a limited run of 35 Tom Johnston Signature Edition Doobie-42 Artist Edition guitars, and Elderly Music Tom Johnston Doobie 42.

Solo

 * Everything You've Heard Is True (1979) (AUS #97 (U.S. Billboard #100)
 * Still Feels Good (1981) (U.S. Billboard #158)
 * "Where Are You Tonight" (1987) - Soundtrack to the Motion Picture Dirty Dancing

title: Tom Johnston (musician)


text:
File:In Flight album cover.jpg

Summary
Cover of the Alvin Lee album In Flight.

title: File:In Flight album cover.jpg


text:
Jet Age (Superjesus album)

Jet Age is the second studio album by Australian rock band The Superjesus. The album was released in October 2000 and peaked at number 5 in Australia. The album was re-released in November 2001 and was certified platinum in 2002.

title: Jet Age (Superjesus album)