text:
Châtelperronian

 { "type": "ExternalData", "service": "page", "title": "ROCEEH/Chatelperronian.map" }

The Châtelperronian is a proposed industry of the Upper Palaeolithic, the existence of which is debated. It represents both the only Upper Palaeolithic industry made by Neanderthals and the earliest Upper Palaeolithic industry in central and southwestern France, as well as in northern Spain. It derives its name from Châtelperron, the French village closest to the type site, the cave La Grotte des Fées.

The Châtelperronian lasted from c. 45,000 to c. 40,000 BP, and was preceded by the Mousterian industry. The industry produced denticulate stone tools, and a distinctive flint knife with a single cutting edge and a blunt, curved back. The use of ivory at Châtelperronian sites appears to be more frequent than that of the later Aurignacian, while antler tools have not been found. It is followed by the Aurignacian industry.

Scholars who question its existence claim that it is an archaeological mix of Mousterian and Aurignacian layers. The Châtelperronian industry may relate to the origins of the very similar Gravettian culture. French archaeologists have traditionally classified both cultures together under the name Périgordian, Early Perigordian being equivalent to the Châtelperronian and all the other phases corresponding to the Gravettian, though this scheme is not often used by Anglophone authors.

Important sites and lithic production and associations
Large thick flakes/small blocks were used for cores, and were prepared with a crest over a long smooth surface. Using one or two striking points, long thin blades were detached. Direct percussion with a soft hammer was likely used for accuracy. Thicker blades made in this process were often converted into side scrapers, burins were often created in the same manner from debitage as well.

The manner of production is a solid continuation of the Mousterian but the ivory adornments found in association are similar to those made by the Aurignacian. The technological refinement of the Châtelperronian and neighbouring Uluzzian in Central-Southern Italy is often argued to be the product of cultural influence from H. sapiens that lived nearby.

Dispute over disruption of the site
João Zilhão and colleagues argue that the findings are complicated by disturbance of the site in the 19th century, and conclude that the apparent pattern of Aurignacian/Châtelperronian inter-stratification is an artifact of disturbance. Others think the Châtelperronian itself is an artifact of disturbance. Paul Mellars and colleagues have criticized the analysis of Zilhão et al., and argue that the original excavation by Delporte was not affected by disturbance. Paul Mellars, however, now has concluded on the basis of new radiocarbon dating by Thomas Higham of the decorative artifacts of Grotte du Renne "that there was [a] strong possibility—if not probability— that [decorative artefacts] were stratigraphically intrusive into the Châtelperronian deposits from .. overlying Proto-Aurignacian levels" and that "The central and inescapable implication of the new dating results from the Grotte du Renne is that the single most impressive and hitherto widely cited pillar of evidence for the presence of complex “symbolic” behavior among the late Neanderthal populations in Europe has now effectively collapsed." Subsequent research led by Jean-Jacques Hublin argues, using new dates, that the Châtelperronian tools were produced by Neanderthals. Unlike Higham's dates, which were taken directly from the decorative material, Hublin's were taken from associated bones. To Higham, dates taken directly from the decorative material are more convincing and should be given priority over those from associated material. To Hublin, Higham's dates were contaminated with varnish applied to the decorative material in the 1960s. Hublin's team subsequently used proteomic evidence to support their conclusion.

In popular culture
Author Jared Diamond argues in his 1991 non-fiction book, The Third Chimpanzee, that Châtelperron may represent a community of Neanderthals who, to some extent, had adopted the culture of the Early European modern humans that had established themselves in the surrounding area, which would account for the signs of the hybrid culture found at the site. Diamond compares these hypothetical Neanderthal holdouts to more recent Indigenous peoples of the Americas in North and South America, who adopted European technologies such as firearms or domestication of horses in order to survive in an environment dominated by more technologically advanced competitors.

The fifth book of Jean Auel's Earth's Children series, The Shelters of Stone, 2002, and the sixth book The Land of the Painted Caves 2010 are set in this region of modern-day France, during this period.

Type site
The type site is la Grotte des Fées, in Châtelperron.

title: Châtelperronian


text:
Fairey Rotodyne

The Fairey Rotodyne was a 1950s British compound gyroplane designed and built by Fairey Aviation and intended for commercial and military uses. A development of the earlier Fairey Jet Gyrodyne, which had established a world helicopter speed record, the Rotodyne featured a tip-jet-powered rotor that burned a mixture of fuel and compressed air bled from two wing-mounted Napier Eland turboprops. The rotor was driven for vertical takeoffs, landings and hovering, as well as low-speed translational flight, but autorotated during cruise flight with all engine power applied to two propellers.

One prototype was built. Although the Rotodyne was promising in concept and successful in trials, the programme was eventually cancelled. The termination has been attributed to the type failing to attract any commercial orders; this was in part due to concerns over the high levels of rotor tip jet noise generated in flight. Politics had also played a role in the lack of orders (the project was government funded) which ultimately doomed the project.

Background
From the late 1930s onwards, considerable progress was made on an entirely new field of aeronautics in the form of rotary-wing aircraft. While some progress in Britain had been made prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, wartime priorities placed upon the aviation industry meant that British programmes to develop rotorcraft and helicopters were marginalised at best. In the immediate post-war climate, the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy elected to procure American-developed helicopters in the form of the Sikorsky R-4 and Sikorsky R-6, known locally as the Hoverfly I and Hoverfly II respectively. Experience from the operation of these rotorcraft, along with the extensive examination that was conducted upon captured German helicopter prototypes, stimulated considerable interest within the armed services and industry alike in developing Britain's own advanced rotorcraft.

Fairey Aviation was one such company that was intrigued by the potential of rotary-wing aircraft, and proceeded to develop the Fairey FB-1 Gyrodyne in accordance with Specification E.16/47. The Gyrodyne was a unique aircraft in its own right that defined a third type of rotorcraft, including autogyro and helicopter. Having little in common with the later Rotodyne, it was characterised by its inventor, Dr JAJ Bennett, formerly chief technical officer of the pre-Second World War Cierva Autogiro Company as an intermediate aircraft designed to combine the safety and simplicity of the autogyro with hovering performance. Its rotor was driven in all phases of flight with collective pitch being an automatic function of shaft torque, with a side-mounted propeller providing both thrust for forward flight and rotor torque correction. On 28 June 1948, the FB-1 proved its potential during test flights when it achieved a world airspeed record, having attaining a recorded speed of 124.3 mph. The programme was not trouble-free however, a fatal accident involving one of the prototypes occurring in April 1949 due to poor machining of a rotor blade flapping link retaining nut. The second FB-1 was modified to investigate a tip-jet driven rotor with propulsion provided by propellers mounted at the tip of each stub wing, being renamed the Jet Gyrodyne.

During 1951 and 1952, British European Airways (BEA) internally formulated its own requirement for a passenger-carrying rotorcraft, commonly referred to the Bealine-Bus or BEA Bus. This was to be a multi-engined rotorcraft capable of serving as a short-haul airliner, BEA envisioned the type as being typically flown between major cities and carrying a minimum of 30 passengers in order to be economical; keen to support the initiative, the Ministry of Supply proceeded to sponsor a series of design studies to be conducted in support of the BEA requirement. Both civil and government bodies had predicted the requirement for such rotorcraft, and viewed it as being only a matter of time before they would become commonplace in Britain's transport network.

The BEA Bus requirement was met with a variety of futuristic proposals; both practical and seemingly impractical submissions were made by a number of manufacturers. Amongst these, Fairey had also chosen to submit its designs and to participate to meet the requirement; according to aviation author Derek Wood: "one design, particularly, seemed to show promise and this was the Fairey Rotordyne". Fairey had produced multiple arrangements and configurations for the aircraft, typically varying in the powerplants used and the internal capacity; the firm made its first submission to the Ministry on 26 January 1949. Within two months, Fairey had produced a further three alternative submissions, centring on the use of engines such as the Rolls-Royce Dart and Armstrong Siddeley Mamba. In October 1950, an initial contract for the development of a 16,000 lb, four-bladed rotorcraft was awarded. The Fairey design, which was considerably revised over the years, received government funding to support its development.

Early on in development, Fairey found that securing access to engines to power its design proved to be difficult. In November 1950, Rolls-Royce chairman Lord Hives protested that the design resources of his company were being stretched too thinly across multiple projects; accordingly, the initially-selected Dart engine was switched to the Mamba engine of rival firm Armstrong Siddeley. By July 1951, Fairey had re-submitted proposals using the Mamba engine in two and three-engine layouts, supporting all-up weights of 20,000 lb and 30,000 lb respectively; the adopted configuration of pairing the Mamba engine to auxiliary compressors was known as the Cobra. Due to complaints by Armstrong Siddeley that it too was lacking resources, Fairey also proposed the alternative use of engines such as the de Havilland Goblin and the Rolls-Royce Derwent turbojet to drive the forward propellers.

Fairey did not enjoy a positive relationship with de Havilland however, so instead they chose to use D. Napier & Son and its Eland turboshaft engine in April 1953. Following the selection of the Eland, the basic design of the rotorcraft, known as the Rotodyne Y, soon emerged; it was powered by a pair of Eland N.El.3 engines furnished with auxiliary compressors and a large-section four-blade main rotor, with a projected all-up weight of 33,000 lb. At the same time, a projected enlarged version, designated as the Rotodyne Z, outfitted with more powerful Eland N.El.7 engines and an all-up weight of 39,000 lb, was proposed as well.

Contract
In April 1953, the Ministry of Supply contracted for the building of a single prototype of the Rotodyne Y, powered by the Eland engine, later designated with the serial number XE521, for research purposes. As contracted, the Rotodyne would have been the largest transport helicopter of its day, seating a maximum of 40 to 50 passengers, while possessing a cruise speed of 150 mph and a range of 250 nautical miles. At the time of the award, Fairey had estimated that £710,000 would cover the costs of producing the airframe. With a view to an aircraft that would meet regulatory approval in the shortest time, Fairey's designers worked to meet the Civil Airworthiness Requirements for both helicopters and similar-sized twin-engined aircraft. A one-sixth scale rotorless model was extensively wind tunnel tested for fixed-wing performance. A smaller (1/15th-scale) model with a powered rotor was used for downwash investigations.

While the prototype was being built, funding for the programme reached a crisis. Cuts in defence spending led the Ministry of Defence to withdraw its support, pushing the burden of the costs onto any possible civilian customer. The government agreed to maintain funding for the project only if, among other qualifications, Fairey and Napier (through their parent English Electric) contributed to development costs of the Rotodyne and the Eland engine respectively. As a result of disagreements with Fairey on matters of policy, Dr Bennett left the firm to join Hiller Helicopters in California; responsibility for the Rotodyne's development was assumed by Dr George S Hislop, who became the firm's chief engineer.

The manufacturing of the prototype's fuselage, wings, and rotor assembly was conducted at Fairey's facility in Hayes, Hillingdon, West London, while construction of the tail assembly was performed at the firm's factory in Stockport, Greater Manchester and final assembly was performed at White Waltham Airfield, Maidenhead. In addition, a full-scale static test rig was produced at RAF Boscombe Down to support the programme; the static rig featured a fully operational rotor and powerplant arrangement which was demonstrated on multiple occasions, including a 25-hour approval testing for the Ministry.

While construction of the first prototype was underway, prospects for the Rotodyne appeared positive; according to Wood, there was interest in the type from both civil and military quarters. BEA was monitoring the progress of the programme with interest; it was outwardly expected that the airline would place an order shortly after the issuing of an order for a militarised version of the rotorcraft. The American company Kaman Helicopters also showed strong interest in the project, and was known to have studied it closely as the firm considered the potential for licensed production of the Rotodyne for both civil and military customers.

Due to army and RAF interest, development of the Rotodyne had been funded out of the defence budget for a time. During 1956, the Defence Research Policy Committee had declared that there was no military interest in the type, which quickly led to the Rotodyne becoming solely reliant upon civil budgets as a research/civil prototype aircraft instead. After a series of political arguments, proposals, and bargaining; in December 1956, HM Treasury authorised work on both the Rotodyne and Eland engine to be continued until the end of September 1957. Amongst the demands exerted by the Treasury were that the aircraft had to be both a technical success and would need to acquire a firm order from BEA; both Fairey and English Electric (Napier's parent company) also had to take on a portion of the costs for its development as well.

Testing and evaluation

On 6 November 1957, the prototype performed its maiden flight, piloted by chief helicopter test pilot Squadron Leader W. Ron Gellatly and assistant chief helicopter test pilot Lieutenant Commander John G.P. Morton as second pilot. The first flight had originally been projected to take place in 1956; however, delay was viewed as inevitable with an entirely new concept such as used by the Rotodyne.

On 10 April 1958, the Rotodyne achieved its first successful transition from vertical to horizontal and then back into vertical flight. On 5 January 1959, the Rotodyne set a world speed record in the convertiplane category, at 190.9 mph (307.2 km/h), over a 60-mile (100 km) closed circuit. As well as being fast, the rotorcraft had a safety feature: it could hover with one engine shut down with its propeller feathered, and the prototype demonstrated several landings as an autogyro. The prototype was demonstrated several times at the Farnborough and Paris air shows, regularly amazing onlookers. In one instance, it even lifted a 100 ft girder bridge.

The Rotodyne's tip drive and unloaded rotor made its performance far better when compared to pure helicopters and other forms of "convertiplanes." The aircraft could be flown at 175 kn (324 km/h) and pulled into a steep climbing turn without demonstrating any adverse handling characteristics.

Throughout the world, interest was growing in the prospect of direct city-to-city transport. The market for the Rotodyne was that of a medium-haul "flying bus": It would take off vertically from an inner-city heliport, with all lift coming from the tip-jet driven rotor, and then would increase airspeed, eventually with all power from the engines being transferred to the propellers with the rotor autorotating. In this mode, the collective pitch, and hence drag, of the rotor could be reduced, as the wings would be taking as much as half of the craft's weight. The Rotodyne would then cruise at speeds of about 150 kn (280 km/h) to another city, e.g., London to Paris, where the rotor tip-jet system would be restarted for landing vertically in the city centre. When the Rotodyne landed and the rotor stopped moving, its blades drooped downward from the hub. To avoid striking the vertical stabilisers on startup, the tips of these fins were angled down to the horizontal. They were raised once the rotor had spun up.

By January 1959, British European Airways (BEA) announced that it was interested in the purchase of six aircraft, with a possibility of up to 20, and had issued a letter of intent stating such, on the condition that all requirements, including noise levels, were met. The Royal Air Force (RAF) had also placed an order for 12 military transport versions. New York Airways signed a letter of intent for the purchase of five at $2m each, with an option of 15 more albeit with qualifications, after calculating that a larger Rotodyne could operate at half the seat mile cost of helicopters; however, unit costs were deemed too high for very short hauls of 10 to 50 miles, and the Civil Aeronautics Board was opposed to rotorcraft competing with fixed-wing on longer routes. Japan Air Lines, which had sent a team to Britain to evaluate the Rotodyne prototype, stated it would experiment with Rotodyne between Tokyo Airport and the city itself, and was interested in using it on the Tokyo-Osaka route as well.

According to rumours, the U.S. Army was also interested in buying around 200 Rotodynes. Fairey was keen to secure funding from the American Mutual Aid programme, but could not persuade the RAF to order the minimum necessary 25 rotorcraft needed; at one point, the firm even considered providing a single Rotodyne to Eastern Airlines via Kaman Helicopters, Fairey's U.S. licensee, so that it could be hired out to the U.S. Army for trials. All Rotodynes destined for US customers were to have been manufactured by Kaman in Bloomfield, Connecticut.

Financing from the government had been secured again on the proviso that firm orders would be gained from BEA. The civilian orders were dependent on the noise issues being satisfactorily met; the importance of this factor had led to Fairey developing 40 different noise suppressors by 1955. In December 1955, Dr Hislop said he was certain that the noise issue could be 'eliminated'. According to Wood, the two most serious problems revealed with the Rotodyne during flight testing was the noise issue and the weight of the rotor system, the latter being 2,233 lb above the original projection of 3,270 lb.

Issues and cancellation

In 1959, the British government, seeking to cut costs, decreed that the number of aircraft firms should be lowered and set forth its expectations for mergers in airframe and aero-engine companies. By delaying or withholding access to defence contracts, the British firms could be forced into mergers; Duncan Sandys, Minister of Aviation, expressed this policy to Fairey and made it known that the price of continued government backing for the Rotodyne would be for Fairey to virtually withdraw from all other initiatives in the aviation field. Ultimately, Saunders-Roe and the helicopter division of Bristol were incorporated with Westland; in May 1960, Fairey Aviation was also taken over by Westland. By this time, the Rotodyne had flown almost 1,000 people for 120 hours in 350 flights and conducted a total of 230 transitions between helicopter and autogiro — with no accidents.

By 1958, the Treasury was already expressing its opposition to further financing for the programme. The matter was escalated to Harold Macmillan, the then Prime Minister, who wrote to Aubrey Jones, the Minister of Supply, on 6 June 1958, stating that "this project must not be allowed to die". Considerable importance was placed upon BEA supporting the Rotodyne by issuing an order; however, the airline refused to procure the aircraft until it was satisfied that guarantees were given over its performance, economy, and noise criteria. Shortly after Fairey's merger with Westland, the latter was issued a £4 million development contract for the Rotodyne, which was intended to see the type enter service with BEA as a result.

As flight testing with the Rotodyne prototype had proceeded, Fairey had become increasingly dissatisfied with Napier and the Eland engine as progress to improve the latter had been less than expected. For the extended 48-seat model of the Rotodyne to be achieved, the uprated 3,500 ehp Eland N.E1.7 would be necessary; of the estimated £7 million needed to produce the larger aircraft, £3 million would be for its engines. BEA was particularly supportive of a larger aircraft, potentially seating as many as 66 passengers, which would have required a still-far greater sum of money to achieve. Fairey was already struggling to achieve the stated performance of the Eland engine and had resorted to adopting a richer fuel mixture to get the necessary power, a side effect of which was to further aggravate the noticeable noise issue as well as reducing fuel efficiency. As a result of being unable to resolve the issues with the Eland, Fairey opted to adopt the rival Rolls-Royce Tyne turboprop engine to power the larger Rotodyne Z instead.

The larger Rotodyne Z design could be developed to take 57 to 75 passengers and, when equipped with the Tyne engines (5,250 shp/3,910 kW), would have a projected cruising speed of 200 kn (370 km/h). It would be able to carry nearly 8 tons (7 tonnes) of freight; cargoes could have included some British Army vehicles and even the intact fuselage of some fighter aircraft that would fit into its fuselage. It would have also been able to carry large cargoes externally as an aerial crane, including vehicles and whole aircraft. According to some of the later proposals, the Rotodyne Z would have had a gross weight of 58,500 lb, an extended rotor diameter of 109 ft, and a tapered wing with a span of 75 ft.

However, the Tyne engines were also starting to appear under-powered for the larger design. The Ministry of Supply had pledged to finance 50 per cent of the development costs for both the Rotodyne Z and for the model of the Tyne engine to power it. Despite the strenuous efforts of Fairey to achieve its support, the expected order from the RAF did not materialise — at the time, the service had no particular interest in the design, being more focused on effectively addressing the issue of nuclear deterrence. As the trials continued, both the associated costs and the weight of the Rotodyne continued to climb; the noise issue continued to persist, although, according to Wood: "there were signs that silencers would later reduce it to an acceptable level".

While the costs of development were shared half-and-half between Westland and the government, the firm determined that it would still need to contribute a further £9 million in order to complete development and achieve production-ready status. Following the issuing of a requested quotation to the British government for 18 production Rotodynes, 12 for the RAF and 6 for BEA, the government responded that no further support would be issued for the project, for economic reasons. Accordingly, on 26 February 1962, official funding for the Rotodyne was terminated in early 1962. The project's final end came when BEA chose to decline placing its own order for the Rotodyne, principally because of its concerns regarding the high-profile tip-jet noise issue. The corporate management at Westland determined that further development of the Rotodyne towards production status would not be worth the investment required. Thus ended all work on the world's first vertical take-off military/civil transport rotorcraft.

After the programme was terminated, the prototype Rotodyne itself, which was government property, was dismantled and largely destroyed in a fashion reminiscent of the Bristol Brabazon. A single fuselage bay, as pictured, plus rotors and rotorhead mast survived, and are on display at The Helicopter Museum, Weston-super-Mare.

Analysis
The one great criticism of the Rotodyne was the noise the tip jets made; however, the jets were only run at full power for a matter of minutes during departure and landing and, indeed, the test pilot Ron Gellatly made two flights over central London and several landings and departures at Battersea Heliport with no complaints being registered, though John Farley, chief test pilot of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier later commented:

"From two miles away it would stop a conversation. I mean, the noise of those little jets on the tips of the rotor was just indescribable. So what have we got? The noisiest hovering vehicle the world has yet come up with and you're going to stick it in the middle of a city?"

There had been a noise-reduction programme in process which had managed to reduce the noise level from 113 dB to the desired level of 96 dB from 600 ft (180 m) away, less than the noise made by a London Underground train, and at the time of cancellation, silencers were under development, which would have reduced the noise even further — with 95 dB at 200 ft "foreseen", the limitation being the noise created by the rotor itself. This effort, however, was insufficient for BEA which, as expressed by Chairman Sholto Douglas, "would not purchase an aircraft that could not be operated due to noise", and the airline refused to order the Rotodyne, which in turn led to the collapse of the project.

It is only relatively recently that interest has been reestablished in direct city-to-city helicopter transport, with aircraft such as the AgustaWestland AW609 and the CarterCopter/PAV. The 2010 Eurocopter X3 experimental helicopter shares the general configuration of the Rotodyne, but is much smaller. A number of innovative gyrodyne designs are still being considered for future development.

Design
The Fairey Rotodyne was a large hybrid rotorcraft termed compound gyroplane. According to Wood, it was "the largest transport helicopter of its day". It featured an unobstructed rectangular fuselage, capable of seating between 40 and 50 passengers; a pair of double-clamshell doors were placed to the rear of the main cabin so that freight and even vehicles could be loaded and unloaded.

The Rotodyne had a large, four-bladed rotor and two Napier Eland N.E.L.3 turboprops, one mounted under each of the fixed wings. The rotor blades were a symmetrical aerofoil around a load-bearing spar. The aerofoil was made of steel and light alloy because of centre of gravity concerns. Equally, the spar was formed from a thick machined steel block to the fore and a lighter thinner section formed from folded and riveted steel to the rear. The compressed air was channelled through three steel tubes within the blade. The tip-jet combustion chambers were composed of Nimonic 80, complete with liners that were made from Nimonic 75.

For takeoff and landing, the rotor was driven by tip-jets. The air was produced by compressors driven through a clutch off the main engines. This was fed through ducting in the leading edge of the wings and up to the rotor head. Each engine supplied air for a pair of opposite rotors; the compressed air was mixed with fuel and burned. As a torqueless rotor system, no anti-torque correction system was required, though propeller pitch was controlled by the rudder pedals for low-speed yaw control. The propellers provided thrust for translational flight while the rotor autorotated. The cockpit controls included a cyclic and collective pitch lever, as in a conventional helicopter.

The transition between helicopter and autogyro modes of flight would have taken place around 60 mph, (other sources state that this would have occurred around 110 knots ); the transition would have been accomplished by extinguishing the tip-jets. During autogyro flight, up to half of the rotocraft's aerodynamic lift was provided by the wings, which also enabled it to attain higher speed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fairey Rotodyne


text:
User talk:MickeyTeh2nd

Please note: any more vandalism, and you will be blocked from editing here. -- The Anome 19:09, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Please consider this your final warning. -- The Anome 19:11, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:MickeyTeh2nd


text:
User talk:Rsvk~enwiki

Hello Rsvk, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to join the community. Thanks for droppping a note at New user log. If you need editing help, visit How to edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help desk. And of course, feel free to talk with me or ask questions on my talk page. Enjoy! --Jwrosenzweig 19:10, 17 May 2004 (UTC) P.S. Since you have some linguistic ability, I hope you'll consider being involved at Translation into English, where we facilitate translating articles from other language Wikipedias into English -- some people find getting involved in a little project like this one is a good introduction to the site. :-) Have fun editing, Jwrosenzweig

 * A tip I forgot -- when leaving notes on talk pages, the village pump, etc., type to leave your username, and ~ to leave your username and date, like this Jwrosenzweig 17:51, 19 May 2004 (UTC)  Hope this helps. :-)  Have fun.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rsvk. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rsvk~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:46, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 18:17, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rsvk~enwiki


text:
Hugh Falconer

Hugh Falconer MD FRS (29 February 1808 – 31 January 1865 ) was a Scottish geologist, botanist, palaeontologist, and paleoanthropologist. He studied the flora, fauna, and geology of India, Assam, Burma, and most of the Mediterranean islands  and was the first to suggest the modern evolutionary theory of punctuated equilibrium. He studied the Siwalik fossil beds, and may also have been the first person to discover a fossil ape.

Early life
Falconer was the youngest son of David Falconer of Forres , Elginshire. In 1826 Hugh Falconer graduated at the University of Aberdeen, where he studied natural history. Afterward, he studied medicine in the University of Edinburgh, taking the degree of MD in 1829. During this period he zealously attended the botanical classes of Prof. R. Graham (1786–1845), and those on geology by Prof. Robert Jameson, the teacher of Charles Darwin.

Falconer became an assistant-surgeon on the Bengal establishment of the British East India Company in 1830. Upon his arrival in Bengal he made an examination of the fossil bones from Ava, upper Burma in the possession of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His description of the fossils, published soon afterward, gave him a recognized position among the scientists of India. Early in 1831 he was posted to the army station at Meerut, India, then in the North Western Provinces, and now in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

Siwalik Hills
In 1832, Falconer became Superintendent of the Saharanpur botanical garden, India, succeeding John Royle. Falconer remained at Saharanpur until 1842, during which time he became widely known for his study of fossil mammals in the Siwalik Hills. Falconer and his associates may have made the first discovery of a fossil ape, in the 1830s in the Neogene deposits in the Siwalik Hills. In the Tertiary strata of the Siwalik Hills in 1831 Falconer discovered bones of crocodiles, tortoises and other animals. With others, he later brought to light a sub-tropical fossil fauna of unexampled extent and richness, including remains of Mastodon, the colossal ruminant Sivatherium, and the enormous extinct tortoise Colossochelys atlas. Falconer also published a geological description of the Siwálik Hills in 1834. For these valuable discoveries he and Proby Cautley (1802–1871) together received the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Society of London, its highest award, in 1837.

In 1834 Falconer was asked by a Commission of Bengal to investigate the commercial feasibility of growing tea in India. On his recommendation tea plants were introduced, and the resultant black tea became competitive with Chinese teas.

Falconer returned from India in 1842 because of ill health. He brought back 70 large chests of dried plants and 48 cases of fossils, bones and geological specimens. He then travelled throughout Europe making geological observations, and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1845. Continuing in the service of the British East India Company as a naturalist, he pursued research at the British Museum and East India House and prepared casts of the most remarkable fossils for the leading museums of Europe.

Calcutta
In 1847 Falconer became superintendent of the Calcutta Botanical Garden and professor of botany in the Medical College, Calcutta, near his older brother, Alexander Falconer, a Calcutta merchant. Hugh Falconer served as an advisor to the Indian government and the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of Bengal, the de facto colonial "Department of Agriculture". He prepared an important report on the teak forests of Tenasserim, and this saved them from destruction by reckless felling. Through his recommendation, the cultivation of the cinchona in the Indian empire was introduced for the medicinal use of its bark in the treatment of malaria.

Punctuated equilibrium
Falconer was originally a creationist who denied the fact of evolution. In November 1859, Charles Darwin sent Falconer a copy of his On the Origin of Species with a letter which stated "I am fully convinced that you will become, year after year, less fixed in your belief in the immutability of species". In June 1861, Falconer expressed respect in a letter to Darwin for receiving the book. By the early 1860s he reassessed his worldview and came to embrace evolution from his studies of the fossil record.

In 1863, Falconer authored a monograph On the American Fossil elephant of the regions bordering the Gulf of Mexico. A year before he had privately sent the work to Darwin who was delighted to read it. In the work he observed long periods of evolutionary stasis in fossil mammals with short periods of rapid evolutionary change throughout geological time. This research shows great foresight. Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould developed the same basic theory a century later, a theory known as punctuated equilibrium. According to Gould, the work "anticipates a primary inference of punctuated equilibrium— that a local pattern of abrupt replacement does not signify macromutational transformation in situ, but an origin of the later species from an ancestral population living elsewhere, followed by migration into the local region."

Later years
Having to leave India again in 1855 because of ill health, he spent the remainder of his life examining and comparing fossil species in England and the Continent to those he found in India, notably the species of mastodon, elephant, and rhinoceros. He also described some new mammalia from the Purbeck strata of Wessex. Turning to the subject of human origins, he reported on the bone caves of Sicily, Malta, Gibraltar, Gower, and Brixham. He discovered the dwarf elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri on Sicily and Malta, and also found the bones of the flightless giant swan Cygnus falconeri in Malta at Għar Dalam.

Falconer served as vice-president of the Royal Society 1863–1864. Although suffering from exposure and overwork, Falconer returned hastily from Gibraltar to support Charles Darwin's claim to the Copley Medal in 1864. Falconer succumbed in London, England, on 31 January 1865 from rheumatic disease of the heart and lungs. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, London.

The flower Rhododendron falconeri was named after Falconer by Joseph Dalton Hooker.

Falconer's botanical notes, with 450 coloured drawings of Indian plants, were deposited in the library at Kew Gardens, together with some of the specimens he collected. A marble bust was placed in the rooms of the Royal Society of London, and another in the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. A competitive Falconer scholarship of £100 per year was created for graduates in science or medicine of the University of Edinburgh.

The Falconer Museum in Forres, Scotland (57.60991°N, -3.61235°W), a "Victorian Gem", houses, amongst numerous other collections, the many Falconer finds that had not been sent to other institutions like the library of Kew Gardens or the British Museum.

Selected publications

 * Hugh Falconer and Proby T. Cautley, Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis, being the Fossil Zoology of the Sewalik Hills, in the North of India, Part I, Proboscidea, London (1846), with a series of 107 plates by G. H. Ford appearing between 1846 and 1849.
 * On the American Fossil Elephant of the Regions Bordering the Gulf of Mexico, (E. Columbi, Falc.): With General Observations on the Living and Extinct Species (1863)
 * Palæontological memoirs and notes of the late Hugh Falconer, edited, with a biographical sketch, by Charles Murchison, M.D., 2 vols., London, R. Hardwicke (1868). OCLC: 2847098. vol. II online at archive.org
 * Hugh Falconer, Darwin Correspondence Project: extended bibliography
 * Falconer's works were documented in the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers, vol. ii (1968).

Literature

 * Patrick J. Boylan, The Falconer papers, Forres, Leicester: Leicestershire Museums, Art Galleries and Records Service (1977).
 * Grace, Lady Prestwich, Essays descriptive and biographical, Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood (1901).
 * Charles T. Gaudin, "Modifications apportées par M. Falconer à la faune du Val d'Arno", Bulletin des Séances de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles 6: 130–1 (1859).
 * Patrick J. Boylan, "The controversy of the Moulin-Quignon jaw: the role of Hugh Falconer," in Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, Ludmilla J. Jordanova and Roy S. Porter, eds., Chalfont St. Giles, Bucks., British Society for the History of Science. (1979)  ISBN 0-906450-00-4
 * Leonard G. Wilson, "Brixham Cave and Sir Charles Lyell's . . . the Antiquity of man: the roots of Hugh Falconer's attack on Lyell," Archives of Natural History 23: 79–97 (1996).
 * Kenneth A. R. Kennedy and Russell L. Ciochon, "A canine tooth from the Siwaliks: first recorded discovery of a fossil ape?" Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 14, No. 3 (July, 1999).   (Print)  (Online).
 * Anne O'Connor, "Hugh Falconer, Joseph Prestwich and the Gower caves", Studies in Speleology, Vol. 14, pp 75 – 79 (2006).
 * Anne O'Connor, "Hugh Falconer, Joseph Prestwich and the Gower caves", Studies in Speleology, Vol. 14, pp 75 – 79 (2006).

title: Hugh Falconer


text:
Tri-Cities

Tri-Cities most often refers to:

 * Tri-Cities, Tennessee, United States
 * Tri-Cities, Washington, United States

Tri-City, Tricity or Tri-Cities may also refer to:

Canada

 * Tri-Cities (British Columbia), consisting of Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, and Port Moody, located in the north-eastern section of Metro Vancouver
 * Tri-Cities (Ontario), consisting of Kitchener, Cambridge, and Waterloo

United States

 * In California:
 * Tri-Cities in Los Angeles County, California, refers to the Burbank, Glendale, and Pasadena area, particularly in the local real estate industry.
 * Tri-City, San Diego County, California, Oceanside, Vista, and Carlsbad
 * Tri-City area in the San Francisco Bay Area refers to the three neighboring cities Fremont, Newark, and Union City.
 * Tri-Cities, Georgia, consisting of College Park, East Point, and Hapeville, all of which are near Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
 * Tri-Cities, Illinois, in Kane County, Illinois, the county seat of Geneva and the nearby cities of Batavia, and St. Charles,
 * In Michigan:
 * Tri-Cities, Michigan, consisting of Bay City, Saginaw, and Midland in the Saginaw Valley
 * Tri-Cities, used locally to refer to Grand Haven, Spring Lake, and Ferrysburg in West Michigan
 * Tri-Cities, Missouri in the central part of the state, Columbia, Jefferson City, and Fulton
 * Tri-Cities, Nebraska in the south-central part of the state, Grand Island, Kearney, and Hastings
 * Tri-Cities, New Hampshire, Rochester, Dover and Somersworth
 * Tri-Cities, New Mexico, Farmington, Bloomfield, and Aztec
 * In New York:
 * Capital District, New York, consisting of Albany, Schenectady, and Troy
 * Triple Cities, Binghamton, Endicott and Johnson City
 * In North Carolina:
 * Piedmont Triad in North Carolina, consisting of Greensboro, Winston-Salem, and High Point.
 * Research Triangle in North Carolina, consisting of Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill.
 * Tri-Cities, Oklahoma, Tuttle, Newcastle, and Blanchard
 * Tri-City, Oregon, a census-designated place (CDP) and unincorporated community in Douglas County, Oregon, United States, named for 3 cities: Myrtle Creek, Canyonville and Riddle.
 * Lehigh Valley in Pennsylvania: Allentown, Bethlehem, and Easton
 * Tri-Cities, Tennessee, Tennessee and Virginia, consisting of the three cities of Bristol, Kingsport, and Johnson City
 * Golden Triangle (Texas) consisting of Beaumont, Port Arthur, and Orange.
 * In Virginia:
 * Historic Triangle, three historic colonial communities on the Virginia Peninsula, namely Jamestown, Williamsburg, and Yorktown
 * Tri-Cities, Virginia, consisting of Petersburg, Colonial Heights, and Hopewell in the Greater Richmond Region
 * Tri-Cities, Washington, consisting of Richland, Pasco, and Kennewick, Washington
 * Tri-Cities metropolitan area, metropolitan area centered on Tri-Cities, Washington

India

 * Chandigarh Tricity, consisting of Chandigarh, Panchkula and Mohali.
 * Mumbai Metropolitan Area, consisting of Mumbai, Navi Mumbai and Thane.
 * Noida Ghaziabad Tricity, consisting of Noida, Greater Noida and Ghaziabad.
 * Bhilai-Raipur-Atal Nagar Tricity, consists of Bhilai, Raipur and Naya Raipur.
 * Ahmedabad Metropolitan area, consists of Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar and GIFT City.
 * Udupi Tri-City, consisting of Udupi, Manipal and Malpe
 * Warangal Tri-City, consisting of Warangal, Hanamkonda, and Kazipet.
 * Chennai Metropolitan Area,consisting of Chennai,Avadi and Tambaram
 * Ranipet Tri-City, consisting of Ranipet, Walajapet and Arcot.

Nepal

 * Tricity, Nepal, consisting of the cities of Baglung, Beni and Kusma

Saudi Arabia

 * Dammam metropolitan area, consisting of Dhahran, Dammam and Khobar in Saudi Arabia

United Arab Emirates

 * Dubai-Sharjah-Ajman metropolitan area, consisting of Dubai, Ajman and Sharjah

Denmark

 * Triangle Region (Denmark) – Kolding, Vejle and Frederica (Danish: trekantsområde)

Poland

 * Little Kashubian Tricity consisting of Wejherowo, Rumia and Reda
 * Tricity, Poland consisting of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot

Sweden

 * Trollhättan, Uddevalla and Vänersborg are called Tri-city (Swedish: Trestad) as a combination

Switzerland-Germany-France

 * Dreyeckland – Basel (Switzerland), Weil am Rhein (Germany) and St.Louis (France)

Ukraine

 * Sievierodonetsk, Lysychansk and Rubizhne are called Tri-city (Ukrainian: Troye-grad) as a combination

United Kingdom

 * West Yorkshire Urban Area, the cities of Wakefield, Leeds and Bradford

Sports

 * Tri-Cities Blackhawks, former name of the Atlanta Hawks from 1946 to 1951
 * Tri-City Americans, an ice hockey team in Kennewick, Washington.
 * Tri-City Dust Devils, a minor league baseball team in Pasco, Washington, United States.
 * Tri-City ValleyCats, a minor league baseball team in Troy, New York
 * Tri-City Chili Peppers, a collegiate summer baseball team in Colonial Heights, Virginia.

Other uses

 * Tri-City News, community newspaper for British Columbia's Lower Mainland
 * Tri-City, the fictional setting of the computer game Need for Speed: Undercover
 * Tricity Bendix, a brand of electrical appliances owned by Electrolux
 * Yamaha Tricity, a tilting three-wheeled motor scooter

title: Tri-Cities


text:
Friedrich Stolz

Friedrich Stolz (6 April 1860 – 2 April 1936) was a German chemist and, in 1904, the first person to artificially synthesize epinephrine (adrenaline).

title: Friedrich Stolz


text:
Körmt and Örmt

In Norse mythology, Körmt and Örmt are two rivers which Thor wades through every day when he goes to judgment by Yggdrasill. The source for this is a strophe in Grímnismál which is also quoted in the Prose Edda.

title: Körmt and Örmt


text:
Birkirkara

Birkirkara (abbreviated as B'Kara) is a city in the eastern region of Malta. It is the second most populous on the island, with 24,356 inhabitants as of 2020. The town consists of five autonomous parishes: Saint Helen, Saint Joseph the Worker, Our Lady of Mount Carmel, Saint Mary and San Gorg Preca. The city's motto is In hoc signo vinces, and its coat of arms is a plain red cross, surmounted by a crown.

Etymology
Birkirkara means "cold water" or "running water". This is attributed to the valley in the town.

Originally, the name was written as Birchircara, as influenced by Italian spelling which traditionally does not use the letter 'K'. It is often abbreviated as B'kara/Kara.

Geography
Birkirkara is situated in a valley, which is most likely where it gets its name from. It is known for flooding on heavy stormy days. Several projects have been proposed. The area has also received embellishment works from time to time.

Climate
Birkirkara features a Csa Mediterranean climate under the Köppen climate classification. Birkirkara features mild, wet winters and dry hot summers. The city's temperature varies from 10.3 to 30.7 C during the course of a year.

Description
Birkirkara is one of Malta's oldest towns with a recorded mention in 1402 with The Cappella of Birkarkam which is understood to be an error for Birkirkara. It received mention in the 1436 Ecclesiastical Report mentioning the then existing parishes in Malta and Gozo, from which Birkirkara emerged as the largest parish. Various parishes and suburbs developed out of Birkirkara over the years, including Sliema, St. Julian's, Msida, Ħamrun in the 19th century and Santa Venera in the early 20th century. In more recent years, San Ġwann (1965) and Ta' l-Ibraġ hived off Birkirkara to form part of the new parish and locality of Swieqi in 1993.

Birkirkara has grown into an important commercial centre as well as a densely populated residential area.

Notable places
Birkirkara is home to many locations of importance.

 * Malta Financial Services Authority the financial regulator of Malta has its headquarters in Birkirkara.
 * St Aloysius College
 * The Wignacourt Aqueduct built in the 17th century.
 * St Helen's Basilica, housing Malta's largest church bell.
 * Simonds Farsons Cisk - the first brewery on the Island.
 * Dar Pirotta
 * Dar Papa Frangisku - A Homeless shelter run by the Maltese branch of Caritas Internationalis
 * Villa Chelsea now home to The Richmond Foundation - A Charity offering Rehabilitation Programmes.
 * The Old Birkirkara Railway Station which is today located within a public garden is one such place. Malta Railway trains used as means of transportation across the island stopped at this Station. The Railway was closed in 1931.
 * Roxy Cinema
 * Birkirkara Tower (Ghar il-Gobon)
 * Tal-Wejter Tower
 * Villa Lauri
 * Ta' Ganu Windmill

Churches
Birkirkara's main religious feast is that of St Helen at St. Helen's Basilica, which is celebrated on 18 August or on the first Sunday after that date. The main event of the celebration is a procession with a wooden statue carved by the Maltese master-sculptor Salvu Psaila. Notably, this is the only procession on the island carried out in the morning. The procession leaves the basilica at exactly 8:00 a.m. and returns to it at 10:45 am. The statue is lifted to shoulder-height by a group of townsmen through the main streets of the town.

 * The Church of St. Joseph the Worker
 * The Church of St. Mary
 * The Church of San Gorg Preca
 * The Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
 * The Church of St Paul B'kara had a previous building on the same site likely to date back to around 1538. Its design was medieval with a slanting roof. The present building known as  'San Pawl tal-Wied ' was built in 1852 to 1854 on plans drawn up by Giuseppe Bonavia who was an architect with the Royal Engineers. The clock of the church was made by Michelangelo Sapiano in 1891. The titular painting by Giuseppe Calleja is a reproduction of the original found in the Tre Fontane Church in Rome.

The Church of Our Lady of Victories is a small church found within the small narrow streets in the area known as 'Has-Sajjied'. This church was known to have existed as far back as 1575. In the 17th century when the parish church was being built this church was dismantled to allow easy access to the quarry that was supplying the stones needed. It was erected once again after the 1675–1676 Malta plague epidemic. The present church was built between 1728 and 1736 in the Baroque style. The internal pilasters follow the Tuscan style with the dome featuring floral motifs and emblems of the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Monuments

 * Monument of Sir Anthony Mamo
 * Niche of All Souls

Birkirkara Local Council
The Birkirkara Local Council forms part of the Birkirkara Civice Centre building. The current Birkirkara local council members are:

 * Joanne Debono Grech (Mayor)
 * Karl Cutajar (Deputy Mayor)
 * Justin Schembri
 * Nancy Aquilina
 * Rita Borg
 * Kaylocke Buhagiar
 * Antoine Attard
 * Owen Patrick Attard
 * John Mary Calleja
 * Deborah Mifsud
 * John Mizzi
 * Marie Claire Zammit Bonello
 * Francis Pullicino
 * Carmel Attard (Executive Secretary)

Birkirkara community service

 * Our Lady of Mount Carmel Parish Church, Triq Fleur-de-Lys (Fleur-de-Lys Road), Fleur-de-Lys
 * Our Lady, Mother of the Church Parish Church, Triq il-Graffiti Navali, Swatar
 * St. Joseph the Worker Parish Church, Triq il-Bwieraq (Bwieraq Street)
 * St. Helen's Parish Church, Triq is-Santwarju (Sanctuary Street)
 * St. Mary's Parish Church, Triq il-Knisja l-Qadima (Old Church Street)
 * Our Lady of Victory Parish Church, Triq il-Vitorja (Victory Street)
 * Birkirkara District Police Station, Triq il-Kbira (Main Street)
 * Birkirkara Branch Post Office, Triq il-Wied (Valley Road
 * Da Vinci Hospital, Triq Kan. K. Pirotta (Can. K. Pirotta Street)
 * Birkirkara Health Centre, Triq Tumas Fenech
 * Birkirkara Regional Library, Triq Tumas Fenech
 * Birkirkara Police Station

Zones in Birkirkara

 * Bwieraq
 * Fleur-de-Lys
 * L-Mrieħel
 * Ta' Ganu
 * Ta' Paris
 * Tal-Qattus
 * Is-Swatar
 * Ħas-Sajjied

Sport
Birkirkara has a multi-sport club in Birkirkara Saint Joseph Sports Club mostly known for its Athletics section, however, it also has active sections responsible for cycling, triathlon, swimming, and football, which competes in the Maltese Inter-Amateur Soccer Competition.

Birkirkara F.C. has won the Maltese Premier League four times. Birkirkara F.C. participated in the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League beating West Ham United F.C., only to be eliminated via penalties. Birkirkara also eliminated Heart of Midlothian in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. Malta's leader of the opposition Adrian Delia served as Birkirkara F.C. president from 2015-2016 and 2017-2018.

Natives
Iacob Heraclid, the Greco-Maltese adventurer who ruled over Moldavia in the 1560s, was born in the city. Eddie Fenech Adami, who served as Prime Minister and President of Malta, was born there, as was Anthony Mamo, the first President of Malta.

Twin towns – sister cities
Birkirkara is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇹 Grosseto, Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Sorrento, Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Longobardi, Italy
 * 🇫🇷 Carbonne, France

title: Birkirkara


text:
Gravettian

The Gravettian was an archaeological industry of the European Upper Paleolithic that succeeded the Aurignacian circa 33,000 years BP. It is archaeologically the last European culture many consider unified, and had mostly disappeared by c. 22,000 BP, close to the Last Glacial Maximum, although some elements lasted until c.  17,000 BP. In Spain and France, it was succeeded by the Solutrean and by the Epigravettian in Italy, the Balkans, Ukraine and Russia.

The Gravettian culture is known for Venus figurines, which were typically carved from either ivory or limestone. The culture was first identified at the site of La Gravette in the southwestern French department of Dordogne. In terms of population, the Gravettian is associated with the Vestonice cluster (while the older Aurignacian cultural complex is associated with the human remains of Goyet Q116-1).

Gravettian culture
The Gravettians were hunter-gatherers who lived in a bitterly cold period of European prehistory, and the Gravettian lifestyle was shaped by the climate. Pleniglacial environmental changes forced them to adapt. West and Central Europe were extremely cold during this period. Archaeologists usually describe two regional variants: the western Gravettian, known mainly from cave sites in France, Spain and Britain, and the eastern Gravettian in Central Europe and Russia. The eastern Gravettians, which include the Pavlovian culture, were specialized mammoth hunters, whose remains are usually found not in caves but in open air sites.

Gravettian culture thrived on their ability to hunt animals. They utilized a variety of tools and hunting strategies. Compared to theorized hunting techniques of Neanderthals and earlier human groups, Gravettian hunting culture appears much more mobile and complex. They lived in caves or semi-subterranean or rounded dwellings which were typically arranged in small "villages". Gravettians are thought to have been innovative in the development of tools such as blunted-back knives, tanged arrowheads and boomerangs. Other innovations include the use of woven nets and oil lamps made of stone. Blades and bladelets were used to make decorations and bone tools from animal remains.

Gravettian culture extends across a large geographic region, as far as Estremadura in Portugal. but is relatively homogeneous until about 27,000 BP. They developed burial rites, which included simple, purpose-built offerings and/or personal ornaments owned by the deceased, placed within the grave or tomb. Surviving Gravettian art includes numerous cave paintings and small, portable Venus figurines made from clay or ivory, as well as jewelry objects. The fertility deities mostly date from the early period; there are over 100 known surviving examples. They conform to a very specific physical type, with large breasts, broad hips and prominent posteriors. The statuettes tend to lack facial details, and their limbs are often broken off.

During the post glacial period, evidence of the culture begins to disappear from northern Europe but was continued in areas around the Mediterranean.

The Mal'ta Culture (c. 24,000 BP) in Siberia is often considered as belonging to the Gravettian, due to its similar characteristics, particularly its Venus figurines, but any hypothetical connection would have to be cultural and not genetic: a 2016 genomic study showed that the Mal'ta people have no genetic connections with the people of the European Gravettian culture (the Vestonice Cluster).

Diet
Animals were a primary food source for humans of the Gravettian period. Since Europe was extremely cold during this period, they preferred food sources high in energy and fat content. Testing comparisons among various human remains reveal that populations at higher latitudes placed greater dietary emphasis on meat. A defining trait distinguishing Gravettian people was their ease of mobility compared to their Neanderthal counterparts. Modern humans developed the technology and social organization that enabled them to migrate with their food source whereas Neanderthals were not adept at travelling, even with relatively sedentary herds.

With their ability to move with the herds, Gravettian diets incorporated a huge variety of animal prey. The main factors were the animal's age and size. For example, first year deer offered hides most suitable for clothing, while fourth year deer contained far more meat. Gravettian diet included larger animals such as mammoths, hyenas, wolves, and reindeer killed with stone or bone tools, as well as hares and foxes captured with nets. This time period is classified by the strong emphasis on meat consumption because agriculture had not been fully introduced nor utilized. In addition, the climate was not favorable to stable crop cultivation.

Coastal Gravettians were able to avail of marine protein. From remains found in Italy and Wales, carbon dating reveals that 20–30% of Gravettian diets of coastal peoples consisted of sea animals. Populations of lower latitudes relied more on shellfish and fish while higher latitudes' diets consisted of seals.

Physical type

Physical remains of people of the Gravettian have revealed that they were tall and relatively slender people. The male height of the Gravettian culture ranged between 179 and 188 cm tall with an average of 183.5 cm, which is exceptionally tall not only for that period of prehistory, but for all periods of history.

They were fairly slender and normally weighed between 67 - 73 kg, although they would likely have had a higher ratio of lean muscle mass compared to body fat in comparison to modern humans as a result of a very physically active and demanding lifestyle. The females of the Gravettian were much shorter, standing 158 cm on average, with an average weight of 54 kg. Examinations of Gravettian skulls reveal that high cheekbones were common among them.

Hunting
Clubs, stones and sticks were the primary hunting tools during the Upper Paleolithic period. Bone, antler and ivory points have all been found at sites in France; but proper stone arrowheads and throwing spears did not appear until the Solutrean period (~20,000 Before Present). Due to the primitive tools, many animals were hunted at close range. The typical artefact of Gravettian industry, once considered diagnostic, is the small pointed blade with a straight blunt back. They are today known as the Gravette point, and were used to hunt big game. Gravettians used nets to hunt small game, and are credited with inventing the bow and arrow.

Gravettian settlers tended towards the valleys that pooled migrating prey. Examples found through discoveries in Gr. La Gala, a site in Southern Italy, show a strategic settlement based in a small valley. As the settlers became more aware of the migration patterns of animals like red deer, they learned that prey herd in valleys, thereby allowing the hunters to avoid travelling long distances for food. Specifically in Gr. La Gala, the glacial topography forced the deer to pass through the areas in the valley occupied by humans. Additional evidence of strategically positioned settlements include sites like Klithi in Greece, also placed to intercept migrating prey.

Discoveries in the Czech Republic suggest that nets were used to capture large numbers of smaller prey, thus offering a quick and consistent food supply and thus an alternative to the feast/famine pattern of large game hunters. Evidence comes in the form of 4 mm thick rope preserved on clay imprints. Research suggests that although no larger net imprints have been discovered, there would be little reason for them not to be made as no further knowledge would be required for their creation. The weaving of nets was likely a communal task, relying on the work of both women and children.

Decorations and tools
The Gravettian era landscape is most closely related to the landscape of present-day Moravia. Pavlov I in southern Moravia is the most complete and complex Gravettian site to date, and a perfect model for a general understanding of Gravettian culture. In many instances, animal remains indicate both decorative and utilitarian purposes. In the case of, for example, Arctic foxes, incisors and canines were used for decoration, while their humeri and radii bones were used as tools. Similarly, the skeletons of some red foxes contain decorative incisors and canines as well as ulnas used for awls and barbs.

Some animal bones were only used to create tools. Due to their shape, the ribs, fibulas, and metapodia of horses were good for awl and barb creation. In addition, the ribs were also implemented to create different types of smoothers for pelt preparation. The shapes of hare bones are also unique, and as a result, the ulnas were commonly used as awls and barbs. Reindeer antlers, ulnas, ribs, tibias and teeth were utilised in addition to a rare documented case of a phalanx. Mammoth remnants are among the most common bone remnants of the culture, while long bones and molars are also documented. Some mammoth bones were used for decorative purposes. Wolf remains were often used for tool production and decoration.

Genetics
Fu et al. (2016) examined the remains of fourteen Gravettians. The eight males included three samples of Y-chromosomal haplogroup CT, one of I, one IJK, one BT, one C1a2, and one sample of F. Of the fourteen samples of mtDNA, there were thirteen samples of U and one sample of M. The majority of the sample of U belonged to the U5 and U2. Teschler et al. (2020) examined the remains of one adult male and two twin boys from a Gravettian site in Austria. All belonged to haplogroup Y-Haplogroup I. and all had the same mtDNA, U5. According to Scorrano et al. (2022), "the genome of an early European individual from Kostenki 14, dated to around 37,000 years ago, demonstrated that the ancestral European gene pool was already established by that time."

Gravettians are strongly genetically distinct from Epigravettians, who are genetically referred to as the Villabruna cluster, and who appear to represent a later migration into Europe rather than being the descendants of the Gravettians.

title: Gravettian


text:
Lisa Hammer

Lisa Hammer (née Houle; born April 4, 1967, in Salem, Massachusetts, U.S.) is an American filmmaker, actress, composer and singer. She graduated from Emerson College, with a BS in Film. She founded the Blessed Elysium Motion Picture Company, which produces German Expressionist films. Such works include Pus$bucket and Crawley, a collaboration with Ben Edlund and Doc Hammer, her ex-husband. She has also contributed to Joanie4Jackie, a film anthology project run by Miranda July, which featured Hammer's film Empire of Ache starring Dame Darcy.

Hammer collaborated with Dame Darcy on the weekly television show Turn of the Century, a New York City Public-access television cable TV show done in a German Expressionist manner that lasted from 1996 to 1999. The show featured various New York personalities, including Daria Klotz (as Duchess Daria), Jennifer Nixon as Queen Itchie, Bliss Blood, Maude Swift as Secretary Jenny and guests such as Thurston Moore and Courtney Love. It was cited by New York Magazine as "the best public access show of 1997" and has been syndicated on public access stations around the U.S. She collaborated with cult star Alizarinkryz on the weekly NYC cable show POX from 2002-2004. POX was cited by New York Press Magazine as "the best public access show of 2003", and has also been syndicated on public access stations around the U.S. and on the internet.

Hammer directed the feature film version of POX, which stars (alphabetically) Aarti Mann (credited as Aarti Majmudar¹), Lisa D'Amato, Clint Catalyst, Clayne Crawford, James Duval, and Jeff Lieberman, among others. It was released on April 4, 2011.

She was lead singer of the goth band Mors Syphilitica from 1995 through 2002, which released three full-length recordings and one 12 inch EP before breaking up, as well as of the band Requiem in White, which released several recordings and videos.

In 2003, Lisa joined the cast of The Venture Bros. as the voice of Triana Orpheus.

In 2009, she released her first solo album, Dakini on Projekt Records.

In 2012 she teamed up with Steven Deal to form Radiana. Their self-titled debut album came out on Projekt Records the same year.

Films

 * The Invisible Life of Thomas Lynch by Lisa Hammer and James Merendino
 * POX by Lisa Hammer
 * Pus$bucket by Lisa Hammer
 * Crawley by Lisa Hammer, Ben Edlund and Doc Hammer
 * Period Piece by Lisa Hammer
 * Why Does it Do That? by Lisa Hammer
 * Ultimate Team Invasion Force by Lisa Hammer
 * Grimmer Than Grimm stageplay by Lisa Hammer
 * Empire of Ache by Lisa Hammer
 * The Dance of Death by Lisa Hammer
 * Cards With Cards by Lisa Hammer and Dame Darcy
 * Turn of the Century by Lisa Hammer
 * Jorinda and Joringel by Lisa Hammer
 * Beauty and the Beast by Lisa Hammer
 * Rub by Doc Hammer starring Lisa Hammer
 * Maldorora and a Little Girl by Maude Swift starring Lisa Hammer

Discography
Requiem in White:
 * 12 inch vinyl EP, First Communion
 * "Of The Want Infinite", CD, First Communion

Mors Syphilitica:
 * 12 inch vinyl EP, Sacrum Torch, 1996
 * Mors Syphilitica, CD, Sacrum Torch, 1996
 * Primrose, CD, Sacrum Torch, 1998
 * Feather and Fate, CD, Projekt, 2001

Solo
 * Dakini, CD, Projekt, 2009

Radiana
 * Radiana, CD, Projekt, 2012

title: Lisa Hammer


text:
User talk:Proguitar

Hello,

For all the people who want to tell me, that I should not place links to a German site!

 * 1. My site will be available in english in a few weeks.
 * 2. The german wikipedia and other languages sites are full of english links.
 * 3. I just want to offer my pictures because it seemes that nobody has better pictures than these small ones shown on all pages.

I am open for constructive critics! So contact me!! j.b.s@gmx.net

Best regards Juergen Bauer

Hi. I believe that mostly people who speak English visit the English Wikipedia, and many of those people don't speak German, so there is no need to put those links to the German websites there. If those people want to find German websites, then they should go to the German Wikipedia. I also believe that those links from the German Wikipedia to English websites should be removed. --Lst27(See warning) 22:31, 19 May 2004 (UTC)

associated with User talk:62.178.173.218 Femto 11:27, 5 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Proguitar


text:
List of English words of Sanskrit origin

This is a list of English words of Sanskrit origin. Most of these words were not directly borrowed from Sanskrit. The meaning of some words have changed slightly after being borrowed.

Both languages belong to the Indo-European language family and have numerous cognate terms. Innumerous words like "Mortal", "Feet", "End", "Path", "Mother", "Father" and the names of the numbers(1-10) are cognates of English and Sanskrit, along with other Indo-European languages like German, Latin, French or Persian. However, this list is strictly of the words which is taken from Sanskrit.

A

 * Ambarella : through ඇඹරැල්ලා æmbarællā ultimately from Sanskrit: अम्बरेल्ला, a kind of tree.
 * Aniline : through Anilin, French: Aniline and Portuguese: Anil from Arabic النيل al-nili and Persian نیلا nila, ultimately from Sanskrit नीली nili.
 * Aryan : from Sanskrit आर्य, “which means noble; arya also means health. Noun of Arya is Aryana healthy, noble one” though it originally stems from the Proto-Indo-Iranian autonym *áryas. First attested in English in 1839, it was likely coined as a loan from earlier scholars in Europe writing in German and French who in turn borrowed directly from Sanskrit.
 * Atoll : through Dhivehi : އަތޮޅު possibly from Sanskrit अन्तला, interior, though there are other theories.
 * Aubergine : from French aubergine, in Catalan albergínia, via Arabic بَاتِنْجَان and Persian بادنجان bâdenjân ultimately from Sanskrit वातिगगम, meaning eggplant or aubergine.
 * Avatar : from Sanskrit अवतार avatāra, which means "descent", an avatar refers to the human incarnation of God during times of distress on earth. Thus, Krishna and Rāma were both avatars of Vishnu, who also manifested himself as an avatar many other times, ten of which are considered the most significant.

B

 * Bandana : from Sanskrit बन्धन bandhana, "a bond".
 * Banyan : from Hindi baniyaa ultimately from Sanskrit वणिज् vaṇij, which means "a merchant".
 * Basmati : Type of long grain rice, highly valued for its smell and texture. Through Hindi बासमती ultimately from Sanskrit वास vāsa.
 * Bahuvrihi : from Sanskrit बहुव्रीहि Bahuvrihi, a composite word, meaning 'much rice'.
 * Bidi : through Hindi बीड़ी ultimately from Sanskrit वितिक vitika.
 * Bhakti : from Sanskrit भक्ति "bhakti", portion or more importantly, devotion.
 * Brinjal : from Portuguese bringella or beringela, from Persian بادنجان badingān, probably from Sanskrit vātiṅgaṇa.
 * Buddha : from Sanskrit बुद्ध buddha, which means "awakened, enlightened", refers to Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism. Also refers to one who is enlightened in accordance with the teachings of Buddha or a likeness of Buddha.

C

 * Candy :Middle English candi, crystallized cane sugar, short for sugre-candi, partial translation of Old French sucre candi, ultimately from Arabic sukkar qandī : sukkar, sugar + qandī, consisting of sugar lumps (from qand, lump of crystallized sugar, from an Indic source akin to Pali kaṇḍa-, from Sanskrit खाण्डक khaṇḍakaḥ, from khaṇḍaḥ, piece, fragment, perhaps of Munda origin).
 * Carmine and Crimson: From Arabic word Kirmiz(evolved in French later),from Sanskrit कृमि kṛmi meaning "worm".
 * Cashmere :1680s, "shawl made of cashmere wool", from the old spelling of Kashmir, Himalayan kingdom where wool was obtained from long-haired goats.
 * Chakram : from Sanskrit चक्रं Cakram, a circular throwing weapon, sharp edged discus. Chakram is derivative of word 'Chakra' which means Spiral or Circle
 * Cheetah : which is from Sanskrit चित्रस chitra-s "uniquely marked".
 * Chintz : from Hindi chint, from Sanskrit chitra-s "clear, bright".
 * Chukar : via Hindi चकोर cakor and Urdu چکور chukar ultimately from Sanskrit चकोर cakorah.
 * Chukker : from Hindi चक्कर and Urdu چکرchakkar, from Sanskrit चक्र cakra, "a circle, a wheel".
 * Citipati : from Sanskrit चिति पति citi-pati, which means "a funeral pyre lord".
 * Cot : from Hindi खाट khaat "a couch", which is from Sanskrit खट्वा khatva.
 * Copra : from Portuguese copra (16c.), from koppara (cognate with Hindi khopra) "mature coconut usually used for extraction of coconut oil"; related to Hindi khopri "skull", from Sanskrit kharparah "skull".
 * Cowrie : from Hindi कौड़ी kauri and Urdu کمتدب kauri, from Marathi कवडी kavadi, which is ultimately from Sanskrit कपर्द kaparda.
 * Crimson : from Old Spanish cremesin, via Medieval Latin cremesinus from Persian قرمز qirmiz "a kermes", which is ultimately from Sanskrit कृमिज krmi-ja literally: "red dye produced by a worm".
 * Crocus : from Greek κρόκος crocus, via Semitic languages (e.g. Hebrew כרכום karkōm, Aramaic ܟܘܪܟܡܐ kurkama, Persian كركم kurkum, which mean saffron or saffron yellow ); ultimately from Sanskrit कुङ्कुमं kunkumam.

D

 * Dal : through Hindi दाल dāl ultimately from Sanskrit दल dala, meaning cotyledon of a pea pod, a type of Indian food; also refers to lentils.
 * Das : from Sanskrit दास daasa, a slave or servant. See also Dasa.
 * Datura : through Latin and Hindi: धतूरा dhatūra "jimson weed" ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूरा dhattūrā, a kind of flowering plant.
 * Deodar : through Hindi देओदार deodār ultimately from Sanskrit देवदारु devadāru, a kind of tree.
 * Deva : from Sanskrit देव deva, which means "a god", akin to Latin deus, "god".
 * Devi : from Sanskrit देवी devi, which means "a goddess".
 * Dharma : from Sanskrit: धर्म dharma; akin to Latin: firmus, meaning "conformity to one's duty and nature" and "divine law" also "Religion".
 * Dhoti : via Hindi dhotī (Hindi: धोती) ultimately from Sanskrit dhautī (Sanskrit: धौती) which means 'to wash', a traditional male garment used in India. Material tied around the waist that covers most of the legs.
 * Dinghy : from Hindi दिन्गी dingi "a tiny boat", probably from Sanskrit द्रोण drona.
 * Dvandva : is a Sanskrit technical term literally meaning "a pair".

G

 * Ganja : via Hindi गांजा (gaanja or "hemp"), ultimately from Sanskrit गञ्जा (gañjā or "hemp").
 * Gharry : via Hindi word gādī (Hindi: गाड़ी) which is ultimately derived from Sanskrit word garta (Sanskrit: गर्त) which means 'chariot'.
 * Ginger : from Old English gingifer, gingiber, from Late Latin gingiber, from Latin zingiberi, from Greek zingiberis, from Prakrit (Middle Indic) singabera, from Sanskrit श्रङ्गवेर śrngavera, from śrnga "horn" + vera- "body", although, it may have derived instead from Tamil word "Inchi" (இஞ்சி).
 * Gondwana : from two Sanskrit words, goṇḍa (Devanagari: गोण्ड) which means 'Gondi people or mountaineers' and vana (Devanagari: वन) which means 'forest'.
 * Guar : through Hindi गार ultimately from Sanskrit गोपाली gopālī, an annual legume.
 * Gunny : via Persian گونی "Gooni" a burlap sack and Hindi गोनी, ultimately from Sanskrit गोणी goni "sack".
 * Gurkha : via Nepalese गोर्खा ultimately from Sanskrit गोरक्ष goraksa, "a cowherd". Gurka derives from népali word Gorkha, followers of Saint Gorakhnath.
 * Guru : via Hindi गुरु ultimately from Sanskrit गुरु guru, which means "a teacher".

J

 * Jackal : from Turkish çakal, from Persian شغال shaghal, from Middle Indic shagal, ultimately from Sanskrit शृगाल srgala "the howler".
 * Jaggery :via Portuguese jágara, jagre and Malayalam ഛക്കര chakkara, ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा śarkarā.
 * Java : originally a kind of coffee grown on Java and nearby islands of modern Indonesia. By early 20c. it meant coffee generally. The island name is shortened from Sanskrit Yavadvipa "Island of Barley", from yava "barley" + dvipa "island".
 * Juggernaut : through Odia ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ Jagannatha ultimately from Sanskrit जगन्नाथ jagat-natha-s, which means "lord of the world".
 * Jungle : through Hindi जंगल jangal "a desert, forest"; also Persian جنگل jangal meaning forest; ultimately from Sanskrit जङ्गल jangala, which means "arid".
 * Jute : from Sanskrit जुत juta-s, which means "twisted hair".

K

 * Karma
 * from Sanskrit कर्मन्(karman); which means "action".
 * Kedgeree
 * probably from Sanskrit कृशर(krśara).
 * Kermes
 * via French Kermès and Persian قرمز(qermez); perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit कृमिज(kṛmija); meaning "worm-made".

L

 * Lac : through Urdu لاکھ, Persian لاک and Hindi लाख lakh from Prakrit लक्ख lakkha, ultimately from Sanskrit लाक्षा lākṣā, meaning lac.
 * Lacquer : through French: Laque and Portuguese: Laca from Arabic لك lakk,लाख in Hindi, via Prakrit ultimately from Sanskrit लाक्षा lākṣā.
 * Langur : through Hindi लुट lut probably ultimately from Sanskrit लङ्गूल langūla.
 * Lilac : via Arabic للك lilak from Persian نیلک nilak meaning "bluish", ultimately from Sanskrit नील nila, which means "dark blue".
 * Loot : ultimately from Sanskrit लुण्टा lota-m or लुण्ठति luṇṭhati meaning "he steals" through Hindi लूट lūṭ, which means "a booty, stolen thing".

M

 * Maharajah : through Hindi महाराजा ultimately from Sanskrit महाराजा mahā-rājā, which means "a great king".
 * Maharani : through Hindi महारानी finally from Sanskrit महाराज्ञी mahārājnī, which means "consort of a maharajah".
 * Maharishi : from Sanskrit महर्षि maha-rishi, which means "a great sage".
 * Mahatma : from Sanskrit महात्मा mahatma, which means "a great breath, soul".
 * Mahayana : from Sanskrit महायान maha-yana, which means "a great vehicle".
 * Mahout : via Hindi माहुत (variant of महावत) ultimately from Sanskrit महामात्रः mahāmātrah.
 * Mandala : from Sanskrit मण्डल mandala, which means "a disc, circle".
 * Mandarin : via Portuguese mandarim, Dutch mandarijn, Malay mantri or menteri, and Hindi मंत्री mantri "a councillor" ultimately from Sanskrit मन्त्रिन् mantri, which means "an advisor".
 * Mantra : from Sanskrit मन्त्र mantra-s which means "a holy message or text".
 * Maya : from Sanskrit माया māyā, a religious term related with illusion.
 * Moksha : from Sanskrit मोक्ष moksha, liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth.
 * Mugger : via Hindi मगर and Urdu مگر magar ultimately from Sanskrit मकर makara ("sea creature"), like a crocodile, which attacks stealthily.
 * Mung bean : through Hindi मुग mū̃g and Pali/Prakrit मुग्ग mugga ultimately from Sanskrit मुद्ग mudga, a kind of bean.
 * Musk : via Middle English muske, Middle French Musc, Late Latin Muscus and Late Greek μόσχος moskhos from Persian موشک mushk, ultimately from Sanskrit मुस्क muska meaning "a testicle", from a diminutive of मुस mus ("mouse").
 * Mynah : through Hindi मैना maina ultimately from Sanskrit मदन madana-s, which means "love".

N

 * Nainsook :through Hindi नैनसुख nainsukh ultimately from Sanskrit नयनसुख nayana-sukha, meaning "pleasing to the eyes".
 * Nard : through Old French narde and Latin nardus from Greek νάρδος nardos, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit नलद nalada.
 * Narghile : through French Narguilé and Persian نارگيله nārghīleh ultimately from Sanskrit नारिकेल nārikela.
 * Nark : probably from Romany nak "a nose", via Hindi नाक nak ultimately from Sanskrit नक्र nakra.
 * Neem : through Hindi नीम nīm ultimately from Sanskrit निम्ब nimba, a kind of tree.
 * Nilgai : through Hindi नीलगाय nīlgāy lit., blue cow ultimately from Sanskrit नीलगौ nīla-gau, an ox-like animal.
 * Nirvana : from Sanskrit निर्वाण nirvāṇa which means "ascendance, higher state of being, transcendence, state of bliss" literally means "extinction, disappearance".

O

 * Opal : through French opalle from Latin opalus from Greek ὀπάλλιος opallios, probably ultimately from Sanskrit उपल upala.
 * Orange : through Old French orenge, Medieval Latin orenge and Italian arancia from Arabic نارنج naranj, via Persian نارنگ narang and Sanskrit नारङ्ग naranga-s meaning "an orange tree", derived from proto-Dravidian.

P

 * Pal : 1788, from Romany (English Gypsy) pal "brother, comrade", variant of continental Romany pral, plal, phral, probably from Sanskrit bhrata "brother"
 * Palanquin : via Odia word pālankī (Odia:ପାଲଙ୍କି) which is ultimately derived from Sanskrit पल्यङ्क palyanka which means 'bed' or 'couch'.
 * Parcheesi : 1800, from Hindi pachisi, from pachis "twenty-five" (highest throw of the dice), from Sanskrit panca "five"
 * Pepper : Old English pipor, from an early West Germanic borrowing of Latin piper "pepper", from Greek piperi, probably (via Persian) from Middle Indic pippari, from Sanskrit pippali "long pepper".
 * Pandit : via Sanskrit पण्डित paṇdita, meaning "learned one or maestro". Modern Interpretation is a person who offers to mass media their opinion or commentary on a particular subject area.

R

 * Raita : ultimately from Sanskrit राजिका rājikā via Hindi रायता rāytā, a south Asian condiment and side dish made of yogurt and vegetables.
 * Raj : through Hindi राज and Pali/Prakrit रज्ज rajja ultimately from Sanskrit राज्य rājya, which means "a king" or "kingdom". Raj means kingdom or domain of a ruler.
 * Rajah : through Hindi राज from Sanskrit राजन् rājān, which means "a king".
 * Ramtil : through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit रामतिल rāmatila, which means "a dark sesame".
 * Rani : through Hindi रानी ultimately from Sanskrit राज्ञी rājnī, consort of a rajah.
 * Rice : via Old French ris and Italian riso from Latin oriza, which is from Greek ὄρυζα oryza, through an Indo-Iranian tongue finally from Sanskrit व्रीहि vrihi "rice", ultimately derived from proto-Dravidian arisi.
 * Rupee : through Hindi रुपया rupiyā ultimately from Sanskrit रूप्यक rūpyaka, an Indian silver coin.

S

 * Saccharide : via Latin Saccharon and Greek σάκχαρον from Pali सक्खर sakkharā, ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा sarkarā.
 * Sambal : through Afrikaans, Indonesian and Tamil சம்பல் campāl ultimately from Sanskrit सम्बार sambhārei.
 * Sambar : through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit शंबरः śambarah, a kind of Asian deer.
 * Sandalwood : via Middle English sandell, Old French sandale, Medieval Latin sandalum, Medieval Greek σανδάλιον sandalion (diminutive of σάνδαλον sandalon) and Arabic and Persian صندل; ultimately from Sanskrit चन्दन candana meaning "wood for burning incense".
 * Sapphire : via Old French saphir, Latin sapphirus and Greek σάπφειρος sappheiros from a Semitic tongue (c.f. Hebrew: ספיר sapir); possibly the ultimate origin is Sanskrit शनिप्रिय sanipriya which literally means "sacred to Saturn (Shani)".
 * Sari : through Hindi साड़ी sari and Prakrit सदि sadi, finally from Sanskrit सति sati "garment".
 * Shampoo : via Anglo-Indian shampoo and Hindi चाँपो champo from Sanskrit चपयति capayati, which means "kneads".
 * Shawl : from Persian شال shal, finally from Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī, which means "a strip of cloth".
 * Singapore : via Malay Singapura ultimately from Sanskrit सिंहपुर simhapura, literally "the lion city".
 * Sri Lanka : from Sanskrit: श्री लंका which means "venerable island". It is said that Shree or Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth, resides there.
 * Sugar : through Old French sucre, Italian zucchero, Medieval Latin succarum, Arabic: سكر sukkar and Persian: شکر shakar ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा śarkara which means "ground or candied sugar" (originally "grit" or "gravel").
 * Sunn : via Hindi: सुन्न ultimately from Sanskrit: सन sāna, a kind of Asian plant.
 * Swami : through Hindi स्वामी swami ultimately from Sanskrit स्वामी svami, which means "a master".
 * Swastika : from Sanskrit स्वस्तिक svastika, a religious symbol associated rituals and divination. Swastika means "one associated with well-being, a lucky charm".

T

 * Taka : via Maithili and Bengali : টাকা from Sanskrit टङ्क tanka.
 * Talipot : through Hindi, Indonesian and Malay talipat from Sanskrit तालपत्र tālapatra, a kind of palm.
 * Tank : a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, from a Hindi source, such as Gujarati tankh "cistern, underground reservoir for water", Marathi tanken, or tanka "reservoir of water, tank". Perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit tadaga "pond, lake pool", and reinforced in later sense of "large artificial container for liquid".
 * Tendu : via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit तैन्दुक tainduka.
 * Teapoy : via Hindi तिपाई tipāi and Urdu تپائي tipāʼī,which originated as a Sanskrit compound: त्रि (trí, "three") and पाद (pā́da, "foot").
 * Thug : through Marathi ठग thag probably ultimately from Sanskrit स्थग sthaga, which means "a scoundrel".
 * Til : from Sanskrit तिलः tilah, a kind of plant.
 * Toddy : through Hindi तरी tari ultimately from Sanskrit तल tala-s, a Dravidian origin is also probable.
 * Toon : through Hindi तुन tūn ultimately from Sanskrit तुन्न tunna, a kind of tree.
 * Tope : through Hindi टॉप ṭop probably from Prakrit थुपो thūpo, finally from Sanskrit स्तूप stūpa.
 * Tutty : through Middle English tutie, Old French, Medieval Latin tūtia, Arabic توتي tūtiyā, and Persian توتیا ultimately from Sanskrit तुत्थ tuttha meaning "blue vitriol", a Dravidian origin is also probable.

V

 * Vina
 * ultimately from Sanskrit वीणा(vīṇā) through Hindi वीणा(vīṇā); referring to a kind of musical instrument.

W

 * Wanderoo
 * through වන්ඩෙරූ (vanḍerū) finally from Sanskrit वानर(vānara), meaning a kind of monkey.

Y

 * Yoga
 * through Sanskrit योग(yoga-s), which means "yoke, union".
 * Yogi
 * through Hindi योगी(yogi) from Sanskrit योगी(yogi); meaning one who practices yoga or ascetic.

Z

 * Zen
 * through Japanese 禅 and Chinese 禪 Chán ultimately from Pali झान(jhāna) and Sanskrit ध्यान (dhyana), which means "a meditation".


text:
Talk:Literati

''This page was listed on Votes for deletion in May, 2004. The result of that discussion was to keep the article. For an archive of the discussion, see Talk:Literati/Delete.''

title: Talk:Literati


text: User talk:146.95.224.173

title: User talk:146.95.224.173


text:
Craig MacTavish

Craig MacTavish (born August 15, 1958) is a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and former player, formerly an assistant coaching position with the St. Louis Blues. He played center for 17 seasons in the National Hockey League with the Boston Bruins, Edmonton Oilers, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers and St. Louis Blues, winning the Stanley Cup four times (1987, 1988, 1990, 1994). He was the last NHL player not to wear a helmet during games.

MacTavish later coached the Oilers from 2000 to 2009 and also served as assistant coach with the Rangers and Oilers. He last coached Team Canada at the 2019 Spengler Cup, after a short stint with Russian team Lokomotiv Yaroslavl of the KHL. He served as an assistant coach with the St. Louis Blues from 2022 to 2023.

Early life and education
MacTavish was born on August 15, 1958, in London, Ontario.

After retiring as NHL player in 1997, MacTavish was accepted as an MBA student at the University of Alberta. He didn't start the program, following the decision to take a coaching position with the New York Rangers. In 2011, he obtained an EMBA from Queen's School of Business.

Early career
MacTavish played two years of NCAA hockey with the University of Lowell Chiefs (now University of Massachusetts Lowell River Hawks) from 1977 to 1979. He was drafted by the Boston Bruins in the 1978 NHL Entry Draft with their ninth pick, 153rd overall, and spent the next several years splitting time between the Bruins and various American Hockey League teams. He finally made the Bruins for good in 1982–83 and played two full seasons with them.

During his early days with the Bruins, the young MacTavish was involved in the infamous brawl between several Boston players and a group of New York Rangers fans in 1979.

MacTavish missed the 1984–85 season after being convicted of vehicular homicide, having struck and killed a young woman while he was driving under the influence of alcohol. MacTavish pleaded guilty to vehicular homicide and driving under the influence of alcohol the night of January 25, 1984, in Peabody, Massachusetts. Kim Radley, 26, of West Newfield, Maine, died four days later of injuries sustained in the crash. MacTavish was sentenced to a year's imprisonment for the offence. While incarcerated, he watched most of the games that were televised.

Later career
Widely viewed, at the time, as a personal favour from Edmonton coach Glen Sather to his best friend, then-Bruins general manager Harry Sinden (who felt that MacTavish ought to have a fresh start away from Boston and had offered to let him out of his contract, which MacTavish had accepted), the Oilers took a chance on MacTavish and signed him for the 1985–86 season. Sather's intuition turned out to be good, as MacTavish spent eight full seasons with the Oilers, helping them to win three Stanley Cups in 1987, 1988, 1990 and serving as team captain from 1992 to 1994. MacTavish was traded to the New York Rangers in 1994, just in time to help several other former Oilers (including Kevin Lowe, Glenn Anderson, Adam Graves, Jeff Beukeboom, Esa Tikkanen and Mark Messier) win the Stanley Cup.

The next season MacTavish signed with the Philadelphia Flyers as a free agent, and was traded to the St. Louis Blues during the 1995–96 season. MacTavish retired following the 1996–97 season. He was the last helmetless player, having signed a professional contract with the Bruins before the mandatory cutoff date in 1979 (then-current players were allowed to remain bare-headed under a grandfather clause); incidentally, MacTavish had worn a helmet in his earliest days as he can be seen wearing one during the aforementioned fight with Rangers fans in 1979.

Coaching career
MacTavish turned to coaching immediately after retiring as a player, signing on as an assistant with the Rangers. After two seasons in New York, he returned to the Oilers as an assistant coach in the 1999–2000 season under former teammate Kevin Lowe. He was subsequently promoted to the top job when Lowe succeeded Sather as general manager.

In the 2005–06 season, MacTavish led the Oilers on their run to the Stanley Cup Finals. In the first round of the playoffs, MacTavish shocked the hockey world by utilizing a trapping defensive system to neutralize a potent Detroit Red Wings offence. The Oilers were able to deny scoring chances by blocking shots with their bodies—something for which MacTavish was known for during his playing career. This proved effective; the eighth-seeded Oilers won the opening round in six games, against the no. 1 seed, the Detroit Red Wings for their first postseason victory since 1998. Along the way the Oilers defeated the San Jose Sharks in six games and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in five games to advance to their first Stanley Cup since their championship season of 1990. However, the Oilers could not complete their run, losing a thrilling seven-game final series to the Carolina Hurricanes after nearly rallying from a 3–1 series deficit to force a Game 7. As it would turn out, this was the only season in MacTavish's tenure where the Oilers won a postseason series.

On November 4, 2006, one day after the Oilers lost to the Dallas Stars due to an apparent blown call in the last five seconds of the third period by referee Mick McGeough, MacTavish was fined $10,000 for expressing his anger after the game, referring to the call as "retarded". After this incident, Oilers fans collected over $10,000 and gave it to MacTavish, who subsequently donated the money to charity.

On April 15, 2009, Oilers general manager Steve Tambellini announced that MacTavish had been relieved of his duties as head coach of the club. The Oilers had failed to reach the playoffs for the third year in a row. He finished his tenure with the Oilers at 36th on the all-time NHL list with 301 wins, and second on the Oilers' all-time wins list behind only Sather.

During the 2011–12 season, MacTavish coached the Chicago Wolves, the American Hockey League affiliate of the Vancouver Canucks. After the season, MacTavish left the Canucks organization, returned to the Oilers as Senior Vice-president of Hockey operations and was named general manager on April 15, 2013.

On December 15, 2014, MacTavish fired head coach Dallas Eakins from his duties as head coach of the Oilers. MacTavish named himself as interim coach with the intention of transitioning minor league coach Todd Nelson into the role of interim head coach in the near future.

On May 16, 2019, he returned to coaching, signing a two-year contract with the Russian KHL team Lokomotiv Yaroslavl. On September 24, 2019, it was announced that Lokomotiv Yaroslav fired MacTavish after only eight games. In December 2019, he served as head coach of Team Canada and led the squad to the title at the Spengler Cup. He took over the head coaching job at Swiss team Lausanne HC on February 27, 2020.

On July 1, 2022, MacTavish was hired by the St. Louis Blues as an assistant coach for the 2022-2023 season, after the Boston Bruins acquired Jim Montgomery as their head coach. In April 2023, the Blues announced that MacTavish, along with fellow assistant coach Mike Van Ryn, would not return for the next season.

TSN commentator
Failing to be picked up by another team in the coaching department, on September 21, 2009, MacTavish began the first of twenty-five in-studio appearances with TSN as a hockey commentator.

Management career
On June 11, 2012, Edmonton Oilers general manager Steve Tambellini announced that McTavish was added to the club's hockey operations management team as senior vice-president of hockey operations.

On April 15, 2013, general manager Steve Tambellini was relieved of his position, and the Oilers named MacTavish as the new general manager. Former Columbus Blue Jackets GM Scott Howson replaced MacTavish as the vice-president of hockey operations. After two seasons, MacTavish was relieved of his position as general manager, and the Oilers named Peter Chiarelli the new general manager and president of hockey operations.

On April 24, 2015, Oilers Entertainment Group CEO, Bob Nicholson announced that Peter Chiarelli had been hired as the new general manager and president of hockey operations. Nicholson did not provide details on what MacTavish's new position would be within the Oilers organization.

On September 12, 2015, general manager Peter Chiarelli revealed in an interview with TSN's Bob McKenzie that MacTavish had been given the title of Vice-president of Hockey Operations; most of his duties would circulate around the Oilers' new affiliate team the Bakersfield Condors, his other main focus will be on pro scouting.

Personal life
MacTavish and his wife Debbie have a daughter and two sons.

While playing with the Flyers, MacTavish was a resident of Voorhees Township, New Jersey.

Awards and achievements

 * 1979 – Most Outstanding Player of the NCAA Division II Men's Ice Hockey Championship
 * 1986–87 – Stanley Cup (Edmonton)
 * 1987–88 – Stanley Cup (Edmonton)
 * 1989–90 – Stanley Cup (Edmonton)
 * 1993–94 – Stanley Cup (New York)
 * 1995–96 – played in NHL All-Star Game

title: Craig MacTavish


text:
Demenika

Demenika (Δεμένικα) is a village/suburb in the municipality of Patras, Achaea, Greece. It lies 5 km south of the city centre, south of the river Glafkos. It is part of the community of Saravali within the municipal unit of Messatida. It is 2 km northeast of Ovrya and 4 km east of Paralia. The Greek National Road 33 (Patras - Tripoli) passes through the village, and the new Greek National Road 9 (Patras - Pyrgos) passes south of the village.

title: Demenika


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Odar

 * Orphan dicdef of an Armenian word. --Smack 19:34, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete I agree with the above, a dictdef. Burgundavia 19:38, May 17, 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Odar