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Talk:Faroe Islands

=Where are haplogroupes? =

Which is Scandinavian haplogroup? Is it I2a (Serbian) that is old about 50 000 years and may be Celtic's too or is it R1b that is descendance from slavic-Russian- Serbian gènes? Please Google: paleolithic Serbian genes

Spelling?
Högni Reistrup is referred to (under Music) as Høgni Reistrup. Both his own website and the Wiki article under his own name use the first form. Can someone change this please? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.25.168.232 (talk • contribs) 00:06, 12 January 2014

No. His name is Høgni Reistrup. His artistic (stylized) name is "Högni Reistrup". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.111.169.50 (talk • contribs) 09:05, 10 September 2014

Faeroe or Faroe?
What is the correct spelling of the Faroe Islands? I have always known them as the Faeroe Islands, so can someone please inform me on the correct spelling so I don't mess anything up? LavishRuler16 (talk) 21:32, 23 July 2023 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia is guided by the WP:COMMONNAME and avoids less common spellings. The BBC website uses Faroe and this seems to be the most common spelling.-- ♦Ian Ma c  M♦  (talk to me) 07:36, 24 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Okay, thanks for the help! LavishRuler16 (talk) 18:05, 24 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Faroe is indeed the most common spelling, but a variety of sources (in particular older ones) will use Faeroe from time to time depending on whichever factors; while the BBC Website uses Faroe as mentioned, the BBC Shipping Forecast will refer to the waters around us as Faeroes.
 * They are also often referred to as the Faroes, but pretty much exclusively in informal contexts and everyday speech. In more formal/official situation, it is almost exclusively the Faroe Islands. R3troguy420 (talk) 13:34, 23 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Faroe 178.19.198.24 (talk) 18:49, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Faroe Islands


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Toy soldier

A toy soldier is a miniature figurine that represents a soldier. The term applies to depictions of uniformed military personnel from all eras, and includes knights, cowboys, American Indians, pirates, samurai, and other subjects that involve combat-related themes. Toy soldiers vary from simple playthings to highly realistic and detailed models. The latter are of more recent development and are sometimes called model figures to distinguish them from traditional toy soldiers. Larger scale toys such as dolls and action figures may come in military uniforms, but they are not generally considered toy soldiers.

Toy soldiers are made from all types of material, but the most common mass-produced varieties are metal and plastic. There are many different kinds of toy soldiers, including tin soldiers or flats, hollow-cast metal figures, composition figures, and plastic army men. Metal toy soldiers were traditionally sold in sets; plastic figures were sold in toy shops individually in Britain and Europe and in large boxed sets in the U.S. Modern, collectable figures are often sold individually.

Scale
Scale for toy soldiers is expressed as the soldier's approximate height from head to foot in millimeters. Because many figures do not stand up straight, height is usually an approximation. Standard toy soldier scale, originally adopted by W. Britain, is 54 mm (2.25 inches) or 1:32 scale. Among different manufacturers, standard scale may range from 50 mm or 1:35 scale, to 60 mm or 1:28 scale. For gamers and miniatures enthusiasts, 25 mm and even smaller scales are available. On the larger end of the scale are American dimestore figures, and many of the toy soldiers produced in Germany, which are approximately 75 mm (3 inches) or 1:24 scale.

History
Tin soldiers were produced in Germany as early as the 1730s, by molding the metal between two pieces of slate. Toy soldiers became widespread during the 18th century, inspired by the military exploits of Frederick the Great. Miniature soldiers were also used in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries by military strategists to plan battle tactics by using the figures to show the locations of real soldiers. In 1893, the British toy company William Britain revolutionized the production of toy soldiers by devising the method of hollow casting, making soldiers that were cheaper and lighter than their German counterparts.

In addition to Britains, there have been many other manufacturers of toy soldiers over the years. For example, John Hill & Company produced hollow cast lead figures in the same style and scale. Companies such as Elastolin and Lineol were well known for their composite figures made of glue and sawdust that included both military and civilian subjects. After 1950, rising production costs and the development of plastic meant that many shop keepers liked the lighter, cheaper, and far less prone to break in transit polythene figure. This led to greater numbers of plastic toy soldiers. The first American plastic soldiers were made by Beton as early as 1937. The first plastic toy soldiers produced in Great Britain were made in 1946 by Airfix before they became known for their famous model kits range.

One large historical producer in plastic was Louis Marx and Company, which produced both realistic soldiers of great detail and also historical collections of plastic men and women, including the "Presidents of the United States" collection, "Warriors of the World", "Generals of World War II", "Jesus and the Apostles", and figures from the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Marx also produced boxed playsets that featured many famous battles with armies of two sides, character figures, and terrain features. Britains produced plastic figures under the brand names of Herald and Deetail. Also in England, the scale model company, Airfix produced a variety of high quality plastic sets, which were frequently painted by hobbyists. Many Airfix figures were imitated by other companies and reproduced as inexpensive, bagged plastic army men.

Timpo Toys, Britains main competitor in terms of sales and quality in the 1960s and 70s developed the 'Over - Moulding' system. Different coloured plastics were injected into the mould at various stages, creating a fully coloured figure without the need of paint.

During the 1990s, the production of metal toy-grade painted figures and connoisseur-grade painted toy soldiers increased to serve the demands of the collectors' market. The style of many of these figures shifted from the traditional gloss-coat enamel paint to the matte-finished acrylic paint, which allows for greater detail and historical accuracy. The change was largely inspired by the introduction of very high quality painted figures from St. Petersburg, Russia.

Collecting
There is a substantial hobby devoted to collecting both old and new toy soldiers, with an abundance of small manufacturers, dealers, and toy soldier shows. There are even specialty magazines devoted to the hobby, such as "Toy Soldier Collector", "Plastic Warrior" and "Toy Soldier and Model Figure". Collectors often specialize in a particular type of soldier or historical period, though some people enjoy collecting many different kinds of figures. The most popular historical periods for collecting are Napoleonic, Victorian, American Civil War, World War I, and World War II. Many collectors modify and paint plastic figures, and some even cast and paint their own metal figures.

Actor Douglas Fairbanks Jr had a collection of 3000 toy soldiers when he sold it in 1977. Fantasy novelist George R. R. Martin has a substantial collection of toy knights and castles. The most extensive collection of toy soldiers was probably that of Malcolm Forbes, who began collecting toy soldiers in the late 1960s and amassed a collection of over 90,000 figures by the time of his death in 1990. Anne Seddon Kinsolving Brown of Providence, Rhode Island, US, began collecting miniature toy soldiers on her honeymoon to Europe in 1930, eventually amassing a collection of over 6,000 figures; these are on display at the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library in Providence.

Some of the more noteworthy, annual toy soldier and historical figure shows include the Plastic Warrior Show, which is the oldest established show in the UK. Beginning in 1985 and still being held annually in Richmond, South London. Another well known show is the London Toy Soldier Show held in central London (now owned and operated by the magazine Toy Soldier Collector), the Miniature Figure Collectors of America (MFCA) show in Valley Forge, the Chicago Toy Soldier Show (OTSN) in Illinois, the East Coast Toy Soldier Show in New Jersey, the West Coaster Toy Soldier Show in California, the Sammlerbörse (Collector's Market) in Friedberg, Germany and the biennial Zinnfigurenbörse (Tin Figure Market) in Kulmbach, Germany.

In recent years, collectors of vintage toy soldiers made of polythene PE and polypropylene PP thermoplastics as well as PC/ABS plastic blends have reported brittling and disintegration of collectible miniatures or components thereof.

Varieties
Different types and styles of toy soldiers have been produced over the years, depending on the cost and availability of materials, as well as manufacturing technologies. Here is a list of some of the most commonly collected varieties of toy soldiers.
 * Aluminum – slush-cast aluminium, made chiefly in France during the early and middle 20th Century
 * Army men – unpainted, soft plastic toy soldiers sold inexpensively in bags or with terrain pieces and vehicles in boxed playsets
 * Composition – made from a mixture of sawdust and glue, manufactured mostly in Europe, Austria and Germany. Made in the US during WWII metal rationing.
 * Connoisseur – high quality, collectible figures featuring highly detailed paint jobs
 * Dimestore – hollow- or slush-cast iron, sold through five and dime stores from the 1920s to 1960 in the United States
 * Flat – thin, two dimensional tin soldiers cast in slate molds
 * Hollow cast – cast in metal, usually a lead alloy, which cools and sets as it touches the mold; the excess molten metal is poured out leaving a hollow figure
 * Paper – printed on sheets of paper or cardboard, frequently mounted on blocks of wood
 * Plastic – hard and soft plastic, generally painted figures
 * Solid – cast in solid metal, usually lead, common in Germany during the 19th and early 20th Century
 * Wood - From the 19th century Germany produced large amounts of wooden fortresses and toy soldiers sometimes working on a scissors mechanism.

Prominent vintage toy soldier makers include Airfix, Barclay, Britains, Herald, Elastolin, Johillco, Lineol, Marx, Manoil, Reamsa and Timpo.

Gaming

The playing of wargames with toy figures was pioneered by H. G. Wells in his 1913 book, Little Wars. Wells, a pacifist, was the first to publish detailed rules for playing war games with toy soldiers. He suggested that this could provide a cathartic experience, possibly preventing future real wars. Although this was not to be, Little Wars was a predecessor to the modern hobby of miniatures wargaming. According to Wells, the idea of the game developed from a visit by his friend Jerome K. Jerome. After dinner, Jerome began shooting down toy soldiers with a toy cannon and Wells joined in to compete.

A similar book titled Shambattle: How to Play with Toy Soldiers was published by Harry Dowdall and Joseph Gleason in 1929.

Although people continue to play wargames with miniature figures, most contemporary wargamers use a smaller scale than that favored by collectors, typically under 25 mm.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Toy soldier


text:
LRV

LRV may refer to:

 * Lenticular Reentry Vehicle
 * Log removal value, a measure of the ability of a treatment processes to remove pathogenic microorganisms
 * Lunar Roving Vehicle
 * Light reflectance value
 * Light rail vehicle
 * Light Reconnaissance vehicle, another name for a Reconnaissance vehicle

title: LRV


text:
Talk:Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Duplicate Non-exact Series Found & Need Help to Untangle
Oh dear. I really wish I had read the Talk page first, before diving into this so boldly and spending so much time. A lesson to me. Again. Okay, well...I started out interested in Shoshoni people...Got sidetracked into the Eastern Woodland section. I went ahead & posted my changes, finally, just to save the work, but there seem to be some confusing partial overlaps surrounding the Wappinger Wappani, Wappani Confederacy ? and Munsee and Quinnipiac and Mahicans of the Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Feel free to revert it entire before I tangle up the previous work hopelessly. Here are my major stumpers: Lenape led me to Metoac, which confuses things further still, and according to talk page there, may be completely(?) BS due to Silas Wood source. last gem on its talk page: "in fact, most want it ignored in the hopes it will largely be ignored on Wikipedia by readers"
 * from Munsee language "Munsees east of the upper Hudson were the Wappinger; below them going north to south on the east bank of the Hudson were Kichtawanks; Sinsinks; Rechgawawanks; Nayack; Marechkawieck, with the Canarsee and Rockaway on western Long Island" Goddard, Ives, 1978a, p. 213-216 ...This last sentence I also intended to, (but am not sure how to) integrate all of its information into this classification scheme.  I added the apparently different spellings for same people, (Kichtawanks; Sinsinks; Rechgawawanks) still got some redlinks...no surprise... and this is where the duplicates emerged, between:
 * Wappinger- Is Wappinger the same as Wappani? the same as Quinnipiac? They have a LOT of overlap. Are these two or three different confederacies? Different places or times?  All Delawaran or no?  Munsees or Unami?
 * Canarsee (from the Munsee language page redirects to Lenape, where there is no mention of Canarsee, so where do the dangling people names (or are they place names or are they other languages?) on that first * fit in? (Nayack; Marechkawieck, Canarsee and Rockaway)
 * over on Eastern Algonquian languages @ Delawaran & Common Delawaran sub-sub grouping on that page.-puts Mahicans also into Delawarans.  And, on the Mahican page, The Mahicans become Stockbridge, move to Wisconsin, band with the Munsees to form the Stockbridge-Munsee Community.  Which Munsee group? All?  All are now Delawaran? on THIS page the Mahicans are also a confederacy: Mahican Confederacy which includes the Wappinger Wappani...All of them from the Wappinger confederacy noted at ^  Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. p. 256.   ?? or just some of those groups?
 * Also from Eastern Algonquian languages: "The closely related Delaware languages Munsee and Unami form a subgroup, with the two languages descending from an immediate ancestor called Common Delaware (CD)." footnoted from ^Goddard, Ives, 1978, p. 74; Goddard, Ives, 1982 So do or do not these two languages descend from Lenni-Lenape?  Lenni-Lenape is the correct name for Common Delaware, and Delaware is an exonym?  Is there a later Goddard, Ives that works all this out?

That's a lot of questions, I know. I am still not entirely clear on my understanding of THIS talk page's directional pointing. I obviously need a primer on sorting out my headspace into people, places, and languages...but I appear to be in interesting company. So...how much damage and how much help did I really do? =) Duff (talk) 19:20, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Circum-Caribbean to South America?
The Handbook of South American Indians Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes, obviously, classifies the Circum-Caribbean 'tribes' as South American. This definition of Circum-Caribbean includes Central America from the southern edge of the Mayan culture area in Honduras through Panama and along the Pacific Coast of Colombia, northwest South America, consisting of much of Colombia and Venezuela, and the Antilles. I propose then to move the Circum-Caribbean section from North America to South America in the article. Does anyone know of a reliable source that would support a different way of placing or otherwise organizing this section? -- Donald Albury 04:28, 12 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your work on this section. I just made it its own heading, instead of being under Mexico/Mesoamerica or South America. -Uyvsdi (talk) 04:24, 18 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi

South American cultural areas
I cannot find consensus in English-language literature about the best way to divide South American cultural areas. There was some discussion about this on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Indigenous peoples of North America. Talks with User:Diego Grez yielded the following proposed cultural areas:

 * Altiplano and Andes
 * Amazon Basin
 * Atacama Desert
 * Brazilian Highlands
 * Gran Chaco
 * Guianas
 * Llanos
 * Pampas
 * Pantanal
 * Patagonia
 * Southern Chile

Are there further suggestions? Currently the Amazon is divided into three sections - could these be united? They are fairly small in comparison with other sections. Any thoughts and suggestions would be greatly appreciated. -Uyvsdi (talk) 04:24, 18 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi

 * I've been wondering about that myself. I have access to only Volume 4 of the Handbook of South American Indians, which indicates just 4 broad culture areas: Circum-Caribbean, Andean, Tropical Forest, and Marginal. The Caribbean or Circum-Caribbean area is supported by other sources. Tropical Forest and Marginal are not helpful. Sub-divisions in the Tropical Forest area include Montaña (eastern slope of the Andes), Guianas and Amazonia. There apparently are others not mentioned in Volume 4. The Guianas area is fairly large and, among other things, the putative home of the Arawakan languages. The Montaña area might include the "Amazonian civilizations" that have been in the news recently. I wish we knew the source for dividing Amazonia up in this list. Beyond that, I don't know. I think we should document sources that support particular culture areas, but we may have to make some selections to present a coherent whole. -- Donald Albury 11:39, 18 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Perhaps the Guianas should be classified as a subregion within Circum-Caribbean? I agree that Julian Steward's four regions is too broad. The National Museum of the American Indian has workable set of seven cultural regions (also ): Circum-Caribbean, Amazonia, East Brazil, Gran Chaco, Pampas/Patagonia, Southern South America, and Andes. They include the eastern Ecuadorian and Peruvian tribes in Amazonia and combine Pampas with Patagonia. At least in 1982, National Geographic divides the region into six regions: Circum-Caribbean, Amazonia, East Brazil, Gran Chaco, South (Southern Cone), Andes. I wish I could find scholarly published sources for these cultural areas, but I'm not finding them. The various cultural areas are mentioned in books and articles but not clearly laid out. -Uyvsdi (talk) 19:43, 18 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi
 * Even the language divisions are in a hodgepodge (Category:Languages of South America). The regional divisions there include: South America (Central), Andes, South American Chaco, South American Cone, South American Northeast, Northern Foothills, South American Northwest, and Southern Foothills. So far NMAI's model seems the best. -21:37, 18 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi
 * I wish I could get a look at the other volumes of Handbook of South American Indians. The maps in the volume I'm looking at show Guianas, Northwest Amazon and Montaña as sub-areas in the Tropical Forest culture area. On one hand, the Handbook was issued by the Smithsonian and deserves serious consideration. On the other hand, it is 63 years old, and more recent work may have altered the scholarly consensus. Oh, it looks like the NMAI map puts the Guianas in the Amazonia area. -- Donald Albury 00:36, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

 * And I found a scanned image of Volume 1 here. There is a map of more than 20 groupings in the "Marginal" culture area on page 12. -- Donald Albury 01:31, 22 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I ordered them from Abebooks, and they'll be useful but yes, they are seriously out of date. Since most contemporary cultural divisions include Andes, Amazon, Gran Chaco, and Eastern Brazil, I've started categorizing based on those. We could separate Pampas from Patagonia, or combine all of the south under the "Southern Cone." -Uyvsdi (talk) 03:06, 22 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi
 * Looking at the maps (pp. 12 & 15) in vol. 1, I notice that southernmost Chile, Tierra del Fuego, and most of Argentina including the Pampas are classified as "Southern hunters". "Gran Chaco" is a single sub-area. Some areas in northernmost Argentina and Uruguay (and adjacent Brazil) falling between the Southern Hunters and the Gran Chaco seem to be included in the Southern Hunters in the text. The common cultural theme of the Southern Hunters appears to be that they were hunter-gatherers. The other groups in vol. 1 are either very small areas clustered in the highlands near the southeastern Brazilian coast, or scattered through Amazonia. So, Steward supports classifying southern Chile (south of the Auracanians), Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia and the Pampas, and possibly the Allentiac (northwestern Argentina), the Minuan (Parana delta) and the Charrúa (Uruguay and adjacent Brazil), as Southern Hunters or Southern Cone. The Comechingón of northern Argentina were agricultural, and don't fit in the southern group, but I don't know if they can be included in Gran Chaco. Anyway, it looks like we can make sense of most of South America referring to reliable sources. -- Donald Albury 13:11, 22 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I'll email NMAI to find out how their cultural divisions are determined. Perhaps Southern Cone could be the major division (as it already is in the article), and then divided into sub-divisions of "Pampas/Patagonia," "Chilean coast," and "Tierra del Fuego"? -Uyvsdi (talk) 19:13, 22 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi
 * One thing to consider is that the map on p. 15 of vol. 1 shows just two tribes (Chono and Alacaluf) in southern Chile, three (Ona people, Yahgan and Haush) in Tierra del Fuego, three or four (Teusch, Southern Tehuelche, Northern Tehulche and Poya (tribe)) in Patagonia, and maybe five (Puelche, Het and Querandi on the pampas proper, and Pehuenche and Chiquiyami on the eastern slope of the Andes) in the pampas. -- Donald Albury 22:47, 22 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Sounds good - leaving Southern Cone as a main cultural area and subdivide only if needed later. Category:Indigenous peoples of Eastern Brazil has enough tribes to warrant being a subdivision. A curator from NMAI got back to me (they are quick!) and said they were unsatisfied with how broad Steward's categories were so they used cultural regions as defined by National Geographic, and then determine subdivisions based on river systems and other natural boundaries. One final loose end, should Guianas stand as a cultural area or should it a subregion of the Amazon? -Uyvsdi (talk) 01:24, 23 February 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi
 * Found a scanned copy of Steward vol. 3 [here]. The map shows 5 areas in "Tropical Forest", Guianas, Western Amazon Basin, Montaña and Yungas, Mato Grosso and eastern Bolivia, and Coastal and Amazonian Tupi. The Tupi group is a bit of a problem, with 2 main areas, one in the lower Amazon basin and the other along the southeast coast of Brazil. If we include the Guianas in an Amazon area, then it would be hard to justify keeping the Mato Grosso and eastern Bolivia and Amazonian Tupi areas separate, which gives us basically Steward's Tropical Forest area, which may be too broad. I see the biggest problem in the southern part of Brazil and Paraguay. The Brazilian highlands seems to be a natural area or sub-area. I have no clear idea about the non-Tupi non-Highlands people of southern Brazil or the peoples between the Southern Cone and Mato Grosso. -- Donald Albury 12:38, 23 February 2011 (UTC)

Let me take that back. Steward's classification of cultural areas in the tropical forests and savannas is given at the end of vol. 3, [here]. So, an undivided Amazonian area seems best, including the Guianas, Montaña, Mato Grosso and eastern Bolivia and the Amazonian Tupi. The Tupi of coastal and southernmost Brazil I guess need to be listed separately. There are also various "marginal" and "sub-marginal" groups scattered throughout the Amazonian area. Eastern and southeastern Brazil, aside from the Brazilian Highlands and coastal Tupi areas, makes a convenient area. So, outside the Andes, I would say Circum-Caribbean, Amazonian, Brazilian Highlands, coastal Tupi, an area of uncertain name covering eastern and southern interior Brazil and Paraguay and adjacent areas, and the Southern Cone. One question is what did National Geographic base their classification on? It also sounds like NAMI used geographical criteria as well as cultural affinities to classify areas. It is unfortunate that there doesn't seem to be a scholarly consensus on these cultural areas. -- Donald Albury 14:51, 23 February 2011 (UTC)

Mayo people
Well, I can't see where you've put the mayo |87.231.96.179 (talk) 21:33, 20 May 2014 (UTC)
 * I added them to the Aridoamerica section. -Uyvsdi (talk) 22:02, 20 May 2014 (UTC)Uyvsdi

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Move to Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas (Capitalize Indigenous)
Per AP, Chicago, and CBC style guides, Indigenous is capitalized when referring to ethnicity/peoples. If there's no substantial objection, I'm going to move the page so it aligns with the other Indigenous pages on WP. - CorbieVreccan  ☊ ☼ 19:59, 11 March 2022 (UTC)
 * 3 months with no objection. Moving now. - CorbieVreccan  ☊ ☼ 19:41, 15 June 2022 (UTC)

Page name
Is there a better name we could use for this? I just find it... reminiscent of older, anthro things like cataloguing species of plants and animals. It doesn't feel respectful or up to date. - CorbieVreccan  ☊ ☼ 20:02, 9 September 2023 (UTC)

 * "Cultural affinities of .."? I have a nagging feeling, though, that I may later think of a reason that it wouldn't be much of an improvement. Donald Albury 00:36, 10 September 2023 (UTC)


text:
User:Dishayloo

commons:User:Dishayloo de:Benutzer:Dishayloo zh:User:Dishayloo

title: User:Dishayloo


text:
Australian Goldfields Open

The Australian Goldfields Open was a professional ranking snooker tournament. The final champion was John Higgins in 2015.

History
Australia had previously hosted the 1971 and 1975 World Snooker Championships, as well as several other high-profile snooker tournaments and in 1979 the Australian Masters was established. There was an attempt to turn the event into a ranking tournament in 1989 but the sponsorship fell through so it was staged in Hong Kong instead, as the Hong Kong Open, which incidentally became the first ranking tournament to be staged in Asia. The Hong Kong event was discontinued after just one year, but returned to Australia in 1994 as the Australian Open. The tournament reverted to being called the Australian Masters for the following season, but was dropped from the calendar after the 1995 event. In addition, the tournament was also held in 1995 as the Australian Open immediately following the Australian Masters, featuring mostly the same players and the same two players in the final. In 2011 the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association resurrected the event under the Australian Goldfields Open name and added it to the 2011/2012 calendar. The tournament's later incarnation providing the first ranking tournament victories for future World Champion Stuart Bingham and future world finalist Barry Hawkins and arguably resurrected the careers of these two players who had previously been considered journeyman professionals, who had previously hovered between the fringes of the top 16 and top 32.

In 2016, the event was quietly dropped from the calendar.

title: Australian Goldfields Open


text:
Seattle Thunderbirds

The Seattle Thunderbirds are a major junior ice hockey team based in the city of Kent, Washington. They are part of the U.S. Division of the Western Conference in the Western Hockey League. Founded in 1971 as the Vancouver Nats, the team arrived in Seattle in 1977 and played as the Breakers until 1985, when they adopted the Thunderbirds name. The team played in Seattle for three decades before moving to the accesso ShoWare Center in nearby Kent in 2008. The Thunderbirds are two-time WHL champions, with their most recent title coming in 2023.

Foundations
The team was founded in 1971 as the Vancouver Nats of the Western Canada Hockey League, but moved to Kamloops, British Columbia, after just two seasons to become the Kamloops Chiefs in 1973. In 1977, the team moved again, this time to Seattle, and was renamed the Seattle Breakers. The move came just years after the city narrowly missed out on securing a National Hockey League franchise. The Breakers began play in 1977–78, and played out of the Seattle Center Arena. Through eight seasons, the Breakers finished with a regular season record of 225 wins, 319 losses, and 32 ties; and playoff record of 11 wins and 21 losses, twice advancing as far as the West Division finals. The team nearly folded in 1982 when, under owner John Hamilton, it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. This reality, combined with novel promotions like honoring unused Seattle Seahawks tickets at the gate, boosted attendance at Breakers games. This was also helped by on-ice success. Despite the off-ice challenges, the team, under coach Jack Sangster, swept the Victoria Cougars in the playoffs to advance to the Division finals. There, they faced the rival Portland Winter Hawks, dropping the series to the eventual champions 4 games to 2.

The Thunderbirds
After the 1984–85 season, the Breakers were sold to new owners and renamed the Seattle Thunderbirds as part of an extensive re-branding. Along with the new name, the team changed its color-scheme from orange, blue, and white, to green, blue, and white, announced a renovation plan for its home arena, and by 1990 began playing some of its games at the larger Seattle Center Coliseum. New management promised to spare no expense and to turn the team into a contender. This included hiring Russ Farwell as manager and Barry Melrose as coach—the two had been instrumental in the Medicine Hat Tigers' 1988 Memorial Cup championship. However, despite the scoring exploits of Glen Goodall—Goodall set new league records for goals (262) and points (573) and had his number 10 jersey retired when he turned professional in 1990 —it would be twelve years before the Thunderbirds broke through to their first league final. Led by star forward Patrick Marleau, the Thunderbirds faced the Lethbridge Hurricanes in the 1997 championship series, which they lost in a sweep. Although the Thunderbirds would win their first and second regular season Division titles in 2002–03 and 2004–05, the eighteen seasons after their first finals appearance would see the team advance past the second round of the playoffs just once. In 2006, the Thunderbirds announced their intention to move to a brand new arena being constructed in Kent, south of Seattle. The purpose-built arena was a major attraction for the team.

2015 marked the beginning of the most successful period in team history, as the Thunderbirds advanced to the finals four times in eight seasons, twice capturing the Ed Chynoweth Cup as league champions. Led by the likes of Matthew Barzal, Ethan Bear, and Keegan Kolesar, the 2015–16 season saw the Thunderbirds capture their first Division title since 2005 and make their deepest playoff run since 1997 when Matthew Wedman's game four overtime goal sent the Thunderbirds past the Kelowna Rockets and into the championship final. They lost the final in five games to the Brandon Wheat Kings. The following season, the Thunderbirds returned to the final, where they faced the Regina Pats. They defeated the Pats in six games, with Alexander True scoring the title-winning goal in overtime of game six to secure Seattle's first championship. With the win, Seattle advanced to the 2017 Memorial Cup tournament, where they were eliminated after three straight losses in the preliminary round.

After two straight first-round exits and two years without playoffs due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Thunderbirds again emerged as a contender in the 2021–22 season. That season, the team returned to the finals and faced the Edmonton Oil Kings to contest the first league playoff title since 2019. Seattle lost the final in six games. The following season was the best in Thunderbirds' history with the team posting 54 wins and 111 points. In the playoffs, the eliminated the Memorial Cup-host Kamloops Blazers in the Western Conference championship, moving on to face the Winnipeg Ice in the title series. They defeated the Ice in five games to earn a berth in the 2023 Memorial Cup tournament. There, led by Dylan Guenther and goaltender Thomas Milic, the Thunderbirds advanced to the tournament final, which they lost to the Quebec Remparts.

Rivals
The Thunderbirds are one of five teams based in Washington, along with the Tri-City Americans, Spokane Chiefs, Wenatchee Wild, and Everett Silvertips. The Thunderbirds have built an enduring rivalry with the Portland Winterhawks, dating back to the 1980s. Everett is the closest team to Seattle and a natural rival; and the two teams have met regularly in the playoffs, including a three-year stretch between 2016 and 2018 where the winner of the series between the two made it all the way to the championship series.

Season-by-season record
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties OTL = Overtime losses Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against

Championship history

 * Ed Chynoweth Cup: 2016–17, 2022–23
 * Conference titles (5): 1996–97, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2021–22, 2022–23
 * Regular season Division titles (4): 2002–03, 2004–05, 2015–16, 2022–23

WHL Championship finals

 * 1996–97: Loss, 0–4 vs Lethbridge Hurricanes
 * 2015–16: Loss, 1–4 vs Brandon Wheat Kings
 * 2016–17: Win, 4–2 vs Regina Pats
 * 2021–22: Loss, 2–4 vs Edmonton Oil Kings
 * 2022–23: Win, 4–1 vs Winnipeg Ice

Memorial Cup results

 * 2023: Loss, 0–5 vs Quebec Remparts

Current roster
Updated May 30, 2024.

 * }

NHL alumni
Several National Hockey League players started with the Thunderbirds:

 * Glenn Anderson
 * Doug Barrault
 * Mathew Barzal
 * Ethan Bear
 * Matt Berlin
 * Rick Berry
 * Zdenek Blatny
 * Lonny Bohonos
 * Landon Bow
 * Jim Camazzola
 * Shawn Chambers
 * Ben Clymer
 * Ken Daneyko
 * Kimbi Daniels
 * Brenden Dillon
 * Peter Dineen
 * Steve Dykstra
 * Craig Endean
 * Shane Endicott
 * Brennan Evans
 * Brent Fedyk
 * Zack Fitzgerald
 * Wade Flaherty
 * Aaron Gagnon
 * Steven Goertzen
 * Stanislav Gron
 * Dylan Guenther
 * Barrett Heisten
 * Riku Helenius
 * Chris Herperger
 * Matt Hervey
 * Thomas Hickey
 * Bud Holloway
 * Jan Hrdina
 * Tim Hunter
 * Jamie Huscroft
 * Scott Jackson
 * Chris Joseph
 * Mike Kennedy
 * Alan Kerr
 * Jon Klemm
 * Rob Klinkhammer
 * Samuel Knazko
 * Keegan Kolesar
 * Kevin Korchinski
 * John Kordic
 * Brent Krahn
 * Greg Kuznik
 * Brooks Laich
 * Brad Lambert
 * John Lilley
 * Danny Lorenz
 * Dwayne Lowdermilk
 * Brian Lundberg
 * Jamie Lundmark
 * Stewart Malgunas
 * Patrick Marleau
 * Glenn Merkosky
 * Tomas Mojzis
 * David Morisset
 * Petr Nedved
 * Jim O'Brien
 * Chris Osgood
 * Mark Parrish
 * Ed Patterson
 * Lane Pederson
 * Calvin Pickard
 * Jame Pollock
 * Deron Quint
 * Errol Rausse
 * Jeremy Reich
 * Matt Rempe
 * Scott Robinson
 * Cody Rudkowsky
 * Oleg Saprykin
 * Cory Sarich
 * Chris Schmidt
 * Andy Schneider
 * Corey Schwab
 * Brent Severyn
 * Mike Siklenka
 * Trevor Sim
 * Matthew Spiller
 * Turner Stevenson
 * Austin Strand
 * Garret Stroshein
 * Rob Tallas
 * Shea Theodore
 * Nate Thompson
 * Denis Tolpeko
 * Alexander True
 * Lindsay Vallis
 * Wayne Van Dorp
 * Ryan Walter
 * Joe Ward
 * Chris Wells
 * David Wilkie
 * Mitch Wilson
 * Brendan Witt
 * Dody Wood
 * Brad Zavisha

Awards
Four Broncos Memorial Trophy (WHL player of the year) Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy (WHL rookie of the year) Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy (WHL top defenceman) Del Wilson Trophy (WHL top goaltender)
 * Glen Goodall: 1989–90
 * Cody Rudkowsky: 1998–99
 * Petr Nedved: 1989–90
 * Brendan Witt: 1993–94
 * Shea Theodore: 2014–15
 * Ethan Bear: 2016–17
 * Danny Lorenz: 1988–89
 * Cody Rudkowsky: 1998–99
 * Taran Kozun: 2014–15
 * Thomas Milic: 2022–23

Dunc McCallum Memorial Trophy (WHL coach of the year) Doc Seaman Trophy (WHL scholastic player of the year) Brad Hornung Trophy WHL Playoff MVP
 * Jack Sangster: 1981–82
 * Don Nachbaur: 1994–95
 * Tyler Metcalfe: 2001–02
 * Aaron Gagnon: 2006–07
 * Matthew Barzal: 2016–17
 * Thomas Milic: 2022–23

title: Seattle Thunderbirds


text:
Hong Kong Open

Events called the Hong Kong Open include:

 * Hong Kong Open (badminton), a badminton tournament held in Hong Kong since 1982
 * Hong Kong Open (golf), a golf tournament which is co-sanctioned by the Asian Tour and the European Tour
 * Hong Kong Open (snooker), a professional snooker tournament only held in 1989.
 * Hong Kong Open (squash) a squash tournament held annually.
 * Hong Kong Open (tennis), a tennis tournament held in Hong Kong on the Grand Prix tour (1973-1987), ATP Tour (1990-2002), and WTA Tour (2014-present).
 * Hong Kong Open (table tennis), a table tennis tournament held for the first time in 2018.
 * Hong Kong Open (darts), a darts tournament that began in 2005.

title: Hong Kong Open


text:
Microvascular angina

Microvascular angina (MVA), previously known as cardiac syndrome X, also known as coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) or microvascular coronary disease is a type of angina (chest pain) with signs associated with decreased blood flow to heart tissue but with normal coronary arteries.

The use of the term cardiac syndrome X (CSX) can lead to the lack of appreciation of how microvascular angina is a debilitating heart related pain condition with the increased risk of heart attack and other heart problems. Women may have difficulty accessing the specialist care of a cardiologist for this reason.

Some studies have found an increased risk of other vasospastic disorders in cardiac microvascular angina patients, such as migraine and Raynaud's phenomenon. Treatment typically involves beta-blockers, such as metoprolol, however beta blockers can make coronary spasms worse.

Microvascular angina is a separate condition from variant angina.

Signs and symptoms
Patients often experience myocardial ischemia symptoms, such as heaviness, tightness, pressure or squeezing in the chest area, which can also include sweating, nausea, shortness of breath (dyspnea), fatigue.

While there is no formal definition of microvascular angina, the general consensus is that it entails all of the following:
 * Angina: This usually does not cause dysfunction on echocardiogram and can last longer than that of heart disease.
 * Abnormal cardiac stress test: ST segment changes in EKG are typically similar to those of coronary artery disease, and the opposite of those of Prinzmetal's angina. Myocardial perfusion imaging can be abnormal in 30% of patients.
 * Coronary angiogram: Normal
 * Other causes of chest pain must be ruled out, including:
 * Variant angina / Coronary artery spasm.
 * Esophageal spasm

Causes
There is no specific known cause for microvascular angina but rather a multitude of risk factors that act together. It is believed that the lack of blood flow caused by a microvascular disease and enhanced pain perception are two of the factors that may cause it. The microvascular dysfunctions refer to the abnormalities in the very small blood vessels of the heart. The narrowing of these vessels may lead to lack of oxygen in specific areas of the cardiac muscle causing chest pain. Several studies have shown that patients living with microvascular angina may have an enhanced pain perception, and usually feel more intense chest pain than individuals without microvascular angina.

The risk factors include abdominal obesity, meaning excessive visceral fat tissue in and around the abdomen, atherogenic dyslipidemia which is a blood fat disorder, and elevated blood pressure. Other risk factors are insulin resistance or intolerance to glucose, prothrombotic state or proinflammatory state. Older people are more at risk to develop this condition, and there is some evidence that suggests that there are genetic mutations that predispose to the syndrome. Women are more prone to this condition than men, as well as those who have a history of heart disease in the family.

Pathophysiology
This condition is typically characterized by a series of structural and functional changes within the heart's microcirculation, such as endothelial dysfunction (which affects the inner lining of blood vessels), microvascular arteriolar remodeling (changes in the vessel structure) such as intimal thickening, smooth muscle cell proliferation, perivascular fibrosis, and increased microvascular resistance (which impedes blood flow). There are also differences in coronary blood flow reserve (the capacity to increase blood flow during increased demand) and IMR (index of microcirculatory resistance).

In a large percentage of patients, there is a finding of systemic microvascular abnormalities, causing reduced blood flow in the microvasculature of the cardiac muscles. When the blood vessels constrict and fail to dilate there is decreased oxygen levels to the cardiac muscles resulting in hypoxia which lead to chest pain.

While numerous physiological mechanisms have been proposed, none have been proven.

Structural endotype
Patients with the structural coronary microvascular dysfunction endotype (inability to dilate) tend to have a high vascular tone at rest and high vascular tone at stress. Patients with this endotype typically show normal CBF (coronary blood flow) at rest, lower stress CBF, lower coronary flow reserve (CFR) and elevated hyperemic index of microcirculatory resistance (hMR). Their microvascular resistance and endothelial dysfunction is elevated.

It is characterized by luminal obstruction, vascular-wall infiltration, vascular remodeling, perivascular fibrosis and capillary rarefaction.

In this type individuals may have impaired vasodilatory capacity and endothelial function, leading to reduced coronary blood flow and compromised myocardial perfusion, especially during stress or increased demand.

Functional endotype
Functional coronary microvascular dysfunction endotype (exhausted dilatory capacity) presents a low vascular tone at rest and low vascular tone at stress. Individuals often display elevated rest CBF, normal stress CBF, lower CFR and normal hMR, normal microvascular resistance and higher nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity. It is characterized by endothelial dysfunction, smooth-muscle dysfunction and autonomic dysfunction. Endothelial function and vasodilatory capacity is relatively preserved resulting in adequate myocardial perfusion under resting conditions.

Diagnosis
Microvascular angina is a diagnosis of exclusion. Typically this will necessitate both a clinical diagnosis, appropriate stress testing, and a coronary angiogram that meet the above criteria. Cardiac MRI can be used to diagnose microvascular angina. Studies are ongoing to validate this approach.

There is growing evidence that microvascular angina is caused by a functional disorder of the microvessels, coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD). Blood vessels either fail to dilate or constrict in response to various stressors such as exercise, the cold or emotional stress.

An angiogram with acetylcholine can demonstrate microvascular dysfunction which can affect the microvessels and larger coronary arteries leading to either microvascular angina or coronary artery spasms (Prinzmetal's angina). These are considered discrete conditions though some individuals can be affected by both.

Microvascular angina can be diagnosed using different tests and exams, but it is mainly a diagnosis of exclusion. However, sedentary and overweight individuals with a family history of type 2 diabetes should be tested regularly to determine whether they have irregular levels of glucose or lipids, or blood pressure abnormalities, factors which are usually associated with microvascular angina. A first test to be taken is an exercise stress test which shows if the heart is not getting blood during exertion.

Angiograms may be useful and conclusive when microvascular angina they offer a detailed image of the heart. However, they cannot detect potential abnormalities in the small arteries, and the doctor may ask for more tests in order to rule out other heart conditions, such as Prinzmetal's angina (variant/vasospastic angina, coronary artery spasm) which has similar symptoms.

Differential diagnosis
Chest pain caused by microvascular angina is most of the time unpredictable and it can occur when at rest and/or during exercise. The pain associated with microvascular angina is normally more intense and it lasts for longer periods of time compared to pain caused by other conditions.

Many gastric conditions can cause chest pains (sub-sternal pain), while this is usually associated with consumption of food this is not always the case, and is a very common differential diagnosis.

For example, a stable angina causes chest pain that goes away when at rest. Another difference is that while chest pain caused by any type of stable angina is relieved with nitroglycerin, this drug is not effective in most patients with microvascular angina.

Treatment

 * Calcium channel blockers - specifically nifedipine and diltiazem can be effective.
 * Beta blockers - also work. Can make coronary spasms worse.
 * Aminophylline - may work by inhibiting adenosine receptors.
 * Estrogen - may work in women.
 * L-Arginine - increases release of NO at vascular level, thus leading to vasodilatory effect.
 * Ranolazine - shown to improve angina and myocardial ischemia.
 * Statins
 * Aspirin
 * Clopidogrel
 * ACE inhibitors and ARBs
 * Lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise.
 * Pain management through cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness meditation, yoga and Tai Chi.

Microvascular angina is a chronic long term condition which increases the risk of heart attack and other cardiac events such as heart failure and frequent hospital admissions. The treatment consists of drugs, mainly to relieve chest pain, but a very important part of the treatment is regularly visiting the doctor and repeating the tests to make sure the condition was taken care of in full.

The first step in managing Microvascular angina is the administration of nitrates which may relieve the chest pain. They are used because of their ability to relax the muscles of the heart and blood vessels. However, they prove to be inefficient in as many as half of patients. Alternative treatments may consist of calcium channel blockers or beta blockers which reduce chest pain by relaxing the muscle cells lining the artery and improving blood flow to the heart while lowering blood pressure. Aminophylline may also work, while estrogen can be effective in women.

There is at present no known cure however a change in lifestyle is important. Patients should start following healthier diets which are low in saturated fats, and should participate in regular physical activities. However, any patient with a heart disease condition should first seek for a medical opinion before starting exercising. Quitting smoking is also highly recommended.

Incidence
The reasons why women are more prone than men to develop a Microvascular angina are still not clear. However, it is believed that hormones along with other risk factors unique to women play a very important role. The constant changing of the estrogen levels may be one of the reasons along with the changes brought by birth.

History
Microvascular angina was first described by H. G. Kemp in 1973 as angina-like chest pain in the absence of angiographic evidence of coronary obstruction.

title: Microvascular angina


text:
Rockaway

Rockaway may refer to:

New Jersey

 * Rockaway, New Jersey, a borough in Morris County
 * Rockaway Township, New Jersey, a township in Morris County
 * Rockaway Creek (New Jersey), a tributary of the Lamington River in Hunterdon County
 * Rockaway River, a tributary of the Passaic River

New York

 * Rockaway, Queens, a peninsula in the New York City borough of Queens, on Long Island
 * Rockaway Avenue (disambiguation), subway stations in Brooklyn, New York City
 * Rockaway Boulevard, a boulevard in Southern Queens
 * Rockaway Inlet, a strait off Long Island, New York
 * Rockaway Parkway, a parkway in Brooklyn
 * East Rockaway, New York, a village in Nassau County on Long Island

Elsewhere

 * Rockaway, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Rockaway Beach (disambiguation)
 * Rockaway Creek (California)

Ships

 * USS Rockaway (AVP-29), a United States Navy seaplane tender in commission from 1943 to 1946
 * USCGC Rockaway (WAVP-377), a United States Coast Guard cutter in commission from 1949 to 1972

Other uses

 * Rockaway (2017 film), drama-film
 * Rockaway (carriage), two types of carriage
 * Rockaway Indians
 * Eytan Rockaway, American film director
 * The dance referred to in the Fat Joe song "Lean Back"
 * "Rockaway" (Beres Hammond song), a 2003 single from the album Can't Stop A Man

title: Rockaway


text:
Laboratory for Advanced Materials

The Geballe Laboratory for Advanced Materials (G-LAM) at Stanford University supports research on advanced materials. Major research foci include information storage materials.

G-LAM is an Independent Laboratory that was established on September 1, 1999. Its mission is to support collaborative research programs on advanced materials and foster interdisciplinary research and education for undergraduate, graduate, and postdoctoral students.

Professor Ian R. Fisher was appointed Director of G-LAM in 2013. Fisher heads the Fisher Research Group at G-LAM.

In 2000, the laboratory was named after Stanford physicist Theodore H. Geballe.

title: Laboratory for Advanced Materials


text:
Truce of Yam-Zapolsky

The Truce or Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky (Ям-Запольский) or Jam Zapolski, signed on 15 January 1582 between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, was one of the treaties that ended the Livonian War. It followed the successful Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory, culminating in the siege of Pskov.

The truce was concluded with help of papal legate Antonio Possevino and was signed for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stefan Batory and for Russia by Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and established a ten-year truce.

In the terms of the treaty, Russia renounced its claims to Livonia and Polotsk but conceded no core Russian territories as Batory returned the territories his armies had been occupying (particularly, he gave up on the siege of Pskov and left the town of Velikiye Luki. The truce was extended for twenty years in 1600, when a diplomatic mission to Moscow led by Lew Sapieha concluded negotiations with Tsar Boris Godunov. The truce was broken when the Poles invaded Russia in 1605.

One of the principal negotiators on the Polish side was Krzysztof Warszewicki.

title: Truce of Yam-Zapolsky


text:
Volcanism of Iceland

 * The volcano system in Iceland that started activity on August 17, 2014, and ended on February 27, 2015, is Bárðarbunga.
 * The volcano in Iceland that erupted in May 2011 is Grímsvötn.

Iceland experiences frequent volcanic activity, due to its location both on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary, and being over a hotspot. Nearly thirty volcanoes are known to have erupted in the Holocene epoch; these include Eldgjá, source of the largest lava eruption in human history. Some of the various eruptions of lava, gas and ash have been both destructive of property and deadly to life over the years, as well as disruptive to local and European air travel.

Volcanic systems and volcanic zones of Iceland
Holocene volcanism in Iceland is mostly to be found in the Neovolcanic Zone, comprising the Reykjanes volcanic belt (RVB), the West volcanic zone (WVZ), the Mid-Iceland belt (MIB), the East volcanic zone (EVZ) and the North volcanic zone (NVZ). Two lateral volcanic zones play a minor role: Öræfi volcanic belt (ÖVB also known as Öræfajökull volcanic system) and Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB). Outside of the main island are the Reykjanes Ridge (RR), as part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to the south-west and the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) to the north. Two transform zones are connecting these volcano-tectonic zones: the South Iceland seismic zone (SISZ) in the south of Iceland and the Tjörnes transform zone (TFZ) in the north.

The island has around 30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems and many, but not all of them, also have at least one central volcano (mostly in the form of a stratovolcano, sometimes of a shield volcano with a magma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems, and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself. There are 23 central volcanoes using the definition that they: erupt frequently; extrude either basaltic, intermediate or felsic lavas; have an associated shallow crustal magma chamber, and are often associated with collapse caldera or fissure systems. Shield volcanoes, as the term is used in the Iceland context, tend to erupt only once, so have monogenetic characteristics. However many shield volcanoes outside Iceland are associated with oceanic island volcanism such as in Hawaii where they have been built up over many eruptions. Fissure vents in Iceland tend to produce calmer effusive eruptions, but can be associated with large volumes of lava (flood basalt events) and some have had prolonged eruptions with numerous eruptive episodes, lasting for years.

Up to 2008, thirteen of the volcanic systems had hosted eruptions since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874. Nearly thirty volcanoes are known to have erupted in the Holocene epoch and so are active.

Of these active volcanic systems, the most active is Grímsvötn. Over the past 500 years, Iceland's volcanoes have produced a third of the total global lava output. Current productivity, which is known to be cyclical, has been estimated to be between 0.05 - 0.08 km3 per year which is higher than the output rate of the Hawaiian volcanoes, and would be double or even triple this figure if intrusive volumes are included.

Volcano tectonics
The types of eruptions most likely in a particular Icelandic volcanic system or zone are now understood. Earthquakes and volcanism have patterns in time and place that can be combined into a consistent tectonic process that is explained by the geological deformation of Iceland. In summary in Iceland there are four main types of tectonic zones: These tectonic zones result from the interaction of combination of the spreading activity of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is spreading in a general east and west direction while the mantle plume activity that results in the hotspot, has been migrating over at least the last 25 million years in a west to slightly south-east direction.
 * 1) Spreading zones of rifting and volcanism producing the predominant Iceland tholeiitic basaltic crust
 * 2) Fracture zones connecting offset branches of the spreading zones which includes the SISZ
 * 3) Trans-tensional zones with transform faulting and spreading of which are the RVB and TFZ
 * 4) Flank zones with stratovolcanoes and minor rifting with alkalic to transitional volcanic rocks over the crust

Morphology
Fissure vents are found predominantly in what are termed fissure swarms (a combination of tectonic related fissures and faults) that are also associated with crater rows and smaller cinder or spatter cones. Where such eruptions interact with water the eruptions become more explosive and these phreatomagmatic eruptions produce tephra and possibly maars and tuff rings or cones.

Composition
The composition of the lava reflects the tectonic factors above and are consistent with the influence of the hotspot so the trend is for ocean island basalts (OIB) type to predominate over mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) which are only found in the north of the NVZ. The compositional series are thus tholeiitic basalt, transitional alkalic basalts and alkalic (felsic).

Large extrusive, predominantly tholeiitic basaltic lava fields and shields with theoleiitic lava are the predominant material erupted and are found in the RVB, WVZ, MIB, EVZ and NVZ. They are associated with divergence tectonics of the ridge plate boundaries. Central volcanoes, with associated fissure swarms are typical, except in the RVB. Hengill is the only active central volcano in the far east of the RVB, and this is likely to be because here a triple junction exists, resulting in a volcano with some rhyolytic and dacite components due to the complexity of its rift propagation formation. The island of Eldey off the south-west of the RVB has similar geological formations to the RVB but has a basalt composition with tholeiites and picrites. Hofsjökull, a large volcano with a caldera and rhyolite lavas in the MIB has explosive eruption potential but has not erupted underneath its ice cover for several thousand years and its companion Kerlingarfjöll for even longer.

Arc volcanism has been thought to be occurring in the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt with alkaline magma series volcanism in the stratovolcanoes such as Snæfellsjökull which usually erupt effusive basaltic lava but can have infrequent explosive silicic eruptions followed by extrusion of intermediate composition lava. However the modelling of the processes involved is incomplete and almost certainly involves primarily fractional crystallization of primary basaltic magma with limited input from pre-existing crustal material as is the case in arc volcanism. The ÖVB is represented by the Öræfajökull (Hnappafellsjökull) stratovolcano which has a history of violent rhyolite to alkali basalt eruptions with tephra volumes up to 10 km3 and accompanying jökulhlaup.

The island Vestmannaeyjar volcano to the south east of Iceland has in its recent activity formed the island of Surtsey and cones such as Eldfell on Heimaey. It is the southern tip of the EVZ propagating rift in what is an off rift region called the South Iceland Volcanic Zone (SIVZ), and the older alkaline basalts were alkali olivine and more recent mugearite in composition. The basalts of the southern EVZ on land are rarely silicic but the volcanoes can have explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions.

Overall the surface area of post glacial erupted rocks of Iceland is 92% basalt, 4% basaltic andesites, 1% andesites, and 3% dacite-rhyolites.

Important eruptions
See also : List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland

Largest Holocene eruptions
Due to incomplete surveys, which also need to be confined to subaerial eruptions and not include igneous intrusions, the accumulative amounts of dense-rock equivalent erupted in Iceland will be underestimated. The amounts known are some of the most significant contributions to recent eruptive volumes on Earth. Since the last ice age 91% of the magma erupted in Iceland has been mafic, 6% intermediate in composition and 3% silicic. The number of eruptions estimated in this 11,700 odd year period can only be an approxiamate figure, but about three to four explosive ones occur for every purely effusive one.

Hekla
Hekla has erupted more than 20 times in recorded history. It was known to medieval Europeans as the Gate of Hell; that reputation persisted into the 19th century.

Laki/Skaftáreldar 1783-84
The most deadly volcanic eruption of Iceland's history was the so-called Skaftáreldar (fires of Skaftá) in 1783-1784. The eruption was in the crater row Lakagígar (craters of Laki) southwest of Vatnajökull glacier. The craters are a part of a larger volcanic system with the subglacial Grímsvötn as a central volcano. Roughly a fifth of the Icelandic population died because of the eruption. Most died not because of the lava flow or other direct effects of the eruption but from indirect effects, including changes in climate and illnesses in livestock in the following years caused by the ash and poisonous gases from the eruption. The eruption resulted in the second largest basaltic lava flow from a single eruption in historic times.

Eldfell 1973
Eldfell is a volcanic cone on the east side of the island of Heimaey which formed during an eruption in January 1973. The eruption happened without warning, causing the island's population of about 5,300 people to evacuate on fishing boats within a few hours. Importantly, the progress of lava into the harbour was slowed by manual spraying of seawater. One person died, and the eruption resulted in the destruction of homes and property on the island.

Eyjafjallajökull 2010
The eruption under Eyjafjallajökull in April 2010 caused extreme disruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over a period of six days in April 2010. About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it affected approximately 10 million travellers.

The eruption had a VEI of 4, the largest known from Eyjafjallajökull. Several previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed soon afterwards by eruptions of the larger volcano Katla, but after the 2010 eruption, no activity occurred at Katla.

Grímsvötn 2011
The eruption in May 2011 at Grímsvötn under the Vatnajökull glacier sent thousands of tonnes of ash into the sky in a few days, raising concerns of the potential for travel chaos across northern Europe although only about 900 flights were initially disrupted.

Holuhraun 2014–2015
Bárðarbunga is a stratovolcano and is roughly 2000 m above sea level in central Iceland, i.e. in the northern edge of Vatnajökull. This makes it the second highest mountain in Iceland.

Hóluhraun is an older lavafield situated 50 km north-east of Bárðarbunga, 20 km south of Askja (last eruption 1961), at an altitude of about 700 m. Here the eruption started on August 17, 2014, and lasted for 180 days. The 2014-2015 eruption was Iceland's largest in 230 years. Following a major earthquake swarm, multiple lava fountain eruptions began in Holuhraun. The lava flow rate was between 250 and 350 m3/s and came from a dyke over 40 km long. An ice-filled subsidence bowl over 100 km2 in area and up to 65 m deep formed as well. There was very limited ash output from this eruption. The primary concern with this eruption was the large plumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere which adversely affected breathing conditions across Iceland, depending on wind direction. The volcanic cloud was also transported toward Western Europe in September 2014.

Fagradalsfjall 2021-2022
Following a three-week period of increased seismic activity, an eruption fissure developed near Fagradalsfjall, a mountain on the Reykjanes Peninsula. Lava flow from a 200-meter fissure was first discovered by an Icelandic Coast Guard helicopter on March 19, 2021, in the Geldingadalur area near Grindavík, and within hours the fissure had grown to 500 m in length.

Another eruption, very similar to the 2021 eruption, began on 3 August 2022, and ceased on 21 August 2022.

Litli-Hrútur 2023
On 10 July 2023 at 16:40 UTC, a fissure eruption began adjacent to the summit of Litli-Hrútur.

Sundhnúkur 2023-2024
On December 18, 2023, at 22:17 near Hagafell, the volcano began a fissure eruption. In January, 2024 lava from this eruption destroyed 3 houses in the nearby town of Grindavík.

Structure of lava fields
The smooth flowing basaltic lava pāhoehoe is known in Icelandic as helluhraun. It forms smooth surfaces that are quite easy to cross. More viscous lava forms ʻaʻā flows, known in Icelandic as apalhraun. The loose, broken, sharp, spiny surface of an ʻaʻā flow makes hiking across it difficult, slow and dangerous, it is easy to stick a foot into a hole and break a leg.

title: Volcanism of Iceland


text: User talk:207.63.99.194

title: User talk:207.63.99.194


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Numeri

Numeri (Latin, 'numbers') may refer to:

 * Book of Numbers, a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Torah
 * Numeri (Roman troops), units of the Roman army

title: Numeri