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Body snatching

Body snatching is the illicit removal of corpses from graves, morgues, and other burial sites. Body snatching is distinct from the act of grave robbery as grave robbing does not explicitly involve the removal of the corpse, but rather theft from the burial site itself. The term 'body snatching' most commonly refers to the removal and sale of corpses primarily for the purpose of dissection or anatomy lectures in medical schools. The term was coined primarily in regard to cases in the United Kingdom and United States throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. However, there have been cases of body snatching in many countries, with the first recorded case dating back to 1319 in Bologna, Italy.

Those who practiced the act of body snatching and sale of corpses during this period were commonly referred to as resurrectionists or resurrection men. Resurrectionists in the United Kingdom, who often worked in teams and who primarily targeted more recently dug graves, would be hired in order to provide medical institutions and practitioners with a supply of fresh cadavers for the purpose of anatomical study. Despite a significant decline in body snatching as a practice, there do exist contemporary instances of body snatching.

United Kingdom
Before the Anatomy Act of 1832, the only legal supply of corpses for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and dissection by the courts. Dissections, the main way doctors aimed to gain understanding, required fresh corpses. Those who were sentenced to dissection by the courts were often guilty of capital crimes, such as murder, burglary, rape, and arson. However, in 1832, Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the Anatomy Act of 1832, which gave doctors and medical students the right to dissect donated bodies for education and research purposes. Although this act was created to stop the illegal tradeoff of corpses, it did not provide near enough corpses needed by medical schools annually, which could be up to 500 in number. This led to increased numbers of body snatching in the United Kingdom.

Interfering with a grave was a misdemeanour at common law, and therefore punishable only with a fine and imprisonment rather than penal transportation or execution. However, dissection of these bodies and theft of items within the graves was illegal. This caused the body snatchers to only take the body and leave everything else behind in the grave. Medical students and staff did not ask where the bodies came from. The trade was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the risk of detection, particularly as the authorities tended to ignore what they considered a necessary evil. Body snatchers had a limited period in which they could dig up a body before it began decomposing, so that the body could be embalmed. They had to remain undetectable while exhuming the bodies and transporting them from the gravesites to the medical facilities. There were several methods used in obtaining a corpse. Once such was digging down to the head-end of the coffin and breaking the top open, using a rope or hook to grab the body by its neck and hoist it out of the coffin. Body snatchers were careful to put any clothing, jewelry, and personal belongings back into the coffin before refilling the hole, and trying to smooth out the gravesite as much as possible to look undisturbed. What distinguished body snatching from grave-robbing was the practice of returning belongings to the gravesite before moving on. Removing belongings from the corpse would make them liable to prosecution.

The Lancet reported another method. A manhole-sized square of turf was removed 15 to 20 ft away from the head of the grave, and a tunnel dug to intercept the coffin, which would be about 4 ft down. The end of the coffin would be pulled off, and the corpse pulled up through the tunnel. The turf was then replaced, and any relatives watching the graves would not notice the small, remote disturbance. The article suggests that the number of empty coffins that have been discovered "proves beyond a doubt that at this time body snatching was frequent".

Body snatching became so prevalent in the UK that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave after burial, to stop it being violated. Iron coffins, too, were used frequently, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron bars called mortsafes, well-preserved examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh.

In relation to body snatching, murder for the purpose of selling the corpses to medical schools also occurred. The term "burked" was coined after William Burke, an Irishman, was found guilty of murdering and selling the bodies of at least 16 people. Burke would pinch the nose of his victims and lay on their chest so that there was no physical damage to the bodies. He was hanged and dissected for his crimes in 1829.

Many laws passed by Parliament covered body snatching or similar practices. The Human Tissue Act 2004 created the first overarching law that required informed personal consent to be needed for body or organ donation within medical facilities.

United States
Body snatchers generally worked in small groups, which scouted and pillaged fresh graves. Fresh graves were generally given preference since the earth had not yet settled, thus making digging easier work. The removed earth was often shoveled onto canvas tarp laid by the grave, so the nearby grounds were undisturbed. Digging commenced at the head of the grave, clear to the coffin. The remaining earth on the coffin provided a counterweight which snapped the partially covered coffin lid (which was covered in sacking to muffle noise) as crowbars or hooks pulled the lid free at the head of the coffin. Usually, the body would be disrobed–the garments thrown back into the coffin before the earth was put back into place.

Resurrectionists have also been known to hire women to act the part of grieving relatives and to claim the bodies of dead at poorhouses. Women were also hired to attend funerals as grieving mourners; their purpose was to ascertain any hardships the body snatchers may later encounter during the disinterment. Bribed servants would sometimes offer body snatchers access to their dead master or mistress lying in state; the removed body would be replaced with weights.

Although medical research and education lagged in the United States compared to medical colleges' European counterparts, the interest in anatomical dissection grew in the United States. Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York with several medical schools, were renowned for body snatching activity: all locales provided plenty of cadavers. Finding subjects for dissection proved to be "morally troubling" for students of anatomy. As late as the mid-19th century, John Gorham Coffin, a prominent aptly named professor and medical physician wondered how any ethical physician could participate in the traffic of dead bodies.

Charles Knowlton (1800–1850) was imprisoned for two months in the Worcester (Massachusetts) County Jail for "illegal dissection" in 1824, a couple of months after graduating with distinction from Dartmouth Medical School. His thesis defended dissection on the rationalist basis that "value of any art or science should be determined by the tendency it has to increase the happiness, or to diminish the misery, of mankind." Knowlton called for doctors to relieve "public prejudice" by donating their own bodies for dissection.

The body of Ohio congressman John Scott Harrison, son of William Henry Harrison, was snatched in 1878 for Ohio Medical College, and discovered by his son John Harrison, brother of President Benjamin Harrison.

Large, gated, centralized cemeteries, which sometimes employed armed guards, emerged as a response to grave-robbing fears. Gated, "high-security" cemeteries were also a response to the discovery that many old urban and rural burying grounds were found to be practically empty of their human contents when downtown areas were re-developed and old pioneer cemeteries moved, as in Indianapolis.

Use in medical schools
The demand for cadavers for human dissection grew as medical schools were established in the United States. This was due to the demand for students to have more first-hand experiences with multiple cadavers, rather than observing dissections on only one specimen. The sudden advances in surgery were what brought on this demand for cadavers for medical school students to learn more about internal anatomy. Between the years of 1758 and 1788, only 63 of the 3500 physicians in the Colonies had studied abroad, namely at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Study of anatomy legitimized the medical field, setting it apart from homeopathic and botanical studies. Later, in 1847, physicians formed the American Medical Association, in an effort to differentiate between the "true science" of medicine and "the assumptions of ignorance and empiricism" based on an education without the experience of human dissection. In addition, the medical community wanted to grow medical student's knowledge and improve their education by creating a licensing system to terminate those who only went to medical school for pleasantry. By requiring training in anatomy as a prerequisite, this demanded the need for cadavers for medical school students for their graduation.

University of Pennsylvania Medical School
The University of Pennsylvania was the first medical school in America in the 18th century. In 1762, John Morgan and William Shippen Jr. founded the medical department of University of Pennsylvania. Shippen put an advertisement in the Pennsylvania Gazette in November 1762 announcing his lectures about the "art of dissecting, injections, etc." The cost was "five pistoles." In 1765, his house was attacked by a mob, claiming the doctor had desecrated a church's burying ground. The doctor denied this and made known that he only used bodies of "suicides, executed felons, and now and then one from the Potter's Field". Later in the 19th century, this school issued an anatomy law that would be state-wide, which was issued around the statement of grave-robbing. This was due to an organized group of grave robbers in Philadelphia. Senator William James McKnight was the person behind the upbringing of the state-wide anatomy law and was involved in grave-robbing himself after this act was finalized to the public.

Boston Medical School
In Boston, medical students faced similar issues with procuring subjects for dissection. In his biographical notes, John Collins Warren Jr. wrote, "No occurrences in the course of my life have given me more trouble and anxiety than the procuring of subjects for dissection." He continues to tell of the difficulty his father John Warren had finding subjects during the Revolutionary War: many soldiers who had died were without relation. These experiences gave John Warren the experience he needed to begin his lectures on anatomy in 1781. His advertisement in the local paper stated the following: "A Course of lectures will be delivered this Winter upon the several Branches of Physick, for the Improvement of all such as are desirous of obtaining medical Knowledge: Those who propose attending, are requested to make Application as soon as possible, as the Course will commence in a few days." It was dated and signed: "Boston 01/01/1781 John Warren, Sec'y, Medical Society."

Harvard Medical School
Ebenezer Hersey, a physician, left Harvard College £1,000 for the creation of a Professorship in Anatomy in 1770. A year earlier, John Warren and his friends had created a secret anatomic society. This society's purpose was to participate in anatomic dissection, using cadavers that they themselves procured. The group's name was the "Spunkers"; however, speaking or writing the name was prohibited. Often the group used shovels to obtain fresh corpses for its anatomical study.

Harvard Medical School was established November 22, 1782; John Warren was elected Professor of Anatomy and Surgery. When his son was in the college in 1796, the peaceful times provided few subjects. John Collins Warren Jr. wrote: "Having understood that a man without relations was to be buried in the North Burying-Ground, I formed a party ... When my father came up in the morning to lecture, and found that I had been engaged in this scrape, he was very much alarmed."

John Warren's quest for subjects led him to consult with his colleague, W.E. Horner, professor of anatomy at University of Pennsylvania, who wrote back: "Since the opening of our lectures, the town has been so uncommonly healthy, that I have not been able to obtain a fourth part of subjects required for our dissecting rooms."

Warren later enlisted the help of an old family friend, John Revere (son of Paul Revere) to procure subjects for dissection. Revere called upon John Godman who suggested that Warren employ the services of James Henderson, "a trusty old friend and servant" who could "at any time, and almost to any number, obtain the articles you desire."

During this time, there was an intense growth in New England of medical programs, which led to an increase in the need for anatomy cadavers. To keep a good supply of bodies became a difficult endeavor. Students were sent away to Boston to seek subjects by grave-robbing. This caused the public to get involved, and people began to set up grave watchers in graveyards to catch those who were snatching the bodies. This led the students to move to New York to find potential bodies for cadavers, which at this time was not the safest option. People were going to jail and were fined for disturbing the gravesites.

Warren attempted to set up a cadaver provision system in Boston, similar to the systems already set up in New York and Philadelphia. Public officials and burial-ground employees were routinely bribed for entrance to Potter's Field to get bodies. Potter's Field was a public cemetery. These types of places were favored by medical doctors who were in search of bodies to use for their dissections.

In New York, the bodies were divided into two groups–one group contained the bodies of those "most entitled to respect, or most likely to be called for by friends;" the other bodies were not exempt from exhumation. In Philadelphia's two public burying grounds, anatomists claimed bodies regularly, without consideration. "If schools or physicians differed over who should get an allotment of bodies, the dispute was to be settled by the mayor–a high-reaching conspiracy that resulted in a harvest of about 450 bodies per school year."

These medical colleges were targeted by the general public opposed to body snatching, but the medical colleges fought back. One argument was that the medical colleges tried to see them as doing a good thing for the body, since most of the bodies that were taken were ones who did not have loved ones who grieved for them. These schools also attempted to convince the public that the bodies were from a source on the outside, rather than making it look like they had not got permission to take the body.

Race and body snatching
Public graveyards were not only arranged by social and economic standing, but also by race. New York was 15% black in the 1780s. "Bayley's dissecting tables, as well as those of Columbia College" often took bodies from the segregated section of Potter's Field, the Negroes Burying Ground. Free blacks as well as slaves were buried there. In February 1787, a group of free blacks petitioned the city's common council about the medical students, who "under cover of night...dig up the bodies of the deceased, friends and relatives of the petitioners, carry them away without respect to age or sex, mangle their flesh out of wanton curiosity and then expose it to beasts and birds."

In the antebellum American South, bodies of enslaved workers were routinely used for anatomical study; in one case that has been studied, 80% of the corpses dissected at Transylvania University in the 1830s and 1840s were African American. The ready availability of such bodies was cited as an incentive to enroll by Southern medical schools such as the Medical College of South Carolina. According to Hampden-Sydney, in Richmond, Virginia, "from the peculiarity of our institutions [slavery], materials [anatomical subjects] can be obtained in abundance, and we believe are not surpassed if equaled by any city in the country." In fact the ready availability of [Black] corpses was cited as a reason why Richmond would be a good place to found a medical school. The largest burial ground for enslaved and free people of color in the United States, the Shockoe Hill African Burying Ground is located in Richmond.

The bodies of criminals about to be executed were routinely requested of authorities for this purpose. In 1859, after John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, the University of Virginia and Winchester Medical College both requested the cadavers of those about to be hanged. Four, three black (Shields Green, John Anthony Copeland Jr., and Jeremiah Anderson), and one white (John Brown's son Watson Brown), were obtained by the latter college. In retaliation, Union troops burned Winchester Medical College in 1862; it never reopened.

In December 1882, it was discovered that six bodies had been disinterred from Lebanon Cemetery and were en route to Jefferson Medical College for dissection. Philadelphia's African Americans were outraged, and a crowd assembled at the city morgue, where the discovered bodies had been sent. Reportedly, one of the crowd urged the group to swear that they would seek revenge for those who participated in desecration of the graves. Another man screamed when he discovered the body of his 29-year-old brother. The Philadelphia Press broke the story when a teary elderly woman identified her husband's body, whose burial she had afforded only by begging for the $22 at the wharves where he had been employed. Physician William S. Forbes was indicted, and the case led to passage of various Anatomical Acts.

After the public hanging of 39 Dakota warriors in the aftermath of the Dakota War of 1862, a group of doctors removed the bodies under cover of darkness from their riverside grave, and each took some for himself. Doctor William Worrall Mayo received the body of a warrior called "Cut Nose" and dissected it in the presence of other doctors. He then cleaned and articulated the skeleton and kept the bones in an iron kettle in his office. His sons received their first lessons in osteology from this skeleton.

For many years Native American burial sites have been used as a place for body-snatching. The bodies would be removed from their graves in the name of science. Usually the bodies would be removed without consent from relatives, and there was no attempt to reach relatives. When these bodies are removed they are given to museums to be put on display. Even if the tribe or relatives found out about the bodies being on display, they did not have the authority to have the bodies removed and returned. In November 1990 the Native American Protection and Repatriation Act was signed.

During the early 1800s in Michigan the first Indian graves were robbed. Even though it was known at the time that Indian burial sites were considered sacred and should not be tampered with, many still dug up skulls and skeletal remains. During this incident two Indian burial sites were tampered with. In the first site the entire body was taken while in the second the head was cut off. Robert McKain was seen carrying the head back into the barracks with it wrapped in a handkerchief. It was shown that he had previously been accused of taking Indian heads from burial sites to give to paying surgeons.

Public outcry
On February 21, 1788, a body of a woman was taken from Trinity Church. A hundred-dollar reward was offered by the rector of the church for information leading to the arrest of grave robbers. In the Daily Advertiser, many editorial letters were written about the incident: one such writer named Humanio warned that "lives may be forfeit ... should [the body snatchers] persist." There was cause for concern: body snatching was perceived to be "a daily occurrence."

A famous case of body snatching in the United States was the Doctors' Riot of 1788. On April 13, a group of boys playing near the dissection room window of City Hospital peered in. Accounts vary, but one of the boys saw what he thought were his mother's remains or that one of the students shook a dismembered arm at the boys. The boy, whose mother had recently died, told his father of the occurrence; the father, a mason, led a group of laborers in an attack on the hospital, known as In order to control the destruction of private property, the authorities participated in searches of local physicians' houses for medical students, professors, and stolen corpses. The mob was satisfied. Later, the mob reassembled to attack the jail where some of the medical students were being held for their safety. The militia was called, but few showed; this was perhaps due to the militia sharing the public's outrage. One small troop was harassed and quickly withdrew. Several prominent citizens–including Governor George Clinton; General Baron von Steuben, and John Jay–participated in the ranks of the militia protecting the doctors at the jail. Three rioters were killed when the embattled militia opened fire on the mob, and when militia members from the countryside joined the defense, the mob threat quickly dissipated.

To assuage the outraged public, legislation was enacted to thwart the activities of the body snatchers; eventually, anatomy acts, such as the Massachusetts Anatomy Act of 1831, allowed for the legalization of anatomy studies.

Prior to these measures allowing for more subjects, many tactics were employed to protect the bodies of relatives. Police were engaged to watch the burying grounds but were often bribed or made drunk. Spring guns were set in the coffins, and poorer families would leave items like a stone or a blade of grass or a shell to show whether the grave was tampered with or not. In his collection of Boston police force details, Edward Savage made notes of a reward offer on April 13, 1814: "The selectmen offer $100 reward for arrest of grave-robbers at South Burying-Ground". Iron fences were constructed around many burying grounds as a deterrent to body snatchers. "Burglar proof grave vaults made of steel" were sold with the promise that loved ones' remains would not be one of the 40,000 bodies "mutilated every year on dissecting tables in medical colleges in the United States." The medical appropriation of bodies aroused much popular resentment. Between 1765 and 1884, there were at least 25 documented crowd actions against American medical schools.

Australia
In Tasmania, the bodies of William Lanne (1835–1869) and Truganini (1812–1876), considered at the time to be the last Aboriginal Tasmanians (Palawa), were both exhumed from their graves. Lanne's head, hands and feet were removed illegally by surgeon William Crowther and members of the Royal Society of Tasmania before he was buried, and the rest of his body was stolen after his burial. Truganini, who outlived Lanne by several years, had wished to avoid his fate and expressly asked to be cremated, but was buried anyway. The Royal Society of Tasmania exhumed her body and put it on display. 100 years after Truganini's death, aboriginal descendants finally won the rights to their bodies following many years of petitioning the government, and their remains were cremated and spread in the ocean.

These two instances were not isolated. With the aboriginal Tasmanians being wiped out, other native Australians still faced the same threat of body snatching due to continued intrigue from the colonial British presence. In 1910, 12 aboriginal bodies were stolen from their burial places along the coast, where the natives were forced to settle after being driven away from their ancestral land. The leader of this heist was W.E.L.H. Crowther, an 18-year-old medical student simply seeking the favor of one of his professors. After obtaining the bodies, Crowther and his associates took them back to Melbourne to undergo further examination.

Project Sunshine
Project Sunshine was launched during the height of the Cold War as a series of multinational studies concerning the danger posed to humans by radioactive isotopes as a result of nuclear fallout. The Australian government became involved in the program during the mid-1950s, and began collecting body parts from citizens during autopsies, including many children, most often without their next of kin consenting or even being made aware. By the time the program ended in the early 1980s, the Australian government had stolen thousands upon thousands of body parts from deceased Australians to be used for research in Project Sunshine.

Canada
The practice was also common in other parts of the British Empire, such as Canada, where religious customs as well as the lack of means of preservation made it hard for medical students to obtain a steady supply of fresh bodies. In many instances the students had to resort to fairly regular body snatching.

The first medical school established in Canada was 1822 in Montreal. Body-snatching tended to vary between English and French speaking students. The French speaking students would steal bodies to pay for their schooling while the English speaking students stole bodies for fun and were usually caught. The students who stole the bodies for medical use would use elaborate measures to make sure the bodies could not be identified or found if a search was conducted at their residence. Facial identifiers and scars would be removed from the body so that they could not be identified. Students would make elaborate hiding places for the bodies such as using pulley systems to pull bodies up into chimneys or hide bodies under trap doors so that the bodies would not be found. When trying to find a body the robbers would be selective in that they would choose negroes.

In Montreal during the winter of 1875, typhoid fever struck at a convent school. The corpses of the victims were stolen by body snatchers before relatives arrived from the United States, causing an international scandal. Rewards were offered which students collected to return bodies to the families. Eventually the Anatomy Act of Quebec was amended to prevent a recurrence, effectively ending medical body snatching in Quebec.

China
Burial customs were regulated in China as a part of the Great Qing Legal Code in an attempt to mitigate illicit burial practices. These regulations criminalized the mishandling of corpses, including the removal of a corpse. The term 'body snatching' as it regards China specifically can refer to a variety of rationales and specific cases of corpse removal which range from political to spiritual in motivation:

Ghost Marriages
A Ghost marriage (Chinese: 冥婚; pinyin: mínghūn; lit. 'spirit marriage') is a practice originating in China in which either one or neither of the partners in the marriage is alive. The original purpose of ghost marriages is unclear but it has been utilized as a means of maintaining a family's honor and legacy in the event that their unwed relative is deceased. The practice has led to the theft of female corpses in order to arrange illicit ghost marriages and relocate the body. In 2006 there were reports of a resurgence in the northern coal-mining regions of Shanxi, Hebei and Shandong. Although the practice has long been abandoned in modern China, some superstitious families in isolated rural areas still pay very high prices for the procurement of female corpses for deceased unmarried male relatives. It is speculated that the very high death toll among young male miners in these areas has led more and more entrepreneurial body snatchers to steal female cadavers from graves and then resell them through the black market to families of the deceased. In 2007, a previously convicted grave robber, Song Tiantang, was arrested by Chinese authorities for murdering six women and selling their bodies as "ghost brides".

Cremation Quotas
The Cultural Revolution in China included a push for funeral reform which mandated the cremation of corpses. The enforcement of this mandate has varied, but there have been instances of body snatching for the purpose of meeting state-mandated quotas for cremation funeral practices. The act of body snatching for the purposes of meeting such quotas has become a lucrative business in China. In 2014 two local funerary practice officials in the Guangdong province of China were arrested for hiring body snatchers to acquire corpses in order to meet cremation quotas.

Red Market
The Red Market, also known as the Organ Trade refers to the trade of human organs or other body parts with the primary purpose being transplantation.In China the illicit trading of human body parts has led to instances of body snatching for use in the Red Market. In order to meet the demand for transplantations China authorized the use of executed prisoners' organs. Consent of prisoners or prisoners' families, though required, has often been unverified in cases of executed prisoners' organs being harvested leading to accusations of illicit harvesting of corpses and transplantations.

Cyprus
In Cyprus, the former President Tassos Papadopoulos's body was stolen from his grave on 11 December 2009.

India
For over 200 years, the city of Kolkata, in the north-eastern region of India, has been known to be the center of a network of bone traders who remove skeletons from graveyards in order to sell them to universities and hospitals abroad. In colonial times, British doctors used to hire thieves to dig up bodies from Indian cemeteries. Despite changes in laws, a similar process is going strong today. According to journalist Scott Carney, historically members of the Domar caste, who traditionally performed cremations, were pressed into service processing bones; skeletons were exported from India to be used in anatomy classes worldwide. In the 1850s, Calcutta Medical College processed 900 skeletons a year, but mostly for shipment abroad. A century later, a newly independent India dominated the world market for human bones. At their height, in the early 1980s, Calcutta's bone factories took in an estimated $1 million a year by digging the graveyards of West Bengal after the mourners had left. In 1985 the Indian government banned the export of human bones after human rights groups raised questions about how the bones were being collected and pointed towards the greater need for institutions to obtain informed consent before remains were used for medical research. However, the human organ trade was only forced underground. The Indian government banned the export of human remains in the mid-1980s, but body snatching is still thriving, even if secretly, in many parts of the country as a result of ineffective laws and poverty.

Republic of Ireland
In Dublin, the medical schools of the 18th and 19th centuries were on a constant hunt for bodies. The Bullys' Acre or Hospital Fields at Kilmainham was a rich source of anatomical material as it was a communal burial ground and easily accessed. Soldiers attached to the nearby Royal Hospital were always on the alert for grave robbers mainly because many of their comrades were buried there. In November 1825 a sentry captured Thomas Tuite, a known resurrectionist, in possession of five bodies. When searched, his pockets were found to be full of teeth–in those days a set of teeth fetched £1 (about £50 in 2011). Many other graveyards were targets of the medical students or those who made robbing graves their profession. The largest cemetery in Ireland, Glasnevin Cemetery, laid out in the 18th century, had a high wall with strategically placed watch-towers as well as blood-hounds to deter body snatchers.

Italy
The first recorded case of body snatching is attributed to four medical students from Bologna in 1319. At this time, studying the anatomy of a human cadaver was not particularly favored once Rome fell, and it became prohibited by the Church. What was favored was animal dissections at this time. Until the 15th century, it had become legal in Italy to conduct up to two dissections in public per year after the first body-snatching in the 14th century.

The Netherlands
In The Netherlands, poorhouses were accustomed to receiving a small fee by undertakers who paid a fine for ignoring burial laws and resold the bodies (especially those with no family) to doctors.

During the 17th century, the period of the Glorious Revolution, medicine in Great Britain and the Netherlands was at the root of body-snatching with the goal of using the corpses to be used for anatomical and physiological learning. Among 17th-century medicine educators at universities the desire to educate the public, in particular, took place in the Dutch Republic of the Netherlands. The Dutch Province of South Holland was home to the Leiden Anatomical Theatre. Leiden Anatomical Theatre was amongst other theatres which was centers of arts and sciences, meeting places for artists and scientists, and places of public function. Leiden's contribution represented the model of the innovative academy and its clinical course, inaugurated in 1638, was widely seen as a center of excellence. At Leiden University Peter Paauw (1564–1617) and Francisus dele Boё Sylvius (1614–1672), who were medical professors who used practical skills which became an integral basic part of the academic curriculum under the direction of Otho Heurnius (1577–1652) The anatomical theater developed into a place of universal knowledge and a representation of the macrocosmos as opposed to the microcosmos of the human body. After the death of Heurnius, Joannes van Horne (1621–1670) became the next caretaker for the anatomical theater.

Argentina
In 1974, former de facto President Pedro Eugenio Aramburu's body was stolen by Montoneros. The organization had already kidnapped and murdered Aramburu in 1970. The corpse was to be held until President Isabel Perón brought back Eva Perón's body from Italy. It was also an act of revenge for the previous removal of Evita's body. Once Evita's body arrived in Argentina, Montoneros gave up Aramburu's corpse and abandoned it in a street in Buenos Aires.

In 1986, the hands of Juan Perón were stolen from his grave by unknown persons.

Hungary
The grave of Communist leader János Kádár (1912–1989) at the Kerepesi Cemetery in Budapest was desecrated in early 2007. His skull has been stolen along with some of his other bones and his wife Mária Tamáska's urn. The act was politically motivated, as a message reading "murderers and traitors cannot rest in sacred ground 1956–2006" (taken from a song by far-right rock band Kárpátia) was left nearby. The two dates refer to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (Kádár played a major role in the suppression of the revolution), and the 2006 protests in Hungary (a scandal involving a party widely held to be the ideological successor to that of Kádár). As of 2022, the bones and the perpetrators have not been found.

India
Though it banned the export of human remains in the mid-1980s, India continues to maintain a robust, if under the table, international trade in human skeletons, as journalist Scott Carney indicates

In 2007, the Indian police discovered a stash of hundreds of human skulls and thigh bones and arrested a gang for allegedly carrying out the practice of body snatching and indulging in bone trade. This gang was arrested after they exhumed dozens of graves from Muslim cemeteries in Burdwan district, and smuggled the skeletons not just to medical institutions in need of cadavers across the world, but also to the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan for use in Buddhist monasteries. Kamal Sah was caught carrying 67 human skulls and 10 bones on a bus in Chhapra, in the state of Bihar, by fellow passengers who had noticed a jagged bone sticking out of a bag beneath his seat. The investigating officer of the incident, Ravinder Nalwa, reported to a Reuters journalist that, "during the interrogation the gang members confessed that the hollow human thigh bones were in great demand in monasteries and were used as blow-horns, and the skulls as vessels to drink from at religious ceremonies."

Buddhist monks in India likewise admitted that human thigh bones and skulls were used by followers of a Tibetan school of Buddhism. A 2009 report from The National stated that alleged bone smuggler Kamal Sah was identified by civilians in Bihar state and handed over to police with two bags of human skulls and bones. When questioned on the subject, the police refused to acknowledge the authorities failure to stamp out the practice and simply claimed that the police lacked "equipment, manpower and expertise to stop this practice". The criminal lawyer, Majid Menon, acknowledges that the dire economic conditions for vast numbers of people living in such states as Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and some parts of Uttar Pradesh, have favored the practice of body snatching till date and given room for bone smugglers to flourish.

According to estimates, 20,000-25,000 human skeletons are smuggled out of India every year through Nepal, China, and Bangladesh. The skeletons reach markets in the US, Japan, Europe and the Middle East, mostly for medical institutions. The price for a complete skeleton in these markets ranges from $700 to $1500 depending on the quality and size. In India, a full skeleton costs around $350 in the open market. Young Brothers, a Calcutta-based bone dealer, sells a human skeleton for $300. While the complete skeletons mostly find their way to medical laboratories mostly in the West, the assorted bones and skulls are used for religious rituals mostly in Hindu and Buddhist-dominated areas. As part of their tantric rituals, many tantrics drink wine in human skulls in places such as Nepal and the state of Assam in India.

And even though to date police have been unable to unearth any irregularity in the skeleton trade, the exporter-turned-moralist, Sanker Narayan Sen, maintains that the people from the Domar caste are often responsible for body snatching and later process the procured cadavers for export. The Government of India had twice earlier banned exports, only to revoke its decision on each occasion. According to the Exporters Association, the CBI in 2014 had once again recently concluded its investigations and submitted a report exonerating such body snatchers and exporters.

Spain
In April 2000, the skull of antipope Benedict XIII was stolen from the ruined palace of Argillo in Sabiñán, Spain. The thieves sent an anonymous letter to the mayor of Illueca asking for 1000000 ESP (6000 EUR). The Spanish Civil Guard recovered the skull in September 2000 and found that the thieves were two local brothers who were sentenced in November 2006 to 6-month prison, substituted with 2190 EUR.

United Kingdom
Rare reports of body snatching continue to occur. One prominent case involved the removal of the remains of Gladys Hammond from Yoxall Churchyard near Lichfield in south Staffordshire. Hammond's remains were taken by animal rights activists who were campaigning against Darley Oaks Farm, a licensed facility that bred guinea pigs for scientific research. Hammond was the mother-in-law of one of the farm's co-owners. After a four-year investigation by Staffordshire Police four leaders of the Save the Newchurch Guinea Pigs campaign group (three men: Kerry Whitburn of Edgbaston, John Smith of Wolverhampton, John Ablewhite of Manchester; and one woman: Josephine Mayo of Staffordshire) were jailed for conspiracy to blackmail. The men received 12 years each and the woman received four years. The police said the conspiracy included the removal of Hammond's remains, which were recovered by police following information given by one of the four.

United States
In February 2006, Michael Mastromarino, then a 42-year-old former New Jersey-based oral surgeon and CEO and executive director of operations at Biomedical Tissue Services, was convicted along with three employees of illegally harvesting human bones, organs, tissue and other cadaver parts from individuals awaiting cremation, for forging numerous consent forms, and for selling the illegally obtained body parts to medical companies without consent of their families, and then sentenced to long prison terms. BTS sold its products to five companies, including Life Cell Corporation, of New Jersey, and Regeneration Technologies, of Florida.

There is still a demand for corpses for transplantation surgery in the form of allografts. Modern body snatchers meet this demand. Tissue gained in this way is medically unsafe and unusable. The broadcaster Alistair Cooke's bones were removed in New York City and replaced with PVC pipe before his cremation. The director Toby Dye made a documentary titled Body Snatcher of New York about this case in 2010.

Appearances in film
The 1956 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers is an American science-fiction film, was directed by Don Siegel and demonstrates body-snatching as a loss of personal autonomy where aliens take over the bodies of the main characters loved ones. This allowed for publicity of body snatching and interest in the history of its uses outside a science-fiction context. Body snatching was portrayed in a new way of the moral consequences and surrounding effect it has on the stolen body's loved ones. In the film The Doctor and the Devils, Timothy Dalton plays an anatomist who runs Edinburgh's School of Anatomy in the 19th century. The characters in this film steal corpses after murdering locals and use them for their medical school: this is the practice of body snatching. In another film involving stealing corpses, I Sell the Dead, Dominic Monaghan and Larry Fessenden play two men who make a living stealing and selling corpses.

Literature
A famous short story by Robert Louis Stevenson is "The Body Snatcher", adapted into a film starring Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. This story accurately portrayed the act of body snatching and common uses in its background while adding a fictional plot of using murder to obtain the bodies for educational purposes. This story and film showed how body snatching was viewed as a dark practice with disturbing elements. Another novel mentioning the idea of robbing a grave is the series by H. P. Lovecraft called The Case of Charles Dexter Ward and Herbert West–Reanimator. One of the main characters Joseph Curwen is a merchant and slave trader who steals corpses of well-known individuals around the world and brings them to Providence to torture them until they share their secrets. This reflects the concept of body snatching as this character secretly removed a corpse from grave sites proving it as an unethical act. In the 1985 novel City of Joy written by French Author and Fulbright Scholar, Dominique Lapierre, one sees how in order to pay for his daughter's wedding, the dying rickshaw driver sells his bones for science. Hours after demise and before properly mourned, bone traders come to collect his bones. This provides the metaphorical practice of body snatching where a body is surrender, or stolen, and used for science such as in medical schools.

In Tess Gerritsen's 2007 novel The Bone Garden, set in Boston in 1830, the protagonist Norris Marshall, a talented but poor medical student, attempts to pay his college tuition by working as a "resurrectionist". The main character Injun Joe in the popular literature work The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, takes the opportunity to murder Dr. Robinson when he and Muff Potter are hired by him for body snatching. In Jonathan L. Howards novel Johannes Cabal the Necromancer, the eponymous protagonist practices body snatching. In Charles Dickens's novel, A Tale of Two Cities, Jerry Cruncher works as a "resurrection man" stealing bodies to resurrect them in addition to his work as a porter and messenger at Tellson's Bank.

Music
In popular culture, music referencing the act of body snatching includes the Pet Shop Boys' song "The Resurrectionist" which appeared as a bonus track on "I'm with Stupid", the first single from their 2006 album Fundamental. The track is inspired by the book The Italian Boy: Murder and Grave-Robbery in 1830s London by Sarah Wise. (See London Burkers.) The 9th track of leATHERMØUTH's album XØ is titled "Bodysnatchers 4 Ever", and it talks about a man and his lover taking fresh bodies and somehow using them to live forever. The second track on Radiohead's 2007 album In Rainbows is titled "Bodysnatchers". The debut single of experimental band Ralph and the Hexagons, "My Weekend Plans", is about an attempted act of body snatching, although this is referred to as grave robbing throughout the song. The 6th track of Creature Feature's album "It Was A Dark And Stormy Night..." is titled "Grave Robber At Large". It is about a stereotypical early 19th century body snatcher, featuring the hook "Death is my business, and business is good!".

title: Body snatching


text:
Electroweak scale

In particle physics, the electroweak scale, also known as the TQD scale, is the energy scale around 246 GeV, a typical energy of processes described by the electroweak theory. The particular number 246 GeV is taken to be the vacuum expectation value $$v = (G_F \sqrt{2})^{-1/2}$$ of the Higgs field (where $$G_F$$ is the Fermi coupling constant). In some cases the term electroweak scale is used to refer to the temperature of electroweak symmetry breaking, 159.5±1.5 GeV . In other cases, the term is used more loosely to refer to energies in a broad range around 102 - 103 GeV. This is within reach of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which is designed for about 104 GeV in proton–proton collisions.

Interactions may have been above this scale during the electroweak epoch. In the unextended Standard Model, the transition from the electroweak epoch was not a first or a second order phase transition but a continuous crossover, preventing any baryogenesis. However many extensions to the standard model including supersymmetry and the inert double model have a first order electroweak phase transition (but still lack additional CP violation).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Electroweak scale


text:
Doug Watkins

Douglas Watkins (March 2, 1934 – February 5, 1962) was an American jazz double bassist. He was best known for being an accompanist to various hard bop artists in the Detroit area, including Donald Byrd and Jackie McLean.

Biography
Watkins was born in Detroit, Michigan, United States. An original member of the Jazz Messengers, he later played in Horace Silver's quintet and freelanced with Gene Ammons, Kenny Burrell, Donald Byrd, Art Farmer, Jackie McLean, Hank Mobley, Lee Morgan, Sonny Rollins, and Phil Woods among others.

Some of Watkins' best-known work can be heard, when as a 22-year-old, he appeared on the 1956 album Saxophone Colossus by tenor saxophonist Sonny Rollins, with Max Roach and Tommy Flanagan.

According to Horace Silver's autobiography, Let's Get to the Nitty Gritty, Watkins, along with Silver, later left Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers because the other members of the band at the time (Kenny Dorham, Hank Mobley and Blakey) had serious drug problems, whereas Watkins and Silver were tired of being harassed and searched by the police every time they went to a gig in a new city and club.

When Charles Mingus briefly ventured over to the piano stool in 1961, he hired Watkins to take over the bass part; Oh Yeah and Tonight at Noon were the results.

Watkins recorded only two albums as leader: Watkins at Large for Transition; and Soulnik for New Jazz. The latter, recorded in 1960, with Yusef Lateef, features Watkins on cello with Herman Wright backing him on bass. The cello was an instrument he had started to play only a few days before the recording session.

Watkins died in an automobile accident near Holbrook, Arizona, on February 5, 1962, while traveling from Arizona to San Francisco to meet drummer Philly Joe Jones for a gig.

As leader

 * 1956: Watkins at Large (Transition)
 * 1960: Soulnik (New Jazz)

As sideman
With Pepper Adams With Gene Ammons With Art Blakey With Tina Brooks With Kenny Burrell With Donald Byrd With John Coltrane With Tommy Flanagan With Curtis Fuller With Red Garland With Benny Golson With Bill Hardman With Wilbur Harden With Thad Jones With Yusef Lateef With Jackie McLean With Charles Mingus With Hank Mobley With Lee Morgan With The Prestige All Stars With Paul Quinichette With Dizzy Reece With Rita Reys With Sonny Rollins With Horace Silver With Louis Smith With Idrees Sulieman With Billy Taylor With Phil Woods
 * Baritones and French Horns (Prestige, 1957)
 * Critic's Choice (World Pacific, 1957)
 * The Pepper-Knepper Quintet (MetroJazz, 1958) with Jimmy Knepper
 * 10 to 4 at the 5 Spot (Riverside, 1958)
 * Jammin' with Gene (Prestige, 1956)
 * Funky (Prestige, 1957)
 * Blue Gene (Prestige, 1958)
 * Boss Tenor (Prestige, 1960)
 * Velvet Soul (Prestige, 1960 [1964])
 * Angel Eyes (Prestige, 1960 [1965])
 * Nice an' Cool (Moodsville, 1961)
 * Jug (Prestige, 1961)
 * At the Cafe Bohemia, Vol. 1 (Blue Note, 1955)
 * At the Cafe Bohemia, Vol. 2 (Blue Note, 1955)
 * Originally (Columbia, 1956 [1982])
 * Minor Move (Blue Note, 1958)
 * All Night Long (Prestige, 1956)
 * All Day Long (Prestige, 1957)
 * Kenny Burrell (Prestige, 1957)
 * K. B. Blues (Blue Note, 1957 [1979])
 * 2 Guitars - with Jimmy Raney (Prestige, 1957)
 * Byrd's Eye View (Transition, 1955)
 * Byrd Blows on Beacon Hill (Transition, 1956)
 * 2 Trumpets (Prestige, 1956) - with Art Farmer
 * Jazz Eyes (Regent, 1957) - with John Jenkins
 * Byrd in Paris (Brunswick, 1958)
 * Parisian Thoroughfare (Brunswick, 1958)
 * Fuego (Blue Note, 1959)
 * Byrd in Flight (Blue Note, 1960)
 * Chant (Blue Note, 1961)
 * Dakar (Prestige, 1957 [1963])
 * The Cats (Prestige, 1957)
 * New Trombone (Prestige, 1957)
 * Coleman Hawkins with the Red Garland Trio (Swingville, 1959)
 * Satin Doll (Prestige, 1959 [1971])
 * Rediscovered Masters (Prestige, 1959 [1977])
 * Gettin' with It (New Jazz, 1959)
 * Saying Something (Savoy 1961)
 * Mainstream 1958 (Savoy, 1958)
 * Mad Thad (Period, 1957)
 * Olio (Prestige, 1957)
 * Jazz for the Thinker (Savoy, 1957)
 * Jazz Mood (Savoy, 1957)
 * Presenting... Jackie McLean (Ad Lib, 1955)
 * Lights Out! (Prestige, 1956)
 * 4, 5 and 6 (Prestige, 1956)
 * Jackie McLean & Co. (Prestige, 1957)
 * Alto Madness (Prestige, 1957) - with John Jenkins
 * Bluesnik (Blue Note, 1961)
 * Oh Yeah (Atlantic, 1961)
 * Tonight at Noon (Atlantic, 1961)
 * Hank Mobley Quartet (Blue Note, 1955)
 * The Jazz Message of Hank Mobley (Savoy, 1956)
 * Mobley's Message (Prestige, 1956)
 * Mobley's 2nd Message (Prestige, 1956)
 * Jazz Message No. 2 (Savoy, 1956)
 * Hank Mobley and his All Stars (Blue Note, 1957)
 * Hank Mobley Quintet (Blue Note, 1957)
 * Introducing Lee Morgan (Savoy, 1956)
 * Candy (Blue Note, 1957)
 * Wheelin' & Dealin' (Prestige, 1957)
 * On the Sunny Side (Prestige, 1957)
 * Soundin' Off (Blue Note, 1960)
 * The Cool Voice of Rita Reys (Columbia, 1956)
 * Saxophone Colossus (Prestige, 1956)
 * Newk's Time (Blue Note, 1957)
 * Horace Silver and the Jazz Messengers (Blue Note, 1955)
 * Silver's Blue (Columbia, 1956)
 * 6 Pieces of Silver (Blue Note, 1956)
 * Here Comes Louis Smith (Blue Note, 1957)
 * Roots (New Jazz, 1958) with the Prestige All Stars
 * Interlude (Moodsville, 1961)
 * Pairing Off (Prestige, 1956)

title: Doug Watkins


text:
Talk:Mud Islands

Name?
Should this article be at Mud Islands, or at Mud Islands Marine Reserve or Harold Holt Marine Reserve? Should some of these be redirects? Rmhermen 13:21, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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title: Talk:Mud Islands


text:
Talk:Eigil Nansen

Untitled
Does this person merit an entry? What nationality? [Norway|Norwegian]]? The article has 1931 commented out, is that a date of birth? Edward 13:26, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eigil Nansen


text:
User:PanzerHier~enwiki

Hello everyone

New here. Just want to add my two cents worth. If I mess something up just erase it, but I doubt that will happen because I am pretty careful. I like the idea of this site.

title: User:PanzerHier~enwiki


text:
David Williams

David or Dave Williams may refer to:

Architects

 * David Williams (Australian architect) (1856–1940), South Australian architect
 * David L. Williams (architect) (1866–1937), American architect
 * David Williams (Alaska architect) (fl. 1930s), architect and community planner in Alaska

Art

 * David Dougal Williams (1888–1944), British artist and art teacher
 * David E. Williams (1933–1985), American Kiowa-Tonkawa-Kiowa Apache painter from Oklahoma
 * David B. Williams (artist) (1947–2009), Canadian Ojibway aboriginal painter and printmaker

Film, television and radio

 * David Williams (screenwriter), British television screenwriter
 * David Williams, Australian film distributor, 1984 winner of the Raymond Longford Award
 * David Walliams (David Edward Williams, born 1971), British comedian and author, especially of children books
 * Dave Williams (radio announcer) (born 1971), Australian radio host
 * David Williams (producer), American film director and producer for ADV Films
 * David L. Williams (film director), British film director

Law

 * David Williams (died 1613), English Justice of the King's Bench, 1604–1613
 * David W. Williams (1910–2000), American federal judge
 * Sir David Williams (British legal scholar) (1930–2009), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, 1989–1996
 * Sir David Williams (arbitrator) (born 1941), New Zealand lawyer, jurist, and international arbitrator
 * David C. Williams (inspector general) (born 1947), Inspector General of the U.S. Postal Service
 * David Williams (New Zealand legal scholar)

Military and naval

 * David Williams (pirate) (fl. 1698–1708), Welsh pirate active near Madagascar
 * David Williams (soldier) (1754–1831), one of the captors of British spy John Andre in the American Revolutionary War
 * Sir David Williams (Royal Navy officer) (1921–2012), British Royal Navy admiral, Second Sea Lord, 1974–1977

Music

 * Dave "Fat Man" Williams (1920–1982), New Orleans jazz, blues, and rhythm and blues pianist
 * David "Happy" Williams (born 1946), Trinidadian jazz double-bassist
 * David Williams (guitarist) (1950–2009), American session guitarist
 * Dave Williams (singer) (1972–2002), American rock singer
 * David Williams (Australian indigenous musician) (born 1983), Aboriginal musician and artist
 * David Williams (born 1986), Welsh guitarist in Son of Dork
 * David Williams (born 1986), musician formerly with The Dear & Departed
 * David Williams, Australian musician with Augie March
 * David Williams, head of Shock Records
 * David C. Williams (film composer), American film composer

Politics and government

 * David Williams (died 1613), English MP for Brecon
 * David Rogerson Williams (1776–1830), governor of South Carolina, 1814–1816
 * David Williams (Liberal politician) (1799–1869), British Member of Parliament for Merioneth, 1868–1870
 * David Williams (Swansea East MP) (1865–1941), British Labour Member of Parliament for Swansea East, 1922–1940
 * David G. Williams (died 1903), member of the Wisconsin legislature
 * David C. Williams (politician), member of the California legislature
 * D. J. Williams (politician) (David James Williams, 1897–1972), British miner and checkweighman who became a Labour Party Member of Parliament
 * David B. Williams (politician) (1919–1994), American jurist and politician, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
 * David Williams (trade unionist) (born 1926), Welsh trade unionist
 * Delwyn Williams (David John Delwyn Williams, born 1938), British Conservative politician, MP for Montgomeryshire, 1979–1983
 * Sir David Williams (Richmond upon Thames politician) (born 1939), Leader of Richmond upon Thames Council, 1983–2001
 * David Williams (Australian politician) (born 1941), Australian politician
 * David L. Williams (politician) (born 1953), Kentucky judge, president of the Kentucky Senate and 2011 gubernatorial nominee
 * Dave Williams (Colorado politician), member of the Colorado House of Representatives
 * Dave Williams (Iowa politician), member of the Iowa House of Representatives
 * David Williams (civil servant) (born 1968), British civil servant
 * David Williams (Stoke-on-Trent North MP), British Labour Member of Parliament for Stoke-on-Trent North from 2024

Religion

 * David Williams (minister, born 1709) (1709–1784), Welsh independent minister and schoolmaster
 * David Williams (philosopher) (1738–1816), Welsh minister, theologian and political polemicist
 * David Williams (Oxford academic) (1786–1860), Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University, 1856–1858
 * David Archard Williams (fl. 1865–1879), Welsh Anglican priest
 * David Williams (priest, born 1841) (1841–1929), Archdeacon of Cardigan, 1903–1928
 * David Williams (archdeacon of St David's) (1847–1920), Welsh Anglican priest
 * David Williams (archbishop of Huron) (1853–1931), Welsh-born Anglican Bishop of Huron and later Metropolitan of Ontario
 * David Williams (priest, born 1862) (1862–1936), Archdeacon of Cardigan, 1928–1936
 * David Williams (Methodist minister, born 1877) (1877–1927), Welsh theologian and minister
 * David Rhys Williams (1890–1970), American Unitarian minister
 * David Williams (bishop of Basingstoke) (born 1961), Anglican Bishop of Basingstoke

Geology

 * David Williams (geologist, born 1792) (1792–1850), English geologist and priest
 * David Williams (geologist, born 1898) (1898–1984), British professor of geology
 * David Hiram Williams (1812–1848), Welsh geological surveyor

Health and medicine

 * David Innes Williams (1919–2013), British paediatric urologist
 * David Williams (Canadian physician), Canadian physician, Ontario's Chief Medical Officer of Health
 * David R. Williams (scientist) (born 1954), American professor of sociology and public health

Space

 * Dafydd Williams (born 1954), Canadian astronaut
 * David Williams (astrochemist) (born 1937), British astrochemist
 * David Williams (space administrator) (born 1951), Chief Executive of the UK Space Agency

Other scientists

 * David Williams (archaeologist) (1949–2017), British archaeologist
 * David Williams, co-founder of the journal Biomaterials
 * David B. Williams (materials scientist), British materials scientist, former dean of the College of Engineering at Ohio State University
 * David Williams (mathematician), Welsh mathematician in probability theory

Association football

 * Dai Williams (footballer) (fl. 1912–1921), also known as Dave Williams, English footballer
 * David Williams (footballer, born 1931) (1931–2012), English footballer
 * Dave Williams (footballer, born 1942) (1942–2015), Welsh football coach and player for Newport County
 * David Williams (footballer, born 1955), Welsh football coach and player for Bristol Rovers
 * David Williams (footballer, born 1968), English football goalkeeper
 * David Williams (Australian soccer) (born 1988), Australian soccer player

Gridiron football

 * Dave Williams (wide receiver) (1945–2024), American football player
 * Dave Williams (running back) (born 1954), American football player
 * David Williams, American football player, see Atlanta Falcons draft history
 * David Williams (wide receiver) (born 1963), American football player at the University of Illinois
 * David Williams (offensive lineman) (born 1966), American football offensive lineman
 * D. J. Williams (tight end) (born 1988), American football tight end
 * David Williams (running back) (born 1994), American football running back

Australian rules football

 * David Williams (Australian rules footballer) (born 1961), former Australian rules footballer

Baseball

 * Dave Williams (1900s pitcher) (1881–1918), American baseball pitcher
 * David Williams (2000s pitcher) (born 1979), American baseball pitcher

Cricket

 * David Williams (cricketer, born 1948), English cricketer
 * David Williams (cricketer, born 1963), West Indian cricketer

Rugby league

 * Dave Williams (rugby league, born 1967), rugby league footballer of the 1990s for Wales, Welsh Students, and South Wales Dragons
 * David Williams (rugby league, born 1986), Australian rugby league player
 * Dave Williams (rugby league, born 1989), rugby league footballer for Harlequins RL

Rugby union

 * David Williams (rugby union, born 1894) (1894–1959), Australian rugby union player
 * Dai Williams (rugby union) (1913–1975), South African rugby union player
 * David Williams (rugby union, born 1995), English rugby union player

Other sports

 * David Williams, tennis player; see 1929 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles
 * Dave Williams (basketball) (1913–1983), American basketball player
 * Dave Williams (golf coach) (1918–1998), American college golf coach
 * Tiger Williams (David Williams, born 1954), Canadian ice hockey player
 * David Williams (judoka) (born 1965), American judoka
 * David Williams (sailor) (born 1966), British Olympic sailor
 * David Williams (ice hockey) (born 1967), American ice hockey player
 * David Williams (born 1972) American wrestler better known by the ring name David Young
 * David Williams (card game player) (born 1980), American poker player
 * David Williams (American cyclist) (born 1988), American cyclist
 * David Williams (Canadian cyclist) (born 1994), Canadian cyclist
 * David Williams, darts player; see 2011 PDC Under-21 World Championship
 * David Williams, golfer; see Atlantic Open
 * David Williams, racing driver; see 1982 British Formula One season

Writers

 * David John Williams (1885–1970), Welsh-language writer and Welsh nationalist
 * David Williams (historian) (1900–1978), Welsh historian
 * Gwyn Williams (writer) (David Gwyn Williams, 1904–1990), Welsh poet, novelist, translator and academic
 * David Williams (crime writer) (1926–2003), British advertising executive and crime writer
 * David Williams (medievalist) (1939–2015), Canadian medieval literature scholar
 * David J. Williams (born 1971), American science fiction writer and video game writer
 * David Williams (journalist), Australian author and journalist
 * David Williams (natural history writer), American natural history writer

Other people

 * David Williams (businessman, born 1969), British entrepreneur and founder of Avanti Communications Group plc
 * David Williams (coal owner) (1809–1863), Welsh industrialist
 * David A. Williams, American president and CEO of the Make-A-Wish Foundation
 * David Henry Williams (1819–1897), American railroad surveyor, civil engineer and writer
 * David Marshall Williams (1900–1975), American inventor
 * Russell Williams (criminal) (David Russell Williams, born 1963), Canadian convicted murderer, rapist, and officer in the Canadian Forces

Fictional characters

 * Dave Williams (Desperate Housewives), a fictional character on the TV series Desperate Housewives
 * David Williams, character in Another Man, Another Chance

title: David Williams


text:
Alfred Tysoe

Alfred Ernest Tysoe (21 March 1874 – 26 October 1901) was an English athlete, and winner of two gold medals at the 1900 Olympic Games representing Great Britain.

Biography
Born in the Old Vicarage, Padiham, near Burnley England, Tysoe ran part-time with the Skerton Harriers running team while still working as a farm labourer. In 1896, he won the Northern Counties 1000y and one mile titles. His running successes brought him to the attention of Harold Hardwick, founder of Salford Harriers in 1884; in 1897 Tysoe was persuaded to join the Salford club. Within his first year with Salford Harriers, he had won the AAA championships at one and ten miles. In 1898, he helped the team to win their sixth National Cross Country championship.

At the 1900 Olympic Games in Paris, Tysoe was a favourite in the 800m, having just one week before the games won the AAA championship in 1:57.8. He won easily, beating John Cregan from the United States by 3 yards. He also won a gold medal as part of the British team in the 5000m team race.

This proved to be his last season on the running track. In 1901, he became severely ill with pleurisy and died at his home in Blackpool, aged 27.

He is buried in Layton Cemetery, Blackpool. His gravestone reads: "In loving memory of Alfred Ernest Tysoe. Amateur Champion half-mile runner of the world.

Born March 21st 1874, Died October 26th 1901. 'Brief life is here our portion, brief sorrow, short-lived care. The life that knows no ending, the tearless life is there.' This stone was erected by the many admirers of this famous athlete, by whom he was held in the highest esteem."

title: Alfred Tysoe


text:
Supersymmetry breaking

In particle physics, supersymmetry breaking is the process to obtain a seemingly non-supersymmetric physics from a supersymmetric theory which is a necessary step to reconcile supersymmetry with actual experiments. It is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking. In supergravity, this results in a slightly modified counterpart of the Higgs mechanism where the gravitinos become massive.

Supersymmetry breaking occurs at supersymmetry breaking scale. The superpartners, whose mass would otherwise be equal to the mass of the regular particles in the absence of the SUSY breaking, become much heavier.

In the domain of applicability of stochastic differential equations including, e.g, classical physics, spontaneous supersymmetry breaking encompasses such nonlinear dynamical phenomena as chaos, turbulence, pink noise, etc.

Supersymmetry breaking scale
In particle physics, supersymmetry breaking scale is the energy scale where supersymmetry breaking takes place.

If supersymmetry fully solves the hierarchy problem, this scale should not be far from 1000 GeV, and therefore it should be accessible at the LHC and other future accelerators. This scenario is called low energy supersymmetry.

However, supersymmetry may also be broken at high energy scales. Finally, Nature does not have to be supersymmetric at any scale.

title: Supersymmetry breaking


text:
Toy model

In the modeling of physics, a toy model is a deliberately simplistic model with many details removed so that it can be used to explain a mechanism concisely. It is also useful in a description of the fuller model.

 * In "toy" mathematical models, this is usually done by reducing or extending the number of dimensions or reducing the number of fields/variables or restricting them to a particular symmetric form.
 * In Macroeconomics modelling, are a class of models, some may be only loosely based on theory, others more explicitly so. But they have the same purpose. They allow for a quick first pass at some question, and present the essence of the answer from a more complicated model or from a class of models. For the researcher, they may come before writing a more elaborate model, or after, once the elaborate model has been worked out. Blanchard list of examples includes IS–LM model, the Mundell–Fleming model, the RBC model, and the New Keynesian model.
 * In "toy" physical descriptions, an analogous example of an everyday mechanism is often used for illustration.

The phrase "tinker-toy model" is also used, in reference to the popular Tinkertoys used for children's constructivist learning.

Examples
Examples of toy models in physics include:

 * the Ising model as a toy model for ferromagnetism, or lattice models more generally. It is the simplest model that allows for Euclidean Quantum Field Theory in statistical physics
 * orbital mechanics as described by assuming that Earth is attached to the Sun by an elastic band;
 * Hawking radiation around a black hole described as conventional radiation from a fictitious membrane at radius r=2M (the black hole membrane paradigm);
 * frame-dragging around a rotating star considered as the effect of space being a conventional viscous fluid.
 * the concordance model of cosmology, in which general relativistic effects of structure formation are not taken into account.
 * the Spekkens model, a hidden-variable theory.
 * the primon gas, which illustrates some connections between number theory and physics.

title: Toy model


text:
Rebecca Loos

Rebecca Loos (born 19 June 1977) is a Dutch former glamour model and media personality. She first came to public attention following her claims that she had conducted an affair with the married footballer David Beckham, while she was employed as his personal assistant. The allegations led to Loos appearing on several reality television series, magazine covers, and in other media for a few years thereafter.

Early life and education
Loos was born in Madrid, Spain, but holds Dutch citizenship. Her father, Leonard Loos Bartholdi, was a Dutch diplomat, and her mother, Elizabeth Loos, is originally from Surrey, England. Loos was privately educated at Runnymede College in Madrid. She is a second cousin of Piers Morgan, who was editor of the Daily Mirror tabloid newspaper when Loos initially gained media attention.

Career
Loos became the personal assistant to former England national football team captain David Beckham when he transferred to Real Madrid in July 2003. Her employment was terminated a few months later and Loos subsequently gave an interview to the British tabloid newspaper News of the World in April 2004, alleging that she and Beckham had conducted a four-month affair whilst he was married to his wife Victoria. The claims were never corroborated and were dismissed by Beckham as "ludicrous", although he did not mount a legal challenge to the story.

Shortly after the newspaper coverage of her alleged affair with Beckham, Loos commenced a career as a media personality. In 2004, she briefly appeared as a hostess on the Dutch TV programme Shownieuws.

In October 2004, Loos made a controversial appearance on the reality television programme The Farm, a Channels 5 version of the RTÉ show Celebrity Farm. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) accused producers of pandering to a "morbid and sordid fascination with farm animals", while People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and Mediawatch-UK demanded the show be taken off the air.

In 2005, Loos appeared on the ITV network reality television show Celebrity Love Island. The same year, Loos took part in a staged wedding ceremony with American fashion model Jenny Shimizu for the television programme Power Lesbian UK to protest against America's laws on same-sex marriage. It was broadcast in the United States as Power Lesbians on Logo TV. The two had a relationship for a period thereafter. Loos has stated that she is bisexual and "has been ever since [she] was a teenager."

Loos played for the England Women's football team in a Sky TV charity event in 2006. In April that same year, she also ran the London Marathon, and raised more than £7,000 in sponsorship for the British Red Cross. Later, in May, Loos appeared on The X Factor: Battle of the Stars alongside James Hewitt, in which she famously received a negative reception from judge Sharon Osbourne.

Loos was a contestant on the Spanish version of Survivor in 2007, in which she came third. In November of that year, she appeared in Sky TV's Cirque de Celebrite in which she was one of two new contestants introduced midway through the series.

In 2008, Loos was a guest on The Podge and Rodge Show. In September, she had a part in a Dutch feature film called Mijn vader is een Detective (English: My father is a detective). In October, she took part in the Dutch version of 71 Degrees North (71 Graden Noord).

Loos has been featured on the covers of Playboy, FHM, Nuts, Zoo Weekly and other men's magazines and lad mags.

Personal life
Loos met her future husband, Norwegian doctor Sven Christjar Skaiaa, while she was filming 71 Graden Noord. After becoming pregnant, she relocated to Norway in 2009, and has only made occasional media appearances since then. Loos has stated on her official website that she is now a mother of two sons and works as a yoga teacher and massage therapist.

Notable media appearances

 * 2004 – Hostess on Dutch television show Shownieuws
 * October 2004 – Participant on The Farm
 * 2004 – Extreme Celebrity Detox for Channel 4
 * February–April 2005 (on screen) – Dream Team, a Sky football-based TV series. Recurring role of Naomi Wyatt, a sports psychologist
 * Summer, 2005 – Participant on the ITV reality show Celebrity Love Island
 * Autumn, 2005 – Hostess of the TV documentary Power Lesbian UK for Logo TV
 * January 2006 – Celebrity model in the Dutch edition of Playboy magazine
 * April 2006 – Participant in the Belgian/Dutch version of the reality show Temptation Island
 * April 2006 – England team member in Sky1's Celebrity World Cup Soccer Tournament (losing 2–1 to Brazil in the final).
 * May 2006 – Contestant in The X Factor: Battle of the Stars celebrity show, singing along with James Hewitt
 * February 2007 – Appeared on New Zealand's reality TV show Treasure Island: Pirates of the Pacific
 * May 2007 – Contestant on the Spanish version of Survivor, in which she came third
 * November 2007 – Contestant on Sky TV's Cirque de Celebrite. Loos was voted out by the public after just a week.
 * 8–9 December 2008 – Guest host of television's The Podge and Rodge Show

title: Rebecca Loos


text:
Bendigo and Adelaide Bank

Bendigo and Adelaide Bank (trading as Bendigo Bank), is an Australian financial institution, operating primarily in retail banking. The company was formed by the merger of Bendigo Bank and Adelaide Bank in November 2007.

Before the merger, Bendigo Bank delivered its products and services through almost 900 outlets Australia-wide, including more than 160 company owned branches, 220 community owned Community Bank branches of Bendigo Bank, 100 agencies and 400 Elders outlets. The bank's branches are primarily in Victoria and Queensland. The merged bank now has over 400 branches, including 25 that came with the merger of Adelaide Bank.

National headquarters remain in the city of Bendigo, with a major office in Adelaide, South Australia and regional offices in Docklands, Melbourne and Ipswich, Queensland.

History and development
The company started in 1858 as a fixed-term (terminating) building society to improve conditions in the Bendigo goldfields during the Victorian gold rush. At seven years old, in 1865, the company restructured, taking the name Bendigo Mutual Permanent Land and Building Society, which incorporated in Victoria 11 years afterwards. It continued to expand its holdings when, in 1978, it merged with Bendigo and Eaglehawk Star, a building society established in 1901.

Further growth involved the acquisition of the building societies Sandhurst, in 1983, and Sunraysia, in 1985, a merger with Sandhurst Trustees Ltd and the acquisition of Capital and Compass building societies..

In 1982 BBS became the first financial institution in Australia to introduce successfully both Visa credit and debit cards.

1993 saw BBS receive a stockmarket listing. Its growth continued throughout the 90s when it acquired National Mortgage Market Corporation Limited in 1995, a mortgage-manager company focussed on loan introducers and brokers. In that year BBS converted to a bank with the name Bendigo Bank. In 1997, Bendigo Bank acquired Monte Paschi Australia from Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, an Italian banking group, for AU$42.255M. Monte Paschi Australia was renamed Cassa Commerciale Australia in the same year.

Bendigo Bank's "Community Bank" program began in 1998—the first branches opened in the western Victoria towns of Minyip and Rupanyup on 26 June and the first metropolitan branch in the outer eastern suburb of Upwey on 19 October.

The late 1990s saw a further development when Bendigo Bank and Elders Australia formed Elders Rural Bank, a joint venture company focused on agribusiness and rural Australia. Bendigo Bank was also the first financial institution to introduce a mortgage offset account, now a standard banking product in Australia.

In 1999 the bank formed an alliance involving mutual shareholding with IOOF.

The bank received its operating licence in 2000 and absorbed the First Australian Building Society in Queensland, acquiring a new regional headquarters in Ipswich. That same year saw a A$75 million head office expansion in Bendigo.

In 2002 Bendigo Bank introduced the first "Green Loans" in Australia and formed "Community Sector Banking", a banking joint venture with the not-for-profit sector.

Three years later, Bendigo Bank built a regional headquarters on Harbour Esplanade in Melbourne, Docklands.

In 2007 Bendigo Bank rejected Bank of Queensland's merger/takeover proposal, and merged with Adelaide Bank. The A$4 billion takeover was completed on 30 November. Subsequently, shareholders voted to change the company's name to Bendigo and Adelaide Bank Limited, with the change taking effect from 31 March 2008.

On 11 December 2008, Bendigo Bank's new headquarters in Bendigo was completed. The 26th Prime Minister of Australia, Kevin Rudd, was present at the opening.

On 16 December 2011, Bendigo Bank announced that it had reached agreement with the Bank of Cyprus Group to acquire its 100 per cent owned Australian subsidiary, Bank of Cyprus Australia Limited (BOCAL). The purchase was for an estimated total consideration of A$130 million. It was renamed Delphi Bank. In 2022 BBL commenced a program to absorb the Delphi Bank branding, converting all customer products to Bendigo products and closing or re-branding Delphi branches Bendigo Bank branches.

In April 2013, Bendigo Bank's subsidiary 'Oxford Funding' was rebranded as Bendigo Debtor Finance, offering independent credit assessments and cash-flow solutions to businesses on a national level.

In June 2014, the bank became the first in Australia to adopt an investment policy which shunned fossil fuel investments. "Specifically, the bank does not lend to companies for whom the core activity is the exploration, mining, manufacture or export of thermal coal or coal seam gas."

On 1 March 2015, a group of credit unions diverged from Cuscal and aligned with Bendigo and Adelaide Bank to form Alliance Bank. The credit unions were AWA Credit Union/Mutual (Geelong, 1969), Circle Credit Co-operative Limited (Deer Park, 1969), Service One Credit Union (ACT, circa 1950), BDCU (Berrima, 1963), and in 2018 NOVA (Newcastle, 1964). Alliance Bank maintains some autonomy, but conducts regulated banking activities through Bendigo and Adelaide Bank. They still market themselves under their original name suffixed with "Alliance Bank" and declare themselves agents of Bendigo and Adelaide Bank. In January 2024 at a AWA Mutual Ltd shareholder meeting to vote on the proposed merger with Beyond Bank Australia Ltd took place on 29 January 2024. The voting process ended with 98% of votes being cast “FOR” the merger. Final regulatory and court approvals are set to conclude on 15 February 2024, leading the way for AWA to end the assocaiation with BBL and merge with Beyond Bank Australia.

Community Bank program
Community banking is based on a 'profit-with-purpose' model, which means that profits are returned directly to the community that has generated them, after paying branch running costs. The program was a response to the massive closure of bank branches, predominantly in rural areas. Bendigo Bank has since extended the program to major metropolitan areas with existing bank services. Since 1998, Bendigo Community Banks have reinvested more than $272 million back into local communities.

Subsidiaries of Bendigo and Adelaide Bank include Community Bank, Rural Bank, Up, Bendigo Debtor Finance (formerly Oxford Funding), Leveraged Equities, Sandhurst Trustees, Delphi Bank (formerly Bank of Cyprus Australia), and Community Enterprise Foundation. ,

Bendigo and Adelaide Bank had acquired Wheeler Financial Services which was merged with Bendigo Financial Planning, and also acquired Southern Finance.

title: Bendigo and Adelaide Bank


text:
Category:Kansas City Scouts players

Kansas City Scouts players. __NOGALLERY__

title: Category:Kansas City Scouts players


text:
List of Coccinellidae genera

The family Coccinellidae ("ladybirds", "lady beetles", or "lady bugs") is divided into seven subfamilies, many tribes, and about 360 genera:

Tribe Chilocorini
Chilocorini – Species:Chilocorini
 * Anisorcus
 * Arawana
 * Axion
 * Brumoides
 * Brumus
 * Chapinaria
 * Chilocorus
 * Cladis
 * Curinus
 * Egius
 * Endochilus
 * Exochomus
 * Halmus
 * Harpasus
 * Orcus
 * Phaenochilus
 * Priscibrumus
 * Sicardiana
 * Simmondsius
 * Trichorcus
 * Xanthocorus
 * Zagreus

Tribe Platynaspidini

 * Boschalis
 * Crypticolus
 * Phymatosternus
 * Platynaspidius
 * Platynaspis

Tribe Telsimiini

 * Hypocyrema
 * Telsimia

Tribe Azyini

 * Azya
 * Pseudoazya

Tribe Coccidulini

 * Adoxellus
 * Auladoria
 * Botynella
 * Bucolinus
 * Bucolus
 * Bura
 * Coccidula
 * Cranoryssus
 * Cryptolaemus
 * Empia
 * Erithionyx
 * Epipleuria
 * Eupalea
 * Eupaleoides
 * Geodimmockius
 * Hazisia
 * Hypoceras
 * Microrhizobius
 * Nothocolus
 * Nothorhyzobius
 * Orbipressus
 * Orynipus
 * Paracranoryssus
 * Psorolyma
 * Rhyzobius
 * Rodatus
 * Scymnodes
 * Stenadalia
 * Stenococcus
 * Syntona

Tribe Cranophorini

 * Cranophorus
 * Hoangus

Tribe Exoplectrini

 * Ambrocharis
 * Anisorhizobius
 * Aulis
 * Chapinula
 * Chnoodes
 * Coeliaria
 * Cyrtaulis
 * Dioria
 * Exoplectra
 * Gordonita
 * Incurvus
 * Neorhizobius
 * Neoryssomus
 * Novaulis
 * Oridia
 * Peralda
 * Rhizoryssomus
 * Sicardinus
 * Sidonis
 * Siola
 * Sumnius

Tribe Lithophilini

 * Lithophilus

Tribe Monocorynini

 * Mimolithophilus
 * Monocoryna

Tribe Oryssomini

 * Oryssomus
 * Pseudoryssomus

Tribe Poriini

 * Poria

Tribe Coccinellini

 * Aaages
 * Adalia
 * Aiolocaria
 * Alloneda
 * Anatis
 * Anisolemnia
 * Anisosticta
 * Antineda
 * Anegleis
 * Aphidecta
 * Archegleis
 * Australoneda
 * Autotela
 * Bothrocalvia
 * Callicaria
 * Calvia
 * Cheilomenes
 * Chelonitis
 * Chloroneda
 * Cirocolla
 * Cleobora
 * Clynis
 * Coccinella
 * Coccinula
 * Coelophora
 * Coleomegilla
 * Cycloneda
 * Declivitata
 * Docimocaria
 * Dysis
 * Egleis
 * Eoadalia
 * Eoanemia
 * Eriopis
 * Erythroneda
 * Eumegilla
 * Harmonia
 * Heterocaria
 * Heteroneda
 * Hippodamia
 * Hysia
 * Illeis
 * Lemnia
 * Lioadalia
 * Macronaemia
 * Megalocaria
 * Megillina
 * Micraspis
 * Microcaria
 * Microneda
 * Mononeda
 * Mulsantina
 * Myrrha
 * Myzia
 * Naemia
 * Neda
 * Nedina
 * Neocalvia
 * Neoharmonia
 * Nesis
 * Oenopia
 * Oiocaria
 * Olla
 * Oxytella
 * Palaeoneda
 * Paranaemia
 * Phrynolemnia
 * Procula
 * Propylea
 * Pseudadonia
 * Pseudoenopia
 * Sospita
 * Sphaeroneda
 * Spiloneda
 * Synona
 * Synonycha
 * Xanthadalia

Tribe Discotomini

 * Discotoma
 * Euseladia
 * Pristonema
 * Seladia
 * Vodella

Tribe Halyziini

 * Eothea
 * Halyzia
 * Macroilleis
 * Metamyrrha
 * Neohalyzia
 * Oxytella
 * Protothea
 * Psyllobora
 * Vibidia

Tribe Singhikalini

 * Singhikalia

Tribe Tytthaspidini

 * Bulaea
 * Isora
 * Tytthaspis

Tribe Epilachnini

 * Adira
 * Afidenta
 * Afidentula
 * Afissa
 * Afissula
 * Afilachna
 * Chazeauiana
 * Chnootriba
 * Diekeana
 * Epilachna
 * Henosepilachna
 * Macrolasia
 * Papuaepilachna
 * Solanophila
 * Subafissa
 * Subcoccinella
 * Toxotoma
 * Uniparodentata

Tribe Epivertini

 * Epiverta

Tribe Eremochilini

 * Eremochilus

Tribe Madaini

 * Cynegetis
 * Damatula
 * Figura
 * Lorma
 * Mada
 * Malata
 * Megatela
 * Merma
 * Pseudodira
 * Tropha

Tribe Noviini

 * Novius

Tribe Ortaliini

 * Amida
 * Amidellus
 * Anortalia
 * Azoria
 * Elnidortalia
 * Ortalia
 * Ortalistes
 * Paramida
 * Rhynchortalia
 * Scymnhova
 * Zenoria

Tribe Aspidimerini

 * Acarinus
 * Aspidimerus
 * Cryptogonus
 * Pseudaspidimerus

Tribe Brachiacanthadini

 * Brachiacantha
 * Cyra
 * Hinda

Tribe Cryptognathini

 * Cryptognatha

Tribe Diomini

 * Andrzej
 * Decadiomus
 * Dichaina
 * Diomus
 * Heterodiomus
 * Moiradiomus

Tribe Hyperaspidini

 * Blaisdelliana
 * Corystes
 * Erratodiomus
 * Helesius
 * Hyperaspidius
 * Hyperaspis
 * Magnodiomus
 * Mimoscymnus
 * Planorbata
 * Thalassa
 * Tiphysa

Tribe Pentiliini

 * Calloeneis
 * Curticornis
 * Pentilia

Tribe Scymnini

 * Acoccidula
 * Aponephus
 * Apseudoscymnus
 * Axinoscymnus
 * Clitostethus
 * Cycloscymnus
 * Cyrema
 * Depressoscymnus
 * Didion
 * Geminosipho
 * Horniolus
 * Keiscymnus
 * Leptoscymnus
 * Midus
 * Nephus
 * Parascymnus
 * Parasidis
 * Propiptus
 * Sasajiscymnus
 * Scymniscus
 * Scymnobius
 * Scymnomorpha
 * Scymnus
 * Sidis
 * Veronicobius

Tribe Scymnillini

 * Viridigloba
 * Zagloba
 * Zilus

Tribe Selvadiini

 * Selvadius

Tribe Stethorini

 * Stethorus
 * Parastethorus

Tribe Argentipilosini

 * Argentipilosa

Tribe Carinodulini

 * Carinodula
 * Carinodulina
 * Carinodulinka

Tribe Cephaloscymnini

 * Aneaporia
 * Cephaloscymnus
 * Neaporia
 * Prodilis
 * Prodiloides

Tribe Limnichopharini

 * Limnichopharus

Tribe Microweiseini

 * Coccidophilus
 * Cryptoweisea
 * Dichaina
 * Diloponis
 * Gnathoweisea
 * Microcapillata
 * Microfreudea
 * Microweisea
 * Nipus
 * Pseudosmilia
 * Sarapidus
 * Stictospilus

Tribe Plotinini

 * Ballida
 * Buprestodera
 * Catanaplotina
 * Haemoplotina
 * Paraplotina
 * Plotina
 * Protoplotina
 * Sphaeroplotina

Tribe Serangiini

 * Catana
 * Catanella
 * Delphastus
 * Microserangium
 * Serangiella
 * Serangium

Tribe Shirozuellini

 * Ghanius
 * Medamatento
 * Promecopharus
 * Sasajiella
 * Shirozuella

Tribe Sticholotidini

 * Boschalis
 * Bucolellus
 * Chilocorellus
 * Coelolotis
 * Coelopterus
 * Filipinolotis
 * Glomerella
 * Habrolotis
 * Hemipharus
 * Jauravia
 * Lenasa
 * Lotis
 * Mimoserangium
 * Neaptera
 * Nelasa
 * Neojauravia
 * Neotina
 * Nesina
 * Nesolotis
 * Nexophallus
 * Paracoelopterus
 * Parajauravia
 * Paranelasa
 * Paranesolotis
 * Parinesa
 * Pharopsis
 * Pharoscymnus
 * Phlyctenolotis
 * Semiviride
 * Sticholotis
 * Stictobura
 * Sulcolotis
 * Synonychimorpha
 * Trimallena
 * Xamerpillus
 * Xanthorcus
 * Xestolotis

Tribe Sukunahikonini

 * Hikonasukuna
 * Orculus
 * Paraphellus

title: List of Coccinellidae genera


text:
User:Finog

Computational scientist working in academia.

title: User:Finog


text:
Rotating black hole

A rotating black hole is a black hole that possesses angular momentum. In particular, it rotates about one of its axes of symmetry.

All celestial objects – planets, stars (Sun), galaxies, black holes – spin.

Types of black holes
There are four known, exact, black hole solutions to the Einstein field equations, which describe gravity in general relativity. Two of those rotate: the Kerr and Kerr–Newman black holes. It is generally believed that every black hole decays rapidly to a stable black hole; and, by the no-hair theorem, that (except for quantum fluctuations) stable black holes can be completely described at any moment in time by these 11 numbers:
 * mass–energy M,
 * linear momentum P (three components),
 * angular momentum J (three components),
 * position X (three components),
 * electric charge Q.

These numbers represent the conserved attributes of an object which can be determined from a distance by examining its electromagnetic and gravitational fields. All other variations in the black hole will either escape to infinity or be swallowed up by the black hole. This is because anything happening inside the black hole horizon cannot affect events outside of it.

In terms of these properties, the four types of black holes can be defined as follows:

Note that astrophysical black holes are expected to have non-zero angular momentum, due to their formation via collapse of rotating stellar objects, but effectively zero charge, since any net charge will quickly attract the opposite charge and neutralize. For this reason the term "astrophysical" black hole is usually reserved for the Kerr black hole.

Formation
Rotating black holes are formed in the gravitational collapse of a massive spinning star or from the collapse or collision of a collection of compact objects, stars, or gas with a total non-zero angular momentum. As all known stars rotate and realistic collisions have non-zero angular momentum, it is expected that all black holes in nature are rotating black holes. Since observed astronomical objects do not possess an appreciable net electric charge, only the Kerr solution has astrophysical relevance.

In late 2006, astronomers reported estimates of the spin rates of black holes in The Astrophysical Journal. A black hole in the Milky Way, GRS 1915+105, may rotate 1,150 times per second, approaching the theoretical upper limit.

Relation with gamma ray bursts
The formation of a rotating black hole by a collapsar is thought to be observed as the emission of gamma ray bursts.

Conversion to a Schwarzschild black hole
A rotating black hole can produce large amounts of energy at the expense of its rotational energy. This can happen through the Penrose process inside the black hole's ergosphere, in the volume outside its event horizon. In some cases of energy extraction, a rotating black hole may gradually reduce to a Schwarzschild black hole, the minimum configuration from which no further energy can be extracted, although the Kerr black hole's rotation velocity will never quite reach zero.

Kerr metric, Kerr–Newman metric

A rotating black hole is a solution of Einstein's field equation. There are two known exact solutions, the Kerr metric and the Kerr–Newman metric, which are believed to be representative of all rotating black hole solutions, in the exterior region.

In the vicinity of a black hole, space curves so much that light rays are deflected, and very nearby light can be deflected so much that it travels several times around the black hole. Hence, when we observe a distant background galaxy (or some other celestial body), we may be lucky to see the same image of the galaxy multiple times, albeit more and more distorted. A complete mathematical description for how light bends around the equatorial plane of a Kerr black hole was published in 2021.

In 2022, it was mathematically demonstrated that the equilibrium found by Roy Kerr in 1963 was stable and thus black holes—which were the solution to Einstein's equation of 1915—were stable.

State transition
Rotating black holes have two temperature states they can exist in: heating (losing energy) and cooling.

In popular culture
Kerr black holes are featured extensively in the 2009 visual novel Steins;Gate (also TV / manga), for their possibilities in time travelling. These are, however, magnified greatly for the purpose of story telling. Kerr black holes are also key to the "Swan Song" project by Joe Davis. They are also a key element in the 2014 film Interstellar.

title: Rotating black hole


text:
Covenant College

Covenant College is a private, liberal arts, Christian college in Lookout Mountain, Georgia, United States, located near Chattanooga, Tennessee. As the college of the Presbyterian Church in America, Covenant teaches subjects from a Reformed theological worldview. Approximately 1,000 students attend Covenant each year.

History
Founded in 1955 in Pasadena, California, as an agency of the Bible Presbyterian Church, Covenant College and Covenant Theological Seminary moved its campus to St. Louis, Missouri, the following year. Following a split among the Bible Presbyterians, it became affiliated with the Bible Presbyterian Church-Columbus Synod (renamed the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in 1961). In 1964, it separated from the seminary, moving to Lookout Mountain, in Georgia. In 1965, it was the site of the merger between the Evangelical Presbyterian Church and the Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Synod to form the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod. It became and remains an agency of the Presbyterian Church in America after the 1982 merger between the RPCES and the PCA. As such, Covenant stands in the Reformed and Presbyterian traditions.

Presidents

 * Robert G. Rayburn (1955–1965)
 * Marion Barnes (1965–1978)
 * Martin Essenburg (1978–1987)
 * Frank A. Brock (1987–2002)
 * Niel Nielson (2002–2012)
 * J. Derek Halvorson (2012–2023)
 * Brad Voyles (2023–Present)

Academics

Covenant College offers liberal arts education from a Reformed Christian perspective. The focus of the college is found in its motto, "In All Things Christ Preeminent." The purpose of this focus is to ground excellence in academic inquiry in a biblically grounded frame of reference.

The college offers Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts in Teaching, and Master of Education degrees, and academic certificates in Arts Administration, Entrepreneurship, Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability, Journalism and Society, Medical Ethics Consultation, Neuroscience, and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL).

The college has been accredited since 1971 by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS).

Research Institutions
The Chalmers Center for Economic and Community Development (established 1999), which is a 501(c)3 non-profit, was founded at Covenant to offer courses and programs in community and economic development in the urban United States and throughout the majority world.

Student publications
Students at Covenant publish a bi-weekly newspaper called The Bagpipe, which includes reporting on campus news, events, and local issues as well as art and media reviews, opinions, and more. A satirical version is published annually on April 1 called The Windbag with takes on campus life and culture.

Covenant's literary magazine is The Thorn and has been published annually since 1970. The magazine features creative work from the students, including poetry, short stories, and personal essays.

Faculty
Covenant has 64 full-time faculty, 89% of whom have doctorates or other terminal degrees. The student-faculty ratio is 12:1. This ratio allows "personal, small class size."

Faculty are required to state their agreement with the Westminster Confession of Faith.

Athletics
The Covenant athletic teams are called the Scots. The college is a member of the NCAA Division III, primarily competing in the newly created Collegiate Conference of the South (CCS) since the 2022–2023 academic year. The Scots previously competed in the D-III USA South Athletic Conference (USA South) from 2013–2014 to 2021–2022; the defunct D-III Great South Athletic Conference (GSAC) from 2010–2011 to 2011–2012 (although its women's sports continued until 2012–2013); as an NCAA D-III Independent during the 2009–2010 and 2012–2013 school years; and in the Appalachian Athletic Conference (AAC) of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) from 2001–2002 to 2008–2009.

Covenant competes in 14 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field and volleyball. Former sports included women's golf.

Campus
The campus is located at the top of Lookout Mountain in Dade County, Georgia, near the city of Lookout Mountain, Georgia.

Carter Hall
Carter Hall is the signature building on campus. It was originally named The Lookout Mountain Hotel and was built in 1928 by the Dinkler Hotel Corporation and run by Paul Carter, for whom the building is now named. It has been rumored, although not confirmed, that Elizabeth Taylor and Eddie Fisher spent their honeymoon there. It was popularly known as the "Castle in the Clouds." However, since it was completed less than a year before the Great Depression, the hotel soon went bankrupt. It opened and closed several times prior to 1960, when it shut down for the last time. Bill Brock, the grandfather of the college's fourth president, Frank Brock, served on the original board of the hotel.

Both the exterior and interior of Carter Hall are Austro-Bavarian Gothic revival in style. The building has had two towers in its history. The first tower was similar in design to the Frauenkirche (Cathedral of Our Lady) in Munich. Poor maintenance before acquisition by the college required it to be rebuilt. The new tower, though considerably simpler in style, maintains the architectural style of the original tower.

Covenant College bought the building in 1964, upon relocating to Lookout Mountain. During the first few years of Covenant's operation on the mountain, all the functions of the college were contained within Carter Hall. At that time, it housed the chapel, the library, the classrooms, the professors' offices, dorm rooms, the dining hall, and administrative offices. Today, it has all of these except the library and chapel, as well as a snack bar, the campus bookstore, and the mailroom.

From 2015 to 2017, Carter underwent significant renovations. They included improving the stucco, fixing insulation and moisture issues, and renovating the tower.

Notable alumni

 * Rifqa Bary (2018), religious convert.
 * Aaron Belz (1993), poet
 * Joel Belz (1962), founder, God's World Publications, former publisher, WORLD Magazine
 * Mark David Chapman (attended one semester), criminal, found guilty in the 1980 murder of British musician John Lennon
 * Wes King (1981), recording artist
 * Kathryn Kimball Mizelle (2009), United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida
 * Paul Moser (1979), analytical philosopher
 * Isaac Wardell (2005), musician and music producer

title: Covenant College