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John Henry Mackay

John Henry Mackay (February 6, 1864 – May 16, 1933) was a Scottish-German egoist anarchist, thinker and writer. Born in Scotland and raised in Germany, Mackay was the author of Die Anarchisten (The Anarchists, 1891) and Der Freiheitsucher (The Searcher for Freedom, 1921).

Later in life, under the pseudonym Sagitta, he became an advocate for homosexual love between men and boys.

Biography
Mackay was born in Greenock, Scotland, on 6 February 1864. His mother came from a prosperous Hamburg family. His father was a Scottish marine insurance broker who died when Mackay was less than two years old. Mother and son then returned to Germany, where Mackay grew up.

He gained fame as a poet and author of naturalist novels. Some of his earliest poems attracted the attention of censors for their socialist sentiments, so Mackay republished them in Switzerland.

During a one-year stay in London (1887/88), he discovered the works of Max Stirner, whose book Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum (The Ego and its Own) had nearly been forgotten in the second half of the 19th century. Stirner soon became his life's topic. When an English translation of Stirner's work was published in 1907, James Huneker wrote: "To Mackay's labors we owe all we know of a man who was as absolutely swallowed up by the years as if he had never existed."

The publication of the novel Die Anarchisten: Kulturgemälde aus dem Ende des XIX Jahrhunderts in Zurich in 1891 and in an English translation as The Anarchists: A Picture of Civilization at the Close of the Nineteenth Century the same year brought him far wider fame. The novel "tirelessly championed" the ideas of Stirner. He further lifted this 19th century philosopher from obscurity by writing the biography Max Stirner – sein Leben und sein Werk (1898).

His novel Der Schwimmer: Die Geschichte einer Leidenschaft (The Swimmer: The Story of a Passion) (1901), was one of the first sports novels, set in the world of competitive swimming and diving. Mackay described himself as "always a passionate swimmer" thought not a sport for him. He dedicated the book to "my beloved art of swimming". The novel describes "the rise and fall of an individual who prides himself on his individuality, but who finally comes to see that individuality by itself is not enough to sustain him".

After his mother's death, he embarked on a literary project under the pseudonym Sagitta, to argue on behalf on homosexual relations between men and boys. He himself was attracted to boys aged 14 to 17. He planned to publish several volumes under the pseudonym "Sagitta", but government authorities had the early ones banned for indecency in 1909. His publisher never revealed Mackay's identity, though he was subject to fines, which Mackay paid on his behalf. Mackay published these works and additional material as Die Buecher der namelosen Liebe von Sagitta (Sagitta's Books of the Love without a Name). Included was Fenny Skaller, an autobiographical account of his own love interests. The series was conceived in 1905 and completed in 1913. One of his themes was the variability of sexual identity and expression. He attacked the medical establishment's attempt to create categories and labels: "For physicians, people are only valuable when they are sick."

He published the novel Der Freiheitsucher (The Freedom Seeker), a sequel to Die Anarchisten, in 1920. It failed to achieve the earlier volume's success and Mackay was ruined financially by the inflation of the early Weimar years.

He nevertheless published his seventh Sagitta novel in 1926, Der Puppenjunge (The Hustler). Providing a blurb for the 1985 English translation, Christopher Isherwood wrote that the novel "gives a picture of the Berlin sexual underworld early in this century which I know, from my own experience, to be authentic." It depicted the social world of "young men who prostitute themselves in Berlin, without much concern for their own sexual identity or that of their clients". In the course of a year centered on his 16th birthday, Gunther learns to survive in Berlin, selling himself and socializing with his peers, living the narrowest of lives, without plans beyond surviving another day. His counterpart Hermann, six or seven years older, "tedious and ineffectual" in one critic's view, arrives to take a job in a publishing house and is destroyed by his infatuation with Gunther. In the closing pages, a new character argues for the decriminalization of same-sex relations and tells Hermann his love for Gunther was certain to end as Gunther became a man, asserting Mackay's particular sexual interest and undercutting Hermann's sentimental vision.

He published his last novel Der Unschuldige: Die Geschichte Einer Wandlung (The Innocent: The Story of a Transformation) in 1931; it was the first work published under his own name to include homosexual characters.

A volume of his selected works was published in a single volume in 1928.

Mackay died in Stahnsdorf, a town not far from Berlin, on 16 May 1933. His will asked for his manuscripts and letters to be destroyed, and for one of his creditors to receive his unsold books. His will specified that any new printings of the Sagitta novels should be published under his own name.

A brief notice of his death in the New York Times noted he became famous in the 1890s for Anarchists and Storm (his poetry collection) and said that in Germany he was called "an anarchistic lyricist".

Mackay lived in Berlin from 1896 onwards and became a friend of Benedict Friedlaender, a scientist and the co-founder of the Gemeinschaft der Eigenen.

Mackay was published in the United States in his friend Benjamin Tucker's magazine, Liberty.

Adaptations
Max Reger set a Mackay poem as "Morgen" (Op. 66 No. 10).

Richard Strauss set two of Mackay's poems to music in his Vier Lieder for high voice and piano (Op. 27), a wedding gift to his wife in 1894, "Morgen!" and "Heimliche Aufforderung". Other settings of Mackay's poems by Strauss include "Verführung" for voice and orchestra in 1896 (Op. 33 No. 1) and "In der Campagna" for voice and piano in 1899 (Op. 41 No. 2).

Arnold Schoenberg set Mackay's poem "Am Wegrand" to music, his Op. 6 No. 6.

Works (incomplete)

 * Kinder des Hochlands (1885)
 * Children of the Highlands
 * Anna Hermsdorf (1885)
 * Sturm (1888), poetry collection, the first of several editions with additions
 * Die Anarchisten (1891)
 * The Anarchists
 * Albert Schnells Untergang. Schluß der Geschichte ohne Handlung: Die letzte Pflicht (1895)
 * Albert Schnell's Downfall. End of the Story without Plot: The Last Duty
 * Max Stirner – sein Leben und sein Werk (1898)
 * Max Stirner, his Life and Work
 * Der Schwimmer (1900)
 * The Swimmer
 * Der Sybarit (1903)
 * The Sybarites
 * Hans, mein Freund und Die Wasserratte (1910)
 * Hans, my friend and the water rat
 * Der Freiheitsucher. Psychologie einer Entwicklung (ca. 1920)
 * The Freedom Seeker. psychology of development
 * Der Puppenjunge (1926)
 * The Hustler
 * Die Namenlose Liebe, seven volumes (1906–1926)
 * The Love without a Name
 * Der Unschuldige (1936)
 * The Innocent

title: John Henry Mackay


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List of universities in Ukraine

The following is a list of universities in Ukraine organized by oblast (region). Higher education in Ukraine is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine.

Cherkasy Oblast
The following universities are located in the Cherkasy Oblast.

Cherkasy

 * Cherkasy National University
 * Cherkasy State Business College
 * Cherkasy State Technological University
 * East European University of Economics and Management
 * Rauf Ablyazov East European University

Uman

 * Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University
 * Uman National University of Horticulture

Chernihiv Oblast
The following universities are located in the Chernihiv Oblast.

Chernihiv

 * Chernihiv Polytechnic National University
 * T.G. Chernihiv College National University Shevchenko

Nizhyn

 * Nizhyn Gogol State University

Chernivtsi Oblast
The following universities are located in the Chernivtsi Oblast.

Chernivtsi

 * Chernivtsi University
 * Bukovinian State Medical University

Crimea
Although included here for historical purposes, Crimea was annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014 as part of the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War.

The following universities are in Crimea.

Sevastopol

 * First Ukrainian Maritime Institute
 * Sevastopol National Technical University

Simferopol

 * Crimean University of Culture, Arts and Tourism
 * Medical Academy Named after S.I. Georgievsky of V.I. Vernadsky CFU (aka Crimea State Medical University)
 * Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University (currently operating in Kyiv)

Dnipropetrovsk Oblast
The following colleges and universities are in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.

Dnipro

 * Alfred Nobel University
 * Dnipro Institute of Medicine and Public Health
 * Dnipro Medical Institute of Conventional and Alternative Medicine
 * Dnipro National University of Rail Transport
 * Dnipro Polytechnic
 * Dnipro State Academy of Physical Culture and Sports
 * Dnipro State Agrarian and Economic University
 * Dnipro State Medical University
 * Dnipro University of Technology
 * Dnipropetrovsk State University of Internal Affairs
 * International Humanitarian and Pedagogical Institute “Beit-Hana”
 * Interregional Academy of Personnel Management
 * National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine
 * Oles Honchar Dnipro National University
 * Prydniprovska State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
 * Ukrainian State University of Chemical Technology
 * Ukrainian State University of Science and Technologies
 * University of Customs and Finance

Kamianske

 * Dniprovskyi State Technical University

Kryvyi Rih

 * Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after Mykhailo Tugan-Baranovsky (DonNUET)
 * Kryvyi Rih National University
 * Kryvyi Rih Professional College of National Aviation University
 * Kryvyi Rih State Pedagogical University
 * Kryvyi Rih State University of Economics and Technology
 * State University of Economics and Technology

Donbas
The following universities are located in the Donbas. Parts of Donbas were annexed by the Russian Federation during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War.

Kramatorsk

 * Donbas National Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture

Lysychansk

 * Donbas State Technical University

Donetsk Oblast
The following universities are located in the Donetsk Oblast.

Donetsk

 * Donetsk National Technical University
 * Donetsk State University of Management

Mariupol

 * Mariupol State University
 * Pryazovskyi State Technical University

Sloviansk

 * Donbas State Pedagogical University

Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast
The following colleges and universities are in the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast.

Ivano-Frankivsk

 * Ivano-Frankivsk National Medical University
 * Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas
 * Ivano-Frankivsk Professional College
 * Ivano-Frankivsk Vocational College of Technology and Business
 * King Danylo University
 * Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University

Kharkiv Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Kharkiv Oblast.

Kharkiv

 * H.S. Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University
 * Interregional Academy of Personnel Management
 * Ivan Kozhedub National Air Force University
 * Kharkiv College of Textiles and Design
 * Kharkiv I.P. Kotlyarevsky National University of Arts
 * Kharkiv Institute of Trade and Economics
 * Kharkiv International Medical University
 * Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education
 * Kharkiv National Academy of Urban Economy
 * Kharkiv National Automobile and Highway University
 * Kharkiv National Kotlyarevsky University of Arts
 * Kharkiv National Medical University
 * Kharkiv National University of Civil Engineering and Architecture
 * Kharkiv National University of Economics
 * Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs
 * Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics
 * Kharkiv Petro Vasylenko National Technical University of Agriculture
 * Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute
 * Kharkiv Regional Medical College
 * Kharkiv State Academy of Culture
 * Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts
 * Kharkiv State Academy of Physical Culture
 * Kharkiv State University of Food Technology and Trade
 * Kharkiv State Zooveterinary Academy
 * Luhansk National Agrarian University
 * National Aerospace University – Kharkiv Aviation Institute
 * National Scientific Center Hon. Prof. M. S. Bokarius Forensic Science Institute
 * National University of Civil Defense of Ukraine
 * National University of Kharkiv
 * National University of Pharmacy
 * O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy
 * People's Ukrainian Academy
 * SHEI Banking University
 * Simon Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics
 * Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy
 * Ukrainian State University of Railway Transport
 * V. Dokuchaev Kharkiv National Agrarian University
 * V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University
 * Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University

Kherson Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Kherson Oblast.

Kherson

 * International University of Business and Law
 * Kherson National Technical University
 * Kherson State Agrarian and Economic University
 * Kherson State Maritime Academy
 * Kherson State University

Khmelnytskyi Oblast
The following universities are located in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast.

Kamianets-Podilskyi

 * Kamyanets-Podilsky Ivan Ohienko National University
 * Podilsky State Agrarian Technical University

Khmelnytskyi

 * Khmelnytskyi National University
 * Khmelnytskyi University of Management and Law named after Leonid Yuzkov

Kirovohrad Oblast
The following universities are located in the Kirovohrad Oblast.

Kropyvnytskiy

 * Central Ukrainian National Technical University
 * Donetsk National Medical University
 * Flight Academy of the National Aviation University
 * Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State University

Oleksandriia

 * Classic Private University

Kyiv Oblast
The following colleges and universities are in Kyiv or the Kyiv Oblast district.

Bila Tserkva

 * Bila Tserkva National Agrarian University

Kyiv

 * Academy of Advocacy of Ukraine
 * Academy of Labour, Social Relations and Tourism
 * American University of Kyiv
 * Banking University Institute of Banking Technologies and Business (Kyiv)
 * Bogomolets National Medical University
 * Borys Grinchenko Kyiv Metropolitan University
 * Diplomatic Academy of Ukraine named after Hennadiy Udovenko
 * European University
 * Financial-Legal College
 * Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute (aka National Technical University of Ukraine)
 * Institute of Ecology of Economy and Law
 * Institute of Neurosurgery named after Acad. A .P. Romodanov National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
 * International Academy of Ecology and Medicine
 * International Christian University – Kyiv
 * International European University
 * International Institute of Business
 * International Scientific and Technical University
 * International Solomon University
 * International University of Finances
 * Interregional Academy of Personnel Management
 * KROK University
 * Kyiv Academy of Hairdressing Art
 * Kyiv College of Communication
 * Kyiv Institute of Business and Technology
 * Kyiv International University
 * Kyiv Medical University of UAFM
 * Kyiv Municipal Academy of Circus and Variety Arts
 * Kyiv National I. K. Karpenko-Kary Theatre, Cinema and Television University
 * Kyiv National Linguistic University
 * Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture
 * Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts
 * Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design
 * Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics
 * Kyiv School of Economics
 * Kyiv Slavonic University
 * Kyiv State Choreographic College
 * Lviv State University of Internal Affairs
 * Military Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technologies
 * Mykhailo Boichuk Kyiv State Academy of Decorative Applied Arts and Design
 * National Academy of Fine Art and Architecture
 * National Academy of Internal Affairs
 * National Academy of Management
 * National Academy of Statistics, Accounting and Auditing
 * National Academy of Visual Arts and Architecture
 * National Aviation University
 * National Defense University of Ukraine
 * National Pedagogical Drahomanov University
 * National Transport University
 * National University of Food Technologies
 * National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
 * National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine
 * National University of Ukraine on Physical Education and Sport
 * Open International University of Human Development "Ukraine"
 * Open University of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
 * P. L. Shupyk National Healthcare University of Ukraine
 * R.Glier Kyiv Institute of Music
 * Salvador Dali Academy of Contemporary Arts
 * State University of Information and Communication Technologies
 * State University of Infrastructure and Technologies
 * Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
 * Taurida National V.I. Vernadsky University
 * University Education Management
 * University of the State Fiscal Service of Ukraine
 * Ukrainian-American Concordia University
 * Ukrainian Institute of Arts and Sciences
 * Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music
 * Ukrainian State Employment Service Training Institute
 * Vadym Hetman Kyiv National Economic University

Pereiaslav

 * Hryhorii Skovoroda University in Pereiaslav

Luhansk Oblask
The followign universities are locatedd in the Luhansk Oblast.

Luhansk

 * East Ukrainian Volodymyr Dahl National University
 * Luhansk State Academy of Culture and Arts
 * Luhansk State Medical University
 * Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University

Lviv Oblast
The following colleges and universities are in the Lviv Oblast.

Drohobych

 * Drohobych State Pedagogical University of Ivan Franko

Lviv

 * Lviv National Agrarian University
 * Army Academy of Hetman Petro Sahaydachnyy
 * Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University
 * Institute of Physical Optics
 * Ivan Franko National University of Lviv
 * Lviv Banking Institute of University of Banking
 * Lviv National Academy of Arts
 * Lviv National Music Academy
 * Lviv National Stepan Gzhytsky University of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology
 * Lviv Polytechnic
 * Lviv State University of Life Safety
 * Lviv State University of Physical Culture
 * Lviv University of Trade and Economics
 * National Forestry and Wood Technology University of Ukraine
 * Roman Catholic Seminary in Lviv
 * Ukrainian Academy of Printing
 * Ukrainian Catholic University

Mykolaiv Oblast
The following universities are located in the Mykolaiv Oblast.

Mykolaiv

 * Admiral Makarov National University of Shipbuilding
 * Mykolayiv National University named after V. Sukhomlynskyi
 * Mykolayiv State Agrarian University
 * Petro Mohyla Black Sea State University
 * Pylyp Orlyk International Classic University

Odesa Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Odesa Oblast district.

Izmail

 * Izmail State University of Humanities

Odesa

 * Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy
 * International Humanitarian University
 * K. D. Ushinsky South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University
 * National University Odesa Law Academy
 * Odesa Conservatory
 * Odesa Institute of Trade and Economics of Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics
 * Odesa International Medical University
 * Odesa Maritime Academy
 * Odessa Maritime College of Fish Industry named after O. Solyanyk
 * Odesa National Academy of Food Technologies
 * Odesa National Academy of Telecommunications
 * Odesa National Economics University
 * Odesa National Maritime University
 * Odesa National Medical University
 * Odesa National Polytechnic University
 * Odesa National Technological University
 * Odesa Regional Institute for Public Administration of the National Academy for Public Administration
 * Odesa State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
 * Odesa State Academy of Technical Regulation and Quality
 * Odesa State Agrarian University
 * Odesa State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
 * Odesa State Environmental University
 * Odesa University

Poltava Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Poltava Oblast district.

Kremenchuk

 * Kremenchuk Flight College of National Aviation University
 * Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University

Lubny
University of Luhansk, Lubny campus

Myrhorod

 * University of Luhansk, Myrhorod campus

Poltava

 * Poltava National Technical Yuri Kondratyuk University
 * Poltava National V. G. Korolenko Pedagogical University
 * Poltava State Agrarian Academy
 * Poltava State Medical and Dental University
 * Poltava State Medical University
 * Poltava University of Economics and Trade
 * University of Luhansk, Poltrava campus

Rivne Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Rivne Oblast district.

Ostroh

 * National University of Ostroh Academy

Rivne

 * International University of Economics and Humanities named after Academician Stepan Demianchuk
 * National University of Water Management and Nature Resources Use
 * Rivne State Humanities University

Sumy Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Sumy Oblast.

Hlukhiv

 * Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University of Oleksandr Dovzhenko
 * Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University

Sumy

 * Sumy National Agrarian University
 * Sumy State Pedagogical University named after A.S. Makarenko
 * Sumy State University
 * Ukrainian Academy of Banking of the National Bank of Ukraine

Ternopil Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Ternopil Oblast.

Ternopil

 * American-Ukrainian School of Computer Science
 * Ternopil Ivan Pul'uj National Technical University
 * Ternopil National Medical University
 * Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University
 * West Ukrainian National University

Vinnytsia Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Vinnytsia Oblast.

Vinnytsia

 * National Pirogov Memorial Medical University
 * Vasyl' Stus Donetsk National University
 * Vinnytsia Institute of Economics and Social Sciences
 * Vinnytsia National Medical University. N. I. Pirogov
 * Vinnytsia National Technical University
 * Vinnytsia State Agrarian University
 * Vinnytsia State Pedagogical University of Mykhailo Kotsyubynsky

Volyn Oblast
The following universities are located in the Volyn Oblast district.

Lutsk

 * Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University
 * Lutsk National Technical University

Zakarpattia Oblast
The following universities are located in the Zakarpattia Oblast.

Uzhhorod

 * Transcarpathian State University
 * Uzhhorod National University

Zaporizhzhia Oblast
The following colleges and universities are located in the Zaporizhzhia Oblast.

Berdiansk

 * Classic Private University, Berdiansk

Enerhodar

 * Classic Private University, Enerhodar

Melitopol

 * Classic Private University, Meltiopol
 * Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State Pedagogical University

Uzhhorod

 * Transcarpathian Academy of Arts

Zaporizhzhia

 * Berdiansk University of Management and Business
 * Classic Private University, Zaporizhzhia
 * Dmytro Motorny Tavria State Agrotechnological University
 * Zaporizhzhia Bible College and Seminary
 * Zaporizhzhia Institute of Economics and Information Technologies
 * Zaporizhzhia National University
 * Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic National University
 * Zaporizhzhia State Engineering Academy
 * Zaporizhzhia State Medical University

Zhytomyr Oblast
The following universities are located in the Zhytomyr Oblast.

Zhytomyr

 * Polissia National University
 * Zhytomyr Polytechnic State Technology

title: List of universities in Ukraine


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History of the Turks and Caicos Islands

Before European colonization, the Turks and Caicos Islands were inhabited by Taíno and Lucayan peoples. The first recorded European sighting of the islands now known as the Turks and Caicos occurred in 1512. In the subsequent centuries, the islands were claimed by several European powers with the British Empire eventually gaining control. For many years the islands were governed indirectly through Bermuda, the Bahamas, and Jamaica. When the Bahamas gained independence in 1973, the islands received their own governor, and have remained a separate autonomous British Overseas Territory since. In August 2009, the United Kingdom suspended the Turks and Caicos Islands' self-government following allegations of ministerial corruption. Home rule was restored in the islands after the November 2012 elections.

Pre-colonial history
Long before Christopher Columbus first set foot on the capital island of Grand Turk during his discovery voyage of the new world in 1492, the islands of the Turks and Caicos were inhabited by Taino and Lucayan peoples. These original settlers left a rich heritage of seafaring, salt raking and farming, which still lingers on today. Words such as "canoe", Caribbean and "caicos" are derived from the Arawak language. Even the name of the country comes from these earliest inhabitants. Turks is a reference to the indigenous Turk's head cactus and Caicos is from the Lucayan term "caya hico" meaning string of islands, words which entered the natives' language through an early colonist, Bernard Caicos.

For almost 700 years, the Taino and Lucayan were the sole residents of the islands, settling mainly in Middle Caicos and Grand Turk. They lived peacefully and were skilled in farming, fishing and gardening. They cultivated almost 50 types of plants, some of which can still be found on undeveloped sections of the islands.

Another peculiarity that has been passed down through the generations is a love of shellfish, particularly conch – which is actually available in abundance to this day, thanks to the work of the Caicos Conch farm, the only commercial conch farm in the world. It closed after damages caused by Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria in 2017.

Colonial history prior to settlement

Shortly after Columbus arrived in 1492, the Lucayan civilization disappeared and the islands remained sparsely populated for about 30 years.

The island Caico[s] received its name from the Lucayan caya hico, meaning 'string of islands'. The Turks Islands were named after the Turk's cap cactus, Melocactus intortus, whose red cephalium resembles the fez hat worn by Turkish men in the late Ottoman Empire.

During the second half of the XVI century the salt making industry was born. Bermudians came to Turks and Caicos to rake the salt and take it back to Bermuda. Salt was a precious commodity back then as it was used for preserving food. The shallow waters surrounding the islands were ideal for salt raking but treacherous for nautical navigation and more than 1000 ships were wrecked during the journey to and from.

The first recorded European sighting of the islands now known as the Turks and Caicos occurred in 1512. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the islands passed from Spanish, to French, to English (subsequently British) control, but none of the three powers ever established any settlements. In 1709, an early British colonist, Bernard Caicos, settled on the island.

From about 1690 to 1720, pirates hid in the cays of the Turks and Caicos Islands, attacking Spanish treasure galleons en route to Spain from Cuba, Hispaniola, and the Spanish possessions in Central America and Peru. The islands were not fully colonised until 1681, when salt collectors from Bermuda built the first permanent settlement on Grand Turk Island.

The salt collectors were drawn by the shallow waters around the islands that made salt mining a much easier process than in Bermuda. They occupied the Turks only seasonally, for six months a year, however, returning to Bermuda when it was no longer viable to rake salt. Their colonization established the British dominance of the archipelago that has lasted into the present day. Huge numbers of trees were felled by the Bermudians to discourage rainfall that would adversely affect the salt mining operation. This deforestation has yet to be repaired. Most of the salt mined in the Turks and Caicos Islands was sold through Bermudian merchant houses on the American seaboard, including in Newfoundland where it was used for preserving cod.

The agricultural industry sprung up in the islands in the late 1780s after 40 Loyalists arrived after the end of the American Revolution, primarily from Georgia and South Carolina. Granted large tracts of land by the British government to make up for what they lost in the American colonies, the Loyalists imported well over a thousand slaves and planted vast fields of sisal, harvested for its stiff fibre used in making various products such as rope.

Though in the short term highly successful, the cotton industry quickly went into decline, with hurricanes and pests destroying many crops. Though a few of the former cotton magnates changed to salt mining, just about every one of the original Loyalists had left the islands by 1820, leaving their slaves to live a subsistence lifestyle through fishing and hunter-gathering.

Bermudian century

In 1706, the French and the Spanish briefly captured the Turks and Caicos Islands from the Bermudians. Four years later the British reclaimed the islands for Bermuda but in subsequent years the place became primarily a haven for pirates and British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution. Ultimately, Britain retained the island country by the end of the century as part of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1766, after being controlled by the Spanish, French and British, Turks and Caicos became part of the Bahamas colony and was placed under the Bahamian government. Attempts to integrate the two distinct communities failed and in 1874 after "the Great Bahamas Hurricane" devastated much of the chain of islands, the Turks & Caicos Islands became dependencies to the British Crown Colony of Jamaica.

Bermuda spent much of the 18th century in a protracted legal battle with the Bahamas (which had itself been colonised by Bermudian Puritans in 1647) over the Turks Islands. Under British law, no colony could hold colonies of its own. The Turks Islands were not recognised by Britain either as a colony in its own right, or as a part of Bermuda. They were held to be, like rivers in Britain, for the common use. As a result, there was a great deal of political turmoil surrounding the ownership of the Turks (and Caicos).

Spanish and French forces seized the Turks in 1706, but Bermudian forces expelled them four years later in what was probably Bermuda's only independent military operation. The Bermudian privateer, the Rose, under the command of Captain Lewis Middleton, attacked a Spanish and a French privateer holding a captive English vessel. Defeating the two enemy vessels, the Rose then cleared out the thirty-man garrison left by the Spanish and French.

A virtual state-of-war existed between Bermuda and the Bahamas through much of the 18th century. When the Bermudian sloop Seaflower was seized by the Bahamians in 1701, the response of Bermuda Governor Bennett was to issue letters-of-marque to Bermudians vessels. The legal struggle with the Bahamas began in 1766, when the King's representative in the Bahamas, Andrew Symmer, on his own authority, wrote a constitution which legislated for and taxed the Bermudians on the Turks. The Secretary of State, Lord Hillsborough, for the Crown, issued orders that the Bermudian activities on the Turks should not be obstructed or restrained in any way. As a result of this order, Symmer's constitution was dissolved. The Bermudians on the Turks appointed commissioners to govern themselves, with the assent of the King's local agent. They drew up regulations for good government, but the Bahamian governor Shirley drew up his own regulations for the Turks and ordered that no one might work at salt raking who had not signed assent to his regulations.

Following this, a raker was arrested and the salt pans were seized and divided by force. The Bahamas government attempted to appoint judicial authorities for the Turks in 1768, but these were refused by the Bermudians. In 1773 the Bahamian government passed an act attempting to tax the salt produced in the Turks, but the Bermudians refused to pay it. In 1774, the Bahamians passed another, similar act, and this they submitted for the Crown's assent. The Crown passed this act on to the Bermudian government which objected to it, and which rejected Bahamian jurisdiction over the Turks. The Crown, as a consequence, refused assent of the Act as applied to include the Turks, and, in the form in which it finally passed, the Bahamas, but not the Turks, were included.

The Bermudians on the Turks continued to be governed under their own regulations, with the assent of the royal agent, until 1780, when a more formal version of those regulations was submitted for the assent of the Crown, which was given. Those regulations, issued as a royal order, stated that all British subjects had the right ("free liberty") to rake and gather salt on the Turks, providing that they conformed to the regulations, which expressly rejected Bahamian jurisdiction over the Turks. Despite this refutation by a higher authority of their right to impinge upon Bermudian activities on the Turks, the Bahamian government continued to harass the Bermudians (unsurprisingly, given the lucrativeness of the Turks salt trade).

Although the salt industry on the Turks had largely been a Bermudian preserve, it had been seen throughout the 17th century as the right of all British subjects to rake there, and small numbers of Bahamians had been involved. In 1783, the French landed a force on Grand Turk which a British force of 100 men, under then-Captain Horatio Nelson, was unable to dislodge.

Following this, the Bahamians were slow to return to the Turks, while the Bermudians quickly resumed salt production, sending sixty to seventy-five ships to the Turks each year, during the six months that salt could be raked. Nearly a thousand Bermudians spent part of the year on the Turks engaged in salt production, and the industry became more productive.

The Bahamas, meanwhile, was incurring considerable expense in absorbing loyalist refugees from the now-independent American colonies, and returned to the idea of taxing Turks salt for the needed funds. The Bahamian government ordered that all ships bound for the Turk Islands obtain a license at Nassau first. The Bermudians refused to do this. Following this, Bahamian authorities seized the Bermuda sloops Friendship and Fanny in 1786. Shortly after, three Bermudian vessels were seized at Grand Caicos, with $35,000 worth of goods salvaged from a French ship. French privateers were becoming a menace to Bermudian operations in the area, at the time, but the Bahamians were their primary concern.

The Bahamian government re-introduced a tax on salt from the Turks, annexed them to the Bahamas, and created a seat in the Bahamian parliament to represent them. The Bermudians refused these efforts also, but the continual pressure from the Bahamians had a degrative effect on the salt industry. In 1806, the Bermudian customs authorities went some way toward acknowledging the Bahamian annexation when it ceased to allow free exchange between the Turks and Bermuda (this affected many enslaved Bermudians, who, like the free ones, had occupied the Turks only seasonally, returning to their homes in Bermuda after the year's raking had finished).

That same year, French privateers attacked the Turks, burning ships and absconding with a large sloop. The Bahamians refused to help, and the Admiralty in Jamaica claimed the Turks were beyond his jurisdiction. Two hurricanes, the first in August, 1813, the second in October, 1815, destroyed more than two-hundred buildings, significand salt stores, and sank many vessels. By 1815, the United States, the primary client for Turks salt, had been at war with Britain (and hence Bermuda) for three years, and had established other sources of salt.

With the destruction wrought by the storm, and the loss of market, many Bermudians abandoned the Turks, and those remaining were so distraught that they welcomed the visit of the Bahamian governor in 1819. The British government eventually assigned political control to the Bahamas, which the Turks and Caicos remained a part of until the 1840s.

One Bermudian salt raker, Mary Prince, however, was to leave a scathing record of Bermuda's activities there in The History of Mary Prince, a book which helped to propel the abolitionist cause to the 1834 emancipation of slaves throughout the Empire.

Bahamian and Jamaican jurisdictions

The islands remained part of the Bahamas until 1848, when the inhabitants successfully petitioned to be made a separate colony governed by a council president under the supervision of the governor of Jamaica. This arrangement proved to be a financial burden.

In 1873, the islands were annexed to Jamaica with a commissioner and a Legislative Board; in 1894, the chief colonial official was restyled commissioner. In 1917, Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden suggested that the Turks and Caicos join Canada, but this suggestion was rejected by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. The islands remained a dependency of Jamaica.

The islands remained a dependency of Jamaica until 1959, when they received their own administration under an administrator, although the governor of Jamaica remained the governor of the islands. When Jamaica was granted independence from Britain in August 1962, the Turks and Caicos Islands became a crown colony. From 1965 the governor of The Bahamas was also governor of the Turks and Caicos Islands and oversaw affairs for the islands.

From 1950 to 1981, the United States had a missile tracking station on Grand Turk. In the early days of the American space program, NASA used it. After his three earth orbits in 1962, American astronaut John Glenn successfully landed in the nearby ocean and was brought back ashore to Grand Turk island.

The salt industry, along with small sponge and hemp exports, sustained the Turks and Caicos Islands (only barely, however; there was little population growth and the economy stagnated) until in the 1960s American investors arrived on the islands and funded the construction of an airstrip on Provo Island and built the archipelago's first hotel, "The Third Turtle". A small trickle of tourists began to arrive, supplementing the salt economy. Club Med set up a resort at Grace Bay soon after. In the 1980s, Club Med funded an upgrading of the airstrip to allow for larger aircraft, and since then, tourism has been gradually on the increase. It is common for foreign couples to be married in the Turks and Caicos Islands today.

Autonomy
When the Bahamas gained independence in 1973, the Turks and Caicos received their own governor (the last administrator was restyled). In 1974, Canadian New Democratic Party MP Max Saltsman tried to use his Private Member's Bill for legislation to annex the islands to Canada, but it did not pass in the House of Commons of Canada.

The islands adopted their first constitution on 30 August 1976, which is Constitution Day, the national holiday. Since then, the islands have had their own government headed by a chief minister (now premier). The winning party of Turks and Caicos' first general election in 1976, the People's Democratic Movement (PDM) under "Jags" McCartney, sought to establish a framework and accompanying infrastructure in the pursuit of an eventual policy of full independence for the islands. However, with the early death of McCartney, confidence in the country's leadership waned.

In 1980, the ruling pro-independence party, the People's Democratic Movement (PDM), agreed with the British government that independence would be granted in 1982 if the PDM was reelected in the elections of that year. That election was effectively a referendum on the independence issue. The PDM lost the elections to the Progressive National Party (PNP), which supported continued British rule. The PNP's leader, Norman Saunders, became chief minister, and won again the 1984 elections. With these developments, the independence issue largely faded from the political scene. However, in 1985 Saunders and two associates were convicted in the USA on drug charges.

The PNP emerged victorious from the following by-elections, but on 24 July 1986, the governor dissolved the government and replaced it with an advisory council after a report on allegations of arson and fraud found that the chief minister post-Saunders, Nathaniel Francis, along with four other PNP officials were unfit to rule.

The constitution was suspended in 1986, but restored and revised 5 March 1988. In the interim two Advisory Councils took over with members from the Progressive National Party (PNP), People's Democratic Movement (PDM) and National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which was a splinter group from the PNP: Under the careful guidance of the governor and the advisory council, a new constitution of the Turks and Caicos Islands was created and elections held in 1988, with the PNP winning by a landslide, and Washington Misick becoming the new chief minister.

Elections in the Turks and Caicos Islands were held on 24 April 2003 and again on 9 February 2007 with the PNP, led by Michael Misick, winning both. The Progressive National Party, led by Michael Misick, held thirteen seats, and the People's Democratic Movement, led by Floyd Seymour, held two seats.

A new constitution came into force on 9 August 2006, but was in parts suspended and amended in 2009. Under the 2006 constitution, the head of government was the premier, filled by the leader of the elected party. The cabinet consisted of three ex officio members and five appointed by the governor from among the members of the House of Assembly. The unicameral House of Assembly consisted of 21 seats, of which 15 were popularly elected; members serve four-year terms.

However, in the mid-2000s, the issue of independence for the islands was again raised. In April 2006, PNP Premier Michael Misick reaffirmed that his party saw independence from Britain as the "ultimate goal" for the islands, but not at the present time. In 2008, opponents of Misick accused him of moving toward independence for the islands to dodge a commission of inquiry, which examined reports of corruption by the Misick Administration.

In 2008, after members of the British parliament conducting a routine review the administration received several reports of high-level official corruption in the Turks and Caicos, Governor Richard Tauwhare announced the appointment of a Commission of Enquiry into corruption. The same year, Premier Misick himself became the focus of the corruption investigation. He resigned under fire in March 2009. As a result, Governor Gordon Wetherell suspended the local government and the British took over direct rule which lasted from August 2009 until the general elections of November 2012 under a new (15 October 2012) constitution.

Corruption scandal and suspension of self-government
In 2008, after members of the British parliament conducting a routine review of the administration received several reports of high-level official corruption in the Turks and Caicos, then-Governor Richard Tauwhare announced the appointment of a Commission of Enquiry into corruption. The same year, Premier Michael Misick himself became the focus of a criminal investigation after a woman identified by news outlets as an American citizen residing in Puerto Rico accused him of sexually assaulting her, although he strongly denies the charge.

On Monday, 16 March 2009, the UK threatened to suspend self-government in the islands and transfer power to the new governor, Gordon Wetherell, over systemic corruption.

On 18 March 2009, on the advice of her UK ministers, Queen Elizabeth II issued an Order in Council giving the Governor the power to suspend those parts of the 2006 Constitution that deal with ministerial government and the House of Assembly, and to exercise the powers of government himself. The order, which would also establish an Advisory Council and Consultative Forum in place of the House of Assembly, would come into force on a date to be announced by the governor, and remain in force for two years unless extended or revoked.

On 23 March 2009, after the enquiry found evidence of "high probability of systemic corruption or other serious dishonesty", Misick resigned as Premier to make way for a new, unified government. Politicians were accused of selling crown land for personal gain and misusing public funds. The following day, Galmo Williams was sworn in as his replacement. Misick denied all charges, and referred to the British government's debate on whether to remove the territory's sovereignty as "tantamount to being re-colonised. It is a backwards step completely contrary to the whole movement of history."

On 14 August 2009 after Misick's last appeals failed, the Governor, on the instructions of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, imposed direct rule on the Turks and Caicos Islands by authority of the 18 March 2009 Order in Council issued by the Queen. The islands' administration was suspended for up to two years, with possible extensions, and power was transferred to the Governor, with the United Kingdom also stationing a supply vessel in between Turks and Caicos. Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Chris Bryant said of the decision to impose rule, "This is a serious constitutional step which the UK Government has not taken lightly but these measures are essential in order to restore good governance and sound financial management."

The move was met with vehement opposition by the former Turks and Caicos government, with Misick's successor Williams calling it a "coup", and stating that, "Our country is being invaded and re-colonised by the United Kingdom, dismantling a duly elected government and legislature and replacing it with a one-man dictatorship, akin to that of the old Red China, all in the name of good governance." Despite this, the civilian populace was reported to be largely welcoming of the enforced rule. The British government stated that they intended to keep true to their word that the country would regain home rule in two years or less, and Foreign Office Minister Chris Bryant said that elections would be held in 2011, "or sooner". Governor Wetherell stated that he would aim to "make a clean break from the mistakes of the past" and create "a durable path towards good governance, sound financial management and sustainable development". Wetherell added: "In the meantime we must all learn to foster a quality of public spirit, listen to all those who have the long-term interests of these islands at heart, and safeguard the fundamental assets of the Territory for future generations... Our guiding principles will be those of transparency, accountability and responsibility. I believe that most people in the Turks and Caicos will welcome these changes."

Restoration of autonomy
On 12 June 2012 British Foreign Secretary William Hague announced that fresh elections would be held in November 2012, stating that there had been "significant progress with an ambitious reform programme" and that there had been "sufficient progress, on the milestones and on putting in place robust financial controls" A new constitution was approved on 15 October 2012. The terms of the election are specified in the constitution. Under the new Constitution, legislative power is held by a unicameral House of Assembly, consisting of 19 seats, 15 elected and 4 appointed by the governor; of elected members, five are elected at large and 10 from single member districts for four-year terms.

After the 2012 elections, Rufus Ewing of the Progressive National Party won a narrow majority of seats and was appointed premier. Sharlene Cartwright-Robinson of the People's Democratic Movement (PDM) becoming the leader of the opposition.

In the 2016 elections the People's Democratic Movement prevailed and Sharlene Cartwright-Robinson became Premier.

title: History of the Turks and Caicos Islands


text:
Talk:Ranked voting

Comparison and Evaluation of Ranked Voting Systems
This is a big change, and so I want to discuss it before I make it: Myclob (talk) 17:58, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

Analysis Using Examples
Michael Gallagher points out that the strengths and weaknesses of different ranked voting methods can be best elucidated through specific examples. A practical example can be provided by considering a voter's ranking of candidates: "If A is eliminated, the voter's vote is transferred to B. If B is then eliminated, the voter's vote is transferred to C. This process continues until one candidate has a majority of the votes," explains Steven Brams and Peter Fishburn.

Applying Logical Voting Criteria
Logical voting criteria play a crucial role in evaluating voting methods. The Condorcet criterion, as defined by Duncan Black, states that "the candidate who would win in a head-to-head race against all other candidates should be the winner of the election." Moreover, the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA) criterion, explained by Kenneth Arrow, implies that "the ranking of candidates should not change if the order of the candidates is changed."

Empirical Approach: Simulated Elections
Steven Brams and Peter Fishburn highlight the utility of simulated elections as a means to study the properties of ranked voting methods. These simulations can estimate the 'efficacy' of each voting method, which is defined by how frequently it elects the candidate closest to the center of the voter distribution. In terms of these simulations, Andrew Reynolds indicates that "Condorcet methods and Coombs' method tend to deliver optimal outcomes, followed by the Borda count. Instant-runoff voting comes further behind, with first-past-the-post voting trailing." Myclob (talk) 17:58, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

Regarding the section of “Other methods“
May I please receive the green light to fix the first point there, considering that it refers to ranked voting as such an other method, despite the whole article being about ranked voting in the first place, while it's description is also incoherent and seems to mix things up with elements of yet another voting method?

For now I am thinking that the point there was meant to be about score voting instead. Wulfstrex (talk) 08:20, 11 July 2023 (UTC)

Slovenia?
Might it be worth a mention in this article that Slovenia used ranked choice voting for some offices for a certain period, with references, of course? It would be best if a reference could be found with a plausible discussion of why it was changed? Thanks, DavidMCEddy (talk) 23:30, 9 September 2023 (UTC)

 * Yeah, you're right. To my knowledge, the ranked system was used to elect the two minority MPs from 2000 to 2018, until it was replaced by the amendment known as ZVDZ-D, in the 2022 general election First Past the Post was already used. The reason for change was simplification, the amendments were proposed by the two minority MPs. I'll update with reference to RTVSLO (national broadcaster - in slovene) Keraleais (talk) 14:22, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

Alternate names for IRV
The article mentions that Instant-Runoff Voting is sometimes called the "Alternative Vote" or "Ranked-Choice Voting", however it's obvious to anyone who knows that other voting systems exist that those terms can't really refer to Instant-Runoff Voting specifically.

I've deleted those alternate terms for now. I do think that they should be mentioned in some way, but that would require a sourced explanation of who uses the terms and when. --Brilliand (talk) 14:17, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

 * The source used cannot be FairVote, since they're the advocacy group that created this confusion of terms in the first place, so they are a primary source. --Brilliand (talk) 14:21, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ranked voting


text:
Nekor

Nekor (Berber language: N'kor; نقور) is a historic site in the Rif region of Morocco near modern-day Bni Bouayach. It was founded by Idris ibn Salih, Emir of the medieval Kingdom of Nekor, between 749 and 761 AD. His son Sa'id I ibn Idris moved the capital to Nekor from Temsaman. At its height, it was described as the greatest center of Berber culture in the region of Rif.

In the winter of 859 to 860 AD Nekor, founded 200 years prior and defended by Sa'id II ibn Salih, was sacked by Viking raiders, apparently for attempting to interfere with their plunderings in the area, under Hastein and Björn Ironside, who sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar. After staying for eight days in Morocco, the Vikings went back to Spain and continued up the east coast. Of the 62 ships that went to the Iberian peninsula and then Morocco, only 20 returned. Many of the inhabitants of Nekor were taken as slaves and later sold in Ireland.

The city was destroyed by the Almoravid Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1080 during his conquest of the Rif.

The site has been partially submerged by the reservoir of the Abdelkrim Khattabi dam.

title: Nekor


text:
Talk:Kangchenjunga

After 1975 it became the tallest peak in India.
What happend in 1975 to suddenly make it the tallest peak in India? srs 21:42, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Kanchenjunga is in Sikkim and Nepal boarder, which was independent until 1975. The highest mountain in India before then was Nanda Devi, in Uttaranchal. (But note that India claims the whole of Kashmir, including the Karakoram; under this interpretation the highest peak in India has always been K2.) Gdr 22:05, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

Sikkim was an Indian protectorate until 1975, when it was annexed by India after a referendum in which the Sikkimese voted to fully join the Indian union. Sikkim was a British Indian protectorate before India became independent. It was not fully independent in 1975 as stated above. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.126.199.122 (talk) 20:09, 20 January 2008 (UTC)

Spelling
The mountain needs to be spelled properly first, Kanchenjunga (notice there isn't a G ) seems to be universally disliked by those that have been there or live there. Old references seem to suggest that Kangchenjunga is closer and used more widley, even if there is dispute by the indigenous population(s), one recent highly respected reference is http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/02/20/stories/2005022000500200.htm. "Kanchenjunga" is, from what I'm told by the experienced and so forth, is an American spelling. One of the reasons I know some of this is that I had misspelled it in a video concerning the first ascent, and got into hot water by some of the team members that did its first ascent in 1955 and went on too write definitive books on the mountain. (Gowron 19:54, 29 May 2006 (UTC))

 * Encyclopedia Britannica and Hutchinson Encyclopedia use "Kanchenjunga". But Everest News, the Peakware World Mountain Encyclopedia, Viewfinder Panoramas use "Kangchenjunga".

 * Among Indian newspapers, Times of India and the Hindustan Times use "Kanchenjuna". Even the Hindu Times, which you cite above for using "Kangchenjunga", uses the other spelling too, e.g..

 * Finally, I see that the Survey of India use "Kanchenjunga" on their physical map . I'm inclined to take this as definitive. Your comments? Gdr 21:21, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The spelling Kanchenjunga is often used. Whether is is any definitive answer to the question "Is it wrong, or a correct alternative", I do not know. But from the summitpost page, I have extracted this: The name is also spelled Kanchenjunga, but according to the Himalayan Journal article, people who know the Tibetan language strongly insist that the 'g' should be there.

 * This seems to me to be correct. The translation is "Five (ga) Great (chen) Snow (kang) Treasures (jun, from zod)", which includes the Tibetan word for snow, which is surely "Kang" and not "Kan". There are very many Kangri's (snow mountains), but I have never seen a "Kanri". The official Nepalese map spells it Kañchanjangha (with dots over the second "a" and third "n"); this suggests the first n is not quite n or ng, perhaps something more like ny. But to use this spelling would confuse almost everyone. On balance, I favour the Tibetan derived spelling "Kangchenjunga".

 * The above spelling is used here in a table by Eberhard Jurgalski, who has been researching these matters for a long time. Also, on the lists on this mountain site, Kangchenjunga is used throughout, with no alternatives supplied. I vote accordingly. Viewfinder 21:59, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

I vote wih ViewFinder. My father John Angelo Jackson was on the original first ascent of "Kangchenjunga" in 1955 and wrote two books on the subject. He spoke the language and understood their meaning by the locals. My father also wrote for the "Himalayan Journal" many times and always used "Kangchenjunga", but more importantly recently published a new book on 50 plus years in the Himalayas and the it was confirmed by Indus publishing to be "Kangchenjunga". Unfortunately maps are not consistent, for one reason of another, here is a segment of a large but much earlier map used to mark out the 300 mile trek in 1954 that my father did. Kangchenjunga, and so definitive as well then?. Unfortunately "The Hindu" spelled it WRONG ONCE in FIFTEEN! spellings (so one of the points above is lost), and sadly the paragraph contained two spellings which  concerned my father. I know all of the 1st Kangchenjunga expeditioners of 1955 (and many others), who have also written on the subject with a similar take on the matter. If a definitive proof required I will personally write to Harish Kapadia on behalf of Wikipedia and get a document proving it one way or another, would that suffice? (Gowron 19:14, 30 May 2006 (UTC))

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> I have been in touch with Harish Kapadia and it is official and from an expert. Kan(G)chenjunga is the correct spelling KANCHENJUNGA is a misspelling and means nothing to the people that live there. What follows bellow is part of a communication with the renowned Indian author, publisher and mountaineer.

"KANGCHENJUNGA -- is the correct spelling with " G " in there. Kang means snow and it must be there, in the Five Treasures of Snows. Even some recent Survey of India maps too spells it wrongly but many years ago the correct spelling with " G " was established and followed by all scholarly publications. For full details kindly see HIMALAYAN JOURNAL

Vol. 2 p. 131 and vol. 3 p. 152. also see vol. 3, p.152" Harish Kapadia

Please remove KANCHENJUNGA as it is incorrect (Gowron 17:29, 15 June 2006 (UTC))
 * It may be a misspelling but but Kanchenjunga has a long history of use in the English language and so should not be removed entirely. After all both spellings are transliterations into the Roman alphabet and possibly neither spelling fully expresses the nuances of the sounds of the original,though one may be more accurate than the other. Dabbler 00:51, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

Maybe not removed from being labelled as incorrectly spelled, but you have to take into account that the people that live in these countries do take exception to our misuse and rather arrogant of us to blithely carry on the slang, please read the above "proof" (for want of a better word) as there are good reason why it must be spelled correctly. Too what writtings other than Ransome are you refering you maybe right of course, however a quick look at Aleister Crowley's work of 1905 (chapters 51 to 53) inclusive spell the mountain correctly (Kangchenjunga) with just one exception (out of 20 occurences) and you could call that a typo. Would you agree that if we started to spell Mount Washington Mount Washingtin is wrong, that would be heresy and you would be right to ask that we spell it correctly. By all means state that different spelling exist in the West, but also state that they are incorrect. (Gowron 07:41, 16 June 2006 (UTC))

 * I think you're making a bit more of an issue over this than it deserves. When even the Survey of India use "Kanchenjunga" on their map it would be fairest simply to note that there are multiple spellings in English. In particular I cut this piece of speculation:
 * [Ransome's spelled it without a "g" in Swallows and Amazons] which has probably lead to the incorrect spelling of the real mountain's name entering into literature, which is unfortunate in retrospect as it has possibly lead to a lot of confusion.
 * Of course, this could go back in if evidence were presented for it. Gdr 09:59, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

"fair comment" regarding the doubtful sentence, would be a very interesting side story o find out why, I guess thats why Wikipedia is so good. I understand that you feel deffensive regarding this issue, but as stated above from Harish Kapadia (an authority on the subject) the Survey of India have got it wrong and  Harish Kapadia tells us why. I've gone to great lengths to get this right. It is a disservice to say that we in the West have other spellings, we get it wrong are we not big enough to correct ourselves? There is another missconception regarding the word HIMALAYA it should never have an S at the end and yet we in the West keep doing it to support our own grammer, it does not make it right. (Gowron 10:15, 16 June 2006 (UTC))
 * Just as a dictionary reports what language is, not what it should be; an encyclopedia should report knowledge as it is not what it should be. Let us say I had read the word "Kanchenjunga" in any one of any number of sources (not just Ransome). I enter it into Wikipedia to learn more and find "Kangchenjunga". Surely I should be able to find out that there are two or more spellings in English and that Kangchenjunga is the more correct in representing the original word while "Kanchenjunga" has been widely used in English. By the way Arthur Ransome merely used the spelling that was most commonly used in his time, he didn't originate it. It was the spelling he read when he was reading English newspapers about the German expeditions of the time. Dabbler 11:30, 16 June 2006 (UTC)
 * By the way Gowron reverted my sentence about Ransome's use saying it was an "incorrect statement" As I have read Ransome extensively and both his Biography and Autobiography, I would like to know the factual basis for his saying that the statement I added was "incorrect, or is it that it doesn't follow his own beliefs. Dabbler 11:36, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

Many apologies for that I'll revert to your comments, I was a little confused by your paragraph, I could not sort out wheather Ransome used KANCHENJUNGA or KANGCHENJUNGA and thought you were refering the the former spelling. I had thought you mean't the KANCHENJUNGA was the most widely used in the 1930, which would have been incorrect. Again apologies if I was incorrect in my assumption. (Gowron 11:51, 16 June 2006 (UTC))

I am not sure if you understand. Ransome did use "Kanchenjunga" in his books but he didn't use it because he wanted to invent a new spelling of the name. He used it because that was the way that he saw the name spelled in the news reports of the 1930 German expeditions. In 1930, it was the most commonly used spelling in England where Ransome was living. It doesn't make it the right spelling, it is merely the spelling that was most commonly used. Check any newspapers of the time if you don't believe me. Dabbler 12:16, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

 * What newspapers have you got? Do you have copies? People would buy them off you if you have originals, historical stuff you know. All there are, are the odd scanned cutting with no information as to what it came out of or when. (MacDarwin 19:45, 23 June 2006 (UTC))

 * Its not a newspaper but a news magazine, Time, and an article headed Kanchenjunga's Tithe dated June 2 1930 Time article or this New York Times movie review for Throne of the Gods headlined "Scaling Kanchenjunga" and datinmg from December 22 1933.New York Times movie review.Dabbler 20:14, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Ok, not as good a source as was hoped for (as its an American Publication), but still of solid interest. I take it there are quite a few copies, hate to sound like the guy whoe sells Magazines in the Simpsons, but you could sell those. You never know? (MacDarwin 20:46, 23 June 2006 (UTC))

Thayou for clarifying your position, we will have to differ on some points. The book by Aleister Crowley of 1905 and the Swiss Expedition, spell it Kangchenjunga, that would have been the prevailing book at the time on the subject, and as a result is not possible to state that "Kanchenjunga" "was the most widely used in 1930" the comment has little meaning without proof. You would think that an author would have been more rigorous than to take a spelling from a newspaper and gone to the library. I also think its to big step to go from "in Newspapers" to "in English" for the reasons just given. (Gowron 12:36, 16 June 2006 (UTC))

 * Ransome wasn't writing a travel book or a historical mountaineering treatise, he was writing a book for children and probably never ever read Crowley's book or studied Kangchenjunga in any serious manner. Newspapers rather than books are usually a good way of determining current educated usage and spelling of words in a community. And while it may not be only English and its definitely not only newspapers and its not 1931, but Google has Kanchenjunga beating Kangchenjunga by 245,000 to 197,000, so I think its fair to say that Kanchenjunga is probably still the most frequent spelling used regardless of its accuracy. Dabbler 22:07, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

 * The above Google method should be used with caution. Googling Ulugh Muztagh (in North Tibet) 7723m gives more hits than Ulugh Muztagh 6973m despite the fact that the latter was indisputably established in 1985. Puncak Jaya 5030m also gives more hits than 4884m. Viewfinder 22:25, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Ransome was writting a fairy story which is just fine.  I am sorry to relate that even though you have a point about Ransome and his stories, it is poor thinking to extrapolate from this to suggest that Kanchenjunga is more widely used, do you have data? no. I have attempted to provide real data and review, this is not acceptable compared fiction, why?.  Ransome worked for the newspapers, and so probably stopped his thinking right there.  Relying on newsapers for accuracy is just nuts. Jospeh Hooker was a founding member of Kew Gardens, somebody who worked with fact, he used the correct usage (see reason above), as mentioned I have postulated, as a throw away comment,  that the probable current misspelling is due to Ransome and his book as it is so widely published. It is also imnportant to mention at this time the West retains most of the Internet databases (the USA generally) and as such provide the innacurate result which you are clinging too, just Goolegling is insufficient not accurate.  80.176.235.247 00:35, 17 June 2006 (UTC))

 * This contributes nothing, newspapers get read more than dictionaries, the correct usage has been established and why, by the people that know or have been there (not me), move on. (Gowron 00:53, 17 June 2006 (UTC))

Dear God! I thought we, Ransome nerds were nit pickers and compulsive obsessives but mountain nerds like 80.176.235.247 seem far worse! Ransome wrote correct and contemporary English and he didn't write fairy stories, he wrote children's fiction and he didn't invent Kanchenjunga or its misspelling. Kangchenjunga is a lot more well known than Ulugh Muztagh (wherever the hell that is). So the name is far more widely used by many more people than one now quite obscure children's writer. Of course I know that Google is not a gospel method of telling what is true or false. I used it to point out that the "incorrect" version was more widespread than the "correct". Secondly an older "fact" is more likely to have propagated through Google than a newer one (as demonstrated by the Ulugh Muztagh height example) so its more widespread use indicates that it was more common in the past and may be being supplanted by newer sources. If you Google something that is in the process of changing in English you will receive a lot of hits for the old name as well as the new. I am not arguing that Kanchenjunga is a better name I was just trying to point out that it was an acceptable usage widely used in the past and still not extinct today. Dabbler 11:22, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi Dabbler and anyone else interested! I have created an Ulugh Muztagh article with an external link which you can use to read all about it. Enjoy! Viewfinder 07:20, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks Viewfinder, not just because Ulugh Muztagh story is interesting from a mountaineering, geographical, biological whatever point of view, but also for reporting fact. (Gowron 08:49, 18 June 2006 (UTC))

 * Thanks for the information, while I am not really very geographically challenged, Central Asia is not my strong point! It is interesting how mountains rise and fall in height depending on the effectiveness of the measuring techniques rather than merely geological processes. I am old enough to remember Everest being descibed in various sources as either 29002 or 29028 feet.Dabbler 13:20, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

More info
I think this article needs more info about plantlife, climate, and animal life.

Nepal-India border
Please stop adding these unsourced claims that the Kangchenjunga main peak is wholly in India. It is on the border. It is the 8586m peak shown on official Nepalese mapping. Viewfinder 06:20, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

Following more POV editing I transferred the above link into the main article's Notes section. I know it includes a link to my site but there seems to be no other way. If anyone can replace it with a better link then please do so. Viewfinder 05:03, 31 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with Viewfinder, apart from everything else thats known, the massif according to the Himalayan Club (founded in Kolkata (1928), India), taken from the 50th renunion of the first ascent of Kangchenjunga, is located at 27' 42'09" North by 88' 09'01" East, "Kangchejunga straddles the border between the Western frontier of Sikkim, India and the North East corner of Nepal".  If you want this data put in I'll gladly insert it and create the citation with the ISBN. Just noticed its sort of there. I've got another query below.  (Gowron 09:23, 22 February 2007 (UTC))

Query??
The opening paragraph has this in it "Kangchenjunga is written and pronounced as "Kanchanjunga" in Nepal which means "pure peak (of mountain)" and Kangchenjunga is also one of the best conservation areas in Nepal which is home to the Red Panda and other snow animals, birds and plants. India's side of Kangchenjunga also has a protected park area."

Question: If the "Kangchenjunga Conservation Area" (its written name) resides in Nepal why is it spelled "Kangchenjunga"?, I'm curious as I know one or two of the people who have worked on it. The URL (http://www.wwfnepal.org/images/Annua003.pdf) is the Annual report from Nepal on the concervation area and spells it consistently "Kangchenjunga"?

Another reference to this curio is that of Tenzing Norgay (born Tsa-chu (Nepal) or possibly Moyey (Tibet) and raised in Thami in (Nepal)) of Everest fame, in his book "Man of Everest" he uses the spelling "Kangchenjunga" he also gives the full (but unused) title of "Kang-chen-dzod-nga" which also has been explained already in the text? Tenzing Norgay goes on to translate and it is very similar to that given already "The Great Snow with Five Treasures"?

Maybe some other references from Nepal would be useful as proof, then at least the article should say that both forms are used in Nepal. OR have I not understood the grammar of the sentence properly, which very possible, if so sorry. Please be assured that this query is in no way correcting anybody, but something is not quite right here. (Gowron 09:48, 22 February 2007 (UTC)_

 * Official Nepalese mapping states "Kañchanjangha". The tilde on the first n suggests that neither "Kan" or "Kang" is 100% correct. But I see no reason to suppose that Kang is any less correct than Kan. Viewfinder 04:18, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the information Viewfinder, I take your points. I've no problem with the different spellings in this case, your right the tilde does augment the sound and I think I can get a Nepalese sherpa to express it. Two points to add are:
 * (1) Nepal seems to use all three spellings (Nepal's countrty representative uses the "g" form, in the PDF from WWF from Nepal, just a little odd thats all) and some Nepalese books suggest that as well. The naming of the conservation area causes more confusion. So I don't think it can be accurate to state that "this" country uses only one form. It might be useful to say something like "Nepal also uses these forms, etc". Maybe you could put the form you have found (Kañchanjangha) into the article as that seems a more legitimate Nepalese alternative.

 * (2) The translation no matter how its spelled, they all seem to be trying to be enunciating the same sorts of sounds and in the same order,  can't differ by that much in their meaning. As I mentioned above probably the most famous Nepalese person around gives the translation "The Great Snow of Five Treasures" he was religeous a religeous.  There are other versions of the latter but again they are all trying to express something very similar, i.e. "The Five treasusres of the Great Snow" or "The Five trasures of the Snows" etc.  Maybe the term "pure peak (of mountain)" stems from differences in religeon, i.e. Hindu's and Buddhist's.  Maybe the holly books causes a problem in translation when used by a member of a different faith.  Just guessing, but the difference are quite marked. (Gowron 09:18, 23 February 2007 (UTC))

Map
As always, a map would be nice. -- Writtenonsand 23:19, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Agreed, but the problem is how to find a map that is not copyrighted. The Google Earth image is excellent; the elevation terrain is also good, although there is a slight misalignment issue. Viewfinder 05:07, 26 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I have the maps that accompany Freshfield's 'Round Kangchenjunga', as well as Jacot-Guillarmod's of the 1905 expedition [with Aleister]. These still copyrighted?  If not I'd be happy to have someone upload an image of either one. Qwrk (talk) 17:57, 10 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Under Indian copyright rules; these are too old for copyright, in

 * According to The Indian Copyright Act, 1957 (Chapter V) in the case of cinematograph films, sound recordings, photographs, posthumous publications, anonymous and pseudonymous publications, works of government and works of international organisations,enter the public domain 60 years after the date on which they were first published, counted from the beginning of the following calendar year (ie. as of 2010, works published prior to 1 January 1950 are considered public domain)
 * So, please upload them.
 * --92.8.202.26 (talk) 12:45, 20 June 2010 (UTC)

 * See my User talk:Qwrk for an answer to your request. Before I start creating an image of the Garwood and / or Jacot-Guillarmod maps, please do have a look at the following one; http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/india/txu-oclc-6614190-ng45-3-cop.2.jpg   Might that be a usable one for the article [once scaled down]?.  Qwrk (talk) 15:28, 20 June 2010 (UTC)

 * As a first try I've uploaded a 640 wide scan of the Garwood map here; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GARWOOD_MAP_640x617_148a.jpg See whether this suits your needs.  Qwrk (talk) 16:58, 20 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I've uploaded a 1024 wide scan of my somewhat battered Garwood map here; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KANGCHENJUNGA_MAP_by_GARWOOD,_1903.jpg and a 1024 scan of the Jacot-Guillarmod map here; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KKANGCHENJUNGA_MAP_by_JACOT-GUILLARMOD,_1914.jpg  They've also been included into the Kangchenjunga page.  Hope you like'm.
 * Qwrk (talk) 09:02, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

(massive indent): Very nice. How about larger scans in wikicommons. If you're going to bother, can you put a 4000 wide image in there? Is there a downside? Ratagonia (talk) 05:54, 3 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I've upgraded the Kangchenjunga maps by Garwood and Jacot-Guillarmod. Currently they are [2256x2136 pixels] and [3060x2305 pixels] respectively [maximum scans that I was able to provide].
 * Hope this suits you better. Qwrk (talk) 22:46, 4 August 2010 (UTC)

Use of past/present tense
The items in the Climbing History section variously used the past and the present tense ('x was/is the first ...'), sometimes even switching within an item. I have standardised on the past tense as that was the majority (and in my opinion is the correct way to describe events that happened in the past). PhilUK (talk) 17:02, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

Has anyone seen an explanation from the 1980 Japanese team as to why they did not respect the untrodden sanctity of the actual summit? PhilUK (talk) 17:05, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

View from Pang Pengma
Nice Pic, 94.195.201.12  Could you possibly identify the direction of view, or more specifically, the face of the mountain show? Thanks. Ratagonia (talk) 01:28, 10 January 2010 (UTC)

 * From Pangpema one gets full view of Kangchenjunga's North Face. For further imagery check the Kangchenjunga pages on summitpost [especially those made by Nelson Chenkin and John Zijlstra, both of my friends who've been to Kangchenjunga several times]. Qwrk (talk) 11:50, 10 January 2010 (UTC)

Link to Aleister Crowley
I'm pretty sure, that this link is incorrect. It does not point to the alpinist Aleister Crowley. Am I right? --18.197.1.121 (talk) 03:16, 3 August 2010 (UTC)

 * No, yes... It is the same Aleister Crowley. Interesting fellow, eh?  Ratagonia (talk) 05:44, 3 August 2010 (UTC)

British Army Ascent
In Mossdale and Other Caving and Climbing Miscellania by Robert D. Leakey, due for publication in 2011, there is an account and photographs of an unofficial expedition to the summit by a group of soldiers during World War 2. --- When the book is published, this can perhaps be included. Ratagonia (talk) 01:26, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

Highest Un-summited Peak?
Since the article says that parties that climb Kanchenjunga stop short of the summit, is it the world's highest un-summited peak and thus a candidate for "highest unclimbed peak" under one interpretation of being unclimbed? And if so, is that notable enough to include in the article? Av9 (talk) 19:10, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Couple of points:

 * It appears that this practice of stopping a few feet short of the actual summit out respect for local beliefs is accepted in the climbing community as a valid ascent.

 * Anouncing the peak as the "world's highest unclimbed mountain" based on this technicality would simply encourage the next summiting climber to step a foot on the highest point, defeating the purpose of the tradition.

 * The question now appears to be moot in any case. The following is from the cited source of the statement in question:

 * The first assault pair of Joe Brown and George Band are successful, followed by a second successful ascent by Norman Hardie and Tony Streather. Out of respect for local beliefs, the actual summit itself remained virgin, a tradition that continued until recent years. - EverestNews.com

 * Key words here "until recent years". This seems to imply that lately, climbers have dropped the tradition and now simply ascend to the highest point of the mountain.--Racerx11 (talk) 02:16, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Why does the article need two thumbnailed maps?
Having two thumbnailed maps (in addition to the infobox map) seems like overkill. I have an no opinion of which one we keep --- which one can I move to commons? —hike395 (talk) 00:46, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * The Garwood map is easier and aesthetically more pleasing to look at, even though it has more numerous and glaringly visible folds than the Jacot-Guillarmod map.

 * Keep Garwood map and send Jacot-Guillarmod map to commons. My $0.02 worth. -- Racer X11 Talk to me Stalk me  02:06, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * When you know about the earliest exploration and the history of attempts on 8000m peaks, you will no doubt be aware of the importance that Dr. Jules Jacot-Guillarmod has played in the first serious expeditions to try to reach the summit of Kangchenjunga (1905) as well as K2 (1902). His brother Charles - who produced these early maps - was the foremost cartographer of the day, hence the importance of this addition.  The Garwood map stands out for it's beauty and detail, as much as for it's relevance to the section of early reconnaissances because he was part of Freshfield's team that rounded Kangchenjunga in 1899, a team that also included the great Vittorio Sella.  As the inclusion of both these maps on this page doesn't take up that much space I'd be all for it to leave them here.  Wikipedia servers will not crash due to overload because of it.
 * Qwrk (talk) 04:58, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * This discussion is not about the fame of the mapmakers, nor about servers crashing. We're discussing what is best for the readers of this article. The WP:PERTINENCE guideline says "Adding multiple images with very similar content is less useful." I really don't understand why having two maps better informs the readers of the article. Remember that WP is not a repository for images -- that is what Commons is for. Readers can always go to Commons to browse for map images.

 * What is the extra information imparted by having two maps? I'd leave both of them in if this can be answered well. —hike395 (talk) 05:17, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * I'm fine with you adhering to the rules, no worries. "Do What Thou Wilt Shall Be The Whole Of The Law". Qwrk (talk) 06:24, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Ok: I interpret this to mean you're ok with leaving the Jacot-Guillarmod map on Commons. I'll do that now. —hike395 (talk) 14:43, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * I just made a map section at the gallery at Commons, which contains both the Garwood and the Jacot-Guillarmod with expanded thumbnails (because it is difficult to see maps at the standard gallery size). —hike395 (talk) 14:55, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

Worship ?
It says the people "worship" this mountain ? Do they really ? The fact that people venerate some place, or consider it to be sacred , because it is the "abode of the gods"  or some other reason,    does not mean that they actually worship the mountain.Eregli bob (talk) 02:10, 25 May 2013 (UTC)

8598 height claim
I have deleted this claim, despite an academic document being cited in favour of it. I cannot find any evidence from the document that it does actually source this claim to the Geologic Survey of India. But what the document, which is on the general subject of remote sensing, does do is cite "topographic information from the void-free and hydrologically-sound Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM, provided by CGIAR [58]". That is stuff and nonsense. I am familiar with both SRTM and CGIAR. CGIAR's local hydrologic accuracy is adequate, but here SRTM is not its main local source. In area of very high relief SRTM is neither void free nor hydrologically sound, and Kangchenjunga is no exception. I am especially familiar with CGIAR's additional source here for the simple reason that my site supplied it and CGIAR have acknowledged this! This is an illustration of the pitfalls of regarding academic papers and other "reliable sources", which are often out of date or cite old data, as gospel in preference to more recent studies. Viewfinder (talk) 11:53, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

Move
Sorry, I messed up when I tried to undo this move from "Kangchenjunga" to "Kangchanjanga". I moved it to "Kangchenjanga", having failed to notice that two letters were changed.

The correct, commonname seems to be "Kangchenjunga" (ca. 507,000 Google hits). Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!   14:33, 25 September 2015 (UTC)
 * ✅ Something must have happened with my cache not refreshing. I've moved the page to Kangchenjunga. Mkdw talk 16:25, 25 September 2015 (UTC)
 * thank you very much! And sorry again fpr messing-up.  Joshua Jonathan   -  Let's talk!   17:42, 25 September 2015 (UTC)

 * NB: "Kangchanjanga" has only 37 hits at Google.  Joshua Jonathan   -  Let's talk!   17:44, 25 September 2015 (UTC)

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Should add Messner book references
I'm away from my library but at least Messner is mentioned. His main book and its English translation (All 8 KM Peaks) should at least be cited in the Further Reading section. If not, I'll get to it when I get home. 140.221.190.221 (talk) 15:07, 11 November 2018 (UTC)

Where is Kanchenjunga located?
Fhghhh 103.252.166.54 (talk) 15:30, 27 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Try reading the article, which clearly states "It lies between India and Nepal, with three of the five peaks, namely Main, Central and South, directly on the border," - Arjayay (talk) 15:40, 27 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kangchenjunga


text:
Willem Elsschot

Alphonsus Josephus de Ridder (7 May 1882 – 31 May 1960) was a Belgian writer and poet who wrote under the pseudonym Willem Elsschot. One of the most prominent Flemish authors, his most famous work, Cheese (1933) is the most translated Flemish-language novel of all time.

Early life and education

Elsschot was born Alphonsus Josephus de Ridder on 7 May 1882 in Antwerp, to a family of bakers. As a child he would often visit his uncle in rural Blauberg, near Herselt, where they would walk in the Helschot area, from which he would later derive his pen name.

After studying at a state school in Van Maerlantstraat, then the Royal Athenaeum of Antwerp, he attended the Institut Supérieur de Commerce de l'État (nl), later known as the Rijkshandelshogeschool, where he would study economics and business, achieving a masters' degree in commercial sciences in 1904. It was during his studies there that he would develop a love for literature, while under the tutorship of Pol de Mont.

Professional career
After finishing his studies, Elsschot worked in Paris for a South American businessman, then for various businesses in the Netherlands.

During the First World War, he served as the secretary of a national food relief committee in Antwerp, after which he moved into the world of advertising, setting up his own agency in 1911, which he would run until his death.

Elsschot did not enjoy the world of advertising. Before his death in 1960 he was quoted as saying: "I am not only disgusted by advertising, but also by commercialism in general. And I wrote Lijmen because I had to get rid of it somehow. I had to advertise, because I could never live off my pen."

Literary career
Elsschot began writing poetry in 1900, making his authorial debut as a poet (publishing in the magazine Alvoorder).

Yet it was as a writer of prose that he achieved much of his fame. Whilst living in Rotterdam he wrote Villa des Roses (1913), following the adventures of the guests of a Paris boardinghouse. While it was ignored by critics and readers alike upon its publication, his most famous works would come in the 1920s and 1930s: Lijmen (1924), Kaas (1933), Tsjip (1934) en Het Been (1938), novels with tragic and comic elements.

Central themes in his work are business and family life. His style is characterised by detailed descriptions of surroundings and a mild cynicism. In his first books he works with the same characters, giving the readers a familiarity and a sketch of life in Antwerp during the 1930s. His characters Boorman, an entrepreneur always looking for scams and opportunities, and Frans Laarmans, a clerk, evolve through these books.

Personal life and death
He was married to Fine de Ridder, with whom he had a daughter, Ida. He also had a relationship with the poet Liane Bruilants.

In 1920, he became a knight of the Order of the Crown.

Elsschot died in Antwerp from a heart attack on 31 May 1960, at the age of 78. He was cremated and his ashes buried with the body of his wife in the Antwerpen Schoonselhof. He was posthumously awarded the State Prize for Literature, and in 1994 a statue of him was erected at Mechelseplein in Antwerp.

In 2005 he finished at No. 49 in the Flemish version of "De Grootste Belg" ("The Greatest Belgian").

Film adaptations
His novel Lijmen/Het Been was adapted into film by Robbe De Hert in 2001 as Lijmen/Het Been. Villa des Roses was adapted to film in 2002 by Frank Van Passel as Villa des Roses.

Comic book adaptation
In 2008 the novel Kaas ("Cheese", 1933) and the novella Het dwaallicht ("Will o'the Wisp", in Three Novels, 1946) were made into graphic novels by Dick Matena.

title: Willem Elsschot