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Northeast Illinois Council

Northeast Illinois Council is a Boy Scouts of America local council that is headquartered in Vernon Hills, Illinois, United States.

The council, along with its regular Scouting program, owns and operates Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan Scout Reservation near Pearson, Wisconsin, Camp Sol R. Crown near Wilmot, Wisconsin and Camp Okarro in Wadsworth, Illinois. Northeast Illinois Council is served by Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan Lodge 40.

History
The Council, as it currently exists, was formed through the merger of Oak Plain Council and Evanston-North Shore Area Council in 1971.

District Organization
The Northeast Illinois Council is composed of three districts, made up of communities along the north shore area.

Aptakisic District services Bannockburn, Buffalo Grove, Deerfield, Fort Sheridan, Green Oaks, Highland Park, Highwood, Kildeer, Lake Bluff, Lake Forest, Libertyville, Lincolnshire, Long Grove, Mundelein, Riverwoods, and Vernon Hills.

North Star District services Antioch, Beach Park, Fox Lake, Gages Lake, Grayslake, Gurnee, Ingleside, Island Lake, Lake Villa, Lakemoor, Lindenhurst, Millburn, North Chicago, Park City, Round Lake, Round Lake Beach, Round Lake Heights, Third Lake, Volo, Wadsworth, Wauconda, Waukegan, Wildwood, Winthrop Harbor, and Zion.

Potawatomi District services Evanston, Glencoe, Glenview, Golf, Kenilworth, Northbrook, Northfield, Skokie, Wilmette and Winnetka.

Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan Scout Reservation
Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan Scout Reservation is located near Pearson, Wisconsin, in Langlade County, Wisconsin, United States, on Lake Killian. The Reservation is made up of three separate sub-camps, East Camp, West Camp and Wabaningo. With a size of approximately 1000 acres surrounded by more wooded areas, it offers a Northwoods camping environment, as well as high adventure programs. In a typical summer, the camp is open for six weeks from the middle of June to the beginning of August. In some years, the camp has been open as many as eight weeks or as few as four weeks.

The main draw of the Reservation is the traditional resident summer camp. In this program, scouts live in campsites, take merit badge classes, and participate in activities with their troops. Also offered are a variety of high adventure programs, and wilderness camping at Wabaningo. Out of the summer season, troops can reserve sites or cabins for camping. 10 Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan has 12 different program areas that offer over 50 merit badges and activities. Both East and West Camps have their own Aquatics, Ecology Conservation, Handicraft, Pinnacle, Scoutcraft, Shooting Sports and Trailblazer areas. The two camps share a climbing wall, zipline, cycling base, and the Triangle M Horse Ranch.

History
Camp Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan was purchased by the North Shore Area Council in the fall of 1928, and opened for campers in Summer 1929. The land purchased had previously been used as a farm, and as a logging camp before its purchase. A vote was held in November 1928 to determine the name for the new camp, with almost 1,000 votes received from Scouts. "Camp Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan" won by a 4 to 1 ratio, beating out other choices "Camp White Eagle" and "Camp Tamarack". Originally, campers rode a Chicago and Northwestern train from Highland Park to Elcho, a few miles west of the camp. In the 1950s, the camp expanded with the purchase of plots of land on the west coast of Lake Killian. This land acquisition allowed for a second camp, West Camp, to open on the same property in 1959. Around this time, the original property was re-named East Camp. In the 1960s, the North Shore Area Council began acquiring more land, with around 600 acres of land purchased in total. This land, located on the other side of County Highway T, included a former dairy barn, a house, and old logging roads. This new plot of land was named Camp Wabiningo after the former Evanston Council's summer camp, which had closed as a part of its merger with the North Shore Area Council.

2019 Storm
Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan was in the path of the July 2019 Heatwave Upper Midwest Derecho, and sustained major damage. Many trees were blown over by the wind, and some landed on buildings, tents, or vehicles. Only one injury was reported as a result of these events. A crowdfunding campaign raised over $450,000 USD to repair or replace damaged structures. The total damage was estimated at over $600,000 USD.

Controversial Alumni
At least five former people associated with the council or its predecessors appeared on the ineligible volunteer list (also known as the "perversion files") maintained by the National Council that were released by court order in 2012.

In September 2018, former Scout Executive George Douglas Nelson was arrested for allegedly transferring council funds to the Miami Valley Council, his former council, to purchase a personal vehicle. He was charged with disbursing charitable funds for personal gain, wire fraud, and forgery. In 2019, Nelson pleaded guilty to forgery, was sentenced to 2 years of probation and ordered to pay restitution to the council.

title: Northeast Illinois Council


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The Girl from Ipanema

"Garota de Ipanema", "The Girl from Ipanema", is a Brazilian bossa nova and jazz song. It was a worldwide hit in the mid-1960s and won a Grammy for Record of the Year in 1965. It was written in 1962, with music by Antônio Carlos Jobim and Portuguese lyrics by Vinícius de Moraes. English lyrics were written later by Norman Gimbel.

The first commercial recording was in 1962, by Pery Ribeiro. The Stan Getz recording featuring the vocal debut of Astrud Gilberto became an international hit. This version had been shortened from the version on the album Getz/Gilberto (recorded in March 1963, released in March 1964), which had also included the Portuguese lyrics sung by Astrud's then husband João Gilberto. In the US, the single peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, and went to number one for two weeks on the Easy Listening chart. Overseas it peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart, and charted highly throughout the world.

Numerous recordings have been used in films, sometimes as an elevator music cliché. It is believed to be the second-most recorded pop song in history, after "Yesterday" by The Beatles. The song was inducted into the Latin Grammy Hall of Fame in 2001. In 2004, it was one of 50 recordings chosen that year by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry.

In 2000, the 1964 release of the song by Stan Getz & Astrud Gilberto on Verve Records was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.

History
The song was composed for a musical comedy titled Dirigível ("Airship"), then a work in progress of Vinicius de Moraes. The original title was "Menina que Passa" ("The Girl Who Passes By"); the first verse was different. Jobim composed the melody on his piano in his new house in Rua Barão da Torre, in Ipanema. Moraes wrote the lyrics in Petrópolis, near Rio de Janeiro, as he had done with "Chega de Saudade" ("No More Blues") six years earlier. While firmly rooted in bossa nova, "The Girl from Ipanema" includes influences from blues and Tin Pan Alley.

During a recording session in New York with João Gilberto, Antônio Carlos Jobim and Stan Getz, the idea of cutting an English-language version came up. Norman Gimbel wrote the English lyrics. João's wife, Astrud Gilberto, was the only one of the Brazilians who could speak English well, and was chosen to sing. Her voice, without any of the mannerisms of trained singers, proved a perfect fit for the song. However, she was never credited or received any royalties, and received only $120 for her part.

The key the song is played in has varied depending upon the origin of the recording. While the original Ribeiro version was in the key of G, most Brazilian performances use D♭ and most American versions use F.

Astrud Gilberto and Getz appear as themselves and perform the song in the 1964 film Get Yourself a College Girl.

Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Jobim in 1967 for their album Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim. Ella Fitzgerald recorded it for her two-disc set of Brazilian music Ella Abraça Jobim, released by Pablo Today in 1981. Ethel Ennis and Nat King Cole have also both recorded the song. A version by Gary Criss titled "The Girl From Ipanema / Brazilian Nights" from his album "Rio De Janeiro" reached number 19 in the Canadian RPM dance charts in August 1978. Eliane Elias included the song in her albums Eliane Elias Sings Jobim (1998) and Brazilian Classics (2003).

Inspiration
Ipanema is a fashionable neighborhood located in the southern region of the city of Rio de Janeiro.

The song was inspired by Heloísa Eneida Menezes Paes Pinto (now known as Helô Pinheiro), a seventeen-year-old girl living on Montenegro Street in Ipanema. Daily, she would stroll past the Veloso bar-café, not just to the beach ("each day when she walks to the sea"), but in the everyday course of her life. She would sometimes enter the bar to buy cigarettes for her mother and leave to the sound of wolf whistles. In the winter of 1962, the composers saw the girl pass by the bar. Since the song became popular, she has become a celebrity.

In Revelação: a verdadeira Garôta de Ipanema ("Revealed: The Real Girl from Ipanema") Moraes wrote that she was "the paradigm of the young Carioca: a golden teenage girl, a mixture of flower and mermaid, full of light and grace, the sight of whom is also sad, in that she carries with her, on her route to the sea, the feeling of youth that fades, of the beauty that is not ours alone—it is a gift of life in its beautiful and melancholic constant ebb and flow."

Legacy
The legacy of "The Girl from Ipanema" was acknowledged by multiple aspects of the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics held in Rio de Janeiro: the Olympic and Paralympic mascots were respectively named Vinicius and Tom after the song's co-writers by a public vote, while the Olympics' opening ceremony featured a segment themed around the song and the architecture of Oscar Niemeyer. Jobim's grandson Daniel Jobim performed the song during the segment, which also featured an appearance by Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bündchen. Spotify reported that the song had been streamed on its service 40,000 times per day in the days following the ceremony (a 1200% increase), while in the U.S., the song reached #5 on Billboard's World Digital Songs chart the following week.

Legal disputes
In 2001, the song's copyright owners (the heirs of their composer fathers) sued Pinheiro for using the title of the song as the name of her boutique (Garota de Ipanema). In their complaint, they stated that her status as The Girl from Ipanema (Garota de Ipanema) did not entitle her to use a name that legally belonged to them. Public support was strongly in favor of Pinheiro. A press release by Jobim and Moraes, the composers, in which they had named Pinheiro as the real Girl from Ipanema (Garota de Ipanema) was used as evidence that they had intended to bestow this title on her. The court ruled in favor of Pinheiro.

In a separate legal dispute, Astrud Gilberto sued Frito-Lay for trademark infringement for using the song in a TV advertisement for its baked potato chips. Gilberto argued that:"[A]s the result of the huge success of the 1964 recording, and her frequent subsequent performances of 'Ipanema,' she has become known as The Girl from Ipanema and is identified by the public with the 1964 recording. She claims as a result to have earned trademark rights in the 1964 recording, which she contends the public recognizes as a mark designating her as a singer. She contends, therefore, that Frito-Lay could not lawfully use the 1964 recording in an advertisement for its chips without her permission."In Oliveira v. Frito-Lay Inc. (2001), her claims were rejected by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.

"The Boy from Ipanema"
When sung by female artists the song has often been rendered as "The Boy from Ipanema". Such artists have included Julie London (1964 single), Peggy Lee (1964), Ella Fitzgerald and The Supremes (1965), Shirley Bassey (1966) and Eartha Kitt (1974). Petula Clark sang it in 1977 on The Muppet Show. Crystal Waters recorded her version in 1996 for the various artists Red Hot + Rio compilation and was later included on her 1998 greatest hits set. Diana Krall recorded another version on her 2009 album Quiet Nights.

The reason for "The Boy from Ipanema" version is partially caused by an awkward translation occurring when female vocalists sing: "But each time when she walks to the sea, she looks straight ahead not at HE." Some singers have corrected this by singing: "But each time when she goes for a swim, she looks straight ahead not at him."

A parody of the song, with different lyrics written by Stephen Sondheim, is entitled The Boy From.... Another parody is "The Girl With Emphysema" by comedian Bob Rivers.

The phrase "Boy from Ipanema" — but nothing from the song — appears in Norwegian recording artist Annie's "Anthonio". Likewise, the phrase "Girl from Ipanema" appears in The B-52's' 1985 single "Girl from Ipanema Goes to Greenland," again without any musical reference to the original song.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Girl from Ipanema


text: Talk:The Girl from Ipanema

title: Talk:The Girl from Ipanema


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User:Abdullahya

Hello,

Wellcome to my Wikipedia user page ;)

There is nothing important here, just some links... ;)

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Islam, my religion...

Palestine
Palestine Hamas Ahmed Yassin

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title: User:Abdullahya


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User talk:Ronald j

Don't delete discussions about article deletion. It is considered vandalism and could get you banned. -- Cyrius|&#9998 17:57, May 17, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ronald j


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Red Lake Indian Reservation

The Red Lake Indian Reservation (Miskwaagamiiwi-zaaga'iganing) covers 1260.3 sqmi in parts of nine counties in Minnesota, United States. It is made up of numerous holdings but the largest section is an area around Red Lake, in north-central Minnesota, the largest lake in the state. This section lies primarily in the counties of Beltrami and Clearwater. Land in seven other counties is also part of the reservation. The reservation population was 5,506 in the 2020 census.

The second-largest section (49.26667°N, -95.05°W) is much farther north, in the Northwest Angle of Lake of the Woods County near the Canada–United States border. It has no permanent residents. Between these two largest sections are hundreds of mostly small, non-contiguous reservation exclaves in the counties of Beltrami, Clearwater, Lake of the Woods, Koochiching, Roseau, Pennington, Marshall, Red Lake, and Polk. Home to the federally recognized Red Lake Band of Chippewa, it is unique as the only "closed reservation" in Minnesota. In a closed reservation, all land is held in common by the tribe and there is no private property.

The tribe claims the land by right of conquest and aboriginal title; they were not reassigned to it by the United States government. The Red Lake Band of Chippewa refused to join with six other bands in organizing as the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe in the mid-1930s; at the time, its people wanted to preserve their traditional system of hereditary chiefs, rather than forming an electoral government. As of 2011, the Ojibwe language is the official language of Red Lake. Seven principal clans (doodems) found on the Red Lake Indian Reservation are makwa (bear), mikinaak (turtle), owaazisii (bullhead), nigig (otter), migizi (eagle), waabizheshi (marten), and ogiishkimanisii (kingfisher). As a population minority name (sturgeon) and adik (caribou) clans are also found.

In the 2000 census, Red Lake was the most populous reservation in the state, with 5,162 residents. The only place in Minnesota with a higher Native American population at that time was the state's largest city, Minneapolis, 250 miles to the south; it recorded 8,378 Indian residents that year. By 2007, the White Earth and Leech Lake reservations (both led by parts of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe) had higher resident populations of enrolled Ojibwe. The reservation's largest community is Red Lake, on the south shore of Red Lake. Given the large lake in the heart of the reservation, its total land area of 883.08 sqmi covers about 70% of the reservation's surface area.

History
In the 17th century, the Algonquian-speaking Ojibwe migrated into present-day Minnesota from the north around the Great Lakes. Their warriors went ahead of colonizers and were told to clear the way for the Anishinaabe families. Before invading the Mille Lacs region, Ojibwe warriors had forced their way into the region just west of what is now Duluth, Minnesota, on Lake Superior. They established a village known as Wi-yah-kwa-kit-chi-ga-ming. It was later called Fond du Lac (Bottom of the Lake) by French fur traders, the first Europeans to interact with the Ojibwe in this area. From there, Anishinaabe warriors invaded the Sandy Lake and Red Lake regions. Their conquest of the Red Lake region may have occurred between 1650 and 1750. By that time, Anishinaabe people were already living in the Grand Portage, Rainy Lake, and Pembina region of present-day northern Minnesota.

After evicting the Dakota living in the Red Lake region, the Noka (the Military and Police totem of the Anishinaabe) occupied the area. They eventually allowed other Anishinaabe totems to enter the Red Lake region to live. Most Anishinaabe immigrants to this area were from the Noka totem (or clan). They established many villages in the Red Lake region. Later, they and their Dakota allies invaded the plains of present-day North Dakota, western South Dakota, and Montana. The Western Dakota, who refused to surrender, continued to fight the Anishinaabe-Dakota alliance. With each battle and defeat, more Dakota asked for peace from the Anishinaabe. The Western Dakota who continued the conflict developed a great hatred for those Eastern Dakota who were allies of the Anishinaabe.

William Whipple Warren, the first historian of the Ojibwe people, noted their longstanding associations with the French Canadians by the mid-18th century, due both to fur trading and intermarriage among their peoples. As a result, the Ojibwe fought with the French during the Seven Years' War against the English; it was known in North America as the French and Indian War. Although the English won the war and took over "French" territory in Canada and east of the Mississippi River, the Ojibwe retained many trading and family associations with ethnic French Canadians.

19th century
In the 1850s two Roman Catholic priests established a mission with the Red Lake band. Later, Catholic nuns from the Benedictine monastery (convent) in St. Joseph founded St. Mary's Mission at Red Lake. They organized a boarding school at the mission to serve Ojibwe girls, teaching them Christianity and English. Over time, most residents on the reservation adopted Roman Catholicism, although many also retained Ojibwe rituals and traditions, including funeral and mourning practices.

In 1862 a commission composed of U.S. Senator Wilkinson, Indian Commissioner Dole, and Indian Superintendent Thompson had been selected to make a treaty with the Red Lake Nation, prior to the Sioux uprising. Lincoln sent his private secretary Nicolay to represent him to the Chippewa/Ojibwa peoples. A newspaper reported that the Sioux had learned that a commission had been sent to treat with the Red Lake leaders. The Sioux thought that the commission was going to give their annuities to the Red Lakers and sent a war party to intervene. Both the Red Lake and Pembina bands waited at the agreed treaty location on the Red River. When the Commission failed to show the two bands raided a Red River oxcart train bound for the Fort Garry Selkirk settlement of the Hudson's Bay Company. Afterwards the Red Lakers objected to the Pembina band taking the cattle and saw to it that the cattle were returned.

Close to this time, the Sioux made a raid on Fort Abercrombie driving off the Fort's livestock and horses. Included in this were 200 annuity cattle intended for the Red Lake Chippewa. The cattle had been diverted to Abercrombie for safe keeping from a Sioux attack. However, when the Red Lakers were informed that the Sioux actions were the cause of the delay of the Treaty Commission meeting them and their cattle having been taken, they offered to defend the frontier from the Santee Sioux. In 1863 the Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians and the Red Lake Band negotiated the Treaty of Old Crossing in Minnesota with the United States. They agreed to cede their lands in the Red River and Pembina area. They made additional agreements for land cessions in the following decades, under pressure of increased numbers of European-American settlers in the area. The Reverend Bishop Henry Whipple was furious at what the treaty called for.

The United States and the British surveyed the international border to adjust previous errors. The corrected boundary included the Northwest Angle within the United States as well as its native inhabitants, the Bois Forte Band of Chippewa. As the Bois Forte lacked federal recognition from the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau consolidated the small Bois Forte Band with the Red Lake Nation administratively.

While the tribe ceded large tracts of land to the U.S., it maintained a central geographic location. It resisted U.S. attempts to gain its approval for allotment of communal land to individual households under the Dawes Act of 1887. This involved dividing communal tribal land into individual household plots for farming and private ownership. The US would declare any land remaining on the reservation after allocating 160 acres to each head of household as "surplus" and available for sale to non-Indians.

During this period, some of the Pembina band, refused relocation to either Turtle Mountain or the White Earth reservation. They located to the Red Lake Reservation because it was "untouched Indian land." It has never left tribal control and is unique for that.

On July 8, 1889, the Bureau of Indian Affairs told the Minnesota Chippewa that the Red Lake and White Earth reservations would be retained, but the others would be put up for public sale. They said that Chippewa from the other reservations would be relocated to White Earth. The Bureau told tribal leaders that members of each reservation could vote on whether to accept allotments at that reservation. Voting was limited to all qualified tribal men. The Chippewa leaders were outraged.

Red Lake leaders warned the U.S. Government of reprisals if their Reservation was violated. The members of the White Earth, Mille Lacs, and Leech Lake reservations all voted overwhelmingly to accept land allotments and allow the surplus land sold to the whites, with the tribes to receive lump sums of money from the sales. The October 5, 1898, Battle of Sugar Point was over land.

In 1889, the Red Lake Reservation covered 3,260,000 acres or 5,093 sq. mi. The Band was forced to cede 2,905,000 acres as "surplus" after allotment to households registered on the Dawes Rolls took place. That left the Reservation with over 300,000 acres surrounding most of Lower and Upper Red Lake. Learning of Chippewa unrest because of the vote, the United States later set aside large areas of forests to add back to the Red Lake Reservation. However, in 1904 US officials returned, and forced the band to cede more land from that set aside in 1889. The present Red Lake Reservation dates to the 1904 land act. There was no allotment of land at that time to individual Chippewa living on the Red Lake Reservation.

Only a small portion of the northeast corner of the White Earth Reservation remained. It was a fraction of its original size. All the other Chippewa reservations in Minnesota were closed. The lands were sold following the Nelson Act of 1889. As a result of the 1898 Rebellion on the Leech Lake Reservation, the US changed its policy returning some land to Minnesota's remaining Chippewa reservations.

20th century to present
The current Red Lake Reservation is entirely owned and occupied by members of the Red Lake Band, making it unique among reservations in Minnesota. As a result of allotment and sales in the intervening years, some tribes own less than 10% of the land within their reservation boundaries. Red Lake is among the most isolated reservations in the United States. In 1934, after the Indian Reorganization Act that year encouraged tribes to restore their governments, the tribe rejected joining six other Chippewa bands to organize the federally recognized Minnesota Chippewa Tribe under a written constitution. Its leaders did not want to give up the tradition of hereditary chiefs for an elected government or give up any control of its land to the Tribe. By 2007, the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe reported a total enrollment of more than 40,000 members. In the 1950s, new tribal leaders of Red Lake wrote a constitution to establish democratically elected government of chairman and council, without term limits. The tribe elected its first chairman and tribal council in 1959. Roger Jourdain was repeatedly re-elected and retained power until 1990. Under his leadership, the tribe developed infrastructure on the reservation, including running water, roads, and housing.

The tribe has established a library and archives, and appointed a tribal archeologist to study and preserve the archeological artifacts of its people. Tribal schools on the reservation were established so that the children could be educated in their own community through high school.

Red Lake, like the White Earth, and Leech Lake reservations, is known for its tradition of singing hymns in the Ojibwe language.

In part because of the reservation's isolation, it has struggled economically. Many people are unemployed. High unemployment has contributed to high rates of poverty, alcoholism, violence and suicide. As a result, since the 1990s, the school board has added classes to the high school curriculum to include drug and alcohol abuse prevention, anti-gang training, anti-bullying training, and instruction about fetal alcohol syndrome. As a result of gang killings in the 1990s, the school added security measures to the high school, including guards.

The Red Lake Band of the Chippewa are the only entity beside state governments and Pacific dependencies currently eligible for SAMHSA Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment block grants

Since the mid-20th century, the tribe has asserted a significant level of sovereignty. Due to its status as a "closed reservation", the tribe can assert a considerable amount of control over non-residents, including controlling their movements within the reservation or expelling them altogether. As an example, the tribe has barred journalists from entry on several occasions. The prosecution of crimes is often complex due to issues of jurisdiction, which often have to be clarified on a case-by-case basis. The reservation tribal police have jurisdiction over misdemeanors, but the US government, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) police, legally has jurisdiction over felonies. The state of Minnesota has no criminal jurisdiction over the reservation.

Political tensions have sometimes erupted into violence. In 1979, during a struggle over leadership, men with rifles attacked the tribal police station, and two teenagers were killed. One shot himself accidentally and the other was accidentally shot while struggling with a companion over control of a weapon. Men burned several buildings, including the home of the tribal chairman. The tribe and reservation was the first in the United States to issue its own vehicle license plates as a measure of its sovereign status. It is struggling to find ways to develop its economy. It is collaborating in the 21st century with the White Earth and Leech Lake bands to reach out to the business and academic communities to promote job development. (See "Economy" below.)

The Red Lake shootings occurred on March 21, 2005, in two locations on the reservation.

Population
According to the 2020 census, the Red Lake Reservation was home to 5,506 individuals. The population density stood at 6.2 PD/sqmi, with 1,591 housing units spread at an average density of 1.8 /sqmi. The community's ethnic composition was 5,302 (96.29%) Native American, 39 (0.71%) White, 2 (0.04%) belonging to other racial groups, and 1.1% multiracial. Additionally, 1.8% of the population identified as Hispanic. The demographic profile shows over 40% of the population being under 18 years of age.

Economic and health metrics
The Red Lake Reservation has the lowest per capita income among all reservations in the state, recorded at US$8,372 in 1999 according to the Northwest Area Foundation. Around 40% of the community lives beneath the poverty line. The period between 1990 and 2000 saw a 40% population increase as individuals returned to the reservation, driven by employment challenges elsewhere during economic recessions.

The reservation faces a near 60% unemployment rate, closely linked to prevalent poverty, which is believed to exacerbate the crime rate. In 2004, tribal police reported 3,500 court cases.

This high unemployment and poverty level have led to significant issues, including elevated violence rates and suicide. A 2004 study by Minnesota School revealed alarming statistics: 43% of freshman boys and 81% of freshman girls had contemplated suicide, with 48% of the girls having attempted it. Furthermore, the high school faces challenges in maintaining graduation rates.

Geography
Red Lake Reservation has some widely scattered properties in northwest Minnesota. Most of the Reservation is located around Lower and Upper Red Lake, which is one of the largest lakes in the United States. The land area of the Reservation is located mainly around Lower Red Lake and west of that and Upper Red Lake. The land is covered by prime forest.

According to the United States Census Bureau in 2020, the reservation has a total area of 1260.32 sqmi, of which 883.09 sqmi is land and 377.23 sqmi is water.

Elevation across the Red Lake Reservation ranges in elevation from 1,100 feet above sea level to 1,300 feet above sea level. Besides Lower and Upper Red Lakes, many smaller lakes are scattered across the reservation, especially south of Lower Red Lake.

Communities
Communities on the Red Lake Reservation:

 * Little Rock
 * Ponemah
 * Red Lake
 * Redby

Climate
Red Lake Reservation has extreme climate conditions. Winters are long and cold, while summers are short and warm. During the winter months of December, January, and February, the average low temperatures at Red Lake are 0, -8, and -3 °F. Average high temperatures for the same winter months at Red Lake are 19, 13, and 20 °F. Average high temperatures for the summer months of June, July, and August at Red Lake are 73, 78, and 76 °F. Average low temperatures for the same summer months at Red Lake are 51, 57, and 54 °F.

The lake and forest contribute to significant precipitation at Red Lake, 23 in annually. The large lake has a warming effect, especially in low temperatures. The mild summer low temperatures are a result of the warming effect of Lower and Upper Red Lake. Low temperatures during the summer further south, are cooler, especially at communities that are not located next to lakes.

Economy
Some in the community have expressed hope that renewal of the tribe's traditions and its traditional values may improve life on the reservation. But, others believe that the community needs to focus on education and job development, to employ people and pay them adequately. The majority of jobs on the reservation pay in the vicinity of $7 per hour as of 2005.

The tribe operates three casino operations, which are struggling to generate revenue as they do not allow the sale or consumption of alcohol. A small operation is located in the village of Red Lake, the 13,000-ft² River Road Casino is located seven miles south of Thief River Falls, and the Lake of the Woods Bingo and Casino is in Warroad. Seven Clans Casino Red Lake is located in Red Lake, Minnesota. The three casinos combined are known as Seven Clans Casinos.

Industry on the reservation has consisted primarily of logging and commercial fishing of walleye in the lakes. Walleye production dropped significantly in the 1990s, adding to the reservation's financial problems; a joint effort by Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Red Lake Band to create a sustainable walleye fishery resulted in a seven-year closure of Red Lake to harvest that ended in 2006 and was followed by stricter regulation. The community receives $50 to $60 million each year in US federal subsidies, such as Social Security and welfare. Because the reservation has few retail businesses and no bank, little money is exchanged within the reservation to help generate more jobs.

The poverty level of the tribe, coupled with financial difficulties in state government, led Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty in 2004–2005 to propose a joint casino operation to be co-owned by the White Earth, Leech Lake, and Red Lake bands, and the state government. The state was willing to designate a site in the populous Twin Cities area, where some of the most successful Indian gaming facilities in the country are located. Many state residents turned against the plan, and it was ruled to be illegal by the state Attorney General Mike Hatch. The Red Lake Band pulled out of negotiations.

Northern Minnesota tribes are working together to stimulate economic development in the region. The Red Lake, Leech Lake and White Earth nations created the Northern Minnesota Tribal Economic Development Commission. They are seeking to make more connections with area businesses and resources. In 2008 the three tribes organized the Northern Minnesota Reservation Economic Development Summit and Trade Show. The White Earth Band is the largest of the six who belong to the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, to which the Leech Lake Band also belongs.

An economic project with health and cultural benefits, in 2018 the Red Lake Band introduced a bison herd to the reservation with guidance from Kade Ferris (Turtle Mountain Chippewa/Métis), the Red Lake Band's tribal archaeologist. The herd provides meat to tribal citizen, and it and the nearby garden are part of the Red Lake Nation's Food Initiative.

Government
In 1934, Red Lake rejected organization under the Indian Reorganization Act, as it preferred to retain a clan-based system of governance. The Band did not join the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, a federally recognized conglomeration of Minnesota's other Chippewa nations, which has its own governing authority.

During the 1950s, governmental reform efforts in Red Lake resulted in the drafting of a tribal constitution. The constitution established an elected Tribal Council; a group of seven traditionally selected tribal leaders was established to serve on an advisory basis. Together with the elected council members, these traditional leaders form the Tribal Council's subordinate committees.

In 1959, Roger Jourdain was elected as Red Lake's first chairman; he was successively re-elected until 1990. Jourdain is credited with working to affirm the tribe's sovereignty through negotiations with the state and federal governments, which resulted in Red Lake's continued exemption from Public Law 280.

Jourdain's administration also oversaw the reopening of an Indian Health Service hospital and extensive infrastructure improvements, which focused on running water, housing development, and roads. Jourdain's administration also attracted controversy; in 1979, a two-day riot occurred on the reservation following the Tribal Council's dismissal of its secretary-treasurer. During the riots, armed protestors attacked the tribal police station and burned fourteen buildings, including Jourdain's home. Two teenagers were killed; one during a struggle over a weapon and the other due to an accidental, self-inflicted wound.

In 1990, Gerald "Butch" Brun unseated Jourdain. Darrell G. Seki Sr. is the current tribal chairman as of 2022.

Between 2015 and 2020, the Red Lake Nation participated in the Tiwahe Demonstration Project, a pilot for a federal program that provides funding for tribal governments to enhance their self-governance and integrate public services. Red Lake Nation used this funding in part to hire a Healing to Wellness Court (HTWC) judge and to improve its family drug courts, which seek to provide alternatives to incarceration and reduce recidivism.

In 2021, the Red Lake Nation received authorization from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to exercise authority over the water quality standards for its tribal surface water.

Education
School systems include:
 * Red Lake School District
 * Red Lake Senior High School
 * Endazhi-Nitaawiging Charter School

Notable tribal members and residents

 * Donna Bergstrom, retired US Marine Corps officer, ran for the Minnesota Senate in 2016 and as a candidate for Minnesota Lieutenant Governor in the Republican primary of 2018.
 * Brenda Child, educator and author, history professor, University of Minnesota. Author of: Boarding School Seasons (2000); Holding Our World Together: Ojibwe Women and the Survival of the Community (2012)
 * Leon F. Cook, president of the National Congress of American Indians from 1971 to 1972.
 * Patrick DesJarlait, Red Lake Ojibwe visual artist and graphic designer
 * Sam English, painter, activist. Noted fine artist, painter, and activist for various causes, including those of Native American chemical dependency, health, and wellness organizations.
 * Adam Fortunate Eagle, Native American political activist.
 * Roger Jourdain (1913–2002), elected the first Chairman of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa in 1959, in the tribe's first popular election of leader; served until 1990. He was selected in 1986 as the Indian Man of the Year by the American Indian Heritage Foundation.
 * Bill Lawrence (1939–2010), owner-editor of Native American Press/Ojibwe News since 1988
 * Medweganoonind, 19th-century Red Lake Ojibwe chief
 * Charlie Norris, professional wrestler
 * Migizi Pensoneau, television writer
 * Gary Sargent (b. 1954), ice hockey player
 * Thomas J. Stillday, Jr., spiritual leader of the Red Lake Nation, tribal council member, served as first non-Judeo/Christian Minnesota Senate Chaplain from 1997 to 1998.
 * William Whipple Warren, Minnesota territorial legislator (1851–1853) and first Ojibwe historian, wrote a work combining oral history and recognized European-American criteria; his History of the Ojibway People, Based Upon Traditions and Oral Statements (1885), was published posthumously and reprinted in 2009 in an annotated edition

title: Red Lake Indian Reservation


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Peter Davis (businessman)

Sir Peter John Davis (born 23 December 1941) is a British businessman, who was, from 2000 to 2004, the CEO of J Sainsbury plc, which operates the UK supermarket chain Sainsbury's.

Davis was born in Cheshire on 23 December 1941, the son of John Stephen Davis and Adriaantje de Baat. He was educated at Shrewsbury School. Peter Davis worked for a company called the Ditchburn Organisation, Dock Road, Lytham, Lancashire, U.K. circa 1960/61.

Ditchburns had two sides, one side being Ditchburn Music Maker, which manufactured and sold Juke Boxes and the other side being Ditchburn Vending Machines, which manufactured and sold Hot and Cold drink vending machines. Davis worked for the sales and marketing side of Ditchburn Vending Machines.

Davis worked for Sainsbury from 1976 to 1986 as marketing director and then assistant managing director. Between 1986 and 1994 he was chief executive and chairman of the publishing business Reed International and was involved in the merger with the Dutch scientific publisher Elsevier.

He was chief executive of Prudential plc from 1995 having joined the company as a non-executive director. During this period, the company was condemned by the Treasury for mis-selling more pensions than any other firm. The Securities and Investments Board ordered the firm to retrain its entire sales staff, due to 'continuing and persistent breaches' of the standards of training for the sales force.

Davis was knighted in 1997 for services to training and industry. In 1997 he featured in the Prudential's television advertising campaign 'The Man from the Pru', built around the image of Davis as a friendly man advising on his customers' futures. In reality, Prudential staff were required to call him 'Mr Davis' when they met him.

Davis rejoined Sainsbury's on 1 March 2000 as chief executive officer and implemented a £2bn investment in upgrading IT systems, distribution depots and stores. During his term Sainsbury's was demoted to third in the UK grocery market, behind Tesco and Asda. However, in his first two years he raised profits above target and delivered significant cost savings.

With the arrival of Justin King as CEO on 29 March 2004, Davis was promoted to chairman. He was due to step down in July 2005 (the appointment of Sir Ian Prosser, ex-Bass chairman, as his successor was aborted in February 2004), but in June 2004 he was forced to quit in the face of an impending shareholder revolt over his salary and bonuses. Investors were angered by a bonus share award of £2.4m in the face of the supermarket's drop in market share. Davis was succeeded by Philip Hampton.

Davis has also served on the board of Boots. He was previously on the board of Business in the Community (1991–2005), having been chairman from 1996 to December 2001 and served two terms on the Board of the Royal Opera House and was Trustee and Chairman of the Royal Opera House Foundation.

Davis is a senior advisor and a member of the advisory board of Permira, Europe's largest private equity company. He has served as a Trustee of the Princess Royal Trust for Carers. Between 2006 and 2011 he was chairman of the charity Marie Curie Cancer Care.

title: Peter Davis (businessman)


text:
User:Rsvk~enwiki

I'm a computer programmer in San Diego, California, USA. This is my third career--I was in the seminary, then taught school for ten years, then switched to computer programming. I have a strong background in languages, particularly Spanish and Latin, and am also interested in music, science fiction, literature, history, and geography.

I've contributed some minor edits to various articles over the last couple of years.

Email: rsvk@rsvk2.com

--Robert Steven van Keuren

title: User:Rsvk~enwiki


text:
Fossa

Fossa may refer to:

Animals

 * Fossa (animal), the common name of a carnivoran mammal of genus Cryptoprocta endemic to Madagascar
 * Fossa, the Latin genus name of the Malagasy civet, a related but smaller mammal endemic to Madagascar

Places

 * Fossa, Abruzzo, a town in Italy
 * Fossa, County Kerry, a townland in Ireland
 * Fossa More, a townland in the parish of Tomgraney, County Clare
 * Fossa Beg, a townland in the parish of Tomgraney, County Clare
 * Fossá, Faroe Islands, an abandoned village
 * Fossá, a waterfall in the Faroe islands
 * Fossa (river), Iceland

Other uses

 * Fossa (anatomy), a depression in part of the body
 * Fossa (planetary nomenclature), a depression in a planet
 * La Fossa, an Italian rap group
 * Fossa, a fosse (ditch or moat) in ancient Roman contexts
 * Fossa, a drowning pit used for executions
 * François de Fossa, musician
 * Formaggio di fossa, a cheese matured in pits native to Romagna, Italy

title: Fossa


text:
Robbert Dijkgraaf

Robertus Henricus "Robbert" Dijkgraaf FRSE ( Dutch: [ ]; born 24 January 1960) is a Dutch theoretical physicist, mathematician and string theorist, and the Minister of Education, Culture and Science in the Netherlands from 2022 until 2024. From July 2012 until his inauguration as a minister, he had been the director and Leon Levy professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and a tenured professor at the University of Amsterdam.

Early life and education
Robertus Henricus Dijkgraaf was born on 24 January 1960 in Ridderkerk, Netherlands. Dijkgraaf attended the Erasmiaans Gymnasium in Rotterdam, Netherlands.

He started his education in physics at Utrecht University in 1978. After completing his candidate's degree (equivalent to BSc degree) in 1982, he briefly turned away from physics to pursue a painting education at the Gerrit Rietveld Academie. In 1984, he returned to Utrecht University and obtained an MSc degree in theoretical physics in 1986. He then went on to performing doctoral research under supervision of future Nobel laureate Gerard 't Hooft. He studied together with the twins Erik and Herman Verlinde. The original arrangement was that only one of the trio would work on string theory, but all three ended up writing their thesis on this subject. Dijkgraaf obtained his PhD degree cum laude in 1989. His thesis was titled A Geometrical Approach to Two Dimensional Conformal Field Theory.

For a few years he worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute for Advanced Study, working alongside Edward Witten.

Work
In 1992, he was appointed professor of mathematical physics at the University of Amsterdam, a chair he held until 2004, when he was appointed distinguished professor at the same university.

From 2008 to 2012 he was president of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected as one of the two co-chairs of the InterAcademy Council for the period 2009 to 2013.

Starting in 2012, Dijkgraaf became the director of the Institute for Advanced Study, an independent academic institution located in the town of Princeton, New Jersey. On that date, he stepped down from his position as president of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

He has served on numerous boards including at the Teylers Museum and the NEMO Science Museum.

He regularly appears on Dutch television and has a monthly column in the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad.

Political career
Starting on 10 January 2022, Dijkgraaf served as the Minister of Education in the Dutch government. He introduced the Balanced Internationalisation Act in the House of Representatives in 2024. This bill would allow colleges and universities to limit the number of foreign students they accept, and it would enforce stricter regulations on using the Dutch language in academic studies. Dijkgraaf's term as minister ended on 2 July 2024, when the Schoof cabinet was sworn in.

Other activities

 * Simons Foundation, Member of the Board of Directors (since 2021)
 * Scholars at Risk (SAR), Member of the Ambassadors Council

Awards and honours
In 1998 Dijkgraaf was an Invited Speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Berlin.

In 2003, Dijkgraaf was awarded the Spinoza Prize. In doing so he became the first recipient of the award whose advisor also was a recipient (Gerard 't Hooft received the first Spinoza Prize in 1995). He used part of his Spinoza Prize grant to set up a website targeted at children and promoting science: Proefjes.nl.

Dijkgraaf is an elected Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2003 and of the Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Humanities.

On 30 May 2012, he was elected an Honorary Member of both the Royal Netherlands Chemical Society and the Netherlands' Physical Society. On 5 June 2012, Dijkgraaf was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion. In 2012, he became a Fellow of the American Mathematical Society.

He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 2013. That same year, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

He received honorary doctorates from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Leiden University in 2019. In 2019, Dijkgraaf was awarded the inaugural Iris Medal for Excellent Science Communication, presented at the Evening of Science & Society in the Ridderzaal in The Hague, by Ingrid van Engelshoven, Minister of Education, Culture, and Science, in the presence of King Willem-Alexander.

Research
Dijkgraaf's research focuses on string theory and the interface of mathematics and physics in general. He is best known for his work on topological string theory and matrix models, and his name has been given to the Dijkgraaf-Witten invariants and the Witten-Dijkgraaf-Verlinde-Verlinde formula.

Personal life
Dijkgraaf is married to the author and has three children. Their daughter Charlotte was born with a rare type of Leukemia and was the subject of book written by her mother Pia de Jong, Saving Charlotte: A Mother and the Power of Intuition.

Research articles
Dijkgraaf has co-authored and published more than 70 research articles in the field of string theory and physics, with many other researchers including: Cumrun Vafa, Lotte Hollands, Erik Verlinde, Herman Verlinde, Hirosi Ooguri, Gregory Moore, Rajesh Gopakumar, Sergei Gukov, Miranda Cheng, and others. This is a select list of these works:

title: Robbert Dijkgraaf


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User:Erikp

Howdy.

I usually just load a random page and make minor edits, but I have added a bit of content as well. I've written an article on swamp rabbits, and added extensively to an article on Liberty, Maine...

title: User:Erikp


text:
Erik Verlinde

Erik Peter Verlinde (born 21 January 1962) is a Dutch theoretical physicist and string theorist. He is the identical twin brother of physicist Herman Verlinde. The Verlinde formula, which is important in conformal field theory and topological field theory, is named after him. His research deals with string theory, gravity, black holes and cosmology. Currently, he works at the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Amsterdam.

At a symposium at the Dutch Spinoza-institute on December 8, 2009 he introduced a theory of entropic gravity. In this theory, gravity exists because of a difference in concentration of information in the empty space between two masses and its surroundings; he also extrapolates this to general relativity and quantum mechanics. He said in an interview with the newspaper de Volkskrant, "On the smallest level Newton's laws don't apply, but they do for apples and planets. You can compare this to the pressure of a gas. Molecules themselves don't have any pressure, but a barrel of gas has." It appears that Verlinde's approach to explaining gravity leads naturally to the correct observed strength of dark energy.

Biography
Erik Verlinde was born in the Dutch village of Woudenberg on 21 January 1962, together with his identical twin brother, Herman Verlinde. He went to school in the nearby city of Utrecht, where he graduated from the gymnasium in 1980.

That fall he began his studies in theoretical physics together with his brother at Utrecht University. There he studied with his brother Herman, Robbert Dijkgraaf, and Kareljan Schoutens. He wrote his Master's thesis with Nobel laureate Gerard 't Hooft.

In 1985, Verlinde started work on his PhD at Utrecht University under the formal supervision of Bernard de Wit. He worked again with Herman and Dijkgraaf, and in practice the trio supervised themselves. The original arrangement was that only one of them would be working on the emerging field of string theory, but in the end all three of them wrote their theses on the subject. In September 1988 Erik defended his PhD thesis, which included the Verlinde formula.

After his PhD, Verlinde joined the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton as a postdoctoral fellow. In 1993, he was added to the permanent staff of the theory division of CERN in Geneva. At the age of 34 he was appointed full professor of theoretical physics at Utrecht University. Only a few years later, in 1999, he left for Princeton University to take up a professorial position there. In 2003, he returned to the Netherlands to become a professor in the string theory group led by Robbert Dijkgraaf at the University of Amsterdam.

Major contributions
Verlinde's main field of research is string theory. Over the years he has introduced a number of results that have become important in the development of the theory, and in the study of pure mathematics.

Verlinde formula
Verlinde's PhD thesis was titled “Conformal Field Theory Applied to Strings”. In it he investigated conformal field theories in two dimensions and their relation to the description of the world sheet of fundamental strings. As part of the project he extended fusion or Verlinde algebras, describing conformal field theories with a finite number of fields. A main result was an explicit formula for the fusion rules of these algebras, now known as the Verlinde formula. This has proven to be a highly non-trivial mathematical result. In Verlinde's original work, the formula followed from mainly physical arguments, but since its introduction many formal mathematical proofs have been provided.

Cardy formula extensions
The Cardy formula is an important result in conformal field theory that allows the calculation of the entropy of a 1+1 dimensional conformal field theory. Using the AdS/CFT correspondence between conformal field theories and quantum gravity in anti-de Sitter spaces with one additional dimension, it can be used to calculate (the quantum corrections to) the entropy of black holes in 2+1 dimensions. In 2000, Verlinde extended Cardy's result to conformal field theories of arbitrary dimension, allowing the calculation of entropy of black holes in any dimension.

Entropic gravity
In 2009, Verlinde showed that the laws of gravity may be derived by assuming a form of the holographic principle and the laws of thermodynamics. This may imply that gravity is not a true fundamental force of nature (like e.g. electromagnetism), but instead is a consequence of the universe striving to maximize entropy.

Emergent gravity and the dark universe
On 8 November 2016 Erik Verlinde published his new theory of gravity, where gravity is not one of the four fundamental forces of physics but, rather, gravity is emergent from other fundamental forces. In this work, he argues that unlike in anti-de Sitter (AdS) space, holography and the area law do not apply exactly in de Sitter space (which models our universe) because there is an additional entropy associated with the cosmological horizon. If this entropy were evenly distributed throughout space, it would contribute a volume law term to the entropy which becomes dominant at large length scales and is related to dark energy. He further argues that this entropy modifies emergent gravity, introducing residual forces when the acceleration due to gravity is very weak. The result provides a candidate explanation for dark matter similar to the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) proposal and explains the empirical relationship between dark matter and the Hubble constant. By Aug 1st 2018 the paper has been quoted in 153 physics papers, including by well-known physicists such as Lee Smolin, and Mordehai Milgrom - originator of MOND. Explanation of modified gravity through entropic gravity is a "quantum gravity theory" merging "general theory of relativity" with "quantum field theory". Verlinde himself names it also quantum information theory. There are already critical papers on "emergent gravity" such as "Inconsistencies in Verlinde’s emergent gravity" by D Dai, D Stojkovic (Springer HEP, Nov 2017), stating that "...When properly done, Verlinde’s elaborate procedure recovers the standard Newtonian gravity instead of MOND".

Awards and honors
In June 2011, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) awarded Verlinde the Spinoza Prize, the highest award available to Dutch scientists including a 2.5 million euro grant for future research. The committee cited his work on the Verlinde formula, the Witten–Dijkgraaf–Verlinde–Verlinde equations, the Cardy-Verlinde formula and entropic gravity as the major achievements leading to the award.

title: Erik Verlinde


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Herman Verlinde

Herman Louis Verlinde (born 21 January 1962) is a Dutch theoretical physicist and string theorist. He is the Class of 1909 Professor of Physics at Princeton University, where he is also the chair of the Department of Physics. He is the identical twin brother of Erik Verlinde.

title: Herman Verlinde


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Johann Silberschlag

Johann Esaias Silberschlag (16 November 1721 – 22 November 1791) was a German Lutheran pastor (1753-1766) and natural scientist from Aschersleben, Principality of Halberstadt.

In 1760, he became an external member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Privy Councillor in the newly founded Office for Public Works, Section of Mechanical Engineering and Hydraulic Engineering. In 1780 Silberschlag observed and described the Brocken bow (also called Brocken spectre). In his book Geonetics or Explanation of the Mosaic Creation according to Physical and Mathematical Foundations (Geogonie oder Erklärung der mosaischen Erderschaffung nach physikalischen und mathematischen Grundlagen) he tried to reconcile theology and science.

The lunar crater Silberschlag is named after him.

title: Johann Silberschlag


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Arvind Rajaraman

Arvind Rajaraman is an Indian-born theoretical physicist and string theorist. Rajaraman earned his Ph.D. from Stanford University. He is an associate professor at University of California, Irvine.

The first time that India received any medals in International Mathematics Olympiad (IMO) was in 1989, when four among six Indian participants received a bronze medal. Rajaraman was one of these four bronze medal winning participants. Rajaraman was also part of the UC Irvine team whose research contributed to the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics.

title: Arvind Rajaraman


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Silberschlag

Silberschlag may refer to:
 * Johann Silberschlag (1721–1791), German Lutheran pastor (1753–1766) and natural scientist
 * Silberschlag (crater), a crater on the Moon named after him
 * Eisig Silberschlag

title: Silberschlag


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Brocken spectre

A Brocken spectre (British English; American spelling: Brocken specter; Brockengespenst), also called Brocken bow, mountain spectre, or spectre of the Brocken is the magnified (and apparently enormous) shadow of an observer cast in mid air upon any type of cloud opposite a strong light source. The figure's head can be surrounded by a bright area called Heiligenschein, or halo-like rings of rainbow-coloured light forming a glory, which appear opposite the Sun's direction when uniformly sized water droplets in clouds refract and backscatter sunlight.

The phenomenon can appear on any misty mountainside, cloud bank, or be seen from an aircraft, but the frequent fogs and low-altitude accessibility of the Brocken, the highest peak of the Harz Mountains in Germany, have created a local legend from which the phenomenon draws its name. The Brocken spectre was observed and described by Johann Silberschlag in 1780, and has often been recorded in literature about the region.

Occurrence

The "spectre" appears when the sun shines from behind the observer, who is looking down from a ridge or peak into mist or fog. The light projects the observer's shadow through the mist, often in a triangular shape due to perspective. The apparent magnification of size of the shadow is an optical illusion that occurs when the observer judges their shadow on relatively nearby clouds to be at the same distance as faraway land objects seen through gaps in the clouds, or when there are no reference points by which to judge its size. The shadow also falls on water droplets of varying distances from the eye, confusing depth perception. The ghost can appear to move (sometimes suddenly) because of the movement of the cloud layer and variations in density within the cloud.

References in popular culture and the arts
Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Constancy to an Ideal Object" concludes with an image of the Brocken spectre: And art thou nothing? Such thou art, as when The woodman winding westward up the glen At wintry dawn, where o'er the sheep-track's maze The viewless snow-mist weaves a glist'ning haze, Sees full before him, gliding without tread, An image with a glory round its head; The enamoured rustic worships its fair hues, Nor knows he makes the shadow he pursues!

Lewis Carroll's "Phantasmagoria" includes a line about a Spectre who "...tried the Brocken business first/but caught a sort of chill/so came to England to be nursed/and here it took the form of thirst/which he complains of still."

Stanisław Lem's Fiasco (1986) has a reference to the "Brocken Specter": "He was alone. He had been chasing himself. Not a common phenomenon, but known even on Earth. The Brocken Specter in the Alps, for example." The situation, of pursuing one's self, via a natural illusion is a repeated theme in Lem. A scene of significance in his book The Investigation (1975) depicts a detective who, within the confines of a snowy, dead-end alley, confronts a man who turns out to be the detective's own reflection, "The stranger... was himself. He was standing in front of a huge mirrored wall marking the end of the arcade."

In The Radiant Warrior (1989), part of Leo Frankowski's Conrad Stargard series, the protagonist uses the Brocken Spectre to instill confidence in his recruits.

The Brocken spectre is a key trope in Paul Beatty's The White Boy Shuffle (1996), in which a character, Nicholas Scoby, declares that his dream (he specifically calls it a "Dream and a half, really") is to see his glory through a Brocken spectre (69).

In James Hogg's novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) the Brocken spectre is used to suggest psychological horror.

Carl Jung in Memories, Dreams, Reflections wrote: ... I had a dream which both frightened and encouraged me. It was night in some unknown place, and I was making slow and painful headway against a mighty wind. Dense fog was flying along everywhere. I had my hands cupped around a tiny light which threatened to go out at any moment... Suddenly I had the feeling that something was coming up behind me. I looked back, and saw a gigantic black figure following me... When I awoke I realized at once that the figure was a "specter of the Brocken," my own shadow on the swirling mists, brought into being by the little light I was carrying.

In Gravity's Rainbow, Geli Tripping and Slothrop make "god-shadows" from a Harz precipice, as Walpurgisnacht wanes to dawn. Additionally, the French–Canadian quadruple agent Rémy Marathe muses episodically about the possibility of witnessing the fabled spectre on the mountains of Tucson in David Foster Wallace's novel Infinite Jest.

The explorer Eric Shipton saw a Brocken Spectre during his first ascent of Nelion on Mount Kenya with Percy Wyn-Harris and Gustav Sommerfelt in 1929. He wrote: "Then the towering buttresses of Batian and Nelion appeared; the rays of the setting sun broke through and, in the east, sharply defined, a great circle of rainbow colours framed our own silhouettes. It was the only perfect Brocken Spectre I have ever seen."

The progressive metal band Fates Warning makes numerous references to the Brocken Spectre in both their debut album title Night on Bröcken and in lyrics on a subsequent song called "The Sorceress" from the album Awaken the Guardian that read "Through the Brocken Spectre rose a luring Angel."

The design of Kriemhild Gretchen, a Witch in the anime series Puella Magi Madoka Magica, may have been inspired by the Brocken spectre.

In Charles Dickens's Little Dorrit, Book II Chapter 23, Flora Finching, in the course of one of her typically free-associative babbles to Mr Clennam, says " ... ere yet Mr F appeared a misty shadow on the horizon paying attentions like the well-known spectre of some place in Germany beginning with a B ... "

"Brocken Spectre" is the title of a track on David Tipper's 2010 album Broken Soul Jamboree.

In the tokusatsu series Tensou Sentai Goseiger, Semattarei of the Brocken Spectre is one of the enemies that Gosei Angels must face.

In the manga One Piece, Brocken spectres make an appearance in the Skypiea story arc.

In the anime Detective Conan, Brocken spectres are mentioned in episode 348 and episode 546 as well.

In "The Problem of Pain" by C.S. Lewis the Brocken spectre is mentioned in the chapter "Heaven".

In chapter 12 of Whose Body? (Lord Peter Wimsey) by Dorothy L. Sayers.

The Brocken Spectre occurring is proven by lawyers to explain circumstances in a case in episode 9 of "Innocence, Fight Against False Charges", a 2019 Japanese drama.

title: Brocken spectre


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Sulcus

Sulcus (Latin for "furrow"; sulci) may refer to:

 * Sulcus primigenius, the sacred furrow created at the foundation of Roman cities in antiquity
 * Gingival sulcus, the space between a tooth and surrounding tissue
 * Gluteal sulcus, the horizontal crease in humans and certain other primates where the lower end of the buttocks join the thigh
 * Sulcus (morphology), a groove, crevice or furrow in medicine, botany, and zoology
 * Sulcus (neuroanatomy), a crevice on the surface of the brain
 * Sulcus (geology), a long parallel groove on a planet or a moon
 * Coronal sulcus, the groove under the corona of the glans penis
 * In botany, sulci in seeds or pollen grains are colpi

title: Sulcus


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Aidu

Aidu may refer to:

 * Aidu, Ida-Viru County, village in Maidla Parish, Ida-Viru County
 * Aidu, Jõgeva County, village in Pajusi Parish, Jõgeva County
 * Aidu, Viljandi County, village in Paistu Parish, Viljandi County

title: Aidu


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Yoshinobu

Yoshinobu is a masculine Japanese given name.

Possible writings
Yoshinori can be written using many different combinations of kanji characters. Here are some examples:

 * 義信, "justice, believe"
 * 義伸, "justice, extend"
 * 義延, "justice, extend"
 * 佳信, "skilled, believe"
 * 佳伸, "skilled, extend"
 * 佳延, "skilled, extend"
 * 善信, "virtuous, believe"
 * 吉信, "good luck, believe"
 * 吉伸, "good luck, extend"
 * 良信, "good, believe"
 * 恭信, "respectful, believe"
 * 嘉信, "excellent, believe"
 * 嘉伸, "excellent, extend"
 * 嘉延, "excellent, extend"

The name can also be written in hiragana よしのぶ or katakana ヨシノブ.

Notable people with the name

 * James Yoshinobu Iha (井葉 吉伸), better known as James Iha, Japanese-American rock musician
 * Yoshinobu Akao (赤尾 佳宣), Japanese footballer
 * Yoshinobu Ashihara (芦原 義信), Japanese architect
 * Yoshinobu Fujiwara (藤原 良信), Japanese politician
 * Yoshinobu Harada (原田 欽庸), Japanese footballer
 * Yoshinobu Ikeda (池田 義信), Japanese film director and executive
 * Yoshinobu Ishii (石井 義信), Japanese footballer and manager
 * Yoshinobu Ishikawa (石川 嘉延), Japanese politician
 * Yoshinobu Kanemaru (金丸 義信), Japanese professional wrestler
 * Ikuya Sawaki (real name Yoshinobu Mikami (三上 芳信) (born 1951), Japanese voice actor
 * Yoshinobu Minowa (箕輪 義信), Japanese footballer
 * Yoshinobu Miyake (三宅 義信), Japanese weightlifter
 * Yoshinobu Miyake (religionist) (三宅 善信), Japanese Shinto priest and scholar
 * Yoshinobu Miyazaki (宮崎 義伸), Japanese swimmer
 * Yoshinobu Natsume (夏目 吉信), Japanese samurai
 * Yoshinobu Nisaka (仁坂 吉伸), Japanese politician
 * Yoshinobu Nishizaki (西崎 義展), Japanese film producer
 * Yoshinobu Ohga (大賀 好修), Japanese music arranger and guitarist
 * Yoshinobu Ohira (平 喜信), Japanese politician
 * Yoshinobu Onakatomi (大中臣 能宣), Japanese poet
 * Yoshinobu Ota (太田 義信, born 1972), Japanese mixed martial artist
 * Yoshinobu Oyakawa (親川 義信, born 1933), Japanese-American swimmer
 * Yoshinobu Satake (佐竹 義宣), Japanese daimyō
 * Yoshinobu Shimamura (島村 宜伸), Japanese politician
 * Yoshinobu Takahashi (高橋 由伸), Japanese baseball player and manager
 * Yoshinobu Takeda (武田 義信), Japanese daimyō
 * Yoshinobu Tokugawa (徳川 慶喜), Japanese shōgun
 * Yoshinobu Tsukada (塚田 好宣), Japanese golfer
 * Yoshinobu Yamamoto (山本 由伸), Japanese baseball player

title: Yoshinobu


text:
Sulci

Sulci or Sulki (in Greek Σολκοί, Steph. B., Ptol.; Σοῦλχοι, Strabo; Σύλκοι, Paus.), was one of the most considerable cities of ancient Sardinia, situated in the southwest corner of the island, on a small island, now called Isola di Sant'Antioco, which is, however, joined to the mainland by a narrow isthmus or neck of sand. South of this isthmus, between the island and the mainland, is an extensive bay, now called the Golfo di Palmas, which was known in ancient times as the Sulcitanus Portus (Ptol.).

Origins
The foundation of Sulci (Punic:) is expressly attributed to the Carthaginians (Paus. x. 17. § 9; Claudian, B. Gild. 518), and it seems to have become under that people one of the most considerable cities of Sardinia, and one of the chief seats of their power in the island. However, as noted by archaeologists the city was founded by Tyrians during the late 9th century BCE, and most of the inhabitants were probably native Sardinians, it remained independent until Carthage conquered it in the late 6th century BCE Its name was first mentioned in history during the First Punic War, when the Carthaginian general, Hannibal Gisco, having been defeated in a sea-fight (the Battle of Sulci, 258 BCE) by Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus, took refuge at Sulci, but was slain in a tumult by his own soldiers (Zonaras viii. 12).

Caesar's civil war
No other mention of the name occurs in history until the civil war between Pompey and Caesar. The citizens of Sulci received in their port the fleet of Nasidius, the admiral of Pompey, and furnished Pompey with supplies; for which service they were severely punished by Caesar, on his return from Africa, 46 BCE. Caesar imposed on the city a contribution of 100,000 sesterces, besides heavily increasing its annual tribute of corn (Hirt. B. Aft. 98). Notwithstanding this infliction, Sulci seems to have continued under the Roman Empire to be one of the most flourishing towns in the island. Strabo and Mela both mention it as if it were the second city in Sardinia; and its municipal rank is attested by inscriptions, as well as by Pliny. (Strab. v. p. 225; Mel. ii. 7. § 19; Plin. iii. 7. s. 13; Ptol. iii. 3. § 3; Inset. ap De la Marmora, vol. ii. pp. 479, 482.) The Itineraries give a line of road proceeding from Tibula (at the extreme north of Sardinia) direct to Sulci, a sufficient proof of the importance of the latter place. (Itin. Ant. pp. 83, 84.) It was also one of the four chief episcopal sees into which Sardinia was divided, and seems to have continued to be inhabited through a great part of the Middle Ages, but ceased to exist before the 13th century.

Present day
The remains of the ancient city are distinctly seen a little to the north of the modern town of Sant'Antioco, on the island or peninsula of the same name: and the works of art which have been found there bear testimony to its flourishing condition under the Romans. (De la Marmora, vol. ii. p. 357; Smyth's Sardinia, p. 317.) The name of Sulcis is given at the present day to the whole district of the mainland, immediately opposite to Sant'Antioco, which is one of the most fertile and best cultivated tracts in the whole of Sardinia. The Sulcitani of Ptolemy (iii. 3. § 6) are evidently the inhabitants of this district.

The Itineraries mention a town or village of the name of Sulci on the E. coast of Sardinia, which must not be confounded with the more celebrated city of the name. (Itin. Ant. p. 80.) It was probably situated at Girasole (De la Marmora, p. 443) or Tortolì.

title: Sulci


text:
Community psychology

Community psychology is concerned with the community as the unit of study. This contrasts with most psychology which focuses on the individual. Community psychology also studies the community as a context for the individuals within it, and the relationships of the individual to communities and society. Community psychologists seek to understand the functioning of the community, including the quality of life of persons within groups, organizations and institutions, communities, and society. They aim to enhance the quality of life through collaborative research and action.

Community psychology employs various perspectives within and outside psychology to address issues of communities, the relationships within them, and related people's attitudes and behaviour.

Rappaport (1977) discusses the perspective of community psychology as an ecological perspective on the person-environment fit (this is often related to work environments) being the focus of study and action instead of attempting to change the personality of an individual or the environment when an individual is seen as having a problem.

Closely related disciplines include community practice, ecological psychology, environmental psychology, critical psychology, cross-cultural psychology, social psychology, political science, public health, sociology, social work, applied anthropology, and community development.

In the United States, community psychology grew out of the community mental health movement, but evolved dramatically as early practitioners incorporated their understandings of political structures and other community contexts into perspectives on client services. However, in other regions, it has had different origins. In much of Latin America, for example, it developed from social psychology, as a response to the "crisis of social psychology" and the search for psychological theory and practice relevant to the social problems of the region.

Society for Community Research and Action
Division 27 of the American Psychological Association is the community psychology division of the APA, called the Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA). The Society's mission is as follows: "The Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA) is an international organization devoted to advancing theory, research, and social action. Its members are committed to promoting health and empowerment and to preventing problems in communities, groups, and individuals. SCRA serves many different disciplines that focus on community research and action."

The SCRA website has resources for teaching and learning community psychology, information on events in the field and related to research and action, how to become involved and additional information on the field, members and undergraduate and graduate programs in community psychology.

History of community psychology in the US
In the 1950s and 1960s, many factors contributed to the beginning of community psychology in the US. Some of these factors include:
 * A shift away from socially conservative, individual-focused practices in health care and psychology into a progressive period concerned with issues of public health, prevention and social change after World War II and social psychologists' growing interest in racial and religious prejudice, poverty, and other social issues
 * The perceived need of larger-scale mental illness treatment for veterans
 * Psychologists questioning the value of psychotherapy alone in treating large numbers of people with mental illness
 * The development of community mental health centers and de-institutionalization of people with mental illnesses into their communities

Swampscott Conference
In 1965, several psychologists met to discuss the future of community mental health as well as discuss the issue of only being involved with problems of mental health instead of the community as a whole. The Swampscott Conference is considered the birthplace of community psychology. A published report on the conference calls for community psychologists to be political activists, agents of social change and "participant-conceptualizers."

Ecological levels of analysis
James Kelly (1966; Trickett, 1984) developed an ecological analogy used to understand the ways in which settings and individuals are interrelated. Unlike the ecological framework developed by Bronfenbrenner (1979), the focus of Kelly's framework was not so much on how different levels of the environment may impact on the individual, but on understanding how human communities function. Specifically, Kelly suggests that there are 4 important principles that govern people in settings:
 * adaptation: i.e. that what individuals do is adaptive given the demands of the surrounding context. It is a two-way process: Individuals adapt to the restrictions, constraints, and quality of the environment, while the environment adapts to its members
 * Examples: In regards to adaption of the individual, take for instance when an individual adapts to the demands of a new job, they adapt to that environment by learning or acquiring any necessary skills that they may need to perform their tasks well. On the environmental side of adaption, we can imagine various situations involving the family, such as the birth of a child, new job of a parent, or when children attend college and move away from home; in all of these instances the environment adapted as necessary to the changes in its members
 * succession: every setting has a history that created current structures, norms, attitudes, and policies, and any intervention in the setting must appreciate this history and understand why the current system exists in the form that it does. This principle applies to families, organizations, and communities; further, an implication of noting and understanding succession in these units is that psychologists must understand the history of that unit (family, organization, or community) before attempting to implement an intervention plan
 * cycling of resources: each setting has resources that need to be identified and possibilities for new resources to be developed; a resource perspective emphasizes a focus on strengths of individuals, groups, and institutions within the setting and interventions are more likely to succeed if they build on such existing strengths, rather than introduce new external mechanisms for change. There are personal resources which include individual talents, strengths, or specialties, as well as social resources such as shared norms, beliefs, or values; further, aspects of the physical environment can be considered resources, such as calm resting places, a library, and other qualities of the space in particular
 * interdependence: settings are systems, and any change to one aspect of the setting will have consequences for other aspects of the setting, so any intervention needs to anticipate its impact across the entire setting, and be prepared for unintended consequences. When we look at a school, for instance, as a real-world example, the interdependent parts include: students, teachers, administrators, students' parents, faculty and staff (secretaries, janitors, counselors, nurses), board members, and taxpayers

First-order and second-order change
Because community psychologists often work on social issues, they are often working toward positive social change. Watzlawick, et al. (1974) differentiated between first-order and second-order change and how second-order change is often the focus of community psychology.
 * first-order change: positively changing the individuals in a setting to attempt to fix a problem
 * second-order change: Attending to systems and structures involved with the problem to adjust the person–environment fit

As an example of how these methods differ, consider homelessness. A first-order change to "fix" homelessness would be to offer shelter to one or many homeless people. A second-order change would be to address issues in policy regarding affordable housing.

Prevention and health promotion
Community psychology emphasizes principles and strategies of preventing social, emotional and behavioral problems and wellness and health promotion at the individual and community levels, borrowed from Public health and Preventive medicine, rather than a passive, "waiting-mode," treatment-based medical model. Universal, selective, primary, and indicated or secondary prevention (early identification and intervention) are particularly emphasized. Community psychology's contributions to prevention science have been substantial, including development and evaluation of the Head Start Program.

Empowerment
One of the goals of community psychology involves empowerment of individuals and communities that have been marginalized by society.

One definition for the term is "an intentional, ongoing process centered in the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring, and group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of resources gain greater access to and control over those resources" (Cornell Empowerment Group).

Rappaport's (1984) definition includes: "Empowerment is viewed as a process: the mechanism by which people, organizations, and communities gain mastery over their lives."

While empowerment has had an important place in community psychology research and literature, some have criticized its use. Riger (1993), for example, points to the paradoxical nature of empowerment being a masculine, individualistic construct being used in community research. Community psychologist Guy Holmes critiqued empowerment as a vague concept replete with what Wolf Wolfensberger has called 'high craze value' i.e. a fashionable term that means different things to different people, and ultimately means everything and nothing. Certainly few community psychologists would agree with Mao that 'power grows out of the barrel of a gun.'

In the 1990s, the support and empowerment paradigm (Racino, 1992) was proposed as an organizing concept to replace or complement the prior rehabilitation paradigm, and to acknowledge the diverse groups and community-based work of the emerging community disciplines.

Social justice
A core value of community psychology is seeking social justice through research and action. Community psychologists are often advocates for equality and policies that allow for the wellbeing of all people, particularly marginalized populations. For example, in May 2019 in the City of Brighton and Hove - Unframed Lives was an event about homelessness and austerity.

Diversity
Another value of community psychology involves embracing diversity. Rappaport includes diversity as a defining aspect of the field, calling research to be done for the benefit of diverse populations in gaining equality and justice. This value is seen through much of the research done with communities regardless of ethnicity, culture, sexual orientation, disability status, socioeconomic status, gender, and age.

Individual wellness
Individual wellness is the physical and psychological wellbeing of all people. Research in community psychology focuses on methods to increase individual wellness, particularly through prevention and second-order change.

Citizen participation
Citizen participation refers to the ability of individuals to have a voice in decision-making, defining and addressing problems, and the dissemination of information gathered on them. This is the basis for the usage of participatory action research in community psychology, where community members are often involved in the research process by sharing their unique knowledge and experience with the research team and working as co-researchers. In contrast, citizen participation is sought by community developers and community planners (i.e., public administrators) to assure that governmental funds best meet the needs of local citizenry. Three key values of participation are: building support for governmental planning, raising political consciousness, and furthering democratic values. Citizen participation in policymaking has a long history and has been particular strong in neighborhood action and poverty programs, and other activist-led initiatives.

Collaboration and community strengths
Collaboration with community members to construct research and action projects makes community psychology an exceptionally applied field. By allowing communities to use their knowledge to contribute to projects in a collaborative, fair and equal manner, the process of research can itself be empowering to citizens. This requires an ongoing relationship between the researcher and the community from before the research begins to after the research is over.

Psychological sense of community
Psychological sense of community (or simply "sense of community"), was introduced in 1974 by Seymour Sarason. In 1986 a major step was taken by David McMillan and David Chavis with the publication of their "Theory of Sense of Community" and in 1990 the "Sense of Community Index". Originally designed primarily in reference to neighborhoods, the Sense of Community Index (SCI) can be adapted to study other communities as well, including the workplace, schools, religious communities, communities of interest, etc.

Empirical grounding
Community psychology grounds all advocacy and social justice action in empiricism. This empirical grounding is what separates community psychology from a social movement or grassroots organization. Methods from psychology have been adapted for use in the field that acknowledge value-driven, subjective research involving community members. The methods used in community psychology are therefore tailored to each individual research question. Quantitative as well as qualitative methods and other innovative methods are embraced.

The American psychological Association has sponsored two major conferences on community research methods and has recently published an edited book on this topic.

Comparison of community and clinical psychology in the UK
Community psychology has been differentiated from traditional clinical psychology as practiced in the UK in the following ways: Examples of community psychology in the UK have been documented by Carolyn Kagan and Mark Burton, Jim Orford and Guy Holmes.

Education
Many programs related to community psychology are housed in psychology departments, while others are interdisciplinary. Students earning a community psychology degree complete courses that focus on: history and concepts of the field, human diversity and cultural competence, public health, community research methods and statistics, collaborative work in communities, organizational and community development and consultation, prevention and intervention, program evaluation, and grantwriting.

Research is a large component of both the PhD and master's degrees, as community psychologists base interventions on theory and research and use action-oriented research to promote positive change. Further, students will generally find niches under faculty mentors at their institutions related to local programs, organizations, grants, special populations, or social issues of interest—granting students the chance to have practice doing the work of a community psychologist, under the supervision of a faculty member.

Many community psychologists will find clinical psychologists involved in their work in communities, and collaboration between academic departments are encouraged.

To disseminate the field and make community psychology education free, an online Introduction to Community Psychology textbook was published in June 2019.

Peer-reviewed journals
The following journals provide peer-reviewed articles related to community psychology:
 * American Journal of Community Psychology (Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA) journal)
 * The Australian Community Psychologist (Journal of the Australian Psychological Society)
 * Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology (international journal)
 * Journal of Community Psychology (international journal)
 * Journal of Rural Community Psychology (e-journal)
 * Psychosocial Intervention/Intervención Psicosocial (published in both Spanish and English)
 * Rivista di Psicologia di Comunità (Italian journal)
 * Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice (GJCCP)

In addition, there are a number of interdisciplinary journals, such as the Community Mental Health Journal, with articles in the field of community health that deal with aspects of community psychology.

title: Community psychology


text:
Loughor

Loughor (Casllwchwr) is a town in Swansea, Wales. Historically in Glamorgan, it lies on the estuary of the River Loughor (Afon Llwchwr). The town has a community council under the name Llwchwr. The town is bordered by the communities of Bynea in Carmarthenshire, Grovesend, Gowerton, and Gorseinon. Loughor is part of the built-up area of Gorseinon.

Etymology
The town's name has been called "possibly the oldest name in Gower", dating back to the Roman era. It derives from the name of the Roman fort of Leucarum.

History
The town includes the site of the Roman fort of Leucarum, occupied by Roman Auxiliary soldiers from AD73 to around 320. In 1106 much of South Wales was assigned to an Anglo-Norman lord, Henry de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Warwick, and as part of a castle-building programme he built Loughor Castle, as an earthwork with timber defenses, built into the south-east corner of the Roman ramparts. Over a turbulent 250 years or so the castle was progressively upgraded with stone buildings and curtain walls. The castle later fell into ruin and is now a scheduled monument in the care of Cadw. Meanwhile, Loughor developed around the castle. A medieval Church was established, also within the Roman fort. Rebuilt on the medieval foundations in 1885, St Michael's Church was deconsecrated in 2021.

Loughor later grew as a port, although competition from the larger and better-connected ports at Llanelli and Burry Port, meant that Loughor was always a small-scale maritime town. Its position alongside the narrowing of the Loughor Estuary meant it was an important river crossing, originally as a ford at low tide and a ferry when the tide was in. A wooden swing-bridge was built in 1833, when river traffic still used the estuary. The arrival of the Railway in 1852 required the building of Loughor Viaduct, built from wooden trestles by Brunel, also originally featuring a swing-section. The viaduct was replaced by a steel and concrete structure in 2013. A new road bridge of 1923 acknowledged the river was now closed to shipping, and this itself was replaced by the new A484 Loughor bridge in 1988.

Loughor Estuary and Burry Inlet, with vast areas of sandbanks and some of the highest tidal ranges in the world, has always had its share of risks. The town has had its own lifeboat station since 1969, situated near the road bridge. The current lifeboat is a Ribcraft 5.85m RIB.

In the early 20th century the main industries were large tin and steel works, situated on both banks of the estuary. About 1800, John Vivian (1750–1826) of Truro, Cornwall, joined the Cheadle Brasswire Company as managing partner in the copper works at Loughor and Penclawdd. His family would go on to be key industrialists across the Swansea area, running copper-mining, copper-smelting and trading businesses, as Vivian & Sons, throughout the 19th century. At Ysbytty, on the other side of the river, the Spitty copper works of the early 19th century was succeeded by a major iron and tin-plate works which continued into the 1950s. This employed large numbers of both men and women from Loughor, who would cross the estuary each day to get to work.

Structure and amenities
Loughor town can be divided into two areas, defined by the present electoral wards of Lower Loughor and Upper Loughor, which have separate histories. Lower Loughor lies nearer the sea on low ground, Upper Loughor on higher ground. Loughor initially developed around the Norman castle in what is now the Lower Loughor ward. Upper Loughor began as a distinct settlement, initially around what is now the Glebe Road area, and became established as a separate town by the mid-19th century. Loughor today is mostly a commuter town for Swansea and Llanelli via the Loughor bridge, and has merged with the neighbouring town of Gorseinon.

The West Wales line crosses the River Loughor over the Loughor Viaduct to the west of the town. Loughor railway station was closed in 1960.

Local schools in the town include Tre Uchaf Primary School and Casllwchwr Primary School. Opposite the Tre Uchaf Primary is one of the sites of Gower College Swansea.

The local rugby union team of the town is Loughor RFC. The Old Town Hall, built in 1868, is currently disused and boarded up.

Notable people
In birth order:
 * Evan Roberts (1878–1951), minister, a major figure in the 1904–1905 Welsh Revival in religious worship
 * James Henry Govier (1910–1974), painter, etcher and engraver of the Swansea School, produced several images of Loughor.
 * Irma Chilton (1930–1990), children's writer in English and Welsh
 * Leighton James (1953-2024), Welsh international footballer

title: Loughor


text:
Águia Branca

Águia Branca ("white eagle" in English) is a municipality located in the west-central portion of the state of Espírito Santo, in southeastern Brazil. The municipality has a population of 9,631 (2020) and its area is 454 km2.

History
It was first colonized by Polish immigrants, in 1928. Polish was widely spoken in the region till the Second World War, when the Brazilian government prohibited education in Polish and German.

Geography
Located 226 km from the state capital Vitória. Municipalities it shares borders with include: (west) Mantenópolis and Pancas. (north) Barra de São Francisco and Nova Venécia. (south) São Domingos do Norte. (east) São Gabriel da Palha.

The municipality is in a markedly mountainous region of the state, and Águia Branca town looks up at great finger shaped stone peaks which surround the area. Municipal maximum height is at 878m above sea level.

title: Águia Branca


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Longa

Longa may refer to:

Music

 * Longa (music), a musical note twice as long in duration as a breve, appearing primarily in Early music
 * Longa (Middle Eastern music), a genre in Turkish and Arabic music

People

 * Francisco de Longa (1783–1842), Spanish general of the Napoleonic Wars
 * Steve Longa (born 1994), American football player

Places

 * Longa, Angola, a town in Angola
 * Longa River (Angola) a river in Angola
 * Longa-Mavinga National Park, a national park in Angola
 * Longa (Greek: Λογγά), a place in Messinia, Greece, in the municipality of Aipeia
 * Longa Island, an island near Gairloch in Scotland
 * Longa Stacks, small islets off the west coast of Unst, Shetland, Scotland

Food

 * Linga (cookie), also known as longa cookies, a sesame seed cookie from the Philippines

title: Longa