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Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr

Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (محمد باقر الصدر; 1 March 1935 – 9 April 1980), also known as al-Shahid al-Khamis (الشهيد الخامس), was an Iraqi Islamic scholar, philosopher, and the ideological founder of the Islamic Dawa Party, born in al-Kadhimiya, Iraq. He was father-in-law to Muqtada al-Sadr, a cousin of Muhammad Sadeq al-Sadr and Imam Musa as-Sadr. His father Haydar al-Sadr was a well-respected high-ranking Shi'a cleric. His lineage can be traced back to Muhammad through the seventh Shia Imam Musa al-Kazim. Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was executed in 1980 by the regime of Saddam Hussein along with his sister, Amina Sadr bint al-Huda.

Early life and education
Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was born in al-Kazimiya, Iraq to the prominent Sadr family, which originated from Jabal Amel in Lebanon. His father died in 1937, leaving the family destitute. In 1945, the family moved to the holy city of Najaf, where al-Sadr would spend the rest of his life. He was a child prodigy who, at 10, was delivering lectures on Islamic history. At eleven, he was a student of logic. He wrote a book criticizing materialist philosophy when he was 24. Al-Sadr completed his religious studies at religious seminaries under al-Khoei and Muhsin al-Hakim, and began teaching at the age of 25.

Struggle against Saddam Hussein
Al-Sadr's works attracted the ire of the Baath Party, leading to repeated imprisonment where he was often tortured. Despite this, he continued his work after being released. When the Ba'athists arrested Al-Sadr in 1977, his sister Amina Sadr bint al-Huda made a speech in the Imam Ali mosque in Najaf inviting the people to demonstrate. Many demonstrations were held, forcing the Ba'athists to release Al-Sadr who was placed under house arrest.

In 1979–1980, anti-Ba'ath riots arose in Iraq's Shia areas by groups who were working toward an Islamic revolution in their country. Hussein and his deputies believed that the riots had been inspired by the Iranian Revolution and instigated by Iran's government. In the aftermath of Iran's revolution, Iraq's Shia community called on Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr to be their "Iraqi Ayatollah Khomeini", leading a revolt against the Ba'ath regime. Community leaders, tribal heads, and hundreds of ordinary members of the public paid their allegiance to al-Sadr. Protests then erupted in Baghdad and the predominantly Shia provinces of the south in May 1979. For nine days, protests against the regime unfolded, but were suppressed by the regime. The cleric's imprisonment led to another wave of protests in June after a seminal, powerful appeal from al-Sadr's sister, Bint al-Huda. Further clashes unfolded between the security forces and protestors. Najaf was put under siege and thousands were tortured and executed. Al-Sadr issued a fatwa prohibiting membership in the ruling Ba'ath party. Called upon by the government to retract it he refused.

Execution
Baqir al-Sadr was arrested on April 5, 1980, with his sister, Sayyidah bint al-Huda. They had formed a powerful militant movement in opposition to Saddam Hussein's regime.

On April 9, 1980, Al-Sadr and his sister were killed after being severely tortured by their captors. Signs of torture could be seen on the bodies.

An iron nail was hammered into Al-Sadr's head and he was then set on fire in Najaf. It has been reported that Saddam Hussein himself killed them. The Baathists delivered the bodies of Baqir al-Sadr and Bint al-Huda to their cousin Sayyid Mohammad al-Sadr.

They were buried in the Wadi-us-Salaam graveyard in the holy city of Najaf the same night. His execution raised no criticism from Western countries because Al-Sadr had openly supported Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran.

Scholarship and ideas
The works by Baqir al-Sadr contains traditional Shia thoughts, while they also suggest ways Shia could "accommodate modernity".

The two major works by him are Iqtisaduna on Islamic economics, and Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy). They were detailed critiques of Marxism that presented his early ideas on an alternative Islamic form of government. They were critiques of both socialism and capitalism. He was subsequently commissioned by the government of Kuwait to assess how that country's oil wealth could be managed in keeping with Islamic principles. This led to a major work on Islamic banking, which still forms the basis for modern Islamic banks.

Using his knowledge of the Quran and a subject-based approach to Quranic exegesis, Al-Sadr extracted two concepts from the Holy text in relation to governance: Al-Sadr explained that throughout history there have been "...two lines. Man's line and the Prophet's line. The line of Man is the khalifa (trustee) who inherits the earth from God; the line of the Prophet is the shahid (witness)".
 * khilafat al-insan (Man as heir or trustee of God) and
 * shahadat al-anbiya (Prophets as witnesses).

Al-Sadr demonstrated that khilafa (governance) is "a right given to the whole of humanity" and defined it as an obligation given from God to the human race to "tend the globe and administer human affairs". This was a major advancement of Islamic political theory.

While Al-Sadr identified khilafa as the obligation and right of the people, he used a broad-based explanation of Quranic verse 5:44 to identify who held the responsibility of shahada in an Islamic state. First were the Prophets (anbiya'). Second were the Imams who are considered a divine (rabbani) continuation of the Prophets in this line. The last were the marja'iyya (see Marja).

While the two functions of khilafa and shahada (supervision and witness ) were united during the times of the Prophets, they diverged during the occultation so that khilafa returned to the people (umma) and shahada to the scholars.

Al-Sadr 's practical application of how khilafa, would be returned to the [Muslim] people in the absence of the twelfth Imam was with the establishment of a democratic system, whereby the people regularly elect their representatives in government: "Islamic theory rejects monarchy as well as the various forms of dictatorial government; it also rejects the aristocratic regimes and proposes a form of government, which contains all the positive aspects of the democratic system." He continued to champion this point until his final days:

"Lastly, I demand, in the name of all of you and in the name of the values you uphold, to allow the people the opportunity truly to exercise their right in running the affairs of the country by holding elections in which a council representing the ummah (people) could truly emerge.' ''"

Al-Sadr was executed by Saddam Hussein in 1980 before he was able to provide any details of the mechanism for the practical application of the shahada concept in an Islamic state. A few elaborations of shahada can be found in Al-Sadr's works. In his text Role of the Shiah Imams in the Reconstruction of Islamic Society, Al-Sadr illustrates the scope and limitations of shahada by using the example of the third Shi'i Imam, Hussein ibn Ali (the grandson of Muhammad), who defied Yazid, the ruler at the time. Al-Sadr explained that Yazid was not simply acting counter to Islamic teachings, as many rulers before and after him had done, but he was distorting the teachings and traditions of Islam and presenting his deviant ideas as representative of Islam itself. This, therefore, is what led Imam Hussein to intervene challenging Yazid in order to restore the true teachings of Islam, and consequently laying down his own life. In Al-Sadr's own words, the shahid's (witness – person performing shahada or supervision) duties are "to protect the correct doctrines and to see that deviations do not grow to the extent of threatening the ideology itself".

The Logical Foundations of Induction
One notable book that is considered by scholars to be a great achievement of al-Sadr is his book entitled The Logical Foundations of Induction.  This book represents the core of al-Sadr's attempt to give a rational logical foundation for growing knowledge by inductive means, and ultimately establish a new inductive logic termed by al-Sadr as the "Subjectivist Logic" (المنطق الذاتي), that sets the logical rules for this type of knowledge growth.

List of works
Al-Sadr engaged Western philosophical ideas, challenging them as necessary and incorporating them where appropriate, with the ultimate goal of demonstrating that religious knowledge was not antithetical to scientific knowledge. The following is a list of his work:

Jurisprudence

 * Buhuth fi Sharh al- 'Urwah al' Wuthqa (Discourses on the Commentary of al- 'Urwah al-Wuthqa), four volumes
 * Al-Ta'liqah 'ala Minhaj al-Salihin (Annotation of Ayatullah Hakim's Minhaj al-Salihin), two volumes
 * Al-Fatawa al-Wadhihah (Clear Decrees).
 * Mujaz Ahkam al-Hajj (Summarized Rules of Hajj)
 * Al-Ta'liqah 'ala Manasik al-Hajj (Annotation of Ayatullah Khui's Hajj Rites)
 * Al-Ta'liqah 'ala Salah al-Jumu'ah (Annotation on Friday Prayer)

Fundamentals of the law

 * Durus fi Ilm al-Usul (Lessons in the Science of Jurisprudence), 3 Parts.
 * Al-Ma'alim al-Jadidah lil-Usul (The New Signposts of Jurisprudence)
 * Ghayat al-Fikr (The Highest Degree of Thought)

Philosophy

 * Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy) published in 1959

Logic

 * Al-Usus al-Mantiqiyyah lil-Istiqra' (The Logical Foundations of Induction)

Theology

 * Al-Mujaz fi Usul al-Din: al-Mursil, al-Rasul, al-Risalah (The Summarized Principles of Religion: The Sender, The Messenger, The Message)
 * Al-Tashayyu' wa al-Islam - Bahth Hawl al-Wilayah (Discourse on Divine Authority)
 * Bahth Hawl al-Mahdi (Discourse on Imam Mahdi)

Economics

 * Iqtisaduna (Our Economy)
 * Al-Bank al-la Ribawi fi al-Islam (Usury-free Banking in Islam)
 * Maqalat Iqtisadiyyah (Essays in Economy)

Qur'anic commentaries

 * Al-Tafsir al-Mawzu'i lil-Qur'an al-Karim - al-Madrasah al-Qur'aniyyah (The Thematic Exegesis of the Holy Qur'an)
 * Buhuth fi 'Ulum al-Qur'an (Discourses on Qur'anic Sciences)
 * Maqalat Qur'aniyyah (Essays on Qur'an)

History

 * Ahl al-Bayt Tanawwu' Ahdaf wa Wahdah Hadaf (Ahl al- Bayt, Variety of Objectives Towards a Single Goal)
 * Fadak fi al-Tarikh (Fadak in History)

Islamic culture

 * Al-Islam Yaqud al-Hayah (Islam Directive to Life)
 * Al-Madrasah al-Islamiyyah (Islamic School)
 * Risalatuna (Our Mission)
 * Nazrah Ammah fi al-Ibadat (General View on Rites of Worship)
 * Maqalat wa Muhazrat (Essays and Lectures)

Articles

 * "Al-'Amal wa al-Ahdaf" (The Deeds and the Goals): Min Fikr al- Da'wah. No. 13. Islamic Da'wah Party, central propagation, place and date of publication unknown.
 * "Al-'Amal al-Salih fi al-Quran" (The Proper Deeds According to Qur'an): Ikhtrna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982
 * "Ahl al-Bayt: Tanawu' Adwar wa-Wihdat Hadaf" (The Household of the Prophet: Diversity of Roles But Unified Goal). Beirut: Dar al-Ta'ruf, 1985.
 * "Bahth Hawla al-Mahdi" (Thesis on Messiah). Beirut: Dar al- Ta'ruf, 1983.
 * "Bahth Hawla al-Wilayah" (Thesis on Rulership). Kuwait: Dar al- Tawhid, 1977.
 * "Da'watana il al-Islam Yajeb an Takun Enqilabiyah," (Our Call for Islam Must be Revolutionary): Fikr al-Da'wah, No. 13. Islamic Da'wah Party, central propagation, place and date of publication unknown.
 * "Dawr al-A'imah fi al-Hayat al-Islamiyah" (The Role of Imams in Muslims' Life): Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982
 * "al-Dawlah al-Islamiyah" (The Islamic State), al-Jihad (March 14, 1983): 5
 * "Hawla al-Marhala al-Ula min 'Amal al-Da'wah" (On the First Stage of Da'wah Political Program): Min Fikr al-Da'wah. No. 13. Islamic Da'wah Party, central propagation, place and date of publishing unknown.
 * "Hawla al-Ism wa-al-Shakl al-Tanzimi li-Hizb al-Da'wah al- Islamiyah" (On the Name and the Structural Organization of the Islamic Da'wah Party): Min Fikr al-Da'wah. No. 13. Islamic Da'wah Party, central propagation, place and date of publication unknown.
 * "al-Huriyah fi al-Quran" (Freedom According to the Quran): Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982
 * "al-Itijahat al-Mustaqbaliyah li-Harakat al-Ijtihad" (The Future Trends of the Process of Ijtihad): Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1980.
 * "al-Insan al-Mu'asir wa-al-Mushkilah al-Ijtima'yah" (Contemporary Man and the Social Problem)
 * "al-Janib al-Iqtisadi Min al-Nizam al-Islami" (The Economic Perspective of the Islamic System): Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982
 * "Khalafat al-Insan wa-Shahadat al-Anbia'" (Victory Role of Man, and Witness Role of Prophets): al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat. Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "Khatut Tafsiliyah 'An Iqtisad al-Mujtama' al-Islami (General Basis of Economics of Islamic Society): al-Islam Yaqud al-Hayah. Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "Lamha fiqhiyah Hawla Dustur al-Jumhuriyah al-Islamiyah" (A Preliminary Jurisprudence Basis of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic): al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "Madha Ta'ruf 'an al-Iqtisad al-Islami" (What Do You Know About Islamic Economics). al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "Manabi' al-Qudra fi al-Dawlah al-Islamiyah" (The Sources of Power in an Islamic State). al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "al-Mihna" (The Ordeal). Sawt al-Wihdah, Nos. 5, 6, 7. (n.d)
 * "Minhaj al-Salihin" (The Path of the Righteous). Beirut: Dar al- Ta'aruf, 1980.
 * "Muqaddimat fi al-Tafsir al-Mawdu'i Lil-Quran" (Introductions in Thematic Exegesis of the Quran). Kuwait: Dar al- Tawjyyh al-Islami, 1980.
 * "Nazarah 'Amah fi al-'Ibadat" (General Outlook on Worship): al-Fatawa al-Wadhiha. Beirut: Dar al-Ta'aruf, 1981.
 * "al-Nazriyah al-Islamiyah li-Tawzi' al-Masadr al-Tabi'iyah" (Islamic Theory of Distribution of Natural Resources): Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982.
 * "al-Nizam al-Islami Muqaranan bil-Nizam al-Ra'smali wa-al- Markisi" (The Islamic System Compared with The Capitalist and The Marxist Systems). Ikhtarna Lak. Beirut: Dar-al Zahra', 1982.
 * "Risalatuna wa-al-Da'wah" (Our Message and Our Sermon). Risalatuna. Beirut: al-Dar al-Islamiyah, 1981.
 * "Al-Shakhsiyah al-Islamiyah" (Muslim Personality): Min Fikr al-Da'wah al-Islamiyah (Of the Thoughts of Islamic Da'wah). No. 13. Islamic Da'wah Party, central propagation, place and date of publication unknown.
 * "Surah 'An Iqtisad al-Mujtama' al-Islami" (A Perspective on the Economy of Muslim Society). al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "al-Usus al-Amah li-al-Bank fi al-Mujtam al-Islami" (The General Basis of Banks in Islamic Society). in al-Islam Yaqwod al-Hayat Iran: Islamic Ministry of Guidance, n.d.
 * "Utruhat al-Marja'iyah al-Salihah" (Thesis on Suitable Marja'iyah). In Kazim al-Ha'iri, Mabahith fi 'Ilm al-Usul.Qum, Iran: n.p., 1988.
 * "al-Yaqin al-Riyadi wa-al-Mantiq al-Waz'i" (The Mathematic Certainty and the Phenomenal Logic): Ikhtrna Lak. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra', 1982.
 * "Preface to al-Sahifah al-Sajadiyah" (of Imam Ali ibn Hussein al-Sajad) Tehran: al-Maktabah al-Islamiyah al-Kubra, n.d.

Notable colleagues and students

 * Hassan Nasrallah
 * Muhammad Hussein Fadlullah
 * Muhammad Baqir al-Hakim
 * Muhammad Muhammad Sadiq as-Sadr
 * Mohsen Araki
 * Kazem al-Haeri
 * Abbas al-Musawi
 * Talib Jauhari
 * Syed Sajid Ali Naqvi
 * Allama Syed Zeeshan Haider Jawadi
 * Muhammad al-Tijani

title: Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr


text:
George Frederick Bodley

George Frederick Bodley (14 March 1827 – 21 October 1907) was an English Gothic Revival architect. He was a pupil of Sir George Gilbert Scott, and worked in partnership with Thomas Garner for much of his career. He was one of the founders of Watts & Co.

Personal life
Bodley was the youngest son of William Hulme Bodley, M.D., of Edinburgh, physician at Hull Royal Infirmary, Hull, who in 1838 retired to his wife's home town, Brighton, Sussex, England. George's eldest brother, the Rev. W.H. Bodley, became a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a professor at St Mary's College, New Oscott, Birmingham.

He married Minna F.H. Reavely, daughter of Thomas George Wood Reavely, at Kinnersley Castle in 1872. They had a son, George H. Bodley, born in 1874.

Career
Bodley was articled to the architect Sir George Gilbert Scott, a relative by marriage, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the Gothic revival, and he became known as the chief exponent of 14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in England. He is regarded as the leader of the resurgence of interest in English and Northern European late-medieval design. Noted for his pioneering design work in the Queen Anne revival,

Bodley became acquainted with William Morris in the late 1850s, and in the 1860s his commissions for stained glass and ecclesiastical decoration helped ensure the success of Morris's firm, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., founded in 1861. Bodley is said to have designed two of Morris's early wallpapers. By the late 1860s Bodley had become disenchanted with Morris, and for stained glass turned to the firm of Burlison and Grylls, founded in 1868, for the glass in his later churches, notably St Augustine's Church, Pendlebury, near Manchester (designed 1870) and the Church of the Holy Angels, Hoar Cross in Staffordshire (designed 1871–72). Bodley worked with his lifelong friend, the stained glass designer Charles Eamer Kempe. They collaborated on projects including: St John the Baptist, Tuebrook in Liverpool; Queens' College Chapel, Cambridge; All Saints, Danehill, East Sussex and the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Clumber Park in Nottinghamshire. His alterations to St Stephen's Church, Gloucester Road, London, the architect and president of RIBA, Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel said tamed the work of its founding 'rogue' Victorian architect, Joseph Peacock.

Partnership with Thomas Garner
From 1869 he worked in a twenty-eight-year partnership with Thomas Garner, designing collegiate buildings in Oxford and Cambridge, country houses and churches throughout the British Isles. One cathedral was completed to his design: St David's Cathedral, Hobart in Tasmania, Australia (first design, 1865; revised 1891; building completed 1936). In 1906 Bodley designed with his pupil Henry Vaughan the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. He also designed Grace Cathedral, San Francisco in 1862, and again for its post-1906 earthquake replacement but it was adapted by his partner after his death.

As well as Vaughan, Bodley and Garner's pupils included the garden designer Inigo Thomas who specialised in formal gardens with geometrical plans in 17th- and 18th-century styles, which suited the houses that Bodley and Garner renovated for wealthy clients.

In 1874 Bodley founded Watts & Co. with Garner and George Gilbert Scott Jr. Bodley, Garner, and Scott all lived on Church Row in Hampstead in the 1860s and 70s.

His secular work included the London School Board offices, and in collaboration with Garner, the new buildings at Magdalen College, Oxford, and Hewell Grange, Worcestershire (for Lord Windsor).

Liverpool Cathedral competition
In 1902 Bodley was an assessor for the competition to design Liverpool Cathedral which selected a design by the young Giles Gilbert Scott. When construction of the cathedral began in 1904, Bodley was appointed to oversee Gilbert Scott's work, but had no direct part in its design.

Late works
One of Bodley's final architectural works was the chapel at Bedford School, the foundation stone of which was laid on 18 May 1907 by Lord St John of Bletso. Building took a year, the chapel was consecrated in July 1908, but by which time Bodley had died. The other was the St Chad's parish church, Burton upon Trent. Work started in 1905 and the church was consecrated in 1910. After Bodley's death his partner Cecil Greenwood Hare took over the project; his contribution was the design of an octagonal choir vestry.

Royal Academy
Bodley exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1854. He was elected an associate of the academy in 1881 and a full academician in 1902.

Other activities
As well as being an architect, he was a draughtsman, a connoisseur of art, published a volume of poems in 1899, inspired art works by painters such as John Melhuish Strudwick and designed wallpaper and chintzes for Watts & Co. He served as prime warden of the Fishmongers' Company in 1901–02. In early life he had been in close alliance with the Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal to improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture.

Death
Bodley died on 21 October 1907 at Water Eaton, Oxfordshire and is buried in the churchyard of the Church of St James, Kinnersley, Herefordshire.

Church repairs, alterations and furnishings

 * 1859–63 St James' Church, Bicknor, Kent: new vestry, porch and roof, reseating and repairs to walls
 * 1863–65 All Saints' Church, Coddington, Nottinghamshire: rebuild
 * 1864–65 St James' Church, Wigmore, Herefordshire: repairs
 * 1864–67 Jesus College Chapel, Cambridge: repairs
 * 1866–69 St Michael & All Angels Church, Kingsland, Herefordshire: repairs
 * 1868–70 St Mary's Church, Almeley, Herefordshire, with Thomas Garner: repairs
 * 1868–70 St Nicholas's Church, South Kilworth, Leicestershire: repairs
 * 1870–71 St Mary the Virgin, Barnsley, Yorkshire: repairs
 * 1870–73 St Michael's Church, Lyonshall, Herefordshire: repairs
 * 1871–72 St Mark's Church, Bilton, Warwickshire, with Thomas Garner: new north aisle, transept and organ chamber, with reseating, reflooring and general repairs to roofs and walls
 * 1871–72 Church of St Mary Magdalene, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire: repairs
 * 1871–72 St Laurence's Church, Rowington, Warwickshire, with Thomas Garner: repairs
 * 1873 St Swithun's Church, East Retford Nottinghamshire: Chantry chapel rebuilt
 * 1873–75 Church of St Mary the Virgin, Plumtree, Nottinghamshire, with Thomas Garner: decoration and new organ case
 * 1873–79 St Michael's Church, Shalbourne, Berkshire, with Thomas Garner, new south aisle: reseating and general restoration
 * 1874 St Helen's Church, Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire: new chancel and repairs
 * 1874–78 St Peter & St Paul's Church, Langham, Rutland, with Thomas Garner: repairs to roof, walls, tower and belfry
 * 1876–79 St Laurence's Church, Oxhill, Warwickshire, with Thomas Garner: repairs
 * 1876–88 St Wilfrid's Church, Hickleton, Yorkshire
 * 1880 St Swithun's Church, Leonard Stanley, Gloucestershire
 * 1880–83 St Laurence's Church, Frodsham, with Thomas Garner: restoration
 * 1881–84 All Saints' Church, Nettleham, Lincolnshire, with Thomas Garner: new vestry and organ chamber, rebuilding and enlargement of chancel, rebuilding of porch and general repairs
 * 1882–90 All Saints' Church, Bedworth, Warwickshire, with Thomas Garner: rebuild
 * 1884 St Mary's Church, Clifton, Nottinghamshire
 * 1885 St Michael's Church, Kirk Langley, Derbyshire, with Thomas Garner: restoration
 * 1886–88 St Manakneu's Church, Lanreath, Cornwall, with Thomas Garner: repairs
 * 1887 Church of St Giles, Wimborne St Giles, Dorset, remodelling in the Gothic style
 * 1889–91 St Giles' Church, Mountnessing, Essex, with Thomas Garner: new vestry/organ chamber, four new nave windows, reseating and general repairs to roof and walls
 * 1889–92 St John the Baptist Church, Epping, Essex, with Thomas Garner: rebuild
 * 1890 St John the Divine, Kennington, London (interior)
 * 1890 St Mary's Church, Nottingham (chapter house)
 * 1890 St Saviour's Church, Ellerby Road, Leeds: addition of Pusey chapel.
 * 1890–99 St Andrew's Church, Chelmondiston, Suffolk, with Thomas Garner: enlargement
 * 1891–1905 All Saints' Church, St Paul's Walden, Hertfordshire, with Thomas Garner: new vestry, new west window in south aisle, reseating and general repairs to roof and walls
 * 1892 Holy Trinity Church, Markbeech, Kent: new chancel
 * 1892 St Paul's Church, Knightsbridge: new chancel, rood screen and reredos
 * 1895 St Martin's Church, Womersley, Yorkshire: rood screen and loft, nave and chancel roof decoration
 * 1897 St George in the Meadows, Nottingham: added chancel
 * 1898 St Bartholomew's Church, Wilmslow: clerestory added to chancel
 * 1898–1903 Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford: refurbishment of main tower
 * 1898–1905 St Bartholomew's Church, Reading, Berkshire: new chancel, north chapel, vestry and chapel at east end of south aisle
 * 1898–1905 St Paul's Church, Bedford: reorder chancel, restore choir stalls and new rood screen
 * 1899–1901 All Saints' Church, East Horndon, Essex: repairs
 * 1899–1904 St Carantoc's Church, Crantock, Cornwall, with Edmund Harold Sedding: repairs
 * 1900–01 St Nicholas' Church, Little Bowden, Northamptonshire: repairs
 * 1901 St Peter's Church, Hartshorne, Derbyshire: enlargement
 * 1901 St Mary's Church, Whitkirk, Leeds: rebuilt
 * 1902–05 St Mary the Virgin, Barton Mills, Suffolk: repairs
 * 1903 St Stephen's, Gloucester Road, London, with Walter Tapper: new reredos and other alterations
 * 1903–04 Christ Church, Mold Green, Kirkheaton, Yorkshire: new chancel, vestry & organ chamber
 * 1904 St Bartholomew's Church, Elvaston repairs and rebuilding of the chancel
 * 1905–07 St Nicholas' Church, Skirbeck, Lincolnshire: new vestries, organ chamber and porches, several new windows, rebuilding of chancel, reseating and general repairs
 * 1906 Church of the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, Souldern: dismantled and rebuilt bell tower and tower arch
 * 1906 Holy Angels Church, Lilliput Road, Poole, Dorset: rood screen, choir stalls and organ case
 * 1906 St Barnabas Church, Pimlico, London: reredos, rood screen and (with Hill and Son) organ case
 * 1907 St Barnabas Church, Hove: reredos
 * 1907–09 All Saints' Church, Kedleston: north aisle
 * St Paul's, Burton upon Trent: alterations

Secular buildings

 * 1856 National School, Haywards Heath, Sussex
 * 1870 Queens' College Old Hall, Cambridge, decoration
 * 1872–76 Offices of the London School Board (with Thomas Garner), (demolished 1929)
 * The Wodehouse near Wombourne, for the Shaw-Hellier family
 * Hewell Grange
 * 1905: Second Boer War Memorial, York

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Frederick Bodley


text:
Alicia Machado

Yoseph Alicia Machado Fajardo (born December 6, 1976) is a Venezuelan-American actress, tv host, singer and beauty queen who was crowned Miss Universe 1996, she previously crowned Miss Venezuela 1995. She was the fourth woman from Venezuela to be named Miss Universe.

Early life
Machado was born in Maracay, Venezuela. Her father was a toy store owner who emigrated from Spain and her mother's family emigrated from Cuba prior to the Cuban revolution. Machado took to performing at an early age. She began dancing at age 4 and acting at age 12. Machado attended college for a year and half but left to pursue modeling and appearing in commercials.

Career
Machado won the 1995 Miss Maracay pageant, and then the 1995 Miss Venezuela pageant representing Yaracuy state and then the Miss Universe 1996 crown in Las Vegas. Early in her training, she refused plastic surgery recommended to her, notable in Venezuelan beauty pageant culture. The runner-up, Jacqueline Aguilera, also won the Miss World 1995 crown, marking the second time that two Venezuelans from the same pageant won two world titles. Machado's reign came as American businessman Donald Trump took ownership of the Miss Universe pageant. While preparing for Miss Universe, Machado underwent intense dieting. Machado said that, when she won, she weighed 116 pounds and was anorexic and bulimic.

During her reign as Miss Universe, Machado gained what she said was about 12 pounds in weight, drawing considerable press attention. The President of Miss Universe Organization denied that the organization was considering replacing her with runner-up, Taryn Mansell of Aruba. After mounting pressure to lose weight from Trump and other pageant officials, Machado asked Trump to assist her with orienting toward a healthier lifestyle. Trump arranged for 80 reporters to "watch [her] sweat" in a gym, which Machado later called "in very bad taste". This scandal catapulted her directly to world fame, making her the most popular Miss Universe in history.

In 1998 Machado had her first starring telenovela role as the title character in Samantha. In 2001, she had a small role on the international soap opera Secreto de Amor. During 2004–2005, she pursued a career as a TV commercial model with particular success in promoting a dieting product.

In 2005, Machado appeared on a Spanish reality show called La Granja de los celebrities, whose participation generated headlines in the press in Spain, Mexico, Miami and Venezuela, for having sex in front of the cameras with his partner on the program Fernando Acaso, when She was still engaged to Venezuelan baseball player Bob Abreu. On February 19, 2006, Machado debuted on the Mexican reality show Cantando Por Un Sueño ("Singing For A Dream").

Machado appeared in (and on the cover of) the February 2006 issue of Playboy magazine's Mexican edition, becoming the only Miss Universe to pose nude for that magazine. Machado was cast in the comedic soap opera Una familia con suerte where she played a woman who fell in love with her brother's enemy. The show began airing in Mexico in February 2011 and in the United States in October of that same year. She again posed nude for the July 2010 issue of the Mexican edition of Playboy.

On September 9, 2012, Machado was one of ten competitors on the third season of Mira Quien Baila. On November 18, 2012, Alicia won 3rd place in the 3rd season of Univision's dance competition Mira Quien Baila. In 2013, Machado starred as the protagonist of La Madame, a television serial produced by RTI Productions and RCN TV in Colombia. In February 2014, she joined Univision's beauty pageant Nuestra Belleza Latina 2014 as a mentor where she coach the participants on how to succeed in the modeling and television industry.

In 2017, she posed nude for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur," ad campaign.

In 2019 she was part of the cast of the play Divinas, she also participated in the Latin movie, He matado a mi marido ( I have killed my husband).

In 2021 she competed in the Colombian version of the MasterChef Celebrity

On May 23, 2021, she premiered her celebrity interview show Whats Up Alicia, produced by Machado. It will initially be broadcast in Venezuela, through Venevisión, to later be launched in other countries in Latin America such as Mexico, and the United States.

In 2021, Machado appeared as a contestant in the first season of the reality television series La casa de los famosos. She went on to win the competition with 40,586,129 votes.

Involvement in politics
In 1998, Machado publicly supported the presidential campaign of Henrique Salas Römer. In 2010 she criticized populist Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez in an interview with Playboy.

In July 2015, after Donald Trump launched his presidential campaign, Machado announced that she would publish a book detailing what she called his "abuses of power" and "racism". She said that, during her year as Miss Universe, Trump called her "Miss Piggy" because she gained weight and "Miss Housekeeping" because of her Hispanic background. Trump's spokeswoman denied that Trump had made those insults. Machado has repeatedly called Trump a "nazi rat", compared him to Hugo Chavez and Adolf Hitler, and said that he was capable of starting a new Holocaust.

On September 26, 2016, Hillary Clinton brought up Machado's statements against Trump during the first presidential debate. The following day, Trump responded on Fox and Friends, describing Machado as "impossible" and saying that "she gained a massive amount of weight and it was a real problem. We had a real problem. Not only that, her attitude, and we had a real problem with her." Later that week, Trump made a series of tweets in which he called her "disgusting," condemned Clinton's judgement for not "checking her past", falsely claimed she had appeared in a "sex tape", and baselessly accused Clinton of using her influence to help Machado become an American citizen.

The tweets were condemned in editorials in the Los Angeles Times and The Globe and Mail. John Cassidy of The New Yorker wrote that Trump's "original comments about Machado reeked of sexism and racism" while his subsequent series of tweets "highlighted, anew, his impulsiveness and lack of discipline." The following day, Clinton telephoned Machado to thank her for her support.

Beginning in June 2016, Machado publicly campaigned in support of Hillary Clinton. The Clinton campaign coordinated many of her media appearances, featured her in two online advertisements, and used her to introduce Clinton at a campaign rally.

Personal life
In 1998, a Venezuelan judge accused Machado of threatening to kill him while he was presiding over a case against her then-boyfriend for attempted murder. Machado was also accused of driving the boyfriend's getaway car. Machado denied both accusations and was never charged with a crime. The controversy caused a media sensation in Venezuela unseen since the conviction of President Carlos Andres Perez.

Machado once dated professional baseball player Bobby Abreu; the couple later split, calling off their engagement.

In 2010, responding to being mocked on Twitter after mistakenly referring to North and South Korea as China, Machado closed her Twitter account and wrote, "I now have a lot of psychopaths on the account and it's best I start another one, kisses."

Machado has one daughter. In 2013, after being diagnosed with breast cancer, Machado underwent a double mastectomy.

In May 2016, Machado became a U.S. citizen.

In June 2019 in statements to the Hispanic show business program, Suelta la sopa, she talked about her bisexuality, claiming to have had girlfriends.

Discography
Machado both wrote and produced her debut album, unusual in the genre.

 * Alicia Machado (2004)
 * Si se Acabara el Mundo (2010)

title: Alicia Machado


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Category:Central Asian countries

 * Countries in the Central Asia region of Asia.

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Alcaeus (disambiguation)

Alcaeus may refer to:

People

 * Alcaeus of Mytilene (c. 625/620 – c. 580 BC), a Greek lyric poet
 * Alcaeus (comic poet) (fl. 388 BC), a Greek Old Comedy poet
 * Alcaeus of Messene (late 3rd/early 2nd century BC), a Greek epigrammatist
 * Alcaeus and Philiscus (fl. 2nd-century BC), two Epicurean philosophers expelled from Rome in either 173 BC or 154 BC

Other

 * Alcaeus (genus), a genus of stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae
 * Alcaeus (mythology), several figures of this name in Greek mythology
 * 12607 Alcaeus, a main belt asteroid

title: Alcaeus (disambiguation)


text:
David C. Jewitt

David Clifford Jewitt (born 1958) is a British-American astronomer who studies the Solar System, especially its minor bodies. He is based at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he is a Member of the Institute for Geophysics and Planetary Physics, the Director of the Institute for Planets and Exoplanets, Professor of Astronomy in the Department of Physics and Astronomy and Professor of Astronomy in the Department of Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences. He is best known for being the first person (along with Jane Luu) to discover a body beyond Pluto and Charon in the Kuiper belt.

Early life
Jewitt was born in London, England, in 1958. His mother was a telephonist, and his father worked on an assembly line making industrial steel cutters. The family lived with Jewitt's grandmother in a social housing project in the north London suburb of Tottenham.

Jewitt's interest in astronomy was kindled in 1965, when he chanced to see some bright meteors. Media coverage of NASA's Apollo 8 and Apollo 11 lunar missions in 1968 and 1969 added to his enthusiasm. His own exploration of outer space began with a tabletop 40 mm refracting telescope that his grandparents gave him as a birthday present. Upgrading to a 150 mm reflector built by his uncle Malcolm and then a homemade 250 mm instrument, Jewitt became a serious amateur astronomer while still a schoolboy. He joined the Transient lunar phenomenon subsection of the Lunar Section of the British Astronomical Association, and regularly contributed reports of his observations to the Section's circular.

Education
Jewitt was educated at local authority primary and secondary schools. He was also an autodidact, borrowing books from a travelling library to supplement the few that his parents could afford to buy for him. His interest in physics began when a teacher introduced him to the subject, of which he had never previously heard, when he was twelve or thirteen.

In 1976, supported by a local authority grant, Jewitt enrolled at University College London to take courses in astronomy, physics, mathematics, computing, electronics, metalwork and technical drawing, studying both at UCL's Gower Street campus and at the UCL Observatory (then called the University of London Observatory) in Mill Hill. The module that he enjoyed most was a panoramic survey of physics delivered by the Christian, Rolls-Royce-driving space scientist Professor Sir Robert Boyd. Together with his friend, the future poet and environmental activist Roly Drower, Jewitt graduated with a first class honours B.Sc. in astronomy in 1979.

Following the advice of UCL's Professor Michael Dworetsky, Jewitt decided to pursue his postgraduate studies at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He became an Anthony Fellow at Caltech in 1979, achieving an M.S. in planetary science in 1980. After investigating planetary nebulae and comets with the 200 inch Hale Telescope of the Mount Palomar Observatory, working with Ed Danielson and Gerry Neugebauer under the supervision of Professor James Westphal, he was awarded a Ph.D. in planetary science and astronomy in 1983. He has recalled his adventures in the Hale's vertiginous prime focus cage as occasionally a risk to life and limb.

Career
In 1983, Jewitt became an assistant professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1988, attracted by the powerful telescopes sited on Mauna Kea, he moved to the University of Hawaii, becoming an Associate Astronomer in its Institute of Astronomy and an associate professor in its Department of Physics and Astronomy. In 1993, the Institute promoted him to the rank of Astronomer tout court.

In 2009, Jewitt returned to the American mainland to work at the University of California, Los Angeles, becoming a Member of UCLA's Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics and a professor in what was then its Department of Earth and Space Sciences. In 2010 he was given a second chair, becoming a professor in UCLA's Department of Physics and Astronomy. In 2011, he became the Director of UCLA's Institute for Planets and Exoplanets.

Research
Jewitt's research interests have embraced many topics in planetary science, including the Kuiper belt, circumstellar discs, planetary ring systems, the physical properties of comets, frozen volatiles in asteroids, the moons of the gas giant planets and the formation and evolution of the Solar System.

In 1992, after five years of searching, Jewitt and the Vietnamese-American astronomer Jane X. Luu discovered 15760 Albion, the first Kuiper belt object (other than Pluto and its largest moon Charon) to be detected. Jewitt and Luu named the object after a character who features in the mythological poetry of William Blake, a writer whom Jewitt admires. (Blake in turn took the name from an ancient poetic term for Jewitt's native England.) Jewitt and Luu would have preferred to name the object Smiley after the protagonist of John le Carré's novel Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy, a favourite book of both of theirs, but they were unable to do so because the name had already been allocated to the asteroid 1613 Smiley in honour of Charles Hugh Smiley, an American astronomer.

Since discovering 15760 Albion, Jewitt has identified dozens of other objects in the Kuiper belt in a series of pioneering wide field surveys. Thanks to his work and the efforts of other astronomers, it is now known that the Kuiper belt objects are divided into four distinct populations. In what is called the dynamically cold classical Kuiper belt, of which 15760 Albion is the prototypical member, objects have orbits that are almost circular and only slightly tilted with respect to the orbits of the major planets. In the dynamically hot classical Kuiper belt, objects have orbits that are more elongated and that are tilted at steeper angles. In the scattered disc, also called the scattered Kuiper belt, discovered in 1997, bodies move in large orbits that are more elongated and more tilted still. The Resonant Kuiper belt objects move in orbits that are harmonically related to that of Neptune: the ratio of the orbital period of a resonant object to the Neptunian year is equal to one small integer divided by another. (The resonant objects in the 3:2 mean-motion resonance Jewitt has named plutinos, in recognition of Pluto's being the first of them to be discovered.) Mathematical models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System have indicated that in order for the Kuiper belt to have developed the structure that has been observed, the Kuiper belt objects and the gas giant planets must have come to their present orbits after migrating to them from elsewhere, pulled away from their earlier paths by their gravitational interactions with one another and with the disc of material that had coalesced around the juvenile Sun. In particular, it seems that Neptune long ago moved outward from an earlier orbit that was much closer to the Sun, and that the Kuiper belt objects, also originally closer to the Sun, were drawn outward with it.

In 1979, in his first months as a graduate student, Jewitt discovered the Jovian moon Adrastea on images taken by Voyager 2. He has since discovered more than seventy further moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. In 1982, he achieved worldwide fame as the first astronomer to recover Halley's Comet as it approached its 1986 perihelion, detecting it with the Hale telescope using an early CCD. He is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of more than forty asteroids. The inner main-belt asteroid 6434 Jewitt, discovered by Edward Bowell in 1981, was named in his honour. In the naming citation, published on 1 July 1996, Jane Luu described Jewitt as "the consummate astronomer" (M.P.C. 27462).

Controversies
When Pluto was first discovered, it was added to the canonical list of major planets. After Jewitt and Luu's discovery of 15760 Albion and the subsequent finding of many more Kuiper belt objects, it became apparent that Pluto had more in common with these objects than it did with its supposed planetary peers. Some astronomers suggested that Pluto should be demoted. Jewitt thought that the question of whether Pluto was a planet was "essentially bogus" and "scientifically [...] a non-issue", but ultimately agreed with the International Astronomical Union's 2006 decision to reclassify Pluto as a dwarf planet.

With the development of ever better telescopes and detectors, astronomers have been able to find moons that are ever smaller and smaller. Some astronomers have argued that moons smaller than some arbitrary size are unworthy of their title. Jewitt has dissented, asking "Is a small dog not a dog because it is small?"

Outreach
In October 1982, Patrick Moore interviewed Jewitt about his recovery of Halley's Comet in a special episode of BBC TV's The Sky at Night. In November 1985, as the comet neared the Sun, Jewitt again described how he had recovered it in an episode of BBC TV's Horizon titled Halley's Comet – the Apparition (Season 22, Episode 17). A quarter of a century later, Horizon returned to Jewitt to interview him for Asteroids: the Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Season 47, Episode 6). Jewitt told viewers that he had found it difficult to secure enough telescope time for his trans-Neptunian research, and had only been able to achieve his celebrated breakthrough by looking for Kuiper belt objects on nights when he was supposed to be working on other projects.

Jewitt has also explained his work to non-specialists in articles in Scientific American, Sky and Telescope and The Sky at Night BBC Magazine.

Honours
In 1994, Jewitt was awarded the University of Hawaii's Regent's Medal for excellence in research. In 1996, the ARCS (Achievement Rewards for College Scientists) Foundation's Honolulu chapter named him the Hawaii Scientist of the Year, and NASA gave him their Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal. In 1998, he was made an Honorary Fellow of University College London. In 2000, he became an Honorary Professor at the National Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Science. In 2005, he became a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2007, he was made an adjunct professor of the National Central University of Taiwan. In 2012, he was awarded the $1 million Shaw Prize for astronomy, jointly with his former student Jane X. Luu of MIT's Lincoln Laboratury, in recognition of their "discovery and characterization of trans-Neptunian bodies, an archaeological treasure dating back to the formation of the solar system and the long sought source of short period comets". In 2012 too he was awarded the $1 million Kavli Prize for astrophysics, jointly with Luu and Michael Brown, for the same work. 2012 also saw his becoming a Foreign Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

Personal life
In 1991, Jewitt met Jing Li (a Chinese-American born in Beijing, China), a Ph.D. student of solar physics at the University of Paris, while she was visiting the University of Hawaii. Jewitt and Jing married in 1993. Their daughter, Suu Suu, was born in 2000.

As a child, Jewitt's extra-astronomical interests included writing, history, music, machines, animals, trees, rocks and fossils. Among the pleasures of his mature years are the cult British TV series The Prisoner and the music of the twentieth century modernist composers Karlheinz Stockhausen and Iannis Xenakis. Jewitt remembers a visit of Xenakis's to Caltech as a highlight of his years of working there.

In 2014, Jewitt was one of 365 eminent people invited to forecast the likely future of the Earth. He declared himself hopeful, deriving his optimism from his opinion that democracy had transcended dictatorship and science had transcended religion.

Select bibliography
A complete, up to date list of Jewitt's more than two hundred academic publications is available via his UCLA website. His magazine articles for general readers are:
 * J. Luu and D. Jewitt: The Kuiper belt; Scientific American, May 1996
 * D. Jewitt, S. Sheppard and J. Kleyna: The strangest satellites in the Solar System; Scientific American, August 2006
 * D. Jewitt: What else is out there?; Sky and Telescope, March 2010
 * D. Jewitt: Mysterious travelers; Sky and Telescope. December 2013
 * D. Jewitt and E. Young: Oceans from the skies; Scientific American, March 2015
 * D. Jewitt: The Kuiper belt; The Sky at Night BBC Magazine, November 2015

title: David C. Jewitt


text:
Alcaeus (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Alcaeus or Alkaios (Ancient Greek: Ἀλκαῖος derived from alke "strength") was the name of a number of different people:
 * Alcaeus, was a Mycenaean prince. He was a son of Perseus and Andromeda and thus the brother of Perses, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus, Electryon, Cynurus, Gorgophone and Autochthe. Alcaeus was married either to Astydameia, the daughter of Pelops and Hippodamia, or Laonome, daughter of Guneus, or else Hipponome, daughter of Menoeceus, by whom he became the father of Amphitryon, Anaxo and Perimede.
 * Alcaeus, the original name of Heracles (according to Diodorus Siculus), which was given to him on account of his descent from Alcaeus, the son of Perseus mentioned above.
 * Alcaeus, a son of Heracles by a female slave of Iardanus, from whom the dynasty of the Heraclids in Lydia were believed to be descended. Diodorus Siculus writes that this son of Heracles is named "Cleolaus".
 * Alcaeus, a Cretan general of Rhadamanthus, according to Diodorus Siculus, who presented him with the island of Paros. The Bibliotheca relates that he was a son of Androgeus (the son of Minos and Pasiphaë) and brother of Sthenelus, and that when Heracles, on his expedition to fetch the girdle of Ares, which was in the possession of the queen of the Amazons, arrived at Paros, some of his companions were slain by the sons of Minos. Heracles, in his anger, slew all the descendants of Minos except Alcaeus and Sthenelus, whom he took with him, and to whom he afterwards gave the island of Thasus as their home.
 * Alcaeus, son of Margasus and Phyllis, a Carian ally of the Trojans in the Trojan War. He was killed by Meges.

title: Alcaeus (mythology)


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Category:Confectionery

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Raphael M. Robinson

Raphael Mitchel Robinson (November 2, 1911 – January 27, 1995 ) was an American mathematician.

Born in National City, California, Robinson was the youngest of four children of a lawyer and a teacher. He was awarded from the University of California, Berkeley in mathematics: the BA (1932), MA (1933), and Ph.D. (1935). His Ph.D. thesis, on complex analysis, was titled Some results in the theory of Schlicht functions.

In 1941, Robinson married his former student Julia Bowman. She became his Berkeley colleague and the first woman president of the American Mathematical Society.

Robinson worked on mathematical logic, set theory, geometry, number theory, and combinatorics. In 1937 he set out a simpler and more conventional version of the John von Neumann 1923 axiomatic set theory. Soon after Alfred Tarski joined Berkeley's mathematics department in 1942, Robinson began to do major work on the foundations of mathematics, building on Tarski's concept of essential undecidabilility, by proving a number of mathematical theories undecidable. In 1950 Robinson proved that an essentially undecidable theory need not have an infinite number of axioms by coming up with a counterexample: Robinson arithmetic Q. Q is finitely axiomatizable because it lacks Peano arithmetic's axiom schema of induction; nevertheless Q, like Peano arithmetic, is incomplete and undecidable in the sense of Gödel. Robinson's work on undecidability culminated in his coauthoring Tarski et al. (1953), which established, among other things, the undecidability of group theory, lattice theory, abstract projective geometry, and closure algebras.

Robinson worked in number theory, even employing very early computers to obtain results. For example, he coded the Lucas–Lehmer primality test to determine whether 2n − 1 was prime for all prime n < 2304 on a SWAC. In 1952, he showed that these Mersenne numbers were all composite except for 17 values of n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281. He discovered the last five of these Mersenne primes, the largest ones known at the time.

Robinson wrote several papers on tilings of the plane, in particular a clear and remarkable 1971 paper Undecidability and nonperiodicity for tilings of the plane simplifying what had been a tangled theory.

Robinson became a full professor at Berkeley in 1949, retired in 1973, and remained active in his educational interests for the duration of his life having published late in his life:
 * (age 80 years) Minsky's small universal Turing machine, describing a universal Turing machine with four symbols and seven states;
 * (age 83 years) Two figures in the hyperbolic plane.

title: Raphael M. Robinson


text:
Antonio Caldara

Antonio Caldara (c. 1670 – 28 December 1736) was an Italian Baroque composer.

Life
Caldara was born in Venice (exact date unknown), the son of a violinist. He became a chorister at St Mark's in Venice, where he learned several instruments, probably under the instruction of Giovanni Legrenzi. In 1699 he relocated to Mantua, where he became maestro di cappella to the inept Charles IV, Duke of Mantua, a pensionary of France with a French wife, who took the French side in the War of the Spanish Succession. Caldara removed from Mantua in 1707, after the French were expelled from Italy, then moved on to Barcelona as chamber composer to Charles III, the pretender to the Spanish throne (following the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 without any direct heir) and who kept a royal court at Barcelona. There, he wrote some operas that are the first Italian operas performed in Spain. He moved on to Rome, becoming maestro di cappella to Francesco Maria Marescotti Ruspoli, 1st Prince of Cerveteri. While there he wrote in 1710 La costanza in amor vince l'inganno (Faithfulness in Love Defeats Treachery) for the public theatre at Macerata.

With the unexpected death of Emperor Joseph I from smallpox at the age of 32 in April 1711, Caldara deemed it prudent to renew his connections with Charles III – soon to become Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI – as he travelled from Spain to Vienna via northern Italy. Caldara visited Vienna in 1712, but found Marc'Antonio Ziani and Johann Joseph Fux firmly ensconced in the two highest musical posts. He stopped at the Salzburg court on his return journey to Rome, where he was well received (and to which he subsequently sent one new opera annually from 1716 to 1727). In 1716, following the death the previous year of Ziani and the promotion of Fux to Hofkapellmeister, Caldara was appointed Vize-Kapellmeister to the Imperial Court in Vienna, and there he remained until his death.

Caldara composed more than 70 operas, more than 30 oratorios, and other works including motets and sonatas. Several of his compositions have libretti by Pietro Metastasio, the court poet at Vienna from 1729.

Noted works
Operas Oratorios
 * Sofonisba (F. Silvani), Venezia, Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo/Teatro Malibran, 1708.
 * Il più bel nome (P. Pariati), Barcelona, 1708.
 * Tito e Berenice (1714)
 * Lucio Papirio dittatore (Zeno), Vienna, 1719.
 * I disingannati (Pasquini), Vienna, 1729.
 * Adriano in Siria (Metastasio), Vienna, 1732.
 * L'Olimpiade (Metastasio), Vienna, 1733.
 * La clemenza di Tito (Metastasio), Vienna, 1734
 * Achille in Sciro (Metastasio), Vienna, 1736.
 * Maddalena ai piedi di Cristo (c. 1700)
 * Santo Stefano, primo Re d'Ungheria (1713)
 * La Conversione di Clodoveo Re di Francia (1715)
 * La passione di Gesù Cristo (1730)
 * Il Re del dolore (1722)
 * Stabat Mater (c. 1725)

Others
 * Il più bel nome, serenata on the occasion of the marriage of Archduke Charles of Austria to Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel on 2 August 1708
 * "Sebben, crudele" (Aria from La costanza in amor vince l'inganno, 1710)
 * D'improvviso (cantata)
 * "Alma del core" (aria)
 * "Selve amiche" (aria)
 * Missa Providentiae
 * Missa Dolorosa (1735)
 * La Costanza vince il rigore (cantata)
 * Crucifixus
 * Come Raggio di Sol
 * Christmas Cantata

Discography

 * Antonio Caldara, La Concordia De' Pianeti vocals, Carlos Mena, Daniel Behle, Delphine Galou, Franco Fagioli, Luca Tittoto, Ruxandra Donose, Veronica Cangemi Orchestra, La Cetra Barockorchester Basel (Deutsche Grammophon/Archiv Produktion 479 3356, 2014) - Recorded at the Konzerthaus Dortmund, 13 - 19 January 2014 in conjunction with the modern world premiere on 18 January 2014 World-premiere recording

 * Antonio Caldara, Sonatas & Cantatas for soprano, violin and continuo - I Solisti Ambrosiani: Tullia Pedersoli soprano, Davide Belosio violin, Claudio Frigerio cello, Mauro Pinciaroli archlute, Emma Bolamperti harpsichord (Urania Records, LDV 14045, 2019) - first world recording

title: Antonio Caldara


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Kirkjubæjarklaustur

Kirkjubæjarklaustur (Icelandic for "church farm cloister", pronounced ; often referred to locally as just Klaustur) is a village in the south of Iceland on the hringvegur (road no. 1 or Ring Road) between Vík í Mýrdal and Höfn. It is part of the municipality of Skaftárhreppur and has about 500 inhabitants. It is surrounded by hills and plateaus to the north. Kirkjubæjarklaustur is roughly 190 km east of the capital Reykjavik.

Location
Kirkjubæjarklaustur's geographical location makes it better known than other villages its size. It is the only place between Vík and Höfn which offers services, which includes a fuel station, a bank, a post office and a supermarket. Nearby tourist attractions include the Laki craters, the Eldgjá and Skaftafell, all in Vatnajökull National Park. An attraction close to the village is Kirkjugólf ("Church floor"), a natural pavement of basalt. These are basalt columns in the earth, but only the tops can be seen, and as the name suggests, they have the appearance of a paved church floor. This lava formation has similar origins to the Giant's Causeway in Ireland. All these attractions contribute to Kirkjubæjarklaustur being a popular stopping point for tourists.

History
Even before the time of the first Norse settlement in Iceland, Irish monks are thought to have lived here. Since 1186, a well known convent of Benedictine nuns, Kirkjubæjar Abbey, was located in Kirkjubæjarklaustur, until the Reformation in 1550. The names of the waterfall Systrafoss ("waterfall of the sisters") and of the lake Systravatn ("water of the sisters") on the highland above the village refer to this abbey. Folk tales illustrate the history with stories about good and sinful nuns. The Systrastapi (sister's rock) is where two of the convent's nuns were buried after being burned at the stake. One of the nuns was accused of selling her soul to the Devil, carrying Communion bread outside the church, and having carnal knowledge with men; the other was charged with speaking blasphemously of the Pope. After the Reformation, the second sister was vindicated, and flowers are said to bloom on her grave, but not that of the first nun. Systravatn also has a legend relating to the convent. According to the English text on the Katla Geopark sign next to the lake, the nuns frequently bathed in the lake, and one day two nuns saw a hand holding a gold comb reach out from the water. When they tried to seize the comb, they were dragged below the water and drowned.

The village became well known in Iceland during the Lakagígar volcano eruptions in 1783. The pastor of the local church and dean of Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla, (1728 – 1791), delivered what became known as the "Fire Sermon" (eldmessu ) on July 20, 1783. The legend says that this sermon stopped the lava flow, and the village was spared at the last moment. The current church, constructed in 1974, was built in memory of Rev. Jón.

Today, the village is an important service center for the farms in the region as well as for tourists and weekend visitors. Many people from Reykjavík, the country's capital, have weekend huts by a nearby lake.

Climate
Kirkjubæjarklaustur has a subarctic climate according to the koppen-geiger classification with warm, short summers and long, mild winters.

In January Kirkjubæjarklaustur's average temperature is approximately 0.1 C. In July the average temperature is 11.6 C. The highest temperature ever recorded was 30.2 C on June 22, 1939, whilst the lowest temperature ever recorded was -19.1 C on February 6, 1969.

title: Kirkjubæjarklaustur


text:
Talk:Samovar

Old talk
Is an explanations of soviet vs western voltages really in place in an article about the samovar?

How about just a link to such an explanation "One of the difficulties of exporting samovars to North America is the differeing voltages between the two countries"Datepalm17 08:22, 31 May 2004 (UTC)
 * They are not so much explanations of differences as of the adaptation, which is samovar-specific: you cannot apply it to, e.g., a TV set (as is you would need a Russian one :-).Mikkalai 02:06, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I (who idly stumbled upon this lively article) found the explanation amusing (along with the bit about ignorant bastards suing pants off) and potentially beneficial to people wanting to modify their Russian samovars. -- ke4roh 15:17, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

I'm doing some editing (which I started before reading the bit in te Village Pump a couple of months ago), a little to make it more encyclopedish, but mostly to fix up the style. Some parts are being taken out in pursuit of the first goal, but I'm trying to leave in as much as I possibly can, and preserve the flavor as much as I can when I'm rewording and reworking. --♥ «Charles A. L.» 16:38, Aug 12, 2004 (UTC)

I like it just the way it is. It brings in a little bit of russian humour to the thing and in a way makes it more authentic. 21:15, Aug 31, 2004 (in Western Kazakhstan)

Ditto. Leave the humor intact (or add to it if you are as funny as the author.) --spinoza 04:47, Jan 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * Without wanting to sound a boring toad: there's a link to the original if you want a comic article. This is an encyclopedia, and some formality of tone is expected. The section on electrical modification is absolutely scary and probably illegal. Tearlach 14:16, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * It's certainly possible to leave a bit of whimsy in the article, without it resolving out to utter puffery. But I totally agree with you about the electrical mods. Tim Rhymeless (Er...let's shimmy) 08:20, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

Sapog vs. bellows
217.132.130.128 wrote: '' Of course, there were special samovar bellows as well, so some historians claim the use of sapog to be a legend. Nonetheless it has been depicted numerous times, especially in caricature. ''
 * Of course, in modern days of numerous gadgets and for people that eat with nine different kinds of spoon, it is difficult to believe that some things were done in simple ways. Of course in the family of a rich kupets (merchant), there were bellows, coal grips, etc., and most surely they did't feed samovar with pine cones (another legend, these silly cones.... eh?). But an average peasant family considered these things to be vanity. Sapog did the job. What else do you want? And I did it myself. And by the way, they don't sell these samovar bellows today. So these are legend now. Mikkalai 17:42, 3 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * My russian friend just told me a story of how they'd turn a shoe or boot over and use that as their "bellows". =) -- Sy / (talk) 16:20, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

I tried using pine cones in my samovar. They produced a huge volume of smoke, an acrid stench, and coated the heating chamber with resin. I'll never try THAT again! --Saxophobia 00:22, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

Removed piece

 * During World War 2, factories of the defense industry -- and samovars have always been byproducts of military production -- were moved from the European part of the Soviet Union to behind the Ural Mountains, out of the reach of the fascist intruders. Thus, skillful manufacturers of samovars and other essential equipment were saved, despite the Nazi occupation of Tula. ?????? The Nazis were stopped before they ever took Tula.  Read some history!
 * (Anon's "???" comment). Dubious first half of first sentence, and hence the conclusion. Not to say that the anon was right. Guderian was stopped at Tula. And Tula military industry was not evacualted (at least much of them). Tula samovars were bravely and successfully defended! Mikkalai 18:09, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

Modern samovar?
I would like to see a picture of a modern electric samover to see what they look like now.159753 13:38, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Tea from where?
In order to find the origin of the Samovar, I suppose it would help if we knew where the tea came from in Russia, and when. The origin of the tea plant and its cultivation is in southwest China (Yunnan) and Benghal, but did Russia get it from there? Or was the samovar a Turkish invention / of Turkic people in central Asia, and why - perhaps because it is portable, fitting in a nomadic life style? - Marco (ecocam.com) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 195.241.149.64 (talk) 08:02, 28 February 2007 (UTC).
 * Hmm... the chair must be a nomad invention since the nomads needed a portable resting device. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.92.48.230 (talk) 03:23, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

I agree LOL. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Huntgoddess218 (talk • contribs) 17:13, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Russian Saying
A friend of mine, who came to the United States from Moscow as an adult refugee, tells me that the Russian equivalent of the English saying, "to carry coal to Newcastle," (i.e. to provide what is not needed) is, "to take your samovar to Tula." Dick Kimball (talk) 13:52, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

A reference to using a boot for a bellows is in Tolstoy, Resurrection , Date Pub ? Page 480 Published by Hamish Hamilton Ltd London (````) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rob1357 (talk • contribs) 11:22, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

Commercial links
An anonymous editor operating from IP address 99.248.73.32 has repeatedly added commercial links to this and other pages. Wikipedia is not an advertising service, and such links will be removed. JamesBWatson (talk) 17:55, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

Merge from Storm kettle suggestion
The Storm kettle article has been tagged to suggest a merger here. --Fremte (talk) 00:53, 31 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm going to support this. The Storm kettle article is being editted a bit and once it is a stable version, the move should occur in my opinion.  Probably with a heading of Camping versions or similar.  --Fremte (talk) 21:38, 31 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I like the "Camping versions" header idea. Support. -kotra (talk) 03:22, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

 * strong oppose. Completely different, although similar in function things, with big articles. Wikipedia does not work in this way. Merge reverted. - Altenmann >t 00:16, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Are they really all that different? The only difference I see is the samovars described in this article are usually more ornate, and with more historical background. Since the basic structure is exactly the same, I would say the storm kettle is just a modern, simplified type of samovar. These are all basically the same object with different styles. It's entirely appropriate to merge when similar topics are covered in two articles and article size is not an issue... and it's not an issue in this case, since the length of this article with the storm kettle content is only 17KB, well below the minimum threshold for splitting an article for length reasons. -kotra (talk) 01:12, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Hello Altenmann, thank you for your contributions. As I'm sure you were aware—from reading the extensive Talk: page and article histories before undertaking your edits—the discussion was initiated based on need to find a generic name.  The conclusion was the generic name for a tordial internal boiler water heater with chimney at the top is a Samovar.  A  proposal was made, and after a period of time (with no objections) the move was acted upon.  The material combined and tided up.  It is appreciated that you wish to contribute to the discussion, but as your participation comes (significantly) after the former discussion and consensus, could I recommend starting a new proposal. I'm sure that you will have the full attention of all of those who were involved with the original discernment covering the outcome of the previous decision.
 * Attempting to undo this carefully planned merge has resulted in the loss of several edits making improvements to the Samovar article since the merge took place. Remember that Wikipedia is a collection of material arranged by topic, not by name.  I would therefore like to thank you for your WP:BOLD change and per WP:BRD restore the outcome of the previous decision.  You are welcome to start a new discussion regarding a proposal for a new split, or further move and I would encourage you to make a well-reasoned case to do so.  —Sladen (talk) 02:14, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

 * I do think the merge is correct after seeing it in place here. The argument that generic name for a tordial internal boiler water heater with chimney at the top is a Samovar  is exactly right.  There is a need for copy editting, but not for a revist to the merger IMHO. --Fremte (talk) 02:28, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I've got to agree, although an article titled Generic toroidal water heater / boiling kettle with internal chimney exiting the top is very tempting.htom (talk) 03:12, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * there is no "internal chimney" in samovar. It is "internal heating element": you fill it with combustibles, not with smoke. Timurite (talk) 18:08, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Hello Timurite, thank you for joining and getting involved. As I'm sure you were aware—from having careful read the article content before undertaking your edits—this is what a storm/kelly/thermette is.  The primary method of stoking the fire in these is by inserting combustible material through the hole/chimney in the top.  Some of the variants also have a removable base to make starting the fire and cleaning easier.  This is just like some of the Samovar being powered by electricity;  it is a variation on the common theme.  —Sladen (talk) 19:29, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Please don't patronize me and read what I wrote. It is variation which makes a new gadget. Next thing you tell me that a teapot is nothing but a cooking pot with a snout. Timurite (talk) 20:47, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Lets try to stay on-topic here. Perhaps you could explain how you perceive the fueling methods to be different.  The smoke has to exit somewhere (upwards) and the fresh oxygen has to enter somewhere (ventilation holes).  As far as I can see, this process is identical.  This (first) hit on Google Images for "kelly kettle" clearly shows a long-plume of fire exiting out of the top of the vessel.  —Sladen (talk) 01:18, 10 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge - they may seem similar but are not the same- I think a link from each one to the other is enough. For both articles, I think more effort should be spent adding refs to each of them than debating merging them. In a search I found nothing on google books discussing their likeness. DVD 04:31, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * The Storm kettle article as it stood was not valid; "storm kettle" is a trademarked name for one of the more minor commercial products of that type, but it was spuriously used as a generic term for all the products of a similar type. Other names were discussed, but only a merge to Samovar was found acceptable. If a merge to Samovar is not acceptable either, we will have to find a better destination for the content. At this moment I am not seeing a better one. Besides, two articles don't have to be exactly the same topic to have different sections in the same article. Merging is not just for topics that are exactly the same, it's also for topics that share the same area or otherwise need to be merged for context reasons. And as for Google Books, there are only a handful of results there for "storm kettle", "kelly kettle", "volcano kettle", or any of the other terms. So it doesn't say much about their likeness that no results there discuss it; it says more about the number of results there that discuss storm/kelly/volcano/etc kettles at all. -kotra (talk) 17:42, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * A proper solution would be to do some research and find a generic name for the things discussed in "storm kettle" article, if all these names are but trademarks. I would start search from the terms "boiler" or "water heater". How about portable water heater, portable boiler? the latter two have plenty of google hits. Timurite (talk) 18:02, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * A brief search shows that Kelly/storm/volcano kettle is essentially one and the same device. Hence generic "boiler" title is not goog (although redlinks must be done blue :-). Further, it seems that they originated from the same 19th century design, and different names are but result of marketing. While the name is trademarked, I don't see the design patented (looking only briefly). By the way, patents may be good sources for a generic descriptive name of the device. Sitting it under name "kelly kettle" may probably cause anger of competitors :-) How a bout merged title, Kelly/storm kettle? I see some use it. - Altenmann >t 18:29, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I don't think "slashed" terms like "Kelly/storm kettle" follow Wikipedia naming conventions; besides, that implies that the article describes only Kelly Kettles and Storm Kettles, leaving out the large number of other identical products with different names (like Volcano Kettle, your "Foul Weather Kettle" below, etc). -kotra (talk) 18:49, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Foul Weather Kettle -exact same! - Altenmann >t 18:32, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm not surprised that there are more proprietary names for this, but I think "Foul Weather Kettle" is just another product name, probably trademarked. -kotra (talk) 18:49, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Our search for a suitable generic name is documented at Talk:Storm kettle. Not for lack of trying, we couldn't find any generic name for this object that has any significant current usage. Thanks for the suggestions, but "portable water heater" and "portable boiler" are far too vague; they could refer to any kettle, or even electronic boilers. Nearly all of the google hits for those terms are not about this type of kettle. -kotra (talk) 18:49, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge -quite different devices. The rationale for merge was ungrounded. Obviously, Russian editors don't have it on active watchlist. I has no idea that storm kettle existed. I am not very active editor, so I didn't see what was happening, suddenly whamm!. It is like someone takes "motorcycle" article and merges "scooter" into it. After all, two wheels, motor, ... all exact same. Timurite (talk) 17:54, 9 June 2009 (UTC) Timurite (talk) 17:01, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * P.S. Kotra, watch what you are doing. Timurite (talk) 17:47, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Your edit changed another user's comment. -kotra (talk) 17:49, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * So what? It was typo, accidental keystroke I didnt notice. Tghis does not make me vandal to be reverted as whole. Have some respect to others, man. Timurite (talk) 17:51, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * (off-topic discussion continued on user talk page) -kotra (talk) 18:03, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

It looks like "storm kettle" is not trademarkable term: the manufacturer's (Eydon Kettle)website says: "The famous Storm Kettle - ideal for all outdoor enthusiasts. STORM is the registered trade mark of the Eydon Kettle Co Ltd (no 2151189) The Popular Storm Kettle is a registered design (no 2070859)". If they owned the exact term "storm kettle" they would not hesitate to say so, if I am not mistaken. Concluding: Storm kettle is a good article title (beats Kelly kettle, which is definitely trademarked, and beats volcano kettle, which sounds too fancy to be close to 19th century original). The article may possibly be renamed if someone accidentally stumbles upon the oldtime name and it turns out to be popular until today. - Altenmann >t 18:40, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

It is of note how both companies say nothing factual which would help to nail down the details of the origin of the design. It seems both starhed their trade in 1960s, while the design dates back to 19th century. - Altenmann >t 18:52, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

Suggestion: I would suggest to move (cut'n'paste) this section into Talk:Storm kettle, since it looks like it evolved away from "samovar" into talk about naming, rather than merging. - Altenmann >t 18:56, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * This topic is generating lots of further discussion here, which is a Good Thing. Even those people who may have missed the previous  tags are getting involved.  So it seems to be a good location to be having it.  —Sladen (talk) 19:29, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I guess this is because "storm kettle" is on watchlists of creators only and not very interlinked to other pages to be seen via "Related changes". Timurite (talk) 20:51, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Sounds like all the more reason for having undertaken the merge... —Sladen (talk) 01:18, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

just to review
The original suggested name change for Storm kettle was Benghazi Boiler, except this would be like calling something by a name no one uses since world war 2. There appear to be no further generic names. The original Storm kettle article was called Kelly kettle, but then the owner of that brandname or maybe it was someone associated with another brandname it objected, so it got to be named to Storm kettle, then someone objected because this is a brandname too. It is merely splitting hairs to say that the item or brandname is called Storm. No-one would say pour me some water from the storm would they? They'd say storm kettle, right?

Further discussion suggested camping kettle or hollow kettle except that these names are pure inventions and not used by anyone. Then it was noted that these items operate just like a Samovar, and the name change issue changed to a merge - the name change appeared unresolvable.

While all the suggestions about research and naming conventions are all appreciated, this has all been done and is documented in the talk at Storm kettle. We simply appear to be back a square one with no resolution.

Q: If the merger is not on, then what is the generic name for Storm kettle? A: There isn't one. A2: Can we invent a name and just decide it's a Camping samovar, a Hollow kettle, or Water boiler without a generic name or Unnamed kettle that resembles a samovar. ;) -Fremte (talk) 03:37, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Being a trademark does not forbid it to be used as an article title. The only problem is possible tug-of-wars in renaming back and forth "kelly"<->"storm". So far this is not happening, so no reason to worry. BTW The original Storm kettle article was NOT called Kelly kettle.There was Thermette; merge/redirected. You rpobably meant a    demand in the history of Kelly Kettle page.  The Kelly may be right:  if it indeed holds the rights for "Volcano Kettle" brand, which is claimed to be over 100 years. "Storm kettle" dates from 1960s. BTW., there also is Ghillie kettle. Timurite (talk) 19:01, 10 June 2009 (UTC)
 * That said, I find arguments for renaming storm kettle->kelly kettle in talk:storm kettle quite convincing, and I am rekindling the move requiest in Talk:Storm_kettle. Timurite (talk) 19:19, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

origin of this article
After the talk in talk page I noticed that the link electric samovar was missing. I added a redirect. then decided to google the term. I was surprized to find a funny page with some content very close to wikipedia article. I became curious about who ripped off whom, since there is no mutual references. I looked thru page history and see that much content was preserved from this page (imported here as early in 2004 based of GFDL), but the reference (ext link) was later removed; I guess the source was considered "not good enough". Still, GFDL is GFDL. And, e.g., the section "Electric samovar" is nearly unchanged. So I guess we have to either restore the attribution or delete the infringing content. Opinions? Timurite (talk) 21:12, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Problem is that page says it is GPL, which is not compatible with the GFDL. I've removed the sections that were added with that edit. Perhaps some of the text added later which was not derivative of that page could be rescued and re-added. Angela. 21:15, 29 June 2009 (UTC)
 * (Glad to hear from you) Sorry, it was my bad: confused by alphabet soup. I removed the ext link as well: a private webpage of a person not known as an expert in samovars fails the today verison of WP:RS, although I can confirm that all his info (including funny stuff) is correct. - Altenmann >t 03:31, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

Pictures
Any thoughts about moving the pictures down to a gallery style? Might be a better layout. Surv1v4l1st (Talk 03:22, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

And where is a a sectional view? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.80.28.53 (talk) 11:34, 7 April 2018 (UTC)

In Persian
Samovar is pronounced samăvar in Persian.

If that how it is pronounced, shouldn't it be in represented in the IPA instead? Or did they (whoever wrote that sentence) mean "romanized", not "pronounced"? ZFT (talk) 04:00, 27 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Samovar


text:
Chrononauts

Chrononauts is a family of card games that simulates popular fictional ideas about how time travellers might alter history, drawing on sources like Back to the Future and the short stories collection Travels Through Time. The game was designed by Andrew Looney and is published by Looney Labs. The original game and a variant each won the Origins Award for Best Traditional Card Game.

History
The game was designed by Andrew Looney of Looney Labs in 2000. In 2001, Chrononauts won the Origins Award for Best Traditional Card Game of 2000 and Parents' Choice Silver Honors 2001 Games.

The game's first expansion, Lost Identities was released in 2001. In 2004, Looney Labs released Early American Chrononauts (EAC), a prequel version of Chrononauts, and introduced "Gadgets," a new card type.

The game's second edition was published in 2009. The Gore Years expansion set was issued that year also. Released on September 11, 2010, Back to the Future: The Card Game variant re-implemented the system to match the movies. This variant won 2011 Origins Award for Best Traditional Card Game. In 2013, EAC was reprinted.

Gameplay
Chrononauts is played with a specially designed set of 136 (in the Third Printing) or 140 cards (in version 1.4). There are 32 Timeline cards that form the game board (with four tiers of eight cards), plus ID and Mission cards describe goals for the players, and 80-84 Chrononauts cards providing Artifacts, Actions, Gadgets, Inverters, Patches, and Timewarps, making up the deck from which players draw. Gadgets were added with the Early American Chrononauts variant and grant special actions.

The 32 timeline cards represent significant events in (real) history of two types: Linchpins and Ripple Points. Players use Inverters to directly change the Linchpin events, changing to the alternative event on the reverse side of the timeline card. Changing a Linchpin also turns over one or more Ripple Point cards, exposing paradoxes. Player can use a Patch to resolve the paradox. The timeline mechanic with linchpins and ripple points was patented by Looney in 2002.

The game can be won in one of three ways: If there are ever 13 or more unpatched paradoxes on the timeline, then the universe is destroyed and all players lose.
 * 1) Return Home: The timeline can be altered so that certain events happen as described on a player's ID card and involves 2 patches and one linchpin.
 * 2) Complete the Mission: Each player has a Mission card detailing a set of Artifacts that can be retrieved through time travel. If a player collects all three artifacts that meet the mission conditions by the end of their turn, the player gets paid off by a rich eccentric and is able to retire.
 * 3) Become a Time Enforcer: Each time a player plays a Patch, he/she immediately draws an extra card. A player whose hand contains 10 or more cards at the end of his/her turn gets recruited to protect the timeline.

The game comes with two other game rules, Solonauts (a solitaire version) and Artifaxx (a Fluxx-like variant). The Chrononauts and EAC timelines can be interconnected to create a third game, ÜberChrononauts, which requires players to satisfy all three winning conditions, although not simultaneously, to win the game. The original Über rules were found in the EAC set on a card, with updated rules on Wunderland.com.

Back to the Future
Back to the Future: The Card Game (BttF) comes with 100 cards of which there are 24 Timeline cards, 10 ID cards and the rest game cards. The game cards consist of items, time machines, doubleback, action and power action cards. Similar to Chrononauts, BttF lays out the timeline cards on the table to make a board with each era in the movies group together. Each player randomly gets an ID card which gives goals, or timeline changes need to make sure that future character exists. To lock in the goal and win, the player must go back in time and stop Doc Brown from inventing time travel. The license for this game expired in 2012 and it is no longer being produced.

Sets

 * Chrononauts
 * Original timeline (1865 – 1999)
 * 1st edition (2000) time travel themed card game designed by Andrew Looney (136 cards)
 * 2nd printing (2002) included minor changes to several cards (136 cards)
 * 3rd printing (2004) removed some duplicated cards, added two Artifacts and two Gadgets (136 cards)
 * Version 1.4 (2009) included a new box, an updated rule sheet, edits to support ÜberChrononauts, and a four additional cards (140 cards)
 * Version 1.5 (2013) made minor changes to the box (140 cards)
 * Early American Chrononauts timeline (1770 – 1916)
 * 1st edition (2004) a prequel using the same game mechanics and introduces Gadgets, a new card type to affect gameplay (136 cards)
 * Version 1.1 (2013) new box style and added four Gold Watch cards for use in ÜberChrononauts along with an updated rule sheet (140 cards)
 * Expansion packs
 * Lost Identities (2001) a set of 13 new IDs and one new Mission ("The Most Toys") for Chrononauts (14 cards). Most of the new IDs were created by fans of the game via a submission contest held on Looney Labs' website.
 * The Gore Years (2009) expands timeline from 2000 to 2008 and adds several IDs and patches (11 cards). Reprinted in 2018 with new packaging.
 * Missing Artifacts (2022) a set of nine new Artifacts and six new Missions, along with two new Gadgets and a new Action (18 cards) for Chrononauts or Early American Chrononauts.
 * The Rest of Row E (2023) expands the timeline from 2008 to 2022 and adds four IDs and one patch (10 cards).

 * Promo cards
 * Beatles Reunion Album (2001) included with Fluxx Blanxx and later added to Chrononauts Version 1.4
 * Jade Statue of Tirade (2001) later added to Chrononauts third printing
 * German Chocolate Cake (2002) later added to Chrononauts third printing
 * Really Fast Time Machine (2004) later added to Chrononauts third printing
 * Teeny Tiny Time Machine (2004) later added to Chrononauts third printing
 * Carl Sagan's Joint (2004) for Chrononauts or Early American Chrononauts
 * Mating Pair of Pterodactyls (2004) Chrononauts or Early American Chrononauts
 * Gold Watch (2005) for ÜberChrononauts, later added to Early American Chrononauts Version 1.1
 * Live Wooly Mammoth (2013) for Chrononauts or Early American Chrononauts, included in Mammoth Fun Pack
 * Martha Washington's Great Cake (2014) for Early American Chrononauts, included in Fruitcake Fun Pack
 * Stonehenge 3-Pack (2022) for Chrononauts or Early American Chrononauts

 * Themed versions
 * Back to the Future: The Card Game (2010) art by Derek Ring, won 2011 Origins Award for Best Traditional Card Game (100 cards)
 * Pizza Hydrator promo card on a postcard
 * Star Trek Chrono-Trek (2019) art by Derek Ring (172 cards)

Reception
The reviews of Chrononauts leans towards the positive. Gamers at BoardGameGeek.com gave the game an average rating of 6.23 (out of 10) as of March 22, 2016. Out of the Box columnist Kenneth Hite wrote: "And I do love all that, but the game itself needs more of the first part and less of the 'scavenger hunt through time' aspect that unfortunately dominates game play — the various victory conditions are mechanically unbalanced, leading to a de-emphasis of the time changing mechanic that is Looney's best idea for this game." Spotlight on Games' 1001 Nights of Gaming review sub-site gave the game a personal rating of 6 as it has some well designed ID goals while others are "poorly integrated" and considered the draw-discard turn and wait to be "hardly edifying". "The cards do have a lot of nice thematic information however and the design of the various events and alternate realities must have been a labor of love. It's just too bad that the same kind of ingenuity wasn't put into the game play. As a two-player game this works somewhat, but tends to be better with more as otherwise it can degenerate into long sequences of simply reversing the other's move." At Board Game Quest, Tony Mastrangeli found that "Explaining the linchpin/ripple point mechanic takes some work" and "There aren't many time travel games out there for some reason, but Chrononauts is probably one of my favorites. It's easy to learn, plays quickly, very portable and really inexpensive." Mastrangeli gave it 3 or 5 stars, calling it "A fun card game that has a great theme and is on the meatier side of the filler game category".

Reviewing version 1.4 with "The Gore Years" expansion, Jonathan H. Liu of GeekDad said, "If you like the idea of time travel, Chrononauts is a fun way to play with it". Liu doesn't recommend the Artifaxx variant rule set except for younger players. Also reviewing the game with the Gore expansion, Meople's Magazine rated the game over all a 7. Brian Thomas Clements reviewed "The Gore Years" expansion by itself at Gamerati. He had mostly praise for the new timeline except for an out of step patch card regarding Sarah Palin's rise to the national stage. Clements stated, "...Chrononauts: The Gore Years is a great addition to Chrononauts. It continues the historical trends of the previous game smoothly and logically (mostly), and can be easily integrated into the original game and ÜberChrononauts as well." He expects future expansions.

Early American version's average rating at Board Game Geek.com is 6.63 as of March 22, 2016. Spotlight on Games' 1001 Nights of Gaming review sub-site gave EAC a personal rating of 6 and indicated a problem with the new gadget card: "This is not so much a problem in the runaway leader sense as collecting three artifacts still seems the easiest way to win, but it can mean that this player's turn starts to become very complicated and long, increasing downtime for others." Brad Weier posted a comped playtest review of the EAC version at RPG.net in which he considered its style to be "Classy & Well Done" (4) and its substance to be "Meaty" (4). He also summarized, "Like all of Looney Labs card games, EAC combines simple rules and fairly chaotic play into a fun and humorous package."

Back to the Future got a positive review from Jonathan H. Liu of GeekDad in which he states, "Personally, I'm a fan of a lot of the Looney Labs games, and this one has a similar feel so I enjoyed it." Liu considered that the game is weak with 2 players.

Reviews

 * Pyramid

title: Chrononauts


text:
Virgil (disambiguation)

Virgil and Vergil are the most common modern English names used for the Roman poet Publius Vergilius Maro (70 BC–19 BC).

Virgil, Vergil, Virgilius, or Vergilius may also refer to:

People

 * Virgil (name), a list of people named Virgil

Fictional characters and stage names

 * Virgil (The Walking Dead), a character from the television series The Walking Dead
 * Virgil, AI character from the TV series Crash Zone
 * Vergil (Devil May Cry), a character from the Devil May Cry franchise
 * Virgil, genius orangutan from Battle for the Planet of the Apes
 * Virgil (wrestler), character of Mike Jones, an American professional wrestler, in the World Wrestling Federation
 * Virgil, a character from Xena: Warrior Princess
 * Virgil Tracy, pilot of Thunderbird 2 in the TV series Thunderbirds
 * Virgil, character from the film True Romance
 * Virgil Hawkins, aka Static, a DC Comics character
 * Captain Virgil Hilts, a character in The Great Escape
 * Virgil Tibbs, character from In the Heat of the Night
 * Virgil, joint main antagonist in The Warriors
 * Virgil, supporting character in Left 4 Dead 2
 * Vergil, an AI character in Halo 3: ODST
 * Virgil, playable character in Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura
 * Virgil, an AI character in Portal Stories: Mel
 * Virgil Caine, protagonist in the song "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down" by The Band
 * Virgil Walsh, a character in Trinity Blood
 * Virgil, a character in Mighty Max
 * Virgil, a non-playable character in Fallout 4
 * Virgil, a crewed subterranean drilling vessel in The Core
 * Virgil "Bud" Brigman, a main character in the film The Abyss
 * Virgil Sanders, an aspect of a personality, mainly representing Anxiety,in the YouTube series Sanders Sides
 * Virgil "Bull" Sharkowski, a character in My Gym Partner's a Monkey

Film

 * Virgil (film), a 2005 film directed by Mabrouk El Mechri

Places
Canada
 * Virgil, Ontario

United States
 * Virgil, Illinois
 * Virgil, Kansas
 * Virgil, New York, town
 * Virgil (CDP), New York, a census-designated place within the town
 * Virgil, South Dakota
 * Virgil, West Virginia
 * Virgil Middle School, Los Angeles, California

Other

 * Sanctus Virgilius, student society
 * Virgil C. Summer Nuclear Generating Station, an American nuclear power station
 * Virgil (bucking horse) (foaled 2008), a rodeo bucking horse
 * Virgil (racehorse), (1864–1886), an American thoroughbred

title: Virgil (disambiguation)