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Únětice culture

The Únětice culture, Aunjetitz culture or Unetician culture (Únětická kultura, Aunjetitzer Kultur, Kultura unietycka, Únětická kultúra) is an archaeological culture at the start of the Central European Bronze Age, dated roughly to about 2300–1600BC. The eponymous site for this culture, the village of Únětice, is located in the central Czech Republic, northwest of Prague. There are about 1,400 documented Únětice culture sites in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, 550 sites in Poland, and, in Germany, about 500 sites and loose finds locations. The Únětice culture is also known from north-eastern Austria (in association with the so-called Böheimkirchen group), and from western Ukraine.

History of research

The Aunjetitzer/Únětice culture is named after a discovery by Czech surgeon and amateur archaeologist Čeněk Rýzner (1845–1923), who in 1879 found a cemetery in Bohemia of over 50 inhumations on Holý Vrch, the hill overlooking the village of Únětice. At about the same time, the first Úněticean burial ground was unearthed in Southern Moravia in Měnín by A.Rzehak. Following these initial discoveries and until the 1930s, many more sites, primarily cemeteries, were identified, including Němčice nad Hanou (1926), sites in the vicinity of Prague, Polepy (1926–1927), and Šardičky (1927).

In Germany, a Princely Grave in Leubingen had already been excavated in 1877 by F.Klopfleisch; however, he incorrectly dated the monument to the Hallstatt during the Iron Age. In subsequent years, a main cluster of Úněticean sites in Central Germany were identified at Baalberge, Helmsdorf, Nienstedt, Körner, Leubingen, Halberstadt, Klein Quenstedt, Wernigerode, Blankenburg, and Quedlinburg. At the same time, Adlerberg and Straubing groups were defined in 1918 by Schumacher.

In Silesia, the first archaeologist associated with the discovery and identification of the Únětice culture was Hans Seger (1864–1943). Seger not only discovered several Úněticean sites and supervised pioneering excavations in locations in Silesia, now in Poland as Przecławice, but he also linked Bohemian European Bronze Age (EBA) materials with similar assemblages in Lower Silesia. In Greater Poland, the first excavations at royal Úněticean necropolis of Łęki Małe were undertaken by Józef Kostrzewski in 1931, but major archaeological discoveries at this site were made only years later in 1953 and 1955. In 1935 Kostrzewski published the first data and findings of the Iwno culture, another Bronze Age culture contemporaneous with the Únětice EBA, from Western Poland. In 1960 Wanda Sarnowska (1911–1989) began excavations in Szczepankowice near Wrocław, southwest Poland, where a new group of barrows was unearthed. In 1969 she published a new monograph on the Únětice culture in which she cataloged, analysed, and described assemblages deriving from 373 known EBA Úněticean sites in Poland.

The first unified chronological system (relative chronology) based on a typology of ceramics and metal artefacts for the Únětice culture in Bohemia was introduced by Moucha in 1963. This chronological system consisting of six sub-phases was considered valid for the Bohemian groups of the Únětice culture, and later was adapted in Poland and in Germany.

Recently, the Únětice culture has been cited as a pan-European cultural phenomenon whose influence covered large areas due to intensive exchange, with Únětice pottery and bronze artefacts found from Ireland to Scandinavia, the Italian Peninsula, and the Balkans. As such, it is candidate for a community connecting a continuum of already scattered, late Indo-European languages, ancestral to the Italo-Celtic, Germanic, and perhaps Balto–Slavic groups, between which words were frequently exchanged, and a common lexicon, as well as regional isoglosses were shared.

Chronology

The culture corresponds to Bronze A1 and A2 in the chronological schema of Paul Reinecke:
 * A1: 2300–1950 BC: triangular daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards, flint arrowheads
 * A2: 1950–1700 BC: daggers with metal hilt, flanged axes, halberds, pins with perforated spherical heads, solid bracelets

Sub-groups

The Únětice culture originated in the territories of contemporary Bohemia. Ten local sub-groups can be distinguished in its classical phase:
 * Moravia Group
 * Slovakia Group; following the so-called Nitra Group
 * Lower Austria Group
 * Central Germany Group
 * Lower Saxony Group
 * Lower Lusatia Group
 * Silesia Group
 * Greater Poland (Kościan) Group
 * Galicia (Western Ukraine) Group

Burials

From a technical point of view, Úněticean graves can be divided in two categories: flat graves and barrows. The Únětice culture practiced skeletal inhumations, but occasionally cremation was also practised.

A typical Úněticean cemetery was situated near a settlement, usually on a hill or acclivity and in the vicinity of a creek or river. The distance between the cemetery and the adjacent settlement very rarely exceeds 1 km. Cemeteries were usually spatially organized, with symmetrical rows or alleys. Burials of the Únětice culture are orientated according to stars and the relative position of the sun on the horizon during the year, which may indicate quite advanced prehistoric astronomical observations.

Barrows–Princely graves
To date, over fifty Úněticean barrows have been found in Central Europe; the majority of the monuments have been published in archaeological literature, but only about 60% of that number have been excavated according to modern standards. Some of the tombs found in the early 19th century such as the many tombs in Kościan County, Poland, were incorrectly identified and robbed or otherwise destroyed.

The largest concentrations of Úněticean barrows, also known in archaeological literature as "princely graves", can be found:
 * in Czech Republic – in the vicinity of Prague, e.g. Brandýs, Březno, Mladá Boleslav–Čejetičky–Choboty, Prague 5- Řeporyje, Prague 6- Bubeneč;
 * in Central Germany – in, for example, Bornhöck, Leubingen, Helmsdorf, Baalberge, Dieskau II, Sömmerda I–II and Groß Gastrose;
 * in Poland – in Greater Poland, e.g. Łęki Małe I–V, in Silesia: e.g. Szczepankowice Ia–Ib, Kąty Wrocławskie.

The size of the tombs varies, with the largest of all originally being the Bornhöck burial mound (the largest Bronze Age burial mound in central Europe), dating from c. 1800 BC. The mound belonged to a ruler or 'prince' who was likely associated with the Nebra sky disc. It was originally around 65 metres in diameter and 15 metres in height, but was mostly destroyed in the late 19th century. The mound was originally covered with white limestone (chalk) – a very unusual practice in central Europe but common in contemporary Bronze Age Britain. A 'brotlaibidol' clay tablet was also found in the grave.

The largest surviving burial mound is Barrow No.4 at Łęki Małe, associated with the Kościan Group of the Únětice Culture – which is 50 metres in diameter and 5–6 metres in height today. In the classic phase, a typical "princely grave" was approximately 25 metres in diameter and 5 metres in height.

Gold weapons

A gold axe and jewellery dating from c. 1800 BC were discovered at Dieskau in Germany and are thought to be associated with the ruler buried in the Bornhöck mound. A gold dagger dating from the Early Bronze Age has also been recovered from Inowrocław in Poland, associated with the Iwno culture. Gold weapons are known from other parts of Europe in this period, including a gold axe from Tufalau in Romania belonging to the Wietenberg culture, a gold dagger from Mala Gruda in Montenegro belonging to the Vučedol culture, a gold dagger from Dabene in Bulgaria, and gold daggers and halberds from Perșinari and Măcin in Romania belonging to the Tei culture. The Tei culture weapons were found buried with gold bracelets of Unetice type.

Flat graves

A typical Úněticean flat grave was a rectangular or oval pit 1-1.9 metres long, 0.6-1.2 metres wide and 0.30-1.5 metres deep. Depending on the shape of the bottom and depth, graves can be divided into four sub-types: rectangular, concave, trapezoid, or hourglass.

One of the most prominent characteristics is the position of the body in the grave pit. The deceased were always buried in a north–south alignment, with the head south and facing east. The body was usually placed in the grave in a slightly contracted position. Exceptions from this rule are sporadic.

In the classic phase (approximately 1850–1750 BC), the Úněticean burial rite displays strong uniformity, regardless of the gender or age of the deceased. Men and women were buried in the same north–south position. The grave goods consisted of ceramic vessels (usually 1–5), bronze items (jewellery and private belongings, rings, hair clips, pins etc.), bone artefacts (amulets and tools, including needles), occasionally flint tools (the burial of Archer from Nowa Wieś Wrocławska, for example, was buried with colour flint arrowheads). A body deposited within a grave might have been protected with mats made from plant materials or a coffin, but in the majority of cases there was no additional coverage of the corpse. A well-known example of wicker-made coffin inhumation derives from Bruszczewo fortified settlement, nearby Poznań in Greater Poland. In approximately 20% of burials, stone settings were found. Erection of a full stone setting or just a partial one (a few stones in the corners of grave) seems to be quite a common practice observed in all phases of the EBA in Central Europe. Wooden coffins were discovered at several sites such as in Lower Silesia. Únětice culture coffin burials can be divided in two types, according their construction: coffins of the stretcher type, and coffins of the canoe type. Coffins were made of single block of wood. The most prominent example of a rich cemetery containing many of such inhumations is in Przecławice nearby Wrocław. Coffin burials appear in Central Europe in the Neolithic and are well known from Bell Beaker and Corded Ware cultures in Moravia.

Metal objects

The culture is distinguished by its characteristic metal objects, including ingot torcs, flat axes, flat triangular daggers, bracelets with spiral ends, disk- and paddle-headed pins, and curl rings, which are distributed over a wide area of Central Europe and beyond.

The ingots are found in hoards that can contain over six hundred pieces. Axe-hoards are common as well: the hoard of Dieskau (Saxony) contained 293 flanged axes. Thus, axes might have served as ingots as well. These hoards have formerly been interpreted as a form of storage by itinerant bronze-founders or as riches hidden because of enemy action. They have also been interpreted as evidence for the existence of organized groups of warriors or 'armies'. Hoards containing mainly jewellery are typical for the Adlerberg group.

After 2000 BC a major expansion of bronze production took place, with tin bronzes becoming dominant. Ring ingots were exchanged widely. Special weapons and ornaments were produced as status symbols for high-ranking individuals.

The famous Nebra sky disk is associated with the Central Germany groups of the Únětice culture. Gold and tin used to make the Nebra disc was imported from Cornwall in southern England, whilst the copper was imported from Austria. According to the archaeologist Sabine Gerloff the gold plating (or inlay) technique used on the disc originated in Britain. A similar gold inlay technique is seen on the contemporary Thun-Renzenbühl axe from Switzerland, and has also been connected to Mycenaean Greece.

Settlements

Typical Úněticean housing structures are known from the Czech Republic and Germany. The houses were constructed of wood, with a gabled roof, and rectangular in plan with an entrance on the western side. The roofs were thatched, and walls were constructed using the wattle and daub technique.

One of the most characteristic features associated with settlements are storage pits of the Únětice type. They were located beneath the houses, and were deep and spacious, with a cylindrical or slightly conical neck, arched walls, and a relatively flat bottom. These pits often served as granaries.

The vast majority of settlements consisted of several houses congregated in the communal space of the village or hamlet. Larger fortified villages, with ramparts and wooden fortifications, have been discovered as well, in, for example Bruszczewo in Greater Poland and Radłowice in Silesia. These larger villages played a role as local political centres, possibly also market places, facilitating the flow of goods and supplies. The 'proto-urban' fortified settlement of Fidvár in Slovakia was an important centre for the exploitation of nearby gold and tin deposits. Hillforts are known from the Late Unetice period, such as Cezavy in the Czech Republic which featured stone fortification walls.

Around 2300 BC, large circular enclosures were built at Pömmelte and nearby Schönebeck in central Germany. These were important ritual sites which remained in use until c. 1900 BC. Pömmelte is described as a central place of supra-regional importance. The largest known Early Bronze Age settlement in central Europe was built next to the Pömmelte enclosure. The remains of 130 large timber houses have been found on the site; they were typically 20 metres in length with some up to 30.5 metres in length, and with floor areas ranging from 80m² to 360m².

Some Unetice buildings were exceptionally large, such as the Dermsdorf longhouse (44m x 11m) and Zwenkau longhouse (57m x 9m), both in central Germany. These may have been elite residences, cult buildings, meeting halls, or 'men's houses' for groups of warriors or soldiers under the command of individual rulers. The Dermsdorf longhouse was built a short distance from a settlement at Leubingen, in direct alignment with the nearby Leubingen burial mound. A large number of axes were ritually deposited together in front of the longhouse, which may have belonged to a contingent of warriors or soldiers.

Experimental reconstructions of Bronze Age longhouses indicate that the builders must have had "a complex system of numbers and data for linear measurements" to manage such house building challenges. Construction techniques included the use of rectangular beams, planks and boards, mortice and tenon joints, scarf joints, single notched joints, slots, grooves, pivots, wooden pegs, and rebates.

Trade
The Únětice culture had trade links with the British Wessex culture. Únětice metalsmiths used pure copper as well as alloys of copper with arsenic, antimony, and tin to produce bronze. The cemetery of Singen contained daggers with a high tin content (up to 9%). They may have been produced in Brittany, where a few rich graves have been found from this period. Cornish tin was widely traded as well. A gold lunula of Irish design has been found as far south as Butzbach in Hessen (Germany). Amber was also traded, but small fossil deposits may have been used as well as Baltic amber.

Weights and money

Analyses of Early Bronze Age rings, ribs and axe blades from across central Europe have found that they had approximately standardised weights and probably served as a form of commodity money. In the first centuries of the second millennium BC, increasing precision in exchange was achieved by the introduction of lighter ingots. Certain artefacts (e.g. ösenrings) may have also been used as a type of token-money.

At the end of the Early Bronze Age rings and ribs were replaced by scrap and raw metal, indicating the development of weighing scales and the use of weighed metal as a means of payment. This weighing system may have emerged independently in central Europe through the serial production of bronze artefacts with perceptibly similar weights.

In 2014 the largest known hoard of copper rib-ingots was discovered in Oberding, Germany, consisting of 796 ingots, dating from c. 1700 BC. The find is associated with the Straubing group. Most of the ingots were tied together with tree bast in bundles of ten, each individual ingot weighing approximately 100 grams on average and the bundles weighing approximately 1 kilogram each. Forty of these bundles were further grouped into bundles of ten (or 100 ingots). This indicates the use of a decimal system. The use of approximately 1 kilogram weight is also unusual as the kilogram was first introduced as a unit of measurement in 1793.

'Enigmatic tablets'
Numerous Brotlaibidole (Brotlaibidole) made from clay (and occasionally stone) have been found across central Europe and northern Italy, dating from the Early and Middle Bronze Age, including in Unetice Culture sites. The tablets are marked with sequences of geometric figures, such as circles, lines, points, crosses, etc. The function of the tablets is not clear and the meaning of the incisions has not yet been deciphered. The prevailing theory is that they served a purpose in long-distance trade, possibly of metals. According to Harald Meller they probably represent a 'sign system' involved in trade. They are often found broken in two which may indicate some sort of credit/debt system.

In 2010 a major exhibition was organized on the 'enigmatic tablets' from the Archaeological Museum of Upper Mantua in Cavriana with the collaboration of thirty-five other museums. One hundred examples of enigmatic tablets were exhibited. In 2015 an international project was launched to study the tablets involving various Italian and foreign universities. The artefacts have been analysed and categorised using a three-dimensional scanning and measuring technique that allows for a precise morphological comparison to be made between tablets.

Social organisation
Archeological evidence from 2000 BC onwards points to the emergence of a more complex and ranked society in central Europe and the appearance of a new aristocratic leadership on top of the traditional clan-based organisation of farmsteads and hamlets. The effects were seen across all spheres of society from technology and economy to settlement and religion. The Únětice Culture in Central Germany in particular exhibited a remarkably high level of social complexity. Based on the funerary record, metal hoards and architectural evidence it has been suggested that by the 20th-19th centuries BC this society had developed into a type of state, ruled by a dominant leader and supported by armed troops. This is further indicated by evidence for the surplus production and centralisation of agricultural goods, as well as the production of the Nebra Sky Disc.

Calendar
The main entrances of the Pömmelte circular enclosure were oriented towards sunrise and sunset midway between the solstices and equinoxes, indicating that it served as a monument for "ceremonies linked to calendrical rites and seasonal feasting". These alignments marked the same dates as later Celtic seasonal festivals such as Beltane and Samhain, which celebrated the transition of the seasons, the harvest, or commemoration of the dead.

The diameter and ground plan of the Pömmelte enclosure are almost identical to those of Stonehenge in Britain (built around 2500 BC), which was aligned with the solstices and has also been interpreted as serving a calendar function. According to excavators of the Pömmelte site, the similarities between both monuments indicate that they were built by "the same culture" (the Bell Beaker culture) with "the same view of the world". It has been suggested that the close similarity between the Pömmelte enclosure and earlier earth-and-timber circular enclosures, such as the Goseck Circle in Germany (c. 4900 BC) and henges in Britain, may indicate a continuation of traditions dating back to the early Neolithic.

The Nebra Sky Disc, described as 'the oldest concrete depiction of astronomical phenomena in the world', is thought to depict a calendar rule for harmonising the solar and lunar years, enabling the creation of a lunisolar calendar. The cluster of stars next to the crescent moon is thought to represent the Pleiades, known from other ancient contexts as 'calendar stars', whilst the gold arcs on the edge of the disc (one of which is now missing) represent the angle between the solstices at the latitude where the disc was found. This feature also appears in a different form on the Bush Barrow gold lozenge from Stonehenge, dating from c. 1900 BC. The number of stars on the disc (32, or 33 if the sun is included) may represent the equivalence of 32 solar years to 33 lunar years. According to the archaeologist Christoph Sommerfeld the disc may also encode knowledge of the 19-year luni-solar Metonic cycle.

According to Harald Meller the Nebra disc allowed for "an extremely accurate positing of time, including even the capacity for predicting lunar eclipses." As such it represents "the establishment of a new temporal order" by elites of the Unetice culture, and thereby "ultimately demonstrates their claim to state power".

The site on the Mittelberg hill where the Nebra disc was found is thought to have served as an enclosed 'sacred precinct', delimited by earthen ramparts on two sides of the hill. From this location, when the disc is aligned to the north, the upper terminus of the western gold arc points towards the Brocken mountain, where the sun is seen to set on the summer solstice (June 21st). Another distinctive marker on the horizon is the Kulpenberg hill, where the sun sets on May 1st (Beltane), a date also marked by the Pömmelte enclosure.

Influence of the Únětice tradition

Today, the Únětice culture is considered to be part of a wider pan-European cultural phenomenon, arising gradually between the second half of the 3rd millennium and the beginning of the 2nd. According to Pokutta, "The role of the Únětice Culture in the formation of Bronze Age Europe cannot be overrated. The rise and the existence of this original, expansive and dynamic population mark one of the most interesting moments in European prehistory." The influence of this culture covered much larger areas mainly due to intensive exchange. Únětice pottery and bronze objects are thus found in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and Italy as well as the Balkans.

The strong impact of Úněticean metallurgical centres and pottery-making traditions can be seen in other EBA groups, for example, in the Adlerberg, Straubing, Singen, Neckar-Ries, and Upper-Rhine groups in Germany and Switzerland, as well as the Unterwölbling in Austria. The Nitra group, inhabiting southern Slovakia, not only precedes the Únětice culture chronologically, but is also strongly culturally related to it. All of these groups are alternatively seen as local variants of a broader Únětice culture. According to Marija Gimbutas these cultures were, in a broad sense, "one unit", with the same burial rites, economy, habitation patterns, and pottery, which she groups together as 'early Únětice'. According to Sergent (1995) the Polada culture in northern Italy and the Rhône culture in France and Switzerland also represent southern variants of the Únětice culture. In later times, some elements of the Úněticean pottery-making traditions can be found in the Trzciniec culture as well.

Genetics
examined the remains of 8 individuals of the Unetice culture buried in modern-day Germany c. 2200–1800 BC. The 3 samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to Y-haplogroups I2a2, I2c2 and I2, while the 8 samples of mtDNA extracted were determined to belong to haplogroup I3a (2 samples), U5a1, W3a1, U5b2a1b, H4a1a1, H3 and V. The examined Unetice individuals were found to be very closely related to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture, Bell Beaker culture and Corded Ware culture. Their amount of steppe-related ancestry is comparable to that of some modern Europeans.

examined the remains of 7 individuals of the Unetice culture buried in modern-day Poland and Czech Republic from c. 2300–1800 BC. The 7 samples of mtDNA extracted were determined to belong to haplogroup U4, U2e1f1, H6a1b, U5a1b1, K1a4a1, T2b and K1b1a. An additional male from the late Corded Ware culture or early Unetice culture in Łęki Małe, Poland of c. 2300–2000 BC was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a and the maternal haplogroup T2e. It was found that the people of the Corded Ware culture, Bell Beaker culture, Unetice culture and Nordic Bronze Age were genetically very similar to one another, and displayed a significant amount of genetic affinity with the Yamnaya culture.

A number of individuals from the Únětice burial sites were tested in 2021; their the Y-chromosome results (not including two by low coverage samples) were: 1 G2a2b2a, 1 I2a1, 8 I2a2, 7 R1a-Z645, and 8 R1b-P312. The geneticists found that: "The Y-chromosomal data suggest an even larger turnover. A decrease of Y-lineage R1b-P312 from 100% (in late Bell Beaker Culture) to 20% (in preclassical Únětice) implies a minimum 80% influx of new Y-lineages at the onset of the Early Bronze Age". The autosomal results even point to a migration from the northeast, which the authors can link with the arrival of R1a-Z645, previously found in the Baltic region.

Several individuals from two burial sites in Prague were tested in 2022 (both sites were used in different cultural periods), the male Y-DNA haplogroups from individuals assigned to the Únětice period were: two R1a1a1 (Z280), eight I2a2a (I6635), with an individual with the derived clade PF3885, a tested male was I2a-L38, and four males had the R1b-L2 haplogroup (another tested individual had the derived R1b-L20 clade); a male had the haplogroup R1b-Y153322, which is under DF27.

title: Únětice culture


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N11 code

An N11 code (pronounced Enn-one-one) is a three-digit dialing code used in abbreviated dialing in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP). The mnemonic N stands for the digits 2 through 9 and thus the syntax stands for the codes 211, 311, 411, 511, 611, 711, 811, and 911. These dialing codes provide access to special local services, such as 911 for emergency services, which is a facility mandated by law in the United States. The (FCC) in CC Docket 92-105, specified how the N11 codes of 211, 311, 511, 711 and 811 codes would be used for various types of public information under NANP.

Services
N11-numbers provide access to special services. For example,
 * 211: Community services and information
 * 311: Municipal government services, non-emergency number
 * 411: Directory assistance
 * 511: Traffic information or police non-emergency services
 * 611: Telephone company (telco) customer service and repair
 * 711: TDD and Relay Services for the deaf and hard of hearing
 * 811: Underground public utility location (United States); non-emergency health information and services (Canada)
 * 911: Emergency services (police, fire, ambulance and rescue services)

411 and 611 are commonly used in the United States, but not officially assigned by the Federal Communications Commission.

The designation for special use in the NANP prevents their use as area codes and central office prefixes, eliminating about 8 million telephone numbers from assignment.

The assigned use of each N11 code may vary for the various countries, US states, and Canadian provinces of the NANP, but 911 is mandated in the United States and Canada, 711 and 911 access is mandated by law in the United States, even within private networks (PBX, enterprise and cellular systems).

411 and 611 are supported by the service provider for the calling phone, but not all carriers provide these services. 411 and 611 (formerly 811) are typically blocked within enterprise or private branch exchange (PBX) systems, including cellular telephone service purchased for an enterprise system, since 411 calls generally incur a fee and the service is now readily accessible by other means, and 611 services are managed by the enterprise in which the phone resides.

Other community services are provided through 211, but only if a nonprofit organization, such as United Way of America, or the local government operates it locally. Likewise, local, state or provincial government may, but do not uniformly, operate traffic information using 511. 811 was made mandatory in the United States in 2007; however, it has not been universally implemented. 711 is funded through the TRS Fund, which telephone companies are mandated to maintain to provide Relay Services for the Deaf and Hearing Impaired.

011
Within the NANP, a leading digit of 0 or 1 indicates special dialing arrangements. 1 is the toll-dialing prefix, or trunk prefix. 011 is the international calling prefix, dialed before a country code to call internationally.

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title: N11 code


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title: User talk:68.78.118.200


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The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History

The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History is a 1978 book by the American white nationalist author Michael H. Hart. Published by his father's publishing house, it was his first book and was reprinted in 1992 with revisions. It is a ranking of the 100 people who, according to Hart, most influenced human history. Unlike various other rankings at the time, Hart was not attempting to rank on "greatness" as a criterion, but rather whose actions most changed the course of human history.

Summary
The book consists of 100 entries as well as an appendix of Honorable Mentions. Each entry is a short biography of the person, followed by Hart's thoughts on how this person was influential and changed the course of human history. He gave additional credit for importance for people whose actions Hart felt were unusual, unlikely, or ahead of their time compared to a hypothesized course of history had this person not lived.

Founders and shapers of successful religions were among the most influential in Hart's view, as these shaped many people's lives quite strongly over a long period of time. The first person on Hart's list is the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hart asserted that Muhammad was "supremely successful" in both the religious and secular realms, being responsible for both the foundations of Islam as well as the Early Muslim conquests uniting the Arabian Peninsula and eventually a wider caliphate after his death. Hart also believed that Muhammad played an unusually singular and personal role in the development of Islam. The development of Christianity, by contrast, has its influence split between Jesus's initial teachings and foundational work, and Paul the Apostle, who played a pivotal role in the early spread of Christianity as well as distinguishing its doctrines and practices from Judaism and the other Greek and Roman religions of the time period. Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Moses are all placed highly as well due to their role in establishing religions.

One of the most notable omissions was Abraham Lincoln, which Hart relegated to the "Honorary Mentions" in the appendix. Changes in the 1992 revision include the rankings of figures associated with Communism being lowered after the Revolutions of 1989, such as Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong, and the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev. Hart took sides in the Shakespearean authorship issue and replaced William Shakespeare with Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford in the 1992 version. Hart also substituted Niels Bohr and Henri Becquerel with Ernest Rutherford. Henry Ford was promoted from the "Honorary Mentions" list, replacing Pablo Picasso. Finally, various rankings were re-ordered, although no one listed in the top ten changed their position.

The book was first published in 1978 as imprint from "Hart Publishing Company". According to the Calgary Herald, at least 60,000 copies were sold. The book has since been translated into many languages.

Reception
For placing Muhammad in first place of the list, the book received several controversial reviews from western critics, but the book was widely welcomed and outburst with positive reviews in the Muslim world, and the book is often cited in the Muslim writers' book including Ayatollah Sayed Muhammad al-Shirazi, Ahmed Deedat etc. In 1988, the former contemporary Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak honored Michael Hart for placing Muhammad in first place. Steven Skiena and Charles Ward writes in their book Who's Bigger?: Where Historical Figures Really Rank that The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History "is probably the best known ranking of historic figures by influence."

Sequel
Hart wrote the 1999 follow-up A View from the Year 3000, voiced in the perspective of a person from that future year and ranking the most influential people in history. Roughly half the entries are fictional people from 2000 to 3000, but the remainder are taken mostly from the 1992 ranking, with some sequence changes.


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Carlos Duarte Costa

Carlos Duarte Costa (July 21, 1888 – March 26, 1961) was a Brazilian Catholic bishop who became the founder of the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, an Independent Catholic church, and its international communion, which long after his death became the short-lived Worldwide Communion of Catholic Apostolic Churches.

The former Catholic Bishop of Botucatu, he was excommunicated by Pope Pius XII, ultimately for schism, but in culmination of several doctrinal and canonical issues (such as his views on clerical celibacy). Duarte Costa has been canonized as "St. Carlos of Brazil" by the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church.

Early life and ministry
Carlos Duarte Costa was born in Rio de Janeiro on July 21, 1888, at the residence of his uncle Eduardo Duarte de Silva. His father was João Matta Francisco Costa and his mother was Maria Carlota Duarte da Silva Costa, who came from a family heavily involved in politics and public service. He completed his primary studies at the Salesian College Santa Rosa, in Niterói, and at age nine, he received his first communion in the cathedral of Uberaba from the hands of his uncle, Dom Eduardo Duarte da Silva (now a bishop), on July 24, 1897. That same year he was taken by his uncle to Rome to study at the Pontifical Latin American College, a Jesuit minor seminary. In 1905 he returned to Brazil for health reasons and entered an Augustinian seminary in Uberaba, where he continued his philosophical and theological studies. He only narrowly managed to complete his studies and qualify for ordination, however, and his uncle intervened to vouch for his nephew.

After ordination as a deacon, Duarte Costa served in the cathedral church of Uberaba under his uncle, Dom Eduardo Duarte da Silva, who, on April 1, 1911, ordained Duarte Costa to the priesthood.

On July 4, 1924, Pope Pius XI nominated Duarte Costa as Bishop of Botucatu.

Attempts at church and societal reform
In 1932, Duarte Costa played an active role in the Constitutionalist Revolution, a failed attempt to restore constitutional government to Brazil. Duarte Costa formed a "Battalion of the Bishop" to fight on the side of the Constitutionalist troops and helped finance the battalion by selling off diocesan assets along with his own personal possessions. Duarte Costa's battalion never fought, however, which was a source of disappointment to him.

In 1936, Duarte Costa made his second ad limina visit to Rome, meeting with Pope Pius XI. It is widely believed that he presented the pope with a list of radical reform proposals for the Catholic Church in Brazil, though no record of this survives. During this period he did become friends with another outspoken priest who would go on to achieve world fame, Helder Camara.

Bishop of Maura
In September 1937, Duarte Costa resigned from his episcopal post and was appointed titular bishop of Maura.

In 1944 he gained further notoriety by writing a glowing preface to the Brazilian translation of The Soviet Power by the Very Reverend Hewlett Johnson, the Anglican Dean of Canterbury known as "The Red Dean" for his uncompromising support of the Soviet Union. Duarte Costa consistently maintained his left-wing allegiance, calling for the establishment of a "Christian communism" in contrast to "Roman [Catholic] Church Fascism".

As long as he enjoyed the protection of Cardinal Dom Sebastiao Leme da Silveira Cintra, Duarte Costa's political activism proceeded without much trouble. However, soon after the cardinal's death, Duarte Costa was formally accused by the Brazilian government of being a communist sympathizer. He was arrested on June 6, 1944, and imprisoned in Belo Horizonte.

Excommunication
After his release from prison Carlos Duarte Costa soon found himself in trouble again. In May 1945, Duarte Costa gave newspaper interviews accusing Brazil's papal nuncio of Nazi-Fascist spying, and accused Rome of having aided and abetted Adolf Hitler. In addition, he announced plans to set up his own Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, in which priests would be permitted to marry (and hold regular jobs in the lay world), personal confessions and the praying of rosaries would be abolished and bishops would be elected by popular vote.

In response to Duarte Costa's continued insubordination, the Vatican finally laid against him the penalty of excommunication on July 2, 1945. Upon being informed of his excommunication, Duarte Costa responded by saying, "I consider today one of the happiest days of my life." He immediately titled himself "Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro" and told the press that he hoped soon to ordain ten married lawyers and professional men as priests in his new church.

Founding of the ICAB

After establishing the Igreja Católica Apostólica Brasileira (ICAB), Duarte Costa continued to use the same vestments, insignia, and rites as he had in the Roman Catholic Church. This provoked the cardinals of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro to appeal to the Minister of Justice and the President himself for an injunction against both him and the ICAB. On September 27, 1948, the ICAB churches were closed by the courts, on the grounds that they were deceiving the public into thinking they were Catholic churches and clergy. Duarte Costa quickly filed an appeal, and in 1949 the Brazilian Supreme Court ruled that the ICAB could reopen its doors on condition that the church use a modified liturgy and its clergy wear gray cassocks to minimize the potential for confusion with the black-colored Roman Catholic clergy. The ICAB attracted the attention of scholars of Brazilian religions such as Roger Bastide, who described it as "having both a religious and a political program, the latter [having] much in common with the Communist Party".

Unlike the official Catholic Church in Brazil, the ICAB developed friendly relations with Spiritism and Freemasonry. Duarte Costa "began giving talks in Spiritist centers to publicize the new church" and "ICAB would go on to attract many members" of Freemasonry. Duarte Costa also "openly encouraged cooperation with Umbanda, Macumba and Candomblé communities" when these are considered wholly incompatible with Roman Catholicism.

In the years immediately after founding the church, Duarte Costa consecrated four bishops, Salomão Barbosa Ferraz (August 15, 1945), Jorge Alves de Souza and Antidio Jose Vargas (both in 1946) and Luis Fernando Castillo Mendez (May 3, 1948). These bishops had intended to establish similar autonomous Catholic national churches in several other Latin American countries. Relations between the bishops were not always good, and Duarte Costa fought bitterly with Ferraz from the earliest days of the ICAB. His most fractious and quarrelsome relationship was with Luis Fernando Castillo Mendez however, whom he repeatedly denounced as a fraud and a charlatan. Duarte Costa consecrated eleven ICAB bishops in total.

title: Carlos Duarte Costa


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Donald A. Thomas

Donald Alan Thomas (born May 6, 1955) is an American engineer and a former NASA astronaut.

Education
Graduated from Cleveland Heights High School, Cleveland Heights, Ohio, in 1973; received a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics from Case Western Reserve University in 1977, and a Master of Science degree and a Doctorate in Materials Science from Cornell University in 1980 and 1982, respectively. His dissertation involved evaluating the effect of crystalline defects and sample purity on the superconducting properties of niobium.

Early life and education
Following graduation from Cornell University in 1982, Thomas joined AT&T Bell Laboratories in Princeton, New Jersey, working as a Senior Member of the Technical Staff. His responsibilities there included the development of advanced materials and processes for high-density interconnections of semiconductor devices. He was also an adjunct professor in the physics department at Trenton State College in New Jersey. He holds two patents and has authored several technical papers.

He left AT&T in 1987 to work for Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company in Houston, Texas, where his responsibilities involved reviewing materials used in Space Shuttle payloads. In 1988 he joined NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center as a materials engineer. His work involved lifetime projections of advanced composite materials for use on Space Station Freedom. He was also a Principal Investigator for the Microgravity Disturbances Experiment, a middeck crystal growth experiment that flew on STS-32 in January 1990. This experiment investigated the effects of Orbiter and crew-induced disturbances on the growth of crystals in space.

NASA career
Selected by NASA in January 1990, Thomas became an astronaut in July 1991. Thomas was turned down in his application to the astronaut program twice. He decided to differentiate from the applicant competition by getting his pilot's license, teaching a university course and furthering his education. In his third application he made the group of 100 semi-finalists. After being invited to Houston, going through a one-week medical exam and interviews, he was still turned down. He eventually moved over 1500 miles to live in Houston and was finally accepted on his fourth application.

Thomas has served in the Safety, Operations Development, and Payloads Branches of the Astronaut Office. He was CAPCOM (spacecraft communicator) for Shuttle missions STS-47, 52 and 53. From July 1999 to June 2000 he was Director of Operations for NASA at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Moscow, Russia. A veteran of four space flights, he logged over 1,040 hours in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-65 (July 8, 1994 – July 23, 1994), STS-70 (July 13, 1995 – July 22, 1995), STS-83 (April 4, 1997 – April 8, 1997) and STS-94 (July 1, 1997 – July 17, 1997). Initially assigned to the ISS Expedition 6 crew, his flight assignment withdrawal resulted from a medical issue affecting long-duration space flight qualifications. Thomas has logged over 1,040 hours in space.

In his last assignment, he served as the International Space Station Program Scientist overseeing NASA experiments performed on the ISS. Thomas retired from NASA in July 2007 in order to pursue private interests.

Space flight experience
STS-65 Columbia (July 8, 1994 – July 23, 1994) set a new flight duration record for the Space Shuttle program. The mission flew the second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2). During the 15-day flight the crew conducted more than 80 experiments focusing on materials and life sciences research in microgravity. The mission was accomplished in 236 orbits of the Earth, traveling 6.1 million miles in 353 hours and 55 minutes.

STS-70 Discovery (July 13, 1995 – July 22, 1995). During the STS-70 mission, Thomas was responsible for the deployment of the sixth and final Tracking and Data Relay Satellite from the Space Shuttle. Mission duration was 214 hours and 20 minutes, traveling 3.7 million miles in 142 orbits of the Earth. Four of the five astronauts were born in Ohio, so Ohio Governor George Voinovich made astronaut Kevin Kregel an "Honorary Ohioan", making this flight "The All-Ohio Space Shuttle Mission".

STS-83 Columbia (April 4, 1997 – April 8, 1997). The STS-83 Microgravity Science Laboratory (MSL-1) Spacelab mission, was cut short because of problems with one of the Shuttle's three fuel cell power generation units. Mission duration was 95 hours and 12 minutes, traveling 1.5 million miles in 63 orbits of the Earth.

STS-94 Columbia (July 1, 1997 – July 17, 1997), was a re-flight of the Microgravity Science Laboratory (MSL-1) Spacelab mission, and focused on materials and combustion science research in microgravity. Mission duration was 376 hours and 45 minutes, traveling 6.3 million miles in 251 orbits of the Earth.

Post-NASA career
Don Thomas is head of the Willard Hackerman Academy of Mathematics and Science at Towson University in Towson, Maryland. He is a private pilot with over 250 hours in single engine land aircraft and gliders, and over 800 hours flying as mission specialist in NASA T-38 jet aircraft.

In 2013, Thomas wrote a book with the assistance of Mike Bartell, "Orbit of Discovery: The All-Ohio Space Shuttle Mission," referencing the STS-70 flight.

Organizations
Tau Beta Pi; Association of Space Explorers (ASE).

Awards and honors
Graduated with Honors from Case Western Reserve University in 1977. Recipient of NASA Sustained Superior Performance Award, 1989. Recipient of 4 NASA Group Achievement Awards, 4 NASA Space Flight Medals, 2 NASA Exceptional Service Medals, and the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.

In July 2014, Don Thomas, now a retired astronaut, was featured as a celebrity visitor to the spaceship R. U. Sirius in the comic strip Brewster Rockit by Tim Rickard, which is anachronistically set in the present time. On July 4, the spaceship crew recalls that his 1995 mission was delayed due to a woodpecker attacking his Space Shuttle. The same woodpecker appears, pecking at the windows of the spaceship, at which time Thomas confesses that he owes the bird money.

title: Donald A. Thomas


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Antipope Honorius II

Honorius II (c. 1010 – 1072), born Pietro Cadalo (Latin Petrus Cadalus), was an antipope from 1061 to 1072. He was born in the County of Verona, and became bishop of Parma in 1045. He died at Parma in 1072.

Biography
Cadalo was the son of the Lombard Ingone, the son of Wicard, the son of Atone. The family may have originated at Monselice (39 miles, 63 km east-southeast of Verona), and entered the military service of the Count of Verona. In 992, Wicard is on record as owning the castle of Calmano, when he acquired territory at Lonigo in the County of Verona. His son Ingone acquired a house and other property in Verona in 1005, and in 1014 he had risen to the post of Vicecomes (vice-count, viscount) of the city of Verona. Ingone was dead by 13 July 1028, on which date his sons and heirs, Cadalo, Erizo and Giovanni, purchased additional property. It is stated in the documents that Cadalo was already in the clerical state ("clericus").

Ecclesiastical career
By 3 September 1030, Cadalo had been ordained a subdeacon. He was a deacon by 31 July 1034. By 11 April 1041, he held the important post of vicedomino of the Church of Verona, administrator of the possessions of the diocese.

On 24 April 1046, Bishop Cadalo founded the monastery of S. Giorgio in Braida, on land which he had acquired the previous day in a transaction with Bishop Walter of Verona. Bishop Cadalo attended the diet held by the Emperor Henry III at Pavia in October 1046; even though he was accused of simony he signed the acts of the diet. On 1 May 1047, moreover, the Emperor granted the county of Parma to the Church of Parma and its bishop, Cadalo.

In 1048, Bishop Cadalo obtained from Marchese Boniface, the Lord of Tuscany, confirmation of the grant of the monastery of S. Bartolomeo in Pistoia to the monastery of S. Giovanni Battista in Parma.

In 1050, Bishop Cadalo attended the Roman synod of Pope Leo IX, which was held at the Lateran Basilica from 29 April to 2 May. On 1 May he subscribed Pope Leo's letter to Bishop John, approving his transfer by the pope and synod from the diocese of Tusculum to the diocese of Porto.

When the old bishop's house was destroyed by fire, Bishop Cadalo had a new episcopal palace built on a grander scale. It was in use by February 1055.

In the spring of 1055, Bishop Cadalo accompanied Emperor Henry III on his visit to Tuscany, where they met the newly consecrated Pope Victor II, an appointee of the Emperor. Conferences began on 27 May in Florence, and the Emperor and Pope held a joint synod in Florence on 4 June. On 6 June the Emperor issued a privilege in favor of the Canons of Parma.

Henry III died on 5 October 1056, leaving his crown to his ten-year-old son, Henry, under the regency of the Empress Agnes of Poitou. Victor II died on 28 July 1057.

The city of Parma was devastated by a major fire on 10 August 1058. The cathedral was so badly damaged that it could not be repaired, and Bishop Cadalo therefore broke ground for a new cathedral in a different place. The residences of the canons of the cathedral were also destroyed, and Cadalo built new ones next to the new cathedral. The building was finally consecrated by Pope Paschal II on 4 November 1106.

Pope
After the death of Pope Nicholas II (1059–1061) at Florence on 27 July 1061, two different groups initiated plans to choose a new pope. According to Cardinal Beno, the cardinals were aware of the ambitions of the Archdeacon Hildebrand, and immediately requested the Emperor Henry IV to name Bishop Cadalo of Parma as the new pope.

The reformist cardinals met under the direction of Hildebrand (who later became Pope Gregory VII), and sent a representative, the former monk of Cluny, Cardinal Stephen, to seek the permission of the emperor to conduct an election. After a five-day wait during which he was not received in audience, the Cardinal returned to Italy, without having received the congé d'élire. Three months after the death of Pope Nicholas, the reformists, who were still in Florence, then elected Pope Alexander II (1061–1073) on 30 September 1061. Alexander II (Anselm the Elder, Bishop of Lucca) had been one of the leaders of the reform party. He was able to enter Rome only through the violent support of Richard of Capua and his Norman soldiers.

Appointment to papacy
Twenty-eight days after Alexander II's election an assembly of German and Lombard bishops and notables opposed to the reform movement was brought together at Basel by the Empress Agnes as regent for her son, King Henry IV (1056–1105), and was presided over by the Imperial Chancellor Wilbert. The council annulled the electoral decree of Nicholas II, and excommunicated Anselm of Lucca. It was argued in the ensuing pamphlet war that a pope whose jurisdiction is universal should be elected not only by the Roman people but also by the Roman emperor. With the assent of the assembly, on 28 October 1061 Henry appointed the bishop of Parma, Cadalus, as pope. He had been principally recommended to the German court by Bishop Dionysius of Piacenza and Bishop Gregory of Vercelli. He assumed the name of Honorius II.

In 1061, after his return from Rome, Pope Honorius II celebrated a diocesan synod in Parma.

In at the beginning of 1062, with the support of the Empress and the nobles, Honorius II and his forces marched towards Rome to claim the papal seat by force. Bishop Benzo of Alba helped his cause as imperial envoy to Rome. The army had advanced as far as Sutri by 25 March. On 14 April a brief but bloody conflict took place near Rome, just north of the Castel Sant'Angelo in the "prato Neronis" (prata S. Petri). The forces of Alexander II were defeated, and Honorius II took possession of the Leonine city and the precincts of St. Peter's Basilica. He did not enter the city of Rome, however, and did not hold his gains for long. A few days later, on the approach of the Duke of Lorraine, he withdrew to the fortress of Flajanum.

Honorius II was recognized as pope by the envoys of the eastern Emperor, Constantine X Doukas. They were in Italy to put together an alliance against the Normans and Alexander II, as part of the emperor's plan to reclaim Calabria for the empire. They had already been treating with the Romans and with the imperial legate Benizo, hoping to include the German emperor in the enterprise.

Duke Godfrey of Tuscany and Spoleto arrived at the Milvian Bridge, a few miles north of the north gate of Rome in May 1062, thereby frustrating the efforts of the imperial agents. He induced both rivals to submit the decision about their legitimacy to the King's decision. Honorius II withdrew to Parma and Alexander II returned to his see in Lucca, pending Godfrey's mediation with the German court and the advisers of the young German king, Henry IV.

Political change and attempted deposition
In Germany, meanwhile, a coup-d-état had taken place. Anno, the powerful Archbishop of Cologne, had seized the regency, and the Empress Agnes retired to the Abbey of Fruttuaria in Piedmont. The chief authority in Germany passed to Anno, who was hostile to Honorius II.

Having declared himself against Cadalus, the new regent summoned the bishops of Germany and Italy to the Council of Augsburg (Concilium Osboriense) (27 October 1062), and, in the presence of the young King Henry IV, declared Alexander to be the true pope and Cadalo a pretender. He secured the appointment of an envoy to be sent to Rome to investigate charges of simony against Alexander II. The envoy, who was Anno's nephew Burchard II, Bishop of Halberstadt, found no objection to Alexander II's election. With the political change, Alexander II came to be recognized as the lawful pontiff by the German court. Alexander held a synod in Rome in the spring of 1063, during the Easter season, and had his rival, Cadalo (Honorius II), accused of simony (an old charge, dating back to 1045, and ignored repeatedly by popes and synods), seeking the papacy, attacking Rome, and counselling homicide; he was excommunicated.

Honorius did not, however, abandon his claims. At a synod of his own, held at Parma shortly after Alexander's, he defied the excommunication, pointing out that he had been chosen by the German king acting as Roman patrician, while Alexander had been chosen neither by the clergy of Rome nor the Roman people, and had been intruded by the Normans, the enemies of the Roman people; Honorius levelled his own excommunication against Alexander. He gathered an armed force and once more proceeded to Rome, where he established himself in the Castel Sant'Angelo.

The ensuing war between the rival Popes lasted for about a year. After a siege of two months, Honorius II withdrew from Rome and returned to Parma. He continued to act as the pope, however, celebrating masses, conducting ordinations, and issuing bulls and apostolic letters.

Formal deposition resisted
The Council of Mantua, on Pentecost, 31 May 1064, ended the schism by formally declaring Alexander II to be the legitimate successor of St. Peter. Honorius II, however, maintained his claim to the papal chair to the day of his death. His successor, Evrardus (Heberardus) also rejected Gregory VII and maintained allegiance to Henry IV. He fought for Henry against Matilda of Tuscany, and joined the schism of Clement III (Bishop Wibert of Ravenna).

Cadalus died in Parma in 1072, still maintaining that he was pope, "Apostolicus electus". His death is registered by Bonizo of Sutri as occurring just before the death of the bishop of Ravenna, Giovanni Enrico, which took place in 1072. His epitaph is preserved by Ireneo Affò.

title: Antipope Honorius II


text:
User:Mibblepedia

I hold a European Baccalaureate from the European School and a Master of Engineering degree from the University of Edinburgh. I currently live in Edinburgh.

I'm not as active as I used to be, but I'm here often enough that you should feel free to leave me a message!

title: User:Mibblepedia


text:
William T. G. Morton

William Thomas Green Morton (August 9, 1819 – July 15, 1868) was an American dentist and physician who first publicly demonstrated the use of inhaled ether as a surgical anesthetic in 1846. The promotion of his questionable claim to have been the discoverer of anesthesia became an obsession for the rest of his life.

Early life
Born in Charlton, Massachusetts, William T. G. Morton was the son of James Morton, a miner, and Rebecca (Needham) Morton. William found work as a clerk, printer, and salesman in Boston before entering Baltimore College of Dental Surgery in 1840. In 1841, he gained notoriety for developing a new process to solder false teeth onto gold plates. In 1842, he left college after graduating to study in Hartford, Connecticut with dentist Horace Wells and Dr. Nathan Cooley Keep. In 1843, Morton married Elizabeth Whitman of Farmington, Connecticut, the niece of former Congressman Lemuel Whitman. Her parents objected to Morton's profession and agreed to the marriage only after he promised to study medicine. In the autumn of 1844, Morton entered Harvard Medical School and attended the lectures of Charles T. Jackson, who introduced Morton to the anesthetic properties of ether. Morton then left Harvard without graduating.

Career
On September 30, 1846, Morton performed a painless tooth extraction after administering ether to Ebenezer Hopkins Frost (1824–1866). Upon reading a favorable newspaper account of this event, Boston surgeon Henry Jacob Bigelow arranged for a now-famous demonstration of ether on October 16, 1846, at the operating theatre of the Massachusetts General Hospital, or MGH. At this demonstration John Collins Warren painlessly removed a tumour from the neck of a Mr. Edward Gilbert Abbott. News of this use of ether spread rapidly around the world, and the first recorded use of ether outside the USA was in London, England, by the dentist James Robinson in a tooth extraction at the home of Francis Boote, an American doctor who had heard of Morton's and Bigelow's demonstrations. The MGH theatre came to be known as the Ether Dome and has been preserved as a monument to this historic event. Following the demonstration, Morton tried to hide the identity of the substance Abbott had inhaled, by referring to it as "Letheon", but it soon was found to be ether.

A month after this demonstration, a patent was issued for "letheon", although it was widely known by then that the inhalant was ether. The medical community at large condemned the patent as unjust and illiberal in such a humane and scientific profession. Morton assured his colleagues that he would not restrict the use of ether among hospitals and charitable institutions, alleging that his motives for seeking a patent were to ensure the competent administration of ether and to prevent its misuse or abuse, as well as to recoup the expenditures of its development. Morton's pursuit of credit for and profit from the administration of ether was complicated by the furtive and sometimes deceptive tactics he employed during its development, as well as the competing claims of other doctors, most notably his former business partner, Horace Wells. Just after working with him for a mere three weeks, Wells felt Morton could not be tolerated and ended the partnership. Morton's own efforts to obtain patents overseas also undermined his assertions of philanthropic intent. Consequently, no effort was made to enforce the patent, and ether soon came into general use.

In December 1846, Morton applied to Congress for "national recompense" of $100,000, but this too was complicated by the claims of Jackson and Wells as discoverers of ether, and so Morton's application proved fruitless. Horace Wells even addressed a letter to the editor of the Hartford Daily Courant, outlining his experiments and experience with anesthesia. Wells stated that he had met with Morton and Jackson in Boston “both of whom admitted it to be entirely new to them. Dr Jackson expressed much surprise that severe operations could be performed without pain, and these are the individuals who claim to be the inventors.” Wells’ letter also states he had preferred nitrous oxide over sulfuric ether for his experiments as being a potentially less harmful substance. After these people claimed to be the inventors of anesthesia, Morton made more applications in 1849, 1851, and 1853, and all failed. Morton later sought remuneration for his achievement through a futile attempt to sue the United States government. The lawyer who represented him was Richard Henry Dana Jr.

Morton's notoriety only increased when he served as the star defense witness in one of the most notable trials of the nineteenth century, that of John White Webster, who had been accused of the murder of George Parkman. Morton's rival, Dr Jackson, testified for the prosecution, and the residents of Boston were anxious to witness these nemeses in courtroom combat. His former tutor Dr. Nathan Cooley Keep, who had made the artificial teeth Parkman used, and identified it in the found remain, claimed the body was the victim's. Morton initially denied Keep's claim, but later changed his mind and agreed to Keep's observation.

In 1852, he received an honorary degree from the Washington University of Medicine in Baltimore, which later became the College of Physicians and Surgeons.

In the spring of 1857, Amos A. Lawrence, a wealthy Bostonian, together with the medical professionals and influential citizens of Boston, developed a plan to raise $100,000 as a national testimonial to Morton, receiving contributions from both public and private citizens.

Morton performed public service yet again in the autumn of 1862 when he joined the Army of the Potomac as a volunteer surgeon, and applied ether to more than two thousand wounded soldiers during the battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness.

Death
Morton was in New York City in July 1868. He was riding in a carriage with his wife when he suddenly demanded the carriage to stop, and he ran into the lake in Central Park "to cool off". This peculiar behavior was because he had suffered a major stroke (cerebrovascular incident) which proved fatal soon after.

Morton was taken to nearby St. Luke's. It is reported by his wife that upon recognizing Morton, the chief surgeon made the following remark to his students:"Young gentlemen, you see lying before you a man who has done more for humanity and for the relief of suffering than any man who has ever lived." She then produced three medals, saying that the medals were all he had ever received for his work.

He is buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Watertown and Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Legacy
"Before whom, In all time, Surgery was Agony By whom, pain in surgery was averted Since whom, science has control over pain" In 1871, a committee of those involved in raising the aforementioned national testimonial published The Historical Memoranda Relative to the Discovery of Etherization to establish Morton as the inventor and revealer of anesthetic inhalation and to justify pecuniary reward to Morton's family for the "fearful moral and legal responsibility he assumed in pursuit of this discovery."

Morton's life and work were later to become the subject of the 1944 Paramount Pictures film The Great Moment. It was dramatised in the Australian radio play Dishonour Be My Destiny.

The first use of ether as an anesthetic is commemorated in the Ether Monument in the Boston Public Garden, but the designers were careful not to choose sides in the debate over the person who deserved credit for the discovery. Instead, the statue depicts a doctor in medieval Moorish robes and turban.

Morton's first successful public demonstration of ether as an inhalation anesthetic was such a historic and widely publicised event that many consider him to be the "inventor and revealer" of anesthesia. However, Morton's work was preceded by that of Georgia surgeon Crawford Williamson Long, who employed ether as an anesthetic on March 30, 1842. Although Long demonstrated its use to physicians in Georgia on numerous occasions, he did not publish his findings until 1849, in The Southern Medical and Surgical Journal. These pioneering uses of ether were key factors in the medical and scientific pursuit now referred to as anesthesiology, and allowed the development of modern surgery. Spread of the news of this "new" anesthetic was helped by the subsequent feud that developed between Morton and Horace Wells and Charles T. Jackson.

His son William J. Morton was a noted doctor and authority in electrotherapeutics.

Personal life
He had five children with his wife: William James Morton (1845–1920), Marion Alethe Morton (1847–unknown, after 1865 ), Edward Whitman Morton (1848 –unknown, after 1870 ), Elizabeth Whitman Morton (1850–1922), Bowditch Nathaniel Morton (1857–1909).

title: William T. G. Morton


text:
Leo Cherne

Leo M. Cherne (1912–1999) was an American economist, public servant, and four-decade head of the International Rescue Committee.

Background
Leo M. Cherne was born on September 8, 1912, in The Bronx. His father, Max Cherne, was a Romanian-Jewish compositor, who emigrated from Bessarabia to New York in 1904. Cherne graduated from New York Law School in 1935.

Career
First, Cherne practiced law.

Research Institute of America
During the New Deal, he specialized in Social Security and, with a Bible salesman named Carl Hovgard, sold a book about it. This venture grew into the Research Institute of America (RIA), founded to translate complex government legislation for the businessman. During World War II, he advised government on industry mobilization; after the war, he advised General Douglas MacArthur on how to reconstruct the economy of Japan. In 1947, Cherne, as executive secretary of the RIA, had Academy Films make a 30-minute counter-attacking movie called Crossroads for America. It came in response to the pro-union Deadline for Action. Carl Marzani of Union Films had made the 40-minute documentary Deadline for Action on behalf of the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (UE) and "severely criticized powerful corporations such as General Electric and Westinghouse," whose workers the UE had organized. At a press conference on 1 October 1947, Cherne presented his film by claiming, "Avoidance of another major depression by steadily increasing productivity is the surest means to thwart Communist designs against the American economic and social system." Cherne also claimed that the film showed "methods whereby American business concerns can counteract Communist influence on rank-and-file workers by supplying them with truthful statements."

International Rescue Committee (IRC)
In 1946, Cherne joined the board of the International Rescue Committee (IRC). In 1951, he became IRC chairman. In 1956, he personally helped deliver medical supplies over the border during the Hungarian uprising. He went to Cuba in the late 1950s early 1960s, Cambodia in 1975, and Kenya in 1977. Eventually, Cherne succeeded theologian Reinhold Niebuhr as IRC chairman. He resigned in 1991.

Other activities
Although anti-Communist, Cherne challenged US Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1952.

Cherne was a public policy expert who became a principal co-anchor of ABC-TV's All-Star News, the first hour-long prime time nightly network news broadcast, in the 1952-1953 television season. While not a ratings success against entertainment programs on NBC and CBS, All-Star News is credited as pointing the way toward the format later used by long-form local news broadcasts in cities across America in the 1960s and beyond and by CNN and other national and international cable news networks since 1980. Cherne served as chairman of the executive committee of Freedom House, established to advance the struggle for freedom at home and abroad.

Cherne advised nine presidents by serving as a member of the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 1973 to 1991. He was also a member of the U.S. Select Committee for Western Hemisphere Immigration and the U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs.

Personal life and death
Cherne was a gifted sculptor. His bust of Albert Schweitzer was displayed in the Smithsonian, his head of Abraham Lincoln in the Cabinet Room of the White House, and his bust of John F. Kennedy is in the National Portrait Gallery.

William F. Buckley Jr. called Cherne "one of the most combative men ever bred... If he thought he was right about something, he would spend from now until doomsday pressing his view."

Leo Cherne died age 86 on January 12, 1999, in New York.

Awards
In 1971, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan awarded Cherne the Medal of Freedom for his "moral passion" in the service of refugees.

In 1989, Cherne received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.

Miscellaneous
Cherne may have been the actual source of a popular quotation, often misattributed to Albert Einstein: "The computer is incredibly fast, accurate, and stupid. Man is incredibly slow, inaccurate, and brilliant. The marriage of the two is a force beyond calculation."

title: Leo Cherne


text:
Commodore 1551

The Commodore 1551 (originally introduced as the SFS 481) is a floppy disk drive for the Commodore Plus/4 home computer. It resembles a charcoal-colored Commodore 1541 and plugs into the cartridge port, providing faster access than the C64/1541 combination. Commodore reportedly planned an interface to allow use of the 1551 with the C64, but it was never released.

Aside from faster access, the drive is very similar to the 1541. Like the 1541, it is a single-sided 170-kilobyte drive for 5¼" disks, with each disk split into 664 256-byte blocks available for user data plus 19 blocks for DOS data and directory; the file system makes each block its own cluster.

Hardware
The disk drive uses group coded recording and contains an MOS Technology 6510T processor as a disk controller. The 6510T is a specialized version of the 6510 processor used in the C64, and it is only used in the 1551. The DOS limits the number of files per disk to 144 regardless of the number of free blocks on the disk because the directory is of a fixed size, and the file system does not allow for subdirectories. Its DOS is compatible with the 1541, so disks written by one drive can be utilized in the other.

The 1551 has no DIP switches to change the drive's device number. If a user added more than one drive to a system, they had to open the case and cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It is possible to connect a maximum of two 1551s to one computer.

title: Commodore 1551


text:
Wariʼ

The Wariʼ, also known as the Pakaa Nova, are an indigenous people of Brazil, living in seven villages in the Amazon rainforest in the state of Rondônia. Their first contact with European settlers was on the shores of the Pakaa Nova River, a tributary of the Mamoré River. Many of the Wari' live within the Sagarana Indigenous Territory near the town of Rodrigues Alves (which lies between Rio Guaporé Indigenous Territory and Pacaás Novos National Park).

Name
Europeans at one time used the name "Pakaa Nova" to refer to the Wariʼ, because they encountered the indigenous people near the Pakaa Nova River. The people prefer to be referred to as "Wariʼ", their term in their language meaning "we, people." They are also known as the Jaru, Oro Wari, Pacaas-Novos, Pacahanovo, Pakaanova, Pakaanovas, Uari, and Uomo.

Language
The Wariʼ speak the Pakaásnovos language, which belongs to the Txapakura, or Chapacura-Wanham language family.

Along with the Torá, the Moré (or Itenes), and the Oro Win, the Wariʼ are the last of the Txapakura language linguistic group. Other groups were exterminated by Europeans or Brazilians.

There is a large grammar of the Wari' language written by Barbara Kern and Daniel Everett: https://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/001707

Population and locations
Up until the 19th century, the Wariʼ were present in the Amazon's Southeast, namely the basin of the Lage River (a right-bank-tributary river of the Mamoré River), the Ouro Preto river, the Gruta and Santo André creeks, the Negro river (all tributaries of the lower and middle courses of the right bank of the Pakaa Nova River), and the Ribeirão and Novo rivers (tributaries of the left bank of the Pakaa Nova River).

In the early 20th century, continuous incursions by neo-Brazilians in search of rubber trees forced the Wariʼ to relocate to the less accessible headwaters of the Mamoré River. They were confined in that area until pacification. Today, they live in eight settlements located in the state of Rondônia, Brazil.

Denomination and ethnicity
The tribe is divided into subgroups, but there is no specific word to define an individual that belongs to a different group. The closest term that is usually applied is tatirim (stranger). A person from the same subgroup is referred to as "win ma" (land fellow).

Today, the Wariʼ subgroups are:

 * OroNao
 * OroEo
 * OroAt
 * OroMon
 * OroWaram
 * OroWaramXijein

Some individuals still identify themselves with two other subgroups that no longer exist, the OroJowin, or the OroKaoOroWaji. Oro is a collectivizing particle that can be translated as "people" or "group".

Relations between subgroups
Present relations between subgroups are influenced by dynamics that existed before pacification. Each subgroup is intimately connected with a territory; however, the frontiers between territories are fluid.

An area associated with one subgroup can be incorporated into the territory of another subgroup (if it is occupied by a group that also belongs to another subgroup). This is made possible by the semi-nomadic characteristic of the Wari' people.

Membership to any given subgroup is not defined by fixed rules. Children may be considered members of either parent's subgroup, or of the subgroup associated with the territory in which they were born. Cultural or subgroup identities are part of one's birthright, but socially constructed during a lifetime through relations with one's relatives and neighbors. The Wariʼ recognize that individuals have multiple identities based on their specific relations and experiences.

Society
Every subgroup is organized around a set of brothers, each of whom is often married to women who are sisters. Polygyny, especially sororal polygyny (co-wives are sisters), is the basis of the Wariʼ family structure. Villages are made up of nuclear families and a separate house, called "the men's house". It serves as a dormitory for single adolescents and as a meeting place for adult men. A couple usually varies their place of residence, shifting between the woman's parents' and the man's parents', although no specific rule determines when the shift is made.

The Wariʼ are semi-nomadic, moving their villages at least once every five years. They stay away from floodplains but remain closer to the shores of small perennial rivers.

A maize swidden, providing the staple crop, is developed around the village. Finding the ideal earth for corn growing (black earth or terra preta) plays a key role in determining where to set up a village. The importance of agricultural land is also reflected in the language, since a person from the same subgroup is called a "land fellow".

Body, Soul, and Humanity
Aparecida Vilaça, professor of Social Anthropology at the National Museum, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro discusses the Amazonian concept of the body by drawing upon ethnographic research of the Wari’. First, it is important to note that humanity is not restricted to humans. Anything that acts human, i.e., performs rituals, has a family life, or drinks beer, may be considered human.

In the native language, Txapuakrua, kwere- is the closest word to the body and must be used in conjunction with a possessive suffix (his, her, its). Husband and wife are considered to share the same body, furthermore, all who live together are consubstantial. Vilaça describes kwere- as a “way of being.” For example, a person’s temperament is caused by their kwere-, an animal's diet is attributed to its kwere-, and the wind’s strength originates from its kwere-. Vilaça asserts that this human/non-human parallel suggests a relationship to a “wider cosmological process.” The concept of the ontological turn is often used in regard to Wari' beliefs because the Wari’ interpretations of body and soul are so vastly unfamiliar to cultures that operate under the distinction of the divide between culture and nature into a dichotomy, which calls into question if all human viewpoints are comparable or perhaps even mutually intelligible.

After providing background on the concept of the body, Vilaça moves into a discussion about humanity. Wari’ means “we, people, human beings,” and is defined in opposition to game animals. Hunted animals can be considered human because they act as predators at times. The Wari’ warn that one must distrust their own eyes because the human form can be deceptive. The human form is seen as a good indication that something is a human, but may be deceptive as human bodies can be attracted to other subjectivities and transformed into them. The transformation of a body may be the result of the agency of another and not of the subject of transformation’s desire to transform. In one story, a child went to gather food with her mother in the forest. After noticing that they had been away from the village for days, the child grew suspicious. She noticed a jaguar's tail between her mother’s legs and screamed until the animal fled and her mother was summoned again.

A transformation like this is attributed to the soul or jam-. Vilaça emphasizes that the body and soul are interconnected. The Wari’ believe that the soul gives instability and capacity for transformation. When a shaman sees the soul of an animal, he sees it as a person and is unable to kill it. Alternatively, the shaman may kill a fellow Wari’ because he views them as an animal. An animal appears differently in each person's eyes. Furthermore, someone with a keen vision can view humanity in all things. Lastly, it is noted that metamorphosis generates fear because of its associated vulnerability and instability.

To the Wari’, seeing the soul of an animal has the potential to make one a lousy hunter because you’re no longer able to kill the creature that one observes as if it were too a human, the commonality of shared experience makes one unable to kill it. The reverse then may also occur, and the fellow human could be seen as prey. This concept is referred to by the author as “perspectival oscillation” and has the potential to happen to anyone at any time, and the signs that it’s happened are as subtle as small abnormalities in appearance or behavior.

Effect of Missionaries on Wari' concept of Body, Soul, and Humanity
The Wari concept of body is combined with one’s perspective whereas the Wari’ concept of the heart, or ximixi’,  refers to the physiological organ, the core of something, and one’s emotional state, morality, and intelligence. In order for the Wari’ to consider someone a human being, they must have the quality of jamixi’ or the ability to transform into different bodies and perspectives. This transformation is understood to occur due to illness and transformation is viewed negatively as a loss of one’s wari’ or body and perspective. This, in turn, affects the way that they differentiate  between Wari’ and other beings and affects the ways in which others view them. Christianity, where differentiation and dominion between human and animal is established immediately within the Bible, thus provided the Wari’ with a tool for differentiating themselves from animals and other beings. Another aspect of Christianity that was attractive to easing the anxieties of sense of self and relation among the Wari’ was the idea of Christian brotherhood. One major change that came about through the adoption of Christianity was the transition between a sense of being concentrated in the body to a being concentrated in the heart, allowing the Wari’ sense of self to be turned inward.

Cannibalism
The Wari' formerly practiced endocannibalism, specifically mortuary cannibalism. This was done as a form of utmost respect to those who had died.

Right after death, the closest relatives would hug and embrace the deceased person. The body would be left for about three days, although there was no set span, and depended largely upon how soon family members in other settlements could get to the funeral. By this time, the body had typically begun to decompose in the heat and humidity of the Amazon, sometimes reaching the stage where the body became bloated and discolored. When all relatives within a reasonable distance had arrived, the relatives respectfully prepared the body to eat.

Mortuary preparation involved ritual wailing and other ceremonies, building a fire, removing the visceral organs, and finally roasting the body. The decedent's closest kin would not consume the body, but they urged the attendant relatives to eat. Consumption of the flesh would assuage the family's grief, as it meant that the soul of the deceased would be kept in the living bodies of relatives instead of being abandoned to wander the forest alone. The practice was considered equally an act of compassion, affinal love, and grief. The relatives were encouraged to eat what they could, but this sometimes amounted to little more than small tokens of the spoiled meat. Even this consumption often caused the mourners great gastric distress. The heart and liver were eaten, but much of the body and hair was burned.

This practice continued until the 1960s. Today, Wariʼ do not practice any form of cannibalism. They bury their dead after two or three days of mourning.

Warfare
Today, the Wariʼ are peaceful, but before pacification they warred with neighboring tribes. Their most notable victories occurred over the Karipuna, a Tupi ethnicity, and the Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau. With contact with the Brazilian government in the 20th century, the focus of their warfare shifted and they lost contact with the old wijam (enemy).

The Wariʼ consider enemies as "former Wariʼ" who have distanced themselves to the point of severing cultural exchanges. In spite of that, a Wariʼ warrior did not distinguish between an enemy and an animal, and thus felt no need to be merciful or gracious to an enemy any more than he would to an animal.

Once fighting was over, Wariʼ warriors would bring home the bodies of the fallen enemies whenever possible. Those bodies would be served to the women and younger men who had stayed home in order to strengthen the group. Children were prohibited from eating dead enemies.

The battle warriors retreated to the men's house, where they stayed in quarantine. During this period they moved around as little as possible, staying in their hammocks for most of the day and drinking only chicha. The purpose was to "keep the enemy's blood within the warrior's body", thus giving him strength. Sex was prohibited, as they thought the blood of the enemy would "turn into semen" and thus allow the enemy's strength to be passed on to the tribesmen's children. The warrior was not allowed to partake of the fallen enemies, because it was believed that he had kept the enemy's blood within himself, and such an act would be self-cannibalism, resulting in his death. The quarantine ended when the women refused to continue preparing the chicha.

Pacification
Pacification in this context is between the Wari' people and the rest of the connected world. It is important to note that the Wari' did not ask for this 'pacification'. There are many perspectives on whether or not pacification of indigenous peoples is moral; therefore, it is important to define the distinction between pacification (peace) and a civilizing mission (assimilation/missionaries).

Prior to pacification attempts, interaction with the Wari' was extremely minimal. Starting in the 1950s, rubber tappers sought Wari' land for rubber trees. These rubber tappers resorted to exterminating Wari' villages and their people. As a result, the Serviço de Proteção ao Índio (SPI) began to attempt contacting the Wari' people.

Disease outbreaks and war over land from outsiders caused the population of the Wari' to reduce by nearly 50%. At the time, the Wari' had just begun to relocate themselves due to extreme rubber tree farming.

As a result, the Wari' turned to the Serviço de Proteção ao Índio and missionaries for assistance. The Serviço de Proteção ao Índio intentionally set up posts in order to meet and assist the Wari'. Due to the aforementioned disease outbreaks and rubber tappers, the Wari' eventually settled near these posts.

Missionaries
Around 1956, the Wari' caught the attention of Protestant missionaries (and later Catholic and Evangelical missionaries). The Wari' were interested in the missionaries because of their generosity and their capability to cure disease.

The missionaries challenged Wari' beliefs by proposing new perspectives. The Wari' originally believed that all Wari' were brothers and that enemies were the same as animals. Missionaries changed the perspective of many Wari' to see all humans as brothers and animals as objects. This switch in perspective established the idea that fighting among brothers (other humans) was bad. To further convey their point, missionaries often lived alongside Wari' and attempted to learn the Wari' language. Parts of the Bible were translated into the Wari' language from 1975 to 1984. Following the translation of the Bible, was a collective conversion of the Wari' to Christianity for only about a decade in the 1970s and 1980s, followed by a collective reconversion.

After 9/11, which the Wari' were able to witness on TV, many converted back to Christianity believing that this was a sign of the end of the world. The post-9/11 Christianity practiced by the Wari’ population, can be differentiated from the missionary led Christianity from 1975 to 1984, as it was almost entirely led by native faith leaders and taught in their native language.

This was not without cruelty. The Wari' were forced to work full time on large plantations and in other enterprises in order to receive assistance and teachings. They were forced to obey orders, they were sent to forced isolation, and they were punished with jets of cold water when showing traditional values/beliefs. Despite this, the converted Wari' people decided that this was worth the new ideology and material benefits. Deconversion was also common with converted Wari', but deconversion usually did not last long.

By the 2000s, a large majority of Wari' had gone back to their original traditions – only 30% remain Christian as of 2019.

title: Wariʼ


text:
Talk:Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

Attributes in Robert Graves section
The way the attributes or characteristics of the three aspects of the triple goddess are laid out in the article may give the impression that Robert Graves was a lot more confused than he actually was. If the three aspects represent the phases of a woman's life, then we have maiden/mother/crone (somewhat associated with a lunar interpretation in Graves' writings). If the three aspects represent the women associated with the phases of a man's life, then the first phase is his mother (somewhat based on a solar interpretation). There's no real contradiction between them, as may seem to exist when looking at the list in the article)... AnonMoos (talk) 23:16, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

 * No replies for a month, so added the information in. If you choose to alter it, please don't do so in a way that will give the impression that he was confused, when he was not confused... AnonMoos (talk) 21:57, 12 May 2022 (UTC)

118.208.140.173 edits
These edits had factual problems, and unfortunately placed great emphasis on Wicca, when as has been explained before: 1) Wiccans did not invent the Triple Goddess concept. 2) The Triple Goddess is not found in Gerald Gardner's writings, so it cannot be considered a core belief of Wicca. And 3) Wiccans are not the only ones who venerate a Triple Goddess. AnonMoos (talk) 21:54, 3 August 2022 (UTC)

Tamora Pierce
In media/popular culture section, could add the world of Tortall created by Tamora Pierce in her many book series. She has the three fold goddess as one of the main deities 137.207.232.214 (talk) 18:15, 9 November 2022 (UTC)

 * If she started publishing in 1983, then she could not have had influence on the formation of the neopagan Triple Goddess concept, which is what this article is most interested in. A link could probably be added near the bottom... AnonMoos (talk) 00:53, 12 November 2022 (UTC)

Infobox
As has been discussed at length in the talk page archives (linked above): I doubt whether the infobox adds anything to the article at all, but I'm not deleting it right now... AnonMoos (talk) 01:34, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * 1)The Triple Goddess is not a Wiccan-specific concept (not invented by Wiccans, not found in Gardner's writings, not venerated by Wiccans only), so specifying "The Horned God" as consort is inappropriate for this article.
 * 2)The crescent-full-moon-decrescent symbol is prominent now, but has a somewhat unclear origin, and if it existed before 1950, it was very obscure at that time, so it may not be suitable to be included at the top of the article.

 * P.S. According to Robert Graves' own theology, the consorts of the Triple Goddess are the rival twin demigods (the star-god of the first half of the year and the serpent-god of the second half of the year -- see Holly King and Oak King for related concepts), not "the horned god"... AnonMoos (talk) 02:53, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Symbols for the Triple Goddess
The infobox on the page makes mention of three iterations of symbols for the triple goddess. The one for modern is clearly accurate, but the first two seem to have no depiction that I can find online anywhere. Since these are not cited, perhaps someone would have better luck locating citations for the two descriptions below:

Crescent, full, and dark moon (original) Crescent, half, and full moon (late Antiquity) 71.85.97.222 (talk) 05:58, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)


text:
User:Stephanie7

Hi! My name is Stepanie Almner. I'm a recent college grad. I work part time and my hobbies are horseback riding and dancing.

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title: User:Stephanie7


text:
Talk:Football in Poland

Merge
I think, as per all the other articles in the Football in Counrty series (Football in England, Football in Scotland, etc.), that the history of Polish football should be in the polish football article. Philc T+C 22:12, 24 April 2006 (UTC)
 * 1 month later, no responses, merger performed. Philc  TECI 17:21, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

?
List of football clubs in Poland

This is a list of the teams from premier division (season 2003/04):

 * Amica Wronki
 * GKS Dospel Katowice
 * Górnik Łęczna
 * Górnik Polkowice
 * Górnik Zabrze
 * Groclin Dyskobolia Grodzisk Wielkopolski
 * Lech Poznań
 * Legia Warszawa
 * Lukullus Świt Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki
 * Odra Wodzisław
 * Polonia Warszawa
 * Widzew Łódź
 * Wisła Kraków
 * Wisła Płock

Some history (in Polish) Najważniejsze daty z historii Polskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej

1919 - 21 XII w Krakowie powstaje PZPN. 31 delegatów wybiera prezesem Edwarda Cetnarowskiego. 1921 - Pierwszym mistrzem Polski Cracovia. 18 XII w Budapeszcie Polska rozgrywa pierwszy mecz międzypaństwowy, przegrywamy z Węgrami 0 do 1. 1922 - 28 V Sztokholm. W trzecim występie pierwsze zwycięstwo biało - czerwonych, pokonujemy Szwecję 2 do 1. 1923 - PZPN przystępuje do FIFA 1936 - Polska zajmuje IV miejsce na turnieju piłkarskim podczas Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Berlinie. 1938 - 5 VI Strasbourg, w pierwszym występie na mistrzostwach świata przegrywamy z Brazylią 5 do 6. Bohaterem zakończonego dogrywką spotkania był zdobywca czterech goli Ernest Wilimowski 1954 - PZPN zostaje członkiem UEFA 1972 - Igrzyska Olimpijskie w Monachium kończą się zwycięstwem Polski. 1973 - 17 X remisujemy na Wembley z Anglią 1 do 1, awansujemy do finałów mistrzostw świata. 1974 - Polska zajmuje III miejsce na mistrzostwach świata w RFN. Grzegorz Lato z 7 golami królem strzelców turnieju. 1976 - Wicemistrzostwo olimpijskie w Montrealu. 1978 - Polska zajmuje wraz z Niemcami V-VI miejsce w mistrzostwach świata w Argentynie 1982 - Mistrzostwa świata w Hiszpanii, Polska po raz drugi w historii zajmuje III miejsce. 1986 - Mistrzostwa świata w Meksyku. Awans do 1/8 finału gdzie przegraliśmy 0-4 z Brazylią 1992 - Wicemistrzostwo olimpijskie w Barcelonie. 1999 - Podczas obchodów 80-lecia PZPN ogłoszono jubileuszową jedenastkę: Tomaszewski, A. Szymanowski, Żmuda, Gorgoń, Musiał, Boniek, Deyna, Maszczyk, Lato, Lubański, Gadocha. Trenerem 80-lecia wybrano Kazimierza Górskiego, piłkarzem Zbigniewa Bońka. 2001 - Reprezentacja Polski, po 16 latach przerwy, awansowała do finałów MŚ. Zespół prowadzony przez Jerzego Engela zapewnił sobie paszporty do Korei na dwie kolejki przed zakończeniem rozgrywek eliminacyjnych. Biało-czerwoni wyprzedzili w grupie Ukrainę, Białoruś, Walię, Norwegię i Armenię. Reprezentacja do lat 18, której trenerem był Michał Globisz, zdobyła tytuł mistrza Europy do lat 18. W spotkaniu o złoto młodzi Polacy wygrali 3:1 z Czechami. 2002 - Naszej reprezentacji nie udało się przebrnąć fazy grupowej finałów MŚ, które odbywały się w Korei i Japonii. Po porażkach 0:2 z Koreą i 0:4 z Portugalią, biało-czerwoni wygrali na "otarcie łeż" z USA 3:1 i zajęli ostatnie miejsce w grupie.

Resovia Rzeszów
Resovia Rzeszów has got a football section. Footballers from Rzeszow has played in IV ligue of Subcarpathia

Page move
This page was moved from Football in Poland to "Association Football in Poland", to allow for a dab with Polish_American_Football_League. I wonder if that move was really justified. -- Beardo (talk) 03:57, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Under WP:PRIMARYTOPIC and WP:TWODABS, clearly no disambiguation page is required for this. I've changed it to a redirect. --R'n'B (call me Russ) 22:03, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

Silesia
"while in the German-held part of Poland" - Upper Silesia (Kattowitz, ...) wasn´t part of Poland and wasn´t German-held (zabory) area - it was Prussia in Germany !

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title: Talk:Football in Poland