text:
Talk:Steppenwolf (novel)

Reference from On the Road please
"American novelist Jack Kerouac dismissed it in On the Road (1951)" - can anyone give page/piece reference for this statement? I have read 'On the road' a couple of times and can absolutely not recall that Kerouac dismisses 'Steppenwolf' in it, though I might be wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.216.141.233 (talk) 03:54, 30 December 2008 (UTC)

It's in Big Sur, if I remember correctly. 89.152.226.48 (talk)

Does that book exist?
Harry is reading a 6 volume book called "Sopia's Journey From Memel to Saxony." Does this book exist? How do I find it if it does?

 * It does exists, it was written by Johann Timotheus Hermes at around 1770 and its German title is "Sophiens Reise von Memel nach Sachsen". It was a bestseller and very influential, thus modern editions still exit, but I don't know if there is a translation. 217.252.46.64 23:58, 25 December 2006 (UTC

the movie
IMHO the existence of the movie Steppenwolf (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072206/) should also be noted in this article, for the sake of completeness.

Fair use rationale for Image:Steppenwolf Cover(novel).jpg
Image:Steppenwolf Cover(novel).jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 06:26, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I have brought in a new image, under fair use as a book cover, per wikipedia rules, book covers are considered fair use with the articles they relate too.--Robert Waalk (talk) 02:20, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

Release date
Why is there in the article two different release dates: Iffcool 18:39, 2 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Released in 1927 and The novel itself was published in 1927.
 * Publication date 1928 and

Mulholland Drive Reference
Does anyone have a reference for Mullholland Drive being an allusion to Steppenwolfe? I can't think of any definitive sign in the movie that it is. Dozenthey (talk) 03:30, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

Possible OR?
The following looks like original research: Can anyone confirm that a commentator has noted this? If so, can they provide a source? - Tbsdy lives (talk) 02:50, 5 September 2008 (UTC)
 * The symbol of the Steppenwolf itself can be traced to Nietzsche's "differentiated loner", whom he also termed a "beast" and a "genius".
 * A consistent motif in the book is the excellent simplicity of Mozart, particularly in comparison with more weighty, "complex, dense" German composers such as Johannes Brahms.

Several Things
Let's try to get an image in, try google books, there is a free ussuage policy. Two, from editing and reading the article it seems like it was written by some one who was a native speaker of German, and, though proficient in german and writing a very good basis to work on, still does quite have a mastery of the langauage, at least in making a piece more easily readable and worded. a lotta of grammer and spacing errors two that I fixed. I think I did my part to get the improvement of the collaboration off to a good start, let's see who else jumps in to lend a hand. What it primarily needs is a picture of the novel, more sources and independent varifications of research, (i have access to several databases and may be able to provide that), and it needs a longer and more detailed plot layout, we need to add significant information and length to it, as well as some more length and clearing up of the criticial analysis. The background and history of it needs some major clearing and additions, as well as sources. Perhaps this could be a guide to our goals to getting this to FA status, additional, valid, sources are especially needed. I'll get some when I have time, perhaps tommorrow.--Robert Waalk (talk) 03:40, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

Several Things

 * I added an image from the novel's first edition, which is from the commons and is therefore (presumably) free of copyright. I'm in the process of doing preliminary research, which I agree the article definitely needs.  Much of what exists will likely have to be rewritten in accordance with the sources.  I believe the plot summary should be simplified rather than expanded; it's far too complicated for me, having not read the novel in ten years, to grasp basic concepts.  The "in pop culture" section should be removed per WP:TRIVIA, although a "Legacy" section or something similar may help explain what impact the novel has had on popular culture without being full of trivial references.  Lots of work to be done... María ( habla  con migo ) 13:56, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
 * I dounno, most of them are not trivial references though, and I really think we should clarify the plot sumamry through expansion, not cutting back. Most of the information looks on base, just needs to be sourced. This article needs a lot more length and detail if its going to be a FA rated article.--Robert Waalk (talk) 21:04, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
 * You may be thinking too big for our collab time constraint: let's shoot for B first, then maybe GA. :) Length and detail would be great, but only in encyclopedic terms.  Listing every band/song/film that mentions or alludes to Steppenwolf is not encyclopedic, and neither is an overly detailed/lengthy plot (per WP:TRIVIA and WP:PLOT, respectively).  Rather, I think concentration should first be put on finding info based on reliable sources in regards to publication history and critical reception/analysis.  I've found a few possible sources already, but I'll look to see if I can find anything of use in my library later this week. María ( habla  con migo ) 01:18, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * On an unrelated note I was glad to see you won the battle with conservatives who were trying to devote an entire section of Doris Lessing's page to her 9/11 statements, put in out of context and made to portray her and the [Nobel Prize]] in a critical light. Looking forward to this year's noble prize winner. It should be announced within the coming weeks. So exciting to think that its almost here again. I hope it will be an American author. We haven't won one in a long time, since 1990 and for some ridiculous reason that was given to Toni Morrison, who was a one-trick pony and not even that major a literary figure in the US. I have a bet going that its going to be Thomas Pynchon this year. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Robert Waalk (talk • contribs) 19:59, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
 * In the spirit of WP:TALK, I suggest the above comment be moved to my talk page. Article talk pages are for discussing the article in question, so let's not let this discussion (the collaboration and its goals) stray off topic. María ( habla  con migo ) 20:08, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

Picture
My past picture was removed. I know first editions are preferable in some instances, but I found the photo bad, and outview, and not particularly pleasing. The new image is a copy of the book, but fits the article much better and it far more aesthetically pleasing, which, is, I think the most important thing.--Robert Waalk (talk) 00:56, 7 October 2008 (UTC)
 * First editions are preferable in all instances. Besides, the first edition cover is in the public domain, which makes it a more secure image choice.  Why not return the first edition to the infobox (as per novel style guidelines) and add the more recent cover elsewhere in the article?  María ( habla  con migo ) 01:01, 7 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, because its ugly and a bad picture for one, and it makes no sense why a first edition is preferable. An edition is an edition in my mind. Secondly the other picture looks much better while the first does absolutely nothing for the article. The article looks better with the second. And that policy is just so utterly ridiculous. We should have a vote on it.--Robert Waalk (talk) 00:31, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * And there is no copyright with promotional images such as book covers, they are perfectly safe. I have used brand new ones with in the site guidelines, and so is this one perfectly within its guidelines.--Robert Waalk (talk) 00:38, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but that's incorrect: book covers are copyrighted, but they can be uploaded under fair use (WP:NFC). The first edition cover of Steppenwolf is in the public domain, which is why that particular image is no longer under copyright.  As for the importance of first edition images, they have historical weight and notability that any-old-edition copies simply do not have, regardless of how aesthetically pleasing the image or scan is.  There's a reason why first edition copies are valued over later editions, after all.  If you want to retain the image you uploaded, the rationale needs to be written properly and completely, and you could always add it further in the article, as I suggested above.  I hope this helps clear things up.  María ( habla  con migo ) 00:44, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I thought I had fair use, and I completely fail to see this "historic weight" or what particular notability it has. If anything it doesn't represent the book and is an empty dead picture to me. The other one though, with pleasing intrinsic look to it and a radical color close up of a man's face displays the soul of the book while looking good, and looks are important, an article looks much better with a good picture heading it up than it does with an eyesore being the first thing you look on the page. Technically, I'd rather have no picture at all than that picture, and I think, that of the two of you, I have done the most to make this article look like it does now, to be petty about it.--Robert Waalk (talk) 00:55, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I have no clue as to what your last point has to do with the capability to understand copyright policy and/or the importance of first editions, but I've already given you a detailed explanation for both. What I meant to say was that the fair use rationale on the image you uploaded does not satisfy guidelines.  See Image:Rye catcher.jpg for an example of a well written rationale.  María ( habla  con migo ) 01:07, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * God, if that is the case then I will just not download any more pictures or put any more effort into it. There's too much dang red tape and trouble to go through for it, more than its worth, much more really, but that's the way it is with most of wikipedia; writing some information is only one 10th of the work, and you wonder why so many articles are weak and empty. Huh. I'm really getting fed up with this process again, I already left the site for two years once because of all this kind of...stuff. I would be much more productive but with wikipedia's guidelines its not worth it and you end losing what you work on half the time.--Robert Waalk (talk) 01:12, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It's silly to be this fatalistic because of an image. Guidelines are in place to help things run smoother, but there are a lot of other areas one can contribute apart from image uploading/reviewing.  That's why I prefer to concentrate on content.  Try it sometime. :) María ( habla  con migo ) 01:20, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, I'm sorry but I get really sick and tired of this stuff. I hate sourcing papers in college too! It's not the way my mind works. I read anything, anything, and I remember and its much more exciting and easier, and better writing when I merely paraphrase other information. I'm a terrible essayist when I quote other writers because it throws the entire format and rhythme of my writing off. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Robert Waalk (talk • contribs) 01:24, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
 * And it isn't even this so much as a group of things taken as a whole that has me so upset. Mostly this document based question essay I had to write tonight. But also just an overall exhaustion with some of the wiki policies which no matter how I try, I never seem to fill, but thanks for being so polite.--Robert Waalk (talk) 01:30, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

Character Diagram
Should we keep this? I mean come on, there is a fairly small pool of characters, but more than that it doesn't look very god, doesn't fit good, and is a little blocky. Most importantly, the descriptions on it, are, themselves, rather wordy and poorly written. I just think the article looks better without it.--Robert Waalk (talk) 21:25, 19 October 2008 (UTC)

 * Anonymous reader here, I actually laughed out loud so hard when I saw the "character diagram" that I came to this talk page to see if anyone else had pointed out how ridiculous it is. It's either a good joke or a very misguided attempt to contribute. In either case it should be removed, but don't be hasty--consider the delight that it brings. 174.86.215.7 (talk) 17:59, 1 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I removed the diagram. It is of poor quality, and largely based on opinion.  DoctorMatt (talk) 20:34, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

Lonesome wolf of the steppes OR coyote?
The article states that "the novel was named after the lonesome wolf of the steppes." However the disambiguation page for steppenwolf says that "Steppenwolf" is a German name for the coyote, which is relevant because Hesse was German. The disambiguation page also says it can refer to the steppe wolf which is however a subspecies of gray wolf (which is also known as wolf) and as such is, I assume, not "lonesome."

Therefore I'm quite sure the article is wrong and the novel was named after the coyote, but I don't have a source to cite. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.98.71.145 (talk) 17:40, 9 January 2017 (UTC)

Am I wrong? 78.99.51.225 (talk) 13:49, 16 January 2017 (UTC)

Hello: The wolf (Canis lupus) - the coyotes are part of the wolf's prey. The coyote (Canis latrans). German - Best. --Maxim Pouska (talk) 20:17, 6 October 2021 (UTC)

Misunderstood - We are meant to be that wolf.
So how is this book so misunderstood? The emphasis is on the fact that initially, we are all ourselves wolves in a pack called "the crowd". This determines our moral basis, our lowest common denominator concerning behavior etc. etc. But as people, at some point in our lives, we should transgress being defined by external sources and recognize being defined by them has merely limited our perceptions, experiences, and progress by mere association with others, after all, we become what we consume. We should transgress the tools (social media) which combine and tie the collective mentality, allowing it to be easily swayed as we fear not being a part of events and collective decisions if we ever want to be free of the limiting factors of "the crowd". Carl Jung called this "Individuation". Buddha called it "Enlightenment".2A00:23C7:5998:C701:DD1D:EC54:A064:B5C9 (talk) 00:04, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Steppenwolf (novel)


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User:Hoomanb

I am a Mobile and Web Developer dealing with Android, LAMP (PHP), HTML5 and WordPress for the most part. I also work in Web Usability and have done my M.Sc. research (Computer Science / Human-Computer Interaction) in that area.

 * Hooman Baradaran - My personal web site

 * Amytis IT Solutions Inc. - My company web site (We build mobile and web apps)

 * My Pictures of travels to Iran and elsewhere

 * Sheet Music Exchange

 * Irotronics Inc. Electronic Circuit Repair

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Hoomanb


text:
Volvo XC60

The Volvo XC60 is a compact luxury crossover SUV manufactured and marketed by Swedish automaker Volvo Cars since 2008.

The XC60 is part of Volvo's 60 Series of automobiles, along with the S60, S60 Cross Country, V60, and V60 Cross Country. The first generation model introduced a new style for the 60 Series models. Along with the rest of the line-up, the first-generation XC60 was refreshed in 2013. Similarly, the second-generation model, released in 2017, is the first in the series. The car was named Car of the Year Japan for 2017–2018.

XC60 concept (2007)
The XC60 concept was unveiled at the 2007 Detroit Auto Show. It included a glass roof and a newly styled grille. The model introduced Volvo's new styling cues, which were gradually implemented throughout the model range. The XC60 concept also included a new shifting mechanism, electronic bootlid, and 20-inch wheels.

First generation (2008–2016)
The production vehicle was unveiled at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. Sales began in Europe in the third quarter of 2008 and in North America in early 2009 as a 2010 model. The XC60 has been Volvo's best selling car since 2009.

Manufactured by subsidiary Volvo Car Gent in Ghent, Belgium, the first generation XC60 is based on Volvo's P3 platform and the XC60 shares technology with the Land Rover Freelander of 2007. At the time of development, both Land Rover and Volvo were owned by Ford and development was split between the two subsidiaries. Much of the engineering and tuning of this CUV was done by Volvo in Sweden, although offroad capabilities were developed at Land Rover in England.

In April 2010, an R-Design variant of the XC60 became available, featuring a colour-matching body kit, stiffer chassis and damping, and other unique exterior/interior trim.

In February 2013, Volvo debuted a refreshed version of the XC60, to be released for the 2014 model year. Exterior updates are primarily cosmetic, with changes to the grille and front driving lights, loss of black cladding along the lower doorsills, and minor changes to the exhaust tips and taillights. Interior updates include new materials and dashboard trims, available paddle shifter on the T6 model, and introduction of a 7" touch-screen display.

XC60 Ocean Race
In 2014, special blue colour.

XC60 Plug-in Hybrid Concept
The Volvo XC60 plug-in hybrid concept was unveiled at the 2012 North American International Auto Show. The powertrain mated a 270 hp turbocharged 4-cylinder driving the front wheels with a 70 hp electric motor driving the rear wheels, giving the powertrain a peak combined output of 350 hp. According to Volvo, the XC60 Plug-in Hybrid has an all-electric range of up to 35 mi for a fuel economy equivalent of 105 mpgUS and a total range of 600 mi. Fuel economy when running on the gasoline engine is estimated at 50 mpgUS. Recharging time is 3.5 hours from a 220 V outlet and 7.5 hours from a 110 V outlet. The model was never released for production.

Safety
The XC60 includes traditional Volvo safety features including a whiplash protection system, side impact protection system, roll stability control, dynamic stability and traction control, inflatable curtain airbags, hill descent control (AWD only), collision warning with brake support, active bi-xenon lights (optional on some models), and patented front, side, and rear structures. The XC60 also introduced a new technology feature that Volvo has named City safety. The system is described as a driver support system with the goal of preventing or mitigating vehicle-on-vehicle collisions below 30 km/h; it does so through the use of a closing velocity sensor that helps determine whether a collision is likely. Depending on the speed, if a collision is likely, the Volvo's computer system will either prepare the car to brake or automatically brake the vehicle to avoid or mitigate a rear-end collision.

In 2011, the Highway Loss Data Institute credited City Safety for 27% fewer property damage liability claims, 51% fewer bodily injury liability claims, and 22% fewer collision claims for the XC60 compared to other midsize luxury SUVs. The XC60 had fewer insurance claims compared to other Volvo models lacking the City Safety feature.

Euro NCAP evaluated the XC60 in 2008, awarding it 5 of 5 stars for adult occupant protection. The XC60 scored 16 of 16 points in the front test and 16 of 16 in the side test. The car received 2 of 2 points available in the pole test and an additional 3 points available for seat belt reminders. The XC60 received a total of 37 of 37 points and therefore five stars (33–37) in Euro NCAP's evaluation. The XC60 was one of only three cars to receive 37 of 37 available points under Euro NCAP's point based evaluation at the time.

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety awarded the Volvo XC60 their Top Safety Pick+ award. The XC60 was granted the IIHS's highest rating of "good" in front, side, rear and roof strength tests and has Electronic Stability Control as standard equipment to receive the award.

Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)

 * 1 vehicle structure rated "Good"
 * 2 strength-to-weight ratio: 5.23

Marketing
Volvo used the 2009 film The Twilight Saga: New Moon to promote the XC60, including an online contest to give away models identical to the one driven by lead character Edward Cullen.

Second generation (2017–present)
The second generation XC60 was unveiled at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show. The first −60 series model in its generation and the first since Volvo's purchase by Geely, it is based on the same Scalable Product Architecture (SPA) platform as the S90, V90, and XC90. As part of Volvo's move toward smaller engines, the new model uses only four-cylinder engines, in various configurations and states of tune, again shared with the −90 series models.

The car was facelifted on 2 March 2021, with the new version debuting alongside the Volvo C40. The engines remain the same 2.0 litre with petrol, diesel, or PHEV power. Like the XC40 Recharge Electric and the C40, the XC60 facelift also gains a new Android-powered infotainment system that's been developed in collaboration with Google.

The 2024 Volvo XC60, which fell short of the Top Safety Pick+ award, received an “acceptable” rating in the updated side-impact test. The possible injuries recorded on the dummies that simulated the vehicle's occupants, especially the driver and rear passenger, were the determining factor in this rating.

Plug-in hybrid
The XC60 was released with a T8 plug-in hybrid variant that used the T6 engine combined with a 10.4 kWh battery (9.2 kWh usable) and an 87 hp rear electric motor to produce 407 hp. The EPA all-electric range is 18 mi. For the 2020 model year, the battery size was increased to 11.6 kWh, which increased the EPA range to 19 mi. For the 2021 model year, T8 models were renamed to "Recharge" models.

For the 2022 model year, Volvo released an XC60 Recharge Extended Range. Battery size was increased to 18.7 kWh (14.8 kWh usable), increasing the all-electric range to 77 km. The rear electric motor was upgraded to a 142 hp unit, increasing total power output to 455 hp.

Asia Markets
Volvos sold in Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam are all imported from Malaysia's Volvo factory in Shah Alam.

Trim levels
The XC60 is available in Core, Plus, and Ultimate as of 2023 name changes.

Safety
The XC60 earned the IIHS's Top Safety Pick for 2018, 2019, 2020, 2023 and 2024, and earned Top Safety Pick+ for 2021 and 2022.

Sales
The Volvo XC60 has been Volvo's best selling car, with sales increasing every year since its release in 2008. The second generation XC60 (released in 2017) has continued to set new sales records.

title: Volvo XC60


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Hvolsvöllur

Hvolsvöllur is a town in the south of Iceland about 106 km to the east of Reykjavík.

Overview
The name of the town literally translates to "Hillfield". Hvoll (hvols  in the genitive case) is an archaic form of the modern Icelandic word hóll, meaning "hill", and völlur  means "field". The name is derived from the name of the historic farm Stórólfshvoll (, "Stórólfur's hill").

The town of Hvolsvöllur has a population of 1,108 inhabitants. Around 900 people live the wider municipality (surrounding rural area).

The Ring Road (Route 1) passes through the town. 30 km east of Hvolsvöllur is the recently constructed port of Landeyjahöfn, where the ferry to Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands) operates from. Hvolsvöllur is notable in that it is one of the only Icelandic towns which is not situated on the coast or by a river.

The town's economy is largely based on the service and tourism industry. It is an important service point for travellers and the local rural population serving large part of southern Iceland, the next town being Vík, 80 km to the east. The largest single employer in the area is Sláturfélag Suðurlands (SS), which has a large meat processing plant in the town - it notably manufactures the Icelandic SS hot dog.

The town has a kindergarten and primary school, as well as a sports centre housing an outdoor swimming pool. The town has a geothermal district heating system, operated since 1981 using a 95 °C geothermal borehole from Laugaland. The transmission pipe from the borehole to the town is 23 km long. The same system also serves Hella as well as the surrounding rural area and is currently owned by Orkuveita Reykjavíkur.

In 2010, the volcanic eruptions at Eyjafjallajökull caused evacuations in the surrounding area, with people being relocated to Hvolsvöllur, where Red Cross mass care centres had been set up.

Points of Interest
The area is the scene of a well-known saga of Iceland, Njál's saga. Hvolsvöllur has a Saga Centre dedicated to this and other Icelandic sagas. The town also houses the LAVA Museum which focusus on Iceland's volcanic and geological history.

Stórólfshvolskirkja is a Protestant church in Hvolsvöllur. It was built in 1930 and can seat 120 people. The interior was painted in 1955. Above the altar there is a painting by Þórarin B. Þorláksson, an Icelandic painter, dating from 1914 which shows Jesus blessing the children.

At the centre of the town is a 45m tall telecommunications tower, erected in 1976 and operated by Míla. In 2022 the tower was fitted with Christmas lights, which were lit up during the winter, claiming to be the 'tallest Christmas lights in Iceland'.

Climate
Similar to the rest of the southern coast of Iceland, Hvolsvöllur has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfc) with cool summers and cold winters, although relatively mild for its high latitude. Precipitation is abundant year round, with October usually seeing the most precipitation.

Sports

 * Ungmennafélagið Hekla

title: Hvolsvöllur


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District of Aberconwy

The Borough of Aberconwy was a local government district with borough status from 1974 to 1996, being one of five districts in the county of Gwynedd, north-west Wales.

History
The borough was created on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered parts of nine former districts from the administrative counties of Caernarfonshire and Denbighshire, which were all abolished at the same time: ‡From Denbighshire (rest from Caernarfonshire)
 * Betws-y-Coed Urban District
 * Conwy Municipal Borough
 * Eglwysbach parish from Hiraethog Rural District‡
 * Llanddoget parish from Hiraethog Rural District‡
 * Llandudno Urban District
 * Llanrwst Urban District‡
 * Llanrwst Rural parish from Hiraethog Rural District‡
 * Llanfairfechan Urban District
 * Llansantffraid Glan Conway parish from Aled Rural District‡
 * Nant Conwy Rural District
 * Penmaenmawr Urban District
 * Tir Ifan parish from Hiraethog Rural District‡

The new district was named Aberconwy, meaning mouth of the River Conwy, with the same name being used in both Welsh and English.

Under the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, the previous two tier system of counties and districts was replaced with new principal areas (each designated either a "county" or a "county borough"), whose councils perform the functions previously divided between the county and district councils. The Aberconwy area merged with the neighbouring Colwyn district from the county of Clwyd to become a county borough which the government originally named "Aberconwy and Colwyn". During the transition to the new system, the shadow authority requested a change of name from "Aberconwy and Colwyn" to "Conwy". The government confirmed the change with effect from 2 April 1996, one day after the new council came into being.

The pre-1996 counties of Wales continued to be used for some ceremonial purposes such as lieutenancy, being called preserved counties. The new Conwy County Borough therefore initially straddled the preserved counties of Gwynedd and Clwyd. In 2003 the area of the former Aberconwy district was moved from the preserved county of Gwynedd to Clwyd, uniting Conwy County Borough within the preserved county Clwyd.

Political control
The first election to the council was held in 1973, initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities until it came into its powers on 1 April 1974. Political control of the council from 1974 until its abolition in 1996 was as follows:

Premises
The council was based at Bodlondeb, a large house built in 1877 on Bangor Road in Conwy, which had served as the main offices of the old Conwy Borough Council since 1937. The council also maintained additional offices at Llandudno Town Hall, which had been built in 1902 for the former Llandudno Urban District Council. After Aberconwy's abolition in 1996, Bodlondeb became the headquarters of the replacement Conwy County Borough Council.

title: District of Aberconwy


text:
Royston

Royston may refer to:

Australia

 * Royston, Queensland, a rural locality

Canada

 * Royston, British Columbia, a small hamlet

England

 * Royston, Hertfordshire, a town and civil parish, formerly partly in Cambridgeshire
 * Royston, South Yorkshire, a suburban village, near Barnsley, and Wakefield
 * Royston Vasey, a fictional town in the television series The League of Gentlemen

Scotland

 * Royston, Glasgow, a district of Glasgow, traditionally known as Garngad

United States

 * Royston, Georgia, a town
 * Royston, Texas, a ghost town

Surname
Royston is an English Toponymic Surname, and comes from a place in South Yorkshire named Royston.

People

 * Royston Drenthe (born 1987), Dutch football player
 * Royston Ellis (born 1941), English writer
 * Royston Ffrench (born 1975), British jockey
 * Royston Evans (1884–1977), Australian cricketer and soccer player, commonly known as Mac Evans
 * Royston Gabe-Jones (1906–1965), Welsh cricketer
 * Royston or Roy Goodacre (born 1967), British Microbiologist and Analytical Chemist
 * Royston Nash, English conductor
 * Royston Tan (born 1976), Singaporean film-maker
 * Royston Vasey, real name of English comedian Roy 'Chubby' Brown
 * Henry Royston (1819–1873), English cricketer
 * Young Lea Royston (1819–1884), Confederate States Army colonel
 * Ivor Royston, American physician and entrepreneur
 * Brigadier General John Royston (1860–1942), South African-born British army officer
 * Richard Royston (1601-1686), English bookseller and publisher
 * Robert Royston (1918–2008), master landscape architect
 * Shad Royston (born 1982), Australian rugby league player
 * Royston Sagigi-Baira (born 1999), Australian singer and winner of Australian Idol in 2023

title: Royston


text:
Tom Horn

Thomas Horn Jr., (November 21, 1860 – November 20, 1903) was an American scout, cowboy, soldier, range detective, and Pinkerton agent in the 19th-century and early 20th-century American Old West. Believed to have committed 17 killings as a hired gunman throughout the West, Horn was convicted in 1902 of the murder of 14-year-old Willie Nickell near Iron Mountain, Wyoming. Willie was the son of sheep rancher Kels Nickell, who had been involved in a range feud with neighbor and cattle rancher Jim Miller. On the day before his 43rd birthday, Horn was executed by hanging in Cheyenne, Wyoming.

While in jail, he wrote his autobiography, Life of Tom Horn: Government Scout and Interpreter, which was published posthumously in 1904. Numerous editions have been published in the late 20th century. Horn has since become a larger-than-life figure of western folklore, and debate continues as to whether he was actually guilty of Nickell's murder.

Early life
Thomas Horn Jr., known as "Tom", was born in 1860 to Thomas S. Horn Sr. and Mary Ann Maricha (née Miller) on their family farm in rural northeastern Scotland County, Missouri. The family owned 600 acres bisected by the South Wyaconda River between the towns of Granger and Etna. Tom was the fifth of 12 children. During his childhood, he suffered physical abuse from his father, and his only companion as a child was a dog named Shedrick. The young Tom later got into a fight with two boys, who beat him and killed the dog with a shotgun.

Scout
At 16, Horn headed to the American Southwest, where he was hired by the U.S. Cavalry as a civilian scout, packer, and interpreter under Al Sieber during the Apache Wars. Horn was respected for his work with the army and soon rose through the ranks. In one instance, as the army was crossing Cibecue Creek in Arizona, they were ambushed by Apache warriors positioned on high ground. The officer in charge of their squad, Captain Edmund Hentig, was instantly killed, and the men became pinned down under overwhelming fire. Desperate, Sieber ordered Horn and another scout, Mickey Free, to break away and return fire from a hill. Together with the soldiers, the men managed to repel the attack. Horn and Sieber also participated in the Battle of Big Dry Wash and gained recognition when he and Lt. George H. Morgan slipped through the banks opposite the Apache line and provided covering fire for the cavalry killing a number of Apache warriors.

Horn was a respected scout by then, known for going out alone in reconnaissance missions and helping track down Geronimo's major stronghold. By November 1885, Tom Horn earned the position of chief of scouts under Captain Emmet Crawford in Fort Bowie. During one operation, Horn's camp was mistakenly attacked by a Mexican militia, and he was wounded in the arm during the shootout, which also resulted in Crawford's death. Finally, on September 4, 1886, Horn was present at Geronimo's final surrender and acted as an interpreter under Charles B. Gatewood.

Horn allegedly killed his first man, a second lieutenant in the Mexican Army, in a duel, the result of a dispute over a prostitute.

After the war, Horn used what he earned to build his own ranch in his return to Aravaipa Canyon in Arizona. His ranch consisted of 100 cattle and 26 horses, and he also laid claim in the Deer Creek Mining District near the canyon. However, it was short-lived, as cattle thieves stormed his ranch one night and stole all his stock, resulting in a tremendous loss and bankruptcy for Horn. This incident marked the start of Horn's hatred and disdain for thieves, which led to his entering the profession of range detective.

Detective, lawman, and gun for hire
Horn wandered and took jobs as a prospector, ranch hand, and rodeo contestant, but he is most notorious for being hired by numerous cattle companies as a cowboy and hired gun to watch over their cattle and kill any suspected rustlers. Horn developed his own means to fight thieves: "I would simply take the calf and such things as that stopped the stealing. I had more faith in getting the calf than in courts". If he thought a man was guilty of stealing cattle and had been fairly warned, Horn said that he would shoot the thief and would not feel "one shred of remorse".

Horn often gave a warning first to those he suspected of rustling and was said to have been a "tremendous presence" whenever he was in the vicinity. Fergie Mitchell, a rancher on the North Laramie River, described Horn's reputation: "I saw him ride by. He didn't stop, but went straight on up the creek in plain sight of everyone. All he wanted was to be seen, as his reputation was so great that his presence in a community had the desired effect. Within a week, three settlers in the neighborhood sold their holdings and moved out. That was the end of cattle rustling on the North Laramie".

Later, Horn took part in the Pleasant Valley War between cattlemen and sheepmen in Arizona. Historians have not established for which side he worked, and both sides suffered several killings for which no known suspects were ever identified. Horn worked on a ranch owned by Robert Bowen, where he became one of the prime suspects in the disappearance of Mart Blevins in 1887. He claimed that throughout the war he was the "mediator" of the conflict, serving as a deputy sheriff under three famous Arizona lawmen: Buckey O'Neill, Perry Owens, and Glenn Reynolds. Horn also participated with Reynolds in the lynching of three suspected rustlers in August 1888. As a deputy sheriff, Horn drew the attention of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency owing to his tracking abilities. Hired by the agency in late 1889 or early 1890, he handled investigations in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, Wyoming, and other western states, working out of the Denver office. He became known for his calm-under-pressure demeanor and his ability to track down anyone assigned to him.

In one case, Horn and another agent, C.W. Shores, captured two men who had robbed the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad on August 31, 1890, between Cotopaxi and Texas Creek in Fremont County, Colorado. Horn and Shores tracked and arrested Thomas Eskridge—also known as "Peg-Leg" Watson—and Burt "Red" Curtis without firing a shot. They tracked them all the way to the home of a man named Wolfe, said to be in either Washita or Pauls Valley, Oklahoma, along the Washita River. In his report on that arrest, Horn stated in part, "Watson was considered by everyone in Colorado as a very desperate character. I had no trouble with him".

During the Johnson County War, Horn worked for the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and for the Pinkertons, who had assigned him to work undercover in the county using the alias Tom Hale. He is alleged to have been involved in the killing of Nate Champion and Nick Ray on April 9, 1892, and was a prime suspect in the killings of ranchers John A. Tisdale and Orley "Ranger" Jones. The Pinkerton Agency forced Horn to resign in 1894. In his memoir, Two Evil Isms: Pinkertonism and Anarchism, Pinkerton detective Charlie Siringo wrote, "William A. Pinkerton told me that Tom Horn was guilty of the crime, but that his people could not allow him to go to prison while in their employ". Siringo later indicated that he respected Horn's abilities at tracking, and that he was a very talented agent but had a wicked element.

In 1895, Horn reportedly killed a known cattle thief named William Lewis near Iron Mountain, Wyoming. Horn was exonerated for that crime and for the 1895 murder of Fred Powell six weeks later. In 1896, a ranchman named Campbell, known to have a large stash of cash, was last seen with Horn. In 1896, Horn offered his service in a letter to the marshal of Tucson, Arizona, in getting rid of William Christian's rustler gang. William was killed by an unknown assailant in 1897, and his associate Robert Christian disappeared the same year.

Colorado Range War
Although his official title was "range detective", Horn essentially served as a killer for hire. By the mid-1890s, the cattle business in Wyoming and Colorado was changing due to the arrival of homesteaders and new ranchers. The homesteaders, referred to as "nesters" or "grangers" by the big operators, had moved into the territory in large numbers. By doing so, they decreased the availability of water and graze for the larger herds of the cattle barons. Soon, efforts were made to get rid of these homesteaders, including the hiring of gunmen like Horn. Violent gunfights such as the bloody shootout that resulted in the death of nine trappers in Big Dry Creek, as well as the lynching and burning of homesteaders Luther M. Mitchell and Ami W. Ketchum, precipitated the Colorado Range War.

In 1900, Horn began working for the Swan Land and Cattle Company in northwest Colorado. His first job was to investigate the Browns Park Cattle Association's leader, a cowboy named Matt Rash, who was suspected of cattle rustling. Horn went undercover as "Tom Hicks" and worked for Rash as a ranch hand while also collecting evidence Rash was branding cattle that did not belong to him. When Horn finally pieced together enough evidence to determine that Rash was indeed a rustler, he put a threatening letter on Rash's door saying that he must leave in 60 days. Rash, however, defiantly stayed and continued working on his ranch. As Rash continued to be uncooperative, Horn's employers were said to have given him the "go-ahead signal" to execute Rash. On the day of the murder, an armed Horn allegedly arrived at Rash's cabin just as he finished eating and shot him at point-blank range. The dying Rash unsuccessfully tried to write the name of his killer, but no trace was left of the murder. Only the accounts and rumors from various people point to Horn as the one responsible. Rash was supposed to be married to a nearby rancher, Ann Bassett, and the woman accused "Hicks" of being the murderer.

Around the same time, Horn also suspected another cowboy named Isom Dart of rustling. Dart was one of Rash's fellow cowboys but was believed to have previously worked as a rustler named Ned Huddleston and to have been a former member of the late "Tip Gault" gang. The gang, which had rustled cattle in the Saratoga, Wyoming, area, had been wiped out in a gun battle. Dart also had three indictments returned against him in Sweetwater County. When Dart was accused of murdering Rash, he took refuge inside his friend's cabin and waited for the rumors to cool down. Horn, however, managed to track Dart to his cabin and saw him hiding together with two other armed associates.

The assassin was said to have set up a sniping position overlooking the cabin from a hill, under cover of a pine tree. As Dart and his friends came out of the cabin, Horn shot him in the chest from a distance. Prior to the assassination, Horn had instructed a rancher named Robert Hudler to ready a horse miles from the murder scene for his getaway. The next day, two spent .30-30 Winchester casings were found at the base of a tree where the murderer is believed to have lain in wait. "Hicks" was said to have been the only one in the area to use a .30-30. The news of Rash and Dart's deaths spread throughout the territory, causing the other rustlers to scatter in fear. Horn tracked them all down and killed three other members of Rash's association. The story goes that he pinned one of the dead cowboys' ears for the homesteaders to see as a warning.

Government employment
During the Wilcox train robbery investigation, Horn obtained information from Bill Speck that revealed which of the outlaws, George Curry or Harvey Logan, had killed Sheriff Josiah Hazen during their escape. Both were members of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch, then known as the Hole-in-the-Wall Gang, so named after their hideaway in the mountains. Horn passed this information on to Charlie Siringo, who was working the case for the Pinkertons.

Horn briefly entered the United States Army to serve during the Spanish–American War as the chief packer of the Fifth Corps. He left Tampa for Cuba, where he led some of the pack trains to the front. Horn personally witnessed the bravery of the famous Rough Riders and colored regiments, the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries, during their assault on San Juan Hill, as well as the humiliating rout of American soldiers under Brigadier General Hamilton S. Hawkins. Although the packers were noncombatants, they were still prone to attack by Cuban rebels. Horn considered himself lucky to have lost no packer during the war, although Horn recalled that his men and he  were under constant fire as they delivered rations and ammunition to the soldiers.

Horn continued working as a packer during the war, though he and many of his men contracted yellow fever. At one point, he was bedridden and was deemed unfit for combat. Upon recovering, he returned to Wyoming. Shortly after his return, Horn began working in 1901 for wealthy cattle baron John C. Coble, who belonged to the Wyoming Stock Men's Association.

Murder of Willie Nickell
While working again near Iron Mountain, Wyoming, on July 15, 1901, Horn visited the Jim and Dora Miller family, who were cattle ranchers. Jim Miller was no relation to Texas outlaw Jim Miller. Jim Miller and his neighbor Kels Nickell had already had several disputes following Nickell's introduction of sheep into the Iron Mountain area. Miller frequently accused Nickell of letting his sheep graze on Miller's land. At the Millers, Horn met Glendolene M. Kimmell, the young teacher at the Iron Mountain School. Ms. Kimmell was supported by both the large Miller and Kels Nickell families, and she boarded with the Millers. Horn entertained her with accounts of his adventures. That day some males of the Miller family and he went fishing; Victor Miller, a son about his age, and he also practiced shooting, both of them with .30-30s.

The Miller and Nickell families were the only ones to have children at the school. Before she arrived, Kimmell had been advised of the families' ongoing feud and found that it was often played out by conflict among the children. A few days later, on July 18, Willie Nickell, the 14-year-old son of sheep ranchers Kels and Mary Nickell, was found murdered near their homestead gate. A coroner's inquest began to investigate the murder. More violent incidents occurred during the period of the coroner's inquest, which was expanded to investigate these incidents and lasted from July through September 1901.

On August 4, Kels Nickell was shot and wounded. Some 60–80 of his sheep were found "shot or clubbed to death". Two of the younger Nickell children later reported seeing two men leaving on horses, one a bay and one gray, as were horses owned by Jim Miller. On August 6, Deputy Sheriff Peter Warlaumont and Deputy U.S. Marshal Joe LeFors came to Iron Mountain and arrested Jim Miller and his sons Victor and Gus on suspicion of shooting Kels Nickell. They were jailed on August 7 and released the following day on bond. The investigation of the shooting of Kels Nickell was added to the investigation of Willie Nickell's murder in the coroner's inquest.

Deputy Marshal Joe Lefors later questioned Horn in January 1902 about the murder while supposedly talking to him about employment. Horn was still inebriated from the night before, but Lefors gained what he called a confession to the murder of Willie Nickell. Horn allegedly confessed to killing young Willie with his rifle from 300 yd, which he boasted of as the "best shot that [he] ever made and the dirtiest trick that [he] had ever done". Horn was arrested the next day by the county sheriff. Walter Stoll was the Laramie County prosecutor in the case. Judge Richard H. Scott, who presided over the case, was running for re-election.

Horn was supported by his longtime friend and employer, cattle rancher John C. Coble. He gathered a team for the defense headed by former Judge John W. Lacey, and which included attorneys T. F. Burke, Roderick N. Matson, Edward T. Clark, and T. Blake Kennedy. Reportedly, Coble paid for most of the costs of this large team. According to Johan P. Bakker, who wrote Tracking Tom Horn, the large cattle interests by this time found Horn "expendable", and the case provided a way to silence him in regard to their activities. He wrote that 100 members of the Wyoming Stock Growers Association paid $1000 each toward the defense, but wanted a minimal effort.

Horn's trial started October 10, 1902, in Cheyenne, which filled with crowds attracted by the notoriety of Horn. The Rocky Mountain News noted the carnival atmosphere and great interest from the public for a conviction. The prosecution introduced Horn's confession to Lefors. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting his statement. The prosecution introduced testimony by at least two witnesses, including Lefors, as well as circumstantial evidence; these elements only placed Horn in the general vicinity of the crime scene. During the trial, Victor Miller testified that Horn and he both had .30-30 guns and bought their ammunition at the same store. Another, Otto Plaga, testified that Horn was 20 mi from the scene of the murder an hour after it was committed; however, prosecuting attorney Walter Stoll was able to lead Horn into boasting on the stand that he could have ridden that distance in an hour, undermining his alibi.

Glendolene Kimmell had testified during the coroner's inquest, saying she thought both the Miller and Nickell families responsible for maintaining the feud, but she was never called as a defense witness. She had resigned from the school in October 1901, and left the area, but was in communication with people in the case. Horn's trial went to the jury on October 23, and they returned a guilty verdict the next day. A hearing several days later sentenced Horn to death by hanging. Horn's attorneys filed a petition with the Wyoming Supreme Court for a new trial. While in jail, Horn wrote his autobiography, Life of Tom Horn, Government Scout and Interpreter, Written by Himself, mostly giving an account of his early life. It contained little about the case.

The Wyoming Supreme Court upheld the decision of the District Court and denied a new trial. Convinced of Horn's innocence, Glendolene Kimmell sent an affidavit to Governor Fenimore Chatterton with testimony reportedly saying that Victor Miller was guilty of Nickell's murder. Accounts of its contents appeared in the press, but the original document has since disappeared. The governor chose not to intervene in the case. Horn was initially given an execution date of November 20, 1903.

Execution
Tom Horn was one of the few people in the "Wild West" to have been hanged by a water-powered gallows, known as the "Julian" gallows. James P. Julian, a Cheyenne, Wyoming, architect, designed the contraption in 1892. The trap door was connected to a lever that pulled the plug out of a barrel of water. This would cause a lever with a counterweight to rise, withdrawing a support and opening the trap.

Horn was hanged in Cheyenne. At that time, Horn never gave up the names of those who had hired him during the feud. He was buried in the Columbia Cemetery in Boulder, Colorado, on December 3, 1903. Rancher Jim Coble paid for his coffin and a stone to mark his grave. After his death, many considered Horn to have been wrongly executed for a murder solely based on a purported confession given when drunk, thus of dubious admissibility in court. Even the old Apache warrior, Geronimo, expressed his doubts about Horn's charges during an interview with Charles Ackenhausen, saying that he "did not believe [Horn] guilty".

Debate
The debate over Horn's guilt remains as divided to this day. The consensus is that regardless of whether Horn committed that particular murder, he had certainly committed many others —a concession to probability, but not an affirmation of guilt.

Author Chip Carlson of Cheyenne, Wyoming, who extensively researched the Wyoming v. Tom Horn trial, concluded that although Horn could have committed the murder of Willie Nickell, he probably did not. According to his book, Tom Horn: Blood on the Moon (2001), no physical evidence showed that Horn had committed the murder. In addition, he was last seen in the area the day before it occurred, and the conditions of his alleged confession rendered valueless as evidence. Carlson believed the prosecution made no efforts to investigate other possible suspects, including Victor Miller. In essence, Horn's reputation and history made him an easy target for the prosecution.

The case was retried in a mock trial in 1993 in Cheyenne, and Horn was acquitted.

Writer Dean Fenton Krakel believed that Horn was guilty, but that he had not realized he was shooting a boy.

In 2014, former professor of history at Arkansas State University Larry Ball published Tom Horn in Life and Legend, asserting the opinion that Horn was responsible for the murder. Ball maintains that he found no evidence of a legal conspiracy against Horn, arguing that Horn's penchant for brutality contributed to his being convicted of the crime.

Representation in movies and television

 * Horn was played by Hollywood star George Montgomery in the 1950 film Dakota Lil.
 * In 1954, Louis Jean Heydt played Tom Horn in an episode of the syndicated television series Stories of the Century.
 * In 1959, Les Johnson played Tom Horn in an episode of the TV series Tales of Wells Fargo, (season four, episode eight, "Tom Horn").
 * In 1959, Gregg Palmer played Horn in the episode "Perilous Cargo" on the syndicated anthology series Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews.
 * In 1967, the film Fort Utah, a Western starring John Ireland as Horn, was released.
 * Mr. Horn (1979) was a TV miniseries starring David Carradine as Tom Horn.
 * Steve McQueen played Horn in the 1980 film Tom Horn. While the film took liberties with facts, McQueen's performance was highly praised and the film was well received.
 * In December 2009, the History Channel aired the series Cowboys & Outlaws; the episode "Frontier Hitman" was about the life of Tom Horn.
 * In 2014, American Heroes Channel's series Gunslingers featured an episode dedicated to Horn entitled "Tom Horn: Grim Reaper of the Rockies".
 * Tom Horn was played by actor Chris Bauer along with Matthew Le Nevez as Bat Masterson in the 2015 Lifetime series The Lizzie Borden Chronicles.
 * In 2017, actor Larry Poole portrayed Tom Horn in Once Guilty, Now Innocent, But Still Dead.

Other Resources

 * Historical novel.
 * Includes Horn's last letter that stated that his confession was staged and inaccurate.
 * Includes Horn's last letter that stated that his confession was staged and inaccurate.

title: Tom Horn


text:
Staincross

Staincross is a village in South Yorkshire, England, on the border with West Yorkshire. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it formed part of the defunct Barnsley West and Penistone borough constituency, following the Boundary Commission for England's report on South Yorkshire's Parliamentary constituencies in 2004 and the subsequent inquiry in 2005, it is now part of the Barnsley Central borough constituency. The population now falls within the Darton East ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley. The village also gave its name to the Staincross wapentake in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It is situated about 3 mi from Barnsley, and 8 mi from Wakefield.

Geography
Staincross lies off the A61 road, about three miles north-west of Barnsley. It is located at approximately 53.59083°N, -1.5°W, and at an elevation of around 410 feet (125 m) above sea level. The section of the A61 between Staincross and Newmillerdam is rated in the top three most dangerous roads in Britain according to a survey conducted by The AA Motoring Trust.

History
The name is believed to be derived from a Saxon stone cross ('stane cross') that until the 18th century occupied a position on the junction of Staincross Common - which in itself is an ancient trackway - and Greenside. The stone, now lost, may have been the remains of a rural shrine. Alternatively, those remains may have been from a typical wapentake meeting cross, now partially reconstructed in Cawthorne parish church grounds a short distance from Ailric's local power base.

Postal recognition
After a prolonged campaign (backed by former Test cricket umpire, Dickie Bird, a resident of Staincross), a ballot was held in January 2003 to determine whether the residents of Staincross wanted their mail to include the name of the village. Before the ballot, Staincross mail bore the name of a neighbouring village, either Mapplewell or Darton. Indeed, it is unclear where the boundaries between the three villages lie. Villagers voted overwhelmingly in favour of the proposal by 966 to 199 and Royal Mail implemented changes to officially recognise the village.

title: Staincross


text:
South Pembrokeshire

South Pembrokeshire (De Sir Benfro) was one of six local government districts of Dyfed, Wales from 1974 to 1996.

Creation
The district was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, from the following parts of the administrative county of Pembrokeshire:
 * Narberth Rural District
 * Narberth Urban District
 * Pembroke Municipal Borough (which included Pembroke Dock)
 * Pembroke Rural District
 * Tenby Municipal Borough

The map shows the district as defined above. However, in 1981, the communities of Bletherston, Clarbeston, Llandeilo Llwydarth, Llandissilio West, Llangolman, Llanycefn, Llys y Fran, Maenclochog, Mynachlog-ddu, New Moat and Vorlan were transferred to Preseli district.

Premises
The council was based at Llanion Park at Pembroke Dock. The building had been built in 1904 as part of the Llanion Barracks, and had been acquired by the former Pembroke Borough Council in the early 1970s to serve as its headquarters, just a couple of years before that council's abolition.

Abolition
It was abolished on 1 April 1996, merging with its neighbouring district of Preseli Pembrokeshire to form a reconstituted Pembrokeshire unitary authority. The council's old offices at Llanion Park were used by the new council until the new County Hall at Haverfordwest opened in 1999. The building at Llanion Park is now the headquarters of the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority.

Political control
The first election to the council was held in 1973, initially operating as a shadow authority before coming into its powers on 1 April 1974. Throughout the council's existence a majority of the seats were held by independent councillors.

Elections

 * 1973 South Pembrokeshire District Council election
 * 1976 South Pembrokeshire District Council election
 * 1979 South Pembrokeshire District Council election
 * 1983 South Pembrokeshire District Council election
 * 1987 South Pembrokeshire District Council election
 * 1991 South Pembrokeshire District Council election

title: South Pembrokeshire


text: Category:American writers

title: Category:American writers


text:
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text:
Talk:National Park, New Jersey

Redirect?
Currently, there is a redir from National Park to this article, see Talk:National Park. IMO this should be a disambiguation as it once was, but this has been subject to some debate evidently, and I'm still trying to find out exactly what went wrong. Meantime, the rather strange top message is to achieve the principle of least surprise to people who go to National Park wanting information on national parks. Andrewa 18:01, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

Orphaned references in National Park, New Jersey
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of National Park, New Jersey's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "CensusArea": From Monmouth Beach, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 17, 2012. From Hoboken, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 18, 2012. From Haddon Heights, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 5, 2012. From Deptford Township, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed May 7, 2012. From Swedesboro, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 16, 2012. From Williamstown, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 21, 2012. From Harrison Township, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed July 26, 2012.

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 01:41, 24 October 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:National Park, New Jersey


text:
Talk:Guardamar del Segura

Is "fenice" meant to be "Venice"? -- Marj 18:02, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guardamar del Segura


text:
Bellagio, Lombardy

Bellagio (Belàs ) is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Como in the Italian region of Lombardy. It is located on Lake Como, also known by its Latin-derived name Lario, whose arms form an inverted Y. The triangular land mass at the base of the inverted Y is the Larian Triangle: at its northern point sits Bellagio, looking across to the northern arm of the lake and, behind it, the Alps. It has always been famous for its location. It belongs to a mountain community named Comunità montana del Triangolo lariano (Larian Triangle mountain community), based in Canzo.

Before the Romans
Even though there are signs of a human presence around Bellagio in the Paleolithic Period (about 30,000 years ago), it is only in the 7th to 5th centuries BC that there appears to be a castellum on the promontory, perhaps a place of worship and of exchange which served the numerous small villages on the lake.

The first identifiable inhabitants of the territory of Bellagio, from 400BC, were the Insubres, a Celtic tribe in part of Lombardy and on Lake Como up to the centre of the lake, occupying the western shore (the Orobii had the northern arm of the lake and its east bank). The Insubres lived free and independently until the arrival of the Gauls, led by Belloveso, who, around the year 600 BC, undid the Insubres and settled in Milan and Como, occupying the shores of the lake and creating a garrison at the extreme point of their conquest, Bellagio (fancifully Bellasium, named after their commander Belloveso). The Gauls thus became Gallo-Insubres, merged with the primitive inhabitants and introduced their customs and traditions, leaving traces in local names: Crux Galli (now Grosgalla), on the side of Lezzeno, and Gallo, a small chapel on the old road of Limonta which marks today the border between the two municipalities.

The Romans
In 225 BC, the territory of the Gallo-Insubres was occupied by the Romans, in their gradual expansion to the north. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, defeated the Gallo-Insubres in a fierce battle near Camerlata, occupying Como and the shores of the lake. Insubre hopes of independence were raised by an alliance with Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but dashed by defeat in 104 BC and absorption into a Roman province in 80 BC.

Bellagio became both a Roman garrison and a point of passage and wintering for the Roman armies on their way through to the province of Raetia and the Splügen pass. Troops wintered at the foot of the present Villa Serbelloni, sheltered from north winds and the Mediterranean climate. Such variant Latin names as Belacius and Bislacus suggest Bellagio was originally Bi-lacus ("between the lakes").

Between 81 and 77 BC Cornelius Scipio brought 3,000 Latin colonists to Lake Como. From 59 BC Julius Caesar, as pro-consul, brought up another 5000 colonists, most importantly 500 Greeks from Sicily. Their names are still borne by their descendants. Bellagio became a mixture of races which became more and more complex in the following centuries. Also it increased its strategic importance because, as well as a place for wintering, it sheltered warships especially at Loppia, where the natural creek made it easy to repair them. Around Loppia there formed one of the first suburbs of Bellagio.

The Romans introduced many Mediterranean crops, including the olive and bay laurel; from the name of the latter (Laurus) derives the Latin name of Lake Como (Larius). Among the other plant species introduced were the chestnut, already widespread in southern Italy, the cypress, so well naturalised today as to be considered native, and many kinds of herbaceous plants.

In the early decades of the Empire, two great figures brought fame to the lake and Bellagio: Virgil and Pliny the Younger. Virgil, the Latin poet, visited Bellagio and remembered the lake in the second book of the Georgics, verse 155 ("or great Lario"). Pliny the Younger, resident in Como for most of the year, had, among others, a summer villa near the top of the hill of Bellagio; it was known as "Tragedy". Pliny describes in a letter the long periods he spent in his Bellagio villas, not only studying and writing but also hunting and fishing.

Through Bellagio passed, in 9 AD, the Roman legions (partly composed of soldiers from the Bellagio garrison) led by Publius Quinctilius Varus, which had to cross the Splügen pass into Germany against Arminius. They were annihilated in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.

The Middle Ages

At the time of the barbarian invasions, Narses, a general of Justinian, in his long wanderings through Italy waging war, created along Lake Como a fortified line against the Goths. The line included the fortress of Bellagio, the Isola Comacina and the Castel Baradello.

Nevertheless, around 568 the Lombards, led by Alboin, poured into the Po Valley and settled in various parts of Lombardy, in the valleys of the Alps and along the lakes. Even the fortress of Bellagio was occupied. In 744 King Liutprand settled there.

With their arrival in Italy, the Franks of Charlemagne descended on Piedmont and Lombardy and, through the high Alps, defeated the Lombards in the battle of Pavia of 773. The Lombard territory was divided into counties — thus the beginning of feudalism. Bellagio found itself in the county of Milan under the suzerainty of the Frankish kings.

The grandson of Charlemagne, Lothair, having deposed his father in 834, invested as feudal lords of the territory of Limonta and Civenna the monks of Saint Ambrose of Milan (together with the territory of Campione d'Italia). The inhabitants of these two places, which later belonged ecclesiastically to the parish of Bellagio (St. John), were obliged to hand over some of their produce (olive oil, chestnuts ...) to the monks, an obligation preserved for several centuries.

There followed the rule of the Ottonian dynasty of Germany. During the reign of Henry V began a long war over the succession to the bishop of Como between Milan, supporting a bishop imposed by the German Emperor, and Como, which had already designated as bishop Guido Grimoldi, consecrated by the Pope. The war lasted ten years (1117–1127), with a series of small victories and defeats on land and water. Bellagio participated with its fleet as an ally of Milan, Isola Comacina and Gravedona. The war ended with the destruction of Como and its subjection to Milan, from which it took decades to recover. It is thought that by 1100 Bellagio was already a free commune and seat of a tribunal and that its dependence on Como was merely formal. However the strategic position of Bellagio was very important for the city of Como, and Bellagio had therefore to suffer more than one incursion from Como and fought numerous naval battles against its neighbour. In 1154, under Frederick Barbarossa, Bellagio was forced to swear loyalty and pay tribute to Como.

In 1169, after the destruction of Milan by Frederick Barbarossa (1162), Como attacked Isola Comacina, devastating it and forcing the inhabitants to flee to Varenna and Bellagio, at that time considered impregnable fortresses. The Lombard League was formed, in which Bellagio also participated as an ally of Milan, intervening in the Battle of Legnano (1176) against Barbarossa and Como.

The Renaissance and the Baroque
Towards the end of the 13th century, Bellagio, which had participated in numerous wars on the side of the Ghibellines (the pro-empire party), became part of the property of the House of Visconti and was integrated into the Duchy of Milan.

In 1440, during the lordship of the Visconti, some Cernobbiesi attacked the prison of Bellagio in which the inmates were political prisoners. Liberated, they took flight into mountains of Bellagio, settling in a town that took the name of Cernobbio in memory of the country of origin of their liberators.

With the death of Filippo Maria, the House of Visconti lost power. For a short time the area was transformed into the Ambrosian Republic (1447–50), until Milan capitulated to Francesco Sforza, who became Duke of Milan and Lombardy. Bellagio, whose territory (and especially the fortress) was occupied by the troops of Sforza in 1449 during the war of succession, was one of the first towns on the lake to take sides and adhere to Sforza rule.

In 1508, under Ludovico il Moro (1479–1508), the estate of Bellagio was taken from the bishop of Como and assigned to the Marquis of Stanga, treasurer, ambassador and friend of il Moro. Stanga built a new villa on Bellagio hill, later ruined in a raid by Cavargnoni.

In 1535, when Francesco II Sforza (the last Duke of Milan) died, there started for Lombardy and the land around the Lake of Lario two centuries of Spanish rule (the period in which Alessandro Manzoni's novel The Betrothed is set). The so-called Derta steps that lead from the neighbourhood of Guggiate to that of Suira were built under the Spanish.

In 1533, Francesco Sfondrati, married to a Visconti, had acquired the fiefdom of Bellagio and for more than 200 years the Sfondrati family, from the highest rank of Milanese society, ruled Bellagio. The ruins of the sumptuous Stanga building were restructured by Francesco and, successively, by Ercole Sfondrati, who spent the last years of his life in pious religious passion in the villa. On the same peninsula he built the church and convent of the Capuchins (1614), investing enormous capital in the setting, where appeared cypress trees and sweet olives.

Favoured by Bellagio's ideal position for transport and trade, various small industries flourished, most notably candle-making and silk weaving with its concomitant silk worms and mulberry trees. With the death in 1788 of Carlo, last of the Sfondrati, Bellagio passed to Count Alessandro Serbelloni, henceforth Serbelloni Sfondrati.

The 18th and 19th centuries

During the brief Napoleonic period, the port of Bellagio assumed military and strategic importance. A decision, apparently of secondary importance, was to guide the destiny of Bellagio for the two succeeding two centuries: the decision of Count Francesco Melzi d'Eril, Duke of Lodi and Vice President of the Cisalpine Republic to establish here his summer home. Count Melzi proceeded to build a villa on the west bank near Loppia. That brought to the area the flower of the Milanese nobility and the promontory was transformed into an elegant and refined court. Roads suitable for carriages were built, first of all to link the villas and the palaces and then towards the town centre; finally the provincial road Erba–Bellagio was completed. The fame of the lakeside town became well known outside the borders of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia: even the Emperor Francis I of Austria visited in 1816 and returned in 1825 to stay in the Villas Serbelloni, Trotti and Melzi.

The Romantic discovery of landscape was changing how the Italian lakes were seen. Stendhal had first visited in 1810:

At Bellagio he was the guest of the Melzi d’Eril, from whose villa he wrote:

Franz Liszt and his mistress Comtesse Marie d'Agoult stayed for four months of 1837 on their way from Switzerland to Como and Milan. In Bellagio he wrote many of the piano pieces which became Album d'un voyageur (1835–38), landscapes seen through the eyes of Byron and Senancour. These works contributed much to the image of Bellagio and the lake as a site of Romantic feeling. D'Agoult's letters show they were sadly aware of drawing an age of motorised tourism in their train.

In 1838, Bellagio received with all honours the Emperor Ferdinand I, the Archduke Rainer and the Minister Metternich, who came from Varenna on the Lario, the first steamboat on the lake, launched in 1826. Bellagio was one of the localities most frequented by the Lombardy nobility and saw the construction of villas and gardens. Luxury shops opened in the village and tourists crowded onto the lakeshore drive. Space was not sufficient and it was decided to cover the old port which came up as far as the arcade in order to construct a large square.

Gustav Flaubert visited Bellagio in 1845. He told his travel diary:

The Risorgimento
In 1859, as part of the Second Italian War of Independence, Garibaldi's Hunters of the Alps defeated Austrian troops at San Fermo, entering Como and bringing the province under Piedmontese rule. Bellagio thus became part of the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy until Germany created in 1943 the puppet Italian Social Republic under Benito Mussolini.

Tourism in the Kingdom of Italy had now become the principal economic resource of the people of Bellagio and from this period on the history of Bellagio coincides with that of its hotels. The first was the present Hotel Metropole, founded in 1825 from the transformation of the old hostelry of Abbondio Genazzini into the first real hotel on the Lario, the Hotel Genazzini. Following this example in the space of a few years came several splendid hotels many of which are still operating, frequently in the hands of the same families who founded them: the Hotel Firenze, built on the old house of the captain of the Lario opened in 1852; the Grand Hotel Bellagio (now the Grand Hotel Villa Serbelloni) opened in 1872. In 1888 the three largest hotels (Genazzini, Grande Bretagne and Grand Hotel Bellagio) first replaced gaslight with electric, and only after this were they followed by many patrician houses. Bellagio was one of the first Italian tourist resorts to become international, but it has never degenerated into a place of mass tourism.

The 20th century
Bellagio was part of the Italian Social Republic (RSI) from 1943 to 1945. The Futurist writer and poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, a Mussolini loyalist who had helped shape Fascist philosophy, remained in the RSI as a propagandist until his death from a heart attack at Bellagio in December 1944.

Luchino Visconti put Bellagio in a scene of his film Rocco and His Brothers (1960). The scene is on the Europa Promenade, between the pier and the half-derelict Hotel Grande Bretagne. Rocco implies that the old hotels are fading along with the empires they served. The fact that working-class Rocco and his girlfriend are there to make the observation implies in turn the new world of mass tourism replacing them. Ironies lie beyond the scope of the film: the new American empire would find uses of its own for Bellagio.

In 2014, Bellagio merged with the town of Civenna: the new municipality retains the name of Bellagio.

Geography

Bellagio is situated upon the cape of the land mass that divides Lake Como in two. The city centre occupies the tip of the promontory, while other districts are scattered along the lake shores and up the slopes of the hills. The great Pleistocene glaciations with their imposing flows coming from the Valtellina and Valchiavenna modelled the actual landscape of Lake Como: at least four times the glaciers went as far as Brianza to the south. From the ancient glacial blanket only the highest tops emerged, one of them Mount St. Primo, which obliged the glaciers to divide into two arms.

Nowadays, a luxuriance of trees and flowers is favoured by a mild and sweet climate. The average daytime temperature during winter is rarely below 6 to 7 C, while during summer it is around 25 to 28 C, mitigated during the afternoon by the characteristic breva, the gentle breeze of Lake Como.

The Borgo
The historic centre of Bellagio is located 350 m southwest of the promontory of the Larian Triangle, between the Villa Serbelloni on the hill and the Como arm of the lake. At the far tip of the promontory are a park and a marina. Parallel to the shore are three streets, Mazzini, Centrale and Garibaldi in ascending order. Cutting across them to form a sloped grid are seven medieval stone stairs ("salite") running uphill. The Basilica of San Giacomo and a stone tower, sole relic of medieval defences ("Torre delle Arti Bellagio"), sit in a piazza at the top.

Churches

 * Basilica of San Giacomo, in the Piazza della Chiesa; Lombard-Romanesque 1075–1125. The base of the bell tower incorporates ancient town defences; the top is 18th century. Inside, a 12th-century cross, a 1432 triptych by Foppa, a 16th-century altarpiece. The Bar Sport across the square occupies a former monastery.
 * Church of San Giorgio, next to the town hall. The church was built 1080–1120. Inside, a statue and fresco of Our Lady of the Belt. The Genazzini Stairs run under the bell tower to the public library.
 * Church of San Martino, in Visgnola;
 * Church of Sant'Antonio Abate, in Casate;
 * Church of San Carlo Borromeo, to Aureggio;
 * Church of San Biagio, in Pescallo;
 * Church of Sant'Andrea, in Guggiate.

Villas
Along the banks of the promontory of Bellagio are many old patrician houses, each surrounded by parks and gardens of trees. Some like Villa Serbelloni and Villa Melzi d'Eril are open to the public.

Villa Serbelloni
Just behind the hill of the promontory into the lake, protected from the winds, is the building complex of Villa Serbelloni. The villa dominates the town's historic centre. It can be reached from Via Garibaldi. It was built in the 15th century in place of an old castle razed in 1375. Villa Serbelloni was later rebuilt several times. In 1788 it came into the possession of Alessandro Serbelloni (1745–1826) who enriched it with precious decorations and works of art of the 17th and 18th centuries. Today you can visit only the gardens. The trails, as well as the villa, lead to the remains of the 16th-century Capuchin monastery and the Sfondrata, a residence built by the Sfondrati family indeed, overlooking the Lecco branch of the lake.

Quite different is the Grand Hotel Villa Serbelloni on the water's edge. A luxurious neo-classical villa built in the 1850s for an aristocratic Milanese family became the nucleus of the (then-called) Grand Hotel Bellagio, opened in 1873. The hotel retains its original Belle Époque fittings.

Villa Melzi d'Eril

This significant building overlooking the lake was built between 1808 and 1815 by the architect Giocondo Albertolli for Francesco Melzi d'Eril, created Duke of Lodi (the city of Lodi, Lombardy) by Napoleon for whom he filled the role of vice-president of the Italian Republic from 1802. From 1805, with the advent of the short-lived Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, he was its Chancellor.

Even after his political career had ended, since this was a Melzi residence, the construction, which he wanted as elegant as the Royal Villa of Monza and the other villas around Lake of Como, was decorated and furnished by famous artists of the period: painters Appiani and Bossi, sculptors Canova and Comolli, and the medalist Luigi Manfredini. The duke had a collector's passion which, in the region on Lake Como, had no rival except that of Giovan Battista Sommariva, owner of the villa bearing the same name (nowadays Villa Carlotta) who, politically defeated by Melzi himself (preferred by Napoleon as vice-president), tried to regain lost prestige by assembling an extraordinary art collection.

Villa Melzi is set in English style gardens which develop harmoniously along the banks of the lake, the last reaches of the view from Bellagio towards the hills to the south. Making such a garden required notable changes to the structure of the land and outstanding supporting walls. In such surroundings, enriched by monuments, artefacts (amongst which are a Venetian gondola transported to Bellagio expressly for Napoleon, and two precious Egyptian statues), rare exotic plants, ancient trees, hedges of camellias, groves of azaleas and gigantic rhododendrons, the villa, the chapel and the glass house constitute an ensemble in which the neoclassical style reaches one of its highest peaks.

Rowing
Rowing is based at the Bellagina Sporting Union, a club specializing in football and especially rowing: world rowing champions Enrico Gandola, Alberto Belgeri, Igor Pescialli, Franco Sancassani and Daniele Gilardoni were born in Bellagio and began their racing careers with Bellagina.

Cycling
From Bellagio starts the climb to the Sanctuary of the Madonna del Ghisallo, the patron saint of cyclists, and therefore an important destination for fans of the sport. The ascent covers a total distance of about 4 km and has a vertical rise of about 500 meters; professional cyclists can do it in 20 minutes. You can also make the climb from Onno to Valbrona on the eastern shore of the lake, and the Wall of Sormano on the road to the western shore. These two climbs, with the ascent to the Sanctuary, are part of the Tris del Lario competition.

Trekking
Treks of all degrees of difficulty are possible around and above Bellagio on the Larian Triangle. Bellagio Lifestyle gives the major treks with maps and route descriptions.

Cuisine
The traditional Bellagino feast day dish is the Tóch. Eaten with a wooden spoon, it is composed of polenta mixed with butter and cheese and accompanied with dried fish from the lake, cold, stuffed chicken or home-made salami. Red wine is shared from a communal jug. For dessert, miasca—cake made with cornflour and dried fruit; Pan meino—made with white and yellow flour, eggs, butter, milk and elder flowers; or paradèl—a wafer of white flour, milk and sugar.

Air
The airports nearest to Bellagio are:

 * Malpensa International Airport (MXP), Milan
 * Linate Airport (LIN), Milan
 * Orio al Serio International Airport (BGY), Bergamo
 * Lugano airport (LUG)

From these airports, trains are available to lake hubs such as Como and Lecco. From there, bus services travel to Bellagio and other lakeside locations frequently. From Lugano, bus service is available to Menaggio, from which a ferry can be taken to Bellagio. Chartered seaplanes also land on the lake itself.

Rail
The railway lines nearest to Bellagio are:

 * Milan–Como (two lines, operated by Trenord)
 * Milan–Lecco-Tirano (operated by Trenord)
 * Milan–Asso (operated by Trenord)

For more information on trains, see Trenitalia or Trenord

Water
A hydrofoil runs from Como to Bellagio, making stops at the other towns on Lake Como along the way. Car ferries also runs from Varenna and Cadenabbia to Bellagio. These are much shorter trips of less than 15 minutes. For more information, visit Gestione Governativa Navigazione Laghi.

Easy access to Bellagio can be found via ferry. There is no direct train to Bellagio, but the closest stop is Varenna.

Road

Bellagio is accessible on either side of the Larian Triangle by slow, narrow and winding roads from Como or Lecco. It is much safer to drive from Como up to Cadenabbia and use the reasonably priced car ferry for the quick trip across to Bellagio. An alternative is to take the four-lane road on the eastern shore of the right arm of the lake to Varenna, then take the ferry to Bellagio. Narrow stone stairs make most of the Borgo inaccessible to cars.

Public buses run daily from Como to Bellagio.

Twin towns
Bellagio is a founding member of the Douzelage, a unique town twinning association of 24 towns across the European Union. This active town twinning began in 1991 and there are regular events, such as a produce market from each of the other countries and festivals. Discussions regarding membership are also in hand with three further towns (Agros in Cyprus, Škofja Loka in Slovenia, and Tryavna in Bulgaria).

• 🇪🇸 Altea, Spain (1991)

• 🇩🇪 Bad Kötzting, Germany (1991)

• 🇮🇪 Bundoran, Ireland (1991)

• 🇫🇷 Granville, France (1991)

• Holstebro, Denmark (1991)

• 🇧🇪 Houffalize, Belgium (1991)

•  Meerssen, Netherlands (1991)

• 🇱🇺 Niederanven, Luxembourg (1991)

•  Preveza, Greece (1991)

•  Sesimbra, Portugal (1991)

•  Sherborne, England, United Kingdom (1991)

• 🇫🇮 Karkkila, Finland (1997)

• 🇸🇪 Oxelösund, Sweden (1998)

• 🇦🇹 Judenburg, Austria (1999)

• 🇵🇱 Chojna, Poland (2004)

• 🇭🇺 Kőszeg, Hungary (2004)

• 🇱🇻 Sigulda, Latvia (2004)

• 🇨🇿 Sušice, Czech Republic (2004)

• 🇪🇪 Türi, Estonia (2004)

• 🇸🇰 Zvolen, Slovakia (2007)

• 🇱🇹 Prienai, Lithuania (2008)

• 🇲🇹 Marsaskala, Malta (2009)

• 🇷🇴 Siret, Romania (2010)

title: Bellagio, Lombardy


text: Category:Illustrators

title: Category:Illustrators


text:
Thomas Lynch (congressman)

 * Other notable people share this name. See Thomas Lynch (disambiguation).

Thomas Lynch (November 21, 1844 –May 4, 1898) was an American lawyer and Democratic politician from the U.S. state of Wisconsin. He served two terms in the United States House of Representatives, representing Wisconsin's 9th congressional district. He was also the first mayor of Antigo, Wisconsin, and served two terms in the Wisconsin State Assembly.

Biography
Thomas Lynch was born on November 21, 1844, in the town of Granville, Milwaukee County, in the Wisconsin Territory. He was educated in the common schools in Milwaukee County, then moved to the town of Chilton, Wisconsin, in Calumet County, in 1864, and purchased a farm.

In the Spring of 1867 he was elected to the town board of supervisor—winning his election by just 1 vote. The next year he was elected chairman of the town board; he was then re-elected in that office in 1869 and 1870. In 1871, he began teaching school while studying law.

In 1872, he was elected to his first term in the Wisconsin State Assembly, representing all of Calumet County. He was elected running as an Independent candidate, but caucused as a Democrat after joining the 26th Wisconsin Legislature.

After the legislative session, in the spring of 1873, he was elected chairman of both his town board and the Calumet County board of supervisors. In 1874, he attended the University of Wisconsin Law School in Madison, Wisconsin, to complete his legal education. He graduated the following year and was admitted to the bar. He immediately returned to Calumet County and formed a law partnership with Calumet's incumbent district attorney John E. McMullen, known as McMullen & Lynch. In 1878 he was elected as successor to McMillan as district attorney, and served two terms.

In 1882, rather than running for another term as district attorney, he ran for election to the Assembly, and was elected to serve in the 36th Wisconsin Legislature.

After the end of the 1883 legislative session, he moved north to Antigo, Wisconsin, in Langlade County. When Antigo was incorporated as a city, Lynch was elected the first mayor. He was subsequently elected to another term as mayor in 1888.

In 1890, he was chosen as the Democratic Party nominee for United States House of Representatives in Wisconsin's 9th congressional district, which then comprised nearly all of northern Wisconsin—Ashland, Chippewa, Door, Florence, Forest, Langlade, Lincoln, Marathon, Marinette, Oconto, Oneida, Portage, Price, Sawyer, Shawano, Taylor, Waupaca, and Wood counties. At the general election, he defeated incumbent Republican congressman Myron H. McCord. He went on to win re-election in 1892 and served in the Fifty-second and Fifty-third Congresses (March 4, 1891 – March 3, 1895). He was defeated in 1894, running for a third term.

Lynch resumed his legal practice, but suffered from Bright's disease. In May 1898, he died of the disease at his summer home in Pelican Lake, Wisconsin.

Personal life and family
Thomas Lynch married Winnifred Finucane on November 2, 1867. They had at least 10 children, though at least seven of those died in childhood. They were members of the Catholic Church. It's not clear if any of his children survived him.

title: Thomas Lynch (congressman)